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HAYDN'S 

DICTIONARY OF DATES 

COMPREHENDING 

REMARKABLE OCCURRENCES, ANCIENT AND MODERN, 

THE FOUNDATION, LAWS, AND GOVERNMENTS OF COUNTRIES — THEIR PROGRESS IN ARTS, 

SCIENCE, AND LITERATURE — THEIR ACHIEVEMENTS IN ARMS— AND 

THEIR CIVIL, MILITARY, RELIGIOUS, AND PHILANTHROPIC 

INSTITUTIONS, PARTICULARLY OF 

THE BRITISH EMPIRE. 



* 



- 



HAYDN'S 

Dictionary of Dates 

AND 

UNIVERSAL INFORMATION 

RELATING TO ALL AGES AND NATIONS. 

TWENTIETH EDITION, 

CONTAINING THE HISTORY OF THE WORLD TO 
THE AUTUMN OF 1892. 

By BENJAMIN VINCENT, 

HON. LIBRARIAN OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN 
COR. MEM. HIST. SOC. NEW YORK. 



" Indocti -d iseant-et-aroent meminissc. popiti. 



IfitA _ wU y 

2371 

LidHaRY. 



NEW YORK 

G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS 

27 and 29 West 23D St. 

1892 

INSTITUTION 
LIBRARIES 



r 



5 




NOV 1 7 1959 



PREFACE TO THE TWENTIETH EDITION. 



This book, when ifc first appeared in 1841, consisted of 568 pages of 
smaller size and larger type than those of later editions. It was favourably 
received, as it in some degree supplied a public want. In 1855, Mr. Joseph 
Haydn, the compiler, was compelled by failing health to relinquish his 
labours, and at the earnest request of the Publisher, Mr. Edward Moxou, 
the present Editor undertook the continuation of the work, and the superin- 
tendence of the Seventh Edition, while passing through the press. This 
led eventually to his undertaking the thorough renovation of the book, 
which has been gradually effected by revision and correction and 
copious additions. The new features include Chronological Tables at the 
beginning of the volume, innumerable historical, literary, scientific, topo- 
graphical, and geographical facts inserted in the body of the work, 
and a Dated Index. To make room for these additions the size of 
the page has been enlarged, many articles have been condensed or printed 
in smaller type, and much useless matter has been expunged. 

The Twentieth Edition continues the general history of the world 
during the last three years, under the heads of the respective countries ; 
the more important events being noticed in separate articles. Especial 
attention has been given to the affairs of the British Empire, political, 
ecclesiastical, social, commercial, and philanthropic. Details are given 
relating to the political affairs of France, Germany and the United States 
of North America, to European progress throughout Africa, and to revo- 
lutions in South America. In the course of revision extra attention has 
been given to the articles connected with ancient history in relation to 
modern researches. Many small articles have been inserted relating to 



V1 PREFACE. 

topics liable to arise in general conversation. This edition contains 
eighty-two pages more than the last published in 1889. 

The Editor has endeavoured to make the book a dated Cyclopedia, a 
digested summary of every department of human history, brought down to 
the eve of publication. The kindness of those friends who have pointed 
out errors and omissions, which are almost unavoidable in a work of such 
scope and magnitude, is gratefully acknowledged. Much of the information 
in the book necessarily depends on varying statements often exceedingly 
difficult to verify. 

The more important events that have occurred during the printing of this 
edition, are noticed in the Addexda, at the end of the volume. 



BENJAMIN VINCENT. 



Royal Institution, 

Albemarle Street, London, W. 
October, 1892. 



PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 



The design of the Author has been to attempt the compression of the 
greatest body of general information that has ever appeared in a single 
Tolume, and to produce a Book of Eeference whose extensive usefulness may 
render its possession material to every individual — in the same manner 
that a London Directory is indispensable, on business affairs, to a London 
merchant 

The Compiler persuades himself that the Dictionary of Dates will be 
received as a useful companion to all Biographical works, relating, as it does, 
to things as those do to persons, and affording information not included in the 
range or design of such publications. 

Joseph Haydx. 

London, May, IS 11. [Died /an. 17, 1S56.] 



TABLE OF CONTEMPORARY 



Great Britain. 


France. 




Peninsula. 




Germany. 














Hungary. 




England. 


Scotland. 




Castile and 
Leon. 

1066. SanchoII. 


Arragon'. 


Portugal. 








1066 Will I 


1057. Male. 3. 


1060. Philip I. 


1065. Sancho. 


1065. Sancho of 


1056. Hen. 4, 1064. Solom. 




1093. Donald 








Castile. 


emperor. 






1087. Will. II. 


1094. Dune. 
1094. Donald 




1072. Alfonso VI. 




1072. AlfonsoVI. 




1075. Geisa. 

1076. Lad. 1. 






again. 
1098. Edgar. 






1094. Peter. 


1093. Henry, 
count. 


1 106. Hen. 5. 


1098. Colo- 
man. 




1 too. Hen. I. 


1 107. Alex. I. 


1 108. Louis VI. 


1 109. Urracaand 


1 104. Alfonso I. 


1 1 12. Alfonso, as 


1 1 14. Step. 2. 










Alfonso VI I I 


count. 










1 1 24. Dav. I. 




1 1 26. Alfon.VII.! 
















t 




ii25.Loth.2. 1131. Bela 2. 




1133. Steph. 




1 1 37. Louis VII. 


1134. Ramiro. 
















1137. Petronella 


1 1 39. Alfonso I., 


1138. Conr.3. 


1 141. Geisa 3. 




1154. Hen. 2. 


1 1 53. Mai. IV. 




1157. SanclioIII. andRaymond. 
1158.Alfon.YIIi. 


as king. 


1 1 52. Fred. 1. 


1161. Ste P 3 . 






1 165. Will. 






















1163. Alfonso II 










1 172. (Ireld. 


















annexed.) 




1 180. Philip II. 


1 188. Alfon. IX. 








1 1 73. Bela 3. 




1189. Rich. I. 






(Leon.) 




1 1 85. Sancho I. 


ngo. Hen. 6. 






1199. John. 








1 196. Peter II. 




1 198. Philip. 


1196. Emeric 






1 214. Alex. 2. 




1214. Henry I. 


1213. James I. 


1212. Alfonso II. 


1208. Otho 4. 


1204. Ladis- 




1216. Hen. 3. 


1249. Alex. 3 


1223. Louis VIII. 
1226. Louis IX. 


1217. Ferdin.III. 

(Castile.) 
t23o. (Leon.) 

r252. Alfonso X. 




1223. SanchoII. 
1248. Alfon. III. 


1215. Fred.2. 

1250. Con. 4. 
1254. Will. 
1257. Rich. 


las II. 
1205. An- 
drew II. 

1235. Bela 4. 




1272. Ed. I. 




1270. Philip III. 




1276. Peter III. 


1279. Dionysius 


1273. Ro- 


1270. Ste. 4. 
1272. Lad. 3. 




1282. (Wales 


Interregnum 








or Denis. 


dolph. 






annexed.) 


1292. John 
Baliol. 


1285. Philip IV. 


^84. Sancho IV. 12S5. Alfons. HI 
1295. Ferdin.IV. 129T. James IT. 




1292. Adolp. 
1298. Alb. 1. 


1290. And. 3. 




1307. Ed. II. 


1306. Robert 






1308. Hen. 7 


1301. Charo- 






(Bruce) I. 


1 314. Louis X. 


1312. AlfonsoXI. 




1314. Lou. 5. 


bert. 








1316. John I. 




1327. Alfonso IV. 


1325. AlfonsoIV. 








1327. Ed.HI. 


1329.Dav.II. 
1332.Ed.Bal. 
1342.Dav.II. 


Phil. V. 
1321. Chas. IV. 
1328. Phil. VI. 




1336. Peter IV. 






1342. Louis. 






again. 


1350. John IT. 
1364. Chas. V. 


1350. Peter. 
1369. Henry. 




1357. Peter. 
1367. Ferdinand. 


1347. Chas.4. 




1377. Rich. 2. 


1371.R0b.II. 




1379. John I. 






1378. Wen- 






(Stuart). 


1380. Chas. VI. 






1383. John I. 


ceslas. I1332. Mary. 






1390. Rob. 3. 




1390. Henry II. 1387. John I. 




I1387. Mary & 




1399. Hen. 4. 






1395. Martin. 




t4co. Rupert Sigismund. 






1406. Jas. I. 




1406. John II. 1410. Jntevregnm. 




1410. Sigismund. 




14T3 Hen. 5. 




1422. Chas. VII. 


1412. Ferdinand 








1422. Hen. 6. 


1437. Jas. II. 
1460.Jas.III. 




of Sicily. 
1416. Alfonso V. 
1454. Henry IV. 

1458. John II. 


1433. Edward. 
1438. Alfonso V. 


1438. Albert. 
1440. Fred. 3. 1440. Lad. 4. 




hGi. Ed. IV. 




1461. Louis XI. 


1474. Isabella. 1479. Ferdin. II. 


1481. John II. 




1445. Lad. 5. 
1458. Mat- 
thias. 










Spain. 






1483. Ed.V. 
Rich. 3. 




1483. Chas. VIII. 












1479. Ferdinand and Isabella. 


1495. Emanuel. 


1493. Max. 1. 


1400. Lad. 6. 




11485. Hen. 7. 


148S. Jas.IV. 








1499. Switz. 1 




| 




1498. Louis XII. 






iiidepend. \ 





EUROPEAN SOVEREIGNS. 



Scandinavia. 



Sweden". 



Norway'. 



Poland. 



Denmark. 



:oo6. Halstan. 



ioyo. Ingo. 



1112. Philip. 
1118. Ingo II. 
1129. Swerker. 



1155. Eric I. 

1 161. Char. VII. 
1 167. Canute. 



1 199. Swork. II. 

51210. Eric II. 
l'itai6. John I. 
1222. Eric III. 



1250. Birger J.ir 
1266. Waldemar. 
U275. Magnus I. 

1290. Birger II. 



1 319. Magn. II. 



1069. Olaf. !047- Sweyn II. 1058. Boles- 

1076. Harold. I las. 
1080. Canute IV. 1082. Ladis- 
1086. Olaus IV. I las. 

1093. Magnus. 1095. Eric I. 



1 103. Sigurd I., 

and others. 

122. Sigurd I. 

1 1 30. MagnusIV 

and others. 



Civil war and 
anarcht/. 



ti86. Swcrro. 



1 105. Eric II. 



"37> 
1 147, 

"57 



Eric III. 



1 102. Boles, a 



1 1 38. Lad. 2. 



Sweyii III. ' 1145. Boles. ^ 
Canute V. 
Waldemar 

173. Miecis 
las III. 

178. Ca- 
simir II. 



1202. Ilako III. 

and others. 
1207. HakoIV. 



1263. MaguusVI. 



1280. Eric. 



1299. Hako V. 



:3i9. United to 
Sweden. 



1350. Eric IV. 
j 359. Magnus II. 
1363. Albert. 



1389. Margaret. 



1389. United to 
Denmark. 



1412. Eric XIII. 

1440. Christopher III. 
1448. Chas.VIII. 

1457. Christian I. 



1241, 
1250. 
1252, 
1259, 



. Canute VI. 
, Walde. II. 

, Eric IV. 
Abel. 

Christoph. 
EricV. 



Eastern 
Empire. 



n94.Lesk.5- 

1200. Miec.3. 
1202. Lad. 3 
■227.Boles.5. 



1320. Christo- 
pher II. 

1334. Interregnm. 

1340. Wald. III. 

1375. Interregnm. 

1376. Olaus V. 

1387. Margaret. 



1448. Christian I 



14S3. John of Denmark. 1481. John. 



279. Lesk.6. 



i2%g. Anarch. 
i2go.Premis 
las. 

i296.Ladis.4 

1300. Win- 
ceslas. 



1333. Cas. 3. 



1370. Louis. 

1382. Mary. 
1384. Hedw. 
1396. Lad. 5. 



1068. Rom. 4 

1071. Mich. 7. 
io78.Nicep.3 
1 08 1. Alexius 



1143. Manuel 
Comnenus. 



180. Alex. 2. 
183. Andro- 
nicus C. 
185. Isaac 2. 
19S. Alex. 3. 



Italy. 



Popes. 



1061. Alex. II. 

1073. Greg. VII. 
1086. Victor III. 
1088. Urban II. 
1099. Tascal II. 



1118. 
1119. 
1 124. 
1 1 30. 

JI 43- 
1144. 

"45- 
"S3- 
1154. 

1159. 
1181. 



1187. 



Naples and Sicily. 



1 131. Roger 




Gelas. II. 

Calixt. II. 

Honor. II. 

Innoc. II. 

Celest. II. 

Lucius II. I 

Eugen.III. 

Anasta.IV.1154. William I 

Adrian IV. 

Alex. III. 

Lucius III. 

Urban III. 

Greg.VIII. 

Clem. III. [1189. Tancred. 
. Celest. III. ' 1 194. William III. 
. Innoc. III. l1197.Fred.Il. of Germany 



1 166. William II. 



1332. And. 3. 
1341. Johns. 



1 39 1. Man- 
uel VI. 



1434. Lad. 6. 'i 



1445. Casi.4 



1492. Albert 



25. John 6. 
48. Con- 
stant. 13. 



Turkey. 



1250. Conrad. 

1254. Conradin. 

1258. Manfred. 

1266. Charles of An jou 



Sicily. 

1282. Peter 

of Arragon 

1285. Chas.2. 1285. James 



1295. Fred. 2 



1303. Bened. XI. 
1305. Clement V. 
(Avignon). 
1314-15. Vacant. 
i 3 i6.JohnXXII. 
1334. Bene. XII. 
1342. Clem. VI. 
1352. Innoc. VI. 
1362. Urban V. 
(Rome). 
1370. Greg. XI. 
1378. Urban VI. 



Robt, 



i337.Petei - 2 

1343- Joan 2, 1342. Louis. 

& Andrew 1355. Fred. 3 

of Hung. 

i349.Louis 7376. Maria 

& Martin, 

1381. Chas. 3, 



1389. Bonif. IX. i 3 85.Ladislas 



1433. Ma- 
homet II. 
i48i.Bajaz.2 



1404. Innoc. VII. 

1406. Greg. XII. 

1409. Alex. V. 

i4io.JohnXXIIl 

1417. Martin V. 

1431. Eugen. IV. 

1447. NicholasV. 

1455. Calix. III. 

1458. Pius II. 

1464. Paul II. 

1471. SixtusIV. 

1484. Inno.VIII.r4g5.' Ferd 

1492. Alex. VI. '1496. Fred. 2. 



1402. Mart. 1 

140Q. Mart. 2 

1414. Joan 2. (United to 

Arragon.) 

1410. Ferd. r, 

1416. Alfo. 1. 

1435. Alfonso I. 

i458.Ferd.i. i 45 8. John. 

1494. Alfo.2. J 479- Ferd. . 



TABLE OF CONTEMPORARY 



Great Britain. 






Peninsula. 








France. 






Germany. 


Hungary. 


England. 


Scotland. 


Castile and 
Leon. 


Are agon. 


rORTUGAL. 


1309. Hen. 8. 


1513. Jas. V. 


1515. Francis I. 


1504. Joanna & 
Philip I. 


Ferdinand II. 


1521. John III. 


|i S i6.Lou.II. 

i5i9.Chas.V. 1526. Jn. Za- 

(I. of Sp.) 1 polski and 




1542. Mary. 




Spain. 


st.)II. (Arragon). 




Ferdin.ll. 
(Emperors — Kings of 


1512. Ferd.V.(Ca 


i S47 . Ed. vr. 


1547. Henry II. 


1516. Charles I. (V. of Germ. 1519). 




Hungary.) 


1553- Mal T- 
1558. Eliz. 




1559. Francis TI. 


1556. Philip II. 


Holland. 


1557. Sebastian. 


1558. Ferdinand. 




1 567. Jas. VI. 


1560. Charles IX. 








1564. Maximilian II. 






1574. Henry III. 




1579. William of 
Orange, stadt- 
holder. 


1578. Henry. 
1580. Annexed to 
Spain. 


1576. llodolphll. 






1539. Henry IV. 


159S. Philip III. 


T587. Maurice. 






1603. Jas. I. (VI. of Scot.) 


1610. Loui.sXIII. 








1612. Mathias. 


1625. Charles I. 




1621. Philip IV. 


1625. Fred. Hen. 


Kingdom restored 


1619. Ferdinand II. 
1637. Ferdinand III. 




1643. Louis XIV. 




r647. William II. 


1640. John of 




1649. Commonwealth. 






1650-72. No 


Braganza. 




1660. Charles II. 




1665. Charles II. 


stadt/wlder. 


1656. Alfonso VI. 
1667. Peter, 


1658. Leopold I. 


1685. James II. 






1672. Will. Hen. 


regent. 




1689. William and Mary. 






(Will. III. oj 


1683. Peter II. 




1694. William III. 




1700. Philip V. 


England.) 






1702. Anne. 






1702-47. No 


1706. John V. 


1705. Joseph 


Prussia. 


1714. George I. 


T715. Louis XV. 


1724. (abdicated). 
„ Louis. 


stadtholder. 




1711. Chas.6. 














1727. George II. 




Philip V. 
again. 








1701. Fred. 1. 

171 3. Fred.- 

William 1. 






1746. Ferd. VI. 


r747. Will. Hen. 


1750. Joseph. 


1742. Chas. 7. 


1740. Fred.2. 






1759. Chas. III. 


1757. Will. IV. 




1 745. Francis 




1760. George III. 


1774. Louis XVI. 






1777. Maria and 
Peter III. 


1765. Jos. 2. 


i 


17S3. [United States in- 








1786. Maria, 




1786. Fred.- 1 


dependent, j 


r/So Clias. IV. 




alone. 




William 2. 




1793. Lou. XVII. 


(abdicated). 


1795. Annexed, to 


1791. John,regeni 


1790.Leop.2- 


1797. Fred. 1 




Republic I. 




France. 




1 792. Fran. 2. 


William ?. 




1802. Consulate. 


1808. Ferd. VII. 


1806. Louis, Icing. 






\ 


1811. (George, Frince of 


1804. Napoleon I. 


(dethroned). 






Austria. 




Wales, regent ) 


1814.L0u.XVHI. 


Jos. Bonap 


Netherlands. 


1816. John VI. 

1826. Peter IV. 

Maria II. 








(restored). 


1814. Will. Fred. 


1806. Fran.I. 


,| 


1820. George IV. 


1824. Charles X. 


king.* 


1828. Miguel. 






1830. William IV. 


1S30. Lou. Philip. ; 1833. Isabella II. 




1833. Maria II. 




1840. Fred.- | 


1837. Victoria. 


1848. Republic 11. ! „,„ , , ... „ 
1 1 \ 1868. (dethroned). 


1840. William II. 




1S35.Ferd.2- 


William. 4. | 




1852. NapoL III. 


1870. Amadeus. 
[abdicated) 1873. 


1849. Will. III. 


1853. Peter V. 
1861. Luis I. 


1848. Francis 
Joseph. 


1S60. Will. 1. 1 

1 




1870. Republic 


1873. Rfpv.blic. 








1871. Ger-I 




III. 














1871.L. A.Thiers 


died 25 Nov. 




1889. Carlos I. 




ror. 




president. 


1885. 








1888. Fred. 

III. 
1888. William 




1873. Marshal 
MacMahon. 


1886. Alfons. 
XIII. 


1890. Wilhcl- 








i879.JulesGrevv. 










II. 




i887.SadiCaniot. 













Belgium. — 1831. Leopold I. 
,, 1865. Leopold II. 



EUROPEAN SOVEREIGNS, continued. 



Scandinavia. 



Swedem. 



Norway. 



1520. Christian II. 



1523. Gustavus 
Yasa. 



1560. Eric XIV. 
1568. John III. 

1592. Sigismund 



Denmark. 



Russia.' 



1604. Chas. IX. 

161 1. Gustavus 

Adolphus. 

1633. Christina. 



1533. Ivan IV. 



1584. Foodor I. 



1598. Boris. 



1606. Basil. 
161 3. Michael 
(Romanoff). 



1645. Alexis. 



1719. Ulrica and 1725. Gather. I. 
Frederick I. 1727. Peter II. 
1730. Anne. 

1740. Ivan VI. 
1741. Fred. I. 11741- Elizabeth. 
1751. Adolphus 
Frederick. 

|i762. Peter III. 
Cather. II. 
1771.Gustav.III. 



1792. Gustav. IV. 1796. Paul I 



1809. Chas. XIII 
1814. Norway an 

vexed. 
1818. Chas. XIV. 



1844. Oscar I. 



1859. CLas. XV. 



1872. Oscar II. 



1 801. Alexand. I. 
1828. Nicholas. 



1855. Alex. II. 



1881. -Uex. III. 



1513. Christn.II. 



1523. Fredrick I. 
and Norway. 

1534. Christ. III. 



1359. Fred. II. 



1588.Christn.IV 



Poland. 



1654. Chas. X. 

1660. Chas. XL '1676. Feodor. 

|i682. Ivan V. & 
Peter I. 
1S97. Chas. XII. 1689. Peter I. 



1648. Fred. III. 
1670. Christn. V. 

1699. Fred - 1V - 



1730.Christn.VI. 
1746. Fred. V. 
1766. Christ. VII. 

i784.PrinceFred, 

regent. 



1501. Alex. 
1506. Sig. I. 



1S48.Sig.II. 



1573. Henry. 
1575. Steph. 
7587. Sig. 3. 



1632. Lad. 7. 

1648. John C. 
1669. Mich. 
1674. John 

Sobieski. 
1697. Fredk 

August. 1. 



1704. Stan. 1. 

1709. Fredk. 
Augustus, 
restored. 

1733. Fredk. 
August. 2. 

1764. Stan. 2. 



1793. Parti- 
tion. 



Turkish 
Empire. 



1512. Selim. 

1520. Soly- 
man II. 



1566. Sel. 2. 

1574. Ainu- 
rath III. 



1595. Mali. 3, 



Italy. 



Popes. 



1603. Ach. 1. 
r6i7. Mus. 1. 
1618. Osm 2. 

1622. Musta- 
pha, again. 

1623. Am. 4. 
1640. I brali. 
1648. Mah. 4. 
1687. Sol. 3. 
1691. Ach. 2 
1695. Mus. 2. 



1808. Fred. VI. 
1814. Norway 
taken away. 



1839. Chris. VIII. 
1848. Fred. VII. 



1703. Ach. 3. 
1 730. Mah. 5. 



1754. Osm. 3. 
1757. Mus. 3, 



1774. Abdul- 
Hamid I. 
or Ach. 4. 
78g.Selm. -3 



1503. Pius III. 
Julius II. 
1513. Leo X. 

1522. Adrian VI. 

1523. Clem. VII. 
1534. Paul III. 
1550. Julius III. 
1555. Marcel. II. 

Paul IV. 
1559. Pius IV. 
1566. Pius V. 
1572. Greg.XIII. 
1585. SixtusV. 

1590. Urban VII. 
Greg. XIV. 

1591. Innoc.IX. 

1592. Cleni.VIII. 



1605. Leo. XL 
Paul V. 
1 62 1. Greg. XV. 
i62 3 .UrbanVIII. 
1644. InnocentX. 
1655. Alex. VII. 
1667. Clem. IX. 
1670. Clem. X. 
1676. Innoc. XL 
1689. Alex. VIII. 
1691. Innoc. XII. 



Naples and Si<jij_y. 



1501. United to Spain. 



1700. Clem. XL 

„ Naples and 
1721. Inno.XIll. Qi^-itr 
1724. Bene.XIII ' 



1807. Mus. 4. 

Greece. c 8o8. Mah- 

mud 6. 



1832. Othol, 



1863. Chrisn. IX. 



1S63. Geo. I. 



1839. Abdul 
Medjid. 



1 86 1. Abdul 

Aziz. 
1876. Amu- 
rath V. May 
1876. Abdul- 
Hamid II. 
Aua. 



1730. Clem. XII. I7I3 .Chas. 3 
1740. Bene. XIV. Naples. 
Victor- 
o m vtii Am - of Sa- 
1758. C em.XIIL XO j,Sicily. 
1769. Clem XIV. J720 Annexed 
1775. Puis VI. to Germany. 
1738. Chas.4. 

Naples. 

1759. Fred.4 

tixily. 



1800. Pius VII. 



823. Leo XII. 



t82 9 . Pius VI 11. 
1831. Greg. XVI. 



1846. Pius IX. 



Leo XIII. 



Sardinia.t 



1720. Victor- 
Amadeus 

1730 Charles 
Eniman. 1 

1773. Victor- 
Amadeus2 

1 796. Charles 
Emman.2 



Naples. 



1806. Joseph 
Bonaparte 

1808. Joach. 
Murat. 



Naples and 
Sicily. 

1815. Ferd.i. 
1825 Fran. 1. 
1830. Ford. 2. 
1859. Fran. 2. 
i860 Annexed 
to Italy. 



1802. Victor 
Eniman. 1 

i8o$Annexed 
to kingdom 
of Italy. 

1814. Victor- 
Emman.i. 

1821. Charles- 
Felix. 

1831. Charles 
Albert. 

1849. Victor- 
Emman.o 



Italy. 



1861. Victor-Emmanuel. 
1878. Humbert. 



* See 
\ See 



Article Russia for preceding Rulers 
Article Savoy. 



POPULATION AND GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD. 

(According to the Almanack de Gotha ; see articles Population, and the countries throughout 

the book. 



COUNTRIES— RELIGIONS 



Anhalt, E. Population in Dec. 
Argentine Confederation, R.C. 

Austrian Emp. R.C. (after ces- 
sion 1866) Dec. 

Baden, R.C Dec. 

Bavaria, R.C. (after cessions 
1866) ■ ■ 

Belgium, R-C Dec. 

Bolivia, R.C 

Brazil, R.C. ■ 

Brunswick, L 

Bulgaria 

Chili, R.C. .. • • : • -..■ „• 

Chinese Empire (estimated), H. 

Colombia, state, R.C. . ■ . . 

Costa Rica, R.C. •.•••■ \ 

Denmark & colonies, L. (estm.) 

Egypt, &C..M-. ■■■ ■ ■ 

Equator (Ecuador), R.C. . ■ 
' France alone, R.C • . • • • 

Germany, R.C..L. and E. Dec. 

Gt.Britain&colonies,P.(estm.) 

Greece & Ion. Is. G.C. (estim.) . 

: Guatemala, -R.C 

! Hayti (estimated) ..... 
! Hesse-Darmstadt, L. • ■ ■ 
I Holland, not colonies, C. . . 

Honduras, R.C 

Italy, R.C. 

Japan (estimated) 

Liberia, P. . . - 

Liechtenstein, R.C. . . . . 

Lippe, C. . ..... -Dec. 

Luxemburg, R.C. ■..■■• 

Mecklenburg-Schwenn,i.Dec. 



1890 
1890 



1890 
1890 
1890 



1 89 1 



1891 



i8qo 



1890 



POPULA- 
TION. 



Mecklenburg-Strelitz, L. 
Mexico, R. C. (estimated) • . <°yo 
Monaco, P. C . . ... ■ • • '888 
Montenegro, G.C. (estim.) . .1891 

Morocco, M about 

Nicaragua, R- C. ...... • 1888 

Oldenburg, P. (estimated) . . 1890 
Papal States annexed to Italy. 1870 
Paraguay, R. C. . .. . . . 1887 

Persia, M. (estimated) . . . . . 

Peru, P.O. (estimated) . . .1876 

Portugal, PC 1881 

Prussia. E l8 9o 

Reuss, L '899 

Rouinania . • I °88 

Russia. G.C, Poland, &c. (est. 1885 
Sandwich Islands (Hawa'i, &c.) 1890 

San Marino, R.C. 1886 

San Salvador R.C. ... ■ . 1885 

Saxe-Altenburg, P 1890 

Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, L. . . . 1890 

Saxe-Meiningen, L 1890 

Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, L. . 1885 

Saxony, P 1890 

Schaumburg-Lippe, L. . ■ . 1890 
Schwartzburg-Rudolstadt, L. . 1890 
Schwartzburg-Sondershaus. L. 1890 

Servia, G-.C 1890 

Spain, R-C 1887 

St. Domingo, R. C. (estimated) 1887 
Sweden, Norway, L.(estmtd.) 1890-1 
Switzerland, R.C. and P. Dec. 1888 
Transvaal, or South African 

Republic, C 1890 

Turkish Empire, M. (estimtd.) 1387 

Uruguay, R.C 1889 

Venezuela, R. C. 1891 

"Wiirtemberg, L 1890 

United States of N. America.P. 1890 



271,759 
3,793,800 

4i,34S,329 
1,656,817 

5,589,382 
6,147,041 
1,189,800 
14,002,33s 

403,788 

3,154,375 

2,766,747 

360,250,000 

4,000,000 

243,000 
2,298,367 
6,798,230 
1,004,651 

38,343,'92 

49,421,803 

340,220,000 

2,187,208 

1,452,003 

550,000 

993,659 

4,5",4i5 

43i,9!7 

30,158,408 

40,072,020 

1,068,000 

9,124 

12,814 

211,088 

578,565 

97,978 
",395,712 
13,304 
200,000 
8,000,000 
282,845 
354,968 

330,000 

7,500,000 

2,609,745 

4,708,178 

29,959,388 

182,565 

5,376,000 

108,843,192 

89,990 

7,840 

634,120 

170,864 

206,513 

223,832 

313,946 

3,500,513 

39,163 

85,863 

75,5io 

2,162,759 

17,564,588 

350,000 

6,773,672 

2,9'7,7S4 

119,128 
32,978,100 
683,943 
2,323,527 
2,035,443 
62,981,000 



Frederick, duke .... 
Dr. Luis Saenz Pefia, pres. 



Francis-Joseph, emperor . . 
Frederick, grand-duke . . . 

Otho, king 

Leopold II., king 

Aniceto Arce, president . . 
Gen. Floriano Peixoto - - 
Prince Albert of Prussia,re;/i. 
Ferdinand, prince .... 

Adm. George Montt . . . 
Kwang-su, emperor .... 

R. Nunez, president. . ■ . 
J. J. Rodriguez, president . 
Christian IX., king ...... 

Abbas Hilmi, khedive . . . 
Louis Cordero, president ■ ■ 
Sadi Carnot, president . 
William II., emperor . . . 

Victoria, queen 

George I., king 

Gen. Barrios, president . - 
L. M. F. Hyppolite .... 
Ernest Louis, grand-duke . 
Wilhelmina, <iueen .... 
Gen. Pariani Leista.preskJnt 
Humbert I., k ing .... 
Moutz Hito, mikado ■ ■ ■ 
H. R. W. Johnson, presidnt. 

John II., prince 

Waldemar, prince .... 
Adolphus, grand-duke. . ■ 
Frederic Francis III. grand- 

Frederic William, grud-duke 
Porfirio Diaz, president . . 
AibertHonoreCharles,p)-nce 
Nicholas I., prince . . . . 
Muley Hassan, sultan . ■ ■ 
Dr. Sacasa, president . . ■ 
Peter, grand-duke .... 
Leo XIII., pope . ■ ■ ■ ■ 
■Juan. G. Gonzalez, presidnt 
Nassir-ed-Deen, shall . . . 
Col.RemigioM.Bermudez,i>s 

Carlos, king 

William II., king 

Henry XXII., prince . . . 
Chs. of Hohenzollern, king . 
Alexander IIP, c::ar. . ■ ■ 

Lilinokalani 

Capitanireggenti 

A. Azeta, president .... 

Ernest, duke 

Ernest II., duke 

George II., duke . 

Chas. Alexander, grnd.-duke 

Albert, king 

Adolphus, prince 

Gonthier, prince 

Charles, prince 

Alexander, ki ng 

Alfonso XIII., king 
Ulises Heureaux, president. 
Oscar II., king . . • • • • 
Emil Welti, president ■ . ■ 



29 April, 183 1 



18 Aug. 1830 
9 Sept. 1826 . 



27 April, 1848 
9 April, 1835 



8 May, 1837 . 
26 Feb. 1S61 



1871 



8 April, 1818 
14 July, 1874 



11 Aug., 1837 
27 June, 1859 
24 May, 1819 
24 Dec. 1845 



25 Nov. 1868 
31 Aug. 1880 



14 March, 1844- 
1852 



ACCESSION. 



5 Oct, 1840 . 

18 April, 1824 
21 July, 1817 

19 Mar. 1851 
17 Oct. 1819 . 



13 Nov. 184 
7 Oct. 184 1 



8 July, 1827 . 
2 March, 1810 



1830. 



28 Sept. 1863 . 

27 June, 1859 . 

28 March, 1846 . 
20 April, 1839 . 
10 March, 1845 
2 Sept. 1838 . . 



S. J. P. Kriiger, president . 
Abdul-HamidII.,sK«CMi . 
Dr. J. Herrera y Obes, pres. 

William II., king 

Gen. Ben. Harrison, presidt. 



16 Sept. 1826 
21 June, 1818 
2 April, 1826 
24 June, 1818 
23 April, 1828 
1 Aug. 1817 . 
21 Aug. 1852 
7 Aug. 1830 . 
14 Aug. 1876 

17 May, 1886 



21 Jan. 1829. 



21 Sept. 1842 



25 Feb. 1848 
20 Aug. 1833 



22 May, 1871. 

12 June, 1892. 

2 Dec. 1848. 
5 Sep. 1856. 

13 June, 1886. 
10 Dec. 1865. 

1 June, 1888. 

23 Nov. 1891. 
21 Oct. 1885. 

7 July, 1887. 

4 Nov. 1891. 
Jan. 1875. 

1 April, 18S4. 

8 May, 1890. 
15 Nov. 1863 
7 Jan. 1892. 
18 June, 1892. 

3 Dec. 1887. 

15 June, 1888. 
20 June, 1837. 

5 June, 1863. 

16 March, 1892. 
15 May, 1890. 

13 March, 1892. 
23 Nov. 1890. 
10 Nov. 1891. 

9 Jan. 1878. 
1867. 

7 May, i88q. 

12 Nov. 1858. 

8 Dec. 1875. 
23 Nov. ifcgo. 

15 April, 1883. 

6 Sent. i860. 
1 Dec. 1884. 

10 Sept. 1889. 

14 Aug. i860. 
25 Sept. 1873. 
1880. 

27 Feb. 1853. 

20 Feb. 1878. 

1891. 

10 Sept. 1848. 

Aug. 1890. 

19 Oct. 1889. 

15 June, 1^88. 
8 Nov. 1859. 

20 April, 1866. 

13 March, 1881 
20 Jan. 1891. 

1 March, 1891. 

3 Aug. 1853. 
29 Jan. 1844. 

20 Sept. 1866. 

8 July, 1853. 
29 Oct. 1873. 

21 Nov. 186c 
19 Jan. 1890. 
17 July, 188c. 
6 March, 1^89. 

17 May, 1886. 
1 Sept. 1886. 

18 Sept. 1872. 
Dec. 1891. 

9 May, 1883. 
3iAug. 1876. 

1 March, 1890. 

6 Oct. 1891. 

4 Mar. 1889. 



Predominant Religions.— R.C. Roman Catholic; G.C. Greek Church: P., Protestant; L., Lutheran; E., 
Evangelical Church— a combination of Calvinists and Lutherans ; C, Calvinist or Reformed ; M., Mahometan 
B., Buddhist. 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



AARGAU. 



ABDICATIONS. 



AARGAU (Switzerland), formerly included in 
Berne, was made an independent canton in 1803, 
and settled as such in 1815. It was much disturbed 
by religious dissensions in 1841 ; and the expulsion 
of the Jesuits was demanded in 1844. 

ABACUS, the tile on the capital of a column. 
That on the Corinthian column is ascribed to Calli- 
niaehus, about 540 B.C. — This name is also given to 
a frame traversed bj r stiff wires, on which beads were 
strung, used for calculating by the Greeks, Romans, 
and Chinese. M. Lalanne published an abacus 
at Paris in 1845. — The multiplication table has been 
called the Pythagorean abacus. 

ABANCAY, a river in Peru, on the banks 
of which the Spanish marshal Almagro defeated 
and took prisoner Alvarado, a partisan of Pizarro, 
12 July, 1537. 

ABATTOIES, slaughter-houses for cattle. In 
1810 Napoleon decreed that five should be erected 
near Paris, which were opened in 1818. One was 
erected at Edinburgh in 183 1, and they form part 
of the new London metropolitan cattle-market, 
opened on 13 June, 1855. 

ABBASSIDES, descendants of Mahomet's 
uncle, Abbas-Ben-Abdul-Motalleb. Merwan II., 
the last of the Ommiades, was defeated and slain by 
Abul Abbas in 750, and became caliph. Thirty- 
seven Abbasside caliphs (including Haroun al Ras- 
chid, 786-809) reigned from 750 to 1258. They 
settled at Bagdad, built by Al-Mansour about 762. 
Their colour was black ; that of the Fatimites being 
green, and that of the Ommiades white. 

ABBAYE, a military prison near St. Germain 
des Pres, Paris, where 164 prisoners were murdered 
by infuriated republicans led by Maillard, 2 and 
3 Sept. 1792. 

ABBEVILLE, N. France. Here Henry III. 
met Louis IX. of France and made peace, renoun- 
cing his right to Normandy and other provinces, 
20 May, 1259. 

ABBEYS, monasteries for men or women ; see 
Monachism and Convents. The first abbey founded 
in England was at Bangor in 560 ; in France, at 
Poitiers, about 360 ; in Ireland in the fifth century ; 
in Scotland in the sixth century. no alien 
priories were suppressed in England, 2 Henry V. 
1414. Salmon. The gross disorders in these esta- 
blishments occasioned their destruction in Britain. 
After visitations of inquiry, king Henry VIII. com- 
menced the suppression of small monasteries to raise 



revenues for Wolsey's colleges at Oxford and Ips- 
wich, 7 June, 1525 ; many small monasteries were 
suppressed in 1536; and all religious houses were 
suppressed throughout the realm by parliament, 
1539-40: — 186 large monasteries (revenue 104,919^. 
13s. %d.), 374 less monasteries (revenue 33,479^ 
13s. fid.), and 48 houses of the knights hosj itallers 
(revenue 2385/. 12s. 8d. ; total, houses, 608 ; esti- 
mated revenue, 140,784^. 19*. 6fd.) Tanner. Abbeys 
were suppressed in Austria (by Joseph II.) in 1780, 
in France in 1790, in Portugal in 1834, in Sardinia 
in 1855, in Mexico in 1861, in Spain in 1837 and 
1868, and in Italy in July, 1866, and April, 1873. 

ABBOT (from Ab, father), the head of an abbey. 
In England, mitred abbots were lords of parliament ; 
twenty-seven abbots and two priors thus distin- 
guished, 1329 ; the number reduced to twenty-five, 
1396. Coke. The abbots of Reading, Glastonbury, 
and St. John's, Colchester, were executed as traitors 
for denying the king's supremacy, probably for not 
surrendering their abbeys, 1539 ; see Glastonbury. 

ABBOT'S RIPTON, see Eaihvaij Accidents, 
1876. 

ABC CLUB, a name adopted by certain 
republican enthusiasts in Paris, professing to re- 
lieve the abaisses, or depressed. Their insurrection 
5 June, 1832, was suppressed with bloodshed, 6 June. 
These events are described by Victor Hugo in " Les 
Mis e rabies" (1862). 

ABDICATIONS of sovereigns, voluntary or 
compulsory, have been numerous : — 

Sylla, Roman dictator b. c. 79 

Diocletian, Roman emperor .... a.d. 305 

Stephen II., of Hungary II3I 

Albert, the Bear of Brandenburg 1I42 

Lescov V. of Poland I2 oc 

Ulauislaus III. of Poland I2 o6 

John Balliol, of Scotland I2 g6 

Otho (of Bavaria), of Hungary I30 g 

Eric IX., of Denmark, &e. 1439 

Pope Felix V M4g 

Charles V., as emperor .... 25 Oct. 1555 
,, as king of Spain . . 16 Jan. i 55 6 

Christina, of Sweden 16 June, 1654 

John Casimir, of Poland x 669 

James II., of England . . . fled 11 Dec. 1688 
Frederick Augustus II., of Poland . . . . 1704 

Philip V. of Spain (resumed) I7 2 4 

Victor Amadeus, of Sardinia i-j-ko 

Charles, of Naples ....... 1759 

Stanislaus, of Poland I7 g 5 

Charles Emmanuel II., of Sardinia . . 4 June, 1802 
Francis II., of Germany, who became emperor of 

Austria n Aug. 1804 



ABECEDARIANS. 



ABERGELE. 



Charles IV. , of Spain, in favour of his son, 19 March ; 

in, favour of Bonaparte ; see Spain . . 1 May, 1808 
Joseph Bonaparte, of Naples (for Spain) . 1 June. 1808 

Gustavus IV., of Sweden ." 1809 

Louis, of Holland 1 July, 1810 

Jerome, of Westphalia 20 Oct. 1813 

Napoleon I., of France .... 5 April, 18 14 
Victor Emmanuel of Sardinia . . 13 March, 1821 
Pedro IV. , of Portugal .... 2 May, 1826 

Charles X., of France 2 Aug. 1830 

Pedro I. , of Brazil 7 April, 1831 

Dom Miguel, of Portugal (by leaving it) 26 May, 1834 

"William I., of Holland ' 8 Oct. 1840 

Louis-Philippe, of France ... 24 Feb. 1S48 

Louis Charles, of Bavaria ... 21 March, 1848 
Ferdinand, of Austria .... 2 Dec. 1848 
Charles Albert, of Sardinia ... 23 March, 1849 
Leopold II., of Tuscany .... July, 1859 
Bernhard, of Saxe-Meiningen . . 20 Sept. 1866 
Isabella II., of Spain .... 25 June, 1870 

Amadeus, of Spain 11 Feb. 1873 

Prince Alexander of Bulgaria (compulsory) . 7 Sept. 1886 

Milan, King of Servia 6 March, 1889 

ABECEDARIANS, followers of Storcb, an 
Anabaptist in the sixteenth century, derive their 
name from their rejection of all worldly knowledge, 
even of the alphabet. 

ABECEDARIUM, a logical machine, con- 
structed by Mr. William Stanley Jevons, and 
described in his " Principles of Science," 1874. 
He states that, by means of symbolic terms, it 
can perform all the processes of analytic reason- 
ing with infallible accuracy. 

ABELARD, a celebrated teacher of theology 
and logic, in 11 18 fell in love with Heloise, the 
niece of Fulbert, a canon of Paris, became her tutor, 
and seduced her. After a compulsory marriage, he 
placed her temporarily in a convent. Having been 
cruelly mutilated at the instigation of her relatives, 
he entered the abbey of St. Denis, from which he 
was compelled to depart, accused of heresy, on ac- 
count of his censuring the dissoluteness of the monks. 
He then built and lectured at the oratory of the 
Paraclete (or comforter) which eventually he made 
a convent, with Heloi'se for the abbess. He died 
under the charge of heresy, 21 April, 1 142, and was 
buried in the Paraclete, where also Heloi'se was 
laid, 17 May, 1164. Their ashes were removed to 
the garden of the Museum Francjais in 1800, and to 
the cemetery of Pere la Chaise in 1817. Their 
epistles, &c, were published in 1616. 

ABENCERRAGES, a powerful Moorish tribe 
of Granada, opposed to the Zegris. From 1480 to 
1492 their quarrels deluged Granada with blood and 
hastened the fall of the kingdom. They were ex- 
terminated by Boabdil (Abu A'bdallah), the last 
king, who was dethroned by Ferdinand and Isabella 
in 1492 ; his dominions were annexed to Castile. 

ABENSBERG, Bavaria. The Austrians were 
here defeated by Napoleon I. 20 April, 1809. 
ABEOKUTA, see Dahomey. 
ABERDEEN (N. Scotland), said to have been 
founded in the third century after Christ, and erected 
into a city about 893. Old Aberdeen was made a 
royal burgh in 1 154 ; it was burnt by the English in 
1336 ; and soon after New Aberdeen was built. A 
statue of the prince consort was inaugurated by the 
queen 13 Oct. 1863 ; and one of queen Victoria by 
the prince of Wales, 20 Sept. 1866. See Population. 
King's college was founded by bishop William Elphin- 
stone, who had a bull from pope Alexander VI. in 1494. 
The University was erected in 1500-6. Marischal eolleqe 
was founded by George Keith, earl marischal of Scot- 
land, in 1593 ; rebuilt in 1837. In 1858 the university 
and colleges were united. By the reform act of 1868, 
the universities of Aberdeen and Glasgow send one 
member to .parliament. Sir Erasmus Wilson gives 
10,000?. to endow a chair of pathological anatomy, 1882. 



Above 30 persons drowned by overcrowding a boat, 

April, 1876. 
Aberdeen farmers agitate for change in land laws ; abate- 
ment of rent, &c, Sept. 1881. 
Aberdeen market buildings destroyed by fire, 29 April, 

1882. 
Duthie-park, presented by Miss Dnthie, opened by 

princess Beatrice, 27 Sept. 1883. 
The British Association meet here, 14 Sept. 1859 \ anc ^ 

9 Sept. 1885. 
The marquis of Lome uncovers a colossal statue of 

Wallace, 29 June, 1888. 
Mr. John Gray Chambers, of Banchory, bequeaths 

io,ooo£. to found a professorship of English literature 

in the university with other bequests ; announced, 

Nov. 1890. 
Malcolm III. having gained a great victory over 
the Danes in the year 1010, resolved to found anew 
Bishopric, in token of his gratitude for his success, 
and pitched upon Mortlach in Banffshire, where 
St. Beanus was first bishop, 1015. The see, re- 
moved to Aberdeen early in the twelfth century, 
was discontinued at the revolution, 1689, and is 
now a post-revolution bishopric, instituted in 1721 ~ r 
see Bishops in Scotland. 

ABERDEEN ACT, introduced by the earl of 
Aberdeen, and passed, 1845, to enforce the obser- 
vance of a convention made with Brazil in 1826 to 
put down the slave trade. Bepealed in April, 1869. 

ABERDEEN ADMINISTRATION, called 
the Coalition Ministry, as including Whigs, Radi- 
cals, and followers of sir R. Peel. Formed in con- 
sequence of the resignation of the first Derby ad- 
ministration ; sworn in, 28 Dec. 1852; resigned 
30 Jan. 1855 ; succeeded by the Palmerston ad- 
ministration, which see. 
Earl of Aberdeen,* first lord of the treasury. 
Lord Cranworth, lord chancellor. 
Earl Granville, president of the council. 
Duke of Argyll, lord privy seal. 
Lord John Russell, t foreign secretary. 
Viscount Palmerston, home secretary. 
•Duke of Newcastle,:]: colonial and war secretary. 
William Ewart Gladstone, chancellor of exchequer. 
Sir James Graham, first lord of the admiralty. 
Sir Charles Wood, president of the India hoard. 
Edward Cardwell, president of board of trade. 
Hon. Sidney Herbert, secretary-at-war. 
Sir William Molesworth, chief commissioner of ivories. 
Marquess of Lansdowne (without office). 
Viscount Canning, lord Stanley of Alderley, right hon, 

Edward Strutt, &c. 

ABERDEEN PEERAGE CASE. George, 
earl of Aberdeen, grandson of the premier, suc- 
ceeded his father, 22 Mai'ch, 1864. After travelling 
in a yacht, he became a merchant seaman, and chief 
mate of the Sera ; he was drowned 27 Jan. 1870. 
His brother John's claim to the succession was 
allowed by the house of lords, 3 May, 1872. 

ABER EDW, S. Radnorshire. Near here 
Llewelyn, the last independent prince of Wales, 
was surprised and defeated by the lords marchers, 
n Dec. 1282. He escaped, but was betrayed and 
slain at Builtli. 

ABERGELE (N. Wales), see Railway Acci- 
dents. 20 Aug. 1868. 



* Born in 1784 ; engaged in foreign diplomacy, 1813 ; 
became foreign secretary, Jan. 1828 ; joined the party of 
sir R. Peel, 1846 ; died 14 Dec. i860. 

f Lord John Russell was succeeded as foreign secre- 
tary by the earl of Clarendon (Feb. 1853), but continued 
a member of the cabinet, without office ; he afterwards 
became president of the council, in the room of earl 
Granville, appointed to the duchy of Lancaster (June, 
1854)- 

% In June, 1854, the offices were separated ; the duke 
of Newcastle remained secretary of war, and sir George 
Grey was made colonial secretary. 



ABERRATION. 



ABSTINENCE. 



ABERRATION of Light ; discovered by 

James Bradley, through his observation of an ap- 
parent motion of the fixed stars, 1727. 

ABHORRERS, a name given in 1679 (reign 
of Charles II.), to the court-party in England, the 
opponents of the Addressers (afterwards Whigs), 
so called from their address to the king praying 
for the immediate assembly of the parliament, Avhich 
was delayed on account of its being adverse to the 
court. The former (afterwards Tories) expressed 
their abhorrence of those who endeavoured to en- 
croach on the royal prerogative, 1680. Hume. The 
commons expelled several members for being Ab- 
horrers, among them sir Francis "Withens (whom 
they sent to the Tower), and prayed his majesty 
to remove others from places of trust. They also 
resolved, " that it is the undoubted right of the 
subject to petition for the calling of a parliament, 
and that to traduce such petitions as tumultuous 
and seditious, is to contribute to the design of 
altering the constitution." Oct. 1680. 

ABINGDON, BERKS- The ancient monas- 
tery, rebuilt about 955, was surrendered at the 
Reformation, 1 538. The grammar school was founded 
in 1563. Population in 1881, 6,755 ; in 1891, 6,557. 
In 1645, loi-d Essex and Waller held Abingdon 
against Charles I. The town was unsuccessfully 
attacked by sir Stephen Hawkins in 1644, and by 
prince Rupert in 1645. On these occasions the de- 
fenders put every Irish prisoner to death without 
trial ; hence the term " Abingdon law." 

ABIOGENESIS (a, not, bios, life), a term 
given to spontaneous generation by professor Hux- 
ley in his British Association address, 1870. 

ABJURATION of the pope was enjoined by 
statute in the reigns of Henry VIII., Elizabeth, and 
James I., and of certain doctrines of the church 
of Rome by stat. 25 Charles II. 1673. The oath 
of abjuration of the house of Stuart was enjoined by 
stat. 13 & 14 Will. III. 1702 ; the form was changed 
in after reigns. By 21 & 22 Vict. c. 48 (1858) one 
oath for the three oaths of abjuration, allegiance, 
and supremacy was substituted. See Oaths. 

ABKASIA, a province of the Caucasus, annexed 
by Russia, the last prince Michael Shervashiji being 
deposed : an insurrection against the Russian au- 
thorities, 8 Aug. 1866, was quelled with much 
bloodshed. 

ABNEY PARK, see Cemeteries. 

ABO, a port of Russia, founded prior to 1 157, 
was till 1809 capital of Swedish Finland. It has 
suffered much by fire, especially in 1775 and 1827 ; 
was seized by the Russians in Feb. 1808 ; ceded to 
them, 17 Sept. 1809; and rebuilt by them after the 
great fire in 1827. The university erected by Gus- 
tavus Adolphus and Christina, 1640 et seq., was 
removed to Helsingfors, 1827. The peace of Abo, 
by which Sweden ceded part of Finland to Russia, 
was signed, 18 Aug. 1743. 

ABOLITIONISTS, the party in the northern 
part of the United States, opposed to slavery. They 
formed a small society at Boston about 1832 ; which 
became the nucleus of a great political party, and 
ultimately attained its object by the war of 1861-4. 
See Slavery in United States. 

ABORIGINES (without origin), a name given 
to the earliest known inhabitants of Italy (whence 
came the Latini) ; now applied to the original in- 
habitants of any country. — The Aborigines Protec- 
tion Society was established in 1838. Reports on 
the condition of the aborigines in the British colo- 
nies were presented to parliament in 1834 and 1837. 



It supported the case of the Queen of Amatonga 
{which sec) 13 Dec. 1887. 

ABOUKIR (Egypt), the ancient Canopus. In 
the bay Nelson defeated the French fleet, 1 Aug. 
1798; see Kile. A Turkish army of 15,000 was 
defeated here by 5000 French under Bonaparte, 25 
J ui y> 1/99- A British expedition to Egypt under 
geneial sir Ralph Abercromby landed here, and 
Aboukir surrendered to them after an obstinate and 
sanguinary conflict with the French, 8 March, 1801 ; 
see Alexandria. 

ABRAHAM, Era OF, used by Eusebius; so 
called from the patriarch Abraham, who died 1822 
B.C. The era began 1 Oct. 2016 B.C. To reduce 
this era to the Christian, subtract 20W years and 
three months. Nicolas. Abraham's \ arrival in 
Canaan is dated 2866 by Bunsen, 1730- 1 700 by 
Lepsius, 2153 by Hales. 

ABRAHAM, HEIGHTS OF, near Quebec, 
Lower Canada. The French were defeated and.^ 
Montcalm, their commander, killed here by general 
Wolfe, who fell in the moment of victory, 13 Sept. 
1759 ; see Quebec. 

ABRAHAMITES, a sect holding the errors of 
Paulus, was suppressed by Cyriacus, the patriarch 
of Antioch, early in the ninth century. A deistical 
sect of this name was banished from Bohemia by 
Joseph II. in 1783. 

ABRANTES (Portugal) . By a treaty between 
France and Portugal, signed here 29 Sept. 1801, 
the war was closed, and the French army withdrew; 
a money compensation having been agreed to, and 
territories in Guiana ceded to France. 

ABSALOM'S REBELLION and death 
(1024 — 23 b. c.) is described 2 Saw. xv. — xix. 

ABSCONDING DEBTORS ACT, passed 
9 Aug. 1870. 

ABSENTEE TAX (45. in the pound), levied! 
in Ireland in 17 15 on the incomes and pensions 
of absentees (long complained of), ceased in 1753. 
A tax of 2S. in the pound was proposed in vain 
by Mr. Flood in 1773 and by Mr. Molyneux in 1783. 
ABSOLUTION. Till the 3rd eentuiy, the- 
consent of the congregation was necessary to abso- 
lution ; but soon after the power was reserved to- 
the bishop ; and in the 12th century the form " 1 
absolve thee" had become general. See Holy 
Cross. 

ABSTINENCE. It is mythically said that 
St. Anthony lived to the age of 105 on twelve ounces 
of bread and water daily, and James the hermit to- 
the age of 104; that St. Epiphanius lived to 115 ;. 
Simeon the Stylite to 112. 

Cicely de Ridgway, said to have fasted 40 days rather- 
than plead when charged with the murder of her hus- 
band John ; discharged as miraculously saved, 1-47. 
Ann Moore, the fasting woman of Tutbury, Staffordshire, 
was said to have lived twenty months without food '; 
but her imposture was detected by Dr. A. Henderscn' 
Nov. 1808. 
A man named Cavanagh at Newry, in Ireland, was 
reported to have lived two years without meat or 
drink, Aug. 1840. His imposture was discovered in 
England, where lie was imprisoned as a cheat, Nov. 1841. 
Sarah Jacobs, the Welsh fasting girl, aged 13, said by her 
father to have lived for more than a year without food, 
after being closely watched for a week, died from ex- 
haustion 17 Dec. 1869. Her parents were sentenced at 
Carmarthen to imprisonment for fraudulent deception 
15 July, 1870. 
Dr. Tanner, at New York, was stated to have fasted 40 
days and nights, drinking a little water occasionally ; 
losing 36 lb. from 157^ lb. ; noon 2S June to noon 
7 Aug. 1S80. Fraud suspected. Still living, t8S6. 
Mr. Griscom, of Chicago, said to have fasted 36 days, 
5 July, 1881. 

s 2 



ABU KLEA. 



ABYSSINIA. 



Louise Lateau, Belgian fanatic, at Bois d'Haine ; said to 
have lived twelve years without food, died aged 33. 
Aug. 1883. 

[She had remarkable wounds resembling the stigmata on 
the crucifix.] 

Signor Succi, of Rome, said to have fasted 30 days, 1886; 
fast of 30 days, at Barcelona, 22 Sept.-23 Oct. 1888. 
Fasted 40 days at Westminster Aquarium, 17 March- 
26 April, 1890. Fast of 42 days by M. Alexandre 
Jacques at the same place, 21 June-2 Aug. 1890; 
again 31 July-19 Sept. (50 days), 1891. Succi fasted 
45 days, at New York, concluded 20 Dec. 1890 ; at the 
Westminster Aquarium he engaged to fast 52 days, 
but stopped on the 44th day, 29 Jan. 1892. 

Signor Merlatti, of Paris, alleged to have fasted 50 days 
drinking water ; in good health but greatly emaciated, 
15 Dec. 1886. 

Many other cases of long abstinence have been recorded. 
See Fasts, Teetotallers. 

Abstinents, an ascetic sect in Gaul and Spain : about 
288. 

ABU KLEA, about 120 miles from Khartoum. 
Here General Sir Herbert Stewart defeated the 
Mahdi's troops, 17 Jan. 1885. See under Soudan. 

ABYDOS, see Hellespont. At Abydos in 
Upper Egypt a tablet was discovered dedicated to 
the memory of his ancestors by Rameses II. (about 
1322 B.C.). It was bought for the British Museum, 
1837. Another tablet was discovered by Mariette 
in 1865. 

ABYSSINIA, the country of the Habese, 
N. E. Africa. Its ancient history is very uncer- 
tain. The kingdom of the Auxumitae (its chief 
town Auxume) flourished in the 1st and 2nd 
centuries after Christ. The religion of the Abys- 
sinians is a corrupt form of the Christianity intro- 
duced about 329 by Frumentius. About 960, 
Judith, a Jewish princess, murdered a great part 
of the royal family, and reigned forty years. The 
young king escaped : and the royal house was 
restored in 1268 in the person of his descendant 
Icon Amlac. In the middle ages it was said to 
be ruled by Prester John or Prete Janni. The 
Portuguese missions, commenced in the 15th cen- 
•tury, after much struggling against opposition, 
were expelled about 1633. The encroachments of 
the Gallas and intestine disorders soon after broke 
up the empire into petty governments. From the 
visits of James Bruce, 1768-73; Henry Salt, 1809- 
10; Edward Riippell, 1834-7 ; major Harris, 1841 ; 
Mansfield Parkyns, 1844-7, much information 
respecting Abyssinia has been gained. Several 
expeditions into Abyssinia have been oi-ganised by 
the French government. The brothers Antoine 
and Arnauld Abbadie visited the country 1837-45. 
Abyssinia was divided into four provinces, in 
1847 Ras Ali was ruler of Amhara ; Ras Ubie of 
Tigre and Samien ; and Sahela Selassie of Shoa. 
Population between 3,000,000 and 4,000,000. The 
ruler of Abyssinia is termed Negus, a title dating 
from the 13th century. The country is now some- 
times styled Ethiopia. 

Treaty of commerce with the king of Shoa con- 
cluded by captain Harris ... 16 Nov. 1841 
Mr. Plnwden (made British consul at Massowah^ 
1848), concludes treaty with Ras Ali, ruler of 

Amhara 2 Nov. 1840 

Ras Ali deposed by his son-in-law Theodore, who 
is crowned, and takes the title of negus, or kino- 

of kings „ Feb? 

Protestant missionaries received, replacing Roman 

catholics 

Mr. Plowden (who had joined the party of Theo- 
dore) killed by rebels, Feb. ; his friend Bell 
killed soon after, when avenging him ; Theodore 
overcomes the rebels and massacres about 150 
prisoners as a sacrifice to their manes 
Captain C. D. Cameron appointed to succeed con- 
sul Plowden Nov. 



1855 



He arrived at Massowah 9 Feb. 1862, goes to Abys- 
sinia, May ; received by Theodore, 7 Oct. ; is 
sent away with a letter for the queen, desiring 
alliance against the Turks ; which arrived 

12 Feb. 
It is decided that this letter is not to be answered ; 
Cameron, ordered by earl Russell to remain at 
Massowah, returns to Abyssinia . . June, 
Rev. H. Stern, missionary, beaten and imprisoned 
for alleged intrusion upon Theodore . Oct. 
Cameron, and all British subjects and missionaries, 
imprisoned for pretended insults, 3 Jan. ; report 
of imprisonment reached London 7 May ; pri- 
soners sent to Magdala, and chained like crimi- 
nals Nov. 

Mr. Hormuzd Rassam, a Chaldee Christian, first 
assistant British political resident at Aden, sent 
on mission to Abyssinia ; arrives at Massowah, 24 
July; lieut. Prideaux and Dr. Blanc appointed 

to accompany him 

Mr. Rassam having negotiated without effect for a 
year, Mr. Gifford Palgrave is appointed by earl 
Russell to go to Abyssinia, July ; but is stopped 
on the intelligence' that Theodore has invited 
Rassam to come to him . . .12 Aug. 
Mr. Rassam, lieut. Prideaux, and Dr. Blanc arrive 
at Matemma from Massowah, 21 Nov. 1865 ; and 
are well received by Theodore . . 28 Jan. 
Prisoners released, 12 March; all seized and im- 
prisoned .... about 13 April, 
Mr. Flad sent to England by Theodore to obtain 
British workmen, April ; arrives, July ; intro- 
duced to queen Victoria, and receives from her 
an autograph letter, dated ... 4 Oct. 
Mr. Flad returned with workmen to Massowah, 
29 Oct. ; Theodore received the queen's letter 
about 19 Dec. 
Lord Stanley's ultimatum to Theodore, demand- 
ing release of the captives in three months (not 

received), sent 16 April, 

Mr. Flad received by the king ; and made to join 

his family in prison .... May, 

Preparations for war ; sir Robert Napier appointed 

commander of an expedition ; pioneer force sails 

from Bombay 14 Sept. 

A formal letter from the British government sent 

to Theodore (never arrived) . . 9 Sept. 

Advanced brigade (3500) sail from Bombay, 7, 

8 Oct. ; land at Zoulla .... 21 Oct. 

Napier's proclamation issued in Abyssinia, 26 Oct. 

Captives at Magdala reported well . 11 Nov. 

Report that the Gallas have joined the revolt 

against Theodore .... 25 Nov. 

The British parliament meets ; the queen's speech' 

announces the war, 19 Nov. ; 2,000,000?. voted, 

26, 27 Nov. 
Third ultimatum sent by sir R. Napier ; inter- 
cepted by a rebel chief and given to Mr. Rassam, 
who suppressed it as likely to endanger the lives 

of the captives 

Arrival of sir R. Napier at Annesley bay 4 Jan. 
The captives relieved of their chains . 29 March, 
Sir R. Napier arrives below Magdala . 2 April, 
Theodore massacres about 300 native prisoners 

9 April, 

Battle of Arogee ; Theodore's troops attack the 

British first brigade ; defeated with much 

slaughter (Good Friday) . . 10 April, 

Theodore requests Mr. Rassam to mediate ; lieut. 

Prideaux, sent to sir R. Napier, returns with a 

letter ; Theodore receives it indignantly, and 

sends an insulting reply . . . n April, 

Theodore sends a letter of apology offering a present 

of cattle ; Mr. Rassam understanding this present 

to have been accepted, tells the king's agents ; 

the European artisans and families sent to the 

British camp 12 April, 

Part of the Abyssinian troops mutiny : Magdala 
bombarded and stormed ; Theodore kills him- 
self 13 April, 

[" I fail to discover a single point of view from 
which it is possible to regard his removal with re- 
gret." — Sir R. Napier .... 18 June,] 
Magdala burnt to the ground . . . 17 April, 
Death of Theodore's queen . . .10 May, 

Henry Dufton of the " Intelligence department" 
shot by Shosho robbers . . . .28 May, 



1863 



ABYSSINIAN EEA. 



ACADEMIES. 



Immediate return of the troops ; — all had embarked, 

2 June, 1868 

Troops arrive at Plymouth, 21 June ; sir R. Napier 
at Dover 2 July, ,, 

[Cattle said to have been employed in the expedi- 
tion : 45 elephants, 7417 camels, 12,920 mules 
and ponies, 7033 bullocks, 827 donkeys. Natives 
largely employed in the transport service.] 

Theodore's son Alamayou, aged 7, arrives at Ply- 
mouth, 14 July; presented to queen Victoria, 

16 July, ,, 

Pension of 350?. to col. Cameron [he died 30 May, 
1870] ; 5000?. given to Mr. Rassam ; 2000?. to Dr. 
Blanc ; 2000Z. to lieut. Prideaux ; announced 

23 Dec. ,, 

Prince Alamayou sailed to India for education (re- 
turned to England end of 1871) . . 26 Jan. 1869 

Expenses of the war : 5,000,000?. voted 18 Dec. 
1868 ; 3,300,000?. more voted . . 4 Mar. „ 

[Total: 8,977,500?. Feb. 1880.] 

Report of a commission on the expenses of the ex- 
pedition disclosed much waste, attributed to 
urgency and divided authority . . Aug. 1870 

War between Gobazye, king of Amhara and Kassa, 
kingofTigre; Kassa victor . . . 21 June, 1871 

Gobazye beaten and taken prisoner . 11 July, ,, 

Kassa proposes to be crowned emperor and negus 
of all Abyssinia, 21 Nov. ; punishes the Catholic 
missionaries for partisanship ; and forms alliance 
with Egypt July, ,, 

Kassa crowned at Axum as Johanni II. 12 Jan. 1872 

Said to be ruling tyrannically .... 1873-4 

War with Egypt ; the khedive's troops enter Abys- 
sinia ; the natives retire, but surprise and defeat 
the Egyptians at Kherad Iska(a massacre), and at 
Gonda Gouddi (a desperate fight) . 16 Oct. 1875 

Abyssinians defeated in three days' conflict, 

17-19 Feb, 1876 

Col. Gordon said to be negotiating peace for Egypt, 

June, 1877 

King Johanni totally defeats Menelek, king of Shoa, 

middle of June, ,, 

Menelek submits, permitted to rule ; — reported great 
battle ; Menelek said to be killed . 17 Sept. „ 

Col. Gordon concludes peace ; Abyssinia to have a 
port Oct. 1879 

Prince Alamayou dies at Leeds, 14 Nov., buried at 
Windsor „ 

King Johanni receives adm. Hewett from Souakim, 
and signs a treaty respecting Massowah, &c. about 

26 May 1884 

Two Abyssinian envoys arrive at Plymouth 19 Aug. ,, 

Received by the queen .... 20 Aug. „ 

Start on return n Sept. ,, 

Captain Harrison Smith, British agent, wellreceived 
by king Johanni 19 May, 1886 

For disputes with Italy see Massowah. 

Mr. Portal, and a Mission from queen Victoria to 
mediate between Italy and Abyssinia (see Mas- 
sowah) received by the king, after much delay ; 
without effect 10-16 Dec. 1887 

The Italians march to Saati to form a camp, 
announced 1 Feb. 1888 

Abyssinians defeated in a skirmish . . 6 Feb. „ 

Slight beginning of actual hostilities, 4 March ; 
slight firing near Saati, 28 March ; the Negus 
through deficiency in commissariat, &c, sues for 
peace ; two chiefs sent to general San Marzano 

29 March, „ 

The negus refuses the terms and retires . 2 April ,, 

The Italian troops return to Italy 13 April et seq. ,, 

Rebellion of Menelek, king of Shoa, against king 
John Dec. „ 

The Negus is stated to have been defeated in his 
attack on the dervishes, 10 March ; and to have 
been attacked and killed by them 12 March 1889 

Mission from Menelek, king of Shoa, with presents, 
received by king Humbert, 28 Aug. ; the treaty 
between Italy and Abyssinia (2 May> ratified, 

2 Oct. „ 

Menelek crowned negus of Abyssinia . 3 Nov. ,, 

Protectorate of Italy over Abyssinia accepted and 
announced i 4 Oct. „ 

The Italian National Bank agree to lend Menelek 
4,000,000 francs 26 Oct. „ 

Ras Mangaseia and other opponents of Menelek 
defeated Nov.- Dec. ,, 



Gen. Orero, on behalf of Menelek, marches on 

Adua, and is warmly received . . 27 Jan. 1890 
Submission of Degiac Mangaseia announced at 
Adowa, 17 March ; lie meets count Antonelli at 

Adowa 16 May ,, 

Friendly communications from the negus Mene- 
lek to king Humbert . . . about 1 Jan. 1891 
Count Antonelli visits the negus in relation to the 
treaty ; count leaves, n Feb. ; the negus writes 

to king Humbert March ,, 

The chief Debeb defeated and killed by the chiefs 

Mangaseia and Ras Alula . . -29 Sept. ,, 
King Menelek's present of two tame lions and a 
decoration received by president Carnot at Paris 

Dec. „ 
ABYSSINIAN EEA is reckoned from the 
creation, which the Abyssinians place in the 5493rd 
year B.C., on 29 Aug. old style; their dates 
consequently exceed ours by 5492 years, 125 days. 
To reduce Abyssinian time to the Julian year, sub- 
tract 5492 years, 125 days. 

ACACIANS- I- Followers of Acacius, bishop 
of Csesarea, in the fourth century, who held pe- 
culiar doctrines respecting the nature of Christ. 
2. Partisans of Acacius, patriarch of Constanti- 
nople, promoter of the Henoticon (which see), 
482-4. 

ACADEMICAL STUDY, see Education > 
1872. 

ACADEMIES- Academia, a shady grove 
without the walls of Athens, said to have belonged 
to the hero Academus, was adorned with statues by 
Cimon, the son of Miltiades, and adapted for gym- 
nastic exercises. Here Plato, 428-389 B.C., first 
taught philosophy, and his followers took the title 
of Academics. —Rome had no academies^* — Ptolemy 
Soter is said to have founded an academy at Alex- 
andria, about 314 B.C. Abderahinan I., caliph of 
Spain, founded academies about a.d. 773- Theo- 
dosius the Younger, Charlemagne, and Alfred are 
also named as founders of academies. Italy is 
celebrated for its academies ; and Jarckius men- 
tions 550, of which 25 were in Milan. In 1874 
Girolamo Ponti, of Milan, bequeathed about 35,000/. 
to the academies of science of London, Paris, and 
Vienna. Many of the following dates are doubtful. 

PRINCIPAL ACADEMIES. 

American Academy of Sciences, Boston, 1780. 

Ancona, of the Caliginosi, 1642. 

Basil, 1460. 

Berlin, Royal, 1700 ; of Princes, 1703 ; Architecture, 

1799. 
Bologna, Ecclesiastical, 1687 ; Mathematics, 1690 ; 

Sciences and Arts, 1712. 
Brescia, of the Erranti, 1626. 
Brest and Toulon, Military, 1682. 
Brussels, Belles Lettres, 1773. 
Caen, Belles Lettres, 1705. 
Copenhagen, of Sciences, 1743. 
Cortona, Antiquities, 1726. 

Dublin, Arts, 1742 ; Painting, Sculpture, &c, 1823. 
Erfurt, Saxony, Sciences, 1754. 
Faenza, the Philoponi, 1612. 
Florence, Belles Lettres, 1272 ; Delia Crusca (now united 

with the Florentine, and merged under that name), 

1582 ; Del Cimento, 1657 (by cardinal de' Medici) 

Antiquities, 1807. 
Geneva, Medical, 1715. 
Genoa, Painting, <fco. , 1751 ; Sciences, 1783. 
Germany, Natu/rce Curiosi, now Leopoldine, 1662. 
Gottingen, 1734-7. 
Haarlem, the Sciences, 1760. 
Irish Academy, Royal, Dublin, 1782. 
Lisbon, History, 1720; Sciences, 1779. 
London ; see London and Societies. Royal Academy of 

Fine Arts, 1768; of Music, 1734-43 and 1822. 
Lyons, Sciences, 17 10 ; Physic and Mathematics added, 

I75S- 

* Cicero termed his villa " Academia," and here com- 
posed his "Academic Questions." 



ACADIA. 



ACEPHALI. 



mother (as a Protestant) iu the event of queen Anne 
dying without issue. 

ACCESSORIES TO CRIMES. The law re- 
specting them consolidated and amended in 1861. 

ACCIDENTS, see under Coal, Fires, Railways, 
&e. For compensation for accidents, see Camp- 
bell' s Acts and Passengers. In 1869, it was com- 
puted that, in one year, about 192 persons are 
killed, and 1200 injured, in the streets of London ; 
231 were killed in 1875; 237 killed, 3185 injured, 
1 Jan. 1878 — 31 Jan. 1879. 163 killed in 18795252 
in 1881. 

Accident Relief Society, London, established 1836. 
Society for Preventing Street Accidents and Dangerous 
Driving, formed in 1879 ; met at the Mansion House, 
London, 30 Jan. 1880; wound up, 1 July, 1881. 

ACCIDENTAL DEATHS IN ENGLAND AND WALES. 



Madrid, the Royal Spanish, 1713 ; History, 1730 ; Paint- 
ing and the Arts, 1753. 

Manheim, Sciences, 1755 ; Sculpture, 1775. 

Mantua, the Vigilanti, Sciences, 1704. 

Marseilles, Belles Lettres, 1726. 

Massachusetts, Arts* and Sciences, 1780. 

Milan, Architecture, 1380 ; Sciences, 1719. 

Munich, Arts and Sciences, 1759 ; Sciences, 1779. 

Naples, Rossana, 1540 ; Mathematics, 1560 ; Sciences, 
1695 ; Hermtlaneum, 1755. 

New York, Literature and Philosophy, 1814. 

Nismes, Royal Academy, 1682. 

Padua, for Poetry, 1613 ; Sciences, 1792. 

Palermo, Medical, 1645. 

Paris, Sorbonne, 1253 ; Painting, 1391 ; Music, 1543 and 
1671 ; French (by Richelieu), 1635 ; Fine Arts, 1648 ; 
Inscriptions et Belles Lettres (by Colbert), 1663; Sciences 
(by Colbert), 1666 ; Architecture, 1671 ; Surgery, 1731; 
Military, 1751 ; Natural Philosophy, 1796, see Institute. 

Parma, the Innominati, 1550. 

Perousa, Insensati, 1561 ; Filigirti, 1574. 

Philadelphia, Arts and Sciences, 1749. 

Portsmouth, Naval, 1722 ; enlarged, 1806. 

Rome, Umoristi, 161 1 ; Fantasticl, 1625 ; Infecondi, 1653 
Painting, 1665 ; Arcadi, 1690 ; English, 1752 ; Lincei, 
about 1600 ; Nuovi Lincei, 1847. 

Sandhurst, Military, 1822. 

St. Petersburg, Sciences, 1725 ; Military, 1732 ; the School 
of Arts, 1764. 

Stockholm, of Science, 1741 ; Belles Lettres, 1753 ; Agri- 
culture, 1 78 1 ; Royal Swedish, 1786. 

Toulon, Military, 1682. 

Turin, Sciences, about 1759 ; Fine Arts, 1778. 

Turkey, Military School, 1775. 

Upsal, Royal Society, Sciences, 1720. 

Venice, Medical, <fec, 1701. 

Verona, Music, 1543 ; Sciences, 1780. 

Vienna, Sculpture and the Arts, 1705 ; Surgery, 1783 ; 
Oriental, 1810. 

Warsaw, Languages, and History, 1753. 

Washington, United States, America, 1863. 

Woolwich, Military, 1741. 

ACADIA, see Nova Scotia. 

ACANTHUS, the foliage forming the volutes 
of the Corinthian capital, ascribed to Callimachus, 
about 540 B.C. 

ACAPULCO, Mexico. A Spanish galleon, 
jfrom Acapulco, laden with gold and precious wares 
(estimated at above 1,000,0001?. sterling), taken by 
commodore Anson, who had previously acquired 
booty in his voyage amounting to 600,000/., June, 
1743. He arrived at Spithead in the Centurion, 
having circumnavigated the globe, 15 June, 1744. 

ACARNANIA, N. Greece. The people be- 
came prominent in the Peloponnesian war, having 
invited the help of the Athenians against the Am- 
bracians, 432 h.c. The Acarnanians were subdued 
l)y the Lacedaemonians in 390 ; they took part 
-with Macedon against the Romans in 200, by whom 
they were defeated in 197, and subjugated in 145- 

ACCADIANS, a name now given to the primi- 
tive inhabitants of baby Ion. The rev. A. H. 
Sayco (1877) considers them to have been the earliest 
•civilisers of Eastern Asia, and the source of the phi- 
losophy and arts of the Assyrians and Phoenicians, 
And hence of Greece. Their libraries are said to 
iiave existed seventeen centuries B.C. 

ACCENTS were first introduced in the Greek 
language by Aristophanes of Byzantium, a gram- 
marian and critic who taught at Alexandria about 
264 B.C. Accents were first used by the French in 
the reign of Louis XIII. (about 1610). 

ACCESSION, THE, i.e., that of the House of 
Hanover to the throne of Great Britain, in the 
person of George I., elector of Hanover, son of 
Sophia, daughter of Elizabeth, daughter of James I. 
He succeeded, I Aug. 1714, by virtue of the act of 
settlement passed in the reign of William III., 
12 June, 1701, which limited the succession to his 



1856, 9716 

1857, 8930 

1858, 8947 

1859, 9 2 4i 
i860, 9225 
1861, 9213 
T862, 9005 
T863, 9952 

864, 10,997 



1865, 11,397 

1866, 11,262 

1867, 11,172 

1868, 11,033 

1869, 10,725 

1870, 10,906 

1871, 11,316 

1872, n,435 

1873, 11,284 



1874, 


".783 


187s. 


12,254 


1876, 


11,681 


1877, 


11,194 


1878, 


12,108 


1879, 


10,787 


1880, 


10,807 


1881, 


I I , 404 


1882, 


11,269 



",539 

n>549 
11,149 
11,003 
11,98-- 
n>556 
10,513 
11,322 



ACCLIMATISATION of Animals. This 
has been prosecuted with great vigour since the 
establishment of the Zoological society of London 
in 1829, and of the Societe d'Aeclimatation in Paris. 
Numbers of European animals have been naturalised 
in Australia; the camel has been conveyed to Brazil 
(1859) ; alpacas are bred at Paris ; and ostriches in 
Italy (1859). On 6 Oct. i860, the Bois de Boulogne, 
near Paris, was opened as a zoological garden, con- 
taining only acclimatised animals. An English ac- 
climatisation society was founded 10 June, i860, by 
hon. Grantley Berkeley, Mr. J. Crockford, Mr. F. 
Buckland, &c, and the prince of Wales became pre- 
sident in April, 1865. It was not successful. An 
acclimatising garden was established at Melbourne, 
Australia, in Feb. 1861, and efforts made to natu- 
ralise English birds, fishes, &c. See Fish. 

ACCOLTELLATORI (gladiators), secret 
assassins, at Eavenna and other places in Italy, 1874. 

ACCORDION, a small free-reed wind-instru- 
ment with keys, invented at Vienna by Damian 
about 1829, and soon after introduced into England. 

ACCOUNTANT-GENERAL in Chan- 
cery, &c, an office instituted in 1726, and abolished 
by an act passed 6 Aug. 1872. In 1841, the office 
of accountant-general of the court of exchequer was 
abolished, and the duties transferred to the account- 
ant in chancery. 

ACCOUNTANTS' Institute, established 

at a meeting, 30 July, 1870 ; the Accountants' 
Society in 1872. Five societies were incorporated 
as "The Chartered Institute of Accountants of 
England and Wales," in 1880. 

ACCUSERS- By occult writers, such as 
Agrippa, accusers are the eighth order of devils, 
whose chief is called Asteroth, or Spy. In Revela- 
tion, ch. xii. 10, the devil is called "the accuser of 
the brethren." — False accusers were to be hanged, 
by 24 Henry VI. 1446 ; and burnt in the face with 
an F, by 37 Henry VIII. 1545. Stow. 

ACEPHALI (Greek a , no ; cephale, head), a 
term applied to certain sects who resisted their 
bishops and met privately, about 450; and also in 
canon law applied to such bishops, clerks, monks, 
&c, as claim or enjoy independence of the jurisdic- 
tion of the ordinary or metropolitan. 



ACETYLENE. 



ACOUSTICS. 



ACETYLENE, a luminous hydrocarbon gas 
resembling coal gas, discovered by Berthelot, and 
made known in 1862. 

ACHAIA (N. Peloponnesus), Greece, settled 
by the Achaei, reputed descendants of Achaeus, the 
son of Xuthus. The kingdom was united with Sicyon 
or subject to the ^Etolians until about 284 u.c. 
The Acnaji originally inhabited the neighbourhood 
of Argos ; but when the HeraclidEe drove them 
thence, they retired among the lonians, expelled 
the natives, and seized their thirteen cities, viz. 
Pellene, JSgira, iEgium, Bura, Tritsea, Leontium, 
Jthypes, Cerynea, Oleuos, Helice, Patne, Lyme, and 
Pharse, forming the Achaean League. 

Achaia invaded by Epaminondas . . .B.C. 366 
The Ach^an league revived by four cities about 

280, and by others 275, 274 

Aratus male praetor 245 

The league joined by Corinth (captured 243), Megara, 
<&c. ........ 242 — 228 

Supported by Athens and Antigonus Doson . . 229 
The Achajans defeated at Laddcea, by the Spartans, 
under Cleomenes III., 226 ; totally defeat them at 

Sellasia 221 

The Social war begun ; battle of Caphyse in Arcadia ; 
Aratus defeated ........ 220 

The Peloponnesus ravaged by the iEtolians . .219 

Peace of Naupactus 217 

Aratus poisoned at iEgium 213 

Philopcemen, leader of the league, defeats the Spartan 

tyrant Maehanidas ." 208 

Alliance of the league with the Romans . . . 198 
Philopoemen defeated by Nabis in a naval battle . 194 
All the Peloponnesus joins the league . . . 191 
War with Messene : Philopoemen made prison ir and 

slain ■ 183 

The Achseans overran Messeuia with fire and sword 182 
The Romans enter Achaia, and carry off numbers, 

including Polybius the historian .... 165 
War with Rome, 150 ; Metelius enters Greece . . 147 
The Aehwans defeated by Mummius at Leucopetra, 
■ 147 ; the league dissolved ; Corinth taken ; Greece 
subjected to Rome, and named the province of 

Achaia 146 

Achaia made a Latin principality by William of 

. Champlitte a.d. 1205 

Obtained by Geoffrey Villehar louin, 1210 ; -by Geof- 
frey II 1218 

By his brother William, 1246 ; who conquers the 
Moors, 1248; makes war with the emperor Michael, 
1259 ; and gains three fortresses .... 1262 
Succeeded by Isabella, 1277 ; who marries Florenz of 

Hainault 1291 

Their daughter Maud, princess, 13 1 1 ; thrice married ; 
forcibly married to John de Gravina, and dies in 

prison 1324 

Achaia, a fief of Naples .... 1246 — 1430 
Conquered by the Turks .... about 1540 

ACHEEN", capital of a kingdom N.W. of 

Sumatra, was visited by the Portuguese about 

1509. Factories were set up here by the Dutch, 

1590; by the English, 1602; by the French, 1621. 

For the war with the Dutch, see Sumatra. 

The Nlsero of Sunderland, with sugar from Sourabaya, 
stranded on territory of the chief of Pangah, a Malay 
dependent of Tuku Imam Muda, the rajah of Tenom, 
subject to the sultan of Acheen, 16 Nov. 1383. 

t8 British and 6 foreign sailors made prisoners ; the 
captain released to negotiate ; efforts to obtain their 
release, by warlike attacks and proffered ransom, 

. ineffectual; the Dutch storm Tenom, but prisoners 
carried off, 7 Jan. 1884. 

H.M.S. Pegasus sent there. The rajah demands free 
trade, and desires subjection to Great Britain. Earl 
Granville recommends conciliation to the Dutch 
government, ami juueed May, 1884. See under Mansion 
House. 

Eighteen prisoners released 11 Sept., arrived in the 
Thames, 26 Oct. 1884. 

'The natives attacking the Dutch garrison defeated ; 160 
killed, reported 15 May ; another engagement in which 
the Dutch lose, 19 killed ; reported 2 Aug. 1889. 

The Dutch repulsed at Benting, near Edi, 14 May, 1890; 



successful in conflicts about 11-13 June. War con- 
tinues ; reported 1891-2. 

ACHONRY, SLIGO (N. Ireland), a bishopric 
founded by St. Finian, who erected the church of 
Achad, or Achonry, about 520, and conferred it on 
his disciple Nathy (Lathy, or David), the first 
bishop. The see, held with Killala, since 1612, was 
united with Tuam in 1834. 

ACHROMATIC TELESCOPES, in which 
colour is got rid of, were invented by John Dollond, 
and described in Phil. Trans, of the Royal Society, 
London, 1753-8. 

ACIDS (now denned as salts of hydrogen) are 
generally soluble in water, redden organic blues, 
decompose carbonates, and destroy the properties of 
alkalies, forming alkaline salts. The number of 
acids was increased by the Arabs ; Geber (8th cen- 
tury) knew nitric acid and sulphuric acid. Theories 
of the constitution of acids were put forth by Becher 
(1669), Lemery (1675), and Stahl (1723). Afterthe 
discovery of oxygen by Priestley, 1 Aug. 1774, 
Lavoisier (1778), concluded that oxygen was a con- 
stituent of all acids; but about 1810 Davy, Gay- 
Lussac, and others, proved the existence of acids 
free from oxygen. In 1816 Dulong proposed the 
binary or hydrogen theory of acids, and in 1837 
Liebig applied the theories of Davy and Dulong to 
explain the constitution of several organic acids. 
Oxygen acids were termed anhydrides by Gerhardt 
(died 1856). Many acids have been discovered 
through tue advance of organic chemistry. Watts. 

ACOLYTES, an inferior order of clergy in the 
Latin church, unknown to the Greek church for 
four hundred years after Christ. 

ACOUSTICS (from akouo, Greek, I hear), the 
science of sound, so named by Sauveur in the 17th 
century. The formation of sound in the air by the 
vibrations of the atmosphere, strings, &c, was ex- 
plained by Pythagoras about 500 B.C., and by Aris- 
totle, 330 B.C. See Telephone, Microphone, Mega- 
phone. 

The speaking trumpet said to have been used by Alex- 
ander the Great, 335 B.C. 

Galileo's discoveries, about a.d. 1600. 

His theorem of the harmonic curve demonstrated by Dr. 
Brook Taylor, in 1714 ; further perfected by D'Alembert, 
Euler, Bernouilli, and La Grange, at various periods of 
the eighteenth century. 

Hooke calculated the vibration of sounds by the striking 
of the teeth of brass wheels, 1681. 

Sauveur determined the number of vibrations belonging 
to a given note, about 1700. 

Velocity of sound said to be 1473 feet in a second, by 
Gassendi ; 1172 feet by Cassini, Reiner, and others ; 
968 feet by Newton ; 1090 feet, at the temperature of 
32° Fahrenheit, by Tyndall ; the velocity increases with 
the rise of temperature. 

Chladni (who raised acoustics to an independent science) 
published his important discoveries on the figures pro- 
duced in layers of sand by harmonic chords, <fcc, in 
1787, and since. 

Cagniard-Latour invented the Sirene (which see), 1S19. 

Savart determined the range of the perception of the 
human ear to be from 7 to 24,000 vibrations a second, 
1830. 

Biot, Savart, Wheatstone, Lissajous, Helmholtz, Tyndall, 
lord Rayleigh, and others in the present century have 
greatly increased our knowledge of acoustics. 

Over-tones, harmonics, well investigated by Helmholtz ; 
under-toues by Auerbaeh, 1878. 

Tyndall's experiments off the South Foreland on fog- 
signals and gun-cotton, detn mstrated that the trans- 
mission of sound is checked by the non-homogeneity 
of the air, independently of fog and rain, July, 1873. 

The results of Tyndall's experiments showed, that the 
parabolic-muzzle gun with gun-cotton, and tint of 
sir Richard Collinson's Run-cotton roeket, are very- 
effective fog-signals. Fine-grain gunpowder with 



ACEE. 



ACTS OF PAELIAMENT. 



howitzers is the best sound-producer ; pebble powder 
the worst, 1874-7. 
Sound produced by electricity, light, and from radiant 

heat, see Telephone and Photophone, 1881. 
Mr. A. Stroh exhibits the attraction and repulsion 
(resembliug magnetic) produced by sonorous vibra- 
tions in tubes to the Telegraph Engineers, 27 April, 
1882. 

ACEE, a land measure, formerly of uncertain 
quantity, and differing in various parts of the 
country, was reduced to a standard by Edward I., 
about 1305. In 1824 the standard acre was ordered 
by statute to contain 4840 square yards. 

ACEE, Acca, anciently Ptolemais, in Syria, was 
taken by the Saracens in 638 ; by the crusaders 
under Baldwin I. in 1104 ; by Saladin in 1187 ; and 
again by Richard I. and other crusaders, 12 July, 
1 191, after a siege of 2 years, with a loss of 6 arch- 
bishops, 12 bishops, 40 earls, 500 barons, and 300,000 
soldiers. It was then named St. Jean d' Acre. It 
was retaken by the Saracens in 1291, when 60,000 
Christians perished, and the nuns, who had mangled 
their faces, were put to death. Acre was gal- 
lantly defended by Djezzar Pacha against Bona- 
parte, till relieved by sir Sidney Smith, who 
resisted twelve attempts by the French, between 
16 March and 20 May, 1799, when Bonaparte 
retreated. Acre, as a Turkish pachalic, was seized 
27 May, 1832, by Ibrahim Pacha, who had revolted. 
On 3 Nov. 1840, it was stormed by the allied fleet 
under sir Robert Stopford, and taken after a bom- 
bardment of a few hours, the Egyptians losing up- 
wards of 2000 in killed and wounded, and 3000 
prisoners, while the British had but 12 killed and 
42 wounded ; see Syria and Turkey. 

ACEOPOLIS, the ancient citadel of Athens, 
built on a rock. Near it stood the temple of 
Minerva, the Parthenon, which see. Other cities 
had similar fortresses. 

ACEOSTIC, a poem in which the first or last 
letters of each line, i~ead downwards, form a word 
or sentence, is said to have been invented by 
Porphyrius Optalianus in the 4th century. Double 
acrostics became very popular in 1867. 

ACS OR ACZ (Hungary). The Hungarians 
under Gorgey were defeated here by the Austrians 
and Russians, on 2 and 10 July, 1849. 

ACT OF SETTLEMENT, &c. ; see Accession, 
Succession, Supremacy, and Uniformity Acts. 
The Act of Settlement passed in 1662, which secured to 
various persons the possession of forfeited estates of 
Irish rebels, was repealed by acclamation by the Parlia- 
ment summoned by James II. in May, 1689, and much 
confiscation of the property of Protestants ensued. 
The act was restored by William III. 1690. 
ACTA DIUENA ; see Newspapers. 
ACTA SANCTOEUM ("acts of the saints"), 
a work begun by the Jesuits. The first volume ap- 
peared in 1643 : the publication was interrupted in 
1794, when 54 volumes, bringing the work down to 
15 October, had been published. The work was re- 
sumed by the Jesuits in 1837, and 6 more volumes 
had been published in 1867. The writers have 
been named Bollandists, from John Bolland, who 
published the first two volumes. 

ACTINOMETEE, an instrument to measure 
the heating power of the solar rays, invented by 
sir John F. Herschel, and described by him in 1825. 
Others have since been invented. See Sun. 

ACTIUM, a promontory of Acarnania, W. 
Greece, near which was fought, 2 or 3 Sept. 31 B.C., 
the battle between the fleet of Octavius Coesar, and 
that of Marc Antony and Cleopatra, which decided 
the fate of Antony ; 300 of his galleys going over to 



Ceesar. This victory made Octavius master of the 
world, and the Roman empire is commonly dated 
I Jan. 30 B.C. (the Actian Era). The conqueror 
built Nicopolis (the city of victory), and instituted 
the Actian games. 

ACTON BITENEL, or Shrewsbury. At the 
parliament held here by Edward I., Oct. 1283, the 
"statute of merchants" against debtors was enacted. 

ACTONIAN PEIZE, see under Royal 
Institution. 

ACTON MITEDEE, see Trials, 1880. 

ACTEESSES appear to have been unknown to 
the ancients, men or eunuchs performing the female 
parts. Charles II. is said to have first encouraged 
the public appearance of women on the stage in 
England, in 1662; but Anne, queen of James 1., had 
previously performed in a theatre at court. Theat. 
Biog. Mrs. Colman was the first English public 
actress ; she performed the part of Ianthe in Dave- 
nant's "Siege of Rhodes," in 1656. Victor. 

ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, supposed to 
have been written by Luke in continuation of his 
Gospel. It terminates a.d. 63. 

ACTS OF PAELIAMENT, or Statutes, 

see .Parliament and Statutes. The following are 

among the most celebrated early statutes : — 

Provisions of Merton, 1235-6. 

Statute of Marlborough, 1267. 
„ of Bigamy, 1275-6. 

,, of Gloucester, the earliest statute of which any re- 
cord exists, 6 Edw. I. 1278. 
„ of Mortmain, 1279. 

Quo Warranto, Oct. 1280. 

Statute of Merchants or Acton-Burnel, 1283. 

Statutes of Wales, 1284. 
,, of Winchester, Oct. 1284. 
,, of Westminster, 1275, 1285, 1290. 

Statute forbidding the levying of taxes without the con- 
sent of parliament, 1297. 
,, of Praemunire, 1306. 

Statutes first printed in the reign of Richard III., 1483. 

Statutes of the Realm, from Magna Charta to George I. . 
printed from the original records and MSS. in 12 vols, 
folio, under the direction of commissioners appointed 
in 1801, 1811-28. 

The statutes passed during each session were formerly 
printed annually in 4to and 8vo, now in 8vo only. 
Abstracts are given in the Cabinet Lawyer. 

Between 1823 and 1829, 1126 acts were wholly repealed, 
and 443 repealed in part, chiefly arising out of the con- 
solidation of the laws by Mr. (afterwards sir Robert) 
Peel ; of these acts, 1344 related to the kingdom at 
large, and 225 to Ireland solely ; and in 1856 many 
obsolete statutes (enacted between 1285 and 1777) were 
repealed. 

By the Statute Law Revision Act of 1861, 770 acts were 
wholly repealed, and a great many partially. By 
similar acts since passed, a great number of enactments 
have been repealed, commencing with the Provisions 
of Merton, 20 Henry III. (1235-6), and ending 1844. 

"Acts of parliament abbreviation bill" introduced by 
lord Brougham 12 Feb., passed 10 June, 1850. 

The Interpretation Act passed, 30 Aug. 1889. 

1410 acts (passed between 16S9 and 1770) partially or 
wholly repealed, 1867. 

" Chronological Table and Index to the Statutes to the 
end of 1869,'' published 1870. Ninth Edition (1235- 
1883), published 1884. 

Publication of the revised edition of the statutes (1325- 
1878); 18 volumes jmblished, 1870-85. 

Report of select committee on acts of parliament, pub- 
lished July, 1875. 

New edition of the revised statutes proposed 1888, see 
Statutes. 

Short Titles Act passed, 20 May, 1892. 

The greatest number of acts passed in any one year 
since 1800 was 570, in 1846 (the railway year); 402 
were local and personal, 51 private, and 117 public acts. 
In 1841, only 13 were passed (the lowest number), 
of which two were private. The average number 
of the first ten years of the present century was 132 



ACTS. 



ADMINISTRATIONS. 



public acts. In the ten years ending 1850, the average 
number of acts, of public interest, was 112. 
The number of public general acts passed in 1S51 was 106 ; 
in 1852, 88 ; in 1853, 137 ; in 1854, 125 ; in 1855, 134 ; in 
1856, 120 ; in 1857, 86 ; in 1858, 109 ; in 1859, 101 ; in 
i860, 154 ; in 1861, 134 ; in 1862, 114 ; in 1863, 125 ; in 
1864, 121 ; in 1865, 127 ; in 1866, 122 ; in 1867, 146 ; in 
1868, 130; in 1869, 117 ; in 1870, 112 ; in 1871, 117 ; in 
1872, 98 ; in 1873, 91 ; in 1874, 96 ; in 1875, 96 ; in 
1876, 81 ; in 1877, 69 ; in 1878, 79 ; in 1870, 78 ; in 1880, 
19 and 48 (new parliament); 1881, 72 ; 1882, 82 ; 18S3, 
62 : 1S84, 78 ; 1885, 80 ; 1886 (1st sess.), 59 ; 1887,, 73 ; 
1888, 66 ; 1889, 76 ; 1890, 72 ; 1891, 76. 
ACTS, in dramatic poetry, first employed by 
the Romans. Five acts are mentioned by Horace 
(Art of Poetry) as the rule (about 8 B.C.). 

ACTUARY, ACTTJARIUS, the Roman ac- 
countant. The Institute of Actuaries founded in 
1848, publishes its proceedings in the "Assurance 
Magazine." 

ADAM AND EVE, ERA OF, in the English 
Bible, 4004 B.C. ; see Creation. 

ADAMITES, a sect said to have existed about 
130, and to have been quite naked in their re- 
ligious assemblies, asserting that if Adam had not 
sinned there would have been no marriages. 
Their chief was named Prodicus ; they defied the 
elements, rejected prayer, and said it was not ne- 
cessary to confess Christ. Fusebius. A sect with 
this name arose at Antwerp in the 12th century, 
under Tandemus or Tanchelin, whose followers, 
3000 soldiers and others, committed many crimes. 
"It became extinct soon after the death of its chief ; 
but another of the same kind, named Turlupins, 
appeared shortly after in Savoy and Dauphiny. 
Picard, a Fleming, revived this sect in Bohemia, 
about 1415 ; it was suppressed by Ziska, 1420. 

ADDA, a river N. Italy, passed by Suwarrow 
after defeating the French, 27 April, 1799. 

ADDINGTON ADMINISTRATION. Mr. 

Pitt, having engaged to procure Roman Catholic 

emancipation to promote the union with Ireland, 

and being unable to do so as a minister, resigned 

3 Feb. 1801. A new ministry was formed by Mr. 

Addington, March-July, 1801 ; after various changes 

it terminated about 10 May, 1804. 

Henry Addington,* first lord of the treasury and chan- 
cellor of the excliequer. 

Lord Eldon, lord chancellor. 

Duke of Portland, lord president. 

Earl of Westmoreland, lord privy seal. 

Lord Pelham, home secretary. 

Mr. R. B. Jenkinson (lord Hawkesbury, 1803 ; and earl 
of Liverpool, 1808), foreign secretary. 

Lord Hobart, colonial secretary. 

Earl St. Vincent, first lord of admiralty. 

Earl of Chatham, ordnance. 

Charles Yorke, secretary-at-war. 

Viscount Lewisham, lord Auckland, <&e. 

ADDISCOMBE COLLEGE, near Croydon, 
Surrey, purchased by the East India company in 
1809, for education of candidates for scientific 
branches of the Indian army, was closed in 1861. 

ADDISON'S DISEASE, a dangerous affec- 
tion of the renal capsules, described by its dis- 
coverer, Dr. Thomas Addison, in 1855. 

ADDITIONAL CURATES, the society for 
their employment in populous places was fouitded 
1837 (High Church). 

* Born 1757; became viscount Sidmouth, . Jan. 1805 ; held 
various offices afterwards, and died in 1844. His eirriilur 
to the lords lieutenants, dated 27 March, 1817, directing 
them to adopt severe measures against the authors of 
blasphemous and seditious pamphlets, was greatly cen- 
sured, and not carried into eftect. 



ADDLED PARLIAMENT, see Parliament,. 
1614. 

ADDRESSERS, see Abhorrers. 

ADELAIDE, the capital of South Australia, 
was founded in 1836. It contained 14,000 inha- 
bitants in 1850; about 30,000 in 1875; l %9 l > 
133.220. It was made a bishopric in 1847. Univer- 
sity founded, 1876. It was visited by the duke of 
Edinburgh, 1 March, i86g. 

The Queen's Jubilee International Exhibition opened, 
21 June 1887 ; reported successful 17 Jan. 1888. 

ADELPHI (Greek for brothers) several streets 
on the south side of the Strand, London, erected 
about 1768 by the brothers, John, Robert, James, 
and William Adam, after whom the streets are 
named. Adelphi Theatre, built 1806, rebuilt; 
1858; see under Theatres. 

ADEN, a free port on the S. W. corner of 
Arabia, where in Dec. 1836 a British ship was 
wrecked and plundered. The sultan promised 
compensation, and agreed to cede the place to the 
English. The sultan's son refusing to fulfil this 
agreement to captain Haynes, a naval and military 
force, under captain H. Smith, of the Volage, was 
dispatched to Aden, which captured it, 19 Jan. 
1839. It is now a garrison and coal depot for 
Indian steamers, &c. 

ADIAPHORISTS(from«tf«ff^om,indifferent 
things), a term applied to M elanchthon and others, 
who were willing to give up certain things to the 
Romanists as indifferent, about 1548. 

ADIGE, a river in N. Italy, near which the 
Austrians defeated the French on 26, 30 March, 
and 5 April, 1799. 

AD JUTATORS, see Agitators. 

ADMINISTRATIONS of England and 

OF GREAT BRITAIN. Until the Restoration, 1660, 
there was not any cabinet approaching to the modern 
sense. The sovereign was aided by privy councillors,, 
varying in number, the men and offices being fre- 
quently changed. The separation of the cabinet from 
the privy council became greater during the reign of 
William III. His ministers included both Whigs 
and Tories, and their dissensions led to much mal- 
administration, civil, military, and naval, and con- 
sequent popular discontent ; the king was therefore 
compelled to have a united ministry, at first wholly 
composed of Whigs. The change was gradually 
effected, 1694-6. The control of the chief, now 
termed the '■'■premier," began in the reign oj? 
Anne. " The era of ministries may most properly be 
reckoned from the day of the meeting of the parlia- 
ment after the general election of 1698." Macau- 
lay.* For a fuller account of each administration, 

* Till 1850 the cabinet council usually consisted of the 
following twelve members : First lord of the treasury ; 
lord chancellor ; lord president of the council ; chan- 
cellor of the exchequer ; lord privy seal ; home, foreign, 
and colonial secretaries ; first lord of the admiralty ; pre- 
sident of the board of trade ; president of the board of 
control ; chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. Iu 1850 
the number was fifteen, and included the secretary-afc- 
war, the postmaster-general, and the chief secretary for 
Ireland. In the Palmerston-Russell cabinet (which see), 
the president of the poor-law-board replaced the secre- 
tary for Ireland. In 1868 the Gladstone cabinet con- 
sisted of 15 ; that of Mr. Disraeli in Feb., 1874, of 12. 
The average duration of a ministry lias been set down at 
four, five, and six years ; but instances have occurred of 
the duration of a ministry for much longer periods : sir 
Robert Walpole was minister from i72ito 1742(21 years); 
Mr. Pitt, 1783 to 1801(18 years) : and lord Liverpool 1S12 
to 1827 (15 years). Several ministries have not lasted 
beyond a few months, as the Coalition Ministry in 1783^ 
and the " Talents " Ministry in 1806. The "Short-lived " 
Administration lasted 10 to 12 Feb. 1746. 



ADMINISTRATIONS. 



10 



ADMINISTRATIONS. 



since 1 700, see separate articles headed with the 

name of the Premier, given below in italics. 

Henry VIII. — Abp. Warham ; bps. Fisher and 
Fox ; earl of Surrey, <fec. . . . . a.d. 1509 

Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, &c 15 14 

Earl of Surrey ; Tunstall, bishop of London, &e. . 1523 

Sir Thos. More ; bps. Tunstall and Gardiner, and 
Cranmer (afterwards abp. of Canterbury) . -1529 

Abp. Cranmer ; lord Cromwell, aft. earl of Essex ; 
Thos. Boleyn, earl of Wiltshire, &c 1532 

Thomas, duke of Norfolk ; Henry, earl of Surrey ; 
Thomas, lord Audley ; bishop Gardiner ; sir 
Ralph Sadler, &c. 1540 

ILord Wriothesfey ; Thomas, duke of Norfolk ; lord 
Lisle ; sir William Petre ; sir William Paget, &c. 1544 

Edward VI. — Lord Wriothesiey, now earl of 
Southampton, lord chancellor (expelled) ; Edward, 
earl of Hertford, lord protector, created duke of 
.Somerset ; John, lord Russell ; Henry, earl of 
Arundel ; Thomas, lord Seymour ; sir Wm. Paget ; 
sir Wm. Petre, <fcc 1547 

John Dudley, late lord Lisle and earl of Warwick, 
created duke of Northumberland ; John, earl 
of Bedford ; bishop Goodrich, sir William Cecil, 
&c 1551 

Mar v.— Stephen Gardiner, bp. of Winchester ; Ed- 
mund Bonner, bp. of London ; William, marq. of 
Winchester ; sir Edwd. Hastings, &c. . . . 1554 

Elizabeth. — Sir Nicholas Bacon ; Edward lord 
Clinton ; sir Robert Dudley, aftds. earl of Lei- 
cester ; sir William Cecil, aftds. lord Burleigh . 1558 

William, lord Burleigh (minister during nearly all 
the reign) ; sir N. Bacon, <fec. .... 1572 

Lord Burleigh ; sir Thomas Bromley ; Robert 
Devereux, earl of Essex (a favourite) ; earl of 
Leicester ; earl of Lincoln ; sir Walter Mildmay ; 
sir Francis Walsingham, &c 1579 

Eiord Burleigh ; Robert, earl of Essex ; sir Chris- 
topher Hatton, &c. 1587 

Thomas Sackville, lord Buekhurst, afterwards earl 
of Dorset ; sir Thomas Egerton, afterwards lord 
Ellesmere and viscount Brackley ; sir Robert 
Cecil, <fec 1599 

James I. — Thomas, earl of Dorset : Thomas, lord 
Ellesmere ; Charles, earl of Nottingham ; Thomas, 
earl of Suffolk ; Edward, earl of Worcester ; 
Robert Cecil, afterwards earl of Salisbury, &c. 1603 

Robert Cecil, earl of Salisbury ; Thomas, lord 
Ellesmere ; Henry, earl of Northampton ; Charles, 
earl of Nottingham ; Thomas, earl of Suffolk, &e. 1609 

Henry, earl of Northampton ; Thomas, lord Elles- 
mere ; Edward, earl of Worcester ; sir Ralph Win- 
wood ; Charles, earl of Nottingham ; Robert, 
viscount Rochester, aftds. earl of Somerset, &c. 1612 

Thomas, lord Ellesmere ; Thomas, earl of Suffolk ; 
Charles, earl of Nottingham ; sir George Villiers 
(a favourite), afterwards viscount Villiers, and 
successively earl, marquis, and duke of Buck- 
ingham 1615 

Sir Henry Montagu, afterwards viscount Mande- 
ville and earl of Manchester 1620 

Lionel, lord Crantield, afterwards earl of Middle- 
sex ; Edward, earl of Worcester ; John, earl of 
Bristol ; John Williams, dean of Westminster ; 
George Villiers, now marquis of Buckingham ; 
sir Edward Conway, &c 1621 

Charles I. — Richard, lord Weston, afterwards earl 
of Portland ; sir Thomas Coventry, afterwards 
lord Coventry ; Henry, earl of Manchester (suc- 
ceeded by James, earl of Marlborough, who, in 
turn, gave place to Edward, lord, afterwards 
viscount, Conway) ; William Laud, bp. of 

London ; sir Albert Morton, <fec 1628 

William Laud, now archbishop of Canterbury ; 
Francis, lord Cottington ; James, marquis of 
Hamilton : Edward, earl of Dorset ; sir John 
Coke; sir Francis Windebank, &c. . . . . 1635 
William Juxon, bishop of London ; sir John Finch, 
afterwards lord Finch ; Francis, lord Cottington ; 
Wentworth, earl of Strafford ; Algernon, earl of 
Northumberland ; James, marquis of Hamilton ; 
Laud, archbishop of Canterbury ; sir Francis 

Windebank ; sir Henry Vane, <&c 1640 

[The king beheaded, 30 Jan. 1649.] 
Commonwealth. — Oliver Cromwell, protector, 
• named a council, the number not to exceed 21 
members, or be less than 13 1653 



Richard Cromwell, son of Oliver, succeeded on the 
death of his father. A council of officers ruled at 
Wallingford house 1658 

Charles II.— Sir Edward Hyde, afterwards earl of 
Clarendon ; George Monk, created duke of Albe- 
marle ; Edward Montagu, created earl of Sand- 
wich ; lord Saye and Sele ; earl of Manchester ; 
lord Seymour ; sir Robert Long, <fec. . . . 1660 

George Monk, duke of Albemarle, made first com- 
missioner of the treasury, &c 1667 

" Cabal " Ministry ; Clifford, Ashley, Buckingham, 
Arlington, Lauderdale (see Cabal) . . . . 1670 

Thomas, lord Clifford ; Anthony, earl of Shaftesbury ; 
Henry, earl of Arlington ; Arthur, earl of Angle- 
sey ; sir Thomas Osborne, created viscount 
Latimer ; Henry Coventry ; sir George Carteret ; 
Edward Seymour, <fec 1672 

Thomas, viscount Latimer, afterwards earl of Danby, 
made lord high treasurer ... 26 June 1673 

Arthur, earl of Essex, (succeeded by Lawrence 
Hyde, aft. earl of Rochester) ; Robert, earl of 
Sunderland, <fcc 1679 

[The king nominated a new council on 21 April, con- 
sisting of 30 members only, of whom the princi- 
pal were the great officers of state and great 
officers of the household. ] „ 

Sidney, lord Godolphin ; Lawrence, earl of Ro- 
chester ; Daniel, earl of Nottingham ; Robert, 
earl of Sunderland ; sir Thomas Chicheley ; 
George, lord Dartmouth ; Henry, earl of Claren- 
don ; earls of Bath and Radnor .... 1684 

James II. — Lawrence, earl of Rochester ; George, 
marquis of Halifax ; sir George Jeffreys, after- 
wards lord Jeffreys ; Henry, earl of Clarendon ; 
sir John Ernley ; viscount Preston, &c. . . . 1685 

The earl of Rochester was displaced, and John, lord 
Belasyse, made first commissioner of the treasury 
in his room, 4 Jan. ; the earl of Sunderland made 
president of the council ; viscount Preston, sec- 
retary of state, <fec 1687-8 

[The king left Whitehall in the night of 11 Dec, and 
quitting the kingdom, landed at Ambleteuse, in 
France, Dec. 1688.] 

William III. and Mary. — Charles, viscount Mor- 
daunt ; Thomas Osborne, earl of Danby, created 
marquis of Carmarthen, afterwards duke of 
Leeds ; George, marquis of Halifax ; Arthur 
Herbert, afterwards lord Torrington ; earls of 
Shrewsbury, Nottingham, and Sunderland ; earl 
of Dorset and Middlesex ; William, earl (after- 
wards duke) of Devonshire ; lord Godolphin ; lord 
Montagu ; lord De la Mere, <fec. . . . . 1689 

Sidney, lord Godolphin ; Thomas, earl of Danby ; 
Richard Hampden ; Thomas, earl of Pembroke ; 
Henry, viscount Sydney ; Daniel, earl of Notting- 
ham, &c. 1690 

Sir John Somers became lord Somers in 1697, and 
lord chancellor ; Charles Montagu, afterwards 
lord Halifax, was made first commissioner of the 
treasury, 1 May, 1698, succeeded by Ford, earl of 
Tankerville 1699 

Anne.— Sidney, lord (afterwards earl of) Godolphin; 
Thomas, earl of Pembroke, &c. . . May, 1702 

Robert Harley, earl of Oxford ; sir Simon Harcourt, 
&c 1 June, 1711 

Charles, duke of Shrewsbury, made lord treasurer 
three days before the queen's death, &e. 30 July, 1714 

George I. — Charles, earl of Halifax (succeeded on 
his death by the earl of Carlisle), &c. . . . ,, 

Robert Walpole, first lord of the treasury, and chan- . 
cellor of the exchequer, &c 1715 

James (afterwards earl) Stanhope ; William lord 
Cowper, &c. ........ 1717 

Charles, earl of Sunderland, &c. . . . . 1718 

Robert Walpole, afterwards sir Robert Walpole, and 

earl of Orford, &c 1721 

George II.— Robert Walpole continued . . . 1727 

[Sir Robert remained prime minister twenty-one 

years ; numerous changes occurring in the time; 

see Walpole.] 

Earl of Wilmington;- lord Hardwicta, <fec. . . 1742 

Henry Pelham, in the room of earl of Wilmington, 

deceased Aug. 1743 

"Broad-bottom" administration— Henry Pelham; 

lord Hardwicke, &c Nov. 1744 

"Short-lived" administration— earl of Bath; lords 
Winchilsea and.Granyille . . . 10-12 Feb. 1746 



ADMINISTRATIONS. 



11 



ADMINISTRATIONS. 



Henry Pelham, &c, again . . . . 12 Feb. 1746 
Thos. H. Pelham, duke of Newcastle ; earl of Hol- 

derness, &c April, 1754 

Duke of Devonshire; William Pitt, &c. . . Nov. 1756 
Duke of Newcastle, and Sir. Pitt, afterwards earl of 

Chatham, &c Juue, 1757 

George III.— Duke of Newcastle, Mr. Pitt's minis- 
try, continued 1760 

Earl of Bute; lord Henley, &c. . . . May, 1762 
George GrenviUe ; earls of Halifax and Sandwich, 

&c April, 1763 

Marquis of Rockingham ; earl of Winchilsea, &c. J uly, 1765 
Earl of Chatham; duke of Grafton, <fcc. . Aug. 1766 
Duke of Grafton ; lord North, &c. . . .Dec. 1767 
Frederick, lord North ; earl Gower, &c. . Jan. 1770 
[Lord North was minister during the whole of 
the American war. ] 
Marquis of Rockingham; lord Camden; C. J. Fox; 

Edmund Burke, &c. ... March, 1782 

Earl of Shelburne (afterwards marquis of Lans- 

downe) : William Pitt, <fcc. ... July, „ 

" Coalition Ministry," duke of Portland ; lordNorth; 

C. J. Fox ; Edmund Burke, &c. . . April, 1783 

William Pitt; Henry Dundas, <fec. . . Dec. „ 

[During Mr. Pitt's long administration, nu- 
merous changes in the ministry took place.] 
Henry Addington ; duke of Portland ; lord Eldon, 

&c March, et seq. 1801 

William Pitt ; lord Eldon ; George Canning, &c. 

May, et seq. 1804 
[Mr. Pitt died 23 Jan. 1806.] 
"All the Talents"— lord GrenviUe; lord Henry 
Petty ; lord Erskine ; C. J. Fox ; sir Charles 
Grey (afterwards earl Grey). . . . Feb. 1806 

[Mr. Fox's death, 13 Sept. 1806, led to nu- 
merous changes.] 
Duke of P01 Hand ; lord Eldon, &c* . March, 1807 
Spencer Perceval ; earl of Liverpool ; viscount Pal- 

merston, &c Nov. and Dec. 1809 

Regency. — Mr. Spencer Perceval (shot by Belling- 

ham, 11 May, 1812), <fcc. ... 5 Feb. 1811 
Earl of Liverpool ; lord Eldon ; Mr. Vansittart ; lord 
Melville ; viscounts Castlereagh, Palmerston, 

&c May, June, 1812 

George IV. — Earl of Liverpool, &c. . 29 Jan. 1820 

[During lord Liverpool's long administration 
numerous changes occurred.] 
George Canning; lord Lyndhurst; viscount Gode- 
rich ; William Huskisson ; viscount Palmerston ; 

" duke of Clarence, &c April, 1827 

[Mr. Canning died 8 August, 1827.] 
Viscount Goderich ; viscount Palmerston ; marquis 

of Lansdowne ; W. Huskisson, <fcc. . -Aug. „ 
Duke of Wellington ; Robert Peel ; Mr. Huskisson ; 

&e Jan. 1828 

[The ministry reconstructed on the retirement 
of the earl of Dudley, lord Palmerston, Mr. Grant, 
Mr. Huskisson.] . . . May and June, „ 
William IV. — Duke of Wellington, &c. 26 June, 1830 
Earl Grey; marquis of Lansdowne ; lord Brougham; 
viscount Althorp ; earl of Durham ; viscounts 
Melbourne, Palmerston, and Goderich ; sir James 
Graham ; lord John Russell, &c. . . . Nov. „ 

Earl Grey resigns, owing to a majority against 
him in the lords, on the Reform Bill, 10 May ; but 

resumes his post 18 May, 1832 

Viscount Melbourne ; &c. .... July, 1834 
[Melbourne administration dissolved, Nov. 1834. 
The duke of Wellington held the seals of office till 
the return of sir Robert Peel from Italy, Dec. 
1834.] 
Sir Robert Peel ; lord Lyndhurst ; duke of Welling- 
ton ; earl of Aberdeen ; &c. . Nov. and Dec. ,, 
Viscount Melbourne, &c. .... April, 1835 
Victoria. — Viscount Melbourne, &c. . 20 June, 1837 
Subsequent accessions, F. T. Baring ; earl of 
Clarendon ; T. B. Macaulay, <fcc. Viscount Mel- 
bourne resigned, and sir Robert Peel received 
the queen's commands to form a new administra- 
tion, 8 May. This command was withdrawn, and 
lord Melbourne returned to power . . 10 May, 1839 
Sir Robert Peel ; duke of Wellington; lord Lynd- 
hurst ; sir James Graham ; earl of Aberdeen ; lord 
Stanley, &c. ..... Aug. and Sept. 1841 

*The duel between lord Castlereagh and Mr. Canning, 
22 Sept., 1809, led to the breaking up of this adminis- 
tration. 



[Accessions, Sidney Herbert ; W. E. Gladstone, 
&c] 

Lord John Russell ; viscount Palmerston ; earl 

Grey, <fec "■ . - July, 1846 

[Accessions : earl Granville ; Mr. Fox Maule ; 
earl of Carlisle ; sir Thomas Wilde, created lord 
Truro, <fcc] 

Lord John Russell and the marquis of Lansdowne 
on the 24 Feb. announced the resignation of 
ministers, owing to their defeat on Mr. Locke 
King's motion respecting the franchise ; they in- 
formed parliament, that it having been found im- 
possible to construct a coalition ministry, the 
queen, by the advice of the duke of Wellington, 
had called upon her late ministers to resume office. 
Lord Stanley (since earl of Derby), in the interval, 
had been unable to form a cabinet . . 3 March, 1851 

Earl of Derby (late lord Stanley) ; lord St. Leo- 
nards ; Benjamin Disraeli ; Spencer H. Walpole ; 
earl of Malmesbury ; sir John Pakington ; duke 
of Northumberland, &c. . . 27 Feb. 1852 

Earl of Aberdeen ; lord John Russell ; viscount Pal- 
merston, <fec 28 Dec. ,, 

Various changes of offices took place ; a fourth 
secretary of state was appointed, by the separa- 
tion of the war from the colonial department ; see • 
Secretaries of State. The retirement of lord J. Rus- 
sell, 24 Jan. 1855, and a majority in the commons 
against ministers of 157 (305 to 148), on Mr. Roe- 
buck's motion respecting the conduct of the war, 
led to the resignation of lord Aberdeen and his 
colleagues, 30 Jan. ; the cabinet was reconstructed 

fey 

Viscount Palmerston ; lord Cranworth ; &c. 7 Feb. 1855 
[Secession of sir J. Graham, Mr. Gladstone, and 
Mr. S. Herbert. Accession of lord John Russell ; 
earl of Clarendon ; sir G. Grey ; sir G. C. Lewis ; 
sir W. Molesworth, &c] . . . 24 Feb. ,, 

On the second reading of the Foreign Con- 
spiracy bill, the government (defeated by a vote 
of censure being passed by a majority of 19, on 
the motion of Mr. Milner Gibson) resigned imme- 
diately 19 Feb. 1858 

Earl of Derby ; B. Disraeli ; Spencer Walpole ; lord 
Stanley ; sir F. Thesiger (lord Chelmsford), <fec. 

26 Feb. ,, 
[The Derby administration, in consequence of a 
vote of want of confidence in it being carried by a 
majority of 13, 10 June, 1859, resigned the next 
day. Earl Granville failed to form an adminis- 
tration. ] 
Viscount Palmerston ; lord John (since earl) Russell, 

&c 18 Juue, 1859 

[Lord Palmerston died 18 Oct. 1865.] 
Earl Russell ; W. E. Gladstone ; earl of Clarendon ; 

&c Oct. 1865 

[Resigned, in consequence of a minority on the 
Reform Bill, 19 June] . . . .26 Juue, 1866 
Earl of Derby, B. Disraeli, lord Stanley, &c. ; for 
changes see Derby Administrations. . 6 July, „ 
[Earl of Derby resigned through ill health] 

Feb. 25, 1868 
B. Disraeli reconstituted the administration 29 Feb. ,, 
Mr. Disraeli resigned in consequence of the 
elections in November giving a majority of about 

ii4'to the Liberals 2 Dec. ,, 

W. E. Gladstone; earl of Clarendon ; Robert Lowe ; 
John Bright, and others, received seals 9 Dee. „ 
Lost their majority by the general election, 

Feb. ; resigned 17 Feb. 1874 

B. Disraeli (earl of Beaconsfield, 16 Aug. 1876), the 
earl of Derby, the marquis of Salisbury, and 
others, received seals . . . . 21 Feb. ,, 
[For changes, see Disraeli Administrations.] 
Lost their majority by elections in April ; re- 
signed 22 April, 1S80 

W. ti. Gladstone; earl Granville, marquis of Hal ting- 
ton, duke of Argyll, sir Win. Harcourt, John 
Bright, and others, received seals . 28 April, ,, 

[Resigned in consequence of a minority on the 

Budget Bill (264-252), 9 June, 1885.] 

Marquis of Sal isbury ; sir Stafford NorthcoteQord 

Iddesleigh), sir Michael Hicks-Beach, lord 

Randolph Churchill and others received seals 

24 June, 18S5 
[Resigned in consequence of a minority on tin 
amendment to the address (329-250), 27 Jan. 1886.] 



ADMINISTRATIVE . 



12 



ADMIEALTY OFFICE. 



W. E. Gladstone ; earl Granville, earl Spencer, earl 
of Rosebery, earl of Kimberley, marquis of Ripon, 
Sir Parrer Herschel, H. C. E. Cliilders, John 
Morley, and others, received seals . . 2-6 Feb. 1886 

[Resigned in consequence of a majority against 
his Irish Home Rule Bill (343-313) 20 July, 1886.] 

Marquis of Salisbury; and former colleagues re- 
ceived seals 26 July, 1886 ; resigns . 12 Aug. 1892 

W. E. Gladstone; with former colleagues, 18 Aug. ,, 
For details and changes, see separate articles under 
the Premier's name. 

ADMINISTRATIVE REFORM ASS.O- 

CIATION derived its origin from an opinion 
that the disasters which occurred to the army in the 
Crimea in 1854-5 were attributable to the inefficient 
and irresponsible management of the various de- 
partments of the state. The association was 
organised in London, 5 May, 1855. A meeting 
was held in Drury-lane theatre, on 13 June, and 
Mr. Layard's motion on the subject in parliament 
was negatived 18 June following. The association 
was reorganised in 1856, Mr. Roebuck, M.P., be- 
coming chairman, but soon became unimportant ; 
see Civil Service. 

ADMIRAL. The title, derived from the Arabic, 
emir-al-bahr, " Lord of the sea," which occurs in the 
Chanson cle Roland, nth century, does not appear 
to have been adopted in England until about 1300. 
Alfred, Athelstan, Edgar, Harold, and other kings, 
were commanders of their own fleets. The first 
French admiral is said to have been appointed 1284. 
The rank of admiral of the English seas was first 
given to William de Ley bourne by Edward I. in 
1297. Spelman; Jtymer. The first Lord High 
Admiral in England was created by Richard II. in 
1385 : there had been previously high admirals of 
districts — the north, west, and south. The duties 
have generally been executed by lords commis- 
sioners; see Admiralty. A similar dignity existed 
in Scotland from the reign of Robert III. In 1673, 
Charles II.,bestowed it upon his natural son Charles 
Lennox, afterwards duke of Richmond, then an 
infant, who resigned the office to the crown in 
1703: after the union it was discontinued. — Ihe 
dignity of lord high admiral of Ireland (of brief 
existence) was conferred upon James Butler by 
Henry VIII. , in May, 1534. The Admiral of the 
Fleet is the highest rank in the Royal Navy, corre- 
sponding to that of field-marshal in the army. We 
have now 7 admiralsof the fleet, 12 admirals, 20 vice- 
admirals, 35 rear admirals, and 168 captains (April 
1892). Senior admiral of the fleet, Sir l'rovo Wallis, 
born 12 April, 1791, died 13 Feb. 1892. The first 
admiral of the United States of America, David G. 
Earragut, was nominated in 1866. 

ADMIRALTY, Court of, a court for the 

trial of causes relating- to maritime afi'airs, said to 
have been erected by Edward III., in 1357. It was 
enacted in the reign of Henry VIII., that criminal 
causes should be tried by witnesses and a jury, some 
of the judges at Westminster (or, as now, at the Old 
Bailey) assisting. The judgeship of the admiralty 
was constituted in 1514, and was filled by two or 
more functionaries until the Revolution, when it 
was restricted to one. Beatson. The judge has 
usually been an eminent doctor of the civil law. In 
1844 the criminal jurisdiction of this court was re- 
moved, and by 20 & 21 Vict. c. 77 (1857), the judge 
of the Probate court was to be also judge of the 
Admiralty court. The judge of the Admiralty 
court, Dr. Stephen Lushington (appointed 
in 1838), resigned 1 July, 1867, and was suc- 
ceeded by sir Robert Phillimore, who retired March, 
1883. The jurisdiction of this court was extended 
in 1861. The very ancient gilt anchor set up in the 



Admiialty Court of the Royal Courts of Justice. The 
ancient silver oar is laid on (he Registrar's Table, 
Oct. 1885. See Suprime Court and Probate Court. 

ADMIRALTY OFFICE dates from 1512, 
when Henry VIII. appointed commissioners to in- 
spect his ships of war. During the Commonwealth 
the admiralty affairs were managed by a committee 
of the parliament ; and at the restoration in 1660, 
James, duke of York, became lord high admiral. In 
1662 the admiralty was first put into commission, 
the great officers of state being the commissioners ; 
see succeeding changes below. In 1688-9 the 
admiralty was put into commission, and the board 
appears to have assembled at admiral Herbert's 
lodgings, in Channel-row, Westminster, he being 
at that time first lord. In 1830, 1832, and 1836 
various changes were made in the civil depart- 
ments, several offices being abolished or conso- 
lidated with others. In March, 1861, a royal com- 
mission recommended the abolition of the board of 
admiralty and the appointment of a minister of the 
navy department. The board was reconstituted 14 
Jan. 1869, and 4 May, 1872. The collective action 
of the board was taken away, and concentrated in 
the person of the first lord. 
The office removed from Somerset House to Whitehall, 

1874-5. 
New buildings erected by virtue of the Public Offices 

Site Act passed 24 July, 1882. The designs of 

Messrs. Leeming & Deeming, of Halifax, selected for 

approval by parliament, July, 1884. 

FIRST LORDS OF THE ADMIRALTY. 

1660. James, duke of York, lord high admiral, 6 June. 
1673. King Charles II., 14 June. 
,, Prince Rupert, 9 July. 

1679. Sir Henry Capel, 14 Feb. 

1680. Daniel Finch, esq., 19 Feb. 

1681. Daniel, lord Finch, 20 Jan. 

1683. Daniel, earl of Nottingham, 17 April. 

1684. King Charles II. 

1685. King James II., 17 May. Office in commission. 

1689. Arthur Herbert, esq., 8 March. 

1690. Thomas, earl of Pembroke and Montgomery, 20 Jan. 

1692. Charles, lord Cornwallis, 10 March. 

1693. Anthony, viscount Falkland, 15 April. 

1694. Edward Russel, esq., (aft. earl of Orford), 2 May. 
1699. John, earl of Bridgewater, 2 June. 

1701. Thomas, earl of Pembroke, 4 April. 

1702. George, prince of Denmark, lord high admiral, 

20 May. 

1708. Thomas, earl of Pembroke, ditto, 29 Nov. 

Office in commission. 

1709. Edward, earl of Orford, 8 Oct. 

1710. Sir John Leake, 4 Oct. 

1712. Thomas, earl of Strafford, 30 Sept. 
1714. Edward, earl of Orford, 14 Oct. 
1717. James, earl of Berkeley, 19 March. 
1727. George, viscount Torrington, 2 Aug. 
1733. Sir Charles Wager, knt., 25 June. 
1742. Daniel, earl of Winchilsea, 19 March. 
1744. John, duke of Bedford, 27 Dec. 
1748. John, earl of Sandwich, 10 Feb. 
1751. George, lord Anson, 22 June. 

1756. Richard, earl Temple, 19 Nov. 

1757. Daniel, earl of Winchilsea, 6 April. 
,, George, lord Anson, 2 July. 

1762. George M. Dunk, earl of Halifax, 19 June. 

1763. George Grenville, esq., 1 Jan. 

,, John, earl of Sandwich, 23 April. 

,, John, earl of Egmont, 10 Sept. 
1766. Sir Charles Saunders, 10 Sept. 

,, Sir Edward Hav/ke, 10 Dec. 
1771. John, earl of Sandwich, 12 Jan. 

1782. Hon. Augustus Keppel, 1 April. 

„ Augustus, viscount Keppel, 18 July. 

1783. Richard, viscount Howe, 28 Jan. 
1788. John, earl of Chatham, 16 July. 
1794. George John, earl Spencer, 20 Dec. 
1801. John, earl St. Vincent, 19 Feb. 

1804. Henry, viscount Melville, 15 May. 

1805. Charles, lord Barham, 2 May. 

1806. Hon. Charles Grey, 10 Feb. 



ADMIRALTY. 



13 



ADULTERY. 



1806. Thomas Grenville, esq., 23 Oct. 
807. Henry, lord Mulgrave, 6 April. 
809. Charles Yorke, esq. , 10 May. 
812. Robert, viscount Melville, 25 March. 

827. William Henry, duke of Clarence, lord high 

admiral, 2 May, resigned 12 Aug. 1828. 

828. Robert, viscount Melville, 19 Sept. 
830. Sir James R. G. Graham, bart., 25 Nov. 

834. George, lord Auckland, 11 June. 

,, Thomas Philip, earl de Grey, 23 Dec. 

835. George, lord Auckland, 25 April. 
„ Gilbert, earl of Minto, 19 Sept. 

841. Thomas, earl of Haddington, 8 Sept. 
846. Edward, earl of Bllenborough, 13 Jan. 
„ George, earl of Auckland, 24 July. 
849. Sir Francis Thornhill Baring, 18 Jan. 

852. Algernon, duke of Northumberland, 28 Feb. 

853. Sir James Robert George Graham, 5 Jan. 
855. Sir Charles Wood, bart. , 24 Feb. 

858. Sir John Pakington, bart. , 26 Feb. 

859. Edward, duke of Somerset, June.- 

866. Sir John Pakington, bart. , 6 July. 

867. Henry Lowry Corry, 8 March. 

868. Hugh Culling Eardley Chiklers, 9 Dec. 
871. George Joachim Goschen, 9 March. 

874. George Ward Hunt, 21 Feb. ; died 29 July, 1877. 

877. Wm. Henry Smith, about 7 Aug. 

880. Thos. Geo. Baring, earl of Northbrook, 28 April. 

885. Lord George Francis Hamilton, 24 June. 

886. George Frederick Samuel Robinson, Marquis of 

Ripon, about 6 Feb. 
,, Lord George Francis Hamilton, 26 July. 
1892. John Poyntz, earl Spencer, 18 Aug. 

ADMIRALTY, Whitehall. "At the south 
end of Duke-street, Westminster, was seated a large 
house made use of for the admiralty office, until the 
business was removed to Greenwich, and thence to 
Wallingford -house, against Whitehall." It was re- 
built by Ripley about 1726; the screen was erected, 
to conceal the ugliness of the building, by the 
brothers Adam, in 1776. — Lord Nelson lay in state 
in one of the apartments on 8 Jan. 1806 ; and on the 
next day was buried at St. Paul's. 
Explosion iu clerks' room (ascribed to gunpowder in an 

iron pot) ; Mr. Swainson much hurt; about 11 a.m. 

23 April, 1885. 

ADMIRALTY and WAR OFFICE ACT, 

to facilitate improvements in the organisation of 
these offices, by the retirement of clerks from certain 
of the civil departments by granting gratuities, Avas 
passed 10 Aug. 1878. 

"ADMONITION to the Parliament," 

condemning all religious ceremonies but those com- 
manded by the New Testament, was published by 
certain Puritans in 1571. Its presumed authors, 
Field and Wilcox, were imprisoned. A second Ad- 
monition by Thomas Cartwright was answered by 
archbishop Whitgift. 

ADORNO and FREGOSO, two families, of 
which the doges were frequently members, dis- 
turbed Genoa from the 14th to the 16th centuries, 
the former favouring the emperor, the latter the 
French king. Their power was annihilated by 
Andrea Doria about 1528. 

ADRIAN'S or HADRIAN'S WALL (to 

prevent the irruptions of the Scots and Piets 
into the northern counties of England, then under 
the Roman government) extended from the Tyne 
to Solway frith, and was eighty miles long, twelve 
feet high, and eight feet in thickness, with watch- 
towers ; built 121. It was repaired and strengthened 
by Severus, 207 — 210. 

ADRIANOPLE, in Turkey, so named after 
its restorer the emperor Adrian (who died 10 July, 
138). Near here Constantine defeated Licinius and 
gained the empire, 3 July, 323 ; also, near here the 
emperor Valcns was defeated and slain by the Goths, 
9 Aug. 378. Adrianople was taken by the Turks 



under Amurath in 1361, and was their capital till 
the capture of Constantinople in 1453. It was taken 
by the Russians on 20 Aug. 1829; and restored 
14 Sept. same year ; occupied by the Russians, with- 
out resistance, 20 Jan. 1878. Population 188?, 
70,886. See Turkey. 

ADRIATIC. The ceremony of the doge of 
Venice wedding the Adriatic sea (instituted about 
1 1 73), took place annually on Ascension-day. The 
doge dropped a ring into the sea from his bucentaur, 
or state barge, being attended by his nobility and 
foreign ambassadors. The ceremony was first 
omitted in 1797. 

ADULLAM, a cave to which David fled from 
the persecution of Saul about 1062 B.C. (1 Sam. 
xxii. 1, 2.) 

Mr. Horsman, Mr. R. Lowe, earl Grosvenor, lord Elcho, 
and other liberals who opposed the Franchise Bill in 
1866 were termed " Adullamites." During a debate 
on this bill on 13 March, 1866, Mr. Bright said of Mr. 
Horsman, that he " had retired into what may be called 
his political cave of Adullam, to which he invited 
every one who was in debt, and every one who was 
discontented," &c. On 19 April, lord Elcho said, " No 
improper motive has driven us into this cave, where 
we are a most happy family, daily — I may say, hourly 
— increasing in number and strength, where we shall 
remain until we go forth to deliver Israel from oppres- 
sion." Although their opposition led to the resig- 
nation of the Russell ministry, they declined to 
take office under lord Derby in July, 1866. They d:'d 
not vote together uniformly in 1867, and (lord Elcho 
and Mr. Wyld excepted) voted with Mr. Gladstone, 
for the disestablishment of the Irish church, 1 May, 
1868. 

ADULTERATION. That of food was pro- 
hibited in England in 1267, and punishments for 
it enacted, 1581, 1604, 1836, 1851, &c. Much 
attention was drawn to it in 1822, through Mr. Ac- 
cum's book, culled " Death in the Pot," and in 1855 
through Dr. HassalFs book, " Food and its Adulte- 
rations." By an act for preventing the adulteration 
of food, passed in i860, parochial chemical analysts 
may be appointed. An act to prevent adulteration 
of seeds passed 16 Aug. 1869, amended 1878. An- 
other to prevent adulteration of food and drugs 
passed 10 Aug. 1872. Penalties for adulterating 
liquors were imposed by the new licensing act passed 
same time. The report of a commission, issued in 
July, 1874, declared that the public " were cheated 
rather than poisoned." All the anti-adulteration 
acts were repealed by the Sale of Food and Drugs 
Act, passed 11 Aug. 1875; which was amended in 
1879 ; reported very effectual Dec. 1884. 

ADULTERY was punished with death by the 
law of Moses (1490 B.C. ; Lev. xx. 10)— and by Ly- 
curgus (884 B.C.). The early Saxons burnt the 
adulteress, and erected a gibbet over her ashes, 
whereon they hanged the adulterer. The ears and 
nose were cut off under Canute, 1 03 1. Adultery 
was ordained to be punished capitally by the parlia- 
ment, May 14, 1650 : but there is no record of this 
law taking effect ; and it was repealed at the re- 
storation. In New England the punishment for 
adultery was made capital to both parties, and 
several suffered for it, 1662. Hardie. Till 1857 the 
legal redress against the male offender was by civil 
action for a money compensation; the female being 
liable to divorce. By 20 & 21 Vict. c. 85 (i8S7) 
the "action for criminal conversation" was abolished, 
and the Court for Divorce and Matrimonial Causes 
established with power to grant divorces for adultery 
and ill usage ; see Divorce. An act was passed in 
1869 permitting parties to suits for adultery to give 
evidence. 



ADVENT. 14 

ADVENT {adventus, arrival). The season 
includes four Sundays, previous to Christmas, the 
first the nearest Sunday to St. Andrew's day 
(Nov. 30), before or after. Homilies respecting 
Advent are mentioned prior to 378. Advent Sun- 
day, 1893, 3 Dec; 1894, 2 Dec; 1895, 1 Dec. ; 
1896, 29 Nov. 

ADVENTISTS (Seventh-day), an American 
sect in Massachusetts, U. S. A. A large conference 
of delegates from 30 States of the Union, and from 
Europe, met at Michigan, 7 March 1891. The presi- 
dent Elson reported the building of a college at 
Lincoln, Nebraska, and that the Pitcairn Islanders 
had become Adventists. 

ADVENTURE BAY, S.E. end of Van Die- 
men's Land, discovered in 1773 by capt. Furneaux 
in his first voyage to the Pacific, and named from 
his ship Adventure. It was visited by capt. Cook 
1777; by capt. Bligh in 1788 and 1792. 

ADVENTURESS, see Merchant. 
ADVERTISEMENTS m Newspapers, 

as now published, were not general in England till 
the beginning of the eighteenth century. A penalty 
of 50A was inflicted on persons advertising a reward 
with " No questions to be asked" for the return of 
things stolen, and on the printer, 1754. The ad- 
vertisement duty, (first enacted, 1712,) formerly 
charged according to the number of lines, was after- 
wards fixed, in England, at 3s. 6d., and in Ireland 
at 2s. 6d. each advertisement. The duty (further 
reduced, in England to is. 6d. and in Ireland to is. 
each, in 1833), was abolished in 1853. 
Early advertisements are found in "Perfect Occur- 
rences of every Dale," 26 March to 2 April, 1647, 
and " Mercurius Elencticus 4 Oct. 1648 
H. Sampson's " History of Advertising," pub- 
lished Nov. 1874 

The whole libretto of Maefarren's Opera, Robin 
Hood inserted as an advertisement in the Times 

(4J columns) 16 Oct. i860 

A debate in the Portuguese parliament, translated, 
inserted as advertisement in the Daily Neios (8 

columns) 3 Ma J r , l8 77 

Advertising Vans, a great nuisance, prohibited . 1853 
The name of Mr. H. F. Partridge, surgeon-dentist, 
Dublin, was struck off the registry of the General 
Medical Council for advertising as contrary to pro- 
fessional rules, June 1886 ; confirmed by the Court of 
Appeal, 22 March, 1892. 

ADVOCATE, The King's, (always a doctor 
of the civil law,) was empowered to prosecute at his 
cwn instance certain crimes about 1597. The Lord 
Advocate in Scotland is the same as the attorney- 
general in England with judicial powers. — It was 
decided in the parliament of Paris, in 1685, that 
the king's advocate of France might at the same 
time be a judge; and in Scotland sir William Oli- 
phant (1612) and sir John Nesbit (1666) were lord 
advocates and lords of session at the same time, 
Beatson. — The powers were diminished in 188 1, 
when John Blair Balfour was made Lord Advo- 
cate ; the right lion. J. II. A. Macdonald, 1885-8 ; 
Mr. J. P. B. Robertson, 1888-Sept. 1891, succeeded 
by sir Charles John Pearson, 1891, by Mr. J. B. 
Balfour, 1892. Mr. Geo. "VV. T. Omohd published 
his work, " The Lord Advocates of Scotland," earhy 
in 1884. The Advocates' library in Edinburgh was 
established by sir G. Mackenzie about 1682 ; see 
Judge Advocate. 

ADVOWSONS, right of a presentation to a 
church living. See Benefice. 

.ZEDILES- Roman city officers of three degrees, 
said to owe their name to having had charge of the 
cedes or temple of Ceres. 1. Two plebeian aediles 



JEOLOPILE. 

were appointed with the tribunes, to assist them iii 
looking after buildings, weights and measures, the 
supply of provisions and water, &c, 494 B.C. 2. 
The cediles curules, at first patricians, were ap- 
pointed 365 B.C. 3. Julius Caesar appointed cediles 
cereales for watching over the supply of corn. The 
aediles became a kind of police under the emperors. 
^RDUI OK HEDUI, a Celtic people, N.E. 
France, who were delivered from subjection to the 
Sequani, by Julius Caesar, B.C. 58 ; but afterwards, 
opposing him, were subjugated by him, 52. Their 
insurrection headed by Julius Sacrovir, a.d. 21, was 
quelled by C. Silius. 

AGATES ISLES, W. of Sicily : near these, 
during the first Punic war, the Roman consul, C. 
Lutatins Catulus, gained a decisive victory over the 
Carthaginian fleet under Hanno, 10 March, 241 B.C. 
Peace ensued, the Romans obtaining Sicily and a 
tribute of 3200 talents. 

.ZEGINA, a Greek island, a rival of Athens, was 
humbled by Themistocles, 485 B.C. ; and taken and 
its works destroyed 455. Its inhabitants, expelled, 
431, were restored by the Spartans, 404; they re- 
newed war with Athens, 388, and made peace, 387. 

^GOSPOTAMI, (the Goat-rivers) in the 
Chersonesus, where Lysander, the Lacedaemonian, 
defeated the Athenian fieet, 405 B.C., and ended the 
Peloponnesian war. 

A. E. I. O. U., (for "Austria? est imperare 
orbi universi," (German, alle Erde ist Oesterreichs 
unterthaii) "Austria is to rule all the world,") 
was the motto of the weak and unfortunate emperor, 
Frederick III. 1440 — 1493. 

^ELFRIC SOCIETY; founded 1842; closed 
1856; published " Homilies of ^Elfric, archbishop 
of Canterbury" and other Anglo-Saxon works. 

MIAA. CAPITOLINA, built on the ruins of 
Jerusalem by the emperor Adrian, 130. 

-ZEMILIA, the name given to the provinces of 
Parma, Modena, and the Romagna, united to Sar- 
dinia in i860, and now part of the kingdom of 
Italy. 

2ENEID, the great Latin epic poem, relating 
the adventures of jEneas, written about 24 B.C. by 
Virgil, who died 22 Sept. 19 B.C., before he had 
finally corrected the poem. It was first printed in 
1469, at Rome. 

.ZENIGMA. Samson's riddle (about 1 141 B.C. ; 
Judges xiv. 12) is the earliest on record. Gale at- 
tributes aenigmatical speeches to the Egyptians. 
The ancient oracles frequently gave responses ad- 
mitting of perfectly contrary interpretations. In 
Nero's time, the Romans had recourse to this 
method of concealing truth. The following epitaph 
on Fair Rosamond (mistress of our Henry II. about 
1 173) is a mediaeval specimen: — "Hie jacet in 
tomba Rosa mundi, non Rosa munda ; Non redolet, 
sed olet, quae redolere solet." 

.ZEOLIA, in Asia Minor, was colonised by a 
principal branch of the Hellenic race about 1 124 B.C. 
The jEolians built several large cities both on the 
mainland and the neighbouring islands ; Mitylene, 
in Lesbos, was considered the capital. 

iEOLIAN HARP. Its invention is ascribed 
to Kircher, 1 650, who wrote on it, but it was known 
before. 

JEOLINA, a free-reed wind-instrument, in- 
vented by Wheatstone in 1829. 

iEOLOPILE, a hollow ball with an orifice in 
which a tube might be screwed, was used in the 



AEQUI. 



15 



AFGHANISTAN. 



17th century as a boiler for experimental steam- 
engines; a similar apparatus is described by Vi- 
truvius, first century, a.d. 

-53QUI, an ancient Italian race, were subdued 
by the Romans, and their lauds annexed, after a 
severe struggle, 471-302 B.C. 

■ AERAS, see Eras. 

AERATED WATERS. Apparatus for com- 
bining gases with water were patented by Thomson 
in 1807; F. C. Bakewell in 1832 and 1847; Tylor 
in 1840, and by others. Aerated bread is made 
by processes patented bj' Dr. Dauglish, 1856-7. 

AERIANS, followers of Aerius, a presbyter, in 
the 4th century, who held that there was no dis- 
tinction between a bishop and a presbyter; that 
there was no Paseh to be observed by Christians ; 
that the Lent and other fasts should not be observed ; 
and that prayers should not be offered for the dead. 
Epiphanius. 

AEROLITES, see Meteors. 

AERONAUTICS and AEROSTATICS, 
see -Balloons and Flying. The Aeronautical Society 
of Great Britain was established by the duke of 
Argyll and others, 12 Jan. 1866. 

AEROPHORE, an apparatus invented by M. 
Denayrouze, to enable persons to enter a noxious 
inflammable atmosphere. It comprises an air-pump, 
lamp, and flexible tubing. It was tried at Chat- 
ham, 12-14 J an -5 1875, and reported successful. 
A gold medal was awarded to the inventor at the 
Vienna Exhibition, 1873. 

The name Aerophor was given to an apparatus, invented 
by a German engineer, to introduce a very fine water- 
cloud into textile factories to nullify the injurious 
effects of the frictional electricity generated by the 
machinery. In 1890 the apparatus was reported suc- 
cessful in Germany and England. 

AERO-STEAM ENGINE, see under Air. 
AESCULAPIUS, god of medicine : his wor- 
ship introduced at Rome, about 291 B.C. 

AESOP'S FABLES, see Fables. 

AESTHETICS (from the Greek aisthesis, per- 
ception), the science of the beautiful (especially in 
art) ; a term invented by Baumgarten, a German 
philosopher, whose work " JEsthetica " was pub- 
lished in 1750. 

^ETHIOPIA, see Ethiopia. 

" AETHIOPICA," see Romances. 

AETIANS, followers of Aetius, an Arian heretic 
about 351. 

AETNA, see Etna. 

AETOLTA, in Greece, a country named after 
JEtolus of Elis, who is said to have accidentally 
killed a son of Pboroneus, king of Argos, left the 
Peloponnesus, and settled here. After the ruin of 
Athens and Sparta, the iEtolians became the rivals 
of the Aehoeans, and were alternately allies and 
enemies of Rome. 

The iEtolians .join Sparta against Athens B.C. 455 

The iEtolian league of tribes opposes Macedon . . 323 
Invaded by Antipater during the Lamian war . . 322 
Aid in the expulsion of the Gauls .... 279 
Invade the Peloponnesus, and ravage Messenia (Social 

War), and defeat the Aehajans at Caphyae . . 220 
Philip V., of Macedon, invades yEtolia, and takes 

Thermum— Peace of Naupactus concluded . .217 

Alliance wi tli Rome 211 

Deserted by the Romans, the iEtolians make peace 

with Philip 205 

War with Philip, 200 : lie is defeated at Cynoscephalse 197 
The iEtolians invite the kings of Macedon, Syria, and 

Sparta, to coalesce against the Romans . . 193-2 
Defeat of the allies near Thermopylae . . . 191 



Conquered by the Romans under Fulvius . b.c. 189. 

Leading patriots massacred by the Roman party . 167 
iEtolia made a province of Rome .... 146 

AFFINITY. Marriage within certain degrees 
of kindred was prohibited in almost every age and 
country, but has yet taken place to a considerable- 
extent. The Jewish law is given in Leviticus xviiL 
(1490 B.C.) In the English prayer-book the table- 
restricting marriage within certain degrees was set 
forth by authority, 1563. Prohibited marriages 
were adjudged to be incestuous and unlawful by the- 
99th canon, in 1603. All marriages within the for- 
bidden degrees are declared to be absolutely void by 
5 & 6 Will. IV. e. 54, 1835 ; see Marriage (of 
Wife's Sister). The prohibited degrees were set 
forth in 25 Hen. VIII. c. 22, 1 533-4. See Incest. 

AFFIRMATION ; see Quakers. The affirma- 
tion was altered in 1702, 1721, 1837, and in April,. 
1859. — The indulgence was granted to persons who- 
were formerly Quakers, but who had seceded from 
that sect, 2 Vict. 1838 ; and extended to other dis- 
senters by 9 Geo. IV. c. 32 (1828), and 18 & 19 Vict- 
c. 2 (1855). For Mr. Bradlaugh's case, see Far- 
liament, 1880- 1, 1883, and Oaths. 
Affirmation Bill for M.P.'s introduced, 1883 ; rejected in - 

the commons (292-289) 3—4 May, 1883. Affirmations. 

were substituted for oaths by an act passed 24 Dec. 1888. 

AFGHANISTAN (the Greek Ariana), a large 

country in central Asia, successively part of the- 

Persian and Greek empires. Chief cities, Cabul T . 

Herat, Candahar, Ghuznee. The tribes are ruled! 

by sirdars. Population 1891, about 4,000,000. 

Early Afghan conquests in India . . 1200-1290. 

Conquests of Genghis Khan about 1221, and by 
Tamerlane 

Baber conquered Cabul 

On his death Afghanistan divided between Persia 
and Hindostan. 

The Afghans revolt in 1720 ; invade Persia and take 
Ispahan ; repulsed by Nadir Shah in 1728, who 
subdues the whole of the country 

On his assassination, one of his officers, Ahmed 
Shah, an Afghan, made Afghanistan indepen- 
dent, and reigned prosperously . . . 1747-73 

Timur Shah (son), succeeds, 1773 ; rules cruelly ; 
dies leaving 23 sons 

Zeman becomes ameer, 1793 ; cripples the power of 
the sirdars ; blinded and dethroned 

Mahmud Shah, son, ameer 1800 ; deposed for his 
brother, Suja Shah, 1803 ; Mahmud restored, 
Futtih Khan the vizier predominant, 1809 ; 
Futtih blinded ; Mahmud flees from Cabul and 
becomes ruler at Herat 

Impotent rulers at Cabul ; Dost Mohammed Khan 
becomes ameer . . • 

He is dethroned by the British, and sent to Cal- 
cutta ; Suja Shall restored jS-, 

British occupation of Cabul causes great discou- J 
tent ; insurrection ; sir Alexander Burnes and 23 
others killed ? l\ov. 

Akbar Khan, son of Dost Mohammed, head of the 
rebels ; invites sir Win. Maenaghten to meet, and 
assassinates him and others . . 23 Dec. 

The British army retires from Cabul, and is de- 
stroyed by the Ghilzais in the Kliyber pass ; of 
3849 soldiers, and about 12,000 camp followers, 
only Dr. Brydone and four or five natives escaped 
massacre ...... 6-13 Jan. 

Sir George Pollock forces the Kliyber pass ; defeats 
Akbar Khan at Tezeen; captures Cabul and re- 
leases lady Sale and others, 16 Sept. ; destroys 
the great bazaar ; retires . . . 12 (Jet. 

Dost Mohammed becomes ameer 

His treaty of friendship with lord Dalhousie (faith- 
fully kept) 3 o March t 8 SS 

He dies leaving 16 sons; appointing as his suc- 
cessor Shere AH, the third son, 9 June : who is 
much opposed by his brothers, especially by 
Ufzul, the eldest son (and his son Abdul-Rah- 
man, or Abdiir-Rahman), Azim, Ameen, and Shu- 
reef; yet is recognized by them . . Sept. 1863 



1393. 
152s 



173S 



179? 
1S00 



1816 
1826 



1843 



1S42 



AFGHANISTAN. 



16 



AFGHANISTAN. 



Unsuccessful insurrection of Ufzul and Azim ; Azira 
flees to British territories, 16 May ; Ufzul recon- 
ciled to Shere Ali 2 June 1864 

Insurrection of Abdul-Rahman ; Ufzul imprisoned 

Aug. „ 

Shere Ali enters Cabul . . . . 14 Nov. ,, 

Azim and his confederates defeated at Kujhboz, 
near Khelat-i-Ghilzye, by Shere Ali (whose gal- 
Jant son is killed), 6 June ; he enters Candahar, 

14 June, 1865 

Azim joins his nephew Abdul-Rahman ; defection 
of Mahomed Rufeek from Ibrahim (Shere Ali's 
son) weakly ruling Cabul ; it surrenders to 
Azim 2 March, 1866 

Shere Ali rouses himself from his grief ; raises an 
army ; some of his treacherous friends return to 
5iim ; he is defeated at Sheikhabad, and flees to 
Candahar .10 May, 

Ufzul (sensual and easy), and Azim (cruel and 

• tyrannical) rule at Cabul . . . May, et seq. 

Azim and Abdul-Rahman defeat Shere Ali at 
Kujhbaz, 17 Jan. ; he flees to Candahar : shut out, 
flees to Herat held by his son, Yakoob . Jan. 

His army again defeated and his general and 
brother, Fyz Mahommed, killed . . 17 Sept. 

Ufzul dies ; Azim sole ruler at Cabul . Oct. 

He quarrels with Abdul-Rahman ; who leaves him, 
and refuses to help him . . . March, 

Yakoob defeats Azim's troops, and enters Canda- 
har April, 

Azim leaves Cabul, July ; his army dissolves by 
desertion ; Shere Ali enters Cabul . 8 Sept. 

Sir John Lawrence helps Shere Ali with arms and 
money ; the attempts of Abdul-Rahman repulsed, 

Nov., Dec. 

Shere Ali totally defeats him and Azim (who dies 
soon after) Jan. 

Shere Ali honourably received at Umballah by the 

viceroy, the earl of Mayo, and receives a subsidy, 

27 March, et seq. 

The limits of his territories defined, about June 1870 

His son, Yakoob, rebels ; captures Herat 6 May, 

Feramoz Khan, his father's general, assassinated, 

June, 

Yakoob reconciled to his father through lord Mayo, 
July ; made governor of Herat ; soon rebels, Sept. 

Uslum, murderer of Feramoz, killed in prison, 

Oct. 

Shere Ali agrees to new boundaries, and receives 
another British subsidy, Oct. ; nominates his 
youngest son, Abdoola Jan, his successor, to the 
great dissatisfaction of his older son Yakoob, 

Dec. 1873 

Yakoob Khan, imprisoned by his father 

about Dec. 1874 

Shere Ali refusing to allow a British Resident, the 
subsidy withheld ; he raises an army, and is said 
to promote disaffection to the British . . 1877-8 

Death of the heir Abdoola Jan . . . 17 Aug. 1878 

Stolietoff, a Russian envoy, favourably received at 
Cabul, June ; a treaty signed ; Russia to be the 
guardian of the Ameer . . . Aug. ,, 

The nawab Gholam Hussein Khan sent as envoy to 
the ameer with letters from the viceroy (16 and 
24 Aug.), 30 Aug. ; dismissed with presents ; 
intercourse with the British declined . Sept. ,, 

A mission with military escort under sir Neville B. 
Chamberlain, commander of the Madras army, 
starts from Peshawur ... 21 Sept. „ 

At Ali Musjid, a fort in the Khyber pass, major 
Cavagnari and an advance party are threatened 
with attack if they proceed, 22 Sept. ; they retire 
to Peshawur, 23, 24 Sept. ; Gholam Hussein sent 
■with an ultimatum (answer required before 20 
Nov.) 28 Oct. 

British army formed in three divisions : at Quettah, 
Peshawur, and Kuram (34,730 natives, 12,740 
Europeans) .... about 16 Nov. 

Dispatch from lord Cranbrook supporting the 
viceroy 18 Nov. 

No answer received from the ameer ; the army ad- 
vances 21 Nov. 

Ali Musjid shelled and occupied by the British ; 21 
guns taken ; major Birch and lieut. Fitzgerald 
and about 35 men killed . . .22 Nov. 

The viceroy's proclamation to the Afghans, issued 

23 Nov. 



Occupation of Dakka and Pisheen, 23 Nov. ; of 

Kuram fort 25 Nov. 

Kudduni burnt to punisli marauding hillmen, 

1 Dec. 
Gen. Roberts victorious at Peiwar pass (which see) 

2 Dec. 
Evasive reply of the ameer dated 19 Nov., received 

3 Dec. 
The British occupy Jellalabad . . 20 Dec. 
Shere Ali flees from Cabul to Balkh, 13 Dec. ; 

Yakoob Khan assumes command ; the Russian 
mission withdraws Dee. 

Gen. Roberts proclaims annexation of Kuram 
district, &c. 26 Dec. 

He enters the Khoost territory 3 Jan. ; defeats the 
Mangals near Matoon .... 7 Jan. 

Candahar abandoned, 6 Jan. ; entered by general 
Stewart unopposed 7 Jan. 

Wali Mahomed, a relative of Shere Ali, joins the 
British Jan. 

The Alizais defeated in an attack . .16 Feb. 

Death of Shere Ali, the ameer (announced) 20 Feb. 

About 46 of the 10th hussars drowned by current 
while crossing the Cabul river, 10 p.m. 31 March, 

Gen. Gough, with the 10th hussars and others, 
defeats about 5000 Khugianis near Futtehabad ; 
gallant major Wigram Batty killed . 2 April, 

Yakoob Khan, son of the late ameer, arrives at 
Gandamak to negotiate, 8 May ; recognised as 
ameer 9 May 

Treaty of peace signed at Gandamak ; (the British 
to occupy Khyber pass, and the Kuram and 
Pisheen valleys ; to have a Resident at Cabul ; and 
to pay an annual subsidy of 6o,oooi. to the ameer), 
26 May ; ratified 30 May ; the British troops retire 

8 June, 

Sir Louis Cavagnari and escort honourably re- 
ceived in Cabul .... 24 July, 

Thanks of the house of lords voted to the viceroy, 
officers, and men 4 Aug. 

Several regiments of Afghan soldiers arrive in 
Cabul from Herat ; about 13 Aug. aided by the 
populace they besiege the British residents, who 
after a brave resistance are massacred (including 
sirL. Cavagnari, Mr. Jenkyns, his secretary, lieut. 
Hamilton, and Dr. Ambrose Kelly), witli about 
26 native cavalry and 50 infantry ; a few natives 
escape 3, 4 Sept. 

Gen. Roberts marches towards Cabul 6 Sept. et seq. 

Mutiny at Herat ; military and civil governors killed 

5 Sept. 

Repulse of an attack on Baker's entrenchments at 
Shutargardan 19 Sept. 

A British convoy attacked by Mongols, near 
Shutargardan ; 8 sepoys and 15 muleteers killed ; 
mules taken 22 Sept. 

Gen. Baker reaches Kushi 24 Sept. ; receives the 
ameer Yakoob and his son, his general Daoud, 
and suite 27 Sept. 

Gen. Roberts arrives at Cabul, 28 Sept. ; occu- 
pies Dakka 29 Sept. 

Attack on British camp at Shutargardan repulsed 

2 Oct. 

Battle of Char-asiab ; severe conflict with Afghans 
before Cabul ; captain Young, Dr. Duncan, lieut. 
Fergusson, and about 70 killed and wounded . 

6 Oct. 

The enemy decamps ; about 98 guns abandoned ; 
pursued by cavalry ; small parties only overtaken 

8-9 Oct. 

Gen. Roberts visits the abandoned Bala Hissar, 11 
Oct ; enters Cabul, 12 Oct. ; Jellalabad occupied 
by Gough 14 Oct. 

Gen. Roberts' proclamation ; heavy fine ; martial 
law ; gen. Hills to be military governor, with 
Gholab Hussein Khan ... 14 Oct. 

Great explosions (supposed treacherous) in the Bala 
Hissar ; destruction of much arms and ammuni- 
tion : capt. Shafto and about 20 others missing 

16 Oct. 

Abdication of Yakoob Khan announced 19 Oct. 

5 prisoners (mollahs and others) hanged as mur- 
derers of major Cavagnari and others 20-24 Oct. 

Sahib Jan, a ' freebooter, with a strong force of 
Taraki Ghilzais, defeated and killed by general 
Hughes at Shahjui, near Candahar . 24 Oct. 



187S 



1879 



AFGHANISTAN. 



17 



AFGHANISTAN. 



Proclamation of gen. Roberts announcing British 
occupation of Cabul, &c. ... 30 Oct. 

Junction of columns of generals Macpherson and. 
Bright at Katasang .... 6 Nov. 

163 Afghan mutineers, &c, tried ; 87 executed as 
murderers ; 76 released . . . Oct. Nov. 

Combination of tribes under Mohammed Jan 
Wardak Dec. 

Continued severe fighting, with heavy loss on both 
sides 11-14 Dec. 

Gen. Roberts concentrates his forces in the 
Sherpur cantonments . . . -14 Dec. 

Musa Khan, son of Yakoob, said to be proclaimed 
ameer about 17 Dec. 

Gen. Gough at Jugdulluk attacked ; retreats into 
the fort, 16 Dec. ; indecisive conflicts 18, 19 Dec. 

The Afghans (25,000) defeated with great loss near 
Sherpur cantonments, by gens. Roberts and 
Gough 23 Dec. 

Cabul left by the enemy, 24 Dec. ; the city and 
Bala Hissar reoccupied by the British 26 Dec. 

The enemy dispersed .... 28 Dec. 

Attack of Afghan chiefs on col. Norman repulsed 
at Jagdalak 29 Dec. 

Ghuznee seized and held for Musa Khan as the new 
ameer, by Mohammed Jan . about 10 Jan. 

Gen. Roberts proclaims an amnesty with few 

exceptions ; the hill tribes generally subdued, 

about 6 Jan. 

Mohmands and other tribes defeated in an attack 
near Daka 15 Jan. 

Correspondence with Russia ; papers found in 
Cabul (to be kept secret) ... 6 Feb. 

Musa Khan and chiefs at Ghuznee submit 21 March, 

Mohammed Jan defeated and killed, righting with 
Hazaris . . . about 3 April, 

A camp at Duwai attacked by Pathans ; garrison 
killed 16 April, 

Shere Ali, cousin of the late ameer, made wali or 
governor of Candahar by the British (see 
Candahar) April, 

Gen. sir Donald Stewart defeats a furious attack of 
Ghilzais at Ahmad Khel, 19 April ; again near 
Ghuznee 23 April, 

Col. Jenkins, at Char-asiab, attacked by 4000 
Logaris ; resists till reinforced by gen. Mac- 
pherson ; totally defeats them . 25 April, 

Sir D. Stewart takes chief command at Cabul 

2 May, 

Alleged defeats of Safls and Ghazis near Jellalabad 

19, 22 May, 

Gen. Burrows (with about 2400 men) sent from 
Bombay towards Candahar . . 1 July, 

The troops of the inefficient wali of Candahar, 
Shere Ali, revolt and join Ayoob Khan, about 

14 July, 

Gen. Burrows at Maiwand, near Kusck-i-Nakhud 
(which see) 17 July, 

Abdul-Rahman, or Abdur-Rahmau, born 1845 (see 
above, 1863 et seq.), recognised as ameer at Cabul 
by the British, and proclaimed . . 22 July 

Ayoob Khan (son of the late ameer, Shere Ali), 
governor of Herat, marches upon Candahar with 
about 12,000 men and 20 guns ; defeats the attack 
of gen. Burrows after severe conflicts ; heavy loss 
on both sides ; many officers of 66th regiment 
killed 27 July, 

Candahar citadel held by British with about 4000 
men 28 July, 

Ayoob encamped at Kokaran . . .9 Aug. 

Gen. sir F. Roberts with about 10,000 men, &c, 
marches from Cabul to relieve Candahar 9 Aug. 

Sir D. Stewart, with all the troops, after an inter- 
view with the ameer Abdur-Rahman, withdraws 
from Cabul 11 Aug. 

Attack of Pathans (hill tribes) on the post at Kaeh 
Amadan firmly beaten off by sepoys ; 80 Pathans 
killed 16 Aug 

Ineffectual sortie from Candahar, under gen. 
Primrose, against Deh Kwajee village, with heavy 
loss on both sides ; gen. Brooke, col. Newport, 
majors Vandaleur and French, capt. Cruickshank, 
lieut. Marsh, and rev. Mr. Gordon, and 180 men 
killed 16 Aug. 

Ayoob Khan's army (strengthened by Ghilzais) 
about 20,000 ; about 25 Aug. ; he retires from 
Candahar about 30 Aug. 



1879 



Gen. Roberts arrives at Candahar, 31 Aug. ; de- 
clines Ayoob's terms ; defeats and disperses his 
army at Mazra near the Argandab ; and captures 
his camp at Baba Wali Kotal (see Mazra) 1 Sept. 1880 

Ayoob Khan arrives in Herat ; reported 10 Oct. ,, 

Tranquillity at Cabul, announced . . Nov. ,, 

Shere Ali, wali of Candahar, resigns and retires to 
India Dec. „ 

Alleged expenses of the war, 1878-80, 23,494,480?., of 
which 5,000,000?. paid by British exchequer, Aug. 1881 

Russian correspondence with the ameer Shere Ali 
in 1878, published ; explained by Russia as re- 
lating to probable war in the east . 9, 10 Feb. „ 

Thanks of parliament voted to gen. Roberts and 
the army in both houses ... 5 May, „ 

Prospect of war between Ayoob Khan of Herat and 
Abdur-Rahman of Cabul . . May, June, „ 

Conflicts between partisans of the ameer and Ayoob 
Khan ; the latter defeated . . 3 & 11 June ,, 

Ayoob Khan defeats the ameer's army under 
Gholam-Hyder at Karez-i-atta, 26 July ; enters 
Candahar 30 July, ,, 

Gholam Hyder holding Kelat-i-Ghilzai, 6 Aug. ; 
receives reinforcements from Cabul . 21 Aug. ,, 

Ayoob prepares to march ; the ameer's troops at 
Kelat-i-Ghilzai ; rejects Ayoob's proposals, 1-4 
Sept. ; marches to Candahar ; about 8 Sept. „ 

Ayoob defeated at Old Candahar chiefly through 
desertion of his troops, flees to Herat . 22 Sept. ,, 

The ameer enters Candahar . . .30 Sept. ,, 

His army under Abdul-Kudus Khan twice defeats 
Ayoob's adherents, Oct.; again . . . 2 Oct. ,, 

Enters Herat 4 Oct. ,, 

Ayoob flees to Persia 4 Oct. ,, 

Abdur-Rahman now virtual ruler of all Afghanistan 

Oct. „ 

Afzul Khan chosen by the ameer as British resi- 
dent in Cabul Feb. 1882 

The ameer defeats the Shinwarris about 27 April, 1883 

Peace made about 21 June, ,, 

Indian government grants subsidy to the ameer ; 
accepted 21 July, ,, 

Slight insurrection of the Ghilzais under Mollah 
Mushki Alum, announced . . .24 Aug. „ 

The proposal of an Afghan frontier commission 
accepted by the ameer .... Aug. 1884 

Gen. Sir Peter Lumsden with staff proceeds, and 
successful progress reported . . Oct., Dec. ,, 

Penjdeh assured to Afghanistan by Lord Auckland, 
1840 ; Russian advances resisted up to Nov. 1884. 
The ameer visits Lord Dufferin, the viceroy, at 
Rawul Pindi 2-12 April, who declares at a grand 
durbar, England and Afghanistan will stand side 
by side 8 April 1885 

Sir Peter Lumsden arrives in London . 6 June, ,, 

Difference between England and Russia respecting 
the Zulfikar Pass July, ,, 

Strong Russian garrison at Askabad . . July, „ 

The Russians relinquish Zulfikar Pass, announced 

22 Aug. „ 

Anglo-Russian Protocol, closing the dispute, signed 
in London 10 Sept. ,, 

Construction of Quetta Railway begun Sept. 1879 ; 
stopped Oct. 1880 ; resumed April 1884. Lower 
Bolan Railway joining India opened . 28 Oct. ,, 

Penjdeh given up to Russia, July, 1885, entered 

13 Feb. 1886 

Joint Commission appointed ; First boundary pillar 
formally erected 12 Nov. 1885 ; the last, many 
perils and privations endured . . . July, ,, 

Joint Commission dissolved . . . . 6 Sept. ,, 

Sir Joseph West Ridgeway, chief, and the Commis- 
sion warmly received at Cabul . . 15 Oct. ,, 

Rising against taxation (treasure seized in transit) 
about 30 Oct. ; rebellion said to be repressed 

Nov. ,, 

The ameer's troops defeated by the Ghilzais, 
announced 19 April ; again at Khelat-i-Ghilzai, 
announced . • 25 April, 1887 

Meetings of Afghan Frontier Commission at St. 
Petersburg; temporarily closed 12 May ; resumed 
6 July ; question settled . . .20 July, „ 

Mutiny of Ghilzais at Herat, suppressed with much 
bloodshed 9 June, , 

General Gholam reported that he defeated the 

Ghilzais 13 & 16 June, 

C 



AFEICA. 



18 



AFEICA. 



The ameer proclaims peace, amnesty and remission 

of taxes for two years, announced . . 8 July, 1887 
Great defeat of the rebels at Mashakai, announced 

15 J ul y> .. 

Keported conflicting accounts of victory of Gholam 
Hyder Khan at Kotaldab . . .26 July, „ 

Taimar Shah, chief of the Herat mutineers, ex- 
ecuted at Cabul 13 July, „ 

Eebellion said to have collapsed 21 Aug. ; several 
tribes return home 29 Aug. „ 

Escape of Ayoob Khan from Teheran, 14 Aug. ; 
enters Afghanistan with a few followers and is 
driven out early Sept. „ 

Severe fighting at Mashakai between the ameer's 
troops and the insurgents . . .31 Aug. „ 

Fighting near Mukur ; rebel leader, Jalander Khan 
captured 7 Sept. „ 

Reported fighting with varying success Sept. -Oct. ,, 

Ayoob Khan surrenders at Meshed to the Indian 
government, announced .... 9 Nov. ,, 

Southern Afghanistan quiet, announced . 13 Nov. ,, 

Reported conflict between ameer's troops and the 
insurgents, 60 killed 15 Nov. ,, 

Amnesty proclamation issued by the ameer 

10 Dec. ,, 

Conflict between Afghans and Turcomans, Afghans 
victorious 9 May, 1888 

Revolt of Ishak Khan, governor of Afghan Turkestan, 
Aug. ; defeated at Tash Kurgan 29 Sept. 1888; 
at Mazari Sherif 30 Sept. ; Ishak Khan a fugitive 
in Russian territory , , 

The ameer narrowly escapes assassination. 26 Dec. ,, 

The ameer's troops under Gholam Hyder defeat 
the Shinwarris 3 Feb. 1889 

Gholam Hyder Khan, made Governor-General 

20 Feb. , , 

Abdur-Rahman (two years absent) returns to Cabul 
with strengthened power . . . Aug. 1890 

Disputes with the Russians respecting the Pamir 
frontier Sept., Oct. 1891 

Mr. T. S. Pyne, engineer-in-chief to the ameer (55 
years), reports great prog] ess in arts and manu- 
factures Feb. 1892 

AFEICA, called Libya by the Greeks, one of 
the three parts of the ancient world, and the great" 
■est peninsula of the globe. For its history, see 
Egypt, Ethiopia, Carthage, Cyrene, Abyssinia, 
Cape, Algiers, Morocco, Ashantee, South Africa, §-c. 

•Carthage subdued by the Romans, 146 b.c. ; other pro- 
vinces gained by Pompey, 82. 

Revolts subdued by Diocletiau, a.d. 296 ; by Theodosius, 
373- 

N. Africa conquered by the Vandals under Genseric, 
429-35 ; re-conquered by Belisarius, 533-55. 

The Saracens subdue the north of Africa, 637 — 709. 

Portuguese settlements begun, 1450. 

Cape of Good Hope discovered by Diaz, 1487. 

Vasco de Gama doubles the Cape and explores the coast, 
19 Nov. 1497. 

English merchants visit Guinea in 1550 ; and Elizabeth 
granted a patent to an African company in 1588. 

Dutch colony at the Cape founded, 1650. 

Capt. Stubbs sailed up the Gambia, 1723. 

Bruce commenced his travels in 1768. 

Sierra Leone settled by the English, 1787. 

Mungo Park made his first voyage to Africa, 22 May, 
1795 ; his second, 30 January, 1804, and never returned 
(see Park). 

Africa visited by Salt, 1805 and 1809 ; Burckhardt, 1812 ; 
Campbell, 1813 ; Hornemann, 1816 ; Denham and Clap- 
perton, 1822 ; Laing, 1826 ; the brothers Lander, 
1830. 

Expedition to the Niger originated by Mr. Macgregor, 
Laird of Liverpool ; he went out with Mr. Lauder and 
lieut. Win. Allen, and they made a reliable survey of 
the river; July, et seq. 1832. 

The great Niger expedition to start a colony in Central 
Africa (for which parliament voted 6o,oooZ.), consisting 
of the Albert, Wilberforce, and Soudan steamships, 
commenced the ascent of the Niger, 20 Aug. 1841 ; 
when they reached Iddah, fever broke out among the 
crews, and they were successively obliged to return, 
the Albert having ascended the river to Egga, 320 miles 
from the sea, 28 Sept. The expedition was relinquished 
owing to disease, heat, and hardships, and all the 



vessels had cast anchor at Clarence Cove, Fernando 
Po, 17 Oct. 1841. 
James Richardson explored the great Sahara in 1845-6, 
and in 1849 (by direction of the Foreign Office) he left 
England to explore central Africa, accompanied by 
Drs. Barth and Overweg. Richardson died 4 March, 
1851 ; and Overweg died 27 Sept. 1852. 

Dr. Vogel sent out with reinforcements to Dr. Barth, 
20 Feb. 1853 ; in April, 1857, said to have been assas- 
sinated. 

Dr. Barth returned to England, and received the Royal 
Geographical Society's medal, 16 May, 1856. His 
travels were published in 5 vols, in 1858. 

Dr. David Livingstone, a missionary traveller, returned 
to England in Dec. 1856, after an absence of 16 years, 
during which he traversed a large part of the heart of 
S. Africa, and walked about 11,000 miles, principally 
over country hitherto unexplored. His book was pub- 
lished in Nov. 1857. I 11 Feb. 1858, he was appointed 
British consul for the Portuguese possessions in Africa, 
and left England shortly after. 

Du Chaillu's travels in central Africa, 1856-59, created 
much controversy, 1861. 

Second expedition of Dr. Livingstone, March, 1858. 

Captains Speke and Grant announce the discovery of 
a source of the Nile in Lake Victoria Nyanza, 23 Feb. 
1863. 

[Capt. Speke was accidentally shot by his own gun while 
alone near Bath, 15 Sept. 1864.] 

Some Dutch ladies unsuccessfully explore the White 
Nile, and undergo many privations, July, 1863 — 1864. 
(One Miss Tinne said to have been killed ; reported 5 
Sept. 1869.) 

The " Universities Mission to east central Africa," con- 
sisting of Charles F. Mackenzie, bishop of central 
Africa, and six clergymen and others, started Dec. 
i860, and arrived at the Zambesi, in Feb. 1861. All 
died from privations and disease except two, who 
returned in 1864. The bishop died 31 Jan. 1862 ; suc- 
ceeded by Dr. Tozer. 

Du C'haillu starts on a fresh expedition, 6 Aug. 1863 ; 
after being robbed, and undergoing many privations, 
returned to London near the end of 1865. He gave an 
account of his journey at a meeting of the Royal 
Geographical Society, 8 Jan. 1866. 

Dr. Livingstone returns, 23 July, 1864. 

Death of Dr. W. B. Baikie, at Sierra Leone, 30 Nov. 1864. 
[He was sent as special envoy to the Negro tribes 
near the Niger by the Foreign Office about 1854. He 
opened commercial relations with central Africa.] 

National African company, 1864. 

Mr. (afterwards sir) Samuel Baker discovered a lake, 
supposed to be another source of the Nile, which he 
named Lake Albert Nyanza, 14 March, 1864. 

Dr. Livingstone appointed British consul for inner Africa, 
24 March, 1865. 

Narrative of Livingstone's Zambesi expedition 1858-64, 
published 1866. 

Livingstone left Zanzibar to continue his search for the 
sources of the Nile, March, 1866. 
[See his narrative beloiv.] 

Reports of the murder of Livingstone near Lake Nyassa, 
in Sept. 1866 — March, 1867 ; doubted, July, 1867. 

Expedition of E. D. Young in search of Livingstone, 
sailed 9 July, 1867, returned and reported to the Royal 
Geographical Society his conviction that Livingstone 
was alive, 27 Jan. 1868. 

Letter from Dr. Livingstone dated Bembo, 2 Mar. 1867 ; 
heard of down to Dec. 1867. 

His despatch to lord Clarendon, dated 7 July, 1868 ; read 
to the Royal Geographical Society, 8 Nov. 1869. 

Letter dated 30 May, 1869, published Dec. 1869. 

Uncredited reports of his murder by negroes, Jan. ; his 
probable safety reported by Dr. Kirk, 22 June ; said 
to be at Mozambique, Nov. 1870. 

Expedition of sir Samuel Baker to put down slave trade 
on the Upper Nile (see Egypt), Jan. 1870. 

Expedition in search of Livingstone under lieut. Dawson, 
organised by the Royal Geographical Society ; started 
9 Feb. 1872. 

[It returned on hearing that Stanley had found Living- 
stone.] 

Dutch Guinea settlements purchased and transferred (see 
Elmina), 6 April, 1872. 

Reports current that Livingstone is alive, May, June, 
1872. 

Expedition sent in search of Livingstone by Mr. James 



AFKICA. 

Gordon Bennett, proprietor of the New York Herald, 
at a cost of about 8,000?. : — 

Mr. Henry M. Stanley, chief of the expedition, left 
^Zanzibar, and, after much opposition from the native 

• 'Chiefs, accidentally fell in with Livingstone at Ujiji, 
near Unyanyembe, 10 Nov. 1871, and remained with 
liim till 14 March, 1872, when he brought away his 
diary and other documents. Mr. Stanley reported that 
Livingstone had arrived at Ujiji in bad condition, 
having been robbed and deserted by his attendants. 

Much controversy ensued between Mr. Stanley, the 
members of lieut. Dawson's expedition, Dr. Living- 
stone, Dr. Kirk, the Royal Geographical Society, and 
others, Aug.— Oct. 1872. 

Letter from Dr. Livingstone, at Ujiji, dated Nov. 

1871, to Mr. Bennett (printed in New York Herald, 26 
July, and reprinted in the Times 27 July, 1872). He 
■describes his explorations and his painful journey to 
Ujiji; his meeting with Mr. Stanley ; and he speaks of 
the Nile springs being about 600 miles south of the 
most southerly part of Lake Victoria Nyanza ; and also 
of about 700 miles of watershed in central Africa, of 
which he had explored about 600 ; and of the conver- 
gence of the watershed first into four, and then into 
two, mighty rivers in the great Nile valley (?) between 
10° and 12 south latitude. Second letter (dated FeV. 
1872) describes the horrors of the slave trade in eastern 
Africa, printed in the Times 29 July, 1872. 

Livingstone's despatches, dated Nov. 1 and 15, 1871, 
received by the Foreign Office, 1 Aug. ; letter dated 
1 July, received 2 Oct. 1872. 

Mr. Stanley described his discovery of Livingstone to the 
British Association at Brighton in presence of the 
ex-emperor and empress of the French, 16 Aug., and re- 
ceived a gold snuff-box from the queen about 30 Aug. 1872. 

Livingstone died of dysentery in Ilala, Central Africa ; 
his pupil, Jacob Wainwright, a young negro mission- 
ary, present, 1 May, 1873 ; his remains interred in 
Westminster Abbey, 18 April; his last journals pub- 
lished, Dec. 1874. 

New Expedition, under sir Bartle Frere, to Zanzibar, to 
suppress the east African slave trade ; lieut. Verney 
Lovett Cameron's offer to aid in the furtherance of 
Livingstone's expedition was accepted ; sailed 20 Nov. 

1872, see Zanzibar. 
Expedition to explore the upper part of the Congo 

(Mr. Young, of Kelly, to subscribe 2000?. Royal Geo- 
graphical Society to supplement it), proposed Nov. 1872. 

Lieut. Verney Cameron, after the finding of Livingstone, 
continued his explorations, 1872-3. 

Leaving Ujiji, 14 May, 1874, he followed Livingstone's 
route ; explored 1200 miles of fertile country ; arriving 
at Portuguese settlements, 4 Nov. 1875. 

He was received by Royal Geographical Society, and 
gave account of his journey, n April, 1876. 

Expedition of Mr. H. M. Stanley (supported by Daily 
Telegraph and New York Herald) ; he surveyed Lake 
Victoria Nyanza (230 miles by 180), 1875 ; well andsuc- 
cessful, last letter dated 24 April, 1876. 

Stanley reports survey of lake Tanganyika ; and states 
that he left Ujiji and crossed Africa from east to west, 
and identified the Lualaba with the Congo river, which 
has an uninterrupted course of over 1400 miles, 24 Aug. 
1876 — 6 Aug. 1877. 

Arrives at Cape Town, 21 Oct. 1877 ; in London, 22 
Jan. ; published "Through the Dark Continent," May, 
1878. 

Italian expedition under marchese Antinori, well re- 
ceived by king of Seida ; announced 2 Dec. 1876 ; 
his death reported, Nov. 1877. 

Portuguese government grant 20,000?. for expedition 
into the interior, announced Dec. 1876. 

Dr. Gussfeld, a German, after his exploration into S.W. 
Central Africa, 1873, declared the difficulties insuper- 
able, 1875. 

Mr. H. M. Stanley, with an international Belgian expedi- 
tion, explored the Congo, 1879-80. 

R. Geographical Society's successful expedition into 
Eastern Africa under Mr. A. Keith Johnston leaves 
England 14 Nov. 1878, starts from Zanzibar about 14 
May, 1879 ; Mr. Johnston dies 28 June, succeeded 
T)y Joseph Thomson, who returns to England Aug. 
1880. 

The Royal Geographical Society grants 2,600/. 
for an expedition to Africa under Joseph Thom- 
son, which starts 13 Dec. 1882 ; after successful 
exploration arrives at Zanzibar in June ; describes 



19 AFRICA. 

to the R. Geo. ' Soc. his exceedingly perilous adven- 
tures, in beautifully varied country, with vicious 
escort, among savage tribes of different manners, 
3 Nov. 1884. See Morocco. 

Death of Dr. Moffat, missionary, aged 87, 9 Aug. 1883. 
See under Congo. 

Count Teleki's expedition into the Masai country, &c, 
23 Jan. 1887—25 Oct. 1888. For Mr. H. M. Stanley's 
expedition to relieve Emin pasha, see Soudan, Jan. 
1887-9. 

Trade route with 4 stations on the Congo reported to be 
established by Mr. Stanley (a. great work) announced, 
14 Aug. 1882. 

Expedition of Mr. J. T. Last, supported by the Royal 
Geographical Society, to S.W. Zanzibar, Sept. 1885. 

Italian scientific expedition under count Porro massacred, 
reported 26 April, 1886. 

Dr. Junker reports to the Royal Geographical Society 
his eventful travels in Central Africa in 1885-6, 9 May, 
1887. 

Assassination of M. Camille Douls, the explorer, while 
crossing the Sahara, reported Sept. 1889. 

Austro-Hungarian expedition under count Samuel 
Teleki to relieve Emin pasha arrives near him, but is 
superseded by Mr. St.mley, 1886—9. See KUiriui- 
Njaro. 

Mr. H. M. Stanley in his expedition to relieve Emin 
pasha (see Soudan, 1887) at Wadelai, and during his 
return march, makes many discoveries, and re-names 
lake, South Nyanza (which he discovered in 1887), 
Albert Edward Nyanza, 1889. 

Major Casati publishes his book " Ten years in Equatoria 
—the Heturn with Emin Pasha," translated by the 
Hon. Mrs. J. Randolph Clay, March, 1891. 

[Gaetf'ni Casati, scholar, born 1838 ; soldier 1859 ! ie ^ 
Italy for Africa 24 Dec. 1879 '> a t Khartoum about 
May, 1880 ; received by Emin pasha April, 1883 ; after 
many perilous adventures with Emin pasha, 1889 ; 
received by the khedive at Cairo, 4 May, at Rome 
14 July, by the king 17 July, 1890.] 

For a German exploring expedition, west, see Cameroons, 
1891. 

The German government sends an exploring expedition 
into S.W. African coast, Damaraland ; Mr. Luderitz 
acquires some lands at Angra Pequeiia from the chiefs ; 
Dr. Nachtigal's official visit to this place in a German 
man-of-war failed ; after this Dr. Goering by some 
means obtained a treaty ceding land from the chief 
Kamaherero, afterwards denied, having previously in 
1885 transferred all his rights to Mr. Robert Lewis, 
a British subject, long known to the Damaras. Mr. 
Lewis' rights were set aside by the German Colonial 
Company of S.W. Africa, and he and other English 
were expelled ; the claims of Messrs. Lewis, Ford, and 
Bam, set forth at Berlin by the British Government, 
1885—91. 

The Germans disallow Mr. Lewis' claims, reported 3 
April, 1891. 

French expedition into the interior between the Central 
Soudan and the French Congo under M. Fourneau-, 
starts from Ouassou, 7 March ; arrived at the con- 
fluence of the Massa Sangha and the Kalle, 15 April ; at 
the Sodi, 1 May ; attacked by natives he burns the 
village ; encamped at a village, 10 May ; suddenly 
attacked, fighting began ; M. Fourneau wounded, 
many of his men killed, the rest demoralized and some 
fled, retreat began under fire from the savages, nMay ; 
and the party reached Ouassou, 18 May, 1S91. 

Mr. Joseph Thomson returns from an expedition in 
British South Africa, having visited the neighbour- 
hood of lakes Nyassa and Bangweolo and made treaties 
with numerous chiefs, 18 Oct. 1891. 
See Anglo-French Agreement and others. 

GERMAN EAST AFRICA. Dr. Carl Peters goes to 
Africa as chief agent for the committee for German 
colonization, concludes treaties with 10 sultans ; the 
German flag hoisted, Nov.-Dee. 1884. 

The German East African Company, mainly founded by 
Dr. Peters, at Berlin, chartered, 12 Feb. 1S86. 

Settlements founded in the valley of the Kingani, March, 
April, 1886. 

Treaty with the sultan of Zanzibar comes into force 19 
Aug. 1886. 

Dr. Peters, with a party of 23 engineers, medic ll men. 
&c, leaves Germany as the agent of the Gerii.au 
Emin Pasha Relief Society, April, 1887. 

c 2 



AFEICA. 20 

The Germans attack Bagamoyo and kill natives, 23 Sept. 

1888. 
Collapse of the German settlement, attributed to the 

Arab slave-dealers ; reported Oct. 1888. 
The East African Bill passed by the Parliament, granting 
money for the defence of German interests, and the 
suppression of the slave trade, 30 Jan. 1889. 
The Germans defeat the Arabs at Bagamoyo, 6 March, 

1889. 
Capt., after major, Wissmann, appointed imperial com- 
missioner in East Africa, 21 Feb. (dissension with Dr. 
Peters), 31 March, 1889. 
The German flag hoisted at the consulate ; capt. Wiss- 
mann assumes the command, 5 April, 1889. 
Dr. Peters organizing his Emin Relief Expedition ; men 

and camels engaged, March, April, 1889. 
Capt. Wissmann, aided by 200 German sailors, defeats 
Bushiri, an Arab slave-d'ealer, with little loss ; Bushiri 
loses 80 killed and 20 prisoners, his camp destroyed, 8 
May, 1889. 
Capt. Wissmann captures Pangani, 8 July, 1889. 
Adm. Freemantle seizes the steamship Neera, belonging 
to the Emin Relief Expedition at Lamu, and takes it 
to Zanzibar, June ; Dr. Peters remonstrates, 29 June ; 
after a trial the ship is released, the owners paying 
costs, 6 Aug. ; Dr. Peters directed by his committee 
to proceed no farther, 31 Oct. 1889. 
Differences between the sultan of Zanzibar and the 

Germans respecting territory, about 8 Nov. 1889. 
Major Wissmann receives Mr. H. M. Stanley, Emin pasha 

and party at Bagamoyo, 5 Dec. 1889. 
After tights, Bushiri captured and hanged, 16 Dec. 1889. 
Major Wissmann, after severe fighting captures Bwana 

Heri's fortified position near Saadani, 5 Jan. 1890. 
Arab tribes come to Bagamoyo and submit, about Jan. 

18, 1890. 
Bwana Heri holds a considerable force against major 

Wissmann, reported 16 Feb. 1890. 
Emin pasha, after a long illness, occasioned by a fall 
from a window at Bagamoyo, 5 Dec. 1889, arrives at 
Zanzibar, 2 March ; accepts the offers of major Wiss- 
mann, enters the German service, and proceeds with a 
military expedition to Victoria Nyanza, 31 March et 
seq. 1890. 
Major Wissmann occupies Kilwa without resistance, 4 
May ; also Mikindani, 14 May ; letter from Dr. Peters 
dated Kapte in Kamassia, 16 Jan., stating that he was 
340 English miles from Wadelai in good health, received 
May, 1890. 
Many losses by death and desertion ; reported 13 May, 

1890. 
Major Wissmann leaves for Germany, lieut. Schmidt 

left in command, 26 May, 1890. 
German forces : 207 officers, military and naval ; 1,200 
Soudanese, 380 Zulus, 120 Askaris, a number of Sou- 
malis as police, a medical staff and sanitary officers ; a 
fleet of 4 steamers, besides whale-boats ; reported May, 
1890. 
A letter from Dr. Peters dated Rubaga in Uganda, 2 
March, received 28 May ; another dated Ukumi in 
Ussukuma, 13 April, received 30 May, 1890. 
The German Parliament votes 4,850,000 marks for East 

African service, 24 June, 1890. 
Mahomed Bin Cassim and three companions were hanged 
at Bagamoyo, after trial for murder of a German mer- 
chant about 8 years previously, 27 June, 1890. 
Anglo-German convention, which see, signed at Berlin 

by the Emperor, 1 July, 1890. 
Major von Wissmann, ennobled and warmly received in 
Berlin and other places, June ; unwell, enjoined abso- 
lute rest, 14 July, 1890. 
Dr. Peters and party arrive at Zanzibar about 10 July, 
telegraphs to his company 18 July, 1890. 

[His treaty with the king of Uganda invalid ; he is 
accused of living by raids on the natives.] 
Advance of Emin pasha, severe fighting with the Masai 

in Ugogo, reported 31 July, 1890. 
Dr. Carl Peters arrives in Berlin, 25 Aug. 1890. 
The German East Africa Company cedes all its territorial 
rights to the Imperial Government, reported 28 Oct. 
1890. 
The emperor contributes 3,000 marks towards the build- 
ing of the steamer Wissmann, to be placed on Lake 
Victoria Nyanza, about 5 Dec. 1890. 
The Emin Pasha Relief Committee dissolves itself, 15 
Dec. 1890. 



AFEICA. 

Emin Pasha (refractory) recalled to the coast by major 
von Wissmann, imperial commissary, reported 19 Dec. 
1890. 

The German Imperial flag hoisted at Bagamoyo, 1 Jan. 
Major von Wissmann established there, 26 Jan. 1891. 

Baron von Soden appointed governor of German East 
Africa, Dr. Carl Peters his commissary, Feb., with a 
peaceful progressive programme, March, 1891. 

Major von Wissmann severely punishes the Kishobco 
tribe for robbery, reported 6 March, 1891. 

Returns to Bagamoyo 15 March, recalled for rest, reported 
14 April, 1891. 

Dr. Peters' "New Light on Dark Africa," published, 
spring, 1891. 

The German expeditionary colonial troops under lieut. 
von Zelewski attacked by the natives (about 3,000^ 
S. of the Ruaha river, the lieut. and other officers, 
killed, 10 Europeans, and about 300 native members 
of the expedition massacred near the station Mp wapwa, 
Kondora ; large capture of arms and ammunition, 17 
Aug. 1891. 

Captain Ruediger, appointed acting-governor of Germam 
East Africa, about 1 Oct. 1891. 

Movements of Emin pasha about Albert Nyanza, repu- 
diated by the German government, July ; resignation 
of major von Wissmann, Oct. 1891. 

Revolt of the Wadigoes against taxation ; the Germans 
under captain Krenzler defeated 12 Dec, defeated 
again 19 Dee. 1891. 

Baron von Soden pursues a peaceful policy in opposition 

to major von Wissmann, Jan. 1892. 
He meets lieut. C. S. Smith and Dr. Peters, joint com- 
missioners for the delimitation of the territories at 
Wanga, Feb. 1S92. 
The German parliament votes 2, 500,000 marks for German* 
interests in E. Africa and the suppression of the slave 
trade, 5 March, 1892. 
Dr. Kayser sent to E. Africa to examine the state of the 
colony, May, 1892. 

BRITISH E. AFRICA. -The Imperial British East Africai 
Company, supported by Mr. Wm. Mackenzie, lord 
Brassey, gen. Donald Stewart, Mr. Burdett-Coutts, 
and others, sir Wm. Mackinnon, chairman ; charter 
3 Sept. 1888 ; large territories having been conceded 
to Mr. W. Mackenzie by the sultan of Zanzibar ; con- 
cession signed, 9 Oct. 1888 ; confirmed, 1 Sept. 1889. 

The sultan of Zanzibar surrenders all control over the 
British East Africa Company's territory for an annual 
payment of 26,000 dollars ; reported 26 Dec. 1889. 

Successful tour of Mr. Mackenzie through the Company's 
territory, April, 1890. 

Sir Francis de Winton appointed administrator of the 
company's territories, May ; arrives at Zanzibar and 
proceeds to Mombasa, &c, 1890. 

All slaves in the territory declared free by Mr. Mac- 
kenzie about 4 May ; his final departure for Europe, 
much regretted, 26 May, 1890. 

Mr. George S. Mackenzie, administrator of the territory, 
returns to England, July, 1890. 

Anglo-German Convention (which see), 1 July, 1890. 

Successful progress ; army recruited from India ; con- 
tinued peace with the natives, July, 1890. 

First general meeting of the company, London ; report 
and statement of accounts read, 25 July, 1890. 

Inauguration of the railway between Mombasa and 
Victoria Nyanza, 26 Aug. 1890. 

Resignation of sir Francis de Winton, Feb. 1891. 

Mr. George Mackenzie, director of the company, wel- 
comed by the sultan of Zanzibar ; the government of 
Witu assumed by the company ; the country quite 
pacified, March, 1891. 

Protocol for the delimitation of the British and Italian 
spheres of influence in East Africa, signed at Rome 
24 March, 1891. 

General Mathews, H.M.'s commissioner, arrives at 
Zanzibar, Sept. 1891. 

Proposed withdrawal of representative from Uganda ; 
serious consequences apprehended ; great need of 
a railway from coastline to Victoria Nyanza, Sept. 
1891. 

Mr. Gerald H. Portal appointed commissioner and consul- 
general in British East Africa, Feb. He suppresses a 
revolt in Witu, April, 1892. 



AFRIKANDER BUND. 



21 



AGINCOURT. 



BRITISH CENTRAL AFRICA (Nyassaland).— Mr. H. 
H. Johnston (see Kilima - Njaro) appointed commis- 
sioner of British Central Africa, the districts N. of 
the South Africa Company's territories, March, 1891. 

He and capt. Cecil Maguire attack the Arab slave-dealers, 
and release a large number of slaves, Oct., Nov. i8qi. 

Capt. Maguire with 30 sepoys, releases a number of 
.slaves in a caravan and burns dhows in presence of a 
large party of enemies, but is killed while swimming 
to his ship ; Dr. Boyce and Mr. M'Ewan are treacher- 
ously killed when about to treat for a truce, 15-17 
Dec. 1891. 

The Arabs surprise Port Johnstone and capture a gun ; 
Mr. H. H. Johnston has only 70 Sepoys and two gun- 
boats on the Shire; reported, April, 1892. 

Mi. H. H. Johnston reports the pacification of the 
district, about 4 April, 1892. 

Makanjila, and two other chiefs, slave-dealers, pre- 
dominant, Jan. 1892. 

The British South Africa Company chartered (see 
under Zambesi), 15 Oct. 1889. 

For French Africa, see Africa, 1891, and Senegal. 

African Association, for promoting the exploration of 
central Africa, was formed in June, 1788, principally 
by sir Joseph Banks ; and under its auspices many addi- 
tions were made to African geography by Ledyard, 
Park, Burckhardt, Hornemann, &c. It merged into the 
Royal Geographical Society, July, 1831. 

African Church. In 1866 Robert Gray, bishop of Cape- 
town (in consequence of a decision of the privy council : 
see Church of England), established synods of the 
'• Church of South Africa." 

African Company (merchants trading to Africa), arose 
out of an association in London, formed in 1588. A 
eharter was granted to a joint-stock company in 1618 ; 
a second company was created in 1631 ; a third corpora- 
tion in 1662 ; another was formed in 1672 ; remodelled 
in 1695. In 1821 the company was abolished. 

African Exploration Fund, founded by Royal Geo- 
graphical Society, May, 1877. 

African Institution, founded in London in 1807, for the 
abolition of the slave trade, and the civilization of 
Africa. Many schools have been established with suc- 
cess, particularly at Sierra Leone. 

National African Company incorporated in 1882; char- 
tered, 10 July, 1886, as the Royal Niger Company. See 
Niger. 

AFRIKANDER BUND. A confederation 
of the descendants of the Dutch settlers in South 
Africa, formed to extend their influence, became 
prominent after the Transvaal war in 1881. See 
Boers and Transvaal, 1891. A congress of the 
Bund opened at Burghersdorp, 4 Nov. 1891, ur- 
gently requested the high commissioner at Cape 
Town to get the land question settled. 

AGAP^E {agape, Greek for love, charity), 
" feasts of charity," referred to Jude 12, and de- 
scribed by Tertuflian, of which the first Christians 
of all ranks as one family partook, as Christ did with 
his disciples. Disorders creeping in, these feasts 
were forbidden to be celebrated in churches by the 
councils of Laodicea (366) and Carthage (390) . They 
are still recognised by the Greek church, and are 
held in their original form weekly by the Glasites 
or Sandcmanians, and in some degree by the Mora- 
vians, Wesleyans, and others. 

AGAPEMONE (Greek, " the abode of love "), 
an establishment at Charlinch, near Bridgwater, 
Somersetshire, founded in i8<K, where Henry James 
Prince,* and his deluded followers, formerly per- 

* Prince was born in 181 1 ; educated for the medical 
profession and licensed to practise, 1832 ; gave it up for 
the church and entered St. David's college, Lampeter, 
and there commenced ultra-revivalist movements in 18^6 ; 
and finally claimed to be an incarnation of the Deity, 
with corresponding authority over his followers. On 22 
May, 1850, Thomas Robinson sought to recover the pos- 
session of his child from the care of its mother (from 
whom he had separated); the application was refused by 



sons of property, lived in common, professing to 
devote themselves to innocent recreation and to 
maintain spiritual marriage. The Agapemone is 
described by Mr. Hepworth Dixon in his" Spiritual 
Wives," published in Jan. 1868. Meetings of the 
sect were held at Hamp, near Bridgwater, Dec, 
1872. 

AGAR-TOWN, the name given to a district 
in St. Pancras parish, N. London. It consisted of 
hovels, erected on the site of the grounds of coun- 
cillor Agar, after 1841, which, from their filthy and 
uncivilised condition, were termed by Charles 
Dickens, in 185 1, the English Connemara. The 
entire district was cleared by the Midland Railway 
Company. 

AGE. Chronologers have divided the time 
between the creation and the birth of Christ into 
ages. Hesiod (735 B.C.) described the Golden, 
Silver, Brazen, and iron Ages ; see Dark Ages. 

First Age (from the Creation to the De- b.c. 

luge) . ..... 4004 — 2349 

Second Age (to the coming c f Abraham into 

Canaan) 2348 — 1922 

Third Age (to the Exodus from Egypt) . 1921 — 1491 
Fourth Age (to the founding of Solomon's 

Temple) 1490 — 1014 

Fifth Age (to the capture of Jerusalem) . 1014 — 588 

Sixth Age (to the birth of Christ) . . . 588 — 4 
Seventh Age (to the present time) 

AGE. In Greece and Rome twenty-five was 
full age for both sexes, but a greater age was 
requisite for the holding certain offices : e.g. thirty 
for tribunes ; forty-three for consuls. In England 
the minority of a male terminates at twenty-one, 
and of a female in some cases, as that of a queen, 
at eighteen. In 1547, the majority of Edward VI. 
was, by the will of his father, fixed at eighteen 
years ; previously to completing which age, his 
father, Henry VIII., had assumed the reins of 
government, in 1509. —A male of twelve may take 
the oath of allegiance ; at fourteen he may consent 
to a marriage, or -choose a guardian ; at seventeen 
he may be an executor, and at twenty-one he is of 
age ; but according to the Statute of Wills, 7 Will. 
IV. & 1 Vict. c. 26, 1837, no will made by any 
person under the age of twenty-one years shall be 
valid. A female at twelve may consent to a mar- 
riage, at fourteen she may choose a guardian, and at 
twenty-one she is of age. 

AGED PILGRIMS' FRIEND SOCIETY, 

founded 1807 ; asylums, 1826 and 1871. 

AGINCOURT, OR AziNCOTTR (N. France), 
a village where Henry V. of England, with about 
9000 men, defeated about 60,000 French on St. 
Crispin's day, 25 Oct. 1415. Of the French, there 
were, accoi'ding to some accounts, 10,000 killed, in- 
cluding the dukes of Alen^'on, Brabant, and Bar, 
the archbishop of Sens, one marshal, thirteen earls, 
ninety-two barons, and it,00 knights; and 14,000 
prisoners, among whom were the dukes of Orleans 
and Bourbon, and 7000 barons, knights, and gentle- 
men. The English lost the duke of York, the earl 

the vice-chancellor, to " save the child from the pollution 
of the parent's teaching." — On 21 Aug. 1858, Miss Louisa 
Jane Nottidge died, having transferred her property to 
Mr. H. J. Prince. Her brother, Mr. Nottidge, by an 
action, recovered from Prince 5728^, as having been 
fraudulently obtained. Extraordinary disclosures were 
made during the trial, 25 July, i860. In the autumn of 
i860, the Rev. Mr. Price, after several vain attempts, 
succeeded in rescuing his wife from the Agapemone. 
They had both been early supporters of it. 



AGINCOURT. 



22 



AGRICULTURE. 



of Suffolk, and about 20 others. St. Remy asserts 
with more probability that the English lost 1600 
men. Henry V. soon after obtained the kingdom 
of France. 

AGINCOURT, iron-clad. See Navy, 1871. 

AGITATORS (or Adjutators), officers appointed 
by the Parliamentary army in 1647, to take care of 
its interests : each troop or company had two. The 
general Cromwell was eventually obliged to re- 
press their seditious power. At a review he seized 
the ringleaders of a mutiny, shot one instantly, in 
the presence of his companions and the forces on the 
ground, and thus restored discipline. Hume. — 
Daniel O'Connell, the agitator of Ireland, was born 
in 1775. He began to agitate at the elections in 
1820; was elected for Clare, 5 July, 1828; the 
election being declared void, he was re-elected 30 
July, 1829. Aft^r the passing of the Catholic 
emancipation bill, he agitated in vain for the repeal 
of the union, 1834 to 1843. He died 15 May, 1847. 
■ — Richard Cobden and John Bright were the chief 
-Anti-corn-law agitators, 1841-45. — Mr. Bright be- 
came a Reform agitator in 1866. 

AGNADELLO (N.E.Italy). Here Louis XII. 
of France gained a great victory over the Venetians, 
some of whose troops were accused of cowardice and 
treachery; 14 May, 1509. The conflict is also 
termed the battle of the Rivolta. 

AGNOIT^E (from agnoia, Greek, ignorance). 
I. A sect founded by Theophronius of Cappadocia 
about 370 : said to have doubted the omniscience of 
God. II. The followers of Themistius of Alexandria, 
about 530, who held peculiar views as to the body 
of Christ, and doubted his divinity. 

AGNOSTICS) name given to philosophers who 
assert that we have no knowledge but what we 
acquire by means of our senses, about 1876. Mr. 
Herbert Spencer, Professor Huxley, and Mr. John 
Fiske are said to be agnostics. 

AGONISTICI (from agon, Greek, a conflict), 
also termed circutores, a branch of the Donatists 
{which see) in the 4th century. They preached 
with great boldness, and incurred severe persecu- 
tion. 

AGRA (N. W. India), founded by Akbar in 
1566, was the capital of the Great Mogul; see 
Mausoleums. In 1658 Aurungzebe removed to 
Delhi. — The fortress of Agra, " the key of Hindo- 
stan," in the war with the Mahrattas surrendered 
to the British forces, under general Lake, 17 Oct. 
1803, after one day's siege : 162 pieces of ordnance 
and 240,000/. were captured.— In June, 1857, the 
city was abandoned to the mutineers by the Euro- 
peans, who took refuge in the fort, from which they 
were rescued by major Montgomery and colonel 
Greathed. Visit of the prince of Wales, 25 Jan., 
1876. — Allahabad was made capital of the N.W. 
jrovinces of India, instead of Agra, in 1861. 

AGRAM (formerly Zagrab), a city of Croatia, 
Hungary, residence of the bau; suffered much by 
earthquakes, 9—12 Nov. 1880. See Croatia. 

AGRARIAN LAW (Agraria lex), decreed 
an equal division among the Roman people of all 
the lands acquired by conquest, limiting the acres 
which each person should enjoy. It was first pro- 
posed by the consul Spurius Cassius, 486 B.C., and 
occasioned his judicial murder when he went out of 
office in 48^. — An agrarian law was passed by the 
tribune Licinius Stolo, 376; and for proposing fur- 
ther amendments Tiberius Gracchus in 133, and 



his brother Cornelius in 121, were murdered. Livius 
Drusus, a tribune, was murdered for the same cause, 
91. Julius Caesar propitiated the plebeians by pass- 
ing an agrarian law in 59. — In modern times 
the term has been misinterpreted to signify a divi- 
sion of the lands of the rich among the poor, fre- 
quently proposed by demagogues, such as Gracchus 
Babeuf, editor of the Tribun du Peuple, in 1794. 
In 1 796 he conspired against the directory with the 
view of obtaining a division of property, was con- 
demned, and killed himself, 27 May, 1797. 

AGRICOLA'S WALL, see Roman Walls. 

AGRICULTURAL CHILDREN ACT, 

prohibits employment of children under eight years- 
of age, and provides for the education of older 
children, 5 Aug. 1873. 

AGRICULTURAL HALL, Islington, N. 
London, chiefly for the meetings of the Smithfield 
Club. The foundation stone was laid by the presi- 
dent, lord Berners, 5 Nov. 1861. The hall has- 
been much used for industrial exhibitions, public- 
meetings, equestrian and pedestrian performances,, 
concerts, &c. The hall was visited by the queen, 
5 March, 1891. See Horses. 

It was opened for an exhibition of dogs, 24 June, 1862 j 
horses and donkeys exhibited, July, 1864, and annually 
since. 

First Smithfield annual cattle show here, 6 Dec. 1862. 

A great reform demonstration was made here, 30 July, 
1866. 

Grand ball to the Belgian visitors, volunteers and garde 
civique ; prince of Wales present, 18 July, 1867. 

Excellent horse-shows held here, May, 1868, et seq. 

Theatrical bull-fights here stopped, on account of cruelty, 
28 Mar. 1870. 

Workmen's International exhibition opened by the- 
prince of Wales, 16 July, 1870. 

National Exhibition of machinery, appliances, manufac- 
tures, and produce, opened 20 Sept. 1879. 

Exhibition by the building trades, opened 12 April, 1880. 

Tournaments (which see) held here 21 June, 1880, et seq. 

International food exhibition, opened 13 Oct. 1880. 

Milling exhibition (under direction of National Associa- 
tion of British and Irish Millers), 10-18 May, 1881. 

" Arcadia," rural entertainment, July to Sept. 1887. 

National Agricultural Hall, W. Kensington ; foun- 
dation laid by the carl of Zetland 21 July, 1885 ; main 
hall 440 feet long, 250 feet wide and 100 feet high ; 
with a minor hall for offices, &c. ; the roof consists of 
iron and glass ; designed by the late Mr. Henry E. 
Coe ; present architect Mr. James Edmeston ; con- 
tractors Messrs. Lucas and others ; cost of erection 
about 131,000/. ; named Olympia. Opened with horse- 
racing and other diversions 27 Dec. 1886 ; horse show 
opened 14 May, 1887 ; (another 16 May, 1889) ; opened 
by the Paris Hippodrome Company 22 Oct. 1887. See 
Irish Exhibition. 

AGRICULTURAL HOLDINGS ACT, 

passed 13 Aug. 1875, relates to compensations of 
landlords and tenants, for improvements, &c. Two 
other important acts : for England 46 & 47 Vict. c. 
61, for Scotland, c. 62, were passed 25 Aug. 1883, 
to begin 1 Jan. 1884. Another act, introduced by 
Mr. H. Chaplin, 22 Feb., passed 27 June, 1892. 

AGRICULTURE. " Abel was a keeper of 
sheep, but Cain was a tiller of the ground," Genesis 
iv. 2. 

Cato the Censor (died 149 B.C.) and Varro (died 28 B.C.) 
were eminent Roman writers on agriculture. 

Virgil's Georgics, 30 B.C. Agriculture in England im- 
proved by the Romans after a.d. 44. 

Fitzherbert's " Book of Husbaudry," printed 1524. 

Tusser's " Five Hundred Points of Husbandry," 1562. 

Blythe's "Improver," 1649. 

Haitlib's " Legacy," 1650. 

Jethro Tull's " Horse-hoeing Husbandly," 1701. 



AGRICULTURE. 



23 



AGRICULTURE. 



About the end of the 18th century, fallowing was gradu- 
ally superseded by turnips and green crops. 

Board of Agriculture, proposed by Sir John Sinclair, 
afterwards president, established 1793. Arthur Young 
many years secretary. Communications published in 
7 vols., 1797 — 1811. 

In Aug. 1855, a committee presented a report on the best 
mode of obtaining accurate Agricultural Statistics. 
There were, in 1831, 1,055,982 agricultural labourers 
in Great Britain, and in Ireland, 1,131,715. 

Acreage of crops, and number of cattle, sheep, and pigs 
in Great Britain and Ireland, beginning with 1866, 
published in the annual " Statistical Abstract," since 
1869. See p. 22. 

It was reckoned by the Agricultural Committee, that the 
cultivation of waste lands would yield above 20,000,000?. 
a year. It was calculated in 1854 that there were in 
England 32,160,000 acres in cultivation, of the annual 
value of 37,412,000?. Since that time, much land has 
been brought into cultivation ; see Wheat. 

" History of Agriculture and Prices in England (1259- 
1702)," by Professor James T. Bogers, published, June, 
1866-1887. 

Sir James Caird, eminent agriculturist and writer, die 

9 Feb. , 1892. 

Agricultural Societies. — The earliest mentioned in 
the British Isles was the Society of Improvers of 
Agriculture in Scotland, instituted in 1723. A Dublin 
Agricultural Society (1749) gave a stimulus to agricul- 
ture in Ireland ; its origin is attributed to Mr. Prior of 
Rathdowney, Queen's County, in 1731. The Bath and 
"West of England Society established, 1777 ; and the 
Highland Society of Scotland, 1784. County Agricul- 
tural Societies are now numerous. 

London Board of Agriculture established by act of par- 
liament, 1793. 

Francis, duke of Bedford, a great promoter of agricul- 
ture, died 2 March, 1802. 

Royal Agricultural Society of England established in 
1838, by noblemen and gentlemen, the chief landed 
proprietors in the kingdom, and incorporated by royal 
charter, 26 March, 1840. It holds two meetings 
annually, one in London the other in the country. It 
awards prizes, and publishes a valuable journal. 

1839. Oxford. 1857. Salisbury. 1874. Bedford. 

1840. Cambridge. 1858. Chester. 1875. Taunton. 

1 84 1. Liverpool. 1859. Warwick. 1876. Birmingham 

1842. Bristol. i860. Canterbury. 1877. Liverpool. 

1843. Derby. 186 c. Leeds. 1878. Bristol. 

1844. Southamp- 1862. Battersea. 1879. London. 

ton. 1863. Worcester. 1880. Carlisle. 

1845. Shrewsbury. 1864. Newcastle- 1881. Derby. 

1846. Newcastle. on-Tyne. 1882. Reading. 

1847. Northamp- 1865. Plymouth. 1883. York. 

ton. 1866. Bury St. Ed- 1884. Shrewsbury. 

1848. York. munds. 1885. Preston. 

1849. Norwich. 1867. No meeting. 1886. Norwich. 

1850. Exeter. 1868. Leicester. 1887. Newcastle- 

1851. Windsor. 1869. Manchester. on-Tyne. 

1852. Lewes. 1870. Oxford. 1888. Nottingham 

1853. Gloucester. 1871. Wolver- 1889. Windsor. 

1854. Lincoln. hampton. 1890. Plymouth. 

1855. Carlisle. 1872. Cardiff. 1891. Doncaster. 

1856. Chelmsford. 1873. Hull. 1892. Warwick. 
Jubilee state banquet at St. James's Palace, prince of 

Wales in the chair, 26 March, 1889. 

Institute of Agriculture ; South Kensington; courses 
of lectures given, Oct. 1883. 

International Agricultural Exhibition, promoted by the 
Society, and held at Kilburn, London, N.W. Occupied 
106 acres. It was opened by the prince of Wales 30 
June, visited by the Queen in July, and closed finally, 

10 July, 1879. 

Royal Agricultural Society of Ireland, instituted 1841. 

Farmers' Club, 1843. 

" Chambers of Agriculture " were established in France in 
1851. In Great Britain, 1868, they had increased from 
36 to 70. A journal commenced early in 1868. 

Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester organised, 1842; 
chartered, 1845. 

Agricultural College in Wiltshire ; its establishment pro- 
posed by the Mercers' Company, London, by the gift 
of 6o,oooJ. Oct. 1888. 

Suffolk Agricultural College at Bury St. Edmunds 
opened 1874. Other colleges opened. 

British Dairy Fanners' Association. — Inaugurated ; first 



show opened at Agricultural Hall, London, 24-28 Oct. 
1876. 

Royal Agricultural Benevolent Institution. — It relieves 
farmers and their widows and orphans ; founded chiefly 
by Mr. Mechi, i860. 

The Associated Agriculturists of Great Britain, a limited 
company, proposed April, 1881. 

Agricultural Chemistry. — Sir Humphry Davy de- 
livered lectures on this subject (afterwards published), 
at the instance of the Board of Agriculture, in 1812 ; 
but it excited little attention till the publication of 
Liebig's work in 1840, which made a powerful impres- 
sion. Liebig's " Letters on Agriculture " appeared in 
1859. Boussingault's " Economie Rurale " appeared in 
1844 ; his " Agronomie " in 1860-8. He died May, 
1887. Great progress made by the experiments of 
Lawes, Gilbert, Pasteur, and others. 

Agricultural Gangs. — In the spring of 1867, most 
painful exposures were made of the prevalence of much 
cruelty and immorality in the gang system (in which 
boys and girls are employed) in several of the eastern 
and midland counties ; and in consequence an act was 
passed 20 Aug. for regulating these gangs, licensing 
gang-masters, &c. 

A Union of Agricultural Labourers, managed -chiefly by 
Joseph Arch, formerly a labourer, afterwards a Metho- 
dist preacher (M.P. 1885), was inaugurated at Leaming- 
ton, Warwickshire, 29 March, 1872. The movement 
spread, being countenanced by Auberon Herbert, M.P. , 
and others. The Union met in London, Arch re-elected 
president, 16, 17 May 1877 ; at Bedford, 16 Sept. 1881. 

Lock-out of agricultural labourers belonging to the 
Union (lasted 18 weeks, costing the Union much 
money), began at Alderton, Suffolk, March, 1872. 

Dispute between Lincolnshire farmers and labourers 
settled, 18-20 May ; Suffolk and Norfolk farmers 
refuse compromise, about 25 May ; the Union ceased 
to support the loeked-out labourers, leaving them to 
emigration, or to seek employment, 27 July, 1872. 

The agitation subsided ; the labourers were employed, 
autumn, 1875 ; agricultural return for Great Britain, 
1873 ; reported steady increase in prosperity, 1875. 

A partial strike and lock-out of labourers in Kent and 
Sussex, Oct. — Dec. 1878. 

The delegates of the National Agricultural Labourers' 
Union met, 26 Oct. 1875. 

Very great agricultural depression through bad seasons, 
and foreign importations ; many landlords remit large 
part of rents, 1877—9. 

Royal Commission of Inquiry appointed 4 July, 1879. 

Committee of Council on Agriculture appointed, Earl of 
Rosebery president, about 27 April, 1883. 

The Agricultural Returns of Great Britain were issued 
for the first time by the newly constituted Agricul- 
tural Department, 1883. Second return presented, 
27 Oct. 1884, and continued annually. 

The Departmental Committee recommend State aid for 
agricultural education, dairy schools, &c, March, 
1888. 

A new Board of Agriculture was established by Act 
passed 12 Aug. ; Henry Chaplin appointed president 
and cabinet minister, 5 Sept. The board assumed the 
duties previously fulfilled by a department of the privy 
council, 1889. Herbert Gardner, president, Aug. 1892. 

At Paris, 1889; at Vienna, 2 Sept., 1890; The Hague, 
7 Sept., 1891. 

Turnips, swedes and cabbages much injured in N.E. 
England and S.E. Scotland by the diamond-back 
moth, summer, 1891, 1892. 

The following table, drawn up by Mr. William Couling, 
C.E., in 1827, is extracted from the Third Report of 
the Emigration Committee : — 



Countries. 



England . 
Wales . 
Scotland . 
Ireland . 
Brit. Isles 



Culti- 
vated. 



ACRES. 

25,632,000 

3,117,000 

5,265,000 

12,125,280 

383,690 



Wastes 
capable of 
improve- 
ment. 



ACRES. 
3,454,000 
530,000 
5,950,000 
4,000,000 
l66,OO0 



Unpro- 
fitable. 



Total. 



ACRES. ACRES. 

3,256,400 32,342,400 
1,105,000 I 4,752,000 
8,523,930 !I9,738,930 
2,416,664 19,441,944 
569,469 1,119,159 



46,522,970 15,000,000 15,871,463 '77,394,433 



AGEIGENTUM. 



24 



AIE. 



At that period it was comjmted that the soil of the 
United Kingdom was annually cropped in the following 
proportions : 

ACRES. 

Wheat 7,000,000 

Barley and rye 1,950,000 

Potatoes, oats and beans 6,500,000 

Turnips, cabbages, and other vegetables . . 1,150,000 

Clover, rye-grass, &c. 1,7s . 000 

Fallow . 2,800,000 

Hop-grounds 60,000 

Nursery grounds 20,000 

Inclosed fruit, flower, kitchen and other gardens 1 10,000 

Pleasure grounds 100,000 

Land depastured by cattle . . . 21,000,000 

Hedge-rows, copses, and woods . . . . 2,000,000 
Ways, water, &c 2,100,000 

Cultivated land 
Crops of Great Britain and Ireland :- 



1866. Great Britain . 

Ireland . . 
1870. Great Britain . 

Ireland . . 
1876. Great Britain . 

Ireland . . 
1883. Great Britain . 

Ireland . . 
1887. Great Britain . 

Ireland . . 

1889. Great Britain . 

Ireland . . 

1890. Great Britain . 
Ireland . . 



Corn 


Green 


Crops. 


Crops. 


Acres. 


Acres. 


9,252,784 


3,562,434 


2,174,033 


1,481,525 


9,548,041 


3,586,730 


2,173,109 


1,498,719 


9,194,669 


3,571,874 


1,848,487 


1,363,224 


8,618,675 


3,454,579 


1,678,125 


1,230,253 


8,145,894 


3,463.706 


1,562,463 


1,229,092 


8,075,172 


3,299,647 


1,535,102 


1,219,549 


8,033,133 


3,297,528 


1,514,607 


1,214,396 



46.540,000 

Grasses, 

Acres. 

15,964,553 
12,006,191 
16,577,740 

18,056,217 

19,461,295 

20,452,422 

20,743,161 

20,826,311 



AGEIGENTUM (now Girgenti), a city of 
Sicily, built about 582 B.C. It was governed by 
tyrants from 566 to 470; among: these were — 
Phalaris (see Brazen Bull) ; Alcamanes ; Theron 
who, with his step-father Gelon, defeated the 
Carthaginians at Himera, 480 : and Thrasydseus, his 
son, expelled in 470; when a republic was estab- 
lished. It was taken by the Carthaginians in 405 
B.C., and held, except during short intervals, till 
gained by the ltomans in 262 B.C. From a.d. 825 
till 1086 it was held by the Saracens. 

AHMEDNUGGUE (W. India), once capital 
of a state founded by Ahmed Shah, about 1493. 
After having fallen into the hands of the Moguls 
and the Mahrattas, it was taken from the latter by 
Arthur Wellesley, 12 Aug. 1803, and restored to the 
British dominions, June, 18 1 7. 

AID, see Ayde. 

AID TO THE SICK AND WOUNDED, 

National Society for. On 4 Aug. 1870, soon 

after the breaking out of the Franco-German war, 
a meeting was held in London, which established 
this society under the rules of the Geneva Conven- 
tion, which see. 

The Queen, patron ; the Prince of Wales, president ; 
col. Loyd- Lindsay, chairman of committees ; ac- 
tive supporters, duke of Manchester, earl of Shaf- 
tesbury, lords Overstone and Bury, sir Harry Ver- 
ney, general sir John Burgoyne, surgeon-general 
Longinore, and captain (aft. sir) Douglas Galton. 
The operations were chiefly directed by capt. 
Henry Brackenbury, at the seat of war, and by 
Mr. John Furley and general sir Vincent Eyre. 

A fruitless meeting to promote the incorporation of 
the society. It was then reported that 296,298?. 
had. been received ; together with stores valued at 
45,000?. 1 Aug. 1871 

Col. Loyd Lindsay conveyed to Versailles and Paris 
from the society 40,000?. , equally divided between 
the Germans and French (gratefully acknow- 
ledged) ... . about 11 Oct. 1870 



The crown-prince of Prussia wrote to colonel Loyd 
Lindsay: — "In this, as on other occasions of 
distress, the help of the English public has been 
poured out with a liberal and an impartial hand. 
The gifts which have been offered in a truly 
Christian spirit have excited a feeling of heartfelt 
gratitude among those on whose behalf I speak." 

2 Nov. 



1870 



Subscription Lists published : 

3rd, 17 Aug. . 2,377?- 50th, 11 Oct. . 243,444?. 
10th, 25 Aug. . 33,339 60th, 26 Oct. . 260,849 
20th, 6 Sept. . 68,677 70th, 3° Nov - • 280,598 
30th, 17 Sept. . 153,214 78th, 7 Jan. (re- 
40th, 29 Sept. . 208,147 ceii>«? to 31 Dec. 289,674 

The society afforded much help during the Servian war, 
July— September, 1876, and the Russo-Turkish war, 
1877-8. 

The Princess of Wales' branch of the society closed with 
a surplus of 6 417?. June, 1886. 

AILANTINE, see Silk. 

AIE or ATMOSPHERE. Anaximenes of Miletus 
(530 B.C.) declared air to be a self-existent deity, 
and the first cause of everything created. Posidonius 
(about 79 B.C.) calculated the height of the atmo- 
sphere to be 800 stadia. The pressure of air, about 
15 lbs. to the square inch, was discovered by Galileo, 
1 564, and demonstrated by Torricelli, (who invented 
the barometer) about A. d. 1643, and was found by 
Pascal, in 1647, to vary with the height. Halley, 
Newton, and others, up to the present time have 
illustrated the agency and influences of this great 
power by various experiments, and numerous inven- 
tions have followed; among others, the Air-Gun 
of Guter of Nuremberg about 1656; the Air-pump, 
invented by Otto von Guericke of Magdeburg about 
1650; improved by Robert Boyle in 1657, by Robert 
Hooke about 1659 ; * and the Air-pipe, invented by 
Mr. Sutton, a brewer of London, about 1756. The 
density and elasticity of air were determined by 
Boyle ; and its relation to light and sound by Hooke, 
Newton, and Derham. The extension of our atmo- 
sphere above the surface of the earth, has been long 
considered as about 45 miles. — Its composition^ 
about 77 parts of nitrogen, 21 of oxygen, and 2 of 
other matters (such as carbonic acid , watery vapour, 
a trace of ammonia, &c.) was ascertained by Priestley 
(who discovered oxygen gas in 1774), Scheele 
(1775), Lavoisier, and Cavendish; and its laws of 
refraction were investigated by Dr. Bradley, 1737. 
The researches of Dr. Schonbein, a German chemist 
of Basel, between 1840 and 1859, led to his descrip- 
tion of two states of the oxygen in the air, which he 
calls ozone and antozone. Dr. Stenhouse's Air-Jilters 
(in which powdered charcoal is used) were first set 
up at the Mansion-house, London, in 1854. In 1858, 
Dr. R. Angus Smith made known a chemical 
method of ascertaining the amount of organic matter 
in the air, and published his "Air and Rain" in 
1872. See Oxygen, Nitrogen, Ozone, Atmospheric 
Railway, Balloons, and Pneumatic Despatch. 
The Aero-steam Engine, the invention of George Warsop, 
a mechanic of Nottingham, who, by employing com- 
pressed air united with steam, is said to have effected 
the saving of 47 per cent, of fuel. The plan was re- 
ported to the British Association, at Exeter, in Aug. 
1869, and was said to act successfully in a tug steamer 
(for China) in the Thames, 26 March, 1870. Mr. Edward 

* Sprengel's excellent air-pump, in which water or 
mercury is employed, was invented in 1863. 

t Air, as well as its gaseous components, has been 
compressed into the liquid state by means of great 
pressure and intense cold, 1877-8, by Raoul Pictet of 
Geneva, and Cailletet of Paris, Dec. 1877, Jan. 1878. At 
the Royal Institution, 5 June, 1885, professor James 
Dewar exhibited Liquid Air obtained at the temperature 
of — 192° cent. 



AIE-GAS. 



2-5 



ALABAMA. 



Field, in his new motive power, introduced a small 
volume of steam into a large volume of heated air, and 
effected an economy of 12^ to 20 per cent, of steam. 
The system was exhibited in London, July, 1891. 
Col. Beaumont's air-engine for propelling railway car- 
riages, tried at Woolwich, reported successful (a little 
steam is used), 6 Oct. 1880. His system largely em- 
ployed in various ways by the Paris Compressed Air 
company, described to the British Association at 
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Sept. 1889. 
Victor Popp applies compressed air as a motive power to 

clocks, 1881. 
An air-telegraph, in which the waves of air in a tube are 
employed instead of electricity, invented by sig. Guat- 
tari, was exhibited in London in 1870. It obtained a 
gold medal in Naples. 
Isaac Wilkinson patented a method of compressing air 
by a column of water in 1757, and William Mann pa- 
tented stage pumping by compressed air in 1829. The 
force of compressed air was employed in boring the 
Cenis tunnel (see under Alps). 
Tram-cars driven by compressed air on the Mekarski 
system in N. London, for a time, June, 1883 ; resumed, 
after improvements made, for a time, 1885 ; again for 
a time, Feb. 1888. 

AIE-GAS-LlGHT-COMPANY: proposed to use 
hydro-carburetted air as a source of light ; estab- 
lished 1872. 

. AIX-LA-CHAPELLE (Aachen), a Roman 
city, now in Rhenish Prussia. Several ecclesiastical 
councils held here (799-1165). Here Charlemagne 
was born, 742, and died, 814 ; having built the mins- 
ter (796-804), and conferred many privileges on the 
city, in which fifty-five emperors have since been 
crowned. The city was taken by the French in 
Dec. 1792 ; retaken by the Austrians, March, 1793 ; 
by the French, Sept. 1794: ceded to Prussia, 1814. 
Population, 1890, 103,491. 

First Treaty of Peace signed here was between France and 
Spain, when France yielded Franche Comte, but re- 
tained her conquests in the Netherlands, 2 May, 1668. 

The second celebrated treaty between Great Britain, 
France, Holland, Germany, Spain, and Genoa. (By it 
the treaties of Westphalia in 1648, of Nimeguen in 1678 
and 1679, of Byswiek in 1697, of Utrecht in 1713, of 
Baden in 1714, of the Triple Alliance in 1717, of the 
Quadruple Alliance in 1718, and of Vienna in 1738, 
were renewed and confirmed.) Signed on the part of 
England by John, earl of Sandwich, and sir Thomas 
Robinson, 7 Oct. 1748. 

Congress of the sovereigns of Austria, Russia and Prussia, 
assisted by ministers from England and France, met 
at Aix-la-Chapelle, and a convention signed, 9 Oct. 
1818, which led to the withdrawal of the army of occu- 
pation from France. 

AIX EOADS, see Rochefort. 

AIZNADIN or AJNADIN (Syria). Here 
the Mahometans defeated the army of the emperor 
Heraclius, 13 July, 633. They took Damascus in 634. 

AJACCIO, see Corsica. 

, AKEEMAN (Bessarabia). After being several 
times taken, it was ceded to Russia in 1812. Here 
the celebrated treaty between Russia and Turkey 
was concluded, 4 Sept. 1826, which secured for the 
former the navigation of the Black Sea, recognised 
the Danubian principalities, &c. 

AKHALZIKH (Armenia). Near here prince 
Paskiewitch and the Russians defeated the Turks, 
24 Aug., and gained the city, 28 Aug. 1828. 

ALABAMA, a Southern state, originally part 
of Georgia, N. America. The country was first 
settled by the French, 1702, who built Mobile, 17 12 ; 
part of it was ceded to Great Britain, 1763. It 
was gradually acquired by the United States, and 
was made a state in 1819; commercial metropolis, 
Mobile. It seceded from the union by an ordinance 



passed 11 Jan. 1861, was reunited in 1865 ; and re- 
admitted to congress, 1868. 

Murder of about 26 negro miners at the Carbon Hill 
coal mines, Walker county, by white strikers, 
30, 31 Jan.— rioting quelled by troops, i, 2 Feb. 1891. 
Population, 1890, 1,513,017. 

ALABAMA, a steam vessel of 900 tons, with 
engines of 300 horse-power, constructed by Messrs. 
Laird at Birkenhead, for the confederate service ; 
launched 15 May, 1862. During the judicial en- 
quiries after her character, she sailed from the 
Mersey, 28 July, the day before the British govern- 
ment telegraphed to detain her. Under the command 
of capt. Semmes, she did great damage to the 
American mercantile shipping, until her destruc- 
tion by the federal ironclad Kearsage, capt. "Wiuslow, 
off Cherbourg, 19 June, 1864. Several of his crew 
were saved by Mr. John Lancaster, in his yacht. Ad- 
miral Semmes died Sept. 1877. 
Discussion between the two governments, respecting 

claims for damage by the Alabama . . 1865 

A fruitless convention for their settlement, by a 

commission signed at London . . 10 Nov. 1868 
Another convention, signed by the earl of Clarendon 
and Mr. Reverdy Johnson, signed 14 Jan. ; re- 
jected by the United States senate . 13 April, 1869 
Joint commission (British, earl de Grey, sir Stafford 
Northcote and others ; American, secretary Fisk, 
general Schenk, and others) to settle fishery dis- 
putes, Alabama claims, &c. Announced, 9 Feb., 
met at Washington, 27 Feb., signed a treaty at 

Washington 8 May, 1871 

Commission for Anglo-American claims, met at 

Washington 25 Sept. ,, 

Formal meeting of the arbitration commission at 

Geneva ; (adjourns to 15 June) . 18 Dec. ,, 
The British and American cases, presented 20 Dec. 
Great excitement in England at the introduction 
of enormous claims for indirect losses into the 
American case, loss by transfer of trade from 
American to British ships, increased rates of 
marine insurance, and losses incident to the pro- 
longation of the war Jan. 1872 

Correspondence between the governments : British 
despatch, 3 Feb. ; reply, 1 March ; continued ; 
counter cases presented at Geneva . 15 April, ,, 
Continued correspondence, draft for a supplemen- 
tary treaty ; by which both nations agree in future 
to abstain from claims for indirect losses pre- 
sented to American senate ; approved 25 May, ,, 
The British government object to certain modifica- 
tions ; further correspondence ; great excitement 
in parliament ; proposed adjournment of the 
meeting of the arbitration commission ; differences 
about the mode of procedure ; congress adjourns, 
leaving the affair unsettled . . 10 June, „ 
The Arbitration tribunal; consisting of count Fred- 
eric Sclopis for Italy, president, baron Staempil 
for Switzerland ; vicomte d'ltajuba for Brazil ; Mr. 
G. F. Adams for United States, and sir Alexander 
E. Cockburn for Great Britain, meet at Geneva ; 
The British government presents a note of the ex- 
isting differences; the conference adjourns, 15 June, 
Further adjournment, 17 June ; the arbitrators 
voluntarily declare that the indirect claims are 
invalid, and contrary to international law, 19 
June ; president Grant consents to their with- 
drawal 25 June, 

The British government withdraw their application 

for adjournment of the conference . 27 June, , 
The Arbitration commission records its decision 
against the indirect claims, and the proposed leng 
adjournment, and adjourns to 15 July 28 June, , 
Final meeting ; all the arbitrators agree to award 
damages for the injuries done by the Alabama: 
four, for those done by the Florida : and three for 
those done by the Shenandoah. The judgment 
not signed by sir A. Cockburn, whose reasons 
were published ; the damages awarded (including 
interest), about 3,229,166?. 13s. 41/. ; those claimed 
9,476,166?. 13s. 4<1 (Decision based on the ad- 
mission of a new ex-post facto international law, 
by Great Britain by the treaty of Washington.) 

14 Sept. 11 



ALADJA DAGH. 



26 



ALBANY. 



1873 



1876 
1881 



The judgment of sir A. Coekbum (a powerful and 
indignant reply to unjust, aspersions, admitting 
the award for the Alabama; opposing the other 
awards ; yet counselling submission to the judg- 
ment), signed 14 Sept. aud published in London 
Gazette with other documents . . 20 Sept. 

It is stated, that about 1,250,000?. too much were 
awarded Feb. 

3,200,000?. were voted; the receipt of 3,196,874?. 
acknowledged by Mr. Secretary Fish 9 Sept. 

All awards made ; about 8,000,000 dollars surplus, 

21 Dee. 

The surplus increasing by interest .... 

About 9,500,000 dollars . . . -31 March, 

Grand historical picture of the International 
Alabama Commissioner s, painted by Mr. F. B. 
Carpenter, of New York, presented to the queen 
by Mrs. W.Carson, of Newburgh, on the Hudson, 
arrived at Windsor .... 20 Feb. 



ALADJA DAGH, near Kars, Armenia. Here 
the Turks, under Ahmed Mukhtar, after severe con- 
flicts, were totally defeated by the Russians under 
the grandduke Michael, and generals Loris Meli- 
koff, Lazareff, and Heimann, 14, 15 Oct. 1877. 

The Turkish army was divided and broken up, the strong 
camp taken, with many prisoners, including 7 pashas 
and 38 guns. The Russian strategy was highly com- 
mended. This overwhelming disaster, which led to 
the investment of Kars, was attributed to Mukhtar's 
maintaining too extended lines which were turned (20 
miles with only 40,000 men ; when 200,000 were re- 
quired). 

ALAND ISLES (Gulf of Bothnia), taken from 
Sweden by Russia, 1809; see Bomarsund. 

ALANI, a Tartar race, invaded Parthia, 75. 
They joined the Huns in invading the Roman 
empire, and were defeated by Theodosius, 379-382. 
They were subdued by the Visigoths, 452, and 
eventually incorporated with them. 

ALARCOS (Central Spain). Here the Spaniards 
under Alfonso IX., king of Castile, were totally 
defeated by the Moors, 19 July, 1195 

ALASKA, the name given to the Russian pos- 
sessions in North America, purchased by the United 
States by treaty, 13 March, 1867, for 7,200,000 
dollars, received 1 Aug. 1868, when it was made a 
territory. Sitka is the principal station. Popu- 
lation, 1880, 33,426; 1890, 30,329. 

ALBA LONGA, an ancient city of Italy, said 
to have been founded by Ascanius, son of jEneas, 
1052 B.C. Its history is mythical. 

Amulius, the brother of Numitor, seizes the throne, 
794 ; killed by Romulus, who restores his grand- 
father Numitor 754 

Romulus builds and fortif es Rome (see Rome) 753 

Alba conquered by Tullus Hostilius, and incor- 
porated with Rome (see Horatii) . . . 665 

ALBANIA, a province in European Turkey, 
formerly part of the ancient Epirus. The Albanians 
became independent during the decline of the Greek 
empire. They were successfully attacked by the 
Turks in 1388. About 1443, under George Castriot 
(Scanderbeg), they baffled the efforts of Mahomet 
II. to subdue them till the siege of Scutari in 1478, 
when they submitted. Ali Pacha, of Janina, in 
1812, defeated the Turkish pachas, and governed 
Albania ably, but cruelly and despotically, till Feb. 
1822, when he and his two sons were slain, after 
surrendering under a solemn promise of safety. A 
revolt in Albania was suppressed in 1843. 
An Albanian league (favoured by the Turks) formed 
to resist the cession of any part of the country to 
Austria and Montenegro in April, said to have 
caused the death of Mehemet Ali . . 7 Sept. 1878 



The country semi-independent . . . April, 1879 

Army formed rebels against Turkey . . April, 1880 

The league forces defeated in an attack on Dervish Pasha 
in Uskub between Pristina and Prisrend 19 April ; he 
reported the country settled, but asked for reinforce- 
ments ; more fighting ; Albanians said to be defeated, 
and struggle almost over, 12 May, 1881. 

Revolt of chiefs, severe rights, 2, 3, June, 1883. Turks 
defeated with loss ; reported dispersion of ,the chiefs 
about 8 June. Continued fighting 12 June et seq. 
The Turks successful in fight ; the Albanians submit, 
announced 21 June. Unsettled 25 June. Insurrection 
subsiding about 19 July. Albanians appeal to the 
Powers for annexation to Greece, about 3 Nov. 
General disorder and much brigandage reported, Aug. 
1884. See Dulcigno. 

The Albanian society established at Bucharest for the 
political, moral, and intellectural development of the 
Albanians has been reorganized, and the sultan has 
been asked to accept the protectorate, May, 1889. 

Albanian attacks on Montenegro, &c, checked by the 
Turks, July, Aug., 1890. 

North Albania reported to be in a state of sanguinary 
anarchy, middle Dec, 1890. 

Outrages committed by a band of 250. Arnauts, Jan., 
1891. 

League of Albanian chiefs formed to resist the Turks, 
Nov., 1891. 

Martial law established on the confines of Montenegro, 
Dec, 1891. 

ALBANS, ST. (Hertfordshire), near the Roman 
Verulam, derived its name from Alban the British 
protomartyr, said to have been beheaded during the 
persecution by Diocletian, 23 June, 286. A stately 
monastery to his memory was erected about 795, 
by Off'a, king of Mercia, who granted it many 
privileges. Its superior sat as premier abbot in 
parliament till the dissolution in 1539. A meeting 
was held 22 June, 1871, to raise a fund for the 
restoration of the abbey, the earl of Verulam, chair- 
man. The results were favourable, and the work 
was confided to Mr. G. Gilbert Scott, who issued a 
report in June, 1872. The work was carried on 
under the superintendence of Sir Edmund Beckett 
(afterwards Lord Grimthorpe), who contributed 
50,000/. towards it. Mr. H. Hucks Gibbs also con- 
tributed largely to the restoration (1889) . The nave 
was opened 21 Oct. 1885. Verulam was built on the 
site of the capital of Cassivclaunus, taken by Julius 
Cassar, 54 B. c. It was retaken after much slaughter 
byBoadiceaorBunduica, queen of the Iceni, A.n. 61. 
First Battle of St. Albans, when the Lancastrians were 

defeated, their leader, Edmund duke of Somerset 

slain, and king Henry VI. taken prisoner, by the 

duke of York and his partisans, 22 or 23 May, 1455. 
Second battle, queen Margaret totally defeated the Yorkists 

under the earl of Warwick, and rescued the king, 

Shrove Tuesday, 17 Feb. 1461. 
St. Albans incorporated by Edward VI. 1553. 
Disfranchised for bribery, 17 June, 1852. 
St. A/bans Raid, see United States, Oct. 1864. 
St. Albans Murder, see Trials, 18S0. 
Act passed to make arrangements for erecting a bishopric 

of St. Albans, 2q June 1875. See constituted, 30 April ; 

made a city, 28 Aug. 1877. Population, 1881, 10,031 ; 

1891, 12,895. 

BISHOPS. 

1877. Thomas Legh Claughton (trans, from Rochester) ; 

resigned 21 March, 1890; died 25 July, 1892. 
1890. John Wogan Festing, May. 

ALBAN' S, ST., CHURCH, Holborn, see 
under Church of England, 1867. 

ALBANY OR ALBAINN, the ancient name 
of the Scottish Highlands. Robert Stewart, the 
brother of King Robert IIL, was created the first 
duke of Albany in 1398, aud the title has ever since 
been connected with the crown of Scotland. The 
young pretender, prince Charles Edward, and his 
wife took the title of count and countess of Albany. 
See York. 



ALBANY. 



ALBERT UNIVERSITY. 



DQKES OF ALBANY. 

1398. Robert ; regent ; 1406 ; died 3 Sei/t. 1420. 

1420. Murdoch, son ; regent ; executed' for treason by 

king James I., 1424. 
1452. [Alexander, brother of king James 11/; acted' 

treasonably ; exiled ; killed' ~a*«4entaHy. at; 

Paris, 1485. ' — -^~ 

1514. Johu, son; regent; went abroad ; died at Pan§7 

1526. 

See York and Albany, dukes. 
1881. Prince Leopold, fourth son of queen Victoria, was 

created duke of Albany 24 May, 1881 ; died 

8 March, 1884. 
1884. Leopold Charles, son, born 19 July. 
See under England. 

ALBANY, capital of the state of New York. 
The Dutch erected a block-house near here in 
1614, and villages soon arose. The town took its 
name from James, duke of York and Albany, to 
whom it had been given by his brother, King 
Charles II., after its cession to Great Britain in 
1664. Albany received a charter in 1686; the first 
general congress met here in 1764, and in 1807 the 
city became the capital of the state. Population, 
1800,5349; 1860,62,367; 1890,94,923. 

ALBERT MEMORIALS. (See England, 
Queen.) The Prince Consort died on 14 Dec. 1861, 
deeply lamented by the whole civilised world. His 
remains were transferred to the mausoleum of 
Frogmore, 18 Dec. 1862. The sarcophagus is com- 
posed of the largest known block of granite without 
flaw. A meeting to organise a method of receiving 
contributions for a great national memorial was 
held at the Mansion-house, 14 Jan. 1862 ; and a 
large sum was quickly subscribed. 36,000/. had 
been received on 1 March; 50,220/. on 11 June, 
1862 ; and parliament voted 50,000/., in addition 
to the 60,000/. received by voluntary contributions, 
23 April, 1863. 

The nature of the memorial was referred to the queen 
herself. In a letter to the lord mayor, dated 19 P'eb. 
1862, sir Charles Greysays, on behalf ofhermajesty, "It 
would be more in accordance with her own feelings, 
and she believes with those of the country in general, 
that the monument should be directly personal to its 
object. After giving the subject her maturest considera- 
tion, her majesty has come to the conclusion, that 
nothing would be more appropriate, x>rovided it is on a 
scale of sufficient grandeur, than an obelisk to be erected 
in Hyde-park on the site of the Great Exhibition of 
1851, or on some spot immediately contiguous to it. 
Nor would any proposal that could be made be more 
gratifying to the queen herself personally, for she can 
never forget that the prince himself had highly ap- 
proved of the idea of a memorial of this character being 
raised on the same spot in remembrance of the Great 
Exhibition." In a second letter the queen expressed 
her intention of personally contributing towards erect- 
ing the memorial, that " it might be recorded in future 
ages as raised by the queen and people of a grateful 
country to the memory of its benefactor." Shortly 
after a committee was appointed to fulfil her majesty's 
desire. As a suitable block of granite could not be 
obtained, the proposal for an obelisk was given up. 

The queen approved of the design of Mr. Gilbert G. Scott 
for an Eleanor Cross, with a spire 150 feet high, ac- 
companied by statues, &c, 22 April, 1863 ; work begun. 
13 May, 1864. 

The sculptors employed were M'Dowell, Foley, Theed, 
John Bell, and Armistead : material, Sicilian marble. 
(Jan. 1865.) 

The memorial, complete, except the statue, by Foley 
(delayed through illness), was given up to her majesty 
privately, 1 July, 1872. The gilt statue by Foley un- 
covered 9 March, 1876. 

Doyne C. Bell's Descriptive and Illustrated Account of 
this Monument, published by Mr. John Murray, 1873. 

Inscription on the " Memorial Cairn" on a high mountain 
overlooking Balmoral Palace:— "To the beloved 
memory of Albert the great and good Prince Consort, 
erected by his broken-hearted widow, Victoria R. 



1 Aug. 1862." Upc->u another dressed slab, a few inches, 
below the^ab'pye. is trfis quotation v — " He being made 
perfect in a short time, fulfilled a long time : for his 
suul pleased the Lord, therefore hasted he to take him 
away from among the wicked."— Wisdom of Solomon „ 

j cnap. iv. 13, 14. 

\ A^tifjei of the prince-consort (by Theed) inaugurated at 
Ros«ng«, his birta-place, in the presence of the queen 
<m*LtJie rbyal family, 19 Aug. 1865. 

" EarlyySa*s-Qf_tl)i Prince Consort ;" edited by the Hon. 
Chas. Grey ; published 6 July, 1867. 

Statue by Theed at Balmoral, inaugurated 15 Oct. 1867. 

The Statue at the Holborn Circus, uncovered by the 
Prince of Wales, 9 Jan. 1874. 

The Albert Memorial Chapel at Windsor, opened to the 
public, 1 Dec. 1875. 

Life, by Theodore Martin ; 5 vols, published, 1875-80. 

The Scottish National Memorial to the Prince, Edin- 
burgh, inaugurated by the Queen, 17 Aug. 1876. 

Statue at Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, uncovered 
by the Prince of Wales, 22 Jan. 1878. 

A bronze equestrian statue of the prince set up near 
Virginia Water in the Great Park, Windsor, by means 
of the women's offering, see Jubilee, 1887-9; uncovered, 
by the queen, 12 May, 1890. 

Many other memorials of the prince have been set up 
throughout the empire. 

Royal Albert Hall op Arts and Sciences ; The 
erection of a great building for congresses, concerts,, 
&c. , was proposed by the prince-consort at the close 
of the exhibition of 1851, and an estate at Kensington 
was purchased ; a committee, with the prince of Wales 

' at the head, to erect the building, was appointed 6 
July, 1865 ; circulars soliciting subscriptions were 
issued April, 1866 ; and the first stone was laid by the 
queen, 20 May, 1867. 

The building was erected by col. Scott, chiefly after de- 
signs by capt. Fowke, and cost about 200,000^. The 
organ, by Willis, is said to be the largest in the world. 
An experimental concert was given to the workmen 25 
Feb., and the hall was opened by the queen 29 March, 
1871, when a grand concert was given, and many since. 

The hall is said to contain seats for 10,000 persons, 
(orchestra 2,000, oval arena 1,000, balcony 2,300, and. 
gallery 2,000). 

An International Ice Carnival for the West End Hospital 
for Paralysis, &c, inaugurated by the Duchess of 
Teck, 14 March, 1889. 

State concert for the German emperor and empress, 
9 July, 1891. 

Albert Bridge, Chelsea, opened 23 Aug. 1873 ; freed 
from toll 24 May 1879. 

Albert Embankment, &e., see Thames, 1869 ; Docks. 

Albert Institute, Windsor, opened by the prince of 
Wales, 10 Jan. 1880. 

Albert Medals, to be awarded to persons who endanger 
their lives by saving others from shipwreck, appointed 
by royal warrant, 3 March, 1866. The first was given 
to Samuel Popplestone on 14 May, 1866, for saving life 
on 23 March previous .; medals awarded to Pontypridd 
miners and others for saving men imprisoned in a mine 
through inundation (see Coal: Accidents,) April, 1S77. 

Albert Medal (Gold), founded in 1862, awarded by the 
Society of Arts to sir Rowland Hill, 1864 ; Napoleon 
III. 1865; Michael Faraday, 1866 ; Charles Wheatstone 
and William Fothergili Cooke, 1867 ; Joseph Whit- 
worth, 186S ; Justus Liebig, 1869 ; Ferdinand de 
Lesseps, 1870 ; Henry Cole, C.B., 1871 ; Henry Besse- 
mer, 1872; Michel Eugene Chevreul, 1873; C. William 
Siemens, 1874; Michel Chevallier, 1875; sir G. B. Airy, 
1876; Jean Baptiste Dumas, 1877 ; sir Win. G. Arm- 
strong, 1878 ; sir William Thomson, 1879 ; James. 
Prescott Joule, 1S80; Aug. Wm. Hofmann, 1881; Louis. 
Pasteur, 1882 ; sir Joseph D. Hooker, 1883 ; capt. 
James Buchanan Eads, 1884 ; Henry Doulton, 1885 ; 
Samuel Cunliffe Lister, 1886; the Queen, 1887 (6 June, 
presented 8 March, 1888); professor Hermann Louis. 
Helmholtz, 1888 ; John Percy, 1889 ; William Henry 
Perkin, 1890; sir Frederick Abel, 1891. 

Albert Exhibition Falace, Batteksea, opened 6 
June, 1885, closed 1888. 

Royal Albert Orphan Asylum, Bagshot; founded 1S64. 

ALBERT NYANZA, sec Victoria Xyanza. 

ALBERT UNIVERSITY, the name pro- 
posed for a new teaching university, in and for 



ALBIGENSES. 



28 



ALDERMAN. 



London, advocated by University college and King's 
college in 1891. A draft charter was submitted to 
the privy council and approved in July, 1891. In 
Jan. 1892 the lord mayor proposed that the new 
university should be combined with Gresham col- 
lege and called Gresham university. Much discus- 
sion ensued, and the subject was eventually referred 
to a royal commission in March following. See 
London University. 

ALBIGENSES, a name given to various per- 
sons who opposed the doctrines and corruptions of 
the church of Rome, living at Albi, in Languedoc, 
and at Toulouse in the 12th century. They were 
persecuted as alleged Manichseans, 1 1 63, and a crusade 
(proclaimed by pope Innocent III.) against them 
commenced in 1207. Simon de Montfort commanded 
500,000 men, and at Beziers, 1209, he and the pope's 
legate put friends and foes to the sword, saying, 
■" God will find his own ! " * At Minerba he burnt 
150 of the Albigenses alive ; and at La Vaur he 
hanged the governor, and beheaded the chief people, 
drowning the governor's wife, and murdering other 
women. He defeated Raymond, count of Toulouse, 
but was himself killed in 1218. Louis VIII. and 
IX., kings of France, patronised the crusade; 
count Raymond was subdued, and abdicated in 1229; 
and the heretics were given up to the Inquisition. 
They had little in common with the Waldenses, 
which see. 

ALBION. Britain is said to have been so called 
bj Aristotle (died 322 B.C.). Julius Cassar and 
others, are said to have given it the name (from 
■albus, white) on account of its chalky cliffs. 

ALBUEBA OR AlBTJHERA, Estremadura, 
Spain. Here a battle was fought between the 
French, commanded by marshal Soult, and the 
British and Anglo-Spanish army, under marshal, 
afterwards lord Beresford, 16 May, 1811. The 
allies obtained a brilliant victory. The French loss 
exceeded 8000 men previously to their retreat ; but 
the allies lost a large number. The chief brunt 
of the action fell on tlie British ; colonel Inglis, 
2.2 officers, and more than 400 men, out of 570 who 
had mounted a hill, fell, — out of the 57th regiment 
alone ; the other regiments were scarcely better off, 
not one-third being left standing ; " 1500 mi- 
wounded men, the remnant of 6000 unconquerable 
British soldiers, stood triumphant on this fatal 
hill." Napier. 

ALBUFEEA (Spain, East Central), a lagoon, 
ffiear which the French marshal Suchet (afterwards 
duke of Albufera) defeated the Spaniards under 
Blake, 4 Jan. 1812 : this led to his capture of 
Valencia on 9 Jan. 

ALCALA DE HEN ABES, Spain, near the 
Roman Complutum. At the university here was 
printed the Complutensian Polyglott bible, at the 
•expense of cardinal Ximenes, 1502-15. 

ALCANTABA, a town on the Tagus, W. Spain. 
A fine l.ridge was built here by Trajan about 104. 
The duke of Alva acquired Portugal for Spain by 
defeating the Portuguese army here, 24 June, 1580. 
The Spanish military order of knighthood of Alcan- 
tara was established in 1 156. The sovereign of 
Spain has been grand master since 1495. 

ALCAZAB-QTJIVEB, near Fez, N. W. 
Africa, where the Moors totally defeated the Portu- 
guese, whose gallant king Sebastian was slain, 4 
Aug. 1578. The Portuguese disbelieved his death, 

* Now contradicted. 



and long expected his return ; this led to the ap- 
pearance of five impostors. 

ALCHEMY, the forerunner of chemistry ; its 
chief objects being the discovery of the philosopher's 
stone (which was to effect the transmutation of 
metals into gold), an alkahest or universal men- 
struum, and the elixir of life.* The alchemists 
assert that their founder was Hermes Trismegistus 
(thrice greatest), an ancient Egyptian king. — Pliny 
says, the emperor Caligula was the first who pre- 
pared natural arsenic, in order to make gold of it, 
but left it off, because the charge exceeded the 
profit. 

Zosimus wrote on the subject about 410. 
The Arabians cultivated alchemy and were followed (in 
the 13th century) by Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus, 
Aquinas, Raymond Lullius, Basil Valentine (born 1394), 
Paracelsus (died 1541), and others. 
In 1404 the craft of multiplying gold and silver was made 
felony by 5 Hen. IV. c. 4, which act was repealed in 1689. 
A licence for practising alchemy with all kinds of metals 
and minerals was granted to one Richard Carter, 1476. 
Rymer's Foedera. 
Dr. Price, of Guildford, in 1782 published an account of 
his experiments and brought specimens of gold to 
the king, affirming that they were made by means of a 
red and white powder. Being a fellow of the Royal 
Society, he was required, under pain of exxmlsion, to 
repeat his experiments before Messrs. Kirwan and 
Wolfe (some say Higgins) ; but after much equivoca- 
tion and delay he took poison and died, Aug. 1783. 

ALCOHOL. Pure spirit of wine or hydrated 
alcohol is said to have been obtained by the dis- 
tillation of fermented liquors by Abucasis in the 
12th century; and the dehydration of this liquor 
to have been partially effected by Raymond Lul- 
lius in the 13th century by carbonate of potassium. 
In 1820, Faraday and Hennell obtained traces of 
alcohol by passing olefiant gas (bi-carburetted hydro- 
gen) through sulphuric acid ; and in 1862 this 
process was examined and confirmed by Bertbelot. 
Alcohol has been artificially formed from its elements 
by chemists ; it was solidified by Prof. Dewar at 
the Royal Institution, 1886; see Distillation, 
/Spirits, Brandt/, Gin, Hum. About 250 medical 
men, including the president of the Royal College 
of Physicians, and many hospital officials, issued a 
cautionary declaration concerning the use of alcohol 
in medicine, Dec. 1871. See Temperance. 

ALCOLEA (Andalusia, S. Spain). Near the 
bridge a sharp engagement took place between the 
royalists under general Pavia y Lacy, marquis de 
Novaliches, and the insurgents under marshal Ser- 
rano, 27 Sept. 1868. The former was defeated, and, 
being severely wounded, surrendered 28 Sept. About 
600 were killed on both sides. 

AL-COBAN OR AL-KORAN, see Koran, Ma- 
hometanism, &c. 

ALDEBMAN. The Saxon ealdorman was 
next to the king and frequently a viceroy; but 
after the settlement of the Danes the title was 
gradually displaced by that of earl. Aldermen in 
corporations are next in dignity to the mayor. 
A curious list of aldermen and their wards is 
assigned to the year 1290. Loftie. Aldermen chosen 
for life, instead of annually, 17 Rich. II. 1394. 
Present mode of election established, 11 Geo. I. 1725. 
Aldermen made justices of the peace, 15 Geo. II. 
1 741. 

* M. Martin Ziegler patented a method of producing a 
•'vital fluid" by combining nitrogen and carbon in a 
porous cell containing ammonia, immersed in a vessel 
filled with molasses. The current was to flow through 
silk threads attached to the vessel ; about 1S68. 



ALDERNEY. 



29 



ALEXANDRA PARK. 



The 26 London aldermen are elected by the wards. In 
1877 the court of aldermen exercised their ancient right 
of veto against Sir John Bennett (thrice chosen alder- 
man for the ward of Cheap), and chose Mr. Edgar 
Breffitt, 23 Oct. 1877. 

Aldermen form part of the County Councils established 
by the Local Government Act, 1888. 

ALDERNEY (English Channel), with Jersey, 
&c, was acquired by William the Conqueror, 1066. 
The " Eace " is celebrated for two fatal occur- 
rences; William of Normandy, son of Henry I. of 
England, and many young nobles (140 youths of 
the principal families of France and Britain), were 
overtaken by a storm, and all lost, 25 Nov. 1120. 
The British man-of-war Victory, of 100 guns and 
1 160 men, was wrecked here, 5 Oct. 1744; the 
admiral, sir John Balchen, and all his crew perished. 
Through this strait the French escaped after their 
defeat at La Hogue by admirals Russell and Rooke, 
19 May, 1692. The construction of a breakwater, 
in order to make Aldemey a naval station, was 
begun in 1852, and after having cost 1,337,100^., 
was suspended by parliament in 1871. In 1874 the 
harbour and lands were transferred from the control 
of the board of trade to that of the admiralty and 
the war department. 

ALDERSHOT CAMP, on a moor near Farn- 
ham, about 35 miles from London. In April, 1854, 
the War office, having obtained a grant of 100,000/., 
purchased 4000 acres of land for a permanent camp 
for 20,000 men. 

Additional land purchased in 1856. 

Barracks since erected for 4000 infantry, 1500 cavalry, 

and several batteries of artillery. Great improvements 

in military cookery introduced (see Cookery) under the 

superintendence of captain John Grant, 1857. 

Visited by the queen, 18, 19 April, 1856. 

The troops returned from the Crimea, reviewed by her, 

7, 16 July, 1856. 
About 15,000 men were stationed here, 1859. 
Cost of the camp, said to be 1,291, ^31^. up to Feb. i860. 
An industrial and fine-art exhibition, furnished by officers 
and men and their wives, opened, 29 June ; closed 14 
July, 1864. 
Camp set up for 40,000 men to execute military manoeu- 
vres, Aug. Sept. 1871. Many horses broke away 
through a fright, 30 Aug. 1871. 
Review of 14,000, &c. by the queen, 5 July, 1872. 
Summer Manoeuvres here, 1874, 1875, 1876, 1877. 
Review by the queen, 13 May, 1878 ; again (all branches 

of the service represented), 2 July, 1886. 
March of a force equipped for war, 17 Aug. 1886. 
Review and sham right, 23 June, 1887. 
The Queen reviews about 60,000 men, about half volun- 
teers ; grand march past, 9 July, 1887. 
Theatre Royal burned down, 8 Feb. 1889. 
The Queen reviews 11,945 of all ranks, 31 May, 1889. 
A sham fight and review, in which about 25,530 troops, 
regulars and volunteers, were engaged, took place 
here in the presence of the Emperor William II., the 
Princess of Wales, the Duke of Cambridge, and others 
of the royal family, 7 Aug. 1889. 
The Queen reviews the troops, 16 July, 1891, 27 June, 
1892. 

ALDINE PRESS, that of Aldo Manuzio 
(Aldus Manutius), at Venice, where were printed 
many of the first editions of the Greek, Latin, and 
Italian classics, commencing in 1494 with Musaeus. 

ALE, BEER, and Wine. Ale is said to have been 
known as a beverage at least in 404 B.C. Herodotus 
ascribes the first discovery of the art of brewing 
barley- wine to Isis, the wife of Osiris, and a beverage 
of this kind is mentioned by Xenophon, 401 B.C. 
The Romans and Germans very early learned from 
the Egyptians the process of preparing a liquor from 
corn by means of fermentation. Tacitus. Ale- 
houses are mentioned in the laws of Ina, king of 
Wessex. Booths were setup in England, 728, when 
laws were passed for their regulation. None but 



freemen were allowed to keep ale-houses in London, 
13 Edw. I. 1285. They were further subjected to 
regulation by 5 & 6 Edw. VI. c. 25 (1551). By 
I James I. c. 9 (1603), one full quart of the best,, 
and two quarts of small ale were to be sold for one 
penny. Excise duty on ale and beer was imposed by 
the parliament in 1643, and continued by Charles II. 
(1660) ; repealed, 1 Will. IV. c. 51 (1830) ; see 
Beer, Porter, Wine, Victuallers. Michael Thomas 
Bass, the eminent brewer of Burton, died 28 April, 
1884, aged 84. 

Mr. John Bickerdyke's book on " The Curiosities of Ale 
and Beer " was published in 1886. 

ALEMANNI, or All Men (i.e. men of all 
nations), hence Allemand, German. A body of 
Suevi, who took this name, were attacked by Cara- 
calla, 214. After several repulses, they invaded the 
empire uuder Aurelian, who subdued them in three 
battles, 271. They were again vanquished by Julian, 
356, 357; by Jovinus, 368. They were defeated and 
subjugated by Clovis at Tolbiac (or Zulpich), 496. 
The Suabians are their descendants. 

ALENCON (N. France) gave title to a count 
and duke. ' 

1268-82. Peter, made Count by his father king Louis IX. 
1293. Charles I. of Valois, made Count by his brother 

king Philip the Fair. 
1325. Charles II. his son, killed at Crecy. 
1346. Charles III. (his son), became a priest. 
1361. Peter, his brother. 
1404. John (his son), made Duke in 1414, killed at 

Agincourt, 1415. 
1415. John II. (his son), prisoner in England, 1424-9 ; 

intrigued against the French king ; died in 

prison, 1470. 
1476. Charles IV. fled after the battle of Pavia in 1525, 

and died shortly after of chagrin. The duchy 

was annexed by the crown. 

ALEPPO, North Syria, a large town named 
Beroea by Seleucus Nicator, about 299 B.C. The 
pachalic of Aleppo is one of the five governments of 
Syria. It was taken by the Saracens, a.d. 638, who 
restored its ancient name Haleb or Chaleb ; by Sala- 
din, 1 193; and sacked by Timour, Nov. 1400. Its de- 
population by the plague has been frequent ; 60,000 
persons were computed to have perished by it in 
1797; many in 1827. The cholera raged here in 
1832. Aleppo suffered severely from the terrible 
earthquakes in 1822 and 1830; and has often been 
the scene of fanatical massacres. On 16 Oct. 1850, 
the Mahometans attacked the Christians, burning 
everything. Three churches were destroyed, five 
others plundered, and thousands of persons slain. 
The total loss of property amounted to about a mil- 
lion sterling ; no interference was attempted by the 
pacha. Population in 1885, 110,000. 

ALESSANDRIA, a city of Piedmont, built in 
1 168 under the name of Caesar by the Milanese and 
Cremonese, to defend the Tanaro against the em- 
peror, and afterwards named after pope Alexander 
III. It has been frequently besieged and taken. 
The French took it in 1796, but were driven out by 
Suwarrow, 21 July, 1799. They recovered it after 
the battle of Marengo, 14 June, 1800, and held it. 
till 1814, when the strong fortifications erected by 
Napoleon were destroyed. These have been restored 
since June, 1856. 

ALEUTIAN ISLES, in the North Pacific 
Ocean, discovered by Behring, 1 741, visited by 
Cook, 1778, and settled by Russians, 1785. 

"ALEXANDRA CASE," see Trials, 
1862-64. 

ALEXANDRA PARK, Muswell Hill, Lon- 
don, N. purchased by a company, and named after 



ALEXANDRA PARK. 



30 



ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOLS. 



the princess of Wales, was opened with a flower 
show, 23 July, 1863. A portion of the Exhibition 
building of 1862 was erected here. The work 
proceeded rapidly in 1864, was suspended in 1865, 
a-ecommenced in 1866, and completed in 1873. 
Horse-races first held here . . 30 June, 1 July, 1868 
The prospectus of a scheme to organise an institu- 
tion resembling the South Kensington Museum 
and the Crystal Palace, by means of a tontine (to 
cease 30 June, 1886), was issued . 22 July 1871 
The affairs were to he managed by " The Alexandra 
Palace and Muswell-hill Estate Management Com- 
pany (limited). " Public lectures on the subject, 
Aug. 1871 ; the company's affairs were wound up 

Feb. 1872 
The purchase of the land and buildings for the 

public proposed by the lord mayor and others July , , 
The palace was opened with a grand concert, &c. 

24 May ; destroyed by fire . . .9 June, 1873 
Two women, incautiously viewing the ruins, buried, 

25 June ; bodies found . . . 21 Aug. „ 
The new building (^86 by 184 feet) ; opened 1 May, 1875 
94,125 persons said to have entered the park, Whit- 
Monday 17 May, „ 

Balfe memorial festival . . . .29 July, 1876 
Petition for winding-up . . . . 24 Oct. „ 
The estate taken over by the London Financial 

Association, creditors of the company . . 1876-7 
'The palace re-opened (annual subscription, 10s. 6d.), 

10 May, ,, 
Arrival of Nubian hunters, with elephants, rhino- 
ceroses, camels, dromedaries, buffaloes, zebras, 
ostriches, &o. (imported by Carl Hagenbeck), 

7 Sept. — 13 Oct. ,, 
Opened by new proprietors (Mr. Willing and others) 

with new attractions . . . 17 May, 1880 

1107,852 visitors (bank holiday) . . 2 Aug. ,, 

Taken by Jones and Barber . . Nov. ,, 

Put up for sale : unsold . ... 11 Feb. 188 1 

Varied entertainments 1881-2 

Act for relieving the London Financial Association 
from charge of the Palace (withdrawn March et 

seq.) 1883, again 1884 

Proposals for purchasing the land for recreation 

June, 1883 

Put up for sale ; no bidders . . . 20 July, ,, 

London Financial Association v. Sir John Kelk, 

Lucas &Co. (contractors), and others (directors, 

&c.,)4oo,oooZ. claimed as misappropriated; about 

25 days' trial ; Vice-Chancellor Bacon dismisses 

case with costs 8 Mar. 1884 

The Palace let to Mr. George Collins Levy, for 

International Exhibition announced . 25 July, ,, 

Temporary Industrial Exhibition opened 31 March, 1885 

Palace closed in 1886; re-opened for the season, 

11 April, 1887, Mr. H. W. Hayward, lessee ; 54,720 

[ visitors on Whit Monday, 30 May, 1887 ; reported 

unsuccessful, Feb. 1888 ; re-opened with a grand 

concert (1,000 performers), 12 May ; second grand 

concert 9 June, „ 

Celebration of the 23rd anniversary of the organi- 
zation of the Salvation Army . . 9 July, 1888 
For Professor Baldwin's ascents and descents see 

under Balloons ,, 

The park re-opened for the season ; exhibition of 
nearly 1,000 monkeys, balloons and parachutes, 
&a, professor Baldwin, Mr. Young, and others 

1 June, 1889 
Comic opera by Mr. C. Wibrow . 17 June, et seq. ,, 
French national fete, Gen. Boulanger present 

13 July ,, 
Professor Baldwin, after 98 ascents and descents, 

retires with intention of returning to America, 
about ....... 17 July, „ 

The London Financial Association apply for the 
appointment of a provisional liquidator pending 
the winding-up of the Alexandra Palace and park 
company, Mr. C. L. Nichols appointed 27 July, ,, 

The palace closed Sept. ,, 

Licenses renewed to Mr. Charles James Hayter 

14 Nov. ,, 
Hill for repealing the protective clauses of the Acts 

of 1866 and 1877, promoted by the association, 
withdrawn from the Commons . . April, 1891 
Purchase of the palace and grounds proposed to the 
Middlesex county council by E. D. M. Littler, 
.chairman, Dec. 1891 ; proposal deferred May, 1892 



ALEXANDRIA .(Egypt), the walls whereof 
were six miles in circuit, was founded by Alexander 
the Great, 332 B.C. who was buried here, 322. It 
became the residence of the Greek sovereigns of 
Egypt, the Ptolemies, 323 ; seventeen councils were 
held here, a.d. 231-633. Population, with its 
suburbs, in 1883, 208,775. 

Ptolemy Soter erects the Museum, the Serapeum, 
the Pharos, and other edifices, and begins the 

library about b. c. 298 

These works completed by his son P. Philadelphus 

and his grandson P. Euergetes . . . 283-222 

Alexandria taken by Julius Csesar ; when a library 

is burnt 47 

Which Antony replaces by one brought from Per- 

gamus 36 

The city restored by Adrian .... a.d. 122 
Massacre of the youth by Caracalla, in revenge for 

an insult 215 

Alexandria supporting the usurper Achilleus is 

taken by Diocletian after a long siege . . . 297 
Alexandria disturbed by the feuds between the 

Athanasians and Arians 321 

George of Cappadocia was killed, 362, and Athan- 

asius finally restored 363 

50,000 persons perish by an earthquake . . . 365 
Paganism suppressed by Theodosius, when a second 

library is burnt 390 

Alexandria captured by Chosroes II. of Persia . 616 
And by Amrou, the general of the caliph Omar,* who 
ordered the library to be burnt, whereby the baths 
were supplied with fuel for six months 22 Dec. 640 
Becovered by the Greeks ; retaken by Amrou. . 644 

Cairo founded by the Saracens ; which tends to the 

decay of Alexandria 969 

Alexandria plundered by the Crusaders . . . 1365 
The French capture Alexandria . . July, 1798 

Battle of Alexandria or Canopus : the British under 
gen. sir Ralph Abercromby defeat the French 

under Menou 21 March, 1801 

Abercromby dies of his wounds, 28 March ; Menou 
and io,coo French surrender it to Hutchinson 

2 Sept. ,, 
Alexandria taken by the British under Fraser, 

20 March ; evacuated by them . . 23 Sept. 1807 
By the convention of Alexandria, Egypt was guaran- 
teed to Mehemet Ali and his successors (and 

greatly favoured by them) 1841 

Railway to Cairo formed 1851 

New port, first stone laid by the khedive 15 May, 1871 
Fierce riots against Europeans (see Egypt) 11 June, 1882 
Panic and great emigration of Eurorjeans . June, ,, 
Bombardment of the forts, conflagration and aban- 
donment of the city (see Egypt) . 11-13 July, ,, 

ALEXANDRIAN CODEX, a MS. of the 

Septuagint translation of the Bible in Greek, said 
to have been transcribed by a lady named Thecla, 
in the 6th century, and to have belonged to the 
patriarch of Alexandria in 1098. It was presented 
to Charles I. of England in 1628 by Cyrillus Leucaris, 
patriarch of Constantinople, and was placed in the 
British Museum in 1753. It was printed in fac- 
simile, 1786-1821. 

ALEXANDRIAN ERA, see Mundane. 

ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOLS of Philo- 
sophy. The first school arose soon after the 
foundation of Alexandria, 332 B.C. It flourished 
under the patronage of the Ptolemies till about 100 
B.C. It included Euclid (300), Archimedes (287- 
212), Apollonius (250), Hipparchus (150), and Hero 
(150). The second school arose about a.d. 140, and 
lasted till about 400. Its most eminent members 
were Ptolemy, the author of the Ptolemaic system 
(150), Diophantus the arithmetician (200), and 
Pappus the geometer (350) . 

* The saying of Omar — " That if the books agreed with 
the book of God, they were useless; if they disagreed, 
they were pernicious" — is denied by Mahometans. It is 
also attributed to Theophilus, archbishop of Alexandria 
(390), and to cardinal Ximenes (1500). 



ALEXANDRINES. 



31 



ALGIERS. 



ALEXANDRINES, verses of twelve sylla- 
bles, first written by Alexander of Paris, about 1164, 
and since called after him. The last line of the 
Spenserian stanza is an Alexandrine. In Pope's 
Essay on Criticism, this verse is thus happily 
exemplified : — 

" A needless Alexandrine ends the song, 
That, like a wounded snake, drags its slow length 
along. " 

The longest English poem wholly in Alexandrine 
verse is Drayton's Polyolbion, published 1612-22. 

ALEXINATZ, a town in Servia. Severe fight- 
ing took place here between the Turks and Servians, 
Aug. -Sept. 1876. The town, head-quarters of the 
Servians, was captured 31 Oct. This led to an 
armistice and peace. See Turkey. 

ALFORD (N. Scotland), BATTLE OF. General 
Baillie, with a large body of covenanters, was de- 
feated by the marquis of Montrose, 2 July, 1645. 

ALGEBRA : Diophantus, said to be the in- 
ventor, Avrote upon it probably between the 3rd and 
5th centuries. It was cultivated in the 9th century 
by the Arabs, who brought it into Spain ; and in 
Italy by Leonardo Bonaccio of Pisa, in 1220. In 
1494 Luca Paciolo published the first printed book 
on Algebra in Europe. Serret. Some of the alge- 
braic signs were introduced either by Christophe 
Rudolph (1522-26) or Michael Stifelius of Nurem- 
berg, 1544, and others by Erancis Vieta, in 1590, 
when algebra came into general use. Moreri. Jerome 
Cardan published his " Ars Magna," containing his 
rule, 1545. Thos. Harriot's important discoveries 
appeared in his " Artis Analytical Praxis," 1631. 
Descartes applied algebra to geometry about 1637. 
The binomial theorem of Newton, the basis of the 
doctrine of fluxions, and the new analysis, 1668. 
Dean Peacock's "Algebra" is a first-class work. 

ALGERIA, see Algiers. 

ALGESIRAS,orOLDGlBRALTAE (S. Spain). 
Here the Moors entered Spain in 711, and held it 
till taken by Alfonso XI. March, 1344. — Two en- 
gagements took place here between the English fleet 
under sir James Saumarez and the United French 
and Spanish fleets, 6 and 12 July, 1801. In the first 
the enemy was victorious ; but the British honour 
was redeemed in the latter conflict, the San Antonio, 
74 guns, being captured. Two Spanish ships fired 
on each other by mistake, and took fire ; of 2000 
men on board, 250 were saved by the English. 
Alison. 

ALGIERS, now Algeria, N."W. Africa ; part 
of the ancient Mauritania, which was conquered by 
the Eomans, 46 B.C.; by the Vandals, a.d 439; 
recovered for the empire by Belisarius, 534; and 
subdued by the Arabs about 690. Population of 
Algeria in' 1866, 2,921,146; 1872,2,146,225; 1875, 
2,448,691; 1886,3,910,399; 1891,4,124,732. 
The town Algiers founded by the Arabs near the 

site of Icosium about 935 

Becoming the seat of the Barbary pirates captured 
by Ferdinand of Spain, 1509 ; retaken by Horuc 
Barbarossa, and made the capital of a state ; 
governed by a dey, nominally subject to Turkey, 
1516. Barbarossa was defeated and slain by the 

Spaniards . . 1513 

The emperor Charles V. loses a fine fleet and army 

in an expedition against Algiers . . . . 1541 
Algiers terrified into pacific measures by Blake, 

1655 ; by Du Quesne 1683-4 

For continued piracy, the city successfully bom- 
barded by the British fleet, under lord Exmouth 

27 Aug. 1816 
A new treaty followed, and Christian slavery was 
abolished „ 



Algiers surrendered to a French armament under 
Bourmont and Duperre, after severe conflicts ; 
the dey deposed, and the barbarian government 
wholly overthrown . . ... 5 July, 1830 

The Arab chief Abd-el-Kader preaches a holy war, 
becomes powerful, and attacks the French, at first 
successfully j833 

He is recognised as emir of Mascara, by treaty with 
the French ^34 

The French ministry announce their intention to 
retain Algiers permanently . . .20 May, „ 

War renewed 1835-6 

The French take Mascara ... 5 Dec. 1835 

Marshal Clausel defeats the Arabs in two battles, 
and enters Mascara 8 Dec. 1836 

Gen. Damremont killed in taking Constantina 

13 Oct. 1837 

Abd-el-Kader, thoroughly defeated, recognises the 
French supremacy 30 May, 

War renewed ; French defeated . . . Dec. 1839 

Algeria annexed to France, and the emir declared a 
rebel . . Feb. 1842 

He is defeated by Bugeaud at Isly . . 14 Aug. 1844 

500 Arabs in a cave at Khartani refuse to surren- 
der ; suffocated by smoke ; said to have been 
ordered by general Pelissier . . .18 June, 1845 

After a long struggle Abd-el-Kader surrenders to' 
Lamoriciere 23 Dec. 1847* 

Fresh revolts, 1849 ! subdued .... 1850 

An insurrection of the Kabyles subdued by the 
French, after several sharp engagements . . 1851 

Another insurrection suppressed .... ^57 

The government entrusted (for a short time) to 
prince Napoleon ^-s 

The Arab tribes attack the French ; defeated, 

31 Oct. and 6 Nov. 1859 

Algiers visited by Napoleon III. . . . Sept. 1S60 

Marshal Pelissier, duke of Malakhoff, appointed 
governor-general of Algeria . . Nov. 

The emperor promises a constitution securing the 
rights of the Arabs, saying : " I am as much 
emperor of the Arabs as of the French." . Feb. 1863 

Insurrection of the Arabs, May ; submission, June, 1864 

Death of marshal Pelissier, 22 May ; M'Mahon, duke' 
of Magenta, succeeds him . . . g Sept. 

Fresh revolts ; insurgents defeated by Jolivet 2 Oct! 

The emperor well received during his visit, 

3 May— June, 1865 

More rights and privileges promised to the natives. 

July, 

The emperor publishes his letter on the policy of 
France in Algeria (20 July) . . . Nov. 

4000 Arabs defeated by col. Sounis . 2 Feb. i860 

Algeria proclaimed in a state of siege . 15 Aug! 1870 

State of siege raised .... 24 June,' 187 1 

Gen. Chanzy accused of governing despotically ; his 
resignation not accepted by Marshal M'Mahon 
July ; replaced by Albert Grevy . jg_jj 

An insurrection soon quelled . . . June' 1870 

Dispute with Tunis ; outrages of the savage tribes' 
Kroumirs, <&c. (see Tunis) . . . April' 1881 

Arab insurrection, headed by Bou Ameema, June '; 
he is said to be defeated, and a fugitive 13 July' 

Insurrection dreaded ; troops sent from France 

about 26 Aug. 

Bou Ameema defeated by the French, 13th July ; 

said to be preparing for a fresh revolt ; three' 

French columns advancing against him,' Aug. ; 

indecisive skirmishes .... Au"\ 

Resignation of the governor, A. Grevy, announced " 

6 Nov. ,, 

* He, with his suite, embarked at Oran, and landed at 
Toulon on 28 Dec. following. He was removed to the 
castle of Amboise, near Tours, 2 Nov. 1848, and released 
from his confinement by Louis Napoleon, 16 Oct. 1852, 
after swearing on the Koran never to disturb Africa 
again ; he was to reside henceforward at Broussa, in Asia 
Minor; but in consequence of the earthquake 'at that 
place, 28 Feb. 1855, he removed to Constantinople. In 
July, i860, Abd-el-Kader held the citadel of Damascus, 
and there protected many of the Christians whom he 
had rescued from the massacres then in perpetration by 
the Turks. He received honours from the English", 
French, and Sardinian sovereigns. He visited Paris and 
London in Aug. 1865. He offered to serve in the French 
army in July, 1870. He died May, 1S83, aged 76. 



ALHAMA. 



32 



ALKMAER. 



M. Tirman appointed Dec. 1881 

Topographical expedition attacked, 40 said to be 

killed April, 1882 

The province Mzab annexed to Algeria, announced 

Dec. ,, 
Submission of insurgents announced . 13 June, 1883 
Plague of locusts ... . July, 1888-91 

The chamber of deputies, Paris, direct the appoint- 
k ment to inquire respecting Algerian political 

affairs 5 March, 1891 

Resignation of M. Louis Tirman, ten years governor, 

March ; succeeded by M. Jules Cambon, arrived 

11 May, ,, 
Rebellion of the Ameurs tribe at Ain Sefra, reported 

23 Dec. ,, 

ALHAMA, a town of Granada, S. Spain, de- 
stroyed by an earthquake, 25 Dec. 1884 ; 5 churches, 
5 convents, and other buildings thrown down ; re- 
ported deaths above 300. 

ALHAMBEA, a Moorish palace and fortress 
near Granada, S. Spain, founded by Mohammed I. 
of Granada about 1253. It was surrendered to the 
Christians aboutNov. 1491. The remains have been 
described in a magnificent work by Owen Jones and 
Jules Goury, published 1842-5. A fac-simile of a 
part of this palace in the Crystal Palace at Syden- 
ham, was destroyed by the fire, 30 Dec. 1866. By 
a fire at the Alhambra, near Granada, the roof of 
the Sala de la Barca was destroyed ; except the court 
of the Albevca, other courts were uninjured 
15, 16 Sept. 1890.— The Panopticon (which see) was 
opened as a circus, &c, under the name of Alhambra, 
in March, 1858. The Alhambra Palace Company, 
incorporated in July 1863, applied for dissolution 
in Jan. 1865. The Royal Alhambra Theatre was 
detroyed by fire, 7 Dec. 1882 : 2 firemen lost their 
lives ; reopened, 3 Dec. 1883. 

ALI, SECT OF (Shiites, orFatimites). Ali, born 
about 598,married Mahomet' s daughter Fatima, about 
619; became vizier, 614; and caliph, 656. Ali was 
called by the prophet, " the lion of God, always 
victorious ; " and the Pei-sians follow the interpre- 
tation of the Koran according to Ali, while other 
Mahometans adhere to that of Abubeker and Omar. 
Ali was assassinated 23 Jan. 661.* 

ALIENS or FOREIGNERS, were banished in 

1 155, being thought too numerous. In 1343 they 

were excluded from enjoying ecclesiastical benefices. 

By 2 Rich. II. st. 1, 1378, they were much relieved. 

When they were to be tried criminally, the juries 

were to be half foreigners, if they so desired, 1430. 

They were restrained from exercising any trade of 

handicraft by retail, 1483, a prohibition which was 

relaxed in 1663. 

Alien priories (cells and estates belonging to foreign per- 
sons) suppressed in England, 1414. 

The Alien Act passed, Jan. 1793. 

Act to register aliens, 1795. 

Baron Geramb, a fashionable foreigner, known at court, 
ordered out of England, 6 April, 1812. 

Bill to abolish naturalisation by the holding of stock in 
the banks of Scotland, June, 1820. 

New registration act, 7 George IV. 1826. This last act 
was repealed and another statute passed, 6 Will. IV. 

The rigour of the alien laws was mitigated by acts passed 
in 1844 and 1847. . 

" Foreigners have reclaimed our marshes, drained our 
fens, fished our seas, and built our bridges and har- 
bours." Smiles, 1861. 



* The first four successors of Mahomet— Abubeker, 
Omar, Othman, and Ali, his chief agents in establishing 
his religion and extirpating unbelievers, and whom on 
that account he styled the "cutting swords of God "—all 
died violent deaths ; and his family was wholly extir- 
pated within thirty years after his own decease. 



Their status defined by the Naturalisation Act, passed 
12 May, 1870. See under Law. 

The votes of some Hanoverians at the Stepney Parlia- 
mentary Election disallowed by the judges 5 April, 
1886. 

The prohibition of aliens holding land in the United 
States of North America adopted by several western 
states ; and also stringent restrictions on the employ- 
ment of aliens in manufactures, 1885, et seq. 

A decree respecting aliens ana immigrants with restric- 
tions was issued in France by President Carnot 2 Oct. 
1888. 

ALIWAL, a village N. W. India, the site of a 
battle, 28 Jan. 1846, between the Sikh army under 
sirdar Runjoor Singh Majeethea, 19,000 strong, 
supported by 68 pieces of cannon, and the Britii-h 
under sir Harry Smith, 12,000 men with 32 guns. 
The contest was obstinate, but ended in the defeat 
of the Sikhs, who lost nearly 6000 killed or 
drowned. 

ALIZARINE, a crystalline body, the colour- 
ing principle of madder, discovered in it by Robi- 
quet and Colin in 1831. Schunck showed that all 
the finest madder colours contained only alizarine 
combined with alkalies and fatty acids. Graebe 
and Liebermann obtained anthracene from alizarine 
in 1868, and alizarine from anthracene in 1869. 
The crystalline body anthracene was discovered in 
coal oils by Dumas and Laurent in 1832. See 
Madder. 

ALJUBARROTA, Portugal. Here John I. of 

Portugal defeated John I. of Castile, and secured 
his country's independence, 14 Aug. 1385 ; see 
Batalka. 

ALKAHEST, see Alchemy. 

ALKALIES (from kali, the Arabic name for 
the plant from which an alkaline substance was 
first procured) are ammonia, potash, soda, and 
lithia. Black discovered the nature of the differ- 
ence between caustic and mild alkalies in 1736. 

The fixed alkalies, potash and soda, decomposed, and the 
metals potassium and sodium formed, by Humphry 
Davy at the Royal Institution, London, 1807. 

Dr. Ure invented an alkalimeter, 1816. 

The manufacture of alkalies, very extensive in Lanca- 
shire and Cheshire, is based on the decomposition of 
common salt (chloride of sodium), by a process in- 
vented by a Frenchman named Nicolas Le Blanc, 
about 1792 ; his statue set up in Paris, summer, 1885. 

Mr. Losh obtained crystals of soda from brine about 18 14. 
Various modifications of these processes are now in 
use. 

"Alkali works," are defined as works for the manufacture 
of alkali, sulphates of soda, sulphate of potash, and in 
which muriatic gas is evolved. 

Mr. Wm. Gossage's process for condensing muriatic acid 
gas patented in 1836. 

The " ammonia process " of making soda, invented by 
Dyer and Hemming, in 1838 ; patents respecting it 
taken out by Solvay, 1863, 1867, 1872 ; Gossage, 1854 ; 
Schloesing, 1854, 1858 ; Young, 1871, 1872 ; Weldon, 
1872, 1873 ; and by others. 

Mr. Walter Weldon received the French Lavoisier medal 
for his most important improvements in the alkali 
manufacture, July, 1877. He died of overwork, 20 
Sept. 1885, aged 53. 

In consequence of the injury to vegetation produced by 
the alkali works in Lancashire and Cheshire, the 
Alkali Works act " for the more effectual condensation 
[of 95 per cent.] of muriatic acid gas " (or hydrochloric 
acid) was passed, 28 July, 1863. It came into opera- 
tion 1 Jan. 1864, proved successful; was re-enacted, 
1868 ; and amended, 1874 and 1881. Mr. James Green- 
wood's electrolytic process for the direct production 
of caustic soda and chlorine from common salt re- 
ported successful, Jan. 1892. See Chemical Works and 
Union. 

ALKMAER, see Bergen. 



ALLAHABAD. 



S3 



ALMANACS. 



ALLAHABAD (N. W. Hindostan), the "holy 
city" of the Indian Mahometans, situated at the 
junction of the rivers Jumna and Ganges. The 
province of Allahabad was successively subject to 
the sovereigns of Delhi and Oude, but in 1801 was 
partially and in 1803 wholly incorporated with the 
British possessions. By treaty here, Bengal, &c, 
was ceded to the English in 1765. — During the 
Indian mutiny several sepoy regiments rose and 
massacred their officers, 4 June, 1857 ; colonel Neil 
marched promptly from Benares and suppressed the 
insurrection. In Nov. 1861, lord Canning made 
this city the capital of the N. "W". provinces. Visit 
of the Prince of Wales, 7 March, 1874. Population, 
1891, 176,770. 

ALLEGIANCE, see Oaths. 

ALLEGORY abounds in the Bible and in 
Homer : see Jacob's blessing upon his sons, Genesis 
xlix. (1689 B.C.), Psalm lxxx., and all the prophets. 
Spenser's Faerie Queene (1590) and Bunyan's Pil- 
grim's Progress (1678) are allegories throughout. 
The Spectator {i"] 11), by Addison, Steele, and others, 
abounds in allegories. The allegorical interpretation 
of the scriptures is said to have begun with Origen 
in the 3rd century ; but see Gal. iv. 24. 

ALLEYN, see Almshouses and Dulwich. 

ALLIA (more correctly Alia), Italy, a small 
river flowing into the Tiber, where Brennus and 
the Gauls defeated the Romans, 16 July, 390 B.C. 
The Gauls sacked Koine and committed so much 
injury that the day was thereafter held to be un- 
lucky (piefastus), and no public business was per- 
mitted to be done thereon. 

ALLIANCE, Treaties of, between the high 

European powers. The following are the principal : 
see Coalitions, Conventions, Treaties. 

ALLIANCE. 

Of Leipsic .... 9 April, 1631 

Of Vienna . 27 May, 1657 

The Triple 28 Jan. 1668 

Of Warsaw 31 March, 1683 

The Grand 12 May, 1689 

The Hague 4 Jan. 1717 

The Quadruple 2 Aug. 1718 

Of Vienna 16 March, 173 1 

Of Versailles 1 May, 1756 

Germanic 23 July, 1785 

Of Paris 16 May, 1795 

Of St. Petersburg 8 April, 1805 

Austrian 14 March, 1812 

Of Sweden 24 March, ,, 

Of Toplitz 9 Sept. 1813 

Holy Alliance 26 Sept. 1815 

Of England, France, and Turkey (at Constantinople) 

12 Mar. 1854 
Of England and France ratified . . 3 April, ,, 
Of Sardinia with the Western Powers (at Turin) 

26 Jan. 1855 
Of Sweden with the Western Powers . 19 Dec. ,, 
Of Prussia and Italy . . . . June, 1866 

Triple (of Germany, Austria and Italy, which see) 

13 March, 1887 

- ALLISON ISLAND, in the Pacific, dis- 
covered e <rly in 1887. 

ALL NIGHT SITTINGS, see Parliament, 
1877 and 1881. 

ALL SAINTS' DAY (Nov. 1), or All-Hal- 
lows, a festival said to have been begun by pope 
Boniface IV. about 607, celebrated in the Pan- 
theon at Rome, and established by pope Gregory IV. 
(about 830) for the commemoration of all those 
saints and martyrs in whose honour no particular 
day is assigned. The reformers of the English 



church, 1549, struck out of their calendar a great 
number of anniversaries, leaving only those which 
at their time were connected with popular feeling or 
tradition. 

ALL SOULS' COLLEGE, Oxford; see 
Oxford. 

ALL SOULS' DAY (2 Nov.), a festival of 
the Roman Catholic church to commemorate the 
souls of the faithful, instituted, it is said, at Cluny 
about 993 or iooo. 

"ALL THE TALENTS" ADMINIS- 
TRATION, see Grenvtlle Administrations. 

ALLOBROGES, Gauls, defeated by Q. Fabius 
Maximus, near the confluence of the Rhone and 
Saone, 121 b.c. 

ALLOTMENTS, see Land. 

ALMA, a river in the Crimea, near which was 
fought a great battle on 20 Sept. 1854. (See 
Russo- Turkish War and Crimea.) The English, 
French, and Turkish army (about 57,000 men) 
moved out of their first encampment in the Crimea 
on 19 Sept., and bivouacked for the night on the 
left bank of the Bulganac. The Russians (com- 
manded by prince Menschikoff), mustering 40,000 
infantry, had 180 field-pieces on the heights, and on 
the morning of 20 Sept. were joined by 6000 cavalry 
from Theodosia (or Kaffa). The English forces 
under lord Raglan, consisted of 26,000 men; the 
French of 24,000, under marshal St. Arnaud. At 
12 o'clock the signal to advance was made; the 
river Alma was crossed, while prince Napoleon took 
possession of the village under the fire of the 
Russian batteries ; and at 4, after a sanguinary fight, 
the allies were completely victorious. The enemy, 
utterly routed, threw away their arms and knap- 
sacks in their flight, having lost about 5000 men, of 
whom 900 were made prisoners, mostly wounded. 
The loss of the British was 26 officers and 327 men 
killed, and 73 officers and 1539 men wounded 
(chiefly from the 23rd, 7th, and 33rd regiments) ; 
that of the French, 3 officers and 233 men killed, 
and 54 officers and 1033 men wounded. Total loss 
of the allies about, 3400. » 

ALMACK'S ASSEMBLY-ROOMS, King- 
street, St. James's, London, at first very exclusive, 
were erected by a Scotchman named Almack or 
M'Call, and opened 12 Feb. 1765. They have 
long been termed Willis's rooms from the name 
of later proprietors ; they were offered for sale in 
April and July, 1890. 

ALMANACS (from the Arabic al manah, to 
count ; or better, the Coptic al, computation, and 
men, memory) . The Egyptians computed time by in- 
struments ; the Alexandrians had almanacs, and log 
calendars are ancient. In the British Museum and 
universities are specimens of early almanacs. Mi- 
chael Nostradamus, the astrologer, wrote an almanac 
in the style of Merlin, 1556. Dufresnoy. Profes- 
sor Augustus De Morgan's valuable " Book of 
Almanacs, with an index of reference, by which the 
almanac may be found for every year," was pub- 
lished in March, 185 1.* Among the earlier and 
more remarkable almanacs were 



John Somer's Calendar, written in Oxford 
One in Lambeth Palace, written in 



1380 
1460 



* Murphy's Almanack for 1838 predicted correctly a 
frost on 7 Jan. ; thaw and frost 14th ; severe frost 2lst, 
and then thaw. A great sale of the almanac ensued. 
Afterwards the predictions failed. 

I> 



ALMANZA. 



34 



ALPHABET. 



First printed one, published at Buda . . . 1472 
1 Shepheard's Kalendar," (first printed in England) 

by Richard Pynson 1407 

Tybalt's Prognostications 1533 

Almanac Liegeois 1636 

Lilly's Ephemeris 1644 

Poor Robin's Almanac 1652 

British Merlin 1658 

Connaissance des Temps (by Picard) . . . 1679 

Edinburgh Almanac 1683 

Moore's Almanac 1698 or 1713 

Lady's Diary . . . . . . . . 1705 

Season on the Seasons 1735 

Gentleman's Diary 1741 

Nautical Almanac, begun by Dr. Neville Maskelyne 

(materially improved, 1834) 1767 

British Imperial Kalendar 1809 

Hone's Every Pay Book 1826 

British Almanac and Companion .... 1828 
Anniversary Calendar, published by W. Kidd . . 1832 

Chambers' Book of Days 1862-63 

Whitaker's Almanack 1869 

Mr. F. Mayer's International Almanac for- 1890, in 
five languages, published . . . Dec. 1889 
The Stationers' company claimed the exclusive right 
of publishing almanacs in virtue of letters patent from 
James I., granting the privilege to them and the two 
Universities ; but the monopoly was broken up by a 
decision of the Court of Common Pleas in 1775. A bill 
to renew the privilege was lost in 1779. 

The Stamp Duty on English almanacs first imposed in 
1 710, was abolished in August, 1834; since when alma- 
nacs have become innumerable, being issued by trades- 
men with their goods. 

Of Moore's (under the management of Henry Andrews, 
the able computer of the Nautical Ephemeris) at one 
time upwards of 430,000 copies were annually sold. He 
died in 1820. 

Of Foreign Almanacs, the principal are the " Alrnanaeh 
de Prance," first published in 1699, and the " Almanach 
de Gotha," 1764. 

ALMANZA (S. E. Spain). Here on 25 April 

(o. s. 14), 1707, the English, Hutch, and Portuguese 
forces under the earl of Galwa}', were totally de- 
feated by the French and Spanish commanded by 
James Fitzjames, duke of Berwick (illegitimate son 
of James II.). Most of the English were killed 
or made prisoners, having been abandoned by the 
Portuguese at the first charge. 

ALMEIDA (Portugal), a frontier town, cap- 
tured by Massena, 27 Aug. 1810. The French 
entered Spain, leaving a garrison at Almeida, 
blockaded by the English, 6 April, 181 1. Almeida 
was retaken by Wellington (11 May), and Massena 
retired from Portugal. 

ALMENARA, a village N. E. Spain, whereon 
28 July, 1 7 10, an English and German army de- 
feated the Spanish army supporting Philip V., the 
grandson of Louis XIV. of France. Stanhope, the 
English general, killed the Spanish general, Ame- 
zaga, in single conflict ; an act almost unexampled 
in modern warfare. 

ALMOHADES, Mahometan partisans, fol- 
lowers of Mohammed ben Abdalla, surnamed El- 
Mehedi, in Africa, about 1120. They subdued 
Morocco, 1 145; entered Spain and took Seville, 
Cordova, and Granada, 1146-56; and founded a 
dynasty and ruled Spain till 1232, and Africa till 



ALMONER, an office anciently allotted to a 
dignified clergyman who gave the first dish from the 
royal table to the poor, or an alms in money. By an 
ancient canon all bishops were required to keep 
almoners. The grand almoner of France was the 
highest ecclesiastical dignity in that kingdom before 
the revolution, 1789. Queen Victoria's almoner 
(Very Bev . lord Alwyne Compton, dean of Worcester, 



appointed in 1882) or fhe sub-almoner distributes the 
queen's gifts on Maundy Thursday (which see). 

ALMQRAVIDES, Mahometan partisans in 
Africa, rose about 1050 ; entered Spain by invita- 
tion, 1086; were overcome by the Almohades in 
1 147. 

ALMSHOUSES for aged and infirm persons 
have been erected by many public companies and 
benevolent individuals, particularly since the- 
abolition of religious houses at the Reformation in 
the 16th century. A list of them, with useful infor- 
mation, will be found in " Low's Charities of Lon- 
don," 1862 ; frequently re-published. 

Armourers' almshouses, Bishopsgate . . . 1553 

Cornelius Van Dun founded the Red Lion alms- 
houses, Westminster 1577 

Emmanuel College, Westminster, founded by Lady 
Dacre 159* 

Alleyn's almshouses, near City road, founded by 
E. Alleyn 1620 

Whittington's almshouses founded in 1621, were 
rebuilt near Highgate-hill by the Mercers' com- 
pany 1826 

The Fishmongers' company founded almshouses 
in 1618, and rebuilt them on Wandsworth com- 
mon 1850 

Haberdashers' almshouses, Hoxton, founded by 
Robert Aske 1692 

Dame Owen's almshouses, Islington, built in 1613, 
(in gratitude for her escape from an arrow-shot), 
were rebuilt by the Brewers' company . . . 1839 

Bancroft's almshouses, Mile End, were erected . . 1735 

The London almshouses, in commemoration of the 
passing of the Reform Bill, built at Brixton . 1833 

Numerous almshouses since erected for printers, 
bookbinders, &c. 

ALNEY, an island in the Severn, near Glouces- 
ter. Here a combat is asserted to have taken place 
between Edmund Ironside and Canute the Great, 
in sight of their armies, 1016. The latter was 
wounded, and proposed a division of the kingdom, 
the south part falling to Edmund. Edmund was 
murdered at Oxford shortly after, it is said by 
iEdric Streon ; and Canute obtained possession oi 
the whole kingdom. 

ALNWICK (Saxon Ealnwic), on the river 
Alne in Northumberland, was given at the conquest 
to Ivo de Vesci. It has long belonged to the Percies. 
Malcolm, king of Scotland, besieged Alnwick, and 
he and his sons were killed 13 Nov. 1093. It was 
taken by David I. in 1136, and attempted in July, 
1 1 74, by William the Lion, who was defeated and 
taken prisoner. It was burnt by king John in 1215, 
and by the Scots in 1448. Since 1854 the castle has 
been repaired and enlarged with great taste and at 
unsparing expense. 

ALPACA (or Paco), a species of the S.Ameri- 
can quadruped, the Llama, the soft hairy wool of 
which is now largely employed in the fabrication of 
cloths. It was introduced into this country about 
1836, by the earl of Derby. An alpaca factory 
(covering II acres), with a town, park, almshouses, 
&c, for the workpeople, was erected at Saltaire, 
near Shipley, Yorkshire, by Mr. (afterwards sir) 
Titus Salt in 1852. A statue of him at Bradford 
was unveiled 1 Aug. 1874. He died 29 Dec. 1876. 
Saltaire visited by the prince and princess of Wales 
22 June, 1882. 

The Royal Yorkshire Jubilee Exhibition at Saltaire 
opened by the Princess Beatrice . . 6 May, 1887 

ALPHABET, so called from the first two 
Greek letters alpha, beta (Hebrew aleph, belli). 
The statements- that Cadmus broughtthe Phoonecian 
letters from Egypt into Greece, and that Moses 



ALPHONSINE TABLES. 



35 



ALUM. 



brought them into Palestine are legendary. Dr. 
Isaac Taylor's learned work, " The Alphabet," was 
published May, 1883. 

Nearly 200 alphabets are known, of which about 50 are 
in use, mostly developed from the Phcenecian alphabet 
itself, said to have been derived from the Egyptian 
hieroglyphic picture writing ; the Roman alphabet 
was based upon the Greek. The alphabets of the 
different nations contain the following number of 
letters : — 



English. 


. 26 


Arabic .... 


28 


French . 


• ■ 2 5 


Persian . . . . 


32 


Italian . 


22 


Turkish 


28 


Spanish . 


• • 27 


Sanscrit . . . . 


44 


German. 


. 26 


Chinese radical charac- 




Slavonic . 


. . 42 


ters .... 


214 


Russian 


• 35 


Chinese alphabet said 




Latin 


22 


to be invented by 




Greek . 


. 24 


bishop Eligius Cosi 




Hebrew . 


22 


of Canton (1 88c) 


33 



ALPHONSLSTE TABLES, astronomical 
tables, composed by Spanish and Arab astronomers, 
and collected in 1253 under the direction of Alphui.- 
so X. of Castile, surnamed the Wise, who is said 
to have expended upwards of 400,000. crowns in 
completing the work ; he himself wrote the preface. 
The Spanish government ordered the work of Al- 
phonso to be reprinted from the best MSS. ; the 
publication began in 1863. 

ALPS, European mountains. Those between 
France and Italy were passed b} r Hannibal, 218 
B.C., by the Romans, 154 B.C., and by Napoleon I. 
May, 1800. Roads over Mont Cenis and the 
Simplon, connecting France and Italy, were con- 
structed by order of Napoleon, between 1801-6 ; see 
Simplon. The "Alpine Club," which consists 
of British travellers in the Alps, was founded 
in 1858, and published its first work, "Peaks, 
Passes, and Glaciers," 1859; and a journal since. 
Mr. John Bali, F.R.S.,long the able first president, 
and author of excellenf'Guides," died 21 Oct., 1889. 
See Jungfrau, J\[atterhom. An International Alpine 
Congress opened at Salzburg 14 Aug. 1882. 

Mont Cenis or Col de Frejus Tunnel. — A tunnel, 7J miles 
long through mont Cenis, connecting Savoy and 
Piedmont, was proposed by M. Medail, and, after long 
lying dormant, was discussed and plans drawn up in 
1848. The execution was prevented by the war of 
1849. 

The work of excavation was begun by king Victor 
Emmanuel, 31 Aug. 1857. 

The boring was at first effected by ordinary piercing 
machinery ; steam power was employed in i860 ; and 
latterly compressed air. 

Engineers — Grattoni, Grandis, and Somineiller ; the 
boring was completed, 25 Doc. 1870. 

The total cost was about 2,6oo,oooL As the Italians had 
executed the work within the given time, the French 
government bore the chief expense. 

The first experimental trip was made in 40 minutes, 13 
Sept. , and the tunnel was solemnly inaugurated by the 
passage of 22 carriages in 20 minutes, 17 Sept. 1871 ; 
regular trains pass through, 16 Oct. 1871. 

A railway for locomotives over mont Cenis was con- 
structed upon Mr. Fell's plan in 1867 (see Railways), 
and opened for traffic, 15 June, 1868. 

The overland mail first travels tlrrough the tunnel to 
Briudisi, saving 24 hours, 5 Jan. 1872. 

St. Gotlmrd Tunnel (part of a railway system to connect 
the North Sea and the Mediterranean), about g\ miles ; 
compressed air employed in boring ; begun June, 
1872 ; completed 29 Feb. 1880 ; through failure in 
vaulting, May, 1880, opening deferred. 

The first complete train, carrying one hundred passengers, 
passed through the St. Gothard Tunnel in 50 minutes, 
1 Nov. 1881 ; partially opened 1 Jan. 1882 ; completely 
opened June, 1882. 

ALRESFORD, battle of, or Cheriton, which 
see. 



ALSACE, ELSASS, formerly part of the king- 
dom of Austrasia, afterwards the French depart- 
ments of the Upper and Lower Rhine. It was 
incorporated with the German empire in the 10th 
century. A portion was restored to Franco, 1648, 
and the whole, including Strasburg, in 1697. Alsace 
was re-conquered by the Germans, Aug. -Sept. 1870; 
and annexed to their empire, Ma}', 1871; bylaw, 
9 June, 1871. The Alsatians were permitted to 
choose their nationality, before 30 Sept. 1872. Many 
emigrated into France, with much regret. — Alsace- 
Lobuaine was constituted a province of the Ger- 
man empire, having been ceded bv France by the 
treaty of peace concluded 10 May, 1871, see Belfort. 
The province sends 15 members to the German 
parliament. Administrators, prince Bismarck, 1871 ; 
field-marshal Manteuffel, I Oct. 1879 ; prince 
Hohenlohe, July, 1885. Population of Alsace- 
Lorraine, 1885, 1,564,355; 1890, i,eo;,i07. See 
Germany, 1887, and Straslurg. The emperor 
William II. visited the province 20 Aug. et seq. f 
1889. The stringent passport regulations greatly 
relaxed 1 Oct. 1891. 

ALSATIA, a name given to the precinct of 
Whitefriars, London, is described in Scott's " For- 
tunes of Nigel." its privilege of sanctuary was 
abolished in 1697. 

ALSEN (Denmark), besieged by the Prussians, 
and heroically defended, 26 June; taken, 29 June, 
1864. 

ALTAR. One was built by Noah, 2348 B.C. ; 
3154 Hales; 2481 Clinton {Gen. viii. 20) ; others 
by Abraham, 1921 {Gen. xii. 8). Directions for 
making an altar are given, Exod. xx. 14, 1491 B.C. 
The erection of altars in Greece is n ythically 
assigned to Cecrops. The term " altar" was early 
applied to the table used in the celebration of the 
Lord's Supper in Chiistian churches {Hcb. xiii. 10). 
Since the time of Elizabeth there has been much 
controversy on the subject, and the Puritans in the 
civil war destroyed many of the ancient stone altars, 
substituting wooden tables. In Jan. 1845 it was 
decided in the Arches Court that stone altars were 
not to be erected in English churches. 

ALTENKIRCHEN (Prussia). The French, 
who had defeated the Austrians here, 4 June, 1796, 
were themselves defeated, and their general, Mai- 
ceau, killed, 19 Sept. following. 

ALTER EGO {another or second J), a term 
applied to Spanish viceroys when exercising regal 
power; used at Naples when the crown prince was 
appointed vicar-general during an insurrection in 
July, 1820. 

ALTONA (Holstein, N. Germany), acquired by 
the Danes, 1660, and made a city, 1664. It was 
occupied first by the German federal troops, 24 Dec. 
1863, and then by the Prussians (the federal diet 
protesting) 12 Feb. 1864. 

ALT-RANSTADT (Prussia), where the treaty 
of peace dictated by Charles XII. of Sweden, to Frede- 
rick Augustus of Poland, was signed, 24 Sept. 1706, 
o.s. Frederick, deposed in 1704, regained the throne 
of Poland after the defeat of Charles XII., in 1 709. 

ALUM, a salt, is said to have been first dis- 
covered at Roccha, in Syria, about 1300; it was 
found in Tuscany about 1470; its manufacture was 
brought to perfection in England by sir T. Chal- 
loner, who established large alum works near Whitby 
in 1608 ; it was discovered in Ireland in 1757 ; and 
in Anglesey in 1790. Alum is used as a mordant in 

D 2 



ALUMBAGH. 



36 



AMBASSADOES. 



dyeing, to harden tallow, to whiten bread, and in 
the paper manufacture. 

Messrs. Peter Spenee & Sons produced a colossal 
crystal of alum weighing over eight tons . April, 1886 

ALUMBAGH, a palace with other buildings 
near Lucknow, Oude, India, taken during the mu- 
tiny from the rebels, 23 Sept. 1857, and heroically 
defended by the British under sir James Outram. 
He defeated an attack of 30,000 sepoys on 12 Jan. 
1858, and of 20,000 on 21 Feb., and was relieved by 
sir Colin Campbell in March. 

ALUMINIUM, a metal, the base of the earth 
alumina, which is combined with silica in clay, and 
which was shown to be a distinct earth by JVIarg- 
graff in 1754, having been previously confounded 
with lime. Oerstedt in 1826 obtained the chloride 
of aluminium ; and in 1827 the metal itself was got 
from it by F. Wohler, but was long a scientific 
curiosity, the process being expensive. The mode 
of production was afterwards simplified by Bunsen 
and others, more especially by H. Ste. - Claire 
Deville, who in 1856 succeeded in procuring 
considerable quantities of this metal by the 
aid of the metal sodium.* It is very light 
(sp. g. 2'25), malleable, and sonorous; when pure 
does not rust, and is not acted on by sulphur or 
any acid except hydrochloric. In March, 1856, it 
was 31?. the ounce; in June, 1857, us. or 12*., and 
it gradually became much cheaper. The eagles of 
the French colours have been made of it, and many 
otherornamental and useful articles. Deville'swork, 
"De 1' Aluminium," was published in 1859. An 
aluminium manufactory was established at New- 
castle in i860, by Messrs. Bell. They obtain the 
metal from a French mineral, bauxite. Their alu- 
minium bronze, an alloy of copper and aluminium, 
invented by Dr. John Percy, F.R.S., was made into 
watch cases, &c, by Messrs. Keid of Newcastle, in 
1862. The production of aluminium has been very 
greatly increased by the use of Mr. Eugene Cowles' 
electric furnace and the use of powerful dynamo- 
machines: aluminium bronze is thus largely pro- 
duced, 1886-9. -A- company for the purpose was 
formed in the United States. 

Mr. H. Y. Castner's aluminium works at Oldbury near 
Birmingham in successful operation, May 1889. Price 
of aluminium 20s. a pound (1889). See Sodium. 

AMADIS OF GAUL, a Spanish or Portuguese 
romance, stated to have been written about 1342 by 
Vasco de Lobeira. It was enlarged by De Mont- 
alvo, about 1485 ; and first printed (in Spanish) 
1519; in French, 1540-56. 

AMALE KITES (descendants of Amalek, 
grandson of Esau, brother of Jacob) attacked the 
Israelites, 1491 B.C., when perpetual war was de- 
nounced against them. They were subdued by Saul 
about 1079, by David, 1058 and 1056; and by the 
Simeonites about 715 B.C. 

AMALFI, a city on the gulf of Salerno, Naples, 
in the 8th century became the seat of a republic, 
and flourished by its commerce till 1075, when it 
was taken by Roger Guiscard, and eventually incor- 
porated with Naples. The Pisans, in their sack of 
the town in 1135, are said to have found a copy ot 
the Pandects of Justinian, and thus to have induced 
the revival of the study of Roman law in Western 
Europe ; the story is now doubted. Flavio Gioia, 
a native of Amalfi, is the reputed discoverer of the 
mariner's compass, about 1302. 



* A cheaper method of procuring this metal was pa- 
tented by Mr. Webster, of Hollywood, near Birmingham, 
in 1882. 



AMATEUR MECHANICAL SOCIETY 

(89, Stamford Street), issued its first prospectus, 
I Jan. 1869. 

AMATONGALAND, between Zululand and 
the Portuguese possessions, South Africa. A 
deputation from Queen Zambila solicits protection 
of England from the Boers, and the prohibition of 
the liquor traffic, Nov. -Dec. 1887. 

AMAZON, West India mail steam ship, left 
Southampton on her first voyage, Friday, 2 Jan. 
1852, and on Sunday morning, Jan. 4, was destroyed 
by fire at sea, about no miles W.S.W. of Scilly 
(ascribed to the spontaneous ignition of combustible 
matter placed near the engine-room). Out of 161 
persons on board, 102 persons must have perished 
by fire or drowning. 21 persons were saved by the 
life-boat of the ship ; 25 more were carried into 
Brest harbour by a Dutch vessel passing by; and 
13 others were picked up in the bay of Biscay, also 
by a Dutch galliot. Eliot Warburton, a distin- 
guished writer in general literature, was among 
those lost. 

AMAZON, a river (S. America), was discovered 
by Pinzon, in 1500, and explored by Francisco Orel- 
lana, in 1540. Comingfrom Peru, he sailed down the 
Amazon te the Atlantic, and observing companies 
of women in arms on its bank, he called the country 
Amazonia, and gave the name of Amazon to the 
river, previously called Marafion. 

AMAZONS- Three nations of Amazons have 
been mentioned — the Asiatic, Scythian, and African. 
They are mythically said to have been the descend- 
ants of Scythians inhabiting Cappadocia, where 
their husbands, having made incursions, were all 
slain, being surprised in ambuscades by their enemies. 
Their widows formed a female state, and decreed 
that matrimony was a shameful servitude. Quintus 
Curtius. They were said to have been conquered by 
Theseus. The Amazons were constantly employed 
in wars; and that they might throw the javelin 
with more force, their right breasts were burned off, 
whence their name from the Greek, a, no, mazos, 
breast. Others derive the name from maza, the 
moon, which they are supposed to have worshipped. 
About 330 B.C. their queen, Thalestris, visited Alex- 
ander the Great, whilst he was pursuing his con- 
quests in Asia, with three hundred females in her 
train. Herodotus. For modern amazons, see Daho- 
mey. 

AMBASSADORS. Accredited agents, and 
representatives from one court to another, are re- 
ferred to in early ages. In most countries they have 
great privileges; and in England, they and their 
servants are secured against ai-rest. England has 
seven ambassadors (at Berlin, Constantinople, 
Madrid, Paris, Rome, St. Petersburg, Vienna), 
twenty-six ministers, and about thirty chief 
consuls, resident at foreign courts, exclusive of 
inferior agents ; the ambassadors and other chief 
agents from abroad at the court of London in 1865, 
were 47 ; in 1868, 43 ; in 1872, 42 ; in 1878, 39 ; in 
1889, 43. 

The Russian ambassador being imprisoned for debt by 
a lace-merchant, 27 Jul}', 1708, led to the passing the 
statute of 7 Anne, for the protection of ambassadors, 
1708. 
Two men, convicted of arresting the servant of an am- 
bassador, were sentenced to be conducted to the house 
of the ambassador, with a label on their breasts, to ask 
his pardon, and then one of them to be imprisoned 
three months, and the other fined, 12 May, 1780. 
The first ambassador from the United States of America 
to England, John Adams, presented to the king, 1 June, 
1785 ; the first from Great Britain to America was 
Mr. Hammond, in 1791. 



AMBER. 



37 



AMERICA. 



A Japanese minister received by the queen, 3 March, 

1875. 
The first accredited ambassador from China, Kus-ta-Jen, 

landed at Southampton, 21 Jan. 1877. 
In the case of Sir H. Macartney, secretary to the Chinese 

legation v. the Vestry of Marylebone, the Queen's 

Bench decided that the plaintiff was free from parish 

rates and taxes, 24 Feb. 1890. 

AMBER, a carbonaceous mineral,* principally 
found in the northern parts of Europe, of great 
repute in the world from the earliest time ; esteemed 
as a medicine before the Christian era : Theophrastus 
wrote upon it; 300 B.C. Upwards of 150 tons of 
amber have been found in one year on the sands of 
the shore near Pillau. Phillips. 

AMBLE F, near Cologne, Germany. Here 
Charles Martel defeated Chilperic II., and Ragen- 
froi, mayor of the Neustrians, 716. 

AMBOISE (Central France). A conspiracy 
of the Huguenots against Francis II., Catherine de 
Medicis, and the Guises, w as suppressed at this 
place in Jan. 1560. On 19 March, 1563, the Paci- 
fication of Amboise was published, granting tole- 
ration to the Huguenots. The civil war was 
however soon renewed. 

AMBOYNA, chief of the Molucca isles, dis- 
covered about 1512 by the Portuguese, but not 
wholly occupied by them till 1580. It was taken 
by the Dutch in 1605. '1 he English factors at this 
settlement were cruelly tortured and put to death, 
17 Feb. 1623-4, bv the Dutch, on an accusation of a 
conspiracy to expel them from the island, where the 
two nations jointly shared in the pepper trade of 
Java. Cromwell compelled the Dutch to give a sum 
of money to the descendants of the sufferers. Am- 
boyna was seized by the English, 16 Feb. 1796, but 
was restored by the treaty of Amiens, in 1802. It 
was again seized by the British, 17-19 Feb. 1810 ; 
and again restored at the peace of May, 1814. 

AMBROSIAL CHANT, see Chant, Liturgy, 
&c. 

AMBULANCE ASSOCIATION, see 
under John's, St. 
First "ambulance ship "(for small-pox convalescents), 

Bed Cross, constructed for Metropolitan Asylums Board, 

launched at Millwall, 8 Aug. 1883. 

AMEN, an ancient Hebrew word meaning true, 
faithful, certain, is used in the Jewish and Chris- 
tian assemblies, at the conclusioa of prayer : see 
1 Cor. xiv., 16 (a.d. 59). It is translated "verily" 
in the Gospels. 

AMENDE HONORABLE, in France, in the 
9th century, was a punishment inflicted on traitors 
and sacrilegious persons : the offender was delivered 
to the hangman : his shirt was stripped off, a rope 
put round his neck, and a taper in his hand ; he 
was then led into court, and was obliged to beg 
pardon of God and the country. Death or banish- 
ment sometimes followed. These words also denote 
a recantation in open court, or in presence of the 
injured person. 

AMERCEMENT, in Law, a fine assessed for 
an offence done, or pecuniary punishment at the 
mercy of the court : thus differing from a fine di- 
rected and fixed by a statute. By Magna Charta, 
1215, a freeman cannot be amerced for a small fault, 

* Much diversity of opinion still prevails among 
naturalists and chemists respecting the origin of amber. 
It is considered by Berzelius to have been a resin dis- 
solved in volatile oil. It often contains delicately-formed 
insects. Sir D. Brewster concludes it to be indurated 
vegetable juice. When rubbed it becomes electrical, and 
from its Greek name, elektron, the term Electricity is 
derived. 



but in proportion to the offence he has committed; 
the mode was determined by 9 Hen. III., 1225. 

AMERICA, * the great Western Continent, is 
about 9000 miles long, with an area of about 
16,500,000 square miles. It is now believed to have 
been visited by the Norsemen or Vikings in the 10th 
and nth centuries; but the modern discovery is due 
to the sagacity and courage of the Genoese navigator, 
Christopher Columbus. -f See Chicago. 
Columbus sailed on his first expedition from Palos 
in Andalusia on Friday, with vessels supplied by 
the sovereigns of Spain .... 3 Aug. 1492 
He lands on the island of Guanahani, one of the 
Bahamas ; takes possession of it in the name of 
Ferdinand and Isabella of Castile, and names it 
San Salvador .... Friday, 12 Oct. „ 
He discovers Cuba, 28 Oct. : and Hispaniola (now 
Hayti), whe e hi builds a fort, Li Navidad, 6 Dec. „ 

He returns to Spain 15 March, 1493 

He sails from Cadiz on his second expedition, 
25 Sept. ; discovers the Caribbee Isles, — Dominica, 
3 Nov. ; Guadaloupe, 4' Nov. ; Antigua, 10 Nov. ; 
founds Isabella in Hispaniola, the first Christian 
city in the New World .... Dec. „ 
He discovers Jamaica, 3 May ; and Evangelista (now 
Isle of Pines), 13 June ; war with the natives of 

Hispaniola 1494 

He visits the various isles, and explores their coasts 

1495-6 
Returns to Spain to meet the charges of his enemies 

11 June, 1496 

Cabot (sent out by Henry VII. of England) discovers 

Labrador on the coast of North America [he is 

erroneously said to have discovered Florida, and 

also Newfoundland, and to have named it Prima 

Vista] 24 June, 1497 

Columbus sails on his third voyage, 30 May ; dis- 
covers Trinidad, 31 July ; lands on Terra Firma, 
without knowing it to be the new continent, 

naming it Isla Santa 1 Aug. 1498 

Ojeda discovers Surinam, June ; and the gulf of 

Venezuela 1499 

Vicente Yaiiez Pinzon discovers Brazil, South Ame- 
rica, 26 Jan. ; and the river Marafion(the Amazon); 
Cabral the Portuguese lands in Brazil (see Brazil) 

3 May, 1500 

Gaspar Cortereal discovers Labrador , 

Columbus is imprisoned in chains at San Domingo 
by Bobadilla, sent out to investigate into his con- 
duct, May ; conveyed to Spain, where he is honour- 
ably received 17 Dec. ,, 

* The name is derived from Amerigo Vespucci, a Floren- 
tine merchant, who died in 1512. He accompanied Ojeda 
in his voyage on the eastern coast in 1498 ; and described 
the country in letters sent to his friend's in Italy. He is 
charged with presumptuously inserting " Tierra de Ame- 
rigo" in his maps. Irving discusses the question in the 
Appendix to the Life of. Columbus, but comes to no con- 
clusion. Humboldt asserts that the name was given to 
the continent in the popular works of Waldseemuller,' a 
German geographer, without the knowledge of Vespucci. 
To America we are indebted, among other things, for 
maize, the turkey, the potato, Peruvian bark, and 
tobacco. 

t Christophoro Columbo was born about 1445 : first 
went to sea about 1460 ; settled at Lisbon in 1470, where 
he married Felipa, the daughter of Perestrello, an Italian 
navigator ; whereby he obtained much geographical know- 
ledge. He is said to have laid the plans of his voyage of 
discovery before the republic of Genoa, in 1485, and 
other powers, and finally before the court of Spain, where 
at length the queen Isabella became his patron. After 
undergoing much ingratitude and cruel persecution from 
his own followers and the Spanish court, he died on 
20 May, 1506 ; and was buried with much pomp at Valla- 
dolid. His remains were transferred, in 1513, to Seville ; 
in 1536 to San Domingo ; and in Jan. 1796 to the Havanna, 
Cuba. The original inscription on his tomb is said to 
have been : " A Castilla y a Leon Nuevo Mundo dio 
Colon." "To Castile and Leon Colon gave a New World." 
Humboldt says beautifully, that the success of Columbus 
was "a conquest of reflection!" It was stated in Nov. 
1890, that Columbus' log-book had been fished up from 
the sea. 



AMEEICA. 



38 



AMERICANISMS. 



Columbus sails on his fourth voyage, g May ; dis- 
covers various isles on the coast of Honduras, 
and explores the coast of the isthmus, July, 
<fcc. ; discovers and names Porto Bello . 2 Nov. 1502 
Negro slaves imported into Hispaniola . . 1501-3 
Worried by the machinations of his enemies, he re- 
turns to Spain, 7 Nov. ; his friend, queen Isabella, 

dies 20 Nov. 1504 

He dies while treated with base ingratitude by the 

Spanish government . . .20 May, 1506 

Solis and Pinzon discover Yucatan . . . . „ 
Ojeda founds San Sebastian, the first colony on the 

mainland 15 10 

Subjugation of Cuba by Velasquez . . . .1511 
The coast of Florida discovered by Ponce de Leon . 1512 
Vasco de Balboa crosses the isthmus of Darien, and 

discovers the South Pacific Ocean . . . . 1513 
Mexico discovered by Fernando de Cordova . . 1517 
Grijalva penetrates into Yucatan, and names it New 

Spain 1518 

Passage of Magellan's Straits by him . . . . 1520 
Conquest of Mexico by Fernando Cortes . . 15 19-21 
Pizarro discovers the coast of Quito . . . . 1526 
He invades and conquers Peru .... 1532-5 
Carrier, a Frenchman, enters the Gulf of St. Law- 
rence, and sails up to Montreal . . . 1534-5 
Grijalva's expedition, equipped by Cortes, discovers 

California 1535 

Mendoza founds Buenos Ayres, and conquers the 

adjacent country 

Orellana sails down the Amazon to the sea . 1540-1 

Louisiana conquered by De Soto ,, 

Chili conquered by Valdivia 1541 

Rebellion in Peru— tranquillity established by Gasca 1548 
Davis's Straits discover jd by him .... 1585 
Raleigh establishes the first English settlement — at 

Roanoke, Virginia , 

Falkland isles discovered by Davis .... 1592 
De Monts, a Frenchman, settles in Acadia, now 

Nova Scotia 1604 

Jamestown, in Virginia, the first English settlement 
on the mainland, founded by lord de la Warr . 1607 

Quebec founded by the French 1608 

Hudson's bay discovered by him .... 1610 
The Dutch build Manhattan, or New Amsterdam 

(now New York) on the Hudson . . . . 1614 
Settlement in New England begun by capt. Smith . ,, 
New Plymouth built by the English nonconformist 

exiles 1620 

Nova Scoria settled by the Scotch under sir ffm. 

Alexander 1622 

Delaware settled by the Swedes and Dutch . . 1627 
Massachusetts, by sir H. Boswell . . . . 1628 

Maryland, by lord Baltimore 1633 

Connecticut granted to lords Say and Brooke in 

1630 ; but no English settlement was made here till 1635 
Rhode Island settled by Roger Williams and his 

brethren, driven from Massachusetts . . . „ 
New Jersey settled by the Dutch, 1614, and Swedes, 
1627 ; gi anted to the duke of York, who sells it to 

lord Beikeley . ^64 

New York captured by the English ....,, 
South Carolina settled by the English . . . . 1669 
Pennsylvania settled by William Penn, the cele- 
brated Quaker I 6S2 

Louisiana settled by the French 

The Mississippi explored x (,'gg 

The Scotch settlement at Darien (1698-9) abandoned 1700 

New Orleans built I7I7 

Georgia settled by general Oglethorpe . . . 1732 

Kentucky, by colonel Boon I? 5 4 

Canada conquered by the English, 1759-60 ; ceded to 

Great Britain -,.-63 

American war— declaration of independence by the 

United States, 1776 ; recognised by Great Britain 1783 
Louisiana ceded to Spain, 1763 ; transferred to 

France, 1800 ; sold to the United States . . . 1S03 
Florida ceded to Great Britain, 1763 ; taken by 
Spain, 1781 ; to whom it is ceded, 1783 ; ceded to 

the United States j3 20 

Revolution in Mexico -declaration of independence 1821 
Revolutions in Spanish America ; independence es- 
tablished by Chili, 1810; Paraguay, 1811; Buenos 
Ayres, and other provinces, 1S16 ; Peru, 1826. 
[See United States, Mexico, and other states, through- 
out the volume. For the American Interna- 
tional Congress, see United States, Oct. 1889.] 



AMERICA, BRITISH, see British America. 

AMERICA, Central, Republics of, in- 
cludes Guatemala, San Salvador, Honduras, Nicara- 
gua, and Costa Rioa (which see) . They declared their 
independence, Sept. 21, 1821, and separated from the 
Mexican confederation, 21 July, 1823. The states 
made atreaty of union between themselves, 21 March, 
1847. There has been amongthem since much anarchy 
and bloodshed, aggravated greatly by the irruption of 
American filibusters under Kenny and Walker, 
1854-5. J- n J an - J 863, a war began between Guate- 
mala (afterwards joined by Nicaragua) and San 
Salvador (afterwards supported by Honduras') . The 
latter were defeated at Santa Rosa, 16 June, and San 
Salvador was taken, 26 Oct. ; the president of San 
Salvador, Barrios, tied; and Carrera, the dictator 
of Guatemala, became predominant over the con- 
federacy. Gen. Barrios, president of Guatemala, 
attempts the union of the live states, himself to be 
dictator ; opposed by all except Honduras, Feb. 
He is defeated and killed in a prolonged battle at 
Chalchuapa, 2 April ; peace with the states signed 
16 April, 1885. The union of the states, under one 
principal president, was proposed at the Pan-Ameri- 
can Congress, 1889-90. See Darien, and Panama.- 

AMERICA, Russian, sold to the United 

States for about 400,000/., March, 1867. See Alaska. 

AMERICA, SOUTH, see Brazil, Argentine, 
Tern, Paraguay, Uruguay, §c. 

"AMERICA," see Yacht. 

"AMERICAN" steamer; see Wrecks, 1880. 

AMERICAN ASSOCIATION for the 

Advancement of Science, resembling the 

British Association, held its first meeting at Phila- 
delphia 20 Sept. 1848, 28th Saratoga, 27 Aug. 1879 ; 
29th at Boston, 23-28 Aug. 1880; met at Cin- 
cinnati, 17 Aug. 1881 ; at Montreal, 26 Aug. 1882 ; 
at Minneapolis, Minnesota, 15 Aug. 1883; Phila- 
delphia, 4 Sept. 1884 ; Ann Arbor, 1885 ; Buffalo, 
1886; New York, 1887: Cleveland, 1888 ; Toronto, 
Aug. 1889; Indianapolis, 19 Aug. 1890; Washing- 
ton, 11 Aug. 1891 ; Rochester, N.Y., 18 Aug. 1892. 

AMERICAN BASEBALL, a game resem- 
bling cricket and rounders, introduced into this 
country by teams from Philadelphia aud Boston, in 
1875 without success. The American teams (Chi- 
cago and All America) after a tour round the world 
played a game at Kennington Oval in the presence 
of the Prinee . of Wales and many distinguished 
spectators 12 March, 1889, and since. 

AMERICAN CLUB, London, for Anglo- 
Saxons interested in the Western Hemisphere, es- 
tablished autumn 1887. 

AMERICAN EXHIBITION of the Arts, 
Inventions, Manufactures, Products, and Resources 
of the United States— Earls' Court, West Bromp- 
ton, and West Kensington. (A private speculation.) 
It included works of art, specimens of manufacture, a 

" Wild West " section, feats of horsemanship by Buffalo 

Bill(col. thehon. Win. F. Cody), Red Shirt, a Sioux chief, 

and other Indians ; butt'alo hunts, horse catching, &c. 
Visited by the prince and princess of Wales 5 May 1887. 
Opened by colonel Russell, the president, lord Ronald 

Gower, archdeacon Farrar, aud others, 9 May. 
Visited by the Queen 11 May. 
Closed by a meeting advocating the establishment of an 

International Court of Arbitration, the marquis of 

Lome in the chair, 31 Oct. 1887. 

AMERICANISMS i a dictionary of these ex- 
pressions was compiled by John R. Bartlott, and 
first published in 1848 ; 4th edition, 1877, Another 
by John S. Farmer appeared in 1889. 



AMERICANISTS. 



3<J 



AMPUTATION. 



AMERICANISTS, a name assumed by some 
persons devoted to the study of the archaeology, 
■ethnology, &c, of North and South America, who 
held their first international congress at Nancy in 
July 1875; one at Luxemburg, Sept. 1877; at 
ISrussels, Sept. 1879; at Madrid, 27 Sept.' 1881 ; 
Copenhagen, 21 Aug. 1883; Turin, 1886; Berlin, 
2 Oct. 1888; Paris, 14 Oct. 1890. 

AMERICAN ORGAN, a free-reed keyed wind 
instrument, resembling the harmonium, with im- 
portant differences; the principle was discovered 
about 1835 by a workman employed by Alexandre 
of Paris. The invention was taken to America, 
where instruments were made bj r Mason and Ham- 
lin, of Boston, about i860. 

AMETHYST, the ninth stone upon the breast- 
plate of the Jewish high priest, 1491 B.C. It is of a 
rich violet colour. One worth 200 rix-dollars, having 
been rendered colourless, equalled a diamond in 
Zustre, valued at 18,000 gold crowns. De Boot. — 
Amethysts discovered at Kerry, in Ireland, in 1775. 

AMIENS, a city in Picardy (N. France) ; the 
cathedral was built in 1220. It was taken by the 
Spanish, 1 1 March, and retaken by the French, 
25 Sept. 1597. The preliminary articles of the 
peace between Great Britain, Holland, France, and 
Spain, were signed in Loudon by lord Hawkesbury 
and M. Otto, on the part of England and France, 
I Oct. 1801 ; and the definitive treaty was subscribed 
at Amiens, on 27 March, 1802, by the marquis of 
Cornwallis for England, Joseph Bonaparte for 
France, Azara for Spain, and Schimmelpenninck 
for Holland. War was declared again in 1803. — 
After a conflict, in which the French were defeated, 
27 Nov. 1870, the German general Von Gceben 
entered Amiens, 28 Nov. 

AMMERGAU PASSIOXPlAY, see Drama. 

AMMONIA, the volatile alkali, mainly pro- 
duced by the decomposition of organic substances. 
Its name is ascribed to its having been procured 
from heated camels' dung near the temple of Jupiter 
Amnion in Libya. The discovery of its being a 
compound of nitrogen and hydrogen is ascribed to 
Joseph Priestley in 1774. By the recent labours of 
chemists both the oxide of the hypothetical metal 
ammonium, and ammonium amalgam, have been 
formed ; and specimens of each were shown at the 
Royal Institution in 1856 by Dr. A. W. Hofmann, 
who has done very much for the chemical histoiy of 
ammonia. 

Ammoniaphone. An apparatus for the improvement of 
the voice and lungs, by inhaling combinations of 
ammonia, hydrogen, &c, invented by Dr. Carter 
Moffat, of Edinburgh, 1883. He asserted that this 
mixture resembles Italian air. The successful effects 
of inhaling the gas were shown at St. James's Hall, 6 
Nov. 1884. 

Ammonite. A new explosive for use in coal mines, said 
to be safer than those in use, composed of pure ammo- 
nium nitrate and nitro-naphthaline. Experiments with 
this explosive exhibited by sir George Elliot at the 
works of the Miners' Safety Explosive Company, 
Stanford-le-Hope, Essex, were considered very satis- 
factory, 9 July, 1891. 

AMMONITES, descended from Ben-Ammi, 
the son of Lot (1897 B.C.), invaded Canaan and 
made the Israelites tributaries, but were defeated by 
Jephthah, 1 143 B.C. They again invaded Canaan, 
intending to put out the right eye of all they sub- 
dued ; but Saul overthrew them, 1095 n.c Thev 
were afterwards many times vanquished ; and 
Antiochus the Great took Kabbah their capital, 
and destroyed the walls, 198 B.C. JosepJms. 



AMNESTY (a general pardon after political 
disturbances, &c.) was granted by Thrasybulus, the 
Athenian patriot, after expelling the thirty tyrants, 
403 B.C. Acts of amnesty were passed after the 
civil war in 1651, and after the two rebellions in 
England in 1715 and 1745. — After his victorious 
campaign in Italy, Napoleon III. of France granted 
an amnesty to all political offenders, 17 Aug. 1859. 
An amnesty, with certain exemptions, was granted 
to the vanquished southern states of North America 
by president Johnson, 29 May, 1865. An amnesty 
for political offences was granted by the emperor of 
Austria at his coronation as king of Hungary, 
8 June, 1867; a rather sweeping amnesty bill was 
passed in the United States regarding the rebellion, 
10 April, 1871. An amnesty association on behalf 
of the Fenians was active in Britain, Oct. 1873. 
2245 French communists pardoned by decree, pub- 
lished 17 Jan. 1879 ; many oihers during the year : 
a general amnesty for political offences passed by the 
chamber (333-140) 21 June, 1880. An amnesty was 
granted to the Cretans after the disturbances, by the 
Sultan of Turkey, Dec. 1889. 

AMOAFUL, near Coomassie, "West Africa. 
After a severe conflict, 31 Jan. 1874, the Ashantees 
were defeated at this place by Sir Garnet Wolseley. 
Captain Buckle was killed, and about 20 officers 
and 200 men were wounded. The 42nd Highland 
Regiment was very energetic. 

AMOZBA, see Protoplasm. 

AMOY, see China, 1853-5. 

AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL, asserted 
traditionally to have been established at Ther- 
mopylae by Amphictyon, for the management of all 
affairs relative to Greece. This celebrated council, 
composed of twelve of the wisest and most virtuous 
men of various cities of Greece, began 1498 [1 1 13, 
Clinton'] B.C., and existed 31 B.C. Its immediate 
office was to attend to the temples and oracles of 
Delphi. Its calling on the Greek States to punish 
the Phocians for plundering Delphi caused the 
Sacred wars, 595-586, and 356-346. 

AMPHION, a British frigate, of 38 guns, blown 
up while riding at anchor in Plymouth Sound, and 
the whole of her crew then on board, consisting of 
more than two hundred and fifty persons, officers 
and men, perished, 22 Sept. 1796. 

AMPIIIPOLIS, Macedon (N. Greece). A city 
founded here by the Athenians, 437 B.C. ; was seized 
by Brasidas the Spartan, 424; both he and the 
Athenian general, Cl'eon, were killed in a fruitless 
attempt at the capture of the city by the Athenians, 
422. 

AMPHITHEATRES, round or oval buildings, 
said to have been first constructed by Curio, 76 B.C., 
and by Julius Caesar 46 B.C. In the Roman amphi- 
theatres, the people witnessed the combats of gladia- 
tors with wild beasts, &c. They were generally 
built of wood, but Statilius Taurus made one of 
stone, under Augustus Caesar; see Coliseum. The 
amphitheatre of Vespasian (capable of holding 
87,000 persons) was built between a.d. 70 and 80; 
and is said to have been a fortress in 1312. The 
amphitheatre at Verona was next in size, and then 
that of Nismes. 

AMPHITRITE, The Sinr, see Wrecks 
30 Aug. 1833. 

AMPUTATION, in surgery was greatly aided 
by the invention of the tourniquet by Morel, a French 

surgeon in 1674, and of the n.ip-niethod by Ijowd- 
ham of Exeter in 1679. 



AMSTERDAM. 



40 



ANATOMY. 



AMSTERDAM (Holland) . The castle of Am- 
stel was commenced in noo; the building of the 
city in 1203. Its commerce was greatly increased 
by the decay of that of Antwerp after 1 609. The 
exchange was built in 1634 ; and the noble stadt- 
house in 1648 ; the latter cost three millions of 
guilders, then a large sum. It was built upon 
13,659 piles. Amsterdam surrendered to the king 
of Prussia, when that prince invaded Holland, in 
favour of the stadtholder, in 1787. The French 
were admitted without resistance, 18 Jan. 1795. 
The Dutch government was restored in Dec. 1813. 
A crystal palace for an industrial exhibition was 
opened by prince Frederick of the .Netherlands, 16 
Aug. 1864. The canal, from Amsterdam to the 
North Sea, was inaugurated by the king, 1 Nov. 
1876. A new university was opened, Dec. 1877. 
International exhibition opened by the king, 1 May, 
1883. International Agricultural exhibition opened 
26 Aug. 1884. The Grand theatre destroyed by fire 
20 Feb. 1890. Population, 1890,417,539. 
Violent rioting through prohibition of eel-baiting on the 

canal ; 35 killed, 90 wounded ; suppressed 25-26 July, 

18S6. 

AMYL, a chemical alcohol radical (first isolated 
by professor Edward Frankland in 1849). 

AMYLENE, a colourless, very mobile liquid, 
first procured by M. Balard of Paris in 1844, DV 
distilling fusel oil (potato-spirit) with chloride of 
zinc. The vapour was employed instead of chloro- 
form first by Dr. Snow in 1856. It has since been 
tried in many hospitals here and in France. The 
odour is more unpleasant than chloroform, and more 
vapour must be used. 

ANABAPTISTS, those who baptize at full 
age, and reject infant baptism ; see Baptists. The 
name was first given to Thomas Miinzer, Storck, 
and other fanatics who preached in Saxony in 1521, 
and excited a rebellion of the lower orders in Ger- 
many, which was quelled with bloodshed in 1525. 
A similar insurrection took place in Westphalia, 
headed by Matthias, 1533, and, after his assassina- 
tion, by John Boccold of Leyden, who was crowned 
"king of Sion" in Minister, 24 June, 1534. Mini- 
ster was taken in June, 1535; and John was executed 
13 Feb. 1536. Several anahaptists were executed in 
England in 1535, 1538, and 1540. On 6 Jan. 1661, 
about 80 anabaptists in London appeared in arms, 
headed by their preacher, Thomas Venner, a wine- 
cooper. They fought desperately, and killed many 
of the soldiers brought against them. Their leader 
and sixteen others were executed, 19 and 21 Jan. 
Annals of England. 

ANACHORETS, see Monachism. 

ANACREONTIC VERSE, of the baccha- 
nalian strain, named after Anacreon of Teos, the 
Greek lyric poet, whose odes are much prized. He 
died in his eighty-fifth year, about 478 b.c. His 
odes (many said to be spurious) have been frequently 
translated ; Thomas Moore's version was published 
in 1800. 

ANADOLIA (Asia Minor), comprises the an- 
cient Lycia, Caria, Lydia, Mysia, Bithynia, Paph- 
lagonia and Phrygia {which see). 

ANAESTHETICS, see Opium, Chloroform 
Ether, Amylcne, Kerosolene, Nitrons oxide under 
nitric acid. Intense cold has been also employed in 
deadening pain. 

ANAGRAMS, formed by the transposition of 
the letters of a word or sentence (as army from 
Mary), are said to have been made by ancient 
Jews, Greeks, &c. On the question put by Pilate 
o Our Saviour, "Quid eU Veritas?" (what' is 



truth ?) we have the anagram, " Est vir qui adest. " 
(the man who is here); from "Horatio Nelson" 
is "Honor est a Nilo" (Honour from the Nile). 

ANALYSTS, Society of Public, founded by 
Professor Redwood, Dr. Dupre, and others, 7 Aug. 
1874. Dr. Charles Meymott Tidy, an eminent 
analyst and toxicologist, died 15 March, 1892. See 
Adulteration. 

AN AM, see Annam. 

ANARCHY (Greek an, no, archos, chief), de- 
scribed Judges xvii. 6, " In those days there was no 
king in Israel, but every man did that which was- 
right in his own eyes" about B.C. 1406. Anarchy 
frequently prevailed in ancient times. Similar 
principles, now termed socialism, have been emi- 
nently advanced by P. J. Proudhon 1809 — 65, to 
whom is ascribed the maxim, "la propriete c'est le- 
vol." See France, Oct. 1882. Many Anarchists 
tried and punished in Austria and other countries, 
1883 ct seq. Anarchists expelled from Switzerland, 
1885, but return, and cause much trouble ; they held 
a congress at Ticino Jan. 1891. The modern anar- 
chies declare war against society and all its institu- 
tions, and frequently employ dynamite as a destruc- 
tive agent. See Dynamite, France, Spain, and 
Trials, 1892. 

ANASTATIC PRINTING, see Printing, 
1 841. 

ANATHEMA, the sentence of excommunica- 
tion (1 Cor. xvi. 22), used by the early churches, 
365 ; see Excommunication. Pope Pius IX. pro- 
pounded a series of anathemas, Feb. 1870. 

ANATOMY (Greek, cutting up) . The human 
body was studied by Aristotle about 350 B.C., and 
became a branch of medical education under Hippo- 
crates, about 420 B.C. Erasistratus and Herophilus 
first dissected the human form, having been previ- 
ously confined to animals: it is said that they 
practised upon the bodies of living criminals, about 
300 and 293 B.C. Galen, who died a.d. 193, was a. 
great anatomist. In England, the schools were long 
supplied with bodies unlawfully exhumed from 
graves ; and until 1832, the bodies of executed 
murderers were ordered for dissection.* Pope Boni- 
face VI II. forbade the dissection of dead bodies, 
1297. — The first anatomical plates, designed by 
Titian, were employed by Vesalius, about 1538. 
Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Michael Angek, 
studied anatomy. The great discoveries of Harvey 
were made in 1616. William and John Hunter 
were great anatomists: William died 1783, and 
John, 1793. Quain's and Wilson's large anatomicaJ 
plates were published 1842, and Bourgery's greaS 
work by Jacob, 1830-55. Comparative anatomy has, 
been treated systematically in the present century 
by Cuvier, Owen, Muller, Huxley, and others. — 
The anatomy of plants has been studied since 1680 ; 
see Botany. 
Anatomical Society of Great Britain founded 1887- 



* By 32 Hen. VIII. c. 42 (1540), surgeons were granted 
four bodies of executed malefactors for " anathomyes," 
which privilege was extended in following reigns : but in 
consequence of the crimes committed by resurrection- 
men in order to supply the surgical schools (robbing 
churchyards and even committing murder, see Burking), 
a new statute was passed in 1832, which abated the 
ignominy of dissection by prohibiting that of executed 
murderers, and made provision for the wants of surgeons 
by pei mitting, under certain regulations, the dissection 
of persons dying in workhouses, &c. The act also ap- 
pointed inspectors of anatomy, regulated the schools, 
and required persons practising anatomy to obtain a 
licence. It repealed the clauses of the act of 1828, 
which directed the dissection of the body of an executed 
murderer. 



ANCHORITES. 



41 



ANDREW'S, ST. 



ANCHORITES, see Monachism. 

ANCHORS were invented by the Tuscans. 
Fliny. The second tooth, or fluke, was added by 
Anacharsis the Scythian (592 B.C.). Strabo. 
Anchors said to have been forged in England 
A.D. 578. The Admiralty anchor was introduced 
about 1841. Improved anchors were made by Pering 
and Kodgers about 1828; by Porter, 1838; by Costell, 
1848 ; by Trotman, 1853 ; and by several other per- 
sons. Trotman's is attached to the Queen's yacht 
the Fairy. The anchors of the Great Eastern were 
of enormous size. Acts for the proving and sale of 
chain cables and anchors were passed in 1864 and 
1871. 

ANCIENT BUILDINGS : a society for their 
protection from injudicious restoration, &c, was 
established in 1877 ; Lord Houghton, Professor S. 
Colvin, Thomas Carlyle, and many eminent artists, 
members. It issued a report in Feb. 1888. 

ANCIENT CONCERTS, or "King's Con- 
certs," London. "The Concert of Anlient Music" 
was established in 1776 by the earls of Sandwich 
and Exeter, and others. Sir Henry Bishop was 
sole conductor from 1843 to 1848, when the con- 
certs ceased. 

ANCIENT HISTORY commences in the 
Holy Scriptures 4004 B.C. and in the history of 
Herodotus about 1687 B.C., and is considered to end 
with the destruction of the Roman empire in Italy, 
A.D. 476. Modern history begins with Mahomet 
(a.d. 622), or with Charlemagne (768). 

ANCIENT MONUMENTS in Britain. Bills 
for their preservation (especially of prehistoric) have 
been brought into parliament in vain. One by sir 
John Lubbock, read 2nd time, 7 March, 1877, was 
withdrawn; again read 2nd time, 19 Feb. 1878; 
read 2nd time in the lords, 11 Mar. 1880. Acts 
for their better preservation were passed in 1882 
and 1892. 

ANCIENTS, see Councils, French. 

ANCONA, an ancient lioman port on the 
Adriatic. The mole was built by Trajan, 107. 
After many changes of rulers (Lombards, Saracens, 
Greeks, and Germans) Ancona was annexed to the 
papal states in 1532. It was taken by the French, 
1797 ; retaken by the Austrians, 1799; reoccupied 
by the French, 1801 ; restored to the pope, 1802. It 
was occupied by the French in 1832 ; evacuated in 
1838, and after an insurrection was bombarded and 
captured by the Austrians, 18 June, 1849. The 
Marches (comprising this city) rebelled against the 
Papal government in Sept. i860. Lamoriciere, the 
papal general, fled to Ancona after his defeat at 
Castelfidardo, but was compelled to surrender him- 
self, the city, and the garrison, on 29 Sept. The 
king of Sardinia entered soon after. Population of 
the city in 1881, 31,277. 

ANCYRA, now Angora or Engour, a town in 
ancient Galatia, Asia Minor. Councils were held 
here, 314, 358, 375. It was taken by the Persians, 
616; by the Saracens, 1085 ; by the crusaders, 1102. 
Near this city, on 28 July, 1402, Timour or Tamer- 
lane defeated and took prisoner the sultan Bajazet, 
and is said to have conveyed him to Samarcand in 
a cage. 

ANDALUSIA (S. Spain), a province once 
part of the ancient Lusitania and Bsetica. The 
name is a corruption of Vandalitia, it having been 
held by the Vandals from 419 to 429, when it was 
acquired by the Visigoths. The latter were expelled 
by the Mqors in 711, who established the kingdom 



of Cordova, and retained it till 1236. Andalusia 
suffered much by the earthquakes of Dec. 1884. 

ANDAMAN ISLANDS, in the Bay of Bengal. 
The inhabitants are dwarfs, and in the lowest state 
of barbarism. At Port Blair, on South Island, made 
a penal settlement for the Sepoy rebels in 1858, 
the earl of Mayo, viceroy of India, was assassinated 
by Shere Alee, a convict, 8 Feb. 1872, when going 
on board the Glasgow. Above 200 persons perished 
on land through a cyclone ; see Wrecks, 2 Nov. 189 1. 

ANDERNACH, Rhenish Prussia, once an im- 
perial city. Near here, the emperor Charles I., 
while attempting to deprive his nephews of theiy 
inheritance, was totally defeated by one of them, 
Louis of Saxony, 8 Oct. 876. 

ANDES, Cordillera de Los, the greaS 

mountain system of South America. 

Chimborazo, perpetually snowclad, was ascended by 
Alexander Von Humboldt to the height of 19,280 
feet, 23 June 1802 ; by Boussingault and Hall, 
19,695 feet, 16 Dec. 1831 ; by Edward Whymper, 
20,545 feet, 3 Jan. ; and 20,489 feet 3 July, 1880 

Cotopaxi, volcanic ; ascended by Edward Whymper, 
19,600 feet 18 Feb. ,, 

He -also first ascended Antisana, 19,260 feet, 10 
March ; and Cayambe, 19,200 feet . 4 April, ,, 
[All these mountains are in Ecuador.] 

Mr. Whymper's work on the " Great Andes " was pub- 
lished in March, 1892. 

ANDORRA, a small republic in the Pyrenees, 
bearing the title of " the valleys and sovereignties 
of Andorra," was made independent by Charlemagne 
about 778, certain rights being reserved to the 
bishop of Urgel. The feudal sovereignty, which 
long appertained to the counts of Foix, reverted to 
the French king, Henry IV., in 1589; but was- 
given up in 1 790. On 27 March, 1806, an imperial 
decree restored the old relations between Andorra 
and France. The republic is now governed by a 
council elected for four years ; but the magistrates 
are appointed alternately by the French govern- 
ment and the Spanish bishop of Urgel, to both of 
whom tribute is paid. The population 1875 about 
5,800. Andorra, though neutral, was attacked by 
the Carlists in Sept. 1874. Oisputes between the 
French government and the bishop, respecting 
arrests, &c. made by him, March ; amicably settled. 
April, 1884. 

ANDRE'S EXECUTION', see United States, 
1780. 

ANDREW, ST., said to have been martyred 
by crucifixion, 30 Nov. 69, at Patrae, in Achaia. 
His festival was instituted about 359. The Royal 
Society's anniversary is kept on St. Andrew's day. 
The Russian order of St. Andrew was instituted in 
1698 by Peter I. For the British order, see Thistle. 
ANDREW'S, ST. (E. Scotland), made a royal 
burgh after 1140. Here Robert Bruce held his first 
parliament in 1309 ; and here Wishart was burnt 
by archbishop Beaton, 1545, who himself was mur- 
dered here in 1546. The university was founded in, 
1411 by bishop Wardlaw. The cathedral (built 
1 159-1318), was destroyed by a mob, excited by a 
sermon of John Knox, June, 1559. Sir R. Sibbald's 
list of the bishops commences with Killach, 872. 
The see became archiepiscopal in 1470, ceased soon 
after 1689; was re-instituted in 1844; see Bishops. 
Sir William Taylour Thomson bequeathed 30,000/. 
to the university, announced Oct. 1883. Population, 
1891, 6,853. 

Mr. David Berry, an Australian colonist, a native of 
Cupar in Fife, who died Sept. 1889, bequeathe -d 
£100,000 to the University, in accordance with the 
unsigned will of his brother, Dr. Alexander Berry, 
who died in 187^. 



ANDRUSSOV. 



42 



ANGUILLA. 



The Marquis of Dufferin was elected lord rector, 1889 ; 
address 6 April, /Bgi. 

ANDRUSSOV, Peace of (30 Jan. 1667), 

between ltussia and Poland, for 13 years, with mutual 
concessions, although the latter had been generally 
victorious. 

ANEMOMETER (Greek, anemos, the wind), 
a measurer of the strength and velocity of the wind, 
was invented by Wolrius, in 1709. The extreme 
velocity was found by Dr. Lind to be 93 miles per 
hour. Osier's and Whewell's anemometers were 
irigbly approved of in 1844. "Kobinson's anemo- 
meter is the simplest and best,'' Buchan, 1867. 

ANEROID, see Barometer. 

ANGEL, a gold coin, impressed with an angel, 
weighing four pennyweights, valued at 6s. 8d. in 
the reign of Henry VI., and at 10s. in the reign of 
Elizabeth, 1562. The Angelot, a gold coin, value 
half an angel, was struck at Paris when held by the 
English, 143 1. Wood. 

ANGELIC KNIGHTS of St. George. 

This order is said to have been instituted by Constan- 
tine, w r ho died 337. The Angelici were instituted by 
the emperor Angelus Comnenus, 1191. — The Ange-- 
iicm, an order of nuns, founded at Milan by Louisa 
Torelli, 1534. 

ANGERS (W. Central France), the Roman 
Juliomagus, possessing an amphitheatre ; afterwards 
Andegavum, the capital of Anjou {tvhichsee). It 
was frequently besieged, and many councils were 
•held in it between 453 and 1448, relating to ecclesi- 
astical discipline. 

ANGERSTEIN GALLERY, see National 
Gallery. 

ANGLESEY, called by the Romans Mona 
(N. Wales), the seat of the Druids, who were 
massacred in great numbers, when Suetonius 
Paulinus ravaged the isle, 61. It was conquered 
by Agricola in 78 ; occupied by the Normans, 1090 ; 
and with the rest of Wales annexed by Edward 1. 
in 1284. He built the fortress of Beaumaris in 
X295. The Menai suspension bridge was erected 
2818-25, and the Britannia. tubular bridge 1849-50. 

ANGLICAN CHURCH, see Church of Eng- 
land. 

ANGLING. Allusion is made to it in the 
Bible ; Amos i-v. 2 (787 B.C.). 
Oppian wrote his " Halieutics," a Greek epic poem on 

Fishes and Fishing, about a.d. 198. 
Jn the book on " Hawkyuge and Iluntynge," by Juliana 

Berners or Barnes, prioress of .Sopwell, near St. 

Albans, " emprinted at Westmestre by Wynkyn de 

Worde," in 1496, is "The treatise of fysshyng with an 

Angle." 
Izaac Walton's " Compleat Angler" was first published in 

1653- 

ANGLO-AMERICAN ASSOCIATION, 

to cultivate more cordial relations between Great 
Britain and the United States, established 25 Jan. 
I871. 

ANGLO - CONTINENTAL SOCIETY 
founded in 1S53 to diffuse the principles of the 
Church of England abroad: 20th anniversary kept 
at St. Paul's, 27 Oct. 1874. 

ANGLO-DANISH EXHIBITION, South 
Kensington, opened by the Princess (and Prince) of 
"Wales, 14 May 1888, comprising theatrical and 
musical entertainments. The profits of the exhibi- 
tion were to be devoted to the rebuilding of the 
British Home for Incurables. 

ANGLO-FRENCH, ETC Agreements re- 
specting Africa. 



Anglo-French Agreement respecting Africa signed by 
the Marquis of Salisbury and M. Waddington, French 
ambassador in London, 5 Aug. 1890. By this agree- 
ment the British protectorate over Zanzibar and the 
French protectorate over Madagascar are recognized, 
and the delimitation of territories in Africa, subject to 
the influence of France, was to be settled by two 
commissioners at Paris. 

Anglo-German Agreement of 1890 determined the 
boundaries of the British and German proposed terri- 
tories in East Africa ; the protectorate of Zanzibar, 
Witu, Somaliland or Vitu, was given up to Great 
Britain ; Heligoland was ceded to Germany ; signed 
at Berlin by sir Edward ilalet and sir Henry Percy 
Anderson for England ; by gen. von Caprivi and Dr. 
Krauel for Germany, 1 July ; ratified by an act of par- 
liament which received the royal assent, 4 Aug. 1890. 

Anglo-Italian Agreement respecting Africa. Sir 
Evelyn Baring and gen. sir Francis Grenfell received 
at Borne by sig. Crispi, 24 Sept. 1890. Meeting of the 
conference at Naples, lord Dufferin and sig. Crispi 
present ; no result, 4 — 10 Oct. 1890. Treaty for the 
delimitation of the British and Italian spheres of 
influence in East Africa ; signed at Borne, 15 April, 
1891. 

Anglo-Portuguese Agreement delimiting the terri- 
tories subject to the influence of Great Britain and 
Portugal in East Africa; the text of the agreement was 
settled in London 20 Aug. and published in the Times. 
The free navigation of the Zambezi, and uninterrupted 
communication between British territories ensured, 
26 Aug. 1890. Portugal gives up all claim to Zambezi 
and Nyassaland. The agreement was annulled, and 
a modus Vivendi agreed to, 14 Nov. 1890. A new 
modified treaty, signed at Lisbon, n June, 1891, 
and afterwards ratified. 

ANGLO-SAXONS or ANGLES, derive their 
name from a village near Sleswiek, called Anglen, 
whose population (called Angli by Tacitus) joined 
the first Saxon freebooters. East Anglia was a 
kingdom of the heptarchy, founded by the Angles, 
one of whose chiefs, Uffa, assumed the title of king, 
571 ; the kingdom ceased in 792. See Britain. 
Caedmon paraphrased part of the Bible in Anglo- 
Saxon about 680 ; a translation of the gospels was 
made by abbot Egbert, of Iona, 721 ; of Boethius, 
Orosius, &c, by Alfred, 888. The Anglo-Saxon 
laws were printed by order of government, in 1840. 
A professorship of Anglo-Saxon at Oxford was founded by 

Dr. Richard Rawlinson in 1795 ; one at Cambridge by 

Dr. Joseph Bos worth in 1867. 

ANGLO-TURKISH CONVENTION, see 

Turkey, 4 June, 1878. 

ANGOLA (S. W. Africa), settled by the Portu- 
guese soon after the discovery, by Diego Cam, 
about 1484. Loando, their capital, was built 1578. 

ANGORA, see Ancyra. 

ANGOULEME, (the Roman Iculisma,) capi- 
tal of the province of Angoumois, Central France, 
W., was a bishopric in 260. Angouleme became 
an independent country about 856 ; was united to 
the French crown in 1308 ; was held by the Eng- 
lish, 1360 to 1372, in the reign of Edward III. 
The count of Angouleme became king of France as 
Francis I. in 1 5 15. 

ANGRA PEQUENA ; the German settle- 
ment here, north of the Orange river, South Africa, 
declared by priuce Bismarck to be under the pro- 
tection of the empire, 24 April, 1884; after alleged 
vacillating British diplomacy, 1882-3. 

ANGRIA'S FORT, see India, 1756. 

ANGUILLA, Snake Island, West Indies-, set- - 
tied by the British, 1666. Valuable deposits of 
phosphate of lime were found here in 1859. The 
island suffered by a famine due to long drought and 
failure of crops early iu 1891. 



ANHALT. 



43 ANNAM. 



ANHALT, HOUSE OF, in Germany, deduces 
its origin from Berenthobaldus, who made war upon 
the Thuringians in the sixth century. In 1606, 
the principality was divided among the four sons of 
Joachim Ernest, by the eldest, John-George. Thus 
began the four branches — Anhalt-Dessau (de- 
scended from John -George) ; Zerbst, extinct, 1793 ; 
Plotsgau or Coethen, extinct, 1847; and Bernburg, 
extinct, 1863 ; (the last duke died without issue, 
22 Aug. 1863.) The princes of Anhalt became 
dukes in 1809. Anhalt is an hereditary constitu- 
tional monarchy (by law 19 Feb. 1872) ; population 
in 1871, 203,437 ; in 1875, 213,565; in 1885, 248,166; 
1890, 271,759. 

Anhalt joined the North German Confederation, 18 Aug. 
1866. 

Leopold (born Oct. 1, 1794), became duke of Anhalt- 
Dessau, g Aug. 1817, and of Anhalt-Bernburg, 30 Aug. 
1863 ; died 22 May, 1871. 

Frederic, duke of Anhalt ; born 29 April, 1831. 
Heir: Leopold; born 18 July '185s. 

Marriage of prince Aribertto princess Louise, a daughter 
of prince and princess Christian, 6 July, 1891. 

ANHOLT, ISLAND OF, Denmark, was taken 
possession of by England, 18 May, 1S09, in the 
French war, on account of Danish cruisers injuring 
British commerce. The Danes made a fruitless 
attempt to regain it, 27 March, 181 1. 

ANILINE, an oily alkaline body, discovered 
in 1826 by Unverdorben among the products of 
distillation of indigo. From benzole {which see) 
Bechamp, in 1856, obtained it by successive treat- 
ment with concentrated nitric acid and reducing 
agents. The scientific relations of aniline have 
been carefully examined by several chemists, 
especially by Dr. A. W. Hofmann. It was long 
known to yield a series of coloured compounds, but 
it was not till 1856 that Mr. W. II. Perkin showed 
how a violet oxidation -product (mauve) could be 
applied in dyeing. Aniline is now manufactured on 
a large scale lor the commercial production of 
"Mauve" and "Magenta" (rosaniline) (which 
see), and several other colouring matters, aniline 
blue, 1861 ; violet, 1863; "night" green, &e. 
The patent of Simpson, Maule, and Nicholson, for 
aniline colours, was annulled by the house of lords, 
27 July, 1866. See Alizarine. 

ANIMALCULES, Leeuwcnhoek' s remarkable 
microscopical discoveries were published in the 
Philosophical Transactions of the Itoyal Society, 
for 1677, in his " Arcana Naturas," at Leyden, 1696. 
The great works of Ehrenberg of Berlin on the 
Infusorial Animalculae, &c, were issued 1838-57. 
Pritehard's Infusoria, ed. 1861, and Mr. W. Savile 
Kent's Manual of Infusoria, 3 volumes, 1880-2, 
are valuable. The Rev. W. II. Dallinger and Dr. 
Drysdale, by their unwearied continuous micro- 
scopic il observations of bacteria and other low 
forms of life, have greatly increased our knowledge : 
1873-89. 

ANIMAL MAGNETISM (to cure diseases 
by sympathetic affection) was introduced by father 
llehl, a Jesuit, at Vienna, about 1774, and had its 
believers in France and England about 1788-89. 
Hehl for a short time associated with Mesriier, but 
they soon quarrelled.— Mr. Perkins (who died in 
1799) invented " Metallic Tractors for collecting, 
condensing, and applying animal magnetism;" 
but Drs. Falconer and II ay garth put an end to his 
pretentions by performing many wonders with a 
pair of wooden tractors. Brande. See Mesmerism. 
Animal magnetism disproved by commissions of the 
French Academy of Sciences, 1837-8 ; investigation 



closed as of a " dead letter," 1840. Remarkable feats 
were performed by Miss Abbott "the magnetic 
lady," at the Alhambra theatre, 14 Nov. et seq. 1891 . 

ANIMALS, Cruelty to. Mr. Martin, 

M.P., as a senator, zealously laboured to repress 
it; and in 1824, the Royal Society for the Preven- 
tion of Cruelty to Animals was instituted. Its 
new house in Jermyn-street, London, was founded 
4 May, 1869. It opposed vivisection in i860, in 
unison with a French society, and in Oct. 1873, 
offered premiums for improved trucks for conveying 
cattle. A jubilee congress of this and similar 
societies met in London 17 June, 1874. Convic- 
tions obtained by the society 1835 to June, 1876, 
28,209. The society prosecuted 4,618 grosser cases 
in 1887; 6,404 in 1892. See Vivisection. Mr. 
Martin's act was passed 1822, and similar acts were 
passed in 1827, 1835, 1837, 1849, and 1854. Dogs 
were forbidden to be used for draught in 1839. 

"Fellowship of Animals' Friends," organised about 
10 July, 1879 ; earl of Shaftesbury, president. With 
similar object Mr. Buskin founded St. George's Guild. 
The Dicky Birds Society in the northern counties 
numbered 8,000 members in 1883. 

The Animals' Institute, Knightsbridge, distributed 
prizes for inventions for the relief of horses and other 
animals, 28 July, 1890. 

ANIMISM, the doctrine that the soul is the 
only cause of life, and that the functions of animals 
and plants depend upon vitality, and not on mere 
chemical and mechanical action, was opposed by 
Descartes (died 1650) and others ; see Materialism. 

ANJOU, a province, W. France, was taken by 
Henry II. of England from his brother Geoffrey, 
in 1 156; their father Geoffrey Plantagenet, count of 
Anjou, having married the empress Matilda in 1127. 
It was taken from king John by Philip of France 
in 1205 ; was reconquered by lid ward III. ; relin- 
quished by him at the peace of Bretigny in 1360, 
and given by Charles V. to his brother Louis with 
the title of duke. The university was formed in 
L349- 

1360. Louis I. duke, invested by the pope with the 
dominions of Joanna of Naples, 1381 ; his invading 
army destroyed by the plague, 1383 ; he dies, 1384. 
1384. Louis II. , his son, receives the same grant, but is 

also unsuccessful. 
Louis III., adopted by Joanna ; dies 1434. 
1434. Begnier or Bene le bon (a prisoner) declared king 
of Naples, 1435 ; his daughter, Margaret, married 
Henry VI. of England, 1445 ; he was expelled from 
Anjou by Louis XL, 1474, and his estates confiscated. 
Francis, duke of Alencon, brother to Henry III. of 
France, became duke ■ of Anjou ; at one time he 
favoured the Protestants, and vainly offered marriage to 
Elizabeth of England, 1581-82 ; died 1584. 

ANJOU or Beauge, Battle of, between 

the English and French ; the latter commanded by 
the dauphin of France, 22 March, 1421. The Eng- 
lish wore defeated : the duke of Clarence was slain 
by sir Allan Swinton, a Scotch knight, and 1500 
men perished on the held ; the earls of Somerset, 
Dorset, and Huntingdon were taken prisoners. 
Beauge was the first battle that turned the tide of 
success against the English. 

ANNAM or An,VM, an empire of Asia, to the 
east of India, nominally subject to China, com- 
prising Toiiquin, Cochin China, part of Cambodia, 
and various islands in the Chinese Sea ; said to 
have been conquered by the Chinese, 234 B.C., 
and held by them till A.n. 263. In 1406 they 
reconquered it, but abandoned it in 1428. After 
much anarchy, bishop Adran, a French missionary, 
obtained the friendship of Louis XVI. for his 
pupil Gia-long, the sou of the nominally reign- 



ANNAPOLIS. 



44 



ANTAGONISM. 



ing monarch, and with the aid of a few of his 
countrymen established Gia-long on the throne, 
who reigned till his death in 182 1, when his son 
became king. In consequence of the persecution of 
the Christians, war broke out with the French, 
who defeated the army of Annam, 10,000 strong, 
about 22 April, 1859, when 500 were killed. On 3 
June, 1862, peace was made ; three provinces were 
ceded to the French, and toleration of the Christians 
granted. An insurrection in these provinces against 
the French, begun about 17 Dec. 1862, was sup- 
pressed in Feb. 1863. Ambassadors sent from An- 
nam with the view of regaining the ceded provinces 
arrived at Paris in Sept. 1863, had no success. Cochin 
China and other provinces were annexed to the 
French empire by proclamation, 25 June, 1867. 
Several native Christians were massacred by order 
of a bonze, July, 1868. , 

By a treaty concluded 15 March, 1874, at Saigon, the 
independence of the king of Annam was recognised by 
France, the ports were opened to commerce, and toler- 
ation of the Christian religion was secured. 
Tu Due, emperor, 34 years, resists the French in Tonquin, 
(which see), 1883 ; dies aged 54, 17 July, 1883 ; 
Heiphma succeeds. 
The French protectorate recognized by treaty signed 

at Hue 25 Aug. 1883 

The King assassinated by enemies of the French, 

Dec, succeeded by Yoe-Duc . about 14 Dec ,, 
The prince who promoted massacres of Christians 

in December and January executed about 26 Mar. 1884 
The king dies, succeeded by his brother Kienphuoc 

(a boy) ..... announced 2 Aug. ,, 
Treacherous attack of the Regent Thu-Hong, with 
30,000 men, on General de Courcy with 1,000 men 
at the French camp at Hue ; repulsed with heavy 
loss, and the Regent captured . . 5-6 July, 1885 
Sudden attack on the French in Hue citadel, 

announced 8 Sept. ,, 

Chaul Mong, adopted son of Tu Due, proclaimed 
king, 14 Sept. ; crowned 19 Sept. ; named Douck 

Hanh 19 Sept. ,, 

Reported great massacre of Christians . Oct. „ 
The king dies ; Buntmn, his son, 10 years old (called 

Than Khai), proclaimed ... 31 Jan. 1889 
The king a prisoner with the French in Algeria 

June, 1892 
ANNAPOI IS, see Fort Royal. 

ANNATES, see First Fruits. 

ANNO DOMINI, A.D., the year of Our 
Lord, of Grace, of the Incarnation, of the Circum- 
cision, and of the Crucifixion (Trabeationis) . The 
Christian era commenced 1 Jan. in the middle of 
the 4th year of the 194th Olympiad, the 753rd year 
of the building of Home, and in 4714 of the 
Julian period. This era was invented by a 
monk, Dionysius Exiguus, about 532. It was 
introduced into Italy in the 6th century, and 
ordered to be used by bishops by the council of 
Chelsea, in 816, but was not generally employed 
for several centuries. Charles III. of Germany was 
the first who added " in the year of our Lord " to 
his reign, in 879. It was formerly held that Christ 
was born Friday, 5 April, 4 B.C. Mr. W. T. Lynn 
considers that probably Christ was born towards the 
end of the year 5. 

ANNO MUNDI, see Creation. 

" ANNOYANCE JURIES," of Westmin- 
ster, chosen from the householders in conformity 
with 27 Eliz. c. 17 (1585), were abolished in 1861. 

.ANNUAL REGISTER, a summary of the 
history of each year (beginning with 1758, and 
continued to the present time), was commenced by 
K. & J. Dodsley. (Edmund Burke at first wrote 
the whole work, but afterwards became only an 
occasional contributor. Prior.) A similar work, 
" Annuaire des Deux Mondes," began in 1'aris 1850. 



ANNUALS, a name given to richly bound 
volumes, containing poetry, tales, and essays, by 
eminent authors, illustrated by engravings, pub- 
lished annually, at first in Germany, and also in 
London in 1823. The duration of the chief of these 
publications is here given : 

Forget-me-not (Ackerman's) .... 1823-48 

Friendship's Offering 1824-44 

Literary Souvenir (first as " the Graces ") . . 1824-34 

Amulet ... 1827-34 

Keepsake 1828-56 

Hood's Comic Annual 1830-42. 

ANNUITIES or Pensions. In 1512, 20/. a 

year were given to a lady of the court for services 
done ; and bl. 13s. 4^. for the maintenance of a 
gentleman, 1536. 13/. 6s. 8d. deemed competent 
to support a gentleman in the study of the law, 
1554. An act was passed empowering the govern- 
ment to borrow one million sterling upon an an- 
nuity of fourteen per cent., 4-6 Will. & Mary,i69i-3- 
This mode of borrowing soon afterwards became 
general among governments. An annuity of 
ll. 2s. lid. per annum, accumulatingat \o per cent., 
compound interest, amounts in 100 years to 20,000/. 
The Government Annuities and Life Assurances 
Act was passed in 1864, for the benefit of the 
working classes ; since it enables the government 
to grant deferred annuities for sums payable in 
small instalments. New system of government 
annuities came into operation 3 June, 1884. Works 
on annuities were published by De AVitt, 1671 ; De 
Moivre, 1724; Simpson, 1742; Tables by Price, 
1792; Milne, 1815; Jones, 1843; Farre, 1864; In- 
stitute of Actuaries, 1872 and 1882-7. 

ANNUITY TAX : a tax levied to provide 
stipends for ministers in Edinburgh and Montrose, 
and which caused much disaffection, was abolished 
in i860, and other provisions made for the pur- 
pose. These, however, proved equally unpalatable, 
and their abolition was provided for by an act passed 
9 Aug. 1870. 

ANNUNCIATION of the Yirgin Mary, 

25th of March, Lady-day (which see), a festival 
commemorating the tidings brought to Mary by the 
angel Gabriel (Luke i. 26) : its origin is referred 
to the 4th or 5th century. The religious order of 
the Annunciation was instituted in 1232, and the 
military order, in Savoy, by Amadeus, count of 
Savoy about 1362, in memory of Amadeus I., who 
had bravely defended Rhodes against the Turks, 
1355. New statutes, 1869. 

ANOINTING, an ancient ceremony observed 
at the inauguration of priests, kings, and bishops. 
Aaron was anointed as high priest, 1491 B.C. ; and 
Saul, as king, 1095 B - c - Alfred the Great is said 
to have been the first English king anointed, a.d. 
871 ; and Edgar of Scotland, 1098. — The religious- 
rite is derived from the epistle of James v. 14, about 
A.D. 60. Some authors assert that in 550, dying 
persons, and persons in extreme danger of death, 
were anointed with consecrated oil, and that this 
was the origin of Extreme Unction (one of the 
sacraments of the Roman Catholic Church). 

ANONYMOUS LETTERS, see Threatening 

Letters. 

ANORTHOSCOPE, a new optical apparatus, 
described by Dr. Carpenter in 1868. In it distorted 
figures lose their distortion when put into rapid 
motion. 

" ANTAGONISM," was demonstrated to be a 
universal principle throughout Nature with bene- 



ANTALCIDAS. 



45 



ANTILLES. 



ficial results by Sir W. R. Grove in a discourse 
at the Royal Institution, London, 20 April 1888. 

ANTALCIDAS, Peace of. In 387 b.c. 

Antalcidas the Lacedaemonian made peace with 
Artaxerxes of Persia, on behalf of Greece, but prin- 
cipally in favour of Sparta, giving up the cities of 
Ionia to the king. 

ANTAECTIC POLE, &c, the opposite to the 
north or arctic pole; see Southern Continent. 
Antarctic Expedition proposed by the Australian Colo- 
nies ; the support of the British Government invited 
by Sir Graham Berry. A committee of the Royal 
Society formed, including Professor Stokes, president, 
Lord Rayleigh, Mr. Christie, the Astronomer Royal, 
Sir Joseph Hooker, Professor Huxley, and others. 
Nov. 1887. 
Baron Oscar Dickson, of Gothenburg, in Sweden, under- 
took to subscribe £5,000 and procure the remainder of 
the expense from the Swedish government, if the 
Australasian colonies should subscribe £5,000. Baron 
Dickson was in London Feb. 1891, but the project 
appeared to be in abeyance, Dec. 1891. 

ANTEDILUVIAN HISTOEY, Genesis vr., 

v., vi. According to the tables of Mr. Whiston, 
the number of people in the ancient world, previous 
to the Flood, reached to 549, 755 millions in the year 
of the world 1482. 

ANTHEMS were originally antiphons— short 
pieces of plain-song sung before the psalms. Gene- 
rally responsive antiphonic music was used in Jewish 
and early christian worship. Hilary, bishop of 
Poictiers, and St. Ambrose composed such about the 
middle of the 4th century. Lena let. The modern 
anthem, a passage of scripture set to music, was 
introduced into the Reformed churches in queen 
Elizabeth's reign, about 1560. 
English Anthem "Writers : 1520-1625, Tye, Tallis, 

Byrd, Gibbons ; 1650-1720, Humphrey, Blow, Purcell, 

Croft, Clarke ; 1720-1845, Greene, Boyce, Hayes, Kent, 

Battishill, Attwood, Walmisley. 

ANTHOLOGY, GEEEK, a collection of 
popular epigrams and small poems writteD by 
Archilochus, Sappho, Simonides, Aleleager, Plato, 
and others, between 680 and 95 B.C. They were 
collected by Meleager, Philippus, Agathias, and 
others, especially by Maximus Planudes, a monk 
in the 14th century A.D., and a MS. collection by 
Constantine Cephalas was found at Heidelberg by 
Salmasius in 1606; and published by Brunek 
1772-6. Translations have been made by Bland, 
Merivale, and others. 

ANTHEACENE, see Alizarine. 

ANTHEOPOLOGICAL SOCIETY {m- 

thmpos, Greek for man), for promoting the science 
of man and mankind, held its first meeting on 24 
Feb. 1863 ; Dr. James Hunt, president, in the 
chair. The " Anthropological Review " first came 
out in May, 1863. The Anthropological and Ethno- 
logical Societies were amalgamated 17 Jan. 187 1, 
and styled " The Anthropological Institute," Sir 
John Lubbock, president. The London Anthro- 
pological Society established 1873, ceased 1875. An 
Anthropological congress at Paris was opened 16 
Aug. 1878; others since; at Moscow, 13 Aug. 1892. 
The Anthropometrical Committee reported to the 
British Association the results of measuring about 
53,000 persons in the United Kingdom, Sept. 1883. 

ANTHEOPOMOEPHITES, a name given 
to the Audiani, which see. 

ANTHEOPOPHAGI (eaters of human flesh) , 
see Cannibals. 

. ANTI-AGGEESSION LEAGUE (oppo- 
sing interference in foreign affairs) formed by Mr. 
John Morley and others, Feb. 1882. 



ANTIBUEGHEES, see Burghers. 

ANTICHRIST (opposed to Christ), 1 John ii. 
18, termed the "Man of sin," 2 Thess. ii. 3; of 
these passages many interpretations have been given, 
and many myths were current in the middle ages, 
respecting the incarnation of the devil, &c. The 
term is applied to each other by Roman Catholics 
and Protestants. 

ANTI-COEN-LAW LEAGUE (for pro- 
curing the repeal of the laws charging duty on the 
importation of corn), sprung from various metro- 
politan and provincial associations, was founded at 
Manchester, 18 Sept. 1838, and supported by Messrs. 
Charles Villiers, Richard Cobden, John Bright, &c; 
John Benjamin Smith, 1st chairman, d. 15 Sept. 
1879. See Corn Laws, and Protectionists. 
Meetings held in various places . March <& April, 1841 
Excited meeting at Manchester . .18 May, „ 
A bazaar held at Manchester, at which the League 

realised io,oooZ. 2 Feb. 1842 

About 600 deputies connected with provincial asso- 
ciations assemble in London. . Feb. -Aug. ,, 
The League at Manchester proposed to raise 
5o,oooZ., to depute lecturers throughout the 
country, and to print pamphlets . 20 Oct. ,, 
First meeting at Drury-lane Theatre . 15 March, 1843 
Monthly meetings at Covent-Garden, commenced 
28 Sept. ; great free-trade meetings at Manchester 

14 Nov. 1843, ar, d 22 Jan. 1845 
Bazaar at Covent-Garden opened . . 5 May, ,, 
Great Manchester meeting, at which the League 

proposed to raise 250,000?. . . .23 Dec. ,, 
The Corn Importation Bill having passed, 26 June, 
the League is formally dissolved ; Mr. Cobden was 
rewarded by a national subscription, nearly 

8o,oooZ 2 July, 1846 

On the accession of the Derby ministry, a revival of 
the Anti-Corn-Law League was proposed at Man- 
chester, and a subscription was opened, which 
produced within half an hour 27,520k (soon proved 

unnecessary) 2 Mar. 1852 

Death of Richard Cobden, 2 April, 1865; John 
Bright 27 Mar. 1889 

ANTIETAM CEEEK, near Sharpsburg, 
Maryland, U. S. Here was fought a terrible battle 
on 17 Sept. 1862, between the Federals under gene- 
ral M'Clellan and the Confederates under Lee. 
After his victory at Bull Run or Manassas, 30 Aug., 
Lee invaded Maryland, and was immediately fol- 
lowed by M'Clellan. On 16 Sept. Lee was joined 
by Jackson, and at five o'clock next morning the 
conflict began. About 100,000 men were engaged, 
and the battle raged till night. The Federals were 
repeatedly repulsed; but eventually the Con- 
federates retreated and repassed the Potomac on 
18 and 19 Sept. The loss of the Federals was 
estimated at 12,469 ; of the Confederates, 14,000. 
A national cemetery here, was dedicated 17 Sept. 
1867. 

ANTIGUA, a "West Indian Island, discovered 
by Columbus in Nov. 1493 ; settled by the English in 
1632; made a bishopric, 1842. Population in 1861, 
36,412 ; 1881, 34,964. Governor, sir B. C. C. Pine, 
1869 ; hon. H. T. Irving, 1873 '» h °n. Geo. Berkeley, 
1874-80; sir J. H. Glover, 1881. Antigua is the seat 
of government of the Leeward Isles, which see. 

" ANTI-JACOBIN or Weekly Examiner," a 

satirical paper, opposed to revolutionary principles, 

published by George Canning and his friends 1797- 

98; its poetry included the "Needy Knife Grinder." 

The A nti- Jacobin, a miscellaneous weekly paper, price 

21/., edited by Mr. Frederick Greenwood, formerly 

editor of the Pall Mall Gazette and the St. James's 

Gazette, which sec, first appeared, 31 Jan. 1891. 

ANTILLES, or Caribbee Islands, an early 
name of the West Indies {which see). 



ANTIIVIONY. 



46 



ANTWEEP. 



ANTIMONY, a white brittle metal, com- 
pounds of which were early known, it was, and 
is still, used to blacken both men's and women's 
eyes in the east (2 Kings ix.30, and Jeremiahiv. 
30) . Mixed with lead it forms printing type metal. 
Basil Valentine wrote on antimony about 1410. 
Priestley. See Bravo Case. 

ANTINOMIANS (from the Greek anti, 
against, and nomas, law), a name given by Luther 
(in 11538) to John Agricola, who is said to have 
held '"that it mattered not how wicked a man was 
if he had but faith." (Opposed to Rom. iii. 28, & 
v. I, 2.) He retracted these doctrines in 1540. The 
Antinomians were condemned by the British par- 
liament, 1648. 

ANTIOCH, now ANTAKIEH, Syria, built by 
Seleucus, 300 B.C. after the battle of Ipsus, 301, 
acquired the name " Queen of the East." Here the 
disciples were first called Christians, a.d. 42 {Acts 
xi. 26). Antioch was taken by the Persians, 540 ; 
by the Saracens about 638 ; recovered for the Eastei n 
emperor, 966 ; lost again in 1086 ; retaken by the 
Crusaders in June, 1098, and made capital of a 
principalitv, 1099 ; and held by them till June, 
1268, when it was captured by the sultan of Egypt. 
It was taken from the Turks in the Syrian war, 1 
Aug. 1832, by Ibrahim Pacha, but restored at the 
peace. Antioch suffered much by an earthquake, 
and about 1600 persons were killed, 3 April, 1872. 

The Cesarean Era of Antioch, 48 B.C., is much 

used by the early Christian writers of Antioch and 
Alexandria ; it placed the Creation 5492 years B.C. 
31 councils were held at Antioch, 252-1 161. 

ANTI-PAENELLITES, see under Tarnell- 
itcs, 1890. 

ANTIPHONS, see Anthems. 

ANTIPODES. Plato is said to be the first 
who thought it possible that antipodes existed 
(about 388 B.C.). Boniface, archbishop of Mentz, 
legate of pope Zachary, is said to have denounced 
a °bishop as a heretic for maintaining this doc- 
trine a.d. 741. The antipodes of England lie to the 
south-east of New Zealand, near Antipodes Island. 

ANTI-POPES, rival popes elected at various 
times, especially by the French and Italian factions, 
from 1305 to 1439. In the article Popes, the Anti- 
popes are printed in italics. 

ANTIPYELNE, an artificial alkaloid obtained 
from coal-tar, discovered in 1883 by Knorr, of 
Erlangen, is said to be a remedy for sea sickness ; 
a substitute for quinine and a source of aniline 
colours. 

ANTI-PYKOG-ENE, or Fire Preven- 
tive- A. chemical preparation tried at Berlin 30 
Dec. 1881. A company for its use has been formed. 
ANTIQITAEIES. A college of antiquaries is 
said to have existed in Ireland, 700 B.C. The annual 
International Congress of Prehistoric Archaeology, 
originated at La Spezzia in 1865 ; meetings have 
been held since at Paris, Norwich, &c. 
A society was founded by archbishop Parker, Camden, 

Stow, and others in 1572. Spehnan. 
Application was made to Elizabeth for a charter, her 
death ensued, and her successor, James I., was far 
from favouring the design. , 

The "Antiquaries' feast," mentioned by Ashmole, 2 

July, 1659. 
The Society of Antiquaries revived, 1707 ; received its 
charter of incorporation from George II., 2 Nov. 1751 ; 
met in Chancery Lane, 1753 ; apartments in Somerset- 
house (granted 1776 ;) occupied, 15 Feb., 1781 ; removed 
to Burlington House, 1874 ; first meeting 14 Jan., 
1875 Memoirs, entitled " Archaeologia," first pub- 



lished in 1770 ; president, earl Stanhope, elected, 1846; 
died 24 Dec, 1875 : succeeded by Frederic Ouvry ; by 
the earl of Carnarvon, 1878 ; Mr. John Evans, 1885. 

British Archaeological Association founded Dec. 1843. 

Archaeological Institute of Great Britain formed by a 
seceding part of the Association, 1845. Annual Meet- 
ings held in the Provinces by both bodies. 

Society of Antiquaries of Edinburgh founded in 1780. 

Since 1845 many county archaeological societies have 
been formed in the United Kingdom. The fourth 
congress of these archaeological societies, 20 July, 
1892. 

The Society of Antiquaries of France (1814) began in 1805 
as the Celtic Academy. 

" The Antiquary," a magazine, began 1880. 

British School of Archaeology (first director, F. C. Pen- 
rose) opened at Athens Nov. 1886. 

ANTISANA, see Andes. 
ANTI-SLAVEEY SOCIETY. See under 
Slave Trade. 
ANTI - TEINITAEIANS. Theodotus of 

Byzantium, at the close of the 2nd century, is sup- 
posed to have been the first who advocated the sim- 
ple humanity of Jesus. See Avians, Socinians, 
Unitarians. 

ANTIITM, maritime city of Latium, now Porto 
d'Anzio, near Bome, after a long struggle for inde- 
pendence, became a Boman colony, at the end of the 
great Latin war, 340-338 b.c. It is mentioned by 
Horace, and was a favourite retreat of the emperors 
and wealthy llomans, who erected many villas in 
its vicinity. The treasures deposited in the temple 
of Fortune here were taken by Octavius Caesar during 
his war with Antony, 41 B.C. 

ANTIVAEI, a seaport on the Adriatic, ceded 
to Montenegro by the Berlin treaty^, 13 July, 1878. 

ANTONELLI CASE, see Italy, 1877-9. 
ANTONINUS' WALL, see Roman Walls. 
ANTWEEP (French, Anvers), the principal 
port of Belgium, is mentioned in history in 517. It 
was a small republic in the nth century, and was 
the first commercial city in Europe till the wars of 
the 16th and 17th centuries. Population, 1890, 
227,225. 

Its fine exchange built 1531 

Taken after 14 months' siege by the prince of Parma 

17 Aug. 1585 
Truce of Antwerp (between Spain and United Pro- 
vinces) for 12 years, concluded . . 29 Mar. 1609 
After Marlborough's victory at Ramillies, Antwerp 

surrenders at once .... 6 June, 1706 

The Barrier treaty concluded here . 16 Nov. 1715 

Taken by marshal Saxe .... 9 May, 1746 
Occupied by the French . . . 1792-3, 1794-1814. 
Civil war between the Belgians and the House of 

Orange: (See Belgium.) .... 1830-31 
The Belgian troops, having entered Antwerp, were 
opposed by the Dutch garrison, who, after a 
dreadful conflict, being driven into the citadel, 
cannonaded the town with red-hot balls 27 Oct. 1830 
The citadel bombarded by the French, 4 Dec. ; sur- 
rendered by gen. Chasse . . .23 Dec. 1832 
Exchange burnt ; archives, &c, destroyed 2 Aug. 1858 
A fine-art fete held . . 17-20 Aug. 1861 
Great Napoleon wharf destroyed by fire ; loss 25 

lives and about 400,000^ 2 Dec. „ 

Great fete at the opening of the port by the aboli- 
tion of the Scheldt dues . . . 3 Aug. 1863 
Fortifications constructed .... 1860-70 
Statue of Leopold I. uncovered . . 2 Aug. 1868 
Tercentenary of Rubens' birth, celebrated . 18 Aug. 1877 
Plantin-Moretus Museum, containing collections of 
about 300 years, viz.: 12,000 old letters, printing 
types, portraits, &c, made by the Plantins 
(descendants of Charles de Tiercelin, seigneur de 
la Roche du Maine), who were printers to the 
kings of Spain ; opened . . about 20 Aug. 1877 
International Exhibition, opened by the king 2 

May, 1885; closed 15 Oct. 1885 

New quays opened by the King . . 26 July, „ 



ANVAR-I-SUHAILI. 



47 



APOTHECARY. 



Great explosion at M. Corvilain's cartridge factory, 
behind the docks in the port ; large Russian 
petroleum warehouses take fire, causing great 
destruction of propeity, 6 Sept., the shipping 
only escaped by the direction of the wind ; the 
fire subdued ; visit of the king, 13 Sept. ; reported 
deaths, 120 ; injured, 130 . . . 18 Sept. 1889 

Trial of M. Corvilaiu and his engineer, M. Delauney, 
for homijide, &c. ; M. Corvilaiu sentenced to si 
years' penal servitude, and his engineer, M. 
Delauney, to ij years, at Brussels, 14 — 27 Nov. 
1889, and . .... 17 Feb. 1890 

ANVAR-I-SUHAILI, or the Lights of Cano- 
pus, the ancient Persian version of the ancient 
fables of Pilpay, Bidpai, or Vishnu Sarma, made 
by liusain Vaiz, at the order of Nushirvan, king of 
Persia. The English translation by E. B. Eastwick, 
published 1854. See Fables. 

ANZIN COAL MINES, near Valenciennes, 
N.France: first tapped 24 June, 1734. The com- 
pany formed has become immensely rich : cabinet 
ministers generally directors. Output, in 1790, 
300,000 tons : in 1872, 2,200,000 tons. 

APATITE, mineral phosphate of lime. About 
1856 it hegan to be largely employed as manure. It 
is abundant in Norway, and in Sombrero, a small 
West India Island. 

APOCALYPSE or Revelation, written by 

St. John in the isle of Patmos about a.d. 95.* 

APOCRYPHA. In the preface to the Apo- 
crypha it is said, " These books are neyther found in 
the Hebrue nor in the Chalde." Bible, 1539. The 
history of the Apocrypha ends 135 B.C. The books 
were not in the Jewish canon, were rejected at the 
council of Laodicea about a.d. 366, but were re- 
ceived as canonical by the Boman Catholic church 
at the council of Trent on 8 April, 1546. Parts of 
the Apocrypha were admitted to be read as lessons 
by the church of England, by the 6th article, 1563. 
Many of these were excluded by the act passed 1S71. 

1 Esdras .... from about b.c. 623-445 

2 Esdras ,, * * 

Tobit „ 734-678 

Judith „ 656 

Esther ,, 510 

Wisdom of Solomon * * 

Ecclesiasticus B.C. 300 or 180 

Barucli * * 

Song of the Three Children * * 

History of Susannah * * 

Bel and the Dragon . . . * * 

Prayer of Manasses b.c. 676 

1 Maccabees about 323-135 

2 Maccabees from about 187-161 

There are also Apocryphal writings in connection with 

the New Testament. 

APOLLINARISTS, followers of Apollinaris, 
a reader in the church of Laodicea, who taught 
(366) that the divinity of Christ was instead of a 
soul to him ; that his flesh was pre-existent to his 
appearance upon earth, and was sent down from 
heaven, and conveyed through the Virgin ; that 
there were two sons, one born of God, the other of 
the Virgin, &c. These opinions were condemned 
by the council of Constantinople, 381. 

_ * Some ascribe the authorship to Cerinthus, the here- 
tic, and others to John, the presbyter, of Ephesus. In 
the first centuries many churches disowned it, and in the 
4th century it was excluded from the sacred canon by 
the council of Laodicea, but was again received by other 
councils, and confirmed by that of Trent, held in 1545, 
et seq. Although the book had been rejected by Luther, 
Michaelis, and others, and its authority questioned in 
all ages, from the time of Justin Martyr (who wrote his 
first Apology for Christians in a.d. 139), yet its canonical 
authority is still almost universally acknowledged. 



APOLLO, the god of the fine arts, medicine, 
music, poetry, and eloquence, had many temples 
and statues, particularly in Greece and Italy. See- 
Delphi. The statue of Apollo Belvedere, discovered 
at Antium, in Italy, in 1503, was purchased by pope- 
Julius II., who placed it in the Vatican. 

APOLLONICON, an elaborate musical in- 
strument, constructed on the principle of the organ 
(keys and barrel), was invented by Messrs. Flight 
and Bobson, of St. Martin's lane, Westminster, and 
exhibited by them first in 181 7. Timbs. 

APOLOGIES for Christianity were ad- 
dressed by Justin Martyr to the emperor Antoninus- 
Pius about 139, and to the Boman senate about 164. 
Other apologies were written by Quadratus, Aris- 
tides, and other early fathers of the Church. 

APOSTLES (Greek, apostolos, one sent forth). 
Twelve were appointed by Christ, a.d. 31 ; viz. 
Simon Peter and Andrew (brothers), James and) 
John (sons of Zebedee), Philip, Nathanael (or Bar- 
tholomew), Matthew (or Levi), Thomas, James the 
Less (son of Alphams), Simon the Canaanite and 
Jude or Thaddeus (brothers), and Judas Iscariot. 
Matthias was elected in the room of Judas Iscariot,. 
a.d. 33 (Acts i.) ; and Paul and Barnabas were 
appointed by the Holy Spirit, a.d. 45 (Acts xiii. 2). 
" The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles," a small velluia 
volume in Greek, dated about 1056, discovered by 
Philotheos Bryennios, metropolitan of Nicomedea, in 
the library of the Holy Sepulchre monastery at Con- 
stantinople in 1873 ; and published by him in 187^. 
The composition is ascribed to the first century. The 
text, with English translation and introduction, was 
published by R. D. Hitchcock and Francis Brown in 
1884 ; improved edition, spring, 1885. 

APOSTLES' CREED, erroneously attributed 
to the apostles, is mentioned as the Boman creed by 
Bufinus, died about 410. Irenseus, bishop of Lyons,, 
died 202, gives a creed resembling it. Its repetition 
in public worship was ordained in the Greek church 
at Antioch, and in the Boman church in the nth 
century, whence it passed to the church of England,. 

APOSTOLICAL, see Canons and Fathers. 

APOSTOLICI, a sect, at the end of the 2nd 
century, which renounced marriage, wine, flesh, Ac. 
A second sect, founded by Sagarelli about 1261L 
wandered about, clothed in white, with long beard 
dishevelled hair, and bare heads, accompanied by 
women called spiritual sisters, preaching against 
the growing corruption of the church of Borne, and 
predicting its downfall. They renounced baptism, 
the mass, purgatory, &c., and by their enemies" 
were accused of gross licentiousness. Sagarelli was 
burnt alive at Parma in 1300, and his followers- 
were dispersed in 1307, and extirpated about 1404. 

APOTHECARY (literally, a keeper of a store- 
house). On 10 Oct. 1345, Edward III. settled six- 
pence per diem for life on Coursus de Gangeland r 
Apothecarius London', for taking care of hini 
during his severe illness in Scotland. lit/mer's 
Foidera; see Pharmacy and Medical Council. 
Apothecaries exempted from serving on juries or 

other civil offices 1713: 

London Apothecaries' Company separated from the 

Grocers' and incorporated 1617 ; hall built . . 1670 
Their practice regulated and their authority ex- 
tended over all England, by the Apothecaries act 
55 Geo. III. c. 19 (1815), amended by 6 Geo. iv! 
c. 133, 1825 ; and by 37 & 3S Vict. c. 34 . . 1874 
Botanical Garden at Chelsea left by sir Hans Sloane 
to the company, Jan. 1753, on condition of 
their introducing every year fifty new plants, 
until their number should amount to 2000 Jan.' 175^ 
The Dublin guild incorporated . jiyZ 



APOTHEOSIS. 



48 



AQUACULTUBE. 



APOTHEOSIS, a ceremony of the ancient 
nutions of the world, by which they raised their 
kings and heroes to the rank of deities. The deify- 
ing a deceased emperor wa3 begun at Rome by 
Augustus, in favour of Julius Caesar, 13 B.C. Tille- 
mofit. 

APPEAL or Assize of Battle. By the 

old law of England, a man charged with murder 
might fight with the appellant, thereby to make 
f>roof of his guilt or innocence. In 181 7, a young 
maid, Mary Ashford, was believed to have been 
violated and murdered by Abraham Thornton, who, 
on trial, was acquitted. In an appeal, he claimed 
his right by wager of battle, which the court 
allowed ; but the appellant (the brother of the 
maid) refused the challenge, and the accused was 
discharged, 16 April, 1818. This law was struck 
off the statute-book, by 59 Geo. III. c. 46 (1819). 
Jn 1631 lord Rea impeached Mr. David Ramsey of 
treason and offered battle in proof; a commission 
was appointed, but the duel was prohibited by king 
James I. 

APPEALS. In the time of Alfred (869-901), 
appeals lay from courts of justice to the king in 
•council. Courts of appeal at the Exchequer Chamber, 
in error from the judgments of the superior and 
criminal courts, were regulated by statutes in 1357, 
1559, 1830 and 1848. Appeals from English tribu- 
nals to the pope were first introduced about 1151, 
were long vainly opposed, and were abolished by 
Henry VIII. 1534; restored by Mary, 1554; again 
abolished by Elizabeth, 1559. A proposition for 
establishing an imperial court of appeal submitted 
to the house of lords by the lord chancellor Hather- 
lej, 15 April ; was referred to a select committee, 
30 April, 1872. A similar proposition by lord chan- 
cellor Selborne, 13 Feb. 1873. See Privy Council 
and Justices, Lords. 

The jurisdiction of the House of Lords as a court of 
appeal was abolished by the Judicature Act, 1873. 
The abolition was suspended in 1875 ; and a provi- 
sional court established, which first sat 8 Nov. 1875 : 
present, the Lord Chancellor, Lord Coleridge, Baron 
Bramwell, and Justice Brett. 
The House of Lords was reconstructed as a court of 
final appeal by the Appellate Jurisdiction Act intro- 
duced by Lord Cairns, 11 Feb., and passed 11 Aug. 
1876 ; amended, 1887. Two Lords of Appeal were to 
be appointed ; to be peers for life. Appeals may be 
lieard during prorogation or dissolution of Parliament. 
Present lords: lord Watson, 1880, lord Macnaughten, 
1887, lord Morris, 1883, sir James Hannen, lord 
Hannen, Jan. 1891. 
The new Supreme Court of Appeal first sat 21 Nov. 

1876. 
A criminal appeal bill introduced ; withdrawn 21 Aug. 

1883. 

APPELLATE JUBISDICTION, see under 

Appeals. 

APPENZELL, a Swiss canton, threw off the 
supremacy of the abbots of St. Gall early in the 15th 
century, and became the thirteenth member of the 
Swiss confederation, 1513. 

APPIAN WAY, a Roman road to Capua, 
made by Appius Claudius Caecus, while censor, 312- 
308 B.C. 

APPLES. Several kinds are indigenous to 
England ; but those in general use have been 
brought at various times from the continent. 
Richard Harris, fruiterer to Henry VIII,, is said to 
have planted a great number of the orchards in 
Kent, and lord Soudamore, ambassador to Fi-ance in 
the reign of Charles I., planted many of those in 
Herefordshire. Ray reckons 78 varieties of apples 
in his day (1688) . In 1866 there were 1500 varieties 



in the collection of the Royal Horticultural Society, 
many not worth cultivation. Grand Apple congress 
at Chiswick, 5-25 Oct. 1883. 

APPOBTIONMENT ACT (for rents) passed 
I Aug. 1870. 

APPBAISEBS. The valuation of goods for 
another was an early business in England ; and so 
early as 1283, by the statute of merchants, or of 
Acton Burnel, ' ' it was enacted that if they valued 
the goods of parties too high, the appraisers should 
take them at such price as they have limited." In 
1845 their annual licence was raised from 10s. to 40s. 

APPBENTICES. Those of London were 
obliged to wear blue cloaks in summer, and blue 
gowns in winter, in the reign of queen Elizabeth, 
1558. Ten pounds was then a great apprentice fee. 
From twenty to one hundred pounds were given in 
the reign of James I. Stow' s Survey. The appren- 
tice tax enacted 43 Geo. III. 1802. The term of 
seven years, not to expire till the apprentice was 
24 years old, required by the statute of Elizabeth 
(1563), was abolished in 1814. An act for the pro- 
tection of apprentices, &c, was passed in 1851. The 
apprentices of London have been at times very riot- 
ous ; they rose into insurrection against foreigners 
on Evil May-day (ivhich see) 1 May, 1517. 

Exhibition of apprentices' work at the People's Palace 
opened by the prince of Wales 10 Dec. 1887. 

APPBOPBIATION CLAUSE, of the Irish 
Tithe Bill of 1835, brought forward by lord John 
Russell, whereby any surplus revenue that might 
accrue by the working of the act was to be appro- 
priated for the education of all classes of the people. 
The principle was adopted by the commons, but 
rejected by the lords in 1835 and 1836, and was 
abandoned. 

APPBOPBIATIONS (property taken from 
the church), began in the time of William I. The 
parochial clergy, then commonly Saxons, were im- 
poverished by the bishops and higher clergy (gene - 
rally Normans) to enrich the monasteries possessed 
by the conqueror's friends. Where the tithes were 
so appropriated, the vicar had only such a compe- 
tency as the bishop or superior thought fit to allow. 
Pope Alexander IV. complained of this as the bane 
of religion, the destruction of the church, and a 
poison that had infected the whole nation. Lay 
appropriations began after the dissolution of the 
monasteries, 1536. 

APBICOT (prceco.v, early ripe), Primus Arme- 
niaca, from Asia Minor, said to have been first 
planted in England about 1540, by the gardener of 
Henry VIII. 

APBIL, the fourth month of our year, the 
second of the ancient Romans. 

APTEBYX (wingless), a bird, a native of New 
Zealand, first brought to this country in 1813, and 
deposited in the collection of the earl of Derby. 
Fossil specimens of a gigantic species of this bird 
(named Dinornis) were discovered in New Zealand 
by Mr. Walter Mantell in 1843 and since, and 
much studied and many papers written on it by 
Professor Owen. 

APULIA, a province in S.E. Italy. The people 
favoured Hannibal, and were severely punished by 
the Romans at his retreat, 207 B.C. Apulia was con- 
quered by the Normans, whose leader Guiscard re- 
ceived the title of duke of Apulia from pope Nicho- 
las II. in 1059. After many changes of masters, it 
was absorbed into the kingdom of Naples, in 1265. 

AQUACULTUBE, see undar Fisheries. 



AQUARII. 



49 



AEABICI. 



AQUARII, a sect said to have been founded by 
Tatian in the 2nd century, who forebore the use of 
wine even in the sacrament; during persecution 
they met secretly at night. For this they were 
censured by C3 r prian (martyred, 258) . 

AQUARIUM or Aqua vivarium, a vessel 

containing water (marine or fresh) in which animals 
and plants may co-exist, mutually supporting each 
other ; snails being introduced as scavengers. In 
1849, Mr. N. B. Ward succeeded in growing sea- 
weeds in ' artificial sea- water; in 1850, Mr. R. 
Warington demonstrated the conditions necessary 
for the growth of animals and plants in jars of 
water; and in 1853 the glass tanks in the Zoological 
Gardens, Regent's Park, were set up by Mr. D. 
Mitchell. In 1854, Mr. Gosse published "The 
Aquarium." Mr. W. Alford Lloyd, late of Portland- 
road, London, who by his enterprise in collecting 
specimens did much to increase the value and inter- 
est of aquaria, has been much employed in erecting 
aquaria. The great aquarium (50 yards long and 
12 wide) at the Jardin d'Acclimatation at Paris, 
was constructed under his direction in i860. He 
also constructed the aquarium at Hamburg and 
others. That at Brighton was inaugurated by prince 
Arthur, 30 March, and publicly opened by the 
mayor, 10 Aug. 1872. That at the Crystal Palace 
was opened, Jan. 1872. 

The Royal A^uaricm and Summer and Winter Garden 
Society w is established 1874; the building at Westmin- 
ster, planned by Mr. Wybrow Robertson and Mr. A. 
Bedborough, was opened by the duke of Edinburgh, 
22 Jan. 1876. 
A woman surnamed "Zaze.l" permitted herself to be 
safely shot from a cannon (by a spring or other me- 
chanical contrivance) ; summer of 1877, et seq. 
Living whales shown here soon died ; see Whale ; Sept., 

1877 ; June, 1878. 
The Imperial theatre added, 1879. 

The site of the Aquarium to be sold for building pur- 
poses, July, 1888. 

AQUATINT, see Engraving. 

AQUEDUCT, an artificial watercourse. Appius 
Claudius Csecus, while censor, advised and con- 
structed the first Roman aqueduct, as well as the 
Appian way, about 312-308 B.C.* There are now 
some remarkable aqueducts in Europe : thatat Lisbon 
is of great extent and beauty ; that at Segovia has 
129 arches; and that at Versailles is three miles 
long, and of immense height, with 242 arches in 
three stories. The stupendous aqueuuct on the 
Ellesmere canal, in England (1007 feet in length, 
and 126 feet high) was completed by T. Telford, 
and opened 26 Dec. 1805. The Lisbon aqueduct 
was completed in 1738, and the Croton aqueduct, 
near New York, was constructed between 1837 and 
1842. The aqueduct to supply Marseilles with 
water was commenced in 1830. An aqueduct to 
supply London with water from the Welsh lakes 
was proposed by Mr. J. F. Bateman in 1865. 

AQUIDABAN, Paraguay. Here the war 
with Brazil was ended with the defeat and death of 
president Lopez, 1 March, 1870. 

AQUILA, S. Italy. Near here the Arragonese 
under the condottiere Braccio Forte-Braccio were 
defeated by the allied Papal, Neapolitan, and 
Milanese army under Jacob Caldora, 2 June, 1424. 
Braccio, a wounded prisoner, refused to take food, 
and died, 5 June. 

AQUILEIA (Istria), made a Roman colony 
about 180 b. c. and fortified a. d. 168. Constantine 

* Remains of these and other noble acuieducts, con- 
structed by emperors, still remain, and some supply 
water to the city. 



II. was slain in a battle with Constans, fought at 
Aquileia towards the close of March, 340. Maximus 
defeated and slain by Theodosius, near Aquileia, 28 
July, 388. Theodosiu-s defeated Eugenius and 
Arbogastes, the Gaul, near Aquileia, and remained 
sole emperor, 6 Sept. 394. Eugenius was put to 
death, and Arbogastes died by his own hand, mor- 
tified by his overthrow. St. Ambrose held a synod 
here in 381. In 452 Aquileia was almost totally 
destroyed by Attila the Hun, and near it in 489 
Theodoric and the Ostrogoths totally defeated 
Odoacer, the king of Italy. Aquileia was an early 
patriarchal see. 

AQU1TAINE, the Roman province Aquitania 
(S. W. Fiance), conquered by the Romans 28 B.C.; 
by the Visigoths, a.d. 418 ; taken from them by 
Clovis in 507. Henry II. of England obtained it 
with his wife Eleanor, 1 152. It was erected into a 
principality for Edward the Black Prince in 1362; 
but was annexed to France in 1370. The title of 
duke of Aquitaine was taken by the crown of 
England on the conquest of this duchy by Henry V. 
in 1418. The province was lost in the reign of 
Henry VI. 

ARABIA (W.Asia). The terms Petrcea (stony), 
Felix (happy), and Desert a are said to have been 
applied to its divisions by Ptolemy, about A. D. 140. 
The Arabs claim descent from Ishmael, the eldest 
son of Abraham, born 1910 B.C. Gen. xvi. Arabia 
was unsuccessfully invaded by Gallus, the Roman 
governor of Egypt, 24 B.C. The Abyssians con- 
quered part of Arabia Felix, and retained it 76 
years. In a.d. 622, the Arabians under the name 
of Saracens, followers of Mahomet (born at Mecca, 
570), their general and prophet, commenced their 
course of conquest ; see Mahometanism. Arabia 
was conquered by the Ottomans 1518-39. The 
Arabs greatly favoured literature and the sciences, 
especially mathematics, astronomy, and chemistry. 
The Koran was written in Arabic (622-632). The 
Bible was printed in Arabic in 167 1. SeelFahabees. 

The aggression of the Turks on the South Arabs 
excited jealousy in England, and was checked by 
the sultan Nov. 1873 

Insurrection in Yemen or Arabia Felix ; 5 Jan. — 

7 Feb. 1882 

Egyptian commission for preservation of Arab 
monuments appointed .... Jan. ,. 

Revolts in Yemen, announced . . 17 Mar. 1833 

Conflicts reported Sept. 1884 

Several revolts against the Turkish government 
suppressed June— Oct. i3qi 

Rebellion headed by Iman Ahmed Eddin, reported, 
11 Jan.; reinforcements sent, successful, 

May — July, 1892 

ARABIAN NIGHTS' ENTERTAIN- 
MENTS (or IOOI Tales) were translated into 
French by Galland, and published in 1704; but 
their authenticity was not acknowledged till many- 
years after. The best English translation from the 
Arabic is that of Mr. E. W. Lane, published in 
1839, with valuable notes and beautiful illustra- 
tions. Sir Richard F. Burton's elaborate transla- 
tion in 10 vols, was printed at Benares for sub- 
scribers 1885-7. Lady Buiton's expurgated edition 
was published in 1887 et seq. He died, aged 69, 20 
Oct. 1890. 

ARABIC FIGURES (i, 2, 3, &c), see Arith- 
metic. Arabic Newspaper, " Mar-Atu-l- 
Ahw&P' (" Mirror of Passing Events"), published 
in London end of 1876. 

ARABICI, a sect which sprung up in Arabia, 
about 207, whose distinguishing tenet was, that the 
soul dies with the body, and will rise again with it , 



ARAGON. 



50 



AECH. 



ARAGON, part of the Roman Tarraconensis, a 
kingdom, N.E. Spain, was conquered by the Car- 
thaginians, who were expelled by the Romans about 
200 B.C. It became an independent monarchy in 
A.D. 1035 ; see Spain. 

ARAM. Aramsea, from the Hebrew Aram 
(signifying "high land" as distinguished from 
Canaan, "low land"), a name given to all the 
country N. E. of Palestine ; which included Syria, 
Babylonia and Mesopotamia. The people used two 
dialects, in the west Syriac, in the east Aramaic 
(improperly termed Chaldee), called Hebrew at the 
time of Christ. 

ARANJUEZ (Central Spain), contains a fine 
royal palace, at which several important treaties 
were concluded. On 17 March, 1808, an insurrec- 
tion broke out here against Charles IV. and his 
favourite, Godo} r , the prince of the peace, who re- 
ceived that title for concluding the treaty of Basle. 
The former was compelled to abdicate in favour of 
his son, Ferdinand VII., 19 March. 

ARARAT, a mountain in Armenia (about 
17,112 feet above the sea-level), on which Noah's 
ark is supposed to have rested, B.C. 2348, now 
termed by the Persians, Koh-i-Nuh (Noah's moun- 
tain) ; by the Armenians, Masis ; by the Turks, 
Agri-Dagh. 

It was ascended by Dr. Parrot, 27 Sept., 1829 ; by Major 
Stuart, 1856, and by others since. Mr. James Bryce, 
who ascended 11, 12 Sept., 1876, described the summit 
as a little plain of snow, silent and desolate, with a 
bright, green sky above ; the view stern, green, and 
monotonous. Ascended by professor Mackoff and M. 
Popoff, Russians, Aug. 1888. 

ARAUCANIA, a province in S. America. Its 
inhabitants maintained almost unceasing war with 
the Spaniards from 1537 to 1773, when their inde- 
pendence was recognised. They are now nominally 
subject to Chili. 

ABAUSIO (now Orange), S. E. France. 
Through the jealousy of the Roman proconsul 
Q. Servilius Caspio, who would not wait for the 
arrival of the army of the consul C. Manlius, both 
were defeated here by the Cimbri with much 
■slaughter, 105 B. c. 

ARBELA. The third and decisive battle be- 
tween Alexander the Great and Darius Codomanus 
decided the fate of Persia, 1 Oct. 331 B.C., on a 
plain in Assyria, between Arbela and Gaugamela. 
The army of Darius consisted of 1,000,000 foot and 
40,000 horse ; the Macedonian army amounted to 
only 40,000 foot and 7000 horse. Arrian. The gold 
and silver found in the cities of Susa, Persepolis, 
and Babylon, which fell to Alexander from this 
victory, amounted to thirty millions sterling ; and 
the jewels and other precious spoil, belonging to 
Darius, sufficed to load 20,000 mules and 5000 
camels. Plutarch. 

ARBITRATION. Submission to arbitration 
was authorised and made equivalent in force to the 
decision of a jury, by 9 & 10 "Will. III. (1698). 
Further enforced by 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 42 (1833) ; 
see Ouzel Galley. The Common Law Procedure Act 
(1854) authorises the judges of superior courts to 
order compulsory arbitration ; and, by an act passed 
in 1859, railway companies may settle disputes with 
each other by arbitration. The Arbitration (Masters 
and Workmen) Act was passed 6 Aug. 1872. See 
Pncd' homines. 

For Arbitration between Nations, see under 
Peace. 



Codification of the Arbitration Acts was effected by the 

Arbitration Act passed 26 Aug. 1889. 
Address in favour of arbitration presented by eminent 

British M.P.s and politicians at Washington, U.S., 

1887. 

ARBUTUS. The Arbutus Andrachne, oriental 
strawberry-tree, was brought to England from the 
Levant about 1724. 

ARC DE TRIOMPHE, Paris, begun in 
1806 in honour of the Grande Armee, continued in 
1823, and completed in 1836". The list of battles, 
&c. (158), begins with Volmy, 20 Sept. 1792, and 
the last Ligny, 16 June, 18 15. The Arc de Tri- 
omphe is 165 feet high, 150 feet broad and 75 feet 
thick. 

ARCADES, or walks arched over. The princi- 
pal in London are the Burlington-arcade, opened 
20 March, 1819 ; the Lowther-arcade, Strand, 
opened 1831; between Old Bond- street and Albe- 
marle-street, opened May, 1880; see Strand, and 
Exeter Change. The Royal-arcade, Dublin, opened 
June, 1820, was burnt to the ground, 25 April, 1837. 
The Great Western-arcade, Birmingham, opened 
28 Sept. 1876. 

ARCADIA, in the centre of the Peloponnesus, 
Greece, named after Areas, a king. The Arcadians 
regarded their nation as the most ancient of Greece. 
The early history of Arcadia is fabulous. 
Sir Philip Sidney's Arcadia, a i>astoral romance, was 

published in 1590, the 8th edition in 1633. 
Magna Greecia, in S. Italy, said to have been 

colonised by Arcadians under (Enotrus, about 

1710 B.C. ; and under Evander . . . B.C. 1240 
Areas taught his subjects agriculture and to spin 

wool 1514 

Lycaean games instituted, in honour of Pan . . 1320 
Agapenor appears at the head of the Arcadians at 

the siege of Troy (H omer) 11 94 

The Lacedaemonians invade Arcadia, and are beaten 

by the women of the country in the absence of 

their husbands (?) 1102 

Aristocrates I. (of Orchomenus) put to death for 

offering violence to the priestess of Diana . . 715 
Aristocrates II. stoned ; a republic founded . . 681 
Supremacy of Sparta (acknowledged 560) abolished 

by the Thebans ; Megalopolis founded by Epami- 

nondas 371 

The Arcadians make alliance with Athens, and are 

defeated by Archidamus 367 

Arcadia, having joined the Achaean league, on its 

suppression is annexed by Rome . . . .146 

ARCADIANS, an ultra-conservative French 
political club, composed of a section of the majority 
in the chambers, and opposed to liberal measures, 
even when emanating from the emperor (such as 
the new press law). It derived its name from Rue 
de 1' Arcade, where its meetings were held: Feb. 
1868. 

ARCH. It appears in early Egyptian and As- 
syrian architecture. The oldest arch in Europe is 
probably in the Cloaca Maxima, at Rome, con- 
structed under the early kings, about 588 B.C. 
The Chinese bridges, which are very ancient, are of 
great magnitude, and are built with stone arches 
similar to those that have been considered a Roman 
invention.* — The Triumphal arches of the Romans 
formed a leading feature in their architecture. The 
arch of Titus (a.d. 80), that of Trajan (114), and 
that of Constan tine (312), were magnificent. The 

* The bridge of Chester, whose span is 200 feet, was 
commenced in 1829. The central arch of London Bridge 
is 152 feet ; and the three cast iron arches of Southwark 
Bridge, which rest on massive stone piers and abutments 
are, the two side ones 210 feet each, and the centre 240 
feet : thus the centre arch exceeds the admired 
bridge of Sunderland by four feet in the span, and the 
long-famed Rialto at Venice, by 167 feet ; see Bridges. 



ARCHEOLOGY. 



51 



ARCHITECTURE. 



arches in our parks in London were erected about 
1828. The Marble Arch, which formerly stood be- 
fore Buckingham Palace (whence it was removed 
to Cumberland-gate, Hyde Park, in 1851) was 
modelled from the arch of Constantine ; see Hyde 
Park. 

ARCHAEOLOGY, the science of antiquities ; 
see Antiquaries. 

ARCHEOPTERYX (ancient bird) ; the 
name given to the earliest known remains of a bird, 
found in the lithographic slate of Solenhofen, by 
Herman von Meyer and Dr. Habeiiein in 1861. Its 
structure approximated more to that of a reptile 
than that of modern birds does. It was described 
by Owen in 1863. 

ARCHANGEL (N. Russia), a city, is thus 
named from a monastery founded here, and dedi- 
cated to St. Michael in 1584. The passage to Arch- 
angel was discovered by the English navigator 
llichard Chancellor in 1553, and it was the only 
seaport of Russia till the formation of the docks at 
Cronstadt, and foundation of St. Petersburg in 1703. 
The dreadful fire here, by which the cathedral and 
upwards of 3000 houses were destroyed, occurred 
in June, 1793. Population of the province, 1886, 
328,819. 

ARCHBISHOP (Greek archiepiscopos), a title 
given in the 4th and 5th centuries to the bishops 
of chief cities, such as Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, 
and Constantinople, who presided over the other 
metropolitans and bishops in the districts attached 
to those places. The word is first found in the 
Apology against the Arians by Athanasius, who 
died 373. Four archbishops of the Eastern church 
•are styled patriarchs. Riddle. 

Before the Saxons came to England, there were three 

archbishops : London, York, and Caerleon-upon-Usk ; 

but soon after St. Augustin settled the metropolitan 

see at Canterbury, 602 ; see Canterbury. 

York continued archiepiscopal ; but London and Caerleon 

lost the dignity ; see St. David's. 
The bishopries in Scotland were under the jurisdiction of 
the archbishop of York until the erection of the archi- 
episcopal sees of St. Andrew's and Glasgow in 1470 and 
1491 ; these last were discontinued at the Revolution ; 
see Glasgow and St. Andrew's. 
The bishop of Brechin was chosen Primus, 1886, the 
title being conferred on one of the bishops by 
election. 
The rank of archbishop was early in Ireland ; see Ferns. 
Four archbishops were constituted, Armagh, Cashel, 
Dublin, and Tuani ; (until then the archbishop of 
Canterbury had jurisdiction over the Irish as well as 
English bishops, in like manner as the archbishop of 
York had jurisdiction over those of Scotland), 1151. 
Of these four archbishoprics two were reduced to 
bishoprics (Cashel and Tuam) conformably with the 
stat. 3 & 4 Will. IV. by which also the number of sees in 
Ireland was to be reduced from twenty-two to twelve 
(see Bishops, Cashel, Tuam; Pallium, he), 1833. 

ARCH-CHAMBERLAIN. The elector of 
Brandenburg was appointed the hereditary arch- 
chamberlain of the German empire by the golden 
bull of Charles IV. in 1356, and in that quality he 
bore the sceptre before the emperor. 

ARCH-CHANCELLORS were appointed 
under the two first races of the kings of France 
(418-986), and when then - territories were divided, 
the archbishops of Mentz, Cologne, and Treves be- 
came arch- chancellors of Germany, Italy, and 
Aries. 

ARCHDEACON, a name early given to the 
first or eldest deacon, who attended on the bishop 
without any power ; but since the council of Nice, 
his function has become a dignity above a priest. 



The appointment in these countries is referred to 
the eighth century. There are seventy-five arch- 
deacons in England (1878). The archdeacon's 
court is the lowest in ecclesiastical polity ; an 
appeal lies from it to the consistorial court, by 
24. Henry VIII. (1532). 

ARCHERY is ascribed to Apollo, who com- 
municated it to the Cretans. 

Ishmael "became an archer" (Gen. xxi. 20), B.C. 1892 
The Philistine archers overcame Saul (1 Sam. xxxi. 3). 1056 
David commanded the use of the bow to be taught 

(2 Sam. i. 18) 1055 

Archery introduced into England previous to a.d. 440 
Harold and his two brothers were killed by arrows 
shot from the cross-bows of the Norman soldiers 

at the battle of Hastings 1066 

Richard I. revived archery in England in 1190, and 

was himself killed by an arrow . . . 1199 

The victories of Crecy (1346), Poictiers (1356), and 

Agincourt (1415), were won chiefly by archers 
Four thousand archers of the king surrounded the 
houses of Parliament ready to shoot ; pacified by 
the king, 21 Richard II. (Stow.) .... 1397 
The citizens of London formed into companies of 
archers in the reign of Edward III. ; and into a 
corporate body by the style of " The Fraternity of 
St. George." 29 Henry VIII. . ... 1538 

Roger Ascham's " Toxophilus, the School of Shooting," 

published 1571 

Scorton Annual Arrow Meetings — a silver arrow 

shot for ; articles agreed to . . -14 May, 1673 
Royal company of archers, instituted by the mar- 
quis of Athol, as the king's body guard for Scot- 
land 1676 

The long bow was six feet long, and the arrow three 
feet ; the usual range from 300 to 500 yards. 
Robin Hood is said to have shot from 600 to 800 
yards. The cross-bow was fixed to a stock, and 
discharged with a trigger. 
See Artillery Company, Toxophilites, &c. 

ARCHES, COURT OF, the most ancient con- 
sistory court, chiefly a court of appeal from inferior 
jurisdictions within the province of Canterbury ; it 
derives its name from the church of St. Mary-le- 
Bow (Sancta Maria de Arcabus), London, where it 
was formerly held, and whose top is raised on stone 
pillars- built archwise. Cowell. Appeals from this 
court lie to the judicial committee of the privy 
council, by statute, 1832. The Dean and Official 
Principal, Dr. Stephen Lushington, (appointed in 
1828) resigned 1 July, 1867 ; succeeded by sir 
Robert J. Phillimore, who resigned, 1875. Lord 
Penzance succeeded him. 

ARCHIEPISCOPAL COURT, see under 
Canterbury . 

ARCHITECTURE (from the Greek archi- 
tehtdn, chief artificer). The five great orders are, 
— the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian (Greek) ; — the 
Tuscan and Composite (Roman). Gothic began to 
prevail in the 9th century. See the Orders and 
Gothic. 

The Pyramids of Egypt, begun . . about B.C. 1500 
Solomon's Temple, begun .... . 1004 

Birs Nimroud, in Assyria ... - about 900 

The Doric order begins about 650 

Doric Temple at jEgina 550 

Temple of Jupiter and Cloaca Maxima, at Rome 

founded 616 

Babylon built 600 

The Ionic order begins .... about 500-420 

The Corinthian order begins 335 

Choragic Monument of Lysicrates . . . . 335 
Architecture flourishes at Athens . . . 480-320 

Erechtheum at Athens 450-420 

The Parthenon finished 438 

The Pantheon, &e. , built at Rome . . a.d. 13 

The Colosseum (or Coliseum) 70 

Hadrian builds temples at Rome, &c 117 

Diocletian's palace at Spalatro 284 

Basilicas at Rome 33°"9°° 

E 2 



ARCHONS- 



52 ARGENTINE CONFEDERATION. 



St. Sophia, at Constantinople, "begun . . a.d. 532 
Bock-cut temples in India— Caves of Ellora . 500-800 

Canterbury cathedral, founded 602 

Mosque of Omar at Jerusalem 637 

York Minster (present building) begun . about 11 71 

St. Peter's, Rome 1450-1626 

St. Paul's, London 1675-1710 

EMINENT ARCHITECTS. 

Bom. Died, 
Vitruvius, about . . • . b.c. 27 

A.D. 

William of Wickham . ... 1324— 1405 

Michael Angelo Buonarotti . . . • 1474 — !564 

A. Palladio 1518— 1580 

Inigo Jones 1572— 1652 

Bernini 159 8 — l68 ° 

Christopher Wren 1632— 1723 

J. Vanbrugh . 1670— 1726 

James Gibbs 1674 — I 7S4 

B. and J. Adam 1728— 1794 

Sir William Chambers 1726— 1796 

Augustus W. Pugin 1811 — 1852 

Sir Charles Barry 1795— 1860 

C. R. Cockerell 1788— 1863 

James Fergusson 1808 — 1886 

Sir Geo. Gilbert Scott .... 1811— 1878 

George Edmund Street 1824 — 1881 

E. Barry 1830 — 1881 

An Architectural Club was formed in 1791. An Archi- 
tectural Society existed in London in 1806. The Royal 
Institute of British Architects was founded in 1834 — 
Earl de Grey, president, 1835-61. The Architectural 
Society, established in 1831, was united to the Institute 
in 1842. The Architectural Association began about 
1846. The Architectural Museum, Westminster, opened, 
21 July, 1869. 

Mr. James Fergusson's " History of Architecture," 
(the best) 2nd ed., 1874-6. 

ARCHONS. When royalty was abolished at 
Athens, in memory of king Codrus, killed in battle, 
1044 or 1068 B.C., the executive government was 
vested in elective magistrates called archons, whose 
office continued for life. Medon, eldest son of 
Codrus, was tbe first archon. The office was limited 
to ten years, 752 B.C., and to one year 683 B.C. 

ARCOLA (Lombardy), the site of battles be- 
tween the French under Bonaparte, and the Aus- 
trians under field-marshal Alvinzi, fought 14-17 
Nov. 1796. The Austrians lost 18,000 men in 
killed, wounded, and prisoners, four flags and 
eighteen guns. The French lost about 15,000, and 
became masters of Italy. In one contest Bonaparte, 
in most imminent danger, was rescued by the 
impetuosity of his troops. 

ARCOT (East Indies). This city (founded 1716) 
was taken by colonel' Clive, 31 Aug. 1751; was 
retaken, 1758, but again surrendered to colone) 
Coote, 10 Feb. 1760; besieged and taken by Hyder 
Ali, when the British under colonel Baillie suffered 
severe defeat, 31 Oct. 1780. Arcot has been subject 
to Great Britain since 1801 ; see India. 

ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS, see North West 
Tassaye, and Franklin's Expedition. On the Ger- 
man Arctic society applying to the German govern- 
ment, a committee of 13 professors was appointed, 
who in their report recommended that no more 
expeditions should be sent out ; but that stations 
should be established for scientific observations: 
1876. 
London Central Arctic Comviittee; formed to promote 

another expedition, 7 July, 1879. 

ARDAGH, an ancient bishopric in Ireland, 
founded by St. Patrick, who is said to have made his 
nephew, Mell, the first bishop, 454. This see, held 
with Kilmore since 1742, was held in commendam 
with Tuam {which see). It was united with Kilmore 
in 1839, and with Elphin in 1841. 



ARDAHAN, a town in Turkish Armenia, 
ceded to Russia by the Berlin treaty, 13 July, 1878. 

ARDFERT and AGHADOE, bishoprics in 
Ireland long united ; the former was called the 
bishopric of Kerry ; Ert presided in the 5th century; 
William Fuller, appointed in 1663, became bishop 
of Limerick in 1667, since when Ardfert and Agha- 
doe have been united to that prelacy. Near the 
cathedral an anchorite tower, 120 feet high, the 
loftiest and finest in the kingdom, suddenly fell, 
1770. 

ARDOCH, see Grampian. 

ARDRES, see Field of Cloth of Gold. 

AREIOPAGUS or Areopagus, a Greek 

tribunal, said to have heard causes in the dark, 
because the judges should be blind to all but facts, 
instituted at Athens about 1507 B.C. ; also ascribed 1 
to Cecrops, 1556. The name is derived from the 
Greek Areios pagos, the hill of Mars, through the 
tradition that Mars was the first who was tried 
there for the murder of Halirrhotius, who had 
violated his daughter Alcippe. The powers of this 
court were enlarged by Solon, about 594 B.C., and 
diminished by Pericles, 461 B.C. Paul preached on 
Mars' hill a.d. 52. (Acts xvii.) See Press. 

AREOMETER or ARAEOMETER (from 
Greek araios, thin), an instrument for measuring 
the density and specific gravity of fluids. Baume 
described his areometer in 1768. Others have been 
made by Nicholson and Mohr. 

AREQUIPA, Peru, founded by Pizarro, 1539; 
was destroyed by an earthquake, 13 Aug. 1868; 
surrendered to the Chilians 26 Oct. 1883. 

ARETHUSA, see Naval Battles, 1778, and 
Chichester. 

AREZZO, near the ancient Arretium or Areti- 
num, an Etrurian city, which made peace with 
Rome for 30 years, 308 B.C., was besieged by 
theGalli Senones, about 283 B.C., who defeated the 
Roman army Metellus sent to its relief — a disgrace 
avenged signally by Dolabella. Arezzo was an 
ancient bishopric : the cathedral founded in 1277. 
It is renowned as the birthplace of Maecenas, 
Petrarch, Vasari, and other eminent men. Michael 
Angelo was born in the vicinity. 

ARGANDAB, a river in Afghanistan. See 
Afghanistan, 1880. 

ARGAUM, in the Deccan, India, where sir 
Arthur Wellesley, on 29th Nov. 1803, thoroughly 
defeated and subjugated the rajah of Berar and the 
Mahratta chief Scindiah. 

ARGENTARIA, Alsace (now Colmak, N. E. 
France), where the Roman emperor Gratian totally 
defeated the Alemanni, and secured the peace of 
Gaul, May, 378. 

ARGENTINE (or La Plata) CONFE- 
DERATION, S. America, 14 provinces (Buenos 
Ayres, one). The city Buenos Ayres is the 
capital. This country was discovered by the 
Spaniards in 1515, settled by them in 1553, and 
formed part of the vice-royalty of Peru till 1778, 
when it became that of Rio de la Plata. It joined 
the insurrection in 181 1, and became independent 
in 1816. It was at war with Brazil from 1826 to 
1828, for the possession of Uruguay, which became 
independent as Monte- Video ; and at war with 
France from 1838-40. — Population, in 1869, 
1,877,490; 1887,3,805,000. See Buenos Ayres. 
Buenos Ayres seceded in 1853 ; reunited . . . 1859 
An insurrection in San Juan in Nov. i860 ; sup- 
pressed in . Jan. 1862 



ARGINUS^!. 



53 



ARGOS- 



J. Urquiza, elected president, 20 Nov. 1853, was 
succeeded by Dr. S. Derqui . . .8 Feb. 

Gen. Bartholomew Mitre, elected for six years, as- 
sumed the president's office . . . 12 Oct. 

Lopez, president of Paraguay, declared war against 
Mitre, and invaded the Argentine, territories, 
May. Mitre declared war against Paraguay, 16 
April ; and made alliance with Brazil and Uru- 
guay 4 May, 

See Buenos Ayres for the disputes with that state, 
and Brazil for the war with Paraguay. 

€ol. Dominique P. Sarmiento elected president for 
six years 12 Oct. 

He suppresses the insurrection of Corrientes, Nov. 

Urquiza murdered 12 April, 

Treaty with Brazil Jan., 

Defeat of Lopez Jourdan, rebel,- announced Dec. 

Dr. N. A velianeda inaugurated president (for 6 years) 

12 Oct. 

Insurrection of Mitre at Buenos Ayres, Sept. -Nov. 
suppressed ; he submits ... 2 Dec. 

National bank stops ; suspension of specie pay- 
ments by government . . .16 May, 

End of rebellion ; capture of Jourdan ; announced 

12 Dec. 

Disputes with Buenos Ayres ; settled June-July, 

General Boca (opposed to supremacy of Buenos 
Ayres) nominated to become president in October, 
opposed by Dr. Tejedor . . June-July, 

General Roca becomes president . . . Oct. 

Tranquillity restored : Buenos Ayres to be definitive 
capital of the Republic .... 7 Dec. 

The Buenos Ayres Exhibition, under the patronage 
of the Government, opened . . 15 Feb. 

Dr. M. Juarez Celman, President . . 12 Oct. 

Negotiations for a loan fail ; a panic on the 
Buenos Ayres bourse, 7 July ; the president and 
chambers authorize the issue of notes to the 
amount of 100,000,000 dollars . 8 — 12 July, 

Dissensions in the army ; arrest of officers ; trials 

about 22 July 

Insurrection in Buenos Ayres, instigated by the 
Union Civiea, headed by sen. Aleru, Romero, and 
Del Valle, against president Celman and his 
ministry, charged with corruption ; a provisional 
government proclaimed ; the insurgents supported 
~by troops and artillery and many civilians ; the 
government supported by infantry, armed police 
and part of t.ie navy ; the city bombarded ; severe 
fighting in the streets ... 26 July, 

The president retires, leaving Dr. Pellegrini, vice- 
president, in command ; brief armistice ; fighting 
resumed ; the government troops under gen. Roca 
victorious ; surrender of the insurgents, general 
amnesty (about 1,000 persons killed and much 
property destroyed) .... 28 July, 

Resignation of Dr. Celman demanded, he refuses, 
30 July ; financial chaos, bourse closed 31 July, 

Boastful manifesto of president Celman, 31 July ; 
he is compelled to resign, 5 Aug. ; succeeded by 
Carlos Pellegrini, 6 Aug. ; new ministry, sen. 
Lopez, gen. Roca, and others ; business resumed, 
great rejoicings .... 7 — 11 Aug. 

Great preparations against a dreaded attempt at a 
revolution about 6 Oct. 

Commission to inquire into reported corruptions in 
government financial affairs appointed . Nov. 

Financial crisis at Buenos Ayres, several credit 
houses stop payment ; successful intervention of 
the government 24 Nov. 

Re-organization of the finances, by a plan proposed 
by a committee in London (lord Rothschild and 
others) about 4 Dec. 

Cordova city flooded by the canal bursting its em- 
bankments, about 150 persons drowned, and 
many houses destroyed ... 21 Dec. 

Excitement on account of proposed tax on deposits 
in private banks 15 Jan. 

The officers implicated in the late rebellion exiled 

about 19 Feb. 

A state of siege proclaimed in Buenos Ayres to 
check conspiracies .... 20 Feb. 

Riots at Cordova ; state of siege proclaimed, about 

22 Feb. 

Financial panic, 4 March ; business suspended by 
decree, 6 -11 March; panic ended; a national 
loan for 100,000,000 dollars at 6 per cent., well 
taken up by the public . . 8 March, et seq. 



i860 



:S6 5 



1870 
1873 



1874 



Banks re-opened 13 March, 1891 

Arrival of gen. Mitre, warmly received, 18 March ; 
he joins gen. Roca . . . .24 March, ,, 

The National and Provincial Banks suspend pay- 
ment till 1 June by decree . . 7 April, ,, 

State of siege at Buenos Ayres raised, 17 April ; 
the congress opened by president Pellegrini, with 
a hopeful message .... 9 May, ,, 

Run on the banks at Buenos Ayres, 2 June ; panic 
abating through the firm conduct of the British 
residents 4 June ,, 

The "Bank of the Argentine Nation" created by 
vote of the Senate 12 Aug. ,, 

Forced paper currency, premium on gold to be 150 
per cent, and payment in gold suspended for two 
years, authorized by the government to support 
the national bank, 30 Sept. ; the scheme rejected 
by the senate, reported ... 14 Oct. ,, 

Ministerial crisis .... 16—23 Oct. ,, 

Confidence in the ministry voted by the senate and 
deputies 20 Oct. ,, 

Election riots with loss of life and state of siege at 
Cordova and Tucuman, reported . 27 Oct. ,, 

Destructive tornado in Santa Fe, 10 persons killed 

middle Nov. ,, 

The Bank of the Argentine Nation opened 1 Dec. ,, 

Baron Hirsch reports that the Jewish settlements 
in the republic are prospering . . . Jan. 1892 

Disturbances at Mendoza ; assassinations ; govern- 
ment intervention . . . .22 — 24 Jan. ,, 

Elections for senate and deputies favour the party 
of Mitre and Roca . . . about 8 Feb. ,, 

Attempt at revolution discovered ; a state of siege 
proclaimed ; the radical leaders arrested ; military 
precautions adopted . . . 2, 3 April, ,, 

Dr. Luiz Saenz Peila elected president, about 

12 June, ,, 

State of siege raised 7 July, ,, 

The war-vessel, Rosales, founders off Uruguay, 

9 July. .. 

ARGINUS^E, isles between Lesbos and 
Asia Minor; near these Conon and the Athenian 
fleet defeated the Spartan admiral Callicratidas, 
406 B.C. 

ARGON AUTIC EXPEDITION, dated by 
Hales 1225, by Clinton 1169, said to have been 
undertaken by Jason, to avenge the death of his 
kinsman Phryxus, and to recover the treasures seized 
by his murderer, j?£etes, king of Colchis. The ship 
in which Phryxus had sailed to Colchis having been 
adorned with the figure of a ram, led to the fiction 
that the journey was to recover the golden fleece. 
This is the first naval expedition on record. Many 
kings and heroes accompanied Jason, whose ship 
was called Argo, from its builder. 

ARGONAUTS OF ST. NICHOLAS, mili- 
tary knights; an order founded by Charles III. of 
Naples, 1382. 

ARGOS, the most ancient city of Greece, mythi- 
cally said to have been founded either by Inachus 
or his son, Phoroneus, received its name from Argus, 
the fourth of the Inachidae. The early history is 
fabulous. 

Reign of Triopas ; Polycaon seizes part of the king- B.C. 
dom and calls it after his wife, Messenia . . 1552 

Gelanor, last of the Inachidse, deposed by Danaus, 
an Egyptian 1475 

Feast of the Flambeaux, instituted in honour of 
Hypermnestra, who saved her husband, Lynceus, 
son of jEgyptus, on his nuptial night, while her 
forty-nine sisters sacrificed theirs, at the com- 
mand of their father, 1 )anaus .... 1425 

Lynceus dethrones Danaus 1425 

The kingdom divided by the brothers Acrisius and 
Projtus 1344 (1313 Clinton.) 

Perseus, grandson of Acrisius, leaves Argos and 
founds Mycen* (which see) 1313 

The Heraclid* retake the Peloponnesus, and Teme- 
nus seizes Argos ... ... 1102 

Pheidon's prosperous rule 770-730 

War with Sparta : combat of 300 on each side . . 547 



ARGITIN. 



54 



ARKADI. 



The Argives fine Sicyon and iEgina for helping their B.C. 

enemy, Cleomenes of Sparta 514 

Sparta becomes superior to Argos . . . 495-490 

Themistocles an exile at Argos 471 

The Argives destroy Mycenae and regain their 

superiority 468 

Peloponnesian war — Argos long neutral, joins 

Athens 420 

The aristocratical party makes peace with Sparta, 

and overthrows the democracy . . . -417 
A reaction — alliance with Athens resumed . . . 395 
Pyrrhus of Macedon besieging Argos, slain . . 272 
Argos governed by tyrants supported by Macedon ; 

freed ; joins the Achfean league .... 229 

Subjugated by the Romans 146 

Argos taken from the Venetians . . . a.d. 1686 
Taken by the Turks 1716, who held it until . . 1826 

United to Greece under king Otho (see Greece) 

25 Jan. 1833 

ARGITIN, battle of, see Soudan, 2 July, 1889. 

ARGYLE (W. Scotland), bishopric of, founded 
about 1200, Evaldus being the first bishop ; the 
diocese, previously united with Dunkeld, ended 
1688. Argyle and the Isles is a post-revolution 
bishopric, 1847 ; see Bishoprics. 

ARGYLL ROOMS, near Oxford-street, Lon- 
don, opened for musical and other entertainments 
early in the 19th century ; re-erected by Nash, 1818 ; 
held by the Philharmonic Society, 1813-30. Here 
appeared Spohr, 1820; "Weber, 3 April, 1826; and 
Mendelssohn, 25 May, 1829. While held by M. 
Chabert, the fire-king, the building was burnt 
down, 5, 6 Feb. 1830. The new building was even- 
tually converted into shops. 

ARIAN or ARYAN (in Sanskrit signifying 
noble, warlike), a term now frequently applied to 
the hypothetical Indo-Germanic family of nations, 
including the Greek, Iloman, and Teutonic races. 

ARIANS, followers of Arius * of Alexandria, 
■who preached against the doctrine of the 
Trinity, about 315, and died in 336. The con- 
troversy was taken up by Constantine, who pre- 
sided at the council of Nice, June to Aug. 325, 
when the Arians were condemned ; but their 
doctrine long prevailed. It was favoured by 
Corjstantiiis II. 341 ; and carried into Africa by 
the Vandals in the 5th century, and into Asia by 
the Goths. Servetus published his treatise against 
the Trinity, 1531, and was burnt, 1553. Leggatt, an 
Arian, was burnt at Smithfield in 1614; see Atha- 
nasian Creed, Socinians, and Unitarians. 

ARICA, Peru, destroyed by an earthquake, and 
inundated by waves of the sea, 13 Aug. 1868. 

ARIKERA, near Seringapatam. Here lord 
Cornwallis defeated Tippoo Sahib, 15 May, 1791. 

ARISTOTELIAN PHILOSOPHY: the 

most comprehensive ever devised by man. Aristotle 
was born at Stageira (hence termed the Stageirite), 
384 B.C. ; was a pupil of Plato from 364 to 347 ; 
became preceptor of Alexander, son of Philip of 
Macedon, in 342 ; and died in 322. He divided the 
circle of knowledge into metaphysics and logic, 
physics (including part of the science of mind), and 
ethics. His philosophy was too much exalted by 
the schoolmen during the middle ages, and too 
much depreciated after the Eeformation. His works 
on natural science contain a vast collection of facts 
and an extraordinary mixture of sound and chi- 
merical opinions. To him is attributed the asser- 

* Arius maintained that the Son of God was a 
secondary God created by the Father, who raised Him 
far above all men, and consequently not equal with the 
Father. 



tion that nature abhors a vacuum, an opinion now 

maintained by eminent modern philosophers. 

An Aristotelian Society, for the systematic study of phi- 
losophy, was founded in the spring of 1880 ; Dr. Shad- 
worth H. Hodgson, president. 

M. Barthelemy St. Hilaire's complete translation of 
Aristotle, 35 vols., published early in 1891. 

A papyrus containing the lost treatise of Aristotle 011 
the "Constitution of Athens," discovered in Egypt 
and conveyed to the British Museum, was published 
by the trustees, with a preface and notes by Mr. F. G. 
Kenyon, Jan. ; and photographs of the MS. were pub- 
lished March, 1891. The work was hitherto only known 
by extracts in ancient writers. The MS. was considered 
genuine by M. Barthelemy St. Hilaire, March, 1891. 

A family tomb, discovered at Eretria, in the island of 
Eubcea, by Dr. Charles Waldstein, early in 1891, was 
considered by him to be really that of Aristotle and 
his family. 

ARITHMETIC is said to have been intro- 
duced from Egypt into Greece by Thales, about 
600 B.C. The Chinese used the abacus, or swan- 
pan, at an early period. It is asserted that the 
ancient Hindus adopted a system having ten as a 
basis. 

The oldest treatise upon arithmetic is by Euclid 
(7th, 8th, and 9th books of his Elements), about 

B.C. 300 
The sexagesimal arithmetic of Ptolemy was used 

a.d. 130 
Diophantus, of Alexandria, was the author of thir- 
teen books of arithmetical questions (of which six 
are now extant) ..... about 156 
Notation by nine digits and zero (Arabic figures), 
known at least as early as the 6th century in Hin- 
dostan — introduced from thence into Arabia, 
about 900 — into Spain, about 980 — into Fiance, 
by Gerbert, soon after— into England, probably in 
14th or 15th century. 
The date in Caxton's Mirrour of the World, Arabic 

characters, is 1480 

Arithmetic of decimals invented .... 1482 
John Sherwood, bishop of Durham's Lttdus Arithmo- 

MacliincB, printed at Rome „ 

First work printed in England on arithmetic (de 
Arte Supputdndi) was by Tonstall, bishop of 

Durham 1522 

The theory of decimal fractions perfected by Napier 

in his Hhabdologia 161 7 

Cocker's Arithmetic appeared in ... . 1677 
Nystrom's Tonal system with 16 as a basis, pub- 
lished 1862 

Sawyer's "Automatic System," piublished . . 1878 

ARITHMOMETER, see Calculating Ma- 
chines. 

ARIZONA, a territory of the United States, 
originally part of New Mexico, was organised 24 
Feb. 1863 ; admitted as a state by the house of 
representatives, 6 June, 1892; capital, Tucson. It 
was colonised by the Jesuits in the 17th century. 
Population, 1880,40,440; 1890,59,620. 
By the bursting of the great dams at Prescott, Seymore 
and other mining villages are destroyed by the great 
rush of water and about 70 persons are said to have 
perished, 22 Feb. 1890. 
Yuma nearly destroyed by floods ; about 100 lives lost, 
1,400 homeless, reported 2 March, 1891. 
ARK. Mount Ararat {which see) is venerated 
from a belief of its being the place on which 
Noah's Ark rested, after the universal deluge, 234S 
B.C. ; see Gen. vi. vii. Some assert Apamea, in 
Phrygia, to be the spot; and medals have been 
struck there with a chest on the waters, and the 
letters NOE, and two doves ; this place is 300 miles 
west of Ararat. The Ark of the Covenant, made by 
Moses to contain the two tables of the 'law, 1491 
B.C. (Exod. xxv.), was placed in Solomon's temple, 
1004 B.C. (1 Kings, viii.). 

ARKADI, a Greek blockade-runner during the 
Cretan insurrection, was destroyed by the Turldsh 



ARKANSAS. 



5.5 



ARMENIA. 



vessel Izeddin, off Crete, 19 Aug. 1867, after at least 
22 successful voyages. 

ARKANSAS, originally part of Louisiana, 
ceded by Spain to France, 1763 ; and purchased by 
the United States in 1803, was made a territory, 
1819; and a state, 1836; seceded from the union 
6 May, 1861 ; re-admitted, 1868. Several battles 
were fought in this state in 1862. Capital, Little 
Eock. Population, 1890, 1,128,179. 

ARKLOW (in Wick low), where a battle was 
fought between the insurgent Irish, amounting to 
31,000, and a small regular force of British, which 
signally defeated them, 10 June, 1798. The town 
was nearly destroyed by the insurgents in May 
previous. — Native gold was discovered in Arklow, 
in Sept. 1795. Phil. Trans, vol. 86. 

ARLBERG, see under Tunnels. 

ARLES (Arelatum, from the Celtic Ar-lait, 
near the waters), S. France (said to have been 
founded 2000 B.C.), a powerful Roman city, was 
made capital of the kingdom of Provence by Boson 
in 879 a.d. ; and of the kingdom of Aries or Trans- 
jurane Burgundy by Rodolph II. in 933. He was 
succeeded by Conrad I. 937 ; and by Ridolph III. 
993 ; who in 1032, transmitted his king- 
dom to the emperor Conrad II. After various 
changes it was annexed to France in i486. Many 
councils (314-1275) were held at Aries ; the most 
celebrated in 314, when British bishops were 
present. 

ARMADA, THE INVINCIBLE, collected and 
equipped by Philip II. king of Spain, for the subju- 
gation of England. Morant's historical account 
(accompanying Pine's engravings of the tapestries 
formerly in the house of lords) was printed 1739. 
It consisted of 130 ships (besides caravels), 3165 
cannon, S050 sailors, 20S8 galley-slaves, 18,973 
soldiers, 1382 volunteers (noblemen, gentlemen, 
and their attendants), and 150 monks, with Martin 
Alarco, vicar of the Inquisition, — the whole under 
the command of the duke of Medina-Sidonia . 1587 
The English fleet 80 vessels under lord Charles 
Howard, sir Francis Drake, and sir John Haw- 
kins, ready for sea, and three armies on land. Dec. ,, 
The Armada sailed from Lisbon ; soon after dis- 
persed by a storm .... 19 May, 158S 
Re-collected, entered the Channel off Cornwall, 

19 July, ,, 
Suffered in a series of engagements (the sharpest 

on 25 July) 21-27 July, „ 

Dispersed by fire-ships sent into the midst, 28 July, ,, 
Many vessels sunk or taken by the English, 

29 July, „ 
The remainder retreat northward to Spain, suf- 
fering much loss by severe storms, Aug. and Sept. ,, 
Computed Spanish loss — 35 ships ; 13,000 men. 
The queen attended a most solemn thanksgiving 

at St. Paul's 24 Nov. „ 

An annual thanksgiving sermon was endowed by 
Mr. Chapman, who died 1616 ; it was preached at 

St. Mary-le-Bow 12 Aug. 1877 

Tercentenary at Plymouth celebrated with exhibi- 
tions, &c, 18 July, 1888 ; National memorial 

founded 19 July, 1888 

Fund established at the Mansion House . 3 May, ,, 
Relics exhibited at Drury Lane Theatre 24 Oct. ,, 
" The Spanish Armada," a play at Drury Lane 

Theatre ; first performance . . 22 Sept. „ 
A bronze statue of Britannia, setup at Plymouth 
Hoe, as a National Memorial of the defeat of the 
Armada, was unveiled by the duke of Edinburgh 
on behalf of the queen . . . 21 Oct. 1890 
" The Spanish story of the Armada," by Mr. J. A. 
Froude, published ... ... 1892 

ARMAGH, N. Ireland, of which it was the 
metropolis from the 5th to the 9th century, the seat 
of the first ecclesiastical dignity in Ireland, founded 
by St. Patrick, its first bishop, about 444, and said 
to have built the first cathedral, 450. Six saints of 



the Roman calendar have been bishops of this see. 
In the king's book, by an extent taken 15 James I., 
it is valued at 400/. sterling a year ; and until lately 
was estimated at 15,000^. per annum. The see was 
re-constituted (see Pallium) in 1151. Beatson. 
Armagh was ravaged by the Danes on Easter-day, 
852, and by O'Neil in 1564. See Railway accidents, 
12 June, 1889. Population, 1871, 8,946; 1881, 
10,070. 

ARMAGNACS, a political party in France, 
followers of the duke of Orleans, murdered by the 
Burgundians, 23 Nov. 1407, derived their name 
from his father-in-law, the count of Armagnac. 
About 3500 of this party were massacred at Paris 
in June, 1418, by their opponents, the followers of 
the duke of Burgundy. 

ARMED NEUTRALITY, the confederacy 
against England, formed by Russia, Sweden, and 
Denmark, 1 780; ended, 1781 ; renewed, and a treaty 
ratified in order to cause their flags to be respected 
by the belligerent powers, 16 Dec. 1800. The prin- 
ciple that neutral flags protect neutral- bottoms being 
contrary to the maritime system of England, the 
British cabinet remonstrated, war ensued, and Nel- 
son and Parker destroyed the fleet of Denmark before 
Copenhagen, 2 April, 1801. This event and the 
murder of the emperor Paul of Russia led to the 
dissolution of the Armed Neutrality. 

ARMENIA, Asia Minor, after forming part 
of the Assyrian, Median, and Persian empires, 
became subject to the Greek kings of Syria, after 
the defeat of Antiochus the Great, 190 B.C. The 
Romans established the kingdoms of Armenia 
Major and Minor, but their influence over them 
was frequently interrupted by the aggressions of 
the Parthians. In all their political troubles the 
Armenians have maintained the profession of Chris- 
tianity, and their church is governed by patriarchs, 
not subjectto Rome. Since 1715 an Armenian con- 
vent has existed at Venice, where books on all 
subjects are printed in the Armenian language. 

City of Artaxarta built B.C. 186 

Antiochus Epiphanes invades Armenia . . . 165 
Tigranes the Great reigns in Armenia Major . . 95 
Becomes King of Syria, and assumes the title of 

" King of Kings " 83 

Defeated by Lucullus, 69 ; he lays his crown at the 

feet of Pompey 66 

His son, Artavasdes, reigns, 54 ; he assists Pompey 

against Julius Cajsar, 48 ; and the Parthians 

against Marc Antony 36 

Antony subdues, and sends him loaded with silver 

chains to Egypt . 34 

Artaxias, his son, made king by the Parthians . 33 
Deposed by the Romans, who enthrone Tigranes II. 20 
Armenia subjected to Parthia . . . . a.d. 15 
Reconquered by Germanicus, grandson of Augustus 18 
After many changes Tiridates is made king by the 

Romans 58 

The Parthian conquerors of Armenia are expelled 

by Trajan .115 

Severus makes Volagarses king of part of Armenia . 199 
Christianity introduced, between . . . a.d. 100-300 
Armenia added to the Persian empire . . . 232 
Tiridates obtains the throne through Diocletian, 

286 ; is expelled by Narses, 294 ; restored by 

Galerius 298 

On his death, Armenia becomes subject to Persia, 

342 ; is made neutral by Rome and Persia, 384 ; 

who divide it by treaty .... 443 

Armenia conquered and reconquered by the Greek 

and Persian sovereigns 577-68 

And by the Greek emperors and Mahommeclans 

693-1065 
The Armenian church reconciled to Rome, about . 1330 
Leon VI. , last king of Armenia, taken prisoner by 

the Saracens, 1375 ; released : he dies at Paris . 139 
Overrun by the Mongols, 1215 ; by Timour, 1383 ; 

by the Turks, 1516; by the Persians, 1534; by the 

Turks ... . • 



ARMENIAN ERA. 



56 



ARMY. 



Shah Abbas, of Persia, surrenders Armenia to the 
Turks, but transports 22,000 Armenian families 

' into his own states a.d. 1604 

Armenia overrun by the Russians .... 1828 

Surrender of Erzeroum . . . .9 July, 1829 

(See Syria and Russo-Turkish Wars I. and II.) 

By the Berlin treaty, Kars, Ardahan, and Batoum 
were ceded to Russia, with other changes July, 1878 

The Turkish government charged with oppression 
and cruelty, Aug. ; doubted by some . Sept. 1889 

Moussa Bey, a Kurdish chief, tried at Constanti- 
nople for alleged cruelties, 23 Nov. ; acquitted (a 
new trial refused), 2 Dec. et seq. 1889 ; eventually 
exiled to Medina .... Sept. Oct. 1890 

Riotous conflicts between Armenians and Mussul- 
mans at Erzeroum, 9 persons killed, reported 

27 June, „ 

The Armenians in Constantinople attack their 
patriarch, Aschikian, in a church during service, 
riot suppressed by the military with loss of life, 
27 July ; many arrested Aug., and punished, 
Oct. ; the patriarch resigns, 31 July ; the chief 
rioter sentenced to death, others to imprisonment 

16 Aug. ,, 

The sultan agrees to many reforms in Armenia, 
reported 20 Aug. „ 

Armed band of Armenians on the Turco-Russian 
frontier dispersed by the Turks and Russians, 
reported 2 Nov. ,, 

Friendly negotiations with the Porte ; loyal address 
to the sultan, and gracious reply ; the patriarch 
withdraws his resignation ... 28 Dec. ,, 

He is received by the sultan, who announces a 
general -amnesty, with great release of prisoners 

17 Jan. et seq. 1891 

The central committee for reforms, issue a procla- 
mation against the Turkish government, about 

25 Jan. ,, 

ARMENIAN ERA, commenced on 9 July, 
552 ; the ecclesiastical year on 1 1 Aug. To reduce 
this last to our time, add 551 years and 221 days; 
and in leap years subtract one day from 1 March to 
10 Aug. The Armenians used the old Julian style 
and months in their correspondence with Euro- 
peans. 

ARMILLARY SPHERE, an astronomical 
instrument composed of brass circles disposed in 
such a manner that the greater and lesser circles of 
the sphere may be seen in their natural position and 
motion. It is said to have been invented by Era- 
tosthenes, about 255 b c. ; and was employed by 
Tj'cho Brahe and others. 

ARMINIANS, or Remonstrants, derive 

their former name from James Arminius (or Har- 
mensen), a Protestant divine of Leyden, Holland 
(died 19 Oct. 1609) ; the latter name from his fol- 
lowers having presented a Remonstrance to the 
states-general in 1610. They separated from the 
Calvinists, objecting to their views respecting pre- 
destination, &c. Their doctrines were condemned 
in 1619, at the synod of Dort {which see); they were 
exiled till 1625. The Calvinists were sometimes 
styled Gomansts, from Gomar, the chief oppo- 
nent to Arminius. James I. and Charles I. favoured 
the Arminian doctrine. 

ARMORIAL BEARINGS became here- 
ditary in families at the close of the 12th century. 
They were employed by the crusaders, 1100. The 
lines to denote colours in arms, by their direction or 
intersection, were invented by Columbiere in 1639. 
The armorial bearings of the English sovereigns are 
given under the article England. Armorial bearings 
were taxed in 1798, and again in 1808. The tax 
produced 64,515/. in the year ending 31 March, 
1868 ; 1872, 64,228/. ; 1876, 83,527/. ; 1878, 83,104/. ; 
1879, 81,854/. ; l88l > 79>oi4/. ; 1882, 79,196/. ; 1884, 
78,766/. The tax is now 2/. 2s. ; if not on carriages, 
it is ll. is. annually (1889). Sir Bernard Burke's 



" General Armory," 1883, contains the arms of 
above 66,000 British families, &c. 

ARMORICA, now Britanny, N. France, was 
conquered by Julius Caesar, 56 B.C. Many Gauls 
are said to have retired there and preserved the 
Celtic tongue, a.d. 584. A colony of West Britons 
settled in Armorica in the latter part of the 4th 
century, hence the modern name Britanny, which 
see. 

ARMOUR. That of Goliath is described (about 
1063 B.C.) i Sam. xvii. 5. Skins and padded hides 
were early used, and brass and iron armour, in 
plates or scales, followed. The body armour of the 
Uiitons was skins of wild beasts, exchanged, after 
the Roman conquest, for the well-tanned leathern 
cuirass. Tacitus. Hengist is said to have had 
scale armour, a.d. 449. 

The Norman armour formed breeches and jacket 1066 
The hauberk had its hood of the same piece . . 1100 
John wore a surtout over a hauberk of rings set 
edgeways . . . . . . . . 1199 

Ihe heavy cavalry covered with a coat of mail. 

Some horsemen had vizors and skull-caps, about . 1216 
Armour exceedingly splendid, about . . . . 1350 

Black armour, used not only for battle, but for 

mourning, Henry V 1413 

Armour of Henry VII. consisted of a cuirass of 

steel, in the form of a pair of stays, about . . 1500 
Armour ceased to reach below the knees, Charles I. 1625 
In the reign of Charles II. officers wore no other 
armour than a large gorget, which is commemo- 
rated in the diminutive ornament known at the 
present day. Meyrick. 

ARMOUR PLATES, see Iron, and IHavy of 
England. 

ARMS. The club was the first offensive wea- 
pon ; then followed the mace, battle-axe, pike, 
spear, javelin, sword and dagger, bows and arrows. 
Pliny ascribes the invention of the sling to the 
Phoenicians; see Cannon, Firearms, Swords, 
Bayonets, and other articles on the various 
weapons throughout the volume. 
Committee to enquire into the arms (swords and 
bayonets) supplied by the War Office to the 
Admiralty since 1871 appointed (Sir Hussey 
Vivian chairman) . . . .14 Peb. et seq. 1887 
Report these weapons to be badly designed and 
manufactured and untrustworthy . 29 March, ,, 

ARMS, see Armorial bearings, and Heraldry. 

ARMS BILLS, for the repression of crime and 
insurrection in Ireland, were passed 1807, 18 10, 
1823, 1829, and 15 Oct. 1831. The guns registered 
under the last act at the close of the first year 
scarcely amounted to 3000, and the number was 
equally small of all other kinds of arms. The new 
Arms bill, passed 22 Aug. 1843, has been since re- 
newed, but was not rigidly enforced till 1867. An- 
other Arms bill brought into the Commons, " An 
act to amend the law relating to the carrying and 
possession of arms, and for the preservation of public 
peace in Ireland," to last till 1 June, 1886; Royal 
Assent, 21 March, 1881. Act renewed till 31 Dec. 
1887, 4 June, 1886. See Ireland. 

ARMSTRONG GUN, see under Cannon. 

ARMY. Minus and Semiramis had armies 
amounting to nearly two millions of fighting men. 
Diodorus. The first guards and regular troops as a 
standing army were formed by Saul, 1093 B.C. 
I Sam. 13, 2. The army of Xerxes invading Greece 
is said to have been 1,700,000 foot and 80,000 horse : 
480 B.C. One of the first standing armies of which 
we have any account, is that of Philip of Macedon. 
The army which Darius opposed to Alexander the 
Great (332 B.C.) is set down as between 750,000 and 



ARMY. 



57 



ARMY. 



a million. The first standing army which existed 
as such, in modern times, was maintained in France 
by Charles VII. in 1445. The chief European 
nations have had in their service the following 
armies: Spain, 150,000 men; Great Britain, 3 10, 000; 
Prussia, 350,000 ; Turkey, 450,000; Austria, 500,000 ; 
Russia, 560,000 ; and France, 1,000,000. Estimated 
number in Europe in 1863, 6,000,000 soldiers, 
1,000,000 horses, 11,000 guns. The European 
powers are still increasing their armies. Estimated 
to consist of 12,000,000 men in Nov. 1888. 

-January, 1888 — Germany .... 2,650,000 

,, ,, France . . . . . 3,750,000 

,, ,, Russia ..... 5,210,000 

,, ,, Great Britain . . . . 680,374 

ARMY, BRITISH, mainly arose in the reign of 
Charles II. in 1661, in consequence of the extinction 
of feudal tenures. The first five regiments of 
British infantry were established between 1633 and 
1680. James II. established several regiments of 
dragoon guards (1685-8). In 1685 the army con- 
sisted of 7000 foot and 1700 cavalry. The Militia 
then consisted of about 130,000 men, horse and 
foot. Standing armies were introduced by Charles I. 
in 1638; they were declared illegal in England, 
31 Car. II. 1679 ; but one was then gradually 
forming, which was maintained by William III. 
1689, when the Mutiny Act was passed. Grose's 
"History of the British Army" was published in 
1801. See Regiments, Recruiting, Militia, and 
Volunteers. 

BRITISH ARMY. 

Men. Sum voted. 
1780, Time of war : troops of the 

line ..... 110,000 £7,847,000 

1800, War . . . . . 168,082 17,973,000 
1810, War: army including foreign 

troops .... 300,000 26,748,000 
1815, Last year of the war . . 300,000 39,150,000 
1820, Time of peace ; war incum- 
brances .... 88,100 18,253,000 

1830, Peace 89,300 6,991,000 

1840, Peace 93,471 6,890,267 

1850, Peace 99,118 6,763,488 

1852, Peace (except Kaffir war) . 101,937 7,018,104 

1854, War with Russia . . . 112,977 7,387,000 

Sum voted 

Total In India* (including 

men. men. ordnance, 

&c.) 

1855-6, t War with Russia. 223,224 29,629 £32,006,603 

1856-57, War with Persia. 265,466 26,363 20,811,242 

857-58, Indian Mutiny . 175,858 30,197 14, 40s, 850 

858-59 222,874 9 2 >739 13,294,814 

859-60, Chinese War . 229,551 91,897 14,915,243 

860-61 . . ... 228,854 71,528 18,013,896 

861-62 212,773 60,041 16,854,299 

862-63 228,973 83,523 16,264,790 

863-64 ..... 220,918 72,676 14,723,976 

864-65 219,450 72,684 14,382,672 

865-66 ... . . 213,521 71,044 14,569,279 

866-67 203,404 65,827 14,675,540 

867-68, Abyssinian War . 204,455 65,292 15,418,582 

868-69 ... ■ • 203,157 64,466 15,000,000 

869-70 i^WS 6 3,9°7 13,565,400 

870-71, Franco - German 

War . . . 178,000 62,963 13,430,400 

871-72 197,911 62,864 15,521,580 

872-73 .... . 196,606 62,957 14,729,700 

873-74 187,928 62,924 14,426,990 

874-75 224,835 62,840 14,591,434 

875-76 225,931 62,850 

876-77 132,884 62,849 15,281,600 

877-78 133,720 62,652 15,919,492 

879-80 135,^25 — 13,019,900 

"~ '-81 131,859 62,588 12,797,900 

Total home and colonial establishments, 632,649 ; cost, 
16,641,300^. 

* Supported by the Indian government. 
f Ending March 31. 



Expended by army purchase commission :— 

1871-2 ....... £340,000 

1872-3 ....... 683,500 

1873-4 7!3>974 

1874-5 579,n5 

Regular troops for home service :— 

1853 1875 1888 

Cavalry .... 7,606 12,945 12,633 
Artillery . ... 8,710 18,853 18,089 
Engineers . . . 1,039 4>°74 5, 018 

Infantry . . . . 53,651 63,371 71,656 

71,006 99,243 i°7)39°" 
Average strength of the army. ' Cost. 

1879 . . . 191,290 *£i6,945,i53 

1880 . . . iSS,9o6 15,025,145 

1881 . . . 188,798 14,680,762 

1882 . . . 189,229 15,738,002 

1883 . . . 181,971 15,133,451 

1884 . . . 183,004 16,095,326 

1885 . . . 198,064 18,600,338 

1886 . . . 203,805 17,027,084 

1887 . . . 209,574 18,429,272 

1888 . . . 211,105 18,167,196 
1888-9 • ■ 149,667 16,700,300 
1889-90 . . . 1^2,282 17,384,732 
1890-1 . . 1,3.483 17,897,900 
1891-2 . . . 153, 6j6 17,545,300 
1892-3 . . 154,073 17,631,200 

Volunteers in Great Britain, in 1862, 367,921; in 1872, 
172,891 ; in 1875, 181,080; in 1878, 193,026, (with staff) 
245,648 ; 1S79, 206,265 ; 1880, 206,537 ; 1881, 208,308 ; 
1882, 207,336; 1883, 206,365; 1884, 215,015; 1885, 
224,012; 1886,226,752; 1887, 228,038; 1890,221,048. 

Militia, 1872, 139,018 ; 1879, 127,749 ; 1880, 130,331 ; 
i88i,t 99,002 ; 1882, t 92,094 ; 1883, 116,642 ; 1884, 
113,787; 1885, 119,356; 1886,122,428; 1887,121,411; 
1890, 113,163. 

Ye .manry, 1872, 15,455; 1879, 12,010; 1880, 11,598; 
1881, 10,617; 1882, 11,173; 1883, 11,204; l8 84, 11,488; 
1885, 11,590; 1886, 11,499; I 887, 11,267: 1890, 10,697. 

Recruits of all classes in 1871, 23,198. See Recruiting. 

Army Reserves, 1 Jan. 1869, 17,948; 1874,31,046; 1879, 
37,512 ; 1881, 41,796; 18824 34,636; 1883,1 26,203 ; 1885, 
47,024 ; 1887, 52,553 ; 1888, 55,200 ; 1892, 68,421. 

The Mutiny Act passed annually since 1689 ; al- 
terations made in this act and in the Articles of 
War. (See below, 1879.) • - • • • 1855 

Army Service Acts : 12 &, 13 Vict. c. 37 (21 June, 
1847), and 18 Vict. c. 4 . . . .27 Feb. 1855 

Officers in the service of the East India Company 
to have the same rank and precedence as those in 
the regular army 25 April ,, 

The office of Master-General of the Ordnance abol- 
ished, and the civil administration of the Army 
and Ordnance vested in the hands of lord 
Panmure, the Minister of War . . 25 May, ,, 

Examination of staff officers previous to their ap- 
pointment ordered .... 9 April, 1857 

The army largely recruited for Indian war . . 1857-8 

The East India Company's army was transferred to 
the Queen 1859 

Much dissatisfaction arose is that army in conse- 
quence of no bounty being g . anted ; and threaten- 
ings of mutiny appeared, which subsided after an 
arrangement was made granting discharge to those 
who desired it ,, 

Examination of candidates for the Military Aca- 
demy, previously confined to pupils from Sand- 
hurst, was thrown open, 1855 ; the principle of 
this measure was affirmed by the house of com- 
mons by vote 26 April, 1858 

By 22 & 23 Vict. c. 42, provision made for a reserve 
force, not to exceed 20,000 men, who had been in 
her majesty's service 1859 

Flogging virtually abolished in the army : First 
class soldiers to be degraded to second class be- 
fore being liable to it . . . -9 Nov. ,, 

A report of a commission in 1858 causes great sani- 
tary improvements in the army, barracks, &c, 
under direction of Mr. Sidney Herbert . . 1859-60 

* Extra on acconit of Russo-Turkish war. 

+ Exclusive of Irish. 

t Exclusive of aimy pensioners. 



AEMY. 



A commission recommend the establishment of a 
recruiting department, increase of pensions, &c. 

31 Oct. 1866 
Flogging restricted to insubordination (with vio- 
lence) and indecency . . . March (?) 1867 
New Army Enlistment Act (limiting period of 

enlistment to 12 years, &c.) passed . 20 June, „ 
Increased pay to all soldiers (except to life-guards) 

from 1 April, 1867 ; by warrant, dated . 29 June, „ 
Act to form a reserve of men in the militia to join 

the army in the event of war, passed . 20 Aug. „ 
" War Department Stores " Act passed . 20 Aug. „ 
Sir Henry Storks appointed Controller-in-Chief 

1 Jan. 1868 
Hogging abolished in time of peace, by an amend- 
ment in the Mutiny Act .... Mar. ,, 
Edward Cardwell, secretary for war . . 9 Dec. „ 
Royal commission on military education appointed, 
23 June, 1868 ; report with recommendations 

issued about . Oct. 1869 

Army Service Corps, to be composed of volunteers 
commanded by regular officers, established by 

royal warrant 12 Nov. „ 

Royal commission on the purchase system, &c, 
appointed 5 April ; report recognises the " over 
regulation payments " hitherto ignored . Aug. 1870 
Regulations under the new " Army Enlistment 

Act "issued 12 Aug. ,, 

2,ooo,ooo£. voted to increase the army by 20,000 

men 1 Aug. „ 

Deaths in the army reduced from 17 per 1000 to 9^, 
in consequence of sanitary improvements, &c, 
(out of 175,460 men, 33,797 under 20, 18,614 under 

19) ; Lord Norflibrook June, 1871 

Army Regulation bill (the abolition of the purchase 
system, <fcc\) passed in the commons, 289-231, 
early 4 July ; introduced in the lords, 13 July ; 
able speech of the duke of Cambridge in its 
favour, 14 July ; rejected (155-130), 2 a.m., 18 July, ,, 
Purchase system abolished by royal warrant (in 
pursuance of acts 5 & 6 Edw. VI. c. 16, and 49 
Geo. III. c. 126) on and after 1 Nov. 1871. 

20 July, ,, 
Regulation of the Forces Act passed . . 17 Aug. „ 
Autumn Campaign in Hampshire; about 40,000 
men engaged ; the duke of Cambridge and others 
umpires ; the prince of Wales and prince Arthur 
engaged ; foreign officers present. 
Manoeuvres according to the Prussian system ; 

field days, &c 8-12 Sept. ,, 

Invading force of 24,000, under Staveley and Carey; 
marching towards London, opposed by sir Hope 

Grant 13 Sept. ,, 

Series of battles near the Hog's Back, Aldershot ; 

Grant declared victor . . . . 16-19 Sept. » 
Battle of Fox's-hill ; Carey defeats Staveley, 21 Sept. „ 
[Reported results : artillery magnificent ; cavalry 
superb ; infantry very good ; transport insuffi- 
cient ; greater distribution of responsibility 
among officers needed.] 
Sham fight ; Chatham stormed . . .24 Oct. „ 
Warrant published, 30 Oct. , inaugurating the new 
system of promotion of officers (partly by senior- 
ity and partly by select ioi.) on . . . 1 Nov. ,, 
New organisation of the army proposed by Mr. 
Cardwell : brigade districts, England, 49 ; Scot- 
land, 8 ; Ireland 8 = 65 . . . . Feb. 1S72 
The duke of Cambridge's favourable report was 

laid before parliament early in . . March, „ 
Army estimates passed in commons (234-63) 12 Mar. ,, 
Review of 14,000 men by the queen at Aldershot, 

5 July. 11 
Autumn Mancaivresm Wiltshire : 50,000 men com- 
manded by sir John Mitchell supposed to land at 
Weymouth, and march towards London, opposed 
by sir R. Walpole ; campaign begins ; skirmishes 

near Blandford 2t Aug. ., 

Sir A. Horsford repulses gen. Brownrigg at Winch- 

ampton 27 Aug. ,, 

Prince of Wales arrives at Salisbury . . 3 Sept. „ 
Battle of Wishford, 7 Sept. ; battle of the Avon, 10 

Sept. ; grand march past near Beacon Hill 12 Sept. „ 
The new drill and tactics for the army were pub- 
lished 23 Nov. „ 

Mr. Cardwell's estimates ; proposes increasing pay 
of soldiers ; and establishment of a chief of the 
staff 24 Feb. 1873 



58 AEMY. 

The Military Intelligence Department established 

1 April, 1873 
Review of troops at Windsor, before the Shah, 

24 June, „ 
Autumn Manoeuvres at Dartmoor, Cannock Chase, 

and at the Curragh, Dublin . . July, Aug. „ 
Royal Commission on compensation to officers for 

changes ; appointed . . . .11 Oct. ,, 
Report issued (admits cause for compensation ; and 
considers that officers will be satisfied with what- 
ever the nation chooses to decide for them) June, 1874 
Change of ministry ; Mr. Gathorne Hardy (after- 
wards Lord Cranbrook), secretary for war 21 Feb. „ 
The victorious troops from Ashantee reviewed by 

the queen 30 March, ,, 

Summer Manoeuvres at Aldershot . . June, ,, 
New regulations respecting first applications for 

commissions ; issued Sept. „ 

Royal commission on more rapid promotion ; ga- 
zetted 10 Nov. „ 

Manoeuvres at Aldershot .... July, 1875 
Royal warrant respecting regimental exchanges, 

dated 6 Aug. ; issued .... 9 Aug. ,, 
Scheme completed for - mobilisation of the army, 

announced . . - . . . Dee. „ 

"Control" Department divided into "commissariat 
and transport departments," and " ordnance 
store departments " .... 11 Dec. ,, 
Mobilisation of the army and the reserve ; experi- 
ment in Surrey reported successful . . July, 1876 
New cavalry regulations issued . . Aug. „ 

Report of commission on promotion issued ; recom- 
mends compulsory retirement in some cases, and 

other changes Aug. „ 

New organisation of the artillery proposed about 

26 Feb. 1877 
Manoeuvres on a small scale . - . . . July, ,, 
Review by the queen at Windsor . . 10 July, ,, 
Army promotion and retiring scheme : royal war- 
rant published 28 July, „ 

New army medical warrant issued . . 1 Sept. ,, 
About 29,000 recruits in 1877 ; announced Mar. 187S 
Col. F. A. Stanley, war secretary . . 2 April, ,, 
Reserves (about 35,000) called out, 2 April; com- 
mended ; disbanded 31 July „ 

The report of the commission on the mutiny acts 
recommends consolidation of the mutiny acts and 
the articles of war, and simplification of martial 

law, &c July, ,, 

Warrant establishing new warrant officers ("con- 
ductors ") a grade between commissioned and non- 
commissioned. 24 Jan. 1879 

Army Discipline and Regulation Acts, introduced 

27 Feb. ; passed 24 July, ,, 

[They relate to discipline, enlistment, billeting, 

court-martials, military law, &c] 
Army Medical Department ; changes made by a 

new warrant issued 2 Dec. 1S79 ; amended Jan. 1880 
Mr. Hugh E. Childers, war secretary, 28 April, ,, 

New system of Military Examination for officers ; 

introduced Oct. „ 

Alterations in officers' dress, by orders . Nov. ,, 
System of compulsory retirement of officers came 
into operation ...... 1 Jan. 1881 

Great army reform measures laid before the Com- 
mons by Mr. Childers ... 3 March, ,, 
Alterations made in the uniform and organisation 
of the infantry .... April et seq. ,, 

New organization comes into effect . . 1 July, „ 
Regulation of the Forces and the Army Discipline 
Act (amending the Acts of 1879) passed 27 Aug. „ 
See Flogging. 
Army Act amended .... 28 April, 1882 

Reserves called out (for Egypt) . . 25 July, „ 
Success of the changes in the army system demon- 
strated by the Egyptian campaign ; within 7 
weeks a large well appointed army was conveyed 
3000 miles under most unfavourable conditions 
and achieved the object of the expedition 

July — Sept. „ 
Review of the return troops and Indian contingent 

by the queen in St. James's Park . . 18 Nov. ,, 
Queen's thanks published 21 Nov. ; she distributes 

medals, &c, at Windsor . . .21 Nov. ,, 
Formation of" an Army Telegraph Corps ordered 

Feb. 1883 



AEMY. 



59 



AEREST. 



Army Medical Service: system, &c, censured by 
report of lord Morley's committee . . May, 1883 

Great increase of recruits ; above 33,000 . . in 1883 

Report of committee on colour of uniform recom- 
mending change of red to grey, July, 1882 : issued 
29 March ,, 

Effective strength of the army reported 1 Dec. 1884, 
188,216; about 35,000 added . . . April, 1885 

Order prohibiting officers and soldiers from publish- 
ing military information in the press, &c. 1 April, 1886 

Military training of boys between 14 and 17; cir- 
cular issued sanctioning formation of battalions, 
&c June, „ 

Committee to inquire into the organization and 
administration of the manufacturing departments 
of the army appointed ; announced . 23 June, ,, 

Suspension of compulsory retirement of officers 

Aug. ,, 

A force of all arms fully equipped as for war marches 
at Aldershot 17 Aug. ,, 

Royal ordnance commission on military stores ap- 
pointed (sir J. F. Stephen, sir A. Alison, Dr. 
Percy and others) about 16 Sept. ; first sat, 16 
Nov. 1886 ; they report the system to be bad and 
inefficient ; results bad, guns and weapons faulty ; 
charge of corruption not proved ; the commis- 
sioners recommend revival of the office of Master 
of Ordnance with council, &c. May, 1887. 
Changes in discipline made ; courts-martial to be 
much discontinued ; summary powers given to 
officers 1 Jan. 1887. 

Including the yeomanry, the general total of the 
army, first class army reserve, and auxiliary 
forces, 577,740 in 1886; 595,159 . . .in 1887 

Reorganization of the War Office, civil and military, 
announced in the Commons 8 Sept. 1887 ; new 
arrangement announced .... Feb. 1888 

Royal commission on Naval and Military Adminis- 
tration (which see) appointed . . 7 June, ,, 

Diminution of severity leads to less crime and 
irregularities; reported .... Oct. ,, 

New warrant for the removal of undesirable officers 

3 Jan. 1889 
[Alterations made after complaints, Jan. 1890] 

New arrangements of the military district proposed 
to be effected in April Jan. ,, 

Increased vote 5,004,500?. for 152,282 men 12 March, ,, 

Total estimate for 1889-90 17,335, 900L . March, ,, 

First report, containing various recommendations 
with evidence, issued ... 20 March, 1890 

Military exhibition (which see) opened . 7 May; ,, 

The Jubilee ottering of the army presented to the 
queen at Buckingham palace by the duke of 
Cambridge (see Jubilee) ... 10 May, ,, 

Insubordination of some of the 2nd Battalion 
Grenadier Guards at Wellington barracks, S.W., 
7 July ; court martial on 6 of the oldest privates ; 
sentenced to imprisonment with hard labour (1 
man to 2 years and dismissal with ignominy ; 3 
men, 2 years; 2 men, 18 months), 18-21 July 
[released, 24 Nov.]. Colonel Maitland superseded. 
The battalion, under col. Eaton, sent to Bermuda 

23 July >, 
[Highly commended there, return to England 28 
July, 1891.] 

Viscount Wolseley, adjutant general (1882, et seq.), 
succeeded by sir Redvers Buller . . 1 Oct. ,, 

The duke of Connaught appointed commander of 
the southern military district . . Aug. ,, 

Army manoeuvres near Petersfiekl, Hants 10 Sept. 1891 

Report of lord Wantage's committee on service in 
the army (appointed April, 1891), issued Feb., 
evidence April, much discussed . . May, 1892 
See Barracks. 

ARMY (ANNUAL) ACT, see Mutiny Act. 

ARMY of Occupation. By treaty, signed 

20 Nov. 1815, the allied powers established the 
boundaries of France, and stipulated for the occu- 
pation of certain fortresses by foreign troops for 
three years. — The departure of the German army of 
occupation began about 20 Sept. 187 1 ; completed 
16 Sept. 1873. 



ARNOLDISTS, followers of Arnold of Brescia, 
who protested against the corruptions of the Papacy, 
and who was burnt alive by pope Adrian IV. 1 155. 

AROGEE, Abyssinia. Here sir Robert (after- 
wards lord) Napier defeated the Abyssinians, who 
lost about 700 killed and wounded, 10 April, 1868. 
The British had 20 wounded. 

AROMATICS. Acron of Agrigentum is said 
to have been the first who caused great fires to be 
made, and aromatics to be thrown into them, to 
purify the air, by which means he put a stop to the 
plague at Athens, 429 B.C. 

ARPAD DYNASTY, see Hungary. 

ARPINUM (now Arpino, S. Italy), the birth- 
place of Cicero, 3 Jan. 106 B.C. ; many remains still 
bear his name. 

ARQUEBUS, see Fire Arms. 

ARQUES (N. France). Near here the league 
army, commanded by the due de Mayenne, was de- 
feated by Henry IV. 21 Sept. 1589. 

ARRACAN, a province of N.E. India. Arracan, 
the capital, captured by the Burmese, 1783, was 
taken from them by general Morrison, 1 April, 1825, 
The subjugation of the province followed, 1826. 

ARRAIGNMENT consists in reading the 
indictment by the officer of the court, and calling 
upon the prisoner to say whether he is guilty or not 
guilty. Formerly, persons who refused to plead in 
cases of felony were pressed to death by weights 
placed upon the breast. A person standing mute 
was declared convicted by an act passed 1772 ; but 
in 1827, the court was directed to enter a plea of 
" not guilty" in such cases ; see Mute. 

ARRAN MURDER, see Trials, Nov. 1889. 

ARRAS (N. E. France), the country of the 
ancient Atrebates, the seat of a bishop since 390. 
Here a treaty was concluded between the king of 
France and duke of Burgundy, when the latter 
abandoned his alliance with England, 21 Sept. 1435- 
Another treaty was concluded by Maximilian of 
Austria with Louis XI. of France, whereby Bur- 
gundy and Artois were given to the dauphin as a 
marriage portion, 23 Dec. 1482. Velly. Arras was 
held by the Austrians from 1493 till 1640, when it 
was taken by Louis XIII. 

ARRAY. On 23 Dec. 1324, Edward II. directed 
the bishop of Durham to make " arraier " his men 
of arms, horse and foot, and cause them to proceed 
to Portsmouth ; thence to proceed to the war in 
Gascony. Rymer's Feeder a. Hallam says that 
this was the earliest commission of array that he 
could find, and that the latest was dated 1557. The 
attempt of Charles I. to revive commissions of array 
in 1642, founded on a statute of Henry IV., was 
strenuously opposed as illegal. 

ARREARS OF RENT ACT, Ireland, May, 
1882 ; 45 & 46 Vict. c. 47, passed 18 Aug. 1882. 

ARREST FOR DEBT. The persons of peers, 
members of parliament, &c, are protected from 
arrest ; see Ambassadors. Debt, Ferrars' Arrest. 

Clergyman performing divine service privileged, 50 
Edw. III. 1375 

Seamen privileged from debts under 20L, by 30 
Geo. Ill 1756 

Barristers are privileged from arrest while going to, 
attending upon, and returning from court, on the 
business of their clients. 

By stat. 29 Car. II. no arrest can be made, nor 
process served; upon a Sunday ; this law was ex- 
tended by Will. III. 



ARRETIUM. 



60 



AETICLES. 



Vexatious arrests prevented by act, May, 1733. 
Prohibited for less than 10Z. on process, 1779 ; and 
for less than 20I. July, 1827 

Arrests for less than zol. were prohibited on mesne 
process in Ireland, in June 1829 

Statute abolishing arrest for debt on mesne process, 
except in cases wherein there is ground to show 
that the defendant designs to leave the country, 
2 Vict Aug. 1838 

By 7 & 8 Vict. c. 96, the power of imprisonment 
even ujion final process, that is judgment debts, 
is abolished if the sum does not exceed ■zol. ex- 
clusive of costs, 1844 ; and by 9 & 10 Vict. c. 95, 
the judge has no power to punish, except in case 
of fraud or contempt of court .... 1846 
' By the Absconding Debtors' Arrest Act, absconding 
debtors owing 20I. and upwards are liable to 
arrest 1851 

Arrest for debt practically abolished, with certain 
exceptions, by 32 & 33 Vict. c. 62 . . . . 1869 
(See DM.) 

ARRETIUM, see Arezzo. 

ARSACIDJE, a Parthian dynasty, began with 
Arsaces about 250 B.C., and ended with Artabanus, 
killed in battle with Artaxerxes, the founder of the 
Sassanidse, a.d. 226. 

ARSENAL, a great military or naval reposi- 
tory ; see Woolwich. 

ARSENIANS, partisans of Arsenius, patriarch 
of Constantinople, who excommunicated the emperor 
Michael Palaiologus for blinding his colleague the 
young John Lascaris, 1261, and was deposed 1264. 

ARSENIC, a steel-gray coloured brittle mine- 
ral, extremely poisonous, known in early times. 
Brandt, in 1733, made the first accurate experiments 
on its chemical nature. The heinous crimes com- 
niitted by its means induced the legislature to enact 
regulations for its sale, 1851. In 1858 Dr. A. S. 
Taylor asserted that green paper-hangings and 
dresses prepared from arsenic are injurious to health. 

ARSON, punished with death by the Saxons, 
still remained a capital crime on the consolidation 
of the laws in 1827 and 1837. By the act of 1861 it 
is punishable by penal servitude for life and minor 
degrees of imprisonment. William Anthony was 
convicted of arson, having set manj' houses on fire, 
for the sake of obtaining the reward for giving 
alarm, 13 Dee. 1871. There were many incendiary 
fires in Kent, Suffolk, and other counties in 1830. 
Convicted of arson in England and Wales in 1887-8, 

315; 1888-9, 4° 2 - 
Win. Nash was convicted of murder for setting fire 
to his house at Notting-hill, and causing six 
deaths, 30 May ; sentenced to death (but reprieved) 

3, 4 Aug. 1881 
Leon Seme sentenced to twenty years' penal servi- 
tude for arson, 274 Strand (property over-insured ; 
his two boys burnt) .... 21 Jan. 1888 
Conspiracy to defraud insurance companies by 
arson : George Cullmer sentenced to 12 years, 
— Trew and Mrs. Wheeler to 5 years' penal 

servitude 16 Feb. 1891 

William Parsons sentenced to 20 years' penal servi- 
tude for arson near Dorchester . . 18 Feb. „ 
(See Fires, 1887.) 

ARSOUF (Syria). At a battle here Richard I. 
of England, commanding the Christian forces, re- 
duced to 30,000, defeated Saladin's army of 300,000 
Saracens and other infidels, on 6 Sept. 1191. Ascalon 
surrendered, and Bichard marched towards Jeru- 
salem, 1 192. 

ART ACT, facilitating the public exhibition of 
works of art (lent to the president of the privy 
council), passed April, 1866. See Arts, Exhibitions, 
and National Portrait Gallery. 

ARTEMIS, a Greek goddess; called by the 
Romans, Diana, which see. 



ARTEMISIUM, a promontory in Eubcea, 
near which indecisive conflicts took place between 
the Greek and Persian fleets for three days ; 480 
B.C. The former retired on hearing of the battle of 
Thermopylae. 

ARTESIAN WELLS (from Artesia, now 
Artois, in France, where they frequently occur) are 
formed by boring through the upper soil to strata 
containing water which has percolated from a 
higher level, and which rises to that level through 
the boring tube. The fountains in Trafalgar-square 
and government offices near have been supplied 
since 1844 by two of these wells (393 feet deep). 
At Paris the Grenelle well (1798 feet deep), was 
completed in 1841, after eight years of exertion, by 
M. Mulot at an expense of about 12,000^., and the 
well at Passy, which it is said will supply sufficient 
water for nearly 500,000 persons, was begun in 1855, 
and completed in i860 by M. Kind. Messrs. Amos 
and Easton completed an Artesian well for the 
Horticultural Society's garden in 1862, which 
yielded 880,000 gallons of water, at the temperature 
of 81° Fahr., in twenty-four hours. The well at 
Kissingen was completed in 1850. Artesian wells 
are now common. 

ARTHUR, king of Britain, said, mythically, to 
have lived a.d. 500 — 532. 

The events of his life and the conflicts of the 
knights of his round table, as sung by the Welsh 
poets Taliesin, Llywarch Hen, and Aneurin, 
were incorporated into his Latin history by 
Geoffrey of Monmouth, about 1115, who died 
1154 ; put into French verse by Geoffrey Gaisnar, 
and by Wace soon after ; and set forth in an 
English poem called Brut by Layamon, about . 1205 

Walter Map by incorporating in his version the 
legend of the Holy Graal, introduced the re- 
ligious element about 1171 

Sir Thomas Malory's " Morte d' Arthur," printed by 
Win. Caxton 1485 

Lord Lytton's " King Arthur," published . . 1848 

Tennyson's " Idylls of the King " . . . 1859-69 

ARTICHOKES are said to have been intro- 
duced from the East into Western Europe in the 
15th century, and to have reached England in the 
1 6th. 

ARTICLES of Religion. On 8 June, 1536, 

after much disputing, the English clergy in convo- 
cation published "Articles decreed by the king's 
highness" Henry VIII., who published in 1539 the 
" Statute of Six Articles," decreeing the acknow- 
ledgment of transubstantiation, communion in one 
kind, vows of chastity, private masses, celibacy of 
the clergy, and auricular confession. Offenders 
were punishable as heretics. In 1551 forty- two 
were prepared, and published in 1553. These were 
modified by the convocation, and reduced to Thirty- 
nine in Jan. 1563; and they received the royal 
authority and the authority of parliament in 1571. 
The Lambeth Articles, of a more Calvmistic charac- 
ter, proposed by archbishop Whitgift, were with- 
drawn in consequence of the displeasure of queen 
Elizabeth, 1595. One hundred and four Articles 
were drawn up for Ireland by archbishop Usher in 
1614 ; but in 1635 the Irish church adopted the 
English articles. See Perth Articles. The 39 
Articles were ordered to be removed from the 
studies at Oxford in Nov. 1871. 

ARTICLES OF "WAR were decreed in the time 
of Bichard I. and John. Those made by Bichard 
II. in 1385 appear in " Grose's Military Antiquities." 
The articles of war now in force are based upon an 
act, passed by- William III. in 1689, to regulate the 
army about to engage in his continental warfare. 



AETIFICEES. 



61 



AETOIS. 



AETIFICEES and Manufacturers. 

Their affairs were severely regulated by the statutes 
of labourers, 1349, 1350, 1360, 1549, and espe- 
cially of 1562. They were prohibited from leaving 
England, and those abroad were outlawed, if they 
did not return within six months after the notice 
given them. A fine of 100^., and imprisonment for 
three months, were the penalties for seducing them 
from these realms, by 9 Geo. II. (1736) and other 
statutes. The law was modified in 1824; see Arti- 
sans, Workmen, kc. 

AETILLEEY, a term including properly all 
missiles, now restricted to camion. A small piece 
was contrived by Schwartz, a German cordelier, 
soon after the invention of gunpowder, in 1330. 
Artillery was used, it is said, by the Moors of 
Algesiras, in Spain, in 1343 ; and according to some 
historians, at the battle of Crecy, in 1346, when 
Edward III. had four pieces of cannon. We had 
artillery at the siege of Calais, 1347. The Venetians 
employed artillery against the Genoese at sea, 1377. 
Voltaire. Said to have been cast, with mortars for 
bomb-shells, by Flemish artists, in Sussex, 1543. 
Rymer's Feedera. Made of brass 1635; improve- 
ments by Browne, 1728; see Gannon, Bombs, Car- 
ronades (under Carron), Mortars, Howitzers, 
Petard, Rockets, Fire-arms. The Royal Artillery- 
regiment was established in the reign of Anne. See 
Archery. 

Honourable Artillery Company of London. —The 
company incorporated by Henry VIII. for mili- 
tary exercise and better defence of the realm, 
with special privileges, 25 Aug. 1537. Obtained 
lease of the Tessell ground, Bishopsgate, from 
the last prior of the convent of St. Mary, Spittle, 
for thrice 99 5'ears — afterwards known as the old 
artillery ground, 3 Jan. 1540. Obtained lease of 
the "new" artillery ground, Finsbury, their 
present head-quarters, 1641. In the civil war, 
1642-8, the company, as a body, took no part, 
but most of the officers of the Trained Bands 
were also members of the company. James, duke 
of York, afterwards James II., appointed captain- 
general, 1660. The company ordered to take 
precedence next alter the regular forces, 1 June, 
1S83. The company numbered 1200 in 1803 
and 800 in 1861. Since 1842 the officers have 
been appointed by the queen. On the decease 
of the duke of Sussex in 1843, the prince consort 
became captain-general and colonel. He died 14 
Dec. 1861, and the prince of Wales was appointed 
his successor, 24 Aug. 1863. 350th anniversary 
celebrated by a grand review, n July, 1887. 
On the annual general court, officers and others 
declining to vote 500?. for the payment of Col. 
Borton the adjutant, and other expenses, the 
prince of Wales, the captain-general, resigns, and 
the company is disarmed by the War Office 

18 Dec. 1888 
The drill of the company resumed . . 17 Jan. 1889 
Reorganisation as an independent force of 2,000 
men by Royal warrant 12 March ; promulgated 

16 March, ,, 
New regulations issued by the War Office . 28 Jan. 1890 
The ancient and Hon. Artillery Company of 
Massachusetts, U.S.A., which was founded in 
1638 by Robert Keayne, who, with some other 
numbers of the London company, had emigrated 
to New England, still maintains friendly relations 
with the elder company. 
National Volunteer Artillery Association 
held its first annual meeting for shooting for prizes 
given by the queen and others : at Shoeburyness, 
July, 1865. Meetings wore held and prizes dis- 
tributed in July, 1866, and since, generally in 
August. 
Royal Artillery Institution, established at Wool- 
wich, proposed by lieuts. F. Earilley-Wilmot, and 
J. H. Lefroy, Feb. 1838 ; approved June, 1838 ; 
building completed Sept. 1840. Proceedings, vol. 
I., published 1858 



The alleged great deficiency of artillery in the British 
army, much discussed Sept. 1870 ; Artillery 
brought to the camp at Aldershot, reported to 
be very fine Sept. 1870 

New organisation of the artillery proposed about 

26 Feb. 1877 

AETISANS' AND LABOITEEES* 
DWELLINGS, Act "to provide better dwel- 
lings," passed 31 Jul}', 1868; another Act was 
passed 29 June, 1875, " to facilitate the improve- 
ment of the dwellings of the working classes in 
large towns ; " one for Scotland, 2 Aug. 1875 > other 
acts passed in 1879 ; amended 1882. 

Artisans', Labourers', and General Dwellings 
Company, registered 31 Dec. 1866 ; purchased 
estates in various parts of the country. The 
Shaftesbury estate (which see) was formally opened 

18 July, 1874 

The director (Dr. John Baxter Langley), secretary 
(Mr. Wm. Swindlehurst), were sentenced to be 
imprisoned 18 months ; and Mr. Edwd. Saffery, 
estate agent, 12 months, for conspiring to defraud 
the company of about 24,312?. ; trial 23-26 Oct. 1877 

Royal commission to enquire into the condition of 
the housing of the working classes, appointed, 
consisting of sir Charles Dilke, chairman, the 
prince of Wales, the marquis of Salisbury, arch- 
bishop Manning, sir R. A. Cross, Mr. Goschen, 
Mr. Samuel Morley, and ten others, gazetted 4 
March. First met 6 March, 1884. 1st and 2nd 
Reports attribute the evils chiefly to defective 
administration of laws, and recommend appoint- 
ment of competent inquirers, and due action of 
local authorities : — issued May, 1885. 

Sir C. Dilke lays foundation stone of a large block 
of buildings on charity land in Hoxton 1 July, 
1885 ; and the prince of Wales opened them 

1 Julv. 1886 

Housing of the Poor Act (introduced by the 
marquis of Salisbury) passed . . .. 14 Aug. 1885 

Two of seven blocks of buildings opened in Seward 
St., Goswell Rd. by the lord mayor about 10 June, 1S86 

Artisans' Institute, for promoting general and 
technical knowledge ; near St. Martin's Lane : 
established by aid of the duke of Bedford, lord 
Lyttelton, Mr. S. Morley, and others ; opened 

14 Oct. 1S74 

Sir Edward Cecil Guinness, afterwards Baron 
Iveagh, presents 250,000?. to trustees for the 
erection of dwellings for the labouring poor, 
200,000?. for London and 50,000?. for Dublin 
announced 20 Nov! 1889 

50,000?. to be lent to Dublin in addition by govern- 
ment. Earl Cadogan presents to the trust an 
acre of land in Chelsea, valued at about 40,000? , 
announced 2I March' 1800 

The important Housing of the Working Classes act 
passed ...... 18 Aug. „ 

AETISTS' FUND, was established in 1810 to 
provide allowances for sick, and annuities for in- 
capacitated, members. Artists' General Benevolent 
Institution, established 1814. Artists' Orphan 
Fund, 1 87 1. 

AETOIS (N. France), a province once held by 
the Atrebates, conquered by the Franks in the fifth 
century, given by Charles the Bold, with Flanders, 
as a dowry to his daughter Judith, on her murriao-e 
with Baldwin Bras-de-fer in 863. Louis XV. created 
his grandson, Charles Philippe, count of Artois, who 
became king as Charles X., 16 Sept. 1824. 
Re-united to the crown by Philip Augustus . . n8 
Formed into a county for his brother Robert, by 

Louis IX I2 ., 

Acquired, with Flanders, through marriage, by the 

duke of Burgundy 1184. 

Passed, by marriage of Mary of Burgundy to Maxi- 
milian, to the house of Austria .... i 477 

Restored to France ' jY% z 

Reverted to Austria " I4g , 

Conquered for France 1640 

Finally confirmed to it by the treaty of Ninieguen, 

10 Aug. 167S 



ARTS. 



G2 



ASCENSION DAY. 



1760 



1824 
1850 



ARTS. In the 8th century, the circle of sciences 
was composed of seven liberal arts — the trivium 
(grammar, rhetoric, logic), the quadrivium (arith- 
metic, music, geometry, and astronomy). Harris. 
The Royal Society of England {which see) obtained 
its charter, 2 April, 1663. 

The Society of Arts, to promote the polite arts, com- 
merce, manufactures, and mechanics, originated 
in the patriotic zeal of Mr. Wm. Shipley, and its 
first president, lord Folkestone . . March, 1754 

FINE ARTS. 

First public exhibition by the artists of the British 
metropolis took place at the rooms of the Society 
of Arts . . . - 

Repeated there for several years, till the Royal 
Academy was founded 

■Society of British Artists was instituted 21 May, 
1823 ; styled Royal by order . . 16 Aug. 

Their first exhibition opened 19 April 

Pre-Raphaelites (which see) became prominent about 

Society for the Encouragement of the Fine Arts 
founded in Dec 

Art Unions began in France and Germany early in 
the present century. 

The first in Britain was established at Edinburgh. 

The Art Union of London, 112, Strand, was 
founded (chiefly by the exertions of George God- 
win, the architect, long hon. sec.) 14 Feb. 1837 ; 
and chartered 1 Dec. 1846. The Art Union in- 
demnity act was passed 3 Aug. 1844. Subscrip- 
tion for 1876, 20,932?. ; 1877, 15,586?. (depression 
of trade); 1884, 9,634?. 

Burlington Fine Arts Club, for exhibition of works 
of art, &c, founded 

A memorial of a convention for promoting univer- 
sally reproductions of works of art for the bene- 
fit of museums of all countries, signed by the 
prince of Wales, and the crown princes of Prussia, 
Russia, Denmark, Sweden, Italy, Saxony, and 
others, was sent to the duke of Marlborough, 

12 March, 

€l The Grosvenor Gallery," Bond Street, W. opened 

1 May, 

Mr. Hubert Herkomer's new School of Art, Bushey, 
Herts, opened 26 Nov. 1883 ; incorporated 1887. 

Anew Art Union established by the Royal Institute 
of Painters in Water Colours announced . Sept. 1887 

The Home Arts Association established early 1885 
has 73 "centres." 

"' The New Gallery," Regent St., W., opened 9 May, 1888 

"'National Association for the Advancement of 
Art," president sir Frederick Leighton, estab- 
lished 8 June ; first meeting (at Liverpool) 

3-7 Dec. ,, 

Second congress at Edinburgh, president, the Mar- 
quis of Lome . . . 28 Oct.— 2 Nov. 1889 

Third Birmingham, president Mr. J. E. Hodson, R. A. 

4—8 Nov. 1890 

Arts anal Crafts Society (Mr. Burne- Jones, Mr. Walter 
Crane, and others), begun 1888 

Arts and Letters, established by sir Edwin Arnold, 
Mr. D'Oyly Carte, and others . . 7 Nov. 1889 

The Home Arts and Industries Association, begun . 1885 

Society of Portrait Painters, founded . . July, 1891 

See British Institution ; National Gallery ; Boyal 
Academy; Albert Hall. 

ARUNDEL CASTLE (Sussex), built by the 
Saxons about 800. The duke of Norfolk enjoys the 
earldom of Arundel, as a feudal honour, by inherit- 
ance and possession of the castle, without any other 
creation. Philip Howard, son of the attainted 
duke of Norfolk, was made earl of Arundel, by 
summons, as possessor of this castle, 1580. It was 
thoroughly repaired by a late duke at a vast ex- 
pense. 

ARUNDEL SOCIETY, for the promotion 
o the knowledge of art, was established in 1848. It 
publishes fac-similes and photographs. 

ARUNDELIAN MARBLES, called also 
Oxford Marbles ; one containing- the chronology of 
ancient history from 1582 to 355 B.C., and said to 



1877 



have been sculptured 264 B.C. They consist of 37 
statues, 128 busts, and 250 inscriptions, and were 
found in the isle of Paros, in the reign of James I., 
about 1610. They were collected by Mr. W. Petty, 
purchased by lord Arundel, and given by his grand- 
son Henry Howard, afterwards duke of Norfolk, to 
the university of Oxford in 1667 ; and are therefore 
called also Oxford Marbles. The characters of 
the inscriptions are Greek. A variorum edition of 
the inscriptions, by Maittaire, appeared in 1732, 
and a fine one by Chandler in 1 763 ; and transla- 
tions by Selden, 1628 ; by Prideaux, 1676 ; see 
Kicld's Tracts; and Porsoris Treatise, 1789. 

ARUSPICES, see Haruspices. 

ARYAN, see Avian, and Language. 

AS, a Roman weight and coin : as a weight, it 
was a pound; as a coin, it had different weights, 
but the same value. In the reign of Servius, the 
as weighed a pound of brass ; in the first Punic war, 
it weighed two ounces, 264 B.C.; in the second Punic 
war, one ounce, 218 B.C. ; and afterwards half an 
ounce ; its value about three farthings sterling. 

ASAPH, St. (N. Wales), a bishopric said to 
have been founded by Kentigern, bishop of Glasgow. 
On returning into Scotland about 560, he left St. 
Asaph his successor, from whom the see is named. 
It is valued in the king's books at 187?". us. bd. 
The present cathedral was erected by bishop Red- 
man, 1472-95. By an order in council, 1838, the 
sees of St. Asaph and Bangor were to have been 
united on the next vacancy in either, and the 
bishopric of Manchester created. This order was 
annulled in 1846. Present income 4,200?". ; see 
Manchester. The cathedral, restored by sir Gilbert 
Scott, re-opened 2 Sept., 1875. 

BISHOPS OF ST. ASAPH. 

1802. Samuel Horsley, died 4 Oct. 1806. 

1806. William Cleaver, died 15 May, 1815. 

1815. John Luxmoore, died 21 Jan. 1830. 

1830. William Carey, died 13 Sept. 1846. 

1846. Thomas Vowler Short, resigned Feb. 1870 ; died 

13 April, 1872. 

1870. Joshua Hughes, died 21 Jan. 1880. 

1889. Alfred George Edwards, elected 2 March. 

ASBESTOS, a native fossil stone, which may 
be split into threads and filaments, and which is 
endued with the property of remaining unconsumed 
by fire. Cloth was made of it by the Egyptians 
{Herodotus), and napkins in the time of Pliny, 74 ; 
and also paper. The spinning of asbestos known at 
Venice, about 1500. Porta. Asbestos non-inflam- 
mable paints tried in, and proposed for use in theatres, 
&c, 23 Dec. 1881. Asbestos proposed as an insu- 
lator for electric wires by M. H. Geoffrey, Paris, 
Sept. 1882. 

ASCALON (Syria), a city of the Philistines, 
shared the fate of Phoenicia and Judea. The 
Egyptian army was defeated here by the crusaders 
under Godfrey of Bouillon, 12 Aug. 1099. Ascalon 
was besieged by the latter in 1148, taken in 1153 ; 
and again in 1191. Its fortifications were de- 
stroyed for fear of the crusaders by the sultan, 1270. 

ASCENSION, an island in the Atlantic ocean, 
800 miles N. "W. 01 St. Helena, discovered by the 
Portuguese on Ascension day, 20 May, 150 1 ; and 
taken possession of by the English, Oct. 1815. 

ASCENSION DAY, also called Holy Thurs- 
day, when the church celebrates the ascension of 
our Saviour, the fortieth day after his resurrection 
from the dead, 14 May, 33 ; first commemorated, it 
is said, 68. Ascension day, 1893, 11 May; 1894, 
3 May ; 1895, 23 May ; 1896, 14 May. 
Society for the better observance of Ascension Day, 

formed June, 1869. 



ASCHAFFENBURGr. 



63 



ASHTAROTH. 



ASCHAFFENBURG, on the Maine, Bavaria, 
S. "W. Germany. liere, on 14 July, 1866, the Prus- 
sians defeated the German Federal army, captured 
the town, and took 2000 prisoners. 

ASCHAM SOCIETY, formed to promote 
social intercourse among gentlemen engaged in 
education, and improve educational methods, &c. 
1880. First president, J. A. Froude ; honorary 
members, professors Huxley, Tyndall, Morley, &c, 
sirs F. Pollock, J. Lubbock, F. Leighton, and other 
eminent men. 

ASCOT RACES, see Races. 

ASCULUM, now ASCOLI, Apulia, S. Italy. 
Near it, Pyrrhus of Epirus defeated the Romans, 
279 B.C. Asculum, a city of the Piceni, with all 
their country, was conquered by the consul Seni- 
pronius, 268 B.C. Here Andrea, general of the em- 
peror Henry VI., endeavouring to wrest Naples 
from Tailored, was defeated and slain, a.d. iiqo. 

ASHANTEES, warlike negroes of West Africa. 
In 1807 they conquered Fantee, in which the 
British settlement Cape Coast Castle is situated. 

On the death of their king, who had been friendly 
to the English, hostilities began ; the Ashantees 
defeated about 1,000 British under sir Charles 
M'Carthy at Acera, and brought away his skull 
with others as trophies . . . .21 Jan. 1824 

They were totally defeated by col. Purdon, 7 Aug. 1826 

Treaty of peace and commerce concluded by Mr. 
Maclean ; the independence of the Fantees re- 
cognised . . . . . 29 April, 1831 

The governor of Cape Coast Castle began war with 
Ashantees early in 1863 ; suspended through 
sickness of our troops .... May, 1864 

Offended at the British occupation of Elmina, the 
Ashantees attacked the Fantees, our allies, with 
varying success April, 1873 

They were severely repulsed, 13 June ; Elmina 
partially bombarded by the British for favouring 
them 14 June ,, 

Commodore Commerell and his party, sailing up 
the Prah, attacked and wounded ; 4 men killed 
by people of Chamah, which is bombarded 

14 Aug. ,, 
Sir Garnet Wolseley (see Hudson Bay) appointed 

governor of the colonies on West Coast of Africa, 
sails with troops, &e. ... 12 Sept. ,, 

He arrives at Cape Coast Castle, 2 Oct. ; addresses 
an assembly of friendly chiefs, urging them to 
faithful action and promising rewards (the war 
to be defensive, if possible) . . 4 Oct. ,, 

Ashantees defeated in a conflict in the bush, at 
Essaman, near Elmina ; villages burnt, 14 Oct. ; 
again at Escabeo, near Dunquah, by col. Festing 

27 Oct. ,, 

Despatch from sir Garnet "Wolseley, declaring 
native allies worthless, and more British troops 
needed 31 Oct. „ 

Indecisive conflict at Dunquah ; lieut. Eardley 
Wilmot killed, 3 Nov. ; Ashantees' attack on 
Abrakampra totally defeated ; their camp taken ; 
disorderly retreat . . . . 5, 6 Nov. ,, 

Col. Wood's indecisive attack at Faisorah 27 Nov. „ 

The Ashantees said to be retreating in disorder, 

15 Dec. „ 
Sir Garnet Wolseley marches towards the Prah, 

27 Dec. ,, 
The King Koffee Kalcalli pretends to accept the 

terms offered ; releases captives ; prepares for 

battle Jan. 1874 

Skirmish at Borborassie ; captain Nicol killed, 

29 Jan. ,, 
Ashantees defeated by sir Garnet Wolseley at 

Amoaful 31 Jan. „ 

Bocquah captured by sir A. Alison . . 1 Feb. ,, 
Ashantee attack at Fommanah repulsed 2 Feb. ,, 
The king takes command ; defeated at Ordahsa, 

4 Feb. „ 
Sir Garnet Wolseley enters Coomassie . 4 Feb. ,, 
The king not acceding to proposals, his palace and 

city burnt 6 Feb. „ 



Daring ride through Coomassie by capt. Sartorius, 

11 Feb. 1874 

The British retreat ; a treaty of peace (terms : 
perpetual peace ; indemnity of 50,000 oz. of gold ; 
supremacy over Adansi and other tribes re- 
nounced ; free trade guaranteed ; human sacri- 
fices to be prohibited ;) signed . . 13 Feb. ,, 

The king fearing attack from capt. Glover, sends 
first instalment of gold (1000 oz.) . 13 Feb. ,, 

Sir Garnet Wolseley enters Cape Coast Castle, 
19 Feb. ; sails ; arrives at Portsmouth 21 March „ 

The courage, skill, and discipline of the troops and 
sadors highly commended ; expedition cost about 
goo,oooL 

The troops reviewed by the Queen at Windsor ; 
sir Garnet Wolseley, commodores Commerell and 
Hewett, col. Festing, capt. Fremantle, sir A. 
Alison, and commander Glover thanked by par- 
liament . . . . . .30 March ,, 

The deposed King Koffee Kalcalli, said to be 
defeated in his attack on his brother, king 
Wemsah Sept. 1876 

The king demands surrender of a fugitive prince by 
the governor of Cape Coast Castle, 18 Jan. ; no 
result ; professes desire of peace . . April, 1881 

The king sends the golden axe to the queen, who 
receives it at Windsor Castle . . 30 June, ,, 

Deposition of king Mensah, and desire of British 
protection announced . . . .28 June, 1883 

Fighting at Coomassie between partizans of king 
Mensah and the ex-king Kofl'ee Kalcalli 3 and 5 

Aug. „ 

King Bugay requests British intervention Aug. ,, 

Koffee Kalcalli's partizans totally defeated, an- 
nounced 31 Aug. ,, 

He and Mensah prisoners . . . Aug. — Nov. ,, 

Massacre of Koffee's adherents . . . Dec. „ 

Death of the king, and Koflee Kalcalli : civil war 
reported Aug. — Dec. 1884 

ASHBOURNE'S (Lord) ACT, see Ireland, 
14 Aug. 1885, and Nov. 1888 ; new act passed 24 
Dec. 1888. Reported very successful, Dec. 1890-1. 

ASHBURTON TREATY, concluded at 
Washington, 9 Aug. 1842, by Alexander lord Ash- 
burton, and John Tyler, president of the United 
States : it defined the boundaries of the respective 
countries between Canada and the state of Maine, 
settled the extradition of criminals, &c. 

ASHDOD, or AZOTUS, seat of the worship of 
the Phoenician god, Dagon, which fell down before 
the ark of the Lord, captured by the Philistines 
from the Israelites, about 1141 B.C. (1 Sam. v.) 
Ashdod was taken by the Egyptians after 29 years' 
siege, the longest recorded, B.C. 630. Herodotus. 

ASHDOWN, or ASSENDDNE, now thought 
to be Aston, Berks, where Ethelred and his brother 
Alfred defeated the Danes in 871. At Ashdown, 
near Saffron- Walden, Essex, Canute defeated Ed- 
mund Ironside with great slaughter, 1016. 

Tradition says that the day after the. battle in 871 
Alfred caused his army to carve the figure of a white 
horse, the standard of Hengist, in the vale. Mr. 
Thomas Hughes ("Tom Brown"), in his book "The 
Scouring of the White Horse " (1859), describes the 
work and festival on 17 and 18 Sept. 1857, a ceremony 
performed at intervals from time immemorial. Records 
are found of the "scouring" in 1755, 27 May, 1776, 15 
May, 1780, 1785, 1803, 1812 or 1813, 1825, 19, 20 Sept., 
Sept. 1843. 

ASHMOLEAN MUSEUM (books, manu- 
scripts, coins, &c), was presented to the university 
of Oxford by Elias Ashmole, the herald and anti- 
quary, and opened 1682. It included the collections 
of the Tradescants, to whom he was executor. He 
died at Lambeth in 1692. The Ashmolean Society, 
Oxford (scientific), was established in 1828. 

ASHTAROTH, a Phoenician goddess, occa- 
sionally worshipped by the Israelites (see Judges 
ii. 13) about 1406 B.C., and even by Solomon, about 
984 B.C. (1 Ki>igs xi. 5.) 



ASH-WEDNESDAY. 



64 



ASSASSINS. 



ASH- WEDNESDAY, the first day of Lent, 
which in early times began on the Sunday now 
called the first in Lent. It is said that pope 
Felix III., in 487, first added the four days pre- 
ceding the old Lent Sunday, to raise the number of 
fasting days to forty ; that Gregory the Great (pope, 
590) introduced the sprinkling of ashes on the first 
of the four additional days, and hence the names of 
Dies Cinerum, or Ash- Wednesday. At the Refor- 
mation this practice was abolished, "as being a 
mere shadow, or vain show." Ash- Wednesday, 
1893, 15 Feb. ; 1894, 7 Feb. ; 1895, 27 Feb. ; 1896, 
19 Feb. ; 1897, 3 Mar. 

ASIA, the largest division of the globe ; part of 
it was so called by the Greeks. The area of Asia 
and its islands is estimated at 17,255,890 square- 
miles. Asia was the first quarter of the world 
peopled : here the law of God was first promulgated ; 
here many of the greatest monarchies of the earth 
had their rise ; and hence most of the arts and 
sciences have been derived. Its early history is 
derived from the Bible and fiom Herodotus, who 
relates the wars of Croesus, Cyrus, and others. The 
Central Asian Eailway from the Caspian to Samar- 
cand constructed by general Annenkoff for Russia, 
which now possesses very great influence over the 
country, opened 1888. See Population, Jews, China, 
India, Persia, Turkey, and the other countries. 

ASIA MINOE, now Anatolia, comprised 

the Ionian colonies on the coast, the early seats of 
Greek civilisation, and the countries Mysia, Phrygia, 
Lycia, Bithynia, Caria, Lydia, Cappadocia, Galatia, 
&c, with the cities Troy, Ephesus, Smyrna (all 
which see) . From the time of the rise of the As- 
syrian monarchy, about 2000 B.C., to that of the 
Turks under Osman, Asia Minor was the battle- 
field of the conquerors of the world. 

First settlement of the Ionian Greeks about B.C. 1043 
AsiaMmorsubduedbytheMed.es . . about 711 

Conquered by Cyrus about 546 

Contest between the Greeks and Persians begins 544 
Asia Minor conquered by Alexander . . . . 332 

Contended for by his successors ; separate king- 
doms established . .... 321-278 

Gradually acquired by the Romans B.C. 188 to a.d. 15 
Possessed by the Persians . . . . . . 609 

Partially recovered by the emperor Basil. . . 874 
Invaded by Timour ....... 1402 

Taken from the Greek emperor, and established as 
- an empire by the Turks under Mahomet I. . . 1413 

See Turkey. 
The Asia Minor Exploration Fund established, 1882, by 
sir Charles Wilson and others, enabled Mr. W. M. 
Ramsay to continue his researches. Valuable results 
I were reported in 1884 from Lydia and the early home 
of the Greeks. In Jan. 3 890, the committee appeal for 
pecuniary help. See Hittites. 
Railway from Mersina on the coast to Tarsas and 
Adana, 42 miles, constructing under sir T. Tanered, 
Aug. 1884 ; first section opened 4 May, 1886, wholly 
opened Aug. 1886. 

ASIATIC SOCIETIES. The " Asiatic So- 
ciety of Bengal," at Calcutta, was established by 
sir William Jones in 1784, "the bounds of its in- 
vestigation to be the geographical limits of Asia." 
The "Royal Asiatic Society," which has several 
branches in India, was founded in 1823. It esta- 
blished the "Oriental Translation Fund," in 1828, 
which had published 83 volumes of Eastern litera- 
ture in 1865. The " Literary Society of Madras," 
1845. The "Asiatic Quarterly Review," London, 
begun 1886. 

ASKESIAN SOCIETY (from the Greek aske- 
sis, exercise), instituted in March, 1796, by some 
young men for discussing philosophical subjects. Its 
founders were Wm. Allen, Wm. Phillips, Alex. Til- 



loch, Luke Howard, W. II. Pepys and others. In 
1806 it merged into the Geological Society. 

ASMONJEANS, the proper name of the 
family termed Maccabees (which see) . 

ASPERN, GREAT, a town, and Essling, a 
village near the Danube and Vienna, where a series 
of desperate conflicts took place between the Austrian 
army under the archduke Charles, and the French 
under Napoleon, Massena, &c, on 21-22 May, 1809, 
ending in the retreat of .Napoleon. The Austrian 
loss exceeded 20,000 men, and the French 30,000. 
Marshal Lannes, mortally wounded 22 May, died 
31 May. The bridge of the Danube was destroyed, 
and Napoleon's retreat endangered; but the success 
of the Austrians was fruitless to them, 

ASPHALT, a solid bituminous substance, pro- 
bably derived from decayed vegetable matter. It 
was used as a building material in ancient Babylon. 
Its application for this purpose was revived by 
Eirinus, a Greek physician, who discovered beds of 
it near Neufchatel in 1712. Asphalt stone was 
found at Seyssel near Geneva in 1802; and after 
several failures, count Sassenay brought it into use 
for pavement about 1832. The artificial asphalt 
obtained from gas-works began to be used as pave- 
ment about 1838. Claridge's patent asphalt was 
laid down in Trafalgar-square, Jan. 1864. Various 
kinds of asphalt pavement have been since laid on 
in London. 

ASPINWALL, or Colon, see Panama. 

^ ASPROMONTE, Naples. Here Garibaldi was 
defeated, wounded, and taken prisoner 29 Aug. 1862, 
having injudiciously risen against the French occu- 
pation of Rome. 

ASSAM (N. E. India) acquired by the British 
in 1825, and surrendered by tlie king of Ava in 
1826. The tea-plant was discovered here by Mr. 
Bruce in 1823. A superintendent of the tea-forests 
was appointed in 1836, the cultivation of the plant 
having been recommended by lord William Ben- 
tinck in 1834. The Assam Tea Company, by whom 
Chinese labourers and coolies were introduced, 
was established in 1839. After several years, the 
plantations suffered severely, it is said through over 
speculation and neglect of the labourers ; as a 
remedy a labour act was passed at Calcutta, about 
July, 1867. 
Mr. James Wallace Quinton, chief commissioner, a 

valuable officer, esteemed by three viceroys, 

killed at Manipur {which see) . . 24 March, 1891 
Chief commissioner, William Ersldne Ward . . ,, 
Petroleum discovered ; large quantities obtained, 

reported . . . n Feb. 1S92 

ASSASSINATION PLOT to kill William 
III., formed by some of the Jacobites, simultane- 
ously with one for an insurrection to be aided by 
French invaders, in 1696. James II. and several 
noblemen and others were said to be privy to it ; 
including the earl of Ailesbuiy. About forty 
ruffians undertook to kill William near Tumham 
Green, Middlesex, when returning from hunting, 
14 Feb. 1696. Information was given to William 
by Mr. Prendergast, a Roman Catholic, through 
horror of the crime. The following were executed : 
— Charnock, King., and Keyes, 18 March ; sir John 
Friend and sir Wm. Parkyns, 3 April; Rookwood, 
Lowick, and Cranbourne, 29 April, 1696 ; sir 
John Fen wick (by attainder), 28 January, 1697. 
Sir George Barclay, a chief organiser of the plot, 
escaped to France. 

ASSASSINS, or ASSASSINIANS, fanatical 
Mahometans, collected by Hassan-ben-Sabah, and 



ASSAY. 



65 



ASSEMBLY. 



settled in Persia about 1090. In Syria they pos- 
sessed a large tract of land among the mountains of 
Lebanon. They murdered the marquis of Mont- 
ferrat in 1192, Lewis of Bavaria in 1213, and the 
khan of Tartary in 1254. They were extirpated in 
Persia about 1258 and in Syria about 1272. The 
chief of the corps was named " Ancient of the 
Mountain" and " Old Man of the Momitain." 
They trained up young people to assassinate such 
persons as their chief had devoted to destruction. 
Henault. From them came the word assassin. 



REMARKABLE ASSASSINATIONS AND ATTEMPTS. 

See Rome, Emperors, for many assassinations. 

Abdul Aziz, sultan (see Turkey, 1881) . 4 June, 1876 
Abdurrahman, Ameer of Afghanistan ; attempt 

26 Dec. 1888 
Albert I., emperor of Germany, by his nephew 

John i May, 1308 

Alexander II. of Russia ; attempts: by Karakozow at 
St. Petersburg, 16 April, 1866 ; by Berezowski 
at Paris, 6 June, 1867 ; by Alexander SoloviefT, 14 
April, 1879 ; by undermining a railway train, 1 
Dec. 1879 i °y explosion of Winter palace, St. 
Petersburg, 17 Feb. 1880 ; killed by explosion of 
a bomb thrown by a man who is himself killed, 
St. Petersburg . . .2 p.m. 13 March, 1881 

Alexander III. ; attempts: 13 March, 1887 ; May, 1888 
Alfonso XII. of Spain, attempts : by J. O. Moneasi, 

25 Oct. 1878 ; by Francisco Otero Gonzalez, 30 Dec. 1879 
Amadeus, duke of Aosta, when king of Spain ; 

attempt 19 July, 1872 

Artaxerxes III. of Persia ; by Bagoas . about B.C. 338 
Aurnale, due d' ; attempt . . . -13 Sept. 1841 
Beaton, David, cardinal ; by reformers . 29 May, 1546 
Becket, Thomas a, abp. of Canterbury . 29 Dec. 1170 
Berri, Charles due de (father of the comte de Cham- 
bord)' .... . . 13 Feb. 1820 

Bismarck, prince ; attempt, by Blind, 7 May, 1866 ; 

by Kullniann 13 July, 1874 

Bra'tiano, premier of Roumania ; attempt, by if. 

Pietraro 14 Dec. 1880 

Buckingham, George Villiers, duke of; by John 

Felton 23 Aug. 1628 

Burgundy, John the Fearless, duke of ; by Orleanists, 

10 Sept. 1419 
Csesar, Julius ; by Brutus and others 15 March, B.C. 44 
Capo d'Istria, count ; Greek statesman . 9 Oct. 1831 
Cavendish, lord Frederick, chief Secretary for Ire- 
laud, and T. H. Burke, under Secretary, in Phoenix 

Park, Dublin, by 4 men 1882 

Daniel, prince of Montenegro . . 13 Aug. i860 
Darboy, Georges, abp. of Paris ; by communists, 

24 May, 1871 
Darius III. of Persia ; by Bessus . . Jul} - , b.c. 330 
Edmund the Elder, of England . 26 March, 946 

Edward the Martyr ,,,,.. 18 March, 979 
Edward II. „ ,, . . 27 Sept. 1327 

Edward V. ,,,,... July, 1483 

Estrup, M. ; attempt 21 Oct. 1885 

Ferry, Jules, ex-French premier ; by Aubertin 

10 Dec. 1887 
Francis Joseph of Austria ; attempt, by Libenyi, 

18 Feb. 1853 ; by Overdank 18&2 

Frederick William IV. of Prussia : attempt, by Sofe- 

lage 22 May, 1850 

Garfield (Gen.) president of the United States 
(by Charles Jules Guiteau) : Washington, 2 July, 

died 19 Sept. 1881 

George III. of England, mad attempts, by Margaret 

Nicholson, 2 Aug. 1786; by James Hatfield, 15 May, 1800 
George IV. (when regent), attempt . . 28 Jan. 1817 
Guise, Henry duke of ; by order of Henry III. of 

France 23 Dec. 1588 

Gustavus III. of Sweden; by Ankarstrom, 16 March, 

died 29 March, 1792 

Henry III. of France ; by Jacques Clement, 1 Aug. 

died 2 Aug. 1589 

Henry IV. of France; attempt, by Jean Chatel, 27 

Dec. 1594 ; killed by Ravaillac . . 14 May, 1610 
Humbert I., king of Italy ; attempt, by John 

Passananti, at Naples ... 17 Nov. 1878 
Hussein Avni and other Turkish ministers ; by 
Hassan, a Circassian officer . . 15 June, 1876 



Isabella II. of Spain ; attempts, by La Riva, 4 May, 

1847 ; by Merino, 2 Feb. 1852 ; by Raymond 

Fuentes 28 May, 1856 

James I. of Scotland ; by nobles . . 21 Feb. 1437 

James III. of Scotland ; by nobles . n June, 1488 

Kotzebue, August, German dramatist, for political 

motives ; by Karl Sand ... 23 March, 1819 
Lincoln, Abraham, president of United States, N. A. ; 

by Wilkes Booth, 14 April ; died . 15 April, 1865 
Lorraine, Louis of Guise, cardinal of ; by order of 

Henry III. of France ... 24 Dec. 1588 
Louis XV. of France ; attempt, by Damiens, 5 Jan. 1757 
Louis Philippe of France ; many a'ttempts;\>y Fieschi, 

28 July, 1835; by Alibaud, 25 June, 1836; by 

Meunier, 27 Dec. 1836 ; by Darmes, 15 Oct. 1840 ; 

by Lecomte, 14 April, 1846 ; by Henry. 29 July, 1846 
Lytton, lord, viceroy of India ; attempt, by Busa 

12 Dec. 1878 
Marat ; by Charlotte Corday . . 13 July, 1793 

Mayo, Richard, earl of, gov. -gen. of India ; by Shere 

Ali, a convict, in Andaman isles . . 8 Feb. 1872 
Mehemet Ali Pacha, by Albanians . 7 Sept. 1878 

Melikoff, gen. Loris ; attempt (see Russia) 4 March, 1880 
Michael, prince of Servia ... 10 June, 1868 
Milan IV. of Servia, attempt . . . 23 Oct. 1882 
Murray, James, earl of, regent of Scotland, 23 Jan. 1570 
Napoleon I. ; attempit, by infernal machine, 24 Dec. 1800 
Napoleon III. ; attempts, by Pianori, 28 April, 1855 ; 

by Bellemarre, 8 Sept. 1855 ; by Orsini and 

others 14 Jan. 1858 

Orange, William, prince cf ; by Balthasar Gerard 

10 July, 1584 
Orleans, Louis Valois, duke of ; by Burgundians 

23 Nov. 1407 
Parma, Ferdinand Charles III., duke of; 26 March, 

died 27 March, 1854 

Paul, czar of Russia ; by nobles . 24 March, 1801 
Pedro II. of Brazil ; attempt, by Volti . 15 July, 1889 
Percival, Spencer, premier ; by Bellingham, n May, 1812 
Philip II. of Macedon ; by Pausanias . . B.C. 336 
Prim, marshal ; 28 Dec. died . . .30 Dec. 1870 
Rossi, conte Pellegrino, Roman statesman, 15 Nov. 1848 
Sibour, M. W. A., abp. of Paris, by Jean Verger, a 

priest 3 Jan. 1857 

Victoria, queen, attempts (?). Edwd. Oxford, 10 

June, 1840 ; John Francis, 30 May, 1842; Bean, 

3 July, 1842 ; Wm. Hamilton, 19 May, 1849 : R. 

Maclean, at Windsor ... 2 March, 1882 
William I. of Prussia and Germany ; attempts, by 

Oscar Becker, 14 July, 1861 ; by Hodel, 11 May, 

1878 ; by Dr. Nobiling . . . .2 June, 1878 
William III. of England see Assassination-plot . 1695-6 
William, prince of Wiirtemberg ; attempt, by M. 

Muller 20 Oct. 1889 

ASSAY of Gold and Silver, originated 

with the bishop of Salisbury, a royal treasurer in 
the reign of Henry I. Du Cange. But certainly 
some species of assay was practised as early as the 
Roman conquest. Assay early established in Eng- 
land was regulated by statutes, 1238, 1700, and 
1705. Assay masters appointed at Newcastle, 1 701 ; 
Sheffield and Birmingham, 1773. The laws re- 
specting assay were amended in 1854 and 1855. 
The alloy of gold is silver and copper, that of silver 
is copper. Standard gold is 2 carats of alloy to 22 of 
fine gold. Standard silver is 18 dwts. of copper 
to 11 ozs. 2 dwts. of fine silver; see Goldsmiths' 
Company and Pyx. 

ASSAYE (E. Indies) . The British army, under 
general Arthur Wellesley (afterwards duke of Wel- 
lington), entered the Mahratta states on the south ; 
took the fort of Ahmednuggur, 12 Aug. ; and de- 
feated Scindiah and the rajah of Berar at Assaye, 
23 Sept. 1803. This was Wellesley's first great 
battle, in which he opposed 40,000 with only 9,600 
men. The enemy fled, leaving their artillery, &c. 

ASSEMBLY of (130) Divines, held at 

Westminster, 1 July, 1643, convoked by order of 
parliament to consider the liturgy, government, and 
doctrines of the church. Two members were elected 
for each county. The presbyterian majority adopted 



ASSENT. 



66 



ASSYRIA. 



the Scottish covenant, and drew up the directory 
for public worship, a confession, and the catechisms 
now used by the church of Scotland. The last 
(1163rd) meeting was on 22 Feb. 1649; see Church 
of Scotland. 

ASSENT, see Royal Assent. 

ASSESSED TAXES. By some the date is re- 
ferred to Ethelbert, in 991 ; to Henry VIII. 1522; 
and to William III. 1689, when a land-tax was4m- 
posed ; see Land Tax. The assessed taxes yielded 
in 1815 (the last year of the war), exclusively of the 
land-tax, 6,524,766?., their highest amount. These 
imposts have varied in their nature and amount, 
according to the exigencies of the state. They were 
considerably advauced in 1797 and 1801, et seq., but 
reduced in 1816, and in subsequent years. An act 
for the repeal of certain assessed taxes was passed 
16 & 17 Vict. c. 90, 20 Aug. 1853, explained and 
amended by 17 & 18 Vict. c. 1, 17 Feb. 1854. — Acts 
for the better securing and accounting for the As- 
sessed and Income Taxes, 10 Aug. 1854; see Taxes, 
and Income Tax. Changes were made in the as- 
sessed taxes, their time of collection, &c, by the 
Revenue act, passed 24 June, 1869. Licences for 
servants, dogs, and armorial bearings were also in- 
troduced. An act to provide for uniformity in the 
assessment of rateable property in the metropolis 
was passed 9 Aug. 1869. The "Court of General 
Assessment first met 19 May, 1870. See House 
Duty and Land Tax. Amount received, year 
1871-2, about 2,330,000?.; 1874-5, 2,440,000?.; 
1875-6, 2,496,000/. ; 1876-7, 2,532,000?. ; 1877-8, 
2,670,000?.; 1878-9, 2,720,000?.; 1879-80, 
2,670,000?.; 1882-3,2,800,000?.; 1883-4,2,875,000?.; 
1886-7, 2,980,000?. ; 1887-8, 2,970,000?. ; 1890-91, 
2,600,000?. 

ASSIENTO, a contract between the king of 
Spain and other powers, for furnishing the Spanish 
dominions in America with negro slaves, began with 
the Flemings. By the treaty of Utrecht, 13 July, 
1713, the British government engaged to furnish 
4800 negroes annually to Spanish America for thirty 
years. The contract was renew ed in 1 748, but given 
up in 1750 ; see Guinea. 

ASSIGN ATS, a forced paper currency, ordered 
by the National Assembly of France to support 
public credit during the revolution, April, 1790. 
At one period, eight milliards, or nearly 350 millions 
of pounds sterling, of this paper were in circulation 
in France and its dependencies. Alison. Assignats 
were superseded by mandats in 1796. 

ASSIZE of Battle, see Appeal. 

ASSIZE of Bread, &c, see Bread, and Wool. 

ASSIZE of Jerusalem, a valuable code of 
laws compiled under the direction of Godfrey of 
Bouillon, king of Jerusalem, in 1100. 

ASSIZE COURTS (from assideo, I sit) are 
very ancient in England, and in old law books are 
defined to be an assembly of knights and other sub- 
stantial men, with the justice, to meet at a certain 
time and place: regulated by Magna Charta, 1215. 
The present justices of assize and Nisi Prius are 
derived from the statute of Westminster, 13 Edw. I. 
1284. Coke; Blaclcstone. "The king doth will 
that no lord, or other of the country, shall sit upon 
the bench with the justices to take assize in their 
sessions in the counties of England, upon great for- 
feiture to the king." 20 Rich. II. 1396. Statutes, 
Brough Act. Assizes are general or special ; general 
when the judges go their circuits, and special when 
a commission is issued to take cognisance of one or 
more causes ; see Bloody Assize. 



ASSOCIATIONS, see British, National Asso- 
ciations, Christian, §c. 

ASSUMPTION, Feast of the, 15 Aug. 

It is observed by the church of Rome in honour of 
the Virgin Mary, said to have been taken up to 
heaven in her corporeal form, body and spirit, on 
this day, a.d. 45, in her 75th year. The festival 
was instituted in the 7th century, and enjoined by 
the council of Mentz, 813. 
ASSURANCE, see Insurance. 
ASSYRIA, originally Assur, an Asiatic country 
between Mesopotamia and Media, was the seat of 
the earliest recorded monarchy. Till recently its 
history was mainly derived from Greek historians, 
Ctesias, Herodotus, and Diodorus Siculus, Berosus, 
a Grseco-Chaldean priest, and the Holy Scriptures. 
The discovery by Mr. (aft. sir) Austin Layard of 
the Ninevite antiquities,nowin the British Museum, 
and the deciphering of many ancient cuneiform in- 
scriptions, by Grotefend, sir H. Rawlinson, and 
other scholars, have thrown much light upon Assy- 
rian history. The chronologers, Blair, Usher, Hales, 
and Clinton, differ much in the dates. The results 
of recent investigations are given in the rev. G. 
Rawlinson's "Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient 
World," and in prof. A. Sace's "Assyria, its Princes, 
Priests, and People," 1885. Mr. W. Boscawen's 
article " Assyria " in "Chambers' Encyclopaedia," 
1888, has been used for much of the following sum- 
mary. 

Nimrod or Belus reigns . . b.c. [2554 H. 2235 C] 2245 
" Asshur buikled Nineveh" (Gen. x. 11) about . 2218 
Ninus, son of Belus, reigns in Assyria, and names 

his capital Nineveh [2182 C] 2069 

Babylon taken by Ninus, who, having subdued the 
Armenians, Persians, Bactrians, and all Asia 
Minor, establishes what is properly the Assyrian 
monarchy, of which Nineveh was the seat of em- 
pire. Blair ... . [2233 C.] 2059 
Ninyas, an infant, succeeds Ninus . ... 2017 
Semiramis, mother of Ninyas, usurps the govern- 
ment, enlarges and embellishes Babylon [2130 C] 2007 
She invades Libya, Ethiopia, and India . Lenglet 1975 
She is put to death by her son Ninyas . . . 1965 
Ninyas put to death, and Arius reigns . . . 1927 

Reign of Aralius 1897 

Belochus, the last king of the race of Ninus . . 1446 
He makes his daughter Atossa, surnamed Semiramis 

II. , his associate on the throne .... 1433 
Atossa procures the death of her father, and marries 
Belatores (or Belaperes) who reigns . . .1421 
******* 

Sardanapalus, luxurious and effeminate when at- 
tacked by Arbaces Satrap of Media, suddenly 
becomes energetic and warlike, defends himself 
in Nineveh for two years, and when overcome 
burns himself in his palace, with his wives and 
treasures, thus ending the first Assyrian Empire. 

(Ctesias) 876 

[This story and most of what is given above, is 
now considered mythical.] The following is 
based upon the records in the ancient Assyrian 
tablets and the Bible. 

Assyria, a province of Babylonia, becomes indepen- 
dent ; first king, Bel-kapkapi, under his suc- 
cessors the kingdom is greatly enlarged ; Rim- 
mon-nirari I. becomes powerful about . b.c. 1320 

His son, Shalmaneser I, founds Calah, and his 
grandson, Tiglath Adar I. captures Babylon . 1280 

His descendant, Tiglath-pileser I. a great con- 
queror and the real founder of the Assyrian 
empire 1140 

His son, Assur-bel-Kala, a weak prince . . . 1110 

The empire falls into decay for nearly two centuries. 

The empire revives under Assur-dan II., and is fully 
restored by his successors, Rimmonnirari II. 911-889 

and Assur-natsir-pal 883-858 

His son, Shalmaneser II. makes large conquests in 
W. Asia 858, et seq. 

At Karkar he defeats Benhadad, king of Damascus, 
Ahab, king of Israel, and Irkhuleni, king of 
Hamath 854 



ASTEROIDS. 



67 



ASTRONOMY. 



The empire enlarged by his son, Samas-Rimmon II. 

b.o. 823-810 

The Assyrian eponym canon records a solar eclipse, 
and is thereby the basis of Assyrian chronology . 763 

Assur-nirari king ; many revolts . . . 753, et seq. 

Pulu, or Pul, usurps the throne and styles himself 
Tiglath Pileser. He consolidated the empire, 
reformed the government, quelled revolts and 
enlarged his dominions by the conquest of Baby- 
lon, &c 74S-7 2 7 

His weak son, Shalmaneser IV. king, 727 ; died, or 
was murdered by Sargon the Tartan, who con- 
tinues the war in Assyria, captures Samaria and 
replaces the inhabitants by colonists. 2 Kings 
xvii. 720 

At the battle of Raphia, he checks the advances of 
Egypt, and captures the rich Hittite capital, 
Carchemish "... 717 

Merodach-baladan III. raises a revolt against Sar- 
gon, who, after a severe campaign, captures 
Babylon, and is proclaimed king .... 710 

.'Sargon is killed in his new palace . . July, 705 

His son, Sennacherib, succeeds him. 

Babylonia revolts ; Merodach-baladan returns, but 
is defeated at Kisu ; Sennacherib conquers 
Phoenicia, and having been offended by Hezi- 
kiah, he ravages Judaea, and besieges Jerusalem, 
which is saved by the sudden destruction of his 
army, Isaiah xxxvii. 36-38 ; he is killed by his 
sons . . Dec. 681 

His son, Esar-haddon defeats his brothers, and be- 
comes king at Nineveh, and reorganizes the 
empire 680, etseq. 

He invades Judsea, makes Manasseh prisoner. 

He invades Egypt and captures Memphis, and 
after a long campaign, subdues the country and 
becomes ruler of nearly all the ancient world 

675, et seq. 

Disturbed by a rising in Egypt and conspiracies at 
home, he makes his son, Assur-bani-pal, king at 
Nineveh, April, 669, and dies during a campaign, 
Oct. 667. Assur-bani-pal, weak but ambitious, 
continues the war in Egypt, and captures Thebes, 
invades Phoenicia and captures Tyre. 

He appoints his brother, Samas-sum-yukin, viceroy 
of Babylon, who heads a groat revolt, which lasts 
five years ; Babylon is taken and the rebel prince 
burns himself in his palace with many of his 
followers 647 

•Gradual fall of the empire; new revolts; Egypt 
becomes independent ; Kandanalu, viceroy of 
Babylon, and his successor, father of Nebuchad- 
nezzar, become independent ; Assur-bani-pal suc- 
ceeded, by his son, Assur-etil-iliyukinni . '. 640 

JEssar-haddon II. (the Sarakos of Ctesias), the last 
king ; the N. E. provinces invaded by a vast eon- 
federation under the command of Kazaril (Cyax- 
ares the Mede). 

Disruption and anarchy closed by the siege and 
destruction of Nineveh .... about 606 

Assyria becomes a Median province. 

Assyria subdued by Alexander the Great . . . 332 

It subsequently formed part of the kingdoms of 
Syria, Parthia, and Persia. 

It was conquered by the Turks . . . a.d. 1637 

Explored by col. Chesney and the Euphrates ex- 
ploring expedition 1835-37 

Layard's Discoveries published (see Nineveh) . 1848-53 

Mr. George Smith, of British Museum, began to 
study inscriptions, 1866 ; (received aid from pro- 
prietors of Daily Telegraph), and started to explore 
Assyrian remains, 20 June, 1873 ; worked in 1873- 
74; published " Assyrian Discoveries " March, 1875 

Started to renew his explorations, Oct. 1875 ; died 
at Aleppo 19 Aug. 1876 

The explorations resumed by Mr. Hormusd Rassam, 
see Nineveh. 

Classes for the study of Assyrian language formed ; 
rev. A. H. Sayce publishes an Assyrian gram- 
mar 1875 

(See Nineveh.) 

ASTEROIDS, a name improperly given to the 
rainor planets, see under Planets. 

ASTLEY'S AMPHITHEATRE, see under 
Theatres. 

ASTON RIOTS, see Birmingham, 1884. 



ASTORGA (N.W. Spain), the ancient Asturiea 
Augusta, was taken by the French, 22 April, 1810, 
and treated with great severity. 

ASTRACAN (S. E. Eussia), a province ac- 
quired from the Mogul's empire in 1554; visited 
and settled by Peter the Great in 1722. Population, 
1886, 328,819. 

ASTROLABE, an instrument for observing 
the stars, said to have been employed by Hipparchus 
about 130 B.C. ; and by Ptolemy about 140 a.d. 
The modern astrolabe was described by Fabricius in 
I5I3- 

ASTROLOGY. Judicial astrology was culti- 
vated by the Chaldeans, and transmitted to the 
Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. It was much in 
vogue in Italy and France in the 1 6th century. 
It is said that Bede, 673-735, was addicted 
to it; and Roger Bacon, 1214-1292. Lord Bur- 
leigh is said to have calculated the nativity of 
Elizabeth, and she, and other princes, were dupes of 
Dee, the astrologer. It is stated that Lilly was 
consulted by Charles I. respecting his projected 
escape from Carisbrook castle in 1647. Ferguson. 
Astrological almanacs are still published in London. 
Michael Nostradamus, a French physician (1503-1566), 
cultivated astrology, published almanacs, and in 1555, 
" Centuries " and " Presages." His oracles, edited by 
Mr. Chas. A. Ward, appeared in 1892. He was con- 
sulted by Catherine de Medici, Henry II. and 
Charles IX. of France. 
The Astrological Society of Great Britain founded 19 

Feb. 1879. 
" Neptune," an astrologer, fined for practising 

29 May, 1886 

ASTRONOMER-ROYAL, see Greenwich. 
ASTRONOMY. The earliest astronomical 
observations were made at Babylon it is said about 
2234 B. c. The study was much advanced in Chaldsea 
under Nabonassar ; was known to the Chinese about 
1 100 B.C. ; some say many centuries before, see 
Eclipses, Stars, Planets, Comets, Sun, Moon, Jupiter, 
Venus, Saturn, Neptune, Mars, Observatories, §c: 
Lunar eclipses observed at Babylon, and recorded b. c. 

by Ptolemy about 720 

Spherical form of the earth, and the true cause of 

lunar eclipses, taught by Thales . . about 600 

Further discoveries by Pythagoras, who taught the 

doctrine of celestial motions, and believed in the 

plurality of habitable worlds ; died . about 

Meton introduces the lunar-solar cycle . 

Treatises of Aristotle " concerning the heavens," 

and of Autolycus " on the motion of the sphere " 

(earliest extant works on astronomy) . about 

Aratus writes a poem on astronomy . . . . 

Archimedes observes solstices, <&e 212 

Hipparchus, greatest of Greek astronomers, deter- 
mines mean motion of sun and moon ; discovers 

precession of equinoxes, <fec 160-125 

The precession of the equinoxes confirmed, and the 
places and distances of the planets discovered, by 

Ptolemy a.d. 139-161 

Astronomy and geography cultivated by the Arabs 

about 760 ; brought into Europe . . about 1200 
Alphonsine tables {which see) composed . about 1253 
Clocks first used in astronomy . . . about 1500 
True doctrine of the motions of the planetary bodies 
revived by Copernicus, founder of modern astro- 
nomy ; his " Revolution of the Heavenly Bodies" 

published 1543 

Astronomy advanced by Tycho Brahe, who yet ad- 
heres to the Ptolemaic system . . . aboxit 1582 
Galileo constructs a telescope, 1609 ; and discovers 

Jupiter's satellites, &c 8 Jan. 1610 

True laws of the planetary motions announced by 

Kepler ; 1st and 2nd, 1609 ; 3rd .... 1618 
Various forms of telescopes and other instruments 

used in astronomy invented .... 1608-40 
Cartesian system published by Dos Cartes . . . 1637 
The transit of Venus over the sun's disc first ob- 
served by Horrocks . . . .24 Nov. 1639 

f 2 



470 
433 



35o 
281 



ASTUEIAS. 



ATHEISM. 



Huyghens completes the discovery of Saturn's ring 1654 
Cassini draws his meridian line, after Dante ; see 

Bologna 165s 

The aberration of the light of the fixed stars dis- 
covered by Horrebow 1659 

Gregory invents a reflecting telescope . . . . 1663 

Discoveries of Picard 1669 

Charts of the moon constructed by Scheiner, Lan- 

grenus, Hevelius, Riccioli, &c. . . about 1670 

Discoveries of Romer on the velocity of light, and 
his observation of Jupiter's satellites . . . 1675 

Greenwich Observatory founded „ 

Motion of the sun round its own axis proved by 

Halley 1676 

Newton's Principia published ; and the system, as 

now taught, demonstrated 1687 

Catalogue of the stars made by Flamsteed . . 1688 
Cassini's chart of the full moon executed . . . 1692 
Satellites of Saturn, <fcc, discovered by Cassini . 1701 
Halley predicts the return of the comet (of 1758) . 1705 
Flamsteed's Historia Cmlestis published . . . 1723 
Aberration of the light of the stars discovered and 

explained by Dr. Bradley 1727 

John Harrison produces chronometers for deter- 
mining the longitude, 1735 et seq., and obtains the 

reward 1764 

" Nautical Almanac " first published . . . . 1767 
Celestial inequalities found by La Grange . . 1780 
Uranus and satellites discovered by Herschcl ; see 

Georgium Sidus 13 March 1781 

Mecanique Celeste, by La Place, published . . 1796 
Royal Astronomical Society of London founded, 

1820 ; chartered 1831 

Beer and Madler's map of the moon published . . 1834 
Lord Rosse's telescope constructed . . . 1828-45 
The planet Neptune (which see) discovered, 23 Sept. 1846 
Bond photographs the moon (see Photography, 

celestial) 1851 

Hansen's table of the moon published at expense of 

the British government 1857 

Trustees of the rev. Richard Sheepshanks present 
io.oool stock to Trinity College, Cambridge, for 
promotion of the study of astronomy, meteorology, 

and magnetism 2 Dec. 1858 

Spectrum analysis applied in astronomy (see Spec- 
trum) . . . . 1861 

Large photograph of the moon by W. de la Rue . 1863 
Royal Astronomical Society removed from Somer- 
set-house to Burlington-house 1874 

Two satellites of Mars discovered by prof. Asaph 

Hall, at Washington, U.S. . . 11, 18 Aug. 1877 
Astronomical Congress opened at Paris ; arrange- 
ments made for photographing charts of the 
heavens at different observatories 16-26 April, 1887 
Met again, Sept. 1889 ; April, 1891 ; vol. ii. of the 

charts begun 1892 

Mr. G. F. Chambers' " Handbook of Astronomy," 

new edition 1889-90 

Mr. C. H. F. Peters, of Hamilton college observa- 
tory, New York, discovered 48 minor planets and 
several comets ; born in Schleswig, 19 Sept. 1813 ; 

died 19 July, 1890 

British Astronomical society : first meeting 24 Oct. „ 
Dr. Wm. Huggins, president, at the meeting of the 
British Association at Cardiff,describes the results 
of the application of spectrum analysis and photo- 
graphy to astronomy . . . .19 Aug. 1891 
Astronomical Society of France inaugurated 

12 Oct. ,, 
Mr. Norman Lockyer announces his theory respect- 
ing the constitution of the heavenly bodies (see 

under Meteors) 17 Nov. ,, 

New star discovered in Auriga (see Milky way) 

1 Feb. 1892 

ASTUEIAS (Oviedo, since 18.13), N. W. Spain, 
an ancient principality. Here Pelayo collected the 
Gothic fugitives, about 713, founded a new kingdom, 
and by his victories checked Moorish conquest. For 
his successors, see Spain. The heir-apparent of the 
monarchy has borne the title " prince of Asturias" 
since 1388, when it was assumed by Henry, son of 
John I. king of Leon, on his marriage with a de- 
scendant of Peter of Castile. In 1808, the junta of 
Asturias began the organised resistance to the French 
usurpation. 



ASYLUMS, or Privileged Places, at 

first were places of refuge for those who by acci- 
dent or necessity had done things that rendered: 
them obnoxious to the law. God commanded the 
Jews to build cities of refuge, 1451 B.C., Numbers 
xxv. — Cadmus is mythically said to have built one 
at Thebes, and Romulus one at Mount Palatine, 
751 B.C. ; see Sanctuaries; Metropolitan District. 

ATALANTA (formerly Juno), training-ship,, 
left Bermuda on a trial voyage, under capt. Stirling, 
31 Jan. 1880. On board, 15 officers, and 265 petty 
officers, seamen, marines, and boys; never heard 
of again. Many merchant vessels were wrecked 
during a terrific gale, 12-16 Feb. 1880. See Man- 
sion House Funds. 

ATCHINOFF INCIDENT, see under 
Russia, 1889. 

ATELIEES NATION AUX (National Work- 
shops), were established by the French provisional 
government in Feb. 1848. They interfered greatly 
with private trade, as about 100,000 workmen threw 
themselves upon the government for labour and 
payment. The breaking-up of the system led to 
the fearful conflicts in June following ; and the- 
system was abolished in July. 

ATHANASIAN CEEED. Athanasius, of 
Alexandria, was elected bishop, 326. He firmly op- 
posed the doctrines of Arius (who denied Christ's 
divinity), was several times exiled, and died in 

373- -' 

Lumby, in " History of the Creeds " (1874), asserts that; 
this creed, beginning " Quicunque wit," was not com- 
posed by Athanasius ; that it is made up of two dis- 
tinct parts, and was originally written in Latin and 
put into its present shape between 813 and 850 ; not 
connected with Athanasius's name by any trustworthy- 
authority before 809 ; set forth first in Gaul, about 
870 ; gradually extended into Italy, Britain, &c. ; ac- 
cepted by the Greek church about 1200. 

This creed asserts the procession of the Holy Ghost 
from the Father and the Son, see Filioque. 

Dr. Waterland's Critical History of this creed published 



arisen in the Church of England among both clergy 
and laity, 1870-73. 

Modifications approved by several bishops were negatived 
by the lower house in convocation (62-7) early in May, 
1872. The vote was rejected by the bishops, and the 
agitation continued. 

In a letter to the earl of Shaftesbury, 22 July, 1872, the 
archbishops of Canterbury and York expressed their 
hope of devising a way for rendering the reading of the 
creed during public worship not compulsory. 

Great meeting of laity at St. James's Hall in defence of 
the creed, 31 Jan. 1873. 

ATHEISM (from the Greek a, without, 
Theos, God, see Psalm xiv. 1). It was professed by 
Epicurus, Lucretius, and other philosophers. 
Spinoza was the defender of a similar doctrine 
(1632-1677). Lucilio Vanini publicly taught athe- 
ism in France, and was condemned to be burnt at 
Toulouse in 1619. Mathias Knutzen, of Holstein, 
openly professed, atheism, and had upwards of a 
thousand disciples in Germany about 1674 ; he tra- 
velled to make proselytes, and his followers were 
called Oonscienciaries, because they held that there 
is no other deity than conscience. " Though a small 
draught of philosophy may lead a man into atheism, 
a deep draught will certainly bring him back again 
to the belief of a God." Lord Bacon. Atheism pre- 
vailed during the French republic, 1794 till 1801 ; 
see Materialism. Bill to prevent Atheists sitting- 
in Parliament introduced by lord Bedesdale, read 
first time, 7 March, 1882 ; dropped. 



ATHENJEA. 



69 



ATHENS. 



ATHEN2EA were great festivals celebrated at 
Athens in honour of Minerva. One was called 
Panathenaea, the other Chalcea ; they are mythi- 
cally said to have been instituted by Erechtheus or 
Orpheus, 1397 or 1495 B.C. ; and revived by Theseus, 
who caused them to be observed by all the Athenians, 
the first every fifth year, 1234 B.C. Plutarch. 

ATHENAEUM, a place at Athens, sacred to 
Minerva, where the poets and philosophers recited 
their compositions. That of Rome, of great beauty, 
was erected by the emperor Adrian, 133. — The 
Athen^um Club of Loudon was formed i6Feb. 1824, 
for the association of persons of scientific and literary 
attainments, and artists, and noblemen and gentle- 
men, patrons of learning, &c, by the earls of Liver- 
pool and Aberdeen, the marquis of Lansdowne, Dr. 
T. Young, Moore, Davy, Scott, Mackintosh, Fara- 
day, Croker, Chantrey, Lawrence, and seven future 
premiers. The clubhouse was erected in 1829-30 on 
the site of the late Carlton palace ; it is of Grecian 
.architecture, and the frieze is an exact copy of 
the Panathenaic procession which formed the frieze 
of the Parthenon. — The Liverpool Athenaeum was 
opened 1 Jan. 1799. — At Manchester, Bristol, and 
many other places, buildings under this name, and 
for a like purpose, have been founded. — The 
Athenaeum, a weekly literary and scientific journal 
in relation to literature, science, and the fine arts, 
originated by James Silk Buckingham, first appeared 
in 1828. John Francis, publisher, 1831-82, died 6 
April, 1882. Rev. Henry Stebbing, first editor, died 
22 Sept. 1883, aged 84. The Athenmum became the 
property of Mr. C. W. Dilke in 1830, and speedily 
became an influential critical journal. See Trials, 
*8 7 S. 

ATHENE, Y (Galway). Near here the Irish 
were totally defeated, and a gallant young chief, 
Feidlim O'Connor, slain 10 Aug. 1316. 

ATHENS, the capital of ancient Attica, and of 
modern Greece. The first sovereign mentioned is 
Ogyges, who reigned in Boeotia, and was master of 
Attica, then called Ionia. Tradition states that in 
his reign (about 1764 B.C.) a deluge laid waste the 
country, which so remained till the arrival of the 
Egyptian Cecrops and a colony, by whom the land 
was re-peopled, and twelve cities founded, 1556 B.C. 
The city, said to have been first called Cecropia, 
was afterwards named Athens in honour of Minerva 
(Athene), her worship having been introduced by 
Erechtheus, 1383 B.C. Athens was ruled by seven- 
teen successive kings (487 years), by thirteen 
perpetual archons (316 years), seven decennial ar- 
chons (70 years) , and lastly by annual archons (760 
years). It attained great power, and no other city 
has had, in a short space of time, so great a number 
of illustrious citizens. The ancients called Athens 
Astu, the city, by eminence, and one of the eyes of 
Greece ; see Greece. The early history is mythical 
and the dates conjectural. 

Population of modern Athens, 1871, 48,107; 1879, 
63,374 ; 1889, 107,746. 

The MS. text of the recovered work of Aristotle on 
the Constitution of Athens, was published by the 

British Museum Jan. 1891 

[See Aristotelian Philosophy.] 

Arrival of Cecrops [1558 Hales, 1433 Clinton] b.c. 
Usher ......... 1556 

The Areopagus established 1507 

Deucalion arrives in Attica 1502 

Reign of Amphictyon .... [1499 7/.] '497 
The Panathentean Games . . . [1481 H.] 1495 

Erichthonius reigns 1487 

Erechtheus teaches husbandry I3 8 3 

Eleusiiiian mysteries introduced by Eumolpus . . 1356 



Erechtheus killed in battle with the Eleusinians b. c. 1347 
iEgeus invades Attica, and ascends the throne . . 1283 
He throws himself into the sea, and is drowned ; 

hence the name of the iEgeau Sea. Eusebius. . 1235 
Theseus, his son, succeeds, and reigns 30 years . ,, 
He collects his subjects into one cily, and names it 

Athens 1234 

Eeign of Mnestheus, 1205; of Demophoon . . . 1182 

Court of Ephetes established 11 79 

The Prianepsse instituted 1178 

Melanthus conquers Xuthus in single combat and is 

chosen king 1128 

Reign of Codrus, his son, the last king . . . 1092 
In a battle with the Heraclidse, Codrus is killed : he 
had resolved to perish ; the oracle having declared 
that the victory should be with the side whose 

leader was killed 1070 

Royalty abolished ; — Athens governed by archons, 

Medon the first (1070 H.) 1044 

Alcmeon, last perpetual archon, dies . . . . 753 
Cherops, first decennial archon .... 752 

Hippomenes deposed for his cruelty . . . . 713 
Erixias, 7th and last decennial archon, dies . . 684 

Creon, first annual archon 683 

Draco, the 12th annual archon, publishes his laws, 

said " to have been written in blood " . . . 621 
Solon supersedes them by his excellent code . . 594 
Pisistratus, the " tyrant," seizes the supreme 
power, 560; flight of Solon, 559. Pisistratus 
establishes his government, 537 ; collects a public 

library, 531 ; dies 527 

First tragedy acted at Athens, on a waggon, by 

Thespis 535 

Hipparchus assassinated by Harmodius and Aristo- 

geiton 514 

The law of ostracism established ; Hippias and the 

Pisistratidte banished 510 

Lemuos taken by Miltiades 504 

The Persian invaders defeated at Marathon . . 490 

Death of Miltiades 489 

Aristides, surnamed the Just, banished . . . 483 
Athens taken by the Persian Xerxes . . . 480 
Burnt to the ground by Mardonius . . . . 479 
Rebuilt and fortified by Themistocles ; Piraeus 

built 478 

Themistocles banished 471 

Cimon, son of Miltiades, overruns all Thrace . . 469 
Pericles takes part in public affairs, 469 ; he and 

Cimon adorn Athens, 464 ; the latter banished . 461 
Athens begins to tyrannise over Greece . . . 459 

The long wall built 457 

Literature, philosophy, and art flourish . . . 448 
The first sacred (or social) war ; (which see) . . ,, 
Tolmidas conducts an expedition into Bceotia, and 

is defeated and killed near Coronea . . . . 447 
The thirty years' truce between the Athenians and 

Lacedaemonians 445 

Herodotus said to have read his history in the 

council at Athens ,, 

Pericles obtains the government .... 444 

Pericles subdues Samos 440 

Satirical comedies prohibited at Athens . . ,, 

Alliance between Athens and Corcyra, then at war 
with Corinth, 433 ; leads to the Peloponnesian war 

(lasted 27 years) ; it began 431 

A dreadful plague, which had ravaged Ethiopia, 
Libya, Egypt, and Persia, extends to Athens, and 

continues for five years 430 

Death of Pericles of the plague . . ... 429 
Disastrous expedition against Sicily ; death of the 
commanders, Demosthenes and Nicias ; Athenian 
fleet destroyed by Gylippus .... 415-413 

Government of the " four hundred " 411 

Alcibiades defeats the Lacedaemonians at Cyzicus ; 

(ivhich see) 410 

Alcibiades, accused of aspiring to sovereign power, 

banished 407 

Athens victorious in a sea fight at Arginusae . . 406 
Athenian fleet destroyed by Lysander at iEgospo- 

tami 405 

He besieges Athens by land and sea ; its walls are 
destroyed, and it capitulates, and the Pelopon- 
nesian war terminates 404 

Rule of the thirty tyrants, who are overthrown by 

Thrasybulus 403 

Socrates (aged 70) put to death 399 

The Corinthian war begins ... . . 395 



ATHLONE. 



70 



ATTAINDER. 



Conon rebuilds the long walls, and fortifies the 

Piraeus b.c. 393 

Plato founds the academy 3 g 8 

"War against Sparta 378 

The Lacedaemonian fleet defeated at Naxus by 

Chabrias 376 

General peace 37 1 

Philip, king of Macedon, opposes the Athenians ; 

see Macedon 359 

Second sacred (or social) war .... 357"3S5 

First Philippic of Demosthenes 352 

Peace with Macedon 346 

Battle of Cheronsea (which see) ; the Athenians and 

Thebans defeated by Philip . . .7 Aug. 338 
Philip assassinated by Pausanias .... 336 
Athens submits to Alexander, who spares the orators 335 

Death of Alexander • 3 2 3 

The Lamiau war ; the Athenians and others rise 
against Macedon, 323 : defeated at Cranon ; 

Demosthenes poisons himself 322 

Athens surrenders to Cassander, who governs well, 

318; execution of Phocion 317 

Demetrius Poliorcetes expels Demetrius Phalereus, 
and restores the Athenian democracy, 307 ; the 
latter takes the chair of philosophy . . . , 296 
A league between Athens, Sparta, and Egypt . . 277 
Athens taken by Antigonus Gonatas, king of Mace- 
don, 268 ; restored by Aratus . . . . . 256 
The Athenians join the Achaean league . . . 229 
They join the jEtolians against Macedon, and send 

for assistance to Rome 215 

A Roman fleet arrives at Athens . . . .211 
The Romans proclaim liberty at Athens . . . 196 

Subjugation of Greece 144 

The Athenians implore assistance against the 
Romans from Mithridates, king of Pontus, whose 
general, Archelaus, makes himself master of 

Athens 88 

Athens besieged by Sylla, the Roman general ; it is 

reduced to surrender by famine- .... 86 
Cicero studies at Athens, 79 ; and Horace . . . 42 
The Athenians desert Pompey, to follow the inte- 
rests of Caesar 47 

Athens visited by the apostle Paul . . a.d. 52 
Many temples, &c. , erected by Hadrian . . 122-135 
Athens taken by Alaric, and spared from slaughter 396 
Acquired by Otho de la Roche, and afterwards 

made a duchy 1205 

Subjected by the Turks . . ' . . . . 1444 

By Mahomet II 1456 

By the Venetians 1466 

Restored to the Turks 1479 

Athens suffered much during the War of Indepen- 
dence, 1821-7. Taken by the Turks (see Greece) 

17 May, 1827 
Becomes the capital of the kingdom of modern 

Greece 1833 

British School of Archaeology (first director, 
F. C. Penrose), opened .... Nov. 1886 
See Greece. 

ATHLONE, Koscommon, Ireland, -was burnt 
during the civil war in 1641. After the battle of 
the Boyne, colonel E. Grace held Athlone for 
James II. against a besieging army, but was killed 
when it was taken by assault by Ginckel, 30 June, 
1691 ; see Aughrim. 

ATHOS. A mountain in Roumelia, termed 
Monte Santo from its numerous monasteries whose 
libraries contain many MSS. especially of the old 
and new testaments, of great antiquity. Professor 
Lambros is preparing a catalogue, 1889. 
By a great fire in the forests, many monasteries and 

hermitages were destroyed, and about 12 monks 

or hermits perished, reported about . 2 Aug. 1890 
A monastery was burnt about . . 14 June 1891 

ATLANTA, Georgia, population, 1890, 
65,533, see United States, 1864. 

ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH, see Electric 
Telegraph, under Electricity. 

ATLAS, see Mm. 

ATMOLYSIS, a method of separating the 



constituent gases of a compound gas (such as at- 
mospheric air) by causing it to pass through a vessel 
of porous material (such as graphite) ; first made 
known in Aug. 1863, by the discoverer, the late 
professor T. Graham, F.E.S., master of the mint. 

ATMOSPHERE, see^V. 

ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAYS. The idea 
of producing motion by atmospheric pressure was- 
conceived by Papin, the French engineer, about 
1680. Experiments were made on a line of rail,, 
laid down across Wormwood Scrubs, London, be- 
tween Shepherd's Bush and the Great Western, 
railroad, to test the efficacy of atmospheric tubes, 
the working of the air-pump, and speed of carriages 
upon this new principle on railroads in June, 1840^ 
and then tried for a short time on a line between, 
Croydon and London, 1845. Atmospheric pressure 
was also tried and abandoned, in 1848, on the South 
Devon line. An atmospheric railway was com- 
menced between Dalkey and Killiney, in the vicinity 
of Dublin, in Sept. 1843; opened 29 March, 1844; 
discontinued in 1855. A similar railway was pro- 
posed to be laid down in the streets of London by Mr. 
T. \V. llammell, in 1857. Mr. Rammell's Pneumatic 
Railway was put in action successfully at the Crystal 
Palace on 27 Aug. 1864, and following days. Art 
act for a pneumatic railway between the Waterloo 
railway station and Whitehall was passed in July r 
1865. Atmospheric pressure was proposed for a 
submarine railway fromDover to Calais, in 1869 ; see 
Pneumatic Despatch. 

ATOMIC THEORY, in chemistry, deals with 
the indivisible particles of all substances. The- 
somewhat incoherent labours of his predecessors- 
(such as "Wenzel, in 1777) were reduced by John 
Dalton to four laws of combining proportion, which 
have received the name of "Atomic Theory." His- 
" Chemical Philosophy," containing the expositions 
of his views, appeared in 1808. Dr. C. Daubeny's 
work on the Atomic Theory was published in 1850. 
In his standard of Atomic ivcights Dalton takes- 
hydrogen as 1 . Berzelius, who commenced his elabo- 
rate researches on the subject in 1848, adopts oxygen 
as IOO. The former standard is used in this country,, 
the latter on the continent. The theory is ac- 
cepted by some, and rejected by other chemists. In 
1855 Hinrichs propounded a new hypothetical 
science, Atomechanics, in which pantogen, composed 
of panatoms, is regarded as the primary chemical 
principle. 

ATOMS. Democritus (about 400 B.C.) held" 
that the only existing things are innumerable in- 
destructible atoms, varying in form, and combined 
in obedience to mechanical laws, and that the soul 
consists of free, smooth, round atoms like those of 
fire ; and that nothing happens by chance. His 
philosophy was adopted by Epicurus (about 306 
B.C.), whose doctrines are luminously expounded! 
by Lucretius in his great poem, "De JRerum JS T a- 
turu" (On the Nature of Things), 57 B.C. The 
atomic philosophy, in a modified form, was recog- 
nised by Gassendi, who died 1655 A.n. Sir Wm. 
Thomson's discourse "On the Size of Atoms,'' at 
the Royal Institution, 2 Feb. 1883, is printed in 
the "Proceedings," vol. x. 

ATREBATES, a Belgic people, subdued by 
Cajsar, 57 B.C. ; see Artois. 

ATTAINDER, Acts OF, whereby a person 
not only forfeited his land, but his blood was at- 
tainted, have been numerous. Two witnesses in 
pases of high treason are necessary where corruption 
of blood is incurred, unless the party accused shall 



ATTICA. 



71 



ATWOOD'S MACHINE. 



confess, or stand mute, 7 & 8 Will. III. 1 694-5 . Black- 
stone. The attainder of lord Wm. Russell, who was 
beheaded in Lincoln' s-inn- fields, 21 July, 1683, was 
reversed under William, in 1689. The rolls and re- 
cords of the acts of attainder passed in the reign of 
James II. were cancelled and publicly burnt, 2 Oct. 
1695. Sir John Fenwiek was the last person 
executed by act of attainder, 28 Jan. 1697. 
Amongst the last acts reversed was the attaint 
of the children of lord Edward Fitzgerald (who was 
implicated in the rebellion in Ireland of 1798), 
I July, 1819. In 1814 and 1833 the severity of at- 
tainders was mitigated. Several attainders reversed 
about 1827, and one in 1853 (the earl of Perth). 

ATTICA, see Athens. 

ATTILA, surnamed the "Scourge of God," and 
thus distinguished for his conquests and his crimes, 
having ravaged the eastern empire from 445 to 450, 
when he made peace with Theodosius. He invaded 
the western empire, 450, and was defeated by Aetius 
at Chalons, 451; he then retired into Pannonia, 
where he died through the bursting of a blood vessel 
on his nuptials with Ildico, a beautiful virgin, 453. 

ATTORNEY (from tour, turn), a person quali- 
fied to act for another at law. The number in 
Edward III.'s reign was under 400 for the whole 
kingdom. In the 32nd of Henry VI., 1454, a law 
reduced the practitioners in Norfolk, Norwich, and 
Suffolk, from eighty to fourteen, and restricted their 
increase. The number of attorneys practising in 
the United Kingdom was said to be 13,824 (1872). 
The qualifications and practice of attorneys and 
solicitors are now regulated by acts passed in 1843, 
i860, 1870, and 1874. By the Supreme Judicature 
Act all attorneys styled solicitors since Nov. 1875. 
See Solicitors. 

ATTORNEY- GENERAL, a law officer of 
the crown, appointed by letters patent. He has to 
exhibit informations and prosecute for the king in 
matters criminal, and to file bills in exchequer, for 
any claims concerning the crown in inheritance or 
profit. Others may bring bills against the king's 
attorney. The first attorney-general was William 
Bonneville, 1277. 

1660. Sir Jeffrey Palmer. 

1670. Sir Heneage Finch, afterwards earl of Nottingham. 
1673. Sir Francis North, knt., afterwards lord Guildford. 
1675. Sir William Jones. 
1679. Sir Cresvel Levinz, or Levinge, knt. 
1681. Sir Robert Sawyer, knt. 
1687. Sir Thomas Powis, knt. 
1689. Henry Pollexfen, esq. 
. „ Sir George Treby, knt. 

1692. Sir John Summers, knt., afterwards lord Somers. 

1693. Edward Ward, esq. 

1695. Sir Thomas Trevor, knt. , afterwards lord Trevor. 

1701. Edward Northey, esq. 

1707. Sir Simon Harcourt, knt. 

1708. Sir James Montagu, knt. 

1710. Sir Simon Harcourt, again ; aft. lord Harcourt. 

,, Sir Edward Northey, knt. 
1718. Nicholas Lechmere, esq., aft. lord Lechmere. 
1720. Sir Robert Raymond, aft. lord Raymond. 
1724. Sir Philip Yorke, aft. carl of Hardwieke. 
1734. Sir John Willes, knt. 
1737. Sir Dudley Ryder, knt. 
1754. Hon. William Murray, aft. earl of Mansfield. 

1756. Sir Robert Henley, knt., aft. earl of Northiiigton. 

1757. Sir Charles Pratt, knt., afterwards lord Camden. 

1762. Hon. Charles Yorke. 

1763. Sir Fletcher Norton, knt., aft. lord Grantley. 

1765. Hon. Charles Yorke, again ; afterwards lord Morden, 

and lord chancellor; see Cha,ncellors. 

1766. William de Grey, afterwards lord Walsingliam. 
1771. Edward Thurlow, esq., afterwards lord Thurlow. 
1778. Alex. Wedderburn, aft. lord Loughborough. 
1780. James Wallace, esq. 



1782. Lloyd Kenyon, esq. 

1783. James Wallace, esq. 
,, John Lee, esq. 

„ Lloyd Kenyon, again ; afterwards lord Kenyon. 

1784. Sir Richard P. Arden, aft. lord Alvanley. 
1788. Sir Archibald Macdonald. 

1793. Sir John Scott, afterwards lord Eldon. 
1799- Sir J. Mitford, afterwards lord Redesdale. 

1801. Sir Edward Law, aft. lord Ellenborough, 14 Feb. 

1802. Hon. Spencer Percival (murdered by Bellingham, 

11 May, 1812), 15 April. 

1806. Sir Arthur Pigott, 12 Feb. 

1807. Sir Vicary Gibbs, afterwards chief justice of the 

common pleas, 7 April. 

1812. Sir Thomas Plumer, afterwards first vice-chancellor 

of England, 26 June. 

1813. Sir William Garrow, 4 May. 
181 7. Sir Samuel Shepherd, 7 May. 

1819. Sir Robert Gifford, aft. lord Gifford, 24 July. 
1824. Sir John Singleton Copley, afterwards lord Lynd- 
hurst, 9 Jan. 

1826. Sir Charles Wetherell, 20 Sept. 

1827. Sir James Scarlett, 27 April. 

1828. Sir Charles Wetherell, again, 19 Feb. 

1829. Sir Jas. Scarlett, again ; aft. lord Abinger, 29 June. 

1830. SirThos. Denman, aft. lord Denman, 26 Nov. 
1832. Sir William Home, 26 Nov. 

1834. Sir John Campbell, 1 March. 
,, Sir Frederick Pollock, 17 Dec. 

1835. Sir John Campbell, again, afterwards lord Camp- 

bell (and, 1859, lord chancellor), 30 April. 
1841. Sir Thomas Wilde, 3 July. 

,, Sir F. Pollock, again ; aft. chief baron, 6 Sept. 

1844. Sir William W. Follett, 15 April. 

1845. Sir Frederick Thesiger, 4 July. 

1846. Sir Thomas Wilde, again ; afterwards lord Truro, 

and lord chancellor, 6 July. 
„ Sir John Jervis, afterwards chief justice of the 
common pleas, 13 July. 

1850. Sir John Romilly, aft. master of the rolls, 11 July. 

1851. Sir Alex. James Edmund Cockburn, 28 March. 

1852. Sir Frederick Thesiger, again ; afterwards lord 

Chelmsford, and lord chancellor, 2 March. 
,, Sir Alexander Cockburn, again ; aft. chief justice 
of common pleas and queen's bench, 28 Dec. 
1856. Sir Richard Bethell, 15 Nov. 

1858. Sir Fitzroy Kelly, 27 Feb., aft. chief baron, 1866 ; 

d. 1880. 

1859. Sir R. Bethell (since lord Westbury, and lord chan- 

cellor), 18 June. 
1S61. Sir William Atherton, 27 July. 
1863. Sir Roundell Palmer, aft. lord Selborne, and lord 

chancellor, 2 Oct. 

1866. Sir Hugh M. Cairns, aft. lord Cairns, and lord chan- 

cellor, 13 July. 
,, Sir John Rolt (made justice of appeal), 28 Oct. 

1867. Sir John Karslake, 1 July. 

868. Sir Robert Porrett Collier, 12 Dec. 
871. Sir John Duke Coleridge, aft. lord Coleridge, and 
lord chief justice, 10 Nov. 

873. Sir Henry James, Nov. 

874. Sir John Karslake, Feb. 

,, Sir Richard Baggallay, 22 April. 

875. Sir John Holker, 25 Nov. 
880. Sir Henry James, 13 May. 

885. Sir Richard E. Webster, June. 

886. Sir Charles Russell, about 6 Feb. 
„ Sir Richard E. Webster, 26 July. 

1892. Sir Charles Russell, 18 Aug. 

ATTORNEYS' AND SOLICITORS' 
ACT, passed 14 July, 1870. 

ATTRACTION, described by Copernicus, 
about 1520, as an appetence or appetite which the 
Creator impressed upon all parts of matter; by 
Kepleras a corporeal affection tendingto union, 1605. 
In 1687, sir I. Newton published his " Principia," 
containing his important researches on this subject. 
See Gravitation, Magnetism, and Electricity. Dr. 
C. William Siemens exhibited his attraction-meter 
at the lloyal Society, 1876. 

ATWOOD'S MACHINE, for proving the 
laws of accelerated motion by the falling of weights, 
invented by George Atwood ; described 1784: he 
died 11 July, 1807. 



AUBAINE. 



72 



AUGUSTIN. 



AUBAINE, a right of the French kings, which 
existed from the beginning of the monarchy, where- 
by they claimed the property of every stranger who 
died in their country, without having been na- 
turalised, was abolished by the national assembly 
in 1790-91; re-established by Napoleon in 1804, 
and finally annulled 14 July, 1819. 

AUBEROCHE, Guienne, S. France. The 
earl of Derby defeated the French, besieging this 
place, 19 Aug. 1344. 

AUCKLAND, capital of North Island (New 
Zealand), was founded Sept. 1840. The population 
of the district, in 1857, was estimated at 15,000 
Europeans, and 35,000 natives; in 1891, total 28,773. 
The seat of government was removed to Wellington 
on Cook's Strait, Dec. 1864; population in 1887, 
59,600. 

AUCTION, a kind of sale known to the Romans, 
mentioned by Cicero, Livy, and Petronius Arbiter 
(about a.d. 66). The first in Britain was about 1700, 
by Elisha Yale, a governor of Fort George, now 
Madras, in the East Indies, who thus sold the goods 
he had brought home. Auction and sales' tax 
began, 1779. Various acts of parliament have 
regulated auctions and imposed duties, in some 
cases as high as five per cent. By 8 Vict. c. 15 
(1845), the duties were repealed, and a charge im- 
posed "on the licence to be taken out by all auc- 
tioneers in the United Kingdom, of 10/." In 1858 
there were 4358 licences granted, producing 43,580^. 
The abuses at auctions, termed "knock-outs," 
caused by combinations of brokers and others, ex- 
cited much attention in Sept. 1866. An act regu- 
lating sales of land by auction was passed 15 July, 
1867. Certain sales are now exempt from being con- 
ducted by a licensed auctioneer, such as goods and 
chattels under a distress for rent, and sales under 
the provisions of the Small Debts' acts for Scotland 
and Ireland. 

AUDIANI, followers of Audssus of Mesopo- 
tamia, who, having been expelled from the Syrian 
church on account of his severely reproving the 
vices of the clergy, about 338, formed a sect and 
became its bishop. He was banished to Scythia, 
where he is said to have made many converts. His 
followers celebrated Easter at the time of the Jewish 
passover, attributed the human figure to the Deity, 
and had other peculiar tenets. 

AUDIOMETER (from audio, I hear), an in- 
strument for the measurement of the faculty of 
hearing; invented by professor Hughes. It con- 
sists of a battery of two Leclanche's cells connected 
with a simple microphone and telephone ; described 
to the Royal Society, 15 May, 1879. 

AUDIPHONE, an instrument to assist the 
partially deaf, invented by Mr. R. G. Rhodes of 
Chicago, and modified by M. Colladon of Geneva, 
in 1880. It consists of a thin sheet of hard ebonite 
rubber or card-board. This should be placed 
against the teeth, through which and other bones 
the vibrations are conveyed to the auditory nerve. 

AUDIT-OFFICE, Somerset House. Com- 
missioners for auditing the public accounts were 
appointed in 1785, and many statutes regulating 
their duties have since been enacted. 

AUDLEY'S REBELLION, see Rebellions, 
J 497- 

AUERSTADT (Prussia) . Here on 14 Oct. 1806, 
the French, under Davoust, signally defeated the 
Prussians, under Blucher ; see Jena. 

AUGHRIM, near Athlone, in Ireland, where 



on 12 July, 1691, a battle was fought between the 
Irish, headed by the French general St. Ruth, and 
the English under general Ginckel. The former 
were defeated and lost 7000 men; the latter lost 
only 600 killed and 960 wounded. St. Ruth was 
slain. This engagement proved decisively fatal to 
the interest of James II., and Ginckel was created 
earl of Athlone. 

AUGMENTATION of Poor Livings' 

OFFICE, established in 1704. 5597 clerical livings, 
not exceeding 50^. per annum, were found by the 
commissioners under the act of Anne capable of 
augmentation, by means of the bounty then 
established. 

AUGMENTATIONS COURT, established 
in 1535 by 27 Hen. VI 11. c. 27, in relation to cap. 28 
same session, which gave the king the property of 
all monasteries having 200/. a year. The court was 
abolished by Mary, 1553, and restored by Elizabeth, 
I5S8. 

AUGSBURG (Bavaria), originally a colony 
settled by Augustus, about 12 B.C. ; became a free 
city, and flourished during the middle ages. Here 
many important diets of the empire have been held. 
In a.d. 952, a council confirmed the order for the 
celibacy of the priesthood. Augsburg has suffered 
much by war, having been frequently taken by 
siege, — in 788, 1703, 1704, and, last, by the French, 
10 Oct. 1805, who restored it to Bavaria in March, 
1806. Population, 1890, 75,523. 
Augsburg Diet, summoned by the emperor Charles 
V., to settle the religious disputes of Germany, 
met 20 June, and separated . . . Nov. 1530 
Confession of Augsburg, compiled by Melanchthon, 
Luther and others, signed by the Protestant 
princes, presented to the emperor Charles V., and 
read to the diet .... 25 June, 1530 
Interim of Augsburg, a document issued by 
Charles V. : an attempt to reconcile the Catholics 
and Protestants : (it was fruitless and was with- 
drawn) read 15 May, 1548 

"Peace of Religion" signed at Augsburg, 25 Sept. 1555 
League of Augsburg, for maintenance of the treaties 
of Minister, Nimeguen : a treaty between Holland 
and other powers against France, signed 9 July, 1686 

AUGURY. Husbandry was in part regulated 
by the coming or going of birds, long before the 
time of Hesiod. Three augurs, at Rome, with ves- 
tals and several orders of the priesthood, were 
formally constituted by Numa, about 710 B.C. The 
number increased, and was fifteen at the time of 
Sylla, 81. The college of augurs was abolished by 
Theodosius about a.d. 390. 

AUGUST, the sixth month of the Roman 
year (originally called Sextilis, or the sixth from 
March), by a decree of the senate received its pre- 
sent name in honour of Augustus Caesar, in the 
year 8 B.C., because in this month he was created 
consul, had thrice triumphed in Rome, added Egypt 
to the Roman empire, and made an end of the 
civil wars. He added one day to the month, making 
it 31 days. The appearance of shooting stars on 
the 10th of Aug. was observed in the middle ages, 
when they were termed " St. Lawrence's tears." 
Their periodicity was noticed by Mr. Forster early 
in the present centuiy. See under France, 10 
August, 1792. 

AUGUSTAN ERA began 14 Feb. 27 B.C., 
or 727 years after the foundation of Rome. 

AUGUSTIN or Austin Friars, a religious 
order, which ascribes its origin to St. Augustin,. 
bishop of Hippo, who died 430. They first appeared 
about the nth century, and the order was consti- 
tuted by pope Alexander IV., 1256. The rule re- 



AULIC COUNCIL. 



73 



AUSTEALASIA. 



quires poverty, humility, and chastity. Martin 
Luther was an Augustin monk. The Augustins 
held the doctrine of free grace, and were rivals of 
the Dominicans. The order appeared in England 
soon after the conquest, and had 32 houses at the 
suppression, 1536. One of their churches, at Austin 
Friars, London, erected 1354, and since the Be- 
formation used by Dutch pi-otestants, was partially 
destroyed by fire, 22 Nov. 1862. It was restored, 
and reopened, 1 Oct. 1865. A religious house of 
the order, dedicated to St. Monica, mother of 
Augustin, was founded in Hoxton-square, London, 
1864. 

AULIC COUNCIL, a sovereign court in 
Germany, established by the emperor Maximilian I., 
being one of the two courts, the first called the 
Imperial Chamber civil and criminal, instituted at 
"Worms, 1495, and afterwards held at Spires and 
Wetzler, and the other the Aulic council at Vienna, 
1506. These courts having concurrent jurisdiction, 
were instituted for appeals in particular cases from 
the courts of the Germanic states. 

AUEAT (N. W. France). Here, on 29 Sept. 
1364, the English, under John Chandos, defeated 
the French and captured then- leader Du Guesclin. 
Charles of Blois, made duke of Brittany by the 
king of France, was slain, and a peace was made in 
April, 1365. 

AUEICULAE CONFESSION. The con- 
fession of sin at the ear (Latin, auris) of the priest 
was an early practice. It is incorrectly stated to have 
been forbidden in the 4th century by Nectarius, arch- 
bishop of Constantinople. It was enjoined by the 
council of Lateran in 1215, and by the council of 
Trent in 1551. It was one of the six articles of 
faith enacted by our Henry VIII. in 1539, but was 
abolished in England at the Beformation. Its re- 
vival here has been attempted by the church party 
called Puse)ites, Tractarians, or Bitualists. 
The rev. Alfred Poole, a curate of St. Barnabas, Knights- 
bridge, was suspended by his bishop from his office for 
practising auricular confession in June, 1858, and the 
suspension was confirmed in Jan. 1859. Much excite- 
ment was created by a similar attempt by the rev. 
Temple West at Boyne Hill, in Sept. 1858. 
In May, 1873, 483 clergymen of the Church of England 
presented a petition to convocation for the education, 
selection, and licensing of duly qualified confessors, in 
accordance with the provisions of canon law. Strongly 
disapproved of by the bishops. 
Letter from the bishop of London asserting that confes- 
sion should be to God ; that to the minister optional, 
21 July, 1873. 
Archdeacon Denison (in a letter) declares war against all 

opposing auricular confession, 22 Aug. 1873. 
96 peers send an address against auricular confession to 
the archbishop of Canterbury about 9 Aug. 1877. 
For refusal of confessors to give evidence, see 

Ireland March 1887 

See Holy Cross. 

AUEIFLAMMA orOBIFLAMME, thenational 
banner mentioned in French history, belong- 
ing to the abbey of St. Denis, and suspended over 
the tomb of that saint. Louis le Gros was the first 
king who took this standard from the abbey to 
battle, 1 124. Henault. It appeared for the last 
time at Agincourt, 25 Oct. 1415. Tillet. Others 
6ay at Montlhery, 16 July, 1465. 

AUEOEA, FRIGATE, sailed from Britain in 
1771, to the East Indies, and was never again 
heard of. — Aurora, daily papal newspaper, ap- 
peared at Borne 1 June, 1880. 

AUEOE.E BOEEALES and AUS- 

TEALES (Northern and Southern Polar Lights), 
though rarely seen in central Europe, are frequent 



in the ai-ctic and antarctic regions. In March, 1716, 
an aurora borealis extended from the west of Ire- 
land to the confines of Bussia. The whole horizon 
lat. 57° N. was overspread with continuous haze of 
a dismal red during a whole night, Nov. 1765. — 
Mr. Foster, the companion of captain Cook, saw 
the aurora in lat. 58 S. The aurora is now attri- 
buted to the passage of electric light through the 
rarefied air of the polar regions. In August and 
September, 1859 (and about 24 Oct. 1870), when 
brilliant aurorse were very frequent, the electric 
telegraph wires were seriously affected, and com- 
munications interrupted. Aurora? were seen at Borne 
and Basel, and also in Australia. A magnificent 
aurora appeared in New York and other states, 
evening of 13 Feb. 1892. 

AUSCULTATION, see Stethoscope. 
AUSTEELITZ, a town in Moravia, where a 
battle was fought between the French and the 
allied Austrian and Bussian armies, 2 Dec. 1805. 
Three emperors commanded : Alexander of Bussia, 
Francis of Austria, and Napoleon of France. The 
killed and wounded exceeded 30,000 on the side of 
the allies, who lost forty standards, 150 pieces of 
cannon, and thousands of prisoners. The decisive 
victory of the French led to the treaty of Presburg, 
signed 26 Dec. 1805 ; see Presburg. 
AUSTIN FEIAES, see Augustin Friars. 
AUSTEALASIA, the fifth great division of 
the world. This name, originitlly given it by De 
Brosses, includes Australia, Van Diemen's Land 
(or Tasmania), New Guinea, New Zealand, New 
Britain, New Caledonia, &c, mostly discovered 
within two centuries. Accidental discoveries were 
made by the Spaniards as early as 1526 ; but the 
first accurate knowledge of these southern lands is 
due to the Dutch, who in 1606 explored a part of 
the coast of Papua or New Guinea. Torres, a 
Spaniard, passed through the straits which now bear 
his name, between that island and Australia, and 
gave the first correct report of the latter, 1606. 
The Dutch continued their discoveries. Grant in 
1800, and Hinders again (1801-5) completed the 
survey. M'Culloch. Estimated population of the 
Australasian colonies in 1891, 3,932,000. See 
Australia, &c. 

Gen. Edwardes having recommended the federal 
action of all the Australian troops for colonial 
defence, Mr. D. Gillies, premier of Victoria, com- 
municates his approval to sir H. Parkes, premier 
of New South Wales, who in his reply considers 
that the federal council act does not authorize 
this combined action, and strongly recommends 
the establishment of an Australian Federation 
with a governor-general, with a constitution like 
that of the Dominion of Canada, and desires a 
meeting of delegates from each colony to consider 

the matter 30 Oct. 1889 

Conference of delegates from all the Australian 
colonies at Melbourne to consider a scheme of 
Australasian federation and federal defence ; Mr. 
Duncan Gillies elected chief representative 6 Feb. 1890 
Sir H. Parkes' motion for the union of the colonies 
under one government unanimously adopted 

13 Feb. ,, 
Loyal address to the queen voted, and the meeting 

of a national convention in 1891 agreed to 14 Feb. „ 
Mr. Goschen's plan for uniform colonial postage 
(zhd.) accepted by all the colonies, reported May- 
June, 1890; to begin .... 1 Jan. 1891 
The federal council meets at Hobart ; Victoria, 
Queensland, and Tasmania represented; an ad- 
dress to the Queen respecting trade voted 

20-24 Jan. ,, 

National Australasian Federation Convention, chief 

delegates : New South Wales, sir Henry Parkes ; 

Victoria, hon. James Munro; Queensland, sir 

Samuel Griffith ; South Australia, hon. Thomas 



AUSTRALASIAN ASSOCIATION. 74 



AUSTRALIA. 



Playford ; Tasmania, hon. P. O. Fysh ; New 
Zealand, sir George Grey ; Western Australia, 
hon. John Forrest ; sir Henry Parkes elected pre- 
president ; sir Samuel Griffith, vice-president ; 
meeting in the legislative chamber, Sydney, n 
a.m. At the evening banquet, principal toast, 
" One people, one destiny " . . .2 March, 1891 

The title, the " Commonwealth of Australia," 
adopted by the convention (26 to 13) 1 April, „ 

The federal constitution adopted, 9 April, to be 
accepted by the several colonies and confirmed by 
the British parliament. The Victoria parliament 
requires the title to be changed from " Common- 
wealth" to " Federation" . . . 2t July, „ 

AUSTRALASIAN ASSOCIATION, . for 

the advancement of science, was founded mainly 
by the exertions of prof. Liversidge, 1886, held its 
first meeting in Sydney, Aug. 1888 ; the 2nd at 
Melbourne, 7 Jan. 1890, president baron von 
Mueller, hon. sec. prof. W. B. Edwin Spencer; 
3rd Christchurch, New Zealand, 15 Jan. 1891 ; 
4th Hobart, Tasmania, 7 Jan. 1892. 

AUSTRALIA (formerly New Holland), the 
largest island and smallest continent ; estimated 
area about 2,954,417 square miles, including 
five provinces — New South Wales, Victoria (formerly 
Port Phillip) , South Australia, West Australia (or 
Swan River), and Queensland (all which see). 
Population, with Tasmania and New Zealand, in 
1871, about 1,958,650; 1874, 2,334,210; 1878, 
2,705,700; 1882,2,936,409; 1888,3,546,725. 

Mr. R. H. Major, in 1872, alleged that Australia was 

known to the French prior to ... . 1531 
Alleged discovery by Manoel Godiuho de Eredia, a 

Portuguese 1601 

The Dutch also discover Australia . . March, 1606 
The coast surveyed by Dutch navigators ; north, by 
Zeachen, 1618 ; west, by Edels, 1619 ; south, by 
Nuyts, 1627 ; north, by Tasmnn .... 1627 
Tasman coasts S. Australia, and Van Diemen's 

Land 1642-4 

Terra Australia (Western Australia) named New 

Holland by order of the States-General . . 1665 
Wm. Dampier explores the W. and N. W. coasts, 

1684-90 
William Dampier lands in Australia . . Jan. 1686 
Explorations of Willis and Carteret . . . 1763-6 
Capt. Cook, sir Joseph Banks, and others, land at 
Botany Bay, and name the country " New South 

Wales" 28 April, 1770 

Exploration of Furneaux 1773 

Governor Arthur Phillip founds Sydney near Port 

Jackson, with 1030 persons . . . 26 Jan. 1788 
[The 82nd anniversary of this event was kept with 

much festivity, 26 Jan. 1870.] 
Great distress in consequence of the loss of the 

store-ship " Guardian," captain Biou . . . 1790 
Voyages of Bligh . . . ■ . . . . 1789-92 

First church erected Aug. 1793 

Government gazette first printed . . . . 1795 

Bass's straits discovered by Bass and Flinders . 1798 

First brick church built 1802 

Colony of Van Diemen's land (now Tasmania) estab- 
lished 1S03 

Grant, 1800, and Flinders survey the coasts of Aus- 
tralia 1801-5 

Insurrection of Irish convicts quelled . . . 1804 
Governor Bligh for his tyranny deposed and sent 

home . 1808 

Superseded by governor Macquarie . . . . 1809 
Expeditions into the interior by Wentworth, Law- 
son, Bloxland, 181 3 ; Oxley, <fec. . . . 1817-1823 
Population, 29,783 (three-fourths convicts) . . 1821 
West Australia formed into a province . . . 1829 

Legislative council established ,, 

Sturt's expeditions into South Australia . . 182S-31 
South Australia erected into a province . Aug. 1834 
Sir T. Mitchell's expeditions into E. Australia . 1831-6 
First Roman Catholic bishop (Polding) arrives, 

Sept. 1835 
Port Phillip (now Victoria) colonised . . Nov. ,, 
First Church of England bishop of Australia 
(Broughton) arrives June, 1836 



Colony of South Australia founded . -. . Dec. 1836 
Eyre's expedition overland from Adelaide to King 

George's Sound 1836-7 

Melbourne founded Nov. 1837 

Capt. Grey explores N. W. Australia . . . 1837-9 
Count Strzelecki explored New South Wales and 
Tasmania, 1838-43; discovered gold-fields inBath- 
urst, Wellington, &c. (kept secret by sir George 

Gipps) 1839 

Suspension of transportation ,, 

Strzelecki explores the Australian Alps ; discovers 

Gipps' land ; Eyre explores west Australia . . 1840 
Great exertions of Mrs. Chisholm ; establishment 

of " Home for Female Emigrants " . . . 1841-6 
Census — 87,200 males ; 43,700 females . . . 1841 
Very numerous insolvencies .... 1841-2 

Incorporation of city of Sydney .... 1842 
Landor and Lefroy explore Western Australia . . 1843 
Sturt proceeds from South Australia to the middle 

of the continent 1845 

Census (including Port Phillip) — 114,700 males ; 
74,800 females .... ... 1846 

Kennedy's 1st expedition 13 Aug. 1847 ; killed 

13 Nov. 184S 
Dr. Leichhardt's expedition leaves Moreton bay, 
Aug. 1844 ; arrives at Port Essington, 17 Dec. 
1845 ; starts again, not heard of after . 3 April, ,, 
Great agitation against transportation, which had 

been revived by earl Grey- 1849 

Port Phillip erected into a separate province as 

Victoria 1850 

Gold discovered by Mr. Hargreaves, &c* . _ . 1851 
Census — males, 106,000; females, 81,000 (exclusive 

of Victoria, 80,000) ,, 

Mints established March, 1853 

Transportation ceased . . . . . . ,, 

Gregory's explorations of interior . . 1848,1855-8 
Deatli of archdeacon Cowper (aged 80), after about 

fifty years' residence July, 185S 

Queensland made a province . . . 4 Dec. 1859 
J. M'Douall Stuart's expeditions . . . 1858-62 
Expedition into the interior under Mr. Landells 

organised Aug. i860 

Robert O'Hara Burke, Wm. John Wills, and others, 

start from Melbourne . . . .20 Aug. ,, 
Burke, Wills, and two others, cross the Australian 
continent to the gulf of Carpentaria ; all perish 
on their return, except John King, who arrives 

at Melbourne Nov. 1861 

Stuart, M'Kinlay, and Landsborough cross Aus- 
tralia from sea to sea . ... . . . 1861-2 



* Gold Discovery. — Mr. Edward Hargreaves went to 
California in search of gold, and was struck with the 
similarity between the rocks and strata of California and 
those of his own district of Conobolas, some thirty miles 
west of Bathurst. On his return home, he examined the 
soil, and after one or two months' digging, found a 
quantity of gold, 12 Feb. 1851. He applied to the colonial 
government for a reward, which he readily obtained, 
with an appointment as commissioner of crown lands. 
The excitement became intense throughout the colony of 
New South Wales, rapidly spread to that of Victoria and 
other places; and in the first week of July, 1851, an 
aboriginal inhabitant, formerly attached to the Welling- 
ton mission, and then in the service of Dr. Kerr, of Wal- 
lawa, discovered, while tending his sheep, a mass of gold 
among a heap of quartz. Three blocks of quartz (from 
two to three hundred weight), found in the Murroo 
Creek, fifty miles to the north of Batliurst, contained 
112 lb. of pure gold, valued at 4000?. The "Victoria 
nugget," a magnificent mass of virgin gold, weighing 340 
ounces, was brought to England from the Bendigo dig- 
gings ; and a piece of pure gold of 106 lb. weight was also 
found. From the gold fields of Mount Alexander and 
Ballarat, in the district of Victoria, up to Oct. 1852, there 
were found 2,532,422 ounces, or 105 tons 10 cwt. of gold ; 
and the gold exported up to the same date represented 
8,863,477?. sterling. In Nov. 1856, the "James Baines " 
and " Lightning " brought gold from Melbourne valued 
at 1,200,000?. The "Welcome nugget" weighed 2019I 
ounces ; value, 8376?. 10s. iod ; found at Baker's Hill, 
Ballarat, 11 June, 1858. Between May, 1851, and May, 
i86r, gold to the value of 96,000,000?. had been brought 
to England from New South Wales and Victoria. Mr. 
Hargreaves died about 2 Nov. 189L 



AUSTRALIA. 



75 



AUSTRIA. 



Remains of Burke and Wills recovered ; public 
funeral 21 Jan. 

Strong and general resistance throughout Australia 
to the reception of British convicts in West Aus- 
tralia about June, 

Cessation of transportation to Australia in three 
years announced amid much rejoicing . 26 Jan. 

Morgan, a desperate bushranger and murderer, sur- 
rounded and shot April, 

Boundaiy disputes between New South Wales and 
Victoria, summer 1864 ; settled amicably 19 April, 

Total population of Australia, exclusive of natives, 
1,298,667 Jan. 

Royal Society of New South Wales (originally the 
Philosophical Society of Australia, founded 1821), 
established May, 

Meeting of ministers from the Australian colonies 
at Melbourne to arrange postal communication 
with Europe March, 

Exploration of South Australia ; capt. Cadell dis- 
covers mouth of the river Roper, and fine pas- 
toral country, lat. 14° S Nov. 

Despatch from lord Kimberley objecting to the 
complex tariffs between the Australian colonies, 

13 July, 

Meeting of delegates from New South Wales, Vic- 
toria, South Australia, and Tasmania ; they object 
to imperial interference with their mutual fiscal 
arrangements , 27 Sept. 

Synod of the church of Australia and Tasmania 
held at Sydney '25 Gel. 

Mr. Ernest Morrison walks across the continent 
from the Gulf of Carpentaria to Melbourne in 120 
days, starting .... about 18 Dec. 

Completion of the direct railway between Mel- 
bourne and Sydne5" June, 

Gradual formation of a defensive Australian fleet 
and army 

The Intercolonial conference of delegates on pro- 
posed annexation of New Guinea, at Sydney, re- 
commended, 6 Dec. ; and the formation of an 
Australasian federal council 7 Dec; closes 8 Dec. 

Canon Barry consecrated bishop of Sydney and 
metropolitan of Australia . . . 1 Jan. 

Mr. Charles Winnicke's exploring party mapped 
40,000 miles of unknown country, announced Jan. 

Victoria, Tasmania, and Queensland accept the 
scheme of federation, Aug. ; opposed by New 
South Wales .... about 1 Nov. 

Lord Derby's dispatch deferring consideration of 
the federal scheme 11 Dec. 

Several states protest against the German annexa- 
tions in New Guinea, &c Dec. 

British flag hoisted on Woodlark and other islands 

Jan. 

The Australian colonies proffer military contingents 
for the Soudan ; thanked by the queen . Feb. 

Federal council of Australasia act passed 14 Aug. 

Federation of the Australasian Colonies, except 
New South Wales and New Zealand, completed 
9 Dec. 1885. The formal opening of the council 
took place at Hobavt, 25 Jan. 1886. The Council 
met at Hobarton 16-19 J an - J 888 ; again 29 Jan.- 
4 Feb 

Australasian Conference requeststhe British Govern- 
ment to treat with China for restriction of 
Chinese immigration, but recommends immediate 

local action 14-16 June, 

See Imperial Defence. 

Mr. Ernest Favenc's " History of Australian Ex- 
ploration from 1788 to 1888," published 

Irish home rule delegates (Mr. Dillon, sir Thomas 
Esmond, and Mr. Deasy, M.P.'s, coolly received 
or opposed in Australia, Tasmania and' New Zea- 
land April et acq. 

The Australian colonies contribute about 31,000/. 
to the dock labourers of London, see Strikes 

Sept.-Dec. 

Australian warships launched at Newcastle-on- 
Tyne ; Pelorus, 25 Nov. 1889, Persia . 5 Feb. 

Memorial of Mr. William Bede Dalley, Australian 
statesman (1831—88), erected in the crypt of St. 
Paul's, London, unveiled . . -17 July 

Formation of the National Association (of Austra- 
lia), proposed in Melbourne . . 3 July 

The earl of Kintore, governor of South Australia' 
and party, travel overland from Adelaide (26 Feb! 



1863 



1865 



1867 



1871 



et seq.) to Brisbane, and thence by boat to Port 
Darwin in the extreme north, arriving 31 March, 
after inspecting the town, &c, he commenced 
his journey south (about 2,125 miles), 9 April, 
reaching Adelaide . . . -23 May, i8gr 

The auxiliary squadron visits all the colonies, begin- 
ning with Queensland . . . Aug. et seq. ,, 

Mr. David Lindsay, commander of the exploring 
expedition in N. and Central Australia, fitted out 
by sir Thomas Elder, arrives at Esperance bay, 
14 Oct. 1891 ; members resign; reported 13 Jan., 
and the expedition is suspended, reported 

14 March, 1892 
For the proposed Federation see Australasia, 1889^. 
et seq. 

GOVERNORS. 

Captain Arthur Phillip . . . . . . 178S 

Captain Hunter 1795 

Captain Philip G. King ...... 1800 

Captain William Bligh 1806 

Colonel Lachlan Macquarie (able and successful 

administration) 1809. 

General sir Thomas Brisbane 182Z 

Sir Richard Bourke 18311 

Sir George Gipps 183S 

Sir Charles Fitzroy, governor-general of all the Aus- 
tralian colonies, with a certain jurisdiction over 
the lieutenant-governors of Van Diemen's Land, 
Victoria, and South and Western Australia . . 1846 

Sir William T. Denison 1854 

Sir John Young, of New South Wales only . . i860 

See New South Wales. 
Acts for the government of Australia, 10 Geo. IV. 
c. 22, 14 May (1829), 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 68, 13 Aug. 
(1836), 13 <fe 14 Viet. c. 59, 5 Aug. (1850). Act for 
regulating the sale of waste lands in the Austra- 
lian colonies, 5 & 6 Vict. c. 36, 22 June (1842). 

AUSTRASIA, (Esterreich (Eastern Kingdom),, 
also called Metz, a French kingdom which lasted 
from the 6th to the 8th century. It began with the 
division of the territories of Clovis by his sons, 511, 
and ended by Carloman becoming a monk and sur- 
rendering his power to his brother Pepin, who thus 
became sole king of France, 747. 

AUSTRIA, a Hamburg company's steamship, 
sailed from Southampton to New York 4 Sept. 1858, 
with 528 persons on board. On 13 Sept. in lat. 
45° N., long. 41 30' \V., it caught fire through the 
carelessness of some one in burning some tar to> 
fumigate the steerage. Only 67 persons were saved: 
— upwards of 60 by the Maurice, a French barque ; 
the rest by a Norwegian barque. A heartrending 
account was given in the Times, 11 Oct. 1858, by 
Mr. Charles Crews, an English survivor. 

AUSTRIA, (Esterreich (Eastern Kingdom), 
anciently Noricum and part of Pannoiiia, was an- 
nexed to the Roman empire about 33 ; was overrun 
by the Huns, Avars, &c, during the 5th and 6th 
centuries, and taken from them by Charlemagne, 
791-796. He divided the government of the country, 
establishing margraves of Eastern Bavaria and 
Austria. Louis the German, son of Louis le Debon- 
naire, about 817, subjugated Radbod, margrave of 
Austria ; but in 883 the descendants of the latter 
raised a civil war in Bavaria against the emperor 
Charles the Fat, and eventually the margraves of 
Austria were declared immediate princes of the 
empire. In 1156 the margraviate was made ar» 
hereditary duchy by the emperor Frederic I. ; and! 
in 1453 it was raised to an archduchy by the emperor 
Frederic III. Rodolph, count of Hapsburg, elected 
emperor of Germany in 1273, acquired Austria in 
1278; and from 149310 1804 his descendants were 
emperors. On 1 1 Aug. 1804, the emperor Francis II. 
renounced the title of emperor of Rome and king of 
Germany (popularly termed emperor of Ger- 
many), and became hereditary emperor of Austria. 
The condition of Austria is now greatl} r improving 



AUSTEIA. 



76 



AUSTRIA. 



under the enlightened rule of the present emperor. 
The political constitution of the empire is based 
upon — i. The pragmatic sanction of Charles VI., 
1734, which declares the indivisibility of the empire 
and rules ihe order of succession. 2. The pragmatic 
sanction of Francis II., I Aug. 1804, when he became 
emperor of Austria only. 3. The diploma of Francis 
Joseph, 20 Oct. i860, whereby he imparted legisla- 
tive power to the provincial states and the council 
of the empire (Reichsrath). 4. The law of 26 Feb. 
1861, on the national representation. Self-govern- 
ment was granted to Hungary, 17 Feb. 1867. Each 
country has its parliament, and a controlling hody 
termed the Delegations, consisting of 120 members, 
half elected by Austria and half by Hungary, was 
also established in 1867. The empire was ordered 
to be named henceforth the Austro-Hungarian 
monarchy, or Austria-Hungary, by decree, 14 Nov. 
1868. On 19 Oct. 1889, the army was ordered to 
he styled ''Imperial and Royal.'' Population of 
the empire* in Oct. 1857, 35,018,988; reduced 
to 32,530,000 by the loss of Venetia, &c, in 
1866 (about 16,000,000 Slavs of different dialects). 
Population, Austria and other Cis-T.eithan pro- 
vinces, 20,396,580 (31 Dec. 1869) ; Hungary and 
Trans-Leithan provinces, 15,509,455; the empire, 
in 1880, 37,882,712; in 1890.41,345,329: revenue, 
1890,1,025,927,00011.; expenditure, 1,003,870,0003. 

Frederic II. , the last male of the house of Bamberg, 
killed in battle with the Hungarians . 15 June, 1246 

Disputed succession : the emperor Frederic II. se- 
questered the provinces, appointing Otto, count 
of Eberstein, governor in the name of the em- 
peror ; they are seized by Ladislaus, margrave of 
Moravia, in right of his wife, Frederic's niece, 
Gertrude : he died childless 1247 

Herman, margrave of Baden, marries Gertrude, and 
holds the provinces till his death . . . . 1250 

Premislas Ottocar, of Bohemia, acquires the pro- 
vinces 1254 

Compelled to cede Styria to Hungary, he makes war 
and recovers it, in consequence of a great victory 1260 

He inherits Carinthia, 1263 ; refuses to become em- 
peror of Germany, 1272 ; and to render homage to 
Rodolph of Hapsburg, elected emperor . . . 1273 

War against Ottocar as a rebel : he is compelled to 
cede Austria, Carinthia, and Styria to Rodolph . 1274 

The war renewed : Ottocar perishes in the battle of 
Marchfeld 26 Aug. 1278 

The emperor Rodolph establishes the duchy of 
Austria, &c 27 Dec. 1282 

Albert I. assassinated by his nephew while attempt- 
ing to enslave the Swiss . . . .1 May, 1308 

Successful revolt of the Swiss .... 1307-9 

They totally defeat the Austrians under duke Leo- 
pold, at Morgarten .... 16 Nov. 1315 

The Tyrol acquired 1363 

The duke Leopold imposes a toll on the Swiss ; 
which they resist with violence : lie makes war 
on them, and is defeated and slain at Sempach 

July, 1386 

Duke Albert V. obtains Bohemia and Hungary, and 
is elected emperor of Germany . . ., . . 1437 

The emperor Frederic III., as head of the house of 
Hapsburg, creates the archduchy of Austria with 
sovereign power 6 Jan. 1453 

Austria divided between him and his relatives, 
1457 ; war ensues between them till . . . . 1463 

The Low countries accrue to Austria by the mar- 
riage of Maximilian with Mary, the heiress of 
Burgundy 1477 

Also Spain, by the marriage of Philip I. of Austria, 
with the heiress of Arragon and Castile . . 1496 

* The empire is now divided into two parts, separated 
by the river Leithe. The Cis-Lcithan section comprises 
14 provincial diets : Galicia, Bohemia, Silesia, Moravia, 
lower and upper Austria, Styria, the Tyrol and Vorarl- 
berg, Salzburg, Carinthia, Carniola, Trieste, and Istria, 
Dalmatia, and the Bukovina. The Trans-Leithan section 
comprises Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia, Slavonia, and 
the tity of Fiunie. 



Bohemia and Hungary united to Austria under 

Ferdinand I 1526 

Austria harassed by Turkish invasions . . 1529-45 
Charles V., reigning over Germany, Austria, Bo- 
hemia, Hungary, Spain, the Netherlands, and 
their dependencies, abdicates (see Spain) . . 1556 
The destructive 30 years' war .... 1618-48 

War of Spanish succession 1701-14 

Mantua ceded to the emperor ... 3 Jan. 1708 
By treaty of Utrecht he obtains part of the duchy 

of Milan n April, 1713 

By treaty of Rastadt he acquires the Netherlands . 1714 
Naples, &c. , added to his dominions . 15 Nov. 1715 
Further additions on the east (Temeswar, <fec.) by 

the peace of Passarowitz 1718 

Naples and Sicily given up to Spain . . . 1735 
Death of Charles VI. , the last sovereign of the male 
line of the house of Hapsburg ; his daughter, 
Maria Theresa, becomes queen of Hungary 

20 Oct. 1740 

Silesian wars 1740-2 ; 1744-5 

Maria Theresa is attacked by Prussia, France, Ba- 
varia, and Saxony ; but supported by Great Britain 1741 
Francis, duke of Lorraine, who had married Maria 

Theresa in 1736, elected emperor . . . . 1745 
Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle : Parma, Milan, &e. ceded 

to Spain 1748 

Seven years' war ; Silesia ceded to Prussia . . 1745-63 
Galicia, &c. , acquired from Poland .... 1772 
War with France (see Battles) .... 1792-7 
By the treaty of Campo Formio, the emperor gives 
up Lombardy (which see) and obtains Venice 

15 Oct. 1797 
Treaty of Luneville (more losses) .... 1801 
Francis II. , emperor of Germany, becomes Francis I. ■ 
of Austria: declared hereditary emperor of Austria 

11 Aug. 1804 
His declaration against France . . .5 Aug. 1805 
Capitulation of his army at Ulm . . 20 Oct. ,, 
War : Napoleon enters Vienna . . 14 Nov. ,, 

Austrians and Russians defeated at Austerlitz, 

2 Dec. ,, 
By treaty of Presburg, Austria loses Venice and the 

Tyrol 1 Jan. 1806 

Vienna evacuated by the French . . .12 Jan. „ 
Dissolution of the Germanic confederation, and 

formal abdication of the emperor . . 6 Aug. ,, 
The French again take Vienna . . .13 May, 1809 
But restore it at the peace ... 24 Oct. „ 
Napoleon marries the archduchess Maria Louisa, 
the daughter of the emperor . . .1 April, 1810 

Congress at Vienna 2 Oct. 1814 

Treaty of Vienna 25 Feb. 1815 

[Italian provinces restored with additions — Lom- 

bardo-Venetian kingdom established, 7 April.] 
Francis I. dies ; Ferdinand I. succeeds . 2 March, 1835 
New treaty of commerce with England . 3 July, 1838 
Insurrection at Vienna ; flight of Metternich, 

13 March, 1848 
Insurrection in Italy, see Milan, Venice, and Sar- 
dinia . . . . . . .18 March, „ 

Another insurrection at Vienna ; the emperor flees 

to Inspruck 15-17 May, „ 

Archduke John appointed vioar-general of the 

empire 29 May, „ 

A constituent assembly meet at Vienna . 22 July, ,, 
Revolution in Hungary, see Hungary . 11 Sept. „ 
Insurrection of Vienna ; murder of count Latour, 

6 Oct. „ 
The emperor abdicates in favour of his nephew, 

Francis-Joseph 2 Dec. ,, 

Convention of Olmiitz . . . .29 Nov. 1850 
The emperor revokes the constitution of 4 March, 

1849 31 Dec. 1851 

Trial by jury abolished in the empire . 15 Jan. 1852 
Death of prince Schwartzenburg, prime minister, 

4 April, ,, 
Attempted assassination of the emperor by Libenyi, 

18 Feb. ; who was executed . . . 28 Feb. 1853 
Commercial treaty with Prussia . . 19 Feb. „ 
Austrians enter Danubian principalities . Aug. 1854 
Alliance with England and France relative to 

eastern question 2 Dec. „ 

Great reduction of the army . . -24 June, 1855 
By a concordat the pope acquires great power in the 
empire ... ... 18 Aug. „ 

Amnesty for political offenders of 1848-9, 12 July, 1856 



AUSTRIA. 



77 



AUSTRIA. 



Austria remonstrates against the attacks of the free 
Sardinian press 10 Feb. 1857 

Firm reply of count Cavour . . .20 Feb. ,, 

Austrians quit the Danube principalities . March, ,, 

Diplomatic relations between Austria and Sardinia 
broken off in consequence . . 23-30 March, „ 

Emperor and empress visit Hungary . May, ,, 

Death of marshal Radetzky (aged 92) . . 5 Jan. 1858 

Excitement throughout Europe, caused by the 
address of the emperor Napoleon HI. to the 
Austrian ambassador : — "I regret that our rela- 
tions with your government are not as good as 
formerly, but I beg of you to tell the emperor 
that my personal sentiments for him have not 
changed" 1 Jan. 1859 

The emperor of Austria replied in almost the same 
words ... ^ ... 4 Jan. „ 

Prince Napoleon Bonaparte marries princess 
Clotilde of Sardinia .... 30 Jan. „ 

Austria prepares for war ; enlarges her armies in 
Italy ; and strongly fortifies the banks of the 
Ticino, the boundary of her Italian provinces, and 
Sardinia Feb. & March, ,, 

Lord Cowley at Vienna on a " mission of peace," 

27 Feb. „ 

Intervention of Russia — proposal for a congress ; 
disputes respecting the admission of Sardinia 
— Sardinia and France prepare for war, 

March <fc April, „ 

Austria demands the disarmament of Sardinia and 
the dismissal of the volunteers from other states 
within three days .... 23 April, ,, 

This demand rejected . . . .26 April, „ 

The Austrians cross the Ticino . . 26 April, ,, 

The French troops enter Piedmont . . 27 April, ,, 

The French emperor declares war (to expel the 
Austrians from Italy) . . . .3 May, ,, 

Resignation of count Buol, foreign minister ; ap- 
pointment of count Rechberg . 13-18 May, „ 

The Austrians defeated at Montebello, 20 May ; at 
Palestro, 30-31 May : at Magenta, 4 June ; at 
Malegnano (Marignano) . . . .8 June, ,, 

Prince Metternich dies, aged 86 (he had been 
actively engaged in the wars and negotiations of 
Napoleon I.) n June, ,, 

Austrians defeated at Solferino (near the Mincio) ; 
the emperors of Austria and France and king of 
Sardinia present .... 24 June, „ 

Armistice agreed upon, 6 July ; the emperors meet, 

11 July ; the preliminaries of peace signed at Villa 
Franca (Lombardy given up to Sardinia, and 
an Italian confederation proposed to be formed), 

12 July, ,, 
Manifesto justifying the peace issued to the army, 

12 July ; to the people . . . .15 July, ,, 
Patent issued, granting greatly increased privileges 

to the Protestants, — announced . . Sept. ,, 

Conference between the envoys of Austria and 
France at Zurich ... 8 Aug. to Sept. ,, 

Many national reforms proposed . . . Sept. ,, 

Treaty of Zurich, confirming the preliminaries cf 
Villa Franca, signed . . . .10 Nov. ,, 

Decrees removing Jewish disabilities, 

6, 10 Jan., 18 Feb. 1S60 

Patent issued for the summoning the great imperial 
council (Reichsrath), composed of representatives 
elected by the provincial diets . . 5 March, „ 

Discovery of great corruptions in the army financial 
arrangements, a deficiency of about 1,700,000?. dis- 
covered ; general Eynatten commits suicide ; 82 
persons arrested March, ,, 

Austria protests against the annexation of Tuscany, 
&c, by Sardinia March, ,, 

Baron Briick, suspected of complicity in the army 
frauds, dismissed 20 April ; commits suicide, 

23 April, ,, 

The Reichsrath assembles, 30 May ; addressed by 
the emperor 1 June, ,, 

Liberty of the press further restrained. . July, ,, 

Unsettled state of Hungary (which see) . July-Oct. ,, 

Friendly meeting of the emperor and the regent of 
Prussia at Tciplitz .... 26 July, ,, 

Free debates in the Reichsrath ; strictures on the 
concordat, the finances, &c. ; proposals for sepa- 
rate constitutions for the provinces, Aug. &■ Sept. ,, 

The Reichsrath adjourned ... 29 Sept. ,, 



Diploma conferring on the Reichsrath legislative 
powers, the control of the finances, <fec, a mani- 
festo issued to the populations of the empire (not 
well received) 20 Oct. i860 

Meeting of the emperor with the emperor of Russia 
and prince regent of Prussia at Warsaw : no im- 
portant result 20-26 Oct. „ 

The government professes non-intervention in 
Italy, but increases the army in Venetia, 

Oct. & Nov. „ 

The empress goes to Madeira for health . Nov. 

Sale of Venetia, publicly spoken of, is repudiated in 

Dec. , y 

Ministerial crisis : M. Schmerling becomes minister 
— more political concessions . . .13 Dec. , r 

The proscribed Hungarian, count Teleki, at Dres- 
den, is given up to Austria, which causes general 
indignation, about 20 Dec. ; he is released on parole 

31 Dec. „ 

Amnesty for political offences in Hungary, Croatia, 
Republished 7 j an . 1861 

Reactionary policy of the court leads to increased 
general disaffection . . . Jan. &: Feb. , r 

The statutes of the new constitution for the 
Austrian monarchy published . . .26 Feb. 

Civil and political rights granted to Protestants,' 
throughout the empire except in Hungary and 
Venice 8 April, ,, 

Meeting of Reichsrath— no deputies present from 
Hungary, Croatia, Transylvania, Venetia, or Istria 

29 April, ,, 

Ministry of marine created .... Jan. 1862 

Inundation of the Danube, causing great distress, 

4 Feb. „ 

Increased taxation proposed . . . March, 

At an imperial council, the emperor present, the 
principle of ministerial responsibility is resolved 
on 26 April, ,, 

Deficiency of 1,400,000?. in financial statement — 
indignation of the Reichsrath . . . June, 

Amnesty to condemned political offenders in Hun- 
gary proclaimed z g Nov. „ 

Reduction in the army assented to ; and a personal 
liberty law (resembling our habeas corpus act) 
passed Dec. 

Insurrection in Russian Poland, Jan. ; Austria joins 
in the intercession of England and France April 1863 

Meeting of the German sovereigns (except kings of 
Prussia, Holland, and Denmark) with the emperor 
of Austria at Frankfort, by his invitation ; the 
draft of a reform of the federal constitution 
agreed to X 6_ 3I Aug 

Transylvanian deputies accept the constitution, 
and take seats in the Reichsrath . . 20 Oct! 

Austria joins Prussia in war with Denmark (see 
Denmark) Jan . l86 

Galicia and Cracow declared to be in a state of siege 

29 Feb. ,,. 

The Archduke Maximilian becomes emperor of 
Mexico (see Mexico) .... April 

The emperor and theking of Prussia meet at Carlsbad 

22 June, ,„ 

Resignation of count Rechberg, foreign minister, 
succeeded by count Mensdorfl'-Pouilly 27 Oct! 

Peace with Denmark, signed at Vienna . 30 Oct! " 

Emperor opens Reichsrath, 14 Nov. ; great freedom " 
of debate ; the state of siege in Galicia censured 

Dec. ,. 

Austria supports the confederation in the dispute 
respecting the duchies Dec. 

Apparent reunion between Austria and Prussia 

Great financial difficulty ; proposed reduction in the 
army by the chambers .... Jan. 

Contest between the government and the chambers " 

April, „ 

Reported failure of Mr. Hutt's mission to Vienna 
to promote free trade .... June' 

New ministry formed ; count Mensdorffas nominal " 
premier; counts Belcredi and Esterhazyas minis- 
ters: conciliatory measures towards Hungary 
proposed 2? July 

Convention of Gastein (see Gasteiri) signed i. ( Aug. 

Emperor's rescript suppressing the constitution, 
with the view of giving autonomy to Hungary 
(which see) 20 y e ,,i 

Rejoicings in Hungary, but dissatisfaction in Aus- 
tria, Croatia, &c Nov., Dec. 



AUSTRIA. 



78 



AUSTRIA. 



Treaty of commerce with Great Britain, signed 

16 Dec. 18 
Amnesty for Italy issued i Jan. 18 

Warm disputes with Prussia (aggressive), respecting 

the settlement of Holstein . . Jan., Mar. ,, 
Preparations for war begin . . . March, ,, 
'The archduke Albrecht made commander of the 
southern army, 6 May ; Benedek of the Northern 

12 May, „ 
War declared by Prussia, 18 June ; by Italy (which 

see) 20 June, ,, 

The Austrians enter Silesia, 18 June ; and the Prus- 
sians Bohemia 23 June „ 

'The Italians defeated by the archduke Albrecht, at 

Custozza 24 June, „ 

Prussian victories at Nachod, &c. . 27-29 June, „ 
Benedek totally defeated at Koniggratz or Sadowa 

3J ul Y. .. 
(For details of the war see Prussia and Italy.) 

The emperor cedes Venetia to the emperor Napoleon, 
and requests intervention ... 4 July, „ 

Preliminaries of peace signed at Nikolsburg, 26 July, „ 

Treaty of peace with Prussia signed at Prague, 

23 Aug. 

Treaty of peace with Italy signed at Vienna ceding 
Venetia, 3 Oct. The iron crown given up n Oct. „ 

The Quadrilateral and Venice surrendered to the 
Italians n-19 Oct. ,, 

Baron Ferdinand von Beust, late Saxon minister- 
of foreign affairs, made Austrian foreign minister 

30 Oct. ,, 

Meeting of the Reichsrath . . . 19 Nov. „ 

Commercial treaty with France (to commence 1 Jan. 
1867), signed 11 Dec. „ 

Great dissension among the nationalities of the em- 
pire Dec. ,, 

Extraordinary diet convoked (for 25 Feb.). 3 Jan. 181 

Establishment of autonomyfor Hungary announced, 
mainly the work of Von Beust ; resignation of 
Belcredi, 4 Feb. ; Von Beust made president of 
the council 7 Feb. ,, 

Rescript restoring a separate ministry for Hungary, 
count Andrassy president . . . 17 Feb. ,. 

Death of archduke Stephen (palatine of Hungary in 
1848) ... .... Feb. „ 

Commercial treaty with Italy, signed . 23 April, ,, 

Reichsrath opened at Vienna . . .20 May, ,, 

The Czechs (of Bohemia and Moravia), Croats, Sla- 
vonians, Serbs, Roumans (of Transylvania), and 
Russinians (of Galicia), protest against absorp- 
tion, and demand national legislative powers 

May & July, ,, 

Painful death of the archduchess Matilda through 
burns 6 June, ,. 

The emperor and empress crowned king and queen 
of Hungary at Buda . . . .8 June, ,, 

Von Beust made chancellor of the empire, 23 June, ,, 

The sultan visits Vienna. . . 27 July — iAug. „ 

The emperors of Austria and France meet at Salzburg 

18-23 Aug. ,, 

Arrangements for the dividing the financial affairs 
of Austria and Hungary, signed . . 13 Sept. „ 

Changes (respecting marriage and education) in the 
concordat, proposed Sept. ,, 

28 bishops demand the maintenance of the concordat 

28 Sept. „ 

Letter from the emperor to cardinal Rausch, de- 
claring for complete liberty of conscience in oppo- 
sition to the concordat ; the concordat almost 
annulled by the lower house .... Oct. ,, 

Emperor of Austria and king of Prussia meet at 
Oos, near Baden-Baden . . . .22 Oct. „ 

Emperor arrives at Paris, 23 Oct. ; leaves 5 Nov. „ 

Dualism accepted by the Reichsrath at Vienna 

Nov. „ 

New Austrian ministry under prince Auersperg 
constituted 30 Dec. ,, 

Civil marriages bill (annulling clerical jurisdiction 
over them) passed by the upper house, after sharp 
resistance, 21-23 March ; received the emperor's 
assent * 25 May, i8( 

German sharp-shooting match, held at Vienna, 

26 Jxily, ,, 

Von Beust justifies the maintenance of an army of 
800,000, n Oct. ; is made a count . . Dec. „ 

Continued opposition of the clergy to the government 

Jan. i8£ 



The frigate Radetsky blown up, about 340 lives lost 

20 Feb. 1869 
The crown prince of Prussia visits Vienna 7 Oct. „ 
The emperor visits the Bast ; — at Jerusalem, 10 
Nov. ; present at the opening of the Suez canal 

17 Nov. „ 
Successful insurrection against the conscription in 

Dalmatia, Oct; ; ceased .... Nov. „ 
The Reichsrath opened by the emperor at Vienna 

13 Dec. ,, 
Ministerial crisis, Jan. : the Cis-Leithan ministry 
resigns ; count Potocki, prime minister 

4 April, 1870 
Neutrality in the Franco-Prussian war announced 

18 July, „ 
The concordat with Rome declared to be sus- 
pended in consequence of the promulgation of 
the doctrine of papal infallibility . . 30 July, ,, 

The Reichsrath opened by the emperor ; no deputies 
from Bohemia 17 Sept. „ 

Dissension between the federal and national parties 

29 Sept., Oct. ,, 

The Reichsrath adjourned . . . . 22 Nov. ,, 

The ministry support Great Britain in opposing the 
Russian repudiation of the treaty of Paris (see 
Russia) Nov. , , 

Austrian army, 864,869 regulars ; 187,527 landwehr 
(militia) Dec. ,, 

The new German empire recognised by the emperor 

Jan. 1871 

Dismissal of Potocki ; count Hohenwart, minister 

Feb. ,, 

Meeting of the Reichsrath . . . . 20 Feb. „ 

Death of adm. Tegethoff, much lamented 7 April, ,, 

First meeting of " Old Catholics " at Vienna, 

26 July, „ 

An international exhibition at Vienna in 1873, pro- 
posed Sept. ,, 

Meeting of emperor with emperor William 6-8 Sept. ,, 

Meeting of 17 provincial diets ; struggle between 
the (Slavonian) conservatives and the (German) 
constitutionalists renewed . • -14 Sept. „ 

Political crisis : dissension between German and 
Slavonian parties, Oct. ; resignation of the Hohen- 
wart ministry 25 Oct. „ 

A ministry formed under baron Kellersperg 4 Nov. ,, 

Resignation of count Beust, the arch-chancellor ; 
much excitement 6 Nov. ,, 

Count Andrassy (see Hungary, 1849 et seq.), having 
opposed von Beust's policy of alliance with 
France, succeeds him as minister of the imperial 
household and of foreign affairs ; Von Beust to be 
ambassador at London ; Bonyay, premier of Hun- 
garian ministry 13-14 Nov. „ 

New Austrian ministry formed by prince Auer- ,, 
sperg about 25 Nov. „ 

The Reichsrath opened by the emperor with speech 
announcing political and educational reforms 

28 Dec. „ 

New constitutional law promulgated, giving the 
emperor power to order new elections of the 
chambers 13 March, 1872 

Meeting of the emperor with the emperor of Ger- 
many and other sovereigns at Berlin 6-12 Sept. ,, 

Reform bill passed changing the Reichsrath into a 
national representative assembly . 10 March, 1873 

Great international exhibition at Vienna ; opening, 

1 May, ,, 

Financial crisis through overtrading in 1872 ; 
panic in May, ,, 

Visits to Vienna ; the prince of Wales, 28 April ; 
the czar of Russia, 1 June ; the shah of Persia, 
30 July ; the king of Italy, 17 Sept. ; the emperor 
of Germany 17 Oct. „ 

Elections for the Reichsrath ; 228 constitutional- 
ists ; 125 federals, 30 Oct. ; the Reichsrath opened 
by the emperor, 5 Nov. ; 25th anniversary of the 
emperor's accession celebrated throughout the 
empire ; amnesty for political offenders . 2 Dec. ,, 

The emperor at St. Petersburg . . 13 Feb. 1874 

Encyclical letter from the pope condemning the 
new ecclesiastical laws, dated . 7 March, „ 

Protest of the Austrian bishops ; adoption by both 
parties of Cavour's cry, " A free church in a free 
state " April, ,, 

The empress at the Isle of Wight . July- Aug. ,, 



AUSTEIA. 



AUSTKIA. 



Ofenheim, railway financier connected with Messrs. 
Brassey, after long trial for fraud, acquitted at 
Vienna 27 Feb. 1875 

The emperor warmly received at Venice by the 
king of Italy 5 April, „ 

inauguration of the new bed of the Danube by the 
emperor ...... 30 May, ,, 

The czar meets the emperor at Bger . 28 June, ,, 

Death of the ex-emperor Ferdinand . 29 June, ,, 

Koloman de Tisza, president of Hungarian ministry, 

20 Oct. ,, 

Deficiency in the budget for 1876 ; revenue about 
37,800,000?. ; expenditure, 40,300,000?. . Nov. ,, 

Death of cardinal Rausoher, prince bishop of 
Vienna 24 Nov. ,, 

The czar and the emperor meet at Reichstadt ; 
agree to neutrality in the Servio-Turkish war, 

8 July, 1876 

New treaty of commerce with Great Britain, signed 

5 Dec. ,, 

Declaration of neutrality in Russo- Turkish war by 
Austrian and Hungarian ministers ; foreign 
policy to be for "the interest of the monarchy, 
to the exclusion of all antipathies and sym- 
pathies," M. de Tisza (Hungarian) . 26 June, 1877 

Resignation of Austrian ministry, 26 Jan. ; with- 
drawn 5 Feb. 1878 

Prince Auersperg announces disagreement with 
the proposed Russian conditions of peace, 19 Feb. ,, 

Death of archduke Francis Charles, the emperor's 
father 8 March, ,, 

The Sphinx burnt at sea, near Cape St. Elie, 500 
perish. 8 March, ,, 

Resignation of ministry ; withdrawn . 6, 7 July, „ 

Count Andrassy at the Berlin conference 

13 June — 13 July ,, 

Austria to occupy and administer Bosnia and 
Herzegovina, by treaty of Berlin . . 13 July, ,, 

The Austrians enter, and war ensues (see Bosnia) 

20 July, ,, 

Resignation of Auersperg ministry announced to 
the Reichsrath 22 Oct. ,, 

Bosnia occupied (except Novi Bazar) . . Oct. ,, 

Baron de Pretis fails to form a ministry . 30 Oct. ,, 

New ministry under Dr. Stremayr . 15 Feb. 1879 

Silver wedding of the emperor and empress kept, 

24 April, „ 

Liberal majority at elections . . '. nJuly, „ 

Resignation of count Andrassy, the premier ; 
ministry formed by count Edw. Taaff'e, 12 Aug. ; 
baron von Haymerle, foreign minister 22 Aug. „ 

Bismarck's visit to Vienna ; warmly received 

21-24 Sept. ,, 

Reichsrath opened ; the Czech deputies attend 

8 Oct. „ 

Andrassy formally resigns : succeeded by baron 
Haymerle as foreign minister and president of 
the council 8 Oct. „ 

Opening of all the diets of the empire . 8 June, 1880 

Sudden death of baron Haymerle . . 10 Oct. 1881 

The king and queen of Italy warmly received at 
Vienna 28-31 Oct. ,, 

Count Gustav Kalnoky becomes foreign minister, 

20 Nov. , , 

Temporary rupture with Roumania respecting the 
Danube about 27 Dec. „ 

Insurrection in Herzegovina, &c. ; several small 
engagements with Austrians, 16-31 Jan. ; insur- 
gents defeated 1882 

Provisional government said to have been formed 
by insurgents . •. . . . about 9 Feb. ,, 

Alleged defeat of insurgents at Glavalicevo and in 
other small engagements . . 16 Feb. et seq. ,, 

Severe conflict at Cettinje ; alleged great loss by 
Austrians ; small loss by insurgents . 25 Feb. ,, 

Mahometans sympathise with Christian insurgents 

Feb. „ 

Successful advance of the Austrians ; capture of 
Dragali announced .... 14 March, „ 

Insurgents adopting guerilla warfare about 12 May, ,, 

" New German People's party " formed, manifesto 
published about 29 May, „ 

Fall of a railway bridge over the Drave ; about 27 
soldiers in a train drowned . . .23 Sept. , 

Insurrection suppressed, announced . 26 Oct. ,, 

Execution of Overdank, a soldier, for attempted 
assassination of emperor . . . 20 Dec. 



600th anniversary of the establishment of the 
House of Hapsburg celebrated throughout the 
empire 27 Dec. 

Slavonic agitation against Germans and the Mag- 
yars and taxation, see Croatia., Aug. — Sept. ; con- 
ciliatory policy adopted by the government, Sept. 

Marriage of the archduke Rodolph and the princess 
Stephanie of Belgium, 10 May, 1881 ; birth of 
Princess 2 Sept. 

Much social disaffection at Vienna ; two detective 
policemen assassinated, Hlubek, Bloch . Jan. 

(Corporal Hermann Stellmacher, assassin of Bloch, 
captured), 25 Jan. ; a great conspiracy sus- 
pected ; law decreed by count Taaffe repressing 
public meetings, the press, trials by jury, <fec, 
30 Jan. ; many arrested or expelled . . Jan. 

Another policeman murdered . . .9 Feb. 

Government measures adopted by the chambers 

IS Feb. 

700 expelled at Vienna . . about 15 March, 

The crown prince and princess visit Constantinople 
17 April, et seq. 

Hugo Schenk and Schlossarek executed for murder 
of several servant girls . . . 22 April, 

Stellmacher executed .... 8 Aug. 

Hans Makart, historical painter, died . 3 Oct. 

Grand funeral at Vienna .... 6 Oct. 

For 1885; estimated revenue 504,800,0008.; ex- 
penditure 519,800,0008 Dec. 

Heavy bank frauds ; suicide of culprits . . Dec. 

Prince Adolph Auersperg, statesman, died . 5 Jan. 

Dissolution of the Reichsrath, 22 April ; meeting of 
the new Reichsrath .... 22 Sept. 

Imperial assent given to the reform act of the upper 
house 30 April, 

Cordial meeting of the Emperor and the Czar at 
Kremsier in Moravia . . . 25-26 Aug. 

Political crisis relating to duties on Russian petro- 
leum, end of May, settled . . about 2 June, 

Death of Count F. von Beust, great liberal states- 
man, ex-chancellor .... 24 Oct. 

Increased army estimates voted . . 26 Feb. 

Treaty of alliance with Germany and Italy signed 

13 March, 

Anarchists sentenced to imprisonment for dynamite 
plot 28 March, 

Successful military manoeuvres in Transylvania 

Sept. 

Panic at the Bourse at Vienna, through article in 
the Involute Russe (see Russia) . 16-17 Dec. 

Money granted for war preparations . 19 Dec. 

Defensive Treaty with Germany against Russian or 
otheraggression, 7 Oct. 1879; first published 3 Feb. 

Visit of the German Emperor William II., at Vienna 

3 Oct. 

Changes in the Taaffe ministry . . . Oct. 

Fortieth anniversary of the Emperor's accession 
celebrated by charities .... 2 Dec. 

Suicide of the Archduke Rodolph, heir to the 
throne, 30 Jan. ; solemn funeral . . 5 Feb. 

Changes in the cabinet, announced . . .March, 

New army bill as amended by the Hungarian diet 
adopted by the upper house . . 8 April, 

Catholic congress of nobles and clergy met at 
Vienna 29 April, 

Death of count Alfred Potocki, statesman, aged 72, 
about 20 May, 

The emperor and his nephew visit Berlin 

12-15 Aug. 

Temporary reconciliation of the Czechs and Ger- 
mans in Bohemia in a conference, by the inter- 
vention of the emperor . . . 17-19 Jan. 

Formation of the Anglo- Austrian printing and pub- 
lishing company in Vienna (Lord Mayor Isaacs 
and others, directors), middle . . Feb. 
[Reported unsuccessful, March, 1891.] 

Count Julius Andrassy dies in Istria . iS Feb. 

Thirty-two persons out of 62 charged, convicted of 
criminal practices in Galicia connected with emi- 
gration ; four months trial ; sentence, 4A years 
and other terms of imprisonment 12 March, 

Riot of about 1,000 workmen at Biala on the Gali- 
cian frontier, suppressed by military ; 3 men 
killed and about 14 died of wounds 23 April, 

Labour agitation, strikes with rioting in different 
provinces (see Vienna), April, 1890, gradually sub- 
sides . .... May, 



iS36 
1887 



AUSTRIA. 



80 



AUXERRE DECLARATION. 



The May day demonstration in favour of an eight 
hours labour day passes off tranquilly at Vienna, 
&c i May, 1890 

Marriage of the emperor's youngest daughter, arch- 
duchess Marie Valerie, to her cousin, the arch- 
duke Francis Salvator ... 31 July, ,, 

Edward von Bauernfeld, poet and dramatist, dies, 
aged 88 10 Aug. „ 

Austrian fleet under archduke Stephen, reviewed 
by queen Victoria off Cowes, Isle of Wight 

11 Aug. ,, 

Great loss of life and property through storms and 
floods 12-14 Aug. » 

Cordial meeting of the Austrian and German em- 
perors at Rhonstock in Silesia, 17-20 Sept., at 
Vienna I_ 8 Oct. ,, 

The archduke John of the Tuscan branch, who 
resigned his dignities and took the name of 
Johann Orth, Oct. 1889, became captain of a mer- 
chant ship, the St. Margaret, supposed to have 
been lost off the coast of S. America Aug., re- 
ported • • Oct. ,, 

The compromise between the Germans and the 
Czechs in Bohemia not effected, through the oppo- 
sition of the young Czechs ; see Bohemia 30 Nov. „ 

Coal mine explosion at Polish Ostrau ; about 50 
men perish 3 Jan. 1891 

Dissolution of the reichsrath ; liberal manifesto 
issued by the government . . -24 Jan. „ 

The archduke Franz Ferdinand d'Bste, heir to the 
emperor, warmly received at St. Petersburg, Feb. ; 
at Moscow 14 Feb. ,, 

Result of elections : German Liberals, no; Poles, 
57 ; young Czechs, 36 ; Old Czechs, 10 ; Clericals, 
31; Bohemian Conservatives, 18; Miscellaneous, 
93 ; total, 353 ; reported . . 15 March, „ 

The German Liberals and Poles support count 
Taaffe's ministry, about . . .26 March, ,, 

The reichsrath opened .... n April, ,, 

New treaty of commerce between Austria-Hungary 
and Germany, signed at Vienna . . 3 May, ,, 

The triple alliance renewed ... 28 June, „ 

Military manoeuvres at Horn, the emperor and the 
German erajjeror present . . 3 Sept. et seq. ,, 

New commercial treaty with Germany, Italy, Bel- 
gium, and Switzerland, adopted ■ by the lower 
house, 19 Jan., by the senate . . .25 Jan. 1892 

Conference of Austrian bishops at Vienna . March, ,, 

Currency reform bill passed . . . 27 May, „ 
(See Germany, Hungary, Vienna, &c.) 

Margraves or Austria. 
Leopold I., 982; Albert I., 1018 ; Ernest, 1056; Leo- 
pold II., 1075 ; Leopold III., 1096; Albert II. ,1136; Leo- 
pold IV., 1136 ; Henry II., 1142 (made a duke, 1156). 

Dukes. 

1 1 56. Henry II. 

1 1 77. Leopold V. He made prisoner Richard I. of Eng- 
land when returning incognito from the crusade, 
and was compelled to surrender him to the em- 
peror Henry VI. 

1 194. Frederic I., the catholic. 

1 198. Leopold VI., the glorious. Killed in battle. 

1230. Frederic II., the warlike. Killed in a battle with 
the Hungarians, 15 June, 1246. 
Interregnum. 

1276. Rodolph I. 

1282. Albert I. and his brother Rodolph II. Albert 
becomes emperor of Germany, 1298. 

1308. Frederic I. and Leopold I. 

1326. Frederic I. 

1330. Albert II. and Otho, his brother. 

1339. Albert II. 

1358. Rodolph IV. 

1365. Albert III. and Leopold II. or III. (killed at 
Sempach). 

1395. William I. and brothers, and their cousin Albert IV. 

141 1. The same. The provinces divided into the duchies 
of Austria and Carinthia, and the county of 
Tyrol. 

141 1. Albert V., duke of Austria; obtains Bohemia and 
Moravia ; elected king of Hungary and emperor, 
1437 ; dies, 1439 ; succeeded by his posthumous 
son, 

1439. Ladislaus, who dies childless, 1457. 

1457. The emperor Frederic III. and Albert VI. 



1493. Maximilian I., son of Frederick III. (archduke), 
emperor ; see Germany. 

Emperors. 

1804. Francis I. (late Francis II. of Germany), styled 
emperor of Austria only, n Aug. 1804 ; resigned 
empire of Germany, 6 Aug. 1806 ; died 2 Mar. 1835. 

1835. Ferdinand, his son, 2 March ; abdicated in favour 
of his nephew (his brother Francis-Charles having 
renounced his rights), 2 Dec. 1848 ; died 29 June, 
1875. 

1848. Francis-Joseph (son of Francis-Charles), born 18 
Aug. 1830 ; succeeded, 2 Dec. 1848 ; married 
24 April, 1854, to Elizabeth of Bavaria ; crowned 
king of Hungary, 8 June, 1867 ; their son, the 
archduke Rodolph, born 21 Aug. 1858 ; married 
to princess Stephanie Clotilde of Belgium, 10 
May, 1881 ; suicide, 30 Jan. 1889. 

Heir presumptive, brother, archduke Charles Louis, 
born 30 July, 1833 ; his son, archduke Francis 
Ferdinand, born 18 Dec. 1863. 

AUTHORS. See Copyrights. The Society of 
Authors established for self-defence, to maintain 
copyrights, &c, by sir W". Frederick Pollock, cardi- 
nal Manning, and others, lord Tennyson, president, 
met 18 Feb., incorporated May, 1884. Conferences 
held in March, 1887. 
It sent a deputation to the celebration of the 50th 

anniversary of the Societe des Gens de Lettres at 

Paris, 10 Dec. 1887. 

AUTO DA FE (Act of faith), the term given 
to the punishment of a heretic, generally burning 
alive, inflicted by the Inquisition {which see). 

AUTOMATON FIGURES (or An- 
DROIDES), made to imitate living actions, are of 
early invention. Archytas' flying dove was formed 
about 400 B.C. Friar Bacon is said to have made a 
brazen head which spoke, a.d. 1264. Albertus 
Magnus spent thirty years in making another. A 
coach and two horses, with a footman, a page, a 
lady inside, were made by Camus for Louis XIV. 
when a child ; the horses and figures moved na- 
turally, variously, and perfectly, 1649. Vaueanson, 
in 1738, made an artificial duck, which performed 
many functions of a real one — eating, drinking, 
and quacking ; and he also made a flute-player. 
The writing automaton, exhibited in 1769, was a 
pentagraph worked by a confederate out of sight. 
The automaton chess-player, exhibited the same 
year, was also worked by a hidden person ; so 
was the "invisible girl," 1800. Maelzel made a 
trumpeter about 1809. Early in this century, an au- 
tomaton was exhibited in London which pronounced 
several sentences with tolerable distinctness. The 
" anthropoglossus," an alleged talking-machine, 
exhibited at St. James's hall, London, July 1864, 
was proved to be a gross imposition. The exhi- 
bition of the talking-machine of professor Faber 
of Vienna, in London, began 27 Aug. 1870, at the 
Palais Uoyal, Argyll-street, W. The automatic 
chess-player at the Crystal Palace, 1873. Psycho, 
an automaton card-player, invented by J. N. Mas- 
kelyne and John Algernon Clarke, exhibited in 
London, Jan. 1875. An automaton hare was hunted 
at Hendon, near London, 9 Sept. 1876. 
Automatic machine for producing photographic 

portraits on metal for id., exhibited by Messrs. 

Salter & Co. , West Bromwich . . March, 1890 

AUTONOMISTS, a name assumed by a 
socialist party in Paris (see Possibilists) , 1887. 

AUTOTYPOGrRAPHY, a process of pro- 
ducing a metal plate from drawings, made known 
by Mr. Wallis, in April, 1863 ; it resembled Nature- 
printing {which see). 

AUXERRE DECLARATION, see France, 
May, 1 866. ■ 



AVA. 



81 



AZTECS. 



AVA, the capital of the Burmese empire from 
1364 to 1740, and from 1822 to 1838. Destroyed by 
•an earthquake in 1839. See Burmah. 

AVARS, barbarians who ravaged Fannonia, 
and annoyed the eastern empire in the 6th and 7th 
centuries, subdued by Charlemagne about 799, after 
an eight years' war. 

AVEBURY, or ABTTRY (Wiltshire). Here 
are the remains of the largest so-called Druidical 
work in this country. They have been surveyed 
by Aubrey, 1648; Dr. Stukeley, 1720; and sirR. C. 
Hoare, in 1812, and by others. Much information 
may be obtained from Stukeley's " Abury " (1743), 
and Hoare's "Ancient Wiltshire" (1812-21). 
Many theories have been put forth, but the object 
of these remains is still unknown. They are con- 
sidered to have been set up during the " stone age," 
i.e., when weapons and implements were mainly 
formed of that material. 

AVEIN, or AvAIKTE (Luxemburg, Belgium). 
Here the French and Dutch defeated the Spaniards, 
•20 May, 1635. 

" AVE MARIA ! " the salutation of the 
angel Gabriel to the Virgin {Luke i. 28), was made 
a formula of devotion by pope John XXI. about 
1326. In the beginning of the 15th century Vin- 
cetitius Ferrerius used it before his discourses. 
Bingham. 

AVENIN- The stimulating qualities of this 
nitrogenous alkaloid in oats were discovered by Mr. 
'Sanson in 1882. 

AVENUE THEATRE, Thames Embank- 
ment, opened 11 March, 1882. 

AVIGNON, a city, S. E. France, ceded by 
Philip III. to the pope in 1273. The papal seat 
was removed by Clement V. to Avignon, in 1309. 
In 1348 Clement VI. purchased the sovereignty from 
Jane, countess of Provence and queen of Naples. 
In 1408, the French, wearied of the schism, ex- 
pelled Benedict XIII. , and Avignon ceased to be 
the seat of the papacy. Here were held nine 
councils (1080- 1 45 7). Avignon was seized and re- 
stored several times by the French kings ; the last 
time restored, 1773. It was claimed by the national 
assembly, 1 791, and was confirmed to France by 
the congress of sovereigns in 1815. In Oct. 1791, 
horrible massacres took place here. See Popes, 
1309-94. 

AXE, WEDGE, LEVER, and various tools 
in common use, are said to have been invented by 
Daedalus, an artificer of Athens, to whom also is 
ascribed the invention of masts and sails for ships, 
1240 B.C. Many tools are represented on the 
Egyptian monuments. 

AXUM, or AUXUME, a town in Abyssinia 
said to have been the capital of a kingdom whose 
people were converted to Christianity by Frumen- 
tius about 330, and were allies of Justinian, 533. 

AYACTJCHO (Peru). Here the Peruvians 
finally achieved their independence by defeating 
the Spaniards, 9 Dec. 1824. 

AYDE, or AIDE, the tax paid by the vassal to 
the chief lord upon urgent occasions. In France 
and England an aide was due for knighting the 
king's eldest son. One was demanded by Philip 
the Fair, 13 13. The aide due upon the birth of a 
prince, ordained by the statute of Westminster 
(Edward I.) 1285, was not to be levied until he 
was fifteen years of age, for the ease of the subject. 
The aide for the marriage of the king's eldest 
daughter could not be demanded in this country 
until her seventh year. In feudal tenures there 
was an aide for ransoming the chief lord ; so when 



our Richard I. was kept a prisoner by the emperor 
of German)', an aide of 20s., to redeem him, was 
enforced upon every knight's fee ; see Benevolence. 

AYLESBURY, Buckinghamshire, was reduced 
by the West Saxons in 571. Incorporated by charter 
in 1554; absorbed into the county 1889. The 
ancient parish church was restored by sir G. G. 
Scott, 1849-67. Visited by the queen 14 May, 

1890. Population 1881, 7,795; 1891,8,674. 
AYLESFORD (Kent). Here, it is said, the 

Britons were victorious over the Saxon invaders, 
455, and Horsa was killed. 

AYR, capital of Ayrshire, S. W. Scotland : char- 
tered and endowed by William the Lion, 12th 
century ; fortified by Oliver Cromwell. — By a sud- 
den fire at Templeton's carpet works, 29 persons 
perished, 16 June, 1876. Population, 1881, 20,821 ; 

1891, 24,800. 
AZINCOUR, see Agincourt. 

AZOFF, SEA OE, the Palus Mseotis of the 
ancients, communicates by the strait of Yeni- 
kale (the Bosporus Cimmerius) with the Black 
Sea, and is entirely surrounded by Russian terri- 
tory; Taganrog and Kertch being the principal 
places. An expedition, composed of British, French, 
and Turkish troops, commanded by sir G. Brown, 
arrived at Kertch, 24 May, 1855, when the Russians 
retired, after blowing up the fortifications. On the 
25th the allies marched upon Yenikale, which also 
offered no resistance. On the same evening the 
allied fleet entered the Sea of Azoff', and in a few 
days completed their occupation of it, after captur- 
ing a large number of merchant vessels, &c. An 
immense amount of stores was destroyed by the 
Russians to prevent them falling into the hands of 
the allies. 

AZOIMIDE, a compound of hydrogen and 
nitrogen (azote), a very explosive gas, obtained 
from organic sources, such as benzoyl-glycollic acid 
and hippuric acid, by prof. Curtius in 1890. It 
forms salts by combination with metals ; it is 
described in Nature, 10 Dec. 1891. 

AZORES, or Western Isles (N. Atlantic), 

belonging to Portugal, the supposed site of the 
ancient Atlantis, are said to have been discovered 
in the 15th century by Vanderberg of Bruges, who 
was driven on their coasts by the weather. Cabral, 
sent by the Portuguese court, fell in with St. Mary's 
in 1432, and in 1457 they were all discovered and 
named Azores from the number of goshawks found 
on them. They were given by Alfonso V. to the 
duchess of Burgundy in 1466, and colonised by 
Flemings. They were subject to Spain 1580-1640. 
The isle Terceira, during the usurpation of dom 
Miguel, declared for Donna Maria, 1829, and a 
government was established at the capital Angra, 
1830-33. A volcano at St. George's destroyed the 
town of Ursulina, May, 1808; and in 181 1 a volcano 
appeared near St. Michael's, in the sea, where the 
water was eighty fathoms deep ; an island then 
formed gradually disappeared. A destructive earth- 
quake lasting 12 days, happened in St. Michael's, 
1591- 

AZOTE, the name given by French chemists 
to nitrogen {which see). 

AZOTUS, see Ashdod. 

AZTECS, the ruling tribe in Mexico at the time 
of the Spanish invasion (1519). In June, 1853, two 
pretended Aztec children were exhibited in London. 
They were considered by professor Owen to be 
merely South American dwarfs. They were married 
in London, 1 April, 1867, and exhibited for some 
time after. 



B. 



BAAL. 



82 



BABI-ISM. 



BAAL (Lord), the male deity of the Phoenician 
nations, frequently worshipped by the Israelites, 
especially by Ahab, 918 B.C. His priests and 
votaries were massacred by Jehu, and his temple 
defiled, 884 B.C. 

BAALBEO, HELIOPOLIS (both meaning 
"City of the Sun"), an ancient city of Syria, of 
which magnificent ruins remain, visited by "Wood 
(in 1751), and others. Its origin is lost in antiquity. 
Here Septimius Severus built a temple to the sun, 
200. The city was sacked by the Moslems, 748, and 
by Timour Beg, 1400. See Heliopolis. 

BABA WALL See Afghanistan, 1 Sept. 
1880 ; and Mazra. 
BABBAGE, see Calculating Machines. 

BABBICOMBE MURDER, see Trials, 

Feb. 1885. 

BABEL, TOWER of, built by Noah's posterity, 
2247 B.C. {Genesis, ch. xi.) The magnificent 
temple of Belus, asserted to have been originally 
this tower, is said to have had lofty spires, and 
many statues of gold, one of them forty feet high. 
In the upper part of this temple was the tomb of 
the founder, Belus (the Nimrod of the sacred scrip- 
tures), who was deified after death. Blair. The 
Birs Nimroud, examined by Rich, Layard, and 
others, is considered by some persons to be the 
remains of the tower of Babel. 

BABEUPS CONSPIRACY, see Agrarian 
Law. 

BABY-FARMING, see Infanticide. 

BABYLONIA* (Babilu Assyrian, Babirush 
Persian, the Shinar, Babel, and land of the 
Chaldees of the Old Testament), a vast plain 
watered by the Tigris and Euphrates the seat of a 
great Asiatic empire, traditionally stated to have 
been founded by Belus, supposed to have been the 
Nimrod of Gen. x. 1,8. See Assyria. According 

* The city of Babylon was at one time the most magni- 
ficent in the world. The Hanging Gardens are described 
as having been of a square form, and in terraces one 
above another until they rose as high as the walls of the 
city, the ascent being from terrace to terrace by steps. 
The whole pile was sustained by vast arches raised on 
other arches ; and on the top were flat stones closely 
cemented together with plaster of bitumen, and that 
covered with sheets of lead, upon which lay the mould 
of the garden, where there were large trees, shrubs, and 
flowers, with various sorts of vegetables. There were 
five of these gardens, each containing about four English 
acres, and disposed in the form of an amphitheatre. 
Strabo ; Diodorus. Pliny said that in his time it was 
but a desolate wilderness. Mr. Rich visited the ruins in 
1811, and sir R. Ker Porter in 1818. The laborious re- 
searches of Mr. Layard, sir PI. Rawlinson, M. Botta, and 
others, and the interesting relics excavated and brought 
to this country between the years 1849 and 1855, have 
caused very much attention to be given to the history of 
Babylon. Many of the inscriptions in the cuneiform or 
wedge-like character have been translated, principally by 
col. (after, sir Henry) Rawlinson, and published in the 
Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. In the spring of 
1855, he returned to England, bringing with him many 
valuable relics, drawings, &c, which are now in the 
British Museum. He gave discourses on the subject at 
the Royal Institution, London, in 1851, 1855, and 1865. 
The Rev. A. Sayce lectured on Babylonian literature at 
the same place in 1877., 



to the earliest existing history the country was. 
divided between two races, the Sumir (Turanian), 
the probable inventors of cuneiform writing; and 
the Accad or Akkod (Semitic), which became pre- 
dominant. See Accaclians. "The fragmentary 
Canon of Kings," given by Berosus the Gra;co- 
Chaldean priest 268 B.C., had been superseded by 
the newly-discovered Babylonian canon inscrip- 
tions on tablets carefully dated from 2200 to- 
647 B.C., an unequalled chronological series. Sum- 
maries are given by Mr. Boscawen in the articles 
" Assyria " and " Babylonia " in " Chambers' Ency- 
clopaedia," 1888. 
Earliest astronomical observations at Babylon, 

B.C. 2234, [2230, H. ; 2233, CT.} 
Nabonassar governor, 747 ; His son Nadinu, 734 ; 

a revolt, Ukinziru, king, about .... 732 
Babylonia conquered by Pul (Tiglath-Pileser) king 
of Assyria, 729 ; becomes independent ; Merodach- 

baladan II. king about 722 

Sargon, king of Assyria, captures Babylon ; Mero- 
dach-baladan returns, but is soon expelled by 

Sennacherib 705. 

Babylonia ruled by viceroys, see Assyria. 
Nabu-abla-utzar (Nabopolassar), general, seizes 

the power about 640 ; proclaimed king . . . 625, 
Succeeded by his son Nebuchadnezzar, very great 
and powerful, 604 ; he restores the empire, and 
rebuilds Babylon. 

[His acts are recorded on innumerable tablets 
and in the Bible ; 2 Kings, xxiv., xxv. ; 2 Chron. 
xxxvi. ; Jer., xxxvii. — xxxix. ; lii. ; Daniel, „ 
i.-iv.] 
He captures Jerusalem, 599 ; and destroys the city 
and carries most of the inhabitants captives to 

Babylon, 588 ; dies 561: 

Evil Merodach, 561 ; Neriglissar, king . . . 559, 
Labynetus, 556 ; Nabonadius, a great monarch, 551; 

Belshazzar king 535. 

Babylon taken by the Medes and Persians, under 

Cyrus, and Belshazzar slain. Daniel v. . . 538 
Babylon revolts, and is taken by Darius . . . 518 
Taken by Alexander, 331 ; he dies here . . . 323 
Seleucus Nicator, who died 280 b.c, transfers the 
seat of government to Seleucia, and Babylon is 
deserted. Babylonia was conquered by the Par- 
tisans about 140 b.c, and became part of the 
Persian empire. On the overthrow of the Sassa- 
nides by the Mahometans 650 a.d., Babylonia 
became the seat of the califs till 1258. Since 1638 
it has been subject to Turkey. 

BABYNGTON'S CONSPIRACY, to as- 
sassinate queen Elizabeth, and make Mary of 
Scotland queen, was devised by John Savage, a 
soldier of Philip of Spain, and approved by Win, 
Gilford and John Ballard, catholic priests. Anthony 
Babyngton and others joined in the scheme. They 
were betrayed by Pooley, a spy, and fourteen were 
executed, 20, 21 Sept. 1586. 

BABI-ISM, a new sect in Persia, founded in 
1843 by Mirza Ali Mahomed, an enthusiast, at 
Shiraz. He termed himself the "Bab," or "gate," 
of knowledge, and, giving a new exposition of the 
Koran, claimed to be the incarnate Holy Spirit. 
The destruction of himself and the greater number 
of his followers was due to Hossein, one of his 
disciples, who combined political and warlike prin- 
ciples with spiritual dogmas. The sect was tolerated 
by the shah Mohammed, but nearly exterminated 
by his successor in 1848-9. The Bab himself 
was executed 15 July, 1849. The head of the 
sect, Beheyah Allah, propounded a doctrine, termed 



BACCAEAT CASE. 



83 



BAFFIN'S BAY. 



"Bab el Huk," gate of truth. The persecuted sect 
has been favoured by Turkey, and been settled 
latterly at Bagdad. Mr. Edwd. G. Brown's 
" Narrative " respecting Babi-ism, was published 
in 1892. 

BACCAEAT CASE, see Trials, June, 1891. 

BACCHANALIA (games in honour of 
Bacchus) arose in Egypt, and were brought into 
Greece by Melampos, and called Dionysia, about 
1415 B.C. Diodorus. In Rome the Bacchanalia 
were suppressed, 186 B.C. The priests of Bacchus 
were called Bacchanals. 

BACCON or BACON, see Orleans. 

BACH SOCIETY, instituted in London in 
1849, for the collection of the works of J. S. Bach, 
and the promotion of their public performance. 
The original committee included W. Sterndale 
Bennett, Sir G. Smart, J. Hullah, C. Potter, and 
other eminent musicians. The society was dis- 
solved, 21 March, 1870, and the music given up to 
the Royal Academy of Music. 

BACHELOES. The Roman censors frequently 
imposed tines on unmarried men ; and men of full 
age were obliged to marry. The Spartan women 
at certain games laid hold of old bachelors, dragged 
them round their altars, and inflicted on them 
various marks of infamy and disgrace. Vossius. 
A tax laid upon bachelors in England, twenty-five 
years of age (varying from 12I. 10s. for a duke, to is. 
for a common person), lasted from 1695 to 1706. 
Bachelors (Romanist piiests excepted) were sub- 
jected to an extra tax on their male and female 
servants in 1785. A grand ball given by 84 bache- 
lors at Kensington House ; the prince and princess 
of Wales present, 22 July 1880. The Bachelors' 
Club in London in 1891 consisted of 800 members. 

BACILLI, see Animalcules and Germ Theory. 

BACKGAMMON. Falamedes of Greece is the 
reputed inventor of this game, about 1224 B.C. 

BACONIAN PHILOSOPHY, propounded 
by Francis Bacon, specially in his " Novum Orga- 
non," published in 1620. Its principles are Utility 
and Progress ; and its objects the alleviation of the 
sufferings and promotion of the comforts of man- 
kind. Macaulay, 1837. 

Bacon Society, established in December, 1885, for the 
study of the works, character, genius and life of 
Francis Bacon, and his influence on his own and 
succeeding times, and to investigate claims for his 
supposed authorship of certain works, including the 
Shakespearian dramas and poems. A journal is 
published. See under Shakespeare 1887. 

BACTEEIA (little rods), see Animalcules and 
Germ Theory. 
Mr. Edgar M. Crookshank, author of "Bacteriology," 

was appointed Professor of Bacteriology at King's 

College, London, in May, 1887. 

BACTEIANA, a province in Asia, was subju- 
gated by Cyrus and formed part of the Persian 
empire, when conquered by Alexander, 330 B.C. 
About 254 B.C., Theodotus or Diodotus, a Greek, 
threw off the yoke of the Seleucida?, and became 
king. Eucratides I. reigned prosperously about 
181 B.C., and Menander about 126 B.C. The Greek 
kingdom appears to have been broken up by the 
irruption of the Scythians shortly after. 

BADAJOZ (S. VV. Spain). An important barrier 
fortress, surrendered to the French, under Soult, 
n March, 1811; invested by the British, under 
lord Wellington, on 16 March, 1812, and stormed 
and taken on 6 April following. The French re- 



treated in haste. A short military insurrection, 5 
and 6 Aug. 1883. Population, 1887, 27,279. 

BADDESDOWN HILL, or Mount Badon, 
near Bath, where Bede says the Britons defeated 
the Saxons in 493 ; others say in 511 or 520. 

BADEN (S. W. Germany). The house of 
Baden is descended from Hermann, regarded as the 
first margrave (1052), son of Berthold I., duke of 
Zahringen; but Hermann II. assumed the title, 
Feb. 1 130. From Christopher, who died 1527, pro- 
ceeded the branches Baden-Baden and Baden-Dour - 
lach, united in 1 771. Baden is a hereditary con- 
stitutional monarchy by charter, 26 May, 1818 ; it 
joined the German empire by treaty, 15 Nov. 1870. 
Population, 1 Dec. 1871, 1,461,562; Dec. 1875, 
1,507,179; 1885, 1,601,255; 1890, 1,656,817. 

Louis William, margrave of Baden-Baden, a great 
general, born 1665 ; sallied out from Vienna and 
defeated the Turks, 1683 ; died 1707. 

Charles William, margrave of Baden-Dourlach, born 
1679, died 1746 ; succeeded by his son, 

Charles Frederic, born 1728 ; margrave of Baden- 
Dourlach, 1738 ; acquired Baden-Baden, 1771, 
made grand-duke by Napoleon, 1806. 

Treaty of Baden .-—Landau ceded to France, 7 Sept. 1714 

Baden made a grand-duchy, with, enlarged terri- 
tories 1806 

A representative constitution granted by charter, 

18 Aug. 1818 

Republican agitation ..... during 1848 

Insurrection ; .joined by the free city Rastatt ; the 
grand-duke flees May, 1849 

The Prussians enter Baden, 15 June ; defeat the in- 
surgents commanded by Mierolawski ; Rastatt 
surrenders, 23 July ; the grand-duke re-enters 
Carlsruhe 18 Aug. ,, 

Arrests for political offences ... 9 July, 1857 

Concordat with the pope signed . . .28 June, 1859 

Greatly opposed by the chambers ; annulled by the 
grand-duke by a manifesto, securing autonomy to 
the Catholic and Protestant churches ; signed 

7 April, i860 

Interview at Baden-Baden of the emperor Napo- 
leon III., the prince regent of Prussia, and the 
German kings and princes . . .16 June, ,, 

The new ecclesiastical law (adopted by the cham- 
bers) promulgated 16 Oct. ,, 

Opposition of the archbishop of Friburg and the 
clerical party 1860-65 

Disputes in the German diet ; the grand-duke 
vainly endeavours to obtain a reconciliation ; and 
remains neutral June, 1866 

Baden joins the Zollverein (which see) . . July, 1867 

Meeting of the chambers ; liberal measures pro- 
mised, 24 Sept. ; universal suffrage adopted by 
the second chamber 29 Oct. 1869 

Civil marriage made obligatory . . 17 Nov. ,, 

Baden joins Prussia in the war with France, about 

20 July, 1870 

Gambling houses suppressed ; finally closed 31 Oct. 1872 

GRAND-DDKES. 

1806. Charles Frederic; dies 1811 ; succeeded by his 
grandson, 

Charles Louis Frederic, who died without issue in 
1818 ; succeeded by his uncle, 
Louis William, died without issue in 1830 ; suc- 
ceeded by his brother, 

Leopold, died in 1852 ; succeeded by his second 
son (the first being imbecile), 
Frederic (born 9 Sept. 1826), regent 24 April, 1852 ; 
declared grand-duke, 5 Sept. 1856 ; becomes ill, 
his son appointed regent, 11 Nov. 1881. 
his son Frederic William, born 9 July, 1857. 



1S11. 
1818. 
1830. 
1852. 

Heir 

BAFFIN'S BAY (N. America), discovered by 
William Baffin, an Englishman, 1616. The extent 
of this discovery was much doubted, until the 
expeditions of Ross and Parry proved that Baffin 
was substantially accurate in his statement. Parry 
entered Lancaster Sound, and discovei-ed the islands 
known by his name, in 1818 ; see North- IFest 
Passage. 

a 2 



BAGDAD. 



81 



BALEARIC ISLANDS. 



BAGrDAD, in Asiatic Turkey, built by Al 
Mansour, and made the seat of the Saracen empire, 
about 762. Taken by the Tartars, and a period 
put to the Saracen rule, 1258. Often taken by the 
Persians, and retaken by the Turks, with great 
slaughter : the latter have held it since 1638. Popu- 
lation, 1885, 100,000. 

BAGPIPE, an ancient Greek and Roman in- 
strument. On a piece of ancient Grecian sculp- 
ture, now in Rome, a bagpiper is represented 
dressed like a modern highlander. Nero is said 
to have played upon a bagpipe, 51. Our highland 
regiments retain their pipers. Patrick Bohan, the 
celebrated Irish piper, died 9 April, 1884. 

BAHAMA ISLES (N. America) were the 
first points of discovery by Columbus. San Sal- 
vador was seen by him on the night of 1 r Oct. 1492 ; 
he landed next clay. New Providence was settled 
by the English in 1629. They were expelled by 
the Spaniards, 1641 ; returned, 1666 ; again expelled 
in 1703. The isles were formally ceded to the 
English in 1783. Population in 1861, 35,287 (see 
Cyclones, Oct. 1866); in 1871, 39,162; in 1881, 
43,521 ; in 1888, about 48,000. The Bahamas profited 
by blockade-running during the American civil war, 
1862-5. Governors, William Rawson, 1864; sir James 
Walker, 1868 ; John Pope Hennessy, 1871 ; Wm. 
Robinson, 1874; Thos. F. Callaghan, 1879; Charles 
Cameron Lees, 5 Oct. 1881 ; H. A. Blake, Jan. 1884 ; 
Sir Ambrose Shea, Oct. 1887. 

BAHAR (N. India), a province (conquered by 
Baber in 1530), with Bengal and Orissa, a princely 
dominion, became subject to the English East India 
company in 1765 by the treaty of Allahabad for a 
quit-rent of about 300,000/. 

BAIL. By ancient common law, before and 
since the conquest, all felonies were bailable, till 
murder was excepted by statute ; and by the 
3 Edward I. (1275) the power of bailing in trea- 
son, and in divers instances of felony, was taken 
away. Bail was further regulated in later reigns. 
It is now accepted in all cases, except felony ; and 
where a magistrate refuses bail, it may be granted 
by a judge. Acts respecting bail passed 1826 and 
1852. 

BAILIFF, or Sheriff, said to be of Saxon 
origin. London had its shire-reve prior to the con- 
quest, and this officer was generally appointed for 
counties in England in 1079. Hen. Cornehill and 
Rich. Reynere were appointed bailiffs or sheriffs in 
London in 1 189. Stoiv. Sheriffs were appointed in 
Dublin under the name of bailiffs, in 1308 ; and the 
name was changed to sheriff in 1548. There are 
still places where the chief magistrate is called 
bailiff, as the high bailiff of Westminster. Bum- 
bailiff is a corruption of bound-bailiff, every bailiff 
being obliged to enter into bonds of security for his 
good behaviour. Blackstone. 

B AIR AM, or BEIRAM, Mahometan festivals. 
The Little Bairam, follows the fast of Ramadan 
{which see) ; the Great Bairam in 1885, began on 
14 July. 

BAIZE, a species of coarse woollen manufac- 
ture, was brought into England by some Flemish 
or Dutch emigrants who settled at Colchester, in 
Essex, about 1568. 

BAKER AND BAKEnOTJSES ; see Bread. 

BAKERIAN LECTURES, Royal society, 
originated in a bequest of 100/. by Henry Baker, 
F.K.S., the interest of which was to be given to 
one of the fellows, for a scientific discourse to be 
delivered annually. Peter Woulfe gave the first 



lecture in 1765. Latterly it has been the custom 
to nominate as the lecture a paper written by one 
of the fellows. Davy, Faraday, Tyndall, and other 
eminent men have given the lecture. 

BAKU- See under Petroleum. 

BALAKLAVA, a small town in the Crimea, 

with a fine harbour, 10 miles S. E. from Sebastopol. 

After the battle of the Alma, the allies advanced 

upon this place, 26 Sept. 1854. 

Battle of Balaklava : — About 12,000 Russians, com- 
manded by general Liprandi, attacked and took 
some redoubts in the vicinity, which had been 
entrusted to about 250 Turks. They next as- 
saulted the English, by whom they were compel- 
led to retire, mainly through the charge of the 
heavy cavalry, led by brigadier Scarlett, under 
the orders of lord Lucan. After this, from an 
unfortunate misconception of lord Raglan's order, 
lord Lucan ordered lord Cardigan, with the light 
cavalry, to charge the Russian army, which had 
reformed on its own ground with its artillery in 
front. The order was most gallantly obeyed, and 
great havoc was made on the enemy ; but of 670 
British horsemen, only 198 returned. (Termed 
by Tennyson " The Charge of the Six Hundred.") 
The infantry engaged were termed a "thin red 
line " 25 Oct. 1854 

[A banquet was given to the survivors at the Alex- 
andra Palace, 25 Oct. 187s] 

[A subscription for the relief of about 20 destitute 
out of 100 survivors of the Light Brigade was 
opened in April, 1890, by the agency of Mr. Her- 
bert and lieut. Wightman, two of their comrades, 
and supported by the St. James's Gazette, rt. hon. 
E. Stanhope, and sir W. Marriott, lords Tenny- 
son, Wolseley, Hartington, and others, May, 1890 ; 
above 4,000?. received, 28 July, 1890.] 

[Total received, including sums from India and the 
colonies, 6,753?. is. 4c?., 6 April, 1891.] 

A sortie from the garrison of Sebastopol led to a 
desperate engagement here, in which the Russians 
were vigorously repulsed, with the loss of 2000 
men killed and wounded ; the allies losing about 
600 ' 22 March, 1855 

The electric telegraph between London and Bala- 
klava completed April, 

A railway between Balaklava and the trenches 
completed June, 

BALAMBANGAN, an uninhabited island, 
N. coast of Borneo, about 50 miles in circum- 
ference, conceded to Mr. Francis, a.c, in 1889. 

BALANCE OF POWER, to assure the inde- 
pendency and integrity of states, and control the 
ambition of sovereigns; a principle said to have 
been first laid down by the Italian politicians of 
the 15th century, on the invasion of Charles VIII. 
of France, 1494. Robertson. It was recognised by 
the treaty of Minister, 24 Oct. 1648. The arrange- 
ments for the balance of power in Europe made in 
1815, without the consent of the people of the 
countries concerned, have been nearly all set aside 
since 1830. 

BALAWAT, see Nineveh. 

BALDACHIN, or BALDACHINO, more pro- 
perly ciborium {which see), a canopy placed over the 
altar in some ancient churches ; the practice, be- 
ginning about 1 130, was introduced into England, 
1279. The proposal to erect one in St. Barnabas' 
church, Pimlico, was opposed in the consistory 
court, Aug. 1873. The trial took place 23, 24 Oct. 
Dr. Tristram decided against the erection of the 
baldachin, 15 Dec. 1873. 

BALEARIC ISLANDS, in the Mediter- 
ranean, called by the Greeks Balearides, and by 
the Romans Baleares, from the dexterity of the 
inhabitants at slinging : they include Majorca, 
Minorca, IviQa, Formentera, Cabrera, Conejera, 
and other islets. They were conquered by the 



BALFOUE'S ACTS. 



85 



BALLOONS. 



Romans, 123 B.C. : by the Vandals, about a.d. 426, 
and formed part of Charlemagne's empire in 
799. Conquered by the Moors about 1005, and 
held by them till about 1286, when they were 
annexed by Arragon ; see Majorca and Minorca. 

BALFOUE'S ACTS, see Ireland, 1890-1. 

BALHAM MYSTEEY, see Bravo. 

BALIZE, see Honduras. 

BALEANS, the ancient Hsemus, a range of 
mountains extending from the Adriatic to the 
Euxine. The passage, deemed impracticable, was 
completed by the Russians under Diebitsch, during 
the Russian and Turkish war, 26 July, 1829. An 
armistice was the consequence; and a treaty of 
peace was signed at Adrianople, 14 Sept. following. 
The Balkans were crossed by the Russians under 
Gourko, 13 July, 1877, see Busso- Turkish War 
II. By the treaty of Berlin, 13 July, 1878, the 
Balkans became the frontiers of the Sultan's Euro- 
pean dominions. 

The Balkan States are Servia, Bulgaria, and Roumelia 
(which see). In Sept. 1889, the Panslavist Committee 
at Moscow circulated leaflets termed " The Ten Com- 
mandments of Russia," proposing the enlargement 
of the Balkan States by the annexations from neigh- 
bouring territories. 

BALLADS maybe traced in the British history 
to the Anglo-Saxons. Turner. Adhelme, who died 
709, is mentioned as the first who introduced ballads 
into England. "The harp was sent round, and 
those might sing who could." Bede. Alfred sung 
ballads. Malmesbury. Canute composed one. 
Turner. Minstrels were protected by a charter of 
Edward IV.; but by a statute of Elizabeth they 
were made punishable among rogues and vaga- 
bonds, and sturdy beggars. Viner. Fletcher, of 
Saltoun (died 17 16) in a letter to Montrose ex- 
pressed his opinion that making ballads was more 
important than law-making. The sea-ballads of 
Dibdin were very popular in the French war ; he died 
20 Jan. 1833. Mr. John Boosey's " Ballad Con- 
certs," St. James's Hall, began 1866. 

Collections.— Bishop Percy's "Reliques of Ancient 
English Poetry," 1765 et seq. Publications of the Percy 
Society, 1840-52 ; of the Ballad Society, 1868 etseq. 

Professor Child's collection, 8 vols., Boston, U.S.A., 
1857-59 ; his greater work is in course of publication, 
1888 et seq. 

Johnson's Scots Musical Museum, 6 vols. 1787-1803. 

Many smaller collections. 

BALLABAT, an Australian town in Victoria, 
which arose after the discovery of gold in 1 85 1, see 
Australia. It possesses many handsome buildings 
and churches, and has Protestant and R. C. bishops. 
Population 1881, 37,260; 1891, 46,033. 

BALLETS began through the meretricious taste 
of the Italian courts. One performed at the inter- 
view between our Henry VIII. and Francis I. of 
France in the Field of the Cloth of Gold, at Ardres, 
1520. Guicciardini. Ballets became popular in 
France, and Louis XIV. bore a part in one, 1664. 
They were introduced here with operas early in the 
18th century. 

BALLINAMUCE, Longford. Here, on 8 Sept. 
1798, the Irish rebels and their French auxiliaries 
were defeated and captured. 

BALLOONS.* A just idea of the principle of 
the construction of balloons was formed by Albert 



" Astra Castra ; Experiments and Adventures in the 
Atmosphere ; by Hatton Tumor," a copious work, ap- 
peared in 1S65. 



of Saxony, an Augustine monk in the 14th century, 
and adopted by a Portuguese Jesuit, Francesco 
Mendoza, who died at Lyons in 1626. The idea is 
also attributed to Bartolomeo de Guzmao, who died 
in 1724. The principles of aeronautics include :— 
I, the power of a balloon to rise in the air; 2, the 
velocity of its ascent ; and 3, the stability of its 
Suspension at any given height. In 1872 Helmholtz 
thought balloons might be steered, if moving slowly. 
Fatal accidents to the voyagers have been estimated 
at 2 or 3 per cent. The Aeronautical Society of Great 
Britain, founded with the object of fostering and 
developing aeronautics and aerology, by the duke 
of Argyll, Mr. James Glaisher, sir Charles Bright, 
and others, 12 Jan. 1866. 

Francis Lana, a Jesuit, proposed to navigate the 
air by means .of a boat raised by four hollow balls 
made of thin copper, from which the air had 
been exhausted 1670 

Joseph Galien suggested the filling a bag with the 
fine diffuse air of the upper regions of the atmo- 
sphere 1755 

Henry Cavendish discovered that hydrogen gas is 
io'S times lighter than common air . . . 1766 

And soon after Black of Edinburgh filled a bag 
with hydrogen, which rose to the ceiling of the 
room 1767 

Cavallo filled soap bubbles with hydrogen . . 1782 

Joseph Montgolfier made a silken bag ascend with 
heated air (first fire balloon) . . . Nov. ,, 

Joseph and Stephen Montgolfier ascend and descend 
safely by means of a fire balloon at Annonay, for 
which they received many honours . 5 June, 1783 

First ascent in a balloon filled with hydrogen, at 
Paris, by MM. Robert and Charles . 27 Aug. ,, 

Joseph Montgolfier ascends in a balloon inflated 
with smoke of burnt straw and wool 19 Sept. ,, 

First aerial voyage in a fire balloon — Pilatre de 
Rozier and the marquis d'Arlandes . 21 Nov. ,, 

Second ascent of Charles in a hydrogen balloon to 
the height of 9770 feet .... 1 Dec. ,, 

Mr. Tytler ascended in a Montgolfier balloon at 
Edinburgh 27 Aug. 1784 

Ascents become numerous : Andreani, 25 Feb. ; 
Blanchard, 2 March ; Guyton de Morveau, the 
chemist, 25 April and 12 June ; Fleurant and 
Madame Thible (the first female aeronaut), 
28 June; the duke of Chartres (Philip Egalite) 

19 Sept. ,, 

The first ascent in England, made by Vincent Lu- 
nardi, at Moorfields, London . . 15 Sept. ,, 
[Centenary : three balloons ascend at same place, 

one of them "The Colonel " containing col. Brine 

and M. L'Hoste, from Finsbury, 15 Sept. 1884.] 

Blanchard and Jeffries ascend at Dover ; cross the 
Channel; alight near Calais . . . 7 Jan. 1785 

[Centenary celebrated at Guines, 25 May, 1885.] 

The first ascent in Ireland, from Ranelagh gardens, 
Dublin 19 Jan ,, 

Rozier and Romain killed in their descent near 
Boulogne ; the balloon took fire . . 15 June, ,, 

Parachutes constructed and used by Blanchard, 

Aug. „ 

Garnerin's narrow escape when descending in one 
in London 2 Sept. 1802 

Sadler, who made many previous expeditions in 
England, fell into the sea, near Holyhead, but 
was taken up 9 Oct. 1812 

Madame Blanchard ascended from Tivoli at night ; 
the balloon, being surrounded by fireworks, took 
lire, and she was precipitated to the ground and 
killed 6 July, 1819 

Mr. Charles Green's first ascent ; (lie introduced coal 
gas in ballooning) 19 July, 1821 

Lieut. Harris killed in a balloon descent 25 May, 1824 

Sadler, ,jun., killed, falling from a balloon . . 1825 

The great Nassau balloon, which had for some time 
previously been exhibited to the inhabitants of 
London in repeated ascents from Vauxhall gar- 
dens, started from that place on an experimental 
voyage, Mr. C. Green, Mr. R. Hollond, and Mr. 
Mnuck-Mason in the car, and alter having been 
eighteen hours in the air descended at Weuburg, 
in the duchy of Nassau . 7 Nov. 1836 



BALLOONS. 



BALLOONS. 



Mr. Cocking ascended from Vauxhall to try his 
parachute ; in its descent from the balloon it 
collapsed, and he was thrown out and killed, 

24 July, 1837 
An Italian aeronaut ascended from Copenhagen, 

in Denmark ; his corpse was subsequently found 
on the sea-shore in a contiguous island, dashed to 

pieces 14 Sept. 1851 

J. B. Lassie's model of an " aerial ship," in which 
the screw was used, was submitted to the academy 
of sciences at Paris, 1859 ; and exhibited at Wash- 
ington, U.S 1859 

Mr. Wise and three others ascended from St. Louis 
(after travelling 1150 miles they descended in 
Jefferson county, New York, nearly dead) 

23 June, ,, 
Nadar's great balloon (largest ever made) when fully 
inflated contained 215,363 cubic feet of gas ; the 
car, a cottage in wicker work, raised 35 soldiers 
at Paris ; Nadar hoped by means of a screw to 
steer a balloon in the heavens ; his first ascent, 
with 14 persons, successful . . 4 Oct. 1863 

His second ascent ; voyagers injured ; saved by 
presence of mind of M. Jules Godard ; descend 
at Nieuburg, Hanover . . . 12 Oct. ,, 

Nadar and his balloon at the Crystal Palace, 

?■ Sydenham Nov. ,, 

Society for promoting aerial navigation formed 
at M. Nadar's, at Paris ; president, M. Barral, 

15 Jan. 1864 
Godard 's great Montgolfier or fire balloon ascends, 

28 July and 3 Aug. ;, 
Ascent of Nadar and others in his great balloon at 

Brussels 26 Sept. ,, 

Mr. Coxwell ascends from Belfast in a new balloon; 
several persons are injured by the balloon be- 
coming uncontrollable; it escapes . . 3 July, 1865 
Ascent of Nadar in his Geant balloon, Paris, 

June 23, 1866 
Mr. Coxwell said to have made 550 successful 

ascents up to April, 1867 

An aerial screw machine (helicopteric) suggested, 
in Paris, 1863 ; described by Dr. J. Bell Petti- 
grew, in London, at the Royal Institution, 

22 March, „ 
Mr. Hodsman crossed the Channel from Dublin, 
and descended at Appleby, Westmoreland 

22 April, ,, 
A great balloon exhibited at Ashburnham-park, 
London, escaped, and was captured at Bouldon, 

Bucks. 25 May, 1869 

Charles Green, aeronaut, said to have made about 

600 ascents, died aged 84 . . -27 Mar. 1870 
Dupuy de Lome at Vincennes ascended with his 
"navigable" balloon, with 13 persons; experi- 
ment reported to be successful . . 2 Feb. 1871 
Professor Wise proposed to cross the Atlantic from 
New York to Liverpool in a balloon, 100 feet in 
diameter, no feet perpendicular, with a supple- 
mentary balloon 36 feet in diameter; the two 
giving a lifting power of i5,9oolbs., a carrying 
power of 9,500 lbs., and disposable ballast 
7,500 lbs., July; the balloon was reported in- 
adequate, Sept. ; a smaller balloon started (with 
a life-boat) 9.19 a.m., 6 Oct., and descended dur- 
ing a storm over Connecticut ; the men narrowly 

escaped 7 Oct. 1873 

Vincent de Groof, a Belgian (named the "flying 
man"), constructed a parachute to imitate the 
flight of a bird ; he brought it to London ; as- 
cended from Cremorne-gardens, and descended 
from a height between 300 and 400 feet in Essex, 
29 June ; at his next attempt, the parachute, 
either detached by himself or by accident, was 
disarranged, and he was killed by falling, 9 July, 1874 
Under the Government Balloon Committee, Mr. 
Coxwell ascended at Woolwich to try C. A. 
Bowdler's apparatus (based on the screw-propel- 
ler) for steering balloons ; failure reported, 

25 July, ,, 
[It has been proved that a screw with a vertical 

axis can raise or depress a balloon, and thereby 

save gas and ballast. ] 

M. and Mad. Duruof (see below, 1870), ascend from 

Calais to cross the channel, 31 Aug. ; carried out 

to sea ; the balloon fell into the water and 



drifted towards Norway ; rescued by a smack 
(the Grand Charge) ; the aeronauts were landed 
at Grimsby 4 Sept. 1874 

Duruof and others ascend from the Crystal-palace, 

14 Sept. ,, 

Menier's new hot-air balloon fails on trial, 5 Sept. 

and 16 Oct. ,, 

Ascent of capt. Burnaby at the Crystal-palace to 
try his machine for ascertaining the course of 
the wind above the clouds ; reported successful, 

10 Nov. „ 

MM. Tissandier, Croce-Spinelli, and Sivel ascend 
in the " Zenith "• from La Villette, near Paris ; at 
26,160 feet Croce throws out ballast ; they ascend 
rapidly ; he and Sivel die through suffocation ; 
Tissandier recovered . . . .15 April, 1875 

Washington J. Donaldson, eminent aeronaut, 
perishes in Lake Michigan during a storm, 

18 July, „ 

Reported failure of Carrol's directing apparatus at 
Paris July, 1878 

Frequent ascents in a " captive balloon " . Aug. ,, 

Mr. Giffard's great captive balloon, Paris, burst. 

16 or 17 August, 1879 

Five balloons start from various places near Lon- 
don, competing for a silver medal given by the 
Balloon Society ; the " Owl," Mr. Wright and 
Commander Cheyne, travelled 48 miles in one 
hour (no medal awarded.) . . .4 Sept. 1880 

International balloon contest at the Crystal Palace ; 
England (Eclipse), Mr. Wright ; France, M. de 
Fonvielle ; both alighted near Portsmouth, 21 Oct. ,, 

Giffard and De Lome's aerial ship said to be success- 
ful for direction, speed, <&c Jan. 1881 

Mr. Eugene (who had ascended about 2,000 times) 
narrowly escapes destruction by a storm at 
Vienna 21 Aug. „ 

Mr. Walter Powell, M.P., crossed the Bristol 
Channel in a balloon and descended at Dinges- 
ton, and afterwards went on to Hereford, 3 Nov. ; 
Mr. Walter Powell, M.P., capt. Templer, and Mr. 
Agg Gardner ascend at Bath in war-office balloon 
Saladin ; the balloon descends near Bridport ; 
two fell out ; the balloon ascends with Mr. Powell 
and drifts to sea ; not found . . 10 Dec. ,, 

Col. (aft. Gen.) Brine and Mr. Simmons' attempt to 
cross the Channel from Canterbury ; they and the 
balloon picked up half-way. . . 4 Mar. 1882 

Col. Burnaby crosses the Channel from Dover 
and lands near Dieppe . . . .23 Mar. ,, 

Mr. Simmons goes from Maldon, Essex, to Arras (140 
miles) 2 h 10 June ,, 

Mr. Simmons and sir Claude C. de Crespigny crossed 
the Channel from Maldon, Essex, to Oudekerk, 
near Flushing (140 miles in 6 hours) . 1 Aug. 1883 

By Mr. Simmons and Mr. Small from Hastings to 
Cape La Hague (8 hours) . . . 13 Sept. ,, 

Electrical balloon constructed by Gaston and Albert 
Tissandier, successful trial reported . 8 Oct. „ 

By M. Lhoste from Boulogne to Ashford, 15 Sept. 
1883 ; again from Boulogne to New Romney, 
2 hours 7 Aug. 1884 

Gen. Brine crosses from Hythe to Hervelinghen 

15 Aug. ,, 

Balloon navigation said to be effected by M. Renard 
at Meudon, by an electrical machine 9 Aug. „ 

Another trial, result uncertain . .12 Sept. „ 

Reported success by M. Tissandier . 26 Sept. ,, 

By Capt. Renard 8 Nov. „ 

M. Lhoste crosses from Cherbourg to Tottenham 
near London ; attained height 3,600 feet, lowest 
temperature 7 C. . . . . 29-30 July 1886 

Mr. Lorraine's attempt to propel and steer a 
balloon by boat apparatus at Oxbridge, Middlesex, 
containing three persons, fails . . 24 Aug. „ 

MM. Jovis and Mallet report that they reached the 
altitude of 7,000 metres, in an ascent at Paris 

13 Aug. 1887 

Successful voyage of Mr. Morton from Dover to 
Loon, near Dunkirk .... 13 Oct. ,, 

M. Lhoste and M. Mangot ascend at Mondidier 
near Amiens, 6 Nov. ; Mr. Macdonald, master of 
the steamer Prince Leopold, witnessed the falling 
of the balloon and the drowning of the aeronauts 
39 miles S.W- of the Isle of Wight, 13 Nov. ; 
reported Dec. ,, 

Aeronautical Exhibition at Vienna, opened 1 April 1888 



BALLOONS. 



87 



BALLOT. 



Professor Baldwin, at Rockaway, New York, said 
to have descended safely from a balloon a mile high 
by means of a parachute in 84 seconds, 9 Aug. 1887. 
He did the same at Alexandra Park, London, N. 
28 July, 1888, and since. After the 10th time the 
balloon society gave him a gold medal, 1 Sept. 
1888 ; prevented in his attempt to descend from 
an altitude of two miles ; descends from between 
•6,000 and 7,000 feet, 13 Sept., 16th ascent, 22 Sept. ; 
at Manchester, 24 Sept. ; (9,100 feet) 18 Oct. ; at 
Sheffield (42nd descent) 22 Oct. ; final descent at 
Alexandra Palace, 5000 feet, the Prince of Wales 
present 30 Oct. 

The aeronaut, Mr. Joseph Simmons, descends from 
Olympia, London, W., and is killed on his descent 

27 Aug. 

George Higgins, an Englishman, descends from a 
balloon in a parachute at Lea Bridge Road 

27 Oct. 

Ascent of Mr. Percival Spencer, without his 
parachute, at Calcutta 19 March ; afterwards with 
his parachute 

Prof. Dale and five others ascend from Gibralter 
(2nd ascent there) 7 Dec. 

Mr. Percival Spencer at Secunderabad, Central 
India, ascends in his patent asbestos (Montgolfier) 
balloon, the air being heated by burning methy- 
lated spirit inside the balloon ; he descended by 
his parachute 13 Jan. 

Death of Eugene Godard, aged 64, at Brussels, said 
to have made 2,000 ascents . . .11 Nov. 

Mr. Higgins, aeronaut, killed at Kirkstall, near 
Leeds, through a parachute descent . . 8 Aug. 

Mr. Logan ascends with a parachute at Detroit ; 
falls and is killed .... 29 Aug. 

Prince and princess Henry of Prussia, the grand 
duke of Hesse and other personages ascend in a 
balloon at Frankfort 23 Sept. 

Mr. Percival Spencer ascends in a very large bal- 
loon at Dover, and lands near Hastings 24 Nov. 

Lieut. Mansfield, at Bombay, is killed by falling 
from his balloon, which burst . . 10 Dec. 

Miss Van Tassel, at Dacca, descending with her 
parachute, falls 16 March, and dies . 18 March, 
See Addenda. 



MILITARY AND POSTAL APPLICATIONS. 

Guyton de Morveau ascended twice during the battle 
of Fleurus, and gave important information to 
Jourdain 21 June, 1794 

The use of balloons for postal purposes invented by 
Mr. G. Shepherd, C.E 1851 

Balloons were used during the battle of Solferino, 
24 June, 1859 ; and by the Federal army near 
Washington July, 1861 

M. Duruof conveyed the mail bags from Paris to 
Tours during the siege . . . .23 Sept. 1870 

Postal balloons from Metz and Paris . Sept. — Dec. ,, 

Postal balloon sent up from Crystal Palace, Syden- 
ham (successfully) .... 6 Oct. „ 

M. Gambetta, with his secretary and aeronaut, es- 
caped from Paris in a balloon, and fell in the 
Foret d'Epineuse (Somme) 7 Oct. ; he arrived at 
Rouen 8 Oct. „ 

Sixty-six balloons with 168 persons despatched from 
Paris and other places (Gen. Brine), 23 Sept. 1870- 

28 Jan. 1871. 

Military experiments ; ascent of Univers ; very 
cold weather ; valve burst ; several hurt ; near 
Vincennes ; no deaths .... 8 Dec. 1875 

Military ascents and balloon equipment for military 
purposes adopted at Woolwich, announced April, 1879 

Captive balloon at the volunteer review, Brighton, 

29 March, 1880 

Royal Engineers' Balloon Corps arrives at Souakim, 

7 March, 1885 

Mr. F. A. Gower's experiments at Hythe, June, 
1885 ; ascended and not heard of since .July, ,, 

Mr. Eric S. Bruce's mode, of electric signalling from 
balloons reported successful at Albert Palace 

20 July, ,, 

EQUESTRIAN ASCENTS. 

Mr. Green affirmed that he ascended from London, 
on a horse attached to a balloon . . May, 1828 

He did so from Vauxhall gardens with a very 
diminutive pony July, 1850 



1852 



Lieut. Gale, an Englishman, made an ascent with 
a horse from the Hippodrome of Vincennes, near 
Bordeaux. On descending and detaching the 
animal from the balloon, the people who held its 
ropes, from some misconception, prematurely let 
them go, and the unfortunate aeronaut was rapidly 
borne in the air before he was quite ready to 
resume his voyage. (He was discovered next 
morning dashed to pieces in a field a mile from 
where the balloon was found) . . 8 Sept. i8so> 

The ascent of Madame Poitevin from Cremorne 
gardens, near London, as " Europa on a bull " 
(a feat she had often performed in France), and 
several ascents on horses, brought the parties 
concerned before the police-courts on a charge of 
cruelty to animals, and put an end to experiments 
that outraged public feeling .... Aug 

M. Poitevin ascended on a horse in the vicinity of 
Paris, about the time just mentioned ; was nearly 
drowned in the sea, near Malaga, while descending 
from his balloon (and died soon after) . 

SCIENTIFIC ASCENTS. 

Gay-Lussac and Biot at Paris, 23 Aug. ; Gay-Lussac 
(to the height of 22,977 feet) . . 15 Sept. 

Bixio and Barral at Paris (to the height of 19,000 
feet. They passed through a cloud 9000 feet 
thick) 

Mr. Welsh ascends, 17, 26 Aug. 21 Oct., 10 Nov. 

Scientific balloon ascents having been recom- 
mended by the British Association and funds 
provided, Mr. James Glaisher commenced his 
series of ascents, provided with suitable appa- 
ratus, in Mr. Coxwell's great balloon, at Wolver- 
hampton: he reached the height of 5 miles, 

17 July, 

He ascended to the height of about 7 miles at 
Wolverhampton ; at 5 J miles high he became 
insensible ; Mr. Coxwell lost the use of his hands, 
but was able to open the valve with his teeth ; 
the}' thus descended in safety . . 5 Sept. 

He ascended at the Crystal Palace 18 April, 11, 21 
July ; at Wolverton, 26 June ; at Newcastle, during 
the meeting of the British Association 31 Aug. 

His 1 6th ascent ; surveys London . . 9 Oct. 

His 17th ascent at Woolwich; descends at Mr. 
Brandon's, Suffolk (1st winter ascent this cen- 
tury) 12 Jan. 

He ascends from Woolwich (24th time) . 30 Dec. 

His 25th ascent 27 Feb. 

Other ascents 2 Oct., 2 Dee. 1865 ; and in May, 

Glaisher's " Travels in the Air" published Jan. 

Mr. Coxwell's scientific ascent in the Nassau at 
Hornsey 22 Sept. 



1850 



1863 



1865 
1 866 
1871 

1873 



BALLOON SOCIETIES. 

The French Academie d' Aerostation de Meteorolo- 
gique, authorised 20 Sept. 1872 

Balloon Society of Great Britain, was formed 
2i July, 1880, by some members of the Aeronau- 
tical, Geographical, Astronomical, Chemical, and 
Meteorological societies, and other scientific bo- 
dies, to promote aeronautics and record and uti- 
lise observations made during ascents. Silver 
medals were awarded for ascents made 4 Sept. 1880 

German Aeronautical Society founded at Berlin 

Sept. 1 88 1 

BALLOT (French ballotfe, a little hall). 

Secret voting was practised by the ancient Greeks 

and Komans, and the modern Venetians, and is 

now employed in France, in the United States of 

North America, and, since 1872, in Great Britain, 

and Colonies. See Scrutin. 

A ballot-box used in the election of aldermen of 
London 1526 

Its use by the company of merchant adventurers, 
in electing an agent, prohibited by Charles I. 

17 Dec. 1637 

The ballot-box used by the " Rota," a political club 
at Miles's coffee-house, Westminster . . . 1659 

A tract entitled " The Benefit of the Ballot," said 
to have been written by Andrew Marvell, was pub- 
lished in the " State Tracts " 1693 

Proposed, in a pamphlet, to be used in the election 
of members of parliament 1705 

A bill authorising vote by ballot passed the com- 
mons, but rejected by the lords . . . . 1710 



BALL'S BLUFF. 



BAMBOROUGH. 



George Grote introduced into the commons a ballot 
bill six times 1833-39 

The ballot an open question in whig governments 

1835-72 

The house of commons rejected the ballot — 257 
being against, and 189 for it . . 30 June, 1851 

Secret voting existed in the chamber of deputies in 
France from 1840 to 1845. It has been employed 
since the coup d'etat in . . . Dec. „ 

The ballot authorised in the Metropolitan Manage- 
ment act 1855 

The ballot adopted in Victoria, Australia . 1856 

A test-ballot at Manchester ; Ernest Jones chosen 
as candidate for the city. He died the next day 

22, 23 Jan. 1869 

For many years it was annually proposed by Mr. 
Henry Berkeley ; it was rejected (by 161 to 112, 
12 July, 1867). He died . . .10 March, 1870 

Mr. E. Leatham introduced a ballot bill into par- 
liament, March ; and Mr. Gladstone spoke in 
favour of the ballot ; bill withdrawn 27 July, „ 

The ballot was employed in electing the London 
school board in 9 districts . . . 29 Nov." ,, 

The ballot recommended in the queen's speech, 9 
Feb. ; a bill for it introduced, passed by the com- 
mons ; rejected by the lords (97 to 48) . 10 Aug. 1871 

Bill to amend the law relating to procedure at 
parliamentary and municipal elections, including 
the ballot, read in the commons, 2nd time, 109-51, 
15 Feb. ; passed the commons, 271-216, 30 May ; 
read second time in the lords (86-56), important 
amendments carried in committee, making secret 
voting optional (162-91) ; read a third time, and 
passed, 25 June ; lords' amendments mostly re- 
jected by the commons ; the optional clause given 
up by the lords, 8 July ; royal assent ; (to continue 
in force till 31 Dec. 1880) . . .18 July, 1872 

The first election by ballot was at Pontefract, when 
Mr. H. E. Childers was re-elected . .15 Aug. „ 

Mr. John Leighton makes known his system (in- 
vented in 1886), bf secret postal ballot — every 
post-box being used as a ballot box ; Mr. James 
Withers and Mr. John Imray describe voting 
apparatus; Society of Arts . . . 18 Jan. 1888 

BALL'S BLUFF, Virginia, on the banks of 
the Potomac, North America. On 21 Oct. 1 861, by 
direction of the Federal general C. P. Stone the 
heroic col. Baker crossed the river to reconnoitre. 
He attacked the Confederate camp at Leesburg, and 
was defeated with great loss. The disaster was 
attributed to mismanagement, and in Feb. 1862, 
general Stone was arrested on suspicion of treason. 

BALLYNAHINCH (Ireland), where a san- 
guinary engagement took place between a large 
body of the insurgent Irish and the British troops, 
under gen. Nugent, 13 June, 1798. A large part 
of the town was destroyed, and the royal army suf- 
fered very severely. 

BALMORAL CASTLE, Deeside, Aberdeen- 
shire; visited by her majesty in 1848, 1849, 1850. 
The estate was purchased for 32,000^. by prince 
Albert in 1852. In 1853 the present building, in the 
Scotch baronial style, was commenced, from designs 
by Mr. W. Smith of Aberdeen. 

BALTIC SEA,* OsTSEE, or EASTERN SEA, 
separates Sweden and the Danish isles from Russia, 
Prussia, and Germany. Declared neutral for com- 
merce by treaty between Russia and Sweden, 1759, 
and Denmark, 1760. It is often partially frozen, 
Charles X. of Sweden, with an army, crossed the 
Belts in 1658, and the Russians passed from Finland 
to Sweden on the ice in 1809. 
A ship canal between the Baltic and the North Seas 

proposed Jan. 1884 ; adopted by the Reichstag, 25 Feb. 

18S6. First stone of opening lock laid by the Emperor 

* Baltic Provinces of Russia, a kind of provincial 
federation since 1800, were incorporated with the empire 
on the death of the governor-general Bagration, 29 Jan. 
1876. 



William I. at Kiel, 3 June, 1887 ; the dam pierced and! 
the water let in by the Emperor William II., who sails 
on the canal to Rendsburg ... 6 April, 1891. 

BALTIC EXPEDITIONS. 

Against Denmark. See Armed Neutrality. — 1. Under 
lord Nelson and admiral Parker, Copenhagen was 
bombarded, and twenty-eight sail of the Danish 
fleet taken or destroyed ... 2 April, 1801; 

2. Under admiral Gambier and lord Cathcart, 
eighteen sail of the line, fifteen frigates, and thirty- 
one brigs and gunboats surrendered to the British, 

26 July, 1807 

Against Russia. — 1. The British fleet, commanded 
by sir Charles Napier, sailed from Spithead in 
presence of the queen, who led it out to sea in her 
yacht, the Fairy 11 March, 1854; 

It arrived in Wingo Sound, 15 March ; and in the 
Baltic 20 March, ,, 

The gulf of Finland blockaded . . 12 April, „ 

10,000 French troops embarked at Calais for the 
Baltic in English ships, of war, in presence of the 
emperor 15 July, , r 

Capture of Bomarsund, one of the Aland islands, 
and surrender of the garrison ; see Bomarsund, 

16 Aug. ,, 

English and French fleets begin to return homeward 
to winter 15 Oct. ,, 

2. Expedition sailed . . 20 March — 4 April, 1855 

It consisted of 85 English ships (2098 guns), com- 
manded by admiral R. S. Dundas ; 16 French 
ships (408 guns), under admiral Pernand, joined it, 

- June, ,, 

Three vessels silenced the Russian batteries at 
Hogland island 21 July, ,, 

The fleet proceeded towards Cronstadt. Many in- 
fernal machines* were discovered. Sveaborgwas 
attacked (see Sveaborg) ... 9 Aug. „ 

Shortly after the fleet returned to England. 

BALTIMORE, a maritime city in Maryland, 
United States, founded in 1729. On 12 Sept. 1814, 
the British army under col. Ross advanced against 
this place. He was killed in a skirmish ; and the 
command was assumed by col. Brooke, who attacked 
and routed the American army, which lost 600 
killed and wounded and 300 prisoners. The pi-o- 
jected attack on the town was, however, abandoned, 
Alison. See United States, 1861. About 70 persons 
drowned while on an excursion on the Patapsco 
river, about 23 July, 1883. See Roman Catholics 
and Chili, 1891. Population, 1890, 434,439. 

BALTIMORE, fishing village, Cork, raised 
from penury to prosperity by the judicious benefi- 
cence of the Baroness Burdett-Coutts, aided by 
Father Davis, since i877- She opened an Indus- 
trial Fishing School, 17 Aug. 1887. Prosperity- 
reported Oct. 1888. 

BAMBERG (Bavaria), said to have been 
founded by Saxons, in 804, and endowed with a 
church by Charlemagne. It was made a bishopric 
in 1007, and the bishop was a prince of the empire 
till the treaty of Luneville, 1801, when Bamberg 
was secularised. It was incorporated with Bavaria 
in 1803. The noble cathedral, rebuilt in 11 10, ha3 
been recently repaired. Bamberg was taken and 
pillaged by the Prussians in 1 759. 

BAMBOROUGH, or Bamburg, Northumber- 
land, according to the " Saxon Chronicle," was 
built by king Ida about 547, and named Bebban - 
burgh. The castle and estate, the property of the 
Forsters, and forfeited to the crown, through their 
taking part in the rebellion in 17 15, were purchased 
by Nathaniel lord Crewe, bishop of Durham, and 
bequeathed by him for various charitable purposes. 

* These were cones of galvanised iron, 16 inches in 
diameter, and 20 inches long. Each contained 9 or 10 llx 
of powder, with apparatus for firing by sulphuric acid. 
Little damage was done by them. They were said to be 
the invention of the philosopher Jacobi. 



BAMPTON LECTUEES. 



89 



BANK. 



The valuable library was founded by the trustees 
in 1778. The books are lent to persons residing 
within 20 miles of the castle. 

BAMPTON LECTUEES (Theological), de- 
livered at Oxford annually, began in 1780, with a 
lecture by James Bandinel, D.D. The lecturer is 
paid out of the proceeds of an estate bequeathed for 
the purpose by the rev. John Bampton (died 1 751) 
and the lectures are published. Among the more 
remarkable lectures were those by White (1784), 
Heber (1815), Whately (1822), Milman (1827), 
Hampden (1832), Mansel (1858), Liddon (1866), 
Hatch (1880), Bigg (1886). 

BANBUBY, Oxfordshire, a Saxon town. The 
castle, erected by Alexander de Blois, bishop of 
Lincoln, 1 125, has been frequently besieged. In 
1646 it was taken by the parliamentarians and de- 
molished. At Edgecot or Danesmore, near Ban- 
bury, during an insurrection, the army of Edward 
IV., under the earl of Pembroke was defeated by 
queen Margaret and her adherents 26 July, 1469 ; 
the earl and his brother were soon after taken 
prisoners and executed. Banbury cakes were re- 
nowned in the time of Ben Jonson, and Banbury 
Cross was destroyed by the Puritans. Cakes were 
presented to the queen at Banbury 30 Nov. 1866. 

BAND OF GENTLEMEN PENSION- 
EES, see Gentlemen-at- Arms. 

BAND OF HOPE, see under Temperance, 
1855- 

B AND A ISLES (ten), Eastern Archipelago, 
visited by the Portuguese in 1511, who settled on 
them, 1521, but were expelled by the Dutch about 
1600. Kohun island was ceded to the English in 
1616. The Bandaswere taken by the latter in 1796 ; 
restored in 1801 ; retaken in 1811 ; and restored in 
Aug. 1816. 

BAND A OEIENTAL (South America), a 
portion of the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres, one part 
of which, in 1828, was incorporated with Brazil, 
while another part became independent, as the 
republic of Uruguay. 

BANGALOBE (S. India) was besieged by the 
British under lord Cornwallis, 6 March, and taken 
by storm, 21 March, 1791. Bangalore was restored 
toTippoo in 1792, when he destroyed the strong fort, 
deemed the bulwark of Mysore. 

BANGKOK, capital of Siam. Estimated popu- 
lation in 1891, 100,000. 

BANGOE (Banchor Iskoed, or Monachorum), 
Flintshire, the site of an ancient monastery, very 
populous, if it be true that 1200 monks were slain 
by Ethelfrid, king of the Angles, for praying for 
the Welsh in their conflict with him in 607. 
Tanner. 

BANGOE (N. Caernarvonshire). The church 
is dedicated to St. Daniel, who was a bishop, 516. 
Owen Glendower greatly defaced the cathedral ; 
and the bishop Bulkeley alienated many of the 
lands, and even sold the bells of the church, 1553. 
The see is valued in the king's books at 131^. 16s. \d. 
An order in council directing that the sees of Ban- 
gor and St. Asaph be united on the next vacancy in 
either, was issued in 1838; but rescinded in 1847. 
Present income, 4200^. Bangor was incorporated 
in 1883. North Wales University College opened, 
18 Oct. 1884. Population, 1881, 9,005 ; 1891, 
9,892. 

BISHOPS OF BANGOR 

1800. Win, Cleaver, translated to St. Asaph, 1806. 
1806. John Randolph, translated to London, 1809. 
1809. Henry William Majendie, died 9 July, 1830. 



1830. Christopher Bethell, died 19 April, 1859. 

1859. James Colquhoun Campbell. Resigned April, 1890. 

1890. Daniel Lewis Lloyd, elected 27 May. 

The cathedral was re-opened after restoration, 11 May r 
1880. 

BANGOEIAN CONTEOVEESY was oc- 
casioned by Dr. Benjamin Hoadley, bishop of Ban- 
gor, preaching a sermon before George I., 31 March* 
1717, upon the text, " My kingdom is not of this- 
world" {John, xviii.36), in which he demonstrated 
the spiritual nature of the church and kingdom^ of 
Christ. He thereby drew upon himself the indig- 
nation of almost all the clergy, who published hun- 
dreds of pamphlets. 

BANISHMENT, an ancient punishment. By 
39 Eliz. c. 4 (1597) dangerous rogues were to be 
banished out of the realm, and to be liable to death 
if they returned ; see Transportation. 

BANK. The name is derived from banco, a 
bench, erected in the market-place for the exchange 
of money, The first was established in Italy, 808, 
by the Lombard Jews, of whom some settled m 
Lombard-street, London, where many bankers still 
reside. The Mint in the Tower of London was 
anciently the depository for merchants' cash, until 
Charles I. seized the money as a loan, and in 1640 the 
traders lodged their money with the goldsmiths ii* 
Lombard-street. See Bank of England ; Bankers' 
Books ; Drafts ; Savings Banks. 

Egibe's bank at Babylon, mentioned about B.C. 700 

The Bank of England (1890) possesses a Chinese 
Bank note, supposed to be of the 14th century, a.d. 
Barcelona bank (earliest existing bank) founded 

about 1401 

Samuel Lamb, a London banker, recommended the 
Protector Cromwell to establish a public bank, 

1656 and 165S 
Francis Child, a goldsmith, established a bank 

about 1663 ; he died .... 4 Oct. 1713 
Run on the London bankers (said to be the first) . 1667 
Charles II. arbitrarily suspends all payments to 
bankers out of the exchequer of monies deposited 
there by them ; they lost intimately 3,321, 313?. 

2 Jan. 1672 

Hoare's bank began about 1680 

Bank of England established (see next article) . . 1694 
Wood's bank at Gloucester, the oldest county bank, 

established 1716 

A list of bankers given in the " Royal Kalendar " . 1765 
Forgeries of Henry Fauntleroy, banker ; executed, 

30 Nov. 1824 
Act passed permitting establishment of joint-stock 

banks (which see) 1826 

Rowland Stephenson, M. P., banker and treasurer 
of St. Bartholomew's hospital, absconds ; defaulter 
to the amount of 200,000/. ; 70,000/. in exchequer 
bills ; (caused a great depression among bankers) 

27 Dec. 1828 
Establishment of joint-stock banks (see p. S5) . 1834 
Rogers's bank robbed of nearly 50,000/. (bank notes 

afterwards returned) . . . .24 Nov. 1844 
Failure of Strahan, Paul, and Bates (securities 
unlawfully used) ; private banking much injured, 

11 June, 1855 
Cheque Bank (which see), opened iu Pall Mall, 

23 July, 1873 

Prescott's, Dimsdale's (London) united with Tugwell's 

(Bath) and Miles's (Bristol) as a company, 1 Jan. 1891- 

A youth named Mackenzie, in the National Provincial 

Bank of England, robbed of a bag containing 11,000/. 

in bank notes 16 Feb. 1891 

Banks in 1855. Notes allowed to be issued. 

Bank of England 1 14,000,000 

English private banks .... 196 4,999,444 
English joint-stock banks (see Banks, 

Joint Stock) 67 3,418,277 

Banks in Scotland 18 3,087,200 

Banks in Ireland 8 6,354,494 



290 31,859,42-4 



BANK. 



90 



BANK. 



Batik of 

Venice formed 1157 

■Geneva 1345 

Barcelona 1401 

Genoa 1407 

-Amsterdam 1607 

^Hamburg 1619 

Rotterdam 1635 

Stockholm 1688 

England 1694 

Scotland 1695 

Copenhagen 1736 

Berlin 1765 

Caisse d'Escompte, France 1776 

Ireland 1783 

St. Petersburg 1786 

Sn the East Indies 1787 

In North America 1791 

France* 1803 

Italy 1865 

Imperial Bank of Germany (formerly of Prussia) 

1 Jan. 1876 

BANK OF ENGLAND was projected by William 
Paterson, a Scotch merchant (see Darien), to meet 
the difficulty experienced by William III. in raising 
the supplies for the war against France. By the 
influence of Paterson and Michael Godfrey, 40 mer- 
chants (aided by Charles Montague) subscribed 
500,000/. towards the sum of 1,200,000/. to be lent 
to the government at 8 per cent., in consideration 
of the subscribers being incorporated as a bank. 
The scheme was violently opposed in parliament, 
but the bill (a tonnage act), obtained the royal 
assent 25 April, 1694, and the charter was granted 
27 July following, appointing sir John Houblon 
the first governor, and Michael Godfrey the first 
■deputy-governor. The bank commenced active 
operations on I Jan. 1695, at Grocers' Hall, Poultry, t 
issuing notes for 20/. and upwards, and dis- 
counting bills for 44 to 6 per cent. The charter 
was renewed in 1697, 1708, 1713, 1716, 1721, 1724, 
1746, 1749, 1764, 1781, 1800, 1808, 1816, 1833, 1844. 
Lawson. 

Run on the bank : its notes at 20 per cent, discount ; 

capital raised to 2,201,171?. ios. . . Nov. 1696 
The bank monopoly established by the prohibition 
of any company exceeding six persons acting as 
bankers (Scotland not included in the act) . . 1708 

Capital raised to 5,559,99s?. 10s 1710 

Bank post bills issued (1st record) . 14 Dec. 1738 
Hun for gold through rebellion in the North ; bank 

bills paid in silver ; the city support the bank, Sept. 1 745 
Rd. Vaughan hanged for forging notes . t May, 1758 

10?. notes issued i 7 59 

Gordon riots ; since then the bank has been pro- 
tected by the military 1780 

5?. notes issued 1793 

Cash payments suspended, in conformity with an 

order in council 26 Feb. 1797 

1 J. and 2?. notes issued .... March, ,, 
Bank restriction act passed ... 3 May, ,, 
Voluntary contribution of 200,000?. to the govern- 
ment I7 o8 

Loss by Aslett's frauds (see Exchequer) 342,697?. . 1803 
Resignation of Abraham Newland, 50 years cashier, 

18 Sept. 1807 
Bramah's machine for numbering notes adopted . 1809 

* Instituted by laws passed 14 April, 1803, and 22 
April, 1806. The statutes were approved 16 Jan. 1808. 
In 1 8 10 Napoleon said that its duty was to provide money 
at all times at 4 per cent, interest. 

f The foundation of the building in Threadneedle-street 
was laid 1 Aug. 1732, by sir Edward Bellamy, governor, 
and the bank removed there 5 June, 1734 ; it was erected 
t>y G. Sampson, architect. Great additions have been 
made from time to time by successive architects : sir 
Robert Taylor, sir John Soane, and Mr. C. R. Cockerell. 
It now occupies the site of the church, and nearly all the 
parish of St. Christophef-le-Stocks. The churchyard is 
now termed "the garden." Another entrance opened 
in Prinees Street, 1882. 



The bank issues silver tokens for 3s. and is. 6c?. 

9 July, ?8ii 

Peel's act for the gradual resumption of cash pay- 
ments July, 1819 

Cash payments for notes to be in bullion at the mint 
price, 1 May, 1 82 1 ; in the current coin of the realm, 

1 May, 1823 

Great commercial panic — many 1?. notes (acciden- 
tally found in a box) issued with most beneficial 
effects Dec. 1823 

The act for the establishment of joint-stock banks 
breaks up the monopoly 1826 

By the advice of the government, branch banks 
opened at Gloucester, 19 July ; Manchester, 21 
Sept.; Swansea, 23 Oct. . . . . . ,, 

And at Birmingham, 1 Jan. ; Liverpool, 2 July ; ■ 
Bristol, 12 July ; Leeds, 23 Aug. ; Exeter, 17 Dec. 1827 

The bank loses 360,000?. by Fauntleroy's forgeries : 
estimated in 1830 

Statements of the bank affairs published quar- 
terly 1833 

Peel's bank charter act, (7 & 8 Vict. c. 32) ; renews 
charter till 1 Aug. 1855, and longer, if the debt 
due from the public to the bank (11,015,100?.), 
with interest, &c, be not paid after due notice ; 
established the issue department ; requires 
weekly returns to be published ; limited the issue 
of notes to 14,000,000?., &c. . . . 19 July, 1844 

Commercial panic : lord John Russell authorises 
relaxation of restriction of issuing notes (not acted 
on) ; bank discount 8 per cent. Sunday, 24-25 Oct. 1847 

Gold bullion in the bank (consequent on discovery 
of gold in Australia), 21,845,390?. . . 10 July, 1852 

Branch bank, Burlington-gardens, London, W. 
opened 1 Oct. 1856 

Committee on the bank acts appointed . 12 May, .1857 

Bank discount 9 per cent. ; lord Palmers ton autho- 
rises addition to issue of notes [to the amount of 
2,000,000?. were issued] . . . .12 Nov. „ 

Much alarm through the announcement of the bank 
solicitor that a quantity of bank paper had been 
stolen from the makers (forged notes soon ap- 
peared) 16 Aug. 1862 

The culprits, soon detected, were tried and con- 
victed (see Trials) .... 7-12 Jan. 1863 
See Bills oj Exchange, 1873. 
For the Vagliano case, see Tri ds, 2 Nov. 1888. 

Branch bank, in Fleet Street, opened . 17 Dec. i838 

The Bank authorised (in accordance with the Act of 
1844) to increase their issue of notes by 250,000?. 
about 11 Feb. 1890 

The Bank, aided by the Bank of France and others, 
assists Messrs. Baring, and thereby averts a 
panic 15 Nov. „ 

Important changes in the management of the bank, 
proposed by the chancellor of the exchequer, 

4 April, approved by the directors and adopted 

by the proprietors . . . .16 June, 1892 

Bank Discount. 

1858, 3 per cent. Feb. 1. 

i860 (demand for gold in France), 6, Nov. 15. 

1861, 7, Jan. 7 ; 8 (demand for money in France, India, 
United States, &c), Feb. 14 ; 3, Nov. 7. 

1862, -2.\, Jan. ; 3, April ; 2I, July ; 2, July 24 ; 3, Oct. — 
Dec. 

1863, raised to 4 per cent., Jan. 16 ; to 5, Jan. 28; re- 
duced, to 4, Feb. ; to 3I and 3, April ; raised to 4, May ; 
raised to 5, 6, in Nov. ; to 7 and 8, and reduced to 7 in 
Dec. 

1864, raised to 8, Jan. 20 ; reduced to 7, Feb. 12 ; to 6, 
Feb. 25 ; raised to 7, April 16 ; to 8, May 2 ; to 9, May 

5 ; reduced to 8, May 19 ; to 7, May 26 ; to 6, June 16 ; 
raised to 7, July 25 ; to 8, Aug. 4 ; to 9, Sept. 5 ; re- 
duced to 8, Nov. 10 ; to 7, Nov. 24. 

1865, reduced to 5^, Jan. 12 ; to 5, Jan. 20 ; raised to 5J, 
March 2 ; reduced to 4, March 30 ; raised to 4J, May 
4 ; reduced to 3J, June 1 ; to 3, June 15 ; raised to 3J-, 
July 27 ; to 4, Aug. 3 ; to 4^, Sept. 28 ; to 5, Oct. 2" ; 
to 6, Oct. 5 ; to 7, Oct. 7 ; (three times in one week) ; re- 
duced to 6, Nov. 23 ; raised to 7, Dec. 28. 

1866, raised to 8, Jan. 4 ; reduced to 7, Feb. 22 ; to 6, 
March 15 ; raised to 7, May 3 ; to 8, May 8 ; to 9, May 
11 (panic — suspension of Bank Act authorised by Go- 
vernment) ; to 10, May 12 ; reduced to 8, Aug. 16 ; to 
7, Aug. 23 ; to 6, Aug. 30 ; to 5, Sept. 6 ; to 4J, Sept. 
27 ; to 4, Nov. 8 ; to 3J, Dec. 20. 



BANK. 



91 BANK. 



1867, reduced to 3, Feb. 7 ; to 2J, May 30 ; to 2, July 25. 

1868, raised to 2J per cent. Nov. 19 ; to 3, Dec. 3. 

1869, raised- to 4, April 1 ; to 4J, May 6 ; reduced to 4, 
June 10 ; to 3^, June 24 ; to 3, July 15 ; to 2J, Aug. 19 ; 
raised to 3, Nov. 4. 

1870, raised to 3J, July 21 ; to 4, July 23 ; to 5 (Franco- 
Prussian War), July 28 ; to 6, Aug. 4 : reduced to 5J, 
Aug. 11 ; to 4 J, Aug. 18 ; to 4, Aug. 25 ; to 3^, Sept. 1 ; 
to 3, Sept. 15 ; to 2^, Sept. 29. 

1871, raised to 3, March 2 ; reduced to 2J, April 13 ; to 
i\, June 15 ; to 2, July 13 ; raised to 3, Sept. 21 ; to 4, 
Sept. 28 ; to s, Oct. 7 ; reduced to 4, Nov. 16 ; to 3^, 
Nov. 30 ; to 3, Dec. 14. 

1872, raised to 3^, April 4 ; to 4, April 11 ; to 5, May 9 ; 
reduced to 4, May 30 ; to 3 J, June 13 ; to 3, June 20 ; 
raised to 3^, July 18 ; to 4, Sept. 18 ; to 4J, Sept. 26 ; 
to 5, Oct. 2"; to 6, Oct. 10 ; to 7, Nov. 9 ; reduced to 6, 
Nov. 28 ; to 5, Dec. 12. 

1873, reduced to 4J, Jan. 9 ; to 4, Jan. 23 ; to 3J, Jan. 30 ; 
raised to 4, March 26 ; to 4J, May 7 ; to 5, May 10 ; to 
6, May 17 ; to 7, June 4 ; reduced to 6, June 12 ; to 5, 
July 10 ; to 4^-, July 17 ; to 4, July 24 ; to 3J, July 31 ; 
to 3, Aug. 21 ; raised to 4, Sept. 25 ; to 5 (panic in New 
York), Sept. 29 ; to 6, Oct. 14 ; to 7, Oct. 18 ; to 8, Nov. 
1 ; to 9, Nov. 7 ; reduced to 8, Nov. 20 ; to 6, Nov. 27 ; 
to s, Dec. 4 ; to 4^, Dec. 11. 

E874, reduced to 4, Jan. 8 ; to 3J, Jan. 15 ; raised to 4, 
April 30 ; reduced to 3^, May 28 ; to 3, June 4 ; to 2j, 
June 18; raised to 3, July 30; to 4, Aug. 6; reduced 
to 3^, Aug. 20 ; to 3, Aug. 27 ; raised to 4, Oct. 15 ; to 
5, Nov. 16 ; to 6, Nov. 30. . 

1875, reduced to 5, Jan. 7; to 4, Jan. 14 ; to 3, Jan. 27 ; 
raised to 3J, Feb. 18 ; to 3, July 8 ; reduced to z\, July 
29 ; to 2, Aug. 12 ; raised to 2J, Oct. 7 ; to 3A, Oct. 14 ; 
to 4, Oct. 21 ; reduced to 3, Nov. 18 ; raised to 4, Dec. 30. 

1876, raised to 5, Jan. 6 ; reduced to 4, Jan. 27 ; to 3J, 
March 23 ; to 3, April 6 ; to 2, April 20. 

1877, raised to 3, May 3 ; reduced to 2^, July 5 ; to 2, 
July 12 ; raised to 3, Aug. 28 ; to 4, Oct. 4 ; to 5, Oct. 
11 ; reduced to 4, Nov. 29. 

1878, reduced to 3, Jan. 10 ; to 2, Jan. 31 ; raised to 3, 
March 28 ; reduced to 2^, May 30 ; [minimum omitted 
in Bank notices, June] ; raised to 3, June 27 ; to 3J, 
July 4 ; to 4, Aug. 1 ; to 3, Aug. 12 ; to 6, Oct. 14 ; 
reduced to 5, Nov. 21. 

1879, reduced to 4, Jan. 16 ; to 3, Jan. 30; to 2 J, March 
13 ; to 2, April 10 ; raised to 3. Nov. 6. 

1880, reduced to 2^, June 17 ; raised to 3, Dec. 9. 

1881, raised to 3^, Jan. ; reduced to 3, Feb. 17; to i\, 
April 27 ; raised to 3, Aug. 3 : to 4, Aug. 25 ; 5, Oct. 6. 

1882 raised to 6, Jan. 30 ; reduced to 5, Feb. 23; to 4, 
Mar. 9 ; to 3, Mar. 23 ; raised to 4, Aug. 17 ; to 5, 
Sept. 14 

1883, reduced to 4, Jan. 25 ; to 3J, Feb. 15 ; to 3, March 1 ; 
raised to 4, May 10; reduced to 3 J, Sept. 13; to 3, Sept. 27. 



1884, raised to 3!, Feb. 7 ; reduced to 3, Mar. 13 ; to 2^ 
April 3 ; to 2, June 19 ; raised to 3, Oct. 9 ; to 4, Oct. 
30; to s, Nov. 6. 

1885, reduced to 4, Jan. 29 ; to 3J, March 19 ; to 3, May 
7 ; to 2£, May 14 ; to 2, May 28 ; raised to 3, Nov. 12 ; 
to 4, Dec. 17. 

1886, reduced to 3, Jan. 21 ; to 2, Feb. 18 ; raised to 3, 
May 6 ; reduced to 2J, June 10 ; raised to 3J, Aug. 26 ; 
to 4, Oct. 21 ; to s, Dec. 16. 

1887, reduced to 4, Feb. 3 ; to 3 J, March 10 ; to 3, March 
24 ; to 2j, April 14 ; to 2, April 28 ; raised to 3, Aug. 
4 ; to 4, Sept. 1. - 

1888, reduced to 3A, Jan. 12 ; to 3, Jan. 19 ; to 25, Feb. 
16 ; to 2, March 15 ; raised to 3, May 10 ; reduced to 
2j, June 7 ; ?-atsed to 3, Aug. 9 ; to 4, Sept. 13 ; to 5, 
Oct. 4. 

1889, reduced to 4, Jan. 10 ; 3A, Jan. 24 ; to 3, Jan. 31 ; to 
2^, April 18 ; raised; to 3, Aug. 8 ; to 4, Aug. 29 ; to s. 
Sept. 26 ; to 6, Dec. 30. 

1890, reduced to 5, Feb. 20 ; to 4J; March 6 ; to 4, March 
13 ; to 3^, April 10 ; to 3, April 17 ; raised to 4, June 
26 ; to 5, July 31 ; reduced to 4, Aug. 21 ; raised to 5, 
Sept. 25 ; to 6, Nov. 7 ; reduced to 5, Dec. 4. 

1891, reduced to 4, Jan. 8 ; to 3^, Jan. 22 ; to 3, Jan. 29 ; 
raised to 3J-, April 16; to 4, May 7; to 5, May 14; 
reduced to 4, June 4 ; to 3, June 18 ; to 2^, July 2 ; 
raised to 3, Sept. 24 ; to 4, Oct. 29 ; reduced to 33-, 
Dec. 10. ., 

1892, reduced to 3, Jan. 21 ; to 2J, April 7 ; to 2, April 



AVERAGE AMOUNT OF BANK OF ENG. NOTES IN CIRCULATION. 



1718 . 
1778 
1790 . 
1800 
l8lO . 
1815 
1820 . 
1830 



£1,829,930 
7,030,680 

10,217,000 
" 15,450,000 

23,Q04,000 

26,803,520 
27,174,000 
20,620,000 



1835 

1840 

1845 

i8=;o 
1855 
1857 



£18,215,220 
17,231,000 
19,262,327 
19,776,814 
19,616,627 
21,036,430 
22,705,780 



Assets — Securities 

Bullion 
Liabilities 



Nov, 
Assets — Securities 

Bullion 
Liabilities 



Dec. 27, 1856. 

. £29,484,000) £39s890OO 
. . 10,105,000 ) "'•* 

36,329,000 



Balance £3,250,000 

11, 1857 (Time of Panic). 

■ ■ £35>48o,28i I £ g 8 

. 7,170,508 i * > ? >/. y 
39. 2 86.433 



Balance or rest £3,364,356 



Sept. 14, 1859 
Aug. 30, 1862 
Aug. 9, 1865 
Mar. 14, 1866 . 
Sept. 26, ,, 
June 19, 1867 
March 5, 1868 
Dee. 29, 1869 . 
June 2, 1870 
Jan. 5, 1871 . 
June 29, ,, 
Jan. 3, 1872 

July 3, „ 

Jan. 8, 1873 
July 9, ,, 
Dec. 17, ,, 
July 1, 1874 . 
Jan. 6, 1875 
June 30, ,, 
Jan. 5, 1876 
July 5, ,, 
Jan. 3, 1877 
July, ,, 
Jan. 2, 1878 
June 26, ,, 
Jan. 2, 1879 
July 2, ,, . 
Jan. 1, 1880 
July 1, ,, . 
Jan. 5, 1 88 1 



Assets. 



-Securities. 

£30,090,179 
30,106,295 
31,823,066 

29.4i5>oS9 
34,418,382 
31,849,662 
31,226,793 
34,040,941 
32,402,200 
32,274,967 
34,100,342 
36.393.7o8 
37,090,281 
32,138,990 

33.395,344 
30,922,266 
36,596,872 
33,985,823 
39,660,166 
38.398,98s 
32,247,018 
35,998,482 
35.865,522 
34.335.978 
37.366,472 
44,286,663 
34.95i.837 
41,330,212 
39,398,901 
39,955.274 



Coin and Bullion 
. £17,120,822 
17,678,698 
14,223,390 
14,327,618 
16,929,262 
21,882,770 
21,136,192 
19,196,622 
20,494,392 
22,382,934 
26,609,540 
25,291,761 
24,065,094 
24,051,412 
22,374.582 
22,477,563 
23,929,601 
22,085,311 
26,690,116 
21,215,761 
30,190,692 
28,214,165 
26,948,340 
24,386,794 
23,438,504 
28,088,361 
35,21-6,269 
27,601,562 
29,319,390 
24,269,276 



Liabilities. 
£43.503.214 
44.453,778 
42,528,577 
39',934,iSo 
47,039,390 
50,612,342 
48,752,291 
50,134,262 
49.799.528 
51,512,339 

57>594, I 33 
58,497,293 
57,894,811 
52,772,403 
52,338,203 
50,248,577 
57,315,010 
52,786,516 
63,252,111 
56,362,426 
60,186,939 
61,091,620 
59,682,894 
55,560,422 
57,726,813 
69,062,479 
67,067,079 
65,866,659 
65.634,195 
61,006,233 



Balance. 
£3,716,787 

3,517,879 
3,808,527 
4,108,254 
3,120,090 
3,610,694 
3,103,301 
3,097,069 
3,145,562 

3. H5.749 
3,188,176 
3,250,564 
3.4!7,999 
3-43 I .7 2 3 
3,151,252 
3,211,463 
3,302,618 

3,252,320 

i.^o,?? 1 
3,121,027 
3,130,968 
3,162,350 
3,078,163 
3.3 I2 >545 
3,171,027 
3,065,115 
3,084,096 
3.2i3,3'7 



BANK OF IRELAND. 



92 



BANKS. 



„„. -Securities. Coin and Bullion. Liabilities. 

June 8, 1881 £35,890,517 . . . £25,902,159 . . . £58,721,068 . 

Jan. 5, 1882 40,438,605 . . . 20,249,034 . . . 57>5°5,54° • 

June 28, „ . . . . . 37,486,806 . . . 24,380,941 . . . 58,772,276 . 
Jan. 3, 1883 .... 41,688,522 . . . 20,353,791 . . . 58,856,634 . 

Juty 4. , 391827,144 . . . 22,266,535 . . . 58,939.347 • 

Jan. 2,1884 41.217,256 . . . 21,437,365 . . . 59,531,153 • 

July 2, ,, . . . . . 38,323,187 . . . 25,075,683 . . . 60,236,310 . 
Jan. 1, 1885 .... 41,663,958 . . . 20,695,496 . . . 59,243,143 . 
Jan. 6, 1886 ... . . 41,446,936 . . . 19,964,811 . . . 58,109,621 . 
Jan. 29, 1887 .... 37,545.742 • • ■ 23,190,671 . . . 57,685,104 . 

Jan. 4, 1888 38,133,062 . . . 20,164,214 . . . 55,175,337 . 

July 4, 1888. — Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,184,900?. Gold coin and bullion. 

Notes issued, 36,516,920?. Balance or rest, 3,140,748?. 
Jan. 2, 1889. — Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,184,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 

Notes issued, 34,639,030?. Balance or rest, 3,217,808?. 
July 3, 1889. — Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,184,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 

Notes issued, 38,919,385?. Balance or rest, 3,148,924?. 
Jan. 1, 1890. — Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,184,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 

Notes issued, 33,316,690?. Balance or rest, 3,177,007?. 
July 2, 1890. — Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,434,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 

Notes issued, 36,534,600?. Balance or rest, 3,184,670?. 
Jan. 7, 1891. — Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,434,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 

Notes issued, 39,802,635?. Balance or rest, 3,462,192?. 
July 1, 1891. — Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,434,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 

Notes issued, 43,735,550?. Balance or rest, 3,226,321?. 
Jan. 6, 1892. — Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,434,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 
Notes issued, 38,140,030?. Balance or rest, 3,408,148?. 

PUBLIC DEBT TO THE BANK OF ENGLAND. 
1694 . . . £l,200,000 I 1716 . . £4,175,027 I 1742 . . . £10,700,000 I 1816 . 

I708 . . . 2,175,027 I 1721 . . . 9,100,000 I 1746 . . . 11,686,000 I 1844-1889 



Balance. 

. £3,071,608 

3,182,099 

• 3. 95,47i 

• 3,185,679 

• 3, I 54,33 2 
. 3,123,468 

3,162,560 

. 3,116,311 

3,302,126 

• 3,051,309 
■ 3, 121. 939 

20,316,920?. 

18,439,030?. 
22,719,385?. 
17,116,690?. 
20,084,600?. 
23.352.635L 
27.285,550?- 
21,690,030?. 



. £14,686,000 
. 11,015,100 



BANK of Ireland. On 9 Dec. 1721, the 

Irish house of commons rejected a bill for establish- 
ing a national bank. Important failures in Irish 
hanks occurred in 1727, 1733, and 1758: this led 
gradually to the establishment of the Bank of Ire- 
land at St. Mary's abbey, Dublin, 1 June, 1783. 
The business was removed to the late parliament 
house, in College-green, in May, 1808. Branch 
banks of this establishment have been formed in 
most of the provincial towns in Ireland, all since 
1828. Irish Banking Act passed, 21 July, 1845. 

BANK OF SAYINGS, see Savings' Banks. 

BANKEES' BOOKS EVIDENCE ACT, 

39 & 40 Vict. c. 48, passed 11 Aug. 1876; repealed 
by a fresh act 23 May, 1879. 

BANKERS' INSTITUTE, meeting to esta- 
blish it, 29 May, 1878; Sir John Lubbock; elected 
president 11 March, 1879, 1st general meeting 23 
May, 1879. (1952 members, May, 1887.) 

BANKS OF SCOTLAND. The old bank of Scot- 
land was set up in 1695, at Edinburgh, and began 
1 Nov., the second institution of the kind in the 
empire : lending money to the crown was pro- 
hibited. 

Royal bank of Scotland chartered . . 8 July, 1727 

British Linen company bank ' ^46 

First stone of present bank of Scotland laid 3 June", 1801 

Commercial bank I 8 IO 

National bank - _ ' [ jg 25 

Union bank \ jg,,-, 

City of Glasgow bank * . . . .'..''. 1839 
Scotch banking act passed . . . 21 Julyj 1845 

Western bank of Scotland and the Glasgow bank 
stopped, causing much distress . . . Nov. 1857 

* City of Glasgow Bank (with unlimited liability) • 
founded 1839 , identified with Glasgow ; held Free Church 
Sustentation Fund ; stopped for a few days during crisis, 
Nov. 1857. In 1878 paid dividend 12 per cent. (100?. stock, 
236?.) ; 1272 shareholders, very many in humble circum- 
stances. The bank stopped 2 Oct. Investigation showed 
great fraud and false accounts. Estimated loss, 6,783,000?. 
causing much calamity and ruin to many. The directors, 
J. Stewart, Lewis Potter, R. Salmond, Win. Taylor, H.' 
Inglis, and J. I. Wright, and the manager, R. S. Stronach, 
were committed for trial, 30 Oct. Stronach and Potter 
were convicted of falsifying ^and fabricating balance 



BANKS, Joint Stock. Since the act of 

1826, a number of these banks have been estab- 
lished.! In Ireland similar banks have been in- 
stituted, the first being the Hibernian bank. By 
the new Companies Act, passed 15 Aug. 1879, un- 
limited companies may register as limited. The 

sheets (18 months' imprisonment; the others of uttering 
the same (8 months' imprisonment), 1 Feb. 1S79. 

The liquidators reported that about 1819 contributors 
had paid about 4,500,000?. (13s. 4$. in the pound) 1 Dec. 
1879 ; 20s. in the pound paid to depositors, 2 March, 1880. 

Mr. James N. Fleming was arrested 25 Jan. for em- 
bezzlement, and sentenced to 8 months' imprisonment, 
3 July, 1882. 

Close of the liquidation ; 13,644,856?. paid, announced 
Nov. 1882. 

The receipts by subscription, &c, for the relief of the 
sufferers amounted to 380,000?. ; interest 47,000?., making 
a total of 427,000?. 

+ The Royal British Bank was established in 1849, 
by Mr. John McGregor, M.P., and others, under sir R. 
Peel's joint-stock banking act, 7 & 8 Vict. c. 113 (1844) ; 
as an attempt to introduce the Scotch banking system of 
cash credits into England. On 3 Sept. 1856, it stopped 
payment, occasioning much distress and ruin to many 
small tradesmen and others. In consequence of strong 
evidence of the existence of fraud in the management of 
the bank, elicited during the examination before the 
court of bankruptcy, the government instructed the at- 
torney-general to file ex-officio informations against the 
manager, Mr. H. Innes Cameron, and several of the 
directors. They were convicted 27 Feb. 1858, after 13 
days' trial, and sentenced to various degrees of imprison- 
ment. Attempts to mitigate the punishment failed 
(May, 1858) ; but all were released except Cameron and 
Esdaile, in July, 1858. In April, i860, dividends had 
been paid to the amount of 15s. in the pound. The at- 
torney-general brought in a bill called the Fraudulent 
Trustees' Act, 20 & 21 Vict. c. 54, to prevent the recur- 
rence of such transactions. 

On 19 April, i860, adeficiency of 263,000?. was discovered 
in the Union Bank of London. Mr. George Pullinger, a 
cashier, confessed himself guilty of forgery and fraud, and 
was sentenced to 20 years' imprisonment. 

On 18 Feb. 1861, it was discovered that John Durden, 
a clerk of the Commercial Bank of London, had robbed 
his employers of 67,000?., of which 46,000?. might be 
recovered. 

In Dec. 1864, J. W. Terry and Thomas Burch, manager 
and secretary of the Unity Bank, were committed on 
a charge of conspiracy for fabricating accounts ; but 
acquitted on their trial. 



BANK HOLIDAYS ACT. 



93 



BANNOCKBURN. 



joint-stock banks agreed to support the Bank of 
England, and to issue monthly balance sheets, May, 
June, 1891. 

Chief London Joint-Stock Banks. Founded. 

London and Westminster (becomes limited, 1879) . 1834 

London Joint-Stock 1836 

London and County (becomes limited, 1879) . 
Union Bank of London .... 
City Bank . . (ditto, 1880) 



• 1839 

• 1855 

A full list of joint-stock banks, with their date, capital, 
<fec, is given in Whitaker's Almanack. 

BANK HOLIDAYS ACT passed 25 May, 
187 1, chiefly by the instrumentality of sir John 
Lubbock. 

Bank Holidays. — England and Ireland: Easter Mon- 
day ; Monday in Whitsun-week ; first Monday in 
August; 26 December (if a week day). — Scotland: 
New Year's day ; Christmas day (if either falls on Sun- 
day, the following Monday to be a bank holiday) ; Good 
Friday ; first Monday in May and August. 

BANKS, UPT (signifying either bank or bench 

broken), a trader declared to be unable to pay his 

just debts. The laws on the subject (1543, 1571 et 

seq.) were consolidated and amended in 1825, 1849, 

1852, 1854,' 1861, 1868, 1869, 1883. See Debtors. 

Lord Chancellor Thurlow refused a bankrupt his 
certificate, because he had lost five pounds at one 
time in gaming 17 July, 1788 

Enacted that members of the house of commons" 
becoming bankrupt, and not paying their debts 
in full, should vacate their seats .... 1812 

Lord Eldon's Act appointing commissioners . . 1825 

New Bankruptcy Court, (including a court " of 
review," 3 judges) erected by 2 Will. IV. c. 56 
(Lord Brougham's Act) ; official assignees ap- 
pointed, &c 1831 

Bills for reforming bankruptcy law were in vain 
brought before parliament. . . . 1859, i860 

Bill by the lord chancellor Westbury (formerly sir 
K. Bethell), 24 & 25 Vict. c. 134, passed (1861) ; 
great changes made ; the court for relief of insol- 
vent debtors abolished, and increased powers 
given to the commissioners in bankruptcy, &c. ; 
the new orders issued . . . .12 Oct. 1861 

By Lord Hatherley's Bankruptcy Act passed 9 Aug. 
1869, a new bankruptcy court was established in 
place of the commissioners', which sat last time, 
when above 300 petitions of bankruptcy were 
received, 31 Dec. 1869. "Paid trustee system," 
clauses 125, 126, termed "a gentlemanly way of 
getting rid of debts." The new Judge, the hon. 
James Bacon, sat 1 Jan. 1870 

Justice Giffard, the judge of the Bankruptcy Appeal 
Court, decided (in the case of the duke of New- 
castle) that a peer can be made a bankrupt, Nov. 
1869, which decision was affirmed on appeal to 
the house of lords in the following year ; other 
petitions against peers have been filed. It was 
decided that bankrupts cannot sit in the house 
of peers 10 Feb. 1871 

Bankruptcy Disqualification Act disqualifies a 
peer from sitting or voting in parliament, passed 

13 July, ,, 

Irish bankruptcy laws consolidated in 1836, and 
further amended in 1857 

Scotch bankruptcy laws consolidated in 1856, and 
further amended in ,, 

New Bankruptcy Act for Ireland, passed . 6 Aug. 1872 

Four Bankruptcy Bills introduced by Lord Chan- 
cellor Cairns, and withdrawn . . . 1876 — 80 

Bankruptcies have diminished through great num- 
ber of liquidations by arranged compositions ; 
many said to be fraudulent ; 3651 of these in 
1870 ; 11,976 in 1879 ; about 20,000,000^. wasted. 

New bankruptcy bill brought in by Mr. Chamber- 
lain 8 April, 1881 (dropped) 

New Bankruptcy Act passed 25 Aug., 1883, 46 & 47 
Vict. c. 52, places bankrupts assets in charge of 
Board of Trade, and makes other important 
changes. Reported to work well .... 1885 

The court in Portugal Street closed ; business trans- 
ferred to High Court of Justice, Jan.; new judge 
first sat 18 Feb. 1884 



Bankruptcy (Discharge and Closure) Act passed . 1887 
Sir Albert Rollit's Bankruptcy Act, 1883-90, passed 

18 Aug. 1890 



NUMBER OF BANKRUPTS IN GREAT BRITAIN. 



1700 
1725 
I 75° 
1775 
1800 
1810 
1820 
1825* 



1845 England 
1850 ditto . 



1857 



ditto 
ditto 
ditto 
ditto 
ditto 



416 
432 

520 



. 2683 
• 1467 



. 8470 
. 7224 



1873 
1876 
1877 



1887 



England 
dittof . 
ditto 
ditto . 
ditto 
ditto . 
ditto 
ditto . 
ditto 
ditto . 
ditto 
ditto . 
ditto 
ditto . 
ditto 
ditto . 
ditto 



10,396 

• 915 

• 976 

• 967 

. 1084 

• 1156 

• 995 

• 1005 

• 995 
. 1046 
. 2998 

• 3963 

• 4566 
. 4681 

• 4695 

• 4415 

• 39 2 4 



1867 

Bankrupts in Scotland : i860, 445 ; 1876, 482 ; 1880, 5S2 ; 
1885, 362 ; 1890, 339. In Ireland : 1880, 312 ; 1885, 2I 6 ; 
1887, 204. 

BANNATYNE CLUB, named after George 
Bannatyne (the publisher), was established in 1823 
by sir Walter Scott and others, for printing works 
illustrative of the history, antiquities, and litera- 
ture of Scotland, of which about 113 volumes were 
issued: dissolved, i860. 

BANNER CROSS MURDER. See Trials, 

1879. 

BANNERET, KNIGHT, a dignity between 
baron and knight, anciently conferred by the king 
under the royal standard on the field of battle. Its 
origin is of uncertain time : Edmondson dates it 
736; but it was probably created by Edward I. 
John Chandos is said to have been made a banneret 
by the Black Prince and the king of Castile at Na- 
jara, 3 April, 1367. The dignity "was conferred on 
John Smith, who rescued the royal standard at 
Edgehill fight, 23 Oct. 1642. It fell into disuse, 
but was revived by George III. for sir "William 
Erskine, in 1764, and for admiral Pye and captains 
Knight, Bickerton, and Vernon, in 1773. 

BANNERS were common to all nations. The 
Jewish tribes had standards or banners — Num. ii. 
(1490 B.C.). See Cross, Auriflamma, Standards, &c. 
The magical banner of the Danes (said to have been 
a black raven on a red ground) was taken by Alfred 
when he defeated Hubba, 878. 

BANNOCKBURN (Stirlingshire), the site of 
two battles: (1) between Robert Bruce of Scotland 
and Edward II. of England, 24 June, 1314. The 
army of Bruce consisted of 30,000 ; that of Edward 
of 100,000 men, of whom 52,000 were archers. The 
English crossed a rivulet to the attack, and Bruce 
having dug and covered pits, they fell into them, 
and were thrown into confusion. The rout was 
complete : the English king narrowly escaped, and 
50,000 were killed or taken prisoners. (2) At 
Sauchieburn, near here, James III. was defeated 
and slain on 11 June, 1488, by his rebellious 
nobles. 

* According to a return to parliament made at the 
close of Feb. 1826, there had become bankrupt in the 
four months}) receding, 59 banking-houses, comprising 144 
partners ; and 2oother banking establishments had been 
declared insolvent. Every succeeding week continued 
to adil from seventy to a hundred merchants, traders, 
and manufacturers to the bankrupt list. This was the 
period of bubble speculation, and of unprecedented com- 
mercial embarrassment and ruin. 

f Liquidations now preferred to bankruptcy. 



BANNS. 



94 



BAEBUDA. 



BANNS, in the feudal law, were a solemn 
proclamation of any kind : hence arose the present 
custom of asking banns, or giving notice before 
marriage; said to have been introduced into the 
English church about 1200. The proper time of 
publishing banns in the church was the subject of 
much discussion in 1867. 

BANQUETING-HOTTSE, Whitehall, Lon- 
don, built by Inigo Jones, about 1619. 

BANTAM (Java). Here a British factory was 
established by captain Lancaster, in 1603. The 
English and Danes were driven from their factories 
by the Dutch in 1683. Bantam surrendered to the 
British in 181 1, but was restored to the Dutch at 
the peace in 1814. 

BANTINGISM, see Corpulence. 
BANTBY BAY (S. Ireland), where a French 
fleet, bringing succour to the adherents of James 
II., attacked the English under admiral Herbert, 
1 May, 1689 : the latter retired to form in line and 
were not pursued. A French squadron of seven 
sail of the line and two frigates, armed en flute, 
and seventeen transports, anchored here for a few 
days, without effect, Dec. 1796. Mutiny of the 
Bantry Bay squadron under admiral Mitchell was 
in Dec. 1801. In Jan. 1802, twenty-two of the 
mutineers were tried on board the Gladiator, at 
Portsmouth, when seventeen were condemned to 
death, of whom eleven were executed ; the others 
were sentenced to receive each 200 lashes. The 
executions took place on board the Majestic, Cen- 
taur, Formidable, Temeraire, and L' Achille, 8 to 
18 Jan. 1802. Mock battle here, 30 June, 1885. 

BAPATJME, N. FRANCE, the site of severe 
indecisive engagements between the French army 
of the north under Faidherbe, and the Germans 
under Manteuft'el ; the French retreated, 2, 3 Jan. 
187 1. 

BAPTISM, the ordinance of admission into 
the church, practised by all Christian sects except 
Quakers. John the Baptist baptized Christ, 30. 
(Matt, iii.) Infant baptism is mentioned by Ire- 
nceus about 97. In the reign of Constantine, 319 
baptisteries were built and baptism was performed 
by dipping the person all over. In the west sprink- 
ling was adopted. Much controversy has arisen 
since 1831 (particularly in 1849 and 1850), in the 
church of England, respecting baptismal regenera- 
tion, which the Arches' Court of Canterbury 
decided to be a doctrine of the church of England. 
See Trials, 1849, and note. Demanding fees for 
baptisms was made unlawful by an act passed 18 
July, 1872. 

BAPTISTS (see Anabatrtists). A sect dis- 
tinguished by their opinions respecting (i)_ the 
proper subjects, and (2) the proper mode of baptism : 
the former they affirm to be those who are able to 
make a profession of faith; the latter to be_ total 
immersion. There are seven sections of Baptists— 
Arminian, Calvinistic (or Particular), &c. The 
first Baptist church formed in London was about 
1608. They published their confession of faith in 
1643; revised in 1689. In 1851 they had 130 
chapels in London and 2789 (with sittings for 
752,353 persons) in England and Wales. Rhode 
Island, America, was settled by Baptists in 1635. 
Particular Baptist Fund established . . . . 1717 

Baptist Missionary Society 1792 

Baptist College, Regent's Park, founded . . . 1S10 
Mr. C. H. Spurgeon's great Baptist tabernacle, New- 

ington Butts, opened . . . . 3 1 March, 1S61 
A Baptist Pastors' College near it, founded by Mr. 
Spurgeon 14 Oct. 1873 



[Mr. Charles Haddon Spurgeon was born 19 June, 
1834, and when quite a youth became a powerful 
preacher, attracting large congregations. He 
died at Mentone, 31 Jan. 1892. There was a very 
great concourse at his funeral in Norwood Ceme- 
tery, 11 Feb., on which day S. London appeared 
to be in mourning.] 

A great tabernacle at Shoreditch (rev. Wm. Cuff), 
opened ' 11 Nov. 1879 

In United Kingdom 3,738 chapels ; 304,802 baptised 
-members in 1883 

In British Empire 4,368 churches ; 413,140 members 

1886 

BAE SUR Aube, N. E. France. Here the 
French, under Oudinot and Macdonald, were de- 
feated by the allies, 27 Feb. 1814. 

BAEBADOES, a West India Island, one of the 
Windward isles discovered by the Portuguese about 
1600, taken possession of by the English 1605, and 
settled by sir Wm. Courteen, who founded James- 
town, 1625. As many royalists settled here, the 
island was taken by the parliamentarians in 1652. 
Population, 1876, 162,042: white, 16,560; co- 
loured, 145,482; 1881, 173,522; 1891, 182,322. 
A dreadful hurricane, more than 4000 inhabitants 

perished 10 Oct. 1780 

A large plantation with all its buildings destroyed, 
by the land removing from its original site to 
another, and covering everything in its pieregrina- 

tion 17 Oct. 1784 

An inundation, Nov. 1795 ; and two great fires, 

May and Dec. 1796 

Bishopric established 1824 

Awful devastation, with the loss of thousands of 
lives, and of immense property, by a hurricane 

Aug. i83r 
Nearly 17,000 persons died of cholera . . . 1854 
Property to the amount of about 300,000;. destroyed 

by a fire at Bridgetown . . . .14 Feb. i860 
Great increase in growth of cotton, 1864-5. 

Governor, James Walker i86r 

,, Rawson W. Rawson .... 186S 

,, John Pope Hennessy 1875 

Proposed confederation of the Windward Isles ; sup- 
ported by the governor in a speech, 3 March ; op- 
posed by the planters .... March, 1876 
The coloured population ignorantly expecting ad- 
vantage from the confederation, rise, plundering 
and destroying much property and cattle ; negroes 
killed and wounded by police . 21, 22 April, ,, 
Great panic among the planters ; the governor and 
clergy said to have acted judiciously ; peace re- 
stored 24 April, ,, 

The governor exonerated from serious blame July, ,, 
Trial of 450 rioters ; 82 punished (17 penal servi- 
tude ; others light sentences) . 12 — 21 Oct. „ 
Capt. Geo. C. Strahan appointed governor Nov. ,, 

Sir Henry Bulwer, governor 1880 

Sir William Robinson, governor . .' . . i88r 
Sir C. C. Lees, governor .... Aug. 1885 

Sir Walter J. Sendall Sept. 1889 

Sir James Hay Feb. 1892 

BAEBAEY, in N. Africa, considered to com- 
prise Algeria, Morocco, Fez, Tunis, and Tripoli, 
with their dependencies. Piratical states (nomi- 
nally subject to Turkey), were founded on the coast 
by Barbarossa, about 1518. 

BAEBEES lived in Greece in the 5th century T 
and at Rome in the 3rd century B.C. In England, 
formerly, the business of a surgeon was united to 
the barber's, and he was denominated a Barber- 
Surgeon. A London company was formed in 
1308,' and incorporated, 1462. This union was- 
partially dissolved in 1540, and wholly so in 1745. 
" No person using any shaving or barbery in Lon- 
don shall occupy any surgery, letting of blood, or 
other matter, except only drawing of teeth." 32 
Hen. VIII. 1540. 

BAEBUDA, a small West India Isle, a de- 
pendant of Antigua, which see. 



BAKCA. 



95 



BARNABITES. 



BARCA (N. Africa), the Greek Barce, a colony 
of Cyrene. It was successively subjugated by the 
Persians, Egyptians, and Saracens. In 1550 the 
sultan Solyman combined Barca with the newly 
conquered pashalik of Tripoli. 

BARCELONA (N. E. Spain), an ancient 
maritime city, said to have been rebuilt by Hamil- 
car Barca, father of the great Hannibal, about 233 
B.C. It was held by the Romans, Goths, Moors, 
and Franks, and, with the province of which it is 
the capital, was made an independent country 
about a.d. 864, and incorporated with Aragon, 
1 164, the last count becoming king. The city has 
suffered much by war. The siege by the French 
in 1694, was relieved by the approach of the Eng- 
lish fleet, commanded by admiral Russell ; but the 
city was taken by the earl of Peterborough in 1706. 
It was bombarded and taken by the duke of Ber- 
wick and the French in 17 14, and was taken by 
Napoleon in 1808, and retained till 1814. It re- 
volted against the queen in 1841, and was bom- 
barded and taken in Dec. 1842, by Espartero. Fre- 
quent insurrections here ; one suppressed Jan. 
1874. A n exhibition opened by the king Alfonso 
XII. 4 March 1877. Barcelona very prosperous, 
1879. Violent riots on account of French treaty 
Mar. ; Catalonia in a state of siege, 30 March, 
1882. Barcelona tranquil, 1 April, 1882. Popula- 
tion, 1887, 272,481. 

An international exhibition opened 8 April, by the Queen 
of Spain, in the name of the infant king who was pre- 
sent, with the Duke and Duchess of Edinburgh and 
other royal personages 20 May ; there was also an un- 
exampled naval exhibition representing the fleets of 
ten powers ; closed 9 Dec. 1888. For the disturbances 
here and in Catalonia, see Spain, March et seg. 1890, 
and Feb. 1892. 

BARDESANISTS, followers of Bardesanes, 
of Mesopotamia, who embraced the errors of Valen- 
tinus, after refuting them, and added denial of the 
incarnation, resurrection, &c, about 175. 

BARDS. Demodocus is mentioned as a bard 
by Homer ; and we find bards, according to Strabo, 
among the Romans before the age of Augustus. 
The Welsh bards formed an hereditary order, regu- 
lated, it is said, by laws, enacted about 940 and 
1078. They lost their privileges at the conquest 
by Edward I. in 1284. The institution was revived 
by the Tudor sovereigns ; and their Eisteddfods 
(properly Eisteddfodau), meetings of 4 days, have 
been and are still frequently held ; at Swansea, 
Aug. 1863 ; at Llandudno, Aug. 1864 ; in the 
vale of Conway, 7 Aug. 1865 , at Chester, 4 Sept. 
1866; at Carmarthen, 3 Sept. 1867; at Ruthin, 
5-7 Aug. 1868; at Rhyl, 8-12 Aug. 1870; at Port- 
madoc, Aug. 1872; at Mold, Aug. 1873; at various 
places in 1874-1876; at Carnarvon, 21 Aug. 1877 ; 
at Llanrwst, 1-3 Aug. ; at Menai Bridge, Aug. 1878; 
at Conway, 6 Aug. and at other places, 1879. The 
Cymmrodorion Society held an Eisteddfod at 
Carnarvon, 2^ Aug. 1880. Royal National Eis- 
teddfod at Merthyr-Tydvil, 30 Aug. 1881; at 
Denbigh, 22 Aug. 1882; at Cardiff, 6 Aug. 1883; 
Liverpool, 16 Sept. 1884; Aberdare, Aug. 1885; 
Carnarvon, 14 Sept. 1886; Albert Hall, Londonj 9 
Aug. 1887 ; Wrexham, 4 Sept. 1888 ; at Brecon, 27 
Aug. 1889; Bangor (the queen of Roumania pre- 
sent), 2 Sept. 1890; Swansea, 18 Aug. 1891. The 
Gwyneddigion Society of Bards was founded in 1770. 
Turlogh O'Carolan, the last of the Irish bards, died 
in 1738. Chambers. Evan Davies, termed the 
Arch-Druid of Wales, an eminent Welsh scholar, 
aged 89, died at Pontypridd 23 February, 1888. In 
1880 the bards determined that the Annual National 



Eisteddfod should be held alternately in North and 
South Wales. Above 100 Eisteddfodau are held, 
every year. 

BAREBONE'S PARLIAMENT. Crom- 
well, supreme in the three kingdoms, summoned 
122 persons, such as he thought he could manage,, 
who, with six from Scotland and five from Ireland, 
met, as a parliament, 4 July, 1653. It obtained its- 
appellation from a nickname given to one of its 
members, a leather-seller, named " Praise-God 
Barbon." The majority evinced much sense and: 
spirit, proposing to reform abuses, improve the ad- 
ministration of the law, &c. The parliament was. 
suddenly dissolved, 13 Dec. 1653, and Cromwell 
made lord protector. 

BAREILLY, province of Delhi (N. W. India) r 

ceded to the East India company by the ruler of 
0udeini8oi. A mutiny at Bareilly, the capital, 
was suppressed in April, 1816. On 7 May, 1858,, 
it was taken from the cruel sepoy rebels. 

BARFLEUR (N. France), where William, 
duke of Normandy, equipped the fleet by which he- 
conquered England, 1066. Near it, William, duke- 
of Normandy, son of Henry I., in his passage from 
Normandy, was shipwrecked, 25 Nov. 1120, when; 
the prince, his bride, and many others perished. Bar- 
fleur was destroyed by the English in the campaign! 
in which they won the battle of Crecy, 1346. The- 
French navy was destroyed near the cape by 
admiral Russell, after the victory of La Hogue, ig, 
May, 1692. 

BARI (S. Italy), the Barium of Horace, was^ 
in the 9th century, a stronghold of the Saracens, 
and was captured by the emperor Louis II., a. 
descendant of Charlemagne, in 871. In the 10th 
century it became subject to the eastern empire,, 
and remained so till it was taken by Robert Guis- 
card, the Norman, about 1060. A great ecclesiastical 
council was held here on 1 Oct. 1098, when the- 
filioque article of the creed and the procession of the- 
Holy Spirit were the subjects of discussion. 

BARING ISLAND, Arctic Sea, discovered 
by captain Penny in 1850-1, and so named by hinn 
after sir Francis Baring, first lord of the admiralty 
in 1849. 

BARIUM (Greek, barys, heavy), a metal found 
abundantly as carbonate and sulphate. The oxide 
barj'ta was first recognised as an earth distinct froms 
lime by Scheele, in 1774; and the metal was fii-st 
obtained by Humphry Davy, in 1808. Watts. 

BARK, see Jesuits' Bark. 

BARLAAMITES, followers of Barlaam, a 
learned Calabrian monk of the order of St. Basil,, 
who maintained various peculiar tenets, attacked 
the Greek monks, supported the Latin against the- 
Greek church in a controversy at Constantinople,, 
1337, and acted as the emperor's envoy in an attempt 
to reconcile the churches in 1339. He died about 
1348. 

BARMECIDES, a powerful Persian family, 
celebrated for virtue and courage, were massacred 
through the jealousy of the caliph Haroun-al- 
Raschid, about 802. His visir Giafar was a Bar- 
mecide. The phrase Barmecide (or imaginary) 
feast originated in the story of the barber's sixth 
brother, in the Arabian Nights' Entertainments. 

B ARNABITES, an order of monks, established 
in Milan about 1530, were much engaged in in- 
structing youth, relieving the sick and aged, and 
converting heretics. 



BARNARD'S ACT. 



96 



BARRACKS. 



BARNARD'S, Sir John, Act (7 Geo. II., 

e. 8), entitled, "an act to prevent the infamous 
practice of stock-jobbing," was passed in 1734, and 
repealed in i860. Sir John Barnard (born 1685, 
■died 1764) was an eminent lord mayor of London. 
Barnard Peerage case, see Trials, 30 May, 1892. 

BARNARDO HOMES. Dr. T. J. Barnardo, 
■of German extraction, born in Ireland, came to 
London, and in 1866 began energetically to pro- 
mote the welfare of homeless children. 
His home for boys at Stepney, founded 1870, was fol- 
lowed by one for girls, at Barkingside, Essex, with 
infirmary, schools, &c. ; all were reported successful 
in 1874. 
A Babies' Castle at Hawkhurst, Kent, for 100 infants, 

opened 9 Aug. 1S86. 
His disinterestedness and management having been im- 
pugned he gave up the management to trustees, and 
Invited 'investigation. The arbiters (Canon Miller and 
Messrs. J. B. Maule and Wm. Graham) in their report, 
after commenting on the imperfect evidence, com- 
mended the charities, and generally exonerated Dr. 
Barnardo, 15 Oct. 1877. 
See Coffee Palaces and East End Juvenile Mission. 
Several legal decisions, requiring Br. Barnardo to pro- 
duce children who had been committed to his charge, 
were pronounced, 1889-91. 
Dr. Barnardo's appeal to the House of Lords was dis- 
missed, 30 July, 1891 ; again, 25 July, 1892. 
•Occupants of the homes at Stepney, 3,785 boys and girls, 
Jan. 1891. 

BARNET, Hertfordshire. Here, at Gladsmore 
heath, Edward IV. gained a decisive victory over 
the Lancastrians, on Easter-day, 14 April, 1471, 
when the earl of Warwick and his brother the mar- 
quis of Montacute, or Montague, were killed. A 
column commemorative of this battle has been 
erected at tbe meeting of the St. Alban's and 
Hatfield roads. 

BARNUM'S SHOW. The great show of 
Messrs. P. T. Barnum and Mr. J. A. Bailey, con- 
veyed from Brooklyn, New York, arrived at Olympia 
1 Nov., opened II Nov. 1889, closed Feb. 1890. 
The show included a Roman hippodrome and a triple 
American circus, a museum of living human curiosities 
termed "freaks of nature, "a double menagerie, Jumbo's 
skeleton and stuffed skin, performing men and animals 
of many kinds (17 elephants) ; Imre Kiralfy's grand 
spectacle, " Nero ; or, the destruction of Rome " (1,200 
Roman characters, wild beasts, &c). A great many 
simultaneous performances. 
The establishment included about 1,200 people and 380 

horses. 
Visited by the prince of Wales and family, 20 Nov. 

1889. 
George Stevens, an attendant, accidentally killed by an 

elephant, 3 Dec. 1889. 
The show closed 15 Feb. ; Mr. Barnum reported his 
success, and thanked the British public, 17 Feb. 1890. 
[Phineas T. Barnum, born at Bethel, Connecticut, 
U.S.A., 5 July, 1810, died at Bridgeport, 7 April, 1891. 
Besides very different occupations, he specially de- 
voted himself to catering for the amusement of the 
people, by setting up museums, shows and other 
entertainments ; in 1842, he brought out Charles S. 
Stratton, generally termed Tom Thumb (see Dwarfs), 
and in 1856 he engaged the celebrated vocalist, Jenny 
Lind, afterwards Mde. Goldschmidt. In 1887, his 
great menagerie was destroyed by fire, but was speedily 
renovated. His life, by himself, published 1888, and 
■other works since.] 

BARODA. See India, 1874—5, 1892. 
BAROMETERS. Torricelli, a Florentine, 
knowing that water did not rise in a pump through 
what was supposed to be nature's abhorrence of a 
vacuum, imitated the action of a pump with mer- 
cury, and made the first barometer, about 1643. 
Pascal's experiments (1646) enhanced the value of 
the discovery by applying it to the measurement of 
heights. Wheel barometers were contrived in 1668 ; 



pendent barometers in 1695; marine in 1700 ; "and 

many improvements have been made since. In the 

aneroid barometer (from a, no, and neros, watery) 

no liquid is employed; the atmospheric pressure 

being exerted on a metallic spring. Its invention 

(attributed to Conte, in 1 798, but due to Vidi, who died 

in April, 1866), excited much attention in 1848-9. 

Barometers were placed at N.E. coast stations m 

i860, by the duke of Northumberland and others. 

Mr. James B. Jordan's very delicate glycerine barometer, 

in which one inch is expanded to nearly eleven inches, 

was described to the Royal Society 22 Jan., 1880, and. 

was set up during the year at Kew and other places. 

The publication of two-hourly variations of one at 

the office begun in the Times 25 Oct. 1880. 

BARON, formerly the only title in our peerage, 
now the lowest. Its original name in England, 
Vavasour, was changed by the Saxons into Thane, 
and by the Normans into Baron. The council of 
the realm was composed of the greater barons, the 
lesser barons were merely tenants of the crown. 
Many barons had undoubtedly assisted in, or been 
summoned to parliament (in 1205) ; but the first pre- 
cept found is of no higher date than the 49 Hen. 
III. 1265. The first raised to this dignity by patent 
was John de Beauchamp, created baron of Kidder- 
minster, by Bichard II., 1387. The barons took 
arms against king John, and compelled him to grant 
the great charter of our liberties, and the charter of 
our forests, at Bunnymede, near Windsor, June, 
12 15. Charles II. granted a coronet to barons on 
his restoration, 1660. 

BARONETS, the first in rank among the gen- 
try, and the only knighthood that is hereditary, 
were instituted by James I., 161 1. The rebellion 
in Ulster seems to have given rise to this order, it 
having been required of a baronet, on his creation, 
to pay into the exchequer as much as would main- 
tain "thirty soldiers three years at eightpence a 
day in the province of Ulster in Ireland." It was 
further required that a baronet should be a gentle- 
man bom, and have a clear estate of 100O1?. per 
annum. The first baronet was sir Nicholas Bacon 
(whose successor is therefore styled Primus Baronet- 
torum Angliai), 22 May, 1611. The baronets of 
Ireland were created in 1619; the first being sir 
Francis Blundell. — Baronets of Nova Scotia were 
created, 1625 ; sir Bobert Gordon the first baronet. 
— All baronets created since the Irish union in 1801 
are of the United Kingdom. Betham's " Baronet- 
age of England," 5 vols. 4to. 1801-5. 

BARONS' WAR, arose in consequence of the 
faithlessness of Henry III. and the oppression of his 
favourites in 1258. The barons, headed by Simon de 
Montfort, earl of Leicester, and Gilbert de Clare, earl 
of Gloucester, met at Oxford in 1262, and enacted 
statutes to which the king objected. In 1263 their 
disputes were in vain referred to the decision of 
Louis IX. of France. War broke out, and on 14 May, 
1264, the king's party was total! y defeated at Lewes ; 
and De Montfort became the virtual ruler of the 
kingdom. The war was renewed ; and at the battle 
of Evesham, 4 Aug. 1265, De Montfort was slain, 
and the barons were defeated ; but they did not 
render their final submission till 1268. A history 
of this war was published by Mr. W. H. Blaauw, 
in 1844; 2nd ed., 1871. 

BAROSSA, see Barrosa. 

BARRACKS (from " Ba raque — Suite que font 
les soldats en campagne pour se mettre a couvert ") 
were not numerous in this country until about 
1789. A superintendent-general was appointed in 
1793, since when commodious barracks have been 
built in the various garrison towns and central 



BAEEATBY. 



97 



BARTHOLOMEW. 



Sjpoints of the empire. — A report, censuring the con- 
dition of many barracks, was presented to parlia- 
ment in 1858 ; and great improvements -were 
effected under the direction of Mr. Sidney (after- 
wards lord) Herbert; see Aldcrshot. Mr. E. Stan - 
flaope's scheme for increase and improvement of 
barracks, camps, &e. (to cost about 4,100,000^.) 
submitted to the Commons, 27 Feb. ; the Barracks 
Act passed, 25 July, 1890. 

BAEEATEY,isageneral term for the stirringup 
.suits and quarrels among the people. Maintenance 
is an officious intermeddling in a quarrel or suit; by 
assisting either party with money or otherwise. It 
is punishable by old statutes (of Richard II., and 
others), with fine and imprisonment. Champerty is 
an illegal bargain with either plaintiff or defendant 
to share in the profits of the matter in dispute. 

Mr. Bradlaugh's action against Mr. Newdegate for main- 
tenance in the case of Clarke v. Bradlaugh (see Parlia- 
ment, 1881) was dismissed, 20 Sept. 1881. 

BABBEL-OBGANS, see Organs. 

BAEEICADES, mounds formed of trees and 
earth, for military defence. During the wars of 
the League in France, in 1588, the people made 
barricades by means of chains, casks, &c, and com- 
pelled the royal troops to retire. During the war 
of the Fronde, a barricade was erected in Paris on 
27 Aug. 1648. Barricades composed of overturned 
vehicles, &c, were erected in Paris in the insur- 
rections of 27-30 July, 1830, and 23-26 June, 1848, 
when sanguinary conflicts took place ; and also 2 
Dec. 1851. 

BAEEIEE TEEATIES. The first, between 
England and the Netherlands, was signed at the 
Hague, 29 Oct. 1709, for mutual support ; annulled 
1712; another treaty was concluded at Utrecht, 29 
Jan. 1713. The third, by which the Low Countries 
were ceded to the emperor Charles VI., was signed 
by the British, Imperial, and Dutch ministers, 
15 Nov. 1715. 

BAEEISTEES are said to have been first 
appointed by Edward I., about 1291, but there is 
earlier mention of professional advocates. They are of 
various ranks, as king's or queen's counsel, Serjeants, 
&c, which see. Students for the bar must keep a 
certain number of terms at the inns of court, pre- 
viously to being called ; and by the regulations of 
1853 must pass a public examination. 

BABBOSA, or BAROSSA (S. Spain). The 
British army, commanded by major-general sir 
Thomas Graham, afterwards lord Lynedoch, totally 
defeated the French under marshal Victor, 5 March, 
181 1, the French leaving nearly 3000 dead, six 
pieces of cannon, and an eagle, the first that the 
British had taken ; the loss of the British was 1 169 
men killed and wounded. 

BAEEOW ISLAND (Arctic Sea), discovered 
by Captain Penny in 1850-51, and named by him 
in honour of John Barrow, Esq., son of sir John. 

BABEOW-IN-FUENESS (Lancashire), in 
1847, was a village with a population of about 330, 
which, in 1867, had increased to above 17,000, and in 
1874 to 3c; ,000, in consequence of the large manu- 
facture ot iron from the ore (haematite) found there. 
On 19 Sept. 1867, new docks were opened in the 
presence of the dukes of Devonshire and Bucclcuch 
(proprietors of the land), Mr. Gladstone, and 
others. Barrow was made a municipal borough in 
1867. Population in 1881, 47,259; 1891,51,712. 

BABBOW'S STEAITS (N. Arctic Sea), ex- 
plored by Edwd. Parry, as far as Melville island, 



lat. 74 26' N., and long. 113° 47' W. The strait, 
named after sir John Barrow, was entered on 
2 Aug., 1819. The thermometer was 55 below 
zero of Fahrenheit. 

BAEEOWISTS, a name given to the 
Brownists, which see. 

BAEEOWS, circular or oblong mounds, found 
in Britain and other countries, were ancient sepul- 
chres. Sir Richard Hoare caused several barrows 
near Stonehenge to be opened ; in them were found 
Celtic ornaments, such as beads, buckles, and 
brooches, in amber, wood, and gold : Nov. 1808. 
230 barrows were opened and discoveries made, 
chiefly in Yorkshire, 1866 et seq., under the super- 
intendence of the Rev. Canon Wm. Greenwell, who 
published his elaborate work, "British Barrows," 
in December, 1877. 

Barrows at Aldbonrne, North Wilts, were opened by 
canon Greenwell and Rev. Walter Money, Sept.-Oct. 
1878. 

Canon Greenwell gave urns and other results of his ex- 
plorations to the British Museum in 1879. He was 
still engaged in his researches Oct. 1889. 

BABS in music appear in Agricola's " Musica 
Instrumentalis," 1529; and in Morley's " Practical 
Music," 1597, for score music. Henry Lawes used 
them in his " Ayres and Dialogues," 1653. 

BAETHOLOMEW, ST., the Apostle, 

martyred 71. The festival (24 Aug. o. s., 3 Sept. 

n. s.) is said to have been instituted 1130. 

Monastery of St. Bartholomew (of Austin Friars) 
founded by Rahere, a minstrel of Henry I. . 1 102 

The hospital founded by him .... about 1123 

Refounded after the dissolution of monasteries (it 
then contained 100 beds, with 1 physician and 3 
surgeons), 1544 ; incorporated .... 1546 

William Harvey, physiologist, physician here 1609-43 

Earliest record of medical school . . . . 1662 

Hospital rebuilt by subscription .... 1729 

Medical college founded 1843 

5803 in-patients ; 160,520 out-patients treated, 653 
beds 1878 

New buildings for Medical School, museum, &c, 
opened by the prince of Wales . . 3 Nov. 1879 

The Convalescent Home at Swanley, Kent, for 
which C. T. Kettlewell gave io,oooZ. , was opened 
by the Prince of Wales ... 13 July, 1885 

Bartholomew the Great, St., near Smithtield. The 
building of the church, said to have begun 1102, 
restored by subscription and reopened 29 March, 1868 
and 14 March, 1891 

Bartholomew Fair. The charter was granted by 
Henry I., 1133, and was long held in Smithtield, 
which see. The shows were discontinued in 1850, 
and the fair was proclaimed for the last time in 
1855. In 1858 Mr. H. Morley published his " His- 
tory of Bartholomew Fair," with many illustra- 
tions. 

The Massacre of St. Bartholomew commenced 
at Paris on the night of the festival . 24 Aug. 1572 

According to Sully, 70,000 Huguenots, or French 
Protestants, including women and children, were 
murdered throughout the kingdom by secret orders 
from Charles IX., at the instigation of his mother, 
the queen dowager, Catherine de Medicis. 

La Popelionere calculates the victims at 20,000 ; 
Adriani, De Serres, and De Thou say 30,000 ; 
Davila states them at 40,000 ; and Perelixe makes 
the number 1 00,000. Above 500 persons of rank, 
and 10,000 of inferior condition, perished in Paris 
alone, besides those slaughtered in the provinces. 
Pope Gregory XIII. ordered a Te Deum to be per- 
formed, with other rejoicings. 

BAETHOLOMEW, ST., a West Indian 
island, held by Sweden. It was colonised by the 
French in 1648; and has been several times taken 
and restored by the British. It was ceded to Sweden 
by France in 1785 ; captured by the English and 
restored, 1801 ; ceded to France, 1877. 



BAETHOLOMITES. 



98 



BASUTO LAND. 



BAETHOLOMITES, a religious order ex- 
pelled from Armenia, settled at Genoa 1307, where 
is preserved in the Bartholomite church the image 
which Christ is said to have sent to king Abgarus. 
The order suppressed by pope Innocent X. 1650. 

BABTON AQUEDUCT (near Manchester) 
was constructed by James Brindley, to carry the 
Bridgwater canal over the Irvvell, at a height of 
39 feet above the river ; completed in 1761. 

BASEBALL, see American Baseball. 

BASEL (Basle, French Bale), a rich city in 
Switzerland. The 18th general council sat here 
from Dec. 1431 to May, 1443. Many important 
reforms in the church were proposed, but not 
carried into effect : among others the union of the 
Greek and Roman churches. The university was 
founded in 1460. Treaties of peace between France, 
Spain, and Prussia were concluded here in 1795. It 
was made a free imperial city 1392, but joined the 
Swiss confederation 1 50 1. Population, 1888,69,809. 

B ASHI-B AZOUKS, irregular Turkish troops, 
employed partially in the Crimean war, 1854-6. 

BASIENTELLO (S. Naples). Here the army 
of Otho II., in an ambuscade, was nearly cut to 
pieces by the Greeks and Saracens 13 July, 982 ; 
the emperor barely escaped. 

BASILIANS, an order of monks, which ob- 
tained its name from St. Basil (who died 380) ; was 
reformed by pope Gregory, in 1569. — A sect, founded 
by Basil, a physician of Bulgaria, which rejected 
the books of Moses, the eucharist, and baptism, and 
are said to have had everything in common, 11 10. 
Basil was burnt alive in 11 18. 

BASILICA, a body of law, in Greek, in- 
cluding the Institutes of Justinian, the Pandects, 
&c, arranged by order of the emperor Basil the 
Macedonian, and his son Leo the Philosopher, 
875—911. The term basilica (palace) was applied to 
places of worship by the early Christian emperors. 

BASILIKON DOEON (Royal Gift), pre- 
cepts on the art of government, composed by 
James I. of England for his son Henry, and first 
published at Edinburgh in 1599. The collected 
works of this monarch were published at London, 
1616-20, in one vol. fol. 

BASQUE PBOVINCES, N. TV. Spain (Bis- 
cay, Guipuscoa, and Alava). The Basques, con- 
sidered to be descendants of the ancient Iberi, were 
termed Vascones by the Romans, whom they suc- 
cessfully resisted. They were subdued with great 
difficulty by the Goths about 580, and were united 
to Castile in the 13th and 14th centuries. Their 
language is conjectured to be of Tartar origin. 

BASQUE EOADS (TV. France). Fourteen 
French ships of the line, riding at anchor here, 
were attacked by lords Gambler and Cochrane (the 
latter commanding the fireships), and all were 
destroyed, 11 — 29 April, 1809. Cochrane accused 
Gambler of neglecting to support him. At a court- 
martial, 26 July — 4 Aug., lord Gambier was ac- 
quitted. 

BASSANO (N. Italy). Here the Austrians, 
under Wurmser, were defeated by the French under 
Massena, 8 Sept. 1796. 

BASSEIN, Bombay ; a Mahratta town, taken 
by the British, 1774, 1780; finally annexed by 
them, 1818. By treaty here, 31 Dec. 1802, they 
engaged to support the peishwa's rights. 

BASSETEEEE-EOADS, St. Christopher's, 
"West Indies. Here the French admiral, the comte 



de Grasse, was repulsed with loss in three desperate 
attacks on the British fleet, commanded by sir 
Thomas Graves, 25, 26 Jan. 1782. 

BASSETT, or BASSETTE, or Pour et Contre, 
a game at cards, said to have been invented by a 
noble Venetian, in the 15th century ; introduced 
into France, 1674. 

BASSOON", a wooden double-reed wind instru- 
ment, said to have been invented by Afranio, a 
canon of Ferrara, early in the sixteenth century. 

BASSOEAH, Bussorah, or Basrah (Asia 
Minor), a Turkish city, founded by the caliph 
Omar, about 635. It has been several times taken 
and retaken by the Persians and Turks. 

BASS EOCK, an isle in the Frith of Forth 
(S. Scotland), was granted to the Lauders, 1316; 
purchased for a state prison, 1671 ; taken by the 
Jacobites, 1690 ; surrendered, 1694 ; granted to the 
Dalrymples, 1706. 

BASS'S STEAIT, Australia. Mr. Bass, 

surgeon of the Reliance, in an open boat from Port 
Jackson, in 1796, penetrated as far as Western 
Port, and affirmed that a strait existed between 
New South "Wales and Van Diemen's Land. Lieu- 
tenant Flinders circumnavigated Van Diemen's 
Land, and named the strait after Mr. Bass, 1799. 

BASTAED, a child not born in lawful wedlock. 
An attempt in England, in 1236, to legitimate bas- 
tard children by the subsequent marriage of the 
parents, failed. The barons assembled in the par- 
liament of Merton answered : Nolumus leges Anglice 
mutari ("We will not have the laws of England 
changed"). Women concealing their children's 
birth deemed guilty of murder, 21 James I., 1624. 
In Scotland bastard children could not dispose of 
their movable estates by will until 1836. A new 
act, facilitating the claims of mothers, and making 
several provisions for proceeding in bastardy cases, 
was passed 1845. The Bastardy Laws Amendment 
Act was passed 10 Aug. 1872. See Russia, 1891. 

BASTABNiE, a warlike tribe in Podolia and 
Moldavia, hired by Perseus, king of Macedon, in 
his wars with Rome, 168 B.C. ; driven across the 
Danube by M. Crassus for their encroachments, 30. 

BASTILLE, Paris, a castle built by Charles 
V., king of France, in 1369, for the defence of Paris 
against the English ; completed in 1383, and after- 
wards used as a state prison. Henry IV. and his 
veteran army assailed it in vain in the siege of 
Paris, during the war (1587 — 1594). "The man 
with the iron mask," the most mysterious prisoner 
known, died here, 19 Nov. 1703 ; see IronMask. On 
14-15 July, 1789, the Bastille was pulled down 
by the populace ; the governor and other officers 
were conducted to the Place- de Greve ; their hands 
and heads were cut off, and the heads carried on 
pikes through the streets. A centenary was cele- 
brated 14 July, 1889. 

BASUTO LAND, near Orange River, South 
Africa, including the Transkei territory, was an- 
nexed to Cape Colony in 1871. Population in 1875, 
whites, 469; natives, 127,707: in 1891, 218,324 
natives, and 578 Europeans. 
Moiroso, a warlike chief, entrenches himself on a 
mountain and makes predatory sallies, Feb. et 
seq. ; his stronghold captured and himself killed 
during the fight .... 20 Nov. 1879 
The Basutos ordered to give up their arms ; many 
resist ; Letsi, Molappo, and others who sur- 
render, attacked by Masupha, Lerothodi, and 
others, June, July ; who make war on the colonist 
forces 13 Sept. 1880 



BATALHA. 

Lerothodi defeated in attack on Mafeteng by col. 

Carrington . . . . 21 Sept. 1880 

Mafeteng, besieged, relieved by col. Clarke, after 

a severe conflict 19 Oct. ,, 

Lerothodi's village stormed and his forces dispersed 

22 Oct. ,, 
Moletsane's stronghold stormed by colonel Clarke 

31 Oct. „ 
Mr. Hope, magistrate, and others treacherously 
murdered by Umhlouhlo, Oct. ; who is defeated 
by Mr. Hawthorn ; announced . . 12 Nov. „ 
Umhlonhlo totally defeated by Baker 21 Dec. ,, 

Victories of col. Carringtun about 10, 14 Jan. 1881 

Armistice granted .... 18-24 Feb. „ 
Hostilities resumed ; indecisive ; col. Carrington 

wounded 26 March, ,, 

Basutos severely defeated . . about 16 April, ,, 

Peace concluded May, ,, 

The chief Masupha submits . . . Sept. ,, 

Again troublesome Oct. 1882 

Gen. Gordon appointed to settle difficulties, resigns 
through disagreement with the Cape government, 

announced autumn „ 

Peace restored Dec. ,, 

Self-government granted Feb. 1883 

Much lighting among chiefs ; subsides . May, ,, 
The British agree to resume the government as a 

crown colony under conditions . . June, ,, 
The Cape parliament assents . . .27 July, ,, 
The Basuto chiefs accept conditions at a great meet- 
ing ; Masupha stands aloof . announced 8 Dec. „ 
Jonathan defeats Joel with great slaughter 

15-16 March, 1884 
Battles between Khetisa, Masupha, and Lerothodi, 

23 March, ,, 
Basuto land reported quiet and prosperous . 1887-90 

BATALHA, Portugal. The monastery here 
was built by John I., of Portugal, as a token of gra- 
titude for his victory over John I. of Castile, at 
Aljubarrota, 14 Aug. 1385, securing the inde- 
pendence of his kingdom. The restoration of the 
monastery began in 1839. 

BATAVIA and Batavian Beptjblic, see 

Holland. 

BATAVIA, the capital of Java, and of all the 
Dutch settlements in the East Indies, built by that 
people about 1619. Taken from the French (who had 
seized it) by sir Samuel Auchmuty, 26 Aug. 1811 ; 
restored to the Dutch in 1814. See Java. 

BATH (Somerset), named "Aguce solis" by 
the .Romans, being remarkable for its hot springs. 
Coel, a British king, is said to have given this city 
a charter, and the Saxon king Edgar was crowned 
here, 973. See Population. 
Bath plundered and burnt in the reign of William 

Rufus, and again in 1137 

The abbey church commenced in 1405 ; finished . 1609 
Beau (Richard) Nash,- ." king of Bath," who pro- 
moted fame of the waters, and amusements, died 

Feb. 1 76 1 
Present assembly-rooms built . . . . 1771 
Pump-room erected 1704 ; rebuilt .... 1797 
Theatre, Beaufort-square, opened . . . . 1805 
Bath philosophical society formed .... 1817 
Bath royal literary and scientific institution estab- 
lished 1825 

Victoria park opened by Princess Victoria . . 1830 

Theatre burnt 18 April, 1862 

Restoration of the abbey by Sir G. G. Scott 1863 et seq. 
British association met here 14 Sept. 1864; andsSept. 1888 
Museum destroyed by fire ... 20 Jan. 1867 

Bath and West of England Society centenary cele- 
brated, 4 June ; Fall of Widcombe bridge, 2 
persons killed and many injured . . 6 June, 1877 
Remains of Roman baths discovered . 1877, et seq. 

BATH and WELLS, Bishopric of. . The 

see of Wells, whose cathedral church was built by 
Ina, king of the West Saxons, in 704, was estab- 
lished in 905, Adeline first bishop. John de 
Villula, bishop, transferred his seat from Wells to 
Bath in 1091. Tanner. Disputes between the 



<J'J 



BATHS. 



monks of Bath and the canons of Wells about the 
election of a bishop, were compromised in 1135 
Henceforward the bishop was to be styled from both 
places ; the precedency to be given to Bath. The 
see is valued in the king's books at 53 1£. is. 3^. per 
annum. Present income, 5000^. 

Recent Bishops. 
1802. Richard Beadon, died . . .21 April, 1824 
1824. George Henry Law, died . . 22 Sept. 1845 
1845. Richard Bagot, died . . • • 5 May, 1854 

1854. Robert John, baron Auckland, resigned 6 Sept. 1869 
1869. Lord Arthur Charles Hervey, elected 10 Nov. 1869 

BATH ADMINISTRATION. Mr. Pelhani 

and his friends having tendered their resignation to 
king George II., 10 Feb. 1746, the formation of a 
new ministry was undertaken by William Pulteney, 
earl of Bath. This expired on 12 Feb., while yet 
incomplete, and received the name of the "Short- 
lived" administration. The members of it were : 
the earl of Bath, first lord of the treasury ; lord 
Carlisle, lord privy seal; lord Winchilsea, first \ord 
of the admiralty ; and lord Granville, one of the 
secretaries of state, with the seals of the other in his 
pocket, " to be given to whom he might choose." 
Mr. Pelham and his colleagues returned to power. 

BATH, ORDER OF THE, said to be of early 
origin, but formally constituted 11 Oct., 1399, by 
Henry IV., two days previous to his coronation in 
the Tower ; when he conferred the order upon 
forty-six esquires, who had watched the night 
before, and bathed. After the coronation of Charles 
II. the order was neglected until 18 May, 1725, 
when it was revived by George I., who fixed the 
number of knights at 37. 

The prince regent (afterwards George IV.) created 
classes of knights grand crosses (72), knights com- 
manders (180), with an unlimited number of com- 
panions 2 Jan. 1815 

By an order, the existing statutes of this order 
were annulled ; and by new statutes, the order, 
hitherto exclusively military, was opened to 

civilians 25 May, 1847 

Dr. Lyon Playfair and other promoters of the Great 
Exhibition received this honour . . . 185 x 

Constitution. Military. Civil. 

1st Class. Knights grand cross, 50 25 

2nd Class. Knights commanders, 100 50 

yd Class. Companions, 525 200 

The Order was further enlarged, June, 1861. 

BATHOMETER (Greek, bathus, deep), an 
apparatus invented by Dr. C. William Siemens to 
measure the depth of water without submerging a 
sounding-line, 1861-76. 

Its action depends on the diminution of the effect of 
gravitation on the surface of the water as compared 
with its effect on the earth, owing to the mass of water 
(of less density) which replaces earth (of greater den- 
sity) : which is duly registered. 

BATHS were early used in Asia and Greece, 
and introduced by Agrippa into Rome, where many 
were constructed by Augustus and his successors. 
The thermae of the Romans and gymnasia of the 
Greeks (of which baths formed merely an appendage) 
were sumptuous. The marble group of Laocoon 
was found in 1506 in the baths of Titus, erected 
about 80, and the Farnese Hercules in those of 
Caracalla, erected, 211. 
In London, St. Agnes Le Clere, in Old-street-road, 

was a spring of great antiquity ; baths said to 

have been formed in 1502. 
St. Chad's-well, Gray's-inn-road, derives its name 

from St. Chad, the firth bishop of Lichfield 667. 
A bath opened in Bagnio-court, now Bath-street, 

Newgate-street, London, is said to have been the 

first bath in England for hot bathing . . 1679 

Old Bath-house, Coldbath-square, in use . . . 1697 

H 2 



BATHYBIUS H^CKELII. 



100 



BATTLES. 



Peerless (Perilous) Pool, Baldwin-street, City-road, 
mentioned by Stow (died 1605) ; enclosed as a 

bathing place 1743 

Turkish sweating baths became popular . . . i860 
The Oriental baths in Victoria-street, Westminster, 
completed 1862 

PUBLIC BATHS AND WASH-HOUSES. 

The first established by Mr. Bowie in the neighbour- 
hood of the London docks 1844 

The public baths and wash-houses in Liverpool 
founded (through the instrumentality of Catherine 
Wilkinson, who in 1832 began to lend her room 
and appliances to poor people for washing) . . 1844 

Acts passed to encourage the establishment of public 
baths and wash-houses, "for the health, comfort, 
and welfare of the inhabitants of populous towns 
and districts," in England and Ireland . . . 1846 

537,345 bathers availed themselves of the baths in 
London, and in this period there were 85,260 
washers in the quarter ending . . . Sept. 1854 

Public baths and wash-houses have since been estab- 
lished throughout the empire. 

Baths and Washhouses Act authorises establish- 
ment of cheap swimming baths, &c, 27 May, 1878, 

amended, 1882 
Sec Laundry. 

BATHYBIUS H^ECKELII (Greek, bathus, 
deep ; bios, life), the name given byHuxley to a sup- 
posed low form of animal life, a gelatinous sub- 
stance found on stones at the bottom of the sea, in 
Deep Sea Soundings {which see). Its existence 
doubted by many naturalists, 1879. 

BATON, a truncheon borne by generals in the 
French army, and afterwards by the marshals of 
other nations. Henry III. of France, before he 
ascended the throne, was made generalissimo of the 
army of his brother Charles IX., and received the 
baton as the mark of the high command, 1569. 
Henault. The baton used by conductors of con- 
certs is said to have been introduced into England 
by Spohr, in 1820. 

BATON ROUGE, Louisiana, United States, 
was captured by the Federals, 5 Aug. 1862, after a 
fierce conflict; see United States, 1862. 

BATOUM, or BATUM, a seaport in Lazistan, 
on the Black Sea. After having repulsed the Rus- 
sians in the war, 4 May, 1877, tbe place was ceded 
to Russia by the treaty of Berlin, 13 July, 1878, 
to become a free commercial port. The port was 
closed by Russia on and after 17 July 1886. 

The inhabitants at first resisted, but were persuaded 
to submit ; many emigrating, July-Sept. The Russians 
entered, 6 Sept. 1878 

Foundation of a new cathedral laid by the Czar, 7 Oct. 
1888. 

BATTERIES along the coasts were constructed 
by Henry VIII. (who reigned 1509-47). The ten 
floating batteries with which Gibraltar was attacked, 
in the siege of that fortress, were invented by 
D'Arcon, a French engineer. They resisted the 
heavy shells and 32-pound shot, but ultimately 
yielded to red-hot shot, 13 Sept. 1782; see 
Gibraltar. Formidable floating batteries are now 
erected. See Navy, Electricity. 

BATTERING-RAM, Testudo Arietaria, with 
other military implements, are said to have been 
invented by Artemon, a Lacedaemonian, and em- 
ployed by Pericles, about 441 b. c. Sir Christopher 
Wren employed a battering-ram in demolishing the 
walls of old St. Paul's cathedral, 1675. 

BATTERSEA PARK; an act of parliament 
passed in 1846, empowered her majesty's com- 
missioners of woods to form a royal park in Battersea- 
fields. Acts to enlarge their powers were passed 
in 1848, 1851, and 1853. The park and the new 
bridge connecting it with Chelsea were opened in 



April, 1858 ; the bridge freed from toll, 24 May, 
1879. Albert Exhibition Palace opened here, 6 
June, 1885 ; closed 1888. Battersea returns two 
M.P.'s by Act passed 25 June 1885. New Batter- 
sea Bridge opened by the earl of Rosebery, 21 July, 
T890. See Parks. 
Battersea Training College, founded 1840. 

BATTLE, Trial by, or "Wager of, a trial 

by combat formerly allowed by our laws, where the 
defendant in an appeal of murder might fight with 
the appellant, and make proof thereby of his guilt 
or innocence; see Appeal. 

BATTLE-ABBEY, Sussex, founded by 
William I., 1067, on the plain where the battle of 
Hastings was fought, 14 Oct. 1066. It was dedica- 
ted to St. Martin, and given to Benedictine monks, 
who were to pray for the souls of the slain. The 
original name of the plain, was Hetheland; see 
Hastings. After the battle of Hastings, a list was 
taken of William's chiefs, amounting to 629, and 
called the " Battel-roll ; ' ' and among these chiefs 
the lands and titles of the followers of the defeated 
Harold were distributed. " The Roll of Battle 
Abbey," edited by the duchess of Cleveland, was 
published, with notes, &c, in 1889. 

BATTLE-AXE, a weapon of the Celts. The 
Irish were constantly armed with an axe. Burns. 
At the battle of Bannockbum king Robert Bruce 
clove an English champion down to the chine at 
one blow with a battle-axe, 1314. The battle-axe 
guards, or beaufetiers, vulgarly called beef-eaters, 
and whose arms are a sword and lance, were first 
raised by Henry VII. in 1485. They were originally 
attendants upon the king's buffet; see Yeoman of 
the Guard. 

BATTLEFIELD, BATTLE OF, see Shrews- 
bury. 

BATTLES. Palamedes of Argos is mythically 
said to have been the first who ranged an army in a 
regular line of battle, placed sentinels round a camp, 
and excited the soldier's vigilance by giving him a 
watchword, and to have been treacherously slain by 
the Greeks before Troy. See Naval Battles, British. 
The following are the most memorable battles, 
arranged in chronological order ; further details of- 
the greater part are given in separate articles ; 
n. signifies naval. 

The following are the battles described by Professor 
Creasy in his " Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World": — 



B.C. 

490 
413 
33* 
207 
A.D. 
9 
45i 
732 



A.D. 

Hastings . 14 Oct. 1066 

Orleans . 29 April, 1429 

Spanish Armada July, 1588 

Blenheim . 13 Aug. 1704 



Pultowa 
Saratoga 
Valmy 
Waterloo 



8 July, 1709 

17 Oct. 1777 

20 Sept. 1792 

18 June, 1815 



Marathon . 
Syracuse . . . 
Arbela . 1 Oct. 
Metaurus . . . 

Teutoburg . 
Chalons . . . . 
Tours . to Oct. 

B.C. 

Abraham defeats kings of Canaan (Gen. xiv.) . . 1913 
Joshua subdues five kings of Canaan (Josh, x.) .1451 

Gideon defeats the Midianites (Judges vii.) . . 1245 

Trojan war commenced 1103 

Troy taken and destroyed 1184 

Jephthah defeats Ammonites 1143 

Ethiopians defeated by Asa (2 Chron. xiv.) . . . 941 

Horatii vanquish Curiatii 669 

Halys (Medes and. Lydians stop])ed by eclipse) 584 or 585 

Thymbra (Cyrus defeats Crcesus) 548 

Lake Regillus (Romans defeat Latins) . . . 499 

Marathon (Greeks defeat Persians) . 28 or 29 Sept. 490 

Thermopylae (heroism of Leonidas) . 7-9 Aug. 480 

Salamis n. (Greeks defeat Persians) . . 20 Oct. „ 

Himera (Gelon defeats Carthaginians) . . . . ,, 

Mycale (Greeks defeat Persians) . . . 22 Sept. 479 

Plattea (ditto: Fausanias) . . . 22 Sept. „ 



BATTLES. 



101 



BATTLES. 



Eurymedon n. (Greeks defeat Persians: Cimori) 

Tanagra (Spartans defeat Athenians) . 

CBnophyta (Athenians defeat Boeotians). 

Coronea (Boeotians defeat Athenians). 

Romans totally defeat Veientes . . > 

Tanagra (Athenians defeat Spartans)'. 

Deliuni (Boeotians defeat Athenians) 

Amphipolis (Spartans repulse Athenians : Clean, and 

Brasidas killed) 

Mantinea (Spartans defeat Athenians) . 
Athenians defeated before Syracuse . 
Cyzicus a. (Alcibiades defeats Spartans) 
Arginuste ». (Co?ioft defeats Spartan fleet) . 
JEgospotamos n. (Athenian fleet destroyed) . 
Cunaxa (Cyrus defeated and killed by Artaxerxes) 

Corinthian War 395 

Haliartus (Lysander killed) 

Cnidus n. (Conon defeats Spartans) 

Coronea (^4 rges ilaus defea ts At hen ia n s and a 11 ies) 

Allia (Brennus and the Gauls defeat Romans) 16 July 

Volsci defeated by Camillus 

Volsci defeat the Romans 

Naxus (Chabrias defeats Laeedcemonia-ns) . 376 or 

Tegyra (Thebans defeat Spartans) 

Leuetra (Thebans defeat Spartans) 

" Tearless Victory " of Arehidamus over Argives 

<fec 

Camillus defeats the Gauls 

Cynoscephahe (Thebans defeat Thessalians) 
Mantinea ('Thebans victors : Epaminondas slain) . 

Tamynse (sEschines there) 

Crimisus (Tirnoleon defeats Carthaginians) . 
Cha?ronea (Philip defeats Athenians, dc). . Aug 
Thebes destroyed by Alexander . . . b.c 
Grauicus (Alexander defeats Darius) . 22 May. 

Issus (ditto) Oct. 

Arbela (ditto) iOc' 

Pandosia (Alexander of Epirus defeated and killed) 

Cranon (Antipater defeats Greeks) 

Caudine Porks (Roman army captured). 

Gaza (Ptolemy defeats Demetrius) 

Ecnomusor Himera (Carthaginians defeat Agathocles) 

Fabius defeats the Tuscans .... 

Vadimonian Lake (Etruscans defeated) . 

Ipsus (Seleucus defeats Antigonus, who is slain) 

Sentinum (Romans defeat Samnites) 

Gauls defeat Romans at Arretium, 284 ; defeated by 

Dolabella 

Vadimonian Lake (Etruscans defeated) . 
Corus (Lysimachu-s defeated and killed). 
Pandosia (Pyrrhus defeats Romans) 

Asculum (ditto) 

Beneventum (Romans defeat Pyrrhus) . 

First Punic War begins .... 

Mylie n. (Romans defeat Carthaginians) 

Xantippus defeats Regulus 

Panormus (Asdrubal defeated by Metellus) . 

Drepanum ft. (Carthaginians defeat Romans) 

Lilybseum taken by Romans 

jEgates n. (Romans defeat Cartha.ginians) . 

Ladocea (Achatans defeated) . 

Clusium or Pisae (Gauls defeated) 

Sellasia (Macedonians defeat Spartans) . 

Caphya} (Achceans defeat /Etolians) . 

Saguntum (taken by Hannibal) 

Second Punic War. — Ticinus (Hannibal defeats 

Romans) 

Ticinus and Trebia (ditto) 

Trasimene (ditto) 

Raphia (Antiochus defeated by Ptol. Philopater) 
Cannae (Victory of Hannibal) . . . 2 All; 

Munda (Seypio defeats Hasdrubal) 
Marcellus and Hannibal (former killed) 
Metaurus (Nero defeats Hasdrubal, who is killed) 
Zama (Scipio defeats Hannibal) .... 

Abydos (siege of) 

Paaeas (Antiochus defeats Egyptians, Ac.) . 
Cynoscephahe (Romans defeat Macedonians) 
Boii defeated at the Vadimonian lake . 
Thermopylae (Greeks defeated) .... 
Magnesia (Scipio defeats Antiochus) 
Pydna (Romans defeat Perseus) . . .22 June 
Eleasa (Judas Maccaboeus killed) . 

Third Punic War 

Leucopetra (Mummius defeats Achcvoins) 
Carthage taken by Publius Scipio 
Muminius takes Corinth .... 
Allobroges defeated by Q. Fabius Maximus. 



379 
377 
375 
37i 

367 

364 
362 
358 
339 
338 
335 
334 
333 
33i 
326 
322 
321 
312 
310 

3°9 
301 

295 
283 



279 
275 
264 
260 
255 
250 

249 
241 

226 
225 
221 
220 
219 



- '7 
216 

209 
207 
202 

200 
198 

197 
191 



Metellus defeats Jugurtha b.c. 109 

Arausio (Cimbri defeat Romans) .... 105 

Aquas Sextiie (Aix ; Marius defeats the Teutones) . . 102 

Cimbri and Romans (defeated by Marius) . . . 101 

Chaeronea (Sylla defeats Mithridates' army) . . . 86 

Sacriportus (Marius defeated by Sylla) ... 82 

Cabeira (I/ucullus defeats Mithridates) . . . . 71 

Petelia (Spartacus defeated by Crassus) „ 

Tigranocerta (Lucullus defeats Tigranes) . . . 69 

Pistoria (Catiline defeated) 62 

Cajsar defeats Cassivelaunus in Britain . . . 54 

Carrhse (Cras&us defeated by Parthians) . 9 June, 53 

Pharsalia (Ccesar defeats Pompey) . . .9 Aug. 48 
Zela (Ccesar defeats Pharnaces ; writes, "Veni, vidi, 

vici") 47 

Thapsus (Coesar defeats Pompey's friends) . . . 46 

Munda (ditto) 17 March, 45 

Mutina (Hirtius defeats Antony) . . 27 April, 43 

Philippi (Brutus and Cassius defeated) ... 42 

Myhe, n. (Agrippa defeats Pompey the Younger) . . 36 

Actium ft. (Octavius defeats Antony) . . 2 Sept. 31 

Teutoburg (Varus defeated by Herman) . a.d. 9 

Shropshire (Caractacus taken) 50 

Sunbury (?) (Romans defeat Boadicea) . . . . 61 

Jerusalem taken by Titus 70 

Agricola conquers Mona or Anglesea . . . . 78 

Ardooh (he defeats Godgacus and Caledonians) . . 84 

Dacians defeated and Decebalus slain . . . . 106 

Issus (Niger slain) 194 

Lyons (Severus defeats Albinus) 197 

Verona (emperor Philip elefeated and killed) . . 249 

Decius defeated and slain by Goths . . . . 251 

Valerian defeated and captured by Sapor . . . 260 

Nai'ssus (Claudius defeats Goths, many slain) . . 269 

Chalons (Aurelvan victor over rivals) . . . . 274 

Allectus defeated in Britain 296 

Constantine def. Maxentius (see Cross) . 27 Oct. 312 

Adrianople (Constantine defeats Licinius) . 3 July, 323 

Aquileia (Constantine If. slain) . . March, 340 

Julian defeats Alemanni 356, 357 

Thyatira and Nacolea (Procopius defeated) . . 366 

Argentaria (Gratian defeats Alemanni) . May, 378 

Adrianople (Gauls defeat Vodens) . 9 Aug. ,, 

Aquileia (Maximus slain) . . . .28 July, 388 

Aquileia (Eugenius slain) .... 6 Sept. 394 

Pollentia (Stilicho defeats Alaric) . . . 29 Mar. 403 

Rome taken by Alaric .... 24 Aug. 410 

Ravenna taken by Aspar 425 

Franks defeated by Aetius 428 

Genseric takes Carthage 439 

Chalons-sur-Marne (Attila defeated by Aetius) . . 451 

Aylesford (Britons defeat Saxons ; Horsa killed) . . 455 

Crayford, Kent (Hengist defeats Britons) . . . 457 

Soissons (Clovis defeats Syagrius and Romans) . . 486 

Verona (Theodoric defeats Odoacer) . 27 Sept. 489 

Tolbiach or Zulpich (Clovis defeats Alemanni) . . 496 

Vougle (Clovis defeats Visigoths) 507 

Baddesdown hill (Britons defeat Saxons) . ?493, sir 

Veseronce (Gondemar defeats Clodomir) . . . 524. 
Victories of Belisarius in Africa, &c. . . . 533-4 
Narses defeats Totila, 552 ; and Teias . . -553 

Heraclius defeats the Persians (Chosroes) . . . 622 

Beder (first victory of Mahomet) 623 

Muta (Mahometans defeat Christians) . . . . 629. 

Hatfield (Heathtield ; Penda defeats Edwin) . . 633 

A jnadin (Saracens defeat Heraclius) . 13 July, „ 

Yermuk (Saracens victors) . . . 23 Aug. 634. 

Yermuk (Saracens defeat Heraclius) . . Nov. 636 

Saracens subdue Syria 636-8 

Kadseah (Arabs defeat Persians) 638 

Saracens take Alexandria 640 

Near Oswestry (Penda defeats Oswald of Northum- 
berland) 5 Au S- 642 

Leeds (Oswy defeats Penda, who is slain) . . . 655 

Day of the Camel (Ali victor) . . . 4 Nov. 656 

Saracens defeated by Wamba, in Spain . . . 675 

Testri (Pepin defeats Thierry) 687 

Xeres (Saracens defeat Roderic) . 19-26 July, 711 
Ambler and Viney (Chas. Martel def Neustrians) 716-17 

Tours (Charles Martel defeats the Saracens) 10 Oct. 732 

Victories of Charlemagne 775-S00 



Roncesvalles (death of Roland) . 
Hengestdown (Danes defeated J>y Egbert) . 
Charmouth (Ethelwolf defeated by the Danes) . . 
Fontenaille or Fontaneta (Lothaire defeated by 
Charles and Louis) .... 25 June, 

Clavyo (Moors defeated) 

Albaida (Mum and Moors defeated) . 



778 
83s 
840 



844 
852 



BATTLES. 



102 



BATTLES. 



870 



Danes defeat King Edmund of East Anglia 

Assendon or Ashdown (Danes defeated) 

Basing and Merton (Danes victorious) 

Hafsfwrd (Harold Hdrfager's final victory) 

Wilton (Danes victorious over Alfred) 

Andernach (Charles the Bald defeated) . 

Ethandun (Alfred defeats Danes) .... S7S 

Farnham (Danes defeated) 894 

Zamora (Alfonso defeats Moors) 901 

Bury (Edward defeats Ethelwald and Danes) . . 905 
Tettenhall (Danes defeated) . . . 6 Aug. 910 



. . 872 
8 Oct. 876 



Soissons (king Robert, victor, killed) . . . ■ 923 
Merseburg (Germans defeat Hungarians) . . -934 
Brunanburg (Northmen defeated) .... 937 
Simancas (Spaniards defeat Moors) . . 6 Aug. 939 
Nicephorus Phocas defeats Saracens . . . . 962 
Basientello (Otho II. defeated by Greeks) . 13 July, 982 



Clontarf (Danes defeated in Ireland) . 23 April, 1014 
Zetunium (Bulgarians defeated) . . 29 July, ,, 
Brentford (Edmund defeats Danes) . . . May, 1016 
Assingdon,' Ashdon (Canute defeats Edmund) . . ,, 
Sticklestadt (Olaf defeated by Swedes) . 29 July, 1030 
Civitella (Normans defeat Leo IX.) . . . . 1053 

Dunsinane (Macbeth defeated) 1054 

Fulford (Norwegians defeat English) . 20 Sept. 1066 
Stamford Bridge (Harold defeats Tostig) . 25 Sept. ,, 
Hastings (William I. defeats Harold) . . 14 Oct. ,, 
Fladenheim (emperor Henry defeated) . . . 1080 
Crusades commence ....... iogo 

Alnwick (Scots defeated, Malcolm slain) 13 Nov. 1093 

Dorylieum (Crusaders defeat Turks) . . 1 July, 1097 
Ascalon (Crusaders victorious) . . 12 Aug. 1099 

TinChebray (Robert of Normandy defeated) . . . 1106 
Brenneville (Henry I. defeated French) . .Aug. 1119 
Fraga (Moors defeat Spaniards) . . 17 July, 1134 
Northallerton, or Battle of the Standard (David I. 

and Scots defeated) 22 Aug. 1138 

Ourique (Portuguese defeat Moors) . . 25 July, 1139 
Lincoln (Stephen defeated) ... 2 Feb. 1141 
J aen (Moors defeated, by Spaniards) .... 1157 
Carcano (Frederic I. defeated by Italians) g Aug. 1160 
Alnwick (William the Lion defeated) . . 12 July, 1174 
Legnano (Italians defeat emperor) . . 29 May, 1176 
Tiberias (Saladin defeats Crusaders) . 3, 4 July, 1187 
Ascoli(r<MicraZ defeats emperor Henry Vl.'sarmy) . 1190 
Acre taken by Crusaders . . . . 12 July, 1191 
Arsouf (Richard I. defeats Saracens) . . 6 Sept. ,, 
Freteville (Richard I. defeats Philip II.). 15 July, 1194 
Arcadiopolis (Bulgarians defeat emperor Isaac) . ,, 
Alarcos (Moors defeat Spaniards) . . . 19 July, 1195 
Gisors (Richard I. defeats French) . . 20 Sept. 1198 

Tolosa (Moors defeated) 16 July, 1212 

Muret (Albigenses defeated) ... 12 Sept. 1213 
Bouvines (French defeat Germans) . .27 July, 1214 
Lincoln (French defeated) . . . . 20 May, 12 17 
Corte Nuova (Frederick II. defeats Milanese) 2 7 Nov. 1237 
Taillebourg (French defeat Henry III.) . 20 July, 1242 

Carizmians defeated twice 1247 

Fossalta (Ghibelines defeated) ... 26 May, 1249 
Mansourah (Louis IX. and Crusaders defeated) . . 1250 
Largs (Scots defeat Northmen) ... 3 Oct. 1263 
Lewes (English barons victorious) . . 14 May, 1264 
Evesham (Barons defeated; De Montfort killed) 

4 Aug. 1265 
Benevento (Chas. of A njou defeats Manfred) 26 Feb. 1266 
Tagliacozzo (Charles defeats Conradin) . 23 Aug. 1268 
Marchfelil (Austrians defeat Bohemians) . 26 Aug. 1278 
Aber Edw (Llewellyn 0] Wales defeated) . n Dec. 1282 
Zagrab (defeat of Charles Martel) .... 1292 
Dunbar (Scots defeated) . . . . 27 April, 1296 
Cambuskenneth (Wallace defeats English) 10 Sept. 1297 
Goelheim (Adblphus of Nassau defeated) . 2 July, 1298 
Falkirk (Wallace defeated) . . . 22 July, „ 
Courtray (Flemings defeat count of Artois) n July' 1302 
Roslin, Scotland (Comyn defeats English) 24 Feb. 1303 



(Jephisus (Brienne, duke of Athens defeated) March, 1311 
Baimocklmrn (Bruce defeats English) . 24 June, 1314 

Morgarten (Su'iss defeat Austrians) . . 15 Nov.' 1315 
Athenry (Irish defeated) . . . . IO Aug! 1316 
Foughard or Dundalk (Ed. Bruce defeated) 5 Oct. 
Boroughbridge (Edward II. defts. Barons) 16 Mar. 
Miihldort (Bavarians defeat Austrians) . 28 Sept. 
Duplin (Edward Baliol defeats M- ar) . n Aug. 
Halidon Hill (Edward III. defts. Scots) . 19 July, 
Tarifa (Mobrs defeated) . . . 28 or 30 Oct! 

Auberoche (earl of Derby defeats French) . 19 Aug. 



1314 
315 
1316 
1318 
1322 

1332 
1333 
1340 

"344 



Crecy (English defeat French) . . .26 Aug. 1346 
Durham, Nevil's Cross (Scots defeated) . 17 Oct. ,, 
La Roche Darien (Cliarles of Blois defeated) . . 1347 
Poitiers (English defeat French) . . 19 Sept. 1356 
Cocherel (Du Guesclin defeats Navarre) . 16 May, 1364 
Auray (Du Guesclin. defeated). . . 29 Sept. ,, 
Najara (Navarrete, Logrono) (Black Prince defeats 

Henry of Trastamare) .... 3 April, 1367 
Montiel (Peter of Castile defeated) . 14 March, 1369 
Bosbecque (French defeat Flemings) . 27 Nov. 1382 
Aljubarrota (Portuguese defeat Spaniards) . 14 Aug. 1385 
Sempach (Swiss defeat Austrians) . . 9 July, 1386 
Otterburn (Chevy Chase; Scots victors). . 10 Aug. 1388 
Niifels (Swiss defeat Austrians) ... „ 

Cossova (Turks defeat Albanians, and Amurath I. 

killed) Sept. 1389 

Nicopolis (Turks defeat Christians) . . 28 Sept. 1396 

Nesbit (Scots defeated) 7 May, 1402 

Ancyra (Timour defeats Bajazet) . . . 28 July, ,, 
Homeldon Hill (English defeat Scots) . 14 Sept. „ 

Shrewsbury (Percies, &c. defeated) . . 23 July, 1403 
Bramham moor (Henry IV. defeats rebels) . 19 Feb. 1408 
Tannenberg (Poles defeat Teuton kn ights). 15 July, 1410 
Harlaw (Lord of the Isles defeated) . . 24 July, 141 1 
Agincourt (English defeat French) . . 25 Oct. 1415 
Prague (Hussites under Ziska victors) . . 14 July, 1420 
An.jou, Beauge (English deft, by Scots) . 22 March, 1421 
Crevant (English deft. French and Scots) . n June, 1423 
Aquila (Arragonese defeated by Italians) . 2 June, 1424 
Verneuil (English defeat French and Scots) . 17 Aug. ,, 
Herrings (English defeat French). . . 12 Feb. 1429 
Orleans (siege relieved) . . . -29 April, ,, 
Patay (English defeated by Joan of Arc) a.d. 18 June, 1429 
Lippau, or Bohmischbrod (Hussites deftd.) 28 May, 1434 
Kunobitza (Hunniades defeats the Turks) 24 Dec. 1443 
St. Jacob (French defeat Swiss) . . 26 Aug. 1444 
Varna (Turks defeat Hiingarians) . . 10 Nov. ,, 
Cossova (Turks defeat Hunniades) . . 17 Oct. 1448 
Formigni (English defeated by French) . 15 April, 1450 
Sevenoaks (Jack Cade defeats Stafford) . 27 June, „ 
Aibar (Agramonts defeat Beaumonts) . . 23 Oct. 1452 
Brechin, Scotland (Huntley defts. Crawford) 18 May, ,-, 
Castillon, Chatillon (French defeat Talbot) 

17 or 23 July, 1453 

WAR OF THE ROSES — YORKISTS .WD LANCASTRIANS. 

St. Albans (Yorkists victorious) . . 22 or 23 May, 1455 
Bloreheath (York :ists victors) . . . 23 Sept. 1459 
Northampton (ditto, Henry VI. taken) . 10 July, 1460 
Wakefield (Lancastrians victors) . . .31 Dec. ,, 
Mortimer's Cross (Yorkists victorious) . . 2 Feb. 1461, 
St. Albans (Lancastrians victors) . . 17 Feb. „ 
Towton (Yorkists victorious) . . .29 March, ,, 
Hexham (Yorkists victors) . . . .15 May, 1464 
Edgecote or Banbivry (Yorkists defeated) 26 July, 1469 
Stamford (Lancastrians defeated) . . 13 March, 1470 

Barnet (ditto) 14 April, 1471 

Tewkesbury (ditto) 4 May, „ 



Belgrade (Mahomet II. repulsed) . . 4 Sept. 1456 
Montlhery (Louis XI. and nobles ; indec.) 16 July, 1465 
Granson (Swiss defeat Charles the Bold) 3 March, 1476 

Morat (ditto) « 22 June, „ 

Nancy (Charles the Bold killed) . . . 5 Jan. 1477 
Bosworth (Richard III. defeated) . . 22 Aug. 1485 
Stoke (Lambert Simnel taken)' . . 16 June, 1487 
St. Aubin (Orleans defeated) . . .28 July, 1488 
Sauchieburn, near Bannockburn (James III. deftd. 

by rebels) ,, 

Fornovo (French defeat Italians) . . 6 July, 1495 
Seminara (French defeat Spaniards) . . . \ ,, 
Blackheath (Cornish rebels defeated) . . 22 June, 1497 
Seminara (Gonsalvo defeats French) . 21 April, 1503 
Cerignola (Gonsalvo defeats French) . . 28 April, ,. 
Garigliano (Gonsalvo defeats French) . .27 Dec. ,, 
Agnadello (French defeat Venetians) . . 14 May, 1509 
Ravenna (Gasto7i de Foix, victor, killed) 11 April, 1512 
Novara (Papal Swiss defeat French) . . 6 June, 1513 
Guinegate (Spurs) (French defeated) . . 16 Aug. „ 
Flodden (English defeat Scots) . . . 9 Sept. ,, 
Marignano (French defeat Swiss) . 13-15 Sept. 
Bieocca, near Milan (Lautrec defeated) . 29 April, 
Pavia (Francis I. defeated). ... 24 Feb. 
Frankenhausen (Anabaptists defeated) . 15 May, 

Mohacz (Turks defeat Hungarians) . . 29 Aug. 
Cappel (Zwinglius slain) . . . . 11 Oct. 
Lairffen (Hessians defeat Austrians) . . 13 May, 
Assens (Christian III. defeats Danish rebels) . 



1515 
1522 
1525 

1526 
1531 
1534 
1535 



BATTLES. 



103 



BATTLES. 



Abancay (Almagro defeated Alvarado) . 12 July, 1537 
Solway Moss (English defeat Scots) . . 25 Nov. 1542 
Ceresuola (French defeat Imperialists) . 14 April, 1544 
Miihlberg (Chas. V. defeats Protestants) . 24 April, 1547 
Pinkey (English defeat Scots) ... 10 Sept. ,, 
Ket's rebellion suppressed by Warwick . Aug. 1549 

Marciano (Florentines defeat French) . . 3 Aug. 1554 
St. Quentin (Spcui. & Eng. deft. French) . 10 Aug. 1557 

Calais (taken) 7 Jan. 1558 

Gravelines n. (Span. & Eng. deft. French). 13 July, ,, 
Dreux, in France (Huguenots defeated) . 19 Dec. 1562 

Carberry Hill (Mary of Scotland defeated) 15 June, 1567 
St. Denis (Huguenots defeated) . . .10 Nov. „ 
Langside (Mary of Scotland defeated) . 13 May, 1568 
Jarnac (Huguenots defeated) . . 13 March, 1569 
Moncontour (Coligny defeated) . . . 3 Oct. 1569 
Lepanto, n. (Don John defeats Turks) . 7 Oct. 1571 
Dormans (Guise defeats H uguenots) . . 10 Oct. 1575 
Alcazar-quiver (Moors defeat Portuguese) . 4 Aug. 1578 
Alcantara (Spaniards defeat Portuguese) . 24 June, 1580 
Zutphen (Butch & English def. Spaniards), 22 Sept. 1586 

1587 



20 Oct. 

July, Aug. 

. 21 Sept. 1589 

14 March, 1590 

26 July, 1592 



Ooutras (Henry IV. defeats League) 

Spanish Armada defeated, n. 

Arques (Henry IV. defeats League) . 

Ivry or Yvres (ditto) .... 

Epernay taken by Henry IV. of France 

Fontaine Frangaise (Henry IV. beats Spaniards) 

5 June, 1595 
Blackwater (Tyrone and rebels def. Bangal), 14 Aug. 1598 
Nieuport (Maurice defeats Austrians) 
Kinsale (Tyrone reduced by Mountjoy) 
Kirchholm (Poles defeat Swedes) . 
Gibraltar (Dutch defeat Spaniards) . 
Prague (king of Bohemia defeated). 
Dessau (Wallenstein defeats Mansfeld) 
Rochelle (taken) .... 
Stuhm (Gustavus defeats Poles) . 
Leipsic or Breitenfeld (irustavus def. Tilly), 7 Sept. 1631 
Lech (Imperialists defeated ; Tilly killed) 5 April. 1632 
Lippstadt, Lutzingen, or Lutzen (Swedes victorious ; 

Gustavus slain) .... (n.s.) 16 Nov. ,, 
Nordlingen (Swedes defeated) . . .27 Aug. 1634 
Arras (taken by the French) ... 10 Aug. 1640 
Leipsic (Swedes defeat Austrians) . . 23 Oct. 1642 
Roeroy (French defeat Spaniards) . . . May, 1643 
Friedburg (Condi victor) .... Aug. 1644 
STordlingen (Turenne defeats Austrians) . . . 1645 



. 8 Nov. 
25 April, 
. 28 Oct. 



1600 
1601 
1605 
1607 
1620 
1626 
162S 



CIVIL WAR IN ENGLAND. 



Worcester (prince Rupert victor) . . 23 Sept. 
Edgehill fight (issue doubtful) . . 23 Oct. 
Bradock-down (Parliamentarians defeated) . Jan. 



1642 
!643 



Bramham Moor (Fairfax defeated) . 29 March, 
Stratton (Royalists victorious) . . 16 May, 
Chalgrove (Hampden killed) . . .18 June, 
Atherton Moor (Royalists victorious) . 30 June, 
Landsdown (Royalists victorious) . . 5 July, 
Devizes or Roundway-down (ditto) . 13 July, 

Gainsborough (Cromwell victor). . . 27 July, 
Newbury (fav. to Royalists) ... 20 Sept. 
Cheriton or Alresford (ditto) . . 29 March, 
Cropredy Bridge (Charles I. victor) . 29 June, 
Marston Moor (prince Rupert defeated) . 2 July, 
Tippermuir (Montrose defeats Covenanters) . 1 Sept. 

Newbury (indecisive) 27 Oct. 

Nnstihy (Charles I. totally defeated) . 14 June, 
Alford (Montrose defeats Covenanters) . . 2 July, 

Kilsyth (ditto) 15 Aug. 

PMliphaugh (Covenanters defeat Montrose) 13 Sept. 
Benburb (O'Neill defeats English) . . 5 June, 
Dungan-hill (Irish defeated) ... 8 Aug. 
Preston (Cromwell victor) ... 17 Aug. 
Eathmines (Irish Royalists defeated) . . 2 Aug. 
Drogheda (taken by storm) . . . 12 Sept. 
Cor bies'dale (Montrose defeat ed) . . . 27 April, 
Dunbar (Cromwell defeats Scots) . . 3 Sept. 
Worcester (Cromwell defeats Charles II.) . 3 Sept. 

Galway (surrendered) 

Daventry (Lambert defeated by Monk) . 21 April, 

Arras, France (Turenne defeats Condi) . . . . 1654 

Dunkirk (ditto) 14 June, 1658 

Estremoz (Don John def. by Sehomberq) . 8 June, 1663 

St. Qotth&rd (Montccncnli'dcfeats Tit rks) . 1 Aug. 1664 

Villa Vicious. (J'ortufiHrw defeat Spaniards) . . 1665 

Pentlatid hills (Covenanters defeated) . 28 Nov. 1666 

Candia (taken by Turks) .... 6 Sept. 1669 

Choczim (Sobieski defeats Turks) . . n Nov. 1673 



1644 



1645 



1646 
1647 
1648 
1649 

1650 

1651 
1652 
1660 



Seneffe (French and Dutch, indecisi ve) . 11 Aug. 
Ensisheim (Turenne defeats Imperialists) . 4 Oct. 

Mulhausen (ditto) 31 Dec. 

Turckheim (ditto) 5 Jan. 

Salzbach (Turenne killed) . . . -27 July, 
Drumclog (Covenanters defeat Claverhouse) 1 June. 
Bothwell Brigg (Monmouth defeats Covena.nters) 

22 June, 
Vienna (Turks defeated by Sobieski) 
Sedgemoor (Monmouth defeated). 
Mohaez (Turks defeated) 
Killiecrankie (Highlanders def. Mackay) 
Newtown-butler (Jacobites defeated) 
Boyue (William III. defeats James II.) 
Fleurus (Charleroi, Luxembourg victor) 
Athlone taken by Ginckel . 
Aughriin (James II.' s cause ruined) 
Salenckemen (Louis of Baden def. Turks) 
Enghein or Steenkirk (William III. 



Landen (William III. defeated) 
Marsaglia (Pignerol) (French victors) 
Zenta (prince Eugene defeats Turks) 
Narva (Charles XII. defeats Russians) 
Carpi, Modena (Allies defeat French) 
Chiari (Austrians defeat French) . 
Clissau (Charles XII. defeats Poles) . 
Santa Vittoria (French xrictors) 
Friedlingen (French defeat Germans) 
Pultusk (Swedes defeat Poles) 
Hochstadt (French defeat Austrians) 
Donauwerth (Marlborough victor) 
Gibraltar (taken by Rooke) 

Blenheim or Hochstadt (Marlborough victor), (o. s.) 

2 Aug. 
Tirlemont (Marlborough successful) . . 18 July, 
Cassano (prince Eugene ; indecisive) . . 16 Aug. 
Mittau (taken by Russians) ... 14 Sept. 
Ramillies (Marlborough defeats French) . 23 May, 
Turin (French defeated by Eugene) . . 7 Sept. 
Kalitsch (Russians defeat Swedes) . . 19 Nov. 



12 Sept. 

6 July, 
12 Aug. 
27 July, 
30 July, 

1 July, 
. 1 July 
30 June, 
12 July, 
19 Aug. 
defeated) 
24 July, 

19 July, 
. 4 Oct. 
11 Sept. 

.30 Nov. 

9 July, 

. 1 Sept. 

20 July, 
26 July, 

14 Oct. 

. 1 May, 

20 Sept. 

. 2 July, 

24 July, 



1674 

1673 
1679 



1683 
1685 



1690 



1692 
1693 

1697 
1700 
1 701 



1704 
1704 



i7 5 
1 70S 



Almanza (French defeat Allies) 14 (o. s. ) or 25 April, 1707 

1708 



. 11 July, 

autumn, 

Dec. 

8 July, 

. 11 Sept. 

20 Sept. 

. 28 July, 

20 Aug. 

. 10 Dec. 

5 Aug. 

. 13 Sept. 

24 July, 

7 Nov. 

12, 13 Nov. 

. 13 Nov. 

• 5 Aug. 

. 16 Aug. 

27 May, 



Oudenarde (Marlborough victor) . 
Liesna, Lenzo (Russians defeat Swedes) . 
Lisle (taken by the Allies) 
Pultowa (Peter defeats Charles XII.) 
Malplaquet (Marlborough victor) 
Dobro (Russians defeat Swed.es) 
Almenara (Austrians defeat French) . 

Saragossa (ditto) 

Villa Viciosa (Austrians defeated) 
Arleux (Marlborough forces French lines) 
Bouchain (taken by Marlborough) 
Denain (Villars defeats Allies) 
Friburg (taken by French) . 
Preston (rebels defeated) . 
Dumblans or Sherift'-Muir (indecisive) 
Peterwardein (Eugene defeats Turks) 

Belgrade (ditto) 

Bitonto (Spaniards defeat Germans) 
Parma (Austrians and French, indecisive) . 29 June, 
Guastalla (Austrians defeated) . . 19 Sept. 
Erivan (Nadir Shah defeats Turks) . . June, 
Kro tzka (Turks defeat Austrians) . . 22 July, 
Molwitz (Prussians defeat Austrians) . 10 April, 
Dettingen (George II. defeats French) . 16 June, 
Fontenoy (Saxe defeats Cumberland) . . 30 April, 
Hohenfreiburg (Prussians defeat Austrians) 4 June, 

scots' rebellion. 
Preston Pans (rebels defeat, Cope) 
Clifton Moor (rebels defeated) 
Falkirk (rebels defeat Hawley) . 
Culloden (Cumberland defeats rebels) 

St. Lazaro (Sardinians defeat French) 
Placentia (Austrians defeat French) 
Raucoux (Saxe defeats Allies) . 
Lafl'eldt (Saxe defeats Cumberland) 
Exilles (Sardinians defeat French) 
Bergen-op-Zoom (taJcen) 
Fort du Quesne (Braddock killed) 
Calcutta (taken by Surajah Dowlah) 

SEVEN YEARS' WAR, I756-63. 

Prague (Frederick defeats Allies) . . 6 May, 

Kollin (Frederick defeated) . . . 18 June, 
NorMtten (Russians defeated) . . . 13 Aug. 



1712 
1713 
1715 

1716 
1717 
1734 



1735 
1739 
1741 
1743 
1745 



21 Sept. 1745 

18 Dec. ,, 

17 Jan. 1746 

16 April, ,, 



4 June, 

16 June, 

11 Oct. 

2 July, 

. 19 July, 

15 Sept. 

. 9 July. 

20 June, 



1746 
1747 



1755 
1756 



BATTLES. 



104 



BATTLES. 



Rosbach (Frederick defeats French) . . 5 Nov. 1757 
Breslau (Austrians victors) ... 22 Nov. ,, 

Lissa (Frederick defeats Aiistrians) . . 5 Dec. „ 
Creveldt (Ferdinand defeats French) . 23 June, 1758 
Zorndorff (Frederick defeats Russians) 25, 26 Aug. ,, 
Hochkirchen (Aiistrians defeat Prussians) 14 Oct. ,, 
Bergen (French defeat Allies) . . .13 April, 1759 
Zullichau (Russians defeat Prussians) . 53 July, ,, 
Minden (Ferdinand defeats French) . 1 Aug. „ 
Cunnersdorf (Russians defeat Prussians) 12 Aug. ,, 
Wandewash (Coote defeats Lally) . . 22 Jan. 1760 
Liandshut, Silesia (Prussians defeated) . 23 June, ,, 
Warburg (Ferdinand defeats French) . 31 July, ,, 
Pfaffendorf (Frederick defeats Aiistrians) . 15 Aug. „ 
Kloster Campen (English and Germans with French, 

indecisive) i5> *6 Oct. i> 

Torgau (Frederick defeats Austria/is) . . 3 Nov. ,, 
Kirchdenkern (Allies defeat French) . 15 July, 1 761 
Schweidnitz (Frederick II. def. Aiistrians) 16 May, 1762 
Johannisberg (French defeat Prussians) 30 Aug. ,, 
Freiberg (Prussians defeat Austrians) . 29 Oct. ,, 

Plassey (dive's victory) . . . 23 June, 1757 
Niagara (English take Fort) . . . 24 July, 1759 
Quebec (Wolfe, victor, killed) . . . 13 Sept. ,, 
Buxar (Munro defeats army of Oude) . . 23 Oct. 1764 
Choczim (Russians defeat Turks) 30 April <fe 13 July, 1769 
Galatz (Russians defeat Turks) . . . Nov. „ 
Bender taken by Russians . . . 28 Sept. 1770 
Brailow (Russians defeat Turks) . . 19 June, 1773 
Silistria (taken) 1774 



19 April, 

17 June, 

27 Aug. 

. 28 Oct. 

8 Dec. 

. 3 Jan. 

11 Sept. 

3, 4 Oct. 

7 Oct. 

3 March, 

16 Aug. 

15 March, 

25 April, 



AMERICAN WAR. 

Lexington (Gage victor, with great loss) 
Bunker's Hill (Americans repulsed) 
Long Island (Americans defeated) . 
White Plains (Howe defeats Americans) 
Rhode Island (taken by Royalists) . 
Princeton (Washington defeats British) 
Brandywine (Howe defeats Washington) 
Germanstown (Burgoyne's victory) 
Saratoga (he is compelled to surrender) 
Briar's Creek (Americans defeated) 
Camden (Cornwallis defeats Gates) . 
Guildford (Cornwallis defeats Gates) 
Camden (Americans defeated) 

Eutaw Springs (Arnold defeats Americans) . 8 Sept. 
York Town (Cornwallis surrenders) . 19 Oct. 
[Many inferior actions with various success.] 
Arcot (Hyder defeats British) . . . 31 Oct. 
Porto Novo (Coote defeats Hyder) . . 1 July, 
Rodney's victory over De Grasse, n. . 12 April, 
Arnee (Coote defeats Hyder) ... 2 June, 
Attack on Gibraltar fails ... 13 Sept. 

Bednore (taken by Tip-poo Sah lb) . . 30 April, 
Martinesti (Austrian^ defeat Turks) . . 22 Sept. 
Ismail (taken by storm by Suwarrow) . 22 Dec. 
Bangalore (taken by storm) . . . 21 March, 
Arikera (1'ippoo defeated) . . . . 15 May, 
Seringapatam (ditto) 6 Feb. 

FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WAR BEGINS. 

Quievrain (French repulsed) . . .28 April, 
Valmy (French defeat Prussians) . . 20 Sept. 
Jemappes (French victorious) ... 6 Nov. 
Neerwinden (French beaten by Austrians) 18 March, 
St. Amand (French defeated by English). . 8 May, 
Valenciennes (ditto) . . .23 May, 26 July, 
Lincelles (Lake defeats French) . . .18 Aug. 
Dunkirk (duke of York defeated) . . 7, 8 Sept. 
Quesnoy (reduced by Austrians) . . n Sept. 
Pirmasens (Prussians defeat French) . 14 Sept. 
Wattignies (French defeat Coburg) . 14, 15, 16 Oct. 
Toulon (retaken by British) . 19 Dec. 

Cambray (French defeated) . . .24 April, 
Troisville, Landrecy (taken by Allies) . 30 April, 
Tourcoing (Moreau defeats Allies) . 18-22 May, 
Espierres (taken by Allies) ... 22 May, 
Howe's naval victory . . . . 1 June, 
Charleroi or Fleurus (French defeat. Allies) 26 June, 
Misdon (Vendeans defeated) . . . . 28 July, 
Bois-le-Duc (duke of York defeated) . 14 Sept. 

Boxtel (ditto) 17 Sept. 

Maciejowice (Poles defeated) . . . .10 Oct. 
Nimeguen (French victorious) 28 Oct., (def.) 4 May, 
Praga (Warsaw taken by Suwarrow) . . 4 Nov. 
Bridport's victory off l'Orient, n. . . 22 June, 
Quiberon (Emigrants defeated) . . 21 July, 



1775 

776 



1792 
J 793 



Mannheim (taken by Pichegru) . . 20 Sept. : 

Loano (French defeat Austrians) .. . 23, 24 Nov. 
Montenotte (Bonaparte victorious) . . 12 April, i 

Mondovi (ditto) 22 April, 

Lodi (ditto) 10 May, 

Altenkirchen (Austrians defeated) . . 4 June, 
Radstadt (Moreau defeats Austrians) . 5 July, 

Altenkirchen (Austrians victors) . .16 Sept. 
Roveredo (French defeat Austrians) . 4 Sept. 

Bassano (ditto) 8 Sept. 

Biberach (ditto) 2 Oct. 

Lonato and Castiglione (ditto) . . .3-5 Aug. 
Neresheim (Moreau def. archduke Charles) 10 Aug. 
Areola (Bonaparte victorious) . . 14-17 Nov. 

Castelnuovo (ditto) 21 Nov. 

R voli (ditto) 14, 15 Jan. 

Cape St. Vincent, n. (Spaniards defeated) 14 Feb. 
Tagliamento (Bonaparte def. Austrians) 16 March, 
Camperdown, n. (Duncan defeats Dutch) 11 Oct. 

IRISH REBELLION BEGINS . . . May, 

Kilcullen (rebels successful) . . . 23 May, 
Naas (rebels defeated) .... 24 May, 

Tara (rebels defeated) 26 May, 

Oulart (rebels successful) ... 27 May, 

Gorey or New Ross (rebels defeated) . . 4 June, 
Antrim (rebels defeated) .... 7 June, 

Arklow (rebels beaJen) . . . .10 June, 
Ballynahineh (Nugent defeats rebels) . 13 June, 
Vinegar Hill (Lake defeats rebels) . . 21 June, 
Castlebar (French auxiliaries defeated) . 27 Aug. 

Ballinamuok (French and rebels defeated) . 8 Sept. 
Pyramids (Bonaparte def. Mamelu_kes) 13, 21 July, 
Nile, n. (Nelson defeats French fleet) . . 1 Aug. 
El Arisch (French defeat Turks) . .18 Feb. 
Jaffa (stormed by Bonaparte) . . . 7-10 March, 
Stokach (Austrians defeat French) . 25 March, 

Verona (Austrians defeat French) . 28-30 March, 

Magnano (Kray defeats French). . . 5 April, 
Mount Thabor (Bonaparte defeats Turks) 16 April, 
Cassano (Suwarrow defeats Moreau) . . 27 April, 
Adda (Suwarrow defeats French) . . ,, 

Seringapatam (Tippoo killed) ... 4 May, 
Acre (relieved by sir Sydney Smith) . . 20 May, 
Zurich (French defeated) .... 5 June, 
Trebia (Suwarrow defeats French) . 17-19 June, 
Alessandria (taken from French) . . 21 July, 
Aboukir (Turks defeated by Bonaparte) 25 July, 

Novi (Suwarrow defeats French) . . . 15 Aug. 
Zuyper Sluys (French defeated) . . 9 Sept. 
Bergen and Alkmaer (Allies defeated) . 19 Sept. 

26 Oct. 
Zurich (Massena defeats Russians) . 25 Sept. 
Heliopolis (Kleber defeats Turks) . . 20 Mar. 
Engen (Moreau defeats Austrians) . . 3 May, 
Moeskirch (ditto) 5 May, 



Biberach (ditto) 9 May, ,, 

Montebello (Austrians defeated) . . 9 June, ,, 
Marengo (Bonaparte defeats Austrians) . 14 June, ,, 
Hochstadt (Moreau defeats Austrians) . 19 June, ,, 

Hohenlinden (ditto) 3 Dec. ,, 

Mincio (French defeat Austrians) . . 25-27 Dec. ,, 
Aboukir (French defeated) . . .8 March, 1803 

Alexandria (Abercrombie's victory) . . 21 March, ,, 
Copenhagen (bombarded by Nelson) . . 2 April, „ 
Ahmednuggur (Wellesley victorious) . 12 Aug. 1803; 
Assaye (ditto, his first great victory) . . 23 Sept. ,, 
Argaum (Wellesley victor) . . 29 Nov. „ 

Furruckabad (Lake defeats Holkar) . -17 Nov. 18041 
Bhurtpore (taken by Lake) ... 2 April, 1805 
Elchingen (Ney defeats Austrians) . . 14 Oct. ,, 
Ulm surrenders (Ney defeats Austrians) 17-20 Oct. ,, 
Trafalgar (Nelson destroys Fren. fleet ; killed) 21 Oct. ,, 
Austerlitz (Napoleon defeats Austrians & Russ. ) 2 Dec. , , 
Euenas Ayres (taken by Popham) . . 27 June, 1806 
Maida (Stuart defeats French) . . .4 July, ,,, 
Saalfeld (French defeat Prussians) . . 10 Oct. ,, 

Jena Stadt } ( Frenclt de f eat Prussians) . 14 Oct. „ 

Halle stormed by French ... 17 Oct. ,, 

Pultusk (French and Allies, indecUive) . 26 Dec. ,, 

Mohrungen (French def. Russ. & Pruss.). 25 Jan. 1807 

Montevideo (taken) 3 Feb. ,,. 

Eylau (indecisive) 7, 8 Feb; ,, 

Ostrolenka (French defeat Prussians) . . 16 Feb. ,, 

Friedland (French defeat Russians) . 14 June, ,, 

Buenos Ayres (lVhitelock defeated) . . 5 July, ,, 

Copenhagen (bombarded by Cathcarf) . 2-5 Sept. „, 



BATTLES. 



105 



BATTLES. 



Medina de Rio Seco {French defeat Spaniards) 

15 July, 
Baylen (Spaniards defeat French) . . 20 July, 

PENINSULAR CAMPAIGN BEGINS. 

Vimiera (Wellesley defeats Junot) . . 21 Aug. 
Tudela or Ebro (French defeat Spaniards) 23 Nov. 
Corunna (Moore defeats French) . . 16 Jan. 
Abenberg (Austrians defeated) . . .20 April, 

Landshut (ditto) 21 April, 

Eckmiihl (Davoust defeats Austrians) . 22 April, 
Ebersberg (French defeat Austrians) . . 4 May, 
Oporto (taken). ... 29 March, 12 May, 



21, 22 May, 

5, 6 July, 
27, 28 July, 

26 Sept. 
19 Nov. 

27 Sept. 
. 5 March, 

11 March, 



EssUng } ( Na P oleon defeated) . 
Wagram (Austrians defeated) 
Talavera (Wellesley defeats Victor) . 
Silistria (Turks defeat Russians) 
Ocana (Mortier defeats Spaniards) . 
Busaco (Wellington repulses Massena) 
Barrosa (Graham defeats Victor) 
Badajoz (taken by the French) 

Fuentes de Onoro (Wellington defeats Massena) 

3. 5 May, 
Albuera (Bercsford defeats Soult) . 
Ximena (Spaniards defeat French) 
Merida (Hill defeats French) . 
Albufera (Suchet defeats Spaniards) . 
Ciudad Rodrigo (stormed by English) 
Badajoz (taken by Wellington) . 
Llerena (Cotton defeats Soult) 
Salamanca (Wellington, defts. Marmont) 
Mohilow (French defeat Russians) 
Polotzk (French and Russians) . 



16 May, 
10 Sept. 
. 28 Oct. 
4 Jan. 
19 Jan. 
6 April, 
11 April, 

22 July, 

23 July, 
30, 31 July, 



Krasnoy, Smolensko (French defeat Russians) 

15, 19 Aug. 

Moskwa ) , , ... . , 

Borodino [ <- dltto ) 7 Sept. 

Moscow (burnt by Russians) . . . 15 Sept. 
Queenstown (Americans defeated) . . 13 Oct. 

Polotzk (retaken by Russians) . . 19, 20 Oct. 
Malo-Jaroslawatz (French victors) . . 24 Oct. 

Witepsk (French defeated) ... 14 Nov. 

Krasnoi (ditto) 16-18 Nov. 

Beresina (ditto) ..... 25-29 Nov. 
French Town (taken by Americans) . 22 Jan. 
Kalitsch (Saxons defeated) .... 13 Feb. 
Mockern (Eugene defeats Russians) . 5 April, 
Castalla (sir J. Murray defeats Suchet) . 13 April, 
Lutzen (Napoleon checks Allies) . . .2 May, 
Bautzen (Nap. a nd Allies ; indecisive) . 20 May, 

Wurschen (ditto) 21, 22 May, 

Hochkirchen (French deft. Aust. and Russ.), 22 May, 
Vittoria (Wellington defts. king Joseph) . 21 June, 
Pyrenees (Wellington defeats Soult) 28 July, 2 Aug. 
Katzbach (Blucher defeats Ney) . . .26 Aug. 
Dresden (Napoleon checks Allies) . . 26, 27 Aug. 
St. Sebastian (stormed by Graham) . .31 Aug. 
Dennewitz (Ncy defeated) ... 6 Sept. 

Mockern (French defeated) .... 16 Oct. 
Leipzic (Napoleon defeated) . . . 16-18 Oct. 
Hanau (Napoleon defeats Bavarians) . . 30 Oct. 
St. Jean de Luz (Wellington defts. Soult) 10 Nov. 
Passage of the Nive, 9 Dec. ; several engagements 

between the Allies and French . 10 to 13 Dec. 
St. Dizier, France (French victors) . . 26 Jan. 
Brienne (Allies defeated) .... 29 Jan. 
La Rothiere (Napoleon defeats Allies). . 1 Feb. 
Bar-sur-Aube (Allies victors) . . .7 Feb. 

Mincio (pr. Eugene defeats Austrians) . 8 Feb 
Champ Aubert (French defeat Allies) . 10-12 Feb. 

Montmirail (ditto) n Feb. 

Vauchamp (ditto) 14 Feb. 

Fontainebleau (ditto) 17 Feb. 

Montereau (ditto) 18 Feb. 

Orthez (Wellington defeats Soult) . . 27 Feb. 
Craonne (French victors) ... 7 March, 
Bergen-op-Zoom (Graham defeated) . . 8 March, 
Laon (French defeated) .... 9-10 March, 
Rheims (Napoleon defeats St. Priest) . 13 March, 

Tarbes (Wellington defeats Soult) . . 20 March, 
Fere Champenoise (French defeated) . 25 March, 
St. Dizier (French victors) . . .28 March, 
Paris, Montmartre, Romainville (ditto) 30 March, 
Battle of the Barriers, 30 March ; (Marmont evacuates 

Paris, and the Allies enter it) . . 31 March, 
Toulouse (Wellington defeats Soult) . 10 April, 
Tolentino (Murai defeated) . . . . 3 May, 



Ligny (Blucher repulsed). 
Quatre Bras (Ney repulsed) . 

Waterloo (Napoleon finally beaten). 

AMERICAN WAR. 

Fort George (taken by Americans) 
Burlington Heights (Americans routed) . 
Chrystler's Point, Canada . 
Black-rock, America .... 
Longwood (English defeated) 

Chippawa j \ B / itlsh defeat f) . . 

^ {(Americans defeated) 

Fort Erie (British repulsed) . 
Bladensburg (Americans defeated) 
Bellair (British repulsed) 
Baltimore (British victors) . 
New Orleans (British repxtlsed) . 8, 1: 



2 7» 



Algiers (bombarded by Exmouth) . 
Ohacalmco (Chilians defeat Spaniards) . 
Kirkee (Hastings defeats Pindarrees) . 
Mehadpore (Hislop defeats Holkar) . 
Valtezza (Turks defeated) . 
Dragaschan (Ipsilanti defeated) 
Tripolitza (stormed by Greeks) 
Thermopyhe (Greeks defeat Turks) . 

Corinth (taken) 

Accra (Ashantees defeat sir C. Macarthy) 
Ayacucho (Peruvians defeat Spaniards) 
Bhurtpore (taken by Combermere) 
Accra (Ashantees defeated) 

Athens (taken) 

Navarino (Allies destroy Turkish fleet) . 
Brahilow (Russians a nd Turks) . 

Akhalzikh (ditto) 

Varna (surrenders to Russians) . 

Silistria (ditto) 

Kainly (Russians defeat Turks) . 
Balkan (passed by Russians) . 
Adrianople (Russians enter) 
Algiers (captured by French) . 
Paris (Days of July) . 
Grochow (Poles defeat Russians) 
Praga (Poles defeat Russians) 
Wawz (Skrzynecki defeats Russians) 
Seidliee (Poles defeat Russians) . 

Ostrolenka (ditto) 

Wilna (Poles and Russians) 

Warsaw (taken by Russians) . 

Horns (Egyptians defeat Turks) . 

Beylan (Ibrahim defeats Turks) 

Konieh (Egyptians defeat Turks) 

Antwerp citadel taken by Allies . 

Hernani (Carlists defeated) . 

St. Sebastian (ditto) . . . . 

Bilboa (siege raised ; British Legion) . 

Hernani (Carlists repulsed) 

Iran (British Legion defeats Carlists) . 

Valentia (Carlists attacked) 

Herera (Don Carlos defeats Buereno) . 

Oonstantina (Algiers ; taken by French) 

St. Eustace (Canadian rebels defeated) . 

Pennecerrada (Carlists defeated) 

Prescott (Canadian rebels defeated) 

Aden (taken) 

Ghiznee (taken by Keane) 
Sidon (taken by Napier) 
Bey rout (Allies defeat Egyptians) . 
Afghan War. (See India.) 
Acre (stormed by Allies) 
Kotriah (Scinde ; English victors) . 
Chuen-pe (English victors) 
Canton (English take Bogue forts) . 

Amoy (taken) 

Chin-hae, <fec. (taken) .... 
Candahar (Afghans defeated) 
Ningpo (Chinese defeated) 
Jellalabad (Khyber Pass forced) . 
Chiu-keang (taken) .... 

Ghiznee (Afghans defeated, by Nott) . 
Mceanee (Napier defeats Ameers) . 

Hyderabad 

Maharajpoor (Gough defeats Mahrattas) 
Isly (French defeat Abd-c!-Kader) . 
Moodkee (G<aigh defeats Sikhs) . 

Ferozeshah (ditto) 

Aliwal (Smith defeats Sikhs) 
Sobraon (Gough defeats Sikhs) 



16 June, 


18115 


. 16 June, 




18 June, 


" 


. 27 May, 


1813 


6 June, 


,, 


. 11 Nov. 




28 Dec. 




• 4 May. 


1814 


5 July, 


,, 


. 25 July, 


, r 


15 Aug. 


,, 


• 24 Aug. 


, r 


30 Aug. 


,, 


. 12 Sept. 


,, 


& 13 Jan. 


181s 


• 27 Aug. 


1816 


12 Feb. 


1817 


. 5 Nov. 


,, 


21 Dec. 


, r 


. 27 May, 


182s 


19 June, 




. 5 Oct. 




13 July, 


1822 


. 16 Sept. 


,, 


21 Jan. 


1824 


. 9 Dec. 


,, 


. 18 Jan. 


1826 


7 Aug. 


,, 


. 17 May, 


1827* 


. 20 Oct. 


,, 


. 18 June, 


1828; 


24 Aug. 


,, 


. 11 Oct. 


,, 


30 June, 


1829, 


. 1 July, 


,, 


26 July, 


,, 


. 20 Aug. 


,, 


5 July, 


1830 


8, 29 July, 


,, 


19, 20 Feb. 


183B 


. 25 Feb. 


,, 


31 March, 




. 10 April, 


,, 


26 May, 


,^ 


. 18 June, 




7 Sept. 


,, 


. 8 July, 


1832 


29 July, 


,,. 


. 21 Dec. 


9y 


23 Dec. 


,, 


• 5 May, 


1836 


1 Oct. 




24 Dec. 




16 March, 


1837 


. 17 May, 




15 July, 


,, 


. 24 Aug. 


, r 


13 Oct. 


, r 


. 14 Dec. 




. 22 June, 


183S 


17 Nov. 




19 Jan. 


1839. 


23 July, 


,, 


. 27 Sept. 


1840 


. 10 Oct. 


.r 


3 Nov. 




. 1 Dec. 


,, 


7 Jan. 


1843 


. 26 Feb. 




27 Aug. 


,, 


10, 13 Oct. 


,, 


. 10 March, 


1842 


10 March, 




5. 6 April, 


,, 


21 July, 


,,. 


6 Sept. 




. 17 Frli. 


1843 


24 March, 


„ 


29 Dec. 


,, 


. 14 Aug. 


(84+ 


1S Dec. 


1845 


21, 22 Dec. 


,, 


28 Jan. 


1846 


. 10 Feb. 


,, 



BATTLES. 



106 



BATTLES. 



Palo Alto (Taylor defeats Mexicans) . . 8, 9 May, 1846 

Montery (Mexicans def. by Americans) 21-23 Sept. ,, 

Bueno Vista (Americans defeat Mexicans) . 22 Feb. 1847 

St. Ubes (Portugal) 9 May, „ 

Ozontero (Americans defeat Mexicans) . 19, 20 Aug. ,, 

Flensborg (Danes defeat rebels) . . 9 April, 1848 

Dannawerke (Prussians defeat Danes) . 23 April, „ 

Curtatone (Austrians defeat Italians) . 29 May, ,, 

Custozza (ditto) 23 July, „ 

Velencze (Croats and Hungarians) . . 29 Sept. ,, 

Mooltan (Sikhs repulsed) . . . . 7 Nov. ,, 

"Chilian-wallah (Gougli defeats Sikhs) . . 13 Jan. 1849 

Goojerat (ditto) 21 Feb. ,, 

Gran (Hungarians victors) ... 27 Feb. ,, 

Novara (Radetzky defeats Sardinians) . 23 March, ,, 
Velletri (Roman Republicans defeat Neapolitans) 

19 May, „ 
Pered (Russians defeat Hungarians) 
Acs (Hungarians repidsed) . 
Waitzen (taken by Russians) . 
Schiissberg (Russians defeat. Bern) 
Temeswar (Haynau defeats Hungarians) 
Idstedt (Danes defeat Holsteiners) 
Nankin taken by Imperialists . 

RUSSO-TURKISH WAR. 

Olteuitza (Turks repulse Russians) 
Sinope, n. (Turkish fleet destroyed) . 
Citate (Turks defeat Russians) 

Silistria (ditto) 13-15 June, ,, 

Gyirgevo (ditto) 7 July, ,, 

Bayazid (Russians defeat Turks) . 29, 30 July, ,, 

Kuruk-Derek (ditto) 5 Aug. ,, 

Alma (English and French defeat Russians) 20 Sept. ,, 

Balaklava (ditto) 25 Oct. ,, 

Inkermann (ditto) 5 Nov. ,, 

Eupatoria (Turks defeat Russians) . . 17 Feb. 1855 
Malakhoff tower (Allies and Russians; indec. night 

combats) . . ... . 22, 23, 24 May, ,, 

Capture of the Mamelon, &c. . . . 7 June, ,, 

Unsuccessful attempt on Malakhoff tower, and 

Redan (Allies and Russians) . . 18 June, ,, 
Tchernaya or Bridge of Traktir (Allies def. Russians) 

16 Aug. ,, 

Malakhoff taken by the French . . 8 Sept. ,, 

Kngour (Turks defeat Russians) . . 6 Nov. - ,, 

Baidar (French defeat Russians) . . .8 Dec. ,, 

PERSIAN WAR. 

Bushire (English defeat Persians) . . 10 Dec. 1856 

Kooshab (ditto) 8 Feb. 1857 

Mohammerah (ditto) .... 26 March, ,, 



21 June, 




10 July, 
17 July, 
31 July, 
10 Aug. 


„ 


25 July, 
19 July, 


185c 
1853 


. 4 Nov. 

30 Nov. 

. 6 Jan. 


1853 
1854 



(See India.) 
31 May ; 8 June ; 



INDIAN MUTINY. 

Conflicts before Delhi. 30 

4, 9, 18, 23 July, 1857 
Victories of General Havelock, near Futtehpore, 

11 July, Cawnpore, &c. 12 July to 16 Aug. 
Pandoo Nucldee (victory ofNc'dl) . . 15 Aug.- 
Nujuffghur (death of Nicholson, victor) . 25 Aug. 
Assault and capture of Delhi . . 14-20 Sept. 
Conflicts before Lucknow, 25, 26 Sept. ; 18, 25 Nov. 
Victories of Col. Greathed . 27 Sept ; 10 Oct. 
Cawnpore (victory of Campbell) . . . 6 Dec. 

Futteghur (ditto) 2 Jan. 

Calpi(i) ictory of Inglis) .... 4 Feb. 
Alumbagh (victories ofOutram) 12 Jan. and 21 Feb. 
Conflicts at Lucknow (taken) . . 14-19 March, 
Jhansi (iilo.se victorioiis) . . . .4 April, 

Kooneh (ditto) 11 May, 

Gwalior (ditto) 17 June, 

Bajghur (Mitchell defeats Tantia Topee) . 15 Sept. 
Dlioodea Khera (Clyde defeats lieni Mahdo) 24 Nov. 
Gen. Horsford defeats the Begum of Oucle and 

Nana Sahib 10 Feb. 1859 

Italian war. (See Italy.) 

Austrians cross the Ticino . . . 27 April, 1859 

French troops enter Piedmont . . . May, ,, 

Montebello (Allies victorious) ... 20 May, „ 

Palestro (ditto) 30, 31 May, ,, 

Magenta (ditto) . ..... 4 June, ,, 

Malegnano (ditto) 8 June, ,, 

Solferino (ditto) 24 June, ,, 

(Armistice agreed to, 6 July, 1850.) 



Taku, at the mouth of the Peiho or Tien-Tsin-ho 
(English attack on the Chinese Forts defeated) 

25 June, 

Taku forts taken (see China) . . . 21 Aug. 

Chang-kia-wan, 18 Sept. ; and Pa-li-chiau (Chinese 
defeated) 21 Sept. 



Castillejo (Spaniards defeat Moors) 

Tetuan (ditto) 

Guad-el-Ras (ditto) 



. 1 Jan. 

4 Feb. 

23 March, 



Calatifimi (Garibaldi defeats Neapolitans) 15 May, 
Melazzo (Garibaldi defeats Neapolitans) 20, 21 July, 
Castel Fidardo (Sardinians defeat Papal troops), 

18 Sept. 
Volturno (Garibaldi, defeats Neapolitans) . 1 Oct. 
Isernia (Sardinians defeat Neapolitans) . 17 Oct. 
Garigliano (Sardinians defeat Neapolitans) 3 Nov. 
Sardinians defeat Neapolitan re-actionists 22 Jan. 
Gaeta taken by the Sardinians ... 13 Feb. 



Insurrection in New Zealand ; English repulsed, 

14, 28 March ; 27 June ; 10, 19 Sept. ; 9, 12 Oct. i860 

Maohetia (Maories defeated) . . . 6 Nov. ,, 

CIVIL WAR IN UNITED STATES* — WAR IN MEXICO. 

Big Bethel (Federals repulsed) . . 10 June, 1861 

Booneville (Lyon defeats Confederates) . 18 June, ,, 

Carthage (Federal victory) . . . .5 July, ,, 

Rich Mountain (ditto) . . . .11 July, ,, 
Bull Run or Manassas (Federal defeat and panic) 

21 July, ,, 

Springfield or Wilson's Creek (Feds, victors) 10 Aug. „ 
Caruifex ferry (Rosencrans defeats Floyd, Confederate) 

10 Sept. ,, 

Lexington (taken by Confederates) . . 20 Sept. „ 

Pavon, South America (Mitra def. Urquisa) 17 Sept. ,> 

Turks defeat Montenegrins . 19 Oct., 21 Nov. ,, 

Ball's Bluff (Federals defeated) . . 21 Oct. „ 

Mill Springs, Kentucky (Confederates defeated and 

their general Zollicoffer killed) . . 19 Jan. 1862 

Roanoke Island, N.C. (Federals victors) 7, 8 Feb. ,, 
Sugar Creek, Arkansas (Confederates defeated) 

8 Feb. ,, 

Fort Donnelson (taken by Federals) . 16 Feb. ,, 

Pea Ridge, Arkansas (Federals victors) 6-8 March, ,-, 
Hampton roads n. (Merrimac repulsed by Monitor) 

9 March, ,, 
Pittsburg Landing, or Shiloh (favourable to Con- 
federates) 6, 7 April, ,, 

Williamsburg (Federals repulsed) . . 5 May. ,, 

Puebla (Mexicans defeat French) . . 5 May, ,, 

Richmond (successful sorties of Confederates) 14 May, ,, 

Orizaba (Mexicans defeat French) . . 18 May, „ 

Winchester (Federals repulsed) . . 18 May, ,, 

Near Orizaba (French defeat Mexicans) 13 June, ,, 

Fairoaks (before Richmond, indecisive) . 31 May „ 

1 June, ,, 
Chickahominy (severe conflicts before Richmond; 

Confederates retreat.) . . 25 June to 1 July, ,, 

Baton Rouge (taken by Federals) . . 5 Aug. ,, 

Cedar Mountain (favourable to Confederates) 9 Aug. ,, 

Severe conflicts on the Rappahannock 23-29 Aug. ,, 

Bull Run (defeat of Federals) . . 29, 30 Aug. „ 
Aspromonte (Garibaldi and Ms volunteers captured 

by Royal Italian Troops) . . . 29 Aug. ,, 
Antietam (severe ; Confederates retreat) 17 Sept. ,, 
Perryville (Confederates worsted) . . 8, 9 Oct. ,, 
Fredericksburg (Federcds defeated by Lee) 13 Dec. 1863 
Murfreesburgh (indecisive) 29 Dec. 1862 — 3 Jan. ,, 
Nashville (Confederates defeated) . . 2 Jan. ,, 
Chancellorsville (Confederates victors) . 2-4 May, ,, 
Winchester (Ewell defeats Federals) . . 14 June, ,, 
Gettysburg (severe but indecisive) . 1-3 July, ,, 
Chicamauga (Confederates victorious) 19-20 Sept. ,, 
Chattanooga (Confederates defeated) . 23-26 Nov. ,, 
Spottsylvania, <fec, in the Wilderness, near Chan- 
cellorsville (indecisive) . . . 10-12 May, 1864 
Petersburg, near Richmond (indecisive, but Grant 

advances) 15-18 June, „ 

Winchester (Confederates defeated) . . 19 Sept. ,, 

Cedar Creek (ditto) 19 Oct. ,, 

Franklin (ditto) 3° Nov. „ 

* There were many smaller conflicts, of which the 
accounts were, very uncertain. 



BATTLES. 



107 



Nashville (Thomas, Federal, defeats Hood) 14-16 Dec. 1864 
Five Forks (Lee totally defeated) . . 1 April, 1865 
Fa.imvi]le (Lee finally defeated) . . 6 April, ,, 



Oeversee (Danes and Allies) ... 6 Feb. 

Diippel (taken by the Prussians) . . 18 April, 

Alsen (ditto) 29 June, 

Rendsburg (ditto) 21 July, 

south American war. (See Brazil.) 
Santayuna (Allies defeat Paraguayans; Uruguyana 

taken) 

Paso de la Patria (indecisive) 

Parana (Allies victors) 

Estero Velhaco (ditto) 

luyaty (Allies defeated) . 

Curupai'ti (ditto) .... 17, 

Tuyuty (Allies victors) 

Corumba (taken by Brazilians) . 



18 Sept. 

. 25 Feb. 

. 16 April, 

. 2 May, 

16, 18 July, 

19, 22 Sept. 

30 Oct. 

. 13 June, 

seven weeks' war (Austria and Prussia). 
Custozza (Austrians defeat Italians) . 24 June, 
Lissa (ditto, naval battle) ... 20 July, 

Prussian victories (as inscribed on shield exhi- 
bited at Berlin, 20 Sept. 1866, see Prussia). 
Liebenau, Turnau, Podoll . . .26 June, 
Nachod, Langensaiza (which see), Oswiecin, Htihner- 

wasser 27 June, 

Miinchengratz, Soor, Trautenau, Skalitz, 28 June, 
Gitschin, Koniginhof, Jaromier, Schweinschadel, 

29 June, 
Koniggratz or Sadowa 
Dermbach, 4 July ; Hunfeld 
Waldasehach, Hausen, Hammelburg 

hall, Kissingen .... 
Laufach, 13 July ; Asehaffenburg 
Tobitsehau, 15 July ; Blumenau, 22 July ; Hof, 

23 July, 
Tauber - Bischofsheim, Werbach, Hochhausen, 

24 July, 
Neubrunn, Helmstadt, Gerchsheim . 25 July, 
Roszbrunn, Wurzburg, Baireuth . . 28 July, 



1865 



3 July, 

. 5 July, 

Friederics- 

. 10 July, 

14 July, 



Monte Rotondo (Garibaldians victors) . 27 Oct. 
Mentana (Garibaldi defeated) . . . 3 Nov. 
Arogee or Fahla (Abyssinians defeated) . 10 April, 
Magdala stormed .... 13 April, 

Russians defeat Bokharians and occupy Samarcand, 

25 May, 
Alcolea (Spanish royalists defeated) . 27, 28 Sept. 
Villeta (Lopez defeated by Brazilians), &c. 11 Dec. 
Lopez defeated ... 12, 16, 18, 21 Aug. 
Aquidaban (Lopez defeated and killed) . 1 March, 

FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR (which See). 

Saarbruek, taken by the French, and Prussians re- 
pulsed 2 Aug. 



1869 
1870 



Wissembourg (French defeated) . . 4 Aug 

AVorth (ditto) 6 Aug. 

Saarbriick or Forbach (ditto) ... 6 Aug. 
Courcelles or Pange (ditto) . . . .14 Aug. 

Strasburg (ditto) 16 Aug. 

Vionville or Mars-la-Tour (ditto). . . 16 Aug. 
Gravelotte or Rezonville (ditto) . . 18 Aug. 

Beaumont (ditto) 30 Aug. 

Carignan (ditto) 31 Aug. 

Metz (ditto) 31 Aug. 

Sedan (ditto) .... 31 Aug. , 1 Sept. 
Before Paris (French defeated) . . .30 Sept. 
Thorny (Germans surprised and repulsed) 5 Oct. 
St. Remy (French defeated) ... 6 Oct. 

Before Metz (ditto) 7 Oct. 

Artenay (ditto) 10 Oct. 

Cherizy (Germans repulsed) . . . 10 Oct. 
Orleans (French defeated) .... n Oct. 

Ecouis (indecisive) 14 Oct. 

Chateaudun (French defeated) . . .18 Oct. 
Coulmiers, near Orleans (Germans defeated), 

9, 10 Nov. 
Near Amiens (French defeated) . 
Villiers, before Paris (French retreat) 



1870 



27 Nov. 
30 Nov. 

2 Dec. 

4 Dec. 



Before Orleans (French defeated) 

Beaugency (ditto) 7, 8 Dec. 

Nuits (ditto) 18 Dee. 

Pont a Noyelles (French claim a victory) 23 Dec. 

Bapaume (indecisive) . . . . 2, 3 Jan. 1871 



BATTLES. 

Le Mans (indecisive^ 6 Jan. 1871 

Le Mans (Chanzy dcf. by pr. Fred. Chas.), 10-12 Jan. ,, 

Belfort (Bourbaki defeated) . . . 15-17 Jan. ,, 

St. Quentin (Faidherbe defeated) . . 19 Jan. ,, 

Paris (Trochu's grand sortie repulsed) . 19 Jan. ,, 



1872 
1873 



1874 



Oroquieta (Carlists defeated) ... 4 May, 
Elmina (Ashantees defeated by British) . 13 June, 
Elgueta (Carlists said to be victorious) . . 5, 6 Aug. 
Maiieru (Carlists and Republicans : indecisive) 6 Oct. 
Abrakampra (Ashantees defeated) . 5, 6 Nov. 

Borborassie (ditto) 29 Jan. 

Amoaful (ditto) . 3' Jan. 

Bocquah (ditto) 1 Feb. 

Fommanah (ditto) 2 Feb. ,, 

Ordahsa (ditto) 4 Feb. ,, 

Before Bilbao (several days; Carlists retreat ; Concha 

enters Bilbao) 2 May, ,, 

Estella (sharp conflicts; Carlists retreat; Concha 

killed) 25, 27 June, ,, 

Iran (Laserna defeats Carlists) . . .10 Nov. „ 
Sorota, Peru (Pierota and insurgents defeated) 3 Dec. ,, 
Near Tolosa (Carlists repulse Lorna) . 7, 8 Dec. ,, 
Khokand (Russians under Kaufman defeat the Khan's 

troops, &c.) 4. 21 Sept. 1875 

Abyssinians defeat Egyptians . . . . Oct. ,, 
Assake (Khokand chiefs defeated) . . 30 Jan. 1876 

Servian war begins 1 July, ,, 

Saitschar (severe conflicts ; Servians retreat) 2, 3 July, „ 
Urbitza (Montenegrins defeat Turks) . . 28 July, ,, 
Turkish Wars with Servia, and Montenegro, de- 
clared 2 July, „ 

Zaicar or Saitschar (Turks and Servians, indecisive) 

3 July, ,, 
Novi Bazar (Turks said to be victors) . 6 July, „ 
Urbitza (Montenegrins victors) . . 28 July, ,, 

Gurgusovatz (Turks victors) . . . 5-7 Aug. ,, 
Medun (Montenegrins victors) . . 7 or 14 Aug. „ 
Morava valley near Alexinatz (severe conflicts, fa- 

vottrable to Turks) . . . 19-27 Aug. ,, 

Podgoritza (Montenegrins victors) . . 26 Aug. „ 
Alexinatz (Turks victors), 1, 2, 28, 29 Sept., captured 

31 Oct. ,, 
Peace between Turkey and Servia . 1 March, 1877 

Russo-Turkish "War (which see), began . 24 April, ,, 

Tahir (Turks defeated) . . . .16 June, „ 

Nicopolis (stormed by Russians, severe fights) 

15, 16 July, ,, 

Plevna (Russians defeated) 19, 20, & 30, 31 July, „ 

Kurukdara or Kizil Tepe (ditto) . 24, 25 Aug. ,, 

Valley of Lorn (ditto) .... 22-24 Aug. ,, 
Schipka Pass (dreadful conflicts, Turks under Sirtei- 

man repulsed) .... 20-27 Aug. ,, 

Karahassankoi, <fec, on the Lorn (severe; Russians 

retreat) 30 Aug. ,, 

Lovatz or Luftcha (takeyi by Russians) . 3 Sept. ,, 
Plevna (held by Osman Pasha, severe conflicts, 

Russians defeated) . . . 11, 12 Sept. ,, 

Schipka Pass (Suleiman defeated). . 17 Sept. ,, 

Near Kars (Russians defeated) . . . 2-4 Oct. ,, 
Aladja Dagh, near Kars(Titrfcs under Mukhtar totally 

defeated) 14. I S 0ct - » 

Deve-Boyun, Armenia (Turks under Mukhtar de- 
feated after $ hours' fighting) . . 4 Nov. „ 
Azizi, near Erzeroum (Russians defeated) . 9 Nov. ,, 
Kars taken by storm by Russians . 17, 18 Nov. ,, 
Elena (taken by Turks after sharp conflict) 4 Dec. ,, 
Plevna (Osman Pasha endeaimirs to break out ; 
totally defeated; surrenders -unconditionally) 

9, 10 Dec. ,, 

Senova in the Balkans (Turks defeated) 9-10 Jan. 1878 

Near Philippopolis (ditto) . . .14, 15 J ;1 »- >> 

Afohan War (see Afghanistan). 
Ali Musjid captured by British . . 22 Nov. 1878 
Pei war Pass ^victory of gen. Roberts) . 2 Dec ,, 
Futtehabad (victory of gen. Gough) . . 2 April, 1879 
Char-aseab (Afghans defeated) . . . 6 Oct. „ 
Severe lighting near Cabul . Dec. 1879-Apnl, 1880 
Ahmed Khel (Stewart defeats Afglums) 19-23 Ai.nl, ,, 
Kuschki-Nakhud or Maiwand (Ayodb Khan defeats 

Burrows) 27 July ,, 

Mazraor Baba Wali (Hoberts totally defeats 

Khun) 1 Sept. ., 

Zulu War fsee Zululand). 
Isandula (British surprised and defeated) 22 Jan. 1879 



BATUM. 



108 



BAVARIA. 



Rorke's Drift (successfully defended by British) 22 Jan. 1879 
Ulundi (Cetewayo totally defeated by lord Chelms- 
ford) 4 July, „ 

Chilian and Peruvian War (see Chili). 
Iquique (Chilians defeat Peruvians) . . Nov. „ 
Choukos and Mirafiores (ditto) . . 17 Jan. 1881 

RUSSIAN WAR. 

Geok or Denghli Tepe (Russians and Turkomans, in- 
decisive) 9 Sept. 1879 

Geok Tepe (besieged by Russians, severe conflicts), 24 
Dec. 1880, 4, 9, 10, Jan., taken . . 24 Jan. 1881 

Transvaal war. 

Laing's Nek {British defeated) ... 28 Jan. 1881 

Ingogo River (ditto) 8 Feb. „ 

Majuba Hill (ditto) .... 26 Feb. ,, 

War in Egypt (see Egypt). 

Bombardment of forts at Alexandria . 11 July 1882 
Tel-el-Mahuta and Masameh (rebels defeated by 

British) 24, 25 Aug. „ 

Kassasin (ditto) . . . 28 Aug. and 9 Sept. „ 

Tel-el-Kebir (ditto— decisive) ... 13 Sept. „ 

See Soudan. 

Rebels in the Soudan defeated by Hicks 29 April, 1883 
El Obeid or Kashgal (Hick-sand his army destroyed) 

3-5 Nov. ,, 

Tokar (Egyptians defeated) .... 6 Nov. ,, 
Near Teb, Baker with Egyptians was defeated by 

rebels 4 Feb. 1884 

Teb (Graham totally defeats rebels) . . 29 Feb. ,, 
For Chinese and French war see under China 
and Tonquin. 

Abu Klea (Stewart defeats rebels) . . .17 Jan. 1885 

Gubat (rebels defeated) .... 19 Jan. ,, 

Kerkeban (ditto, gen. Earle killed) . . 10 Feb. ,, 

Hasheen (rebels defeated) . . .20 March ,, 

Rebel attack near Souakim repulsed 22 March ,, 

Ak Tapa (Russians defeat Afghans) . 30 March, „ 
Chalchuapa(itar/-iosde/<;a£ed and killed) see America, 

centred 2 April, ,, 

Fish Creek (Canadians defeat rebels) . 24 April, ,, 

Battleford (ditto) .... 3 May, ,, 

Batoche (ditto) 9 May, ,, 

[See Bulgaria, Burmah, and Soudan.] 
Dagoli near Massowah (Italians destroyed in heroic 

attack on Abyssinians) . . . 25-26 Jan. 1887 
(See Abyssinia.) 

Jelapla Pass (Tibetans defeated) . . 24 Sept. 1888 
Taskkurgan and Mazari Sherif (Ishak Khan, rebel, 

defeated) 29-30 Sept. ,, 

Suakim (defeat of the Arab Dervishes by gen. Grenfell) 

20 Dec. ,, 
Dervishes repulsed, 19, 29, 30 April ; 2 June ; 4 

July 1890 

Arguin (Col. Wodehouse defeats Dervishes) . 2 July, ,, 

Anabi (Dervishes defeated) ... 31 July, ,, 

Toski (ditto by gen. Grenfell) . . . 3 Aug. „ 

Witu stormed, see Zanzibar ... 27 Oct. „ 

Wounded Knee Creek, see Indians . . 29 Dec. ,, 

Tokar, Soudan (Osman Digna defeated) . 19 Feb. 1891 
Placilla, Chili (Balmaceda defeated by congressists) 

28 Aug. ,, 
(For numerous small conflicts and skirmishes, see Franco- 
Prussian War, Herzegovina, Rvsso-Turkish Wars, Spain, 
Sumatra, Turkey, United States, Kaffirs, Egypt, Zulu- 
land, Basutoland, Chili, Soudan, Tonquin, Salvador, 
India, Manipur, Lagos, Senegal, &c, and for details of 
important engagements see separate articles.) 

BATUM, see Batoum. 

BAUGE, see Anjou. 

BAUTZEN, a town in Saxony, near which 
desperate battles were fought 20,21, and 22 May, 
1813, between the French, commanded by Napoleon, 
and the allies under the emperor of Russia and the 
king of Prussia. The struggle commenced on the 
19th, with a contest on the outposts, which cost 
each army a loss of above 2000 men. On the 20th 
(at Bautzen) the French were more successful ; and 
on the 2 1st (at Wurschen) the allies were com- 
pelled to retire ; but Napoleon obtained no perma- 
nent advantage. Duroc was killed at Reichenbach 
by a cannon-ball, on 22 May. 



BAVARIA (part of ancient Noricum and Vin- 
delicia), a kingdom in South Germany, conquered 
from the Celtic Gauls (Boii) by the Franks between 
630 and 660. The country was afterwards governed 
by dukes subject to the French monarebs. Tasil- 
lon II. was deposed by Charlemagne, who established 
margraves in 788. The margrave Leopold, 895, 
father of Arnulph the Bad, is styled the first duke. 
Bavaria made a kingdom from 1 Jan. 1806, was 
made a constitutional monarchy, 26 May, 18 18. 
It joined the German empire, 22 Nov. 1870. 
Population, 1 Dec. 1871, 4,863,450 ; Dec. 1875, 
5,022,390 ; 1885, 5,420,199 ; 1890, 5,589,382. See 
Munich. 

Bavaria supports Austria in the contest with 
Prussia June, 1866 

Took part in the war, and made peace with Prussia, 

22 Aug. „ 

Population (after cessions, 1866), 4,824,421 . Dec. 1867 

An international exhibition in a crystal palace 
opened 20 July, 1869 

The chambersdissolved, as, through a party struggle, 
no president was elected . . . .6 Oct. ,, 

Resignation of the ministry, 25 Nov. ; only partially 
accepted by the king .... 9 Dec. ,, 

Vote of want of confidence in prince Hohenlohe 
the president, 12 Feb. ; he resigns . 14 Feb. 1870 

The king announces his intention of joining Prussia 
in the war with France . . about 20 July, „ 

The Bavarian contingent highly distinguishes itself 
in the war ; Otho, duke of Bavaria, killed near 
Beglie 27 Jan. 1873 

President of council, and foreign minister, A. de 

Pfretzschner 22 Aug. ,., 

[See Franco-Prussian War.] 

The king, in a letter to the king of Saxony, proposes 
that the king of Prussia should be made emperor 
of Germany about 5 Dec. „ 

Dr. Dollinger excommunicated for opposing papal 
infallibility, 18 April ; elected rector of the uni- 
versity of Munich .... 29 July, „ 

Government protests against papal infallibility (see 
Germany) 27 Sept 1871 

"Old Catholic" church opened at Munich, 

end of Sept. ,, 

The king charges Von Gasser to form an Ultramon- 
tane ministry, opposed to German unity, 3 Sept- 
he fails Sept. 1S72 

Queen dowager, Mary of Prussia, received into the 
Catholic Church 12 Oct. 1874 

New Ultramontane party ("popular Catholic") 
formed 6 March, 1877 

International exhibition at Munich opened 19 July, 1879 

Seventh centenary of foundation of the dynasty 
(Otto of Wittelsbach made duke by Frederick 
Barbarossa) 25 Aug. 1880 

Prince Luitpold proclaimed Regent on account of 
the king's mental illness ... 10 June, 1886 

The king drowns himself in Starnberg Lake ; Dr. 
Gudden drowned in attempting to save him, 

13 June, ,, 

The emperor William II. present at the Bavarian 
military manoeuvres near Munich 7 Sept. et seq. 1891 



1071. Guelf I. , an illustrious warrior. 

1101. Guelf II. ; son ; married the countess Matilda, 



Henry the Black ; brother. 

Henry the Proud ; son. (He competed with Conract 
of Hohenstaufen for the empire, failed, and was 
deprived of Bavaria.) 

Leopold, margrave of Austria ; d. 1142. 

Henry of Austria ; brother ; d. 11 77. 

Henry the Lion (son of Henry the Proud), an- 
cestor of the Brunswick family, restored by the 
emperor Frederick Barbarossa, but expelled by 
him 1 180 ; (see Brunswick); d. 1195. 

Otho, count of Wittelsbach, made duke ; d. 



1 142. 
"54- 



1231. 

1253- 



Louis ; son. 

Otho II., the Illustrious ; son ; gained the palati- 
nate ; assassinated 1231. 
Louis II., the Severe ; son; d. 1294. 



BAVENO. 



109 



BAZOCHE-DES-HAUTES. 



1294. Louis III. ; son (without tlie palatinate) emperor ; 
d. 1347. 

1347. Stephen I. ; son ; d. 1375. 

*375- John ; brother ; d. 1397. 

1397. Ernest ; brother ; d. 1438. 

1438. Albert I. ; son ; d. 1460. 

1460. John II. and Sigismund ; sons ; resigned to 

1465. Albert II. ; brother ; d. 1508. 

1508. William I. ; son; opposed the reformation, 1522; 
d. 1550. 

1550. Albert III. ; sou ; d. 1573. 

1579. William II. ; son ; abdicated, 1596 ; d. 1626. 

1596. Maximilian the Great ; son; the first Elector of 
Bavaria, 25 Feb. 1623 ; the palatinate restored, 
1648 ; d. 27 Sept. 1651. 

1651. Ferdinand-Mary ; d. 26 May, 1679. 

E679. Maximilian Emanuel ; son ; allies with France, 
1702 ; defeated at Blenheim, 1704 ; restored to 
his dominions, 1714 ; d. 26 Feb. 1726. 

1726. Charles Albert ; son ; elected emperor, 1742 ; de- 
feated, 1744 ; d. 20 Jan. 1745. 

1745. Maximilian-Joseph I. ; son ; as elector ; d. 30 Dec. 
1777 ; end of younger line of Wittelsbach. 

1778. Charles Theodore (the elector palatine of the Rhine 
since 1743). The French take Munich ; he treats 
with them, 1796 ; d. 1799. 

E799. Maximilian-Joseph II. ; elector; territories changed 
by treaty of Luneville, 1801 ; enlarged when 
made king, by treaty of Presburg, Dec. 1805. 

KINGS OF BAVARIA. 

c8o6. Maximilian-Joseph I. He deserted Napoleon, and 
had his enlarged territories confirmed to him, 
Oct. 18 13 ; grants a constitutional charter, 22 
Aug. 1818 ; d. 13 Oct. 1825. 

1825. Louis I., 13 Oct. ; abdicated 21 March, 1848 ;*died 
29 Feb, 1868. 

E848. Maximilian-Joseph II. ; son; born 28 Nov. 1811 ; 

died 10 March, 1864. 
1864. Louis II. (son) amiable and eccentric : born 25 

Aug. 1845 ; deposed 10 June ; suicide 13 June, 

1886. 
1886. Otho William (brother of Louis II.) ; 13 June ; 

born 27 April, 1848 (insane). 
Eegent (heir) Prince Luitpold, uncle ; 10 June, 1886. 

BAVENO, a village of Piedmont, on the Lago 
Maggiore. At a villa here queen Victoria resided 
from 28 March to 23 April, 1879. 

BAY ISLANDS (the chief,_ Ruatan), in the 
bay of Honduras, central America, belonged to 
Spain till 1821 ; then to Great Britain, which 
formed them into a colony in 1852, but ceded 
them to Honduras, 28 Nov. 1859 : see Honduras. 

BAYEUX TAPESTRY, mythically said to 
have been wrought by Matilda, queen of William I., 
or to have been made under the direction of his 
brother Odo, bishop of Bayeux. It is 19 inches wide, 
214 feet long, and is divided into compartments 
showing the events from the visit of Harold to the 
Norman court to his death at Hastings ; it is now 
preserved in the public library of Bayeux near Caen. 
A copy, drawn by C. Stothard, and coloured after 
the original, was published by the Society of 
Antiquaries in 1821-3. It was reproduced by auto- 
type process by F. K. Fowke, with notes, 1875. 

BAYL.EN (S. Spain), where on 20 July, 1808, 
the French, commanded by generals Dupont and 
Wedel, were defeated by the Spaniards under Red' 
ing, Coupigny, and other generals. 

BAYONET, the short dagger fixed at the end 
of fire-arms, said to have been invented at Bayonne, 

* The abdication of Charles-Louis was mainly caused 
by his attachment to an intriguing woman, known 
throughout Europe by the assumed name of Lola Montcs, 
who, in the end, was expelled the kingdom for her inter- 
ference in state affairs, and afterwards led a wandering 
life. She delivered lectures in London, in 1859 : thence 
proceeded to the United States ; and died at New York, 
17 Jan. 1861. 



in France, about 1647, 1670, or 1690. It was used 
at Killiecrankie in 1689, aud at Marsaglia by the 
French, in 1693, " with great success, against the 
enemy unprepared for the encounter with so for- 
midable a novelty." The ring-bayonet was adopted 
by the British, 24 Sept. 1693. 
New pattern of bayonets adopted in 1876 ; asserted to be 

defective in the Soudan campaign 1884-5. 
Strict examination ordered 1885. See under Arms. 

BAYONNE (S. France), an ancient city. It 
was held by the English from 1295 till it was taken 
by Charles VII. The queens of Spain and France 
met the cruel duke of Alva here, June, 1556, it 
is supposed to arrange the massacre of St. Bar- 
tholomew. Charles IV. of Spain abdicated here in 
favour of " his friend and ally " the emperor Napo- 
leon, 4 May, and his sons, Ferdinand prince of 
Asturias, don Carlos, and don Antonio renounced 
their rights to the Spanish throne, 6 May, 1808. 
In the neighbourhood of Bayonne was much des- 
perate fighting between the French and British 
armies, 9-13 Dec. 1813. Bayonne was invested by 
the British, 14 Jan. 1814; on 14 April, the French 
made a sally, and attacked the English with suc- 
cess, but were at length driven back. The loss of 
the British was considerable, and lieut.-gen. sir 
John Hope was wounded and taken prisoner. — A 
Franco-Spanish industrial and fine arts exhibition 
was opened at Bayonne in July, 1864. 

BAYBEUTH (N. Germany), a margraviate, 
held formerly by a branch of the Brandenburg 
family, was with that of Anspach abdicated by the 
reigning prince iu favour of the king of Prussia, 
1790. The archives were brought (in 1783) from 
Plassenburg to the city of Bayreuth, which was 
incorporated with Bavaria by Napoleon in 1806. 

BAZAAR, or covered market, a word of Arabic 
origin. The magnificent bazaar of Ispahan was ex- 
celled by that of Tauris, which has held 30,000 
men in order of battle. In London the Soho-square 
bazaar was opened by Mr. Trotter in 1816 to relieve 
the relatives of persons killed in the war. The 
Queen's Bazaar, Oxford-street, a very extensive 
one, was (with the Diorama) burnt down, and the 
loss estimated at 50,000^., 27 May, 1829. It was 
rebuilt, and converted into the Princess's Theatre, 
opened 30 Sept. 1841. The St. James's bazaar (built 
by Mr. Crockford) in 1832. The Pantheon, made a 
bazaar in 1834 ; see Pantheon. The London Crystal- 
palace bazaar, 1858. The most imposing sale termed 
a bazaar was opened for the benefit of the Anti- 
Corn-Law League, in Covent-garden theatre, 5 May, 
1845 ; in six weeks 25,000^. were obtained, mostly 
by admission money. The Corinthian bazaar, 
Argyll-street, Oxford-street (to replace the bazaar 
at the Pantheon) opened 30 July, 1867 ; closed in 
1868. 

BAZAINE, Marshal, trial, &c, Dec. 1873, 

and Aug. 1874. See A£etz and France. 

BAZEILLES, a village in the Ardennes, N.E. 
France. During the dreadful battle of Sedan, 
I Sept. 1870, Bazeilles was burnt by the Bavarians, 
and atrocious outrages were said to have been com- 
mitted. Of nearly 2000 inhabitants it was asserted 
scarcely fifty remained alive, and these indignantly 
denied having given provocation. Much controversy 
ensued, and in July, 1871, gen. Von der Tann as- 
serted correctly that the number of deaths had been 
grossly exaggerated, that there had been much 
provocation, and denied the alleged cruelties. 

BAZOCHE-DES-HAUTES, near Orleans, 
central France. Here a part of the army of the 
Loire, under gen. D'Aurelle de Paladines, was 



BE ACHY HEAD. 



no 



BE AUNE-LA-ROLL ANDE . 



defeated after a severe action, by the Germans 
under the grand-duke of Mecklenburg, 2 Dec. 1870. 
See Orleans. 

BEACHY HEAD, a promontory, S. E. Sussex, 
near which the British and Dutch fleet, commanded 
by the earl of Torrington, was defeated by a supe- 
rior French force under admiral Tburville, 30 June, 
1690 ; the allies suffered very severely. The Dutch 
lost two admirals, 500 men, and several ships- 
sunk to prevent them from falling into the hands 
of the enemy ; the English lost two ships and 400 
men. The admirals on both sides were blamed; 
ours, for not fighting ; the French for not pursuing 
the victory, 

BEACONS, see Lighthouses, Jubilee, 188". 

BEACONSFIELD Administration, see 

Disraeli and People's Tribute. 

BEADS were early used in the east for reckon- 
ing prayers. St. Augustin mentions them 366. 
About 1690, Peter the Hermit is said to have made 
a series of 55 beads. To Dominic de Guzman is 
ascribed the invention of the Rosary (a series of 
15 large and 150 small beads), in honour of the 
Blessed Virgin, about 1 202. Beads soon after were 
in general use. The Bead-roll was a list of de- 
ceased persons, for the repose of whose souls a 
certain number of prayers was recited. Beads have 
been found in British barrows. 

BEAM AND SCALES. The apparatus for 
weighing goods was so called, "as it weighs so 
much at the king's beam." A public beam was set 
up in London, and all commodities ordered to be 
weighed by the city officer, called the weigh- 
master, who was to do justice between buyer and 
seller, stat. 3 Edw. II. 1309. Stow. Beams and 
scales, with weights and measures, were ordered to 
be examined by the justices at quarter sessions, 
35 Geo. III. 1794 ; see Weights and Measures. 

BEANS, Black and White, were used by 

the ancients in gathering the votes of the people for 
the election of magistrates. A white bean signified 
absolution, and a black one condemnation. The 
precept of Pythagoras to abstain from beans, abstine 
a fabis, has been variously interpreted. " Beans 
do not favour mental tranquillity." Cicero. The 
finer kinds of beans were brought here with other 
vegetables, in Henry VIII.' s reign. 

BEAR-BAITING, an ancient popular English 
sport, prohibited by parliament in 1835. 

BEARDS.* The Egyptians did not wear 
beards ; the Assyrians did. They have been worn 
for centuries by the Jews, who were forbidden to 
mar their beards, 1490 B.C. Lev. xix. 27. The 
Tartars waged a long war with the Persians, de- 
claring them infidels, because they would not cut 
their beards, after the custom of Tartary. The 
Greeks wore their beards till the time of Alexander, 
who ordered the Macedonians to be shaved, lest 
the beard should give a handle to their enemies, 

* A bearded woman was taken by the Russians at the 
battle of Pultowa, and presented to the Czar, Peter I., 
1724 : her beard measured ii yard. A woman is said to 
have been seen at Paris with a bushy beard, and her 
whole body covered with hair. Diet. de. Trivoux. The 
great Margaret, governess of the Netherlands, had a very 
lon<* stiff beard. In Bavaria, in the time of Wolfms, a 
Virgin had a long black beard. Mdlle. Bois de Chene, 
born at Geneva (it was said) in 1834, was exhibited in 
London, in 1852-3, when, consequently, eighteen years 
of age ; she had a profuse head of hair, a strong black 
beard large whiskers, and thick hair on her arms and 
down 'from her neck on her back, and masculine features. 



330 B.C. Beards were worn by the "Romans, 390 B.C. 
The emperor Julian wrote a diatribe (entitled 
" Misopogon ") against wearing beards, a.d. 362. — 
In England, they were not fashionable after the 
conquest, 1066, until the 13th century, and were 
discontinued at the Restoration. Peter the Great 
enjoined the Russians, even of rank, to shave, but 
was obliged to keep officers on foot to cut off the 
beard by force. Since 1851 the custom of wearing 
the beard gradually increased in Great Britain. 

BEARN, S. France, the ancient Benecharnum, 
was held successively by the Romans, Franks, Goths, 
and Gascons, and became a hereditary viscounty in 
819, under Centule I., son of Loup, duke of Gas- 
cony. From his family it passed to the houses — of 
Gabaret, 1134; of Moncade, 1170; of Foix, 1290; 
and of Bourbon, 1550. Its annexation to France 
was decreed by Henry IV., 1594 ; affirmed by Louis 
XIII., 1620. 

BEARS and BULLS, see Stocks. 
BEATJGE, seeAnjou. 

BEAULIETJ, ABBEY OF, (reformed Bene- 
dictines) founded by Icing John, in the New Forest, 
Hampshire, in 1204, and dedicated to the Blessed 
Virgin, had the privilege of sanctuary. It afforded 
an asylum to Margaret, queen of Henry VI., after 
the defeat of the earl of "Warwick at Barnet, 
14 April, 147 1 ; and to Perkin Warbeck, Sept. 
1497- 

BEAUMONT, a village near Sedan, depart- 
ment of Ardennes, N.E. France. Near here a part 
of the army of marshal MacMahon under De Failly, 
which, after vainly endeavouring to reach Metz, 
was retreating before the Germans under the crown 
prince of Prussia, was surprised, defeated, and 
driven across the Meuse at Mouzon, 30 Aug. 1870. 
The French loss included about 7000 prisoners, 
many guns, and much camp equipage. The victory 
was chiefly gained by the Bavarians. 

BEAUMONT TRUST. Mr. John Thomas 
Barber Beaumont, artist, financier, founder of the 
London and County Fire Office (born 1774, died 
1840), bequeathed 12,500^. to establish an institu- 
tion for the moral and intellectual improvement of 
the working classes of east London, which was 
opened in Beaumont Square, Mile End. 
By the munificence of the Drapers' Company, the Royal 
Family, the duke of Westminster, and many others, 
the fund in June, 1S86 amounted to 75,0002. The 
trustees proposed the erection of a "People's Palace," 
to include a public library and reading rooms, technical 
schools, summer and winter gardens, a concert hall, 
swimming baths and gymnasia. The Queen is patron of 
the undertaking, which is partly supported by sub- 
scription. 
The foundation stone of the "Queen's Hall" was laid 
by the prince of'Wales 28 June, 1886; opened by the 
Queen (who also laid the foundation of the Technical 
schools) 14 May, 1887 ; Mr. John Rogers Jennings, 
Master of the Drapers' Company, knighted. 
The undertaking greatly supported by Sir Edmund 

Currie, and Mr. Walter Besant (novelist). 
Exhibition of East London Industries opened in the 

Queen's Hall by Lady Rosebery 24 May, 1887. 
Queen's Jubilee ; 10,000 girls and 10,000 boys enter- 
tained by the Drapers' Company 23, 24 June, 1887. 
Educational classes, &c, open 3 Oct. 1887. In Oct. 1888, 

the Institution was reported to be highly successful. 
New Technical School opened 5 Oct. 1888. 
The palace opened on Sundays for reading and sacred 
music, 1889. About 3,000 persons attended 2 Oct. 1889. 

BEAUNE-LA-ROLLANDE, a village in 
the Loiret, France. Here the French army of the 
Loire, under general D'Aurelle de Paladines, was 
defeated by the Germans, under prince Frederick 
Charles, in an attempt to march in the direction of 



BEAUTY SHOW. 



Ill 



BEEF STEAKS. 



Fontainebleau to relieve Paris, 28 Nov. 1870. The 
French loss was reported by the Germans to be 
IOOO dead, 4000 wounded; above 1 700 prisoners. 
Their own loss was heavy. 

BEAUTY SHOW opened at Spa, Belgium, 
19 Sept. 1888. Of 350 candidates for the prize of 
10,000 francs who sent in their photographs, many 
were excluded from competition, only 20 ladies were 
present on the opening day, representing many 
countries. M. Emile d'Hainault, the director, pro- 
posed annual competitions. The first prize to 
Mdlle. Berthe Soucaret, a Creole of Guadeloupe, 
aged 18, 29 Sept. 1888. Another show at Turin, 2b 
Jan. 1889 ; and other places since. 

BEAUVAIS (N. France), the ancient Bello- 
vacum, or Caesaroniagus, formerly capital of Picardy. 
When besieged by Charles the Bold, duke of Bur- 
gundy, with 80,000 men, the women under Jeanne 
Fourquet or Laine, also de la Hachette, from her 
using that weapon, particularly distinguished them- 
selves, and the duke raised the siege, 10 July, 1472. 
In memory of this the women of Beauvais walk first 
in the procession on the anniversary of their 
deliverance. 

BECHUANA LAND, South Africa, a large 
British colony (1885), see Transvaal. 
The Bechuanas invade Griqualand West, and are 
repulsed, and part of their territory subdued by 

British volunteers 1878 

Mr. Mackenzie appointed British resident, 13 

March ; compelled to resign by the Dutch party, 

replaced by Mr. Rhodes . . . Aug. 1884 

Sir Charles Warren made special commissioner Oct. ,, 

The Boer filibusters seize and annex the territory 

of Montsioa, under British protection ; compelled 

to retire Sept., Oct. ,, 

Military expedition against Dutch freebooters Nov. „ 
(Stellaland and Goshen republics) who accept allot- 
ments of land, announced, 27 Nov. ; this policy of 
the Cape Government strongly disapproved by 

colony Dec. ,, 

Sir Charles Warren meets president Kriiger, 24 Jan. 

and comes to an agreement . . -29 Jan. 1885 
Military government established by sir C. Warren, 

announced 24 Feb. ,, 

Arrest of Mr. Van Niekirk, president of Stellaland 
republic, and others, on charge of murder of Mr. 
Honey, an Englishman, in 1S83. Announced 24" 
March, 1885 ; released about 27 May. Sir C. 
Warren thanks the volunteers . . . 8 July, ,, 
Judge Sheppard nominated administrator ; sir C. 

Warren after great success recalled . . Aug. , , 
Bechuanaland proclaimed British territory 8 Oct. ,, 
A proposal to annex it to Cape Colony was opposed 
and negatived Autumn 1888 

BECKET'S MURDER.* Thomas Becket, 
archbishop of Canterbury, was murdered at the 
altar, 29 Dec. 11 70. The king was absolved of 
guilty knowledge of the crime in 1 172, and did 
penance at the tomb in 1 174. The bones of Becket 
were enshrined in gold and jewels in 1220. They 
were ordered to be burned in the reign of Henry 
VIII. 24 April, 1538. A stone coffin, supposed by 
some persons to contain Becket' s bones (?), dis- 



* Thomas Becket was bom in 11 19. His father Gilbert 
was a London trader, and his mother is stated to have 
been a convert from Mahomedanism. He was educated 
at Oxford, and made archdeacon by Theobald, archbishop 
of Canterbury, who introduced him to the king, Henry II. 
He became chancellor in 1155, but on being elected arch- 
bishop of Canterbury in 1162, he resigned the chancellor- 
ship, to the great offence of the king. He opposed 
strenuously the constitutions of Clarendon in 1164, and 
fied the country ; and in 1166, excommunicated all the 
clergy who agreed to abide by them. He and the king 
met at Fretville, in Touraine, on 22 July, 1170, and were 
formally reconciled. On his return he re-commenced 
his struggle with the king, which led to his tragical 
death, after which he was canonized. 



covered in a crypt at Canterbury Cathedral, Jan. 
1888. The Merchant Adventurers were at one time 
termed " the Brotherhood of St. Thomas a 
Becket." A Roman catholic church at Canter- 
bury, dedicated to him, was opened by cardinal 
Manning, 13 April, 1875. 

BECKETT-DENISON ART COLLEC- 
TION, (including much of the Hamilton Collec- 
tion) sold for 92,231/., 6 June— 15 July, 1S85. Mr- 
William Beckett-Denison, brother of sir Edmund 
Beckett, died suddenly in Ireland 1884. 

BECKFOKD, see under Libraries. 

BED. The ancients slept on skins. Beds were 
afterwards made of loose rushes, heather, or straw. 
The Romans are said to have first used feathers. 
An air-cushion is said to have been used by Helio- 
gabalus, 218-222; air-beds were in use in the 16th 
century. Feather-beds were in use in England ira 
the reign of Henry VIII. The bedsteads of the 
Egyptians and later Greeks, like modern couches, 
became common among the Roman upper classes. 
The ancient great bed at Ware, Herts, capable of hold- 
ing twelve persons, was sold, it is said, to Charles 
Dickens, 6 Sept. 1864. 
A bedstead of gold was presented to the queen on 2 Nov. 

1859, by the Maharajah of Cashmere. 
Air-beds and water-beds have been made since the manu- 
facture of india-rubber cloth by Clark in 1813 ; and by 
Macintosh in 1823. 
Dr. Arnott's hydrostatic bed invented in 1830. 

BED OF JUSTICE, a French court presided 
over by the king, whose seat was termed a "bed."' 
It controlled the ordinances of the parliament. 
The last was held by Louis XVI. at Versailles, 
19 Nov. 1787, to raise a loan. 

BEDER (Arabia) . Here Mahomet gained his 
first victory (over the Koreish of Mecca), 623. It 
was considered to be miraculous. 

BEDFORD, a town, N.N.W. of London, re- 
nowned for its many free educational establish- 
ments, endowed in 1561 by sir ¥m. Harpur, a 
London alderman. Here John Bunyan preached, 
was imprisoned, and wrote "The Pilgrim's Pro- 
gress." Population 1881, 19,533 ; 1891,28,023. 
A statue of Bunyan, the gift of the duke of Bedford, 
was uncovered here, 10 June, 1874. Bronze gates for 
the Bunyan church, given by the duke, were inaugu- 
rated by him 5 July, 1876. New extensive building of 
the grammar school opened by the duke of Bedford. 
29 Oct. 1891. 

BEDFORD LEVEL, a portion of the great 
fen districts in the eastern counties, drained in the 
early part of the 17th century by the earl of Bed- 
ford, aided by the celebrated Dutch engineer, sir 
Cornelius Vermuydcn, amid great opposition ; see 
Levels. 

BEDLAM, see Bethlehem. 

BEDOUINS, wandering tribes of Arabs, living 
on the plunder of travellers, &c. They profess a 
form of Mahomedanism, and are governed by 
sheikhs. They are said to be descendants of Ish- 
mael, and appear to fulfil the prophecy respecting 
him, Gen. xvi. 12, 1911 B.C. 

BEEF-EATERS, see Battle-axe. 

"BEEF STEAKS, the Sublime Society of," 
was established in 1735 by Rich, an actor at Covent 
Garden Theatre, in the painting-room of which the 
members dined upon beef-steaks. The society 
became fashionable, and long included among its. 
members the prince of Wales, royal dukes, and 
other eminent persons, who submitted to its some- 
what ludicrous regulations. It became extinct in 



BEER. 



112 



BEHRINGS STRAIT. 



E867, its last place of meeting being a room in the 
Lyceum theatre. Its history was published by 
Brother Arnold in 1871. 

BEER, see Ale, Brewers, Porter, Victuallers. 
Condensed beer patented by P. E. Lockwood, 1875. 
Condensed wort patented by Hermann Mertens, of 
Margate, in 1853. .Beer and ale exported from the 
United Kingdom: 1876, 484,919 "barrels; 1880, 
412,192; 1884, 437,241; 1888, 447,940; 1890, 
503,221. 

BEER-HOUSES. Law respecting (11 Geo. 
IV. and 1 Will. IV., c. 64, 1830), &c, amended in 
1869. 

BEES. Mount Hybla, on account of its odori- 
ferous flowers, thyme, and abundance of honey, has 
been poetically called the "empire of bees." Hy- 
anettus, in Attica, was also famous for its bees and 
honey. The economy of bees was admired in the 
■earliest ages ; and Eumelus, of Corinth, wrote a 
poem on bees, 741 B.C. Bees were introduced 
into Boston, New England, in 1670, and have 
since spread over the continent. Mandeville's 
satirical " Fable of the Bees " appeared in 1723. 
Huber published his observations on bees in 1792. 
The Apiarian Society had an establishment at Mus- 
well Hill, near London (1860-2). The Ligurian 
variety of the honey-bee was successfully introduced 
into England in i860. 
A British Beekeepers' Association founded 16 May (sir 

John Lubbock became first president) ; first exhibition, 

in Crystal Palace, 8 Sept. 1874 '• a * other places since. 
Spelling bees, of American origin, introduced into London 

in autumn of 1875 ; first at Holloway. Geographical, 

musical, and other bees began early in 1876. 
Mr. F. R. Cheshire's " Bees and Beekeeping " published 

in 1886-8. 

BEES', ST., Cumberland. A monastery was 
founded here by St. Bega, 650 ; a grammar school 
by abp. Grindal, 1583 ; a clerical training college 
by bp. Law, 1817. 

BEET-ROOT is of recent cultivation in Eng- 
land. Beta vulgaris, red beet, is used for the table 
as a salad. Margraff first produced sugar from the 
white beet-root in 1747. M. Achard produced ex- 
cellent sugar from it in 1799 ; and the chemists of 
France, at the instance of Bonaparte, largely ex- 
tracted sugar from the beet-root in 1800. 60,000 
tons of sugar, about half the consumption, are now 
manufactured in France from beet. It is also 
largely manufactured in other countries. A refinery 
of sugar from beet-root has been erected at the 
Thames bank, Chelsea. The cultivation of beet- 
root in England and Ireland much advocated, 1871, 
and again, in 1884, when great improvements were 
proposed, especially at Lavenham, Suffolk, by 
Messrs. Bolton, of Westminster. 

BEGGARS were tolerated in ancient times, 
being often musicians and ballad-singers. In 1388, 
i S3 ' 1535, 1547-50 severe laws were passed 
.against them. By 14 Eliz., c. 5, 1:72, sturdy 
beggars were ordered to be " grievously whipped 
and burnt through the right ear;" pnnished capi- 
tally for the third offence, acts consolidated 1731. 
By the Vagrant Act (1824), 5 Geo. IV. c. 83, all 
public beggars are liable to a month's imprisonment. 
About 30,000 tramps in England and Wales. Judi- 
cial Statistics, 1865. See Poor Laws, Mendicity 
■Society, and Vagrants. The " Beggar's Opera," 
by John Gay, a satire against the government of 
sir Robert Walpole, was produced at the Lincoln' s- 
inn -fields theatre, 29 Jan. 1727-8, and had a run of 
63 nights ; see Gueux. 

BEGUTNES, a congregation of nuns first 
established at Liege, and afterwards at Nivelle, in 



1207, some say 1226. The "Grand Beguinage " 
of Bruges was the most extensive. Some of these 
nuns imagined that they could become sinless. The 
council of Vienne condemned this error, and 
abolished a branch of the order in 13 1 1. They still 
exist in Germany and Belgium, acting as nurses to 
the sick and wounded, &c. 

BEHEADING, the Decollatio of the Romans, 
introduced into England from Normandy (as a less 
ignominious mode of putting high criminals to 
death), by William the Conqueror, 1076, when 
Waltheof, earl of Huntingdon, Northampton, and 
Northumberland, was first so executed. Since then 
this mode of execution became frequent, particu- 
larly in the reigns of Henry VIII., Mary, and 
Elizabeth, when even women of the noblest blood 
thus perished ; the aged countess of Salisbury, 27 
May, 1541 ; lady Jane Grey, 12 Feb. 1554. 

BEHISTUN, in Persia. At this place is a 
rock containing important inscriptions in three 
languages, in cuneiform (or wedge-shaped) cha- 
racters, which were deciphered and translated by sir 
H. Rawlinson in 1844-6, and published in the Jour- 
nal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Each paragraph 
commences with "I am Darius the Great King." 

BEHRINGS STRAIT, discovered by captain 
Vitus Behring, a Danish navigator in the service of 
Russia. He thus proved that the continents of 
Asia and America are distant from each other about 
thirty-nine miles, 1728. He died at Behring's 
island in 1 74 1. In 1778 captain James Cook sur- 
veyed the coasts of both continents. See United 
States, 1889-91. 

The czar Alexander I., in 1821, declared the Behring 
seas closed to foreign fishing ; this was at once repu- 
diated by Mr. J. Quincy Adams, secretary of the 
United States. Alaska was purchased in 1867 from 
Russia, by the States, who afterwards assumed the 
Russian claim upon the seas, and seized the British 
Columbia's sealing vessels. The seizure of the Black 
Diamond sealer by the U.S. revenue cutter Rush, 3 
July, was declared legal by Mr. Secretary Blaine, 
U.S., 1 Aug. 1889; while the British government 
claimed, as heretofore, the right of fishing in waters 
beyond the territorial limits. The governments agreed 
to refer the question to arbitration, Feb. 1890. Presi- 
dent Harrison proclaimed the Behring sea closed to 
unlicensed seal fishing, 25 March. A Blue Book was 
published, 15 Aug., containing the correspondence 
between the two governments from 1 Sept. 1886, to 
2 Aug. 1890. The marquis of Salisbury demanded 
that, pending arbitration, British sealing vessels 
should not be molested, adding that if so, they 
should be protected, 2 Aug. 1890. 

Negotiations resumed, arbitration refused by Mr. 
Blaine end of Oct. 1890 

Correspondence referred to the U.S. congress, 

5 Jan. 1 89 1 

The owner of the British" sealing schooner, W. P. 
Sayward (which was seized and condemned in 
1887), supported by the Canadian government, 
brings the Behring sea difficulty before the U.S. 
Supreme Court at Washington, 12 Jan., case 
opens, 27 Jan. ; the court decides to hear the 
appeal on .... 13 Api'il , 2 Feb. ,, 
[The case decided in favour of the United States, 
29 Feb. 1892.] 

Further correspondence ; Lord Salisbury consents 
to the proposal to refer the matter to arbitration, 

21 Feb. ,, 

Letter from Mr. Blaine to Sir Julian Pauncefote, 
specifying six points for arbitration. 14 April ,, 

A modus vivendi respecting the seal fishery agreed 
on by Great Britain and the United States 

15 June ,, 

Catching of seals by British ships prohibited from 
24 June, 1891, to 1 May, 1892, London Gazette, 

24 June „ 



BELFAST. 



113 



BELGIUM. 



Sir George Baden-Powell and Dr. G. M. Dawson, 
commissioners respecting the seal-fishery, arrive 
at British Columbia. 15 July ; interviews with 
sealers, 16 July ; arrive at Ounalaska Island 

25 July 1891 

The Behring Sea blocked by 3 American and 3 
British warships, announced . . 27 July ,, 

Behring Sea commission meets at Washington, 8 
Feb. ; sign their report ... 4 March 1892 

The Governments agree to refer the question to 
arbitration ; arbiters to be appointed by Italy, 
Prance, and Sweden Feb. „ 

The arbitration treaty signed at Washington, 29 
Feb. ; ratified by the senate . . 29 March ,, 

Mr. Blaine, after requiring the renewal of the 
modus vivendi, accepts the arrangements pro- 
posed by Lord Salisbury . . 28 March ,, 

New modus vivendi (to last till 31 Oct. 1893) ratified 

19 April and 4 May, ,, 

BELFAST, capital of Ulster, N. Ireland. Its 
castle, supposed to have been built by John de 
Courey, was destroyed by the Scots under Edward 
Bruce, 1315 ; see Orange. Belfast returns four 
M.P.'s by Act passed 25 June, 1885. Population, 
1821,37,117; 185 1, about 100,000; 1881, 208,122; 
1891, 255,896. 

Belfast granted by James I. to sir Arthur Chichester, 
lord deputy, 1612 ; and erected into a corpo- 
ration 1613 

The long bridge (21 arches, 2562 feet long) built . 1682-6 
The first edition of the Bible in Ireland, printed here 1704 

The castle burnt 4 April, 1708 

The bank built 1787 

The mechanics' institute established . . . 1825 
The Queen's bridge (5 arches) built on site of the 

long bridge 1841 

Of three colleges established in Ireland in 1845, one 
inaugurated in Belfast (see Colleges) . . Oct. 1849 

Victoria Channel opened ,, 

British Association met here ..... 1852 
Much rioting at Belfast through Mr. Hanna's open- 
air preaching July — Sept. 1857 

"Victoria chambers" burnt down; the loss esti- 
mated at ioo.oooZ 1 July, 1859 

Exciting religious revivals . . . Sept. ,, 

Fierce conflicts between Roman Catholics and Pro- 
testants on account of the foundation of the 
O'Connell monument at Dublin — 9 lives lost and 
150 persons injured .... 10-27 Aug. 1864 

Rioting again 30 April, 1865 

Visit of the lord lieutenant the marquis of Abercorn 

2-4 Oct. 1867 
Severe rioting ; much destruction of property and 
many persons injured. Civil war raging between 
Catholics and Protestants, 15-21 Aug. Peace re- 
stored 22 Aug. 1872 

British Association here (2nd time) . 19 Aug. 1874 
End of strike of linen manufacturers . 26 Aug. ,, 
Riots at W. Belfast between Catholic and Protestant 
workmen, with loss of life ; suppressed by the 
military and police 3-13 June ; more rioting ; the 
town proclaimed 21 July ; violent conflicts be- 
tween the mobs and the military and police, 11 
killed many wounded ; order restored by addi- 
tional military . . .9 Aug. et seq. 1886 
Renewed rioting suppressed . . 14, 15 Aug. ,, 
Quietness reported 18 Aug. ; occasional rioting 

1 Sept. el seq. ,, 
Part of Albert Bridge falls with loss of life 15 Sept. ,, 
Rioting (2 deaths) 19-20 Sept. 26 Sept. and 29 Sept. „ 
A commission to inquire into the riots began to sit 

4 Oct. „ 
Report published ; Protestant attacks on the police ■„ 

weak magisterial action referred to about 25 Jan. 1887 
Renewed rioting ; the police compelled to fire ; 

about 50 arrests 29-30 Jan. „ 

Prince Albert Victor of Wales opens the new 
Alexandra docks 20 May, and lays the founda- 
tion of Albert bridge .... 22 May 1889 
Victoria channel extension opened for traffic 

7 July 1891 
The mayor ordered to be styled " lord " . May, 1892 
Meeting of Ulster Convention (which see) against 
Home Rule [ 17 June ,, 



BELFOKT, or BEFOBT, a fortified town in 
Alsace, E. France, was invested by the Germans 3 
Nov. 1870; capitulated 16 Feb. 1871 ; reserved to 
France when Aisace was ceded 26 Feb. ; quitted by 
the Germans Aug. 1873. 

BELGIUM, the southern portion of the Nether- 
lands, and anciently the territory of the Belgse, who 
were finally conquered by Julius Caesar, 51 B.C. Its 
size is about one-eighth of Great Britain. Its 
government is a libenil constitutional monarchy, 
founded in 1831. For previous history, see Flanders, 
Netherlands, and Holland. The population (31 Dec.) 
1862, 4,836,566; 1865, 4,984,451 ; 1866, 4,829,320 ; 
1870,5,087,105; 1879,5,536,146; 1887, 5,974,743! 
1890, 6,147,041. 

The revolution commences at Brussels 25 Aug. 1830 

The provisional government declares Belgium inde- 
pendent (M. Van de Weyer, active) . 4 Oct. ,, 
Antwerp taken (except the citadel) . . 23 Dec. „ 
Belgian independence acknowledged by the allied 

powers 26 Dec. ,, 

Due de Nemours elected king (his father, the 

French king, refused his consent) . 3 Feb. 1831 
Surlet de Chokier is elected regent . . 24 Feb. „ 
Leopold, prince of Saxe-Coburg, accepted the 

crown, 12 July ; enters Brussels . 19 July, ,, 
War with the Netherlands commences . 3 Aug. „ 
France sends 50,000 troops to assist Belgium, and 

an armistice ensues ..... Aug. ,, 
Conference of ministers of the five great powers held 

in London : acceptance of 24articles of pacification 

15 Nov. ,, 
Convention between England and France against 

Holland 22 Oct. 1832 

Antwerp besieged, 30 Nov. ; the citadel taken by the 

French 23 Dec. ,, 

The French army returns to France . . 27 Dec. ,, 
Preliminary convention with Holland signed 21 May 1833 
Riot at Brussels (see Brussels) ... 6 April, 1834 
Treaty* between Holland and Belgium signed in 

London 19 April, 1839 

Clerical education bill passed 1842 

Queen of England visits Belgium . . . Aug. 1852 
The king and his son visit England . . Oct. ,, 
Increase of army to 100,000 men voted . 10 May, 1853 
Opposition to religious charities' bill + . June, 1857 
A new ministry under M. Charles Rogier 9 Nov. 
The chambers dissolved ; re-assembled . 10 Dec. ,, 
The king proclaims Belgium neutral in the Italian 

war May, 1859 

Birth of prince Leopold Ferdinand . 12 June, ,, 

Death of M. Potter 22 July, „ 

The king visits England June, i860 

Vague rumours of annexation to France produce 

warm loyal addresses to the king . .13 June, ,, 
The octrois abolished . 21 July, ,, 

Successful military volunteer movement . Aug ,, 
Commercial treaty with France signed . . 1 May, 1861 
Continued illness of the king, with occasional 

amendment . . . . . May, June, 1862 
Commercial treaty with Great Britain adopted by 

the chamber. . 22 Aug. ,, 

Great distress through decay of trade . Aug. ,, 
Fierce dissensions through Roman Catholics, Jan. ; 

the ministry resigns, but resumes office, 4 Feb. ; 

dissolution of the chambers, 17 July; the Pro- 
testants superior in the election . . . Aug. 1864 

Death of Leopold 1 10 Dec. 1865 

The new king and queen visit England, 5 July ; and 

Ghent and other Belgian cities . . . July, 1866 
National rifle meeting (tir) . . 12-16 Oct. ,, 

* This treaty arose out of the conference held in London 
on the Belgian question ; by the decision of which, the 
treaty of 15 Nov. 1831, was maintained, and the pecu- 
niary compensation of sixty millions of francs offered bj 
Belgium for the territories adjudged to Holland was 
declared inadmissible. 

1- At the revolution in 1830, the Roman Catholic clergy 
lost the administration of the public 1 charities, which 
they have struggled to recover ever since. In April, 
1857, M. Decker, the head of tin' ministry, brought in a 
bill for this purpose, but was compelled to withdraw it, 
and eventually to resign. 



BELGIUM. 



114 



BELGIUM. 



Mr. Phillips, lord mayor of London, and noo English 
volunteers visit Belgium under col. Loyd Lind- 
say ; other foreigners attend ; grand banquet given 
by the king at Brussels . . . .20 Oct. 1866 

Opening of the chambers, with a re-assuring speech 
from the king 13 Nov. „ 

Violent rioting in mining districts (Marchienne-au- 
Pont) on account of reduction in wages ; sup- 
pressed by the military . . . 1-2 Feb. 1867 

About 2400 Belgians (of the garde civique and volun- 
teers) visit England ; arrive, 10 July ; received by 
lord mayor, 12 July ; by prince of Wales at Wim- 
bledon, 13 July ; dine at Windsor, 16 July ; at a 
ball at Agricultural Hall, 18 July; received by 
Miss Burdett-Coutts, 19 July ; attend the review 
at Wimbledon, 20 July ; leave London 22 July, „ 

New ministry (under M. Frere-Orban) ; liberal ; 

3 Jan. 1868 

Serious riots in the mining districts ; put down by 
the military ; 10 lives lost . . 25-29 March, „ 

Monument to Charlemagne at Liege, inaugurated 

26 July, „ 

International congress of workmen at Brussels 

6-13 Nov. „ 

The crown prince Leopold Ferdinand, duke of Bra- 
bant, died . ... . . 22 Jan. 1869 

Concession of a Luxembourg railway to a French 
railway company, without the assent of the state, 
prohibited by the assembly, 13 Feb. ; dispute with 
the French government arranged . . May, „ 

International rifle meeting held at Liege 19 Sept. ,, 

Resignation of Frere-Orban ministry, about 19 June, 1870 

M. dAnethan's ministry announced . 3 July, „ 

Warm gratitude to Great Britain expressed by the 
king and people . . - . . 8 Aug. ,, 

Treaty for the neutrality of Belgium between Great 
Britain and Prussia, signed 9 Aug. ; and France, 
signed 11 Aug. ,, 

After surrender of Sedan many French soldiers enter 
Belgium ; disarmed and interned . 1-2 Sept. ,, 

Strong opposition to the ministry by M. Barra and 
others ; riots at Brussels . . . 22-25 Nov. ,, 

Resignation of DAnethan ; M. Malou (a moderate) 
forms a ministry 7 Dec. 1871 

The comte de Chambord arrives at Antwerp, 
17 Feb. ; compelled to quit Belgium through popu- 
lar demonstrations 27 Feb. 1872 

The French government denounce the treaty of 
commerce with Belgium . . .29 March, „ 

Treaty of commerce with France signed . 5 Feb. 1873 

The czar at Brussels . . . . 22 May, ,, 

M. Van de Weyer, statesman ; active during the 
revolution of 1830 ; ambassador to England 1831- 
67 ; died 23 May, 

International conference at Brussels respecting 
rights of neutrals during war — no results, 

27 July-28 Aug. 

Notes from the German government, complaining 
of publications favouring the censured German 
ecclesiastics, Feb. ; respecting the Duchesne's 
proposal to the archbishop of Paris to assassi- 
nate Bismarck ... . .15 April, 

Dignified Belgian replies . . March and May, 

The court at Liege cannot interfere, May ; modi- 
fication of the criminal law proposed . June, 

Much popular opposition to religious processions : 
riots May, June, 

The king visits England . . . .29 May, 

Catholic successes in the elections ; riots against 
them at Brussels and Antwerp about 16, 17 June, 

Statue of Van de Weyer, at Louvain, inaugurated 
by the king x Oct. „ 

International congress respecting hygiene, &c, 

held at Brussels . . . 27 Sept.— 2 Oct! ,, 
Catholic minority in elections ; the Malou ministry 
resign, 13, 14 June, M. Frere-Orban forms a 

liberal ministry 20 June, 1878 

Gigantic weir for water-distribution at La Gileppe, 
near Venders, inaugurated by the king, 28 July' 

The king's silver wedding enthusiastically cele- 
brated . ..... 22-25 Aug. ,, 

Eugene T'Kindt de Rooden Veke, a clerk, convicted 
of embezzlement of 20,000,000 francs of the Bank 
of Belgium (149 thefts) ; the governor Fortamps, 
of fraudulently repurchasing shares, &c. 3 Dec. ,, 

The king sanctions the new law of public instruc- 
tion i July, 1879 



1874 



187S 



1876 



Pastoral of the R. C. hierarchy against the govern- 
ment plan of mixed education (sacraments to be 
refused to teachers and parents, &c.) published 
in Germany Sept. 

Archduke Rodolph of Austria betrothed to the 
princess Stephanie .... March, 

Permanent international exhibition opened at 
Brussels 1 June, 

Elections for parliament ; severe struggle between 
liberals and clerical party respecting education ; 
liberals retain moderate majority . . June, 

National exhibition at Brussels opened by the king 
and queen "\ ■ 16 June, 

Representative at the Vatican recalled through 
ecclesiastical disputes ; suspension of diplomatic 
arrangements 28 June, 

Jubilee to celebrate national independence 18 July, 

Statue of Leopold I. unveiled at Laeken 21 July, 

Patriotic fete in the Brussels exhibition 16 Aug. 

Trial of Armand and Leon Peltzer, for the murder 
of Wilhelm Bernays : (an injured husband, a 
faithless wife and her accomplices) . 27 Nov. 

Sentenced to death (commuted) . . 22 Dec. 

Dynamite explosion at Ganshorten, near Brussels ; 
1 death (arrests made) ... 23 Feb. 

Par liamentary reform bill passed by representatives 

17 Aug. 

Henri Conscience, eminent national Flemish poet 
and novelist, died, aged 73 . . .9 Sept. 

Death of cardinal Deschamps, abp. of Mechlin, the 
primate 29 Sept. 

The king and queen warmly received at Amsterdam 
18 Oct., et seq. 

King and queen of Holland warmly received at 
Brussels 20-22 May, 

Elections ; majority of clericals through dissension 
of moderate liberals and reformers, about 
10 June; resignation of M. Frere-Orban n June, 

M. Jules Malou forms a conservative catholic 
ministry . . . . . 12, 13 June, 

Senate dissolved, June ; new senate clerical Jul}'', 

Great meeting of burgomasters at Brussels to op- 
pose M. Jacobs' new reactionary education bill, 
9 Aug., which is accepted by the deputies (80-49), 
30 Aug. ; by the senate (40-25) . . 10 Sept. 

Liberal riots at Brussels and Antwerp . 7 Sept. 

Royal assent to the bill . . . . 13 Sept. 

Communal elections ; great liberal majority 19 Oct. 

MM. Malou, Jacobs, and Woeste (catholics) resign, 
M. Beernaert becomes premier . . 24 Oct. 

Parliament meets 11 Nov. 

King Leopold proclaimed sovereign of the new 
Congo state 2 May, 

Universal exhibition opened at Antwerp by the king 

2 May, 

Death of Charles Rogier (aged 85), member of the 
provisional government in 1830, six times minister 

27 May, 

Riotous strikes in the coal districts between Namur 

and Liege and collision with the military, many 

killed and wounded ; convents, country houses, 

factories, &c, pillaged, works stopped about 

22-29 March, 

Liege quieted by vigorous action ; great disorder in 
Charleroi, Mons, &c 27-29 March, 

Outrages greatly attributed to the criminal classes ; 
order restored, reported 7 April 

M. Vandersmissen, a clerical member for Brussels, 
convicted of killing his wife, a scandalous case ; 
15 years' penal servitude . . . 2 June, 

Increased army expenditure proposed . 8 Feb. 

Revival of strikes ; arrival of French dynamitards ; 
universal suffrage demanded ; the strikes subside 
about 31 May, 

New Army Bill rejected by the Chamber (69-62) 

14 July, 

State trials of 27 socialists at Mous, nearly all 
acquitted, 25 May ; the minister of justice was 
censured for the prosecution . . . May 

Great colliery strike at Charleroi, &c, about 20,000 
men out . . . . . 21 Dec. et seq. 

Settled by compromise .... 13 Jan. 

The castle of Laeken, built 17S2, 4 miles from 
Brussels, a royal palace, destroyed by fire, the 
governess of princess Clementine, Madame de 
Grandcour, perished. Valuable works of art, 
furniture, historical documents &c, lost. 1 Jan. 



BELGRADE. 115 

The king visits England . . . 10-26 May 189c 

Loan to Congo State, see Congo . . . July, ,, 

National fete, 25th anniversary of the king's acces- 
sion ; grotesque procession of giants, &c, at 
Brussels 19 July et seq. ,, 

Strike of about 10,000 miners at Mons, 22 Aug. ; 
strike over 1 Sept. ,, 

Death of prince Baldwin, aged 21, greatly lamented, 
23 Jan. ; grand funeral . . . . 29 Jan. 1891 

■Great political strike of colliers at Mons, Charle- 
roi, and other places, with rioting, about 2 May ; 
state of siege in the Liege district, about 100,000 
men out 7 May ,, 

Strike of the metallurgists in Charleroi district, the 
progressist party demand the revision of the con- 
stitution . . . . about 10 May ,, 

Strike abating near Liege, &c. . . . 13 May ,, 

End of the coal-miners' strike of 70 days . 9 July ,, 

Coal-mine explosion at Forchies in Hainault; 27 
deaths. . -. . . . . 19 Sept. „ 

Meeting of the chambers . . . . 10 Nov. ,, 

The hon. sir Edmund Monson succeeds lord Vivian 
as British minister Jan. 1892 

Death of M. Emile de Laveleye, eminent publicist 
and writer, aged 69 ... 3 Jan. ,, 

The commercial treaties with Austria-Hungary and 
Germany adopted by the chamber, 28 Jan. ; by 
the senate 1 Feb. ,, 

Discussion in the chamber on the revision of the 
constitution of 1831 2 Feb. „ 

Elections : clerical majority, June ; the new senate 
and chamber unite to form a constituent assem- 
bly to consider the revision of the constitution 

12 July etseq. ,, 

1:889. Revenue, 346,667,000 francs ; expenditure, 

355»593»°°° francs. 
£890. Imports, 3,189,160,016 francs ; exports, 

2,948,151,841 francs. 

KINGS. 

1831. Leopold,* first king of the Belgians ; born 16 Dee. 

1790 ; inaugurated 21 July, 1831, at Brussels ; 

married, 9 Aug. 1832, Louise, eldest daughter of 

Louis Philippe, king of the French (she died 

11 Oct. 1850). He died 10 Dec. 1865. 
5:865. Leopold II., son ; born 9 April, 1835 ; married 
- archduchess Maria Henrietta of Austria, 22 Aug. 

1853- 
Daughter. Princess Louise, born 18 Feb. 1858 ; married 

duke Philip of Saxony, 4 Feb. 1875. 
Heir, brother. Philip, count of Flanders ; born 24 March, 

1837; married Mary, princess of Hohenzollern- 

Sigmaringen, 25 April, 1867 ; son, Baldwin, born 

3 June, 1869 ; died 23 Jan. 1891 ; Albert, born 8 

April, 1875. 

BELGRADE, an ancient city in Servia, on 
the right bank of the Danube. It was taken from 
the Greek emperor by Solomon, king of Hungary, 
in 1072 ; gallantly defended by John Huniades 
against the Turks, under Mahomet II., July to 
Sept. 1456, when the latter was defeated, with the 
loss of 40,000 men. Belgrade was taken by sultan 
Solyman, Aug. 1521, and retaken by the Im- 
perialists in 1688, from whom it was again taken by 
the Turks, 1690. It was besieged in May, 1716, by 
prince Eugene. In that year the Turkish army, 
200,000 strong, approached to relieve it, and on 5 
Aug. a sanguinary battle was fought at Poterwara- 
dein, in which the Turks lost 20,000 men. Eugene 
defeated the Turks here, 16 Aug. 1717, and Bel- 
grade surrendered 18 Aug. In 1739 it was ceded to 
the Turks, after its fine fortifications had been de- 
molished. It was retaken in 1789, and restored at 
the peace of Reichenbach, in 1790. The Servian 
insurgents had possession of it, 1806-13. In 1815 
it was placed under prince Milosch, subject to 
Turkey. The fortifications were restored in 1820. 

* Leopold married, in May, 18 16, the princess Char- 
lotte of Wales, daughter of the prince regent, afterwards 
George IV. of England ; she died in childbed, 6 Nov. 1817. 



BELLS. 

On 19 June, 1862, the Turkish pasha was dismissed 
for firing on the town during a riot. The university 
was established by private munificence, 1863. The 
fortress was surrendered by the Turks to the Ser- 
vians, 18 April, 1867. The "independence of Servia 
proclaimed here, 22 Aug. 1878. The mayor of 
Belgrade received by the lord mayor of London, 
19 Dec. 1884. Population in 1890, 54,458. Sea Servia. 

BELGRAVIA, a south-western district of the 
metropolis, built between 1826 and 1852 upon land 
belonging to the marquis of Westminster, who is 
also viscount Belgrave. 

BELIZE, see Honduras. 

BELL, Book, and Candle : in the Bomish 

ceremony of excommunication {which see), the 
bell is rung, the book is closed, and candle extin- 
guished; the effect being to exclude the excom- 
municated from the society of the faithful, divine 
service, and the sacraments. Its origin is ascribed 
to the 8th century. 

BELL ROCK LIGHTHOUSE, nearly in 

front of the Frith of Tay, one of the finest in Great 
Britain; it is 115 feet high, is built upon a rock 
that measures 427 feet in length, and 200 feet in 
breadth, and is about 12 feet under water.* It was 
erected in 1806-10. It has two bells for hazy weather. 

BELLAIR, North America. The town was 
attacked by the British forces under sir Peter 
Parker, who, after an obstinate engagement, was 
killed, 30 Aug. 1814. 

BELLEISLE, an isle on the south coast of 
Brittany, France, erected into a duchy for marshal 
Belleisle, in 1742, in reward of his military and 
diplomatic services, by Louis XV. Belleisle was 
taken by the British forces under commodore 
Keppel and general Hodgson, after a desperate 
resistance, 7 June, 1761, but was restored to France 
in 1763. 

BELLES-LETTRES, or Polite Learn- 
ing, see Academies, and Literature. 

BELLEVILLE, the red republican stronghold 
of Paris, defended by seven barricades, was cap- 
tured by. L'Admirault and Vinoy, 27, 28 May, 
1871, when the insurrection was suppressed. 

BELLITE, a new Swedish explosive invented 
by Mr. Carl Lamm in 1885. 

BELLMEN, appointed in London to proclaim 
the hour of the night before public clocks became 
general, were numerous about 1556. They were to 
ring a bell at night, and cry, "Take care of your 
fire and candle, be charitable to the poor, and pray 
for the dead." 

BELLOWS. Anacharsis, the Scythian, is 
said to have been the inventor of them, about 569 
B.C. ; and to him is ascribed the invention of tinder, 
the potter's wheel, anchors for ships, &c. Bellows 
were not used in the furnaces of the Romans. The 
great bellows of our foundries must have been early 
used ; see Blowing Machines. 

BELLS were used among the Jews, Greeks, and 
Romans. The responses of the Dodomrau oracle 
were in part conveyed by bells. Strabo. The 
monument of Porsenna was decorated with pin- 
nacles, each surmounted by bells. Pliny. Said to 
have been introduced by Paulinus, bishop of Kola, 

* Upon this rock, it is said, the abbots of Aberbro 
thock fixed the Inchcape bell, so that it was rung by the 
impulse of the sea, thus warning mariners. It is also 
said that a Dutchman, who took the apparatus away, 
was here lost with his ship and crew. 



BELLS. 



116 



BENCOOLEN. 



in Campagna, about 400; and first known in France 
in 550. The army of Clothaire II., king of France, 
was frightened from the siege of Sens by the ringing 
of the bells of St. Stephen's church. The second 
excerption of our king Egbert commands every 
priest, at the proper hours, to sound the bells of his 
church. Bells were used in churches by order of 
pope John IX., about 900, as a defence, by ringing 
them, against thunder and lightning. Bells are 
mythically said to have been cast by Turketul, 
abbot of England, about 941. The celebrated 
"Song of the Bell," by Schiller (died 1805), has 
been frequently translated. The following list is 
that given by Mr. E. Beckett Denison (afterwards 
Lord Grimthorpe) in his discourse on bells at the 
Eoyal Institution, 6 March, 1857. The lecture of 
the Eev. H. R. Haweis, at the same place, 7 Feb. , 
1879, was well illustrated. 



Weight. 
Tons Cwt. 
Moscow, 1736;* 

broken, 1737 . 250 ? 
Another, 1817. . no ? 
Three others. 16 to 31 



Novgorod 
Olmtitz 

Vienna, 1711 . . 
Westminster, 1856, t 

" Big Ben " 
Erfurt, 1497 . . 
Westminster, 18584 

"St. Stephen" 
Sens 

Paris, 1680 . 
Montreal, 1847 
Cologne, 1448 
Breslau, 1507 . . 
Gorlitz . 



31 o 

17 18 
17 14 

15 8^ 
13 15 

13 iof 
13 ? 
12 16 
12 15 
11 3 



10 17 

London, 1882 (St. Paul's). 
Cologne, 1887 1] 



Weight. 
Tons Cwt. 
10 15 

5 



York, 1845 . . 
Bruges, 1680 
St. Peter's, Rome 
Oxford, 1680 . 7 12 
Lucerne, 1636. . 7 n 
Halberstadt, 1457 7 IO 
Antwerp . . 73 
Brussels . . 7 ij 
Dantzic, 1453 . 6 1 
Lincoln, 1834 • 5 8 
St. Paul's, i7i6§ . 5 4 
Ghent . . . 4 18 
Boulogne, new . 4 18 
Exeter, 1675 . 4 10 
Old Lincoln, 1610 4 8 
Fourth quarter- 
bell, Westmin- 
ster, 1857 . 4 o 

Great Paul || about 17 J o 

about 26 13 



Baptism or Bells. — They were, anointed and baptized 
in churches, it is said, from the 10th century. Dv. 
Fresnoy. The bells of the priory of Little Dunmow, in 
Essex, were baptized by the names of St. Michael, St. 
John, Virgin Mary, Holy Trinity, <fcc, in 1501. Weever. 
The great bell of Notre Dame, of Paris, was baptized by 
the name of duke of Angouleme, 1816. On the continent, 
in Roman Catholic states, they baptize bells as we do 
ships, but with religious solemnity. Ashe. 

* The metal has been valued at the lowest estimate, at 
66,565^ Gold and silver are said to have been thrown in 
as votive offerings. 

t The largest bell in England (named Big Ben, after 
sir Benjamin Hall, the then chief commissioner of works), 
cast at Houghton-le-Spring, Durham, by Messrs. Warner, 
under the superintendence of Mr. E. Beckett Denison, and 
the Rev. W. Taylor, at an expense of 3343*. 14s. gd. The 
composition was 22 parts copper and 7 tin. The diameter 
was 9 ft. sh in. ; the height, 7 ft. io£ in. The clapper 
weighed 12 cwt. Rev. W. Taylor. 

X The bell ' ' Big Ben " having been found to be cracked 
on 24 Oct. 1857, it was broken up and another bell cast 
with the same metal, in May, 1858, by Messrs. Mears, 
Wlutechapel. It is rather different in shape from its 
predecessor, " Big Ben," and about 2 tons lighter. Its 
diameter is 9 ft. 6 in. ; the height 7 ft. 10 in. It was 
struck for the first time, 18 Nov. 1858. The clapper 
weighs 6 cwt.— half that of the former bell. The note of 
the bell is E natural ; the quarter-bells being G, B, E, P. 
On 1 Oct. 1859, this bell was also found to be cracked. 

§ The clapper of St. Paul's, bell weighs 180 lbs. • the 
diameter of the bell is 10 feet (Mr. Walesby says 6 ft. 
9^ in.), and its thickness 10 in. The hour strikes upon 
this bell, the quarters upon two smaller ones ; see Clocks. 

|| Height, 8 feet 10 in. ; diameter, 9 feet 6| in. ; note 
El7 ; materials tin and copper ; cost about 3000!. ; cast 
by Mr. Taylor, at Loughborough ; raised to its place 31 
May, dedicated 3 June, 1882. 

If Height 14J feet; diameter at the mouth 11J feet; 
note Of or D ; materials chiefly French cannon ; cast by 
Andreas Hamm of Frankenthal ; dedicated July 1887. 



Ringing of Bells, in changes of regular peals, is 

almost peculiar to the English. Stoiv. 

" Companie of the Schollers of Chepeside," 1603 ; " So- 
ciety of College Youths," 1637 ; " Society of Cumber- 
lands," 1683 ; the "Society of Union Scholars," 1713 ; 
the "Society of Eastern Scholars," 1733; "London. 
Youths," 1753; " Westminster Youths," 1776. 

Fabian Stedman, about 1650, invented a system known 
as " Stedman's principle." Benjamin Anable soon 
after invented "Grandsire Triples." 

720 changes can be rung in an hour upon 12 bells ;. 
479,001,600 changes rung upon them, require 75 years, 
10 months, and 10 days. 

Nell Gwynne left the. ringers of the bells of St. Martin's-in- 
the-fields money for a weekly entertainment, 1687, and 
many others have done the same. 

A central council of Church Bell Ringers, representing; 
many societies, was established at the Inns of Court 
hotel, London, 10 April, 1890. 

Carillons, a collection of bells, arranged in two or three 
chromatic scales, played by pedals or keyboards, oir 
by machinery. The first set is said to have been made? 
at Alost in Flanders, in 1487, and that country and 
Holland are renowned for carillons. Matthias van dera 
Gheyn was an eminent maker (1721-85). Excellent 
carillon machines are now made by Messrs. Gillet, 
Bland & Co., Croydon. One at Manchester was started 
1 Jan. 1879. It plays 35 tunes on 20 bells. 

BELOOCHISTAN, the ancient Gedrosia 
(S. Asia). Khelat, the capital, was taken by the 
British in the Afghan war, 1839; abandoned, July, 
1840 ; taken and held a short time, Not. 1840. 
The khan was subsidised in 1854, under certain con- 
ditions, which were not observed ; the arrangement 
was broken up in 1873 ; the negotiations of major 
(after sir Robert) Sandeman in 1875 were successful, 
and Quettah was occupied by the British in 1877, and' 
has since become a prosperous station. The khan 
proffered assistance after the defeat of gen. Burrows 
in July, 1880. 
Quettah, with districts of Pishin, Thai Chotiali, and. 
Sibi, annexed to British territories, and placed under 
a chief commissioner ; announced, Nov. 1887. 
Col. sir Robert G. Sandeman, the chief commissioner, 
brave, amiable, and conciliatory, dies, 29 Jan. ; he 1 
was succeeded by gen. Browne, Feb. 1892. 

BELT CASE, see Trials, 1882-4. 

BELVEDERE EXPLOSION, see Gun- 
powder (note). 

BEN ABES, in India, a holy city of the Hin- 
doos, abounding in temples. It was ceded by the 
nabob of Oude, Asoph-ud-Dowlah, to the English 
in 1775. An insurrection took place here, which 
had nearly proved fatal to the British interests in 
Hindostan, 1781. The rajah : Cheyt Sing, was de- 
posed in consequence of it, in 1783. Mr. Cherry, 
capt. Conway, and others, were assassinated at 
Benares, by vizier Aly, 14 Jan. 1799. In June, 
1857, col. Neil succeeded in suppres^ng attempts 
of the native infantry to join the mutiny ; see 
India. Visit of prince of Wales, 5 Jan. 1876. 
New water-works : foundation laid by prince Albert 
Victor, Jan. 1890 ; opposed by the Brahmins as inter- 
fering with the sacred waters and temples ; serious 
riots, with destruction of property, suppressed by 
the military, 16, 17 April, 1891 ; peace restored by a 
compromise. 

BENBURB, near Armagh (N. Ireland). Here 
O'Neill totally defeated the English under Monroe, 
5 June, 1646. Moore says that it was " the only 
great victory since the days of Brian Boru, achieved 
by an Irish chieftain in the cause of Ireland." 

BENCOOLEN (Sumatra) . The English East 
India company made a settlement here which pre- 
served to them the pepper trade after the Dutch had 
dispossessed them of Bantam, 1682. Anderson. York 
fort was erected by the East India company, 1690. 
In 1693 a dreadful mortality raged here, occasioned 
by the town being built on a pestilent morass; 



BENDEE. 



117 



BENWELL TOWEE. 



among others the governor and council perished. 
The French, under count D'Estaign, destroyed the 
English settlement, 1760. Bencoolen was reduced 
to a residency under the government of Bengal, in 
1801, and was ceded to the Dutch, in 1824, in ex- 
change for their possessions in Malacca ; see India. 

BENDEE, Bessarabia, European Russia. Near 
it was the asylum of Charles XII. of Sweden, after 
his defeat at Puitowa by the czar Peter the Great, 
■S July, 1709. The peace of Bender was concluded 
in 1711. Bender was taken by storm, by the Russians, 
28 Sept. 1770; was taken by Potemkin in 1789, and 
again in 1809. It was restored at the peace of 
Jassy, but retained at the peace of 1812. 

BENEDICTINES, an order of monks founded 
by St. Benedict (lived 480-543), who iutroduced the 
monastic life into Western Europe, in 529, when he 
founded the monastery on Monte Casino in Cam- 
pania, and eleven others afterwards. His Regula 
Monaehorum (rule of the monks) soon became the 
•common rule of western monachism. No religious 
order has been so remarkable for extent, wealth, 
and men of note and learning, as the Benedictine. 
Among its branches the chief were the Cluniacs, 
founded in 912 ; the Cistercians, founded in 1098, 
and reformed by St. Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux, in 
1 1 16; and the Carthusians, from the Chartreux 
.(hence Charter-house), founded by Bruno about 
1080. The Benedictine order was introduced into 
England by Augustin, in 596; and William I. built 
an abbey for it on the plain where the battle of 
(Hastings was fought, 1066; see Battle- Abbey. 
William de Warrenne, earl of Warrenne, built a 
-convent at Lewes, in Sussex, in 1077. Of this 
•order it is reckoned that there have been 40 popes, 
200 cardinals, 50 patriarchs, 116 archbishops, 4600 
■bishops, 4 emperors, 12 empresses, 46 kings, 41 
■queens, and 3600 saints. Their founder was canon- 
ised. Baronius. The Benedictines have taken 
little part in politics, but have produced many 
valuable literary works. The congregation of St. 
Maur published the celebrated "l'Ait de Verifier les 
Dates," in 1750, and edited many ancient authors. 

'The Benedictines with other orders were expelled 
from France by decree ... 29 March, 1880 

The 14th centenary of the birth of St. Benedict was 
kept at Monte Casino and other places April, ,, 

BENEFICE (literally a good deed or favour), 
or Fief. Clerical benefices originated in the 12th 
century, when the priesthood began to imitate the 
feudal lay system of holding lands for performing 
certain duties : till then the priests were supported 
hj alms and oblations at mass. Vicarages, rectories, 
perpetual curacies, and chaplaincies, are termed 
benefices, in contradistinction to dignities, such as 
'bishoprics, &c. A rector is entitled to all the tithes ; 
a vicar, to a small part or to none. — All benefices that 
should become vacant in the space of six months, 
were given by pope Clement VII. to his nephew, in 
1534. Notitia Monastica. An act for the aug- 
mentation of poor benefices by the sale of some 01 
those in the presentation of the lord chancellor, was 
passed in 1863, and an act respecting the seques- 
tration of benefices and their union passed, 187 1. 
The Commission on Ecclesiastical Benefices reported, 
recommending amendments in sales of advow- 
sons, discontinuance of sale by auction, &c. 

about 3 Nov. 1879 

BENEFIT OF CLEEGY, see Clergy. 

BENEFIT SOCIETIES, see Friendly 
Societies. 

BENEVENTUM (now Benevento), an ancient 
city in South Italy, said to have been founded by 



Diomedes the Greek, after the fall of Troy. Pyr- 
rhus of Macedon, during his invasion of Italy, was 
totally defeated near Beneventum, 275 u.c. Near 
it was erected the triumphal arch of Trajan, a.d. 
114. Benevento was formed into a duchy by the 
Lombards, 571. At a battle fought here, 26 Feb. 
1266, Manfred, king of Sicily, was defeated andslain 
by Charles of Anj ou, who thus became virtually master 
of Italy. The castle was built 1323 ; the town was 
nearly destroyed by an earthquake, 1688, when the 
archbishop, afterwards pope Benedict XIII., was 
dug out of the ruins alive, and contributed to its sub- 
sequent rebuilding, 1703. It was seized by the 
king of Naples, but restored to the pope on the 
suppression of the Jesuits, 1773. Talleyrand de 
Perigord, Bonaparte's arch-chancellor, was made 
prince of Benevento, 1806. Benevento was taken 
by the French, 1798, and restored to the pope in 
1815. 

BENEVOLENCES (Aids, Free Gifts, actually 
Forced Loans) appear to have been claimed by our 
Anglo-Saxon sovereigns. Special ones were levied 
by Edward IV., 1473, by Richard III., 1485 (al- 
though a statute forbidding them was enacted 
in 1484), by Henry VII., 1492; and by James 
I., in 1013, on occasion of the marriage of the 
princess Elizabeth with Frederick, the elector 
palatine, afterwards king of Bohemia. In 1615 
Oliver St. John, M.P., was fined 5000/., and chief 
justice Coke disgraced, for severely censuring such 
modes of raising money. Benevolences were de- 
clared illegal by the bill of rights, Feb. 1689. 

BENEVOLENT, or Strangers' Friend So- 
ciety, established 1785; Loan Society, 1817; So- 
ciety of Blues, 1824; Society of St. Patrick, 1784. 

BENGAL, chief presidency of British India, 
containing Calcutta, the capital. Its governors 
were appointed by the sovereigns of Delhi, till 
J3J.0, when it became independent. It was added 
to the Mogul empire by liaber, about 1529; see 
India and Calcutta. Population 1881,66,589,553; 
1 89 1, 70,909,260. 

The English first permitted to trade to Bengal. . 1534 
They establish a settlement at Hooghly . about 1652 
Factories of the French and Danes set up . . 1664 

Bengal made a distinct agency 1680 

Mr. William Hedges appointed agent and governor 1681 
The English settlement removed to Fort William . 1698 
Imperial grant vesting the revenues of Bengal in the 
company, by which it gained the sovereignty of 

the country 12 Aug. 1765 

Mr. Warren Hastings governor 1772 

India Bill ; Bengal made chief presidency ; supreme 

court of judicature established . . 16 June, 1773 
Bishop of Calcutta appointed . . 21 July, 1813 

Railway opened 15 Aug. 1854 

Awful famine in Orissa (which sec) . . . 1865-66 
Lieut. -governor, lion. Win. Grey .... 1867 

,, ,, Geo. Campbell 1871 

Deficiency in rainfall; consequent famine (see 

India) Oct. 1873 

Cyclone : Mednapore destroyed ; about 2,000 perish 

Oct. 1874 
Lieut. -governor, sir RichardTomple . . . ,, 
,, ' „ hon. sir Ashley Eden . . . 1877 

„ Mr. (aft. Sir) Rivers Thompson . 

March, 1882 

Sir C. S. Bayley . . April, 1887 

„ ,, Sir Chas. A. Elliott . . 1890 

Bengal Tenancy Bill passed . . . 11 March, 1885 

Cyclone on the Orissa coast ; about 5,000 perish 

22 Sept. „ 

BEN NEVIS, a mountain in Inverness-shire, 
the loftiest in Britain, 4,406 feet above the sea; 
see Meteorology, 1883-4. 

BENWELL TOWEE, about two miles "W. 
of Newcastle [value above 12,000/.], was presented 



BENZOLE. 



118 



BERLIN. 



by Mr. John AVm. Pease to be the palace of the 
new bishopric of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Nov. 1881. 

BENZOLE, or Benzine, a compound of 

hydrogen and carbon, discovered by Faraday in the 

oils of portable gas (1825), obtained by Mitscherlich 

from benzoic acid (1834) and by C. B. Mansfield in 

coal tar (1848), the latter of whom unfortunately 

died in consequence of being severely burnt while 

experimenting on it (26 Feb. 1855). Benzole has 

become useful in the arts. Chemical research has 

produced from it aniline {which see), the source of 

the celebrated modern dyes, mauve, magenta, and 

many others ; see Alizarine and Indigo. 

Aromatic essences and perfumes have been obtained 

from benzole by Perkin, Tiemann, Harrmann, and 

others. Febrifuge medicines, by O. Fischer, Dewar, 

McKendrick and others, in 1881. And saccharine, a 

principle 220 times sweeter than cane sugar, by Fahl- 

berg and Reinsert, patented in Britain in 1SS6 ; not 

nutritious and said to cause indigestion. 

BEOWULF, an ancient Anglo-Saxon epic 
poem, describing events which probably occurred 
in the middle of the 5th century, supposed to have 
been written subsequent to 597. An edition by 
Kemble was published in 1833. It has been trans- 
lated by Kemble, Thorpe, and Wackerbarth. 

BEBBICE (S. America), settled by the Dutch, 
1626, who surrendered it to the British, 23 April, 

1796, and 22 Sept. 1803; and finally in 1814. It 
was united to Demerara and named British Guiana, 
1831. 

BERDITSCHEFF, Kiev, S. Russia. At the 
burning of a circus here about 300 persons perish, 
13 Jan. 1883. 

BERENGARIANS, followers of Berengarius, 
archdeacon of Angers, who, about 1049, opposed the 
Romish doctrine of transubstantiation, or the real 
presence in the Lord's supper. Several councils 
of the church condemned his doctrine, 1050-79. 
After much controversy he recanted about 1079, and 
died grieved and wearied in 6 Jan. 1088. 

BERESINA, a river in Russia, crossed by the 
French main army after its defeat by the Russians, 
25-29 Nov. 1812. The French lost upwards of 
20,000 men, and their retreat .was attended by 
great calamity and suffering. 

_ BERG (W. Germany), on the extinction of its 
line of counts, in 1348, was incorporated with 
Juliers. Napoleon I. made Murat grand-duke in 
1806. The principal part is now held by Prussia. 

BERGAMO (N. Italy), a Lombard duchy, was 
annexed to Venice, 1428 ; which chiefly held it till 
it revolted, and was joined to the Cisalpine republic, 

1797. It was awarded to Austria in 1814, and 
ceded to Sardinia, 1859. 

BERGEN (Norway), founded 1070; was the 
royal residence during the 12th and 13th centuries. 
Population 1891, 53,686. 

BERGEN (in Germany), BATTLE OF, be- 
tween the French and allies, the latter defeated, 
13 April, 175^2.— (In Holland) i. The allies under 
the duke ot York were defeated by the French, 
under gen. Brune, with great loss, 19 Sept. 1799. 
2. In another battle, fought 2 Oct. same year, the 
duke gained a victory over Brune; but on the 
6th, the duke was defeated before Alkmaer, and on 
the 20th entered into a convention, by which his 
army was exchanged for 6000 French and Dutch 
prisoners in England. 

BERGEN - OP - ZOOM, in Holland. This 
place, whose works were deemed impregnable, was 
taken by the French, 16 Sept. 1747, and again in 



1795- An attempt, made by the British under 
general sirT. Graham (afterwards lord Lynedoch), 
to carry the fortress by storm, was defeated ; after 
forcing an entrance, their retreat was cut off, and 
a dreadful slaughter ensued ; nearly all were cut to 
pieces or made prisoners, 8 March, 1814. 

BERGERAC, France. Here John of Gaunt, 
then earl of Derby, defeated the French, in 1344, 
and here a temporary treaty of peace between the 
Catholics and Protestants, establishing liberty of 
conscience, was signed 17 Sept. 1577. 

BERKELEY CASTLE, Gloucestershire, was 
begun by Henry I. in 1 108, and finished in the next 
reign. Here Edward II. was cruelly murdered by 
the contrivance of his queen Isabella (a princess of 
France), and her paramour, Mortimer, earl of 
March, 21 Sept. 1327. Mortimer was hanged at the 
Elms, near London, 29 Nov. 1330; and Edward III. 
confined his mother in her own house at Castle- 
Rising, near Lynn, in Norfolk, till her death, 1357. 
The Berkeley peerage suit in the court of Chancery, due 

to a disputed marriage, lasted from 1416 to 1609. 
In another suit owing to a disputed marriage in iSir, 
Thomas Moreton Fitz Hardinge Berkeley became 6th 
earl. Earl Fitz Hardinge died unmarried in 1857. His 
next brother Maurice's claim for the barony of Berke- 
ley was not granted, 23 July, 1858. The committee 
of privileges of the house of lords met to consider the 
claims of earl Fitzhardinge and Mr. Randal Mowbray 
Thomas Berkeley for the Berkeley Peerage, 23 April ; 
committee decided in favour of Mr. R. M. T. Berkeley,. 
31 July, 1891, thus confirming lord Eldon's decision id 
'1811. 

BERLIN (capital of Prussia, in the province 
of Brandenburg), and since 187 1, of the German 
empire, alleged to have been founded by the 
margrave Albert the Bear, about 1163. Its five 
districts were united under one magistracy, in 1714 ; 
and it was subsequently made the capital of Prussia 
and greatly improved by the sovereigns. It was- 
taken and held by the Russians and Austrians, 9-13, 
Oct. 1760. Establishment of the Academy of 
Sciences, 1702; of the university, 1810. On 27 
Oct. 1806, after the battle of Jena (14 Oct.), the 
French entered Berlin ; and from this place Napo- 
leon issued the famous Berlin decree, an interdict 
against the commerce of England, 20 Nov. It de- 
clared the British islands to be in a state of block- 
ade, and ordered all Englishmen found in countries 
occupied by French troops to be treated as prisoners 
of war. On 5 Nov. 1808, Napoleon entered into a 
convention with Prussia, by which he remitted to 
Prussia the sum due on the war-debt, and withdrew 
many of his troops to reinforce his armies in Spain. 
See Prussia, 1866, 187 1. Population in 1890, 

1,579.244- 

The railway to Magdeburg opened . . 10 Sept. 1843 
The first constituent assembly held here 21 June, 1842 
An insurrection commenced here . . March, 184.S 
Berlin was declared in a state of siege . 12 Nov. „ 
The continuation of this state was declared to be 
illegal without its concurrence by the lower 

chamber 25 April, 1849. 

A treaty of peace between Prussia and Saxony was 

signed 21 Oct. 1866 

The victorious army entered Berlin, 20 Sept. 1866 ; 

and 16 June. 1873 
The monument of Victory, in memory of the wars 
with Denmark (1864), Austria (1866), and France 
(1870-1), solemnly uncovered . . 2 Sept. 1873 
Meeting of chancellors of Germany ; Austria, and 
Russia, 11, 12 May ; they agree to an urgent note 
to Turkey on the eastern policy ; expressed in a 
note dated 13 May ; accepted by Italy and France ; 
received iu London, 15 May; its acceptance by 
the earl of Derby declined, as her majesty's 
government had not been consulted, 19 May ; 
this note not presented through the revolution 
in Turkey 30 May, 1876 



BERLIN WORK. 



119 



BERNE. 



The "Berlin note" printed in the Times . 4 July, 1876 

International fish and fishing exhibition opened by 
the crown prince .... 20 April, 1880 

International Hygienic exhibition burnt ; great loss 
12 May, 18S2 ; opened 12 May, closed 15 Oct. 1883 

National theatre burnt .... 4 April, ,, 

Statues of Wilhelm and Alexander von Humboldt 
uncovered in presence of the emperor . 28 May, ,, 

Foundation of New German parliament-house laid 
by the emperor in the presence of a grand as- 
sembly 9 June, 1884 

International Art Exhibition opened by the emperor 

22 May, 1886 

Monument to Frederick William IV. unveiled by 
the emperor 10 June, ,, 

Queen Victoria warmly received here 24 April ; 
meets prince Bismarck 25 April ; left . 26 April, 1888 

New museum of natural history opened by the 
emperor 2 Dec. 1889 

Visit of the prince of Wales and prince George 

21-28 March 1890 

Address from 30,000 Berlin citizens presented to 
prince Bismarck 22 June ,, 

International arts exhibition opened by the empress 
Frederick 1 May 1891 

Britain, Italy, Spain, well represented; a few 
French works sent. British artists and others 
receive gold medals . . . . 20 July ,, 

Bevolting murder of a woman, and other murders 

24 and 25 Oct. ,, 

Suspension of Messrs. Hirschfeld & Wolff, bankers ; 
great losses, about 4 Nov., suspension of Fried- 
lander, Felix, & Siegmund Sommerfeld (Felix 
commits suicide) 7 Nov. ,, 

Socialist riots of the unemployed suppressed by the 
armed police, 25-27 Feb. ; rioters sentenced to 
various terms of imprisonment . 19 March 1892 

BERLIN CONGRESS ON THE EASTERN QUESTION. 

Representatives (with resident ambassadors).: Ger- 
many, prince Bismarck, president ; Russia, 
prince Gortschakoff ; Turkey, Alexander Cara- 
theodori ; Great Britain, lord Beaconsfield and 
marquis of Salisbury (lord Odo Russell ambas- 
sador) ; Austria, count Andrassy ; France, 
M. Waddington ; Italy, count Corti. 
First meeting, 13 June ; 20th and last meeting ; 

treaty signed 13 July, 1878 

Articles 1 — 12. Bulgaria constituted an autonomous 
principality, tributary to the sultan ; the 
Balkans southern limit ; the prince, to be 
elected by the population, approved by the 
sultan and other powers ; public laws, and 
other details. 
,, 13—22. New province of Eastern Roumelia 
constituted ; partially autonomous ; boun- 
daries defined ; Christian governor-general to 
be appointed by the sultan ; to be organised 
by an Austrian commission ; a Russian army 
of occupation, to remain nine months. 
,, 23. Bosnia and Herzegovina to be occupied 

and administered by Austria-Hungary. 
,, 24—30. Montenegro to be independent ; new 

frontiers ; Antivari annexed. 
,, 31 — 39. Servia to be independent, with new 

frontiers. 
,, 40—49. Roumania to be independent, losing 
part of Bessarabia to Russia, with compensation. 
, ,, 50 — 54. Regulation of navigation of the 
Danube, &c. 
>> 55 — 57- Legal reforms in Crete, &c. 
,, 58. The Porte cedes to Russia Ardahan, 
" Kars, and Batoum, and settles boundaries. 
,, 59. Batoum to be a free commercial port. 
,, 60. Alasgird and Bayazid restored to Turkey. 
,, 61 — 62. The Porte engages to realise legal 

reforms, and to grant religious liberty, &c. 
,, 63. The. treaty of Paris (30 March, 1856), and 
of London (13 March, 1871), maintained when 
not modified by this treaty. 
,, 64. Treaty to be ratified in three weeks' time. 

Ratified . 3 Aug. ,, 

Circular respecting delay in fulfilling the treaty 
from earl Granville, the British foreign secretary, 
to the foreign powers .... May, 1880 



Berlin conference (16 June— i July, 1880). 

The ambassadors : for Great Britain, lord Odo 
Russell (after, lord Ampthill) ; France, comte 
de St. Vallier, etc. president, prince Hohenlohe, 
German foreign minister. 

They agree to a collective note presented to the 
sultan of Turkey- (urging the surrender of Dul- 
cigno and cession of provinces to Greece), which 
is presented 15 July, 1880 

Berlin conference respecting the condition of 
the working classes proposed by the German 
emperor, 4 Feb. The delegates (with the ambas- 
sadors and ministers) meet . . . 15 March 1890 

[Delegates : Great Britain, sir John Gorst ; France, 
M. Jules Simon ; Italy, senator Boceardo, and 
others. The conference opened by baron von 
Berlepsch, Prussian minister of commerce, 
elected president, 15 March, closed 29 March, 
1890. Subjects discussad : regulation of labour 
in mines, of Sunday labour, and of the labour of 
children and youths. Recommendations adopted 
referred to the respective legislatures.] 

For other Berlin conferences, see Samoa.n Isles, 
1889, West African Settlements, Dulcigno, Turkey 
and Greece, 1 880-1. 

BERLIN WORK, see Embroidery. 

BERMUDAS or Summers' Isles, a group 

in the North Atlantic ocean, discovered by Juan 
Bermudas, a Spaniard, in 1522, but not inhabited 
until 1609, when sir George Summers was cast 
away upon them. They were settled by stat. 9 
James I., 1612. Among the exiles from England 
during the civil war was Waller, the poet, who 
wrote, while resident here, a poetical description of 
the islands. There was an awful hurricane here, 
31 Oct. 1780, and by another, a third of the houses was 
destroyed, and the shipping driven ashore, 20 July, 
1813. A large iron dry dock here, which cost 
250,000^., was towed from the Medway to the Ber- 
mudas, in June and July, 1869. Governors, sir Fred. 
E. Chapman, 1867; gen. J. H. Lefroy, March, 
1871 ; Sir Robert Michael Laffan, Feb. 1877 ; died 
22 March, 1882; lieut.-gen. T. L. J. Gallwey, 1882; 
lieut.-gen. N. Newdigate, July, 1888; lieut.-gen. 
T. C. Lyons, June, 1892. Visited by the princess 
Louise, Jan. 1883. Population, 1890, 15,013. 

BERNAL COLLECTION of articles of 
taste and virtu, formed by lialph Bernal, Esq., many 
years chairman of committees of ways and means 
in the house of commons. He died 26 Aug. 1854. 
The sale in Maix-h, 1856, lasted 31 days, and enor- 
mous prices were given. The total sum realised was 
62,680;. 6s. U. 

BERNARD, MOUNT ST., so called from a 
monastery founded on it by Bernardine Menthon in 
962. Velan, its highest peak, is about 8000 feet 
high, covered with perpetual snow. Hannibal, it is 
said, conducted the Carthaginians by this pass into 
Italy (218 B.C.) ; and by the same route, in May, 
1800, Bonaparte led his troops to Italy before the 
battle of Marengo, 14 June. On the summit of 
Great St. Bernard is the ancient monastery still 
held by a community of monks, who entertain 
travellers. 

BERNARDINES, or White Monks, a 

strict order of Cistercian monks, established by St. 
Bernard of Clairvaux, about 11 15. He founded 
many monasteries. 

BERNE, the sovereign canton of Switzerland, 
joined the Swiss League, 1352; the town Berne was 
made a free city by the emperor Frederick, May, 
1218 ; it successfully resisted Rudolph of Hapsburg, 
1288. It surrendered to the French under general 
Brune, 12 April, 1798. The town has bears for its 
arms, and some of these animals are still maintained 
on funds specially provided for the purpose. It was 



BEEEY. 



120 



BHOPAL. 



made capital of Switzerland, 1848. Population, 
1888: canton, 536,679 ; town, 46,009. 
The 700th anniversary of the foundation of Berne 
by duke Berchtold V. of Zahnugen, celebrated 

14-17 Aug. 1891 
Meeting of the International Geographical congress 

10-14 Aug. ,, 

BEEEY (the ancient Biturigum regis), central 
France, held by the Romans since the conquest by 
Csesar (58-50 B.C.) till it was subdued by the Visi- 
goths ; from whom it was taken by Clovis in a.d. 
507. It was erected into a duchy by John II. in 
1360, and was not incorporated into the royal do- 
mains till 1601. The due de Berry, son of Charles, 
and father of comte de Chambord, was assassinated 
13 Feb. 1820. 

BEESAGLIEEI, the sharpshooters of the 
Sardinian army, first employed about 1848. 

BEEWICK-ON-TWEED, a fortified town 
on the north-east extremity of England, the theatre 
of many bloody contests while England and Scot- 
land were two kingdoms ; it was claimed by the 
Scots because it stood on their side of the river. Here 
John Baliol did homage for Scotland, 30 Nov. 1292. 
It was annexed to England in 1333 ; and after hav- 
ing been taken and retaken many times, was finally 
ceded to England in 1482. In 1551 it was made 
independent of both kingdoms. The town sur- 
rendered to Cromwell in 1648, and to general Monk 
in 1659. Since the union of the crowns (James I. 
1603), the strong fortifications have been neglected. 
The borough was absorbed into Northumberland in 
1885 in respect to parliamentary elections. Popula- 
tion 1881, 13,998; 1891, 13,378. 

BESSABABIA, afrontier province of European 
Russia, part of the ancient Dacia. After being 
possessed by the Goths, Huns, &c, it was conquered 
by the Turks, 1474, seized by the Russians, 1770, 
and ceded to them in 1812. The part annexed to 
Roumania in 1856, was restored to Russia at the 
close of the war in 1878, in exchange for the 
Dobrudscha, by the treaty of Berlin, 13 July, and 
given up, 21 Oct. 1878. Population 1886, 1,612,175. 

BESSEMEE, see Steel and Steam Navigation. 

BETHELL'S ACT, see Fraudulent. 

BETHLEHEM now contains a large convent, 
enclosing, as is said, the very birthplace of Christ; 
a church erected by the empress Helena in the form 
of a cross, about 325; a chapel, called the Chapel of 
the Nativity, where they pretend to show the manger 
in which Christ was laid ; another, called the Chapel 
of Joseph ; and a third, of the Holy Innocents. 
Bethlehem is much visited by pilgrims. — The Beth- 
lehemite monks existed in England in 1257. 

BETHLEHEM HOSPITAL (so called from 
having been originally the hospital of St. Mary of 
Bethlehem), a royal foundation for the reception of 
lunatics, incorporated by Henry VIII. in 1547. The 
old Bethlehem Hospital, Moorfields, erected in 1676, 
pulled down in 1814, was built in imitation of the 
Tuileries at Paris. The present hospital in St. 
George' s-fields was begun April, 1812, and opened 
in 1815. In 1856 extensive improvements were 
completed under the direction of Mr. Sydney Smirke. 
Income 1876, 25,184/. 

BETHNAL GEEEN, E. London, a poor, 

populous parish ; said to have been the seat of Henry 
de Montfort, hero of the " Blind Beggar of Bethnal 
Green" {Percy Ballads). Many churches have been 
recently erected by the instrumentality of bishop 
Blomfield and others, and the district has been much 



favoured by the baroness Burdett-Coutts. The East 
London Museum here, a branch of that at South 
Kensington, was opened by the prince of Wales, 24 
June, 1872. Sir Richard Wallace lent to it for a 
time a collection of fine pictures and valuable curio- 
sit ies collected by his father, the marquis of Hert- 
ford. He died 20 July, 1890. The gardens opened 
19 May, 1875. See Parks. Returns two M.P.'s 
by Act of 1885. Population 1881, 126,961 ; 1891, 
129,134. 

BETHUNE, France, an independent lordship 
since the nth century, was annexed to the monarchy 
by the treaty of Utrecht, 17 13, after several changes. 

BETTEEMENT, is a term in American law, 
applied to the improvement of property in any 
locality, by the expenditure of public money or 
otherwise, and it is therefore held, that such pro- 
perty ought to be called upon to contribute more to 
taxation. The question was much discussed in 
1889-90 in relation to the Strand Improvement 
bill. 

BETTING-HOUSES, affordingmuch tempta- 
tion to gaming, and consequent dishonesty, in the 
lower classes, were suppressed by an act passed in 
1853 (16 & 17 Vict. c. 119). A Pari-mutuel, or 
mutual betting machine, in Aug., and the " Knights- 
bridge Exchange," a betting company, 2 Nov. 1870, 
were declared illegal, see Races. New Betting Act 
passed 8 June, 1874. 

In 1874 this Act was applied to betting stations at races ; 
legal proceedings against Mr. H. Chaplin, as steward 
of the Jockey Club, were quashed by the magistrates 
at Newmarket. 

Betting reported to have greatly increased, 1889, 1892. 

BEVEELEY, E. Yorkshire, the Saxon Bever- 
lac, or Beverlega. St. John of Beverley, arch- 
bishop of York, founded a stately monastery here, 
and died 721 ; and on his account the town received 
honours from Athelstane, William I., and other 
sovereigns. It was disfranchised for corruption in 
1870, after a long investigation. Population 1881, 
11,425; 1 891, 12,539. 

BEYEOUT (the ancient Berytus), a seaport of 
Syria, colonised from Sidon. It was destroyed by 
an earthquake, 566; was rebuilt, and was alter- 
nately possessed by the Christians and Saracens ; 
and after many changes, fell into the power of Amu- 
rath IV. It was taken during the Egyptian revolt 
by Ibrahim Pacha, in 1832. The total defeat of the 
Egyptian army by the allied British, Turkish, and 
Austrian forces, and evacuation of Bey rout (the 
Egyptians losing 7000 in killed, wounded, and pri- 
soners, and twenty pieces of cannon), took place 10 
Oct. 1840. Sir C. Napier was the English admiral 
engaged. Beyrout suffered greatly in consequence 
of the massacres in Syria in May, i860. In Nov. 
i860 above 27,000 persons were said to be in danger 
of starving. Population in 1885, 85,000. See Syria. 

BHOOTAN, a country north of Lower Bengal, 
with whom a treaty was made 25 April, 1774. After 
fruitless negotiations, Bhootan was invaded by tho 
British in Dec. 1864, in consequence of injurious 
treatment of an envoy. See India, 1864-5. 
By an insurrection the Deb Rajah was deposed, Aug. 1885. 

BHOPAL, capital of a native state in Central 
India, founded in 1723 by Dost Mohammed Khan, 
and made dependent on the British government in 
1818. The able female sovereign, the begum 
Shah Jahiin, received the grand cross of the Star 
of India in 1872. Bhopal was visited by the viceroy 
of India, Nov. 1891 ; when the begum welcomed 
him with a very loyal address. 



BHURTPORE. 



121 



BIBLE. 



BHURTPOBE (India), capital of Bhurtpore, 
was besieged by the British, 3 Jan. 1805, and at- 
tacked live times up to 21 March, without success. 
After a desperate engagement with Holkar, the 
Mahratta chief, 2 April, 1805, the fortress was sur- 
rendered to general Lake. By a treaty, the rajah 
of Bhurtpore agreed to pay twenty lacs of rupees, 
ceded territories that had been granted to him, and 
delivered his son as hostage, 17 April, 1805. On 
the rajah's death, during a revolt against his son, 
Bhurtpore was taken by storm, by lord Combermere, 
18 Jan. 1826 ; see India. 

BIANCHI (Whites), a political party at Flo- 
rence, in 1300, in favour of the Ghibelines or impe- 
rial party, headed by Vieri de' Cerchi, opposed the 
Neri (or Blacks), headed by Corsode' Donati. The 
latter banished their opponents, among whom was 
the poet Dante, in 1302. "Bianchi" were also 
male and female penitents, clothed in white, who 
travelled through Italy in Aug. 1399 ; and were 
suppressed by pope Boniface IX. , 1400. 

BIARCH Y- When Aristodemus, king of Sparta, 
died, he left two sons, twins, Eurysthenes and 
Procles ; and the people, not knowing to whom pre- 
cedence should be given, placed both upon the 
throne, and thus established the first biarchy, 1102 
B.C. The descendants of each reigned for about 
800 years. Herodotus. 

BIARRITZ, a bathing-place near Bayonne. 
Here resided the comtesse de Montijo and her 
daughter Eugenie, empress of the French, till her 
marriage, 29 Jan. 1853. It was frequently visited 
by the emperor and empress. 
Visited by Queen A'ictoria. . 7 March — 2 April, 1889 

BIBERACH (Wuitemberg). Here Moreau 
twice defeated the Austriar.s, — under Latour, 2 Oct. 
1796, and under Kray, 9 May, 1800. 

BIBLE (from the Greek biblos, a book), the 
name especially given to the Holy Scriptures. The 
Old Testament is said to have been collected and 
arranged by Ezra between 458 and 450 B.C. The 
Apocrypha are considered as inspired writings by 
the Roman Catholics, but iiot by the Jews and Pro- 
testants; * see Apocrypha. 

OLD TESTAMENT, f 

Genesis contains the history of the world 

from B.C. 4004 — 1635 

Exodus 1635— 1490 

Leviticus ........ 1490 

Numbers 1490— 1451 

Deuteronomy! 1451 

* In April, 1865, was published a proposal for raising 
a fund for exploring Palestine in order to illustrate the 
Bible by antiquarian and scientific investigation. The 
first meeting was held 22 June, 1865, the archbishop of 
York in the chair ; see Palestine. 

t The division of the Bible into chapters has been 
ascribed to archbishop Lanfranc in the nth, and to arch- 
bishop Langton in the 13th century ; but T. Hartwell 
Home considers the real author to ha\e been cardinal 
Hugo de Sancto Caro, about the middle of the 13th cen- 
tury. The division into sections was commenced by 
Rabbi Nathan (author of a Concordance), about 1445, and 
completed by Athras, a Jew, in 1661. The present divi- 
sion into verses was introduced by the celebrated printer, 
Kobert Stephens, in his Greek Testament (1551) and in 
his Latin Bible (1556-7). 

X Fragments of portions of this book, on leather, as- 
serted to have been written about the 8th century B.C., 
obtained from Arabs in Jerusalem by M. Shapira, were 
exhibited in the British Museum, Aug. 1883, and after a 
critical examination by Dr. Ginsburg and others, de- 
clared to be forged. M. Shapira, probably insane, com- 
mitted suicide at Rotterdam, 9 March, 1884. Dr. 
Harkavy, of St. Petersburg, published a report, about 



about B.C. 
from 



Job . . .' 
Joshua .... 

Judges 

Ruth .... 

1st and 2nd Samuel 

1st and 2nd Kings . 

1st and 2nd Chronicles 

Book of Psalms (principally by David) . 



Proverbs written 

Song of Solomon 

Ecclesiastes. 

Jonah 

Joel 

Hosea 

Amos . 

Isaiah 



about 
about 
about 
about 
about 
about 
about 
about 

Mii-ali about 

Nahum • . about 

Zephauiah about 

Jeremiah about 

Lamentations about 

Habakkuk about 

Daniel from 

Ezekiel from 

Obadiah about 

Ezra about 

Esther about 

Haggai about 

Zechariah about 

Nehemiah about 

Malachi ...... about 



1520 

1451— 1420 
14.25 — 1 120 
1322 — 1312 
1171 — 1017 
1015 — 562 
1004— 536 
1063 — 1015 
1000 — 700 
1014 

977 

862 

800 

785— 725 

787 

760 — 698 

750 — 710 

713 

630 

629— 588 

588 

626 

607— 534 

595— 574 

587 

536— 456 

521— 49s 

520 

520 — 518 

446— 434 

397 



NSW TESTAMENT. 

Gospels by Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, 

B.C. 5— a.d. 33 

Acts of the Apostles a.d. 33 — 65 

Epistles— 1st and 2nd of Paul to Thessalonians abt. 54 

To Galatians 58 

1st Corinthians. . . . - . . • • 59 

2nd Corinthians 60 

Romans 60 

Of James 60 

1st of Peter 60 

To Ephesians, Philipiiians, Colossians, Hebrews, 

Philemon 64 

Titus, and 1st to Timothy 65 

2nd to Timothy 66 

2nd of Peter 66 

Of Jude 66 

1st, 2nd, and 3rd of John after . . . .90 

Revelation 96 

The most ancient copy of the Hebrew Scriptures existed 
at Toledo, called the Codex of Hillel ; it was of very- 
early date, probably of the 4th century after Christ ; 
some say about 60 years before Christ. The copy of 
Ben Asher, of Jerusalem, was made about 1100. 
The reputed oldest copy of the Old and New Testament 
in Greek, is that in the Vatican, which was written in 
the 4th or 5th century. Mai's edition appeared in 1857. 
The next in age is the Alexandrian Codex (referred to 
the 5th century) in the British Museum, presented by 
the Greek patriarch to Charles I. in 1628. It has been 
printed in England, edited by Woide and Baber, 1786 — 
1821. — Codex Ephraemi, or Codex Regius, ascribed to 
the 5th century, in the Royal Library, Paris : published 
by Tischendorf in 1843. 
The Codex Sinaiticus, probably written in the 4th cen- 
tury, was discovered by M. Constautine Tischendorf, 
at St. Katherine's monastery in 1844 and 1859, and pre- 
sented to the czar of Russia, at whose cost a splendid 
edition was published in 1862. 
The Hebrew Psalter was printed at Bologna in 1477. The 
complete Hebrew Bible was first printed by Soncinoin 
Italy in 1488, and the Greek Testament (edited by 
Erasmus) at Rotterdam, in 1516. Aldus's edition was 
printed in 1518 ; Stephens' in 1546 ; and the text us rc- 
ceptus (or received text) by the Elzevirs in 1624. 

TRANSLATIONS. 

The Old Testament, in Greek, termed the Septuaghrt 
(which see), generally considered to have been made by 
order of Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt, aboul 
286 or 285 B.C.; of this many fabulous accounts are 
given. 

Aug. 1884, describing some apparently ancient Hebrew 
MS. rolls of Lamentations and other books, said to 
have been found by Jews in Rhodes about 1850. 



BIBLE. 



122 



BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 



Origen, after spending twenty-eight years in collating 
MSS., commenced his polyglot Bible at Ctesarea in a.d. 
231 ; it contained the Greek versions of Aquila, Sym- 
maehus, and Tlieodotion, all made in or about the 2nd 
century after Christ. 

The following are ancient versions : — Syriac, 1st or 2nd 
century ; the old Latin version, early in the 2nd cen- 
tury, revised by Jerome, in 384 ; who, however, com- 
pleted a new version in 405, now called the Vulgate 
(which see) ; the first edition was printed (without date) 
about 1456 ; the first dated 1462 ; — Coptic, 2nd or 3rd 
century ; Ethiopic ; Armenian, 4th or 5th century; 
Slavonic, 9th century ; and the Mmso-Gothic, by Ulttlas, 
the apostle of the Goths, about 360, a manuscript copy 
of which, called the Codex Argenteus, is at Upsal. 
The Psalms were translated into Saxon by bishop 
Aldhelm, about 706 ; Casdmon's metrical paraphrase 
of a portion of the Bible, about 680 ; and the Gospels 
by bishop Egbert, about 721 : parts of the Bible by 
Bede, in the 8th century. 

Bible Translation Society, founded 1840. 

ENGLISH VERSIONS AND EDITIONS. 

MS. paraphrase of the whole Bible at the Bodleian 
Library, Oxford, dated by Usher .... 1290 

Versions (from the Vulgate) by Wickliffe and his 
followers (above 170 MS. copies extant) . . 1356-84 

[Part published by Lewis, 1731 ; by Baber, 1810 ; 
the whole by Madden and Forshall. atOxford 1850.] " 

William Tyndale's version of Matthew and Mark- 
from the Greek printed, 1524 ; of the whole New 
Testament, 1525 ; 6 editions .... 1525-30 

Miles Coverdale's version of the whole Bible ; print- 
ing finished 4 Oct. 1535 

[Ordered by Henry VIII. to be laid in the choir of 
every church, "for every man that will to look 
and read therein. "] 

T. Matthews' (said to be fictitious name for John 
Rogers) version (partly by Tyndale* and Coverdale) 1537 

Cranmer's Great Bible (Matthews' revised), the first 
printed by authority 1539 

[Bible reading prohibited] .... 1502-57 

Geneva version, "Breeches Bible," (the first with 
figured verses), 1540-1557 ; published . . . 1560 

Archbishop Parker's called "The Bishops' Bible " 
(eight of the fourteen persons employed being 
bishops) I5 68 

King James's Bible, the present authorised version 
—revision began 1604 ; published . . . .1611 

[Dr. Benjamin Blayney's revised edition, 1769.] 

Roman Catholic authorised version : New Testa- 
ment, at Rheims, 1582 ; Old Testament, at Douay, 

1609-10 

Authorised Jewish English version . . . 1851-61 

The revision of the English version now in use was re- 
commended by the bishops in convocation, 10 Feb. 
1870. The committee, including eminent scholars of 
various denominations, appointed in May, held their 
first meeting at Westminster Abbey 22 June, 1870. 

Revision of the New Testament completed (103 sessions, 
or 407 days), n Nov. 1880 ; various editions published 
17 May, 3881. Revision of the Old Testament com- 
pleted, July, 1884. Published 19 May, 1885. 

Paragraph Bibles published in England by John Reeve., 
1808 ; by the Tract Society, 1848 ; at Cambridge, Mas- 
sachusetts, by Dr. Coit, 1834. 

Smallest Bible known (4^X2Xj inches: weight under 
3i oz.), issued from Oxford University press, Oct. 

MODERN TRANSLATIONS, t 
_ N. TEST. BIBLE. 

Flemish I4 __ 

Spanish (Valencian) . . . . I47 g 

German I522 I530 

English . . .... I52 6 1535 

French 4lf 

Swedish I526 I5 

Danish . 1524 1550 

* He was strangled at Antwerp, 6 Oct. 1536, at the 
instigation of Henry VIII. and his council. His last 
words were, " Lord, open the king of England's eyes !" 
14 editions of his Testament had then been published. 
His statue on the Thames embankment was uncovered 
7 May, 1884. 

t " The BiMe of Every Land," ed. i860, published by 
Messrs. Bagsters, London, is full of information respect- 
ing ancient and modern versions of the Bible. 



N.TEST. BIBLE. 

Dutch ........ 1475 

Italian 1471 

Spanish 1543 1569 

Russian (parts) 1519 1822 

Welsh 1567 1588 

Hungarian 1574 1589 

Bohemian . . > 1488 

Polish 1551 1561 

Virginian Indians . . .... 1661 1663 

Irish \ 1602 1686 

Georgian 1743 

Portuguese . . . . . . 1712 1748 

Manks 1748 1767 

Turkish 1666 1814 

Sanscrit 1808 1822 

Modern Greek 1638 1821 

Chinese 1814 1823 

Japanese '. 1888 

The British and Foreign Bible Society continue to 
make and print translations of the Bible in all the 
dialects of the world ; see Polyglot. 

BIBLE CHRISTIANS, a branch of the 
Methodists began in 1815 by "Win. O'Bryan, a 
Cornish lay preacher ; principally exist in the West 
of England. 

BIBLE DICTIONARIES. The most re- 
markable are Calmet's "Dictionary of the Bible," 
1722-8 ; Kitto's " Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature," 
1843 and 1851 ; and Smith's elaborate " Dictionary 
of the Bible," 1860-3 ; see Concordances* 

BIBLE SOCIETIES. Among the principal 
and oldest societies which have made the dissemina- 
tion of the Scriptures a collateral or an exclusive 
object, are the following : — 

Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge . . 1698 
Society for Propagating the Gospel in Foreign 

Parts " . . . . 1701 

Society in Scotland, for Promoting Christian Know- 
ledge 1709 

Society for Promoting Religious Knowledge among 

the poor 1750 

Naval and Military Bible Society .... 1780 

Sunday School Society 1785 

French Bible Society. . ... . . . 1792 

British and Foreign Bible Society, t begun 1803 ; or- 
ganised 1804 

Hibernian Bible Society 1806 

City of London Auxiliary Bible Society . . . 1812 
A bull from the pope, Pius VII., against Bible 
Societies appeared in 1817 

BIBLIA PAUPERUM (the Bible for the 

poor), consisting of engravings illustrating scripture 
history, with texts, carved in wood, a "block book," 
printed early in the 15th century, was compiled by 
Bonaventura, general of the Franciscans, about 1260. 
A fac-simile was published by J. R Smith, in 1859. 

BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, Society 

fok, established by Dr. Samuel Birch, and others, 
1871. Besides a journal, it has published, " Re- 
cords of the Past," translations from the Assyrian, 
Egyptian, and other languages, 1873-80. 

* An " Index to the Persons, Places, and Subjects oc- 
curring in the Holy Scriptures," compiled by B. Vincent, 
editor of the present work, was published by the queen's 
printers in 1848 ; others published since. 

t This society had issued 24,247,667 copies of the 
Bible or parts of it up to Jan. 1851 ; in May, 1863, the 
number had risen to 43,044,334 ; in 1S67 to 52,669,089 ; in 
1875 to 76,432,723 ; in March, 1881, to 91,014,448 ; in 
1884 to 100,035,933; in 1887 to 112,253,547; m 1890, 
to 123,929.046. The income of the year 1S76 was ^206,978 ; 
in the year 1,880-1, ,£209,519; in 1886-7, ^116,761; in 
1889-90, 212,077. In 1857 the society published a cata- 
logue of their library, which contains a large number of 
remarkable editions of the Bible. The foundation-stone 
of their new Central hall, Queen Victoria-street, London, 
was laid by the prince of Wales, 11 June, 1866. The 
society has promoted translations of the Bible into 225 
languages or dialects. 



BIBLICAL BROTHERHOOD. 



123 



BILLS OF MORTALITY. 



. BIBLICAL BROTHERHOOD. A Rus- 
sian sect founded in 1880 by four Jews to reconcile 
Hebraism with Christianity. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY, the Science of Books. 

Gesner's " Bibliotheca Universale " appeared . . 1345 
De Bure's " Bibliographie Instructive " . . . 1763 

Peignot, Manuel 1 

Home, Introduction to the Study of Bibliography . 1814 
Brunei's Manuel du Libraire, 1st edit. 1810 ; 5th ed. , 

with supplements 1860-80 

Scriptural, Orme, Bibliotheca Biblica, 1824 ; Dar- 
ling, Bibliographica 1854-8 

Classical, the works of Fabricius, Clarke, and 

Dibdin. 
English, Watt's Bibliotheca Britannica . . . 1824 
Lowndes, Bibliographer's Manual, 1834 ; new ed. by 

Bohn 1857-62 

Allibone's Dictionary of English Literature, 1859-71 ; 

supplement by John F. Kirk .... 1891 
British Catalogues, by Sampson Low . . 1835-88 
French, Querard 1828-64 

BIBLIOMANIA (or book madness) very much 
prevailed in 181 1, when Dr. Dibdin's work with this 
title was published ; see Boccaccio, and Printing, 
1450-5- 

BICOCCA, N. Italy. Lautrec and the French 
were here defeated by Colonna and the Imperialists, 
29 April, 1522, and Francis thereby lost his con- 
quests in Milan. 

BICYCLE, see Velocipede. 

BIDASSOA. The allied army under lord Wel- 
lington, having driven the French from Spain, 
effected the passage of this river 8 Oct. 1813, and 
entered France. 

BIDDENDEN MAIDS- A distribution of 
bread and cheese to the poor takes place at Bidden- 
den, Kent, on Easter Mondays, the expense being 
defrayed from the rental of twenty acres of land, 
in 1875 yielding about 20I. a year, the reputed 
bequest of the Biddenden maids, two sisters named 
Chulkhurst, said to have been joined together like 
the Siamese twins, and to have died in the 12th 
century. In 1656, Wm. Horner, the rector, was 
non-suited in an attempt to add the "Bread and 
Cheese lands " to his glebe. 

BIGAMY. The Romans branded the guilty 
party with an infamous mark ; and in England the 
punishment, formerly, was death. An act respect- 
ing it was passed 5 Edw. T. 1276. Yinef s Statutes. 
Declared to be felony, without benefit of clergy, 1 
James I. 1603. Punishable, by imprisonment or 
transportation, 35 Geo. III. 1794; by imprisonment, 
24 & 25 Tict. c. 100 (1861). 

BIG BETHEL (Virginia, U.S.). On 10 June, 
1861, the Federals were defeated in an attack on 
some Confederate batteries at this place. 

BILBAO (N.E. Spain), founded about 1300 ; 
was taken by the French and held a few days, July, 
1795. It was delivered from the Carlists by Espar- 
tero, assisted by the British, 24 Dec. 1836." It was 
besieged by Carlists from Feb. to May, 1874, when 
the siege was raised by marshal Concha, who entered 
Bilbao 2 May. Population, 1887, 50,772. 

Strike of ironworkers, riotous proceedings, conflict 
with the police, state of siege, and military occu- 
pation 14— 16 May, 1890 

Great fire in the dockyard, estimated damage, 
2,500,000 pesetas 1 May, 1891 

Great strike of miners, middle Jan., disturbances; 
intervention of the military ; state of siege, 27 
Jan. ; work resumed, 8 Feb. ; quiet restored 

16 Feb. 1892 



BILL OF EXCEPTIONS. The right of 
tendering such a bill to a judge, either to his charge, 
to his definition of the law, or to other errors of the 
court, at a trial between parties, provided by the 
2nd statute of Westminster, 13 Edw. I. 1284, was 
abolished by the Judicature Act, 1875. 

823 i BILL OF PAIN'S, &c. ; see Queen Caroline. 

BILL OF RIGHTS, &c. ; see Rights. 

BILLIARDS. The French ascribe their inven- 
tion to Henrique Devigne, an artist, about 1571. 
Slate billiar.d tables were introduced in England in 
1827. 

BILLINGSGATE, the fish-marketin London, 
is said to have derived its name from Belinus Mag- 
nus, a British prince, the father of king Lud,400B.C, 
but Stow thinks from a former owner. It was the 
old port of London, and the customs were paid here 
under Ethelred II., a.d. 979. Stow. Billingsgate 
was made a free market, 1699. Chamberlain. Fish 
by land-carriage, as well as sea-borne, now arrives 
daily here. In 1849, the market was extended and 
improved, and a new one was erected in 1852, Mr. 
Bunning, architect. Another new one, erected by 
Horace Jones, founded 27 Oct. 1874 ! completed 
Sept. 1876; lit by electric iight, 25 Nov. 1878. Bil- 
lingsgate market was declared to be insufficient for 
the fish supply of the metropolis in the report of 
the commission appointed by the city corporation, 
presented to the common council, II Aug. 1881. 

BILLS OF EXCHANGE were invented by 
the Jews as a means of removing their property from 
nations where they were persecuted, 1 160. Anderson. 
Bills are said to have been used in England, 1307. 
Theonlylegal modeof sending money from England, 
4 Richard II. 1381. Regulated, 1698 ; first stamped, 
1782; duty advanced, 1797; again, June 1801 ; and 
since. It was made capital to counterfeit bills of 
exchange in 1734. In 1825, the year of disastrous 
speculations in bubbles, it was computed that there 
were 400 millions of pounds sterling represented by 
bills of exchange and promissory notes. The present 
amount is not supposed to exceed 50 millions. The 
many statutes regarding bills of exchange were con- 
solidated by act 9 Geo. IV. 1828. An act regulating 
bills of exchange passed 3 Vict. July, 1839. Great 
alterations were made in the law on the subject by 
17 & 18 Vict. c. 83 (1854), and 18 & 19 Vict. c. 67 
(1855). Days of grace were abolished in the case of 
bills of exchange payable on sight in Aug. 1871. 
Forgery of bills to obtain discount was detected by 
the bank of England, 28 Feb., after 102,217/. had 
been paid. The culprits (Americans) were tried 
and condemned to penal servitude for life, 26 Aug. 
1873. See Trials, Aug. 1873. 

A Bills of Exchange Act, declaring the law relating to 
acceptance, passed 16 April, 1878 ; new Act passed 18 
Aug. 1882. 



BILLS OF MORTALITY for Loxdox- 

These bills were first compiled by order of Cromwell, 
about 1538, 30 Hen. VIII., but in a more formal and 
recognised manner in 1603, after the great plague 
of that year. No complete series of them has been 
preserved. They have besn superseded by the 
weekly returns of the registrar-general, since 1S37. 
See Public Health. The following show the 
numbers for London at decennial periods : — 

Chrisleninga. Burials. I Christenings. Burials. 

1780 16,634 20,507 1820 26,158 19.348 

1790 18,980 18,038 ! 1830 27,028 23,524 

1800 19,176 23,068 I 1840 30.387 26.774 

1810 19,930 19,892 I 1850 39,973 3 6 >947 



BILLS OF SALE. 



124 



BIRDS. 



1845 



^853 
1856 



Births. 
502.303 
543.521 
578,159 
612,391 

657.453 
655,481 



IN ENGLAND AND WALES. 

Births. 



1-859 689,881 

ENGLAND AND 

Births. 
748,069 
753.870 
768,349 



Deaths. 
356,634 
349.366 
440,839 
421,097 
390,506 
449,656 
441,790 



1863 
1864 
1865 



684,048 
696,406 
712,684 
7 2 7.4i7 
740.275 
748,069 



Deaths. 
422,721 
436,114 
436,573 
473.837 
495.531 
490,909 



-S870. 
1871 
1872 
1873 
1874 

58 7 5: 

11876 
3877 



773.381 
792,787 
797,428 
825,907 
829,778 

854.956 

850,607 

887,968 
888,200 

891,906 

880,389 
881,643 
883,642 
889,018 

890,722 
906,750 
894,270 
903,866 
886,331 
879,868 

885,944 
869,937 
9*3,836 



WALES. 

Deaths. 
490,909 
500,689 
471.073 
480,622 
494,828 
515.329 
514.879 
492,265 
492,520 
526,632 
546,453 
510.315 
500,496 
539.872 
526,255 
528,624 
491.935 
516,654 
522,997 
530,828 
522,750 
537.276 
530.758 
5 IO >97i 
5i8,353 
562,248 
587,666 



SCOTLAND. 

Births. Deaths. 
113,126 70,821 



IRELAND." 

Births. Deaths. 
144,970 93,154 



113,639 


7 I > 2 73 


146,237 


93,598 


"4>"5 


69,024 


144,318 


93, 9 11 


115,673 


69,386 


146,108 


86,803 


H3.395 


75,789 


145,659 


89,573 


"5.423 


74,067 


150,151 


90,695 


116,127 


74,644 


151,665 


88,720 


118,873 


75,741 


149,292 


97,577 


119,738 


76,857 


144,377 


97,537 


123.795 


80,676 


141,28s 


91,961 


123,693 


81,785 


138,320 


98,114 


126,749 


74,122 


140,469 


92,324 


126,824 


73.946 


139,659 


93.543 


126,707 


76,775 


i34."7 


99,629 


125,736 


73,329 


i35,328 


105,089 


124,652 


75,795 


128,086 


102,906 


126,214 


72,301 


125,847 


90,035 


126,182 


72.966 


122,648 


88,500 


124,462 


76,867 


118,163 


96,228 


129,041 


75,128 


118,875 


87> T 54 


126,110 


74,603 


H5,95i 


90,712 


127,927 


73,622 


113,927 


87,292 


124,418 


74,546 


112,400 


88,585 


123,269 


7i,i74 


109,557 


85,868 


122,783 


73,238 


107,841 


82,908 


121,530 


78,978 


105,254 


85,850 


125,965 


83,548 


107,883 


86,053 



IN LONDON AND SUBURBS, (52 OR 53 WEEKS). 

Births. Deaths. 

*854 84,684 .... 73,697 

T856 .... 86,833 . • . . 57,786 
^858 (Females, 43,400) . 88,620 (Females, 31,319) 63,882 

1862 .... 97,114 . . . . 66,950 

3864 102,187 .... 77.723 

2867 (Females, 54,862) . 112,264 • • • • 70.588 

a868 (53 weeks) . . 115,744. • ■ ■ 74.908 

1869 m,93o . . . • 77,933 

1870 .... 113,449 .... 77,278 

1871 112,535 ■ ... 80,332 

1872 .... 117,200. . . . 70,893 

1873 (53 weeks) . . 121,100 . . . . 76,334 
7874 .... 121,394 •••• 76,606 

1875 . . ... 122,871 . . . . 81,513 

1876 (Females, 62,095) 127,015 .... 77,411 
.1878 .... 129,184 .... 83,695 

1879 i34,o9 6 • ... 85,540 

1880 (Females, 64,659) . 132,173 (Females, 39,426) 81,128 

1882 . . . 133,200 . . . 82,905 

3883 . . . 133,656. . . . 80,578 

1885 . . . 132,952. . . . 80,946 

1887 . . . 133,359 .... 82,449 

1888 (52 weeks) . . 131,080 . . . 78,848 
"1889 .... 132,223 .... 76,026 

1890 128,161 87,689 

-1891 .... 134,003 . . g ,216 

BILLS OF SALE, an act to consolidate and 
amend the law for preventing frauds upon creditors 
by secret bills of sale of personal chattels (41 & 42 
Tict. c. 31) passed 22 July, 1878, amended, 1882. 

BI-METALLISM, the system of having two 
■standard metallic currencies in a country, gold and 
■silver, much advocated by MM. H. Cernuschi and 
E. Lavellye, and others since 1867. By 56 Geo. 
III. c. 68 "(1816), it was enacted that " gold coins 
only should be legal tender in all payments of 
more than 40,5." in this country; the tender of 
silver being previously unlimited. A bi-metallic 
currency was established in France in 1803. It 
was recommended for Germany in 1879, and was 

* Approximative : registration defective. 



discussed at the Monetary Conference at Paris, 

April, 1881. The unrestricted coinage of silver was 

suspended in the countries termed the Latin Union 

in 1873. 

The Bimetallic League hold a conference at Man- 
chester 4 April, 1888 

The marquis of Salisbury and Mr. Goschen declare 
their neutrality to a deputation, 30 May, 1889 ; 

11 May, 1892 

Mr. Samuel Smith's resolution proposing an inter- 
national conference on bi-metallism negatived by 
the commons, 183—87 . . . .18 April, 1890 

The Bimetallic League declare that their chief 
object is to secure the opening of the mints of the 
leading nations, to the unrestricted coinage of 
silver and gold at a fixed ratio, Nov. 1890 ; an- 
nual meeting 2 March, 1892 

BINARY ARITHMETIC, that which counts 
by twos, for expeditiously ascertaining the property 
of numbers, and constructing tables, was invented 
by Leibnitz of Leipsic, about 1703. For the Binary 
theory in chemistry, see Compound Radical. 

BINOMIAL ROOT, in Algebra, composed of 
only two parts connected with the signs plus or 
minus; a term first used by Recorda, about 1550, 
when he published his Algebra. The celebrated 
binomial theorem of Newton is said to have been 
discovered in 1663. 

BIOGRAPHY (from the Greek bios, life, and 
grapho, I write), defined as "history teaching by 
example." The book of Genesis contains the bio- 
graphy of the patriarchs ; and the Gospels that of 
Christ. Plutarch wrote the Lives of Illustrious 
Men ; Cornelius Nepos, Lives of Military Com- 
manders ; and Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve 
Caesars (all three in the first century after Christ) ; 
Diogenes Laertius, Lives of the Philosophers (about 
205). — Boswell's Life of Johnson (published in 
1790) is the most remarkable English biography. 
Mr. John Wilson Croker's edition appeared in 1831. 
A magnificent edition, edited by Rev. Alex. Napier, 
published by Messrs. Bell, Feb. 1884. An excel- 
lent edition by Dr. George Birkbeck Hill (Claren- 
don Press), published June, 1887. 
Important Dictionaries. — Biographie Universelle, 85 vols. , 
1811-62 ; Nouvelle Biographie Generate, 46 vols., 
1S52-66 ; General Biographical Dictionary, by Alex. 
Chalmers, 32 vols., 1812-17 ; New General Biographi- 
cal Dictionary, by H. J. Rose, 12 vols., 1848 ; Bio- 
graphia Britannica, 7 vols., 1747 ; Dictionary of 
National Biography, by Leslie Stephen and Sidney 
Lee, vol. i. published by Smith, Elder & Co., 1 Jan. 
1885 ; vol. xxxi. June, 1892. 

BIOLOGY, termed the science of life and living 
things, by Treviranus, of Bremen, in his work on 
Physiology, published 1802-22. Biology includes 
zoology, anthropology, and ethnology [which see). 
Herbert Spencer's " Principles of Biology," pub- 
lished 1865-67. T. H. Huxley, "Piactical in- 
struction in Biology," 1875. In 1831 about 70,000 
animals were known and described ; in 1881, about 
320,000. Sir John Lubbock. 

A society for the Biological Investigation of the Coasts 
of the United Kingdom, established by the Royal 
Society and others 31 March, 1884 ; president, professor 
Huxley ; incorporated as the Marine Biological Asso- 
ciation ; patron the prince of Wales ; fine laboratory 
set up at Plymouth, cost 13,000^. ; opened 30 June, 
1888. See Naples, 1872. Annual reports issued. 

BIRCH TREE. The black {Betula nigra), 
brought from North America, 1736. The birch tree 
known as the Betula pumila, introduced into Kew 
gardens, England, by Mr. James Gordon, from 
North America, 1762. Hardy's Annals. 

BIRDS were divided by Linnaeus into six orders 
(1735) ! bv Blumenbach into eight (1805) ; and by 
Cuvier, into six (1817). The most remarkable works 



BIEKBECK. 



125 



BIRMINGHAM. 



are those published by John Gould, F.R.S. ; they 
consist of 44 folio volumes of coloured plates, 
&e. They now include the birds of Europe, Asia, 
Australia, Great Britain, and New Guinea, besides 
monographs of the humming-birds, &c, 1889-92. 
John Gould died 3 Feb. 1881. Dr. John Latham's 
"Synopsis of Birds," 1781-90. John James 
Audubon's " Birds of America," 1826-40. See 
Wild Birds. 
British Ornithologists' Union" founded 1858; 
published the " Ibis" 1859, et seq. 
A morphological classification of birds (based on 
Huxley's), put forth by professors Parker and 
Newton; Encyclopaedia Britannica, 9th ed. . 1875 
The Wild Birds Protection Act, 43 & 44 Vict. c. 35, 

passed 7 Sept. 1880 

International Congress of Ornithologists, 1st meet- 
ing, at Vienna, April 7-11, 1884 ; second congress 
met at Budapest . , . . . May 17, 1891 

A "Plumage League " formed by lady Mount- 
Temple, Rev. F. O. Morris and others to check 
the destruction of wild birds, whose plumage is 

used for ornament Dec. 1885. 

Twenty-ninth annual bird show at the Crystal 

Palace 27 Feb. — 2 March, 1892 

See Selborne Society. 

BIEKBECK Literary and Scientific 

INSTITUTION, Bream's buildings, W.C., the pre- 
sent name of the mechanics' institution founded by 
Dr. Birkbeck in 1823. Foundation stone of new 
building laid by the Duke of Albany, 23 April, 
1883. New building opened with an address by 
Dr. Tyndall, 22 Oct. 1884; formally by Prince of 
"Wales, 4 July, 1885. Room for 6,060 students. 

BIBKENHEAD (Cheshire), a modern town 
on the Mersey, opposite to Liverpool. The great 
dock here was projected by Mr. John Laird, con- 
structed by Mr. Rendell, and opened in Aug. 1847 
by lord Morpeth. In 1861 Birkenhead was made a 
parliamentary borough, and Mr. Laird was elected 
first representative. He died 29 Oct. 1874. Bir- 
kenhead received a charter of incorporation in 1878. 
Population in 1831, 200; in 1861, 51,649; in 1871, 
65,971 ; ini88i, 84,006; 1891,99,184. See Wrecks, 
1852. 

BIEMAN EMPIEE or Empire of Ava, 

see Burmah and India. 

BIRMINGHAM (Warwickshire) existed in 
the reign of Alfred. There were "many smythes" 
here in the time of Henry VIII. (Leland), but its 
great importance commenced in the reign of 
William III. See Population. 

Grammar school founded by Edward VI. . . 1552 

Besieged and taken by prince Rupert . . . . 1643 
Button manufactures established . ... . 1689 
Soho works established by Matthew Boulton about 
1764 ; and steam engine works about . . . 1774 

Birmingham Canal originated 1767 

Dr. Ash's hospital founded, 1766 ; first Birmingham 

musical festival for it 1768 

Riots against Dr. Priestley and others commemo- 
rating the French Revolution, much property 
destroyed ...... 14 July, 1791 

Theatre destroyed by fire ... 7 Aug. 1792 

Theatre burnt 7 Jan. 1820 

Political Union, formed by T. Attwood . Feb. 183 1 

Birmingham made a borough by Reform Act (2 

members) 1832 

Town-hall built 1833 

Political Union dissolved itself . . 10 May, 1834 

Birmingham and Liverpool railway opened as the 

Grand Junction 4 July, 1837 

London and Birmingham railway opened its entire 

length 17 Sept. 1838 

Great Chartist riot ; houses burnt . . 15 July, 1839 
Town incorporated, and Police Act passed . . „ 
Meeting of British Association . . 29 Aug. ,, 

Queen's College incorporated 1843 

Corn Exchange opened .... 27 Oct. 1847 
British Association (meet again) . . 12 Sept. 1849 
Queen's College organised Jan. 1853 



Birmingham and Midland Institute incorporated . 1854. 
Public park opened (ground virtually given by 

Mr. Adderley) 3 Aug. 1856 

New music-hall opened .... 3 Sept. ,, 
Another park opened by the duke of Cambridge, 
100,000 persons present (ground given by lord 

Calthorpe) 1 June, 1857 

Death of G. F. Muntz, M.P. . . . 30 July, „ 
John Bright elected M. P. 10 Aug. 1857, and April, 1859, 
The queen and prince consort visit Birmingham, 
Warwick, &c. , for the first time, and open Aston 

park 14-16 June, 185S 

The Free Library opened . . . .4 April, 1861 
Factory explosion : 9 killed ... 23 June, 1862. 
People's park purchased by corporation . Sept. 1864 

New Exchange opened 2 Jan. 1865 

The bank of Attwoods and Spooner stops payment 

and causes much distress . . 10 March, „ 

Meeting of British Association (3rd) . 6 Sept. ,, 
Stoppage of the " Banking Company " 13 July, 1866 

First annual horse show , , 

Great Reform meeting „ 

Violent riots through the lectures of. Murphy, an 

anti-popery orator, at a tabernacle 17, 18 June, 1867 
An additional M.P. given to Birmingham by 

Reform Act 15 Aug. ,, 

Meeting of Nat. Social Science Association, 7 Oct. 1868 
First club house here opened . . .3 May, 1869, 
Erdington orphan houses, endowed by Josiah 
Mason, a manufacturer of steel-pens ; begun 1858 ; 

finished July, ,, 

National Education League meet . . 12, 13 Oct. ,, 
Explosion at Kynoch's cartridge-factory, Witton, 

many deaths and injuries . . . 17 Nov. 1870 

Explosions at Messrs. Ludlow's cartridge-factory at 
Witton, 17 killed and 53 injured, several dying 
soon after: noon, 9 Dec. ; 33 dead up to 13 Dec. ; 

51 up to 26 Dec , f 

Prince Arthur opens Royal Horticultural Exhibi- 
tion 25 June, 1872; 

Sir Josiah Mason (knighted 1872) endows a college 

for practical science J 873, 

Cannon-hill park (presented to the town by Miss 

Rylands) opened 1 Sept. , r 

Speech of Mr. Bright (after re-election on resuming 
office as chancellor of duchy of Lancaster) to 
about 16,000 persons in Bingley hall . 22 Oct. , r 
Statue of Priestley (in commemoration of his dis- 
covery of oxygen) unveiled by prof. Huxley 1 Aug. 18741 
Visit of the prince and princess of Wales, 3 Nov. ,, 
Foundation of sir Josiah Mason's college laid by 

himself and Mr. Bright ... 23 Feb. 1875 
Birmingham Philosophical Society founded 28 Feb. 1876 
Wm, Dudley bequeaths ioo,oooZ. for charitable pur- 
poses in Birmingham .... March, ,, 
Annual meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society 

17-24 July, , r 
Great Western arcade opened . . .28 Sept. ,, 
Mr. W. E. Gladstone addresses about 30,000 persons 

in Bingley hall 31 May, 1877 

Birmingham liberal federation formed . May, June, , 
Fire at Mr. Denison's, confectioner ; Mrs. Denison 
and 3 others perish, 26 Aug. ; verdict at inquest, 
arson, criminal unknown ... 30 Sept. 187S' 
Central library, comprising the chief free reference 
library and the Shakspeare library, Cervantes 
collection, &c, with priceless treasures, destroyed 

by fire 11 Jan. i87o> 

Death of sir Josiah Mason . . . 16 June, 1881 

Discovery of nitre-glycerine manufacture carried 

on by Alfred Whitehead (arrested) ; box conveyed 

to London seized 4 April ; a large quantity made 

into dynamite, at great risk burnt in a field 

8 April, 1885 
[See Dynamite April, 1884.] 
Festival in honour of John Bright, 25 years M.P. 
for Birmingham ; silver dessert-service presented 

n-i5June, ,, 
Statue of the queen, by T. Woollier (to accompany 
that of the Prince Consort, by Foley), in tin' 
Free Library, uncovered . . . . 9 May, 1S84, 
Great reform demonstration, Mr. Bright and Mr. 

Chamberlain present .... 4 Aug. ,, 
Great Conservative demonstration at Aston (sir 
Stafford Northcote, lord Randolph Churchill, 
and others), prevented by brutal rioters; a free 
fight ; many wounded ami much damage of pro- 
perty 13 Oct. ,, 



BIETHS. 126 



BISHOPS. 



Statue of sir Josiah Mason unveiled by sir John 

Lubbock i Oct. 1885 

The prince of Wales opens a suburban hospital and 

new art gallery . .. . . 27-28 Nov. „ 
An industrial exhibition opened . . 26 Aug. 1886 
Meeting of the British Association here (4th) 1 Sept. „ 
Returns seven M.P.s by act passed . . 25 June, 1885 
The Queen lays foundation stone of the "Victoria 
(Law) Courts ; " about 500,000 persons out ; no 
disturbance or casualties, 23 March ; Mr. T. 
Martineau, the mayor, knighted . 25 March, 1887 
Miss Rylands presents 2,000?. to enlarge Victoria 

Park Oct, „ 

Birmingham Liberal Unionist Association ; Mr. 

Chamberlain elected president . . 28 May, 1888 
Mr. Ph. Muntz, an eminent townsman, died 25 Dec. ,, 
Birmingham created a city . . -14 Jan. 1889 
Death of Miss Louisa Ann Rylands, great benefac- 
tress to the town, aged 75 . . : 28 Jan. ,, 
Death of Mr. John Bright, M.P. . 27 March, ,, 
His son, Mr. J. Albert Bright, elected his successor 

as M.P 15 April, ,, 

The Victoria law courts opened by the prince of 
Wales . . .... 21 July, 1891 

Birmingham Water bill (supply to be brought from 
the rivers Elan and Claerwan in Mid Wales) ; read 
second time 8 March, 1892 

BIETHS. The births of children were taxed 
in England, viz. : birth of a duke, 30/. ; of a common 
person, 2s., 7 Will. III. 1695. Taxed again, 1783. 
The instances of four children at a birth are 
numerous; but it is recorded that a woman of 
Konigsberg (3 Sept. 1784), and the wife of Nelson, a 
tailor, of Oxford-market, London (Oct. 1800), had 
five children at a birth. The queen usually pre- 
sents a small sum of money to a poor woman giving 
birth to three or more living children at one tune. 
See Bills of Mortality and Registers. 

BISHOP (Greek episcopos, overseer), a name 
given by the Athenians to those who had the in- 
spection of the city. The Jews and Romans had 
also like officers. 'St. Peter, styled the first bishop 
of Rome, was martyred 65. The presbyter was the 
same as a bishop. ' Jerome. The episcopate became 
an object of contention about 144. The title of 
pope was anciently assumed by all bishops, and 
was exclusively claimed by Gregory VII. (1073-85). 

BISHOP OF LONDON'S FUND, see 

under Church of England, 1864, et seq. ; amount 

received up to 31 Dec. 1878, 603,718/. 

A special appeal was made by the bishop, 27 May, 1886 ; 

23,074?. 19s. 4<1 received in 1S88 ; 27.785?. 10s. 1889 ; 

17,000?. in 1890. 

BISHOPS IN ENGLAND* were coeval with 
the introduction of Christianity. The see of London 
is mythically said to have been founded by Lucius, 
king of Britain, 179. Restitutus, bishop of London, 
is said to have been present at the council of Aries, 
314. The early dates given below are doubtful. 

Bishops made barons 1072 

Intervention of the pope in regard to bishops, 13th 

century 
The Congi d'Elire of the king to choose a bishop 

originated in an arrangement by king John. 
Bishops were elected by the king's Congi d'Elire, 

25 Henry VIII 1534 

Bishops to rank as barons by stat. 31 Hen. VIII. . 1540 
Seven were deprived for being married . . . 1554 
J3everal suffered martyrdom under queen Mary, see 

Protestants i555"6 

Bishops excluded from voting in the house of peers 

on temporal concerns, 16 Charles I: 1641 

Several protest against the legality of acts of parlia- 
ment passed while they are deprived of votes, 

28 Dec. ; committed to the tower . 30 Dec. „ 



The order of archbishops and bishops abolished by 
the parliament 9 Oct. 1646 

Bishops regain their seats .... Nov. 1661 

Seven bishops (Canterbury, Bath, Chichester, St. 
Asaph, Bristol, Ely, and Peterborough) sent to 
the tower for not reading the king's declaration 
for liberty of conscience (intended to bring the 
Roman Catholics into ecclesiastical and civil 
power), 8 June ; tried and acquitted, 29-30 June, 1688 

The archbishop of Canterbury (Dr. Sancroft) and 
five bishops (Bath and Wells, Ely, Gloucester, 
Norwich, and Peterborough) suspended for refus- 
ing to take the oaths to William and Mary, 1689 ; 
deprived 1690 

Retirement of bishops : The bishops of London and 
Durham retired on annuities 1856 

The bishop of Norwich resigned .... 1857 

The Bishops' Resignation (for Infirmity) Act, (author- 
ising the appointment of bishop coadjutors), 
passed, 11 Aug;. 1869; made perpetual by Act 
passed 14 June, 1875 

Bishopric of St. Albans created, and dioceses of 
London, Winchester, and Rochester re-arranged 
38 & 39 Vict. c. 34 ; passed . . .29 June, ,, 

Bishopric of Truro founded, 39 & 40 Vict. c. 54 ; 
passed 11 Aug. 1876 

The Bishoprics Act, 41 & 42 Vict. c. 68, authorises 
the endowment of four new bishoprics, Liver- 
pool, Newcastle, and Wakefield (York), and 
Southwell (Canterbury). The number of bishops 
in parliament is not to be increased . 16 Aug. 1878 



ENGLISH BISHOPRICS. 



Sees. 

London (abpe.) 

York (abpe.) 

Sodor and Man 

Llandaff 

St. David's 

Bangor* ' 

St. Asaph 

Canterbury (abpe.) 

Rochester . 

London (see London) . 

EastAnglia(afterwards 
Norwich, 1091) . . 

Lindisfarne, or Holy 
Island (afterwards 
Durham, 995) . 

West Saxons, (after- 
wards Winchester, 
705) .... 

Mercia (afterwards 
Lichfield, 669) . 

Hereford 

Worcester . . 

Lindisse (afterwards 
Lincoln, 1067). 



Founded. 

(?) i79 
4th cent. 
4th cent. 
5th cent. 
5th cent, 
about 5 16 
about 560 
598 



630 



634 



Sees. Founded. 

Sherborne (afterwards 

Salisbury, 1042) . . 705 
Cornwall and Devon- 
shire (afterwards 
Exeter, 1050) . . 909 
Wells . . . . „ 
Selsey about 681 ; re- 
moved to Chichester 

about 1082 
Bath . ... 1088 
Ely .... 1108 
Carlisle . . . . 1132 
Peterborough . . 1541 
Gloucester t . . . ,, 



Bristol t 

Chester . 

Oxford 

Ripon 

Manchester 

St. Alban's 

Truro 

Liverpool 

Newcastle . 

Southwell 

Wakefield 



1542 



1847 
1876 
1877 



* Bishops have the titles of Lord and Right Rev. Father 
in God. The archbishops of Canterbury and York have 
the title of tlrace. The bishops of London, Durham, and 
Winchester have precedence of all bishops ; the others 
rank according to seniority of consecration. 



. 18S8 

BISHOPS IN IRELAND are said to have been 
consecrated in the 2nd century ; see Church of Ireland. 
Prelacies were constituted, and divisions of the 
bishopries in Ireland made, by cardinal Paparo, 
legate from pope Eugene III. .... 1151 

Several prelates deprived by queen Mary . . . 1554 
Bp. Atherton suffered death ignominiously . . 1640 
Two bishops deprived for not taking the oaths to 

William and Mary 1691 

Church Temporalities Act, for reducing the number 
of bishops in Ireland, 3 <& 4 Will. IV., c. 37, passed 

14 Aug. 1833 
[By this statute, of the four archbishoprics of Armagh, 
Dublin, Tuam, and Cashel, the last two were to be 
abolished on the decease of the then archprelates, 
which has since occurred ; and it was enacted that 
eight of the then eighteen bishoprics should, as they 
became void, be henceforth unitedto other sees, which 
was accomplished in 1850 ; so that the Irish church 
at present consists of two archbishops and ten 
bishops.] 

* An order in council, Oct. 1838, directed the sees of 
Bangor and St. Asaph to be united on the next vacancy 
in either, and Manchester, a new see, to be created 
thereupon : this order, as regarded the union of the sees, 
was rescinded 1846. 

t The sees of Bristol and Gloucester were united, 
1836, separated,. 1884. 



BISHOPS. 



127 



BISHOPS. 



Ossory 


founded 


402 


Ferns . 


about 598 


Trim . 




432 


Cloyue . 


before 604 


Killala . 


. about 


434 


Cork . 


about 606 


Armagh, 445 


; abpc. . 


1152 


Glandalough 


before 612 


Emly 


. about 


448 


Derry 


before 618 


Elphin 




45o 


Kilmacduaeh 


about 620 


Ardagh . 




454 


Lismore 


about 631 


Clogher 


before 


493 


Leiglilin 


• 632 


Down 


. about 


499 


Mayo 


about 665 


Ardfert and 


Aghadoe 




Raphoe 


before 885 




before 


500 


Cashel, befoi 


e 901 ; 


Connor 


about 




abj>c. 


• 115 2 


Tuam, about 501 ; 




Killaloe, abpc. 


. . 1019 


abpc. . 




IIS2 


Waterford . 


. 1096 


Droniore 


about 


Sio 


Limerick. 


before 1106 


Kildare . 


. before 


5*9 


Kilmore 


• 1136 


Meath . 




520 


Dublin, abpc. . 


• • 1152 


Aehonry 




5 30 


Kilfenora 


before 1254 


Louth . 




534 


(For the new combina- 


Clonmacnois 




548 


tions, see the sepa- 


Clonfert 




5S3 


rate articles.) 


Ross 


. about 


570 







BISHOPS FN" SCOTLAND were probably 
nominated in the fourth century. 

The Reformers, styling themselves "the Congrega- 
tion of the Lord," having taken up arms and 
defeated the queen-mother, Mary of Guise, called a 
parliament, which set up a new form of church 
polity on the Genevese model, in which bishops 
were replaced by " superintendents " . . . 1561 
Episcopacy restored by the regent Morton (see Tul- 

chan Bishops) 1572-3 

Three prelates for Scottish sees consecrated at 
Lambeth (John Spottiswood, Gawin Hamilton, 
and Andrew Lamb) for Glasgow, Galloway, and 

Brechin 21 Oct. 1610 

Episcopacy abolished, the bishops in a body de- 
posed, and four excommunicated, by a parliament, 
elected by the people (covenanters), which met 

at Glasgow Dec. 1638 

Episcopacy restored ; an archbishop (James Sharp) 
and three bishops consecrated by Sheldon, bishop 

of London 15 Dec. 1661 

The Scottish convention expelled the bishops ; 
abolished episcopacy ; declared the throne vacant ; 
drew up a claim of right ; and proclaimed William 

and Mary 11 April, 1689 

Episcopacy formally abolished, and the bishops' 

revenues sequestrated .... 19 Sept. „ 
The Episcopal church was thus reduced to the 
condition of a Nonconformist body, at first barely 
tolerated. It opened its first congress, 19 May, 1874 
Bishop Rose connected the established episcopal 
church of Scotland with that form of it which is 
now merely tolerated, he having been bishop of 
Edinburgh from 1687 till 1720, when, on his death, 
Dr. Fullarton became the first post-revolution 
bishop of that see. Fife (now St. Andrews, so 
called in 1844) now unites the bishopric of 
Dunkeld (re-instituted in 1727) and that of Dun- 
blane (re-instituted in 1731). Ross (of uncer- 
tain date) was united to Moray (re-instituted in 
1727) in 1838. Argyll and the Isles never existed 
independently until 1847, having been conjoined 
to Moray and Ross, or to Ross alone, previously 
to that year. Galloway has been added to the see 
of Glasgow. 



Orkney, founded. 

Uncertain. 
Isles . . . . 360 
Galloway . before 50c 
St. Andrews, 800 ; 

abpc. . . . . 1470 
Glasgow, about 560 ; 

abpc. 



Edinburgh 



1633 



POST-REVOLUTION 
BISHOPS. 

Edinburgh . . . 1720 
Aberdeen and the 

Isles . . . . 1721 
Moray (and Ross), 1727 
Brechin {primus 1886). 1731 
Glasgow (and Gallo- 
way) 
St. Andrews (Dun- 
keld, Dunblane, <fec.) 1733 
Argyll and the. Isles . 1847 



Romanist Bishojirics revived by Pope Leo XIII. 

4 March, 1878 
Scotch Protestant bishops protest . 13 April, ,, 



Caithness 


. about 1066 


Brechin 


before 1155 


Moray . 


. . 1115 


Ross . 


. 1124 


Aberdeen 


. . 1125 


Dunkeld 


• 1130 


Dunblane 


. before 1153 


Argyll . 


. 1200 



BISHOPS, AMERICAN. The first was Samuel 

Seabury, consecrated bishop of Connecticut by four 

1 nonjuring prelates, at Aberdeen, in Scotland, 14 

J Nov., 1 784. The bishops of New York and Penn- 

! sylvania were consecrated in London, by the arch- 

• bishop of Canterbury, 4 Feb. 1787, and the bishop 

! of Virginia in 1790. Several American bishops 

; formed part of the Pan-Anglican synod, at Lambeth, 

24-27 Sept. 1867. The first 'Roman Catholic bishop 

j of the United States was Dr. Carroll, of Maryland, 

in 1780. : 

BISHOPS, Colonial, &c* By 15 & 16 

Vict. c. 52 (1852), and 16 & 17 Vict. c. 49 (1853), 
the colonial bishops may perform all episcopal 
functions in the United Kingdom, but have no juris- 
diction. 



Nova Scotia . .1787 
Quebec . . . . 1793 
Calcutta . . .1813 
Barbados . . . 1824 
Jamaica . . . ,, 
Madras . . . . 1835 
Australia (see Sydney) 1836 
Montreal . . . ,, 
Bombay . . . 1837 
Newfoundland . . 1839 
Toronto . . . ,, 
Gibraltar. . . . 1841 
New Zealand (see 

Christchurch) . ,, 

Antigua . . . . 1842 
Guiana, S. America . ,, 
Huron, Canada . . ,, 
Tasmania . . . ,, 
Colombo, Ceylon . . 1845 
Fredericton, N. Brans. ,, 
Adelaide, S. Australia 1847 
Cape Town . . . ,, 
Melbourne . . . „ 
Newcastle, N. S. W. . „ 
Sydney (Metropolis of 

Australia) . . ,, 
Rupert's Land . . 1849 
Victoria, Hong Kong . ,, 
Sierra Leone . . 1852 
Graham's-town . . 1853 
Natal, S. Africa . . ,, 
Mauritius . . . 1S54 
Labuan(joinedwithSing- 

apore, and so-called) 1855 
Christchurch, N. Z. . 1856 
Perth, W. Australia . ,, 
Wellington, N. Z. . 1858 
Nelson, N. Zealand . ,, 
Brisbane, Queensland. 1859 
British Columbia . . ,, 
Goulbourn, N. S. W. . „ 
St. Helena . . . ,, 
Waiapu, N. Z. . . ,, 
Ontario, Canada . . 1861 
Nassau, Bahamas . ,, 

BISHOPS, SUFFRAGAN, to assist metropoli- 
tans, existed in the eaiiy church. Twenty-six, 
appointed by Henry VIII. 1534, were abolished by 
Mary, 1553, and restored by Elizabeth, 155S. The 
last appointed is said to have been Sterne, bishop of 
Colchester, 1606. The appointment of suffragan 
bishops was revived in 1869, and archdeacon Henry 
Mackenzie, suffragan bishop of Nottingham (diocese 
of Lincoln) was consecrated 2 Peb. 1870, and arch- 

* Between 1847-59, Miss (now baroness) Burdett Coutts 
gave. 6o,oooZ. to endow colonial bishoprics. In 1866 she 
petitioned parliament, on account of some of the bishops 
professing independence of the church of England. 
Since then, colonial bishops have been appointed with- 
out intervention of the civil power. Much discussion 
took place in 1867, through the deposition of Dr. Colcnso, 
bishop of Natal, by his metropolitan, Dr. Cray, bishop Of 
Capetown, and the attempts of the latter to consecrate a 
new bishop, in opposition to the law; sec under .ifricc, 
and Church of England. 



Grafton, Australia. . 1863 

Dunedin, New Zealand 1866 

Maritzburg, S. Africa. 1869 

Auckland, NewZeald. ,, 

Bathurst 

Huron . 

Trinidad 

Ballarat . 

Moosonee . 

Algoma . 

St. John's, Kaffraria 

Athabasca . 

Saskatchewan 

Niagara 

Rangoon 

Transvaal . 

Lahore . 

Pretoria . 

North Queensland 

Travancore and Cochin 1879 

New Caledonia(British 

Columbia) 
New Westminster 
Mid China . . . : 
Riverina . . . : 
Mackenzie River . . : 
QuAppelle. 
Chota Nagpur 
Selkirk 

MISSIONARY BISHOPS. 

Jerusalem . . . ii 

Melanesia 

Honolulu 

Zanzibar and Central 

Africa 
Niger Territory 
Falkland Isles . 
Madagascar . 
Bloemfontein 
Zululand 
North China 
Japan 

E. Equatorial Africa 
Corea 



1871 
1872 



1873 
1874 

• 187s 

• J&77 



J878 



1890 



i860 



1863 



1870 
1871 



. 1889 
Travancore and Cochin 1S90 



BISLEY COMMON. 



128 



BLACK-MAIL. 



deacon Edward Parry, suffragan bishop of Dover 
(diocese of Canterbury), 23 March, 1870. Others 
have been appointed since ; there were 9 in 1889 ; 
16 in 1892. 

BISLEY COMMON, Surrey, see Volunteers, 
1889. 

BISMUTH was recognised as a distinct metal 
by Agricola, in 1529. It is very fusible and brittle, 
and of a yellowish white colour. 

BISSEXTILE, see Calendar and Leap Year. 

BITHYNIA, an ancient province in Asia 
Minor, is said to have been invaded by Thracian 
tribes, some named Bithyni, who gave it the name 
of Bithynia. It was subject successively to the 
Assyrians, Lydians, Persians, and Macedonians. 
Most of the cities were rebuilt by Grecian colonists. 
Dydalsus revolted and reigned, about . b. c. 430-440 

Botyras, his son, succeeds 3 7 8 

Bas, or Bias, son of Botyras, 376 ; repulses the 

Greeks 328 

Zipaetes, son of Bias, resists Lysimachus . . . 326 
He dies, leaving four sons, of whom the eldest, 
Nicomedes I., succeeds (he invites the Gauls into 

Asia) 278 

He rebuilds Astacus, and names it Nicomedia . . 264 
Zielas, son of Nicomedes, reigns . . . about 250 
Intending to massacre the chiefs of the Gauls at a 
feast, Zielas is detected in his design, and is him- 
self put to death, and his son Prusias I. made 

king, about 228 

Prusias defeats the Gauls, and takes cities . . 223 
Prusias allies with Philip of Macedon, and marries 

Apamea, his daughter 208 

He receives and employs Hannibal, then a fugitive, 
187 ; who poisons himself to escape betrayal to 

the Romans 183 

Prusias II. succeeds 180 

Nicomedes II. kills his father Prusias and reigns . 149 
Nicomedes III., surnamed Philopator ... 91 
Deposed by Mithridates, king of Pontus . . . 88 

Restored by the Romans 84 

Bequeaths his kingdom to the Romans . . . 74 
Pliny, the younger, pro-consul . . -. . a.d. 103 
The Oghusian Tartars settle in Bithynia . . 1231 
The Othman Turks take Prusa, the capital (and 
make it the seat of their empire till they possess 
Constantinople) 1327 

BITONTO (Naples). Here Montemar and the 
Spaniards defeated the Germans, 27 May, 1734, and 
thereby acquired the kingdom of the Two Sicilies 
for Don Carlos. 

BLACK ACT, 9 Geo. I. c. 22 (1722), was 
passed to punish armed persons termed blacks, going 
about in disguise with their faces blacked, robbing 
warrens and fish-ponds, cutting down plantations, 
killing deer, &c. By this act, sending anonymous 
letters demanding money, &c, was made felony. 

BLACK AND WHITE, a weekly illustrated 
paper, first published 6 Feb. 1891, price 6d. Mr. 
AVilliamson, the managing director, has employed 
German methods of production. 

BLACK ART, see Alchemy, Witchcraft. 

BLACK ASSIZE, see under Oxford. 

BLACK BOOK {Liber Niger), a book kept in 
the exchequer, which received the orders of that 
court. It was published by Hearne in 1728. 

A book doubtfully said to have been kept in monas- 
teries, wherein details of the enormities practised in reli- 
gious houses were entered for the inspection of visitors, 
under Hen. VIII. 1535. The name was given to the list 
of pensioners, printed 1831 ; and to other books. See 
Italy, 1876. The title Black Book was given to a list of 
Habitual Criminals, 1869-76; published by lieut.-col. 
DuCane of Brixton, March, 1877. 

BLACKBURN, Lancashire, so called in 
Domesday-book. The manufacture of a cloth called 



Blackburn cheque, carried on in 1650, was super- 
seded by Blackburn greys. In 1767, James Har- 
greaves, of this town, invented the spinning-jenny, 
for which he was eventually expelled from the 
county. About 1810 or 1812, the townspeople 
availed themselves of his discoveries, and engaged 
largely in the cotton manufacture, now their staple 
trade. Blackburn murder, see Trials, July, 1876. 
See Riots, 1878. Population, 1881,104,014; 1891, 
120,064. 

The prince of Wales laid the foundation of a technical 

school, 9 May, i388. 
Disastrous gas explosion in the market-place ; 5 

persons killed 30 Nov. 1891 

BLACK CABINET, see under Cabinet (note). 

BLACK DEATH, see Plagues, 1340 and 1866. 

BLACK FLAG, that adopted by pirates, see 
Buccaneers, Piracy, and Tonquin, 1883. 

BLACK FRIARS, see Dominicans. 

BLACKFRIARS BRIDGE, London. The 
first stone of the late bridge was laid 31 Oct. I76o> 
and it was completed by Mylne, in 1770. It was 
frequently repaired, 1834-50, and began to sink. In 
1864 it was pulled down, and a temporary bridge 
erected. The foundation of a new five-arched 
bridge, designed by Mr. Joseph Cubitt, was laid by 
lord mayor Hale, 20 July, 1865, and tbe bridge was 
opened by the queen 6 Nov. 1869. The first railway 
train (London, Chatham, and Dover) entered the 
city of London over the new railway bridge, Black - 
friars, 6 Oct. 1864. Another railway bridge founded 
7 Jan. 1884. 

BLACK FRIDAY, n May, 1866, the height 
of the commercial panic in London, through the 
stoppage of Overend, Gurney, & Co. (limited), on 10 
May. Messrs. John Henry and Edmund Gurney, 
and their partners, committed for trial for conspiracy 
to defraud, 21 Jan. 1869, were tried and acquitted, 
13-23 Dec. 1869. On Friday, 21 Nov. 1890, a tem- 
porary panic was produced by the embarrassments 
of Messrs. Baring Brothers. 

BLACK HAND, see Spain, 1883. 

BLACKHEATH, Kent, near London. Here 
Wat Tyler and his followers assembled 12 June, 
1381 ; and here also Jack Cade and his 20,000 
Kentish men encamped, 1 June, 1450 ; see Tyler 
and Cade. Here the Cornish rebels were defeated 
and Flammock's insurrection quelled, 22 June, 
1497. The ancient cavern, on the ascent to Black- 
heath, popularly termed "the retreat of Cade," and 
of banditti in the time of Cromwell, was re-dis- 
covered in 1780. Several daring highway robberies 
were committed near the heath, and the youthful 
culprits punished, in 1877. See Trials. 

BLACK-HOLE, see Calcutta, 1756. 

BLACK LEAD, see Graphite. 

BLACKLEGS. A name commonly given to 
cheating gambler-, was unjustly jjiven to non- 
unionist workmen by the unionists and others, 
during the labour agitation in 1889 and 1890. 

BLACK LETTER, employed in the first 
printed books in the middle of the 15th century. 
The first printing types were Gothic ; but they were 
modified into the present Roman type about 1469 : 
Pliny's Natural History was then printed in the- 
new characters. 

BLACK-MAIL, a compulsory payment for 
protection of cattle, &c, made in the border counties, 
was prohibited by Elizabeth in 1601. It was exacted 
in Scotland from the lowlanders by the highlanders, 



BLACK MONDAY. 



129 



BLEACHING. 



till 1745. It checked agricultural improvement. The 
term black-mail has been applied to the payments of 
new commercial companies for notices respecting 
them in certain newspapers, 1889-90. 

BLACK MONDAY, Easter Monday, 14 April, 
1360, " so full dark of mist and hail, and so bitter 
cold that many men died on their horsebacks with 
the cold." Stow. In Ireland, Black Monday was 
the day on which a number of the English were 
slaughtered at a village near Dublin, in 1209. 

BLACK MONEY, base foreign coin so termed, 
*335- 
3LACK MONKS, see Dominicans. 

BLACK MOUNTAIN EXPEDITIONS, 

see India, 1888 and 1891. 

BLACK MUSEUM, at Scotland Yard, is a 
collection of relics connected with crime, begun in 
1874. 

BLACKPOOL, Lancashire, a watering place. 
The foundation-stone of an Eiffel Tower was laid 
here 25 Sep. 1891. Population in 1851, 1664; 
1881, 14,229; 1891,23,846. 

BLACK PEINCE, Edward, eldest son of 

king Edward III., born 15 June, 1330 ; victor at 
Poitiers, 19 Sept., 1356 ; at Najara, 3 April, 1367 ; 
died 8 June, 1376. 

BLACK EEPUBLIC, see BZayti. 

BLACK POD has a gold lion at the top, and is 
carried by the usher of the order of the knights of the 
garter (instituted 1349), instead of the mace. He 
also keeps the door when a chapter of the order is 
sitting, and during the sessions of parliament 
attends the house of lords and acts as their messen- 
ger to the commons. 

BLACK SEA, THE Etjxfne (Pontics Euxinus 
of the ancients), a large internal sea between the 
S. W. provinces of Eussia and Asia Minor, con- 
nected with the seaof Azoff by the straits of Yenikale, 
and with the sea of Marmora by the channel of 
Constantinople. 

This sea was much frequented "by the Greeks and 
Italians, till closed to all nations by the Turks 
after the fall of Constantinople in 1453. 

The Russians obtained admission by the treaty of 
Kainardji. . . . . 10 July, 1774 

It was partially opened to British and other traders, 
(since which time the Russians gradually obtained 
the preponderance). 1779 

Entered by the British and French fleets, at the 
requisition of the Porte, after the destruction of 
the Turkish fleet at Sinope by the Russians, 
30 Nov. 1853 3 Jan. 1854 

A dreadful storm in this sea raged, and caused 
great loss of life and shipping, and valuable stores 
for the allied armies. See Russo-Tarkish War. 

13 to 16 Nov. ,, 

The Black Sea was opened to the commerce of all 
nations by the treaty of 1856. 

The article of the treaty of Paris, 30 March, 1856, 
by which the sea was opened to the commerce of 
all nations, and interdicted to any ships of war ; 
and the erection of military maritime arsenals for- 
bidden, was repudiated by a Russian circular, 
dated 31 (19) Oct. 1870 

After some correspondence, the meeting of a con- 
ference on the subject, in London, was agreed to 
by all the powers concerned in the treaty. „ 

The conference met in London 17, Jan. 1871, and a 
treaty was signed by which the neutralization of 
the sea was abrogated ; but it was agreed by a 
special protocol, that no nation shall liberate itself 
from the obligations of a treaty without the con- 
sent of the others who signed it . 13 March, 1871 

Blockade of the Black Sea declared by Turkey 
during the war .... about 3 May, 1877 



Revival of the Black Sea Fleet : Tcliesma, ironclad 
launched by the Czar at Sebastopol (others to 
follow) 18 May, 1886 

BLACKS or Neri ; see Bianchi. 

BLACKWALL (London), the site of fine 
commercial docks and warehouses. See Docks. 
The Blackwall railway was opened to the public, 4 
July, 1840 ; the eastern terminus being at Black- 
wall wharf, and the western in Fenchurch street. 

BLACK WATCH, armed companies of the 
loyal clans (Campbells, Monros, &c.) employed to 
watch the Highlands from about 1725 to 1739, 
when they were formed into the celebrated 42nd 
regiment, enrolled as "The Koyal Highland Black 
Watch." Their removal for foreign service probably 
facilitated the outbreak in 1745. They wore dark 
tartans, and hence were called Black Watch. They 
distinguished themselves in the Ashantee war, Jan. 
Feb. 1874, and in Egypt, 1882-5. 

BLACKWATER, BATTLE OF, in Ireland, 

14 Aug. 1598, when the Irish chief O'Neil defeated 
the English under sir Henry Bagnall. Pope 
Clement VIII. sent O'Neil a consecrated plume, 
and granted to his followers the same indulgence as 
to crusaders. 

BLACKWOOD'S Edinburgh Magazine 
established, 1817. 

BLADENSBUEG, see Washington, 1814. 

BLANC, see Mont Blanc. 

BLAND ACT, see United States, Feb. 1878. 

BLANDFOPD'S ACT, 19&20 Vict. c. 104, 
for augmentation of benefices, &c. passed, 1856. 

BLANK VEPSE, see Verse. 

BLANKETEEPS. A number of operatives 
who, on 10 March, 1817, met in St. Peter's field, 
near Manchester, many of them having blankets, 
rugs, or great coats rolled up and fastened to their 
backs. This was termed the Blanket meeting. 
They proceeded to march towards London, but were 
dispersed by the magistracy. It is stated that their 
object was to commence a general insurrection. 
See Derby. Eventually the ringleaders had an 
interview with the cabinet ministers, and a better 
understanding between the working classes and the 
government ensued. 

BLANKETS are said to have been first made 
at Bristol by Thos. Blanket, in the 14th century. 
This is doubtful. 

BLASPHEMY was punished with death by 
the law of Moses {Lev. xxiv.) 1491 B.C. ; and by the 
code of Justinian, A. d. 529. It is punishable by 
the civil and canon law of England, regulated by 60 
Geo. III. c. 8 (1819). Daniel Isaac Eaton was 
tried and convicted in London of blasphemy, 6 
March, 1812. Robert Taylor, a protestant clergyman, 
was tried twice for the same crime. He was sen- 
tenced to two years' imprisonment, and largely 
fined, July, 1831. In Dec. 1840, two publishers of 
blasphemous writings were convicted. 

BLASTING GELATINE, (a mixture of 
nitro-glycerine and gun-cotton,) a violent explosive 
prepared by Alfred Nobel, and modified by professor 
Abel, 1879. 

BLAZONPY- Bearing coats-of-arms was in- 
troduced and became hereditary in France and 
England about 1 192, owing to the knights painting 
their banners with different figures, thereby to dis- 
tinguish them in the crusades. Dug dale. 

BLEACHING was known in Egypt, Syria, 
India, and Gaul. Pliny. An improved chemical 



BLENHEIM. 



130 



BLOOD. 



system was adopted by the Dutch, who introduced 
it into England and Scotland in 1768. There were 
large bleach-fields in Lancashire, Fife, Forfar, and 
Eenfrew, and in the Tale of the Leven, in Dumbar- 
ton. The application of the gas chlorine to bleaching 
is due to Berthollet's discovery, about 1785- Its 
combination with lime (as chloride of lime) was 
devised by Mr. Tennant, of Glasgow, who took out 
a patent for the process in 1798, and by his firm it 
is still extensively manufactured. In 1822 Dr. Ure 
published an elaborate series of experiments on this 
substance. A new more rapid process invented by 
Mr. Jacob Baynes Thompson, tried at Bolton, and 
reported successful, April, 1884. Improvements 
made by Mr. William Mather, I885. In i860 
bleaching and dyeing works were placed under the 
regulations of the Factories Act. 

BLENHEIM (or Plintheim) a village in 
Bavaria on the left bank of the Danube, near the 
town of Hochstett, the site of a battle fought 2 Aug. 
(new style, 13), 1704, between the English and 
confederates, commanded by the duke of Marl- 
borough, and the French and Bavarians, under 
marshal Tallard and the elector of Bavaria. The 
latter were defeated with the loss of about 12,000 
killed, and 13,000 prisoners (including Tallard). 
Bavaria became the prize of the conquerors. The 
British parliament gave Marlborough the honour of 
Woodstock and hundred of Wotton, and erected for 
him the house of Blenheim.* 

BLIND. The first public scbool for the blind 
was established by Valentine Haiiy, at Paris in 
1784. The first in England was at Liverpool, in 
1 791 ; in Scotland, at Edinburgh, in 1792 ; and the 
first in London in 1799. Printing in raised or 
embossed characters for the use of the blind was 
begun at Paris by Haiiy in 1786. The Avhole Bible 
was printed at Glasgow in raised Boman characters 
about 1848. A sixpenny magazine for the blind, 
edited by the late rev. W. Taylor, F.R.S., so 
eminent for his forty years' exertions on behalf of 
these sufferers, was published in 1855-6. He aided 
the establishment of a college for the blind of the 
upper classes at Worcester, in 1866. There is 
hardly any department of human knowledge in 
which blind persons have not obtained distinction. f 
Laura Bridgman, born in 1829, became dumb and 
blind two years after. She was so well taught by 
Dr. Howe, of Boston, U.S., as to become an able 
instructor of blind and dumb persons ; she died 24 
May, 1889. By the census of 1851, there were in 
Great Britain, 21,487 blind persons; 11,273 males, 
10,214 females ; about one in 975 blind. The 
number of the blind in Great Britain has propor- 
tionally decreased since 185 1, according to the cen- 
sus, 22,800 in 1881. In 1 881 about one in 1138 
blind. Boyal Normal College and Academy of 

* On 5 Feb. 1861, a fire broke out at this place, which 
destroyed the "Titian Gallery" and the pictures; the 
latter, a present from Victor Amadeus, king of Sardinia, 
to John, the great duke of Marlborough. Pictures, 
library, and other valuables sold 18S5-6. 

t James Holman, the "blind traveller" (born 1786, 
died 1857), visited almost every place of note in the 
world. His travels were published in 1825. In April, 
1858, a blind clergyman, rev. J. Sparrow, was elected 
chaplain to the Mercers' Company, London, and read the 
service, &c. , from embossed books. 

Viscount Cranborne (blind) was the author of many 
interesting historical essays. He died in June, 1865. 
On 13 July, 1865, Henry Pawcett, the blind professor of 
political economy at Cambridge, was elected M.P. for 
Brighton; for Hackney, 1874 and 1880; and was ap- 
pointed postmaster-general, April, 1880, died 6 Nov. 1884. 
Mr. P. J. Campbell (blind) ascended Mont Blanc in 1880. 



Music for the Blind, established 1873. There are 

29 Societies for the blind in London (1889). 

Royal Commission on the condition of the blind ; ex- 
tended to the deaf and dumb, Jan. 1886. 

According to the census of 1881, the number of blind 
in the United Kingdom was about 32,101, England and 
Wales 22,832, Scotland 3,158, Ireland 6,111. Theroyal 
commission, to enquire into their condition was 
appointed 28 July, 1885, and on the 20th Jan. 1886, 
additional members were appointed, and its inquiries 
were extended to the deaf, dumb, and imbeciles in the 
United Kingdom, Paris, Germany, Switzerland, and 
Italy. The commission, after 116 sittings, and many 
visitations and examinations of witnesses, issued their 
first report July, 1889. The number of the deaf under 
instruction in the United Kingdom was in 1851 1,300, 
in 1888 3,138. The commission met with great uncer- 
tainty in regard to idiots and imbeciles. 

BLINDING by consuming the eyeballs with 
lime or scalding vinegar, was a punishment inflicted 
anciently on adulterers, perjurers, and thieves. In 
the middle ages the penalty was frequently changed 
from total blindness to a diminution of sight. A 
whole army of Bulgarians was deprived of sight by 
the emperor Basil, 104. Several of the eastern 
emperors had their eyes torn from their heads. 

BLISTEBS, used by Hippocrates (460-357 
B.C.), made, it is said; of cantharides (which see). 

BLIZZABD, an old term applied in the Mid- 
land counties to the snow-blast, also signifying 
anything blazing, blinding, or stifling. Of late 
years violent snow-storms have been termed blizzard 
in the United States of North America, as well as in 
Britain. See Storms, 11-13 Jan. ; and 11- 13 March, 
1888, and since. 

BLOCKADE is the closing an enemy's ports 
to all commerce; a practice introduced by the Dutch 
about 1584. The principle recognized by the 
European powers is that every blockade, in order to 
be binding, must be effective. Cadiz blockaded 
1797-9 > the Elbe was blockaded by Great Britain, 
1803; the Baltic, by Denmark, 1848-49 and 1864; 
the gulf of Finland by the Allies, 1854 ; and the 
ports of the Southern States of North America by 
president Lincoln, April 19, 1861. See Orders in 
Council, and Berlin. Part of the east coast of Africa 
was blockaded by England and Germany on account 
of the slave trade, 2 Dec. 1888 — 1 Oct. 1889 : see 
Zanzibar. 

BLOCK BOOKS, see Printing. 

BLOCKS employed in the rigging of ships were 
much improved in their construction by Walter- 
Taylor, about 1781. In 1801, Mark I. Brunei in- 
vented a mode of making blocks by machinery, 
which was put into operation in 1808, and in 1815 
was said to have saved the country 20,000/. a year. 

BLOIS, France, the Boman Blesum. The 
count Guy II. sold it with his domains to Louis 
duke of Orleans in 1391, and eventually it accrued 
to the crown. The states-general were held here 
1576 and 1588, on account of the religious wars; 
and here Henry duke of Guise was assassinated by 
order of the king, Henry III., 23 Dec. 1588. The 
empress Maria Louisa retired here in 1814. 

BLOOD- The circulation of the blood through 
the lungs was known to Michael Servetus, a Spanish 
physician, in 1553. Csesalpinus published an ac- 
count of the general circulation, of which he had 
some confused ideas, improved afterwards by 
experiments, 1569. Paul of Venice, or Father 
Paolo (real name Peter Sarpi), discovered the valves 
which serve for the circulation ; but the honour of 
the positive discovery of the circulation belongs to 
William Harvej r , between 1619 and 1628. Freind. 



BLOOD'S CONSPIRACY. 



131 



BOATS. 



A memorial window in the church, at Folkestone, 
his birthplace, was uncovered 9 April, 1874, and a 
statue at the same place, 6 Aug. 1881. 

Eating Blood was prohibited to Noah, Gen. ix. , to the 
Jews, Lev. xvii., <fec, and to the Gentile converts by 
the apostles at an assembly at Jerusalem, a.d. 52, 
Acts xv. 

Blood-Drinkcng was anciently tried to give vigour to 
the system. Louis XI. in his last illness, drank the 
warm blood of infants, in the vain hope of restoring his 
decayed strength, 1483. Henault. 

Jn the 15th century an opinion prevailed that the de- 
-clining vigour of the aged might be repaired by trans- 
ifusing into their veins the blood of young persons. 
It was countenanced in France by the physicians 
about 1668, and prevailed for many years, till the most 
fatal effects having ensued, it was suppressed by an 
edict. "An English physician (Louver, or Lower) 
practised in this way; he died in 1691." Freind. It 
was attempted again in Prance in 1797, and more 
recently there, in a few cases, with success ; and in 
England (but the instances are rare) since 1823. Tried 
at Philadelphia, U. S., April, 1877 ; in London, un- 
successful, 10 May, 1877. 

BLOOD'S CONSPIRACY. Blood, a dis- 
carded officer of Oliver Cromwell's household, with 
his confederates, seized the duke of Ormond in his 
■coach, intending to hang him, and had got him to 
Tyburn, when he was rescued by his Mends, 6 Dec. 
1670. Blood afterwards, in the disguise of a clergy- 
man, attempted to steal the regal crown, from the 
Jewel-office in the Tower, 9 May, 1671; yet, not- 
withstanding these and other offences, he was not 
only pardoned, but had a pension of 500/. per annum 
settled on him by Charles II. 1671. He died 24 
Aug. 1680. 

"BLOODY ASSIZES," held by Jeffreys in 
the west of England, in Aug. 1685, after the defeat 
of the duke of Monmouth in the battle of Sedgmoor. 
Upwards of 300 persons were executed after short 
trials; very many were whipped, imprisoned, and 
fined; and nearly 1000 were sent as slaves to the 
American plantations. 

BLOOMER COSTUME, see a note to article 
Dress. 

BLOOMSBURY GANG, a cant term applied 
to an influential political party in the reign of 
George III., who met at Bloomsbury House, the 
residence of the duke of Bedford. The marqHis of 
Stafford, the last survivor, died 26 Oct. 1803. 

BLOREHEATH (Staffordshire), where, 23 
Sept. 1459, the earl of Salisbury and the Yorkists 
defeated the Lancastrians, whose leader, lord 
Audley, was slain with many Cheshire gentlemen. 
A cross commemorates this conflict. 

BLOWING-MACHINES, the large cylin- 
ders, used in blowing machines, were erected by 
Mr. Smeaton at the Carron iron works, 1760. One 
equal to the supply of air for forty forge fires was 
erected at the king's dockyard, Woolwich. The 
hot-air blast, a most important improvement, causing 
great economy of fuel, was invented by Mr. James 
B. Neilson, of Glasgow, and patented in. 1828. He 
died 18 Jan. 1865. 

BLOW-PIPE. An Egyptian using one is 
among the paintings on the tombs at Thebes. It 
was employed in mineralogy, by Antony Von Swab, 
a Swede, about 1733, and improved by AVollaston 
and others. In 1802, professor Eobert Hare, of 
Philadelphia, increased the action of the blow-pipe 
by the application of oxygen and hydrogen. By the 
agency of Newman's improved blow-pipes, in 1816, 
Dr. E. D. Clarke fused the earths, alkalies, metals, 
&c. Works on the blow -pipe by Plattner and Mus- 
pratt, 1854; G. Plympton, 1874, and W.A.Ross, 
1880-8. 



BLUE was the favourite colour of the Scotch 
covenanters in the 17th century. Blue- and orange 
or yellow, became the whig colours after the revolu- 
tion in 1688 ; and were adopted on the cover of the 
whig periodical, the "Edinburgh Review," first 
published in 1802. The Prussian blue dye was dis- 
covered by Diesbach, at Berlin, in 1710. Fine 
blues are now obtained from coal-tar ; see Aniline. 
Blue-coat Schools, so called in reference to the 
costume of the children. The Blue-coat school in 
Newgate-street, London, was instituted by Edward 
VI. in 1552; see Christ' s Hospital. Blue-stocking, 
a term applied to literary ladies, was originally 
conferred on a society comprising both sexes (1760, 
et seq.). Benjamin Stillingfleet, the naturalist, an 
active member, wore blue worsted stockings ; hence 
the name. The beautiful Mrs. Jerningham is said 
to have worn blue stockings at the conversaziones of 
Mrs. Montague. Blue Ribbon Army, see Tempe- 
rance, 1882. 

BLUE-BOOKS, reports and other papers 
printed by order of parliament, are so named on ac- 
count of their wrappers ; 70 vols, were printed for 
the lords, and 76 vols, for the commons in 1871. 
The official colour of France is yellow, Spain red, 
Germany tvhite, Italy green, Portugal white, United 
States, N.A., green. 

BLUMENAU, Lower Austria ; on 22 July, 1866, 
the Austrians in possession of this place were 
attacked by the Prussians on their march towards 
Vienna, a severe conflict was interrupted by the 
news of the armistice agreed to at Nikolsburg ; and 
the same evening Austrians and Prussians bivouacked 
together. 

BOARD OF ADMIRALTY, Agricul- 
ture, Control, Green-Cloth, Health, 

TRADE, &c, see under Admiralty, &c. 

BOATS. Flat-bottomed boats brought into use 
by Barker, a Dutchman, about 1690 ; see Life-Boat. 
A mode of building boats by the help of the steam- 
engine was invented by Mr. Nathan Thompson of 
New York in i860, and premises were erected for its 
application at Bow, near London, in 1861. Charles 
Clifford's valuable Boat-lowering apparatus was in- 
vented 1856. See Canal-Boats and Life-Boats. 
Boat Voyage. Alfred Johnson, a young man, 
started from America in the Centennial, a boat 
20 feet long, on 15 June, and landed at Aber- 
castle, Pembrokeshire . . . . n Aug. 1876 
Two young sailors crossed the Atlantic in the City 
of Bath, a boat 14 feet long : arriving at Pal- 
mouth • 24 Aug. 1881 

Mr. Terry formed a boat on the framework of a 
tricycle, and on it went from London to Dover, 
crossed the Channel to Calais and proceeded to 

Paris July, 1883 

Submarine boats, one is said to have been invented 
about 1578 ; and one tried in the Thames early in 
the seventeenth century, and one at Plymouth 
in 1774. Robert Fulton's experiments in this 
direction were not accepted (early nineteenth 
century). Unsuccessful attempts made by several 
European powers in 1851, and since. Nordenfelt's 
submarine boat first constructed at Stockholm in 
1883, to be employed in naval warfare, exhibited 
at Landskrona in presence of officers sent by all 
the great powers 23 Sept. 1885 ; the boat, made 
of steel, 64 feet long; motive power, steam; 
crew of 3 or 4 men, breathe for six hours by 
means of sealed up compressed air ; the boat may 
be raised or sunk at the will of the crew ; and by 
means of torpedoes may cause the destruction of 
any vessel. The boat was publicly tried in 
Southampton water, and reported successful, 

19-20 Dec. 1S37 
Lieut. Isaac Peral's submarine boat, travelled for 
one hour under water near Cadiz 7 June ; lie was 
ennobled by the government , . 16 June 189a 

k2 



BOAT-BACES. 



132 



BOHEMIA. 



BOAT-BACES; see Dogget, and University. 
The London rowing club beat the Atalanta rowing 
club in a four-oared race on the Thames, 10 June, 
1872. Race on the Tyne ; championship of the 
world won by Edward Hanlan of Toronto, 3 April, 
1882. 

BOCCACCIO'S DECAMERONE, a col- 
lection of a hundred stories or novels (many very 
immoral), severely satirising the clergy, feigned to 
have been related in ten days, during the plague of 
Florence in 1348. Boccaccio lived 1313-75. A copy 
of the first edition (that of Valdarfer, in 1471) was 
knocked down at the duke of Roxburgh's sale, 
to the duke of Marlborough, for 2260^., 17 June, 
1812. This copy was afterwards sold by public 
auction, for 875 guineas, 5 June, 1819. 

. BODLEIAN LIBRABY, Oxford, founded 
in 1598, and opened in 1602, by sir Thos. Bodley 
(died, 28 Jan. 161 2). It is open to the public, and 
claims a copy of all works published in this country. 
In 1868, it contained about 250,000 volumes ; in 
1885, 432,417 volumes (MSS. 26,598.) For rare 
works and MSS. it is said to be second only to the 
Vatican. Mr. Macray's "Annals of the Bodleian 
library," published 1868. 

BCEOTIA, a division of Greece, north of Attica, 
known previously as Aonia, Messapia, Hyantis, 
Ogygia, and Cadmeis. Thebes, the capital, was 
celebrated for the exploits and misfortunes of its 
kings and heroes. The term Boeotian was used by 
the Athenians as a synonym for dulness ; but un- 
justly, — since Pindar, Hesiod, Plutarch, Democritus, 
Epaminondas, and Corinna, were Boeotians. The 
early history and dates are mythical ; see Thebes. 
Arrival of Cadmus, founder of Cadmea(.H"aZes, 1494 ; 

Clinton, 1313) ...... b.c. 1493 

Reign of Polydore 1450 

Labdachus ascends the throne 1430 

Amphion and Zethus besiege Thebes, and dethrone 

Laius 1388 

Myth of CEdipus ; he kills in an affray his father 

Lams : confirming the oracle foretelling his death 

by the hands of his son, 1276 ; resolves the 

Sphinx's enigmas 1266 

War of the Seven Captains 1225 

Thebes besieged and taken 12 13 

Thersander reigns 1198 ; slain 1193 

The Thebans abolish royalty (ages of obscurity 

follow) about 1 1 20 

The Thebans fight with the Persians against the 

Greeks at Platsea 479 

The Spartans aiding the Thebans defeat the Athe- 
nians near Tanagra 457 

Battle of Coronea, in which the Thebans defeat the 

Athenians 447 

The Thebans, under Epaminondas and Pelopidas, 

enrol their Sacred Band, and join Athens against 

Sparta 377 

Epaminondas defeats the Lacedaemonians at 

Leuctra, and restores Thebes to independence . 371 
Pelopidas killed at the battle of Cynosoephalse . 364 
Epaminondas gains the victory of Mantinea, but is 

slain 362 

Philip, king of Macedon, defeats the Thebans and 

Athenians near Chseronea 338 

Alexander destroys Thebes, but spares the house of 

Pindar 335 

The Boeotian confederacy dissolved by the Romans 170 
Boeotia henceforth partook of the fortunes of 

Greece; and was conquered by the Turks under a.d. 

Mahomet II . 1456 

BOEBS (peasants), a name given to the Dutch 
settlers, in South Africa, since the».i6th century, 
who still retain their national character. Discon- 
tented with the British rule iu the Cape since 1814, 
large bands of them in. 1835-7 trekked or emigrated 
northwards, and founded the Orange Free State 
(1836), and the Transvaal Republic (1848) , after much 
lighting with the natives. See Transvaal, 189 1. 



BOGOTA, SANTA Fe DE, capital of New- 
Grenada {which see), founded 1538. 

BOGS, probably the remains of forests, covered 
with peat and loose soil. An act for the drainage 
of Irish bogs, passed March, 1830. The bog-land of 
Ireland has been estimated at 3,000,000 acres ; that 
of Scotland at upwards of 2,000,000 ; and that of 
England at near 1,000,000 of acres. In Jan. 1849, 
Mr. Rees Reece took out a patent for certain 
valuable products from Irish peat. Candles and 
various other articles produced from peat have been 
since sold in London. Fuel for railway engines and 
other purposes was made from peat (April, 1873) ; 
and a peat, coal, and charcoal company established. 

Much destruction has been caused by the motion of 
bogs. Leland (about 1546) speaks of Chat Moss doing 
so. 

Mischief was done at Enaghmore, Ireland, 3 Jan. 1853 ; 
and farm houses and fields near Dunmore were covered, 
Oct. 1873. 

BOGrUE FOBTS, see China, 1841. 

BOHEMIA, formerly the Hercynian fores-t 
(Boiemum, Tacitus), derives its name from the Boii, 
a Celtic tribe. It was governed by dukes (Borzivoi 
the first, 891), till Ottocar assumed the title of king, 
1 198. The kings at first held their territory from 
the empire : and the crown was elective till it came 
to the house of Austria, in which it is now here- 
ditary. Prague, the capital, is famous for sieges 
and battles. Population in 1857, 4,705,525; in 
1870, 5,140,544; in 1890, 5,843,250; see Prague, 
For Bohemians, see Gypsies. 

The Czechs (Slavonians) conquer Bohemia about 5th 
century. 

City of Prague founded 795 

Introduction of Christianity .... . 894 

Bohemia conquered by the emperor Henry III. who 

spreads devastation through the country . . 1041 
Ottocar (Premislas) I., first king of Bohemia . 1198 

Ottocar II. rules over Austria, and obtains Styria, 

&c, 1253 ; refuses the imperial crown . . 1272 

Ottocar vanquished by the emperor Rudolph and 
deprived of Austria, Styria, and Camiola, 1277 ; 
killed at Marchfeld .... 26 Aug. 1278 
King John (blind), slain at the battle of Crecy . 1346 

John Huss and Jerome of Prague, two of the first 
reformers, burnt for heresy ; which occasions an 
insurrection . . . . ." 1415, 1416 

Ziska, leader of the Hussites, takes Prague, 1419 ; 

dies of the plague 1424 

Albert, duke of Austria, marries the daughter of the 
late emperor and king, and receives the crowns of 
Bohemia and Hungary ...... 1437 

The succession infringed by Ladislas, son of the 
king of Poland, and George Podiebrad, a protes- 

tant chief 1440-1458 

Ladislas, king of Poland, elected king of Bohemia, 

on the death of Podiebrad 1471 

The emperor Ferdinand I. marries Anne, sister of 

Louis the late king, and obtains the crown . 152.7 

The emperor Ferdinand II. , oppressing the protes- 
tants, is deposed, and Frederic the elector-pala- 
tine, elected king .... 5 Sept. 1619 
Frederic, totally defeated at Prague, flees to 

Holland 9 Nov. 1620 

Bohemia secured to Austria by treaty . . . 164S 
Silesia and Glatz ceded to Prussia . ... 1742 
Prague taken by the Prussians .... 1744 

Prussians defeat Austrians at Prague . 6 May, 1757 

Revolt of the peasantry 1775 

Edict of Toleration promulgated . . . .1781 

The French occupy Prague 1806 

Insurrection at Prague, 12 June ; submission, state 

of siege raised 20 July, 1848 

The Prussians enter Bohemia, which becomes the 

seat of war (see Germany, 1866) . . 24 June, 1866 
Agitation of the Czechs, who require the emperor 
to be crowned king of Bohemia with the crown of 
St. Wenceslas at Prague . . . autumn, 1867 
Riots at Prague ; habeas corpus act suspended, 

10 Oct. 186S 



BOHEMIAN BRETHREN. 



133 



BOLIVIA. 



Bohemian agitation for self-government ; addresses 
to the emperor . . 14 Sept. and 5 Oct. 1870 

Manifesto of the emperor . . . 14 Sept. 1871 

Bohemian deputies absent from the reichsrath, 

Dee. „ 

The " Young Czech " party defeated in the elections 

July, 1874 

Czech deputies enter reichsrath . . . 8 Oct. 1879 

The motion of the Young Czechs in the assembly 
for the coronation of the emperor as king of 
Bohemia negatived, after several days' warm 
debate 9 Nov. 1889 

Peaceful settlement of the disputes between Czechs 
and Germans, in a conference, by the intervention 
of the emperor 17 — 19 Jan. 1890 

Peace confirmed at a meeting of the diet 19 May, ,, 

Strike of about 6,000 miners at Niirschau ; fight 
with military ; five men killed . 19—29 May, ,, 

The diet re-opened 14 Oct., the Young Czechs 
obstruct legislation Oct. ,, 

Meeting of the diet ; the Young Czech party ob- 
structive ; the reconciliation of Germans and 
Czechs delayed Nov. ,, 

The Brux mine inundated through heavy rains, 87 
colliers perish, announced . . 30 Nov. ,, 

The emperor intervenes to promote the passing of 
the compromised bill by the diet ; the Young 
Czechs require autonomy like Hungary 

middle Dec. ,, 

Gradual dissolution of the Old Czech party (mode- 
rates) Dec. ,, 

TJie Austrian government determine to make no 
more concessions to the Czechs ; announced to 
the diet ....... 5 Jan. 1891 

Useful legislation in the diet obstructed by the 
Young Czechs, about . . . .16 Jan. ,, 

The Young Czechs victorious in the elections ; Dr. 
Rieger, the venerable leader of the Old Czechs, 
and his party, totally defeated, 2— 4 March; he 
retires from public life . . . March, ,, 

The emperor visits Prague to promote peace be- 
tween the Germans anil Czechs 26 Sept. — 1 Oct. ,, 

Explosion of a bridge at Rosenthal, over which 
the emperor was expected to pass . 30 Sept. , , 

The government compromise discussed in the diet 
and strongly opposed ... 24 March, 1892 

KINGS. 

1 198. Premislas Ottocar I. 

1230. Wenceslas III. 

1253. Premislas Ottocar II. 

1278. Wenceslas IV., king of Poland. 

1305. Wenceslas V. 

1306. Rudolph of Austria. 

1307. Henry of Carinthia. 

1310. John of Luxemburg (killed at Crecy). 
1346. Charles I., emperor (1347). 
1378. Wenceslas VI., emperor. 
1419. Sigismund I., emperor. 
1438. Albert of Austria, emperor. 
1440. Ladislas V. 
145S. George von Podiebrad. 
1471. Ladislas VI., king of Hungary (in 1490). 
1516. Louis, king of Hungary (killed at Mohatz). 
1526. Bohemia united to Austria under Ferdinand I. 
elected king. See Germany, emperors. 

BOHEMIAN BRETHREN, a body of 
Christians in Bohemia, appear to have separated 
from the Calixtines {which see), a branch of the 
Hussites in 1467. Dupin says " They rejected the 
sacraments of the church, were governed by simple 
laics, and held the scriptures for their only rule of 
faith. They presented a confession of faith to king 
L-adislas in 1504 to justify themselves from errors 
laid to their charge." They appear to have had 
communication with the Waldenses, but were dis- 
tinct from them. Luther, in 1533, testifies to their 
purity of doctrine, and Melanchthon commends 
their discipline. They were dispersed during the 
religious wars of Germany in the 17th century. 

BOHN'S LIBRARIES. Mr. H. G. Bolm 

began the publication of his " Standard Library " 
in 1846. This was followed by the classical, anti- 
quarian, scientific and illustrated libraries, above 



600 volumes. These were bought by Messrs. Bell 
and Daldy in 1864, who have added many otner 
volumes. Mr. Bohn died 22 Aug. 188.J, aged go. 
His pictures and works of art by sale, realised 
19,220/'. March, 1885. 

BOH, a Celtic people of N. Italy, who emigrate- 
into Italy, and were defeated at the Vadimonian 
lake, 283 B.C. They were finally subdued by Scipio 
Nasica, 191 B.C. 

BOILERS, STEAM. Many lives have been 
lost by their explosions. 23 persons were killed at 
Glasgow iron- works, 5 March, 1879 ; and 21 killed 
at the Birchill ironworks, near Walsall, 15 May, 
1880. Boilers Explosion Act, passed 1882, amended 
in 1890. 
By the explosion of a defective neglected boiler at Mr. 

Mattison's bedding manufactory, Rhodeswell Road, 

Stepney, 4 men were killed and 17 persons injured, 

31 May, 1886. 
The animal average of explosions in six years ending 

June, 1888, was 47 ; deaths 30. 
1871-1890, 1,005 persons killed. 

BOILING OF LIQUIDS. Dr. Hooke, about 
1683, ascertained that liquids were not increased in 
heat after they had once begun to boil, and that a 
fierce fire only made them boil more rapidly. The 
following boiling points have been stated : — 



93 Fahr. 
173 ,, 



Phosphorus . 554°Fahr. 
Oil of turpentine 312 ,, 
Sulphur . . 822 ,, 
Mercury . . 662 ,, 



Ether 

Alcohol 

Water 

Nitric acid . .187 

Sulphuric acid . 600 

BOILING TO DEATH, made a capital 
punishment in England, by stat. 22 Hen. VlLL, 
1 53 1 (repealed in 1547). This act was occasioned 
by seventeen persons having been poisoned by 
Kichard Rosse, otherwise Coke, the bishop of 
Rochester's cook, two of whom died. Margaret 
Davy, a young woman, suffered in the same manner 
for a similar crime, 28 March, 1542. Stow. 

BOIS-LE-DUC, Dutch Brabant, the site of a 
battle between the British and the French repub- 
lican army, in which the British were defeated, and 
forced to abandon their position and retreat to 
Schyndel, 14 Sept. 1794. This place was captured 
by the French, 10 Oct. following ; it surrendered 
to the Prussian army, under Bulow, in Jan. 1814. 

BOKHARA, the ancient Sogdiana, after suc- 
cessively forming part of the empires of Persia, of 
Alexander, and Bactriana, was conquered by the 
Turks in the 6th century, by the Chinese in the 7th, 
and by the Arabs about 705. After various changes 
of masters it was subdued by the Uzbek Tartars, its 
present possessors, in 1505. The British envoys, 
colonel Stoddart and captain Conolly, were mur- 
dered at Bokhara, the capital, by the khan, about 
17 June, 1842. Bokhara was visited by Dr. Joseph 
AVoltlin 1844. In the war with Russia, begun in 
1866, the emir's army was defeated several times in 
May, ct seq. Peace was made II July, 1867. The 
Russians were again victors, 25 May, 1868, and 
occupied Samarcand the next day. Further con- 
quests were made by the Russians, and Samarcand 
was secured by treaty, Nov. 1868. A new political 
and commercial treaty with Russia was published 
Dec. 1873. The right of the present Khan, Said- 
Abd-oul-Ahad, since 1885, to the government being 
disputed, he appealed to Russia for protection Dec 
1890. Population 1 891, estimated 1,250,000. 

BOLIVIA, a republic in South America, for- 
merly part of Peru, population in 1875, about 
2,ooo",ooo; in 1880, 2,325,000 ; 1890, 1,189,800. 

The insurrection of the ill-used Indians, headed by 
Tupac Amaru Andres, took place- here . 1780-2 



BOLLANDISTS. 



134 



BOMBAY. 



The country declared its independence . . 6 Aug. 1824 
Secured by the victory of Ayaeucho . . 9 Dec. ,, 
Took the name of Bolivia, in honour of general 

Bolivar n Aug. 1825 

First congress met 25 May, 1826 

General Sucre governed ably .... 1826-8 

Slavery abolished 1836 

Santa Cruz ruled 1828-39 

Gen. Velasco, president 9 Feb. 1839 

Jose Ballivian, president in 1841 

Gen. Belzu until 1855 

Free-trade proclaimed 1853 

General Cordova, president 1855-7 

Succeeded by the dictator Jose Maria Linares 

31 March, 1859 
George Cordova, constitutional president. . . i860 
Succeeded by Jose M. de Acha . . . May, 1861 
General Melgarejo defeats the troops of president 

DeAcha 28 Dec. 1864 

Becomes dictator of the republic . . Feb. 1865 

Puts down an insurrection under Belzu, March, ,, 
Totally defeats Arguedas at Viacha and publishes 

an amnesty -24 Jan. 1866 

Suppresses a revolt 17 Oct. ,, 

Proclaims an amnesty . . . .21 Dec. 1867 

Civil war 1867-70 

The president, A. Morales, 1871 ; said to have been 

murdered Jan. 1873 

President, Dr. Tomas Frias . . . 14 Feb. 1874 
Corral's insurrection suppressed . . . Sept. ,, 
General Hilarion Daza, president . . 4 May, 1876 
Bolivia joins Peru in war against Chili, (see Chili) 

April, 1879 
Revolution ; Daza deposed ; flees ; Campero presi- 
dent 1 June, 1880 

Peace with Chili ; conditions finally settled . Dec. 1883 
Aniceto Arce (president since 1 Aug.) suppresses a 
revolution Oct. 18S8 

BOLLANDISTS, see Acta Sanctorum. 

BOLOGNA (central Italy), the ancient Fel- 
sina, afterwards Bononia, a city distinguished for 
its architecture, made a Eoman colony, 189 B.C. 
Population 1890, 143,607. 
A university said to have been founded by Theo- 

dosius, about 433 ; really in 1116 

Bologna joins the Lombard League . . . . 1167 
Pope Julius II. takes Bologna ; enters in triumph 

11 Nov. 1506 
It becomes part of the states of the Church . . 1513 
In the church of St. Petronius, remarkable for its 
pavement, Cassini drew his meridian line (over 
one drawn by Father Ignatius Dante in 1575) . 1653 
Bologna was taken by the French, 1796 ; by the 
Austrians, 1799 ; again by the French, after the 
battle of Marengo, in 1800 ; and restored to the 

pope in ^15 

A revolt suppressed by Austrian interference . . 183 1 
Rebellion, 1848 ; taken by Austrians . 16 May, 1849 
The Austrians evacuate Bologna : and cardinal Fer- 
retti departs : the citizens rise and form a pro- 
visional government 12 June, 1859 

"Which decrees that all public acts shall be headed 
" Under the reign of king Victor Emmanuel," &c. 

1 Oct. ,, 
He enters Bologna as sovereign . . . 2 May, i860 
Exhibition opened by the king and queen . 6 May, 1888 
The king unveils statue of Victor Emmanuel, 
11 June; establishment of the University cele- 
brated n-i6June, ,, 

Serious affray between the army and the populace 
through caricatures in a Bologna paper, 1, 2 Aug. 1891 

BOLOMETER (Greek bolos, a throw or cast), 
an electrical instrument, invented by prof. S. P- 
Langley, of U.S., who also terms it an "actinic 
balance. " It is much more sensitive to radiant 
heat than the thermopile (Nature, 3 Nov. 1881). 
By its means he made discoveries in the ultra red 
rays of the spectrum. 

BOLTON, Lancashire, was stormed by prince 
Eupert, 1644. It was an early seat of the cotton 
manufacture. Cotton velvets were made here in 
1756, and muslins in 1782. Temple Opera-house 
burned 16 April, 1882. Bayley's cotton works 



burned, several persons killed, and many injured - 
about 60,000/. worth damaged, 16 Aug. 1882. See- 
Strikes 1887, 1890. Population 1881, 105,414 ;. 
1891, 115,002. 

Theatre Royal burnt, 4 Jan. ; 100L reward for discovery 
of suspected incendiary, about 5 Jan. 1888. Robert 
Preston sentenced to twelve years' penal servitude- 
for arson, 7 Feb. 1888. 

BOMABSUND, a strong fortress on one of the 
Aland isles in the Baltic sea, taken by sir Charles 
Napier, commander of the Baltic expedition, aided 1 
by the French military contingent under general. 
Baraguay d'Hilliers, 15 Aug. 1854. The governor 
Bodisco, and the garrison, about 2000 men, became 
prisoners. The fortifications were destroyed. 

BOMBAY, the most westerly and smallest of 
our Indian presidencies, was visited by the Portu- 
guese in 1509, and acquired by them in 1530. It 
was given (with Tangier in Africa, and 300,000?. in 
money) to Charles II. as the marriage portion of the- 
infanta Catherine of Portugal, 1662. In 1668, it 
was granted to the East India company, who had 
long desired it, "in free and common socage," a& 
of the manor of East Greenwich, at an annual rent 
of 10/. Confirmed by William III. 1689. The 
two principal castes at Bombay are the Parsees- 
(descendants of the ancient Persian fire-worship- 
pers) and the Borahs (sprung from early converts- 
to Islamism) . They are both remarkable for com- 
mercial activity. Population: presidency, 1881,. 
16,469,199; 1891, 18,825,080; city, 1891, 804,470. 

First British factory established at Ahmednuggur . 1612; 
Mr. Gyfford, deputy-governor, 100 soldiers, and 

other English, perish through the climate, 

Oct. 1675 — Feb. 1676 
Captain Keigwin usurps the government . . 1681-84. 
Bombay made chief over the company's settlements 1687 
The whole island, except the fort, seized and held 

for a time by the mogul's admiral . . . . 1690 
Bombay becomes a distinct presidency . . . 170s. 
Additions to the Bombay territory : — Bancot river, 

1756 ; island of Salsette 1775. 

Bishopric established 1837 

Lord Elphinstone governor . . . . . 1853, 
The benevolent sir Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy, a Parsee 

(who erected several hospitals, &c.), diesis April, 1859. 
His son sir Cursetjee, visits England . . . i860. 

Sir G. R. Clerk, governor ,, 

Rioting against the income-tax suppressed Nov. Dec. ,, 
Sir Henry Bartle Frere, governor . . March, 1862 
Greatly increased prosperity through the cotton 

trade, leads to immense speculation. . . Nov. 1864. 
Reported failure of Mr. Byramjee Cama, a Parsee, 

for 3,300,000!. ; other failures, and great depres- 
sion ; the projected international exhibition in 

1867 abandoned May, 1865, 

Recovering from commercial crisis . . Aug. ,, 
Mr. (after sir) W. R. Seymour Fitzgerald, appointed 

governor, Nov. 1866 ; arrived . . 28 Feb. 1867- 
Held a durbar of native princes, at Poona . 6 Oct. 1868. 
Grand recejition of the duke of Edinburgh, 11 March, 1870. 
Sir Philip Wodehouse, governor . . April, 1872 
Riots : Mahometans attack Parsees for publishing 

part of Washington Irvmg's " Life of Mahomet "; 

lives lost and property destroyed . 13-15 Feb. 1874. 

Culprits punished by the British „ 

The Prince of Wales warmly received, 8 Nov. 1875 ; 

sailed from here for home . . . 13 March, 1876 
Meeting of loyal Mahometans to petition the queen 

in favour of the Sultan . . . 24 Sept. ,, 
Dreadful famine, relieved by government and 

by British subscriptions 1877 

Statue of the prince of Wales (given by sir Albert 

Sassoon), uncovered . . 26 or 27 June, 1879 
Sir James Fergusson nominated governor . Feb. 1880 
A patriotic fund to relieve sufferers by Afghan war, 

liberally subscribed to by natives and others, Aug. ,, 
62 persons drowned in the great tank . 17 April, 1883 
Lord Reay appointed governor . . . Dec. 1884 
Native troops sail for the Soudan . . 23 Feb. 1885 
For the Crawford Case, see India .... 1889 



BOMBS. 



135 



BONNY RIVER. 



George R. Canning, Lord Harris, appointed governor 
(Lord Reay having resigned), 18 Nov., 1889 ; 
arrives 11 April, 1890 

An epidemic prevails resembling influenza 

Feb.-March, ,, 

The duke of Connaught commander-in-chief of 
Bombay, with the duchess, much esteemed, leaves 
for home 13 March, „ 

Prince Albert Victor of Wales lands at Bombay, 9 
Nov. 1889, after a tour in India ; departs for 
England 28 March, ,, 

Lady Dulferin's hospital for women opened by the 
viceroy . ■ 24 Oct. ,, 

The collapse of a large ill-built house in the city ; 
about 30 persons killed . . . -17 Dec. ,, 

Great fire at Poonah, over 200 houses destroyed 

12 Jan. 1891 

Destructive floods through heavy rains about 

29 July, ,, 

The viceroy opens the new Bombay waterworks, 
great undertaking, designed by major Tulloch 

31 March, 1892 

BOMBS (iron shells filled with gunpowder), 
said to have been invented at Venlo, in 1495, and 
used by the Turks at the siege of Rhodes in 1522. 
They came into general use in 1634, having been 
previously used only by the Dutch and Spaniards. 
Bomb- vessels were invented in France in 168 1. 
Voltaire. The shrapnel shell (invented by colonel 
Henry Shrapnel, who died in 1842) is a bomb filled 
with balls, and a lighted fuse to make it explode 
before it reaches the enemy. 

BONA, Algeria ; an early station of the French 
African company, till 1789. It was taken by the 
French from the Arabs, 6 May, 1832. 

BONAPARTE, or BUONAPARTE, 
FAMILY. The name appears at Florence and 
Genoa in the 13th century , in the 15th a branch 
settled in Corsica. See Table in Vincent's " Dic- 
tionary of Biography." 

Charles Bonaparte, born 29 March, 1746, died 24 Feb., 
1785. He married in 1767, Letitia Kamolina (born 
24 Aug., 1750, died Feb. 1836) ; issue, 

1. Joseph, born 7 Jan. 1768, made king of Two Sicilies, 
1805 ; of Naples alone, 1806 ; of Spain, 1808 ; resides 
in United States, 1815 ; comes to England, 1832 ; 
settles in Italy, 1841 ; dies at Florence, 28 July, 1844. 

2. Napoleon I. , emperor, born 15 Aug. 1769 (see France.) 

3. Lucien, prince of Canino, bom 1775; at first aided 
his brother Napoleon, but opposed his progress towards 
universal monarchy. He was taken by the English on 
his way to America, and resided in England till 1814. 
He died at Viterbo, 30 June, 1840. His sou Charles 
(born 1803, died 1857) was an eminent naturalist. 
Louis Lucien, an eminent philologist, born in 1813 ; 
received a pension of 250?. from the British govern- 
ment ; died 3 Nov. 1891. 

4. Louis, born 2 Sept. 1778 ; made king of Holland, 1806; 
died 15 July, 1846. By his marriage with Hortense 
Beauharnais (daughter of the empress Josephine), in 
1802, he had three sons : 1. Napoleon Louis (born 1803, 
died 1807) ; 2. Louis Napoleon (born 1804, died 1831) ; 
and 

3. Charles-Louis-Napoleon, born 20 April, 1808 ; 

educated under the care of his mother at Aremberg, 

Switzerland, and at Thun, under general Dufour ; 

took part in the Carbonari insurrection in the Papal 

States in March, 1831 
Attempted a revolt at Strasbourg, 30 Oct. 1836. 
Sent to America, 13 Nov. 1836. 
Repairs to London, 14 Oct. 1838. 
Lands at Boulogne with fifty followers, 6 Aug. 1840. 
Condemned to imprisonment for life, 6 Oct. 1840. 
Escapes from Ham, 25 May, 1846. 
Arrives at Boulogne, 2 March, 1848. 
Elected deputy, 8 June ; and takes his seat, 27 Aug. ; 
see France 1 84S- 7 1 : died at Chislehurst, 9 Jan. 1873. 

Son: Napoleon Eugene Louis Jean Joseph; born 

16 March, 1856 ; educated at military academy, 

Woolwich ; killed in Zululand, June 1, 1879. 

Both buried at Chislehurst ; removed to a mausoleum 

at Farnborough, 9 Jan. 1888. 



5. Jerome, born 15 Nov. 1784 ; king of Westphalia, 
1 Dec. 1807-1814 ; [married : I. Elizabeth Paterson, in 
America, 24 Dec. 1803 ; son Jerome, born at Camber- 
well, London, 7 July, 1805 (she died, aged 94, 4 April, 
1879). II. Princess Catherine, of Wiirtemberg, 12 Aug. 
1807.] Made governor of the Invalides, 1848 ; and 
marshal, 1850 ; died 24 June, i860 ; his children — 
Mathilde, born 27 May, 1820 ; married to prince 

A. Demidoff in 1841. 
Napoleon, born 9 Sept. 1822 ; married princess Clo- 
tilde of Savoy, 30 Jan. 1859, died 17 March, 1891 : 
issue, Victor, born 18 July, 1862 ; Louis, born 16 
July, 1864 ; Marie, born 20 Dec. 1866 ; prince Victor 
separates from his father ; accepted as chief by the 
Bonapartists ; the father publishes painful corre- 
spondence. June, 18S4. Expelled from France 
(see France) May-June, i836 ; disinherited March, 
1 89 1 ; accepted as head of the family 31 March, 
1891. 

BOND, Dutch for league, a name adopted by 
the Dutch-speaking population of Southern Africa, 
see Afrikander and Boers. Bonds, see Foreign. 

BONDAGE, see Villanage. 

BONES. The art of softening bones was dis- 
covered about 1688, and they were used in the 
cutlery manufacture, &c, immediately afterwards. 
The declared value of the bones of cattle and of 
other animals, and of fish (exclusive of whale-fins) 
imported into the United Kingdom from Russia, 
Prussia, Holland, Denmark, &c, amounted to 
363,6131?. in 1851, to 659,416?. in 1871, to 741,899?. 
m 1877, to 617,748?. in 1883, to 313,765?. in 1887, 
to 449,526/. in 1890. Bone-dust has been extensively 
employed in manure since the publication of Liebig's 
researches in 1840. 

BONE-SETTINGr cannot he said to have 
been practised scientifically until 1620. Bell. 

The ignorant "bone-setters" often did good and 
often harm ; the principle upon which they acted 
is now adopted by surgeons : and is set forth in 
Dr. Wharton Hood's work on "The Setting and 
Treatment of Joints," 1871. 
Mr. John Hutton, an eminent (unprofessional) 
" bone-setter," died July, 1887. 

BON MARCHE (cheap). Name given by 
some shopkeepers in London to their mode of 
selling goods to the poor at very small profits. 
The system was originated at Paris by Mad. 
Boucicault, originally a shop-girl ; about 1842, 
she, with her husband, opened a shop in the 
time of deep distress for meeting the wants 
of the poorest people. In time her business 
greatly increased with enlarged premises, and she 
adopted the system of the division of profits with 
her employed. She realised a large fortune, and 
became a munificent benefactress of the city. She 
died in Dec. 1887, worth it is said four 'million 
pounds sterling. M. Crespin de Vidouville, a simi- 
lar eccentric character, died at Paris 20 Feb. 1888. 

BONN, atownon the Rhine (the Roman Bonna), 
was in the electorate of Cologue. It has been 
frequently besieged, and was assigned to Prussia 
in 1814. The academy founded by the elector in 
1777, made a university 1784 ; abolished by Napo- 
leon; re-established and enlarged, 1818. Here 
Albert, our late prince consort, was entered as a 
student, May, 1837. Population 1890, 39,801. 

BONNY RIVER, Guinea, West Africa; a 
scat of the palm oil trade ; king George visited 
England in 1878. A sanguinary battle was fought 
between the king Oko Jumbo and the people of 
New Calabar, who were defeated, 9 April, 1882. Peace 
made by British intervention 011 Aug. 14, 1S82. 

King Oko Jumbo visited London, summer 18S5 ; left 

15 July, 18S5 ; his death reported Aug. 1891. 



BONS HOMMES. 



136 



BOOTHIA FELIX. 



BONS HOMMES, hermits of simple and 
gentle lives, appeared in France about 1257 ; in 
England about 1283. The prior of the order was 
called le bon homme by Louis VI. 

BOOK (Anglo-Saxon, hoc; German, buck). 
Books were originally made of boards, or the inner 
bark of trees ; afterwards of skins and parchment. 
Papyrus, an indigenous plant, was adopted in 
Egypt. Books with leaves of vellum were invented 
by Attalus, king of Pergamus, about 198 b.c, at 
which time books were in volumes or rolls. The 
MSS. in Herculaneum consist of pap} r rus, rolled 
and charred and matted together by the fire, and 
are about nine inches long, and one, two, or three 
inches in diameter, each being a separate treatise. 
The most ancient books are the Pentateuch of Moses 
and the poems of Homer and Hesiod. The first 
Printed Books (see Printing) were printed on one 
side only, the leaves being pasted back to back. See 
Libraries. 

Title pages to printed books in England were not 
introduced till shortly before 1490, they were 
used by Wynkyn de Worde, but not by Caxton, 
in the 15th century. Mr. A. W. Pollard's " Last 
words on Title pages," appeared in 1891. See 
Printing. 
Books of astronomy and geometry were ordered to 
be destroyed in England as being infected with 

magic, 6 Edw. VI. (Stow) 1552 

Anne's act, 1709, relating to the price of books, 

repealed 1739 

12032 volumes of new works, and 773 of new editions, 

were published in London in .... 1839 

3359 new works, and 1159 new editions, and 908 



1882 
1883 



:Sgo 



1852 



New New 
"Works. Editions. 
■ 3978 "46 



4732 
4832 

43°7 
3984 
4410 
4960 
4694 
4414 
4429 



1413 
1541 
1333 
1226 
1276 
1631 

1373 
1321 
1277 



pamphlets, were published in 
3553 volumes were published in 
Published in Great Britain : - 
New New 
Works. Editions. 

1870 . 4775 

1871 . 3547 1288 

1872 . 3419 1 100 

1874 . 3351 961 

1875 . 3573 1331 

1876 . 2931 1957 
3877 . 304.9 2046 

1878 . 3730 1584 

1879 . 4294 1540 

1880 . 4293 1415 

1881 . 4110 1296 
The production of a Universal Catalogue of books 

printed in the United Kingdom, proposed by the 
Society of Arts, in the Journal . n April, 1879 
In Paris, 6445 volumes were published in 1842 ; and 
7350 in 1851. See Bibliography. 

Prices of Books.— Jerome (who died 420) states that 
Tie had ruined himself by buying a copy of the works of 
Origen. A large estate was given by Alfred for a book 
•on cosmography, about 872. The Roman de la Rose was 
sold for about 30I. ; and a homily was exchanged for 
200 sheep and five quarters of wheat. Books frequently 
fetched double or treble their weight in gold. They sold 
at prices varying from 10I. to 40I. each in 1400. A copy 
of Maclclin's Bible, ornamented by Mr. Tomkins, was 
declared worth 500 guineas. Butler. A yet more superb 
copy was insured in a London office for 3000Z. See 
Boccaccio's Decamerone. 

Petrareaby Bernardino di Novara, 1488, at the Sun- 
derland sale bought by B. Quaritch for 1950?., 11 
Nov. 1882; he gave for sir John Thorold's Mazarin 
bible, 3900Z. 13 Dec.; and his "Psabnorum Codex," 

4950? 19 Dec. 1S84 

Book-Binding. — The book of St. Cuthbert, a very 
early ornamental book, is supposed to have been 

bound about 650 

A Latin Psalter was bound in oak boards, 9th 

century. 
A MS. copy of the four Evangelists, the book on 
which our kings from Henry I. to Edward VI. 
took their coronation oath, was bound in oaken 

boards, nearly an inch thick 

Velvet was the covering in the 14th century ; and 
silk soon after. Vellum was introduced early in 



the 15th century ; it was stamped and orna- 
mented about 1 100 

Leather came into use about the same time. 

The rolling machine, invented by Mr. Win. Burr, 
was substituted for the beating-hammer, and gas 
stoves began to take the place of the charcoal 
fires used to heat the gilder's finishing tools, 

about 1830 

Cloth binding superseded the common boards 
generally about 1831 

Caoutchouc or India-rubber backs to account-books 
and large volumes were introduced in . . . 1841 

The use of thin metal plates instead of paste- 
board introduced by . . . . . . 1886 

Cheap Books. — Mrs. Brassey's "Voyage of the 
Sunbeam," Nov. 1881, published for sixpence ; 
and Martin's " Life of the Prince Consort," for 
2s. 6d Autumn 1881 

Book-Hawking Societies (already in Scotland) 
begun in England in 1851 by archdeacon Wigram 
(afterwards bishop of Rochester). The hawkers 
vend moral and religious books in a similar mari- 
ner to the French colporteurs. 

BOOK-KEEPING-. The system by_ double- 
entry, called originally Italian book-keeping, was 
taken from the course of algebra published by 
Burgo, in the 15th century, at Venice. John 
Gowghe, a printer, published a treatise " on the 
kepyng of the famouse reconynge . . . Debitor 
and Creditor," London, 1543. This is our earliest 
work on book-keeping. James Peele published his 
Book-keeping in 1569. John Mellis published "A 
Briefe Instruction and Manner how to Keepe Bookes 
of Accompts," in 1588. Improved systems were 
published by Benjamin Booth in 1789 and by Edw. 
Thos. Jones in 1821 and 1831. 

BOOK OF COMMON PBAYEB, see 

Common Prayer. " Book of the Dead," see Bead. 
Book of Sports, see Sports. Book Post, see Post. 

BOOK SOCIETY, 28, Paternoster-row, es- 
tablished for the gratuitous distribution of bibles 
and good books, 1750. 

BOOKS, National, Coloured. See under Blue- 
Books. 

BOOKSELLERS, at first migratory like 
hawkers, became known as stationarii, from their 
practice of having booths or stalls at the corners of 
streets and in markets. They were long subject to 
vexatious restrictions, from which they were freed 
in 1758. 

The earliest bookseller's catalogue is said to be that 
published by Andrew Maunsell, of Lothbury, dedicated 
to Queen Elizabeth, 1595. 

"Booksellers' Provident Institution" founded 1837; 
" Retreat," Abbot's Langley, Herts, 1843. 

The Bookseller, a monthly newspaper of British and 
foreign literature, published in 1858 ; with it was incor- 
porated Bent's Literary Advertiser, established in 1802. 

BOOKSELLERS' ASSOCIATION. The 

chief publishers in London formed themselves into 
an association and fixed the amount of discount to 
be allowed, 29 Dec. 1829, and for some years re- 
stricted the retail booksellers from selling copies of 
works under the full publishing price. A dispute 
arose as to the right of the latter to dispose of books 
which had become theirs by purchase, at such less 
profit as they might deem sufficiently remunerative. 
The dispute was referred to lord chief justice Camp- 
bell, at Stratheden House, 14 April, 1852. His 
lordship gave judgment against the association, 
which led to its dissolution, 19 May following. The 
London Booksellers' society was formed in 1890 ; 
the inaugural dinner took place 2 Oct. 1890. 

BOOTHIA FELIX, a large peninsula, N.W. 
point of America, discovered by sir John Boss in 
1830, and named after sir Felix Booth, who had 



BOOTHISM. 



137 



BOSCOBEL. 



presented him with 20,000^. to fit out his polar 
expedition. Sir Felix died at Brighton in Feb. 1850. 

BOOTHISM, see Salvation Army. 

BOOTS, said to have been the invention of the 
Carians, were mentioned by Homer, 907 B.C., and 
frequently by the Roman historians. A variety of 
forms may be seen in Fairholt's "Costume in Eng- 
land." An instrument of torture termed " the 
boot" was used in Scotland upon the covenanters 
about 1666. 

A new system of boot-making introduced by Mr. M. 
L. Lion and Mr. P. Cutlan, reversing the ordinary 
method, July, 1887. 

BOB, AX (Boron), known to the ancients, used 
in soldering, brazing, and casting gold and other 
metals, was called chrysocolla. Borax is produced 
naturally in the mountains of Thibet, and was 
brought to Europe from India about 1713. Hom- 
berg in 1702 discovered in borax boracic acid, which 
latter in 1808 was decomposed by Gay-Lussac, 
Thenard, and H. Davy, into oxygen and the pre- 
viously unknown element, boron. Borax has lately 
been found in Saxony. It is now largely manu- 
factured from the boracic acid found by Hcefer to 
exist in the gas arising from certain lagoons in 
Tuscany ; and an immense fortune has been made 
by their owner, M. Lardarel, since 1818. 

.BORDEAUX (W. France), the Roman Bur- 
digalla, in Aquitania, was taken by the Goths, 412 ; 
by Clovis, 508. It was gained by Henry IE. on his 
marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine, 1151. Edward 
the Black Prince brought John, king of France, 
captive to this city after the battle of Poictiers, 
19 Sept. 1356, and here held his court eleven 
years: his son, our Richard II., was bom at Bor- 
deaux, 1366. After several changes Bordeaux finally 
surrendered to Charles VII. of France, 14 Oct. 1453. 
The fine equestrian statue of Louis XV. was erected 
in 1743. Bordeaux was entered by the victorious 
British army after the battle of Orthez, fought 
27 Feb. 1814. — 13 vessels were burnt and others 
iujured in the port, through the ignition and 
explosion of petroleum spirit, 28 Sept. 1869. The 
French delegate government and the represen- 
tatives of foreign powers removed here from Tours, 
II Dec. 1870. M. Gambetta remained for a time 
with the army of the Loire. By the " pacte de 
Bordeaux," between the different parties of the 
national assembly, M. Thiers became chief of the 
■ executive power, 17 Feb. 1871. The French Asso- 
ciation for the Advancement of Science held its 
first meeting here, 5 Sept. 1872 ; M. Quatrefages, 
president. Great fire in the pine forests, 10 persons 
perish, about 28 Aug. 1891. Population, 1891, 
238,899. 

BORNEO, an island in the Indian Ocean, the 
largest in the world except Australia and New 
Guinea, was early known to the Chinese. 
The Dutch trade here in 1604 ; establish factories, 

1609 : abandon them, 1623 ; re-establish them . 1776 
Sarawak settled by sir James Brooke ; ai>pointed 

rajah 1841 

The pirates of Borneo chastised by the British iu 

1813, and by captain Keppel in . . March, 1843 
By a treaty with the sultan, through the instru- 
mentality of sir J. Brooke, the island of Labooan, 
or Labuan (N. W. of Borneo), and its dependen- 
cies, incorporated with the British empire, and 
formally taken possession of iu presence of the 

Bornean chiefs 2 Dec. 1846 

James Brooke, rajah of Sarawak (1846), governor of 
Labuan and consul-general of Borneo, visits 
England and receives many honours . . Oct. 1847 
He destroys many of the Bornean pirates . . . 1849 
Labuan made a bishopric ; the bishop (F. J. Mac- 
Dougall) consecrated at Calcutta, the first English 
bishop consecrated out of England . 18 Oct. 1S55 



The Chinese in Sarawak rise iu insurrection and 
massacre a number of Europeans ; sir J. Brooke 
escapes by swimming across a creek ; he speedily 
returns with a force of Malays, &c., and chas- 
tises the insurgents, of whom 2000 are killed, 

17, 18 Feb. 1857 

He comes to England to seek help from the govern- 
ment, without success 1858 

His health being broken up, an appeal for a sub- 
scription for him made 

Deputation of merchants waits on the earl of Derby 
recommending the purchase of Sarawak, which 
is declined . . ... 30 Nov. 

Sir J. Brooke returns to Borneo . . 20 Nov. i860 

Returned to England ; died, succeeded by his 
nephew, sir Charles Johnson Brooke (born 3 
June, 1829) n June, 1868 

The rajah of Sarawak, with an expedition of Malays 
and Dyaks, defeats and punishes a marauding 
decapitating tribe of Dyaks . . . June, 1870 

British North Borneo Company gazetted, 8 Nov. ; 
threatened protest of Spanish government Nov. 1881 

Meeting of Committee in London . . 3 Oct. 1882 

Freedom of trade in the Archipelago settled by 
Great Britain, Germany, and Si>ain. 1877 ; further 
with Spain . . . . . . . ^84 

North Borneo reported prosperous . . May, 1885 

Rebels defeated . . 10 Feb., war over April, 1889 

Rajah Brooke, of Sarawak, annexes the Limbang 
region of Brunei on .... 17 March, 1890 

He proclaims his son, aged 17, his heir, as Rajah 
Muda : announced .... 7 Aug. 1891 

North Borneo, with Sarawak and Brunei consti- 
tuted a British protectorate, 1885 ; governor, 
Charles V. Creagh 1892 

BORNOU, an extensive kingdom in central 
Africa, explored by Denham and Clapperton (sent 
out by the British government), in 1822. The 
population is estimated by Denham at 5,000,000, 
by Barth at 9,000,000. 

BORODINO, a Russian village on the river 
Moskwa, near which a sanguinary battle was fought, 
7 Sept. 1812, between the French uuder Napoleon, 
and the Russians under Kutusoff; 210,000 men 
being engaged. Each party claimed tlie victor}' ; 
but the Russians retreated, leaving Moscow, which 
the French entered, 14 Sept. ; see Moscow. 

BORON, see Borax. 

BOROUGH or BURGH, anciently a company 
of ten families living together, now such towns as 
send members to parliament, since the election of 
burgesses in the reign of Henry III. 1265. Charters 
were granted to towns by Henry I. 1 132; which 
were remodelled by Charles II. in 1682-4, °ut re " 
stored in 1688. 22 new English boroughs were 
created in 1553. Burgesses were first admitted into 
the Scottish parliament by Robert Bruce, 1326; and 
into the Irish, 1365. Acts to amend the Represen- 
tation of the People in England and "Wales passed 
7 June, 1832, and 15 Aug. 1867; and the Act for 
the Regulation of Municipal Corporations, 9 Sept. 
1835 ; see Constituency. 

BOROUGH-BRIDGE (AV.R.of York). Here 
Edward II. defeated the earls of Hereford and Lan- 
caster, 16 March, 1322. Lancaster was mounted on 
a lean horse, led to an eminence near Pontefract, 
and beheaded. 

BOROUGH-ENGLISH, an ancient tenure 
by which the younger son inherits, is mentioned as 
occurring 834. It was abolished in Scotland by 
Malcolm III. in 1062. 

BOSCOBEL, near Donington, Shropshire 
Charles II. (after his defeat at Worcester, 3 Sept. 
1651), disguised in the clothes of the Pendrills, 
remained from 4 to 6 Sept. at White Ladies; on 
7 and 8 Sept. he lay at Boseobel house, near which 
exists an 0,1k, said to be the scion of the Royal Oak 
in which the king was part of the time hidden with 



BOSNIA. 



138 



BOTANY. 



col. Careless. ISharpe. The "Boscobel Tracts" 
were first published in 1660. In 1861 Mr. F. Man- 
ning published " Views," illustrating these tracts. 
W. H. Ainsworth's " Boscobel," a story with 
authentic details, published 1872. 

BOSNIA, in European Turkey, formerly part of 
Pannonia, was governed by chiefs till a brother-in- 
law of Louis king of Hungary was made king, 1376. 
He was defeated by the Turks in 1389, and became 
their vassal. Bosnia was incorporated with Turkey 
in 1463. Many efforts have been made by the 
Bosnians to recover their independence. A re- 
bellion, begun in 1849, was quelled by Omar Pasha 
in 1851. The Bosnians joined the insurgents in 
Herzegovina, Sept. 1875 ! revolt was subdued, Aug. 
1877. See Turkey. 
About 100,000 Bosnian fugitives said to be in 

Austrian territories .... July, 1878 

Proclamation of the emperor before his troops enter 
Bosnia (in conformity with the treaty of Berlin, 

13 July) 27 July, ,, 

Advance of the Austrians, 29 July, vigorously re- 
sisted by the Bosnian begs, aided by Turks 

4-6 Aug. ,, 
The Bosnians defeated between Zepce and Maglai, 

7, 8 Aug. „ 
The Austrians occupy Travnik, the old capital, 11 

Aug. ; slightly repulsed ... 16 Aug. „ 
Victories of Philippovich at Han Belalovijh, 16 

Aug. ; of Tegethotf .... 18 Aug. „ 
Serajevo, the capital, bombarded and taken by storm 

19 Aug. ; other successes . . 30 Aug., 5 Sept. „ 
The fortress Trebinje voluntarily surrenders 

7 Sept. ,, 
Behacs firmly resists, 10 Sept. ; taken 19 Sejit. „ 
Senkovics, a strong fortress, with arms and ammu- 
nition, taken 21 Sept. ,, 

Zwornik, a stronghold, surrenders, about 25 Sept. „ 
Livno bombarded and taken . . 28 Sept. „ 

Other places surrender . . . about 12 Oct. ,, 
Besistance ended ; general amnesty issued 

about 9 Nov. „ 
Austrian loss estimated 5000 killed, wounded, 

missing Nov. ,, 

The country settled, gradual political reforms Jan. 1880 
Population, 1,504,091 ; announced . . Feb. 1889 

BOSPHOBE EGYPTIEN, see Egypt, 1885. 

BOSPHOBUS, TheaciaN (now Channel of 
Constantinople). Darius Hystaspes threw a bridge 
of boats over this strait when about to invade 
Greece, 493 B.C. See Constantinople. 

BOSPOBUS (improperly BOSPHOBUS), now 
called Circassia, near the Bosphorus Cimmerius, 
the straits of Kertch or Yenikale. The history of 
the kingdom is involved in obscurity. It was 
named Cimmerian, from the Cimmeri. who dwelt 
on its borders, about 750 B.C. 

The Archienactidse from Mitylene rule . . B.C. 502-480 
They are dispossessed by Spartacus I. 438 

Seleucus, 431 ; Satyrus 1 407 

Leucon, 393 ; Spartacus II., 353 ; Parysades . . 348 
Eumelus, aiming to dethrone his brother Saty- 
rus II., is defeated ; but Satyrus is killed . . 310 
Prytanis, his next brother, ascends the throne, but 

is murdered by Eumelus 309 

Eumelus puts to death all his relations, 309 ; and is 

killed 304 

The Scythians conquer Bosporus .... 285 
Mithridates VI., of Pontus, conquers Bosporus . . 80 
He poisons himself ; and the Boiuans make his son, 

Pharnac.es, king 63 

Battle of Zela, gained by Julius Cresar over Phar- 
naces II. (Ccesar writes home, Veni, vidi, vicl, " I 

came, I saw, I conquered ") 47 

Asander usurps the crown 

Csesar makes Mithridates of Pergamus king . . ,, 
Polemon conquers Bosporus, and favoured by 

Agrippa, reigns 14 

Polemon killed by barbarians of the Palus Mreotis a.d. 33 
Polemon II. reigns . . .... 



Mithridates II. reigns a.d. 41 

Mithridates conducted a prisoner to Borne, by 

order of Claudius ; Cotys I. king . . . . 49 
A list of kings given by some writers ends with 

Sauromates VII 344 

BOSTON, Lincolnshire ; a trading town, made 
a staple for wool, 1357 ; St. Botolph's church with a 
lofty tower, was erected about 1309. Population 
1 88 1, 14,941 ; 1891, 14,953. 

BOSTON, Massachusetts, United States, built 
about 1627. Here originated, that resistance to the 
British authorities which led to American inde- 
pendence. The act of parliament laying duties on 
tea, papers, colours, &c. (passed June, 1767) so 
excited the indignation of the citizens of Boston, 
that they destroyed several hundreds of chests of 
tea, Dec. 1773. Population 1890, 448,477. 
" Boston News Letter," first American newspaper, 

appeared 24 April, 1704 

Boston seaport shut by the English parliament, 
until restitution should be made to the East 
India Company for the tea lost . . 25 March, 1774 
The town besieged by the Americans, and 400 

houses destroyed 1775 

Battle of Bunker's Hill, between the royalists and 
independent troops ; the latter defeated, 

17 June, ,, 
The city evacuated by the king's troops . April, 1776 
Industrial exhibition opened . . . Oct. 1856 

Great peace jubilee ; concert of about 10,371 voices 
and 1094 instruments, with anvils, bells, <fec, 

begun 15 June, 1869 

International peace jubilee ; chorus about 20,000 ; 
orchestra, 1000 ; with military bands and other 
performers of different natrons, including the 
British grenadier guards' band ; a day allotted to 
each nation . . . -17 June — 4 July, 1872 
Tremendous fire ; great loss of life and property ; 
about 80 acres of buildings burnt ; 959 nouses 
(125 dwellings); 35 persons killed . 9, 10, 11 Nov. „ 
Great fire ; many buildings destroyed ; estimated 
loss 5,000,000 dollars. Two firemen killed 

28 Nov. 1883 

BOSWOBTH FIELD, Leicestershire, the 
site of the thirteenth and last battle between the 
houses of York and Lancaster, 22 Aug. 1485, when 
Richard III. was defeated by the earl of Richmond., 
afterwards Henry VII., and slain, through the 
desertion of sir Wm. Stanley. It is said that 
Henry was crowned on the spot with the crown of 
Richard found in a hawthorn bush near the field. 

BOTANY. Aristotle is considered the founder 
of the science (about 347 B.C.) . Historia Plantarum 
of Theophrastus was written about 320 B.C. Authors 
on botany became numerous at the close of the 15th 
century. Fuchsius, Bock, Bauhin, Cajsalpinus, and 
others, wrote between 1535 and 1600. The system 
and arrangement of the great Linnaeus was made 
known about 1735 ; and Jussieu's system, founded 
on Tournefort's, and called "the natural system," 
in 1758. At Linnseus's death, 1778, the species of 
plants actually described amounted in number to- 
il, 800. The number of species now recorded cannot 
fall short of 100,000. J. C. Loudon's " Encyclo- 
paedia of Plants," a most comprehensive work, first 
appeared in 1829. De Candolle's "Prodromus 
Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis" (of which 
Vol. I. appeared in 1818), was completed in 1876. 
An International Botanical congress was opened in 
London, 23 May, 1866, professor A. De Candolle 
president; another at Amsterdam, 13 April, 1877. 
Robert Brown, who accompanied Flinders in his 
survey of New Holland in 1803, died 10 June, 
1858, aged 85, was long acknowledged to be the 
chief of the bota nists of hisday (Jacile princeps). 
Royal botanic society's jubilee fete, 15 July, 1889. » I 
International botanical congress at Genoa, 5 Sept. 



BOTANY BAY. 



139 



BOURBON. 



Padua 
Montpellier 
Leyden . 
Leipsic 
Paris (Jardin 

Plantes) 
Jena . 
Oxford . 
Upsal . 
Chelsea . 
Edinburgh . 
Vienna . 
Madrid 



BOTANIC GARDENS 

Establislied about 
■ 1545 

• 1558 

• 1577 
. 1580 



des 



. 1624 
. 1629 

• 1632 
■ 1657 

1673-86 
. 1680 

• 1753 

• !755 



Established about 
Kew, 1760 ; greatly im- 



proved . . 1841-65 
Cambridge . . . 1763 
Coimbra. . . .1773 
St. Petersburg . -1785 
Calcutta. . . . 1793 
Dublin . . . 1800 
Horticultural Society's, 

Chiswick . . . 1821 
Royal Botanic Society's, 

Regent's Park. . 1839 
Royal Horticultural 
Society's ; see Hor- 
ticulture . . . i860 



BOTANY BAY, Australia, discovered by 
captain Cook, 28 April, 1770, received its name 
from the great variety of plants growing on the 
shore. It was fixed on for a colony of convicts 
from Great Britain, which was however established 
at Sydney, near Port Jackson. The first governor, 
captain Arthur Phillip, who sailed from England in 
May, 1787, arrived at the settlement in Jan. 1788. 
The colony was eventually established at Port 
Jackson, about thirteen miles to the north of the 
bay ; see New South IFales, and Transportation. 

BOTHWELL BRIDGE, Lanarkshire. The 
Scotch covenanters, who took up arms against the 
intolerant government of Charles II., and defeated 
the celebrated Claverhouse at Drumclog, 1 June, 
1679, were totally routed by the earl of Monmouth 
at Bothwell Bridge, 22 June, 1679, and many pri- 
soners were tortured and executed. 

BOTTLE-CONJURER. In accordance with 
a wager, a person having advertised that he would 
jump into a quart bottle at the Haymarket theatre, 
on 16 Jan. 1749, the house was densely crowded 
and besieged by thousands anxious to gain ad- 
mittance. The pickpockets had a rich harvest, and 
the duped crowd nearly pulled down the edifice. 

BOTTLES in ancient times were made of 
leather. The art of making glass bottles and 
drinking-glasses was known to the Romans at least 
before 79; for these articles and other vessels have 
been found in the ruins of Pompeii. Bottles were 
made in England about 1558. A bottle which con- 
tained two hogsheads was blown, we are told, at 
Leith, in Scotland, in Jan. 1747-8; see Glass. 
Ashley's patent for making glass bottles by auto- 
matic machinery 13 Nov. 1886 

Bottles largely made of paper in America . . 1387 

BOUILLON, Belgium, formerly a duchy, was 
sold by Godfrey its ruler, to Albert, bishop of Liege, 
to obtain funds for the crusade, 1095. It was 
seized by the French in 1672, and held by them till 
1815, when it was given to the king of the Nether- 
lands, as duke of Luxemburg. It was awarded to 
Belgium after the Bevolution of 1830. 

BOULANGISTS, see France, 1886-91. 

BOULEVARDS (Bulwarks), sites of old 
fortifications in Paris and other French towns, now 
planted with rows of trees. The practice has been 
adopted in some London suburban roads, 1875, 
et seq. See Playground. 

BOULOGNE, a seaport in Picnrdy, N. France, 
added to Burgundy, 1435; to France," 1447. Here 
Henry VIII. and Francis I. concluded a treaty to 
oppose the Turks, 28 Oct. 1532. Boulogne was 
besieged by Henry VII. 2 Oct. 1492, for a few clays; 
taken by Henry VIII. on 14 Sept. 1544, but restored 
for a sum of money, 1 550. 
Lord Nelson attacked a flotilla here, disabling ten 

vessels and sinking five ... 3 Aug. 1801 



In another attempt he was repulsed with great loss, 
and captain Parker of the Medusa and two-thirds 
of his crew were killed . . . 18 Aug. 1801 

Bonaparte assembled 160,000 men and 10,000 horses, 
and a flotilla of 1300 vessels and 17,000 sailors to 
invade England in 1804 ; the coasts of Kent and 
Sussex were covered with martello towers and 
lines of defence ; and nearly half the adult popu- 
lation of Britain was formed into volunteer corps ; 
sir' Sidney Smith unsuccessfully attempted to 
burn the flotilla with fire machines called" cata- 
marans 2 Oct. 1804 

The army removed on the breaking out of war with 
Austria 180s 

Congreve-rockets used in another attack, and set 
the town on fire 8 Oct. 1806 

Louis Napoleon (afterwards emperor) made a fruit- 
less descent here with about 50 followers, 6 Aug. 1840. 

As emperor, he reviewed the French troops destined 
for the Baltic, 10 July, 1854 >" an d entertained 
prince Albert and the king of the Belgians, 5 Sept. 1854, 

Statue of Edw. Jenuer here inaugurated n Sept. 1865, 

Pilgrimages here to adore an image of the Virgin 
and Child, said to have been miraculously brought 
in a boat in 633 I 857-7S 

Law authorising construction of a new deep-sea 
harbour, by M. Stcecklin (in 15 years), cost about 
68o,oooi. ; passed 19 June ; first stone laid, by 
M. Freyeinet 9 Sept. 1878; 

BOUNDARY ACTS. Commissioners were ap- 
pointed by the Reform Bill, passed 15 Aug. 1867,. 
Viscount Eversley, Russell Gurney, sir John T. B. 
Duckworth, sir Francis Crossley, and John Walter,, 
first sat 16 Aug. England and Wales were divided 
into 18 districts, and other arrangements made. 
Another boundary act was passed 13 July, 1868. 

Boundary commissioners appointed to carry out 
the redistribution of seats bill Nov. 1884. Work 

completed 10 Feb. 1885. 

|Sir John Lambert (chairman), lion. T. H. W. Pelham, 

sir F. R. Sandford, Mr. J. T, Henley, lieut.-col. R. O. 

Jones, and Major H. Tulloch. ] 

Boundaries commission appointed by the Local 
Government (Boundaries) Act passed 16 Sept. . 1887- 
[EarlBrownlow (chairman), Lord Edniond Fitzmaurice, 

Lord Basing, sir Henry Selwyn IbbetsonandMr.Hibbcrt.J. 

BOUNTIES, premiums granted to the producer, 
exporter, or importer of certain articles ; a principle- 
introduced into commerce by the British parliament. 
The first granted on corn, in 1688, were repealed in 
1815. They were first legally granted in England 
for raising naval stores in America, 1 703, and have 
been granted to the herring fishery, on sail-cloth., 
linen, and otber goods. See under Sugar. 

BOUNTY MUTINY, took place on board the- 
Bounty, an armed ship which quitted Otaheite, with 
bread-fruit trees, 7 April, 1789. The mutineers 
put then - captain, Bligh, and nineteen men into an 
open boat, with a small stock of provisions, near 
Annamooka, one of the Friendly isles, 28 April,. 
1 789 ; these reached the island of Timor, south of 
the Moluccas, in June, after a voyage of nearly 
4000 miles. Some of the mutineers were tried 
15 Sept. 1792 ; six were condemned and three ex- 
ecuted. For the fate of others, see Titcaim's Island. 

BOURBON, House OF (from which came- 
the royal houses of France, Spain, and Naples), 
derives" its origin from the Ai'chambauds, lords of" 
Bourbon in Berry. 

Robert, count of Clermont, son of Louis IX. of 
France, married the heiress Beatrice in 1272 ; died 
1317 ; and their sun Louis I. created duke of 
Bourbon and peer of France by Charles IV. . . 1327 
The last of the descendants of their elder son Peter 
I., Susanna, married Charles, duke of Montpen- 
sier, constable of Bourbon, who, offended by his 
sovereign Francis 1.. entered into the service of 
the emperor Charles V., and v. us killed at the 
siege of Pome 6 May, 1527 



BOURBON. 



140 



BOYLE LECTURES. 



From James, the younger son of Louis I., descended 
Antony, duke of Vendome, who married (1548) 
Jeanne d'Albret, daughter of Henry, king of Na- 
varre. Their son, Henry IV., horn at Pau, 14 
Dec. 1553, became king of P'rance . 31 July, 1589 

The crown of Spain was settled on a younger 
branch of this" family, 1700, and guaranteed by 
the peace of Utrecht (Aapin) 1713 

Bourbon Family Compact (a defensive alliance 
between France, Spain, and the Two Sicilies 
concluded by M. de Choiseul) . . 15 Aug. 1761 

The Bourbons expelled France, 1791 ; restored 
1814 ; again expelled on the return of Bonaparte 
from Elba, and again restored after the battle of 
Waterloo, 1815. The elder branch was expelled 
once more, in the person of Charles X. and his 
family, in 1830, in consequence of the revolu- 
tion of the memorable days of July in that year. 

Orleans branch ascended the throne in the person 
of the late Louis Philippe, as "king of the 
French," 9 Aug. 1830 ; deposed, 24 Feb. 1848 ; and 
his family also was expelled. 

The Bourbon family fled from Naples (6 Sept. i860), 
and Francis II. lost his kingdom ; expelled from 
Spain, Sept. 1868 ; restored by Alfonso XII. 31 
Dec. 1874 ; see France, Spain, Naples, Orleans, 
Parma,, Condi, and Legitimists. 

The fusion of the parties supporting the comte de 
Chambord with the Orleanists, said to be accom- 
plished, 5 Aug. 1873. The comte de Chambord, last 
of the elder branch, died aged nearly 63, 24 Aug. 1883. 
See France. 

BOURBON, ISLE OF (in the Indian ocean), 
discovered by the Portuguese about 1542. The 
French are said to have first settled here in 1642. 
It surrendered to the British, under admiral Rowley, 
21 Sept. 1809, and was restored to France in 1815. 
Alison. An awful hurricane in Feb. 1829, did 
much mischief. Bourbon was named " File de la 
Reunion " in 1848 ; see Mauritius. 

BOURIGNONISTS, a sect founded by An- 
toinette Bourignon, who, in 1658, took the Augus- 
tine habit and travelled in France, Holland, Eng- 
land, and Scotland ; in the last she made many 
converts about 1670. She maintained that Chris- 
tianity does not consist in faith and practice, but in 
inward feelingand supernatural impulse. A disciple 
named Court left her a good estate. She died in 
1680, and her works, 21 volumes 8vo, were pub- 
lished 1686. 

BOURNOUS, the Arabic name of a hooded 
garment worn in Algeria, which has been introduced 
in a modified form into England and France since 
1847. 

BOUVINES (N. France), the site of a' despe- 
rate battle, 27 July, 1214, in which Philip Augustus 
of France was victorious over the emperor Othoand 
his allies, consisting of more than 150,000 men. The 
counts of Flanders and Boulogne were taken pri- 
soners, and the earl of Salisbury, brother of king 
John. 

BOVILL'S ACT, 23 & 24 Vict. c. 34, i860, 
relates to petitions of right. 

BOWLS or BOWLING, an English game as 
•early as the 13th century. Henry VIII., Charles I. 
played at it, and also Charles II. at Tunbridge. 
•Grammont. 

BOW-STREET, see Magistrates. 

Boiv Street Runners, a name popularly given to the 
special officers attached to each police office of 
the metropolis, commonly called " Kobin Red- 
breasts " from their red waistcoats. They were 
famous for the detection of hidden crimes, 
especially Townsend, who was a favourite of 
King George III. and his family, Limberham, 
Macmanus, Jealous, Forester and others. They 
were superseded by the new police established in 1829 



BOWS AND ARROWS, see Archery. 

BOXING, or Prize-Fighting, the 
latus of the Romans, once a favourite sport with the 
British, who possess strong arms, giving them 
superiority in battles decided by the bayonet. 

Broughton's amphitheatre, behind Oxford-road, 
built 1742 

Schools opened in England to teach boxing. . 179c 

Mendoza opened the Lyceum in the Strand in . 1791 

Boxing was much patronised from about 1820 to 1830 

Tom Winter (nicknamed Spring), beside other vic- 
tories, beat Langan (for ioooi.) . . 8 June, 1824 

John Gully, originally a butcher, afterwards a 
prize-tighter, acquired wealth, and became M.P. 
for Pontefract in 1835, died . . .9 March, 1863 

Desperate conflict at Farnborough between Thomas 
Sayers, the Champion of England, a light Sussex 
man, about 5 feet 8 inches high, and John Heenan, 
the "Benicia Boy," a huge American, in height 
6 feet 1 inch. Strength, however, was matched 
by skill ; and eventually the fight was interrupted, 
17 April. Both men received a silver belt 

31 May, i860 

Tom King beat Mace, and obtained the champion's 
belt, &c. 26 Nov. 1862 

He beat Goss, 1 Sept., and Heenan (nearly to death) 

10 Dec. 1863 

A trial, in consequence of the last fight, ensued : 
the culprits were discharged, on promising not 
to offend again 5 April, 1864 

Wormald obtained the championship after a con- 
test with Marsden 4 Jan. 1865 

Contest for championship between Mace and O'Bald- 
win, a giant ; prevented by the arrest of Mace, 

15 Oct. 1867 

Railways prohibited carrying persons going to a 
prize-fight, 31 & 32 Vict. c. 119 . . . 1868 

Prize-fight in St. Andrew's hall (formerly Tavistock 
chapel), London, W.C., stopped . 27 March, 1S82 

Attempted revival of pugilism in London, 1889 — 90 ; 
a fight between Slavin and M'Auliffe, pugilists 
from Australia, at the Ormonde club, Walworth, 
stopped, the gloves to be used being considered 
insufficient, 23 Sept. ; fight took place 27 Sept. ; 
the men committed for trial, 10 Oct. ; the jury 
disagree 17 Nov. 1890 

BOXTEL (in Dutch Brabant), where the 
British and allied army, commanded by the duke 
of York, was defeated bj' the French republicans, 
who took 2000 prisoners and eight pieces of cannon, 
17 Sept. 1794. 

BOX-TREE, indigenous to this country, and 
exceedingly valuable to wood-engravers. In 1815 
a large box-tree at Box-hill, Surrey, was cut down, 
and realised a large sum. Macculloch says, that 
"the trees were cut down in 1815, and produced 
upwards of 10,000^." About 1820 the cutting of 
trees on the hill produced about boool. 

BOY-BISHOP. During the middle ages a 
choir-boy was frequently elected on St. Nicholas' 
day, 6 Dec, and held office till the 28th. The cus- 
tom was suppressed in England in July, 1542 ; but 
lingered for some time after. 

BOYCOTTING, see Ireland, 1880, et scq. 
Condemned by the Pope, 20 April, 1888. A Boy- 
cott fund to assist capt. Boycott in his trouble was 
subscribed 1880-1. Boycotting very prevalent in 
Tipperary, 1889-90. 

BOYDELL'S LOTTERY for his Shak- 
speare gallery of paintings got up (1786), by 
alderman Boydell, lord mayor of London. Every 
ticket was sold at the time the alderman died, 12 
Dec. 1804, before the decision of the wheel. 

BOYLE LECTURES, instituted by his will 
(18 July, 1691), by Robert Boyle (son of the great 
earl of Cork), a philosopher, distinguished by his 
genius, virtues, and benevolence, who died 30*Dec. 



BOYNE. 

1691. Eight lectures (in vindication of the Chris- 
tian religion) are to be delivered. The office of 
lecturer is tenable for three years. 

BOYNE, a river in Ireland, near which "Wil- 
liam III. defeated his father-in-law, James II., 
I July, 1690. The latter lost 1500 (out of 30,000) 
men ; the Protestant army lost about a third of that 
number (out of 36,000). James fled to Dublin, 
thence to Waterford, and escaped to France. The 
duke of Schomberg was killed by mistake by his 
own soldiers as he was crossing the river, and here 
also was killed the rev. George Walker, who de- 
fended Londonderry, in 1689. Near Drogheda is a 
splendid obelisk, 150 feet in height, erected in 1736 
by the Protestants of the empire in commemoration 
of this victory. 

BOYNE, man-of-war of 98 guns, destroyed by 
fire at Portsmouth, 4 May, 1795, by the explosion 
of the magazine ; numbers perished. Portions were 
recovered June, 1840. 

BOYTON'S Swimming Apparatus. See 

under Life Boat, &c. 

BRABANT, part of Holland and Belgium, an 
ancient duchy, part of Charlemagne's empire, fell 
to his son Charles, 806. It became a separate 
duchy (called at first Lower Lorraine) in 959. It 
descended to Philip II. of Burgundy, 1429, and in 
regular succession to the emperor Charles V. In 
the 17th century it was held by Holland and 
Austria, as Dutch Brabant and the Walloon pro- 
vinces, and underwent many changes through the 
wars of Europe. The Austrian division was taken 
by the French in 1746 and 1794. It was united to 
the Netherlands in 1814, but South Brabant was 
given to Belgium, 1830. The heir of the throne of 
Belgium is styled duke of Brabant ; see Belgium. 

BRACELETS were worn by the ancients, and 
ctrmillce were Boman military rewards. Those of 
pearls and gold were worn by the Boman ladies. 

BRACHYGRAPHY, see Stenography. 

BRADFIELD RESERVOIR, see Sheffield, 
1864. 

BRADFORD, W r est Biding of Yorkshire, an 
ancient seat of the woollen manufacture ; made a 
parliamentary borough in 1832 ; has thriven since 
1851. Bradford returns three M.P.'s by Act passed 
25 June, 1885. See Poisoning. Population, 1881, 
194,495 ; 1891, 216,361. 

New town-hall was opened . . . .9 Sept. 1873 
British Association met here . . . 17 Sept. ,, 
Statue of sir Titus Salt unveiled . . 1 Aug. 1874 
Statue of R. Cobden unveiled . . -25 July, 1877 
New technical school opened by the prince of Wales 

23 June, 1882 
Fall of chimney of New Land's mills ; 54 killed, 

250 injured, 28 Dec. 1882 ; verdict, accidental 

deaths 31 Jan. 1883 

Statue of Mr. W. B. Forster, long M. P. for Bradford, 

unveiled by the marquis of Ripon . 17 May 1890 
Strike of about 15,000 operatives at the Manningham 

Mills, Dec. 1890 ; ended ... 27 April 1891 
Rioting suppressed by military . 13, 14 April ,, 

BRADLAUGH CASE, see Parliament, 
1880-5. Ml - Charles Bradlaugh, M.P. for North- 
ampton, died 30 Jan. 1891, aged 57. 

BRADSHAW S RAILWAY GUIDE was 

first published by Mr. G. Bradshaw, assisted by Mr. 

W. J. Adams, in Dec. 1841. The Continental 

Bradshaw was established in 1848. 

The beginning of railway guides is involved in 
obscurity. Mr. Bradshaw issued his first railway 
time tables in two forms, one for the Liverpool 
and Manchester district, and one for London 



141 BRASS. 

and the Birmingham district, 19 and 25 Oct. 1839. 
His Railway Companion appeared in 1840 ; (P. 
Madan, Athenwum) .... Dec. 24, 1887 

BRAGANZA, a city in Portugal, gave title to 
Alfonso, natural son of John I. of Portugal (in 
1422), founder of the house of Braganza. When 
the nation, in a bloodless revolution in 1640, threw 
off the Spanish yoke, John, duke of Braganza, was 
called to the throne as John IV., and his descen- 
dants have reigned over Portugal till the present 
time, and over Brazil till Nov. 1889. 

BRAHMINS, Hindoo priests, the highest of 
the four castes. Pythagoras is thought to have 
learned from them his doctrine of the Metempsycho- 
sis ; and it is affirmed that some of the Greek philo- 
sophers went to India on purpose to converse with 
them. The Brahmins derive their name from 
Brahmah, one of the three beings whom God, ac- 
cording to their theology, created, and with whose 
assistance he formed the world. See Vedas, 

BRAHMO SOMAJ, see Deism. 

BRAIN, see under Craniology and Nerves. 

BRAINTREE CASE (in Essex) was decided 
in 1842 by Dr. Lushington, who determined that a 
minority in a parish vestry cannot levy a church 
rate. 

BRAKES, see under Railways. 

BRAMHAM (W. B. York) : near here the earl 
of Northumberland and lord Bardolf were defeated 
and slain by sir Thomas Bokeby, the general of 
Henry IV., 19 Feb. 1408 ; and Fairfax was defeated 
by the royalists under the earl of Newcastle, 29 
March, 164.3. 

BRANDENBURG, a city in Prussia, founded 
by the Slavonians, who gave it the name of Banber, 
which signified Guard of the Forest, according to 
some ; others explain the name as Burg, or city, 
of the Brenns. Henry I., surnamed the Fowler, 
after defeating the Slavonians, fortified "Bran- 
nibor," 926, as a rampart against the Huns, and 
bestowed the government on Sigefroi, count of 
Bingelheim, with the tide of margrave, or protector 
of the marches or frontiers. The emperor Sigis- 
mund gave perpetual investiture to Frederick IV. 
of Nuremburg, of the house of Hohenzollern, 
ancestor of the royal family of Prussia, made 
elector in 141 7. For a list of the margraves since 
1 134, see Prussia. Population, 1890,37,823. 

BRANDY (German Branntwein, burnt wine), 
the spirit distilled from wine. Alcohol appears to. 
have been known to Baymond Lully in the 13th 
century, and to have been manufactured in France 
early in the 14th. It was at first used medicin- 
ally, and miraculous cures were ascribed to its in- 
fluence. In 1852, 3,959,452; in 1866, 5,621,930; 
in 1870, 7,942,965; in 1874, 3,378,057; hi 1876, 
7,913,092 ; in 1877, 2,962,697 ; in 1879, 5,024,668 ; 
in 1883, 2,202,344; in 1887, 2,826,108; in 1888, 
2,655,004; in 1889,2,858,774; in 1890,3,100,450 
gallons were imported into the United Kingdom. 
It is now largely manufactured in Britain. Manu- 
facture of genuine French brandy almost ceased, 
announced 1885. 

BRANDYWINE, a river in N. America, near 
which a battle took place between the British, under 
Howe, and the Americans under Washington, in 
which the latter (after a day's fight) were defeated 
with great loss, 11 Sept. 1777. Philadelphia fell 
into the possession of the victors. 

BRASS. That mentioned in the Bible was 
most probably bronze. When Lucius Mummius 



BEAVO CASE. 



142 



BEAZIL. 



burnt Corinth to the ground, 146 B.C., he found 
immense riches, and during the conflagration, it is 
said, all the metals in the city melted, and running 
together, formed the valuable composition described 
as Corinthian Brass. This is well doubted, for the 
Corinthian artists had long before obtained great 
credit for their method of combining gold and 
silver with copper. Du Fresnoy. Some_ of the 
English sepulchral engraved brasses are said to be 
as old as 1277 ; a white brass produced by Mr. P. 
M. Parsons, about 1875. 

BRAVO CASE. Mr. Charles Delauney Turner 
Bravo, barrister, died suddenly and mysteriously 
(at Balham, Surrey), suicide suspected, 18 April, 
1876 ; open verdict at inquest ; new inquest or- 
dered, 26 June, 1876 ; began 10 July. Verdict : 
*' Wilful murder by administration of tartar emetic ; 
'but not sufficient evidence to fix the guilt upon 
any person," 11 Aug. 1876. 

BBAY, Berks. Fuller says that its vicar, 
Symon Symonds, was twice a papist and twice a 
Protestant— in the reigns of Henry VIII., Ed- 
ward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth (1533— 1558). Upon 
being called a turn-coat, he said he kept to his 
principle, that of "living and dying the vicar of 
Bray." The story is doubted. The modern song 
refers to the political changes of the 17th and 18th 
centuries. 

BRAY'S ASSOCIATES for founding clerical 
libraries and supporting negro schools. This so- 
ciety began in 1723, by Dr. Thomas Bray, rector of 
Sheldon, appointing trustees to expend 900?. be- 
queathed by Mr. D'Allone for the instruction of 
snegroes. In 1733 these trustees received their pre- 
sent name, and their fund was increased by legacies 
in 1767 and 1768. 

Dr. Bray, who was one of the founders of the Society 
for Propagating the Gospel, and who had acted ener- 
getically as commissary in Maryland for the bishop of 
London, about 1696, died 15 Feb. 1730, bequeathing 
part of his books to Sion College and part to found a 
parochial library, under certain conditions, complied 
■with at Maidstone ; and also money for other religious 
purposes. The associates assist schools and libraries in 
the colonies, and parochial libraries at home. 

BRAZEN BULL, said to have been contrived 
by Perillus, at Athens, for Phalaris, tyrant of Agri- 
centum, 570 B.C. It had an opening in the side to 
admit the victims, and a fire was kindled under- 
neath to roast them to death. Phalaris ordered the 
artist to make the first experiment. Pindar (522- 
422 B.C.) speaks of the cruelties of Phalaris, but 
later writers give him a different character. 

BRAZIL, an empire in South America, was dis- 
covered by Vincent Pinzon, 26 Jan. 1500. Pedro 
- Alvarez de Cabral, a Portuguese, driven upon its 
•coasts by a tempest, April following, called it the 
land of the Holy Cross ; but it was subsequently 
named Brazil, on account of its red wood. The 
Erench having seized on Portugal in 1807, the 
royal family and nobles embarked for Brazil, and 
landed 7 March, 1808. The dominant religion is 
Roman Catholic ; but others are tolerated. Consti- 
tution of 25 March, 1824; modified 12 Aug. 1834 and 
12 May, 1840. Population in 1888, 14,002,335, 
estimated. See Portugal. 

The emperor was deposed and a Federal republic, styled 
The United States of Brazil, proclaimed 15, .16 
Nov. 1889 (see bcloiv) ; a new constitution was promul- 
gated, 22 June, 1890 and 24 Feb. 1891. It consists of 
.a president, elected for 4 years, secretaries of state, a 
■senate and a house of representatives. 

Brazil explored by Amerigo Vespucci . . about 1504 
Divided into captaincies by the king of Portugal . 1530 



Martin de Souza discovers Rio, and founds the first 

European colony at San Vineente . . . . 1531 
Jews banished from Portugal to Brazil . . . 1548 
San Salvador (Bahia) founded by Thome de Souza . 1549 
French protestants occupy bay of Rio Janeiro . 1555-60 

Sebastian founded 1567 

Brazil, with Portugal, becomes subject to Spain . 1580 
James Lancaster captures Pernambuco . . . 1593 
The French establish a colony at Maranham . . 1594 

Belem founded by Calderia 1615 

The French expelled ,, 

The Dutch seize the coast of Brazil, 1630 ; and hold 

Pernambuco 1630 

Defeated at Guararapes, 1646 ; give up Brazil . . 1661 

Gold mining commences 1693 

Destruction of Palmares 1697 

The French assault and capture Rio Janeiro . 1710-11 
Diamond mines discovered in Sezzo Frio . . . 1729 

Jesuits expelled 1758-60 

Capital transferred from Bahia to Rio Janeiro . 1763 
Royal family of Portugal arrive at Brazil, 7 March, 1808 
First printing-press established . . . . ,, 

Brazil becomes a kingdom 1815 

King John VI. returns to Portugal, and dom Pedro 

becomes regent 1821 

Brazil declares its independence . . .7 Sept. 1822 
Pedro I. crowned emperor . . . 1 Dec. ,, 
New constitution ratified ... 25 March, 1824 
Independence recognised by Portugal . 29 Aug. 1825 
Revolution at Rio Janeiro ; abdication of dom 

Pedro 1 7 April, 1831 

Abolition of slave trade decreed (not effected till 

1852) „ 

Reform of the constitution, 12 Aug. 1834 and 12 May, 1840 
Pedro II. declared of age . . . .23 July, ,, 
Steam-ship line to Europe commenced . . . 1850 
Suppression of the slave-trade ; railways com- 
menced 1852 

Rio Janeiro lit with gas 1854 

The British ship "Prince of "Wales" wrecked at 
Albardas, on coast of Brazil, is plundered by 
some of the natives, and some of the crew killed, 

about 7 June, 1861 
Reparation long refused ; reprisals made ; five 
Brazilian merchant ships being seized by the 

British 31 Dee. 1862 

The Brazilian minister at London pays 3,200^. as an 

indemnity, under protest r. . .26 Feb. 1863 
The Brazilian government request the British to 
express their regret for reprisals ; declined ; diplo- 
matic intercourse suspended . , 5-28 May, „ 
Dispute between the governments respecting the 
arrest of some British officers at Rio Janeiro (17 
June, 1862) referred to the arbitration of the king 
of the Belgians, who decides in favour of Brazil, 

18 June, ,, 
New ministry formed ; F. J. Furtado, president — 

prospect of reconciliation with Gt. Biitain,3oAug. 1864 
U. S. war-steamer "Waehusett" seizes the con- 
federate steamer " Florida," in the port of Bahia, 
while under protection of Brazil, 7 Oct. ; after 
remonstrance, Mr. Seward, U. S. foreign minister, 
apologises. [The " Florida" (inadvertently) sunk?] 

26 Dec. „ 
War with Uruguay — the Brazilians take Paysandii, 

and inarch upon Monte Video . . .2 Feb. 1865 
The comte d'Eu and princess Isabella (on marriage 

tour) land at Southampton ... 7 Feb. „ 
Lopez, president of Paraguay, declares war against 

the Argentine Republic . . . April, „ 

Treaty between Brazil, Uruguay, and the Argentine 
Republic against Paraguay, governed by Lopez, 

signed 1 May, , 

Scientific expedition under Agassiz favoured bs T the 

emperor July, ,, 

Amicable relations with England restored . Aug. „ 
The emperor joins the army against Lopez Aug. „ 
The allies under Flores defeat the Paraguayans at 

Santayuna on the Uruguay . . 18 Sept. „ 
Uruguayana surrenders to the allies . 18 Sept. ,, 
Indecisive battle between the allies and the Para- 
guayans, at Paso de la Patria . about 25 Feb. 1866 
Paraguayans defeated on the Parana 16, 17 April, ,, 
Victory of the allies at Estero Velhaco, 2 May ; in- 
decisive battle there . . . .24 May, ,, 
Bombardment of the allied camp on the Parana 

14 June, „ 



BEAZIL. 



143 



BEAZIL. 



Two days' fight at Tuyuty ; allies defeated, 

16, i3 July, 1866 

Fruitless meeting of president Lopez with the chiefs 
on proposals of peace .... 12 Sept. ,, 

The allies attack the fortress of Curupaiti ; defeated 
with severe loss .... 17-19, 22 Sept. ,, 

The allies' camp bombarded, 18 Oct. ; the Para- 
guayans repulsed at Tuyuty . . .30 Oct. ,, 

The Brazilians take Corumba . . .13 June, 1867 

The duke of Edinburgh visits Rio de Janeiro 

15-22 July, ,, 

The Paraguayans victors, 24 Sept. ; severely defeated 

3 and 21 Oct. ,, 

Proposals for peace by Lopez declined . . Oct. ,, 

Severe defeat of Paraguayans before Tuyuty 3 Nov. ,, 

Freedom decreed to slaves belonging to the nation 
who shall become soldiers ... 6 Nov. ,, 

Three monitors pass Curupaiti, on the Paraguay, 
17 Feb. ; 6 ironclads force the passage of Humaita ; 
they find Asuncion abandoned . .21 Feb. 1868 

Fierce resistance of the Paraguayans ; Lopez said to 
have armed 4000 women . . . June, ,, 

After several conflicts Lopez is totally defeated at 
Villeta, and flies n Dec. ,, 

The comte d'Eu appointed general of the allied army 

24 March, 1869 

The allies surprise and capture Rosorio and garrison 

8 May, „ 

Lopez defeated in severe conflicts, 12, 16, 18, 21 Aug. „ 

Lopez defeated and killed near the Aquidaban, 

1 March, 1870 

Treaty of peace with Paraguay, quite subdued 

20* June, „ 

The count and countess d'Eu arrive in England, 

13 Sept. ,, 

New ministry under viscount St. Vincent, 29 Sept. ,, 

The emperor and empress come to Europe, and visit 
public and scientific institutions, manufactories 
in Great Britain and other countries, June — Aug. 1871 

Gradual slave emancipation bill passed by the 
senate ; great rejoicings . . 27, 28 Sept. ,, 

The emperor and empress, after visiting the conti- 
nent, return to Brazil . . .31 March, 1872 

'Treaty with the Argentine republic . . . Jan. 1873 

Prosecution of the archbishop of Pernambuco and 
other prelates, for infraction of the constitution 

Sept. -Dec. ,, 

£n a settlement of German emigrants at Porto 
Alegre, a number of fanatics, popularly termed 
Mucker (hypocrites), headed by Jacobina Maurer, 
a prophetess who claimed to be a female Christ, 
and her priest Hans Georg Maurer, attempt to 
convert their neighbours by force, and desolate 
the property of those who refuse. She and nearly 
all her band are killed after several conflicts with 
their neighbours, aided by the military 

21-26 July, 1874 

Great bank failures at Rio Janeiro . . May, 1875 

Duke de Caixias president of ministry . 25 June, ,, 

Emperor and empress at opening of Philadelphia 
Exhibition, 10 May, 1876 ; travelled in Europe, 
&c., returned to Rio Janeiro . . Sept. 1877 

A ministerial crisis respecting emancipation of 
slaves (see under Slavery) .... Sept. 1884 

The emperor supports his minister Dantas; 1,200,000 
slaves in Brazil 

Resignation of Dantas, anti-slavery minister, on 
account of minority in the chamber . . 5 May, 1885 

The new minister Seraiva introduces a gradual 
emancipation bill 12 May, ,, 

Ministry resigns, succeeded by Baron de Cotegipe, 

about 20 Aug. „ 

Bill for gradual abolition of slavery passed by 
Senate and Deputies .... Sept. ,, 

New ministry under Sen', de Oliviera . March, 1888 

Bill for total abolition of slavery passed by the 
chambers, 10-14 May; decree issued (about 700,000 
persons freed) May, „ 

The emperor visits Europe ; arrives at Paris, 20 
July, 1887 ; returns to Rio Janeiro . 22 Aug. ,, 

The emperor fired at by Adriano Valte, a Portuguese 
republican ; not injured . . 15 July 1889 

Revolution at Rio de Janeiro, begun by the army ; 
baron de Ladario, minister of marine, wounded ; 
a republic proclaimed ; marshal Deodoro da Fon- 
seca, chief of a provisional government ; people 
quiet ; the emperor imprisoned, refuses to submit, 



15, 16 Nov. ; the emperor and family forcibly con- 
veyed to the Alagoas; sail for Europe . i3 Nov. 

The emperor, at St. Vincent, refuses the offer of the 
provisional government to give him 500,000/. a 
year Nov. 

Official announcement that the republic will respect 
all state engagements . ' . 18 Nov. 

All the provinces support the republic, separate 
governments organizing ; suffrage conferred on 
all who can read and write ; the republic blessed 
by the Abp. of Brazil, reported . . 23 Nov. 

The republic recognized informally by France ; the 
United States of N.A. and Switzerland, about 

29 Nov. 

The emperor and family arrive at Lisbon, received 
by the king 7 Dec. 

Decree fixing the general elections for 15 Sept. and 
a meeting of the constituent assembly for 15 
Nov. 1890 20 Dec. 

Decree banishing the emperor and his family and 
viscount de Ouro Preto, the late premier, and 
recalling the grant to the emperor and suspending 
his annual allowance .... 20 Dec. 

Mutiny of two artillery regiments at Rio suppressed 
with much bloodshed ; about 20 ringleaders shot ; 
several citizens arrested . . 18 — 20 Dec. 

Sudden death of the empress at Oporto . 28 Dec. 

Decree for the separation of church and state 

7 Jan. 

The emperor arrives at Cannes . . 16 Jan. 

The republic formally recognized by the United 
States N.A. 29 Jan. 

Issue Bank of the United States of Brazil, estab- 
lished 5 Feb. 

Serious disturbances in Rio Grande in opposition 
to government financial measures, 1 May, et seq. ; 
rioting checked by the police ; military govern- 
ment appointed ... 13 May, et seq. 

New constitution promulgated . . 22 June 

The republic formally recognised by Great Britain, 

about 20 Oct. 

The first congress of the republic meets ; the pre- 
sident transfers to it the powers of the provisional 
government "15 Nov. 

Decree rescinding the banishment of the late im- 
perial ministers 20 Nov. 

Secret decree to encourage immigration, 29 June, 
published in Warsaw, 26 Dec. 1890, about 25,000 
Polish emigrants said to be received . Jan. 

The first republican ministry (sen. J. C. de Faria 
Alvim and others), resigns ... 20 Jan. 

New cabinet formed by sen. Uchoa . . 22 Jan. 

Reciprocal treaty of commerce with the United 
States N. A 5 Feb. 

A new constitution passed by the Constituent 
Assembly, 23 Feb. — promulgated . . 24 Feb. 

Marshal Deodoro da Fonseca elected president for 
four years, gen. Floriano Peixoto vice-president, 
25 Feb. , installed .... 26 Feb. 

The legislative session opens ; cheerful speech of 
the president 15 June, 

The British Foreign office warns emigrants against 
invitations to Brazil ' Aug. 

The congress, having passed a law opposing the 
veto of president Fonseca, is dissolved by him, 
and martial law proclaimed, 3 Nov. ; he assumes 
the dictatorship 4 Nov. 

The provinces of Rio Grande do Sul and Grao Para 
declare their independence ... 10 Nov. 

Insurrection in Rio Grande spreading ; the gover- 
nor, sen. J. Castilho, deposed, 13 Nov. ; pro- 
visional government established under sen. Assis 
Brazil, about 15 Nov. The junta holds all the pro- 
vince, and prepares to resist the dictator Fonseca, 
reported 17 Nov., about 30,000 men in arms ; 
Fonseca's proposals rejected by the junta, 19 Nov. 

President Fonseca proclaims the election of a new 
congress for 29 Feb. to meet on 3 May, 1892, 

21 Nov. 

Insurrection of the navy and others against pre- 
sident Fonseca; he resigns and is succeeded by 
gen. Floriano Peixoto ; no bloodshed, 23 Nov. ; 
he issues a manifesto declaring the re-establish- 
ment of legality 25 Nov. 

Death of the ex-empemr Pedro II. at Paris 5 Dec. 

Gen. Rocha Osorio appointed governor of BiO 
Grande 6 Doc. 



1889 



BEEACH OF PEOMISE. 



144 



BRECHIN. 



Disturbances in Rio de Janeiro province suppressed 
with bloodshed 8 Dec. 1891 

Revolution in Sao Paulo, "begun 13 Dec. , the gover- 
nor resigns 15 Dec. ,, 

Meeting of congress ; the president's message satis- 
factory ;n8 Dec. „ 

Revolution in Espiritu Santo ; vice-governor de- 
posed i 9 Dec. „ 

Sen. Silveira Martinez appointed governor of Rio 
Grande about 26 Dec. ,, 

Commercial treaty with Portugal signed . 15 Jan. 1892 

Mutiny at the fortress of Santa Cruz ; 2 forts cap- 
tured by the rebels, who demand the restoration 
of Deodoro da Fonseca ; the mutiny suppressed 
by government troops . . . 19 Jan. et seq. ,, 

The chambers prorogued till May . . Jan. „ 

Revolt of the province of Matto Grosso, 12 April; 
suppressed June, ,, 

The Solimoes, armour-clad war-vessel, founders off 
Cape Polonio, Uruguay, about 100 men drowned, 

21 May, „ 

Death of gen. Deodoro da Fonseca . 23 Aug. ,, 

EMPERORS OF BRAZIL. 

1822. Dom Pedro (of Portugal) ; abdicated in favour of his 
infant son, 7 April, 1831 ; died 24 Sept. 1834. 

1831. Dom Pedro II. (born 2 Dec. 1825); assumed the 
government, 23 July, 1840; crowned, 18 July. 
1841 ; married, 4 Sept. 1843, princess Theresa of 
Naples (born 14 March, 1822 ; died 28 Dec. 1889). 
Pedro II. deposed 15 Nov. 1889, died at Paris 5 
Dec. ; buried in the cathedral at St. Vincent, 
Lisbon, 12 Dec. 1891. 

Heiress. Isabella, born 29 July, 1846 ; married (15 Oct. 
1864) Louis comte d'Eu, son of the due de 
Nemours (born 29 April, 1842). 

Heir. Pedro, born 15 Oct. 1875. 

BEEACH OF PEOMISE of Marriage ; a 
resolution in favour of abolishing the action, was 
adopted in the Commons (106-65), 6 May, 1879. 

BEE AD. ChLng-Noung, the successor of Fohi, 
is reputed to have been the first who taught men 
(the Chinese) the art of husbandry, and the method 
of making bread from wheat, and wine from rice, 
1998 B.C. Univ. Hist. Baking of bread was known 
in the patriarchal ages: see Exodus xii. 15. It 
became a profession at Borne, 170 B.C. After the 
conquest of Macedon, 148 B.C., numbers of Greek 
bakers came to Borne, obtained special privileges, 
and soon obtained a monopoly. During the siege of 
Paris by Henry IV., owing to famine, bread, which 
had been sold whilst any remained for a crown a 
pound, was at last made from the bones of the 
charnel-house of the Holy Innocents, a.d. 1594. 
Henault. In the time of James I., barley bread was 
used by the poor; and now in Iceland, cod-fish, 
beaten to powder, is made into bread ; potato-bread 
is used in Ireland. The London Bakers' Company 
was incorporated in 1307. Bread-street was once 
the London market for bread. Until 1302, the 
London bakers were not allowed to sell any in their 
own shops. Stoiv. Bread was made with yeast by 
the English bakers in 1634. In 1856 and 1857 Dr. 
Dauglish patented a mode of making "aerated 
bread," in which carbonic acid gas is combined with 
water and mixed with the flour, and which is said 
to possess the advantages of cleanliness, rapidity, 
and uniformity. In 1862 a company was formed to 
encourage Stevens' bread-making machinery. An 
act for regulating bakehouses was passed in July, 
1863. A strike of the journeymen bakers of the 
metropolis, 23 Sept., was settled by concessions, 
9 Oct. 1872. A Bread Reform League formed ; meet- 
ing at the Mansion House, London, 17 Dec. 1880. 
The Bread Union, limited, established in London, 
Sept. 1889 ; failure, Oct. 1890. Delegated meeting 
of working bakers in London, demanding increased 
pay and shorter time of labour, 5 Sept. ; strike 
averted by concessions, Nov. 1889. 



Quartern Loaf (4/6. sloz.) 

1735 . . Price shd. 

I74S ■ • • • 44 

1755 .... 5 

176s • • • • 7 

i77S . 6J- 

1785 • • . . 6\ 

1795 • • ■ • i2i 

Four-pound Loaf (best) 



1800 .. . Price 172C?. 
1800 . [For 4 weeks, 22 JcJ.] 

12^ 



1022 
1825 



1835 



1855 
1856 
1857 
1858 
1859 



IS66 
1867 



iod. 
. . 11 

■ ioij 
■ • 7 

■ 9 
June. Dec. 

l\d. -j\d. 



9\ 



iof 
ioj- 

8£ 

7 

n 

9 

9 



di 



1810 . 

1812 Aug 
1814 . 
1820 



1871 
1872 
1873 
1874 
187S 
1876 
1877 



• *5£ 

• • 2l£ 

. 12^ 

. . II 

June. Dec. 

• 8 7 J 

• 7a 8| 
■ 9 9 

. 9J 10 



(medium'). 



Assize of Bread. The first statute for the regulation 
of the sale of bread was 3 John, 1203. The chief justi- 
ciary, and a baker commissioned by the king, had the 
inspection of the assize. Matthew Paris. The assize 
was further regulated by statute in 51 Hen. III. 1266, 
and 8 Anne, 1710. Bread Act, Ireland, placing its sale 
on the same footing as in England, 1 Vict. 1838. Bread 
was directed to be sold by weight in London in 1822 ; the 
statute " Assessa Panis " was repealed in 1824 ; and the 
sale of bread throughout the country was regulated hi 
1836. 

In France the old laws were superseded, and a law 
enabling the municipalities to fix the price of bread 
(still unrepealed) was passed, July 1791. 

BEEAD-FEUIT TEEE, a native of the 
South Sea islands. A vessel under captain Bligh 
was fitted out to convey some of these trees to> 
various British colonies in 1789 (see Bounty), and 
again in 1 791. The number taken on board at 
Otaheite was 1151. Some were left at St. Helena, 
352 at Jamaica, and five were reserved for Kew 
Gardens, 1793- The tree was successfully culti- 
vated in French Guiana, 1802. 

BEEAKWATEBS. The first stone of the 
Plymouth breakwater was lowered 12 August, 1812. 
It stretches 5280 feet across the sound, is 360 feet 
in breadth at the bottom and more than 30 at the 
top, and consumed 3,660,000 tons of granite blocks, 
from one to five tons each, up to April, 1841, and 
cost a million and a half sterling. The architects 
were Mr. John Bennie and his son sir John. The 
first stone of the lighthouse on its western extremity 
was laid 1 Feb. 1841. Breakwaters have been con- 
structed at Holyhead, Portland, Dover, Middles- 
borough, &c. A great barrier, about two-thirds of 
a mile long, erected to defend the hfematite iron 
mines near the Daddon estuary, was completed by 
Messrs. Lucas & Aird, sir John Coode being the 
engineer, Oct. 1890. 

BEE AST-PL ATE. One was worn by the 
Jewish high priest, 1491 B.C. (Exod. xxxix.) 
Goliath "was armed with a coat of mail," 1063 
B.C. (1 Sam. xvii.) Breast-plates dwindled to the 
diminutive gorgets. Ancient breast-plates are men- 
tioned as made of gold and silver. 

BBECHEN", Scotland ; sustained a siege against 
the army of Edward III., 1333. The battle of 



BREDA. 



145 



BREVIARY. 



Brechin or Huntly-hill was fought between the 
earls of Huntly and Crawford, the latter defeated, 
18 May, 1452. The see of Brechin was founded by 
David I. in 1150. One of its bishops, Alexander 
Campbell, was made prelate when but a boy, 1556. 
The bishopric, discontinued soon after the revolu- 
tion iu 1688, was revived in 1 731. 

BREDA, Holland, was taken from the 
Spaniards bj' prince Maurice, of Nassau, in 1590 ; 
retaken by the Spaniards, under Spinola, June, 
1625 ; and by the Dutch, Oct. 1637. The " Com- 
promise of Breda" was a proposal to Philip II., de- 
precating his harsh measures in the Netherlands, 
presented and refused in 1566. Our Charles II. 
resided here at the time of the restoration, and here 
he issued his declaration of a free general pardon, 
4 April, 1660; see Restoration. Breda was taken 
Soy the French in 1793. The French garrison was 
expelled by the burgesses in 1813. Population, 
1890, 22,536. 

BREECHES. Among the Greeks, this gar- 
ment indicated slavery. It was worn by the 
Dacians, Parthians, and other northern nations ; 
and in Ital) r , it is said, was worn in the time of 
Augustus Caesar. In the reign of Honorius, about 
394, the braccarii, or breeches-makers, were ex- 
pelled from Rome. The " Geneva Bible," termed 
4he "Breeches Bible" (from the rendering in 
Gen. iii. 7), published 1560. 

BREECH-LOADERS, see under Cannon 

and Firearms. 

BREED'S HILL, see Bunker's Hill. 

BREHON LAWS, the ancient jurisprudence 
of Ireland, said to have been administered by here- 
ditary judges called Brehons. It was enacted by 
the statute of Kilkenny, that no English subject 
should submit to the Brehon laws, 40 Edw. III., 
1366. These laws, however, were recognised by the 
native Irish till 1650. A translation of them was 
proposed in 1852, and a commission appointed. The 
publication of the " Ancient Laws of Ireland" by 
the government, began 1865. 

BREITENFELD, see Leipsic. 

BREMEN (N. Germany), said to have been 
founded in 788, and long an archbishopric, and one 
of the leading towns of the Hanseatic League, was 
allowed a seat and a vote in the college of imperial 
cities in 1640. In 1648 it was secularised and 
erected into a duchy and held by Sweden till 1712, 
when it was taken possession of by Denmark, by 
whom it was sold to Hanover in 1 731. It was 
taken by the French in 1757, who were expelled 
fey the Hanoverians in 1758. Bremen was annexed 
by Napoleon to the French empire in 1810 ; but its 
independence was restored in 1813, and all its old 
franchises in 1815. It became a member of the 
North German Confederation in 1866. International 
agricultural exhibition opened 13 June, 1874. 
Population of the province, 187 1, 122,402 ; 1885, 
165,628; 1890, 180,443: of the city, 125,684; see 
Hanse Towns. For the explosion at Bremerhafen, 
11 Dec. 1875, see Dynamite. 

BRENNEVILLE, N.W. France. Here 
Henry I. of England defeated Louis VI. of France, 
who supported William Cliton, son of Robert, duke 
of Normandy, 20 Aug. 1 1 19. 

BRENTFORD, county town of Middlesex. 
Here Edmund Ironside defeated the Danes, May, 
1016. It was taken by Charles I., after a sharp 
fight, 12 Nov. 1642. Population, 1881, 11,805; 
1891, r3,73 6 - 



BRESCIA, N. Italy (the ancient Brixia), be- 
came important under the Lombards, and suffered 
by the wars of the Italian Republics, being attached 
to Venice. It was taken by the French under 
Gaston de Foix, Feb. 1512, when it is said 40,000 
of the inhabitants were massacred. It was retaken 
26 May, 15 16. It surrendei-ed to the Austrian 
general Haynau, 30 March, 1849, jq severe terms, 
it was annexed to Sardinia in 1859. 

BRESLAU, in Silesia, was burnt by the Mon- 
gols in 1 241, and conquered by Frederick II. of 
Prussia, Jan. 1741- A tierce battle took place here 
between the Austrians and Prussians, the latter 
under prince Bevern, who was defeated 22 Nov. 
1757. Breslau was taken ; but was regained 21 Dec. 
same year. It was besieged by the French, and 
surrendered to them, Jan. 1807, and again in 1813. 
Population of the city, 1890, 125,684. 

BRESSA PRIZE. Dr. Cesare Antonio 
Bressa, by will of 4 Sept. 1835, bequeathed property 
to the Royal Academy of Sciences, Turin, to give a 
prize every two years for some important discovery 
or valuable work published relating to physics, 
natural history, geography, history, statistics, &c. 
The first prize (about 1200V.) was to be awarded in 
1879 to a foreigner; the second to an Italian, and 
so on alternately. The prize awarded to M. L'asteur 
in 1888. 

BREST, a seaport, N. W. France, possessed by 
the English a.d. 1378. Lord Berkeley and a British 
fleet and army were repulsed here with dreadful loss 
in 1694. The magazine burnt, to the value of some 
millions of pounds sterling, 1744. The marine hos- 
pitals, with fifty galley slaves, burnt, 1766. The 
magazine again destroyed by fire, 10 July, 1784. 
From this great depot of the French navy, numerous 
squadrons were equipped against England, among 
them the fleet which lord Howe defeated on I 
June, 1794. England maintained a large block- 
ading squadron off the harbour from 1793 to 1815 ; 
but with little injury to France. It is now a chief 
naval station, and is considered impregnable. The 
British fleet visited Brest, Aug. 1865. 

BRETAGNE, see Brittany. 

BRETHREN, see Bohemian and Plymouth 

Brethren. 

BRETIGNY, Peace OF, concluded with 

France, 8 May, 1360, by which England retained 
Gascony and Guienne, and acquired other provinces ; 
renounced her pretensions to Maine, Anjou, Tou- 
raine, and Normandy; was to receive 3,000,000 
crowns, and to release king John, long a prisoner. 
The treaty not being carried out, the king remained 
and died in England. 

BRETON, see Gape Breton, and Brittany. 

- BRETWALDA (wide-ruling chief), one of 
the kings of the Saxon heptarchy, chosen by the 
others as a leader in war against then- common 
enemies. The title was bestowed upon Egbert, 
828 ; see Britain. Palgrave, Kemble, and Freeman 
differ in regard to this title. 

BREVIARY (so called as being an abridgment 
of the offices used in the Roman Catholic service), con- 
tains the seven canonical hours, viz., matins about 
midnight; lauds (when not joined to matins, about 
3 a.m.), primes (about 6), tierce (about 9), sexts 
(about 12), nones (about 3 p.m.), vespers (4 or 6) 
complines (about 9). Lord Bate published a trans- 
lation of the Breviary, 1879. The breviary is 
ascribed to pope Gelasius I. about 492. It was 



BEEWEES. 



143 



BEIDGES. 



first called the custos, and afterwards the breviary ; 
came into use among the ecclesiastical orders about 
1080 ; and was reformed by the councils of Trent 
and Cologne, and by Pius V., Urban VIII., and 
other popes. The quality of type in which _ the 
breviary was first printed is said to have given 
the name to the printing type called brevier. . 

BEEWEES are traced to Egypt. Brewing was 
known to our Anglo-Saxon ancestors. Tindal. 
' ' One "William Murle, a rich maltman or bruer, of 
Dunstable, had two horses all trapped with gold, 
1414." Stow. In Oct. 1851, there were 2305 
licensed brewers in England, 146 in Scotland, and 
97 in Ireland ; total, 2548 : these are exclusive of 
retail and intermediate brewers. There were 
40,418 licensed brewers in the United Kingdom in 
1858 ; the revenue from Avhom to the state was in 
that year 81,030^. In 1858 in England there were 
205 great brewers ; see Ale, Porter, and Vacuum. 

In 1880 the brewers' licence (for sale) was made iZ., 
not for sale, 6s., a duty was laid upon beer calculated 
upon the specific gravity of the wort (43 & 44 Viet. c. 20). 

Brewers' exhibition at the Agricultural Hall, London, 
began 1879. 

BEIAE'S CEEEK (N. America), near which 
the Americans, 2000 strong, under general Ashe, 
were totally defeated by the English under general 
Prevost, 3 March, 1779. 

BEIBEE Y forbidden (Detit. xvi. 19) . Samuel' s 
sons were guilty of it, 1112 B.C. (1 Sam. viii.3.) Thos. 
de "Weyland, a judge, was banished for bribery in 
1288; he was chief justice of the common pleas. 
"William de Thorpe, chief justice of the king's 
bench, was convicted of bribery in 1351. Another 
judge was fined 20,OOC7. for the like offence, 1616. 
Mr. "Walpole, secretary-at-war, was sent to the 
Tower for bribery in 1712. Lord Strangford was 
suspended from voting in the Iiish house of lords, 
for soliciting a bribe, Jan. 1784. 

BEIBEEY at Elections. In 1854 an im- 
portant act was passed consolidating and amending 
previous acts relating to this offence, from 7 
Will. III. (1695) to 5 & 6 Vict. c. 184. 
Messrs. Sykes and Rumbold fined and imprisoned 

for bribery . . . . '". - 14 March, 1776 
Messrs. Davidson, Parsons, and Hopping, impri- 
soned for bribery at Ilchester . . 28 April, 1804 
Mr. Swan, M.P. for Penryn, fined and imprisoned, 
and sir Manasseh Lopez sentenced to a fine of 
io,oooZ. and two years' imprisonment for bribery 

at Grampound Oct. 1819 

The members for Liverpool and Dublin unseated 1831 
The friends of Mr. Knight, candidate for Cambridge, 

convicted of bribery 20 Feb. 1835 

Elections for Ludlow and Cambridge made void . 1840 
Sudbury disfranchised, 1848 ; St. Albans also . . 1852 
Elections at Derby and other places declared void 

for bribery 1853 

Corrupt Practices Act passed 1854 

In the case of Cooper v. Slade, it was ruled that 
the payment of travelling expenses was bribery, 

17 April, 1858 
Gross bribery practised at Gloucester, Wakefield, 

and Berwick 1859 

Mr. fin. H. Leatham convicted of bribery at Wake- 
field 19 July, i860 

Government commissions of inquiry respecting 
bribers, sat at Great Yarmouth, Totnes, Lancas- 
ter, and Reigate ; and disgraceful disclosures 

were made Aug.-Nov. 1866 

The boroughs were disfranchised by the Reform bill, 

passed 15 Aug. 1867 

The Parliamentary Elections Act enacted that elec- 
tion petitions should be tried by a court ap- 
pointed for the purpose, passed . 31 July, 1868 
Eirst trials under this act ; Mr. Roger Eykyn (at 
Windsor) was declared duly elected, 15 Jan., and 
sir H. Stracey (at Norwich) was unseated, 

18 Jan. 1869 



Dr. Kinglake, Mr. Fenelly, and others, were sen- 
tenced to be fined for bribery in parliamentary 
elections 10 May, 1870 

Beverley, Bridgewater, Sligo, and Cashel disfran- 
chised for bribery and corruption . . . ,„ 

Much corruption during the elections of April ; 
members for Oxford, Chester, Boston, and other 
places, unseated .... . 1880- 

Stringent Act against it brought in by sir H. James, 
attorney-general, was passed in . . . . i88r 
See Corrupt Practices. 

BBIC-A-BBACS (French), old curiosities: 
such as cabinets, pieces of ironwork, &c. The 
collecting began about the time of queen Anne, 
1702-14. The publication of Brie-d-Brac, ffi 
monthly price list, began in 1869. 

BBICKS were used in Babylon, Egypt, Greece,, 
and Rome; in England by the liomans. The size was 
regulated by order of Charles I., 1625. Taxed, 1784. 
The number of bricks which paid duty in England in 
1820 was 949,000,000 ; in 1830, above 1,100,000,000 ;, 
in 1840, 1,400,000,000; and in 1850, 1.700,000,000^ 
The duties and drawbacks of excise on bricks were 
repealed in 1850. In 1839 Messrs. Cooke and Cun- 
ningham brought out their machinery by which, 
it is said, 18,000 bricks may be made in ten hours, 
Messrs. Dixon and Corbett, near Newcastle, in 1861, 
were making bricks by steam at the rate of 1500 
per hour. The machinery is the invention of Clay- 
ton & Co., London. 

BEIDEWELL, once a palace of king John,, 
near Fleet-ditch, London, 1210, was given to the 
city for a workhouse by Edward VI., 1553.* The 
New Bridewell prison, erected in 1829, was pulled 
down in 1864 ; that of Tothill-fields was rebuilt in> 
1831. 

BEIDGES were first of wood. There are 
ancient stone bridges in China. Ab3^do3 is famous- 
for the bridge of boats which Xerxes built across- 
the Hellespont, 480 B.C. Trajan's magnificent 
stone bridge over the Danube, 4770 feet in length,, 
was built in a.d. 105. Brotherhoods for building- 
bridges existed in S. France about 1 180. The Devil's- 
bridge in the Canton of Uri was built on two high 
rocks ; and many stories have been invented to ac- 
count for it. At Schaffhausen an extraordinary 
bridge was built over the Rhine, 400 feet wide : there 
was a pier in the middle of the river, but it is doubt- 
ful whether the bridge rested upon it ; a man of 
the lightest weight felt the bridge totter under him, 
yet waggons heavily laden passed over without 
danger. The bridge was destroyed by the French 
in 1799. See Hammersmith, London, Waterloo, 
Blaclifriars, Southwark, Forth, Tag, Tower, and 
other bridges, in separate articles. The chief 
Thames bridges were freed from toll 24 May, 1879, 
and 26 June, 1880. 

Triangular bridge at Croyland abbey referred to in 
a charter dated 945 

A stone bridge erected at Bow, near Stratford, by 
queen Matilda about 1 100-18 

Bishop's bridge, Norwich 1295 

London bridge : one existed about 978 ; one built 
of wood, 1014 ; one by Peter of Colechurch, 1176- 
1209 ; new bridge finished 1831 

The first large iron bridge erected over the Severn, 
Shropshire 1777 

Sunderland bridge by Wilson, 100 feet high, an 
arch with a span of 236 feet 1796 

The chain suspension bridge at Menai Strait . . 1825 

* Of the old buildings little remains : merely offices 
and a few cells for refractory city apprentices. By the 
Charity Commissioners' scheme (i860) the annual income 
(14,682/.. in 1876) is devoted to the maintenance of two 
industrial schools : for boys, at Witley, Surrey; for girls, 
at St. George's fields. 



BRIDGEWATER. 



147 



BRISTOL. 



Old Westminster, opened, 1750 ; old Blaekfriars, 
1769 ; Waterloo, 1817 ; Southwark, iSig ; Hunger- 
ford, 1845 ; Chelsea, 1858 ; Vauxhall, 1816. 

A railway bridge 2j miles long projected over the 
Firth of Forth (not executed) . . . Dec. 1864 

The very wide Victoria bridge, over the Thames (by 
which the London, Chatham and Dover railway 
enters the Victoria station, Pimlico) ; founded by 
lord Harris 22 Feb. 1865 

For details see separate articles, and also Tubular 
bridge, Newcastle, Niagara, Victoria bridge, £c. 

New York and Brooklyn bridge, 5862 feet long; 
1600 central span ; 130 feet high ; July, 1872, etscq. 

Tay bridge (which see) 1871-7 ; Forth bridge (see 
under Forth) 1 8 79-8 9 

The great railway bridge over the Severn (above J 
mile long), connecting the Forest of Dean w r ith 
Sharpness Point, the port of Gloucester (cost 
1,000,000?.), was formally opened . 17 Oct. 1879 

Great railway bridge over the Volga, near Syzlan, 
Saratoy government, built . . . . 1877-80 

Suspension bridge from New York to Brooklyn 
(5989 feet long) opened . . . 24 May, 1883 

BRIDGEWATER, Somersetshire, was incor- 
porated by king John, in 1200. In the civil war it 
was taken by the parliamentary forces, 23 July, 
1645. Here stood an ancient castle in which the 
ill-advised duke of Monmouth lodged when pro- 
claimed king in 1685. The town was disfranchised 
for bribery, 1870. Population, 1881, 12,007 ! 1891, 
12,429. 

BRLDGEWATER CANAL, the first great 
work of the kind in England, was begun by the 
duke of Bridgewater, the father of canal navigation 
in this country, in 1759, and opened 17 July, 1761. 
James Brindley was the engineer. It commences 
at Worsley, seven miles from Manchester; and at 
Barton Bridge is an aqueduct which, for upwards 
of 200 yardjs, conveys the canal across the river 
Irwell. The length of the canal is about twenty- 
nine miles. 

BRIDGEWATER TREATISES. The rev. 
Francis, earl of Bridgewater, died in April, 1829, 
leaving by will 8,000'. to be given to the author or 
authors, appointed by the president of the Royal 
Society, who should write an essay " on the power, 
wisdom, and goodness of God, as manifested in the 
creation." The essays (by sir Charles Bell, Drs. T. 
Chalmers, John Kidd, William Buckland, William 
Prout, Peter M. Roget, and the revs. William 
Whewell and William Kirbv) were published 1833- 
35- 

BRIEFS are the letters of the pope despatched 
to princes and others on public affairs, and usually 
written short, without preface or preamble, and on 
paper; in which particulars they are distinguished 
from bulls. The latter are ample, and written on 
parchment. Briefs are sealed with red wax and 
the seal of the fisherman, or St. Peter in a boat, 
and always in the presence of the pope. The queen's 
letters, called "briefs," authorising collections in 
churches for charitable purposes, are now discon- 
tinued. A lawyer's brief is an abridgment of his 
client's case. 

BRIENNE (N. E. France). Here the allied 
armies of Russia and Prussia, under Bliicher, were 
defeated by the French, 29 Jan. 1814. 

BRIGANDAGE. See Italy, 1861 et seq.; 
Greece, 1870; Spabi, 1870, and Turkey. 

_ BRIGHT'S DISEASE- a degeneration of the 
ti-sues of the kidneys into fat, investigated about 
1830 by Richard Bright. 

BRIGHTON", formerly Brighthelmstone, a 
fishing town, Sussex, was made a place of fashion- 
able resort by the prince of Wales, afterwards 



George IV. Brighton returns two M.P.'s by Act of 
1885. See Population. 

At Shoreham, near Brighton, Charles II. embarked 
for France after the battle of Worcester . . 1651 

Visit of the prince of Wales I7 8 2 

He founded the Pavilion 1784 ; it was greatly en- 
larged and made to resemble the Kremlin at Mos- 
cow, 1784-1823 ; sold to the town for 53,000/. 1849. 
The Block-house swept away . . .26 March, 1786 
Part of the cliff fell ; great damage . . 16 Nov. 1807 
Chain-pier, 1134 feet long, 13 wide, completed . 1823 
Brighton made a parliamentary borough . . 1832 

The railway to London opened . . . 21 Sept. 1841 
Collision of trains in Clayton tunnel, 23 persons 

killed and many injured ... 25 Aug. 1861 
Volunteer reviews here on Easter Mondays, 1862 ; 

and often since, see under Volunteers. 
New pier erected . . . ... . . 1865-6 

Great aquarium inaugurated by prince Arthur, 30 

Mar. ; and formally opened by the mayor, 10 Aug. 1872 
British Association meet here . . 14 Aug. ,, 

Free library, museum, and picture gallery, opened 

12 Sept. 1873 
Inauguration of status of sir John Cordy Burrows, 

great benefactor to the town . . . 14 Feb. 1878 
About 2000 French and Belgian singers and musi- 
cians meet ...... 5 Sept. 1881 

Grand concert room, &c, burned . . 8 Oct. 1882 
New town hall, Hove, opened . . .13 Dec. ,, 
Electric railway tried . . . 4 April, 1S84 

Preston park (purchased for 6o,cool. aided by legacy 

from W. E. Davis) opened by the mayor ' 8 Nov. ,, 
Railway to Devil's Dyke opened . . 1 Sept. 1887 
International exhibition of arts and manufactures 

at Hove opened 21 Oct. 1889 

New terraces, sheltered walk, halls, &c, opened by 

the mayor 25 May, 1890 

Museum of British birds, bequeathed to the town 
by Mr. E. T. Booth, opened by the mayor, 3 Nov. „ 

BRILL or BRIEL, Holland. A seaport, seized 
by the expelled Dutch confederates, became the 
seat of their independence, 1572. Brill, given up 
to the English in 1585 as security for advances 
made by queen Elizabeth to Holland, was restored 
in 1616. 

BRISBANE, capital of Queensland, on the 
river Brisbane, Australia, was founded by Oxley, 
in 1823, settled as a penal station in 1825 by sir J. 
Brisbane, and made a bishopric in 1859, when the 
colony was constituted. Spacious dry dock opened 
at S. Brisbane in 188I. Population 'in 1887 (with 
suburbs), 73,649; 1891, 93,657. 

BRISSOTINS, see Girondists. 

BRISTOL (W. England) is mentioned in 430 
as a fortihed city. It was called Caer Oder, a city m 
the valley of Bath ; and, sometimes Caer Brito,'the 
British city, and by the Saxons Brightstowe, plea- 
sant place. Gildas and Ncnnius speak of Bristol in 
the 5th and 7th centuries. From the 12th to the 
1 8th century it was, next to London, the most 
flourishing port in England ; it has since been sur- 
passed by Liverpool. See under Orphan-houses. 
An industrial and fine art exhibition for Somerset 
and Gloucester opened 2 Sept. 1884. See Population. 
Bristol returns four M.P.'s by Act of 1885. 
Taken by the earl of Gloucester, in his defence 
of his sister Maud, the empress, against king 

Stephen 1118 

Eleanor of Brittany (daughter of Geoffrey, son of 
Henry II.) dies in the castle after 39 years' im- 
prisonment 12 . x 

St. Mary's church built ' I202 

Bristol made a distinct county by Edward III. 1 - 

Bishopric founded by Henry VIII , 54 ' 2 

Taken by prince Rupert, 26 July, 1643 i by Cromwell, 

10 Sept. 1645 
Edwd. Colston's hospital, a free school, and other 
charities established [Ins birthday, 13 Nov. kept 

annually] z oS 

[Annual dinners : the Dolphin Soeietv (conserva. 

L 2 



BEISTOL. 



143 



BRITAIN. 



tive) since 1749 ; the Anchor Society (liberal) 
since 1768 ; Grateful Society (neutral) since 1757.] 

New charter 1710 

Act passed for new exchange, 1723 ; erected . . 1741 

Bread riots 1753 

Bridge built May, 1760 

Attempt to set the shipping on fire . . 22 Jan. 1777 
Riot on account of a toll ; the troops Are on the 
populace, and many are wounded . 25 Oct. 1793 

Docks built 1804-9 

Biot on the entrance of sir Charles Wetherell, the 
recorder, into the city, he being opposed to the 
reform bill ; the mansion house, the bishop's 
palace, several merchants' stores, some of the 
prisons (the inmates liberated), nearly 100 houses 
burned, and above 500 persons killed by the mili- 
tary or perished .... 29-3100^-1831 
Trial of rioters (four executed ; 22 transported), 

2 Jan. ; suicide of col. Brereton, during trial by 
court-martial 9 Jan. 1832 

Meeting of British Association . . . Aug. 1836 
Railway to London completed . . 30 June, 1841 
Clifton suspension-bridge opened . . 8 Dec. 1864 
Industrial Exhibition opened . . 19 Sept. 1865 
British Association, 2nd meeting ... . . 1875 
Proposed foundation of a college for science and 
literature here for the south and west of England ; 
meeting, 13 June, 1874 ; opened as University 

College 10 Sept. 1876 

Great fire ; Clutterbuck's. drysalters, &c, loss be- 
tween 8o,ooo£. and ioo,oooZ. . . 24-25 May, ,, 
Avonmouth dock opened ... 24 Feb. 1877 
Statue of Mr. Samuel Morley, long M.P. for 

Bristol, unveiled 22 Oct. 1887 

Destructive explosion of 300 barrels of volatile 
naphtha on board the Jersey ketch The United; 

3 deaths 21 Nov. 1888 

Great flood ; damage about ioo,oooL . 8-9 March, 1889 
Trade paralyzed by strikes, dock labourers, work- 
men, and workwomen, Oct. ; strike settled by 
compromise Oct. -Dec. ,, 

About 10,000 of the boot trade locked out, 23 Dec, 

1889; settled by compromise . about 20 Jan. 1890 
Another great lock-out, Jan., closed by arbitration 

3 Feb. 1892 

BRISTOL, SEE OF, one of the six bishoprics 
erected by Henry VIII. out of the spoils of the dis- 
solved monasteries, 1542. The cathedral was the 
church, of the abbey of St. Austin, founded here by 
Robert Fitz-Harding, son to a king of Denmark, and 
a citizen of Bristol, 1148. The see is valued in the 
king's books at 338^. 8s. \d. Paul Bushe, provincial 
of the Bons-hommes, was the first bishop, in 1542 — 
deprived for being married, 1554. The see of Bris- 
tol was united by an order in council with that of 
Gloucester, in 1836, but in 1884 an act was passed 
to provide for their again becoming separate 
bishoprics. The cathedral (under repair since 1844) 
was reopened in 1861 ; a new nave opened 23 Oct. 
1877. 

BISHOPS OF BRISTOL. 

-1803. Hon. G. Pelham, translated to Exeter, 1807. 

1807. John Luxmoore, translated to Hereford, 1808. 

1808. Win. Lort Mansell, died, 27 June, 1820. 
1820. John Kaye, translated to Lincoln, 1827. 
1827. Robert Gray, died 28 Sept. 1834. 

1834. Joseph Allen, the last bishop, translated to Ely 
in June, 1836. (In October the diocese was 
united with Gloucester.) 

BRITAIN (called by the Romans Britannia,* 
from its Celtic name Prydain, Camden). The 
earliest records of the history of this island are the 
manuscripts and poetry of the Cambrians. The 
Celts, the ancestors of the Britons and modern 
Welsh, were the first inhabitants of Britain. It is 
referred to as the Cassiterides or tin-islands by 



* The Banians eventually divided Britain into Britan- 
nia Prima (country south of the Thames and Severn) ; 
Britannia Secunda (Wales) ; Flavia Ccesariensis (between 
the Thames, Severn, and Humber) ; Maxima Cmsariensis 
(between the Humber and Tyne) ; and Valcntia (between 
the Tyne and Firth of Forth). 



Herodotus, 450 B.C. ; as Albion and Ierne (England 
and Ireland) by Aristotle, 350 B.C., and Polybius, 
260 B.C. Britain, including England, Scotland, 
and "Wales, was anciently called Albion, the name 
of Britain being applied to all the islands collec- 
tively — Albion to only one. Flint/ ; see Albion, 
England, Scotland, and. Wales. Early history and 
dates doubtful. 

Divitiacus, king of the Suessones, in Gaul, said to b.c. 
have supremacy over part of Britain- . . . 57 
First invasion of Britain by the Romans, under 

Julius Caesar 26 Aug. 55 

Second invasion ; he defeats Cassivelaunus, British 

general 54 

Cymbeline (Cunobelin), king of Britain . . . 4 
Aulus Plautius defeats the Britons . . . a.d. 43 
He and Vespasian reduce S. Britain . . . . 47 
Caractacus defeated by Ostorius, 50 ; carried in 

chains to Rome 51 

Romans defeated by Boadicea, queen of the Iceni ; 
70,000 slain, and London burnt : she is defeated 
by Suetonius ; 80,000 slain, place uncertain . 61 
Agricola, governor, conquers Anglesey, and over- 
runs Britain in seven campaigns, and reforms the 

government 78-84 

He defeats the Caledonians under Galgacus ; sur- 
renders the islands . . . . . .84 

The emperor Adrian visits Britain, 120 ; and builds 

a wall from the Tyne to the Solway . . .121 
Lucius, king of the Britons, said to have sent an 
embassy on religious affairs to pope Eleutherius, 

about 181 
The Britons (allies of Albinus) defeated at Lyons by 

Severus 197 

Southern Britain subdued and divided by the 

Romans into two provinces .... 204 
Severus keeps his court at York, then called Ebora- 
cum, 208 ; finishes his wall, and dies at York, 

4 Feb. 211 
Carausius usurps the throne of Britain . . . 286 
He is killed by Allectus, another usurper . . 294 
Constantius recovers Britain and kills Allectus . 296 
St. Alban and 17,000 Christians martyred (Bede) . 304 
Constantius, emperor of Rome, dies at York, 

25 July, 306 
British bishops at the council of Aries . . . 314 
Scots and Piets invade Britain, 360 ; routed by 

Theodosius 368 

Romans gradually withdraw from Britain . 402-436 

Reign of Vortigern 425 

The Saxons and Angles aid in expelling the Picts 

and Scots 429 

The Romans quit Britain 436 

The Anglo-Saxon invaders drive the Britons into 

Wales and Cornwall - . . . . 449-455 
Many Britons settle in Armorica (Brittany) . 388-457 
The Saxon Heptarchy ; Britain divided into seven 

or more kingdoms 457 

Ella invades South Britain, 477 ; founds kingdom 

of Sussex 491 

Supposed reigns of Vortimer, 464 ; Vortigern again, 
471 ; Aurelius Ambrosius, 481 ; and Arthur Pen- 
dragon 500 

Great Saxon invasion under Cerdie . . . . 495 

The renowned king Arthur said to reign . . 500-532 
Arrival of St. Augustin (or Austin), and re-establish- 
ment of Christianity ....... 597 

Cadwallader, last king of the Britons, reigns . . 678 
Lindisfarne church destroyed by the Northmen . . 794 
Egbert, king of Wessex, virtually king of England 827 

kings of the heptarchv,* see Bretwalda. 

Kent. [The shire of Kent.] 
454. Hengist. [473, Saxon Chronicle.] 
488. iEsc, Esca, or Escus, son of Hengist ; in honour of 

whom the kings of Kent were for some time called 

jEscings. 
512. Octa, son of jEsc. 
542. Hermenric, or Ermenric, son of Octa. 
560. St. Ethelbert ; first Christian Icing (styled Rex 

Angloruin). 

* The term "Octarchy" is sometimes used; North- 
umbria being divided into Bernicia and Deira, separate 
kingdoms. 



BRITAIN. 



149 



BRITAIN. 



616. Eadbald, son of Ethelbert. 

640. Ercenbert, or Ercombert, son of Eadbald. 

664. Ecbert, or Egbert, sou of Ercenbert. 

673. Lothar, or Lothair, brother of Ecbert. 

685. Edric ; slain in 687. [The kingdom now subject to 

various leaders.] 
694. Wihtred, or Wihgtred. 

72 i S^n'^f tt I sons of Wihtred, succeeding 

748. Ethelbert II., V eacn th 

760. Alric, ; 

794. Edbert, or Ethelbert Pryn ; deposed. 

796. Cuthred, or Guthred. 

805. Baldred ; who lost his life and kingdom to 

823. Egbert, king of Wessex. 

South Saxons. [Sussex and Surrey.'] 

491. Ella, a warlike prince, succeeded by 

514. Cissa, his son, whose reign was long and peaceful, 
exceeding 70 years. 
[The 'South Saxons then fell into an almost total de- 
pendence on the kingdom of Wessex.] 

648. Edilwald, Edilwach, Adelwach, or Ethelwach. 

686. Authun and Berthun, brothers ; reigned jointly ; 

vanquished by Ina, king of Wessex, 689 ; kingdom 
conquered in 725. 

West Saxons. [Berks, Hampshire, Wilts, Somerset, 

Dorset, Devon, and part of Cornwall.] 
519. Cerdic. 

534. Cynrie, or Kenric, son of Cerdic. 
560. Ceawlin, son of Cynrie ; banished ; dies in 593. 
591. Ceolric, nephew to Ceawlin. 
597. Ceolwulf. 
611. |_Cynegils, and in 
614. ) Cwichelm, his son, reigned jointly. 
643. Cenwal, Cenwalh, or Cenwald. 

672. Sexburga, his queen, sister to Penda, king of Mer- 
cia ; of great qualities ; probably deposed. 

674. Escwine, with Centwine ; on his death, 
676. Centwine rules alone. 

685. Csedwallo : went to Rome, to expiate his deeds of 

blood, and died there. 
688. Ina or Inas, a brave and wise ruler ; journeyed to 

Rome ; left an excellent code of laws. 
728. Ethelheard, or Ethelard, related to Ina. 
740. Cuthred, brother to Ethelheard. 

754. Sigebright, or Sigebert, having murdered his friend 

Cumbran, governor of Hampshire, was slain by 
one of his victim's retainers. 

755. Cynewulf, or Kenwulf, or Cenulpe, a noble youth 

of the line of Cerdic ; murdered. 
784. Bertric, or Beorhtric ; poisoned by drinking of a 

cup his queen had prepared for another. 
800. Egbert, afterwards sole monarch of England, and 

Bretwalda. 

East Saxons. [Essex, Middlesex, and part of Herts.] 
526, 527, or 530, Erchenwin, or Erchwine. 
587. Sledda ; his son. 

597. St. Sebert, or Sabert ; son ; first Christian king. 
614. Saxred or Sexted, or Serred, jointly with Sigebert 

and Seward ; all slain. 
623. Sigebert II. surnamed the little ; son of Seward. 
655. Sigebert III. surnamed the good ; brother of Sebert : 

put to death. 
661. Swithelm (or Suidhelm), son of Sexbald. 
663. Sigher, or Sigeric, jointly with Sebbi, or Sebba, who 
became a monk. 
Sigenard, or Sigehard, and Suenfrid. 
Offa ; became a monk at Rome. 
Suebricht, or Selred. 
Switlired, or Swithed ; a long reign. 
Sigeric ; died in a pilgrimage to Rome. 
Sigered, 



693. 
700 
709. 
738. 
792 
799 



823. Kingdom seized by Egbert of Wessex. 

Northumbria. [Lancaster, York, Cumberland, Westmore- 
land, Durham, and Northumberland.] 
\* Northumbria was at first divided into two govern- 
ments, Bernicia and Deira; the former stretching 
from the Tweed to the Tyne, and the latter from the 
Tyne to the Humber. 
547. Ida, a valiant Saxon. 
560. Adda, his eldest son ; king of Bemicia. 
„ Ella, king of Deira ; afterwards the sole king of 
Northumbria (to 587). 



567- 
572- 
573- 
580. 
588. 
593- 
617. 

634- 

635- 
642. 
670. 
685. 
7°5- 
716. 
718. 
729. 
737- 
757- 
759- 
765- 
774- 
778. 
789. 
790. 

794' 
806. 



841. 



Glappa, Clappa, or Elapea : Bernicia. 

Heodwulf ; Bernicia. 

Freodwulf ; Bernicia. 

Theodoric ; Bernicia. 

Ethelric ; Bernicia. 

Ethelfrith, surnamed the Fierce. 

Edwin, son of Ella, king of Deira in 590 ; a great 

prince. Slain in battle with Penda, of Mercia. 
Eanfrid rules in Bemicia, and Osric in Deira ; both 

put to death. 
Oswald slain in battle. 
Osweo, or Oswy ; a reign of great renown. 
Ecfrid, or Egfrid, king of Northumbria. 
Alcfrid, or Ealdferth. 
Osred, or Ealdferth. 
Cenric ; sprung from Ida. 
Osric, son of Alcfrid. 
Ceolwulf ; died a monk. 
Eadbert, or Egbert ; retired to a monastery. 
Oswnlf, or Osulf ; slain in a sedition. 
Edilwald, or Mollo ; slain by Aired 
Aired, Ailred, or Alured ; deposed 
Ethelred, son of Mollo ; expelled. 
Elwald, or Celwold ; deposed and slain. 
Osred, son of Aired ; fled. 
Ethelred restored ; afterwards slain. 
Erdulf, or Ardulf ; deposed. 
Alfwold. 
Erdulf restored. 
Eanred. 
Kingdom annexed by Egbert. 

East Angles. [Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridge, Ely.] 

526. Uffa lands. 

571 or 575. Uffa ; a German, said to be first king. 

578. Titilus, or Titulus ; son of Uffa. 

599. Redwald, son of Titilus ; the greatest prince of the 

East Angles. 
624. Erpwald, Eorpwald, or Eordwald. 
627. Richbert. 

629. Sigebert, half-brother to Erpwald. 
632. Egfrid, or Egric ; cousin to Sigebert. 
635. Anna, or Annas ; a just ruler ; killed. 

654. Ethelric, or Ethelhere ; slain in battle. 

655. Ethelwald ; his brother. 
664. Aldulf, or Aldwulf. 
713. Selred, or Ethelred. 
746. Alphwuld. 

749. Beorna and Ethelred, jointly. 

758. Beorna alone. 

761. Ethelred. 

790. Ethelbert, or Ethelbryght ; treacherously put to 
death in Mercia in 792, when Offa, king of Mercia, 
overran the country, which was finally subdued by 
Egbert. 

870. St. Edmund (vassal king) slain by the Danes. 

Mercia. [Gloucester, Hereford, Chester, Stafford, Worces- 
ter, Oxford, Salop, Warwick, Derby, Leicester, 
Bucks, Northampton, Notts, Lincoln, Bedford, Rut- 
land, Huntingdon, and part of Herts.] 

586. Crida, or Cridda, a noble chieftain. 

593. [Interregnum— Ceolric] 

597. Wibba, a valiant prince, his son. 

615. Ceorl, or Cheorl ; nephew of Wibba. 

626. Penda ; fierce and cruel ; killed in battle. 

655. Pcada, son of Penda ; killed to make way for 

656. Wulfhere (brother) ; slew his two sons. 
675. Ethelred ; became a monk. 

704. Cenred, or Cendred ; became a monk at Rome. 
709. Ceolred, Celred, or Chelred ; son of Ethelred. 
716. Ethelbald ; slain in a mutiny by his successor. 
755. Beornred, or Bernred ; himself slain. 
,, Offa ; formed the great dyke near Wales. 
794. Egfrid, or Egferth, son of Ofl'a ; died suddenly. 
,, Cenulph Cenwulf, or Kenulph ; slain. 
819. Kenelm, or Cenelm, a minor : reigned five months ; 
killed by his sister Quendreda. 
Ceolwulf, uncle to Kenelm ; expelled. 
Beornwulf ; killed by his own subjects, 
Ludecan ; a valiant ruler ; slain. ^ 
Withlafe, orWiglaf. 
Berthulf, or Bertulf. 
852. Burhred, or Burdred. 
874. Ceolwulph ; deposed by the Danes, 877. 

[The kingdom merged into that of England. 



823. 
825. 



BRITANNIA TUBULAR BRIDGE. 150 



BRITISH COLUMBIA. 



BRITANNIA TUBULAR BRIDGE, see 

Tubular Bridge. 

BRITANNY, or Bretagne (N. W. France), 
the ancient Armorica (which see), formed part of 
the kingdom of the Franks. The Bretons still 
retain much of their ancient Celtic language and 
customs (1891). 

Nomenoe revolts and becomes the first count . . 841 
Britanny ravaged by Northmen, 907 ; ceded to them 92 r 

Geoffroy I., the first duke . ■ 992 

Alan V., 100S ; Conan II 1040 

HoelV., 1066; Alan VI 1084 

Conan III 11 12 

Hoel VI. expelled ; Geoffroy of An jou duke . -1155 
Conan IV. duke, 1156 ; on the death of Geoffroy, 
cedes Britanny to Henry II. of England, and 
betrothes his daughter, Constance, to Henry's son, 

Geoffroy (both infants) 11 59 

Geoffroy succeeds, 1171 ; killed at a tournament . 1186 
His son, Arthur, dies mysteriously at Rouen, his 
uncle John suspected ; his daughter, Eleanor, 
imprisoned at Bristol (for 39 years) . April, 1203 
Alice, . daughter of Constance by her second hus- 
band, Guy de Thours, proclaimed duchess, 1203 ; 
marries Peter of Dreux, made duke . . . .1213 

John I., duke, 1237 ; John II 1286 

John III., 1312 ; dies without issue . . . . 1341 
The succession disputed between John of Montfort 
(John IV.) supported by Edward of England, and 
Charles of Blois, made duke by Philip VI. of 
Prance. John is made prisoner ; his wife, Jane, 
besieged at Hennebonne, holds out, and is re- 
lieved by the English, 1343 ; John dies . . 1345 
Charles of Blois defeated and slain at Auray, 29 Sept. ; 
John V, son of Montfort, duke . . . . 1364 

John VI., duke, 1399 : Francis 1 1442 

Peter II. , 1450 ; Arthur III 1457 

Francis II., 1458 ; takes part with the Orleanists in 

France ; defeated at St. Aubin, 28 July, 1488 ; dies 1488 
Anne, his daughter, and heiress, marries 1st, 
Charles VIII. of France, 1491 ; 2nd, Louis XII., 
T499 ■ ner eldest daughter, Claude (born 1499), 
marries Francis, count of Angouleme, 1514 ; king 

of France 1 Jan. 1515 

Britanny formally united to the monarchy . . . 1532 
Britanny held by the Spaniards, 1591 ; recovered by 

Henry IV 1594 

The Bretons take part in the Vendean insurrection 
(see La Vendee) in 1791 

BRITISH, see Architects; Antiquaries ; Banks, 
Joint Stock ; Guiana, Honduras, National, Medi- 
cal, Orphans, Societies. 

BRITISH AMERICA (see America) com- 
prises the dominion of Canada, Nova Scotia, New 
Brunswick, Newfoundland and Prince Edward's 
Island, Labrador, British Columbia and Vancouver's 
Island. 

Delegates from the first six provinces met at Quebec on 
10 Oct., and agreed to the basis of a Federal union, 
with the queen as the executive (represented by the 
governor-general), a legislative council of 96 members 
for life, and a house of commons of 194 members, 20 
Oct. 1864. 
The secretary for the colonies, Mr. Cardwell, expressed 

his approval of the plan, 3 Dec. 1864. 
The plan opposed by New Brunswick, 7 March, 1865. 
Messrs. Cartier and Gait came to England to advocate it, 

April, 1865. 
Act for the union of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New 
Brunswick, under the name of " the dominion of 
Canada," brought into parliament by the earl of Car- 
narvon, 19 Feb., passed 29 March, 1867. 
(The British government guaranteed a subsidy of 

3,000,000/. to complete the intercolonial railway.) 
By the British North America act, the parliament of 

Canada may establish new provinces, 29 June, 1871. 
British American, see George, St., Sons of. 

BRITISH AND FOREIGN— Bible Society, 
established 1804 (see under Bible) ;— Scliool Society, 
180S ;— Sailors' Society, 1818. 



BRITISH ASSOCIATION for the Advance- 
ment of Science, was established by sir David 
Brewster, sir R. I. Murchison, &c, in 1831. Pro- 
fessor John Phillips was secretary till 1863. It holds 
annual meetings; the -first of which was held at 
York on 27 Sept. 1831. One of its main objects is 
" to promote the intercourse of those w r ho cultivate 
science with eacli other." It appoints commissions 
and makes pecuniary grants for scientific research ; 
and publishes annually a volume containing Beports 
of the proceedings. Kew observatory presented to 
the association by the queen in 1842. Superinten- 
dents, Francis fionalds, the first; John "Walsh, 
1852; Balfour Stewart, 1859. It was purchased for 
the fioyal Society by Mr. J. P. Gassiot, in 1871. 



I. 


York Meeting . . 


1831 


34- 


Bath . 


1864 


2. 


Oxford . 


1832 


35- 


Birmingham (3rd) 


1865 


3- 


Cambridge . . 


1833 


36. 


Nottingham . 


1866 


4- 


Edinburgh . 


1834 


37- 


Dundee . . . 


1867 


5- 


Dublin . . . 


1835 


38. 


Norwich 


1868 


6. 


Bristol . 


1836 


39- 


Exeter . . . 


1869 


7- 


Liverpool. . . 


1837 


40. 


Liverpool (3rd) . 


1870 


8. 


Newcastle . 


1S38 


41. 


Edinburgh (3rd) . 


1871 


9- 


Birmingham . . 


1839 


42. 


Brighton 


1872 


10. 


Glasgow 


1840 


43- 


Bradford . . . 


1873 


11. 


Plymouth . . 


1841 


44- 


Belfast (2nd) 


1874 


12. 


Manchester . 


1842 


45- 


Bristol (2nd) . . 


187s 


13. 


Cork . . . 


1843 


46. 


Glasgow (3rd) 


1876 


14. 


York (2nd time) . 


1844 


47- 


Plymouth (2nd) . 


1877 


IS- 


Cambridge (2nd) . 


1845 


4 8. 


Dublin (3rd) . . 


1878 


16. 


Southampton 


1846 


49- 


Sheffield 


1879 


17- 


Oxford (2nd) . . 


1847 


S°- 


Swansea (2nd) 


1880 


18. 


Swansea 


1848 


Si- 


York (3rd) Jubilee 


1881 


19. 


Birmingham (2nd] 


1849 


S 2 - 


Southampton 




20. 


Edinburgh (2nd) . 


•1850 




(2nd) 23 Aug. 


1882 


21. 


Ipswich . . . 


1851 


53- 


Southport 19 Sept. 


1883 


22. 


Belfast . 


1852 


54- 


Montreal 


1884 


23- 


Hull . . . 


1853 


55- 


Aberdeen (2nd) 


? 


24. 


Liverpool (2nd) . 


1854 




Sept. 


1885 


25- 


Glasgow (2nd) . . 


1855 


5°- 


Birmingham (4th). 


1886 


26. 


Cheltenham . 


1856 


57- 


Manchester (3rd) 




27. 


Dublin (2nd) . . 


1857 




(most successful) . 


1887 


28. 


Leeds . 


1858 


58- 


Bath (2nd) 5 Sept. 


1888 


29. 


Aberdeen . . . 


1859 


59- 


Newcastle (3rd) . 


1839 


3°- 


Oxford (3rd) . 


i860 


60. 


Leeds (2nd) 2 Sept. 


1890 


3 1 - 


Manchester (2nd). 


1861 


61. 


Cardiff. 


1891 


3 2 - 


Cambridge (3rd) . 


1862 


62. 


Edinburgh (4th) . 


1892 


33- 


Newcastle (2nd) . 


1863 


°3- 


Nottingham (2nd) 


1893 



Presidents. — 1. Viscount Milton ; 2. Dr. Buckland ; 
3. Prof. Sedgwick ; 4. Sir Thos. Brisbane ; 5. Provost 
Bartholomew Lloyd ; 6. Marquis of Lansdowne ; 7. Earl 
of Burlington ; S. Duke of Northumberland ; 9. Rev. W. 
Vernon Harcourt; 10. Marquis of Breadalbane ; 11. Pro- 
fessor Whewell ; 12. Lord Francis Egerton ; 13. Earl of 
Rosse; 14. Dean Peacock; 15. Sir J. F. W. Hersehel ; 
16. Sir R. I. Murchison ; 17. Sir R. H. Inglis ; 18. Mar- 
quis of Northampton ; 19. Rev. Dr. T. R. Robinson ; 20. 
Sir D. Brewster ; 21. Prof. G. B. Airy ; 22. Col. E. 
Sabine ; 23. Mr. W. Hopkins ; 24. Earl of Harrowby ; 
25. Duke of Argyll ; 26. Dr. C. G. B. Daubeny; 27. Rev. 
Dr. Humphry Lloyd ; 28. Prof. R. Owen ; 29. Prince 
Albert; 30. Lord Wrottesley; 31. Wm. Fairbairn ; 32. 
Prof. R. Willis ; 33. Sir Wm. Armstrong ; 34. Sir Charles 
Lyell ; 35. Prof. John Phillips ; 36. W. R. Grove ; 37. 
Duke of Buccleueh ; 38. Dr. J. D. Hooker ; 39. Prof. 
G. G. Stokes; 40. Prof. T. H. Huxley; 41. Sir /Wm. 
Thomson; 42. Dr. W. B. Carpenter; 43. Prof. A. W. 
Williamson; 44. Prof. J. Tyndall; 45. Sir John Hawk- 
shaw ; 46. Prof. Thos. Andrews ; 47. Prof. Allen Thom- 
son ; 48. Dr. Wm. Spottiswoode ; 49 Dr. G. Allman ; 
50. Prof. A. C. Ramsay; 51. Sir J. Lubbock; 52. Dr. 
0. Wm. Siemens ; 53. A. Cayley ; 54. Lord Rayleigh ; 55. 
Sir Lyon Playfair ; 56. Sir John William Dawson ; 57. 
Sir Henry E. Roscoe, M.P. ; 58. Sir Frederick Bram well ; 
59. Professor W. H. Flower ; 60. Sir F. A. Abel ; 61. 
Dr.W. Huggins ; 62. Sir A. Geikie ; 63. Dr. B. Sanderson. 

BRITISH CHURCH, see Church of Eng- 
land. 

BRITISH COLUMBIA (N. America). In 
June, 1858, news came to California that in April 
gold had been found in abundance on the mainland 
of North America, a little to the north and east of 



BRITISH EAST AFRICA. 



151 



BRITISH MUSEUM. 



Vancouver's Island. A great influx of gold-diggers 
(in a few weeks above 50,000) from all parts was 
the consequence ; and Mr. Douglas, governor of 
Vancouver's Island, evinced much ability in pre- 
serving order. The territory with adjacent islands 
was made a British colony with the above title, and 
placed under Mr. Douglas. The colony was nomi- 
nated and the government settled by 21 & 22 Vict, 
•e. 99 (Aug. 1858), and a bishop nominated in 1859. 
Visited by the marquis of Lome and princess 
Louise, 20 Sept. 1882. — For a dispute in July, 1859, 
see United States. Vancouver's Island was incor- 
porated with the colony in 1866, and Victoria was 
made the capital, 24 May, 1868. Recent lieut.- 
governors : Frederick Seymour, 1864 ; Anthony 
Musgrave, 1869; J. W. Trutch, 1871 ; C. F. Corn- 
wall; Hugh Nelson, Feb. 1892. The colony was 
•annexed to Canada, 1871. Population, 1891,92,767. 
Disputes with Canada respecting the non-construc- 
tion of railways, middle of ... . 1876 
Visit of lord Dutferin, gov. -gen. of Canada ; well 

received at Victoria .... 15 Aug. ,, 
Anti-Chinese legislation and oppression stopped by 

the Privy Council in England . . . 1884-8 
Visit of the governor-general, lord Stanley of 

Preston 26 Oct. et seq. 1889 

Visit of the duke and duchess of Connaught 

21 May, 1890 

BRITISH EAST AFRICA, see under 
-Africa. 

BRITISH ECONOMIC ASSOCIATION, 

see Economy. 

BRITISH GUIANA AND HONDU- 
RAS, see Guiana and Honduras. 

BRITISH INSTITUTION (for the encour- 
agement of British artists, .Pall-mall, founded in 
1805) opened 18 Jan. 1S06, on a plan formed by sir 
Thomas Bernard. In the gallery (erected by alder- 
man Boydell, to exhibit the paintings executed for 
his edition of Shakspeare), were from time to time 
exhibited pictures by the old masters, deceased 
British artists and others, till 1867, when the lease 
of the premises expired. The fund of 16,200/. in the 
Ihands of earl Powis and other trustees, to be devoted 
to the promotion of the --fine arts, had accumulated 
to '24,610/. in 1884. Still unappropriated, Nov. 
1886. Various proposals for using the money have 
been negatived by the trustees. 

BRITISH LEGION, raised bylord John Hay, 
•col. De Lacy Evans, and others to assist queen Isa- 
bella of Spain agaiust the Carlists in 1835, defeated 
them at Hernani, 5 May, 1836, andat St. Sebastian's, 
1 Oct. 

BRITISH MEDICAL ASSOCIATION, 

eee Medical. 

BRITISH MUSEUM, originated with the 
grant by parliament (5 April, 1753) of 20,000/. to the 
daughters of sir Hans Sloane, in payment for his 
fine library, and vast colleetionof the productions of 
nature and art, which bad cost him 50,000/. The 
library contained 50,000 volumes and valuable MSS., 
and 69,352 articles of virtu enumerated in the cata<% 
logue. Montagu-house was obtained by government 
as a place for their reception. The museum (includ- 
ing the Cottonian, Haiieian, and other collections) 
was opened 15 Jan. 1759, and has since been enor- 
mously increased by gifts,. bequests, and purchases.* 

* The total expenditure by the government on the 
British Museum for the year ending 31 March, 1S60, was 
78,445?. ; 1861, 92,776/. ; 1864, 95,500/. : 1867, 110,756/. ; 
1877, 108,947/.; 1884, 152,133/. The number of visitors to 
the general collection in 1051 (exhibition year), 2,524,754; 
in 1859, 5 I 7> 8 95 '• m l8 ^ 2 (exhibition year), 895,007 : in 
TS63, 440,801; in 1866, 510,550; 1 371, 418,094; 1875, 663,891 ; 



The old royal library was given by George II. 
1757. A list of the mo re' important additions is given 
below. 

New buildings erected by sir R. Smirke . . 1823-47 

Iron railing completed 1852 

The great reading-room erected by Sydney Smirke, 
according to a plan by Mr. Antonio Panizzi, the 
librarian (cost about 150,000/. ; height of dome, 
106 feet ; diameter, 140 feet ; contains about 
80,000 volumes, and accommodates 300 readers), 
opened to public .... 18 May, 1857 

Incorporation of the four library catalogues into one 

alphabet begun ; three copies made . . . 1861 
The proposed separation of the antiquarian, literary, 
and scientific collections, was disapproved by a 
commission in i860 ; and a bill to remove the 
natural history collections to South Kensington 
rejected by the commons . . -19 May, 1862 
A refreshment room for readers opened . 21 Nov. 1864 
Number of books (estimated) 1,600,000 . Jan. 1870 
,, ,, ,, 1,350,000(50,000 MSS.) 1884 

6000/. voted for a Natural History Museum at South 

Kensington 2 Aug. 1870 

Photographs of above 5000 objects of antiquity 
(supplying evidence of man's progress in civilisa- 
tion), published for about 116/. . . .Aug. 1872 
Castellani collection of gold ornaments, gems, 

bronzes, &c., purchased, for 52,000/ . . . . 1872-3 
Act of Parliament authorising removal of natural 
history collections to South Kensington ; passed 

13 Aug. 187S 
The Museum partly opened daily after 11 Feb. 1879 

Electric light adopted in the reading-room for 
evenings in the winter months . . 20 Oct. ,, 

The White bequest (60,000/.) 1880 

The new British Museum for Natural History, South 

Kensington; building completed, Nov. 1880; 

part of the collection opened 18 April 1881 : 

directors, sir Richard Owen, 1856, professor W. 

- H. Flower, 1884 (K.C.B., 1892). 

John Gould's humming-birds, &c, bought April, ,, 

New buildings in Montague-street, founded (by 

meaus of Mr. Wm. White's legacy of 63,941/.) 

23 Sept. 1882 
New Assyrian room (including Mr. Rassam's col- 
lection) opened Jan. 1884 

New catalogue printing, 74 volumes ready Dec. 1884 
The Marquis of Tweeddalo's ornithological library 

presented by capt. Wardlaw Ramsay . Oct. 1887 
New galleries opened ; "glass and pottery, 188S ; 

Greek sculpture 1889 

Electric light set up in the public galleries, opened 
in the evenings, 8 to 10 . . . .1 Feb. 1890 



Important Additions (bought or given). (Edwards.) 

Those marked * were gifts or bequests. 
"Solomon Da Costa, Hebrew Library . . . 1759 
*G. Thomason, collection (political) from Geo. III. 1762 

*Solander, fossils 1766 

*Birch, library and MSS , 

Hamilton vases, &c r 77 2 

'Musgrave library 1790-95 

*Cracherode library 1799 

Hatchett minerals 

"Alexandrian collection (from Geo. III.) . . . 1802 

Towuley marbles 1S05-17 

Lansdowne MSS 1804 

Greville minerals 1810 

Roberts, English coins ■ . ,, 

Hargrave binary 1813 

Phigaleian marbles 1815 

Elgin marbles 1816 

Burney library 1818 

"Banks' archaeological collections 



in 7878, 448,516: in 1879, 606,394; in 1880, 665,688; 
in 1882, 767,402 ; in 1S83, £60,557. The number of visi- 
tors to the collection in the Natural History Museum 
in 1S84, 375,231; at Bloomsbury in 1884,468,873; in 
1887, 501,256 ; in 1889, 504,537 ; in 1890, 463,833. Addi- 
tions to library in 1880, 27,543 volumes and pamphlets 
(including books of music and volumes of newspapers.) 
Expenditure on purchases, 1753 — 1875, 1,070,934/. 
Readers in 1S83, 152,983. 



BEITISH OECHESTEAL SOCIETY. 152 



BEOWNIAN MOTION. 



• King George III. 'a library, given by George IV. 1823-5 

*Payne Knight's collections 1824 

*Sir J. Banks' library and collections . . . . 1827 

*Egerton MSS 1829 

*Arundelian MSS 1831 

Mantell, fossils 1839 

Syriac MSS 1841-7 

*±jyoian marbles (by sir C. Fellows) . . . 1845 

*Grenville library, collected by right hon. Thos. 

Grenville (20,240 vols.) 1847 

Morrison's Chinese library . . . . . ,, 
Assyrian collections (by A. Bayard) . . . 1851-60 
Halicarnassian and Cnidian marbles (by C. T. Newton) 

1855-60 
Carthaginian antiquities (by N. Davis) . . . 1859 
Cyrene marbles (by Smith and Porcher) . . . i860 

Cureton, Oriental MSS 1864 

Duke of Blacas' museum (bought for 48,000^.) . . 1S66 

* Abyssinian antiquities . . . . . 1868 

*Slade collection (glass, &c.) ' 

*Mr. George-Smith's (of Daily Telegraph) Assyrian 

collections . i%j-i 

*Elamite antiquities, by col. Ross . . . . 1876 
*Urns, implements, ornaments, &c, from 234 
British barrows (see Barrows), by rev. canon 

Greenwell !8 7 q 

About 300 Babylonian tablets purchased . June 1882 
*Osbert Salvin and P. du Cane Godman's collec- 
tion of American birds, &c 1885 

*Indian birds and eggs from Mr. A. O. Hume . ,, 
*The marquis of Tweeddale's collection of birds 

given by capt. Wardlaw Ramsay . . . Oct. 1887 

*Mr. Octavius Morgan's collection of watches, 

clocks, keys, rings &c, reported . . Oct. 1888 

Principal Librarians. 

Dr. Gowin Knight . . . I7 r, 

Dr. Matthew Maty . . . .'.'.'. i 17 % 

Dr. Charles Morton ' ! 1776 

Joseph Planta ... ' T7r , n 

Henry Ellis ' . ' '. 1827 

Antonio Panizzi j8 s 6 

J. Winter Jones .' ' ^66 

Edward Augustus Bond Aug. 1878 ; Resigned 

Edward Maunde Thompson ' ^SS 

BEITISH OECHESTEAL SOCIETY, 

established 1872. 

BEITTANY, see Britanny. 

BBITTON, an ancient treatise on English law 
written in French by or in the name of king Edward 
I. about 1291. Coke attributed the work to John le 
Breton, bishop of Hereford, who died in 1275. An 
edition of " Britton," with a translation in English 
by Mr. F. Nicholls, was published in 1865. 

BEOAD AEEOW. All attempts to ascertain 
the origin of this mark have been fruitless. It is 
stated that timber trees fit for shipping in the 
forest of Dean in 1639 were marked with the crown 
and broad arrow. It is said to have been the device 
of viscount Sydney, earl of Eomney, master general 
of the ordnance, 1693-1702. Brewer. 

*'BEOAD BOTTOM" ADMINISTEA- 
11UJN. I lie Pelham administration (ivhich see) 
was socalled becauseformed by a coalition of parties, 
Nov. 1744. e ' 

BEOAD CHITECH SCHOOL in the 

Church of England, whose members reject tradi- 
tional beliefs and substitute what has been termed 
negative theology." It became prominent about 
1836, through the lectures of Dr. Hampden, and 
still more through the "Theological Essays" of 
Mr. F. D. Maurice in 1853; the "Essays and 
Reviews {which see) in i860; and the works of 
bishop Colenso on the Pentateuch, &c, 186' et sea ■ 
and of abp. Whately (1787-1863), Aug. Wm. and 
Julius C. Hare, Dr. Arnold, dean Stanley, canon 
Kingsley, and others. 

BEOCADE, a silken stuff, variegated with gold 
or silver, and enriched with flowers and figures-, 



originally made by the Chinese ; the manufacture 
was established at Lyons in 1757. 

BEOCCOLI, said to have been brought to Eng- 
land from Italy in the 16th century. 

BEOKEES, both of money and merchandise, 
were known early in England" See Appraisers. 
They are licensed, and their dealings regulated by 
law in 1695-6, 1816, and 1826. The dealings of 
stockbrokers were regulated in 1719, 1733, and 1736, 
and subsequently ; see Pawnbroker, and Barnard's 
Act. Brokers in the city of London placed under 
the supervision of the lord mayor and aldermen,, 
in 1707, were relieved from it by an act passed 9 
Aug. 1870. 

BBOMINE (from the Greek bromos-, a stink), 
a poisonous volatile liquid element discovered in 
salt water by M. Balard in 1826. It is found in 
combination with metals and mineral waters. 

BEOMLEY COLLEGE, Kent, founded in, 
1666, for widows of clergy of the church of England ; 
residence and pension. 

BEONTOMETEE, thunderstorm measurer,, 
an apparatus invtnted by M. M. Richard, of Paris, 
and commended by Mr. J. Symons, in Nature, 
July, 1890. 

BBONZE was known to the ancients, some of 
whose bronze statues, vessels, &c, are in the British 
Museum. The bronze equestrian statue of Louis 
XIV., 1699, in the Place Vendome at Paris (demol- 
ished 10 Aug. 1792), the most colossal ever made ; 
it contained 60,000 lbs. Bronze is composed of 
copper and tin, with sometimes a little zinc and 
lead. The present bronze coinage, penny, half- 
penny, and farthing (composed of 95 parts of copper, 
4 tin, 1 zinc), came into circulation Dec. i860. 

BBOOKLYN, a city on Long Island, in the 
state of New York, first settled in 1636, organised! 
by the Dutch governor of New Amsterdam, and 
named Breukelen, after a place in Holland. It 
was incorporated in 1834. Population in 1810, 
4402; in 1830, 15,396; in 1850, 96,838; in 1890, 
806,343. 

Brooklyn theatre burnt, about 300 perish 5 Dec. 1876 
The bridge lrom New York to Brooklyn (see Next) 

Yorl), begun 3 Jan. 1870 ; opened . 24 May, 1883 
St. James's cathedral, destroyed by lightning 

11 or 12 June, 18S9 

BEOOKS'S CLUB, first a gaming club in 
Pall Mall kept by Almack and afterwards by- 
Brooks in 1764, gradually^ became the Whig club, 
and was removed to St. James's Street in 1778. 

BEOTHEEHOODS, see Eermandad, Santa» 
and Lay Brotherhood. 

BEOUGHAM, a popular vehicle said to have 
been invented in 1839, and so named in consequence 
of its adoption by lord Brougham. Broughani sAct^ 
13 & 14 Vict. c. 21 ; see Acts, and Bankrupt. 

BEOWN INSTITUTION, Battersea, with an 
hospital for quadrupeds and birds useful to man, esta- 
blished b} r means of a bequest of Thomas Brown of 
Dublin; opened 2 Dec. 1871. First professor, Dr. 
Burdon-Sanderson ; Dr. Greenfield, professor, Dec. 
1878; Dr. C. S. Boy, professor, 1885; Professor 
Victor Horsley (1889) ; office vacant, 1892. 

BEOWN'S INSUEEECTION, see United 
States, 1859. 

BEOWNIAN MOTION. So called from 
Robert Brown, the celebrated botanist, who in 1827, 
by the aid of the microscope, observed in drops of 



BEOWNING SOCIETY. 



153 



BEUNSWICK. 



dew a motion of minute particles which at fii st was 
attributed to rudimentary life, but was afterwards 
decided to be due to currents occasioned by inequali- 
ties of temperature and evaporation. 

BEOWNING SOCIETY, for the study and 
discussion of the works of Robert Browning, inau- 
gurated at University college, London, 28 Oct. 
1881. Mr. Browning died 12 Dec. 1889, aged 77. 
" The Browning Cyclopaedia," by Edward Berdoe, 
published 19 Dec. 1891. 

BEOWNISTS or BARROWISTS, the first In- 
dependents {which see), named after Robert Brown, 
a schoolmaster in Southwark, about 1580. Henry 
Penry, Henry Barrow, and other Brownists, were 
cruelly executed for alleged sedition, 29 May, 1593. 

BBUCE'S TEAVELS. James Bruce, the 
" Abyssinian traveller," set out in June, 1768, to 
discover the source of the Nile. Proceeding first to 
Cairo, he navigated the Mleto Syene, thence crossed 
the desert to the Red Sea, and, arriving at Jedda, 
passed some months in Arabia Felix, and after 
various detentions reached Gondar, the capital of 
Abyssinia, in Feb. 1770. On 14 Nov. 1 770, he ob- 
tained a sight of the sources of the Blue Nile. He 
returned to Englandin 1773, and died 27 April, 1794. 

BBUGES, Belgium, in the 7th century was 
capital of Flanders, and in the 13th and 14th cen- 
turies almost the commercial metropolis of the world. 
It suffered much through an insurrection in 1488, 
and the consequent repression. It was subjected to 
France in 1794, to the Netherlands in 1814, and to 
Belgium in 1830. Population, 1890, 47,331. 

BEUMAIEE EEVOLUTION, see Direc- 
tory, 1799. 

BEUNANBUBG (supposed by some to be near 
Ford, Northumberland). Anlaf, with an army of 
Northmen from Ireland, and Constantine III. king 
of Scots, landed at the mouth of the Humber, and 
were defeated with very great slaughter at Brunan- 
burg by Athelstan, 937. 

BEUNDISIUM (now Brindisi), S. Italy, a 
Greek city, taken by the Romans, is.c. 267 ; and 
made a colony, 244. Here Virgil died 22 Sept. 

19 B.C. 

BEUNN, capital of Moravia, since 1641 ; was 
entered by the French under Murat, 18 Nov. 1805, 
and by the Prussians, 13 July, 1866. Population, 
1890, 95>34 2 - 

BEUNSWICK CLUBS, established to main- 
tain the house of Hanover and the Protestant as- 
cendancy in church and state, began in England at 
Maidstone, 18 Sept. 1828; in Ireland at the Rotunda 
in Dublin, 4 Nov. same year. Other cities formed 
similar clubs. 

BEUNSWICK, House of. The duchy of 

Brunswick, in Lower Saxony, was conquered by 
Charlemagne, and governed afterwards by counts 
and dukes. Albert-Az/.o II. marquis of Italy and 
lord of Este, died in 1097, and left by his wife Cune- 
gonde (the heiress of Guelph duke of Carinthia in 
Bavaria), a son, Guelph, who was invited into Ger- 
many by Imitza, his mother-in-law, and invested 
with all the possessions of his wife's step-father, 
Guelph of Bavaria; see Bavaria. His descendant, 
Henry the Lion, married Maud, daughter of Henry 
II. of England, and was the founder of the Bruns- 
wick family. His dominions were very extensive ; 
but having refused to assist the emperor Frederick 
Barbarossa in a war against pope Alexander III., 
through the emperor's resentment he was proscribed 
at the diet at Wurtzburg, in 1180. The duchy of 



Bavaria was given to Otho of Wittelsbaeh, ancestor 
of the family of Bavaria ; the duchy of Saxony to 
Bernard Ascanius, founder of the house of Anhalt; 
and his other territories to different persons. On 
this, he retired to England ; but at the intercession 
of our Henry II. Brunswick and Luneburg were 
restored to him. The house of Brunswick in 1409. 
divided into several branches. Brunswick was in- 
cluded by Napoleon in the kingdom of Westphalia 
in 1806, but was restored to the duke in 1815. — 
Population of the duchy of Brunswick in 187L, 
312,170; 1875, 327,493; 1880, 349,367; 1885, 
372,452; 1890, 403,788; of the city, 101,047- 
Brunswick joined the North German Confederation, 
18 Aug. 1866. 

DUKES OF BRUNSWICK. 

1 136. Henry, duke of Bavaria. 

1139. Henry the Lion (son). 

1195. Henry the hong and William (sons). 

1213. Otho I. (son of William). 

1252. Albert I. (son of preceding). 

1278. Albert II. (son). 

!ji8. Otho, Magnus I., and Ernest (sons). 

1368. Magnus II. (Torquatus) (son of Magnus I.) 

DUKES OF BRUNSWICK-WOLFENBUTTEL. 

First Branch. 

1409. Henry I. (son of Magnus II.) 

1416. William I. and Henry II. (sons). 

1482. Frederic and William II. j sous of Wimam r, 

1495. Henry III. and Eric ) 

1514. Henry IV. (son of Henry II.) 

1568. Julius (son of preceding). 

1589. Henry Julius (son). 

1613. Frederic-Ulric (son), died without issue. 
Second Branch. 

1634. Augustus (son of Henry of Luneburg). 

1666. Rodolph- Augustus ; who associated his next brother, 
Anthony-Ulric, hi the government, from 1685 ; 
died, 1704. 

1704. Anthoirr-Ulric now ruled alone; became a Roman 
Catholic in 1710 ; died in 1714. 

1 714. Augustus-William (son). 

1731. Lewis-Rodolph (brother). 

1735. Ferdinand-Albert, duke of Brunswick-Bevern, 
married Antoinette-Amelia, daughter of Lewis- 
Rodolph, anil succeeded him. 

1735. Charles (son). 

1780. Charles-William-Ferdinand (son) ; a great general' 
(served under his uncle Ferdinand in the Seven 
Years' War, 1756-1763); married princess Augusta 
of England ; was mortally wounded at the battle 
of Auerstadt, 14 Oct., and died 10 Nov. 1806; suc- 
ceeded by his fourth son (his elder sons being 
blind, abdicated). 

1806. William-Frederick, whose reign may be dated from 
the battle of Leipsic in Oct. 1813 ; fell at Quatre- 
Bras, commanding the avantgarde under the dukt? 
of Wellington, 16 June, 1815 ; succeeded by his 
eldest son. 

1815. Charles-I'rederick-William ; (very eccentric), as- 
sumed government 30 Oct. 1823. [Revolution at 
Brunswick ; the duke (declared incapable of 
reigning by the German diet) retired to England, 
7 Sept. 1830 ; died at Geneva, bequeathing his 
immense property to that city, 18 Aug. 1873.J 

1830. William, brother; born 25 April, 1806; succeeded 
provisionally, 7 Sept. 1830 ; and, on the demand 
of the Germanic diet, definitively, 20 April, 1831 ; 
unmarried; died, deeply lamented, 18 Oct. 1884. 
(His magnificent palace was destroyed by live. 
24 Feb. 1865.) His jubilee celebrated 25 April, 
1881. Succession claimed by the duke of Cum- 
berland (set aside by the diet, 30 June, & 2a 
Oct. 1885); regency assumed, iS Oct. 1S84. 
Prince Albert, of Prussia, born 8 May, 1837. 
nephew of the emperor "I' Germany, elected 

regent 21 Oct.; accepts about 24 Oct.; warmly 

received in Brunswick, 2 Nov. 1885. 
See under ( 'urriberlcmd, 1892. 

DUKES OF BRUNSWICK- [.UNEBUBO. 
1409. Bernard (sou of Magnus II., duke of Brunswick. 

see above). 
1434. Otho and Frederic (his sons). 



BRUNSWICK THEATRE. 



154 



BUCKLES. 



1478. 
2532. 
2546. 



1592. 
11611. 
3633- 
^636. 
A 648. 
K665. 



eigneu, viz. :— 
rnest II. "\ 
iristian. J 
igustus. j 1 
•ederic II. ) 



Henry (son of Otho). 

Ernest I. (son of Otho). His sons were 

Henry (founder of second branch of Brunswick- 
Wolfenbuttel) and William, whose seven sons cast 
lots to deteimine who should marry. The lot fell 
on George, sixth son. Four of the brothers 
reigned, viz. :- 

Ernest II. 

Christii 

Au{_ 

Freder: 

Christian-Lewis (son of the George above-mentioned.) 

George-William (brother of Christian-Lewis), dies 
in 1705 ; leaving as heiress Sophia-Dorothea, his 
daughter, who married in 1682 her cousin, prince 
George-Lewis of Hanover, afterwards George I. 
of England (son of Ernest of Hanover, youngest 
son of the above-mentioned. George). 
(See Hanover and England.) 

BRUNSWICK THEATRE, Well-street, 
East London , built to replace the Royalty (burnt do wn 
II April, 1826), was opened 25 Feb. 1828. On the 
-29th the building was destroyed by the falling in of 
the walls, too much weight being attached to the 
heavy iron roof. Fortunately the catastrophe hap- 
pened in the day-time (during a rehearsal of " Guy 
Mannering"), and only twelve persons perished. 

BRUSSELS, once capital of Austrian Brabant, 
mow of Belgium (since 1831), was founded by St. 
Gery, of Cambray, in the 7th century. It is cele- 
brated for its fine lace, carpets, and tapestry. The 
Hotel de Ville was erected early in the 15th cen- 
tury; has a turret 364 feet in height ; and on its 
stop is a copper figure of St. Michael, 17 feet high, 
which turns with the wind ; see Belgium. Popula- 
tion, 1890, 182,305. 

Cathedral of St. Gudule (begun 1010 ?) completed . 1273 
Made capital of the Low Countries .... 1507 

Ruled tyrannically by Alva 1567 

"" Union of Brussels " to expel the Spaniards . 1577-78 
^Bombarded by marshal Villeroi ; 14 churches and 

10,000 houses destroyed Aug. 1695 

'Taken by the French, 1701 ; by Marlborough, 1706 ; 

by Saxe, 16 Feb. 1746; and by Dumouriez, Nov. 1792 
'The revolution commences . . .25 Aug. 1830 
The costly furniture of 16 houses demolished in con- 
sequence of a display of attachment to the house 

of Orange 5 April, 1834 

Maritime conference to obtain uniform meteoro- 
logical observations held here .... 1853 
international philanthropic congress . . Sept. 1850 
International association for social science meet 

22-25 Sept. 1862 
Brussels Conference. The Society for the Ameliora- 
tion of the condition of prisoners of war sent 
circulars (dated 28 March) to the great powers. 
On 17 April Russia issued a programme for con- 
sideration at the conference, consisting of 71 
ia,rticles, embracing all the "usages of war." 
Lord Derby (for Great Britain), in a despatch, de- 
clined the discussion of international law, 4 Julv. 
•General sir Alfred Horsford was sent delegate for 
■Great Britain without active powers : reserving 
liberty of action. The congress was opened 
:27 July ; baron Jomini (from Russia) president. 
'The United States not represented. The sittings 
were secret. The conference closed without im- 
portant results, 28 Aug. 1874. British Report 
published in London Gazette . . .24 Oct, 1874 
Belgian Industrial exhibition opened . 5 Sept. ,, 
International exhibition of objects relating to pub- 
lic health and safety, opened by the king, 26 June ; 
a congress met . . . 27 Sept.— 2 Oct. 1876 
International congress of commerce and industry, 

6— 10 Sept. 1880 
Commercial Museum opened . . about 17 Dee. 1882 
'The magnificent new Palace of Justice opened by 

the king IS Oct. 1883 

'The parliament houses burnt ; valuable library 

destroyed, loss about 480,000^ . . 6 Dec. 

Industrial exhibition opened ... 29 Dec, 

International Exhibition opened 19 May, by the 

king 7 June ; closed ... * n Nov. 



Theatre de la Bourse burnt . . .7 Jan. 1889 

Anti-slavery conference meets . 18 Nov. et seq. ,, 
Arrival of Mr. H. M. Stanley from Africa, enter- 
tainment by the king, &c. . . 19-25 April, 1890 
Great tire at the palace of the Due dArenberg, 
formerly the residence of the Egmont family, 
many of whose relics are destroyed . 24 Jan. 1892 

BRUTTIUM (now Calabria Olta), S. Italy. 
The Bruttians and Lucanians defeated and slew 
Alexander of Epirus at Pandosia, 326 B.C. They 
were conquered bv Borne, 277. 

BUBBLE COMPANIES, see Companies, 
Law' s Babble, and South-sea Bubble. 

BUCCANEERS, cruel piratical adventurers, 
French, English, and Dutch, who commenced their 
depredations on the Spaniards of America soon after 
the latter had taken possession of that continent and 
the West Indies. Their numbers were much in- 
creased by a twelve years' truce between the Span- 
iards and Dutch in 1609, when man y of the discharged 
sailors joined the buccaneers. The first levy of 
ship-money in England in 1635 was to defray the 
expense of chastising these pirates. The principal 
commanders of the first buccaneers were Montbar, 
Lolonois, Basco, and Morgan. Van Horn, of Ostend, 
captured Vera Cruz, 1603; Morgan took Panama, 
1670; Gramont seized Campeachy, 1685; andPointis 
took Carthagena, 1697 ; all gained enormous booty. 
The buccaneer confederacy was broken up through 
the peace of Byswick, 10 Sept. 1697. 

BUCENTAUR, the vessel in which the doge of 
Venice used to proceed to wed the Adriatic, from the 
12th to the 1 8th century. 

BUCHANITES (in Scotland) : followers of 
Mrs. Buchan, who about 1779 pretended to be the 
woman of Rev* xii., and promised to conduct them 
to the new Jerusalem, &c. She died in 1791, and 
her followers dispersed. 

BUCHAREST (in Wallachia) . Preliminaries 
of peace were ratified at this place between Bussia 
and Turkey, it being stipulated that the Pruth 
should be the frontier of the two empires ; signed 
28 Maj", 1812. The subsequent war between these 
powers altered many of the provisions of this treaty. 
Bucharest was occupied by the Russians, Turks, and 
Austrians successively in the Crimean war. The 
last quitted it in 1856. It is now capital of the 
kingdom of Rouroania, established 26 March, 1881. 
Population, 1885, 221,000. 

BUCKHURST PEERAGE, see Trials, 1876. 

BUCKINGHAM PALACE, the London 
residence of the sovereign. Old Buckingbam-house 
was built on the "Mulberry-gardens," by John 
Sheffield, duke of Buckingham, in 1703. In 1761 it 
was bought by George 111., who in 1775 settled it 
on his queen, Charlotte. She made it her town 
residence ; and here all her children, except the 
eldest, were born. Here were married the duke of 
York and princess Frederica of Prussia, in 1791 ; 
tne duke of Gloucester and princess Mary, 1816 ; 
the prince of Hesse-Homburg and princess Eliza- 
beth, 1818 ; and the duke of Cambridge and princess 
of Hesse the same year. The house was pulled down 
in 1825, and the present palace commenced on its 
site. After an expenditure of nearly a million 
sterling, it was completed, and occupied by queen 
Victoria, 13 July, 1837. Further improvements 
were made in 1853. The marble arch, taken down 
from the exterior of this palace, was re-erected at 
Cumberland-gate, Hyde-park, 29 March, 1851. 

BUCKLES were worn instead of shoe-strings 
in the reign of Charles II. , and soon became fashion- 



BUDA. 



loo 



BUENOS AYRES. 



able and expensive ; about 1791 the}' fell out of use. 
Ornamental buckles became fashionable, 1873. 

BUDA (or OFEN), the ancient Aquincum, on 
the \V. bank of the Danube opposite Pesth, and with 
It (termed Buda-Pesth) the capital of Hungary. It 
was taken by Charlemagne in 799 ; and sacked by 
Solyman II. after the battle of Mohatz, when the 
Hungarian king, Louis, was killed, and 200,000 of 
his subjects carried away captives, 1526. Buda was 
sacked a second time, when the inhabitants were put 
to the sword, and Hungary was annexed to the 
Ottoman empire, 1541. Retaken by the Imperialists, 
under the duke of Lorraine, and the Mahometans 
delivered up to the fury of the- soldiers, 1686. It 
suffered much in 1848 ; was entered without resist- 
ance by the Austrians, 5 Jan. 1849 ; stormed, 20 May ; 
given up by Russians to Austrians, July, 1849. 
Here the emperor Francis Joseph was crowned king 
of Hungary, 8 June, 1867 ; see Hungary. Buda- 
Pesth constituted the capital of Hungary, Nov. 
1873; equal to Vienna, June, 1892. Great loss of 
life (about 120) and property by a storm, 26 June, 
1875; another storm, 11 Jul}' following. Popula- 
tion of Buda-Pesth, 1890, 506,384. 
The anniversary of the re-capture of the citadel of Buda 

from the Turks after ten weeks' siege on 2 Sept. 1686, 

was enthusiastically celebrated on 2 Sept. 1886. 
Many drowned in the Danube, through the breaking of 

the ice, 4 Jan.; destructive inundations through rising 

■of the Danube, 13 March etteq., 1891. 

BUDDHISM, the chief religion in Asia beyond 
the Ganges, and in China, Japan, and Ceylon, origi- 
nated with Gautama Siddartha, the Sakya Muni, 
generally termed Buddha, or "the enlightened," a 
prince of Kapalivastu in Central India, said to have 
been born 623, and to have died 543 B.C. 
In July, 594 b.c, disgusted with the behaviour of the Brah- 
mins, he retired from the world for a time, and on com- 
ing forth, preached a new religion so successfully that 
it predominated in India till the 10th century, a.d.* 
Buddhism inculcates strict morality ; it forbids killing, 
stealing, adultery, lying, and drunkenness, and every 
shade of these vices, and declares charity or love to be 
the source of all virtues. Some writers assert that 
Buddhism includes belief in the transmigration of 
souls, and the absorption of good souls into God him- 
self, from whom they have emanated ; others reckon 
annihilation or eternal sleep (the Nirvana) amongst 
Buddhist tenets. 
A form of Buddhism, termed the religion of Fo, exists in 
China, besides the system of Confucius and Laot-se. 
Itis said to have been introduced in the reign of Ming-ti, 
a.d. 68-81. 
"" Le Bouddha et ses Religions," by M. J. B. St. Hilaire, 
was published in i860. Mr. T. Rhys Davids' " Bud- 
dhism," in 1878. 
The Buddhists in the world are estimated at 455,000,000. 
Buddhism in Japan reported to be declining, 3,737 
temples in Kioto, the old capital, and 3,555 in 1889. 

BUDE LIGHT (so named from Bude in Corn- 
wall, the residence of Mr. (aft. sir) Goldsworthy Gur- 
ney, its inventor), consists of two or more concentric 
argand gas-burners, one rising above another, which 
produce a most brilliant flame, like the petals of a 
rose. The illuminating powers were increased by 
subjecting manganese, &c., to the action of the 
flame, in order to produce oxygen and hydrogen 
gas. This light was patented 1839 and 1841. 

BUDGET (from the French bougetle, Latin 
bulga, a small bag), a term applied to the English 
chaneellorof the exchequer's annual statement of the 
finances of the country, from the documents having 
been formerly presented in a leather bag. The 
budgets of sir R. Peel in 1842 (including the income- 
tax) and 1846 (free trade), and of Mr. Gladstone in 

* Mi\ Edwin Arnold's "Light of Asia," a poem, in 
1879- 



i860 (in connection with the treaty with France), 
were very important. A surplus of about 
6,000,000^. was announced by sir Stafford 
Northcote, 16 April, 1874; since then there has been 
a deficiency. See Revenue. Mr. Childers in his 
budget proposed the reduction of consols from 3 to 
2\ per cent, for capital raised to 108/., and the 
coinage of 10*. pieces worth 9s. to meet the loss by 
wear of gold coinage. Coinage bill withdrawn 10 
July, 1884. 

Budget of Mr. Childers, 30 April, 1885, to provide for 
estimated expenditure of 88,872,600?., and a vote of 
credit for 11,000,000?. on account of war in the 
Soudan, and probable war with Russia. 
Income tax raised to id. Increase of duty on beer and 
spirits, succession duties, duty on property of corpo- 
rate bodies. 
Bill rejected on second reading (264-252), 8-9 June ; 
modified by Sir M. Hicks-Beach, new duties given up, 
and 4,000,000/. exchequer bills, 16 July, 1885. 
Mr. Goschen's Budget introduced 21 April, 1887, included 
abstraction of 2,000,000?. from the sinking fund, 
reduction of income tax from Sd. to 7c?., and of 
tobacco duty from 3s. 6c7. to 3*. 2c?. ; a grant in aid of 
local rates, &c. 
Mr. Goschen's Budget introduced 26 March ; aiming 
at a permanent equitable adjustment of imperial and 
local taxation ; income tax reduced to 6d. ; resolutions 
adopted 9 April ; Mr. Gladstone's amendment on the 
succession duties rejected (310-217) 23 April ; act 
passed 16 May, 1888. 
Mr. Goschen's Budget introduced 15 April, 1889, pro- 
vided for the increased expenditure for the army and 
navy, by dealing with the consolidated fund and 
slightly increasing the succession and beer duties. 
Mr. Goschen's budget introduced 17 April, 1890 : surplus, 

3, 549,000?. 
Grants, barracks, 300,000?.; volunteer equipment, 100,000?.; 
for colonial postage, 80,000?. ; house duty reduced to 
■2d., 4c?., and 6c?., 540,000?. ; additional duty on spirits 
6c7. per gallon — resolutions carried 17-22 April, 1890. 
Mr. Goschen's Budget introduced 23 April, 1891 : surplus, 
1,756,000?.; proposed grant for free (or assisted) educa- 
tion from 1 Sept. , about 2,000,000?. a year ; 500,000?. 
for new barracks, &c. — resolutions agreed to, 27 April, 
i8qi. 
Mr. Goschen's Budget introduced n April, 1892 : surplus, 
1,067,000!. ; greater part appropriated, leaving actual 
surplus, 224,000?. ; the duties on sparkling wines 
equalised to 2s. a gallon, 16 May, 1892. 

BUENOS AYRES, a province of S. America, 
now part of the Argentine republic. The country 
was explored by Sebastian Cabot in 1526, and the 
capital, Buenos Ayres, founded by don Pedro de 
Mendoza in 1535. In 1585 the city was rebuilt and 
recolonised ; and made a bishopric, 1620 ; and a 
viceroyalty, 1775. La Plata, the new capital, 
founded by Dr. Rocha, the governor, 24 Nov. 1882 ; 
made seat of government April, 1884. Population 
in 1888: province, 3,793,800; city, 500,000. See 
Argentine Confederation. 

A British fleet and army, under sir Home Popham 

and general Beresford, take the city with slight 

resistance, 27 June ; it is retaken by the Spaniards, 

12 Aug. ; by the British ... 29 Oct. 1806 

Monte Video taken by storm by sir Samuel Auch- 

muty, 3 Feb. ; evacuated . . . .7 July, 1S07 
General Whitelock and 8000 British enter Buenos 

Ayres; severely repulsed . . . 5 July, ,, 
Independence of the province declared 19 July, 1816 
Recognised as forming part of the Argentine con- 
federation Feb. 1S22 

I A prey to civil war through the violent intrigues of 
Rosas, Oribe, Urquiza, and others, for, many 
years.] 
Urquiza overthrows Rosas, and is made provisional 

dictator 185 1 

Oribe defeated by general Urquiza, to whom Buenos 

Ayres capitulates 3 Feb. 1852 

Rosas flees, arrives at Plymouth . . 25 April, ,, 
Urquiza deposed, to Sept.; invests the city; after 

some successes he retires .... Dec. ,, 
Constitution voted 23 May, 1S53 



BUFFALO. 



156 



BULGARIA. 



Buenos Ayres secedes from the Argentine confede- 
ration, and is recognised as an independent state ; 
the first governor, Dr. D. Pastor Obligado, elected 

12 Oct. 1853 
Dr. Valentin Alsina elected governor . . May, 1857 
War breaks out ; Urquiza, general of the forces of the 
Argentine confederation, has an indecisive conflict 
with the Buenos Ayres general Mitre 23 Oct. 1859 

A treaty signed, by which Buenos Ayres is re-united 

with the Argentine confederation . . n Nov. „ 
Fresh contests : Mitre defeats Urquiza in an almost 
bloodless contest at Pavon ; Urquiza retires 

17 Sept. 1861 
National congress at Buenos Ayres . 25 May, 1862 
Mitre installed president . . . .12 Oct. „ 
Jesuits' college and archbishop's palace burnt down, 
and several priests killed, by a great mob ; mar- 
tial law proclaimed . . . .28 Feb. 1875 
General amnesty bill passed . . . • Aug. 1883 
International exhibition ... 6 May et seq. 1890 
See Argentine Republic. 

BUFFALO, a city in New York state, founded 
in 1 801 ; incorporated 1832 ; burned by the British 
during the war, 1813. Population, 1832, 15,000; 
1890, 255,664. 

BUFFOONS were originally mountebanks in 
the .Roman theatres. Their shows were discouraged 
by Domitian, and abolished by Trajan, 98 ; see 
Jesters. 

BUILDING. In early times men dwelt in 
caves ; wood and clay were the first building mate- 
rials. Building with stone was early among the 
Tyrians. In Ireland a castle was built of stone at 
Tuam by the king of Connaught, in 1161 ; and it 
was "so new and uncommon as to be called the 
Wonderful Castle." Building with brick was intro- 
duced by the Romans into their provinces. Alfred 
encouraged it in England in 886. It was adopted 
by the earl of Arundel, about 1598, London being 
then almost wholly built of wood; see Architecture. 
Building acts were passed by Elizabeth in 1562, 1580, 
and 1592 ; and by Charles II. in 1667. Recent 
acts are very numerous. The Building Act for 
the Metropolis, 7 & 8 Vict. c. 84 (1844), was 
amended in 1855, i860, 1869, 1871, 1878, and 1882. 
Building societies, formed *to enable a person to pur- 
chase a house by paying money periodically to a 
society for a certain number of years, instead of 
paying rent to a landlord, began about 1S36, when 
an act was passed for their regulation. Their 
nature and objects having been considerably 
changed, a new act was passed 30 July, 1874. 
Building Societies in 1884, 2,290, with an asserted 
capital of 48,000,0002. 
At the end of 1887 the number of building societies 
incorporated was 2,052 
meeting of the Buildiu 
3 Feb. 1892. 

BULGARIA, theancient Moesia Inferior, aprin- 
cipality tributary to Turkey. The Bulgarians were a 
Slavonian tribe, who harassed the Eastern empire 
and Italy from 499 to 678, when they established a 
kingdom. They defeated Justinian II., 687; but 
were subdued, after several conflicts, by the emperor 
Basil, in 1018. After defeating them in 1014, and 
taking 15,000 Bulgarian prisoners, he caused their 
eyes to be put out, leaving one eye only to every 
hundredth man, to enable him to conduct his 
countrymen home. The kingdom was re-established 
in 1 186; but after several changes was conquered 
by Bajazet and annexed to the Ottoman empire, 
1396. Bulgaria was a chief site of the Russo- 
Turkish war (which see), 1877-8. Population of 
Bulgaria and Eastern Roumelia, 3,154,375 in 1888. 
Capital, Sofia (which sec). 

The Bulgarians said to support the revolt in Her- 
zegovina (which see) 1875-6 

Insurrection in Bulgaria, quickly suppressed with 
great cruelty ("Bulgarian Horrors," see England, 
1876; Daily News) ; see Turkey . May-Sept. 1876 



1890, 2,333. Annual 
Societies Association, 



Zancoff and Balabanow, Bulgarian delegates, re- 
ceived in London 9 Oct. 1876 

Bulgaria constituted an autonomous principality, 
tributary to the sultan, by the Berlin treaty (which 
see) 13 July, 1878 

First parliament (or Sobranje) opened at Tirnova by 
prince Dondoukott Korsakoff; the new constitu- 
tion brought forward . . . .22 Feb. 1879 

Prince Alexander of Hesse elected prince as Alex- 
ander I. 29 April, ,, 

Visits the European courts ; received by queen 
Victoria 5 June, ,„ 

Takes the oaths to the constitution at Tirnova 

9 J ul y> >* 

Bulgaria said to be quitted by the Russians 17 July ,, 

Ministerial difficulties; parliamentdissolvedi8Dec. ,, 

The prince announces the summoning a national 
assembly, and threatens to resign . 9 May 1881 

Zancoff and other liberal ministers arrested for in- 
sulting the prince in their election addresses 
(soon released) 21 June, ,„ 

Elections for national assembly ; voters said to be 
coerced , ... 27 June et seq. ,, 

Meeting of the assembly ; the prince's proposals 
unanimously accepted ; he promises reforms and 
adherence to the constitution . . 13 July, ,„ 

The late liberal ministers, Zancoff and Slaviekotf, 
temporarily arrested . . about 23 July, ,, 

Amnesty for political offences proclaimed 12 Sept. ,, 

New council of state established . about 28 Sept.' ,, 

New ministry under gen. Soboleff and M. Kypriak 

15 Mar. 1883 

The prince virtually dictator ; opposes Russia, 
under whose influence a liberal reaction against 
the prince takes place, and a new constitution is 
proposed ; the national assembly meets 16 Sept. ,„ 

Manifesto of the prince restoring the Tirnova con- 
stitution ; Zancoff minister . . .20 Sept. ,, 

Col. Redigher, war minister, and other Russian 
officers summarily dismissed by the prince 

26 Oct. ,, 

Peaceful relations with Russia re-established about 

15 Nov. ,., 

Changes in the constitution proposed by govern- 
ment adopted . . . . . 17 Dec. ,, 

Disputes with Servia respecting refugees and 
boundaries May, June 1884 

M. Zaneoff's ministry resigns ; succeeded by Kara- 
velotf - . . July ,, 

Raids of Servians repelled, the Bulgarian govern- 
ment protests .... Sept., Oct. „ 

Disputes with Servia unsettled . . . Dee. ,, 

Re-union with Roumelia (termed South Bulgaria 
April 1886) declared; about 18 Sept. ; all Bulgaria 
arming ; action suspended on advice of the 
powers of Europe .... about 15 Oct. 1885 

Declaration of war by Servia 13 Nov. ; circular to 
the powers alleging Bulgarian aggression; denied 
by prince Alexander, 14 Nov. ; Bulgaria invaded 
at four points ; skirmishes, several killed and 
wounded, and small places occupied by Servians ; 
prince Alexander appeals to Turkey for help, 

14 Nov. 

Desperate fighting : Servians take positions at 
Raptcha, Bulgarians retreat to Shvnitza ; 400 
Bulgarians captured ; 50 Servians killed 15 Nov. 

Battle of Trn : Servian attack repulsed, 16 Nov. ; 
renewed with artillery with success, many 
Bulgarian prisoners .... 17 Nov. 

Bulgarians defeated between Kula (Adlie) and 
Widdin 17 Nov. 

The Bulgarians bravely defend the Dragoman pass, 
attacked by 40,000 Servians, but retire at 
night 15 Nov. 

Prince Alexander submits to the Porte and orders 
evacuation of East Roumelia . . .19 Nov. 

Prince Alexander and the Bulgarians attack the 
Servians at Slivnitza ; severe fighting ; king 
Milan and the Servians retire leaving 400 prisoners 

17-19 Nov. 

Bulgarians totally defeat the Servians near the 
Dragoman pass 21-22 Nov. 1885 ; near Zaribrod 
which is occupied by prince Alexander . 23 Nov. 

Estimated Servian loss 6,000 killed and wounded, 

17-21 Nov. 

Servians retreat to Pirot 24 Nov. ; prince Alexander 
enters Servia,, defeats Servians and occupies 



BTTLGABIA. 



157 



BULGABIA. 



Pirot after severe conflict, 26-27 Nov. ; siege of 
Widclin, Bulgarian sally repulsed . 27 Nov. iS 
Cessation of hostilities through Austrian inter- 
vention . . ... . . .28 Nov. , 

Servian proposals rejected . . about 2 Dec. , 
Sir W. M. White at Constantinople supports the 
Bulgarian union .... Nov.-Dec. , 

Protocol signed by International Commission ; 
Pirot in Servia and Widclin in Bulgaria to be 
evacuated ; armistice to last till 1 March, 21 Dec. , 
The Powers in a collective note call upon the 
Balkan rulers to disarm ; refused by Greece and 
Servia ...... about 16 Jan. 18 

Virtual (not nominal) union of Eastern Boumelia 
with Bulgaria ; prince Alexander representing 
the Sultan, his suzerain, for five years ; Jan. ; 
Decree promulgated . . . . .2 Feb. , 

Peace between Bulgaria and Servia signed at 
Bucharest 3 March ; ratified 17 March ; by the 
Sultan 13 March, , 

Prince Alexander demands governorship for life, 
about 15 March, 1886 ; not agreed to . March, ,, 

The conference of powers at Constantinople; 
Turco-Bulgarian convention protocol nominating 
prince Alexander governor of Eastern Boumelia 
for five years signed 5 April, accepted with 
reservation by prince Alexander . 8 April, ,. 

Bulgarian assembly opened ; Eastern Roumelian 
deputies present 14 June ,, 

Conspiracy at Sofia, prince Alexander carried off 
a prisoner 21-23 Aug. ,. 

Provisional government formed by M. Zankoff 
and others 21 Aug. ,. 

Their proclamation disavowed by the army and 
people at Sofia, Philippopolis and other places . ,. 

A loyalist provisional government formed at 
Tirnova by StamboulofT and others, which issues 
manifesto in the prince's name . . 23 Dec. ,, 

The prince landed at Keni Russi in Russian 
Bessarabia ,, 

Conflicts between the people and the rebel soldiers 
protecting M. Zankoff „ 

The rebel government prisoners or fugitives 

25 Aug. ,, 

Return of prince Alexander ; triumphant reception 
at Rustchuk : he issues a proclamation, 29 Aug. 
1886; arrives at Philippopolis, 1 Sept., at Sofia 
3 Sept. M. Zankoff and others released ; prince 
Alexander submits to Russia, announces his 
intention to abdicate, 4 Sept. ; regency appointed 
Stambouloff, Mutkurott, and Karaveloff. 6 Sept. ,, 

Prince Alexander leaves Sofia with simple dignity, 
8 Sept. ; Sofia in a state of siege . . . . ,, 

The revolting soldiers degraded and officers arrested, 

about 8 Sept. „ 

Arrival of gen. Kaulbars as Russian agent, intimi- 
dating policy 25 Sept. ,, 

M. Tisza, Hungarian Prime Minister, declares for 
maintenance of the treaty of Berlin and Bulgarian 
independence 30 Sept. ,, 

M. Radoslavoft, premier, and ministry, firmly resist 
.general Kaulbars, 4 Oct. ; his mission in the pro- 
vinces unsuccessful Oct. „ 

Elections for the Sobran.je (Parliament) ; majority 
for the Regency (about 400 to 20), 78 Zankoffists 

10 Oct. „ 

Russian policy semi-officially abandoned, about 

18 Oct. ,, 

Gadban Effendi, Turkish Envoy, impugns the 
elections and requires delay of the meeting of the 
Sobranje ; resisted by the Regency . 20 Oct. ,, 

Russian war ships at Varna ; state of siege renewed 
at Sofia 28 Oct. „ 

The Sobranje opened ; the rebel officers released 

1 Nov. ,, 

Gen. Kaulbars threatens to retire if Russians are 
ill-treated ; 100 Russian sailors land at Varna 

1, 2 Nov. „ 

Captain Nabokoffs attempt to create an insurrection 
in favour of the Czar at Bourgas quickly sup- 
pressed 4 Nov. ,, 

Prince Waldemar of Denmark elected prince by the 
Sobranje 10 Nov. (declined 13 Nov.) ; resignation 
of the regent M. Karavelofi" 10 Nov. ; succeeded 
by M. Zivkotf 13 Nov. ,, 

Important speeches of the marquis of Salisbury 
(9 Nov.) and of count Kalnoky against Russian 
■■aggression 13 Nov. ,. 



Gen. Kaulbars' ultimatum unanswered ; he and 
Russian consuls quit Bulgaria . 20 Nov. et saj. 

Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg invited for 
election as prince by Bulgarian delegates 15 Dec. ; 
prince Nicholas of Mingrelia recommended by 
Russia 

The delegates (MM. StoilofT, Grekoff, and Caltcheff) 
visit various courts ; not received at St. Peters- 
burg ; received unofficially at Vienna and 
Berlin Dec. ; London (favorably) 29 Dec. 1886 ; 
Paris 9 Jan. ; Rome 18 Jan. ; Constantinople 

29 Jan. 

Military revolt at Silistria, col. Kristeff shot; 
quickly suppressed . . . I)2 March, 

Military insurrection at Rustchuk ; fighting, many 
killed and wounded 3 March ; suppressed by the 
militia and people 4 March ; several ringleaders 
executed 6 March ; many imprisoned 8-9 March. 

Sofia in a state of siege ; MM. Karaveloff, Nikoforoff 
and 22 others arrested 4 March ; released 6 April 

Reported execution of 14 rebels at Rustchuk 

11 March, 

M. Mantoff, prefect of Rustchuk, shot at at 
Bucharest , t March 

Prince Alexander definitively declines re-election 
about 12 June, 

Meeting of the Sobranje at Tirnova, 4 July; unani- 
mous election of Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg 
and Gotha as Prince 7 July ; he accepts cemdt 
tionally 8 July ; the ministers.and regency resign 
announced 9 July. M. Stoilotf forms a ministry 
12 July ; the regency on request withdraw resigna- 

„ tion about 14 Julv, 

Prince Ferdinand arrives at Tirnova, and signs the 
constitution, &c, and issues a proclamation; 
14 Aug. ; the Russian government protests' 
against this . . . . - . .15 Au<*. 

The prince well received at Philippopolis 21 Aug.* 
and at Sofia 22 Au<'! 

The Sultan declares prince Ferdinand's position 
illegal 22 Au „ 

Stambouloff forms a strong ministry . 1 Sept. 

Proposed mission of general Ernroth (Russian) 
opposed by the powers early . . . Sept. 

State of siege closed ; the opposition to the govern! 
ment active Sept. 

The Bulgaria publishes a libellous statement re- 
specting the German Consul, Herr Lijper, Au°-. ; 
contradiction published by intervention of the 
Bulgarian government, and the paper suppressed 
Sept. ; matter referred to the German govern- 
ment about 14 Sept. ; pacific settlementannounced 

Elections for the Sobranje ; majority for the 
ministry (260—32) ; riots at Plevna, suppressed 
with bloodshed, 10 killed . . . q Oct. 

Sobranje opened by the prince . . . ' 27 Oct' 

Insurrection at Eski-Zagra suppressed, 17 soldiers 
killed announced 16 Nov. 

Russian note to the Sultan and the powers declaring 
the illegality of prince Ferdinand's position! 
Russia supported by France and- Germany ; 
Austria, England and Italy maintain reserve : 
middle Feb. -March 1888 ; the Porte telegraphs 
to M. Stainbouloffthat prince Ferdinand's position 
is illegal, 6 March ; no answer returned . March 1 

Temporary resignation of the ministry, 13-24 June' 

Prince Ferdinand's first anniversary . 14 Aii»! 

M. Stambouloff reconstitutes his 'ministry, about 

22 DcC 

About 60 eminent men arrested by M. Stambouloff 
for petitioning the Exarch at Constantinople as 
favouring M. Zankoff . . . „_g p,^ } 

Death of Zaeharia Stoianoff, president of the So! 
branje, eminent patriot, at Paris . 15 Sept 

Prince Ferdinand visits Germany [M. Stambouloff 
appointed regent] 3 Qct 

The Russian prince Dolgoroukoff visits Sofia, in! 
trigues with the Zankoffists, and is expelled 

8-12 Oct. 

Loan of 25,000,000 francs at 6 per cent, obtained on 
the railways announced . . . 2Q Oct. 

Prince Ferdinand, after a successful tour, during 
which he visited Paris, 16 Oct,, Vienna, 27 Oct. ' 
returns to Sofia ; the parliament ope 1 3 Nov! ' 

Russian circular note to the powers stating that the 
terms of the loan are contrary to the treaty of 
Berlin ; this is denied by the Bulgarian govern- 



BULL. 



158 



BULLION. 



ment ; the loan fully subscribed for five or six 
times at Vienna, Berlin, &c Jan. 1890 

Major Panitza, a high army official, and six others 
arrested on a charge of plotting against the prince 
and government (in 1887 et seq.) . . 1 Feb. „ 

More arrests ; M. Stambouloff acts as prefect of 
police • • -7 Feb. „ 

Trial of major Panitza and 14 others, charged with 
conspiring to overthrow the government and 
assassinate prince Ferdinand and his ministers ; 
9 officers, 4 civilians, and capt. Kalobkoff, a 
Russian, also arraigned. Court martial opened 
15 May; sentences, major Panitza to be shot; 
capt. Kalobkoff nine years' imprisonment; lieut. 
Rifoff and M. Arnodoff six years, 4 officers three 
years, one man five months, the rest acquitted 
30 May ; sentences confirmed on appeal 19 June ,, 

Major Panitza* shot at Sofia ... 28 June „ 

The government sends a courteous but firm note to 
the Porte requesting the recognition of prince 
Ferdinand and religious autonomy to the Mace- 
donian Bulgarians 26 June ,, 

[Answer deferred, July, 1890.] 

3 Bulgarian bishops in Macedonia, appointed by the 
Porte about 3* Jlll Y >, 

Disapproved by the Greek patriarch, who resigns 
about 5 Aug. ,. 

Kalobkoff, the Russian intriguer, released and ex- 
pelled from Bulgaria about . . 25 Aug. „ 

Elections : great majority for the government, Sept. ,, 

The prince opens the Sobranje with a firm'speech 

27 Oct. ,. 

He is partially recognized by the Porte . 5 Feb. 1-891 

Detection of a plot by major Bendereff against the 
government, reported ... 17 March „ 

M. Beltcheff, minister of Finance, assassinated in 
the street in the presence of M. Stambouloft (for 
whom it was thought he was taken) about 8 p.m. 
27 March ; many arrests ... 28 March „ 

Connection with major Bendereffs conspiracy sus- 
pected, 28 March ; above 150 arrests up to April „ 

Archiepiscopal palace at Sofia searched by order of 
M Stambouloft'; documents and letters carried off 

30 Aug. „ 

The Sobranje votes by acclamation a pension of 
50,000 francs to prince Alexander of Battenberg 
(count Hartenau), reported . . 13 Dec. „ 

Rupture with France, on account of the expulsion 
of M. Chadourne, a journalist, accused of pub- 
lishing injurious intelligence . . is Dec. „ 

Rupture with France settled by explanation and 
apology, about ..... 21 Jan. 1895 

Dr. Vulkovitch, Bulgarian agent at Constantinople, 
stabbed 24 Feb. ; died . . . .26 Feb." „ 

Government note to the Porte complaining of plots, 
etc., delivered 13 April, „ 

Plot at Rustchuk; bombs discovered, 22 April; 
many arrests .... April, May, ,, 

The prince, during a tour, visits Britain, 30 May ; 
received by the queen at Balmoral, 6-8 June; 
leaves . . • ' • • • • " June > » 

PRINCE. 

Alexander (Joseph) I. (son of prince Alexander, 
uncle of Louis IV., grandduke of Hesse), born 
5 April, 1857 ; elected 29 April 1879 ; deposed 
(see above) 4th Sept. 1886 ; declines re-election 

12 June, 1887 

Ferdinand, duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, born 26 
Feb. 1861.; elected .... 7 July, ,, 

BULL, or Edict of the Pope. The bulla 

is properly the seal, either of gold, silver, lead, or 
-wax. On one side are the heads of Peter and Paul ; 
and on the other the name of the pope, and year of 
his pontificate. A bull against heresy was issued 
by Gregory IX. in 1231. Pius V. published a bull 
against Elizabeth, 25 April, 1570; in 1571 bulls 
were forbidden to be promulgated in England. The 
bull TJnigenitus (beginning with this word) against 
ihe Jans'enists was issued by Clement XL, 1713 ; 
confirmed by Benedict XIII., 1725. The Golden 

■* He was born at Tirnova, 1852, became an advocate ; 
he distinguished himself as leader of a volunteer band in 
the Servo-Bulgarian war, was favoured by prince Alex- 
ander and unwillingly submitted to prince Ferdinand. 



Bull of the emperor Charles IV., so called from its 
golden seal, was made the fundamental law of the 
German empire, at the diet of Nuremburg, 1356 ; 
see Brazen Bull. Pius IX. published an encyclical 
letter censuring modern errors, 8 Dec. 1864; see 
under Borne ; see Stocks. 

BULL-BAITING or Bull-Fighting, was 

an amusement at Stamford in the reign of John, 
1209; and at Tutbury, 1374. In the Sports of 
England, we read of the "Easter fierce hunts, when 
foaming boars fought for their heads, and lusty bulls 
and huge-bears were baited with dogs;" and near 
the Clink, London, was the Paris, or Bear Garden, 
so celebrated in the time of Elizabeth for the exhi- 
bition of bear-baiting, then a fashionable amuse- 
ment. A bill to abolish bull-baiting was thrown 
out in the commons, chiefly through the influence 
of Mr. William Windham, who made a speech in 
favour of the custom, 24 May, 1802. It was made 
illegal in 1835 ; see Cruelty to Animals. Bull- 
fights were introduced into Spain about 1260 : 
abolished there, " except for pious and patriotic 
purposes," in 1784. Bull-fights are very common in 
Spain. A bull- fight at Lisbon, attended by 10,000 
spectators, on Sunday, 14 June, 1840; one took 
place at Havre, 5 July, 1868. Somewhat theatrical 
fights with Spanish bulls, at the Agricultural Hall ? 
London, were stopped 28 March, 1870, for cruelty. 
At a bull-fight at Marseilles about 17 persons were 
killed, and 230 injured, by the fall of wooden stands, 
Sunday, 14 Aug. 1881. A bull-fight at Mmes (since 
prohibited), 12 June, 1884. 

A bull-fight at the Hippodrome, Pails, for sufferers 
by inundations in S. France, very successful ; no 
casualties, Spanish ambassador present . 16 Jan. 1887 

Bull-fights formed part of the entertainments at 
Paris during the universal exhibition in 1889 ; 
renewed with restrictions . . May et seq. 1890 

BULLETS of stone were in use, 1514. Iron 
ones are mentioned in the Fcedera, 1550. Leaden 
bullets were made before the close of the 16th 
century. The conoidal cup rifle-ball was invented by 
capt. Minie, about 1833 ; a modification of this 
(conoidal but without cup), by Mr. Pritchett (1853),, 
is used with the Enfield rifle. Other bullets have 
been since devised. 

BULLION, uncoined gold and silver. The 
'' Bullion Beport" of a parliamentary committee in 
1810, principally guided by Mr. Horner and Mr. 
(afterwards sir R.) Peel, established the conclusion,, 
that paper money is always liable to be over-issued, 
and consequently depreciated, unless it be at all 
times immediately convertible into gold. This prin- 
ciple has been adopted in British mono tar j arrange- 
ments, see Bank of England. 



VALUE OF BULLION IMPORTED 

Gold. 

1858, £22,793,126 

1868, 17,136,177 

1870, 18,806,728 

1874, 18,081,019 

1876, 23,475,975 

1877, 15,441,985 

1878, 20,871,410 

1879, 13,368,675 

1880 9,454,861 

1881 9,963,006 

1882 14,376,559 

1883 7,755,890 

1884 10,744,408 

1885 13,376,561 

1886 13,392,256 

1887 9>955>3 2 6 

1888 15,787.588 

1889 17,914,039 

1890 23,568,049 



INTO GREAT BRITAIN. 

Silver. 

£6,700,064 

7,716,41s 

10,648,940 

12,298,169 

13,578,269 

21,710,814 

11,551,545 
10,786,863 

6,799,022 
6,901,402 
9,242,925 
9,468,002 
9,633,495 
9,433,605 

7,471,639 
7,819,438 
6,213,940 
9,185,400 
10,385,659 



BULL-EUN BATTLES. 



159 



BUKIALS. 



BULL-BUN BATTLES, see Manassas. 

BULWEB - CLAYTON TEEATY, con- 
cluded 19 April, ratified 4 July, 1850, by which sir 
Henry Lytton Bui wer for the British, and Mr. Clay- 
ton for the American government, declared that 
neither should obtain exclusive control over the 
proposed ship canal through Central America, or 
erect any fortification on any part of the country. 
Disputes afterwards arose with respect to this 
treaty, and the connection of Great Britain with 
the Mosquito territory {which see), which were 
settled in 1857. 

Its abrogation was proposed by the Americans in 1880, 
. on account of De Lesseps' plan for a canal in Central 

America. 

BUNDSCHUH, see Jacquerie. 

BUNHILL - FIELDS (originally Bonhill- 
Field), a burial-ground near Finsbury-square, 
E. London, termed by Southey the " Campo Santo 
of the Dissenters ; " first used in 1665. Here were 
interred Thomas Goodwin (1679), John Owen (1683), 
Isaac Watts (1748), John Bunyan (1688), George 
Fox, the Quaker (1690), general Fleetwood, son-in- 
. law of Cromwell (1692), and Daniel De Foe (1731). 
Cunningham. An act for the preservation of the 
ground as an open space was passed, 15 July, 1867, 
and it was re-opened by the lord mayor, 14 Oct., 
1869 ; and a monument to De Foe, subscribed for 
hy boys and gills, was inaugurated, 16 Sept. 1870. 

BUNKER'S HILL, more properly Breed's 
hill (near Boston, U.S.). Here the British (nearly 
3000), after severe loss, compelled the revolted 
Americans (about 5000) to retreat, after a desperate 
conflict, 17 June, 1775. Kalph Faniham, who was 
present at the battle, died on 28 Dec. i860, aged 
104J years. He was introduced to the prince of 
/Wales when in America. Centenary of the battle 
celebrated June, 1875. 

BUONAPABTE, see Bonaparte. 

BUEFOED CLUB, the appellation given 
(according to Mr. Layer, the barrister, a conspira- 
tor, see Layer') by the Pretender and his agents to a 
pretended Jacobite club, of which lord Orrery was 
chairman, and lord Strafford, sir Henry Goring, 
earl Cowper, Mr. Hutcheson, the bishop of Rochester, 
sir Constantiue Phipps, general "Webb, lord Bingley, 
lord Craven, Mr. Dawkins, lord Scarsdale, lord 
Bathurst, Mr. Shippen, and lord Gower, were mem- 
bers. This story was set aside by the solemn decla- 
rations of lord Cowper and lord Strafford. The list 
of this club was published in the Weekly Journal, 
printed in "Whitefriars ; but when Eead, the printer, 
was ordered to appear at the bar of the house, he 
absconded. March, 1722. Salmon. 

.BUEGESSES, from the French Bourgeois, a 
distinction coeval in England with corporations. 
They were called to parliament in England, 1265 ; 
in Scotland in 1326 ; and in Ireland about 1365. 
Burgesses to be resident in the places they repre- 
sented in parliament, 1 Hen. V. (1413) ; see 
Borough. 

BUBGH, see Borough. Burgh Convention, 
see under Home Rule. 

BUEGHEES asd Anti-Buhghers. In 

1732 Ebenezer Erskine and others seceded from the 
church of Scotland. Differing in regard to the in- 
terpretation of the burgess oath, they divided into 
two sections with the foregoing names in 1747. In 
1820 they were reunited as the United Associate 
Synod of the Secession church, which, on 13 May, 
1847, joined the Relief church, together forming the 
United Presbyterian church. 



BUEGLAEY was a capital offence till 1829. 
Formerly he who convicted a burglar was exempted 
from parish offices, 1699; Statute of Rewards, 5 Anne, 
1706 ; and 6 Geo. I. 1720. Receivers of stolen plate 
and other goods to be transported, 10 Geo. III. 1770. 
Persons having upon them picklock-keys, &c.,'to be- 
deemed rogues and vagabonds, 13 Geo. III. 1772-3.. 
The laws with respect to burglary were amended by 
Mr. (afterwards sir Robert) Peel's acts between 1823; 
and 1829, and by the criminal laws of 1861. 
Burglaries and housebreaking in England and Wales,. 

1885-6, 3.545; 1886-7, 31852; 1888-9, 3,620; 1889-90'.! 

3.4°i- 
Capture of a gang of burglars with a large amount of 

stolen property at the Queen's Head tavern, Wharf road,. 

City road, London, 8 Nov. 1891. 
Frederick Clark and 7 others were convicted and sen- 
tenced to various terms of penal servitude, 18, 19 Jan.. 

1892. It was stated that they had been concerned in. 

86 burglaries. 

BUEGOS (Spain), the burial place of the Cid,. 
1099. Lord Wellington entered Burgos on 19 Sept- 
after the battle of Salamanca (fought 22 July, 1812) _ 
The castle was besieged by the British and allied 
army, but the siege was abandoned 21 Oct. same- 
year. The fortifications were blown up by the- 
French, 12 June, 1813. Population 1887, 31,301. , 

BUBGUNDY, a large province in France,, 
derives its name from the Burgundians, a Gothic- 
tribe who overran Gaul in 275, and were driven out 
by the emperor Probus : they returned in 287, and 
were defeated by Maximin. In 413 they established 
a Kingdom, comprising the present Burgundy,, 
large parts of Switzerland, with Alsace, Savoy, 
Provence, &e. Gondicar, their leader, the first 
king. It was conquered by the Franks, 534.— The- 
seconcl kingdom, consisting of a part ot the first,, 
began with Gontran, son of Clotaire I. of France, in, 
561. The kingdom of Aries, Provence, and Trans- 
jurane Burgundy, were formed out of the old king- 
dom.— Duchy. In 877 Charles the Bald made his. 
brother-in-law Richard the first duke of Burgundy. 
In 938, Hugh the Great, count of Paris, founder of 
the house of Capet, obtained the duchy. His de- 
scendant, Henry, on becoming king of France, con- 
ferred it on his brother Robert, in whose family it 
remained till the death of Philippe de Rouvre, 
without issue, in 1361. In 1363, king John of 
France made his fourth son, Philip, duke ; see- 
Austria and Germany. 

DUKES. 

1363. Philip the Bold ; marries Margaret, heiress of 
Flanders, 1369. 

1404. John the Fearless (son) ; joined the English inva- 
ders of France ; privy to the assassination of the- 
duke of Orleans in 1407 ; see Armagnac; himself 
assassinated at Montereau, in presence of the 
dauphin, Sept. 1419. 

1419. Philip the Good (son), the most powerful duke. 

1467. Charles the Bold ; married to Margaret of York 
sister to Edward IV., 9 July, 1468 ; invaded 
France, 1472 ; Switzerland, 1476 ; killed in an 
engagement with the Swiss, before Nancy, j. 
Jan. 1477. 

1477. Mary (daughter) ; married, 19 Aug. 1477, to Maxi- 
milian of Austria ; died, 27 March, 1482. 

1479. Louis XI. annexed Burgundy to France. The other- 
dominions fell to Austria. 

BUEIALS. Abraham buried Sarah at Mach- 
pelah, i860 B.C., Gen. xxiii. Places of burial wen 
consecrated under pope Calixtus I. in a.d. 210. 
Euscbius. The Greeks had their burial-places at a 
distance from their towns; the Romans near the 
highways; hence the necessity for inscriptions. 
The first Christian burial-place", it is said, was in- 
stituted in 596 ; burial in cities, 742 ; in conse- 
crated places, 750; in churchyards, 758. Many of 



BURKING. 



160 



BURMAH. 



the early Christians are buried in the catacombs at 
Rome ; see Catacombs, Cemeteries, and Dissenters. 
Vaults erected in chancels first at Canterbury . . 1075 
Woollen shrouds only permitted to be used in Eng- 
land 1666 

lainen scarfs introduced at funerals in Ireland, 
1729 ; and woollen shrouds used . . . . 1733 

Burials taxed 1635 

A tax enacted on burials in England — for the burial 
•of a duke $ol., and for that of a common person 
4s. — under Will. III. 1695, and Geo. III. . . . 1783 
Acts relating to Metropolitan burials passed . 1850-67 
Parochial registers of burials, births, and marriages, 
instituted in England by Cromwell, lord Essex, 
•about 1538. Stow. 
" Earth to earth" system of burial advocated by Mr. 
Seymour Haden ; wicker-coffins exhibited at Staf- 
ford-house . . .» . . -17 June, 1875 
Consecrated burial grounds in England, 13,673 ; 

closed, 1411 1877 

'Burials Act (permitting any Christian service in a 
jparish churchyard) passed . . .7 Sept. 1880 
See Dissenters. 

BURKING, a new species of murder, com- 
mitted in Britain, thus named from Burke, the first 
known criminal by whom it was perpetrated. His 
victims were killed by pressure or other modes of 
suffocation, and the bodies, which exhibited no 
marks of violence, were sold to the surgeons for 
•dissection. He was executed at Edinburgh, 28 
Jan. 1829. A monster named Bishop was appre- 
hended in Nov. 1 83 1, and executed in London 
5 Dec. with Williams, one of his accomplices, for 
the murder of a poor friendless Italian boy, named 
Carlo Ferrari. They confessed to this and other 
■similar murders. 

BURLINGHAME TREATY, promoted by 
Mr. Anson Burlinghame and a Chinese embassy, 
and signed at Washington 4 July, 1868. It autho- 
rised mutual immigration. California prospered 
through Chinese labour ; but depression in 1879-80 
led to a demand for its expulsion and abrogation of 
the treaty. 

BURLINGTON ARCADE, Piccadilly, 
opened 20 March, 1819. 

BURLINGTON FINE ARTS CLUB, for 

exhibiting works of art, and promoting intercourse 
between artists, amateurs, &c, founded 1867. 

BURLINGTON HEIGHTS. After a fierce 
contest here between the British and the United 
States American forces, 6 June, 1813, the British 
carried the heights. 

BURLINGTON HOUSE, Piccadilly, Lon- 
don, was built by Denham for lord Burlington, 
about 1664 ; and rebuilt by lord Burlington, the 
.architect, about 1731. It was bought for 140,000^. 
by the government, authorised by vote of the house 
of commons, on 27 July, 1854. It became the home 
of the Royal, Linnean, and Chemical societies in 
1857 (who occupied new rooms in 1873), and of the 
Antiquaries, Geological, and Royal Astronomical 
societies in 1873. In 1866, sites for buildings for 
the University of London and the Royal Academy 
were granted in the grounds of Burlington House. 
The entrance, colonnade, &c, were removed in 
1868, and the exhibition of the Royal Academy was 
first opened here 3 May, 1869. Burlington charity 
school near here, founded 1699. 

BURMAH, or BURMESE EMPIRE, 

founded in the middle of the 18th century by 
Alompra, the first sovereign of the last dynasty. 
Our first dispute with this formidable power in 1795 
was amicably adjusted by general Erskine. Hos- 
tilities were commenced by the British in 1824, and 
they took Rangoon on May n. The fort and 



pagoda of Syriam were taken in 1825. After a short 
armistice, hostilities were renewed, 1 Dec. same 
year, and pursued until the successive victories 
of the British led to the cession of Arracan, 
and to the signature of peace, 24 Feb. 1826. For 
the events of this war, and of the war in 1851, see 
India. Pegu was annexed to our Indian empire, 
20 Dec. 1852. The war ended 20 June, 1853. Popu- 
lation of Upper Burmah, reported in 1892, over 
3,000,000 ; Lower Burmah, nearly 4,750,000. 

Rebellion against the king (of Upper Burmah) 
suppressed by British aid . . about Sept. 1866 

Treaties with Great Britain . . 1862 and 25 Oct. 1867 

Burmese embassy in England, 6 June ; introduced 
to the queen 21 June, 1872 

The king Mindone suspected of inciting Chinese 
to attack British expedition to West China (see 
India) Feb. 1875 

Sir Douglas Forsyth's mission to the king ; arrives 
at Mandalay, 14 June ; submission of the king 
announced about 18 June ; he refuses permission 
for British troops to march as a convoy through 
his territories to China; sir D. Forsyth retires, 

June, ,, 

Col. Duncan sent to Mandalay . . about Aug. 

The king eventually acceded to the British de- ,, 
mands : announced Oct. ,, 

The king dies, about 5 Sept. ; announced 2 Oct. 1878 

His successor, Thebau (Wongyee prince of 
Thebau) kills many of the royal family and 
their friends Feb. 1879 

The British resident and others quit Mandalay 8 Oct. , , 

The king, attacked by small-pox, commits fresh 
atrocities 12 April, 1880 

Prince Nyoung's rebellion, May, June, suppressed ; 
he enters British territory . . 27 June, ,, 

Political massacres at Mandalay recommence, an- 
nounced 21 April, 1882 

Destructive fire at Mandalay, announced n April, 1883 

Another great fire 9 April, 1884 

Misgovernment ; massacres at Mandalay, 21 Sept. ; 
prospect of British intervention . . Oct. „ 

Town of Bhamo violently captured by the Chinese 

8-10 Dec. ,, 

Captain Terndrup of the steamer Kahbyor rescues 
missionaries and others . . . 12-13 Dec. u 

Treaty between France and Burmah signed at Paris 

15 Jan. 1885 

Bhamo recaptured by the Burmese about 16 March, ,, 

French negotiations with the king . . Oct. „ 

Dispute between the half mad king and the Bom- 
bay and Burmah Trading Association ; communi- 
cation from British commissioner dated 28 Aug. 
insolently rejected ; envoy not received ; the 
king refuses the arbitration of the viceroy of 
India ; the commissioner of British Burmah asks 
for 8,000 men .... about 13 Oct. „ 

Ultimatum sent by lord Dufferin requiring equitable 
settlement of the dispute ; reception of a British 
resident with a guard ; protection of British 
subjects, &c. ; rejection ; proclamation of war 
about 8 Nov. ; advance of the army under gen. 
Harry N. D. Prendergast . . .9 Nov. „ 

Burmese war steamer captured 16 Nov. ; Minhla 
and Gurgyong forts taken, 3 hours attack, 
lieut. Robt. A. Dury killed and 3 others 17 Nov. ,, 

The army advances ; Magwe captured 20 Nov. ; 
Pagan and Myingyan ... 28 Nov. „ 

The king sends flag of truce. ; agrees to surrender 
himself, his army, and Mandalay ; Ava forts 
occupied 27 Nov. ; gen. Prendergast enter 
Mandalay without resistance . . 28 Nov. ,, 

Native rioting with bloodshed quelled . Dec. ,, 

Sharp engagement at Nyadan, stockades taken 

2 Dec. ,, 

Great quietness in Mandalay . . . 9 Dec. ,, 

Dacoit pillaging outside Mandalay, Dec. ; sharp 
conflicts with several bands, and some officers 
killed Dec. 1885 ; Jan. 1886 

Thebau and court sent to Madras ; arrive 14 Dec. 1885 

Reported massacre of three servants of the Bombay 
and Burmah Co. at Kendat on the Chindwin 
river ... .... Nov. ,, 

Thebau's brother issues a proclamation against 
British rule ; arrival of Mr. Bernard establishing 
provisional government . . .18 Dec. ,, 



BUEMAH. 



161 



BUEMAH. * 



General Prendergast warmly received at Bhamo 
■-"A 28 Dec. 
Eebels defeated at Moutshobo by major William- 
son 29 Dec. 

Tynedah Mengyle, Thebau's minister, accused of 
murder, sent to Rangoon ; two pretenders to the 
throne appear with the Dacoits . . . Jan. 

Surgeon Heath killed 9 Jan. ; Alompra, a pretender, 

captured, Jan. ; tried and shot . . Feb. 

Burmese defeated at Kadol, 16 Jan. ; and at Kunnah ; 

36 rebels killed ; the rebel princes flee . 19 Jan. 

Insurgents defeated by major Williamson on the 

Mas river 27 Jan. 

.Lord Dufferin, the viceroy, arrives at Mandalay 12 

Feb. ; well received 13 Feb. ; leaves about 23 Feb. 

400 rebels surprised and defeated at Yindawango ; 

68 killed 18 March,' 

40 rebels killed near Zemethen. about 26 March, 

•General Prendergast leaves Mandalay . 31 March, 

Rebels defeated 5 April ; British repulsed 17 April, 

The Alompra pretender Myinzaing prince attempts 
to burn Mandalay ; the palace greatly injured 

15 April, 

•Successful expedition of col. Fitzgerald ; insurgent 
chiefs surrender May, 

Defeat of insurgents at Ngape by Mr. Phayre 6-7 
June ; Mr. Phayre killed . . .8 June, 

•Captain Dunsford killed in a conflict with 500 
Dacoits at Salen . . . . 12 June, 

Major Hailes repulsed with loss by the Burmese 
near Tummoo 19 June, 

British Burmah, including Aracan, Pegu, and 
Tenasserim, constituted 1862. Sir Arthur Phayre, 
"the able first commissioner, died 15 Dec. 1885. 
Upper Burmah annexed by proclamation of the 
viceroy, lord Dufferin, 1 Jan. 1886 (the Shan states 
partially independent). Upper and Lower 
Burmah united in one province under Mr. C. 
Bernard as chief commissioner Feb. 1886 ; he 
issues a pacific proclamation 6 March ; he assumes 
office at Mandalay 12 March ; all Burmah included 
in British India by decree . . .15 May, ,, 

Increase of dacoity in Upper and Lower Burmah ; 
two additional regiments and four commissioners 
ordered to be sent to Burmah . . July, ,, 

The Myentzeen prince offers 200I. for sir C. Bernard's 
head 13 July, ,, 

Gonvention with China ; many concessions ; signed 
at Pekin 24 July, „ 

Lieut. Huggins defeats insurgents who lose 150 
killed and wounded 26 July, ,, 

Several sharp engagements ; major Aitkinson 
killed 1 Aug. „ 

Reinforcements ordered from India . . Aug. ,, 

Sharp engagement at Lazay near Isagain 9 Aug. ,, 

Inundation of Mandalay by the Irrawaddy ; great 
loss of life and property 16 Aug. Subsiding 

25 Aug. „ 

Serious fighting 16 Sept. „ 

General Macpherson, commander-in-chief, arrives 
at Mandalay 17 Sept. ; dies of fever on the Irra- 
waddy near Prome 20 Oct. ; succeeded by general 
sir Frederick Roberts ... 21 Oct. „ 

Minhla burnt by the rebels ... 2 Nov. ,, 

Several skirmishes ; British successful with some 
loss of officers .... .9-14, 21 Nov. „ 

General sir Frederick Roberts arrives at Mandalay 

18 Nov. ,, 

Colonel Holt captures position at Puzan Myang ; 
leader of the rebels, Thamban, and his son killed 

23 Nov. ,, 
Conflict near Pakoka ; col. Gatacre and Bombay 

lancers disperse the rebels . . .12 Dec. „ 
Expeditions against Boshway and Hla-Oo, dacoit 
chiefs ; their strongholds captured and bands 
dispersed by gen. Low and major Symonds 

Nov. -Dec. ,, 
Dacoits defeated in skirmishes . . 10-12 Dee. „ 
In a proclamation the Bhuddist archbishop re- 
commends submission to Great Britain about 

31 Dec. ,, 
Attack on Boshway's camp ; he escapes ; announced 

24 Jan. 1887 
General Roberts after great success leaves Burmah ; 

succeeded by general Arbutlmot . . Feb. „ 

Band of dacoits repulsed by Hyderabad cavalry 

after hard fighting . . announced 8 Feb. ,, 
TheQueen'sjubileecelebratedatManclalayi5-i6Feb. „ 



Woontho Tsawbwa, an important chief, submits 
about 5 March, 
Death of Hla-Oo reported. . . . April, 
Numerous petty fights ; dacoits defeated . March, 
Boshway's party defeated, he escapes 9 March, 

Col. Dance defeats dacoits . . .22 March, 
Successful skirmishes with the dacoits . April, 
Octama defeated with loss of 23 men . 20 April, 
Dacoits defeated by Madras lancers in Toundwingee 

district 23 April, 

Skirmishes at Sidotia ; captain A. W. Rendle killed 

30 April ; renewed skirmishes . . 2-4 May, 

The Limbin prince, the last legitimate Alaungpaa 

prince, surrenders .... 23 May, 

Desultory war with dacoits. . . . June, 

New roads and a railway constructing . Sept. 

Camp near Chindwin captured ; major Kennedy 

and captain Beville killed, and about 50 dacoits 

16 Oct. 
Discontent in Mandalay through taxation, &c. Nov. 

1887 ; quietness restored .... Jan. : 

About 20,000 effective military police established in 

Burmah ; renewed fighting . . . Jan. 

Mr. Chan-Toon, a Burmese, as a law student in the 

Middle Temple gains all the principal prizes, June 

Boh Sway and many followers killed, announced 

27 July, 
Dacoits defeated and two of their chiefs killed 

25 Oct. 
Victorious conflicts of gen. Collett with native 

chiefs ; many of the enemy killed . 1 Jan. 1 
The dacoits defeated in several conflicts . Jan. 
Sawlon captured by gen. Collett . . 9 Jan. 

Rebel position near Popa stormed by the Rifle 
Brigade under major Francis Howard g Feb. 

Railway to Rangoon formally opened at Mandalay 

27 Feb. 
Khama, the capital of the Lepu Kachyens, and 17 
villages _ destroyed by the British troops, an- 
nounced" 9 March, 

Gen. Wolseley's expedition against the Phunkan 
Tsawbwa starts 13 April ; he captures a village, 
18 April ; returns to Bhamo, May ; Dacoits 
very active, successful in some severe conflicts 

April-May, 

A great fire at Mandalay, 450 houses burnt 11 May 

Mr. Dyson, assistant commissioner, and others, 

killed in an unsuccessful attack upon the Dacoits 

reported 2 June 

Savage tribes beyond the frontier of Burmah 
Proper ; incited by rebel Burmese chiefs ; re- 
duced to submission by the police and military 

Jan.-June, 
Frequent engagements with bands of Dacoits 

June-July, 

Rebel chief Boh Kyee Tha defeated and killed and 

arms captured by Rifle Brigade Mounted Infantry 

under lieuts. K. J. Mackenzie and H. G. Magendie 

23 July 
Mr. C. A. MacDonnell appointed chief commis- 
sioner in the absence of sir C. Crosthwaite, an- 
nounced 3 Aug. 

Gen. Gordon at Mandalay organizing an expedition 
against the Chins and other border tribes about 

22 Sept. 
Improved condition of the country under sir C. 
Crosthwaite's administration reported . Sept. 
Successful attacks on the Chins by capt. Gookhas 
16, 17, 19 Oct. 
The Mingoon prince on the frontiers . . 3 Nov. 
Interned by the French at Saigon . Nov. 

Prince Albert Victor of Wales at Rangoon, 20 Dec. ; 

at Mandalay 24 Dec. 

Three Chin villages destroyed by British . Dec. 
Mr. Mu'Donnell retires after successful government 

Dec. 
Repulse of the attack of the Chins on the British 
advanced camp, a stockade captured and de- 
stroyed reported 30 Dec. 

Lowsaing captured 15 Jan. 1 

Dacoits very troublesome; destructive attack of 
rebels on Sandoway, Arracan coast, repulsed by 

police reported 22 Fell. 

The Dacoits burn Kangyi, chastised by police, re- 
ported 2 March, 

Conspiracy to b n ni Mandalay and set Moungba, an 
Alompra pre<i>nder, on the throne, discovered, 

and arrests made 9 March, 

M 



BURMAH. 



162 



BURNING THE DEAD. 



Major Blundell's expedition from Bhamo, to punish 
Kan Hlaing, chief of the Swesaing Tonhon Kach- 
yens, for raids on British territories, and for 
harbouring the Alhompra pretender Sawyauni. 
Starts 15 Dec, severe fighting 23 Dee., after 
further successes the expedition returned to 
Bhamo April, 18 

Gen. Gordon (successful) relinquishes his command ; 
succeeded by "brigadier Wolseley . . June, ,. 

Many Dacoit gangs surrender, two eminent chiefs 
captured, reported .... 21 June, , 

Boh Yanyun, a Dacoit leader, surrenders to Mr. 
M'Donald, his life being assured . . July , 

Many intercessions for him, 9 Aug. ; transported 
for life about 23 Aug. , 

Great floods, Mandalay in danger, about . 9 Aug. , 

Gen. "Wolseley concludes peace with the Sinyin 
Chins ; tribute paid, and prisoners exchanged, 
reported 2 Sept. , 

Mr. (aft. sir) Alex. Mackenzie appointed to succeed 
sir C. Crosthwaite as chief Commissioner, re- 
ported 31 Oct. ; arrives at Rangoon . . 3 Dec. , 

In Upper Burinah Kanlaing, a rebel chief with a 
large following, appears at Manwaing about 3 Dec. , 

Mr. Wetherell, political officer, killed by the Chins 
in an ambush, at Yokwa ... 21 Dec. , 

Dacoit raids and murders reported about 24 Dec. ,. 

A strong punitive force sent against the Chins and 
others, reaches Thetta ; after a repulsed attack, 
Thetta surrenders ; lieut. James and two men 
killedabout 2 Jan. 18 

Expedition against the Shan state, Momeik, to 
punish outrages, about 17 Jan. fighting ; a village 
burnt, many natives killed and wounded about 

28 Jan. ,, 

Major Nixon, lieut. Jameson, adjutant and two 
Sepoys killed by a mad Pathan at Fort Stedman 
in the Shan States . . . '. . n Feb. ,, 

The Kanhow chiefs chastised for raids ; submit ; 
restore captives and pay fines to capt. Rundall ; 
five villages attacked and destroyed, reported 

15 Feb. „ 
Insurrection in "Wuntho, a frontier state ; pretended 
objections to the railway ; capt. Smith present 
with 400 Europeans ; reinforcements ordered ; 
arrive ...... 19 Feb. ,, 

Proclamation issued, deposing the. Tsawbwa of 
Wuntho for his attacks, and annexing his territory 

22 Feb. ,, 
Gen. Wolseley takes the command in Wuntho, 26 

Feb. ; the rebels at Okpho attacked, above 50 
killed, arms and ammunition captured . ,, 

British force at Kawlin, 600 men (200 Europeans) ; 
capt. Hastings punishes the Panchaung Chins for 
their raids, destroying villages, &c, reported 

23 Feb. ,, 
Wuntho occupied by Major Smyth, without oppo- 
sition, 25 Feb. ; the villagers lay down their arms ; 
the Tsawbwa flies ; his palace burnt ; capt. Alex. 
Hutchinson defeats rebels near Okhau, after five 
hours' fighting [he died of his wounds] ; Kanhoco 
chiefs, raiders, submit about . . 25 Feb. ,, 

The Tsawbwa solicits pardon, which is promised on 
speedy surrender, but not re-instatement, about 

27 Feb. ,, 

More villages surrender about . . . 27 Feb. ,, 

Gen. Stedman leaves for England ; in four years he 
created an effective army of military police (about 
20,500) . 28 Feb. ,, 

The Kanhow Chins subdued by capt. Rundall, 
surrender captives and pay fine's . . 24 Feb. ,, 

Gen. Wolseley holds a durbar at Wuntho, well 
attended, British flag hoisted . . 3 March, „ 

Advance of gen. Wolseley and col. Macgregor into 
the Wuntho territory ; the two Tsawbwas retreat, 
reported 11 March „ 

Several fights with the Chins, with casualties re- 
ported 6 April „ 

Disturbances on the trade route between Bahmo 
reported 9 April „ 

Gen. Wolseley returns to Mandalay, the campaign 

ended '. 4 May „ 

Alarming deficiency of rain in Upper Burmah, Arig.'; 
fall of rain in some places, Sept. ; investigation 
by sir A. Mackenzie ; his minute published 15 
Sept.; relief works begun, parly Sept ; prospects 
improved Oct. ,, 



Gen. Wolseley transferred to Belgaum . . Nov. 1891 
Boh Le, a Dacoit leader, killed, and his band cap- 
tured or dispersed by lieut. Magrath, assistant- 
commandant at Katha, reported . . 31 Dec. ,,. 
Major Yule captures Sadon after two days' lighting 

6 Jan. 189K 
Successful operations of lieut. Macnabb in the Chin 

country Jan. ,,, 

Severe fighting in Upper Burmah ; the Kachms 
repulsed in their attack on Sadon by lieut. 
Harrison ; successful advance of major Yule 

19 Feb. et seq. , r 
[Sadon re-named Fort Harrison.] 
Joined by capt. Davies at Sadon, about 25 Feb; ,.. 
Continued fighting at Sadon . . 28 Feb. etseq. lr . 

[Kachins, a warlike but not intractable tribe, in- 
habiting the hilly tracts east of head waters of the- 
Irrawaddy in Upper Burmah, adjoining Chinese- 
provinces.] 

Boh Minlaung, famous Arracan Dacoit, captured at 
Kudoung about 26 Feb. ; sentenced to death with 

others about 14 March, ,. 

Mr. Chan Toon, a Burmese barrister, made a judge 

about 28 Feb. , P 

Falam, headquarters of the Tashons, occupied by 

the British about . . 17 March, ,,. 

Great fire at Mandalay, destroying the telegraph 
office and a large part of the city ; estimated loss 
i,ooo,oooL ..... 30-31 March ,,. 
Sentence of death upon the Minlaung prince and 

others confirmed .... 30 March r 
Sir A. Mackenzie ill, leaves for England ; Mr. F. W. 

Fryer appointed deputy . . [ about May, ,,. 
Famine greatly relieved .... May, ,, 

BURNETT PRIZES, to be awarded every 
40 years to the authors of the two best essays on 
" The evidence that there is a Being all powerful,, 
wise, and good, by whom everything exists, &c," 
were founded by Mr. Burnett, a "Scottish gentleman,, 
who died 1784, bequeathing moneys for the pur- 
pose. Various amounts have been paid to Dr> 
W. L. Brown, to rev. J. B. Sumner, afterwards- 
archbishop of Canterbury, 1815; to rev. R. A.- 
Thompson, and to Dr. J. Tulloch, 1855; Prof_ 
G. G. Stokes, 1885. The establishment of a Bur- 
nett lectureship in Aberdeen by the trustees (the- 
lecturer to be chosen in 1883) was sanctioned Aug. 
1880. Prof. "VV. Robertson Smith's lectures on the 
" Eeligion of the Semites," were published in 1889-.. 

BURNHAM BEECHES, Bucks, the pictu- 
resque remains of an ancient forest, were purchased 
for public use by the corporation of London in? 
1879. Dedicated 3 Oct. 1883. 

BURNING ALIVE was inflicted among the- 
Romans, Jews, and other nations, and was counte- 
nanced by bulls of the pope; see Witches. Many- 
persons have been burned alive as heretics. Sir 
William Sawtre, priest of St. Osyth, London,, 
suffered 12 Feb. 1401 . In the reign of Mary num- 
bers were burned ; see Protestants. Elizabeth 
Gaunt, an Anabaptist, was burnt at Tyburn for 
treason (concealing rebels under Monmouth), 23 
Oct. 1685. 

BURNING THE DEAD was practised 
among the Greeks and Romans, and Homer gives- 
descriptions. It was very general about 1225 B.C.,. 
and was revived by Sylla about 78 B.C. It is still 
practised in parts of the East Indies, and has been 
advocated in this country by the eminent surgeon, 
sir Henry Thompson, and others, 1873 ; see Sitttees T 
Barrows. 
Professor L. Brunetti exhibited his plan and results 

at the Vienna exhibition 

Cremation societies founded in London, Vienna, and 

Berlin, &c 13 Jan. 

The corpse of the wife of sir Charles Dilke, with 

coffin, burnt at Dresden : ashes about 61b. 10 Oct. 
A crematorium erected at Milan, Jan. 1883 ; in 

Paris . . 



i873 
1874 



BURNING-GLASS. 



163 



BUTE ADMINISTRATION. 



Cremation increasing at Rome .... 1834 

Mr. Justice Stephen decides that it is legal, March, ,, 

The erection of a crematorium at Woking stopped 
by authorities, summer 1879; afte.rvvf.rds per- 
mitted and first used, 26 March, 1885 ; again 21 
Oct. 1885 ; and 25 Jan. 1886 ; and others occa- 
sionally. 

Dr. Cameron's bill for the regulation of cremation 
rejected by the commons (149-79), 3° April, 
1884. 

The Cremation society of England in Feb. 1892, reported 
that at Woking there had been 3 cremations in 1885 ; 
10 in 1886 ; 13 in 1887 ; 28 in 1888 ; 46 in 1889 ; 54 in 
1890 ; in 1S91, 99. Among these were that of the 
marquis of Ely, 13 April, 1889; sir Tinlal Robertson, 
M.P., 10 Oct. 1889 ; baron Huddlestone, 11 Dec. 1S90 ; 
Mr. A. W. Kinglake, 8 Jan. 1891 ; the duke of Bedford, 
16 Jan. 1891 ; lord Bramwell, 13 May, 1892. 

Cremation said to be greatly increasing in France and 
Italy, 1890. 

International Cremation Conference at Berlin, 4 Aug. 
1890. 
Similar societies formed in Great Britain. 

BURNING-GLASS and Concaye Mir- 
rors. Their power was known to Archimedes, 
and it is mythically stated that by their aid he burnt 
a fleet in the harbour of Syracuse, 214 B.C. Their 
powers were increased by Settalla ; Tschimhausen, 
1680 ; Buffon, 1747 ; and Parker and others more re- 
cently. The following experiments were made about 
1800, with Mr. Parker's lens or burning mirror, 
which cost 700^., and is said to have been the 
largest ever made. It was sold to capt. Mackenzie, 
who took it to China, and left it at Pekin. 
Substances fused. Weight. Time. 

Pure gold 20 grains 4 seconds. 

Silver 20 ,, 3 ,, 

Copper . 33 „ 20 ,, 

Platina 10 „ 3 ,, 

Cast iron (a cube) - . . . 10 „ 3 „ 

Steel 10 ,, 12 ,, 

A topaz 3 „ 45 „ 

An emerald 2 „ 25 ,, 

A crystal pebble 7 „ 6 ,, 

Flint 10 ,, 30 ,, 

Cornelian 10 „ 75 ,, 

Pumice stone 10 ,, 24 

Green wood takes fire instantaneously ; water boils im- 
mediately ; bones are calcined ; and things not ca- 
pable of melting at once become red-hot, like iron. 

BURSE, see Exchange. 

BURTON CRESCENT, London. Here Mrs. 
Kachael Samuel, a widow living alone, was mur- 
dered in the night II Dec. 1878. No robbery. 
Mary Donovan, a charwoman, was arrested and 
discharged, 10 Jan. 1879. In a house here also, 
Mary Ann Yates was found murdered, 9 March, 
1884. 

BURWELL FIRE. A number of persons 
assembled to see a puppet-show in a barn at Bur- 
well, near Newmarket, 8 Sept. 1727. A candle 
having set fire to a heap of straw, seventy-six indi- 
viduals perished, and others died of their wounds. 

BURY ST. EDMUND'S, Suffolk, named 
from St. Edmund, king of East Anglia, who was 
murdered by the Danes on 20 Nov. 870, and buried 
here, and to whose memory its maguiticent abbey 
was founded. Magna Charta was prepared here by 
the barons on 20 Nov. 12 14. Henry VI. summoned 
a parliament in Feb. 1447, when Humphry, duke 
of Gloucester, was imprisoned, and- died here, it is 
supposed by poison. It was almost consumed by 
fire in 1608, and was desolated by plague in 1630. 
Population 1881, 1 6, 1 1 1 ; 1891, 16,630. 

BURYING ALIVE. In Bccotia, Creon 
ordered Antigone, the sister of Polyniccs, to be 
buried alive, 1225 B.C. The Roman vestals were 
subjected to it for any levity that excited suspicion 



of their chastity. The vestals buried alive on a 
charge of incontinence, were Minutia, 337 B.C. ; 
Sextilla, 274 B.C. ; Cornelia, a.d. 92. Lord Bacon 
gives instances of the resurrection of persons who 
had been buried alive ; Duns Scotus being of the 
number. The two assassins of Capo d'Istria, presi- 
dent of Greece, were sentenced to be immured in 
brick w r alls built around them up to their chins, 
and to be supplied with food in this species of tor- 
ture until they died, Oct. 1831. 

BUSACO, or BlTZACO (Portugal). Here the 
British, under lord Wellington, repulsed the French 
under Massena, 27 Sept. 1810. The latter lost one 
general and 1000 men killed, two generals and about 
3000 men wounded, and several hundred prisoners; 
the loss of the allies did not exceed 1300; the 
British retreated to the lines of Torres Vedras, too 
strong for Massena to force, and the armies re- 
mained in sight of each other to the end of the 
year. 

BUSHEL. This measure was ordered to con- 
tain eight gallons of wheat, 12 Henry VIII., 1520 ; 
the legal Winchester bushel was regulated 9 Will. 
III. 1697; the impeiial corn bushel of 22i8 - ig2 
cubic inches is to the Winchester of 2150-42 as 32 
to 31. Regulated by act 5 Geo. IV., June, 1824, 
which act came into operation r Jan. 1826. 

BUSHIRE (on the Persian Gulf) , attacked by sea 
by sir H. Leeke, and by land by general Stalker, was 
taken 10 Dec. 1856. The place proved stronger than 
was expected, and was braveby defended. Brigadier 
Stopford and col. Malet were killed in a previous 
attack on the fort at lleshire, 9 Dec. The loss of 
the British was four officers killed, and one 
wounded ; five men killed, and thirty-five wounded. 

BUSHRANGERS, Australian highwaymen, 
formerly escaped convicts. Morgan, a desperate 
robber and murderer, was surrounded and shot 
April, 1865. The "Kelly gang" seized and pillaged 
the town of Jerilderie, New South Wales, 8-10 
Feb. 1879. Ned Kelly and some of his gang were 
captured and taken to Melbourne, 27, 28 June. 
1880. 

BUSSORAH, see Bassorah. 

BUSTS. Lysistratus, the statuary, was the 
inventor of moulds, from which he cast wax 
figures, about 328 B.C. Pliny. Busts fiom the face in 
plaster of paris, were first taken by Andrea Verrochi, 
about a.d. 1466. Smaller busts and statuettes are 
now accurately produced from larger ones by 
niachinery. 

BUTCHERS. Among the Romans there were 
three classes : the Suarii provided hogs, the Boarii 
or Pccuarii oxen and sheep, which the Lanii or Carni- 
fices killed. The butchers' company in London is 
ancient, though not incorporated till 1606. 

BUTE ADMINISTRATION. John earl 
of Bute,* tutor of prince George (afterwards George 
III.), formed an administration in May, 1762, 
which, after various changes, resigned 8 April, 1763. 
It. was severely attacked by Junius and John 
AVilkes. 

John carl of Bute, first lord of the treasury. 
Sir Francis Dashwood, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Earl Grenville, president of the council. 
Duke of Bedford, prwy seal. 
Earl of Halifax, admiralty. 
Earl of Egremont and George Granville, secretaries of 

state. 

* John Stuart, carl of Bute, born 171^; secretary "f 
state, March, 1761 ; prime minister, May, 1762; died 
io March, 1792. 

M 2 



BITTTEK. 



164 



BYZANTIUM. 



Lord Ligonier, ordnance. 

Henry Fox, afterwards lord Holland, paymaster of the 

forces. 
Viscount Barrington, treasurer of the navy. 
Lord Sandys, first lord of trade. 
Duke of Marlborough, earl Talbot, lord Huntingdon, 

lord Anson, lord North, &c. 

BUTTER is said to have been used by the 
Arabs in early times, but not by the Greeks and 
Komans, who had excellent oil. It is not men- 
tioned as food by Galen a.d. 130-200. It has long 
been used by northern nations. Various statutes 
have passed respecting its package, weight, and sale; 
the principal of which are the 36th & 38th Geo. III. 
and 10 Geo. IV. 1829. In Africa, vegetable butter 
is made from the fruit of the shea tree, and is of 
richer taste, at Kebba, than any butter made from 
cow's milk. Mungo Park. The import duties of 
5*. per cwt. on foreign butter (producing in 1859, 
104,587/. on 421,354 cwts.) was repealed in i860. 
Butter imported, 1846, 257,385 cwt. ; 1856, 513,392 
cwt.; 1866, 1,165,081 cwt.; 1870, 1,159,210 cwt.; 
1874, 1,619,808 cwt. ; 1876, 1,659,492 cwt. ; 
1877, 1,637,403 cwt. ; 1885. 2,401,373 cwt. ; 1887, 
(butter) 1,513,134 cwt.; (margarine) 1,276, I40cwt.; 
1888 (butter), 1,671,433 cwt. ; (margarine) 1,139,743 
cwt. ; 1889 (butter), 1,927,842 cwt. ; (margarine) 
1,241,690 cwt.; 1890 (butter), 2,027,717 cwt.; 
(margarine) 1,079,856 cwt. 

Butterine, a composition of fats as a substitute for 
butter, sold in London 1885, and declared to be 
wholesome by eminent chemists. Bills to change 
the name to oleomargarine, and check its sale, 
brought in and withdrawn 1885-6. The Butterine 
Defence Association formed 1886. 

By the Margarine Act, 1887, butterine and other sub- 
stances like butter must be termed margarine on and 
after 1 Jan. 1888. The term "butter" is restricted to 
the product of milk or cream or both by this Act. 

Butter manufactured from cocoa-nuts in Mannheim, &c, 
coming into use, 1888 ; much imported into India, 
from whence the nuts are largely brought, 1889 et seq. 

The manufacture of Le Dansk, a new substitute for 
butter, begun at Southampton 31 Oct., 1891. 

BUTTONS, an early manufacture in England ; 
those covered with cloth were prohibited, to en- 
courage the manufacture of metal buttons, 8 Geo. I. 
1 721. Buttons largely employed to ornament 
ladies' dresses, 1873 et seq. 

BUXAR, a town in Bengal, near which, on 
23 Oct. 1764, major, afterwards sir Hector Monro 
(with 857 Europeans and 6215 Sepoys) gained a 
great victory over the troops of the nabob of Oude, 
&c, 50,000 in number; 6000 of these were killed, 
and 130 pieces of cannon were taken. The loss of 
the English was trifling. 

BY-LAWS, or Bye-Laws, private ordi- 
nances, made by subordinate communities, such as 
corporations. These laws must not militate against 
the law of the land. By 5 & 6 Will. IV. 1834, 
those made by corporate bodies become valid, if net 



disallowed by the king's council within forty days 
after their enactment. 

BYE PLOT (also termed Surprise or Sur- 
prising Plot), planned by George Brooke, brother 
of lord Cobham, sir Griffin Markham, lord Grey of 
Wilton and two Bomanist priests, to seize James I. 
to compel him to change his ministers and to grant 
toleration of their religion, &c. The conspirators, 
were apprehended July, 1603. This plot was con- 
nected with the " Main plot, which see. 

BYNG, Hon. Admiral John, was charged 

with neglect of duty in an engagement with the 
enemy off Minorca, 20 May, 1756, condemned for 
an error of judgment, and shot on board the 
Monarch at Spithead, 14 March, 1757. 

BYRON'S VOYAGE. Commodore Byron 
left England on his voyage round the globe, 21 
June, 1764, and returned 9 May, 1 766. He dis- 
covered the populous island in the Pacific Ocean 
which bears his name, 16 Aug. 1765. Though 
brave and intrepid, such was his general ill-foi tune 
at sea, that he was called by the sailors of the fleet 
" Foulweather Jack." 

BYRON NATIONAL MEMORIAL. Its 

erection determined on, at a meeting in London, 
16 July, 1875; M 1 '- Disraeli in the chair. Abcu v ' 
3,000/. were subscribed. 'J 'he statue by Richard 
Claude Belt, placed on a pedestal near Hamilton- 
place, Hyde-park, was uncovered privately by lord 
Houghton, 24 May, 1880. A marble pedestal was 
promised by the Greeks. 

BYTOWN, Canada, was named after col. By, 
the British surveyor, 1823-6. In 1854 its name 
was changed to Ottawa, after the river on which it 
is situated, and in 1858 it was made the capital of 
the Dominion. See Ottawa. 

BYZANTIUM, now Constantinople, and 
Stamboid, in the ancient Thrace, founded by a 
colony of Megarians, under Byzas, 667 B.C. ; but 
various dates and persons are given. It was taken 
successively by the Medes, Athenians, and Spar- 
tans. In 340 B.C., in alliance with the Athenians, 
the Byzantines defeated the fleet of Philip of 
Macedon. During the wars with Macedon, Syria, 
&c, it became an ally of the Romans, by whom it 
was taken, a.d. 73. Rebelling, it was taken after 
two years' siege, and laid in ruins b} r Severus in 
196. It was refounded by Constantine in 324, and 
dedicated on 22 May, 330, all the heathen temples 
being destroyed ; and from him it received its name ; 
see Constantinople. Byzantine Art flourished 
from the time of Constantine to about 1204. The 
Byzantine or Eastern empire really commenced 
in 395, when Theodosius divided the Roman em- 
pire; see East. The "Byzantine Historians," 
from 325 to 1453, were published at Paris, 1645- 
1711 ; and at Venice, 1722-33. 



c. 



__ CAABA. 

CAABA, the shrine of the sacred black stoue, 
kept in a temple at Mecca, and venerated by the 
Arabs, long before the Christian era. Its guardians, 
the tribe of Koreish, were defeated by Mahomet, 
by whose followers it is still venerated. 

CABAL. In English history the term has 
been applied to the cabinet of Charles II. 1667-73 ; 
the word Cabal being formed from the initials of 
then- names : sir Thomas, afterwards lord Clifford 
(C) ; the lord Ashley (A), (afterwards earl of 
Shaftesbury) ; George Villiers, duke of Bucking- 
ham (B) ; Henry, lord Arlington (A) ; and John, 
duke of Lauderdale (L). The term had been pre- 
viously applied to a secret faction or cabinet. 

CABBAGES. Some new kinds were brought 
to England from Holland about 1510, it is said by 
sir Arthur Ashley of Dorset, and introduced into 
Scotland by Cromwell's soldiers. 

CABBALA, a Jewish system of philosophy or 
theosophy, deriving its name from a Hebrew word, 
signifying reception or tradition, said to have been 
given by God to Adam, and transmitted from father, 
to son by his descendants. It is said to have been 
lost at the Babylonian captivity (587 B.C.), but to 
have been revealed again to Ezra. Its supporters 
assert that the cabbalistic book " Sohar," or 
" Splendour," a mystic commentary on the Penta- 
teuch, was first committed to writing by Simon 
Ben Jochai, a.d. 72-110. The true date of the books 
containing the cabbala is now considered to range 
from 9th to the 14th centuries, and their origin to 
be the mingling of talmudism with the Greek 
philosophy termed Neo-Platonism. Some of their 
dogmas are akin to Christian tenets, such as the 
trinity, the incarnation, &c. The cabbala exercised 
much influence upon the mental development of 
the Jews, and even captivated the greatest thinkers 
of the 1 6th and 17th centuries. 

CABEIRA (Asia Minor). Here Mithridates, 
king of Pontus, was defeated by Lucullus, 71 B.C. 

CABINET COUNCIL. There were councils 
in England as early as the reign of Ina, king of 
the West Saxons, 690; Ori'a, king of the Mercians, 
758 ; and in other reigns of the Heptarchy. State 
councils are referred to Alfred the Great. Spel- 
man ; see Administrations.* 

CABLES. A machine was invented in 1792 
for making them, by which human labour was re- 
duced nine-tenths. . Chain cables were introduced 
into the British navy about 1812; directions for 
testing them enacted, 1S64, and 1874. 

C ABOCHIENS, an armed Burgundian faction, 
including 500 butchers, named from their leader 
Simonet Caboche, a skinner, 1412. They ruled 
Paris with violence, and constrained the doctors of 
the Sorbonne to become their allies and the dau- 
phin to recognise them as the "White Hoods," and 
reformers. They were exterminated by the citizens, 
in 1418. 

* Cabinet Noir, or " Dark Closet," the chamber in 
which letters entrusted to the French post were opened 
for state purposes. The system, which began with 
Louis XL, was organised under Louis XV. ; :iml is said 
to have been discontinued in 1868. The Spanish govern- 
ment have a similar system — " Gabinete negro." 



CADDEE. 

CABEIOLETS {vulgo Cabs), one-horsed 
vehicles, were introduced into the streets of London 
in 1823, when the number plying was twelve. In 
1831 they had increased to 165, and then the 
licences were thrown open. The number in 1862 
running in the metropolis exceeded 6000 (of which 
about 1800 only plied on Sunday). Previous to 
throwing open the trade, the number of hackney 
carriages was limited to 1200, when there were few 
omnibuses. Number in 1871 was 7818; in 1881, 
9652; 1891,11,129. See Hackney Coaches. 
Mr. Joseph Aloysius Hansom, architect, invented 
his patent safety cab about 1S33. He died 29 
June, 1882. 
Cab Strike. — On 28 June, 1853, an act (called Mr. 
FitzRoy's act) was passed for " the better regula- 
tion of metropolitan stage and hackney carriages, 
and for prohibiting the use of advertising 
vehicles," by which the cab fares were reduced 
to 6d. a mile. It came into operation 11 July, 
and on the 27th a general strike of the London 
cabmen took place. Much inconvenience was 
felt, and every kind of vehicle was employed to 
supply the deficiency. Some alterations having 
been made in the act, the cabs re-appeared on the 
stands on the 30th. 
Cabmen's clubs began at Paddington in . . Feb. 1S59 
A London General Cab Company published its 

prospectus, professing a reformed system, July, 1862 
Cabs running in London : in 1855, 3296 ; in 1867, 

6149 : in 1874, 7864 ; in 1S77, about 8000. 
Cab Tragedy.— H. H. Hunt, a servant of Butler and 
McCulloeh's, seedsmen, Co vent-garden, London, 
poisoned his wife and children in a cab, on 7 Nov. 
1863 ; and himself on 9 Nov. at his own house, 
just before his apprehension. 
The cabmen in Paris strike against a company ; 
above 3000 vehicles stopped. 16 June ; tierce attack 
on men who gi\»e in ; strike subsides 23 June, 1863 
Second Cab Strike. — Metropolitan Streets Act, 30 <fc 
31 Vict. c. 17 (passed 20 Aug.) required hackney 
carriages to cany lamps ; and changed lowest 
fare, from 6d. to is. The cab-proprietors and 
drivers struck at 4 p.m., 3 Dec. ; but by the 
intervention of lord Elcho, an arrangement was 
made with Mr. Gathorne Hardy, the home secre- 
tary, and the strike ceased . . .4 Dec. 1S67 
Third Cab Strike to compel railway companies to dis- 
continue privileged cabs : unsuccessful, 5-9 Sept. 1S68 
Licences on cabs reduced from igl. and 17/. to 42s. 

by act of 1869 1 Jan. 1S70 

Cab-drivers' Benevolent Association founded . . ,, 
First Cabmen's Shelter opened by hon. A. Kinnaird 
at St. John's Wood, 6 Feb. "1875 : others soon 
after. Cabmen's Mission Hall, King's Cross, Lou- 
don, N., opened 12 Nov. 187 = . Thirty-nine 

Shelters in 1S88 

Disputes about wages : lock-out of 100 drivers 
(Hansom), 27 June, 1882, closed ; proposed estab- 
lishment of Cab-drivers' Co-operative Cab Com- 
pany, about 29 July, 1882. 
Strike of the Shrewsbury Talbot cab company's 

men . . . . ' . . . . April, 1891 
Strike of about 300 other cabmen 14 April ; demon- 
stration in Hyde Park 19 April ; strike gradually 

subsided ,, 

The cab distance-recorder and fare-indicator of 
Messrs. W. C. Owen & W. Grimes described, 
Times 29 Sept. ,, 

CABUL, or Cabool, on the river Cabul, 

about 1774, by Timsur Shah, was made capital of 
Afghanistan {which sec). 
CACHET, see Lettres de Cachet. 

CADDEE, or League of God's House, 
the league of independence in Switzerland, formed 



CADE'S INSURRECTION. 



166 



CALABEIA. 



by the Grisons to resist domestic tyranny, 1396 to 
1419. A second league of the Grisons was called 
the Grise or Gray League, 1424. A third league, 
the League of Ten Jurisdictions, was formed in 
1436; see Grisons. They united in 1471. 

CADE'S INSURRECTION. In May, 1450, 
Jack (Jade, an Irishman, assumed the name of 
Mortimer, laid before the royal council the com- 
plaint of the commons of Kent. He headed about 
20,000 Kentish men, who armed " to punish evil 
ministers, and procure a redress of grievances." 
He defeated and slew sir Humphry Stafford, at 
Sevenoaks, 27 June, entered London in triumph, 
and beheaded the lord treasurer, lord Saye, and 
several other persons of consequence, 3 July. When 
the insurgents lost ground, a general pardon was 
proclaimed, and Cade, deserted by his followers, fled. 
A reward having been offered for his apprehension, 
he was discovered, and refusing to surrender, was 
slain by Alexander Iden, sheriff of Kent, n July. 

CADET'S COLLEGE, see Sandhurst. 

CADIZ (W. Spain), anciently Gadiz, the Ro- 
man Gades ; said to have been built by the Phoeni- 
cians, about 1 100 B.C. Population in 1887, 62,531. 
One hundred vessels of the Spanish armada de- 
stroyed in the port by sir Francis Drake . . 1587 
Cadiz was taken by the English under the earl of 

Essex, and plundered . . . .15 Sept. 1596 
Vainly attacked by sir George Rooke . . . . 1 702 
Bombarded by the British . . . .July, 1797 
Blockaded by lord St. Vincent for two years . 1797-9 
Again bombarded by the British . . . Oct. 1800 
A French squadron of five ships of the line and a 

frigate surrender to the Spanish and British, 

14 June, 1808 
Besieged by the French, but the siege was raised 

after the battle of Salamanca . . . July, 1812 
Insurrection, 18 19 ; massacre of many inhabitants 

by the soldiery 9, 10 March, 1820 

Taken by the French in Oct. 1823, and held till . 1828 

Declared a free port 1829 

Insurrection against the queen began with the fleet 

here (see Spain) 77 Sept. 1868 

Republican insurrection suppressed with bloodshed, 

5-13 Dec. ,, 
Naval Exhibition opened ... 15 Aug. 1887 

CADMIUM, a metal, discovered by Stromeyer 
and Hermann in 181 8 

CADOUDAL, see Georges." 

C^ECILIAN SOCIETY, instituted in Lon- 
don, in 1785, for the performance of sacred music, 
especially Handel's. At first it met at private 
houses, afterwards at various city company halls, 
and finally at Albion hall, Moorfields, till its dis- 
solution in 1861. Mr. Z. W. Vincent, the first 
conductor, held the office for upwards of thirty 
years. Out of this society, which was the prede- 
cessor of the Sacred Harmonic Society, came many 
eminent professional musicians. 

CAEN (N. France), a place of importance before 
912, when it became the capital of the possessions 
of the Normans, under whom it flourished. It was 
taken by the English in 1346 and 1417 ; but was 
finally recovered by the French 1 July, 1450. Here 
were buried William the conqueror (1087), and his 
queen (1083). 

CAERLEON, Monmouthshire, a Roman station, 
and made the seat of an archbishopric by Dubritius. 
His disciple and successor, St. David (522), is said to 
have removed it to Menevia, now St. David's, 577. 

CAERNARVON (N. Wales). In the castle 
(founded in 1282) Edward II. was born, 25 April, 
1284 ; and the town was then chartered by Edward I. 
The town suffered by the civil w ar of Charles, but 



was finally retained for the parliament. The North 
Wales Training College destroyed by fire, 20 Dec. 
1891. Population, 1881, 10,258 ; 1891,9,804. 

CiESAREA, the Roman capital of Judea, built 
by Herod the Great, 10 B.C. Eusebius the historian 
was bishop about 315. 

OZESARS, see Rome; Emperors. The. Era of 
the Caesars or Spanish Era, is reckoned from 1 Jan. 
38 B.C., being the year following the conquest of 
Spain by Augustus. It was much used in Africa, 
Spain, and the south of France ; but by a synod 
held in 1 180 its use was abolished in all the churches 
dependent on Barcelona. Pedro IV. of Arragon 
abolished the use of it in his dominions in 1350. 
John of Castile did the same in 1383. It was used 
in Portugal till 1415, if not till 1422. The months 
and days of this era are identical with the Julian 
calendar ; and to turn the time into that of our era, 
subtract thirty-eight from the year ; but if before 
the Christian era, subtract thirty-nine. 

CiESIUM (Latin, bluish), a rare alkaline 
metal, found in some mineral waters by Bunsen 
in 1861, by means of the " Spectrum analysis," 

which see. 

CAFEINE (English Caffeine), an alkaline 
body, discovered in coffee by Runge in 1820, and 
in tea (and named theine) by Oudryin 1827. The 
identity of the two was proved by Jobst and Mulder 
in 1828. 

CAFFRARIA, and Caffre War, see 
Kaffir aria. 

CAGLIARI, see Naples, note. 

CAGOTS, an outcast race in the Pyrenees, sup- 
posed to be descendants of the ancient Groths. They 
have been subjected to superstitious persecution so 
lately as 1755. 

CAI-FONG, the old capital of China, was be- 
sieged by 100,000 rebels, in 1642. The commander 
of the relieving forces, in order to drown the enemy, 
broke down its embankments. All the besiegers 
and 300,000 of the citizens perished. 

CA IRA ! the burden of a popular song, during 
the French revolution, first heard at Paris, 5 Oct. 
1789 : 
"Ah! ga ira, ga ira, ga ira ! Malgre les mutins, tout 

reussira." An after addition was " Les Aristocrates 

a la lanterne ! " 
(" It will proceed ! &c. In spite of mutineers, all will 

succeed." " Hang the aristocrats ! ") 

CAIRO, or GRAND CAIRO, the modem capital 
of Egypt, remarkable for its mosques, and the sepul- 
chres of its Fatimite caliphs ; see Egypt. 
Partially built by the Saracens .... 969 

Taken by the Turks from the Egyptian sultans . . 1517 
Ruined by an earthquake and a great tire, when 

40,000 persons perished .... June, 1754 
Taken by the French under Napoleon Bonaparte ; 

they enter the city .... 23 July, 179S 
Taken by the British and Turks, when 6000 French 

capitulated 27 June, 1801 

Massacre of the Mamelukes . . . 1 March, 1811 
Visit of the prince of Wales . . . March, 1862 
Riots against Nubar Pasha and the British ministers 

18 Feb. 1879 
After their victory at Tel-el-Kebir, 13 Sep. 1882, 

the British entered Cairo the next day. 
Population 31 Dec. 1878, 327,462; 1883, 368,108. 
See Cholera, 1883. 

CALABAR, Old and New, rivers in West 
Africa, see Bonny. 

CALABRIA (the ancient Messapia of S. E. 
Italy), was conquered by the Romans, 266 B.C. It 
formed part of the kingdom of the Ostrogoths under 



CALAIS. 



167 



CALEDONIAN CANAL. 



Theodoric, a. d. 493 ; was re-conquered (for the 
Eastern empire) by Belisarius, 536 ; subdued by the 
Lombards and joined to the duchy of Benevento, 
572. After various changes, it was conquered by 
[Robert Guiscard, the Norman, 1058, who obtained 
the title of duke of Calabria, and eventually that of 
king of Naples. Population, 1890, 1,309,554; see 
Naples. 

CALAIS (N. W. France), fortified by Baldwin 
IV., count of Flanders, 997 ; taken by Edward III. 
after a year's siege, 4 Aug. 1347. It was retaken by 
.the duke of Guise, in the reign of Mary, 7 Jan. 
1558, and its. loss so deeply touched the queen's 
3ieart, as to cause some to say it occasioned her death, 
which occurred soon afterwards, 17 Nov. same year. 
"" When I am dead," said the queen, " Calais will 
foe found written on my heart." It was taken by 
the Spaniards, April 1596, restored, 1598. About 
12 persons drowned in a house by bursting of a 
reservoir, 30 Jan. 1882. The new harbour and 
-docks were opened by president Carnot, 3 June 1889 ; 
see Tunnels. 
<Great strike of lace-workers, Sept. 1890 ; ended by 

concession of the masters . . . 30 Oct. 1890 

CALATBAVA, see Knighthood. 

CALCIUM, the metallic base of lime, was dis- 
covered at the Royal Institution, London, by Hum- 
phry Davy in 1808. 

CALCULATING MACHINES- . To avoid 
.errors in computing and printing logarithms and 
tables of figures, machines to calculate and print 
have been devised. Pascal, when nineteen years of 
age, invented one about 1650. The construction of 
Mr. C. Babbage's differential machine was com- 
menced at the expense of government in 1823, and 
•continued till 1833, when the work was suspended 
after an expenditure of 17,000/. The portion 
-completed was placed in the library of King's Col- 
lege, London ; it is now at South Kensington. Pro- 
fessor Clifford, in his lecture at the Royal Institu- 
tion, 24 May 1872, stated that -Babbage expended 
.20,000/. upon his machines, and that the analytical 
machine was nearly finished, and would eventually 
be much used. " Babbage's.CalculatingEngines : a 
Collection of Papers relating to them," was published 
by his son, Gen. Babbage, in 1889. C. Babbage died 
H871, aged 78. In 1857, Messrs. F. and G. Scheutz, 
two Swedish engineers, published in London speci- 
men tables, calculated and printed by machinery 
-constructed between 1837 and 1843, after a study of 
the account of Mr. Babbage's machine. Messrs. 
Scheutz brought their machine to England in 1854. 
St was bought for 1000I. by Mr. J. F. Rathbone, an 
American merchant, to be presented to Dudley ob- 
servatory in his own town, Albany. In 1857, Messrs. 
Scheutz were engaged to make one for the British 
government, which was completed. Mr. Wiberg's 
machine, exhibited at Paris, Feb. 1863, was much 
•commended. Tables constructed by means of 
Scheutz's machine, and edited by Dr. W. Farr, were 
published by the government in 1864. The arith- 
mometer, patented by M. Thomas (de Colmar) in 
5822 (?), exhibited at the International exhibitions, 
185 1 and 1862, is said to be in use in assurance 
offices. Geo. B. Grant described a simpler machine 
in the "American Journal of Science," Oct. 1874. 
Other machines have been constructed since. 

CALCUTTA, capital of Bengal and British 
India; the first settlement of the English here was 
made in 1689. Population, 1881, 766,298; 1891, 
840,130. 

Purchased as a zemindary, and Fort William built 1698 
Made the head of a separate presidency . . . 1707 



The fort attacked and taken by an army of 70,000 
horse and foot, and 400 elephants (146 of the 
British crammed into the " Black-hole prison," a 
dungeon, about 18 feet square, from whence 
23 only came forth the next morning alive) 

20 June. 1756 
Calcutta retaken by Clive ... 2 Jan. 1757 
Supreme court of judicature established . . . 1773 

Asiatic Society founded 1784 

College founded 1801 

Bishopric of Calcutta instituted by act, July, 1813 ; 
first bishop, Thomas F. Middleton . . . 1814 

Bishop's College founded 1820 

Cathedral founded 1840 

An industrial exhibition opened . . .25 Jan. 1855 
Great cyclone, followed by a " bore " or spring tide 
in the Hooghly ; water rises 30 feet high ; immense 
damage done to shipping and houses ; about 
60,000 persons said to have perished . 5 Oct. 1864 
Another cyclone ; about 30,000 small houses un- 
roofed, much small shipping injured ; and the 
crops in Lower Bengal destroyed (about 90,000 
persons drowned ; 75,000 die of cholera), 1 Nov. 1867 
Visited by the king of Siam . . . Jan. 1872 
Visited by the prince of Wales, 25 Dec. 1875 — 3 Jan. 1876 
Statue of lord Mayo unveiled by him . 1 Jan. „ 
Statue of the queen given by the maharajah of 

Burdwan, unveiled . . . . 1 Jan. 1878 
International exhibition opened by the viceroy, 
the marquis of Ripon, the duke and duchess of 
Connaught present, 4 Dec. 1883 ; closed 10 March, 1884 
Destructive cyclone ; the sir John Lawrence and 
the tug Retriever lost, about 700 lives lost, 

23 May et seq. 1887 
About sixty persons killed by the collision of a 

ferry steamer with a tug-boat near Calcutta 6 Nov. 1888 
Trade paralyzed by strike of about 30,000 native 

bullock-carters for a few days . 30 June et seq. 1889 
Visit of prince Albert Victor of Wales, great fes- 
tivities 3-13 Jan. 1890 

Fatal religious riot, May, 1891 ; trial of rioters, 

5 Aug. 1891 
Statue of the marquis of Dufferin unveiled, 8 Dec. ,, 
See Bengal and India. 
CALEDONIA, the Roman name for part of 
Scotland, north of the wall of Antoninus, so termed 
by Tacitus, who died 99. Venerable Bede says 
that it retained this name until 258, when it 
was invaded by a tribe from Ireland, and called 
Scotia. The ancient inhabitants appear to have been 
the Caledonians and Picts, tribes of the Celts, who 
passed over from the opposite coast of Gaul. About 
the beginning of the 4th century of the Christian 
era they were invaded (as stated by some authorities) 
by the Scuyths or Scy thins (since called Scots), who, 
having driven the Picts into the north, settled in the 
Lowlands, and gave their name to the whole country ; 
see Scotland. 

Caledonian monarchy, mythically said to have been 

founded by Fergus I. . . . about B.C. 330 
The Picts from England settle in the south . . 140 
Agrieola, the Roman, invades Caledonia . a.d. 79 
He defeats Galgacus, and builds a wall between the 

Forth and Clyde 84 

Wall of Antoninus built 140 

Ulpius Marcellus repels their incursions . . . 184 
Christianity introduced in the reign of Donald I. . 201 
The Caledonians invade South Britain, 207 ; repelled 
by the emperor Severus, who advances to the 

Moray Frith 209 

Caledonia invaded by the Scuths, or Seotti, from 

Ireland, about 3° 6 

Caledonian monarchy revived by Fergus II. . . 404 
Kenneth II., king of the Seotti, subdues the Cale- 
donians and Picts, and founds one monarchy, 
named Scotland 838 to 843 

CALEDONIAN ASYLUM, Eoyal, for 
children of indigent respectable Scotch parents, 
Islington, London, established in 1813. In 1892, 
166 children were maintained and educated. 

CALEDONIAN CANAL, from the North 
Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. The act for its construe- 



CALENDAE. 



1C8 



CALIPH. 



tion received the royal assent 27 July, 1803 ; and 
the works were commenced same year. The nautical 
intercourse between the western ports of Oreat 
Britain and those also of Ireland to the North Sea 
and Baltic, is shortened in some instances 800, and 
in others 1000 miles. A sum exceeding a million 
sterling was granted by parliament from time to 
time ; and safe navigation for ships was opened 1 
Nov. 1822. It has not been successful commercially. 
Annual income from tonnage, 1 May, 1859, 5080/. ; 
expenditure, 6951^.; annual income, April, 1866-7, 
6541Z. ; expenditure, bbg8l. ; receipts, April, 1890-91, 
7,530*'. ; expenditure, 10,001/. 

CALENDAE, see Jewish Era and Calendar. 
The .Roman calendar was introduced by liomulus, 
who divided the year into ten months, comprising 
304 days, 738 B.C. This year was of fifty days' less 
duration than the lunar year, and of sixty-one less 
than the solar year, and its commencement did not 
correspond with any fixed season. Numa Pompilius, 
713 B.C., added two months ; and Julius Cresar, 45 
B.C., to make it more correct, fixed the solar year at 
365 days 6 hours, every fourth year being bissextile 
or leap-year ; see Leap-year. This calendar was 
defective, as the solar year consists of 365 days, 5 
hours, 49 minutes, and not of 365 days 6 hours. 
This being still erroneous Augustus Cresar reformed 
the calendar still further, but not perfectly, B.C. 8, 
and the difference, in the 16th century amounted to 
10 entire days, the vernal equinox falling on nth 
instead of 21st March. To obviate this error, pope 
Gregory XIII. ordained, in 1582, that that year 
should consist of 355 days only (5 Oct. became 15 
Oct.) ; and to prevent further irregularity, it was 
determined that a year ending a century should 
not be bissextile, with the exception of that end- 
ing each fourth century ; thus 1700 and 1800 have 
not been bissextile, nor will 1900 be so : but the 
year 2000 will be a leap-year. In this manner three 
days are retrenched in 400 years, because the lapse' 
of eleven minutes makes three days in about that 
period. The year of the calendar is thus made as 
nearly as possible to correspond with the true solar 
year, and future errors of chronology are avoided. 
See New Style and French Revolutionary Calendar. 

CORRESPONDENCE OF CALENDARS WITH A.D. 1889. 

Julian period 66 02 

"Sear of the world (Jewish year) 6 Sept. 1888— 

25 Sept. 1889 5 6 49 

Hegira (8 Sept. 1888, to 27 Aug. 1889) . . . 1306 

Foundation of Rome (Varro) 2642 

Olympiads \ 266s 

Era of Nabonassar 2 6 3 6 

United States' Independence .... 113-14 

Year of Queen Victoria 52-53 

Comte, in his " Systeuie de Politique Positive," (insti- 
tuting the "Religion of Humanity"), published a ca- 
lendar of 13 months, dedicated successively to Moses, 
Homer, Aristotle, Archimedes, Caesar, Paul, Charle- 
magne, Dante, Guttenberg, Shakespeare, Descartes, 
Frederic, and Bichat ; an eminent person was com- 
memorated every day. 

CALENDEE, a machine used in glazing vari- 
ous kinds of cloth, was introduced into England by 
the Huguenots, who were driven by persecution 
from France, Holland, and the Netherlands to these 
countries, about 1685. Anderson. 

CALENDS were the first days of the Roman 
months. The Nones of March, May, July, and Oct. 
fell on the 7th; and their Ides on the 15th. The 
other months had the Nones' on the 5th and the Ides 
on the 13th. As the Greeks had no Calends, "on 
the Greek Calends," ad Grcccas Calendas, meant 
never. 



CALICO, cotton cloth, named from Calicut, a 
city of India, visited by the Portuguese in 1498, 
Calico was first brought to England by the East 
India Company in 1631. Calico-printing and the 
Dutch loom engine were first used in 1676, when a 
Frenchman established a factory at Richmond, near 
London. Anderson. Calicoes were prohibited to 
be printed or worn in 1700; and again in 1 721, a 
penalty of 5/. was laid on the wearer, and 20/. on the 
seller of calico. In 1831, by the exertions of Mr, 
Poulett Thompson, afterwards lord Sydenham, and 
others, the consolidated duty of T,hd. on the square 
yard of printed calico was taken off. Since 1834, 
the manufacture has been greatly increased by the- 
applications of science. Cylinders for printing are 
now engraved by galvanism, and many new dyes- 
have been introduced by the discoveries of Licbig,. 
Hofmann, Perkin, &c. ; see Cotton and Dyeing. 

John Mercer, a great improver of calico-printing, dieiS 
30 Nov. 1866. 

CALICUT (nowKolikod), S.W.India, the first 
Indian port visited by Vasco da Gama, 20 May, 1498. 
It was seized by Hyder Ali, 1766; taken bj r the 
English, 1782; destroyed by Tippoo Saib, 1789;. 
ceded to the English, 1792. 

CALIFOENIA (from the Spanish, Calienle 
Fornalla, hot furnace, in allusion to the climate), 
was discovered by Cortez in 1537; others say by 
Cabrillo in 1542 ; and visited by sir Francis Drake, 
who named it New Albion, in 1579. California was 
admitted into the United States in 1850. The 
population in 1856 was 506,067 ; in 1880, 864,694 ; 
in 1890, 1,208,130. State capital, Sacramento. 
San Francisco is the largest city. 
The Spanish establish missionary and military 

stations 1698 

California becomes subject to Mexico . . . 1823 
After a bloodless revolution, it becomes virtually 

independent 1836 

Occupied by the army of the United States . . 1846 
Gold discovered in great abundance by capt. Sutter 

and Mr. Marshall Sept. 1847 

Ceded to the United States 1848 

Made a sovereign state 1850 

Numerous murders in San Francisco — Lynch law 

prevailing 1853-60 

Adhered to the union during the war . . . 1 861-4 
Suffered much damage by an earthquake, 21 Sept. 1868 
Bank of California, long very prosperous, stops 
through unsuccessful speculations, suspected 
suicide of "the prince," Wm. C. Ralston, ma- 
nager about 25 Aug. 1S75 

Great opposition to increasing Chinese immigration, 

March, 1876 
Political agitation caused by Dennis Kearney 

against cash payments .... Aug. 1878 
New constitution (excluding Chinese from citizen- 
ship ; altering taxation to favour the working- 
classes ; restricting companies, &c.) promoted by 
Dennis Kearney, the agitator ; passed 8 May, 1879 
Political disorders ; Mr. de Young, an editor, dan- 
gerously wounds rev. Mr. Kallock, the elected 

mayor Aug. ,, 

Violent reaction against Kearney, who flees for his 

life July, 1880 

Anti-Chinese bill passed ; resident Chinese may 

remain, immigrants prohibited . 13 March, 1893 
Towns and villages in the Sacramento valley suffer 
by an earthquake . . . . 19 April, 1892. 

CALIPEE COMPASS, whereby the bore of 
cannon, small arms, &c. is measured, is said to have 
been invented by an artificer of Nuremberg in 1540. 

CALIPH (Arabic), Vicar, or Lieutenant, the 
title assumed by the sophi of Persia, as successor of 
Ali, and, since 151 7, by the sultan of Turkey, as 
successor of Mahomet, and sovereign of Mecca" and 
Medina. The caliphat began with Abubeker, the 



CALIPPIC PERIOD. 



169 



CAMBIUM REGIS. 



father of the prophet's second wife. Sir Wm. 
Muir's " Caliphate " published 1891. 

CALIPHS OF ARABIA. 

632. Abubeker. 

634. Omar I. 

644. Othman. 

655. Ali. 

661. Hassan. 

The Ommiades ruled 661-750. 

The Abbasides ruled 750-1258. 

In 775 they were styled caliphs of Bagdad. 

Haroun-al-Raschid ruled 786-809. 

See Ommiades and Abbasides. 

CALIPPIC PERIOD, invented by Calippus, 
about 330 B.C., to correct the Metallic cycle, consists 
of four cycles, or of seventy-six years, at the expira- 
tion of which he incorrectly imagined the new and 
full moons return to the same day of the solar year. 
This period began about the end of June, third year 
of 1 1 2th Olympiad, year of Rome 424, and 330 B.C. 

_ CALIXTINS, 1. A sect derived from the Hus- 
sites, about I420demandedthecup (Greek, Kalix) in 
the Lord's supper. They were also called Utraquists 
as partaking of both elements. They were recon- 
ciled to the Roman church at the council of JJasle, 
1433. 2. The followers of George Calixtus, a Lu- 
theran, who died in 1656. He wrote against the celi- 
bacy of the priesthood, andproposed a re-union of Ca- 
tholics and Protestants based on the Apostles' creed. 

CALI YUGA, the Hindoo era of the Deluge, 
dates from 3101 B.C. (according to some, 3102), and 
begins with the entrance of the sun into the Hindoo 
sign Aswin, now on 11 April, N.S. In 1600 the 
year began on 7 April, N.S., from which it has now 
advanced four days, and from the precession of the 
equinoxes, is still advancing at the rate of a day in 
sixty years. The number produced by subtracting 
3102 from any given year of the Cali Yuga era will 
be the Christian year in which the given year 
begins. 

CALLAO (Peru). After an earthquake, the 
sea retired from the shore, and returned in moun- 
tainous waves, which destroyed the city in 1687, and 
on 28 Oct. 1746. The attempt of the Spanish ad- 
miral Nunez to bombard Callao, 2 May, 1866, was 
defeated, by the Peruvians ; blockaded by Chilians, 
April 1880, see Chili. Population, 1876, 33,502. 

CALLIGRAPHY (beautiful writing). Calli- 
crates is said to have written an elegant distich on 
a sesamum seed, 472 B.C. In the 16th century 
Peter Bales wrote the Lord's Prayer, Creed, and 
Decalogue, two short Latin prayers, his own name, 
motto, day of the month, year of our Lord, aud of 
the reign of queen Elizabeth (to whom he presented 
them at Hampton Court), all within the circle of a 
silver penny, enchased in a ring and border of gold, 
and covered with crystal, so accurately done, as to 
be plainly legible, "Holinshed. 

CALMAR, UlsriO^ OF. The treaty whereby 
Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, were united under 
one sovereign, Margaret, queen of Sweden and Nor- 
way, " the Semiramisof the north;" June, 1397, see 
Sweden. The union was dissolved by Gustavus 
Vasa in 1523. 

CALMUCKS, see Tartar;/. 

CALOMEL ("beautiful black") a compound 
of mercury, sulphuric acid, and chloride of sodium, 
first mentioned by Crollius early in the 17th century. 
The first directions given for its preparation were by 
Beguin in 1608. 

CALORESCENCE. In Jan. 1865 Professor 
Tyndall rendered the ultra-red rays of the spectrum 
of the electric light visible by causing a focus of 



them to impinse on a plate of platinum, which they 
raised to a white heat. He termed the phenomenon 
Calorescence ; see Fluorescence. 

CALORIC, see Heat. 

CALOTYPE PROCESS (from the Greek 
kalos beautiful), by which negative photographs 1 
are produced on paper, is the invention of Mr. Henry 
Fox Talbot about 1840. Also called Taleotyi-e, 
See Photography. 

CALOYERS (meaning good old men). The 
monks of the Greek church, of the order of St. Basil.. 
Their most celebrated monastery in Asia is at Mount 
Sinai, endowed by Justinian (died 565) ; the Eu- 
ropean one is at Mount Athos. 

CALPEE, India. Sir Hugh Rose defeated the 
mutineers here, and took the town, 22, 23 May, 185S- 

CALVARY, MOUNT, the place where the Re- 
deemer suffered death, 5 April, a.d. 30 ; (Hales, 31 ;, 
Clinton, 29; others 38) ; see ZM/texxiii.33. Adrian, 
at the time of his persecution of the Christians, 
erected a temple of Jupiter on Mount Calvary, and 
a temple of Adonis on the manger at Bethlehem, 
142. The empress Helena built a church heie about 
326 ; see Holy Places. 

CALVES' HEAD CLUB, noblemen and 
gentlemen, Avho are said to have exposed raw calves* 
heads at the windows of a tavern, 30 Jan. 1735, * ne 
anniversary of the execution of Charles 1. An angry- 
mob was dispersed, and the club suppressed. 

CALVI (Corsica). The British forces besieged 
the fortress of Calvi, 12 June, 1794. After fifty-nine? 
days it surrendered on 10 Aug. It surrendered to 
the French in 1796. 

CALVINISTS, named after John Calvin (or 
Chauvin), who was born at Noyon, in Picardy, 10 
July, 1509. Adopting the reformed doctrines he tied 
to Angouleme, where he composed his Instituiio 
Christiana Religionis in 1533; published in 1536. 
He retired to Basle, and settled in Geneva, where 
he died, 27 May, 1564. He was instrumental in 
burning Servetus for denying the Trinity in 1553- 
A formal separation between the Calvinists and 
Lutherans took place after the conference of Poissy 
in 1 561, where the former expressly rejected the 
tenth and other articles of the confession of Augs- 
burg, and took the name of Calvinists. In France 
(see Huguenots) they took up arms against their 
persecutors. Henry IV., originally a Calvinist, on 
becoming king, secured their liberty by the Edict of 
Nantes in 1590 (which. see). Calvinistic doctrines 
appear in the articles of the Church of England aud 
in the confession of the Church of Scotland, and are. 
held by many protestant sects. They include pre- 
destination, particular redemption, total depravity, 
irresistible grace, and the certain perseverance of 
the saints. 

CAMALDULES or CaMALDOLITES, a reli- 
gious order founded at Camaldoli near Florence, by 
Romuald about 1022. 

CAMBAY, see India, 1890. 

CAMBERWELL, Surrey, a southern suburb 
of London. The grammar school was established 
by the Kev. E. Wilson. 29 Sept. 1715. The am ienl 
church was burnt 7 Feb. [841. Caniberwell r< turns 
3 members to Parliament by the Acts of [884-85. 
The Public Library presented by Mr. Ue< 
Livesey (cost nearly 8,000/.) opened by fir E. 
Clarke, 18 Oct. 1890". Population, 1881, 186,593; 
1891, 235>3 12 - 

CAMBIUM REGIS ; see Royal Exchange. 



CAMBODIA. 



170 



CAMBRIDGE. 



CAMBODIA, Central Asia; (capital, Penom- 
jpein), a kingdom, divided between the emperor of 
Ann'am and the king of Siam, 1820. The king, 
jSTorodom, recognizes French protectorate by treaty, 
Oct. 1883. Insurrection ; French posts at Sambaur, 
.12 Jan. ; governor of Cochin China marches there ; 
irebels attacked and dispersed 21 Jan. ; again April 
1885. 

'.The French capture Fort Angko by assault, announced 

22 July 1885. 
Jtebel Prince Si-Votha treats for peace April, 1889. 

CAMBRAY (N. France), the ancient Camara- 
•ciim, was in the middle ages the capital of a prince 
hishop subject to the emperor. It gives its name to 
•cambric Councils held here, 1064, 1303, 1383, 
J 5 6 5- 
TIeld by Louis XI. of France .... 1477-8 

Taken by Charles V 1544 

-By the Spaniards 1595 

J3y the French and annexed ."'•'. . . . 1667 

Fenelon made archbishop 169s 

The French were defeated at Csesar's camp, in the 
neighbourhood, by the allied army under the duke 

of York 24 April, 1794 

St was invested by the Austrians, 8 Aug. , when the 
republican general, Declay, replied to the sum- 
mons to surrender, that "he knew not how to do 
that, but his soldiers knew how to fight." It 
was taken by Clairfait, the Austrian general, 

10 Sept. 1798 
Cambray seized by the British, under sir Charles 

Colville 24 June, 1815 

JLeague of Cambray against the republic of Venice, 
comprising pope Julius II., the emperor Maxi- 
milian, and Louis XII. of France, and Ferdinand 
of Spain, entered into . . . 10 Dec. 1508 

Treaty between Francis I. of France, and Charles V. 
of Germany, (called Palx ties Dames, because nego- 
tiated by Louisa of Savoy, mother of the French 
king, and Margaret of Austria, aunt of the 

emperor) I5 og 

'Treaty between the emperor Charles VI. and 
Philip V. of Spain 1724-5 

CAMBRIA, ancient name of "Wales (which see). 

CAMBRIC first made at Cambray; worn in 
England, and accounted a great luxury, 1580. Stow. 
Its importation restricted in 1745; prohibited in 
H758; re-admitted, 1786; prohibited 1795. 

CAMBRIDGE, supposed to be the Roman 
■Camboricum and ttie Saxon Granta hricsir, fre- 
quently mentioned by the earliest British historians, 
was burnt by the Danes in 870 and ioio. See 
lable in Population. 

fortified by William I. I07 o 

Plundered by the barons ' . IO S8 

in Wat Tyler's and Jack Straw's rebellion, the 

rebels enter the town, seize the university records 

and burn them in the market-place . . . 1381 

'Garrisoned by Cromwell ^42 

-Cambridge Philosophical Society established in 1819, 

and chartered x g 32 

Bailway to London opened . . . Junej 1845 
Mtzwilliam museum, endowed 1816 ; founded 1837 '; 

completed j3 4 _ 

British Association met here . . 1833,1845,1862 
Visit of prince and princess of Wales . 2-4 June.' 1864 

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY. 

'The early history is traditional till the 12th century 
Sigebert, king of the East Angles, is mythically 
said to have set up a school about 630. Scholar's 
are said to have collected here and 'to have been 
favoured by Henry I., mo. Henry III. granted 
ithe first charter in 1231, about which time the 
students began to live together in hostels which 
afterwards became colleges named after saints. 
It is said that there were 27 hostels in 1280. The 
•university was incorporated in 1571, and sent 
two members to parliament in 1603. University 
■tests act passed, 16 June, 1870. University coni- 
anission respecting property was appointed 6 
Jim., 1872. Universities act, making many 
changes, was passed .... 10 Aug. 1877 



St Paul's Hostelry for Indian students, chartered 

18 July, 1883 

New Museum of Classical Art and Archaeology 
opened 6 May, 1884 

Henry Fawcett, M.P. , Postmaster-general, buried 
at Trumpington 10 Nov. ,, 

Miss A. F. Ramsay, of Girton, senior and alone in 
the first division of the classical tripos. Miss B. 
M. Hervey, of Newnham, alone in the first division 
of the mediaeval and modern languages tripos 

18 June 1887 

Miss G. P. Fawcett, Newnham (daughter of the late 
professor), above the senior wrangler in mathe- 
matics 7 June, 1890 

Professor G. G. Stokes, P.R.S., elected M.P. forthe 
University 17 Nov. 1887 

The senate supports the compulsory study of 
Greek (525-185) 29 Oct. 1891 

Establishment of an engineering school, proposed 

Dec. „ 

COLLEGES. 

Peterhouse College, by Hugo de Balsham, bishop of 

Ely, founded 1257 

Pembroke College, founded by the countess of 

Pembroke 1347 

Gonville and Caius, by Edmund Gonville . . . 1348 

Enlarged by Dr. John Caius 1558 

Corpus Christi, or Benet . . . . . . 1352 

King's College, by Henry VI. . . . . 1441 

Queen's College, by Margaret of Anjou, 1448 ; and 

Elizabeth Woodville 1449 

Jesus College, by John Alcock, bishop of Ely . . 1496 
Christ's College, founded 1442 ; endowed by Mar- 
garet, countess of Richmond, mother of Henry 

VII. 1505 

St. John's College, endowed by Margaret, countess 

of Richmond 1511 

Magdalene College, by Thomas, baron Audley . . 1519 
Trinity College, by Henry VIII. . . . 1546 

Emmanuel College, by sir Walter Mildmay . . 1584 

Sidney Sussex College, founded by Frances Sidney, 

countess of Sussex 1598 

Downing College, by sir George Downing, by will, 

in 1717 ; its charter 1800 

Cavendish College . . ... 1873-6 

Ridley Hall (theological), foundation stone laid, 

17 Oct. 1879 
Selwyn College, founded . . . . 1 June, 1881 

THREE HALLS. 

Clare Hall, or College, first founded by Dr. Richard 
Baden in 1326 ; destroyed by fire and re-estab- 
lished by Elizabeth de Bourg, sister to Gilbert, 

earl of Clare about 1342 

Trinity Hall, by Win, Bateman, bishop of Norwich, 1350 

St. Catherine's College or Hall, founded . . . 1473 

[Cambridge University Calendar.] 

CHANCELLORS. 

Charles, duke of Somerset, elected . . . . 1688 

Thomas, duke of Newcastle 1748 

Augustus Henry, duke of Grafton . . . . 1768 
H. R. H. William Frederick, duke of Gloucester . 18 11 

John, marquis Camden 1834 

Hugh, duke of Northumberland .... 1840 
The Prince Consort [died Dec. 14, 1861.] 28 Feb. 1847 
William, duke of Devonshire [died 21 Dec. 1891] 

31 Dec. 1861 
Spencer C, duke of Devonshire . . 4 Jan. 1892 

PRINCIPAL PROFESSORSHIPS. FOUNDED 

Divinity (Lady Margaret, mother of Henry VIII.) 

1502 ; Regius 1540 

Laws, Hebrew, Greek, and Physic . . . . ,, 

Arabic 1632 

Mathematics (Lucasian) 1663 

Music . 1684 

Chemistry . 1702 

Astronomy 1704, 1749 

Anatomy ..... s .. . 1707 

Modern History, Botany 1724 

Natural and experimental Philosophy . . . . 1783 

Mineralogy 1808 

Political Economy 1863 

Slade (fine art) 1869 

Cambridge Union Society begun as a debating 
club at the " Red Lion" in 181 1 ; settled in its 
new building in 1S86. Dr. Whewell was president 



CAMBEIDGE. 



171 



CAMOEEA. 



in 1817. Lord Houghton, sir Alex. Cockburn, 
lords Macaulay and Lytton, were early members. 

DUKES OF CAMBRIDGE. 

George Augustus, electoral prince of Hanover, 
created duke 9 Nov., 1706 ; king as George II., 
11 June, 1727, see England. 

Adolphus Frederick, fifth son of George III., born 
24 Feb., 1774, created duke 27 Nov., 1801 ; viceroy 
of Hanover, 1816-37 ; died 8 July, 1850. 

George William Frederick Charles, son, born 26 
March, 1819 ; duke, 8 July, 1850 ; colonel, 3 
Nov., 1837 ; commanded the first division in the 
Crimean war ; general commanding in chief, 5 
July, 1856; commander-in-chief by patent, 1887.. 

CAMBEIDGE, a city in Massachusetts ; first 
settled in 1630. The "Bay Psalm-book," said to 
be the first book printed in British America, was 
published here in 1640. See Harvard College. 
Population in 1870, 39,364 ; 1890, 70,028. 

CAMBUSKENNETH, near Stirling (Cen- 
tral Scotland). Here Wallace defeated the English 
under Warrenne and Cressingham, 10 Sept. 1297. 
The abbey, one of the richest in Scotland, was founded 

by King David I. in 1147, was spoiled and the fabric 

nearly destroyed by the reformers in 1559. 

CAMDEN (S. Carolina). Here 16 Aug. 1780, 
iord Cornwallis defeated the revolted Americans, 
under Gates. At a second battle (also called Hob- 
kirk's hill), between general Greene and lord Raw- 
don, the Americans were again defeated, 25 April, 
1 78 1. Camden was evacuated and burnt by the 
British, 13 May, 1781. 

. CAMDEN SOCIETY, established 1838, pub- 
lishes British historical documents. 155 volumes 
had been issued, April, 1892. 

CAMDEN TOWN, N.W. London, begun by 
land let for building 1400 houses by earl Camden 
in 1791 ; received his name a few years after. 

CAMEL, DAY OF THE, 4 Nov. 656 (according 
to some 658 or 659) when Talha and Zobeif, rebel 
Arab chiefs, were defeated and slain by the caliph 
Ali, Ayesha, Mahomet's widow, friend of the 
chiefs, was present in a litter, on a camel, hence the 
name. 

A camel corps was raised during the Soudan campaigns 
of 1884-5. It consisted of about 1,000 camels, con- 
trolled by British cavalry and marines. 

CAMEEA LUCID A, invented by Dr. Hooke 
about 1674; another by Dr. Wollaston in 1807. 
Camera Ubscura, or dark chamber, constructed, 
it is said, by Roger Bacon in 1297 ; improved by 
Baptista Porta, about 1500; and remodelled by sir 
Isaac Newton. By the invention of M. Daguerre, 
in 1839, the pictures of the camera are fixed; see 
Photography. The Camera Club (photographers), 
founded 1885, holds annual meetings. 

CAMEEON'S ACT, Dr., see Debt, 1880. 

CAMEEONIANS, a name frequently given 
to the Reformed Presbyterian church of Scotland, 
the descendants of the covenanters of the 17th cen- 
tury, the established church, 1638-50.* Charles II. 
signed the League and Covenant in 1650, in hopes 
of recovering his kingdoms, but renounced it in 1661. 



* They were frequently called Kill-men or mountain men, 
and society people(fTom the places and modes of worship 
to which they were frequently reduced), and McMillanites, 
from John McMillan, their first minister, after their 
secession from the Church of Scotland on account of its 
subserviency to the English government, and its declining 
from its original rigid principles. They assumed the 
name of the "Reformed Presbyterian Church," on May 
5, 1876, and soon after united with the Free Church of 
.Scotland. 



and revived episcopacy. A revolt ensued in 1666, 
when many covenanters were slain in battle (in the 
Pentland hills, &c), and many refusing to take the 
oaths required, and declining to accept the king's 
indulgence, died on the scaffold, after undergoing 
cruel' tortures. The name Cameronian is derived 
from Richard Cameron, one of their ministers, who 
was killed in a skirmish, in 1680. On 22 June in 
that year he and others issued at Sanquhar a de- 
claration for religious liberty. The bicentenary 
was kept in 1880. In 1689 they raised a body of 
soldiers to support William III., who enrolled 
them under the command of lord Angus, as the 
26th regiment, since so famous. In 17 12 they re- 
newed then- public covenants, and are described 
in one of their tracts as " the suffering anti-popish, 
and anti-prelatical, anti-erastian, true presbyterian 
church of Scotland." They have now between 
thirty and forty congregations in Scotland. — The 
79th regiment {Cameron Highlanders), raised in 
1793 by Allan Cameron, has no connection with the 
Cameronians. 

CAMEEOONS. Mountains and river, West 
Africa. Dr. Nachtigall founded a German colony 
here, Aug., which was recognised Oct. 1884. He 
died 24 April, 1885. To it was annexed the 
British colony Victoria, 28 March, 1887. 

A German expedition in 1889 left the Cameroons 
under the command of lieut. Morgan with 250 
men, to investigate the inland district of the 
Niger tributaries ; after sutfering many priva- 
tions and troubles with the men, and losing 
over 100 men, lieut. Morgan and his party were 
brought from the Benue river to Akassa by an 
agent of the royal Niger company, reported 

20 March, 1891 

Occasional fighting with the natives, capt. von. 
Gravenreutli killed, reported . . Nov. ,, 

CAMISAEDS (from chemise, Latin camisa, a 
shirt, which they frequently wore over their dress in 
night attacks), a name given to the French Pro- 
testants in the neighbourhood of the Cevennes 
(mountain chains in S. France), who after enduring 
much severe persecution in consequence of the 
revocation of the edict of Nantes, 22 Oct. 1685, took 
up arms in July, 1702, to rescue some imprisoned 
brethren. They revenged the cruelties of their 
enemies, and maintained an obstinate resistance 
against the royalist armies commanded by marshal 
Montrevel, and other distinguished generals, till 
1705, when the insurrection was suppressed by 
marshal Villars. After futile conciliatory efforts, 
several of the heroic leaders suffered death rather 
than surrender. Cavalier, an able general, unable 
to carry out a treaty made with Villars, seceded in 
1 704, entered the British service, and died governor 
of Jersey, 1740. 

CAMLET, formerly made of silk and camel's 
hair, but now of wool, hair, and silk. Oriental 
camlet first came here from Portuguese India, in 
1660. Anderson. 

CAMOEEA, a secret society of plunderers and 
ratteners, exacting money from shopkeepers and 
traders, in Naples (said to have originated from 
the extreme destitution of the lower classes);_ tole- 
rated under the Bourbons ; cheeked by the king of 
Italy; about 80 Camorristi seized and transported, 
Scpt.-Oct. 1874. Many Camorristi seized in the 
markets at Naples, 30 Aug. and 1 Sept.,ei seq., 1877. 
179 of these tried at Bari, mid April, May, 1891. 
The Camorristi are said to be the highest grade of 
the society named "Mala Vita." 
159 members of the Mala \'it;i society arrested at 

Taranto March, 1392 



CAMP. 



172 



CANADA. 



CAMP- The Hebrew encampment was first j 
laid out by divine direction, 1490 B.C. {Numbers ii.) I 
The Eomans and Gauls had intrenched camps in 
open plains ; and vestiges of such exist to this day 
in England and Scotland. A camp was formed in 
Hyde Park in 1745 and 1814 ; see Chobham, Alder- 
shot, and Kildare. 

CAMPAGNA, near Rome. Its drainage and 
planting were authorised by the Italian senate, 31 
May 1878. 

CAMPANIA (S. Italy), was occupied by Han- 
nibal and various cities declared in his favour 216 
B.C. ; conquered by the Romans, 213. Its capital 
was Capua {which see) . 

CAMPBELL'S ACTS, introduced by John 
Campbell, lord chancellor. 1. Against libels and 
slanders, 6 & 7 Vict. c. 96 (1843), and 8 & 9 Vict. c. 
75 (1845). 2. To compel railway companies to make 
compensation for injuries by culpable accidents, 9 & 
10 Vict. c. 93 (1846). 3. Against obscene publica- 
tions, prints, &c, 20 & 21 Vict. c. 83 (1857). In 
accordance with the second act, the family of a 
gentleman killed through the breaking of a rail, 
obtained a verdict for 13,0007. from the Great 
Northern Railway Compau}'. On appeal the sum 
was reduced. 

CAMPBELLITES, or Rowites, a name given 
to the followers of the rev. John McLeod Campbell, 
minister of Row, Dumbartonshire, who, on 24 May, 
1831, was deposed by the general assembly of the 
church of Scotland for teaching the universality of 
the atonement, and other doctrines contrary to the 
church's standard. Dr. Campbell established a 
congregation in Glasgow in 1833. The " Disciples 
of Christ," which see, are also sometimes termed 
Campbellites. 

CAMPEACHY-BAY (Yucatan, Central 
America), discovered about 151 7, and settled by 
Spaniards in 1540; taken by the English in 1659; 
by the buccaneers, in 1678; and by the freebooters 
of St. Domingo, in 1685. These last burnt the town 
and blew up the citadel. The English logwood- 
cutters made their settlement here about 1662. 

CAMPEBDOWN ; south of the Texel, Hol- 
land, nearwhich admiral Duncan defeated the Dutch 
fleet, commanded by admiral De Winter ; the latter 
losing fifteen ships, either taken or destroyed, 11 
Oct. 1797. The British admiral was made lord Dun- 
can of Camper-down. He died suddenly on his way 
to Edinburgh, 4 Aug. 1804. 

CAMPO FOEMIO (N. Italy). Here a treaty 
was concluded between France and Austria ; the 
latter yielding the Low Countries and the Ionian 
Islands to France, and Milan, Mantua, and Modena 
to the Cisalpine republic, 17 Oct. 1797. By a secret 
article the emperor gained the Venetian dominions. 

CAMPO SANTO (Holy Field), a burial-place. 
That at Pisa, surrounded by an arcade erected by 
archbishop Ubaldo, about 1300, is celebrated for 
the frescoes painted on the walls by Giotto, Memmi, 
and others. 

CAMPUS EAUDITJS, near Verona, N. Italy. 
Here the Cimbri were defeated with great slaughter 
by Marius and Catulus, 101 B.C. 

CANAAN (Palestine), is considered to have 
been settled by the Canaanites, 1965 B.C. {Clinton, 
2088). Abram, by divine command, went into the 
land of Canaan, B.C. 1921, Gen. xii. The land was 
divided among the Israelites by Joshua, 1445 {Hales, 
1602). 



CANADA (N. America), was discovered by John 
and Sebastian Cabot, 24 June, 1497. In 1524, a 
French expedition under Verazani formed a settle- 
ment named New France, and in 1535 Jacques 
Cartier (a Breton mariner), ascended the St. Law- 
rence as far as the site of Montreal; see Montreal 
and Quebec. Canada has been termed "the Do- 
minion," since its incorporation with the other 
American colonies, I July, 1867. 
Besides the governor-general there are the lieut.- 
governors of Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, Cape 
Breton Island, New Brunswick, Manitoba, Prince 
Edward Island, British Columbia, and Western 

Territories 1892 

Population : 1857, Lower Canada, 1,220,514 ; Upper 
Canada, 1,350,923 ; of the Dominion, 1871, 
3,788,614 ; 1881, 4,359,933 ! 1891, nearly 5,000,000. 
1886-7, revenue, 7,364,916?.; expenditure, 7,326,920?. ; 
1890, revenue, 39,879,925 dollars ; expenditure, 
35,994,031 dollars. 
1886-7, imports, 23,197.0352. ; exports, 18,393,660?. ; 
1890, imports, 121,858,241 dollars ; exports, 
96,749,149 dollars. 

First permanent settlement : Quebec founded . . 1608 
Canada taken by the English, 1629 ; restored . . 1632 
War begins in 1756 ; Canada conquered by the Eng- 
lish, 1759 (see Quebec), confirmed to them by the 
treaty of Paris, signed ... 10 Feb. 1763 

Legislative council established ; "the French laws 
confirmed, and religious liberty given to Roman 

Catholics 1774 

The 'Americans under Montgomery invade Canada, 
and surprise Montreal, Nov. 1775 ; expelled by 

Carleton March, 1776 

Canada divided into Upper and Lower . . . 1793 
The "clergy reserves" established by parliament — 
one seventh of the waste lands of the colony ap- 
propriated for the maintenance of the Protestant 
clergy (during the debates on this bill the quarrel 
between Mr. Burke and Mr. Fox arose) . . . 1793 
Canada made a bishopric ...... 1793. 

United States army, under general Hull, invade 
Canada ; defeated at Brownstown, near Toronto, 
8 Aug. ; surrender .... 16 Aug. 18 12 

Americans take York, 27 April ; Fort George, 27 
May ; defeated at Chippewa, 25 July ; peace 

signed at Ghent 24 Dec. 1814 

Opposition to Canada clergy reserves . . 1817 et seq. 
Treaty with United States respecting fisheries . t8i8 
First railway in Canada opened . . July, 183.6 

The Papineau rebellion commences at Montreal by 

. a body called Fils de la Liberte 1837 

The rebels defeated at St. Eustace . . 14 Dec. ,, . 
Repulsed at Toronto by sir F. Head . . 5 Jan. 1838 
Earl of Durham appointed govr-gen. . 16 Jan. ,, 
Lount and Mathews (rebels) hanged . 12 April, ,,. 
Lord Durham resigns his government . 9 Oct. ,, 
Rebellion appears in Beauharnais, 3 Nov. ; the in- 
surgents at Napierville, under Nelson, routed, 
6 Nov. ; rebellion suppressed . . .17 Nov. ,, 
Sir John Colborne, governor .... Dec. ,, 
Acts relating to government of Lower Canada, 

passed in Feb. 1838, and . . . Aug. 1839 

Chas. Poiolett Thompson (afterwards lord Sydenham), 

governor Sept „ 

Upper and Lower Canada re-united . 10 Feb. 1840 

Sir Chas. Bagot, governor .... Oct. 1841 
Sir Chas. T. (aft. lord) Metcalfe, governor Feb. 1843 

Earl Cathcart, governor . . . March, 1846 

Earl ofElgi n, gov. -general .... Oct. ,, 
Riots in Montreal ; parliament house burnt 

26 April, 1850 
Canada clergy reserves abolished by the British 

parliament 9 May, 1853 

Concluded a reciprocity treaty with United States, 

7 June, 1854 
The grand trunk railroad of Canada (S50 miles), 

from Quebec to Toronto, opened . 12 Nov. 1856 
On reference made to the queen, Ottawa, formerly 
Bytown, appointed the capital ; this decision 

unpopular Aug. 185S 

Canada raises a regiment of soldiers (made one of 

the line, and called the 100th) . . . ,, 

The prince of Wales presents the colours at Shorn- 
cliffe 10 Jan. 1859 



CANADA. 



173 



CANADA. 



The prince of Wales, the duke of Newcastle, <fcc, 
arrived at St. John's. Newfoundland, 24 July ; 
visit Halifax, 30 July ; Quebec, 18 Aug. ; Montreal, 
and opens the Victoria railway bridge, 25 Aug. ; 
Ottawa, 1 Sept. ; leave Canada, 20 Sept. ; after 
"visiting the United States embark at Portland, 
20 Oct. ; and arrive at Plymouth . 15 Nov. i860 

Lord Monck assumes office as gov. -gen. . 28 Nov. 1861 

In consequence of the " Trent " affair (see United 
States, 1861), 3000 British troops sent to Canada ; 
warlike preparations made . . . Dec. ,, 

British N. American Association founded in London 

Jan. 1862 

Cartier's ministry defeated on Militia bill ; Mr. J. 
Sandfield Macdonald, premier . 20-23 M a 5 r > >> 

The assembly vote only 5000 militia and 5000 re- 
serve towards the defence of the country ; this 
causes discontent in England . . . July, ,, 

Mr. J. Macdonald again premier . . 20 May, 1863 

New militia bill passed ; . . . . Sept. ,, 

Military measures in progress . .' - Sept. 1864 

Meeting of about 20,000 volunteers ; delegates from 
N. American colonies at Quebec, to deliberate on 
the formation of a confederation, 10 Oct. ; agree 
on the bases 20 Oct. ,, 

Between 20 and 30 armed confederates quit Canada 
and enter the little town of St. Alban's, Vermont ; 
rob the banks, steal horses and stores, fire, and 
kill one man, and wound others, and return to 
Canada, 19 Oct,; 13 are arrested, 21 Oct. ; but are 
discharged, on account of some legal difficulty, 
"by Judge Coursol .... 14 Dec. ,, 

Great excitement in United States, general Dix 
proclaims reprisals ; volunteers called out in 
Canada to defend the frontiers ; president Lin- 
coln rescinds Dix's proclamation . . Dec. ,, 

The confederation scheme rejected by New Bruns- 
wick 7 March, 1865 

The British parliament grant 50,000?. for defence of 
Canada 23 March, ,, 

The St. Alban's raiders discharged, 30 March ; 
Mr. Seward gives up claim for their extradition. 

April, ,, 

Messrs. Gait and Cartier visit England to advocate 
confederation April, ,, 

The threatened invasion of the Fenians, 9 March ; 
10,000 volunteers called out . . 15 March, 1866 

The renewal of reciprocity treaty declined by 
United States 17 March, ,, 

The Canadian parliament opened, for the first time, 
at Ottawa ; the Habeas Corpus act suspended ; 
many Fenians flee ; 35,000- men under arms (see 
Fenians) 8 June, ,, 

Discovery of gold in Hastings county, Canada west, 

Nov. ,, 

Act for the union of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New 
Brunswick under the name of the Dominion of 
Canada, with parliament, to consist of the Queen, 
a senate of 72 members, and a house of commons 
of 181 members, passed . . .29 March, 1867 

Canada Railway loan act passed . 12 April, ,, 

Lord Monck sworn in as viceroy of Canada, by 
virtue of the act for the union of the British 
provinces in North America . . 2 July, „ 

New parliament meets at Ottawa (John Alex. Mac- 
donald premier) 6 Nov. ,, 

Reported agitation against the new confederation in 
Nova Scotia Jan. 1868 

Murder of Mr. Darcy McGhee . . . 7 April, „ 

A Fenian raid into Canada vigorously repelled by 
the militia .... about 24 May, ,, 

Visit of prince Alfred . . . Sept. et seq. ,, 

Sir John Young (aft. lord Lisgwr) appointed gover- 
nor-general in room of lord Monck (resigned), 
arrives 27 Nov. 1868 

Hudson's Bay territories purchased, subject to 
conditions, for 300,000?. (aee Hudson's Bay) Nov. 1869 

In consequence of the resistance of some of the 
settlers (see Rupert's land), an expedition, under 
colonel Wolseley, arrived at Fort Garry, and 
a conciliatory proclamation was issued 23 July, 1870 

Rupert's land formed into a province, named Mani- 
toba ; Mr. Adams G. A. Archibald named the first 
governor . .... Aug. ,, 

Canada defences loan act passed . . 9 Aug. ,, 

Disputes with United States respecting fishing, Nov. ,, 

Opposition to the fishery clauses in the treaty of 
Washington ... . . June, 1871 



By the British North America act, the parliament 
of Canada may establish new provinces, 29 June, 1871 

British Columbia united to the " Dominion " . . ,, 

Departure of last battalion of royal troops . Nov. ,, 

A liberal ministry constituted under Mr. Edward 
Blake . 23 Dec. ,, 

Lord (aft. earl of) Dufferin appointed governor- 
general ; inaugurated . . . .25 June, 1872 

Sir George Cartier, statesman, died . . 20 May, 1873 

Mr. Arch, on behalf of British labourers, visits 
Canada autumn, ,, 

The ministry of sir John Alexander Macdonald 
charged with corruption connected with the Pa- 
cific railway ; the parliament suddenly prorogued 
by lord Dufferin 13 Aug. ,, 

Commission of inquiry Sept. ,, 

Parliament meets, 23 Oct. ; the ministry resigns, 
5 Nov. ; Mr. Alex. Mackenzie forms a ministry, 

7 Nov. ,, 

New reciprocity treaty rejected by the U.S. senate, 

4 Feb. 1875 

The Canadian and United States fishery commission 
(sir Alexander Gait for Canada, Mr. E. T. Kellogg 
for United States, and M. Delfoss, Belgian U.S. 
minister) meet at Halifax, 15 June ; award 
5,500,000 dollars to Canada, Mr. Kellogg dissent- 
ing 23, 24 Nov. 1877 

American fishermen in Fortune Bay .attacked for 
breaking laws respecting fishing . . 6 Jan. 1878 

Elections : great majority against the government, 
about 19 Sept. ,, 

The marquis of Lome appointed governor-general, 

14 Oct. ,, 

Resignation of ministry ; sir John Macdonald forms 
a new one about 19 Oct. ,, 

Halifax award paid . . .21 Nov. ,, 

The marquis of Lome and princess Louise land at 
Halifax 25 Nov. ,, 

The Queen's telegram, "Deb'ghted at reception, say 
so" 1 Dec. ,, 

A protectionist budget passed . . . 15 Mar. 1879 

Dominion industrial exhibition at Ottawa opened 
by the marquis of Lome. . . . 24 Sept. ,, 

Fortune-bay affair (Jan. 1878), compensation refused 
by the earl of Salisbury, granted by lord Gran- 
ville, but rules affirmed ... 26 Oct. 1880 

Return of Canadian prosperity affirmed by the mar- 
quis of Lome 9 Dec. ,, 

Contract for new Pacific railway ratified by the 
assembly 1 Feb. ; work commenced . . May, 1881 

Victoria steamer sunk on the Thames, great loss of 
life (see Wrecks) 24 May, ,, 

Fortune-bay affair ; 15,000?. awarded . 28 May, ,, 

Successful progress of the governor-general through 
the dominion .... July — Oct. ,, 

The marquis of Lome arrives at Birkenhead 
14 Nov. 1 88 1 ; returns to Canada . .21 Jan. 1882 

Pacific railway bill passed . . . 20 April, ,, 

Society for the Advancement of Literature and 
Science fouuded in Ottawa by the marquis of 
Lome 25 May ,, 

Elections : a protectionist majority . . June, ,, 

Western territory beyond Manitoba divided into 
four new districts : Assiniboia, Saskatchewan, 
Alberta, and Athabasca : by order in council July, ,, 

Marquis of Lome returns to Ottawa from a visit to 
British Columbia, Washington, <fec. . 31 Jan. 1883 

New parliament meets .... 8 Feb. ,, 

The marquis of Lansdowne arrives at Quebec as 
governor-general 22 Oct. 1884 

Canada offers military assistance in the Soudan Feb. 1885 

Insurrection in X. W. Territories (see Manitoba), 

March, ,, 

Insurrection in N. W. territories, headed by Louis 
Riel, of Batoche (sec Hudson's Bait, 1870), sup- 
ported by French half-breeds and Indians, claim- 
ing political and social rights alleged to have been 
promised in 1870; government stores seized, &c, 
about 24 March. Capt. Crozier attacks and kills 
many rebels, but retreats. Col. Irvine evacuates 
and burns Fort Carleton . . 25-27 March. 

Troops despatched from various parts of the 
dominion March, April, ,, 

Battleford besieged by Indians . . 1 April, ,, 

Col. Irvine at Prince Albert waiting help 1 April, „ 

Col. Otter, after conflict with Indians, relieves 
Hat tl. •ford 24 April, „ 



CANADA. 



174 



CANADA. 



Gen. Middleton defeats rebels at Fish Creek after 
severe conflict, and suffering much by an ambush 

of sharpshooters 24 April, 1885 

Col. Otter defeats the rebels after desperate resist- 
ance near Battleford .... 3 May, „ 
Gen. Middleton attacks Batoche on the Saskatche- 
wan river, well defended by Riel, with rifle-pits, 
&c. British success greatly due to the skill and 
courage of capt. Howard, U.S., in using the 
Gatling gun, which mowed down the enemy 

(Batoche captured) 9 May, » 

The Indian chief Poundmaker captures a supply 
train, 31 waggons ; defeated in an engagement 
but supplies not recovered ... 14 May, ,, 
Riel surrenders to gen. Middleton's scouts ; many 

of his followers surrender . . - 15 May, ,, 
1,500 Indians under Big-Bear and Poundmaker 

hold out, reported 15 May, „ 

Surrender of the Indian chiefs ; Poundmaker sur- 
renders 26 May, „ 

General Strange attacks Big-Bear's entrenched 
camp, about 20 miles from Fort Pitt, but retreats 
in good order . . . . 28, 29 May, „ 
Big-Bear's army divided, pursued by generals Mid- 
dleton and Strange ; his escape reported 7 June ; 
captured 3 July ; sentenced with others to im- 
prisonment 27 Sept. ,, 

Canadian Pacific Railway completed about 2,900 
miles ; first through train from Montreal to Van- 
couver 8 Nov. ,, 

[First public daily train 28 June, 1886.] 
Message of congratulation from the Queen to the 

people of Canada 6 Nov. ,, 

Trial of Louis Riel at Regina 20 July ; convicted 
1 Aug. ; 28 prisoners plead guilty to treason 
felony 5 Aug. ; appeal for Riel on ground of 
insanity disallowed 10 Sept. ; appeal dismissed by 
privy council, London, 22 Oct. ; Riel executed near 

Regina 16 Nov. „ 

French demonstrations against the government at 

Montreal and Quebec without rioting 17 Nov. „ 
Eight Indian murderers hanged at Battleford 

27 Nov. ,, 
Seizure of American vessel for illegal fishing in the 
Bay of Fundy announced about 24 April ; released 

about 27 April, 1S86 
David J. Adams, U.S. fishing vessel, seized atDigby, 
Nova Scotia, for alleged illegal practices, an- 
nounced 8 May (captain fined 19 July); the 
Americans seize the Sisters, a Canadian smack, 
in retaliation (released 30 May) ; Mr. Bayard, 
U.S. minister, appeals to the British government 
for release of David J. Adams ; Canadian armed 
fleet sent out ; new legislation at Ottawa May, ,, 
Seizure and counter-seizure of 35 vessels . . 1886-7 
General amnesty to all persons implicated in the 

rebellion, except murderers . . 9 Jvdy, 1886 
Dissolution of Parliament ... 17 Jan. 1887 
Sir Alexander Campbell appointed high com- 
missioner for Canada in London in succession to 

sir Charles Tupper Feb. ,, 

Elections, majority for government 49, 23 Feb. ; 

House opened 13 April, „ 

Fisheries Retaliation Bill passed by the United 

States congress .... 3 March, ,, 

Mr. Win. O'Brien, editorof United Ireland, arrives 
at Montreal on a mission n May ; visits Ottawa, 
Toronto, &c. ; generally unsuccessful, and fre- 
quently stoned ; left .... 28 May, „ 
Joint commission on fisheries dispute (3 British, 
including Mr. J. Chamberlain, and 3 United 
States) appointed . . . about 30 Aug. „ 
British vessels seized by United States authorities 

in N. Pacific waters . . 2, 9, 12, 17 Aug. ,, 
Great railway bridge over the St. Lawrence at 

Lachine completed .... 30 July, ,, 
Arrangements made for a fortnightly mail service, 
&c, from London to the East by the Pacific 
Railway by government subsidies . . Sept. ,, 
Treaty respecting fisheries signed at Washington, 

U.S. (see Fisheries) 15 Feb. 1888 

The senate refuses to ratify . . .21 Aug. ,, 
The David J. Adams and Ella Doughty, the American 

fishing vessels, released ... 28 Feb. „ 

The bill for trade reciprocity with United States 

negatived after 15 days' debate . . 7 April, , 
The marquis of Lansdowne leaves Canada 23 May ; 



succeeded by Lord Stanley of Preston (see Salisbury 
Admin.) ; who took the oath . . 11 June, 1 

Commissioners report the capability of the great 
Mackenzie basin, &c. (about 1,260,000 square 
miles) for colonization ; announced . . Sept. 

Proposed extension by Manitoba of the Red River 
railway across the Pacific railway ; opposed by 
the Canadian Pacific Company as interfering 
with their monopoly, and disallowed by the 
Dominion parliament ; a compromise agreed to ; 
the Manitoba government determine to proceed ; 
the Canadian company resists, Oct. ; conflict 
between the men, the company successful, 26 
Oct. ; decision of the supreme court in favour of 
Manitoba announced 23 Dec. ; leave given to cross 
the line . 28 Jan. 1 

Proposal of a petition to the Queen to give the 
governor-general independent action in foreign 
affairs negatived by Parliament (94-66) 18 Feb. 

Jesuits' estate act, restoring property to them, 
much opposed by Protestants in Quebec ; their 
petition against the act disallowed by govern- 
ment Aug. 

Destructive storm from Ontario to Quebec, 14 Jan. 1 

Parliament opened, general prosperity announced 

16 Jan. 

The Commons of the Dominion unanimously vote 
a resolution of adhesion to the mother country ; 
a copy to be sent to the queen . . 29 Jan. 

The Manitoba railway named the Great Northern 
railway of Canada Jan. 

Crowfoot, the lawyer chief of the Blackfeet Indians 
dies, sending a message of thanks for kindness 
received from the government . . 26 April 

Resignation of gen. Middleton, commander of 
militia (under censure) . . about 24 June, 

David Crockett, U.S. schooner, seized for illegal 
fishing, near Prince Edward Island, released on 
bond, reported 28 Sept. 

John Reginald Birchall, an educated Englishman, 
tried at Woodstock, Ontario, for the murder in 
Niagara swamp, of Mr. F. J. Benwell (whom he 
had decoyed from England into a farming part- 
nership), 17 Feb. Birchall wrote a forged letter 
to Col. Benwell, requesting him to send 500Z. to 
his son : evidence circumstantial ; eight days' 
trial; Birchall convicted 11.45 p.m.', 29 Sept. ; 
executed ...... 14 Nov. 

The Indians of Ontario and Quebec, at a meeting 
on 21 Nov., agree to petition the government to 
release them from the political franchise, and to 
permit them to elect their own chiefs as formerly, 
still remaining subject to the queen ; petition 
presented, and reserved for consideration, Dec. 
1890 ; parliament dissolved . . .4 Feb. 1 

Sir John Macdonald, the premier, and the con- 
servatives, propose reciprocity with the United 
States, restricted to natural products ; Mr. 
Laurier and the liberals propose unrestricted 
reciprocity 

Elections ; estimated result, for the government, 
124 ; for the opposition, 91 . . 5 March, 

The Canadian Pacific railway completed by giving 
an entrance to New York over the New York 
central lines, by agreement between the com- 
panies . . . . . . .28 March 

The new parliament opened by lord Stanley, 

30 April, 

Death of sir John Macdonald, aged 76, greatly 

lamented, 6 June ; public funeral at Kingston, 

10, 11 June, 

The lion. John Joseph C. Abbott becomes premier, 

14 June, 
[K.C.M.G. 24 May.] 

Motion in favour of unrestricted reciprocity with 
the United States, after 15 days' debate, rejected 
in the commons, by a government majority of 26, 

29 July, 

Great strike in the lumber mills at Ottawa begins 

14 Sept. 

Sir Hector Louis Langevin, minister of public 
works, and his friend, the hon. Thomas 
McGreevy, an active ministerialist M.P., and 
other officials, charged by Mr. Tarte, M.P., a jour- 
nalist, with corruption in relation to contracts 
for government works in 1S90 ; the matter re- 
ferred to the standing committee on privileges. 
and elections, which met 21 July ; sir H. 



CANAL BOATS. 



175 



CANARY ISLANDS. 



Langevin makes his defence, u Aug. ; his re- 
signation as minister accepted, 7 Sept. ; Mr. 
T. McGreevy makes damaging admissions, and 
retires to the United States ; the committee in 
their report exonerate sir H. Langevin from all 
charges, except that of negligence ; they censure 
Mr. T. McGreevy, and certain officials, 14 Sept. 1891 

Report adopted by the house . . 25 Sept. „ 

The St. Clair tunnel connecting the Canadian and 
the United States railways running to Chicago 
opened by sir Henry Tyler, chairman of the 
Grand Trunk railway . . . .19 Sept. ,, 

Lady Macdonald created a peeress as baroness 
Macdonald of Earnscliffe .... Oct. ,, 

Very large crop of wheat in the N.W. territories, 

end of Nov. ,, 

In consequence of the restriction of Newfoundland 
in its supply of herring bait to Canadian fisher- 
men, the Dominion government imposes a duty 
on imported Newfoundland fish . . 8 Dec. ,, 

Mr. Nicholas Conolly and Mr. Thomas McGreevy 
committed for trial .... 24 Dec. ,, 

Lachute, on the Canadian Pacific line, burnt, 

7 Jan. 1892 

Meeting at Washington of the representatives of 
Canada and the United States to consider reci- 
procity, no result .... 10-15 F erj - >> 

Negotiations broken off . . . .20 June, „ 

The dominion parliament opened by lord Stanley 
of Preston ... . . 24 Feb. ,, 

Difficulty with Newfoundland ended ; return to the 
statiis of 1889 21 May, ,, 

The hon. Alexander Mackenzie, originally a Scotch 
mason, came to Canada and gradually rose till he 
became liberal premier, 1873-8 ; he passed several 
important acts and promoted great public works ; 
visited Great Britain and was received at Windsor, 
1875 ; died aged 70 . . . . 17 April, ,, 

Motion for a new reciprocity tariff with Great 
Britain, adopted by the commons at Ottawa 
(98 — 64) , 25 April, ,, 

CANAL BOATS, used as dwellings; an act 
passed for their registration and regulation, 14 Aug. 
1877 (40 & 41 Vict. c. 60) ; amended, 1884. M. 
ltigoni's application of mechanical traction to canal 
boats by means of an endless cable of Bessemer 
steel, set in motion by fixed engines ; tried between 
Antwerp and Liege, Sep. 1882. 

CANALS (artificial watercourses). The im- 
perial canal in China, commenced in the 13th 
century, is said to pass over 2000 miles, and to 41 
cities ; see Ganges, Suez, and Panama. 

The canal of Languedoc (Canal du Midi) which joins 
the Mediterranean with the Atlantic Ocean, was 

completed 1681 

That of Orleans from the Loire to the Seine com- 
menced 1675 

Burgundy canal 1775 

That between the Baltic and the North Sea, at Kiel, 

opened 1785 

That of Bourbon, between the Seine and Oise, 

commenced 1790 

Seine and Loire, opened 1791 

That from the Cattegat to the Baltic . . 1794-1800 
The great American Erie canal, 363 miles in length, 

was commenced 1817 

That of Amsterdam to the sea .... 1819-25 

Ganges canal completed 1854 

Canal between Amsterdam and the North Sea 

opened 1 Nov. 1876 

Grand canal connecting the Atlantic and Medi- 
terranean (between Bordeaux and Narbonne) 

proposed May, 1884 

Baltic and North Sea canal (61 miles long) proposed 

Jan. 1884 ; completed (see Baltic) . . 6 April, 1891 
Inland navigation congress at Brussels opened 

25 May, 1885 
Manchester ship canal projected (see under Man- 
chester) „ 

Railway and Canal Traffic Act passed 10 Aug. 1888 

Fourth international congress on inland navigation, 
Manchester, 28-31 July, 1890 ; fifth, Paris, 21 July, 1892 
(See Ganges, Suez canal and 1 unja'ib.) 



BfilTlSU CANALS. 

The first was by Henry I., when the Trent was joined) 
to the Witham, 1134. 

Francis Mathew in 1656, and Andrew Yarranton in 1677,. 
in vain strongly urged improvement in internal navi- 
gation. 

In England there are said to be 2800 miles of canals, and. 
2500 miles of rivers, taking the length of those only- 
that are navigable— total, 5300 miles. (Mr. Porter, iii_ 
1851, says 4000 miles.) 

In Ireland there are 300 miles of canals ; 150 of navigable 
rivers ; and 60 miles of the Shannon, navigable below 
Limerick ; in all, 510 miles. Williams. 

The prosperity of canals, for a time largely checked by 
the formation of railways, is now greatly revived ; ancfc 
railways are connected with them (1878-1889). 

INLAND NAVIGATION. 

New river commenced 

Brought to London 

Thames made navigable to Oxford 

Kennett navigable to Reading 

Caermarthenshire canal 

Droitwich to the Severn 

Duke of Bridgewater's navigation (first great canal) 

commenced (see Bridge water) 

Northampton navigation 

Dublin to the Shannon (the Grand) . . 1765. 

Stafford and Worcester, commenced 

Grand Trunk (Trent and Mersey) commenced by 

Brindley 

Forth to Clyde, commenced 

Birmingham to Bilston 

Oxford to Coventry, commenced .... 
Lea made navigable from Hertford to Ware, 1739 ; 

to London 

Leeds to Liverpool 

Moukland (Scotland), commenced . . . . 

Ellesmere and Chester 

Basingstoke canal begun 

Liverpool to Wigan 

Stroud to the Severn 

Staffordshire canal, begun 

Stourbridge canal, completed 

Runcorn to Manchester 

Mersey, opened 

Chesterfield to the Trent 

Belfast to Lough Neagh 

Severn to the Thames, completed .... 

Forth and Clyde, completed 

Bradford, completed . • 

Grand Junction, begun 

Birmingham and Coventry 

Monastereven to Athy 

Worcester and Birmingham . » . 

Manchester, Bolton, and Bury 

Warwick and Birmingham 

Crinan, Argyllshire, cut 



1609- 
1613. 
1624- 
1715- 
i75^ 



!759- 
1761: 
178S 



i 7 6£ 
176E. 

1769. 

177c 



1774- 
I77S 
177*;. 



1789. 
1790 



793— 



1793- 
i8oe 
179* 



179& 

i79 & 
1 799,. 
1800 

i8or 



Barnsley, cut 
Rochdale, act passed 
Huddersfield, act passed 
Derby, completed .... 
Hereford and Gloucester ' 
Paddington Canal begmi . 
Ken net and Avon, opened . 
Peak-forest canal, completed . 
Thames to Fenny Stratford . 
Buckingham canal .... 
Grand Surrey, act passed 
Brecknock canal .... 
Caledonian canal begun 
Ellesmere aqueduct .... 
Ashby-de-la-Zouch, opened . 
i Royal Military canal, Hythe to Rye . 
Aberdeen, completed . 
Glasgow and Ardrossan, opened 
Leeds and Liverpool, opened 

Wye and Avon 

Edinburgh and Glasgow Union . 

Sheffield, completed .... 

Regent's canal, opened 

Caledonian canal, completed 

Birmingham ami Liverpool, begun 

Gloucester and Berkeley, ship-canal, completed 

Norwich and Lowestoft navigation opened . 

CANARY ISLANDS (N. W. Africa), known 
to the ancients as the Fortunate Isles. Thev were- 



1803. 
1805 



xSoy- 



30 Oct. 



i8ir 
1816 

i8i8' 
1819 
1820 
1822 
1826. 
1827 



CANCER HOSPITAL. 



176 



CANDIA. 



re-discovered by a Norman named Bethencourt, 
about 1400 ; his descendants sold them to the 
Spaniards, who became masters, 1483. The canary- 
bird, a native of these isles, brought to England 
■about 1500. Teneriflf'e is the largest island. Ferro, 
the most south-western, was appointed the French 
•meridian by Louis XIII. in 1632. 

CANCER HOSPITAL (Free), Brompton, 
S.~W. London, was founded in 1851 by the late 
■Dr. William Marsden (born Aug. 1796), who actively 
superintended it till his death, 16 Jan. 1867. The 
foundation stone of the building was laid by Miss 
,(afcerwards Baroness) Burdett Coutts, an early 
liberal benefactor, 30 May, 1859. See Free Hospital, 
founded by Dr. Marsden in 1828. 

CANDAHAR, a province of Afghanistan held 
'by Duranis and Ghilzais. Candahar, the capital, 
is said to have been founded by Alexander the 
•Great (334-323 B.C.) After being subject to suc- 
cessive rulers of India, it was made capital of 
Afghanistan by Ahmed Shah, 1747, but the seat of 
-•government was transferred to Cabul in 1774. 
'Taken and held bythe British 7 Aug. 1839 to 22 May, 1842 
<Jen. Nott (with major Rawlinson and major Lane) 

defeated the Afghans near here. Jan. and June, „ 
The government of Candahar conferred on Shere 
Ali (a cousin of the late ameer Shere Ali), with the 
title of Wali, by the viceroy of India . April, 1880 
Shere Ali resigned, and went to Calcutta in Dec. ,, 
After the disaster of Maiwand, 27 July, 1880, Can- 
dahar was held by British during the winter 1880-1 
In the house of lords on the earl of Lytton's mo- 
tion to retain Candahar, 165 voted for its reten- 
tion, 76 against 5 March, 1881 

'The house of commons, on Mr. Stanhope's motion 
for retention, 336 voted against it ; 216 for it, 

24-26 March, ,, 
•Candahar evacuated by the British, 16-21 April, ,, 
Sirdar Kashira Khan (on behalf of Abdur-rahman, 

ameer of Cabul) enters Candahar . 16 April, ,, 
Invasion of Ayoob Khan ; he defeats the ameer's 
army at Karez-i-Atta, 26 July ; enters Candahar. 

30 July, ,, 
After a severe conflict, 22 Sept., the ameer enters 

Candahar 30 Sept. ,, 

See Afghanistan. 

CANDIA, the mediaeval name (now disused) of 
Crete, of which Candia is the capital, an island in 
the Mediterranean Sea, mythically celebrated for 
its 100 cities, its centre Mount Ida, the laws of its 
Mng Minos, and its labyrinth to secure the Mino- 
taur. It was conquered by the Romans 68 B.C. 
Population -estimated 1889, 210,000. 

Seized by the Saracens a.d. 

Re-taken by the Greeks 

Sold to the Venetians .... Aug. 

Rebelled ; reduced 

Gained by the Turks, after a twenty-four years' 
siege, during which more than 200,000 men 

perished 1669 

Ceded to the Egyptian pacha 1830 

"Restored to Turkey 1840 

Insurrections suppressed, 1841 ; by conciliation. . 1858 
■persecution- of the Christians . . . 31 July, 1859 
The Christians demand redress of grievances, June, 1866 
'They establish a " sacred battalion " . 12 Aug. ,, 
Publish an address to the powers protecting Greece, 

21 Aug. „ 
The Cretan general assembly proclaim the abolition 
of the Turkish authority in Candia, and union 

with Greece 2 Sept. ,, 

Commencement of hostilities : the Turkish army 

commanded by Mustapha Pacha . .11 Sept. ,, 
•Greeks victorious in several conflicts, Sept. and Oct. „ 
The Greek steamer Panhellenion begins to convey 

volunteers, cfec. , to Candia . . . Oct. ,, 
Monastery of Arkadi besieged ; blown up by the 

defenders ; great loss on both sides . 26N0V. ,, 
Proposition of Austria, Prussia, Italy, and Switzer- 
land to the sultan to give up Candia, 28 March ; 
.declined . .... 31 March, 1S67 



23 



1204 
1364 



Many defenceless villages said to be burnt June, 

Collective note from Russia and other powers urging 
the Porte to suspend hostilities . 15 June, 

Indecisive conflicts . . . . . . July, 

The Arkadi Greek steamer, after running the block- 
ade 22 times, landing Greek volunteers, and 
bringing away women and children, destroyed by 
the Turkish vessel Izcddin . . . io Aug. 

Assembly of delegates meet the vizier . 22 Sept. 

Insurrection subsides ; the grand vizier arrives, 28 
Sept. ; proclaims an amnesty, and promises re- 
forms 5 Nov. 

Successful blockade running by the Greeks ; Omar 
Pasha, the Turkish general, resigns his command 
in the island Nov. 

The delegates' demands granted . .11 Dec. 

The war renewed (indecisive) . . . Feb. 

The Petropaulakes landed about 2500 men on oppo- 
site sides of the isle, 10 Dec. , but failed in their 
attempt to unite ; after several skirmishes, in 
which they lost about 650 men, all surrendered, 
(and were sent to Greece) . . .26 Dec. 

The provisional government surrendered 30 Dec. 

The new Turkish governor, Omer Fenizi, arrived, 
and the blockade ended . . .8 March, 

Insurrection announced, with provisional govern- 
ment about 20 Dec. 

Union with Greece proclaimed, 31 Jan. ; decreed 
by a general assembly . . . n Feb. 

Insurrection unsubdued ; anarchy ; Berlin treaty 
declares for enforcing legal and political reforms, 

13 July, 

Pacification by Mukhtar Pasha' through concession 
of self-government, &c. . . . . . Oct. 

Insurrection on account of religious difficulties 

8 Feb. 

The christian notables appeal to the sultan for a 
christian governor, and to Greece and other 
powers for mediation . . about 1 March, 

Photiad'es, reappointed governor for five years an- 
nounced 6 March, 

Temporary disturbances, order restored 1-6 May, 

Anarchy through party strife of Christians and 
Mahometans, May-June ; Turkish troops sent to 
Crete, 13 June; provisional government formed 
to restore order 13 June, 

Mahmoud Djellalledin pasha, Turkish com- 
missioner, well received ; agitation calmed by his 
inquiries, June 14 etseq. An insurgent assembly 
demands a constituent assembly, judicial reforms, 
and dismissal of the governor, the people neutral 
about 1 July ; the sultan sends 20,000?. T. , 6 
July ; Mahmoud Djellalledin pasha informs a 
deputation that their demands must be referred 
to the sultan, 8 July ; he is suddenly recalled, 

8 July, 

Asserted influence of Greek agitators, 22 July ; 
insurrection increasing ; call for annexation to 
Greece, or British protection, about 25 July ; 
Djavad pasha arrives to take command of the 
troops . 1 Aug. 

Riza pasha appointed temporary governor, with 
extra powers for repressing disorder . 4 Aug. 

Fighting going on, villages burnt, reported 5 Aug. 

Note from the Greek government to the powers, 
urging intervention in Crete, 6 Aug. ; they 
decline, leaving the settlement to the Sultan, 9-12 
Aug. ; about 17,000 Turkish troops in Crete, 
reported 7 Aug. 

Riza Pasha, the governor, recalled ; replaced by 
Shakir pasha, who arrives with plenary powers, 
13 Aug. ; proclaims martial law . . 14 Aug. 

Partial submission of the insurgents ; amnesty 
promised 17 Aug. 

Tranquillity gradually restored by Turkish moderate 
firmness ....... Sept. 

The Notables address the sultan, thanking him for 
his good government .... 28 Jan. 

Turkish circular to the great powers, reporting 
the pacification of Crete, 6 March ; amnesty, 
except to 18 persons convicted of crimes, an- 
nounced 11 March, 

Great return of refugees from Greece about 10 May, 

Djevad pasha appointed governor about 7 July, in 
room of Shakir pasha 

Mahmoud Djellalledin pasha appointed governor 
(Djevad pasha having been made grand vizier) 
about 8 Sept. 



1S77 



CANDLEMAS DAY. 



177 



CANNON. 



CANDLEMAS DAY, 2 Feb. is kept in the 
church in memory of the purification of the Virgin, 
who presented the infant Jesus in the Temple. 
From the number of candles lit (it is said in 
memory of Simeon's song, Luke ii. , 32, " a Light to 
lighten the Gentiles," &c), this festival was called 
Candlemas, as well as the Purification. Its origin 
is ascribed by Bede to pope Gelasius in the 5th 
century. The practice of lighting the churches was 
forbidden by order of council, 2 £dw. VI. 1548; but 
is still continued in the church of Rome. Candle- 
mas is a Scotch quarter-day. 

CANDLES. The Roman candles were com- 
posed of string surrounded by wax, or dipped in 
pitch. Splinters of wood fatted were used for light 
among the lower classes in England, about 1300. 
Wax candles were little used, and dipped candles 
were usually burnt. The Wax Chandlers' com- 
pany was incorporated 1483. Mould candles are 
said to be the invention of the sieur Le Brez, of 
Paris. Spermaceti candles are of modern manu- 
facture. The Chinese make candles from wax ob- 
tained from the candleberry-tree (myrica cerifera) . 
The duty upon candles made in England, imposed 
in 1709, amounted to about 500,000/. annually 
Avhen it was repealed in 1 831. Very great improve- 
ments in the manufacture of candles are due to the 
researches on oils and fats, carried on by "the 
father of the fatty acids," Chevreul, since 1811, 
and published in 1823. He died 9 April, 
1889, aged 102. At Price's manufactory at 
Lambeth, the principles involved in many patents 
are carried into execution ; including those of 
Gwynne (1840), Jones and Price (1842), and Wil- 
son in 1844, for candles which require no snuffing 
(termed composite). Palm and cocoa-nut oils are 
now extensively used. In i860, at the Belmont 
works 900 persons were employed, and in winter 
100 tons (7000/. worth) of candles were manufactured 
weekly. Candles are manufactured at Belmont 
from the mineral oil of tar brought from Rangoon 
in the Burmese empire, and from Trinidad. In 
1870 the manufacture of candles from a mineral 
substance named ozokerit began. Electric candles 
of Jablochkoff and Jamin ; see under Electricity. 

CANDLESTICKS (or lamp-stands) with 
seven branches were regarded as emblematical of 
the priest's office, and were engraven on their seals, 
cups, and tombs. Bezaleel made " a candlestick of 
pure gold" for the tabernacle, B.C. 1491 {Exod. 
xxxvii. 17). Candlesticks were used in Britain in 
the days of king Edgar, 959 ("silver candelabra 
and gilt candelabra well and honourably made "). 

CANDY (Ceylon), was taken by a British de- 
tachment, 20 Feb. 1803, who capitulated 23 June 
following, on account of its unhealthiness, and 
many were treacherously massacred at Colombo, 
26 June. The war was renewed in Oct. 1814; the 
king was made prisoner by general Brownrigg, 
19 Feb. 181 5; and the sovereignty was vested in 
Great Britain, 2 March, 1815. 

CANICULAR PERIOD, see Boy-star. 

CANNZE (Apulia). Here, on 2 Aug. 216 B.C., 
Hannibal with 50,000 Africans, Gauls, and Spaniards, 
defeated iEmilius Paulus and Terentius VaiTO, with 
88,000 Romans, and their allies. This great army 
was nearly annihilated, the far greater part being 
slain on the field, including the consul vEmilius 
Paulus, his chief officers, above 80 senators, with 
many other persons of high rank. Hannibal is 
said to have lost about 6,000 men. The other con- 
sul, Vano, who had escaped with some cavalry, con- 
ducted himself with so much discretion and firmness 



after the battle, that the senate, instead oi blaming 
him for the defeat, thanked him for not despairing 
of the Roman Commonwealth. 

CANNIBAL, an Indian term, thought to be 
a form of Carribal ; as Columbus, in 1493, found 
the Caribs of the West Indies gross cannibals. 
Anthropophagi (man- eaters) are mentioned by 
Homer and Herodotus ; and the practice still exists 
in some of the South Sea Islands and other savage 
countries. For Mignonette case, see Wrecks, 1884. 
Superstitious cannibalism practised in Hayti, 1884. 
A number of Melanesian labourers said to have 
killed and eaten the entire crew of a ship convey- 
ing them to Apia, Navigators Island . . Dec. 1886 

CANNING ADMINISTRATION.* The 
illness of lord Liverpool, Feb., led to the formation 
of this administration, 24-30 April, 1827. Mr. 
Canning died 8 Aug. following : see Goderich. 
George Canning, first lord of the treasury and chancellor 

of the exchequer. 
Earl of Harrowby, president of the council. 
Duke of Portland, lord privy seal. 
Viscount Dudley, viscount Goderich, and Mr. Sturges 

Bourne, foreign, colonial, and home secretaries. 
W. W. Wynn, president of the India board. 
Win. Huskisson, board of trade. 
Lord Palmerston, secretary at ivar. 
Lord Bexley, chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. 
Duke of Clarence, lord high admiral. 
Lord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor, &c. 
Marquis of Lansdowne, without office; afterwards home 

secretary. 
Earl of Carlisle, woods and forests. 

CANNON. Gibbon describes a cannon em- 
ployed by Mahomet IT. at the siege of Adrianople, 
1453 ; see Artillery. 

The first cannon cast in England was by Hugget, at 
Uckfleld, Sussex, 1543. 

Mons Meg, a large cannon (above 13 ft. long, 20 
inches calibre) in Edinburgh castle, said to have 
been cast at Mons in Hainault, in i486, but more 
probably forged at Castle Douglas, Galloway, by 
three brothers named M'Kim, and presented by 
them to James II. at the siege of Thrieve castle, 
1455. It was removed to London, 1754 ; but, at 
the request of sir Walter Scott, restored to Edin- 
burgh, 1829. 

A cannon of Mahomet II. , dated 1464, presented to 
the British government by the sultan of Turkey, 
and placed in the Artillery Museum, Woolwich, 
1868. 

Moolk-e-Maedan, an Indian bronze gun of Beejapoor, 
calibre 23 inches ; 17th century. 

At Ehrenbreitstein castle, ox>posite Coblentz on the 
Rhine, is a cannon, eighteen feet and a half long, 
a foot and a half in diameter in the bore, and 
three feet four inches in the breech ; the ball for 
it weighs i8olb., and its charge of powder 941b. 
It was made by one Simon 1529 

In Dover castle is a brass gun (called queen Eliza- 
beth's pocket pistol), 24 feet long, a present from 
Charles V. to Henry VIII. 

Pine specimens in the. Tower of London. 

A leathern cannon fired three times in the King's 
park, Edinburgh. Phillips . . 23 Oct. 1788 

The Turkish piece, now in St. James's park, was 
taken by the French at Alexandria ; but was re- 
taken, and placed in the park . . March, 1803 

Messrs. Horsfall's monster wrought-iron gun was 
completed in May, 1856, at Liverpool. Its length 
is 15 feet to inches, and its weight 21 tons 17 cwt. 
1 qr. 14ft. Its cost was 3500?. With a charge of 
25th. it struck a target 2000 yards' distance. It 
has been since presented to government. 



* George Canning was born 11 April, 1770 
foreign secretary in the Portland administration, 1807; 
fought a duel with Id. Castlereagh and resigned, 1800 : 
president of the India board in 1820 ; disapproved of the 
queen's trial and resigned in 1821 ; appointed governor- 
general of India in 1822, but became soon after 1'i'irign 
secretary, and remained such till 1827, when he became 
premier. He died 8 Aug. same year. 

N 



CANNON. 



178 



CANNON. 



Rifled ordnance committee appointed . 20 Aug. 

Recently great improvements have been made in 
the construction of cannon, by Messrs. Whit- 
worth, Mallet, Armstrong, and others. Mr. Wm. 
G. Armstrong knighted ... 18 Feb. 

He had been working for four years on gun-making, 
and had succeeded in producing "a breech-load- 
ing rifled wrought-iron gun of great durability 
and of extreme lightness, combining a great ex- 
tent of range and extraordinary accuracy." The 
range of a 32-lb. gun, charged with 51b. of powder, 
was a little more than 5 miles. The accuracy of 
the Armstrong gun is said at equal distances to 
be fifty-seven times more than that of our com- 
mon artillery, which it greatly exceeded also in 
•destructive effects. The government engaged the 
services of sir W. Armstrong for ten years (com- 
mencing with 1855) for 2o,oooZ., as consulting 
engineer of rifled ordnance ... 22 Feb. 

A parliamentary committee on ordnance was ap- 
pointed 20 Feb. , and reported . . 23 July, 

Sir W. Armstrong resigned his appointment 5 Feb. 

His gun said to be very effective, in the attack on 
the Chinese forts at Taku . . .21 Aug. 

Mr. Whitworth's guns and rifles greatly commended 

18' 

An American cannon, weighing 35 tons, stated to 
be the largest in the world, cast . . . . 

Creat endeavours made to improve the construction 
of cannon, to counterbalance the strength given 
to ships of war by iron plates ; trials at Shoe- 
buryness, Essex 

Targets of the thickness of the iron sides of the 
Warrior, three 5-inch relates f wrought iron 
'bolted together, pierced three times by 156ft. 
■shot from an Armstrong gun smooth bore, 300ft., 
muzzle-loaded with charges of 40ft. of powder, 
twice, and once of 50ft. ... 8 April, 

The Horsfallgun, mentioned above, with a charge 
of 75ft. of powder and a shot of 270ft., smashed a 
Warrior target 16 Sept. 

Mr. Whitworth's shells sent through si-inch iron 
plates and wood-work behind . . 12 Nov. 

Clark's target destroyed . . . .7 July, 

Armstrong's gun " Big Will" tried and pronounced 
to be perfect ; weight, 22 tons ; length, 15 feet ; 
range with shot weighing 510ft. , 748 to 4x87 yards 

19 Nov. 

Reed's target tried successfully . .'.■«■ 8 Dec. 

The competitive trial between the Armstrong and 
Whitworth guns began . . . 1 April, 

Iron-plate commission experiments close 4 Aug. 

Capt. Palliser, afterwards sir W., by experiment, 
has shown that iron shot cast in cold iron moulds 
instead of hot sand, is much harder, and equals 
steel ; he also suggested the lining cast-iron guns 
with wrought-iron exits, which is stated to be 
successful 

He received 24,000?. from the government, besides 
other remuneration 

'The competitive trials of Armstrong's and Whit- 
worth's cannon upon the Alfred target-ship at 
Portsmouth closed . . . .15 Nov. 

•" Hercules target," 4 ft. 2 in. thick, n£ inches of 
iron, resists 300 pounders . . . June, 

National Artillery Association (see Artillery) . . 

Duel between the Bellerophon, with a 125-ton g-inch 
rifled naval service gun with steel bolts (250 ft.), 
and powder charge of 48ft., and the single gun 
turret of the Royal Sovereign by capt. Cowper 
Coles : the equilibrium of the turret base undis- 
turbed by any amount of pounding . 15 June, 

At Shoeburyness Palliser's chilled metal shot 
(250ft.) by 43 ft. of powder in a q-ineh muzzle- 
loading wrought-iron Woolwich rifle gun, is sent 
through a target of 8 inches rolled iron, 18 inches 
teak, and \ inch iron, and about 20 feet beyond, 

13 Sept. 

JHis patent is dated 27 May, 1863. Mr. James 
Nasmyth had previously suggested the use of 
chilled iron. ] 

Many experiments made with cannon and targets at 
Shoeburyness 

The American 15-inch naval gun, with a cast-iron 
spherical shot 453ft. , greatly damages an 8-inch 
target ; other experiments at Shoeburyness, 

23 J" 1 }". 



1859 



DO-70 
i860 



Continued experiments at Shoeburyness ; Ply- 
mouth model fort, with 15-inch solid shield- 
plates, tried with 23-ton gun of 12-inch bore, 
bearing 600ft. Palliser shot ; exterior of fort de- 
stroyed ; interior intact ; — the 10-inch English 
gun shown to be superior to American and Prus- 
sian great guns .... 16-24 June, 

Capt. Moncrieffs protected barbette gun-carriage (in 
which the recoil is utilized for reloading), tried at 
Shoeburyness and proved successful . 2 Oct. 

Contest at Shoeburyness : the iron targets of Brown 
of Sheffield resist the Whitworth guns, 2 March, 

Palliser shot said to have failed in the Hercules, 

20 Jan. 

" Woolwich Infant," 35 tons ; largest gun then ever 
made ; length 16 feet 3 inches ; formed of a steel 
tube with coiled breech piece ; designed to fire a 
700ft. projectile, with 120ft. charge ; made at 
Woolwich in 1870 ; when tried in Dec. 1871, the 
inner tube cracked ; others made .... 

Duel between the Hotspur (with 25-ton 12-inch rifle 
gun, heaviest afloat, with Palliser's 600ft. shot, 
and 85ft: of powder), and the Glatton iron-clad, 
whose turret plates successfully resisted the 
attack (animals in the turret uninjured), 5 July, 

Col. Moncrieft's hydro-pneumatic carriage for artil- 
lery invented about April ; the principle claimed by 
sir Wm. Armstrong for hydraulic machine 1 1 Nov. 

Woolwich Infant. — Experimental gun constructing 
at Woolwich; 80 tons ; 27 feet long; for 1650 ft. 
shot ; 300 ft. of powder .... May, 

81-ton gun tried at Woolwich ; shot 1250 ft. ; 190 ft. 
of powder ; 12 men rammed in the charge ; shot 
penetrated 50 feet of sand ; tried successfully 
18 Sept. 1S75, 24-26 July, with 370 ft. of powder 

4 Aug. 

Gen. von Uehatius's steel bronze cannon making at 
Vienna, . Sept. 1875 ; reported successful, Sept. 

Sir Wm. Armstrong's 100-ton gun for Italy tried 
successfully at Spezzia, 2000 lb. shot and 330 ft. 
powder . . ... . . 21 Oct. 

81-ton (or 80-ton) gun tried at Shoeburyness for 
sea-range, with 1760 ft. Palliser shell 

27 Sept. et seq. 1876, and 1 Feb. 

Four 100-ton guns by Armstrong ordered by go- 
vernment March, 

A 100-ton gun tried at Woolwich, 13 June ; finally 
proved 16 July, 

Great guns by Krnpp successfully tried at Meppen, 
Hanover 5-8 Aug. 

[He has supplied thousands of cannon to different 
governments ; he died, aged 77, 14 July, 1887.] 

Breech-loading cannon ordered to be made Dec. 

Experiments with the 38-ton Thunderer gun (see 
Navy, 1879), 9 Dec. 1879 ; exploded when double- 
charged 3 Feb. 

One of Armstrong's 100-ton guns in the Duilio near 
Naples exploded .... 6 March, 

A Krupp gun, of 130 tons, cast for Italy . Oct. 

Mr. Hiram Stevens Maxim's machine-gun, in which 
the recoil is utilised for reloading and retiring 
until the store of ammunition is exhausted (de- 
scribed in " Nature," 5 March, 1885) . . . 

Sir Wm. Armstrong's 1 1 i-ton gun tried at Woolwich, 
length 43 ft. 8 in., charge 960 lbs. of gunpowder, 
weight of projectile 1800 lbs., range of about 8 
miles ; said to be the largest gun in the world 

June 

Manufacture of guns largely removed from Wool- 
wich ; about 56 per cent, transferred to private 
firms announced Nov. 

Zalinski gun for the projection of dynamite adopted 
by the United States for coast defence, Feb. 1889 ; 
by the British Government . . Feb. 

The Graydon torpedo projector announced March 

Messrs. Krupp, of Essen, make a gun weighing 
270,000 lbs., for Cronstadt ; reported 10 March, 

The Giffard gun, in which the propelling agent is 
liquified carbonic acid gas, the invention of M. 
Paul Giffard, a French engineer ; the gas is said 
to be cheaply manufactured, liquified, and stored ; 
many experiments on the continent reported 
successful, 1889-90 ; M. Giffard exhibited and 
discharged rifles, illustrating his inventions in 
London before a number of distinguished 
persons 18 July 

Lieut. James W. Graydon, late of U. S. Navy, 
invents the Graydon dynamite gun, in which 



1870 



187+ 
1876 

1877 
1878 
1879 



CANOE. 



179 



CANTEEBUEY. 



dynamite shells are discharged by means of con- 
densed air, the force of the dynamite being 
moderated by means of non-conductors of heat ; 
one of these guns manufactured by Messrs. 
Taunton & Co., of Birmingham . . . Jan. 1891 

The Hotchkiss Ordnance Company, registered 1887 ; 
their weapons were used with effect in sup- 
pressing the Indian revolt in the United States 

Dec. 1890 

Explosion of 6-in. gun, No. 3,131,687, on H.M.S. 
Cordelia in the Pacific ocean, killing 6 men 
(report from Sydney) . „ . .29 June, 1891 

CANOE. In the "Rob Roy" a very lightly 
•constructed canoe, " giving the pleasure of a yacht 
without the expense," Mr. J. Macgregor, in 1865, 
travelled about a thousand miles on the rivers and 
Jakes of Europe. His second cruise was on the 
Baltic. He explored the Suez canal, Nov., and the 
•rivers of Syria, Dec. 1868, and the canals and lakes 
of Holland in the summer of 187 1. The "Octoroon" 
(16 feet long, 23 inches broad) crossed the channel 
from Boulogne to Dover, in n hours, 19 Aug. 
1867. The Royal canoe club founded, 1866. The 
prince of Wales president, 1876. 
jtfr. Fowler crossed from Boulogne to-Sandgate 
standing in an india-rubber twin canoe (the Podo- 
scaplie), in 12 hours .... 19 Aug. 1878 

CANON OF SCBIPTITBE, see Bible. 

CANON, a piece of music in two or more parts, 
imitating each other. " Non nobis, Domine," by 
Birde (died 1523) is an early specimen. 

CANONBUET TOWEE, Islington, N. 
London, relie of ancient priory, built by Prior 
Bolton, of the order of St. John of Jerusalem, said 
io have been visited by queen Elizabeth. 

CANONICAL HOUES, see Breviary. 

CANONISATION of pious men and martyrs 
as saints, was instituted by pope Leo III., 800. 
Tallent. Every day in the calendar is now a 
saint's day. The first canonisation by papal autho- 
rity was of St. Udalricus, Ulric, in 993. Previously 
canonisation was the act of the bishops and people. 
Henault. On 8 June, 1862, the pope canonised 27 
Japanese, who had been put to death on 5 Feb. 
J £97, near Nagasaki, and 25 others, on 29 June, 
1867. Among persons canonised by pope Pius IX. 
in Oct. 1872, was the late queen of Naples. Sir 
Thomas More, Bishop John Fisher, and others were 
■canonised, Jan. 1887. See Bopes, 1881. 

CANONS, APOSTOLICAL, ascribed to the 
Apostles by Bellarmin and Baronius, by others to 
St. Clement, are certainly of much later date (since 
325). The Greek church allows 85, the Latin 50 of 
them. The first Ecclesiastical Canon was promul- 
gated 380. Usher. Canon law of the church. 
Gratian compiled a text-book of the canon law as 
Ix existed in his time, about 1130-50; it was intro- 
duced into England about 1 154; see Decretals. The 
present Canons and Constitutions of the Church of 
England, collected from former ordinances, were 
established in 1603 by the clergy in convocation, 
and ratified by king James I., 1604. A new body 
of canons formed by the convocation in 1640, were 
■declared unlawful by the commons, 16 Dee. 1641. — 
An intermediate class of religious, between priests 
and monks, in the 8th century, were termed canons, 
as living by a rule. Canons in some of our cathedrals 
and collegiate churches resemble the prebendaries 
in others. The endowment of canonrics was facili- 
tated by the Cathedrals Act, 1873. 

CANOPUS, see Alexandria. 

CANOSSA, a castle in Modena. Here the 
emperor Henry IV. of Germany, submitted to 



penance imposed by his enemy, pope Gregory VII. 
(Hildebrand), then living at the castle, the resi- 
dence of the great countess Matilda. Henry was 
exposed for several days to the inclemency of 
winter, Jan. 1077, till the pope admitted him, and 
granted absolution. Matilda greatly inci e ised the 
temporal power of the papacy by bequeathing to it 
her lai-ge estates, to the injury of her second hus- 
band, Guelph, duke of Bavaria. A Canossa monu- 
ment, near Harzburg, against the papacy, was in- 
augurated 26 Aug. 1877. 

CANTEEBUEY (Kent), the Durovernum of 
the Romans, and capital of Ethelbert, king of Kent, 
who reigned 560-616. He was converted to Chris- 
tianity by Augustin, 596, upon whom he bestowed 
many favours, giving him land for an abbey and 
cathedral, dedicated to Christ, 602. St. Martin's 
church is said to be the oldest Saxon church in 
Britain. The riot at Boughton, near Canterbury, 
produced by a fanatic called Tom or Thorn, who 
assumed the name of sir "William Courtenav, oc- 
curred 28-31 May, 1838; see Thomites. The rail- 
way to London was completed in 1846. — The Arch- 
bishop is primate and metropolitan of all England, 
and the first peer in the realm, having precedency 
of all officers of state, and of all dukes not of the 
blood royal. Canterbury had formerly jurisdiction 
over Ireland, and the archbishop was styled a 
patriarch. This see has yielded to the Church of 
Rome 18 saints and 9 cardinals; and to the civil 
state of England, 12 lord chancellors and 4 lord trea- 
surers. This see was made superior to York, 1073 > 
see York. The revenue is valued in the king's 
books at 2816/. ~s. gd. Beatson. Present income, 
15,000/. The Cathedral was sacked by the Danes, 
ion, and burnt down 1067 ; rebuilt by Lanfranc 
and Anselm, and the choir completed by the prior 
Conrad in 1 130, and in which Becket was mur- 
dered, 1 1 70, was burnt 11 74. It was rebuilt by 
William of Sens (1174-78), and by "English 
William," 1178-84. A new nave was built and 
other parts, 1378-1410. The great central tower 
was erected by prior Goldstone about 1495. The 
gorgeous shrine of Becket was stripped at the 
reformation, and his bones burnt. Here were in- 
terred Edward the Black Prince, Henry IV., car- 
dinal Pole, and other distinguished persons. Part 
of the roof w r as destroyed by an accidental fire, 
and the edifice narrowly escaped, 3 Sept. 1872. The 
clock-tower was nearly on fire, 2 June, 1876. See 
Huguenots. Dr. Beaney, of Melbourne, bequeaths 
10,000/. to the city, announced July, 1891. Popu- 
lation, 1881, 21,848; 1891, 23,026. Great fire at 
the banacks ; estimated damage about 13,000/., 16 
Nov., 1891. 

By the Archbishop's court which existed before the 
Reformation, Thos. Watson, bishop of St. David's, 
was deprived for simony, 3 Aug. 1699. Dr. E. King, 
bishop of Lincoln, was cited before this court by 
Read and others, and appeared before the archbishop 
and the bishops of London, Winchester, Rochester, 
Oxford, and Salisbury (he was prosecuted for ritualistic 
practices connected with the holy communion 4 Dec. 
1887 at scij.) 12 Feb. He protested against the juris- 
diction of the court, and the case was adjourned 13 
Feb.; court adjourns 27 March ; met and decided to 
uphold its jurisdiction, 13 May, 1889. 

The trial of the bishop of Lincoln before the arch- 
bishop ami other bishops at Lambeth began (sir 
Horace Davey and others for the promoters of 
the suit, Dr. Phillihiore and others for the bishop) 

4-7, 20-25 Feb. 1890 

All the charges against the bishop were dismissed 
except two ; his practices of breaking the bread 
and taking the cup "not before 1 1 1 « - people)" and 
making the sign of the cross while pronouncing 
absolution and benediction, were declared to be 

N 2 



CANTERBURY. 



180 



CAOUTCHOUC. 



unjustifiable additions to the ceremonies of the 
church, and were ordered to he discontinued (no 
costs allowed on either side) . . 21 Nov. 
An appeal to the .judicial committee of the Privy 
Council, July, 1891 ; was dismissed . 2 Aug. 



602-605. 

605-619. 

619-624. 

624-630. 

631-653- 

655-664. 

668-690. 

693-731- 

731-734- 

735-741- 

741-758. 

759-762. 

763-790. 

790-803. 

803-829. 

829. 

830-870. 

870-889. 

891-923. 

923 (?) 

928-941. 

941-958. 

959-988. 

988-989. 

990-995. 

995-1006. 
1006-1011. 
1013-1020. 
1020-1038. 
1038-1050. 
1050-1052. 
1052-1070. 
1070-1089. 
1093-1109. 

1114-1122. 
1123-1136. 
1139-1161. 
1162-1170. 

1174-1184. 
1184-1190. 
1191; 



1206-1228. 
1229-1231. 
1233-1240. 
1240-1270. 
1272-1278. 
1279-1292. 
1293-1313. 
1313-1327. 
1327-1333- 
I333-I348- 
1348-1349. 

1349- 

1349-1366. 

1366-1368. 

1368-1374- 

1375-1381. 

1381-1396. 

1397-1398. 

1398. 

1399-1414. 

1414-1443. 

1443-1452. 

1452-1454. 

1454-1486. 

1486-1500. 

1501-1503. 

1503-1532- 

1533-1556. 

I556-I558- 

I559-I575- 

1576-1583- 

1583-1604. 

1604-1610. 



Archbisho2JS of Canterbury. 

St. Augustine, or Austin, died 26 May. 

St. Lawrence. 

St. Mellitus. 

Justus. 

St. Honorius. 

Deusdedit (Adeodatus). 

Theodore of Tarsus. 

Berhtuakl. 

Taetwine. 

Nothelm. 

Cuthbert. 

Breogwine. 

Jaenbehrt, or Lambert. 

iEthelheard. 

Wulfred. 

Fleogild. 

Ceolnoth 

jEthelred. 

Plegemund. 

^Ethelm. 

Wulfelm. 

Odo. 

St. Dunstan, d. 19 May. 

jEthelgar. 

Sigeric. 

jElfric. 

St. iElphage, murdered by the Danes, 19 April. 

Lyfing, or iElfstun. 

iEthelnoth. 

St. Eadsige. 

Robert of Jumieges. 

Stigand : deprived. 

St. Lanfranc, d. 24 May. 

Anselm. 
[See vacant 5 years.] 

Radulphus de Turbine. 

William de Curbellio. 

Theobald. 

Thomas a Becket : murdered 29 Dee. 
[See vacant.] 

Richard. 

Baldwin. 

Reginald Fitz-Joceline, died 26 Dec. 
[See vacant.] 

Hubert Walter. [Reginald the sub-prior, and 
John Grey, bishop of Norwich, were suc- 
cessively chosen, but set aside.] 

Stephen Langton, died 6 July. 

Richard Weathershed. 

Edmund de Abingdon. 

Boniface of Savoy. 

Robert Kilwarby (resigned). 

John Peckham. 

Robert Winchelsey. 

Walter Reynolds. 

Simon de Mepham. 

John Stratford. 

John de Ufford. 

Thomas Bradwardin. 

Simon Islip. 

Simon Langham (resigned). 

Wm. Whittelsey. 

Simon Sudbury, beheaded by the rebels, 14 
June. 

William Courtenay. 

Thos. Fitzalan or Arundel (attainted). 

Roger Walden (expelled). 

Tho. Arundel (restored). 

Henry Chieheley. 

John Stafford. 

John Kemp. 

Thomas Bouchier. 

John Morton. 

Henry Deane or Denny. 

Wm. Warham. 

Thos. Cranmer (burnt 21 March). 

Reginald Pole, d. 17 Nov. 

Matt. Parker, d. 17 May. 

Edm. Grindal, d. 6 July. 

John Whitgift, d. 29 Feb. 

Rd. Bancroft, d. 2 Nov. 



1611-1633. Geo. Abbot, d. 4 Aug. 
1633-1645. Wm. Laud (beheaded, 10 Jan.). 

[See vacant 16 years.] 
1660-1663. Wm. Juxon, d. 4 June. 
1663-1677. Gilb. Sheldon, d. 9 Nov. 
1678-T691. Wm. Sancroft (deprived 1 Feb.), d. 24 Not. 

1693. 
1691-1694. John Tillotson, d. 22 Nov. 
1695-1715. Thos. Tenison, d. 14 Dec. 
1 7 I 5 _I 737- Wm. Wake, d. 24 Jan. 
1737-1747. John Potter, d. 10 Oct. 
1747-1757. Thos. Herring, d. 13 Mar. 
1757-1758. Matt. Hutton, d. 19 Mar. 
1758-1768. Thos. Seeker, d. 3 Aug. 
1768-1783. Fred. Cornwallis, d. 19 Mar. 
1783-1805. John Moore, d. 18 Jan. 
1805-1828. Chas. Manners Sutton, d. 21 July. 
1828-1848. Wm. Howley, d. 11 Feb. 
1848-1862. John Bird Sumner, d. 6 Sept. 
1862-1868. Chas. Thos. Longley, d. 27 Oct. 
1868-1882. Archibald Campbell Tait, elected 4 Dec. ; <L 

3 Dec. 1882 
1882. Edward White Benson (trans, from Truro).. 

Dec, elected 29 Jan. 1883. 

CANTERBURY (New Zealand), a Church of 
England settlement founded in 1850. Population 
in 1854, 6000, in 1868, 54,000. During 1854-68, 
1,800,000^. expended on public works, principally 
from the current revenue ; in 1879, 89,268^. 

CANTERBURY TALES, by Geoffrey 
Chaucer, were written about 1364; and first printed? 
about 1475 or 1476 (by Caxton). Chaucer Society 
established 1867. 

CANTHARIDES, venomous green beetles 
(called Spanish flies), employed to raise blisters.. 
This use is ascribed to Aretseus of Cappadocia, 
about 50 B.C. 

CANTICLES, these are the Benedictus, Mag- 
nificat, Nunc dimittis, &c, in the Book of Common 
Prayer, and especially the " Song of Solomon." 

CANTILEVER, a large bracket used in archi- 
tecture and bridge building, primitively in Japan,, 
India, and China. It is defined as " a structure 
overhung from a fixed base." The principle was 
adopted in the Forth bridge and the Mississippi 
bridge, which see 

CANTON, founded about 200 B.C., the only 
city in China with which Europeans were allowed 
to trade, till the treaty of 29 Aug. 1842. Merchants 
arrived here in 1517. English factory established, 
1680. A fire destroying 15,000 houses, 1822. An 
inundation swept away 10,000 houses and rooo 
persons, Oct. 1833. Canton was taken by the British 
in 1857 ; restored, 1861. See China 1835, 1839, 
1856, 1861. Population estimated at 1,600,000 in- 
1890. 

CANTOR LECTURES, courses given an- 
nually at the rooms of the Society of Arts. The 
expenses are defrayed by a legacy from Dr. Theo- 
dore Edward Cantor, of the Indian civil service ; who 
died about 1859. The lectures began 7 Dec. 1863. 

CANULEIAN LAW, permitting the patri- 
cians and plebeians to intermarry, was passed at 
Rome 445 B.C. 

CAOUTCHOUC or India Rubber, an 

elastic resinous substance that exudes by incisions 
from several trees that grow in South America, 
Mexico, Africa, and Asia, especially Castillsa 
Hevea or Siphonia elastica, and Ficus clastica. 
Observed at Hayti by Columbus (Herrera) . . . 1493 

Described by Torquemada 161 5 

Discovered by La Condamine in Quito (termed by 

natives cahout-chou) ; brought to Europe about 1735 
Dr. Priestley said that he had seen "a substance 
excellently adapted to the purpose of wiping from 
paper the marks of a black lead pencil. " It was 
sold at the rate of 3s. the cubic half-inch . . 1 770 



CAPE BRETON. 



181 



CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. 



India-rubber cloth was made by Samuel Peal ami 
patented . . - . . . . . . 1791 

Caoutchouc discovered in the Malay Archipelago, 
1798; in Assam 1810 

Vulcanised rubber formed by combining India rub- 
ber with sulphur, which process removes the sus- 
ceptibility of the rubber to change under atmo- 
spheric temperatures, was patented in America, 
by Mr. C. Goodyear 1839 

Inrented also by Mr. T. Hancock (of the firm of 
Macintosh & Co.), and patented . . . . 1843 

Mr. Goodyear invented the hard rubber (termed 
Ebonite) as a substitute for horn and tortoise- 
shell 1849 

A mode of retaining India rubber in its natural 
fluid state (by applying to it liquid ammonia) 
patented in England for the inventor, Mr. Henry 
Lee Norris, of New York 1853 

See under Printing. 

African caoutchouc imported into England . . 1856 

Caoutchouc imported in 1850, 7617 cwts. ; in 1856, 
28,765 cwts. ; in 1864, 71,027 cwts. ; in 1866, 
72,176 cwts. ; in 1870, 152,118 cwts. ; in 1874, 
129,163 cwts.; in 1876, 158,692 cwts.; in 1877, 
7 59.7 2 3 cwts. ; in 1879, 150,601 cwts. ; in 1883, 
229,101 cwts. ; in 1887, 237,511 cwts. ; in 1888, 
220,350 cwts. ; in 1889, 236,310 cwts. ; in 1890, 
264,008 cwts. 

CAPE BRETON, a large island, E. coast of 
N. America, said to have been discovered by Cabot, 
J497 ; by the English in 1584 ; taken by the French 
£11 1632, but was afterwards restored ; and again 
taken in 1745, an( i re-taken in 1748. The fortress, 
Louisburg, was captured by the English 26 July, 
1758, when the garrison were made prisoners, and 
eleven French ships were captured or destroyed. 
The island was ceded to England, 10 Feb. 1763 ; in- 
corporated with Nova Scotia 181Q. Population in 
1881, 84,262 ; 1891, 86,914. Lieut. -governor, lion. 
M. B. Daly (1891). Chief town, Sidney. 

CAPE -COAST CASTLE (S. W. Africa). 
Settled by the Portuguese in 1610 ; taken by the 
Dutch 1643 ; demolished by admiral Holmes in 
1661. All the British factories and shipping along 
the coast were destroyed by the Dutch admiral, 
De Buyter, in 1665. It was confirmed to the 
English by the treaty of Breda, in 1667. See 
A-sltantees. 

CAPE DE VERDE ISLANDS (N. At- 
lantic Ocean), belonging to Portugal, were known to 
the ancients as Gorgades, but not to the modems till 
discovered by Antonio de Noli, a Genoese navigator 
in the service of Portugal, 1446, 1450, or 1460. 

CAPE FINISTERRE (N. W. Spain). Off 
this cape admirals lord Anson and Warren de- 
feated and captured a French fleet under De la 
Jonquiere, 3 May, 1747. 

CAPE HORN, or HOORN, on the last island of 
the Fuegian archipelago, the southernmost point of 
America, was discovered and named by Schouten, 
1616, after his birth-place in the Netherlands. 

CAPE LA HOGUE, see LaHogue (correctly, 

Hague) . 

CAPEL COURT, see under Stocks. 

CAPE OF GOOD HOPE, a promontory on 
the S. W. point of Africa, called " Cabo Tormen- 
toso " (the stormy cape), the " Lion of the Sea," 
and the '' Head of Africa," discovered by Bar- 
tholomew de Diaz in 1487. Its present name was 
given by John II. of Portugal, who augured favour- 
ably of future discoveries from Diaz having reached 
the extremity of Africa. Population of " Cape 
Colony" in 1856, 267,096; in 1881, 720,984; in 
1 891, 1,525,739. For governors, see below. 
The cape was doubled, and the passage to India 

discovered by Vasco da Gama . . 19 Nov. 1497 



Cape Town, the capital, founded by the Dutch . 1650 
Colony taken by the English under admiral Elphin- 

stone and general Clarke . . .16 Sept. 1795 
Restored at the peace of Amiens . . 25 March, 1802 
Taken by sir D. Eaird and sir H. Popham 9 Jan. 1806 
Finally ceded to England ... 13 Aug. 1814 
British emigrants arrive .... March, 1820 
The Kaffirs make irruptions on the British settle- 
ments, and ravage Grahamstown ; see Kaffra/ria, 

Oct. 1834 
Bishopric of Cape Town founded ; Dr. Robert Gray, 

tirst bishop 1847 

The inhabitants successfully resist the attempt to 

make the cape a penal colony . . 19 May, 1849 
Territories north of Great Orange river placed under 
■ British authority, 3 Feb. 1848 ; annexed as the 

Orange river territory .... March, 1851 
The constitution granted to the colony promulgated 

and joyfully received .... 1 July, 1853 

General Praatorius, chief of the Transvaal republic, 

died Aug. ,, 

The British jurisdiction over the Orange river 
territory abandoned, 30 Jan. ; a fr.ee state was 
formed ; see Orange river . . . March, 1854 
The first parliament meets at Cape Town 1 July, ,, 
The Kaffirs much excited by a prophet named 
Umhla-kaza ; by the exertions of sir George Grey, 
the governor, tranquillity maintained . Aug. 1856 
The cape visited by prince Alfred in . July, i860 

The first railway from Cape Tow n, about 58 miles 

long, opened . . . . about Dec. ,, 

Governor, sir Philip E. Wodehouse .... 1861 
Disputes between bishops of Cape Town and Natal ; 

see Church of England 1863-5 

Cape Town visited by the duke of Edinburgh, 

17 Aug. 1867 
Discovery of diamonds ; leads to disputes between 

the free states and the tribes ; see Diamonds 1867-70 
Large tracts of territory devastated by fire Feb. 1869 
Death of Moshesh, an eminent chief of the Basutos, 

friendly to the British . . .11 March, 1870 
New harbour, breakwater, and docks at Cape 
Town inaugurated by the duke of Edinburgh, 

12 July, ,, 
Sir Henry Barkly appointed governor . Aug. ,, 

Energy of sir Henry Barkly, in repressing 
aggressions of the president of the Orange river 

territory March, 187 1 

Colony of Griqualand constituted . 27 Oct. „ 

The British flag erected amidst the diamond fields 

with great acclamation . . . 17 Nov. ,, 

Great success in the diamond fields ; robbery of 
diamonds valued between 35,000^. and 40,000;. ; 
oppression of the natives stopped by sir H. Barkly, 

Aug. 1872 
Death of bishop Gray, deeply lamented . 1 Sept. ,, 
Macomo, an eminent Kaffir chief, died . 11 Sept. 1873 
Insurrection of Langalibalele, a chief, suppressed 

(See Natal) Nov. Dec. ,, 

South African Confederation (ivhich see), proposed 
by earl of Carnarvon ; opposed by Mr. Molteno 
and his cabinet, May ; long debate commenced 
on it in the Cape parliament . . . 11 Nov. 187s 
Earl of Carnarvon, in a despatch, proposes that the 
conference on the confederation shall be trans- 
ferred to England, 22 Oct. ; much resented Nov. ,, 
Earl of Carnarvon's despatch expressing earnest 
desire for the confederation, and proposing a 
meeting of delegates in London, their decision 
not to be conclusive, 15 Nov. ; parliament pro- 
rogued 26 Nov. „ 

Conference of delegates in London began ; earl of 

Carnarvon, not Mr. Molteno, present . 5 Aug. 1876 
Sir H. Bartle E. Frere appointed governor and lord 

high commissioner for South Africa . . Nov. ,, 
He opens a successful exhibition at Cape town 

5 April, 1877 
Transvaal republic (which see) annexed 12 April, ,, 
Troublesome disputes between tribes (Fingoes and 

Galokas) ; lead to war (see Kaffraria) . Sent. ,, 
The minister Molteno opposes employing im- 
perial troops in the Kaffir war . Jan., Feb. 1878 
Mr. Molteno's ministry dismissed ; one formed by 
Mr. J. Gordon Sprigg, about 12 Feb.; reported 

sue SSful April, ,, 

Kaffir war ended; amnesty to surrendering rebels 

announced 2 July, ,, 

Thanksgiving day for restoration of peace 1 Aug. ,, 



CAPE ST. VINCENT. 



182 



CAPPADOCIA. 



.Zulu war begins (see Zululand) . . 12 Jan. 1879 

Insurrection in the Transvaal {which see) Dec. ,, 

Telegraphic communication with Great Britain 
completed ; telegram from the queen to sir 
Bartle Frere and others . . . .25 Dec. „ 

Government proposition for conference of delegates 
to promote federation, rejected by the assembly 

about 24 June, 1880 

War with Basutos June, ,, 

Recall of sir Bartle Frere, 1 Aug. ; announced in 
parliament 2 Aug. „ 

Sir Hercules G. R. Robinson appointed governor 
and Lord High Commissioner for South Africa 

21 Aug. ,, 

Resignation of Mr. Sprigg's ministry, through 
narrow escape of vote of censure ; succeeded by 
Mr. Scanlen and Mr. Molteno . 6, 7 May, 1881 

Settled difficulty with Transvaal (which see) . 1883-4 

Ministry defeated, resigns ; Mr. Upington, new 
minister 7 May, 1884 

They agree to support the imperial government in 
repressing the Boer-filibusters . . Oct. ,, 

Railway to Kimberley opened by sir H. Robinson 

28 Nov. 1885 

The Pondos invade Xesibeland 20 Oct. ; peace 
announced 9 Dec. 1886 

New ministry ; sir J. Gordon Sprigg prime minister 

about 25 Nov. ,, 

New registration act disfranchising many natives 
passed ; much opposed Aug.-Sept. ; supported by 
the home government Oct. 1887 

The South African Jubilee Exhibition opened at 
Grahamstown by sir Hercules Robinson 15 Dec. ,, 

Conference of delegates from Cape Colony, Natal, 
and the Orange Free State held at Cape Town ; 
a customs union and railway extension proposed ; 
a movement towards S. African federation ; con- 
ference closed 18 Feb. 1888 

Sir H. Brougham Loch appointed governor and high 
commissioner for South Africa about 22 June, 
1889 ; arrives 13 Dec. He unveils a statue of 
the Queen in front of the Houses of Parliament, 
Cape Town . . ... . 21 Jan. 1890 

Defeat of the ministry on the great railway schemes 
about 5 July ; resignation of Sir J. Gordon 
Sprigg, under whom the colony prospered 

10 July, „ 

New ministry formed by Mr. Cecil J. Rhodes, the 
" Diamond King," founder of the British South 
Africa company . . . . . 17 July ,, 

Failure of the Cape of Good Hope Bank after long 
run on it ; much alarm throughout the colony, 
24 Sept ; reported deficiency, 464,000/., 16 Oct. ,, 

South African Language Association, 1st Congress 
opened at Cape Town .... 31' Oct. ,, 

Sir Henry Loch and Mr. Rhodes visit London to 
discuss South African affairs with the govern- 
ment, 2-27 Feb. Satisfactory results reported 

6 March, 1891 

Great fire at Cape Town ; the exhibition buildings 
and other places destroyed . . .21 Feb. 1892 

Sir H. B. Loch opens the junction railway between 
Cape Colony and the Free State, 10 March, ,, 

Revenue, 3,160,658/., expenditure, 3,332,907/., 
1886-7 ! imports, 5,036,135/., exports, 7,719,385/., 
1887 ; 1889-90, actual revenue, 4,430,050/. ; ex- 
penditure, vote, 3,878,925. 

For recent wars, see Basutoland, Zuhdand, and 
Transvaal. 

.CAPE ST. VINCENT (S. W. Portugal). 
Sir George Rooke, with twenty-three ships of war, 
and the Turkish fleet, was attacked by Tourville, 
with 160 ships, oft' Cape St. Vincent, when twelve 
English and Butch men of war, and eighty mer- 
chantmen, were captured or destroyed by the 
French, 16 Jun<;, 1693. — Sir John Jervis, with the 
Mediterranean fleet of fifteen sail, defeated the 
Spanish fleet of twenty-seven ships of the line off 
this cape, taking four ships and sinking others, 
14 Feb. 1797. For this victory sir John was raised 
to the peerage, as earl St. Vincent. Nelson was 
engaged in this battle. Near this cape the fleet of 
dom Pedro, under admiral Charles Napier, captured 
dom Miguel's fleet, 5 July, 1833. 



CAPETIANS, the third race of the kings of 
France, named from Hugo Capet, count of Paris 
and Orleans, who seized the throne 011 the death of 
Louis V., called the Indolent, 987. Henault. The 
first line of the house of Capet ended with Charles- 
IV., in 1328, when Philip VI. of Valois ascended 
the throne ; see France. 

CAPILLARITY (the rising of liquids in, 
small tubes, and the ascent of the sap in plants) 
is said to have been first observed by Niccolo- 
Aggiunti of Pisa, 1600-35. The theory has been 
examined by Newton, La Place, and others. Dr. 
?T. Young's theory was put forth in 1805, and 
Mr. Wertheim's researches in 1857. 

CAPITAL, estimated amount (E. Giffen) :— 
Great Britain : beginning of century, 115,000,000/.; 1843,. 

251,000,000/.; 1853, 262,000,000/. 
United Kingdom : 1855, 308,000,000/. ; 1S65, 396,000,000/.; 
I 875, 571,000,000/. See Labour Commission and In- 
come Tax. 

CAPITAL PUNISHMENT, see Death. 

CAPITATION TAX, see Poll-tax. 

CAPITOL, said to have been so called from 
a human head (caput) found when digging the 
foundations of the fortress of Rome, on Mons Tar- 
peius. Here a temple was built to Jupiter Capito- 
iinus. The foundation was iaid by Tarquinius 
Priscus, 616 B.C.; the building was continued by 
Servius Tullius ; completed by Tarquinius Super- 
bus, but not dedicated till 507 B.C. by the consul 
Horatius. It was destroyed by lightning 6 July,. 
183 ; burnt during the civil wars, 83 ; rebuilt by 
Sylla, and dedicated again by Lutatlus Catulus, 69 - r 
again burnt a.d. 69, 80 ; rebuilt 70, 82 ; sacked by 
Genseric, June, 455. The Roman consuls made- 
large donations to this temple, and the emperor 
Augustus bestowed on it 2000 pounds weight of 
gold, of which, metal the roof was composed : its- 
thresholds were of brass, and its interior was de- 
corated with shields of solid silver. The Capitolino 
games, instituted 387 B.C. to commemorate the de- 
liverance from the Gauls, were revived by Domitian,. 
a.d. 86. The Campidoglio contains palaces of the- 
senators, erected on the site of the Capitol by 
Michael Angelo soon after 1546. The comer-stone- 
of the capitol at Washington, U.S.A., was laid 
18 Sept. 1793. 

CAPITULARIES, laws of the Frankish kings,, 
commencing with Charlemagne (801). Collections- 
have been published by Baiuze (1677) and others. 

CAPITULATIONS: a name given to the- 
judicial rights granted by treaties to foreign consuls 
in Turkey. After many years' opposition, the 
sultan addressed a memorial to the 'sovereigns of" 
Europe, in June, 1869; and modifications were 
agreed to, April, 1870. The sultan decided on the- 
abolition of the capitulations in Fgypt about July,. 
1872. 

CAPPADOCIA, Asia Minor. Its early history, 
is involved in obscurity. 

Pharnaces said to have founded the kingdom B.C. 744. 
Cappadocia conquered by Perdiccas, regent of 
Macedon ; the king, Ariarathes I., aged 82, 

crucified , . . 322 

Recovers its independence 315 

Conquered by Mithridates of Pontus . . . 291 
Held by Seleucus, 288 ; independent . ' . . 288 

Ariarathes V., Philopator, reigns, 162 ; dethroned 
by Holophernes, 158, but restored soon after by 
the Romans ; killed with Crassus in the war 
against Aristonicus . . ... 13& 

His queen, Laodice, poisons five of her sons : the 
sixth (Ariarathes VI.) is saved ; she is put to death ,, 



CAPPEL. 



183 



CARDIFF. 



Ariaratlies VI. murdered by Mithridates Eupator ; 
who sets up various pretenders ; the Roman 
senate declares the country free, and appoints 

Ariobarzanes I. king B.C. 93 

He is several times expelled by Mithridates, &c, 

but restored by the Romans ; dies ... 64 
Ariobarzanes II. supports Pompey, and is slain by 

Crassus. 42 

Ariarathes VII. deposed by Antony .... 36 
Archelaus is favoured by Augustus, 20 b.c. ; but 
accused by Tiberius, he comes to Rome and dies 
there oppressed with age . . . . a.d. 15 

Cappadocia becomes a Roman province ... 17 

Invaded by the Huns 515 

And by the Saracens 717 

Recovered by the emperor Basil 1 876 

Conquered by Soliman and the Turks . . . 1074 
Annexed to Turkish Empire 1360 

CAPPEL (Switzerland). Here the reformer 
Ulric Zwinglius was slain in a conflict between 
the catholics and the men of Zurich, 11 Oct. 1531. 

CAPRI (Capreae), an island near Naples, the 
sumptuous residence of Augustus, and particularly 
of Tiberius, memorable for the debaucheries he 
committed during his last years, 27-37. Capri was 
taken by sir Sydney Smith, 12 May, 1806. 

CAPS, see Hats. 

CAPS AND HATS. About 1738, Sweden was 
much distracted by two factions thus named, the 
former in the interest of the Russians, and the latter 
in that of the French. They were broken up and 
the names prohibited by GustavuslII. in 177 1, who 
desired to exclude foreign influence. His assassina- 
tion by Ankarstrom, 16 March, 1792, set aside all 
his plans for the improvement of Sweden. 

CAPSTAN, used to work ships' anchors, is 
said to have been invented, but more probably was 
only improved, by sir Samuel Morland, who died 
30 Dec. 1695. 

CAPTAIN, H.M.'s iron-clad turret ship, 
capsized during a squall, 12.15 A - M -i 7 Sept., 1870. 
Capt. Hugh Burgoyne, capt. Cowper Coles, who 
designed the vessel, and 469 persons perished. See 
under Navy of England. Subscriptions for relief 
of the widows and orphans of the lost up to 17 Nov., 
34,894/. ; 3 Dec, 38,004/. ; 31 Dec, about46,ooo/. ; 
May, 1871, about 55,000/.; 25 June, 1871, about 
55,700/. Total, 57,824/. The fund was transferred 
to the Royal Commission of the Patriotic Fund. 

CAPUA, capital of Campania, took the part 
of Hannibal when his army wintered here after 
the battle of Cannae, 216 B.C., and it is said be- 
came enervated. In 21 1, when the Romans re- 
took the city, they scourged and beheaded all the 
surviving senators ; the others had poisoned them- 
selves after a banquet previous to the surrender of 
the city. Only two persons escaped ; one woman 
who had prayed for the success of the Romans, and 
another who succoured some prisoners. During the 
middle ages Capua was successively subjugated by 
the Greeks, Saracens, Normans, and Germans. It 
was restored to Naples in 1424, and captured by 
Caesar Borgia, 24 July, 1501; was taken by Garibaldi 
2 Nov. i860. 

CAPUCHIN. FRIARS, Franciscans, so 
named from wearing a CapucJton, or cowl hanging 
down upon their backs. The order was founded by 
Matthew Baschi, about 1525; and established by 
the pope Clement VII. 1529. The capuchin con- 
fessors of the queen Henrietta introduced here 1630, 
were imprisoned by the parliament, 1642. 

CAR. The invention is mythically ascribed to 
Erichthonius of Athens. Covered cars (currus 
arcuati) were used by the Romans. The kctica (a 



soft cushioned car), next invented, gave place to the 
carpentum, a two-wheeled car, with an arched 
covering, hung with costly cloth. Still later were 
the carrucce, in which the officers of state rode. 
Triumphal cars, introduced by Tarquin the Elder ? 
were formed like a throne. 

_ CARACAS (S. America), part of Venezuela, 
discovered by Columbus 1498. It was reduced by 
arms, and assigned as property to the Welsers, 
German merchants, by Charles V. ; but for their 
tyranny, they were dispossessed in 1550, and a 
crown governor appointed. The province declared 
its independence, 9 May, 1810. In the city Leon 
de Caracas, on 26 March, 1812, nearly 12,000 per- 
sons perished by an earthquake. Population, 1883, 
70,509. See Venezuela. 

CARAITES, see Karaites. 

CARASMIA, see Khiva. 

CARBERRY HILL (S. Scotland). Here 
lord Hume and the confederate barons dispersed the 
royal army under Bothwell, and took Mary queen 
of Scots prisoner, 15 June, 1567. Bothwell fled. 

CARBO-DYN AMITE, a powerful explosive 
of the nitro-glycerine class, invented by Messrs. 
Reid and Borland, was tried in 1888, and in July,, 
1889 was said to be practically perfect. 

CARBOLIC ACID (or phenic acid), obtained 
by the distillation of pit-coal, by Laurent, 1846-7, 
is a powerful antiseptic. It is largely manufac- 
tured for medical purposes, and has been advan- 
tageously used at Carlisle and Exeter in the deodo- 
risation of sewage (1860-1); and as a disinfectant 
during the prevalence of cholera in London in 1866. 
It was successfully used for embalming by profes- 
sor Seely in 1868. Professor F. Grace Calvert, a 
great manufacturer of this acid, died 1873. 

CARBON was shown to be a distinct element 
by Lavoisier in 1788. He proved the diamond to 
be its purest form, and converted it into carbonic 
acid gas by combustion. 

CARBONARI (charcoal-burners), a powerful 
secret society in Italy, which derived its origin, 
according to some, from the Waldenses, and which 
became prominent early in the present century. It 
aimed at the expulsion of foreigners from Italy, and 
the establishment of civil and religious liberty. In 
March, 1820, it is said that 650,000 joined the so- 
ciety, and an insurrection soon after broke out in 
Naples, general Pepe taking the command. The 
king Ferdinand made political concessions, but the 
influence of the allied sovereigns at Laybach led 
Ferdinand to annul them and suppress the liberal 
party, Jan. 1821, when the Carbonari were denounced 
as traitors. 

CARBONIC ACID GAS, a gaseous com- 
pound of carbon and oxygen, found in the air, and a 
product of combustion, respiration, and fermentation. 
The Grotto del Cane yields 200,000 lbs. per annum. 
No animal can breathe this gas. The briskness of 
champagne, beer, &c, is due to its presence. It 
was liquefied by atmospheric pressure; by Faraday m 
1823. On expofiug the liquid to the air it becomes 
solid, resembling snow, through vaporisation. See 
under Cannon, 1889-90. 

CARCHEMISH, see Hittites. 

CARDIFF, S. Wales, here was an ancient 
Welsh and Norman castle founded in 1080, where 
Bobert, duke of Normandy, eldest son of William I., 
is said to have been imprisoned from 1106 till his 
death 10 Feb. 1 135. The prosperity of the town 
has been greatly increased by the construction of^a 



CARDIGAN BAY. 



184 



CARLISLE. 



canal (1794) and railroad, and by docks, &c, pro- 
moted by the Marquis of Bute. Population, 1881, 
82,761 ; 1891, 128,849. 

Stoppage of a savings bank (established in 1819) through 
the embezzlements of the actuary, the late Mr. R. E. 
Williams, effected through the neglect of the trustees ; 
defalcations about 37,000?. April 1886. Report of the 
hon. E. Lyulph Stanley issued, Times, 22 Dec. 1887. 
Mr. Peter Davies, a trustee, was declared to be 

liable for a part of the bank losses . 27 March, 1890 
Church Congress meets here . . . 1 Oct. 1889 

Seamen's Congress 8 Oct. ,, 

Cardiff building society, established 1865, defalca- 
tion of 37,000?., partly through the long-con- 
tinued embezzlement of the funds by Arthur J. 
Robbins, a clerk, the loss re-imbursed partly by 
the defaulter and his family, the remainder by 
•the secretary and directors— reported January. 
Robbins sentenced to.fi ve years' penal servitude. 

25 March, 1890 
Strike of railway servants, see Strikes . 8 Aug. ,, 
New bridge over the Tali opened by the Duke of 
Clarence . . .... 17 Sept. ,, 

See Shipping, Feb. 1891 ; and Strikes . . . ,, 
Meeting of British Association . . 19 Aug. ,, 
Strike of about 4,000 men of the building trades . 

30 April — 3 June, 1892 
CARDIGAN BAY, see Fishguard. 
CARDINALS, princes in the church of Eorae, 
the council of the pope, and the conclave or ''sacred 
college," at first were the principal priests or in- 
cumbents of the parishes in Rome, and said to have 
been called cardinales in 853. They began to as- 
sume the exclusive power of electing the popes 
about 1 179. They first wore the red hat to remind 
them that they ought to shed their blood for re- 
ligion, if required, and were declared princes of the 
church by Innocent IV., 1243 or 1245. Paul II. 
gave the scarlet habit, 1464 ; and Urban VIII. the 
title of Eminence in 1623 or 1630. In 1586 Sixtus V. 
fixed their number at 70; but there are generally 
vacancies. In i860 there were 69 cardinals. In 

1873, 5 of the order of bishops ; 34 priests; 6 dea- 
cons ; 45 in all. Nine cardinals (one a Bonaparte) 
were made, 13 March, 1868.* Eleven new car- 
dinals appointed, 12 March, 1877. In 1885 6 car- 
dinal bishops, 35 priests, 11 deacons ; in all 52. In 
Jan. 1892, there were 57 cardinals, 6 bishops, 45 
priests and 6 deacons. 

CARDROSS CASE, see Trials, 1861. 

CARDS, PLAYING. The origin of the game 
is uncertain. It is said to have been brought to 
Viterbo in 1379. Cards were illuminated for Charles 
VI. of France, 1392, then depressed in mind. W. 
A. Chatto's work on the "History of Playing 
Cards," published, 1848. Piquet and all the early 
names are French. — Cards first taxed in England 
1 7 10. 428,000 packs were stamped in 1775, and 
986,000 in 1800. In 1825, the duty being then 
2s. 6d. per pack, less than 150,000 packs were 
stamped ; but in 1827 the stamp duty was reduced 
to is., and 310,854 packs paid duty in 1830. Duty 
was paid on 239,200 packs in the year ending 5 Jan. 
1840 ; and on near 300,000, year ending 5 Jan. 
1850. By an act passed in 1862 the duty on cards 
was reduced to 3d. per pack, and the seilers were 
required to take out a licence. Duty received in 

1874, 13,131^. ; in 1875, 13,810/. See Christmas. 

CARIA (Asia Minor), was conquered by Cyrus, 
546 B.C. ; by Dercyllidas, a Lacedremonian, 397 ; 

* British Cardinals: Henry Stuart, created 1747; 
Charles Erskine, 1801 ; Thomas Weld, 1830 ; Charles 
Acton, 1839 ; Nicholas Wiseman. 30 Sept. 1850—65 ; 
Henry Edward Manning, 1875—14 Jan. 1892 ; Edward 
Howard, 12 March, 1S77 ; John Henry Newman, 12 May, 
1879 — 11 Aug. 1890; Ewd. McCabe, 27 March, 1S83 (d* 
ti Feb. 1S85). 



his successor Hecatomnus became king, 385 B.C. ; 
for his son Mausolus the Mausoleum was erected 
{which see). Caria was annexed by the Romans, 
129 B.C. It is now part of the Turkish empire. 

CARIBBEE ISLANDS, see West Indies. 

CARICATURES were drawn by the ancient 
Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. Bufalmaco, an 
Italian painter, about 1330, drew caricatures and put 
labels to the mouths of his figures with sentences. 
The modern caricatures of Gillray, Rowlandson, 

II. B. (John Doyle ™ = B3), Richard Doyle, John 

Leech, and John Tenniel are justly celebrated. 
The well-known "Punch" was first published in 
1841. See Charivari and Punch. Mr. T. Wright 
published a " History of Caricature," 1865 ; and 
" the Life and Works of James Gillray," 1873. Mr. 
J. Grego published T. Rowlandson's Works and 
Life, 1880. 

CARIGNAN, a small town about twelve miles 
from Sedan, department of Ardennes, N.E. France. 
At the plain of Douzy near this place and the en- 
campment of Vaux, a part of MacMahon's army, 
retreating before the Germans, turned round and 
made a stand, 31 Aug. 1870. After a long, severe 
engagement, in which the same positions were 
taken and retaken several times, the Germans 
turned the flank of their enemies, who were com- 
pelled to fall back upon Sedan, where they were 
finally overcome, 1 Sept. » 

CARILLONS, see Sells. 

CARINTHIA, a Bavarian duchy, annexed to 
the territories of the duke of Austria, 1336. Popu- 
lation, 1890, 361,008. 

CARISBROOKE CASTLE (Isle of Wight), 
s iid to have been a British and Roman fortress. 
Its Norman character has been ascribed to William 
Eitz-Osbome, earl of Hereford in William I.'s time. 
Here Charles I. was imprisoned Nov. 1647 to Nov. 
1648 ; and here his daughter Elizabeth, aged fifteen, 
died, too probably of a broken heart, 8 Sept. 1650. 

CARIZMIANS (fierce shepherds living near 
the Caspian), having been expelled by the Tartars, 
invaded Syria in 1243. The union of the sultans 
of Aleppo, Hems, and Damascus was insufficient to 
stem the torrent, and the Christian military orders 
were nearly exterminated in a single battle in 1244. 
In Oct. they took Jerusalem. They were totally 
defeated in two battles in 1247. 

CARLAVEROCK CASTLE (S. Scotland), 
taken by Edward I., July, 1300, the subject of a 
contemporary poem published, with illustrations, 
by sir Harris Nicolas in 1828. 

CARLISLE (Cumberland), a frontier town of 
England, wherein for many ages a strong garrison 
was kept. Just below this town the famous Picts' 
wall began, which crossed the whole island to New- 
castle-upon-Tyne, and here also ended the great 
Roman highway. Of the great church, called St. 
Maiy's, a large part was built by David, king of 
Scotland, who held Cumberland, Westmoreland, 
and Northumberland, from the crown of England. 
The castle, destroyed by the Danes, 875, restored in 
1092 by William II., was the prison of Mary queen 
of Scots in 1568. — Taken by the parliamentary forces 
in 1645, and by the young Pretender, 15 Nov. 1745; 
retaken by the duke of Cumberland, 30 Dec. same 
year; partly destroyed by tire, 18 Jan. 1890. — The 
see was erected by Hei.ry I. in 1132, and made 
suffragan to York. The cathedral had been founded 
a short time previously, by Walter, deputy for 



CARLISLE ADMINISTRATION. 



185 



CAROLINAS. 



William Rufus. It was almost ruined by Crom- 
well, 1648, and partially repaired alter the Restora- 
tion. It was reopened in 1856 after renovation, 
costing 15,000^. The see lias been held by one lord 
chancellor and two lord treasurers ; it is valued in 
the king's books at 530/. 45. lid. per annum. 
Present income 4500/. Population of the city 1881, 
36,585; 1891,39,176. 

BISHOPS OF CARLISLE. 

1791. Edward Venables Vernon, trans, to York, 1807. 

1808. Samuel Goodenough, died 12 Aug. 1827. 

1827. Hugh Percy, died Feb. 1856. 

1856. Hon. H. Montagu Villiers, trans, to Durham, 

May, i860. 
i860. Hon. Samuel Waldegrave, died 1 Oct. 1869. 
1869. Harvey Goodwin; consecrated Jan. 1870, died 25 

Nov. 1 89 1. 
1891. John W. Bardsley, translated from Sodor and 

Man, Dec. 

CARLISLE ADMINISTRATION, see 

Halifax. 

CARLISTS, see Spain, 1830-40 and 1872-6. 
The legitimists of Europe subscribed to their cause 
1873-6. A committee in London supplied arms 
and money. 

CARLOVINGIANS, or CAROLIN- 

GIANS, 'he second dynasty of the French kings, 
752-987. Charles Martel (715-741) and Pepin his 
son (741-752) were mayors of the palace. The 
latter became king 752 ; see France. 

CARLO W (S. E. Ireland). The castle, erected 
by John, 1 180, surrendered after a desperate siege to 
Rory Oge O'Moore, in 1577 ; again to the parlia- 
mentary forces, in 1650. Here the royal troops 
routed the insurgents 24 May, 1798. 

CARLOWITZ, Austria. Here was concluded 
a treaty of peace between Turkey and the allies, 
Germany, Russia, Poland, and Venice, 26 Jan. 1699, 
in consequence of the great defeat of the Turks by 
prince Eugene at Zenta, 11 Sept. 1697, by which 
Hungary was finally secured to Austria. 

CARLSBAD (or Charles's Bath), in Bohemia, 
the celebrated springs, said to have been discovered 
by the emperor Charles IV. in 1370. — On 1 Aug. 
Z819, a congress was held here, when the great 
powers decreed measures to repress the liberal 
press, &c. Destructive gale and inundations, esti- 
mated damage, 2,500,000 florins, 23-25 Nov. 1890. 

CARLSRUHE, capital of Baden, built by 
margrave Charles William, 17 15. A revolution 
here was suppressed by Prussian aid, June, 1849, 
and the grand-duke returned 18 Aug. Population, 
S890, 73,496. 

CARLTON CLUB, Pall Mall (Conservative), 
established by the duke of Wellington and others, 
£831-2 ; present house opened 1855. 

CARLYLE CLUB. Formed in 1881 for the 
purpose of affording to disciples and students of 
Thomas Carlyle a means of meeting together and 
of discussing the religious, political, and social pro- 
blems treated of in his writings. His statue 011 the 
Thames Embankment, Chelsea, was unveiled by 
Prof. Tyndall 26 Oct. 1882. 

CARLYLE SOCIETY, founded in 1879, con- 
sists of students and admirers of Carlyle's works, 
desirous of extending his influence ; they meet 
monthly to read papers, &c. They have a branch 
at Montreal. 

CARMAGNOLE, a Piedmontcse song and 
dance, written about Aug. 1792 ; popular in France 
during the reign of terror, 1793-4. '^' le chorus was 
" Dansons la Carmagnole: vive le son du canon ! " 



CARMATHIANS, a Mahometan ssct. Car- 
math, a Shiite, about 890, assumed the title of "the 
guide, the director," &c, including that of the 
representative of Mahomet, St. John the Baptist, 
and the angel Gabriel. His followers subdued 
Bahrein in 900, and devastated the east. Dissen- 
sions arose amongst themselves, and their power 
soon passed away. 

CARMELITES, or White Friars, of 

Mount Carmel, one of the four orders of mendi- 
cants with austere rules, founded by Berthold about 
1 156, and settled in France in 1252. Hmault. 
Their rules were modified about 1 540. They claimed 
succession from Elijah. They had numerous mon- 
asteries in England, and a precinct in London 
without the Temple, west of Blaekfriars, is called 
Whitefriars to this day, after a community of their 
order, founded there in 1245. A Carmelite church 
at Kensington was founded by archbishop Manning, 
July, 1865. The Carmelites, as well as other orders, 
were expelled from their houses in France in Oct. 
1880. 

CARNATIC, a dislrictof Southern Hindostan, 
extending along the whole coast of Coromandel. 
Hyder Ali entered the Carnatic with 80,000 troops, 
in 1780, and was defeated by the British under 
sir Eyre Coote, 1 July, and 27 Aug. 1781 ; and de- 
cisively overthrown 2 June, 1782. The Carnatic 
was oveiTun by Tippoo in 1790. The British ac- 
quired entire authority over the Carnatic by treaty, 
31 July, 1801 ; see India. 

CARNARVON, see Caernarvon. 

CARNATION, so called from the original 
species being of a flesh colour (carnis, of flesh). 
Several varieties were first planted in England by 
the Flemings, about 1567. Stoiv. 

CARNEIAN GAMES, observed in many 
Grecian cities, particularly at Sparta (said to have 
been instituted in the 5th century B.C. in honour 
of Apollo, sumamed Carneus), lasted nine days. 

CARNIVAL, (Carni vale, Italian, i.e. Flesh 
farewell .'), a festival time in Italy and other 
catholic countries before beginning Lent. 

CAROLINAS (N. America) . Said to have been 
discovered by Sebastian Cabot in 1498, or by De Leon 
in 1512. Raleigh formed a settlement at Roanoke 
in June, 1585, which was broken up in 1586. About 
850 English settled here about 1660 ; and Carolina 
was granted to lord Clarendon and others in 1663. 
The cultivation of rice was introduced by governor 
Smith in 1695, an ^ subsequently cotton. A con- 
stitution drawn up by John Locke was abandoned. 
The province was divided into North and South in 
1729; see America. The Carolinas being slave 
states, great excitement prevailed in them in Nov. 
i860, on account of Abraham Lincoln's election to 
the presidency of the United States, he being 
strongly opposed to slavery. South Carolina began 
the secession from the United States, 20 Dec. i860 : 
North Carolina followed, 21 May, 1861 ; see United 
States, 1861-5. Both readmitted to the Union 
25 June, 1868. Embezzlements of South Carolina 
u official ring " (state government) disclosed; pro- 
secutions, Sept., Oct. 1877. Increasing disaffection 
between the whites and negroes, riots and fighting 
at Charlotte, N. Carolina, 15 April, 1891. Popula- 
tion 1880, N. Carolina, 1,399,750; S. Carolina 
995,577; 1890, N. Carolina, 1,617,947; S. Caro- 
lina, 1,151,149. Capital*, North, Kaleigh ; South; 
Columbia; chief city, Charleston, founded lb8o. 



CAEOLINE ISLANDS. 



186 



CARTHAGE. 



CAEOLINE ISLANDS (S. Pacific), said 
to have been discovered by the Portuguese, 1525 ; 
also by the Spaniard, Lopez de Villalobos, 1545, and 
named after Charles II. of Spain, 1686. The Jesuits 
laboured in them in vain, 1710-33. The claims of 
Spain, uncontested till the protest of England in 
1875, were virtually given up by Spain in 1876. The 
Germans occupied some of the Islands, against 
which Spain protested in Aug. 1885. Spanish 
vessel arrived at the Island of Yap, 21 Aug. ; the 
Germans land and set up their flag without resist- 
ance, 24 Aug. See Spain. The dispute referred 
to the Pope ; the sovereignty awarded to Spain, 
with commercial concessions to Germany and Great 
Britain ; agreement signed, 25 Nov. ; confirmed at 
Eome, 17 Dec. 1885. Anglo-Spanish protocol 
signed, 8 Jan. 1886. Missionaries imprisoned ; 
natives kill the governor, announced 28 Sept. 1887. 

Massacre of 28 Spanish soldiers at Yap, and defeat 
of others sent to punish . . . 10 Aug. 1890 

The natives were punished by a Spanish expedition ; 
150 were killed, and a village burnt. The Spanish 
lost 7 men killed ; reported . . 13 Oct. ,, 

Dissensions between the Spaniards, the natives, 
and the American missionaries, reported Dec. 
1890 ; about 300 persons killed during the war 
up to . . . . . . . Jan. 1891 

After several reverses, 500 Spaniards subdue the 
natives, reported Feb. ,, 

CAEPENTAEIA, gulf of N. Australia, dis- 
covered about 1627, and said to have been named in 
honour of Pieter Carpentier, a retired governor of 
the Dutch Indies. 

CAEP, a fresh-water or pond fish, was, it is 
said, first brought to these countries about 1525. 
Walton. It is mentioned by lady Juliana Berners 
in her book printed 1496. 

CAEPETS are of ancient use in the East. The 
manufacture of woollen carpets was introduced into 
France from Persia, in the reign of Henry IV., 
between 1589 and 1610. Some artisans who had 
quitted France in disgust established the English 
carpet manufacture, about 1750. A cork-carpet 
company was formed in 1862. 

CAEPET-BAGGEES, a name given to ad- 
venturers in the southern states of North America, 
who, after the conclusion of the war, in 1865, en- 
deavoured, from interested motives, to promote the 
political predominance of the negroes. Their in- 
fluence counteracted by the conciliatory measures 
of president Hayes, 1877-8. 

CAEPI (N. Italy). Here prince Eugene and 
the Imperialists defeated the French 9 July, 1701. 

CAEPOCEATIANS, followers of Carpocrates, 
a Gnostic, in the 2nd century. 

CAEEACK or KARRACK (Italian, Caracca), 
a large ship in the middle ages. The Santa Anna, 
the property of the knights of St. John, of about 
1700 tons, oheathed with lead, was built at Nice 
about 1530. It was literally a floating fortress, and 
aided Charles V. in taking Tunis in 1535. It con- 
tained a crew of 300 men and 50 pieces of artillery. 

CAEEIAGES, see Chariots. Kude carriages 
were known in France in the reign of Henry II., 
a.d. 1547 ; in England in 1555, Henry IV. of 
France had one without straps or springs. They 
were made in England in the reign of Elizabeth, 
and then called whirlicotes. The duke of Buck- 
ingham, in 1619, drove six horses ; and the 
earl of Northumberland, in rivalry, drove eight. 
Carriages were let for hire in Paris, in 1650, 
at the Hotel Fiacre: hence the name, fiacre ; see 
Car, Cabriolets, Coaches and Licence duty. — 



Annual licence duty for carriages : 4 wheels, 
2l. 2s.; under 4 cwt. or less than 4 wheels, 15s. 
Carlo Bianconi successfully introduced cars 
into Ireland about 1815 : he died, nearly 90, 
16 Sept. 1875. &■ A - Thrupp's "History of 
Coaches" published, 1877. The duties on carriages- 
altered by Customs Act, 1888. 

CAEEICKFEEGUS (Antrim, Ireland). Its 
castle is supposed to have been built by Hugh de 
Lacy in 1178. The town surrendered to the duke 
of Schomberg 28 Aug. 1689. The castle surrendered 
to the French admiral Thurot, Feb. 1760; see 
Thurot. 

CAEEIEES' ACT, n Geo. IV. & 1 Will. IV. 
c. 68, 1830. 

CAEEOCIUM, a vehicle containing a crucifix 
and a banner, usually accompanied Italian armies in 
the middle ages. The Milanese lost theirs at Cor- 
tenuova, 27 Nov. 1237. 

CAEEON IEONWOEKS, on the banks of 
the Carron, in Stirlingshire, established in 1760. 
The works in 1852 employed about 1600 men. 
Here since 1776 have been made the pieces of ord- 
nance called carronades or smashers. 

CAEEOTS and other edible roots were im- 
ported from Holland and Flanders, about 1510. 

CAES, see Carriages. 

CAETEL (challenge), a name given to the 
powerful coalition of the conservatives and national 
liberals, which for five years formed the govern- 
ment majority, 23, in the German Imperial Parlia- 
ment. The majority was lost by the elections, 
Feb., March, 1890. 

CAETES DE VISITE. The small photo- 
graphic portraits thus termed are said to have been 
first taken at Nice, by M. Ferrier, in 1857. The 
duke of Parma had his portrait placed upon his. 
visiting cards, and his example was soon followed in 
Paris and London. 

CAETESIAN DOCTEINES, promulgated 
by Bene Descartes, the b'rench philosopher, in 
1637. His metaphysical principle is, "1 think, 
therefore I am ;" his physical principle, "Nothing; 
exists but substance. "\ He accounts for all physi- 
cal phenomena on his theory of vortices, motions 
excited by God, the source of all motion. He was 
born 1596, and died at Stockholm, the guest of 
queen Christina, in 1650. 

CAETHAGE (N. coast of Africa near Tunis), 
founded by Dido or Elissa, according to the legend 
adopted by Virgil in the JEneid, some time in the 
9th century B.C. ; 878, 853, 826 are mentioned. 
She fled from her brother Pygmalion, king of Tyre, 
who had killed her husband, and took refuge in 
Africa. Towns subject to Carthage were gradually 
founded along the coast, and colonies in Spain and; 
Sicily. Carthage disputed the empire of the world 
with Rome, which occasioned the Punic wars. 
The Carthaginians bore the character of a faithless 
people, hence the term Punic faith. Cato the cen- 
sor ended his speeches in the senate with Delendm 
est Carthago I "Carthage must be destroyed!" 
Many councils were held here, A.r>. 200-535. 

Fir^t alliance of Carthaginians and Romans . B.C. 509 
The Carthaginians in Sicily defeated at Himera by 

Gelon ; the elder Hamilear perishes . . . 480. 
They send 300,000 men into Sicily . . . . 407 

Take Agrigentum 406 

Defeated at the Siege of Syracuse, see Sicily . . 396 
The Carthaginians land in Italy .... 379 

Thejirst Punic war begins (lasts 23 years) . . . 264 
The Carthaginians defeated by the Roman consul 

Duilius in a naval engagement near Mylse , . 260 



CARTHAGENA. 



187 



CASHMERE. 



War in Sicily ; Roman victories . . . 264 et seq. 
Regulus with an army crosses to Africa, and defeats 
the Carthagenians ; his hard terms of peace re- 
jected - 256 

Xanthippus defeats Regulus 255 

Hasdrubal defeated by Metellus at Panormus . . 250 
Regulus, prisoner, accompanies an embassy to 
Rome to propose peace, which he opposes ; he re- 
turns to Carthage, and dies there ....,, 
Long siege of Lilyba:um .... 250 et seq. 
Hamilcar Barca, successful commander in Sicily . 

247 et seq. 
Roman naval victory near the iEgates ; treaty of 
peace ; Sicily lost by Carthage .... 241 

The great Hannibal born 247 

Hasdrubal founds New Carthage (Carthagena) . 242 
War between the Carthaginians and African merce- 
naries 241 

Hamilcar Barcas sent into Spain : takes his son, 
Hannibal, at the age of nine years, having first 
made him swear an eternal enmity to the Romans 238 

Hamilcar killed 229 

Hasdrubal assassinated 221 

Hannibal conquers Spain, as far as the Iberus . .219 
The second Punic war begins (lasts 17 years) . . 218 
Hannibal crosses the Alps, and enters Italy . . ,, 
He defeats the Roman consuls at the Ticinus and 
Trebia, 218 ; at the lake Trasimenus, 217 ; and at 
Cannse {which see) . ... 2 Aug. 216 
The two Scipios in Spain, at first successful, de- 
feated and slain by the young Hasdrubal, Hanni- 
bal's brother 212 

The Romans take Syracuse, 212 ; and expel the 

Carthagenians from Sicily 210 

Hannibal unable to relieve Capua, closely besieged, 
marches to Koine, but does not attack it ; Capua 
surrenders, and is severely punished . . . 211 
Philip, King of Macedon, prevented from joining 

Hannibal ...'... about 211 
Publius Scipio carries war into Spain and takes New 

Carthage 210 

Hasdrubal arrives with an army ; defeated and slain 

at the Metaurus 207 

Carthaginians expelled from Spain by Scipio . . 200 
Scipio arrives in Africa, and gains victories . . 204 

Hannibal recalled to Cartilage 203 

Totally defeated at Zama {iijltich see) .... 202 

End of the second Punic war 201 

Hannibal reforms the state, and prepares for a fresh 
contest with Rome, but is exiled, and takes refuge 
with Antiochus III., King of Syria, whom he in- 
cites against Rome, after whose defeat, 190, he re- 
sided at the court of Prusias, King of Bithynia, till 
he took poison, when about to be surrendered to 

the Romans about 183 

The third Punic war ; Scipio invades Africa . . 149 
Carthage taken and burned, by order of the Senate 

July, 146 

Colony settled at Carthage by C. Gracchus about 116 

Its rebuilding planned by Julius Cassar . . .46 

And executed by his successors . . 19 et seq. 

The new city becomes a Christian bishopric . a.d. 200 

Cyprian holds a council here 252 

Taken by Genseric the Vandal . . .9 Oct. 439 
Retaken by Belisarius ..... - 533 

Ravaged by the Arabs 647 

Taken and destroyed by Hassan, the Saracenic 

governor of Egypt 698 

Carthaginian antiquities (excavated by Mr. Nathan 

Davis) brought to the British Museum . . . 1861 
His excavations about to be renewed . Aug. 1876 

Mr. Bosworth Smith's " Carthage," published . 1878 

CARTHAGENA, or New Carthage (S.E. 

Spain), built by Hasdrubal, the Carthaginian 
general, 242 n.c. : taken by surpiise by Publius 
Scipio Africanus, 210 or 209. 1 he modern Car- 
thagena was taken by a British force under sir 
John Leake, June, 1706; retaken by the duke 
of Berwick, Nov. It was the last place held by 
the Intransigcntes and Internationalists of Spain ; 
was besieged by general Martin Campos, about 
22 Aug. 1873. Bombardment begun 26 Nov., taken 
by general Lopez Dominguez, 12 Jan. 1874. See 
Spain. — Cakthagena, in Columbia, South Ame- 
rica, was taken by sir Francis Drake in 1585 ; 



pillaged by the French buccaneers in 1697 ; 
bombarded by admiral Vernon in March, 1741 - r 
and unsuccessfully besieged, April, 1741. Popula- 
tion, 1884, 75,980. 

CARTHUSIANS, a religious order (springing- 
from the Benedictines) founded by Bruno of 
Cologne, who retired with six companions about 
1084, to Chartreuse {which see), in the mountains- 
of Dauphine. Their austere rules were formed by 
Basil VII., their general. They appeared in Eng- 
land about 1 180, and a monaster} - was founded by 
sir William Manny, 1371, on the site of the present; 
Charter-house, London ; see Charter-house. The 
Carthusian powder, of father Simon, at Chartreuse^ 
was first compounded about 1715. 

CARTOONS, large chalk drawings preparatory" 
to oil painting. Those of Raphael (twenty-five- 
in number) were designed (for tapestries) in the- 
chambers of the Vatican under Julius II. and, 
Leo X. about 1510 to 1516. The seven preserved 
were purchased in Flanders by Rubens for Charles I., 
of England, for Hampton-court palace in 1629.. 
They were removed to South Kensington 28 April,. 
1865. — The tapestries executed at Arras from these- 
designs are at Home. They were twice carried 
away by invaders, in 1526 and 1798, and were re- 
stored in 1815. — The Cartoons for the British 
Houses of Parliament were exhibited in July, 1843, 

Raphael's cartoons. 

1. The Miraculous Draught of Fishes. 

2. The Charge to Peter. 

3. Peter and John Healing the Lame at the Gate of the- 

Temple. 

4. The Death of Ananias. 

5. Elymas the Sorcerer Struck with Blindness. 

6. The Sacrifice to Paul and Barnabas, at Lystra. 

7. Paul Preaching at Athens. 

CARVING, see Sculpttires. 

CASAMICCIOLA, Ischia. See Lar:,- 
quahes, 4 March, 1881, and 28 July, 1883. 

CASH-PAYMENTS, see Batik ofEnglana. 

CASHEL (Tipperary, Ireland). Cormack Cuil- 
linan, king and bishop of Cashel, was the reputed 
founder or restorer of the cathedral, 901. In 1152: 
bishop P/onat O'Danergan was invested with the 
pall ; see Pallium. Cashel was valued in the 
king's books, 29 Henry VIII. at 661. 13s. 4^. Irish 
money. By the Church Temporalities Act, 1833, it 
ceased to be archiepiscopal, and was joined to 
Waterford and Lismore. 

CASHMERE, in the valley of the Himalayas - r 
was subdued by the Mahometans under Akbar, in. 
1586; by the Afghans in 1752 ; by the Sikhs, 1819 y. 
and by the treaty of Lahore, 9 March, 1846, ceded 
to the British, who gave it to the Maharajah 
Gholab Singh, as tributary sovereign. The true 
Cashmere shawls, first brought to England in 1666, 
are well imitated at Bradford and HuddersfiehL 
Shawls of Thibetan wool, for the omrahs, cost 
150 rupees each, about 1650. Population, 1881,. 

I.534.972- 

Gholab dies, succeeded by his son Runbeer, a 
favourer of education, 1857 ; who assists in sup- 
pressing the Indian mutiny and receives further 
guarantees' March, 186c. 

The prince of Wales warmly received by the maha- 
rajah at Jummoo 20 Jan. 1876- 

Dreadful famine (partly due to continued de- 
structive snowstorms, Oct. 1877— May, 1878) 

summer, i875' 

The Maharajah dies 12 Sept. 1885 ; succeeded by his 
son Pertab Singh; the power of the British 
resident gn-atly increased; the country virtually 
subject to the viceroy of India, through incom- 
petence and folly of the Maharajah . . i83S-s> 



CASSANO. 



18S 



CATANIA. 



The Viceroy of India, informs the Maharajah that if 

iie reform he may be restored to power . Aug. 1889 
Increased prosperity of the country reported Nov. 1890 
Visit of the Viceroy of India, honourably received 

at Srinagar, the capital . . . .23 Oct. 1891 
Increased powers given to the Maharajah . Oct. ,, 

See India, Dec. 1891. 

See Earthquakes, 1885. 

CASSANO (N. Italy). Site of an indecisive 
conflict between prince Eugene of Savoy and the 
French, 16 Aug. 1705. 

CASSATION, Court of, the highest court 
of appeal in France, was established 10 Nov. 1790, 
fey the national assembly. 

CASSEL, formerly the capital of Hesse-Cassel, 
Central Germany, acquired importance through be- 
coming the refuge of French protestants after the 
revocation of the edict of Nantes, 1685. It was the 
capital of Jerome Bonaparte, king of "Westphalia, 
1807-13, and Wilhelmshohe, a neighbouring castle, 
became the residence of Napoleon III. after his 
surrender to the king of Prussia, 2 Sept. 1870, ar- 
riving at 9.35 p.m. 5 Sept. He went to England 
in 1871. Population, 1890, 72,461. 

CASSITEEIDES, see Stilly Isles. 

CAST ALIA, see under Steam. 

CASTEL-ELDAEDO, near Ancona, Central 
Italy. Near here general Lamoriciere and the 
papal army of 1 1, ooo men were totally defeated by 
the Sardinian general, Cialdini, 18 Sept. i860. 
Lamoriciere with a few horsemen fled to Ancona, 
then besieged. On 29 Sept. he and the garrison 
surrendered, but were shortly after set at liberty. 

CASTES, distinct sections of society in India. 
In the laws of Menu (see Menu), the Hindus are 
divided into the Brahmans, or sacerdotal class; 
the Kshatrya or Chuttree, military class; the 
Vaisya, or commercial class ; and the JSudras, or 
sooders, servile class. 

CASTIGLIONE (N. Italy). Here the French 
under A ugereau defeated the Austrians, commanded 
by Wurmser, with great loss, 5 Aug. 1796. 

CASTILE (Central Spain). A Gothic govern- 
ment was established here about 800. — Koderiek, 
count of Castile, 860 ; Ferdinand, a count, became 
king, 1035. Ferdinand, king of Arragon, married 
Isabella, queen of Castile, in 1474, and formed one 
monarchy, 1479 ; see p. viii., and Spain. 

CASTILLEJOS (N. Africa). Here on 1 Jan. 
i860, was fought the first decisive action in the 
war between Spain and Morocco. General Prim, 
after a vigorous resistance, repulsed the Moors 
under Muley Abbas, and advanced towards Tetuan. 

CASTILLON, Guienne (S. France). Here 
the army of Henry VI. of England was defeated 
by that of Charles VII. of France, and an end put 
to the English dominion in France, Calais alone 
remaining, 17 or 23 July, 1453. Talbot, earl of 
■Shrewsbury, was killed. 

CASTLEBAE (Ireland). About 1 100 French 
troops, under Humbert, landed at Killala, and as- 
sisted by Irish insurgents here, compelled the king's 
■troops under Lake to retreat, 27 Aug. 1798; but 
■were compelled to surrender at Ballinamuck, 
8 'Sept. 

CASTLEPOLLAED (Ireland). At an affray 
at a fair here between some peasantry and a body 
of police, thirteen persons lost their lives, and many 
were wounded, 23 May, 183 1. 

CASTLES. The _ castle of the Anglo-Saxon 
was a tower keep, either round or square, and 



ascended by a flight of steps in front. "William I. 
erected 48 strong castles. Several hundreds, built 
by permission of Stephen, between 1135 and 1154, 
were demolished by Henry II., 1154. Many were 
dismantled in the civil wars, Richborough, Stud- 
fall, and Burgh are existing specimens of Boman 
castles. 

CASUAL POOE ACT, 45 & 46 Vict. c. 36, 
passed 18 Aug. 1882 ; another bill withdrawn 23 
June, 1892. 

CAT. The generally received opinion that our 
domestic cat is derived from the European wild cat 
is doubted by Mr. T. Bell (1827). Kiippell (died 
1794) found a wild cat in Nubia, whose conforma- 
tion agreed with that of the Egyptian cat mummies. 
See Mummies. Cats fetched high prices in the 
middle ages, and were protected by law in Wales, 
about 948. Great cat shows were held at the 
Crystal Palace, 13 July and 2 Dec. 1871 ; 2ist 
annual cat show at the Crystal Palace, 22 Oct. 
1889. A cat interrupted the debates in the com- 
mons, 9 July, 1874. A CR t asylum formed at Batter- 
sea, Dec. 1882. 
A discussion respecting the use of the "cat of nine 

tails " took place in the commons, and navy cats 

and others were inspected (see Flogging), 5 July, 1879 

CATACLYSMISTS, see Continuity. 
CATACOMBS. The early depositories of the 
dead. The first Christians at Borne met for wor- 
ship in the catacombs ; and here are said to have 
been the tombs of the apostles Peter and Paul. 
Belzoni in 1815-18 explored many Egyptian cata- 
combs, built 3000 years ago. He brought to Eng- 
land the sarcophagus of Psammeticlius, formed of 
oriental alabaster, exquisitely sculptured. In the 
Parisian catacombs (formerly stone quarries), human 
remains from the cemetery of the Innocents were 
deposited in 1785 ; and many of the victims of the 
revolution in 1 792-4, are interred in them. — On 
31 May, 1578, some labourers digging on the Via 
Salaria, two miles from Rome, discovered the cele- 
brated catacombs of which an account with engrav- 
ings was published by Antonio Bosio, in his " Ronia 
Sotteranea" (1632), and by.Aringhi (1659), and 
others. John Evelyn saw them in 1645. Elaborate 
accounts have been published recently by I)e Rossi; 
an abstract of whose researches will be found in the 
" Roma Sotteranea " of the Rev. J. S. Northcote 
and W. R. Brownlow, 1869 and 1879. 

CATALOGUES, see Libraries, Books. 
■ CATALONIA (N.E. Spain), was settled by the 
Goths and Alani, about 409; conquered by the 
Saracens, 712; recovered by Pepin, and by Charle- 
magne (788). It formed part of the Spanish marches 
and the territory of the count of Barcelona (ivhich 
see). The natives were able seamen: being fre- 
quently unruly, their peculiar privileges were 
abolished in 1714. See Barcelona. 

CATALYTIC FOECE. The discovery in 
1819 by Thenard of the decomposition of peroxide 
of hydrogen by platinum, and by Dobereiner in 
1825 of its property to ignite a mixture of hydro- 
gen and oxygen, formed the groundwork of the 
doctrine of catalytic force, also termed " action of 
contact or presence," put forth by Berzelius and 
Mitscherlich. Their view has not been adopted by 
Liebig and other chemists. 

CATAMAEANS (or carcases), fire-machines 
for destroying ships ; tried in vain by sir Sydney 
Smith, 2 Oct. 1804,011 the Boulogne flotilla destined 
by Bonaparte to invade England. 

CATANIA (the ancient Catana), a town near 
Etna, Sicily, was founded by a colony from Chalcis, 



CATAPHRYGIANS. 



189 



CATTLE. 



about 730 B.C. Ceres had a temple here, open to 
none but women. Catania was almost totally over- 
thrown by an eruption of Etna in 1669, and in 1693 
was nearly swallowed up by an earthquake : in a 
moment more than 18,000 of its inhabitants were 
buried in the ruins. An earthquake did great 
damage, 22 Feb. 1817. In Aug. 1862, the town 
was held by Garibaldi and his volunteers, in op- 
position to the Italian government. He was cap- 
tured on 29 Aug. Population in 1890, 109,687. 

CATAPHRYGIANS, heretics in the second 
century, who followed the errors of Montanus. 
They are said to have baptized their dead, forbidden 
marriage, and mingled the bread and wine in the 
Lord's supper with the blood of young children. 

CATAPULTiE, military engines of the cross- 
bow kind, for throwing huge stones as well as 
darts and arrows ; said to have been invented by 
Dion3 T sius, the tyrant of Syracuse, 399 B.C. 

CATCH CLUB, Noblemen and Gen- 
tlemen's, formed in 1761, included eminent 
musicians of the time. Prizes were given occa- 
sionally; sometimes, since 1821, for a composition, 
a gold or silver cup. 

CATEAUCAMBRESIS (N.France), where, 
on 2, 3 April, 1559, peace was concluded between 
Henry II. of France, Philip II. of Spain, and 
Elizabeth of England. France ceded Savoy, Corsica, 
and nearly 200 forts in Italy and the Low Countries 
to Philip. 

CATECHISMS are said to have been com- 
piled in the 8th or 9th century. Luther's were 
published 1520 and 1529. The catechism of the 
church of England in the first book of Edward VI., 
7 March, 1549, contained merely the baptismal 
vow, the creed, the ten commandments, and the 
Lord's prayer, with explanations; but James I. 
ordered the bishops to add an explication of the 
sacraments, 1612. The catechism of the council of 
Trent was published in 1566 ; those of the Assem- 
bly of Divines at Westminster (one termed the 
shorter catechism), 1647 and 1648. 

CATHARI (from the Greek katharos, pure), 
a name given to the Novatians (about 251), Mon- 
tanists, and other early Christian sects. See Puri- 
tans. 

CATHAY, an old name for China. 

CATHEDRAL, the chief church of a diocese, 

as containing the cathedra, or seat of the bishop, 

obtained the name in the 10th century. 

A conference of the higher clergy to consider 
cathedral institutions held at Lambeth, 1 March, 1872 

The act 3 & 4 Vict. c. 113, for the regulation of 
cathedrals passed in 1840, amended and the en- 
dowment of canonries facilitated in . . 1873 

A royal commission to inquire respecting cathedral 
churches appointed (atop, of Canterbury, lord 
Cranbrook, Mr. Beresford Hope, and others), 
July ; met in . . . . . . Aug. 1879 

Report issued recommending more flexibility in 
services, with use of nave, &c. . . Feb. 1882 

Final report issued April, 1885 

CATHERINE. The order of knights of St. 
Catherine was instituted in Palestine, 1063. An 
order of ladies of the highest rank in Russia was 
founded by Peter the Great, 17 14, in honour of the 
bravery of his empress Catherine. They were to 
be distinguished, as the name implied (from 
katharos, pure), for purity of life and manners; 
see Docks and Katharine. 

CATHOLIC ASSOCIATION, see under 
Roman Catholics. 



CATHOLIC LEAGUE formed by English 
churchmen more Romanistie than the English 
Church Union, June, 1882. 

CATHOLIC MAJESTY. This title was 
given by pope Gregory III. to Alphonso I. of Spain, 
739, and to Ferdinand V. and his queen in 1474 by 
Innocent VIII. on account of their zeal for religion, 
and their establishment of the Inquisition. 

CATHOLICS, see Roman Catholics. 

CATHOLIC UNION, see Roman Catholics. 

.CATILINE'S CONSPIRACY. Lucius Ser- 

gius Catiline, a dissolute Roman noble, having been 
refused the consulship (65 B.C.), conspired to kill 
the senate, plunder the treasury, and set Rome on 
fire. This conspiracy was timely discovered and 
frustrated. A second plot (in 63), was detected bv 
the consul Cicero, whom lie had resolved to murder. 
Catiline's daring appearance in the senate-house, 
after his guilt was known, drew forth Cicero's cele- 
brated^ invective, " Quousque tandem, Catilina!" 
on 8 Nov. On seeing five of his accomplices ar- 
rested, Catiline fled to Gaul, where his partisans 
were assembling an army. Cicero punished the 
conspirators at home, and Petreius routed their 
forces; Catiline being killed in the engagement,. 
Jan. 62 B.C. 

CAT ISLE, see Salvador. 

CATO, SUICIDE OF. Considering freedom as 
that which alone "sustains the dignity of man," 
and unable to survive the independence of his- 
country, Cato stabbed himself at Utica, 46 B.C. 

CATO-STREET CONSPIRACY : a gang 
of desperate men, headed by Arthur Thistlewood, 
assembled in Cato-street. Edgware-road, and pro- 
posed the assassination of the ministers of the 
crown, at a cabinet dinner. They were betrayed 
and arrested, 23 Feb. 1820, and Thistlewood, Brunt, 
Davidson, Ings, and Tidd, were executed as traitors, 
on 1 May. 

CATTI, a German tribe, attacked but not sub- 
dued by the Romans a.d. 15, and 84; absorbed by 
the Franks, 3rd century. 

CATTLE. The importation of horned cattle 
from Ireland and Scotland into England was pro- 
hibited by a law, 1663; but the export of cattle 
from Ireland became very extensive. In 1842 the 
importation of cattle into England from foreign 
countries was subjected to a moderate duty, and in 
1846 they were made duty free ; and since then the 
numbers imported have enormously increased.* 
Horned cattle imported into the United Kingdom 
1849,53,480; 1853, 125,523; 1855 (war), 97,527; 
i860, 104,569; 1865, 283,271 ; 1866, 237,739; 1867, 
177,948; 1868, 136,688; 1869, 220,190; 1870, 
202,172; 1874, 193,862; 1876, 271,576; 1877, 
201,193; ^79. 247,768 ; 1881, 319,374; 1883, 
474,750; 1887, 295,961; 1888, 377,088; l88q, 
555,222; 1890,642,596. See under Sheep, Smith- 
field, Metropolitan Cattle-market, ami Foreign 
Cattle-market. 
A cattle plague began in Hungary ; extended over 

Western Europe, destroying iA- million cattle 1711-14 
A severe cattle plague raged in England and wesJ 

Europe (about 3 million cattle perish) . . 1745-56 
The privy council ordered diseased beasts to he 
shot, and their skins destroyed ; granting mode- 
rate compensation . . . .12 March, 1746 
Great disease among foreign cattle ; excluded from 
this country by prohibitions . . . April, 1857 

* Sale of 30 of duke of Devonshire's shorthorn bulls 
for 19,923?., about Sept. 1878. 



CATTLE. 



190 



CAUDINE FOEKS. 



The cattle plague appears at Laycoek's dairy, 
Barnsbury, London, N. ; rapidly spreads, about 

24 June, 1865 

.27,432 beasts had been attacked ; 12,680 died ; 
8,998 slaughtered, up to . . . .21 Oct. „ 

A royal commission to inquire into the causes of 
cattle plague and suggest remedies met first, 10 
Oct. ; report of majority considered the disease 
to have been imported, and recommend slaughter 
of animals, and stringent prohibition of passage 
of cattle across public roads, &c, 31 Oct. 1865 ; 
second report, 6 Feb. ; 3rd report . 1 May, i366 

Orders in council for regulating the cattle plague 
(in conformity with the act of 1850), 23 Nov. and 
16 Dec. 1865 ; and 20 Jan. „ 

(Disease raging ; official report ; cattle attacked, 
120,740 ; killed, 16,742 ; died, 73,750 ; recovered, 
14,162 ; unaccounted for, 16,086 . . 1 Feb. ,, 

•Cattle Disease Acts passed 20 Feb. and 10 Aug. ,, 

Orders in council making uniform repressive mea- 
sures throughout the country . . 27 March, „ 

'The disease materially abates . . . April, „ 

JPrivy council return : cattle attacked, 248,965 ; 
killed, 80,597 : died, 124,187 ; recovered, 32,989 ; 
unaccounted for, 11,192 . . . .22 June, ,, 

The disease nearly " stamped out " . 27 Oct. „ 

Order in council directing that foreign cattle be 
landed only at certain parts (after 13 Nov.), there 
to be subjected to quarantine . . .10 Nov. ,, 

Oattle plague re-appears in Cheshire and Lanca- 
shire and Yorkshire Dec. ,, 

JBe-appears at Barnsbury (see 24 June, 1865), 46 
animals slaughtered .... 2 Feb. 1867 

ale-appearance in various places . . June, July, „ 

■Contagious Diseases (Animals) Act amended Aug. ,, 

3STo case reported to the privy council . 3 Aug. „ 

Order of council permitting cattle to be removed 
from the metropolis . . . .25 July, 1868 

New general orders issued .... Aug. 1869 

^Prevalence of " foot and mouth disease " in 
England . Aug. 1869 — Dec. 1870; June, July, 1871 

^Disease appears at Kaiserslautern, rear of the Ger- 
man army ; cautionary regulations promulgated 
by the privy council .... 9 Sept. 1870 

New foreign cattle market determined on, Nov. 
1870 ; opened Dec. 1871 ; suffers by great fire, 
about io,ooo£. lost . . . .18 Sept. 1883 

Foot and mouth disease in England, . July, Aug. 1872 

Appearance of the plague in German cattle ; further 
importation suspended . . about 3 Aug. ,, 

-Cattle plague appears at Pocklington, Yorkshire ; 
vigorously treated, 3 Sept. ; stringent order from 
the privy council 7 Sept. „ 

JLive cattle imported to Glasgow from America by 
Mr. Bell July, 1873 

IFoot and mouth disease in some English counties, 

Aug. Sept. 1875 

Ste-appearance of cattle-plague in England ; restric- 
tions in London and other places ; much cattle 
killed . . .:••.■. . . Jan.— May, 1877 

Oattle-plague commission enlarged, 3 May ; plague 
said to be stamped out ; restrictions removed, 26 
June ; fresh cases in London ; restrictions re- 
sumed 1 3 July ; removed . . . 31 July, ,, 

New Cattle Contagious Diseases Act passed 16 Aug. 1878 

Order in council prohibiting importation of living 
cattle from eastern half of Europe after 1 Jan. 
1879 ; imports permitted from some countries, 
cattle to be slaughtered ; (no restriction respect- 
ing some countries) .... 6 Dec. ,, 

jFoot and mouth disease in E. Lancashire, Aug. 
1881 ; in Staffordshire, Aug. 1882 ; Norfolk Oct, 1882 

International cattle show at Hamburg . July, 1883 

iFoot and mouth disease prevailing in English mid- 
land counties, July ; in Kent . July, el seq. ,, 

Severe at Odessa . . . Oct. 1883— May, 1884 

Abating in England through suspension of fairs, 
&c, announced April, „ 

iCattle-men of United States ; above 12,000 delegates 
hold a convention at St. Louis, organize a 
national live stock association, and recommend 
the formation of a National trail ten miles wide 
for the passage of cattle from the Red River to 
the Northern boundary of the States 18-22 Nov. ,, 

New Contagious Diseases Act passed . . . ,, 

Foot-and-mouth disease stamped out, Earl Spencer, 
28 May ; favourable reports . . . Dec. 1886 

•Cattle disease in Leicestershire . June 1880 



Foot and mouth disease in Germany; importation 
into England checked Oct. 18: 

Pleurc-pneumonia and anthrax in the United 
Kingdom reported 6 Feb. 18 

Foot and mouth disease at the Metropolitan cattle 
market detected in some Danish cattle ; all 
slaughtered, 4-6 Feb. The sale of live cattle 
temporarily suspended, 8 Feb. The disease soon 
after appeared in Kent, Surrey, W. R. Yorkshire, 
Chester, Westmoreland also at Edinburgh, Glas- 
gow, Paisley, and was vigorously stamped out 
bv the action of the Board of Agriculture, 

Feb. -July, 18 

CATTLE AND SHEEP IN THE UNITED KINGDOM AND 
ISLANDS. 



1879 



Sheep. 
26,380,000 

33,8i7>95i 
35,607,812 
34,250,272 
32,786,783 
31,403,500 
32,246,642 
33,982,404 
34,837,597 
33,49 I ,948 
32,252,579 
32,220,067 
32,571,018 

SHOW, see Smithfield. 
, see Cabul. 



Cattle. Sheep. 

9,961,536 32,237,958 
9,871,153 30,239,620 



1801 9,905,013 

1882 9,832,417 

1883 10,097,943 

1884 10,422,762 

1885 10,868,760 

1886 10,872,811 

1887 10,639,960 29,401,750 

1888 10,268,600 28,938,716 

1889 10,272,765 29,484,774 

1890 10,789,858 31,667,195 



27,090,273 
27,448,220 
28,347,560 
29,376,787 
30,086,200 
28,955,240 



Cattle. 

1866 8,570,000 

1867 8,731,473 

1868 9,083,416 

1869 9,078,282 

1870 9,235,052 

1871 9,346,216 

1872 9,718,505 

1873 10,153,670 

1874 10,281,036 

1875 10.162,787 

1876 9,997,189 

1877 9,731,537 

1878 9,761,288 

CATTLE 
CAUBUL 

CAUCASUS, a lofty mountain, a continuation 
of the ridge of Mount Taurus, between the Euxine 
and Caspian seas. The passes near the mountain 
were called Caucasia Fortcc, and it is supposed that 
through them the Sarmatians or Huns invaded the 
provinces of Rome, a.d. 447. Population of the 
province, 1885, 7,824,567; see Circassia. 
Two explorers, Mr. W. F. Donkin and Mr. H. Fox, 

and their guides lost . . . about 1 Sept. 1888 
Alpine Club search party find only some of their 

property 29 July, 1889 

First agricultural exhibition opened at Tiflis . 

27 Sept. ,, 

CAUCUS. An American term applied to a 
private meeting of the leading politicians of a party 
to agree upon the plans to be pursued during an 
election or session of congress. This institution is 
now a very powerful antagonist to public opinion. 
The word is said to be derived from ' ' ship ' ' -caulkers' 
meetings. A "caucus club" is mentioned by John 
Adams, in 1763. Bartlett. Similar meetings are 
occasionally held in London by conservatives and 
liberals ; one was held by Mr. Gladstone respecting 
the ballot bill, 6 July, 1871. Jealousy respecting 
the system was aroused in 1878. 
The Birmingham Liberal Association began in 1868 
a powerful caucus, systematized by Mr. Schnad- 
horst, very efficient 1873 et seq. ; a similar conser- 
vative association since formed ; a network of 
similar societies exist throughout the kingdom 

Autumn 1885 
The London Liberal and Radical Council, actually 

a caucus, active in November, ,, 

io,5ooL presented to Mr. Schnadhorst by the 
Liberals .... .9 March, 1887 

CAUDINE FOEKS, according to Livy, the 
Furcults Caudince (in Samnium, S. Italy), were two 
narrow defiles or gorges, united by a range of moun- 
tains on each side. The Romans went through the 
first pass, but found the second blocked up ; on re- 
turning they found the first similarly obstructed. 
Being thus hemmed in by the Samnites, under the 
command of C. Pontius, they surrendered at discre- 
tion, 321 B.C. (after a fruitless contest, according to 
Cicero). The Roman senate broke the favourable 
treaty. C. Pontius, taken prisoner in the third 
Samnite war, was executed at Rome, 290. 



CAULIFLOWEE. 



191 



CELL THEOEY. 



CAULIFLOWEE, said to have been brought 
from Cyprus to England about 1603. 

CAUSTIC, IN PAINTING, a method of burn- 
ing colours into wood or ivory, invented by Gausias 
of Sicyon. He painted his mistress Glycere sitting 
on the ground making garlands with dowers ; the 
picture was hence named Stephanoplocon. It was 
bought by Lucullus for two talents, 335 B.C. Pliny. 

CAUTIONABY TOWNS (Holland), (the 
Briel, Flushing, Rammekins, and Walcheren), 
■were given to queen Elizabeth in 1585 as security 
for their repaying her for assistance in their struggle 
with Spain. They were restored to the Dutch 
republic by James I. in 16 16. 

CAVALIEB. The appellation given to the 
supporters of the king during the civil war, from a 
number of gentlemen formiug themselves into a 
body-guard for the king in 164 1. They were 
opposed to the Roundheads, or parliamentarians. 

CAVALBY. Used by the Canaanites in war, 
1450 B.C. {Josh. xi. 4). Attached to each Roman 
legion was a body of 300 horse, in ten turmaj ; the 
commander always a veteran. — The Persians had 
10,000 horse at Marathon, 490 B.C. ; and 10,000 
Persian horse were slain at the battle of Issus, 333 
B.C. Plutarch. In the wars with Napoleon I. the 
British cavalry reached to 31,000 men. Our cavalry 
force, in 1840, was 10,733. In 1867, cavalry of the 
line, 10,023; in depots, 838 ; in India, 5421 ; total, 
1 7,599 ; m 1880, total 17,245 ; in i884, total 16,998 ; 
in Jan. 1889, 556 officers, 1406 non-commissioned, 
1 1,458 rank and file ; in India, total 5682. Cavalry 
Manoeuvres on the Berkshire Downs, eight regi- 
ments, director, sir Evelyn Wood ; general in 
•command, sir Baker Russell, Sept. 1890. The 
manoeuvres repeated near Aldershot, Aug. 1891, 
and Aug. 1892 ; see Horse Guards, §c. 

CAVENDISH EXPEEIMENT. In 1798 
the Hon. Henry Cavendish described his experi- 
ment for determining the mean density of the 
earth, by comparing the force of terrestrial attrac- 
tion with that of the attraction of leaden spheres of 
known magnitude and density, by means of the 
torsion balance. Branch. The Cavendish. Society, 
for the publication of chemical works, which ceased 
with Gmelin's Chemistry (1848-72), was established 
1846. 

CAVENDISH COLLEGE, Cambridge 
(founded to give cheap university education to 
youths younger than those admitted at other col- 
leges, and leaving earlier for business), was in- 
augurated by the duke of Devonshire, 26 Oct. 1876. 
New buildings opened by the marquis of Harting- 
ton, 16 Nov. 1889. 

CAVES are frequently mentioned in the Bible 
as dwellings, refuges, and burying-places. Mr. W. 
B. Dawkins' "Cave-hunting; Researches on the 
evidence of caves respecting the early inhabitants 
of Europe," was published 1874. Oreston cave, 
Devon, discovered 1816; Kirkdale, Yorkshire, 1821 ; 
Kent's Hole, Torquay, which see, 1825; Brixham 
■cave, 1858 ; Wookey Hole, Somerset, 1859 ; and 
many others, have been well explored. 

CAWNPOEE, a town in India, on the Doab, 
a peninsula between the Ganges and Jumna. During 
the mutiny in June, 1857, it was garrisoned by na- 
tive troops under sir Hugh Wheeler. These broke 
out into revolt. An adopted son of the old Peishwa 
Bajee Rao, Nana Sahib, who had long lived on 
friendly terms with the British, came apparently to 
their assistance, but joined the rebels. He took the 



place after three weeks' siege, 26 June; and in 
spite of a treaty massacred great numbers of the 
British, without respect to age or sex, in the most 
cruel manner. General Havelock defeated Nana 
Sahib, 16 July, at Futtehpore, and retook Cawn- 
pore, 17 July. Sir Colin Campbell defeated the 
rebels here on 6 Dec. following. A column was 
erected here, in memory of the sufferers, by their 
relatives of the 32nd regiment. In Dec. i860, 
Nana was said to be living at Thibet ; and in Dec. 
1861 was incorrectly said to have been captured at 
Kurrachee ; see India, 1857. 

CAXTON SOCIETY, established for the 
publication of chronicles and literature of the 
M iddle Ages, published sixteen volumes, 1844-54. 
Caxton Celebration, see under Printing, 1877. 

CAYENNE, French Guiana (S. America), 
settled by the French, 1604-35. ^ afterwards came 
successively into the hands of the English (1654), 
French, and Dutch. The last were expelled by the 
French in 1677. Cayenne was taken by the British, 
12 Jan. 1809, but was restored to the French in 
1814. Here is produced the Capsicum baccatum, or 
cay r enne pepper. Many French political prisoners 
were sent here in 1848. 

CECIL CLUB, founded about 1889 to oppose 
rash, democratical and radical changes ; supported 
by conservatives. 

CECILIAN SOCIETY, see Ccecilian. 

CEDAE CEEEK and MOUNTAIN, 

Virginia, U.S. On 19 Oct. 1864, gen. Sheridan 
converted the defeat of the Federals by the Con- 
federates under Longstreet into a complete victory. 
At Cedar Mountain gen. Stonewall Jackson 
defeated Banks, 9 Aug. 1862. 

CEDAE TEEE. The red cedar (Junipcrus 
virginiana) came from North America before 
1664; the Bermudas cedar from Bermudas before 
1683 ; the Cedar of Lebanon (Pinus Cedrus) from 
the Levant before 1683. In 1850 a grove of vener- 
able cedars, about 40 feet high, remained on 
Lebanon. The cedar of Goa (Cupressus lusitanica) 
was brought to Europe by the Portuguese about 
1683 ; see Cypress. 

CELEEY is said to have been introduced into 
England by the French marshal, Tallard, during 
his captivity r in England, after his defeat at Blen- 
heim by Marlborough, 2 Aug. 1704. 

CELESTIAL GLOBE, see Globes. 

CELIBACY (from ccelcbs, unmarried), was 
preached by St. Anthony in Egypt about 305. His 
early converts lived in caves, &c, till monasteries 
were founded. The doctrine was rejected in the 
council of Nice, 325. Celibacy was enjoined on 
bishops only in 692. The decree was opposed in 
England, 958-978. The Romish clergy generally 
were enjoined a vow of celibacy by pope Gregory 
VII. in 1073-85, and its observance was established 
by the council of Placentia, held in 1095. Mar- 
riage was restored to the English clergy in 1547. 
The marriage of the clergy was proposed, but nega- 
tived at the council of Trent (1563); also at a con- 
ference of the old catholics at Bonn, June, 1876. 
Sir Bartle Frere termed the Zulu army " a celibate 
man-slaying machine," 1878. 

CELL THEOEY (propounded by Schwann 
in 1839) supposes that the ultimate particles of all 
animal and vegetable tissues are small cells. Some 
of the lowest forms of animal and vegetable life 
are said to be composed of merely a single cell, as the 
germinal vesicle in the egg and the red-snow plant. 



CELLULOID. 



192 



CBRIGNOLA. 



CELLULOID, see Ivory. 
CELTIBERI, see Numantine War. 
CELTS, or KELTS, a group of the Aryan 
family; see Gauls. Above 8000/. subscribed to 
found a Celtic professorship at the university of 
Edinburgh, Oct. 1876; 11,937^. subscribed April, 
1879. One was established at Oxford in 1876 ; see 
Gaelic. 

CEMETERIES. The bur) ing-places of the 
Jews, Greeks, Romans, were outside their towns 
{Matt, xxvii. 60). Many public cemeteries re- 
sembling " Pere La Chaise" * at Paris, have been 
opened in all parts of the kingdom since 1856; see 
Catacombs, Bun hill- fields. 

Kensal-green cemetery, 53 acres ; consecrated, 2 Nov. 1832 
South Metropolitan and Norwood cemetery, 40 

acres ; consecrated 6 Dec. 1837 

Highgate and Kentish-town cemetery, 22 acres; 

opened and consecrated ... 20 May, 1839 
Abney Park cemetery, Stoke Newington, 30 acres ; 

opened by the lord mayor ... 20 May, 1840 
Westminster, or West London cemetery, Kensing- 
ton-road ; consecrated ... 15 June, „ 
Nunhead cemetery, about 50 acres; consecrated 

29 July, ,, 
City of London and Tower Hamlets cemetery, 

30 acres ; consecrated 1841 

London Necropolis and National Mausoleum, at 
Woking, Surrey, 2000 acres ; the company incor- 
porated in July, 1852 ; opened . . Jan. 1855 
City of London cemetery, Ilford ; opened, 24 June, 1856 
Acts respecting burials passed .... 1850-57 

CENIS, MOUNT, see under Alps. 

CENSORS, Roman magistrates, to survey 
and rate the property, and correct the manners of 
the people. The two first censors were appointed, 
443 B.C. Plebeian censors were first appointed, 131 
B.C. Cato, the censor, elected 184 B.C., strenuously 
endeavoured 1 o restrain the luxury and vice of the 
patricians. The office, abolished by the emperors, 
was revived by Decius, a.d. 251 ; see Press. 

CENSUS. The Israelites were numbered by 
Moses, 1490 B.C.; and by David, 1017B.C; Deme- 
trius Phalereus is said to have taken a census of 
Attica, 317 B.C. Servius Tullius is traditionally 
said to have enacted that a general estimate of 
every Roman's estate and personal effects, should 
be delivered to the government upon oath every 
five years, 566 B.C. A census of the people is 
stated to have been taken at Florence in 1527 ; 
at Venice, 1584; in France, 1700; in Sweden, 
1749; and in the United States, N.A. 1790. In 
England the proposal for a census in 1753 was 
opposed as profane and subversive of liberty^ In 
the United Kingdom the census is now taken at 
decennial periods since 1801 ; 1811, 1821, 1831, 
1841, 1851, 1861 (7 April), 1871 (3 April), 1881 
(3 April), 1891 (5 April) ; act passed 18 Aug. 1890. 
S'ee Population. For the latest census of other 
countries, see Table, facing page 1. 

CENTAL, a new name given to the ioolbs. 
Weight, London Gazette, 7 Feb. 1879. 

CENTENARIANS, see Longevity. 

CENTRAL AFRICA, see under Africa. 

CENTRAL AMERICA, &eeAmerica,Central. 
A laro-c American steamer of this name was wrecked 
during a gale in the gulf of Mexico, 12 Sept. 1857. 

* Pere La Chaise was the favourite and confessor of 
Louis XIV. , who made him superior of a great establish- 
ment of tiie Jesuits on this spot, then named Mont 
Louis. The house and grounds were bought for a national 
cemetery, which was laid out by M. Brongniart, and first 
used on 21 May, 1804. 



Of about 550 persons only 152 were saved; several 
of these after drifting on rafts above 600 miles. 
The loss of about 2\ million dollars in specie aggra- 
vated the commercial panic in New York shortly 
after. The captain and crew behaved heroically. 

CENTRAL CRIMINAL COURT, estab- 
lished in 1834. Commissions are issued to the 
fifteen judges of England (of whom three attend in 
rotation at the Old Bailey) for the periodical de- 
livery of the gaol of Newgate, and the trial of 
offences of greater degree, committed in Middlesex 
and parts of Essex, Kent, and Surrey; the new 
district is considered as one county. 

CENTRAL HALL OF SCIENCES, see 
under Albert. 

CENTRAL PROVINCES OF INDIA, 

constituted out of territories from the North- West 
provinces and Madras in 1861 and placed under a . 
chief commissioner. Population in 1881,9.838,791; 
1891, 10,761,630. Chief commissioner, Alex. Mac- 
kenzie (1889) ; A. Patrick MacDonnell (1891). " 

CENTURION, the captain, head, or com- 
mander of a subdivision of a Roman legion, which 
consisted of 100 men, and was called a centuria. 
By the Roman census each hundred of the people 
was called a centuria, 556 b c 

CENTURY. The Greeks computed time by 
the Olympiads, beginning 776 B.C., and the Roman 
church by Indictions, the first of which began 24 
Sept., a.d. 312. The method of computing time 
by centuries commenced from the incarnation 0? 
Christ, and was adopted in chronological history 
first in France. Dupin. See Dictionaries, 1889. 

CEPHALONIA, the ancient Cephallenia, one 
of the Ionian islands, was taken from the JEtolians 
by the Romans, 189 B.C., and given to the Athenians 
by Hadrian, a.d. 135; see Ionian Isles. 
It was held successively by the eastern emperors, by 
the Franks in the 12th century, by the Princes 
of Aehaia, 1224 ; by the Turks, 1479 ; by the 
Venetians 1500-1797 

CEPHISUS, a river in Attica, near which 
Walter de Brienne, duke of Athens, was defeated 
and slain by the Catalans, 1311. 

CERBERE, a French gun-brig, with a crew 
of 87 men, and seven guns, in the harbour of 
L' Orient, within pistol-shot of three batteries, was- 
captured in a most daring manner by lieut. Jeremiah 
Coghlan, in a cutter with 19 companions aided by 
two boats, one of which was commanded by mid- 
shipman Paddon. The prize was towed out under 
a heavy but ineffectual fire from the batteries, 
26 July", 1800. Nicolas. 

CEREMONIES, Master of the, an office 
instituted for the more honourable reception of 
ambassadors and persons of quality at court, 
1 James I. 1603. The order maintained by the 
master of the ceremonies at Bath, "Beau Nash,"' 
the "King of Bath," led to the adoption of the 
office in ordinary assemblies ; he died in his 88th 
year, 1761! Ashe. 

CERES, a planet, 160 miles in diameter, was 
discovered by M. Piazzi, at Palermo, 1 Jan. 1801 ; 
he named it after the goddess highly esteemed by 
the ancient Sicilians. 

CERESUOLA (N. Italy). Here Francis de 
Bourbon, count d'Eughien, defeated the imperialists 
under the marquis de Guasto, 14 April, 1544. 

CERIGNOLA (S. Italy). Here the great 
captain Gonsalvo de Cordova and the Spaniards 



^CERINTHIANS. 



193 



CHAMBERS' JOURNAL. 



defeated the due de Nemours and the French, 
28 April, 1503. 

CERINTHIANS, followers of Cerinthus, a 
Jew, who lived about a.d. 80, are said to have com- 
bined Judaism with pagan philosophy. 

CERIUM, a very rare metal, discovered by 
Klaproth and others in 1 803. 

CEUTA (the ancient Septa), a town on N. coast 
of Africa, stands on the site of the ancient Abyla, 
the southern pillar of Hercules. It was taken 
from the Vandals by Belisarius for Justinian, 534 ; 
by the Goths, 618 ; by the Moors about 709, from 
whom it was taken by the Portuguese, 1415. "With 
Portugal, it was annexed in 1580 to Spain, which 
power still retains it. 

CEYLON (the ancient Taprobane), an island 
in the Indian Ocean, called by the natives the seat 
of paradise. It became a seat of Buddhism, 307 
B.C., and was known to the Romans about 41 a.d. 
Population 1873, 2,323,760; 1881,2,758,165; 1891, 
3,008,239. 

The Mahavansa, a metrical chronicle in Pali, gives 
the history of Ceylon from 543 B.C. down to 432 
a.d. which has been continued to 1756. Bud- 
dhism was established as the national religion 

B.C. 307 

The usurpation of the Malabars .... 237 
Wyjayo Balm re-establishes a native dynasty a.d. 1071 
Prakrama Bahu, a great prince, reigns . 1153 etseq. 
Wars with the Malabars, 12th and 13th centuries. 
Invaded by the Portuguese Almeyda . . . 1505 
The Dutch landed in Ceylon, 1602 ; and captured 

the capital, Colombo 1603 

Frequent conflicts ; peaceful commercial relations 

established (the Portuguese having been expelled) 1664 
Intercourse with the British begun . . . . 1713 
A large portion of the country taken by them in 

1782 ; was restored . 1783 

The Dutch settlements seized by the British : Trin- 

comalee, 26 Aug. ; Jaffhapatam . . Sept. 1795 
Ceylon was ceded to Great Britain by the peace of 

Amiens 1802 

British troops treacherously massacred or im- 
prisoned by the Adigar of Candy, at Colombo ; 

see Candy 26 June, 1803 

Complete sovereignty of the island assumed by 

England 1815 

Bishopric of Colombo founded 1845 

The governor, lord Torrington, absolved from a 
charge, of undue severity in suppressing a rebel- 
lion May, 1851 

Prosperity of Ceylon greatly increased under the 

administration of sir H. Ward . . . 1855-60 

Sir J. E. Tennent's work, "Ceylon," appeared . 1859 
Sir Hercules G. Robinson appointed governor, 

7 March, 1865 
The duke of Edinburgh visited Ceylon . April, 1870 
Wm. H. Gregory, M.P., appointed governor, 9 Jan. 1872 
Visit of the prince of Wales . . .1 Dec. 1875 
Sir J. R. Longden appointed governor . Nov. 1876 
Sir Arthur Hamilton Gordon .... Feb. 1883 
Sir Arthur E. Havelock ... 12, March, 1890 
Native industry reported very satisfactory . . 1884 

CH^ERONEA (Bccotia). Here Greece was 
ruined by Philip ; 32,000 Macedonians defeating 
30,000 Thebans, Athenians, &c, 6 or 7 Aug. 338 B.C. 
Here Archelaus, lieutenant of Mithridates, was 
defeated by Sylla, and 1 10,000 Cappadocians were 
slain, 86 b.c. ; see Coronea. 

CHAIN BRIDGES, see Suspension Bridges. 

CHAIN-CABLES, Pumps, and SnoT. 

Iron chain-cables were in use by the Veneti, a people 
intimately connected with the Belga? of Britain in 
the time of Caesar, 57 b. c. These cables came into 
use, generally in the navy of England, in 1812. 
Acts for tbe proving and sale of chain-cables and 
anchors were passed in 1864, i87l,and 1874. — Chain 
Shot, to destroy the rigging of an enemy's ship, 



were invented by the Dutch admiral, De Witt, in 
1666. — Chain-Pumps were first used on board the 
Flora, British frigate, in 1787. 

_ CHALCEDON, Asia Minor, opposite Byzan- 
tium, colouised by Megarians, about 684 B.C. It 
was taken by Darius, 505 B.C. ; by the Romans, 
74 b.c; plundered by the Goths, a.d. 259; taken by 
Chosroes, the Persian, 609 ; by Orchan, the Turk, 
1338. Here was held the "Synod of the Oak," 
403 ; and the fourth general council, which annulled 
the act of the "Robber Synod," 8 Oct. 451. 

CHALCIS, see Eubcea. 

CHALD^EA, the ancient name of Babylonia, 
but afterwards restricted to the S. W. portion. The 
Chaldaeans were devoted to astronomy and astrology ; 
see Ban. ii. &c. — The Chaldjean Registers of 
celestial observations, said to have commenced 
2234 B.C., were brought down to the taking of 
Babylon by Alexander, 331 b.c. (1903 years). 

CHALGROVE (Oxfordshire). At a skirmish 
here with prince Rupert, 18 June, 1643, John 
Hampden, of the parliament party, was wounded, 
and died 24 June. A column was erected to his 
memory, 18 June, 1843. 

CHALLENGER, see Beep Sea Soundings. 

CHALONS-SUR-MARNE (N.E. France). 
Here the emperor Aurelian defeated Tetricus, the 
last of the pretenders to the throne, termed the 
Thirty Tyrants, 274; and here in 451 Aetius 
defeated Attila the Hun, compelling him to retire 
into Pannonia. 

CHAM, see Charivari. 

CHAMBERLAIN, early a high court officer 
in France, Germany, and England. The office of 
chamberlain of the exchequer ceased in 1834. 

Hereditary Lord Great Chamberlain of England. 
—The sixth great officer of state, whose duties, among 
others, relate to coronations and public solemnities. 
The office was long held by the De Veres, earls of Oxford, 
granted by Henry I. in 1101. On the death of John De 
Vere, the sixteenth earl, Mary, his sole daughter, 
marrying lord Willoughby De Eresby, the right was 
established in that nobleman's family by a judgment of 
the house of peers, 2 Charles I. 1625. On the death of 
his descendant, unmarried, in July 1779, the house of 
lords and twelve judges concurred that the office de- 
volved to lady Willoughby De Eresby, and her sister the 
lady Georgina Charlotta Bertie, as heirs to their brother 
Robert, duke of Ancaster, deceased ; and that they had 
powers to appoint a deputy to act for them, not under 
the degree of a knight, who, if his majesty approved of 
him, might officiate accordingly. Beatson. This dignity 
was for some time held jointly by the lord Willoughby 
De Eresby and the marquis of Cholmondeley, descendants 
of John de Vere, earl of Oxford. Lord Willoughby 
De Eresby died without issue 27 Aug. 1870, and lord 
Aveland, his sister's son, was appointed to act. The 
marquis of Cholmondeley died 16 Dec. 1884, and was 
succeeded by his grandson. Lady Willoughby De 
Eresby died 13 Nov. 1888, and was succeeded by her son, 
created earl of Ancaster, Sept. 1892. 

Lord Chamberlain of the Household.— An ancient 
office. The title is from the French ChamheUan, in 
Latin Cumerurius. Sir William Stanley, knt., afterwards 
beheaded, was lord chamberlain, 1 Henry VII. 1485. 
A vice-chamberlain acts in the absence of the chief; the 
offices are co-existent. Beatson. 

The Chamberlain of London is an ancient office. 

CHAMBERS, see Commerce, Agriculture, 
Shi }rping. 

CHAMBERS' JOURNAL was first published 
at Edinburgh in Feb. 1832. Jubilee kept 4 Feb. 
1882. Robt. Chambers died 17 Mar. 1871. William 
died 20 May, 1883. 

o 



CHAMBEE AEDENTE. 



194 CHANCELLOE OF ENGLAND. 



CHAMBEE AEDENTE (fiery chamber), an 
extraordinary French tribunal so named from the 
punishment frequently awarded by it. Francis I. 
in 1535, and Henry II. in 1549, employed it for the 
extirpation of heresy, which led to the civil war 
with the Huguenots in 1560; and in 1679 Louis 
XIV. appointed one to investigate the poisoning 
eases which arose after the execution of the mar- 
chioness Brinvilliers. 

CHAMBEE INTEOUVABLE, a name 
given to the chamber of deputies, elected in France 
in 1815, on account of its ignorance, incapacity, and 
Jbigoted reactionary spirit. 

CHAMPAGNE, an ancient province, N. E. 
France, once part of the kingdom of Burgundy, was 
governed by counts from the 10th century till it 
•was united to Navarre, count Thibaut becoming 
king, in 1234. The countess Joanna married 
Philip IV. of France in 1284; and in 1361 Cham- 
pagne was annexed by their descendant king John. 
The effervescing wine termed Champagne, became 
popular in the latter part of the 18th century. 

CHAMP DE MAES, an open square in front 
of the Military school at Paris, with artificial 
embankments on each side, extending nearly to the 
•river Seine. The ancient assemblies of the Frankish 
people, the germ of parliaments, held annually in 
March, received this name. In 747, Pepin changed 
the month to May. Here was held, 14 July, 1790 
(the anniversary of the capture of the Bastile), the 
^'federation," or solemnity of swearing fidelity to 
the "patriot king" and new constitution: great 
rejoicings followed. On 14 July, 1791, a second 
great meeting was held here, directed by the Jacobin 
clubs, to sign petitions on the " altar of the country," 
praying for the abdication of Louis XVI. A com- 
memoration meeting took place, 14 July, 1792. 
Another constitution was sworn to here, under the 
eye of Napoleon I., 1 May, 1815, at a ceremony 
called the Champ de Mai. The prince president 
(afterwards Napoleon III.) had a grand review in 
the Champ de Mars, and distributed eagles to the 
army, 10 May, 1852. Here also was held the Inter- 
national Exhibitions opened 1 April, 1867, and I 
May, 1878, see Paris. 

CHAMPEETY, see Barretry. 

CHAMPION of the King of England, 

(most honourable), an ancient office, since 1377 has 
been attached to the manor of Scrivelsby, held by 
-the Marmion family. Their descendant, sir Henry 
Dymoke, the seventeenth of his family who held 
the office, died 28 April, 1865 ; succeeded by his 
brother John ; he died, and his son Henry Lionel 
succeeded, who died Dec. 1875. At the coro- 
nation of the English kings, the champion used to 
challenge any one that should deny their title. 

CHAMPLAIN, see Lake Champlain. 

CHANCELLOE OF ENGLAND, Lord 

HlGH, the first lay subject after the princes of the 
hlood royal. Anciently the office was conferred 
upon some dignified ecclesiastic termed Cancel- 
larius, or doorkeeper, who admitted suitors to the 
sovereign's presence. Arfastus or Herefast, chaplain 
to the king (William the Conqueror) and bishop of 
Elmham, was lord chancellor in 1067. Hardy. 
'Thomas a Becket was made chancellor in 1154. 
The first person qualified by education, to decide 
causes upon his own judgment, was sir Thomas 
More, appointed in 1529, before which time the 
officer was rather a state functionary than a judge. 
Sir Christopher Hatton, appointed lord chancellor 
in 1587, was very ignorant, on w r hich account the 



first reference was made to a master in 1588. The 
great seal has been frequently put in commission ; 
in 1813 the office of Vice- Chancellor was estab- 
lished; see Keeper, and Vice- Chancellor. — Salary, 
6ooo£. ; as speaker of house of lords, 4000^. 

LORD HIGH CHANCELLORS. 

14S7. John Moreton, archbishop of Canterburv. 

1504. William Warham, aft. archbshp. of Canterbury. 

1515. Thomas Wolsey, cardinal and abp. of York. 

1529. Sir Thomas More. 

1532. Sir Thomas Audley, keeper. 

1533. Sir Thomas Audley, chancellor, aft. lord Audley. 
1544. Thomas, lord Wriothesley. 

1547. William, lord St. John, keeper. 
,, Richard, lord Rich, lord chancellor. 

1551. Thomas Goodrich, bishop of Ely, keeper. 

1552. The same ; now lord chancellor. 

1553. Stephen Gardiner, bishop of Winchester. 
1556. Nicholas Heath, archbishop of York. 
1558. Sir Nicholas Bacon, keeper. 

1579. Sir Thomas Bromley, lord chancellor. 
1587. Sir Christopher Hatton. 

1591. The great seal in commission. 

1592. Sir John Puckering, lord keeper. 
1596. Sir Thomas Egerton, lord keeper. 

1603. Sir T. Egerton, lord Ellesmere, chancellor. 

161 7. Sir Francis Bacon, lord keeper 

1618. Sir Francis Bacon, cr. Id. Verulam, Id. chancellor. 
1621. The great seal in commission. 

1625. John, bishop of Lincoln, lord keeper. 
„ Sir Thomas Coventry, afterwards lord Coventry, 
lord keeper. 

1640. Sir John Finch, afterwards lord Finch. 

1641. Sir Edward Lyttelton, afterwards lord Lytteltorj, 

lord keeper. 
1643. The great seal in the hands of commissioners. 

1645. Sir Richard Lane, royal keeper. 

1646. In the hands of commissioners. 

1649. I n commission for the commonwealth. 

1653. Sir Edward Herbert, king's lord keeper. 

1654. In commission during the commonwealth. 

1660. Sir Edward Hyde, lord chancellor, afterwards 

created lord Hyde, and earl of Clarendon. 
1667. Sir Orlando Bridgman, lord keeper. 

1672. Anthony Ashley, earl of Shaftesbury, lord chan- 

cellor. 

1673. Sir Heneage Finch, lord keeper. 

1675. Heneage, now lord Finch, lord chancellor, after- 
wards earl of Nottingham. 
1682. Sir Francis North, cr. lord Guilford, lord keeper. 
1685. Francis, lord Guilford ; succeeded by 
,, George, lord Jeffreys, lord chancellor. 

1689. In commission. 

1690. Sir John Trevor, knt., sir William Rawlinson, knt., 

and sir George Hutchins, knt., commissioners 
or keepers. 

1693. Sir John Somers, lord keeper. 

1697. Sir John Somers, cr. lord Somers, chancellor. 

1700. Lord chief justice Holt, sir George Treby, chief 
justice C. P. , and chief baron sir Edward Ward, 
lord keepers. 
,, Sir Nathan Wright, lord keeper. 

1705. Right hon. William Cowper, lord keeper, after- 
wards lord Cowper. 

1707. William, lord Cowper, lord chancellor. 

1710. In commission. 
„ Sir Simon Harcourt, cr. lord Harcourt, keeper. 

1713. Simon, lord Harcourt, lord chancellor. 

1 7 14. William, lord Cowper, lord chancellor. 
1718. In commission. 

,, Thomas, lord Parker, lord chancellor; afterwards 
earl of Macclesfield. 

1725. In commission. 

,, Sir Peter King, cr. lord King, chancellor. 

1733. Charles Talbot, created lord Talbot, chancellor. 

1737. Philip Yorke, lord Hardwicke, lord chancellor. 

1756. In commission. 

1757. Sir Robert Henley, afterwards lord Henley, last lord 

keeper. 
1761. Lord Henley, lord chancellor, afterwards earl of 

Northington. 
1766. Charles, lord Camden, lord chancellor. 
1770. Hon. Charles Yorke, lord chancellor. 

[Created lord Morden ; died by suicide within 

three clays, and before the seals were put to his 

patent of peerage.] 



CHANCELLOE OF IRELAND. 



193 



CHANCEEY. 



1770. In commission. 

1771. Henry Batkurst, lord Apsley ; succeeded as earl 

Bathurst. 

C77&. Edward Thurlow, created lord Thurlow. 

1783. Alexander, lord Loughborough, and others, com- 
missioners. 
,, Edward, lord Thurlow, again. 

1792. In commission. 

3793. Alexander Wedderburne, lord Loughborough, lord 
chancellor. 

1801. John Scott, lord Eldon. 

1806. Hon. Thomas Erskine, created lord Erskine. 

1807. John, lord Eldon, again. 

1827. John Singleton Copley, created lord Lyndhurst. 

2830. Henry Brougham, created lord Brougham. 

'1834. Lord Lyndhurst, again. 

•1835. Sir Charles Christopher Pepys, master of the rolls, 
vice-chancellor Shadwell, and Mr. justice Bosan- 
quet, C. P., commissioners. 

£836. Sir Charles Christopher Pepys, created lord Cot- 
tenham, lord chancellor. 16 Jan. 

2841. Lord Lyndhurst, a third time. 3 Sept. 

284.6. Lord Cottenham, again lord chancellor, 6 July. 

1850. Lord Langdale, master of the rolls, sir Launcelot 
Shadwell, vice-chancellor of England, and sir 
Robert Monsey Rolfe, B.E., commissioners of 
the great seal. 19 June. 
,, Sir Thomas Wilde, lord Truro. 15 July. 

1852. Sir Edward Sugden, lord St. Leonards. 27 Feb. 
„ Robt. Monsey Rolfe, lord Cramvorth. 28 Dec. 

1858. Sir Frederic Thesiger, lord Chelmsford. 26 Feb. 

-1859. John, lord Campbell, 18 June ; died 23 June, 1861. 

u86i. Richard Bethel!, lord Westbury. 26 June. Re- 
signed 4 July, 1865. 

1865. Robert Monsey Rolfe, lord Cranworth, again. 
6 July. Resigned June, 1866. 

j866. F. Thesiger, lord Chelmsford, again. 6 July. Re- 
signed Feb. 1868. 

11868. Hugh Cairns, lord Cairns. 29 Feb. 
,, William Page Wood, lord Hatherley ; died 10 July, 
1881. 

J1872. Roundell Palmer, lord Selborne. 15 Oct. 

1874. Hugh Cairns, lord Cairns. 21 Feb. ; died 2 April, 
1885. 

a88o. Roundell Palmer, lord (afterwards earl) Selborne. 
28 April. 

1885. Sir Hardingc Giffard (lord Halsbury). 24 June. 

.1886. Sir Farrer Herschell (lord Herschell). 6 Feb. 
,, Hardinge Giffard, lord Halsbury. 26 July. 

1892. Lord Herschell, 18 Aug. 

CHANCELLOE OF IEELAND, Lord 

HlGH- The earliest nomination was by Richard 
I., 1 189, when Stephen Ridel was elevated to this 
rank. The office of' vice-chancellor was known in 
Ireland in 1232, Geoffrey Turvillo, archdeacon of 
Dublin, being so named. The Chancery and Com- 
mon Law Offices (Ireland) act was passed 20 Aug. 



LORD HIGH CHANCELLORS OF IRELAND. 

Patent. 

1690. Sir Charles Porter. 29 Dec. 

1697. Sir John Jeffreyson, Thomas Coote, and Nehemiah 

Donellan, lords keepers. 12 Jan. 
.,, J. Methuen. n March. 
,, Edward, earl of Mcath, Francis, earl of Longford, 

and Murrough, viscount Blessington, lords 

keepers. 21 Dec. 
1702. Lord Methuen, lord chancellor. 26 Aug. 
1705. Sir Richard Cox, bart., 6 Aug. ; resigned in 1707. 
1707. Richard Freeman. June. 

1710. Robert, earl of Kildare, archbishop (Hoadley) of 

Dublin, and Thomas Keightley, commissioners. 
28 Nov. 

1711. Sir Constantine Phipps. 22 Jan. Resigned Sept. 

1714. 
1714- Alan Brodrick, afterwards viscount Middleton. 
11 Oct. Resigned May, 1725. 

1725. Richard West. June. 

1726. Thomas Wyndham, afterwards lord Wyndham of 

Finglas. 21 Dec. 
3739. Robert Jocelyn, afterwards lord Newport and visct. 

Jocelyn. 7 Sept. ; died 25 Oct. 1756. 
1757. John Bowes, afterwards lord Bowes of Clonlyon. 

22 March ; died 1767. 



1768. James Hewitt, afterwards viscount Lifford. 9 Jan. 

died 28 April, 1789. 
1789 John, baron Fitzgibbon, afterwards earl of Clare. 

20 June ; died 28 Jan. 1802. 
1802. John, baron Redesdale. 15 March. Resigned Feb. 

1806. 

1806. George Ponsonby. 25 March ; resigned April, 1807. 

1807. Thomas Manners Sutton, lord Manners, previously 

an English baron of the exchequer. May. Re- 
signed Nov. 1827. 
1827. Sir Anthony Hart, previously vice-chancellor of 

England. 5 Nov. Resigned Nov. 1830. 
1830. William, baron Plunket. 23 Dec. Resigned Nov. 

1834. 
1835. Sir Edward Burtenshaw Sugden. 13 Jan. Resigned 

April 1835. 
,, Wilbam, baron Plunket, a second time. 30 April. 

Resigned June, 1841. 
1841. John Campbell. June. Resigned Sept. 1841. 
,, Sir Edward Sugden, afterwards lord St. Leonards, 

a second time. Oct. Resigned July, 1846. 
1846. Maziere Brady. 16 July. Resigned Feb. 1852. 

1852. Francis Blackburne. March. Resigned Dec. 

1853. Maziere Brady, again. Jan. 

1858. Joseph Napier. Feb. 

1859. Maziere Brady, again. June. 

1866. Francis Blackburne. July. Resigned March, 1867. 

1867. Abraham Brewster. 24 March. 

1868. Thomas, lord O'Hagan. Resigned, Feb. 1874. 
1874. In commission. 

„ John T. Ball. 16 Dec. 

1880. Thomas, lord O'Hagan. April. Resigned 9 Nov. 

1881. 

1881. Hugh Law, died 10 Sept., 3883. 

18S3. (in commission) 22 Sept., sir Edwd. Sullivan. 5 
Dec, 1883 ; died 13 April, 1885. 

1885. John Naish, about 25 April. 

,, Edward Gibson, lord Ashbourne. 24 June. 

1886. John Naish, about 2 Feb. 

,, Edward Gibson, lord Ashbourne, 26 July. 
1892. Samuel Walker, Aug. 

CHANCELLOE of the EXCHEQTJEE, 

see Exchequer. 

CHANCELLOE OF SCOTLAND, Lord, 

The laws of Malcolm II. (1004) say: — "The 
chancellar sail at al tymes assist the king in giving 
him counsall mair secretly nor the rest of the 
nobility. . . The chancellar sail be. ludgit neir 
unto the kingis grace, for keiping of his bodie, and 
the seill, and that he may be readie, baith day and 
nicht, at the kingis command." Sir James Balfour. 
Evan was lord chancellor to Malcolm III., Canmore, 
1057 ; and James, earl of Seafield, afterwards 
Findlater, was the last lord chancellor of Scotland, 
the office having been abolished in 1708; see 
Keeper. 

CHANCELLOE' S AUGMENTATION 
ACT, passed 1863, enabled the lord chancellor to 
sell the advowson of certain livings in his gift for 
augmenting poor benefices. 

CHANCELLOESVILLE, Virginia, U.S., a 
large brick hotel, once kept by a Mr. Chancellor, 
was the site of severe sanguinary conflicts between 
the American federal army of the Potomac under 
general Hooker, and the confederates under general 
Lee. On 28 April, 1863, the federal army crossed the 
Rappahannock; on 2 May, general "Stonewall" 
Jackson furiously attacked and routed the right 
wing, but was mortally wounded by his own party 
firing on him by mistake. Gen. Stuart took his 
command, and after a severe conflict on 3 and 4 
May, with. great loss to both parties, the federals 
were compelled to recross the Rappahannock. The 
struggle was compared to that at Hougomont 
during the battle of AVaterloo. Jackson died 10 May. 

CHANCEEY, Court of, is mythically said 

to have originated with Alfred (S71-901) or Wil- 
liam I., (1066-1087). Its power was probably 

o 2 



CHANDOS CLAUSE. 



196 



CHARING GROSS. 



derived from the council of state, under which it 
acted, and of which it became gradually indepen- 
dent. Its acts were frequently complained of by 
the commons in the 14th and 15th centuries. Its 
professed object was to render justice complete, 
and to moderate the rigour of other courts 
that are bound to the strict letter of the 
law. It gives relief to or against infants, not- 
withstanding their minority; and to or against 
married women, notwithstanding their coverture ; 
and all frauds, deceits, breaches of trust and confi- 
dence, for which there is no redress at common 
law, are relievable here. Blackstone ; see Chan- 
cellors of England. The delays in chancery pro- 
ceedings having long given dissatisfaction, the 
subject was brought before parliament in 1825, and 
frequently since ; which led to the passing of im- 
portant acts in 1852, 1853, 1855, 1858, and 1867, to 
amend the practice in the court of chancery. See 
Accountant, County Courts, and Supreme Court, 
Berkeley. 

The Chancery division of the high court of 
justice now consists of the lord chancellor and five 
judges. 
Chancery forgery case (see under Trials) 4 Feb. 1888. 

CHANDOS CLAUSE, see Counties. 

CHANNEL ISLANDS, a group about 80 
miles South of England, see Jersey, §c. 

CHANNEL STEAMERS, see under Steam. 

CHANNEL TUNNEL COMPANY, regis- 
tered, 15 Jan. 1872 ; see Tunnels. 
The construction of a channel bridge from Dover to 
Calais, was proposed in Paris, 1889, by MM. 
Schneider and Hersent, and sir John Fowler and 
Mr. (afterwards sir Benjamin) Baker, and dis- 
cussed in 1890. 
M. Bunau Varilla, of Paris, engineer, publishes his 
plans for a mode of communication between 
Dover and Calais, consisting of a pier or viaduct 
half a mile long, on each side connected by a 
tunnel, and estimated cost io,ooo,oooZ. May, 1890 

Sir E. J. Reed proposed the construction of a 

tubular railway, above the bed of the sea . 1890-1 

In relation to a proposed Channel bridge, a new 
survey of the Straits of Dover was undertaken ; 
a report on the scheme was published 26 Dec. . 1890 

CHANTING is attributed to Ambrose, about 
386. About 602, Gregory the Great added tones to 
the Ambrosian chant, and established singing 
schools. M. Gevaet, of Brussels, in Oct. 1889, 
asserted that this statement is legendary and that 
it was Gregory III. (731-741) who made the 
change. Chanting was adopted by some dissenters 
about 1859. 
John Marbeck's " Book of Common Praier noted" (1559) 

is the first adaptation of the ancient Latin music to 

the .Reformed Church; Clifford's "Common Tunes" 

for chanting, 1664. 
The Plainsong and Mediaeval Music Society was founded 

in 1888. 

CHANTREY LEGACY, see Royal Aca- 
demy. 

CHANTRY, a chapel endowed with revenue 
for priests to sing mass for the souls of the donors ; 
see Chanting. Chantries were abolished in England 
in 1545- 

CHAPEL. There are free chapels, chapels of 
ease, the chapel royal, &c. Cowell. The gentlemen 
pensioners (formerly poor knights of Windsor, who 
were instituted by the direction of Henry VIII. in 
his testament, 1546-7) were called knights of the 
chapel; see Poor Knights of Windsor. — The Private 
Chapels act passed 14 Aug. 1871. The place of con- 
ference among printers, and the conference itself, 
are by them called a chapel, it is said, because the 



first work printed in England by Caxton was exe- 
cuted in a ruined chapel in Westminster-abbey.. 

CHAPLAIN, a clergyman who performs divine 
service in a chapel, for a prince or nobleman. About 
seventy chaplains are attached to the chapel royal. 
The chief personages invested with the privilege of 
retaining chaplains are the following, with the* 
number that was originally allotted to each rank, 
by 21 Hen. VIII. c. 13 (1529) : — 
Archbishop . . . . 8 Knight of the Garter . 3 
Duke . . . .6 Duchess . . . .2 
Bishop . . . . 6 Marchioness . . . 2 
Marquis . . . .5 Countess . . . .2 

Earl 5 Baroness . . . . 2; 

Viscount ... 4 Master of the Rolls . 2 

Baron 3 Royal Almoner . . 2 

Chancellor . . .3 Chief Justice . . . 1 

CHAPLETS, the string of beads used by the 
Roman Catholics in reciting the Lord's prayer, Ave 
Maria, &c. ; see Beads. 

CHAPTER. Anciently the bishop and clergy 
lived in the cathedral, the latter to assist the former 
in performing holy offices and governing the churchy 
until the reign of Henry VIII. The chapter is now 
an assembly of the clergy of a collegiate church or 
cathedral. Cowell. The chapter-house of West- 
minster-abbey was built in 1250. By consent of 
the abbot, the commoners of England held their 
parliaments there from 1377 until 1547, when 
Edward VI. granted them the chapel of St. Stephen- 

CHAR-ASIAB, the heights before Cabul: 
held by Afghan mutineers, were gallantly carried 
by general Baker, with the 72nd Highlanders and 
5th Ghoorkas, 6 Oct. 1879. The enemy was totally 
defeated with severe loss. Capt. Young, Dr. 
Duncan, and lieut. Fergusson were killed, and 
about 70 of the British force killed and wounded. 
The British were falsely accused of cruelty after the 
victory. 

CHARCOAL AIR-FILTERS were devised 
by Dr. John Stenhouse, F.R.S., in 1853. About 
the end of the last century Lowitz, a German 
chemist, discovered that charcoal (carbon) possessed 
the property of deodorising putrid substances, by 
absorbing and decomposing offensive gases. Air- 
filters, based on this property, have been success- 
fully applied to public buildings, sewers, &c. Dr. 
Stenhouse also invented charcoal respirators. See- 
Fireman' s Respirators. 

CHARING CROSS- At the village of Charing 
stood the last of the memorial crosses erected in 
memory of Eleanor, queen of Edward I., in con- 
formity with her will. She died, 28 Nov. 1290. 
The cross remained till 1647, when it was destroyed 
as a monument of popish superstition. The present 
cross was erected for the South Eastern Railway 
Company in 1865 by Mr. E. M. Barry. The houses 
at Charing-cross were built about 1678 ; alterations 
began in 1829. The first stone of Charing-cross 
hospital was laid by the duke of Sussex, 15 Sept. 
1831. Hungerford-bridge (or Charing-cross bridge) 
was opened 1 May, 1845 ; taken down July, 1862, 
and the materials employed in erecting Clifton sus- 
pension bridge, beginning March, 1863; see Clifton. 
Charing-cross Railway. The first train passed 
over it, 2 Dec. 1863, and it was opened to the public 
on II Jan. 1864. The new railway bridge, built 
of iron with brick piers, was constructed by Mr. 
(aft. sir John) Hawkshaw. The foot-bridge was 
opened toll free 5 Oct. 1878. Pleistocene fossils 
found in excavations for Drummond's banking 
house : cave lion, mammoth, Irislrdeer, rhinoceros. 
&c. Autumn, 1882. 



CHAEIOTS. 



197 



CHARLESTON. 



'■Charing Cross Road, from Tottenham Court Road to 
Charing Cross, was opened by the Duke of Cambridge, 
26 Feb. 1887. 

CHARIOTS are frequently mentioned in the 
Bible, those of Joseph are mentioned Gen. 1. 9, B.C. 
1689. Chariot-racing was a Greek exercise. War- 
•chariots were effectively used by the Gauls in Italy. 
•Caesar relates that Cassivelaunus, after dismissing 
his other forces, retained no fewer than 4000 war- 
■chariots abou t his person ; see Carriages, &c. 

CHARITABLE BEQUESTS, &c. Boards 
for their recovery were constituted in 1764 and 
1800, and a board for Ireland (chiefly prelates 
of the established church), in 1825. The Roman 
Catholic Charitable Bequests act passed in 1844, 
and an act for the better administration of Chari- 
table Trusts in 1853, w hen commissioners were ap- 
pointed, who have from time to time published 
voluminous reports. Amendment acts were passed 
1855 and 1 87 1. 

CHARITABLE BRETHREN, an order 
founded by St. John of God, and approved by pope 
Pius V. 1572; introduced into France, 1601; settled 
at Paris, 1602. Henault. 

CHARITABLE FUNDS INVESTMENT 

ACT passed, 1 Aug. 1870. 

CHARITABLE RELIEF, society for or- 
ganizing, established 1869. There are 40 offices, 
where applications are received and inquiries made 
(1889). Reported successful, 1881, in which year 
about 14,000 persons were assisted, and about 11,000 
refused. 20th annual meeting, 23 Jan. 1889. A 
conference of representatives of this and similar 
societies was held at Oxford on 1, 2 Oct. 1890. 

CHARITABLE TRUSTEES' INCOR- 
PORATION ACT passed, 27 June, 1872. 

CHARITABLE TRUSTS ACTS, 1853-69, 
amended in 1887. 

CHARITABLE USES, statute of, 43 Eliz. 
c. 4 (1601), passed " to redresse the misemployment 
of landes, goodes, and stockes of money, heretofore 
given to charitable uses." The law respecting the 
conveyance of land for charitable uses was amended 
in 1861. 

CHARITIES, and CHARITY SCHOOLS, 

6ee Education. The Charity Commission reported 
to parliament that the endowed charities alone of 
Great Britain amounted to 1,500,0001?. annually, in 
1840. Charity schools were instituted in London to 
prevent the seduction of the infant poor into Roman 
Catholic seminaries, 3 James II., 1687-8. Mr. Low's 
" Charities of London" was published 1862. Newest 
edition, 1892. The house of lords, on appeal in a 
special case (the Moravian Brethren), decide that 
religious and charitable societies are exempt from 
income-tax, 20 July, 1891. 

First charity commission (originated by Mr. after- 
wards lord Brougham in 1816) appointed in 
a8i8 ; issued reports in 38 vols, (income of chari- 
ties, 1,209,395?.) 1819-40 

New commissioners appointed 1853 ; office, Gwy- 

dyr House, Whitehall ; powers increased . . i860 
A meeting was held at the Mansion House, London, 
to consider objections to charity electioneering, 
without immediate result . . . .30 Oct. 1873 
Additional commissioners appointed through abo- 
lition of the Endowed Schools Commission . 1874 
The Charity Voting Association held its first 

annual meeting 18 Feb. 1875 

The Metropolitan charities received about 3, 195,181/. 
in 1874; 4,114,489/. in 1875; 4,447,436/. ill 1884; 
4,918,652/. in year 1889-90. 
The Charily Commissioners' scheme for the Camp- 
• den estates, Kensington ; much opposed ; con- 
firmed by Chancery ... 27 May, 1881 



The earl of Shaftesbury, who died 1 Oct. 1885, and 
lord Kinnaird, who died 26 April, 1887, were 
eminent supporters of philantliropic institutions. 

The City of London Parochial Charities Act, passed 
20 Aug. 1883, places the parochial charities at the 
disposal of the Charity Commissioners ; they re- 
commended the application of the funds of the City 
Parochial Charities (about 50,000/. a year) to the 
general benefit of the poor of London, announced 

Sept. 1887 

Their scheme issued Sept., which was opposed by 
the London County Council .... Dec. 1889 

Charity Dispensing Society, proposed establish- 
ment 7 Jan. 1888 

Mr. Henry Quinn bequeaths 50,000/. to London 
charities 

Gross income of parochial charities in 1879-80, 
London, 116,960/.; Westminster, 33,173/. 

CHARITY CHILDREN of London ; meet- 
ings began at St. Andrew's, Holbom, 1704 ; held at 
other churches in following years ; in 1801 and 
since at St. Paul's, with intermissions ; no meeting 
in 1878, and since, the erections interfering with the 
ordinary services. 

CHARITY ORGANISATION SOCIETY, 

see Charitable Relief. 

CHARIVARI (French for " clattering of pots 
and pans," &c, noise made to annoy obnoxious 
persons), the name assumed by the French illus- 
trated satirical journal, first published 1 Dec. 
1832, edited by Louis Desnoyers, Altaroche, and 
Albert Clerc. Among the artists were " Cham," a 
name taken by the comte de Noe, who contributed 
from 1842 till his death, 6 Sept. 1879. See Punch, 
" the London Charivari." 

CHARLEROI, in Belgium; fortified and 
named by the Spanish governor Rodrigo, 1666. 
Several great battles have been fought near this 
town, especially in 1690 and 1794; see Fleurus. 
Charleroi was besieged by the prince of Orange, 
1672 and 1677; but he was soon obliged to retire. 
Near here, at Ligny, Napoleon attacked the Prus- 
sian line, making it fall back upon Wavres, 16 June, 
1815. 

CHARLES-ET-GEORGES, a French ves- 
sel, professedly conveying free African emigrants 
(but really slaves), seized by the Portuguese, in 
Conducia bay, 29 Nov. 1857, sent to Lisbon, and 
condemned as a slaver. The French government 
sent two ships of war to the Tagus, and the vessel 
was surrendered under protest ; but the emperor of 
France gave up the free emigration scheme. 

CHARLESTON (South Carolina), founded by 
people from old Charlestown, 1680. The English 
fleet here was repulsed with great loss, 28 June, 
1776. It was besieged by the British troops at the 
latter end of March, 1780, and surrendered 13 May, 
following, with 6000 prisoners; it was evacuated, 
14 Dec. 1782. Great commotion arose here in Nov. 
i860, through the election of Mr. Lincoln for the 
presidency, he being opposed to slavery. On 
12, 13 April, 1861, the war began by the confede- 
rates bombarding Fort Sumter; see United States. 
In Dec. 1861, the federals sank a number of vessels 
laden with stone in order to choke up the entrance 
to Charleston harbour. Unsuccessful attacks were 
made on Charleston by the federals between April, 
1863, and 17 Feb. 1865, when the confederates were 
compelled to retire ; and the federals replaced their 
standard on fort Sumter, 14 April, the day on which 
president Lincoln was assassinated. 
About three-fourths of the city destroyed by an earth- 
quake, 10 p.m. 31 Aug. 18S6 ; 96 persons killed. 
Population, 1890, 54,955. 



CHARLESTOWN. 



198 



CHATEAUDUN. 



CHARLESTOWN (Massachusetts) was burnt 
by the British forces under general Gage, 17 June, 
1775- Chaiiestown taken by the British, 7 May, 1779. 

"CHARTE CONSTITUTIONNELLE," 

the French political constitution acknowledged by 
Louis XVIII., 4-10 June, 1814. The infraction of 
this constitution led to the revolution of 1830. The 
amended " Charte " was promulgated by Louis 
Philippe, 14 Aug. 1830; and set aside by the revo- 
lution of 1848, 

CHARTER-HOUSE (a corruption of Chart- 
reuse, which see), London, formerly a Carthusian 
monastery, founded in 1371 by sir Walter de Manny, 
one of the knights of Edward III., now an extensive 
charitable establishment. The last prior, John 
Houghton, was executed as a traitor, for denying 
the king's supremacy, in May, 1535. After the 
dissolution of monasteries in 1539, the charter- 
house passed through various hands till 1 Nov. 
161 1, when it was sold by the earl of Suffolk to 
Thomas Sutton for 13,000/., who obtained letters 
patent directing that it should be called " the hos- 
pital of king James, founded in the Charter-house," 
and that " there should be for ever 16 governors," 
&c. On the foundation are 80 poor brothers and 
44 poor scholars. Sutton died, 12 Dec. 1611. The 
expenditure for 1853-4 was 22,396/. ; the receipts, 
28,908/. ; receipts in 1885, 30,364/. This school 
was affected by the Public Schools' Act, 1868. In 
Sept. 1872, the school was opened in new buildings, 
at Godalming, Surrey. The old buildings, adapted 
for the Merchant Taylors' (day) School, were 
opened by the prince of Wales, 6 April, 1875. 
The buildings for the poor "brethren" were 
also modified, and in Nov. entirely new arrange- 
ments for them were proposed. Bill proposing 
removal of the "brethren" (55), who are to 
become annuitants with additions ; and erection 
of buildings on the site of the old buildings 
and land (four acres), a total reversal of 
Sutton's will; — introduced; opposed; withdrawn 
7 May, 1886. The " Charter-House past and pre- 
sent," by Dr. Wm. Haig Brown, head master, pub- 
lished 1879. 

CHARTER-PARTY, a covenant between 
merchants and masters of ships relating to the ship 
and cargo, said to have been first used in England 
about 1243. 

CHARTERS, granted to corporate towns to 
protect their manufactures by Henry I. in 1132; 
modified by Charles II. in 1683 ; the ancient charters 
restored in 1698. Alterations were made by the 
Municipal Reform Act in 1835. See Magna Charta 
and Boroughs. Ancient Anglo-Saxon charters are 
printed in Kemble's "Codex Diplomatics, " 1829. 

CHARTISTS, the name assumed by large 
bodies of the lower classes, shortly after the passing 
of the Reform Bill in 1832, from their demanding 
the people's Charter* the six points of which were 
Universal Suffrage, Vote by Ballot, Annual Parlia- 
ments, Payment of the Members, the abolition of the 
Property Qualification (which was enacted, June, 
1858), and Equal Electoral Districts. In 1838 the 
chartists assembled in various parts of the country, 
armed with guns, pikes, and other weapons, and 
carrying torches and flags. A proclamation was 
issued against them, 12 Dec. Their petition (agreed 
to at Birmingham, 6 Aug. 1838) was presented to 
parliament by Mr. T. Attwood, 14 June, 1839. 
They committed great outrages at Birmingham 
15 July, 1839, and at Newport {which see), 4 Nov! 

* Wm. Lovett, its alleged author, died Aug. 1S77. 



1839. They held for some time & sort of parliament 
called the "National Convention," the leading 
men being Feargus O'Connor, Henry Vincent, Mr. 
Stephens, &c. On 10 April, 1848, they proposed to- 
hold a meeting of 200,000 men on Kenningtonj 
common, London, to march thence in procession to 
Westminster, and present a petition to parliament ^ 
but only about 20,000 came. The bank and other 
establishments were fortified by military, preventive 
measures adopted, and not less than 150,000 persons- 
of all ranks (including Louis Napoleon, afterwards- 
emperor) were voluntarily sworn to act as special 
constables. The chartists dispersed after slight en- 
counters with the police, and the monster petition,, 
in detached rolls, was sent in cabs to the house off 
commons. From this time the proceedings of the- 
chartists became insignificant. 

CHARTREUSE, La Gratoe, chief of the 
monasteries of the Carthusian order, situated among 
the rugged mountains near Grenoble, in France,, 
was founded by Bruno of Cologne, about 1084. At 
the revolution in 1792, the monks were expelled andi 
their valuable library destroyed. They returned to 
the monastery after the restoration of 1815. lis 
Nov. 1880 they declined to accept indulgence from 
the decrees for expelling the religious orders from 
France. 

CHARTS AM) MAPS. Anaximander off 
Miletus is said to have been the inventor of geo- 
graphical and celestial charts, about 570 B.C. 
Modern sea-charts were brought to England by 
Bartholomew Columbus to illustrate his brother's-- 
theory respecting a western continent, 1489. The 
first tolerably accurate map of England was drawn 
by George Lilly, who died in 1559. Gerard Mer- 
cator published an atlas of maps in 1595 ; see 
Mercator. The daily papers published in their 
columns maps illustrating the wars of 1870-1, 
1876-7, &c. 

Atlases. Ab.Ortelius, Epitome Theatri Pnecipuarum Orbis-- 
Regionum Delineationes, &c, 1595. J. Speed, "Pro- 
spect, &c, of the world and of Great Britain's Em- 
pire," 1646. J. B. D'Anville, Atlas, 1761-1807. AY. 
Faeden, " General Atlas," 1790. A. Arrowsmith, 
" Comparative Atlas," 1828. Maps of the Society for 
the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, 1844-56. A. K. 
Johnston, " Physical Atlas," 1849; "Royal Atlas," i86d. 
and 1878. " Black's General Atlas," 1S59, and many- 
others. 

CHASSEPOT RIFLE, a modified needle, 
gun, and a breech-loader (named after its inventor,, 
Alphonse Chassepot), adopted by the French, 
governmentin 1866. In April, 1867, 10,000 had been 
issued to the troops. In his report on the battle of 
Mentana (which see), 3 Nov. 1867, gen. De Failly 
said, "the chassepot has done wonders." It was- 
generally considered successful in the war, 1870-1. 
" The range of the chassepot being 1800 paces, and 
that of the needle-gun only between 600 and 700, 
the Germans in all their charges had to traverse 
1200 paces before their arms could be used to pur- 
pose." Many Germans were armed with the chasse- 
pot after the surrender of the French army at Sedan, 
2 Sept. 1870. 

CHATEAUDUN", an old city, N. C. France, 
the residence of the heroic Dunois, who died 1468. 
Here were massacred, 20 July, 1183, about 7ooo> 
Brabanqons, fanatic mercenaries who had been hired 
to exterminate the Albigenses by the cardinal 
Henry, abbot of Clairvanx, in 1181. They had 
become the scourge of the country, and the " Capu- 
chons" were organised for their destruction. Cha- 
teaudun was captured by the Germans after a 
severe conflict of about nine hours, 18 Oct. 1870. 
Barricades had been erected in the town, and the 



CHATHAM. 



199 



CHELTENHAM. 



Garde Mobile fought bravely. The town was re- 
occupied by the French, 6 Nov. 

CHATHAM (Kent), a principal station of the 
royal navy ; the dockyard, commenced by queen 
Elizabeth, has been greatly extended. The 
Chatham Chest, for the relief of the wounded and 
decayed seamen, originally established here by 
the queen and admirals Drake and Hawkins, in 
1588, was removed to Greenwich in 1803. On 
10 June, 1667, the Dutch fleet, under admiral De 
Ruyter, sailed up to this town, and burnt several 
men-of-war; but the entrance into the Medway is 
now defended by Sheerness and other forts, and 
additional fortifications were made at Chatham. 
On 8-1 1 Feb. 1861, a violent outbreak of the convicts 
was suppressed by the military, and many rioters 
flogged. About 1000/. worth of property was de- 
stroyed, and many persons were seriously hurt. New 
docks and a basin, said to be the largest and finest 
in the world, opened by Mr. Goschen, 21 June, 1871. 
Additional docks completed, 1883. Population in 
1881, 26,424; in 1891, 31,711. 

CHATHAM ADMINISTRATION,* suc- 
ceeded the first Rockingham administration in Aug. 
1766: after several changes it terminated Dec. 
1767. See Grafton. 

Earl of Chatham, first minister and lord privy seal. 
Duke of Grafton, first lord of the treasury. 
Lord Camden, lord chancellor. 
Charles Townshend, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Earl of Northington, lord president. 

Earl of Shelburne and general Conway, secretaries of state. 
Sir Charles Saunders (succeeded by Sir Edward Hawke), 

admiralty. 
Marquis of Granby, ordnaMce. 
Lord Hillsborough, first lord of trade. 
Viscount Barrington, secretary at war. 
Lord North and sir George Cooke, joint paymasters. 
Viscount Howe, treasurer of the navy. 
Duke of Ancaster, lord le Despencer, &c. 

CHATILLON (on the Seine, France). Here 
a congress was held by the four great powers allied 
against France, at which Caulaincourt attended for 
Napoleon, 4 Feb. 1814: the negotiations for peace 
were broken off on 19 March following. 

CHAT MOSS (Lancashire), a peat bog, twelve 
miles square, in most places so soft as to be in- 
capable of supporting a man or horse, over which 
George Stephenson, the railway engineer, carried 
the Liverpool and Manchester railway, after over- 
coming difficulties considered invincible. The road 
(literally a floating one) was completed by 1 Jan. 
1830, when the first experimental train, drawn by 
the Rocket locomotive, passed over it. See Bogs. 

CHATTANOOGA (Tennessee). Near here 
the federal generals, Sherman and Thomas, de- 
feated the confederate general Bragg, after storming 
the entrenchments, 24-25 Nov. 1863. Bragg re- 
treated into Georgia, and Longstreet into Virginia. 

CHAUMONT (on the Marne, France), Treaty 
of, entered into between Great Britain, Austria, 
Russia, and Prussia, 1 March, 1814. This treaty 
was succeeded by that of Paris, n April, by which 
Napoleon renounced his sovereignty ; see Paris. 



* William Pitt, earl of Chatham (the ' ' great commoner" ) 
born 15 Nov. 1708, entered parliament in 1735 ; became 
secretary of state (virtually the premier) in the Devon- 
shire administration, Nov. 1756, secretary in the New- 
castle administration, Jan. 1757. In 1766 he became 
premier, lord privy seal, and afterwards earl of Chatham, 
which lord Chesterfield called a fall upstairs. He opposed 
the taxation of the American colonies, but protested 
against the recognition of their independence, 7 April, 
177S, and died n May following. 



CHAUVINISM, a term said to be derived 
from Chauvin, the principal character in Scribe's 
"Soldat Laboureur," a veteran soldier of the first 
empire, filled with intense admiration for Napoleon 
and for all that belonged to him. Scribe was born 
24 Dec. 1794, died 20 Feb. 1861. 

CHEAP TRAINS ACT, 7 & 8 Vict. c. 85, 
1844. Another act passed, Aug. 1883. See Bail- 
ways. 

CHEATS were punishable by pillory, impri- 
sonment, and fine, and a rigorous statute was 
enacted against them in 1542. Persons cheating at 
play, or winning at any time more than 10/. or any 
valuable thing, were deemed infamous, and were 
to suffer punishment as in cases of perjury, 9 Anne,,. 
1 71 1. Blackstone. 

CHEE-FOO CONVENTION, see China, 
1876. 

CHEESE is mentioned by Aristotle, about 
350 B.C. It is supposed by Camden and others that 
the English learned cheese-making from the Romans. 
Wilts, Gloucester, and Cheshire make vast quantities. 
In 1840 we imported from abroad about 10,000 tons :. 
in 1855, 384, 192 cwt. ; in 1866, 872,342 cwt. ; in 1870,. 
1,041,281 csvt. ; in 1876, 1,531,204 cwt.; in 1881,. 
1,840,090 cwt. ; in 1884, 1,927,139 cwt. ; in 1887^. 
1,836,789 cwt. ; in 1890, 2,144,047 cwt. Exported r 
1876, 17,411 cwt.; 1880, 11,903 cwt.; 1885, 12,708 
cwt. ; 1890, 12,211 cwt. The duty on foreign 
cheese, producing annually about 50,000/., was 
taken off in i860. Large quantities are imported, 
from the United States. 

The Cheddar system of cheese-making, named after a~ 
village in Somersetshire, with recent improvements has 
been largely adopted in the British dominions and the 
United States during the present century. 

CHELSEA (Middlesex). A council held here 
27 July, 816. Nicolas. A theological college here - 
founded bj' James I. in 1609, was converted by 
Charles II. in 1682 to an asylum for wounded and' 
superannuated soldiers. The erection was carried 
on by James II., and completed by William III. 
in 1690. The projector was sir Stephen Fox, 
grandfather of the orator C. J. Fox ; the architect 
was sir Christopher Wren ; and the cost 150,000/. 
In 1850 there were 70,000 out- and 539 in-pen- 
sioners. — The body of the duke of Wellington lay 
here in state, 10-17 Nov. 1852. — The physic garden 
of sir Hans Sloane, at Chelsea, was given to the 
Apothecaries' company, 1721. — The Chelsea water- 
works were incorporated, 1722. — The first stone ot 
the Military Asylum, Chelsea, was laid by Frederick,, 
duke of York, 19 June, 1801. — The bridge, con- 
structed by Mr. T. Page to connect Chelsea with 
Battersea-park, was opened March, 1858. The- 
Chelsea embankment was opened by the duke audi 
duchess of Edinburgh, 9 May, 1874. See Trials r 
July, 1870 and 1872. Cremorne public gardens 
closed, 1877. The Albert-bridge was opened 31 
Dec. 1872 ; both freed from toll, 24 May, 1879. 
The parliamentary borough of Chelsea, created by 
the Reform act, 15 Aug. 1867, consisted of Chelsea, 
Kensington, Fulham, and Hammersmith. By the- 
act of 1885, Chelsea alone returns 1 member. The 
Chelsea Savings Bank suspended payment ; lia- 
bilities to be sustained by trustees, 18 Jan. 1890. 
Free library opened by earl Cadogan, 21 Jan. 1891. 
Population, 1881, 88,1*28; 1891, 96,272. 

CHELTENHAM (Gloucestershire). Its cele- 
brated mineral spring was discovered in 1718- 
The king's-well was sunk in 1778 ; and other wells 
by Mr. P. Thompson in 1806. Magnesian salt was 
first found in the waters in 181 1. The theatre was 



CHEMICAL SOCIETIES. 



200 



CHESHUNT COLLEGE. 



erected in 1804. Grammar school and almshouses, 
endowed by Eichard Pates, 1574. Cheltenham was 
incorporated, 1876. Population, 1881, 43,972; 
1891, 42,914. 

Cheltenham College, was founded in 1841, mainly by 
Mr. George Simon Harcourt, and Capt. James Slirubb 
Tredell, for a classical, mathematical, and general 
education in strict conformity with the principles of 
the church of England ; among the pupils have been, 
Lord Plunket, archbishop of Dublin, sir Henry James, 
Q.C., M.P., prince Alamayu, son of Theodore negus of 
Abyssinia, and prince Francis of Teck. 

CHEMICAL SOCIETIES. One formed in 
London in 1780, did not long continue. The 
present Chemical society of London wos established 
in 1841 (jubilee celebrated at Burlington House, 24 
Feb. 1891) ; that of Paris in 1857 ; that of Germany 
at Berlin, 1867. The Institute of Chemistry of Great 
Britain formed ; professor Edward Frankland first 
president, 1877 ; firstmeeting, 1 Feb. 1878; chartered, 
Oct. 1885. Chemical Industry Society founded 4 
April, 1881. 

CHEMICAL UNION of manufacturers of 
bleaching powders, alkalies, &c, was projected 
July 1890. The union, named the United Alkali 
Company, advertised shares for sale to the amount 
of 1,250,000/., Feb. 1891. 

CHEMICAL WORKS. Royal commission 
appointed to inquire into the management of 
chemical works, to ascertain the effect of gases and 
vapours given off, and the means of prevention : 
the commissioners were lord Aberdare, earl Percy, 
professors Abel, A. Williamson, Koscoe, and others, 
18 July, 1876. In their report, issued Aug. 1878, 
they recommended increased inspection, and more 
stringent regulations. See Alkalies. 

CHEMISTRY was introduced into Spain by 
the Moors, about 1 150. The Egyptians and Chinese 
claim an early acquaintance with chemistry. The 
first chemists were the Alchemists (see Alchemy) ; 
but chemistry was not a science till the 17th 
century ; during which its study was promoted by 
Bacon, Hooke, Mayow, and Boyle. In the early 
part of the 18th century. Dr. Stephen Hales laid the 
foundation of Pneumatic Chemistry, and his con- 
temporary Boerhaave combined the study of 
chemistry with medicine. These were succeeded 
by Bergman, Stahl, Black, &c. In 1772, Priestley 
published his researches on air, having discovered 
the gases oxygen, ammonia, &c. ; and thus com- 
menced anew chemical era. He was ably seconded 
by Cavendish, Scheele, Lavoisier, Chaptal, and 
others. The 19th century opened with the brilliant 
discoveries of Davy, continued by Dalton, Faraday, 
Thomson, &c. Organic Chemistry has been very 
greatly advanced by Berzelius, Liebig, Dumas, 
Laurent,Hofmann,Oahours, Frankland, *and others, 
since 1830 ; see Pharmacy, Electricity, Galvanism. 
For the analytical processes termed " Spectrum 
analysis, invented by Kirchhoff and Bunsen 
(1861), and 'Dialysis" (1861), and " Atmoli/sis" 
(1863), invented by Mr. T. Graham, see those 
articles.— The Royal College of Chemistry, Oxford- 
street, London, was established in 1845 (now at 
South Kensington)— Henry Watts' great " Dic- 
tionary of Chemistry," begun 1863, has supple- 

* In 1828 Wohler produced artificially urea, a bodv 
hitherto known only as a product of the animal organ- 
ism. Since then, acetic acid, alcohol, grape su^ar 
various essential oils, similar to those of the pine-apple' 
pear, garlic, &c, have been formed by combinations of 
the gases, oxygen, hydrogen, and carbonic acid The 
barrier formed by chemists between organic and inorganic 
bodies is thus broken down. Imligo artilic.iallv formed 
by Bayer, 1878. 



ments ; new edition, 1888 et seq. ; he died 30 June, 
1884. M. Ad. Wurtz's equally great " Dictionnaire 
de Chimie," 1868-85. Trof. T. E. Thorpe's Dic- 
tionary of Applied Chemistry, 1890. 

CHEQUE BANK, opened in Pall Mall East, 
23 July, 1873. It issued cheques for fixed sums 
(down to il.) available for paying and transmitting 
small sums, and is suited for persons not having a 
banker. The plan, due to Mr. James Hertz, a 
director, has been modified. He died 23 Feb. 1880. 

CHEQUES, see Drafts. 

CHERBOURG, the great naval fortress and 
arsenal of France on the coast of Brittany, about 
60 or 70 miles equi-distant from Portsmouth and 
Plymouth. It was captured by our Henry V. in 
1418, and lost in 1450. Under the direction of 
Louis XIV., some works were erected here by the 
great Vauban, which with some shipping, &c, were 
destroyed by the British, 6, 7 Aug. 1758. The 
works resumed by Louis XVI., were interrupted by 
the revolution. The breakwater, commenced in 
1783, resumed by Napoleon I. about 1803, and com- 
pleted in 1813, forms a secure harbour, affording 
anchorage for nearly the whole navy of France, and 
protected by strong fortifications. On 4, 5 Aug. 
1858, the railway and the Grand Napoleon docks 
were opened, the latter in the presence of the 
queen of England and court. The British fleet 
visited Cherbourg, 15-17 Aug. 1865, receiving much 
hospitality. Presidents Grevy, Leon Say, and 
Gambetta visit Cherbourg ; launch of a man-of- 
war, &c, 8- ti Aug. 1880. 

CHERITONDOWN (Hants). Here sir Wm. 
Waller defeated the royalists under lord Hopton, 
29 March, 1644. 

CHERRY, the Prunus Cerasus (from Cerasus, 
a city of Pontus, whence the tree was brought by 
Lucullus to Rome, about 70 B.C.), first planted in 
Britain, it is said, about ioo. Fine kinds were 
brought from Flanders, in 1540, and planted in 
Kent. 

CHERSON, see Kherson. 

CHERSONESUS, see Crimea. 

CHESAPEAKE. At the mouth of this river 
a contest took place between the British admiral 
Graves and the French admiral De Grasse aiding 
the revolted states of America ; the former was 
obliged to retire, 5 Sept. 1781. The Chesapeake and 
Delaware were blockaded by the British fleet in the 
American war of 1812, and the bay was, at that 
period, the scene of great hostilities of various 
results. 

Chesapeake, an American frigate, in Boston bay, com- 
manded by capt. Lawrence (50 guns, 376 men), struck 
to the Shannon, British frigate (38 guns, 330 men) com- 
manded by capt. Philip Vere Broke, after a severe 
action of eleven minutes, 1 June, 1813. Eleven minutes 
elapsed between the firing of the first gun and the 
boarding, and in foiu' minutes more the Chesapeake was 
the Shannon's prize. Capt. Lawrencedied of his wounds. 
Adm. sir Provo W. P. Wallis, who succeeded in the com- 
mand of the Shannon, when capt. Broke was disabled, 
born 1791, died 13 Feb. 1892. 

CHESHUNT COLLEGE, Herts, founded 
by Seliua, countess of Huntingdon, for the educa- 
tion of ministers of her "connexion," Calvinistic 
methodists. The college was first opened at Tre- 
vecca-house, Talgarth, near Brecon, by the countess 
and 'George Whitefield, 1768. It was removed to 
Cheshunt in 1792. She died 17 June, 1791. Tre- 
vecca college is still used by the Calvinistic 
methodists, 1890. 



CHESS. 



201 



CHICHESTER. 



CHESS. An ancient game of eastern origin, 
probably brought into Europe by the Arabs ; the 
invention is doubtfully ascribed to India, China, 
Persia and Egypt. 

Caxton printed " the Game and Playe of the Chesse" 1474 
A chess-club formed at Slaughter's coffee-house, St. 

Martin's-lane J747 

The automaton chess-player (a piece of machinery) 

exhibited in England 1769 

M. F. A. Danican, known as Philidor, played three 

matches blindfolded at the Salopian ; he died . 1795 
The London Chess-club founded in 1807, and St. 

George's 1833 

Herr Paulsen played ten games at once, of which 

he won five, and lost one ; three were drawn, and 

one not played out . . Dec. 1861 

International chess congresses : 1, 2, London (winner, 

M. Anderssen, of Breslau), 1851, 1862 ; 3, Paris, 

(M. Kolisch), 1867 ; 4, Paris (M. Anderssen), 1870 ; 

5, Vienna (M. Steinmetz), Aug. 1873. 
Automaton chess-player at the Crystal-palace (a 

youth concealed in box perforated with holes) 

exhibited 1873 

Howard Staunton, a great player, died . . June, 1874 
J. J. Lowenthal, eminent Hungarian player, died 

20 July, 1876 
J. H. Zukertort of Riga, gains first iH'ize at the 

International Chess Congress, Paris, June, July, 1878 
*' Mephisto," a mechanical chess-player, exhibited 

at the Westminster Aquarium . . 2 Oct. ,, 

Chess Congress at New York . . . Jan. 1880 

Chess tournament at Wiesbaden, 9 July, 1880; at 

Berlin, 30 Aug. 1881 (1st prize, Mr. Blackburne) ; 

at Vienna, first prize, M. Steinmetz . 24 June, 1882 
In London (M. Zukertort, 1st prize), 26 April — 

23 June 1883 

M. J. H. Zukertort died aged 46 . . 20 June, 1888 
International chess tournament, New York, closed ; 

ecpual prizes awarded to Herr Weiss (Vienna) and 

M. Tischigorin (Russia) . . . .27 May, 1889 

One at Amsterdam, 28 Aug. 1889 ; at Manchester, 

(1st prize, Dr. Tarrasch, of Nuremberg), 25 Aug.- 

8 Sept. 1890; at Dresden, Dr. Tarrasch 

18-29 J u iy> 1892 

Games, in which the pieces were replaced by living 
men, were played at St. Leonards, Sussex 14 Jan. i8qi 

CHESTER (England, N. W.), the British 
Caerleon and the Roman Leva, the station of the 
twentieth legion, Valeria Viclrix, quitted by them 
about 406. The city wall was first built by Edel- 
fieda, about 908 ; and Hugh de Abrinces, called 
Lupus, the earl, nephew of William I., rebuilt 
the Saxon castle in 1084, and the abbey of St. 
Werburgh. Chester was incorporated by Henry 
III. and made a distinct county. The palatine 
jurisdiction was abolished by parliament, 23 July, 
1830. The see, anciently part of Lichtield, one of 
whose bishops, Peter, removing the seat hither in 
1075, occasioned his successors to be styled bishops 
of Chester ; but it was not made a distinct bishopric 
until Henry VIII. in 1541 raised it to this dignity, 
and allotted the church of the abbey of St. Wer- 
burgh for the cathedral. After extensive repairs, 
the cathedral was re-opened, 25 Jan. 1872. This 
see is valued in the king's books at 420/. is. 8d. 
per annum. Present income 4500^. Population, 
1881,36,794: 1891,37,105. 

Taken, after three months' siege, for the parliament 1645 

Fatal gunpowder explosion 1772 

Exchange and town hall burnt . . 30 Dec. 1862 

A projected attack of Fenians on Chester castle was 
defeated by the vigilance of the authorities aud 
the arrival of the military . . n, 12 Feb. 1867 
New town hall opened by the prince of Wales 

15 Oct. 1869 
Cathedral re-opened after restoration by sir Gilbert 

G. Scott 7 Aug. 1876 

Ancient tower of St. John's Church fell 15 April, 1881 
Foundation stone of Grosvenor Museum and 
School of Art laid by the duke of Westminster 
3 Feb. 1885 opened 6 Aug. 18S6 



RECENT BISHOPS OF CHESTER. 

1800. Henry Wm. Majendie, trans, to Bangor, 1809. 

1810. Bowyer Edward Sparkie, trans, to Ely, 1812. 

1812. George Henry Law, trans, to Bath, 1824. 

1824. Chas. J. Blomfield, trans, to London, Aug. 1828. 

1828. John Bird Sumner, trans, to Canterbury, 1848. 

1848. John Graham, died 15 June, 1865. 

1865. William Jacobson. Resigned Jan. ; died 13 July, 

1884. 
1884. Wm. Stubbs, Feb. ; translated to Oxford, July, 

1888. 
1888. Francis John Jayne, elected 26 Jan. 

CHESTER LE STREET. It is stated that 
a bishopric founded in Holy Island was removed 
to this place in 875, and to Durham, 995; see 
Durham. 

CHEVY CHASE, see Otterhurne. 

CHICAGO, Illinois, United States, a flourish- 
ing city settled in 1831 ; incorporated 1837; popu- 
lation, 1867, above 200,000; in 1880, 503,185 ; 1890, 
1,099,859. 
Chicago was nearly destroyed by fire, occasioned by 

the upsetting of a paraffin lamp . . 7-11 Oct. 1871 
About 250 persons perished, and 98, 500 were rendered 
destitute. The loss was reckoned at 290,000,000 
dollars. Large sums were collected for relief of 
the sufferers in London (10,000/. in a few hours)and 
other British cities, as well as in North America. 
The area of the fire was computed at from three 
to five square miles, and about 25,000 buildings 
were destroyed. The heart of the city was com- 
posed of old wooden buildings. The city was re- 
built most energetically . ... 1872-3 
Another great fire ; many rendered homeless, 

14 July, 1874 
A convention of Irish National Delegates met 

19-22 Aug. 1886 
Socialist riots with bloodshed on 4 May, 1886. See 

United States uNov. 1887 

The World's Columbian Exposition, 1893 ; Chicago 

chosen as the site 25 Feb. 1890 

Mr. Thomas W. Palmer, of Michigan, chosen as the 

president of the fair .... 27 June ,, 
Site selected, S. W. shore of lake Michigan ; 

2,000,000 dollars voted for expenses . . July ,, 
Mr. George R. Davis elected director-general, 19 Sept. ,, 
President Harrison announces tne day of opening 

to be 1 May, to close 31 Oct. 1893. 
To be dedicated 12 Oct. 1892. Congress votes 
2,500,000 dollars for expenses . . 5 Aug. 1892 
See America, 1492. 

CHICAMA UGA (" thestream of death"), near 

Chattanooga, Tennessee, North America. Near 
here the confederates under general Bragg, aided 
by Longstreet, totally defeated the federals under 
Rosencrans, 19, 20 Sept. 1863. The loss was severe 
on both sides. The credit of the victory was attri- 
buted to Longstreet ; its fruitlessness to Bragg. 

CHICHESTER (Sussex), built by Cissa, 
about 540. The cathedral was completed about 
1 108, burnt with the city in 11 14, and rebuilt by 
bi-hop Settrid about 1 187. The present cathedral 
was erected during the 13th century. The spire 
fell 20 Feb. 1861 ; the foundation of a new one was 
laid 2 May, 1865, completed June, 1866. The cathe- 
dral re-opened after repairs, 14 Nov. 1867. The 
bishopric originated thus : Wilfrid, archbishop of 
York, compelled to flee by Egfrid, king of Northum- 
berland, preached the gospel in this country, and 
built a church in the Isle of Selsey, about 673. In 
681 Selsey became a bishopric, and so continued 
until it was removed to Chichester, then called 
Cissan-Cacster, from its builder, Cissa, by Stigand, 
about 1082. This see has yielded to the church 
two saints, and to the nation three lord chancellors. 
It is valued in the king's books at 677^ is. 3^. per 
annum. Present income, 4500/. The borough was 
absorbed into Sussex, 1885. Population, 1SS1, 
8,114; 1891, 7,812. 



CHICHESTEE. 



202 



CHILI. 



RECENT BISHOPS OF CHICHESTEE. 

1798. John Buckner, died 2 May, 1824. 

1824. Robert J. Can, trans, to Worcester, Sept. 1831. 

1831. Edward Maltby, translated to Durham, 1836. 

1836. Charles Otter, died 20 Aug. 1840. 

1840. Philip Nicholas Shuttleworth, died 7 Jan. 1842. 

1842. Ashurst Turner Gilbert, died 21 Feb. 1870. 

1870. Richard Durnford. 

" CHICHESTEE" training-ship for homeless 
London boys, established chiefly by the earl of 
Shaftesbury and Mr. Williams, in connection with 
the refuges lor destitute children, Great Queen- 
street. 50 boys placed in it, 18 Dec. 1866 ; reported 
highly successful. The baroness Purdett-Coutts 
gave 5000^. in 1874. H.M.S. Arethusa was de- 
voted to a similar object, through the instrumen- 
tality of the same persons, 3 Aug. 1874. The 
Goliath training-ship was burnt, 22 Dec. 1875 '> 
several lives were lost. See Wrecks, 1875. 

CHICKAHOMINY BATTLES, see Fair- 
oaks, and United States, June, 1862. 

CHICORY, the wild endive, or Cichorium 
Intybus of Linmeus, grows wild in calcareous soils. 
It was for many years so largely mixed with coffee 
in England, that it became a matter of serious com- 
plaint, the loss of revenue being estimated at 
100,000^. a year. An excise order was issued, 
interdicting the mixture of chicory with coffee, 3 
Aug. 1852. The admixture, however, has since been 
permitted, provided the word "chicory" be plainly 
printed on each parcel sold. In i860 a duty of 3s. 
per cwt. was put upon English-grown chicory until 
April, 1861 ; it is now 13s. yt. per cwt. (1889). 

CHIGNON", French for the "back-hair" of 
ladies. In directions for full dress in 1783, it 
is said: "The hair large and the chignon low be- 
hind." Lady's Magazine. Large chignons began 
to be worn in England in 1866; discontinued 1875. 

CHILDERMAS DAY, 28 Dec, of ancient 
observance by the Koman Church, in memory of 
the slaughter of the Holy Innocents. {Matt, ii.) 

CHILDREN". Many ancient nations exposed 
their infants, — the Egyptians on the banks of 
rivers, and the Greeks on highways, — when they 
could not support or educate them ; in such cases, 
they were protected by the state. The old custom 
of English parents selling their children to the 
Irish for slaves, was prohibited by Canute, about 
1017. See Emigration, Foundling, Factory Acts, 
and Infanticide. 
Children's Dangerous Performances Act (earl de la 

"Warr's act) passed ; much needed 24 July, 1879 

London Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to 
Children, founded 8 July, 1884, to protect them 
from neglect, ill-usage, and immorality. (A similar 
society established in Liverpool 19 April, 1883, 
has been very efficient.) A shelter near Theobalds 
Rd., London, opened by the baroness Burdett- 
Coutts and the lord mayor . . . 27 Oct. 1884 
The London society reported successful . Dec. 1887 
Prevention of cruelty to, and protection of children 
act passed, 26 Aug. 1889. It restricts the employ- 
ment in certain cases of boys under 14, and girls 
under 16, but permits their employment above 7 
in certain cases by special licence. 
By the new factory act the age of child-labour was 
raised from 10 to ii .... 5 Aug. 1891 

CHILI, OR CHILE, a republic of S. America, 
discovered by Magellan, who lauded at Chiloe, 1520. 
It was explored by Diego de Almagro, one of the 
conquerors of Peru, 1536. Capital, Santiago, 
founded 154 1. Chili was subdued, but not wholly, 
in 1546. Population in 1865, 1,068,447; 1885, 
2,527,320; 1889,2,766,747. 
Chili declares its independence of Spain, 18 Sept. 1810 



War with varying success : decisive victory gained 
by San Martin over the royal forces at Chacabuce, 
12 Feb. 1817 ; the province declared independent, 

12 Feb. 

Peace with Spain 

Present constitution established . . 22 May, 

Manuel Montt elected president . . . 18 Oct. 

Insurrection headed by Pedro Gallo, Dec. 1858, sup- 
pressed April, 

Jose J. Perez, president .... 18 Sept. 

Conflagration of the Jesuits' church at Santiago 
(see Santiago), more than 2000 persons perished 

8 Dec. 

Rupture between Chili and Bolivia respecting the 
*' Guano " isles 1 March, 

Disputes with Spain respecting Peru settled by the 
Spanish minister, 20 May, disavowed by his 
government 25 July, 

Religious toleration enacted . . . July, 

J. J. Perez again proclaimed president ; vigorous 
prosecution of the war .... Oct. 

The Spanisli admiral Pareja appears before Val- 
paraiso claiming satisfaction for Chilian inter- 
vention in the war with Peru, 17 Sept. ; refused 21 
Sept. ; he declares a blockade, 24 Sept. ; Chili 
declares war against Spain, 29 Sept. ; joins Peru, 

5 Dec. 

The Spaniards bombard Valparaiso . 31 March, 

End of the blockade 14 April, 

J. J. Perez re-elected president . . 18 Sept. 

F Errazuriz elected president . . .18 Sept. 

Gold mines discovered near Iquique . . Oct. 

The Tacna (capt. Hyde), overloaded, left Valpa- 
raiso, 7 March ; soon after sank ; 19 (some chil- 
dren) drowned ; captain and officers saved ; he 
was reprimanded at Valparaiso, and set free ; 
afterwards seized by orders of the Chilian govern- 
ment at Lota; eventually released, and compen- 
sated 

International exhibition provisionally opened at 
Santiago, 26 Sept. ; to the public . . 31 Oct. 

Anibal Pinto, president (till 1881) . . 18 Sept. 

Bolivian forts seized by the Chilians . . Dec. 

Chili refuses to recognise a treaty between Peru and 
Bolivia (6 Feb. 1873) respecting boundaries ; they 
declare war against Chili . . . April, 

The Chilian wooden vessels Esmeralda and Cova- 
donga blockade Iquique ; the Peruvian ironclad 
turret ships (with rams) Huascar and Jndepen- 
dencia attempt relief ; Esmeralda, sunk by Huascar 
(about no perish) ; Indepcndencia runs ashore 
while chasing Covadonga ; capt. Pratt and 6 men 
climb up Huascar and are killed fighting on the 
deck . . ... 21, 23 May, 
Huascar enters port of Iquique, and captures 2 
vessels 29 July, 

Blockade of Iquique raised ; announced 4 Aug. 

Huascar captured by Chilian fleet otf Mejillones, 
after 6 hours' gallant fight ; the admiral and 
many officers killed .... 8 Oct. 

Pisagua bombarded and captured by Chilians 

2 Nov. 

Combined Peruvian and Bolivian army defeated 
near Iquique (which surrenders) Nov. ; again 
near Tarapaca, which is taken about 27 Nov. 

Naval engagement ; dashing conduct of Peruvian 
vessels 27 Feb. 

Callao blockaded by Chilians ; alarm at Lima 

about 18 April, 
Battle of Tacna ; it is captured by Chilians 

26 May, 

Arica taken by the Chilians . . 8 June, 

Pierola dictator of Peru ; declares for perseverance 
in the war ; excitement at Lima ; levy en masse 

28 June, 
Chilian transport Loa sunk by torpedo, by a Peru- 
vian launch apparently laden with fruit ; Callao 

greatly shaken 3 July, 

Chilian vessel Covadonga bombarding town, sunk 
by Peruvian torpedoes off Chancay: about 115 
perish ; (severe reprisals) ... 14 Sept. 
Chilians storm Lurin, 4 Jan. ; defeat the Peruvians 
at Chorillos, 13 Jan. ; at Miraflores, 15 Jan. ; 
occupy Lima without resistance, Pierola flees, 
about 17 Jan. ; Callao taken soon after . Jan. 
Conditions of peace reported ; cession of territory ; 
750 million dollars indemnity ; occupation of 



1833 
1851 

1859 
1861 



1863 



1S65 



1874. 

187S 
1876 



CHILI. 



203 



CHILI. 



Callao ; working of mines till indemnity paid ; 
announced 30 Jan. 

England and France requested to mediate by Peru 

Feb. 

Treaty of peace between Spain confirmed Sept. 

Calderon elected president, announced . 1 Sept. 

President ; Domingo Santa-Maria . . 18 Sept. 

Treaty of peace witli Bolivia . . .25 Jan. 

Peace protocol between Chili and Peru, agreed to 

March, 

War resumed ; skirmishes ; Chilians generally suc- 
cessful July, 

Peruvians defeated by Chilians in several engage- 
ments, 13, 15, and 16 July, also 8 Aug. 

Coneepcion burned, announced . . 19 July, 

Reported peace ; cession of Tarapaca and Tacna 

28 Sept. 

Negotiations fail, announced ... 8 Oct. 

Peace said to be signed ; Peru cedes Tacna and 
Arica to Chili for 10 years, reported 25 May, 

Severe battle, Peruvians defeated with great Io.ns at 
Huamachuca 10 July, 

Peruvian leaders defeated at Huanchuco by col. 
Grostiago 19 July, 

Peace with Peru signed at Ancon . . 20 Oct. 

Lima evacuated 23 Oct. 

Seiior Don Jose Manuel Balmaceda, president 

18 Sept. 

After much agitation, great electoral reforms carried 

Oct. 

The congress issues a declaration deposing the pre- 
sident for treason against the constitution, 
tyranny, and misuse of the public money, and 
designates sen. Jorge Montt as its assistant in 
restoring the due observance of the constitution. 

1 Jan. 

The navy (under capt. J. Montt) revolts against 

the president ; the army remains faithful to him 

about 7 Jan. 

Valparaiso, held for the president, blockaded by 
the navy ; frequent skirmishes ; contradictory 
reports 16 Jan. 

Small British squadron sent to Chilian waters 

. about 17 Jan. 

The navy blockades the coast ... 20 Jan. 

Coronel bombarded by the navy, reported 25 Jan. 

The congressists take Pisagua . . .26 Jan. 

A French squadron ordered to the Chilian coast . 

about 2S Jan. 

The government troops re-take Pisagua ; the con- 
gressists occupy Talta . . . about 1 Feb. 

Fighting at Castro ; congressists defeated ; 130 
killed reported 4 Feb. 

Insurrection confined to the chief harbours 5 Feb. 

Pisagua and Iquique burned by bombardment 

reported 13 Feb. 

The president's troops defeated at Dolores, 15 Feb., 
and Iquique, 19 Feb 

The congressists defeated at Pisagua . 22 Feb. 

Iquique bombarded by the congressists ; the British 
admiral Hotham intervenes to save women and 
children ; capt. Lambton, of the IVarspite, passes 
through a heavy fire to obtain an armistice ; the 
town and troops surrender to the congressists 

20 Feb. 

Tarapaca taken by the congressists reported 27 Feb. 

Conflicting news . . . Jan., Feb., March 

The troops at Pisagua declare for the congressists. 
reported 3 March 

The president's troops defeated at Pozo Almonte, 
4 March ; the province of Tarapaca held by the 
congress party . . . about 8 March 

Part of the army joins the congress party, which 
holds all southern Chili . reported 12 March 

Col. Bobles, with the president's troops, totally de- 
feated ; he is killed after the engagement at Pozo 
Almonte, 4 March. The province of Tarapaca 
held by the congress party . . .8 March 

The port Antofagasta taken by the congressist 
fleet 18-23 March 

Tacna and Arica occupied by the congressists 
without resistance .... 7 April 

A provisional government or junta established by 
the congress party, at Iquique . . 10 April 

Part of the regular army (2,450) crosses the Argen- 
tine territory to reach Santiago, reported 14 April 

Newly elected congress (his nominees) opened by 



the president ; his conduct reported very tyran- 
nical 21 April, 

The congressist ironclad Blanco Encalada, in Cal- 
dera Bay, Atacama, sunk by Balmaceda's torpedo 
boats early ... .23 April, 

Revolt of troops at Coquimbo, to the congressists . 

25 April 

The congressist cruiser Magellanes, in Valparaiso 
harbour, beats off a fierce attack of three govern- 
ment torpedo boats . . . .28 April, 

Capiapo, the capital of Atacama, occupied by the 
congressists . . . reported 29 April 

President Balmaceda invites foreign mediation 

reported 6 May 

Negotiations between the government and the con- 
gressists fail about 8 May 

The 1 tata, and Robert and Minnie, private trans- 
ports, supply the congress party with contra- 
band articles from New York, 15 April et seq. ; 
they are chased by the U.S. cruiser Charleston . 

early May 

Amicable arrangement between the congressists 

and the United States respecting the Rata 

reported 20 May, 

Balmaceda's ships, Condell and Imperial, bombard 
Iquique 22 May 

The officers and crew of Balmaceda's torpedo 
launch Giralda,~ shot for suspected desertion 

30 May, 

The statements respecting the various conflicts 
and movements of the two parties very uncertain 
and frequently contradictoiy . . May, June, 

The congressional provisional junta at Iquique 
issues decrees respecting the state finances 

22 May, 

The Itata surrenders to the American cruisers at 
Iquique 4 June, 

The provisional junta at Iquique issues a circular 
note to the powers denouncing president Balma- 
ceda as a dictator, and asking to be recognised 
as a belligerent, 7 May . published n June, 

Balmaceda's squadron bombards Pisagua, 8 June ; 
Iquique 9 June, 

Reported reign of terror in Santiago through the 
tyranny of president Balmaceda . . 25 June, 

The congressists occupy Huasco . . 2 July, 

Sen. Pedro Montt and sen. Varas on behalf of the 
congressists, declare that the financial dealings 
of president Balmaceda will not be recognised by 
them 10 July, 

The ten conspirators who attempted to blow up 
Balmaceda's ships at Valparaiso shot 14 July, 

The judges and legal officers of the republic dis- 
charged by Balmaceda and replaced by his 
ignorant partisans ; no security for foreigners 
reported 21 July, 

The congress party occupy the Atacama province 

25 July, 

The congressist army, about 10,000, with batteries, 
&c, commanded by col. Canto, land at Quinteros 
Bay, 20 Aug., and after a night's march, they 
completely defeat Balmaceda's army- at Colmo ;. 
the congressists have about 300 killed; Bal- 
maceda has about 1,000 killed, 21 Aug. ; tuey 
advance and take Salto, 24 Aug. ; ai d Quilpue, 
25 Aug. ; inarch toward Valrjaraiso, receiving 
large numbers of deserters from the enemy, and 
encamp in a farm-house ... 27 Aug. 

Battle of Placilla : Balmaceda's army totally de- 
feated ; about 1,000 killed and 3,000 prisoners ; 
congressists, 400 killed ; the battle lasted from 
7.30 to 10.30, and the congressists took posses- 
sion of Valparaiso .at 1 p.m. . . . 28 Aug. 

Santiago occupied by the congressists, who restore 
constitutional government . . 30 Aug. 

Temporal resistance at Coquimbo ; several of Bal- 
maceda's officers shot . . reported 1 Sept. 

The great powers recognise the congressist pro- 
visional government . . about 16 Sept. 

Balmaceda concealed at the Argentine Legation in 
Santiago, commits suicide, leaving a justificatory 
letter, and is secretly buried . . 19 Sept. 

National holiday with great rejoicings, 16-20 Sept. 

Balmaceda's funds being exhausted he issues state 
notes to the amount of 12,000,000 pesos, lie also 
seizes bars of silver valued at 4,500,000 pesos, 
the metallic reserve of the paper currency and 
illegally offers it lor sale, without effect Feb. et 



CHILLED SHOT. 



204 



CHINA. 



seq. ; he then forms a new congress to support 
him, April ; and negotiates for the purchase of 
a steamer at Montevideo without effect ; Mr. 
Kennedy, British minister at Santiago, places 
■at Balmaceda's disposal H.M.S. Espiegle to 
convey the silver bars to Montevideo, June et 
se 9v 338 silver bars transferred to H.M.S. Moselle, 
which conveys them to Southampton 16 Sept. 1891 

Two iron-clad cruisers, the Presidente Pinto and 
Presidente Errazv.riz, constructed for Balmaceda 
at Bordeaux ; col. Villagran with 114 soldiers 
claims them for him, 6 April ; an embargo on 
these vessels raised by order of a French law 
■court, 8 July ; the vessels leave Bordeaux, and 
after endeavouring to enlist men at several ports 
in Europe, July, Aug., are siven up at the end of 
the war, to the new provisional government 

Sept. et seq. ,, 

Election of senate and deputies . about 21 Oct. ,, 

Mr. Patrick Egan, the U.S. minister, charged with 
breach of neutrality by favouring Balmaceda's 
party during the war Oct. ,, 

At Valparaiso some of the populace assault the 
boats' crews of the U.S. ship Baltimore; 2 of 
the crew killed, 16 Oct. ; the U.S. government 
■demands reparation ; the Chilian government 
promises investigation . . . .29 Oct. ,, 

The case against the Itata dismissed by the U.S. 
■court 3 Nov. ,, 

Senhor Jorge Montt elected president . 4 Nov. ,, 

Amnesty granted to the followers of Balmaceda 

24 Dec. ,, 

A liberal-conservative ministry constituted ; sen. 
Barros Luco premier . . . 31 Dec. ,, 

The Chilian rioters sentenced (some to imprison- 
ment and some to penal servitude), for assault- 
ing the sailors of the Baltimore, 3 Jan. ; the 
president apologises to the U.S.A. government 
lor the incident Jan. 1892 

After further correspondence the Chilian govern- 
ment accepts the stringent U.S.A. ultimatum, 
and the affair ends . . . 25-30 Jan. „ 

The first congress closes after satisfactory progress 

30 Jan. ,, 

A new ministry constituted under sen. Edouardo 
Matte about 13 March, ,, 

New ministry formed by sen. Barros Luco, 11 June, ,, 

Mr. P. Egan concludes a convention between Chili 
and the United States .... Aug. ,, 

CHILLED SHOT, see Cannon, 1864-6. 

CHILLIANWALLAH, Battle of, India, 
between the Sikh forces in considerable strength, 
and the British commanded by lord (afterwards 
viscount) Gough, fought 13 Jan. 1849. The Sikhs 
were completely routed, but the loss of the British 
was very severe : 26 officers were killed and 66 
wounded, and 731 rank and file killed, and 1446 
wounded. The Sikh loss was 3000 killed and 
4000 wounded.* On 21 Feb. lord Gough attacked 
the Sikh army, under Shere Singh, in its position 
atGoojerat, with complete success ; and the whole of 
the enemy's camp fell into the hands of the British. 

CHILTERN HUNDREDS (viz. Burnham, 
Desborough, and Stoke), an estate of the crown on 
the chain of chalk hills that pass from east to west 
through the middle of Buckinghamshire. The 
stewardship is a nominal office, with a salary of 25s., 
•conferred on members of parliament when they wish 
to vacate their seats. The strict legality of the 
practice is questioned. The practice began in 1750. 

CHIMBOEAZO, highest point in the Andes, 
South America; (altitude 21,068 feet) was as- 
cended by Humboldt, 23 June, 1802, by Boussin- 
gault and Hall, 16 Dec. 1831 ; by Edward Whym- 
per, 3 July, 1880. See Andes. 



* The duke of Wellington (commander-in-chief) did 
not think the victory complete. Gough was superseded, 
and sir Charles Napier sent out (March, 1849), who did 
not arrive in India till Gough had redeemed his reputa- 
tion. 



CHIMNEY-TAX, see Hearth. 

CHIMNEYS. Chafing-dishes were in use 
previous to the invention of chimneys which were 
first introduced into these countries about 1200. 
Chimneys were general in domestic architecture 
in the 14th century. At the chemical works, 
Glasgow, is a chimney (there termed a stalk) 
420 feet in height ; the height of the monument 
in London being 202 feet; of St. Paul's, 404 feet. 
Act to regulate chimney-sweeping, 28 Geo. III. . . 1789 
The chimney-siveeping machine was invented by 

Smart 1805 

A statute regulating the trade, the apprenticeship 
of children, the construction of flues, preventing 
calling " sweep " in the streets, &c, passed . . 1834 
By 3 & 4 Vict. c. 85 (1840), it is not lawful for master 
sweeps to take apprentices under sixteen years 
of age ; and no individual under twenty-one to 
ascend a chimney after . . . .1 July, 1842 
Enforcement of this law made more stringent . . 1864 
New chimney-sweepers' act passed . . 11 Aug. 1875 
Joseph Glass, inventor of the sweeping machine 

now in general use, not patented, died 29 Jan. 1868 
By the iall of a chimney at Marsh Mills, Cleck- 
heaton, Yorkshire, 15 persons were killed 

24 Feb. 1892 

CHINA (TsiNG),the "Celestial Empire," in 
Eastern Asia, for which the Chinese annals claim 
an antiquity of from 80,000 to 100,000 years B.C. 
The three religions are Confucianism; Taoism, and 
Buddhism, which see. Mr, B. C. Boulger's " History 
of China," 3 vols., 1881-84. Professor Legge has 
published "Chinese Classics" and a translation of 
the Chinese " sacred books." Population (as stated 
at Pekin) in 1888, 303,241,969; 1890, 360,250,000. 

The early condition of China was tribal, which 
gradually merged into a vast feudal system, 
nominally ruled by many contemporaneous 
dynasties, dated from 2205 b. c. The king of 
Ts'in put down all other rulers and assumed 
the title of Hwang Ti, or emperor, declaring 
that "as there is but one sun in the sky, there 
should be but one ruler in the nation " 221 

Principal dynasties : Han, 206 B.c-220 a.d. ; T'ang, 
618-906 ; Sung, 960-1279 ; Yuan, the Mongol, 1280- 
1367 ; the Ming, 1368-1643 ; the Ch'ing, or Ts'ing, 
Manchu Tartar, 1643 to the present date. Legge. 

Supposed age of Confucius (Kungfutze), the philo- 
sopher . . .... b.c. 551-479 

Stupendous wall of China completed . . . . 211 

Literature and the art of printing encouraged . 202 

Battle between Phraates and the Scythians : the 
Chinese aided the latter, and ravaged the coasts 
of the Caspian : their first appearance in history 

(Lenglet.) 129 

The religion of Laot-se begun 15 

A form of Buddhism, or the religion of F6, intro- 
duced about a.d. 68-81 

Nankin becomes the capital 420 

The atheistical philosopher, San-Shin, flourishes . 449 
The Nestorian Christians permitted to preach . . 635 
They are proscribed and extirpated .... 845 
China ravaged by Tartars, 9th to nth centuries. 
Seat of government transferred to Pekin . . . 1 260 
Marco Polo introduces missionaries .... 1275 
Kublai Khan establishes the Yuen or Mongol 

dynasty about ,, 

Ming dynasty 1368 

Canal, called the Yu Ho, completed . . about 1400 
Europeans first arrive at Canton .... 1517 
Macao is granted to the Portuguese . . . . 1536 
Jesuit missionaries are sent from Rome . . . 1575 
The country is conquered by the eastern or Mant- 
chou Tartars, who establish the present reigning 

Tsing dynasty 1616-43 

Tea brought to England 1660 

An earthquake throughout China, buries 300,000 

persons at Pekin alone . . . 1662 

Galdan, a prince of Jangaria, conquers Kashgaria 
and becomes supreme in Central Asia, 1678: 
checked by Kang-hi, 1689 ; totally defeated . 1695 
Commerce with East India Company begins . . 1680 



CHINA. 



205 



CHINA. 



Jesuit missionaries preach 1692 

Commercial relations with Russia . . . 1719-27 

The Jesuits expelled 1724-32 

Another general earthquake destroys 100,000 per- 
sons at Pekin, and 80,000 in a suburb . . -1731 
Successful war in Central Asia ; Davatsi and his 
opponent Amursana, subdued by Keen-lung, 
1755, et seq. ; Kashgar, Khokand, the Khirgez, <fec. 

annexed 1760 

In a salute by one of our ships in China, a gun was 
inadvertently fired, which killed a native ; the 
government demanded the gunner ; he was soon 

strangled 1785 

Earl Macartney's embassy arrives at Pekin ; his re- 
ception by the emperor ... 14 Sept. 1793 
[This embassy threw light on the empire ; it ap- 
peared to be divided into 15 provinces, containing 
4402 walled cities ; the population of the whole 
was given at 333,000,000 : its annual revenues at 
66,ooo,ooo(. ; and the army, including the Tartars, 
1,000,000 of infantry and 800,000 cavalry ; the 
religion Pagan, and the government absolute. 
Learning, and the arts and sciences, were encou- 
raged, and ethics studied.] 
He is ordered to depart . . . . 7 Oct. ,, 
And arrives in England .... 6 Sept. 1794 
The affair of the Company's ship Neptune, when a 
Chinaman was killed . . . . ' . . . 1807 

Edict against Christianity 1812 

Chinese rule in Central Asia weakened . . . ,, 
Lord Amherst's embassy ; lie leaves England, 8 Eeb. 1816 
[His lordship failed in the objects of his mission, 
having refused to make the prostration of the 
kotou, lest he should thereby compromise the 
majesty of England.] 
Temporary insurrections in Kashgar . . 1826, et seq. 
Exclusive rights of the E. I. Co. cease . 22 April, 1834 
Free-trade ships sail for England . . 25 April, ,, 
Lord Napier arrives at Macao to superintend 

British commerce 15 July, ,, 

Affair between the natives and two British ships of 

war ; several Chinese killed . . 5 Sept. ,, 

Lord Napier dies, and is succeeded by Mr. (after- 
wards sir John) Davis .... 11 Oct. „ 
Opium dispute begins ; the trade prohibited by the 

emperor Nov. „ 

Chinese seize the Argyle and crew . . 31 Jan. 1835 
Opium burnt at Canton by Chinese . . 23 Feb. ,, 
Captain Elliot, chief British commissioner 14 Dec. 1836 
A British commissioner settled at Canton, March, 1837 
Admiral Maitland arrives at Macao . . 12 July. 1838 
Commissioner Lin orders seizure of opium, 18 
March ; British and other residents forbidden to 
leave Canton, 19 March ; the factories surrounded, 
and outrages committed . . .24 March, 1839 
Captain Elliot requires British subjects to surrender 
to him all opium, promising them full value of it, 
27 March ; half of it is given up as contraband 
to the Chinese, 20 April ; the remainder (20,283 
chests) surrendered, 21 May ; captain Elliot and 
the British merchants leave Canton, 24 May ; the 
opium destroyed by the Chinese . . 3 June, „ 

Affair between the British and American seamen 
and the Chinese ; a native killed . . 7 July, ,. 

Hong-Kong taken 23 Aug. „ 

The British boat Black Joke attacked, and the crew 
murdered, 24 Aug. ; the British merchants re- 
tire from Macao 26 Aug. ,, 

Affair at Kow-lung between British boats and 

Chinese junks 4 Sept. „ 

Attack by 28 armed junks on the British frigates 

Volage and Hyacinth : severaljunks blown up 3 Nov. ,, 
The British trade with China ceases, by an edict of 
the emperor, and the last servant of the company 

leaves this day 6 Dec. „ 

Edict of the emperor interdicting all trade and 

intercourse with England for ever . . 5 Jan. 1840 
The Hellas ship attacked by armed junks, 22 May : 
blockade of Canton by a British fleet, by orders 
from sir Gordon Bremer, 28 June ; the Blonde 
with a flag of truce fired on at Amoy, 2 July ; 
Ting-hai, in Cliusan, surrenders, 5 July ; blockade 
established along the Chinese coast, 10 July ; Mr. 
Staunton carried off to Canton . . 6 Aug. „ 
Captain Elliot, on board a British steam-ship, 

enters the Peiho river, near Pekin . 1 1 Aug. , 
The ship Kite lost on a sand-bank, and the captain's 



- wife and a part of the crew are captured by the 
natives, and confined in cages . . 15 Sept. 

Lin finally degraded ; Keshiii appointed imperial 
commissioner, 16 Sept. ; capt. Elliot's truce with 



him 



6 Nov. 

. 20 Nov. , 7 
29 Nov. , r 
12 Dec. , r 

faith on 
6 Jan. 1841 



British plenipotentiaries off Macao 

Admiral Elliot's resignation announced . 

Mr. Staunton released .... 

Negotiations cease, owing to breach of 
the part of the Chinese emperor . 

Chuen-pe and Tae-coc-tow, and 173 guns (some sent 
to England) captured . . . . 7 Jan. , 

Hong-Kong ceded by Keshin to Great Britain, and 
6,000,000 dollars agreed to be paid within ten days- 
to the British authorities . . . 20 Jan. ,, 

Hong-Kong taken possession of . . .26 Jan. ,, 

The emperor rejects Keshin's treaty, n Feb. ; hos- 
tilities resumed, 23 Feb. ; Chusan evacuated, 
24 Feb. ; rewards proclaimed at Canton for the 
bodies of Englishmen, dead or alive ; 50,000 dollars 
to be given for chiefs .... 25 Feb. ,„ 

Bogue forts taken by sir G. Bremer ; admiral Kwan 
killed ; 459 guns captured . . .26 Feb. ,, 

The British squadron proceeds to Canton, 1 March ; 
sir H. Gough takes command of the army, 
2 March ; hostilities again suspended, 3 March ; 
and again resumed, 6 March ; Keshin degraded 
by the emperor 12 March, ,, 

Flotilla of boats destroyed, Canton threatened, the 
foreign factories seized, and 461 guns taken by 
the British forces .... 18 March, ,,, 

New commissioners from Pekin arrived at Canton 

14 April, ,, 

Hong Kong Gazette first published . . 1 May, „ 

Capt. Elliot prepares to attack Canton . 17 May, , r 

Heights behind Canton taken . . 25 May, ,, 

The city ransomed for 6,000,000 dollars ; 5,000,000 
paid down ; hostilities cease . . 31 May, ,. 

British forces withdrawn, 1 June ; and British trade 
re-opened 16 July, „ 

Arrival at Macao of sir Henry Pottinger, who, as 
plenipotentiary, proclaims the objects of his 
mission ; capt. Elliot superseded . 10 Aug. ,,. 

Amoy taken, and 296 guns destroyed . 27 Aug. ,, 

The Bogue forts destroyed ... 14 Sept. ,- 

Ting-hae taken, 136 guns captured, and Chusan re- 
occupied by the British, 1 Oct. ; they take Chin- 
hae, 10 Oct. ; Ning-po, 13 Oct. ; Yu-yaou, Tsze- 
kee, and Foong-hua . . . .28 Dec. ,, 

Chinese attack Ning-po and Chin-hae, and are re- 
pulsed with great loss, 10 March ; 8000 Chinese 
are routed near Tze-kee . . .15 March, 184a 

Cha-pou attacked ; defences destroyed . 18 May, ,, 

The British squadron enters the river Kiang, 
13 June ; capture of Woosuug and of 230 guns 
and stores, 16 June; Shang-hae taken, 19 June, ,- 

The British armament anchors near the " Golden 
Isle," 20 July ; Chiu-Keang taken ; the Tartar 
general and many of the garrison commit suicide, 
21 July ; the advanced ships reach Nankin, 
4 Aug. ; the whole fleet arrives, and the disem- 
barkation commences, 9 Aug. ; Keying arrives- 
at Nankin, with full powers to treat for peace 

12 Aug. ,. 

Treaty of peace signed before Nankin, on board the 
Cormvallis by sir Henry Pottinger for England, 
and Keying Elepoo* and Neu-Kien on the part of 
the Chinese emperor— [Conditions : lasting peace 
and friendship between the two empires ; China 
to pay 21,000,000 of dollars ; Canton, Amoy, Foo- 
choofoo, Ningpo, and Shang-hae to be thrown 
open to the British, and consuls to reside at these 
cities; Hong-Kong to be ceded in perpetuity to 
England, &c. ; Chusan and Ku-lang-su to be held 
by the British until the provisions are fulfilled t] 

29 Aug. ,, 

The ratification signed by queen Victoria and the 
emperor formally exchanged . . .22 July, 1843. 

Canton opened to the. British . . 27 July, „ 

Appointment of Mr. Davis in the room of sir Henry 
Pottinger 16 Feb. 1844. 

Bogue forts captured by the British . 5 April, 1S47 

* He took part (it was said without authority) in 
arranging the treaty of Tien-tsin in June, 185S. lie was 
in consequence condemned to death — by suicide. 

t The non-fulfilment of this treaty led gradually to the 
war of 1856-7. 



CHINA. 



206 



CHINA. 



JHong-Kong; and the neighbourhood visited by a - 
violent typhoon ; immense damage done to the 
shipping ; upwards of 1000 boat-dwellers on the 

Canton river drowned Oct. 1848 

H.M. steam-ship Medea destroys 13 pirate junks in 

the Chinese seas 4 March, 1850 

{Rebellion breaks out in Quang-si . . . Aug. „ 
Appearance of the pretender, Tien-teh * March, 1851 
Defeat of Leu, the imperial commissioner, and de- 
struction of half the army ... 19 June, 1852 
'Successful progress of the rebels ; the emperor ap- 
plies to the Europeans for help, without success 

March and April, 1853 
The rebels take Nankin, 19, 20 March ; Amoy, 

19 May ; Shang-hae 7 Sept. „ 

And besiege Canton without success Aug. -Nov. 1854 
The scanty accounts are unfavourable to the rebels, 
the imperialists having retaken Shang-hae, Amoy, 

and many important places 1855 

Outrage on the British lorcha Arrow, in Canton 

river t 8 Oct. 1856 

After vain negotiations with commissioner Yeh, 

Canton forts attacked and taken . 23 Oct. ,, 

A Chinese fleet destroyed and Canton bombarded, 

by sir- M. Seymour . . . . 3, 4 Nov. ,, 

Imperialists defeated, quit Shang-hae . . 6 Nov. „ 
The Americans revenge an attack by capturing three 

forts 21-23 Nov. „ 

-Rebels take Kuriking .... 25 Nov. „ 

Other forts taken by the British . . . Dec. „ 
The Chinese burn European factories . . 14 Dec. ,, 
And murder the crew of the Thistle . 30 Dec. „ 
The Mahometans of Panthay, in Yunan, become 

independent during Tae-ping rebellion . . „ 

A-lum, a Chinese baker, acquitted of charge of 

poisoning the bread 2 Feb. 1857 

Troops arrive from Madras and England ; and lord 

Elgin appointed envoy .... March, ,, 
"No change on either side : Yeh said to be straitened 
for money ; the imperialists seem to be gaining 
ground upon the rebels .... May, „ 
Total destruction of the Chinese fleet by commodore 
Elliot, 25, 27 May ; and sir M. Seymour and com- 
modore Keppel 1 June, ,, 

Blockade of Canton Aug. „ 

.'Stagnation in the war— lord Elgin departs to Cal- 
cutta, with assistance to the English against the 
Sepoys, 16 July ; returns to Hong-Kong 25 Sept. ,, 

x The emperor Taou-Kwang, who died 25 Feb. 1850, 
•during the latter part of his reign, became liberal in his 
views, and favoured the introduction of European arts ; 
liut his son, the late emperor, a rash and narrow-minded 
prince, quickly departed from his father's wise policy, 
.and adopted reactionary measures, particularly against 
English influence. An insurrection broke out in conse- 
quence, Aug. 1850, and quickly became of alarming im- 
portance. The insurgents at first proposed only to expel 
the Tartars ; but in March, 1851, a pretender was an- 
nounced among them, first by the name of Tien-teh 
'.(Celestial Virtue), but afterwards assuming other names. 
He is stated to have been a native of Quang-si, of 
obscure origin, but to have obtained some literary know- 
ledge at Canton about 1 83 5 , and to have become acquainted 
at that time with the principles of Christianity from a 
Chinese Christian, named Leang-afa, and also from the 
missionary Roberts in 1844. He announced himself as 
the restorer of the worship of the true God, Shang-ti, 
and derived many of his dogmas from the Bible. He de- 
clared himself to be the monarch of all beneath the sky, 
the true lord of China (and thus of all the world), the 
■brother of Jesus, and the second son of God, and de- 
manded universal submission. He made overtures for 
alliance to lord Elgin in Nov. i860. His followers were 
termed Taepings, "princes of peace," a title utterly 
"belied by their atrocious deeds. The rebellion was virtu- 
ally terminated, 18 July, 1864, by the capture of Nankin, 
the suicide of the Tien-Wang, and the execution of the 
military leaders. 

t It was boarded by the Chinese officers, 12 men out of 
the crew of 14 being carried off and the national ensign 
taken down. Sir J. Bowring, governor of Hong-Kong, 
being compelled to resort to hostilities, applied to India 
and Ceylon for troops. On 3 March, 1857, the house of 
commons, by a majority of 19, censured sir John for the 
" violent measures " he had pursued. The ministry (who 
took his part) dissolved the parliament ; but obtained a 
arge majority in the new one. 



Gen. Ashburnham departs for India, and gen. Strau- 
benzee assumes the command . . 19 Oct. 

Canton bombarded and taken by English and 
French, 28, 29 Dec. 1857 ; who enter it . 5 Jan. 

Yeh* sent a prisoner to Calcutta . . . Jan. 

The allies proceed towards Pekin, and take the Pei- 
ho forts .20 May, 

The expedition arrives at Tien-tsin . 20 May, 

Negotiations commence, 5 June ; treaty of peace 
signed at Tien-tsin by lord Elgin, baron Gros, and 
Keying (who signed the treaty of 1842) — [Ambas- 
sadors to be at both courts ; freedom of trade ; 
toleration of Christianity ; expenses of war to be 
paid by China ; a revised tariff ; term I (bar- 
barian) to be no longer applied to Europeans] 

26, 28, 29 June, 

Lord Elgin visits Japan, and concludes an im- 
portant treaty with the emperor . 28 Aug. 

The British destroy about 130 piratical junks in the 
Chinese seas .... Aug. and Sept. 

Lord Elgin proceeds up the Yang-tse-Kiang to 
Nankin, Jan. ; returns to England . May, 

Mr. Bruce, the British envoy, on his way to Pekin, 
is stopped in the river Pei-ho (or Tien-tsin) ; ad- 
miral Hope attempting to force a passage, is re- 
pulsed with the loss of 81 killed, and about 390 
wounded 25 June, 

The American envoy Ward arrives at Pekin, and 
refusing to submit to degrading ceremonies, does 
not see the emperor . . . .29 July, 

Commercial treaty with America . . 24 Nov. 

The English and French prepare an expedition 
against China . Oct. 

Lord Elgin and baron Gros sail for China, April 26 ; 
wrecked near Point de Galle, Ceylon, 23 May ; 
arrive at Shang-hae .... 29 June, 

The war begins : the British commanded by sir Hope 
Grant, the French by general Montauban. The 
Chinese defeated in a skirmish near the Pei-ho 

12 Aug. 

The allies repulse the Taeping rebels attacking 
Shang-hae, 18-20 Aug. ; and take the Taku forts, 
losing 500 killed and wounded ; the Tartar general 
San-ko-lin-sin retreats . . . .21 Aug. 

After vain negotiations, the allies advance towards 
Pekin ; they defeat the Chinese at Chang-kia-wan 
and Pa-li-chiau . . . . 18 & 21 Sept. 

Consul Parkes, captains Anderson and Brabazon, 
Mr. de Norman, Mr. Bowlby (the Times' cor- 
respondent), and 14 others (Europeans and 
Sikhs), advance to Tung-chow, to arrange con- 
ditions for a meeting of the ministers, and 
are captured by San-ko-lin-sin ; capt. Brabazon 
and abbe de Luc beheaded, and said to be 
thrown into the canal ; others carried into Pekin 

21 Sept. 

The allies march towards Pekin ; the French ravage 
the emperor's summer palace, 6 Oct. ; Mr. Parkes, 
Mr. Loch, and others, restored alive, 8 Oct. ; capt. 
Anderson, Mr. De Norman, and others die of ill- 
usage 8-11 Oct. 

Pekin invested ; surrenders, 12 Oct. ; severe pro- 
clamation of sir Hope Grant ... 15 Oct. 

The bodies of Mr. De Norman and Mr. Bowlby 
solemnly buried in the Russian cemetery, Pekin, 
17 Oct. ; the summer palace (Yuen-ming-yuen) 
burnt by the British, in memory of the outraged 
prisoners 18 Oct. 

Convention signed in Pekin by lord Elgin and the 
prince Kung, by which the treaty of Tien-tsin 
is ratified ; apology made for the attack at Pei-ho 
(25 June, 1859) ; a large indemnity to be paid im- 
mediately, and compensation in money given to 
the families of the murdered prisoners, &c. ; Kow- 
loon ceded in exchange for Chusan, and the treaty 
and convention to be proclaimed throughout the 

empire 24 Oct. 

Allies quit Pekin 5 Nov. 

Treaty between Russia and China — the former ob- 
taining free trade, territories, &e. . 14 Nov. 

First instalment of indemnity paid . . 30 Nov. 
Part of the allied troops settled at Tien-tsin ; con- 
sulate established 5 Jan. 

Adm. Hope examines Yang-tse-Kiang, &c. . Feb. 



1S57 



* He died peacefully at Calcutta, 9 April, 1859. He is 
said to have ordered the beheading of about 100,000 
rebels. 



CHINA. 



207 



CHINA. 



English and French embassies established at Pekin 

March, 1861 
The emperor Hienfung dies . . . . 21 Aug. „ 
Canton restored to the Chinese . . 21 Oct. „ 
Ministerial crisis ; several ministers put to death, 

Nov. ; Kung appointed regent . . .13 Dec. ,, 
Advance of the rebels ; they seize and desolate Ning- 

po and Hang-chow Dec. „ 

They advance on Shang-hae, which is placed under 
protection of the English and French, and fortified 

Jan. 1862 
Rebels defeated in two engagements . . April, ,, 
English and French assist the government against 

the rebels — Ning-po re-taken . . 10 May, „ 
French admiral Protet killed in an attack on rebels 

17 May, „ 
Captain Sherard Osborne permitted by the British 
government to organise a small fleet of gunboats 
to aid the imperialists to establish order July, ,, 
imperialists gain ground, take Kah-sing, <fec. Oct. ,, 
Tungani (Mahometan) revolt in Central Asia ; mas- 
sacre of Buddhists ,, 

Commercial treaty with Prussia ratified 14 Jan. 1863 
The imperialists under col. Charles Gordon defeat 

the Taepings under Burgevine, <&c. . . Oct. ,, 
Cordon captures Sow-chow (after a severe attack, 
27, 28 Nov.); the rebel chiefs treacherously 
butchered by the Chinese . . . 4, 5 Dec. „ 
Capt. Osborne came to China ; but retired in conse- 
quence of the Chinese government departing from 

its engagements 31 Dec. ,, 

Cordon's successes continue . . Jan. to April, 1864 

Repulsed ; he takes Chang-chow-foo . 23 March, ,, 

He takes Nankin (a heap of ruins) ; Hun-seu-tseun, 

the Tien-wang, the rebel emperor, commits suicide 

by eating gold leaf, 30 June ; Chang- wang and 

Kan-wang, the rebel generals, are " cut into a 

thousand pieces " 18 July, ,, 

Great mortality among British troops at Kowloon 

Jan. 1865 
The Taepings hold Ming-chow ; the Mahometan 
rebellion (Dounganes) progressing in Honan 

Jan. -March, ,, 
Taepings evacuate Ming-chow . . 23 May, „ 
Rebellion in the north advancing . . June, ,, 
A rebellion of the Nien-fei in the north ; Pekin in 

danger July, ,, 

The Chinese general San-ko-lin-sin defeated and 

slain ; his son more successful . . July, ,, 

Prince Kung chief of the regency again . 7 Nov. „ 
Sir Rutherford Alcock, ambassador at Pekin, 

26 Nov. ,, 
Chinese newspaper, " Messenger of the Flying 

Dragon," appears in London . 14 Jan. 1866 

Great victory over the Nien-fei announced at Canton 

13 March, ,, 
Chinese commissioners visit London . June, ,, 
Rivalry of two great political chiefs in China, Li- 

hung-ching and Tsen-kwo-fan . . . July, „ 
Reported victory of the Nien-fei over the impe- 
rialists Dec. 1867 

Mahomed Yakoob Beg defeats the Tungaui, becomes 
supreme in Kashgar, 1866 ; is recognised by 

Europe ,, 

The rebels seize Ningpo .... Oct. 186S 
The people at Yang-chow, incited by the "literati" 
(learned classes) destroy the Protestant mission- 
houses, 22 Aug. ; redress not obtained ; a British 
squadron proceeds to Nankin, 8 Nov. ; the vice- 
roy is superseded, and the British demands ac- 
ceded to 14 Nov. ,, 

Chinese embassy (Mr. Anson Burlinghame, Chin 
Kang, and Sun Chia Su) received by president 
Johnson at Washington, 5 June ; they sign a 
treaty (see Burlinghame), 4 July ; arrive in Lon- 
don, Sept. ; received by the queen . 20 Nov. ,, 
Chinese embassy received by the emperor at Paris, 

24 Jan. 1869 
Fekin visited by the duke of Edinburgh, incognito, 

Oct. „ 
Supplementary convention to the treaty of Tieu-tsin 
(June, 1858) for additional commercial freedom, 

signed 24 Oct. ,, 

Burlinghame dies at St. Petersburg . 22 Feb. 1870 
Successful rebellion of Mahometans in north-west 

provinces reported May, ,, 

Cruel massacre of the French consul at Tien-tsin, 
Roman Catholic priests, sisters of mercy (22 per- 



sons), besides many native converts, and above 
30 children in the orphanage, by a mob, with, it 
is said, the complicity of the authorities ; the 
missionaries were accused of kidnapping children, 

21 June, 1870 
Increased hatred of the people to foreigners at Tien- 
tsin ; lukewarm proceedings of the government 
against the murderers .... July, 
Ma, a viceroy of Nankin, favourable to Europeans', 

assassinated about 22 Aug! 

Chapels destroyed at Fatshan . . 21 Sept. 
The French ultimatum refused ; the murderers of 
the nuns unpunished ; Chinese warlike prepara- 
tions reported 2 6 Sept. 

Judicious mandate from the mandarin Tseng-kwo- 
fan, exculpating the missionaries, and condemn- 
ing their massacre Oct. 

16 coolies beheaded, 15 Sept., and 23 exiled ; inl 
demnity to the sufferers by the outrage ordered ; 

reported 2 6 Oct.' „ 

End of the difficulty announced . . 3 Nov. 

Chung-How, an envoy, arrives in London Aug'. 1871 

Memorial addressed to the Chinese government by 

Mr. Hart, inspector of customs, recommending 

changes in civil and military administration^ 

autumn, ,, 
The young emperor married . . .16 Oct. 
Received at Paris ; apologizes for Tien-tsin massal 
ores, and reports redress . . . .23 Nov. 

Russia annexes Kuldja 

Wm. Armstrong Russell consecrated Anglican 

bishop of North China . . . . Dec. z.Znz 
The emperor's majority; he assumes the govern- 
ment 23 Feb. 1873 

Talifoo capital of the insurgent Panthay Mahome- 
tans, captured ; thousauds massacred . Feb. 
Foreign ministers for the first time received by the ' 

emperor 2g j uuej 

Dispute with Japan, see Fmmosa, July-Aug ■ 
settled by treaty .... 3I Oct.' 1874 

The Spark sails from Canton to Macao ; capt. Brady 
and Mr. Mundy, and a foreign crew and passen- 
gers ; pirates, who came on board secretly, kill 
captain and others, and carry off booty, while 
on voyage ; the wounded crew manage to reach 
Macao ...... 22 Au°-. 

Death of the emperor .... I2 Jan. 187? 

Proclamation of his successor, Tsai-tien, son of 
Chun, 7th son of Taou-Twang (nephew of Kung), 

4 Feb! „ 
Exploring expedition under col. Horace Browne 
to open a passage from Burmah into S. W. China 
Dec. 1874; Mr. Margary and 5 Chinese going 
before, killed at Manwyne, 21 Feb. ; col. Browne 
and his troops repulse an attack by Chinese, but 
retreat to Rangoon, 22 Feb. ; some of the party 

missing 12 March, q 

Through negotiation of Mr. Wade, the Chinese go- 
vernment promise due reparation; announced Sep. 
Edict permitting intercourse between chiefs of de- " 
partments and foreign ministers, about 4 Oct. ■ 
enjoining proper treatment of foreigners, n Oct.' 
Telegram from Mr. Wade : he has obtained necessary ' 
guarantees, satisfaction for the murder of Mr. Mar- 
gary, and concessions for foreign trade, 18 Oct. 
Gen. Lee-see- ta-hee ordered for trial, ti Feb. ; Mar- " 

gary's murderers said to be executed, 5 May 1876 

First railway in China, from Shang-hae to Oussooii 
(Woosung) (11 miles) ; trial trip, 16 March (at first 
opposed) ; publicly opened . . so June 

Mr. Grosvenor and others sent to inquire respecting " 
the murder of Mr. Margary arrive at the place 
and report the proposed punishment of the 

murderers June 

Chee-foo convention ; difficulties in the negotiations ' 
removed (the government agree to compensation 
to Mr. Margary's family; removal of commercial 
grievances ; opening of four ports ; proper official 
intercourse) ; said to be signed, 13 Sept. ; rati- 
fied . 17' Sept. ., 

War against the Tungani; Manas captured; great 
massacre of rebels .... 6 Nov. 
Accredited Chinese envoy (Quo-ta-Zhan) lands at " 

Southampton . . .21 Jan. 1877 

Decree of equal rights to Chinese Christians, 1 Feb. 
Dreadful famine in northern provinces 
Four more Chinese ports opened . , 1 April 



CHINA. 



208 



CHINA. 



Opium smoking interdicted after 3 years ; an- 
nounced . . .... Aug. 

The railway from Shang-liae bought to be stopped, 
31 Oct. ; resumed Dec. 

Quo-ta-Zhan (or Kuo-ta-Jen) first accredited minis- 
ter at London ; Liu-ta-Jen at Berlin about Nov. 

Yakoob Beg of Kashgaria totally defeated by the 
Chinese general, Tso-tsung-tang ; is assassinated, 
May ; Kashgar and other towns captured ; end 
of war Bee. 

The Chinese minister's first grand evening reception 

19 June, 

Destruction of mission property at Wu-shih-shan 
by a fanatical mob, unrestrained by the mandarins 

30 Aug. 

Famine abating; 48,30s?. for relief collected in 
England . . . " . . . . Sept. 

The Shang-hae railway plant removed to For- 
mosa 

Chinese immigrants virtually excluded from Aus- 
tralia by a poll-tax 

Rebellion in Kwang-si, announced . . Oct. 

Chung-How, ambassador at St.Petersburg, demands 
the surrender of Kuli Beg, a fugitive from Kash- 
gar, and restitution of the territory . Dec. 

Rebellion in Hainan, in Canton province ; Li- 
Yang-tsai, who invades Annam, claims the 
throne by descent ; reported . . . Jan. 

Marquis Tsgng, the new Chinese ambassador, 
arrives in London, 28 Feb. ; presents his cre- 
dentials to the queen ... 20 March, 

Treaty with Russia, who agrees to evacuate the 
Kuldja territory, China to pay an indemnity 

about June, 

Li-Yang-tsai, rebel chief, captured ; announced 

2 Dec. 

Chung-How, the late Chinese ambassador at St. 
Petersburg, imprisoned and the treaty disavowed 

spring, 

Chinese from Kashgar said to invade Russian 
territory May, 

Prospect of war ; col. Gordon goes to China from 
Bombay June, 

Li-Hung-Chang, governor of metropolitan pro- 
vinces, fortifies approaches to the capital, June ; 
visited by col. Gordon .... July, 

Chung-How released ; proposed war with Russia 
given up ; announced . . . 15 July, 

Thomas duke of Genoa sails up the Yang-tse-Kiang 
in an Italian vessel ". April, 

Peace with Russia, who makes concessions nego- 
tiated by marquis Tseng ; treaty signed 19 Aug. 

Complication with France respecting Tonquin (see 
Tonquin) Sept. 

Mr. Logan sentenced to seven years' penal servi- 
tude for killing a coolie at Canton . . Sept. 

Canton greatly excited against foreigners . Oct. 

Correspondence of France and China respecting Ton- 
quin published in the Times, both firm 29 Oct. 

"Warm reception of sir Henry Parkes as British 
ambassador ....... Sept. 

China issues a circular claiming Annam as a de- 
pendency Nov. 

Coup d'etat at Pekin effected by prince Chun, 
father of the reigning emperor, who becomes 
dictator ; prince Kung, and the viceroy Li-Hung- 
Chang, deposed . . . .11 April, et seq. 

The marquis Tseng recalled from Paris, announced 

2 May, 

Replaced by Li-Fong-Pao . . about 8 May, 

Treaty with France, signed by capt. Fournier and 
Li-Hung-Chang, atTientsin ; French protectorate 
of Annam and Tonquin recognized ; three southern 
provinces opened to commerce . . 11 May, 

The Chinese break the treaty by attacking the 
French marching to occupy Langson (see Tonquin) 

The French demand evacuation of the Tonquin 
frontier forts, and 10,000,000?. indemnity . July, 

The war party at Pekin oppose the empress and 
Li-Hung-Chang the viceroy . . . July, 

The frontier towns to be surrendered, the indemnity 
refused, announced . . . -3° Julv ! 

China offers reduced indemnity . . . Aug. 

Kelung in Formosa bombarded and forts destroyed 
by alleged treachery by adm. Lespes 5, 6 Aug. 

Adm. Courbet at Foochow . . .10 Aug. 

Negotiations at Shanghai .... Aug. 



1877 



1879 



France declines mediation of the powers ; France 
issues a circular to the powers . 17 Aug. 

Indemnity claimed by France, reduced to 3,200,000?. 
19 Aug. ; refused by China 

The French ambassador, Semalle, leaves Pekin ; 
war ensues 21 Aug. 

Adm. Courbet with his fleet sails up the Min river 
unattacked ; destroys the Chinese fleet with 
much slaughter, 23 Aug. ; bombards the arsenal 
at Foochow, and dismantles the forts ; destroys the 
forts and batteries, &c, at Mingan and Kinpai ; 
French killed, about 7 ; Chinese said to be about 
1000 26-28 Aug. 

Li-Hung-Chang deprived of his highest offices about 

28 Aug. 

Chinese declaration of war, in a manifesto to the 
people, announced .... 6 Sept. 

H.M. gun-boat Zephyr fired on by mistake, 6 Sept.; 
Chinese apologise .... 18 Sept. 

Chinese said to be defeated at Kinpai Pass, about 

16 Sept. 

Europeans, at Shanghai and other places, protest 
against the war . ". . . . Sept. 

Li-Hung-Chang reappointed viceroy about 24 Sept. 

Adm. Courbet captures Kelung 1 Oct. ; adm. Lespes 
bombards Tamsui, 2 et seq. Oct. ; lands ; retires 

8 Oct. 

N. and W. Formosa blockaded . . 23 Oct. 

Kelung occupied by French ; little resistance 8 Oct. 

1000 Chinese defeated near Tamsui, 2 Nov. ; re- 
pulsed in attack on Kelung. announced 12 Nov. 

Fruitless mediation of earl Granville with marquis 
Tseng, announced .... 10 Dec. 

Reported Chinese defeat near Kelung . .13 Dec. 

The native press, originally official (Pekin Gazette, 
ancient), becomes political and popular 

Foreign Enlistment Act proclaimed at Hong Kong 

23 Jan. : 

French attack near Kelung, Chinese works carried 

25 Jan. 

Chinese defeated with much loss . . 31 Jan. 

Two Chinese junks sunk by French torpedoes, 15 Feb. 

Bombardment of Chin-hae, at the mouth of the 
Yung-Kiang river .... 2 March, 

Siege of Tuyen Quan, much slaughter 2-3 March, 

Several forts at Kelung captured 

Sanguinary conflicts . . . 4-12 March, 

Sir Henry Parkes, ambassador, dies . 22 March, 

Pescadores Islands captured . . 30-31 March, 

Preliminaries of peace, through intervention of sir <■ 
Robt. Hart, signed at Pekin about 6 April ; treaty 
signed 9 June ; ratified ... 28 Nov. 

Sir Robert Hart, British ambassador, 23 June ; 
resigns about 31 Aug. 

Formosa evacuated about . - . -23 June, 

Introduction of railways authorized — new policy 

about Aug. 

Disputes with Japan settled ; reported . Aug. 

The emperor agrees to receive a papal agent to 
protect R. C. missionaries . . . July, 

Death of Tso Tsung-Tang, a great statesman and 
guardian of the king .... 4 Sept. 

Sir John Walsham British minister . 7 April, j 

Liu-shin-fun, ambassador for Great Britain, arrives 

28 April, 

M. Agliardi appointed Internuncio . 14 July, 

The scheme suspended by the Pope through French 
opposition .... about 15 Sept. 

Convention with many concessions by the British 
government respecting the Burmese frontiers 
and trade signed at Pekin ... 24 July, 

The French consent to the transfer of the Pehtang 
Cathedral from its contiguity with the palace 

Nov. 

The Chinese annul the French protectorate over 
all christians Nov. 

Decanville railway successfully opened 21 Noy. 

General proclamations for protection of christian 
missionaries and converts, excluding foreign 
protection Jan. j 

Remarkable presents from the emperor to sir Halli- 
day Macartney, secretary of the British and other 
legations (for good services to China) received in 
London Feb. 

The emperor, aged 16, assumes the government 

7 Feb. 

Convention between Great Britain and China, 



CHINA. 



209 



CHINA GRASS. 



■respecting Burma!* and Thibet, signed 24 July, 
and ratiiied . . . . .25 Aug. 

Chinese fleet of five ironclads (three constructed in 
Britain) at Spithead ; sail for China under 
.Admiral Lang with others lent by the Admiralty 

Sept. 

Commercial treaty with France 1886 ; signed and 
ratified ....... Aug. 

Eeported convention of Li Hung-Chang, the viceroy, 
with count Mitkiewicz and an American syndi- 
cate for introduction of railways, telegraphs, 
telephones, &c, and a loan, Aug. ; repudiated by 
the Chinese government .... Oct. 

Overflow of the Hoang Ho, or Yellow River, causing 
immense destruction ; about 1500 populous 
villages destroyed, and the important city 
Chuhsien Chen narrowly escaped with loss of 
suburbs; millionsof personssaid to have perished ; 
famine imminent ; the government active in pro- 
viding relief Sept. -Oct. 

Treaty with United States to allow Chinese immigra- 
tion for 20 years with some exceptions (lawful 
marriage and children, property worth 1000 
•dollars, &e.) signed 14 March, 1888 ; China 
refuses the ratification .... Sept. 

The empress-mother announces her resignation 
of the administration of government, which is to 
be assumed by the emperor . . 27 July, 

The Chinese Exclusion Act vigorously carried out 
at San Francisco, and at other places middle Oct. 

Railway from Tientsin to Taku opened . Nov. 

Conventions with Italy and Germany for them to 
protect their missionaries . announced Dec. 

New R.C. cathedral at Pekin consecrated . 8 Dec. 

Great famine, in consequence of inundations of 
the Yangtsze and Yellow River valleys announced 
Jan. 1889 >' relief money sent from London, above 
30,000^. (gratefully acknowledged) (see Mansion 
House Fund) ........ 

Riots at Chin-Kiang, the British consulate and 
foreigners' houses burnt . . . 4, 5 Feb. 

Marriage of the Emperor . . . .25 Feb. 

Hsieh Ta Jgn appointed minister for London, Paris, 
Brussels, and Rome, announced . 4 June, 

Luchow, in the province of Szechuen, destroyed by 
fire, about 1,200 persons perish . . 27 June, 

The Yellow river bursts its banks at Shantung, and 
inundates the country, and countless lives are 
lost, reported 26 July, 

Great inundations in North China through ty- 
phoons ; about 5,000 persons perish, reported 

30 Aug. 

The Yellow river again burst its banks, causing 
much destruction about . . . .22 July, 

Insurrection in the province of Fuhkien ; sup- 
pressed ; 100 insurgents killed ; announced 9 Sept. 

The construction of a trunk railway from Pekin to 
Hankow, 700 miles, proposed . . . Aug. 

The project postponed through opposition, Dec. 

Insurrection in the Amour district of Manchuria ; 
reported success of the rebels ; they seize the 
town Lan-pei-tuan ; imperialists defeated in 
battles ; announced .... Dec. 

Collapse of a temple theatre at Hangting, near 
Shantung ; about 250 persons killed . 13 Oct. 

Imperial decree for reforms in the army and civil 
services; promoted by the emperor, Jan. -Feb. 

Convention for the opening of the Chung-King to 
commerce signed at Pekin . . .31 March 

Death of the marquis Tseng, eminent statesman 

12 April, 

The duke and duchess of Connaught honourably 
received in Canton and Shanghai . . May, 

Great floods at Pekin, Tungchow and Tientsin ; 
business stopped, 3 Aug. ; renewal of the Yellow 
river inundations early Sept. ; also in the pro- 
vinces Shantung and Chihli ; great loss of life and 
prospect of famine reported ... 16 Oct. 

Explosion of the government powder magazine at 
Canton, killing many persons and destroying 200 
houses, 15 Aug. ; a similar explosion at Taiping- 
Pu, 300 persons killed, reported . . 7 Nov. 

Massacre of many native Christians at Jong- 
tuytsin and other places by a fanatical society 
reported Dec. 

An imperial decree, granting audience of the 
emperor to representatives of foreign powers 
issued r 12 Dec. 



1887 



The first audience 5 March 1891 

Death of prince Chun, father of the emperor, 
reported 2 Jan. ,, 

Disastrous floods in Shue-Chang, Wen-Chuan, and 
other districts, about 1,000 lives lost, early Feb. ,, 

Anti-European riots at Wuhu ; much destruction ; 
British consulate wrecked ; the consul and his 
wife escape ; quiet restored by force, 12, 13 May, ,, 

Increased popular anti-foreign agitation throughout 
China, June ; the diplomatic body appeal to the 
government ; the emperor issues a decree for the 
protection of foreigners and punishment of 
aggressors about 15 June „ 

French church and orphanage at Woosieh destroyed 
by fire 9 June, ,, 

Loss of life and much destruction by the rising of 
the Yang-tse-Kiang about . . .21 July, „ 

Continued persecution of foreigners ; the imperial 
decree ineffectual ; the diplomatic body press the 
government about 18 Aug. ,, 

The Kolao Hui, a secret society, strongly opposed 
to foreigners and Christianity, active, summer, ,, 

The American mission at Ishang destroyed, 11 Sept. ,, 

The outrages against foreigners increase ; the diplo- 
matic body report to their respective govern- 
ments about 15 Sept. ,, 

Great Britain, France, Germany and the United 
States, N.A., unite for the common support of 
their people against Chinese violence, reported 

21 Sept. ,, 

Compensation paid to the sufferers in Wuhu by the 
viceroy about 23 Oct. ,, 

British squadron and other vessels at Nagasaki 
and other ports about. ... 23 Oct. „ 

A modus vivensli with the Chinese authorities 
arranged by the European ministers, reported 

11 Nov. ,, 

Insurrection in Mongolia and N. China against 
foreigners and native Christians ; reported mas- 
sacres, Nov. ; suppressed by government troops 
after battles, with much slaughter. 28, 29 Nov. „ 

Agreement of the Hunan societies against Euro- 
peans, &c. , published at Shanghai about 7 Deo. ,, 

Memorials of the viceroys of Nanking and Hukuang 
(attributing the anti-foreign outrages to baseless 
rumours circulated by conspirators) issued Dec. ,, 

The government pays indemnities amounting to 
ioo,oooZ. to Christian missions and others, and 
punishes the Chinese officials and offenders, 
reported 27 Dec. ,, 

Mr. Christopher Gardner, British consul, and Dr. 
Griffith John, missionary, assert that the anti- 
foreign outbreaks originated with the local man- 
darins, aided by Chanhan, an eminent Hunan 
scholar and writer of offensive placards, &c, 
reported Dec. ,, 

The rebels in the north, headed by Li Hung, 
defeated by Yulu, reported . . .3 Jan. 1892 

Mr. Nicholas R. O'Conor appointed British minister 
at Pekin about .... 4 March, ,, 

Chanhan, the agitator, ordered to be arrested, 25 
March ; not arrested ; the' right of audience by 
the emperor requested by the foreign ministers, 
rejected, early April, ,, 

CHINESE EMPERORS. 

1627. Chwang-lei. 

1643. Shun-che (first of the Tsing dynasty). 

1662. Kang-hi, an able sovereign ; consolidated, the 
pire, compiled a great Chinese dictionary. 

1723. Yung-ching. 

1736. Keen-lung, warlike ; fond of art ; greatly embel- 
lished Pekin. 

1795. Kea-king. 

1820. Taou-Kwang. 

1850. Hieng-fung, 25 Feb. 

1861. Ki-tsiang (altered to Toung-chi) 21 Aug. ; born 27 
April, 1856 ; married 16 Oct. 1872 ; died 12 Jan. 

1875- 
1875. Tsai T'ien (altered to Kwang Su), a^od 4. 12 Jan. 
[China was ruled by two empresses (Tsze An and Tsze 
Chi), 1861-18S1 ; and' by one (Tsze Chi), an able woman, 
1881-9.] 
1887. The emperor assumed the government, 7 Feb. 

CHINA GRASS, or Rhea; a prize of 5000/. 
was offered by the Indian government for machinery 
to prepare and cleanse the fibre, 11 Jan. 1870. 



CHINA POECELAIN. 



210 



CHOLEEA MOEBUS, 



Mr. John Greig's machine was exhibited in Edin- 
burgh, Dec. 1871- 

CHINA POECELAIN, introduced into Eng- 
land about 153 1 ; see Pottery. 

CHINA EOSE, fee; The Rosa indica was 
brought from China, and successfully planted in 
England, 1786; the Chinese apple-tree, or Pyrus 
spectabilis, about 1780. 

CHINCHA ISLES, see Pent, 1864-5. 
CHINCHONA, see Jesuits. 
CHINESE WALL, said to have been com- 
pleted about 211 B.C. .Reported in 1879 to be 1728 
miles long, 18 feet wide, 15 feet thick at the top. 

CHINS and Lushais, savage tribes living in the 
mountainous region between Lower Bengal and 
Upper Burmah, of very primitive habits. 
For their raids and chastisements, see Burmah, 

1889-92, and India, 1890-2. 
A conference of the authorities concerned at Cal- 
cutta, to consider the best means of keeping in 
order the Chins near Upper Burmah and the 
Lushais near Assam and Bengal ; the transference 
of the southern Lushais from Bengal to Assam, 
recommended Jan. 1892 

CHIOS (now Scio), an isle in the Greek Archi- 
pelago, revolted against Athens, 412 and .357 B.C. 
It partook of the fortunes of Greece, being conquered 
by the Venetians, a.d. 1124 ; by the crusaders, 1204; 
by the Greek emperor, 1329 ; by the Genoese, 1346 ; 
and finally by the Turks in 1594. A dreadful mas- 
sacre of about 40,000 inhabitants by the Turks took 
place n April, 1822, during the Greek insurrection. 
About 4000 perished by an earthquake ; the town 

Ohio and many villages were destroyed, 3 April ; 

many shocks since up to . 12 April, 1881 

CHIPPAWA (N. America). Here the British 
under Biall were defeated by the Americans under 
Brown, 5 July, 1814. The Americans were defeated 
by the British under Drummond and Biall, 2^ July 
following ; Biall was wounded and taken prisoner. 

CHIEOPLAST, an apparatus for giving a 
correct position of the hands of pianoforte players ; 
invented by J. B. Logier; patented, 1814. 

CHIVALEY arose out of the feudal system in 
the latter part of the 8th century (chevalier, or 
knight, being derived from the caballarius, the 
equipped feudal tenant on horseback). From the 
12th to the 15th century it tended to refine manners. 
The knight swore to accomplish the duties of his 
profession, as the champion of God and the ladies, 
to speak the truth, to maintain the right, to protect 
the distressed, to practise courtesy, to fulfil obliga- 
tions, and to vindicate in every perilous adventure 
his honour and character. Chivalry expired with 
the feudal system. See Knighthood and. Tourna- 
ments. By letters patent of James I. the earl-mar- 
shal of England had "the like jurisdiction in the 
courts of chivalry, when the office of lord high con- 
stable was vacant, as this latter and the marshal did 
jointly exercise," 1623. 

CHLOEAL HYDEATE, a combination of 
chlorine and alcohol, discovered by Liebig, which, 
when inhaled, produces deep sleep, but not insen- 
sibility to pain. This property was discovered by 
Oscar Liebreich, and reported to the French Aca- 
demy of Sciences, 16 Aug. 1869. In Oct. 1874 it 
was said to be sometimes deleterious. 

CHLOEALUM, or chloride of alumina, a com- 
pound of chlorine and alumina, a new antiseptic 
disinfectant, invented by Dr. Gamgee about 1870. 
It is said to be safe and efficacious, and useful in 
.medicine for gargles, washing wounds, &c. 



CHLOEINE (Greek chloros, pale green), a gas 
first obtained by Scheelc in 1774, by treating man- 
ganese with muriatic (hydrochloric) acid. Sir H. 
Davy, in 1810, stated this gas to be an element, and 
named it chlorine. Combined with sodium it forms- 
common salt (chloride of sodium), and combined* 
with lime it forms the bleaching powder and disin- 
fectant, chloride of lime ; see Pleaching. In 1823, 
Faraday condensed chlorine into a liquid. 
The supposed dissociation of oxygen from chlorine by 

heat by V. and H. Meyer of Zari'eh, -was announced! 

Aug. 1879. Afterwards chlorine was proved to exist 

in two similar states at high temperatures. 

CHLOEOFOEM (the ter-chloride of the hypo- 
thetical radical formyl) is a compound of carbon, 
hydrogen, and chlorine, and was made from alcohol,. 
Avater, and bleaching powder. It was discovered by 
Soubeiran in 1831, and independently by Liebig; 
in 1832 ; and its composition was determined by 
Dumas in 1834. The term " chloric ether" was- 
applied in 1820 to a mixture of ehlorine and; 
olefiant gas. Chloroform was first applied as an, 
anaesthetic experimentally by Mr. Jacob Bell in 
London, in Feb., and Dr. Simpson of Edinburgh in. 
Nov. 1847; an d was administered in England on 14. 
Dec. 1848, by Mr. James Robinson, surgeon-dentist.. 
A committee of the Boyal Medical and ChirurgicaL 
Society in July, 1864, after examining statistics,. 
reported that the use of anaesthetics had hi no degree- 
increased the rate of mortality. 
By the invitation of the Nizam through the Lancet,, 
Dr. Lauder Brnnton arrived at Hyderabad, 21. 
Oct., 1889 ; and there with other medical men 
investigated experimentally on the peculiar- 
action -of chloroform. They came to the con- 
clusion that the danger of its use, was not 
specially due 10 its effect upon the heart, hut 
upon respiration, which could be easily obviated 
by proper caution. The Nizam remitted 1,000?. 
for the expenses of the commission. Lancet 

Jan. March, 189c* 
Full report issued (estimated cost io,oooZ.) Dec. 189E 

CHLOEOZONE, a new disinfectant, intro- 
duced 1873. 

CHOBHAM COMMON, in Surrey. A mili- 
tary camp was formed here on 14 June, 1853,' by 
a force between 8000 and 10,000 strong. Only one 
serious case of misconduct was reported during all 
the time. 

CHOCOLATE, made of the cocoa berry, intro- 
duced into Europe (from Mexico and the Brazils) 
about 1520, was sold in the London coffee-houses 
soon after their establishment, 1650. 

CHOCZIM, Bessarabia, S. Bussia. Here th& 
Turks were totally defeated by John Sobieski, king 
of Poland, 11 Nov. 1673; and by the Bussians, 30 
April and 13 July, 1769. 

CHOIE. This was separated from the nave of 
the church in the time of Constantine. The choral 
service was first used in England at Canterbury,, 
677 ; see Chanting. 

CHOLEEA MOEBUS (Asiatic cholera) was 
described by Garcia del Huerto, a physician of Goa, 
about 1560. It appeared in India in 1774, an< ^ a ^ 
other times, and became endemic in Lower Bengal 
in 181 7, whence it gradually spread, till it reached 
Bussia hi 1830, and Germany in 1831, carrying off" 
more than 900,000 persons in 1829-30. In England 
and Wales in 1848-9, 53,293 persons died of cholera, 
and in 1854, 20,097; see Germ Theory of Disease.* 
Cholera appears at Sunderland . . 26 Oct. 1831 

* Dr. Ferran inoculates by microbes many persons; 
reported successful ; stopped June ; permitted 23 June ; 
a commission reports it unsatisfactory, Oct. 1885. 



CHOLEEA MOEBUS. 



211 



CHEIST'S HOSPITAL. 



And at Edinburgh . . . . 6 Feb. 

First observed at Rotherhithe and Limehouse, 
London, 13 Feb. ; and in Dublin . 3 March, 

Deaths reported in England in 1S31-2, 52,547 

Mortality very great, but more so on the Continent ; 
18,000 deaths at Paris, between March and Aug. 

Cholera rages in Rome, the Two Sicilies, Genoa, 
Berlin, &c, in .... July and Aug. 

24,014 deaths in Palermo in 17 weeks 

Another visitation of cholera in England : the num- 
ber of deaths in London, for the week ending 15 
Sept. i849,was3,i83 ; the ordinary average, 1,008 ; 
and the number of deaths by cholera from 17 
June to 2 Oct. in London aloneT 13,161. The 
mortality lessened and the distemper disappeared 
about 13 Oct. 

Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Hexham, Tynemouth, and 
other northern towns, suffer much from cholera, 

Sept. 

It rages in Italy and Sicily ; above 10,000 are said 
to have died at Naples ; it was also very fatal to 
the allied troopjs at Varna . autumn, 

Cholera very severe for a short time in the southern 
parts of London, and in Soho and St. James's, 
Westminster .... Aug. and Sept. 

Raging in Alexandria, June ; abated . July, 

Prevailing in Ancona (843 deaths) Aug., subsiding, 

Sept. 

Very severe in Constantinople, nearly 50,000 deaths, 
Aug. ; subsides after the great fire . 6 Sept. 

Cases at Marseilles, Toulon, and Southampton, 

end of Sept. 

Cholera prevalent at Marseilles, Paris, Madrid, and 
Naples July-Oct. 

An international meeting at Constantinople, to con- 
sider preventive measures, proposed, Oct. 1865, 
met 18 Feb. 1866. At the last sitting the conclu- 
sions adopted were that cholera may be propa- 
gated, and from great distances ; and a num- 
ber of preventive measures were recommended, 

26 Sept. 

Cholera appears at Bristol, 24 April ; at Liverpool, 
13 May ; at Southampton . . . July, 

Cholera severe in east of London : 346 deaths in 
week ending 21 July, 

House to house visitation ; Metropolitan Relief 
Association formed ; large subscriptions received 
(Queen's 500?. ) . . July and Aug. 

Cholera subsides .... . Sept. 

Very severe at Naples .... Sept. 

Cholera Relief Committee closes . . 31 Oct. 

Cholera declared to be extinct in London 1 Dec. 

Cholera in Rome, Naples, and Sicily, Aug. -Sept. ; 
in Switzerland Oct. 

Alarm of approaching cholera, July ; said to be 
severe in Konigsberg in Prussia . . Aug. 

Cholera severe in Vienna, Aug. ; Paris . . Sept. 

Egypt, at Damietta, June ; at Cairo about 16 July ; 
Alexandria about 1 Aug. ; the disease abating, 
Aug. ; deaths up to 31 Aug. — 27,318, including 
140 among British troops ; cholera lingering at 
Alexandria, Sept. et seq. ; no cases . 31 Dec. 

France, June ; registered deaths : Toulon, 880, 
18 June — 26 Oct. ; Marseilles, 1700, 27 June — 26 
Oct. ; estimated total deaths in Paris, nearly 900, 
Sept. — Nov. ; the disease appeared at Aries, 
Nantes, Yport, and other places ; total deaths in 
France estimated 5000 up to . 15 Sept. 

Italy. Cholera severe at Turin, 7 Aug. ; spread- 
ing 19 Aug., increasing at Spezzia, <fec, 23, 
24 Aug., and at Naples and Turin 2 Sept. ; very 
many deaths at Genoa 24 Sept. — 8 Oct. ; very 
severe at Naples (visited by the king) 2 Sept. — 
2 Nov. 

Spain, 1884. Cholera appears in Alicante 1 Sept. 
et seq. ; much panic : at Toledo, Madrid, and other 
places Sept., Oct 

Spain (Grenada, Malaga, Valencia, Murcia, &c), 
91,000 deaths (99S in Madrid) . May to 11 Sept. 

Official returns for all Spain, 12,337 deaths, March 
to 7 July 

Total since outbreak 61,521 . . . 22 Aug. 

Gibraltar, 191 deaths in .... Sept. 

Palermo, Sicily, 2,540 deaths . 7 Sept. to 31 Oct. 

Marseilles, 1,250 deaths, 1 Aug. to 1 Sept. ; gradually 

diminished up to .... 16 Sept. 

Toulon, slight outbreak, 6 deaths 20 Aug. ; 32, 26 

Aug. ; gradually diminished till . . 18 Sept. 



1S37 



1849 
1853 
1854 

1865 



Italy, 1886, Brindisi province, 4 — 31 July : Venice, 
a few deaths, May-Aug. ; Ravenna, about 178 
deaths, Aug., Hume, about 55 deaths, July ; 
Bologna, about 95 deaths, Aug. ; liarletta, total 

about 611 deaths Aug. 1886 

Japan. 37,000 deaths . . . Jan. -Sept. ,, 
Hungary, principally Pesth and Szegedin. 966 

eases; 409 deaths .... Oct.-Dec. ,, 
Trieste. 882 cases, 544 deaths . . 7 June-Oct. ,, 
Istria. 671 cases, 374 deaths . . 13 July-Oct. ,, 
Naples, Brindisi, £c. Temporary outbreak . Sept. „ 
Great epidemic of cholera in India 1887 ; N.W. 

Provinces, 30,780 deaths in Aug. 1887 

Sicily, provinces, July-Oct. 1887 ; deaths daily 

varied from 1 to 27. 
Messina. Deaths daily rose from 1 to 63 ; Sept. — Oct. ,, 
Palermo, Sept. Deaths daily varied from 2 to 11 ; 

Sept , 

Malta. Deaths daily varied from 4 to 10, Aug.-Sept. ,, 
Cholera in Mesopotamia, 5,983 cases in autumn, 
1889 ; 3,000 fatal cases in Bussorah, reported 21 
Jan. ; it passed off in the spring, but returned iu 

July, Aug. 1890 
Cholera severe at Mecca, &c. (about 30,000 deaths), 

Arabia, July- Aug. ; at Jeddah and in Syria, Aug. ,, 
Cholera appears at Riebla de Rugal, a village in 
Valentia, Spain, 13 May ; continues in the pro- 
vince and neighbourhood ; 2,840 deaths reported 

up to Sept. ,, 

Cholera severe at Guatemala, S.A., 1,200 deaths in 

seven weeks . . . reported 14 Dec. ,, 

The progress of cholera greatly checked by the 
exertions of the International Quarantine board 

at Tor in Egypt autumn, 1891 

Cholera severe at Damascus, Aleppo, &c.,in Syria ; 
at Mecca (about 11,000 deaths), Oct. et seq., 1891 ; 
at Benares, 130 deaths up to . . 23 April, 1892 

CHOEAL HAEMONISTS' SOCIETY, 

Loudon, existed 1833-51. 

CHOEUS, a band of singers which formed an 
important part of the Greek dramas, beginning in 
the 6th century B.C., and has been continued in 
modern oratorios and operas. 

CHOT7ANS, a name given to the Bretons 
during the war of La Vendee in 1792, from their 
chief Jean Cottereau, using the cry of the Chat- 
huant, or screech-owl, as a signal. He was killed 
in 1794. Georges Cadoudal, their last chief, was 
said to be connected with Pichegru in a conspiracy 
against Napoleon when first consul, and was executed 
in 1804. 

CHEISM, consecrated oil, was used early iu the 
ceremonies of the Greek and Soman churches. 
Musk, saffron, cinnamon, roses, and frankincense, 
are mentioned as used with the oil, in 1541. It was 
ordained that chrism should consist of oil and 
balsam only ; the one representing the human 
nature of Christ, and the other his divine nature, 
1596. 

CHEIST, see Jesus Christ. 

CHEIST CHTJECH, see Lincoln Tower and 
New Zealand. 

CHEIST'S HOSPITAL (the Blue-Coat 
school) was established in conformity with a grant 
made by Henry VIII. in 1547, by Edward VI. 1553, 
on the site of the Grey Friars' monastery. A mathe- 
matical ward was founded by Charles II. 1672. The 
Times ward was founded in 1841 . Large portions of 
the edifice having fallen intodecay, it was rebuilt : in 
1822 a new infirmary was completed, and in 1825 
(25 April) the duke of York laid the first stone of 
the magnificent new hall. On 24 Sept. 1854, the 
mastei-, Dr. Jacob, in a sermon in the church of the 
hospital, censured the system of education and the 
general administration of the establishment, and 
man y improvements have since been made. Rev. G. 
C. Bell, successor of Dr. Jacob, 12 Aug. 186S-1876. 
The subordinate school at Hertford, for 416 younger 

P 2 ' 



CHEISTIAN BEOTHEES. 



212 



CHEISTMAS ISLAND. 



boys and 80 girls, was founded in 1683. — The annual 
income varies : (1885) about 62,000*!. 800 boys in Lon- 
don ; 200 boys and 20 girls at Hertford. The removal 
of the school to the country negatived by the 
governors, 26 April, 1870. The proposal that the 
buildings and ground should be purchased by the 
Mid- London Railway Company for 600,000/. was 
not carried out. The Charity Commissioners' 
scheme for the reformed administration of the hos- 
pital published in the Times, 9 March, 1885. 
The appeal of the governors against the charity 

commissioners' scheme, was submitted to the 

judicial committee of the privy council, iS Juue; 

the appeal was disallowed ... 14 Dec. 1889 
Royal assent to the new scheme given 15 Aug. 1890 

The new governing body, the duke of Cambridge 

president, first met, 1 Jan., 1891, when the 

scheme came into operation. 

CHEISTIAN BEOTHEES, an organised 
secret society which existed in London, 1525, for 
the distribution of English New Testaments and 
tracts. It mainly consisted of the middle and lower 
classes, and produced martyrs. 

CHEISTIAN COMMUNITY, founded 
about 1685, re-organized by John "Wesle}' and 
others in 1772, for visiting and preaching the gospel 
in workhouses, asylums, rooms, &c, and in the open 
air ; and for distribution of tracts. 

CHEISTIAN Era, see Anno Domini. Most 
Christian King ; Christianissimus Hex, a title 
conferred by pope Paul II. in 1469 on the crafty 
Louis XL of France. 

CHEISTIAN EVIDENCE SOCIETY 

established by eail Russell, the bishop of London, 
and others to counteract " the current forms of un- 
belief among the educated classes," 1870. Lectures 
for this purpose were given in St. George's Hall in 
187 1, beginning with the archbishop of York, 25 
April. A public meeting was held 6 June following. 
Six volumes of lectures and tracts for circulation 
have been published. Annual meetings are held. 

CHEISTIAN KNOWLEDGE, Society 
for Promoting, founded 1698, to promote 

charity schools, and to disperse Bibles and religious 
tracts. 1877 : income, for charitable purposes (in- 
cluding legacies of 16,000/.), 52,581/.; 1892: 
41,000! Bibles, &c, given away; churches and 
schools helped ; bishoprics maintained, etc. 
Offices removed fiom Lincoln's Inn-Fields to Northum- 
berland Avenue, opened 3 Nov. 1879. 

CHEISTIAN MISSION, see Salvation 
Army. 

CHEISTIAN SCIENTISTS, see Mind- 
cure. 

CHEISTIAN UNITY, Association for 

THE PROMOTION OF, on the basis of the three 
creeds, formed by thirty members of the Greek, 
Roman, and English Churches, 8 Sept. 1857 ; 20th 
anniversary kept in London, 8 Sept. 1877. A meet- 
ing to promote the reunion of Christendom was held 
in London, 19 July, 1878, the bishop of Fredericton 
in the chair. 

CHEISTIANIA, the capital of Norway, built 
in 1624, by Christian IV. of Denmark, to "replace 
Opslo (the ancient capital founded by Harold Haard- 
rade, 1058), which had been destroyed by fire. On 
13 April, 1858, Christiania suffered by fire, the loss 
being about 250,000/. The university was established 
in 181 1. New Storthing (parliament house) built 
1861-2. Statue of Charles John XIV. unveiled, 7 
Sept. 1875. Population, 1891, 150,444. 
Visit of the German emperor . 1 July et seq. 1890 



CHEISTIANITY. The name Christian was 
first given to the disciples of Christ at Antioch, in 
Syria, 43 (Acts xi. 26 ; 1 Peter iv. 6) . The first 
Christians were divided into episcopoi (bishops or 
overseers) or presbyteroi (elders), diaconoi (ministers 
or deacons), and pistoi (believers) ; afterwards were 
added catechumens, or learners, and energumens, who 
were to be exorcised ; see Persecutions. 

Christianity preached in Jerusalem, a.d. 33 ; Sa- 
maria, 34 ; Damascus, 35 ; Asia Minor, 41 ; Cyprus, 
45 ; Macedonia, 53 ; Athens, Corinth, &c, 54 ; 
Ephesus, 56 ; Troas, &c, 60 ; Rome ... 63 
Christianity said to be taught in Britain, about 

64: and propagated with some success (Bede) . . 156 
Christianity said to be introduced into Scotland in 

the reign of Donald I. about 212 

Constantine the Great professes the Christian 

religion . . . . 312 

Frumentius preaches in Abyssinia . . about 346 
Introduced among the Goths by Ulfilas . . . 376 
Into Ireland in the second century, but with more 

success after the arrival of St. Patrick . . . 432 
Christianity established in France by Clovis . . 496 
Conversion of the Saxons* by Augustin . . . 597 
Introduced into Helvetia, by Irish missionaries . 643 
Into Flanders in the 7th century. 
Into Saxony, by Charlemagne ..... 785 

Into Denmark, under Harold 827 

Into Bohemia, under Borsivoi 894 

Into Russia, by Swiatoslaf .... about 940 

Into Poland, under Meicislaiis 1 992 

Into Hungary, under Geisa 994 

Into Norway and Iceland, under Olaf I. . . . 998 
Into Sweden, between 10th and nth centuries. 
Into Prussia, by the Teutonic knights, when they 

were returning from the holy wars . . . 1227 
Into Lithuania ; paganism was abolished about . . 1386 
Into Guinea, Angola, and Congo, in the 15th 

century. 
Into China, where it made some progress (but was 
afterwards extirpated, and thousands of Chinese 
Christians were put to death) .... 1575 
Into India and America, in the 16th century. 
Into Japan, by Xavier and the Jesuits, 1549; but 

the Christians were exterminated . . . . 1638 
Christianity re-established in Greece . . . 1628 

CHEISTINOS, supporters of the queen-regent 
Christina against the Carlists in Spain during the 
war, 1833-40. 

CHEISTMAS, a festival in commemoration of 
the nativity of Christ, the exact time of which is 
quite unknown. Its observation appears to have 
begun in the second century in different months, 
January, April or May; for two or three centuries 
the Eastern church kept the feast Jan. 6 (see Epi- 
phany), whilst the Latin church observed it 25 Dec. 
The Armenians celebrate both feasts on 18 Jan. 
The holly and mistletoe used at Christmas are said 
to be the remains of the religious observances of the 
Druids ; see Anno Domini. 

Christmas Cards. — About 1862 pictures of robins, holly, 
&c, on cards, designed by Mr. John Leighton, were 
issued by Messrs. Goodall of London, playing-card 
makers. Artistic designs were introduced in 1865. 
Great improvements were made in Germany, France, 
and in London by Messrs. de la Rue, Marcus Ward, and 
others, 1879-88. 

CHEISTMAS ISLAND, in the Pacific Ocean, 
so named by captain Cook, who landed here 011 
Christmas-day, 1777. He had passed Christmas- 
day at Christmas-sound, 1774. On the shore of 
Christmas Harbour, visited by him in 1776, a man 
found a piece of parchment inscribed: " Ludovico 
X V. Galliarum rege, et d. Boynes regi a secretis ad 
res maritimas, annis 1772 et 1773." On the other 
side captain Cook wrote : " Naves Resolution et 
Discovery de rege Magna Britannia, Dec. 1777," 
and placed it in a bottle. 
Annexed to the Straits Settlements . . Jan. 1880 



CHRISTOPHER'S, ST. 



213 



CHURCH OF ENGLAND. 



CHRISTOPHER'S, St. (or St. Kitt's), a West 
India Island, discovered in 1493, by Columbus, who 
gave it his own name. Settled by the English and 
French, 1623 or 1626. Ceded to England by the 
peace of Utrecht, 1713. Taken by the French 
in 1782, but restored the next year. The town of 
Basseterre suffered from fires, 3 Sept. 1776; also 
3 and 4 July, 1867, when the cathedral and nearly 
all the town were destroyed. About 200 lives lost 
by inundations, 11, 12 Jan. 1880 ; hurricane, violent 
rains, &c. Population in 1891, 47,662. 

CHROMIUM (Greek, chroma, colour), a rare 
metal, discovered by Vauquelin in 1797. It is found 
combined with iron and lead, and forms the colour- 
ing matter of the emerald. 

. CHROMO-LITHOGRAPHY, see Printing 
in Colours. 

CHRONICLES. The earliest are those of the 
Jews, Chinese, and Hindoos. In Scripture there 
are two "Books of Chronicles" ; see Bible. Col- 
lections of the British chronicles have been pub- 
lished by Camden, Gale, &c, since 1602 ; in the 
present century by the English Historical Society, 
&c. In 1858, the publication of "Chronicles and 
Memorials of Great Britain and Ireland during the 
Middle Ages," commenced under the direction of 
the Master of the Rolls (still going on, 1S89). 
In 184? Macray's " Manual of British Historians" 
was published. 

CHRONOGRAM, an inscription on tombs, 
buildings, medals, &c. in which a date or epoch is 
expressed by letters. A large collection of " Chro- 
nograms," with translations and explanations, was 
published by Mr. James Hilton in 1882-5. 

CHRONOLOGY, the science of time ; see Eras 
and Epochs. Valuable works on the subject are V Art 
de Verifier les Dates, compiled by the Benedictines 
(1783-1820). Playfair's Chronology, 1784; Blair's 
Chronology, 1753 (new editions by sir H. Ellis in 1844, 
and by Mr. Rosse, in 1856). The Oxford Chrono- 
logical Tables, 1838. Sir Harris Nicolas' Chronology 
of History, 1833 ; new edition, 1852. Hales' Chron- 
ology, 2nd edition, 1830 ; Woodward and Cates' Ency- 
clopaedia of Chronology, 1872; Mr. H. Fynes-Clin- 
ton's Fasti Hellenici and Fasti Romani (1824-50). 

CHRONOMETER, see Clocks, and Harrison. 

CHRONOSCOPE, an apparatus invented by 
professor Wheatstone in 1840, to measure small 
intervals of time. It has been applied to the velocity 
of projectiles and of the electric current. A chrono- 
scope was invented by Pouillet, in 1844, and by 
others since. Capt. Andrew Noble (engaged by sir 
William Armstrong) invented an apparatus for 
determining the velocity of a projectile in a gun ; 
a second of time is divided into millionths, and the 
electric spark is employed in recording the rate of the 
passage. The apparatus was exhibited at Newcastle- 
on-Tyne in Aug. 1869, and in London in April, 1870. 

CHRYSANTHEMUMS were introduced 
into England from China, about 1790; and many 
varieties since. Centenary celebrated in London, 
II Nov. 1890. 

CHRYSOPOLIS, or Scutari {which see). 

CHUNAR, or Chtjnarghuk, N.W. India, 
taken by the British, 1763, and ceded to them, 1768. 
Here was concluded a treaty between the nabob of 
Oude and governor Hastings, by which the nabob 
was relieved of his debts to the East India Company, 
on condition of bis seizing the properly of the be- 
gums, his mother and grandmother, and delivering 
it up to the English, 19 Sept. 1781. This treaty 
enabled the nabob to take the lands of Fyzoola Khan, 



a Rohilla chief, who had settled at Ilampoor, under 
guarantee of the English. The nabob presented to 
Mr. Hastings 100,000^. ; see Hastings. 

CHURCH (probably derived from the Greek 
kyriakos, pertaining to the Lord, Kyrios), signifies 
both a collected body of Christians, and the place 
where they meet. In the New Testament, it sig- 
nifies " congregation," in the original ekklesia. 
Christian architecture commenced with Constantine, 
who erected at Pome churches called basilicas (from 
the Greek basileus, a king) ; St. Peter's about 330. 
His successors erected others, and adopted the 
heathen temples as places of worship. Several very 
ancient churches exist in Britain and Ireland. See 
Architecture ; Choir and Chanting ; Rome, Modern ; 
Popes. 

CHURCH AND STAGE GUILD, was 

formed in 1880 to promote morality and temperance 
by the agency of theatrical performances. 

CHURCH ARMY, constituted in 1882. 
Founder, Bev. W Carlyle. It is a working-man's 
mission to working-men, and includes evangelists' 
and nurses training homes, and labour homes for 
tramps and inebriates. Above 13,000^. expended 
in 1891. Head-quarters, Edgware Road, Lon- 
don, W. 

CHURCH ASSOCIATION, founded to 
maintain Reformation principles, 1865. Frequent 
meetings are held in London and the provinces. 

CHURCH BUILDING. The society for 
promoting the enlargement, building, and repairing 
of churches and chapels, was established 1818, and 
incorporated 1828. A commission for building 
churches in populous places, appointed in 1820, was 
incorporated with the ecclesiastical commission 
about 1856. 

. CHURCH CONGRESSES, meet annually, 
since 1861. See under Church of England. 

CHURCH DEFENCE INSTITUTION; 

founded in 1859 — the archbishop of Canterbury pre- 
sident. It does not meddle with doctrines. 
The Oxford Laymen's League for defence of the 
national church founded Aug. 18S6. Lord Sel- 
borne's "Defence of the Church of England 
against Disestablishment " published . 1 Dec. 1886 

CHURCH DISCIPLINE ACT (3 & 4 

Vict. c. 86), passed 7 Aug. 1840, enables bishops to 
issue commissions of inquiry, and on conviction to 
inhibit clergymen from performing service, &c. 
A new bill brought in by the archbishop of Can- 
terbury, read second time . . 15 March, 1888 

CHURCH of England.* The earliest 

history is legendary. See Bishops. The following 
are leading facts in her history : for details, refer 
to separate articles ; see Clergy and Free Church. 
In Sept. 1880 the archbishop of Canterbury said 
that he was in communion with 162 bishops. 
Christianity probably introduced into Britain by 

Gaulish missionaries, and bishroprics founded 

in the 3rd and 4th centuries. 



* The church consists of three orders of clergy — bishops, 
priests and deacons ; 1892; two archbishops, thirty-two 
bishops, with thirteen suffragans, and about eighty-one 
colonial and missionary bishops. The other dignitaries 
are chancellors, deans (of cathedrals and collegiate 
churches), archdeacons, prebendaries, canons, minor 
canons, and priest-vicars. In tSSG. tin' number <»i eei ], 
sia.stical parishes or districts with churches or chapels 
was about 1400. Total revenue of the church, ancieul 
endowments, 5,469,171/. ; through private bountj (sine* 
1703), 284,336/. Estimated total revenue 01 the church 
7,250,000/., 1891. Benefices about 14,250'., reported 1891 



CHUECH OF ENGLAND. 



214 



CHUECH OF ENGLAND. 



1 539 
1549 



I5S2 



Eestitutus, bishop of London, and Adelfius of 
Caerleon, said to have been present at the 
council of Aries 314 

Rise and spread of the Pelagian heresy, 400 et seq. 

The persecutions of the Saxon invaders, drive 
the Christians into Wales and Cornwall 

5th and 6th centuries 

The Saxons converted by Augustin and his com- 
panions 597 et seq. 

Duustan establishes the supremacy of the monastic 
orders, about 960 

The aggrandising policy of the Church, fostered by 
Edward the Confessor, checked by William I. and 
his successors 1066 et seq. 

Contest between Henry II. and Becket respecting 
" Constitutions of Clarendon " . . . 1164-1170 

Contest between national or English party and 
Roman party (chiefly Norman) nth and. 12th centuries 

John surrenders his crown to the papal legate . 1213 

Rise of the Lollards — Wickliffe publishes tracts 
against the errors of the church of Rome, 1356 ; 
and a version of the Bible, about . . . . 1383 

The clergy regulated by parliament, 1529 ; they lose 
the first fruits 1534 

The royal supremacy imposed on the clergy by 
Henry VIII., 1531 ; many suffer death for refusing 
to acknowledge it 1535 

Coverdale's translation of the Bible commanded to 
be read in churches , 

"" Six Articles of Religion " promulgated . . . 

First Book of Common Prayer issued 

The clergy permitted to marry 

" Forty-two Articles of Religion " issued 

Restoration of the Roman forms, and fierce perse- 
cution of the Protestants by Mary . . . 1553-8 

The Protestant forms restored by Elizabeth ; the 
Puritan dissensions begin .... 1558-1603 

" Thirty-nine " Articles published . . . . 1563 

Hampton Court conference with the Puritans . . 1604 

New translation of the Bible published . . . 161 1 

Book of Common Prayer suppressed and Directory 
established by parliament 1644 

Presbyterians established by the Commonwealth . 164Q 

Act of Uniformity (14 Chas. II. c. 4) passed — 2000 
nonconforming ministers resign their livings 

Attempts of James II. to revive Romanism; "De- 
claration of Indulgence " published . . . . 

Acquittal of the seven bishops on a charge of 
" seditious libel " 

Comprehension bill for dissenters introduced 

The Non-juring bishops and others deprived ; (they 
formed a separate communion) . . 1 Feb. 

"Queen Anne's Bounty," for the augmentation of 
poor livings 

Act for building 50 new churches passed . . 

Fierce disputes between the low church and the 
high church ; trial of Henry Sacheverell, for 
seditious sermons ; riots 

The Bangorian controversy begins . . . . 

John Wesley and George Whitefield commence 
preaching ........ 

Rise of the Evangelical party in the church, under 
Newton, Romaine, and others, latter part of 

1 8th century 

Church of England united with that of Ireland at 
the Union 1800 

Clergy Incapacitation Act passed .... 1801 

Incorporated Church Building Society established, 

6 Feb. 1818 

Church Inquiry Commission, appointed 23 June, 1832 

Ecclesiastical Commissioners incorporated by act, 

13 Aug. 1836 

Acts for building and enlarging cnurches, 1828, 1838 

200 new churches erected in the diocese of London 
under bishop C. J. Blomlield . . . 1828-56 

" Tracts for the Times " (No. 1-90) published (much 
controversy ensued) 1833-41 



1662 



1704 
1710 



1717 
1738 



Church Pastoral Aid Society, founded 

Additional curates' society, founded . . . . 

New Church Discipline Act (3 & 4 Vict. c. 86) . . 

For the Gorham and Denison cases, see Trials, 1849, 

Anglo-Continental Society (which see), founded 

English Church Union, established .... 

"Essays and Reviews " published, i860; numerous 

Replies issued (see Essays and Reviews) . il 

[The Church of England is now said to be divided 

into High, Moderate, Low (or Evangelical), and 

Broad Church : the last including persons who 



hold the opinions of the late Dr. Arnold, the Rev. 
F. D. Maurice, dean Stanley, canon Kingsley, and 
others.] 

Church Congresses began at Cambridge, 1861 ; and 
at Oxford July, 1862 

Dr. Colenso, bishop of Natal, publishes his work 
on " The Pentateuch," about Oct. 1862 ; the 
bishops, in convocation, declare that it contains 
' ' errors of the gravest and most dangerous cha- 
racter " 20 May, 1863 

A Church Congress at Manchester 13, 14, 15 Oct. ,, 

Bishop Colenso deposed by his metropolitan, Dr. 
Gray, bishop of Capetown. . . 16 April, 1864 

" Oxford Declaration " (authorship ascribed to arch- 
deacon Denison and Dr. Pusey), respecting belief 
in eternal punishment, drawn up and signed on 
25 Feb. , and sent by post to the clergy at large 
for signature : about 3000 are said to have signed ; 
it was presented to the archbishop of Canterbury 

12 May, ,, 

Bishop of London's Fund, for remedying spiritual 
destitution in London, established 1863 ; the queen 
engages to give (in three years) 3000L, and prince 
of Wales ioooZ 7 March, ,, 

100,4562. received ; 72,0032. promised . 31 Dec. ,, 

The queen engages to give 15,0002. in 10 years, 

April, 1865 

Church Congress at Bristol .... Oct. 1864 

Church of England Education Society, founded . „ 

Church Association (against popery and ritualism) 
established. . 1865 

District Churches Tithes act passed (rectories con- 
stituted) . „ 

Bishop Colenso's appeal came before the privy 
council, which declared bishop Gray's proceed- 
ings null and void (since a colonial bishop can 
have no authority except what is granted by par- 
liament or by the colonial legislature), 21 March, „ 

London Free and open Church Association, founded ,, 

New form of clerical subscription proposed by a 
commission in 1S64 ; adopted by parliament, July, „ 

Church Congress at Norwich . . .3-7 Oct. ,, 

Meeting in London of three English bishops, Dr. 
Pusey, and nearly 80 of the clergy and laity with 
counts Orloff and Tolstse, and the Russian chap- 
lain, to consider on the practicability of uniting 
the English and Russian churches . 15 Nov. ,, 

Bishop Colenso publicly excommunicated at Maritz- 
burg cathedral, by bishop Gray . . 5 Jan. 1866 

Bishop Gray declares himself independent, estab- 
lishes synods, and calls his see " The Church of 
South Africa " early in ,, 

The Church Missionary Society refuses to support 
colonial bishops, unless they keep within the for- 
mularies of the Church of England . early in ,, 

Church Congress at York . . . .6 Oct. ,, 

Much excitement caused by the progress of ritual- 
ism {which see) .... Sept. -Nov. ,, 

Bishop Colenso v. Gladstone and others (trustees of 
the Colonial Bishopric Fund) for withholding his 
salary. Verdict of master of the rolls, for plaintiff, 
with costs 6 Nov. 

Unqualified condemnation of ritualism by the 
bishops in convocation, 13 Feb. ; the lower house 
concurred 15 Feb. 1867 

The bishop of Salisbury (Dr. Hamilton) in a church 
asserts the doctrine of the supernatural gifts of 
priests, the Divine presence in the sacrament ; 
public protest against it . .16 May, ,, 

Trial in Court of Arches, Martin v. Mackonochie, 
respecting extreme ritualistic practices at St. 
Alban's, Holboru ; case deferred . 21 May, ,, 

Royal Ritualistic Commission appointed to inquire 
respecting rubrics in the Prayer-Book, table of 
lessons, <fcc. , 3 June ; first report, censuring in- 
novation, signed 19 Aug. „ 

Pan-Anglican Synod {which see) meets at Lambeth, 

24-27 Sept. ,, 

Church Congress at Wolverhampton . . 1 Oct. ,, 

Meeting of ritualists in St. James's Hall, claiming 
liberty 19 Nov. ,, 

Case of Martin v. Machonochie, begun 4 Dec, 
lasted 14 days ; resumed . . 16-1S Jan. 1868 

Proposal of bishop Gray of Capetown to consecrate 
Mr. Macrorie bishop of Natal in opposition to 
bishop Colenso, disapproved of by the English, 
and Scotch bishops Jan. ,, 

Bishop of London's Fund, received, 312,3094. 31 Jan. „ 



CHURCH OF ENGLAND. 



215 



CHTJBCH OF ENGLAND. 



Martin v. Mackonooliie decided ; verdict for plain- 
tiff ; use of incense, mixing water with the wine, 
and elevation of the elements, in the sacrament, 
forbidden 28 March, 

■Great meeting at St. James's hall, in defence of the 
Irish Church establishment ; 23 bishops present, 

6 May, 

District Churches Act, constituting vicarages 
(Bishop of Oxford's Act), passed .... 

■Church Congress at Dublin ... 29 Sept. 

Sharp party contests at a special meeting of the 
Christian Knowledge Society . . 8 Dec. 

Martin v. Mackonochie : appeal case ; verdict for 
plaintiff, declaring certain ritualistic practices 
illegal 23 Dec. 

Warm meeting of ritualists at St. James's hall, 

12 Jan. 

iFirst meeting of a Church Reform Society (since 
named " Liturgical Revision Society ") ; Lord 
Ebury, chairman .... 13 May, 

•Church conference at Sheffield . . 24 May, 

Church Congress at Liverpool . . .5 Oct. 

Martin v. Mackonochie : defendant censured by 
privy council for evading sentence . 4 Dec. 

SSishop of London's Fund: — 411,839?. received, 



July, 
Aug. 
t Oct. 



"" Clerical Disabilities Act " passed 

Church Congress at Southampton 

Christian Knowledge Society votes 10,000?. to sup- 
port Church schools . . . .20 Oct. 

Sev. Mr. Mackonochie suspended from duty for 
three months by decree of privy council for 
evading former sentence ... 25 Nov. 

Stev. C. Voysey sentenced to be deprived for heresy ; 
appeal to judicial committee of privy council 
disallowed (see Voysey) . . . .10 Feb. 

-Hebbert v. Purchas, of Brighton ; verdict against 
defendant for offences against ecclesiastical law ; 
considered a great defeat of the ritualists, and 
caused much excitement ... 23 Feb. 

.Mr. MiaU's resolution for disestablishing the church 
of England defeated in the commons — 374-89, 

9 May, 

Jncumbents' Resignation Act passed . 13 July, 

Agitation for revival of diocesan synods, Sept. -Oct. 

■Church Congress at Nottingham ; closed 10 Oct. 

■Sheppard v. Bennett (for teaching the divine pre- 
sence in the sacrament) ; appeal to privy council, 
28 Nov. ; judgment adjourned . . 2 Dec. 

Bishop of London's Fund — received 441,199?. 31 Dec. 

The convocation authorised to consider alterations 
in the Prayer Book Feb. 

•Church reform meeting at St. James's hall ; paro- 
chial councils recommended . . 15 Feb. 

JRev. John Purchas, of Brighton, to be suspended 
from duties for one year, from . . 18 Feb. 
[He died 18 Oct.] 

Conference of bishops, deans, and canons at Lam- 
beth, to consider cathedral reform . 1 March, 

.Sheppard v. Bennett ; judgment for defendant, who 
is censured 8 June, 

Mr. MiaU's motion for royal commission to in- 
quire into the property of "the church lost (295-94) 

2 July, 

■■Church Congress at Leeds . . . 8-1 1 Oct. 

Memorial (signed by 60,200 persons) against Ro- 
manist te'aching, Arc. in the church, presented at 
Lambeth to the archbishop by the church asso- 
ciation 5 Ma y. 

The archbishops in reply admit the danger, and 
recognize their duty, as well as the difficulties of 
action, saying, "We live in an age when all 
opinions and beliefs are keenly criticised, ami 
when there is less inclination than ever was 
before to respect authority in matters of opinion. 
In every state, in every religious community, 
almost in every family, the effect of this unsettled 
condition may be traced." . . . 1 June, 

Mr. MiaU's motion for disestablishing the church, 
lost (356-61) 16 May, 

.483 clergymen petition convocation for the licens- 
ing of duly qualified sacramental confessors, May, 

•Church Congress, at Bath .... 9 Oct. 

Archdeacon Denison, Dr. Pusey, canons Liddon 
and Liddell, and others, publish a declaration in 
/'avour of confession and absolution in Times, 

6 Dec. 



1870 



1872 



1873 



Archdeacon Denison attacks the bishops in a Latin 
pamphlet, " Episcopatus Bilinguis" . Dec. 1873 

Public Worship Regulation Act (which see) brought 
in by the archbishops, 20 April ; royal assent, 

7 Aug. 1874 

Meeting of lay and clerical delegates at Lambeth 
palace on church affairs • . . 10 June, ,, 

Addresses to the archbishops largely signed for and 
against the sanction of a distinctive dress for the 
minister during the celebration of the holy com- 
munion . . . . - . . . Sept. ,, 

Church Congress at Brighton met . . 6 Oct. „ 

New society formed by bishops of Manchester, Car- 
lisle, and Edinburgh, and others, to x>romote union 
with orthodox dissenters Oct. ,, 

Bishop of London's Fund: — 500,187?. received or 
promised . Nov. ,, 

Martin v. Mackonochie : new suit in court of arches 
(see 1870), 26 Nov. ; Mackonochie to be suspended 
for 6 weeks and pay costs . . .7 Dec. „ 

Pastoral of the archbishops and bishops (bishops of 
Salisbury and Durham excepted) to the clergy 
and laity (counselling moderation and forbearance,) 

dated 1 March, 1875 

Mackonochie declines to appeal ; excitement at his 
church ; rev. A. Stanton and congregation cele- 
brate holy communion at St. Vedast's, Foster- 
lane 27 June, et seq. ,, 

Church Congress at Stoke-upon-Trent . 5-9 Oct. ,, 

Several clergymen secede to Rome . . Oct. ,, 

Public Worship Regulation Act : new court, under 
lord Penzance, meet at Lambeth-palace ; first case 
the Parish of Folkestone v. rev. Charles Joseph 
Ridsdale, 4 Jan. ; verdict for plaintiffs . 3 Feb. 1876 

Reported negotiation of ritualistic ministers with 
Rome disclaimed by Mr. Mackonochie and about 
100 others in Times 4 Feb. „ 

Church of England Working Men's Society estab- 
lished at St. Alban's, Holborn . . 5 Aug. ,, 

Church Congress at Plymouth . . .3-9 Oct. ,, 

"English Church Union" deny the authority of any 
secular court in matters spiritual, at a meeting, 

16 Jan. 1877 

Address to the archbishops and bishops (signed by 
Dr. Church, dean of St. Paul's, and other deans 
and canons) against the Public Worship Regula- 
tion act, &c, requiring legislation respecting 
ecclesiastical affairs to be made by church synods 
and adopted by parliament . . .3 April, ,, 

Both archbishops vote for permitting dissenters' 
funeral service in churchyards. . 17 May, ,, 

Bishop of London's Fund received 571,597?. .June, ,, 

Declaration of above 41,000 (clergy and laity) and 
proposed petition to the queen against judgment 
in the Ridsdale case .... July, „ 

96 peers (Duke of Westminster and others) address 
the archbishop of Canterbury against auricular 
confession, "Priest in Absolution," &c, about 

9 Aug. „ 

17th Church Congress at Croydon, the archbishop of 
Canterbury president ; very successful, 9-12 Oct. ,, 

Pan-Anglican Congress (which see) meet at Lam- 
beth, &c. 2-27 July. 187S 

Bishoprics Act authorising establishment of four 
new sees, passed . . 16 Aug. ,, 

i8tli Church Congress, at Sheffield, archbishop of 
York president 1-4 Oct. ,, 

New rubrics in Prayer-book agreed to by the con- 
vocation, 4 July ; act for them passed by convo- 
cation Aug. 1879 

19th Church Congress at Swansea . . 7 Oct. ,, 

Dr. Julius v. the bishop of Oxford (for not prose- 
cuting rev. Mr. Carter, of Clewer), queen's bench ; 
verdict against the bishop in 1079; reversed on 
appeal by house of lords ; (the bishop may but 
is not compelled to prosecute) . 22 March, 1880 

20th Church Congress, at Leicester; friendly ad- 
dress from nonconformists . 28 Sept. — 1 Oct. ,, 

Rev. John Baghot de la Bere.jun., vicar of Prest- 
bury, Gloucestershire, deprived for disobedience 
respecting ritualism, &c, by court of arches 

21 Dec. 1880, and 8 Jan. 1881 

Memorial to the archbishop of Canterbury, from 

five deans (Dr. Church, dean of St. raid's, and 

other clergymen) in favour of toleration of diver- 
gence in ritualistic practice . • 10 Jan. , 

Counter memorial from bishops Parry and Kyan, 



CHUKCH OF FRANCE. 



216 



CHURCH OF SCOTLAND. 



dean Close, and other deans and clergymen, 
opposing toleration of unscriptural practices 

31 Jan. 1881 

Mr. Mackonochie's appeal to the house of lords 
dismissed ; sentence of 3 years' suspension 
affirmed 7 April, ,, 

21st Church Congress at Newcastle-on-Tyne 4-10 Oct. ,, 

Catholic league formed .... June, 1882 

Death of Dr. E. B. Pusey ... 16 Sept. „ 

22nd Church Co tigress at Derby . . 3-6 Oct. ,, 

Rev. A. Mackonochie resigns living of St. Alban's, 
Hofborn, at the request of abp. of Canterbury 1 Dec. ,, 

23rd Church Congress at Reading . . 2 Oct. 1883 

"Official Year-book of the Church of England" 
first published ,, 

Church School Company formed, 1883 ; first annual 
meeting 21 Feb. 1884 

24th Church Congress at Carlisle . . . 30 Sept. ,, 

Church of England Purity Society, see White Cross 
Army . . . ,, 

25th Church Congress at Portsmouth . . 6 Oct. 1885 

Agitation for disestablishment and disendowment 
preparatory to elections ,, 

Address to 'the archbishops and bishops from 
important members of the university of Cam bridge 
advocating church reform ... 30 Nov. , , 

See Laymen, House of, which first met . 16 Feb. 1886 

Proposed disestablishment of the Church in Wales 
negatived in the Commons (241-229) . 9 March, ,, 

26th Church Congress at Wakefield (Church Reform 
discussed) 5 Oct. ,, 

Proposed erection of a Church House for general 
business, meetings, &c. ; committee appointed 
at Lambeth Palace 18 Oct. ,, 

Rev. H. R. Haweis of St. James's, Marylebone, 
prohibited from preaching in the City Temple on 
28 Oct. by his bishop . . . . 25 Oct. ,, 

Church Patronage Bill introduced by the arch- 
bishop of Canterbury 13 May, 1886, again ; (to 
check sales, and give rights to parishioners, &e.) 
passed by the lords . . . . ■ 1 April, 1887 

27th Church Congress at Wolverhampton began 3 Oct. ,, 

Church House Corporation, first annual meeting 

21 July, 1888 

28th Church Congress at Manchester ; disputed 
questions boldly discussed . . . 1 Oct. ,, 

Declaration and remonstrance of clergy and laity 
adopted at a large meeting . . . 13 Nov. ,, 

Bishop of London's Fund received 15,500?. in 1887 ; 
23,000?. in 1888. 

29th Church Congress at Cardiff ; position of Welsh 
church discussed 1 Oct. 1889 

"Churchmen in council," initiated in Zion college, 
May, 1889. Large meeting in Westminster town- 
hall to promote the relief of the church by ob- 
taining for it, from the state, the power of settling 
its differences in doctrine and ritual in a liberal 
spirit, by the agency of convocation . 6 Feb. 1890 

" Protestant churchmen's alliance," lord Grimthorpe 
president ; object, to promote the substitution 
of deprivation for imprisonment ; support of the 
bishops reported ; first general meeting 25 Feb. „ 

30th Church Congress at Hull . 30 Sept.~3 Oct. ,, 

31st Church Congress at Rhyl ; the bishop of St. 
Asaph president ; the abps. of Canterbury and 
York present 6 Oct. 1891 

A declaration of faith in the divine inspiration and 
truth of the Holy Scriptures, on the testimony of 
the universal church, independently of human 
criticism, signed by dean E. M. Goulburn and 37 
other eminent clergymen, published in the Times 

18 Dec. ,, 
See Canterbury ; Public Worship Regulation Act; Trials. 

CHURCH of France. St. Pothinus is said to 

have preached Christianity to the Gauls about 160; 
became bishop of Lyons, and suffered martyrdom 
with others, 177. P°r the reformed church see 
Huguenots and Protestants. 

A mission of seven bishops arrived in 245 ; followed 

by severe persecution 286-288 

Christianity tolerated by Constantius Chlorus . 292 
Council of Aries convoked by Constantine, about 

600 bishops present ; the Donatists condemned . 314 
Christianity established by Clovis . . . . 496 
Pragmatic sanction of St. Louis restraining the 



impositions of the pope ; and restoring the right 

of electing bishops, &c 1269. 

Pragmatic sanction of Bourges, declaring a general 
council superior to the pope, and prohibiting 
appeals to him I 438' 

Concordat of Leo X. and Francis I. annulling the 
pragmatic sanction .... 18 Aug. 1516 

Disputes between the Jesuits and Jansenists . 1640. 

Declaration of the clergy (drawn up by Bossuet) in 
accordauce with the pragmatic sanctions, con- 
firmed by the king .... 23 March, 1682 

The Jansenists excommunicated by the Bull Uai- 
genitus . 17/13 

Concordat with Pius VII. and Napoleon 1801 and 1813 

The principles of the concordat of Leo X. restored 
by Pius VII. and Louis XVIII 1&17 

The archbishop of Paris and other prelates resist 
dogma of papal infallibility at the council at Rome 1 £70 

The clergy at first supported Napoleon III. ; but op- 
posed his Italian policy, 1852-70 ; energetically 
support MacMahon's ministry, in elections, Sept., 

Oet. 1877; 

18 archbishops, 77 bishops ,, 

The abbe Bougaud asserts that there are 2658 
parishes without priests, and 3000 parishes 
without churches 187S 

CHURCH of Ireland, founded by St. 

Patrick in the 5th century ; accepted the Beforma- 
tion about 1550; united with that of England as 
the United Church of England and Ireland in 1800 ;. 
see Bishops and Ireland, 1868. 
" An act to put an end to the establishment of the- 
church of Ireland," introduced into the house of 
commons by Mr. Gladstone, 1 Mar. ; vote for 
second reading, 368; against, 250; 2 a.m., 24 
March ; for third reading, 361 ; against, 247, 31 May, 1869 
Introduced into the house of lords by earl Gran- 
ville, 1 June; read third time, 12 July; some 
amendments by the lords accepted, others re- 
jected ; received royal assent [to come into effect, 

1 Jan. 1871J 26 July, ,» 

Address of bishops to the clergy and laity, dated, 

18 Aug. ,., 
Meeting of the general synod of the Irish church in 
St. Patrick's cathedral, Dublin, for re-organisa- 
tion of the general council ... 14 Sept. „ 
Conference of the laity ; duke of Abercorn chair- 
man 13 Oct. ,. 

Church of Ireland disestablished . . 1 Jan. 187B 
A sustentaiinn fund established (well supported) „ 
First elected bishop (Dr. Maurice Day, bishop of 
Cashel) consecrated at St. Patrick's, Dublin, 

14 April, 187s 
The new ecclesiastical court meets : tries a case of 

ritual practices 26 June, ,, 

The Irish Church Act amended . . June, ,., 
Received for the sustentation fund, 33,573?. up to 

31 Dec. ,, 
The first bishop elected by clergy and laity of Kil- 
more, <fec, archdeacon Darley (12 candidates), 

23 Sept. 1874 
Alleged migration of clergy to England . autumn, ,, 
Warm discussion upon the revision of the liturgy, 

May, 1875 

CHURCH of North America, was estab- 
lished in Nov. 1784, when bishop Seabury, chosen 
by the churches in Connecticut, was consecrated in 
Scotland. The first convention was held at Phila- 
delphia in 1785. On 4 Feb. 1787, bishops Provost and 
White were consecrated at Lambeth. The centenary 
was celebrated at Lambeth, 4 Feb. 1887. Two 
American bishops, Lyman and Potter, were present. 
In 185 1 there were 37 bishops; in 1883 there were, 
in the United States, 48 dioceses, 68 bishops, and 
3)559 priests and deacons, see Tan- Anglican Synod, 

After much discussion, for several years, the chureto 
convention passed a stringent canon against ritualism, 
27 Oct. 1847. 

CHURCH of Scotland, see Bishops in 

Scotland. On the abolition of Episcopacy, in 1638, 
Presbyterianism became the established religion. 
Its formulary of faith, said to have been compiled 



CHURCH HOUSE. 



217 



CINCINNATI. 



by John Knox, in 1560, was approved by the par- 
liament and ratified in 1567, finally settled by an 
act of the Scottish senate in 1696, and secured by 
the treaty of union with England in 1 707 ; see 
Discipline, Patronage, and Bishops. The church 
is regulated by four courts — the general assem- 
bly, the synod, the presbytery, and kirk ses- 
sions; see Presbyterians. For important secessions, 
see Burghers (1732), and Free Church (1843). 

The first general assembly of the church was held, 
20 Dec. 1560. 

The general assembly constitutes the highest ecclesi- 
astical court in the kingdom ; it meets annually in Edin- 
burgh in May, and sits about ten days. It consists of a 
grand commissioner, appointed by the sovereign, and 
delegates from presbyteries, royal boroughs, and univer- 
sities, some being laymen. To this court all appeals 
from the inferior ecclesiastical courts lie, and its decision 
is final. 

Patronage was abolished after 1 Jan. 1875, by act 
passed 7 Aug. 1874. 

In 1873, 1250 churches. 

Prosecution of Rev. Wm. L. M'Farlan of Lenzie for 
heresy in "Scotch Sermons" (published 1880) by the 
Presbytery of Glasgow, Oct. 18S0. Mr. Hastie, principal 
of the Church (Calcutta) Institution, 1878 ; dismissed for 
bad temper, &c, Nov. 1883; his appeal to the General 
Assembly, dismissed (193—90), 29 May, 1884. 

Agitation for disestablishment preparatory to elec- 
tions, autumn, 1885. 

Mr. Finlay's Bill for promoting re-union of Presby- 
terian churches negatived by the Commons (202 — 177) 
17 March, 1886. 

Dr. Cameron's resolution for disestablishment nega- 
tived in the Commons, 30 March, 1886 ; (260 — 208) 22 June, 
1888 ; (256 — 218) 2 May, 1890 ; (265-209) 24 May, 1892. 

CHURCH HOUSE. A corporation was esta- 
blished to commemorate the queen's jubilee of 
1887, by the erection of a building in London for 
the general use of the clergy of England. 
On 7 July, 1888, 65,853^ had been subscribed, by 
means of which a site, with useful buildings, in 
Dean's Yard, Westminster, was purchased. A 
meeting was held on 21 July, 1888 ; and what 
was really the 1st general meeting of the cor- 
poration on their own premises was held on 26 
June, 1890, the archbishop of Canterbury being in 
the chair. At a meeting at Norwich, 1 Feb., 
1890, it was reported that jo,oool. had been 
subscribed. 
The foundation stone of the great hall laid by the 
duke of Connaught .... 24 June, 1891 

CHURCH LEAGUE, for separation of 
Church and State, began at St. Alban's schools, 
Holborn, London, Rev. A. H. Mackonochie, presi- 
dent; 1876-7. 

CHURCH MISSIONARY SOCIETY, 
founded 1799. Income, 1876, 195,1161?.; 1887, 
237,639/. ; 1890, 260,282/. 

CHURCH PASTORAL AID SOCIETY 

(Evangelical), instituted in 1836 to maintain curates 
and lay-agents in densely populated diotricts. 

CHURCH : RATES. The maintaining the 
church in repair belongs to the parishioners, who 
have the sole power of taxing themselves lor the 
expense when assembled in vestry. The enforce- 
ment of payment, which is continually disputed by 
dissenters and others, belonged to the ecclesiastical 
courts. Many attempts were made to abolish 
church-rates before Mr. Gladstone's ''Compulsory 
Church-rate Abolition" Bill, passed 31 July, 1868. 
Church Rate Abolition for Scotland repealed in the 

Commons (204-143) .... 11 July, 1877 

CHURCH SERVICES were ordered by pope 
Vitelianus to be read in Latin, 663 ; by queen 
Elizabeth in 1558 to be read in English. 

CHURCH-WARDENS, officers of the 
church, appointed by the first canon of the synod of 



London in 1127. Overseers in every parish were 
also appointed by the same body, and they continue 
now nearly^ as then constituted. Johnson's Canons-. 
Church-wardens, by the canons of 1603, are to be- 
chosen annually. 

CHURCHINO of Women is the act of 
returning thanks in the church by women after 
child-birth. It began about 214. Wheatleg ; see 
Purification. 

CHURCHYARDS, said to belong to the 
parson, who has power to prohibit the erection of 
monuments, &c. See Consecration- and Burials. 

CHUSAN, a Chinese isle; see China, 1840-1, 
i860. 

CIBORIUM, in early Christian times, was a 
protection to the altar-table, first a tabernacle, and 
afterwards a baldachin over the altar, and also a 
canopy used at solemn processions. Ciborium also 
means the vessel in which the eucharist is received. 

CIDER {Zider, German), when first made in 
England, was called wine, about 1284. The earl 
of Manchester, when ambassador in France, is said 
to have passed oft' cider for wine. It was subjected 
to the excise in 1763 et seq. The duty was taken 
off' in 1830. Many orchards were planted in Here- 
fordshire by lord Scudamore, ambassador from 
Charles I. to France. John Philips published his 
poem "Cider" in 1706. 

CIGAR SHIP, see under Steam, 1866. 

CIGARS, see Tobacco. 

CILTCIA, in Asia Minor, partook of the fortunes 
of that country. It became a Roman province about 
64 B.C., aud was conquered by the Turks, a.d. 1387. 

CIMBRI, a Teutonic race from Jutland, in- 
vaded the Roman empire about 120 B.C. They 
defeated the Romans, under Cneius Papirius Carboy 
113 B.C.; the consul Junius Silanus, 109; the 
consul Cassius Longinus (who was killed) near the 
lake of Geneva, 107 ; and the united armies of the 
consul Cn. Mallius and the proconsul Serviliirs 
Caspio near the Rhone, 105. Their allies, the 
Teutones, were defeated by Marius in two battles 
at Aquae Sexthe (Aix) in Gaul ; 200,000 were 
killed, and 70,000 made prisoners, 102 B.C. The 
Cimbri were defeated by r Marius and Catulus, at 
Campus Raudius, when about to enter Italy; 
120,000 were killed, and 60,000 taken prisoners, 
IOI B.C. They were afterwards absorbed into the 
Teutones or Saxons. 

CIMENTO (Italian, experiment) . The " Acca- 
demia del Cimento," at Florence, held its first 
meeting for making scientific experiments, 18 June, 
1657. It was patronised by Ferdinand, grand duke 
of Tuscany. The Royal Society of London was 
founded in 1660, and the Academy of Sciences at 
Paris in 1666. The Nuovo Cimento, a scientific 
periodical, published at Pisa, began in 1855. 

CINCHONA, or ClllNCHONA, see Jesuits'' 
Baric. 

CINCINNATI. A society established by 
officers of the American army soon after the peace 
of 1783, " to perpetuate friendship, and to raise a 
fund for relieving the widows and orphans of those 
who had fallen during the war." On the badge 
was a figure of Cincinnalus. The people dreaded 
military influence, and the society dissolved itself. 

CINCINNATI, the chief city of the state of 
Ohio, North America, founded 178"). This flourishing 
city desolated by an inundation caused by the rising 
of the river Ohio, 13 Feb. 1883. Several lives were 
lost, and about 50,000 rendered homeless. Ample 



CINNAMON. 



218 



CIRCULATING LIBRARY. 



3-elief afforded. About 50 persons killed and 150 
wounded in an attack on the gaol to execute 
zaurderers (especially Wm. Berner) ; new court- 
-house burnt, 28-30 March, 1884; one regiment 
refused to march. Ten persons killed by a tram- 
way accident, 15 Oct. 1889. Population in 1880, 
'•255,139; in 1890, 296,908. 

CINNAMON, a species of laurel, is mentioned 
among the perfumes of the sanctuary {Exodus xxx. 
..23) 1491 B.C. It was found in the American forests 
Joy don Ulloa, 1736, was cultivated in Jamaica and 
Dominica 1788, and is now grown in Ceylon. 

CINQUE-CENTO (five hundred) ; ter cento, 
.&c. ; see note to article Italy. 

CINQUE PORTS, on the south coast of 
England, were originally five (hence the name) — 
.Dover, Hastings, Hythe, Ronmey, and Sandwich ; 
Winchelsea and Rye were afterwards added. Jeake. 
Their jurisdiction was vested in barons, called war- 
•dens. These ports, instituted by Saxon nionarchs, 
were constituted by William. I. and succeeding king-*, 
who required them to supply ships to defend the 
'■coast. Nearly all the harbours, except Dover, have 
been destroyed by the action of the sea. The latest 
lord-wardens: the duke of Wellington, 1828-52; 
the marquis of Dalhousie, 1852-60; lord Palmerston, 
3861-65; earl Granville, appointed Dec. 1865, died 
.31 March, 1891 ; W. H. Smith, May, died 6 Oct. ; 
the Marquis of Dufferin and Ava, about 4 Nov. 1891. 
Their peculiar jurisdiction was abolished in 1855. 

CINTRA (Portugal). Here was signed an 
agreement on 22 Aug. 1808, between the French 
;and English the day after the battle of Vimeira. 
.As it contained the bases of the convention signed 
on 30 Aug. following, it has been termed the con- 
vention of Cintra. By it Junot and his army were 
.permitted to evacuate Portugal free, in British 
•ships. The convention was publicly condemned, 
and a court of inquiry was held at Chelsea, which 
• exonerated the British commanders. Both Wel- 
lington and Napoleon justified sir Hew Dalrymple. 

CIPHER, a secret manner of writing. Julius 
'Cajsar and Augustus when writing secret despatches 
are said to have employed the second or third letter 
instead of the first, and the same sequence with 
.regard to the others. This cipher was in use till 
vthe reign of Sixtus IV. (1471-84), when the secret 
was divulged by Leon Battista Albert!, and a new 
-sort of cipher sprang up. The father of Venetian 
•cipher was Zuan Soro, who flourished about 1516. 
Jtawdon Brown. — See Cryptograph. 

CIRC ASSIA (Asia, on N. side of the Caucasus) . 
The Circassians, said to be descended from the Al- . 
'banians, were unsubdued, even by Timour. In the 
16th century they acknowledged the authority of 
;the czar Ivan II. of Russia, and about 1745,' the 
princes of Kabarda took oaths of fealty. Many 
-Circassians became Mahometans in the 18th century. 
"Circassia surrendered to Russia by Turkey by the 
treaty of Adrianople (but the Circassians, under 
Schamyl, long resist) ... 14 Sept. 1829 
'Victories of Orbelliani over them, June, Nov., Dec. 1857 
He subdues much country, and expels the inhabi- 
tants April, 185S 

Schamyl, the great Circassian leader, captured, and 

treated with much respect . . .7 Sept. 1859 
.About 20,000 Circassians emigrate to Constanti- 
nople, suffer much distress, and are relieved. 

28 April, i860 

"Vaidar, the last of the Circassian strongholds, 

captured, and the grand duke Michael declares 

the war at an end .... 8 June, 1864 

Many thousand Circassians emigrate into Turkey ; 

partially relieved by the sultan's government, 

June, et seq. „ 



Schamyl and his son at the marriage of the czaro- 
witch, 9 Nov. 1866; he dies . . . March, 1871 

Revolt against Russia ; suppressed. Many Circas- 
sians flee to Turkey and join the army, July, Aug. 1877 

CIRCENSIAN GAMES were combats in 
the Roman circus (at first in honour of Consus, the 
god of councils, but afterwards of Jupiter, Neptune, 
Juno, and Minerva), said to have been instituted by 
Evander, and established at Borne, 732 B.C. by 
Bomulus. Tarquin named them Circensian ; their 
celebration continued from 4 to 12 Sept. 

CIRCLE. The quadrature, or ratio of the 
diameter of the circle to its circumference, has 
exercised the ingenuity of mathematicians of all 
ages. Archimedes, about 221 B.C., gave it as 7 to 
22 ; Abraham Sharp (171 7) as 1 to 3 and 72 deci- 
mals ; and Lagny (1719) as 1 to 3 and 122 decimals. 

CIRCLES OF GERMANY (formed by Maxi- 
milian I. about 1500, to distinguish the members of 
the diet of the empire) were, iu 1512, Franconia, 
Bavaria, Upper Rhine, Suabia, \\ estphalia, and 
Lower Saxony; in 15 12, Austria, Burgundy, Lower 
Rhine, the Palatinate, Upper Saxony and Bran- 
denburg were added. In 1804 these divisions were 
annulled by the establishment of the Confedera- 
tion of the Rhine, in 1806 {ivhich see). 

CIRCUITS IN ENGLAND were divided into 
three, and three justices were appointed to each, 
T176. They were afterwards divided into four, 
with five justices to each division, 1180. Rapin. 
They have been frequently altered. England and 
Wales were formerly divided into eight — each 
travelled in spring and summer for the trial of civil 
and criminal cases, the larger towns are visited in 
winter for trials of criminals only ; this is called 
" going the circuit." The circuits were settled by 
order in council, 5 Feb. 1876. There are monthly 
sessions for the city of London and county of Mid- 
dlesex. 

The circuit system was much modified by the council 
of judges, with the object of retaining more, judges in 
London, and economising their labour, 10 June, 1884. 

The system was again changed, three circuits being 
adopted in place of four with a few exceptions ; (civil 
and criminal Feb., July ; criminal Oct.) Dec. 1887. 

CIRCULAR IRONCLADS. The design is 
attributed to the Russian admiral ropoff; one of 
these, named after himself, was launched at the 
port of Nicolaieff, 7 Oct. 1875. The admiral stated 
that he derived the idea from the works and views 
of Mr. E. J. Reed, late constructor of the British 
navy, who has expressed his approbation of the 
admiral's works. 

CIRCULATING LIBRARY. Stationers 
lent books on hire in the middle ages. The public 
circulating library in England, opened by Samuel 
Fancourt, a dissenting minister of Salisbury, about 
1740, failed; but similar institutions at Bath and 
in London succeeded, and others were established 
throughout the kingdom. There was a circulating 
library at Crane-court, London, in 1748, of which 
a catalogue in two vols, was published.— No books 
can be taken from the British Museum except for 
judicial purposes, but the libraries of the Royal 
Society and the principal scientific societies, except 
that of the Royal Institution, London, are circulat- 
ing. — The London Library (circulating) which was 
founded 24 June, 1840, is of great value to literary 
men. — Of the subscription libraries belonging to 
individuals, that founded by Mr. C. E. Mudie, in 
New Oxford-street, is the most remarkable for the 
large quantity and good quality of the books : 
several hundreds, sometimes thousands, of copies 
of a new work beinjr in circulation. It began in 



CIRCULATION. 



219 CITY OF LONDON" COLLEGE. 



1842, and grew into celebrity in Dec. 1848, when 
the first two volumes of Macaulay's History of Eng- 
land were published, for which there was an un- 
precedented demand, supplied by this library. The 
hall, having the walls covered with shelves filled 
with new books, was opened in Dec. i860. Mr. 
C. E. Mudie died 28 Oct. 1890, aged 72. The 
"Circulating Library Company" was founded in 
Jan. 1862, and other companies since. The Liver- 
pool library was established in 1757. 

CIRCULATION of the Blood, see Blood. 

CIRCUMCISION (instituted 1897 b.c.) was 
the seal of the covenant made by God with Abra- 
ham. It was practised by the ancient Egyptians, 
■and is still by the Copts and some oriental nations. 
The Festival of the Circumcision (of Christ), origi- 
nally the octave of Christmas, is mentioned about 
487. It was introduced from the Koman missal 
into the first English prayer-book in 1549. 

CIRCUMNAVIGATORS. Among the most 
daring human enterprises at the period when it was 
first attempted, was the circumnavigation of the 
earth in 1519-22. 

Magellan or Magalhaens, a native of Portugal, in the 
service of Spain, sailed from San Lucar, 20 Sept. 
1519 ; with three ships passed the Straits named 
after him, 28 Nov. 1520; he was killed in a con- 
flict on the Philippine Isles, 17 April, 1521 : Juan 
Sebastian del Cano ill the Vittoria, the only re- 
maining ship of five, reached San Lucar 6 Sept. 1522 

<Srijalva, Spaniard 1537 

Alvaradi, Spaniard . ,, 

JVIendana, Spaniard 1567 

.Sir Francis Drake, first English .... 1577-80 

Cavendish, first voyage 1586-88 

Le Maire, Dutch 1615-17 

Cuiros, Spaniard 1625 

Tasman, Dutch 1642 

Cowley, British 1683 

Dampier, English 1689 

Cooke, English . 1708 

Clipperton, British 17 19 

Boggewein, Dutch 1721-23 

Anson (afterwards lord) 1740-44 

Byron, English 1764-66 

Wallis, British 1766-68 

Carteret, English 1766-69 

Bougainville, French 1766-9 

James Cook ^1768-71 

On his death the voyage was continued by King . 1779 

Portlocke, British 1788 

King and Fitzroy, British .... 1826-36 
Belcher, British ... ... 1836-42 

"Wilkes, American 1838-42 

The steamer Tonic sailed from New Zealand to 

Plymouth in 86 days . . . . 24 Aug. 1883 
Arawa sailed from Plymouth to New Zealand and 

back in 73 days, 5I1. 4111. . 28 March-12 July, 1885 
Lady Brassey published "Voyage in the Sunbeam " 

(yacht) in 1876, 1878 ; she died at sea . Sept. 1887 
'The Sunbeam, after voyage of 36,000 miles, arrived at 

Portsmouth 14 Dec. ,, 

See North East and West Passage and Deep Sea Soundings. 

CIRCUS (Greek, Hippodrome). There were 
eight (some say ten) buildings of this kind at 
Rome ; the largest the Circus Maximus, was built 
by the elder Tarquin, 605 Jt.c. It was an oval 
figure: length three stadia and a half, or more than 
three English furlongs ; breadth 960 Koman feet. 
It was enlarged by Julius Caesar so as to seat 150,000 
persons, and was rebuilt by Augustus. Julius 
Cresar introduced into it large canals of water, 
which could be quickly covered with vessels, and 
represent a sea fight. Pliny; see Amphitheatres, 
and Factions. 

CIRRHA, a town of Phocis (N. Greece), for 
sacrilege, razed to the ground in the Sacred War, 
586 B.C. 



CISALPINE REPUBLIC, including the 
territories of Milan, Mantua, Modena, Bergamo, 
Ferrara, Bologna, Bavenna, &c. (N. Italy), 
formed by the French in May, 1797, from the 
Cispadane and Transpadane republics, acknow- 
ledged by the emperor of Germany by the treat3 r 
of Campo Formio (which see), 17 Oct. following. 
It received a new constitution in Sept. 1798 ; was 
remodelled, and named the Italian republic, with 
Napoleon Bonaparte president, 1802 ; and merged 
into the kingdom of Italy in March, 1805 ; see 
Italy. 

CISPADANE REPUBLIC, with the 
Transpadane republic, merged into the Cisal- 
pine republic, Oct. 1797. 

CISTERCIANS (the order of Citeaux), a 
powerful order of monks founded about 1098 by 
Robert, a Benedictine, abbot of Molesme, named 
from Citeaux, in France, the site of the first convent, 
near the end of the nth century. The monks 
observed silence, abstained from flesh, lay on straw, 
and wore neither shoes nor shirts. They were re- 
formed by St. Bernard ; see Bernardines. 

CITATE. The Russian general Gortschakoff, 
intending to storm Kalafat, threw up redoubts at 
Citate, close to the Danube, which were stormed by 
the Turks under Omer Pacha, 6 Jan. 1854. The 
fighting continued on the 7th, 8th and 9th, when 
the Russians were compelled to retire to their 
former position at Krajowa, having lost 1500 
killed and 2000 wounded. The loss of the Turks 
was estimated at 338 killed and 700 wounded. 

CITIZEN. It was not lawful to scourge a 
citizen of Rome. Livy. In England a citizen is a 
person who is free of a city, or who doth carry on 
a trade therein. Camden. Various privileges have 
been conferred on citizens as freemen in several 
reigns. — The wives of citizens of London (not being 
aldermen's wives, nor gentlewomen by descent) 
were obliged to wear minever caps, being white 
woollen knit three-cornered, with the peaks pro- 
jecting three or four inches beyond their foreheads; 
aldermen's wives made them of velvet, 1 Eliz. 1558. 
Stow. — On 10 Oct. 1792, the convention decreed 
that "citoyen" and "citoyenne" should be the 
only titles in France. 

CITY. (Latin civitas, French cite, Italian 
cittd.) Originally signified a state. Cities were 
incorporated in Spain, France, and England in the 
nth and 12th centuries. A city has been usually, 
but not always, the seat of a bishop. Truro and 
St. Albans were made cities in 1877, Newcastle in 
1882, and Liverpool in 1883, having become 
bishoprics. Birmingham was made a city, Jan. 
1889. 

CITY AND GUILDS OF LONDON IN- 
STITUTE (see Education, 1878-81). Foundation 
stone of Central Institution, South Kensington, laid 
by the prince of Wales, the president, 18 July, 1881. 

CITY CHURCH PROTECTION SO- 
CIETY, founded to preserve old churches, 1879. 

CITY GUILDS REFORM ASSOCIA- 
TION held fifth annual meeting, 2 Sept. 1880. It 
had recommended the appointment of the royal 
commission of inquiry of 1880. 

CITY LIBRARY and MUSEUM, see 
Guildhall. 

CITY OF GLASGOW BANK, see under 
Hanks. 

CITY OF LONDON COLLEGE (for ycung 
111011) established 1861 ; began in [848 as Metro- 
politan Evening Classe3. 



CITY OF LONDON COURT. 



220 



CLANS. 



CITY OF LONDON COURT, the name 
given to the Sheriffs' Court (established 151 7) by 
the County Courts act of Aug. 186". 

CITY OF LONDON SCHOOL, established 
by parliament in 1834, (based on an endowment by 
John Carpenter in 1442) was opened first in Honey- 
lane. The foundation of the new buildings on the 
Victoria Embankment laid 14 Oct. 1880; opened, 
1883. 

CITY OF PARIS, Atlantic steamer, see 
Wrecks, March 1890. 

CITY HO AD, from London to Islington, was 
projected by Mr. Dingier, and cut out about 1760. 

CIUDAD RODRIGO, a strong fortified town 
in Spain invested by the French, 11 June, 1810, 
and surrendered to them 10 July. It remained in 
their possession until it was stormed by the British, 
under Wellington, 19 Jan. 1812. 

CIVIL CLUB (at the New Corn Exchange 
Tavern, Mark-lane), was established 19 Nov. 
1669, for the purpose of promoting fellowship, 
mutual assistance, and the revival of trade after 
the interruption to business in consequence of the 
tire, Sept. 1666. 

Only one person of the same trade or profession can be 
a member of this club, and the members pledge them- 
selves to give "preference to each other in their re- 
spective callings." The club meets monthly, and the 
members dine together four times a year. Its officials 
are a treasurer, stewards, auditors, a secretary (all 
merchants of London), and a chaplain. 

CIVIL ENGINEERS, see Engineers. 

CIVIL LAW. See Codes. Civil law was 
restored in Italy, Germany, &c, 1127. Blair. It 
was introduced into England by Theobald, a Nor- 
man abbot, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury, in 
1138. Itisnow used in the spiritual courts only, and 
in maritime affairs ; see Doctors' Commons, and Laws. 

CIVIL LIST. This now comprehends the 
revenue awarded to the kings of England in lieu of 
their ancient hereditary income. The entire revenue 
of Elizabeth was not more than 600,000/., and that 
of Charles I. was about 800,000/. After the revolu- 
tion a civil list revenue was settled on the new king 
and queen of 700,000/. (in 1660), the parliament 
taking into its own hands the support of the forces 
both maritime and military. The civil list of 
George II. was increased to 800,000/. ; and that of 
George III., in the 55th year of his reign, was 
1,030,000/. 

In 1831, the civil list of the sovereign was fixed at 
510,000?., and in December, 1837, the civil list of 
the queen was fixed at 385,000?. 
Prince Albert obtained an exclusive sum from par- 
liament of 30,000?. per an. ... 7 Feb. 1840 
Sir H. ParnelTs motion for inquiry into the civil list 
led to the resignation of the Wellington adminis- 
tration 15 Nov. 1830 

A select committee was appointed by the house of 
commons for the purpose ... 2 Feb. i860 
See Crown Lands. 

CIVIL PROCEDURE ACTS, 42 & 43 Vict, 
c. 59, passed 15 Aug. 1879 (it abolishes outlawry 
in civil proceedings); and 44 & 45 Vict. c. 59, passed 
27 Aug. 1881. 

CIVIL SERVICE. Nearly 17,000 persons 
were employed in this service under the direction of 
the treasury, and the home, foreign, colonial, post, 
and revenue offices, &c. In 1855, a commission re- 
ported most unfavourably on the existing system 
of appointments, and on 21 May commissioners 
were appointed to examine into the qualifications 
of the candidates, who report annually. By an 



order of council, 4 June, 1870, the system of compe- 
titive examination was made general after 1 Oct. 
1870. The civil service superannuation act passed 
in April, 1859. Civil service for the year (ending 
31 March) 1855, 00317,735,515/. ; 1865, 10,205,413/. 



1867, 10,523,019/. ; it 
mate) 15,779,779*- 



I5>43 2 >442*. ; 

1 7,243,254*- ; 

18,008,691/. ; 
r 5,739.092*- ; 

17,535,547; 



'I, 13,176,659/.; 1877 (esti- 

"81, 

-5» 



ll 



15,155,522/, 

I803-4, x 7,253,004/. 

1885-6, 17,678,149/. ; 
1888-9, !8,037,73o/. ; 1889 - 96, 
1890-91, 15,660,959; 1891-2, 
1892-3, 17,310,920 (estimate). A 
select committee to inquire into this expenditure, 
voted 18 Feb. 1873; issued its report, June, 1874. 
Important changes made, by order in council, 
12 Feb. 1875. See Public Departments, Commission. 
Further changes in the lower, now named second 
division ; salaries limited, to be from 70/. to 250/. 
a year, 4 Feb. 1890. 'Ihe fourth and last report of 
the Boyal Commission on Civil Establishments, 
dated 30 July, issued 28 Aug. 1890. 

CIVIL WARS, see England, France, United 
States, Chili, &c. 

CIVILISATION. The opinion thatthecivili- 
sation of mankind was gradually developed from a 
low savage state is advocated by sir John Lubbock 
in his "Origin of Civilisation," 1870, and by Mr. 
Edward B. Tylor.in his " Primitive Culture," 1871. 

CLAIM OF RIGHT. A document agreed 
to by the Scottish Convention parliament at Edin- 
burgh asserting the constitutional liberties of the 
kingdom, accepted bv King William III. and Queen 
Mary II. at Whitehall, 11 May, 1689. 

CLAIMANT, The. See Trials, 1871-4; see 
France, 1874. 

CLAMEURS, see Haro. 

CLANS are said to have arisen in Scotland, in 
the reign of king Malcolm II., about 1008. The 
legal power of the chiefs and other remains of 
heritable jurisdiction were abolished in Scotland, 
and liberty was granted to clansmen in 1747, in 
consequence of the rebellion of 1745. The following 
is a list of all the known clans of Scotland, with 
the badge of distinction anciently worn by each. 
The chief of each clan wears two eagle's feathers 
in his bonnet, in addition to the badge. Chambers. 
A history of the clans by Wm. Buchanan was pub- 
lished in 1775. 



Name. 


Badge. 


Name. 


Badge. 


Buchanan . 


Birch. 


M'Farlane . 


Cloud-berry 


Cameron 


Oak. 




bush. 


Campbell . 


Myrtle. 


M'Gregor . 


Pine. 


Chisholm . 


Alder. 


M'Intosli . 


Box-wood. 


Colquhoun . 


Hazel. 


M'Kay . . 


Bull-rush. 


Gumming . 


Common 


M'Kenzie . 


Deer-grass. 




sallow. 


M'Kinnon . 


St. John's 


Drummond . 


Holly. 




wort. 






M'Lachlan . 


Mountain- 


Farquharson 


Purple fox- 




ash. 




glove. 


M'Lean . . 


Blackberry 


Ferguson . 


Poplar. 




heath. 


Forbes . . 


Broom. 


M'Leod . 


Red whortle- 


Frazer . . 


Yew. 




berries. 


Gordon . . 


Ivy. 


M'Nab . . 


Rose black- 


Graham . . 


Laurel. 




berries. 


Grant . . 


Cranberry 


M'Neil . . 


Sea-ware. 




heath. 


M'Pherson . 


Variegated 


Gun . 


Rosewort. 




box-wood. 


Lamont 


Crab-apple 


M 'Quarrie . 


Blackthorn. 




tree. 


M'Rae . 


Fir-club 


M'Alister . 


Five-leaved 




moss. 




heath. 


Menzies . . 


Ash. 


M 'Donald . 


Bell-heath. 


Munro . . 


Eagle's 


M'Donnell . 


Mountain- 




feathers. 




heath. 


Murray . . 


Juniper. 


M'Dougall . 


. Cypress. 


Ogilvie. 


Hawthorn. 



CLAN-NA-GAEL. 



221 



CLAVECIN. 



Name. 
Oliphant 
Robertson 


Badge. 
Great maple. 
Fern, or bre- 
chans. 


Name. 
Sinclair . . 
Stewart 
Sutherland . 


Badge. 
Clover. 
Thistle. 
Cat's-tail 


Rose . 
Ross . 


Briar-rose. 
Bear-berries. 




grass. 



CLAN-NA-GAEL (brotherhood of Gaels), an 
Irish secret oath-bound society, originating out of 
the Fenian brotherhood in 1870, it became the 
heart of the Irish National League in the United 
States, of which it was the extreme violent part. 
Its action much restrained by the influence of 
Messrs. Pamell, Sexton, and other members of the 
Irish Parliamentary party who originated a " new 
departure." It obtained the support of the Irish 
peasantry by promising to obtain them their farms 
without rent. The ultimate object of the Clan-na- 
Gael is said to be the establishment of Ireland as a 
perfectly independent state ; it is termed a dynamite 
party (" Parnellism and Crime " series III., June, 
1887). 

For murder of Dr. Cronin, &c, see United States, 1889. 
The Clan-na-Gael at Chicago, declare against any 

form of violence . . . reported Feb. 1890 

CLAPHAM SECT, a name given to the 
evangelical party in the Church of England, first 
by the rev. Sydney Smith, in the latter part of the 
18th century. The rev. Henry Venn was vicar of 
Clapham, and several of its eminent members lived 
there. The sect included Win. "Wilberforce, 
Zachary Macaulay (father of the historian), and 
the Rev. "W. Romaine. 

Memoirs of some appear in sir James Stephen's " Ec- 
clesiastical Biography," 1849. 

CLARE AND CLARENCE (Suffolk). Richard 
de Clare, earl of Gloucester, is said to have seated 
here a monastery of the order of Friars Eremites, 
the first of this kind of mendicants who came to 
England, 1248. Tanner. Lionel, third son of Ed- 
ward III., becoming possessed of the honour of 
Clare, by marriage, was created duke of Clarence. 
The title has ever since belonged to a branch of the 
royal family. 

DUKES OF CLARENCE. 

1362. Lionel, born 1338, died, 1369 ; see York. 

ia.ii. Thomas (second son of Henry IV.), born 1389; 

killed at Bauge, 1421. 
1461. George (brother of Edward IV.), murdered, 1478. 
1789. William (third son of George III.), afterwards king 

William IV. 
1890. Albert Victor Christian Edward, eldest son of the 
prince of Wales, see under Wales, created duke 
of Clarence and Avondale and earl of Athlone, 
about 23 May ; died 14 Jan., 1892. See 
England, 1892. 
CLARE was the first place in Ireland since 
1689 that elected a Roman Catholic M.P. ; see Roman 
■Catholics. At the election, held at Ennis, the 
county town, Mr. Daniel O'Connell was returned, 
5 July, 1828. He did not sit till after the passing 
of the Catholic Emancipation Act, in 1829, being 
re-elected 30 July, 1829. 

CLARE, NUNS OF St., a sisterhood, called 
Minoresses, founded in Italy by St. Clare and St. 
Francis d'Assisi, about 1212. They were also called 
Urbanists ; their rule having been modified by pope 
Urban IV., who died 1264. This order settled in 
France about 1260, and in England, in the Minories 
without Aldgate, London, about 1293, by Blanche, 
■queen of Navarre, wife of Edmund, earl of Lan- 
oaster, brother of Edward I. At the suppression, 
the site was granted to the bishopric of Bath and 
"Wells, 1539. Tanner. 

CLAREMONT (Surrey), the residence of the 
princess Charlotte (daughter of the prince-regent, 
afterwards George IV., married to prince Leopold 



of Saxe-Coburg, 2 May, 1816) : here she died in 
childbirth, 6 Nov. 1817. The house was built by 
sir John Vanbrugh, and was the seat successively 
of the earl of Clare, of lord Clive, lord Galloway, 
and the earl of Tyroonnel. It was purchased of 
Mr. Ellis by government for 65,000/. for the prince 
and princess of Saxe-Coburg ; and the former, the 
late king of Belgium, assigned it to prince Albert 
in 1840. The exiled royal family of France took 
up their residence at Claremont, 4 March, 1848 ; 
and the king, Louis Philippe, died there, 29 Aug. 
1850. Bought by Queen Victoria March 1882. 

CLARENCIEUX, the second king-at-arms, 
said to have been nominated by Thomas, son of 
Henry IV., created duke of Clarence, 1411. His 
duty was to arrange the funerals of all the lower 
nobility, as baronets, knights, esquires, and gentle- 
men, on the south side of the Trent, from whence 
he is also called sur-roy or south-roy. 

CLARENDON, Constitutions of, were 

enacted at a council held 25 Jan. 1164, at Claren- 
don, in Wiltshire, to retrench the power of the 
clergy. They led to Becket's quarrel with Henry II., 
were annulled by the pope, and abandoned by the 
king, April, 1174. 

I. All suits coneeming advowsons to be determined in 
civil courts. 

II. The clergy accused of any crime to be tried by civil 
judges. 

III. No person of any rank whatever to be permitted to 
leave the realm without the royal licence. 

IV. Laics not to be accused in spiritual courts, except 
by legal and reputable promoters and witnesses. 

V. No chief tenant of the crown to be excommunicated, 
nor his lauds put under interdict. 

VI. Revenues of vacant sees to belong to the king. 

VII. Goods forfeited to the crown not to be protected 
in churches. 

VIII. Sons of villeins not to be ordained clerks with- 
out the consent of their lord. 

IX. Bishops to be regarded as barons, and be sub- 
jected to the burthens belonging to that rank. 

X. Churches belonging to the king's see not to be 
granted in perpetuity against his will. 

XI. Excommunicated persons not to be bound to <*ive 
security for continuing in their abode. 

XII. No inhabitant in demesne to be excommunicated 
for non-appearance in a spiritual court. 

XIII. If any tenant in capite should refuse submission 
to spiritual courts, the case to be referred to the king. 

XIV. The clergy no longer to pretend to the right of 
enforcing debts contracted by oath or promise. 

XV. Causes between laymen and ecclesiastics to be 
determined by a jury. 

XVI. Appeals to be ultimately carried to the king, and 
no further without his consent. 

CLARENDON PRESS, Oxford. The 
building was erected by sir John Vanbru°-h in 
1711-13, the expense being defrayed out of'thc 
profits of lord Clarendon's History of the Rebellion 
the copyright of which was given to the universitv 
by his son. The original building was converted 
into a museum, lecture-rooms, &c, and a new 
printing-office erected by Blore and Robertson 
1825-30. 

CLARIONET, or CLARINET, a wind instru- 
ment of the reed kind, said to have been invented 
by Johann Christopher Denner, in Nuremberg 
about 1690. 

CLASSIS. The name was first used by Tullius 
Servius (the sixth king of ancient Rome), in 
making divisions of the Roman people, 573 b.c. 
The first of the six classes were called classici by 
way of eminence, and hence authors of the first 
rank (especially Greek and Latin) came to be 
called classics. 

CLAVECIN, French for harjyslchord. See 
Pianoforte. 



CLAVICHOED. 



222 



CLEEKENWELL. 



CLAVICHOED, a keyed-stringed musical in- 
strument of various forms in use in France, Spain, 
and Germany, in the 16th and 17th centuries. See 
Virginals, Spinet, Harp and Piano. 

CLAVICYTHEEIUM, an upright musical 
instrument, probably resembling the harpsichord 
used in the 16th century. 

CLAVIEE, German for pianoforte {which see). 

CLAY'S ACT, Sir William, 14 & 15 Vict. 

c. 14 (1851), relates to the compound householders. 

CLAYTON -BULWEB TEEATY, see 
Buhner. 

CLEABING-HOUSE. In I77S, a building 
in Lombard-street was set apart for the use of 
bankers, in which they might, exchange drafts, 
bills, and securities, and thereby save labour and 
curtail the amount of floating cash requisite to 
meet the settlement of the different houses, if 
effected singly. By means of transfer tickets, trans- 
actions to the amount of millions daily are settled 
without the intervention of a bank note. In 1861, 
the clearing-house was used by 117 companies, and 
in May, 1864, it was joined by the Bank of England. 
In the year ending 30 April, 1868, 3,257,411,000/. 
passed through the clearing-house ; 30 April, 1873, 
6.003,335,000/. ; 1877-8, 5,066,533,000/. ; 1880-1, 
5^909,989,000/.; 31 Dec. 1887, 6,077,097,000*.; 
1890, 7,801,000,000/. Amount in the week ending 
27 Sept., 1875, about 105,867,000/. ; 27 Sept. 1876, 
about 73,135,000/. The Railway clearing-house in 
Seymour-street, near Euston-square, established 
2 Jan. 1842, is regulated by an act passed in 1850. 
In 1868, it regulated 13,000 miles of railways. The 
jubilee was celebrated Jan. 1892. 

CLEMENTINES, apocryphal pieces, attri- 
buted to Clemens Romanus, a contemporary of 
St. Paul, and said to have succeeded St. Peter as 
bishop of Rome. He died 102. Niceron. Also the 
decretals of pope Clement V. who died 1314, pub- 
lished by his successor. Bowyer. Also Augustine 
monks, each of whom having been a superior nine 
years, then merged into a common monk. — 
Clementines were the adherents of Robert, son of 
the count of Geneva, who took the title of Cle- 
ment VII. on the death of Gregory XL, 1378, and 
Ukbanists, those of pope Urban VI. Christendom 
was divided by their claims : France, Castile, Scot- 
land, &c, adhering to Clement; Rome, Italy, and 
England, to Urban. The schism ended in 1409, 
when Alexander V. was elected pope, and his rivals 
resigned ; see Anti-Popes. 

CLEOPATEA'S NEEDLE, see Obelisks. 

CLEPSYDEA, a water-clock ; see Clocks. 

CLEBGY (from the Greek kleros, a lot or in- 
heritance) in the first century were termed pres- 
byters, elders, or bishops, and deacons. The bishops 
(episcopoi or overseers), elected from the presbyters, 
in the second century assumed higher functions 
(about 330), and, under Constantine, obtained the 
recognition and protection of the secular power. 
Under the Lombard and Norman-French kings in 
the 7th and 8th centuries, the clergy began to pos- 
sess temporal power, as owners of lands ; and after 
the establishment of monachism, a distinction was 
made between the regular clergy, who lived apart 
from the world, in accordance with a regula or rule, 
and the secular (worldly) or beneficed clergy. The 
English clergy write clerk after their names in 
legal documents. See Church oj England (note) and 
Bishops. 
The clergy were first styled clerks, owing to the judges 

being chosen after the Norman custom from the sacred 



order, and the officers "being clergy : this gave then* 
that denomination, which they keep to this day. Black- 
stone. 

As the Druids kept the keys of their religion and of 
letters, so did the priests keep both these to themselves ; 
they alone make profession of letters, and a man of 
letters was called a clerk, and hence learning went by 
the name of clerkship. Pasquier. 

Benefit of Clergy, Privilegium Clericale, arose in the- 
regard paid by Christian princes to the church, and 
consisted of : 1st, an exemption of places consecrated 
to religious duties from criminal arrests, which was 
the foundation of sanctuaries ; 2nd, exemption of the 
persons of clergymen from criminal process before the 
secular judge, in particular cases, which was the 
original meaning of the privilegium clericale. The 
benefit of clergy was afterwards extended to everyone 
who could read ; and it was enacted, that there should 
be a prerogative allowed to the clergy, that if any man 
who could read were to be condemned to death, the 
bishop of the diocese might, if he would, claim him as 
a clerk, and dispose of him in some places of the clergy 
as he might deem meet. The ordinary gave the pri- 
soner at the bar a Latin book, in a black Gothic 
character, from which to read a verse or two ; and if 
the ordinary said, "Legit ut Clericus" ("He reads- 
like a clerk"), the offender was only burnt in the 
hand ; otherwise, he suffered death, 3 Edw. I. (1274). 

The privilege was restricted by Henry VII. in 1489, and 
abolished, with respect to murderers and other great 
criminals, by Henry VIII., 1512. Stow. 

The reading was discontinued by 5 Anne, c. 6 (1706). 

Benefit of Clergy was wholly repealed by 7 & 8 Geo. IV. 
c. 25 (1827). 

CLERGY CHARITIES. 

William Assheton, an eminent theological writer, was the 
first proposer of a plan to provide for the families of 
deceased clergy. He died Sept. 171 1. Watts' s Life of 
Assheton.- 

Festival of the " Sons of the Clergy," held annually at St. 
Paul's cathedral, instituted about 1655 ; from it sprang 
the charity called the "Sons of the Clergy" (clergy- 
orphan and widow corporation), incorporated 1 July,. 
1678. 

Clergy Orphan corporation, 1749. 

Friend of the Clergy corporation, 1849. 

St. John's foundation school for sons of poor clergy. 
1852. 

Poor Clergy Relief corporation, established 1856; incor- 
porated 1867. 

There are several other charities for relatives of the 
clergy. See Bromley College. 

The clergy prevented from being members of parliament 
by 41 Geo. III. e. 63, 1801. 

A bill to repeal this act was lost in the commons (no to- 
101), ti May, i88r. 

Clergy discipline (immorality) bill introduced by the 
archbishop of Canterbury, 23 Feb. ; passed 

27 June, 1892; 

CLEEICAL DISABILITIES, an act passed 
9 Aug. 1870, relieves persons who have been ad- 
mitted priests or deacons of certain clerical dis- 
abilities upon their resigning their ecclesiastical 
offices and preferments, and declares them incapable 
of officiating henceforward. Up to 31 Dec. J873, 50 
had resigned. 

CLEEICAL SUBSCBIPTION. ACT, 

28 & 29 Vict. c. 122, passed 5 July, 1865, simplified 
and modified the oaths to be taken by the clergy 
when ordained. 
CLEEK, see Clergy. 

CLEEKENWELL, a parish, N. E. London, 
so called from a well (fons clericorum) in Ray- 
street, where the parish clerks occasionally acted 
mystery-plays : once before Richard II. in 1390. 
Hunt's political meetings in 1817 were held in 
Spa-fields in this parish. In St. John's parish are 
the remains of the priory of the knights of St. 
John of Jerusalem. Clerkenwell prison was built 
in 1615, in lieu of the noted prison called the Cage, 
which was taken down in 1614; the then Bride- 
well having been found insufficient. The prison 



CLERMONT. 



223 



CLOGHER. 



called the House of Detention, erected in 1775, was 
rebuilt in 1818; again 1844. For the explosion 
here, see Fenians, Dec. 1867. At Clei-kenwell- 
close formerly stood the house of Oliver Cromwell, 
where some suppose the death-warrant of Charles I. 
was signed, Jan. 1649. 

Free library in. Skinner street (on site given by the 
Skinners' company) opened by the lord mayor 
Isaacs . . . . . . .10 Oct. 1890 

Rosebery avenue opened by the earl of Rosebery 

21 July „ 

CLERMONT (France). Here was held the 
council under pope Urban II. in 1095, ^ which the 
first crusade against the infidels was determined 
upon, and Godfrey of Bouillon appointed to com- 
mand it. Iu this council the name of pope is said 
to have been first given to the head of the Roman 
Catholic church, exclusively of the bishops who used 
previously to assume the title. Philip I. of France 
was (a second time) excommunicated by this 
assembly. Henault. 

CLEVEDON COURT, Somersetshire, the 
mediaeval seat of sir Arthur Hallam Elton ; de- 
stroyed by fire 27 Nov. 1882 — damage about 20,000/. 

CLEVELAND, see Steel, a town in Ohio, U.S., 
population in 1880, 160,146; 1890, 261,353. 

CLEVELAND IRON DISTRICT, see 

Middlesborough . 

CLEVES (N.E. Germany). Rutger, count of 
Cleves, lived at the beginning of the nth century. 
Adolphus, count of Mark, was made duke of Cleves 
by the emperor Sigismund, 141 7. John "William, 
duke of Cleves, Berg, Juliers, &c, died without 
issue, 25 March, 1609, which led to a war of suc- 
cession. Eventually Cleves was assigned to the 
elector of Brandenburg in 1666 ; seized by the 
French in 1757 ; restored at the peace in 1763, and 
now forms part of the Prussian dominions. 

CLIFTON SUSPENSION - BRIDGE, 
over the Avon, connecting Gloucestershire and 
Somersetshire, constructed of the removed Hunger- 
ford -bridge, was completed in Oct. and opened 
8 Dec. 1864. It is said to have the largest span 
(702 feet) of any chain bridge in the world. In 
1753 Alderman Vick, of Bristol, bequeathed \oool. 
to accumulate for the erection of a bridge over the 
Avon. In 1831 Brunei began one, which was aban- 
doned after the expenditure of 45,000/. 

CLIMACTERIC, the term applied to> certain 
periods of time in a man's life (multiples of 7 or 9), 
in which it was affirmed notable alterations in the 
health and constitution of a person happen. The 
grand climacteric is 63. 

CLIMATE. The condition of a place in regard 
to natural phenomena of the atmosphere as tem- 
perature, moisture, &c, see Meteorology. 
International Congresses on Climatology met at Paris 

Oct. 1889, and to be at Rome in 1892. 

CLINICAL SOCIETY of London, for 

the cultivation and promotion of practical medi- 
cine and surgery, established in Dec. 1867 ; first 
president, sir Thomas Watson. See Lectures 
(clinical). 

CLIO. The initials C. L. I. 0., forming the 
name of the muse of history, were rendered famous 
from the most admired papers of Addison, in the 
Spectator, having been marked by one or other of 
them, signed consecutively, in 1713. Cibber. 

CLISSOLD PARK, Stoke Newington, Lon- 
don, N., purchased by the Charity Commissioners 
and the Metropolitan Board of Works, &c. , for public 
use, 1887. 



CLITHEROE CASE, see Wives, 1891. 

CLOACA MAXIMA, the chief of the cele- 
brated sewers at Rome, the construction of which is- 
attributed to king Tarquinius Priscus (600 B.C.) and 
his successors. 

CLOCK. The clepsydra, or water-clock, was 
introduced at Rome from the east about 158 B.C. by 
Scipio Nasica. Toothed wheels were applied to them.- 
by Ctesibius, about 140 B.C. Clocks said to have- 
been found by Ca?sar on invading Britain, 55 B.C. 
The only clock supposed to be then in the world was 
sent by pope Paul I. to Pepin, king of France, a.d. 
760. Pacificus, archdeacon of Genoa, invented one 
in the 9th century. Originally the wheels were- 
three feet in diameter. The earliest complete clock 
of which there is any certain record was made by 
a Saracen mechanic in the 13th century. Alfred 
is said to have measured time by wax tapers, and 
to have used lanterns to defend them from the 
wind, about 887. 

The scapement ascribed to Gerbert .... 100c 
A great clock put up at Canterbury cathedral, cost 

30?. .......... 1292: 

A clock constructed by Richard, abbot of St. 

Alban's about 1326 

John Visconti sets up a clock at Genoa . . . 1353 
A striking clock in Westminster .... 1368. 
A perfect one made at Paris, by Vick . . . . 1370- 

The first portable one made 153c- 

In England no clock went accurately before that 

set up at Hampton-court (maker's initials N. O.) 154c 
■ • • • "Like a German clock, 
Still a-repairing ; ever out of frame ; 
And never going aright." 

Shakspeawe, " Love's Labour's Lost," 159S 
The pendulum is said to have been applied to clocks 

by the younger Galileo, 1639 • an£ l by Richard 

Harris (who erected a clock at St. Paul's, Covent- 

garden) 1641 

Christian Huyghens said he made his pendulum 

clock previously to 165S 

Froinantil, a Dutchman, improved the pendulum 

about 1659 
Repeating clocks and watches invented by Barlow, 

about 1675 
Spiral pendulum spring invented by Robert Hooke, 

about 1658 ; cylinder and escapement, by Thos. 

Tompion 1695- 

The dead beat, and horizontal escapements, by 

Graham, about 1700 ; compensating pendulum . 1715. 
The spiral balance spring suggested, and the duplex 

scapement, invented by Dr. Hooke ; pivot holes 

jewelled by Facio ; the detached-scapement, 

invented by Mudge, and improved by Berthould, 

Arnold, Earnshaw, and others in the 18th century. 
Harrison's time-piece (which sec) constructed . 1735? 
Clocks and watches taxed, 1797 ; tax repealed . 179S' 

Church clocks illuminated : the first, St. Bride's, 

London 2 Dec 1826 

The Horological Institute established . . . 1S5S 
The great Westminster clock set up . . 30 May, 1859. 
266,750 clocks and 88,621 watches imported into 

the United Kingdom in 1857 ; 258,628 clocks ; 

372,420 watches iu 1870; 687,271 clocks in . . 1877 

The duty came off , . i86e 

Messrs. Barraud and Lund's electric system of 

synchronising docks : city of London circuit of 

108 clocks in action .... Nov. 1878 
Victor Popp of Vienna applies compressed air as a 

motive power to clocks ; announced . March, 1881 
See Electric Clock, uuder Electricity. 

CLOGHER (Ireland). St. Macartin, a disciple- 
of St. Patrick, fixed a bishopric at Clogher, where 
he also built an abbey "in the street before the 
royal scat of the kings of Ergal." He died in 506. 
Clogher takes its name from a golden stone, from 
which, in times of paganism, the devil used to> 
pronounce juggling answers, like the oracles of 
Apollo Pythias. Sir James Ware. In 1041 the 
cathedral was built anew, and dedicated to its 



CLONFEET. 



221 



CLUBS. 



founder. Clogher merged, on the death of its last 
prelate (Dr. Tottenham), into the archiepiscopal see 
of Armagh, by the act of 1833. 

CLONFEET (Ireland). St. Brendan founded 
an abbey at Clonfert in 558 : his life is extant in 
jangling monkish metre in the Cottonian library at 
Westminster. In his time the cathedral, famous 
in ancient days for its seven altars, was erected ; 
,and Colgan makes St. Brendan its founder and the 
first bishop ; but it is said, in the Ulster Annals, 
under the year 571, "Mcena, bishop of Clonfert- 
Brenain, went to rest." Clonfert, in Irisn, signifies 
a wonderful den or retirement. In 1839 the see 
merged into that of Killaloe ; see Bishops. 

CLONTABF (near Dublin), the site of a battle 
fought on Good Friday, 23 April, 1014, between 
the Irish and Danes, the former headed by Bryan 
Boroimhe, monarch of Ireland, who defeated the 
invaders, after a long and bloody engagement, was 
wounded, and soon afterwards died. His son Mur- 
ehard also fell with many of the nobility ; 13,000 
Danes are said to have perished in the battle. 

CLOSTEBSEVEN (Hanover) CONVENTION 
OF, was entered into 8 Sept. 1757, between the 
duke of Cumberland, third son of George II., 
hardly pressed, and the duke of Eichelieu, com- 
mander of the French. By it 38,000 Hanoverians 
laid down their arms, and were dispersed. The 
treaty was disavowed by the king, and soon broken ; 
the duke resigned all his commands. 

CLOSUEE, see Cloture. 

'CLOTH, see Woollen Cloth and Calico. 

CLOTURE, the power of closing a debate in 
the French chamber of deputies, exercised by the 
president. A similar power, termed Closure, was 
given to the speaker of the House of Commons, 11 
Nov. 1882 ; first enforced 24 Feb. 1884 ; the closure 
made part of a standing order, 18, 19 March, 1887. 
By a new rule the power of closure was given to a 
house of 100, 28 Feb. 1888; and was frequently 
exercised in 1888, and since. See Parliament. 

CLOUD, St., a palace near Paris, named from 
prince Clodoald or Cloud, who became a monk 
there in 533, after the murder of his brothers, and 
died in 560. The palace was built in the 16th 
century, and in it Henry III. was stabbed by Cle- 
ment, 1 Aug. (died 2 Aug.) 1589. This palace, long 
the property of the dukes of Orleans, was bought 
by Marie Antoinette in 1785. It was a favourite 
residence of the empress Josephine, of Charles X. 
.and his family, and of the emperor Napoleon III. 
It was burnt during the siege of Paris, having 
been fired upon by the French themselves, 13 Oct. 
1870. The ruins were cleared away, and the site 
sold, July, 1892. 

CLOUDS consist of minute particles of water, 
often in a frozen state, floating in the air. In 1803 
Mr. Luke Howard published his classification of 
clouds, now generally adopted, consisting of three 
primary forms — cirrus, cumulus, and stratus ; three 
compounds of these forms ; and the nimbus or 
black rain clouds (cumulo-cirro-stratus.) A new 
edition of Howard's Essay on the Clouds appeared 
in 1865. 

CLOVESHOO (now Cliff), Kent. Here was 
held an important council of nobility and clergy 
concerning the government and discipline of the 
church, Sept. 747 ; and others were held here, 800, 
803, 822, S24. 

CLOYNE (S. Ireland), a bishopric, founded in 
£he 6th. century by St. Coleman, was in 1431 united 



to that of Cork, and so continued for 200 years. It 
was united with that of Cork and Ross, 1834 ; see 



CLUBMEN, associations founded in the 
southern and western counties of England, to re- 
strain the excesses of the armies during the civil 
wars, 1642-9. They professed neutrality, but in- 
clined towards the king, and were considered ene- 
mies by his opponents. 

CLUBS, originally consisted of a small number 
of persons of kindred tastes and pursuits, who met 
together at stated times for social intercourse. The 
club at the Mermaid tavern, established about the 
end of the 16th century, consisted of Raleigh, 
Shakspeare, and others. Ben Jonson set up a club 
at the Devil tavern. Addison, Steele, and others, 
frequently met at Button's coffee-house, as de- 
scribed in the Spectator. The present London 
clubs, some comprising 500, others about 6000 
members, possess handsome luxuriously furnished 
edifices in or near Pall Mall. The members obtain 
choice viands and wines at moderate charges, and 
many clubs possess excellent libraries, particularly 
the Athenseuni {which see). The annual payment 
varies from 3/. 3*. to ill. lis.; the entrance fee from 
5^. 5s. to 421?. The following are the principal 
clubs ; several are described in separate articles : — 

Rota (political) 1659 

Civil Club (professional and commercial) 19 Nov. 1669 
White's (Tory), at White's Coffee-house . . . 169S 

Kit-Cat (literary) 1700 

Dilettanti (fine arts) 1734 

Beefsteak 1735 

Royal Society (scientific) .... before 1743 

Cocoa Tree 1746 

Boodle's 1762 

Literary Club (which see), termed also " The Club," 

and Johnson's Club 1764 

Brooks's, originally Almack's (Whig) . . . ,, 

Royal Naval 1765 

Arthur's , 

Alfred (literary) 1808-51 

Roxburghe, London . 1812 

Guards . , . 1813 

United Service . .... 1815 

Travellers' ... ... 1819 

Union ... 1821 

United University . 1822 

Bannatyne, Edinburgh . ... . . 1823 

Athenaeum (which see) 1824 

Oriental . ,, 

United Service (Junior) 1827 

Wyndham . 1828 

Maitland, Glasgow , 

Oxford and Cambridge 1829 

Carlton (Conservative), founded by the duke of Wel- 
lington and others 183 1 

Garrick ... 

City of London Club . . . . . 1832 

Abbotsford, Edinburgh . . . 1835 

Reform (Liberal) . 1836 

Parthenon 1836 

Army and Navy ....... 1837 

Etching, London 1838 

Spalding, Aberdeen . 1839 

Conservative . . . , 1840 

Gresham 1843 

National 1845 

Whittington (founded by Douglas Jerrold and 

others) 1846 

East India United Service 1847 

Savage 1857 

St. James's . ■ ,, 

Naval and Military 1862 

Grafton ..... ...... 1863 

Arts • ", 

Junior Carlton 1864 

Thatched House 1S65 

CobdenClub 1866 

Savile • 1868 

Marlborough 1869 

Lyric . ........ 1870 



CLUBS. 



225 



COAL. 



St. Stephen's 1870 

Universities 1871 

Scientific 1874 

Wanderers ........... 

Devonshire (Liberal) ,, 

•City Liberal Club ,, 

Verulam (Literary and Scientific) . . ." . ,, 

Byron 1875 

Hanover Square 1876 

New Athenaeum Club 1878 

Eighty Club 1880 

National Liberal Club 1882 

Constitutional 1883 

Grosvenor, Bond Street ,, 

Imperial and American ...... 1885 

National Conservative 1886 

National Union 1887 

Arts and Letters 1889 

Amphitryon, Albemarle Street, W 1890 

See Working Men's Club. 

CLUBS, FRENCH. The first arose about 1782. 
They were essentially political, and greatly con- 
cerned in the revolution. The Club Breton became 
the celebrated Club des Jacobins, and the Club des 
Cordeliers comprised among its members Danton 
and Camille Desmoulins. From these two came 
the Mountain party which overthrew the Girondists 
fin 1793, and fell in its turn in 1794. The clubs 
•disappeared with the Directory in 1799. They were 
revived in 1848 in considerable numbers, but did 
r.ot attain to their former eminence, and were sup- 
pressed by decrees, 22 June, 1849, and 6 June, 
1850. Bouillet. 

CLUB-FOOT, a deformity due to the shorten- 
ing of one or more of the muscles, although at- 
tempted to be relieved by Lorenz in 1784, by 
•cutting the tendo Achillis, was not effectually cured 
Sill 1831, when Stromeyer of Erlangen cured Dr. 
Little by dividing the tendons of the contracted 
muscles with a very thin knife. 

CLUGJN'Y or CLUNY, ABBEY OF, in France, 
formerly most magnificent, founded by Benedictines, 
under the abbot Bern, about 910, and sustained 
afterwards by William, duke of Berry and Aqui- 
taine. English foundations for Cluniac monks were 
instituted soon after. 

CLYDE and FORTH WALL was built 
hy Agricola, 84. The Forth and Clyde Canal was 
•commenced by Mr. Smeaton, 10 July, 1768, and 
was opened 28 July, 1790. It forms a communi- 
cation between the seas on the eastern and western 
coasts of Scotland. 

CNLDUS, in Caria, Asia Minor: near here 
Conon the Athenian defeated the Lacedaemonian 
fleet, under Peisander, 394 B.C. 

COACH (from coche, Spanish). Beckmann 
states that Charles of Anjou's queen entered Naples 
in a caretta (about 1282). Under Francis I. there 
were but two in Paris, one belonging to the 
queen, the other to Diana, the natural daughter of 
Henry II. There were but three in Paris in 1550; 
and Henry IV. had one without straps or springs. 
John de Laval de Bois-Dauphin set up a coach on 
account of his enormous bulk. The first coach seen 
in England was about 1553. Coaches were intro- 
duced by Fitz- Alan, earl of Arundel, in 1580. Slow. 
A bill was brought into parliament to prevent the 
effeminacy of men riding in coaches, 43 Eliz. 1601. 
Carte. Repealed 1625. The coach of the duke of 
Buckingham had six horses, that of the earl of 
Northumberland eight, 1619. The coach-tax com- 
menced in 1747. Horace Walpole says that the 
present royal state coach (first used 16 Nov. 1762), 
cost 7,528/. The lord mayor's old state coach was 
Kot used 9 Nov. 1867 ; see Car, Carriages, Chariots, 
■Kae/oicu Coaches, Mail Coaches, &c. G. Thrupp's 
"* History of Coaches" published 1877. 



A coachmakers' exhibition London, opened 2 June, 1879 
A private university teacher is termed a " Coach." Dr. 
Edward John Routh, of Cambridge, out of 631 pupils 
. produced 27 senior wranglers, 1858-88. On his retire- 
ment his old pupils presented his portrait to his 
wife, 3 Nov. 1888. 

COAL.* It is contended, with much seeming 
truth, that coal, although not mentioned by the 
Romans in their notices of Britain, was yet in use 
by the ancient Britons. .Brandt. Henry III. is 
said to have granted a licence to dig coals near 
Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1234 ; some say earlier, 
and others in 1239. Sea-coal was prohibited from 
being used in and near London, as being "preju- 
dicial to human health;" and even smiths were 
obliged to burn wood, 1273. Stow. In 1306 the 
gentry petitioned against its use. Coal was first 
made an article of trade from Newcastle to London, 
4 Rich H. 1 381. Rymer's Fcedera. Notwithstanding 
the many previous complaints against coal as a 
public nuisance, it was at length generally burned 
in London in 1400 ; but it was not in common use 
in England until the reign of Charles I. 1625. Coal 
was brought to Dublin from Newry in 1742. 
1700 consumed in London . . . 317,000 chald. 
17s ........ 510,000 ,, 

1800 ....... 814,000 ,, 

1810 980,372 ,, 

1820 1,171,178 ,, 

1830 1,588,360 ,. 

1835 .>.... 2,299,816 tons. 

1840 2,638,256 ,, 

1850 3,638,883 „ 

i86o_. — Coal brought to London, 3,573,377 tons coast- 
wise ; 1,499,899 tons by railways and canals. 
1861. — Coal brought to London, 5,232,082 tons ; in 1862, 

4,973,823 tons. 
Coal and fuel exported : value : 1856, 2,826,582?. ; 1869, 
5,165,668?. ; 1873, 13,188,511?. ; 1878. 7,330,474/. ; 1883, 
10,645,919?.; 1887, 10,169,991?.; 1888, 11,345,299?.; 1889, 
14,781,990?.; 1890, 19,020,269?. 
The coal-fields of Great Britain are estimated at 5400 
square miles ; of Durham and Northumberland, 
723 square miles. Bakewell. In 1857 about 65^ 
millions of tons were extracted (value about 
16,348,676?.) from 2095 collieries ; about 25 millions 
are consumed annually in Great Britain. 1882, 
collieries, 3,759. 
Coal obtained in Great Britain and Ireland : — 
1854. 64,661,401 tous. 1 1865. 98,150,587 tons. 



1862 



83,635,214 
81,638,338 
86,292,215 
92.787.873 



1866. 101,630,544 

1867. 104,500,480 

1868. 103,141,157 
~> 107,427,557 



1870. 110,431,192 tons value. 27,607,798?. 



117.352,028 

1872. 123 497,316 

1873. 127,016,747 

1874. 125,067,016 

1875. 131,867,105 

1876. 133,344,826 

1877. 134,610,763 

1878. 132,654,887 

1879. 134,008,228 

1880. 146,818,622 

1881. 154,184,300 
1882. t 156,499,977 

1883. 163,737,327 

1884. 160,757,779 

1885. 159,351,418 

1886. 157,^18,482 

1887. 162,119,812 

1888. 169,935,219 

1889. 176,916,724 

1890. 181,614,288 



35,205,608?. 
46,311,143?. 
47,631,280?. 
45,849,194?. 
46,163,486?. 
46,670,668?. 
47. "S^'- 
46,429,210?. 
46,902,879?. 
62,395,414/. 
65,528,327/. 
44,118,409/. 
46,054,143?. 
43,446,183/. 
41,139,408/. 
38,145,930/. 
39,092,830?. 
42,971,276. 
56,175,426. 
74.953.997- 



* There are five kinds of fossil fuel: anthracite, coal, 
lignite, bituminous shale, and bitumen. No satisfactory 
definition of coal has yet been given. The composition of 
H'ood is 491 carbon, 63 hydrogen, 44 '6 oxygen ; of coal 
82 "6 carbon, 56 hydrogen, 118 oxygen. 

t The plan adopted for obtaining the value of the 
coal produced was changed in 1882. 



COAL. 



226 



COAL. 



United States, 41,752,609 tons, obtained in . . 1872 

Mr. Sopwith, in 1855, computed the annual product 
of the coal-mines of Durham and Northumberland 
at 14 million tons : — 6 millions for London, 23- 
millions exported, 25 millions for coke, 1 million 
for colliery engines," <fee. , and two millions for 
local consumption. 

By a stipulation in the commercial treaty of i860, in 
consequence of the French government greatly 
reducing the duty on imported coal, the British 
government (it is thought by many imprudently) 
engaged to lay no duty on exported coal for ten 
years. In 1859 about 7,000,000 tons of British 
coals were exported, of which 1,391,009 tons went 
to France. 

A commission (consisting of the duke of Argyll, sir 
R. I. Murchison, Dr. John Percy, professor 
Ramsay, and others) appointed to investigate into 
the probable quantity of coal in the coal-fields of 
the United Kingdom, &c. 28 June, 1866, reported 
27 July, 1871 : — 

Attainable quantity of coal in known tons 

coal-fields 90,207,000,000 

Probable available coal in other 
places 56,273,000,000 

146,480,000,000 



Sale of Coal Regulation Act 

The duties on the exportation of British coal, which 
had existed since the 16th century, were prac- 
tically repealed 

Sir R. Peel imposed a duty of 4s. a ton in 1842 ; 
caused much dissatisfaction ; repealed . . . 

Women were prohibited from working in English 
collieries in 

The consumption of coal in France in 1780, only 
400,000 tons, rises to 6,000,000 tons in . . . 

The United States produced between 8 and 9 millions 
of tons : Belgium, 5,000,000 ; and France, 4,500,000, 

An Act for the regulation and inspection of mines 
passed 

Duplicate shafts act passed . . . ... 

Coal-pitmen's strikes frequently occur ; a long and 
severe one arose in Staffordshire in 1864 ; near St. 
Helen's, March, 1868 ; in S. Wales . Jan. -March, 

Coal-mines regulation act, tending to check the sup- 
ply, passed 10 Aug. 1872 ; Act amended 

By another act preceding acts were consolidated, 
the employment of women and boys under 12 
underground was prohibited, the qualifications 
of managers is to be tested by examiners, and 
other regulations made ... 6 Sept. 

A coal-cutting machine at work, producing about 
70 tons in 8 hours (work of 40 men) ; requires 
attendance of 3 or 4 men . . Times, 6 Feb. 
reported successful in Northumberland . Nov. 

Great dearth of coal in London (see Strikes), best 
coal 52s. a ton 15 Feb. 

Duty on Coal brought to London, gd. a ton, and $d. 
a ton for London improvements ; produced 
381,2492. 

Parliamentary committee respecting coal first met 

24 March, 

Exhibition of coal-raising machinery at Salford, 
Manchester, opened .... 30 Jan. 

Royal Commission on spontaneous combustion of 
coal (Mr. H. C. Childers, professor Abel, &c.) met 
11 Nov. 1875 ; report issued ; alludes to danger 
of absorption of oxygen, need of ventilation, &c. 

Aug. 

A commission to inquire into the causes and 
remedies for explosions was appointed (including 
Messrs. Warington W. Smyth, Tyndall, F. A.. 

Abel, and others) Feb. 

[Preliminary report issued Nov. 1881 ; final report 

15 March, 1886.] 

A great reduction of accidents through improved 

management announced .... Nov. 

A new method of blasting by quick -lime-cartridges 

invented by Smith and Moor much recommended 

Increase of wages obtained in consequence of the 

miners' conference at Manchester . Jan. -Feb. 

Yorkshire Miners' Association (Benjamin Pickard 
and others) demand diminution of time of labour, 
and decrease of output in order to raise the price 
of coal Feb. 



1842 
1S45 
185s 



1873 



1873 



1874 

1876 
1879 

1881 

1882 



Government circular issued, recommending the 
use of Fleus's apparatus for rendering foul air 
respirable after explosions (see Diving) March 18S3 

Important meeting of delegates from about 17,000 
miners requiring 15 per cent, increase of wages 
at A rd wick 6 Nov. ,, 

Pit-brow women employed outside of coal mines in 
Lancashire and South Wales ; an attempt to 
prohibit this negatived by the commons 23 June, 1887- 

Messrs. Ash worth and Kneen patent a furnace which 
saves about 35 per cent, of coal and consumes 
smoke, autumn 1887. 

Proposed formation of " The Coal Owners and 
Consumers Co-operative Association " March, 1889. 

Coal-field discovered near Dover . . 15 Feb. 189c. 

Federation of colliery owners proposed (except 
S. Wales, Northumberland, and Durham) in 
opposition to strikes, &c. . 31 Jan., 11 Feb. ,, 

The colliers' demand for advance of 10 per cent, 
pay, resisted 1 1 Feb. , .. 

The miners' delegates (40) at Westminster (repre- 
senting 350,000) threaten a general strike if the 
advance of 10 per cent, is not conceded before 15 
March 15 Feb. ,,. 

The strike begins 15 March ,,. 

Meeting of delegates from both parties ; and imme- 
diate advance of 5 per cent, on Aug. 1 agreed to ; 
strike closes 20 March ,,. 

Royal commission appointed to inquire into the 
effect of coal dust in relation to explosions in 
mines (Mr. J. Chamberlain, lord Rayleigh, prof. 
Dixon, and others) ; first meeting . 6 March, iSgir 

The Northumberland coal-miners agree to a reduc- 
tion of 5 per cent, on their wages . 2 Jan. 1892- 

The new " sliding scale" agreed to, 1 Jan., adopted 
at Cardiff and Aberdare . . . 4 Jan. ,,. 

The representatives of the National Miners' Federa- 
tion at Manchester, recommend a temporary sus- 
pension of work (12-26 March), to raise the prices 
and maintain the rate of pay to miners ; gene- 
rally accepted, except in South Wales, Northum- 
berland, Durham, Worcestershire, Staffordshire, 
and Scotland . . . . . Feb. JS , 

Prices raised in London, &c, temporary panic 

29 Feb.ei seq. ,„ 

Strike of the Durham coal-miners against the pro- 
posed 10 per cent, reduction of wages, 11 March ; 
92,588 said to be out, 16 March ; the men agree 
to accept j% or 10 per cent, reduction ; the coal- 
owners require 13^ per cent. ; compromise^ 
effected by the intervention of bishop Westcott 
at a meeting at Auckland Castle, 10 per cent, 
accepted by both parties, 1 June ; manufactures 
on the Tyne and Wear much suspended 

March — June ,, 
Accidents. — About 1000 lives are lost annually by 

explosion and accidents in mines. (1856-76). 1877,1208 

lost: 1878, 1413 ; 1879, 973 lost; 1880, 1318 lost; 1881,- 

954 lost ; 1882, 1126 lost ; 1883, 1054 lost ; 1884, 942 lost ;. 

1885, 1150 lost; 1886, 953; 18S7, 995; 1888, 888; 1889.. 

1,110; 1890,1,206; 1891, 1,030. (1874-84, 11,165 deaths ;. 

2562 due to explosions; 8603 due to other causes. Sir 

F. A. Abel, 18 Nov. 1885.) 

More men employed than formerly, consequently more- 
deaths at explosions (1886). Pits deeper than formerly... 
Dust as well as after-damp causes explosions. 
In 1858, by explosions in coal-mines, 52 persons rjerisheOi 

at Bardsley ; 20 at Duffryn, near Newport ; 52 at 

Tydesley, near Leeds ; and about 36 in different parts of 

the country. 

1859 — 5 April, 26 lives were lost at the chain colliery,. 

near Neath, through the irruption of water. 

i860 — 76 lives were lost on 2 March., at Burradon, near 

Killingworth ; 145 at the Risca mine, near Newport,. 

Mon., 1 Dec. ; and 22 at the Hettou mine, Northumber- 
land, 20 Dec. 

1861— 11 June, 21 lives were lost through an inundation; 

in the Claycross mines, Derbyshire. 

85 lives were lost at Lalle coal-mine, in France, in Oct. 

1861. 
1862 — 47 lives were lost at Gethin mine, Merthyr 

Tydvil, S. Wales, 19 Feb. ; at Walker, near Neweastle- 

on-Tyne, 15 lives lost, 22 Nov. ; Edmund's Main, near 

Barnsley, 60 lives lost, 8 Dec. 
1863 — 13 lives lost at Coxbridge, near Newcastle, 

6 March ; 39 lives lost at Margam, S. Wales, 17 Oct.j 14 

lives lost at Maesteg, S. Wales, 26 Dec. 
1865—6 lives lost at Claycross, 3 May; 24 at New 



COAL. 



227 



COAL. 



Bedwellty pit, near Tredegar, 16 June ; explosion at 
Gethin mine, Merthyr Tydvil, 30 lives lost, 20 Deo. 

1866 — Explosion at Highbrook colliery, near Wigan, 
Lancashire, about 30 lives lost, 23 Jan. ; at Dukiulield, 
near Ashton, 37 lives lost, 14 June ; at Pelton Fell 
colliery, near Durham, about 24 lives lost, 31 Oct. ; at 
Oaks colliery, Hoyle-mill, near Barnsley, about 360 
persons killed, 12 Dec. ; 28 searchers killed (including 
Mr. Parkin Jett'cock, mining engineer) by fresh explosion, 

13 Dec. ; at Talke-of-the-hill, Staffordshire, about 80 
persons perish, 13 Dec. 

1867 — Explosion at Garswood colliery, near St. Helen's, 

14 lives lost, 29 Aug. ; Shankhouse colliery, Cramlington, 
Northumberland, flooded, 1 man drowned, 1 Nov. ; ex- 
plosionat Femdale colliery, Rhondda valley, Glamorgan- 
shire, about 178 lives lost : attributed tonaked lights, 
8 Nov. 

(For still more fatal accidents, see Lundhill and 
Hartley.) 

47 lives lost in a mine near Jemmapes, Belgium, 6 
Aug. 1868. 

1868. Explosions : at Green pit, near Kuabon, 11 
persons killed, 30 Sept. ; at Arley mine, Hindley-green, 
near Wigan, 62 killed, 26 Nov. ; at Norley mine, near 
Wigan, about 7 killed, 21 Dec. ; at Haydock collieries, 
near St. Helen's, 26 deaths, 30 Dec. 

1869. Brierly pit, near Stourbridge, inundated 17 
March, many lost ; — some rescued, 20, 21 March. 
Explosions at Highbrook colliery, near Wigan, about 
33 persons perished, 1 April ; at Ferndale colliery, 
Glamorganshire, about 60 lost, 10 June ; Haydock pit, 
St. Helen's, about 58 lost, 21 July ; Moss Coal Company's 
pit, near Hindley, about 30 lost, 22 Nov. 

1870. Explosions — at Silverdale colliery, Staffordshire, 
19 killed, 7 July ; Llansamlet, near Swansea, 19 killed, 
23 July ; Brynn-hall, near Wigan, about 19 killed, 16 
Aug. 

1871. Explosions, Renishaw park colliery, Eckington, 
near Sheffield, 27 killed, 10 Jan. ; Pentre colliery, 
Rhondda valley, 38 killed, 24 Feb. ; Victoria, near Ebbw 
Vale, Monmouthshire, about 19 killed, 2 March ; Moss 
Pits, near Wigan, 70 killed, 6 Sept. ; Grisons, Belgium, 
30 killed, 27 Sept. ; Gelly pit, Aberdare, 4 killed, 4 Oct. ; 
Seaham, 30 killed, 25 Oct. 

1872. Explosions — Llynvi valley near Bridgend, 11 
killed, 11 Jan. ; Black lake colliery, S. Staffordshire, 8 
killed, (through carelessness), 25 Jan. ; Morley main, near 
Dewsbury and Leeds, 7 Oct. about 34 deaths : great 
carelessness and bad discipline ; Rains mine, Pendlebury, 
6 killed, 6 Nov. ; Monceaux, department of Saone et Loire, 
about 38 killed, 8 Nov. ; Pelsall-hall, Walsall, about 22 
drowned by influx of water from an old working, 14 Nov. 

1873. Explosion at Talke colliery, N. Staffordshire Coal 
and Iron Company's works, about 20 killed, 18 Feb. ; 
Drummond colliery, Nova Scotia, explosion and fire, 
about 75 perished, 13 May ; Shamokin, Pennsylvania, 
U.S., 15 killed, 18 June ; Meshes colliery, near Wigan, 

6 killed, 21 Nov. 

1874. Explosions— Astley pit, Dukinfield, near Man- 
chester, 54 killed, (attributed to gross ignorance or cul- 
pable carelessness), 14 April ; Saw-mills pit, near Wigan, 

15 killed, 18 July ; Rawmarsh colliery near Rotherham, 
explosion through naked lights, about 23 killed, 20 Nov. ; 
Bignall hall colliery, near Dudley, Staffordshire, 17 
killed, 24 Dec. 

1875. Explosions — Aldwarke Main, near Rotherham, 

7 killed, 5 Jan. ; Ruffery colliery, Dudley, 4 killed, 6 Jan.; 
Bunker's Hill, North Staffordshire, (through a gun- 
powder fuze), 43 deaths, 30 April ; Donnington Wood, 
Shropshire, 11 killed, n Sept. ; Ashton Vale, near Bed- 
minster, 4 killed, 7 Oct. ; Haigh, near Wigan, Alexandra 
pit (accident with descending cages), 7 killed, 3 Dec. ; 
Powell Duffryn, New Tredegar, 22 killed, 4 Dec. ; Llan- 
colly, Pentyrch, (naked light), 12 killed, 5 Dec. ; Swaithe 
main, near Barnsley, about 140 killed, 6 Dec. ; Methley 
junction, near Leeds, 6 killed, 9 Dec. Explosion at a 
colliery near Mons, Belgium, about no killed, 14 Dec. 

1876. Explosions— Talke, North Staffordshire, 5 killed, 
S Jan. ; St. Etienne, France, about 30 killed, 4 Feb. 
Birley, near Sheffield, 6 killed, 26 June ; Abertillery, 
Monmouthshire, 17 killed, 18 Dec. 

1877. Explosions, &c. — Stonehill, near Bolton, about 
18 killed, 23 Jan. ; Darcy Lever, near Bolton, about 10 
killed, 7 Feb. ; Tyldesley, near Bolton, 7 killed, 6 March ; 
New Worcester pit, Swansea, 18 or 19 killed, 8 March. In- 
undation — Tynewydd mine, near Pontypridd, S. Wales, 
several drowned, 1 1 April, several rescued by excavation, 
after ten days' imprisonment ; great heroism shown, see 



Albert Medals, 20 April ; Mr. Thomas, manager, accused of 
culpable negligence, after inquest on 5 deaths, 17 May. — 
King Pit, Pemberton, near Wigan, about 33 perished 
(including Mr. Walker, the manager, and two overlookers 
attempting rescue) n Oct. ; High Blantyre, near Glasgow, 
Messrs. Dixon's pits, above 200 perished, 22 Oct. ; South 
Kirby, near Barnsley, rope broke, 4 killed, 29 Oct. 

1878. Explosions, &c. — High Blantyre, 6 perished, 9 
March; Kilsyth, Stirlingshire, Barnard Pit, 16 immured, 
8 March ; Kearsley, near Bolton, about 43 perished, 12 
March ; Apedale, near Chesterton, N. Staffordshire, about 
30 perished, 27 March ; Wood Pits, Florida mine, Hay- 
dock, near Wigan, about 189 perished, 7 June ; Ebbw 
Vale colliery, Abercarne, 12 miles from Newport, Mon- 
mouthshire, about 268 out of 3S7 perished, n Sept. 

1879. Explosions, &c— Dinas pit, Rhondda valley, 
Glamorganshire, about 63 perish, 13 Jan. ; " Deep 
Drop " pit, near Wakefield, 19 perish, 4 March ; Victoria 
colliery, Snydale, near Wakefield ; rope of descending 
cage broke, 8 killed, 7 March ; Cwmavon, Glamorgan- 
shire ; chain broke, 6 killed, 24 June ; High Blantyre 
collieries, Dixon & Co., 28 killed, 2 July; Lady pit, 
Silverdale, N. Staffordshire, 8 deaths, 12 Sept. ; Wann 
Llwyd, Ebbw Vale, Monmouth, 3 killed, 22 Sept. : 
Shortheath, near Wolverhampton, 6 killed, 12 Nov. ; 
Scowcrofts, Kearsley, near Bolton, 7 deaths, 25 Dec. 

1880. Explosions, &c. — Leycett, near Newcastle- 
under-Lyme, about 73 deaths, 21 Jan. ; Anderlavs 
(France), about 20 deaths, 1 April ; Risea, 6 miles from 
Newport, Mon., about 120 deaths 15 July ; Seaham, 
near Sunderland, Durham, 164 deaths, 8 Sept. ; Pen-y- 
graig, S. Wales, 101 perished, 10 Dec. 

1881. Explosions.— Whitfield colliery, Chell, N. Staf- 
ford, 20 killed, 7 Feb. ; Hanley, Staffordshire, about 5 
killed, 21 Nov. ; Cockerill colliery, Belgium, 66 perished, 
about 9 Dec. ; Abram colliery, near Wigan, about 48 
perished, 19 Dec. (13 explosions, with loss of 99 lives). 

1882. Explosions — Coedlae, Glamorganshire, 6 lives, 
n Feb. ; Trimdon Grange colliery, 74 perished, 16 Feb. ; 
Blaina, Monmouthshire, 5 deaths, 27 Feb. ; Lumley, near 
Fencehouses, Durham, fall of shaft, about 100 imprisoned, 
14 March ; Tudhoe colliery, Weardale, Durham, 37 lives 
lost, 18 April; West Stanley, Durham, 13 lives 
lost, 19 April ; lord Lonsdale's colliery, near White- 
haven, 4 killed, 25 April ; Baxterley mine, near Ather- 
stone, Warwickshire, about 32 lives lost, 2 May ; Vic- 
toria colliery, Brantcliff, Morley, near Leeds, 7 killed, r 
May ; Claycross, above 45 deaths, 7 Nov. 

1883. Explosions.— Wharnclifte colliery, near Barns- 
ley, 17 deaths, 19 Oct. ; Fair Lady pit, near Leycett, 
Newcastle-under-Lyme, 22 Oct. ; Moor-fields colliery, 
near Accrington, Lancashire, about 68 deaths, 7 Nov. 

1884. Explosions, &c— Gamant, Cwmamman, South 
Wales; rope broke; cage fell; 11 killed, 16 Jan.; 
Rhondda valley, Glamorganshire, explosion, about n 
perished, Jan. ; Pochin colliery, near Tredegar, 14 
deaths, 8 Nov. 

1885. Explosions, &c. — Usworth, near Newcastle-on- 
Tyne ; about 42 deaths, 2 March ; Camphausen, near 
Saarbrtick. about 140 .perish, 17 March ; Dombrau, 
Ostrau, Moravia, about 41 deaths, 27 March; Fenton 
colliery, near Stoke-on-Trent, 8 deaths, 7 April ; Hough - 
ton-le-Spring, about 12 perish, 3 June ; Clifton Hall, near 
Pendlebury, Lancashire, about 177 perish, 9.30 a.m. 18 
June ; Burley, Apedale, N. Stafford, 9 killed, 20 June : 
Manly colliery, Pontypridd, S. Wales, 200 entombed, Si 
deaths, 23 Dec. (Explosions in Britain 16, deaths 322.) 

1886. Explosions, &c. — Easton colliery, Bristol, 4 
killed, 19 Feb. ; Werfa old pit, Abernant, near Aberdare, 
3 killed, 27 March ; Woodend or Bedford colliery, mar 
West Leigh, S.W. Lancashire, explosion, 38 deaths, 

13 Aug.; Bedminster colliery, near Bristol, 10 killed, 
10 Sept. ; Braysdown colliery, near Radstock, 3 killed, 

14 Sept. ; Schalkc, in Westphalia, 45 perish, 24 Sept. : 
Pope and Pearson's colliery, Altofts, near Wakefield, 
22 deaths, 2 Oct. ; Taunton colliery near Ashby-de-la- 
Zoueh, Mr. Lakin, the owner, and three others* killed 
by choke-damp, 6 Oct. ; Albion colliery, near Ponty- 
pridd, four killed, Nov. ; Elemore colliery, Durham, 
28 deaths, 2 Dec. ; Houghton Main colliery, near 
Barnsley, 10 men killed by fall of a cage, 30 Dec. 

1887. Explosions, &c. — Ynyshir colliery. Rhondda 
valley, Wales, about 39 lives lost, 18 Feb. : Mons 
colliery, Belgium, about 87 perish. 5 March ; I 'ill 1 i 
(Sydney), 85 perish, 23 March ; Victoria colliery, 
Nanaimo, Vancouver Island, over 170 perish, 4 May : 
Udston colliery, near Glasgow, 73 perish, 28 May ; 

Q 2 



COAL DUES. 



228 



COCK-FIGHTING. 



Gelsenkirchener, Prussia, above 60 perish, 8 June ; 
Walker, near Newcastle, 8 killed, 24 Oct. 

1888. St. Helen's colliery, Workington, about 30 lives 
lost, 19 April ; Aber colliery, Glamorgan, 5 lives lost, 
20 May ; Aveyron, France, 40 lives lost, 3 Nov. ; Dour, 
Belgium, 21 lives lost, 13 Nov. 

1889. Hyde colliery, Cheshire, 23 lives lost, 18 Jan. ; 
Brynnally colliery, near Wrexham, 20 lives lost, 13 
March. Explosion of fire-damp in Verpilleux mine, near 
St. Etienne, about 184 deaths, 3 July ; Shell colliery, 
N. Staffordshire, explosion, 3 deaths, 17 Aug. ; Peni- 
cuik colliery (Mauricewood pit), Midlothian, fire dis- 
covered, 2 men escaped, 63 reported to have perished, 
5 Sept. ; Mossfield colliery, Adderley Green, Longton, 
N. Staffordshire, 59 deaths, 16 Oct. ; Hebburn colliery, 
near Nevvcastle-on-Tyne, 6 deaths, 4 Nov. 

1890. Explosions, &c— Glynn Pit, near Pontypool, 
5 deaths, 23 Jan. ; Llanerch colliery, near Abersychan, 
Monmouthshire, 176 deaths (relief subscribed nearly 
26,000^.), 30 April ; colliery near Decize, Nievre, 
France, about 44 deaths, 18 Feb. ; Morfa colliery, Tar- 
bach, Glamorganshire, 87 deaths, 10 March ; Hill Farm 
mine, Pennsylvania, 34 perish, 16 June ; Pelissier mine, 
St. Etienne, S. France, about 109 lives lost, 29 July ; 
Mayback pit, near Wendel, 24 deaths, 15 Sept. 

1891. Explosions, &c. — Sladderhill pits, Apedale, near 
Newcastle-under-Lyme, about 10 lives lost, 2 April ; 
Malago Vale, Bedminster, 10 deaths, 31 Aug. ; Aber- 
gwynfi, Avon Valley, S. Wales, 7 men killed by accident 
to machinery, 30 Sept. ; St. Etienne, France, explosion 
through fire-damp, about 73 deaths, 6 Dec. 

1892. Explosions, &c. — Anderlues colliery, Mons, Bel- 
gium, about 153 killed, n March. 

See Mansion-house Funds. 

Coal Exchange, London, established by 47 Geo. 
III. c. 68 (1807). The present building (a most 
interesting structure) was erected by Mr. J. B. 
Bunning, and opened by prince Albert 30 Oct. 1849 

Coal-wuippers' Board, to protect the men em- 
ployed in unloading coal-vessels from publicans, 
formed by an act of parliament in 1843, lasted 
till 1856, when the coakowners themselves esta- 
blished a whipping office. 

COAL DUES, on coal entering the port of 
London for metage are mentioned in 1444. The 
right of the Corporation to \d. per chaldron was es- 
tablished in 1591. The amount of the tax and the 
term of levying it have been frequently changed 
since 1694. In 1831, the tax was directed to be 
levied on all coals entering London by water or 
railways, to be regulated by weight and not by 
measure. The tax of 13^. per ton by the act of 
1868 extended to 5 July, 1889. The receipts in 
1885 amounted to 449,343^. Latterly the money 
has been expended on extensive City improvements. 
Much discussion on the subject, 1887-9. 
An act for the abolition of these dues received the 
royal assent 9 July, 1889. Provision was made for the 
continuance of these dues another year to enable the 
corporation to pay debts due for the Holborn Viaduct 
and various city improvements. They ceased 5 July, 



COAL TAR, see Tar and Benzole. 

COALITIONS AGAINST FRANCE generally 
arose through England subsidising the great powers 
of the continent. See Treaties. 

Austria, Prussia and Great Britain .... 1793 
Great Britain, Germany, Russia, Naples, Portugal, 

and Turkey, signed .... 22 June, 1799 
Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Naples, 5 Aug. 1805 
Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Saxony, 6 Oct. 1806 
England and Austria .... 6 April, 1809 
Russia and Prussia ; the treaty ratified at Kalisch 

17 March, 1813 

COALITION MINISTRIES, see Aberdeen, 
Grenville II., Pelham, and Portland. 

COAST GUARD. In 1856, the raising and 
governing this body was transferred to the ad- 



miralty. A coast brigade of artillery was established 
in Nov. 1859. — Coast Volunteers, see under 
Navy of England. The importance of electric coast 
communication in time of storms, &c, was much 
discussed in 1892. The government agreed to 
appoint a royal commission on the subject, 26 
April, 1892, which met 18 June, see Lighthouses. 

COASTING TRADE of Great Britain thrown 
open to all nations by 17 Vict. c. 5, 1854. 

COBALT, a rare mineral found among the veins 
of ores, or in the fissures of stone, at an early date, 
in the mines of Cornwall, where the workmen call 
it mundic. Hill. It was distinguished as a metal 
by Brandt, in 1733. 

COBDEN CLUB, instituted to spread and 
develop Cobden's principles; held first dinner, 
"W. E. Gladstone in the chair, 21 July, 1866. The 
statue of Richard Cobden, at Camden Town, was 
inaugurated, 27 June, 1868. 12 out of 14 cabinet 
ministers were members July, 1880. 
At a meeting of the club, 12 May, 1890, earl Granville in 
the chair, an address was presented to Mr. T. B. 
Potter, chairman for 24 years, and Mr. W. E. Glad- 
stone gave a discourse on free trade. 

COBURG, see Saxe Coburg. 

COCA, a powerful narcotic existing in the Ery- 
thoxy Ion Coca, aSouth American plantknown in 1580 ; 
men taking a little of this are enabled to endure 
hard labour without any food for six or seven days 
and nights. Dr. Mantegazza's prize essay in 
German was published at Vienna in 1849. Cocaine, 
an anaesthetic obtained from this plant, said to be 
very efficacious in ophthalmic and other delicate 
surgical operations in 1884. 

COCCEIANS, a small sect founded by John 
Cocceius, of Bremen, in the seventeenth century. 
He held, amongst other opinions, that of a visible 
reign of Christ in this world, after a general con- 
version of the Jews and all other people to the 
Christian faith. He died in 1665. 

COCHEREL (near Evreux, N. W. France) . 
Here Bertrand uu Guesclin defeated the king of 
Navarre, and took prisoner the captal de Buch, 16 
May, 1364. 

COCHIN (India), held by the Portuguese, 1503; 
by the Dutch, 1663 ; by Hyder Ali, 1776 ; taken by 
the British, 1796; ceded to them, 1814. — Cochix 
China, see Annam. 

COCHINEAL INSECT (Coccus cacti), de- 
riving its colour from feeding on the cactus, became 
known to the Spaniards soon after their conquest of 
Mexico in 1518. Cochineal was brought to Europe 
about 1523, but was not known in Italy in 1548, 
although the art of dyeing then flourished there. 
In 1858 it was cultivated successfully in Tenerifl'e, 
the vines having failed through disease. 260,000 lbs. 
of cochineal were imported into England in 1830 ; 
1,081,776 lbs. in 1845; 2,360,000 lbs. in 1850; 
3,034,976 lbs. in 1859; 47,790 cwt. in 1870; and 
32,094 cwt. in 1877; 27,952 cwt. in 1879; 3°, OI 7 
cwt. in 1881 ; 21,440 cwt. in 1883; 10,089 cwt - in 
1887 ; 7,808 cwt. in 1890. The use of cochineal has 
been much replaced by the coal tar colours. Duty 
repealed 1845. 

COCKER' S ARITHMETIC ■ Edward Cocker, 
an eminent penman, born 1631, died 1675, compiled 
a book which first appeared in 1677, edited by John 
Hawkins. 

COCK-FIGHTING, practised by the Greeks, 
was brought by the Romans into England. William 
Fitz-Stephen, in the reign of Henry II., describes 



COCK-LANE GHOST. 



229 



COIF. 



cock-fighting as the sport of school-boys on Shrove- 
Tue?day. It was prohibited by Edward III. 1365 ; 
by Henry VIII. ; and by Cromwell, 1653, and 
latterly in 1849. Part of the site of Drury-lane 
theatre was a cock-pit in the reign of James I. ; and 
the Cock-pit at Whitehall was erected by Charles II. 
Formerly there was a Cock-pit- Royal in St. James's 
Park; but the governors of Christ's Hospital would 
not renew the lease for the building.* Cock-fighting 
is now forbidden by law. On 22 April, 1865, 34 
persons were fined at Marlborough-street police- 
office, for being present at a cock-fight. It was 
popular in New York, 1873. 

COCK-LANE GHOST, an imposition prac- 
tised by William Parsons, his wife, and daughter, 
by means of a female ventriloquist, during 1760 and 
1761, at No. 33, Cock-lane, London, was at length 
detected, and the parents were condemned to the 
pillory and impriso anient, 10 July, 1762. 

COCOA or CACAO, the kernel or seed of Theo- 
broma cacao (Linn.), was introduced into this 
country shortly after the discovery of Mexico, where 
it is an article of diet. From cocoa is produced 
chocolate. The cocoa imported into the United 
Kingdom, chiefly from the British West Indies and 
Guiana, was in 1849, 1,989,477 lbs.; in 1855, 
7,343,458 lbs. ; in 1861, 9,080,288 lbs. ; in 1866, 
10,308,298 lbs.; in 1870, 14, 793', 950 lbs.; in 1876, 
20,443,591 lbs.; in 1877, 17,056,364 lbs.; in 1879, 
26,155,788 lbs. ; in 1883, 22,698,161 lbs. ; in 1887, 
27,352,568 lbs. ; in 1890, 28,112,210 lbs. 

COCOA-NUT TREE {Cocos nucifera, Linn.), 
supplies the Indians with almost all they need, as 
bread, water, wine, vinegar, brandy, milk, oil, 
honey, sugar, needles, clothes, thread, cups, spoons, 
basins, baskets, paper, masts for ships, sails, cord- 
age, nails, covering for their houses, &c. Ray. 
In Sept. 1829, Mr. Soames patented his mode of 
procuring stearine and elaine from cocoa-nut oil. 
It is said that 32 tons of candles have been made 
in a month from these materials at the Belmont 
works, Lambeth. 

CODES, see Laivs. Alfrenus Varus, the civilian, 
first collected the Roman laws about 66 B.C. ; and 
Servius Sulpicius, the civilian, embodied them 
about 53 B.C. The Gregorian and Hermoginian 
codes were published a.d. 290 ; the Theodosian 
code commenced by order of Theodosius II. in 

J 29 ; and published for the eastern empire in 438. 
n 447 he transmitted to Valentinian his new con- 
stitutions promulgated as the law of the west in 
448. The celebrated code of the emperor Justinian 
in 529 — a digest from this last made in 533 ; see 
Basilica. Alfred's code, a selection from existing 
laws, is the foundation of the common law of 
England, 887. — The Code Napoleon, the civil code 
of France, was promulgated from 1803 to 1810. 
The emperor considered it his most enduring monu- 
ment. It was prepared under Ms supervision by 
the most eminent jurists, from the 400 systems 
previously existing, and has been adopted by other 
countries. 

A conference of jurists and publicists to consider 
an international code held at Brussels, July, Aug. 1874 

CODEX, see under Bible, Alexandrian, &c. 

* Mr. Ardesoif, a gentleman of large fortune and great 
hospitality, who was almost unrivalled in the splendour 
of his equipages, had a favourite cock, upon which he 
had won many profitable matches. The last wager 
he laid upon this cock he lost, which so enraged him, 
that in a tit of passion he thrust the bird into the fire. 
A delirious fever, the result of his rage and inebriety, in 
three days put an end to his life. He died at Tottenham, 
near London, 4 April, 1788. 



CODFISH, see Holland, 1347. 

COD-LIVER OIL was recommended as a 
remedy for chronic rheumatism by Dr. Percival in 
1782, and for diseases of the lungs about 1833. De 
Jongh's treatise on cod-liver oil was published in 
Latin, 1844; in English, 1849. 

COERCION BILLS, see Ireland, 1881 and 
1887. 

C03UR DE LION or the Lion-Hearted, 
a surname given to Richard I. of England, on ac- 
count of his courage, about 1192 ; and also to Louis 
VIII. of France, who signalised himself in the cm-. 
sades, and in his wars against England, about 1223. 

COFFEE. The tree was conveyed from Mocha 
in Arabia to Holland about 1616; and carried to 
the West Indies in 1726. First cultivated at Suri- 
nam by the Dutch, 1718. The culture was encour- 
aged in the plantations about 1 732, and the British 
and French colonies now grow coffee abundantly. 
Its use as a beverage is traced to the Persians. It 
came into great repute in Arabia Felix, about 1454; 
and passed thence into Egypt and Syria, and thence 
(in 151 1) to Constantinople, where a coffee-house 
was opened in 1551. M. Thevenot, the traveller, 
first brought it to France, 1662. Chambers. See 
Cafeine. 

Coffee brought into England by Mr. Nathaniel 
Canopus, a Cretan, who made it his common 
beverage at Balliol college, Oxford. Anderson . 1641 
The first coffee-house in England was kept by a 

Jew, named Jacobs, in Oxford .... 1650 
Mr. Edwards, an English Turkey merchant, brought 
home with him Pasquet, a Greek servant, who 
opened the first coffee-house in London, in George- 
yard, Lombard-street 1652 

Pasquet afterwards went to Holland, and opened 

the first house in that country. Anderson. 
Rainbow coffee-house, Temple-bar, represented as a 

nuisance 1657 

Coffee-houses suppressed by proclamation, 1675 ; 

the order revoked on petition of the traders . . 1676 
Licences to sell coffee abolished .... 1869 
Duty on coffee reduced to i^d. the pound from 

2 May, 137Z 
The quantity of coffee imported into these realms 
in 1852, 54,935.510 lbs. ; in i860, 82,767,746 lbs. ; 
in 1866, 127,044,816 lbs. ; in 1873, 183, 35?, 576 lbs. ; 
in 1876, 1,361,6+2 cwts. ; in 1877, 1,608,282 cwts. ; 
in 1879, 1,609,386 cwts. ; in 1883, 1,407,134 cwts. ; 
in 1887, 1,045,698 cwts. ; in 1890, 864,454 cwts. 
Coffee Palaces, founded by Dr. Barnardo to replace 
public-houses for working-men. The " Edinburgh 
Castle," Limehouse, the first opened, 1873 ; the 

"Dublin Castle," Mile End 1876 

Coffee Taverns, many opened in London . 1877-1889 
Coffee Public-house National Society, formed April, 

1879 ; opened a house at Shadwell . 28 June, 1879 
Coffee disease prevalent in Ceylon, &c. autumn, 1882 
M. Raoul reports the destructive, nearly uni- 
versal ravages of Hemilia Vastatrix . . June, 1888 

COFFERER of the Household, formerly 

an officer of state, and a member of the privy council, 
who had special charge of the other officers of the 
household. Sir Henry Cocks was cofferer to queen 
Elizabeth. In 1782 the office was suppressed. 

COFFINS. Athenian heroes were buried in 
coffins of cedar; owing to its aromatic and incor- 
ruptible qualities. Thucydidcs. Coffins of marble 
and stone were used by the Romans. Alexander is 
said to have been buried in one of gold ; and glass 
coffins have been found in England. Gouyh. Patent 
coffins were invented in I7<K>; air-tight metalli ■ 
coffins advertised at Birmingham in 1861. 

COIF. The Serjeant's coif was introduced 
before 1259, to hide the tonsure of such clergy- 
men as chose to remain advocates in the secular 
courts, notwithstanding their prohibition by canon. 



COIMBEA. 



230 



COIN. 



Black-stone. The coif was at first a thin linen 
cover gathered together in the form of a skull 
or helmet, the material being afterwards changed 
into white silk, and the form eventually into the 
black patch at the top of the forensic wig, which 
is now the distinguishing mark of the degree of 
serjeant-at-law. Foss's Lives of the Judges. 

COIMBEA was made the capital of Portugal 
by Alfonso, the first king, 1139. The only Portu- 
guese university was transferred from Lisbon to 
Coimbra in 1308; finally settled in 1527. In a 
convent here, Alfonso IV. caused iCez de Castro, at 
first mistress and afterwards wife of his son Pedro, 
to be cruelly murdered in 1355. Population, 1878, 
I3.369- 

COIN. Homer speaks of brass money, 1 184 
B.C. The invention of coin is ascribed to the 
Lydians, whose money was of gold and silver. 
Both were coined by Pheidon, tyrant of Argos, about 
862 B.C. Money was corned at Home under Servius 
Tullius, about 573 B.C. The most ancient known 
coins are Macedonian of the 5th century B.C. Brass 
money only was in use at Rome previously to 269 
B.C. (when Fabius Pictor coined silver). Gold was 
coined 206 B.C. Iron money was used in Sparta, 
and iron and tin in Britain. Dufresnoy. In the 
earlier days of Rome the heads were those of deities, 
or of those who had received divine honours. 
Julius Caesar first obtained permission of the senate 
to place his portrait on the coins, and the example 
was soon followed. The Britons and Saxons coined 
silver. — Rev. Roger Ruding's "Annals of the Coin- 
age of Great Britain," published 1817-40. — The 
gold and silver coinage in the world is about 
250,000,000/. silver, and 150,000,000/. gold. Times, 
25 June, 1852. See Gold, Silver, Copper and Guineas, 
and other coins under names. An international 
conference relative to a universal system of coinage 
met at Paris in 1867 ; and a royal commission was 
appointed in London, .Feb. 1868. £ for librce, 
Roman pound of 12 ounces; s. for solidi (Auglo- 
Saxon scill or scilling) ; d. for denarii, the Roman 
penny. 

The first coinage was at Camalodunum, or Col- 
chester. 

Coin was made sterling in 1216, before which time 
rents were mostly paid in kind, and money was 
found only in the coffers of the barons. Stow. 

Coinage reformed by Edward VI. . . . 1547-53 

Queen Elizabeth caused the base coin to be recalled 
and genuine issued 1560 

During the reigns of the Stuarts the coinage was 
greatly debased by clipping, &c. A commission 
(Charles Montague, lord Somers, sir Isaac Newton, 
and John Locke) was appointed by William III. 
to reform the coinage ; an act was passed, with- 
drawing the debased coin from circulation, and 
1,200,00.0?. was raised by a window-tax duty to 
defray the expense 1695-96 

Broad-pieces called in, and re-coined into guineas . 1732 

The gold-coin brought into the Mint by proclama- 
tion, amounted to about 15, 563, 593L ; the expense 
of collecting, melting, and recoining it, was 

754.019* 1773-6 

Act for weighing gold coin passed . . 13 June, 1774 
The coin of the realm valued at about 12,000,000?. 
in 1711. Davenant. At 16,000,000?. in 1762. An- 
derson. It was 20,000,000?. in 1786. Chalmers. 
37,000,000?. in 1800. Phillips. 

New silver coinage 1816 

English and Irish money assimilated . . 1 Jan. 1S26 
The gold is 28,000,000?., and the rest of the metallic 

currency is 13,000,000?. Duke of Wellington . 1830 
Metallic, currency calculated to reach 45,000,000?. . 1840 
Estimated as approaching, in gold and silver, 
60,000,000?. ........ 1853 

Silver coined in London, value 11,108,265?. 15s. 1816-40 
Ditto, value 2,440,614? 1837-47 



Light gold called in 1842 

Napier's coin-weighing machine at the bank of 

England constructed 1844 

The law respecting coinage offences consolidated . 1861 
New Coinage act, 4 April, 1870 ; amended 5 Aug. 1891 

The first gold coins on certain record, struck 42 
Hen. III. 1257 

Gold florin first struck, Edw. III. (Camden) . . 1337 
He introduced gold 6s. pieces, and nobles of 6s. Sd. 
(hence the lawyer's fee), afterwards half and 

quarter nobles 1344 

Edw. IV. coined angels with a figure of Michael and 
the dragon, the original of George and the dragon 1465 

Sovereigns first minted 1489 

Shillings first coined (Dr. Kelly) . . 1503 or 1504 
Crowns and half-crowns coined . . ... 1553 

Irish shillings struck 1560 

Milled shilling of Elizabeth 1562 

First large copper coinage, putting an end to the 
circulation of private leaden pieces, &c. . . 1620 

Modern milling introduced 1631 

Halfpence and farthings 1665 

Copper coined by government 1672 

Guineas (value 20s.), 2-guinea and 5 -guinea pieces, 1663-64 
Quarter-guinea coined, 3 Geo. I. 1716 

Two-penny copper pieces 1797 

Gold 7s. -pieces authorised . . .29 Nov. ,, 
Sovereigns, new coinage, St. George and dragon . 1817 
Four-penny pieces (see Groat) coined . . 1836-56 
Three-penny pieces : 3,290,208 coined . . . 1861 

Half-farthings coined 1843 

Silver florin (2s.) 1849 

No crowns (184S-78) or half-crowns coined . 1848-73 

Bronze coinage issued 1 Dec, i860 

St. George and dragon sovereigns re-issued 14 Jan. 1871 
Half-crowns again coined; recommended by bankers 1874 
New die for gold coin finished . . March, 1882 
The bankers complain of great loss, by receiving 

light goldcoins 1882-3 

See Budget, 1884. 
Sale of Mr. Whittall's great collection of Greek and 

other coins, 1,668 lots realized 3,951?. . July, 1884 
Proclamation against importation of foreign bronze 
coins [to be received with slight reduction at 
post offices up to May 31] . . . 25 March, 1887 
Proclamation respecting changes in coinage, viz., 
in pieces value of 5?., 2?., 1?., 10s., 5s., 2s. 6d., 2s., 
is., and 6d. ; also Maundy monies value of $d., 3c?., 
2d., & it?. New coin ordered, double florin 4s. ; 
new effigy and designs 13 May ; new coinage issued 

20 June, ,, 
The importation of imitation coins was prohibited 

by act passed 26 Aug. 1889 

Mr. Goschen introduces a bill for the withdrawal of 
light gold coin issued before June, 1837, and the 
substitution of coin of full weight provisionally, 
at the expense of the mint, July ; passed 30 Aug. ,, 
[The offer expired 13 Jan., extended to 31 March, 1890.] 
The coinage committee (sir John Lubbock, sir Frede- 
rick Leigh ton, the deputy-master of the mint, and 
others) recommends that new designs by various 
artists be adopted for the sovereign and other 
coins, gold and silver ; report presented, March, 1892 

AMOUNT OF MONEY COINED. 

Elizabeth ....... £5,832,00 

James I. ....... . 2,500,000 

Charles I. .... >. 10,500,000 

Cromwell 1,000,000 

Charles II 7,524,100 

James II 3,740,000 

William III. . 10,511,900 

Anne 2,691,626 

George I. 8,725,920 

George II. 11,966,576 

George III. ... . gold 74,501,586 

George IV 41,782,815 

William IV 10,827,603 

[The .quantity of gold that passed through the Mint, 
since the accession of queen Elizabeth in 155S, to the 
beginning of 1840, is 3,353,561 pounds weight, troy. 
Of this, nearly one-half was coined in the reign of 
George III., namely, 1,593,078 pounds weight, troy.] 
Victoria, from 1837 to 1848, gold, 29,886,457?. ; weight, 

746,452 lbs. ; silver, 2,440,614?. ; copper? 43,743?. 

1848-1852, gold, silver, and copper, 19,838,377?. 



COINING. 



231 



COLLEGES. 



Gold coined in 1853 (when Australian gold came in), 
12,664,125/. ; in 1854, 4,354, 201I. ; in 1855, 9,245,264/. ; 
in 1856, 6,476,060/. 

Coined in 1859, 1,547,603 sovereigns ; 2,203,813 half-sov. 

■Coined from 1 July, 1854, to 31 Dec. i860 : 'gold, 
27,632,039/. ; silver, 2,432,116/. 

Coined in 1861 : gold, 8,190,170/.; silver, 209,484/.; 
copper (bronze), 273,578/. 13s. 4<Z. 

Coined in 1862: gold, 7,836,413/.; silver, 148,518/.; 
copper, 352,800/. 

Coined, in 1866 : gold, 5,076,676/. ; silver, 493,416/. ; 
copper, 50,624/. 

Coined in 1869 : gold, 7,372,204/. ; silver, 76,428/. ; 
copper, 20,832/. 

Coined in 1873 (less than 1872) : gold, sovereigns, 
2,382,835; half-sovereigns, 1,001,733/. ; silver, (number 
of pieces) florins, 5,965,740; is., 6,486,480; 6</., 4,395,600; 
4ti., 4158; 3d., 4, 059,528 ; id., 7920. Copper: id., 
8,494,080 ; ^d., 3,584,000 ; \d., 3,215,600. 

Coined in 1876 (work stopped five months through break- 
down of machinery), gold, sovereigns, 3,318,705/.; half- 
sovereigns, 1,401,943/. 10s. ; silver, half-crowns, 
79,200/. ; florins, 60,786/. 

'3u 1877, 30,131, 130 pieces ; value 1,567,936/. 15s. 6ld. 

Value of coinage in ten years (1867-76). Gold, 46,802,517/.; 
silver, 5,642,406/. ; bronze, 401,309/. 

2:879: Gold, sovereigns, 17,525; half-sovereigns, 35,050; 
total value, 35,050/. 3s. o(Z. Silver, half-crowns, 901,296 ; 
florins, 1,354,320 ; shillings, 3,611,520 ; sixpences, 
3,326,400 ; fourpences, 4,158 ; threepences, 2,966,568 ; 
twopences, 4,752 ; pence, 7,920 ; total value, 549,054?. 
Bronze : Fence, 7,848,964 ; halfpence, 3,584.000 ; far- 
things, 4,300,800 ; total value, 44,650/. 13s. 4c/. 

JXet loss to the Mint in 1878, 51,543/. ; in 1879, 27,955/. 

1880 : Gold, 4,150,052/. Silver, 761,508/. Copper, 
19,264/. : total, 4,930,824/. 

3883 : Gold, 1,403,713/. Silver, 1,274,328/. Copper, 
33,450/. ; total, 2,711,491?. 

1886: Gold, 1,711,659/. Silver, 669,636/. 

2887 : Gold, 1,908,686/. Silver, 861,498/. Copper, 45,173/. 

1888 : Gold, 2,032,900/. Silver, 756,578/. Bronze, 39,499/. 

11889: Gold; 7,500,700/. Silver, 2,178,888/. Bronze, 66,950/. 

.1890 : Gold, 7,680, 156/. Silver, 1,694,688/. Bronze, 90,285/. 

1891 : Gold, 6,723,648/. Silver, 1,000,548/. Bronze, 89,536/. 

COINING. Originally the metal was placed 
'between two steel dies, and struck by a hammer. 
In 1553, a mill, invented by Antoine Bnicher, in- 
troduced into England, 1562. An engine invented 
by Bahmcier, 1617. Great improvements effected 
"by Boulton and Watt, at Soho, 1788. The erection 
of the Mint machinery, London, began 1811. The 
machinery was re-organised in 1869. 

COLCHESTER, (Essex), Camulodunum, a 
Soman station, obtained its first charter from 
Richard I., 1 189. Its sixteen churches and all its 
'buildings sustained great damage at the ten weeks' 
-siege, June-Aug. 1648. Two of its defenders, sir 
George Lisle and sir Charles Lucas, were tried and 
■shot after surrendering. The baize manufacture was 
established here, 1660. Anderson. The railway to 
London was opened in 1843. A great fire ; several 
business establishments destroyed, about 25,000/. 
^damage, 18 Aug. 1882. Population in 1881, 28,374; 
1891, 34<559- See Earthquakes, 22 April, 1S84. 

COLCHIS, N.W. Asia, now Mingrelia. See 
-drgonautie Expedition. 

COLD. On 3 Jan. 1854, the thermometer in 
London marked 8° below zero, Fahrenheit ; on 25 
Dec. i860, it fell (on the grass) at Nottingham, to 
13-8° Eahr. Mr. Lowe. From 23 to 30 Dec. the 
cold was excessive. On 4 Jan. 1867, the thermometer 
•stood at 3 below zero at Hammersmith and Hornsey, 
near London ; on 7 Jan., at 55 above. 
"Very cold Nor. 1878— May 1879, and Nov. 1879— Feb. 

1880. 
The December of 1879 said to be the coldest since 1796. 
:Severe frost, 13 Jan.— 26 Jan. 1881 (many deaths of ex- 
posed persons). 
'Temperature said to have been on 19 Jan. 13° Fahrt. at 



Stepney, London, 1S81 ; Cambridge, 4 F. ; Oxford, 
9° F. ; London, 16 F. 21 Dec. 1890. 

Very cold throughout the continent ; the Danube, Elbe, 
Rhine, Seine and other rivers frozen ; heavy falls of 
snow, Jan. 1891. 

Temperature in London, night, 17-18 Feb. 1892, i7'5° 
Fahr. • 

The summer of 1888 exceptionally cold in Europe ; 
London, n July, temperature from 42°.8 to 55°.7 (Jan. 
1, 1877, from 49^.3 to 54°.o) — G. J. Symons. 

Whilst liquefying gases, at the Royal Institution, pro- 
fessor Dewar obtained the temperature of — 2i3°cent., 
June, 1884. The liquefaction of carbonic acid obtained 
at a temperature of — 180 cent. ; oxygen — 184 cent. ; 
air — 192 cent. ; nitrogen — 198° cent. He stated the 
zero of absolute temperature to be about — 273 cent. 
June, 1885. 
See Frosts, Ice, Congelation, Regelation and Provisions. 

COLDINGHAM, near Berwick, is celebrated 
for the heroism of its nuns, who, on the attack of 
the Danes, to disfigure themselves, cut off their 
noses and lips. The Danes burnt them all, with the 
abbess Ebba, in then- monastery, 870. 

COLDSTREAM GUARDS.. General Monk, 
before marching from Scotland into England to 
restore Charles II., raised this regiment at Cold- 
stream, at the confluence of the Leet and Tweed, 
1660. For its services in suppressing Venner's 
insurrection in 1661, it was not disbanded, but 
constituted the 2nd regiment of foot guards. 

COLENSO CONTROVERSY, see Church 

of England, 1862-8. 

COLIN, see Kolin. 

COLISEUM or Colosseum, at Rome, an 

elliptical amphitheatre, of which the external dia- 
meter is 1641 Italian feet, supposed to have been 
able to contain 80,000 spectators of the fights with 
wild beasts, and other sports in the arena. It was 
erected between 75 (some say 77) and 80, by the 
emperors Vespasian and Titus, at an expense suffi- 
cient to have built a metropolis. Its remains are very 
imposing. Excavations have been made since 1874. 

COLLAR, a very ancient ornament. The 
Roman hero Titus Manlius slew a gigantic Gaul in 
single combat, and put his torques (twisted chain or 
collar) on his own neck, and was hence surnamed 
Torquatus, 361 B.C. A collar is part of the ensigns 
of the order of knighthood. That of the order of the 
garter is described, and its wearing enjoined, in the 
statutes of Henry VIII., 24 April, 1522 ; but a collar 
had been previously worn, jlshmole. The collar 
of SS. was adopted by Henry IV., and became a 
Lancastrian badge ; some consider the letters stand 
for " souveraigne," in reference to his claim to the 
crown. Some writers consider SS. to be in honour 
of St. Simplicius, a martyr. The order of the Collar 
or Necklace (or Annonciada) was instituted by 
Amadeus VI. of Savoy, about 1360. 

COLLECTIVISTS, a name adopted by some 
socialists, who opened their fourth congress at 
Calais, 13 Oct., 1890. 

COLLECTS, short prayers, very ancient, intro- 
duced into the Roman service by pope Gelasius, 
about 493, and into the English liturgy in 1548. 
The king of England coming into Normandy, ap- 
pointed a collect for the relief of the Holy Land, 
1 166. Rap in. 

COLLEGES, from the Latin collegium, as- 
semblages of persons for sacred, civil, literary or 
scientific purposes. University education preceded 
the erection of colleges, which were founda- 
tions to relieve the students from the expense of 
living at lodging-houses and at inns. Collegiate 
or academic degrees are said to have been first 



COLLIERY ACCIDENTS. 



2S2 



COLONIES. 



conferred at the university of Paris, 1 140 ; but some 
authorities say not before 1215. In England, it is 
contended (.hat the date is much higher, and some 
hold that Bede obtained a degree formally at Cam- 
bridge, and John de Beverley at Oxford, and that they 
were the first doctors of these universities; see Cam- 
bridge, Oxford, Aberdeen, Queen's Colleges, Herald*. 
Working Men's Colleges, Preceptors, &o. ' 

.Founded a.d. 
Birmingham, Queen's College .... 1853 

Cheshunt College 1792 

Doctors' Commons, civil law . . . . 1670 

Dulwich College .... . . 1619 

Eton College 1441 

Glasgow College, now University . . . . 1451 

Gresham College 1581 

Haileybury, or East India College . 1806 ; closed 1858 

Highbury College 1826 

Highgate I5 6 4 

King's College, London 1829 

Maynooth College 1795 

Military College, Sandhurst 1799 

Music, Royal College of ; see Music 1883 

Naval College, Portsmouth 1722 

New College, St. John's Wood . . " . . . 1850 

Owens College, Manchester 1870 

Physicians, London 1523 

Physicians, Lublin . . .... 1667 

Physicians, Edinburgh . , . . . . 1681 

St. Andrews, Scotland . ... 1410 

Sion College, incorporated 1630 

Surgeons, London 1745 

Surgeons, re-incorporated 1800 

Surgeons, Dublin 1786 

Surgeons. Edinburgh (new) 1803 

Trinity College, Dublin 1591 

University, London 1826 

Winchester College 1387 

COLLIEEY ACCIDENTS, see under Coal. 

COLLISIONS, see Seas. 

COLLODION, a film obtained from the solu- 
tion of gun-cotton in ether. The iodised collodion 
extensively employed in photography, was invented 
by Mr. F. Scott Archer, and announced in the 
" Chemist," in March, 1851. On the premature 
death of himself and wife, a pension of 50/. per 
annum was granted by government to ids three 
orphan children. 

COLLYEIDIANS, Arab heretics who offered 
collyrides, little cakes, to the Virgin Mary as a goddess 
in the 4th century. 

COLMAR, W. Germany; an imperial city 
13th century ; taken by the Swedes, 1632 ; by 
Louis XIV. of France, who destroyed the fortifica- 
tions, 1673 ; ceded to France, 1697 ; with Alsace, 
restored to Germany, 187 r. 

COLNEY HATCH, Middlesex. County 
lunatic asylum here erected, 1851. 

COLOGNE (Colonia Agrippina), on the Rhine, 
the site of a colony founded by the empress Agrip- 
pina, about 50; an imperial town, 957; a member 
of the Hanseatic league, 1260. Many ecclesiastical 
councils held here, 782-1:536. The Jews were ex- 
pelled from it in 1485, and the Protestants in 1618, 
and it then fell into decay. Cologne was taken by 
the French under Jourdan, Oct. 1794. The arch- 
bishopric secularised, 1801 ; assigned to Prussia, 
1814. Population in 1885, 161,401 ; in 1890 
281,273. 

The cathedral, termed dom (containing many sup- 
posed relics, such as the heads of the magi or three 
kings, bones of the 11,000 virgins, <&c.) founded 
by abp. Conrad von Hochstade or Hoch- 
stettin ; architect Gerhard von Riehl or Rile 

15 Aug. 1248 
Building intermittent ; suspended .... ^09 



Great collections made for resuming it by Prussia 

1814 et seq. 

Repairs completed ; new buildings founded 

4 Sept. 1842; 

The body of the cathedral opened in the presence of 
the king, 600th anniversary of the foundation 

15 Aug. 1848" 

International industrial exhibition opened by the 
crown prince 2 June, 1865 

Dispute between the king and the chapter respect- 
ing the electing an archbishop, settled ; the pope 
appoints Melchers Jan. 186S 

Congress of Old Catholics meet (which see) 20, 22 Sept. 1872 

Archbishop Melchers arrested by government, 

30 March, 1874 

A colossal statue of Frederick-William III., 22 feet 
high, with pedestrian figures at the base (Blucher, 
Humboldt, and others), the work of Blaser and 
Calendrelli, subscribed for by Rhinelanders ; un- 
veiled by the emperor William I. . 26 Sept. 187S 

The building reported finished, 14 Aug. ; solemnly 
opened by the emperor and other German sove- 
reigns 15 Oct. i88'o 

For the new bell see Bells, 1887. 

COLOMBIA, a republic of S. Ameriea, formed 
of states which declared their independence of 
Spain, 5 July, 181 1. A long war ensued. Esti- 
mated population of tire present state, in i888 y 
4,000,000. 

Union of New Grenada and Venezuela . 17 Dec. 1 819. 
The royalists defeated at Carabobo . 24 June, i82-u 
Bolivar named dictator .... 10 Feb. 1824 
Alliance between Colombia and Mexico 30 June ,, 
Independence of Colombia recognised . . . . 1825 
Alliance with Guatemala .... March, „ 
Congress at Lima names Bolivar president, Aug. ; 

dictator 23 Nov. 182S 

Padilla's insurrection .... 9 April, 1828 
Conspiracy of Santander against the life of Bolivar, 

25 Sept. ,, 
Venezuela separates from Grenada . . Nov. 1829 
Bolivar resigns, 4 April ; dies ... 17 Dec. 1830 
Santander dies . . . . . 26 May, 1840 
The republic now named Colombia instead of New 

Grenada ; president, general E. Salgar . . . 187a 
Manuel Murillo Toro, president . . 1 April, 1872 
Santiago Perez, president . . . .1 April, 1874 
Aquileo Parra, president 1 April, 1876 

General Tru.jillo, president, proclaimed, 1 April, 1878 
General R. Nunez, president, proclaimed, 1 April, 1883 
President Zyaldua died .... Dec. 1882 
T. E. Otalora, president . . . . 1 April, 1883 
Rafael Nunez elected president Sept. 1883 ; again 

7 Aug. 1886 
Insurrection ; government troops defeated at Tun, ja 

announced 9 Jan. 1885 ; peace restored 10 Jan. 1885 
Fresh insurrection ; government troops defeated 

at Barranquilla, announced . . 2 March, „ 

Rebels defeated about 13 July, , r 

Rebellion over .... reported 31 July, , r 
(See New Grenada, and Venezuela.) 

COLOMBO (Ceylon), fortified in 1638 by the 
Portuguese, who were expelled by the Dutch in 
1666; the latter surrendered it to the British, [5 
Feb. 1796; see Ceylon, 1803, 1845. 

COLON (:)• The colon and period were adopted 
by Thrasymachus about 373 b. c. (Suidas), and 
known to Aristotle. The colon and semicolon (;) 
first used in British literature in the 16th century. 
For Colon, a S. American seaport, see Panama. 

COLONEL (from Italian colonna, a column), 
the highest regimental military officer. The term 
had become common in England" in the 16th century. 

COLONIAL, see under Colonies. 

COLONIES. The Phoenician and Greek colo- 
nies, frequently founded by political exiles, soon 
became independent of the mother country. The 
Roman colonies, on the contrary, continued in close 
connection with Rome itself ; being governed almost 



COLONIES. 



233 



COLONIES. 



entirely by military law. — The Colonies of Great 
Britain partake of both these characters. The N. 
American colonies revolted in consequence of the 
attempt at taxation without their consent in 1764. 
The loyal condition of the present colonies now is 
due to the gradual relaxation of the pressure of the 
home government. The population of the British 
colonies in all parts of the world was estimated, in 
1861, at 142,952,243; in 1888, 275,520,216. The 
revenue of the colonies was estimated in 1865 to be 
51,492,000/., the expenditure, 59,353,000/. Ihe act 
for the abolition of slavery in the British colonies, 
and for compensation to the owners of slaves 
(20,000,000/. sterling), was passed in 1833. All 
the slaves throughout the British colonies were 
emancipated on 1 Aug. 1834. Germany and other 
powers showed great desire for colonization in 
1884-5. See Holland. 

E. J. Payne's "History of European Colonies" 
(1877) is good. 

Resolution of House of Commons recognises the 
claims of colonies to protection from conse- 
quences of imperial policy, but " is of opinion that 
colonies exercising rights of self-government 
ought to undertake the main responsibility of pro- 
viding for their own internal order and security, 
and ought to assist in their own external defence" 1862 

Chief Colony, or Possession. Date of Settlement, &c. 

Aden 1838 

African Forts about 1618 

Anguilla Settlement about 1666 

Antigua .... Settlement . . . 1632 
Ascension . . . . Occupied . . . . 1815 
Australia, South . . Settlement . . . 1834 
Australia, W. (Swan river) . Settlement . . . 1829 
Bahama Island . . . Settlement 1629, et seq. 
Barbadoes . . . . Settlement . . . 1605 

Basutoland 1871 

Bechuanaland . 1885 

Bengal .... Settlement . about 1652 

Berbera 1884 

Berbice Capitulation, . Sept. 1803 

Bermudas .... Settlements 1609, et seq. 

Bombay See India . . . 1662 

British Burmah (Upper . 

Burmali, 1885) . . . See. Pegu . . . 1862 
British Columbia . . . Settlement . . . 1858 

Brunei 1888 

Canada .... Capitulation, Sept. 1759-60 
Cape Breton . . . . Ceded .... 1763 
Cape Coast Castle . . By cession . . . 1667 
Cape of Good Hope . . Capitulation . Jan. 1806 
Ceylon .... All acquired . . . 1815 
Cyprus . . . Ceded (underconditions) 1878 

Demerara and Essequibo . Capitulation Sept. 1803 

Dominica .... Ceded by France . . 1763 
Elmina and Dutch Guinea . By cession . Feb. 1872 
Falkland Islands . . See Falkland Islands . 1833 

Fiji Ceded . . . . 1874 

Gambia .... Settlement . . 1631 

Gibraltar . . . . Capitulation . Aug. 1704 
Gold Coast .... Settlement . about 1618 

Gozo Capitulation, . Sept. 1800 

Grenada .... Ceded by France . . 1763 
Griqualand, S. Africa . Settlement . 27 Oct. 1871 
Guiana, British . . . Capitulation . . 1803 
Heligoland .... Capitulation . . . 1807 
Honduras . . . . By treaty . . 1670 

Hong-Kong (Victoria) . Ceded . . . . 1841 

Jamaica Capitulation . . 1655 

Keeling Islands ... 1857 

Kermadec Islands 1886 

Labuan .... See Borneo . . . 1846 

Lagos Ceded .... 1861 

Leeward Isles ... ... 1626-1763 

Madras See India . . . 1639 

Malacca (under Bengal) 

Malta Capitulation Sept. 1800 

Mauritius .... Capitulation . Dec. 1810 
Montserrat . . . . Settlement . . 1632 

Natal ..... Settlement . 1823 

Nevis Settlement . . . 1628 

New Brunswick . . . Settlement . 1622-1713 

Newfoundland . . . Settlement . about 1500 



New Guinea ... .... 1884. 

New South Wales . . . Settlement . . . 1787 
New Zealand . . . Settlement . . . 1840 

Niger districts 1885 

Norfolk Islands 1787 

North Borneo 1840. 

Nova Scotia . . . . Settlement . . . 1622 

Pegu Conquered . . . 1852 

Port Phillip . . . . See Victoria. 

Prince Edward Island . Capitulated . . . 1745 

Prince of Wales Island 

(Penang) . . . . Settlement . . . 1786 
Queensland, N. S. Wales . Settlement . . . i860 

Sarawak 188S 

Sierra Leone . . . Settlement . . . 1787 
[United with other settlements as West Africa, Feb. 1866.] 
Singapore . . . . Purchased . . . 1819 

Socotra 1886 

St. Christopher's . . Settlement . . 1623 

St. Helena . . . . Capitulated . . . 1600 
St. Lucia .... Capitulation . June, 1803 
St. Vincent . . . . Ceded by France . . 1763 
Swan River .... See West Australia. 
Tasmania . . . See Van Diemen's Land. 
Tobago .... Ceded by France . . 1763 

Tortola Settlement . . . 1666 

Transvaal .... Annexed . . . 187/ 
Trinidad . . . . Capitulation . Feb. 1797 

Van Diemen's Land . . Settlement . . . 1803 
Vancouver Island . . Settlement . . 1781 

Victoria (Port Phillip) . Settlement . . . 1850 
Victoria .... See Hong-Kong. 
Virgin Isles . . . . Settlement . . . 1666 

Windward Isles 1605-1803, 

Zululand 1886 

Colonial bishoprics fund, established . . . 1841 
Colonial Branch Army Act passed . . . . 1866 
Colonial Clergy Act, 37 & 38 Vict. c. 77, passed 7 
Aug. 1874, removes certain disabilities of persons 
not ordained by bishops of the united church 
of England and Ireland. 
Colonial and Continental Church Society (formerly 
"Colonial Church Society"), took its name 1 May, 
1861. It deals with colonial dioceses and British 
residents on the continent. 
Colonial Defences Commission (including the earl 
of Carnarvon, Mr. Childers, and others), appointed 

about 12 Sept. 1879 

Works recommended by government ; expenditure 

imperial and local 1884 

Colonial Naval Defence Act, to enable the Colonies 
to take effectual measures for their defence against 
attacks by sea, was passed in .... 1865 
Colonial Society, established to promote the in- 
terests of the colonies, lord Bury, president, held 
its first meeting 26 June, 1868, and first annual 
meeting 28 June, 1869, when it assumed the title 
" Royal." On 7 March, 1870, it became " The 
Royal Colonial Institute ;" founded 1868, incorpo- 
rated 1882. The "Proceedings" are pub- 
lished. A colonial congress met at Amsterdam 
19 Sept. 1883. 
The formation of a National and Colonial League 
was resolved on at a meeting held at Cannon- 
street. London 5 Jan. 1870 

Colonial Exhibition. An Exhibition of the pro- 
ducts, manufactures, and arts of India and the 
colonies in London in 1886 ; Royal Commission 
8 Nov. 1884 ; great exertion of the prince of Wales 
and sir P. C. Owen ; opened with great splendour 
by the Queen ; ode by lord Tennyson, set to music 
by sir A. Sullivan, sung 4 May, 1886 ; visited by 
5,550,745 persons ; closed 10 Nov. A surplus 
of 35,235/., of which 5964/. supplied the deficit on 
the Inventions exhibition, and 25,000?,. supplied to 
the funds of the Imperial Institute, leaving a 
reserve of 4279!. ; meeting of confmission, 3oApril 
1887. Testimonial for his exertions was presented 
to sir Philip Cunlitl'e Owen, 18 Dee. . . 1886 

Mr. E. Stanhope, colonial secretary, proposes .1 
conference of agents-general on colonial defence 
and communication with Great Britain . Dec. ,,, 
Colonial conference; first meeting of representatives 
of all the colonies ; president, sir H. T. Holland, 
colonial secretary, the marquis of Salisbury and 
other ministers present; questions discussed, 
defence of colonies, coaling stations, &c, cable 
communication, new harbours, employment of 



COLOEADO. 



234 



COMBAT. 



Imperial naval and military officers, relations 
with foreign powers, postal regulations, legal 
affairs, census returns, &c, 4 April, 1887. Results 
of the conference successful ; closed g May. The 
delegates received by the' Queen at Windsor, 

4 May, 1887 

Xord George Hamilton's plan for colonial defence 
accepted by Australia, &c. . about 22 April, „. 

INaval Defence Act passed at Melbourne with 
royal assent, 24, 25 Nov. ; accepted by Tasmania, 
New South Wales, South Australia, and New 
Zealand 1 Dec. ; deferred by Queensland . Dec. ,, 

^Canadian co-operative colonization company 
founded 1889 

"The committee of the commons on coloniza- 
tion appointed in 1889 ; sir James Fergusson, 
chairman, issued a report, with sensible recom- 
mendations, about . . . .18 March, 1891 

^Burke's " Colonial Gentry," vol. I. first published 

Sept. ,, 

;See Bishops (Colonial), Imperial Defence, Imperial 
Institute, Secretaries and separate articles. 

COLOEADO (so called from its coloured 
{ranges), a territory of the United States of N.orth 
America, was organised 2 March, 1861 ; proclaimed 
;a state, Aug. 1876; capital, Denver City. Popula- 
tion in 1880, 194,327 ; 1890, 412,198. 

(Gold found here, 1858, yield up to 1878, nearly 80 tons 
pure gold ; 770 tons silver; and much copper and lead. 

Colorado Beetle, so called from its striped colouring, 
was first found in Wisconsin, was described by Thomas 
Say, and named Doryphora decemlhieata, in 1824, when 
he found it near the Upper Missouri. It soon took to 
.feeding on potatoes, as they were planted, and gradually 
^proceeded eastward through Nebraska, Iowa, Illinois, 
'■Ohio, &c, to the New England states, destroying the 
•crops, 1859 et seq. In 1873 it reached New York, and 
Tthe Atlantic seaboard in 1874, swarming there in 1876, 
.and attacking Canada. The fear of its invading Britain 
Jed to an order in council respecting its destruction, 
-&c, 14 Aug. 1877. Very few specimens arrived. 

COLOSSEUM, see Coliseum. The building in 
Hegent's Park, London, was planned by Mr. Hornor, 
sa land surveyor, and commenced in 1824, by Peto 
and Grissell, from designs by Decimus Burton. The 
-chief portion was a polygon of 16 faces, 126 feet in 
diameter externally : the walls were three feet thick 
.-at the ground: the height to the glazed dome 112 
ifeet. On the canvas walls of the dome was painted 
the panoramic view of London, completed in 1829 
from sketches by Mr. Homor taken from the summit 
of St. Paul's cathedral in 1821-2. The picture covered 
.above 46,000 square feet, more than an acre of can- 
Tas. The different parts were combined by Mr. E. 
T. Parris, who in 1845 repainted the whole. In 
1848 a panorama of Paris was exhibited ; succeeded, 
-in 1850, by the lake of Thun m Switzerland; in 
1851 the panorama of London was reproduced. In 
5848 the theatre, with the panorama of Lisbon, was 
added. In 183 1, when Mr. Hornor failed, the esta- 
blishment was sold for 40,000^. to Messrs. Braham 
-and Yates. In 1843 it was bought by Mr. D. Mon- 
tague for 23,000 guineas. Timbs. After having 
ieen long closed, the building was opened to the 
jpublic at Christmas, 1856, at one shilling. Under 
tthe charge of Dr. Bachhofther, it continued open till 
the spring of 1864, when it was again closed. The 
.-sale of the site was announced 1870. It was announced 
in Dec. 1871, that a company was about to transform 
the building and grounds into club-chambers, baths, 
.a winter garden, &c. In 1874, it was sold ; large 
smansions have been erected on the site. 

COLOSSUS OF EHODES, a brass statue of 
Apollo, seventy eubits high, esteemed one of the 
wonders of the world, was erected at the port of 
Rhodes in honour of the sun, by Chares of Lindus, 
disciple of Lysippus, 290 or 288 B.C. It was thrown 
down by an earthquake about 224 B.C. The figure 



is said mythically to have stood upon two moles, 
a leg being extended on each side of the harbour, so 
that a vessel in full sail could enter between. The 
statue was in ruins-for nearly nine centuries, and 
had never been repaired ; when the Saracens, taking 
Rhodes, pulled it to pieces, and sold the metal, 
weighing 720,900 lbs., to a Jew, who is said to have 
loaded 900 camels in transporting it to Alexandria 
about 653. Dufresnoy. 

COLOUE is to light what pitch is to sound, 
according to the undulatory theory of Huyghens 
(about 1678), established by Dr. T. Young, and 
others. The shade varies according to the number 
of vibrations. 458 millions of millions of vibra- 
tions in a second attributed to the red end of the 
spectrum ; to the violet, 727 ; see Spectrum.* See 
Bhte-Books for National official colours. 

COLSTON DAY, Nov. 13, see Bristol. 

COLUMBIA, a federal district round the city 
of Washington in Maryland; established 1800. 
Slavery was abolished in 1862 Population in 1880, 
177,624; 1890, 230,392; see British Columbia. 

COLUMBIA MAEKET, Bethnal Green, E. 
London; erected by Mr. Darbishire, architect, in 
the pointed Gothic style, and inaugurated by Miss 
(now lady) Burdett-Coutts, the proprietor, 28 April, 
1869. It cost her 200,000^. It was opened as a 
wholesale fish-market, 21 Feb. 1870, but was not 
successful. On 3 Nov. 187 1, lady Burdett-Coutts 
presented the market to the corporation of London, 
and on 18 July, 1872, she received publicly the 
freedom of that city. 
The market did not succeed, and the buildings were 

restored to the donor . . . . 4 Dec. 1874 
Again opened on liberal terms under superintend- 
ence of Great Eastern, Great Northern, and Mid- 
land railway companies .. . . . 15 Dee. 1875 
Reported failure ; proposed use as a co-operative 

store April, 1878 

Re-opened as a fish-market ... 17 July, 1883 
Connected with N. London Railway . . April, 1885 

COLUMBIUM, a metal discovered by C. 
Hatchett, in a mineral named columbite, in 1801. 
It is identical with niobium, and not with tantalum, 
as supposed by some chemists. Watts. 

COLUMBUS, capital of Ohio, U.S.A., founded 
in 1812, is the seat of important manufactures. 
Population, 1870,31,274; 1890,88,150. 

COMBAT, SINGLE. Trial by this commenced 
by the Lombards, 659. Baronius. It was intro- 
duced into England for accusations of treason, if 
neither the accuser nor the accused could produce 
good evidence ; see Appeal of Battle. 

A battle by single combat was fought before the king, 
William II., and the peers, between Geoffrey Bay- 
nard and William, earl of Eu, who was accused by 
Baynard of high treason ; and Baynard having con- 
quered, Eu was deemed convicted, and blinded and 
mutilated, 1096. 

A combat proposed between Henry of Bolingbroke, duke 
of Hereford (afterwards Henry IV.), and Thomas, duke 
of Norfolk, was forbidden by Richard II. Sept. 1398. 

A trial was appointed between the prior of Kilmainham 
and the earl of Ormond, the former having impeached 
the latter of high treason, quarrel taken up by the 
king, decided without fighting, 1446. 

* Some persons (about 65 outof n54)cannotdistinguish 
between colours, and are termed Colour blind. The 
defect said to have been first described by Priestley, 
Phil. Trans. 1777. In 1859, professor J. Clerk Maxwell 
invented spectacles to remedy this defect, which is also 
called " Daltonism," after John Dalton, the chemist, to 
whom scarlet appeared drab-colour. Dr. George Wilson, 
"Researches on Colour-Blindness," 1847; Dr. Joy 
Jeffries, " Colour Blindness," 1879, 



COMBINATION. 



235 



COMETS. 



A combat was proposed between lord Reay and Mr. 
David Ramsey, in 1631, but the king prevented it. 

In a combat in Dublin castle, before the lords justices 
and council, between Connor MacCormack O'Connor 
and Teig Mac-Gilpatrick O'Connor, the former had his 
head cut off, and presented to the lords, 1553. 

COMBINATION. Laws were enacted from 
the time of Edward I. downwards, regulating the 
price of labour and the relations between masters 
and workmen, and prohibiting the latter from com- 
bining for their own protection. All these laws were 
repealed, 6 Geo. IV. c. 129, in 1825, due protection 
being given to both partie-s. The act was amended 
in 1859 by 22 Vict. c. 34, when the subject was much 
discussed, in consequence of the strike in the build- 
ing trades, see Sheffield and Strikes. 

COMBS, found in Pompeii; Combmakers' com- 
pany incorporated, 1636 or 1650. 

COMBUSTION, see Spontaneous. 

COMEDIE FBANCAISE, Paris, established 

s68o. > 

At the death of Moliere in 1673, his company of actors, 
at the Palais Royal, separated into two bodies. The 
fusion of these formed the French National Theatre, 
founded by Louis XIV. by a decree 18 Aug., first 
performance 25 Aug. 1680 ; the actors, 15 men, and 12 
women, being the best of the time. The theatre was 
much depressed in the king's last years ; revived under 
Louis XV. ; ceased in 1799 ; restored in 1803. 

The company visited London in 1879 ; first appearance 
at the Gaiety, 2 June, 1879 ; eminent actors, Madame 
Sarah Bernhardt, MM. Got. Delaunay, and Coquelin, 
and Miles. Brohan and Favart. 

The 200th anniversary of the establishment celebrated 
21 Oct., et scq. 1880. 

COMEDY. Thalia is the muse of comedy and 
lyric poetry. Susarion and Dolon, the inventors of 
theatrical exhibitions, 578 B.C., performed the first 
comedy at Athens, on a waggon or movable stage, 
on four wheels, for which they were rewarded with 
a basket of figs and a cask of wine ; see Arundelian 
Marbles, and Dra?na. 

Comedy, for libel, prohibited at Athens, 440 b. c. 
Aristophanes called the prince of ancient comedy, 434 

b.c, and Menander that of the new, 320 B.C. 
Of Plautus, 20 comedies are extant ; he nourished 220 B.C. 
Statius Cfecilius wrote upwards of 30 comedies ; flourished 

at Rome 180 B.C. 
Comedies of Lrelius and Terence first acted 154 b.c. 
First regular comedy performed in England about a.d. 

1551- 
St was said of Sheridan that he wrote the best comedy 
(the School for Scandal), the best opera (the Duenna), 
and the best afterpiece (the Critic), in the English lan- 
guage (i775-i779)- 

COMETS (Greek come, a hair). It is recorded 
that more than 600 have been seen. Mr. Hind, in 
his little work on comets, gave a chronological list 
(1852). The identity and periodicity of comets are 
considered in Mr. G. F. Chambers' Handbook of 
Astronomy, 1889-90, and in Mr. W. T. Lynn's 
Celestial Motions, 1891. The number of comets 
within the solar s} r stem, visible and invisible, is 
•believed to be enormous. Aristotle described the 
probable course of a comet which appeared B.C. 370. 
Apian described Halley's comet, 1 5 3 1 . Amedee 
•Guillemin's "World of Comets," by J. Glaisher, 
published 1877. 

At the birth of the great Mithridates two [probably only 
one] large comets appeared, which were seen forseventy- 
t wo days together, whose splendour eclipsed that of 
the mid-day sun, and occupied the fourth part of the 
heavens, about 135 b.c. Justin. 
A grand comet seen, 1264. Its tail is said to have ex- 
tended ioo°. It is considered to have reappeared in 
1556, with diminished splendour ; and was expected to 
appear again about Aug. 1858 or Aug. i860. Hi ml. 
A remarkable one seen in England, June, 1337. Stow. 



Tycho Brahe demonstrated that comets are extraneous 
to our atmosphere, about 1577. 

A comet which terrified the people from its near approach 
to the earth was visible from 3 Nov. 1679 to 9 March, 
1680. It enabled Newton to demonstrate that comets, 
as well as planets, are subject to the law of gravitation, 
and most probably move in elliptic orbits, 1704. 

A most brilliant comet appeared in 1769, which passed 
within two millions of miles of the earth. This beauti- 
ful comet, moving with immense swiftness, was seen 
in London ; its tail stretched across the heavens like 
a prodigious luminous arch, 36,000,000 miles in length. 

The computed length of that which appeared in 181 1, and 
which was so remarkably conspicuous, was, on 15 
Oct. according to the late Dr. Herschel, upwards of 
100,000,000 miles, and its apparent greatest breadth, at 
the same time, 15,000,000 miles. It was visible all the 
autumn to the naked eye. Philos. 'Trans. Royal Soc. 
for 1812. Another comet, Dec. 1823. 

Halley's Comet, 1682. Named after one of the greatest 
astronomers of England. He first proved that many 
of the appearances of comets were but the periodical 
returns of the same bodies, and he demonstrated that 
the comet of 1682 was the same with the comet of 1456, 
1531, and 1607, deducing this fact from a minute obser- 
vation of the first-mentioned comet, and being struck 
by its wonderful resemblance to the comets described 
as having appeared in those years : Halley, therefore, 
first fixed the identity of comets, and predicted their 
periodical returns. Vince's Astronomy. The revolution 
of Halley's comet is performed in about 75 years ; it 
appeared (as he had predicted) in 1759, and came to its 
perihelion on March 13 ; its last appearance was 1835 ; 
its next will be 1910 

Encke's Comet. First discovered by M. Pons, 26 Nov. 
1818, but justly named by astronomers after professor 
Encke, for his success in detecting its orbit, motions, 
and perturbations ; it is, like the preceding, one of the 
three comets which have appeared according to predic- 
tion, and its revolutions are made in 3 years and 15 
weeks. Thirteenth return observed at Copenhagen by 
M. d'Arrest, 20 July, 1863 ; observed in England, 14 
Oct. 1871 ; seen 13 April, 1875 ; in New South Wales, 
3 Aug. 1878 ; visible at Washington, &c, 18-21 Sept. 
1881. 

Biela's Comet has been an object of fear to many on 
account of the nearness with which it has approached, 
not the earth, but a point of the earth's path ; it was 
first discovered by M. Biela, an Austrian officer, 28 Feb. 
1826. It is one of the three comets whose re-appear- 
ance was predicted, its revolution being performed in 
6 years and 38 weeks. Its second appearance was in 
1832, when the time of its perihelion passage was 27 
Nov. ; its third was in 1839 ; its fourth in 1845 ; and 
its fifth in 1852 ; it has since vanished. 

Donati's Comet, so called from its having been first ob- 
served by Dr. Donati, of P'lorence, 2 June, 1858, being 
then calculated to be 228,000,000 miles from our earth. 
It was very brilliant in England in the end of September 
and October following, when the tail was said to be 
40,000,000 miles long. On the 10th of October it was 
nearest to the earth: on the 18th it was near coming 
into collision with Venus. Opinions varied as to this 
comet's brilliancy compared with that of 181 1. 

The Great Comet of 1861 was first seen by Mr. Tebbutt 
at Sydney, in Australia, 13 May ; by M. Goldschmidt 
and others in France and England on 29, 30 June. The 
nucleus was about 400 miles in diameter, with a long 
bush-like tail, travelling at the rate of 10,000,000 miles 
in 24 hours. On 30 June, it was suggested that we 
were in the tail — there being " a phosphorescent auroral 
glare. " 

A tailless comet was discovered in the constellation Cas- 
siopceia, by M. Seeling, at Athens, on 2 July, and by 
M. Tempel, at Marseilles, 2 and 3 July, 1862. 

A comet detected at Harvard by Mr. Tuttle, 18 July, and 
by Rosa, at Rome, on 25 July, 1S62. It was visible by 
the naked eye in August and September. 

Six telescopic comets were observed in 1863, and several 
in 1864.- 

A fine comet appeared in the southern hemisphere, and 
was visible in South America and Australia, in Jan.- 
Feb. 1865. 

M. Babinel considered that comets had so little density 
that tlir earth might pass through the tail of one with- 
out our being aware of it, 4 May. 1857. 



COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF. 



236 



COMMERCE. 



Schiaparelli, of Milan, discovered that the August meteors 

move round the sun in an orbit almost identical with 

the third comet of 1862. 
The comet of 1866 is said to be connected with the 

November meteors. 
One discovered at Carlsruhe bv Dr. Winnecke, 13 June, 

1868 ; a bright one by Paid Henry, 23 Aug. 1873. 
Several small comets discovered by various astronomers, 

1873-81. 
A bright comet appeared in the southern hemisphere, 

large nucleus, fan-shaped tail ; visible in the southern 

hemisphere, May ; in London, 22 June et seq. 1881. 
Sch^eberle's comet visible to naked eye, N.W. 26 Aug. 

1881, and Jan. 1885. 
Denning's comet appears 4 Oct. 1881. 
New comet discovered at Dudley, Boston, U.S. 18 Mar. 

1882. 
Another at Madeira, at Ealing, near London, &c. (pro- 
bably that of 1843 and 1880) 17 Sept. 1882; at Paris, 

27 Sept. ; seen at Vienna, 29 Sept. 1882. 
Another at Athens, 8 Oct. 1882. 
Another in North America, 23-24 Feb. 1883. 
Another in North America, 2 Sept. 1883. 
Comet seen in S.W., 14 Jan. 1884. 
New comet discovered at Strasburg, 20 Sept. 1884. 
New comet seen in Tennessee about 7 July, 1885. 
Another discovered by M. Fabry of Paris 3 Dec. 1885 ; 

by Mr. Brooks of New York Jan. 1886. 
Three comets visible, Brooks', Fabry's, and Barnard's, 

Jan. ; increasing in brightness, May, 1886. 
A comet visible in Britain and one in New York, 

April, 1886. 
New comet discovered by Dr. Hartwig of Strasburg 

6 Oct. 1886. 
New comet discovered by Mr. Finlay of the Cape 

observatory 26 Sept. 1886. 
New comet discovered by Mr. Barnard of Nashville, 

Tennessee, 13 May, 1887. 
New comet observed at the Cape of Good Hope 18 Feb. 

1888. 
New comet observed by Mr. Brooks, New York, 7 Aug. 

1888. 
New comet observed by Mr. Barnard, sixth in 1888, 

31 Oct. 
New comet discovered by Mr. Brooks 14 Jan. ; another 

by Mr. Barnard at Lick, California, 31 March ; one 

by Mr. Brooks at Geneva, New York, 6 July ; one in 

Queensland 19 July ; one by Mr. Barnard at Lick 23 

June ; one by Mr. Davidson in Algiers 26 July ; one 

by Prof. Lewis Swift at Rochester 16 Nov. ; one by 

M. Borrelly at Marseilles 12 Dec. 1889. 
A comet observed by Mr. Brooks at New York, 19 

March ; one by prof. Denning at Bristol, 23 July ; one 

by prof. Zona at Palermo, 15 Nov. 1890. 
A comet observed by Mr. Barnard at Lick, 29 March, 

and by Mr. W. F. Denning at Bristol, 30 March ; 

Tempel Swift's comet (1869 and 1880) seen by Mr. 

Denning, 30 Sept., 1 Oct. ; one by Mr. Barnard at 

Lick, 3 Oct., 1891. 
A comet observed by prof. Swift, 6 March ; one by Mr. 

W. F. Denning near Bristol, 18 March ; one by M. 

Winnecke, 18 March, 1892. 
Coggia's Comet, discovered by him at Marseilles, 
18 April, became visible (near Polar star) in London 
about 4 July ; gradually increased in brightness, and 
passed out of sight in a few weeks, in Europe ; and 
appeared brilliant at Melbourne, 1 Aug. 1874. 

COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF, an office in the 
British army frequently vacant. When the duke 
of Wellington resigned the office, on becoming prime 
minister, in 1828, his successor, lord Hill, became 
commander of the forces, or general commanding- 
in-chief. 

By Order in Council the duties of the Commander-in- 
Chief were denned and published . 2 Feb. 1888 

CAPTAINS-GENERAL. 

Duke of Albemarle 1660 

Duke of Monmouth 1678 

Duke of Marlborough 1690 

Schomberg, duke of Leinster . . . . . 1691 

DukeofOrmond 1711 

Duke of Marlborough, again 1714 

Duke of Cumberland 1744 

Duke of York 1799 



COMMANDERS-IN-CHIEF. 

Duke of Monmouth 1674 

Duke of Marlborough 1690 

Duke of Schomberg . . . . . . .1691 

DukeofOrmond 1711 

Earl of Stair 1744 

Field-Marshal Wade 1745 

Lord Ligonier '. . . 1757 

Marquis of Granby 1766 

Lord Amherst, general on the staff . . . -1778 

Gen. Seymour Conway 1782 

Lord Amherst, again 1793 

Frederick, duke of York . . . . 11 Feb. 1795 
Sir David Dundas .... 25 March, 1809 

Frederick, duke of York, again . . 29 May, 181 1 

Duke of Wellington . 22 Jan. —5 May ; 27 Aug. 1827 
Lord Hill, general commanding-in-chief 25 Feb. 1828 
Duke of Wellington, again . . . . 15 Aug. 1842 
Viscount Hardinge (died 24 Sept. 1856), general 

commanding-in-chief 28 Sept. 1852 

Duke of Cambridge, ditto 15 July, 1856; appointed com- 
mander-in-chief by patent 1887 

COMMEMORATION, see Enecenia. 

COMMEND AM, "a benefice or church 
living, which being void, is commended to the 
charge of some sufficient clerk, to be supplied until 
it may be conveniently supplied with a pastor." 
Blount. By 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 77 (1836), future 
bishops were prohibited from holding in commendam 
the livings they held when consecrated. 

COMMERCE early flourished in Arabia;, 
Egypt, and among the Phoenicians, see the descrip- 
tion of Tyre, 588 B.C., Ezek. xxvii. In later times 
it was spread over Europe by a confederacy of 
mai-itime cities, 1241 (see Hanse Towns) ; by the 
discoveries of Columbus ; and by the enterprises of 
the Dutch and Portuguese; see Exports, Im- 
ports, and articles connected with this subject. 
The first treaty of commerce made by England with 
any foreign nation was entered into with the 
Flemings, 1 Edw. I. 1272. The second was with 
Portugal and Spain, 2 Edw. II. 1308. Anderson ; 
see Treaties. Hertslet's Collection, in 16 vols. 
8vo, published 1828-85, has a copious index. 
An important commercial treaty was concluded with 

France (see French Treaty) i860 

Chambers of Commerce originated at Marseilles in 
the 14th century, and similar chambers were 
instituted in all the chief cities in France, about 1700 
These chambers suppressed in 1791 ; restored by 

decrees 3 Sept. 1853 

A chamber of commerce was started by John 

Weskett, merchant, he receiving payment, about 1782 
The chamber of commerce at Glasgow was esta- 
blished 1783 ; at Edinburgh, 1785 : Manchester, 
1820 ; Hull, 1837 ; at Liverpool (mainly through 
the exertions of Professor Leone Levi) . . 1849 
Associated (twenty-seven) chambers of commerce 
(not including Liverpool, Manchester, and Glas- 
gow) met at Westminster for interchange of 
opinions on various questions . . 21 Feb. 1865 
Annual and other meetings held since : London, 26 
March ; Hull, 19 Sept. 1889 ; London, 25 March, 
1890 ; 3 March, 1891 ; 8 March, 1892. 
Congress of chambers of the empire . 28 June, 1892 
Commercial education : conference at the Mansion 
House to promote the scheme put forth by the 
London chamber of commerce . . 5 Feb. 1890 
The London chamber of commerce constituted, 
Sept. issued prospectus, about 10 Oct. 1881 ; 600 
members first general meeting ; Mr. Magniac, pre- 
sident 25 Jan. 1882 

First annual meeting .... 24 Jan. 1883, 
International Congress of Commerce at Brussels 

6-10 Sept. ,, 
The International Congress of Commercial Law 

met at Antwerp, 1885 ; Brussels . . 30 Sept. 1888 
A Minister of commerce in England proposed 1880, 

dropped i%S\ 

Commercial Travellers' schools, Pinner, founded 

1845 ; — Benevolent Institution, Finsbury . . 1849 
Commercial Travellers' Association founded in Man- 
chester, 1883, has many branches in the country. 



COMMISSION. 



237 



COMMON PRAYER. 



COMMISSION, see High Commission, Court of. 

_ COMMISSIONAIRES, street messengers 
in Paris. Those in London were originally pen- 
sioned soldiers wounded either in the Crimea or 
India, first employed in the west-end. They were 
appointed by a society, founded in Feb. 1859 by 
capt. Edward "Walter, which is now under the 
patronage of the queen and the commander-in- 
chief. The charges are regulated by a tariff. In 
Jan. 1861 the sociaty commenced the gratuitous 
issue of a Monthly Advertising Circular. In March, 

1864, there were 250 commissionnaires in London ; 
in Nov. 1866, about 340; in Oct. 1872, 500; in 
Feb. 1887, 1,650; 1 Jan. 1892, 1,880. On 17 June, 

1865, capt. Edward Walter resigned, and a perma- 
nent system of administration was formed. In 1865 
eommissionnaires were first engaged as private 
night-watchmen. A testimonial (piece of plate) 
from the officers of the army and navy was pre- 
sented to Captain Walter, 14 June, 1884; knighted, 
1887. Commissionnaires have been introduced in 
the colonies, beginning at Sydney, Feb. 1888. 

COMMITTEES, Standing and Grand, were 

directed to be appointed by the new rules for pro- 
cedure passed by the House of Commons in 1882, 
for facilitating the progress of legislation. The first 
grand committee (on trade, shipping, &c.) met 9 
April, 1883 ; another (on law, &c.) soon after. 
These Committees were re-appointed by the new 
rule (13). March 1888, and since. 

COMMON COUNCIL of London. The 

city parliament, consists of 206 members elected 
annually on St. Thomas' day, 21 Dec. by the 
freemen householders of the 26 wards and their 
aldermen. This court, which appears to have been 
gradually organized in the 12th century, is men- 
tioned in a charter granted by John, 12 14. See 
Plough Monday. A Common Sail is held occa- 
sionally. The common council supported the prince 
of Orange in 1688, and queen Caroline in 1820. 

COMMON LAW of England, an ancient 

collection of unwritten maxims and customs {leges 
non scriptce) , of British, Saxon, and Danish origin, 
■which has subsisted immemorially in this kingdom ; 
and although somewhat impaired by the rude shock 
of the Norman conquest, has weathered the violence 
of the times. At the parliament of Merton, 1236, 
■"all the earls and barons," says the parliament 
roll, " with one voice answered, that they would 
not change the laws of England, which have 
hitherto been used and approved ;" eminently the 
law of the land ; see Bastard. The process, prac- 
tice, and mode of pleading in the superior courts of 
common law, were amended in 1852 and 1854. 

COMMON PLEAS, Court of, in Eng- 
land, in ancient times followed the king's person, 
aud is distinct from that of the King's Bench ; but 
on the grant of Magna Charta by king John, 
in 1215, it was fixed at Westminster. In 1833 the 
mode of procedure in all the superior courts was made 
uniform. In England, no barrister under the degree 
of serjeant could plead in the court of common pleas; 
but in 1846 the privilege was extended to barristers 
practising in the superior courts at Westminster. 
Sat last, July, 1875. The Common Pleas division of 
the high court of justice now consists of the chief 
justice and four judges. See Supreme Court. 

chief justices. (England.) 
1558. Sir Anthony Browne. 
3559. Sir James Dyer. 
1582. Sir Edmund Anderson. 
1605. Sir Francis Gawdy. 
*6o6. Sir Edward Coke. 



613. Sir Henry Hobart. 
626. Sir Thomas Richardson. 
631. Sir Robert Heath. 
634. Sir John Finch. 

639. Sir Edward Lyttleton. 

640. Sir John Bankes. 
648. Oliver St. John. 

660. Sir Orlando Bridgman, afterwards lord keeper. 

668. Sir John Vaughau. 

675. Sir Francis North, afterwards lord keeper Guildford. 

683. Sir Francis Pemberton. 

,, Sir Thomas Jones. 

685. Sir Henry Bedingfield. 

687. Sir Robert Wright. 

,, Sir Edward Herbert. 

689. Sir Henry Pollexfen. 

692. Sir George Treby. 

701. Sir Thomas Trevor, afterwards lord Trevor. 

714. Sir Peter King, afterwards lord chancellor King. 

725. Sir Robert Eyre. 

736. Sir Thomas Reeve. 

737. Sir John Willes. 

761. SirCharles Pratt, afterwds. lord chancellor Camden. 

766. Sir John Eardley Wilniot. 

771. Sir William de Grey, afterwards lord Walsingham 

780. Alexander Wedderburne, aft. Id. ch. Loughborough. 

793. Sir James Eyre. 

799. Sir John Scott, afterwards lord chancellor Eldon 

801. Sir Richard Pepper Arden (lord Alvanley) 22 May. 

804. Sir James Manstield, 21 April. 

814. Sir Vicary Gibbs, 24 Feb. 

818. Sir Robert Dallas, 5 Nov. 

824. Sir Robert Gifford, 9 Jan. ; (lord Gifford) ; after- 
wards master of the rolls. 

„ Sir William Draper Best, afterwards lord Wynford, 
15 April. 

829. Sir Nicolas C. Tindal, 9 June ; died July, 1846 

846. Sir Thomas Wilde, n July ; afterwards lord chan- 
cellor Truro. 

850. Sir John Jervis, 16 July ; died 1 Nov. 1856. 

856. Sir Alex. Cockburn, Nov. ; ch. j. Q. B. June 1859 

859. Sir William Erie, June ; retired Nov. 1866. 

866. Sir William Bovill, 29 Nov. ; died 1 Nov. 1873. 

873. John Duke Coleridge, Lord Coleridge, Nov.'; re- 
moved to queen's bench, Nov. 1880. 
The abolition of the distinct divisions of common pleas 
and exchequer was recommended by the judges 30 Nov 
and ordered by the privy council 16 Dec. 1880. ' ' 

The last Chief Justice of the common pleas (see 
Supreme Court 0/ Judicature Act, 1881). 

chief justices. (Ireland.) 
1691. Richard Pyne, 5 Jan. 
1695. Sir John Hely, 10 May. 
1 701. Sir Richard Cox, 4 May. 
1703. Robert Doyne, 27 Dec. 
1714. John Forster, 30 Sept. 
1720. Sir Richard Levinge, 13 Oct. 
1724. Thomas Wyndham, 27 Oct. 

1726. William Whitshed, 23 Jan. 

1727. James Reynolds, 8 Nov. 
1740. Henry Singleton, n May. 
1754. Sir William Yorke, 4 Sept. 
1761. William Aston, 5 May. 
1765. Richard Clayton, 21 Feb. 
1770. Marcus Patterson, 18 June 
1787. Hugh Carleton, afterwards 

30 April. 

1800. John Toler, afterwards lord Norbury 22 Oct 
1827. Lord Plunket, 18 June. 
1830. John Doherty, 23 Dec. 
1850. James Henry Monahan, 23 Sept. ; died 8 Dec. 



viscount Carleton 



1876. 



Sir Michael Morris 
justices. 



Jan. The last of the chief 



COMMON PRAYER, Book of, was ordered 

by parliament to be printed in the English language 
on 1 April, 1548. It was voted out of doors by parlia- 
ment, and the Directory {which see) set "up in its 
room in 1644, an d a proclamation was issued against 
it in 1647. With a few changes the English°Com- 
mon Prayer-book is used by the episcopal churches 
in Scotland, Ireland, and North America. 



The King's Primer published 
First book of Edward VI. printed 



• • '545 
7 March, 1549 



COMMONS, HOUSE OF. 



238 



COMMONS. 



Second book of Edward VI 1552 

First book of Elizabeth (revised!) .... 1559 

King James's book . ditto 1604 

Scotch book of Charles 1 1637 

Charles II. 's book (Savoy Conference) now in use . 1662 
[The original MS. of this book, signed by convocation 
in 1661, and annexed to the act of uniformity in 1662, 
-was in time detached and lost, and not found till 1867 ; 
photographs were published by the queen's printers and 
the universities early in 1891.] 

The State services (which had never formed part of the 
Prayer-book, but were annexed to it at the beginning of 
every reign) for 5 November (Gunpowder treason), 30 
Jan. (Charles I.'s execution), and 29 May (Charles II. 's re- 
storation), were ordered to be discontinued ; 17 Jan. 1859. 
Changes in the Lectionary or calendar of lessons 
were recommended in the third report of the 
Ritual Commission, 12 Jan. 1870. A bill for 
sanctioning these changes passed the house of 
lords, but was dropped in the house of commons 
through want of time, Aug. ; passed . 13 July, 1871 
[The old tables might be used till 1 Jan. 1879. J 
The fourth report of the Ritual Commission dis- 
closed great difference of opinion amongst the 

commissioners Aug. 1870 

Shortened services and other changes were autho- 
rized by the New Uniformity Act, passed 18 July, 1872 
Public Worship Regulation Act (to check ritual- 
ism) passed Aug. 1874 

The Wesleyan Methodists who had used the Prayer- 
book appoint a committee to revise it . Aug. „ 
The Prayer Book revision society petition the Abp. 
of Canterbury for changes . . Jan. -Feb. 1883 

COMMONS, HOUSE OF, originated with 
Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, who by the 
Provisions of Oxford ordered returns to be made of 
two knights from every shire, and deputies from 



certain boroughs, to meet such of the barons and 
clergy as were his friends, with a view ther-eby to 
strengthen his own power in opposition to that of 
his sovereign Henry III., 1258. Stoio ; see Parlia- 
ment. In 1859 Mr. Newmarch estimated the con- 
stituency of England and Wales at 934,000. It waa 
largely increased by the reform act of 1867 : — Regis- 
tered parliamentary electors, 1872 : England and 
Wales, boroughs, 1,250,019; counties, 801,109. 
Scotland, burghs, 49,025 ; counties, 79,919. Ire- 
land, boroughs, 171,912 ; counties, 175,439. Total, 
2,526,423. By the Franchise Act of 1884, the 
electors of the United Kingdom were increased to 
about 5,000,000, and many changes were made by 
the Redistribution Act of 1885 (disqualified persons- 
about 7,000,000), 1,911,955 voters in boroughs in 
England and Wales; and 2,579,403 in counties in 
1888. The present house of Commons (counties, 
boroughs, and universities): England, 465 ; Wales,, 
30; Scotland, 72; Ireland, 103 members (1892). 
See under Reform. 
Parliamentary electors : England and Wales : 1875, 

2,301,266 ; 1878, 2,416,222 ; 1883, 2,632,223. Scotland, 

1875,289,789; 1883, 226,511. Ireland, 1875, 230,436; 

1883. 322,967 ; total, 1878, 2,952,005. Electorate, 1889 : 

England and Wales, 4,501,851 ; Scotland, 571,911 ; 

Ireland, 763,145 ; total, 5,836,907. Return in 1892, 

6,161,456. 

By the reform Act of 1884, the county franchise was- 
made uniform with that of the boroughs, and about 
2,000,000 voters were added 
By the acts of 1884-5, 670 members : eleetions, July,. 

1892, reported: Liberals, 270, Parnellites, 9; anti- 

Parnellites, 72 ; labour members, 4 ; Conservatives,. 

268 ; Liberal-Unionists, 47. 



Old House. 

ENGLAND. 

202 Cities or boroughs 
40 Counties 
2 Universities . 



WALES. 

12 Cities or boroughs 
12 Counties 



SCOTLAND. 

15 Cities or burghs . 



Members. 



33 Counties 



IRELAND. 

33 Cities or boroughs 
32 Counties 
1 University . 



• • 4°3 

. 82 

. . 4 


489 


12 
12 


24 


• 15 
. . 3° 


45 


• 35 

. . - 64 

1 


100 
Total 658 



By the Reform Act 0/1832.* 
England. Members. 

187 Cities or boroughs . . . 323 
40 Counties . . . 144 

1 Isle of Wight . i . . 1 

2 Universities .' . 4 



230 

WALES. 

14 Cities or boroughs 
12 Counties 



SCOTLAND. 

21 Cities or burghs 
33 Counties 



54 

IRELAND. 

33 Cities or boroughs . 
32 Counties 
1 University 



472 



Members. 

• • 23 

• 3° 



By the Acts of 1867 and 1868. 

England. Members. 

186 Cities or boroughs t . . 286 

40 Counties 1731 

1 Isle of Wight ... 1 
3 Universities . . . . 5 



WALES. 

14 Cities or boroughs 
12 Counties 


. is 

• ■ is 


26 


30 


SCOTLAND. 

22 Cities or burghs . 
33 Counties 
4 Universities 


Members. 

. 26 

- • 33 


59 


60 


IRELAND. 

33 Cities or boroughs f 
32 Counties 
1 University 


• 39- 

. . 64 

■z 


66 


105 


381 


Total 658; 









COMMONS. In 1685, of the 37,000,000 acres 
of land in England, about 18,000,000 were moor- 
land, forest, and fen. In 1727, about 3,000,000 
acres more had been brought into cultivation ; and 
from that time to 1844, by means of 4000 private 

* In 1844 Sudbury, and in 1852 St. Alban's, were dis 
franchised for bribery and corruption ; each having 
previously returned two members ; the aggregate number 
of the house then became 654. In 1861, the forfeited 
seats were thus distributed by act of parliament — two 
additional to the west riding of York, one additional to 
South Lancashire, and one to a newly-created borough, 
Birkenhead. 



acts of parliament, about 7,000,000 acres more 
were enclosed. Since the Enclosure Act of 1845^ 
which established commissioners, another 1,000,000- 
acres have been enclosed. 
Act for improvement, protection, and management 

of commons near the metropolis, passed . Aug. 1866"- 
The Commons Preservation Society established 1865 

elected Win. Cowper, president . ■ ■ Feb. 1867 

t Disfranchised and replaced, 1867 : Lancaster, Tar- 
mouth, Totnes, and Reigate. — Disfranchised, 1870: Be- 
verley and Bridgwater, eacli two members ; Cashel and' 
Sligo.ench one member : 652 members, 1878 ; 12 members 
short, through void elections, Aug. 1880. 



COMMONWEALTH OF ENGLAND. 239 



COMPANIES. 



" Six Essays on Commons Preservation," were pub- 
lished . 1867 

It is stated that there are 900,000 acres of common 
land capable of cultivation in England and Wales, 

Aug. 1874 

Act for the regulation of commons, passed n Aug. 1876 

Mr. de Morgan, active opponent of enclosures, im- 
prisoned for contempt of court (The Rolls) . Jan. 1878 

Metropolitan Board of Works authorised to secure 
commons, &c. by act passed . . 16 Aug. ,, 

About 14,000 acres of land near London preserved 
by the agency of the Commons Preservation 
Society reported at the annual meeting on 

io Dec. 18S6 
By the Ranges Act, passed in 1891, power was given to 

any lord of the manor to acquire possession of any part 

of any common over which his rights extend, in order 

that the secretary of state for war may establish ranges 

for rifle practice, &c, with regulations. 

COMMONWEALTH of ENGLAND, the 

term applied to the interregnum between the death 
of Charles I. and the restoration of Charles II. A 
republic was established at the execution of 
Charles I., 30 Jan. 1649, — a new oath called the 
"Engagement" was framed, which all officials 
were obliged to take.* Salmon. Oliver Cromwell 
was made protector, 16 Dec. 1653 ; succeeded by his 
son Richard, 3 Sept. 1658. Monarch}' was restored 
8 May, and Charles II. entered London, 29 May, 
1660. For the Commonwealth of Australia, 
see Australasia . 

COMMUNALISTS, or Communists, pro- 
pose to divide France into about a thousand small 
thoroughly independent states, with councils elected 
by all the population, Paris to be the ruling head. 
They declare that capital and its holders must be 
adapted to nobler uses, or cease to exist. Their 
creed is stated to be atheism and materialism. 
They are intimately connected with the Interna- 
tional Society of workmen (see Workmen), and 
with the communists or socialists (1871-3)^ 

COMMUNES, in France, are territorial divi- 
sions under a mayor. In the nth century the 
name was given to combinations of citizens, favoured 
by the crown, against the exactions of the nobles. 
In 1356 Stephen Marcel, during the English inva- 
sion, vainly endeavoured to establish a confederation 
of sovereign cities, having Paris as the governing 
head ; and for six months it was really governed by 
a commune in 1588. After the insurrection of July, 
1 789, the revolutionary committee whichreplaced the 
city council took the name of " commune of Paris," 
Pethion being mayor. It met at the Hotel de 
Ville, and was definitively constituted, 21 May, 
1791- It had great power under Robespierre, and 
fell with him 17 July, 1794; being replaced by 
twelve municipalities. The commune of Paris was 
proclaimed 28 March, 1871, during the insurrection, 
which began 18 March, and ended with the capture 
of the city by the government troops, 28 May follow- 
ing. 2245 communists were pardoned by decree 
issued 17 Jan. 1879; and many others afterwards. 
A number re-entered Paris, 4 September following. 
For the events of the communal rule in Paris, see 
France, 1871. See Socialism. 

* By this oath they swore to be true and faithful to 
the Commonwealth, without king or house of lords. 
The statues of Charles were next day demolished, par- 
ticularly that at the Royal Exchange, and one at the 
west end of St. Paul's ; and in their room the following 
inscription was conspicuously set up : —"Exit Tyrannus 
Jlegurn ultimus, Anno Libertatis Anglice Rcstltukc Primo, 
Anno Dom., 1648. Jan. 30." 

+ M. Dufaure, in opposing the amnesty, 17 May, 1876, 
asserted that the outbreak was organised by about 7000 
communists and 1500 foreigners ; 40,000 persons were 
inculpated ; 10,000 tried ; 25,000 dismissed. See France. 



COMMUNION, a name given to the ordinance- 
of the Lord's supper, 1 Cor. x. 16. Communicating 
under the form of bread alone is said to have had 
its rise in the west, under pope Urban II., 1096. The 
cup was first denied to the laity by the council of 
Constance, 1414-18. The fourth Lateran council, 
1215, decreed that every believer should receive the- 
communion at least at Easter. The communion ser- 
vice of the church of England was set forth in 1549,. 

COMMUTATION, see Tithes. 

COMORN, see Komom. 

COMORO ISLANDS, see Madagascar, 1891.. 

COMPANIES.* The London trade com- 
panies were gradually formed out of the trade or 
craft guilds, mainly by the exertions of "Walter- 
Harvey, mayor, in 1272, who is said to have- 
been very active in enlarging and maintaining the- 
liberties and privileges of the city. The originaL 
religious element in the companies gradually 
disappeared. Among the earliest commercial com- 
panies in England may be named the Steel- 
yard society, established 1232. The second com- 
pany was the merchants of St. Thomas a. Beckett 
in 1248. Stow. The Merchant Adventurers,, 
incorporated by Elizabeth, 1564. The follow- 
ing are the city companies of London ; the first 
twelve are the chief, and are styled "the Honour- 
able." Many companies are extinct, and many dates 
are doubtful. An inquiry into their affairs was par- 
tially resisted by them in 1835. In 1869 the gross- 
income of the endowed charities of the city com- 
panies was stated to be above 99,000/. A motion in. 
the Commons for inquiry iuto the revenues and 
other affairs of 89 companies, by Mr. W. H. James, 
withdrawn, 23 May, 1876. A commission of inquiry- 
was appointed (the earl of Derbjr, duke of Bedford,, 
lords Coleridge and Sherbrooke, sir R. A. Cross,. 
&c), 14 July, 1880. Five reports issued with re- 
commendations for reform, 1884-5. 

In 1884, 7319 liverymen and about 10,000 freemen,, 
estimated annual income about 750,000?., expended in. 
maintenance, education, and charities ; about 75,000?, 
spent in entertainments. 

Grants from the companies to the City Guilds of 
London Institute (Goldsmiths 46,000?., Drapers 43,000?., 
Cloth workers 37,000?., Fishmongers 34,000?., Mercers 
22,000?., Grocers 10,000?.) ; for technical education, &e_ 
(Drapers 60,000?., Goldsmiths 85,000?., Mercers 60,000?.) 
and others promised 1878-88. 



I. 


Mercers 


1393 


IS- 


Leather-sellers . 


1444- 


2. 


Grocers - . . . 


1345 


16. 


Pewterers . . 


T 473 


3- 


Drapers 


1438 


17- 


Barber-Surgeons . 


1462: 


4- 


Fishmongers (salt, 




18. 


Cutlers . 


1415 




i433;stock,i5o9) 




iq. 


Bakers . 


1509. 




united . . . 


1537 


20. 


Wax-chandlers 


1483 


s. 


Goldsmiths . 


1327 


21. 


Tallow-chandlers . 


1462- 


6. 


Skinners . . . 




22. 


Armourers and 




7- 


Merchant Taylors. 


1326 




Braziers . . 


1453; 


8. 


Haberdashers 


1448 


23. 


Girdlers 


1448 


g- 


Salters . . . 


ISS8 


24. 


Butchers . 


1606-- 


10. 


Ironmongers 


1464 


25. 


Saddlers 


1272^ 


II. 


Vintners . . . 


1363 


26. 


Carpenters . . 


J477 


12. 


Cloth-workers 


1480 


27. 


Cordwainers 


1438- 









28. 


Painter-stainers . 


1581 


n- 


Dyers . . . 


1471 


2Q. 


Curriers 


1606- 


14. 


Brewers 


1438 


3°- 


Masons . . . 


1677- 



* Bubble companies have been formed, commonly by 
designing persons. Law's bubble, in 1720-1, was "per- 
haps the most extraordinary of its kind, and the South 
Sea Bubble, in the same year, was scarcely less memor- 
able for its ruin of thousands of families. Many com- 
panies were established in these countries in 1824 and 
1825, and turned out to be bubbles. Immense losses 
were incurred by individuals, and the families of thou- 
sands of speculators were totally ruined. .Many v.iihvn 
enterprises (1844-5) were termed bubbles. See Law's; 
Bubble; South Sea; Railways; Joint-Stock Companies. 



COMPANIES' ACTS. 



240 



CONCHOLOGY. 



3i- 


Plumbers 


l6ri 


63- 


Comb-makers 


1635 


32. 


Inn-holders . . 


1515 


64. 


Felt-makers . . 


1604 


33- 


Founders 


1614 


65- 


Framework knit- 




34- 


Poulterers . . 


1504 




ters . 


1663 


35- 


Cooks . 


1482 


66. 


Silk-throwsters . 


1629 


36. 


Coopers . . . 


1501 


67. 


Silk-men 


1608 


37- 


Tilers and brick- 




68. 


Pin-makers . . 


1636 




layers 


1568 


69. 


Needle-makers 


1656 


38. 


Bowyers . . . 


1621 


70. 


Gardeners . . 


1605 


39- 


Fletchers 


1536 


7 1 - 


Soap-makers 


1638 


4°- 


Blacksmiths . . 


1S71 


72. 


Tinplate-workers . 


1671 


4i- 


Joiners . 


1571 


73- 


Wheelwrights 


1670 


42. 


Weavers . . . 


1184 


74- 


Distillers . . . 


1638 


43- 


Woolmen 


1484 


75- 


Hatband-makers . 


1604 


44- 


Scriveners . . 


1617 


76. 


Patten-makers 


1671 


45- 


Fruiterers . 


1606 


77- 


Glass-sellers . 


1664 


.46, 


Plasterers . . 


1 501 


78. 


Tobacco - pipe 




47- 


Stationers . 


1556 




makers 


T619 


48. 


Broderers . . 


1561 


79- 


Coach and Har- 




49- 


Upholders . 


1626 




ness makers 


1677 


3°- 


Musicians . . 


1604 


80. 


Gunmakers . . 


1637 


31- 


Turners 


,, 


81. 


Gold and Silvei 




32. 


Basket-makers 


1569 




wire-drawers . 


1693 


53- 


Glaziers , 


1631 


82. 


Bowstring-makers 


1440 


54- 


Homers . . . 


1638 


83. 


Card-makers . 


1628 


55- 


Farriers 


1684 


84. 


Fan-makers . . 


1709 


56. 


Paviors . . . 


1479 


85- 


Wood-mongers 


1605 


57- 


Loriners 


1712 


86. 


Starch-makers 


1632 


58. 


Apothecaries . . 


1617 


87. 


Fishermen . . 


1687 


59- 


Shipwrights 


1605 


88. 


Parish clerks 


1223 


60. 


Spectacle-makers 


1629 


89. 


Carmen . . . 


1606 


6i. 


Clock-makers 


1631 


90. 


Porters 


1154 


62. 


Glovers . . . 


1639 


91. 


Watermen . . 


1556 



COMPANIES' ACTS : one passed 1862, was 
amended and continued, 20 Aug. 1867; both 
amended by acts, 2 July, 1877, and 15 Aug., 1879. 
The important Companies Winding-up act was 
passed 18 Aug. 1890. 

By the last act, unlimited banking companies were 
regulated in regard to their issue of notes, audit of 
accounts, <&c. The acts of 1862, 1867, 1877, and 1879 
were amended by 43 Vict. c. 19 (1880), in 1883 and 1886. 
■Companies registered 30,372 since 1862 ; nominal 
•capital 3,442,804,000?. ; reported 1889. Companies 
.registered in the United Kingdom in 1888, 2,346 ; in 
1889, 2,788; in 189a, 2,789. 

COMPASS, MABINEE'S, said to have 
been early known to the Chinese, n 15 B.C., and 
brought to Europe by Marco J'olo, a Venetian, 
1260, a.d. Flavio Gioja, of Amalfi, a navigator, of 
Naples,* is said to have introduced the suspension 
of the needle, 1302. The compass is also said to 
have been known to the Swedes in the time of 
king Jarl Birger, 1250. Its variation was discovered 
first by Columbus, 1492 ; afterwards by Sebastian 
Cabot, 1540. The compass box and hanging com- 
pass used by navigators were invented by William 
Barlowe, an English divine and natural philosopher, 
in 1608 ; see Magnetism. The measuring compass 
was invented by Jost Bing, of Hesse, in 1602. The 
■compass of sir William Thomson patented in 1876 
is considered the best. 

COMPETITIVE EXAMINATIONS, see 

'Civil Service. 

COMPIEGNE, a French city north of Paris, 
the residence of the Carlovingian kings. During 
the siege, Joan of Arc was captured by the Bur- 
gundians, 25 May, 1430, and given up to the English 
for money. The emperor Napoleon III. and the king 
of Prussia met here on 6 Oct. 1861. 

COMPLUTENSIAN BIBLE, see Polyglot. 

COMPOSING-MACHINES, see Printing 
and Times. 



* The statement that the fleur-de-lis was made the 
ornament of the northern point of the compass in com- 
pliment to Charles, the king of Naples at the time of 
the discovery, has been contradicted. 



COMPOSITE OEDEB, a mixture of the 
Corinthian and Ionic, and also called the Roman 
order, is of uncertain date. 
Composite Portraits. By means of photography in 1877-8, 

Mr. Francis Galton combined from 2 to 9 separate 

portraits ; the result was generally an improvement 

on the features of the components. 

COMPOUND HOUSEHOLDEES (in 

regard to the payment of rates) were constituted 
by the Small Tenements act of 1851. Their posi- 
tion, with regard to the suffrage, caused much 
discussion during the passing of the Reform act in 
1867 ; and their claims were rejected. 

COMPOUND EADICAL, in organic chem- 
istry, is a substance which although containing 
two or more elements, in ordinary circumstances 
performs the part of an element. The Iladical or 
Binary theory was propounded by Berzelius, 1833, 
and by Liebig, 1838 ; and modified in the nucleus 
theory of Aug. Laurent, 1836. The first compound 
radical isolated was cyanogen (which see), by Gay- 
Lussac, in 1815 ; see Amyl, Ethyl, and Methyl as 
other examples. 

COMPEEHENSION BILL. Passed by 
the House of Lords in 1689, it proposed changes 
likely to induce Nonconformists to join the Church 
of England — it was dropped in the Commons, 
being unsatisfactory to all parties. 

COMPEOMISE, see Breda. 

COMTE PHILOSOPHY, see Positive 
Philosophy. 

CONCEPTION, Immaculate. A festival 

(on 8 Dee.) appointed in 1389, observed in the 
Roman Catholic Church in honour of the Virgin 
Mary's having been conceived and born immacu- 
late, or without original sin. Opposition to this 
doctrine was forbidden by decree of pope Paul V. 
in 161 7, confirmed by Gregory XV. and Alexander 
VII. Henault. On 8 Dec. 1854, pope Pius IX. 
promulgated a bull, declaring this dogma to be an 
article of faith, and charging with heresy those who 
should doubt it or speak against it. — The Concep- 
tionists were an order of nuns in Italy, esta- 
blished in 1488 ; see Santiago. 

CONCEETINA, a musical instrument in- 
vented by prof, afterwards sir Charles Wheatstone, 
about 1825, and improved by Mr. G. Case. The 
sounds are produced by free vibrating metal springs. 

CONCEETS. The Filarmonia gave concerts 
at Vicenza in the 16th century. The first public 
subscription concert was performed at Oxford in 
1665 ; the first in London is said to have been in 
1672, by John Banister, afterwards by Thomas 
Britton till his death, 1714. The Academy of 
Ancient Music, which introduced concerts in Lon- 
don, began in 1710; the Concerts of Ancient Music 
in 1776; and the present Philharmonic Society in 
1813; see others, under Music ; Crystal Palace; 
and Handel. Colossal peace concerts were held at 
Boston, U.S., 15 June, &c. 1869; 17 June to 
4 July, 1872 ; see Boston. 

Concerts Spirituels at Paris, organized by Anne Dannican 
Philidor, began in Passion week, 18 March, 1725 : 
closed in 1791 ; re-established, 1805 ; replaced by the 
Concerts du Conservatoire, begun 9 March, 1828. 
Jullleris Popular Concerts, with monster quadrilles, began 
at Drury Lane Theatre 8 June, 1840 ; a farewell 
series, 1859. He greatly promoted the taste for classi- 
cal music. 
Promenade Concerts revived at Covent Garden Theatre, 
autumn, 1880. 

CONCHOLOGY, the science of shells, is 
mentioned by Aristotle and Pliny. It was first 



CONCILIATION COUNCILS. 



241 



CONFESSIONS. 



reduced to a system by John Daniel Major, of 
Kiel, who published his classification of the Tes- 
tacea in 1675. Lister's system was published in 
1685; and that of Largius in 1722. Johnson's 
Introduction (1850) and Sowerby's Manual of 
Concho logy (1842), are useful. Forbes and Han- 
ley's " British Mollusca and their Shells " (1848-53) 
is a magnificent work. " British Conchology," by 
J. G. Jeffreys, published in 1862-9. 

CONCILIATION COUNCILS, see 

Councils. 

CONCLAVE. A range of small cells in the 
hall of the Vatican, or palace of the pope of Borne, 
where the cardinals usually meet to elect a pope, 
and also the assembly of the cardinals shut up for 
the purpose. The practice is said to have been 
instituted by Alexander III. in 11 79. Clement IV. 
having died at Viterbo in 1268, the cardinals were 
nearly three years unable to agree in the choice of 
a successor, and were on the point of breaking up, 
when the magistrates, by the advice of St. Boua- 
ventura, shut the gates of their city, and locked up 
the cardinals till they agreed, 1271. 

CONCORD (Massachusetts, N. America) . Near 
here was fought the battle of Lexington {which 
see), 19 April, 1775. 

CONCORDANCE. An index or alphabetical 
catalogue of all the words and also a chronological 
account of all the transactions in the Bible. The 
first concordance was made under the direction of 
Hugo de St. Caro, who employed as many as 500 
monks upon it, 1247. Abbe Leng let. It was based 
on one compiled by Anthony of Padua. Thomas 
Gibson's "Concordance of the New Testament" 
published, 1535. John Marbeck's " Concordance " 
(for the whole Bible), 1550. Two Concordances (with 
royal privileges), by Bob. F. Herrey, appeared in 
1578. Cruden's Concordance was published in 
London in 1737. Dr. Bobert Young's valuable 
"AnalyticalConcordance to the Bible," 1879-80. The 
Index to the Bible, published by the Queen's prin- 
ters, prepared by B. Vincent, 1848. 

Verbal indexes accompany good editions of the 
ancient classics. An index to Shakspeare, by Ayscough, 
appeared in 1790; another by Twiss in 1805; and Mrs. 
Cowden Clarke's (late Mary Novello) concordance to 
Shakspeare' s Plays (on which she spent 16 years' labour) 
in 1847. Shakspeare-~Lexicon by Dr. A. Schmidt, 2 vols. 
1874-5. Mrs. Horace Furness's concordance to Shak- 
speare's Poems, 1874. Todd's verbal index to Milton, 1809. 
Cleveland's concordance to Milton, 1867. Brightwell's 
concordance to Tennyson, 1869. Abbott's concordance 
to Pope, 1875. Dunbar's concordance to Homer, 1880. 
F. S. Ellis's concordance to Shelley, 1892. 

CONCORDAT. An instrument of agree- 
ment between a prince and the pope, usually con- 
cerning benefices. The concordat between the em- 
peror Henry V. of Germany and pope Calixtus II., 
in 1 122, has been regarded as the fundamental law 
of the church in Germany. The concordat be- 
tween Napoleon Bonaparte and Pius VII., signed 
at Paris, 15 July, 1801, re-established the Catholic 
church and the papal authority in France. Napo- 
leon was made in effect the head of the Gallican 
church, as bishops were to have their appointments 
from him, and their investiture from the pope. 
Another concordat between the same persons was 
signed at Fontainebleau, 25 Jan. 1813. These were 
almost nullified by another, 22 Nov. 181 7. A con- 
cordat, signed 18 Aug. 1855, between Austria and 
Home, by which a great ileal of the liberty of the 
Austrian church was given up to the papacy, 
caused much dissatisfaction. In 1868 it was vir- 



tually abolished by the legislatures of Hungary 
and Austria. 

CONDENSATION, see Gas, Beer, Milk. 

CONDOTTIERI, conductors or leaders of 
mercenaries, termed free companies or lances, 
which became so troublesome in Italy, that the 
cities formed a league to suppress them in 1342. 
Many ravaged France after the peace of Bretigny, 
in 1360. 

CONDUITS. Two remarkable conduits, 
among a number of others in London, existed 
early in Cheapside. The " great conduit" was the 
first cistern of lead erected in the city, and was 
built in 1285. At the procession of Anna Boleyn, 
on the occasion of her marriage, it ran with white 
and claret wine all the afternoon, 1 June, 1533. 
Stow. 

CONFEDERATE STATES of North 

America. The efforts of the Southern States for 
the extension of slavery, and the zeal of the Northern 
States for its abolition, with the consequent political 
dissensions, led to the great secession of 1860-1. On 
4 Nov. i860, Abraham Lincoln, the Bepublican or 
Abolitionist candidate, was elected president of the 
United States. Hitherto, a president in the interest 
of the South had been elected. On 20 Dec, South 
Carolina seceded from the Union; and soon after 
Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Georgia, Louisiana, 
Texas, Virginia (except West Virginia), Arkansas, 
Tennessee, and North Carolina also. Jefferson Davis 
was inaugurated president of the Southern Con- 
federacy at Montgomery in Alabama, 18 Feb. 1861. 
For the events of the war which ensued, and the 
restoration of the Southern States to the Union, 
see United States, 1861-5. Jefferson Davis's " Bise 
and Fall of the Confederate Government," 2 vols., 
published June, 1881 ; he died, aged 81, 6 Dec. 1889. 

CONFEDERATION at Paris, 14 July, 

1 790 ; see Champ de Mars, and Bastille. 

CONFEDERATION of the Rhine, the 

League of the Germanic States, formed by Napo- 
leon Bonaparte, 12 July, 1806, when he abolished 
the Holy Boman Empire, and the emperor of Ger- 
many became emperor of Austria. In Dec. it 
consisted of France, Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Saxony, 
and Westphalia ; seven grand duchies ; six duchies ; 
and twenty principalities. The princes collectively 
engaged to raise 258,000 troops to serve in case of 
war, and established a diet at Frankfort. This 
league terminated with the career of Bonaparte in 
1814 ; and in 1815 it was replaced by the Germanic 
Confederation {which see, and Germany). 

CONFERENCES, Ecclesiastical. One 

was held at Hampton Court palace, between the 
prelates of the church of England and the puritan 
ministers, in order to effect a general union, at the 
instance of the king, James I., 14,16, 18 Jan. 1604. 
It led to the new translation of the Bible, now in 
general use in England; executed in 1607- 1 1. 
Some alterations in the church liturgy were agreed 
upon ; but these not satisfying the dissenters, 
nothing more was done. — Another conference of the 
bishops and presbyterian ministers, with the same 
view, was held in the Savoy, 15 April to 25 July, 
1661. The dissenters' objections were generally 
disallowed, but some alterations were recommended 
in the Prayer-book. See Wesleyans and Congresses. 

CONFESSIONAL, see Auricular Confession. 

CONFESSIONS of Faith, or Creeds; 
see Apostles' , Nicene (325), and Athanasian (about 

K 



CONFIRMATION. 



242 



CONGO RIVER. 



Greet 



1564 



• r 579 



1647 



J. K. Lumby's " History of the 
breeds," published 1874. 

The confession of faith of the Greek church was 
presented to Mahommed II. in 1453. This gave 
way in 1643 to one composed by Mogila, metro- 
politan of Kiev, which is the present standard 
of the Russo-Greek church. 

The creed of Pius IV. , composed of the Nicene creed, 
with additional articles which embody all the 
peculiar dogmas of the Roman Catholic church, 
published by the council of Trent 

The church of England retains the Apostles', 
Nicene, and Athanasian creeds, with articles : — 
42 in 1552 ; reduced to 39 1563 

The confession of Augsburg (that of the Lutherans) 
was drawn up principally by Melancthon, in 
1530, and has since undergone modifications, the 
last of which is called the " Form of Concord " 

The Westminster confession was agreed to in 1643 
and adopted by the presbyterian church of Soot- 
land ; see Westminster 

The congregational dissenters published a declara- 
tion of faith !833 

CONFIRMATION, or laying on hands, was 
practised by the Apostles in 34 and 56 (Acts viii. 
17; xix. 6), and was general, according to some 
church authorities, in 190. In the church of Eng- 
land it is the public profession of the Christian 
religion by an adult person, who has been baptized 
in infancy. It is made a sacrament by the church 
of Rome. 

CONFLANS (near Paris), TREATY OE, 
between Louis XI. of France and the dukes of 
Bourbon, Brittany, and Burgundy, 5 Oct. 1465. 
By its provisions Normandy was ceded to the duke 
of Berry, and an end was put to the " War of the 
Public Good." It was confirmed by the Treaty of 
Peronne, 1468. 

CONFUCIANISM, the doctrines or system 
of j morality taught by Confucius K'ung FCt-tze, or 
"the Master K'ung" (b.c. 551-479), which has 
been long adopted in China as the basis of juris- 
prudence and education. It inculcates no worship 
of a god, and doubts a future state. 

: CONGE D'ELIRE (permission to elect), the 
licence given by the sovereign as head of the church, 
to chapters and other bodies, to elect dignitaries, 
particularly bishops ; the right asserted by Henry 
VIII., 1535. After the interdict of the pope upon 
England had been removed in 12 14, king John 
made an arrangement with the clergy for the 
election of bishops. 

CONGELATION, the act of freezing. Ice 
was produced in summer by means of chemical 
mixtures, by Mr. Walker, in 1783. Quicksilver 
was frozen without snow or ice, in 1787. In 1810 
Leslie froze water in an air-pump by placing a 
vessel of sulphuric acid under it. Numerous freez- 
ing mixtures have been discovered since. Intense 
cold is produced bv the aerification of liquefied 
carbonic acid gas. Ice-making machines invented 
by Jacob Perkins 1834, John Gorrice 1848, and 
others. In 1857 Mr. Harrison patented a 
machine for manufacturing ice for commercial 
purposes, by means of ether and salt water, and 
made large blocks. In i860, M. Carre devised a 
method of freezing to 60° below zero by making 
water in a close vessel absorb and give off the gas 
ammonia. Siebe's ice-making machine, exhibited 
at the International Exhibition of 1862, excited 
much admiration. 
In R. Reece's ice-making machine (made known Dec. 

1868), liquefied ammonia is vaporised in a close vessei 

surrounded by water to be frozen. 
Mr. Harrison's method of freezing was applied to preser- 



vation of meat in Australia ; a cargo of carcases was 
shipped from Norfolk, Australia, 13 July, 1873. Not 
successful. See Ice, Provisions. 

CONGESTED DISTRICTS BOARD 

(Ireland), constituted by the Purchase of Land 
Act, 5 Aug. 1891. 

CONGO RIVER, S.W. Africa. The mouths 
of the Congo were discovered by the Portuguese in 
1484, and they have ever since claimed territories 
on its banks, having founded settlements, and sent 
missionaries, with temporary success. Dr. Living- 
stone explored the Congo, 1867-71. The natives 
on its bank and on the creeks having rifled the 
Geraldine, and committed other acts of piracy, 
were chastised by an expedition under commodore 
sir Win. Hewett, 3-1 1 Sept. 1875. Several villages 
and chiefs' houses were destroyed. 

For Mr. H. M. Stanley's expeditions in connection 
with the Belgian government, and his settle- 
ments, see Africa, 1876, et seq. 

M. de Brazza's expedition ; his treaty with the 
king of Congo ratified by the French govern- 
ment 21 Nov. 1882 

Colonies formed ; nationaljealousies excited ; regret 
of the disinterested king of the Belgians ; the 
British government partly recognize the rights of 
the Portuguese, Jan., with certain modifications 
(afterwards set aside) .... March, 1883 

Sir F. Goldsmid, chief of an expedition connected 
with the International African Association fa- 
voured by Belgium, starts summer . . . ,, 

The French seize fresh territories, 28 March, 1883 ; 
burn a village, March, et seq. 

Mr. Stanley had peaceably founded 12 stations and 
opened up 4500 miles of rivers to trade and civi- 
lization, reported 12 July ; he advocates a British 
protectorate, Sept. ; M. de Brazza's settlements 
reported unsuccessful .... Sept. ,, 

Circular from the Portuguese government assert- 
ing rights over the mouth of the Congo, published 
in Times 5 Nov. ,, 

Sir F. Goldsmid ill ; returns to England ; reports ; 
Gen. (Chinese) Gordon appointed by the king of 
Belgium to act on behalf of the International 
African Association on the Congo for the sup- 
pression of slavery, and support of commerce, 
Jan. ; but is sent by the British government to 
the Soudan 18 Jan. 1884 

Mr. Stanley returns to Stanley Pool . 21 Jan. „ 

British agreement with Congo, announced 5 Feb. ,, 

British interest secured by treaty with Portugal ; 
signed Feb. ,, 

The International African Association (captain 
Strauch, president), aiming at the suppression of 
slavery, has 30 stations, announced 9 April ; its 
flag recognized by United States, 22 April ; it 
formulates itself as a federal state, and is said to 
enter into engagements with France, regarded as . 
presumptuous, but justified by the Association, 

May-June, ,, 

Recognized by Great Britain, Italy, and other 
powers, Dec. 1884, et seq. 

Colonel sir Francis de Winton appointed adminis- 
trator-general of the Congo territories June, „ 

Free trade in the Congo valley declared by the 
West African conference (which see) . Dec. ,, 

The Mouth of the Congo occupied by the Portuguese 

15 Jan. 1885 

Treaty between the Association and France respect- 
ing the delimitation of territory, signed 5 Feb. „ 

King Leopold II. takes the title of Independent 
Sovereign of the State about . . 30 April , , 

Mr. H. M. Stanley's book '■ Congo, and the Found- 
ing of its Free State " published . . May ,. 

Conference at Berlin (which met 1884-5) ratifying 
the recognition of the Congo State by the Powers 

19 April, i386 

Stanley Falls Station evacuated . . . Dec. ,, 

Leopoldville, at Stanley Pool, founded by Mr. H. 
M. Stanley in 1881 reported prosperous . . 1887 

Stanley Falls Station re-occupied . . 4 June, 1888 
The state appeals to Belgium for an annual subsidy 
of 1,500,000 francs for ten years about 12 Aug. 1889 



CONGREGATION. 



243 



CONSCRIPTION. 



Prosperity of the country reported (Mr. Janssen 
governor-general) Sept. 1889 

Supreme council of the Congo State, king Leopold 
president, held its first sitting at Brussels, 18 Dec. ,, 

'The Belgian government agree to lend to the Congo 
State 5,000,000 francs at once, and 2,000,000 francs 
annually for the next 10 years without interest, 
July ; the bill passed by the chamber, 1 1 July, 
by the senate 30 July, 1890 

The budget shows a deficit of 7,000,000 francs 

17 April, 1892 

CONGREGATION OF THE Lord, a name 
fallen by the Scotch reformers, headed by John 
Knox, about 1546. Their leaders (the earls of Glen- 
•eairn, Argyle, Morton, and others) called "lords of 
?the congregation," signed the first bond or covenant 
which united the protestants under one association, 
3 Dee. 1557. Tytler. 

CONGREGATIONALISTS, see Indepen- 
dents. 

CONGRESS. An assembly of princes or min- 
isters for the settlement of the affairs of nations or 
•of a people. The following are the most remark- 
able congresses of Europe : — 

Miinster 1643-8 

Nimeguen 1676-8 

Ryswiek . . . 1697 

Utrecht 1713 

"Soissons 1728 

Antwerp . ..... 8 April, 1793 

Rastadt ...... 9 Dec. 1797-9 

'Chatillon 5 Feb. 1814 

Vienna 3 Nov. „ 

Aix-la-Chapelle 9 Oct. 1818 

•Carlsbad 1 Aug. 18 19 

"Troppau 20 Oct. 1820 

Lay bach 6 May, 182 1 

Verona 25 Aug. 1822 

■Paris 16 Jan. — 22 April, 1856 

Frankfort (see Germany) . . . 16-31 Aug. 1863 

■Constantinople . . 23 Dec. 1876 — 20 Jan. 1878 

Berlin .... 13 June— 13 July, „ 

See Alliances, Church, Conventions, &c. 

The first general congress of the United States 
of America, preparatory to their declaration of 
independence, when strong resolutions were 
passed, also a petition to the king, and an address 
to the people of England, was held, 5 Sept. 1774. 
The second was held, 10 May, 1775 ; the third, 
when the independence was declared . 4 July, 1776 

The first federal American congress, under the con- 
stitution, was held at New York ; George Wash- 
ington, president March, 1789 

The first congress of the seceding southern states 
was held at Montgomery, Alabama, 4 Feb. ; it 
elected Jefferson Davis president of the con- 
federate states on 9 Feb. For political reasons it 
adjourned on 24 May, to meet at Bichmond, in 
Virginia, on 20 July, 1861 

En 1863, the emperor Napoleon invited the sove- 
reigns of Europe to a congress ; which was de- 
clined by England 25 Nov., and only conditionally 
acceded to by other powers. He proposed a con- 
gress on the affairs of Italy and Rome in Nov. 1867, 
without effect. 

CONGREVE ROCKETS, see Sockets. 

CONIC SECTIONS. Their properties were 
probably known to the Greeks, four or five centuries 
before the Christian era, and their study was culti- 
vated in the time of Plato, 390 B.C. The earliest 
treatise on them was written "by Aristams, about 330 
B.C. Apollonius's eight books were written about 
240 B.C. The parabola was applied to projectiles 
by Galileo, the ellipse to the orbit of planets by 
Kepler, and to comets by Newton. 

CONJURATION, see Witchcraft. 

CONJURERS, see under Wizard. 

CONNAISSANCE DES TEMPS, the 



French nautical almanack, continuing Heoker's 
Ephemerides, was first published by Picard, 1679. 

.CONN AUGHT, TV. Ireland; long a nominal 
kingdom, divided into counties, 1590. Prince 
Arthur, third son of queen Victoria, bora 1 May, 
1850, was created duke of Connaught, 23 May,' 
1874; being the first royal prince whose leading 
title was Irish. 

The Duke of Connaught' s Establishment Act, passed 8 Aug., 
1878, made the same provision for the duke, as for his 
brother Alfred; see Edinburgh. The duke was mar- 
ried to the princess Louise Margaret of Prussia, 13 
March, 1879. See England (Boyal Family). 
The condition of the peasantry was greatly bene- 
fited by the construction of light railways, 
introduced by Mr. A. J. Balfour, the Irish chief 
secretary 1890 ei SC2. 

CONNECTICUT a New England state of N. 
America. The settlements of 1635 and 1638 were 
united by charter in 1665. Capital Hartford. 
Population 1880, 622,700; 1890, 746,258. 

CONNOR, Ireland. The bishopric was united 
to that of Down, 1442. The first prelate, ^ngus 
Macnisius, died 507. The united sees were added to 
Dromore on the death of its last bishop, 1 842, in accord- 
ance with the Irish Church Temporalities act, 1833. 

CONQUEST, the era in British history, when 
William duke of Normandy overcame Harold II. at 
the battle of Hastings, 14 Oct. 1066, and obtained 
the crown which he asserted had been bequeathed 
to him by Edward the Confessor (Edgar being the 
rightful heir) . "William has been erroneously styled 
the Conqueror, for he succeeded to the crown of 
England by compact. He defeated Harold, who 
was himself a usurper, but a large portion of the 
kingdom afterwards held out against him ; and he, 
unlike a conqueror, took an oath to observe the 
laws and customs of the realm, in order to induce 
the submission of the people. Formerly our judges 
were accustomed to reprehend any gentleman at the 
bar who said casually William the Conqueror, 
instead of William I. Selden. Maclise exhibited 
forty-two drawings on the events of the Norman 
conquest, in May, 1857. E. A. Freeman's "History 
of the Norman Conquest," 6 vols, 1870-9, is valued. 
He died, aged 69, 16 March, 1892. 

CONSCIENCE CLAUSE, see Education. 

CONSCIENCE, Courts of, or of Re- 
quests for recovery of small debts, constituted by 
a stat. of Hen. VII. 1493, and re-organised by stat. 
9 Hen. VIII. 1517. These courts were improved 
and amended by various acts ; their jurisdiction in 
London reached to 5^. and (until superseded by 
county-courts) to 405. in other towns. The practice 
was by summons, and if the party did not appear, 
the commissioners had power to apprehend and 
commit ; see County Courts. 

CONSCIENCE, Liberty of, a principle 

of genuine Christianity (1 Cor. x. 29); repudiated 
by .Romanism, proclaimed by James II. for political 
purposes, 1687. 

CONSCIENCE MONEY. In the year 

ending 31 March, 1873, 9,847/. were sent to the 
chancellor of the exchequer for unpaid income tax ; 
1874, 8,588/. ; 1877, 14,835/. ; 1S78, 5,572/. ; 1879, 
6,732/.; 1880,5,801/. /V ' 

CONSCRIPT FATHERS {patrcs con- 
script?) the designation given to the Roman sena- 
tors, because their names were written in the regis- 
ters of the senate. 

CONSCRIPTION, a mode (derived from the 
Romans) adopted for recruiting armies on the 

11 2 



CONSECRATION. 



244 



CONSPIRACIES. 



continent. On 5 Sept. 1 798, a military conscription 
was ordained in France, comprehending all the 
young men from 20 to 25 years of age : from whom 
selections were made. A conscription for 350,000 
men took place in Jan. 1813, after the disastrous 
Russian campaign, and in Dec. same year, another 
for 300,000 after the battle of Leipsic. Estimated 
inscription, 1793-1813, 4,103,000. The law of 1818 
(modified in 1824, 1832, and 1868) required a certain 
annual contingent for each department. The con- 
scription was enlarged and modified by the army 
bill which was enacted in Feb. 1868. The re- 
organisation of the army began in 1871, after the 
fatal war with Germany. Substitutes were allowed 
under certain conditions. Conscription for Great 
Britain was advocated and strongly opposed in 1875. 
CONSECEATION. Aaron and his sons were 
consecrated priests, 1490 B.C. {Lev. viii.) The 
Jewish tabernacle was dedicated, 1490 B.C., and 
Solomon's temple, 1004 B.C. (1 Kings viii.) The 
consecration of churches began in the 2nd century. 
Anciently the consecration of popes was deferred 
until the emperor had given his assent to their 
election. Gregory IV. desired to have his election 
confirmed by the emperor Louis, in 828. Henault. 
The consecration of churches, places of burial, &c, 
is admitted in the reformed religion. An act re- 
lating to the consecration of churchyards, passed 
20 Aug. 1867, was amended in 1868. A form of 
consecration was adopted by convocation, but not 
sanctioned by the crown, April, 1712. It is gene- 
rally used but is not compulsory. — Burn. The form 
of consecrating bishops in the church of England 
is set forth in the prayer-book of 1549. — Stow. 

CONSERVATION OF FORCE. The doc- 
trine that no physical force can be created or de- 
stroyed, but may be transferred, is maintained by 
Faraday, Grove, Helmholtz, Tyndall, and other 
philosophers; see Correlation. 

CONSERVATIVES, a name said to have 
been invented by John Wilson Croker,* an earnest 
Tory, in 1830, assumed by a party, whose leading 
principle is the preservation of our national institu- 
tions. It was termed a new cant word by T. B. Mac- 
aulay in Edinburgh Revieiv, July, 1832. Sir Robert 
Peel acknowledged himself a conservative when 
reproached by the Irish party in parliament with 
being an Orangeman ; but the party that afterwards 
separated from him called their principles conserva- 
tive in contradistinction to his, — his policy and 
measures being changed. — The Conservative Club 
was founded in 1840 ; see Protectionists and Clubs. 
The party in the north of the United States which 
supported the president in his conciliatory efforts to 
re-establish the Union, Jan. 1866, were termed 
" Conservatives." A great meeting of the National 
Union of Conservative Associations was held at the 
Crystal Palace, 24 June, 1872. The party in the 
minority at the elections in 1868 obtained a majority 
at those in Feb. 1874, and came into office. They 
were again in a minority at the general election, 
and resigned 22 April, 1880. The' marquis of 
Salisbury was elected leader of the party, 9 May, 
1 88 1, succeeding the earl of Beaconsfield, who died 
19 April previous. Constitutional club (central) 
formed in London, President, marquis of Salisbury. 
House opened 8 Aug. 1883. National Conserva- 
tive Clubs, established in 1866. See Derby and 
Disraeli, Fourth Party, Liberals (1886), National 
Union. 
The national union of conservative associations 

met at Salisbury, 25 July, 1889 ; Liverpool, 1890 ; 

Birmingham 24 Nov. 1891 

* Quarterly Review, vol. xlii. p. 276, Jan. 1830. 



The marquis of Salisbury addresses 10,000 conser- 
vatives at Exeter 2 Feb. 189,2 

CONSERVATOIRES, a name given to es- 
tablishments for the cultivation of music and the 
arts on the continent. One was established at 
Naples in 1537- The singing school at Paris, 
founded in 1784, and closed in 1789, was re-opened 
in 1793 as the " Institut National de Musique," and 
after being reorganised, was re-named " Conserva- 
toire de Musique" in 1795, and flourished under 
Cherubini (1822-42). "The Conservatoire das 
Arts et Metiers" was established in 1784. It in- 
cludes a museum and library, and lectures are given, 
to workmen there. 

CONSERVATORS of the Public Lib- 
erties. Officers chosen in England to inspect the- 
treasury and correct abuses in administration, 
28 Hen. III. 1244. — Rapin. Conservators were 
appointed to see the king's peace kept. — Pardon. 
Conservators were formerly appointed in every sea- 
port to take cognisance of all offences committed 
against the peace upon the main sea out of the 
liberty of the Cinque Ports. — Bailey. 

CONSISTORIES for regulating ecclesiastical 
discipline and divine worship in the Lutheran) 
church in Germany, were established at the refor- 
mation — the first at "Wittenberg in 1542 ; other 
consistories were established after the peace of 
Augsburg in 1555. 

CONSISTORY COURT, anciently joined 
with the hundred court ; and its original, as divided* 
therefrom, is found in a law of William I., 1079,. 
quoted by lord justice Coke. The chief and most 
ancient consistory court of the kingdom belongs to* 
the see of Canterbury, and is called the Court of 
Arches {which see) . 

CONSOLIDATED FUND was formed by 
combining the "aggregate," "general," and 
"South Sea funds," 1786. On 5 Jan. 1816, the ex- 
chequers of Great Britain and Ireland, previously 
separate, were amalgamated, forming "the consoli- 
dated fund of the United Kingdom." 

CONSOLS, see Stocks. 

CONSORZIO NAZIONALE, see Italy, 
1866. 

CONSPIRACIES. Among the recorded con- 
spiracies, real or supposed, the following are the most 
remarkable : see Rebellions. 

Of the duke of Gloucester against Richard II. . 1397 
Of the earl of Cambridge and others against Henry V. 1415 
Of Anthony Babington and others against Elizabeth. 

(See Babington) 15S6 

Of Lopez, a Jew, and others 1594 

Of Patrick York, an Irish fenoing-master hired by 

the Spaniards to kill the queen . . . ,, 

Of Walpole, a Jesuit, and Edward Squyer to poison 

the queen 159S 

Tyrone's insurrection in Ireland .... 1599. 

The Gunpowder plot {which see) 1605 

Tyrone's conspiracy to surprise the castle of Dublin. 1607 
Of Penruddock (1655) and of Syndercombe and 

others to assassinate Oliver Cromwell . Jan. 1657 
Insurrection of the Fifth-monarchy men against 

Charles II 1661 

Of Blood, who seized the duke of Ormond, wounded 

him, and would have hanged him, Dec. 1670 ; and 

who afterwards attempted to steal the regalia. 

9 May, 1671 
The pretended conspiracy of the French, Spanish, 

and English Jesuits to assassinate Charles II., 

revealed by the infamous Titus Oates, Dr. Tongue, 

and others . .... Aug. 1678 

The Meal-tub plot {which see) 1679 

The Rye-house plot to assassinate the king on his 

way to Newmarket. (See Rye-house Plot). . . 1683 



CONSPIRACY. 



245 



CONSTITUENT. 



Of lord Preston, the bishop of Ely, and others to 

restore James II. .... Jan. 1691 

■Of Granville, a French chevalier, to murder king 

William in Flanders 1692 

!Ehe Assassination plot (which sec) frustrated . . 1696 
Of Simon Fraser, lord Lovat, against queen Anne. 

(See Rebellions) 1703 

■Of the marquis Guiscard . . . . March, 1711 

•Of James Sheppard, an enthusiast, to assassinate 

George 1 1718 

Of counsellor Layer and others, to bring in the 

Pretender 1722 

Of the Corresponding Society, &c. (ivhich see) . 1796-8 

Of colonel Despard 1802 

Of Robert Emmett, in Dublin, when lord Kil- 

warden was killed .... 23 July, 1803 
Of Thistlewood and others, to assassinate the king's 

ministers. (See Cato-street) 1820 

Of the Sepoys in India. (See India) . 10 May, 1857 
Of the Fenians ... . 1858-68 
Major Panitza against prince Ferdinand, see Bul- 
garia Feb. et seq. 1890 

See Rebellious, Chartists, &c. 

CONSPIRACY AND PROTECTION 
TO PROPERTY ACT, passed 13 Aug. 1875 ; 
relates to trade disputes, breaches of contract, &c. 

CONSTABLE of England, Lord High. 

The seventh great officer of the crown, and, with the 
«arl marshal, formerly a judge of the court of 
^chivalry, called, in the time of Henry IV., curia 
militaris, and subsequently the court of honour. 
The power of this officer was so great, that in 1389 
■a. statute was passed for abridging it, and also the 
power of the earl marshal (ivhich see). The office 
•existed before the conquest, after which it went by 
inheritance to the earls of Hereford and Essex, and 
next in the line of Stafford. In 1521 it was for- 
feited by Edward Stafford, duke of Buckingham, 
.-attainted for high treason, and has never since been 
granted to any person, otherwise than pro hue vice 
(for this occasion), to attend at a coronation or trial 
hy combat. The only instance of a trial by combat 
Sbeing ordered since this office fell into the hands of 
the crown, was that commanded between lord Reay 
and Mr. David Ramsey, in Nov. 1631 ; but the king 
prevented it. 

LORD HIGH CONSTABLES AT CORONATIONS 

Queen Anne, Wriothesly, duke of Bedford . . 1702 

George I., John, Duke of Montague . . . . 1714 

George II., Charles, duke of Richmond . . . 1727 

George III. , John, duke of Bedford . . . . 1761 

George IV. ) « ("1821 

William IV. [Arthur, duke of Wellington . \ 1831 

Victoria . j ( 1838 

CONSTABLE of Scotland, Lord High. 

The office was instituted by David I. about 1147. 
The holder had the keeping of the king's sword, 
which the king, at his promotion, delivered to him 
naked (and hence the badge of the lord high con- 
stable is a naked sword) ; and the absolute com- 
mand of the king's armies while in the field, in the 
absence of the king. The office was conferred 
heritably in 13 14 on sir Gilbert Hay by Robert 
Bruce. One of Hay's descendants was made Earl 
of Erroll, and with his family the office still re- 
mains, being expressly reserved by the treaty of 
union in 1707. The present earl of Erroll is the 
twenty-third lord high constable (1892). 

CONSTABLES of Hundreds and Franchises, 
instituted in the reign of Edward I., 1285, are now 
called high constables. There are three kinds of 
constables, high, petty, and special ; the high con- 
stable's jux-isdiction extends to the whole hundred ; 
the petty constable's to the parish or liberty for 
which he is chosen ; and the special constable is 
appointed for particular emergencies (as in April, 
1848, on account of the Chartists). The general 



appointment of parish constables was made un- 
necessary by an act passed Aug. 1872. See Special 
Constables and Tower. 

CONSTABULARY FORCE. For that of 
London, see Police. The Constabulary of Ireland 
act passed in 1823, when this species of force was 
embodied throughout the country. Several subse- 
quent acts were consolidated in 1836. 

CONSTANCE, a city in Baden (S. Germany). 
Here was held the seventeenth general council, 1414- 
18, which condemned John Huss; and here he was 
burnt, 6 July, 1415; see Hussites. 

CONSTANTINA, the ancient capital of 
Numidia, was taken by the French, 13 Oct. 1837. 
During the assault on 12 Oct. the French general 
Damremont was killed. Achmet Bey retired with 
12,000 men, as the victors entered Constantina. 

CONSTANTINOPLE (formerly Byzantium) 
(which see), now Stamboul, derives its name from 
Constantine the Great, who removed the seat of the 
Eastern Empire here, dedicating it II May, 330. 
See Eastern Empire. Population, 1885, 873,565. 
General ecclesiastical councils against heresy were held 
here in 381, 553, 680, and 869. 

Seized by Procopius 365 

The city suffered much from religious dissensions, 

and was burnt during the " Nika " conflicts . . 532 
Rebuilt by Justinian with great splendour . ,, 

St. Sophia dedicated 537 

Resisted the Saracens successfully . . 675, 718 

And the Russians .... 865, 904, 941, 1043 

Taken by the Latins 1203, 1204 

Recovered by the Greeks . . . . .1261 

Vainly besieged by Amurath the Ottoman, June — 

Aug. 1422 
Taken by Mahomet II. after 53 days' siege, 29 May, 1453 
Conference on Turkish Affairs ; representatives : 
Great Britain, marquis of Salisbury ; Russia, 
general Ignatieff; France, Chaudordy ; Austria, 
Zichy ; GernwMy, Von Werther ; Italy, Corti ; or- 
dinary meetings began . . . .23 Dec. 1876 
Turkey rejected the propositions and the confer- 
ence closed 20 Jan. 1S77 

Treaty of peace with Russia: 12 articles ; Turkey ac- 
cepted modifications of treaty of San Stefano 
(ivhich see) ; an indemnity of about 802,500,000 
francs to be paid by Turkey (settlement deferred); 
Russian troops to quit within 40 days, <fec. ; signed 

8 Feb. 1879 
By the falling down of a barracks at Beykoi about 

200 soldiers said to be killed, about . 9 Feb. 1880 
Conference of European powers respecting Egypt 

constituted (see Egypt) . . . .23 June, 1882 
Great fire, thousands homeless . . .5 Oct. 1883 
Great fire, about 900 houses destroyed 12 July, 1890 

Grand opening of the new station of the Orient 
(European Turkish) railway . . .4 Nov. ,, 
See Turkey. 
Era of Constantinople has the creation placed 5508 
years b.o. It was used by the Russians until the time 
of Peter the Great, and is still used in the Greek church. 
The civil year begins 1 Sept. , and the ecclesiastical year 
in March ; the day is not exactly determined. To 
reduce it to our era, subtract 5508 years from January 
to August, and 5509 from Sept. to the end. Nicolas. 

CONSTELLATIONS. Areturus, Orion, the 
Pleiades, and Mazzaroth are mentioned in Job ix. 
9, and xxxviii. 31, about 1520 B.C. Homer and 
H.esiod notice constellations ; but our first direct 
knowledge was derived from Claudius Ptolemajus, 
about a.d. 140. Hipparchus (about 147 B.C.) made a 
catalogue of forty-eight constellations, and others 
were added by Tycho Brahe, Hevclius, Hallev, and 
others. The number at present acknowledged is 29 
northern, 45 southern, and 12 zodiacal. 

CONSTITUENCIES, see Commons, House of. 

CONSTITUENT, see National Assembly. 



CONSTITUTION. 



246 CONVALESCENT INSTITUTION, 



CONSTITUTION or England. It com- 
prehends the whole body of laws by which the British 
people are governed, and to which it is presump- 
tively held that every individual has assented. 
Lord Somers. This assemblage of laws is distin- 
guished from the term government in this respect — 
that the constitution is the rule by which the sove- 
reign ought to govern at all times ; and government 
is that by which he does govern at any particular 
time. Lord Bolingbroke. The king of England is 
not seated on a solitary eminence of power : on the 
contrary, he sees his equals in the co-existing 
tranches of the legislature, and he recognises his 
superior in the law. Sheridan. Hallam's " Con- 
stitutional History of England" was first published 
in 1827; May's in 1861-3; Stubbs' in 1875. 

CONSTITUTIONALIST PARTY, a name 
assumed by a combination of Conservatives and 
seceded "Whigs, Aug. 1867, and used during the 
severely contested elections, Nov. 1868. The Con- 
stitutional Union held its first anniversary 20 June, 
1881. Dinner, i4 June, 1890. 

Constitutional Press Corporation. — An active conservative 

body, autumn, 1881. 
Constitutional Club. — President marquis of Salisbury, 

established 1883. 

CONSTITUTIONS of France, enacted 

1789-91, 1795, 1799, (charter) 1814, 1848, 1852, 
1875- 

CONSUBSTANTIATION, see Trunsubstan- 
tiation. 

CONSULS (meaning colleagues), Roman: at 
the expulsion of the Tarquins, a republic was esta- 
Mished, to be ruled by two praters or consuls 
elected annually : the first being Lucius Junius 
Brutus and Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus, husband 
of the injured Lucretia, 509 B.C. The consular 
power was in emergencies superseded by dictators 
and tribunes. 

Government of the Decemviri . . B.C. 451 — 449 
Three Military Tribunes with consular power . . 444 

A Plebeian elected consul 366 

[In the reign of Tiberius the consuls were nomi- 
nated by the senate, and the appointment be- 
caaie henceforth honorary.] 
The French consulate established when the direc- 
tory was abolished : Bonaparte, Sieves, and Roger 
Ducos made provisional consular commissioners, 
10 Nov. ; Bonaparte, Cambaceres, and Lebrun 

made consuls 13 Dec. 1799 

Bonaparte was made first consul for 10 years, 6 May, 

and for life, 2 Aug. 1802 ; emperor . 18 May, 1804 
Commercial agents were first distinguished by the 
name of consuls in Italy. Lorenzo Strozzi was ap- 
pointed by Richard III. 1485 

A British consul first appointed in Portugal . . 1633 
The Associations of Foreign Consuls in London held 
a banquet at the Hotel Metropole . 22 Feb. 1890 

CONTAGIOUS DISEASES ACT for naval 
and military stations passed June 1866; amended, 
1869-71 ; repealed 1886. One for animals passed 
1866 ; renewed 1867 ; amended 1869. Although 
the operation of the first act was reported to be 
successful, it has been much opposed. A royal com- 
mission appointed to inquire, reported, July, 1871 ; 
and alterations have been proposed. Its repeal 
negatived in the Commons (308-126), 23 June, 
1875; (224-102), 19 July, 1876; 16 March, 1886. 
A new act for animals was passed 16 Aug. 1878 ; 
amended, 1884 and 1886; amended in relation to 
pleuro-pneumonia, 1890 and 1892. See Cattle. 

CONTEMPORARY REVIEW, first ap- 
peared Jan. 1866 ; editor Dean Alford. 



CONTINENTAL S YSTEM,the isarae given. 
to Napoleon's plan to exclude the British merchan- 
dise from the entire continent. It began publicly 
with his Berlin decree in 1806, and occasioned the- 
Orders in Council (which see) . 

CONTINUITY, Mr. (after sir) W. R. Grove, in 
his address as president of the British Association, on, 
22 Aug. 1866, at Nottingham, expounded the opinion 
held by many philosophers, that all the past ebanges- 
in the world have been produced by the continuous 
action of the causes now in operation— that " con- 
tinuity is a law of nature, the true expression of the- 
action of Almighty Power." 
Those who hold this opinion are termed Uniformita- 

rians ; their opponents are termed Cataclysmists, who 

attribute the changes to the violent action of fire and 

water. 

CONTRABAND of War, a term said to 
have been first employed in the treaty of Southamp- 
ton between England and Spain in 1625. During 
the struggle between Spain and Holland, both 
powers acted with much rigour towards ships of 
neutrals conveying goods to the belligerents. This- 
provoked the resistance of England. A milder policy 
was adopted by the treaty of Pyrenees, 1650; and 
by the declaration of Paris, 26 April, 1856. The 
subject was much discussed during the North Ameri- 
can conflict, 1861-4. 

CONTRACTORS with Government, disquali- 
fied from sitting in parliament, 1782. 

CONTRE-DANSE (English, country-dance),, 
a dance, so called from the dancers being opposite- 
each other, was introduced into France (probably 
from England) about 1715, et seq. 

CONTRIBUTIONS, Voluntary, to avast 

amount have been several times made by the British- 
people in aid of the government. One, in 1798, to- 
support the war against France, amounted to two- 
millions and a half sterling. Several men of wealth,, 
among others sir Robert Peel, of Bury, Lancashire,, 
subscribed each 10,000/. : and 200,006/. were trans- 
mitted from India in 1799; see Patriotic Fiend.. 
For India, Qc, see Mansion House. 

CONTROL, BOARD OF. Mr. Pitt's bill, esta- 
blishing this board for the purpose of aiding and 
controlling the executive government of India, and, 
of superintending the territorial concerns of the 
company, was passed 18 May, 1784. Act amended: 
and the board remodelled, 1793. The president of ' 
the board was a chief minister of the crown, and. 
necessarily one of the members of the cabinet. This 
board was abolished in 1858, when the government 
of India was transferred from the company to the- 
crown ; see India Bills, and India. 

CONTROL DEPARTMENT, in the British, 
army, was divided into the commissariat and trans- 
port department, and the ordnance store depart- 
ment ; the old title was abolished ; order issued 
II Dec. 1875. 

CONVALESCENT INSTITUTION (Me- 
tropolitan), at Walton-on-Thames, with children's- 
branches at Hendon and Mitcham, was established, 
in 1840 ; a branch at Bexhill, Sussex, was- 
founded in 1880. A convalescent hospital for the 
east of London was founded at Snaresbrook in 1866, 
greatly due to the exertions of Mr. and Mrs. Charles- 
worth, Mrs. Gladstone, and Miss Catherine Marsh. 
Homes at Eamsgate, 1866 ; Waltham, 1867 ; Mar- 
gate, 1875, &c. See Bartholomew, St., 1881. Con- 
valescent Home for Middle Classes proposed by Mr. 
Burdett and others, Feb. 1885. There were 42; 
such institutions in 1888. 100,000/. for the esta- 



CONVENTICLES. 



247 



COOK'S EXCURSIONS. 



blishment of a general hospital convalescent home 
offered by a secret benefactor (Peter Eeid), himself, 
sir W. IS. Savary, and W. H. Cross to be joint 
trustees, 30 Dec. 1889; 50,000/. more presented, 
announced 18 March, 1890. The Surrey Conva- 
lescent Home, erected through an anonymous gift of 
25,000/., opened by tbe duke of Cambridge, 27 
July, 1891. 

CONVENTICLES, private assemblies for 
religious worship, held by Dissenters from the esta- 
blished church ; but first applied to the schools of 
Wickliffe. 35 Elizabeth, c. 1 (1593) passed " to pre- 
vent and suppress seditious conventicles," was re- 
enacted by 16 Charles II. c. 4 (1664) and by 22 
Charles it. c. 1 (1670). Persons attending them 
were liable to severe punishment. The statutes 
were repealed by the toleration act, 24 May, 1689. 

CONVENTION PARLIAMENTS, as- 
sembled without the king's writ upon extraordinary 
occasions. One on 25 April, 1660, voted the restora- 
tion of Charles II. A second met 22 Jan. 1689 ; 
offered the crown to William and Mary 13 Feb. ; and 
dissolved in Feb. 1690 ; see National Convention. 

CONVENTIONS, see Treaties. 
CONVENTS were first founded, according to 
some authorities, 270. The first in England was 
erected at Folkestone, by Eadbald, in 630. Camden. 
The first in Scotland was at Coldingham, where 
Ethelreda took the veil in 670. They were founded 
earlier in Ireland. They were, suppressed in Eng- 
land in various reigns, particularly in that of Henry 
VIII. A very great number have been suppressed 
in Europe in the present century. The king of 
Prussia secularised all the convents in the duchy of 
Posen. Dom Pedro put down 300 convents in Por- 
tugal in 1834 ; and Spain abolished 1800 convents. 
Many were abolished in Italy and Sicily in i860, 
1861, and 1866, and many in Russia 31 July, 1832, 
and Nov. 1864. 

In 1597 lady Mary Percy founded a convent at Brussels, 
which flourished there till 1794, when the nuns were 
compelled to remove to England. They were received 
by bishop Milner, and placed at Winchester, at which 
place they remained till their removal to East Berg- 
holt, in Suffolk, June, 1857. This was the first English 
conventual establishment founded on the continent 
after the Reformation. 
By the Emancipation act of 1829, 10 Geo. IV., the 
establishment of convents and other religious 
communities in the United Kingdom was prohi- 
bited, butthis enactment has been a dead letter . 1829 
There were in 1832, 16 convents in England ; in 1870% 

233 ; and 70 monasteries in Great Britain. 
A select committee to investigate into the revenues 
of British convents appointed by the commons, 
10 May, 1870 ; reappointed . . . Feb. 1871 
The committee reported the evidence heard . June, „ 
Mr. Newdegate's motion for an inquiry respecting 

these institutions was negatived . . 12 June, 1874 
Large convent at Bournemouth, in connection 

with Church of England, opened . 3 Oct. 1875 

A Carmelite convent, specially patronised by the 
duke of Norfolk and family, at St. Charles's 
Square, Notting Hill, London, \V., opened by 
Cardinal Manning .... 29 Sept. 1878 
Many convents in France abolished, by decree 

29 March, 1880 

CONVERSION, see National debt, 1888. 

CONVEYANCING ACT (Scotland) passed 
7 Aug. 1874. Tbe Conveyancing and Law of Pro- 
perty Act (England), 44 & 45 Vict. c. 41, passed 22 
Aug. 1 88 1. 

CONVICTS, see Transportation. 

CONVOCATION,theancientgeneralassembly 
of the clergy of the nation, convened by the sove- 
reign's writ, to consult on the affairs of the church; 



the writ is directed to the archbishop of each provi nee 
requiring him to summon all the bishops, arch- 
deacons, &c. The convocation is divided into two 
houses, the upper, consistingof bishops ; and lower, 
of deans, prebendaries, archdeacons, and members 
(termed proctors) elected from the inferior clergy. 
The clergy were summoned to meet the king by 
writ, 23 Edw. I. 1294. The power of the convoca- 
tion was limited by a statute of Henry VIII., in 
whose reign the convocation was reorganised. The 
two houses of convocation were deprived of various 
privileges in 17 18, and ceased to meet. The 
annual meetings of the clergy held during the 
sitting of parliament were revived in the province 
of Canterbury 1852, and York 1861, and fruitless at- 
tempts have been made to obtain the power of 
dealing summarily with ecclesiastical affairs ; but 
in Feb. 1872, convocation was authorised to deli- 
berate respecting alterations in the Liturgy ; upon 
which it acted, 5 March ; again in 1879. Petition 
to the queen for reform of convocation, Nov. 1882. 
Convocation relieved from the jurisdiction of the secular 
courts by Richard III., 1484. The Archbishop of 
York's claim for this in regard to elections (in the case 
of Canon Tristram) confirmed by the Queen's- Bench 
Division, Nov. 1887. See Laymen, House of, which first 
met 16 Feb. 1886. 

CONVOLVULUS. The Canary Convolvulus 
{Convolvulus canariensis) came to England from 
the Canary Isles, 1690. The Many-flowered, 1779. 

COOKERY, an art connected with civilised 
life. Animals were granted as food to Noah, 2348 
B.C., the eating of blood beiug expressly forbidden 
{Gen. ix. 3, 4). In 1898 B.C. a calf was cooked by 
Abraham to entertain his guests {Gen. xviii. 7, 8). 
" The Forme of Cury" {i.e. cookery) is dated 1390. 
An English cookery-book was printed 1498; see 
Cottager's Stove. 

The Cooks' Company, London, chartered 1482, celebrated 
the anniversary Aug. 1882. Since 1877 the company 
have given instruction to girls, and prizes for profi- 
ciency. 
Military Cookery.— Capt. Grant devised a system of cook- 
ing for the camp at Aldershot, which has continued in 
successful operation for the service of between 12,000 
and 14,000 men. From April to August, in 1857, the plan 
was subjected to the severe test of cooking for 92,000 
men, who marched in and out of the encampment 
during that period. The consumption of fuel requisite 
for this system of cooking was one half-pound of coal 
per man per day, and the official report states the cost 
to be one halfpenny per man per week for the three 
daily meals. 
Self-supporting Cooking Depots for the working classes 
were set up at Glasgow (by Mr. Thomas Corbett), 21 
Sept. i860 ; and proved successful in Manchester, 
Loudon, and other places soon after. 
Three medals were awarded to the Norwegian self-acting 
cooking apparatus (Soreuson's patent) at the Paris Ex- 
hibition, 1867. Cooking is effected by boiling water, 
the heat of which is maintained by enclosing it in a 
non-conducting substance. 
A Sclwol of Cookery was opened at the international ex- 
hibition, South Kensington, 14 April, 1873. 
A National Training School for Cookery, proposed 
17 July, 1873, was established in 1874. 

COOK'S EXCURSIONS. Mr. Thomas 
Cook in 1841 began his tourist system by arranging 
with the Midland railway company for the con- 
veyance of a party of 570 from Leicester to Lough- 
borough and back at is. a-head. 
He gradually extended his scheme through the United 
Kingdom, and thence to the continent. In 1856 1»' 
conducted his first touring party from Harwich In flu- 
Rhine, returning home Did Paris, lie has since ap- 
plied his system to America, India, Egypt, and the 
Holy Land. Mr. Cook died 18 July, 1892, aged 83. 



COOK'S VOYAGES. 



248 



COPPER. 



COOK'S VOYAGES. James Cook, accom- 
panied by Mr. (afterwards sir) Joseph Banks, sailed 
from England in the Endeavour on his first voyage, 
30 July, 1 768 ; and returned home after having 
circumnavigated the globe, arriving at Deal 12 June, 
1 77 1. The chief object of the expedition, at the 
request of the Royal Society, was the observation of 
the transit of Venus over the sun's disk, which was 
effected, 3 June, 1769. Captain Cook sailed to ex- 
plore the southern hemisphere, 13 July, 1772, and 
returned 30 July, 1775. In his last expedition 
(begun 12 July, 1776) he was killed by the savages 
of Owhyhee, 14 Feb. 1779. His ships, the Resolution 
and Discovery, arrived at Sheerness, 4 Oct. 1780. 

COOLIES, the hill tribes of India, have been 
recently much employed as labourers in Australia 
and California, especially since 1861 ; and about 
30,000 of them were conveyed by M. Kootmanschap, 
to assist in making the great Pacific railway. His 
proposal in 1869 to replace the negroes in the 
Southern States of North America for the cultiva- 
tion of cotton, was not accepted. " The Coolie, his 
Rights and Wrongs," by E. Jenkins, was published 
187 1. Coolie emigration has been the subject of 
negotiation between the British and Chinese govern- 
ments since 1855. 

COOPERAGE, an ancient art, probably sug- 
gested for preserving wine. The coopers of London 
were incorporated in 1501. 

CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES are com- 
posed of working men, having for their object the 
sale of articles of daily consumption to the members 
at low prices. The Rochdale Equitable Pioneers 
Society began in 1844, with a capital of 28/. In 
i860, the business done amounted to 152,063/., the 
profits being 15,906/. These societies (332 in 1862) 
are registered pursuant to 13 & 14 Vict. c. 115 
(1849). On 31 Dec. 1866, 749 industrial, provident, 
and co-operative societies were registered ; 1 153, 
May 1885 ; 1,281 in 1888. By an act passed in 1867 
they are bound to make a return. The fourth con- 
gress of delegates from the Co-operative Societies of 
Great Britain and Ireland, met at Bolton, April 1, 
1872 ; fifth at Newcastle, 12 April, 1873 > s i xt h at 
Halifax, 6 April, 1874; seventh in London, 29 
March, 1875; eighth at Glasgow, 17 April, 1876; 
ninth at Leicester, 2 April, 1877 ; twelfth, Newcastle, 
17 May, 1880; thirteenth, at Leeds, 6 June, 1881 ; 
fourteenth, Oxford, 29 May, 1882 ; fifteenth, Edin- 
burgh, 14 May, 1883 I sixteenth, Derby (co-opera- 
tion in production proposed), 2 June, 1884 ; seven- 
teenth at Oldham, May, 1885 : eighteenth at Ply- 
mouth, 14 June, 1886; at Carlisle, 28 May, 1887; 
at Dewsbury, 21 May, 1888; at Ipswich. 10 June, 
1889; at Glasgow, 26 May, 1890; at Lincoln, 18 
May, 1891 ; 24th at Rochdale, 4 June, 1892. A 
national trade society in opposition to co-operation 
was formed in 1872. 

Co-operative Cotton-mills in south Lancashire were 
reported successful in 187s. 

Ouseburn Co-operative Engineering Works, esta- 
blished 1871, failed through want of capital : wound up 
1875- * 

Much discontent among London tradesmen on account 
of the numerous co-operative stores, 1878—80. 

Co-operative farming begun in Northamptonshire, 1886. 

Establishment of a Co-operative Dwellings Association 
in London, proposed, 1887. 

The Tenant Co-operators (Limited) started Jan. 1888. 

The International Co-operative Congress opened at 
Bologna, 1 Oct. 1888. 

The Co-operative Union included 1,500 societies 
with a share capital of 11,000,000^. . Nov. 1890 

National Co-operative Festival at the Crystal 
Palace • • • . . 15 Aug. 1891 I 



COORG, a province, S. India. "War broke out 
between the rajah and the East India Company 1832, 
which ended by col. Lindsay defeating and deposing 
the rajah, 10 April, 1834, and his territories were 
soon after annexed by the British. In 1853 the 
rajah brought his daughter to be educated in Eng- 
land, where she was baptized. She married a col. 
Campbell, and died a few years after. 

COPENHAGEN (Denmark), built by Walde- 
mar I., 1157, made the capital, 1443; the university 
founded 1479. In 1728, more than seventy of its 
streets and 3785 houses were burnt. Its palace, 
valued at four millions sterling, was wholly burnt, 
Feb. 1794, when 100 persons lost their lives. In a 
fire which lasted forty-eight hours, the arsenal, 
admiralty, and fifty streets were destroyed, June, 
1795- A new national theatre was founded by the 
king, 18 Oct. 1872. — Copenhagen was bombarded by 
the English under lord Nelson and admiral Parker ; 
and in their engagement with the Danish fleet of 
twenty-three ships of the line, eighteen were taken 
or destroyed by the British, 2 April, 1801. Again, 
after a bombardment of three days, the city and 
Danish fleet surrendered to admiral Gam bier and 
lord Cathcart, 7 Sept. 1807. The capture consisted 
of eighteen sail of the line, fifteen frigates, six brigs, 
and twenty-five gun-boats, and immense naval 
stores. Population, with suburbs, 1880, 273,727 ; 
1890,375,251. See Denmark. 

The czar and the kings of Denmark and Greece, and 
other royal persons, breakfast with Mr. Gladstone, 
Mr. Tennyson, and others on board the Pembroke Castle, 
18 Sept. J883. 

The royal castle of Christiansborg, burnt ; Thorwaldsen's 
works saved, 3, 4 Oct. 1884. 

International Exhibition opened by the king, 18 May 1888. 

COPENHAGEN FIELDS (N. London). ' 
Here the Corresponding Society met on 26 Oct. 
1796; and the Trades' Union, 21 April, 1834. The 
fields are now chiefly occupied by the Metropolitan 
Cattle-market, opened 13 June, 1855. 

COPERNICAN SYSTEM, so called from 
its author Nicolas Copernicus, born at Thorn, 19 
Feb. 1473, died 24 May, 1543. A few days before 
his death, the printing of his book on the " Revolu- 
tion of the Celestial Bodies" was completed. The 
system, which resembles that attributed to Pytha- 
goras, was condemned by a decree of pope Paul V. 
in 1616 ; not revoked till 1818 by Pius VII. 

COPLEY MEDAL, see Royal Society. 

COPOPHONE, a musical instrument, con- 
sisting of a series of glass tumblers, connected with 
a sounding board. The sounds are produced by 
moving wet fingers along the edge of the glasses. 
It was played on at parties in London in June, 
1875, by Chevalier Furtado Coelho, the inventor. 

COPPER. One of the six primitive metals, 
said to have been first discovered in Cyprus. Pliny. 
We read in the Scriptures of two vessels of fine 
copper (or brass), " precious as gold," 457 B.C. 
{Ezra viii. 27). The mines of Fahlun, in Sweden, 
are most surprising excavations. In England, cop- 
per-mines were discovered in 1561, and there are 
upwards of fifty mines in Cornwall, where mining 
has been increasing since the reign of William III. 
In 1857, 75,832 tons of copper ore were imported, 
and 25,241 tons extracted. In 1865, 198,298 tons of 
copper ore were extracted from British mines, and 
11,888 tonssmelted : 82,562 tons were imported. In 
1856, 24,257 tons of pure copper (worth 2,983,611/.), 
in 1869, 8291 tons (worth 644,065/.) ; in 1875, 4593 
tons (worth 413,284/.) ; in 1876, 4694 tons (worth 



COPPERAS. 



249 



COPYRIGHT. 



391,130/.): in 1879, 346 2 tons (worth 222,507/.); 
1883, 2,620 tons (worth 181,067/.) ; 1887, 889 tons 
(worth 42,850/.); 1888, 1,456; 1889,905; 1890,936, 
were produced in the United Kingdom. The 
Burra-Burra copper-mines, in S. Australia, dis- 
covered 1842, brought great prosperity. 

Copper Money. The Romans, prior to the reign of Ser- 
vius Tnllius, used rude pieces of copper for money ; see 
Coin. 

In England copper money was made at the instance of 
sir Robert Cotton, in 1609 ; but was first really coined 
(when Miss Stewart sat for the figure of Britannia) 1665 

Its regular coinage began in 1672, and it was largely 
issued in 1689 

In Ireland, copper was coined as early as 1339 ; in 
Scotland in 1406 ; in France in . . . . 1580 

Wood's coinage (which see) in Ireland commenced in 1723 

The copper coinage was largely manufactured at 
Birmingham, by Boulton and Watt, in . . . 1792 

Penny and two-penny pieces were extensively issued 1797 

The half-farthing was coined, but disused (see 
Farthing) 1843 

io,ooo?. voted towards replacingthe copper coinage, 

July, 1855 

Bronze coinage (which see) issued . . . Dec. i860 

A French Syndicate formed to raise the price of 
■copper by a monopoly. Price of copper recently 
very low . . Feb. 1888 ; continued March 1889 

Collapse and financial panic (see France) March ,, 

Copper- Plate Printing was first invented in Ger- 
many, about 1450 ; and rolling-presses for work- 
ing the plates, about 1545 

Messrs. Perkins, of Philadelphia, invented a mode 
of engraving on soft steel, which, when hardened, 
will multiply copper-plates and fine impressions 
indefinitely (see Engraving) 1819 

Copper Sheathing first applied to the bottom of 
H.M.S. Alarm, at Woolwich, 1761 ; all the navy 
copper-bottomed by 1780 

Electrotyping with copper printing types and casts 
from woodcuts, began .... about 1850 

Copper-zino Couple, a Voltaic arrangement made by 
Dr. J. H. Gladstone and Mr. A. Tribe in 1872, in 
which a mixture of the two metals is finely sub- 
divided, with the points of junction exposed, so as to 
promote the decomposition of any binary liquid into 
which small pieces are immersed ; the resistance of 
the liquid being greatly reduced. The couple is 
formed by immersing zinc foil in a solution of sul- 
phate of copper ; the copper being deposited on the 
zinc in minute particles. By this couple impurities 
in water are readily detected, many peculiar analyses 
have been made, and new organic bodies formed. 

COPPERAS, a mineral composed of copper or 
iron combined with sulphuric acid (vitriol), found 
in copper-mines, commonly of a green or blue 
colour ; said to have been first produced in England 
by Cornelius de Vos, a merchant, in 1587. 

COPPERHEADS, a name given about 1863 
to such members of the Democrat party in the 
United States as were in favour of peace with the 
South on any terms. — Copperhead is a poison- 
ous serpent, also named dumb-rattle snake, red 
viper, &c. 

COPTIC CALENDAR, see Diocletian. 

COPTS, in Egypt, the supposed descendants of 
the ancient Egyptians, mingled with Greeks and 
Persians. Their religion is a form of Christianity 
derived from the Eutychians. 

COPYHOLDERS, who hold an estate by a 
copy of the rolls of a manor made by a steward of 
the lord's court. They were enfranchised by 5 Vict, 
c. 35, 1841. By the Beform act in 1832, copy- 
homers to the amount of 10/. became entitled to 
a vote for the county. The copyhold acts were 
amended by 21 & 22 Vict. c. 94 (1858) and by 
.another act, 1887. 

COPYING-MACHINES (for letters, &c.) 



were invented by James "Watt in 1778 ; patented in 
May, 1780; and 150 machines were sold before the 
end of the year. "Wedgwood's "manifold writer " 
was patented in [806; and in 1855 Terry patented 
a copying machine to be combined with the cover 
of a book. Other inventions patented since. 
Zuccato's papyrograph is much esteemed. 

COPYRIGHT. Decree of the Star-chamber 
regarding it, 1556. Every book and publication 
ordered to be licensed, 1585. 

Ordinance forbidding the printing of any work with- 
out the consent of the owner .... 1649 

The first copyright act (for 14 years, and for the 
author's life if then living), 8 Anne . . . . 1709 

This act confirmed by a decision of the house of 
lords, and the claim of perpetual copyright over- 
ruled 22 Feb. T774 

Later acts extended the author's right to 28 years, 
and if living at the end of that time, then to the 
remainder of his life. 

Protection of copyright in prints and engravings, 
17 Geo. III. 1777 

Copyright protection act (for 28 years, and the re- 
mainder of the author's life if then living), 
54 Geo. Ill 1814 

Dramatic authors' protection act, 3 Will. IV. c. 15 . 1833 

Act for preventing the publication of lectures with- 
out consent, 6 Will. IV. c. 65 1835 

International copyright bill, 1 Vict. c. 59 . . 1838 

5 & 6 Viet. c. 45 (Talfourd's or lord Mahon's act), 
to amend the copyright act passed . . . . 1842 

(By this act, the right is to endure for the life of the 
author, and for seven years after his death ; but if 
that time expire earlier than 42 years, the right is 
still to endure for 42 years, for which term also any 
work published after the author's death is to con- 
tinue the property of the owners of the manu- 
script) 

The colonies' copyright act, 10 & n Vict. c. 95, 
passed 1847 

Canada copyright act, passed ... 2 Aug. 1875 

Royal commission on copyright nominated : earl 
Stanhope, chairman, 22 Sept., 1875 ; report 
(signed 24 May) issued .... autumn, 187S 

Warne & Co. v. Seebohm ; verdict for the plaintiffs 
prohibiting printing and the representation of a 
dramatised form of "Little Lord Fauntleroy," a 
story by Mrs. F. Hodgson Burnett, . 10 May 1888 

Copyright (Musical Compositions) act passed 

5 July » 

Copyright for articles in newspapers affirmed, see 
Trials 2 June, 1892 

copyright for designs. 

Protection granting security for two months to new 
designs applied by printing to linens, calicoes, 
and. 'muslins, 1787 ; extended to three months . 1794 

A copyright of 14 years conferred on sculpture, 1798 

and 18 14 

The designs act of Geo. III. made to embrace printed 
designs on wool, silk, and hair ; and 1 2 mouths' 
copyright granted to designs applied to all tissues 
except lace and those already provided for ; for 
the modelling, embossing, and engraving of any 
manufacture not being a tissue ; and for the shape 
or configuration of any article .... 1839 

By 5 & 6 Vict. c. 100, all existing designs acts re- 
pealed (except that for sculpture), and provision 
made for including all ornamental designs under 
T3 classes, and conferring upon them terms 
of protection, varying from nine months to three 

years 1842 

[Fees on registration vary from is. to il.] 

The' "non-ornamental designs act," securing the 
configuration of articles of utility (fee 10?.), 
passed in 1843 

By the " designs act," the Board of Trade is em- 
powered to extend the copyright for an additional 
term of three years 1850 

Copyright of photographs secured by the act pro- 
tecting works of art, passed in . . July, 1862 

Another copyright of designs act passed 13 Aug. 1875 

Registration' of designs and trade marks, amal- 
gamated with the patent office . . Sept. ,, 



COEBIESDALE. 



250 



COEINTH. 



INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT. 

Acts passed to secure to authors, in certain cases, 
the benefits of international copyright (i & 2 Vict, 
c. 59, and 15 Vict. c. 12), and conventions have, 
in consequence, been entered into with France, 
Prussia, &c 1838 and 1852 

The question of a foreigner possessing a copy- 
right in this country was finally decided in the 
negative by the house of lords, who reversed the 
decision of the court of exchequer, on an appeal 
by the defendant in the case of Boosey v. Jeffrey. 
(In 1831, Mr. Boosey purchased the copyright of 
Bellini's opera, La Sonnambula, from which Mr. 
Jeffrey published a cavatina. Six of the judges 
were for protecting foreign copyrights, and seven 
of a contrary opinion.) Aug. 1854 

International copyright bill introduced into Ameri- 
can house of representatives . . . 21 Feb. 1868 

In the case of Routledge v. Low, the house of lords 
on appeal decided in favour of the copyright of a 
foreign author 29 May, ,, 

Copyright Association of England, founded by emi- 
nent London booksellers . . 19 March, 1872 

The subject discussed at the Literary Congress, 
Paris, opened 18 June, 1878 

International copyright congress at Berne opened, 

8 Sept. 1884 

Another (artistic) Brussels 29 Sept. 1884 ; again at 
Berne 1886 

International Copyright Act passed . . . 1886 

International Copyright Convention signed at Berne 
9 Sept.,. 1886 ; ratified at Berne 5 Sept., 1887 ; 
by Great Britain, Germany, France, Italy, Spain, 
Belgium and Switzerland (not Austria), Holland, 
United States 

International Copyright Bill passed by the United 
States : by the house, 3 Dec. 1890 ; by the 
senate, 18 Feb. ; by the president . 4 March, 1891 

For books (which must be set up and printed in 
the United States), works of art, such as pictures, 
engravings, photographs, etchings, lithographs, 
&c, musical compositions, statuary, models, or 
designs : the act came into effect . 1 July, ,, 

COEBIESDALE, Caithness (N. Scotland). 
Here, on 27 April, 1650^ the gallant marquis of Mon- 
trose was defeated by the Covenanters. He was 
taken soon after, treated with great contumely, aud 
hanged at Edinburgh, on 21 May. 

COECYEA (now Corfu, chief of the Ionian 
Isles), a colony founded by the Corinthians about 
734 B.C. It had frequent wars with the mother 
country ; one about the possession of Epidamnus 
(431 B.C.) led to the Peloponnesian war. It was 
subdued by the Romans, 230. At the decline of the 
eastern empire it fell into the hands of the Vene- 
tians about a.d. 1386. The Turks attacked Corfu 
in 1 716, but were gallantly repulsed, and retired, 
18 Aug. 1717. It was taken from the French by 
the allied Eussian and Turkish fleets 3 March, 
1799, and formed (with the other isles) into the 
Ionian republic ; see Ionian Isles. 

COBDELIEES, friars: of the order of St. 
Francis d'Assisi (the Minorites) instituted about 
1223. They are clothed in coarse grey cloth, having 
a girdle of cord, hence the name, first given to 
them by St. Louis of France, about 1227. Several 
members of the French revolutionary party, termed 
"Cordeliers," established at Paris Dec. 1790 (He- 
bert, Cloots, &c), were executed 24 March, 1794. 

COEDOVA, the Roman Corduba (S. Spain), 
founded about 152 B.C., taken by the Goths A.n. 
572, aud made the capital of an Arab kingdom by 
Abderahman in 756, who founded the great mosque 
(now the cathedral) 786. It was the birthplace of 
Seneca and Lucan, and of the Arabian physician 
Averrhoes. It was rescued from the Arabs by 
Ferdinand III. of Castile in 1236, was taken by 
the French under Dupont and disgracefully ravaged 
7-9 June, 1808; surrendered to Joseph Bonaparte 



Jan. 1810; abandoned by the French in 1813; 
plundered by the Carlists, Oct. 1836. Population} 
1887, 55,614. 

COEEA, a peninsula, E. Asia, tributary to 
China, and from which foreigners were rigidly ex- 
cluded, till June, 1882, when four ports were 
opened to commerce by the agency of the United 
States of America and China by treaty. For the 
dispute with Americans see United States, June, 
1871. King, Li Hung, Jan. 1864. 

Anti-foreign insurrection ; outrages, n of the Ja- 
panese legation killed, 23 July ; Japanese prepa- 
rations for war with Corea on account of 
injuries, announced .... Aug. 1882 

War averted by compensations, reparation, and 
peace Sept. ,, 

Treaty with Great Britain signed, 26 Nov. 1883 ; 
ratified 1884 

Another insurrection; the king attacked in his 
palace, and his ministers massacred by Coreans 
and Chinese, 4-6 Dee. ; peace restored by inter- 
vention of Japanese . . . about 13 Dec. ,, 

Difficulty between Japan and China settled by 
European mediation, Jan. ; Japan predominant 

Feb. 1885 

British flag set up at Port Hamilton, as a station, 
announced 13 May 1885 ; decided to be kept, 

Nov. 1886 

Port Hamilton restored to Corea, subject to China 

Jan. 1887 

China reasserts by proclamation her suzerainty 
over Corea Dec. ,, 

Corea endeavours to enter into independent diplo- 
matic relations with United States and European 
Powers May, 1888 

Treaty with Eussia "..... 8 Aug. ,, 

The Rev. Charles James Corfe consecrated bishop 
of Corea 1 Nov. i88g> 

COEFU, see Corcyra. 

COBINTH (Greece), a city said to have been 
built 1520 B.C. and named Ephyra. It was de- 
fended by an elevated fortress called Acrocorinth,. 
surrounded with strong walls, and Cicero named it 
the Eye of Greece. — -For Corinth, in North America,, 
see United States, 1862, 1863. 

The Isthmian games, traditionally said to have 
been instituted by Sisyphus, who founded a king- 
dom B.C. 1326 

Return of the Heraclidas, or Dorians . . . . 1107 
Their dynasty established by Aletes . . . 1074. 
The Corinthians invent ships called triremes (with 

three benches of oars) .... 786 or 758. 
Reign of Bacchis, 925 ; oligarchy of Bacchida? 747-657 
Thelestes deposed ; the government of Prytanes 

instituted ; Automenes, the first, . . about 745 
The Gorinthian colonies of Syracuse and Corcyra 

founded about 734 

Revolt of the Corcyreans : they defeat the Corin- 
thians at sea 664 

Cypselus, a despot, sets aside the Prytanes . . 655 
His son Periander rules, and favours learning . 627-585 
Psammetichus deposed, and a republic formed . 580 
The Corinthians engaged in the Persian war . . 480 
Defeated in war with the Corcyreans . . .435 

The Corinthian war {which see) 395 

Timoleon kills his usurping brother Timophanes . 344 
Acf ocorinth (citadel) taken by Aratus, and annexed 

to the Achajan League 243 

The Roman ambassadors first appear at Corinth 228 

Greeks defeated at CynoscephaUe . . . . 197 
Corinth sacked by Lucius Mummius, who sends to 
Italy the first fine paintings there seen (Livy) B.C. 146 

Rebuilt by Julius Ctesar 46 

Visited by St. Paul (Acts xviii.) . . . a.d. 54 
His two Epistles to the Corinthians . . about 59, 60 

Ravaged by Alaric 396 

Plundered by Normans from Sicily .... 1146 
Taken by Turks, 1446 ; by Venetians, 1687 ; by 
Turks, June, 1714 ; from whom it was finally 

taken by the Greeks in 1823 

Nearly destroyed by an earthquake . . 21 Feb. 185S 



COEINTHIAN OEDEE. 



251 



COEN. 



A concession granted for 99 years to a French com- 
pany to cut the isthmus for a canal ; to be com- 
pleted in six years, by MM. E. G: Piat and Chollet, 
April, 1870 ; concession transferred to baron de 
Lesseps and gen. Turr . . . .28 May, 1881 

Cutting begun in presence of the king and queen 

5 May, 1882 

Work actively proceeding ; stopped through claims 
of a Paris company .... 1 April, 1889 

The company at Paris dissolved, 12 Feb., 1890 ; the 
scheme transferred to a Greek company, capital 
of 200,000?. ; agreement signed by M. Tricoupis, 
about 18 March ; the work resumed, 22 June, 
1890 ; completion in 1893 expected. 

COEINTHIAN OEDEE, the richest of the 
orders of ancient architecture, called by Scamozzi 
the virginal order, is attributed to Callitnachus, 
540 B.C. ; see Abacas. 

COEINTHIAN WAE, began 395 b.c; re- 
ceived this name because mostly in the neighbour- 
hood of Corinth ; waged by a confederacy of the 
Athenians, Thebans, Corinthians, and Argives, 
against the Lacedaemonians. It was closed by the 
peace of Antalcidas, 387 B.C. The most famous 
battles were at Coronea and Leuetra {which see). 

COEIOLI, a Latin city, capital of the Vol- 
scians, taken by the Romans, 493 B.C. The exploits 
of Caius Marcius or Coriolanus against it are deemed 
mythical. 

COEK (S. Ireland), built in the 6th century. 
The principality of the M'Cartys was converted 
into a shire by king John, as lord" of Ireland. The 
foundation of the see is ascribed to St. Barr, or 
Finbarr, early in the 7th century. About 1431, 
this see and Cloyne were united ; but in 1678 they 
were separated, Ross having been added to Cork 
1582. Cork and Cloyne were reunited (by the act 
of 1833) 183^. Population of the city, 1881,80,124; 
1891, 75»°70. 

Garrisoned by Henry II 11 72 

First charter, from Henry II 1185 

Supported Perkin Warbeck, who landed here . . 1492 

A large part of the town burnt 1621 

Taken by Cromwell 1649 

Marlborough besieged and took Cork from king 
James, when the duke of Grafton, a son of 

Charles II. , was slain 1690 

The cathedral was rebuilt by the produce of a coal 

duty, between the years . . . 1725 & 1735 
Explosion of gunpowder here . . 10 Nov. 1810 
One of the three colleges, endowed by government 
pursuant to act 8 & 9 Vict. c. 66, passed 31 July, 
1845, was inaugurated in this city (see Queen's 

Colleges) 7 Nov. 1849 

Railway to Dublin finished 1850 

Cork industrial exhibition opened, 10 June, and 

closed 11 Sept. 1852 

For a seditious speech in favour of the Fenians 
(iu/iic/i see), on 27 April, 1869, the mayor was com- 
pelled to resign (an act for his disability having 
been introduced into parliament) . n May, 1870 

Riots, partially connected with a strike, suppressed 

26, 28 June, ,, 
New protestant cathedral consecrated . 30 Nov. ,, 
Industrial exhibition opened, 3 July ; closed 

13 Oct. 1883 
Cork Defence Union, against National League 

formed Oct. 1885 

Strike of the employed, of the City of Cork Steam 
Packet Co. (14 weeks), ends with submission 

27 Jan. 1891 

COEK-TEEE, Quercus mber, a species of the 
oak ; part of its bark used for stopping bottles. 
The Egyptians made coffins of cork. The tree 
grows in great abundance on the Pyrenean moun- 
tains, and in other parts of Spain, in France, and 
in the north of New England. It was brought to 
England about 1690. A cork carpet company was 
formed in 1862. 



Life-preserving clothes made of cloth into which 
cork is interwoven, invented by Win. Jackson, 
tried successfully on the Thames . . 3 Sept. 188& 

COEN. The origin of its cultivation is attri- 
buted to Ceres, who, having taught the art to the- 
Egyptians, was deified by them, 2409 B.C. Arun- 
delian Marbles. The art of husbandry, and the- 
method of making bread from wheat, and wine- 
from rice, is attributed by the Chinese to Ching 
Noung, the successor of Fohi, and second monarch 
of China, 1998 B.C. Univ. Hist. Corn provided a 
common article of food from the earliest ages of the' 
world, and baking bread was known in the patri- 
archal ages; see Exodus xii. 15. The first impor- 
tation of corn, of which we have a note, was in 
1347. A law restricting it was made in 1361, andi 
similar legislation followed. Bounties were granted 
on its importation into England in 1689. See- 
Wheat. 

CORN LAWS. 

The restrictions on the importation of corn felt, in 
consequence of the increase of manufactures, 
about 1770 ; relaxed . . . . . ■ 177S 

Mr. Robinson's act passed, permitting importation 
when wheat is 80s. a quarter 1815; 

During the discussions on this bill, mobs assembled 
in London, and many of the houses of its sup- 
porters were damaged, 28 Jan. ; and a riot in 
"Westminster continued ... 6-9 March. ,,. 

A corn bill, after passing in the commons, defeated 
in the lords, by a clause proposed by the duke of 
Wellington, carried by a majority of 4 .1 June, 182^ 

The act (called the sliding scale) whereby wheat was 
allowed to be imported on payment of a duty of 
il. 5s. &d. per quarter, whenever the average price 
of all England was under 62s. ; from 62s. to 63s., 
1?. 4s. Sd. ; and so gradually reduced to is., when 
•the average price was 73s. and upwards, passed 

15 July. 1S2S: 

The act 5 Vict. c. 14, the second " sliding scale act," 
regulating the duty on wheat as follows, with 
sliding duties, also, on other articles of corn, 
passed 29 April, 184-= 

Average per quarter. Duty. 
Shillings. Sliillings. £, s. cL 
under 51 100 

51 and under 52 o 19 o 

52 and under 55 . . - . . . o 18 o 

55 and under 56 0170 

56 and under 57 o 16 o 

57 and under 58 o 15 o 

58 and under 59 o 14 o- 

59 and under 60 0130- 

60 and under 61 o 12 o< 

61 and under 62 o 11 o> 

62 and under 63 o 10 o 

63 and under 64 . . . . ..090 

64 and under 65 o 8 o 

65 and under 66 070 

66 and under 69 o 6 o- 

69 and under 70 05c 

70 and under 71 . . . . .04c 

71 and under 72 . . . . ..030 

72 and under 73 020 

73 and upwards o 1 c- 

See Anti-Corn Laiv Leagvtc. 

The Corn Importation Bill (introduced by sir. 
Robert Peel), 9 & 10 Vict. c. 22 (by which the dutj 
on wheat was reduced to 4s. when imported a1 oi 
above 53s., until 1st Feb. 1849: after which day 
the duty became is. per quarter only, on all kinds 
of grain imported into the United kingdom, at 
any prices), received the royal assent . 26 June, 1S46 
The Vs. duty repealed by act passed . 24 June, iS6q> 
Corn Exchange, Mark-lane. Loudon, erected at an 
expense of 90,000'. (replacing one established in 

1747), was opened 24 June, 1828 

Corn Exchange Benevolent Society, founded . . 1864 
The Society of Arts gave a prize to Mr. W. A Gibbs 
for his essay on harvesting corn in wet weather 

23 Nov. 1868 



CORNELL UNIVERSITY. 



252 



CORONETS. 



CORNELL UNIVERSITY, Ithaca, New 
York : for the study of the applied sciences, agri- 
culture, engineering, &c. ; partially on a self-sup- 
porting system; founded by Ezra Cornell in 1868, 
that "any person may find instruction in any study." 
He had risen from poverty to wealth by patenting 
his inventions. 

CORNER, a term applied in America to the 
paralysis of trade and manufactures, produced by 
speculators purchasing in anticipation grain, petro- 
leum, cotton, &c. (termed futures). The cotton 
earner at Liverpool in Sept. 1881 led to the stopping 
of looms in Lancashire, &c., by way of counteraction. 
The corner ended 30 Sept. 1881 . Mr. Morris Banger, 
a great cotton speculator, failed 31 Oct. 1883, 
causing much disaster. 

Another "cotton corner" proposed in June 1887 was 
resisted by the joint action of the manufacturers and 
operatives. A cotton corner in Liverpool was suc- 
cessfully resisted and closed, 30 Sept. 1889. See 
Trusts. 

CORNWALL, S. W. extremity of England. 
On the retreat of the ancient Britons after the 
Saxon conquest, Cornwall is said to have been 
formed into a kingdom, and to have existed many 
years under different princes, among whom were 
Ambrosius Aurelius, and the celebrated Arthur. 
Cornwall is said to have been made an earldom by 
Alfred. The eldest son of the British sovereign is 
born duke of Cornwall. See Stannary Courts. 
Before the reform of 1832, Cornwall sent 44 
members to parliament, in 1886 it sent 7- 
Bishopric of Cornwall, founded, 909 ; united to 

Devonshire, 1040 ; removed to Exeter . . . 1046 
Cornwall given by the conqueror to Robert de 

Mortein, his half-brother, 1068 ; killed . . . 1087 
William, his son, dispossessed by Henry I. . . 1104 
Reginald de Dunstanville, natural son of Henry I., 

earl . . . . . ' . . . . . 1140 
John Plantagenet, son of Henry II., earl, about . 1189 
Richard Fitz-Count, son of Reginald, earl, 1215 ; 

resigned ......... 1220 

Richard, son of king John, 1225 ; elected king of the 

Romans, 1256 ; died .... 2 April, 1272 
Edmund, son, earl, 1272 ; died without issue . . 1300 
Piers de Gaveston, earl, 1308 ; beheaded, 19 June, 1312 
John, son of Edward II., earl, 1330 ; died with issue 1336 
•Cornwall made a duchy, by Edward III. , for Edward 

his eldest son, afterwards created prince of Wales 

17 March, 1337 
Insurrection of Cornishmen under lord Audley, 

Thomas Flammock, and others, against taxes ; 

they march to London ; defeated at Blackheath 

22 June, 1497 
insurrection in Devon and Cornwall against the 

Protestant liturgy, defeated by lord Russell, Aug. 1549 
Dolly Pentreath, said to have been the last person 

who spoke Cornish, died aged 102 [contradicted] 1778 
Rev. R. Polwhele's "History of Cornwall "published 

1803-8 
Prince and princess of Wales visit Cornwall, July, 1865 
.Stoppage of the Cornish Bank (Tweedy & Co.) es- 
tablished 1771 4 Jan. 1879 

Receipts from the duchy, 1866, 77,7552. ; 1877, 

87,895?.; 1887,99,3152. — paid to the prince of Wales, 

1866, 53,403?.; 1877, 69,339?.; 1887,60,290?. Receipts 

from the duchy in 1888, 107,572?. ; 104,188?. for 1889 ; 

100,680?. for 1891. 

CORONATION. Leo I. , emperor of the East, 
was crowned by Anatolius, patriarch of Constan- 
tinople, being the first instance of a Christian 
sovereign receiving his crown from the hands of a 
priest, 457. Majorian, emperor of the West, is said 
to have been crowned in the same year in a similar 
manner. 

Charlemagne crowned emperor of the west by the 
pope Leo III. (using the words " coronato a Deo," 
" crowned by God ") .... 25 Deo. 800 
Edward I., son of Alfred, crowned . 16 May, 902 



William I. crowned at Westminster. . 25 Dec. 1066 
Anointing at coronations introduced into England 

872, and Scotland 1097 

Coronation of Henry III., in the first instance 
without a crown, at Gloucester. A plain circle 
was used on this occasion in lieu of the crown, 
which had been lost with the other jewels and 
baggage of king John, in passing the marshes of 
Lynn, or the Wash, near Wisbeach . 28 Oct. 1216 
William and Mary crowned by Compton, bishop of 
London, as Sancroft, archbishop of Canterbury, 
would not take the oaths . . . n April, 1689 

Anne crowned 23 April, 1702 

George I. crowned 20 Oct. 1714 

George II. crowned n Oct- 1727 

George III. crowned with his queen . 22 Sept. 1761 

George IV. crowned 19 July, 1821 

William IV. crowned, with his queen . . 8 Sept. 1831 

Victoria crowned 28 June, 1838 

Coronation Chair. In the cathedral of Cashel, formerly 
the metropolis of the kings of Minister, was deposited 
the Lia Fail, or Fatal Stone, on which they were 
crowned. Tradition says, that in 513 Fergus, a prince 
of the royal line, having obtained the Scottish throne, 
procured the use of this stone for his coronation at 
Dunstaffnage, where it continued until the time of 
Kenneth II., who removed it to Scone ; and in 1296 it 
was removed by Edward I. from Scone to West- 
minster ; the present chair being made to receive it. 
A Coronation Oath was administered by Dunstan, 
archbishop of Canterbury, to Ethelred II. , in 978. An 
oath, neaidy corresponding with that now in use, was 
administered in 1377. The oath prescribed by 1 Will. & 
Mary, c. 6 (1689) was modified in 1706, and again in 
1821 on account of the union of the Churches of England 
and Ireland. 

CORONEA, Battles of. I. (orChajronea). 

The Athenians were defeated and their general 
Tolrnides slain in a battle with the Boeotians at 
Coronea near Chasronea, 447 B.C. II. The Athe- 
nians, Thebans, Argives, and Corinthians having 
entered into a league, offensive and defensive, 
against Sparta, Agesilaus, after diffusing the terror 
of his arms, from his many victories, even unto 
Upper Asia, engaged the allies at Coronea, a town 
of Boeotia, and achieved a great victory over them, 
394 B - c - 

CORONERS, officers of the realm, mentioned 
in a charter, 925. Coroners for every county in 
England were first appointed by statute of West- 
minster, 3 Edw. I. 1275. Stow. They are chosen 
for life by the freeholders, and their duty is to 
inquire into the cause of unnatural death, upon 
view of the body. By an act passed in 1843, 
coroners are enabled to appoint deputies to act for 
them in case of illness. The act amended 1887. 
Laws respecting coroners amended i860. — 20,315 
coroners' inquests were held in England and Wales 
in 1859:— 



i860 . 


21,178 


1874 . . 27,184 


1884 . . 28,603 


1861 . 


21,038 


(18,875 males.) 


(19,280 males.) 


1862 . 


. 20,591 


1875 . . 28,587 


1885 . . 28,181 


1863 . 


• 22,757 


1876 . . 26,845 


(18,863 males.) 


1864 . 


• 24,787 


1877 . . 26,287 


1886 . . 28,940 


1865 . 


. 25,011 


1878 . . 27,628 


(19,329 males.) 


1866 . 


24,926 


1879 . . 27,039 


1887 . . 30,030 


1867 . 


24,648 


(18,233 males.) 


(19,814 males.) 


1868 . 


• 24.774 


1880 . . 26,569 


1888 . . 29,057 


1869 . 


• 24,709 


(18,131 males.) 


(19,120 males.) 


(i7> IQI 


males.) 


1881 . . 27,451 


1889 . . 29,675 


1870 . 


• 25,376 


(18,548 males.) 


(19,700 males.) 


1871 . 


. 25,898 


1882 . . 27,502 


1890 . . 32,027 


1872 . 


• 25,705 


(18,673 males.) 


(20,997 males.) 


1873 . 


. 26,427 


1883 . . 28,725 





CORONETS, caps or inferior crowns of the 
nobility. The coronets for earls were first allowed 
by Henry III. ; for viscounts by Henry VIII. ; and 
for barons by Charles II. Baker. But authorities 
conflict. Sir Robert Cecil, earl of Salisbury, was 
the first of the degree of earl who wore a coronet, 



CORPORATE REUNION. 



253 



CORSICA. 



1604. It is uncertain when the coronets of dukes 
and marquises were settled. Beatson. 

CORPORATE REUNION. See Order. 

CORPORATIONS. Numa, in order to break 
the force of the two rival factions of Sabines and 
Komans, is said to have instituted separate 
societies of manual trades. Plutarch. — Municipal 
Corporations in England. Bodies politic, 
authorised by the king's charter to have a common 
seal, one head officer, or more, and members, who 
are able, by their common consent, to grant or 
receive in law any matter within the compass of 
their charter. Cowell. Charters of rights were 
granted by the kings of England to various towns ; 
by Edward the Confessor, Henry I., and succeed- 
ing monarchs, subject to tests, oaths, and conditions. 
Blackstone. The Corporation and Test act, passed 
in 1661, was repealed in May, 1828. The Corpora- 
tion Reform act, for the regulation of municipal 
corporations (London not included) in England 
and Wales, 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 76 (1835), was 
amended in 1869. The Irish Municipal Corpora- 
tion act, 4 Vict. c. 108, passed in 1840, was amended 
in 1861. The Corrupt Practices (Municipal Elec- 
tions) act, was passed 6 Aug. 1872. The law re- 
lating to municipal elections amended by act passed 
19 July, 1875. Municipal Elections, Corrupt and 
Illegal Practices Act passed 14 Aug. 1884. Royal 
commission on no unreformed municipal corpora- 
tions appointed in 1876; report issued 17 Feb. 
1880. Bill for their reform introduced by sir 
Charles Dilke, 21 Feb. 1883. A consolidation act 
passed 1882. Property qualification bill rejected in 
commons (173 — 167), 2 April, 1879. 
Jubilee of the passing of the Act of 1835 celebrated 

9 Oct. 1885 
The association of municipal corporations met, 5 
Dec, 1884 ; it met at the Guildhall, London ; 219 
towns represented, 12 March, 1890 ; again, 13 
March, 1891 ; again ... 10 March, 1892 

CORPULENCE. 

Mr. Edward Bright, a tallow-chandler and grocer, 
of Maldon, in Essex, who died in his 29th year, 
is said to have weighed 616 pounds. Seven per- 
sons of the common size were with ease enclosed 
in his waistcoat ; buried at All Saints, Maldon 

12 Nov. 1750 

Daniel Lambert, supposed to have been the heaviest 
man that ever lived, died in his 40th year, at 
Stamford, in • Lincolnshire, weighing 52 stone 
11 pounds; (10 stone 4 pounds more than Mr. 
Bright) 21 June, 1809 

James Mansfield, died at Debden, aged 82, weigh- 
ing 34 stone 9 Nov. 1856 

Mr. Win. Banting published a letter on corpulence, 
recommending, from his own experience, as a 
remedy, great moderation in the use of sugar and 
starch in diet. 50,000 copies of this letter were 
speedily sold or given away 1863 

CORPUS CHRISTI {Fete Lieu in France) 
a festival in the Roman church, in honour of the 
Lord's supper, kept on the Thursday after Trinity 
Sunday {which see). It was instituted by pope 
Urban IV. between 1262 and 1264, and confirmed 
by the council of Vienne in 1311. 

CORPUS JURIS CIVILIS, see Justinian 
Code. 

" CORRELATION of the PHYSICAL 
FORCES," a book by Mr. (afterwards sir) W. R. 
Grove, F.R.S., who in 1842 enunciated the theory 
of the correlation or mutual dependence and con- 
vertibility into each other of all the forces of nature 
(viz. heat, light, electricity, magnetism, chemical 
affinity, and motion). 



CORRESPONDING SOCIETY of 
LONDON, was formed about 1791, to spread 
liberal opinions and check the severity of the 
British government, then much alarmed by the 
French revolution. Home Tooke and other mem- 
bers were tried for treason and acquitted, Oct. 1794 'r 
see Trials, 1794. The meetings of the society at 
Copenhagen-fields and elsewhere, in 1795 and 1796,. 
were termed treasonable. — On 21 April, 1798, Messrs. 
O'Connor, O'Coigley, and others, were tried for 
corresponding with the French directory; and James- 
O'Coigley was executed as a traitor (protesting hia 
innocence) on 7 June. 

CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE, see Mercury, 

CORRUPT PRACTICES ACTS, respecting 
elections for members of parliament, were passed in 
1854, and continued in following years. An act 
relating to Scotland was passed in 1890. See- 
Bribery at Elections and Corporations. 

By an act passed in 1881 elections at Boston, Can- 
terbury, Chester, Gloucester, Macclesfield, and 
Oxford, were temporarily suspended ; and 
Messrs. May and Main (Macclesfield), Mr. Edwards 
(Deal), Mr. Olds (Sandwich), and others were 
sentenced to imprisonment varying from 2 to 9 
months 2Q Nov. 188'a 

Petition for their release signed (in vain) by 43,841 
persons about 23 Dee. „ 

The act 46 <fe 47 Vict. c. 51, passed 25 Aug. 1883, 
strictly prohibits hiring carriages and illegal pay- 
ments. It proved very effectual. In 1880 the 
election by about 3,000,000 electors cost about 
3,ooo,oooL In 1885 the election by 5,670,000 
electors cost 780,0002. 

CORSICA, an island in the Mediterranean Sea 
(called by the Greeks Cyrnos), held by the French. 
The ancient inhabitants had the character of 
robbers, liars, and atheists, according to Seneca. 
Corsica was colonised by Phocaeans 564 B.C., and 
afterwards held by the Carthaginians, from whom 
it was taken by the Romans, 238 B.C. It has been 
held by Vandals, a.d. 456 ; by Saracens 852 ; by 
Pisans, 1077. I* wa s dependent upon Genoa from 
1559 till 1768, when it was ceded to France. 

During a revolt erected into a kingdom under Theo- 
dore Neuhoff, its first and only king . . . 1736 

He came to England, was imprisoned in the • 
King's Bench prison for debt, and long subsisted 
on private friends, but released ; he gave in his 
schedule the kingdom of Corsica to his creditors, 
and died in Soho I75 5 

The earl of Orford wrote the following epitaph/for 
a tablet near his grave in St. Anne's church, 
Dean-street : — 

" The grave, great teacher ! to a level brings 
Heroes and beggars, galley-slaves and kings. 
But Theodore this moral learn'd ere dead ; 
Fate pour'd its lesson on his living head, 
Bestow'd a kingdom and denied him bread." 

Pascal Paoli chosen for their general by the Cor- 

sicans 

Defeated by the count de Vaux, he fled to England 
Napoleon Bonaparte born at Ajaccio (5 Feb i 7 68 

baptismal register ; doubtful) . . 15 Aug. 
The people acknowledge George III. of England for 

ki»S 17 Juno, 

Sir Gilbert Eliott made viceroy, and opened a par- 

, liament 

A revolt suppressed, June ; the island relinquished 

by the British, 22 Oct. ; the people declare for (lie 

French 

A statue to Napoleon I. inaugurated by prince 

Napoleon Jerome . . . . ' 15 May, 
Visit by the empress and imperial prince . 4 Sept.' 
Gen. Paoli's remains buried at Old St. Pancras 

cemetery, London, exhumed and transferred .111,! 

re-interred in Corsica . . 31 Aug. et $eq. 
Corsica visited by president Carnot 21-23 April, 



1753 
1769 



1794 
1795 

1796 

1865 
1869 



COETE NUOVA. 



254 



COTTON. 



COETE NUOVA, near Milan, N. Italy. Here 
the emperor Frederic II. defeated the Milanese 
after a severe conflict. 27 Nov. 1237. 

COETES, the Spanish parliament, originating 
an the old Gothic councils. The cortes were as- 
sembled after a long interval of years, 24 Sept. 
j8io ; and settled the new constitution, 16 March, 
1812, which was set aside by Ferdinand VII., who 
Vanished many members of the assembly in May, 
3814. The cortes were reopened by him March, 
3820, dissolved Oct. 1823; again assembled April, 
2834, and have since been regularly convened. The 
cortes of Portugal assembled by virtue of Dom 
Pedro's charter, 30 Oct. 1826 ; they were sup- 
pressed by Dom Miguel in 1828, and restored in 1833. 

COEUNNA (N. W. Spain) . The British army, 
about 15,000 men, under the command of sir John 
Moore, had just accomplished their retreat when 
they were attacked by the French, whose force ex- 
ceeded 20,000 : the enemy were completely re- 
pulsed, but the loss of the British in the battle was 
immense, 16 Jan. 1809. Sir John was struck by a 
•cannon-ball, which carried away his left shoulder 
and part of the collar-bone, and he died universally 
lamented. The remains of the army embarked at 
•Corunna, under sir David Baird, 17 Jan. 

COEUS (Corupedion, or Cyropedium), a plain 
in Phrygia, Asia Minor, where the aged Lysi- 
machus' was defeated by Seleucus, and slain, 281 
S.c. These two were the only survivors of Alexander 
the Great's generals. 

COEVEE, forced labour and service under the 
feudal system in France, was partially reduced by 
Louis XVI., at the instigation of Turgot, 27 June, 
1787 ; by the constituent assembly, 18 March, 1790 ; 
and totally abolished by the convention, 1 7 July, 1 792 . 
.•See Egypt, Dec. 1889. 

COEYPHiEUS, the principal person of the 
chorus in ancient tragedy. The name is said to 
have been given to Tysias, or Stesichorus, who first 
instructed the chorus to dance to the lyre, 556 B.C. 

COSMOGEAPHY, see Astronomy and 
•Geography . 

COSPATEICK, emigrant vessel, burnt, see 
Wrecks, 1874. 

COSSACKS, warlike people inhabiting the 
confines of Poland, Kussia, Tartary, and Turkey. 
They at first lived by plundering the Turkish 
•galleys and the people of Anatolia ; but were formed 
into a regular army by Stephen Bathori, about 
1576, to defend the frontiers of Kussia from the 
Tartars. They joined the Russians in 1654, and 
in the great war against France (1813-15) formed a 
valuable portion of the Russian army. 

COSSOVA, a plain in Servia. Here Amurathl. 
totally defeated the Christian army (Servians, Hun- 
garians, &c), 15 June, 1389; but was himself killed 
hy an expiring soldier. Here John Huniades was 
defeated by a Turkish army four times larger than 
his own, 17 Oct. 1448. 

COSTA EICA, a republic in Central America, 
part of Guatemala, declared independent 15 Sept. 
1 82 1 . "With the other republics of Central America 
formed a single state 1 July, 1823; compact dis- 
solved 1840; constitution of 22 Dec. 1871 adopted 
26 April, 1882. It has been much disturbed by the 
American filibusters, see Nicaragua and America, 
Central. Constitution, 27 Dec. 1859. On 14 Aug. 
1859, the president Juan Mora was suddenly de- 
posed, and Dr. Jose Montealegre made president; 
Dr. J. Ximenes president 3 April, 1863, was suc- 



ceeded by Dr. Joseph Castro, 8 May, 1866 
J. Jimenez, governor, Nov. 1868; Vicente Quadra 
proclaimed president 12 March, 1871 ; J. M. 
Guardia, 1871 for 1872-6 ; Aniceto Esquivel, 8 May 
1876; Vicente Herrera, 31 July, 1876, resigned: 
succeeded by Thomas Guardia, Oct. 1877 > died 
July, 1882, succeeded by Prospero Fernandez ; died 
March, 1885, succeeded by Bernardo Soto 12 March, 
1885 ; by J. J. Rodiguez, 8 May, 1890. Population 
1885, estimated, 213,785. 

COSTEEMONGEES, itinerant dealers in 
fruit, vegetables, fish, &c, deriving their name, it 
is said, from costard, a favourite apple. The Lon- 
don costermongers are useful in relieving the 
markets when glutted; and it was said in i860, 
that 3,000,000^. passed through their hands an- 
nually. Previous to fasting and thanksgiving days, 
they sell the appointed forms of prayers in great 
numbers. On 22 Nov. i860, they held a meeting 
in order to represent to the city authorities the 
hardships they felt by the police restricting their 
means of livelihood ; and the Metropolitan Streets 
Act was modified, 7 Dec. 1867. 

Their moral and physical condition lias been much im- 
proved of late years, greatly through the instrumen- 
tality of the earl of Shaftesbury, who constituted 
himself a costermonger, and owned a barrow in 1874. 

COSTUME, see Dress. 
COTOPAXI, see Ancles. 

COTTAGE. The term was originally applied 
to a small house without land, 4 Edw. I. 1275. 
" No man may build a cottage, except in towns, 
unless he lay four acres of land thereto," &c, 31 
Eliz. 1589. This statute was repealed, 15 Geo. III. 
1775. By returns to the tax office, in 1786, the 
number of cottages was 284,459. The number in 
1800 was 428,214; the number in 1840 was about 
770,000. In i860 the public attention was much 
drawn to the deplorable state of cottages in many 
parts of the country, and the law of settlement was 
altered in 1865. Mr. Disraeli (afterwards lord 
Beaconsfield) said that " every cottage should have 
a tank, an oven, and a porch." 
Cottage Improvement Society, founded 12 April, 1861, 
7, Adam-street, Strand. Some of the society's 
models appeared in the International Exhibitions 
— in London, 1862 ; in Paris .... 1867 

See Slwftesbury Park. 
The Cottager's Stove, designed by captain John Grant, 
registered and presented by him to the metropoli- 
tan association for improving the dwellings of the 

industrious classes Dec. 1849 

A Cottage Garden Society established about 1846 
still exists 1886 

COTTAGE HOSPITALS : much advocated 
by Dr. Horace Swete in 1870. Many since then 
have been established : one by the baroness Bur- 
dett-Coutts, 1878. 

COTTON, a vegetable wool, the produce of the 
Gossypium, a shrub indigenous to the tropical 
regions of India and America. Indian cotton cloth 
is mentioned by Herodotus, was known in Arabia 
in the time of Mahomet, 627, and was brought into 
Europe by his followers. It does not appear to 
have been in use among the Chinese till the 13th 
century ; to them we are indebted for the cotton 
fabric termed nankeen. Cotton was the material 
of the principal articles of clothing among the 
Americans when visited by Columbus. It was 
grown and manufactured in Spain in the 10th 
century; and in the 14th century was introduced 
into Italy. Indian muslins, chintzes, and cottons 
were so largely imported into England in the 17th 
century, that in 1700 an act of parliament was 



COTTON". 255 



prohibiting their introduction. Cotton 
became the staple commodity of England in the 
present century. About 1841 the "cotton" or 
*' Manchester " interest began to obtain political 
influence, which led to the repeal of the corn laws 
in 1846. Failure of Mr. Morris Ranger, a great 
cotton speculator, and others at Liverpool announced 
31 Oct. 1883. Cotton manufacture introduced into 
Bombay about 1868 gradually becomes very success- 
ful, reported Dec. 1889. See Calico, Muslin, Cor- 
ner, Strikes. 

Act for collection of cotton statistics passed 25 June, 
1868. 

John Rylands, the head of the company of Rylands 
& Sons which employs 12,000 hands died aged 87 

11 Dec. 1888 

In Lancashire and Cheshire the mills put on half 
time, to limit the production and check specu- 
lations to raise the price of cotton, &c. 

about 15 July, 1889 

Cotton mills fully engaged ... 5 Nov. ,, 

Strike and lock-out of cotton-spinners throughout 
Lancashire (not Manchester), 16 April et seq. ; 
dispute settled by compromise . . 6 May, 1892 

Fustian and Velveteen made of cotton, about 1641. 

Calico sheeting, die.. The fly-shuttle was invented by 
John Kay, of Bury, 1738 ; the drop-box by Robert Kay, 
1760 ; spinning by rollers (also attributed to John 
Wyatt) patented by Louis Paul, 1738 ; the spinning- 
jenny, by Hargreaves, 1767 ; the water-frame, by Ark- 
wright, 1769 ; the power-loom, by Rev. Br. Edmund 
Cartwright, 1785 ; the dressing machine, by Johnson 
and Radeliffe, 1802-4 : another power-loom, by Horrocks, 
1803-13. A eombing machine was patented by Joshua 
Heilmann, in 1845. 

British muslin (totally superseding that of India) is due 
mainly to the invention of the Mule (which see) by 
Samuel Crompton, 1774-9 ; and to the self-acting mule 
of Mr. Roberts, 1825. 

Calico Printing commenced 1764. 

The Steam-Engine first applied to the cotton manufacture 
(by Boulton and Watt), 1785. 

Bleaching by means of chloride of lime introduced by Mr. 
Tennant, of Glasgow, 1798. 

Stockings. The stocking-frame was invented by William 
Lee, in 1589. Cotton stockings were first made by hand 
about 1730 ; Jedediah Strutt obtained a patent for 
Derby ribbed stockings in 1759 ; and llorton patented 
his knotter frame in 1776 ; Crompton's mule was em- 
ployed in making thread for the stocking manufacture 
about 1770. 

Cotton-Lace — Bobbin-net. The stocking-frame of Lee was 
applied to lace-making by Hammond, about 1768 ; the 
process perfected by John Heathcoat, 1809. 

COTTON FIBRE IMPORTED INTO THE UNITED KINGDOM. 

lb. lb. 

1.976,359 1866 . . . 1,377,514,096 

715,008 1868 . . 1,328,761,616 

1,545,472 1870 . . . 1,339,367,120 

3> 8 7°>39 2 l8 7 2 • - i,4 oS > 8 37,47 2 

. 11,828,039 1874 . . . 1,566,864,432 

. 31,500,000 1875 . . 1,492,351,168 

. 56,000,000 1876 . . . 1,487,858,848 

. 132,500,000 1877 . . 1,355,281,200 

. 151,500,000 1879 . . . 1,469,358,464 

. 264,000,000 1881 . . 1,679,068,384 

592,500,000 1883 . . . 1, 734, 333, 552 

. 1,390,938,752 1885 . . 1,425,816,336 

. 1,256,984,736 1887 . . . 1,791,437,312 

• 523,973,296 1888 . . 1, 731, 755,088 

670,084,128 1889 . . . 1,937,462,240 

1864 . . . 894,102,384 1890 . . 1,793,495,200 

1865 . . 978,502,000 

American Cotton. Previous to 1795, our cotton fibre 
came from the East and West Indies, the Levant, and 
alittle from the United States. About 1786, the growth 
of cotton began in Georgia. In 1793, Eli Whitney, an 
American, invented the saw-gin, a machine by which 
cotton wool is separated from the pod and cleaned with 
great ease and expedition.* This led to such increased 



1697. 
1710 

i73°- 

1765 
1782 . 
1790 
1800 . 
1810 
1820 . 
1830 
1840 
i860 . 



1863 



* A trial of various kinds of cotton gins, under the di- 
rection of Br. Forbes Watson, took place at Manchester, 
28 Nov. -23 Bee. 1871. 



COTTON. 

cultivation that the United States soon exported 
1,500,000 lb. of cotton : — 

From the United States, N.A. 



*795 


5,250,0001b. 


1874 


874,926,864 lb 


1820 


89,999,174 


1875 


841,333,472 


1830 


210,885,358 


1876 


932,800,176 


1840 


487,856,504 


1877 


912,244,592 


1847 


364,599,291 


1879 


1,082,462,080 


18.59 


961,707,264 


1881 


1,210,980,288 


i860 


1,115,890,608 


1883 


1,239,410,592 


1861 


819,500,528 


1885 


1,050,546,000 


1866 


520,057,440 


1887 


1,256,894,464 


1870 


716,248,848 


1888 


I >34 8 ,57 1 >84° 


1871 


1,038,677,920 


1889 


1,423,811,872 


1872 


625,600,080 


1890 


1, 3^,75(1^96 


i*73 


832,573,616 







Cotton imported from India : 1856, 463,000 bales ; official 
value, 3,572,329?. ; in 1865, 1,266,520 bales ; value, 
25,025,856?. ; in 1866, 1,847,770 bales; value, 25,270,547?. ; 
in 1874, 412,025,0401b. ; in 1876, 275,856,3361b. ; in 
1877, 193,856,320 fb.; in 1879, 181,347,601 lb. ; 1881, 

■ 198,577,680ft.; 1883, 260,698,480ft.; 1885,145,130,048ft.; 
1887, 276,506,720 ft. ; 1888, 170.238,768 ft. ; 1889, 
273,810,880 ft, ; 1890, 238,746,704 ft. 

Australian Cotton said by Manchester manufacturers to 
be superior to the best American cotton, Jan. 1861. 

A company formed at Manchester to obtain cotton from 
India, Africa, and other places (arose out of the Cotton 
Supply Association, formed in 1857), Sept. i860. 

Since 1861, the cultivation of cotton in India, Egypt, 
Italy, &c. has greatly increased. 

Cotton imported from Egypt in 1856, 34,399,008 ft. ; in 
1870, 143,710,448 ft. ; in 1876, 199,245,312 ft. ; in 1877, 
176,558,256 rb. ; in 1879, 158,232,032 ft. ; 1881, 
175,317,072ft.; 1883,170,685,200ft.; rS85, 177,515,520ft.; 



1887, 176,608,096 ft. 



147,191,184 ft. 



191,750,720 ft. ; 1890, 181,266,176 ft. 

EXPORTS OF COTTON GOODS, YARN, &C, FROM UNITED 
JDOM. 



1697 
1 701 
1751 
1780 
1790 
1800 
1820 
1847 



1866 
1870 



KINO 

Official Value. 
£5,9*5 

• ■ 23,253 

45,986 

• • 355,ooo 

1,662,369 

. . 5,406,501 

. 20,509,926 

• • 23,333,225 
. 52,012,430 

. . 46,872,489 

• 36,750,971 
. . 54,882,329 

• 74,565,426 

• • 71,416,345 



Official Value. 
1874 . . £73,247,625 
1876 . . . 67,641,286 
l8 77 • • ■ 69,228,073 
1879 • • • 63,974,053 

11 • • • 72,744,531 

1883 . . . 76,445,757 
^85 . . . 66,976,887 

1887 . . . 70,959,766 

(including mixtures of 
cotton and wool.) 
i888(cotton only)6o,329,o5i 

1889 . . . 58,793,448 

1890 . . . 62,089,442 



COTTON FAMINE. 

The supply of cotton from North America nearly ceased, 
in consequence of the secession of the southern states 
from the union in 1860-61. In 1852, Mr. T Bazley 
warned the country on the danger of trusting to this 
source. In May, 1862, he stated that through its 
failure the loss of the labouring classes was 12,000,000? 
sterling a year, and estimated the loss, including the 
employing classes, at nearly 40,000,000?. a year. 

At a meeting of noblemen and gentlemen, connected with 
the cotton manufacturing districts, at Bridgewater- 
house, St. James's, on 19 July, 1862, the earl of Berby 
in the chair, 10,000?. were subscribed to the Cotton 
District Relief Fund. The viceroy of Egypt, in London 
at the time, gave 1000?. , and the queen gave 2000?. on 
24 July. Liberal subscriptions flowed in from all 
parts. On 28 Aug.. the lord mayor had received 
41,902?. 

In the Lancashire district (population about 4,000,000) 
there were receiving parish relief, Sept. 1861, 43 50a 
persons ; in Sept. 1862, 163,498. Earl of Derby, 2 Bee. 
1862. 

In July, 1863, about the value of 700,000?. remained of 
the donations which had been received in money and 
goods, amounting to about 1,900,000?. 

On 9 Feb., 1863, the "George Griswold" arrived, con- 
taining contributions of provisions, &c, from North 
America, for the relief of the sufferers in Lancashire. 



COTTONIAN LIBEAEY. 



256 



COUNCILS. 



The Union Relief Act (passed Aug. 1862, and continued 
in 1863) gave much relief by enabling overseers to 
borrow money to be expended in public works to be 
executed by the unemployed workmen. 

In Oct. 1864, much distress still existed, and fears were 
entertained for the approaching winter— 90,000 more 
paupers than ordinary in cotton districts. Times, 
18 Jan. 1865. 

In June, 1865, Mr. Farnall, the special commissioner, 
(appointed in May, 1862) was recalled by the poor-law 
board and the famine was declared to be ended. 
i.ooo.oooJ. had been expended in two years. The 
executive of the Central Relief Fund held their last, 
meeting, 4 Dec. 1865. 

The account of the fund was made up in 1873. The 
balance, above 130,000?., was proposed to be appro- 
priated to the foundation of a convalescent hospital for 

A memorial window (the gift of the cotton operatives of 
Lancashire, who subscribed to commemorate the muni- 
ficence of the metropolis to them during the cotton 
famine, 1861-4) placed in Guildhall and uncovered, 
15 July, 1868. 

Cotton Factories regulated by acts of parliament passed 
in 1825, 1831, 1833, 1844, and 1889. The hours of la- 
bour were limited, and the employment of children 
under nine years of age prohibited. In 1846, 1724 
cotton mills employed 197,500 persons. In 1862, the 
persons employed were stated to be 451,000 ; 315,000 
in Lancashire. Excitement through 5 per cent, re- 
duction of wages in Lancashire, &c, Sept. 1883; 
strike ; dispute settled, 27 Sept. 1883. 

COTTONIAN LIBEAEY, formed by sir 
Kobert Bruce Cotton, 1600, et seq. He died 6 May, 
1631. It was rescued from the republicans during 
the protectorate, 1649-60, and was secured to the 
public by a statute in 1700. It was removed to 
Essex-house in 1712; in 1730 to Dean's-yard, 
Westminster (where on 23 Oct. 1731, a part of the 
books sustained damage by fire) ; to the British 
Museum in 1757. 

COTTON OIL, largely manufactured from 
the seeds in the south of the United States ; year 
1876-7, 3,316,000 gallons; 1878-9, 8,175,000 gallons. 

COTTON-WOOL, see Respiration. Dr. 
Percy, in 1874, applied cotton-wool to purify the 
air for ventilating the houses of parliament. 

COULMIEES, a village ten miles west of 
Orleans, central France. Here the Bavarians, 
under general Von der Tann, were defeated by the 
French army of the Loire, under general d'Aurelle 
de Paladines, who took about 2000 prisoners, 9 Nov. 
1870, and regained Orleans. 

COUNANI, a territory between Brazil and 
French Guiana. The ridiculous attempt to found 
an independent Kepublic failed here (M. Jules 
Gros, president), Aug. -Sept. 1887. An arrange- 
ment respecting this territory was made between 
France and Brazil in 1862, for police purposes. 

COUNCIL OF JUDGES. See Judges. 

COUNCILS. King Alfred, in about 886, is 
said to have so arranged the business of the 
nation, that all resolutions passed through three 
councils. The first was a select council which con- 
sidered all affairs to be laid before the second council, 
bishops and nobles appointed by the king, like the 
present privy council. The third was a general 
assembly of the nation, called, in Saxon, "Wittena- 
gemot, in which quality and offices gave a right to 
sit. In these three councils we behold the origin of 
the cabinet, privy councils, and parliaments; see 
Cabinet, Common and Privy Councils, &c. 

COUNCILS of the Church. The follow- 
in 0- are among the most memorable. Those num- 
bered are the Oecumenical or General Councils. Sir 



Karris Nicolas in his "Chronology of History," 
enumerates 1604 councils, and gives an alphabetical 
list. 

Of the church at Jerusalem (Acts xv.) . . .50 
Of the western bishops at Aries, in France, to sup- 
press the Donatists ; three fathers of the English 
church attended . . . . . . . 314 

I. First Oecumenical or General, at Nice (Constan- 
tine the Great presided), decreed the consubstan- 
tiality of the Son of God, condemned Arianism, 

and composed the Nicene creed .... 325 

At Tyre, against Athanasius 335 

The first at Constantinople, when the Arian heresy 

gained ground 337 

At Rome, in favour of Athanasius . . . . 342 
At Sardis : 370 bishops attended ; Arians con- 
demned 347 

At Rimini : 400 bishops attended ; Constantine 
obliged them to sign a new confession . . . 359 

II. Constantinople: oriental council ; 150 orthodox 
bishops present when it met ; presided over 1st 
by Meletius, 2nd by Gregory Nazianzen, 3rd by 
Neetarius ; added to the Nicene creed ; declared 
the bishop of Constantinople next in rank to 
Rome ; Constantinople being New Rome . . 381 

III. Ephesus : Cyril of Alexandria presided ; an- 
athematised and deposed Nestorius ; protested 
against any addition to the original Nicene creed 43s 

IV. Chalcedon : 520 bishops present ; declared the 
two natures of Christ, Divine and Human, as de- 
fined by Leo of Rome ; accepted and decreed 

. the Constantinopolitan addition to the Nicene 
creed 45 3 

V. Constantinople : Eutyches, patriarch of Con- 
stantinople, presided ; condemned the three 
chapters (written by Theodore of Mopsuestia, 
Theodoret, and others); Vigilius, bishop of Rome, 
protested, but afterwards assented . . . 553 

VI. Constantinople : pope Agatho presided ; against 
Mono thelites . . 7 Nov. 680, to 16 Sept. 681 

Authority of the six general councils re-established 
by Theodosius 715 

VII. Second Nicene : 350 bishops attended ; against 
Iconoclasts ..." 24 Sept. to 23 Oct. 787 

VIII. Constantinople : the emperor Basil attended ; 
against Iconoclasts and heresies 

5 Oct. 869, to 28 Feb. 870 
At Clermont, convened by Urban II. to autho- 
rise the crusades : 310 bishops attended . . 1095 

IX. First Lateran : right of investiture settled by 
treaty between pope Calixtus II. and the emperor 
Henry V. . . . 18 March to 5 April, 1123 

X. Second Lateran : Innocent II. presided ; pre- 
servation of temporalities of ecclesiastics, the 
principal subject ; 1000 fathers of the church 
attended 20 April, 1139, 

XI. Third Lateran, against schismatics 

5 to 19 March, 11 79. 

XII. Fourth Lateran : 400 bishops and 1000 abbots 
attended ; Innocent III. presided ; against Albi- 
genses, &c n to 30 Nov. 1215 

XIII. Lyons ; under pope Innocent IV. : emperor 
Frederick II. deposed . 28 June to 17 July, 1245 

XIV. Lyons ; under Gregory X. : temporary union 

of Greek and Latin churches 7 May to 17 June, 1274 

XV. Vienne in Dauphine : Clement V. presided, and 
the kings of France and Aragon attended ; order 
of Knights Templars suppressed 

16 Oct. 131 1 ; 3 April and 6 May, 1312 

XVI. Pisa : Gregory XII. and Benedict XIII. de- 
posed ; Alexander elected 5 March to 7 Aug. 1409. 

XVII. Constance : Martin V. elected pope ; and 
John Huss and Jerome of Prague condemned to 

be burnt 1414-1418 

XVIII. Basel 1431-1443 

XIX. Fifth Lateran : begun by Julius II. . . 1512 
Continued under Leo X. for the suppression of the 

pragmatic sanction of France, against the council 

of Pisa, &c, till 1517 

XX. Trent : held to condemn the doctrines of the 
reformers, Luther, Zuinglius, and Calvin. (See 
Trent.) .... 13 Dec. 1545, to 3 Dec. 1563 

XXI. Rome : summoned by an encyclical letter, 

8 Sept. 1868 ; met 8 Dec. 1869. 

Present: 6 archbishop-princes, 49 cardinals, 11 
patriarchs, 680 archbishops and bishops, 28 
abbots, 29 generals of orders — 803 in all . . „ 



COUNCILS. 



257 



COURIERS. 



U'here were held four public sessions, and between 
90 and 100 congregations. New canons were 
issued 24 April, 1870, and after much discussion 
and opposition, the infallibility of the pope 
as head of the Church was affirmed by 547 
placets against 2 non-placets, and promulgated, 

18 July, 1870 

Many bishops withdrew from the discussion. The 
council then adjourned to 11 Nov. (see Rome.) 

COUNCILS, FRENCH. The Council of 
Ancients, consisting of 250 members, together 
with the council of Five hundred, instituted at 
Paris, 1 Nov. 1795: the executive was a Directory 
■of Five. Bonaparte dispersed the council of Five 
hundred at St. Cloud, 9 Nov. 1799, declaring him- 
self, Roger Dueos, and Sieves, consuls provisoires ; 
see France. 

COUNCILS of Conciliation, to adjust 

differences between masters and workmen, may be 
established by licence of the secretary of state, by 
virtue of an act passed 15 Aug. 1867. 

The labour conciliation board of the London cham- 
ber of commerce, constituted to promote amic- 
able methods of settling labour disputes, &c. 

6 Feb. 1890 

Circulars issued proposing the establishment of the 
London conciliation board with separate com- 
mittees of delegates . . about 6 March ,, 

Meeting of delegates of labour organisations at the 
offices of the chamber of commerce . 29 Oct. ,, 

Successful conciliation conferences in Yorkshire 
mining districts Oct. „ 

First meeting of the board . . . 12 Dec. ,, 

Active in 1891. First annual report issued 16 Jan. 1892 

COUNCIL OF OFFICERS, of the army, 
constituted by Cromwell and termed " New Model" 
1642, abolished by Charles II. 1660. 

COUNSEL are supposed to be coeval with the 
curia regis. Advocates are referred to the time of 
Edward I., but are mentioned earlier. Counsel who 
were guilty of deceit or collusion were punishable 
by the statute of Westminster, 13 Edw. I. 1285. 
Counsel were allowed to persons charged with 
treason by act 8 Will. III. 1696. An act to enable 
persons indicted for felony to make their defence 
by counsel, passed Aug. 1836; see Barristers and 
King's Counsel. 

COUNT, Latin comes, a companion ; French 
eomte ; equivalent to the English earl (whose wife 
is still termed a countess), and to the German graf ; 
see Champagne and Toulouse. 

COUNTERPOINT (in music), the art of 
combining melodies in harmony. The earliest 
known specimen of contrapuntal writing is by 
Adam de la Halle in the 12th century. 

COUNTESS of HUNTINGDON'S Con- 
nexion; see Whitejlcldites. 

COUNTIES or Shires. . The division of this 

kingdom into counties began, it is said, with king 
Alfred; but some counties bore their present names 
above a century before. The division of Ireland into 
counties took place in 1562. Lord-lieutenants were 
app-iintedin 1549 in England, and in 183 1 in Ireland. 
Counties first sent members to parliament, before 
which period knights met in their own counties, 
1285. Chandos Clause, Sect. 20 of the Reform 
act, 2 Will. IV. c. 45 (1832), inserted by the motion 
of the marquis of Chandos. By it occupiers as 
tenants of land not situate in a borough, paying an 
annual rent of 50^., became entitled to a vote for 
the knight of the shire. It increased the number 
of tory voters, and in consequence several attempts 



were made to repeal it. It was superseded by the 

Reform act of 15 Aug. 1867. 

By the Winter Assizes Act, 1876, certain counties were 
united (by order in council, first time, 23 Oct. 1876) 
to facilitate more speedy trials of prisoners. 

COUNTRY DANCE, see Contre-Danse. 

COUNTRY PARTY, see Court Party. 

COUNTY CONVENTIONS, see Ireland 
1885. 

COUNTY COUNCILS, see Local Govern- 
ment Act. At the first elections in Jan. 1889, a 
large number of the nobility, gentry, and justices, 
were elected. 

The Councils assume their powers 1 April 1889 ; 
see London County Councils. The time of elec- 
tion was changed from Jan. to March, by act 
passed 5 Aug. 1891. 
County Council Magazine started . . . Feb. 1889 
County Councils Association held their first meet- 
ing at Westminster . . . .23 May, 1890 
Others since. 

COUNTY-COURTS or schyremotes, in the 
time of the Saxons, were important tribunals. 
Alfred is said to have divided England into coun- 
ties, and counties into hundreds ; but county-courts 
seem to have existed much earlier. 

County-Courts, for the recovery of debts under 20Z., 
superseding courts of requests, instituted by 9 & 
10 Vict. c. 95 26 Aug. 1846 

The counties of England and Wales are divided into 
sixty districts, each district having a county- 
court, with a barrister as judge, and juries when 
necessary. Their jurisdiction extended by 13 & 14 
Vict. c. 61, to sums not exceeding 50?. . . 1850 

Their proceedings facilitated in 1852 and 1854 ; 
60 county-courts in England and Wales . . 1868-72 

In 1850 plaints entered at the courts of the sixty 
circuits were 306,793, for 1,265, 115!. ; in 1857, 
744,652 plaints for 1,937,745?. ; of the 217,173 
causes tried, 4297 were for sums between 20Z. 
and $ol. 

Prom 1847 to 1858 judgment was obtained in these 
courts for 8,309,236!. 

Equity powers, like those of the court of chancery, 
in cases relating to sums under 500L, conferred on 
these courts, to begin . . . . 1 Oct. 1865 

Their jurisdiction still further enlarged . 20 Aug. 18(57 

Admiralty jurisdiction conferred on them by act 
passed July, 1868, amended . . . Aug. 1869 

County Court Acts amended by acts passed 2 Aug. 
1875 and 1S87 

A County Boards Bill, withdrawn . . July, 1879 

New regulations, respecting procedure, &c, came 
into operation 28 April, 1886 

Amendment Act passed . . . . 13 Aug. 1888 

COUNTY FRANCHISE, a bill for giving 
votes to labourers and others, annually brought in 
by Mr. (afterwards sir) G. 0. Trevelysin. The object 
was effected by the reform acts of 1884-5. See 
Household Suffrage. 

COUNTY OFFICERS AND COURTS, 

Ireland : an act to amend the law respecting them 
passed 14 Aug. 1877. 

COUP D'ETAT, in France (see France, 2 Dec. 
1851); Pronunciamiento in Spain; changes in the 
government effected by force, either by the ruler, 
the army, or the populace. The Speaker's Coup 
d'etat, see Parliament, 2 Feb., 1881. See Brazil, 
Nov. 1889. 

COURIERS. Xenophon attributes the first to 
Cyrus ; and Herodotus says that they were common 
among the Persians; see Esther iii. 15, about 510 
B.C. The Greeks and Romans had no regular 
couriers till the time of Augustus, when they tra- 
velled in cars, about 24 B.C. Couriers or posts are 



COUELAND. 



258 COYENT GAEDEN THEATEE. 



said to have been instituted in France by Charle- 
magne about a.d. 800. Couriers for letters were 
employed by Louis XI. of France, 1463. Renault. 
See Post-office. 

COUELAND, a duchy of Livonia, conquered 
by Danes, 1218; by Teutonic knights, 1239; sub- 
jected to Poland in 1561, conquered by Charles XII. 
of Sweden in 1701; Ernest Biren, duke, 1737; his 
son, Peter, 1769; annexed to Eussia, March, 1795. 
Population, 1886, 682,792. 

COUET BAEON, an ancient court which 
every lord of a manor may hold by prescription. In 
it duties, heriots, and customs are received, and 
estates and surrenders are passed. Its jurisdiction 
was restricted in 1747 and 1833. By the Small 
Debts Act, 1856, lords of the manor may give up 
holding these courts. 

COUET CIECULAE, conservative weekly 
paper; established 26 April,. 1856. 

COUET DEESS, see Dress. 

COUET JOURNAL, fashionable journal, 
established 1829. 

COUET LEET, an ancient court of record, 
belonging to a hundred, instituted for punishing 
encroachments, nuisances, fraudulent weights and 
measures, &c. The steward is judge, and all per- 
sons residing within the hundred (peers, clergymen, 
&c, excepted) are obliged to do suit within this 
court. 

COUET PAETY-COUNTEY PAETY, 

politicians in the parliaments of England, beginning 
about 1620. At the end of the 17th century the 
latter embodied toryism and high church principles, 
maintained the rights of "the land," as opposed 
to whiggism and the trading interests. Its most 
distinguished statesman was sir Thomas Hanmer 
(the Montalto of Pope's Satires), who died in 1746. 
Ashe. 

COUET OF HONOUE- In England the 
court of chivalry, of which the lord high constable 
■was a judge, was called Curia Militarise in the time 
of Henry IV., and subsequently the Court of Honour. 
In Bavaria, to prevent duelling, a court of honour 
was instituted in April, 1819. Mr. Joseph Hamil- 
ton for many years ardently laboured to establish a 
similar institution in Britain. 

COUET OF JUSTICIAEY, HIGH, in 

Scotland, constituted by a commission under the 
great seal, 1671, ratified 1672. The procedure in 
this court was amended by an act passed in 1868. 
See Court of Session. 

COUET OF EEQUESTS, see Conscience. 

COUET OF EEVIEW, see Bankruptcy. 

COUET OF SESSION, the highest civil 
tribunal in Scotland, was instituted by James V. by 
statute, 17 May, 1532, its origin being ascribed to 
the regent, duke of Albany. It consisted of 14 
judges and a president, and replaced a committee 
of parliament. In 1830 the number of judges was 
reduced ; and the court now consists of the lord 
president (termed lord justice general), the lord 
justice-clerk, and 11 ordinary judges. In 1867 the 
necessity of renovating this court was asserted by 
high legal authority ; and an act to amend its 
procedure was passed 31 July, 1868. The lord 
president, the right hon. John Inglis, appointed, 



Feb. 1867 ; died 20 Aug., succeeded by James P. 
B. Robertson, Sept. 1891. 

COUET THEATEE, Sloane-square, Chelsea., 
opened 25 Jan. 1871 ; Miss Litton first manager. 

COUETEAI (Belgium). Here Robert, count 
of Artois, who had defeated the Flemings in 1297, 
was defeated and slain by them, 11 July, 1302. The 
conflict was named the " Battle of Spurs," from the 
number of gilt spurs collected. 

COUETS MAETIAL are regulated by the 
Mutiny act, first passed in 1690. The powers of 
these courts were much discussed in 1867, in conse- 
quence of the measures used to suppress the negro 
insurrection in Jamaica, Oct. 1866. See Army y 
1 Jan. 1887. 

COUETS OF JUSTICE were instituted at 
Athens, 1507 B.C. (see Areiopagus) ; by Moses, 1491 
B.C. {Exod. xviii. 25), and in Rome. For these 
realms, see Chancery, Common Pleas, Exchequer r 
King's Bench, &c. The citizens of London were 
privileged to plead their own cause in the courts of 
judicature, without employing lawyers, except in 
pleas of the crown, 41 Hen. III. 1257. Stow. The 
rights of the Irish courts were established by the 
British parliament in April, 1783. See Supreme? 
Court. 

COUETS OF LAW FEES ACT, passed 20 
Aug. 1867, directs the application of surplus fees 
towards providing new courts of justice. Acts for 
building these courts were passed in 1865 and 1866, 
See Law. Courts. 

COUETS OF SUEYEY, consisting of a, 
judge and two assistants, for appeals respecting un- 
seaworthy ships, were directed to be appointed in- 
certain ports and districts by the Merchant Ship- 
ping Act, 39 & 40 Vict. c. 80 (15 Aug. 1876). They 
sat in 1877. 

COUTEAS (S. "W. France). Here Henry of 
Navarre totally defeated the due de Joyeuse and the- 
royalists, 20 Oct. 1587. 

COVENANTEES, those persons who in the 
reign of Charles I. having signed the solemn league 
and covenant, engaged to stand by each other in 
opposition to the projects of the king in 1638. The 
covenant or league between England and Scotland 
(the preceding one modified), solemnly adopted by 
the parliament, 25 Sept. 1643 ; was accepted by 
Charles II. 16 Aug. 1650, but repudiated by him on 
his restoration in 1661, when it was declared to be 
illegal by parliament, and copies of it ordered to be 
burnt. See Cameronians and Bothivell Bridge. 
The covenant consisted of six articles : 

1. The preservation of the reformed church in Scotland 
and the reformation of religion in England and Ireland. 

2. The extirpation of popery, prelacy, schism, &c. 

3. The preservation of the liberties of parliament and the 
king's person and authority. 

4. The discovery and punishment of all malignants. <fcc. 

5. The preservation of "a blessed peace between these 
kingdoms ; " 

6. The assisting all who enter into the covenant : 
" This xuill we do as in the sight of God." 

COYENT GAEDEN (London), corrupted 
from " Convent Garden," having been the garden 
of St. Peter's convent. The square was built about 
1633, and the piazza on the north side and the church 
were designed by Inigo Jones. The fruit and vege- 
table markets were rebuilt in 1829-30, from designs 
by Mr. Fowler (the ground belongmg to the duke 
of Bedford). 

COYENT GAEDEN THEATEE sprang 
out of one in Lincoln' s-inn-ficlds, through a patent 



COVENTRY ACT. 



259 



CRAYFORD. 



granted 14 Chas. II. 1662, to sir William Davenant, 
whose company was denominated the "duke's ser- 
vants," as a compliment to the duke of York, after- 
wards James II. ; see under Theatres. — The theatre 
was hurnt down 5 March, 1856, during; a bal masque 
held by Mr. Anderson, the wizard of the north. 
The present theatre by E. Barry was opened 15 May, 
1858. The Floral Hall adjoining it was opened 7 
March, i860, with the volunteers' ball. 

COVENTRY ACT passed, to prevent malicious 
maiming and wounding, 6 March, 1671, in conse- 
quence of sir John Coventry, K.B., M.P., being 
maimed in the streets of London, by sir Thomas 
Sandys and others, adherents of the duke of Mon- 
mouth, 21 Dec. 1670. Repealed 1828. 

COVENTRY (Warwickshire). Leofric, earl 
of Mercia, lord of Coventry, is said to have relieved 
it from heavy taxes, at the intercession of Ms wife 
Godiva, on condition of her riding naked through 
the streets, about 1057. Processions in her memory 
took place in 1851 ; 23 June, 1862 ; 4 June, 1866"; 
20 June, 1870; 4 June, 1877; 6 Aug. 1883; and 
2 Aug. 1892. The legend is probably fabulous. 
A parliament was held here in the reign of 
Henry IV. called parliamentum indoctum, or 
the unlearned parliament, because lawyers were 
excluded, 1404; and in the reign of Henry VI. 
another met, called parliamentum diabolicum, from 
the acts of attainder passed against the duke of York 
and others, 20 Nov. 1459. The town was sur- 
rounded with strong walls, three miles in circum- 
ference, and twenty-six towers, which were de- 
molished by order of Charles II. in 1662. The 
ribbon-makers here suffered much from want of 
work in the winter of 1810-6. An industrial exhi- 
bition here was opened by earl Granville, 19 June ; 
closed by the earl of Clarendon, 21 Oct. 1867. 
The prince and princess of Wales were warmly 
received 7 Nov. 1874. The Bishopric was 
founded by Oswy, king of Mercia, 656, and had 
the double name of Coventry and Lichfield, 
which was reversed by later bishops. It was 
so wealthy, that king Offa, by the favour of 
pope Adrian, made it archiepiscopal ; but this title 
was laid aside on the death of that king. In 1075 
the see was removed to Chester ; in 1 102 to Coventry ; 
and afterwards to its original foundation, Lichfield, 
but with great opposition from the monks of Co- 
ventry. Coventry merged into the bishopric of 
Lichfield (which see). Population, 1881, 44,831 ; 
1891, 52,720. 

Rioting on the levying of the "vicar's rate" 

11 Sept. 1882 
New park, gift of Mr. D. Spencer, opened 11 Oct. 1883 

COW-POCK INOCULATION; see Small 

Pox and Vaccination. 

CRABS. The size at which they are to be sold 
is determined by the Fisheries Act, 1877. 

CRACOW, a city in Austrian Poland. The 
Poles elected Cracus for their duke, who built Cra- 
cow with thespoils taken from the Franks about 700. 
It was their capital, 1320-1609. Cracow was taken 
by Charles XII. in 1 702, and taken and retaken 
several times by the Russians and other confede- 
rates. The sovereign was crowned at Cracow until 
1764. The Russians, who had taken it 1768, were 
expelled by Kosciusko, 24 March, 1794 ; but it sur- 
rendered to the Prussians, 15 June same year, and 
in 1795 was awarded to Austria. Cracow was formed 
into a republic, June, 1815. Occupied by 10,000 
Russians, who followed here the defeated Poles, 
Sept. 1831. Its independence was extinguished: 
and it was seized by the emperor of Austria, and 



incorporated with his empire, 16 Nov. 1846, which 
was protested against by England, France, Sweden, 
and Turkey ; see Poland. A dreadful fire laid the 
greater part of the city in ashes, 18 July, 1850. The 
discovery on 22 Jul)', 1869, of Barbare Abryk, a nun, 
secluded for 21 years in a convent cell, led to violent 
rioting. Population, 1890, 76,025. 
The Bishop Albin Dunajewski, made a prince of the 

Empire, and primate of Poland . . Jan. 1889 
The body of Adam Mickiewicz, the Polish poet, 

brought from France, re-interred here . 4 July, 1890 
Polish congress of natural science and medicine 

about 19 July, 1891 

CRANES are of very early date, for the engines 
of Arcliimedes maybe so called. In 1857 a crane 
had been erected at Glasgow capable of lifting 50 
tons. One in Woolwich arsenal in 1881 lifted 400 

tons. See Derricks. 

CRANIOLOGY (or Phrenology), the 

study of the external form of the human skull, as 
indicative of mental powers and moral qualities. 
Dr. Gall, the propounder, was a German physician, 
born March, 1758, and his first observations were 
among his schoolfellows. Afterwards he studied 
the heads of criminals and others, and eventually 
reduced his ideas to a system, marking out the skull 
like a map. His first lecture was given at Vienna 
in 1796 ; but in 1802 the Austrian government pro- 
hibited his teaching. In 1800 he was joined by Dr. 
Spurzheim ; and in 1810-12 they published at Paris 
their work on the " Anatomy and Physiology of the 
Nervous System, and of the Brain in particular." 
Gall died in 1828. The researches of Gall and 
Spurzheim led to increased study of the brain. 
Combe's " Phrenology," first published in 1819, is 
the popular English work on this subject. Phreno- 
logical societies were formed early in London and 
Edinburgh. 

Phrenology was refuted by Lord Jeffrey in the Edinburgh 
Review, in 1826, and more recently by Dr. W. B. 
Carpenter. Professor David Ferrier reported the results 
of researches tending to prove localisation of certain 
faculties in the brain to the British Association, Sept. 
1873. He published his work " The Functions of the 
Brain," 1876; 2nd edition 1887. 

" Brain," a quarterly journal, began in 1878. 

CRANMER, Latimer, and Ridley, mar- 
tyrdom of, see Protestants, note. 

CRANNOGES, see Lake-dwellings. 

CRANNON or CRANON, Thessaly, N. Greece. 
Near here the Macedonians under Antipater and 
Craterus defeated the confederated Greeks, twice by 
sea, and once by land, 322 B.C. The Athenians de- 
manded peace, and Antipater put their orators to 
death, among whom was Hyperides, who, that he 
might not betray the secrets of his country when 
under torture, cut out his tongue, and Demosthenes 
is said to have taken poison shortly after. 

CRANWORTH'S ACT, LORD, to simplify 
the practice of conveyancers, 23 & 24 Vict. c. 145 
(i860). 

CRAONNE (N. France). Here Victor and 
Ncy defeated the Prussians under Blueher after 
a severe contest, 7 March, 1814. 

CRAPE- It is said some crape was made by Ste. 
Badour, when queen of France, about 680. It is 
said to have been first made at Bologna. 

CRAVANT, see Orevant. 

CRAYFORD (Kent). Hengist the Saxon is 
said to have defeated the Britons here, 457. 

S 2 



CEAYONS. 



260 



CRICKET. 



CEAYONS, coloured substances made into 
paste, and dried into pencils, were known in France 
about 1422 ; and improved by L'Oriot, 1748. 

CEEASOTE, or KREASOTE (discovered by 
Reichenbach about 1833), a powerful antiseptic and 
coagulator of albuminous tissue, is obtained by tbe 
destructive distillation of wood and other organic 
matters. It has been used for the preservation of 
meat, timber, &c. 

1 CEEATINE (from the Greek Jcreas, flesh), the 
chemical principle of flesh, was discovered in 1835 
by E. Chevreul, and has been investigated byLiebig, 
Gregory, and others. 

CEEATION of the Would. The date 
given by the English bible, and by Usher, Blair, 
and some others, is 4004 B.C. There are about 140 
different dates assigned to the Creation, varying 
from 3616 to 6984 b.c. Dr. Hales gives 5411 ; see 
Eras, 

Haydn's Creation (oratorio), composed 1796—8; first 
performed (in London, at Co vent Garden Theatre), 
28 March, 1800 ; in Paris, 24 Dec. same year. 

CEECHES, establishments for temporarily re- 
ceiving the young children of working mothers; 
begun at Paris, about 1844 ; in London (in Rath- 
bone-place, &c.) about 1863 ; others since. 

CEECY, or CRESSY (N. France), where Ed- 
ward III. and his son, Edward the Black Prince, 
and an army of about 36,800, obtained a great victory 
over Philip, king of France, with about 130,000, 26 
Aug. 1346. John, king of Bohemia (nearly blind) ; 
James, king of Majorca ; Ralph, duke of Lorraine 
(sovereign princes) ; and a number of French nobles, 
together with 30,000 private men, were slain, while 
the loss of the English was very small. The crest 
of the king of Bohemia (three ostrich feathers, with 
the motto Ich dim — in English, " I serve") has 
since been adopted by princes of Wales. 

CEEDIT FONCIEE, &c. A plan of pro- 
viding loans to landowners was introduced by Frede- 
rick the Great of Prussia, in 1763, in some of the 
Prussian provinces, as the best method of alleviating 
the distresses of the landed interest caused by his 
wars. The system consists of lending money to 
landowners on the security of their estates, and pro- 
viding the loan capital by the issue of debentures 
charged upon the aggregate mortgaged estates. 
There are two modes of carrying out this scheme : 
(I) by means of an association of landowners ; (2) 
by means of a proprietary public company. The 
former obtains iti Eastern Prussia, but the latter is 
exclusively found in Western Europe. 
Credit Fonder companies have been founded in Hamburg 
(1782), Western Prussia (1787), Belgium (1841), France 
(1852), England (1863). Similar companies were formed 
in all the states of Europe, in India, and in our colonies 
and dependencies. A. G. Heiiriques. See France, 
May, 1890. 

CEEDIT MOBILIEE : a joint-stock com- 
pany with this name was established at Paris by 
Isaac and Emile Pereire, and others, 18 Nov. 1852. 
It took up or originated trading enterprises of all kinds, 
applying to them the principle of commandite, or 
limited liabilities ; and was authorised to supersede or 
, buy in any other companies (replacing their shares or 
bonds witli its own scrip), and also to carry on the ordi- 
nary business of banking. The funds were to be ob- 
tained by a paid-up capital of 2! millions sterling, the 
issue of obligations at not less than 45 days' date or 
sight, and the receipt of money on deposit or current 
account. The society apparently prospered ; but was 
considered by experienced persons a near approach to 
Law's bank of 1716. 



Several of the directors failed, Sept. 1857, no divi- 
dend paid May, 185 

Many companies based on its principles established 
in London 1863 

Emile and Isaac Pereire withdrew from the manage- 
ment ; the company failed, and the capital was 
said to have disappeared .... Oct. 1867 

The high court of appeal decided that MM. Pereire 
and other directors were responsible for their acts, 
and that damages should be given to the share- 
holders 1 Aug. 1868 

Emile Pereire died 6 Jan., 1875 ; Isaac died 12 July, 1880 

CEEEDS, see Confessions of Faith. J. B. 
Lumby's History of the Greeds appeared 1874. 

CEEMATION", see Burning the Bead. Cre- 
mation halls have been erected at Milan and Gotha. 

CEEMEEA, Battle of, see Fabii. 

CEEMONA (N. Italy), a city founded by the 
Romans, 221 b.c. It became an independent re- 
public in 1 107, but was frequently subjugated by its 
neighbours, Milan and Venice, and partook of their 
fortunes. In Nov. 1859 it became part of the king- 
dom of Italy. Cremona was eminent for violin 
makers from about 1550 to 1750. 

CEESCENT, a symbol of sovereignty among 
the Greeks and Romans, and the device of Byzan- 
tium, now Constantinople, whence the Turks 
adopted it. The Crescent has given name to three 
orders of knighthood ; founded by Charles I. of 
Naples, 1268 ; by Rene of Anjou, in 1448; by the 
sultan Selim, in 1801. 

CEESPY (N. France). Here was signed a 
treaty between Charles V. of Germany and Francis 
I. of France, 18 Sept. 1544. The former renounced 
Burgundy, and the latter Italy. 

CEESTS are ascribed to the Carians. Richard 

I. (1189) had a crest on the helmet resembling a 
plume of feathers. The English kings had gene- 
rally crowns above their helmets; that of Richard 

II. 1377, was surmounted by a lion on a cap of dig- 
nity; see Crecy. Alexander III. of Scotland, 1249, 
had a plume of feathers ; and the helmet of Robert 
I. was surmounted by a crown, 1306 ; and that of 
James I. by a lion, 1424. In the 15th and 16th 
centuries, the crest was described to be a figure 
placed upon a wreath, coronet, or cap of mainten- 
ance. Gwillim. 

CEETE, see Candia. 

CREVANT-SUE-YONNE (N. France), was 
besieged by John Stuart, earl of Buchan, with a 
French army, July, 1423, and relieved by the earl of 
Salisbury with an army of English and Burgundians. 
After a severe contest, the French were totally de- 
feated. 

CEEVELDT, near Cleves (W. Prussia). Here 
on 23 June, 1758, prince Ferdinand of Brunswick 
defeated the French under the count of Clermont. 

CEEWE, Cheshire, the site of a great junction 
and works of the London and North- Western rail- 
way since 1840. The company presented a beautiful 
park to the town in 1887-88. Crewe was incorpo- 
pated in 1877. Great fire at the railway works; 
estimated damage under 3,000^., 28 March, 1892. 
Population, 1881, 24,385 ; 1891, 28,761. 

CEICKET, an ancient Euglish game, said to be 
identical with the "club ball" of the 14th century ; 
mentioned in 1598. Rules were laid down in 1774 
by a committee of noblemen and gentlemen, in- 
cluding the duke of Dorset and sir Horace Mann. 
In 1861 the All England Eleven gained and lost 
games in Australia ; in Sept. 1868, they beat the 



CRIME. 



261 CRIMINAL LAWS OF ENGLAND. 



New York Twenty-two. In 1873-4 they were beaten 
at Melbourne. 

Eleven Australians visited England, and after gain- 
ing ten games and losing five, gained one against 
"Players of All England," . . . 3 Sept. 1878 
Thirteen Australians visited England in May 1880 ; 
they won 21 out of 37 matches, and lost 4 ; the 
others were drawn or indecisive ; they were vic- 
tors in a match with the " Players of England " 
at the Crystal Palace . . 27, 28, 2q Sept. 1880 

The Australians, previously victorious, were de- 
feated at Manchester by the north of England 

team 16 Sept. 1882 

England beats Australia ... 23 July, 1884 
Australia wins 12 out of 20 matches in . . . „ 
North of England beat Australians . . 3 Sept. ,, 
English cricketers in Australia victorious . Jan. 1885 
Frequent contests with the Australians with varied 

success 1885 — 8 

Lord Sheffield and his English eleven at Adelaide, 
in 26 matches, win 13, lose 2, 11 drawn . March, 1892 

CRIME. About 1856 it was computed that a 
fifteenth part of the population of the United King- 
dom lived by crime. The increase in education and 
manufactures is gradually reducing this proportion. 
From 1848 to 1865 there had been no commitment 
for political offences, such as treason or sedition. 
The returns of thirty-two years showed that crime 
absolutely and relatively diminished (Sept. 1866). 
"Judicial Statistics," with abundant details, are 

Eublished by the government annually, price 2s. 
ee Murder, Executions, Trials, Poisoning, &c. 

CONVICTIONS (BY TRIAL) IN ENGLAND AND WALES. 





Persons. 


Cap. Off. 




Persons. 


Cap. C 


1847. 


■ 21,542 


— - 


1870. 


■ 12,953 


15 


1849 


. 21,001 


66 


1871 


. 11,946 


13 


1850. 


• 20,537 


49 


1872 . 


. 10,862 


30 


1851 


• 21.579 


70 


1873 


. 11,089 


18 


1852 . 


. 21,304 


61 


1874- 


■ 11,509 


2b 


1853 


. 20,756 


55 


1875 


• 10,954 


33 


1854. 


• 23,047 


49 


1876. 


• 12,19s 


32 


1855 


• 19.971 


50 


1877 


. 11,942 


34 


1856. 


- 14.734 


. 69 


1878 . 


• 12,473 


20 


1857 


• IS.307 


54 


1879 


• 12,525 


34 


1858. 


. 13,246 


53 


1880. 


. 11,214 


28 


1859 


. 12,470 


'52 


1881 


• H.353 


23 


i860. 


. 12,068 


48 


1882. 


. 11,699 


22 


1861 


■ 13.879 


5° 


1883 


• ii,347 


23 


1862 . 


• J5.3 12 


29 


1884 . 


• n,i34 


38 


1863 


. 15.799 


29 


1885 


. 10,500 


-5 


1864 . 


. 14.726 


32 


18S6 . 


. 10,686 


35 


1865 


. . 14,740 


20 


1887 


• 10338 


35 


1866. 


• i4. 2 54 


26 


1888 . 


. 10,561 


36 


1867 


. . 14,207 


27 


1889 


• • 9,348 


20 


1868 . 


• 15.033 


21 


1890 . 


• 9,242 


42 



1869 . . 14,340 ia 

See Executions. 

Act for improving the administration of criminal justice 
passed 7 Aug. 1851. 

The Criminal Justice Act authorises justices, with the 
consent of prisoners, to pass sentence for short periods, 
instead of committing them to trial, 1855. 

Cost of criminal prosecutions in England and Wales : 
1856, 194,9122.; 1878, 148,103?.; 1883, 144,026?.; 18S6, 
141,329?. ; year ending 31 March, 1890, 131,202?. Ticket- 
of-Uave system substituted by 16 & 17 Vict. c. 99, 
passed in 1853; see Transportation. 2666 persons 
were liberated on tickets-of-leave in 1856. 

On 17 Feb. 1857, of 126 persons thus liberated, 58 were 
believed to be living honestly. 

In 1861, 1862, and 1863, the system was considered to 
have failed through the numerous crimes committed 
by ticket-of-leavers ; it was modified by the Penal Ser- 
vitude act, in 1864. 

Sentences to penal servitude, 1869, 2006; in 1870, 1788; 
1886, 910 ; 1887, 948 ; 1890, 729. 

Criminal classes in England and Wales : estimated num- 
ber, 1869-70, 45,800; 1878-9, 35,469; 1886-7, 28,729; 
1887-8, 28,103 > 1888-9, 27,136 ; 1889-90, 26,406. 

*' Statistical Criminal Act " passed . . n Aug. 1869 

" Prevention of Crimes Act " passed . 21 Aug. 1871 

Great decrease in crimes in relation to the increase 
of population 1861-1891 



Confirmed by lord Coleridge for 1874-84 19 Jan. 1885 
The number of female convicts fallen in ten years 

from 1477 to 706, announced . . .4 Nov. 1887 
Crime— International Congress for the prevention 

and repression of crime met in the Middle Temple, 

London 3 July, 1872 

The third international congress on crime was 

opened on 25 Aug. 1891 

Prevention of Crime Act (Ireland), passed 15 Aug. 18,-9 
Convict Supervision Office, good results reported 

by Mr. J. Monro 1886 

CRIMES ACTS, see Prevention. 

CRIMEA, or CbJM TARTARY, a peninsula in 
the Kuxine or Black Sea, the ancient Taurica Cher- 
sonesus, colonised by the Greeks about 550 B.C. 
The Milesians founded the kingdom of Bosporus, 
now Kertch, which about 108 B.C. formed part of 
the dominion of Mithridates, king of Pontus, whose 
descendants continued to rule the country under 
ltoman protection till the irruption of the Goths, 
Huus, &c. about a.d. 258. About 1237 it fell into 
the hands of the Mongols under Genghis Khan ; 
soon after the Venetians established commercial 
stations, with a lucrative trade, but were supplanted 
by the Genoese, who were permitted to rebuild and 
fortify Kaffa, about 1261. In 1475 Mahomet II. 
expelled the Genoese, and subjected the peninsula 
to the Ottoman yoke ; permitting the government 
to remain in the hands of the native khans, but 
closing the Black Sea to Western Europe. In 1774, 
by the intervention of the empress Catherine II., 
the Crimea recovered its independence : but on the 
abdication of the khan in 1783, the Russians took 
possession of the country, after a war with Turkey, 
and retained it by the treaty of Jassy, 9 Jan. 1792. 
The Crimea (now Taurida), was divided into eight 
[ governments in 1802. War having been declared 
against Russia by England and France, 28 March, 
1854, large masses of troops were sent to the East, 
which, after remaining some time at Gallipoli, and 
other places, sailed for Vama, where the}' disem- 
barked 29 May. An expedition against, the Crimea 
having been determined on, the allied British, 
French, and Turkish forces, amounting to 58,000 
men (25,000 British), commanded by lord Raglan 
and marshal St. Arnaud, sailed from Varna, 3 Sept. 
and landed on the 14th, 15th, and 16th, without 
opposition, at Old Fort, near Eupatoria, about 30 
miles from Sebastopol. On the 20th they attacked 
the Russians, between 40,000 and 50,000 strong 
(under prince Menschikoff), entrenched on the 
heights of Alma, supposed to be unassailable. After 
a sharp contest the Russians were totally routed. 
See Alma and Russo- Turkish War. Peace was 
proclaimed in April, 1856, and the allies quitted the 
Crimea 12 July following. 

CRIMINAL LAW PROCEDURE 
(IRELAND) ACT, (see Ireland) 50 & 51 Vict. 
c. 20, passed 19 July, 1887, provides for summary 
jurisdiction by magistrates, special juries, change 
of place of trial, proclamation of districts, prohibi- 
tion of dangerous associations, and continuance of 
44 & 45 Vict. c. 5, and 49 & 50 Vict. c. 24. 
Act for Scotland passed 16 Sept. 1887 to simplify and 

amend the Criminal Law of Scotland. 

CRIMINAL LAWS of ENGLAND. Their 

great severity, pointed out by sir Samuel Romilly, 
sir James Mackintosh, and others, about 1818, was 
considerably mitigated by sir R. Peel's acts, passed 
1826-8. The criminal law acts were consolidated 
by 24 and 25 Vict. cc. 94-IOO, 1861. Some defects 
were amended by an act passed in 1867. The pun- 
ishment of death is now virtually restricted to 
treason and wilful murder. 
Sir J. F. Stephen's " Digest of the Criminal Laws " 



CRIMISUS. 



262 



CROFTERS. 



published, 1877 ; and " History of the Criminal 
Law of England," published. .... 1883 

Bill for amending law relating to indictable offences 
(resembling a digest and code) brought in by sir 
John Holker, attorney-general . . 14 If ay, 1878 

Referred to royal commission (justices Blackburn 
and Lush and. sir James F. Stephen) ; announced 

8 July, ,, 

The bill brought in and withdrawn .... 1879 

Criminal Law Amendment Act (relating to women) 
passed 14 Aug. 1885 

CRIMISUS, a river in Sicily, near which Ti- 
moleon defeated the Carthaginians, 339 B.C. 

CRIMPING-HOITSES were used to entrap 
persons into the army ; hence the name of " crimp 
sergeant." Some of them in London were destroyed 
by the populace, in consequence of a young man 
who had been enticed into one being killed in en- 
deavouring to escape, 16 Sept. 1794. 

CRINAN CANAL, Argyleshire, cut through 
Kintyre peninsula, 1793-1801: 15 locks; saves about 
115 miles. 

CRINOLINE (a French word, meaning stuff 
made of crin, hair) is the modern name of the " far- 
dingale" of the time of queen Elizabeth, hoop-like 
petticoats made of whalebone, &c, revived in France 
and England since 1855. They have frequently 
occasioned loss of life, by coming in contact with 
fire and machinery. In No. 116 of the Tatter, pub- 
lished 5 Jan. 1 7 10, is an amusing trial of the hoop- 
petticoat then in fashion. 

CRIPPLEGATE (London), was so-called 
from the lame beggars who sat there, so early as the 
year 1010. The gate was new built by the brewers 
of London in 1244; and was pulled down and sold 
for Qil. in July, 1760. The poet Milton was buried 
in the church near it, 12 Nov. 1674. See London. 

CRIPPLES' HOME, Marylebone-road, es- 
tablished 1851, for crippled girls to be taught suit- 
able trades. The Cripples' Nursery, Old Quebec- 
street and Margate, was established 1862. 

CRISPIN AND CriSPIANTTS are said to have 
been two saints, born at home, from whence they 
travelled to Soissons, in France, to propagate the 
Christian religion. They worked as shoemakers ; 
but the governor of the town discovering them to be 
Christians, ordered them to be beheaded, about 288. 
Their day is 25 Oct. 

CRITERION THEATRE, Regent's Circus, 
Piccadilly, opened by Spiers and Poud, 21 March, 
1874. 

CRITH (from the Greek krithe, a barleycorn or 
small weight), a term suggested by Dr. A. W. Hof- 
mann (about 1864) to express the volume-weight of 
gases ; a cube containing 1 litre of hydrogen (0'o896 
gramme) to be the unit. Hydrogen being 1 crith, 
oxygen will be 16, nitrogen 14 criths. 

CRITICS. The first society of them was formed 
276 B.C. Blair. Varro, Cicero, Apollonius, and 
Aristarchus were ancient critics. In modern times 
the Journal des Sgavans was the earliest periodical 
critical work. It was originated by Denis de Sallo, 
ecclesiastical councillor in the parliament of France, 
and was first published at Paris, 30 May, 1655, and 
is still continued. Jean Le Clerc's " Ars Critica," 
published 1696, is said to be the earliest systematic 
treatise. The first work of this kind in England 
was the Review of Daniel Defoe (the term being 
invented by himself), published in Feb. 1703. The 
Works of the Learned began 17 10, and the Wales of 
Literature in 1714 ; discontinued in 1722. See 
Reviews. 



The legality of fair criticism was established in the Eng- 
lish courts, in Feb. 1794, when an action that excited 
great attention, brought by an author against a re- 
viewer for a severe critique upon his work, was deter- 
mined in favour of the defendant on the principle that 
criticism is allowable, however sharp, if just, and not 
malicious. See Trials, 1875. 

CROATIA, conquered by Coloman, king of 
Hungary, in 1102, was with that country united to 
Austria in 1526. 

The Croatian diet abolished . . . Nov. 1861 
The Croats protest against incorporation with 

Hungary 25 May, 1867 

Their diet (including Croatia and Sclavonia), at 

Agram dissolved .... 27 May, „ 

The union of Croatia with Hungary recognised by 

a Croatian deputation .... 27 May, 1868 
Croatian delegates enter the Hungarian diet 24 M ov. „ 
The emperor and empress visit Agram 9-10 March, 1869 
Riots in Agram and other places against the Jews, 
complicated with SclavoniC.jealousy of Hungary, 
and desire for autonomy, Aug. ; the ban super- 
seded by gen. Ramberg, special commissioner 

about 6 Sept. 1883 
Conflicts with the military, 8-10 Sept.; ten rioters 

killed 20 Sept. ,, 

Agitation increasing ; demand for separation from 

Hungary about 22 Sept. ,, 

38 rioters sentenced to imprisonment, &c. 30 Sept. ,, 
Count Khiin-Hedervary, appointed ban 4 Dec. ,, 

The diet opened at Agram— important meeting 

17 Dec. ,, 
Continued political disagreements .... 1884 

Diet dissolved 22 Jan. ,, 

Again dissolved 27 Aug. „ 

The separatist movement said to be totally quelled 
by the ban after much resistance . . Nov. 1887 

CROCKERY- WARE, see Pottery. 
CROFTERS and Cottars, the holders of small 

portions of land, and the labourers in the high- 
lands and islands of Scotland. 

A royal commission appointed 22 March, 1883 
(Francis baron Napier and others), to inquire 
into their condition, issue their report and 
describe their state as not being worse than for- 
merly, but acknowledge the existence of many 
startling grievances relating to the tenure of 
land, high rents, the deficiency of education, of 
postal communication, of roads, &c. They 
recommend, among other remedies, the revival 
of the ancient highland townships with common 
privileges, limiting the power of the superior 
lords, &c. . ; . . . .28 April, 1884 

Highland Land Law Reform Association began to 
work March, 1883 

Agitation begun at Dingwall by the Highland Land 
Law Reform Association .... Sept. 1884 

Seditious circulars threatening violence ; troops 
conveyed to Skye ; tranquillity restored by free 
church ministers .... 15 Nov. ,, 

Meeting at Inverness of chief landlords; concilia- 
tory favourable changes proposed . . 14 Jan. 1885 

Act giving crofters fixity of tenure, enlargement of 
holdings, and state-aid to fisheries 25 June 1886 ; 
amended 1888 

Riotous resistance to ejectments at Greenhill Farm, 
&c, Isle of Tiree, Hebrides; 50 police repulsed 
by 300 men ; marines sent to the Isle 25 July ; 
order restored ; six crofters apprehended up to 

8 Aug. sentenced to three months' imprisonment, 

14 Dec. 1 886 
Raid of 2,000 cottars on Park and Aline deer forests 

in the Island of Lewis, 22 Nov. ; stopped 23 Nov. 1887 
Riots at Stornoway, Lewis ; the fences of the sheep 
farm of Mr. Samuel Newall destroyed and the 
sheep dispersed ; severe conflict, between the 
crofters and the police and military ; many 
wounded ; the rioters dispersed with difficulty 

9 Jan. 1888, many arrested ; 16 sentenced to im- 
prisonment, 3 Feb. 1888 

Lewis reported quiet .... 28 Jan. „ 
Crofters colonization commission appointed by 

Imperial and Canada governments . .28 Dec. ,, 
The Canadian settlements reported prosperous 

March 1891 



CROIX, ST. 



263 



CROZIER. 



CROIX, ST., a W. India Island, purchased 
from the French by Christian VI. king of Denmark, 
in 1733 ; taken by sir Alexander Cochrane, 22 Dec. 
1807 ; restored in 1814. 

CROMLECHS, ancient monuments, formerly 
considered to be Druidical altars, but novv believed 
<to be connected with burials. One still exists in 
Anglesey : similar structures have been found in 
Ireland, India, Arabia, and other countries. 

CROXIX CASE. See United States, 1889. 

CROXSTADT, Russia, founded by Peter the 
<jreat, 1 7 10, and received its name (Crown-town) 
in 1 72 1. It was not attacked by the fleets in the 
war with Russia, 1854-5. 

CROOK, a bishop's pastoral staff or crook, dis- 
tinct from the crosier. Nine pastoral staffs have 
heen recently presented to English bishops; one to 
■the bishop of Hereford, Dr. James Atlay, in Jan. 
1872. 

CROPREDY BRIDGE, near Banbury, Ox- 
fordshire. Here the royalists defeated sir William 
Waller and the army of the parliament, 29 June, 
1644. 

CROQUET. This game, which became common 
in Britain about 1850, is said to be a revival of the 
old Pall Mall {which see). It has been much 
superseded by Lawn Tennis, 1877-89. 

CROSIER, a staff surmounted by a cross, borne 
before an archbishop, was in use in the 4th century. 
The bearing a crosier before ecclesiastics is mentioned 
in the life of St. Caesareus of Aries about 500. The 
term "crozier " is also applied to the pastoral staff 
of a bishop, which terminates in an ornamental 
<curve or crook. 

CROSS. That on which the Redeemer suf- 
fered on Mount Calvary, was said to have been 
found at Jerusalem, with two others, deep in the 
.ground, by the empress Helena, mother of Con- 
.stantine I., 3 May, 326 (termed the Invention of 
the Cross) ; commemorated annually on that day. 
It was carried away by Chosroes, king of Persia, 
on the plundering of Jerusalem ; but was recovered 
>by the emperor Heraclius (who defeated him in 
battle), 14 Sept. 615, and that day has since been 
commemorated, as " the festival of the Exaltation 
of the Cross," established in 642. 

ft is asserted by church writers that a great shining 
cross was seen in the heavens by Constantine, 
and that it led him to adopt it on his standard, 
with the inscription "In hoc signo vinces ;" 
"Under this sign thou shalt conquer." With 
this (Labarum) he advanced to Rome, where he 
vanquished Maxentius, 27 Oct. 312. Lenglet. 

Signing with tke Cross was first practised by Chris- 
tians to distinguish themselves from the Pagans, 

about no 

5n the time of Tertullian, it was deemed efficacious 
against poison, witchcraft, &c. . . . . 260 

•Crosses in churches and chambers were introduced 
about 431 ; and set up on steeples about . . 568 

"Crosses in honour of queen Eleanor were set up in 
the places where her hearse rested, between 1296 
(when she died) and 1307 

Crosses and idolatrous pictures were removed from 
churches, and crosses in the streets demolished 
by order of parliament 1641 

Maids of the Cross were a community of young 
women who made vows of poverty, chastity, and 
obedience, instituted in 1625 

The order of Ladies of the Star of the Cross was 
instituted by the empress Eleonora di Gonzaga, 
wife of Leopold I., in . . 1668 

CROSSED CHEQUES, see Drafts. 



CROTOXA (S. Italy), a city founded by the 

Achaean Greeks about 710 B.C. Here Pythagoras 

taught about 520. The Crotons destroyed Sybaris, 

510. 

CROWX. An Amalekite brought Saul's crown 

to David, 1056 B.C. (2 Sam. i.) The first Roman 

who wore a crown was Tarquin the Elder, 616 B.C. 

The crown was first a fillet tied round the head; 

afterwards it was formed of leaves and flowers, and 

also of stuff's adorned with jewels. See Tiara. 

The crown of Alfred had two little bells attached (872) ; 
it is said to have been long preserved at Westminster, 
and may have been that described in the parliamentary 
inventory taken in 1649. 

Athelstan's crown resembled an earl's coronet, 929. 

William I. wore his crown on a cap, adorned with points, 
1066. 

Richard III. introduced the crosses, 1483. 

Henry VII. introduced the arches, 1485. 

The crown and regalia of England were pledged to the 
city of London by Richard II. for 2000/. in 1386 ; see 
the king's receipt on redeeming them. Rymer. 

The crown of Charles II., made in 1660, is the oldest ex- 
isting in England ; see Blood's Conspiracy. 

The Imperial State Crown of England was made by Run- 
dell and Bridges, in 1838, principally with jewels taken 
from old crowns. It contains one large ruby, 1 large 
sapphire, 16 sapphires, 11 emeralds, 4 rubies, 1363 
brilliants, 1273 rose diamonds, 147 table diamonds, 4 
drop-shaped pearls, and 273 pearls. Professor Tennant. 

CROWX OF IXDIA, Imperial Order of, in- 
stituted by Queen Victoria (to commemorate the 
assumption of the title of empress, 1 Jan. 1877), for 
princesses of the royal family, distinguished Indian 
and British ladies, and wives of viceroys and go- 
vernors and secretaries of state for India; 31 Dec. 
1877. Twelve ladies (the marchioness of Salisbury 
and others) invested, 29 April, 1878. 

CROWX LAXDS. The revenue arising from 
those in England is now nearly all subject to par- 
liament, which annually provides for the support 
of the sovereign and government about 375,000/. 
The revenue of the duchy of Cornwall belongs 
to the prince of Wales even during his minority. 
Henry VII. (1485) resumed those lands which 
had been given to their followers by the sove- 
reigns of the house of York. The hereditary 
estates of the crown were largely bestowed on 
their courtiers by the sovereigns — especially by 
the Stuarts. The income of the crown, formerly 
derived from lands, royalties, &c, now belongs to 
the state exchequer, see Civil List. In the year 
ending 31 March, 1891, the receipts were 
515,737/. $s. iod., the expenditure 87,121/. 19s. 6d. 

CROWXS in gold were coined by Henry VIII., 
1522. Crowns and half-crowns of silver were 
coined in England by Edward VI. in 1553. None 
were coined in 1861, and they were gradually with- 
drawn from circulation. The coinage of half-crowns 
was resumed in 1874, ^ ter an inquiry as to their 
utility. The coinage of silver crowns recommenced 
in 1887. 

CROWS. An act passed for their destruction 
in England, 24 Hen. VIII. 1532. Crows were 
anciently employed as letter-bearers, as carrier- 
pigeons are now. 

CROYDOX, Surrey, granted to Lanfranc, 
archbishop of Canterbury, about 1070. Archbishop 
AVhitgift's hospital was founded in 1596. The fine 
old parish church was burnt, 5, 6 Jan. 1867. Croy- 
don incorporated by charter, 15 Feb. 1883. Poly- 
technic institution opened by the archbishop of 
Canterbury, 22 Dec. 1891. Population, 1881, 
78,811 ; 1891, 102,697. 

CROZIER, see Crosier. 



CRUCIFIX. 



264 



CRYSTAL PALACE. 



CRUCIFIX, the cross with the figure of Christ 
attached to it, first known in the fourth, came into 
general use in the eighth century. 

CRUCIFIXION. A mode of execution com- 
mon among the Assyrians, Egyptians, Persians, 
Carthaginians, Greeks, and Romans. Ariarathes, 
of Cappadocia, aged 80, vanquished by Per- 
diccas, and discovered among the prisoners, was 
flayed alive, and nailed to a cross, with his principal 
officers, 322 B.C. Jesus Christ was crucified 3 April. 
a.d. 33. Usher. (15 April, a.d. 29, Clinton; 28 
March, a.d. 3r, Hales ; probably 7 April, a.d. 30, 
Lynn). Crucifixion was ordered to be discontinued 
by Constantine, 330. Lengkt. 

CRUELTY TO ANIMALS, see Animals, 
Children, and Vivisection. 

CRUSADES (French Croisades), wars under- 
taken to drive the infidels from Jerusalem and the 
"Holy Land." Peter Gautier, the Hermit, an 
officer of Amiens, on his return from pilgrimage in- 
cited pope Urban II. to expel infidels from the city 
where Christ had taught. Urban convened a 
council of 310 bishops at Clermont in France, at 
which the ambassadors of the chief Christian 
potentates assisted, and gave Peter the commission 
to summon Europe to a general war, 1094. The 
first crusade was published ; an army of 300,000 men 
was raised, of which Peter had the direction, and 
Godfrey de Bouillon the command, 1095. The 
warriors wore a red cross upon the right shoulder : 
and their motto was Yolonte de Dieu, " God's will." 
— The French government have published some of 
the Historians of the Crusades in a magnificent form 
(1844-86). 

I. Crusade (1095) ended by Jerusalem being taken by 
assault, 15 July, 1099, and Godfrey de Bouillon made 
king. 

II. Preached by St. Bernard in 11 46, headed by emperor 
Conrad II., and Louis VII. of France. Crusaders de- 
feated ; Jerusalem lost in 11 87. 

III. Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, fee, in n88, joined 
by Philip II. of France and Richard I. of England, in 
1 190. Glorious, but fruitless. 

IV. 1 195, by emperor Henry VI. : successful till his 
death in 1197. 

V. Proclaimed by Innocent III., 1198. Baldwin, count 
of Flanders, attacked the Greeks, and took Constanti- 
nople in 1203. His companions returned. 

VI. In 1216. In 1229, emperor Frederick II. obtained 
possession of Jerusalem on a truce for ten years. In 
1240, Richard, earl of Cornwall, arrived at Palestine, 
but soon departed. 

VII. By Louis IX. (St. Louis), 1248, who was defeated 
and taken prisoner at Mansourah, 5 April, 1250 ; re- 
leased by ransom ; truce of ten years. 

VIII. and last, in 1270, by the same prince, who died of 
a contagious disease, at Carthage, in Africa, 2 Aug. 
Prince Edward, afterwards Edward I. of England, was 
at Acre, 1271. In 1291, the soldan took Acre, and the 
Christians were driven out of Syria. 

CRUTCHED FRIARS, who bore the figure 
of the cross on their back and breast ; an order 
founded at Bologna about 1 169. They are also 
called Trinitarians. They had a monastery in 
London in a district still called Crutched Friars. 

CRUZ, see Santa Cruz. 

CRYOLITE, a Greenland mineral, a fluoride 
of aluminium and sodium, employed in procuring 
metallic aluminium in 1855. 

CRYOPHORUS, an instrument (invented by 
Dr. Wollaston about 18 12) to demonstrate the i-e- 
lation between evaporation at low temperatures 
and the production of cold. 

CRYPTOGRAPH, an apparatus for writing 
in cipher, invented by sir Charles Wheatstone, and 



made known in 1868, in which different key-words 

may be employed, and it is said, absolute secrecy 

ensured. A cryptographic machine was patented, 

i860. See Cipher. 

A system of secret writing described in "Archiv 
der Mathematik " . 179s 

Joseph Ludwig Klnber published " Kryptographik " 1809, 

Professor J. F. Lorenz published a system at Mag- 
deburg 1806 

Messrs. Thos. De la Rue published Mr. Wm. 
Henry Rochfort's system of secret writing 
termed "Arcanography," resembling Lorenz's . 1836 

Mr. A. L. Flamm patented an improvement upon 
this system about Oct. 1875 

Mr. Weir's cryptograph, an apparatus in which 
type-writing is employed, exhibited at 9 Strand, 
London 19 Oct. i88oj 

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY is the science re- 
lating to the symmetrical forms assumed by sub- 
stances passing from the liquid to the solid state. 
Rome de Lisle published his " Essai de Cristallo- 
grapbie," in 1772; but Rene-Just Haiiy is regarded 
as the founder of the modern school of crystallo- 
graphy (1801). Whewvll. Dana, Dufresnoy, and 
Miller, are eminent modern writers on this subject. 

CRYSTAL PALACE, Hyde Park, London ; 
see Exhibition q/1851. 

CRYSTAL PALACE, Sydenham. The Ex- 
hibition building of 1851 having been surrendered 
to Messrs Fox and Henderson on 1 Dec. 1851, the? 
materials were sold for 70,000/. to a company, 
who soon after commenced re-erecting the Crystal 
Palace on its present site, near Sydenham in Kent,, 
under the direction of sir Joseph Paxton, Owen 
Jones, Digby Wyatt, and others. The proposed 
capital of 500,000/. (in 100,000 s-hares of 5/. each> 
was increased in Jan. 1853 to a million pounds. In 
Feb. 1887, it was stated that the total expenditure 
had been 3,004,737/. ; receipts, 4,409,969/. ; paid 
for debentures, &c, 1,405,232/. ; number of visitors 
above 50,000,000. Bill for new financial arrange- 
ments passed. 

First column raised by S. Laing, M. P. . 5 Aug. 1852- 
During the progress of the works as many as 6400 
men were engaged at one time. By the fall of 
scaffolding, 12 men were killed . . 15 Aug. 1853 
Dinner given to professor Owen and others in the 
interior of the model of the iguanodon, con- 
structed by Mr. Waterhouse Hawkins 31 Dec. ,, 
The palace opened by the queen . . 10 June, 1854 
Grand musical fete on behalf of the Patriotic Fund, 

28 Oct. „ 
The palace visited by the emperor and empress of 

the French, &c 20 April, 1855 

First grand display of the great fountains, before 

the queen and 20,000 spectators . 18 June, 185.6 

The receipts were 115,627/. ; the expenditure, 
.87,872/., not including payments* for preference 

shares, &c. , in year ending . . . 30 April, 1857 
The preliminary Handel festivals (see Handel), 15, 
17, 19 June, 1857 ; and . . . .2 July, 1858; 

On the Fast day (for the Indian mutiny) rev. C. 
Spurgeon preached here to 23,000 persons ; 4 76 J. 
were collected, to which the C. P. company added 
200J. ........ 7 Oct. 1857 

Centenary of the birth of Robert Burns celebrated : 
the directors awarded 50/. to a prize poem on the 
subject, which was obtained by Miss Isa Craig, 

25 Jan. 1859. 
The Handel festival . . .20, 22, 24 June, ,, 
Festival kept in honour of Schiller, 10 Nov. 1859 ; 

of Mendelssohn 4 May, i860. 

London charity children sing here . 6 June, ,„ 
3000 Orpheonistes (French musical amateurs) per- 
forin choral music, 25 June ; the Imperial band of 
Guides perforin, 26 June ; both dine in the palace, 

30 June, , r 
115 brass bands perform . . . .10 July, ,, 

Annual rose show began , 

North wing injured by a gale of wind, 20, 21 Feb. . 1861 



CEYSTAL PALACE. 



255 



CUBA. 



Haydn's " Creation " performed (Costa, conductor) 

i May, 1 86 1 
Blondin's performances on an elevated rope begin 
here (he plays on violin, cooks, simulates falling, 

&c.) .1 June, ., 

Successful Handel festival : a new arched roof con- 
structed for the orchestra ; about 4000 vocal 
and instrumental performers . 23, 25, 27 June, 1862 
Successful Handel festival . . 26, 28, 30 June, 1865 
North wing, containing tropical department, the 
Alhambra, and other courts, destroyed by fire 
(about 150,000^. damage) . 30 Dec. 1866 

Prince of Wales present at a grand concert to raise 

funds to restore the palace . . .26 June, 1867 
Visit of the viceroy of Egypt (gives 500?.), July ; of 

the sultan (gives 1000'. j . . . xoJuly, „ 
Conservative working men's demonstration 

11 Nov. ,, 
Meeting of shareholders decide by ballot that free 
tickets shall not be issued to admit non-share- 
holders on Sundays . . . -31 Dec. ,, 
North wing restored and re-opened to the public, 

15 Feb. 1868 
An Aeronautical Exhibition opened . 25 June, ,, 
Protestant meeting to defend the Irish Church, 

17 Aug. ,, 
Reception of the vicomte de Lesseps . . July, 1870 
Death of Mr. Robert K. Bowley, fourteen years 

manager of the company . . . 25 Aug. ,, 
Successful Handel festival . . 19, 21, 23 June, 1871 
The grand duke Wladimir of Russia entertained 

here by the prince of Wales . . 26 June, ,, 

Cat show, native and foreign . . 13 July, 2 Dec. „ 
Dividend on stock, i£ per cent. . . . Dee. „ 
Inauguration of the great aquarium by professor 

Owen Jan. 1872 

Lecture by professor Flower . . .12 Jan. ,, 

Bird show opens 10 Feb. ,, 

Thanksgiving festival for the recovery of the prince 

of Wales 1 May, ,, 

Dog show opens ..... 4 June, ,, 
Meeting of National Union of Conservative and Con- 
stitutional Associations . . . 24 June, ,, 
National music meetings ; competition and concerts, 

27 June — 6 July, ,. 
Scottish southern gathering ; highland sports. 

25 July, ,, 
National cat show .... 26 — 29 Oct. ,, 

Bird show 22 Feb. 1873 

Grand commemoration of the opening of the palace; 

the Paxton memorial unveiled . . 10 June, „ 
Visits of the shah of Persia . 30 June, 3 July, ,, 
National music meetings . 3, 5, 8, 10, 12 July, ,, 
Resignation of Mr. (aft. sir) George Grove, many 
years secretary, announced Sept., succeeded by 
capt. (aft. major) Flood Page . . . Dec. ,, 
Visit of the czar . . . . . 16 May, 1874 
Handel festival ; successful . . 22, 24, 26 June, ,, 
Visit of the sultan of Zanzibar . . . 19 June, 1875 
National music meeting . . . i-ioJuly, ,, 

Visit of the king and queen of Greece and prince 

and princess of Wales . . . .19 July, 1876 
Great clock completed .... Nov. ,, 

Handel festival .... 25, 27, 29 June, 1877 
Handel festival ; successful . 21, 23, 25 June, 1880 

Great damage done by bursting of a water tank, no 

lives lost 30 Sept. „ 

International Woollen exhibition, opened by the 

duke of Connaught .... 2 June, 1881 

Handel festivals, 15, 18, 20, 22 June, 1883 ; 19, 22, 
24, 26 June, 1885 ; 22, 25, 27, 29 June, 1888 ; 19, 

22, 24 and 26 June, 1891 

London International Universal Exhibition opened 

by the lord mayor .... 23 April 1884 
Insolvency of the Company ; the chairman ap- 
pointed receiver Feb. 1887 

Jubilee fetes 22 June et seq. ,, 

Visit of the Shah of Persia .... 6 July, 1889 
Grand fete of the unionists of the metropolis ; Mr. 

Goschen, Mr. A. J. Balfour present 28 June, 1890 
International exhibition of mining and metallurgy 

28 July-n Oct. ,, 
Visit of the German emperor and empress ; review 

of the lire-brigade (see Germany) . n July J 1891 
Tonic Sol-fa jubilee largely attended . 18 July ,, 
Electrical exhibition opened . . .9 Jan. 1892 

See Handel Festivals. 



^ CTESIPHON (afterwards Al Madayn), on the 
Tigris, the splendid capital of Parthia, was taken by 
Trajan in 116; and by Septimius Severus (who 
made 100,000 captives), 198. Its defences deterred 
Julian from the siege, 363. It was taken by 
Omar and the Saracens, 637, and utterly destroyed, 
and Cufa near it built with the remains. 

CUBA (its original name), an island (W. 

Indies) discovered by Columbus on his first voyage, 

28 Oct. 1492, settled by Velasquez, 1511-12. 

Havannah, the capital, settled 1519. Population, 

1880, 1,521,684. 

The buccaneer Morgan rook the Havannah ; see 
Buccaneers 1669 

A British expedition lands and remains, 20 July — 

20 Nov. 1743 

The Havannah taken by admiral Pocoeke and lord 
Albemarle, 1762 ; restored at the peace of Paris, 

10 Feb. 1763. 

Cuba opened to the trade of the world . . . 1818 

'* Lone Star" society (which see), for the acquisition 
of Cuba, &c. formed 1848 

The president of the United States (Taylor) pub- 
lished a strong proclamation, denouncing the 
object of the invader's . . . 11 Aug. 1849; 

Exjiedition of general Lopez and a large body of 
Americans, with the view of wresting this island 
from the dominion of Spain, lauded at Cuba, (de- 
feated) 17 May, 1850 

Cuba again invaded by Lopez and others 13 Aug. 1851 

They are defeated and taken ; 50 shot, and Lopez 
garotted at Havannah . . . . 1 Sept. ,, 

The president of the United States again issued a 
proclamation against an intended expedition 
against Cuba . . . . 31 May, 1854 

Messrs. Buchanan, Mason, and Soule, United States 
envoys, met at Ostend and Aix-la-Chapelle, and 
reported, recommending the purchase of Cuba, 

Oct. „ 

The Spanish minister in cortes declared that the 
sale of Cuba would be " the sale of Spanish 
honour itself " 19 Dec. ,, 

Insurrection of Creoles, headed by Carlos Manuel de 
Cespedes, for expulsion of Spaniards after the 
revolution in Spain — Volunteer force raised to aid 
Lersundi, the governor. . . Sept. — Nov. 186S 

A filibusters' attack on Cuba repelled . 17 May, 1869. 

The United States decide not to recognise the in- 
surgents as belligerents .... June, 1870 

About 2000 lives lost by a hurricane, about 14 Oct. „ 

The captain-general De Rodas resigned, and left 
Cuba 15 Dec. ,, 

Insurrection subdued, but enduring ; the volunteers 
very insubordinate ; military despotism ; occa- 
sional reign of terror ; massacres . Jan. — Nov. 1871 

Don Gonzalo Castaiion murdered by Cubans ; his 
tomb desecrated by medical students, 25 Nov. ; 
eight tried and shot at Havannah . 27 Nov. ,, 

Mr. F. Delano sent by the United States government 
to report on the state of Cuba . . 9 Dec. 1872 

The merciless war still continues ; no quarter given, 

Dec. „ 

Suspended hostilities through the establishment of 
the Spanish republic .... Feb. 1873 

Much fighting reported ..... June, ,, 

The Virginias, American schooner, while conveying 
men and arms from New York to the insurgents 
in Cuba, is captured by the Spanish gun-boat 
Tornado, 31 Oct. ; conveyed to Cuba ; above 90 
insurgents and sailors (some British and Ameri- 
cans) tried ; many insurgents, and about 6 British 
and 30 Americans shot . . . 4-7 Nov. ,, 

After much correspondence the Vir gimius was sur- 
rendered to the Americans, 19 Dec. ; she foun- 
dered on her way to New York . about 26 Dec. ,, 

Bascones defeats the marquis Santa Lucia and 5000 
insurgents at Naranjo .... Feb. 1874. 

Gen. Martinez Campos appointed governor, with 
plenary powers Oct. 1876 

The struggle going on, but more subdued, summer 1877 

A "Cuban league" in the United States, said to be 
formed to obtain recognition of the insurgents 
as belligerents, &c. .... Sept. ,, 

Estrada, the Cuban president, said to l>t captured 

Oct. ,, 



CUBIT. 



266 



CUMULATIVE VOTE. 



Reported surrender of many insurgents 23, 24 Dee. 1877 
Surrender of the insurgent government ; end of 

the insurrection announced . . 21 Feb. 1878 
Amnesty declared, with freedom to slaves present- 
ing themselves before 31 March (slavery to be 
abolished gradually) .... March, ,, 
•Campos and Jovellar enter Havannah triumphantly 

14 June, „ 
Insurrection, state of siege ; amnesty promised, 

19 Sept. 1879 
Insurgents totally defeated at Placeta ; announced 

* 3 Dec ,, 

Uill for gradual emancipation of the slaves passed 
by the Spanish Senate, 21 Dec, 1879; by cham- 
bers of Deputies (230— ic, 21 Jan.) ; promulgated 

18 Feb. 1880 
"Cuba reported tranquil .... Sept. ,, 
Surrender of gen. Maceo and other insurgents to 
the Spaniards at Gibraltar (see Spain), Aug. and 

Dec. 1882, and March, 1883 
Aguerro calls on Cubans to revolt about 26 Sept. „ 
Unsuccessful American filibustering expeditions 

Spring, 1884 
■Gen. Aguerro at the head of forces in Cienfuegos 

April, ,, 
Some insurgents defeated . . about 23 April, ,, 
East vestige of slavery abolished by the queen's 

decree 6 Oct. 1886 

.Destructive cyclone, with great loss of life by in- 
undations, &c. ; about 1,000 lives lost . 4 Sept. 1888 
"The governor-general Salamanca dies, succeeded by 

Gen. Rodriguez Arias .... Feb. 1890 
-Cuba suffers much by the M'Kinley tariff bill, and 
appeals to the queen-regent for help . 7 Jan. 1891 

CUBIT, a measure by which the ark of Noah 
■was measured (2448 B.C.). It was the distance 
from a man's elbow to the extremity of the middle 
"finger. According to Arbuthnot, the Hebrew cubit 
was a little under 22 inches, the Koman cubit 17J 
inches, and the English cubit 18 inches. 

CUCKING-STOOL (or Ducking-stool), 

for shrews : one at Kingston-on-Thames was used 
in April, 1745 ; and another at Cambridge in 1780. 
Chambers. 

CUCUMBERS, noticed by Virgil and other 
ancient poets, were brought to England from the 
Netherlands about 1538. 

CUDDALORE (India), on the coast of the 
Carnatie, was acquired by the English in 1681. It 
was reduced by the French in 1 758, but recaptured 
in 1760 by sir Eyre Coote. Again lost in 1 781, it 
(underwent a destructive siege by the British under 
general Stuart, in 1783, which was continued until 
peace was signed, when it reverted to them, 1784. 

CUENCA, New Castile, Spain, 80 miles from 
Madrid, attacked by the Carlists 13 July, and 
captured 14 July, 1874. The garrison and the 
inhabitants were barbarously used. General Lopez 
Pinto rescued the prisoners, 19 July. 

CUIRASS, a part of Greek and Roman armour. 
The skins of beasts, and afterwards tanned leather, 
formed the cuirass of the Britons until the Anglo- 
Saxon era. It was afterwards made of iron and 
forass. The cuirass was worn by cavalry in the 
reign of Henry III. 1216 et seq. Napoleon had 
several regiments of cavalry wearing cuirasses ; and 
most European armies have picked corps of such. 

CULDEES, said to derive their name from 
4ultores Dei, worshippers of God, monks in Scotland 
and Ireland, who had their principal seat at St. 
Andrew's. It is said that in 1185 at Tipperary 
there was a Culdean abbey whose monks were "at- 
tached to simple truth and pure Christian worship, 
and bad not yet conformed to the reigning super- 
stition." They were eventually subjected to the 
papal yoke. 



CULLEN'S-WOOD (Ireland). An English 
colony from Bristol inhabiting Dublin, went to 
divert themselves at Cullen's-wood, when the 
O'Byrnes and O'Tooles fell upon them, and 
destroyed 500 men, besides women and children, 
30 March, 1209 (on Easter, afterwards called Black, 
Monday) . 

CULLODEN, near Inverness, where the Eng- 
lish, under William, duke of Cumberland, defeated 
the Scottish headed by the young Pretender, the 
last of the Stuarts, 16 April, 1746. The Scots lost 
2500 men in killed upon the field, or in the slaughter 
which occurred in the pursuit, while the loss of 
the English did not far exceed 200. Prince 
Charles, who wandered among the wilds of Scotland 
for six months, while 30,000^. were offered for 
taking him, at length escaped from TJist to Mor- 
laix, and died at Pome, 3 March, 1788. 

CULTURE, according to Mr. Matthew Arnold 
("The Apostle of Culture, 'sweetness and 
light,' and the opponent of Philistinism") ; is the 
knowledge of " the best that has been thought and 
said in the world " (1880). The writings of John 
Buskin and Matthew Arnold are said to have 
greatly promoted culture, and refinement in litera- 
ture and art among all classes in Great Britain. 
Cultur-Kampf, see Kultur-Kampf. 

CULVERIN, cannon so called from the French 
couleuvrine, said to have been introduced into 
England from a French model in 1534. It was 
originally five inches and a quarter diameter in the 
bore, and carried a ball of eighteen pounds. Bailey. 

CUMiE (S. Italy), a Greek colony, said to 
have been founded 1050 B.C., probably too early, 
and to have been the residence of the ancient Sibyl. 
It was taken by the Samnites 420 B.C., and was 
annexed by the Romans 338 B.C. 

CUMBERLAND, a N.W. county of England, 
was granted to Malcolm I. of Scotland in 945, 
by king Edmund, " on condition that he should be 
his fellow-worker." It was seized by William I., 
but restored to Malcolm III., "who became his 
man," 1072. William the Lion, after his defeat at 
Alnwick, resigned Cumberland to Henry II., and it 
was finally annexed to England in 1237. 

DUKES. 

1726. William Augustus, second son of George II., died 

13 Oct. 1765. 
1766. Henry Frederic, son of Frederic, prince of Wales, 

died 18 Sept. 1790. 
1799. Ernest Augustus, fifth son of George III. ; became 
king of Hanover, 20 June, 1837 : died 18 Nov. 
1851. 
1851. George V., the ex-king of Hanover ; died 12 June, 

1878. 
1878. Ernest Augustus, son ; born 21 Sept. 1845, married 
princess Thyra of Denmark. 21 Dec, 1878. Issue, 
George William, born 28 Oct. 1880, and five other 
children. 
A rescript from the emperor William II. was issued 12 
March, 1892, restoring the Guelph fund (the accumu- 
lated property of king George V.), which had been 
sequestrated in 2 March, 1868, to his son, the duke of 
Cumberland, on certain conditions, the duke having 
stated in a letter to the emperor, dated 10 March, 
"that he had no intention of engaging in any under- 
taking Which would threaten the peace of theGerman 
Empire." The Guelph Fund bill for making the 
necessary arrangements, was passed by the Prussian 
diet, 31 March-6 April, 1892. 

See Brunswick. 

CUMBERLAND, The, see Naval Battles, 
1S11. 

CUMULATIVE VOTE, in parliamentary 



CUNAXA. 



267 



CUSTOMS. 



elections, proposed by Mr. Robert Lowe,* 4 July, 
during the debates on the reform bill ; and rejected, 
5 July, 1867, by 314 to 173. By the act passed 15 
Aug. 1867 (30 & 31 Vict. c. 162), it v\as enacted 
that at a contested election for any county or 
borough represented by three members, no person 
shall vote for more than two candidates. The 
cumulative vote was used in 1he election of the 
London school board, 29 Nov. 1870. 

CUNAXA, in Mesopotamia, near the Euphrates, 
where Cyrus the younger was defeated and slain by 
his brother Artaxerxes II., against whom he had 
conspired (401 B.C.), narrated in Xenophon's 
Anabasis. His Greek auxiliaries were successful; 
see Retreat of the Greeks. 

CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS (from 
cuneus, Latin for a wedge), in characters resembling 
arrow-heads, inscribed on bricks or clay-tablets, 
found at Babylon, Behistun, &c, have lately been 
deciphered by English and foreign scholars, who 
date some of them as far back as 2000 B.C. See 
Assyria, Babylon, Behistun. 

CUNNERSDORF (in Prussia). On 12 Aug. 
1759, Frederick II. king of Prussia, with 50,000 
men, attacked the Austrian and Russian army of 
90,000 in their camp near this place, and at first 
gained considerable advantages ; but pursuing them 
too far, the Austrians and Russians rallied, and 
gained a complete victory. The Prussians lost 200 
pieces of cannon and 30,000 men in killed and 
wounded. 

CUPOLA SHIPS, see Navy of England, 1861. 

CUPPING-, a mode of blood-letting. The skin 
is scarified by lancets, and a glass cup in which the 
air has been rarified by heat, is immediately applied 
to it, when the blood usually flows into the cup. 
This operation was well known to the ancients, and 
is described by Hippocrates (413 B.C.) and Celsus 
(20 B.C.). It was common in England about 1820. 

CURACOA (correctly, Curasao), an island in 
the Caribbean sea, settled by the Spaniards about 
1527, was seized by the Dutch in 1634. In 1800 
the French, settled on part of this island, quarrelled 
with the Dutch, who surrendered it to a British 
frigate. It was restored to the Dutch in 1802; 
taken from them by the British in 1807, and again 
restored in 1814. 

CURATES were of early appointment as coad- 
jutors in the Romish church, and are mentioned in 
England in the 7th century. Among the acts 
passed for the relief of this laborious class of the 
clergy are the 12th Anne, 1713, and 36th, 53d, and 
58th Geo. III., and especially the beneficent act, 2 

will. IV. Oct. 183 1. It appeared by parliamentary 
reports on ecclesiastical revenues, that there were 
in 1831, 5230 curates in England and Wales, whose 
stipends amounted to 424,695/. The greatest num- 
ber of curates in one diocese was Lincoln, 629 ; and 
the smallest that of St. Asaph, 43. The Pastoral 
Aid Society was established in 1836; the Society 
for promoting the Employment of Additional 
Curates, in 1837 ; the Curates' Augmentation Fund, 

1866. The Curates' Alliance, a reforming body, 
issued its first annual report, Dec. 1882. 

CURFEW BELL (from the French couvrc 
feu), was revived or introduced in England by 

* " At any contested election for a county or borough 
represented by more than two members, and having 
more than one seat vacant, every voter shall be entitled 
to a number of votes equal to the number of vacant seats, 
and may give all such votes to one candidate, or may 
distribute them among the candidates as he thinks fit." 



"Will. I. 1068. On the ringing of the curfew at 
eight o'clock in the evening all fires and candles 
were to be extinguished under a severe penalty. 
Bapin. The curfew was modified 1 Hen. I. 1 100. 
The practice has been continued to the present time 
at Sandwich in Kent, and some other places (1891) . 

CURIATII, see Borne, 669 b.c 

CURLING, a Scotch national game with stones 
on the ice, said to have been introduced from the 
Low Countries in the 16th century. The Dudding- 
stone curling club was instituted 1795. The royal 
Caledonian curling club, founded in 1838, owns a 
large artificial pond at Strathallan, Perthshire. 

CURRAGH, see Kildare. 

CURRANTS, from Corinth, whence, probably, 
the tree was first brought to us about 1533. The 
name is also given to a small kind of dried grape, 
brought from the Levant and Zante. The duty 
on these currants (44s. \d. per cwt. in 1834) has 
been reduced to 7s. ; reduced to 2s. 17 April, 1890. 
The hawthorn currant (Bibes Oxyacanthoides) came 
from Canada in 1705. 

CURRENCY ACTS. See under Bank of 
England, 1797-1823, and Gold, 1816. Those of sir 
Robert Peel were passed in 1819 and in 1844. 
Royal commission appointed to inquire into the depre- 
ciation of silver, relative values of the precious metals, 
&c, Messrs. A. J. Balfour (chairman), (succeeded by 
lord Herschell), J. Chamberlain, L. Courtney, L. 
Cohen, W. H. Houldsworth, Sir John Lubbock, D. M. 
Barbour, J. W. Birch (Bank of England), Sir T. 
Farrer, C. W. Fremant'.e (deputy master of the mint) 
and J. R. Bullen Smith, about 7 Sept. 1886. 
In their final report, issued 6 Nov. 1888, the commis- 
sioners were found to be greatly divided in opinion 
respecting bi-metallism, a paper currency and other 
questions. 
Mr. H. Chap: in advocates his " thirty shilling " theory 
Jan. 1889. 

CURSITOR BARON. This office, formerly 
attached to the court of exchequer, was abolished in 
1856, on the death of the right hon. George Bankes. 
CURTATONE, near Mantua, N, Italy. Here 
the Austiians, under Radetzky, crossed the Mincio, 
and defeated the Italians after a severe conflict, 29 
May, 1848. 

CUSHEE PIECES, invented by Richard 
Leake, the master-gunner of the Boyal Prince man- 
of-war, renowned for bravery shown in the engage- 
ment with the Dutch admiral Van Tromp, in 1673. 
CUSTOM is a law not written {lex non scripta), 
established by long usage and consent, and is dis- 
tinguished from lex scripta, or the written law. It 
is the rule of law when it is derived from 1 189 
downwards. Sixty years' custom is binding in the 
civil law, and forty years' in ecclesiastical cases. 

CUSTOMS were collected upon merchandise in 
England, under Ethelred II. in 979. The king's 
claim to them by grant of parliament was estab- 
lished 3 Edw. I. 1274. The customs were farmed 
to sir Thomas Smith for annual sums varying from 
14,000/. to 50,000/. in the reign of Elizabeth. Stow, 
They were farmed by Charles II. for 390,000/. in 
1666. Bavcnant. In 1671 commissioners were 
appointed. The customs were consolidated by Mr. 
Pitt in 1787. Between 1820 and 1830 so many 
reductions and consolidations were made in the 
cu-toms department, that above a quarter of a 
million was saved in salaries, though the work had 
enormously increased. — Acts consolidating the cus- 
toms duties were passed in 1853, 1854, and i860, 
whereby the number of articles in the tariff and the 
amount of the customs were greatly reduced. Many 
changes have been made since; by the Customs 



CUSTOMS PAELIAMENT. 



268 



CYMBAL. 



Customs 


in year ending 


31 


March. 


1872 


20,225,892 


1873 . 


20,976,236 


1874 . 


20,323,325 


1875 - 


19.349.280 


1876 


20,196,691 


1877 . 


19,896,386 


1878 


20,043,180 


1879 . 


20,348,064 


1880 


19,169,605 


1881 . 


19,210,466 


1882 


19,275,668 


1883 . 


19,682,671 


1884 


19.653,352 


7885 . 


20,557,819 


1886 . . 


19,722,302 


1887 . 


20,135,855 


1888 . . 


19.579.476 


1889 . 


20, 06,, 000 


1890 


20,424,000 


1S91 . 


19,480,000 


1892 


19,736,000 


ck of wool 


yl. ; a last 



Act of 1890, the laws were amended and the duties 

modified; see Revenue, The disqualification of 

custom-house officers and officers of excise from 

voting for the election of members of parliament 

in 1782, was removed in 1867-8. 

The laws respecting the customs were amended by 

an act passed 21 Aug. 187 1, and consolidated 

by acts passed, 24 July, 1876 ; amended, . 1887 

Customs in 

1580 . . . £14,000 

1592 . . . 50,000 

1614 . . . 148,000 

1622 . . . 168,000 

1642 . . . 500,000 

1684 • ■ • 530,000 

1720 . . . 1,555,600 

1748 . . . 2,000,000 

1808 . . . 9,973,240 

1823 . . 11,498,762 

1830 . . 17,540,323 

1835 . . 18,612,906 

1840 . . 19,915,296 

1845 . . 20,196,856 

1850 . . 20,442,170 

1855 • ■ 21,630,081 

i860 . . 24,391,084 

1864 . . 23,234,356 

1867 . . 22,299,306 

1869 . . 22,434,737 

1870 . . 21,449,843 

1871 . . . 20,238,880 
The customs in Ireland, a s 

of hides, 6d. ; a barrel of wine, 2d. . . . 1224 
The Customs business of Ireland was transferred to 

the London board 6 Jan. 1830 

Custom-house. A custom-house was erected in 
London on a large scale, 1304 ; and a yet larger in 
1559 ; burnt down in 1666 ; a new one, built by 
Charles II., burnt down in 1718, again rebuilt; 
and once more burnt down, and immense property 
and valuable records destroyed . . 12 Feb. 1814 
The present edifice opened . . .12 May, 1817 
Dublin Custom-house commenced in 1781 ; opened 
in 1791. The eastern wing of its warehouse was 
destroyed by fire, with property to the amount 
of4oo,oooL ...... 9 Aug. 1833 

International conference on customs tariffs ac 
Brussels 1-5 July, 1890 

CUSTOMS PAELIAMENT, see Zollverein. 

CUSTOS EOTULOEUM, keeper of the 
rolls or records of the sessions of the peace, pre- 
viously nominated by the lord chancellor, was in 
1545 directed to be appointed by a bill signed by the 
king. The act was confirmed in 1689. 

CUSTOZZA, near Verona, N. Italy. Here the 
Italians were defeated by marshal Kadetzky, 23 
July, 1848 ; and here they were again defeated, 24 
June, 1866, after a series of desperate attacks on the 
Austrian army. The Italians were commanded by 
their king, Victor Emmanuel, and the Austrians by 
the archduke Albrecht. The Italian loss was com- 
puted to be 720 killed, 31 12 wounded, and 4315 
missing; the Austrian loss, 960 killed, 3690 
wounded, and nearly a thousand prisoners. The 
Italians soon recrossed the Mincio. 

CUTCH (Kachh), W. India, a principality 
under the government of Bombay. In consequence 
of the depredations of the natives, the East India 
government resorted to hostile measures, which 
resulted in a stringent treaty with the rao in Jan. 
1816. In 1819 he was deposed for misgovernment, 
and replaced by his infant son, supported by a 
British contingent. The traffic in children, detected 
in Dec. 1835, was suppressed by the British. Many 
persons perished by an earthquake in July, i8ig. 
Thornton. 

Cullers' Feast, see 



CUTLEEY, see Steel. 
Sheffield, 1889. 



CUTTACK (Katak), E. India, a British pro- 
vince ceded to theE. 1. company in 1803. Cuttack, 
the capital, was taken by col. riarcouit, 14 Oct. 
same year. The Mahrattas conquered it in 1750. 
Thorn ton. 

CUTTING-OUT MACHINES. Wearing 
apparel was first cut out by machinery in England 
by Messrs. Hyams in 1853. The machine, invented 
by Mr. Frederick Osbourn, consists of a recipro- 
cating vertical knife working through a slot in the 
table that supports the pile of cloth to be cut. The 
cloth being pressed up to the edge of the knife by 
the attendant, the knife will sever it in the direction 
of the lines marked on the upper layer. 

CUZCO, capital of Peru, was entered by Pizarre 
in Nov. 1533, and taken by him in Aug. 1536, after 
five months' siege. 

CYANOGEN, a colourless gas (composed of 
nitrogen and carbon), irritating to the nose and 
eyes, derived from Prussian blue, was first obtained 
in the free state by Gay Lussac in 1815, being the 
first instance of the isolation of a compound radical. 

CYCLE of the sun, a period of twenty-eight 
yeais, which having elapsed, the dominical or 
bunday letters return to their former place, and 
proceed in the former order according to the Julian 
Calendar ; that of the moon is nineteen lunar yeais 
and seven intercalary months, or nineteen solar 
years. The cycle of Jupiter is sixty yeais. The 
Pasctial cycle, or the time of keeping Easter, was first 
calculated for the period of 532 years by Victorius, 
463. Blair. See Metouic Cycle, Calippic Period. 

CYCLE, see Velocipede. 

CYCLONE PULVEEIZEE, an apparatus 
invented by Messrs. Baymond, Bros., of America, 
in imitation of the violent action of air in cyclones, 
for pulverizing various substances. It is said to 
have been successfully applied in crushing gold 
quartz. Exhibited in London in May 1888. 

CYCLONES, circular whirlwinds, or hur- 
ricanes, common in the East and West Indian and 
Chinese seas, varying fiom 200 to 500 miles in 
diameter. Many details respecting them will be 
found in Reid's "Law of Storms," published 1838. 

Great cyclone in India ; see Calcutta . 5 Oct. 1864 

Captain Watson, of the Clarence, observing the 
barometer falling, and foretelling the approach of 
the cyclone, saved his ship by steering out of its 
range „ 

Great cyclone in the Bahamas, at Nassau, New 
Providence, above 600 houses and many churches 
and other buildings thrown down ; between 60 
and 70 persons killed, and a great many ships dis- 
mantled 1,2 Oct. 1866 

A cyclone desolated Antigua, St. Kitts, and other 
isles ; religious and manufacturing buildings de- 
stroyed, and thousands made homeless, 21 Aug. 1871 

Destructive cyclone near Madras ; ships lost, 1 May, 1872 

Destructive cyclone, S. E. Bengal ; Calcutta barely 
escapjed ; about 215,000 persons perished, 31 Oct. 1876 

Destructive cyclone near Aden, about 50,000?. 
damages reported ; ships sunk, &c, . 3 June, 1885 

Destructive cyclone at Calcutta . 23 May et seq. 1887 
See Virgin Isles, Storms, %cMch see, Bengal, 
Madrid, 1886 et seq. 

CYCLOPAEDIA, see Enctjclopadia. 

CYCLOPEAN MASONEY, a term given 
to very ancient buildings in Greece, Italy, and Asia 
Minor, probably the work of the Pelasgi, more than 

1000 B.C. 

CYDEE, see Cider. 

CYMBAL, the oldest known musical instru- 
ment, made of brass. Xenophon says the cymbal 
was invented by Cybele, and used in her feasts 
about 1580 B.C. Cymbals were used by the ancient 



CYMMRODORION SOCIETY. 



269 



CZECHS. 



Egyptians, Assyrians, Hebrews and other nations, 
2 Sam. vi. 5, B.C. 1047. 

CYMMRODORION SOCIETY was estab- 
lished in Sept., 1 75 r, to instruct the ignorant and 
relieve distressed Welsh. It was suspended in 
1781, and revived 24 June, 1820, for literary pur- 
poses. The society was re-established in 1877 f° r 
promotion of literature and the arts in Wales. 

CYMRI or KYMRI (hence Cambria), the great 
Celtic family to which the Britons belonged, and 
which came from Asia and occupied a large part of 
Europe about 1500 B.C. About a.d 640 Dyvnwal 
Moelmud reigned " King oj 'the Cymry ;" see Wales. 

CYNICS, a sect of philosophers founded by 
Antisthenes (about 396 B.C., Dioy. Laert., Clinton). 
who professed to contemn all worldly things, even 
sciences, except morality ; and lived in public with 
little shame. Diogenes, the eminent cynic, died 

323 B.C. 

CYNOSCEPHAL^E {dogs' heads, so named 
from the shape of the heights), in Thessaly, w r here 
Pelopidas and the Thebans defeated Alexander 
tyrant of Pherse and the Thessalians, 364 B.C. 
Pelopidas was slain. Here also the consul Flami- 
nius totally defeated Philip V. of Macedon, 197 B.C., 
and ended the war. 

CYPRESS, Capressus sempervirens, a tree 
found in the isle of Cyprus. The Athenians buried 
heroes in coffins made of this wood, of which 
Egyptian mummy-chests were also fabricated. The 
ancients planted it in cemeteries. The cypress was 
brought to England about 1441. The deciduous 
cypress, C. disticha, came from North America before 
1640. 

CYPRUS, a large island in the Mediterranean, 
near the coasts of Asia Minor and Syria ; present 
capital, Levkosia or Nikosia ; sea-ports, Larnaka and 
Famagosta. Here the ancients found copper (ces 
Cyprium), silver, and precious stones. The country 
was fertile, and abounded with trees in ancient 
times ; and under Venice its commerce was im- 
portant. Population in 1881, 186,173; 1891, 
209,291. 

Tlie Phoenician colonists introduced the worship of 
Ashtaroth (the Greek Astarte or Aphrodite, the 

Roman Venus) 

Conquered by Amasis, king of Egypt ; revolted at 
the invasion of Cambyses, and submitted to 

Persia B.C. 525 

Revolted, and subjected .... 500-499 

Partly independent under Bvagoras and Nicocles, 

kings of Salamis 387 et seq. 

Supported Alexander the Great .... 333 
T iken from Demetrius by Ptolemy of Egypt . . 295 

Became a Roman province 58 

Visited by Paul and Barnabas (Acts xiii.) . a.d. 45 

Great revolt of the Jews 117 

Seized by the Arabs, 646 ; recovered by Greeks . 648 

Isaac Comnenus, king 1184 

Seized by Richard I. of England, 1191 ; given by 

him to Guy de Lusignan, as king . . . 1192 

** Order of Jie Sword" established (ceased with 8th 

king) . .... 1195 

Guy's descendant, Catherine de Cornaro, sold it to 

Venice 1487 

Cyprus conquered by the Turks with great barbarity 1570-1 
Insurrections suppressed, 1764 ; with massacre . 1S23 
General di Cesnola, a Genoese, the American con- 
sul, by excavations, discovers many Babylonian, 
Egyptian, Phosnician, and Greek gold and silver 
ornaments, and other relics (sold to the New 

York museum) 1866 et seq. 

His work, "Cyprus: its Ancient Cities, Tombs, 

and Temples," published in London . Dec. 1877 
The island given up to Great Britain for administra- 
tion by the Anglo-Turkish convention 4 June, 1878 
Possession taken by admiral lord John Hay, i-> 
July: by sir Garnet J. Wolseley, as lord high 
commissioner 22 July, „ 



Much sickness, with deaths, reported Aug. — Sept. 1878 
Orders for the government by a lord high commis- 
sioner, given at court .... 14 Sept. „ 
Sir G. J. Wolseley's decree for compulsory labour 

on public works, dated .... 16 Dec. ,, 
He is sent to S. Africa ; succeeded by sir Robert 

Biddulph June, 1879 

The British buy the Government lands, except the 

Sultan's estates, early in ..... ,, 
Increased general prosperity reported (in Blue 

Book) Aug. 1880 

Sir R. Biddulph reports that the British govern- 
ment is popular, but the finances depressed, 
Aug. ; 78,000/. voted for Cyprus . . 28 Aug. 1881 
New pier at Limasol opened by Sir R. Biddulph 

6 Oct. „ 
New constitution announced . . 24 March, 1882 
Elective legislative council opened by sir R. Bid- 
dulph July, 1883 

Long continued destructive ravages of locusts, 
greatly checked by the skill and energy of Mr. S. 

Brown, reported Sept. 1884 

Sir R. Biddulph reports great prosperity and in- 
creased revenue (194, 051/., expenditure 111,685/.). 
General health good ... 31 March, ,, 

Sir H. E. Bulwer nominated as high commissioner, 

Aug. 1885 ; arrived . . 9 March, 1886 

Cyprus Society, London, formed for the establish- 
ment of a hospital at Kyrenia and other objects, 

June, 1888 
Archaeological excavations ; discoveries on the site 
of the temple of Aphrodite, inscriptions, &c. ; 

reported Sept. „ 

Long drought in 1887-8 ; bad harvest, great dis- 
tress, relieved by government . ' . July, 1889 
Ail excellent harvest, prosperity increasing, and re- 
duced taxation, reported by sir R. Biddulph 

18 Dec. ,, 
Sir Walter Sendall appointed high commissioner . 

Feb 1892 
CYR, St., near Versailles. Here a college for 
ladies was founded by madame De Maintenon in 
1686, and here she died, 15 April, 1719. It was 
made a military college in 1803 ; suppressed in 1886. 
CYRENAIC SECT, founded by Aristippus 
the Elder, 365 B.C. They taught that the supreme 
good of man is pleasure, particularly that of the 
senses; and that even virtue ought to be com- 
mended only because it gave pleasure. 

CYRENE (N. W. Africa), a Greek colony, 
founded by Battus about 630 B.C. Aristaeus, who 
was chief of the colonists here, gave the city his 
mother's name. It was also called Pentapolis, on 
account of its five towns ; namely, Cyrene, Ptole- 
mais, Berenice, Apollonia, and Arsinoe. It was 
conquered by Ptolemy Soter I., who placed many 
Jews here (286 B.C.). Cyrene was left by Ptolemy 
Apion to the Romans, 96 B.C. It is now a desert. 
Some Cyrenaic sculptures were placed in the 
British Museum in Jul}-, 1861. 
CYROPEDIUM, see Corns. 
CYZICUS (Asia Minor). In the Peloponnesian 
war, the Lacedaemonian fleet under the command 
of Mindarus, assisted by Pharnabazus, the Persian, 
was encountered by the Athenians under Alcibiades, 
and defeated with great slaughter, near Cyzicus; 
Mindarus being slain : 410 B.C. Plutarch. 

CZAR, more properly tsar or tzar, the title of 
the emperor of Russia, probably derived from Caesar, 
a title said to have been assumed by Ivan Basi- 
lowitz after defeating the Tartars, about 1482. 
The empress is termed czarina, and the eldest son 
czare witch. 

CZECHS, the most westerly branch of the 
Slavic family of nations, which about 4 So migrated 
to Bohemia and Moravia (which sec). The an- 
tagonism between the Germans and Czechs is milder 
in Moravia than iii Bohemia. Their representa- 
tives entered the rcichsrath at Vienna, 8 Oct., 1879. 



D. 



DACCA. 

DACCA, N. E. India, a province acquired by 
the East India Company in 1765, and ruled under 
them by a Nawab till its annexation in 1845. 
Thornton. 

DACIA, a Roman province (included Temeswar 
and parts of Hungary, Transylvania, Wallachia, 
Moldavia, and Galicia), after many contests, was 
subdued by Trajan, 106, when Decebalus, the 
Dacian leader, was killed. Dacia was abandoned 
to the Goths by Aurelian, in 270 ; subdued by the 
Huns, 376; by Scythians, 566; by Charlemagne, 
and by the Magyars, in the 9th century. 

DACOITS, hereditary robbers of North India, 
formerly employed in war by native sovereigns. 

It is stated that between 1818 and 1834, one tribe alone, 
in 118 "dacoitees," or expeditions, killed 172 persons, 
and obtained plunder valued at 115,000?. In 1838 lord 
Auckland did much to suppress the dacoits, and many 
•settlements were broken up, but they are not quite 
extinct in Bengal and Burmah. Several dacoitees were 
suppressed in 1879. See Burmah. 

DAFOITR, see Soudan, 1884. 

DAGHESTAN (a mountain country S. W. 
Asia), was conquered by the czar Peter, 1723 ; re- 
stored to Persia, 1735 ; re-annexed to Russia by 
Alexander I., 1813. 

DAGUERREOTYPE PROCESS, invented 
by Daguerre, and published 1838 ; see Photo- 
graphy. 

DAHLIA, a flower discovered in Mexico by 
Vincent Cervantes in 1784, and brought to Europe 
about 1787, and cultivated by the Swedish botanist, 
Dahl. About 1814 it was introduced into France 
and England ; Andre Thouine suggested improve- 
ments in its culture, and it soon became a favourite. 
Georgi introduced it at St. Petersburg ; hence it is 
known in Germany as the Georgina. 

DAHOMEY, a negro kingdom, West Africa, 
became known to Europeans early in the last 
century, when Trudo Andati or Guadjor Trudo, a 
man of energy and talent, was king. He died in 
1 732, and was succeeded by a series of cruel tyrants, 
a large part of whose revenue was derived from the 
slave°trade. Abbeokuta, a robbers' haunt in 1825, 
has, since 1829, become a strong- walled town, inha- 
bited by free blacks ; and was consequently opposed 
by the king of Dahomey. His army has been 
severely defeated in its attacks on this place, and 
in one on 16 March, 1864, a great number of his 
Amazons (female celebates) were slain. During 
the last few years Dahomey has been visited by 
captain Burton and other travellers, who have 
described the royal sanguinary customs. Capital of 
Dahomey, Abomey. 
Trade opened with Dahomey and settlements 

made by M. Regis, of Marseilles . . . 1840-50 
The king ordered to pay a fine (for an outrage on 

Mr Tumbull at Whydali, 23 Jan.) . March, 1876 
He refuses in insulting terms, April; the coast about 

to be blockaded July, „ 

The king threatens massacre of Europeans if at- 

tlCk-GCL „•■••• "-^S* it 

Hemakes concessions ; blockade removed 12 May, 1877 



DAKOTA. 

Renewed massacres of natives (" customs ") and 
outrages on foreigners at Whydah ; reported 

26 Sept. 1878 
The king attacks Lagos, kills many and takes about 

1000 prisoners 10 May, 188s 

Dahomey placed under the prote iterate of Portu- 
gal at the request of the king . . 7 Oct. „ 
The Dahomey troops repulsed in an attack upon 
the French settlements at Zebo, on Lake Den- „ 
ham, by commandant Ferrillon, 100 killed . 

reported 24 Feb. 1890 
The king after losing about 1,000, retires with his 

army reported 12 March ,, 

Porto Novo and Kotonou well held by the French *, 

5 April ,, 
The Dahomey coast blockaded by the French 

from 4 April ,, 
The French repulsed in a conflict with the king 

reported 22 April ,, 
The king's army near Porto Novo ; French reinforce- 
ments from Senegal landed, April ; his troops re- 
treat after an engagement with severe loss 23April ,, 
The king in a letter to president Carnot justifies 
his retention of French merchants at Whydah for 
meddling with politics . received about 28 April ,, 
Whydah bombarded by the French vessel Kerguelin 
29, 30 April ; Commander Fournier demands the 
surrender of 13 Frenchmen, in prison since Feb., 
3 May; they are surrendered, and Dahomeyan 

prisoners released 5 May ,, 

The new king Behanzin installed ; he writes to 

president Carnot desiring a just peace . 12 May ,, 
Peace with France concluded . reported 6 Oct. ,, 
The king's continued aggressions and threats lead 
' to war, April ; the French chamber votes 3,000,000 
francs for an expedition to protect Porto Novo 
and Kotonou, and avenge injuries . . n April, 1892 
French reinforcements from Senegal arrive at 

Kotonou 20 April, ,, 

Porto Novo and Kotonou besieged, reported 23 May, ,, 

DAHRA (Algeria). On 18 June, 1845, above 
500 Kabyles at war with the French were suffo- 
cated in a cave, a fire having been kindled by order 
of general Pelissier, afterwards duke of Malakoff. 
They had fired on a messenger bearing an offer of 
a truce. The massacre was condemned by marshal 
Soult, but justified by marshal Bugeaud. 

DAILY NEWS, liberal commercial news- 
paper, now id., established 21 Jan. 1846. In the 
number for 23 June. 1876, the letter from a 
correspondent at Constantinople first drew attention 
to the atrocities in Bulgaria. The first Bulgarian 
parliament expressed its gratitude for this, 4 April, 
i879- 

DAILY TELEGRAPH, penny paper, liberal, 
established 29 June, 1855. It became a conservative 
paper, 1876, but is often independent. 

DAIRY FARMERS' ASSOCIATION", 

British, established 24 Oct. 1876. No. 1 of a 
journal published Sept. 1877. Dairy Shows, 
exhibitions at Agricultural Hall, 1S77 and following; 
years. 

The establishment of dairy schools in Great Britain 
recommended by the Departmental Committee ; 
these having produced successful results in 
France, Germany, and Denmark ; and many have 
been established 188S 

DAKOTA (North America), organised as a 
territorv of the United States, 2 March, 1861. 



DALECAELIANS. 



271 



DANE-GELD. 



Capital Yankton. North and South Dakota were 

made States in 1889. 

About 100,000 persons destitute in North Dakota 
through failure of the crops . . .30 Oct. 1889 

The Sioux reserves in S. Dakota, about 9,000,000 
acres, opened to settlers by proclamation ; imme- 
diately occupied Feb. 1890 

For the rising of the Sioux, see Indians; 1890-91. 

President Harrison proclaims the opening of 
1,600,000 acres in the Fort Berthold Indian Re- 
servation, North Dakota . . .21 May, 1891 

Population, 1890 : N. Dakota, 182,719 ; S. Dakota, 328,808. 

DALECAELIANS (Sweden), revolted against 
Christian of Denmark, 1521, and placed Gustavus 
Vasa on the throne of Sweden. 

DALMATIA, an Austrian province, N. E. of 
the Adriatic Sea, conquered and made a province 
by the Eomans, 34 B.C. The emperor Diocletian 
erected his palace at Spalato (erroneously written 
Spalatro), and retired there, a.d. 305. Dalmatia was 
held in turns by the Goths, Hungarians, and Turks, 
till its cession to Venice in 1699. By the treaty of 
Campo Formio in 1797 it was given to Austria, but in 
1805 it was incorporated with Italy, and gave the title 
of duke to marshal Soult. In 1814 it reverted to 
Austria. An insurrection opposed to the new mili- 
tary law broke out at Bocche di Cattaro, and a con- 
flict with the troops at Dragali took place, 10 Oct. 
1869. Several regiments were sent there, but the 
insurgents obtained several successes during the 
month. A deputation offered submission, 2 Nov., 
and the operations against them were suspended 
about the end of the month. Population, 1890, 
527,426. 

DALTONISM, see Colour, note. 

DAMAEALAND (S.W. Africa), a territory 
rich in minerals and pasture, occupied by German 
settlers and missionaries since 1840. See Africa, 
1885-91. The native population is estimated at 
8o,ooo. 

DAMASCUS (Syria), a city in the time of 
Abraham ; 1913 B.C. (Gen. xiv.), now the capital 
of a Turkish pachalic. Population, 1885, 150,000. 

Taken by David (1040 b.c.), but retaken shortly 
after ; made the capital of Syria under Benhadad 

and his successors b.c. 930 

Recovered by Jeroboam II. about 822 

Taken by Tiglath-Pileser. king of Assyria . . 740 
From the Assyrians it passed to the Persians, and 
from them to the Greeks, under Alexander . 333 

To the Romans about 64 

Paul, converted, preaches here (Acts ix.) . . a.d. 35 
Taken by the Saracens, 633 ; by the Turks in 1075 
destroyed by Tamerlane .... Jan. 1401 

Taken by Ibrahim Pacha 1832 

The disappearance of a Greek priest, named father 
Tommaso, from here, 1 Feb. 1840, led to the 
torture of a number of Jews, suspected of his mur- 
der, and to a cruel persecution of that people, 
which caused remonstrances from many states of 

Europe 1840 

Damascus restored to Turkey 1841 

In consequence of a dispute between the Druses 
and Maronites, the Mahommedans massacred 
above 3000 Christians and destroyed the houses, 
rendering vast numbers of persons homeless and 
destitute ; a large number were rescued by Abd- 
el-Kader, who held the citadel . 9, 10, 11 July, i860 
Justice executed for these crimes by Fuad Pacha : 
160 persons executed, including the Turkish gover- N 
nor ; and 11,000 persons made soldiers, Aug. -Sept. „ 

DAMASK LINENS and SILKS, first manu- 
factured at Damascus, have been beautifully imi- 
tated by the Dutch and Flemish. The manufacture 
was brought to England by artisans who fled from 
the persecutions of Alva, 1571-3. The Damask 
Rose was brought here from the south of Europe 



by Dr. Linacre, physician to Henry VIII., about 
1540, 

DAMIENS' ATTEMPT. Louis XV. of 
France was stabbed with a knife in the right side- 
by Damiens, a native of Arras, 5 Jan. 1757. The 
culprit endured the most excruciating tortures, and 
was then broken on the wheel, 28 March. 

DAMIETTA (Lower Egypt), was taken by 
the crusaders, 5 Nov. 1219; lost 1221 ; retaken by 
Louis IX., 5 June, 1249; surrendered as his ran- 
som when a prisoner, 6 May, 1250. The present town, 
was built soon after. See Egypt, Sept. 1882. Popu- 
lation, 1888, 34,044. 

DAMON AND PYTHIAS (or Phintias)^ 
Pythagorean philosophers. Damon was con- 
demned to death by the tyrant Dionysius of Syra- 
cuse, about 387 b.c. He obtained leave to go and 
settle some domestic affairs, promising to return at 
the appointed time of execution, and Pythias be- 
came his surety. When Damon did not appear, 
Pythias surrendered, and was led to execution ; but 
at this critical moment Damon returned. Diony- 
sius remitted the sentence, and desired to share- 
their friendship. 

_ DANAI : an ancient name of the Greeks de- 
rived from Danaus, king of Argos, 1474 B.C. 

DANCE OF DEATH. The triumph of death 
over all ranks of men was a favourite subject with 
the artists of the middle ages, and appears in rude- 
carvings and pictures in various countries. 
The Chorea Machabceorum or Dansc Macabre, the 
first printed representation, published by Guyot 
Marchand, a bookseller of Paris . . . . 1485 
Holbein's Dance of Death (concerning the author- 
ship of which there has been much controversy), 
printed at Lyons in 1538, and at Basil . . . 1594. 
Many editions have since appeared ; one with an 
introduction and notes published by Mr. Russell 

Smith l84g> . 

The term Dance of Death was also applied to the 
frenzied movements of the Flagellants, who had 
sometimes skeletons depicted on their clothing, 
about the end of the 14th century. 
Dancing mania, accompanied by aberration of 
mind and distortions of the body, was very- 
prevalent in Germany in 1374, and in the 16th 
century in Italy, where it was termed Tarantism r 
and erroneously supposed to be caused by the 
bite of the Tarantula spider. The music and 
songs employed for its cure are still preserved. 

DANCING was practised by the Curetes, 15^ 
B.C. Eusebius. The Greeks combined the dance; 
with their dramas, and pantomimic dances were 
introduced on the Roman stage, 22 B.c. Usher. 
Dancing by cinque paces was introduced into Eng- 
land from Italy, a.d. 1541. In modern times the- 
French introduc'ed ballets analogues in their musical 
dramas. The country dance (contrc-clanse) is of 
French origin, but its date is not precisely known. 
Spelman. See Morice Dance, Quadrille, anc£ 
Waltz. 

Establishment of a national training school for 
dancing, by Mr. Mapleson ; second annual dis- 
tribution of prizes, &c. . . . 21 Sept. 187S 

DANE-GELD, or DANEGELT, a tribute paid 
to the Danes to stop their ravages in England ; 
first raised by Ethelred II. in 991, and again in 
1003 ; and levied after the expulsion of the Danes 
to pay fleets for clearing the seas of them. The 
tax was suppressed by Edward tin- Confessor in 
1051 ; revived by William I. 1068; and formed 
part of the revenue of the crown, until abolished 
by Stephen, 1136. Every hide of land, i.e. as much 
as one plough could plough, or as licde says, 



DANES. 



272 DANUBIAN PRINCIPALITIES. 



much as could maintain a family, was taxed at first 
is., afterwards as much as 7*. Camden says that 
•once 24,360/. was raised. 

DANES, or NORTHMEN ; see Denmark. 
During their attacks upon Britain and Ireland 
they made a descent on France, where, in 895, 
under Hollo, they received presents under the walls 
of Paris. They returned and ravaged the French 
territories as far as Ostend in 896. They attacked 
Italy in 903. Neustria was granted by the king of 
France to Hollo and his Normans (North-men), 
hence Normandy, in 911. The invasions of Eng- 
land and Ireland were as follows: — 
First hostile appearance of the Danes . . . 783 

They land near Purbeck, Dorset 787 

Descend in Northumberland : destroy the church 
at Lindisfarne ; are repelled, and perish by ship- 
wreck 8 Jan. 794 

They invade Scotland and Ireland . . 795, 796 

They enter Dublin with a fleet of 60 sail, and pos- 
sess themselves of Dublin, Fingal, &c. . . 798 

They take the Isle of Sheppey 832 

Defeated at Hengeston, in Cornwall, by Egbert . 835 
They land in Kent from 350 vessels, and take Can- 
terbury and London 851 

They descend on the north, and take York . . 867 
They defeat the Saxons at Merton . . . . 871 
They take Wareham and Exeter .... 876 
They take Chippenham : but 120 of their ships are 

wrecked 877 

Defeated : Guthrum, their leader, becomes Chris- 
tian, and many settle in England .... 878 
Alfred enters into a treaty with them . . . . 882 
Their fleet destroyed by Alfred at Appledore . . 894 

Defeated near Isle of Wight 897 

They invade and waste Wales 900 

Defeated by Edward the Elder 922 

They defeat the people of Leinster .... 956 
Ravage Cornwall, Devon, and Dorset . . . . 985 

And ravage Essex and Suffolk 990 

Said to assume the title lord dane about . . . 991 
Their fleet defeated after a breach of treaty, pur- 
chased by money 992 

Anlaf and Sweyn ravage Kent and the south (erro- 
neously said to have been paid i6,oooZ. for peace) 994 
A general massacre of the Danes, by order of 

Ethelred II. 13 Nov. 1002 

Sweyn revenges it, and receives 36,000^. (as an 

annual tribute) to depart 1003 

Their fleet anchors at Isle of Wight .... 1006 
They make fresh inroads, and defeat the Saxons in 
Suffolk, 1010 ; sack Canterbury, and kill the in- 
habitants, ion ; receive 48,000^. as tribute, and 

murder Alphege, archbishop 1012 

Vanquished at Clontarf, Ireland (see Clontarf) . 1014 
Conquest of England completed ; Canute king . . 1017 

They settle in Scotland 1020 

They land again at Sandwich, carrying off much 
plunder to Flanders ....... 1047 

Defeated by Harold II. at Stamford-bridge, 25 Sept. 1066 
They burn York, and kill 3000 Normans . . . 1069 
Once more invade England to aid a conspiracy ; 
but compelled to depart 1074 

DANGEROUS ASSOCIATIONS (IRE- 
LAND) BILL ; see Roman Catholic Association. 

DANGEROUS GOODS : act regulating 
their deposit and carriage passed 6 Aug. 1866. 

DANGEROUS PERFORMANCES, see 
Children. 

D ANNE WERKE, or Dannawirke, a series 
-of earthworks, considered almost impregnable, 
stretching across the long narrow peninsula of 
Schleswig, Holstein, and Jutland — said to have 
been constructed during the " stone age," long-before 
the art of metal-working. It was rebuilt in 937 
by Thyra, queen of Gormo the Old, for which she 
was named "Dannabod," the pride of the Danes. 
It was repaired by Olaf Tryggveson between 995 
and 1000. Near here the Prussians, helping the 



duchies, defeated the Danes, 23 April, 1848. The 
retreat of the Danes from it, 5 Feb. 1864, occa- 
sioned much dissatisfaction at Copenhagen. 

DANTE'S DIVINA COMMEDIA was 

first printed in 1472. He was born 14 May, 1265, 
died at Ravenna, 14 Sept, 1321. A festival in his 
honour, at Florence, was opened by the king, 14 
May, 1865, when a large statue of Dante by Pazzi 
of Ravenna was uncovered. 

DANTZIC (N. German}'), a commercial city in 
997 ; according to some authorities, built by 
Waldemar I. in 1165. Poland obtained the 
sovereignty of it in 1454. It was seized by the 
king of Prussia, and annexed in 1793. It sur- 
rendered to the French, May, 1807 ; and by the 
treaty of Tilsitwas restored to independence, under 
the protection of Prussia and Saxony, July, 1807. 
Dantzic was besieged by the allies in 1812 ; and 
surrendered 1 Jan. 1814. By the treaty of Paris it 
reverted to the king of Prussia. By the Vistula 
breaking through its dykes, 10,000 head of cattle 
and 4000 houses were destroyed, and many lives 
lost, 9 April, 1829. Population, 1890, 120,459. 

DANUBE (German, Donau; anciently Ister 
and Danuvius), the largest river in Europe, except 
the Wolga, rises in the Black Forest and falls into 
the Black Sea. Trajan's bridge at Gladova was 
destroyed by Adrian, to prevent the barbarians 
entering Dacia. Steam navigation was projected 
on this river by count Szechenyi, in 1830, and in 
that year the first steam-boat was launched at 
Vienna, and the Austrian company was formed 
shortly after. The Bavarian company was formed 
1836. A canal between the Danube and the 
Maine was completed by Louis I. of Bavaria. 
Charlemagne, in the 8th century, contemplated 
uniting the Danube and Rhine by a canal. At the 
peace of 30 March, 1856, the free navigation of the 
Danube was secured, and an independent European 
commission appointed to make it navigable from 
Isaktclii to the sea, which has worked with good 
effect. The British government, in 1868, lent 
135,000/. to complete the works. The treaty re- 
specting the navigation of the Danube renewed for 
twelve years, 13 March, 1871. The river suddenly 
took possession of a new bed near Vienna, 17 April, 
which was formally opened 30 -May, 1875. 
In the Russo-Turkish war the Russians crossed the 
Danube and entered Bulgaria. (See Russo-Turkish 

War, II.) June, 1877 

The navigation of the Danube was regulated by 

Articles 50—54 of Berlin treaty . . 13 July, 1878 
A conference of the powers respecting the Danube 
held in London, 8 Feb. et seq. ; treaty signed re- 
storing rights to Russia, 10 March : ratified 

15 Aug. 1883 
Huge rocks in that portion of the Lower Danube 
called the " Iron Gates " blown up ; M. Baross, 
the Hungarian minister of communications, set 
fire to the first mine, 5 Sept., 1889 ; the explosion 
of the rocks recommenced . . 15 Sept. 1890 
Foundation of a great bridge at Tchernavoda ; 
laid by Charles, king of Roumania, 21 Oct. 1890.; 
work going on 1S92 

DANUBIAN PRINCIPALITIES; 

WALLACHIA and MOLDAVIA (capitals, Bucha- 
rest and Jassy) were united and named ROUMANIA, 
1859. Population of the two, i860, 3,864,848; 1866, 
4,424,961 ; 1887, 5,500,000. These provinces formed 
part of the ancient Dacia {which see). 
Part f Moldavia ceded to Russia . . . . 1812 
The provinces having participated in the Greek in- 
surrection in 1821, were severely treated by the 
Turks ; but by the treaty of Adrianople were 
placed under the protection of Russia . . . 1829 



DARDANELLES. 



273 



DAUPHINE. 



The Porte appointed as hospodars prince Stirbey 
for Wallachia, and prince Ghika for Moldavia, 

June, 1849 

They retire from their governments when the Rus- 
sians enter Moldavia. See Iiusso-Turkish War. 

2 July, 1853 

The Russians quit the provinces and the Austriaus 
enter, Sept. 1854; retire . . . March, 1857 

The government of the principalities finally settled 
at the Paris conference : (there were to be two 
hospodars, elected by elective assemblages, and 
the suzerainty of Turkey was to be preserved), 

19 Aug. 1S58 

Alexander Coma elected hospodar of Moldavia, 
17 Jan. ; of Wallachia .... 5 Feb. 1859 

The election acknowledged by the allies 6 Sept. ,, 

The definitive union of the provinces (under the 
name of Roumania) proclaimed and acknowledged 
by the Porte Dec. 1861 

[For continuation, see Rournania.] 

DARDANELLES. Two castles (Sestos, in 
Roumania, and Abydos, in Auatolia), built by the 
sultan Mahomet IV. in 1659, commanding the 
entrance of the strait of Gallipoli, named Dar- 
danelles from the contiguous town Dardanus. — The 
passage of the strait was achieved by the British 
squadron under sir John Duckworth, 19 Feb. 1807 ; 
but he repassed them with great loss, 3 March, the 
castles of Sestos and Abydos hurling down stone- 
shot upon the British ships. The allied English 
and French fleets passed the Dardanelles at the 
sultan's request, Oct. 1853 ; see Hellespont and 
Xerxes. 

DARIC, a. Persian gold coin, issued by Darius, 
hence its name, about 538 B.C. About 556 cents. 
Knowles. It weighed two grains more than the 
English guinea. Dr. Bernard. 

DARIEN, ISTHMUS OF, central America, dis- 
covered by Columbus, 1494. In 1694, William 
Paterson, founder of the Bank of England, pub- 
lished his plan for colonising Darien. A company 
was formed in 1695, alM i n 1698-9, three expedi- 
tions sailed thither from Scotland, where 400,000^. 
had been raised. The first consisted of 1200 young 
men of all classes, besides women and children. 
The enterprise not having been recognised by the 
English government, the settlements were threat- 
ened by the Spaniards, to whom they were finally 
surrendered, 30 March, 1700. Paterson and a few 
survivors from famine and disease, had set off 
shortly before the arrival of the second expedition. 
Several years after, 398,085^. were voted by parlia- 
ment to the survivors as "Equivalent money." 
i8,OOOi?. were also voted to Paterson ; but the bill 
was rejected in the house of Lords. See Panama. 
The average breadth, 40 miles; least breadth, 30 
miles . 

DARJEELING-, a British district in the Him- 
alayas, ceded about 1824. The capital Darjeeling, 
is used as a sani'arium. The cultivation of tea is 
flourishing, and the population rapidly increasing 
(1889.) 

DARK AGES, a term applied to the Middle 
Ages; according to Hallain, comprising about 1000 
years — from the invasion of France by Clovis, 486, 
to that of Naples by Charles VIII. , 1495. During 
this time learning was at a low ebb. Hallam's 
"View of the State of Europe during the Middle 
Ages," published 1818. Supplemental Notes, 1848. 
Darkest Africa, see Soudan, 1887 — 90. " Darkest 
England," see Salvation Army, 1890. 

DARLINGTON, see under Railways, 1825 
and 1875. 



DARMSTADT, capital of Hesse Darmsdadt, 
made a city 1330, became the residence of the 
landgraves, 1567. The grand ducal palace was 
built 1568 et seq. Population, 1890, 56,503. 

DARTFORD (Kent). Here commenced the 
insurrection of Wat Tyler, 1381. A convent of 
nuns, of the order of St. Augustin, endowed here 
by Edward III. 1355, was converted by Henry VIII. 
into a royal palace. The first paper-mill in Eng- 
land was erected at Dartford by sir John Spielman, 
a German, in 1590 (Stow), and ahout the same 
period was erected here the first mill for splitting 
iron bars. The powder-mills here were blown up 
four times between 1730 and 1738. Various ex- 
plosions have since occurred, in some cases with 
loss of life to many persons : 12 Oct. 1790; 1 Jan. 
1795; and others recently. Population, 1881, 
10,163 ; I °9i, 11,962. 

DARTMOOR, South Devm, a tract of land, 
20 miles long, 9 to 12 miles broad, subject to the 
duchy of Cornwall. The Dartmoor Preservation 
Association hold their annual meeting at Plymouth, 
26 Oct. 1885. Dartmoor Prison, founded Mar. 1806. 
Seven prisoners of war were shot 6 April, 1815, 
after an insurrection. The autumn military ma- 
noeuvres at Dartmoor, Aug. 1873, were unsuccessful 
through bad weather. 
A mutiny here was checked with loss of life of one 

prisoner 12 Nov. 1880 

DARTMOUTH (Devon). Burnt by the 
French in the reigns of Richard I. and Henry IV. 
In a third attempt (1404), the invaders were de- 
feated by the inhabitants, assisted by the valour of 
the women. The French commander, Du Chastel, 
three lords, and thirty-two knights, were made 
prisoners. In the war of the parliament, Dart- 
mouth was taken after a siege of four weeks, by 
prince Maurice, who garrisoned the place for the 
king (1643) ; but it was retaken by general Fairfax 
by storm in 1646. Population, 1881,5,725; 1891, 
6,038. 

DARWINISM, see Devdopment and Species. 

DATES were affixed to grants and assignments 
18 Edw. I. 1290. Before this time it was usual at 
least to pass lands without dating the deed of con- 
veyance. Lewis. Numerous instruments of assign- 
ment enrolled among our early records establish 
this fact. The date is determined by the names of 
the parties, particularly that of the grantor : the 
posse-sion of land was proof of the title to it. 
Hardie. A useful glossary of the dates given in old 
charters and chronicles will be found in Nicolas's 
" Chronology of History." J. J. Bond's " Handy- 
Book for Verifying Dates," published 1866. 

DAUPHINE,* S.E. France, successively held 
by the Allobroges, Bmgundinns, and Lombards , 
was, about 732-4, delivered from the invading 
Saracens by Charles Martel. After forming part of 
the kingdom of Aries, it was much subdivided 
among counts. One of these, Humbert II., ceded 
Dauphine and the Viennois to Philip VI., in 1343, 
for his eldest son, on the condition that the prince 
should be styled dauphin, which took effect in 
1349, when Humbert became a monk. Louis 
Antoine, duke of Angouleme, son of Charles X., 
the last dauphin who assumed the title at his 
father's accession, 16 Sept. 1824, died 3 June, 
1844. 



* One of the counts of Viennc placed a dolphin 
(dauphin) in his coat-of-arms, and assumed the title of 
dauphin. 



DAVENTEY. 



274 



DEAF AND DUMB. 



DAVENTEY, Northamptonshire. Near here 
Lambert, having escaped from the Tower, was de- 
feated and retaken, in his attempt to enkindle the 
.war, by Monk, 21 April, 1660. The dissenting 
academy removed here from Northampton in 1752, 
was transferred to Wymondley in 1789, thence to 
London as Coward College, and finally united with 
Homerton and Highbury Colleges as New College, 
in 1850. 

DAVENPOET, see Plymouth. 

DAVID'S, St. (S. W. Wales), the ancient 
Menapia, now a poor decayed place, but once the 
metropolitan see of "Wales, and archiepiscopal. 
When Christianity was planted in Britain, three 
archbishops' seats were appointed, viz. London, 
York, and Caerleon upon Usk, in Monmouthshire. 
That at Caerleon being too near the dominions of 
the Saxons, was removed to Mynyw, and called 
St. David's, in honour of the archbishop who re- 
moved it, 522. St. Sampson was the last arch- 
bishop of the Welsh ; for he, withdrawing himself 
on account of a pestilence to Dole, in Brittany, 
carried the pall with him. In the reign of Henry I. 
the archbishops submitted to the see of Canterbury. 
Beat son. Present income 4500^. 

BISHOPS. 

1800. Lord George Murray, died 3 June, 1803. 

1803. Thomas Burgess, trans, to Salisbury, June, 1825. 

1825. John Banks Jenkinson, died 7 July, 1840. 

1840. Connop Thirlwall ; resigned June, 1874 ; died 

27 July, 1875. 
1874. Win. Basil Jones, consecrated 24 Aug. 

DAVID'S DAY, St., i March, is annually 
commemorated by the Welsh, in honour of St. 
David. Tradition states that on St. David's birth- 
day, 540, a great victory was obtained by the 
Welsh over their Saxon invaders ; and that the 
Welsh soldiers were distinguished, by order of St. 
David, by a leek in their caps. 

DAVIS'S STEAIT (N. America), discovered 
by John Davis, n Aug. 1585, on his voyage to find 
a N. W. passage, 1585-87. He made two more 
voyages for the same purpose, and five voyages to 
the East Indies. In the last he was killed by 
Japanese pirates, on the coast of Malacca, 27 or 29 
Dec., 1605. 

DAVY LAMP, &c, see Safety Lamp. 

The Davy Medal, furnished by the sale of Sir Humphry 
Davy's plate, was first awarded by the Royal Society 
to Professors Bunsen and Kirchhoff in 1877 for their 
discovery of spectrum analysis (which see). 

DAVYUM, a new metal, discovered by Sergius 
Kern, 28 June, 1877, in the residuum of platinum 
ore ; said to be hard, infusible, and rather ductile. 
It has been suspected to be ruthenium. 

DAY. Day began at sunrise among most of the 
northern nations, at sunset among the Athenians 
and Jews ; and among the Romans at midnight as 
with us. The Italians in some places, reckon the 
day from sunset to sunset, making their clocks 
strike twenty-four hours round. The Chinese 
divide the day into twelve parts of two hours each. 
The astronomical day begins at noon, is divided 
into twenty-four hours (instead of two parts of 
twelve hours). Thus the astronomical day 

8 Dec. begins at noon of 8 Dec. and ends at noon 

9 Dec. At Greenwich, from 1 Jan. 1885, the day 
of 24 hours began at midnight ; the reckoning was 
recommended for railways, &c. A system of uni- 
versal time for all countries was put forth by Mr. 
Sandford Fleming, of Canada. The Washington 
Prime Meridian Conference adopted a resolution 



declaring the universal day to be the mean solar 
day, beginning, for all the world, at the moment of 
mean midnight of the initial meridian, coinciding 
with the beginning of the civil day, and that 
meridian to be counted from zero up to 24 hours, 
21 Oct. 1884. The scheme for universal time was 
advocated by Mr. W. H. M. Christie, the Astro- 
nomer Royal, at the Royal Institution, 19 March, 
1886. 

DEACONS (literally servants), an order of 
Christian ministers, began with the Apostles, about 
53. {Acts vi.) Their qualifications are given by 
St. Paul (65), 1st Timothy iii. 8 — 14. Mr. John 
Andrews, master of Shrewsbury High School, was 
ordained at Lichfield Cathedral a permanent deacon 
in conformity with a resolution passed in the 
Upper House of Convocation, Feb. 1884; his duties 
are to assist the priest in the communion service, 
&c, 18 Dec. 1887. 

DEACONESSES, or ministering widows, have 
their qualifications given in 1 Tim. v. 9, 10 (65). 
Their duties were to visit the poor and sick, assist 
at the agapas or love feasts, admonish the young 
women, &c. The office was discontinued in the 
Western church in the 5th and 6th centuries, and 
in the Greek church about the 12th, but has been 
recently revived in Germany. The appointment of 
deaconesses, subject to the parochial clergy, was 
advocated by the bishop of Ely about 1853, aud 
some were appointed. The Diocesan Deaconess 
Institution, London, was established in 1861. 

DEAD. Prayers for their benefit were pro- 
bably offered up in the 2nd century, being referred 
to by Tertullian, who died 220: The practice was 
protested against by Aerius, and defended by Epi- 
phanius, who died 403. It is generally objected to 
by the church of England, but is not expressly for- 
bidden ; so decided by sir Herbert Jenner in the 
Court of Arches (PhiUimore, Peel. Law, 1873-6). 
Book of the Dead, a collection of prayers and exorcisms 
written in Egyptian hieroglyphic or hieratic charac- 
ters, composed for the benefit of the pilgrim soul in 
his journey through Anient! (the Egyptian Hades). 
Portions of these papyri were placed with the mummy 
in his tomb. They are said to form fully one half of 
the thousands which are extant. The " Book of the 
Dead " is dated from the 4th dynasty 3733-3566 B.C. 
After much toil a pure text with illustrations was 
published by M. Edouard Naville, 1886. Translations 
in several European languages have appeared. A 
facsimile of the Papyrus of Ani in the British Museum 
was printed in 1890. 

DEAD WEIGHT LOAN acquired its name 
from its locking up the capital of the Bank of 
England, which in 1823 advanced 11,000,000^. to 
the government (to construct new ordnance, &c). 
The latter engaged to give an annuit} r of 585,740^. 
for 44 years, which ceased in June, 1867. 

DEAF AND DUMB. The first systematic 
attempt to instruct the deaf and dumb was made 
by Pedro de Ponce, a Benedictine monk of Spain, 
on Jerome Cardan's system, about 1570. See PI hid. 
Bonet, a monk, published a system at Madrid . . 1620 
Dr. Wallis published a work in England on the 

subject 1650 

The first regular academy for the deaf and dumb in 

Britain opened in Edinburgh 1773 

In modern times the abbe de l'Epee (1712-89), and 

his friend and pupil the abbe Sicardof Paris (1742 — 

1822) ; the rev. Mr. Townsend and Mr. Baker, of 

London ; Mr. Thos. Braidwood of Edinburgh ; 

and surgeon Orpen of Dublin, have laboured with 

much success in promoting the instruction of the 

deaf and dumb. 
The asylum for deaf and dumb children, opened in 

London through the exertions of Mr. Townsend 



DEAL. 



DEBTORS. 



rHis 

1816 



1870 



1S72 



in 1792; one in Edinburgh by Mr. T. Braidwood, 
in 18 10 ; and one in Birmingham by Mr. T. Braid- 
wood 

The asylum at Claremont, Dublin, opened . . . 

A deaf and dumb debating club (Walfis club) closed 
its third session April, 

The foundation sfone of St. Saviour's church, near 
Oxford street, London, for the deaf and dumb, laid 
by the prince of Wales . . . 5 July, 

In 1851, there were in Great Britain, 12,553 deaf and 
dumb out of a population of 20,959,477. 

Oral Teaching. — Mr. Wm. Van Praagh introduced 
the so-called German system into this country in 
Jul} 7 , 1867; published his "Plan for the Estab- 
lishment of Day Schools [in preference to board- 
ing-houses] for the Deaf and Dumb" (in which 
they are to be taught by speech and lip teaching 
only; the finger alphabet and artificial signs 
being rigidly excluded), in 1871. By the help of 
the baroness Meyer de Rothschild and others, the 
" Association for the Oral Instruction of the Deaf 
and Dumb" was founded in 1871, and a day- 
school opened at 12, Fitzroy-square . 16 July, 

The Royal Association for the Deaf and Dumb, 
London, founded. fn 1840, and re-organised 1854. 
It provides instruction and entertainment under 
clerical direction. 

International congress at Milan ; great majority in 
favour of oral teaching of deaf-mutes . Sept. 1880 

International congress at Brussels. 13 Sept. et seg. 1883 

DEAL, a cinque port with Sandwich, 1229 ; a 
fishing village in the reign of Henry VIII. ; its 
strong castle built 1539 by Henry VIII. Deal was 
incorporated and made independent of Sandwich, 
1699. Population, 188 1, 8,500 ; 1891,8,898. 

DEAN, FOREST OF, Gloucestershire, an- 
ciently wooded quite through, and in the last 
century, though much curtailed, was twenty miles 
in length and ten in breadth. It was famous for its 
caks, the material of our ships of war. lliots in 
this district, when more than 3000 persons as- 
sembled in the forest, and demolished upwards of 
fifty miles of wall and fence, throwing open 10,000 
acres of plantation, took place on 8 June, 183 1. 
The Dean forest (mines) act passed 16 Aug. 1871. 

DEAN (decanus), a name commonly given to 
the arch-presbyter, or eldest presbyter, in the I2th 
century; originally a military title, an officer over 
ten soldiers. In the church of England the dean 
and chapter of a cathedral nominally elect the 
bishop and form his council. By 13 & 14 Car. II. 
(1662), a dean must be in priest's orders; pre- 
viously the office had occasionally been held by a 
layman, with special dispensation. The ancient 
office of " rural dean " has been much revived since 
1850. The Deans' and Canons' resignation act 
passed 13 May, 1872. The Five Deans' memorial, 
and counter memorial, see Church of England, 1881. 
See Arches. 

DEATH, ordained as the punishment for mur- 
der, 2348 B.C. (Gen. ix. 6.) 

The Jews generally stoned their criminals (Lev. 
xx. 2) B.C. 1490 

Draco's code punished every offence with death . 621 

It was limited to murder by Solon .... 594 

Mithridates, a Persian soldier, who boasted that he 
had killed Gyrus the Younger, at the battle of 
Cunaxa, was by order of Artaxerxes exposed to 
the sun for eighteen days .... . 401 

Maurice, the son of a nobleman, was hanged, drawn, 
and quartered for piracy, the first execution in 
that maimer in England, 25 Hen. III. . a.d. 1241 

The punishment of death was abolished in a great 
number of eases by sir Robert Peel's acts, 4 to 10 
Geo. IV 1824-g 

By the criminal law consolidation acts, death was 
confined to treason and wilful murder . 1861 

The commission on capital punishment (appointed 
1864) issued their report (recommending that 



penal servitude be substituted for death in some 
cases where murder was unpremeditated, and . 
that executions should not be public) . Dee. 1865 

Capital punishment restricted in Italy . April, ,, 

Its proposed abolition in Belgium was negatived, 

18 Jan. 1867 

"Capital Punishment within Prisons Bill" passed 
May, 1868. First case, 13 Aug. 1868 : see Execu- 
tions: 

Abolition of the punishment of death in Great 
Britain proposed by Mr. Gilpin in the commons ; 
negatived (127 to 23), 21 April, 1868 ; negatived 
(118 to 58), 29 July, 1869 ; negatived (167-54), 24 
July, 1872; (155-5°). I2 June, 1S77 ; (263-64), 13 
March, 1878 ; proposed by Mr. (aft. sir j.) Pease, 
negatived (175-79), 22 June, 1881; again 10 May, 
1S82; again (117-62) .... 11 May, 1886 

Capital punishment abolished in Russia by Cathe- 
rine II., except for treason 1767 

Capital punishment abolished in Tuscany, 1859, 
Romnania, 1864; Portugal, 1867; Saxony, i April, 
1868 ; Holland, 1870. In 17 out of 21 cantons of 
Switzerland, 1874 ; Italy, 1888 ; New York . . 1890 

Practically ceased in Belgium, Prussia, Bavaria, 
Denmark, and Sweden, though not abolished. 

In France 126 convictions for murder — 4 executed, 
in one year ; similar proportion in Italy. 

Abolished in some of United States. Maine, 1876 ; 
Rhode Island, Michigan, and Wisconsin, since ; 
in others, virtually ceased. 

Capital punishment by electricity ordered to be 
adopted by the State of New York from . 1 Jan. 1889 

The execution of William Kemmler by electricity 
was ordered, but deferred, on appeal" . 11 Oct. ,, 

Execution by electricity declared constitutional by 
the court of appeals . . . 22 March, 1890 

Execution stopped by habeas corpus . 29 April ,, 

Effected with some difficulty . . .6 Aug. ,, 

Four men executed by electricity at Sing-Sing, N. Y. 

7 July, 1891 

Others since. 

Modes of execution (1889) : — Austria, gallows, public ; 
Bavaria, guillotine, private ; Belgium, guillotine, 
public ; Brunswick, axe, private ; China, sword or 
cord, public ; Denmark, guillotine, public ; Ecuador, 
musket, public ; France, guillotine, public ; Great 
Britain, gallows, private ; Hanover, guillotine, pri- 
vate ; Italy, capital punishment abolished ; Nether- 
lands, gallows, public ; Oldenburg, musket, public ; 
Portugal, gallows, public ; Prussia, sword, private ; 

- Russia, musket, gallows, or sword, public ; Saxony, 
guillotine, private ; Spain, garotte, public ; Switzer- 
land, fifteen cantons, sword, public ; two cantons, 
guillotine, public ; two cantons, guillotine, private ; 
United States (other than New York), gallows, mostly 
private. 

See Beheading, Ravaillac, Damiens. Boiling, Burn- 
ing, Hanging, Forgery, and Campbell's Acts. 

DEATHS, Registers of, see Bills of Mor- 
tality, Public Health, and Registers. 

DEBATES IN PARLIAMENT. See 

Reporting. 

DEBATING SOCIETIES ; several formed 
in the last century. The celebrated Oxford Union 
Society was founded in 1823, and many orators 
have been trained by it. 

DEBTORS have been subjected to imprison- 
ment in almost all countries and times. In the 
eighteen months subsequent to the panic of Dec. 
1825, as many as 101,000 writs for debt were issued 
in England. In the year ending 5 Jan. 1830, there 
were 71 14 persons sent to the several prisons of 
London ; and on that day, 1547 of the number 
were yet confined. On the 1st of Jan. 1840, the 
number of prisoners for debt in England and Wales 
was 1732 ; in Ireland the number was under 1000 ; 
and in Scotland under 100. The operation of 
statutes of relief, and othei causes, considerably 
reduced the number of imprisoned debtors. VVheii 
the new Bankruptcy act (abolishing imprisonment 
for debt except when fraudulently contracted) 
came into operation in Nov. 1861, a number of 

t 2 



DEBTTSSCOPE. 



276 



DEEP-SEA SOUNDINGS. 



debtors who had been confined were released. 
Arrest of Absconding Debtors bill, 14 & 15 Vict. 
c. 52, 1852. In 1863 nearly 18,000 persons were 
imprisoned by order of the county courts : average 
time, 15 days, amount of debt, 3Z. 10*. By an act 
passed 9 Aug. 1869, the imprisonment of fraudulent 
debtors was abolished, with certain exceptions, and 
nearly a hundred debtors were released by a judge's 
order in Jan. 1870. An act to facilitate the arrest 
of absconding debtors, passed 9 Aug. 1870. Im- 
prisonment for debt in Ireland was abolished by an 
act passed 6 Aug. 1872, and in Scotland (after 31 
Dec.) by Dr. Cameron's Act, passed 7 Sept. 1880. 
See Arrest, King's Bench, Bankrupts, Insolvents, 
and National Debt. 

7978 persons were committed to gaol by the county 
courts in 1871 ; 4438 in 1874. Imprisonment for debt 
was virtually abolished by the Bankruptcy Act of 1883, 
which relieved small debtors. 

DEBTTSSCOPE, an instrument of French 
origin, somewhat similar to the kaleidoscope, said 
to be useful for devising patterns for calico-printers, 
&c, made its appearance in i860. 

DECAMERONE (10 days), see Boccaccio. 

DECAPITATION, see Beheading. 

DECCAN (Dekhan or Dakhan), S. India, was 
invaded by the Mahometans in 1294. The first 
independent sultan was Alaudin. The natives re- 
volted, and the dynasty of Bahmani was founded 
by Hasan Ganga in 1347. About 1686-90, Aurung- 
zebe I. recovered the Deccan, but soon lost great 
part of it to the Mahrattas. The Nizam al Mulk, 
his viceroy, became independent in 171 7. A large 
part of the Deccan was ceded to the English in 
1818. 

DECEMBER (from decern, ten), the tenth 
month of the year of Romulus, commencing in 
March. In 713 B.C. Numa introduced January 
and February before March, and thenceforward 
December became the twelfth of the year. In the 
reign of Commodus, a.d. 181 — 192, December wag 
called, by way of flattery, Amazonius, in honour 
of a courtesan whom that prince had loved, and had 
had painted like an Amazon. The English com- 
menced their year on the 25th December, until the 
reign of William I. ; see Year. For 2 Dec. revolu- 
tion see France, 185 1. 

DECEMVIRI, or Ten Men, appointed to 
draw up a code of laws, to whom for a year the 
whole government of Rome was committed, 451 B.C. 
The laws they drew up were approved by_ the 
senate and general assembly of the people, written 
on ten metallic tables, and set up in the place where 
the people met {comitium). Two more tables were 
added by a second decemvirate, 450 B.C. The 
tyrannical conduct of Appius Claudius, one of the 
Decemviri, towards Virginia, who wa< stabbed by 
her father Virginius to save her from slavery, led 
to a revolution, and the re-eslablishment of the 
consular government, 449 B.C. 

DECENNALIA, festivals instituted by Au- 
gustus, 17 B.C., celebrated by the Roman. emperors 
every tenth year of their reign, with sacrifices, 
games, and largesses. Livij. Celebrated by An- 
toninus Pius, a.d. 148. 

DECIMAL SYSTEM or Coinage, 

WEIGHTS, &<•■, see ALetric System. 

DECIPIUM, a new metal found by M. Dela- 
fontaine in the same earth with Philippium {which 
see); announced Nov., 1878. 



DECLARATION, see Independence and 
Bights. 

DECORATED STYLE, see Gothic. 

DECORATIVE ART. Its principles, enun- 
ciated by A. W. Pugin, in his " Designs," in 1835, 
have been advanced by Owen Jones, Redgrave, and 
others. Owen Jones's elaborate "Grammar of 
Ornament," was published in 1856. A Decorative 
Art society, founded in 1844, existed for a short 
time only. 

DE COURCY'S PRIVILEGE, that of 
standing covered before the king, granted by king 
John to John de Courcy, baron of Kingsale, and 
his successors, in 1203. He was the first Irish 
nobleman created by an English sovereign, 27 
Hen. II. 1 181, and was entrusted with the govern- 
ment of Ireland, 1185. The privilege was allowed 
to the baron of Kingsale by Will. III., Geo. III., 
and by Geo. IV. at his court held in Dublin, in 
Aug. 1821. The 31st baron, John Fitz-Roy de 
Cnurcy, who succeeded 1874, died, aged 69, 20 Nov. 
1890. The present baron is the 32nd in suc- 
cession. 

DECRETALS. They formed the second part 
of the canon law, or collection of the pope's edicts 
and decrees and the decrees of councils. The first 
acknowledged to be genuine is a letter of Siricius 
to Himerus, a bishop of Spain, written in the firsfc 
year of his pontificate, 385. Howel. Certain false 
decretals were used by Gregory Iv. in 837. The de- 
cretals of Gratian, a Benedictine (a collection of 
canons), were compiled in 1150. Henault. Five 
books were collected by Gregory IX. 1227 ; a sixth 
by Boniface VIII. 1297 ; the Clementines by Cle- 
ment V. in 1313; employed by John XXII. in 1317 ; 
the Extravagantes range from 1422 to 1483. 

DEDICATION of the Jewish tabernacle took 
place 1490 B.C. ; of the temple, 1004 B.C.; of the 
second temple, 515 B.C. The Christians under Con- 
stantine built new churches and dedicated them 
with great solemnity, in a.d. 331, et seq. The 
dedication of books (by authors to solicit patronage 
or testify respect) existed in the time of Maecenas, 
17 B.C., the friend and counsellor of Augustus, and 
a patron of Horace {Ode I. 1). 

DEED, a written contract or agreement. The 
formula, " I deliver this as my act and deed/* 
occurs in a charter of 933. Fosbrooke. Deeds in 
England were formerly written in Latin or French ; 
the earliest known instance in English is the in- 
denture between the abbot of Whitby and Robert 
Bustard, dated at York in 1343 ; see English Lan- 
guage. 

. DEEP-SEA SOUNDINGS. Much new and 
interesting information respecting the animal life 
and temperature of the deep sea has been acquired 
by the dredgings on the coast of Norway by M. 
Sars, and by those of Dr. W. B. Carpenter and 
prof. (aft. sir) Wyville Thomson on our own coasts, 
near the Faroe isles, in 1868 and 1869, and in the 
Mediterranean by Dr. Carpenter in 1870. Living 
animals have been found at a depth of three miles. 
On 21 Dec. 1872, Dr. Wyville Thomson and a party 
of scientific men sailed in H.M.S. Challenger 
(Capt. G. S. Nares), to examine into the physical 
and biological condition of the great ocean basins 
and the direction of their currents. Deepest sound- 
ing then known was taken in the Atlantic, north 
of St. Thomas's, 3875 fathoms (4 miles, 710 yards), 
24 March, 1873. On 10 Dec. 1874, capt. Thompson 
succeeded capt. Nares, who took the command of 
the new Arctic expedition. The Challenger re- 



DEEE. 



277 



DELAWARE. 



turned, with valuable collections, 25 May, 1876, 
lifter a voyage of above 80,000 miles. The " Voyage " 
■was published by sir C. Wyville Thomson in Dec. 
1877 ; and forty-eight volumes of reports had been 
published, March, 1892. A Norwegian expedition 
explored the northern seas 16 July — 18 Aug. 1877 ; 
an Italian expedition in the Mediterranean started 
2 Aug. 1881. 

Jn Sept., 1889, theSouth Atlantic Ocean, midway be- 
tween the island of Tristan d Ae.unha and the 
mouth of the Rio de la Plata, was stated to be 
40,236 feet, or 8 \ miles. 
The deep sea explorations, carried on in the eastern 
Mediterranean for the academy of Vienna, re- 
ported successful ; the greatest depth, i\ miles, 
ds between Molla and Cerigo . . . March, 1891 

DEER are mentioned in a will of one Athel- 
6tau, dated 1045. Professor Owen thinks that fallow 
deer are not native, but were introduced here at an 
warly period. There are now in England 334 deer 
parks, the oldest being probably lord Abergavenny's 
at Eridge, Sussex. See Evelyn Shirley's " Account 
of Deer Parks," July, 1867. 1658 deer in the 
royal parks, 1873. 

DEERHOUND, an English yacht, while 
conveying arms to the Carlists, seized by the 
Spanish government vessel Buenaventura, oft tfiar- 
ritz, and captain and crew imprisoned, 13 Aug. ; 
released about 18 Sept. 1873. 

DEFAMATION is punishable by fine and 
Imprisonment \>y statute of 1S43. The jurisdiction 
of the ecclesiastical courts on this subject was 
abolished by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 41 (1855). See Libel. 

DEFENCE, see Church Defence, National 

Defence. 

DEFENCE ACT, a complete conscription act, 
authorising a levy en masse, 1803, was unsuccessful; 
new measures were taken in 1807-8. The Defence 
of the Jieulm Act passed 28 Aug. i860, in conse- 
quence of the unsettled state of Europe, and the 
doubtful policy of the emperor Napoleon ; see For- 
tification and Colonics. 

" DEFENCE GOVERNMENT " in France, 
formed 011 4 Sept. 1870, when the emperor was 
■deposed and a republic proclaimed, gen. Trochu 
president ; it included Gambetta, Simon, &c. It 
resigned, after Paris had capitulated, 5, 6 Feb. 
1 87 1. See France. 

DEFENDER of the Faith {Fidel De- 

Jfensor), a title of the British sovereign, conferred 
.by Leo. X. on Henry VIII. of England, 11 Oct. 
S521, for the tract against Luther or. behalf of the 
•Church of Pome (then accounted Domicilium Jidei 
Catholicce). 

DEFENDERS, a faction in Ireland, which 
*irose out of a quarrel between two residents of 
Market-hill, 4 July, 1784. Each was soon aided 
hy a large body of friends, and many battles ensued. 
"On Whit-Mondaj r , 1785, an armed assemblage of 
*one of the parties (700 men), called the Nappagh 
Fleet, prepared to encounter the Baton Fleet, but 
the engagement was prevented. They subsequently 
•became religious parties, Catholic and Presbyterian, 
distinguished as Defenders and Peep-o' '-day-boys : 
the latter were so named because they usually visited 
the dwellings of the Defenders at daybreak in search 
•fif.arrus; see Diamond. 

DEGREES- Eratosthenes attempted to deter- 
mine the length of a geographical degree about 2C0 
B.C. See Geodesy, Latitude, and Longitude. Col- 
legiate degrees are coeval with universities. Master* 
and doctors existed, 826. See Lambeth Degrees. 



Those in law are traced up to 1 149 ; in medicine, 
to 1384; in music, 101463. Middle class exam- 
inations for degrees were instituted at Oxford, 18 
June, 1857 ; at Cambridge, 24 Nov. 1857 ; and 
girls were allowed to compete for degrees, Oct. 
1863. Bill to enable Scotch universities to grant 
degrees to women rejected by the Commons, 3 
March, 1875. See Women. 

DEI GRATIA, see Grace of God. 

DEIRA, a part of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of 
Northumbria ; see under Britain. 

DEISM, Theism, or Monotheism (Latin, 

dens ; Greek, theos, God), the belief in one God, in 
opposition to polytheism and to the doctrine of the 
Trinity. About the middle of the 16th century 
some gentlemen of France and Italy termed them- 
selves deists, to disguise their opposition to Chris- 
tianity by a more honourable appellation than that 
of Atheism {which see). The most distinguished 
deists were Herbert, baron of Cherbury, in 1624 ; 
Hobbes, Tindal, Morgan, lord Bolingbroke, Gibbon, 
Hume, Holcroft, Paine, and Godwin. 
A high-caste Brahmin, Raminohun Roy, founded a 
Brahmin monotheistic church in 1830, termed the 
Brahmo Somaj. He died at Bristol 27 Nov. 1833. 
His reforming work was revived in 1842 by 
Debendra Nath Tangore. In 1858 Baboo Keshub 
(Jhunder Sen joined the society, and became a 
most energetic propagandist, advocating also 
social reform ; being much opposed, he lormed 
the new Brahmo Somaj of India in . . . 1866 
Keshub Chunder Sen was received at a public 
meeting in London as a reformer, 12 April, and 
subsequently preached in a Unitarian chapel, 

Finsbury, London 1870 

Schism in his church ; new church formed (Society 

of God) 1880 

He died at Calcutta 8 Jan. 1884 

See Unitarians and Voysey. 

DEITIES, see Mythology. 

DELAGOA BAY, S. E. Africa, claimed by 
Great Britain and Portugal. Having been referred 
to arbitration, the southern portion was awarded to 
Portugal by marshal MacMahon, Aug. 1875. 

The importance of the port was greatly increased 
by the discovery of gold in the Transvaal dis- 
tricts. The South African Republic promoted 
a railway to be constructed by German and Dutch 
capitalists. The acquisition of the bay by Great 
Britain strongly advocated . . . Dec. 1887 

The Portuguese government in 14 Dec. 1883, 
granted a concession toa Portuguese company for 
the construction of a railway from the bay to the 
Transvaal territory. The prospectus of the East 
African railway company (capital 500,000?.) was 
issued 7 March, 1887. As the railway was not 
completed in the specified time, the works were 
confiscated by the Portuguese government, 25 
June, et seq., who cancelled the concession (see 
Fortuqal) 26 June, 1889 

The British and United States governments re- 
monstrate with Portugal. . . . April, 1890 

The completed railway inaugurated . 28 April ,, 

The Portuguese government accepts the principle 
of arbitration ; the governments request the 
Swissgovernment to appoint three .jurists to form 
a court of arbitration . . reported 2 May „ 

The Portuguese government pays 28,000?. to the 
British government for the railway company 
provisionally reported July ,, 

The court of arbitration meets at Berne . 8 Aug. ,, 

DELAWARE, one of the United States of 
North America, named after lord de la Warre, go- 
vernor of Virginia, who entered the bay 1610. It 
was settled by Swedes, sent there by Oustavus in 
1627; acquired by the Dutch, 1655 ; ceded to the 



DELEGATES. 



278 



DELTA. 



English, 1664. Capital, Dover. Population, 1880, 
146,608 ; 1890, 168,493. 

By an explosion at Messrs. Dupont's powder mills 
near Wilmington 13 persons were killed 7 Oct. 1890 

DELEGATES, Court of. Appeals to the 
pope in ecclesiastical causes having been forbidden 
(see Appeals), such causes were for the future to be 
heard in this court, established by Henry YIII. 
1533. Stow. This court was abolished in 1832, 
and appeals now lie to the Judicial Committee of 
the Privy Council, according to 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 
41 (1833) ; and 6 & 7 Vict. c. 38 (1843). See Arches. 

DELEGATIONS, in the Austro-Hungarian 
Monarchy, established in 1867, composed of 60 
Austrian and 60 Hungarian members. 

DELFT (S. Holland), a town founded by God- 
frey le Bossu, about 1074 > famous for " Delft 
earthenware ;" first manufactured here about 1310. 
The sale of delft greatly declined after the introduc- 
tion of potteries into Germany and England. Gro- 
tius, jurist, was bom here, 16 April, 1583 ; tercen- 
tenary celebrated 10 April, 1883. His statue 
erected, 17 Sept. 1886. And here "William, the 
great prince of Orange, was assassinated by 
Gerard, 10 July, 1584 ; tercentenary celebrated 10 
July, 1884. Population, 1890, 29,022. 

DELHI, the once great capital of the Mogul 
empire, and chief seat of the Mahometan power in 
India ; it was taken by Timour in 1398. It is how 
in decay, but contained a million of inhabitants in 
1700. In 1739, when Nadir Shah invaded Hiu- 
dostan, he entered Delhi ; 100,000 of the inhabitants 
perished by the sword, and plunder to the amount of 
62,000,000/. sterling is said to have been collected. 
Similar calamities were endured in 1761, on the 
invasion of Abdalla, king of Candahar. In 1803, 
the Mahrattas, aided by the French, took Delhi ; 
but were defeated by general Lake, n Sept., and 
the aged Shah Aulum, emperor of Hindostan, was 
restored to his throne with a pension ; see India, 
1803. On 10 May, 1857, a mutiny arose in the 
sepoy regiments at Meerut. It was soon checked; 
hut the fugitives fled to Delhi on 11 May, and, 
combined with other troops here, seized the city ; 
proclaimed a descendant of the Mogul king, and 
committed frightful atrocities. The rebels were 
anxious to possess the chief magazine, but after a 
gallant defence it was exploded by order of lieut. 
W-illoughby, who died of his wounds shortly after, 
The other heroes of this exploit were lieutenants 
Forrest and Rayner, and the gunners Buckley and 
Scully. Delhi was shortly after besieged by the 
British, but was not taken till 20 Sept. following. 
The final struggle began on the 14th ; brigadier 
(aft. sir) Archdale Wilson being the commander. 
Much heroism was shown; the gallant death of 
Salkeld at the explosion of the Cashmere gate 
created much enthusiasm. The old king and his 
sons were captured soon after: the latter were 
shot, and the former after a trial was sent for life to 
Rangoon, where he died 11 Nov. 1862. See India, 
1857. A camp formed at Delhi by the earl of Mayo, 
the viceroy, Dec. 1871, was visited bv the king of 
Siam, Jan. 1872. The prince of "Wales visited 
Delhi, II Jan. 1876. Queen Victoria was proclaimed 
empress of India here with much magnificence, many 
Indian princes being present, 1 Jan. 1877. Great 
fire, 2000 houses burnt, 19 April, 1883. 
Foundation-stone of Dufferin Hospital laid by lord 

Dufferin 2 Nov. 1885 

Eiots by collisions at Hindoo and Mahoinnie.dan 

festivals quelled by the military 5 Oct. et scq. 1886 



Great fire, 300 houses destroyed, much distress, 

11-12 May, 1889 
Fanatical riots quelled . . about 8 April, 1892 

"DELICATE INVESTIGATION'tntothe 
conduct of the princess of Wales (afterwards queen 
of England, as consort of George IV.), was com- 
menced by a committee of the privy council, under 
a warrant of inquiry, dated 29 May, 1806. The 
members were lord Grenville, lord Erskine, earl 
Spencer, and lord Ellenborough. The inquiry, of 
which the countess of Jersey, fcir J. and lady Doug- 
las, and other persons of rank, were the prompters, 
led to the publication called "The Book;" after- 
wards suppressed. The charges a»ainst the princess- 
were disproved in 1807 and in 181 3 ; but not being 
permitted to appear at court, she went on the conti- 
nent in 1814 ; see Queen Caroline. 

DELIUM, Bceotia, N. Greece, the site of a 
celebrated temple of Apollo. Here, in a conflict 
between the Athenians and the Boeotians, in which 
the former were defeated, Socrates the philosopher 
is said to have saved the life of his pupil Xenophon,. 
424 B.C. 

DELLA CKUSCA ACADEMY of Florence 
merged into the Florentine in 1582. — The Della 
Crusca School, a term applied to some English 
residents at Florence, who printed inferior senti- 
mental poetry and prose in 1785. They came to> 
England, where their works, popular for a short 
time, were severely satirised by Gifford in his " Ba- 
viad" and "Maeviad" (1792-5). 

DELOS, a Greek isle in the .iEgean sea. Here 
the Greeks, during the Persian war, 477 B.C., estab- 
lished their cummon tieasury, which was removed 
to Athens, 461. Excavations, resulting in inter- 
esting discoveries, were made in the island by the- 
French in 1883. 

DELPHI (N. Greece), celebrated for its enig- 
matical oracles delivered by the Pythia or priestess- 
in the temple of Apollo, which was built, some say, 
by the council of the Amphictyons, 1263 B.C. The 
Pythian games were first celebrated here 586 B.C. 
The temple was burnt b} r the Pisistratidse, 548 B.C. 
A new temple was raised by the Aiemaeonida?. The 
Persians (480 B.C.) and the Gauls (279 B.C.) were 
deterred from plundering the temple by awful por- 
tents. It was, however, robbed and seized by the 
Phocians 357 B.C., which led to the sacred war, and 
Nero carried from it 300 costly statues, a.d. 67. 
The oracle was consulted by Julian, but silenced by 
Theodosius. 

DELPHIN CLASSICS, a collection of thirty- 
nine Latin authors in sixty volumes, made for the 
use of the dauphin (in usum Delphini) son of Louis 
XIV., and published in 1674-91. Ausonius was 
added in 1730. The due de Montausier, the young 
prince's governor, proposed the plan to Huet, bishop 
of Avranches, the dauphin's preceptor ; and he, with 
other learned persons, including Madame Dacier,* 
edited all the Latin classics except Lucan. Each 
author is illustrated by notes and an index of words. 
An edition of the Delphin classics, with additional 
notes, &c, was published \>y Mr. Valpy of London, 
1818, et seq. 

DELTA, the island formed by the alluvial de- 
posits between the mouths of the Nile, so named 



* This beautiful and gifted woman translated Calli- 
maclms at the age of 23 ; and also Anacreon, Sappho, 
I'lautus, Terence, .and Homer. She died in 1720. 



DELUGE. 



279 



DENMARK. 



• 2352 
■ 2344 
. 2329 

• 2293 
. 2288 
. 2104 



by the Greeks from its resemblance to their letter 

A (our D). 

Delta Metal, a modern bronze resembling gold, con- 
taining a small proportion of iron, invented by Mr. A. 
Dick : watch cases were made of it at Geneva in 1885. 

t DELUGE, THE UNIVERSAL, predicted by 
Noah, is described in Genesis vi.vii. viii.; dated by 
Usher and the English Bible 2348 B.C. The fol- 
lowing- are the epochs of the -deluge, according to 
Dr. Hales :— 

Septuagint . b.c. 3246 Clinton . . b.c. 2482 

Jackson . . .3170 Play fair . 

Hales . . . . 33:55 Marsham 

Josephus . . . 3146 Petavius . 

Persian . . . . 3103 Strauchius 

Hindoo . . .3102 Hebrew 

Samaritan . . . 299S Vulgar Jewish 

Howard . . . 2698 

Traditional deluges described in the classics : in Bceotia 

and Attica in the reign of Ogyges, 18th century b.c. ; 

in Thessaly in the reign of Deucalion, 1503 B.C. ; the 

dates are conjectural. 

DEMERARA, Esseqdtbo, and Berbice, 

colonies m British Guiana, South America, founded 
by the Dutch, 1580, were taken by the British, under 
major-general Whyte, 22 April, "1796, but were re- 
stored at the peace of Amiens, March, 1802. They 
again surrendered to the British under general 
Grinfield and commodore Hood, Sept. 1803, and 
became English colonies in 1814. See Guiana, 
British. 

DEMOCRATIC FEDERALS, a political 
party, proposed by Mr. Joseph Cowen, M.P. for 
Newcastle, opposed to the policy of the government 
of Mr. Gladstone, 5 April, 1881. 

DEMOCRATS, advocates for governmentby the 
people themselves (demos, people, and kratein, to 
govern), a term adopted by the French republicans 
in 1790 (who termed their opponents aristocrats, 
from aristos, bravest or best). The name Democrats 
was adopted by the pro-slavery party in N. America 
(the southern states), and the abolitionists were 
called Republicans. Into these two great parties a 
number of smaller ones were absorbed at the presi- 
dential election in 1856. In i860, the Republicans 
formed '' Wide-awake" clubs for electioneering pur- 
poses, and succeeded in getting their candidate, 
Abraham Lincoln, elected president, 4 Nov., which 
led to civil war ; see United States, i860. 

In the autumn of 1874, the democrats, free-traders, 
and opponents of negro-rule, once more obtained the 
majority in the elections for the next congress ; a re- 
action in their favour against the republicans, protec- 
tionists, then powerful ; see United States, 1875-7. Go- 
vernor Cleveland, democrat, elected president, 4 Nov. 
1884 ; not re-elected, being replaced by general Benjamin 
Harrison, republican ... .5 Nov. 1888 

DEMOGRAPHY. A modem term, signify- 
ing "the natural history of sjcicty." Quetelet. 
See Hygiene. 

DEMONOLOGY, see Devil Worship. 

DENAIN (N. France). Here marshal Villars 
defeated the Imperialists, 24 July, 17 12. 

DENARIUS, the chief silver coin among the 
Romans, weighing the seventh part of a Roman 
ounce, and value J%d. sterling, first coined about 
269 B.C., when it exchanged for ten ases (see As). 
In 216 B.C. it exchanged for sixteen ases. A pound 
weight of silver was coined into ioo denarii. Digby. 
A pound weight of gold was coined into twenty 
denarii aurei in 206 B.C. ; and in Nero's time into 
forty-five denarii aurei. Lemprierc. 

DENHAM MURDERS, see Trials, 1870. 



DENIS, St., an ancient town of France, near 
Paris, famous for its abbey and church ; the former 
abolished at the revolution, the latter the place of 
sepulture of the French kings, from its foundation 
by Dagobert, about 630 ; the remains of the saint 
Denis were placed there in 636. On 6, 7, 8 Aug. 
1793, the republicans demolished most of the royal 
tombs, and in Uct. following, the bodies were taken 
from coffins and cast iuto a pit ; the lead was melted, 
and the gold and jewels taken to Paris. By a de- 
creeof Bonaparte, dated 20 Feb. 1806, the church 
(which had been turned into a cattle-market) was 
ordered to be cleansed out and redecorated as "the 
future burial-place of the emperors of France." On 
the return of the Bourbons, more restorations were 
effected, and the due de Berri and Louis XVIII, 
were buried here. The damage sustained in the 
war of 1870-1 has been well "repaired. Near St. 
Denis the Catholics defeated the Huguenots, but 
lost their leader, the constable Montmorency, 10 
Nov. 1567. 

DENISON'S ACT (18 & 19 Vict. c. 34), pro- 
vides "for the education of the children of persons 
in receipt of out-door relief: " passed 26 June, 1855. 

DENMAN'S.Act, Lord, 6 & 7 Vict. c. 85 
(1843), relates to juries and witnesses. 

DENMARK (N.Europe). The most ancient 
inhabitants were Cimbri and Teutones, who were 
driven out by the Jutes or Goths. The Teutones 
settled in Germany and Gaul ; the Cimbrians in- 
vaded Italy, where they were defeated byAlarius. 
The peninsula of Jutland obtained its name from 
the Jutes ; and the name of Denmark is supposed to 
be derived from Ban, the founder of the Danish 
monarchy, and mark, a German word signifying 
country. For their numerous invasions of Britain, 
&c, see Banes. Population of the kingdom of Den- 
mark in i860, 1,600,551 ; of the duchies of Schles- 
wig, Holstein, and Lauenburg, 1,004,473; of the colo- 
nics, 120,283. By the treaty of peace, signed 30 
Oct. 1864, the duchies were taken from Denmark ; 
Schleswig and Holstein were to be made indepen- 
dent, and Lauenburg was to be incorporated, by 
its desire, with Prussia. For the result, see Gastein 
and Prussia, 1866. Population of the monarchy, 
1870, 1,784,741; 1880, 1,969,039; of the colonies, 
1880, 127,200; 1890, 127,209. Revenue, 1889-90, 
3,192,009/.; expenditure, 3,462,732?. Imports, 
1890, 17,057,000?. ; exports, 12,990,000/. 

[The early dates are doubtful.] 
Reign of Skiold, alleged-first king . . b.c. 60 
The Danish chronicles mention 18 kings to the time 
of Ragnar Lodbrog, killed in an attempt to invade 

England a.d. 794 

Canute the Great conquers Norway . . 1016-28 

By the union of Calmar. Denmark, Norway, and 
Sweden made one kingdom under Margaret, 

12 July, 1397 

Copenhagen made the capital 1440 

Accession of Christian I. (of Oldenburg), from whom 

the late royal family sprang 1448 

Christian II. deposed ; independence of Sweden 

under Gustavus Vasa acknowledged . . . 1523 
Lutheranism introduced ill 1527 ; established by 

Christian III 1536 

Danish East- India Company established . . . 1612 
Christian IV. chosen head of the Protestant league 

against the emperor 1629 

Charles Gustavus of Sweden invades Denmark, be- 
sieges Copenhagen, and makes conquests . . 1658 
The crown made hereditary and absolute . . 1665 
Frederick IV. takes Holstein, Schleswig, Tonningen, 
and Stralsund ; reduces Weismar, and drives the 
Swedes from Norway .... 1716 tt scq. 
Copenhagen nearly destroyed by lire . . . 1728 
The peaceful reign of Christian VI. . 1730-46 



DENMAEK. 



280 



DENMAEK. 



Plot of the queen dowager against the ministers and 
Matilda (sister of our George III. and queen of 
Christian VII., a weak monarch). Matilda, en- 
trapped into a confession of criminality to save the 
life of her supposed lover, Struenzee, condemned 
to imprisonment for life in the castle of Zell, 

1 8 Jan. 1772 
Count Struenzee and Brandt beheaded 28 April, ,, 

Queen Matilda dies, aged 24 1775 

Christian VII. becomes deranged, and prince Frede- 
rick is appointed regent . . . . . . 1 784 

One-fourth of Copenhagen burnt . . 9 June, 1795 
Admirals Nelson and Parker bombard Copenhagen 
{which see). (Confederacy of the North, see Armed 
Neutrality, dissolved.) ... 2 April, 1801 

Admiral Gambierand lord Cath cart bombard Copen- 
hagen ; the Danish fleet surrenders . 7 Sept. 1807 
Peace of Kiel : Pomerania and Riigen annexed to 
Denmark for Norway .... 14 Jan. 1814 

Pomerania and Riigen ceded to Prussia for Lauen- 

burg 1815 

Commercial treaty with England .... 1824 
Frederick VI. grants a new constitution . . . 1831 
Christian VIII. declares the right of the crown to 

Schleswig, Holstein, &c. . . .11 July, 1846 
Accession of Frederick VII. 20 Jan. ; he proclaims 
a new constitution, uniting the duchies more 
closely with Denmark .... 28 Jan. 1848 
Insurrection in the duchies : a provisional govern- 
ment founded 23 March, ,, 

The rebels seize fortress of Rendsburg 24 March, ,, 
They are defeated near Flensburg . 9 April, ,, 

The Danes defeated by the Prussians (helping the 

duchies) near Dannawerke, Schleswig . 23 April, ,, 
The North sea blockaded by Denmark . 1 Aug. ,, 
Hostilities suspended : the European powers recom- 
mend peace 26 Aug. „ 

Hostilities recommence ... 25 March, 1849 
Victory of the Danes over the Holsteiners and Ger- 
mans 10 April, ,, 

Several conflicts with varying success . June, ,, 
The king sanctions a new liberal constitution, 

S Juno, ,, 
Armistice renewed at Malmo . . . 10 July, ,, 
Separate peace with Prussia ... 2 July, 1850 
Integrity of Denmark guaranteed by England, France, 

Prussia, and Sweden . . . . 4 July, ,, 

Battle of Idstedt, and defeat of the Schleswig-Hol- 

steiners by the Danes . . . .25 July, ,, 
Protocol signed in London by the ministers of all 

the great powers . . . . . 23 Aug. ,, 
Bombardment of Friedrichstadt by the Holsteiners, 
and the town almost destroyed, but not taken, 

29 Sept. to 6 Oct. „ 
Proclamation of the stadtholders of Schleswig-Hol- 
stein, placing the rights of the country under the 
protection of the Germanic confederation 10 Jan. 1851 
The integrity of the Danish monarchy and the inde- 
pendence of Schleswig and its old union with Hol- 
stein guaranteed by treaty . . . 18 Feb. 1852 
Austrians evacuate Holstein, &c. . . 2 March, ,, 
Treaty of European powers. [The succession in 
the line of Sonderburg-Gliicksburg settled, and 
the integrity ot the Danish kingdom guaranteed. 
Christian, duke of Augustenburg-Holstein, re- 
nounced his rights for a compensation in money.] 

8 May, ,, 
The king promulgates a new constitution, 29 July, 

1854 ; adopted .... 1 Oct. 1855 

The sound dues abolished for a compensation (see 

Sound) 14 March, 1857 

Dissension between the government and theduchies, 

Oct. 1857-62 
Fortification of Copenhagen decreed 27 March, 1858 

New ministry appointed 3 Dec. 1859 : resigns 9 Feb. ; 

bishop Monrad forms a ministry . . 24 Feb. i860 
The assembly of Schleswig complain that the pro- 
mise of equality of national rights in 1852 has not 
been kept, n Feb. ; protest against the annexa- 
tion to Denmark 1 March, ,, 

The Prussian chamber of deputies receive a petition 
from Schleswig, and declare that they will aid the 
duchies, 4 May ; at which the Danish government 

protests 16 May, „ 

Correspondence ensues between the Prussian, 
Danish, and British governments ; the Danish 
government declare for war, if German forces 
enter the duchies . . Jan. 1861 



Warlike preparations in Denmark . . . Feb. 1861 
Decimal coinage adopted .... June, „ 
Agitation in favour of union of Denmark with 
Sweden, June ; the king of Sweden visits Den- 
mark, and is warmly received . . . 17 July, 1862 
Earl Russell recommends the government to give 
to Holstein and Lauenburg all that the Germanic 
confederation desire for them, and to give self- 
government to Schleswig . . -24 Sept. „ 
M. Hall, the Danish minister, declines to accede ; 
stating that to do so would imperil the existence 
of the monarchy itself . . . . 20 Nov. ,, 
Princess Alexandra of Denmark married to the 

Prince of Wales at Windsor . . 10 March, 1863 

The king grants, by patent, independent rights to 

Holstein, but annexes Schleswig . 30 March, ,, 
Austria and Prussia protest against it . 17 April, ,, 
Further diplomatic correspondence . . May, „ 

The king accepts the crown of Greece for his rela- 
tive, prince William-George, and gives him sound 

political advice 6 June, ,, 

Death of the crown prince Frederick-Ferdinand, 

the king's Uncle 29 June, „ 

The German diet demands annulment of the patent 
of 30 March ; (Holstein and Schleswig to be united 
with the same right ; ) and threatens an army of 

occupation 9 July, ,, 

The king replies that he will consider occupation to 

be an act of war . . . . -27 Aug. ,, 
Vain efforts for alliance with Sweden . . Aug. ,, 

Extra levy for the army decreed . . 1 Aug. ,, 
New constitution (uniting Schleswig with Denmark) 

proposed in the rigsraad . . . . 29 Sept. ,, 
Death of Frederick VII. and accession of Christian 

IX 15 Nov. „ 

Prince Frederick of Augustenburg claims the 

duchies of Schleswig and Holstein . . 16 Nov. „ 
Great excitement in Holstein ; many officials refuse 

to take oath to Christian . 21 Nov. et seq. ,. 

Saxony, Bavaria, Hesse, and other German powers 
resolve to support the prince of Augustenburg, 

26 Nov. et seq. „ 
New constitution affirmed by the rigsraad, 13 Nov. ; 

signed by king, 18 Nov. ; published, . 1, 2 Dec. „ 
The Austrian and Prussian ministers say that they 
will quit Copenhagen if the constitution of 18 
Nov. is not annulled .... Dec. „ 

Great excitement in Norway : proposals to support 

Denmark Dec. „ 

Prince Frederick's letter to the emperor Napoleon, 

2 Dec. ; an ambiguous reply ... 10 Dec. „ 
Denmark protests against federal occupation 

19 Dec. ,, 
goo representatives of different German states meet 
at Frankfort, and resolve to support prince Frede- 
rick as duke of Schleswig and Holstein, and the 
inseparable union of those duchies . . 21 Dec. ,, 
The federal execution takes place ; a Saxon regiment 
enters Altona, 24 Dec. ; and the federal commis- 
sioners assume administrative powers . 25 Dec. „ 
The Danes retire from Holstein, to avoid collision 

with federal troops . . .24 Dec. et seq. ,, 

Prince Frederick enters Kiel, as duke of Schleswig 

and Holstein 30 Dec. ,, 

The Danes evacuate Rendsburg . -31 Dec. ,, 
Ministerial crisis : Hall retires, and bishop Monrad 

forms a cabinet 31 Dec. ,, 

Dissension among Germans : the Austro-Prussian 

proposition rejected by the diet . . 14 Jan. 1864 
Austria and Prussia demand abrogation of the con- 
stitution (of 18 Nov.) in two days, 16 Jan. ; the 
Danes require six weeks' time . 18 Jan. ,, 

The German troops under marshal Wrangel enter 

Holstein 21 Jan. „ 

The Prussians enter Schleswig, and take Eckenforde, 

1 Feb. „ 
They bombard Missunde, 2 Feb. ; which is burnt, 

3Fel. „ 
The Danes abandon the Danncwerke to save their 
army, 5 Feb. ; great discontent in Copenhagen, 

6 Feb. „ 
The Danes defeated by Wrangel at Oever-see ; 

Schleswig taken ; pr. Frederick proclaimed, 6 Feb. ,, 
The allies occupy Flensburg, 7 Feb. ; commence 

their attack on Dtippel ... 13 Feb. „ 

The federal commissioners protest against the Prus- 
sian occupation of Altona . . . . 13 Feb. , 



DENMARK. 



281 



DENMARK. 



The Prussians enter Jutland ; take Kolding, 18 Feb. ; 
Danes fortify Alsen . . .18 Feb. et seq. 

A conference on Danish affairs proposed by Eng- 
land ; agreed to by allies . . . . 23 Feb. 

A subscription for the wounded Danes begun in 
London 24 Feb. 

De Gertach, general of the Danes . . 1 Mar. 

Defeated at Sonderbygaard and Veill - 8 Mar. 

The rigsraad vote a firm address to the king, 26 
Feb. ; adjourned 22 Mar. 

The Prussians bombard and take the village of Diip- 
pel, or Dybbol, 16, 17 March, and bombard Fred- 
ericia, 20 March ; repulsed in an attack on the 
fortress 28 Mar. 

The opening of the conference adjourned from 12 

to 20 April, 

The Prussians take the fortress of Diippel, by assault. 
with much slaughter 18 April, 

Meetings of the conference at London : result un- 
favourable to Denmark . . 25 April, et seq. 

The Danes retreat to Alsen ; evacuate Fredericia 
and fortresses of Jutland . . . . 29 April, 

Agreement for an armistice for one month from 12 
May 9 May, 

Jutland subjected to pillage for not paying a war 
contribution to Prussians . . 6 May, et seq. 

The Danes defeat the allies in a naval battle off 
Heligoland 9 May, 

The armistice prolonged a fortnight . 9 June, 

The conference ends 22 June, 

Hostilities resumed, 26 June ; the Prussians bom- 
bard Alsen ; take the batteries and 2400 prisoners, 

29 June, 

The Monrad ministry resigns ; count Moltke 
charged to form an administration . 8-10 July, 

Alsen taken ; — Jutland placed under Prussian ad- 
ministration ; — Prince John of Denmark sent to 
negotiate at Berlin .... 9 July, 

Formation of the Bluhme ministry . .11 July, 

Armistice agreed to . . . .18 July, 

Conference for peace at Vienna . . .26 July, 

Treaty of peace signed at Vienna ; — the king of Den- 
mark resigns the duchies to the disposal of the 
allies, and agrees to a rectification of his frontier, 
and to pay a large sum of money to defray the 
expenses of the war .... 30 Oct. 

Proclamation of the king to the inhabitants of the 

duchies, releasing them from their allegiance, 

* 16 Nov. 

Project of a new constitution presented to the 
chambers, 21 Dec. ; rejected . . 25 Feb. 

New ministry formed under count Frijsenborg, 
6 Nov. ; a new constitution proposed, 7 Nov. 1865 ; 
app roved by the two chambers, 19 and 27 July ; 
sanctioned by the king ... 28 July, 

Princess Dagmar married to prince Alexander of 
Russia 9 Nov. 

New rigsraad opened . . . . 12 Nov. 

The king visited England .... March, 

The Danish West Indies, St. Thomas and St. John, 
proposed to be sold to the United States for 
i,5oo,oooZ. — proclamation in the islands dated 

25 Oct. 

Proposed sale of St. Thomas's to the United States 
approved by the assembly (not carried out), 30 Jan. 

Marriage of the crown prince Frederic to the prin- 
cess Louisa of Sweden ... 28 July, 

New ministry formed by M. Holsteinborg, 20 May, 

Denmark remains neutral in the Franco-Prussian 
war ; fruitless visit of the due de Cadore to 
Copenhagen 4- 11 Aug 

Birth of a son to the crown prince . . 27 Sept. 

Destructive hurricane over the kingdom ; loss of life 
and property 12, 13 Nov. 

Parliament opened 1 Oct. 

War budget reduced . . . . 18 Dec. 

Meeting of the International at Copenhagen forbid- 
den ; chiefs arrested .... 5 May, 

Industrial exhibition opened . . 13 June, 

Statue of Frederick VII., at Copenhagen, solemnly 
inaugurated 6 Oct. 

A communistic party in the assembly (folkething) 
defeat the ministry, 4 Dec. ; the king refuses to 
dismiss it 6 Dec. 

New ministry under Fonnesbeck . . 14 July, 

The king visits Iceland (which sec), July-Aug. ; 
Edinburgh 16 Aug. 

Several ministerial changes 



1865 





A.D. 


,, 


794- 


,, 


803. 


1867 


850. 




8S4- 




883. 




941. 


,, 


991. 




1014. 


1868 






i°35- 


1869 


1042. 


1870 


1047. 




I °73- 




1076 




1080. 




1086 




1C95. 


,, 


1 103. 


1871 


1 105. 


„ 


"35 




"37 


1872 


"47 




"57 


1873 


1182 




1202. 




1241 


,, 


1250. 


1874 






1252. 


,, 


1259 


1875 


1286 



/. B. S. Estrup, president of the ministry, 11 June, 1875 

The folkething, defeating the government on the 
question of fortifications, is dissolved 29 March, „ 

New assembly meets, 15 May ; votes no confidence 
in the ministry, 12 June ; is adjourned, 24 June, 1876 

Continued contest between the king and senate and 
the lower house Oct. ,, 

Crisis respecting the supplies .... Dec. ,, 

The session closed without settling the budget, 

4 April, 1877 

Provision made by the king for it in accordance 
with the constitution . . . .12 April, „ 

Political crisis ; an armistice agreed to . 8 Nov. ,, 

Marriage of princess Thyra with the duke of Cum- 
berland 11 Dec. 1878 

The lower house dismissed by the king as incapable 
and idle about 10 May, 1881 

Anna Kristiane Ludvigsen, author of patriotic 
songs, dies, aged 90 .... 27 July, 1884 

Opposition of the lower house continues ; legisla- 
tion greatly stopped 1881-4 

Elections : lower house, 82 liberals (opposition) ; 
20 conservatives June, 1884 

The king recommends unity in providing national 
defence about 30 Oct. ,, 

The king refuses to dismiss his ministry, 21 March ; 
closes parliament ; decrees financial arrangement, 

1 April, 1885 

Importation and possession of arms and drill pro- 
hibited 5 May, „ 

M. Estrup fired at by Julius Rasinussen 21 Oct. ,, 

The parliament condemns the restrictive press laws 
by great majority 21 Dec. „ 

M. Berg, president of the assembly, sentenced to 
six months' imprisonment for obstructing the 
police at a meeting Jan. 1886 

Discord in parliament, which is closed . 8 Feb. ,, 

Fusion of two parties forming the left of the 
Diet about 26 Oct. ,, 

The folkething dissolved .... 8 Jan. 18S7 

Amnesty granted to political prisoners on the 
king's 70th birthday .... 8 April, 1888 

25th anniversary of the king's accession celebrated 

15th Nov. „ 

The Budget rejected 16 Oct. 1885 ; 26 Jan. 1886 ; 
1 April, 1887 ; 1 April, 1888 ; 1 April, 1889 ; 31 
March, 1890 ; 1 April, 1891 — the revenue collected 
by royal decree ■ 1886-91 

The king decrees a provisional budget for 1892-3 

1 April, 1892 

Elections for the folkething ; the moderates suc- 
cessful 20 April, ,, 

National celebration of the king's golden wedding, 

26 Mav, ,, 



SOVEREIGNS. 

Sigurd Snogoje. 

Hardi Canute. 

Eric I. 

Eric II. 

Gornio, the Old ; reigned 53 years. 

Harold, surnamed Blue Tooth. 

Suenon, or Sweyn, the Forked-beard. 

Canute II. the Great, king of Denmark and 

England. 
Canute III., son (Hardicanute of England). 
Magnus, surnamed the Good, of Norway. 
Suenon, or Sweyn II. (Denmark only). 
[Interregnum.] 
Harold, called the Simple. 
Canute IV. 

Olaus I V. the Hungry. 
Eric I., styled the Good. 
[Interregnum.] 

Nicholas I. killed at Sleswick. 
Eric II., surnamed Harefoot. 
Eric III. the Lamb. 

J Suenon, or Sweyn III. : beheaded. 

1 Canute V. until 1157 (civil war). 
Waldemar, styled the Great. 
Canute VI., surnamed the Pious. 
Waldemar II. the Victorious. 
Eric IV. 
Abel : assassinated his elder brother Eric ; killed 

in an expedition against the Frisons. 
Christopher I. : poisoned. 
Eric V. 
Eric VI. 



DENNEWITZ. 



282 



DERBY. 



1320. Christopher II. 

1334. [Interregnum of seven years.] 

1340. Waldemar III. 

x 375- [Interregnum.] 

1376. Olaus V. 

1387. Margaret, styled the "Semiramis of the North," 

queen of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark. 
1397. Margaret and Eric VII. (Eric XIII. of Sweden.) 
1412. Eric VII. reigns alone ; obliged to resign both 

crowns. 
1438. [Interregnum.] 
1440. Christopher III. king of Sweden. 
1448. Christian I. count of Oldenburg ; elected king of 

Denmark, 1448 ; of Sweden, 1457 ; succeeded by 

his son, 
1481. John ; succeeded by his son, 
1513. Christian II. called the Cruel, and the " Nero of 

the North ; " he caused all the Swedish nobility 

to be massacred : dethroned for his tyranny in 

1523 ; died in a dungeon in 1559. 
[Sweden separated from Denmark.] 

DENMARK AND NORWAY. 

1523. Frederick I. duke of Holstein, son of Christian I. ; 

a liberal ruler. 
1533. Christian III. son of Frederick ; established the 

Lutheran religion ; esteemed the " Father of his 

People." 
1559. Frederick II. son of Christian III. 
1588. Christian IV. son. 
1648. Frederick III. ; changed the constitution from an 

elective to an hereditary monarchy, vested in 

his own family, 1665. 
1670. Christian V., son of Frederick III. ; succeeded by 

his son. 
1699. Frederick IV. ; leagued with the czar Peter and the 

king of Poland against Charles XII. of Sweden. 
1730. Christian VI. his son. 
1746. Frederick V. his son : married the princess Louisa 

of England, daughter of George II. 
1766. Christian VII. his son. See p. 
1784. Prince Frederick declared regent, in consequence 

of the mental derangement of his father. 
1808. Frederick VI. previously regent, now king. 
1814. Norway annexed to Sweden, 14 Jan. 

DENMARK. 

1839. Christian VIII. (son of Frederick, brother of 
Christian VII.) 

1848. Frederick VII. son of Christian VIII. ; 20 Jan. ; 
born 6 Oct. 1808 ; separated from "his first wife, 
Sept. 1837 ; from his second wife, Sept. 1846 ; 
married morganatioally Louisa, countess of 
Danner, 7 Aug. 1850 ; died 15 Nov. 1863. 

1863. Christian IX. son of William, duke of Schleswig- 
Holstein-Sonderburg-Gliicksburg ; 15 Nov. suc- 
ceeded by virtue of the protocol of London, 8 
May, 1852, and of the law of the Danish succes- 
sion, 31 July, 1853.) He was born 8 April, 1818 ; 
married princess Louisa of Hesse-Cassel, 26 
May, 1842. [He is descended from Christian III. 
and she from Frederick V. ; both from George II. 
of England.] 

Heir : Frederick (his son), born 3 June, 1843 ; married 
princess Louisa of Sweden, 28 July, 1869. Son : 
Christian, born 26 Sept., 1870. 

DENNEWITZ (P.ussia), here a victory was 
obtained by marshal Bernadotte (afterwards 
Charles XIV., king of Sweden), over marshal Ney, 
6 Sept. 1813. The loss of the French exceeded 
13.000 men, several eagles, and cannon; of the 
allies, 6000. The defeat of Napoleon at Leipsic, on 
the 1 8th of October following, closed this disastrous 
campaign. 

DENOMINATIONS, The Theee (pres- 

byterians, congregationalists or independents, and 
baptists), were organised in 1727 as an association, 
with the privilege of direct appeal to the reigning 
sovereign of Great Britain. 

DENTISTS, an act for regulating their educa- 
tion and registration, passed, 22 July, 1878. 
The Odontologieal Society (of Dentists), established 1856. 
The Dental Hospital of London, Leicester-square, was 

established i8j8. See Odontology ■. 



DEODAND (Latin, " to be given to Gfad") : 
formerly anything which had caused the death of 
a human being became forfeit to the sovereign or 
lord of the manor, and was to be sold for the benefit 
of the poor. The forfeiture was abolished by 9 & 
10 Vict. c. 62 (1846). 

D'EON, CHEVALIER, who had acted in a 
diplomatic capacity in several countries, and been 
minister plenipotentiary from France in London, 
was affirmed to be a female, at a trial at the King's 
Bench in 1771, in an action to recover wagers as to 
his sex. He subsequently wore female attire ; but 
at his death he was proved to be a male. 

DEONTOLOGY, the knowledge of what is 
right, or the science of dut5 r (from the Greek to deon, 
that which is proper), an element of the Utilitarian 
philosophy propounded by Jeremy Bentham in his 
" Deontology," published by Dr. Bowring in 1834. 

DEPARTMENTS, see France. 

DEPRESSION OF TRADE, see Trade, 1885. 

DEPTFOBD (near London). The hospital 
here was incorporated by Henry VIII. about 1512, 
and called the Trinity-house of Deptford Strond ; 
the brethren of Trinity-house hold their corporate 
rights by this hospital. The dockyard, founded 
about 1513, was closed 31 March, 1869, having been 
purchased by Mr. T. P. Austin for 70,000/. He sold 
part of it to the corporation of London for 94,640/., 
for a market for foreign cattle, which was opened 
for use, 28 Dec. 1871. On 4 April, 15S1, Queen 
Elizabeth dined at Deptford on board the Golden 
Hind, the ship in which Drake had made his 
voyage round the globe. The Deptford victualling- 
office was burnt 16 Jan. 1748-9; the store-house, 2 
Sept. 1758; the red-house, 26 Feb. 1761; and the 
king's-mill, 1 Dec. 1755. Peter the Great of Kussia 
lived at Evelyn's house, Say's-court, while learning 
ship-building, &c, in 1698. By the acts, 1884-5, 
Deptford returns one member to parliament, John 
Evelyn the first. - 

DEPUTIES,. Chamber of, the title borne 

by the French legislative assembly, from the resto- 
ration of the Bourbons in 1814 till Jan. 1852, when 
it was named " Corps Legislatif." 

DERBY was made a royal burgh by Egbert 
(about 828) . Alfred expelled the Danes from it and 
planted a colony in 8S0. His heroic daughter, 
Ethelfleda, again expelled the Danes in 918. 
William I. gave Derby to his illegitimate son 
William Peveril. Lombe's silk-throwing machine 
was set up in 1718; and in 175&, Jedediah Strutt 
invented the Derby ribbed stocking-frame. The 
young Pretender reached Derby, 3 Dec. 1745, and 
retreated thence soon after. The new town-hall was 
opened 29 May, 1866. The midland counties fine 
art exhibition was held here, and was opened by the 
duke of Devonshire, 5 May, 1870. Mr. M. T. Bass 
gives 25,000/. for a museum and library, and an en- 
dowment of 3000/. for an art gallery announced, Jan. 
1882. Art gallery, the gift of Mr. M. Bass and others, 
opened 4 Nov. 1882. The Queen laid the founda- 
tion-stone of the Derbyshire Royal Infirmary, 21 
May, 1891. Population, 1881,81,168; 1891, 94,146. 
Derby Trials. Brandreth, Turner, Ludlam senior, 
Ludlam junior, Weightman, and others, Luddites, con- 
victed at a commission of high treason, 15 Oqt. 1817 ; 
and Brandreth, Turner, and the elder Ludlam exe- 
cuted, 7 Nov. following. 23 were tried, and 12 not 
tried. 
21 prisoners indicted at Derby for the murder of several 
miners in the Red-soil mine ; but were acquitted on the 
ground that the mischief was not wilful, 23 March, 
1834. 
The new Grand Theatre burnt ; 3 deaths, 6 May, 1886. 



DERBY ADMINISTRATIONS. 



283 



DERVISH. 



DERBY ADMINISTRATIONS : the first 
formed after the resignation of lord John Russell, 
21 Feb. 1852. (facetiously termed the "who ivJw 
administration ," from the duke of 'Wellington's 
inquiry) . 

FIRST ADMINISTRATION, 27 Feb. 1852. 

First lord of the treasury, Edward, earl of Derby.* 

Lord chancellor, lord St. Leonards (previously sir Edward 

Sugden). 
President of the council, earl of Lonsdale. 
Lord privy seal, marquis of Salisbury. 
Home, foreign, and colonial secretaries, Spencer Horatio 

Walpole, earl of Malmesbury, and sir John Pakington. 
Chancellor of the exchequer, Benjamin Disraeli. 
Board of control, John Charles Hemes. 
Board of trade, Joseph Warner Henley. 
Postmaster-general, earl of Hardwicke. 
Secretary-at-war, William Beresford. 
First commissioner of works and public buildings, lord 

John Manners. 
Robert Adam Christopher, lord Colchester, &c. 
[Defeated on the budget, 16 Dee. ; resigned 17 Dec. 1852 ; 

succeeded by the Aberdeen administration.] 

SECOND ADMINISTRATION, 25 Feb. 1858. 

First lord of the treasury, earl of Derby. 

Lord chancellor, lord Chelmsford (previously sir F. 
Thesiger). 

Chancellor of the exchequer, Benjamin Disraeli. 

Secretaries— foreign, earl of Malmesbury ; home, Spencer 
H. Walpole (resigned March, 1859), T. Sotheron Est- 
court ; colonies, lord Stanley; in June, 1858, sir E. 
Bulwer Lytton ; war. col. Jonathan Peel. 

Presidents — of the council, marquis of Salisbury ; of board 
of control (India), 1, earl of Ellenborough (who resigned 
in May, 1858 ; he had sent a letter, on his own autho- 
rity, censuring the proclamation of lord Canning to the 
Oude insurgents ; the government hardly escaped 'a 
vote of censure) ; 2, in June, 1858, lord Stanley; — 
board of trade, Mr. Joseph W. Henley (resigned in 
March, 1859); earl of Donoughmore ; — board of ivories, 
lord John Manners. 

Lord privy seal, earl of Hardwicke. 

First lord of the admiralty, sir John S. Pakington. 

Postmaster, lord Colchester. 

Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, duke of Montrose. 

[This ministry resigned in consequence of a vote of want 
of confidence, 11 June, 1850 ; it was succeeded by the 
Palmerston-Bussell cabinet (which see).] ■ 

THIRD ADMINISTRATION, CONSTITUTED 6 July, 1866. 

First lord of the treasury, Edward, earl of Derby. 

Lord chancellor, Frederick, lord Chelmsford. 

President of council, Richard, duke of Buckingham ; 
succeeded by John, duke of Marlborough, 8 March, 
1867. 

Lord privy seal, James, earl of Malmesbury. 

Secretaries — home, Spencer Horatio Walpole, resigned ; 
Gathorne Hardy, 17 May, T867 ;— foreign, Edward, lord 
Stanley ; — colonies, Henry, earl of Carnarvon, resigned ; 
Richard, duke of Buckingham and Chandos, 8 March, 
1867 ; — war, lieut.-gen. sir Jonathan Peel, resigned ; 
sir John Somerset Pakington, 8 March, 1867 ;— India, 
Robert, lord Cranborne, resigned ; sir Stafford Henry 
Northcote, 8 March, 1867. 

Chancellor of the exchequer, Benjamin Disraeli. 

First lord of admiralty, sir John S. Pakington ; suc- 
ceeded by Henry Thomas Corry, 8 March, 1867. 

Chief commissioner of works, &c, lord John Manners. 

President of board of trade, sir Stafford Northcote; suc- 
ceeded by Charles Henry, duke of Richmond, March, 
1867. 

Chief secretary for Ireland, Richard, lord Naas (afterwards 
earl of Mayo) 

President of poor-law board, Gathorne Hardy ; succeeded 
by Wm. Reginald, earl of Devon (not in cabinet), 17 
May, 1867. 

Horatio Spencer Walpole, without nfflce. 

The above formed the cabinet, Feb. 1868. 

Postmaster-general, James, duke of Montrose. 

Ijord chamberlain, Orlando, earl of Bradford. 

* Born 1799 ; M.P. for Stockbridge (as lion. E. G. S. 
Stanley) in 1S20; chief secretary for Ireland, 1830-33; 
secretary for the colonies, 1833-4, and 1841-5 ; termed the 
" Rupert of debate " by lord Lytton in "the New Timon," 
1845 ; succeeded his father as earl of Derby, 30 June, 
1851 ; resigned 25 Feb. 1868 ; died 23 Oct. 1869. 



Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, William, earl of 
Devon ; succeeded by colonel John Wilson Patten, 
June, 1867. 
Lord-lieutenant of Ireland, James, earl (afterwards mar- 
quis) of Abercorn. 
[The earl of Derby resigned through ill-health, 25 Feb. 
1868 ; and Mr. Disraeli reconstituted the ministry, 
see Disraeli.] 

DERBY DAY (see Races), generally (not 
always) the "Wednesday in the week preceding 
Whitsunday, the second day of the grand spring 
meeting at Epsom. Mr. Henry Hall, who painted 
43 consecutive winners of the Derby, died 22 April,, 
1882. 

'THE DERBY" AT EPSOM. 

1876. Kisber, or Mineral 
Colt (Hungarian, owner, 
Alex. Baltazzi), 3r May. 

1877. Silvio (30 May). 



RECENT WINNERS OF 

1846. Pyrrhus. 

1847. Cossaek. 

1848. Surplice. 

1849. Flying Dutchman. 

1850. Voltigeur. 

1851. Teddington. 

1852. Daniel O'Rourke. 

1853. West Australian. 

1854. Andover. 

1855. Wild Dayrell. 

1856. Ellington. 

1857. Blink Bonny. 

1858. Beadsman. 

1859. Musjid. 
i860. Thormanby. 
1861. Kettledrum. 
1S62. Caractacus. 

1863. Macaroni. 

1864. Blair A.thc-1. 

1865. Gladiateur, 31 May 
(a horse reared in France, 
the property of the comte 
de la Grange. He also 
won the St. Legerat Don- 
caster, 13 Sept.). 

1866. Lord Lyon (16 May). 

1867. Hermit (22 May). 

1868. Blue Gown (27 May). 

1869. Pretender (26 May). 

1870. Kingcraft (1 June). 

1871. Favouius (24 May). 

1872. Cremorne (29 May). 

1873. Doncaster (28 May). 

1874. George Frederick 
(3 June). 

1875. Galopin (26 May). 



1878. Sefton (5 June). 

1879. Sir Bevys (baron 
Rothschild's) 28 May 

1880. Bend Or (duke of 
Westminster's) May 26. 

1881. Iroquois (Mr. Loril- 
lard's, au American), r 
June. 

1882. Shotovei (duke of 
Westminster's), 24 May. 

1883. St. Blaise (sir Fredk. 
Johnstone's) 23 May. 

1884. St. Gatien (J. Ham- 
mond's), and Harvester 
(sir J. Willouguby's), 2S 
May. 

1885. Melton (Id. Hastings)* 
3 June. 

1886. Ormonde (duke of 
Westminster) 26 May. 

1887. Merry Hampton (Mr. 
Abington) 25 May. 

1888. Ayrshire (duke of 
Portland) 30 May. 

1889. Donovan (duke of 
Portland), 5 June. 

1890. Sanfoin (sir James 
Miller), 4 June. 

1891. Common (sir F. John- 
stone), 27 May. 

1892. Sir Hugo "(lord Brad- 
ford), 1 June. 



DERELICT LAND TRUST, formed by 
subscription to promote the cultivation of farms in 
Ireland from which the tenants have been evicted 
for non-payment of rent. "Plantations" in County 
Wexford were formed in 1889. 

DERRICKS are lofty, portable crane-like 
structures, used on land and water for lifting enor- 
mous loads, and in some cases depositing them at am 
elevation. They are extensively used in the United 
States, and were introduced into England as floating 
derricks for raising sunken vessels, by their inventor,. 
A. D. Bishop, in 1857. 

DERRY (N. Ireland), a bishopric first at Ard- 
frath ; thence translated to Maghera ; and in 1158 
to Deny. The cathedral, built in 1164, becoming 
ruinous, was rebuilt by Londoners, who settled hero- 
in the reign of James I. The see is valued in the 
king's books at 250/. sterling ; but it has been one of 
the richest sees in Ireland. Bcatson. The see was- 
united to Derry, 1834 ; see Bishops ; Londonderry. 

DERVISH. Probably a corruption of der-pish 
or iler-bish, one in advance. The dervishes of the- 
present time, fanatical enthusiasts, unrecognized by 
orthodoxy, originated in Persia, whence they spread 
over the Mahommedan world. Those now attack- 
ing Egypt are said to be subject to Imam Mahomet 
el Manai, a successor of the late Mahdi of Obeid of 
Khartoum. The dervishes have great influence- 
over the ignorant masses. See Soudan. 



DESCENT OF MAN. 



284 



DIADEM. 



DESCENT OF MAN, see Development. 

"DESERTED VILLAGE," a poem, by Dr. 
Oliver Goldsmith, first published, May, 1770. 

DESICCATING APPARATUS, see under 
Say. 

DESIGN, SCHOOLS OF, established by go- 
vernment, began at Somerset-house, London, 1 Jan. 
1837. In 1852 the head school was removed to 
Marlborough-house, and became eventually " the 
department of science and art," transferred to South 
Kensington in 1857. It is under the direction of the 
committee of council on education. See Copyright. 

DESPAED'S CONSPIRACY. Colonel Ed- 
ward Marcus Despard, a native of Ireland, Brough- 
ton, Francis, Graham, Macnamara, Wood, and 
Wratten, conspired to kill the king, and establish a 
republic, on the day of opening parliament, 16 Nov. 
1802. Above 30 persons including soldiers were 
taken in custody ; of those tried, 20 Jan. 1803, 
Despard and six others were executed, 21 Feb. He 
had been a distinguished officer under Nelson. 

DESTITUTE CHILDREN'S DINNER 
SOCIETY, established in 1867, to give weekly 
meat dinners. 16,822 dinners given in 1869; 
147,858 dinners in 58 dining rooms in 1870 ; 1 14,000 
dinners in 42 dining rooms, year 1876-7; 170,000 
dinners in 49 rooms, 1878-9 ; now about 283,000 
annually. In 1890, the co-operation of several 
societies was effected. 

DESTRUCTIVE INSECTS (to crops), an 
act passed to prevent their introduction and spread- 
ing in Great -Britain, 14 Aug. 1877. See Colorado. 

DETECTIVE POLICE, see Police, and 

Trials, 1877. 

DETROIT, Michigan, N. America, the oldest 
city in the west, was built by the French about 1670. 
It is eminent for large metal works. Population in 
1880, 116,340; 1890, 205,876 

DETTINGEN (Bavaria), BATTLE OP, 16 (or 
27 0. S.) June, 1743, between the British, Hano- 
verian, and Hessian army (52,000), commanded by 
king George II. of England and the earl of Stair, and 
the French army (60,000), under marshal Noailles 
and the due de Grammont. The French passed a 
defile, which they should have merely guarded. 
The due de Grammont with his cavalry charged the 
British foot with great fury, but was so received 
that he was obliged to give way, and to repass the 
Maine, losing 3000 men. Handel's " Dettingen Te 
Deum," first performed, 27 Nov. 1743. 

DEUTERONOMY. See Bible, note. 

DEVELOPMENT (or Evolution) . Wolff put 
forth a theory of epigenesis in 1759; Lamarck, the 
naturalist, in 1809, propounded a theory that all 
animals had been developed from "monads," living 
minute particles ; see Species and Vestiges. Buffon 
held a similar doctrine. In 1827 Ernst von Baer of 
Kbnigsberg demonstrated that all mammals are de- 
veloped from a minute egg not a hundredth of an 
inch in diameter. Mr. C. Darwin's views are given 
in his "Origin of Species," 1859; and "Descent 
of Man," 1871. He supposes that man was gradu- 
ally evolved from the lowest created form of animal 
life. Hoeckel, his most advanced follower, pub- 
lished in German a " History of Creation," 1873 ; a 
translation in English, 1875. Mr. Alfred Wallace 
published his work on Natural Selection in 1870. 
See Evolution. 
The theory of the development of living beings out of 

the substance of the earth was put forth by Lucretius 

in his " De Rerum Natur:e," about 57 B.C. 

We cannot teach, we cannot pronounce it to be a con- 



quest of science, that man descends from the ape or 

from any other animal. We can only indicate it as a 

hypothesis." — Professor Virchow, 1877. 
" The primitive monads were born by spontaneous 

generation in the sea. " — Professor Hceckel, 1878. 
The Royal Society's Darwin medal was first awarded to 

Mr. Alfred Russel Wallace in 1890. 

DEVIL WORSHIP. Devil, Greek, diabolos, 
false accuser; Hebrew, satan, an adversary ; abad- 
don, desti'oyer, &c. The worship of devils is fre- 
quently mentioned in the Bible (Lev. xvii. 7 ; 
2 Citron, xi. 15 ; 1 Cor. x. 20 ; Rev. ix. 20, &c.) 
Mr. Layard describes the Yezidees as recognising 
one supreme being, yet reverencing the devil as a 
king or mighty angel, to be conciliated (1841). 
Mr. Moncure Conway's " Demonology and Devil-Lore," 

first published Dec. 1878. 

DEVIZES, a borough, Wiltshire; the castle 
here was founded by bp. Roger, about 1 107; and 
was for some time royal property until Cromwell 
besieged and ruined it. The remains were sold by 
the executors of the last holder, Mr. R. V. Leach, 
for 8,000/. in August, 1888. At Roundway Down, 
near here, sir William Waller and the parliamenta- 
rians were defeated, 13 July, 1643. Population in 
1881,6,645; 1891,6,426. 

DEVOLUTION, a term applied in 1886-8 to 
the transfer of business of minor importance in the 
parliament to grand or other committees (see Com- 
mittees). 

DEVONPORT, see Dockyards and Plymouth. 

' DEVONSHIRE, the country of the Dam- 
nonii or Dumnonii. Odun, earl of Devon, in 878, 
defeated the Danes, slew Ubbo or Hubba their chief, 
and captured his magic standard. A bishopric of 
Devonshire was founded in 909 ; see Exeter. 
Richard de Redvers, first earl of Devon, son of Baldwin, 

sheriff of Devonshire, died 1137. 

William Courtenay, the present earl, is descended from 

Robert de Courtenay and Mary de Redvers, daughter 

of William de Redvers, earl of Devon in 1184. 

William Cavendish, created first earl of Devonshire, 1618. 

William Cavendish (his great grandson), created first duke 

of Devonshire, 1694. 
His descendant, William Cavendish, born 27 April, 
1808 ; becaine earl of Burlington, 1834 ; and 7th duke 
of Devonshire, 1858 ; chancellor of the university of 
London, 1836 ; of the university of Cambridge, 1861. 
See Barrow-in-Furness, Eastbourne, and Owens College. 
The duke died 21 Dec, 1891. Spencer C. Cavendish, 
the 8th duke, was born 23rd July, 1833. See Gladstone. 
Administrations 1st and 2nd ; elected chancellor of the 
university of Cambridge, 4 Jan., 1892. 

DEVONSHIRE and PITT ADMINIS- 
TRATION, formed 16 Nov. 1756; dismissed 

5 April, 1757. 

First lord of the treasury, William, duke of Devonshire. 

Chancellor of the exchequer, hon. Henry Bilson Legge. 

Lord president, earl Granville (lord Carteret). 

Privy seal, earl Gower. 

Secretaries of state, earl of Holdernesse and Win. Pitt 

(afterwards earl of Chatham, the virtual premie?'). 
George Grenville, earl of Halifax, dukes of Rutland and 

Grafton, earl of Rochfort, viscount Barrington, &c. 

The great seal in commission. 

" DEVOUT LIFE." " Introduction a la Vie 
devote," written by St. Francois de Sales, and 
published 1608. He was born 21 Aug. 1567; bishop 
of Geneva, 1602 ; died, 28 Dec. 1622. 

DEW, the modern theory respecting it was put 
forth by Dr. Wells in'his book, 1814. 

DEWANGIRI, see India, 1865. 

DIADEM, the band or fillet worn by the 
ancients instead of the crown, and consecrated to the 
gods. At first it was made of silk or wool, set with 



DIALECTICAL SOCIETY. 



28.3 



DIAMONDS. 



precious stones, and was tied round the temples and 
forehead, the two ends being knotted behind, and 
let fall on the neck. Aurelian was the first Roman 
emperor who wore a diadem, 272. Tillcmont, 

DIALECTICAL SOCIETY, London, for 
the philosophical consideration of all subjects, with 
a view to the discover}^ and elucidation of truth, 
was established in 1865. The report of their 
committee on spiritualism was published in Nov. 
1 87 1. The dissolution of the Society reported 
May, 1888. See Wales, 1890. 

DIALS. "The sun-dial of Ahnz," 713 B.C. 
(Isa. xxxviii. 8). Adial invented by Anaximander, 
S50 B.C. Pliny. The first dial of the sun seen at 
Rome was placed on the temple of Quirinus by L. 
Papirius Cursor, when time was divided into hours, 
293 B.C. Blair. Dials set up in churches about 
a.d. 613. Lent/let. Mrs. Alfred Gatty's " Book of 
Sun Dials " was published in 1872. 

DIALYSIS, an important method of chemical 
analysis, depending on the different degrees of 
diffusibility of substances in liquids, was made 
known in 1861, by its discoverer, professor Thomas 
Graham, then master of the mint. 

DIA-MAGNETISM, the property possessed 
by nearly all bodies of behaving differently to iron, 
when placed between two magnets. The pheno- 
mena, previously little known, were reduced to a 
law by Faraday in 1845, and confirmed by Tyndall 
and others. 

DIAMOND, a hamlet, Armagh, N. Ireland, 
where was fought the " battle of the Diamond," 21 
Sept. 1795, between the " Peep-o'-day -boys'" and 
the "Defenders," and many of the latter were killed. 
To commemorate this conflict the first Orange 
Lodge was formed immediately after. See De- 
fenders. 

DIAMONDS were first brought to Europe 
from the East, where the mine of Sumbulpoor was 
the first known. Golconda, in India, now in ruins, 
Avas a celebrated diamond mart. The mines of 
Brazil were discovered in 1728. From these 
last a diamond, weighing 1680 carats, or fourteen 
ounces, was sent to the court of Portugal, and was 
valued by Mr. Romeo de I' Isle at 224 millions; 
by others at 56 millions, and at 35 millions ; its 
true value (not being brilliant) was 400,000/. 

The great Russian diamond weighs 193 carats, or 1 oz. 
12 dwts. 4 gr. troy. The empress Catherine II. offered 
for it 104,166?. 13s. 4c?., besides an annuity for life to 
the owner of 1041?. 13s. 41?., which was refused ; but it 
was afterwards sold to Catherine's favourite, count 
Orloff, for the first -mentioned sum, without the 
annuity, and was by him presented to the empress 
on her birthday, 1772 ; it is now in the sceptre of 
Russia. 

The Pitt (or Regent) diamond weighed 136 carats, and 
after cutting, 106 carats : it was sold to the king of 
France for 125,000?. in 1720. 

The Pigott diamond (bought by Mr. Pitt, grandfather 
of Win. Pitt) was sold for 9500 guineas, 10 May, 1802. 

'The diamond called the Kohinoor, Koh-i-Nub, or 
Mountain of Light, has a legendary history, and 
is said to have belonged in turn to Shah Jehan, 
Aurungzcbe, Nadir Shah, the Afghan rulers, and after- 
wards to the Sikh chief Runjeet Singh. Upon the ab- 
dication of Dhuleep Singh, the last ruler of the Pun- 
jab, and the annexation of his dominions to the British 
empire, in 1849, the Kohinoor was surrendered to the 
queen. It was accordingly brought over and presi nted 
to her, 3 July, 1850. It was shown in the Great Exhi- 
bition, 1851. Its original weight was neaiTy 800 carats, 

' but it was reduced by the unskilfulness of the artist, 
Hortensio Borghese, a Venetian, to 279 carats. Its 
shape and size resembled the pointed half (rose cut) of 



a small hen's egg. The value is scarcely computable, 
though two millions sterling have been mentioned as a 
justifiable price, if calculated by the scale employed in 
the trade. This diamond was re-cut in 1852, and now 
weighs 102J carats. 

The Sanci diamond, which belonged to Charles the 
Bold, duke of Burgundy, was bought by sir C. 
Jejeebhoy from the Demidoff family for 20,000?. in 
Feb. 1865. 

Mr. Porter Rhode's great diamond (weighing 150 carats; 
alleged value 60,000?.) found at Kimberlev 12 Feb' 
1880, exhibited by Mr. Streeter, Bond-street, London 
Nov. 1 88 1. 

Ancient diamond said to have belonged to the Mogul 
emperors of India, date of engraved characters possibly 
1200, shown by Mr. Bryce Wright, Jan. 1882. 

A diamond, termed the Star of the South, was brought 
from Brazil in 1855, weighing 254^ carats, half of which, 
was lost by cutting. 

Diamonds were discovered in Cape Colony, S. Africa, in 
March, 1867. A fine one, termed the '"'Star of South 
Africa," brought to England in 1869, was purchased by 
Messrs. Hunt and Roskell. After cutting, it weighed 
46J carats, and was valued at 25,000?., in June, 1870. 

Rich diamond fields recently discovered near the Vaal 
and Orange rivers, Sept. 1870. 

Great influx of diggers, and many fine diamonds found,, 
Nov. Value of 141 diamonds fe-ud in 1869, 7405?. ; oif 
5661 found in 1870, 124,910?. ; about 2,000,000?. said to 
be exported in 1877. See GriquoAand, West. 

The largest African diamond found, weighing 302 
carats, at Kimbcrley, named " Victoria," 27 March, 
1884. 

Several magnificent South African diamonds have since 
been discovered— one said to weigh 400 carats, reduced 
by cutting to 180. 1884-8. 

Estimated value of South African diamonds up to 1886, 
40,000,000?. 

By a fire and panic in De Beer's mine, Kimberley, about 
220 perish, 11 July, 1888. 

Diamonds discovered in British Guiana by Mr. Kaufmann , 
spring, 1891. 

Diamond Necklace Affair.- In 1785, Boehmer, the 
court jeweller of France, ottered the queen Marie An- 
toinette, a diamond necklace, for 56,000?. The queen 
desired the necklace, but feared the expense. The 
countess de la Motte (of the ancient house of Valois) 
forged the queen's signature, and by pretending that 
the queen had an attachment for him, persuaded the 
cardinal de Rohan, the queen's almoner, to conclude a. 
bargain with the jeweller for the necklace for 56,000?. 
De la Motte thus obtained the necklace and made away 
with it. For this she was tried in 1786, and sentenced 
to be branded on the shoulders and imprisoned for life. 
She accused in vain the celebrated Italian adventurer. 
Cagliostro, of complicity in the affair, he being then 
intimate with the cardinal. She made her escape and 
came to London, where she was killed by falling from 
a window-sill, in attempting to escape an arrest for 
debt.— De Rohan was tried and acquitted, 14 April. 
1786. The public in France at that time suspected the 
queen of being a party to the fraud. Talleyrand wrote 
at the time, that he. should not be surprised if this 
miserable affair overturned the throne. 

Diamond Robbery. See Trials, 1871. 

Diamonds valued' at 50,000?. stolen from the post-office 
at Capetown about 20 March, 1880. 

Artificial Diamonds: those prepared by Mr. MacTcar of 
Glasgow, examined by Mr. Story Maskelyne, and de- 
clared not to be diamonds, 30 Dec. 1879 ; acknowledged 
by Mr. MacTear, Jan. 1880. 

Diamonds said to have been made by J. Ballantine 
Hannay at Glasgow, announced in Tim s, 20 Feb. 1880. 

Diamonds said to have been made at Paris, 18S0. 

For the " imperial diamond " case, see Trials, Dec. 1891. 

Inflammability of Diamonds. 

Boetius de Boot conjectured that the diamond was in- 
flammable, 1609. When exposed to a high temperature 
it gave an acrid vapour, in which a part of it was dis- 
sipated, 1673. Boyle. 

Sir Isaac Newton concluded from iis great refracting 
power, that it must be combustible, 1675. 

Averani demonstrated, by concentrating the rays or the 
sun upon it, that the diamond was exhaled in vapour, 
and entirely disappeared, while other precious stones 
merely grow softer, 1605. 



DIANA. 



286 



"DIEFJ-DONNE." 



St has been ascertained by Guy ton, Davy, and others, 
that diamonds contain nothing but pure charcoal, or 
■carbon. Diamonds were charred by the intense heat 
of the voltaic battery— by M. Dumas, in Paris, and by 
professor Faraday, in London, in 1848. 

DIANA, TEMPLE OF (at Ephesus), accounted 
one of the seven wonders of the world, was built at 
the common charge of all the Asiatic states, 552 
B.C. ; the chief architect being Ctesiphon. Pliny 
■says that 220 years were employed in completing it. 
It was 425 feet long, 225 broad, and was supported 
by 127 columns (60 feet high, each weighing 150 
tons of Parian marble), furnished by so many 
kings. It was set on fire, on the night of the birth 
of Alexander the Great, by Herostratus or Erato- 
stratus, who confessed that his sole motive was the 
■desire of transmitting his name to future ages, 356 
B.C. The temple was rebuilt, but again burnt by 
the Goths, in their naval invasion, a.d. 256 or 262. 
In April, 1869, Mr. J. T. Wood discovered the site 
•of the second temple ; and since then sculptured 
marble columns have been removed to the British 
Museum. Diana was the Koman name of the 
Greek Artemis. 

DIARY of the Crown Prince of Prussia, see 
Prussia, 188?. 

DICE. The invention of dice is mythically 
ascribed to Palamede«, of Greece, about 1244. B.C. 
The game of tali and tessera among the Eomans 
was played with dice. Stow mentions two enter- 
tainments given by the city of London, at which 
-dice were played. Act to regulate the licences of 
makers, and the sale of dice, 9 Geo. IV. 1828. 

DICHEOOSCOPE, an optical apparatus, de- 
scribed by the inventor, professor Dove of Berlin, 
in i860, who intended it to represent interferences, 
spectra in coloured lights, polarisation of light, &c. 

DICTATORS were supreme and absolute 
magistrates of Rome, appointed to act in critical 
times. Titus Lartius, the first dictator, was ap- 
pointed, 501 B.C. Cams Marcius Rutilus was the 
first plebeian dictator, 356 B.C. This office became 
odious by the usurpations of Sylla and Julius 
€a?sar; and after the death of the latter, the Roman 
senate, on the motion of the consul Antony, passed 
a law forbidding a dictator to exist in Rome, 44 B.C. 
The dictator was also called master of the people, 
and had under him a master of the horse. 

DICTIONARY. A standard dictionary of the 
Chinese language, containing about 40,000 charac- 
ters, most of them hieroglyphic, or rude representa- 
tions, somewhat like our signs of the zodiac, was 
perfected by Pa-out-she, who lived about 1100 B.C. 
Morrison; see Encyclopedias, Music, &c. 
A Latin one was compiled by Varro, born . B.C. 116 
Varro's work " de Lingua Latina " ; he died . . 28 
The " Onomastieon," a collection of vocabularies 

in Greek, by Julius Pollux, was published about a. d. 177 
The " Catholicon," an attempt at a Latin Lexicon, 
by Friar Johannes Balbus Januensis, printed at 

Mentz 1460 

The lirst noted polyglot dictionary, perhaps the 
first, is by Ambrose Calepiui, a Venetian friar, in 
Latin ; he wrote one in eight languages. Niceron. 

about 1500 
John E. Avenar's Dictionarium Hebraicwm was pub- 
lished at Wittenberg in 1589. Buxtorf's great 
work, Lexicon Hebraicum, &c, appeared . .1621 
The Lexicon Heptaglotton was published by Edmund 

Castell, in 1669 

The great English dictionary by Samuel Johnson 

appeared in i75S 

Francis Grose's Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue 

(or Slang) was compiled in 1768 

" Slang Dictionary," by Albert Barrere and 
Charles G. Leland, 2 vols. .... 1889-90 



The following academies have published large dic- 
tionaries of their respective languages : the French 
academy, (the first, edited by Vaugelas,) 1694; 
new editions, 1718, 1740, 1762, 1835, and 1878 ; 
the Spanish, 1726 ; the Italian academy (della 
Crusea) 1729 ; and the Russian . . . 1789-94 

Schwan's great German-French dictionary appeared 1782 

Richardson's English dictionary appeared . . 1836 

Lempriere's Classical Dictionary, which first ap- 
peared in 1788, is now superseded by Dr. W. 
Smith's classical series 1842-90 

The Philological Society of London issued "pro- 
posals for a New English dictionary," on the his- 
torical method, 1859 ; after some delay the work 
was vigorously revived ; editor, Dr. J. H. Murray 1879 

[About 5000 authors, dating from 1150 to 18S3, have 
been read by about 13,000 persons (British and 
American), who made about 3,000,000 extracts. 
Part I., published Feb. 1884, was considered 
highly successful, and a specimen of the grandest 
lexicographical work ever produced. Vol. III. 
part I. 1892.] 

The great German dictionary, by Jacob andWilhelm 
Grimm 1854 ci se( l- 

Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood's Dictionary of English 
Etymology 1859-67 

Smith's Dictionary of the Bible was published . 1860-3 

The earliest known English- Latin dictionary is the 
Promptorium Parvulorum, compiled by Galfridus 
Grammaticus, a preaching friar of Norfolk, in 
1440 ; and printed by Pynson, as Promptorius 
Puerorum, in 1499. A new edition, carefully 
edited by Mr. Albert Way, from MSS. , was pub- 
lished by the Camden Society . . . 1843-65 

The great French dictionary, by E. Littre, 1863-72 ; 
supplement 1877 

The "Bona Fide French and English Dictionary" 
(4J inches by 2J, weight 4 oz.), printed by Bellows, 

1873 et seg. 

The Imperial Dictionary of the English Language, 
by John Ogilvie. New edition by Charles An- 
nandale, 4 vols, published 1882 

Rev. W. W. Skeat's "Etymological Dictionary of 
the English language" published . . . 1882-4 

" The Century Dictionary : " an encyclopedic 
lexicon of the English language, edited by Prof. 
W. D. Whitney, 6 vols 1889-91 

DIDYMIUM, a rare metal, discovered by 
Mosander in 1841. It appears to be always asso- 
ciated with lanthanum and cerium. Declared to be 
a compound by Mr. W. Crookes in 1888. 

DIEPPE (N. France). This town was bom- 
barded by an English fleet, under admiral Russell, 
and laid in ashes, July, 1694. It was again bom- 
barded in 1794 ; and again, together with the town 
of Granville, by the British, 14 Sept. 1803. 

"DIES IRJE" ("Day of Wrath"), a Latin 
mediaeval hymn on the day of judgment, is ascribed 
to various authors, amongst others to pope Gregory 
the Great (died about 604) ; St. Bernard (died 1153) ; 
but is generally considered to have been composed 
by Thomas of Celano (died 1255), and to have been 
used in the Roman service of tlie mass before 1385. 

DIET of the German Empire (in which 
the supreme court of authority of the empire may 
be said to have existed) was composed of three 
colleges : one of electors, one of princes, and one of 
imperial towns, and commenced with the edict of 
Charles IV. 1356; see Golden Bull; Wurzburg 
(1180) ; Nuremberg (1467) ; Worms (1521) ; Spires 
(1529) ; Augsburg (1530) ; Batisbon (1541) ; Frank- 
fort (1806, et seq.) ; and Germany. 

DIETHEROSCOPE, an apparatus for 
geodesy and teaching optics, constructed by G. 
Luvini, of Tunis, and announced, April, 1876. 

" D LEU-DONNE," the name given in his in- 
fancy to Louis le Grand, king of France, the queen, 
his mother, having been barren for 23 years pre- 



DIEU ET MON DROIT. 



287 



DIPLOMAS. 



viously,- 1638. Also to the comte de Chambord,son of 
the duchess of Berri,born 29 Sept. 1820, died 24 Aug. 
1883. His father was assassinated, 14 Feb. 1820. One 
of the popes (672) was named Adeodat us or God's gift. 

.DIEU ET MON DROIT ("God and my 
right"), the royal motto of England, was the parole 
of the da) r , given by Richard I. of England to his 
army at the battle of Gisors, in France, 20 Sept. 
1 198, when the French army was signally defeated. 
" Dicu et mon droit" appears to have been first 
assumed as a motto by Henry VI. (1422-1461) ; see 
Semper Eadem. 

, DIFFERENTIAL ENGINE, see Calcula- 
ting Machine. 

DIFFUSION of Gases. In 1825, Dobereiner 
observed the transmission of hydrogen gas through 
a crack in a glass vessel, and professor Thomas 
Graham discovered the passage of gases through 
porous porcelain, graphite, and other substances, 
and established laws in 1832, and to him we are 
indebted for the discovery of Atmohjsis and Dia- 
lysis. He died 16 Sept. 1869. 

DIFFUSION of .Useful Ejstoweedge 

SOCIETY, which published a number of books 
relating to history, science, and literature, and an 
atlas, in a cheap form, ridiculed as the " Sixpenny 
Sciences," was established by Lord Brougham, Mr. 
William Tooke, Mr. Charles Knight, and others. 
It published its " Library" 1827-48, and patronised 
the publication of the Penny Magazine and the 
Penny Cyclopaedia. Its proceedings were suspended 
in 1846. The Royal Institution of Great Britain 
was established in 1799, for "the Promotion, Dif- 
fusion, and Extension of Science and Useful Know- 
ledge." 

DIGEST. The first collection of Roman laws 
under this title was prepared by Alfrenus Varus, the 
civilian, of Cremona, 66 B.C. Quintil. The "Di- 
gest," so called by way of eminence, was the 
collection made by order of the emperor Justinian, 
529 : it made the first part of the Roman law and 
the first volume of the civil law. Quotations from it 
are marked with a ff. Pardon. The "Digest of 
Law " commissioners signed their first report 
13 May, 1867, recommending the immediate prepa- 
ration of a digest of the English common law, statute 
law, and judicial decisions. 

DIGITS {digitus, finger), any whole number 
under 10: 1, 2, &c, are the nine digits ; see Arith- 
metic. In astronomy, the digit is a measure used in 
the calculation of eclipses, and is the twelfth part of 
the luminary eclipsed. 

DIJON, E. France, the ancient capital of Bur- 
gundy, is said to have been founded by Julius 
Caesar, fortified by the emperor Marcus Aurelius, 
and named Divio, about 274. It has been several 
times captured in Avar ; and a castle was erected 
here by Louis XL Dijon became the capital of the 
dukes of Burgundy about 1 180. It was attacked by 
the Germans, under general Beyer, 30 Oct. 1870. 
The heights and suburbs were taken by prince 
"William of Baden, and the town surrendered on 
31 Oct. 

DILAPIDATIONS, see Ecclesiastical. 

DILETTANTI, Society of, established in 
* 734 by the viscount Harcourt, lord Middlesex, duke 
of Dorset, and others who had travelled and who 
were desirous of encouraging a taste for the fine arts 
in Great Britain. The society published, or aided in 
publishing, Stuart's Athens (1762-1816), Chandler's 
Travels (1775-6), and several other finely illustrated 



works. The members dine together from time to 
time at the Thatched-house tavern, St. James's. 
Mr. R. P. Pullan, on behalf of this society, exca- 
vated the temple of Bacchus at Teos, of Apollo 
Smintheus in the Troad, and of Minerva Polias at 
Priene, between 1861-70. Published "Antiquities 
of Ionia," 4 parts, 1 769- 188 1. 

DIMITY, the term is derived from the Greek, 

dis, twice, and mitos, thread. 

DINAS, see Accidents under Coal, and Mansion 
Souse. 

DINNERS, see Destitute. 

DIOCESE. The first division of the Roman 
empire into dioceses, at that period civil govern- 
ments, is ascribed to Constantine, 323 ; but Strabo 
remarks that the Romans had the departments 
called dioceses long before. In England the princi- 
pal dioceses are coeval with the establishment of 
Christianity ; of 28 dioceses, 20 are suffragan to the 
diocese of Canterbury, and six to that of York ; see 
Bishops, and the sees severally. Diocesan confer- 
ences of the clergy and laity now frequent. 

DIOCLES' CODE, drawn up by him for 
Syracuse, where he was a popular leader, 412 B.C. 
It was highly approved, and copied by other nations, 
and remained in force till superseded by the Roman 
laws, after the conquest, 212 B.C. 

DIOCLETIAN ERA (called also the era of 
Martyrs, on account of the persecution in his reign) 
was used by Christian writers until the introduction 
of the Christian era in the 6th century, and is still 
employed by the Abyssinians and Copts. It dates 
from the day on which Diocletian was proclaimed 
emperor at Chalcedon, 29 Aug. 284. 

DIOPTRIC SYSTEM (from the Greek, dia, 
through, and optomai, I see), an arrangement of 
lenses for refracting light in lighthouses, devised 
by Fresnel, about 1819, based on the discoveries of 
Buffon, Condorcet, Brewster, and others; see Light- 
houses. 

DIORAMA. This admired exhibition was first 
opened by MM. Bouton and Daguerre in Paris, 
II July, 1822; in London, 29 Sept. 1823. It was 
not successful commercially here, and was sold in 
1848. The building in Regent's-park was pur- 
chased by sir S. M. Peto, in 1855, to be used as a 
Baptist chapel. 

DIPHTHERIA (from the Greek diphthera, 
leather), a disease resembling croup which has 
the essential character' of developing a false mem- 
brane on the mucous membrane connected with the 
throat. It was named diphtheritis bv Bretonneau 
of Tours in 1820. From its prevalence" in Boulogne, 
it has been termed the Boulogne sore-throat ; many 
persons were affected with it in England at the be- 
ginning of 1858. The princess Alice, grand-duchess 
of Hesse-Darmstadt, died of this disease, 14 Dec. 
1878, after nursing her husband and children. 

. DIPLOMACY, the art of managing the rela- 
tions of foreign states by means of ambassadors, 
envoys, consuls, charges d'affaires, &c. ; see Ambas- 
sadors and Consuls. New regulations for the British 
diplomatic service were issued 5 Sept. 1862. 

DIPLOMAS. The wholesale fraudulent sale 
of diplomas of M.D., &c, for 10V., by a Dr. 
Buchanan, dean of the American University of 
Philadelphia, and others, was detected in 1880. He 
attempted escape by a sham suicide, but was cap- 
tured, prosecuted, and imprisoned. 



DIPLOMATICS. 



288 DISRAELI ADMINISTRATIONS. 



DIPLOMATICS, the foreign term for^ the 
science of palaeography or ancient writings. Valu- 
able works on this subject have been compiled by 
Mabillon (1681), De Vaines (1774), Astle (1781), 
De Wailly (1838), and other antiquaries. 

" DIRECTORY for the Public Worship 

OF GOD " was drawn up at the instance of the par- 
liament by an assembly of divines at Westminster 
in 1644, after the suppression of the Book of Common 
Prayer. The general hints given were to be man- 
aged with discretion ; for the Directory prescribed 
no form of prayer or manner of external worship, 
and enjoined the people to make no responses except 
Amen. It was adopted by the parliament of Scot- 
land in 1645, and many of its regulations are still 
observed by presbyterians. 

DIRECTORY, The French, established 
by the constitution of the 5th of Fructidor, an III. 
(22 Aug. 1795), and nominated 1 Nov., was com- 
posed of five members (MM. Lepeaux, Letourneur, 
Eewbel, Barras, and Carnot). On 18 Fructidor, 
4 Sep. 1797, two directors (Carnot and Barthelemy) 
were deposed, and afterwards, with other officials, 
transported to Cayenne for favouring royalty. The 
directory ruled in conjunction with two chambers, 
the Council of Ancients and Council of Five Hun- 
dred (which see), till the revolution of the 18th of 
Brumaire (9, 10 Nov. 1799). It was deposed by 
Bonaparte, who, with Cambaceres and Lebrun, as- 
sumed the government as three consuls, himself the 
first, 13 Dec. 1799; see Consuls. 

DIRECTORY, the first London, is said to 
have been printed in 1677. The "Post-office Direc- 
tory " first appeared in 1800. 

Messrs. Kelly's " Directory of the Merchants, Manu- 
facturers, and Shippers of the United Kingdom," 
was first published in 1877 ; at first triennially, now 
annually. 

DIRECTORS' LIABILITY Act, relating 
to prospectuses, &c., of public companies, passed 
18 Aug. 1890. 

"DISCIPLES OF CHRIST" (also called 
Campkeli.ites)* profess adherence to pure Scrip- 
tural doctrine and practice, reject human creeds 
and formularies, and admit to their communion all 
who recognise Christ's obedience and death, as 
" the only meritorious cause of the sinner's accept- 
ance with God;" and are baptized (by immersion) 
in his name. 

DISCIPLINE, ecclesiastical, originally con- 
ducted spiritually according to the divine commands 
in Matt, xviii. 15, 1 Cor. v., 2 Thess. iii. 6, and 
other texts, was gradually changed to a temporal 
character, as it now appears in the Roman, Greek, 
and other churches. The " First Book of Disci- 
pline" of the presbyterian church of Scotland was 
drawn up by John Knox and four ministers in 
Jan. 1560-1. The more important "Second Book" 
was prepared with great care in 1578 by Andrew 
Melville and a committee of the leading members 
of the general assembly. It lays down a thoroughly 
presbyterian form of government, defines the posi- 
tion of the ecclesiastical and civil powers, &c. 

* The term Campbellite originated through their first 
church at Brush Run, in America, having been set up 
by a Scotch presbyterian preacher from Ireland, named 
Thomas Campbell, and his son Alexander. In 1812 they 
renounced infant baptism, and were rebaptized by im- 
mersion. Their number in America is said to be about 
600,000 ; and in the United Kingdom, where the move- 
ment began independently and simultaneously, about 
5000. They have also churches in the British colonies. 



DISCOUNT, see under Bank of England. 

DISESTABLISHMENT. See Church of 
Ireland. 

DISPENSARIES, to supply the poor with 
medical advice and medicines, began in London. 
The Royal General Dispensary, London, was estab- 
lished in St. Bartholomew's Close, in 1770. It 
relieved about 20,000 persons in 1861 ; about 17,000 
in 1866. Western Dispensary, 1789. Garth's satiric 
poem, " The Dispensary," published 1699. 

DISPENSATIONS, ecclesiastical, were first 
granted by pope Innocent III. in 1200. These 
exemptions from the discipline of the church, with, 
indulgences, absolutions, &c, led eventually to the 
Reformation in Germany in 1517. 

DISPENSING- POWER of the Crown 

(for setting aside laws or their power) asserted by 
some of our sovereigns, especially by Charles II. 
(in 1672 for the relief of nonconformists) and by 
James II. principally to enable Roman Catholics to- 
bold civil and military offices, in 1686-8, was 
abolished by the bill of rights, 1689. It has been 
on certain occasions exercised, as in the case of 
embargoes upon ships, the Bank Charter act, &c. ; 
see Indemnity. 

DISRAELI ADMINISTRATIONS. t On 

the resignation of the earl of Derby through ill-health , 
25 Feb., 1868, Mr. Disraeli reconstituted the minis- 
try, 29 Feb. (see Derby Administrations, III.). As. 
the elections gave a large majority to the liberal 
party, Mr. Disraeli's ministry resigned 2 Dec. He 
declined to take office with the then house of 
commons when Mr. Gladstone resigned, 12 March, 
1873, and the latter resumed office. 

FIRST ADMINISTRATION, 29 Feb. 1868. 

First lord of treasury, Benjamin Disraeli. 

Lord chancellor, Hugh MacCalmont, lord Cairns. 

Lord president of the council, John, duke of Marlborough. 

Lord privy seal, James, earl of Malmesbury. 

Secretaries— home, Gathorne Hardy ; — foreign, Edward, 
lord Stanley ; — colonies, Richard, duke of Buckingham 
and Chandos ; — war, sir John S. Pakington ; — India, 
sir Stafford Henry Northcote. 

Chancellor of exchequer, George Ward Hunt. 

First lord of admircdt.y, Henry Thomas L. Corry. 

Chief commissioner of works, lord John Manners. 

President of board of trade, Charles Henry, duke of Rich- 
mond. 

Chief secretary for Ireland, Richard, earl of Mayo ; made 
viceroy of India, Oct. ; succeeded by col. J. Wilson 
Patten, 7 Nov. 1868. 

President of poor-law board, Wm. Reginald, earl of Devon. 
The above formed the Cabinet. 

Postmaster-genercd, James, duke of Montrose. 

Lord great chamberlain, Orlando, earl of Bradford. 

Chancellor of duchy of Lancaster, col. John Wilson Patten ; 
succeeded by col. Thos. E. Taylor, 7 Nov. 1868. 

Lord lieutenant of Ireland, James, earl (afterwards mar- 
quis) of Abercorn. 

* Benjamin Disraeli (son of Isaac Disraeli, author of the 
"Curiosities of Literature," &c. ,) born 21 Dec. 1805; 
published "Vivian Grey," 1825; M.P. for Maidstone, 
1837-41 ; Shrewsbury, 1841-7 ; Bucks, 1847-76. Chancel- 
lor of Exchequer (see Derby administrations), Feb. 1852 ; 
Feb. 1858 ; July, 1866 ; installed lord rector of Glasgow 
university, 19 Nov. 1873 ; created earl of Beaeonsfield,. 
Aug. 1876 ; plenipotentiary at the Berlin Congress, 13 
June — 13 July, 1S78 ; KG. invested by the queen, 22- 
July, 1878 ; received freedom of London, 3 Aug. 1878 ; 
("at the pinnacle of ministerial renown; the favourite 
of his sovereign, and the idol of society," — Times, 8 Aug. 
1878); see People's Tribute; resigned (through liberal 
majority in elections), 22 April, 1880 ; published "Endy- 
mion," Dec, 1880; died 19 April, 1881, buried at Hugh- 
enden ; prince of Wales and many present, 26 April ; 
monument in Westminster abbey voted, 9 May, 1881. 
Mrs. Disraeli created viscountess Beaeonsfield, 28 Nov. 
1868 ; died 15 Dec. 1872. 



DISSECTION. 



289 



DIVINE EIGHT. 



Mr. Disraeli's Letter of 30 Oct. 1873, to lord Grey de 
Wilton, severely censuring the Gladstone ministry as 
having "harassed every trade, worried every profession, 
and assailed or menaeed every class, institution, and 
species of i>roperty in the country ;" and also stating 
that the country has " made up its mind to close this 
career of plundering and blundering ;" was published 
7 Oct. 1873. (See Gladstone Administration.) 

vsecond administration, received seals, 21 Feb. 1874. 

tfirst lord of the treasury, Benjamin Disraeli (earl of 
Beaconsfield, 16 Aug. 1876),— and lord privy seal, Aug., 
1876 to Jan. 1878). 

Lord chancellor, Hugh, lord Cairns. 

Lord president 0/ the council, Charles Henry, duke of 
Richmond. 

Lord privy seal, James, earl of Malmesbury ; resigned, 
12 Aug. 1876; earl of Beaconsfield, Aug. 1876; Alger- 
non, duke of Northumberland, 4 Feb. 1878. 

^Secretary of state for foreign affairs, Edward, earl of 
Derby ; resigned ; — Robert, marquis of Salisbury, 28 
March, 1878. 

■Secretary of state for India, Robert, marquis of Salis- 
bury ; — Gathorne Hardy, created viscount Cranbrook, 
2 April, 1878. 

■Secretary of state for the Colonies, Henry, earl of Carnar- 
von ; resigned, 24 Jan. 1878 ; sir Michael Hicks-Beach, 
4 Feb. 1878. 

■Secretary of state for war, Gathorne Hardy ; col. Fred. 
Arthur Stanley, 2 April, 1878. 

■Secretary of state for home department, Richard Assheton 
Cross. 

First lord of the admiralty, George "Ward Hunt, died 
29 July, 1877 ; Wrn. Henry Smith, 7 Aug. 1877. 

Trendent of board of trade, sir Charles Adderley, re- 
signed, created baron Norton, April, 1878 ; — Dudley 
Ryder, viscount Sandon. 

Chancellor of the exchequer, Sir Stafford Northcote. 

jPostmaster-general, lord John Manners. 

(The above formed the Cabinet.) 

Lord lieutenant of Ireland, James, duke of Abercorn, 
resigned Dee. 1876 ; John, duke of Marlborough, Dec. 
1876. 

Chief secretary for Ireland, sir Michael Edward Hicks- 
Beach (entered the cabinet, Nov. 1876) : succeeded by 
James Lowther, Feb. 1878. 

Vice-president of council (education), Dudley, viscount 
Sandon ; lord George Hamilton, April, 1878. 

•Chancellor of duchy of Lancaster, col. Thos. E. Taylor. 

■Commissioner of woods and forests, lord Henry Lennox, 
resigned July, 1876 ; Gerard James Noel, 14 Aug. 1876. 

DISSECTION, see Anatomy. 

DISSENTERS, the modern name of the 
Puritans and Nonconformists (which see). In 
1 85 1, in London, the number of chapels, meeting- 
laouses, &€., for all classes of dissenters amounted 
to more than 554. (The Church of England had 
458 ; Soman Catholics, 35.) The great act (9 Geo. 
IV. c. 17) for the relief of dissenters from civil and 
religious disabilities was passed 9 May, 1828. By 
this act, called the Corporation and Test Kepeal act, 
so much of the several acts of preceding reigns as 
imposed the necessity of receiving the sacrament of 
the Lord's Supper as a qualification for certain 
offices, &c, was repealed. By 6 & 7 Will- IV. c. 85 
(1836), dissenters acquired the right of solemnising 
marriages at their own chapels, or at a registry 
office ; see Worship in England. 

A Burials Bill to permit the ministers of dissenters to 
officiate at funerals in churchyards several times re- 
jected ; in the commons 248 to 234, 21 April, 1875 > 
279 to 248, 3 March, 1876 ; earl Granville's resolution 
in the lords rejected 148 to 92, 15 May, 1876. 

Sl,ord Harrowby's additional clause to the government 
burials bill (permitting dissenters to have religious 
•services in churchyards), was supported by the arch- 
bishops, and carried against government, (127-m,) 
18 June ; the bill withdrawn, 25 June, 1877. 

Mr. Osborne Morgan's resolution for reforming burial 
laws (i.e. permitting other services), rejected (242-227), 
15 Feb. 1878. 

Act to amend the burial laws, permitting dissenters to 
have their own service or no service in churchyards ; 



passed commons (258-79), 13 Aug., royal assent, 7 
Sept. 1880. 

The Rev. W. H. Fremantle having proposed to preach 
at Dr. Parker's city temple, and the bishop of London 
having disapproved, the opinion of two counsel 
(Messrs. Fitzjames Stephen and Benjamin Shaw), 
was taken. They declared it to be illegal for the 
clergy of the English church to take part in worship 
of dissenters, June, 1875. 

Several episcopal clergymen take part in the dedication 
services of Christ church (formerly Surrey chapel) 
Blackfriars, middle of July, 1876. 

DISSOLVING VIEWS. Henry Langdon 
Childe, the alleged inventor, died 15 Oct. 1874, 
aged 92. 

DISTAFF (or Eock), the staff to which flax or 
any substance to be spun is fastened. The art of 
spinning with it at the small wheel, first taught to 
English women by Anthony Bonavisa, an Italian. 
Stow. St. Distaff's or Rock day, was formerly the 
first free day after the Epiphany (6th Jan.") because 
the Christmas holidays were over and women's work 
was resumed. 

DISTILLATION, and the various processes 
dependent on it, are believed to have been intro- 
duced into Europe by the Moors about 1150; see 
Alcohol, Brandy. The distillation of spirituous 
liquors was in practice in Great Britain in the 16th 
century. Bums. The processes were improved by 
Adam of Montpellier in 1801. M. Payen's work 
(1861) contains recent improvements. An act to 
prevent the use of stills by unlicensed persons 
was passed in 1846. 118 licences to distillers were 
granted in the year ending 31 March, 1858, for the 
United Kingdom. 

M. Raoul Pictet announces a method of distillation by 
use of ice made by the air-pump, April, 1881. 

DISTINGUISHED SERVICE ORDER, 

for army and navy officers established 9 Nov. ; first 
investiture, 17 Deo. 1886. 

DISTRICT AUDITORS ACT, 42 Vict. c. 
6 (28 March, 1879), regulated then- appointment, 
duties, and payment. 

DISTRICT CHURCHES ACTS. By the 

one passed in 1865 certain new churches were con- 
stituted rectories, and by another act, passed in 1868 
(the Bishop of Oxford's act) the new parishes not 
rectories were ordered to be styled vicarages. 

DITCH, see Expedition. 

"DIVERSIONS OF PURLEY" (" Epea 
Pteroenta " flying words) a collection of gramma- 
tical treatises by John Home Tooke, published in 
1786, named from the residence at Purley, near 
Wandsworth, Surrey. 

DIVIDENDS of Public Stocks. By an 

act passed 11 Aug. 1869, these may be paid by post 
if the recipients desire it, as railway dividends are. 

DIVINATION was forbidden to the Jews, 
B.C. 14.51. (JDciit. xviii. 9.) It was common among 
their neighbours : and is described by Ezekiel 
(xxi. 21) 493 B.C. 

DIVINE RIGHT of Kings, the absolute 

and unqualified claim of hereditary sovereigns to the 
obedience of their subjects, a doctrine which is gene- 
rally considered to be foreign to the genius of the 
English constitution, was defended by many persons 
of otherwise opposite opinions, e.g., by James I., 
by Hobbes the free-thinker (1642), by Salmasius 
(1640), by sir Robert Filmer (about 1653), in his 
Patriarcha, published in 1680, and by the High 
Church party generally about 17 14, but opposed by 

V 



DIVING-BELL. 



290 



DOCKS OF ENGLAND. 



Milton (1651), Algernon Sydney, and others. The 
comte de Chambord, the last of "the elder branch of 
the Bourbons, and the last consistent holder of the 
divine right of kings, died 24 Aug. 1883. See 
France, 1872, ct seq. 

DIVING-BELL (first mentioned, though ob- 
scurely, by Aristotle, about 325 h.c.) was used in 
Europe about a.d. 1509. It is said to have been 
used on the coast of Mull, in searching for the 
wreck of part of the Spanish Armada, before 1662. 
Halley (about 17 16) greatly improved this machine, 
and was, it is said, the first who, by means of a 
diving-bell, set his foot on the ground'at the bottom 
of the sea. Smeaton made use of the diving-bell 
in improving Ramsgate harbour, 1779-88. Mr. 
Spalding and his assistants going down in a diving- 
hell in Ireland were drowned, 1 June, 1783. The 
Royal George man-of-war, which was sunk off 
Portsmouth in 1782, was first surveyed by means of 
a diving-bell in May, 1817. Latterly it has been 
employed in submarine surveys and harbour works. 
The " talpa marina," or sea-mole, a diving machine 
for laying down torpedoes, &c, being a cylinder 
provided with compressed air sufficient for two per- 
sons for 50 hours, was invented by Toselli, a 
Venetian, and was successfully tried in the bay of 
Naples, 26 Aug. 1871. Divine/ Dress, a close dress 
made by Mr. Siebe about 1836; used by sir C. W. 
Pasley in 1838. M. Cabirol, maker of one, died 
Dec. 1874. 

Mr. Fleuss invented a helmet with a mouthpiece, into 
which he introduced enough oxygen to fast five hours, 
and thus was enabled to remain under water several 
hours. He exhibited his method at the Polytechnic 
Institution, London, Nov. 1879, and at the Society of 
Arts, 6 May, 1880. 

DIVINING ROD {virgula divina, bacula- 
torius), formed of wood or metal, was formerly be- 
lieved, even by educated persons, tohavethe property 
of indicating the position of minerals and springs of 
water. Instances were alleged in 185 1 by Dr. H. 
Mayo, in his work on "-Popular Superstitions." 

DIVINITY, see Theology and Mythology. 

DIVORCE was permitted by the law of Moses 
(Dent, xxiv. 1), 1451 b.c, but forbidden by Christ 
except for unchastity {Matt. v. 31, 32). It was put 
in practice by Spurius Carvilius Ruga at Rome, 
234 B.C. At this time morals were so debased that 
3000 prosecutions for adultery were enrolled. Di- 
vorces are of two kinds ; one, a vinculo matrimonii 
(total divorce) ; the other d mensu et thoro (from 
hoard and bed). Divorces were attempted to be made 
of more easy obtainment in England in 1539. The 
Judicature act, 1873, constituted the probate, divorce, 
and admiralty division of the High Court of Justice, 
with two judges. See Supreme Court and Probate. 
Bill to prevent women marrying their seducers 

brought into parliament j8 oi 

The commissioners on the law of divorce issued 

their first report April, 1857 

In 1S57 there had been in England, since the Re- 
formation, 317 divorces by act of parliament ; in 
Scotland, by the law, 174 divorces since 1846 ; 
1858-67, 1279 dissolutions of marriage, 213 judicial 
separations. In 1887, 7,321 applications for divorce 
or judicial separation were successful. 
From the establishment of the divorce court, to 
March, 1859, 37 divorces had been granted out 
of 288 petitions ; from Nov. i860 to July, 1861, 164. 
By 20 & 21 Vict. c. 85, the .jurisdiction of the eccle- 
siastical courts respecting divorce, &c, was 
abolished, and the Divorce and Matrimonial 
Causes court instituted, to consist of three 
.judges, the judge of the Probate court to be one 

(if possible) 

A full court sat— lord Campbell, chief baron Pollock', ' 



sir Cresswell Cresswell (judge of the Probate court) 
when five marriages were dissolved . 10 May, 1858 

The act, amended by acts passed in consequence of 
the increase of the business of the court . 1858-60 

An act respecting divorces in Scotland passed . . 1861 

Sir C. Cresswell died in July ; sir James P. Wilde 
(afterwards lord Penzance) successor . Sept. 1863: 

Lord Penzance retired, Oct. ; succeeded by sir James 

Hannen Nov. 1872 

See Probate Court and Supreme Court. 

The Divorce Amendment act passed 21 July, 1868. 

Between 1856 and 1867 1279 dissolutions of mar- 
riage and 213 judicial separations were decreed. 

Divorces 1858-87, 7321. In 1858, 200 ; 1868, 200 ; 
1878, 403 ',1887, 450; divorces in United States, 
1867-86, 328,716. 

On appeal, the House of Lords decide that proceed- 
ings may be taken foi divorce from a wife insane 
(see Mordaunt case, Trials, 1870) . 22 June, 1874: 

Sebright case, 1886, see Trials. 

Divorce legalized by the French Republic ; about 
7000 divorces in Paris alone 1793-4 i prohibited by 
the civil code, yet Napoleon I. divorced Josephine 
16 Dec. 1809 ; again prohibited 1816 ; again lega- 
lized (with conditions) by M. Naquet's bill, passed 
July ; many suits instituted . . . Aug. 1884. 

Total up to end of 1889, 15,521. 

In the United States of N.A. in twenty years (1867- 
86), there were 328,716 divorces. To check 
divorce by reforming the law, the National 
Divorce League addressed congress . . . 1889 

Bills greatly facilitating divorce passed by the par- 
liaments of New South Wales and Victoria, 
vetoed by the colonial office .... 1888-9. 

A divorce bill for Victoria, having received the 
assent of the home government, the bishops of 
Victoria forbid their clergy marrying divorced 
persons ... ... May, 1890 

DIZIER, ST. (N.E. France). Here a siege 
was sustained for six weeks against the army of the 
emperor Charles V., 1544. The allies here defeated 
Napoleon, 27 Jan. and 26 March, 1814. 

DOBRUDSCHA, the N.E. corner of Bulgaria ; 
in 1854, the scene of the earlier incidents of the 
Russo-Turkish war (which see) . At the close of the 
war of 1877-8 it was given to Roumania in ex- 
change for the part of Bessarabia restored to Russia, 
and occupied 26 Dec. 1878. 

DOCE'LZE, a sect of the 1st century, said to have 
held that Jesus Christ was God, but that his body 
was an appearance, not a reality. 

DOCKS OF ENGLAND. The following are 
the principal commercial docks : — 

Commercial Docks, Rotherhithe, originated about 1660. 

West India Docks commenced 3 Feb. 1800 ; opened 
27 Aug. 1802, when the "Henry Addingtou," West 
Indiaman, first entered them, decorated with the 
colours of the different nations of Europe. 

London Docks were commenced 26 June, 1802, and 
opened 20 Jan. 1805. 

East India Docks commenced 1803 ; opened 4 Aug. 1806. 

St. Katharine's Docks began 3 May, 1827 ; and 2500 men 
were daily employed on them until they were opened. 
25 Oct. 1828. 

Royal Victoria Docks (in Plaistow marshes) completed 
and opened Nov. 1855 ; great enlargement proposed, 
July, 1876 ; completed and named Royal Albert Docks 
by the duke and duchess of Connaught, 24 June, i88u. 

Magnificent docks at Liverpool and Birkenhead erected 
1810-57. 

Millwall Docks.near London, formally opened, 14 March, 
1868. 

A great floating iron dry dock, which cost 250,000?., was 
launched at North Woolwich, 3 Sept. 1868 ; and 
towed from the Medway by two ships of war, 23 June, 
1869, and arrived at the Bermudas (in thirty-six days), 
30 July. 

The construction for floating docks for repairing ships 
advocated by lord Brassey, Jan. 1887. 

Erection of docks at Tilbury determined on 30 Sept. 
1881 ; begun 8 July, 1882 ; opened 17 April, 1886. 



DOCTOE. 



291 



DOG-DAYS. 



New Barry docks, 7 miles west of Cardiff, Bristol channel 
(which with breakwater, &c, cost 850,000/.), opened 
iS July, 1889. 

For the dock labourers' strike, see Strikes, 15 Aug.-i4 ' 
Sept., 1889. 

The wharfingers and other employers of labour resolve 
to form a union, 4 Feb. 1890. 

The Port of Loudon Docks, &c, Association, &c, resolve 
to employ any men they please, whether belonging to 
the union or not, 12 Feb. 1890. 

The dock companies employ free and union labour, with- 
out much resistance from the union and the men, 3 
Nov. et seq. 1890. 

A co-operative system working well, Nov., Dec, 1890. 

Renewal of strikes ; the unionists opposing the engage- 
ment of federation men, see under Shipping, Feb. 1891. 

ROYAL DOCK-YAEDS. 

Woolwich, an extensive one in 1509 ; closed 1 Oct. 1869. 

Deptford dock-yard founded about 1513, closed 31 March, 
1869. 

Chatham dock-yard was founded by queen Elizabeth. 
Three grand docks constructed at a cost of about 
2,000,000/. independent of cost of convict labour, 
1866-83. 

Portsmouth dock-yard established by Henry VIII. 

Plymouth dock, now Devonport, about 1689. Great fire 
here, by which the 1'alavera, of 74 guns, the Imogene 
frigate, of 28 guns, and immense, stores, were de- 
stroyed ; the relics and figure-heads of the favourite 
ships of Boscawen, Rodney, Duncan, and other naval 
heroes, which were preserved in a naval museum, 
were also burnt: the loss was estimated at 200,000/., 
27 Sept. 1840. Great fire, damage 20,000/. 8 Feb. 1882. 

Sheerness dock-yard was built by Charles II. after the 
insult of the Dutch, who burnt our men-of-war at 
Chatham in 1667. A fire occurred at Sheerness dock- 
yard, on board the Camperdown, 9 Oct. 1840. 

Milford-Haven dock-yard, 1790; removed to Pembroke 
in 18 14. — See Hull. 

DOCTOE. Doctor of the Church, was a title 
given to Athanasius, Basil, Gregory Nazianzen, 
and Chrysostom in the Greek church ; and to 
Jerome, Augustin, Ambrose, and Gregory the Great 
in the Latin church ; see Fathers. Afterwards the 
title of doctor only was conferred on certain persons 
with distinguishing epithets, viz. : Thomas Aquinas 
(Angelicus), Bonaventura (Seraphicus), Alexander 
de Hales (Irrefragabilis), Duns Scotus (Subtilis), 
Roger Bacon (Mirabilis), William Occam (Singu- 
laris), Joseph Gerson (Christianissimus), Thomas 
Bradwardine (Profundus), and so on. Doctor of the 
Law, was a title of honour among the Jews. The 
degree of doctor was conferred in England, 8 John, 
1207. Spelman. Some give it an earlier date, 
referring it to the time of the Venerable Bede and 
John de Beverley, the former of whom, it is said, 
was the first that obtained the degree at Cam- 
bridge in the 8th century. 

DOCTOES' COMMONS, the college for the 
professors of civil and canon law in the 8th century. 
In February, 1568, Dr. Henry Hervie, dean of the 
arches and master of Trinity -hall (a seminary 
founded at Cambridge chiefly for the study of the 
civil and canon laws), procured from the dean and 
chapter of the diocese of London a lease of Montjoy- 
house and buildings in the parish of St. Benet, 
Paul's wharf, for the accommodation of the society. 
Other courts being held here, the whole place re- 
ceived the appellation of "Doctors' Commons." 
The original college was destroyed in the great 
fire of 1666; in 1672 it was rebuilt on the old 
site. After the great fire, until 1672, the society 
held its courts at Exeter-house in the Strand, ft 
was incorporated by charter in June, 1768. Coote. 
The buildings of the College of Advocates, which 
included all the courts of Doctors' Commons, (arches, 
admiralty, consistory, &e.) were purchased by the 
Metropolitan Board of Works, and were pulled down 



in April, 1867, for the new Queen Victoria Street ; 
some new buildings were erected. Till 18^7 the 
causes taken cognizance of here were blasphemy, 
divorces, bastardy, adultery, penance, tithes, 
mortuaries, probate of wills, &c. ; see Ecclesiastical 
Courts, Civil Law, &c. 

The building in Knightrider-street being dilapidated and 
too small, the wills were removed to Somerset-house, 
where the office was opened 24 Oct. 1874. 

DOCTEINAIEES, a name given since 1814 
to a class of politicians in France (Guizot, Mole, 
the due de Broglie and others), who upheld con- 
stitutional principles, in opposition to arbitrary 
monarchical power. The party came into office in 
1830 under Louis-Philippe, and fell with him in 
1848. The term has been applied in this country 
to the writers in the " Westminster Review " (1824, 
et seq.), Bentham, Molesworth, and others. 

DODONA, Epirus. The temple of Jupiter 
here, renowned for its ancient oracle, delivered by 
the sound of wiud in a grove of trees, was destroyed 
by the iEtolians, 219 B.C. 'I he foundations of the 
temple, with other relics, were discovered in 1883, 
by the excavations of M. Carapanos. 

DODSON'S ACT (brought forward by Mr. 
John G. Dodson, and passed 1 Aug. 1861) provides 
that votes for electing members of parliament for 
the universities may be recorded by means of polling 
papers. The act was amended in 1868. 

DOGS were worshipped by the Egyptians and 
hated by the Hebrews. The greyhound and mastiff 
are represented in the Assyrian sculptures in the 
British Museum. V. Shaw's "Book of the Dog" 
(new edition), 1881 ; J. H. WaL-h's "Dogs of the 
British Islands," (new edition), 1878. 

Statute against dog stealing, 10 Geo. III. . . 1770 

Dog-tax imposed, 1796 ; and again in 1808 ; 12s. a year 
realised 219,313/., in 1866 

Assessed taxes on dogs repealed, 29 Mar. 1867 ; an 
annual excise duty of 5s. imposed on all dogs 
more than six months old, to begin on 5 April, 
1867 ; increased to 7s. 6d. . . . 1 June, 1878' 

Employment of dogs in drawing carts, <fec, abol- 
ished in London, 1839 ; in the United Kingdom . 1854 

Several clubs have been formed to improve the 
breeds. 

Dog shows held in London in 1861 ; since 1862 at 
the Agricultural Hall, Islington, at the Crystal 
Palace, and other places. 

" Dogs' temporary home " opened, Hollingsworth- 
stre.et, London, N. , 1861 ; removed to Battersea 
in 187 1 ; about 2200 animals have been sheltered in 
a year ; adapted for cats, 1882. 

As a nuisance, dogs at large unmuzzled in the 
metropolis were ordered to be seized by the 
police July to 27 Nov. 1868 

A new act, more stringent, passed . 24 July, 1871 

Master McGrath, an excessively fleet hound, the 
property of Lord Lurgan, thrice won the Waterloo 
cup ; was sent for the queen to see, 1 Mar. , and 
died 24 Dec. ., 

" Help," the railway dog (a colley), by mute appeals, 
collected above 200?. lor the railway men's orphan 
fund Jan. — Sept. 1884 

About 7,000 dogs sent to the home at Battersea, 

mid-Doc. 1SS5 

The muzzling of dogs in the metropolis ordered by 
the police ceased, 31 Dec. 1886 ; a similar order 
made in 1889 ; ceased, 31 Dec. 1890, rabies having 
greatly diminished. 

Dog licences issued in financial year 1S71-2, produced 
279,425'- ; m 1875-6, 343> 2 57'-; i' 1 1876-7, 349.613'- : 
iu 1877-8, 372, 699?. ; in 1881-2, 342,836/.; 1111883-4, 
336,665/. ; 1887-8, 354,278/. 

Number of dogs licensed in United Kingdom: in 
1866, 445,656; in 1876, 1,362,176. 

DOG-DAYS. The canicular or dog-days now 
commence on 3 July and end II Aug; other dates 

v 2 



DOGE. 



292 



DONCASTER. 



•were formerly given. The rising and setting of 
Sirius or the dog-star with the sun has been 
erroneously regarded as the cause of excessive 
heat and of consequent calamities. 

DOGE or DtTKE : Venice was first governed by 
a doge named Anafesto Paululio, or Paoluccio, 697 ; 
see Venice. The Genoese chose their first doge, 
Simone Boccanegra, in 1339. Muratori. 

DOGGER-BANK (German Ocean). Here a 
gallant but indecisive battle was fought between 
the British, under admiral sir Hyde Parker, and 
the Dutch, 5 Aug. 1781. 

DOGGETT'S COAT and BADGE. 

Thomas Doggett, an eminent actor of Drury-lane, 
at the first anniversary of the accession to the 
throne of George I., 1 Aug. 1715, gave a water- 
man's coat and silver badge to be rowed for by six 
young watermen in honour of the day, and be- 
queathed at his death, in 1722, a sum of money to 
continue the custom. Bowed for 1 Aug. 1888 as 
usual. 

DOIT. The ancient silver Scottish penny, of 
which twelve were equal to a penny sterling. 
The circulation of "doydekyns" (small Dutch 
coins) was prohibited by statute in 1415. 

DOLLAR, the German thaler. Stamped 
Spanish dollars (value 4s. gd.) were issued fiom 
the Mint in March, 1797, but called in Oct. fol- 
lowing. The dollar is the principal silver coin in 
the United States of North America, value about 
4s. British money. 

DOLLY'S BRAE, see Riots, 1849. 

DOM and DITOMO, see Cologne and Milan. 

DOM-BOC or Doom-Book (Liber Judicialis), 
the code of law compiled by king Alfred from the 
West-Saxon collection of In a and other sources. 
Alfred reigned from 871 to 901. 

DOME'S-DAY BOOK orDOOM'S-DAY 

[Domus Dei book, Stoiv] (Liber Censualis Angliai) , 
a book of the general survey of England, com- 
menced in the reign of William I., 1080 (some say 
1085), and completed in 1086. It was intended to 
be a register to determine the right in the tenure 
of estates* ; and from it the question whether lands 
be ancient demesne or not, is sometimes still de- 
cided. The book, formerly kept in the Chapter- 
house of Westminster, is now in the Public Record 
Office. It consists of two volumes, a greater and less, 
wherein all the counties of England, except North- 
umberland, Durham, Westmorland, and Cumber- 
land, are surveyed. " This Dome's-day book was 
the tax-book of kinge William." Camden. The 
taxes were levied according to this survey till 
13 Hen. VIII., 1522, when a more accurate survey 
was taken, called by the people the New Doom's- 
Day-Book. It was printed in four vols, folio, with 
introductions, &c, 1783-1816. Photo-zinco-graphic 
copies of various counties have' been published 
since 1861. In Sept. 1872, government ordered a 
return of all the owners of land in England and 
Wales — in fact, anew Dome's-Day-Book ; the work 
to be done by the Local Government Board. The 
eighth centenary of the completion of the original 
Doomsday Book, celebrated in London, 25-29 Oct. 
1886. 

The return for Scotland 1872-3, was published by go- 
vernment, April, 1874; for England and Wales (ex- 
clusive of the metropolis) in 1875 ; for Ireland, 1876. 

*Sir Martin Wright says, "to discover the quantity of 
every man's fee, and to fix his homage," i.e., the question 
of military aid he was bound to furnish. 



DOMESTIC ECONOMY, or the study of 
food and clothing, was introduced into the govern- 
ment educational department in 1874; the congresses 
begun at Birmingham, 16 July, 1877 ; and others 
since. 

DOMINGO, St., see Hayti and Dominican 
Republic. 

DOMINICA (W. Indies), discovered by 
Columbus in his second voyage, on Sunday, 3 Nov. 

1493. It was taken by the British in 1761, and 
confirmed to them by the peace of Paris, Feb. 1763. 
The French took Dominica in 1778, but restored it 
at the subsequent peace in 1783. Their admiral 
Villeneuve ineffectually attacked it in 1805. It 
suffered great damage hy a hurricane in 1806, and 
also 4-5 Sept. 1883. Population, 1881, 28,211. See 
Leeward Lsles. 

DOMINICAL LETTER, noting the Lord's 
day, or Sunday. The seven days of the week, 
reckoned as beginning on the 1 Jan., are desig- 
nated by the first seven letters of the alphabet, 
A (1 Jan.), B, C, D, E, F, G; and the one of these 
which denotes Sunday is the Dominical letter. If 
the year begin on Sunday, A is the Dominical 
letter ; if on Monday, G ; on Tuesday, F ; and so 
on. Generally to find the Dominical letter call 
New Y ear's day A, the next B, and go on thus 
until you come to the first Sunday, and the letter 
that answers to it is the Dominical letter ; in leap 
years count two letters. The letters for 1893, A ; 
1894, G; 1895, F; 1896, E D. The letter or its 
number (figure of 1 for A, &c.) used in ancient 
charters. 

DOMINICALS. See Exeter. 

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC or San Domin- 
go, formerly the Spanish part of the island of 
Hayti, the oldest European settlement, founded in 

1494, by Bartolomeo Columbus. The capital, San 
Domingo, contains the cathedral and Columbus's 
residence. See Hayti, 1844, et seq. Population, 
1887, 504,000. President, Ulises Heureaux, 20 
July, 1886. 

DOMINICANS, formerly a powerful religious 
order (called in France, Jacobins, and in England, 
Black friars), founded to put down the Albigenses 
and other heretics by St. Dominic, approved by 
Innocent III. in 1215, and confirmed by Honorius 
III. in 1216, under St. Augustin's rules and the 
founder's particular constitution. In 1276 the 
corporation of London gave the Dominicans two 
streets near the Thames, where they erected a 
large convent, whence that part is still called 
Blackfriars. A Dominican establishment at Haver- 
stock hill, near London, was consecrated 10 Oct. 
1867. 

DOMINION OF CANADA, see Canada. 

DOMINOES, " a sport imported from France 
a few years back." Strutt's Sports, 1801. 

DONATISTS, an ancient strict sect, formed 
about 313-318, by an African bishop, Donatus, who 
was jealous of Csecilian, bishop of Carthage : it 
became extinct in the 7th century. The Donatists 
held that the Father was above the Son, and the 
Son above the Holy Ghost. Their discipline was 
severe, and those who joined them were re- 
baptized. 

DONAUWERTH (Bavaria). Here the 
French and Bavarians were defeated by the duke of 
Marlborough, after a severe conflict, 2 July, 1704. 

DONCASTER (Yorkshire), the Roman 
Danum, the Saxon Donne ceastre. The races here 



DONKEY SHOW. 



293 



DOVER. 



(held annually in September) began about 1703; 
see Races. Royal Agricultural Society met here 
22-26 June, 1891. Population, 1881, 21,139 ; 1891, 
25,936. 

DONKEY SHOW. An exhibition of donkeys 
and mules belonging to the upper and lower classes 
took place at the Agricultural Hall, Islington, 9 
Aug. 1864; and since. One at the People's 
Palace, Aug. 1887. 

DON QUIXOTE, by Saavedra Miguel de 
Cervantes (born 1547; died 1616). The first part 
of this work appeared in 1605, and the second part 
in 1608. It is said that upwards of 12,000 copies of 
the first part were circulated before the secoud was 
printed. Watts. 

DOOM'S-DAY BOOK, see Dome's-day Book. 

DORADO, see El Dorado. 

DORCHESTER (Oxfordshire) was once a 
bishopric, founded about 636. The first bishop 
Birinus, the apostle of the West Saxons (ivhich see), 
was succeeded in 650 by Agilbert. In 659 the 
see was divided by the king. Dorchester remained 
with Agilbert, and "Wina, established at Winchester, 
in 660 obtained the whole. The see of Dorchester 
was revived about 764. In 1072 the bishop Remigius 
de Feschamp removed the see to Lincoln. 

DORCHESTER (Dorsetshire), the Roman 
Durnovaria-, the Saxon Dornccaster. Here are 
found remains of a Roman theatre and of a British 
camp. Here Jeft'eries held his "bloody assize" 
(after Monmouth's rebellion) 3 Sept. 1685. Much 
excitement was caused by six labourers of Dor- 
chester being sentenced to transportation 17 March, 
1834, for administering illegal oaths. Population, 
1881, 7,567 ; 1891, 7,946. 

DORIANS, Greeks, who claimed descent from 
Dorus, son of Hellen ; see Greece. The return of 
the Dorians, named Heraclida), to the Peloponnesus 
is dated 1104B. c. They sent out many colonies. 
To them we owe the Doric architecture, the second 
of the five orders. 

DORKING, Surrey, an ancient town ; the 
manor having been given by the Conqueror to earl 
Fitzwarren. An imaginary battle of Dorkingin which 
the German invaders totally defeat the British army 
is the subject of a clever article, attributed to 
col. George Chesney, in Blackwood's Magazine for 
May, 1871. It provoked much controversy, and 
caused the publication of several pamphlets. Popu- 
lation, 1881,6,328; 1891,7,132. 

DORMANS (N. E. France). The Huguenots 
and their allies, under Montmorency, were here 
defeated by the duke of Guise, 10 Oct. 1575. 

DORT, or DORDRECHT, an ancient town in 
Holland. Here happened an inundation of the 
Meuse in 1421, through the breaking down of the 
dykes. In the territory of Dordrecht 10,000 persons 
perished ; and more than 100,000 round Dollart, in 
Friesland, and in Zealand. The independence of 
the thirteen provinces was declared here in 1572, 
when William Prince of Orange was made stadt- 
holder. A Protestant synod sat at Dort 13 Nov. 
1618, to 25 May 1619; to which deputies were sent 
from England, and from the reformed churches in 
Europe, to settle the difference between the doctrines 
of Luther, Calvin, and Arminius, principally upon 
points of justification and grace. This synod con- 
demned the tenets of Arminius. Population, 1890, 
2,934- 



DORYLiEUM (Phrygia). Soliman, the 
Turkish sultan of Iconium, having retired from the 
defence of Nicoea his capital, was here defeated with 
great loss by the crusaders 1 July, 1097. Michaud. 

DOTEREL, H.M.S., destroyed by explosion, 
26 April, 1881. See under Navy. 

DOUAY (N. France), the Roman Duacum, was 
taken from the Flemings by Philip the Fair in 
1297; restored by Charles V. "in 1368. It reverted 
to Spain, from which it was taken by Louis XIV. in 
1667. It was captured by the duke of Marlborough 
in June, 1710; and retaken by the French 8 Sept. 
1 712. This town gives its name to the Roman 
Catholic English version of the Bible authorised by 
the pope, the text being explained by notes of 
Roman divines. The Old Testament was published 
by the English college at Douay in 1609 ; the New 
had been published at Rheimsin 1582. The English 
college for Roman Catholics was founded in 1568 by 
William Allen, afterwards cardinal. Bodcl. 

DOURO, a river (separating Spain and Portu- 
gal), which, after a desperate struggle between 
Wellington's advanced guard under Hill, and the 
French under Soult, was successfully crossed by the 
former on 12 May, 1809. So sudden was the move- 
ment, that Wellington at 4 o'clock sat down to the 
dinner prepared for the French general. Alison. 

DOVER (Kent), the Roman Dubris. Near 
here Julius Caesar is said to have first landed in 
England, 26 Aug., 55 f. c, and its original castle to 
have been built by him soon after; but this is 
disputed. The works were strengthened by Alfred 
and succeeding kings, and rebuilt by Henry II. 
The earliest named constable is Leopoldus de Bertie, 
in the reign of Ethelred II., followed by earl 
Godwin, Odo the brother of William I., &c. In 
modern times, this office, and that of warden of the 
Cinque Ports, have been frequently conferred on 
the prime minister for the time being, — e.g., lord 
North, Mr. Pitt, lord Liverpool, and the duke of 
Wellington. The earl of Dalhousie, late governor- 
general for India, appointed in Jan. 1853, died 19 
Dec. i860. Lord Palmerston, appointed constable 
March, 1861, died 18 Oct. 1865. Earl Granville 
appointed Dec. 1865, died 31 March, 1891. W. H. 
Smith, appointed May, died 6 Oct. 1891. The 
marquis of Dufferin and Ava, about 4 Nov. 1891. 
See Tunnels. Population, 1881, 30,270 ; 1891, 
33»4i8. 
The priory was commenced by archbishop Corboyl, 

or Corbois, about 1130 

At Dover, king John resigned his kingdom to Pan- 

dolf, the pope's legate ... 13 May, 1213 
The pier projected by Henry VIII. . . . 1533 

Charles II. landed here from his exile . 26>May, 1660 
Iniquitous secret treaty with France signed here 

May, 1670 
The foot barracks burnt by accident . 30 July, 1800 

Admiralty pier commenced 1S44 

Railway to London opened ... 7 Feb. ,, 
A submarine telegraph laid down between Dover 

and Calais by Brett . . . .28 Aug. 1850 
A. telegraph between Dover and Calais opened, 

13 Nov. 1851 
Part of the cliff fell, 27 Nov. 1810 ; and 13 Jan. 1853 

Faster volunteer review here . . .22 April, 1867 
Suffragan bishop, Edward Parry, D. D. . . . 1870 
Dover College inaugurated by earl Granville 4 Oct. 1871 
Dover and Deal railway begun by earl Granville, 

29 June, 1878; opened .... June, 1881 
New municipal buildings and park opened 14 July, 1883 
Coal-field discovered under the cliffs . 15 Feb. 1890 
Construction of a new harbour proposed by the 

admiralty, Oct. 1890; great works proceeding . 1892 
Discovery of closed-up caves and passages, under 

the east cliff ; closed up again . early March, 1891 
Mr. W. F. Smith presents 1" the nation the valu- 
able relics of William Pitt, the duke of Wellington, 



DOWEB. 



294 



DRAMA. 



and other lord wardens, which had become the 
property of his late father, Mr. W. H. Smith, and 
which were preserved in Walmer Castle April, 1892 

DOWER, the gifts of a husband to a wife before 
marriage (Genesis xxxiv. 12). The portion of 
a man's lands or tenements which his wife enjoys 
for life after her husband's death. By the law of 
king Edmund, a widow was entitled to a moiety of 
her husband's lands or tenements for her life, 941. 
The widows of traitors, but not those of felons, are 
debarred their dower by statute 5 Edw. VI. 1551. 
By the Dower act passed in 1833, the power of the 
wife over her dower was much diminished. 

DOWN (N". E. Ireland). An ancient sec, first 
bishop St. Cailan, in 499. At the instance of 
John de Courcy, the conqueror of Ulster, the cathe- 
dral, consecrated to the Trinity, was re -dedicated to 
St. Patrick about 1 1 83. The sepulchre of St. Patrick 
(buried here in 493, in the abbey of Saul, founded 
by himself) brought this place "into great repute. 
The see was united with that of Connor in 1441 
(see Connor) ; and the see of Dromore was united to 
both by the Irish Church Temporalities act, 3 & 4 
Will. IV. c. 37, Aug. 14, 1833. The cathedral of 
Downpitrick was destroyed by lord Grey, lord 
deputy of Ireland ; for this and other crimes he was 
impeached and beheaded in 1541. Beatson. 

DOWNS, see Naval Battles, 1652-3. 

DRACO'S LAWS (enacted by him when 
archon of Athens, 621 e. a), on account of their 
severity, were said to be written in blood. Idleness 
was punished as severely as murder. This code was 
set aside by Solon's, 594 b. c. 

DRAFTS (or cheques). In 1856, drafts crossed 
with a banker's name were made payable only to or 
through the same banker. This act was passed in 
consequence of a decision to the contrary in the 
case of Carlon v. Ireland, 12 Dec, 1855. In 1858 
the crossing was made a material part- of a cheque, 
but bankers are not held responsible when the 
crossing does not plainly appear, and a penny stamp 
was ordered to be affixed to drafts on bankers, com- 
mencing 25 May. In the case of Simmonds v. Taylor, 
May, 1858, it had been decided that the crossing 
formed no part of the draft. The crossing had been 
erased, and the money paid to the holder of the 
draft, who had stolen it. 
The " Cheque-barilc," established for issuing drafts for 

limited amounts, opened 23 July, 1873. 
The payment of a stolen draft crossed on one banker 

and presented by another banker declared legal ; Smith 

v. Union Bank of London : verdict for defendants, 20 

Nov. 1875. 
Crossed Cheques act passed, Aug. 15, 1876. 

DRAG-ONNADES. Tnefierce persecution of 
the Protestants in the reign of Louis XIV. by 
dragoons, by the minister Louvois, 1684, was con- 
summated by the revocation of Henry IV.'s edict 
of Nantes, 22 Oct. 1685, which drove 50,000 families 
from France. Duruy. 

DRAGOON. A cavalry soldier with infantry 
arms ; the name is of doubtful origin, the Roman 
Draconarii were horse soldiers, who bore dragons 
for ensigns. Charles de Cosse, Marshal of Brisac, 
instituted French dragoons about 1600. The oldest 
British regiment, the Scots Greys, was enrolled in 
1683. 

DRAINAGE OF LAND, in England, is of 
early date — remains of British works being still 
extant in the Fens district. Cornelius Vermuyden, 
the Dutch engineer, was invited to England in 1621, 
and amidst much opposition, he and his successors 
drained the districts termed the Great Levels; see 



Levels. In the present century great progress has 
been made in drainage. In 1861 was passed "an 
act to amend the laws relative to the drainage of 
land for agricultural purposes ; " see Sewers. 

DRAKE'S CIRCUMNAVIGATION. Sir 

Francis Drake sailed from Falmouth 13 Dec. 1577, 
circumnavigated the globe, and returned to England 
after many perils, 3 Nov. 1580. He was vice-admiral 
under lord Howard, high admiral of England, in the 
conflict with the Spanish Armada, 19 July, 1588. 
He died at Panama, 28 Jan. 1596, during an 
expedition against the Spaniards. 

DRAMA, ANCIENT. Both tragedy and comedy 

began with the Greeks. 

The first comedy performed at Athens, by Susarion 
and Dolon, on a movable scaffold about . b. c. 562 

The chorus introduced 556 

Tragedy first represented at Athens by Thespis, on 
a waggon (Arund. Marb.) 535 

Thespis of Icaria, the inventor of tragedy, performed 
at Athens "Alcestis," and was rewarded with a 
goat (tragos). Pliny ,, 

iEschylus introduced dresses and a stage . . . 486 

The drama was first introduced into Rome, on oc- 
casion of a plague which raged during the consu- 
late of C. Sulpieius Peticus and C. Licinius Stolo : 
the magistrates, to appease the deities, instituted 
games called the. " Scenici ;" actors from Etruria 
danced, after the Tuscan manner, to the flute . 364 

Anaxandrides, first dramatic poet who introduced 
intrigues upon the stage ; composed about 100 
plays, of which 10 obtained the prize ; died . 340 

Plays were represented by Livius Audronicus, who, 
abandoning satires, wrote plays with a regular 
and connected plot ; he gave singing and dancing 
to different performers 240 

The greatest ancient dramatic writers were — 
Greek, iEschylus, Sophocles, Euripides (tragedy), 
and Aristophanes (comedy), 525 -427 ; Latin, 
Plautus and Terence (comedy), 184— 160 ; Seneca 
(tragedy) 7 b. c. — a. d. 65 

Acted in Greek at Cambridge; " Agamemnon " of 
iEschylus and " Ajax " of Sophocles, Nov. 1882 ; 
" Birds " of Aristophanes, 28 Nov. 1883. The 
" Eumenides " of iEschylus 1 Dec. 1885 ; 
" CEdipus Tyrannus " of Sophocles^ 22 Nov. 1887 ; 
" Ion " of Euripides, 25 Nov. 1890 ; " The Frogs " 
of Aristophanes at Oxford about . 24 Feb. "1892 

Mr. Todhunter's " Helena in Troas," written in 
English, and successfully performed in the Greek 
style at Hengler's circus near Oxford Street, W". 

, 17 May, 1886 

DRAMA, MODERN, arose early in the rude 
attempts of minstrels and buffoons at fairs in France, 
Italy, and England, and also in the performance of 
classical plays at the universities, still represented 
by the Westminster play. Stories from the Bible 
(Mystery Plays), represented by the priests, were 
the origin of sacred comedy. Warton. 

Gregory Nazianzen, father of the Church, is said to 
have constructed a drama on the Passion of 
Christ, to counteract heathen profanities about 364 

Ancient Mahometan miracle-play of "Hasan and 
Husan," sons of Ali ; imblished by sir L. Pelly . 1879 

Fitzstephen, in his " Life of Thomas a Becket," 
asserts that — "London had for its theatrical 
exhibitions holy plays, and the representation of 
miracles, wrought by holy confessors;" he died 

about 1 190 

The Chester Mysteries performed . . about 1270 

The Coventry, Chester, Townley, York, and other 
mysteries have been printed during the present 
century. 

Plays performed at Clerkenwell by the parish clerks, 
and " miracles " represented in the fields . . 1397 

The "Passion of Christ," a miruelr-plny, still fre- 
quently performed at Ober-Ainmergnu in Bavaria, 
is said to have had its origin after a pestilence in 1633 

This play was witnessed by the prince of Wales and 
other distinguished persons in the summer and 
autumn ^71 



DRAMATIC COLLEGE. 



295 



DEESS. 



Performance, 17-26 May, 25 Sept. 1S80 ; and fre- 
quently since . . . .28 Sept. et seq. 1890 
Its proposed performance at the Westminster Aqua- 
rium, 4 Nov. , was stopped by the disapprobation 
of many Oct. 1878 

If_The " Passion-play " is still performed in Spain, 
with painful realism.] 

Allegorical characters introduced in the 15th cen- 
tury. 

Rkelton and others wrote " Moralities " . about 1500 

"The first regular drama acted in Europe was the 
"Sophonisba" of Trissino, at Rome, in the pre- 
sence of pope Leo X. (Voltaire) . . . . 1515 

First royal licence for the drama in England (to 
master Burbage, and four others, servants to the 
earl of Leicester) to act plays at the Globe, Bank- 
side 1574 

^Shakespeare began to write . . . about 1590 

A licence granted to Shakespeare and others . . 1603 

Plays opposed by the Puritans in 1633, suspended 
during the commonwealth, 1649 '• restored . . 1660 

'Two companies of regular performers were licensed 
by Charles II., Killigrew's and sir William Dave- 
nant's. The first was at the Bull, Vere-street, 
Clare-market, which was immediately afterwards 
removed to Drury-lane ; the other in Dorset- 
gardens, 1662. Till this time, boys performed 
women's parts ; but Mrs. Coleman (the first 
female on the stage) had performed Ianthe, in 
Davenant's " Siege of Rhodes," in . . . 1666 

.Sir William Davenant introduced operas, and both 
companies united, 1684, and continued together 
till 1694, when a schism under Betterton led to the 
opening of a theatre in Lincoln's-inn-fields, the 
parent of Covent-gardeu 1695 

Act for the revision of plays and for licensing them 
previously to being performed . . . 1737 

Authors' Dramatic Copyright Protection act, 3 Will. 
IV. c. 15, 10 June, 1833 ; extended to operas, 1 July, 1842 

School of Dramatic Art, Argyle-street, London, W., 
opened 4 Oct. 1882 

:See Theatres, Govent-garden, Drury-lane, and Copyright. 

DEAMATIC COLLEGE, for the benefit of 
■distressed actors and their children, was proposed 
21 July, 1858, at the Princess's theatre, by Messrs. 
C. Dickens, Thackeray, C. Kean, B. Webster, and 
-others. Mr. Henry Dodd's offer of land and money, 
"with certain stipulations, was declined Jan. 1859. 
The first stone of the buildings at Maybury, near 
Woking, was laid by the prince consort, 1 June, 
i860; and on 29 Sept. 1862, seven annuitants were 
installed. The central hall was opened by the 
prince of Wales, 5 June, 1865. The queen was the 
pati'on. The viceroy of Egypt was present at the 
annual fete at the Crystal Palace, July 1867, and 
gave 500^. to the college. The scheme was unsuc- 
cessful. On 12 Nov. 1877? it was determined to 
close the college, and provide for the inmates. 
The buildings were sold by private contract about 
23 July, 1880. 

DEAMATIC EEFOEM ASSOCIATION, 

started at Manchester, Jan. 1878. 

DEAPIEE'S LETTEES, by dean Swift, 
published in 1 723-4 against Wood's Halfpence 
{which see) . 

DEAWING SOCIETY (made Royal, 1892) 
•of Great Britain, formed in July, 1888, to promote 
the teaching of drawing in schools. 

DEEADNOUGHT. In this ship, which was 
.engaged in the battle of Trafalgar, 21 Oct. 1805, 
was established a hospital for the seamen of all 
nations (whose sovereigns are subscribers), by the 
Seamen's Hospital Society established 1821. The 
■old vessel was replaced hy others. The removal of 
the men to Greenwich hospital was proposed in 
1867; effected, April, 1870. 

DEEAMS aire mentioned in Scripture, c. gr., 
Joseph's and Pharaoh's, 1715 b. C. {Gen. xxxvii. 



and xli.), and Nebuchadnezzar's, 603 and 570 B. c. 
{Daniel ii. and iv.). The first attempt to interpret 
dreams and omens is ascribed to Amphictyon of 
Athens, 1497 B. c. 

DEED SCOTT CASE; see United States, 
I857- 
DEEDGLSTG; Bee Deep Sea. 

DEEPANUM (Sicily). Near this place the 
Carthaginian admiral Adherbal totally defeated the 
Roman fleet under Publius Claudius, 249 b. c. 

DEESDEN", termed the German Florence, 

became the capital of Saxony in 1548.* Population 

in 1885, 246,086; 1890, 276,085. 

Alliance of Dresden between Saxony and Denmark 
and Russia ' . . . . . 28 June, 1709 

Peace of Dresden between Hungary, Prussia, and 
Saxony 25 Dec. 1745 

Taken by Frederick of Prussia in 1756 ; by the 
Austrians 1759 

Bombarded in vain by Frederick . . July, 1760 

Held by Austrians . . . June — July, 1809 

Severe contests between the allied army under the 
prince of Schwarzenberg, and the French com- 
manded by Napoleon .■ . 26, 27 Aug. 1813 

The allies, 200,000 strong, attacked Napoleon in Ins 
position at Dresden, and the event had nearly 
proved fatal to them, but for an error in the con- 
duct of general Vandamme. They were defeated 
with dreadful loss, and were obliged to retreat 
into Bohemia ; but Vandamme pursuing them too 
far, his division was cut to pieces, and himself 
and all his staff made prisoners. In this battle, 
general Moreau received his mortal wound, while 
in conversation with the emperor of Russia 27 Aug. ,, 

Marshal St. Cyr, and 25,000 French troops, sur- 
rendered Dresden to the allies . n Nov. ,, 

During a political commotion the king abdicated, 
and prince Frederick, his nephew, was declared 
regent 9 Sept. et seq. 1830 

An insurrection 3 May ; suppressed . . 6 May, 1849 

DEESS. The attire of the Hebrew Avomen is 
censured in Isaiah iii., about 760 B.C. Excess in 
dress among the early Romans w r as restrained by 
sumptuary laws : and also in England by numerous 
statutes, in 1363, 1465, 1570, &c. (see Cap). Stow. 
F. W. Fairholt's ."Costume in England" (1846) 
contains a history of dress with numerous illustra- 
tions derived from MSS., the works of Strutt, &c. 
J. R. Planche's elaborate "Cyclopaedia of Costume " 
first appeared in 1876. A "dress-making com- 
pany" was established in London, 6 Feb. 1865, 
with the view of improving the condition of the 
workwomen. 

Sir Walter Raleigh wore a white satin-pinked vest, close- 
sleeved to the wrist, and over the body a doublet finely 
flowered, and embroidered with pearls, and in the 
feather of his hat a large ruby and pearl drop at the 
bottom of the sprig in place of a button. His breeches, 
with his stockings and ribbon garters, fringed at the 
end, all white ; and buff shoes, which, on great court 
days, were so gorgeously covered with precious stones 
as to have exceeded the value of 6600/. ; and he had a 
suit of armour of solid silver, with sword and belt 
blazing with diamonds, rubies, and pearls. 

King James's favourite, the duke of Buckingham, had his 
diamonds tacked so loosely on, that when he chose to 
shake a few off on the ground, he obtained all the fame 
he. desired from the pickers-up, who were generally les 
Damesde la Cour. 

The court dress of civilians, previously that of the time of 
the Georges, was modified by the lord chamberlain, 
lord Sydney, in 1869. 

* Dresden china was invented by John Frederick 
B6ttger(or Bottcher), an apotl ary's boy, about 1709. 

lie died 13 March. 1710. A cosily service, each piece 
exquisitely painted, with battles, &c., was presented to 
the duke of Wellington by the king of Prussia, in 1816. 



DKEUX. 



296 



DETTNKAEDS. 



The Bloomer Costume, introduced into America in 
1849, by Mrs. Ann Bloomer, and worn there by many 
of the women. It resembled male attire, being an 
open-fronted jacket and loose trowsers, the latter wide 
like those of the Turk, but gathered in at the ankles. 
The Bloomer dress was adopted by a few females in the 
west of London, in August, 1851 ; but though recom- 
mended by some American ladies in popular lectures, 
it was soon totally discontinued. 

A dress exhibition opened in Piccadilly, London, 19 May, 
1883. 

Rational Dress Association active, May, 1883. 

DEEUX (N. W. France). Here the Hugue- 
nots were defeated, and their general Conde taken 
prisoner ; and the catholic leader Montmorenci was 
captured by the protestants ; the slaughter was 
great on both sides, 19 Dec. 1562. Here is the 
burying-place of the Orleans family since 1816. 
The duke of Guise, aged 18, the last surviving 
child of the due d'Aumale, was buried here 27 
July, 1872. The bodies of king Louis Philippe 
and others of his family were brought here from 
England and buried, 9 June, 1876. 

DEILL EEVIEW of children ; see Educa- 
tion, 1870. 

DEILLING-MACHINES, in agriculture. 
One was invented by Jethro Tull, early in the last 
century. 

DEINK, see Drunkards. 

DEINKING-FOUNTAINS. Several were 
erected in Liverpool in 1857. The Metropolitan 
Drinking Fountain Association was formed in Lon- 
don in April, 1859, by lord John Russell, the earl 
of Carlisle, Mr. S. Gurney, and others. The first 
of the numerous fountains since erected is that near 
St. Sepulchre's church, Skinner-street, 21 April, 
1859. The magnificent fountain in Victoria-park, 
London, was inaugurated by the donor, Miss (after- 
wards baroness) Burdett-Coutts, 28 June, 18&2. A 
remarkable drinking-fountain (the gift of the maha- 
rajah of Vizianagram) was inaugurated in IJyde- 
park, 29 Feb. 1868 ; another in Regent' s-park, the 
gift of a Parsee, Aug. 1869. — 324 in the metropolis, 
June, 1877; 392 fountains, 404 cattle-troughs, July, 
1879; 437 fountains, 438 troughs, July, 1880; 672 
drinking fountains, 726 troughs, July, 1890. 
The fountain at the Royal Exchange, with the statue of 

Charity (cost, by subscription, 1500?.), finished Oct. 

1879 ; many fountains erected since. 

DEOGHEDA (Ireland, E.), formerly Tre- 
dagh, a place of great importance, having the 
privilege of coining money. Here was passed 
Poynings' law {which see) in 1494. In the reign of 
Edward VI. an act was passed for the foundation 
of a university here. The town was besieged 
several times in the contests between 1641 and 
1691, and Cromwell took it by storm, and put the 
governor, sir A. Aston, and the whole of the garri- 
son, to the sword, 12 Sept. 1649. More than 30CO 
men, most of them English, perished. It sur- 
rendered to William III. in 1690. 

DEOMOEE, Bishopric of (N. E. Ireland), 
founded by St. Coleman, first bishop, about 556. 
By an extent returned 15 James I., this see was 
valued in the king's books at 50/. Jeremy Taylor 
was bishop of Down and Connor in 1660, and of 
this see in 1661. In 1842 Dromore was united to 
Down by the Irish Church Temporalities act of 
1833- 

DEONTHEIM, capital of Norway, founded by 
Olaf I. about 998. 

DEOWNING, an ancient punishment. The 
ancient Britons are said to have inflicted death 



by drowning in a quagmire. Stoic. It is said to 
have been inflicted on eighty intractable bishops- 
near Nicomedia, a.d. 370 ; and to have been adopte d 
as a punishment in France by Louis XL The 
wholesale drownings of the royalists in the Loire' 
at Nantes, by command of the brutal Carrier, Nov. 

1 793, were termed Noyades. 94 priests were drowned 
at one time. He was condemned to death in Dec 

1794. Societies for the recovery of drowning persons' 
were first instituted in Holland, in 1767. The second 
society is said to have been formed at Milan, in 
1768 ; the third in Hamburg, in 1771 ; the fourth 
at Paris, in 1772 ; and the fifth in London, in 1774. 
The motto of the Royal Humane Society in England 
is: Lateat scintiUula forsan — "A small spark may 
perhaps lie hid." Francois Texier, of Dunkerque,. 
after saving 50 lives at different times, was drowned 
in a storm, Oct. 1871. 

Browned in inland waters in England and Wales, 1877,, 
266?. In United Kingdom in 1880, 4044. 

DEUGS, sales regulated by Sale of Food and 
Drugs Act, passed 11 Aug. 1875. See Pharmacy. 

DEUIDS. Priests, among the ancient Ger- 
mans, Gauls, and Britons, so Bamed from their 
veneration for the oak (Brit, dertv). They ad- 
ministered sacred things, were the interpreters of 
the gods, and supreme judges. They headed the- 
Britons who opposed Caesar's first landing, 55 B.C., 
and were exterminated by the Roman governor,, 
Suetonius Paulinus, a.d. 61. 

DEUM. It was used by the Egyptians and 
other ancient nations ; and brought by the Moors 
into Spain. The drum, or drum capstan, for 
weighing anchors, was invented by sir S. Morland^ 
in 1685. Anderson. 

DEUMCLOG (W. Scotland). Here the 
covenanters defeated Graham of Claverhouse, ow 
1 June, 1679. An account of the conflict is given, 
by Walter Scott, in "Old Mortality." 
DEUMCONDEA, see Roman Catholic. 
DEUMMOND LIGHT ; see Lime-light. 
DEUNKAEDS were to be excommunicated' 
in the early church, 59 (1 Cor. v. 11). In England,, 
a canon law forbade drunkenness in the clergy, 747. 
Constantine, king of Scots, punished it with death,. 
870. By 21 James I., c. 7, 1623, a drunkard was- 
hable to a penalty of Ave shillings, or six hours in. 
the stocks. See Temperance and Tee-totaller. 
A commission to inquire into the prevalence of 
intemperance granted by the lords on the motion 
of the archbishop of Canterbury, 30 June, 1876; 
report neutral respecting alcohol, recommends 
trial of modified Gothenburg system (which see), 
issued .... .18 March, 1879 

A society for promoting legislation for the control 

and cure of habitual drunkards formed . 22 Sept. 187& 
The establishment of an industrial home for intem- 
perate females proposed at the Mansion house, 

London 29 Oct. 1877* 

Habitual Drunkards bill, read 2nd time in commons, 

3 July, 1878 ; passed 30 July, 1879 ; amended 1888. 
Society for the study and cure of Inebriates, esta- 
blished 25 April, 1884, 

Drink Bill, Mr. Win. Hoyle computes that the 
nation in i860 spent in intoxicating liquors, 
85,276,870?. ; in 1876, 147,288,760?. ; in 1879, 
128,143,863?. In 188!, for beer, 67,881,673?.;, 
British spirits, 28,457,486?. ; foreign spirits,. 
10,173,014?. ; wine, 14,287,102?. ; British wines, &c.,. 
estimated 1,500,000?. ; total, 122,299,275?. 
Total drink bill 1881,127,074,4^0?.; 1884, 126,349,256?.,-. 
1885, 123,268,906?. ; Dr. Dawson Burns computes 
in 1886, 122,389,045?. ; 1887, 124,347,369?. ; 1888, 
124,603,939?. ; 1889, about 132,103,000?. ; 1890, 
139,495,470?. ; 1891, 141,250,000?. 
On comparison, it was asserted that our drink bill 
does not exceed that of France .... i88ir 



DBUEY-LANE THEATEE. 



297 



DUBLIN. 



DEUEY-LANE THEATEE derives its 
origin from a cock-pit, which was converted into a 
theatre in the reign of James I. It was rebuilt 
and called the Phoenix ; and Charles II. granted an 
exclusive patent to Thomas Killigrew, 25 April, 
1662. The actors were called " the king's servants," 
and ten of them, called gentlemen of the great 
chamber, had an annual allowance of ten yards cf 
scarlet cloth, with lace; see under Theatres. 
Drury-lane Theatrical Fund, established, 1766. 

DEUSES, a warlike people dwelling among the 
mountains of Lebanon, derive their origin from a 
fanatical Mahometan sect which arose in Egypt 
about 996, and fled to Palestine to avoid persecution. 
They now retain hardly any of the religion of their 
ancestors : they eat pork and drink wine, and do 
not practise circumcision, pray, or fast. In the 
middle of i860, in consequence of disputes (in 
which doubtless both parties were to blame), the 
Druses attacked their neighbours the Maronites 
{which see), whom they massacred, it was said, with- 
out regard to age or sex. Peace was made in July ; 
but in the meantime a religious fury seized the 
Mahometan population of the neighbouring cities, 
and a general massacre of Christians ensued. Fuad 
Pacha with Turkish troops, and general Hautpoul 
with French auxiliaries, invaded Lebanon in Aug. 
and Sept. The Druses surrendered, giving up their 
chiefs, Jan. 1861. See Damascus and Syria. 

DEYING MACHINES, see under Hay. 

DUALIN, an explosive substance (said to be 
from four to ten times more powerful than gun- 
powder), composed of varying proportions of cellu- 
lose (wood}' fibre), nitro-srarch, nitro-mannite, and 
nitro-cellulose ; invented by Carl Ditmar, a Prus- 
sian, and made known in 1870. This name is also 
given to another explosive compound, invented by 
Mr. Nobel, composed of ammonia and sawdust, acted 
on by nitro-sulphuric acid. 

DUALISM, a term applied to the equally- 
matched conflicting powers of good and evil in the 
Persian mythology, the Hormuzd and Ahriman 
of Zoroaster : is also applied to the principles 
of the advocates for a separate government of 
Hungary under the emperor of Austria; effected in 

i86 7 r 

DUBLIN, capital of Ireland, anciently called 
Ashcled, said to have been built 140. Auliana, 
daughter of Alpinus, a lord or chief among the 
Irish, having been drowned at the ford where now 
"Whitworth-bridge is built, he changed the name to 
Auliana, by Ptolemy called Eblana (afterwards cor- 
rupted into Dublana). Alpinus is said to have 
brought " the then rude hill into the form of a 
town,'' about 155; see Ireland and Trinity Colleges. 
Lublin returns 4 M.P.'s by Act passed 25 June, 1885. 
Population in 1881, 249,602 ; in 1891, 254,709. 
Christianity introduced by St. Patrick . . . 448 
Dublin environed with walls by the Danes . . 798 
Named by king Edgar iujfche preface to his charter 

" Nobilissi/ma Civitas " 964 

Battle of Clontarf (which see) . . . 23 April, 1014 
Dublin taken by Rainond leGros, 1 1 70, for Henry II. 

who soon after arrives 1171 

Charter granted by this king 1173 

Christ church built by the Danes, 1038 ; rebuilt 

about 1 180— 1225 

Slaughter of 500 British by the Irish citizens near 

Dublin (see Cullens Wood) 1209 

Assemblage of Irish princes, who swear allegiance 

to king John 1210 

Foundation of Dublin castle laid by Henry de Loun- 

dres, 1205 ; finished ...... 1213 

John de Deeer first provost ; Richard de St. Olave 

and John Stakebold first bailiffs (see Mayor) . . 1308 



Thomas Cusack, first mayor 1409 

Besieged by the son of the earl of Kildare, lord 

deputy 150G 

Christ church made a deanery and chapter by 

Henry VIII. (see Christ Church) .... 1541 
Bailiff changed to sheriffs ; John Ryan and Thomas 

Comyu, first 154.8 

Trinity college founded iSQ 1-2- 

Charter granted by James I. 1609 

Convocation which established the Thirty-nine 

articles of religion 1614; 

Besieged by the marquis of Ormond, defeated at 

battle of Rathmines (which sec) . . 2 Aug. 1649. 

Cromwell arrives in Dublin with 9000 foot and 400 

horse Aug. ,, 

Chief magistrate styled lord mayor . . . . 1665 
Blue coat hospital incorporated .... 1676 
Essex bridge built by sir H. Jervis . . . 1670 

Royal hospital, Kilmainham, founded . . . 1683, 
James II. arrives in Dublin, 24 March ; proclaimed 

4 May, 1689, 

Great gunpowder explosion 1693 

Lamps first erected in the city . . . . 1698 

Infirmary, Jervis-street, founded 1728. 

Parliament-house begun J 7 2 9 

Foundling hospital incorporated . . . •• • 1739 
St. Patrick's spire erected (see St. Patrick) . . 1749. 
Royal Dublin Society originated, 173 1 ; ineorpd. . ,, 

Hibernian society 1765 

Marine society 176& 

Queen's bridge first erected, 1684 ; destroyed by a 

flood, 1763 ; rebuilt 1768 

Act for a general pavement of the city . . . 1773 
Royal exchange begun, 1769 ; opened . . . 1779 

Order of St. Patrick instituted 1783 

Bank of Ireland instituted (see Bank) ,, 

Police established by statute 1786 

Royal academy incorporated ,, 

Custom house begun, 1781 ; opened . . . . 17911 

Dublin library instituted ,, 

Fire at the parliament house 179 2 

Carlisle bridge erected 179+ 

City armed association I 79 ( > 

New Four law courts opened ,, 

The rebellion ; arrest of lord Edward Fitzgerald, in 

Thomas-street 19 May, 1798 

Union with England (see Union) . . 1 Jan. i8ot 
Emmett's insurrection .... 23 July, 1803. 

Hibernian Bible society 1806 

Bank transferred to College-green . . . . 180S 

Dublin institution founded 181 1 

Riot at the theatre . . . . ■ 16 Dec. 1814, 

Visit of George IV 12 Aug. 1821 

Theatre Royal opened , > 

The " Bottle riot " 14 Dec. 1822 

Hibernian academy . . . . 16 Aug. 1823, 
Dublin lighted with gas . . . 5 Oct. 1825 
Rd. Whately made archbishop (very active in edu- 
cation) 1831 

Great custom-house Are .... 9 Aug. 1833. 

Railroad to Kingstown 1834, 

British Association meet here . . .6 Aug. 1835 
Dublin new police act . • . . . ■ 4 July, 1836. 
Cemetery, Mount Jerome, consecrated 19 Sept. ,, 
Royal arcade burnt .... 25 April, 1837 
Poor-law bill passed .... 31 July, 1838 

Awful storm raged 6 Jan. 1839 

O'Connell's arrest (see Trials) . . ■ 14 Oct. 1843. 
He is found guilty, 12 Feb. ; liberated in Sept. 1844 

His death at Genoa 15 May, 184? 

Arrest of Mitchell, of the " United Irishman " 

newspaper 13 May, 184S 

State trial of Win. Smith O'Brien and Meagher in 

Dublin 15 May, ,„ 

[These persons were afterwards tried at Cloiunel, 

and found guilty.] 
Trial of MitcheE; guilty . . . . 26 May, ,, 
"Irish Felon" newspaper first published, 1 July, ,, 
" Nation " and " Irish Felon'' suppressed, 29 July, , y 
Conviction of O'Doherty .... 1 Nov. ,, 
The queen visits Dublin ... 6 Aug. 1849. 

Royal exchange opened as a city hall . 30 Sept. 1852 
Dublin industrial exliihiliim, which owed its exis- 
tence to Mr. Dargan, who advanced 8o,oooi. for 
the purpose, was erected by Mr. (afterwards sir) 
John Benson, in the Dublin society's grounds, 
near Merrion-square. It consisted of one large 
and two smaller halls, lighted from above. It 



DUBLIN. 



298 



DUDLEY GALLEEY. 



was opened by earl St. Germains, the lord-lieu- 
tenant 12 May, 

Visited by the queen and prince Albert, 30 Aug. ; 
and closed on 1 Nov. 

Acts passed to establish a national gallery, 
museum, &c. . . 10 Aug. 1854 ; and 2 July, 

British Association meet here (2nd time) . 26 Aug. 

-Arrival of lord Eglinton — disgraceful contest be- 
tween the Trinity college students and the police ; 
the latter severely blamed . - . .12 March, 

Wine art exhibition proposed, 20 July, i860 ; opened 
by the lord-lieutenant, the earl of Carlisle, 24 
May, 1861 ; visited by the prince of Wales, 1 July ; 
and by the queen and prince consort . 22 Aug. 

^National association for social science met, 14-22 Aug. 

Demonstration at the funeral of the rebel M'Manus, 

10-12 Nov. 

SJord Rosse installed as chancellor of the university, 

17 Feb. 

Abp. Whately dies, 8 Oct. ; succeeded by Ed. 
Chenevix Trench Nov. 

'Statue of Oliver Goldsmith inaugurated by the 
lord-lieutenant, 5 Jan. ; who opens the national 
gallery of Ireland 30 Jan. 

INew Richmond hospital, to be called the " Carmi- 
chael School of Medicine," founded by lord Car- 
lisle (Mr. Carmichael, the surgeon, bequeathed 
io,ooo<. to it) 29 March, 

•Industrial exhibition opened by the lord chancellor, 

25 May, 

'The O'Connell monument founded . . 8 Aug. 

St. Patrick's cathedral restored by Mr. Benjamin 
L. Guinness ; re-opened ... 24 Fell. 

The international exhibition opened by the prince 
of Wales g May, 

The newspaper " The Irish People " seized, and 
several Fenians taken in custody. (See Fenians, 
and Ireland.) 15 Sept. 

international exhibition closed . . . 9 Nov. 

■Great fire: Mrs. Delany and five others burnt ; fire- 
brigade blamed 7 June, 

•Great banquet to John Bright . . .30 Oct. 

Meeting of Royal Agricultural Society of Ireland, 

27 Aug. 
Two policemen shot (probably by Fenians), 31 Oct. 
Funeral demonstration for Allen, Gould, and Larkin, 

the Fenians 8 Dec. 

Visit of prince of Wales (see Ireland) . 15 April, 

Sir Benjamin L. Guinness, benefactor, died 19 May, 

Church congress held . . 29 Sept. — 2 Oct. 

Public entry of earl Spencer as lord-lieut. . 16 Jan. 

Smith O'Brien's statue unveiled . . .26 Dec. 

State funeral of lord mayor Bulfin (died in office), 

16 June, 

Fine art and industrial exhibition opened by the 
duke of Edinburgh 5 June, 

■Closed by the lord-lieutenant, earl Spencer, 30 Nov. 

Spencer dock inaugurated by the 1 lord-lieutenant, 

15 April, 

Great fire ; rioting suppressed by the military, 

7 June, 

"Conference on "Home Rule" in the Rotondo, 

18-21 Nov. 

International Rifle Match, Irish and Americans; 
Americans won 29 June, 

Statue of Henry Grattan unveiled . . 6 Jan. 

Entry of the duke of Marlborough, new lord lieu- 
tenant 10 Jan. 

Freedom of city given to Mr. W. E. Gladstone, 

7 Nov. 

•Christ church cathedral thoroughly restored by Mr. 
G. E. Street, at the expense of Mr. Henry Roe 
(above 250,000?.), re-opened . . . 1 May, 

British Association meet here (3rd time) . 14 Aug. 

Death of cardinal Paul Cullen, r.c. abp. of Dublin 
(since 1851), 24 Oct. ; successor, monsignor 
McCabe, elected 28 Nov. 

•Centenary of birth of Thomas Moore celebrated, 

28 May, 
Theatre Royal burnt down, Mr. Egerton, the mana- 
ger, and 5 others, perish ... 9 Feb. 

■Great convention of the land league ; Mr. Parnell 
declares for abolition of landlordism 15 Sept. 
Phoenix park murders (see Ireland) . . 6 May, 
Statue of D. O'Connell unveiled, and the Exhibition 
of Irish Arts and Manufactures (not patronised 
by the queen and loyalists) opened by the lord 
mayor Dawson, 15 Aug. 1S82, closed 6 Jan. 1883. 



1853 



1855 
1857 



C865 



1872 
1873 



1875 
1S76 



:8 7 7 



187S 



Discovery of the assassination plot (see Ireland) 

Feb. 18S3 

A futile attempt to blow up Ship-street barracks 

25 April, 1884 

Visit of the duke of Edinburgh with the Channel 
fleet warmly received end of Aug. ,, 

Grand review of the troops in the Phoenix park by 
the duke of Cambridge . . . . 30 Sept. ,, 

Archbishop Trench retires, 28 Nov. [dies 28 March, 
1886]; lord Plunket elected archbishop about 

18 Dec. „ 

Death of cardinal M'Cabe . . . n Feb. 1885 

The prince and princess of Wales enthusiastically 
received, 8 April ; he lays foundation of Museum 
of Science and Art, &c. . . .10 April, ,, 

Dr. Wm. J. Walsh appointed R.C. archbishop by 
the pope June, ,, 

Entry of the marquis of Londonderry, lord-lieut., 

18 Sept. 1886 

Four Courts building much damaged by fire 10 Feb. 1887 

Princes Albert Victor and George of Wales arrive at 
Dublin 27 June ; review in Phoenix Park 28 June ; 
received deputations, jubilee cathedral service 
and State banquet, &c, 29 June ; left 30 June, ,, 

The lord mayor, T.D. Sullivan, appears in full state 
at the police court to answer- charge of offence 
against the Crimes Act by publication in his 
paper, the " Nation " ; discharged through in- 
sufficient evidence 6 Oct. ; on appeal the objection 
set aside by the Exchequer Division 10 Nov. ; 
sentenced to two months' imprisonment as first- 
class misdemeanant ..... 2 Dec. ,, 

Great Unionist meeting in Leinster Hall to receive 
lord Harrington and Mr. Goschen . 29 Nov. „ 

Mr. T. Sexton, M'.P., lord mayor . . 2 Jan. 1888 

Great meeting of Irish Nationalists to receive the 
marquis of Ripon and Mr. John Morley, M.P., 
amid great enthusiasm . . . . 2 Feb. „ 

Dublin barracks built about 1708 ; enteric fever 
long prevalent, greatly increased in 1888; govern- 
ment inspection, special inquiry by Mr. Rogers 
Field, aided by Drs. Dupre and Klein, ordered 
Nov. ; interim report with recommendations 
dated 25 Feb. ; issued .... April, 1889 

The earl of Zetland sworn in lord lieut. . 5 Oct. ,, 

Mr. E. Kennedy, lord mayor . . .1 Jan. 1890 

Strike of servants of Great S. and AV. railway com- 
pany at Dublin, 25 April ; closed by the efforts 
. of Abp. Walsh and others . . . 3 May, ,, 

The earl of Zetland opens the new museum of Science 
and Art and the National Library . . 29 Aug. ,, 

Mr. C. S. Parnell dies at Brighton, 6 Oct., buried 
in Glasnevin cemetery ; solemn funeral 11 Oct. 1891 

Explosion at Dublin castle attributed to nitro- 
glycerine ; much destruction but no one injured 

31 Dec. ,, 

Telephonic communication with Belfast opened 

5 April, 1892 

Great Unionist meeting . . . .23 June, „ 

Tercentenary of the foundation of Trinity college 
celebrated 5-9 July, ,, 

DUBLIN", Archbishopric of. it is sup- 
posed that the bishopric of' Dublin was founded by 
St. Patrick, in 448. Gregory, bishop in 1121, be- 
came archbishop in 1 152. It was united to Glan- 
dalagli in 1214. George Browne, an Augustine friar 
of London (deprived by queen Mary in 1554), was 
the first Protestant archbishop. Dublin has two 
cathedrals, St. Patrick's, said to have been founded 
1 190, restored 1865; Christ Church, built about 
1038, made a cathedral in 1541. The revenue was 
valued, in the king's books, 30 Henry YIII., at 
534/. 15s. 2d. Irish. Kildare, on its last avoidance, 
was annexed to Dublin, 1846 ; see Bishops. 

DUCAT, a coin so called because struck by 
dukes. Johnson. First coined by Longinus, 
governor of Italy. Procopius. First struck in the 
duchy of Apulia, 1 140. Du C'ange. Coined by 
Robert, king of Sicily, in 1240. 

DUCKING-STOOL ; see Cucking-stool. 

DUDLEY GALLEEY. The exhibition held 
since 1865 in the Egyptian Kail was removed to a 



DUELLING. 



299 



DUFFERIN FUND. 



new building' in Piccadilly, under the direction of 
the Dudlej r Gallery Art Society, established in 
1883. 

DUELLING took its rise from the judicial 
combats of the Celtic nations. The first formal 
duel in England, between William count of Eu and 
Godfrey Baynard, took place 1096. Duelling in 
civil matters was forbidden in France, 1305. 
Francis I. challenged the emperor Charles V. 1528 
without effect. The fight with small swords was 
introduced into England, 1587. Proclamation that 
no person should be pardoned who- killed another in 
a duel, 1679.* Duelling was checked in the army, 
1792 ; and has been abolished in England, by the 
influence of public opinion, aided by the prince 
consort. A society "for the discouraging of duel- 
ling " was established in 1845. " The British Code 
of Duel," published in 1824, was approved by the 
duke of Wellington and others. See Battle, Wager 
of, Combat, and Jarnac. 



MEMORABLE DUELS. 

Between the duke of Hamilton and lord Mohun, 
fought 15 Nov. 

[This duel was fought with small swords, in Hyde- 
park. Lord Mohun was killed upon the spot, 
and the duke expired of his wounds as he was 
being carried to his coach.] 

Capt. Peppard and Mr. Hayes ; latter killed 

Messrs. Hamilton and Morgan ; former killed 

S. Martin wounded Mr. Wilkes, M.P. . 16 Nov. 

Lord Byron killed Mr. Chaworth . . 26 Jan. 

Lord Townsend wounded lord Bellamont, 1 Feb. 

Comte d'Artois wounded by due de Bourbon, at 
Paris 21 March, 

Mr. Donovan and capt. Hanson ; the latter killed, 

13 Nov. 

Charles James Fox wounded by Mr. Adam, 30 Nov. 

Col. Fullerton wounded lord Shelburne, 22 March, 

Rev. Mr. Allen killed Lloyd Dulany . . 18 June, 

Col. Thomas killed by col. Gordon . 4 Sept. 

Lord Macartney wounded by major-general Stuart, 

8 June, 
Mr. M'Keon killed George N. Reynolds, 1787 ; exe- 
cuted ■, 16 Feb. 

Mr. Purefoy killed col. Roper .... Deo. 

Duke of York and col. Lennox, aft. duke of Rich- 
mond (for an insignificant cause) . 26 May, 

Sir George Ramsay and cai:>tain Macrea : sir George 
killed 

Mr. G'urran and major Hohart . . 1 April, 

Mr. Macduff and Mr. Prince ; latter killed 4 June, 

Mr. Harvey Aston and lieut. Fitzgerald ; the former 
severely wounded .... 25 June, 

Mr. Anderson killed Mr. Stevens . . 20 Sept. 

Mr. Julius killed Mr. Graham . . 19 July, 

Mr. John Kemble and Mr. Aiken ; no fatality, 

1 March, 

Earl of Lonsdale and captain Cuthbert ; no fatality 

9 Juue, 
M. de Chauvigny wounded Mr. Lameth . 8 Nov. 
Wm, Pitt and Geo. Tierney . . .27 May, 
Lord Valentia wounded by Mr. Gawler . 28 June, 
Mr. Carpenter killed by Mr. Pride . 20 Aug. 
Henry G rat tan wounded Isaac Cony . 15 Jan. 
Lieut. Willis killed major Impey . . 26 Aug. 
George Ogle and Bernard Coyle : no fatality . . 
Sir Richard Musgrave and Mr. Todd Jones ; sir 

Richard wounded .... 8 June, 
Capt. Mac Namara killed col. Montgomery, 6 April, 
Gen. Hamilton and col. xVaron Burr (in America) ; 

the general killed 

Capt. Best killed lord Camelford 6 (died 10) March, 
Surgeon Fisher killed lieut. Torrens . 22 March, 
Baron Hompesch wounded Mr. Richardson, 21 Sept. 
Sir Francis Burdett and Ml'. Paull ; both wounded 

5 May, 



1728 
174S 
1763 
1765 
1773 

1778 



1782 
1783 



1791 
1792 

1796 



1000 
1801 
1802 



1803 
1S04 
1S06 

1807 



* " As many as 227 official and memorable duels were 
fought during my grand climacteric." — Sir J. Barrington. 
A single writer enumerates 172 duels, in which 63 indi- 
viduals were killed and 96 wounded : in three of these 
cases both the combatants were killed, and 18 of the 
survivors suffered the sentence of the law. Hamilton. 



Mr. Alcock killed Mr. Colclough ; and lost his reason 

8 June, 1807 
M. de Granpre and M. Le Pique, in balloons, near 

Paris, and the latter killed ... 3 May, 1S08 
Major Campbell and captain Boyd ; latter killed 

(former hanged, 2 Oct. 1808) . . 23 June, „ 
Lord Paget and captain Cadogan ; neither wounded 

30 May, 1809 
Lord Castlereagh wounded Geo. Canning 21 Sept. ,, 
Mr. Clarke killed George Payne . . .6 Sept. 1810 
Ensign de Balton kiUed capt. Boardman, 4 March, 1811 
Lieut. Stewart killed lieut. Bagnal . . 7 Oct. 1812 
Mr. Edward Maguire killed lieut. Blundell, 9 July, 1813 
Captain Stackpole (of " Statira " frigate) and lieut. 

Cecil ; the captain killed (arose on account of 
words spoken four years previously) . April, 1814 
Mr. D. O'Connell killed Mr. D'Esterre . 31 Jan. 1815 
Colonel Quentin and colonel Palmer . 7 Feb. ,, 
Mr. O'Connell and Mr. Peel ; an affair, no meeting 

31 Aug. „ 
Major Greene and Mr. Price, in America ; the latter 

killed, greatly lamented 1816 

Lieut. Conroy killed lieut. Hindes . 8 March, 1817 
Major Lockyer killed Mr. John Sutton . 10 Dec. ,, 
Mr. O'Callaghan killed lieut. Bayley . . 12 Jan. 1818 
Mr. Grattan and the earl of Clare . . 7 June, 1820 
Mr. Henshaw and Mr. Hartinger ; both desperately 

wounded 18 Sept. ,, 

Mr. Christie killed Mr. Scott . ' . .16 Feb. 1821 
M. Manuel and Mr. Beaumont . . 9 April, ,, 
Mr. James Stuart killed sir Alexander Boswell, 

26 March, 1822 
The duke of Buckingham and the duke of Bedford ; 

no fatality 2 May, „ 

Gen. Pepe wounded gen. Carascosa . 28 Feb. 1823 

Mr. Westall killed capt. Gourlay 1824 

Mr. Beaumont and Mr. Lambton : no result 1 July, 1S26 
Mr. Hayes killed Mr. Brie ... 26 Dec. ,, 
Rev. Mr. Hodson wounded Mr. Grady . Aug. 1827 
Duke of Wellington and the earl of Winchelsea ; no 

injury 21 March, 1829 

Capt. Helsham killed lieut. Crowther . 1 April, ,, 
Mr. W. Lambrecht killed Mr. O. Clayton . 8 Jan. 1830 
Capt. Smith killed Mr. O'Grady . . 18 March, ,, 
Mr. Storey wounded Mr. Matthias . 22 Jan. 1833 

Sir John W. Jeffcott and Dr. Hennis ; the latter 

wounded, and died on the 18th . 10 May, ,, 

Lord Alvanley and Mr. Morgan O'Connell ; 2 shots 

each 4 May, 1835 

Sir Colquhoun Grant and lord Seymour ; no fatality 

29 May, „ 
Mr. Roebuck, M.P., and Mr. Black, editor of the 

" Morning Chronicle ;" 2 shots each . 19 Nov. ,, 
Capt. Dickson wounded gen. Evans . . 8 April, 1836 
Mr. Ruthven and Mr. Scott ; and Mr. Ruthven and 

Mr. Close (Mr. Scott's second) ; the latterwounded 

23 May, ,, 
Emile de Girardin killed Armand Carrel (both jour- 
nalists) 24 July, ,, 

The earl of Cardigan and captain Tuekett ; 2 shots 

each; the latter wounded ; (the earl was tried in the 

house of lords and acquitted, 16 Feb. 1841) 12 Sept. 1S40 
Captain Boldero and hon. Craven Berkeley ; no 

fatality 15 July, 1842 

Lieut. Munroe killed col. Fawcett 1 (died 3) July, 1843 
Lieut. Hawker killed lieut. Seton . 20 May, 1845 

Due de Grammont Caderousse kills Mr. Dillon at 

Paris, for a newspaper attack . . . Oct. 1862 
Paul de Cassagnac and M. Lissagaray, journalists ; 

(latter run through) .... 4 Sept. 1868 
Don Enrique de Bourbon killed by the due de Montr 

pensier, near Madrid, much provocation, 12 Mar. 1870 
Paul de Cassagnac (wounded) and M. Ranc, Puis, 

7 July, 1S73 
Prince Soutza kills N. Ghika at Fontainebleau, 

27 Nov. ,, 
MM. Gambetta and Dc Fortou; neither hit 

21 Nov. 1878 
Duels (often nominal) still frequent in France 1S75-84 
Capt. Fournier and H. Roehefort, for attack in 

Intransitjeant ; both slightly wounded 10 Oct. 1884 
M. Hubert killed M. Felix Dupuis (artist), who 

resented satirical verses, Paris . . 29 April, i833 
Gen. Boulanger, seriously, ami M. Floquet slightly 

wounded (see France) . . . 13 July, ,, 
Capt. .Mayer killed by 111:1 rq. de Mores, Paris, 23 .lone 1892 

DUFFERIN FUND, LADY,sce/^.w, 1S87. 



DUKE. 



300 



DUN ECHT. 



DUKE, from Latin dux, a leader. In England, 
during Saxon times, the commanders of armies 
•were _ called dukes, duces. Camden. In Genesis 
xxxvi. some of Esau's descendants are termed 
dukes, puke-duke was a title given to the house of 
Sylvia, in Spain, on account of its possessing many 
duchies. 
Edward the. Black Prince made duke of Cornwall 

17 March, 1337 
Robert de Vere was created marquis of Dublin and 

duke of Ireland, 9 Rich. II I3 8 s 

Robert III. created David, prince of Scotland, duke 

of Rothsay, a title which afterwards belonged to 

the king's eldest son, 1398, and is now borne by 

the prince of Wales. 
Cosmo de' Medici created grand-duke of Tuscany, 

the first of the rank, by pope Pius V. . . . 1569 
The dukes of Buccleuch, Grafton, Richmond, and 

St. Albans are descendants of Charles II. 

DULCIGNO, a port in Albania on the Adri- 
atic. 

Taken by Turks I57I 

In the 17th century a den of pirates, and the resi- 
dence of Sabbatai Zewi, a Smyrnese Jew, who 
declared himself to be the Messiah, became Maho- 
metan ; and died ID70 

Taken by Venetians ; and held for a short time ' '. 1722 
The Montenegrins take it by storm ; butgiveitup 1878 
Assigned to them by the Berlin conference June, 

July, 1880 
Seized by 8000 Albanians, who expelled the Turks 

about !8 Sept. „ 

After much delay the Sultan signed the decree for 
its cession to Montenegro . . .12 Oct. 
After a slight conflict with Albanians 22 Nov., occu- 
pied by Dervish Pasha 24 Nov., and surrendered 
to the Montenegrins . . .26, 27 Nov. 

DULWICH COLLEGE (Surrey) called 
Goci's-gift college, founded by Edward Alleyn, an 
eminent comedian, was completed and solemnly 
opened 13 Sept. 1619. Alleyn was its first master, 
and died in 1626. In 1686 Win. Cartwright, an 
actor, gave a library and some portraits, and on 

20 Dec. 1810 sir Francis Bourgeois bequeathed his 
collection of pictures, the gallery for which was 
erected by sir John Soane, and opened in 1812. Sir 
Francis died 8 Jan. 181 1. In 1857, an act was 
passed by which the college was reconstituted. Two 
schools were established ; and the number of the 
almspeople increased. In i860 the annual income 
was 11,482^. The new school buildings, founded 
26 June, 1866, were opened by the prince of Wales, 

21 June, 1870. The Endowed Schools Commis- 
sioners put forth a draft scheme for remodelling the 
charity about Oct. 1872 ; and another scheme was 
approved 18 Aug. 1882. Four parishes are bene- 
fited by the charity, St. Luke's, Middlesex ; St. 
Botolph's, JBishopsgate ; St. Saviour's, Southwark; 
and St. Giles's, Camberwell. Dulwich Park, 72 
acres, presented to the public by the governors of 
the college, opened by the earl of Eosebery, 26 June, 
1890. _ Mr. Win. Young's history of the college, 
including many documents, 2 vols. 4to, was pub- 
lished in 1890. 

DUMB, see Deaf and Dumb. 

DUMBLANE or Dunblane (Perth), an 

ancient city, near which took place a conflict called 
the battle of Sheriffmuir, between the royalist army 
under the duke of Argyle, and the Scots rebels 
under the earl of Mar, 13 Nov. 1715. Both claimed 
the victory. 

DUNBAB (Haddington). Here the Scottish 
army and king John Baliol were defeated by War- 
renne, earl of Surrey, 27 April, 1296, and Scotland 
was subdued. Near here also Cromwell obtained a 



signal victory over the Scots, in arms for Charles II. 
3 Sept. 1650. 

DUNCIAD, the celebrated satirical poem by 
Alexander Pope, was published in 1728. 

DUNCOMBE PAEK, N. E. Yorkshire, the 
magnificent mansion of the earl of Feversham, with 
valuable treasures (really a museum open to the 
public), was destroyed by fire, 11 Jan. 1879. 

DUNDALK (Louth, Ireland). On 5 Oct. 1318, 
at Foughard near this place, was defeated and slain 
Edward Bruce, who had invaded Ireland in 1315. 
The walls and fortifications of Dundalk were de- 
stroyed in 1641. It was taken by Cromwell in 
1649. The first cambric manufacture in Ireland 
was established in this town by artisans from 
France in 1727. 

DUNDEE (E. Scotland), on the Tay. The 
site was given by William the Lion (reigned 1165 — 
1214) to his brother David, earl of Huntingdon, 
who built or strengthened the rustle, and erected a 
large church, the tower of which, 156 feet high, 
still remains. The town was taken by the English 
in 1385 ; pillaged by Mont ose, 1645 ; stormed by 
Monk in 165 1 ; and visited by queen Victoria in 
1844. It has thriven since 1815, through its 
extensive linen manufactories ; at one of these 
(Edwards's) a steam explosion took place on 15 April, 
1859, when twenty persons were killed. Claver- 
house, viscount Dundee (killed 1689), had a house 
here. See Population. 
The Baxter park, the gift of sir David Baxter, 

opened' by earl Russell .... 9 Sept. 1863 
The British association met here . . 4 Sept. 1867 
While preparing for building the great Tay bridge 
of the N. British railway six men were killed, 

27 Aug. 1873 
The Albert Institution opened by the earl of 

Dalhousie 1 Nov. ,, 

The Queen-street calendering works burnt, loss 

between 15,000?. and 20,000?. . . 20 Dec. „ 
New wet dock (Victoria) opened by lord Strath- 
more 16 Aug. 1875 

The Tay bridge {which see) completed Aug. 1S77 ; 
opened, 31 May, 1878 ; destroyed by a gale ; be- 
tween 80 and 90 lives lost, 7.15 p.m. 28 Dec. 1879 
Statue of Burns unveiled . . . .16 Oct. 1880 
Armistead's flax warehouse burnt, loss about 

10,000? 16 Jan. 1883 

New university founded by sir D. Baxter ; pro- 
fessor appointed Nov. 1882. Munificent addi- 
tions made to the funds by Miss Mary Ann 
Baxter, sister of sir David, 1882 [she died 19 Dec. 
1884]; college opened by earl of Dalhousie 5 Oct. ,, 
Great demonstration in favour of the government 

and franchise bill .... 20 Sept. 1884 
Mr. T. H. Cox gives 12,000?. for the establishment 
of a medical school in connection with the 

college 13 Dec. 1886 

Mr. J. M. Keiller gives 10,500?. for the free library, 
museum and picture gallery as a jubilee offering 

24 Dec. ,, 
The old theatre, newly renovated, burnt . 6 Oct. 18S& 
Rt. Hon. C. T. Ritchie, a native, president of the 

Local Government Board, made a burgess 13 Oct. ,,. 
Dundee created a city .... Dee. ,, 

The Victoria art galleries, opened by the marquis 

of Lome 26 Oct. 1889 

The freedom of the city given to Mr. H. M. Stanley 

14 June, 1890. 
Rt. lion. E. Baxter, statesman and benefactor, dies 

aged 65 10 Aug. ,, 

The freedom of the city given to Mr. Gladstone 

29 Oct. ,, 
The provost ordered to be styled "lord provost" 

11 Feb. 1892 

DUN ECHT, Aberdeenshire, seat of the earl 
of Craw lord, who erected an observatory here. In 
the autumn, 1888, he presented to the nation his. 
valuable instruments, which will be set up in 



DUNES. 



301 



DURHAM. 



Edinburgh. The earl issued the 179th, and last, 

" Dun Echt Circular," Feb. 1890. 

On 3 Dec. 1881, it was discovered that the body 
of the late earl had been stolen from the mau- 
soleum in the grounds ; it was found near the 
spot, 18 July, 1882, through information given 
by Chas. Soutar, who was convicted of stealing it. 

24 Oct. 1882 
DUNES, see Dunkirk. 

DUNGAN-HILL (Ireland). Here the Eng- 
lish army, commanded by colonel Jones, signally 
defeated the Irish, of whom 6000 are said to have 
been slain, while the loss on the side of the English 
was inconsiderable, 8 Aug. 1647. 

DUNKELD (Perthshire) was made a bishopric 
by David I. in 1 127; the ancient Culdee church, 
founded by king Constantine III., becoming the 
cathedral, The beautiful bridge over the Tay, 
erected by Thomas Telford, was opened in 1809. 

DUNKIRK (N. France), founded in the 7th 
century, was taken by the Spaniards, Sept. 1652, 
and retaken from them by the English and French 
after Turenne's victory over them under Conde on 
the dunes (or sands), 14 June, 1658, and put into 
the hands of the English, 25 June following. It 
was sold by Charles II. for 500,000/. to Louis XIV., 
17 Oct.; restored 1662, and was one of the best 
fortified ports in the kingdom ; but the works were 
demolished in conformity with the treaty of Utrecht 
in 1713. The works were ordered to be demolished 
at the peace of 1763; but in 1783 tbey were again 
resumed. The English attempted to besiege Dun- 
kirk ; but the duke of York was defeated by Hoche, 
and forced to retire with loss, 7 Sept. 1793. It was 
made a free port in 1816. 

DUNMOW (Essex), famous for the tenure of 
the manor (made by Kobert Fitz- Walter, 1244), 
■"that whatever married couple will go to the 
priory and kneeling on two sharp-pointed stones, 
will swear that they have not quarrelled nor repented 
of their marriage within a year and a day after its 
celebration, shall receive a flitch of bacon." 
The earliest recorded claim for the bacon was in 1445, 
since when to 1855 it is said to have been demanded 
only five times. 
The last claimants previous to 1855 were John Shake- 
shanks and his wife, 20 June, 1751 ; they made a large 
sum by selling slices of the flitch to witnesses of the 
ceremony (5000 persons). 
Flitches were awarded to Mr. and Mrs. Barlow, of Chip- 
ping-Ongar, and the Chevalier Chatelaine and his lady, 
19 July, 1855. 
The lord of the manor opposed the revival, but Mr. W. 
Harrison Ainsworth, the novelist, and some friends, 
defrayed the expense, and superintended the cere- 
monials. 
A flitch was awarded in i860 and 9 July, 1873 ; on 17 July, 
1876, to James Henry and Mary Boosey ; to others 
23 July, 1877. 

DUNSE (S. Scotland). Here on 18 June, 
1639, by treaty between the Scots commission and 
Charles I., their demands were acceded to, and they 
agreed to disband their army. Disputes arose, and 
the treaty was not carried into effect. 

DUNSINANE (Perthshire). On the hill was 
fought the battle between king Macbeth formerly the 
thane of Glammis, and Siward, earl of Northum- 
berland, 27 July, 10^4- Edward the Confessor had 
sent Siward on behalf of Malcolm III., whose father 
Duncan, the usurper had murdered. Macbeth was 
defeated, and it was said was pursued to Lumpha- 
sian, in Aberdeenshire, and there slain, 105601- 1057. 

DUOMO, see Milan, Florence. 

DUPES (day of), 11 Nov. 1 630, when Richelieu 
energetically and adroitly frustrated the plan for 



his ruin, formed by the queen Marie de Medicis and 
Gaston, duke of Orleans, and others, during the 
king's illness. 

DUPLEX TELEGRAPHY. See Electric 

Telegraph under Electricity . 

DUPPELorDYBOL. See underDe?imark, 1864. 

DUPPLIN (Perthshire). Here Edward Balliol 
and his English allies totally defeated the Scots 
under the earl of Mar, 1 1 Aug. 1332, and obtained 
the crown for three months. 

DURBAR, an East Indian term for an audience- 
chamber or court. On 18 Oct. 1864, a durbar 
was held at Lahore by the viceroy of India, sir John 
Lawrence, at which 604 of the most illustrious 
princes and chieftains of the north-west province 
were present, magnificently clothed. Similar ones 
were held in 1866, 1867, and on 27 March, 1869, at 
Umballah. 

Sir Seymour Fitzgerald, governor of Bombay, held 
a great durbar of the princes of Western India at 

Poona 6 Oct. 1868 

The earl of Mayo, the viceroy, held a solemn durbar 

at Ajmere in Rajpootana ... 22 Oct. 1870 
The marquis of Ripon's grand durbar (as viceroy) at 

Lahore (after Afghan war) . . . 15 Nov. 1880 
The earl of Dufferin, viceroy, held a grand durbar 
at Rawul Pindi, at which the Ameer of Afghanis- 
tan and the Duke of Connaught were present, 

8 April, 1885 
Sir Auckland Colvin, lieut. -governor of the N.W. 

Provinces, held a grand durbar at Meerut 10 March, 1888 
A durbar held at Quetta by the viceroy, 19 Nov., 
1889 ; at Agra 24 Nov. 1890 

DURHAM, an ancient city, the Dunholme of 

the Saxons, and Dureme of the Normans. The 
bishopric was removed to Durham from Chester- 
le -street in 995; whither it had been transferred 
from Lindisfarne, or Holy Island, on the coast 
of Northumberland, in 875, in consequence of the 
invasion of the Danes. The bones of St. Cuth- 
bert, the sixth bishop, were brought from Lin- 
disfarne, and interred in Durham cathedral. This 
see, deemed the richest in England, was valued in 
the king's books at 282 1£. Present income 8ooo£. 
Population, 1881, 14,932 ; 1891, 14,863. 
College founded (abolished at the Reformation) . 1290 
Near Durham was fought the decisive battle of A T e- 

ville's cross (see Strikes) . . . . 17 Oct. 1346 
Durham ravaged by Malcolm of Scotland, 1070 ; oc- 
cupied by the Northern rebels .... 1569 

By the Scots ^40 

Cromwell quartered his Scotch prisoners in the ca- 
thedral r 65o 

Cromwell established a college, 1657 ; which was 

suppressed at the Restoration .... 1660 
The palatine privileges, granted to the bishop by 
the Danish Northumbrian prince Guthmm, taken 

by the crown June, 1836 

Present University, located in the ancient castle, 
established in 1831, opened Oct. 1833 ; chartered 

June, 1837 
Certain new ordinances, recommended by a commis- 
sion, 1862, set aside 1863 

Cathedral renovated; re-opened . . 18 Oct. 1876 

See Coal (strike, 1892). 

RECENT BISHOPS. 

1791. Hon. Shute Barrington, died in 1826. 

1826. Wm. Van Mildert (the last prince bishop), died 21 
Feb. 1836. 

1836. Edward Maltby, resigned in 1856 ; died 3 July, 
1859, aged 90. 

1856. Charles Thomas Longley ; became archb. of York, 
May, i860. 

i860. Hon. H. Montagu Villiers (translated from Car- 
lisle) ; died 10 Aug. 1861. 

1861. Charles Baring, resigned 3 Feb., 1879 ; ( li e 'l idSept. 
187-j. 

1879. Joseph Barber Liglltfoot, died 21 Dec. 18S9. 

1890. Brooke loss Westcott, D.D., March, consecrated 
1 May. 



DUEHAM LETTEE. 



302 



DYNAMITE. 



DUEHAM LETTEE, see Papal Aggression. 
DUST. A controversy respecting the connec- 
tion between dust and disease originated with 
a lecture on the subject by professor Tyndall at 
the Royal- Institution, 21 Jan. 1870, when he de- 
monstrated the presence of organic matters in the 
dust of the atmosphere in conformity with the ex- 
periments of Pasteur and other eminent; philosophers. 
See Germ Theory and Vivisection. The agency of 
dust in promoting fires and explosions was asserted 
by Faraday in relation to coal mines in 1845, and 
by Rankine and Macadam in relation to flour mills 
in 1872. Professor F. A. Abel' s discourse on Some 
of the Dangerous Properties of Dusts, 28 April, 1882. 
Mr. Aitken's dust-counting apparatus was set up 
on Ben Nevis, Feb. 1890. 

DUTCH PLAYS, "Annie Mie," by Rosier 
Faassen, and others, were performed at the Imperial 
Theatre, Westminster, 7 June et seq., 1880. Madame 
Catherine Beersman's acting was much approved. 
DUTCH EEPUBLIC, see Holland. 
DUTIES, see Customs, Excise, §c. 
DUTY, see Whole and Deontology. 
DUUMVIEI, two Roman patricians appointed 
hy Tarquin the Proud 520 B.C. to take care of the 
books of the Sibyls, which were supposed to contain 
the fate of the Roman empire. The books were 
placed in the Capitol, arid secured in a chest under 
the ground. The number of keepers was increased 
to ten (the Decemviri) 365 B.C., afterwards to fifteen, 
the added five called quinque viri. 

DWAEFS, OR PIGMIES, are described by 
several ancient classical writers. Herodotus gives 
an account of a race of pigmies living in Libya and 
the Sjnrtes, to which Aristotle and Pliny also refer. 
Mr. H. M. Stanley, hi his journey across Africa 
in 1888, came upon a dwarfish race, which he 
thought might be descended from that men- 
tioned by Herodotus. Philetas of Cos, distinguished 
about 330 B.C., as a poet and grammarian, was 
jocularly said to have carried weights to prevent 
his being blown away. He was preceptor to 
Ptolemy Philadelphus. Lilian. Julia, niece of 
Augustus, had a dwarf named Coropas, two feet and 
a hand's breadth high ; and Andromeda, a freed- 
maid of Julia's, was of the same height. Pliny. 
Modern Dwarfs.— John d'Estrix, of Mechlin, was 
brought to the duke of Parma, in 1592, when he was 
35 years of age, having a long beard. He was skilled 
in languages, and not more than three feet high. 
Geoffrey'Hudson, an English dwarf, when a youth of 18 
inches high, was served up to table in a cold pie, before 
the kin°- and queen, by the duchess of Buckingham, in 
1626 He challenged Mr. Crofts to tight a duel, but the 
latter came armed" with a squirt. At another meeting 
the dwarf shot his antagonist dead, 1653. 
Count Borowlaski, a Polish gentleman, of great accom- 
plishments and elegant manners, well known in Eng- 
land, where he resided for many years, was bom in 
Nov' 1739 His growth was at one year of age, 14 
inches ; at six, 17 inches ; at twenty, 33 inches ; and 
at thirty, 39. He had a sister, named Anastasia, seven 
years younger than himself, and so much shorter that 
she could stand under his arm. He visited many of 
the courts of Europe, and died in England in 1837. 
Charles Heywood Stratton (termed general Tom Thumb), 
an American, was exhibited in England, by Mr. P. T. 
Barnum, 1846. In Feb. 1863, in New York, when 25 
years old and 31 inches high, he married Lavinia 
"Warren, aged 21, 32 inches high. He, his wife and 
child, and commodore Nutt, another dwarf, came to 
England in Pec. 1864, and remained there some time. 
Died 15 July, 1883. 
Mr. Collard. aged 22, smaller than Stratton, sang at con- 
certs in London, and was termed the "Pocket Sims 
Reeves," May, June, 1873. - 

Several dwarfs (said to be smaller than the preceding) 
exhibited at the Westminster Aquarium, July, 1878. 



Ohe-mah, a Chinese, 42 years old, 25 inches high, exhi- 
bited at the Westminster Aquarium, 11 June, 1880. 

Lucia Zarate, born 2 Jan. 1863, in Mexico, height 20 
inches, weight 4J lbs., and general Mite, Francis Joseph 
Flynn, born 2 Oct. 1864, in New York State, height 21 
inches, weight 9 lbs., exhibited in Piccadilly. 22 Nov. 
1880, etseq. Milly Edwards exhibited in London, July, 
1882, 15 years of age, weighing 7 lbs. ; these two were 
married at Manchester, 28 May, 1884. 

DYEING is attributed to the Tyrians, about 
1500 B.C. The English are said to have sent fine 
goods to be dyed in Holland, till the art was brought 
to them probably in 1608. " Two dyers of Exeter 
were flogged for teaching their art in the north" (of 
England), 1628. A statute against abuses in dyeing 
passed in 1783. The art has been greatly improved 
by chemical research. A discovery of Dr. Stenhouse 
in 1848, led to M. Marnas procuring mauve from 
lichens; and Dr. Hofmann's production of aniline 
from coal-tar, has led to the invention of a number 
of beautiful dyes (mauve, magenta, red, green, 
black, &c.) ; see Aniline. 

DYNAMICS is the science which treats of 
matter and motion recently substituted for " mecha- 
nics," which see. Professor "W. Iv. Clifford's " Ele- 
ments of Dynamics," 2 vols., 1878-87. 

DYNAMITE, a new explosive compound, con- 
sisting of 25 parts of silicious earth saturated with 
75 parts of nitro-glycerine {which see) . It is suitable 
for mining purposes, and was tried and approved 
at Merstham 14 July, 1868. It was invented by 
Alfred Nobel to obviate danger. Its manufacture 
is very dangerous. A preparation called " Safety " 
Dynamite, invented by Herr von Dahmen, who by 
the addition of a simple substance renders dynamite 
uncongealable, thus avoiding the danger of thawing 
in cold weather, 1889. Dynamite which cannot be 
frozen, invented by Herr Edward Liebert, of 
Berlin (very important, many deaths having been 
caused by thawing frozen dynamite); reported 
Aug. 1890. See Cannon, 1891. 

Snyder dynamite projectile ; experiments at Aberdare, 
S. Wales ; British and foreign officers present ; 
reported fairly successful 5 Oct. 1891. 
Thirteen men killed by explosion of dynamite in a rail- 
way tunnel at Cymmer, S. Wales, 21 April, 1876. 
A man named Thomson, Thomassin, or Thomas, con- 
signed a cask of dynamite to Bremerhafen, to be con- 
veyed by the North German Lloyd steamer Mosel. 
With it he sent a clock-work machine, which would 
in eight days give the cask a blow powerful enough to 
explode the dynamite and destroy the ship. From 
some cause the machine went off and exploded in 
the dock, killing above 80 and wounding about 200 
persons, chiefly emigrants and their friends, 11 Dec. 
1875. Thomson committed suicide, dying 16 Dec. 
1875, after confessing his crime, his object being to 
obtain the paltry sum for which he had insured his 
goods. It appears that similar machines were known 
in 1873. 
Use of dynamite for killing oxen tried and advocated, 

summer, 1877. 
Its use in fisheries prohibited by parliament, 14 Aug. 

1877. 
A parcel containing 27 cartridges of dynamite placed on 
the London and N. W. Railway, between Bushey and 
Watford (perpetrators not discovered), night 12-13 
Sept. 1880. 
Failure of attempt at explosion at the Times office, 

15 Mar. 1883. 
Thomas Callan, alias Scott, of Lowell, Massachusetts, 
and Michael Harkins, of Philadelphia, both residing- 
in Islington, charged with conspiring together to cause 
a dynamite explosion, a large quantity of dynamite 
having been found in their dwellings in Islington 21 
Nov. ; committed 19 Dec. (Cohen, a co-conspirator 
died 19 Oct.) 1887 ; as secondaries sentenced to iifteeni 
years' penal servitude 1-3 Feb. 1888. 
Zalinski gun for the projection of dynamite adopted! 
by the United States for coast defence Feb. 1889. 



DYNAMITE. 



303 



DZOUNGAEIA. 



Lieut. Graydon's safe dynamite for use in shells, &c, 

announced April, 1889. 

See Explosions and Glasgow, 1SS3. 
The violent Irish party in America termed Dynamitards, 

April, 1883. Many said to be settled in Paris. Report 

refers to two associations — one under O'Donovan 

Rossa (failing), another named Clan-na-gael — 2 men 

said to have been killed ; 25 convicted and imprisoned 

issued 1886. 
O'Donovan Rossa said to have been succeeded by Dr. 

Hamilton AVilliams at New York (see Fenians) 14 Dec. 

1887. 
Portmanteaus, containing dynamite, with clock-work of 

American make, which had failed, found at Charing- 

cross and Paddington stations, 28 Feb., and at Lud- 

gate-hill station, 1 March, 1884. 
FitzGerald arrested in London, 10 April, 1884. 
Denman, or Daley, with three infernal machines, arrested 

at Birkenhead. 
James Francis Egan and Patrick Hogan arrested at 

Birmingham, 11 April, 1884. 

[Treasonable papers about Irish republic, &c, dis- 
covered in Egan's garden.] 



Wm. M'Donnell arrested at Wcdnesbury, 1 May, 1884. 
Daley sentenced to penal servitude for life ; Egan to 

20 years, for treason-felony ; M'Donnell discharged on 

recognizances, 1 Aug. 1884. 
Explosion at Nobel's dynamite factory near Stevenston, ; 

Ayr ; ten lives lost, 8 May, 1S84. 

DZO UNGARIA, a region of Central Asia, N.. 
of China, with about 2,000,000 inhabitants, fierce,, 
warlike Mahometans. After being long tributary 
to China, they rebelled in 1864, massacred the- 
Chinese residents, and set up their countryman 
Abel Oghlan as sultan. As he was unable to re- 
strain predatory attacks upon the Russians, tbe- 
czar declared war in April, 187 1. After a brief- 
campaign in May and June, and several conflicts- 
in which the Russians were victors, the sultan 
surrendered himself to general Kolpakoviski, q 
July, and the country was annexed to the Russian 
empire. 



E. 



EAGLE. 



E ARTHQUAKES. 

under ground which have a communication 'with, 
each other, some of which abound with water, 
others with exhalations, arising from inflammable 
substances, as nitre, bitumen, sulphur, &c. Dr. 
Stukeley and Dr. Priestley attributed earthquakes 
to electricity. They are probably due to steam 
generated by subterraneous heat. An elaborate 
Catalogue of earthquakes (from B.C. 1606 to A.D. 
1842), with commentaries on the phenomena, by R. 
and J. W. Mallet, was published by the British 
Association in 1858. In i860 the velocity of their 
propagation was estimated by Mr. J. Brown at 
between 470 and 530 feet per second.* See 
Seismometer. 

One which made Eubcea an island . . . b. c. 425 
Helice and Bura in Peloponnesus swallowed up . 373 
The chasm in the Roman Forum into which Quintus 

Curtius leaped, was probably an earthquake . . 364 
Duras, in Greece, buried with all its inhabitants ; 

and 12 cities in Campania also buried . . . 345 
Lysimachia and its inhabitants buried about . . 283 
Ephesus and other cities overturned . . a.d. 17 
One accompanied the eruption of Vesuvius when. 

Pompeii and Herculaneum were buried . . 79 
Four cities in Asia, two in Greece, and two in Ga- 

latia overturned 105 or 106 

Antioch destroyed 115 

Nicomedia, Cajsarea, and Nicea overturned . . 126 

In Asia, Pontus, and Macedonia, 150 cities and 

towns damaged 157 

Nicomedia again demolished, and its inhabitants 

buried in its ruins 358 

One felt by nearly the whole world .... 543 
At Constantinople ; its edifices destroyed, and thou- 
sands perished 557 

In Africa ; many cities overturned .... 560 
Awful one in Syria, Palestine, and Asia ; more than 

500 towns were destroyed, and the loss of life sur- 
passed all calculation 742 

In France, Germany, and Italy .... 801 

Constantinople overturned ; all Greece shaken . . 936 

One felt throughout England 1089 

One at Antioch ; many towns destroyed . . .1114 
Catania, in Sicily, overturned, and 15,000 persons 

buried in the ruins . 1137 

One severely felt at Lincoln 1142 

In Syria, <fec, 20,000 perished 1158 

At Calabria ; one of its cities and all its inhabitants 

overwhelmed in the Adriatic sea . . Sept. 1186 

In Cilicia, 60,000 perished 1268 

One again felt throughout England ; Glastonbury 

destroyed 1274 

In England ; the greatest known there . 14 Nov. 1318 
At Naples ; 40,000 persons perished . 5 Dec. 1456 
Constantinople ; thousands perished . . 14 Sept. 1509 
At Lisbon ; 1500 houses and 30,000 persons buried 

in the ruins ; several neighbouring towns engulfed, 

26 Feb. 1531 
One felt in London ; part of St. Paul's and the 

Temple churches fell . . . .6 April, 1580 
In Japan ; several cities made ruins, and thousands 

perish 2 July, 1596 

In Naples ; 30 towns or villages ruined ; 70,000 

lives lost . . • . . . . 30 July, 1626 

Awful one at Calabria . . . .27 March, 1638 
Ragusa ruined ; 5000 perished . . 6 April, 1667 

At Schamaki, lasted 3 months ; 80,000 perished . ,, 
At Rimini ; above 1500 perished . . 14 April, 1672 
One severely felt at Dublin, &c. .. . .17 Oct. 1690 

* Mrs. Somerville states that about 25s earthquakes 
have occurred in the British Isles ; all slight. To avoid 
the effects of a shock predicted by a madman, for the 8th 
of April, 1750, thousands of persons, particular^ those 
of rank and fortune, passed the night on the 7th in their 
carriages and in tents in Hyde-park. 



EAGLE, an ancient coin of Ireland, made of a 
base metal, and current in the first years of Ed- 
ward I. about 1272, was so named from the figure 
impressed upon it. The American gold coinage of 
•eagles, half eagles, and quarter eagles, began 6 Dec. 
1792 ; an eagle is of the value of 10 dollars, or about 
"2.1. is. — The standard of the eagle was borne by the 
Persians, at Cunaxa, 401 B.C. The Romans carried 
gold and silver eagles as ensigns, and sometimes 
■represented them with a thunderbolt in their talons, 
■on the point of a spear, 102 B.C. Charlemagne 
added the second head to the eagle for his arms, to 
denote that the empires of Borne and Germany 
were united in him, a.d. 802. The eagle was 
the standard of Napoleon I. and Napoleon III. ; 
as well as of Austria, Eussia, and Prussia; see 
Knighthood. 

EARL (Latin, comes), introduced at the con- 
quest, superseded the Saxon ealdorman, and con- 
tinued the highest rank in England, until Ed- 
ward III. created dukes in 1337 and 1351, and 
Richard II. created marquises (1385), both above 
■earls. Alfred used the title of earl as a substitute 
for king. William Eitz-Osborn was made earl of 
Hereford by William the Conqueror, 1066. Gil- 
•christ was created earl of Angus, in Scotland, by 
king Malcolm III. in 1037, and sir John de Coun-y 
created baron of Kingsale and earl of Ulster in Ire- 
land, by Henry II. 1181. 

Earl Marshal of England, the eighth great officer of 
state. This office, until it was made hereditary, always 
passed by grant from the king. Gilbert de Clare was 
created lord marshal by king Stephen, 1135. The last 
lord marshal was John Fitz-Alan, lord Maltravers. 
■Camden. Richard II. in 1397 granted letters patent to 
the earl of Nottingham by the style of earl marshal. In 
1672, Charles II. granted to Henry lord Howard the 
dignity of hereditary earl marshal. The earl marshal's 
court was abolished in 1641. (See Howard.) 

Earl Marischal of Scotland was an officer who com- 
manded the cavalry, whereas the constable commanded 
the whole army ; "but they seem to have had a joint 
■command, as all orders were addressed to "our con- 
stable and marischal." The office was never out of the 
Keith family. It was reserved at the Union, and when 
the heritable jurisdictions were bought, it reverted to 
the crown, being forfeited by the rebellion of George 
Keith, earl marischal, in 1715. 

EARL DE LA WARR'S ACT, see Chil- 
dren. 

EARLY CLOSING ASSOCIATION esta- 
blished 1842, to abridge the hours of labour, and to 
abolish Simdaj r trading. 

Frequent meetings. Congress Feb. 1888. 

Sir John Lubbock's Early Closing Bill for shops (8 p.m. 

and 10 p.m on Saturdays) rejected by the Commons 

(278-95), 2 May, 1888. 

EARLY ENGLISH TEXT SOCIETY 

began to publish in 1864. 

EARRINGS were worn by Jacob's family, 
1732 B.C. (CrCW. xxxv. 4). 

EARTH, see Globe. " Earth to Earth " discus- 
sion in 1875; advocacy of cremation, see Burials. 

EARTHENWARE, see Pottery. 

EARTHQUAKES. Kircher, Des Cartes, and 
others, supposed that there were many vast cavities 



EARTHQUAKES. 



305 



EARTHQUAKES. 



One at Jamaica, which totally destroyed Port Royal, 
whose houses were engulfed 40 fathoms deep, and 
3000 perished .....' 7 June, 

One in Sicily, which overturned 54 cities and towns, 
and 300 villages ; of Catania and its 18,000 inhabi- 
tants, not a trace remained ; more than 100,000 
lives were lost Sept. 

Aquila, in Italy, ruined ; 5000 perished 2 Feb. 

Jeddo, Japan, ruined ; 200,000 perished . . . 

In the Abruzzi ; 15,000 perished . . 3 Nov. 

At Algiers ; 20,000 perished . . May & June, 

Palermo nearly destroyed ; nearly 6000 lives lost 

I Sept. 
Again in China ; and 100,000 people swallowed up 

at Pekin 30 Nov. 

In Naples, &c. ; 1940 perished . . .29 Nov. 

Lima and Callao demolished ; 18,000 persons buried 
in the ruins 28 Oct. 

In London, &c, a slight shock . . .19 Feb. 

Port-au-Prince, St. Domingo, ruined . 21 Nov. 

Adrianople nearly overwhelmed . . .29 July, 

At Grand Cairo ; half of the houses and 40,000 
persons swallowed up ... . Sept. 

Quito destroyed April, 

Kaschan, N. Persia, destroyed ; 40,000 perished, 

7 June, 

Great earthquake at Lisbon. In about eight minutes 
most of the houses and upwards of 50,000 inhabi- 
tants were swallowed up, and whole streets 
buried. The cities of Coimbra, Oporto, and 
Braga, suffered dreadfully, and St. Ubes was 
wholly overturned. In Spain, a large part of 
Malaga became ruins. One half of Fez, in Mo- 
rocco, was destroyed, and more than 12,000 
Arabs perished there. The island of Madeira was 
affected ; and 2000 houses in the island of Mity- 
lene, in the Archipelago, were overthrown. This 
awful earthquake extended 5000 miles ; even to 
Scotland 1 Nov. 

In Syria, extended over 10,000 square miles ; Baalbec 
destroyed ; here 20,000 perished . 30 Oct. 

Comorn, Pestli, &e., much damaged . 28 June, 

At Martinico ; 1600 persons perished . . Aug. 

At Guatemala ; Santiago, with its inhabitants, 
swallowed up 7 June, 

A destructive one at Smyrna . . .3 July, 

At Tauris ; 15,000 houses thrown down, and multi- 
tudes buried 

Messina and other towns in Italy and Sicily over- 
thrown : thousands perished ... 5 Feb. 

Ezinghian, near Erzeroum, destroyed, and 5000 
persons buried in its ruins . . 23 July, 

St. Lucia, W. Indies ; 900 perished . . 12 Oct. 

At Borgo di San Sepolcro ; many houses and 1000 
persons swallowed up ... 30 Sept. 

In Naples ; Vesuvius overwhelmed the city of 
Torre del Greco June, 

The whole country between Santa Fe and Panama 
destroyed, including Cuzco and Quito; 40,000 
people buried in one second . . 4 Feb. 

Cumana, S. America, ruined . . .14 Dec. 

At Constantinople, which destroyed the royal palace, 
and many buildings . . . .26 Sept. 

From Cronstadt to Constantinople . 26 Oct. 

A violent one felt in Holland . . end of Jan. 

At Frosolone, Naples ; 6000 lives lost . 26 July, 

At the Azores ; a village of St. Michael's sunk, 
and a lake of boiling water appeared in its place, 

II Aug. 
Awful one at Caracas (which see) . 26 March, 
Several throughout India ; district of Kutch sunk ; 

2000 persons buried .... 16 June, 
Genoa, Palermo, Rome, and many other towns 

greatly damaged ; thousands perish 

Aleppo destroyed ; above 20,000 perish ; shocks on 

10 & 13 Aug., and 5 Sept. 

Coast of Chili permanently raised . . 19 Nov. 

Very violent at Palermo and other parts of Sicily 

5 March, 
Violent shocks at Granada, in Spain ; buildings 

destroyed 15-17 May 

Island of Ischia ; 28 men killed in Casamicciola ; 

many buildings destroyed ... 2 Feb. 
In Spain ; Murcia and numerous villages devastated ; 

6000 persons perish . . . . 21 March, 
Ca lton and neighbourhood; above 6000 perished, 

26 & 27 May, 



1693 
1703 

1706 
1716 

1726 

1731 
i73 2 

1746 
1750 
1751 
1752 

1754 
I7S5 



1759 
1763 
1767 

1773 
1778 



1783 
1784 



1800 
1802 



1805 



ibio 
1812 



1B23 
1826 
1828 
1829 
1830 



In the duchy of Parma ; 40 shocks at Borgotaro ; and 
at Pontremoli many houses thrown down 14 Feb. 1834 

Concepcion, &c, in Chili, destroyed . 20 Feb. 1835 

In Calabria, Cosenza and villages destroyed ; 1000 
persons buried 29 April, ,, 

In Calabria ; 100 perish at Castiglione . 12 Oct. „ 

At Martinique; nearly half of Port Royal destroyed ; 
nearly 700 persons killed, and the whole island 
damaged n Jan. 1839 

At Ternate ; the island made a waste, and thousands 
of lives lost . . . . . .14 Feb. 1S40 

Awful and destructive earthquake at mount Ararat, 
in one of the districts of Armenia ; 3137 houses 
were overthrown, and several hundred persons 
])erished 27 July, ,, 

Great earthquake at Zante, where many persons 
perished 30 Oct. ,, 

At Cape Haytien, St. Domingo, which destroyed 
nearly two-thirds of the town ; between 4000 
and 5000 lives were lost ... 7 May, 1842 

At Point a Pitre, Guadaloupe, which was entirely 
destroyed 8 Feb. 

At Rhodes and Macri, when a mountain fell in at 
the latter place, crushing a village, and destroying 
600 persons .... 28 Feb. — 7 March, 

At Valparaiso, where more than 400 houses were 
destroyed 2 April, 

In South Italy ; Melfl almost laid in ruins ; 14,000 
lives lost 14 Aug. 

Philippine isles ; Manilla much injured 16-30 Sept. 

In N.W. of England, slight . . . 9 Nov. 

Thebes, in Greece, nearly destroyed . . 18 Aug. 

St. Salvador, S. America, destroyed . 16 April, 

Anasaca, in Japan, and Simoda, in Niphon, de- 
stroyed ; Jeddo much injured . . .23 Dec. 

Broussa, in Turkey, nearly destroyed . 28 Feb. 

Several villages in Central Europe destroyed, 

25, 26 July, 

Jeddo, Japan, nearly destroyed . . 11 Nov. 

At the island of Great Sanger, one of the Moluccas, 
volcanic eruption and earthquake ; nearly 3000 
lives lost 2 March, 

In the Mediterranean : at Candia, 500 lives lost ; 
Rhodes, 100 ; and other islands, 150 . 12 Oct. 

In Calabria,* Montemurro and other towns de- 
stroyed, and about 10,000 lives lost . 16 Dec. 

Corinth nearly destroyed . . . .21 Feb. 

At Quito ; about 5000 persons killed, and an im- 
mense amount of property destroyed, 22 March, 

Erzeroum, Asia Minor ; thousands perished, 

2 June— 17 July, 

At San Salvador ; many buildings destroyed, no 
lives lost 8 Dec. 

•In Cornwall, slight . . 21 Oct. 1859 ; 13 Jan. 

At Mendoza, South America ; about two-thirds of 
the city and 7000 lives lost . . 20 March, 

In Perugia, Italy ; several lives lost . 8 May, 

In Greece ; N. Morea, Corinth, and other places 
injured 26 Dec. 

Guatemala ; 150 buildings and 14 churches de- 
stroyed 19 Dec. 

Rhodes ; 13 villages destroyed, about 300 persons 
perished, and much cattle and property lost, 

22 April, 

Manilla, Philippine isles ; immense destruction of 
property ; about 1000 persons perish 2, 3 July, 

Central, west, and north-west of England, at 
3 h. 22 in. a.m. 6 Oct. 

At Macchia, Bendinella, &c, Sicily; 200 houses 
destroyed, 64 persons killed . . iS July, 

Slight earthquake near Tours and Blois, in France, 

14 Sept. 

Argostoli, Cephalonla ; above 50 perished 4 Feb. 

At Mityiene ; about 1000 killed . 8, 9 March, 

Djocja, Java ; above 400 perished ; town destroyed 

10 Junp, 

The cities of Arequipa, Iquique,Tacna, and Chencha, 
and many small towns in Peru and Ecuador 
destroyed ; about 25,000 lives lost, and 30,000 
rendered homeless ; loss of property estimated 
at 6o,ooo,oooi. .... 13-15 Aug 

[About n.oooJ. collected in London to relieve the 
sufferers.] 



1843 
1851 



1852 



1853 
1854 



1855 

1S56 
1857 



1S60 
1861 



1S65 



1866 
1867 



1868 



* In the course of 75 years, from 1783 to 1857, *'"' 
kingdom of Naples 'ost, at least, m.ooo inhabitants by 
the effects nf earthqi akes, or more than 1500 per year, 
out of an averagepo] u ation of 6,000,000 ! — Lacuita. 



EARTHQUAKES. 



306 



EARTHQUAKES. 



Slight earthquake in W. England and S. Wales ; 
felt at Bath, Swansea, &c. . . . . 30 Oct 

Iu Santa Maura, an Ionian isle, the town Santa 
Maura destroyed; about 17 persons perished, 

28 Dec. 

At Quebec, not much damage . . .20 Oct. 

In Calabria ; several villages destroyed, early in Oct. 

N. W. England ; houses shaken, crockery broken, 
evening, 17 March ; slight in Yorkshire, 22 March, 

California ; several small towns destroyed ; about 
30 killed 26, 27 March, 

Lehree, Eastern Catchi, Sind frontier, India, de- 
stroyed ; about 500 killed . . 14, 15 Dec. 

San Salvador nearly destroyed ; about 50 killed ; the 
rest escaped through timely warning 19 March, 

North of Italy : at Feletto, near Conegliano, Vene- 
tia, church destroyed ; about 50 killed ; lives 
lostatBelluno, &c. ; shock felt at Venice, Verona, 
&c 29 June, 

Azagra, Spain : 200 killed by a landslip 22 July, 

Antigua and other places in Guatemala destroyed ; 
great loss of life 3 Sept. 

Kara Hissar and other places in Asia Minor ; great 
destruction of life .... 3-5 May, 

Smyrna, and neighbourhood ; many perish, 12 May, 

San Jose de Cucuta and other towns near San- 
tander on the boundary of Colombia, destroyed : 
about 14,000 lives said to be lost . 16-18 May 

Lahore and vicinity, India ; several killed 12 Dec. 

At Scheibs on the Danube, felt throughout Austrian 
empire 17 July, 

Earthquake and great tidal wave near Callao ; went 
southward ; much shipping and several towns 
destroyed ; not much mortality . . 9, 10 May, 

■Cua, Venezuela, nearly destroyed, about 300 killed, 
loss about 30,000?. .... 14 April, 

Shocks felt at Cologne and other parts of Germany ; 
and Holland ; houses much shaken ; bells rung, 
&c, q-11 a.m. 26 Aug. 

Aci Reale, Catania, Sicily, 5 villages destroyed, 10 
persons killed 17 June, 

Severe shock at Brieg in Switzerland, felt at Berne, 
Zurich, Geneva, &c, several killed . 4 July, 

Manilla, &c, Philippines, cathedral destroyed, seve- 
ral killed, many hurt . . . 18-24 July, 

Smyrna and neighbourhood, many houses destroyed, 
2 persons killed . . . -29, 30, July, 

Valparaiso ; at Illapel, Chili, about 200 perish, 

13 Sept. 

South Austria, much damage with loss of life, at 
Agram, &c. . . . 10-16 Nov.— 8 Dec. 

Slight shocks at Inverary and other places W. Scot- 
land 28 Nov. 

Berne, and other places, Switzerland, houses split 
up, <fec 27 Jan. and 3 March, 

Severe shocks in South Italy, much destruction and 
loss of life at Casamicciola, a town in the Isle of 
Ischia, 289 houses destroyed, 114 lives lost, about 
36,000?. loss, 4 March ; more destruction by 
another shock 15 March,- 

■gcio— the town and several villages destroyed, about 
4000 perish, much destitution ensues, successive 
shocks, beginning 1.30 p.m. . . 3 April, 

Panama; railway partially destroyed 7, 9, 10 Sept. 

A slight shock iu Cornwall and Devon . 25 June, 

■Casamicciola, and several villages in the island of 
Ischia, almost entirely destroyed, 1990 lives lost, 
28 July ; slight shocks since ; one severe 3 Aug. 
[Great exertions of the military ; many remark- 
able preservations.] 

Anatolia, coast of Asia Minor ; Ischesne and about 
30 small towns and villages destroyed, about 100 
lives lost and 30,000 destitute ; Smyrna much 
shaken about 16 Oct. 

Shocks felt at Gibraltar . 20 Oct. et seq. 

Severe shocks in eastern counties of England, pro- 
ceeding from N.E. to S.W., centre Colchester, 
where the congregational church steeple fell, as 
well as many chimneys ; damage estimated at 
io.oooZ. ; much destruction in neighbouring vil- 
lages ; many inhabitants rendered homeless ; 
Lange'nhoe church wrecked; much damage at 
Abberton ; a child killed at Rowhedge; an invalid 
died ; the shock felt more or less distinctly at 
Coggeshall, Sudbury, Ipswich, Cambridge, 
Bishop's Stortford, Northampton, Leicester, 



1871 
1872 



1873 



1875 



1877 



Woolwich, Sheerness, different parts of London, 

Hampstead, Arc 22 April, 

[See Mansion house Funds.] 

Severe shocks for several days on Asiatic shore of 
sea of Marmora ; about " 20 deaths reported 

19 May, 

A violent shock on the Island of Kishm, near the 
mouth of the Persian Gulf ; 12 villages destroyed ; 
about 200 people killed . . 19-20 May, 

Slight shocks in the Alban hills, near Rome 7 Aug. 

Slight shocks throughout United States, from 
Washington to New York . . .10, 11 Aug. 

At Genoa, 27 Nov. ; at Marseilles, Lyons, <fec. 

29 Nov. 

Severe shocks in Andalusia, Malaga ; many houses 
destroyed, about 266 persons killed ; felt at Madrid 

25 Dec. 

Several towns destroyed : Albania. Granada, many 
killed ; Periana, about 900 killed . 26, 27 Dec. 

Shocks, intermitting .... 26-31 Dec. 

Slight shocks in Carinthia and Styria . 28 Dec. 

et seq. 

Shocks, 1-27 Jan., much camping out 

Slight shocks in Styria ... 27, 28 Jan. 

Slight shocks at Alhama . . . 12 Feb. 

Alarming shocks at Malaga and other towns, 

27 Feb. 

Stated number of victims in province of Granada, 
690 (see Spain, 1884-5) . . . . 28 Feb. 

Slight shocks at Rome 9 April ; in Granada 1 1 April, 

Severe shock at Srinagur, Cashmere ; 87 killed 
30-31 May ; successive shocks, 3081 deaths, 
70,000 dwellings destroyed, reported up to 20 
June ; slight shocks up to . . . 8 July, 

Sikuch, in the Caucasus, destroyed about 12 June, 

Shocks in Yorkshire . . . .18 June, 

Three shocks in Bengal ; a village near Nattore 
sunk ; announced 25 July, 

Shocks in Central Asia, Vernoe, Tashkend, &c, 
above 54 killed .... about 2 Aug. 

Shocks in Algeria, about 30 killed at Msila 3-5 Dec. 

Shocks at Amatitlan, Guatemala . . 18 Dec. 

Severe shock at Granada, &c. . . 14 March, 

Severe shocks in the Morea, Ionian Islands, Malta, 
and neighbourhood ; Filiatra, Gargaliano, and 
Pyrgos on the mainland destroyed ; 300 lives lost 

27 Aug. 

Shocks throughout United States, chiefly in South 
Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama ; three-fourths of 
Charleston destroyed, 96 persons perish ; Savan- 
nah, Washington ; 17 shocks at Charleston 31 
Aug. ; other shocks on Atlantic coast 2, 3 Sept. ; 
slight shocks occasionally 3-14 Sept. and 22 Oct. 

Severe shocks from Corsica to Lyons and Geneva, 
and from Milan to beyond Marseilles ; centre point 
Nice and neighbourhood ; buildings thrown 
down and much damage, 5.37 to 9 a.m. ; about 12 
deaths in French territory and 2,000 in Italy 23 
Feb. ; San Remo district 300 killed ; slight 
shocks 24 Feb. 

Slight shocks near Mentone . . 11 March, 

Violent shocks at Montezuma, &c, San Francisco, 
about 170 perish ; announced . . 8 May, 

Violent long-continued earthquake at Tokio, Japan 

15 Jan. 

Earthquake at Vernoe and Almatensky, Turkestan ; 
about 140 perish ; announced . . 13 June, 

Earthquake shocks in Hawaii (Owhyhce); 167 persons 
perish 5 May, et seq. 

Violent earthquake shocks at Athens and neigh- 
bourhood 4 Oct. 

Destruction of Bisignano, Cosenza, Calabria, by 
earthquake ; about 25 lives lost, about 4,000 
homeless ....... 4 Dec. 

Slight shock all over Scotland . . 2 Feb. 

Earthquake at Yunnan, China, 4,000 persons killed 

March, 

Slight shocks in Annandale, Scotland . 19 July, 

Several severe shocks in New Zealand, without 
loss of life 1 Sept. 

Shocks at Vostitza, Greece, damage estimated at 
2,000,000 drachmas .... 10 Sept. 

Destructive shocks at Costa Rica, with loss of 
life, cathedral and palace destroyed 29, 30 Dec. 

Slight earthquake at Edinburgh, little damage 

18 Jan. 

Earthquake in Asia Minor . . .17 Jan 

Slight shock in East Lancashire . . 10 Feb. 



1887 



EAST AFEICA. 



307 



EASTERN EMPIRE. 



Shock at Djarkend, government of Semiretehinsk ; 
half the town destroyed . reported 12 July, 1S89 

^Earthquakes in Japan, wkicli see . . 28 July, ,, 

Shocks at Inverness and Forres, buildings damaged 

15 Nov. ,, 

The town of Joana, in Java, greatly injured, 12 lives 
lost 12 Dec. 1890 

Algeria — Gouraya and Villebourg villages nearly 
destroyed, about 40 natives perish . 15 Jan. 1891 

Adil-Djevas in Van, Armenia ; 146 houses destroyed 

3 April, „ 

Violent shocks in Italy, especially in the province 
of Verona, where there is much damage and some 
loss of life, 7 June, et seq. ; continued slighter 
shocks n-i4June, ,, 

San Salvador, which see, Central America, great de- 
struction of lil'e and property . . 9 Sept. ,, 

Very destructive earthquake in Japan, which see 

28 Oct. ,, 

Shocks of earthquake in New South Wales, Victoria, 
and Tasmania .... about 27 Jan. 1892 

EAST AFRICA, see under Africa, Slave 
Trade and Zanzibar, 

EAST ANGLES, the sixth kingdom of the 
Heptarchy, commenced by Utfa, 526 ; ended with 
Ethelbert in 792 ; see Britain. The bishop's see 
founded by St. Felix, who converted the East 
Angles in 630, was eventually settled at Norwich 
{which see) about 1094. 

EASTBOURNE, a town on the coast of 
•Sussex. Koman remains found here. Incorporated 
July, 1883. Many buildings have been erected 
by the duke of Devonshire, who died 21 Dec. 1891. 
Town hall opened 9 Oct. 1884. Population 1881, 
22,014; 1891, 34i977- 

The Sunday processions of the salvation army, which 
were forbidden by a clause in the Eastbourne Improve- 
anent act of 18S5, continued, 1890-1. Elkanah Clark- 
son and 8 others of the army, convicted of holding an 
unlawful assembly, 3 Dec. 1891. The judgment set 
aside, 23 Jan. 1892. Another act to repeal the clause, 
passed June, 1892. 

EAST END JUVENILE MISSION esta- 
blished 1866, to reclaim destitute children. It 
maintains homes, schools, an infirmary, &c. Hon. 
director. Dr. T. J. Barnardo, see Earnardo's Homes. 
For East-end murders, see Whitcchapel. 

EASTER, instituted about 68, the festival ob- 
served by the church in commemoration of Gur 
Saviour's resurrection, so called in England from 
the Saxon goddess Eostre, whose festival was in 
April. After much contention between the eastern 
and western churches, it was ordained by the 
council of Nice, 325, to be observed on the same 
day throughout the whole Christian world. But 
the eastern and western churches generally differ ; 
they coincided in 1882. " Easter-day is the 
Sunday following that fourteenth day of the 
calendar moon which happens upon or next after 
the 2 1st March : so that, if the said fourteenth 
day be a Sunday, Easter-day is not that Sunday 
but the next." Easter-day may be any day of 
the five weeks which commence with March 22 
and end with April 25. The dispute between the 
old British church and the new Anglo-Saxon 
church respecting Easter was settled about 664. — 
Easter Sunday, 1893, 2 April; 1894, 25 Mar.; 1895, 
14 April ; 1896, 5 April. 

EASTER ISLAND, in the Pacific Ocean, 
was discovered by Davis in 1686; it was visited by 
Roggewein, April 1722, and from him obtained the 
name it now bears ; it was visited by captain Cook, 
March 1774. At the south-east extremity is the 
crater of an extinguished volcano, about two miles 
in circuit and 800 feet deep. 

EASTERN (or GREEK) Church, see 
Greek Church. 



EASTERN EMPIRE. After the death of 
the emperor Jovian, in Feb. 364, the generals at 
Nice elected Valentinian as his successor, who, in 
June, made his brother Valens emperor of the West; 
the final division was in 395, between the son3 of 
Theodosius. The eastern empire ended with the 
capture of Constantinople, and death of Constan- 
tine XILI., 29 Ma}', 1453 ; see Tarlcey. 

Nestorius, the bishop, nominated the first patriarch 

of Constantinople .... 9 July, 381 

Theodosius the Great succours Valentinian H., the 
western emperor, and defeats the tyrant Maxi- 

mus, at Aquileia 388 

Valentinian II. slain by Arbogastes the Frank, who 

makes Eugenius emperor 392 

Eugenius defeated and slain by Theodosius, who 

re-unites the two empires ... 6 Sept. 394 
Dea.th of Theodosius ; the empire finally divided 
between his sons — Arcadius receives the east, 

Honorius the west 17 Jan. 395 

Constantinople walled by Theodosius II. . . 413 

Alaric the Goth begins to ravage the empire . . ,, 
Violent religious dissensions : Theodosius II. estab- 
lishes schools, and revives learning . . . 425 
The Theodosian code promulgated . . . . 438 
The councils of Ephesus, 431, 449 ; of Chalcedon . 451 
Frequent sanguinary conflicts between the Blues 

and Greens, circus factions at Constantinople, 498-520 
The Justinian code published . . . 529 

War with Persia ; beginning of the victorious career 

of Belisarius, the imperial general . . 529-531 
He suppresses the "Nika" ("conquer") insurrec- 
tion of the circus factions ; 30,000 Greeks slain, 

and Constantinople burnt 532 

Dedication of St. Sophia 537 

Victories of Belisarius in Africa, Italy, and the East 

533-541 
Recalled through Justinian's jealousy, 542 ; again, 

548 ; again, 549 ; disgraced . . 562 

Beginning of the Turkish power in Asia . . . 545 

The Slavonians ravage Illyria 551 

Narses defeats Totila and the Goths near Rome . . 552 

Disaffection of Narses 561 

Death of Belisarius, aged 84 ; of Justinian (83) . 565 
Victories of Maurice and Narses in the East, 579 et seq. 
Severe contests with the Avars .... 594-620 
Narses burnt at Constantinople .... 60S 
The flight(Hejira)of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina, 
where he establishes himself as a prophet and 

prince 16 July, 622 

Victorious career of Heraclius II. . . . 622 et scq. 

He recovers his lost territories 627 

The Saracens invade the empire, 632 ; defeat Hera- 
clius at Aiznadin, 633 ; at Yermuk, 636 ; take 
Alexandria, 640 ; and the Greek provinces in 

Africa 648 

Constans purchases peace with them . . . . 660 
They besiege Constantinople seven times . 672-677 
The Bulgarians establish a kingdom in Mcesia (now 
Bulgaria), 678 ; they ravage the country up to 

Constantinople 7II 

The Saracens vainly invest Constantinople, 716, 718 ; 

defeated 72 o 

Leo III. tho Isaurian, forbids the worship of 
images : (this leads to the Iconoclast contro- 
versy, and eventually to the separation of the 

eastern and western churches) 72 6 

A great invading Arab force (90,000) defeated by 

Aeronius 73 g 

The monasteries dissolved 770 

Destruction of images throughout the empire de- 
creed, 754 ; image-worship restored by the empress 
Irene (for which she was canonized) . . . 7 s 7 
The empire loses the exarchate of Italy, 752 ; Dal- 

matia, 825 ; Sicily and Crete £ 27 

Image-worship persecuted, 830 ; restored, 842 ; for- 
bidden at Constantinople by one council, 869 ; 

restored by another 879 

South Italy annexed to the empire . . . . 890 
Five emperors reigning at one time .... 028 

Naples added to the empire „ 

Basil subdues the Bulgarians .... 987, 1014 

Bulgaria annexed to the empire IO i8 

The Turks invade Asia Minor j 68 

The Normans conquer South Italy . . . . I0 8 o 
The first crusade ; Alexis I. recovers Asia . . 1097 

x 2 



EASTERN EMPIEE. 



308 



EASTERN EMPIRE. 



The Venetians victorious over the Greeks . . . 1125 
The Hungarians repelled, 1152 ; peace made with 

the Normans in Sicily 1156 

Wars with the Turks and the Venetians . . .1172 

Cyprus lost to the empire 1190 

The fourth crusade begins 1202 

Revolt of Alexis against his brother Isaac ; the 
crusaders take Constantinople, and restore Isaac 
and his son Alexis IV. 19 July, 1203 

Alexis Ducas murders Alexis IV. and usurps the 
throne ; the crusaders take Constantinople, kill 
Alexis, and establish the Latin empire, under 
Baldwin, count of Flanders ... 9 May, 1204 
.Empire of Nice founded by Theodore Lascaris . ,, 
Kingdom of Epirus and iEtolia established . . 1208 
Constantinople recovered, and the empire re-estab- 
lished by Michael Pakeologus . . 25 July, 1261 
Establishment of the Turkish empire in Asia, under 

Othman 1 1299 

The Genoese trade in the Black sea .... 1303 
The Turks ravage Mysia, &c, 1340 and 1345; and 

settle in the coast of Thrace 1353 

The sultan Amurath takes Adrianople, and makes 
it his capital, 1362 ; and, by treaty, greatly re- 
duces the emperor's territories .... 1373 
All the Greek possessions in Asia lost . . . 1390 

Sultan Bajazet defeats the Christians under Sigis- 

mund of Hungary, at Nicopolis . 28 Sept. 1396 
The emperor Manuel vainly solicits help from the 

western sovereigns 1400 

A Turkish pacha established at Athens . . . 1401 
The Greek empire made tributary to Timour, 1402 ; 
who subjugates the Turkish sultan, and dismem- 
bers his empire, 1403 ; death of Timour, on his 

way to China 1405 

Dissension amongst the Turks defers the fall of 
Constantinople, 1403-12 ; Mahomet I. aided by 
the emperor Manuel, becomes sultan . . . 1413 
Amurath II. in vain besieges Constantinople, 1422 ; 

peace made 1425 

John Palseologus visits Rome and other places, 

soliciting help in vain 1437-40 

Accession of Constantine XIII., last emperor . 1448 

Accession of Mahomet II. 1451 ; begins the siege of 

Constantinople, 6 April ; takes it . 29 May, 1453 
(He granted the Christians personal security and 
free exercise of their religion.) See Turkey. 



3°4- 
379- 
395- 
408. 
45o. 
457- 
474- 

491. 
518. 
527- 
565. 
578- 
582. 

602. 



610. 
641. 



cr.8. 
685, 



695 



711. 
7*3 



716. 



EMPERORS OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE. 

Valens. 

Theodosius I. the Great. 

Arcadius, the son of Theodosius. 

Theodosius II. succeeded his father. 

Marcian, a Thraeian of obscure family. 

Leo I. the Thraeian. 

Leo II. the Younger, died the same year. 

Zeno, called the Isaurian. 

Anastasius I. an Illyrian, of mean birth. 

Justin I. originally a private soldier. 

Justinian I. founder of the Digest. 

Justin II. nephew of Justinian. 

Tiberius II. renowned for his virtues. 

Maurice, the Cappadocian : murdered with all his 

children, by his successor, 
Phocas, the Usurper, a centurion, whose crimes 

and cruelties led to his own assassination in 

610. 
Heraclius, by whom Phocas was dethroned. 
(Heracleonas) Constantine III. reigned a few 

months ; poisaaied by his step-mother Martina. 
Constans II. ; assassinated in a bath. 
Constantine III. (or IV.) Pogonatus. 
Justinian II. son of the preceding ; abhorred for 

his exactions, debaucheries, and cruelties : de- 
throned and mutilated by his successor, 
Leontius : dethroned and mutilated by Tiberius 

Aspimar. 
Tiberius III. Aspimar. 
Justinian II. restored. Leontius and Tiberius 

degraded in the Hippodrome, and put to death. 

Justinian slain in 711. 
Philippicus-Bardanes : assassinated. 
Anastasius II. : fled on the election of Theodosius 

in 716 ; afterwards delivered up to Leo III. and 

put to death. 
Theodosius III 



718. Leo III. the Isaurian. 

[In this reign (726) commences the great Icono- 
clastic controversy ; the alternate prohibition and 
restoration of images involves the peace of 
several reigns.] 

741. Constantine IV. (or V.) Copronymus, son of the 
preceding ; succeeded by his son. 

775. Leo IV. 

780. Constantine V. (or VI.) and his mother Irene. 

790. Constantine, alone, by the desire of the people, 
Irene having become unpopular. 

792. Irene again, jointly with her son, and afterwards 
alone, 797 ; deposed for her cruelties and mur- 
ders, and exiled. 

802. Nicephorus I. Logothetes : slain. 

811. Stauracius : reigns a few days only. 
„ Michael I. : defeated in battle, abdicates the 
throne, and retires to a monastery. 

813. Leo V. the Armenian : killed in the temple at Con- 
stantinople on Christmas-day, 820, by conspira- 
tors in the interest of his successor, 

820. Michael II. the Stammerer. 

829. Theophilus, son of Michael. 

842. Michael III. Porphyrogenitus, and the Sot, son of 
the preceding ; murdered by his successor, 

867. Basil I. the Macedonian. 

886. Leo VI. the Philosopher. 

911. Alexander and Constantine VI. (or VII.) Porphy- 
rogenitus, brother and son of Leo, the latter 
only six years of age ; the former dying in 912, 
Zoe, mother of Constantine, assumes the re- 
gency. 

919. Romanus Lecapenus, usurper, associates with 

him his sons : 

920. Christopher, and 

928. Stephen and Constantine VII. (or VIII.) 

[Five emperors now reign : Christopher dies, 
931 ; Romanus exiled by his sons Constantine 
and Stephen, who are themselves banished the 
next year. ] 

945. Constantine VII. (or VIII.) reigns alone : poisoned 
by his daughter-in-law, Theophania, 959. 

959. Romanus II. son of preceding: contrived his 
father's death ; banished his mother, Helena. 

963. Nicephorus II. Phocas : married Theophania, his. 
predecessor's consort, who has him assassi- 
nated. 

969. John I. Zimisces, celebrated general ; takes 
Basil II. and Constantine VIII. (or IX.), sons of 
Romanus II. , as colleagues ; John dies, supposed 
by poison, and 

976. Basil II. and Constantine VIII. reign : the former 

dies in 1025 ; the latter in 1028. 
1028. Romanus III. Argyropulus : poisoned by his pro- 
fligate consort Zoe, who raises 
1034. Michael IV. the Paphlagonian, to the throne : on> 
his death Zoe places 

1041. Michael V. Calaphates, as his successor: Zoe 

dethrones him, has his eyes put out, and! 
marries 

1042. Constantine IX. (or X.) Monomachus, and Zoe 

reign jointly : Zoe dies, 1050. 
1054. Theodora, widow of Constantine. 

1056. Michael VI. Stratiotes, or Strato : deposed. 

1057. Isaac I. Comnenus : abdicates. 
1059. Constantine X. (or XI.) Ducas. 

1067. Eudocia, consort of the preceding, and Romanus 
IV. Diogenes, whom she marries, reign to the 
prejudice of Michael, Coustantine's son. 

1071. Michael VII. Parapinaces, recovers his throne, and 
reigns jointly with Constantine XI. (or XII.) 

1078. Nicephorus III. ; dethroned by 

1081. Alexis or Alexius I. Comnenus, succeeded by 

1 1 18. John Comnenus (Kalos), his son, died of a wound 
from a poisoned arrow. 

1143. Manuel I. Comnenus, son of John. 

1 180. Alexis II. Comnenus, son of the preceding, under 
the regency of the empress Maria, his mother. 

1 183. Andronicus I. Comnenus, causes Alexis to be 
strangled, and seizes the throne; put to 
death by 

1 185. Isaac II. Angelus-Comnenus, who is deposed, im- 
prisoned, and deprived of his eyes by his 
brother, 

1195. Alexis III. Angelus, the Tyrant: deposed, and his 
eyes put out ; died in a monastery. 

1203. Isaac II. again, with his son, Alexis IV. ; deposed. 



EASTERN QUESTION. 



309 



ECKMUHL. 



E204. Alexis V. Ducas, murders Alexis IV. ; is killed by 
the crusaders. 

LATIN EMPERORS. 

£204. Baldwin I. earl of Flanders, on the capture of 

Constantinople by the Latins, elected emperor ; 

made a prisoner by the king of Bulgaria and 

never heard of afterwards. 
3206. Henry I. his brother: dies in 1217. 
1216. Peter de Courtenay, his brother-in-law. 
1221. Robert de Courtenay, his son. 
1228. Baldwin II. his brother, a minor, and John de 

Brienne, of Jerusalem, regent and associate 

emperor. 
E261. [Constantinople recovered, and the empire of the 

Franks or Latins terminates.] 

GREEK EMPERORS AT NICE. 

1204. Theodore Lascaris I. 
11222. John Ducas Vataces. 
1255. Theodore Lascaris II., his son. 
J259. John Lascaris, and (1260) Michael VIII. Palaeo- 
logus. 

GREEK EMPERORS AT CONSTANTINOPLE. 

1261. Michael VIII. now at Constantinople: puts out 
the eyes of John, and reigns alone. 

11282. Andronicus II. PaUeologus the Elder, son of pre- 
ceding : deposed by 

1328. Andronicus III. the Younger, his grandson. 

1341. John Palieologus I. under the. guardianship of 
John Cantacuzenus : the latter proclaimed em- 
peror at Adrianople. 

5347. John Cantacuzenus abdicates. 

J 355- John Palpeologus I. restored. 

1391. Manuel II. Palseologus, his son: succeeded by his 
son and colleague. 

1425. John Palieologus II. The throne claimed by his 
three brothers. 

1448. Constantine Pakeologus XII. (XIII. or XIV. some 
of the other emperors being called Constantine 
by some writers) killed, when Constantinople 
was taken, 20 May, 1453. 

EASTERN QUESTION. In the 19th 
century related especially to the ;. Hairs of the Turkish 
<empire and its connecti jn with its neighbours ; see 
Turkey and Basso- 'Turkish wars. An Eastern 
■Question Association was formed in London, Dec. 
1876, the duke of Westminster president. The 
eastern question became again prominent through 
the troubles in the I'alkan, see Bulgaria and 
JServia, 1889-92. 

EASTERN ROUMELIA, see Roumelia. 

EAST INDIA ASSOCIATION, for the 

advocacy of the interests of all the inhabitants of 
India, founded 7 .Nov. 1866. A journal is pub- 
lished. 

EAST INDIA STOCK DIVIDEND RE- 
DEMPTION ACT passed 15 May, 1873. It finally 
abolished the company on 1 June, 1874, and made 
needful arrangements. 

EAST INDIES, see India. 

EAST LONDON MUSEUM, see Bethnal 
Green. 

EAST SAXONS, see under Britain. 

EBELIANS, a German revivalist sect, which 
began at Ivonigsberg in Prussia, about 1836, its 
leaders being archdeacon Ebel and Dr. Diestel, 
who were tried and condemned for unsound doc- 
trine and impure lives in 1839. The sentence was 
annulled in 1842, it is said by royal influence. The 
sect is popularly termed "Mucker," German for 
hypocrites. Their theory and practice of spiritual 
marriage is described by Mr. Hepworth Dixon in 
his " Spiritual Wives," "1868. 

EBIONITES, heretics, in the 1st century, a 
bianch of the Nazarenes, were of two kinds : one 
believed that Our Saviour was born of a virgin, 



observed all the precepts of the Christian religion, 
but added the ceremonies of the Jews ; the other 
believed that Christ was born after the manner of 
all mankind, and denied his divinity. Photinus 
revived the sect in 342. 

EBONITE (vulcanised india-rubber), see 
Caoutchouc. 

EBRO, a river in Spain — the scene of a signal 
defeat of the Spaniards by the French, under 
Lannes, near Tudela, 23 Nov. 1808 ; and also of 
several important movements of the allied British 
and Spanish armies during the Peninsular war 
(1809-1813). 

ECBATANA, capital of Media ; the date of 
foundation is unknown; Herodotus ascribes it to 
Deioces about 700 B.C. ; it was taken by C\rus 549, 
and became the summer residence of himself and 
his successors. 

ECCLESIASTICAL COMMISSIONS: 
appointed by queen Elizabeth, 1559; by James I. 
in Scotland, 161 7; by the English parliament in 
1641 ; and by James II. to coerce the universities 
in 1687. A Church Inquiry Commission, appointed 
23 June, 1832, reported June, 1835. The present 
Ecclesiastical Commissioners (bishops, deans, and 
laymen) for the management of church property, 
were appointed in Feb. 1835; incorporated in 1836; 
and their proceedings regulated in 1840 and 1841. 
The law relating to them was amended in 1868. 

ECCLESIASTICAL COURTS. There 

existed no distinction between lay and ecclesiastical 
courts in England until 1085, after the Norman con- 
quest ; see Arches and Consistory Courts. Till the 
establishment of the Divorce and Prolnte courts 
{which see) in 1857, the following were the causes 
cognisable in ecclesiastical courts : blasphemy, 
apostasy from Christianity, heresy, schism, ordina- 
tions, institutions to benefices, matrimony, divorces, 
bastardy, tithes, incest, fornication, adultery, pro- 
bate of wills, administrations, &c. 
A royal commission of inquiry respecting these courts 

agreed to, house of lords ; 7 March, 1881, appointed. 

Report issued, Aug. 1883. 

ECCLESIASTICAL DILAPIDA- 
TIONS, law respecting, amended by acts passed 
in 187 1 and 1872. 

ECCLESIASTICAL GAZETTE, Church 
of England semi-official journal ; sent gratuitously 
to all dignitaries and incumbents ; established 10 
July, 1838. 

ECCLESIASTICAL STATE, or States 
OF THE CHURCH, see Borne, Modern. 

ECCLESIASTICAL TITLES ACT, 14 & 

15 Vict. c. 60(1851), repealed 24 July, 1871; see 
Tapal Aggression. 

ECCLESIOLOGICAL SOCIETY, formed 

in 1839, was originally the Cambridge Campden 
Society, mainly established by the 2nd carl of 
Gainsborough (Charles George Noel) for the proper 
restoration of ancient churches. 

ECHO. The time which elapses between the 
utterance of a sound and its return must be more 
than one-twelfth of a second, to form an echo. 
The whispering gallery of St. Paul's is a well- 
known example. The Echo, independent evening 
paper, price \d., established Dec. 1868. 

ECKMUHL (Bavaria), the site of a battle 
between the main armies of France (75,000) and 
Austria (40,000); Napoleon and marshal Daroust 
(hence prince d'Eckmiihl) defeated the archduke 
Charles, 22 April, 1809. 



ECLECTICS. 



310 



ECOECHEUES. 



ECLECTICS (from Greek, eklego, I choose), 
ancient philosophers (called Analogetici, and also 
JPMlalethes, the lovers of truth), who, without 
attaching themselves to any sect, chose what 
they judged good from each : of them was Potamon 
of Alexandria, about a.d. I. Also a Christian sect, 
who considered the doctrine of Plato conformable 
to the spirit of Christianity. 

ECLIPSE (the race-horse), see Races. 

ECLIPSES. Their revolution was calculated 
hy Calippus, the Athenian, 336 B.C. The Egyptians 
said they had accurately observed 373 eclipses of 
the sun, and 832 of the moon, in the period from 
Vulcan to Alexander, who died 323 B.C. The 
theory of eclipses is said to have been known to 
the Chinese before 120 B.C. The first eclipse re- 
corded in history happened 19 March, 721 B.C., at 
8/;. 4OOT. p.m., according to Ptolemy; it was lunar, 
and was observed with accuracy at 13abylon. 
A list of eclipses to the year 2000 is given in " L'Art de 

Verifier leg Dates." 
The Royal Astronomical Society published a volume of 

" Observations made during total solar eclipses," 1880. 

ECLIPSES OF THE SUN. 

Eclipse recorded in the Assyrian tablets B.C. . . 661 
The Nineveh eclipse (recorded, according to sir 
Henry Rawlinson, on a Nineveh tablet in the 
British Museum) .... 15 June, b.c. 763 
That predicted by Thales ; see Halys (Pliny, lib. 
ii. 9), believed to have occurred . 28 May, 585 
[Sir G. B. Airy thinks the date should be 610 ; 
others say 603 or 584 b. c. It is the one recorded 
by Herodotus as interrupting a battle between 
the Medes and Iydians.] 
The alleged eclipse at. the time of Xerxes' expedition 
against Greece, 480 B.C., is much disputed, and 
the darkness was probably meteorological. 
One at Athens (Thucydides, lib. iv.) . . b.c. 424 
Eclipse of Agathocles (Airy) . . .15 Aug. 310 
Total one: three days' supplication decreed at 

Rome (Livy) 188 

One observed at Constantinople . . . a.d. g68 
At the battle of Sticklestadt . . 29 July, 1030 
In France, when it was dark at noon-day (Du 
Fresnoy) . . . . . . . 29 June, 1033 

In England: a total darkness (IV. Malmsb.), 20 Mar. 1140 
Again ; the stars visible at ten in the morning 
(Camden) ...... 23 June, 1191 

The true sun, and the appearance of another, so 
that astronomers alone could distinguish the 
difference by coloured glasses . . . . ,, 

Observed in Scotland; termed the "black hour" 

7 June, 1433 
Observed in Scotland; termed "Mirk Monday" 

8 April, 1652 
Total eclipse, visible in England ; the darkness so 

great that the stars shone, and the birds went to 
roost at noon 3 May, 1715 

Last total eclipse observed in England ; seen near 
Salisbury 22 May, 1724 

Remarkable one, central and annular in the interior 
of Europe 7 Sept. 1802 

Total eclipses — 17 July, 1833; 8 July, 1842; 28 
July, 1851. 

An annular eclipse ; it was seen and photographed 
at Oundle ; but not seen well at other places 

15 March, 1858 

Total eclipse of the sun ; well seen by sir G. B. 
Airy, astronomer royal, and others in Spain; 
Mr. Warren de la Rue took photographs, 18 July, i860 

Total eclipse of the sun of the longest possible dura- 
tion; (the Royal Society provided means for its 
observation in India, by col. Walker, Mr. Herschel, 
and others) . .... 18 Aug. 1868 

During the solar eclipse, 18 Aug. 1868, as observed 
in India, M. Janssen invented a method of study- 
ing the phenomena of the sun at any time, by 
employing several spectroscopes, whereby the 
spectrum is lengthened and the dazzling bril- 
liancy diminished. Mr. Joseph Norman Lockyer 
had suggested a similar method of observation 
11 1866, but did not use it till 20 Oct. 1868, being 
hen not aware of M. Janssen's discovery. 



The solar eclipse well observed in North America, 

7 Aug. 1869 

Two expeditions to observe the solar eclipse of 
22 Bee. 1870, sent out by the British government, 
were not successful .... 22 Dec. 1870- 

The solar eclipse well observed at Ceylon and in 
southern India, 12 Dec. 1871 ; and in North 
America, 29, 30 July, 1878 ; and in Egypt 17 May, 1882 
[The same eclipses (about 70) recur in a period of 
18 years 105 days.] 

Except the total eclipse, 12 Aug. 1999, there can be 
no total eclipse of the sun visible in England for 
250 years : July, 1871. Hind. 

Grand eclipse, well seen by astronomers at Caroline 
island, &c, Pacific .... 6 May, 1883; 

Eclipse of the sun well seen in North America, &c. 

16 March, 1885, 

8 Sept. seen in New Zealand „ 

Aug. in Russia 1887- 

Solar eclipse 29 August, 1886 ; British expedition 
to island of Grenada (West Indies) authorized by 
Government April ; eclipse well observed and 
photographed at Grenada 188S 

Great solar eclipse observed in the U.S. Pacific 
States 1 Jan. i88g> 

Eclipse Dec. 22 observed, Saint isle, near Deme- 
rara, by Father Stephen J. Perry, who dies there ,, 

OF THE MOON. 

The first, observed by the Chaldeans at Babylon 

(Ptolemy iv.) b.c. 7211 

A total one observed at Sardis (Thucydides, vii.) . 415 

Again, in Asia Minor (Polybius) 219= 

One at Rome, predicted by Q. Sulpitius Gallus 

(Livy, xliv.) 168I 

One terrified the Roman troops and quelled their 
revolt (Tacitus) a.d. 14. 

ECNOMUS, see Himera. 

ECOLE POLYTECHNIQUE, a military 
academy at Paris, established in 1794, and reor- 
ganised and given its present name on 1 Sept. 1795. 
The " Journal" (which began in 1795) contains pro- 
found mathematical papers. The school was reor- 
ganised 4 Sept. 1816. The pupils helped to defend 
Paris in 1 8 14 and 1830. 

ECONOMIC. MUSEUM (or Museum of 
Domestic and Sanitary Economy), at Twickenham, 
open free, was established chiefly by the agency 
of Mr. Thos. Twining, in i860. It originated from, 
the Paris exhibition of 1855. Economic Revietv r 
No. 1, published Jan. 1891. 

ECONOMIST, London weekly journal, de- 
voted to financial matters, first appeared 2 Sept. 
1843. 

ECONOMISTES, a philosophical sect, founded* 
by Francois Quesnay (1694 — 1774), who exalted 
agriculture above all other arts ; he asserted that it; 
gave two things, the support of the labourer and an 
excess of value which belonged to the proprietor of 
the land ("product net"), and which alone should 
be taxed. He also favoured great freedom for in- 
dustry and trade. His " Pliysiocratie" (1768), and 
other works, were at the time very popular, even, 
at court, and are said to have influenced Adanii 
Smith, author of " The "Wealth of Nations." 

ECONOMY, see Political Economy. 
The British Association for the Advancement of 
Economic Knowledge was founded 20 Nov. Mr. 
G. J. Goschen elected first president, 23 Nov. . 1890* 

ECOECHEUES (Flayers), bands of armed 
adventurers who desolated France and Belgium 
during the 15th centu^', beginning about 1435. 
Amongst their leaders were Chabannes, comte de- 
Dammartin, the bastard of Armagnac, and Vil- 
landras ; and they at one time numbered 100,000;. 
They are said to have stripped their victims to their 
shirts, and flayed the cattle. They were favoured 
by the English invasion and the civil wars*. 



ECRASITE. 



311 



EDINBURGH. 



ECRASITE, an explosive invented by Siersch 
and Kubin, Austrian engineers, impervious to 
damp, shock, or tire, Oct. 1889. 

ECUADOR, see Equator. 

EDDAS (thought formerly to mean Oldemoder, 
or "mother of mothers," by others, "art,") two 
books of songs and sagas (prose and verse) contain- 
ing the Scandinavian mythology (or history of Odin, 
Thor, Frea, &c), written by skalds or bards about 
the nth or 12th centuries. Translations have been 
made into French, English, &c. MSS. of the 
Eddas exist at Copenhagen and Upsal. 

EDDYSTONE (or Edystoxe) LIGHT- 
HOUSE, off the port of Plymouth, erected by 
the Trinity-house to enable ships to avoid the 
Eddystone'rock. The first lighthouse was com- 
menced under Mr. Winstanley, in 1696 ; finished 
in 1699; and destroyed in the dreadful tempest 
of 27 Nov. 1703, when Mr. Winstanley and others 
perished. A wooden one, by Rudyerd, was built by 
order of parliament, and all ships were ordered to 
pay one penny per ton inwards and outwards towards 
supporting it, 1708. This lighthouse was burnt 4 
Dec. 1755; and one on a better plan, erected by 
Mr. Smeaton, finished 9 Oct. 1759. The woodwork 
of this, burnt in 1 770, was replaced by stone. 
The foundation having given way, a new one was de- 
signed by Mr. (aft. sir) James N. Douglass, engineer of 
the Trinity House. The foundation-stone was laid by 
the duke of Edinburgh in the presence of the prince of 
Wales, 19 Aug., 1879. The corner-stone was placed by 
the duke on 1 June, 1881. Successfully lit, 3 Feb. 
1882 ; opened by the duke, 18 May, 1882. 
Smeaton's light-house memorial tower erected at Ply- 
mouth ; founded by duke of Edinburgh, 20 Oct. 1882. 
Inaugurated, 24 Sept. 1884. 

EDEN, ship burnt ; see Wrecks, 1873. 

EDESSA (now Orfah), a town in Mesopo- 
tamia, said by some, to have been built by Nimrod; 
by Appian, to have been built by Seleucus. It be- 
came famous for its schools of theology in the 5th 
century. It was made a principality by the crusa- 
ders, and was taken by the Saracens, 1145; °y 
Nur-ed-deen, in 1 144; and the Turks in 1184. Its 
ancient kings or rulers were named Abgarus and 
Mannus. 

EDGECOTE, see Banbury. 

EDGEHILL FIGHT (23 Oct. 1642), War- 
wickshire, between the royalists under prince Ru- 
pert and the parliament army under the earl of 
Essex, was the first important engagement in the 
civil war. Charles I. was present, and the earl of 
Lindsay, who headed the royal foot, was mortally 
wounded. The king lost 5600 dead. The action 
was indecisive, though the parliament claimed the 
victory. 

EDICT OP NANTES, by which Henry IV. of 
France granted toleration to his protcstant subjects, 
13 April, 1598, was confirmed by Louis XIII. in 
iblO, and by Louis XIV. in 1652. It was revoked 
by Louis XIV. 22 Oct. 1685. This act cost France 
50,000 Protestant families, and gave to England 
and Germany thousands of industrious artisans. 
It also caused a fierce insurrection in Languedoc. 
See Camisards. Some of the refugees settled in Spital- 
fields, where their descendants yet remain; others 
settled in Solio and St. Giles's, and pursued the art 
of making crystal glasses, and carried on the silk 
manufacture and jewellery, then little understood 
in England. 

EDICTS, public ordinances and decrees, 
usually set forth by sovereigns ; originated with 



the Romans. The Perpetual Edict: Salvius 
Julianus, of Milan, a civilian at Rome (author of 
several treatises on public right), was employed by 
the emperor Adrian to draw up this body of law's 
for the praetors, promulgated 132. 

EDINBURGH, the metropolis of Scotland, 
derives its name — in ancient records Edinbure and 
Hun Edin, "the bill of Edin" — from its castle, 
founded or rebuilt by Edwin, king of Northum- 
bria, who, having greatly extended his dominions, 
erected it for the protection of his newly acquired 
territories from the incursions of the Scots and 
Picts, 626. But it is said the castle was first built 
by Camelon, king of the Picts, 330 B.C. It makes 
a conspicuous appearance, standing on a rock 300 
feet high at the west end of the old town, and, before 
the use of great guns, was a fortification of con- 
siderable strength. Edinburgh returns 4 M.P.'sby 
act passed 25 June, 1885. See Population. 

Christianity introduced (reign of Donald I. ) . . 201 
City fortified, and castle rebuilt by Malcolm 

Canmore 1074 

St. Giles's church founded (845 ?) .... 1120 

Improved by David 1 1124 to 1153 

Holyrood abbey founded by David 1 1128 

Edinburgh constituted a burgh . . about ,, 

Castle held by England 1174-S6 

A parliament held here under Alexander II. . . 1215 

City taken by the English 1296 

Grant of the town of Leith to Edinburgh . . 1329 

Surrenders to Edward III 1355 

St. Giles's church destroyed 1385 

Rebuilt 1387 

City burnt by Richard II., 1385 ; and by Henry IV. 1401 
The parliament hall, Edinburgh castle, built by 

James I. . about 1434 

James II. first king crowned here . . . . 1437 

Execution of the earl of Athol „ 

Annual fair granted by James II. . . . . 1447 

City strengthened by a wall 1450 

Charter of James III 1477 

Edinburgh made the metroxiolis by James III. . 1482 
Royal College of Surgeons incorporated . . . 1505 

Charter of James IV. 1508 

[The palace of Holyrood was built in the reign of 
James IV.'] 

High school founded, about 1518- 

A British force, landing from a fleet of 200 ships, 

burns both Edinburgh and Leith . . May, 1544 
Leith is again burnt, but Edinburgh is spared . 1547 

Tolbooth built 1561 

Marriage of queen Mary and lord Darnley . . 1565 
David Rizzio murdered . . . . . . 1566 

Lord Darnley blown up in a private house by gun- 
powder 10 Feb. 1567 

Mary marries James, earl of Bothwell 15 May, ,, 

Mary's forced resignation ; civil war . . . 1570 

Death of John Knox .- 1572 

University chartered ; see Ed. University 14 April, 1582 
Bothwell's attempt on Holyrood-house 27 Dec. 1591 

Riot in the city ; the mob attacks the king . . 1596 
James VI. leaves Edinburgh as king of England, 

S April, 1603 ; he revisits it . . . 16 May, 1G17 
George Heriot's hospital founded by his will . . 1624 
Charles I. crowned at Edinburgh . . . June, 1633 

Edinburgh made a bishopric 

Riots in Greyfriars church at the reading of the 

English Liturgy . . . _ . .23 July, 1637 
Parliament house finished ...... 1640 

Charles again visits the city 1641 

The castle is surrendered to Cromwell . Dec. 1650 
" MercuriusCuled-onius," first Edinburgh newspaper, 

appeared 1661 

Coffee-houses first opened 1677 

Merchants' Company incorporated .... 16S1 
College of Physicians incorporated . . . . ,, 
Earl of Argyll beheaded .... 30 June, 1685 
African and East India Company incorporated . 1605 

Bank of Scotland founded 

Union of the kingdoms 1707 

Royal bank founded 1727 

Board of trustees of trade and manufactures 
appointed .... . 



EDINBURGH. 



312 



EDINBURGH. 



Royal Infirmary incorporated 1736 

Affair of Captain Porteous (see Porteous) 7 Sept. ,, 

Medical Society instituted 1737 

The young Pretender occupies Holyrood 17 Sept. 1745 
Battle of Preston Pans . . . .21 Sept. „ 
Modern improvements, "New town," commenced . 1753 

Magistrates assigned gold chains 1754 

Royal Exchange completed 1761 

Foundation of the North Bridge . . . 21 Oct. 1763 

Theatre Royal erected 1769 

Great fire in the Lawn-market 1771 

Register-office, Princes-street, commenced . . . 1774 
Ualton-hill observatory founded . . 25 July, 1776 
Great commotion against popery . . .2 Feb. 1779 

Society of Antiquaries 1780 

Royal Society of Edinburgh incorporated . . . 1783 
South Bridge commenced ... 1 Aug. 1785 

Royal College of Surgeons incorporated . . . 1788 
First stone of present university laid 16 Nov. 1789 

Robertson, the historian, dies here . n June, 1793 

Bridewell, Calton-hill, erected 1796 

Holyrood, an asylum to Louis XVIII. and his 

brother, afterwards Charles X. . . 1795 to 1799 
New Bank of Scotland commenced . . 3 June, 1801 
" Edinburgh Review " first published . 10 Oct. 1802 
New system of police established . . . . 1805 

Alarming riots here 31 Dec. 1811 

Nelson's monument completed 1815 

Gas company incorporated 1818 

Water convpany incorporated 1819 

Professor Play fair dies .... 20 July, „ 

Society of Arts instituted 1821 

Union Canal completed 1822 

George IV. 's visit ; foundation of the national 

monument 15-27 Aug. „ 

Royal Institution erected 1823 

Destructive fires .... June and Nov. 1824 

Scottish Academy founded 1826 

Xord Melville's monument erected . . . . 1828 
Edinburgh and Dalkeith railway opened . July, 1831 

.Statue of George IV. erected 1832 

T)eath of sir Walter Scott . . . 21 Sept. ,, 

Chambers's Edinburgh Journal published . . . „ 

Association of the Fine Arts 1833 

The British Association meets here . . 8 Sept. 1834 
Edinburgh and Grantou railway begun . . . 1836 

Art-union of Scotland [S37 

Men ur.ent to sir Walter Scott commenced . . . 1840 
Society of Arts, founded 1821 ; incorporated . . 1842 
Edinburgh and Glasgow railway opened . Feb. ,, 
Queen Victoria visits Edinburgh, &c, 31 Aug. -15 Sept. ,, 
Secession, and formation of the Free Church, 18 May, 1843 

New College instituted 

North British railway commenced . . . . 1844 
The monument to the political martyrs of 1793-4 

laid by Mr. Hume . 21 Aug. ,, 

■Granton pier, &c, constructed by the duke of Buc- 

cleuch 1835-44 

.Sir Walter Scott's monument completed . . . 1845 
Edinburgh Philosophical Association (established 

1832) re-organised as the Edinburgh Philosophi- 
cal Society t q 6 

N. British railway opened . . . 18 June, ,, 
British Association (2nd time) meets . 31 July, 1850 
The queen again visits Edinburgh . 29 Aug. ,, 

Prince Albert lays the foundation-stone of the 

Scotch national gallery . . . 30 Aug. 

Meeting to vindicate Scottish rights . 2 Nov. 1853 
Old buildings near Lawn-market burnt . 5 Aug. 1S57 
Act passed for building new Post-office . . July, 1858 
National gallery opened ... 21 March, 1859 
Agitation against Ministers' Annuity tax . Sept. 
Lord Brougham elected chancellor of the university, 

Edinburgh x Nov.' 

Ministers' tax abolished, and other arrangements 

made which did not give satisfaction : riots 

ensued Nov. i860 

20,000 volunteers reviewed by the queen in Queen's 

Park 7 Aug. 

Industrial museum act passed . . .28 Augi 
Edinburgh visited by empress Eugenie, 20 Nov! 
The prince consort lays foundation of new Post- ' 

office and industrial museum . . .23 Oct. 1861 
Fall of a house in High-street, 35 persons killed, 

24 Nov. , 
Accident on Edinburgh and Glasgow railway — 17 

killed; above 100 wounded . . . 13 Oct. 1862 



Lord Palmerston's visit . 31 March-4 April, 

Theatre royal burnt : George Loriiner, dean of 
guild, and seven persons, killed by fall of wall, 
while endeavouring to extricate others, 13 Jan. 

Statues of Allan Ramsay and John Wilson inaugu- 
rated 25 March, 

New Post-office opened .... 7 May, 

National museum of science and art opened by 
prince Alfred (who is created duke of Edinburgh, 
&c. , the first royal prince whose leading title was 
Scotch, 24 May) 19 May, 

Great reform demonstration ... 17 Nov. 

Explosion in the Canongate, at Hammond's, a fire- 
work-maker's ; 5 killed, many injured . 9 Oct. 

Visit of Mr. Disraeli, chancellor of the exchequer, 
conservative demonstration . . 29, 30 Oct. 

Meeting to propose restoration of St. Giles's cathe- 
dral .1 Nov. 

Visit of John Bright, made freeman . 3 Nov. 

The annuity-tax abolition act passed . 9 Aug. 

The prince of Wales installed as patron of the 
Freemasons of Scotland, 12 Oct. ; laid the founda- 
tion of the new royal infirmary . . 13 Oct. 

Meeting of British Association (3rd) . . 2 Aug. 

Scott centenary celebrated . (9 for 15) Aug. 

Restoration of St. Giles's cathedral begun, 17 June, 

Lady Burdett-Coutts made a burgess . 15 Jan. 

The earl of Derby elected lord rector of the uni- 
versity 14 Nov. 

Theatre Royal destroyed by fire . . 6 Feb. 

Advocates' library injured by fire . 3 March 

Southminster theatre burnt . . .14 March 

Freedom of city given tort. hon.W. E. Forster, 5 Nov. 

Earl of Derby's address as lord rector, . 17 Dec. 

Statue of Dr. Livingstone unveiled . . 15 Aug. 

Albert Memorial inaugurated by the queen, 17 Aug. 

Fire at Leith Walk, 7 killed through fall of a house, 

20 Dec. 

Messrs. Nelson's printing-office burnt ; great loss, 

10 April, 

Statue of Dr. Chalmers, by Steell, unveiled 27 July 

Marquis of Hartington installed lord rector, 31 Jan. 

New waterworks (Portmore reservoir at the Moor- 
foot Hills) opened by the lord provost 13 June, 

St. Mary's Cathedral (Episcopal) founded by the 
duke of Bucc.leueh, 1874 ; consecrated 30 Oct. 

New dock at Leith opened by the duke of Edinburgh 

26 July, 

About 40,000 Scottish volunteers reviewed in the 
queen's park by the queen ... 25 Aug. 

Fishery Exhibition opened . . .11 April, 

Academy of Music for Scotland (at Edinburgh) 
founded Sept. 

Freedom of the city given to the marquis cf Salis- 
bury , . 27 Nov. 

A severe snow-storm ; locomotion stopped ; frost 

9-18 Dec. 

Death of William Chambers, bookseller, restorer 
of St. Giles's [which is reopened 23 May] 20 May, 

Sir Stafford Northeote lord rector of the university 

3 Nov. 

Theatre Royal again destroyed by fire . 30 June, 

Mass-meeting to support the government and the 
franchise bill 12 July, 

Visit of the prince and princess and family 22 Aug. 

Demonstration in favour of the government; 
speeches of Mr. Gladstone . . 30 Aug. and 

1-2 Sept. 

The ancient cross restored bv Mr. W. E. Gladstone, 

Nov. 

International Industrial Exhibition opened by 
prince Albert Victor, 6 May ; visited by the 
queen, grand civic demonstration 18 Aug. 1886 ; 
2,740,000 visitors ; closed . . . 31 Oct. 

Jubilee gifts of Dr. R. H. Gunning for prizes, etc. 
to Royal Society of Edinburgh, Society of Anti- 
quaries of Scotland, University of Edinburgh, 
Royal Colleges of Physicians and Surgeons, Edin- 
burgh, Ben Nevis observatory, &c. announced July, 

The Heriot-Watt College inaugurated ; address by 
Sir F. Bramwell .... 10 Jan. 

S'ight earthquake 18 Jan. 

Naval and Military exhibition opened 18 June, 

Freedom of the city presented to Mr. C. S. Parnell 
(18,000 municipal electors protest against it) 

20 July, 
[His name erased from the roll, 1891.] 



1867 



1870 



1871 



1872 
1873 



1874 
1875 



1877 



1879 



EDINBURGH. 



313 



EDUCATION. 



National Association for the advancement of Art- 
congress meets . . - 28 Oct. — 2 Nov. 1889 

International Industrial exhibition, buildings 
erected at Merchiston and S.W. suburb ; nearly 
90 acres occupied ; the exhibition opened by the 
duke and duchess of Edinburgh, the duke of 
Buccleuch, lord Kingsburgh, the provosts of 
Glasgow, Leith, Perth, Aberdeen, Dundee, and 
Manchester, and other eminent persons were pre- 
sent 1 May, 1890 

Visited by the lord mayor of London in state 

20 June, ,, 

Closed 31 Oct. „ 

The exhibition was not successful financially 

13 Nov. ,, 

The free public library (for which Mr. Andrew Car- 
negie gave 50,000/.) opened by the earl of Rose- 
bery 9 June, ,, 

Mr. H. M. Stanley, the African explorer, receives 
the freedom of the city .... n June, ,, 

The parliament Hall restored ; see Parliament of 
Scotland Feb. 1891 

Statue of Win. Chambers (subscribed for) in 
Chambers street : unveiled . . .5 March » 

Dr. James A. Russell elected lord provost 6 Nov. ,, 

Banquet to Mr. G. J. Goschen . . .20 Nov. ,, 

Fire at the house of Prof. Copeland, astronomer 
royal for Scotland, valuable instruments and 
books much damaged ... 8 March, 1892 

Meeting of British Association (4th) . 3 Aug. ,, 

EDINBUKGH, Bishopric of, was created 

by Charles I. when in Scotland in 1633 ; and "Wil- 
liam Forbes, minister of Edinburgh, first bishop. 
The king allotted the parishes of the shires of 
Edinburgh, Linlithgow, Haddington, and a part 
of Berwick and of Stirlingshire, to compose the see. 
The sixth and last prelate was Alexander Ross, who 
was ejected on the abolition of episcopacy, at the 
period of the revolution, in 1689. Edinburgh be- 
came a post-revolution bishopric in 1720; see 
Bishops. 

EDINBURGH, Duke OF, Alfred Ernest, 
second son of queen Victoria, born 6 Aug. 1844, 
created duke of Edinburgh and carl of Kent 24 
May, 1866. 

The duke was married to Marie Alexandrovna, the grand 
duchess of Russia, 23 Jan. 1874. [The queen was 
empowered by parliament, 5 Aug. 1873, to grant 
an additional annuity of 10,000?. to the duke on 
liis marriage, and an annuity of 6,000?. to the grand 
duchess if she should survive the duke.] For Bio- 
graphy and Issue, see England, present Royal Family. 

EDINBURGH REVIEW (by Francis Jef- 
frey, rev. Sydney Smith, Henr} 7 Brougham, and 
other whigs) published first on 10 Oct. 1802. 

EDINBURGH UNIVERSITY. A college 
was commenced by the town council of Edinburgh, 
in 1 58 1, for which queen Mary had given the site 
of ancient religious houses, and .Robert Reid, bishop 
of Orkney, the funds in 1558. The university was 
chartered 14 April, 1582. On 24 Oct. 1582 the 
university was chartered by James VI., afterwards 
James I. of England. The first principal was ap- 
pointed in 1585. The foundation-stone of the new 
buildings was laid by Francis, lord Napier, grand- 
master of the masons of Scotland, 16 Nov. 1789. 
The constitution of the university was modified 
by Act of Parliament in 1858. In 18415, the 
library contained upwards of 80,000 volumes, 
besides numerous curious and rare MSS. and 
documents. Dr. Lyon Playfair elected the first 
M.P. for Edinburgh and St. Andrew's univer- 
sities in conformity with the act of 1868, 4 Dec. 
1868. Great movement to extend the university; 
meeting in London: large subscriptions, 7 Dec. 
1874. The tercentenary of the university was cele- 
brated by a distinguished assembly, 16—18 April, 
1384. Students' union formed to promote recrea- 



tion, discussion, comfort, &c. Fancy fair opened 
for its support by the marquis of Lome, 30 Nov. 
1886. Miss Jane Jeffrey, of Portobello, bequeaths 
5000/. for scholarships, announced Nov. 1887. 
University gathering to promote the University 
Extension Scheme, 24 Sept. et seq. 1889. Mr. A. 
J. Balfour, m. p., elected chancellor of the university, 
30 Oct. 1891. Mr. G. J. Goschen's address (on 
Imagination) as lord rector, 19 Nov. 1891. 

EDLINGHAM BURGLARY, see Trials, 

> ov. 1888. 

EDMUNDS' CASE, see under Patents. 
EDOM, see Idumcea. 

EDUCATION, the art of developing the 
physical, intellectual, and moral faculties of man, 
has occupied the greatest minds in all ages : Socrates, 
Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, Ouintilian, Bacon, Milton, 
Locke, Rousseau, &c. In England the earliest 
schools for the lower classes were those attached to 
the monasteries ; for the higher classes halls and 
colleges were gradually founded ; see Arts, Colleges, 
Schools, Oxford, Cambridge, Endowed Schools, 
jrischam Society, Technical Education, %c. 
William of Wykeham planted the school at Win- 
chester, whence arose his colleges at that place 

and Oxford 137^ 

Etoii college founded by Henry VI 1443 

After the reformation, education was greatly pro- 
moted, and many grammar schools were erected 
and endowed by Edward VI. and Elizabeth . 1535-65 
Christ's hospital, the bluecoat school, established, 1553 
Westminster school founded by Elizabeth . . 1560 
Foundation of Rugby school by Lawrence Sheriff, 

1567 ; of Harrow school by John Lyon . . . 1571 
The Charterhouse founded by Thomas Sutton . 161 1 

Many charity schools founded in opposition to 

Romish ones about 1687 

Parish schools appointed by the parliament of Scot- 
land 1697 

Queen Anne, a zealous friend of education, founded 
the Greycoat school, Westminster, and cordially 
supported parochial charity schools (one esta- 
blished at St. Margaret's, Westminster, 1688) . 1698 
Nearly 2000 of these schools established in Great 
Britain and Ireland, principally by the instru- 
mentality of the Society for the Promotion of 

Christian Knowledge 1698-1741 

Robert Raikes set up Sunday Schools about . . . 1781 
In 1833 there were 16,828 of these schools, with 

1,548,890 scholars. 
Joseph Lancaster, a young Quaker, began to instruct 

the children of the poor 1796 

He had 90 pupils before he was 18 years old, and 

1000 pupils in 1798 

Sunday School Union formed 1802 

To provide teachers, Lancaster invented the moni- 
torial system. In consequence of his exertions 
the present British and Foreign School Society 
was founded with the name of the "Royal 

Laneasterian Institution," &e 1805 

This, being unexclusive, was followed by the insti- 
tution of the Church of England " National 
Society for Educating the Poor," on Dr. Bell's 

system 1811 

Injant Schools began about 1815 

The Charity Commission, appointed at the instance 
of Mr. (afterwards lord) Brougham, published 
their reports on Education, in 37 volumes folio, 1819-40 
Irish National School System (to accommodate both 
Roman Catholics and Protestants) organised 
mainly by archbishop Whately and the Reman 

Catholic archbishop Murray 1831 

City of London School, Honey-lane, opened . . 1834 
The Home and Colonial School Society was insti- 
tuted 1836 

In 1834, the government began annual grants (the 
lirst 20,000/.), which continued till the Committee 
of the Privy Council on Education was con- 
stituted Cor the distribution of the money . 1839 
The Voluntary School Society and the Congrega- 
tional Board of Education formed . . about 1843 



EDUCATION. 



314 



EDUCATION. 



Bagged School Union established .... 1844 

Educational Times, monthly, established . Oct. 1847 

Out of a population of 17,927,609, there were 
2,466,481 day scholars 1851 

A great educational conference took place at 
Willis's Rooms, the prince consort iu the chair, 

22-24 June, 1857 

The Industrial Schools act passed in „ 

Middle Class Examinations from the university of 
Oxford began, June, 1858. The examiners granted 
the degree of A.A. to many persons at Liverpool, 
Leeds, &c. ; similar examinations from Cam- 
bridge took place in the autumn, and are to be 
continued 1858 

Report of commissioners on popular education (ap- 
pointed 1858), published 18 March, 1861, led to 
tlie Minute of the Committee of the Privy Council 
on Education, establishing a Revised Code of Regu- 
lations ; Mr. Lowe's adopted 21 July, 1861, to come 
intooperation.after 31 March, 1862. Itdecreedregu- 
lar examinations of the pupils, payment by results, 
evening schools for adults, and other changes, 
which raised a storm of opposition from the 
clergy and schoolmasters. The subject was much 
discussed in parliament (25, 28 March, 1862) ; but 
eventually a compromise was effected, 5 May, 1862 

Official instructions for the administration of the 
Revised Code issued Sept. ,, 

"Conscience-clause," founded on the Endowed 
Schools act, March, i860, introduced by the Com- 
mittee of Council on Education for parishes where 
only one school is required. It provided for the 
admission of children of dissenters, and exempted 
them from religious teaching, and attendance at 

public worship Nov. 1863 

(Report, 10 June, 1865.) 

It has been much opposed by the clergy ever since, 
and created much controversy ill . . . 1866-7 

College and Public School Commission Report, 
signed 16 Feb. 1864 

Royal Commission appointed, to inquire into the 
state of education in Scotland. First meeting at 
Edinburgh 14 Nov. „ 

Miss (aft. baroness) Burdett-Coutts proposes the 
establishment of small village-schools, to be 
taught by " ambulatory " teachers . . Jan. 1865 

Parliamentary committee appointed to inquire into 
the best mode of benefiting schools unassisted by 
the state 28 Feb. „ 

Training ship established for homeless boys of 
London ; 50 boys placed there by Boys' Refuge 
committee. See Chichester . . .18 Be:;. 1866 

Foundation of the London College of the Inter- 
national Education Society laid by the prince of 
"Wales 10 July, 1867 

Four establishments in England, France, Germany, 
and Italy proposed ; the idea is attributed to Mr. 
Cobden and M. Michel Chevalier . . ... 1862 

Committee appointed at a meeting for establishment 
of higher schools for middle classes in Loudon, by 
means of funds of lapsed charities, &c. , 7 Nov. ; 
nearly 28,ooo(. subscribed by end of Bee. 1865 ; 
51,349?. received Oct. 1866 

The subscribers incorporated by charter ; their first 
school opened by lord mayor and others in Bath- 
street, St. Luke's 1 Oct. ,, 

Great prosperity reported at the annual meeting, 

18 March, 1867 

Resolutions moved in the lords by earl Russell (as- 
serting that every child has a right to education, 
and recommending appointment of a cabinet 
minister of education), withdrawn . . 2 Bee. ,, 

Important report of schools inquiry commissioners 
signed 2 Bee. ,, 

Conference at Manchester recommend compulsory 
education, to be paid for by rates . 15 Jan. 1868 

Public Schools bill brought into the commons 7 Feb. ,, 

Public Elementary Education bill brought into the 
lords by duke of Marlborough, 24 March ; with- 
. drawn 18 May, „ 

Mr. (aft. sir Joseph) Whitworth's offer to found 30 
scholarships of annual value of 100I. each, for in- 
struction of young men in mechanics, &c, 18 
March, accepted by the lords of the council 27 Mar. ,, 

Foundation of the first new building for a middle 
class school in London laid by the lord mayor, 
Lawrence {very successful, 1873) . . 15 Bee. ,, 



Public Schools Act (modifying the government of 
Eton, Winchester, Westminster, Charterhouse, 
Harrow, Rugby, and Shrewsbury schools) passed 
31 July, 1868 ; amendment acts . 9 Aug. 1869-70-73 

New statutes for them issued .* . Oct. -Nov. 1869 

National Education League (advocating compulsory 
secular education by the state), first met at Bir- 
mingham (see below, 1877) . . 12, 13 Oct. 1869 

National Education Union for supplementing the 
present denominational system, first met at 
Manchester 3 Nov. ,, 

Conference at the Society of Arts to reconcile the 
League and the Union 7 Feb. 1870 

Scientific instruction and advancement commission 
appointed 19 May, ,, 

First " drill-review " of London charity schools, and 
others, at the Crystal Palace . .21 June, ,, 

Elementary Education Bill introduced by Mr. W. E. 
Forster, 17 Feb. ; after much discussion, and op- 
position from the dissenters, it passed, and re- 
ceived the royal assent ... 9 Aug. ,, 
[Amended in 1872, 1873, and 1876.] [Mr. Forster 
died, aged 67, 5 April, 1886 ; his statue on the 
Victoria Embankment unveiled 1 Aug. 1890.] 

io.oooJ. voted by the Christian Knowledge Society 
in aid of Church of England schools . 20 Oct. ,, 

First election of Metropolitan school-board {which 
see) (lord Lawrence, chairman) . . 29 Nov. ,, 

Regulations for school-boards issued . 21 Bee. ,, 

New Revised Code discussed . . . March, 1873 

London School-board Education Scheme proposed, 

23 June, ,, 

At the London school-board, after sharp discussion, 
the religious difficulty respecting payment for 
poor children at denominational schools settled 
for a year - . .2 Nov. „ 

Arrangements for erecting or adapting buildings for 
new schools made by London school-board, Bee. ,, 

Conference of masters of grammar schools at High- 
gate 28 Bee. ,, 

Mr. Bixon's and the nonconformists' censure on 
the Elementary Education Act ; negatived in the 
commons, 355-94 .... 5 March, 1872 

Scientific instruction : royal commission appointed, 
May, 1870 ; reported . . April, 1871, April, ,, 

Education (Scotland) Act passed . . 10 Aug. „ 

The London school-board determine to open separate 
schools for dirty unruly children . . 20 Nov. ,, 

"Society for Organization of Academical Study" 
proposed by sir B. C. Brodie, Br. Carpenter, 
Prof. Rolleston and others at a meeting, 16 Nov. „ 

Irish University Bill introduced by Mr. Gladstone, 

13 Feb. 1S73 

First London board-school (at Whitechapel) opened, 

12 July, ,, 

College for northern counties at Knutsford ; foun- 
dation laid 24 Sept. ,, 

College for higher education of women, opened at 
Girton, which see Oct. ,, 

Great meeting for religious denominational educa- 
tion at St. James's hall . . . . 6 Nov. „ 

Second Metropolitan school-board elected ; religious 
party the strongest (Mr. (after sir) Charles 
Reed, M. P. chairman) . . . 27 Nov. ,, 

The universities nominate a board for the examina- 
tion of pupils from public schools . . Bee. ,, 

Domestic Economy. — Study of food and clothing in- 
troduced into government educational depart- 
ment 1S74 

Mr. Bixon's compulsory attendance bill rejected 
(320-156) 1 July, „ 

Result of first university examination of 221 schools : 
Winchester, 34 certificates ; Manchester, 27 ; 
Marlborough, 15; Eton, 13 ; Sherborne, 11 ; Wel- 
lington college, 10 ; Rugby, 6, &c. ; Christ's Hos- 
pital and others, 1 published . . . Sept. ,, 

London school-board occupy their new building on 
Victoria Embankment . . . -30 Sept. ,, 

New code of raised standards for schools issued, 

March, 1875 

Newnham college at Cambridge for women opened, 

18 Oct. ,, 
First annual conference of teachers . . 14 Jan. 1876 
Mr. Bixon's bill for universal school-boards and 
compulsory education rejected by the commons 

(281-260) April, „ 

Another Elementary Education act introduced 



EDUCATION. 



315 



EGYPT. 



by lord Sandon, 18 May ; a clause permitting un- 
necessary school-boards to be suppressed, intro- 
duced by Mr. Pell, carried, 24 July ; 3rd reading 
(119-46), s Aug. (considered reactionary) royal 

assent 15 Aug. 

International congress on education at Philadelphia, 

July, 

Third Metropolitan school board elected ; majority 

against denominational school systems(sir Charles 

Reed, chairman) .... 30 Nov. 

National Education League dissolved . 2S March, 

Election of school attendance committees under 

the new act . . . . . April, 

Intermediate Education act for Ireland passed 

16 Aug. 
Education Act (Scotland) amended . 16 Aug. 
Revised Code, 7 Feb. 1877; 2 April, 1878; April, 
161st metropolitan board school opened by sir 
Charles Reed, at Portland town . 23 June, 
The Queen v. sir Charles Reed ; the Queen's bench 
decide that the school board has power to borrow 

money 27 June, 

Fourth Metropolitan school board elected (sir 
Charles Reed, chairman) . . -27 Nov. 
Important decision respecting. school fees and attend- 
ance, see Trials 27 June, 

Death of sir Charles Reed, 25 March ; succeeded by 

Mr. Edward North Buxton 

Changes in the code ; circular issued . . Aug. 
Education Society, formed in July, 1875, for ex- 
amining and propounding the principles upon 
which the practice of education should be founded, 
by professor Alexander Bain, Dr. J. H. Gladstone, 
and others. Branches have been formed in Dublin, 
and other places. 

Ascham Society (which see) formed 

Lord Aberdare Mr. W. E. Forster sir John Lub- 
bock, and others form a committee to instruct 
electors of school board ... 23 Oct. 
Fifth Metropolitan school board elected (old policy 
affirmed ; E. N. Buxton, chairman) . 24 Nov. 
The Boy's Public Day school company founded, 
5 Dec. 1882 ; first school opened . 12 Sept. 
Art for Schools, proposed Societies formed in 

London and the provinces 

New education code (much attacked) comes into 
operation, 3 April, 1884 ; revised instructions 
issued .... . . June, 

International Educational Conference at South 
Kensington opened .... 4 Aug. 

Dr. (after sir) Crichton Browne's report on over- 
pressure in primary and secondary schools, with 
Mr. Fitch's memorandum against it published 
Sept. 1884 ; denied after investigation report 

16 July, 

H. T. Holland (after lord Knutsford) appointed 

vice-president of council, about . 25 Aug. 

Sixth Metropolitan school board elected, 2 Nov. 

(new economical policy), Rev. J. R. Diggle 

elected chairman 3 Dec. 

Royal commission on elementary education in 
England and Wales, Sir R. A. Cross (chairman), 
Earl of Harrowby, Dr. Temple (bishop of 
London), cardinal Manning, Mr. A. J. Mundella, 
Sir John Lubbock, Sir F. Sandford, and others. 
First report issued 4 Sept. 1886. Final report 

Aug. 

Majority report for aiding voluntary schools from 

the rates and development of moral and religious 

education, June ; opposite opinions reported by 

the minority July, 

The government declines to interfere with the 

settlement of 1870 Nov. 

New scheme for enforcing payment of fees stated 
to be inquisitorial and partially ineffectual Oct. 
About 30,000 elementary scholars entertained in 
Hyde Park, see Jubilee ... 22 June, 
School accommodation in the eleven divisions re- 
ported sufficient Oct. 

Seventh Metropolitan school board elected, 26 Nov. ; 
Rev. J. R. Diggle elected chairman . 4 Dec. 

New code introducing many changes brought for- 
ward . . . . . .19 March 

Committee on relieving children coming to school 
unfed, 2 Nov. : London Schools Dinner Associa- 
tion formed, by combination of several societies 

Dec. 



1877 



1879 



Bill for enforcing new education code, withdrawn, 
22 July, 1889 ; new code with important changes 
brought forward by sir William Hart-Dyke, 
_ March ; bill passed 25 Jnly, 1890 

Number of voluntary schools largely increased 
since 1870 .... reported April, 1891 

Grant for free, or assisted education, 2,000,000/. 
annually, proposed by Mr. Goschen 23 April, ,,. 

A new Elementary Education act (reducing or 
abolishing school fees) passed 5 Aug., comes into 
operation 1 Sept. , ,. 

Eighth Metropolitan school board elected, 26 Nov. ,, 

Mr. Joseph R. Diggle re-elected chairman 3 Dec. ,, 

Irish free education act passed . . 27 June, 1892 

The grant for Public Education in Great Britain, 'in 1851, 
was 150,000/. ; 1856, 451,213/. ; i860, 798, 167/. ; 1861, 
803,794/. ; 1864, 705,404/. ; 1867, 705,865/.. England, 
1872, 1,554,560/. ; 1877, 1,910,000/. : 1882, 2,749,863/. :. 

1884, 3,016,167/. For Ireland, i860, 270,722/. ; 1861,. 
285,377/. : 1863, 316,770/. From 1839 to i860. 3,655,067/. 
were granted for education. The grant for education, 
science, and art, in 1861, was 1,358,996'. ; for 1867-8, 
1,487,554/. ; 1874-5, 2,228,470/., (in addition, 3,060,566?., 
were locally raised) ; 1876-7, England, 707,055/. ; Scot- 
land, 438,227/. ; Ireland, 649,949/. ; for year 1876-7 
(United Kingdom), 3,349,397/.-; i879-8o(Great Britain), 
2,854,938/. ; United Kingdom, 1880-1, 3,730,329/.; 1882-3, 
3>955.737 z - > 1884-5, 4.4i°,i95'- ! 1886-7, 4,780,945'. ;. 
1888-9,5,042,614/.; 1889-90,5,098,304/.; 1890-1,5,244,447/- 

Primary schools in Great Britain : in 1854, 3825 ; in 1855, 
4800 ; in i860, 7272 ; in 1870, 10,949 ; in 1877, 18,118 ;. 
1111878,19,291; in 1879, 20, 169 ; in 1880, 20,670; in 1881, 
21,136; in 1882. 21,362; in 1883, 21,630; 1884, 21,892 ; 

1885, 21,976; 1886, 22,114; J 887, 22,265; 1888, 22,326;. 
1889, 22,426-; 1890, 22,495. 

Annual grant for primary schools in Great Britain : in. 
1861, 813,442/. ; in 1865, 636,806/. ; in 1870, 840,330"/. ;. 
in 1878, 2,463,283/. ; in 1879, 2,732,067/. ; in 1880, 
2,854,067/. ; 1881, 2,978,224/. ; 1882, 3,101,028/. ; 1883, 
3,247,725/. ; 1884, 3,403,415/. ; 1885, 3,664,174/.; 1886, 
3,802,009/. ; 1887, 3,945,038/. ; 1888, 4,011,464/. ; 1889, 
4,167,884/.; 1890, 4,259,080/. ; 1891, 4,392,937/. 

Metropolitan school board children on the rolls : 1871, 
1,117; '873, 50,606; 1876, 146,031; 1878 (Christmas), 
207,289 ; 1883, 293,811; 1888, 420,914; 1890, 443,143. 

EGALITE (Equality), see Orleans. 

EGGS. The duty 011 imported eggs was re- 
pealed 111 i860, whereby the revenue lost about 
20,000^. a year. Number imported into Great 
Britain : in 1861, 203,313,360 ; in 1865, 364,013,040;. 
in 1869,442,172,640; in 1870,430,842,240; in 1876, 
753,026,640; 1877,751,185,600; 1879,766,707,840; 
1883, 940,436,160; 1887, 1,090,089,000; 1890,, 
1,234,949,000. Great quantities are now brought 
from Italy by the St. Gothard railway. 

EGLINTO UN TOUKNAMENT, see Tour- 
nament. 

EGYPT,* N.E. Africa, the earliest known seat 
of civilization, the hieroglyphic and Coptic Kemi,, 
Hebrew iMazor (Lower Egypt), Mizraim (Upper 
and Lower Kgypt), Greek name Egypt, Arabic for 
all Egypt Misr or Masr. 

For our present knowledge of the early history of Egypt 
we are almost wholly indebted to discoveries in the 
present century, and to the interpretation of monu- 
mental inscriptions, and the papyri found in the 
tombs. The most recent investigators are Brugsch, 
Maspero, Lepsius, De Rouge, Marietta, Cliabas, Lieb- 
lein, Birch, Naville, Le Page, Kenouf, and Petrie. 
with some others; see Egypt exploration Fund mid 
Rosetta stone, etc. 
Manetho a high-priest of On or Eeliopolis in the second 
century B.C., at the request of king Ptolemy Philadel- 



* Three magnificent works mi Egypt have been pub- 
lished: in France (commenced by Napoleon, and tin 
savans who accompanied" him to Egypt), Description at 
I'Egypte, 1809-22 ; in Italy. Etosellim's Momimenti dell' 
Egitto, 1832-44 ; and in Prussia, K. It Lepsius' Denkmdkr 
aus JEgypten, 1848-56. All these are in tin' Library of tin- 
Royal Institution of Great Britain, London, 



EGYPT. 



316 



EGYPT. 



pirns, wrote a history of Egypt, divided into 30 dynas- 
ties from Menes to the Persian conquests ; of his work 
lists only have been preserved, by Julius Africanus, a 
writer who lived about 300 a.d. Eusebius died about 
340, Georgius Syncellus, 800. 

The fabulous god kings, including the sun god, Osiris god 
of Hades, and Isis his wife, Typhon, Horus the last, 
were said to have reigned 13,900 years, the demi-gods 
and manes 4,000 years. 

The following table of Dynasties, including the more 
important kings, is derived from various source!), the 
names and dates vary. B. stands for Brugsch, and M. 
for Mariette. 

I Thinite (from This, near Abydus) M. 5004 ; B. 4400B.C. 

Mena or Menes ; hrst known king and law-giver, founder 
of Memphis. M. 5004 ; . B. 4455. Tola or Athothis— 
Ouenephes I., conjectured to have built the Stepped 
pyramid of Sakkarah. 

II. Memphite. M. 4751 ; B. 4133. 

Kakaoo or Kaiechos. The worship of Apis the bull 
established at Memphis. B. 4100. 

III. Memphite (monumental history properly begins). 
M. 4449 ; B. 3966. 

Seneferoo— soldier, architect and patron of literature and 
art. 

IV. Memphite. M. 4235 ; B. 3733. 

Shoofoo or Khufa, the Cheops of Herodotus, built the 
great pyramid of Geezeh. M. 4235 ; B. 3733. The 
great limestone rock at the foot of the Libyan moun- 
tains was converted into a man-headed lion, termed by 
the Greeks Sphinx. Khafra built the second Gizeh 
pyramid. B. 3666. Menkaura (Mycerinus III.). 
B. 3633. High state of civilization and art, and the 
vast cemetery of Memphis erected. The book or ritual 
of the dead (papyri) found in tombs. 

V. Memphite. M. 3951 ; B. 3566. 

Raenooser. B. 3433. Katkara. B. 3366. Unas trun- 
cated pyramid near Sakkarah built. B. 3333 

VI. Memphite (history nearly a blank to the nth dy- 
nasty). M. 3703 ; B. 3300. 

Pepi I.— powerful— long reign. B. 3233. Romantic 
story of queen Nitocris in Herodotus. 

VII. Memphite. B. 3100. 
Petty kings. 

VIII. Memphite. 

IX. Heracleopolite. M. 3358. 

X. Heracleopolite. M. 3249. 

XI. Theban. M. 3064. 

Sankhkara, expedition to Ophir and Punt (S. Arabia ?). 
B. 2500. 

XII. Theban (Egypt very prosperous). B. 2466. 
Amenernhat I. M. 3064 ; B. 2466. 

Osirtasen I. (obelisk of On or Heliopolis erected). 
Osirtasen II. (memorial temple discovered in 1889). 
Osirtasen III., important national works, excavated the 

lake Moeris and made the labyrinth and theNilometer. 

B. 2300. 

XIII. Theban. M. 2851 ; B. 2233. 
Sebekhotep, name of several kings. 

XIV. Xoite. M. 2398. 

XV. Hyksos or Shepherd kings. M. 2214. 

Invaders from Asia take Memphis and settle in Lower- 
Egypt. 

XVI. Hyksos or Shepherd kings. 

XVII. Hyksos or Shepherd kings. 
Nub — arrival of Joseph. B. 1750. 

Dynasties XIII.— XVII. history very obscure ; probably 
Theban kings reigned in southern, while the Hyksos 
reigned in Lower Egypt. 

XVIII. Theban. M. 1703 ; B. 1700. 

Achmes I. conquers the Hyksos. M. 1703 ; B. 1700. 
Amenhotep I. B. 1666. Thothmes I. B. 1633 
Thothmes II. and Hatasoo, sister. B. 1600. Thoth- 
,mes III., great king, victor in western Asia, &c, his 
exploits recorded in his temple at Karnak. B. 1600. 
Amenhotep II. B. 1566. Thothmes IV. B. 1533. 
Amenhotep III. victorious in Ethiopia ; the Colossi or 
vocal Memnon bear his name. B. 1500. Amenhotep 
IV. introduced Semetic worship. Two or three here- 
tical successors. Haremhebi or Horus restores the 
old worship. 

XIX. Theban. M. 1462 ; B. 1400. 

Barneses I. M. 1462 ; B. 1400. Seti or Sethos (Mene- 
tah I.) victorious in Asia ; made first canal from the 
Red sea to the Nile ; many monuments of him at 
Karnak, &c. B. 1333. Rameses II. son, the legendary 
Sesostris, took Salem, conquered Ethiopia, and set up 
a fleet, his epoch about 1322. Maneptah son, probably 



the Pharoah of the Exodus, 1300 ; Seli II. and two or 
three unimportant kings. 

XX. Theban. M. 1288 ; B. 1200. 

Rameses III. (Rhampsinitus of Herodotus) victorious, 
cultivated navigation and commerce. M. 1288 ; 
B. 1200. Inglorious line of kings named Rameses. 

XXI. Tanite. M. mo ; B. 1100. 

History obscure — Hirhor, high priest of Amen, probably 

first of priest kings — Assyrian governors. 
XXH. Bubasite. M. 980; B. 966. Shashank or Shes- 

honk L, Shishak, 1 Kings XIV., 25-28. 

XXIII. Tanite, probably only three petty kings. M. 810 ; 
B. 766. 

XXIV. Saite. M. 721 ; B. 733. 

Bocchoris (Bokenranef), taken prisoner by Sabaco, king 
of Ethiopia, and burnt alive. During the last three 
dynasties, the Ethiopians appear to have ruled in the 
south. 

XXV. Karnak. Ethiopian. M. 715 ; B. 700. 

Shabat or Sabaco. M. 715 ; B. 700. Takaraka or Tir- 
hakah (2 Kings XIX. 9). B. 693. Egypt frequently 
invaded by the Assyrians ; subdued and divided into 
12 governments. 

XXVI. Saite. M. 665 ; B. 666. 

Psammetichus I. (Greek), one of the governors under the 
Assyrians, restored the monarchy and revived art. 
M. 665 ! E. 666. Necho II. son, attempted the con- 
struction of a canal across the Isthmus of Suez, defeated 
Josiah king of Judah at Megiddo (II. Kings xxiii. 29); 
defeated by Nebuchadnezzar at Carchemish, 612. 
rsammetichus II. ; inglorious. B. 596. Uahbra or 
Hophra (Jer. xliv. 30) son ; went to help Zedekiah, 
but deserted him. B. 591. Apries loses the conquests 
and is strangled by Amasis, who has a long prosperous 
reign and increased intercourse with the Greeks. 
B. 572. Psammetichus III. son (defeated by Cam- 
byses, son of Cyrus, king of Persia). B. 528. 

XXVII. Persian. M. 527 ; B. 527. 

Cambyses, conquers Egypt ; his army perished in an 
expedition against Ethiopia. M. 527 ; B. 527. Darius I. 
Hystaspes, greatly favoured Egypt, 521. Xerxes I. 
severe (Egyptian revolt subdued), 486. Artaxerxes I. 
Longimanus(anotherrevolt),465. Darius II.Nothos, 424. 
Egypt regained its independence by Armyrtams, 424. 

XXVIII. Saite. M. 406. 
Armyrtajus, 406. 

XXIX. Mendesian. M. 399 ; B. 399. 
Nepherches and Achoris maintain Greek alliance. 

XXX. Sebennyte. M. 378 ; B. 378. 

Nectanebes I. Nectanebes II. conquered by Artaxerxes 
Ochus, king of Persia. 

XXXI. Persia 340. 

Darius III. Codomanus — defeated by Alexander 

the Great and killed. 
Alexander conquered Egyptand founded Alexandria, 332 
The empire divided, 323. One of Alexander's gene- 
rals, Ptolemy I. (the son of Lagus) Soter became 
king of Egypt, 323. 
Ptolemy II. Philadelphus (with his father) 285 ; 
alone [the museum of Alexandria founded ; the 
Septuagint version of the Hebrew Scriptures 
made ; the Pharos completed] . . . 283-247 

Ambassadors first sent to Rome .... 269 
Ptolemy III. Euergetes, 247 ; overruns Syria, and 

returns laden with spoils 246 

Ptolemy IV. Philopator .... Nov. 222 
Battle of Raphia ; Ptolemy defeats Antioclms, king 

of Syria 217 

Ptolemy V. Epiphanes Nov. ' 205 

Embassy to Rome ....... 200 

Ptolemy VI. Philometor .... Oct. 181 

At the death of Philometor, his brother Physcon 

(Ptolemy VII. Euergetes) marries his queen, and 

on the day of his nuptials murders the infant son 

of Philometor in its mother's arms . . Nov. 146 

His subjects, wearied by his cruelties and crimes, 

compel him to flee 130 

He defeats the Egyptians and recovers his throne, 

128 ; dies 117 

Ptolemy VIII. Soter II. and Cleopatra his mother, ,, 

Alexander I. and Cleopatra 107 

Ptolemy VIII. restored . . . . .89 

Revolt in Upper Egypt ; Thebes destroyed after a 
siege of three years (Diod. Siculus) . . . . 82 

Alexander II. and Cleopatra 1 81 

Ptolemy IX. Auletes 80 

Berenice and Tryphcena . . ... 58 



EGYPT. 



317 



EGYPT. 



Auletes restored, 55 : leaves his kingdom to Ptolemy 

and Cleopatra 51 

During a civil war between Ptolemy and Cleopa- 
tra II., Alexandria is besieged by Caesar, and the 
library nearly destroyed by fire (Blair) ... 47 
Caesar defeats the king, who, in crossing the Nile, 
is drowned ; and the younger Ptolemy and Cleo- 
patra reign 46 

Cleopatra poisons her brother, and reigns alone . 43 
She appears before Marc Antony, to answer for this 
crime ; fascinated by her beauty, he follows her 
into Egypt . . ' ' . ." . . . . 41 

Cleopatra in Syria 36 

Antony defeated by Octavius Caesar at the battle of 

Actium (Blair) . . . .■ . .2 Sept. 31 
Octavius enters Egypt ; Antony and Cleopatra kill 
themselves ; and the kingdom becomes a Roman 

province Sept. 30 

Egypt visited by Adrian, 122; by Severus . a.d. 200 
Monachism begun in Egypt by Antony . . . 305 
Destruction of the temple and worship of Serapis, 389 
Egypt conquered by Chosroes II. of Persia. . . 616 
Invasion of the Saracens under Ainrou . June, 638 
Conquest of Alexandria .... 22 Dec. 640 

Cairo founded by the Saracens 969 

Conquest by the Turks 1163-91 

Government of the Mamelukes established . . 1250 
Selim I., emperor of the Turks, conquers Egypt . 1567 
It is governed by beys till a great part of the 
country is conquered by the French, under Bona- 
parte (see Alexandria) 1798-99 

The invaders dispossessed by the British, and the 

Turkish government restored .... 1801 
Mehemet Ali massacres the Mamelukes, and obtains 

the supreme power .... 1 March, 181 1 
Arrival of Belzoni, 1815 ; he removes statue of Meni- 

non, 1816; explores temples, &c. . . . 1817 
Formation of the Mahmoud canal, connecting Alex- 
andria with the Nile 1820 

Mehemet Pasha revolts and invades Syria . . 1831 
His son Ibrahim takes Acre, 27 May ; overruns 

Syria ; defeats the Turks at Konieh . 21 Dec. 1832 
He advances on Constantinople, which is entered 
by Russian auxiliaries, 3 April; war ends with 
convention of Kutayah ... 4 May, 1833 

Mehemet again revolts, claiming hereditary power ; 

Ibrahim defeats the Turks at Nezib 24 June, 1839 

England, Austria, Russia, and Prussia undertake 
to expel Ibrahim from Syria ; Napier bombards 
Beyrout, 10 Oct. ; Acre taken by the British 
and Austrian fleets, under sir R. Stopford, 3 Nov. ; 
the Egyptians quit Syria . 21 Nov. , ct seq. 1840 

Peace restored by treaty ; Mehemet made hereditary 

viceroy of Egypt, but deprived of Syria 15 July, 1841 
Ibrahim Pacha dies (see Suez) . . 10 Nov. 1848 

The Suez canal begun 1858 

Commercial treaty with Great Britain signed 

19 April, 1861 
Hereditary succession and right of coining money 
granted ; but tribute raised from 400,000?. to 

750,000? 27 May, „ 

Malta and Alexandria telegraph opened . 1 Nov. ,, 
The viceroy Said visits Italy, France, and England, 

May to Sept. ; returns to Alexandria . 1 Oct. 1862 
Sultan of Turkey visits Egypt . . 7 April, 1863 

Increased cultivation of cotton in Egypt . 1863-67 

At the demand of the sultan, the viceroy sends 

troops to repress the insurgents in Arabia, May, 1864 
Opening of part of the Suez canal (which see), 

15 Aug. 1865 
Direct succession to the viceroyalty granted by the 

porte 21 May, 1866 

Egyptian legislative chamber opened with a speech 

from the viceroy 27 Nov. ,, 

Viceroy invested with Order of the Bath (as G.C.B. ) 

by lord Clarence Paget . . . -30 Jan. 1867 
Designated " sovereign " by the sultan 9 June, ,, 

The viceroy visits Paris . . . 16 June-5 July, ,, 
He arrives in London 6 July ; received by the queen 
at Windsor, 8 ; by lord Derby, 10 ; by the lord 
mayor, 11; departs .... 18 July, ,, 
The viceroy (now termed the Khedive) visited 

England 22 June, 1869 

Present at the inauguration of the Suez canal, 

17 Nov. ,, 
The differences between the sultan and himself 
respecting prerogatives arranged, the viceroy 



giving up the power of imposing taxes and of 
contracting loans . . . Dec. 1869, 

Sir Samuel Baker appointed sole commander of a 
military expedition to suppress the slave-trade 
up the Nile, with absolute authority over the 
country south of Gondokoro (for four years from 
1 April, 1869) 10 May, ,, 

Departure from Khartoum ... 8 Feb. 1870 

Many delays and impediments ; proceeds to explore 
White Nile n Aug. ,, 

Arrives at Gondokoro, 15 April ; names it Ismailia, 
and officially annexes it to Egypt . 26 May, 1873 

War with the warlike and treacherous Baris of 
Belinian ; beats them in several engagements, 

July-Sept. 

Supported by his model corps, "the forty thieves," 
he quells disaffection and mutiny in his troops,Oct. ,, 

Sends vessels with women, children, and sick, to 
Khartoum 3 Nov. ,, 

Makes peace with the Baris, and returns to Gondo- 
koro 19 Nov. „ 

Advances south ; suffers much by negro treachery, 
and inefficiency of his Egyptian troops : heroism 
of lady Baker Jau.-Feb. 187a 

Arrives at the African Paradise, Faliko ; meets 
there his enemy, Abou Saoud, the slave-dealer, 
6 March ; at Masindi, in Unyoro . 25 April, ,, 

Received by Kabba Rega, the young king ; who 
attempts to poison Baker's party, and attacks 
them in the night ; he is defeated, and Masindi 
burnt 8 June, „ 

Baker marches to Foweera ; received by Raongi, 
enemy of Kabba Rega, 18 July ; returns to Faliko, 
and suppresses an insurrection of slave-dealers, 
probably incited by Abou Saoud . . 2 Aug. ,, 

Slave-trade apparently subdued; "peace and pro- 
spect of prosperity" .... 31 Dec. ,, 

Baker returns to Gondokoro, 1 April; receives 
honours from the khedive at Cairo, 25 Aug. ; 
arrives in London Oct. 1873 

Col. Gordon appointed his successor ; Abou Saoud 
his subordinate ,, 

Baker's work, " Ismailia," published . . Nov. 1874 

The first stone of the new port laid by the khedive, 

15 May, 187s 

The khedive 's son, prince Hassan, made D.C.L. at 
Oxford I3 j lme , 1872 

The khedive visits the sultan; Constantinople 
rejoices . . ... . . . 25 j une , ,, 

The sultan, by a firman, renders the khedive prac- 
tically independent ; (he must not coin money, 
make treaties, or build ironclads) . 8 June, 1873. 

First Egyptian budget produced ; asserted revenue', 
10,166,000?. ; expenditure, 9,040,000?. . Oct. », 

Mr. Acton and Mr. Penned employed to arrange 
finances of Egypt .... spring of 1875 

International court of justice opened by the khedive, 

28 June, ,> 

The khedive's shares of Suez canal (which see) pur- 
chased by the British government; announced, 

Nov. ,, 

Egyptian expedition into Abyssinia surprised and 
defeated with much slaughter . t 6 Oct. ,r 

Rt. hon. Stephen Cave sent on special mission to 
Egypt Dec. ,. 

New (Gregorian) style adopted ; mixed courts 
opened T Jan _ l8 6 

Resignation of Nubar Pasha, able minister of com- 
merce, announced j a]1 

War with Abyssinia (which see) . '1875*7 

Mr. Cave's report— (refers to waste and extaiva- ' 
gance ; great works undertaken with insufficient 
means ; loss by adventure] s ; military expenditure ; 
and necessity for intervention of superior power 
to restore credit and restrain expenditure) ; sent 
13 March ; published in 'l'iuus . 4 April, 1876 

The khedive decrees consolidation of his debt' 
91,000,000?., at 7 per cent., and a sinking fund,' 
7 May ; decrees signed . . i 4 and 25 May 
His son Hassan received by the queen . 27 June, 
Decisions of the international law court not ac- 
cepted by the government; the court closed by 
M. Haakman ; he is superseded July, 

Mr. Goschen with M. Joubert (on behalf of the ' 
khedive's creditors), arrive at Cairo, 14 Oct. ; their 
scheme accepted (debt of about 91,000,000/. to be 
reduced to about 59.ooo.oc-o/., interest ct 7 per 
cent, to be reduced to about 6 per cent.) ; agri • ■- 



EGYPT. 

ment signed about 10 Nov. announced (termed 
since, " Goschen decree ") . . . 18 Nov. 

Ismail Sadyk, autocratic finance minister, suspected 
of conspiracy ; resigns insolently ; seized and 
banished Nov. 

Mr. Gosehen c s report approved by a meeting in 
London 28 Nov. 

«Col. Gordon, after successful administration, re- 
turns to England Feb. 

Peace with Abyssinia negotiating by col. Gordon, 
June ; terms said to be accepted . . Oct. 

'Bad report respecting Egyptian finances, Feb. ; 
commission appointed .... March, 

Egypt at peace ; all soldiers at home . 20 April, 

Confidence restored by decree for payment of 
official salaries 12 May, 

Nubar Pasha again minister ... 15 Aug. 

'The khedive accepts the terms of the commission ; 
he and his family give up landed property to the 
state Aug. 

Mr. Rivers Wilson appointed finance minister ; and 
M. de Blignieres, minister of works, soon after, 

Sept. 

Attacks on them and Nubar Pasha by discontented 
officers at Cairo dispersed . . .18 Feb. 

Nubar Pasha resigns .... 19 Feb. 

.Definitive peace between the khedive and Abys- 
sinia, announced Feb. 

Prince Tewfik, president of the council, and Nubar 
Pasha, foreign minister, about . . 5 March, 

Mr. Rivers Wilson and M. de Blignieres remonstrate 
with the khedive 6 April, 

He puts forth a new financial scheme ; Tewfik Pa- 
sha, Mr. Rivers Wilson, and M. de Blignieres, dis- 
anissed : new ministry under Cherif Pasha formed 
about 7 April, 

Coi. Gordon's lieutenant, Gessi (Nov. 1878) com- 
pletely defeats the rebel slave-dealers in the Sou- 
dan, Central Africa .... 5 May, 

England and France in a note require the appoint- 
ment of European ministers, a'bout . 5 May, 

England, France, Germany, Austria, and Italy, re- 
commend the khedive to abdicate, about 20 June, 

He refers to the sultan, who declines to interfere, 
the khedive offers to pay his debts in full 22 June 

The khedive deposed by the sultan, prince Tewfik, 
his son, proclaimed his successor . 26 June, 

; The khedive leaves for Naples . . . 30 June, 

Tewfik succeeds as khedive ... 8 Aug. 

Mr. Baring and M. de Blignieres appointed comp- 
trollers-general .... 4 Sept. 

New ministry, Riaz Pasha, &c, announced 9 Sept. 

•Col. Gordon negotiating with Abyssinia to prevent 
war, reported successful . . . Oct. 

He resigns governorship of the Soudan, Oct., 1879 ; 
accepted Jan. 

Peace with Abyssinia announced . end of June, 

New ministry appointed, the khedive president, 

18 Aug. 

Public festivities at Cairo on anniversary of the 
khedive's accession . . about 26 June, 

International committee on the debt appointed, 
4 April ; issue a report, on which is based a law 
of liquidation in 99 articles, approved by the 
khedive * 7 July. 

General prosperity reported .... Oct. 

Military revolt (for pay) at Cairo vigorously checked 
by Mr. E. Malet (British minister 1879) and baron 
deRing , I "" F ? lD - 

Decree for abolition of slavery . . end of July, 

{Insurrection in the Soudan (which sec) . . July, 

British pacific interference . . about 11 Aug. 

Ministerial crisis ; the khedive calls for Riaz Pasha 

Aug. 

Ahmed Arabi Bey and about 4,000 soldiers surround 
the khedive's palace, demanding increased pay- 
agreed to ; Cherif Pasha made minister 9 Sept. 

Negotiations of Cherif and the consuls with the 
troops succeed ; tranquillity restored 11-13 Sept. 

Envoys from the sultan received by the khedive 

7 Oct. 

Jealousy of England and France, the envoys leave 

Cairo l8 Oct. 

Important letter from earl Granville to sir Edwd. 

Malet ,-,,-, 1 4 N ?X' 

The khedive opens the chamber of delegates with 

excellent speech 26 Dec. 

Arabi Bey appointed under-secretary of war Jan. 



318 



1877 



1879 



EGYPT. 

English and French note in support of the khedive 

about 7 Jan. 3 

Deputies demand entire control of the ministry, 
about 19 Jan. ; dead lock . . -27 Jan. 

Resignation of Cherif Pasha, 2 Feb. ; new ministry 
under Mahmoud Pasha . . 3 Feb. et seq. 

M. Blignieres resigns March 

Alleged conspiracy of Circassian officers to assas- 
sinate Arabi Pasha . . . about 10 April, 

43 persons convicted of conspiracy to kill Arabi 
Pasha, and dethrone the khedive ; exiled 28 April ; 
sentence confirmed by khedive . . 9 Slay 

Political crisis continues, 9-13 May; the khedive firm; 
ministry submits, about 16 May ; English and 
French squadron arrive at Alexandria, 20 May ; 
Arabi Pasha refuses to resign, 23 May ; ultimatum 
of English and French consuls ; Arabi Pasha to 
retire ; khedive's authority to be restored, &c. 

25 May, 

Ministry resigns ; Cherif Pasha appointed, May ; 
the officers resist ; Arabi Pasha reinstated, 
27-28 May ; anarchy ; Europeans quitting the 
country, 29 May ; 6,000 Egyptian soldiers said 
to be massacred June, 

Dervish Pasha and others sent to Cairo by the 
sultan, 4 June ; well received at Cairo 8 June 

Commencement of a rebellion ; riots at Alexandria ; 
Arabs attack Europeans ; quelled by Egyptian 
troops, with great loss of life (about 60 Euro- 
peans killed), town ravaged, and deserted 

11 June, 

Panic at Cairo and Alexandria; many arrests 

15, 16 June, 

About 37,000 Europeans in Egypt . . . . 

Ragheb Pasha forms a ministry ; about 20,000 Eu- 
ropeans said to be leaving Egypt . . June, 

The powers agree to a conference at Constantinople ; 
Turkey objects 19 June, 

Conference opened .... 24 June, 

Great emigration from Alexandria to Malta June, 

Dervish Pasha's favourable report . . 27 June, 

30,000 Arabs said to be starving at Alexandria 

29 June, 

Arabi Pasha decorated by the sultan . . about 

28 June, 

The English and French admirals protest against 
the fortifying of Alexandria . about 4 July, 

British subjects warned to quit Egypt . about 

6 July, 

Bombardment of forts of Alexandria threatened by 
adm. Seymour, if works threatening the British 
fleet are not stopped .... 9 July, 

Ships entering Suez canal cautioned by adm. Sey- 
mour 10 July, 

Bombardment begun by the Alexandra, 7.5 a.m.; 
vessels engaged : Monarch, Invincible, Penelope, 
Temeraire, and Inflexible ; gunboats, Condor, 
Cygnet, Bittern, Decoy, &c, very effective ; forts 
Mexs, Marabout, &c, silenced; 10 sailors from 
Invincible land and spike guns of fort Mexs ; 
object of bombardment fully obtained ; the bom- 
bardment ceases 5.30 p.m. Egyptians fought 
well; heavy loss in forts and part of the town, 
British loss, 6 killed, including lieut. Jackson of 
the Inflexible, and 28 wounded . .11 July, 

Defiant "letter of Arabi Pasha to Mr. Gladstone, 
2 July, received . . . about 12 July, 

The sultan protests against the bombardment ; 

Austria, Germany, and Russia said to approve 

about 12 July, 

1,000 marines sent from Malta to Alexandria 
about 12 July, 

Gaining time by a flag of truce, Arabi Pasha and 
part of his army abandon Alexandria and retreat 
into the interior ; he releases convicts, who with 
the Arab mob plunder and set fire to the city, 
and massacre, it is said, many christians, 12 July, 

Conflagration increasing (about a mile long) ; about 
800 marines land to maintain order as police 

13 July, 

European portion entirely destroyed . 13 July, 

The khedive escapes assassination, and gains over 
part of Arabi Pasha's army; views the city 

12, 13 July, 

English marines active . . . .14 July, 

Fire dying out ; order restored ; shops re-opened ; 
foreign marines enter city . . 15 July, 

The khedive at his palace Ras-el-Tin guarded by 



EGYPT. 



319 



EGYPT. 



British marines ; degrades Arabi Pasha from his 
offices ; sends for Ch'erif Pasha, Riaz Pasha, and 
others about 16 July, 

About 5,000 soldiers land at Alexandria . 17 July, 

Identical note from the six powers inviting the 
Porte to intervene to support the khedive and 
restore oi'der iS July, 

Arabi Pasha with his army said to be intrenched 
at Kafr-Douar 18 July, 

Arabi Pasha attempts to exit off water supply ; 

denounces the khedive, and calls on the people 

about 20-21 July, 

Proclamation of the khedive declaring Arabi a 
rebel, &c. ; reported anarchy at Cairo . about 

23 July, 
Skirmish with the Arabs by sir A. Alison ; he 

takes about 60 prisoners, aud holds Bamleh 

24 July, 
Arabi proclaims a Jihad or holy war, said to have 

30,000 men .... about 24 July, 

British troops landed at Alexandria . 24 July, 

Troops sent to Egypt from England and India 
about 25 July, 

Withdrawal of French fleet ordered . 31 July, 

The duke of Connaught sails in the Orient for 

Egypt 3 lJul y, 

Indecisive skirmish of outposts . . .2 Aug. 

Sir Evelyn Wood sails for Egypt . . 3 Aug. 

Town of Suez occupied by British marines 3 Aug. 

Reconnaissance ; sharp skirmish near Mahmoudieh 
canal ; Gen. Sir A. Alison commanding ; British 
success ; lieut. Howard Vyse and 3 others killed ; 
about 30 wounded ; Egyptian loss about 300 

5 Aug. 

Prof. Palmer, capt. Gill, and lieut. Charrington 
start from Suez to buy camels of the Bedouins, 
&e 7 Aug. 

Arrival of duke of Connaught and officers at Alex- 
andria 10 Aug. 

The conference agrees to the international protec- 
tion of the Suez canal, aud adjourns sine die, 

14 Aug. 

Sir Garnet Wolseley lands at Alexandria and as- 
sumes the command ; the khedive gives up power 
to the British commanders to establish order 

Troops, &c, under gen. Willis embark as if for 
Aboukir, but proceed eastward, and occupy Port 
Said, Ismailia, and Kantara ; thus command the 
canal, 19-20 Aug. ; skirmishes near Mahmoudieh 
canal, sir Evelyn Wood successful ; the enemy 
shelled out of Neflche . . ' . .20 Aug. 

Total British force in Egypt, 31,468 men of all 
ranks 20 Aug. 

Chaloux-el-Terraba captured by sailors, &c, great 
Egyptian loss 20 Aug. 

Twenty-six ironclads at Alexandria . 20 Aug. 

Successful skirmishes; gen. Hamley, &c, from 
Bamleh ; capt. Hastings and maj. Kelsey repel 
Egyptians, who suffer heavy loss, 20 Aug.; sir 
G. Wolseley's proclamation to the Arabs 

21 Aug. 

Arrival of gen. Macpherson with the Indian troops 
at Suez 21 Aug. 

Advance from Ismailia of two squadrons of house- 
hold cavalry, with two guns, and detachment of 
19th hussars, mounted infantry, &c, on Nefiche 
met by above 10,000 Egyptians with much 
artillery . .... 24 Aug. 

Cavalry and artillery engagement ; enemy routed ; 
capture of 5 Krupp guns, and train of ammunition 
and provisions, Egyptian camps at Tel-el-Mahuta 
and Mahsameh occupied ; British loss, 6 killed, 
30 wounded . . ... 25 Aug. 

Suez canal held by the British . . 26 Aug. 

Kassassin occupied by Gen. Graham with above 
2,000 infantry 26 Aug. 

Mustapha Fehmy, Arabi Pasha's second in com- 
mand, captured while reconnoitring (sent to the 
khedive) 27 Aug. 

Gen. Graham at Kassassin vigorously attacked by 
13,000 Egyptians ; signals for assistance, rendered 
by Gen. Drury Lowe with household cavalry ; 
brilliant charge and capture of 11 guns (after- 
wards lost), rout of the enemy ; disorderly flight ; 
British loss, 7 killed, 70 wounded . 28 Aug. 

Military convention with Turkey about to be 
signed 29 Aug. 

Arabi Pasha strengthening his intrenchments near 



Tel-el- Kebir (said to have about 28,000 men) 

about 31 Aug. 

Artillery duel at Ramleh, little result . 4 Sept. 

Arabi Pasha's estimated forces : infantry, 44,600 ; 

cavalry, 1802 ; guns, 143 ; Bedouins, 30,500 
Vigorous attack on the British camp at Kassassin 

repelled with severe loss, 4 guns taken, 6 British 

killed 9 Sept. 

Siege train sent in the Copia , . .9 Sept. 
Capture of Tel-el-Kebir, which see; total defeat of 

the Egyptians ; flight of Arabi Pasha ; surrender 

of Zagazig with railway trains, &c. . 13 Sept. 
The British enter Cairo ; Arabi Pasha aud his 

officers surrender unconditionally ; about 10,000 

Egyptian soldiers lay down their arms 14 Sept. 
Sir Garnet Wi dseley and British troops enter Cairo ; 

warmly received . . . . .15 Sept. 
Surrender of Kafr Douar; about 500 Egyptians 

march to Damietta ... 16, 17 Sept. 
The khedive dissolves the Egyptian army 17 Sept. 
Surrender of Aboukir, 17 Sept. ; re-establishment 

of the khedive's authority . . 19 Sept. 

Abd-el-Al holding Damietta with about 7,000 men, 

21 Sept. ; British expedition sent against him, 

22 Sept. ; he surrenders to sir Evelyn Wood 

23 Sept. 
Triumphal entry of the khedive into Cairo, 25 Sept. 
Valentine Baker Pasha nominated commander of 

a new Egyptian army (10,900) . end of Sept. 

Cairo railway station partly burned by explosion of 
shells, large amount of stores and ammunition 
destroyed ; 4 persons killed, about 15 wounded 

28 Sept. 

18,000 British troops "march past" the khedive 
at the Abdin palace . . . .30 Sept. 

12,000 British to remain i:i Egypt, sir A. Alison 
commander 30 Sept. 

Return of the troops ; warmly received in London 

21 Oct. et seq. 

The prophet said to hold all the country south of 
Khartoum ■-.... 25 Oct. 

Murder of prof. Palmer, capt. Gill and lieut Char- 
rington . . about 10 Aug. announced 26 Oct. 

Thanks of Parliament voted to army and navy : 

Admiral John Miller Adye ; vice-admiral William 
Montagu Dowell ; lieutenant-generals George 
Harry Smith Willis, sir Edward Bruce Hamley ; 
major-general sir Archibald Alison ; rear-admirals 
sir William Nathan Wrighte Hewett, sir Francis 
William Sullivan, Anthony Hiley Hoskins ; 
major-generals his royal highness Arthur duke 
of Connaught, William Earle, sir Henry Evelyn 
Wood, Gerald Graham, George Bvng Harman. 
Drury Curzon Drury-Lowe, sir Herbert Taylor 
Macpherson 2 6 Oct. 

An amnesty of officers signed by the khedive 

24 Oct. 
Lord Dufferin arrives at Cairo . . 7 Nov. 
Anglo-French control abolished . . 9 Nov.' 
British troops from Egypt with Indian contingent 

reviewed by the queen at St. James's Park 

18 Nov. 

Queen's thanks published 21 Nov. ; distributes 
medals, &c, at Windsor . . . 21 Nov. 

Trial of Arabi Pasha ; secret examination of wit- ' 
nesses (his defence supported by Mr. Wilfred 
Blunt) jfov. 

Pleads guilty of rebellion ; sentence of death com- 
muted to banishment for life . . 3 Dec. 

General amnesty aud release of political prisoners 

about 1 Dec. 

Letter from Arabi Pasha to Mr. Wilfred Blunt, ex- 
pressing gratitude to, and confidence in, England 
4 Dec. ; Times, 5 Dec. 

Mahoud and other rebel leaders sentenced to 
banishment 7 Dec. 

Eiaz Pasha resigns ; succeeded by Nu'bar Pasha 

. , . „ 7> 8 Dec. 

Arabi Pasha and others to be sent to Ceylon 9 Dec. 

Sir Evelyn Wood, appointed commander of the uew 
Egyptian army, arrives at Cairo . 22 Dec. 

Nine of the murderers of professor Palmer and 
others captured . . . about 30 Dec. 

Arabi and others sailed for Ceylon, 27 Dec. ; arrived 

10 Jan. i 

End of the dual control .... n Jan. 

British circular to the powers laid before the 
Porte, &c. (the Suez Canal to be free, with 



EGYPT 

restrictions in time of war ; formation of Egyptian 
army, &c.) . . ... n Jan. et seq. 18 

All trie powers accept proposals except France 
and Turkey .... about 27 Jan. ,, 

Sir Auckland Colvin appointed financial adviser 

24 Jan. ,, 

Trial of professor Palmer's murderers ; several 
confess ; 5 executed . . . .28 Feb. ,, 

Lord Dufferm's report on reorganization of Egypt 
published 20 March, „ 

Constitution signed by the khedive, 30 April ; pro- 
mulgated 1 May, „ 

Lieut. -gen. Alison replaced by gen. F. 0. Stephenson 

May, ,, 

Major Evelyn Baring nominated resident . May, „ 

Suleiman Sami convicted of the firing, massacre, 
and plundering at Alexandria (11 June, 1882), 
hanged 9 June, „ 

Greatly improved condition of the country June, ,, 

The ex-khedive Ismail in London . . 28 June, „ 

Parliamentary grants to lord Alcester (Seymour,), 
25,000?., lord Wolseley, 30,000?. . 29 June, ,, 

Eruption of cholera (see Cholera) . . . . ,, 

British force reduced to 6,763 . . . Aug. ,, 

Council of state nominated . . . 24 Sept. ,. 

The khedive grants a general amnesty, about 10 Oct. ,, 

New council of state opened by Cherif Pasha, 30 Oct. ,, 

Departure of part of the British troops counter- 
manded on account of the destruction of gen. 
Hicks' army (see Soudan) .... Nov. „ 

The khedive proposes reduction of his court ex- 
penses 1 Jan. 18 

The British government require a limitation of the 
line of defence in regard to the Soudan 6 Jan. ,, 

Cherif Pasha and his ministry resign ; Nubar Pasha 
(an Armenian christian) becomes minister, 

about 7 Jan. , 

Loan of 950,000?. to the khedive by Messrs. Roth- 
schild about 30 Jan. , 

Disorder in the government and finances reported, 

20 March, , 

British army : total killed, 255 ; July 1882 to March, , 

Resignation of Nubar Pasha in opposition to Mr. 
Clifford Lloyd, 6 April ; both remain in office, 

11 April, , 

Chaos at Cairo ; sir Evelyn Baring comes to London , 

Conference of the powers, respecting Egyptian 
finance proposed by England, accepted by Ger- 
many, Austria, Russia, Italy, France, and Turkey, 

May, , 

Need of loan of 8,000,000?. to meet several years' 
deficits, indemnification for damages at Alex- 
andria (3,950,000? ), civil and Soudan war ex- 
penses, (fee. May, ,. 

Proposed relaxation of the international law of 
liquidation May, ,. 

Mr. Clifford Lloyd leaves . . Maj and June, ,, 

Select committee by examination discovers serious 
defects in the commissariat and transport systems 
during the war of 1882, announced . .June, ,. 

Conference of six great powers on Egyptian affairs 
meets (see London Conferences) . . 28 June, ,. 

Conference adjourns, without result, sine die, 2 Aug. , 

Credit for 300,000?. voted to assist gen. Gordon, 

5 Aug. ,, 

Lord Northbrook, as high commissioner, and lord 
Wolseley as commander-in-chief, sail 31 Aug. 
arrive at Cairo 9 Sept. , 

Suspension of the international law of liquidation 
in regard to the sinking fund, from 18 Sept. to 
2=; Oct. decreed, with consent of lord Northbrook 

20 Sept. , 

France, Germany, Austria, Russia, and Italy pro- 
test, 25 Sept. et seq. but tacitly acquiesce Oct. „ 

Lord John Hay and the fleet arrive at Alexandria, 

24 Sept. ,; 

Egyptian army reduced to 4000 men, announced, 

24 Oct. , 

Lord Northbrook leaves Egypt . . 28 Oct. , 

Arrives in London 3 Nov. , 

British force in Egypt and Soudan, about 16,000 men, 

Nov. , 

Action of the caisse (commission) of the public, 
debt against the Egyptian government for sus- 
pension of the sinking fund ; the court condemns 
it to refund, 9 Dec. ; the khedive appeals Dec. „ 

Reply of France and other powers to the British 



320 



EGYPT. 



proposals respecting the financial condition of 
Egypt, 17 Jan. ; English reply . . 24 Jan. 1885 

Prince Hassan, brother of the khedive, appointed 
high commissioner in the Soudan about 15 Feb. ,, 

Egyptian financial scheme ; convention agreed to 
by the Powers signed, 18 March [reduction of 
interest on debt, loan of 9,000,000?. on inter- 
national guarantee, &c] ; adopted by the Com- 
mons on Mr. Gladstone's resolution (294-246), 

27-28 March, ,, 

Gen. Grenfell succeeds sir E. Wood as com- 
mander-in-chief . . . about 1 April, ,, 

Bosphore Egyptien, a Cairo newspaper, suppressed 
by decree, 29 Feb. 1884 ; carried into effect, for 
publication of a proclamation of the Madhi, on 
9 April, 1885 ; the French government much 
offended by the manner of suppression ; the dis- 
pute settled by British intervention, announced, 
28 April, 1885 ; paper reappears, 20 May, 1885 ; 
stopped 5 Sept. ,, 

Sir F. Stephenson, commander-in-chief of British 
army 6 July, ,, 

Lord Wolseley arrives in London . 13 July, ,, 

Payment of indemnity begins . . 16 Aug. ",, 

Telegraph system freed from Eastern company, 
through Mr. Floyer . . . about 12 Sept. ,, 

Great improvements in irrigation, conducted by 
col. Scott Moncrieff 1884-5 

Turkish convention with sir H. D. Wolff on 
Egyptian affairs ; departure of the British de- 
ferred till their work be accomplished, signed 

24 Oct. 1885 

Sir H. D. Wolff arrives at Cairo on commission 

29 Oct. ,, 

High commissioners, Ghazi-Mukhtar Pasha and sir 
H. D. Wolff Nov. „ 

British forces in Egypt, exclusive of Indians and 
Egyptians, 14,000 1 Dec. , 5 

Mukhtar arrives at Cairo .... 27 Dec. ,, 

Ancient .necropolis discovered at Assouan by 
general Grenfell Feb. 1886 

Discovery of petroleum at Jebel Zeit on the Red 
Sea, March ; probable success reported about 

24 April, ,„ 

Ismail Pasha claims 5,000,000?. arrears of annual 
payments for surrendered estates . . June ,> 

The khedive's two sons presented to the queen at 
Windsor .... .6 July, ,, 

Reduction of the British army begins . Jan. 1887 

Improvement in the state of the country reported 

Feb. „ 

Neutralisation of Egypt and defence of the Suez 
canal proposed to the sultan by sir H. Drum- 
mond Wolff (?) 9 Feb. „ 

Anglo-Turkish convention respecting Egypt signed 
at Constantinople ; (British troops to leave in 
three years ; Turkish troops to intervene or 
British to return ; Suez canal to be neutral, etc.,) 
28 May ; ratified by queen Victoria, June ; not 
ratified by the Sultan ; sir H. D. Wolff leaves 
Constantinople 15 July, ,, 

Immense increase in postal communications . . 18S0-6 

Sudden death of general Valentine Baker Pasha, 
aged 62 17 Nov. 1887 

Major Dormer appointed commander of the British 
army Dec. ,, 

Ismail Pasha permitted to reside at Constantinople 

Dec. , 7 

General prosperity of the country ; surplus in the 
budget Jan. 188S 

The exorbitant claims of the ex-khedive on the 
Egyptian government reduced and liberally 
settled by the influence of sir Edgar Vincent 
and Mr. Marriott, Q.C., the judge advocate 
general ; he receives 100,000?. with much laud 

Jan. ,, 

Death of prince Hassan . . . 22 March ,„ 

Mr. Limperopoulos's claim for 2,910? (Egyptian) on 
Gordon bonds said to have been issued at 
Khartoum, disallowed .... May, ,, 

Nubar Pasha dismissed ; Riaz Pasha succeeds 
(see Soudan) 8 June , E 

Sir Edgar Vincent's proposal to convert the Egyp- 
tian preference debt of 22,000.000?. at 5 per cent, 
to a loan at 4 per cent, not accepted by the 
French government, unless a time be fixed for 
the evacuation of Egypt by the British 

27 June, et seq. 1S89 



EGYPT. 



321 



EGYPTIAN ERA. 



Sir Edgar Vincent resigns the office of financial 
adviser to the khedive, 21 Aug. ; succeeded by 
Mr. Edwin Palmer, director-general of accounts . 

Sept. 1889 
The prince of Wales and prince George received by 
the khedive at Cairo, 1 Nov. ; review of the 
British and Egyptian armies ; the prince sud- 
denly takes the command of the British ; during 
the march past he salutes the Khedive, 2 Nov. ; 

leaves Egypt 5 Nov. ,, 

Mr. Palmer's budget, surplus 150,000^. after re- 
duced taxation, announced, . . .18 Nov. ,, 
The Equatorial province lostjby the retirement of 
Emin Pasha, through the mutiny of his officers 

18S8-89 
Abolition of forced labour (corvee) of the peasantry 
(fellaheen), a tax proposed to thegeneral assembly, 
15 Dec, bill passed . . . .17 Dec. 1889 
Negotiations with France respecting the conversion 

scheme (see June, 1889), again fails . Jan. 1890 
New commercial treaty with Great Britain (signed 

29 Oct. 1889) from 1 Jan. ,, 

National accounts for 1889, declared surplus 
196,000?. . . . . . . .28 Jan. ,, 

Prince Albert Victor of Wales visits the Khedive 

at Cairo, reviews the army, &c. . 7-15 April ,, 
The French government assents to the conversion 
of the preference debt, under conditions which 
are accepted by the Egyptians reported 7 May „ 
The first settlement was effected at Paris by 
Tigrane pasha, Mr. Edwin Palmer, and M. Bi- 
bot, 21 May ; the assent of the other great powers 
reported 2 June, the khedive's decree authorizing 
the conversion issued .... 7 June ,, 

Mr. Justice Scott's plan for the decentralization of 
justice and creation of local courts, adopted by 

decree reported 3 July ,, 

Annual meeting of the society (formed in 1888) for 
the preservation of the monuments of ancient 

Egypt; London 9 July ,, 

Death of Hussein Bey, son of Ismail pasha, aged 50 

27 July ,, 
The corvee tax for 1890, not to be collected . 

reported 17 Aug. ,, 
Highly favourable report of the results of British 

occupation since 1882 .... Aug. „ 
Much needed judicial reforms recommended by Mr. 
Justice Scott, of Bombay, Jan., opposed by a 

commission 2 Feb. 1891 

Return of the khedive from a successful five weeks' 
tour (during which he visited Wady-Halfa) ; Cairo 

illuminated 8 Feb. ,, 

Discovery of the vast tomb of a high priest of Am- 
nion, W. of Thebes, see under Mummies 

announced Feb. ,, 
Sir Evelyn Baring recommends to the khedive the 
nomination of Mr. Justice Scott as judicial ad- 
viser and president of a judicial committee of 
three (one Italian and one Egyptian) for the 
supervision of the local tribunals, about 11 Feb. „ 
The khedive assents ; officially announced 16 Feb. ,, 
Revenue returns for 1890, about 10,250,000?., said to 

be. the largest ever received . . 18 Feb. „ 
The judicial changes disapproved by France, about 

20 Feb. ,, 
Count d'Aubigny, the French minister, recalled, 

and disgraced, leaves . . . 1 March, ,, 
Resignation of Riaz pasha, the premier, for ill-health 

12 May ,, 
New ministry under Mustapha pasha Fehmy (influ- 
ence of the khedive increased) . . 13 May ,, 
Sir Colin Monerieff reports the beneficial results of 
the great improvements in irrigation, 5 March ; 

published June, „ 

The khedive's palace, the Abdin, greatly injured by 
fire, 22-23 July ; the British troops thanked for 

their help 24 July, ,, 

Great increase in the crops of cotton and cereals, 
and in railway receipts ; large surplus revenue ; 
proposed reduction of taxation . end of Nov. ,, 

Sudden death of the khedive Tewfik ; much 

lamented 7 Jan. 1892 

His eldest son, Abbas, recognised by the Porte, 

8 Jan. ; state reception at Cairo . . 16 Jan. ,, 
Reduction of the salt tax, 40 per cent., ordered 

about 28 Jan. ,, 
The khedive opened the general assembly with a 
■cheerful speech 30 Jan. 



Arrival of Ahmed Eyoub pasha at Cairo with the 
sultan's firman for the investiture of the khedive 
4 April ; the reading delayed through proposed 
changes relating to Mount Sinai, which are settled 
satisfactorily through British influence ; the fir- 
man read in public .... 14 April, 1892 

New railway bridge over the Nile, opened by the 
khedive s May 

Justice Scott's judicial reforms, reported very 
successful 22 May 

Sir Evelyn Baring created a peer (baron Cromer) . ,, 

KHEDIVES OR HEREDITARY VICEROYS 

(nearly independent). 

1806. Mehemet Ali Pasha; abdicated Sept. 1848; dies 
2 Aug. 1849. 

1848. Ibrahim (adopted son), Sept. ; dies 9 or 10 Nov. 1848. 
,, Abbas (his son), 10 Nov. ; dies 14 July, 1854. 

1854. Said (brother), 14 July ; dies 18 Jan. 1863. 

1863. Ismail (nephew), 18 Jan. (born 31 Dec. 1830); de- 
posed by the sultan at the request of England, 
France and other powers, 26 June, 1879. 

1879. Mechmet Tewfik, bornNov., 185?, invested with the 
star of India by the prince of Wales, 25 Oct. 1875 ; 
proclaimed 26 June, invested 14 Aug.; died 7 
Jan. 1892. 

1892. Abbas Hilmi, born 14 Julv, 1874. 

.EGYPT EXPLORATION FUND, ori- 
ginated by Miss Amelia B. Edwards, and promoted 
by sir Erasmus Wilson, first president (died 8 Aug. 
1884), and Mr. E. S. Poole, secretary, 1881. Its 
object is to promote excavations in order to eluci- 
date the history and arts of ancient Egypt and 
biblical history. Miss Edwards, a learned Egyp- 
talogist, died 15 April, 1892. She bequeathed 
property to endow a professorship of Egyptology in 
University College, London. 

M. Edouard Naville's explorations began 19 Jan. 1883. The 
excavations conducted by M. Naville, 1883-4, led to 
many important discoveries, including the site of 
Goshen. Mr. W. M. F. Petrie examined more than 
twenty sites in 1884-5, and made remarkable dis- 
coveries. Some of the results were given to British 
and foreign museums. Makes discoveries, including 
Naucratis, which was a flourishing Greek com- 
mercial and manufacturing city, on the Canopic arm 
of the Nile, about 550 b.c, and declined after the 
Persian invasion and the founding of Alexandria 
332 B.C. Explorations carried on by Mr. F. Llewellyn 
Griffith at Tanis, 1886 ; Mr. Petrie, in the mounds of 
Tel-Defenneh, discovered the remains of "Pharaoh's 
house in Tahpanhes," (588 B.C. ; Jeremiah xliii., 8-11), 
May, 1886. 
Mr. Ernest A. Gardner reported the results of his 
excavations in the spring at Naucratis, and exhibited 
relics with statuettes, pottery, &c, obtained from the 
sites of temples, cemeteries, &c, 6 July, 1886. M. 
Naville's explorations at the city of Onia and the 
"Mound of the Jews," continued spring 1887. He 
discovers the great temple of Bubastis (about b.c. 
1300), granite monolithic columns, sculpture, &c, 
April-June, 1887; resumes his excavations March, 
1888. 
Exhibition of Egyptian antiquities at the Egyptian 
Hall, Piccadilly ; by Mr. Flinders Petrie, of his 
excavations at Fayoum, July, 1888. 
Mr. Petrie forces an entrance into the sepulchral chamber 
of the pyramid of Anenemhat III. at Hawara, .Ian.; 
exhibits the results of his explorations, at the Oxford 
Mansions, London, mummies, ornaments, implements, 
<fcc, Sept. 1889 et sey. 
A monograph on the results of M. Naville's excava- 
tions at Bubastis in 18S7-9, was published in the 

"Memoirs" Feb. 1891 

Mr. Petrie discovers fragments of a lost play of 
Euripides, of the Phsedo of Plato and other 
writers, which have boon published by Professor 
Maha'ffy after study by himself and Professor 
Sayce, reported July, 1891. Mr.PetrieVTen Yens 
Digging in Egypt, 1881 to 1891," published . May 1892 
EGYPTIAN ERA, &C The old Egyptian 
year was identical with the era of Nabonassar, be- 
ginning 26 Feb. 747 B.C., and consisted of 365 days 
only. It was reformed 30 B.C., at which period 
the commencement of the year had arrived, by 
continually receding to the 29th Aug., which was 



EGYPTIAN HALL. 



322 



ELECTORS. 



determined to be in future the first day of the year. 
To reduce to the Christian era, subtract 746 years 
125 days. The canicular or heliacal period of the 
Egyptians and Ethiopians (1460 years) began when 
Sirius or the dog star emerged from the rays of the 
sun, on 20 July, 2785 B.C., and extended to 1325 
B.C. This year comprised 12 months of 30 days, 
with 5 supplementary days. 

EGYPTIAN HALL, Piccadilly, erected in 
l8i2byG. F. Kobinson for "Bullock's natural history 
collections, which were sold in 18 19 ; since used for 
exhibitions, concerts, &c. See Dudley Gallery. 

EHRENBREITSTEIN (Honour's broad- 
stone), a strong Prussian fortress on the Rhine, 
formerly belonged to the electors of Treves. It 
was often besieged. It surrendered to the French 
general Jourdain, 24 Jan. 1799. The fortifications 
Avere destroyed on its evacuation, 9 Feb. 1801, at 
the peace of Luneville. The works have been 
restored since 1814. 

EIDER, a river separating Schleswig from 
Holstein, was passed by the Austrians and Prussians, 
4 Feb. 1864. Eider, German steamer, see Wrecks, 
1892. 

EIDOGRAPH, see Pantograph. 

EIFFEL TOWER, see Paris, 1889. Re- 
opened 30 M arch, 1890. 

EIGHT HOURS. In 1889-92 there was much 
agitation among the working classes in Britain and 
on the Continent, in favour of limiting the working 
day to eight hours, 'lhis was one of the objects of 
the demonstrations in May, 1890-92, see Working 
Men. 

The factories and shops act, which limits the work- 
ing hours of women only to eight hours, passed 

at Melbourne 1890 

The limitation adopted by some trades in England ; 

by the bookbinders of London . . Nov. 1891 
The mines (eight hours) bill rejected by the com- 
mons (272-160) .... 23 March, 1892 
Great meeting in Hyde park to support the move- 
ment 1 May, ,, 

The marquis of Salisbury and Mr. A. J. Balfour 
receive a deputation of workmen ; they deprecate 
legislation as premature . . . .11 May, ,, 

EIGHTY CLUB. Established in 1879 and 
1880, to promote political education and to stimulate 
liberal organisation by Mr. Albert Grey, Sir Henry 
James, and lord Richard Grosvenor. Mr. Glad- 
stone, president, 1887. The club adopted Home 
Rule, and 80 Liberal Unionists seceded, 18 May, 
1887. 

EIKON BASILIKE ("the Portraiture of 
His Sacred Majesty in his Solitudes and Suffer- 
ings"), a book of devotion formerly attributed to 
king Charles I., but now generally believed to 
have been written partially, if not wholly, by 
bishop Gauden, and possibly approved by the king : 
it was published in 1648, and sold quickly. 

EISENACH DECLARATION, see Ger- 
many, 1859. 

EISTEDDFOD, see Bards. 

ELAM, see Persia. 

EL ARISCH, Egypt, captured by the French 
under Reynier, 18 Feb. 1799. A convention was 
signed here between the grand vizier and Kleber 
for the evacuation of Egypt by the French, 28 Jan. 
1800. He beat the Turks at HeHopolis on 20 March ; 
and was assassinated on 14 June following. 

ELBA, ISLE OF (on the coast of Tuscany), 
taken by admiral Nelson in 1796; but abandoned 



1797. Elba was conferred upon Napoleon (with 
the title of emperor) 011 his relinquishing the 
throne of France, 5 April, 1814. He s«cretly em- 
barked hence with about 1200 men in hired feluccas^ 
on the night of 25 Feb. 1815, landed in Proveneey 
I March, and soon after recovered the crown ; see 
France, 1815. Elba was resumed by the grand) 
duke of Tuscany, July, 1815. 

ELCHINGEN, Bavaria. Here Ney beat the 
Austrians, 14 Oct. 1805, and was made duke of" 
Elchingen. 

ELCHO SHIELD, see under Volunteers. 

ELDERS (in Greek, presbuteroi), in the early 
church equivalent with episvopoi, or bishops (see 
I Tim. iii. and Titus i.), who afterwards became a. 
distinct and superior order. Elders in the presby- 
terian churches are laymen. 

Elders' Widows Fund, established by the East India Com- 
pany, in 182c, to provide for widows and orphans of 
some of its servants, was closed in i860. In 1878 am 
act was passed to transfer the surplus money to the- 
provident fund, &c. 

ELDON'S ACT, see Bankrupts. 

EL DORADO (the " Gilded Man"). When- 
the Spaniards had conquered Mexico and Peru, 
they began to look for new sources of wealth, and 
having heard of a golden city ruled by a king or 
priest, smeared in oil and rolled in gold dust (which 
report was founded on a merely annual custom of 
the Indians), they organised vaiious expeditions 
into the interior of South America, which were 
accompanied with disasters and crimes, about 1560. 
Raleigh's expeditions in search of gold in 1596 and 
161 7 led to his fall. 

ELEASA, Palestine. Here Judas Maccabseus- 
was defeated and slain by Bacchides and Alcinius,. 
and the Syrians, about 161 B.C. (1 Mace, ix.) 

ELEATIC SECT, founded at Elea in Sicily^ 
by Xenophanes, of Colophon, about 535 B.C.,. 
whither he had been banished on account of his. 
wild theory of God and nature. He supposed that 
the stars were extinguished evety morning and; 
rekindled at night; that eclipses were occasioned 
by a partial extinction of the sun ; that there were 
several suns and moons for the convenience of the 
different climates of the earth, &c. Strabo. Zeno- 
(about 364) was an Eleatic. 

ELECTIONS PETITIONS. The laws 
respecting them were consolidated in 1828, 1839,. 
and 1844. An act passed in 1848 was amended in 
1865. By the act of 1868, 3 new judges were ap- 
pointed, and three to be selected from all the judges 
to try election cases; justices Willes and Blackburn, 
and baron Martin were first appointed, Nov. 1868. 

ELECTOR PALATINE, see Palatinate. 

ELECTORS for members of parliament for 
counties were obliged to have forty shillings a-year 
in land, 8 Hen. VI. 1429. Among the acts relating 
to electors are the following : Act depriving excise 
and custom-house officers and contractors with 
government of their votes, 1 782 ; see Customs. Act to 
regulate polling, 1828. Great changes were made 
by the Reform Acts of 1832, 1867, 1868, and 1885. 
County elections act, 1836 ; see Bribery. The 
forty-shilling freeholders in Ireland lost their 
privilege in 1829. By Dodson's act, passed in 
1 86 1, university electors are permitted to vote 
by sending balloting papers. Hours of polling in 
metropolitan boroughs extended (from 8 a.m. to 
8 p.m.) by act passed 25 Feb. 1878. 



ELECTOES OF GEEMANY. 



323 



ELECTEICITY. 



Mr. Shaw Lefevre's Plural Voting (Abolition) bill, 
based on the principle, "one man, one vote," re- 
jected by the commons (243-196) . . 18 May, 1892 

Mr. Stansfeld's Electors' Qualification and Regis- 
tration bill (removing certain vexatious clauses), 
read a 2nd time 25 May ,, 

ELECTOES of Germany. Tn the reign of 
Conrad I. king 1 of Germany (912-918), the dukes 
and counts, from being merely officers, became 
gradually independent of the sovereign, and sub- 
sequently elected him. In 919 they confirmed the 
nomination of Henry I. duke of Saxony by Conrad 
as Ms successor. In the 13th century seven princes 
(the archbishops of Mentz, Treves, and Cologne, 
the king of Bohemia, the electors of Brandenburg 
and Saxony, and the elector Palatine), assumed 
the exclusive privilege of nominating the em- 
peror. Robertson. An eighth elector (Bavaria) was 
made in 1648; and a ninth (Hanover) in 1692. 
The number was reduced to eight in 1777 (by the 
elector palatine acquiring Bavaria) and increased 
to ten at the peace of Luneville, in 1801. On the 
dissolution of the German empire, the crown of 
Austria was made hereditary, 1804-1806; see Ger- 
many. 

ELECTEIC CLOCK; seep. 326. 

ELECTEICAL ENGINEEES, see under 
Telegraphs. 

ELECTEICITY, from the Greek elektros, 
electrum, amber. The electrical properties of rubbed 
amber are said to have been known to Thales, 600 
B.C.; and Pliny, 70 a.d.; see Magnetism, Elec- 
trical transmission of force, p. 328, and Niagara. 

Electrical measurements : the following terms (after 
great electricians) were adopted by the electrical 
congress at Paris, 22 Sept. 1881 : ohm, volt, 
ampere, coulomb, and farad. Important resolu- 
tions were passed by the international conference 
on electrical units at Paris (the "congress ohm" 
agreed to) April-May, 1884 

An electrical standard committee (consisting of 
lord Raleigh, sir Win. Thomson and others) 
appointed, Bee. 1890 ; it was recommended that 
new denominations of standards be made, and 
determined with reference to the centimetre, 
gramme, and second, of the Board of Trade ; the 
ohm to be the standard of resistance ; the 
ampere, the standard of electrical current ; the 
volt, the standard of electrical pressure ; all 
being scientifically defined . . .20 Feb. 1891 

The committee's report printed . . . Aug. ,, 

Capital punishment by electricity adopted by the 
state of New York . . . from 1 Jan. 1889 

FRICTIONAL OB STATIC ELECTRICITY. 

Gilbert records that other bodies besides amber 
generate electricity when rubbed, and that all 
substances may be attracted 1600 

Otto von Guerieke constructed the first electric 
machine (a globe of sulphur), about . . . 1647 

Boyle published his electrical experiments . . 1676 

Stephen Gray, aided by Wheeler, discovered that 
the human body conducts electricity, that elec- 
tricity acts at a distance (motion in light bodies 
being produced by frictional electricity at a dis- 
tance of 666 feet), the fact of electric induction, 
and other phenomena 1720-36 

Bufay originated his dual theory of two electric 
fluids: one vitreous, from rubbed glass, <fcc, the 
other resinous, from rubbed amber, resin, &c. ; 
and showed that two bodies similarly electrified 
repel each other, and attract bodies oppositely 
electrified, about 1733 

The Leyden jar (vial or bottle) discovered by Kleist, 
1745, and by Cuna-us and Muschenbroek, of Ley- 
den : Winckler constructed the Leyden battery . 1746 

Besaguliers classified bodies as electrics and non- 
electrics 1742 

Important researches of Watson, Canton, Beccaria 
and Nollet 1740-7 

Franklin announced his theory of a single fluid, 
terming the vitreous electricity positive, and the 



resinous negative, 1747; and demonstrated the 
identity of the electric spark and lightning, 
drawing down electricity from a cloud by means 
of a kite June, 1752 

At a pie-nic, he " killed a turkey by the electric 
spark, and roasted it by an electric jack before 
a fire kindled by the electric bottle " . . . 1748 

Professor Richman killed at St. Petersburg, 
while repeating Franklin's experiments Aug. 1753 

Beccaria published his researches on atmospheric 
electricity, 1758; and iEpiuus his mathematical 
theory 1759 

Electricity developed by fishes investigated by 
Ingenhousz, Cavendish, and others, about . . 1773 

Lichtenberg produced his electrical figures . . 1777 

Electro-Statics : Coulomb applied the torsion balance 
to the measurement of electric force . . . 1785 

Electro-Chemistry— water decomposed by Caven- 
dish, Fourcroy, and others .... 1787-90 

Discoveries of Galvani and Volta (see Voltaic Elec- 
tricity, below) 1791-3. 

Oersted, of Copenhagen, discovered electro-mag- 
netic action (see Electro-Magnetism, next page) . 1819, 

Thermo - Electricity (currents produced by heat), 
discovered by Seebeck : it was produced by 
heating pieces of copper and bismuth soldered 
together, 1821: the Thermo-electrometer invented 
by Wm. Snow Harris, 1827 ; theThermo-inultiplier 
constructed by Melloni and Nobili, 1831. [Marcus 
constructed a powerful thermo-electric battery in 
1865.] 

M. C. V. Boys exhibits his very sensitive quartz- 
fibre thermopile at the Royal Institution, see 
Moon 14 June, 1889 

Faraday produced a spark by the sudden separation 
of a coiled keeper from a permanent magnet (see 
Magneto-Electricity, next page) .... 1831 

Wheatstone calculated the velocity of electricity, 
on the double fluid theory, to be 288,000 miles 
a second ; on the single fluid theory, 576,000 miles 
a second ... 1834 

Armstrong discovered, and Faraday explained, the 
electricity of high pressure steam, which produces 
the hydro-electric machine 1840 

Electric Machines. Otto von Guerieke obtained 
sparks by rubbing a globe of sulphur, about 1647 ; 
Newton, Boyle, and others used glass, about 1675 ; 
Hawksbee improved the machine, about 1709 ; 
Bose introduced a metallic conductor, 1733 ; 
Winckler contrived the cushion for the rubber, 
1741 ; Gordon employed a glass cylinder, 1742; 
for which a plate was substituted about 1770 ; 
Canton introduced amalgam for the rubber, 1751 ; 
Van Marum constructed an electric machine at 
Haarlem, said to have been the most powerful 
ever made, 1785 ; the Rev. A. Bennet invented 
the "doubler of electricity," 17S6 ; Carvallo 
discovers that metals when insulated, acquire 
slight charges of electricity, 1787 ; Nicholson 
constructs an influence machine, 1788; modified 
by Ronalds, 1823 ; Dr. H. M. Noad set up at the 
Panopticon, Leicester-square, London, a very 
powerful electric machine and Leyden battery [in 
possession of Mr. Edwin Clark, 1862] . . . 1855 

The Hydro-Electric machine, by Armstrong, was 
constructed 1&40 

Holtz's induction machine 1865. 

The Electrophorus, a useful apparatus for ob- 
taining frictional electricity, was invented by 
Volta in 1775, and improved by him in . . 17S2 
C. F. Varley's "reciprocal electrophorus" invented 1862 
Sir William Thomson's "electric replenishcr" de- 
scribed Jan. 1868. 

The Carre machine invented 

The Voss machine introduced i£8o» 

Mr. Apps's great induetorium, or induction coil, 
giving the largest sparks ever seen, exhibited at 
the Royal Polytechnic Institution . 29 March, i86o> 
Mr. James Wixnshurst invents a " continuous elec- 
trophorus" (very successful), and an "influew 

machine" 

Electroscope and Electrometer, as the terms 
signify, an' apparatus for ascertaining the presence 
and quantity of electrical excitation. Pith-balls 
were employed in various ways as electroscopes 
by Gilbert, Canton, and others. Dr. Milnerin- 

vented an electrometer s'milar tn Peltiers. 1 

The gold leaf electrometer was invented by rev. 

y 2 



ELECTRICITY. 



324 



ELECTRICITY. 



A. Bennet, 1789, and improved by Singer, about 
1810 ; Lane's discharging electrometer is dated 
1767 ; Henley's, 1772 ; Bohneuberger's electro- 
scope, 1820 : Peltier's induction electrometer, 

about 1848 

GALVANISM, OR VOLTAIC-ELECTRICITY, ELECTROLYSIS, 
AND ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. 

(See Electro-Physiology, p. 305.) 
Sulzer noticed a peculiar sensation in the tongue 
when silver and lead were brought into contact 

with it and each other 1762 

Madame Galvani observed the convulsion in the 
muscles of frogs when brought into contact with 
two metals, in 1789 ; and M. Galvani, after study- 
ing the phenomena, laid the foundation of the 

galvanic battery 179 1 

Volta announced his discovery of the " Voltaic 
pile," composed of discs of zinc and silver, and 

moistened card 1800 

Mr. W. Cruikshank's experiments . . . . ,, 
By the voltaic pile, Nicholson and Carlisle decom- 
posed water, and Dr. Henry decomposed nitric 

acid, ammonia, &c. . >> 

Transfer of acids and alkalies by Hisinger and 

Berzelius 1803 

Behrens formed a dry pile of 80 pairs of zinc, 

copper, and gilt paper 1805 

By means of a large voltaic battery in the Royal 
Institution, London, Davy decomposed the 
alkali potash, and evolved the metal potassium, 
(soda and other substances soon after) . 6 Oct. 1807 
Zamboni constructed a dry pile of paper discs, 
coated with tin on one side and peroxide of 
manganese on the other . . ' . . . 1809 

Children's battery fused platinum, &c. . . . „ 
J. W. Bitter constructed his "secondary pile" 

about 1 812 
Davy exhibited the voltaic arc . . . . . 1813 
Wollaston's thimble battery ignited platinum wire, 1815 
Multipliers or rheometers, popularly termed " gal- 
vanometers," invented by Ampere and by 
Schweigger, 1820 ; by Cumming, 1821 ; De la 
Bive, 1824 ; Ritchie (torsion), 1830 ; Joule (mag- 
netic), 1S43. Sir William Thomson has made 
many improvements since 1856 ; he described his 
reflecting galvanometer, and similar apparatus in 
the report of the British Association in 1867. 
Very large galvanometer made by prof. Win. A. 
Cornell, of New York .... Aug. 1885 
Faraday described his discovery of electro-magnetic 

rotation Jan. 1822 

Georg Simon Ohm enunciated his formulae relating 
to the galvanic current, 1827; proposed erection 
of a statue of Ohm, at Munich, on the centenary 
of his birth, 16 March, 1789 . . . Feb. 1889 
Improvement in constructing the Voltaic battery 
made by Wollaston, 1815 ; Becquerel, 1829 ; Stur- 
geon, 1830 ; J. F. Daniell, 1836 ; Grove (nitric 
acid, &c), 1839 ; Jacobi, 1840 ; Smee, 1840 ; Bunsen 
(carbon, &c), 1842 ; Grove (gas battery), 1842. 
Faraday read the first series of his " Experimental 
Researches on Electricity " at the Royal Society, 

21 Nov. 1831 
Faraday demonstrated the nature of electro-chemi- 
cal decomposition, and the principle that the 
quantity and intensity of electric action of a gal- 
vanic battery depend on the size and number of 

plates employed 1834 

Wheatstone invented his electro-magnetic chrono- 

scope 1840 

Copper-Zinc Couple (which sec) constructed by 

Dr. J. H. Gladstone and Mr. A. Tribe . . . 1872 
Batteries ; Bichromate of potash battery ; a modifica- 
tion of Dr. Leeson's ; very powerful ; now much 
■ used. (Gaston Plante's lead battery, powerful, 
i860.) Chloride of silver battery (14,400 cells) — 
results of its discharge published by Drs. Warren 
de la Rue and Hugo Muller. Powerful results 
exhibited at Royal Institution, London, 21 Jan., 1881 
Dr. Byrne's pneumatic battery (air blown in), very 

effective, announced 1878 

See under Electric Lir/hting. 
Mr. Coad's primary battery, put forth in 1884, 
greatly improved, exhibited in Soho square, 
London, W., Jan. ; Major Renard's primary bat- 
tery exhibited in London, Jan. ; Mr. Weymersch's 
primary battery exhibited __ ' Feb. 1890 



Electric Accumulator, or secondary battery, a 
modification by M. Faure, of Gaston Plante's 
powerful lead battery of 1 860, was exhibited at 
Paris, May, 1881. In June a box, one cubic foot 
in size, containing four cells, inclosing thin sheets 
of lead surrounded with felt saturated with 
dilute acid, &c. , was conveyed from Paris to 
London. Sir Win. Thomson found it to possess 
the electric energy of one million foot-pounds ; 
and said, in a letter to The Times of 9 June, 
1881 : " This solves the problem of storing elec- 
tricity in a manner and in a state useful for 
many important applications " . .6 June, 1881 

Electro-Magnetism began with Oersted's discovery 
of the action of the electric current on the mag- 
netic needle, 1819 ; proved by Ampere, who 
exhibited the action of the voltaic pile upon the 
magnetic needle, and of terrestrial magnetism 
upon the voltaic current ; he also arranged the 
conducting wire in the form of a helix or spiral, 
invented a galvanometer, and imitated the mag- 
net by a spiral galvanic wire 1820 

Arago magnetised a needle by the electric current, 
and attracted iron filings by the connecting wire 
of a galvanic battery „ 

The first electro-magnet 1825 

Induction of electric currents discovered by Fara- 
day and announced 1831 

Becquerel invented an electro-magnetic balance . ,, 

Faraday discovered the electro-magnetic rotative 
force developed in a magnet by voltaic electricity, 

1831 ; experiments on the induction of a voltaic 
current, &c 1834-5 

Sturgeon made a bar of soft iron magnetic by sur- 
rounding it with coils of wire, and sending an 
electric current through the wire . . . . 1837 

Induction coil made by Professor G. C. Page of 
Salem, Mass ,, 

Joseph Henry announced his discovery of secondary 
currents 2 Nov. 1838 

Breguet used electro-magnetic force to manufacture 
mathematical instruments, about . . . . 1854 

Magneto-Electricity (the converse of Oersted's 
discovery of electro-magnetism), discovered by 
Faraday, who produced an electric spark by sud- 
denly separating a coiled keeper from a perma- 
nent magnet ; and found that an electric current 
existed in a copper disc rotated between the poles 
of a magnet 1831 

The Magneto-Electric machine arose out of Faraday's 
discovery, and was first made at Paris by Pixii, 

1832 ; and in London by Saxton . . . . 1833 
"Faraday as a Discoverer," by Professor Tyndall, 

published March, 1868 

Magneto-electricity applied to electro-plating by 
Woolwich , 1842 

Ruhmkorffs magneto-electric induction coil con- 
structed, about 1850 

Siemens' armature produced 1854 

H. Wilde's description of his machine (a powerful 
generator of dynamic electricity, by means of 
permanent magnets) and the magneto-electric 
machine (constructed in 1865) sent to the 
Royal Society by professor Faraday and reported, 

26 April, 1866 

The light (resembling bright moon-light) exhibited 
on the top of Burlington house . 2 March, 1867 

Principle of accumulation by successive action dis- 
covered by Wilde; 1865/by mutual action (by 
which permanent steel magnets are dispensed 
with), independently by Wheatstone and Siemens, 1866 

Mr- W. Groves' electro-induction balance . . 1879 

Dynamo-magueto-electric machines, by Wheatstone 
and Siemens, described at the Royal Society, 
I4 Feb. ; by Ladd . . . .14 March, 1867 

Trial of Siemens' dynamo-magneto electric light in 
the torpedo service at Sheerness reported suc- 
cessful 18 Deo. 1871 

Two of Siemens' machines ordered for the Lizards, 
announced 1878 

Gramme's magneto-electric machine described . 1S75 

International Electrical Congress at Paris with 

exhibition 15 Aug.-is Nov. 1881 

[Medals and other honours awarded to England.] 

Mi - . E. J. Atkins' method of separating metals from 
their alloys by electrolysis, announced . Nov. 1883 



ELECTRICITY. 



325 



ELECTRICITY. 



applications — electric telegraph. See Telegraph. 

The transmission of electricity by an insulated wire 
was shown by Watson and others . . . . 1747 

Telegraphic arrangements were devised by Lesarge, 
1744 ; Betancourt, 1787 ; Cavallo, 1795 ; Salva, 
1796 ; Soemmering, exhibited 29 Aug. 1809 : 
Ronalds " . . . . 1816 

Ampere invents his telegraphic arrangement, em- 
ploying the magnetic needle and coil, and the 
galvanic battery 1820 

F. Ronalds publishes an account of his electric 
telegraph (died, aged 85, 8 Aug. 1873) . . . 1823 

Professor Wheatstone constructs an electro-mag- 
netic apparatus, by which 30 signals are conveyed 
through nearly four miles of wire . . June, 1836 

Telegraphs invented by Schilling, Gauss, and Weber 
(magneto-electric), 1833 ; by Steinheil and by 
Masson, 1837 ; by Morse (died 1872). . . . 1837 

The magnetic needle telegraph patented by (aft. 
sir) Wm. F. Cooke and (aft. sir) Charles Wheat- 
stone. (The Society of Arts Albert gold medal 
was awarded to them in June, 1867) . 12 June, „ 

Mr. Robert Stirling Newall, of Gateshead, patented 
his wire rope used for submarine telegraphs . . 1840 

Mr. Cooke set up the telegraph line on the Great 
Western Railway, from Paddington to West 
Drayton, 1838-9 ; on the Blackwall line, 1840 ; 
and in Glasgow 1841 

Wheatstone's alphabetical printing telegraph 
patented 1841 

The first telegraph line in America set up from 
Washington to Baltimore 1844 

The murderer Tawell apprehended by meaus of the 
telegraph 1845 

The electric telegraph company established (having 
purchased Cooke and Wheatstone's telegraphic 
inventions) 1846 

Gutta-percha suggested as an insulator by Faraday 1847 

Professor Charles Wheatstone drew plans of a pro- 
jected submarine telegraph between Dover and 
Calais 1S40 

Mr. John Watkins Brett (on behalf of his brother, 
Jacob Brett, the iuventor and patentee), submit- 
ted a similar plan to Louis Philippe without suc- 
cess 1847 

He obtained permission from Louis Napoleon to 
make a trial, 1847 ; took place . . 28 Aug. 1850 

The connecting wires (27 miles long) were placed 
on the government pier in Dover harbour, and in 
the Goliath steamer were coiled about 30 miles in 
length of telegraphic wire, enclosed in a covering 
of gutta-percha, half an inch in diameter. The 
Goliath started from Dover, unrolling the tele- 
graphic wire as it proceeded, and allowing it to 
drop to the bed of the sea. In the evening the 
steamer arrived on the French coast, and the wire 
was run up the cliff at cape Grisnez to its termi- 
nal station, and messages were sent to and fro 
between England and the French coast. But the 
wire, in settling into the sea-bottom, crossed a 
rocky ridge, and snapped in two, and thus the 
enterprise for that time failed. 

New arrangements were soon made, and on a scale 
of greater magnitude ; and the telegraph was 
opened ; the opening and closing prices of the 
funds in Paris were known on the London stock 
exchange within business hours, and guns were 
fired at Dover by communication from Calais, 

13 Nov. 1851 

Duplex Telegraphy — two messages transmitted along 
a single wire at the same time in opposite direc- 
tions first accomplished by Dr. Gintl, Austrian, 
1853 ; by Messrs. Siemens, 1857 ; in the same 
direction, by Stark, of Vienna, 1855 ; apparatus 
perfected by Stearns, an American ; applied to 
British telegraphs 1873 

Quadruplex Telegraphy — four messages along one 
wire ; successful experiments between London 
and Liverpool 25 Sept. 1877 

Mr. T. E. Edison's quadruplex instrument, by 
which four messages, two from each end, may be 
transmitted upon one wire simultaneously, and 
professor Delaney's synchronous multiplex instru- 
ment by which six messages may be so trans- 
mitted on one wire, were exhibited at the Post 
Office Jubilee Fete 2 July, 1890 



Communications complete between Dover and Os- 
tend and between Portpatrick and Donaghadee, 

May, 1853 
Holyhead and Howth .... June, 1854 

Paris and Bastia Nov. ,, 

London and Constantinople . . May, 1858 

Cromer and Emden ,, 

Aden and Suez May, 1859 

Malta and Alexandria .... 28 Sept. 1861 

England and Bombay, opened . . .1 March, 1865 
Marsala, Sicily, and La Calle, Algeria . 21 June, ,. 



Over-house electric telegraphs (first erected at Paris) 
set up between their premises in the City and 
West-end by Messrs. Waterlow, in 1857, extended 
throughout Loudon 1859-73 

House's printing telegraph, 1846 ; Bain's electro- 
chemical telegraph, 1846 ; Hughes's system, 1855; 
the American combination system (of the pre- 
ceding), which can convey 2000 words an hour, 
adopted by the American telegraph company, 

Jan. 1859 

Wheatstone's automatic printing telegraph pa- 
tented i860 

It was stated that there were in work 15,000 miles of 
electric telegraph wire in Great Britain ; 80,000 on 
the continent of Europe ; and 48,000 in America ; 
and altogether about 150,000 miles laid down in 
the world July, 1862 

Bonelli's typo-electric telegraph, made known and 
company established, i860 ; and tried between 
Liverpool and Manchester, 1863 ; promised revival, 

June, 1864 

An "electric telegraph " conference, at which 16 
states (not Great Britain) were represented, met 
at Paris (16 states represented), see Telegraph 

March, 1865 

The Telegraph Act (see Telegraph) passed 31 July, 1868 

It enabled H.M.'s postmaster-general to acquire, 
work, and maintain electric telegraphs ; postal 
telegraphy began 5 Feb. 1872 

Society of Telegraph Engineers established, 28 Feb. 1872 

Result of the " Derby " race sent to Calcutta in five 
minutes 24 May, 1871 

Statue of Morse at New York uncovered, 10 June, ,, 

Messages rise from 6,000,000 to 20,000,000 a year . 1875 

The " shilling telegraph " said not to pay . July, ,, 

A new international telegraphic convention came 
into operation 1 Jan. 1876 

Direct line between New Zealand and London, 
completed 18 Feb. ; communication between lord 
mayor and mayors of Wellington and Dunedin, 

23 Feb. „ 

Atlantic Telegraph. A plan to unite Europe 
and America by telegraph was entered at the 
government registration office in June, 1845, by 
Mr. J. Watkins Brett and Mr. Jacob Brett, who 
made proposals to the government, which were 
not accepted. This plan was attempted to be 
carried out by a company in 1857 and 1858, with 
the concurrence of the British and American 
governments. 

2500 miles of wire were manufactured, and tested in 

March, 1857 

The laying it down commenced at Valentia, in 
Ireland on 5 Aug. ,, 

The vessels employed were the Niagara and Susque- 
hanna, (American vessels), and the Leopard and 
Agamemnon (British vessels). After sailing a few 
miles the cable snapped. This was soon repaired ; 
but on 11 Aug. after 300 miles of wire had been 
paid out, it snapped again (and the vessels 
returned to Plymouth) . . . n Aug. ,, 

A second attempt to lay the cable failed through a 
violent storm, .... 20-21 June, 1858 

The third voyage was successful. The junction 
between the two continents was completed by the 
laying down of 2050 miles of wire from Valentia, 
in Ireland, to Newfoundland. The first two 
messages, on 5 Aug., were from the queen of 
England to the president of the United St.-iles, 
and his reply 5 Aug. ,, 

This event caused great rejoicing in both countries ; 
but, unfortunately, the insulation of the wire 
gradually became more faulty, and the power 
of transmitting intelligence utterly ceased on 

4 Sept. „ 



ELECTRICITY 



326 



ELECTRICITY. 



A new company was formed i860 

The Great Eastern steamer, engaged to lay down 
2300 miles of wire, with 25,000 tons burden, sailed 
for Valentia, Ireland, from the Thames, com- 
manded by capt. Anderson, accompanied by pro- 
fessor Wm. Thomson and Mr. Cromwell F. 
Ifarley, to superintend the paying out the cable, 

15 July, 1865 
After connecting the wire with the land, the Great 

Eastern sailed from Valentia . . 23 July, ,, 
Telegraphic communication with the vessel (inter- 
rupted by two faults, clue to defective insulation, 
caused by pieces of metal pressed into the gutta- 
percha coating, which were immediately repaired) 
finally ceased on 2 Aug. The apparatus for 
raising the wire proving insufficient, the vessel 
returned, and arrived at the Medway 19 Aug. ,, 
Atlantic telegraph company reconstituted as the 
Anglo-American telegraph company limited, 

March, 1866 
The Great Eastern, with a new cable, sailed from 
the Medway, 30 June ; the shore-end at Valentia 
was spliced with the main cable, and the Great 
Eastern sailed, 13 July ; 1200 miles of cable had 
been laid, 22 July ; the cable was completely laid 
at Heart's Content, Newfoundland, and a message 
sent to lord Stanley, 27 July ; message from the 
queen to president of the United States sent, 28 
July, " From the queen, Osborne, to the presi- 
dent of the United States, Washington. The 
queen congratulates the president on the success- 
ful completion of an undertaking which she hopes 
may serve as an additional bond of union between 
the United States and England. " To which he 

replied 30 July, „ 

The lost cable of 1865 recovered, 2 Sept. ; and its 

laying completed at Newfoundland . 8 Sept. ,, 
The Great Eastern arrived at Liverpool . 19 Sept. ,, 
Messrs. Samuel Canning, Daniel Gooch, and capt. 

Anderson knighted Oct. ,, 

[It was stated (in Sept. 1866) that the engineer of 
the cable passed signals through 3700 miles of 
wire by means of a battery formed in a lady's 
thimble.] 
The U. S. congress voted a gold medal to Cyrus 
Field, for his exertions connected with Atlantic 

telegraphs 7 March, 1867 

At a dinner given to Cyrus Field at Willis's Rooms, 
London, telegraphic messages were exchanged 
between the company and lord Monck, viceroy 
of Canada and president Johnson . 1 July, 1S68 
French Atlantic Telegraph company formed ; French 
government grant concession for 20 years, from 
1 Sept. 1869, to Julius Renter and baron Emile 

d'Erlangen 8 July, „ 

Anglo-Danish telegraph (Newbiggin to Copenhagen) 

completed 31 Aug. ,, 

European end of the French Atlantic cable laid at 
Brest, 17 June ; the American end at Duxbury, 

Massachusetts 23 July, 1869 

Reported union between the Anglo-American and 

French Atlantic telegraph companies . Jan. 1870 
Telegraph between Bombay and Suez completed . ,, 
Telegraph between Adelaide and Port Darwin, 

Australia, completed . . . .22 Aug. 1872 
Message from the mayor of Adelaide received by 
the lord mayor of London, and replied to, 

21 Oct. ,, 
The fourth Atlantic telegraph cable laid by the 
Great Eastern, from Valentia, Ireland, to Heart's 
Content, Newfoundland . . 8 June-3 July, 1873 
The Brazil telegraph cable completely laid, 22 Sept. „ 
"Faraday," a great electric cable ship, built for 
Siemens Brothers, launched at Newcastle (see 
Steam), 17 Feb. ; sails to lay the " Direct United 
States Company's" cable, 16 May; laid shore-end ' 
in Nova Scotia, 31 May ; in New Hampshire, 
8 June ; connected with Newfoundland, July . 1874 
The sixth Anglo-American telegraph laid by the 

Great Eastern Aug. -Sept. ,, 

E. A. Gowper's Writing telegraph: quick plain writ- 
ing (36 miles), exhibited at Royal Institution, &c. 
[an improved one by J. Hart Robertson exhibited 

in London, 1887] May, 1879 

South African line laid between Mozambique and 
Natal, 23 Aug.; connected witli Capetown ; tele- 



grams sent by the queen to sir Bartle Frere and 
others, 25 Dec. ; opened to the public 29 Dec. 1879 

The new French Transatlantic Cable to be laicl from. 
Brest to St. Pierre by the Faraday, sailed June ; 
connected with Halifax, Oct. 1879 ; line from 
Paris to New York_opened . . .1 June, 1880 

International Congress of Electricians opened at 
Paris, 15 Sept. ; exhibition . 11 Aug. -20 Nov. 1881 

New Atlantic Cable laid by the Faraday 22 Aug. 

el seq. ,, 

Telegraph from England to Panama completed 

Sept. 1882 

International Sub-marine Conference, Paris, 16 Oct. ,, 

Cromwell Fleetwood Varley, electrical engineer, 
who patented many inventions, died . 2 Sept. 1883 

International Conference for protection of sub- 
marine cables, Paris, closed ; convention agreed 
to, 26 Oct. 1883; signed at London, 14 March ; 
signed for 26 states at London, at Paris 26 March, 
1884; another conference .... 1 Dec. 1886 

International Electro-Technical congress at Frank - 
fort-on-Maine, opened .... 8 Sept. 1891 

Electrical exhibition at the Crystal Palace, near 
London, opened 9 Jan. 1892 

Electrical Exhibition at St. Petersburg, opened 

23 Jan. ,, 

The Volta, an electric launch (37 feet long, 7 feet 
beam) built of steel, constructed by Messrs. 
Stephens, Smith & Co. of Millwall, designed by 
Mr. A. Rcckenzaun, crossed from Dover to Calais 
and back by means of one charge of the accumu- 
lators ; about 4 hours crossing . . 13 Sept. 1886 

Electric boat for communicating light to powder 
houses, &c. ; invented by Thomas Webb ; 
launched at Waltham Abbey ... . Aug. „ 

Arrangements invented for transmitting telegraphic 
messages from railway trains in motion without 
contact with the ordinary wires . . . 1S87 

A central laboratory of electricity inaugurated at 
Grenelle, Paris, by the International society of 
electricians 1888 

Electric omnibus invented by Mr. Radcliffe Ward, 
running in London Feb. 1889 

Messrs. Moore &, Wright announce their column 
printing telegraph in which messages are pro- 
duced resembling type writing .- . . April „ 

The Metropolitan electric supply company pro- 
pose six central stations, W. & W.C. . April ,, 

Electric Clock, &c. Professor Wheatstone in- 
vented an electro-magnetic telegraph clock in 
1840. Clocks worked by electricity, invented by 
Mr. Alexander Bain, Mr. Shepherd, and others, 
appeared in the exhibition of 1851. An electric 
clock, with four dials, illuminated at night, was 
set up for some time in front of the office of the 
electric telegraph company, in the Strand, Lon- 
don, July, 1852. A time-ball was set up by Mr. 
French, in Cornhill, in 1856. In i860, Mr. C. V. 
Walker so connected the clock of the Greenwich 
observatory with that of the South-eastern station, 
London, that they could be controlled by elec- 
tricity. 

Electric Light. 

Humphry Davy produced electric light with carbon 
points 1S00 

Apparatus for regulating the electric light were 
devised in 1846, and shown by W. Staite's patents, 
1846, 1849 ; Staite (at Sunderland, 25 Oct. 1847), 
and Petrie in 1848 ; by Foucault soon after. 

Jules Duboscq's Electric Lamp (the most perfect of 
the kind) appeared at the Paris exhibition in 
1855 ; and was first employed by professor Tyn- 
dall, at the Royal Institution, London, for illus- 
trating lectures on light and colours . . . 1856 

The works of new Westminster bridge were illumi- 
nated by Watson's electric, light . . . . 185S 

M. Serrin, of Paris, exhibited his improved electric 
lamp 1862 

The Magneto-Electric light (the most brilliant artifi- 
cial light yet produced), devised by Prof. Holmes, 
successfully tried at the South Foreland light- 
house, Dover 1858 and 1859 

The French government ordered eight lighthouses 
to be illuminated by electric light . . April, 1861 

Electric Candle, invented by Paul Jablochkoff (an 
electric current passed through two carbons side 



ELECTRICITY. 



327 



ELECTEICITY. 



by side with a slip of kaolin between them, pro- 
•duces a steady, soft, noiseless light ; the carbons 
'burn like wax) ; reported to the. Academy of 
Sciences, Paris, by M. Denayrouze . . Oct. 

'-The electric light successfully employed for photo- 
graphy by Mr. H. Van der Weyde 

lHead, Wrightson, & Co., of Stockton-on-Tees, use 
Siemens' electric light for bridge building . 

.At the Magasin du Louvre, 8 electric lights replaced 
ioo Carcel gas-burners ; as manageable as coal 
gas supply ; tried at West India docks 15 June, 

'Tyndall's experiments at S. Foreland, demonstrate 

superiority of Siemens' dynamo-electric machine, 

Aug. 1 870- July, 

•Gramme's machine (light equal to 758 candles) 

-■Serrin's and Jablochkoff's lights improved by Ra- 
pieff, a Russian ; taken up by Mr. E. J. Reed, 
M.P. ; a small magneto-electric machine, worked 
by steam ; conducting wires replace the gasworks 
and pipes July, 

3Ir. Stayton reports, that the light is much dearer 
than gas, and not suitable for street lighting in 
London Sept. 

Electric light tried at Westminster palace, 28 March, 

Two of Siemens' dynamo- magneto-electric machines 
ordered for the Lizards lighthouses . . . 

'The Gaiety theatre lit by light from Lontin's 
machine and modification of Jablochkoff's Aug. 

iHippolyte Fontaine's treatise on Electric Lighting, 
1877 ; translated by Paget Higgs, published 

Mr. T. E. Edison announces at New York his dis- 
covery of a method of producing a great number 
of lights and much mechanical power from a 
Ritchie inductive coil, a dynamo-electric machine, 
which he terms " telemachon," which may be 
worked by water-power or steam ; this causes a 
panic among gas companies in London, and de- 
pression in value of shares . . Sept., Oct. 

JEdison's plans of subdividing lights filed at patent 
office 23 Oct. 

National Electric Light company forming Nov. 

Richard Werdermann's electric light subdivided ; a 
number of jets lit simultaneously ; shown by 
British telegraph company . . .2 Nov. 

.Electric light used for large workshops at Woolwich, 
&c, throughout the country -. . . Nov. 

Times machine-room lit by six lights from one cur- 
rent ; Rapieff system . . . . Oct. -Nov. 

'Three systems trying at New York by Edison, 
Sawyer, and Brush Nov. 

Wallace lamp (American), introduced by Mr. Ladd, 

autumn, 

-Jabloehkoff candle tried at Westgate-on-Sea, by Mr. 
E. F. Davis, 2-26 Dec. ; light successful ; diffi- 
culty in practice ; given up . . . Dec. 

.Formation of nitric acid in the air by electric light ; 
announced by Mr. T. Wills, 13 Dec. 1878 ; of 
hydro-cyanic or prussic acid by prof. J. Dewar, 

autumn, 

■Machines of Fanner <fe Wallace, Lontin, De Meri- 
tens, Browning, Carre, and others in use in Lon- 
don 

"Light given tip at Billingsgate market, about 30 Jan. 

.Siemens' light successful at the Albert Hall, 13 Feb. 

.Edison obtains beautiful light from platinum which 
fuses ; used 600-horse power to obtain 20,000 
lights at one station ; failure announced, March ; 
his patent registered . . . -23 April, 

Exhibition of lights at Royal Albert Hall opened 
by the prince of Wales .... 7 May, 

M. Jantin's electric candle exhibited at Academy of 
Sciences, Paris . . . about 17 March, 

A continuous current dynamo -magneto-electric 
machine patented by lord Elphinstone and C. W. 
Vincent (since improved) 

A. committee of the House of Commons appointed 
" to consider whether it is desirable to authorize 
municipal corporations or other local authorities 
to adopt any schemes for lighting by electricity " 
(Dr. Lyon Playfair, chairman), reports : " The 
energy of one-horse power may lie converted into 
gaslight, and yields a luminosity equal to 12-candle 
power. But the same amount of energy trans- 
formed into electric light produces 1,600-candle 
power. . . . Scientific witnesses considered that 
in the future the eleetric current might be exten- 
sively used to transmit power as well as light to 
considerable distances, so that the power applied 



1876 



1877 



to mechanical purposes during the day might lie 
made available for light during the night. . . . 
There seems to be no reason to doubt that the 
electric light has established itself for lighthouse 
illumination, and is fitted to illumine large sym- 
metrical places, such as squares, public halls, 
railway stations, and workshops. . . . Compared 
with gas, the economy for equal illumination does 
not yet appear to be conclusively established. 
. . . Gas companies, in the opinion of your com- 
mittee, have no special claims to be considered 
as the future distributors of electric light . . . 
Your committee, however, do not consider that 
the time has yet arrived to give general powers to 
private electric companies to break up the streets, 
unless by consent of the local authorities." — 
Times 19 June, 

Electric light placed on Thames Embankment, in 
British Museum, at Victoria Station, &c. Dec. 

System of C. F. Brush (American), exhibited in Lon- 
don, said to be simple and trustworthy 23 Dec. 

Dr. C. William Siemens reports to Royal Society, 
that electric light acts like solar light on vegeta- 
tion 2 March, 

Electric lights set up for trial on Thames Embank- 
ment, north side (Jabloehkoff system), 13 Dec. 
1878 ; Waterloo Bridge, 10 Oct. 1879 ; continued, 

April, 

Mr. J. W. Swan exhibits his system of dividing light, 
&c, at Newcastle-on-Tyne (aft. in London) 20 Oct. 

Trial of three systems in London : Lontin's, South- 
wark bridge, <fee. ; Brush, Blackfriars' bridge, &c. ; 
Siemens', Guildhall, &c. . . 3iMarch, : 

Swan's incandescent lamp set up in Earnoek 
colliery, Hamilton, Lanarkshire, 9 Aug.; also in 
the Savoy Theatre, London, successfully, opened 

10 Oct. 

Godalming lit by electric light produced by water 
wheels driven by the Wey, Sept. ; reported suc- 
cessful 15 Dec. 

Junior Carlton Club first lit by the electric accu- 
mulator 16 Sept. 

New lamp (the sun) by Louis Clerc, a combination 
of the arc and incandescent systems . June, i 

The electric " sun " lamp and power company was 
formed July, 

Eleetric lighting act passed . . . . 18 Aug. 

The Ferranti system of electric lighting (invented 
by Sir William Thomson, Mr. S. Ziani de Ferranti, 
and Mr. Alfred Thomson) successfully tried, Dec. 

International electrical and gaslight exhibition at 
the Crystal Palace opened . . -13 Dec. 

Electric light applied by Bell Brothers, Newcastle, 
to their mines Dec. 

Elphinstone and Vincent machine advertised for 
sale 

Mr. J. E. H. Gordon's great dynamo machine ex- 
hibited at Woolwich .... 25 Oct. 

Messrs. G. C. V. Holmes, F. E. Burke, and F 
Cheesewright's invention for the use of the elec- 
tric light in railways tried on Great Northern line, 
reported successful .... 25 Oct. 

St. Matthew's Church, Brixton, lit by electricity 

28 Oct. . 

Gaulard-Gibbs' system of secondary generators 
announced April ; inaugurated on the Metro- 
politan railway Nov. 

H. T. Baruett's secondary battery tried at the 
Great Western station . . . Oct. et seq. 

Mr. O. C. D. Ross's improved galvanic battery for 
light and motion iS 

Up ward's primary battery (an advance) ; use of acid 
dispensed with July, 

Schanschieffs primary battery ; applicable to 
lighting, miners' lamps &c. . . autumn 

Domestic electric Lighting by the Beemau, Taylor 
and King system tried at Colchester n June, 

Electric light employed in Liverpool and Man- 
chester trains Aug. 

Electric lighting successful at the Fisheries, 1883, 
and Health exhibitions. 

Brighton successfully lit by the Hammond-Wright 
sytsem ; described Nov. 

The Ellison & Swan united electric lighl company 
y. Woodhouse & Rawson fur infringemenl of 
patent for carbon filaments; verdict fur plaintiffs 

20 May, 

Affirmed on appeal,judge Cotton dissentient 31 Jan. 



1887 



ELECTRICITY. 



328 



ELECTRICITY. 



Kensington & Knightsbridge electric lighting 

company's first station opened . . . Jan. 1887 
Mr. Edison's " tyro-Magnetic " dynamo, in which 
heat is directly transformed into electricity 
without the intervention of steam-engine or 
other machinery, announced to the American 

association Sept ,, 

Due de Feltre's suggestion for the employment of 
windmills to produce electric light by working 
dynamo machines ; experiments made at Cap de 

la Heve Sept. „ 

Mr. Urquhart's new portable electric lamp, weighing 
4 lb. 2 oz., adapted for coal mines, &c. ; exhibited 

in London Dec. ,, 

Proposal to light part of the city by the Anglo- 
American Brush system submitted to the com- 
missioners of sewers, deferred . . 21 Feb. 1888 
Electric light only in theatres in Spain, ordered by 

royal decree 31 March, ,, 

The Edison & Swan united electric light company 
v. Holland and others ; 21 days' trial ; divided 
verdict, Edison's patent of 1879 declared invalid. 
Cheeseborough patent of 1878 maintained 16 July, 
1888. Edison's patent declared valid on appeal, 

18 Feb. 1889 
Erection by the London electric supply corporation 
of works at Deptford to supply the metropolis 

with electric light, 1888 

The house-to-house electric supply company founded 

1888 ; the first station at West Brompton opened 

24 Jan., about nine stations established and 

others in preparation .... Feb. 1889 

The city of London from Fleet street to Aldgate 

about to be electrically lighted . . Feb. „ 
The electric light had been adopted at Milan, Rome, 
Paris, Tours, Marseilles, New York and other 
great cities up to . . . . . June, 1890 
Fourteen companies have been established to 
supply electricity in the Metropolis alone up to 

Feb. 1891 
The first permanent electric lights in the city of 
London set up in Queen Victoria street from 'the 
Mansion-house to Blackfriars . . summer, ,, 
Electric light extension acts brought in, . . 1892 

Electric Loom. M. Bonelli, of Turin, in 1854, de- 
vised a plan of employing magnets and electro- 
magnets in weaving, thereby superseding the 
tedious and costly Jaequard system of cards. 
His loom was set up in London in 1859, anc l ^ e0 " 
tured upon at the Royal Institution By professor 

Faraday 8 June, i860 

Electric Pen (for copying, &c), invented by Mr. 
T. Edison, an American ; an electric writing com- 
pany was established ; active in . . . 1877-8 
Lamp-lighting by Electricity. —Mr. St. George Lane 
Fox's invention tried at Fulham, and reported 
successful, autumn 1S77 ; doubtful . . . 1879 
Electrophone, nvented by Br. Strethill Wright, 
for producing sound by electric currents of high 
tension: one laid before the Royal Scottish 
Society of Arts. See Telephone . . 25 April, 1864 
Electro-Tint. Mr. Palmer, of Newgate-street, 
London, patented inventions by which engravings 
may be copied from engraved plates, and the 
engraving itself actually produced, by elec- 
trical agency, and one process he termed gly- 

phography l84J 

Electro-Type or Beposit. Mr. W. Cruikshank's 
experiments, 1800; Mr. Spencer, in England, 
and professor Jacobi, in Russia, made the 
first successful experiments in this art in 1837 
and 1838. Since then, Mr. A. Smee and others 
have perfected the processes. In 1840, Mr. Rob 
Murray applied black-lead to non-metallic bodies 
as a conducting surface. In 1840, Mr. Ruolz and 
Mr. Elkington applied it to gilding and silver 
plating. Since 1850, printing types and wood- 
cuts, and casts from them, have been electrotyped 
with copper, and the process is now largely 
adopted in the arts. 
Messrs. C. Wheatstone and F. A. Abel experiment on 

the application of electricity to military purposes. 1861 
An Electric safety lamp made by MM. Dumas and 

Benoit ; exhibited at Paris . . .8 Sept. 1862 
The Electro-block company established, i860 ; by 
their processes the enlargement and reduction of 
engravings, obtained by india-rubber, can be 
immediately transferred to a lithographic stone 



and multiplied. Leech's engravings, so enlarged,, 
were coloured by himself, and exhibited in - rS.62: 

Ozone, generated by a current produced by 
Wild's magneto-electric machine, employed to 
bleach sugar, at Whitechapel (Edward Beaiae's 

patent) Aug. 1868; 

Electric furnace, formed in the electric arc, by C. 
ffm. Siemens, fuses platinum, iridium, etc., shown 
at Royal Institution . . . .12 March, 1880 
Electric light applied by him to grow vegetables 

and fruit in greenhouses ,, 

The electric welding syndicate exhibit at Hoxton, 
Professor Elihu Thomson's process of welding 
metals by electricity (discovered in 1887, and 

shown in New York) Jan. 189a 

Machines at work at Crewe . . . April, ,, 
Electric Railway by Werner Siemens and 

Halske, opened near Berlin . . 12 May, 188s: 
Siemens' motive machines 6 inches square, 2 inches 
deep ; Tissandier's electr'cally propelled balloon; 
Menier's ploughing machine, 11 Aug. ; electric 
tramway set up in Paris . . . Aug. ,„ 
Siemens' new electric railway tired at Berlin 

about 7 Nov. ,,, 
Irternational electrical exhibition, Crystal Palace, 
completed, inaugurated by the duke of Edinburgh, 
25 Feb. ; closed .... 3 June, 1882 

First electric tramway cars run at Leytoitstoiie, 

Essex 4 March ,, 

New electric railway opened at Berlin . 1 May, ,,. 
Electric congress at Paris opened . .11 Oct. ,,. 
A boat (" Electricity ") with screw-propeller moved 
by power, provided by electric accumulators 
(built by the Electrical Storage Company), sails 
from Miilwall to London Bridge . 28 Sept. ,,. 
Siemens' electrical tramway between Portrush and 
Giant's Causeway completed, Dec. 1882 ; opened 

by earl Spencer 28 Sept. 1883 

Electric tramcars first run from Kew to Hammer- 
smith 10 Mar. „ 

Electrical exhibition at Westminster Aquarium 

opened 14 Mar. ,„ 

International electric exhibition at Vienna 

16 Aug.-3 Nov. ,, 

Electric exhibition at Philadelphia opened, 8 Sept. 1884 

Electrical transmission of force ; M. Marcel Deprez 

experiments at Creil (1876-86), supported by 

M. Rothschild, reported successful : — mechanical 

power transmitted 35 miles for industrial 

purposes 23 July, 1886 

Elieson company's electric engines reported suc- 
cessful at Stratford ; tramcars driven five miles 

Oct. et seq. ,., 
Electrical traction on tramways at Northfleet ; 

successful demonstration . . .14 March, ,, 
Successful trial of an electric trarncar on a new 

principle, at Birmingham ... 23 Oct. 1889 
Mr. M. Immisch's electric motors employed suc- 
cessfully in pumping and hauling at St. John's 
colliery, Normanton and other places . Nov. ,, 
The City & South London Electric Railway opened 
by the prince of Wales 4 Nov., to the public, 

18 Dec. 189a 
Mr. Nickola Tesla, at the Royal Institution, ex- 
hibited his alternate-current electric motor, by 
which currents are transformed by rapidly chang- 
ing their direction to and fro into mechanical 
power. It was stated that, with the increase of 
physical power, the effect upon the human frame 

is diminished 3, 4 Feb. 1892 

[By means of Mr. Tesla's apparatus, the force of 
about 777 horse power was transmitted from the 
rapids of the Neckar to Frankfort-on-Maine, no. 
miles, Sept. 1891.] See Niagara. 
Electro-Physiology. Aristotle and Pliny refer 
to the powers of the torpedo ; Walsh and 
Ingenhouss, the discoveries of Galvani in 1790, 
and the researches of Matteucci about 1830, have 
greatly advanced the science. 
Fowler experimented on animals with galvanism, 
1793 ; and Aldini, 1796, who produced muscular 
contractions ina criminal recently executed, 1803; 

Ure did the same 181S 

Du Bois Reymond lectured on animal electricity at 
the Royal Institution, and showed the existence 
of an electric current, developed by action of the 
human muscles, in May, 1.855 



ELECTRIC LIGHTING ACT. 



329 



ELEPHANT. 



Dr. Burdon Sanderson announced his discovery of 
electricity in plants to the British Association at 
Bradford Sept. 1873 

Executions hy electricity, see under Death. 

ELECTEIC LIGHTING ACT, 45 & 46 

Vict. c. 56, passed 18 Aug. 18S2. Amendment 
act passed 1888 (extending the monopoly of electric 
light companies from 21 to 42 years). Regulations 
of the Board of Trade published 18 May, 1889. 

ELECTEOLYSIS, see Electricity, p. 324. 

ELEGY. Elegiac verse (consisting of a hexa- 
meter and pentameter alternately) was the first 
variation from the hexameter or epic measure, used 
by Tyrtaeus and other early poets. The elegies of 
Ovid and Catullus are celebrated. Gray's " Elegy, 
written in a country churchyard," was published 
in 1749. 

ELEMENTAEY EDUCATION ACT, 

33 & 34 Vict. c. 75, passed 9 Aug. 1870 ; amended 
in 1872. Clause 25, which authorizes payments to 
support denominational schools, much objected to 
by dissenters ; bill to repeal it rejected by the 
commons (373-128), 10 June, 1874. Another act 
(for agricultural districts, &c.,) brought in by lord 
Sandon, 18 May, 1876; royal assent, 15 Aug. 1876. 
Another combining act passed 5 Aug. 1891. See 
Education. 

ELEMENTS were formerly reckoned as four: 
earth, air, lire and water. Lavoisier enunciated 
the principle that all bodies which cannot be 
proved to be compounded are elements, and to be 
treated as such. Mr. W. Crookes, F.R.S., in a 
lecture at the Royal Institution, London, by delicate 
experiments demonstrated that yttrium is a com- 
pound body, and expounded a theory that all the 
elements have been evolved from what he termed 
Protyle, 18 Feb. 1887. Above twelve new elements 
said to have been discovered in rare earths by MM. 
Kriiss and Nilson by the spectroscope in 1887. 
Mr. Crookes declared Didymium to be a compound 
body. See Table, and separate articles. The 
chemical elements were stated to be about 77 
in 1881.* 

LIST OF 63 ELEMENTS, 1872 {OillilWJ). 



._ 


Gold . 


© 


— 


Silver . 


• • I) 


— 


Mercury 


9 


— 


Copper . 


. • ? 


— 




. • 6 


— 


Tin 


H 


— 




■ ■ h 


1490. 


Antimony 


. . B. Valentine. 


1530- 


Bismuth . 


. Agricola ? 


1541- 


Zinc 


. . Paracelsus. 




Carbon 




— 


Sulphur. 




1669. 


Phosphorus 


. Brandt. 


1702. 


Borax, boron . 


. . Homberg. 


J733- 


( Arsenic | 
\ Cobalt ) ' 


. G. Brandt. 


1741. 


Platinum 


. . Woods. 


175*- 


Nickel 


. Cronstedt. 




1 Soda -ium 

Potash 
I Lime 


. . \ Duhamel. 


1736 
to 
1758 


■ 1 Marggraf. 




. /Bergmann, 


Alumina 


. . and 




Ma.gnesia . 


.) Scheele. 


1766. 


Hydrogen 


. . Cavendish. 


1771. 


Fluor -ine . 


. Scheele. 


j 772. 


Nitrogen 


. . Rutherford. 



1778. 

1 78 1. 
1782. 



1791. 

J 793- 
1794. 
1797. 
1798. 



1811. 
1817, 

i8"8. 
1826. 
1828, 
1830. 



1843- 



* Mr. Joseph Norman Lockyer, in a paper read at 
the Royal Society, 12 Dec. 1878, expressed doubts of the 
elementary character of some of the following substances 
based on his spectroscopic experiments. His views 
were not supported by the researches of professors Dewar 
and Liveing, 1880-81. See Chlorine. 



Chlorine! (doubtful > see I 
cnioime-| chlorine) ) 

Oxygen 

{Manganese 

Baryta -ium . . . . 
Molybdenum 

Tungsten . . . . 

Tellurium . 

f Uranium . . . . 

\ Zirconia -ium . 

Titanium . . . . 

Strontia -ium 

Yttria -ium . . . . 
j Chromium. 

( Gluclna -um . . . . 

Tantalum . . . . 

Cerium 

( Palladium . . . . 

\ Rhodium . . . . 
I Iridium . 

( Osmium . . . . 

Iodine . 

Lithium . . . , 

Selenium . . . . 

Cadmium . . . . 

Bromine . . . . 

Thorinum . . . . 

Vanadium . 

Lanthanum . . . . 

Didymium 

Erbium 

Ruthenium 

Niobium . . . . 

Csesium . . . . 

Rubidium . . . . 

Thallium . . . . 

Indium . . . . 

Gallium . . . . 



■ Klaproth. 



Scheele. 

Priestley. 
Gahn. 

Scheele. 

Delhuart. 
M tiller. 

Gregor. 

Hope. 

Gadolin. 



> Vauquelin. 

Hatchett. 
Klaproth. 

j- Wollaston. 

|_ Descotils & SmithsoR 
j Temiant. 

Courtois. 

Aifwedson. 

Berzelius. 

Stromeyer. 

Balard. 

Berzelius. 

Sefstrom. 

VMosander. 

Claus. 
H. Rose. 

!■ Bunsen. 



Crookes. 
Reich and Richter 
Lecoq de Boisbau- 
dran. 



1877- 



1879. 



Davyum (?) . 


. . Kern. 


Neptunium 


. Hermann. 


Ilmenium(V) 




Philippium 


. Delafontaine. 


Norwegium 


. . Tellef Dahll. 


Mosandruin (?) . 


. Lawrence Smith 


Decipium (?) 


. . Delafontaine. 


Scandium (?) 




Ytterbium (?) 


. . Marignac. 


Holmium 
Thulium 


• j-Soret. 






Vesbium 


. . Scacchi. 


Germanium 





ELEPHANT, in the earliest times trained to> 
war. The history of the Maccabees informs us r 
that " to every elephant they appointed IOOO men 
armed with coats of mail, and 500 horse : and upon 
the elephants were strong towers of wood, &c." The- 
elephants in the army of Antiochus were provoked 
to fight by showing them the "blood of grapes and 
mulberries." The first elephant said to have been 
seen in England was one of enormous size, presented 
by the king of France to our Henry III. in 1238. 
Baker's Chron. Polyaenus states that Caosar 
brought one to Britain 54 B.C., which terrified the 
inhabitants greatly. See Knighthood. 13 elephants- 
in lord mayor's procession, 9 Nov. 1876. 

Chunce, an elephant 13 feet high, in Cross's menagerie, 
Exeter Change, London, becoming dangerous, was. 
shot, receiving 1S0 musket balls before he fell, 1 March, 
1826. 

A young elephant brought into Court of Exchequer to- 
show his peaceful character, in a suit for damages for 
frightening a pony at the Alexandra Palace, 18 July,. 
1879. 

Barnum, the American showman, bought, for 2,000.'., 
the large male African elephant Jumbo, 6 tons weight , 
of the" Zoological Society, Regent's Park, London. 
Jumbo re (used to go iS Feb. After much trouble lie 
was removed in the night, 22-23 March, and placed in 
the Assyrian Monarch, 24 March ; arrived at New 
York, 9 April, 1882 ; killed on the railway, 15 Sept. 



ELETJ.SINIAN MYSTEEIES. 



330 



EMANUEL HOSPITAL. 



A so-called white elephant (little differing from others), 
named Toung Taloung, bought by Mr. Barnum from 
the king of Siam, arrived at Liverpool, 14 Jan., at 
.Zoological gardens, London, 17 Jan.; left 12 March, 

i -1884 ; burnt with Alice, "Jumbo's wife ' and others at 
the destruction of Mr. Barnum's show and menagerie 
at Bridjport, U.S. by fire, 20 Nov. 1887. 

•Joseph Merrick, deformed, termed the "elephant man," 
supported at the London hospital, 1886 et seq. 

^ ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES- The insti- 
tution of these annual secret religious ceremonies 
in honour of Demeter (Ceres) at Athens, is tra- 
ditionally attributed to Cadmus, 1550; to Erech- 
ttheus, 1399; or to Kumolpus, 1356 B.C. If any one 
•revealed them, he was to be put to death. They 
•were introduced from Eleusis into Home, lasted 
about 1800 years, and were abolished by Theodosius 
-A.d. 389. The laws were — 1. To honour parents; 
-2. To honour the gods with the fruits of the earth; 
3. Not to treat brutes with cruelty. Cicero makes 
the civilisation of mankind one of the beneficial 
•effects of the Eleusinian mysteries. 

ELGIN" MARBLES, derived chiefly from the 
farthenon, a temple of Minerva, on the Acropolis at 
Athens, of which they formed part of the frieze and 
pediment, the work of Phidias, under the govern- 
ment of Pericles, about 440 is.c. Thomas e irl of Elgin 
%egan the collection of these marbles during his 
•mission to the Ottoman Porte, in 1802 ; and from him 
they were purchased by the British government for 
.35,000/. and placed in the British Museum, in 1816. 
The ship conveying them was wrecked near Cerigo, 
and Mr. W. R. Hamilton, who was on board, re- 
trained several months at Cerigo, and recovered 
them from the sea. 

ELGUETA, N. Spain ; near here the Carlists 
•defeated the republicans under gen. Soma, and 
'took 600 prisoners, 5-6 Aug. 1873. 

ELINGA, W. Spain. Here P. Scipio Africanus 
totally defeated the Carthigehians under Hasdrubal 
Gisco, which led to their expulsion from the country , 
206 B.C. 

ELIS, a Greek state termed the " Hoi}' Land," 
in the Peloponnesus, founded by the Heraclidse, 
1 103 B.C. Here Iphitus revived the Olympic games, 
584, which were regularly celebrated after Corcebus 
rgained the prize in 776. Elis surrendered many 
towns to the Spartans in war, 400. After various 
■changes, Elis joined the Achaean league, 274; and 
with the rest of Greece was subjugated by the 
Homans in 146. 

ELL (so named from ulna, the arm) was fixed at 
45 inches, by king Henry I. in 1101. The old 
French ell, or aune, was 46790 inches. 

ELLISON GALLERY. In April, i860, 
Mrs. Elizabeth Ellison (in conformity with the wish 
■of her deceased husband, Richard), presented to the 
South Kensington Museum a series of 50 original 
■water-colour drawings, by the first masters. 

ELLORA or ELORA, Central India ; remark- 
able for its very ancient rock-cut temple ; excavated 
according to Hindoo legends nearly 7000 years ago ; 
but more probably about 800 a.d. The town was 
■ceded to the British by Holkar in 1818, and trans- 
ferred by them to the Nizam of the Deccan in 1822. 

ELMINA, and Dutch Guinea, W. Africa, 
were ceded by the Dutch government by treaty, 
signed Feb. 1872, and consolidated with "the West 
African settlements; first governor, Mr. Pope Hen- 
messy, April, 1872. See Ashantecs. 

EL-OBEID, Battle of, 3-5 Nov. 1S84. See 
Soudan. 



ELOPEMENT. A wife who departs from her 
husband, loses her dower by the statute of Westm. 
1285 — unless her husband, without coercion of the 
church, be reconciled to her. Earlier laws punished 
elopement with death when adultery followed. 

ELPHIN (Ireland) . St. Patrick founded a cathe- 
dral near Elphin, in the 5th century, and placed over 
it St. Asicus, whom he created bishop, and who 
soon after filled it with monks. After many cen- 
turies, Roscommon, Ardcarn, Drumclive, and others 
of less note, were also annexed to Elphin, which 
became one of the richest sees in Ireland. It is 
valued in the king's books, by an extent returned 
28 Eliz., at 103/. 18.5. sterling. The see was united 
to Kilmore in 1841, under the provisions of the 
Church Temporalities act, passed Aug. 1833. 

ELSINORE, Zealand, Denmark, formerly the 
station for receiving the Sound dues {which see). 
Population, 1890, 1 1,082. 

EL-TEB, Battle of, 29 Feb. 1884. See Soudan. 

ELY, an island in Cambridgeshire, on which a 
church was built about 673, by Etheldreda, queen 
of Egfrid, king of Northumberland ; she also founded 
a religious house, tilled it with virgins, and became 
herself first abbess. The 1200th anniversary was 
celebrated 17-21 Oct. 1873; about 60,000/. had 
then been spent on the restoration of the cathedral. 
The Danes ruined the convent about 870 ; but a 
monastery was built in 879, on which king Edgar 
and succeeding monarchs bestowed great privileges 
and grants of land ; whereby it became the richest 
in England. Richard, the eleventh abbot, wishing 
to free himself from the bishop of Lincoln, made 
great interest with Henry I. to get Ely erected into 
a bishopric, 1 108, and bis successor Hervseus was 
the first prelate, 1 109. It is valued in the king's 
books at 2134/. 18*. 5^ ; present stated income, 
5500/. Population in 1881,8,171 ; 1891,8,017. 

KECENT BISHOPS. 

1781. James York, died 26 Aug. 1808. 

1808. Thomas Pampier, died 13 May, 1812. 

1812. Bowyer Edward Sparke, died 4 April, 1836. 

1836. Joseph Allen, died 20 March, 1845. 

1845. Thomas Turton, died 7 Jan. 1864. 

1864. Edward Harold Browne, translated to Winchester, 

Aug. 1873. 
1873. James Russell Woodford, Aug. ; died 24 Oct. 1885. 
1385. Lord Alwyne Corr.pton. 

ELY CHAPEL, Holborn, London, erected in 
the 14th century, sold for 5250/., 29 Jan. 1874; 
acquired by the R. C. fathers of the order of Charity, 
1874; and finely restored at the expense of the 
duke of Norfolk and others, opened as St. Ethel- 
dreda' s chapel, 23 June, 1876. 

ELZEVIR, or ELSEVIER, a family of print- 
ers, in Holland, whose reputation is based on fine 
pocket editions of the classics. 

Louis, the founder, was born in 1540 ; began business at 
Leyden in 1580 ; he printed about 150 works, and died 
4 Feb. 1617. His sons (especially Bonaventure) and 
grandsons, were celebrated for their work. 

EMANCIPATION, see Roman Catholics and 
Slavery. The Emancipation Society for slaves 
lasted 1862-5. 

EMANUEL HOSPITAL, Westminster, 
founded in 1594 by lady Anne Dacre for aged people 
and children. Its original annual income had in- 
creased from 360/. to about 4000/. in 1870, when 
changes in the disposition of the funds were pro- 
posed by the Charity Commi-sioners, and some 
effected. Through reduction of income to about 
800/. the buildings decay, and the number of 
inmates decrease, reported Jan. 1890. The proposed 
change of site much opposed, 1892. 



EMBALMING. 



331 



EMIGRATION. 



EMBALMING. The ancient Egyptians be- 
lieving that their souls, after many thousand years, 
would reinhabit their bodies, if preserved entire, 
embalmed the dead. Some of the bodies, called 
mummies, buried 3000 years ago, are still perfect. 
* l The physicians embalmed Israel," 1689 B.C. Gen. 
i. 2 ; see Mummies. Carbolic acid was successfully 
employed by professor Seely in America, in 1868. 
The most perfect specimens of modern embalming are pre- 
served in the museum of the royal college of surgeons, 
one being the body of the wife of Van Butchell, pre- 
served by John Hunter by injecting camphorated 
spirits of wine, &c. , into the arteries and veins ; and 
the other the body of a young woman, who died about 
1780 of consumption, in the Lock hospital. The method 
of embalming royal personages in modern times is fully 
described in Hunter's " Posthumous Works." He died 
in 1793. —During the American War (1861-5), many 
soldiers' bodies were embalmed and sent home. 
Improvements in embalming made by Prof. Laskowski 
of Geneva, 1885. 

EMBANKMENTS of earth were erected by 
the ancients for preservation from their enemies 
and the inundations of the tide. Those of the 
Egyptians and Babylonians are described by Hero- 
dotus and Strabo. To the Komans are attributed 
the first dykes of Holland, and the embankments of 
llomney Marsh, considered to be the oldestm Britain. 
In 1250 Henry III. issued a writ enforcing the sup- 
port of these works ; and his successors followed his 
example. James I. greatly encouraged the embank- 
ment of the Thames. Sir W. Dugdale's " History 
of Embanking" first appeared in 1662 ; see Brain- 
age, Levels, and Thames. Since 1830, millions of 
pounds have been expended in embankments for 
railways. 

EMBARGO, from the Spanish embargar, to 
detain, applied to the restraining ships from sailing. 
This power is vested in the crown, but is rarely 
exercised except in extreme cases, and sometimes as 
a prelude to war. The most memorable instances 
of embargo were those for the prevention of corn 
going out of the kingdom in 1766 ; and for the de- 
tention of all Russian, Danish, and Swedish ships 
in the several ports of the kingdom, owing to the 
armed neutrality, 14 Jan. 1801 ; see Armed Neu- 
trality. 

EMBER WEEKS, instituted, it is said, by 
pope CallLxtus I. (219-223), to implore the blessing 
of God on the produce of the earth by prayer and 
fasting, in which penitents used to sprinkle the 
ashes (embers) of humiliation on their heads. In 
the English church the Ember dags are the Wed- 
nesday, Friday, and Saturday, after the following 
days — the first Sunday in Lent, Whit-sunday, 14 
Sept. (Holy Cross), and 13 Dec. (St. Lucia). 

EMBROIDERY is usually ascribed to the 
Phrygians ; but the Sidonians excelled in it, and it 
is mentioned in 1491 B.C. Exodus xxxv. 35 and 
xxxviii. 23. See Bageux Tapestry. Embroidery is 
now done by machinery. The first embroidery ma- 
chine is said to have been invented by John Duncan 
of Glasgow in 1804. Heilman's embroidery machine 
was patented by Kochlin. Berlin Wool-work lias 
been much improved of late years by the production 
of more elegant patterns, first published by Mr. 
Wittich in Berlin, about 1810. 

EMERALD, a precious stone, of a green colour, 
found in the East and in Peru. It has been er- 
roneously alleged that there were no true emeralds 
in Europe before the conquest of Peru ; but there is 
one in the Paris Museum, taken from the mitre of 
pope Julius II. who died in 1513, and Peru was not 
conquered till 1545. It is stated that there were 



mines at Gebel Zabara worked by Egyptians, 1800 

B.C. 

EMERGENCY MEN, a name given to the 
more energetic members of the Irish Defence As- 
sociation ; and especially to the men engaged in 
carrying out evictions in Ireland. See Mansion 
House Funds, 1881. 

EMESA, now Hems, Syria, renowned for a 
temple of the sun, the priest of which, Bassianus, 
was proclaimed emperor with the name Heliogabalus 
or Elagabalus, 218. His atrocities led to his assas- 
sination, n March, 222. 

EMIGRANTS. The French aristocracy and 
clergy {emigres) began to leave their country in 
July, 1789, at the breaking out of the revolution: 
their estates were confiscated in Dec. A large num- 
ber returned in 1802, by an amnesty granted after 
the peace of Amiens. Many were indemnified after 
the restoration in 1815. 

EMIGRATION. Phoenician and Greek emi- 
grants colonised the coasts of the Mediterranean and 
the Black Sea ; see Magna Grmcia, Marseilles, &c. 
The discovery of America opened a vast field for 
emigration, which was restrained by Charles I. in 
1637. It has been greatly encouraged since 1819. 
Regulations for emigration were made in 1831, and 
in Jan. 1840, the Colonial Land and Emigration 
Board was established. Emigration much promoted 
through want of employment in London, 1869-70 ; 
from Ireland, by act passed, 1 883. Much emigra- 
tion from Great Britain and Germany to America, 
1881-5. Fare of steerage passengers from Britain 
to America by steamers reduced to about $1. Jan. 
1883. 

The "Order of the Sons of St. George," at Phil- 
adelphia, which was established to succour emi- 
grants, still exists. (See under George, St.) It 
published a letter dissuading unsuitable emigra- 
tion 31 July, 1874 

Meetings at the Mansion House to promote State- 
directed emigration of the unemployed 5 April, 1882 
A tax of 2S. per head levied in United Slates on 
immigrants ; act passed by congress in opposition 
to the government and steam ship companies 

Aug. „ 
Association formed to promote State-directed emi- 
gration and colonization ... 10 Aug. 1883 
Emigrants' Information Offlce, London, opened 7 

Oct. 1886 ; reported to be highly successful May, 1888 
The Self-Help Emigration Society, supported by 
the earls of Aberdeen and Roden, lords Monks well 
and Dorchester and other gentlemen, established 
in 1884. Up to 1891, 3,666 emigrants had been 
assisted by the society. 
About 2,000 deserted children domesticated in 
Liverpool, and sent to Canada by the agency of 
Mr. Samuel Smith and Mrs. Birt, reported Dec. 1886 
Increased emigration from Ireland to America, 

reported April, 1889 

Emigration from the United Kingdom, in 1815, 2081 ; in 
1820, 25,729 ; in 1830, 56,907 ; in 1840, 90,743 ; in 1850, 
280,843 ; in i860, 128,469 ; in 1866, 204,882 ; in 1867, 
195,953 ; in 1868, 196,325 ; in 1869, 258,027 ; in 1870, 
256,940; 1111871,252,435; 1872,295,213; 1873,310,612; 
1874, 241,014; 1875, 173,809. Of British origin only, 
1876, 109,469 ; 1877, 95,195 ; 1878, 112,902 ; 1879, 
164,274 ; 1880, 227,542 ; 1881, 243,032 ; 1882, 279,366 ; 
1883, 320,118; 1884, 242,179; 1885, 207,644; 1886, 
232,900; 1887, 281,487; 1888, 279,928; 1889, 253.795; 
1890,218,116; 1891,218,507. See Immigration. 

1846. 1851. 

Prom England 86,611 254.97° 

,, Scotland 3.427 18,646 

,. Ireland 38,813 62,350 



128,851 335, 966 

Emigration to North American colonics, West Indies, 

Cape of Good Hope, New Smith Wales, Swan Uivcr, 

Van Diomen's Land, &c. , in 1820-30, 154,291 : in 1830-40, 

277,695. 



EMILY ST. PIERRE. 



332 



ENCAENIA. 



To North American Colonies, in 1842, 54,123 ; in 1847, 
109,680 ; in 1856, 16,378 ; in 1861, 12,707 ; in 1863, 
18,083 ; in 1864, 12,721 ; in 1866, 13,255 ; in 1867, 15,503 ; 
in 1868, 21,062 ; in 1869, 33,891 ; in 1870, 35,295 ; 1871, 
32,671 ; 1872, 32,205 ; 1873, 37,208 ; 1874, 25,450. Of 
British origin, 1876,9335; 1877, 7720; 1878, 10,652: 
1879, 17,952; 1880, 20,902 ; 1881, 23,912; 1882, 40.441 ; 

1883, 44,185 ; 1884, 31,134 ; 1885, 19,838 ; 1886, 24,745 ; 
1887, 32,025; 1888, 34,853 ; 1889, 28,269 ■ 1890, 22,520. 

To United States, in 1842, 63,852 ; in 1847, 142,154 ; in 
1857, 126,905 ; in 1861, 49,764 ; in 1863, 146,813 ; in 
1864, 147,042; in 1866, 161,000; in 1867, 159,275; in 
1868, 155,532 ; in 1869, 203,001 ; in 1870, 196,075; 1871, 
198,843; 1872, 233,747; 1873, 233,073; 1874, 148,161. 
Of British origin, 1876, 54,554 ; 1877, 45,4 Sl : 1878, 
54,694; 1879, 91,806; 1880, 166,570; 1881, 176,104; 
1882, 181,903; 1883, 191,573; 1884, 155,280; 1885, 
I 37,687 ; 1886, 152,710; 1887, 201,526; 1888, 195,986; 
1889, 168,771 ; 1890,152,413. 

To Australia and New Zealand, in 1842, 8534 ; in 1845, 
830 ; in 1850, 16,037 ; in 1852 (gold discovery), 87,881 ; 
in 1853, 61,401 ; in 1854, 83,237 ; in 1855, 52,309 ; in 
1856, 44,584 ; in 1857, 61,248 ; in 1861, 23,738 ; in 1863, 
53,054 ; in 1864, 40,942 ; in 1S66, 24,097 ; in 1867, 14,466 ; 
in t868, 12,809 '• m 1869, 14.001 ; in 1870, 17,065; in 1871, 
12,227; ^72, 15,876; 1873, 26,428; 1874, 53,958. Of 
British origin, 1876, 32,196 ; 1877,30,13s; 1878,36,479; 
1879, 40,959 ; 1880, 24,184 ; 1881, 22 682 ; 1882, 37,289 ; 
1883,71,264; 1884,44,255"; 1885,39,395; 1886, 43,076; 

1887, 34,183 ; 1888, 31,127 ; 1889, 28,294 ; 1890, 21,179. 
To other places, in 1854, 3366 ; in 1859, 12,427 ; in 1868, 

6922; in 1870, 8505; 1871, 8694; 1872, 13,385; 1873, 
*3>9°3'< T 874, 13.445; 1875,173,809. Of British origin, 
1876, 13,384; 1877, 11,856; 1S78, 11,077; 1879, 13,557; 
1880, 15,886 ; 1881, 20 304 ; 1882, 19,733 ; 1883, 13,096 ; 

1884, 11,510; 1885, 10,724; 1886, 12,369; 1887, 13,753; 

1888, 17,962 ; 1889, 28,461 ; 1890, 22,004. 

EMILY ST. PIERRE, see United States, 
1862. 

EMINENCE, a title conferred upon cardinals 
by pope Urb;in VIII. Jan. 10, 1631, as more honour- 
able than "Excellency." Previously cardinals had 
the title of Illustrissimi. Ashe. The grand-master 
of Malta also obtained this title. Pardon. 

EMIN PASHA RELIEF. The committee 
for the purpose appointed, 1887. 
Sir William Mackinnon, chairman, lord Kinnaird, 

Mr. W. Burdett-Coutts and others. See Soudan 

1886-7, all( l Africa (German East). 
The German committee at Berlin, dissolved itself 

Dec. 1890 

EMIR, a title of the caliphs among the Turks 
and Persians, first awarded to the descendants of 
Mahomet's daughter Fatima, about 650. To such 
only was originally given the privilege of wearing 
the green turban. 

EMISSION THEORY of Light (advo- 
cated by Newton, about 1672), supposes that indi- 
vidual particles pass from the luminous body to the 
eye, and that each ray of light passes from the sun 
to the earth. It is opposed to the Undulatory 
Theory (which see) now generally received. 

EMLY, an Irish see, said to have been founded 
by St. Patrick. Emly was called Imelaca-Ibair : 
St. Ailbe was the first bishop in 448. In 1568, the 
see was united to Cashel (which see). It is now an 
inconsiderable village. 

EMPALEMENT. This mode of executing 
criminals, mentioned by Juvenal, and often inflicted 
in Pome, is still used in Turkey and Arabia. In 
England the dead bodies of murderers were some- 
times staked in this manner, previously to being 
buried ; abolished, 1823. See Suicide. 

EMPEROR, from Imperator (ruler), a title j 
conferred on victorious Roman generals. 
Augustus Caesar the first Roman emperor . n.c. 27 
Valentinian I. first emperor of the west, and Valens, 

first emperor of the east . . . a.d. 364 



Charlemagne first emperor of Germany, crowned by 
Leo. Ill 800 

Othman I. founder of the Turkish empire, the first 
emperor of Turkey 1299 

The Czar the first emperor of Russia . 22 Oct. 1721 

Napoleon Bonaparte first emperor of the French 1804. . 

Napoleon III., his nephew, founded the second 
French empire, Dec. 1852, deposed . 4 Sept. 1870 

Iturbide, emperor of Mexico, Feb. 1822 ; shot 

19 July, 1824, 

Pom Pedro IV. of Portugal the first emperor of 
Brazil 1825 

Faustin I. the first emperor of Hayti, in 1849 ; de- 
posed 1859 

Maximilian I. emperor of Mexico, 10 April, 1864 ; 
shot 19 June, 1867 

EMPEROR'S HYMN (of Austria), words by 
L. L. Haschka, music by Joseph Haydn ; first sung, 
12 Feb., 1797. ^^aasssF- 

EMPIRE. Umpire City, a name given to- 
New York. Empire Club, Constitutional, estab- 
lished 10 Oct. 1881, founded 1883; closed 1886. 
Empire Route to the east, by the Canadian Pacific 
Railway ; term applied 1887. 

EMPIRICS, a sect of physicians, formed in the 
3rd century before Christ, who contended that all 
reasoning respecting the animal economy was use- 
less, and that experience and observation were the 
only foundations of medicine. The sect adopted 
the principles of Acron of Agrigentum, who flour- 
ished about 430 B.C. 

EMPLOYERS OF LABOUR, National 
Federation of Associated, formed in London about 
ro Dec. 1873. The founders were said to employ 
about 2,000,000, principally in N.W. and N. Eng- 
land. Their object was to counteract the influence 
of trade unions. The first annual meeting held 
24 Feb. 1875. 

Iron trades employers, association issued a circular pro- 
posing increase in hours of labour, Dec. i8;8. See 
Coal Strikes, 1890. 

EMPLOYERS' LIABILITY ACT (to 

make compensation for personal injuries suffered by 
workmen), passed for 7 years, 7 Sept. 1880; effects- 
neutral (1884). New act passed 24 Dec. 1888. The 
stringent application of the spirit of these laws by 
the decision of the house of lords in the case of 
Smith v. Charles Baker & Sons on appeal was 
strongly enforced 21 July, 1891. 

EMPLOYERS AND WORKMEN ACT, 

passed 13 Aug. 1875, relates to legal settlement of 
disputes, &c. 

EMPRESS OF INDIA (Imperatrix Indite), 
addition to the royal titles, proclaimed in London, 
I May, 1876. 

ENAMELLING was practised by the Egyp- 
tians, Chinese, and other nations, and' was known 
in England in the time of the Saxons. At Oxford 
is an enamelled jewel, which belonged to Alfred, 
and which, as appears by the inscription, was made 
by his order, in his reign, about 887. Limoges 
enamelled ware was popular in the 16th century. 
Magnificent specimens by Lepeo, Elkington, Eman- 
uel, and others, appeared at the exhibi ioa at Paris, 
1867. See Mosaic. On 19 June, 1862, madame 
Rachel (Levison or Leverson) sued captain Carnegie 
for 928A for enamelling his wife's face, and was 
nonsuited ; see Trials, 1868. She was convicted 
of fraud in 1878 ; and died in prison 12 Oct., 1880, 
See Trials. 

ENCAENIA. Greek festivals kept on days on 
which cities were built and temples consecrated; 
and in later times, as at Oxford, at the celebration 



ENCAUSTIC PAINTING. 



333 



ENGINEEES. 



or commemoration of founders and benefactors. 
Oldisworth. The public commemoration at Oxford 
suspended in 1875; restored, 21 June, 1876. They 
were the origin of church-wakes in England, about 
600. They were also feasts celebrated by the Jews 
on the 25th of the ninth month, in commemoration 
of the Maccabees cleansing the temple, which bad 
been polluted by Antiochus Epiphanes, 131 B.C. 

ENCAUSTIC PAINTING, enamelling by 
fire. Painting with burnt wax is said to have been 
known to Praxiteles about 360 B.C. This art was 
revived by M. Bachelier, 1749, by count Caylus, 
1765, and by Miss Greenland, 1785 and 1792. 

ENCLOSUEE, see Inclosure. 

ENCBATITES, followers of Tatian, about 170, 
denounced marriage, and abstained from flesh, and 
from wine even at the Lord's supper. 

ENCUMBEEED ESTATES ACT, passed 
July 1849, to enable owners of land or leases in 
Ireland, subject to encumbrance, to apply to com- 
missioners appointed under it to direct a sale of such 
property. These commissioners held their first 
court in Dublin, 24 Oct. 1849, and their last 28 July, 
1858, a new court being established under the 
Landed Estates act. The number of estates sold, up 
to 1858, was 2380, producing twenty-two millions of 
pounds. In 1854 a similar act was passed for the 
West Indies. 

ENCYCLICAL Letter, see Rome, 1864, et 
seq. 
ENCYCLOPAEDIA or Cyclopaedia, a 

general dictionary of art, science, and literature. 
This name has been given to a work by Abulphara- 
gius in the 13th century. 

Alsted's Encyclopaedia 1620 

Louis Moreri's Dictionnaire Historique . . . 1673 

Hofmann's Lexicon Universale 1677 

Corneille's Dictionnaire des Arts 1694 

Bayle's Dictionnaire 1696 

Lexicon Technicum of John Han-is (earliest English 

encyclopedia) 1704 ; supplements . 1710, 1741 

Ephraim Chambers' Cyclopaedia 1728 

Zedler's Universal Lexicon .... 1732-50 
Encyclopedie (by Diderot and D'Alembert) . 1751-80 
IThe contributors were termed Encyclopedistes, 

and their daring writings are believed to have 

hastened the French revolution in 1789.] 
Encyclopaedia Britannica (1st edition by William 

Smellie) 1771 

[The 8th completed 1861, (sale 5,000) ; 9th (sale 

50,000) 1875-89.] 

Encyclopedie Methodique (by Pancoucke) . 1782-1832 

■Chambers' Cyclopaedia (edited by Roes) . . . 1785 

Rees' Cyclopaedia 1802-19 

Brockhaus's Conversations Lexicon, 1st edition . 1818 

[New editions frequent.] 13th, 1883 et seq. 
Encyclopaedia Metropolitana .... 1817-45 
Cabinet Cyclopaedia (a collection of treatises) . 1829-46 

Penny Cyclopaedia 1833-46 

K.night's English Cyclopaedia (4 divisions) . 1853-61-70 
Chambers' Cyclopaedia 1859-68; 1874-5; 1888 et serj. 

Ersch and Gniber's Allgemeine Encyclopadie, began 

i8i3 ; 164 vols, published 1889 

Chinese cyclopaedia, 6109 vols, (all the valuable 

books then existing), printed by order of the 

emperor between 1661-1721 

A copy bought for British Museum . . . . 1877 
American cyclopaedia, by Geo. Ripley and Charles 

A. Dana, 17 vols 1873-8 

Globe encyclopaedia, completed .... 1879 
Encyclopaedic Dictionary completed . . . . 1889 
Meyer's Conversations Lexicon, 1840 (new edition), 1891 

ENDEEBY LAND, see Southern Continent. 

ENDOSMOSIS. M. Dutrochct, about 1826, 
found that if two fluids, gases or vapours, of unequal 
density, are separated by an animal or vegetable 
membrane, the denser will attract the less de.isc 



through the medium. This property he called 
endosmose, when the attraction is from the outside 
to the inside, and exosmose when it operates from 
the inside to the outside. Many natural phenomena 
are thus more clearly understood. Brande. 

ENDOWED SCHOOLS ACT, containing 
the " Conscience Clause," passed i860 ; another 
similar act passed 2 Aug. 1869. A committee re- 
ported on the working of the act, June, 1887. 

ENDOWED SCHOOL COMMISSION 

(consisting of lord Lyttelton, canon Robinson, and 
others), was appointed under the act 32-33 Vict, 
c. 56 (2 Aug. 1869). It threw open many endow- 
ments to the nation, and carried out reforms, being 
frequently much opposed. By an act passed 7 Aug. 
[874, its duties were transferred to the charity 
commissioners, two new commissioners (Mr. Long- 
ley, lord Clinton), and canon Robinson being ap- 
pointed. The commissioners had dealt_ with 74 
schools; prepared schemes for 66; leaving about 
660 to be dealt with ; Aug. 1874. 

ENEEGY. In an address to the British As- 
sociation at York, 1 Sept. 1881, sir William Thom- 
son described the sources of all the energy in nature 
available to man for the production of mechanical 
effect, as tides, food, fuel, wind and rain, all except 
the tides derived from the sun. 
ENFIDA CASE, see Tunis. 
ENFIELD, N. Middlesex ; a manor belonging 
to the duchy of Lancaster, is mentioned in Domes- 
day, and was given to De Mandeville by William I. 
after 1066. After various changes it became the 
property of the crown by the marriage of Mary, 
heiress of the Bohuns, to Henry duke of Lancaster, 
afterwards king Henry IV. 1399. Edward VI. gave 
it to his sister Elizabeth, who resided here in 1552, 
in a palace, part of which still remains. The 
grammar school was founded about 1586. The 
ancient chase was dischased and enclosed, after 
I Jan. 1779. Population, 1881, 18,944; 1891, 
31.532. 
ENFIELD MUSKET, see Fire-arms. 
ENGEN, Baden. Here Moreau defeated the 
Austrians, 3 May, 1800. 

ENGHIEN or STEENKIRK (S. W. Belgium). 
Here the British under William III. were defeated 
by the French under marshal Luxemburg, 24 July, 
1692. — The due d'Enghien, a descendant of the 
great Conde, was seized in Baden by order of Bona- 
parte, conveyed to Vincennes, and, after a hasty 
trial, &hot by torch-light, immediately after con- 
demnation, 21 March, 1804. The body was ex- 
humed, 20 March, 18 16. 

ENGINEEES, Military, formerly called 
Trench-masters. Sir William Pelham officiated as 
trench-master in 1622 ; the chief engineer was 
called camp-master-general in 1634. Capt. Thomas 
Rudd had the rank of chief engineer to the king 
about 1650. The corps of engineers was formerly 
a civil corps, but was made a military force, and 
directed to rank with the artillery, 25 April, 17S7. 
It has a eolonel-in-chief, 16 colonels-commandant, 
and 16 colonels. Civil Engineering became im- 
portant in the middle of the last century, when 
Smeaton began the Eddystone lighthouse, ar.d. 
Brindley the Bridgewater canal. Since then the 
Itennies, Telford, the Stephensons and Brunels, 
Locke, and others have constructed breakwaters, 
docks, bridges, railways, tunnels, &c, which are 
the marvel of our age. 

" Engineering is the art of directing tic great 
sources of power in nature lor tic us,' and con- 
venience of man." (Thos. Tredgold, died 1829.) 



ENGLAND. 



331 



ENGLAND. 



The first society of Civil Engineers formed by Smea- 
ton and others, afterwards termed the Smeatonian 
Society of Civil Engineers 1793 

Institution of Civil Engineers established 2 Jan. 
1818 ; obtained a charter ... 3 June, 1828 
5728 members .... April, 1889 

Institution of Mechanical Engineers, which had its 
head-quarters in Birmingham, moved to Loudon, 
1877 ; annual meetings are held ; established . 1847 

Civil and Mechanical Engineers' Society founded . 1859 

Isambard Kingdom Brunei, projector of the Great 
Eastern, aged 53, died 15 Sept. ; Robert Stephen- 
son, railway engineer, aged 59, died . 12 Oct. ,, 

Engineers' Amalgamated Society, in 1867, consisted 
of above 30,000 members ; annual income, 86,oooL ; 
disbursed to disabled workmen, &c, about 50,000^ ; 
amassed capital, about 125,000^. 

Engineer, weekly journal, established . 4 Jan. 1856 

Engineering, weekly journal, established . Jan. 1866 

Newcastle strike (see Newcastle) . May— Oct. 1871 

Strike of engineers in London (18 firms) 7 Feb.— 

4 Oct. 1879 

College of Practical Engineers, Muswell hill, near 
London, opened by sir Henry Bessemer, sir 
Joseph Whitworth, Dr. C. Wm. Siemens, and 
others Sept. 1881 

Engineering exhibition, Agricultural Hall, London 

5-2i July, 1883 

A party of American engineers entertained by the 
Institution of Civil Engineers . . June, 1889 

Mr. T. A. Walker, contractor for the Manchester 
ship canal and other great works, dies . 25 Nov. „ 

Sir John Hawkshaw, engineer of the Severn tunnel, 
dies aged 80 2 June, 1891 

Sir John Coode, eminent for breakwaters and other 
works, born 1816, died. . . .2 March 1892 

ENGLAND (from Angles and lond, land), so 
named, it is said, by Egbert, first king of the 
English, in a general council held at Winchester, 
829; or by Athelstan, 925. See Anglo-Saxons. 
England was united to Wales, 1283 ; to Scotland in 
1603; they have had the same legislature since 1707, 
when the three were styled Great Britain. James T. 
first adopted the title of king of England, Scotland, 
afterwards Great Britain, France, and Ireland. 
After the treaty of Amiens, signed 27 March, 1802, 
France was omitted from the royal style. Ireland 
was incorporated with them, by the act of legis- 
lative union, I Jan. 1801, as the United Kingdom 
of Great Britain, France, and Ireland. The British 
empire is computed to contain about 7,000,000 square 
miles of territory, with 340,220,000 inhabitants. 
Statistical details are given under the respective 
headings ; Army, Navy, Revenue, Population, &c. 
Population of England and Wales, 1891, 29,001,018. 
For previous history, see Britain. Histories of Eng- 
land, by Kapin (in English), 1725-31; Thomas Carte, 
1747-55; David Hume, 1755-62; Tobias Smollett, 
1757-65; John Lingard, 1819-30 ; Charles Knight, 
1856-62 ; J. B. Green, 1874-80. Parts by T. B. 
Macaulay, Earl Stanhope, J. A. Froude, Miss II. 
Martineau, and others. See Chronicles. 
Egbert, "king of the. English," 828; defeats the 

Welsh, Danes, &c, at Hengestdown . . . 835 
Alfred, king, 871 ; after many vicissitudes, van- 
quishes the Danes 871-896 

He frames a code of laws, 890 ; forms a militia and 
navy, surveys and subdivides the country, and 

promotes education 896 

Athelstan's great victory over the Danes, Scots, &c. 

at Brananburg 937 

Predominance of Dunstan ; he promotes monachism 

and the celibacy of the clergy, about . . . 952 
Ethelred compounds with the Danes for peace . 991 

Causes their massacre 13 Nov. 1002 

Avenged by Sweyn, king of Denmark: Ethelred 

flees to Normandy 1003 

Sweyn dies, and Ethelred returns, 1014 ; dies . . 1016 

Canute the Dane sole monarch 1017 

Edward the Confessor king ; Saxon dynasty restored 1042 
Harold II. crowned, 6 Jan. ; defeats the Norwegians, 
25 Sept. ; defeated and slain at Hastings by Wil- 
liam of Normandy _ 14 Oct. 1066 



William I. crowned .... 25 Dec. 1066 
The northern counties rebel ; ravaged from the 

Humber to the Tyne 1069-70 

Introduction of the feudal system, about . . . 1070 

Justices of peace appointed 1076 

Domesday book compiled 1085-6 - 

William II. crowned . . . .26 Sept. 1087 
The crusades begin . . . ... . . 1096 

Henry I. crowned, restores Saxon laws, <fec 

5 Aug. 1 100 
Defeats his brother Robert, and gains Normandy . 1106 
Prince William and nobles drowned . 25 Nov. 1120 

Stephen crowned .... 26 Dec. 1135 
Civil war between the empress Maud, Henry's 
daughter, and Stephen ; her friends the Scots de- 
feated at the battle of the Standard . 22 Aug. 1 138 
She lands in England, and is successful . . . 1139. 
Crowned at Winchester ... 3 March, 1141 

Defeated ; retires to France 1147 

Concludes a peace with Stephen 1153 

Henry II. crowned .... 19 Dec. 1154. 
Constitutions of Clarendon enacted . . Jan. 1164 
Arrogance of Becket ; murdered . . 29 Dec. 11 70 

Conquest of Ireland 1171,1172 

England divided into six circuits for the administra- 
tion of justice , 1176 

English laws digested by Glanville, about . . 1181 

Richard I. crowned .... 3 Sept. 1189 

He joins the crusades 1191 

Defeats Saladin 1192 

Made prisoner by duke of Austria, and sold to 

Henry VI. of Germany .... Dec. ,, 
Ransomed for about 300,000^. ..... 1194 

John crowned May, 1199 

Normandy lost to England 1204 

England put under an interdict . . . . . 1208 
Magna Charta granted . . . .15 June, 1215 

Henry III. crowned . . . .28 Oct. 1216 
The Barons' war (ivhich see) .... 1262-S 
Simon de Montford, earl of Leicester, summoned 
two parliaments ; one including knights of the 
shire, 1264 (the other first including burgesses) ; 
the first regular parliament met . . Jan. 1265 

Edward I. crowned . . . . 20 Nov. 1272 

Wales subdued, united to England . . . . 1283 

Death of Roger Bacon . . ... . . 1292 

Scotland subdued, 1296 ; revolts 1297 

Edward II. crowned .... 8 July, 1307 
Defeated by Bruce at Bannockburn . 24 June, 1314 
Insurrection of the barons against his favourites 1308, 

1315, 1325 

Edward III. crowned ... 25 Jan. 1327 
Defeat of theScots at Hallidown-hill . . . . 1333 
Invades France ; victorious at Creey . 26 Aug. 1346 

Takes Calais 1347 

Order of the Garter instituted 1349 

Victory at Poictiers .... 19 Sept. 1356 

Peace of Bretigny 8 May, 1360 

Law pleadings in English 1362 

Richard II. crowned . . . .22 June, 1377 
Insurrection of Wat Tyler suppressed . 15 June, 13S1 
Death of Wickliffe 1385 

Henry IV. crowned ... 30 Sept. 1399 
Order of the Bath instituted by Henry IV. . . ,, 
Insurrection of the Percies and the Welsh . . 1402-5 

Henry V. crowned . . . 21 March, 1413 

France invaded by Henry V. who gains the battle of 

Agmcourfc 25 Oct. 1415 

Treaty of Troyes ; the French crown gained . . 1420 

Henry VI. crowned at Paris . . . Dec. 1430 
Appearance of the maid of Orleans ; the conquests in 
France lost, except Calais .... 1429-31 

Cade's insurrection June, 1450 

War of the Roses (see Roses and Battles) . . 1455-71 

Edward IV. deposes Henry VI. . 4 March, 1461 

Printing introduced by Caxton . . ... 1471 

Edward V. accession .... 9 April, 1483 
Murdered in the Tower (soon after) . . . . ,, 

Richard III. deposes Edward V. . 25 June, ,, 
Valuable statutes enacted 1484 

Henry VII. accession ; Richard defeated and 
slain at Bosworth Field . . .22 Aug. 1485 
Yeomen of the guard, the. first appearance of a 

standing army in England instituted . . ,, 

Henry marries Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV. . i486 
Insurrection of Lambert Simnel quelled . . 1486-7 
Court of Star-Chamber instituted .... 1487 



ENGLAND. 



335 



ENGLAND. 



Insurrection of Perkin Warbeck quelled . . 1492-8 
Gardening introduced into England, principally from 

the Netherlands, about 1302 

Death of prince Arthur .... 2 April, ,, 
Henry VIII. accession ... 22 April, 1509 

Eise of Wolsey 1514 

Henry VIII. 's interview with Francis I, at Ardres 

(see " Field of the Cloth of Gold") . 4-25 June, 1520 
First map of England drawn by G. Lilly, about . ,, 
Henry VIII. becomes " Defender of the Faith " . . 1521 
Fall of Wolsey ; he dies . . -29 Nov. 1530 

Henry VIII. marries Anne Boleyn privately, 14 Nov. 
1532 or January 1533 ; divorced from Catherine, 

23 May, 1533 
Henry VITI. styled " Head of the Church " . . 1534 
The pope's authority in England is abolished . . ,, 
Sir Thomas More beheaded ... 6 July, 153s 
Queen Anne Boleyn beheaded . . 19 May, 1536 

Queen Jane Seymour dies ... 24 Oct. 1537 

Monasteries suppressed 1538 

Statute of Six Articles passed 1539 

Abbots of Glastonbury, Reading, &c. executed . . ,, 
The first authorised edition of the Bible (Cranmer's) 

printed ,, 

Cromwell, lord Essex, beheaded 1540 

Anne of Cleves divorced .... 9 July, ,, 
Queen Catherine Howard beheaded .... 1542 
The title of ' ' king of Ireland " confirmed to the Eng- 
lish sovereigns 1543 

Henry marries Catherine Parr . . .12 July, „ 
Edward VI. accession, 28 Jan. ; promotes the 
Reformation (Somerset, protector) . . . 1547 
Book of Common Prayer authorised . . . . 1548 
Somerset deprived of power, 1549 ; beheaded . . 1552 
Mary, accession, 6 July ; restores popery . . 1553 
Execution of lady Jane Grey and her friends . . 1554 
Maiy marries Philip of Spain ; persecutes the Pro- 
testants „ 

Ridley, Latimer, and Cranmer burnt . 1555 and 1556 
Calais re-taken by the French . . .7 Jan. 1558 
Elizabeth, accession ; the church of England 
re-established . ... . . 17 Nov. ,, 

Mary, queen of Scots, lands in England, 1568 ; exe- 
cuted 8 Feb. 1587 

The Spanish armada repulsed .... July, 1588 

Devereux, earl of Essex, beheaded . 25 Feb. 1601 

James I. accession ; union of the two crowns 

24 March, 1603 
Styled " king of Great Britain " . -24 Oct. 1604 

The Gunpowder Plot Nov. 1605 

The present translation of the Bible completed . .1611 

Baronets first created May, ,, 

The Overbury murder . . . . 15 Sept. 1613 

Shakespeare dies 23 April, 1616 

Raleigh beheaded ... . . 29 Oct. 1618 

Book of Sports published . . 24 May, 1618 

Charles I. accession ... 27 March, 1625 

Death of lord Bacon 9 April, 1626 

Duke of Buckingham assassinated . 23 Aug. 1628 

Hampden's trial respecting " ship money " . . . 1637 
Contest between the king and parliament ; impeach- 
ment and execution of lord Strafford . . . 1641 
Attempted "arrest of the five members" (John 
Hampden, John Pym, Sir Arthur Hasilrigge, 
Denzil Holies, and Win. Strode) . 4 Jan. 1642 

Civil war begins ; see Battles . . . 23 Oct. ,, 
Archbishop Laud beheaded . . . .10 Jan. 1645 
Charles defeated at Naseby . . . 14 June, 
He flees to the Scotch, 5 May ; is given up, 21 Sept. 1646 

Execution of Charles 1 30 Jan. 1649 

Cromwell's victory at Worcester . . 3 Sept. 1651 
Oliver Cromwell protector of the Common- 
wealth 16 Dec. 1653 

Naval victories of Blake 1652-7 

Richard Cromwell, protector . . 3 Sept. 1658 

Richard resigns 25 May, 1659 

Charles II. : monarchy re-established, 29 May, 1660 
Act of uniformity passed ; church of England re- 
stored .... 1662 

The great plague 1665 

The great fire of London . . . . 2, 3 Sept. 1666 
Disgrace of lord Clarendon .... Nov. 1667 
Secret treaty with France signed at Dover May, 1670 
Deatli of John Milton .... 8 Nov. 1674 
Oates's " popish plot " creates a panic . 13 Aug. 1678 
Sir Edmundbury Godfrey found murdered, 17 Oct. ,, 



Many Roman Catholics executed .... 1678-0 
The Habeas Corpus act, for protecting English sub- 
jects against false arrest and imprisonment, passed 
,.. , . . 27 May, 1679. 
Violent reaction, many protestants executed ; Lon- 
don humbled I g3 I 

"Rye-house plot ;" William, lord Russell (executed 
21 July), and Algernon Sydney executed . . 1683; 
James II. accession .... 6 Feb. 168?! 
Duke of Monmouth's rebellion defeated at Sedge- 
moor, 6 July ; he is beheaded . . 15 July, 
Acquittal of the seven bishops . . 30 June! 1688. 

Abdication of James II n Dee. 

William III. and Mary proclaimed by the con- 
vention parliament ... 13 Feb. 1689. 

National debt begins 1692- 

Bank of England incorporated . . 27 July, 1694- 
Death of the queen regnant, Mary . . 28 Dec. ,, 

Peace of Ryswick 1697- 

Death of James II. in exile . . 6 (16) Sept. 1701 

Anne, accession .... 8 March, 1702- 

Victory of Marlborough at Blenheim . 2 Aug. 1704. 

Uni on of the two kingdoms .... 1 May, 1707- 

Sacheverell riots 1710 

Treaty of Utrecht, advantageous to Great Britain 

11 April, 1715; 
George I. of Hanover, accession . . 1 Aug. 1714 

The Scots' rebellion quelled 171c 

South-sea bubble 172c. 

Death of the duke of Marlborough . 16 June, 172& 

Order of the Bath revived (which see) „ . , . 172=-. 

George II. accession . . . . n June, 1727- 

Death of Newton 20 March, „ 

George II. at the victory of Dettingen . 16 June, 1743; 
Second Scots' rebellion : prince Charles-Edward 
gains Edinburgh, 17 Sept. ; victor at Prestonpans, 

21 Sept. 174^-, 
Victory at Falkirk, 18 Jan. ; defeated totally at Cul- 

loden 16 April, i 74 6- 

Death of prince Frederick Louis, son of George II. 

and father of George III. . . 20 March, 1751 

New style introduced into England, 3 Sept. (made 14) 1752- 
Seven years' war begins .... May, 1756- 

Conquest of India begins, under colonel (afterwards 

lord) Clive (see India) . 1757- 

Victory and death of general Wolfe (see Quebec) ! 1759. 
George III. accession ... 25 Oct. 1760 
His marriage with Charlotte Sophia, of Mecklen- 
burg Strelitz, 8 Sept. ; crowned . . 22 Sept. 1761 
Peace of Paris ; Canada gained . . . 10 Feb. 1763: 
Isle of Man annexed to Great Britain . . . 176c' 
Death of the Old Pretender, the " chevalier de St! 

George" .' 30 Dec. 

Royal marriage act passed 1772- 

American war begins (see United States) . . . 1775, 
Death of earl of Chatham . . . 11 May, 1778 

" No Popery " riots 2-7 June.' 1780 

Separation of America from England . . 30 Nov. 17C2 
Margaret Nicholson's attempt on the life of 

George III 2 Aug. 1786- 

Trial of Warren Hastings begins . . 13 Feb. 178S. 
Death of the Young Pretender, at Rome, 3 March, 
The king's illness made known . . 12 Oct! 
He recovers, and goes to St. Paul's to make thanks- 
giving 23 April, i 7 8q, 

First coalition against France . . 26 June, 1792- 
Habeas Corpus act suspended . . .23 May, i 7 gl 

Howe's victory T June! 

Marriage of the prince of Wales with the princess 

Caroline of Brunswick .... 8 April, 1795; 
Warren Hastings acquitted ... 23 April, 
Princess Charlotte of Wales born . . 7 Jan! 179& 
Cash payments suspended ... 25 Feb. 1797- 
Death of Edmund Burke .... 9 July, 

Irish rebellion May! 1798 

Habeas Corpus act again suspended. 
Battle of the Nile; Nelson victor. . . 1 Aug! " 
Hatfield's attempt On the king's life. . 15 May, 1800. 
Union of Great Britain with Ireland . . 1 Jail! iSok 
Nelson's victory at Copenhagen . . 2 April, 
Habeas Corpus act again suspended . 19 April', ", 
Peace of Amiens concluded . . . 1 Oct! " 
War against France under Bonaparte . . iS May, 1803: 
Nelson's victory and death at Trafalgar . 21 Oct. 1805. 
Deatli of Mr. Pitt . . . . .23 Jan. 1806. 

"Delicate investigation" (which sec) . .May, 
Lord Melville impeached, 29 April; acquitted 12 June, ', 



ENGLAND. 



336 



ENGLAND. 



Death of Charles James Fox ... 13 Sept. 1806 
Orders in council against Berlin decree . 7 Jan. 1807 
Abolition of the slave trade by parliament, 25 Mar. ,, 
Victory and death of sir J. Moore. (See Corunna) 

16 Jan. 1809 
Duke of York impeached by col. Wardle . Jan. „ 
Jubilee celebrating king's accession . . 25 Oct. ,, 
Unfortunate Walcheren expedition . Aug. -Nov. „ 
Disappearance of Mr. Benjamin Bathurst, diplo- 
matist at Perleberg, N. Germany ; suspected 
assassination by French . . .25 Nov. „ 
Sir Francis Burdett's arrest, and riots . 6 April, 1810 
Death of princess Amelia ; king's malady returns, 

2 Nov. ,, 
Great commercial embarrassment . . Dec. „ 
Regent— The prince of Wales . . 5 Feb. 181 1 

JLuddite riots Nov. „ 

Assassination of Mr. Perceval, premier 11 May, 1812 
Earl of Liverpool premier ... 9 June, „ 
War with America commenced . . . 18 June, ,, 

Peace with France, &c 14 April, 1814 

"Visit of the emperor of Russia and king of Prussia 

to England 7 June, „ 

Centenary of the house of Hanover . . 1 Aug. „ 
Peace with America (treaty of Ghent) . 24 Dec. ,, 
Battle of Waterloo (close of French war), 18 June, 1815 
Princess Charlotte marries prince Leopold, of Saxe- 

Coburg 2 May, 1816 

Death of R. B. Sheridan . . 9 July, „ 

Spa-fields meeting {which see) . . 2 Dec. „ 

Green-bag inquiry (which see) ... 2 Feb. 1817 
Habeas Corpus act suspended . . .24 Feb. „ 
Cash payments resumed . . . .22 Sept. ,, 
Princess Charlotte dies in childbirth . . 6 Nov. „ 
'■Queen Charlotte dies at Kew ... 17 Nov. 1818 
•Queen Victoria born .... 24 May, 1819 
Manchester reform meeting (Peterloo) . 16 Aug. „ 

Duke of Kent dies 23 Jan. 1820 

George IV. accession ... 29 Jan. „ 

Cato-street conspirators arrested, 23 Feb. executed, 

1 May, „ 
Trial of queen Caroline . . 19 Aug. to 10 Nov. ,, 

Coronation of George IV 19 July, 1821 

Queen Caroline dies at Hammersmith . 7 Aug. ,, 

Lord Byron dies 19 April, 1824 

Commercial panic 1825-6 

Duke of York dies 5 Jan. 1827 

Mr. Canning, premier, 30 April ; dies . 8 Aug. ,, 
Battle of Navarino .... 20 Oct. ,, 

Roman Catholic Relief bill passed . . 13 April, 1829 
Political panic in London ; — riots . . Nov. ,, 

William IV. accession ... 26 June, 1830 
Mi'. Huskisson killed at the opening of the Liver- 
pool and Manchester railway . . .15 Sept. „ 
Grey administration formed .... Nov. „ 
King opens new London bridge . . . Aug. 1831 
The cholera morbus in England . . .26 Oct. ,, 
Reform bill rejected by the lords, 7 Oct. ; fatal 

Bristol riots 29 Oct. ,, 

English Reform act passed . . 7 June, 1832 

Assault on William IV. by a discharged pensioner at 

Ascot 19 June, ,, 

Sir Walter Scott dies .... 21 Sept. „ 
S. T. Coleridge dies . .... 25 July, 1834 

Slavery ceases in the colonies . . .1 Aug. ,, 
Corporation reform act passed ... 9 Sept. 1835 
Victoria, accession ; Hanover separated from 
Great Britain .... 20 June, 1837 
Coronation of queen Victoria . . 28 June, 1838 

Beginning of war with China . . . March, 1839 
Penny postage begins .... 10 Jan. 1840 
Marriage of the queen with prince Albert of Saxe- 

Coburg (see p. 299) . . . . 10 Feb. ,, 

Oxford's assault on the queen . . . 10 June, ,, 
Prince of Wales born .... Nov. 1841 

King of Prussia visits England . . 24 Jan. 1842 
John Francis fires at the queen . . .30 May, ,, 
Bean presents a pistol at her ... 3 July, ,, 
Income tax act passed . . . Aug. ,, 

Queen embarks for Scotland (1st visit) . 29 Aug. ,, 
Peace of Nankin (with China) . . . Dee. ,, 
Death of duke of Sussex . . . 21 April, 1843 
Queen's visit to the Orleans family at Chateau d'Eu, 

2 Sept. ,, 
Emperor of Russia visits England . . 1 June, 1844 
Kim,' Louis Philippe's visit (see France) . 6 Oct. ,, 
Tractai'ian or Puseyite controversy . . . 1S44-5 



Anti-corn-law agitation 1845 

Queen's visit to Germany . . . .9 Aug. ,, 
Peel's new tariff, 1845 ; railway mania . . Nov. ,, 
Commercial panic ..... March, 1846 
Corn laws repealed . . .26 June, „ - 

Chartist demonstration in London . . 10 April, 1848 
Cholera re-appears in England in . . 1848 and 1849 
Queen embarks on her visit to Ireland . 1 Aug. ,, 
Adelaide, queen dowager, dies . . .2 Dec. ,, 
" Exhibition of 1851 " announced . . 3 Jan. 1850 
Death of Wordsworth (aged 80) . . 23 April, ,, 
Pate's assault on the queen . . .27 June, ,, 
Death of Sir Robert Peel (aged 62) . .2 July, „ 
Duke of Cambridge dies .... 8 July, ,, 
Queen's visit to Belgium ... 21 Aug. ,, 
Great excitement occasioned by the pope's establish- 
ment of a Roman Catholic hierarchy in England, 

Nov. ,, 
Sixth census of United Kingdom (see Population) 

(27,637,761) 30 March, 1851 

The first " Great Exhibition " opened . 1 May, ,, 

Australian gold arrives .... Dec. ,, 
Death of the poet Thomas Moore . . 26 Feb. 1852 
John Camden Neild, an eccentric miser, bequeathed 

about 250,000?. to the queen ; he died 30 Aug. ,, 
Slight earthquake at Liverpool, &c. . .9 Nov. ,, 
Death of Wellington (aged 83), Sept. 14 ; public 

funeral 18 Nov. „ 

Camp at Chobham ... 14 June-19 Aug. 1853 
Death of sir Charles Napier, conqueror of Scinde, 

29 Aug. ,, 
English and French fleets enter Bosphorus, 22 Oct. ,, 
Protocol signed between England, France, Austria, 
and Prussia, for re-establishment of peace between 

Russia and Turkey 5 Dec. ,, 

Many meetings on eastern question, favourable to 

Turkey Sept. to Dec. „ 

Great strike at Preston ; 14,972 hands unemployed 

at one time . . .15 Oct. 1853, to 1 May, 1854 
Queen reviews Baltic fleet . . . 11 March, „ 
Treaty of alliance between England, France, and 

Turkey signed 12 March, ,, 

War declared against Russia (see Russo-Turkish War) 

28 March, ,, 
Fast day on account of the war . . 26 April, ,, 
Marquis of Anglesey dies . . ... 28 May, „ 
King of P6rtugal visits England . . . June, ,, 
Crystal Palace opened by the queen . 10 June, ,, 

Cholera prevails in the south and west of London, 

Aug. and Sept. ,, 
Thanksgiving for abundant harvest . . 1 Oct. ,, 
Great explosion and fire at Gateshead and Newcastle, 

6 Oct. „ 
Meeting of Parliament .... 12 Dec. ,, 
Resignation of Aberdeen ministry . . 29 Jan. 1855 
Formation of Palmerston ministry . . Feb. ,, 
Death of Joseph Hume (aged 78) . . 20 Feb. ,, 
Sebastopol inquiry committee named . 23 Feb. ,, 
Visit of emperor and empress of French, 

16 to 21 April, ,, 
Loan of 16 millions agreed to April, ,, 

Distribution of Crimean medals . . 18 May, ,, 
Metropolitan cattle market opened . . 13 June, „ 
Agitation and rioting concerning Sunday trading 

bill, which is withdrawn ... 2 July, „ 
The queen and prince visit Paris . .18 Aug. „ 
Peace with Russia proclaimed, 19 April ; thanks- 
giving day, 4 May ; illuminations, &c. 29 May, 1856 
War with China (which see) .... Oct. ,, 
War with Persia (which see) . . . Nov. ,, 
Mutiny of Indian army begins (see India) . March, 1857 
Dissolution of parliament, 21 March ; new parlia- 
ment meets 30 April, ,, 

Death of duchess of Gloucester (aged 81), the last of 

George III. 's children . . . 30 April, ,, 
Opening of the Fine Arts exhibition at Manchester, 

5 May, ,, 
Educational conference in London, prince Albert in 
the chair ...... 22 June, „ 

Victoria crosses (which see) distributed by the queen 

in Hyde-park 26 June, ,, 

Meetings for relief of sufferers by the mutiny in 

India [by 15 Nov. 260,000?. raised] . 25 Aug. ,, 

Great commercial panic ; relieved by susjiension of 

Bank Charter Act of 1844 . . .12 Nov. „ 
Parliament meets 3 Dec. ,, 



ENGLAND. 



337 



ENGLAND. 



Marriage of princess royal to prince Frederick-Wil- 
liam of Prussia 25 Jan. 1858 

Excitement respecting attempted assassination of 

Louis Napoleon, 14 Jan. ; indiscreet addresses of 

French colonels, published . . -27 Jan. ,, 

" Conspiracy to Mulder " bill (introduced by lord 

Pahnerston, 8 Feb.) rejected, 19 Feb. ; Palmerston 

ministry resigns 22 Feb. ,, 

Derby-Disraeli administration formed . 26 Feb. „ 
Dr. Simon Bernard acquitted of conspiracy against 

the life of Louis Napoleon . . . 17 April, ,, 
The Jewish Disabilities bill passed . . 23 July, ,, 
The India bill passed .... 2 Aug. ,, 

The queen visits Birmingham, 15 June; Cherbourg, 
4, 5 Aug. ; the princess royal (at Potsdam), 12 
Aug. &e. ; and Leeds .... Sept. „ 
Excitement about the confessional ; public meet- 
ings held against it .12 July and 18 Sept. „ 
The Association for the Promotion of Social Science 

meet at Liverpool 12 Oct. ,, 

Excitement respecting the Italian war ; proclama- 
tion for manning the navy ... 30 April, 1859 
Thanksgivingfor suppression of Indian mutiny, 1 May, ,, 
Declaration of neutrality of England . . 12 May, „ 
Proclamation for the organisation of volunteer rifle 

corps : many formed .... May-Oet. „ 
The Derby ministry defeated on the Reform bill ; 
dissolve parliament, 23 April ; again defeated, 
they resign n June ; the Pahnerston- Russell ad- 
ministration formed . . . .18 June, „ 
The Handel commemoration . . 20, 22, 24 June, ,, 
The income-tax increased to provide for the defences 

of the country July, ,, 

Lord Macaulay dies (aged 59) . 28 Dec. „ 

Commercial treaty with France, signed 23 Jan. ; 

approved by parliament .... March, i860 
Sir Charles Barry dies (aged 65) . . 12 May, „ 
The queen reviews 18,000 volunteers in Hyde-park, 

23 June. „ 
National rifle shooting match at Wimbledon (see 

Volunteers) 2-7 July, „ 

The earl of Derby reviews about 11,000 Lancashire 

volunteers at Knowsley . . . .1 Sept. „ 
The queen and prince visit their daughter in Prussia 

Sept. „ 
Peace with China signed . . . .24 Oct. ,, 
Thos. Cochrane, earl of Dundonald. dies (aged 82) 

31 Oct. „ 
Prince of Wales visits Canada and United States, 

24 July-20 Oct. ; returns . . .15 Nov. ,, 
Severe cold (see Cold) . . Dec. i860, and Jan. 1861 
Charter granted for Exhibition of 1862 . 14 Feb. „ 
Death of duchess of Kent (aged 75) . 16 March, ,, 
Excitement about " Essays and Reviews " . . ,, 
Seventh census taken (29,192,419) . . . 8 April, ,, 
King of Sweden and his son visit London Aug. ,, 
Great excitement through capt. Wilkes (of U.S. 
navy) forcibly taking Messrs. Slidell and Mason 
from the Royal British Mail steamer Trent (see 

United States) 8 Nov. „ 

Death of the prince consort of "typhoid fever, 
duration 21 days," 14 Dec. ; buried (see Albert 

Memorial) 23 Dec. ,, 

The United States' government release Messrs. 

Slidell and Mason 28 Dec „ 

Second great International Exhibition opened by the 

duke of Cambridge 1 May, 1862 

Inundations in Norfolk (see Levels) . . . May, ,, 
Marriage of princess Alice to Louis of Hesse, 1 July, ,, 
Prince Alfred declared king of Greece at Athens 

(throne declined) 23 Oct. ,, 

Final closing of international exhibition . 15 Nov. ,, 
Remains of the prince consort transferred to the 

mausoleum at Frogmore ... 18 Dec. ,, 

Great distress in the cotton manufacturing districts 
begins, April : contributions received, central re- 
lief fund, 407,830/. ; Mansion-house fund, 236,926/. 

20 Dec. ,, 

Rupture witli Brazil Jan. 1863 

Prince Alfred elected king of Greece . . 3 Feb. ,, 
Princess Alexandra of Denmark enters London, 
7 March ; married to the prince of Wales, 

10 March, „ 
The British, French, and Austrian governments re- 
monstrate with Russia on cruelties in Poland, 

7 April, ,, 
Inauguration of the Great Exhibition memorial to 



the prince consort in the Horticultural gardens, 

London tI June, 1863 

Arrival of captains Grant and Speke from exploring 

the source of the Nile .... June, ,, 
Great decrease of distress in cotton districts Oct. ,, 
Earthquake in central and N. W. England . 6 Oct. ,, 
The government declines the French emperor's pro- 
posal for a congress of sovereigns . . Nov. ,, 
Death of William Thackeray (aged 52) . 24 Dec. ,, 
Birth of prince Albert- Victor of Wales . 8 Jan. 1864 
Final judgment of the judicial committee of the 
privy council that the government had no autho- 
rity to seize the Alexandra (Confederate) steamer 

8 Feb. „ 
Garibaldi's visit to England . . . 3-27 April, ,, 
The Ionian isles made over to Greece . 1 June, ,, 
European conference at London on the Schleswig- 

Holstein question ; no result, 24 April — 25 June, ,, 
Great excitement through the murder of Mr. Briggs 
in a first-class carriage on the North-London rail- 
way 9 July, „ 

Great explosion of gunpowder at the Belvedere 

magazine, near Woolwich . . . .1 Oct. ,, 
Death of John Leech (aged 47) . . . 29 Oct. ,, 
Death of Richard Cobden (aged 61) . 2 April, 1865 
Prince George of Wales born ... 3 June, ,, 
Resignation of lord-chancellor Westbury . "4 July, ,, 
General election ; majority for Palmerston adminis- 
tration 10 July, &e. ,, 

Visit of Abd-el-Kader ; departs . . 6 Aug. ,, 
Prevalence of a cattle plague, June-Oct. ; royal 

commission appointed ; met . . .10 Oct. ,, 
English fleet visits Cherbourg, 15 Aug. ; French fleet 

visits Portsmouth . . . . 29, 30 Aug. ,, 
Fine art and industrial exhibitions opened in Lon- 
don and the provinces . . . July-Sept. ,, 
Death of lord Pahnerston, 18 Oct. ; public funeral 

27 Oct. „ 
Earl Russell premier .... 3 Nov. ,, 
Important commercial treaty with Austria signed 

16 Dec. „ 
New parliament opened by the queen . . 6 Feb. 1866 
New reform bill introduced by Mr. Gladstone, 

12 Mar. ,, 
Commercial panic in London . . 11 May, et se<i. ,, 
International botanical congress opened . 22 May, ,, 
Defeat of the government on the reform bid, 

18 June ; resignation of ministers . 26 June, ,, 

Marriage of princess Helena to prince Christian of 
Schleswig-Holstein .... 5 July, ,, 

The third Derby cabinet formed . . . 6 July', ,, 

The Atlantic telegraph completely laid, and mes- 
sages sent to lord Stanley ... 27 July, (> 

The cable of 1865 recovered, and communication 
established with Valentia, 2 Sept. ; and with New- 
foundland 8 Sept. 

Projected attack of Fenians on Chester prevented 
by the authorities . . . . 11, 12 Feb. 1867- 

The queen laid foundation of the Albert hall of arts 
at S. Kensington 20 May, 

Visit of the viceroy of Egypt . . . 6-18 July, ,, 

Visit of the Belgian volunteers (see Belgium), 

to-22 July, ,, 

Visit of the Sultan (see T11 rkey) . . 12-23 July, 

"Early Years of the Prince Consort," published 
end of July, ,, 

New Reform act passed (see Reform) . . 15 Aug. 

Michael Faraday, natural philosopher(nearly 76) died 

25 Aug. ,, 

Preparations for the expedition to Abyssinia (see 
Abyssinia) ....... Aug. 

Fenian outrages ; rescue of prisoners at Manchester 
(see Fenians) 18 Sept „ 

Synod of bishops at Lambeth (see Pan-Anglican) 

24-27 Sept. ,, 

Meeting of parliament respecting Abyssinian war, 

19 Nov. ,, 

Fenian explosion at Clcrkenwell prison, London, 

13 Dec 
Special constables called for ; 113,674 (in the U.K.) 

sworn in by 2 8 Jan. 186S 

" Leaves from our Journal in Scotland," &<•., by the 

queen, published Jan. 

Resignation of earl of Derby, 25 Feb. ; the Disraeli 

ministry formed 29 Feb. 

The queen holds a drawing-room again 12 March', 
Mr. Gladstone's resolution for disestablishing the 

Irish church ; adopted by the commons, 30 April, 



ENGLAND. 



338 



ENGLAND. 



Death of lord Brougham, aged 89 . . 7 May, 1 868 
Arrival of the duke of Edinburgh from Ausnalia 

26 June, ,, 
Irish and Scotch reform acts passed . 13 July, ,, 
Nearly 21,000 extra deaths attributed to the hot 
summer (23 July said to be the hottest) 

i July — 30 Sept. ,, 
Parliament dissolved 1 1 Nov. , new parliament meets 

10 Dec. „ 
Resignation of Disraeli ministry, 2 Dec. ; Gladstone 

ministry take office 9 Dec. „ 

Convention with the United States respecting the 
Alabama claim signed (afterwards rejected by the 

States) 14 Jan. 1869 

New parliament meets for business . . 16 Feb. ,, 
Irish Church bill introduced into the commons, 

1 March ; royal assent. ... 26 July, ,, 
The earl of Derby dies (aged 70) . . . 23 Oct. „ 

Parliament meets 8 Feb. 1870 

Charles Dickens dies (aged 58) . . .9 June, „ 
Earl of Clarendon dies (aged 70) . . 27 June, „ 
Irish land bill brought in, 15 Feb., received royal 

assent 8 July, „ 

Neutrality in Franco-Prussian war (which see) pro- 
claimed 19 Jlll y. i) 

2,ooo,oooZ. voted to increase the army by 20,000 men 

1 Aug. ,, 
Foreign enlistment act passed, 1 Aug. ; stringent 

proclamation of neutrality issued . . 9 Aug. ,, 
Parliament prorogued .... 10 Aug. „ 
Treaty with Prussia and France for neutrality ol 

Belgium signed .... 9, 11 Aug. ,, 
Long drought : bad hay harvest : good wheat har- 
vest Mar.— Aug. „ 

Earl Granville repels the charge of violating neu- 
tralities made by the Prussian government, 

1-15 Sept. „ 
'The queen's consent to the marriage of the princess 
Louise to the marquis of Lome announced 

24 Oct. ,, 
Foot and mouth disease prevalent among cattle 

Aug. —Nov. ,, 
Election of elementary school-boards . . Nov. ,, 
Excitement through the Russian note respecting 

the Black sea (see Russia) . . . Nov. ,, 
Eoundation of new Post-office laid . 16 Dec. ,, 
Resignation of Mr. Bright announced . 20 Dec. ,, 

Parliament meets 9 Feb. 1871 

Marriage of the princess Louise and the marquis of 

Lome 21 March, ,, 

Royal Albert Hall, Kensington, opened by the queen 

29 March, ,, 
Eighth census taken (31,817.108) . . 3 April, ,, 
Death of sir John F. Herschel, astronomer and 

philosopher (aged 79) .... 11 May, „ 
Death of George Grote, historian of Greece (aged 77) 

18 June, ,, 
First annual International Exhibition at South Ken- 
sington, opened 1 May, closed . . 30 Sept. „ 
Black Sea conference met 17 Jan.. closed (neutrali- 
sation of Black Sea abrogated, &c) . 13 March, ,, 
Disestablishment of the Church of England bill re- 
jected in the commons (374 — 89), 1 May ; parlia- 
ment prorogued . . . . ■ . 21 Aug. ,, 
Illness of the queen at Balmoral, 4 Sept. ; recovery 

13 Sept. „ 
Serious illness of the prince of Wales from typhoid 

fever, Dec. ; began to recover . . 14 Dec. ,, 
Letter from the queen and princess to the people, 

thanking them for sympathy . . .26 Dec. ,, 
Thanksgivings for recovery of prince of Wales 

21 Jan. 1872 
Excitement respecting the American claims under 
the treaty of Washington .... Feb. „ 

Meeting of parliament 6 Feb. 

The queen, prince and princess of Wales, and court 
and parliament go in state to St. Paul's ; national 
thanksgiving for recovery of the prince of Wales ; 
London decorated ; illuminations, &e. ; a success- 
ful day 27 Feb. 

The queen in a public letter, gazetted 1 March, says, 
"Words are too weak for the queen to say how 
very deeply touched and gratified she has been 
by the immense enthusiasm and affection ex- 
hibited towards her dear son and herself," dated 

29 Feb. „ 
The " queen, while entering Buckingham Palace, 



threatened by Arthur O'Connor, aged about 18, 
who presents an unloaded pistol, with a paper to 
be signed ; immediately apprehended . 29 Feb. 1872 
The queen sailed for Germany, and stayed several 

weeks 23 March — 7 April, ,, 

Strikes among agricultural labourers in Warwick- 
shire and other counties ; union formed, 29 March, ,, 
Arthur O'Connor pleads guilty (sentenced to im- 
prisonment and flogging) . . . .9 April, „ 
Correspondence between the British and American 
governments respecting the claims for indirect 
losses, which the former rejects . 3 Feb.— May, ,, 
Supplemental treaty proposed ; accepted by U. S. 
senate, 25 May ; further discussion in parliament ; 
unsatisfactory correspondence; the U.S. con- 
gress adjourns 10 June, „ 

Strikes among builders and other trades .June, ,, 
Final meeting of arbitrators ; damages awarded ; 
see Alabama ...... 14 Sept. ,, 

New commercial treaty with France signed at 

London 5 Nov. , , 

Continued rain ; floods in Midland counties . Dec. ,, 
Death of Edward Bulwer Lord Lytton, orator, poet, 

and novelist, aged 66 . . . .18 Jan. 1873 
Strikes among colliers, Jan. ; great dearth of coal ; 

the best, 52s. a ton in London . . 15 Feb. ,, 

Resignation of Mr. Gladstone on account of a defeat 
in the Commons on the Dublin university bill 
(287 — 284), 13 March; resumes office, 17 March, ,, 
Visit of the shah of Persia . 18 June — 5 July, ,, 
Proposed marriage of duke of Edinburgh to grand- 
duchess Marie of Russia announced by the queen, 
17 July ; Annuity bill for the duke passed, 5 Aug. ,, 

Judicature Act passed 5 Aug. ,, 

Severely contested elections : conservative reaction, 

Sept. -Oct. „ 
Marriage of duke and duchess of Edinburgh, 23 Jan.' 1874 

Parliament dissolved 26 Jan. ,, 

General election ; conservative majority about 50, 
Feb. ; Gladstone ministry resigns, 17 Feb. ; Dis- 
raeli ministry formed . . . . 21 Feb. ,, 
Close of the Tiehborne trial (see Trials) . 28 Feb. ,, 
Meeting of parliament . . . 5 March, ,, 

The duke and duchess of Edinburgh enter London, 

12 March, ,, 
Sir Garnet Wolseley returns from his successful 

expedition against the Ashautees . 21 March, ,, 
Visit of the czar of Russia . . . 13-21 May, ,, 
Public worship regulation act passed . 7 Aug. ,, 
Fruitful season ; excellent corn crop . Aug. -Sept. ,, 
The queen receives a testimonial of gratitude from 
the French nation for British assistance during 

the war (see France) 3 Dec. ,, 

Meeting of parliament 5 Feb. 1875 

Moody and Sankey, American revivalists, arrive in 
London, 9 March ; sail from Liverpool (see Re- 
vivals) 4 Aug. ,, 

Parliament prorogued .... 13 Aug. ,, 
Railway jubilee at Darlington . . . 27 Sept. ,, 
Departure of the prince of Wales for India, 11 Oct. „ 
The khedive's shares in the Suez canal bought by 
the British government (see Suez) 1 Nov., 

announced 25 Nov. ,, 

Parliament opened by the queen in person, 8 Feb. 1876 
The queen sails for Germany (all her sons abroad), 

28 March ; returns 22 April, ,, 

Royal titles bill received royal assent . 27 April, ,, 
The queen proclaimed "empress of India," 1 May, ,, 
Arrival of prince of Wales at Portsmouth, 11 May, ,, 

Parliament prorogued 15 Aug. ,, 

Great heat ; failure in fruit crops ; harvest beneath 

average middle Aug. „ 

Great excitement and many public meetings respect- 
ing the Turkish atrocities in Bulgaria, Aug. -Oct. ,, 
Mr. Gladstone's " Horrors in Bulgaria " published, 

6 Sept. „ 
National conference against war to defend Turkey, 

St. James's hall 8 Dec. ,, 

Parliament opened by the queen . . . 8 Feb. 1877 
Proclamation of neutrality in Russo-Turkish war, 

30 April, ,, 
Debate on Mr. Gladstone's resolutions :— 1st. That 
this house found much cause for dissatisfaction 
and complaint in the conduct of the Ottoman 
Porte, with regard to the despatch written by the 
earl of Derby, 21 Sept. 1876, and relating to the 



ENGLAND. 



339 



ENGLAND. 



massacres in Bulgaria, (for the resolution, 225 ; 
against, 354) 7-14 May, 1877 

Fleet sent to Besika bay .... 3 July, ,, 

Statue of king Alfred by count Gleiehen, at Wan- 
tage, unveiled by the prince of Wales, his de- 
scendant ' .14 Jul}", ,, 

Early meeting of parliament on account of Russo- 
Turkish war 17 Jan. 1878 

"Vote of 6,000,000?. asked for before entering into 
conference respecting eastern affairs, 24 Jan. ; 
debate * . .31 Jan. „ 

Jjiberal amendment withdrawn on report of Russian 
advance on Constantinople, 7 Feb. ; vote passed 
(204-124) 8 Feb. „ 

■Warlike policy of the ministry ; resignation of lord 
Carnarvon, 24 Jan. ; and earl of Derby (seeDisraeli 
Administration) .... 28 March, „ 

Message of the queen, respecting calling out the 
reserves, &c, 2 April ; adopted by parliament, 

April, „ 

.Earl of Salisbury's circular, indicting the Treaty of 
San Stefano, 2 April ; moderate reply of Gort- 
schakoff, printed 10 April, ,, 

Indian troops ordered to Malta, about . 17 April, ,, 

■Censured by the opposition ; debate in commons ; 
for government, 347 ; against, 226 . 20-23 May, „ 

Earl Russell died, aged 85 . . . .28 May „ 

The ministry announce the meeting of a European 
congress on the eastern question, to meet on "13 
June ; the earl of Beaconsfield and the marquis 
<of Salisbury to attend for England. (See Berlin), 

3 June, ,, 
Anglo-Turkish convention (see Turkey) signed, 

4 June, ,, 
The conference meets at Berlin (xuMcli see) 13 June ; 

treaty signed 13 July, „ 

10,000?. a year voted for the duke of Connaught for 
his proposed marriage with princess Louise Mar- 
garet of Prussia 25 July, ,, 

Debate on the Berlin treaty, in the commons ; 
great speech of Mr. Gladstone, 30 July ; majority 
for government (338 — 195) . 29 July — 3 Aug. ,, 

-Parliament prorogued ... .16 Aug. ,, 

Meeting of parliament on account of Afghan war, 

5 Dec. ,, 

Majority for ministers on vote of censure, lords (201- 
65), 10 Dec; commons (328-227) . 13-14 Dec. „ 

Death of princess Alice by diphtheria at Darmstadt, 
alter attendance on her husband, the grand-duke, 
and children, 7.30 a.m. ... 14 Dec. ,, 

Severe winter, many persons unemployed Dec. ,, 

Parliament adjourned (to 13 Feb.) . . 17 Dec. ,, 

'The Queen in a letter thanks her subjects for their 
sympathy with her loss of a dear child, who 
was " a bright example of loving tenderness, cou- 
rageous devotion, and self-sacrifice to duty," dated 

26 Dec. ,, 

Edward Byrne Madden (? lunatic) arrested for 
threatening to attack the Queen in letters to the 
Home Office, 12 Dec. 1878 ; judged insane, 13 Jan. 1879 

2,500,000?. voted for Zulu war . . 27 Feb. „ 

Expedition sent (between 8,000 and 9,010 men, 1,800 
horses, &c), Feb., March, ,, 

Marriage of duke and duchess of Connaught at 
Windsor 13 March, „ 

The Queen at Paris, 26 March, arrives at Baveno, 
on Lago Maggiore . . . .28 March, ,, 

Proposed censure of government respecting Zulu 
war, <fec, negatived, lords (156-61), 25 March; 
commons (306-246) . . 31 March-i April, „ 

Great depression of trade (attributed to bad har- 
vest, famine, pestilence, war, and over-trading) 1878-9 

Commons debate on the budget, for government, 
303 ; against, 230 . . . . 28-29 April, >> 

Cold and very wet summer, little sunshine, failure 
of corn and fruit crops . . . autumn, 1879 

Severe weather, Nov. very cold, i-i2Dec. and Jan., 
much fog 1880 

Parliament opened by the Queen, 5 Feb., dissolved 

23 Feb. ,, 

General election, great liberal majority, 30 March — 
16 April ; resignation of ministry . 22 April, „ 

Gladstone ministry formed . . .29 April, ,, 

New parliament meets 29th April, Bradlaugh diffi- 
culty (see pa rlia vie nts) . . 3 May et scq. ,, 

Fine autumn, good average harvest, improved trade, 

Oct. , 



Early meeting of parliament on account of Ireland, 

6 Jan. 

Successful review of about 52,000 volunteers by the 
queen at Windsor 9 July, 

Parliament prorogued .... 27 Aug. 

Wet autumn ; deficient harvest ; much depression 

Sept. 

Court and general mourning for death of gen. 
Garfield, president of United States 21-27 Sept. 

Gradual revival of trade . . .1 July-30 Oct. 

Great hurricane throughout England, causing de- 
struction of life, property, and shipping, 13-15 Oct. 

Very mild winter Nov. -Feb. 

Meeting of parliament .... 7 Feb. 

The queen shot at, at Great Western railway station, 
Windsor, by Roderick Maclean, aged 27 ; 2nd 
March ; he is committed for trial for high treason 

10 March, 

The queen's letter of thanks for general sympathy 
dated 12 March, 

She sails for Mentone, 14 March ; arrives, 16 
March ; leaves it, 12 April ; at Windsor, 14 April, 

The queen dedicates Epping Forest to the use of 
the people for all time . . . . 6 May, 

Parliament adjourned, and meets on 24 Oct. ; pro- 
rogued 2 Dec. 

New law courts, London, opened by the queen 4 Dec. 

Great excitement through attempted explosion of 
Local Government office . . 15 March, 

Detection of secret manufacture of explosives at 
Birmingham, 4 April; arrest of Alfred White- 
head, Thos. Gallagher, phvsician, Win. Norman, 
H. H. Wilson. H. D. E. and Henry Dalton, other- 
wise John O'Connor . . . .5-6 April, 

Other arrests in Liverpool, Glasgow, and London 
about 6-7 April, 

Parliament prorogued .... 25 Aug. 

The queen publishes "More Leaves from my 
Journal in the Highlands" . . .11 Feb. 

Egypt and the Soudan: censare of the government 
for its "vacillating and inconsistent policy," 
voted by the lords (181-81) 12 Feb. ; rejected by 
the commons (311-262) . . . 12-20 Feb. 

Prince Leopold, duke of Albany, dies, age nearly 
31, 28 March ; buried at Windsor . . 5 April, 

The queen starts for Darmstadt . . 16 April, 

The queen in a letter expresses her deep sense of 
the loving sympathy of her subjects in all parts 
of her empire and also of foreign countries with 
herself and the duchess of Albany . 14 April, 

The queen present at the marriage of her grand- 
daughter princess Victoria of Hesse to prince 
Louis of Battenburg at Darmstadt, 30 April ; 
returned to Windsor . . . .7 May, 

Vote of censure of the government for not support- 
ing Gordon negatived in the commons (303-275) 

12-14 May, 

Parliament prorogued . . . .14 Aug. 

Good harvest, continued fine weather . July, Aug. 

Parliament meets ... 23 Oct. — 6 Dec. 

Franchise bill passed, see under Reform . 6 Dec. 

Prince Albert Victor Edward of Wales comes of 
age 8 Jan. 

Parliament meets 19 Feb. 

Ordered that the militia be embodied and soldiers 
stopped from entering the reserve . 18 Feb. 

Vote of censure on the government respecting 
Egypt, passed by the lords (189-58); negatived by 
the commons (302-288) ... 27, 28 Feb. 

Day of mourning for general Gordon and the killed 
in the Soudan 13 March, 

Reserves to be called out in prospect of war with 
Russia 27 March, 

The queen visits Aix-les-Bains, &C. 1 April-2 May, 
(See Ireland, Parliament, and Revenue.) 

Redistribution of Seats Act (see under Reform) 
passed ." 25 June, 

Vigorous preparations for war : vote of credit for 
11,000,000?. passed by the commons (see Russia) 

27 April, 

Resignation of the Gladstone ministry on account 
of minority on the Budget bill (264-252) 8-9 June, 

Ministry of (be marquis of Salisbury formed 24 June, 

Parliament prorogued . . . .14 Aug. 

Very dry summer, average harvest . . . . 

The earl of Shaftesbury, a great philanthropist, 
dies, aged 84 1 Oct. 

z 2 



ENGLAND. 



340 



ENGLAND. 



Agitation for the disestablishment of the Church, &c. 

autumn, 1885 
Dissolution of parliament . . . 18 Nov. ,, 

Elections : about 333 Liberals, 251 Conservatives, 

86 Parnellites .... 23 Nov-18 Dec. „ 
The new parliament meets 12 Jan. ; opened by the 

queen 21 Jan. 1886 

Resignation of the Salisbury administration (ivhich 

see) 27 Jan - 11 

Gladstone's third administration formed 2-6 Feb. ,, 

Long winter ; severe cold, Feb. ; heavy snowstorms 

in N.E. counties ; railway trains snowed up 

several days . . . . 1, 2, 3 March, ,, 

Mr. Gladstone introduces his bill to " make better 

provision for the future government of Ireland " 

8 April, „ 
Colonial and Indian Exhibition (the first great 
national exhibition) opened at South Kensington 

by the queen 4 Mav > n 

International exhibition of navigation, commerce, 

&c, at Liverpool opened by the queen 11 May, „ 
Queen Victoria's jubilee year begins . 20 June, ,, 
Excessively cold spring and summer .,..,, 
"Very hot part of June and July . . . . ,, 
Parliamentary election on Mr. G'adstone's Irish 
policy (reported, 316 conservatives, 191 Glad- 
stonians, 78 unionists, 85 Parnellites) . July, ,, 
The Gladstone administration resigns 20 July, ,, 

The second Salisbury administration {which see) 
formed 26 July ; the marquis of Hartington and 
friends decline to form a coalition ministry 

31 Deo. ,, 
Revival of trade and commerce, last half of „ 

Meeting of parliament .... 28 Jan. 188; 
The queen starts for the Riviera 29 March ; visits 
Cannes, Aix-les-Bains, &c. 1 April, ct seq. ; 
returns to England . . . .29 April, ,, 
The queen attends the jubilee service at "Westmin- 
ster Abbey (see Jubilee) 21 June ; she issues a 
letter to the nation expressing her profound 
gratitude for the very kind reception by the vast 
multitude during her progress to, and return 
from the Abbey, and her high admiration for the 
excellent order preserved ... 24 June, ,, 
Severe drought ; 35 rainless days in some parts 

(11 weeks) .... June-mid. Aug. ,, 
Very early harvest .... summer, „ 
Parliament prorogued . . . .16 Sept. ,, 
Amicable conventions respecting Suez canal and 

New Hebrides, signed at Paris . . 24 Oct. ,, 
Meeting of parliament .... 9 Feb. i88> 

The queen starts for Florence 21 March ; at 
Florence 24 March ; at Innsbruck 23 April ; at 
Berlin 24 April ; in London . . 27 April, ,, 

Local Government Act (ivhich see) passed 13 Aug. ,, 
Parliament adjourns till 6 Nov. . . 13 Aug. „ 

The queen's visit to Glasgow . . 18, 19 Aug. ,, 
Cold wet summer, very fine autumn 1888 ; very 
mild weather, London much warmer than at 
Constantinople, Paris, &c. . . .4 Dec. ,, 
Parliament meets 6 Nov. ; adjourns . 24 Dec. ,, 
Epidemic of measles throughout the country 

winter, 1888- 

Parliament meets 21 Feb. 188 

The queen started for Biarritz 5 March : meets the 
queen-regent of Spain at San Sebastian 27 March ; 

returns 3 April, ,, 

Death of Mr. John Bright, M.P. (aged 78), orator, 
" tribune of the people," free-trader (see Anti- 
Corn Law League) fearless, honest, independent 
27 March ; " one of the noblest figures that we 
have ever known in Parliament " — Lord Har- 
tington 29 March, ,, 

Great improvement in trade and revenue Jan-April, ,, 
Warren de la Rue, D.C.L., F.R.S., astronomer, 

chemist, and physicist, aged 74, died . 19 April, „ 
The queen visits the prince of "Wales at Sandring- 

ham 23-27 April, et seq. „ 

Parliament prorogued .... 30 Aug. ,, 
The tmperor "William II. visits the queen, see 

Germany . ... i--8Aug. ,, 

The queen visits Wales (ivhich see) . 23 Aug. 

Fine summer and autumn ; excellent hay and 

moderate corn harvests ami good wool season . 

Envoys from the sultan of Zanzibar, received by 

the queen at Balmoral . ... 29 Oct. „ 
Many strikes, and much agitation respecting labour 



and wages in London and throughout the country 

Aug.-Dec. 1883 
Great revival in trade . . . June-Dec. , , 
Epidemic of influenza (which see) . . . Jan. i8go 

Parliament meets n Feb. ,„ 

The queen visits Aix-les-Bains 26 March-22 April ; 
at Darmstadt receives the empress Frederick, the 
emperor William II. and others of her family 

23-29 April, , r 

At Windsor 30 April, ,,, 

The queen visits Aylesbury and baron Ferdinand 

de Rothschild at Waddesdon Manor . 14 May, ,, 
The ex-queen Isabella of Spain visits the queen at 
Windsor, and attends the state Ball, Buckingham 
Palace, 20 May ; leaves England . . 29 May, , r 
Anglo-German Agreement (which see) respecting 

East Africa, signed at Berlin . . . 1 July , r 
Return of Mr. H. M. Stanley (see Soudan) 

26 April, 1887-90 
The queen inaugurates the Empress dock at South- 
hampton • 26 July, 18901 

The emperor William II. visits the queen at 

Osborne, inspects the fleet, &c. . 4-8 Aug. , r 
Anglo-French Agreement (which see) respecting 

Africa, signed 5 Aug. ,, 

Parliament prorogued .... 18 Aug. ,, 
Anglo Portuguese Agreement settled 20 Aug. ; not 

ratified (see Portugal) .... Nov. ,,, 
Meeting of parliament .... 25 Nov. „ r 
Parliament meets after the recess . . 22 Jan. iSgr 
The queen present at the launch of the Royal 
Sovereign, great battleship, and of the Royal 
Arthur, first class cruiser ; Portsmouth 26 Feb. „ 
The queen visits Grasse, a French town near Cannes, 

in the Alpes-Maritimes . 25 March-28 April, ,„ 
Destructive snow - storm in the S. and S.W. 
counties (see Storms) 9, 10 March ; close of nearly 
six months' winter (see Frosts) 25 March . . ,, 
Death of earl Granville, eminent statesman, aged 75 

31 March, , r 
The empress Frederick visits England 27 Feb.- 

8 April. , r 
Visit of the German emperor and empress very- 
successful (see Germany) . . 4-13 July, ,,. 
Visit of the prince of Naples (see Italy) 22 July- Aug. ,, 
The queen receives Veldtman, a Fingoe chief, and 

his presents 7 Aug. , r 

Visit of the French fleet to Portsmouth (see France) 

19 Aug. ,, 
Prince George of Wales attacked by typhoid fever, 

10 Nov., recovery 23 Dec. ,, 

The duke of Clarence and Avondale attacked with 
influenza and pneumonia, 10 Jan., died at Sand- 
ringham, 14 Jan. Universally lamented ; military 
funeral at Windsor .... 20 Jan. 1892 
Letter from the queen, to the empire 

(London Gazette, 2 Feb.) 

"Osborne, January 26, 1892. 
" I must once again give expression to my deep sense 
of the loyalty and affectionate sympathy evinced by 
my subjects in every pai't of my empire on an occasion 
more sad and tragical than any but one which has 
befallen me and mine, as well as the nation. The over- 
whelming misfortune of my dearly loved grandson having- 
been thus suddenly cut off in the flower of his age, full 
of promise for the future, amiable and gentle, and en- 
dearing himself to all, renders it hard for his sorely 
stricken parents, his dear young bride, and his fond' 
grandmother to bow in submission to the inscrutable 
decrees of providence. 

"The sympathy of millions, which has been so 
touchingly and visibly expressed, is deeply gratifying at 
such a time, and I wish, both in my own name and that 
of my children, to express from my heart, my warm. 
gratitude to all. 

" These testimonies of sympathy with us, and ap- 
preciation of my dear grandson, whom I loved as a son, 
and whose devotion to me was" as great as that of a son, 
will be a help and consolation to me and mine in our 
affliction. 

" My bereavements during the last thirty years of my 
reign have indeed been heavy. Though the labours, 
anxieties, and responsibilities inseparable from my 
position have been great, yet it is my earnest prayer that 
God may continue to give me health and strength to 
work for the good and happiness of my dear Country 
and Empire while life lasts. " Victoria, R.l." 



ENGLAND. 



341 



ENGLAND, 



The seventh session of the queen's twelfth parlia- 
ment opened 9 Feb. 1892 

The queen visits Costebelle, a suburb of Hyeres, an 
ancient town in Provence 13 miles from" Toulon, 
■21 March-25 April ; at Darmstadt, 26 April-2 May, ,, 

KINGS AND QUEENS OF ENGLAND. 

BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

827. Egbert, styled " king of England " in 828. 

£37. Ethelwolf ; his son. 

.857. Ethelbald ; his son. 

860. Ethelbert; brother. 

866. Ethelred; brother. 

S71. Alfred the Great ; brother ; died 21 or 2S Oct. 901. 

901. Edward the Elder ; son ; died 925. 

325. Athelstan ; eldest son ; died 17 Oct. 940. 

940. Edmund L , fifth son of Edward the Elder ; died 

from a wound received in an affray, 26 May, 946. 
.946. Edred ; brother ; died 955. 

955. Edwy, eldest son of Edmund ; died of grief in 958. 
957. Edgar the Peaceable ; brother ; died 1 July, 975. 
975. Edward the Martyr, his son, stabbed at Corfe 

Castle, at the instance of his step-mother Elfrida, 

18 March, 979. 
979. Ethelred II. ; half-brother ; retired. 

1013. Sweyn, proclaimed king ; died 3 Feb. 1014. 

1014. Canute the Great ; his son. 

1014. Ethelred restored in Canute's absence ; died 24 April, 
1016. 

1016. Edmund Ironside, his son, divided the kingdom 

with Canute ; murdered at Oxford, 30 Nov. 1016 ; 
reigned seven months. 

1017. Canute sole king ; married Emma, widow of Ethel- 

red ; died 12 Nov. 1035. 

1035. Harold I. ; son; died 17 Mar. 1040. 

1039. Hardicanute, son of Canute and Emma ; died of re- 
pletion at a marriage feast, 8 June, 1042. 

2042. Edward the Confessor, son of Ethelred and Emma ; 
died 5 Jan. 1066. 

1066. Harold II.,- son of earl Godwin; reigned nine 
mouths ; killed near Hastings, 14 Oct. 1066. 

THE NORMANS.* 

ko66. William the Conqueror ; crowned 25 Dec. : died at 

Kouen, 9 Sept. 1087. 
Queen, Matilda, daughter of Baldwin, earl of 

Flanders ; married in 1054 ; died in 1083. 
0087. William II. Rul'us ; reign began 26 Sept. ; killed by 

an arrow, 2 Aug. 1100. 
«ioo. Henry I. Beauclerc, his brother ; reign began 

5 Aug. ; died of a surfeit, 1 Dec. 1135. 
Queens, Matilda, daughter of Malcolm III. king of 

Scotland; married 11 Nov. 1100 ; died 1 May, 

1119. 2. Adelais, daughter of Godfrey, earl of 

Louvaine ; married 29 Jan. 1129 ; died 1151. 

* The regnal dates are those given by sir H. Nicolas. 
'The early Norman and Plantagenet kings reckoned their 
reigns from the day of their coronation ; the later Plan- 
<tagenets from the day after the death of their prede- 
cessor. With Edward VI. began the present custom of 
beginning the reign on the. day of the death of the pre- 
•ceding sovereign. 

ROYAL ARMS OF ENGLAND. 

William I., William II., and Henry I.— two lions or 

leopards passant. 
.Stephen — Sagittarius, the archer, one of the signs of the 

zodiac (traditional). 
Henry II. to Edward II. Three lions passant. 
Edward III. and his successors quartered the preceding 

with fleurs de lys, the aims of France. 
Henry V. used only 3 fleurs de lys. 
Mary I. quartered the preceding with the arms of her 

husband Philip II. of Srain. 

UNITED KINGDOM. 

James I. and his successors combined the arms of Eng- 
land and France (1st and 4th quarter) ; 2nd, the lion 
rampant of Scotland ; 3rd, the harp of Ireland. He 
introduced the unicorn as a supporter of the arms. 

■George I., George II. and George III. introduced the arms 
of Brunswick. 

In 1801 the arms of France were omitted. In 1816 the 
arms were modified through Hanover being made a 
kingdom. 

Victoria. In 1837 the arms of Hanover were omitted. 
The arms are now: 1st and 4th quarters, 3 lions passant 
for England ; 2nd, lion rampant for Scotland ; 3rd, harp 
for Ireland. 



1 135. Stephen, earl of Blois, nephew of Henry; reign 
began 26 Dec. ; died 25 Oct. 1154. 

Queen, Matilda, daughter of Eustace, count of 
Boulogne ; married in 1128 ; died 3 May, 1151. 

[Maud, daughter of Henry I. and rightful heir to 
the throne; born 1101 ; betrothed, in 1109, at 
eight years of age, to Henry V. emperor of Ger- 
many, who died 1125. She married, secondly, 
Geoffrey Plantagenet, earl of Anjou, 1130. Was 
set aside from the English succession by Stephen, 
1135 ; landed in England and claimed the crown, 
1139. Crowned, but soon after defeated at Win- 
chester, 1 141 ; concluded a peace with Stephen, 
which secured the succession to her son Henry, 
1153 ; died 1165.] 

THE PLANTAGENETS. 

1154. Henry II. Plantagenet, grandson of Henry I. and son 
of Maud ; reign began 19 Dec. ; died 6 July, 1189. 
Queen, Eleanor, the repudiated queen of Louis VII. 
king of France, and heiress of Guienne and 
Poitou ; married to Henry, 1151 ; died 26 June, 
1202 ; see Rosamond. 

1 189. Richard I. Cosur de Lion, his son ; reign began 
3 Sept. ; died of a wound, 6 April, 1199. 
Queen, Berengaria, daughter of the king of Navarre ; 
married 12 May, 1191 ; survived the king. 

1199. John, the brother of Richard ; reign began 27 May ; 
died 19 Oct. 1216. 
Queens, Avisa, daughter of the earl of Gloucester ; 
married in 1189 ; divorced. 2. Isabella, daughter 
of the count of Angouleme : she was the young 
and virgin wife of the count de la Marche : 
married to John in 1200. Survived the king, on 
whose death she was re-married to the count de 
la Marche. 

1216. Henry III. son of John ; reign began 28 Oct. ; died 
16 Nov. 1272. 
Queen, Eleanor, daughter of the count de Pro- 
vence ; married 14 Jan. 1236 ; survived the king ; 
and died in 1291, in a monastery. 

1272. Edward I. son of Henry, surnamed LongslumJcs ; 
reign began 20 Nov. ; died 7 July, 1307. 
Queens, Eleanor of Castile ; married in 1253 ; died 
of a fever, on her journey to Scotland, at Grant- 
ham, in Lincolnshire, 1290. 2. Margaret, sister 
of the king of France ; married 12 Sept. 1299, 
survived the king, dying in 1317. 

1307. Edward II. son of Edward I. ; reign began 8 July ; 

dethroned 20 Jan. 1327 ; murdered at Berkeley 

castle, 21 Sept. following. 

[An inscription in the castle of Melazzo, Piedmont, states 

that he escaped from Berkeley castle, was sheltered by 

Pope John XXII. at Avignon. After long wandering, 

resided secretly in this castle 1330-33. Reported by 

count Negra, Oct., 1890.] 

Queen, Isabella, daughter of the king of France ; 
married in 1308. On the death, by the gibbet, of 
her favourite Mortimer, she was confined for the 
rest of her life in her own house at Risings, near 
Lynn, and died in 1357. 
1327. Edward III. his son ; reign began 25 Jan. ; died 
21 June, 1377. 
Queen, Philippa, daughter of the count of Hainault ; 
married in 1326 ; died 15 Aug. 1369. 
1377. Richard II. son of Edward the Black Prince, and 
grandson of Edward III. ; reign began 22 June ; 
dethroned 29 Sept. 1399 ; said to have been mur- 
dered at Pomfret castle, 10 Feb. 1400. 
Queens, Anne of Bohemia, sister of the emperor 
Weneeslaus of Germany ; married in Jan. 1382 ; 
died 7 June, 1394. 2. Isabella, daughter of 
Charles V. of France ; married when only seven 
years old, 1 Nov. 1396. On the deposition of her 
husband she returned to her father. 

HOUSE OF LANCASTER. 

1399. Henry IV. cousin of Richard II. ; reign began 

30 Sept. ; died 20 March, 1413. 

Queens, Mary, daughter of the earl of Hereford ; 
she died before Henry obtained the crown, in 
1394. 2. Joan of Navarre, widow of the duke of 
Bretagne ; married 1403 ; survived the king ; 
died 1437. 
1413. Henry V. his son ; reign began 21 March died 

31 Aug. 1422. 



ENGLAND. 



342 



ENGLAND. 



Queen, Catherine, daughter of the king of France ; 
married 30 May, 1420. She outlived Henry, and 
was married to Owen Tudor, grandfather of 
Henry VII., in 1423 ; died 1437. 
1422. Henry VI. his son ; reign began 1 Sept. ; deposed 
4 March, 1461 ; said to have "been murdered by 
Richard, duke of Gloucester, in the Tower, 20 
June, 1471. 
Queen, Margaret, daughter of the duke ,of Anjou ; 
married 22 April, 1445 ; survived the king ; died 

25 Aug. 1481. 

HOUSE OF YOEK. 

1461. Edward IV. ; died 9 April, 1483. 

Queen, Elizabeth, daughter of sir Richard Wood- 
ville, and widow of sir John Grey, of Groby ; 
married 1463 or 1464. Suspected of favouring 
the insurrection of Lambert Simnel ; and closed 
her life in confinement, 8 June, 1492. > 

1483. Edward V. his son ; deposed 25 June, 1483, and 
said to have been murdered in the Tower ; reigned 
two months and thirteen days. 
„ Richard III. brother of Edward IV. ; began to reign, 

26 June ; slain at Bosworth, 22 Aug. 1485. 
Queen, Anne, daughter of the earl of Warwick, and 

widow of Edward, prince of Wales, murdered 
1471. She is said to have been poisoned by 
Richard (having died suddenly, 16 March, 1485), 
to make way for his intended marriage with prin- 
cess Elizabeth of York. 

HOUSE OF TUDOR. 

1485. Henry VII. (son of Edmund Tudor, earl of Rich- 
mond, and Margaret, daughter of John Beaufort, 
duke of Somerset, legitimated descendant of 
John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster) ; began to 
reign 22 Aug. ; died 21 April, 1509. 
Queen, Elizabeth of York, princess of England, 
daughter of Edward IV. ; married 18 Jan. i486 ; 
died 11 Feb. 1503. 

1509. Henry VIII. his son ; began to reign, 22 April ; died 
28 Jan. 1547. 
Queens, Catherine of Aragon, widow of Henry's 
elder brother, Arthur, prince of Wales ; married 

11 June, 1509; mother of queen Mary; repudi- 
ated, and afterwards formally divorced, 23 May, 
1533 ; died 7 Jan. 1536. 

2. Anne Boleyn, daughter of sir Thomas Boleyn, 
and maid of honour to Catherine ; privately 
married, before Catherine was divorced, 14 Nov. 
1532, or Jan. 1533 ; mother of queen Elizabeth ; 
beheaded at the Tower, 19 May, 1536. 

3. Jane Seymour, daughter of sir John Seymour, 
and maid* of honour to Anne Boleyn ; married 
20 May, 1536, the day after Anne's execution ; 
mother of Edward VI. of whom she died in 
childbirth, 24 Oct. 1537. 

4. Anne of Cleves, sister of William, duke of 
Cleves ; married 6 Jan. 1540 ; divorced 10 July, 
1540 ; died 1557. 

5. Catherine Howard, niece of the duke of Nor- 
folk ; married 28 July, 1540 ; beheaded, 12 Feb. 
1542. 

6. Catherine Parr, daughter of sir Thomas Parr, 
and widow of Nevill, lord Latimer ; married 12 
July, 1543 ; survived the king, after whose death 
she married sir Thomas Seymour, created lord 
Sudley ; died 5 Sept. 1548. 

1547 Edward VI. son of Henry VIII. (by Jane Seymour) ; 
died 6 July, 1553. 

1553. Jane, daughter of the duke of Suffolk, and wife of 
lord Guildford Dudley ; proclaimed queen on the 
death of Edward ; ten days afterwards returned 
to private life ; was tried 13 Nov. 1553 ; beheaded 

12 Feb. 1554, when but 17 years of age. 

1553. Mary, daughter of Henry (by Catherine of Aragon); 

married Philip of Spain, 25 July, 1554 ; died 17 

Nov. 1558. 
1558. Elizabeth, daughter of Henry (by Anne Boleyn), 

died 24 March, 1603. 

HOUSE OF STUART. 

1603. James I. of England and VI. of Scotland, sen of 

Mary, queen of Scots ; died 27 March, 1625. 
Queen, Anne, princess of Denmark, daughter of 

Frederick II. ; married 20 Aug. 1590 ; died 

March, 1619. 
3625. Charles I. his son ; beheaded at Whitehall, 30 Jan. 

1649. 



Queen, Henrietta-Maria, daughter of Henry IV- 
king of France ; married 13 June, 1625 ; sur- 
vived the king ; died in France 10 Aug. 1669. 

1649. Commonwealth. Oliver Cromwell made pro- 
tector, 16 Dec. 1653 ; died 3 Sept. 1658. 

1658. Richard Cromwell, his son, made protector, 4, 
Sept. ; resigned 22 April, 1659. 

1660. Charles II. son of Charles I. ; died 6 Feb. 1685. 

Queen, Catherine of Braganza, infanta of Portugal, 
daughter of John IV. and sister of Alfonso VI.; 
married 21 May, 1662; survived the king; re- 
turned to Portugal ; died 21 Dec. 1705. 

1685. James II. his brother; abdicated by flight, 11 Dec 
1688 ; died in exile, 6 (16) Sept. 1701. 
[1st Wife, Ann Hyde, daughter of Edward Hyde,, 
earl of Clarendon ; married Sept. 1660 ; died 
1671 ; mother of queens Mary II. and Anne.] 
Queen, Mary Beatrice, princess of Modena, daughter- 
of Alphonso d'Este, duke ; married 21 Nov.. 
1673 ; in- 1688 retired with James to France ; 
died at St. Germains, 1718. 

1689. William III. prince of Orange, king, and Mary, 
queen, daughter of James II. ; married 4 Nov. 
1677 ; began their reign, 13 Feb. 1689 ; Mary died 
28 Dee. 1694. 

1694. William III. ; died of a fall from his horse, 8 March, 
1702. 

1702. Anne, daughter of James II. ; married George, 
prince of Denmark, 28 July, 1683 ; succeeded to 
the throne, 8 March, 1 702 : had seventeen children, 
all of whom died young (William, duke of Glou- 
cester, born 24 July, 1689, died 30 July, 1700) ; 
lost her husband, 28 Oct. 1708 ; died 1 Aug. 1714- 
house of hanover. (See Brunswick and Este.) 

1714. George I. elector of Hanover and duke of Bruns- 
wick-Luneburg ; son of Sophia, who was daugh- 
ter of Elizabeth, the daughter of James I. ; died 
11 June, 1727. 
Queen, Sophia-Dorothea, daughter of the duke of 
Zell ; died in prison, 2 Nov. 1726. 

1727. George II. his son ; died 25 Oct. 1760. 

Queen, Wilhelmina Carolina Dorothea, of Branden- 
burg Anspach ; married 1705 ; died 20 Nov_ 

1737- 
1760. George III. grandson of George II. ; died 29 Jan_ 

1820. 
Queen, Charlotte Sophia, daughter of the duke of 

Mecklenburg-Strelitz ; married 8 Sept. 1761 ; 

died 17 Nov. 18 18. 
1820. George IV. his son ; died 26 June, 1830. 

Queen, Caroline Amelia Augusta, daughter of the- 

duke of Brunswick ; married 8 April, 1795 ; died 

7 Aug. 1821 (see article Queen Caroline) 
1830. William IV. brother of George IV. ; died 20 June, 

1837- 
Queen, Adelaide Amelia Louisa Theresa Caroline, 
sister of the duke of Saxe-Meiningen ; married 
11 July, 1818 ; died 2 Dec. 1849. 
1837. Victoria, the reigning queen, whom God pre- 
serve. 

the present royal family of great britain. 

The Queen,* Alexandrina Victoria, only daughter of 
Edward, duke of Kent, (fourth son of king George 
III.)t bom 24 May, 1819 ; succeeded to the throne on 
the decease of her uncle, William IV. 20 June, 1837 » 
crowned at Westminster, 28 June, 1838 ; married 
(10 Feb., 1S40) to her cousin, 

Francis-ALBERT-Augustus-Charles-Emmanuel, duke of 
Saxony, prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha ; born 261 

* On 1 Nov. 1858, the queen was proclaimed through- 
out India as " Victoria, by the grace of God, of the united 
kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and of the colonies- 
and dependencies thereof, in Europe, Asia, Africa, 
America, and Australasia, Queen, defender of the faith,"" 
Sic. " Empress of India " added to the "royal style by 
proclamation, 28 April, 1876 (see Style, lioya.l). The 
colonial conference in May, 1887, recommended that the- 
title of her majesty should, in recognition of the unity 
of the empire, be "Queen of the United Kingdom of 
Great Britain and Ireland, and of the Colonies and 
Dependencies thereof." 

t He was born 2 Nov. 1767; and died 23 Jan. 1820; 
he married Victoria-Maria-Louisa (widow of the prince of 
Leiningen, sister of Leopold, king of the Belgians, and 
aunt to the prince consort), 29 May, 1818. She was born 
17 Aug. 17S6 ; and died 16 March, 1861. 



ENGLISH CHURCH UNION. 



343 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



Aug. 1819, naturalized, 24 Jan. 1840; (ordered to be 
styled Prince Consort 25 June, 1857 ;) elected chan- 
cellor of the university of Cambridge, 28 Feb. 1847 ; 
died 14 Dec. 1861. 

ISSUE. 

1. ViCTORiA-Adelaide-Mary-Louisa, princess royal, born 

21 Nov. 1840; married to prince Frederick-William, 
of Prussia, 25 Jan. 1858 (dowry 40,000?. and annuity 
of 8000Z.). Issue: William, bom 27 Jan. 1859; and 
5 other children living. 

2. Albert-Edward, prince of Wales, duke of Saxony, 

duke of Cornwall and Rothsay, earl of Chester, 
Carrick, and Dublin, baron of Renfrew, and lord of 
the Isles, born 9 Nov. 1841 ; married princess Alex- 
andra of Denmark (bom 1 Dec. 1844) IO March, 
1863. Issue: Albert Victor, born 8 Jan. 1864; 
died 14 Jan. 1892 ; George, bom 3 June, 1865 ; Louise, 
bom 20 Feb. 1867 ; Victoria, born 6 July, 1868 ; 
Maud, 26 Nov. 1869 ; Alexander John, born 6 April, 
died 7 April, 1871. (See Wales.) 

3. ALiCE-Maud-Mary, born 25 April, 1843 ; married 

prince Louis (since grand duke) of Hesse-Darmstadt 
(which see), 1 July, 1862 (dowry 30,000?., annuity 
6000?.); d. of diphtheria, 14 Dec. 1878. Issue: Vic- 
toria, s April, 1863 ; and 6 other children. 

4. ALFRED-Ernest, born, 6 Aug. 1844 ; entered the En- 

ryalus as midshipman, 31 Aug. 1858 ; created duke 
of Edinburgh, &c. 24 May, 1866 ; visited Cape of 
Good Hope, Aug. ; Australia, Nov. 1867 ; escaped 
assassination by a Fenian at Port Jackson, 12 
March, 1868 ; visited Japan, China, and India, 1869 ; 
married archduchess Marie of Russia (bom 17 Oct. 
1853), 23 Jan. 1874 ; commander of the Channel fleet, 
Nov. 1883 ; of the Mediterranean fleet, Feb. 1880 ; 
at Davenport, Aug. 1890. Issue: Alfred, born 15 Oct. 
1874 ; Mary, 29 Oct. 1875 ; Victoria, 25 Nov. 1876 ; 
Alexandria, 1 Sept. 1878 ; Beatrice, 20 April, 1S84. 

5. Helena- Augusta- Victoria, born 25 May, 1846 ; married 

to prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein, 5 July, 
1866. Issue: Christian Victor, bom 14 April, 1867; 
and 4 other children. 

6. LouiSE-C'arolina-Alberta, bom 18 March, 1848 ; mar- 

ried to John, marquis of Lome (60m. 6 Aug. 1845), 
21 March, 1871. 

7. ARTHUR-William-Patrick-Albert, born 1 May, 1850 ; 

created duke of Connaught, earl of Sussex and 
Strathearn, 23 May, 1874 ; married 13 March, 
1879, princess Louise Margaret of Prussia (born 25 
July, i860). Issue : Margaret, born, 15 Jan. 1882 ; 
Arthur Frederick, born 13 Jan. 1883 ; Victoria 
Patritia, 17 March, 1886. Commander-in-chief at 
Bombay, 1886 et seq. ; commander of the S. Military 
District, Aug. 1890. 

8. LEOPOLD-George-Duncan-Albert, bom 7 April, 1853 : 

voted 15,000?. a year by parliament, 23 July, 1874 ; 
created baron Arklow, earl of Clarence, and duke of 
Albany, 24 May, 1881 ; married, princess Helene, 
4th daughter of the prince of Waldeck-Pyrmont, 27 
April, 1882. 10.000/. additional income granted, 21 
April, 1882; died at Cannes, 28 March, 1884. Issue: 
Alice Mary, born 25 Feb., 1883; Leopold Charles, 
born 19 July, 1884. 

9. BEATRiCE-Mary-Victoria-Feodore, born 14 April, 1857; 

married prince Henry of Battenberg, 23 July, 1885. 
Issue: Alexander Albert, born 23 Nov. 1886 ; Victoria 
Eugenie, 1887; Leopold, 18S9 ; and Maurice, 1891. 

First greatgrandchild,; Feodore. bom 12 May, 1879; 
daughter of Charlotte, daughter of princess royal 
Victoria, and prince Bernard of Saxe-Meiningen. See 
Germany, children of William II. 

The Queen's Aunt and Cousins, Augusta, duchess 
(willow 8 July 1850, of duke) of Cambridge, bom 25 
July, 1797 ; married 1 June, 1818 ; died 6 April, i38o. 
Her son, George, duke of Cambridge, commander-in- 
chief, born 26 March, 1819 ; [wife, Mis. Fitz-George, 
aged 74, died 12 Jan. 1890]. 
Her daughters, Augusta, grand duchess of Mecklen- 
burg-Strelitz, born 19 July, 1822 ; married 28 June, 
1843 ; and the princess Mary of Cambridge, born 27 
Nov. 1833 ; married to the prince Francis, now duke, 
of Teek, 12 June, 1866. Isstic : Adolphus, and 3 
other children. 

ENGLISH CHURCH UNION, established 
i860, when it consisted of 2 10 members ; there were 
22,100 in 1888. Its object is to defend the 



Church of England and its ancieut constitution, 
doctrine and liturgy, and her right to regulate her 
own affairs; and has supported clergymen who have 
suffered for so doing. Annual meetings are held, 

ENGLISH LANGUAGE is traced from the 
Frisian variety of the Teutonic or Germanic branch 
of the great Indo-European family. " The English 
tongue possesses a veritable power of expression, 
such as, perhaps, never stood at the command of 
any other language of man." Grimm. 
Celtic prevailed in England . . . a.d. i 

Latin introduced about 1 

Saxon prevails (Beowulf ; Csedmon ; Alfred) 450-1066 
Latin re-introduced by missionaries . . . 596 

Norman-French combining with English . 1066-1250 
William I. and his successors used English in their 
laws, &c. ; it was superseded by Latin in the 
reign of Henry II. Norman- French was not used 
in law-deeds till the reign of Henry III. 
Early English . .... 1250-1500. 

The present English settled in the 16th century. 
Law pleadings were made in English by order of 

Edward III. instead of in French . . . . 1362 
The English tongue and English apparel were or- 
dered to be used in Ireland, 28 Hen. VIII. . . 1536 
The English language was ordered to be used in all 

law-suits, and the Latin disused . . May, 1731 
Per-centage of Anglo-Saxon words in the English 
bible, 97 ; Swift, 89 ; Shakspeare and Thomson, 
85 ; Addison, 83 ; Spenser and Milton, 81 ; Locke, 
80 ; Young, 79 ; Pope, 76 ; Johnson, 75 ; Robert- ' 
son, 68 ; Hume, 65 ; Gibbon, 58. Marsh. 
Of 100,000 English words, 60,000 are of Teutonic 
origin ; 30,000 Greek and Latin ; and 10,000 from 
other sources. 
Early English Text Society began publishing . . 1864 
English Diakct Society, established to print old 

glossaries May, 1873, 

English greatly used in the East, Japan, China, &c. 

Dr. S. A. Allibone's great "Critical Dictionary of 

English Literature," published in 1859 and 1871 ; 

he died 12 Sept., 1889, supplement by John F. 

Kirk i89r 

PRINCIPAL BRITISH AND AMERICAN AUTHORS. 

Born. Died. 

John Wickliffe, t 1324 1384: 

Geoffrey Chaucer, p 132S J400 

John Gower, p. ... about 1320 1402 
Paston Letters, 1460-1482 

Win, Caxton . . ... 1421 • 1491 

Sir Thomas More, h. p. . . . 1482 1535 

Sir Philip Sidney, n. p. . . 1554 1586 
Holinshed's Chronicles, 1586 

John Fox, t. h 1517 1587 

Edmund Spenser, p. . 1553 159S 

Richard Hooker, t 1553 1600 

Wm, Shakspeare, d 1564 1616 

Walter Raleigh, h. p 1552 1618 

Francis Bacon, ph " . 1561 1626 

George Herbert, p. . . . ■ 1593 1633: 

Ben Jonson, d. 1574 1637 

Philip Massinger, d 1584 1640 

Jeremy Taylor, t 1613 1667 

John Milton, p 1608 1674 

Isaac Barrow, t 1630 1677 

Thomas Hobbes, phil 1588 1679 

Samuel Butler, p • 1612 1680 

John Bunyan, t 1628 1688- 

John Dryden, p 1631 1700. 

John Locke, ph 1632 1704 

Joseph Addison, c 1672 1719 

Matthew Prior, j>. 1664 1721 

Richard Steele, e 1671 1729 

Daniel De Foe, n. pol 1663 1731 

John Gay, p. 1688 1732 

Alexander Pope, j) 16S8 17.(4 

Jonathan Swift, n. p 1667 1745 

James Thomson, p 1700 1748 

Henry Fielding, n. d 1707 1754 

Sam. Richardson, w. 1689 1761 

Edward Young, ;> 16S1 1765 

Laurence Sterne, n 1713 1768 

Mark Akenside, p 17 21 177° 

Thomas Gray, p 1716 177* 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



344 



ENGRAVING. 



Tobias Smollett, n. . 
Oliver Goldsmith, n. p. 
David Hume, h. ph. . 
Samuel Johnson, e. n. p. 
Benjamin Franklin, ph. pol 
William Robertson, h. 
Edward Gibbon, h. . 
Robert Burns, p. . 
Edmund Burke, pol. 
William Cowper, p. 
John Keats p. . 
Percy B. Shelley, p. 
George lord Byron, p. 
George Crabbe, p. 
Walter Scott, n. p. 
Samuel T. Coleridge, p. pl< 
Charles Lamb, e. . 
William Cobbett, pol. e. 
Robert Southey, p. h. . 
Thomas Arnold, h. . 
Thomas Campbell, p. . 
Sidney Smith, e. pol. 
Thomas Hood, hum. . 
Edgar Allan Poe, p. 
Maria Edgeworth, n. . 
Win, Wordsworth, p. 
J. Fennimore Cooper, n. 
Joanna Baillie, p. 
Thomas Moore, p. m. . 
John Wilson, p. e. . 
Samuel Rogers, p. 
Charlotte Bronte, n. 
E. T. Channing, m. . 
Henry Hallam, h. 
Thomas de Quincey, e. 
Leigh Hunt, e. 

William Prescott, h. 
Washington Irving, n. h. 
T. B. Macaulay, l>. p. 
Eliz. (Barrett) Browning 
Sir Francis Palgrave, h. 
Abp. Richd. Whately, yl 
Wm. M. Thackeray, n. 
W. S. Landor, m. 

Nathl. Hawthorne, n. . 
W. Whewell, m. . 

Henry lord Brougham, pol. h. 
Charles Dickens, n. 
Sir J. Hersehel, ph. . 

George Ticknor, h. 

G. Grote, h. 

Edwd. Bulwer-Lytton, lord Lytt 

John Stuart Mill, ph. 

Bryan W. Procter (" Barry Cornwall ' 

Arthur Helps, e. . 

Charles Kingsley, m. 

Harriet Martineau, m, 

Marian Evans ("George Eliot") n. p. 

Benjamin Disraeli, lord Beaeonsfield, n. 

Thomas Carlyle, h. e. 

H. W. Longfellow-, p. 

Dante Gabriel Rossetti, p. 

Charles Darwin, nat. . 

Anthony Trollope, a. 

R. W. Emerson, e. p. 

Sir Henry Taylor, p.cl. 

Matthew Arnold, p. m. 

W. G. Palgrave, tr. 

George Bancroft, h. 

W. E. Gladstone, m. 

O. W. Holmes, e. p. n. 

Alfred Tennyson (lord, 1883), p 

Thomas Trollope, n. 

Robert Browning, p. . 

Sir Theodore Martin, h. p. m. . 

Mrs. M. Oliphant, n. . 

James Anthony Froude, h. m. 

J. R. Lowell, hum. p. pol. . 

John Ruskin, art critic . 

Herbert Spencer, ph. . 

John Tyndall, m. 

E. A. Freeman, h. 

Francis Turner Palgrave, p. 

T. H. Huxley, m. 

Lord Lytton, p. m. . 

Edwin Arnold, p. 

Wm. Morris p 



Born. 
1720 
1728 
1711 
1709 
1706 
1721 
1737 
1759 
1729 

1731 
I79S 
1792 
1788 
1754 
1771 
1772 

1775 
1762 

1774 

I79S 
1777 
1771 

1799 



1769 
1770 
1798 
1763 
1780 
1785 
1763 
1816 
1790 
1778 
1786 
1784 
1796 
1783 



1787 
1811 

1775 
1804 

J 794 
1778 
1812 
1792 
1791 

!794 
1805 
1806 
1790 
1813 
1819 
1802 
1820 
1805 

1795 
1807 
1828 



1809 
1810 
1812 
1816 
1818 
1818 
1819 
1819 
1820 
1820 
1823 
1824 
1825 
1831 
1832 
1834 



Died. 
1771 
1774 
1776 
1784 
1790 
1793 
1794 
1796 
1797 
1800 
1821 
1822 
1824 
1832 
1832 
1834 
1834 
1835 
1842 
1843 
1844 
1845 



1854 
1855 
1855 
1856 
1859 
1859 



1866 
1868 
1870 



1873 
1873 
1874 
187s 
1875 



Born. Died. 

A. C. Swinburne p 1837 

Robert Buchanan, p 1841 

R. L. Stevenson, n 1850 

Wm. Wilkie Collins, n 1824 1889 

A. W. Kinglake, h. . . . ... 1812 1891 

Walter Whitman, Am., p. . . . 1819 1892 

John Greenleaf Whittier, Am., p. . . 1807 1892 

d. dramatist ; e. essayist ; h. historian ; hum, humourist ; 
m. miscellaneous ; n. novelist ; nat. naturalist ; p. poet ; 
t. theologian : tr. traveller ; pol. political ; ph. philo- 
sopher. 

'■ENGLISHMAN," a newspaper edited by 
Dr. Kenealy, published in April, 1874, soon after the 
conviction of the claimant of the Tichborne estates 
(see Trials, 1873-4). For its libellous character, 
the editor was disbenched by the society of Gray's 
Inn, 1 Aug. 1874 ; ordered to give up his chambers 
by vice-chancellor, 29 June, 1876. He died 16 
April, 1880. 

ENGRAVING on signets is mentioned Exod. 
xxviii. 11 (b.c. 1491). Engraving on plates and 
wood began about the middle of the 15th century. 
Engraving on glass was perfected by Bourdier, of 
Pans, 1799. The copyright to engravings has been 
protected by several statutes ; among the principal 
are the acts 16 & 18 Geo. III. 1775 and 1777; and 
the acts 7 & 8 Vict. 6 Aug. 1844, and 15 Vict. 28 
May, 1852. A process of enlarging and reducing 
engravings by means of sheets of vulcanised india- 
rubber, was shown by the electro-printing block 
company in i860 ; see Lithography and Photo- 
Galvanography. In " Lyra Germanica," published 
in 1861, are illustrations engraved upon blocks 
photographed from negatives taken by John Leigh- 
ton, F.S.A. 

Engraving on Copper. Prints from engraved copper- 
plates made their appearance about 1450, and were 
first produced in Germany. Masso, surnamed Fini- 
guerra, is considered to have been the first Italian 
engraver, about 1440. (See Niello.) 

The earliest date known of a copper-plate engraving is 
1461. 

Rolling-presses for working the plates inveuted in 1545. 

Of the art of etchi ng on copper by means of aqua-fortis, 
Francis Mazzuoli, or Parmegiano, is the reputed in- 
ventor, about 1532. De Piles. 

Etching was practised by Albert Diirer, and most espe- 
cially by Rembrandt. Its revival began about i860. 
Eminent modern etchers : — Messrs Lalanne, P. G. 
Hamerton, F. Seymour Haden, Bracquemond, Jacque- 
mart, Martial, and others. The Etching Club was 
established in 1838. 

Mr. Lumb Stocks, R.A., line engraver, born 1812, died 
April, 1892. 

Royal Society of Painter-etchers formed ; opened an exhi- 
bition, April, 1881. 

Engraving on Wood, long known in China, began in 
Europe with the brief-mahlers or manufacturers of 
playing-cards, about 1400 (see Printing). The art is 
referred by some to a Florentine, and by others to 
Reuss, a German ; it was greatly improved by Diirer 
(1471-1528) and Lucas van Leyden (1497). Itwas much 
improved in England by Bewick and his brother, and 
pupils, Nesbitt, Anderson, &c. . 1789, et seq. The 
earliest wood engraving which has reached our times 
is one representing St. Christopher carrying the infant 
Jesus over the sea ; it bears date 1423. 

Mr. W. J. Linton's " Masters of Wood Engraving," with 
250 fine examples, published July, 1890. 

Engraving on Soft Steel, to be hardened afterwards, 
was introduced into England by Messrs. Perkins and 
Heath, of Philadelphia, 1819. 

John Pye, " father of English landscape engraving," born 
1782; died 6 Feb. 1874. 

Mezzotinto is said to have been discovered by col. von 
Siegen, who engraved a portrait of princess Amelia of 
Hesse in mezzotinto in 1643 ; it was improved by 
prince Rupert in 1648 ; and by sir Christopher Wren, 
about 1662. 



ENLISTMENT. 



345 



EPICUREAN PHILOSOPHY. 



Aquatinta, by which a soft and beautiful effect is pro- 
duced, was invented by the celebrated French artist, 
St. Non, about 1662 ; he communicated his invention 
to Le Prince. Barabbe of Paris was distinguished for 
his improvements in this kind of engraving, 1763. 
Chiar'-oscuro engraving originated with the Germans, 
and was first practised by Mair, one of whose prints 
bears date 1491 (see Zinc, &c.) 

ENLISTMENT. No persons enlisting as 
soldiers or sailors are to be sworn in before a magis- 
trate in less than twenty-four hours after, and they 
are then at liberty to withdraw upon their return- 
ing the enlistment or bounty money, and 21s. costs. 
Enlistment is now entirely voluntary. In 1847 the 
term of enlistment was limited to ten years for the 
infantry, and twelve years for the cavalry, artillery, 
and royal marines ; and in 1867, to twelve years ; 
see Army, 1867 and 1879, and Foreign Enlistment. 

ENNISKILLEN (N. W. Ireland). This 
town made an obstinate defence against the army of 
Elizabeth, 1595, and resisted James II., 1689. 1500 
Enuiskilleners met his general M'Carthy at Newton 
Butler with 6000 men (of whom 3000 were slain, 
and nearly all the rest made prisoners), they losing 
but twenty men, 30 July, 1689. The dragoon regi- 
ment, the "Inniskillingers," was originally re- 
cruited here. 

ENOCH, BOOK OF, an apocryphal work, 
quoted by the fathers, disappeared about the 8th 
century. A MS. Ethiopic version was found in 
Abyssinia by Bruce, and brought to England in 
1773. Of this, archbishop Lawrence published an 
English translation in 1821, and the Ethiopic text 
in 1838. 

ENSILAGE (from silo, a pit), a system of pre- 
serving com and green fodder for cattle in pits 
made air and water tight, recently practised by 
French agriculturists ; described by M. Goffart and 
by professor Thorold Rogers, M.P., in his "Ensi- 
lage," published 1883. Ensilage reported successful 
at Peckforton, Cheshire, 27 Nov. 1883 ; commended 
by the prince of Wales and others at a meeting of 
the Institute of Agriculture, 17 March, 1884; en- 
silage has been found successful in India, 1884. 
Favourable reports of a private practical and scien- 
tific commission issued, 5 Aug. 1885 ; and' 14 May, 
1886 ; opinions differ as to economy. Ensilage 
with building silos practised in 188". 

ENSISHEIM (E. France). Here Turenne 
defeated the Imperial army, and expelled it from 
Alsace, 4 Oct. 1674. 

ENTAIL of estates began with the statute of 
Westminster, 1285. Subsequent legislation broke 
the entail incases of treason (1534), when the estate 
is to revert to the crown, and of bankruptcy (1833 
and 1849), when it is to be sold. The law of entail 
in Scotland was amended in 1875. 

ENTERTAINMENT of the People So- 
ciety, for the very poor, held first concert at the 
board school room, Saffron-hill, London, Saturday, 
12 April, 1879. 

ENTOMOLOGY, the science of insects, now 
mainly based upon the arrangement of Linnanis, 
1739. Ray's " Methodus Insectorum," 1705 ; " In- 
sectorum Historia," 1 7 10. The Entomological 
Society of London was instituted 3 May, 1833 ; was 
made Royal Aug. 188$. A National Entomological 
Exhibition at the Westminster Aquarium was 
opened 9 March, 1878. Miss Ormerod appointed 
honorary consulting entomologist to the Royal 
Agricultural Society, 1882. 

ENVELOPES for letters are mentioned by 
Swift, 1726. Stamped adhesive envelopei came 



into general use shortly after the establishment of 
the penny postal system, 10 Jan. 1840. Machinery 
for tlieir manufacture was patented by Mr. George 
Wilson in 1844 ; and by Messrs. E. Hill and Warren 
de la Rue, 17 March, 1845. 

ENVOYS AT COURTS, in dignity below am- 
bassadors, enjoy the protection, but not the cere- 
monies of ambassadors. Envoys extraordinary are 
of modern date. Wicquefort. 

EOZOON CANADENSE, asserted to he the 
earliest known form of life, is a species of foramini- 
fera, found by professor J. W. Dawson, of Montreal, 
in Laurentiau limestone in 1858. 

EPACT (Greek, added) is the excess of the 
solar month above the lunar synodical month, 
1 day, 11 hours, 15 minutes, 57 seconds, the lunar 
month being only 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, 3 
seconds ; and the excess of the solar year above the 
lunar synodical year (nearly 11 days), the lunar 
year being 354 days. The epact of any year in- 
dicates the moon's age on the 1st Jan. in that year. 
The number of the Gregorian epact for 1893, 12 ; 
1894, 23; 1895, 4 5 i&fi, 15. 

EPERNAY (N.E. France), seat of the trade 
in champagne, was taken from the League by 
Henry IV., 26 July, 1592, when marshal Annand 
Biron was killed. 

EPHESUS (in Asia Minor), a city said to have 
been founded by the Carians and Leleges, burnt by 
the Amazons, rebuilt by the Ionians about 1043 B.C. 
It was subdued by Cyrus in 544 b.c. ; revolted 
from the Persians, 501 B.C. and was destroyed by 
an earthquake in a.d. 17. See Diana, Temple 
of, and Seven Churches. Paul preached here 
a.d. 55, 56 {Acts xviii. xix.) His epistle to 
the Ephesians is dated a.d. 64. The third general 
council was held here in 431. After investi- 
gation, begun in 1863, Mr. J. T. Wood dis- 
covered the site of the temple of Diana in Apiil, 
1870; and about 60 tons of marble were shipped at 
Smyrna for the British Museum, Jan. 1872, part of 
which arrived in the summer. Mr. Wood published 
an illustrated account of his discoveries in 1876. 
The site of the temple was purchased for the liritish 
Museum. Mr. J . T. Wood resumed his excavations, 
summer, 1883. 

EPIIORI, powerful magistrates of Sparta, five 
in number, said to have been first created by 
Theopompus to control the royal power, about 
757 B.C. 

EPIC POEMS (from Greek epos, a song), 
narratives in verse. Eminent examples : — 
Homer's " Iliad " and " Odyssey " (Greek), between 

8th and 10th century B.C. (see Homer). 
Maha-barhata, Sanscrit, very ancient ; by several 

authors ; the longest epic known (220,000 lines). 
Virgil's " iEneid " (Latin) about . . . b.c. 19 
Ovid's " Metamorphoses " (Latin), about . a.d. i 
Dante (died 1321), " Divina Commedia " (Italian) 

published 1472 

Axiosto, " Orlando Furioso " (Italian) . . . 1516 
Camoens' " Lusiad " (Portuguese) .... 1569 
Tasso, " Jerusalem Delivered " (Italian) . . . 1581 
Spenser's " Faery Queen " .... 1590-6 

Milton's " Paradise Lost " 1667 

Voltaire, " Henriade " (French) .... 1728 
Walter Scott, " Lay of the Last Minstrel," &c. . . 1805 

EPICUREAN PHILOSOPHY. Epicurus 
of Gargettus, near Athens, about 306 B.C., taught 
that the greatest good consists in peace of mind 
springing from virtue, as tending to prevent dis- 
quiet : but the name epicurean is frequently given 
to those who derive happiness from sensual plea- 
sure. (See Atoms.) 



EPIDAURUS. 



346 



ERAS. 



EPIDAURUS (Greece), celebrated for the 
temple of Asclepius, or ./Esculapius, god of medicine, 
and enriched by gifts from persons healed. The 
Romans sent an embassy to seek the help of the 
god during a pestilence, and his worship was in- 
troduced at Rome, 293 B.C. The temple was visited 
by iEmilius Paulus, after his conquer of Mace- 
donia, 167 B.C. 

EPIDEMIC PREVENTION ACT, 46 & 

47 Vict. c. 59, passed 25 Aug. 1883. 

EPIDEMIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF 

LONDON, established in 1850 ; has done valu- 
able work. 

EPIGENESIS, see Spontaneous Generation. 

EPIGRAMS. Marcus Valerius Martialis, the 
Latin epigrammatist, who flourished about a.d. 83, 
is allowed to have excelled all others, ancient or 
modern. The following epigram on Christ's turning 
water into wine {John hi.) is an example : — " Vidit 
et erubuit lympha pudica Deum." " The modest 
water saw its God, and blushed." Crashaw (died 
1650). 

" The Epigrammatists," a collection by rev. H. P. Dodd, 
published 1870 and 1875. 

EPIPHANY (appearance), a feast (Jan. 6), 
termed Twelfth Day, celebrates the manifestation 
of the Saviour, by the appearance of the star which 
conducted the Magi to the place where he was to be 
found; early observed, but became a separate feast, 
813. Whately. 

EPIRUS (Northern Greece). Its early history 
is very obscure. 

The first Pyrrhus (Neoptolemus) settled in Epirus, 
after the Trojan war, 1 170 B.C., and was killed in 
the temple of Delphi . . . . about B.C. 1165 

Alexander the first king invades Italy to assist the 
Tarentines, against the Lucanians, &c, is de- 
feated and slain at Pandosia . . . B.C. 326 

Pyrrhus the Great reigns, 295 ; he takes Macedon 
from Demetrius ; is compelled to yield to Lysi- 
machus 287 

Invited by the Tarentines, invades Italy, see Rome, 

281-275 

Temporary success in Sicily . 279 et seq. 

He takes Macedon from Antigonus . . . 273 

He unsuccessfully invades Sparta; enters Argos, and 
is killed by a tile, thrown by a woman . . 272 

Philip unites Epirus to Macedon . . . 220 

Its conquest by the Romans 167 

******* 

Epirus annexed to the Ottoman empire . a.d. 1466 
An insurrection against the Turks put down . . 1854 

EPISCOPACY, see Bishops. 

EPISTLES or LETTERS. An Egyptian letter 
about 1300 B.C. is tran.-dated in " Records of the 
Past," vol. 6. A letter was sent to Joab by David 
by the hands of Uriah, about 1035 B.C. (2 Ham. xi. 
14); see under article Bible. Horace Walpole, re- 
nowned for his letters, was born 5 Oct. 1717 ; died 
2 March, 1797. The collection entitled •' Elegant 
Epistles," commencing with Cicero, was published 
in 1790. It ends with an essay on letter writing by 
Dr. Johnson. 

EPITAPHS were inscribed on tombs by the 
Egyptians, Jews, Greeks, and Romans. Mr. T. J. 
Pettigrew published a collection entitled " Chroni- 
cles of the Tombs," in 1857. 

EPITHALAMIUM, a nuptial song at mar- 
riage. Tisias, the lyric poet, is said to have been 
the first writer of one. He received the name of 
Stc-sichorus, from the alterations made by him in 
music and dancing, about 536 B.C. Bossuet. 



EPOCHS, points of time made remarkable 
by some event, from which subsequent years are 
reckoned by historians and chronologers ; see Eras. 
See Anno Domini, Hegira, &c. 

EPPING FOREST, see Forests, note. 

EPSOM (Surrey). The mineral springs were 
discovered in 1 61 8. The races began about 171 1, 
and have been held annually since 1730. Popula- 
tion, 1881, 6,916 ; 1891, 8,417. 

EQUATION OP TIME. See Geodesy. 

EQUATOR or ECUADOR, a South American 
republic, formerly Quito and other provinces, part 
of Columbia, 1821; independent in 1831, when the 
Columbian republic was divided into three; the 
other two being Venezuela and New Granada. The 
population of Equator in 1885, 1,004,651. 
Presidents: general Franco, 21 Aug. 1859; defeated 
in battle by general Flores, Aug. i860 ; G. G. 
Moreno, Jan. 1861 ; Geronimo Carrion, 4 Aug. 
1865 ; disputes with the chambers ; resigns Dec. 1867 
Dr. Xavier Espinosa was elected president, 13 Sept. ,, 
Dr. Gabriel Garcia Moreno, president, . end of 1872 
President Moreno assassinated, 6 Aug. ; state of 
siege proclaimed, Sept. 1875 ; Yeintiinille, presi- 
dent Sept. 1876 

Revolt ; constitutional army under Aparicio defeated 

at Galte 14 Dec. ,, 

Eruption of Cotopaxi .... 25 June, 1877 

Alfaro dictator Jan. 1883 

Jose Maria Plaoido Caamano, president 12 Feb. 1884 
Revolution at Esmeraldas, headed by Eloy Alfaro 

with military administration . . 4 Nov. i836 
Seiior Antonio Flores, president, 30 June, 1888 ; 
Sen. Louis Cordero, about . . .18 June, 1892 
See Earthquakes, 1868. 

EQUATORIAL AFRICA. See Soudan, 

1886. 

EQUESTRIAN ORDER in Rome was estab- 
lished with Romulus, about 750 B.C. ; see Knight- 
hood. 

EQUINOX. When the sun in his progress 
passes throug*h the equator in one of the equinoc- 
tial points, the day and night are equal all over 
the globe. This occurs twice in the year: about 
21 March, the vernal equinox, and 22 Sept., the 
autumnal equinox. The equinoctial points move 
backwards about 50 seconds yearly, requiring 25,000 
years to accomplish a complete revolution. This is 
called the precession of the equinoxes, which . is 
said to have been observed by the ancient astrono- 
mers. 

EQUITY, COURTS OF, are those of the lord 
chancellor, the vice-chancellors, and the master of 
the rolls, their office being to correct the operations 
of the literal text of the law, and supply its defects 
by reasonable construction not admissible in a court 
of law. The supreme court of session in Scot- 
land combines the functions of law and equity. Ill 
1865 equity powers were conferred on the county 
courts for cases respecting sums under 500/. See 
Supreme Court, in which law and equity are 
combined. 

ERAS. The principal are more fully noticed 
in their alphabetical order. 
Common Era (English Bible, Usher, &c.) . B.C. 4004 

Era of the Jews 37 6j 

Era of Constantinople, 1 Sept. 5508 ; of Antioch, 

1 Sept. 5492 
Alexandrian or Mundane era . . 29 Aug. 5502 

Julian era 1 Jan. 4713 

Era of Abraham 1 Oct. 2015 

Era of Nabonassar, after which the astronomical 

observations made at Babylon were reckoned, 

began 26 Feb. 747 



ERASTIANISM. 



347 



ESSEN. 



753 i 

125 

48 



Era of the Seleucidce (used by the Maccabees), 

commenced 
The Olympiads belong to the Grecians, and date 

from 1 July, 776 b.c. 
The Romans reckoned from the founding of their 

city, a. u.c. (anno urbis conditce) .... 

Era of Tyre 19 Oct. 

Ccesarean era of Antioch 1 Sept. 

Spanish Era (of the conquest of Spain), the 16th year 

of the emperor Augustus (see Ccesars), long used 

by the Spaniards . . . . a.d. 1 Jan. 

Actian era b.c. i Jan. 

Pontifical or Ecclesiastical Initiation, 25 Dec. or 1 Jan. 
Vulgar Christian era .... a.d. i Jan. 
Era of Diocletian or Martyrs, began . . 29 Aug. 
The Mahometans began their era from the Ilegira, 

or flight of their prophet from Mecca 16 July, 

Armenian era a.d. 7 July, 

Era of Yczdegird III. or Persian era a.d. 16 June, 
Era of Vicramadityo, used in India, began B.C. 

See Creation, Cali Yvga, Anno Domini, Calendar. 

EEASTIANISM, the opinions of Thomas 
Lieber (latinised Erastus), a German physician 
C1524-83), who taught that the church had no 
right to exclude any person from church ordi- 
nances, to inflict excommunication, &c. Persons 
who acknowledge the jurisdiction of the civil power 
in spiritual matters and the law of patronage are 
now termed Erastians. 

ERASURES. By order of sir John Romilly, 
master of the rolls, in 1855, no document corrected 
hy erasure with the knife was to be henceforth 
received in his court. The errors must be corrected 
with the pen. It is so in the army courts. 

ERDINGTON ORPHANAGE, &c ; see 
Orphans' -houses. 

ERFURT (Central Germany), was founded in 
476 ; and its university established about 1390. 
Erfurt was ceded to Prussia in 1802. It capitu- 
lated to Murat, when 14,000 Prussian troops surren- 
dered, 16 Oct. 1806. In this city Napoleon and 
Alexander met, and offered peace to England, 27 
Sept. 1808. The French retreated to Erfurt from 
Leipsic, 18 Oct. 1813. A German parliament met 
here in March and April, 1850. Population, 1S90, 
72,371- 

ERICSSON'S CALORIC ENGINE, see 
Heat, note. 

ERITREO, a new Italian colony on the Red 
Sea, established by royal decree, 2 Jan. 1890. 

ERIVAN (Armenia), in the 16th century the 
residence of the shahs of Persia, was taken by the 
Turks in 1553 and 1582; but recovered by Abbas 
the Great, 1604. After being several times cap- 
tured, it was ceded to Persia, 1769. It was taken 
by Paskiewitch in 1827, and annexed to Russia by 
treaty in Feb. 1828. 

ERZEROUM (Asiatic Turkey), a city built 
by Theodosius II., 415; taken by the Seljuk Turks 
in the 13th century, and by the Ottoman Turks in 
1517. It was captured by the Russian general 
Paskiewitch, June, 1829, but restored in 1830. It was 
almost totally destroyed by earthquakes, 2 June to 
17 July, 1859. Population in 1885,60,000. 

ESCHEAT, the reverting of any lam! or tene- 
ments to the lord of the fee, or to the state, through 
failure of heirs; formerly al>o through attainder of 
the tenant, which last was abolished by the Felony 
Act, 1870. 

ESCOMBRERA BAY, Battle of ; see 

Spain, II Oct. 1873. 

ESCURIAL, properly ESCORIAL (25 miles 
N.W. of Madrid), the magnificent palace of the 



sovereigns of Spain, termed the eighth wonder of 
the world, was commenced by Philip II. in 1563,. 
and completed in 1586, at a cost of about I0,000,ooo'. 
It is built in the form of a gridiron in honour of 
St. Lawrence, on whose day (10 Aug. 1557) the 
Spaniards gained the victory of St. Ouentin. Ac- 
cording to Francisco de los Santos the total length 
of all its rooms and apartments is above 120 English 
miles. The Escurial comprises a church, mauso- 
leum, monastery, palace, library, and museum. It 
was struck by lightning and caught fire 11.30 p.nu 
1 Oct. 1872, and was much damaged; but the- 
grand library and other treasures were preserved. 

ESPARTO, from the Latin spartum, stipct 
tenacissima of Linnaeus, a Spanish grass used by 
Romans for whip-thongs, and now largely employed; 
in paper-making. In 1856 about 50 tons, in 187O1 
above 100,000 tons, and in 1890, 403,263 tons, were- 
imported into Britain. The price has risen front 
/\l. to 10^. per ton. Living plants were received 
at Newcastle, July, 1867. 

ESPIERRES (Belgium). At Pont-a-Chin y 
near this village, the French, under Pichegru, 
attacked the allied English and Austrian army 
(100,000 men), commanded by the duke of York, 
and were repulsed after a long and desperate en- 
gagement, losing the advantages gained by the- 
victory at Turcoing, 22 May, 1794. 

ESPRIT, SAINT (or Holy Ghost), the title of 
an order of knighthood, founded by Henry III. of 
France in 1578, and abolished in 1791. 

ESQUIRES, among the Greeks and Romans, 
were armour-bearers to, or attendants on a knight. 
Blount. In England the king created esquires by 
putting about their necks the collars of SS, and 
bestowing upon them a pair of silver spurs. John/ 
de Kingston was created a squire by patent, 13, 
Richard II., 1389-90. There are now legally 
esquires by birth, by creation, and by holding some- 
office, butthe title is very loosely given by courtesy. 

"ESSAYS AND REVIEWS," by six clergy- 
men and one layman of the church of England (the 
Rev. Drs. Fred. Temple and Rowland Williams,, 
professor Baden Powell, H. B. Wilson, Mark 
Pattisou, and professor B. Jowett, and Mr. C. W. 
Goodwin) were published in an 8vo vol. in March, 
i860. The book did not excite much attention at 
first, but having been severely censured for hetero- 
dox views by nearly all the bishops and many of 
the clergy, it created much excitement in 1861, 
and was condemned by convocation 24 June, 1864. 
The ecclesiastical courts sentenced the revs. R. 
Williams and H. B. Wilson to suspension for one 
year, and costs, 15 Dec. 1862; but on appeal the 
sentence was reversed by the judicial committee of 
the privy council, 8 Feb. 1864. The most remark- 
able amongst the works put forth in opposition (in 
1862) are the "Aids to Faith," edited by the bishop 
of Gloucester (W. Thomson, now abp. of York), 
and "Replies to Essays and Reviews," edited by 
the bishop of Oxford (S. Wilberforce). The elec- 
tion of Dr. Temple to the see of Exeter was much 
opposed on account of his essay iu this collection; 
see Church of England, 1869. 

ESSENES, an ascetic, Jewish sect at the time 
of Christ. 

ESSEN, a to > n in Rhenish Prussia, which 
began with' the Benedictine nunnery, about 873. 
Among the iron manufactories, the chief are thos 
of Erupp, in which were employed 74 men in 1S4S, 
and 20,960 in 1888, when the works contained 1. 195 



ESSEX. 



348 



ETON COLLEGE. 



-furnaces, 92 steam-hammers, 370 steam-engines, 
and other great apparatus. See Cannon. Popula- 
tion, 1890, 78,723. See Westphalia, 1889. 

ESSEX, KINGDOM OF ; see under Britain. 

EARLS OF ESSEX (from Nicolas). 

Geoffrey de Mandeville, created earl of Essex by 

Matilda, was slain .... 14 Sept. 1144 
Humphrey de Bohun, succeeded by right of his mo- 
ther, Mary, sister of William, who died without heir 1189 
Humphrey de Bohun, died without heir . . 1372 
Thomas of Woodstock, son of Edward III. 1372 ; 

murdered 1397 

Henry Bourchier (grandson) .... 1461 

Henry Bourchier, grandson ; died without heir 

(earldom extinct) 1539 

Thomas Cromwell, 1539 ; beheaded . . . 1540 
William Parr, 1543 ; attainted .... 1543 

Walter Devereux, 1572 ; died .... 1576 
Robert Devereux, lord lieut. of Ireland, 1599 ; cen- 
sured for misgovernment ; conspired against the 
government ; beheaded, 25 Feb. . . . 1601 
Robert, son ; died without heir . . . 1646 

Arthur Capel,. ancestor of the present earl . . 1661 

ESSLING, Battle of, see Asperne. 

ESTE, HOUSE OF. Boniface, count of Lucca 
and duke of Tuscany, about 811, is £aid to have 
descended from Odoacer, king of Italy. From 
Boniface sprang Albert Azzo II. marquis of Italy 
■and lord of Este, born about 996, who married — 
first, Cunegonda of the house of Guelf, by whom he 
had Guelf, duke of Bavaria, the ancestor of the 
house of Brunswick (see Bavaria and Brunswick) ; 
and secondly, Gersonda, by whom he had Fulk, 
the ancestor of the Estes, dukes of Ferrara and 
Modena. 

ESTELLA, N. Spain. In a conflict at Pcha 
Mura, near this place, 25-28 June, 1874, the repub- 
licans were repulsed, and their general, Manuel de 
Concha (aged 66), killed, by the Carlists, 27 June. 

ES rHONIA or BEVEL, a Russian province, 
said to have been conquered by the Teutonic 
knights in the I2th century; after various changes 
it was ceded to Sweden by the treaty of Oliva, 3 
May, 1660, and finally to Russia by the peace of 
Nystadt, 30 Aug. 1721, having been conquered by 
Peter in 1710. Population, 1886, 395,979. 

ETATS, see States. 

ETCHING, see Engraving. 

ETHEB was known to the earliest chemists. 
Nitric ether was first discovered by Kunkel, in 
1681 ; and muriatic ether, from the chloride of tin, 
hy Courtanvaux, in 1759. Acetic ether was dis- 
covered by count Lauraguais, same year ; and 
hydriotic ether was first prepared by Gay-Lussac. 
The phosphoric ether was obtained by M. Boullay. 
The discovery that by inhaling ether the patient is 
rendered unconscious of pain, is due to Dr. C. 
T. Jackson, of Boston, U. S. Mr. Thomas Morton, 
of the same place, first introduced it into surgical 
practice, under Dr. Jackson's directions (1846) ; see 
Chloroform, and Amylene. The drinking of ether 
as an intoxicant greatly increased in the north of 
Ireland, was checked by the enforcement of the 
Poisons Act of 1870, in regard to its sule, Oct. 1891. 
The term "ether" was applied to the transparent 
celestial space by the German astronomer Encke, 
about 1829, when studying the elements of Pons' 
■comet, discovered in iSi-8. 

ETHICS (Greek term for Morals). The works 
of Plato, Aristotle, and Confucius, contain heathen 
systems ; the New Testament is that of Christianity. 
Paley's Moral Philosophy appeared in 1785, and 
Whewell's Elements of' Morality in 1845. An 
Ethical Society existed in London, 1890. 



ETHIOPIA. The name was applied anciently 
rather vaguely to countries the inhabitants of 
which had sun-burnt complexions, in Asia and 
Africa ; but is now considered to apply properly to 
the modern Nubia, Sennaar, and Northern Abyssinia. 
Many pyramids exist at Napata, the capital of 
Meroe, the civilised part of ancient Ethiopia. 
The Ethiopians settle near Egypt . . B.C. 1615 

Zerah, the Ethiopian, defeated by Asa . . . 941 
A dynasty of Ethiopian kings reigned over Egypt 

765 to 715 
Tirhakah, king of Ethiopia, inarches against Senna- 
cherib 7 10 

Unsuccessful invasion of Cambyses . . 525-522 

Ptolemy HI. Euergetes extended his conquests in 

Ethiopia 225 

Candace, queen of Meroe, advancing against the 
Roman settlement at Elephantine, defeated and 
subdued by Petronius . . . . a.d. 22-23 

ETHNOLOGY, a branch of Anthropology, is 
defined as the science "which determines the dis- 
tinctive characters of the persistent modifications of 
mankind, their distribution, and the causes of the 
modifications and distribution." The study of the 
relations of the different divisions of mankind to 
each other is of recent origin. Balbi's Ethnographic 
Atlas was published in 1826, and Dr. Prichard's 
great work, Researches on the Physical History of 
Mankind, 1841-7. The Ethnological Society, 
established in 1843, published transactions. On 17 
Jan. 1871, it was amalgamated with the Anthropo- 
logical Society, (which see) and named the Anthropo- 
logical Institute. Dr. R. G. Latham's works, on 
the Ethnology of the British Empire, appeared in 
1851-2. Professor T. H. Huxley gave lectures 
on Ethnology at the Royal Institution, London, 
in 1866-7. Annual reports of the Bureau of Ethno- 
logy, Washington, U.S., began to be published, 1879. 
The International Congress of the Ethnographic 
Sciences met at Paris Sept. 30, 1889. 

ETHYL, a compound radicle, a colourless gas, 
with a slightly ethereal odour, a compound of 
carbon and hydrogen, first obtained in the free state 
by professor Edw. Frankland in 1849. Several of 
it= compounds with metals take fire in the air. 

ETNA, MOUNT (Sicily). Here were the fabled 
forges of the Cyclops : and it is called by Pindar 
the pillar of heaven. Eruptions are mentioned by 
Diodorus Siculus as happening 1693 B.C., and 
Thucydides speaks of three eruptions as occurring 
734, 477, and 425 B.C. There were eruptions, 125, 
121, and 43 B.C. Livy. 
Eruptions, a. d. 40, 254, and 420. Carrera. 
One in 1312. Geoffrey de Viterbo. 
One overwhelmed Catania, when 15,000 inhabitants 

perished in the burning ruins . . . 1169 

Eruptions, 1329, 1408, 1445, 1536, 1537, 1564, et seq. 
In 1669, when tens of thousands of persons perished 

in the streams of lava which rolled over the whole 

country for forty days. 
Eruptions in 1766, 1787, 1809, 1811, and in May, 

1830, when several villages were destroyed, and 

showers of lava reached near to Rome. 
The town of Bronte was destroyed . . 18 Nov. 1832 
Violent eruption occurred in . . Aug. and Sept. 1852 
An eruption began on 1 Feb., and ceased in July 1865 
Violent eruptions began 28 Nov. 1S68, and 29 Aug. 1874 
Violent eruption . . .16 May — 7 June, 1879 

Eruption 22 March — 4 April, 1883 

A violent eruption, with earthquakes ; much 

damage 18 May — 4 June, 1886 

Destructive eruptions, with earthquake shocks, 

9 July — 2 Sept. et seq. 1892 

ETON COLLEGE (Buckinghamshire), 
founded by Henry VI. in 1440, and designed as a 
nursery to King's College, Cambridge. John 
Stanbery, confessor to Henry VI. (bishop of Bangor, 



ETRURIA. 



319 



EURASIAN PLAIN. 



in 1448), was nominated the first provost. One of 
the provosts, William Waynflete, (bishop of Win- 
chester, 1447) greatly promoted the erection of the 
buildings. Besides about three hundred noblemen's 
and gentlemen's sons, there were seventy king's 
scholars on the foundation, who, when properly 
qualified, were formerly elected, on the first Tuesday 
in August, to King's College, Cambridge, and re- 
moved there when there were vacancies, according 
to seniority. The establishment of the Moritem is 
nearly eoeval-with the college. It consisted in the 
procession of the scholars, arrayed in fancy dresses, 
to Salt-hill once in three years ; the donations col- 
lected on the road (sometimes as much as 800^.) 
were given to the senior or best scholar, their captain, 
for his support while studying at Cambridge. The 
montem was discontinued in 1847. The college 
system was modified by the Public Schools act, 1868. 
In 1873 election Saturday ceased, the scholars to be 
students at Cambridge being chosen there. In 1880 
there were 853 students; in 1891, 1,007. 
The Queen laid the comer stone of the new school 

buildings 18 May, 1889 

Ninth jubilee of the foundation of the college 

celebrated 24 June, 1891 

Population of Eton in 1881, 3,464 ; 1891, 2,499. 

ETRURIA (or TUSCIA, hence the modern 
name Tuscany), a province of Italy, whence the 
Romans, in a great measure, derived their laws, 
customs, and superstitions. Herodotus asserts that 
the country was conquered by a colony of Lydians. 
The subjugation of this country forms an important 
part of early Roman history. It was most powerful 
under Porsena of Clusium, who attempted to rein- 
state the Tarquins, 506 B.C. Veii was taken by 
Camillus, 396 B.C. A truce between the Romans 
and Etrurians for forty years was concluded. 351 B.C. 
The latter and their allies were defeated at the 
Vadimonian lake, 310, with the Boii their allies, 
283 B.C., and totally lost their independence about 
265 B.C. The vases and other works of the Etrus- 
cans still remaining show the degree of their 
civilisation. Napoleon I. established a kingdom of 
Etruria, 1801, and suppressed it 1807, see Tuscany. — 
"The Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria," by George 
Dennis, published 1848 and 1878. Etruria, Staf- 
fordshire, the site of Josiah Wedgwood's porcelain 
works, &c, was founded in 1 77 1 . 

EUBCEA, the largest island in the .TEgean sea. 
Two of its cities, Chalcis and Eretria, were very 
important, till the former was subdued by Athens, 
506 B.C. and the latter by the Persians, 490. After 
the Persian war, Eubcea became wholly subject to 
Athens, and was its most valuable possession. It 
revolted in 445, but was soon subdued by Pericles. 
After the battle of Chuerouea, 338, it became subject 
to Macedon. It was made independent by the 
Romans in 194; but was afterwards incorporated in 
the province of Achaia. It now forms part of the 
kingdom of Greece. 

EUCALYPTUS GLOBULUS, or Blue 
Gum Tree, a very last growing Tasmanian ever- 
green, of the order Mi/rtacrce. From the extraor- 
dinary power of its roots of absorbing moisture, and 
the salutary aromatic odour of its leaves, it has 
been found highly beneficial in counteracting the 
malaria of marshy districts of hot climates, and 
hence has been named the fever-destroying tree. 
M. Ramel first sent seeds from .Melbourne to Paris 
in 1854, and subsequently seeds were distributed 
over the south of Europe, the north and south of 
Africa, and elsewhere. He died in 188 1. 

So rapid is the growth of this tree, that a forest may 
be formed in twenty years. It sometimes reaches the 



height of ^50 feet, with a circumference of 100 feet, 
rivalling Wellingtonia gigantea, which see. 

The timber, bark, and oils of the Eucalyptus are 
highly valuable, and professor Bentley says that the 
genus is one of the most important to man in the vege- 
table kingdom. In 1874 its medicinal value was said to 
have been exaggerated. 

EUCHARIST, thanksgiving, an early name 
for the Lord's Supper; see Sacrament. 

EUCLID'S ELEMENTS. Euclid, a native* 
of Alexandria, flourished about 323-283 B.C. The 
Elements are not wholly his; for many of the 
demonstrations were derived from Thales, Pytha- 
goras, Eudoxus, and others ; Euclid reduced them 
to order, and probably inserted many theorems of 
his own. The Elements were first printed at Basil 
by Simon Grynaeus, in 1533. Euclid is said to have 
told king Ptolemy that there was no royal road lo> 
geometry. 

EUDIOMETER, an apparatus to ascertain 
the purity of atmospheric air, or the quantity of 
oxygen gas or vital air contained in it ; one waa 
invented by Dr. Priestley, in 1772. 

EUGENICS, see Heredity. 

EUGUBINE TABLES, seven tablets of 
brass, probable date about 400 B.C., (with inscrip- 
tions relating to sacrifices, &c, four in Umbrian, two- 
Latin, and one partly in both dialects), we:e disco- 
vered in 1444 at Gubbio, the ancient Eugubium or 
Iguviuin. The inscriptions are accurately given by 
Lepsius, in his " Inscriptiones Umbricne et Oscas," 
184 1. 

EUNUCHS, first mentioned among the Egyp- 
tians and Assyrians, and said to have been first 
employed by Semiramis, queen of Assyria, about 
2007 B.C. Eunuchs frequently attained" to political 
power iu the later Eastern empire. 

EUPATORIA (KOSLEFF), a sea-port on the 
west coast of the Crimea. After the allied French, 
English, and Turkish armies landed in the Crimea, 
14 Sept. 1854, a detachment under captain Brock 
occupied this place, which was afterwards reinforced 
by the Turks. It was attacked 17 Feb. 1855, by 
40,000 Russians under Liprandi. The latter were 
repulsed with the loss of 500 men by the Turks, 
whose loss was only 50, among which, however, 
was Selim Pasha, the commander of the Egyptian 
contingent. 

EUPHRATES, the largest river in Western 
Asia. It rises in Armenia, and has two branches. 
On its banks are the remains of numerous ancient 
cities, such as Babylon and Birs Nnnrud. The 
Euphrates Valley Railway, as a speedy means of 
reaching India, has been much advocated, espe- 
cially by the late general Chesney, who published 
his survey of the Euphrates and Tigris in 1850. 
A parliamentary commission reported on it, Aug. 
1872, when it was also considered at the meeting of 
the British association at Brighton. The con- 
struction would cost from five to ten millions 
sterling, and its advantages are considered rather 
hypothetical by the best judges. 

EUPHUISM, an affected style of language, 
prevalent in the time of Elizabeth, arose from 
" Kuphues; the Anatomy of Wit," by John Lyly, 
published in 1581. 

EURASIAN PLAIN, the great central plain 

of Europe and Asia, so named by ethnologists 

(1865). The offspring of a European father and an 

Asiatic mother is termed Eurasian. The degraded 

| condition of the Eurasians, which has caused much 



EUROPE. 



350 



EXAMINER OF PLAYS. 



anxiety, especially at Calcutta, was discussed early 
in 1891. The Marchioness of Dufferin was deeply 
interested in the matter about 1884. 

EUROPE, the smallest of the three divisions 
<of the old continent, really an appendage of Asia ; 
area, nearly 3,800,000 square miles; population, 
301,700,000(1872); 310,675,966(1877) ; 330,321,680 
,(1884) 333>0S4,908 ti888); 357,379,ooo (1891). 
For the history, see Greece, Rome, and the modern 
kingdoms. 

EUROPEAN, ASSURANCE Company, 

see Insurance. 

EURYDICE, H.M.S. frigate, foundered in a 
squall off Dunnose, near Ventnor, Isle of Wight, 
24 March, 1878 ; see Navy and Wrecks, 1878. 

EURYMEDON, a river in Pamphylia, near 
which Cimon, son of Miltiades, destroyed the fleet 
of the Persians at Cyprus, and defeated their land 
forces, 469 B.C. 

EUSTACE, ST. (Lower Canada). The rebels 
were defeated here, 14 Dec. 1837, and compelled 
to surrender their arms. Their chiefs fled. 

EUSTATIUS, ST., a West India island, set- 
tled by the Dutch, 1632 ; taken by the French in 
5689; by the British in 1690 ; again by the British 
forces under Bodney and Vaughan, 3 Feb. 1781. 
It was recovered by the French under the marquis 
de Bouille, 26 Nov. same j'ear; captured by the 
British, 1801, 1810; restored to the Dutch, 1814. 

EUSTON SQUARE Mystkby, see Trials, 
July, 1879. 

EUTAW SPRINGS (S. Carolina). Here the 
Americans were defeated by the British under 
Arnold, 8 Sept. 1781. 

EUTYCHIANS, so called from Eutyches, an 
abbot of Constantinople, who asserted in 446 that 
there was but one nature in Christ, the human 
having been absorbed in the divine. This doctrine 
was condemned by councils — at Constantinople in 
448, and at Chalcedon in 451. It has been also 
called Monophysite (of one nature), and Jacobite, 
from Jacobus Baradasus, its zealous defender in the 
6th century. It is the form of Christianity now 
existing among the Copts and Armenians. 

EUXINE, see Black Sea. 

EVACUATION TREATY, see France, 
Sept. 1871. 

EVANGELICAL, a term applied to a portion 
of the clergy of the church of England (also called 
the low church), who profess to preach the gospel 
more purely than their brethren termed the high 
church party; see Church of England. 

The Evangelical Alliance was founded by sir Culling 
Eardley Smith and others at Liverpool in 1845, with the 
view of promoting unity among all denominations of 
Protestant Christians against Romanism and infidelity. 

At a general meeting held in London 19 Aug. 1846, 921 
members were present from all parts of the world. 

Since 1845, annual meetings have been held in various 
towns in the United Kingdom. 

General international conferences have been held : 
London, 1851 ; Paris, 1855 ; Berlin (received by the 
"king), Sept., 1857; Geneva, t86i ; Amsterdam, 1867; 
Hew York, Oct., 1873; Basle, 1879; Copenhagen, 
J885 ; Florence, 4 April, 1891. 

A conference in connection with the Evangelical 
Alliance met at Washington, U.S. 9 Dec. 1887. 

The "Evangelical Church" in Germany began with a 
fusion of the Lutherans and Calvinists in Nassau in 
181 7; followed by similar movements in different parts 
of Germany, 1818-22. 



EVANGELISTS, preachers of the "gospel," 
or good news ; see Gospels. 

EVELINA HOSPITAL, Southwark, esta- 
blished in 1869 by baron Ferdinand de Rothschild, 
in memory of his wife, and since maintained by 
him. Its enlargement by public aid was proposed 



EVENING SCHOOLS for adults of the lower 
classes were strongly recommended by bishop Hinds 
in 1839, and by the committee of the Privy Council 
on Education in 1861. One was set up at Bala in 
Wales by the rev. T. Charles in 1811. See under 
Recreation. 

EVESHAM (Worcestershire), where prince 
Edward, afterwards Edward I., defeated the barons 
headed by Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, 
4 Aug. 1265, when the earl, his son Henry, and 
most of his adherents were slain. Henry III. at 
one period of the battle was on the point of being 
cut down by a soldier who did not know him, but 
was saved by exclaiming, " Do not kill me, soldier; 
I am Henry of Winchester, thy king!" This vic- 
tory broke up the combination of the barons. 

EVICTIONS (in Ireland), 482,000 persons 
evicted from 1849-82, 119,000 reinstated as care- 
takers, see Ireland, 1886 et seq. Many evicted 
tenants made terms with their landlords, and 
returned to their farms, 1891-2. 

EVIDENCE, LAW OF, regulated by 14 & 15 
Vict., c. 99 (1851), 16 & 17 Vict., c. 83 (1853), 32 & 
33 Vict., c. 68 (1869). 

Mr. Labouehere's application for a mandamus of 
the Court of Queen's Bench to compel sir Robert 
Carden to hear irrelevant evidence, refused 20 Nov. 1879 

EVIL MAY-DAY (1 May, 1517), thus called 
on account of the violence of the apprentices and 
populace, directed against foreigners, particularly 
the French. The rioters were headed by one 
Lincoln, who, with 15 others, was hanged; and 
400 more in their shirts, and bound with ropes, and 
halters about their necks, were carried to West- 
minster ; but they crying ' ' mercy, mercy ! " were all 
pardoned by the king, Henry VIII. 

EVOLUTION THEORY includes the 

nebular theory and Mr. Darwin's doctrine of natural 

selection ; see Developmient, and Progressionists. 

In 1877 three forms of evolution were discussed : — 

1. That of all animals gradually from the lowest form, 

the amoeba, up to man, in opposition to the Biblical 

account of the creation ; 2. that of every animal from 

protoplasm in a cell, or egg ; 3. that of all the parts 

of an animal from its blood. 

EXALTATION, see Cross. 

EXAMINATIONS of candidates for employ- 
ment in the civil service has been enforced since 
1855. Mr. Gladstone in 1862 said that the present 
might be termed the "age of examinations;" see 
Civil Service. 
A strong protest against the system, fully signed, 

Nineteenth Century, Nov. 1888. 

EXAMINER, liberal weekly journal, estab- 
lished Jan. 1808; extinct; last number, 26 Feb. 
1881. 

EXAMINER OF STAGE PLAYS, an 

office under the lord chamberlain, now held by 
Mr. E. F. S. Pigott, appointed 25 Aug. 1874. 
His more recent predecessors were, George Colman, 
Chas. Kemble, and his son John Mitchell Kemble, 
and Mr. Wm. Bodham Donne (1857-74). 



EXAECHS. 



351 



EXCHEQTTEK. 



EXAECHS, appointed by the Byzantine em- 
perors of the East, to govern central Italy after its 
conquest by Belisarius and Narses, 548-553. They 
rule Ravenna from 568 to 752, when Eutychus, the 
last, was overcome by Astolphus the Lombard. The 
Exarch in the churcli was next in dignity to the 
patriarch. 

EXCHANGE, formerly Bourse, the Royal 
Exchange being " Britain's Burse;" that at Paris 
is still named ,l Za Bourse," from bursa, a purse. 
One called Collegium Mercatorum existed at Rome, 
493 B.C. The Exchange at Amsterdam was reck- 
oned the finest structure of the kind in the world. 
See Royal Exchange, and Bills of Exchange. 

EXCHEQUEE, an ancient institution, con- 
sisting of officers with financial and judicial func- 
tions : the chancellor of the exchequer, the financial 
officer, formerly sat in the court of exchequer above 
the barons. The first chancellor was Eustace de 
Fauconbridge, bishop of London, in the reign of 
Henry III. about 1221. Sir Robert Walpole was 
the last chancellor of the exchequer who acted 
judicially (in 1735). The legal function of the 
chancellor was abolished by the Judicature act, 
Aug. 1873. Charles II. seized on the Goldsmiths' 
funds in the exchequer to prepare for war, 2 Jan. 
1672. The English and Irish exchequers were 
consolidated in 1816; see Chancellors of the Ex- 
chequers, and Tally Office. 

Exchequer Bills. The government securities, so called, 
said to have been invented by Montague, afterwards 
earl of Halifax, were first issued in 1697, and first cir- 
culated by the bank in 1796. These bills, of which 
more than twenty millions sterling are often in circu- 
lation, are in effect accommodation notes of govern- 
ment, that are issued in anticipation of taxes, at daily 
interest ; and being received for taxes, and paid by the 
bank in lieu of taxes, in its dealings with the exchequer, 
they usually bear a premium. Amount in circulation, 
56,974,780?. in 1817; in 1854, 16,008,700/. 

Robert Aslett, a cashier of the bank of England, tried 
for embezzling exchequer bills, and found not guilty, 
on account of the invalidity of the bills, though the 
actual loss to the bank amounted to 342,697?., 18 July, 
1803. 

Mr. Beaumont Smith tried for forging exchequer bills to 
the amount of 350,000?. ; pleaded guilty; sentenced to 
transportation, 4 Dec. 1841. 

Exchequer Bonds, a species of public securities, intro- 
duced by Mr. W. E. Gladstone, in 1853, have not been 
well received. 

Tellers of the Exchequer. Besides chamberlains of 
the exchequer, clerks of the pells, and auditor of the 
exchequer (offices which have all been discontinued 
since their last avoidance in Oct. 1826, or by surrender 
or abolition, in Oct. 1834), there were the four lucrative 
offices of tellers of the exchequer, also abolished, 10 
Oct. 1834. 

John Jeffreys Pratt, earl, afterwards marquis Camden, 
was appointed a teller of the exchequer, in 1780, and 
held the appointment until his death, in 1840. During 
nearly half of this long term he relinquished the income 
(amounting in the whole to upwards of a quarter of a 
million sterling) and placed it at the service of the state, 
as it annually accrued. 

Comptroller-General of the Exchequer. This office 
was created on the abolition of the offices of the auditor 
and the four tellers of the exchequer, and the clerk of 
the pells, mentioned in the preceding paragraph. The 
first comptroller-general was sir John Newport, ap- 
pointed 11 Oct. 1834. — 34,438?. per annum have been 
saved to the state by the retrenchments in this depart- 
ment of the government. 

Court of Exchequer Chamber. Erected by Edward 
III. in 1357. It was remodelled by Elizabeth, in 1584, 
and then made to comprise the judges of all the courts. 
This court is for error from the judgments of the courts 
of queen's bench, common pleas, and exchequer of 
pleas in actions commenced therein. Re-modelled by 
act 2 Geo. IV. & 1 Will. IV. c. 70(23 July, 1830). 



The Exchequer office, Westminster, was instituted by 
Henry IV. in 1399. 

chancellors of the exchequer 
Henry Addington (aft. lord Sidmouth) 21 March, 1801 

Wm. Pitt .(premier) 16 May, 1804 

Lord Henry Petty (afterwards marquis of Lans- 

downe) 10 Feb. 1806 

Spencer Perceval .... 31 March, 1807 

And premier 6 Dee. 1809 (assassinated 11 May, 1812) 
Nicholas Vansittart (aft. lord Bexley) . 9 June, 1812 
Fred. J. Robinson (afterwards lord Goderich and 

earlofRipon) 31 Jan. 1823 

George Canning (premier) .... April, 1827 
John C. Hemes ..... 17 Aug. „ 

Henry Goulburn 26 Jan. 1828 

Viscount Althorp (aft. earl Spencer) . 22 Nov. 1830 

Sir Robert Peel (premier) .... 10 Dee. 1834 
Thos. Spring Rice (aft. lord Monteagle) 18 April, 1835 
Francis T. Baring (afterwards baronet) . 26 Aug. 1839 

Henry Goulburn ^ Sept. 1841 

Charles AVood (afterwards baronet, lord Halifax, 

1866) 6 July, 1846 

Benjamin Disraeli . . . .21 Feb. 1852 

William Ewart Gladstone . . . .28 Dec. ,, 
Sir George Cornewall Lewis . . . 5 March, 1855 
Benjamin. Disraeli, again . . . - 27 Feb. 1858 
William Ewart Gladstone, again . . June, 1859 

Benjamin Disraeli, again .... 6 July, 1866 
George Ward Hunt .... 29 Feb. 1868 

Robert Lowe 9 Dec. ,, 

William Ewart Gladstone (and premier) . Aug. 1873 
Sir Stafford Northcote . . . .21 Feb. 1874 
William Ewart Gladstone (and premier) 28 April, 1880 
Hugh Culling Eardley Childers . . . Dec. 1882 
Sir Michael Hicks-Beach ... 24 June, 1885 
Sir William V. Harcomt . . . about 6 Feb. 1886 
Lord Randolph Henry Spencer-Churchill 26 July, 

(resigned) n 

George Joachim Goschen . . . .3 Jan. 1887 
Sir William V. Harcourt . . . .18 Aug. 1892 

EXCHEQUEE, Court OF (Curia Regis), 
instituted by William I. on the model of the Trans- 
marine Exchequer of Normandy, in 1079; according 
to some authorities, by Henry I. It included the 
common pleas until they were separated, 16 John, 
1215. Coke's Reports. The exchequer is so named 
from a chequered cloth which anciently covered the 
table where the judges and chief officers sat.* Here 
are tried all causes relating to the king's revenue ; 
such as are concerning accounts, disbursements, 
customs, and fines imposed, as well as all matters at 
common law between subject and subject. The 
judges are styled barons, first appointed 1234. There 
were a chief and four puisne barons : the fifth judge 
having been added 23 July, 1830. The office of 
Cursitor Baron was abolished in 1856. For changes, 
see Supreme Court. The ancient court sat for last 
time, 10 July, 1875. The Exchequer division was 
abolished in 1881 ; in Ireland in 1887. See Supreme 
Court Judicature Act, passed 27 Aug. 1881. 



CHIEF BARONS. 

Robert Atkins. 10 April. 
Edward Ward. 10 June. 
Samuel Dodd. 22 Nov. 
Thomas Bury, u June. 
James Montagu. 9 May. 
Robert Eyre. 5 Dec. 
Geoffrey Gilbert. 1 June. 
Thomas Pengelly. 29 Oct. 
James Reynolds. 30 April. 
John Comyn. 7 July. 
Edmund Probyn. 24 Nov. 



1689. 


Sir 


1695. 


Sir 


1714. 


Sir 


1716. 


Sir 


1722. 


Sir 


1723- 


Sir 


1725. 


Sir 


1726. 


Sir 


1730- 


Sir 


1738- 


Sir 


1740. 


Sir 



* In process of time the court of exchequer became 
gradually enlarged in its jurisdiction, until at length it 
was not merely a revenue court and one at common law 
between subject and subject, but one in which suits in 
equity were also instituted. In fact, until the act 5 Vict, 
c. 5 (1841), the court of exchequer possessed a triple 
jurisdiction ; but by this statute ils equity business was 
transferred to the court of chancery. 



EXCISE. 



352 



EXECUTIONS. 



Sir Thomas Parker. 29 Nov. 

Sir Sidney Stafford Smytlie. 29 Oct. 

Sir John Skynner. 17 Dec. 

Sir James Eyre. 26 Jan. 

Sir Archibald Macdonald. 12 Feb. 

Sir Vicary Gibbs. 8 Nov. 

Sir Alexander Thomson. 24 Feb. 

Sir Richard Richards. 22 April. 

Sir William Alexander. 9 Jan. 

John, lord Lyndhurst. 18 Jan. Previously lord 

chancellor ; again lord chancellor, 1834. 
Sir James Scarlett. 24 Dec. Created lord Abinger, 

Jan. 1835. 
Sir Frederick Pollock. 15 April. 
Sir FitzRoy Kelly. 16 July, [died 17 Sept. 1880.] 
The ktst of the chief barons. 

CHIEF BARONS OF EXCHEQUER IN IRELAND. 

John Hely. 5 Dec. 

Robert Doyne. 10 May. 

Nehemiah Donnellan. 27 Dec. 

Richard Freeman. 25 June. 

Robert Rochfort. 12 June. 

Joseph Deane. . 14 Oct. 

Jeffrey Gilbert. 16 June. 

Bernard Hale. 9 June. 

Thomas Dalton. 2 Sept. 

Thomas Marlay. 29 Sept. 

John Bowes. 21 Dec. 

Edward Willis. 11 March. 

Anthony Foster. 5 Sept. 

James Dennis (aftds. baron Tracton). 3 July. 

Walter Hussey Burgh. 2 July. 

Barry Yelverton (afterwards viscount Avonmore). 

29 Nov. 
Standish O'Grady (aft. viscount Guillamore) 5 Oct. 
Henry Joy. 6 Jan. 
Stephen Woulfe. 20 July. 
Maziere Brady. 11 Feb. 

David Richard Pigott; 1 Sept., died 22 Dec. 1873. 
Christopher Palles. Jan. 

The last of the chief barons. 

EXCISE. The system was established in 
England by the Long Parliament in 1643, duties 
being levied on wines, beer, &c, and tobacco, to 
support the army against Charles I. It was con- 
tinued under Charles II. The present system was 
settled about 1733. The old excise office was built 
on the site of Gresham college in 1774; the present 
is at Somerset-house. The officers of excise and 
customs were deprived of their votes for returning 
members to parliament in 1782 ; but received them 
again in 1868. In 1849 the boards of excise, 
stamps and taxes, were united, as " the board of 
commissioners of inland revenue.''' Notwithstand- 
ing the abolition of the excise duty upon numerous 
articles, and the reduction of duty upon various 
others, of late years, the total excise revenue, so far 
from having decreased, has progressively advanced 
(1847 and 1861 excepted) in its aggregate annual 
amount. Additional excise duties were charged by 
17 & 18 Vict. c. 27, July 3, 1854. The excise duties 
were further modified in i860 ; see Revenue. 



1742. 
1772. 

1777- 
1787. 

!793- 
1813. 
1814. 
1817. 



1834- 



1844. 
i860. 



1695. 
i7°3- 
1706. 
1707. 
1714. 
i7 I 5- 
1722. 
1725- 
1730. 
1741. 
1757. 
1766. 
1777. 
1782. 
1783- 



1874. 



REVENUE FROM EXCISE. 

Great Britain. 



1744 

1786 . . . 

1808. 

1820 . . . 

1827 (United 

Kingdom) 
1830. 

1834 . • • 
1837 

1840 . . . 
1845. 

1847 . . . 
1848. 

1850 . . . 
1858 to Mar. 31. 
i860 „ „ 
1865 



£3.754.072 

5. 54°."4 

19,867,914 

26,364,702 

20,995,324 
18,644.385 
16,877,292 
14,518,142 
12,607,766 
13,585,583 
12,883,678 
i3>9 IQ ,°5 2 
15,278,208 
17,901,545 
20,240,467 
19,428,324 



1S70 
1871 
1872 
1873 
1874 
1S75 
1876 
1S77 



i£S 4 



to Mar. 31. £20,190,338 

,, 20,475,740 

,, ,. 21,879,238 

,. ,, 22,833,907 

,, ,, 23,386,064 

,, ,, 25,904,450 

.. ., 27,115,969 

„ „ 27.254,132 

,, 27,569,323 

„ ,, 27,681,523 

,, „ 27,710,514 

,, „ 27,186,021 

,, ,, 25,218,303 

,, ,, 25,372,183 

n ,, 27,170,798 

,, ,, 26,982,916 

,, ,, 27,048,051 



1885 to Mar. 31 £26,501,612 I 1889 to Mar. 31 £25,600,000- 

1886 ,, ,, 25,441,922 I 1890 ,, ,, 24,160,000 

1887 ,, „ 25,212,883 I 1891 ,, ,, 24,788,000 

1888 ,, ,, 25,625,520 I 1892 ,, ,, 20,121,000 

__ EXCLUSION BILL (to exclude the duke of 
York, afterwards James II., from the throne), was 
passed by the commons, but rejected by the lords in 
1680. The revival of the question led to the disso- 
lution of parliament in 1681. 

EXCOMMUNICATION, or separation from 
Christian communion {Matt, xviii. 17; 1 Cor. v., 
&c), was instituted to preserve the purity of the 
church. The Roman church excommunicated by 
Bell, Book, and Candle {which see). See Interdict. 

Gregory VII. excommunicated the emperor 
Henry IV., and absolved his subjects from 
their allegiance 1077 

Innocent III. excommunicated John of England, 
placing the country under an interdict . 1208-14. 

Gregory IX. excommunicated the emperor 
Frederick II. four times between . . . 1228-45 

Louis XII. of France was excommunicated by 
Julius II. 1510 ; Luther by Leo X. 1521 ; Henry 
VIII. of England by Paul III. in 1535 ; and 
Elizabeth by Pius V 25 April, 1570 

The emperor of France, the king of Sardinia, and 
others, were virtually excommunicated (but not 
by name) on account of the annexation of the 
Romagna by Sardinia ... 29 March, i860. 

EXECUTIONS, see Crime. In the reign of 
Henry VIII. (38 years) it is said that no less a 
number than 72,000 criminals were executed. Stow. 
In the ten years between 1820 and 1830, there were 
executed in England alone 797 criminals ; but as our 
laws became less severe, the number of executions 
decreased. In the three years ending 1820, the 
executions in England and Wales amounted to 
312 ; in the three years ending 1830, they were 
178 ; in the three years ending 1840, they were 62. 
The place of execution in London (formed)' gene- 
rally at Tyburn) was in front of Newgate from 1783 
to 1868, when an act was passed directing execu- 
tions to take place within the walls of prisons. The 
dissection of the bodies of executed persons was- 
abolished in 1832, see Death, 1868. 

John Calcraft, born 1800, executioner for London, 1828- 
1871, died 13 Dec. 1879 ; his successor, Wm. Marwood. 
died 4 Sept. 1883 ; he was succeeded by Berry ; said 
to have resigned March, 1892. 



1820, 
1837, 2; 
— 1844, 



1847 



1850 
1S51 
1852 
1853 
1854 
1855 
1S56 
1857 
1S58 
1859 
i860 



1863 
1S64 
1865 
1S66 
1867 



EXECUTIONS IN LONDON. 

: — 1825, 17 ; — 1830, 6 ; — 1835, o ; — 1836, o ; — ■ 
338, o ; — 1839, 2 ; — 1840, 1 ; — 1842, 2 ; — 1843, o ; 
-1845, 3 ;— 1846, 2. 



IN ENGLAND. 

rfand. London. 



1870 
1871 
1872 
1873 
1874 
1875 
1S76 
1877 



England. London. 
.10 . 3 
.6.2 
• 3 • o- 
.15 . 1 



10 



• 23 

• 15 

• 17 



1886 . 


• 19 


1887 . 


. 2T 


I8SS . 


. 16 


1889 . 


• 14 


1890 


• 15 



EXECUTIONS. 



353 



EXECUTIONS. 



EXECUTIONS OF REMARKABLE CRIMINALS.* 

Gunpowder plot conspirators, Digby, R. Winter, 
Grant, and Bates, 30 Jan. ; T. Winter, Rookwood, 
Keys, and Fawkes, 31 Jan. ; Henry Garnett, Jesuit : 
at London 3 May, 1606 

John Felton, murder of duke of Buckingham ; 
Tyburn .... .28 Nov. 1628 

■James, duke of Monmouth, treason; Tower-hill, 

15 July, 1685 

Ckarnock, King, and Keys, 18 March ; sir John 
Friend, and sir Wm. Perkins ("assassination 
plot ") 3 April, 1696 

(Capt. Wm. Kidd and three others, piracy 23 May, 1701 

■James, earl of Derwentwater, and William, earl of 
Kenmure, rebellion ; Tower-hill . . 24 Feb. 1716 

Jelm Price, the hangman; murder, Bunhill-row, 

21 May, 1718 

Jack Sheppard, highwayman ; Tyburn 16 Nov. 1724 

.Richard Turpin, highwayman ; York 7 or 10 April, 1739 

Lord Balmerino and others, rebellion ; Tower-hill, 

18 Aug. 1746 

Lord Lovat, rebellion ; Tower-hill . 9 April, 1747 

Richard Wm. Vaughau, first forger of Bank of Eng- 
land notes 11 May, 1758 

Eugene Aram, murder ; York . . .6 Aug. 1759 

Earl Ferrers, murderof his steward ; Tyburn, 5 May, 1760 

Theodore Gardelle, murder ; Haymarket 4 April, 1761 

John Perrott, fraudulent bankrupt ; Smithfield, 

n Nov. ,, 

John M'Naughten, esq., murder of Miss Knox; 
Strabane 13 Dec. ,, 

Elizabeth Brownrigg, murder of her apprentice ; 
Tyburn 14 Sept. 1767 

Daniel and Robert Perreau, wine merchants, forgery ; 
Tyburn 17 Jan. 1776 

Rev. Dr. Dodd, found guilty of forging a bond, in 
the name of lord Chesterfield for 4200Z. ; the 
highest influence was exerted to save him, but 
when the case came before the council, the 
•minister of the day said to George III., "If 
your majesty pardon Dr. Dodd, you will have 
murdered the Perreaus ;" Tyburn . 27 June, 1777 

Slev. Henry Hackman, murder of Miss Reay, mis- 
tress of earl of Sandwich ; Tyburn . 19 April, 1779 

•Capt. John Donellan, murder of .sir Theodosius 
Boughton ; Warwick . . . .2 April, 1781 

Christian Murphy (or Bowman), a woman ; strangled 
and burnt for coining ... 18 March, 1789 

Kichard Parker and others, mutiny at the Nore, 

30 June, 1797 

Mrs. Phepoe, celebrated murderess ; Old Bailey, 

11 Dec. ,, 

Sir Edward Crosbie, high treason ; Ireland, 4 June, 1798 

M-essrs. Sheares, high treason ; Dublin 12 July, 1799 

•Galloping Dick, highwayman ; Aylesbury, 4 April, 1800 

•Governor Joseph Wall, murder of Serjeant Arm- 
strong ; Old Bailey .... 28 Jan. 1802 

Mr. Crawley, murder of two females ; Dublin, 

10 March, „ 

George Foster, murder of wife and child ; Old Bailey, 

18 Jan. 1803 

Colonel Despard and others, high treason ; Horse- 
•monger-lane 21 Feb. 

John Hatfield (a rank impostor, who married, by 
msans of the most odious deceit, the celebrated 
"Beauty of Buttermere "), forgery; Carlisle, 

3 Sept. „ 

Robert Emmett, high treason ; Dublin 20 Sept. ,, 

Richard Patch, murderof Mr. Bligh ; Horsemonger- 
lane 8 April, 1806 

John Holloway, Owen Haggerty, murder of Mr. 
Steele ; Old Bailey (28 of the spectators of 
this execution were trodden to death, and num- 
bers were pressed, maimed and wounded), 23 Feb. 1807 

T. Simmons, the man of blood, murder; Hertford, 

7 March, 1808 

Major Campbell, murder of capt. Boyd in a duel ; 
Armagh 2 Oct. „ 

Capt. Sutherland, murder ; Execution dock, 

29 June, 1809 

Richard Armitage, forgery ; Old Bailey 24 June, 

John Bellingham, murder of Mr. Perceval ; Old 
Bailey ,8 May, 

Philip Nicholson, murder of Mr. and Mrs. Bonar ; 
Peunenden-heath .... 23 Au<*. 



iSii 
1812 
1813 



* For some other executions, see England, 1535-6, 
16 1 8-4 1 -45-83 ; and Oates's Plot. 



Francis Tuite, murder of Mr. Goulding ; Dublin. 
_. , _ ,, , 9 Oct. 1813 
Charles Callaghan, murder of Mr. Merry • Horse- 
monger-lane 2 April, 1814 

William Sawyer, murder of JackHacket; Old Bailey, 

15 May, ,, 
Eliza Fenning, administering poison ; Old Bailey, 

, TT . 26 July, 1815 

[Universally believed to be innocent ; she denied 
her guilt on the scaffold ; and thousands accom- 
panied her funeral. In the "Annual Register" 
for 1857, p. 143, it is stated on the authority of 
Mr. Gnrney, that she confessed the crime to Mr. 
James Upton, a baptist minister, shortly before 
her execution.] 

John Cashman, Spa-fields riots ; Skinner-street, 

12 March, 1817 

Murderers of the Lynch family. Wild-goose Lodge 
affair ; Ireland t g July, 

The three Ashcrofts, father and sons, murder; 
Lancaster 8 Sept. ,, 

Brandreth and others, high treason ; Derby, 7 Nov. ,, 

Charles Hussey, murder of Mr. Bird and his house- 
keeper ; Pennenden-heath . . .3 Aug. 

John Scanlan, esq., murder of Ellen Hanley ; Lime- 
rick 16 March, 

Arthur Thistlewood, John Brunt, James Ings, John 
Davidson, Richard Tidd (see Cato-street) ; Old 
Bailey \ May, 

John Chennell, Thomas Calcraft, murder of Mr. 
Chennell, senr. ; Godalming . . 17 Aug. 

Josiah Cadman, forgery ; Old Bailey . 21 Nov. 

Samuel Greenwood, highway robbery ; Old Bailey, 

27 Dec. 
John Thurtell, murder of Mr. Weare ; Hertford, 

9 Jan. 

John Wayte, forgery ; Old Bailey . . 24 Feb. 

Henry Fauutleroy, banker, forgery; Old Bailey, 

30 Nov. 

Wm. Probert (an accomplice of Thurtell's in the 
murder of Mr. Weare ; he became approver), 
horse-stealing ; Old Bailey . . 20 June, 

Spitaltields' gang, highway robbery; Old Bailey, 

29 Nov. 

Chas. Thos. White, arson ; Old Bailey . 2 Jan. 

Edward Lowe, coining (the last coiner drawn on a 
sledge to the scaffold) ; Old Bailey 22 Nov. 

Catherine Walsh, murder of her child ; Old Bailey, 

14 April, 1828 

William Rea, highway robbery ; Old Bailey, 4 July, ,, 

Captain Charles Montgomery was ordered for exe- 
cution this day for forgery ; but he took a close (an 
ounce and a half) of prussic acid, to save himself 
from the ignominy of the gallows, and was found 
dead in his cell 4 July, 

William Corder, murder of Maria Marten ; Bury St. 
Edmunds xl Aug. 

Joseph Hunton, quaker, forgery ; Old Bailey, 8 Dec. " 

Wm. Burke, murderer (see Burking) ; Edinburgh, 

28 Jan. 1829 
Anne Chapman, murder of her child ; Old Bailey, 

30 June, ,, 
Stewart and wife, murder ; Glasgow . 24 July, ,, 
Thomas Maynard, the last executed for forgery ; 

Old Bailey 31 Dec. „ 

Mr. Comyn, arson ; Ennis . . .18 March, 1830 
John Any Bird Bell, a bny of 14 years of age, for 

the murderof Richard Taylor, aged 13, Maidstone 

1 Aug. 1 83 1 
John Bishop, Thomas Williams, murder of a poor 

Italian boy (see Bn/rking) ; Old Bailey, 5 Dec. ,, 
John Smith, James Pratt, unnatural crime ; Old 

Bailey 8 April, 1835 

Maryanne Burdock, remarkable case of poisoning ; 

Bristol 15 April, „ 

John Pegsworth, murder ; Old Bailey 7 March, 1837 

James Greenacre, murder of Hannah Brown ; Old 

Bailey 2 May, ,, 

William Lees, murder of his wife ; Old Bailey, 

16 Dec. 1839 
Francois Benj. Courvoisier, murder of lord W. Rus- 
sell ; Old Bailey 6 July, 1840 

Josiah Misters, wounding Mr. Mackreth; Shrews- 
bury 3 April. 1841 

Robert Blakesley, murder of Mr. Burdon ; Old 

Bailey 15 Nov. ,, 

John Delahunt, murder of ThomasMaguire ; Dublin, 

5 Feb. 1842 
A A 



181S 
1820 



1B21 
1822 
1824 



1826 
1827 



EXECUTIONS. 



354 



EXECUTIONS. 



Daniel Good, murder of Jane Jones ; Old Bailey, 

23 May, 
"William Crouch, murder of his wife ; Old Bailey, 

27 May, 
James Tapping, murder of Emma Whiter ; Old 

Bailey ?'.'"'.. -24 March, 

John Tawell, murder of Sarah Hart ; Aylesbury, 

28 March, 
Thomas Henry Hocker, murder of Mr. Delarue ; 

Old Bailey . . . . -28 April, 

Joseph Connor, murder of Mary Brothers ; Old 

Bailey 2 June, 

John Platts, murder of Co] lis ; Derby . 1 April, 
Catherine Foster, murder of her husband ; Bury St. 

Edmunds 17 April, 

James Bloomfield Rush, murder of Messrs. Jenny, 

sen. and jun. ; Norwich ... 21 April, 
Fred. George Manning, and his wife, Maria Manning, 

murder of O'Connor ; Horsemonger-lane, 

13 Nov. 
James Barbour, murder ; York . . 15 Jan. 
Hy. Horler, murder of wife ; Old Bailey . 15 Jan. 
Grant, Quin, and Coomey, murder of Thomas Bate- 
son ; Monaghan 9 April, 

Emanuel Barthelemy, murder of Mr. Moore and 

C. Collard ; Old Bailey ... 22 Jan. 
William Bousfleld, murder of his wife and three 

children ; Old Bailey ... 31 March, 
William Palmer (of Rugeley), murder of J. P. Cook 

by poison ; Stafford 14 June, 

William Dove, murder of his wife by poison ; York 

9 Aiijr. 
Joseph Jenkins, alias Robert Mar-ley, murder of 

Cope, a shopman, in Westminster ; Old Bailey, 

15 Dec. 
William Jackson, murder of two children ; Chester, 

20 Dec. 

Lagava, Bartelano, and Pettrick, murder of two 

officers and piracy ; Winchester . 23 Dec. 

Dedea Redaines, murder of two girls at Dover ; 

Maidstone 1 Jan. 

Thomas Mansell (after seven months' respite), 

murder of a soldier ; Maidstone . 6 July, 

Capt. H. Rogers, murder of A. Rose, a black, with 

great cruelty ; Liverpool . . .11 Sept. 
Thomas Davis, murder of wife ; Old Bailey, 16 Nov. 
John William Beale, murder of Charlotte Pugsley, 

his sweetheart ; Taunton . . .12 Jan. 
John Thomson, alias Peter Walker, murder of Agnes 

Montgomery by poison — discovered by a child ; 

Paisley 14 Jan. 

Christian Sattler, a German, murder of inspector 

Thain ; Old Bailey .... 8 Feb. 
Giovanni Lani, murder of Heloise Thaubin ; Old 

Bailey 26 April, 

John B. Bucknall, murder of his grandfather and 

grandmother ; Taunton ... 24 Aug. 
Wm. Burgess, murder of his daughter ; Taunton, 

4 Jan. 
Joseph Castle, murder of his wife ; Bedford, 

31 March, 
William Youngman, murder of sweetheart, Mary 

Streeter, and mother and two brothers, on Aug. 

16 ; Horsemonger-lane ... 4 Sept. 

James Mullins, murder of Mrs. Emsley, at Stepney ; 

Old Bailey 19 Nov. 

James Johnson, murder of two non-commissioned 

officers ; Winchester 1 Jan. 

Matthew and Charles Wedmore, murder of their 

aunt ; Taunton 5 April, 

Martin Doyle, barbarous attempted murder (last 

exemition for this crime); Chester . 27 Aug. 
Wm. Cogan, murder of wife ; Old Bailey, 14 Oct. 
Thomas Jackson, a soldier, murder of sergeant 

John Dickson ; Winchester . . 27 Dec. 
Wm. Charlton, engine-driver, murdered Jane Em- 

merson, to obtain the money she had saved for 

her funeral ; Carlisle ... 15 March, 
G. J. Gilbert, brutal murder of Miss M. S. Hall, on 

her way to church ; Winchester . . 4 Aug. 
William Taylor, murder of Mr. Meller from revenge ; 

he previously killed his own children ; Kirkdale,' 

13 Sept. 
Catherine Wilson, murder of Mrs. Soames by 'poison 

[and of several other persons] ; Old Bailey, 

20 Oct. 
William Ockold (aged 70), murder of his wife, after 

50 years' marriage ; Worcester . _ . 2 Jan. 



1845 



1847 



1853 

1854 
1855 
1856 



1857 



1859 
1 86c 



1863 



Noah Austen, murder of Mr. Allen ; Oxford, 

24 March, 
Bobert A. Burton, murder of a boy ; Maidstone, 

11 April, 
Edward Cooper, murder of his deformed son ; 

Shrewsbury . . . . . ri April, 
Dennis Delane, hired Beckham and Walsh to mur- 
der his landlord, F. Fitzgerald . . 13 April, 
John Ducker, murder of Tye, a policeman ; Ipswich, 

14 April, 
Wm. Hope, violation and murder of Mary Corbett ; 

Hereford 15 April, 

D. MacPhail and G. Woods, murder of Mrs. "Walne ; 

Kirkdale 25 April, 

Joseph Brooks, murder of Davy, a policeman ; 

Old Bailey 27 April, 

Joseph Kelly, murder of Fitzheury, a schoolmaster ; 

Wexford n Aug. 

Thomas, Alvarez, Hughes, and O'Brien, ferocious 

murderers ; Liverpool . . . .11 Sept. 
Alice Holt, murder of her mother ; Chester, 28 Dec. 
Samuel Wright, murder of his paramour, 12 Jan. 
John Lyons and four others (foreigners); murder 

and piracy ; Old Bailey ... 22 Feb. 
Charles Brickuell, murder of his sweetheart, 

1 Aug. 
Franz Miiller, murder of Mr. Briggs in a railway 

carriage (see Trials) ; Old Bailey . 14 Nov. 
Ferdinand Kohl, murder of M. Fuhrkop ; Chelms- 
ford 26 Jan. 

Edw. William Pritchard, M.D., murder of wife 

and her mother ; Giasgovv . . .28 July, 
John Currie, murder of major De Yere ; Maidstone, 

12 Oct. 
Stephen Forward, alias Ernest Southey, murder of 

wife and four children ; Maidstone . 11 Jan. 
Mary Ashford, murder of husband ; Exeter, 

28 March, 
John Wm. Leigh, murder of wife's sister ; Brighton, 

10 April, 
Robert Coe, murder of a young man for his wages, 

30s. ; Swansea 12 April, 

John Grant, a soldier, murder of a boy ; Exeter, 

15 Aug. 
J. R. Jeffreys, murder of his son (aged 7); Old Bailey, 

9 Oct. 
Jas. Langhurst, brutal murder of Harriet Sax 

(6 years old) - 16 April, 

Hubbard Lingley, murder of his uncle, Benj. Black ; 

Norwich ...... 26 Aug. 

George Britten, murder of his . wife ; Taunton, 

29 Aug. 
John Wiggins, murder of his concubine, Agues 

Oakes ; Old Bailey .... 15 Oct. 
Louis Bordier, murder of his concubine, Mary Ann 

Snow ; Horsemonger-lane . . .15 Oct. 
Wm. O'Meara Allen, Wm. Gould (or O'Brien), and 

Michael Larkin, Fenians, for murder of Brett, a 

policeman ; Salford . . . .23 Nov! 
Frederick Baker, murder of a little girl, whom he 

afterwards cut up ; Winchester . . 24 Dec. 
Wm. Worsley, murder of Wm. Bradbury ; Bedford, 

31 March, 
Frances Kidder, murder of her husband's child ; 

Maidstone 2 April, 

Timothy Faherty, for murder of his sweetheart, 

Mary Hanmer (for rejecting him), and 
Miles Weatherill, murder of Rev. Mr. Plow, of Tod- 

morden, and his maid (for revenge); Manchester ; 

4 April, 
Frederick Parker, murder of Daniel Driscoll ; York, 

4 April, 
John Mapp, murder of little girl ; Shrewsbury, 

9 April, 
O'Farrell, for attempting to assassinate the duke of 

Edinburgh ; Sydney, N.S. Wales . 21 April, 
Richard Bishop; murder of Alfred Cartwright ; 

Maidstone 30 April, 

MichaelBarrett, Fenian; for Clerkenwell explosion; 

THE LAST PUBLIC EXECUTION IN ENGLAND ; Old 

Bailey 26 May, 

Thomas Wells, murder of Mr. Walsh, station- 
master at Dover ; (the first private execution), 

1 3, Aug. 

William Sherward, for murder of his wife, Norwich 

(see Norwich) . . - . . 20 April, 

Josiah Detheridge, murder of warder in Portland 

prison ; Dorchester 12 Aug. 



1863 



1865; 



EXECUTIONS. 



355 



EXECUTIONS. 



"Win. Taylor, soldier ; murder of his corporal ; Exeter, 

n Oct. 1869 

Frederick Hinson, murder of his concubine, Maria 
Death, and of Win. Douglas Boyd, her paramour, 
at Wood Green, Middlesex ; Old Bailey, 13 Dec. ,, 

Win. Mobbs, purposeless murder of a child ; Ayles- 
bury 28 March, 1870 

"Walter Millar, murder of Rev. Elias Huelin and 
Ann Boss (at Chelsea) ; Old Bailey . 1 Aug. ,, 

John Owen or Jones, for murder of a family (7 
persons) at Denham ; Aylesbury . . 8 Aug. ,, 

Thomas Rateliffe ; murder of a warder in Portland 
prison ; Dorchester . . . .15 Aug. ,, 

Margaret Waters ; murder of infants ; baby-farming 
case ; Horsemonger-lane ... 11 Oct. ,, 

Patrick Durr ; murder of his wife ; Manchester, 

26 Dec. „ 

"Wm. Bull ; brutal murder of an old woman ; Bed- 
ford 3 April, 1871 

Michael Campbell ; murder of Mr. Galloway at 
Stratford ; Springfield gaol, Essex . 24 April, ,, 

Richard Addington ; murder of wife ; Northampton, 

31 July, „ 

Frederic Jones ; murder of Emily Gardner, 
through jealousy ; Gloucester . 8 Jan. 1872 

Edward Roberts ; murder of Ann Merrick, who re- 
fused to marry him ; Oxford . . 18 March, ,, 

Wm. Fred. Horry; murder of wife ; Lincoln, 1 April, ,, 

Charles Holmes ; murder of wife ; Worcester, 12 Aug. „ 

Thomas Moore, murder of wife ; James Tooth, sol- 
dier, murder of drummer ; Francis Bradford, 
soldier, murder of comrade ; Maidstone, 13 Aug. ,, 

Christopher Edwards ; murder of wife ; Stafford, 

13 Aug. ,, 

Wm. Lace ; murder of wife ; Taunton . 26 Aug. ,, 

Augustus Elliott ; murder of paramour ; Old Bailey, 

9 Dec. ,, 

Mich. Kennedy ; murder of wife ; Manchester, 30 Dec. ,, 

Edwd. Handcock; murder of wife; Warwick, 7 Jan. 1873 

Richard Spencer; murder of paramour; Liverpool, 

8 Jan. „ 

Hugh Slane and John Hayes ; murder of Joseph 
Waine ; Durham 13 Jan. ,, 

Mary Ann Cotton ; murder of child (see Poisoning) ; 
Durham 24 March „ 

Henry Evans, at Aylesbury ; and Benjamin Hud- 
son, at Derby, for murder of their wives 4 Aug. ,, 

Thos. Hartley Montgomery, murder of Mr. Glasse, 
Omagh 26 Aug. ,, 

James Connor ; murder of James Gaffney ; Liver- 
pool 8 Sept. „ 

Charles Dawson, William Thompson, and Edward 
Gough ; murders ; Durham ; Thos. Corrigan ; m. 
of mother ; Liverpool .... 5 Jan. 1874 

Edward C. Butt ; murder of Miss Phipp, through 
jealousy ; Edwin Bailey and Ann Barry ; murder 
of child; Gloucester .... 12 Jan. ,, 

Thos. Chamberlain ; murder ; Northampton 

30 March, „ 

James Godwin ; murder of wife ; Newgate, 25 May, ,, 

Frances Stewart ; murder of grandchild ; Newgate, 

29 June, „ 

Thos. Macdonald ; murder of paramour ; Exeter, 

10 Aug. ,, 

"Wm. Jackson ; murder of sister ; York . 18 Aug. ,, 

James H. Gibbs ; murder of wife ; Usk . 24 Aug. ,, 

Henry Flanigan ; murder of aunt ; Mary Williams ; 
murder of Nicholas Manning ; Liverpool, 31 Aug. „ 

John W. Coppen ; murder of wife ; Horsemonger- 
lane 13 Oct. ,, 

Private Thos. Smith, 20th Hussars ; murder of 
Capt. Bird, in revenge for slight punishment ; 
"Winchester 16 Nov. „ 

Robert Taylor ; 111. of Mrs. Kidd ; Stafford 29 Dec. ,, 

James Cranwell ; murder of Emma Bellamy ; New- 
gate. Michael Mullen, John McCrave, and Wm. 
Worthington ; Liverpool. . . . 4 Jan. 1875 

Richard Coates ; murder of girl, 10 years old ; 
Chelmsford 29 March, ,, 

John Morgan; murder of comrade; Maidstone; 
John Stanton ; m. of uncle ; Station! 30 March, ,, 

Alfred T. Heap, quack ; murder of Margaret Mc- 
Kivett ; Liverpool .... 19 April, ,, 

Wm. Hole; murder of wife ; Bristol . 26 April, ,, 

Jeremiah Corkery ; murder of policeman ; Warwick, 

27 July, „ 

McHugh, Gilligan, and Pearson (woman) ; murders ; 
Durham r> Aug. ,, 



Peter Blanchard ; murder of Louisa Hodgson ; 

Lincolnshire 9 Aug. 1875 

Philip Lebrun ; murder of sister ; Jersey, 12 Aug. ,, 
Wm. McCullogh ; murder of Wm. Watson ; and 

Mark Fiddler ; murder of wife ; Lancaster, 16 Aug. ,, 
Wm. Baker and Edward Cooper ; murders ; Liver- 
pool 6 Sept. ,, 

Henry Wainwright ; murder of Harriet Lane, his 

mistress (see Whitccliapel) ; Newgate, . 21 Dec. ,, 
Wm. Sinedley ; murder of Elizabeth Filth, his 

mistress ; Armley, near Leeds . . 21 Dec. ,, 
John William Anderson ; murder of wife ; New- 

castle-on-Tyne 22 Dee. ,, 

Richard Charlton ; m. of wife ; Morpeth 23 Dec. ,, 
George Hunter ; murder of fellow workman ; Mor- 
peth 28 March, 1876 

Thos. Fordred ; murder of Ann Bridger ; Maid- 
stone 4 April, ,, 

George Hill ; murder of his illegitimate child, and 

nearly of its mother ; Hertford . . 10 April, ,, 
Edward Deacon ; murder of wife ; Bristol, 24 April, ,, 
John Webber ; murder ; Cardiff . . 26 April, ,, 
Henry Webster ; murder of wife ; Norwich, 1 May, ,, 
"Lennie" mutineers and murderers: Matteo Car- 
galis, Pascalis Caludis, George Kaida, and 
Giovanni Carcaris ; Newgate . . 23 May, ,, 

John Williams ; shot his brother-in-law ; Durham, 

26 July, ,, 
James Parris ; murder of a child ; Maidstone 1 Aug. ,, 
Wm. Fish ; murder of a child (see Trials) ; Richard 
Thompson, murder of J. H. Blundell ; Liverpool ; 

14 Aug. ,, 
C. E. Baumbos (see Mutinies) ; and Crowe (see 

Ireland) : Cork . . . . .25 Aug. ,, 
John Ebelthrift ; murder of wife ; Newgate 26 Aug. ,, 
Charles O'Donnell ; murder of wife ; Newgate 11 Dec. ,, 
Robert Browning; murder of Emma Rolfe, aged 16 ; 

Cambridge 14 Dec. ,, 

Silas Barlow ; murder of Ellen Sloper, paramour ; 
Horsemonger-lane ; James Dalgleish ; murder of 
Sarah Wright ; Carlisle .... 19 Dec. ,, 
John Thomas Green ; murder of wife ; Leicester, 

20 Dec. ,, 
Wm. Flanagan ; murder of paramour ; Manchester 

21 Dec. ,, 
Isaac Marks, Jew ; murder of Fredk. Barnard, for 

revenge; (Newington murder); Horsemonger-lane 

2 Jan. 1877 

Henry & Francis George Tidbury ; murder of two 
policemen ; Reading .... 12 March, ,, 

Wm. Clark (or Slenderman) ; murder of Henry 
Walker, gamekeeper ; Lincoln . 26 March, ,, 

John McKenna ; murder of wife ; Manchester 

27 March, 

James Bannister ; murder of wife ; Chester 2 April, ,, 

John Henry Johnson ; murder of Amos White ; 
through jealousy ; 3 April, ,, 

Frederick Baker ; murder of Mary Saunders ; 
jealousy ; Warwick .... 17 April, ,, 

John Henry Starkey ; murder of wife; Leicester; 
Henry Rogers ; murder of wife ; Stafford 31 July, ,, 

Henry Leigh ; murder of child ; Chester 13 Aug. „ 

Caleb Smith ; murder of nominal wife (Eliza 
Osborne) ; Horsemcmger-lane . . .14 Aug. ,, 

John Goulding and Patrick McGovern ; murders ; 
Liverpool 21 Aug. „ 

John Lynch ; murder of wife ; Newgate. . 15 Oct. „ 

Thos. Pratt ; murder of paramour ; Newgate 12 Nov. „ 

Wm. Hussell ; murder of wife ; Exeter . 19 Nov. ,, 

Henry March ; murder of employer and fellow- 
workman ; Norwich .... 20 Nov. ,, 

Thos. Gray ; murder of Ann Mellors, who refused 
him ; Nottingham 21 Nov. „ 

Cad wallader Jones; murder of paramour; Dolgelly, 

23 Nov. „ 

James Sachwell, John Upton, and John Wm. Swift; 
brutal murder of an old man ; Leicester 27 Nov. „ 

Geo. Pigott; murder of Florence Galloway; Man- 
chester 4 Feb. 1878 

James Caffyn ; murder of Maria Barber ; Winches- 
ter 11 Feb. ,, 

James Trickett; murder of wife ; Liverpool 12 Feb. ,, 

John Brooks ; murder of Caroline Woodhead ; 
Nottingham 13 Feb. ,, 

Harry Bowles ; murder of sweetheart ; Oxford 

1 A) ril, „ 

Vincent Knowles Walker ; murder of woman ; Vol k, 

15 April, ., 
A A 2 



EXECUTIONS. 



356 



EXECUTIONS. 



Charles J. Revell ; murder of wife ; Chelmsford, 

29 July, if 

Robert Vest ; ship steward ; murder of Wm. Wal- 
lace, a pilot ; Durham ... 3° Jul Y, 

Thos. Cholerton ; murder of paramour; Notting- 
ham • -,, I2 i u °- 

Selina Wadge ; murder of illegitimate child ; Bod- 
min ....•■■ I 5 Aug. 

Thomas Smithers, murder of woman, Wandsworth, 

8 Oct. 

Patrick John Byrne ; murder of two brother ser- 
geants ; Northampton . . ■ • i 2 .,,. ^ 

Joseph Garcia, Spanish sailor, murder of William 
Watkins and his wife and three children, Usk, 

18 Nov. 
James McGowan ; murder of wife ; Manchester ; 

19 Nov. 
Henry Gilbert ; murder of illegitimate child ; Hun- 
tingdon 2 5 Nov. 

Stephen Gaiiibrill ; murder of Arthur Gillow while 
defending his machinery (Wednesborough) Maid- 
stone ...■■•• 4 Feb. l8 79 

Enoch Whist'on ; murder of Alfred Meredith ; Wor- 
cester IO Feb. „ 

Wm McGuiness ; murder of wife ; Lancaster 11 Feb. „ 

Charles Peace ; murder of A. Dyson ; Leeds ; (see 
Trials, 1878-9) 2 5 Feb „ 

James Simms ; American seaman ; murder of 
woman ; Newgate . . ■ -24 March „ 

Edwd. Smart ; murder of woman ; Gloucester, 12 May „ 

"Wm Cooper • murder of Ellen Mather ; Manchester, 

20 May, ,, 
Catherine Churchill ; murder of husband ; Taunton, 

26 May, ,, 
John Darcy ; murder of Wm. Mitechalle ; York ; 

27 May, „ 
Thomas Johnson ; murder of Eliza Patten ; Liver- 
pool 28 May, „ 

Catherine Webster ; murder of Mrs. Julia Martha 
Thomas ; Wandsworth ; (see Richmond), 29 July, ,, 

Annie Took ; murder of nurse-child ; Exeter n Aug. ,, 

James Dilley ; murder of illegitimate child ; New- 
gate 25 Aug. „ 

John Ralph ; murder of Sarah Vernon ; Birming- 
ham 26 Aug. „ 

Henrv Bedingfield ; murder of Eliza Rudd ; Ipswich, 

3 Dec. „ 

Charles Shurety ; murder of child ; Newgate, 5 Jan. 188c 

Wm. Cassidy ; murder of wife ; Manchester, 17 Feb. ,, 

Hugh Burns and Patrick Kearns ; murder of 
Patrick Tracey at Widnes ; Liverpool 2 March, „ 

John Wingfield; murder of his wife; Newgate, 

22 March, ,, 

"Wm. Dumbleton ; murder of John Edmunds ; 
Aylesbury 10 May, „ 

John Henry Wood ; murder of John Coe ; York ; 

11 May, ,, 

John Wakefield ; murder of a child ; Derby 16 Aug. „ 

Wm. Brownless ; murder of sweetheart ; Durham ; 

16 Nov. ,, 
"Wm. J. Distin ; murder of paramour ; Bristol ; 

22 Nov. „ 
Thos Wheeler ; murder of Edward Anstee, near St. 

Albans 29 Nov. ,, 

George Pavey ; murder of Ada Shepherd, aged 11 ; 
and Wm. "Herbert, murder of Jane Messenger, 
sister-in-law ; Newgate . . . -13 Dec. ,, 
Wm. Stanway ; murder of Ann Mellor ; Chester ; 

21 Feb. 188 
James Williams ; murder of Eliz. Bagnall ; Stafford ; 

22 Feb. ,, 
Albert Robinson ; murder of wife ; Derby 28 Feb. ,, 
Albert Moore ; murder of old woman ; Maidstone ; 

17 May, ,, 
James Hall ; murder of wife ; Leeds . 23 May, ,, 
Joseph P. McEntee ; murder of wife ; Liverpool ; 

31 May, ,, 
Thos. Brown ; murder of Eliza Caldwell ; Notting- 
ham iS Au g. 1.. 

George Burling ; murder of Fanny Musson, Maid- 
stone 23 Aug. „ 

John Aspinal Simpson ; murder of girl ; Man- 
chester 28 Nov. ,, 

Percy Lefroy Mapleton ; murder of F. T. Gold in a 

Brighton railway carriage ; Lewes . 29 Nov. ,, 

Alfred Gough ; murder of a little girl ; Derby ,, 
Robert Templeton ; murder of landlady ; Man- 
chester . . • 13 Feb. 186 



Dr. G. H. Lamson ; murder of Percy M. John (see 

Wimbledon) ; Wandsworth . . 28 April, 18S2 
Thos. Fury ; murder of Maria Fitzsimons in 1869 ; 

Sunderland 16 May, ,, 

Wm. Geo. Abigale ; murder of girl ; Norwich, 

22 May, „ 
Osmond Otto Brand ; murder of apprentice at sea ; 

Leeds 23 May, ,, 

Charles Gerrish ; murder of fellow pauper ; Wilts ,, 
Wm. Tinner ; murder of wife ; Liverpool, 21 Aug. „ 
Wm. Meager Bartlett; murdei' of infant; Bodmin, 

13 Nov. ,, 
Edward Wheatfill ; cruel murder of Peter Hughes, 

aged 16 ; York .' . . . -27 Nov. ,, 
Bernard Mullarkey ; murder of Thomas Cruise ; 

Liverpool 4 Dec. ,, 

Charles Taylor ; murder of wife ; Wandsworth, 

12 Dec. ,, 
Louisa Jane Taylor ; murder of Mrs. Tregiltis ; 

Wandsworth 2 Jan. 1883 

Abraham Thomas, a butler ; murder of Mrs. C. 

Leigh ; Manchester .... 12 Feb. ,, 

James Anderson; murder of wife ; Lincoln, 19 Feb. ,, 
Thomas Garry ; murder of John Newton ; Lincoln 

7 May „ 
Patrick Carey, or John White ; murder of Thomas 

Eastain and Mary Moran ; Chester . 8 May „ 
George White ; murder of wife; and Joseph Wedlake, 

murder of Mark Cox ; Taunton . . 21 May, ,, 
James Burton ; murder of Elizabeth Sharpe ; 

Durham 6 Aug. ,, 

Henry Powell ; murder of master's son, J. H. D. 

Bruton ; Wandsworth . . . .6 Nov. „ 
Thomas Lyons ; murder of his child . 13 Nov. ,, 

Peter Bray ; murder of Thomas Pyle ; Durham, 

19 Nov. ,, 
Thomas Riley : murder of Elizabeth Alston ; Man- 
chester 26 Nov. „ 

Henry Dutton ; murder of Hannah Henshaw ; 

Liverpool 3 Dec. ,, 

Patrick O'Donnell ; murder of James Carey, the 

informer ; Newgate .... 17 Dec. ,, 
Charles Kite ; murder of Albert Miles ; Taunton, 

25 Feb. 1884 
Michael Maclean ; murder of Spanish sailor ; Liver- 
pool 10 March ,, 

Mary Leffley ; murder of husband ; Lincoln, 

26 May, ,, 
Joseph Lawson ; murder of sergeant Smith ; Durham 

27 May, ,, 
Peter Cassidy ; murder of wife; Liverpool, 19 Aug. ,, 
Joseph I.aycock ; murder of wife and 4 children ; 

Leeds 26 Aug. ,, 

Thos. Henry Orrock ; murder of policeman Cole ; 

Newgate .... . . 6 Oct. ,, 

Thomas Harris ; murder of wife ; Newgate 6 Oct. ,, 
Kay Howarth and Henry Hammond ; Swindell's 

murder ; Manchester . . . .24 Nov. „ 
Ernest Ewerstadt and Arthur Shaw ; murder of 

women 8 Dec. ,, 

Horace Robert Jay ; murder of a girl ; Wandsworth 

13 Jan. 1885 
Henry Kimberley; murder of Mrs. Palmer; Bir- 
mingham 17 March, ,, 

John Lee, murder of police-inspector Simmons 

Chelmsford 18 May, „ 

Moses Shrimpton, murder of policeman ; Worcester, 

25 May, „ 
Henry Alt, murder of C. Howard; Newgate, 13 July, ,, 
Joseph Tucker, murder of Elizabeth Williamson ; 

Nottingham 3 Aug. ,, 

Thomas Boulton, murder of niece ; Stafford, 17 Aug. ,, 
Henry Norman, murder of wife ; Newgate 5 Oct. ,, 
John Hill and John Williams, murder ol Arm 

Dickson ; Hereford . . . -23 Nov. „ 
Robert Goodale, murder of wife ; head severed 

through long drop ; Norwich . . . 30 Nov. ,, 
Daniel Minahan, murder of wife ; Newgate 7 Dec. „ 
George Thomas, murder of woman ; Liverpool 8 Dec. ,, 
John Horton, murder of his father ; Devizes 1 Feb. i88( 
Anthony Benjamin Rudge, John Martin, and James 

Baker, murder (see Trials) ; Carlisle 8 Feb. ,, 

Joseph Baines, murder of wife ; Lancaster 9 Feb. ,, 
John Thurston, murder of H. Springall ; Norwich 

10 Feb. ,, 
George Saunders, murder of wife ; Ipswich 16 Feb. ,, 
Owen M'Gill, murder of wife ; Cheshire 22 Feb. ,, 
Thomas Nash, murder of child Swansea March, ,, 



EXECUTIONS. 



357 



EXETER. 



David Roberts, murder of David Thomas ; Cardiff 

2 March, i 
Albert Edward Brown, and James Whelan, for 
murders ; Winchester ... 31 May, 
Edward Hewitt, murder of wife ; Gloucester 

15 June, 
William Samuel, murder of Wm. Mabbott ; 

Shrewsbury 26 July, 

Maiy Ann Britland, murder of Mrs. Dixon ; Man- 
chester 9 Aug. 

Patrick Judge, murder of wife ; Newcastle 16 Nov. 
James Murphy, poacher, murder ; York 29 Nov. 
James Banton, murder of police constable ; 

Leicester 30 Nov. 

George Harmer, murder of an old man ; Is orwich 

13 Dec. 
Thomas Leatherbarrow, murder of woman ; Man- 
chester 15 Feb. 1 

Thomas Bloxham, murder of wife ; Leicester 14 Feb. 
Edward Pritchard, murder of Allen ; Gloucester 

17 Feb. 
Richard Insole, murder of wife ; Lincoln 21 Feb. 
Benjamin Terry, murder of wife ; Nottingham 

22 Feb. 
Elizabeth Berry, murder of daughter ; Liverpool 

14 March, 
Joseph King, murder of woman and child ; Newgate 

21 March, 

Thomas William Carroll, murder of Lydia Green 

(see Trials) ; Newgate ... 18 April, 

Charles Smith, murder of wife ; Cowley near 

Oxford 9 May, 

Henry William Young, murder of child ; Dor- 
chester 16 May, 

Walter Wood, murder of wife ; Manchester 31 May, 
Alfred Sowery, murder of sweetheart ; Lancaster 

1 Aug. 
Israel Lipski, murder of woman ; Newgate 22 Aug. 
Henry Hobson, murder of Ada Stodhart ; Leeds 

22 Aug. 
Thomas H. Bevan, murder of woman ; Chester 

17 Aug. 
William Wilton, murder of wife ; Lewes 29 Aug. 
William Hunter, murder of a child ; Carlisle 14 Nov. 
Joseph Walker, murder of wife ; Oxford 15 Nov. 
Joseph Morley, niurder of woman ; Chelmsford 

21 Nov. 
Enoch Wadley, murder of woman ; Gloucester 

28 Nov. 
Thomas Payne, murder of his sister-in-law ; 

Warwick 6 Dec. 

David Rees, murder of Thomas Da vies ; Carmarthen 

13 March, 1 
Alfred Scandrett and James Jones, murder of 
Philip Ballard ; Hereford . . 20 March, 
George Clarke, murder of stepdaughter ; Winchester 

27 March, 
William Arrowsmith, murder of his uncle ; 

Shrewsbury 28 March, 

John Alfred Gell, murder of Mrs. Mary Miller ; 

Manchester ^ May, 

James William Richardson, murder of Wm. 
Berridge ; Leeds. .... 22 May, 
Robert Upton, murder of wife ; Oxford 17 July, 
Thomas Wyre, murder of son ; Worcester 18 July, 
John Jackson, murder of warder Webb ; Manchester, 

7 Aug. 
Arthur T. Delaney, murder of wife ; Derby 10 Aug. 
George Sargeant, murder of wife ; Chelmsford 

15 Aug. 
George N. Daniels and Harry B. Jones, murders ; 

Birmingham 28 Aug. 

Levi Richard Bartlett, murder of wife; Newgate 

13 Nov. 
Samuel Crowther, murder of John Willis ; Worcesl er 

11 Dec. 
William Waddell, murder of woman ; Durham 

18 Dec. 
Charles Bulmer, murder of wife ; Leeds . 1 Jan. 1 
Thomas Clews, murder of woman ; Stafford 1 Jan. 
George Nicholson, murder of wife ; Warwick 8 Jan. 
William Gower, aged 18, and Charles Joseph 

Dobell, aged 19, confessed to murder of Bensley 
C. Lawrence, timekeeper at saw-mills at Tun- 
bridge Wells ; Maidstone . . . .2 Jan. 
Ebenezer Samuel Jenkins, murder of his sweet- 
heart; Wandsworth. 6 March, 



Samuel Rylands, murder of little girl ; Shepton 
Mallet gaol 13 March, 1889 

Thomas Allen, a Zulu ; murder of F. G. Kent ; 
Swansea 10 April, ,, 

John Witney, murder of wife ; Bristol n April, ,, 

George Horton, murder of little daughter ;, Derby, 

21 Aug. ,, 
Benjamin Purnell, murder of wife ; Devises, 9 Dec. „ 
William Dukes, murder of Mr. Gordon ; Bury, 

24 Dec. , , 
Robert West and Frederick Brett, wife murder ; 

Leeds 31 Dec. ,, 

William Thomas Hook, wife murder ; Maidstone, 

31 Dec. ,, 
Charles Lister Higginbotham, murder of landlady, 

7 Jan. 189c 
Joseph Boswell and Samuel Boswell, for murder 

of Frank Stephens, gamekeeper ; Worcester, 

n March, ,, 
William Row, for the murder of Lily McClarence ; 

Newcastle-on-Tyne . . . .12 March, ,, 
Thomas Neal, murder of wife ; Newgate, 26 March, ,, 
Richard Davies, murder of father (see Trials), 

Knutsford, Cheshire .... 8 April, ,, 
William Chadwick, murder of Walter Davies ; 

Liverpool 15 April, ,, 

Daniel Stewart Gorrie, murder of fellow-workman ; 

Wandsworth 10 June, ,, 

George Bowling, murder of Eliza Nightingale, with 

whom he lived, Wandsworth . . 29 July, ,, 
Felix Spicer, murder of two children ; Knutsford, 

22 Aug. ,. 
James Harrison, murder of wife ; Leeds 26 Aug. ,, 
Frederick Davis, murder of wife ; Birmingham, 

26 Aug. ,, 

Francois Manteau, murder of Francois De Grave ; 
Newgate 27 Aug. ,, 

Mary Eleanor Wheeler, otherwise Pearcey, for 
murder of Mrs. Hogg (see Trials) ; Newgate, 

23 Dec. ,, 

Thomas Macdonald, murder of Miss Alice Holt, 
schoolmistress, near Bolton ; Liverpool ; Robert 
Kitching, murder of policeman Weedy ; York, 

30 Dec. „ 

Alfred Turner, murder of sweetheart, Mary Moran ; 
Manchester 19 May, 1891 

Franz Joseph Munch, niurder ot James Hickey ; 
Wandsworth 21 July, ,, 

Arthur Spencer, murder of Mary Ann Garner ; 
Lincoln 28 July, „ 

Walter Lewis Turner, murder of Barbara Water- 
house, 5 years old ; Leeds . . .18 Aug. ,, 

Thomas Sadler, murder of Wm. Wass ; Chelms- 
ford iS Aug. ,,. 

Robert Bradshaw, murder of wife ; Wandsworth, 

19 Aug. ,, 

John Conway, murder of Nicholas Martin, a youth ; 
Liverpool ...... 20 Aug. ,, 

Edward H. F. Watts, murder of wife ; Winchester, 

26 Aug. ,, 

Harry Dainton, murder of wife at Bath ; Shepton 
Mallett 15 Dec. „ 

John William Johnson, murder of Margaret Addi- 
son ; Durham 22 Dec. ,, 

Charles Saunders, murder of child ; Hereford, 

23 Dec. ,, 
James Stockwell, murder of Catherine Dennis ; 

Armley, Yorkshire .... 5 Jan. 1892- 

James Muir, murder of Abigail Sullivan ; Newgate, 

1 March, ,, 
Frederick Eggleton and Charles Rayner, poachers, 
murder of two gamekeepers, Joseph Crawley and 
William Pimdlephat ; Oxford . 17 March, „ 

Joseph Wilson, murder of Marion Greaves Cross- 
man ; Carlisle .... 22 March, ,, 
George H. Wood, murder of Edith Jeal ; Lewes, 

26 April, ,, 
EXETER (Devonshire), said to have been 
named Augusta from having been occupied by the 
second Augustan legion commanded by Vespasian : 
its present name is derived from Exccstrc. It was 
for a considerable time the capital of the West 
Saxon kingdom. The BISHOPRIC anciently com- 
prised two sees: Devonshire (founded about 909) 
and Cornwall. The church of the former was at 
Crediton, of the latter at Bodmin, and afterwards at 



EXETEE. 



3-58 



EXHIBITION. 



St. German's. About 1040 the sees were united. 
St. Petroc was the first bishop of Cornwall, before 
900 ; Eadulphus, the first bishop of Devonshire, 905 ; 
and Leofric, the first bishop of Exeter, in 1049. 
The cathedral originally belonged to a monastciy 
founded by Athelstan : Edward the Confessor re- 
moved the monks to his new abbey of Westminster, 
and give their church for a cathedral to the united 
see, 1049 ; the see was valued in the king's books at 
z,OOl. per annum. Present stated income, 4200^. 
Population, 1881,37,665; 1891,37,580. 

Alfred invested the city, held by the Danes, and 

compelled them to capitulate . . . 877 & 894 
Exeter sacked by Sweyn ....... 1003 

Besieged by William the Conqueror . . . . 1067 

The castle surrendered to king Stephen . . . 1136 
The city first governed by a mayor . . . . 1200 

The celebrated nunnery founded 1236 

The ancient bridge built 1250 

Edward I. holds a parliament here .... 1286 

The Black Prince visits Exeter 1371 

The duchess of Clarence takes refuge in the city . 1469 
Besieged by sir William Courtenay . . . . ,, 
City assaulted by Perkin Warbeck . . . - 1497 
Exeter constituted a county of itself . . . . 1536 
Welsh, the vicar of St. Thomas's, hanged on the 

tower of his church, as a Cornish rebel . 2 July, 1549 
Annual festival established .... 6 Aug. ,, 

The guildhall built 1593 

Prince Maurice takes Exeter for king Charles I. 

Sept. 1643 
It surrenders to the parliamentarians . April, 1646 

The canal to Topsham cut 1675 

A mint established by James II 1688 

Water- works erected 1694 

The sessions-house built 1773 

The new bridge built 1778 

The theatre erected 1 783 

Lunatic asylum founded 1795 

■County gaol built 1796 

Devon and Exeter institution for the promotion 

of science established 1803 

Subscription library founded 1807 

New city prison built 1818 

The last of the ancient gates removed . . . ,, 

The subscription rooms opened 1820 

The public baths erected 1821 

Mechanics' institution opened 1825 

New cemetery commenced , 1837 

Bailway to Bristol opened . . . .1 May, 1844 
Great fire, 20 houses burnt ... 2 Aug. ,, 

Another great fire 26 April, 1847 

Inauguration of a statue of John Dinham, who 
died June, 1864, bequeathing 24,000?. to charities, 

26 March, 1866 
Bread and meat riots ; suppressed . 4-5 Nov. 1867 
Albert Memorial Museum given up to the town 

council 21 April, 1870 

A new reredos, by sir Gilbert Scott (see Reredos), 
set up in the cathedral (1873): ordered to be. re- 
moved by decision of the "bishop and justice 
•Keating, 15 April ; this decision rsversed by 
the court of arches (sir R. Phillimore), 6 Aug. 
1874 ; the privy council decided that the reredos 

should remain 24 Feb. 1875 

The church-tax " dominicals," or "sacrament- 
money," said to be of the nature of tithes ; dis- 
traints for payment ; much excitement . Oct. ,, 
Destructive fire on the quay, of warehouses, &c. 

22 Dec. 1882 
Theatre Royal burnt during first performance of 
Romany Rye ; panic and loss of about 127 lives ; 
gallery exit insufficient 5 Sept. ; (Percy S. M. 
Gosset, M.A., assistant master of Bradford 
college, Berks, and Robert M. Tamplin, B.A., 
victims) the coroner's jury censure the licensing 
magistrates and Mr. Phipps the architect2i Sept. 1887 
Captain Shaw agrees, and points out twelve serious 

defects in the construction, Times . 16 Nov. ,, 
A new theatre opened ... 7 Oct. 1889 

Visit of the marquis of Salisbury ; he addresses 
about 10,000 persons in a temporary building, 

2 Feb. 1P92 

RECRNT BISHOPS. 

1803. John Fisher, translated to Salisbury in 1807. 



1807. Hon. George Pelham, translated to Lincoln, Sept. 

1820. 
1820. William Carey, translated to St. Asaph, March, 1830. 
1830. Christopher Bethell, translated to Bangor, 1830. 

1830. Henry Philpotts, died 18 Sept. 1869. 

1869. Frederick Temple, elected n Nov., and enthroned 
(after much opposition from some of the clergy) 
29 Dec. 1869 ; translated to London, Jan. 1S85. 

1885. E. H. Biekersteth. 

EXETER CHANGE (London), was built 
about 1680, on part of the site of Exeter house, 
the palace of Walter IStapleton, bishop of Exeter 
and lord treasurer in 1319, beheaded by order of the 
queen- regent, Isabella, in 1326. It was entirely 
demolished at the period of the Strand improve- 
ments, in 1829. The new Exeter Change, built by 
the marquis of Exeter near its site, opened in 1845, 
was pulled down in 1862, for the Strand Music-hall, 
now Gaiety theatre. 

EXETEE COLLEGE (Oxford) was founded 
by Walter Stapleton, bishop of'Exeterin 1314. The 
college buildings mainly consist of a quadrangle in 
the later Gothic style. 

EXETEE HALL (Strand, I ondon). erected 
in 1830- 1 for the meetings of religious and philan- 
thropic institutions, concerts, oratorios, and musical 
societies, a large and magnificent apartment with a 
splendid orchestra and organ, and having rooms 
attached for committees, &c, opened 29 March, 

1831. See under Music. Religious services were 
held here in 1856 by the Rev. C. Spurgeon, and 
in 1857 by ministers of the church of England, on 
Sundays. 

The Sacred Harmonic Society met here 1831-80 ; last 
concert, " Israel in Egypt," 30 April, 1880. 

The hall was purchased for the Young Men's Christian 
Association for 25,000?. July 1880 ; re-opened (jubilee), 
29 March, 1881. 

EXHIBITION of 1851 (the great ex- 
hibition). The original idea of a National Ex- 
hibition* is attributed to Mr. F. Whishaw, secretary 
of the Society of Arts in 1844. It was not taken up 
till 1849, when prince Albert, president of the 
society, said, "Now is th« time to prepare for a 
Great Exhibition, an exhibition worthy of the 
greatness of this country ; not merely national in its 
scope and benefits, but comprehensive of the whole 
world ; and I offer myself to the public as their 
leader, if they are willing to assist in the under- 
taking." 

Royal commission appointed . . .3 Jan. 1850 
A subscription list opened, headed by the queen for 

1000?. 
Civic banquets in support of the plan, at London, 

21-22 March ; and at York . . .25 Oct. ,, 
The building t commenced ... 26 Sept. ,, 



* Industrial exhibitions began with the French ; 
Expositions having been organised and opened at Paris 
in 1798, 1801, 1802, 1806, 1819, 1823, 1827, 1834, 1839, 1844, 
and 1849, the last, being the eleventh, exceeding all the 
preceding in extent and brilliancy. The first exhibition 
of the kind in this country was the National Repository, 
opened under royal patronage in 1828, near Charing- 
cross. It was not successful. Other exhibitions were 
opened at Manchester in 1837, at Leeds in 1839, and at 
Birmingham in 1849. Exhibitions have since been held 
at Cork, Dublin, Manchester, New York, Paris, Montreal, 
Florence, Constantinople, Bayonne, Melbourne, Vienna, 
Philadelphia, and many other places {which see). 

+ The palace, with the exception of the flooring and 
joists, was entirely of glass and iron. It was designed by 
Mr. (aft. sir Joseph) Paxton (who died 8 June, 1865), 
and the contractors were Messrs. Fox and Henderson, to 
whom it was agreed to pay 79,800?. , or 150,000?. if the 
building were permanently retained. Itcosti76,o3o?. 13s. 8& 
Its length was 1851 feet, corresponding with the year ; 
the width 408 feet, with an additional projection on the 



EXHIBITION. 



359 



EXPEDITIONS. 



Many persons admitted into it in Jan. ; it is virtually 
transferred to the royal commissioners by the 
contractors, Messrs. Fox and Henderson, Feb. 1851 
Reception of goods began 12 Feb., and the sale of 

season tickets 25 Feb. „ 

The Exhibition opened by her majesty . 1 May, ,, 
The number of exhibitors exceeded 17,000, of whom 
2918 received prize medals and 170 council 
medals. The articles exhibited in arts, manufac- 
tures, and the various produce of countries, defied 
calculation. 
The palace continued open above 23 weeks, alto- 
gether 144 days (1 May to 15 Oct.) within which 
time it was visited by 6, 170,000 persons, averaging 
43,536 a day, whose admission at the respective 
prices of one pound, half-a-crown, and one shilling, 
amounted to 505,107?. including season tickets, 
leaving a surplus, after payment of expenses, of 
about 150,000?.* ....... 1851 

The greatest number of visitors in one day was 
109,760 (8 Oct.) ; and at one time (2 o'clock, 7 Oct.) 
there were 93,000 ; these persons were assembled 
at one time, not in an open area, like a Roman 
amphitheatre, but within a windowed and floored 
.and roofed building. There is no like vast assem- 
blage recorded in either ancient or modern annals, 
as having been gathered together, it may be said, 
in one room. 
The Exhibition was closed to the public . 11 Oct. ,, 
A memorial statue of the prince consort by Joseph 
Durham, placed in the gardens of the Royal Hor- 
ticultural Society, uncovered in the presence of 
.the prince and princess of Wales . 10 June, 1863 
See Crystal Palace. 

EXHIBITION OF 1862 (INTERNATIONAL). 
A proposal in 1858 for another great exhibition, to 
be held in 1861, was withdrawn in consequence of 
.the war in Italy in 1859, &c. The scheme was re- 
vived in ApriL i860, when the prince consort en- 
gaged to guarantee 10,000^. if 240,000^. should be 
subscribed for by other persons. 
A charter granted to the following commissioners : 

earl Granville, the marquis of Chandos, C. W. 

Dilke, jun. , and Thomas Fairbairn . 22 Feb. 1861 
The guarantee fund amounted to 349,000?. in Nov. 

i860, and to 452,300?. ... 22 Aug. 1862 

The building, t erected at South Kensington, by 

Messrs. Kelk and Lucas, according to a design by 

capt. Fowke, made over to the commissioners, 

12 Feb. 1862 
The Exhibition opened by the duke of Cambridge 

and royal commissioners . . . 1 May, ,, 
The fine arts department included a noble collec- 
tion of paintings and sculptures. 
The jurors' award of medals was announced in the 

building 11 July, ,, 

The Exhibition was closed 1 Nov., when the total 

number of visitors (exclusive of attendants) had 

been 6,117,450. 

.north side, 936 feet long, by 48 wide. The central por- 
tion was 120 feet wide and 64 feet high, anil the great 
avenues ran east and west through the building ; the 
transept near the centre was 72 feet wide and 108 feet 
.high. The entire area was 772,784 square feet, or about 
19 acres. Four galleries ran lengthways, and others 
round the transept. The ground-floor and galleries con- 
tained 1,000,000 square feet of flooring. There were 
altogether 4000 tons of iron in the structure, and 17 acres 
•of glass in the roof, besides about 1500 vertical glazed 
-sashes. 

* This was placed in the hands of commissioners, who 
.have promoted the South Kensington museum, and in 
1876 proposed the establishment of a science library. 

t The main building occupied about 16 acres of 
.ground, and the annexes 7 acres. The south front was 
.1150 feet long and 55 feet high, and over the east and 
west fronts rose the two domes 260 feet high. The inte- 
rior was decorated by Mr. John G. Crace. The building 
was given up to Messrs. Kelk and Lucas on 31 Dec. 1862, 
the house of commons having refused to purchase it for 
.80,000?. 2 July, 1863 ; and the pulling down commenced 
•on 6 July. The domes and other parts of the structure 
■r.vere purchased fur erection in Alexandra-park, Muswell- 
Siill, near London (north), 



The Exhibition reopened on 3 Nov. for the sale of 
goods exhibited ; was finally closed 15 Nov. 1862 

The success of the Exhibition was much impaired 
by the decease of the prince consort, 14 Dec. 1861, 
and the breaking out of the civil war in the 
United States of America. The foreign exhibitors 
in 1851 were 6566 ; in 1862, 16,456. 

Exhibitors at London, in 1851, 14,000 ; at Paris, in 
1855, 24,000 ; at London, in 1862, 29,000 ; at Paris, 
in 1867, 50,000. 

EXHIBITIONS, INTERNATIONAL. A 

meeting was held 4 April, 1870, the prince of 
Wales in the chair, to promote annual international 
exhibitions at South Kensington, to commence 
I May, 1871. 

I. 1871. Fine aits, pottery, woollen and worsted manu- 
factures ; educational department ; opened by the 
prince of Wales, 1 May ; closed 30 Oct. 

[34 countries contributed ; total number of visitors, 
1,142,154 ; highest on one day (Whit-Monday, 29 May), 
21,946.] 

II. 1872. Fine arts, cotton, jewellery, stationery, with 
machinery ; and raw materials ; opened by the duke 
of Edinburgh, 1 May ; closed 19 Oct. 

III. 1873. Fine arts ; manufactures (silk, steel, surgical 
instruments, &c. ; carriages for rails or tramways ; 
food) ; scientific inventions and new discoveries ; 
opened 14 April ; closed 31 Oct. 

IV. Fine arts ; manufactures and raw materials, and 
engineering, and recent scientific inventions ; opened, 
6 April ; closed, 31 Oct. 1874. 

[The annual exhibitions having proved unsuccessful, the 
building was appropriated by the East India Museum]. 

Exhibition of 1884, held at the Crystal Palace, opened 
on 23 April. 

See Fisheries, Forests, and Sanitation. 

International Health Exhibition, 8 May-30 Oct. 1884 

Exhibition of the products, manufactures and arts 
of India and the colonies at South Kensington 
(See under Colonies) . .4 May-10 Nov. 1886 

EXODUS (Greek, way out), a term applied to 
the departure of the Israelites from Egypt, 1491 B.C. ; 
and described in the book of Exodus. Uhronologers 
vary in the date of this event : the LXX. give 1614; 
Hales, 1648; Wilkinson, 1495; Bunsen, 1320 or 
I3I4- 

EX OFFICIO INFORMATIONS are 

those hied by the attorney-general, by virtue of his 
office, without applying to the court where they are 
tiled for leave, or giving the defendant an oppor- 
tunity of showing- cause why they should not be 
tiled. Cabinet Laivyer. They were used by the 
Liverpool administration about 1817-19. William 
Hone was tried on criminal information, 18-20 Dec, 
1 81 7, and acquitted. The British bank directors 
were thus tried, 1857. 

EXPEDITIONS. Many are described under 
their respective heads. 

Expedition of "the Nations" or "the Ditch"; the 
third expedition of the Koreish (which sec) against 
Mahomet, named from the nations who marched under 
their leader Abu Sophian, and from the ditch which was 
drawn before the city. They were principally vanquished 
by the fury of the elements. Gibbon. 625. 



BRITISH EXPEDITIONS. 

France, near Port l'Oricnt . . . 1 Oct. 

Cherbourg 7 Aug. 

St. Malo ; 4000 men lost .... Sept. 

Quiberon Bay (French emigrants) . . . . 
Ostend (all mime prisoners) . . . May. 
Helder Point and Zuyder Zee . . . Sept. 

Ferrol, in Spain Aug. 

Egypt (Abercrombie) March, 

Copenhagen Sept. 

Walcheren (unfortunate) July, 

Bergen-op-Zoom 8 March, 

Crimea Sept. 

Abyssinia Oct. TS67-A )>ril. 

Against the Ashautees (which see) . . 12 Sept. 
See Egypt, India, Soudan, &c. 



1746 
1758 

1796 
1798 
1799 



1807 



1814 
1854 



1873 



EXPENDITURE. 



360 



EXTRADITION TREATIES. 



EXPENDITURE, see under Revenue. 

EXPLOSIONS, see Boilers, Coal. 
Criminal Explosions, close to the local government office, 
Charles Street, Westminster ; great damage, no loss 
of life ; 9 p.m. ; 15 March, 1883. 

Ex-plosions (by nitroglycerine 1) 30 Oct. 1883, on Metro- 
politan District railway, between Charing Cross and 
Westminster stations ; some damage ; no persons 
injured. Metropolitan railway, near Praed Street 
Station; two thiid class carriages shattered; above 
62 persons injured, 8.13 p.m. Capt. Majendie and 
prof. Abel consider it to have been caused "by 
dynamite thrown from a railway carriage. 

Victoria Station, Pimlico, building much injured, pro- 
perty destroyed, and two men hurt by an explosion 
in the cloak-room, 1.3 a.m., 27 Feb. 1884. 

9 20, 30 May, 1884. Detective department, Scotland 
Yard, Whitehall ; wall blown down, windows broken ; 
public house wrecked, many persons injured, two 
seriously. 9.20 p.m Junior Carlton club house and 
Sir W. W. Wynne's, St. James's Square, much damage, 
some persons injured. 

Sixteen cakes of dynamite and fuse found at foot of 
Nelson's monument, Trafalgar Square, 30 May, 1884. 

Explosion at Genoa, 10 June ; at Madrid, 18 June, 1884. 

Failure of attempt to explode S.W. end of London 
Bridge, about 6 p.m., 13 Dec, 1884. 

Explosion in Metropolitan railway near Gower Street, 
(by a bomb shell), about 9 p.m., 2 Jan. 1885. 

Three explosions, see Parliament, Westminster Hall, and 
Tower, 24 Jan. 1885. 

EXPLOSIVES : see Gunpowder, Gun Cotton, 
Nitro-Glycerine, Dynamite, Dualine, Lithot'racteur, 
Glyoxiline, Blasting, Gelatine, Bellite, Roburite, 
Helloffite, Melenite, Silotvor, §c. A committee 
to examine into the nature and properties of various 
explosives was appointed by government in 1871. 
Explosives have been much studied by sir F. A. 
Abel, of Woolwich since 1881. 

Professor Osborne Reynolds produced a new explosive, 
75 parts chlorate of potash, 25 sulphuria, a product of 
coal gas ; the ingredients kept apart till required ; 
announced 1878. 
The manufacture and use of explosives greatly increased 

1885-6. 
Carbo-dynamite, a new explosive, invented by Mr. W. 

F. Reid and Mr. W. D. Borland ; announced April, 

1888. 

EXPLOSIVES ACT, passed 14 June, 1875, 
amends the law with respect to the manufacturing, 
keeping, selling, carrying, and importing gun- 
powder, nitro-glycerine, and other explosive sub- 
stances. Amendment act passed, 1883. 
In consequence of the attempt at explosion in London 
in March, a new act to watch over the manufacture of 
sxplosives and punish possessors for felonious purposes, 
&c, passed by both houses, 9 April ; royal assent, 
10 April, 1883. The authors of attempted explosions 
are punishable with penal servitude for life. 

EXPORTS. Edward III. by bis encourage- 
ment of trade turned the scale so much in favour of 
English merchandise, that, by a balance taken in 
his time, the exported commodities amounted to 
294,000?". and the imported to only 38,000?". ; see 
Revenue. The declared value is of much less 
amount than the official. 

OFFICIAL VALUE OF EXPORTS FROM GREAT BRITAIN 
TO ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD. VIZ. : — 



i860 . . £135,891,227 1878 . . £192,848,914 

1861 . . 125,102,814 1879 - • ■I9i,53i,75 8 ' 

1862 . . . 123,902,264 1880 . . 223,060,446' 

1863 . . 146,602,342 1881 . . .234,022,678. 

1865 . . .165,835,725 I 1882 . . 241,467,162 

1866 . . 188,917,536 I 1883 . . .239,799,473 

1867 . . . 180,961,923 I 1884 . . 233,025,2421 

1868 . . 179,677,812 I 1885 . . .213,115,114. 

1869 . . . 180,953,957 I 1886 . . 212,725,200. 

1870 . . 199,586,822 1887 . . .221,913,910 

1875 . . 223,465,963 1888 . . 234,534,912 

1876 - . 200,639.204 I 1889 . . .248,935,195-, 

1877 . . . 198,893,065 I 1890 " . . 263,530,585, 

Exports of all kinds to foreign countries, in 1875 : 
152,373, 800?. ; in 1876, 135,779,980?. ; in 1877,. 
128,969,715?. ; 1878, 126,611,428?. ; 1879, 130,529,647?. ; 
1880, 147,806,267?. ; 1881,154,658,083?.; 1882,156,640,727?.; 
1883, 156,321,921?.; 1884, 152,149,296?.; 1885, 135,120,194?. ; 
1886, 137,053,799?. ; 1887, 146,543,654?. ; to British posses- 
sions in 1875, 71,092,163?.; in 1876, 64,859,224?. ; in 1877, 
69,923,350?.; 1878, 66, 23-, 486?. ; 1879, 61,002,111?.; 1880, 
75,254,179?. ; 1881, 79,364,595?. ; 1882, 84,826,435?. ; 1883^, 
83,477,552?. ; l88 4i 80,875,946?. ; 1885, 77,929,626?. ; 1886, 

75,506,637?. ; 1887, 75,135,849?. ; 1888, 150,293,399?. ;. 
1889, 165,656,205?. ; 1890, 176,160,202?. 



1700 


,£6,097,120 


1830 


■ £66,735.445 


1750 . 


. 10,130,991 


1835 • 


■ 7 8 .376,732 


1775 


16,326,363 


1840 


97,402,726 


1800 . 


. 38,120,120 


1845 . 


. 131,564,503 


1810 


45,869.839 


1850 


175,126,706 


1820 . 


• 5i. 733. "3 


l8 5 I . 


. 190,397,810 


DECLARED 


VALUE OF BRITISH AND 
EXPORTED. 


IRISH PRODUCE 


1851 . 


^74,448,722 1 1856 


£115,826,948 


1853 


98,933,781 1857 . 


.122,155,237 


1855 . 


. 95,688,085 


1859 


. 130,440,237 



EXTENSION, see University. 

EXTINCTEUR, see Fire-Annihilator. 

EXTRACT OF MEAT, obtained by Liebig 
in 1847; a company was formed to manufacture it 
in South America in 1866. 

EXTRADITION TREATIES. The extra- 
dition of criminals formed part of the Ashburtott) 
treaty {which see), 9 Aug. 1842. Between Great 
Britain and France, 1843. In Dec. 1865, the French 
government gave notice of withdrawing from it 
in six months. It was renewed, wiih modifica- 
tions, for six months, 21 May, 1866. A new act 
was passed, 9 Aug. 1870; amended in 1873- 
Similar treaties have been concluded with other 
powers; with Austria, 3 Dec. 1873; Switzerland, 
4 April, 1874; Holland, Aug. 1874; with Spain, 



In 1866, M. Lamirancl, charged with forgery and fraud 
against the Bank of France, fled to America. He was 
pursued, and was arrested at Montreal, on 1 Aug., under 
the governor-general's warrant. On 15 Aug., while his. 
examination was still pending, he petitioned the gover- 
nor-general not to warrant his surrender before he could 
apply for a writ of habeas corpus, and was assured on 17 
Aug. that ample time should be allowed for this purpose. 
On 22 Aug. he was finally committed ; and on 24 Aug. 
his petition for a writ of habeas corpus was presented to» 
judge Drummond, twenty-four hours' notice having been 
given to the representatives of the crown and the Bank 
of France. After arguments had been heard and the case 
adjourned until the following day, he was surreptitiously 
carried off the same night by train to Quebec, and hurried 
on board a steamer bound for Europe, by virtue of an 
extradition warrant, purporting to be signed by the 
governor-general at Ottawa, on 23 Aug. He was con- 
veyed to France, and on 5 Dec. was tried, found guilty, 
and condemned to ten years' imprisonment. These cir- 
cumstances led to much discussion, and the Canadian 
authorities were censured for irregularity and want of 
discretion. The discussion ended by Lamirand declining 
British intervention. 

Dispute with United States respecting the 
surrender of Ezra D. Winslow, a forger, by 
Great Britain, which is refused unless it is 
agreed that the prisoner shall only be tried for 
the offence for which he has been committed 
(according to the treaty) April, 187S 

Mr. Hamilton Fish, the. American foreign secretary, 
stands on Ashburton treaty of 1842, wherein no 
stipulation is mentioned ; although it is found 
in other treaties with other governments. 
Winslow was discharged, 15 June; and Brent, 

another fugitive, a few days after . . . 187S 

The British Government yield, 27 Oct.; Brent recap- 
tured, Dec. 1876. Winslow, claimed by Swiss 



EXTRAVAGANTES. 



361 



EYRE. 



government, escapes through flaw in the treaty ; 
decision of queen's bench . . . 2 Nov. 1877 

Stringent treaty, for anarchists and political 
offenders, between Russia and Prussia . 13 Jan. 1885 

Similar treaty between Germany and Russia pro- 
posed 12 Feb. 1885 ; accepted . . . April, ,, 

Enlarged treaty between United States and Great 
Britain proposed 1886 ; deferred till Dec. 1888 ; 
rejected by the senate (38-15) . .1 Feb. 1889 

New treaty ratified by the senate, 18 Feb. 1890 ; it 
is an enlargement of the Ashburton treaty of 
1842, proclaimed at Washington and gazetted in 
London 25 March, 1890 

Extradition treaty between England and Russia 

April, 1887 

EXTRAVAGANTES, see Decretals. 

EXTREME UNCTION, see Anointing. 



EYLAU (Prussia), where, on 7-8 Feb. 1807, the 
French, defeated the Russians in one of the most 
bloody contests of the war. Napoleon commanded 
in person. Both armies by this and other battles 
were so much reduced, that the French retired to, 
the Vistula, and the Russians on the Pregel. 

EYRE (old P'rench for ire, to go on), the itine- 
rant court of justices, the justices in eyre, was in- 
stituted by Henry II. 1 176; and when the forest 
laws were in force, its chief-justice had great 
dignity. Thes-e justices were to go their ciicuit 
every third year, and punish all abuses committed 
in the king's forests. The last instance of a court 
beinsj held in any of the forests is said to have been 
in 1671. JBeatson. 



F. 



FS. 

F'S, Three (that is, " fixity of tenure, fair rents, 
.and free sale"), term much used respecting Irish 
land question in 1880- 1. Sir Stafford Northcote 
termed them "fraud, force, and folly," and they 
were much opposed by lord Dufferin and others. 

FABII. A noble family at Rome, said to have 
■derived their name from f aba, a bean, because some 
■of their ancestors cultivated this pulse; or to have 
■descended from Fnbius, a son of Hercules. Accord- 
ing to the legend, the whole family, on behalf of 
the state carried on the war against the Veientes. 
Duiing a march to Rome, they were sin prised, and 
■all the grown up males (306) were slain 477 B.C. 
From a boy detained at Rome, arose the noble Fabii 
■of the following aues. Fabius Cunctator (the de- 
layer) kept Hannibal in check for some time with- 
out coming to an engagement, 217-216 B.C. 

FABLES. "Jotham's fable of the trees 
■{Judges ix., about 1209 B.C.) is the oldest extant, 
and as beautiful as any made since." Addison. 
Nathan's fable of the poor man (2 Sam. xii., about 
1034 B.C.) is next in antiquity. The earliest collec- 
tion of fables extant is of eastern origin, and pre- 
served in the Sanscrit. The fables of Vishnoo 
Sarma, or Filpay, are the most beautiful, if not the 
most ancient in the world. Sir William Jones. 
Professor Max M tiller traced La Fontaine's fable of 
the Milkmaid to a very early Sanscrit collection. 
JEsop's fables {which see) supposed to have been 
written about 565 or 620 B.C., were versified by 
Babrius, a Greek poet, about 130 B.C. (Coray), and 
■turned into prose by Maximus Planudes, a Greek 
monk, about 1320, who added other fables and ap- 
pended a worthless life of iEsop. The fables of 
Phsedrus in elegant Latin-iambics (about a.t>. 8), of 
La Fontaine (1700) and of (iay (1727) are justly 
celebrated. 

FACIAL ANGLE (that contained by one 
line drawn horizontally from the middle of the ear 
to the edge of the nostrils, and another from the 
latter point to the ridge of the frontal bone) was in- 
vented by Peter Camper to measure the elevation 
of the'forehead. In negroes this angle is about 70° ; 
in Europeans varies from 75° 1 ° ^5°- Camper died 
7 April, 1789. His book on '' Characteristic Marks 
•of Countenance " was published in 1791. 

FACTIONS of the Circus among the Romans, 
were parties that fought on chariots in the circus, 
■and who were distinguished by colours, as green, 
blue, red, and white; Domitian added gold and 
■scarlet, about a.d. 90. 

N'ika sedition. — In Jan. 532, a conflict took place at 
(Constantinople, lasting five days, when about 30,000 lives 
were lost, and Justinian was mainly indebted for his life 
and throne to the heroism of his empress Theodora. The 
Vjlues and greens united for a day or two against the em- 
peror, taking Nika ! (overcome) for a watchword. The 
"blues soon turned, and massacred nearly all the greens. 
'The conflict was suppressed by Belisarius with difficulty, 
and the games were abolished for a time. 

FACTORIES, supplied with machinery for 
producing manufactures, have immensely increased 
in this country since 1815. I'he Factory act, regu- 
lating the hours of labour, &c, was passed in 1833 
and amended 1834 and 1844. Similar acts have 



FAIRS. 

been passed since ; and an act for the extension of 
the principles of the Factory acts was passed in 
1867 in relation to women and children employed 
in manual labour; short time on Saturdays was 
enacted. Other acts were passed in 1870-1878. 
The Act of 1878 (like that of 14 July, 1874) relates to 
sanitary provisions, safety from machinery, hours of 
employment, meal hours, women and children, holi- 
days, education of children, accidents, &c, passed 27 
May, 1878. Consolidating act passed in 1883. 
The earl of Shaftesbury, the energetic promoter of this 

legislation, died 1 Oct. 1885, aged 84. 
New Factories and Workshops Act passed 5 Aug. 1891. 
Mr. Alexander Redgrave, chief inspector of factories in 
1851, retired, and was succeeded by Mr. F. H. 
Whymper, Sept. 1S91. 

FACULTIES, Court of, giving powers 

to the archbishops of Canterbury and York, 25 
Hen. VIII. cap. 21, 1534. 

FAENZA, central Italy, the ancient Faventia, 
submitted to the emperor Frederick I., 1 162; was 
taken by Frederick II, 12 .April, 1241 ; held by the 
pope, 1275 ; by the Bolognese, 1282 ; by Csesar 
Borgia, 1501 ; by Venice, 1504; by the papacy, 
1509; by the French, 1512. After various changes 
early in the 16th century it was acquired by the 
papacy and retained till the annexation by Sardinia, 
1859. Faience pottery owes its name to this place, 
where it was invented. 

"FAERIE QUEEN," by Edmund Spenser; 
a part was published in 1590; the whole, 1611. 

FAHRENHEIT, see Thermometer. 
FAINEANTS, see Mayors of the Palace. 

FAIRLOP OAK, with a trunk 48 feet in 
circumference, the growth of five centuries, in 
Hainault forest, Essex, was blown clown in Feb. 1820. 
Beneath its branches an annual fair was long held 
on the first Friday in July, which originated with 
the eccentric Mr. Day, a pump and block maker of 
Wapping, who, having a small estate in the vicinity, 
annually repaired here with a party of friends, to 
dine on beans and bacon. 

FAIROAKS, near the Chickahominy, Virginia, 
the site of two sanguinary indecisive battles between 
the Confederates, under general Joseph Johnson, 
and the Federal army of the Potomac, under general 
M'CLellan, 31 May and 1 June, 1862. 

FAIR TRADE LEAGUE, National, 

founded by lord Dunraven, Mr. Sampson Lloyd, 
Mr. David Macliver, and others, agriculturists and 

merchants, who issued a circular in Aug. 1S81. It 
is opposed to what it considers unfair free trade. 
They advocate recurrence to duties on foreign corn and 

manufactures, but not on raw materials. 
Unsuccessful in the parliamentary election of 1885. 

Meeting of the league 28 April and 2 Nov. 1887. 
The National Association for the Preservation of 

Agriculture and other industries held a meeting in 

London 8 Dec. 1887. 

FAIRS AND WAKES, of Saxon origin, were 
instituted in Italy, about 500; in England by Alfred, 
886. Spclman. Wakes were established by order 
of Gregory VII. in 1078, and termed Fericc, at 
which the monks celebrated the festival of their 
patron saint : the vast resort of people occasioned 



FAITH. 



363 FAN. 



a great demand for goods, wares, &c. Fairs were 
established in France about 800 by Charlemagne, 
and encouraged in England about 1071 by William 
the Conqueror. Many statutes were made for the 
regulation of fairs (1328 — 1868). The "Fairs Act," 
passed 25 May, 1871, provides for the abolition of 
fairs; in 1872, Charlton and Blackheath fairs, and 
in 1873 Clauham fair, were abolished as nuisances 
See Frosts. 
An "old English fair" was opened at the Royal Albert 

Hall by princess Christian, to aid the Chelsea Hospital 

for Women, 9 June, 1881. See Markets. 

FAITH, see Defender. 

FALCK LAWS, see Prussia, 1873. 

FALCONRY or Hawking in England 

cannot be (raced with certainty before the reign of 
king Etbelbert, ibe Saxon monarch, 858. Pennant. 
The grand seignior at one time kept six thousand 
falconers in his service. Juliana Berners' book on 
" Hawkynge and Huntynge" was printed in 1496; 
see Angling, Recent attempts have been made to 
revive falconry. Hawking was practised in Thrace. 
Aristotle. 

FALCZI, on the Pruth, Turkey. Here was 
concluded a Peace between Russia and Turkey, 
21 July, 171 1, the Russians giving up Azof, and all 
the possessions on the Black Sea to the Turks. The 
Russians were saved from imminent destruction by 
the address of Catherine the empress. Tn 1712 the 
war was renewed, and terminated by the peace of 
Constantinople, 16 April, 1712. 

FALERII, a city of the Falisci, an Etruscan 
people who joined the Veientes against Rome, and 
were beaten by Cornelius Cossus, 437 B.C. It is 
recorded that when the city was besieged by Ca- 
millus in 394, a schoolmaster offered to betray to 
him the children of the principal citizens. On his 
refusal, the citizens from gratitude surrendered. 
Tbey opposed Rome during the first Punic war; 
and in 241 the city was taken and destroyed. 

FALERNIAN WINE, celebrated by Virgil 
and Horace, was the produce of Falernus, or, as 
called by Martial, Mons Massicus, in Campania. 
Horace in his Odes boasts of having drunk Falernian 
wine that had been, as it were, born with him, or 
which reckoned its age from the same consuls, 
14 B.C. 

FALKIRK (Stirlingshire, Scotland), the site 
of a victory by the English under Edward I. over 
the Scots, commanded by Wallace, part of whose 
forces deserted him. It is said from 20,000 to 40,000 
Scots were slain, 22 July, 1298. A battle was fought 
at Falkiik Muir between the royal forces under 
Hawley, and prince Charles Edward Stuart, in which 
the former were defeated, 17 Jan. 1746. 

FALKLAND ISLANDS, a group in the 
South Atlantic, belonging to Great Britain, seen by 
Americus Vespucius, 1 502, and visited by Davis, 
1592; explored by Hawkins, 1594; taken possession 
of by France, 1764. The French were expelled by 
the Spaniards ; and in 1771, Spain resigned them to 
England. Not having been colonised by us, the 
republic of Buenos Ayres assumed a right to these 
islands, and a colony from that country settled at 
Port Louis ; but owing to a dispute with America, 
the settlement was destroyed by the latter in 1831. 
In 1833 the British flag was hoisted at Port Louis, 
and a British ofticer has since resided there. Popula- 
tion in 1888, 1,890. Governors, Wm. C. F. Robin- 
son, 1866; col. George A. K. D'Arcy, 1870 ; Thos. 
F. Callaghan, 1876; Thos. Kerr, 1880; Sir Roger 
T. Goldsworthy, Feb. 1891. Falkland Islands 
created a crown colony, March, 1892. 



FALLING STARS, see Meteors. 

FAMILISTERE, see Fourierism. 

FAMILY COMPACT, see Bourbon. 

FAMILY OF LOVE, a society, called also 
Phlhuielphians, from the love they professed to bear 
to all men, assembled at Brew-house yard, Notting- 
ham. Their founder, David George, an Anabaptist, 
of Holland, propagated his doctrines in Switzerland, 
where he died in 1556. The tenets of the society 
were declared impious, and George's body and books 
ordered to be burned by the hangman. In Eng- 
land a sect with a similar title was repressed by 
Elizabeth, 1580 ; but existed in the following cen- 
tury. See Agapemone. 

FAMINES. The famine of the seven years in 
Egypt began 1708 B.C. Usher; Plait: 
Famine at Rome, when thousands of people threw 
themselves into the Tiber . . . . b.c. 436 

Awful famine in Egypt a.d. 42 

At Rome, attended by plague 262 

In Britain ; people ate the bark of trees . . . 272 

In Scotland ; thousands died 306 

In England ; 40,000 perished 310 

Awful one in Phrygia 370 

In Italy, when parents ate their children (Dufresnoy) 450 
In England, Wales, and Scotland . . . . 739 

Again, when thousauds starve 823 

Again, which lasts four years . . . . 954 

Awful one throughout Europe 1016 

In England, 21 William 1 1087 

In England and Prance : this famine leads to a pes- 
tilential fever, which lasts from . . 1 193 to 1 195 
Another famine in England .... 1251 

Again, so dreadful thai the people devoured the flesh 
of horses, dogs, cats, and vermin . . . . 1315 

One occasioned by long rains 1335 

One in England and France (Rapin) . . . 1353 
Again, one so great, that bread was made from fern- 
roots (Stow) 1:438 

One throughout these islands . . . . 1565 

Awful one in France (Voltaire) .... 1603 

One general in these realms 1748 

One which devastates Bengal 1771 

At Cape de Verde ; 16,000 persons perish . . . 1775 

One grievously felt in France 1789 

One severely felt in England 1795 

Again, throughout the kingdom .... 1801 
At Drontheim, owing to Sweden intercepting the 

supplies 1S13 

Scarcity of food severely felt by the Irish poor, 1814, 
1816, 1822, 1831, 1846, in consequence of the 
failure of the potato crop. Grants by parliament, 
to relieve the suffering of the people, were made 
in the session of 1847, the whole amounting to ten 
millions sterling. 
In N.W. India ; above 800,000 perish . . 1S37-8 

In N.W. India ; thousands perish . . . 18S0-1 
In Bengal and Orissa ; about 1,000,000 perish . 1865-6 
In Rajpbotana, &c. ; about 1,500,000 perish . 1868-9 
In Persia very severe . . . . , . 1871-2 

In Bengal, through drought. (See India) . . 1874 

In Asia Minor . 1874-5 

In Bombay, Madras, Mysore, &c. ; about 500,000 

perish (see India and Mansion-house) . . . 1S77 
In N. China; very severe ; 9,500,000 said to have 
perished (45, 503/. collected in England for relief) 1S77-8 

rn Cashmere (which see) 1879 

Very severe in Tauris, &c, Asia Minor . July, 1880 

Asia Minor 1887 

China (which see) 1887-9 

In Madras 18S9-92 

Montenegro „ 

Japan 1890 

Very severe throughout Russia .... 1891-2 

FAN- Used by the ancients; Cape hoc fla hel- 
ium, et ventulum hide sic faeito, " Take this tan, 
and give her thus a little air." Terence's Eunuchus, 
166 B.C. — Fans, together with muffs, masks, and 
false hair, were first devised by the harlots in Italy, 
and were brought to England from France. Stow. 
In the British Museum are Egyptian fan-handles. 



FARADAY MEMORIALS, &c 



364 



FAUGHARD. 



Great competitive exhibition of fans at Drapers 

hall, London, opened . . . 2 July, 1878 

' English Fans and Fan Leaves, collected and 
described," by lady Charlotte Schreiber ; a mag- 
nificent work was published by Mr. John Murray. 
It includes historical, allegorical and satirical 
pictures, Jan. 1889 ; her work on foreign fans was 
published April, 1891. Lady Schreiber was granted 
the freedom of the Fanmakers' Company, London 

17 Dec. 1891 

Exhibition of fans at Drapers' hall, London, opened 
8 May, 1889. Similar exhibitions . . 1890 et seq. 

FARADAY MEMORIALS, &c. Professor 

Michael f araday, natural philosopher and chemist 
(see Electricity), died 25 Aug-. 1867. A public meet- 
ing was held at. the Koyal Institution, 21 June, 1869, 
the prince of Wales in the chair, to take measures to 
provide a public monument to him. A sufficient 
sum having been subscribed, the production of a 
statue was entrusted to Mr. Foley. The statue was 
placed at the Koyal Institution. London, in 1876. 
From the same fund a niaible bust was provided 
and placed in the National Portrait Gallery, 1886. 
The " Faraday Medal," to be given to distinguished 
foreign philosophers by the Chemical society, was 
awarded to M. Dumas, June, 1869 ; to professor 
Cannizzaro, May, 1872 ; to Dr. A. W. Hofmann, 
March, 1875 ! to professor A. Wurtz, and given to 
him after his lecture, 12 Nov. 1878 ; to professor H. 
Helmholtz, April, 1881 ; professor Demetri 
Mendeleef, June, 1889. For "Faraday," steamship, 
see Steam. The centenary of the birth of Michael 
Faraday (22 Sept. 1791) was celebrated at the Koyal 
Institution on 17 June, 1891 ; the prince of Wales, 
vice-patron R. I., in the chair; discour.-e by Pro- 
fessor lord Rayleigh ; on 26 June the duke of 
Northumberland, president, in the chair; discourse 
by professor Janic s Dewar. 

FARADISATION, the medical application 

of the magneto- electric cm rents which Faraday 
discovered in 1837. Apparatus for this purpose was 
first made by M. Pixii, and employed by Dr. Neef 
of Frankfort. " Farad," name taken for a unit of 
electric capacity, 1875. 

FARCE, a short comic drama, usually of one or 
two acts. One by Otway is dated 1677. ' The best 
English farces (by Foote, Garrick, Biokerstaff, eve.) 
appeared from about 1740 to 1 780. This species 
of dramatic entertainment originated in the droll 
shows which were exhibited by charlatans and their 
buffoons in the open streets ; see Drama. 

FARMERS' ALLIANCE, an organization 
of agricultural reformers ; held a provisional meet- 
ing 27 May, and a conference 2 July, 1879. ^ was 
active during the elections of April, 1880. A 
Farmers' Alliance for Sco'land was founded at 
Aberdeen, 1 Dec. 1881. The Farmers' Alliance in the 
United States, N.A., begun about 1873, became 
influential and elected ah ut 2} representatives for 
Congress, Nov. 1890, see United States, N.A. 

The Farmers' Club was established in 1843 for discus- 
sions on agricultural subjects. 

FARMERS-GENERAL, see Fermiers. 

FARMERS' UNION, National, established 
at Leamington, by lord Walsingham and others, to 
oppose the Agricultural Labourers' Union, June, 
1874. 

FARNESE FAMILY became important 
through the elevation of Alexander Farnese to the 
papacy as Paul III. He gave his natural son Peter 
the duchy of Parma, and his descendants ruled till 
the death of Antony without issue in 1 731 . Alex- 
ander prince of Parma was governor of the Nether- 
lands in 1579. 



FARRINGDON-MARKET, erected by the 
corporation of London, near the abolished Heet- 
market, was opened 20 Nov. 1829. After several 
changes it was re-opened as a Fish Market in 1882. 
The scheme was altogether unsuccessful, occasion- 
ing great loss to the corporation ; abandoned, 1892. 

FARTHING, an early English coin. Farth- 
ings in silver were coined by king John, in 
copper by James I. and Charles I. ; the Irish 
farthing of John's reign (1210) is rare. Farthings 
were coined in England in silver by Henry VIII. 
First coined in copper by Charles II. 1665 ; and 
again in 1672, when there was a large coinage of 
copper money. Half-farthings were first coined in 
1843 ; see Queen Anne's Farthings. A single copy 
of the " Penny-a-week Country Daily Newspaper" 
(conservative), No. 1, sold for \d., 25 June, 1873. 
The Farthings Act, 21, 22 Vict. c. 75, 1858, relates 
to the payment for portions of a mile travelled by 
third class railway trains. 

FARTHINGALE, see Crinoline. 

FASTI CAPITOLINI, marble tablets dug 
up in the forum at Rome, 1547, contain a list of the 
consuls and other officers from the year cf Rome 250 
to 765. Other fragments were found in 181 7 and 
1818. The "Fasti Consulares," from 509 ls.c. to 
A.D. 235, are given at the end of Smith's "Dictionary 
of Greek and Roman Antiquities." 

FASTS, observed by most nations from the re- 
motest antiquity ; by the Jews (2 Chron. xx. 3) ; 
by the Ninevites (Jonah iii.) ; see Isai. lviii. A 
fast was observed by the Jews on the great clay cf 
atonement. Lev. xxiii. 1490 B.C. Moses fasted 40 
days and nights on Sinai, Fxod. xxiv. 1491 B.C. 
The first Christian ministers were ordained with 
fasting (a.d. 45) Acts xiii. 2. Annual fasts, as that 
of Lent, and at other stated times, and on particular 
occasions to appease the anger of God, began in the 
Christian church, in the second century, 138. The 
Mahometan fast is termed Ramadan (which see). 
Fast days are appointed by the Reformed churches 
in times of war and pestilence (as 21 March, 1855, 
for the Russian war, and 7 Oct. 1857, for the Indian 
mutiny). The Jeynes, which see, have religious 
fasts of 30 to 40 days' duration. See Abstinence. 



FATHERS of the CHURCH 

lowing are the principal : — 
first century. Greek. 
Apostolical. 
Hernias 

Barnabas . . 
Clemens Romanus, d. 100 
Ignatius . . . d. 115 
Poly carp . d. abt. 169 

second century. Greek. 
Justin Martyr, d. abt. 166 
Irenaeus . d. abt. 200 
Athenagoras. 



The fol- 



Greek. 



FOURTH AND FIFTH CEN- 
TURIES. Greek. 
Eusebius . d. abt. 340 
Athanasius . d. 373 

Ephiem Syrus, d. abt. 378 
Basil . . . d. 379 
Cyril of Jerusalem d. 386 
Gregory Nazianzen . d. 389 
Macarius . d. abt. 391 
Gregory Nyssen d. abt. 394 
Epiphanius . d. 403. 

John Chrysostom . rf. 407 
Cyril of Alexandria d. 444 
Theodoret . . d. 457 



THIRD CENTURY. 

Clemens Alexan- 

drinus . d. abt. 217 1 

Hippolytus . . d. 230 Latin. 

Origen . . d. abt. 253 Arnobius . . . fl. 303 
Latin. ! Lactautius . d. abt. 330 

Tertullian . d. abt. 220 ! Ambrose . . . d. 397 

Minutius Felix, fl. abt. 230 j Jerome . . d. 420 

Cyprian . . d. abt. 258 I Augustine . . d. 430 

FATIMITES, see Ali and Mahometanism. 

FATS are oils solid at ordinary temperatures. 
The researches of Chevreul since 181 1 on their 
chemical nature are very important; see Candles. 

FAUGHARD, see Foughard. 



FAUSTUS. 



365 



FENIANS. 



FAUSTUS, a professor of magic, renowned in 
eliiip books, flourished about the end of the 15th 
century. Christopher Marlowe's powerful trasedy 
"Dr. Faustus," was published in 1616. Goethe's 
dramatic poem, " Faust," appeared in 1790. 

FEASTS and Festivals. The " Feasts of 

the Lord," viz., those of the Passover, Pentecost, 

Trumpets, and Tabernacles, were instituted 1490 B.C. 

{Leviticus xxiii.) 

Feast of Tabernacles, celebrated upon the dedication of 
the Temple of Solomon, 1004 b.c. 

Hezekiah (726 b.c.) and Josiah (623) kept the feast of 
Passover in a most solemn manner. 

In the Christian Church the feasts of Christmas, Easter, 
Ascension, and the Pentecost or Whitsuntide {which 
see), are said to have been ordered to be observed by 
all Christians in the 1st century. 

Rogation days appointed 469. 

Jubilees in the Romish Church were instituted by Boni- 
face VIII. in 1300 ; see Jubilees. 

For fixed festivals observed in the Church of England, as 
settled at the Reformation, et seq., see Book of Common 
Prayer. 

Feasts of Charity ; see Agapce. 

FEBEUAEY (from Februus, an Italian di- 
vinity), the second month of the year, in which were 
< elebrated Februa, feasts on behalf of the manes of 
deceased persons. This month, with January, was' 
added to the year by Numa, about 713 B.C. The 
February of 1886, siid to be the coldest for 27 years 
—continued frost. February 24, 25 Constitution, see 
France, 1875. 

FECIALES or FETLALES, twenty in number, 
heralds of Home, to denounce war or proclaim peace, 
appointed by Numa, about 712 B.C. 

FEDERAL STATES are those united by 
treaty as one state, without giving up self-govern- 
ment — as in Switzerland. The people of the 
Northern United States of America during the great 
conflict in 1861-5 were styled Federals; their oppo- 
nents Confederates. See Imperial Federation. 
Federal council of Australasia Act introduced by the 

earl of Derby 23 April, passed 14 Aug. 1885. 
See Australia, 1885 et seq., Argentine, Brazil, &c. 

FEEJEE, see Fiji. 

FELIBRIGE. A literary septennial festival 
held in Provence by felibres, writers in prose and 
verse in the langue d'oc, founded in 1854, in honour 
of seven eminent troubadours. 

FELO DE SE, see Suicide. 

FELONY, in English law (says Blackstone, in 
1765), comprises every species of crime which occa- 
sions the forfeiture of land and goods. An act to 
abolish forfeitures for treason and felony, and to 
otherwise amend the law relating thereto, passed 4 
July, 1870. 

FEMALE MEDICAL SCHOOL, London, 
held its first session in 1865, when courses of lec- 
tures were given. Dr. Mary Walker attended Mid- 
dlesex hospital, in a modified female dress, in 1866. 
She gave an autobiographical lecture at St. James's 
Hall, 20 Nov. 1866. In 1869 the decision that 
"ladies should be admitted to study medicine in the 
university of Edinburgh," led to disturbances. 
Femile Orphan Asylum, Beddington, Surrey, esta- 
blished 1758 

Female Orphans' Home, Hampton, Middlesex . . 1855 

Female Servants' Home Society 1836 

Female Aid Society 1836 

FEMALE SUFFRAGE, &c, see Women. 

FENCIBLE LIGHT DRAGOONS, a body 

of cavalry raised voluntarily in various counties of 
England and Scotland in 1794, to serve during the 



war in any part of Great Britain. This force (be- 
tween 14,000 and 15,000), which did its duty with 
much judgment during a period of intense popular 
excitement, was disbanded in 1800. 

FENCING was introduced into England from 
France. F'encing-schools having led to duelling in 
England, were prohibited in London by statute 13 
Edw. I. 1285. In 1859 there were eight teachers of 
fencing in London ; in 1872, ten. 

FENIANS (the name of ancient Irish national 
heroes, Fionna), a "brotherhood" in the United 
States and Ireland united to liberate Ireland and 
establish a republic* The agitation was begun, it 
is said, by Stephens in March, 1858, and in 1864 
enlistments and secret drillings took place. A con- 
vention was formed in 1863 in America. The 
movement is opposed by the Koman Catholic clergy. 
See Ireland^. 
Riot between the Fenians and their opponents at 

the Rotondo, Dublin . . . .22 Feb. 1864 

25 persons arrested in Dublin, and the newspaper 

the Irish People (established Sept. 1863) seized, 15 

Sept. ; others arrested at Cork, &c. 16-30 Sept. 1865 
The Fenians in America publish an address, stating 

that officers were going to Ireland to organise an 

army of 200,000 men .... Sept. 
Fenians arrested at Manchester . . 21 Sept. ',', 
A ship with gunpowder seized at Liverpool Sept. ,',' 
Allocution of the pope, condemning secret societies 

30 Sept. „ 
Evidence that 5000L and 2000 pike-heads had been 

received from America in Sept. 

O'Donovan and 5 others committed for high treason 

„ . 2 Oct. „ 

33 Fenians committed for trial . up to 14 Oct. 
A Fenian provisional government at New York, and 

a congress of 600 members held at Philadelphia 

x, • °ct. „ 

I enians in United States said to have raised 200,000?. 

Oct. ,, 
Capture of James Stephens, Irish head-centre, n 

Nov. ; he escapes from gaol . . 24 Nov 
Fierce disputes between the senate and O'Mahony', ' 

the head-centre, who is charged with corruption 

and deposed ; Mr. Roberts appointed his successor 

„ . Dec. ,, 

380,000 Fenians reported in the United States Jan. 1866 
Habeas Corpus act suspended in Ireland ; about 250 

suspected persons arrested immediately 17 Feb. 
Great mass meeting at New York, threatening to ' 

invade Canada 4 March 

Fenian schooner Friend captures British schooner ' 

Wentworth, and scuttles her near Eastport, N. A. 
_ „. , 1 May, ,, 

James Stephens arrives at New York . 10 May, 
Col. O'Niel and Fenians cross the Niagara and enter ' 

Canada, 31 May; a conflict ensued with the volun- 
teers, with bloodshed .... 2 June 
The American generals Grant and Meade capture ' 

many retreating Fenians • . . 2 June et seq. 
Sweeny and others arrested . . 6, 7 June" ' 
President Johnson's proclamation against the Fe- ' 

nians ? j lme) 

Spear and others cross the boundary near Vermont ' 

7 June; the corps demoralised; many return 

. 9 June, ,, 

Much dissension among the Fenians, July, et sen 
They exercise much influence in the elections iii " 

America in q c ^ 

Trials in Canada.— Col. Lynch and Rev.'johii " 

MacMahon (sentenced to be hanged on 13 Dec ) 

reprieved 24-26 Oct. „ 

James Stephens, "central organiser of the Irish 

republic," saiil to sail from America . 24 Nov 
The British government offer 2000/. for his appre- " 

hension ^-,, v 

Meaney, a delegate, arrested in London . r Dee' 
Arms and ammunition seized in Dublin, Cork, and ' 

Limerick ; many arrests . D ec 

» Fenian oath. " I promise by the divine law of God 
to do all in my power to obey the laws of the soeietj 
F B. , and to free and regenerate Ireland from the yoke 
of England. So help me God." 



FENIANS. 



366 



FENIANS. 



Gen. Millen, head of the Fenian military depart- 
ment, denounces Stephens " as a cheat and a ras- 
cal," and declares the cause for the present hope- 
less, hut exhorts to watchfulness for an opportunity 

3 Dec. 1 8 

Sweeny (released) rejoins the U.S. army . . Jan. 18 

22 convictions at Toronto .... Jan. , 

67 Fenians from Liverpool arrested in Dublin 

12 Feb. , 

Irruption of Fenians into Chester ; compelled to 
retire "> I2 Fel) - > 

Outbreak in Kerry; Killarney threatened; eapt. 
Moriarty and others captured . . .12 Feb. , 

Attack on coastguard station, Cahirciveen, 12 Feb. ; 
movement collapsed .... 16 Feb. , 

Kilmallock police barrack defended for three hours 
by 14 constables, who drove off 200 armed Fenians, 
with loss, by a sally .... 5 March, , 

General Massey captured . . 4 or 6 March, , 

Rising at Midleton in Cork ; Daly, a leader, killed ; 
rails of South and Midland railway taken up 

6 March, . 
Proclamation of the Irish republic sent to the Times 

and other papers .... 6 March, , 
Fenian rising near Dublin ; telegraph destroyed ; 
attack on the police station at Tallaght repelled ; 
several shot, 208 prisoners taken into Dublin 

7 March, 
1000 Fenians hold market-place at Drogheda, but 

retreat at the approach of police . 7 March, 

Capt. Maclure captured . . . 31 March, 

Special commission to try 230 Fenians ; Whiteside, 

ch.-just. ; Deasy and Fitzgerald, begin (Massey, 

Keogh, Corydon, and McGough, approvers) 

9 April, et seq. 
Burke and Doran sentenced to death, 1 May ; re- 
prieved 26 May, 

Many convictions of treason (M'Afferty, M'Clure, 
and others) and treason-felony, and many dis- 
charged May, 

Trials at Limerick begin . . . 11 June, 
President Roberts retires ; the party in the United 
States said to be demoralised . . . July, 
Many Fenians tried and convicted July and Aug. 
Several imprisoned Fenians released and sent to 

America Aug. and Sept. 

Fenian congress at Cleveland, Ohio . ■ . Sept. 
Kelly and Deasy, two Fenians, remanded for further 
examination, rescued from the prisoners' van, 
near Manchester ; and Brett, a policeman, shot 
for refusing to give up his keys . . 18 Sept. 

Many persons taken up ; 23 committed on charge 
of murder— tried, 5 condemned to death (2 re- 
prieved) ; 7 sentenced to 7 years' imprisonment 
29 Oct-12 Nov. 
Allen, Gould, and Larkin executed at Salford, 

23 Nov. 
Funeral demonstration in London . . 24 Nov. 
Trials of Halpin and others at Dublin, Oct. -Nov. 
Funeral demonstrations for Allen, &c, at Cork, 
1 Dec. ; Dublin and Limerick . . 8 Dec. 
Address of the president and senate of the Fenian 
brotherhood of America to the "liberty-lov.ing 
people of England," dated New York, 12 Dec. 
Reunion of the Roberts and Stephens parties under 
a new president . . . about 20 Dee. 
Premeditated explosion of Clerkenwell house of 
detention, London, to release Burke and Casey, 
leading Fenians, at 3.45. (A cask of gunpowder 
was fired close to the prison wall ; Timothy Des- 
mond, Jeremiah Allen, and Ann Justice captured 

on suspicion) 13 Dec. 

iConseqvences of the explosion. — "Six persons were 
killed ' outright,' six more died from its effects, 
according to the coroner's inquests ; five, in 
addition, owed their deaths indirectly to this 
means ; one young woman is in a madhouse, 40 
mothers were prematurely confined, and 20 of 
their babes died from the effects of the explosion 
on the women ; others of the children are dwarfed 
and unhealthy. One mother is now a raving 
maniac ; 120 persons were wounded ; 50 went 
into St. Bartholomew's, Gray's Inn-lane, and 
King's College Hospitals : 15 are permanently 
injured, with loss of eyes, legs, arms, &e. ; besides 
20,000?. worth of damage to person and property." 
— Times, 29 April, 1868.] 



Capt. Mackay and others rifle a Martello tower, 

27 Dec. 1867 
Audacious seizure of arms and ammunition in a 

gunsmith's shop in Cork ... 30 Dec. „ 
12 suspected Fenians captured at Merthyr Tydvil, 

31 Dec. „ 
Mullany, a prisoner, -turns queen's evidence, and 
accuses Barrett or Jackson (captured at Glasgow, 
14 Jan.) of firing the barrel at Clerkenwell, 

28 Jan. 1868 
Attack on Martello tower near Waterford 28 Jan. ,, 
Capt. Mackay arrested at Cork, 7 Feb. ; much riot- 
ing there 11, 12 Feb. ,, 

Conviction of Patrick Lennon, a leader, 12 Feb. „ 
Habeas corpus act susp. till 1 March, 1869 Feb. ,, 
Mullany and Thompson convicted as accessories in 

murder of Brett . . . .' 18 March, ,, 
Capt. Mackay convicted ; sentenced to 12 years' 

imprisonment 20 March, „ 

O'Farrell, a Fenian, wounds the duke of Edinburgh 
at Port Jackson, 12 March; sentenced to death, 

31 March, „ 
Mr. Darcy M'Gee, M.P., shot dead by a Fenian at 

Ottawa 7 April, „ 

Trial of Win. and Timothy Desmond, Nicholas Eng- 
lish, John O'Keefe, Michael Barrett, and Ann 
Justice, for murder (Clerkenwell outrage) begun 
20 ; acquittal of Justice, 23 ; of O'Keefe, 24 ; and 
of the two Desmonds and English, 27. Conviction 

of Barrett 27 April, „ 

Richard Burke, a leader, convicted of treason-felony , 

30 April, „ 
Michael Barrett (for causing the Clerkenwell ex- 
plosion) executed .... 26 May, „ 
O'Donovan Rossa and others released, behave 

violently March, 1869 

The government declines to release others, 18 Oct. ,, 
Manifesto from John Savage, executive officer, Dec. „ 
Fenian raid into Canada vigorously repelled by the 
militia, and their general, O'Neill, captured by the 

U. S. marshal 26 May, 1870 

Formation of the Clan-na-Gael {which see) . . ,, 
Michael Davitt and John Wilson convicted of 
treason-felony for endeavouring to transmit arms 
secretly to Ireland (detected March) . 18 July, ,, 
Captured Fenian generals (Thompson and Starr) in 
United States, sentenced to imprisonment for 
breach of neutrality laws . . . July, ,, 
President Grant's proclamation against Fenian raids 
into Canada . . . . . .13 Oct- „ 

Letter from Mr. Gladstone announcing early release 
of Fenian convicts .... 15 Dec. „ 

The convicts released Jan. 1871 

The released convicts welcomed in the United 

States Jan. „ 

The Fenians favour the French in the war, 

Aug. 1870-Feb. ,, 
Fenian raid into Manitoba suppressed by United 
States troops, and general Neill arrested ; see 

Ireland about 12 Oct. ,, 

Gen. Cluseret (a short time in the service of the 
Fenians) publishes an account of them in Fraser's 
Magazine : he says, " Their insurrection was 
foolishly planned and still more foolishly exe- 
cuted," and strongly advises reconciliation with 

England July, 1872 

Great demonstration near Drogheda . 20 Sept. 1874 
Escape of Fenian prisoners from West Australia 
in the Catalpa, American ship, 17 April ; arrived 

at New York 19 Au S- iS 7 6 

O'Mahony, head-centre, dies at New York; grand 

funeral service 6 Feb. 1877 

Davitt and other Fenian convicts released Jan. to 

Sept. 1878 
Davitt prominent during the land league agitation, 1880-81 
Arrested and committed to prison . 3, 4 Feb. 1881 
Elected M. P. for co. Meath . . . 22 Feb. 1882 
Seizure of arms and ammunition, St. John Street 
Road, Clerkenwell ; Thomas Walsh arrested 

17 June ,, 
Committed for trial, 17 July ; sentenced to 7 years' 

penal servitude 9 Aug. „ 

Detection of a murderous Fenian plot in Dublin, 
carried out by a band termed the "Irish Invinci- 
bles," said to be connected with the Land League 

19 Jan.— 17 Feb. 1883 



FERE-CHAMPENOXSE. 



367 



FETE de DIEU. 



Plot to explode public buildings in England con- 
cocted in New York, by O'Donovan Rossa, a chief 
of The Fenian Brotherhood, Win. -J. Lynch (Nor- 
man) sent to England ; conveys explosives from 
Birmingham to London (see Birmingham), gives 
evidence at Bow-street 19 April, 1883 

Great convention at Philadelphia opened, 25 April ; 
denounced by O'Donovan Rossa, who revives the 
Irish Revolutionary Brotherhood . 6 May, ,, 
See Dynamite and Explosions. 

Centre of Fenian organization discovered at Paris ; 
Frederick Allen apprehended . . . Oct. „ 

Capt. Thos. Phelan stabbed (not killed) as a sus- 
pected traitor by Richard Short — in Rossa's 
house, in New York, 9 Jan. ; O'Donovan Rossa 
shot in the street by Lucilla Y'seult Dudley, an 
English widow, 2 Feb. ; Phelan and he recover, 
in the same hospital, Feb. ; Short acquitted, 
6 May ; Mrs. Dudley declared insane . 30 June, 1885 

Threatening Fenian manifesto sent to Mr. Glad- 
stone and others from Paris . about 19 Feb. ,, 

Great Fenian congress held in Paris . 23 Feb. ,, 

James Stephens expelled from France . March, „ 

Fenianism becomes prominent in Ireland autumn 1887 

The brotherhood expels O'Donovan Rossa about 
8 Dec. 1886 ; said to be succeeded by Dr. Hamil- 
ton Williams at New York, having 200,000?. to 
be employed in war against England by means 
of dynamite explosions, &c. ; statement in Times 
14 Dec. ; stated to be absurd . . 14 Dec. 1887 

Meeting of the old Fenian Brotherhood at New 
York ; they decide to discard Mr. Parnell and all 
leaders, and to maintain only military organisation 

14 July, 1891 

Michael Davitt elected M.P. for N. Meath . July, 1892 

FERE-CHAMPENOISE (France). Here 
the French army under Marmont, Mortier, and 
Arrighi, were surprised and defeated by the allies 
under the prince of Schwarzenberg, 25 March, 
1814, after a heroic resistance. Paris surrender*, d 
six days after. 

FERGHANA, see EJwkand. 

FERLE LATINJE, solemn Roman festivals, 
said to have been instituted by Tarquin the Proud, 
about 534 B.C. The principal magistrates of forty- 
seven towns of Latium assembled on a mount near 
Rome, and with the Roman authorities offered a 
bull to Jupiter Latialis. 

FERMENTATION, termed by Gay-Lussac 
one of the most mysterious processes in nature : he 
showed that in the process, 45 lbs. of sugar are 
resolved into 23 of alcohol and 22 of carbonic acid. 
His memoir appeared in 1810. In 1861 Pasteur 
brought forward evidence to show that fermenta- 
tion depends on the presence of minute organisms 
in the fermenting fluid, and that the source of all 
such organisms is the atmosphere. For his re- 
searches he was awarded an annual pension of 
120,000 francs in 1874. 

FERMIERS GENERAUX, officers who 
farmed the French revenues previous to 1789, fre- 
quently with much oppression. Lavoisier and 27 
of these were executed 8 May, 1794. 

FERNDALE COLLIERY EXPLO- 
SION; 8 N.ov. 1867; about 178 lives lust. See 
under Coal. 

FERNS (Ireland), an ancient bishopric, once 
archiepiscopal. St. Edsen was seated here in 598. 
Leigh tin and Ferns were united in 1600; and by 
the Church Temporalities Act, passed Aug. 1833, 
both were united to the bishopric of Ossory. See 
Ossory. — Ferns, an order of cryptogamous plants, 
much cultivated in Wardian cases; which see, 
and also Nature-Printing. 

FEROZESHAH (India). The British, com- 
manded by sir Hugh Gough, attacked the en- 
trenchments of the Sikhs, and carried their first 



line of works, 21 Dec. 1845 ; but night coming on, 
the operations were suspended till daybreak, when 
their second line was stormed by general Gilbert,, 
and 74 guns captured. The Sikhs advanced to re- 
take their guns, but were repulsed with great loss, 
and retreated towards the Sutlej, 22 Dec. ; and re- 
crossed that river unmolested, 27 Dec. The British 
loss was reckoned at 2415. 

FERRARA, formerly part of the exarchate of 
Ravenna, under the emperors of the East. It was 
subdued by the Lombards in the 8th century, and 
taken from them about 752 by Pepin, who gave it 
to pope Stephen II. About 1208 it fell into the 
hands of the house of E;te (which see), and became 
the principal seat of the literature and fine arts- 
in Italy. Pope Clement VIII. obtained the sove- 
reignty in 1598, on the death of the duke Alphonso- 
II., the last legitimate male of the Este family. - 
His illegitimate nephew, Caesar, became duke of 
Modena. The French under Massena took Ferrara 
in 1796; but it was restored to the pope in 1814. 
An Austrian garrison held it from 1849 ; it retired 
in June, 1859, and the people rose and declared for 
annexation to Sardinia, which was accomplished in 
March, i860. The centenary of the university,, 
founded in 1392, celebrated 18 April, 1892. 

FERRARS' ARREST. In March, 1542, Mr. 
George Ferrars, a member of parliament, while in 
attendance on the house was taken in execution; 
by a sheriff' s officer for debt, and committed to the 
Compter prison. The house despatched their Ser- 
jeant to require his release, which was resisted,, 
and an affray taking place, his mace was broken. 
The house in a body repaired to the lords to com- 
plain, when the contempt was adjudged to be veiy 
great, and the punishment of the offenders was- 
referred to the lower house. On another messenger 
being sent to the sheriffs by the commons, they 
delivered up the senator, and the civil magistrates 
and the creditor were committed to the Tower, the 
inferior officers to Newgate, and an act was passed 
releasing Mr. Ferrars from liability for the debt. 
The king, Henry VEIL, highly approved of all 
these proceedings, and the transaction became the 
basis of that rule of parliament which exempts 
members from arrest. HoliusJted. 

FERRO, see Canary Isles. 

FERROL (N.W. Spain). Upwards of 10,000 
British landed near Ferrol under the command of 
sir James Pulteney, in Aug. 1800. They gained 
possession of the heights ; but, despairing of suc- 
cess, on account of the strength of the works, sir 
James re-embarked his troops. His conduct was 
much condemned. Soult captured Ferrol, 27 Jan. 
1809. An insurrection of about 1500 men in the 
arsenal here broke out, headed by brigadier Pozas 
and cant. Montojo, who raised the red flag, 11 
Oct. Thev dispersed or surrendered when about 
to be attacked, 17 Oct. 1872. 

FESCENNINE VERSES were rude extem- 
porary dialogues, frequently licentious, in favour 
among the ancient Etruscans at weddings, and stil? 
popular in Italy. 

FESTIVALS, see under Feasts, Clergy, Music. 

FETE DE DIEU, a feast of the Roman church 
in honour of the real presence in the Lord's Sup- 
per, kept on the Thursday after Trinity Sunday. 
See Corpus Chrisli. Berengaiius, archbishop of 
Angers, opposed the doctrine of transubstantia- 
tion, and to atone for his crime a yearly pro- 
cession was made at Angers, called la file de JDieu t 
1019. 



FETE de VERTU. 



^68 



FILTERERS. 



FETE DE VERTU, an annual assemblage, 
■chiefly of young persons, to whom were adjudged 
rewards for industry and virtue. These fetes, held 
at Nuneham, in Oxfordshire, begun by lady Har- 
dcourt in 1789, were continued till her death. 

FEUDAL LAWS. The tenure of land by 
■suit and service to lord or owner, partly m use 
in England by the Saxons, was mainly esta- 
blished by William I. in 1066. The kingdom was 
divided into baronies, which were given on condition 
of the holders furnishing the king with men and 
money. The vassalage, limited by Henry VII., 
149s, was abolished by statute, 1660. The feudal 
system was introduced into Scotland by Malcolm II. 
ail 1008, and the hereditary j urisdictions were finally 
abolished in that kingdom, 1746-7- The feudal 
iaws, established in France by Clovis I. about 486, 
were discountenanced by Louis XL in 1470. 

FEUILLANTS, a religious order founded by 
Jean de la Barriere in 1577 at the abbey of Feuil- 
lant, near Toulouse, and settled in Pans in 1587. 
The Feuillant club, formed in Paris by La Fayette 
and others in 1789, to counteract the intrigues of 
•the Jacobins, was so named from the convent where 
they met. A body of Jacobins burst into their hall 
and obliged them to separate, 25 Dec. 1791 ; and 
■the club was broken up in 1792. 

FEVER, see Scarlet Fever. Enteric and 
Scarlet Fever prevalent in the metropolis, Aug. 
Sept. 1887. Increasing 15 Sept. 1887. 

FEZ (in the ancient Mauritania, Africa), 
founded by Edris, a descendant of Mahomet, about 
787, was long capital of the kingdom of Fez. 
After long-continued struggles, it was annexed to 
Morocco about 1550. Leo Africanus describes it as 
•containing more than 700 temples, mosques, and 
other public edifices, in the 12th century. 

FICTION'S, see Romances.— Fictions in Law 
were invented 'by the lawyers in the reign of 
Edward I. as a means of carrying cases from one 
■court to another, whereby the courts became checks 
to each other. Hume. Lord Mansfield, in the court 
of King's Bench, emphatically declared that "no 
fiction of law shall ever so far prevail against the 
real truth, as to prevent the execution of justice : " 
31 May, 1784. They have been mostly abolished 
in the present century. 

"FIDELIO," Beethoven's single opera; com- 
posed in 1804, produced at Vienna, 20 Nov. 1805. 

FIDENiE, a Sabine city, frequently at war 
with Rome. It was finally captured and the in- 
habitants enslaved, 426 B.C., by the Romans, whose 
ambassadors they had slain. 
FIEF, see Feudal Laws. 

FIELD. The country gentleman's weekly 
paper, devoted to natural history, sports, &c, first 
appeared I Jan. 1853. 

FIELD op March and May, see Champ.— 
Field of the Cloth of Gold, a plain near 
A'dres, near Calais, in France, on which Henry 
VIII. met Francis I. of France, 7-25 June, 1520. 
The nobility of both kingdoms displayed their 
magnificence, and many involved themselves^ in 
debt. Paintings of the embarcation and interview 
are at Windsor castle. 

FIELD-MARSHAL, see Marshal. 

FIERY-CHAMBER, see Chambre Ardente. 

FIESCHI'S ATTEMPT on Louis-Phi- 
XIPPE, see France, 1835. 



FIFTH-MONARCHY MEN, about 1645, 
supposed the period of the Millennium to be just 
at hand, when Jesus Christ should descend from 
heaven, and erect the fifth universal monarchy. 
They proceeded so far as to elect him king at 
London. Cromwelldispersedthem, 1653. Kearsley. 
Another rising with loss of life was suppressed, 
6 Jan. 1661. Thos. Venner, a cooper, their leader, 
and 16 others, were executed soon after. 

FIFTH PARTY, a term applied to the ad- 
vocates of temperance in the House of Commons 
(about 60), Feb. 1884. 

FIG-TREE {Ficus carica) brought from the 
south of Europe, before 1548. The Botany-Bay 
fig, Ficus australis, brought from N. S. Wales in 
1789. 

FIGURES, see Arithmetic. 

FIJI or VlTI ISLES, in the Pacific Ocean, 
about 1500 miles from Sydney. Discovered by 
Tasman, Dutch navigator, in 1643. There are above 
200 isles ; 80 inhabited ; the largest about 360 miles 
in circumference. Capital Suva. 
Population in 1887, 124,658 ; including 2, 105 Europeans; 
1891, 121,180. 1890, revenue, 66,817?. ; expenditure, 
60,826?. ; imports, 206,757?. ; exports, 364 531?. 
The islands offered by the king, Thakombau, and 
chiefs to the British government, but not accepted 

July, 1859 
The house of commons granted 1680Z. for expendi- 
ture in them ; and European settlements made . i860 
Annexation to Great Britain proposed in parlia- • 
ment ; declined 25 June, 1872 ; but unconditional 
cession to the British government accepted by 
sir Hercules Robinson, July : and announced by 

him .25 Oct. 1874 

His club sent as a present to the queen by the king 

Thakombau ,, 

Sir Arthur Hamilton Gordon, first governor . . 1875 
About 50,000 deaths by epidemic measles early in ,, 
Outbreak of cannibal devil-worshippers suppressed 
by the military ; about 20 ringleaders executed 

about June, 1876 
Sir George Wm. Des Voeux, governor . . Oct. 1880 
King Thakombau died .... Feb. 1883 
Sir Charles Bullen Hugh Mitchell, governor Sept. 1886 
Sir John Bates Thurston . . . Dec. 1887 

FILES are mentioned (1 Sam. xiii. 21) 1093 B.C. 
The manufacture of them has attained to great per- 
fection, by means of file-cutting machinery. That 
set up by Mr. T. Greenwood of Leeds, in 1859, was 
invented by M. Bernot of Paris. It is said that 
the price of files made by it is reduced from 32^. to 
4^. per dozen. 

FILIBUSTERS (properly Flibustiers) , a 
name given to the freebooters who plundered the 
coasts of America in the 16th and 17th centuries; 
see Buccaneers and Nicaragua. 

FILIOQUE, ("and from the Son"), inserted 
in the Nicene creed, in respect to the procession of 
the Holy Ghost from the Father and the Son, by 
the second council at Constantinople, 381 ; was re- 
jected, by the Greek church, 431 ; accepted by the 
Spanish, 447, and by the Roman 883. The omission 
of the phrase was considered at the Old Catholic 
Conference at Bonn, Aug. 1875. See Athanasitm 
Creed and Nice. 

FILTERERS. A plan for purifying corrupted 
water was patented by Wm. Woolcott in 1675. 
Other modes followed. James Peacock's method of 
filtration was patented in 1 791; and many others 
since : Ransome's, 1856. 
Apparatus for freshening salt water, brought forward 

by Grant, 1849 ; by Macbride, 1849 ; Gravely, 1858. 

Dr. Normandy's greatly improved apparatus, 1859, 

much used in the royal navy. 



FINANCES. 



369 



FIRE-BRIGADE. 



FINANCES of Great Britain, &c, see Revenue 

and other articles. 

A select committee of the commons consisting of Mr. 
Goschen, chancellor of the exchequer, Mr. J. Morley, 
Mr. A. J. Balfour, Mr. Chiklers, lord E. Churchill, 
and others, was appointed to consider the present 
Financial Relations between England, Scotland, and 
Ireland, 13 Aug. 1890. 

The "Statistical Abstract," published annually by the 
government, contains much financial information. 

FINE ARTS, see Arts, Paintings, Sculpture, 
Engraving, &c. 

FINES and Recoveries, conferring the 

power of breaking ancient entails and alienating 
estates, began in the reign of Edward IV., but was 
not, properly speaking, law, till Henry VII., by 
correcting some abuses that attended the practice, 
gave indirectly a sanction to it, 1487. Fines and 
recoveries were abolished in 1833. 

FINISTERRE, see Cape Finisterre. 
FINLAND, a Russian grand duchy, in the 
middle of the 12th century was conquered by 
Eric IX. of Sweden, who introduced Christianity. 
It was several times taken by the Russians (1714, 
1742, and 1808), and restored (1721 and 1743) ; but 
in 1809 they retained it by treaty ; see Abo. Its 
political constitution was confirmed by the Czar in 
1800, 1825, and 1855. It was made nearly autono- 
mous in 1883. .Population in 1862, 1,746,229; 
in 1867, 1,830,853; 1875, i,9 T 2,647; 1889, 2,388,404. 
During a dreadful famine, whole villages were 
starved. Elias Lonnten, editor of the ancient 
national epic, "Kalevala" (1834-49), died 1884. 
Triennial Diet opened with constitutional speech 
sent by the Czar, 19 Jan. 1885. The Czar warmly 
received at Helsingfors, Aug. 1885. 
Discontent of the chambers and people at expected 
changes by the Russian government . reported 

Jan. 1891 
Rescript of the czar to the governor-general, assur- 
ing the people of the maintenance of their ancient 
rights and privileges . . about 18 March, ,, 
The czar visits P'inland, coolly received . July, ,, 
A new stringent press law enforced . 1 Oct. ,, 

Famine in N.W. Finland ; much suffering . Dec. „ 

FINNIAN, see Fenians. 

FINSBURY PARK, London, N. In 1866, 
land was purchased, and preparations for the park 
began ; and it was opened 7 Aug. 1869. 

FIRE. Heracleitus about 596 B.C. maintained 
that the world was evolved from fire, which he 
deemed to be a god omnipotent. Fire was wor- 
shipped by the Persians and other ancient nations, 
see Guebres and Farsees. 

FIRE-ANNIHILATOR, an apparatus in- 
vented by Mr. T. Phillips, and made known by 
him in 1849. When put in action, steam and car- 
bonic acid are formed, which extinguish flame. It 
was not successful commercially. L' Fxtincteur 
was invented by Dr. F. Carlier, and patented by 
A. Vignon in July, 1862. It is an iron cylinder 
filled with water and carbonic acid gas, generated 
by bicarbonate of soda and tartaric acid. The 
apparatus was developed and improved by Mr. 
W. B. Dick, in his Manual and Chemical Fire- 
Engines, which give a continuous flow of water 
and gas, patented April, 1869. 

The "Mata Fuego," or "Fire-killer," of M. Banolas of 
Paris, was successfully exhibited at the Alexandra 
Palace, 16 Oct., 1880. Great bodies of flame were 
almost instantaneously extinguished. 
The Harden Grenade Fire Extinguisher tried success- 
fully near Farringdon-road, London, 24 July, 1884. 
The Draper-Hetherington sprinkler reported success- 
ful, Nov. 1888. 
See Antipyrogene and Jsbestos. 



FIRE-ARMS, see Artillery, Cannon, Needle- 
gun, Chassepot, and Pistols. The first small fire- 
arms were a species of cannon, borne by two men. 
Fire-arms made at Perugia, in Italy . . . 1364 

Employed by the Burgundians at Arras . . . 1414 
Edward IV. , when he landed at Ravenspur, is said 

to have been accompanied by 300 Flemings, 



armed with hand-guns . 



1471 



At Morat, the Swiss are said to have had 10,000 

arquebusiers (men armed with tire-arms) . . 1476 
Fire-arms said to have been used at the siege of 

Berwick : . . . 1521 

The petronel (from poUrine, the chest) or arquebus 
came into use, 1480; and the musket employed 
in the armies of the emperor Charles V. about . ,, 
All these were of very rude construction, being 
first discharged by a lighted match, afterwards, 
about 1517, by a wheel-lock, then by the flint. 
The match-lock and wheel-lock superseded by the 

flint-lock, about 160-2 

The rev. Mr. Forsythe patented the percussion 
principle of igniting gunpowder in muskets, by 
means of detonating powder . . April, 1807 
Percussion caps came into use between . 1820 & 1830 

Percussion musket ; pattern 1842 

Artillery carbine ; pattern 

Regulation rifle musket ; pattern .... 1851 
Application of machinery in small arms factory 
established at Enfield (the old musket Brown Bess 

superseded) Jan. 1S57 

Mr. Jacob Snider's system of breech-loading in- 
vented in 1859 ; presented- to the British govern- 
ment ; finally adopted, 1866. He received ioooZ. 

for expenses in June ; died 25 Oct 1866 

100,000 breech-loaders said to have been ordered by 

the British government .... July, 

New government advertises for propositions for 

conversion of Enfield rifles into breech-loaders, 

Aug. „ 
" Chassepot " guns in use in France . 1 Oct. ,, 
War-office advertises for proposals for breech- 
loading rifles, to replace those in use 22 Oct. ,, 
Nine systems selected for further trial ; ioooJ. to be 

awarded to the best .... June, 1867 
Snider's rifle reported very successful at Wimbledon, 

July, ,, 

61,682 new arms had been made at Enfield ; 175,550 

converted to Sniders, up to . . . Dec. 

The " Money-Walker " rifle (patented by Mr. Mow- 

bray-Money and lieut.-col. Walker), tried and 

approved z s j une> x q 6S 

A report in favour of the Martini and Henry rifle 

issued [adopted] March, 1869 

An act to grant a duty of excise on licences to use 

guns, passed Q Aug. 1870 

Complaints respecting the Martini-Henry rifle (for 

weight and recoil) Aug. 1874. 

Magazine rifles came into use in Germany 1870-1 ; 
the Mauser rifles used there in 1887, which 
contain enough ammunition for five or more 
almost simultaneous discharges, were coming into 
general adoption in Europe in 1887 

An improved form (tiring from 6 to 9 shots succes- 
sively) determined upon by the small arms com- 
mittee, Dec. 1887 ; ordered to be made for general 
use, announced (name, Lee-Metford) . Nov., 1888 
This magazine rifle censured in the Times, defended 
by Mr. Stanhope and the War office . Times, 

15 Nov. 1890 
The merits of the Lee-Speed magazine rirle dis- 
cussed, Feb. ; and also the French Berthier maga- 
zine rifle Nov. 1S91 

See Mitrailleuse and Gatling. 

FIRE-BRIGADE. The "London Fire-en- 
gine Establishment," an amalgamation of tho 
engines of the different companies, was established 
in London in 1832 by Mr. Charles Bell Ford, di- 
rector of the Sun Fire-office. It then had 80 men 
and 19 stations. In 1863 it had 130 men and 20 
stations. In May, 1862, a commission recom- 
mended the establishment of a fire-brigade, which 
was effected by the Metropolitan Fire-brigade Act, 
in 1865. The establishment then gave up its plant to 
the Metropolitan Board of "Works. The fire-brigade 



FIRE DAMP INDICATOR. 



370 



FIRES. 



is supported by a \d. rate, and by contributions 
from government and from the insurance offices. It 
came into action, and its energies were success- 
fully tested at the great fire at St. Katharine's 
docks, I Jan. 1866. In 1889, 591 men and 55 land 
fire-engine stations. Captain* Eyre M. Shaw, re- 
commends to the London County Council, a large 
increase of the establishment, April, 1889; which 
was carried into effect in 1 890. 
Great fire-brigade exhibition at Oxford, with men 
and appliances representing the united kingdom 

31 May, 1887 
The success of a similar exhibition with the pre- 
sentation of medals by the prince and princess of 
Wales at the Horse Guards Parade, Westminster, 
was greatly marred by insufficient arrangements 
for the preservation of order . . . 27 May, 1889 
The London County Council orders the appoint- 
ment of 138 additional firemen and 4 new stations 
with the usual appliances . . . early Aug. 1889 
Capt. Byre M. Shaw, c.b., appointed chief officer of 
metropolitan fire brigade in succession to Mr. 
James Braidwood (see Fire.*, 1861) . . . ,, 
Keview of the brigade at Crystal Palace by the 

German Emperor .... 11 July, 1891 

Capt. Shaw announces his intention to resign 
26 June; (made k.c.b.), 31 Oct. ; succeeded by 
capt. J. S. Simonds (previously second in command) 

22 Dec. ,, 

FIRE-DAMP INDICATOR, a small appa- 
ratus, about the size of a chronometer, invented by 
Mr. G. F. Ansell, and patented by him in 1865, by 
which the presence of very small quantities of fire- 
damp or light carburetted hydrogen gas may be 
detected in mines. It is an application of the law 
of the diffusion of gases. 

FIRE-DETECTOR and ALARUM, a me- 
chanical and chemical apparatus invented by prof. 
'Grechi, which causes a bell to be rung and exhibits 
•coloured light, when the temperature of a room is 
greatly increased. It was tried at the Inter- 
national exhibition, London, 4 June, 1873. 

FIRE-ENGINES are said to have been in- 
vented by Ctesibius, 250 B.C. They are mentioned 
by Pliny, a. d. 70. A "water-bow" was patented 
by Thos. Grent in 1632, one was constructed by 
John Van der Heyden, about 1663. Bramah's engine 
was patented in 1793. Mr. John Braithwaite con- 
structed a steam fire-engine in 1830. A trial of 
steam fire-engines took place at the Crystal Palace, 
Sydenham, on 1, 2, 3 July, 1863, when prizes were 
awarded to a large one by Merryweather and a 
small one by Shand and Mason. 
W. Dennis's portable self-acting pneumatic fire- 
engine was tried successfully at, gas-works near 
the Thames 30 Nov. 1876 

FIRE-ESCAPES were patented by David 
Marie (1766), and Joachim Smith (1773). The Koyal 
Society for the Protection of Life from Fire was 
first established in 1836; its object was not fully 
attained till 1843, when it was re-organised, begin- 
ning with six escape stations in London ; in March, 
1859, it possessed 67 ; in 1866, 85. In 1858, 504 
fires had been attended, and 57 persons rescued. 
In 1861 it was stated that 84 lives had been saved 
by the society's officers. In 1866, 695 fires had 
been attended, and 78 lives saved. In Aug. 1867, 
the plant of the society was virtually presented to 
the Board of "Works, in consequence of the passing 
of the Metropolitan Fire Brigade Act, 1865. Vers- 
mann's composition for rendering washing dresses 
fire-proof 'was published about i860. 

FIRE INSURANCE, see Insurance. 

FIREMAN'S RESPIRATOR, the inven- 
tion of Dr. Tyndall (1870-71), is_ a combination of 
his respirator of cotton-wool moistened with gly- 



cerine, and Dr. Stenhouse's charcoal respirator. 

Armed with this apparatus a man may remain a 

long time in the densest smoke. 

The Loeb respirator was tried in smoke and 
poisonous vapour, and was reported efficacious 
at Westminster July, 1888 

FIRE, ROYAL SOCIETY FOR PRO- 
TECTION FROM. 86e Fire-Escapes. 

FIRE-SALVAGE CORPS formed, in 1865, 
by the London Fire Insurance Offices. 

FIRE-SHIPS. Among the most formidable 
contrivances of this kind ever used, was an ex- 
plosion vessel to destroy a bridge of boats at the 
siege of Antwerp, in 1585. The first use of them in 
the British navy was by Charles lord Howard of 
Effingham, in the engagement with the Spanish 
Armada, July, 1588. Eapin. 

FIRE-WATCH or FlRE-GuARD, of Lon- 
don, was instituted Nov. 1791. 

FIRE-WORKS are said to have been made 
by the Chinese in remote ages. They were invented 
in Europe at Florence about 1360 ; and were exhi- 
bited as a spectacle in 1588. 
Mac.aulay states that the fire-works let off in England at 

the peace of Kyswick, in 1697, cost 12,000^. 
Very grand fire-works were let off from a magnificent 
building erected in the Green-park, London, at the 
peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, Nov. 1748. 
Exhibition of fire-works in Paris, 31 May, 1770, in honour 
of the marriage of the dauphin, afterwards Louis XVI. ; 
nearly 1000 persons perished by pressure aud drown- 
ing, through a panic. 
The display of fire-works, under sir Wm. Congreve, at 
the general peace, and the centenary of the accession 
of the Brunswick family to the throne, 1 Aug. 1814. 
Another at the coronation of William IV., 8 Sept. 1831. 
A grand display of this kind (at a cost of io,oooZ.)to cele- 
brate the peace with Russia, 29 May, 1856. 
In consequence of explosions frequently occurring at 
fire-work makers (particularly one on 12 July, 1858, at 
Mr. Bennett's in the Westminster-road, Lambeth, when 
five lives were lost, and about 300 persons seriously 
injured, and much property destroyed), it was deter- 
mined to enforce 9 & 10 Will. III. c. 7 (1697), an act to 
prevent the throwing and forming of squibs, serpents, 
and other fire-works. An act regulating the making of 
fire-works was passed in i860. 
Ralph Fenwick, a maker, his wife, and six others, 
Broad-street, Lambeth, killed by explosion 4 Nov. 1873. 
Mr. C. T. Brock, the greatest pyrotechnist of the time, 
has a manufactory at Nunhead ; exhibits at the Crystal 
Palace, &c, and abroad, 1871, et seq. 

FIRES IN LONDON. The conflagration of a 
city, with all its tumult of concomitant distress, is 
one of the most dreadful spectacles which this 
world can offer to human eyes. Dr. Johnson. 
A great part of the city destroyed, including St. 

Paul's cathedral 962 & 1087 

One at London-bridge, began on the Southwark 
side, and was communicated to the other side, 
and hemmed in a numerous crowd ; about 3000 
were drowned, and a great part of the city, north 

and south, bumed . 1212 

The Great Fire, whose ruins covered 396 acres, ex- 
tended from the Tower to the Temple-church, and 
from the north-east gate to Holborn-bridge. It 
began iu a baker's house in Pudding-lane, behind 
Monument-yard, and destroyed, in the space of 
four days, 88 churches (including St. Paul's), the 
city gates, the Royal Exchange, the Custom- 
house, Guildhall, Sion college, and many other 
public buildings, besides 13,200 houses, laying 
waste 400 streets. About 200,000 persons encamped 
in Islington andHighgate fields. (See Monument.) 

2-6 Sept. 1666 
In Southwark, 60 houses burnt .... 1676 
Iu Wapping, 150 houses burnt, 50 lives lost . . 1715 

Custom-house burnt 1718 

At Shadwell, 50 houses burnt . , 10 Sept. 1736 



FIRES. 



371 



FIRES. 



Jn Cornhill ward, 200 houses burnt ; this fire began 
in Change-alley, and was the most terrible since 
the great fire of 1666 . . . ■ 25 March, 1748 
At Covent Garden, 50 houses burnt . . . . 1759 
in Smithfield, 28 houses burnt . . . .1761 

At Shadwell, 30 houses burnt ,, 

In Throgmorton-street, 20 houses .... 1774 

At Wapping, 20 houses 1775 

At Hermitage-stairs, 31 houses .... 1779 
At Horselydown, 30 houses, besides many ware- 
houses and ships .... 30 April, 1780 
Newgate, &c. , by the Gordon mob . . June, ,, 

In the Strand, 40 houses burnt 1781 

•In Aldersgate-street, 40 houses ; the loss exceeding 

100,000? 5 Nov. 1783 

The Opera-house 17 June, 1789 

At Rotherhithe, 20 houses . . . 12 Oct. 1790 
Again, when many ships and 60 houses were con- 
sumed 14 Sept. 1791 

Pantheon, Oxford-street ... 14 June, 1792 

At Wapping, 630 houses, and an East India ware- 
house, in which 35,000 bags of saltpetre were 
stored : the loss 1,000,000?. (tents for thesufferers 
were lent by the government) . . 21 July, 1794 
Astley's amphitheatre .... 17 Sept. ,, 
■'St. Paul's church, Covent-garden . 11 Sept. 1795 

At Shadwell, 20 houses burnt . . 1 Nov. 1796 

In the Minories, 30 houses ... 23 March, 1797 
In the King's Bench, 50 residences . 14 July, 1799 

UNTear the Customs, three West India warehouses ; 

loss 300,000 J 11 Feb. 1800 

At Wapping, 30 houses .... 6 Oct. ,, 
In Store-street, Tottenham-court-road, immense 

property destroyed .... 27 Sept. 1802 

The great tower over the choir of Westminster 

abbey burnt 9 July, 1803 

Astley's again, and 40 houses . . 1 Sept. ,, 

Frith-street, Soho, lasted several days, many houses 

destroyed 2 Dec. ,, 

■Surrey Theatre 12 Aug. 1805 

■Covent-garden Theatre . . . .20 Sept. 1808 

Drury-lane Theatre 24 Feb. 1809 

In Conduit-street ; Mr. Windham, in aiding to save 
Mr. North's library, received an injury which 

caused his death 9 July, ,, 

In Bury-street, St. Mary-axe, half the street made 
ruins . . . . . . .12 June, 181 1 

■Custom-house : warehouses, and public records 

destroyed 12 Feb. 1814 

At Rotherhithe, 60 houses and several ships de- 

troyed ; loss 80,000! 16 March, 1820 

At Mile-end ; loss 200,000?. . . . 22 Jan. 1821 

In Smithfield ; loss 100,000?. ... 14 Aug. 1822 
Royalty Theatre, Wellclose-sq., destroyed 11 April, 1826 
In Red Lion-street, 15 houses . . 6 June, 1828 

Argyle rooms destroyed . . . .5 Feb. 1830 
English opera-house, &c. , burnt . . 16 Feb. „ 
Houses of parliament consumed . . 16 Oct. 1834 

Tenning's-wharf, London-bridge, &c. ; loss 250,000?. 

30 Aug. 1836 
The Royal Exchange destroyed . . 10 Jan. 1838 
At Wapping, 12 houses ... 16 June, 1840 

Oamberwell church 7 Feb. 1841 

Astley's theatre again 8 June, ,, 

At the Tower ; the armoury and 280,000 stand of 

arms, &c. , destroyed . . . 30 Oct. ,, 

Raggett's hotel, Dover-street, Piccadilly ; several 

eminent persons perished . . .27 May, 1845 
Several houses in New-square, Lincoln's inn, 

14 Jan. 1849 

Olympic Theatre 29 March, ,, 

One in St. Martin's-lane (at a publican's named Ben 

Caunt), three lives lost . . . .15 Jan. 1851 
Fire at Duke-street, London-bridge ; property lost 

estimated at 60,000? 19 Feb. ,, 

At the Rose and Crown, Love-lane, City, four lives 

lost 18 May, ,, 

Foot of London-bridge, four large hop warehouses 

burnt; loss 150,000? 23 June, „ 

Collard and Co. , pianoforte makers, Camden-town ; 
loss 60,000?. ..... 19 Dec. „ 

The warehouses of Messrs. Pawson, St. Paul's 

churchyard, burnt 24 Feb. 1853 

Works of Gutta Percha Company, near City-road ; 

loss ioo.oooZ 5 June, „ 

Kirkman's pianoforte manufactory . . 10 Aug. ,, 
Messrs. Scott Russell and Co.'s works, M ill wall ; 
loss 100,000? 10 Sept. „ 



Premises of Messrs. Savill and Edwards, printers, 

Chandos-street, destroyed . . .30 Sept. 1853 
Premises of Townend and Co., Bread-street, de- 
stroyed ; loss about 100,000?. . . 31 Dec. ,, 
Messrs. Cubitt's premises, Pimlico . 17 Aug. 1854 

Whittington club-house ... 3 Dec. ,, 

Premises of Messrs. Routledge, Messrs. Rennie, 
&c. , Blackfriars-road ; loss, one life and 150,000?., 

16 Fel). 1855 
Of Etna steam battery at Messrs. Scott Russell's 
■ works ; loss about 120,000?. . . 3 May, ,, 

Pavilion Theatre 13 Feb. 1856 

Covent-garden Theatre .... 5 March, ,, 
Messrs. Scott Russell's (third fire), much valuable 

machinery destroyed ... 12 March, ,, 
Messrs. Dobbs' premises, Fleet-street . 1 April, ,, 
Shad Thames flour-mill; loss about 100,000?., 

17 July, „ 
Messrs. Broadwood's, pianoforte makers, Westmin- 
ster 12 Aug. ,, 

Premises of Messrs. Almond, army accoutrement 
makers, and others, in St. Martin's-lane ; esti- 
mated loss 20,000? 9 Nov. ,, 

Messrs. Pickford's premises, at Chalk Farm station, 

9 June, 1857 
Gilbert-street, Bloomsbury ; 15 lives lost, 28 March, 1858 
Fresh-wharf; 25,000?. of silk . . 21 June, ,, 
London docks ; great explosion ; man killed by 

fright ; loss about 150,000?. . . 29 June, ,, 
Limehouse ; Messrs. Forest, Dixon's, &c. , premises 
destroyed, and Blackwall railway arches ; insured, 

19-20 July, ,, 
Gt. James-st. , Marylebone ; six lives lost, 26 Feb. 1859 
Messrs. Hubbuck and Co. , Lime-street ; one life 

and a large amount of property . . 20 May, ,, 
West Kent wharf and New Hibernia wharf; de- 
stroyed property valued at 200,000?. ; fire lasted 
nearly a month ; commenced . . 17 Aug. 186c 
St. Martin's-hall, built for Mr. Hullah, and other 

premises, destroyed 26 Aug. ,, 

Thames iron-works, Blackwall . . 31 Aug. ,, 
Kilburn church, Maida-hill, destroyed 29 Nov. ,, 
Surrey music-hall destroyed . . 11 June, 1861 
Cotton's wharf and depot and other wharves near 
Tooley-street, containing oil and other combust- 
ible substances, took fire about half-past 4 p.m., 
22 June, and continued burning for a month. 
(Several persons were killed, including James 
Braidwood, the able superintendent of the Lon- 
don fire-brigade ; the loss of property was esti- 
mated at 2,000,000?.) ,, 

Davis's wharf, Horselydown, burnt ; loss about 

15,000? 1 Aug. ,, 

Near Paternoster-row ; Messrs. Longman's, book- 
sellers, Messrs. Knight's, tallow-melters, and 
others ; loss above 50,000?. ... 4 Sept. ,, 
Mr. Price's, Fountain-court, Strand, three lives lost, 

3 Jan. 1862 
At Campden-house, Kensington, pictures and other 
valuable property of Mr. Woolley destroyed (see 

Trials, 1863) 23 March, „ 

Mr. Dean's, Berkeley-street, Clerkenwell, three 
lives lost . . . . . 5 May, 

Mr. Joel's, Fore-street, City, four lives lost, 21 May, 
Mr. Boor's, druggist, Bishopsgate-street ; explo- 
sion ; two lives lost . . . . 7 J line, 

Great Cumberland-street, Hyde-park ; Mr. S. Bar- 
rett and two daughters burnt . . 15 Aug. 
Messrs. Price's oil-mills, Blackfriars bridge, burnt ; 
great loss of property .... 20 Nov. 

Ancient Austin-friars church, City, partially de- 
stroyed ....... 22 Nov. 

Mr. Chard's, Portland-street, Soho ; six lives lost, 

26 Dee. 

Messrs. Capel's, Secthing-lane, City ; great destruc- 
tion of property . . • 18 April, 1863 

Warehouses of Messrs. Grant and others, between 
Wood-street and Milk-street ; property worth 
about 100,000?. destroyed ... 19 Dec, ,, 

Meriton's wharf, Dockhead ; immense loss of pro- 
perty 7 June, 1864 

Royal Savoy chapel. Strand, destroyed 7 July, 

llalierdashers'-hall and Messrs. Tapling and others' 
warehouses 19 Sept. ,, 

Messrs. Barry, Sufferance wharves, Dockhead ; 
great loss 25, 26 Nov. „ 

Surrey Theatre destroyed . . . 3°. 3 1 J'™- '865 

b n 2 



FIEES. 372 



FIEES. 



Saville-house (where George III. was born), Leices- 
ter-square 28 Feb. 1865 

Poulterers' arms, Leadenhall market ; two lives 

lost 13 June, ,, 

Messrs. Meeking and Co. , Holborn ; damage 30,000?. 

24 June, ,, 
Messrs. Sotheby and Co., auctioneers ; valuable 

library destroyed .... 29 June, ,, 
Great fire at Beale's wharf ; about 18,000?. damage, 

30 Oct. ,, 
Immense fire at St. Katharine's-docks . 1 Jan. 1866 
Holland and Hennen's premises, Duke-street, 

Bloomsbury, destroyed ... 26 Aug. ,, 
Great fire in Haydon-square, Minories ; depot of 
N. W. Railway company, and other warehouses ; 

great loss 11 Sept. „ 

Standard Theatre, Shoreditch, burnt down, 21 Oct. ,, 
In Hampstead-road, thirteen lives lost . 5 Nov. ,, 
North wing of the Crystal palace destroyed 

30 Dec. ,, 
Quebec-street, Oxford-street ; six lives lost, 

11 March, 1867 
Rotherhithe, 16 or 17 houses burnt ; about 100 

persons destitute .... 12 Sept. ,, 
Her Majesty's theatre, Royal opera-house, de- 
stroyed: see Opera .... 6 Dec. ,, 
Oxford music-hall, Oxford-street, partially de- 
stroyed 11 Feb. 1868 

Above 20 shops burnt in Portman-market, Maryle- 

bone 23 Feb. „ 

Hubbard and Stutters' hop-warehouses ; and many 

small houses destroyed ... 10 Aug. „ 
Northumberland house, Strand ; valuable pictures, 
&c, injured ...... 19 Aug. ,, 

Adelaide rooms, Strand, destroyed . 14 March, 1869 

All Saints church, Walworth, destroyed 27 April, ,, 
Mrs. Jago's, Pentonville-hill ; 3 perish 5 June, ,, 

Moscow-road, Bayswater ; through explosion of 

fireworks ; 7 persons perish . . .1 Oct. ,, 
Mr. McMicken's, Newiugton-butts ; 4 lost 10 Oct. „ 
Old Star and Garter hotel, Richmond ; Wm. Lever, 
the manager, killed .... 12 Jan. 1870 

Mr. Hill's, upholsterer's, Waterloo-road ; 6 children 

suffocated 23 July, ,, 

Church-street, Rotherhithe 3 lives lost, 23 Aug. ,, 
Cecil-house, Cecil-street, Strand ; Mr. Forbes burnt; 
architectural books, &c., of Mr. G. G. Scott de- 
stroyed 4 Sept, ,, 

Mr. Bush's, manufacturing chemist, Liverpool- 
street, Bishopsgate ; 4 lives lost . 27 Sept. ,, 
Chapel- street, Edgware-road, 4 lives lost ; Crouch- 
end, Hornsey, 3 lives lost . . .5 March, 1871 
Pavilion-road, Chelsea ; 5 deaths . 26 March, ,, 
Gray's-inn-road ; James Ford, a fireman, lost his 

life after saving 6 .... 7 Oct. ,, 

Thames-street ; Nicholson's and other warehouses 

destroyed ; great loss . . . .24 Oct. ,, 
Oxford music-hall ; quite destroyed . 1 Nov. 1872 
City flour-mills, Upper Thames-street; 1 fireman 

killed 10, 11, 12 Nov. ,, 

Grosvenor-mews, Bond-street, 6 killed . 27 May, 1873 
Alexandra-palace, Muswell-hill, destroyed, 1 life 

lost 9 June, ,, 

Silver-street, Stepney ; 2 killed . .10 Sept. ,, 
Lloyd's newspaper printing-office, Whitefriars, 

destroyed .... 4 p.m. 29 Dec. ,, 
Pantechnicon (which see), Knightsbridge ; much 

valuable property destroyed . . 13, 14 Feb. 1874 
Carnaby-street, W. ; 2 lives lost . . 15 Feb. „ 
Latta's great hop warehouse, Bermondsey, de- 
stroyed 28 Dec. „ 

Rimmel's perfumery manufactory, Beaufort-house, 

Strand, destroyed .... 19 March, 1875 
W. Walker's cabinet manufactory, Bunhill-row, 

E.C., destroyed ; estimated loss 30,000?. 14 Sept. „ 
Mr. H. A. Hankey's new mansion, near St. Anne's 
gate, St. James's park, destroyed ; about 60,000?. 

damage 7 , 8 Oct. ,, 

East London Rice and Flour Mills, Devonshire- 
street ; and 18 other buildings . . 3 Jan. 1876 
Chick's Great Western Pantechnicon . 2 June, „ 
Messrs. Warner's and other premises, Brook's- 

wharf, Upper Thames-street . . 15-18 June, „ 
Little Windmill-street, Haymarket ; about 80,000?. 

damage ; many poor sufferers . . 15 July, tt 
Bridgman's saw-mills, St. Luke's, destroyed 

24-25 July, „ 



Grant & Co.'s printing-office, <fec, Turnmill-street, 
Clerkenwell ; about 100,000?. loss . 10, 11 Aug. 

Mill-street, Hanover-square, W., three lives lost 

18 Sept. 

New wharf flour-mills, &c, Rotherhithe, de- 
stroyed ; above 80,000?. loss . . 8 Oct. 

Near Old Kent-road, two lives lost ; susjiected 
arson 2, Nov. 

House of Correction, Clerkenwell, mill-house, &c. ; 
no prisoners injured or escaped . 24 March, 

Charing-cross restaurant, one life lost 21 May, 

Little Britain, E.G., a paraffin lamp upset; four 
lives lost 9 July, 

250, Mile End-road, two lives lost . . 23 Oct. 

Scottish Corporation hall, Crane-court, Fleet-street 
(built by Wren), burnt many valuable portraits, 
&c 14 Nov. 

Watson's wharf, Wapping, lossabt. 30,000?. 31 Dec. 

Manchester warehouses, Watling-street ; Crocker 
& Co. ; and others ; about 200,000?. loss 12 Jan. 

Elephant and Castle theatre destroyed 26 March, 

Price and Co., oil-merchants, &c. . . 3 Sept. 

Messrs. Tylor's, brass-founders, &c, Newgate-street, 
great loss 2-3 Jan. 

New East London Theatre, Whitechapel-road, seve- 
ral houses injured .... 16 March, 

Wesley's chapel, City -road, nearly destroyed, caused 
by heating apparatus . . . . 7 Dec. 

Holborn, Roworth's printing office . . 19 April, 

Messrs. Hodgkinson's, chemists, and others, four 
perish 30 April, 

The Duke's Theatre, Holborn, burnt. . 4 July, 

Whitechapel church, recently rebuilt, destroyed, 

26 Aug. 

Trinity -lane, Thames-street, large block of buildings, 
and much property destroyed . . 3 Feb. 

Cooperative stores, Haymarket, destroyed ; loss 
about 20,000? 23 April, 

Mr. Allen's, stationer, 96, Walworth-road, 4 deaths, 

26 April, 

422, Portobello-road, Notting-hill, 6 deaths, 16 May; 
(Win, Nash, shopkeeper, charged with arson and 
murder ; convicted, "but reprieved) . 30 May, 

Messrs. T. Foster and Co.'s warehouses, Cheapside ; 
much property destroyed : checked by firemen 
and good building . . . . 1 Sept. 

Dowgate dock warehouse ; aid. Breffit's 3 Sept. 

Park theatre, Camden Town, destroyed 10 Sept. 

Morson and Son, chemical works, explosion ; 2 killed 

17 Jan. 

Philharmonic Theatre, Islington, interior destroyed 

6 Sept. 

Whiteley's great stores, Westbourne Grove, W., 
about 100,000?. damage ... 17 Nov. 

The Royal Alhambra Theatre destroyed; 3 men 
killed 7 Dec. 

Wood-street, &c, premises of Foster, Porter, and 
Co.,Rylands, Silber, and Fleming, and others. 
A large block of buildings destroyed, estimated 
loss nearly 2,000,000?. ; 1 death . 8-10 Dec. 

St. Ann's restaurant and warehouses in Cheapside 
destroyed 15 Dee. 

St. John's Presbyterian church, Forest-hill, de- 
stroyed 17 Dec. 

Another fire at Whiteley's ... 26 Dec. 

Windsor-street, E.C., 5 deaths . . 16 Jan. 

Newnham- street, Edgeware - road, 5 deaths 

14 April, 

Messrs. Kegan, Paul, and Co.'s premises, and other 
buildings (16 firms), Paternoster-square 17 April, 

Freemason's-hall much injured . . 3 May, 

Lunatic asylum, Southall-park, W., Dr. Boyd and 
5 others perish 14 Aug. 

Hay warehouses at Foreign-cattle-market, Dept- 
ford ; damage, about 18,000?. . . 18 Sept. 

Great fire at Haggerston, beginning at Messrs. 
Lines, timber merchants, saw mills and eleven 
small houses destroyed ; 40 families homeless 

5-9 Nov. 

Messrs. Silver and Co., premises near Cornhill 

17 Jan. 

Premises of Messrs. Pardon, printers, &c, Messrs. 
Williams, Faudel, and Phillips, Smith Brothers, 
and others, Lovell's-court, Paternoster-row, de- 
stroyed, 7.30 P.M. ; by great exertions fire quelled, 
11 p.m. 2 April, 

Bell hotel, Old Bailey ; three young women lament- 
ably perish, about 2.30 a.m. . . 23 April, 



1872 



1879 



FIEES. 

Another Are at Whiteley's stores, loss about 150,000?. 

26 April, 18 

East End Aquarium, menagerie, and waxwork, 
■&c, Bishopsgate, <lestroyed ; lioness, bear, mon- 
keys, and other animals perish, 8.30 a.m. 

4 June, ,, 

Wappiimg, Messrs. B. H. Cousens and Co., ware- 
houses and others ; damage about 100,000?. 

19-20 July, ,, 

Mr. Abrahams, hatter, 33, Wilton-road, Pimlico, 
7.45 a.m , 4 deaths .... 12 Aug. ,, 

Messrs. Hodgson's envelope manufactory, Little 
Trinity- lane, destroyed, about 10,000?. loss, 9.45 
a.m 15 Aug. ,, 

Jones's wharf; great destruction of timber 17 Dec. ,, 

Holies-street, Clare-market, 4 deaths . 31 Dec. ,, 

Mr. H. Chandler's, 194, Union-st., Borough ; 5 
lives lost, including Alice Ayres, who courageously 
saved 3 children, .... 23-24 April, 18 

Japanese village burnt ; 1 life lost . . 2 May, , 

Jackson and Graham's upholstery workshops, near 
Oxford-st., 6 May , 

Messrs. Groom's wood-yard at Camberwell de- 
stroyed, 9 May, , 

India Museum, South Kensington, much injured 

12 June, , 

Mr. W. Whiteley's establishment at Westbourne- 
grove, over 100,000?. damage, (? incendiary) 

17 June, , 

St. John's-road, Hoxton ; 3 lives lost . 26 Aug. , 

Charterhouse buildings, &c , Clerkenwell ; 14 
. houses destroyed ; loss 20,000?. . . 8 Oct. , 

Anton, Brenda & Co., Japanese merchants, Hounds- 
•ditch ; damage 25,000?. ... 15 Feb. 18 

■" Three Compasses," Beak-street, W. ; 3 lives lost ; 
2. 20 a.m. ...... 28 April, , 

•' Jacob's Well," Shoreditch ; 3 lives lost 12 May, , 

Grandison-road, Battersea ; 2 lives lost 30 Nov. , 

Knightrider-street, city ; several houses and St. 
Mary Magdalene church destroyed . 2 Dec. , 

24, Grafton-street, W. , and adjoining buildings 

18-19 Dec. , 

303, 104, Wood-street, city . . . 1 Jan. 18 

22, Newman-street, Oxford-street ; 4 lives lost 

26 June, , 

Mr. W. Whiteley's establishment and neighbouring 
houses destroyed by lire ; estimated damage 
500,000?. ; 3 lives lost ; 3,000?. reward for dis- 
covery of incendiary . . . 6-9 Aug. , 

Messrs. Kindon & Powell's oil-cloth manufactory 
burnt, loss about 50,000?. ... 6 Dec. , 

•Grand Theatre, Is ington, totally destroyed in an 
hour, 12.55 a - m 2 9 Dec. , 

No. 274, Strand ; 2 boys perish ; Sunday, 18 Sept. ; 
Leon Serne, the father, and John Henry Gold- 
finch tried for murder, 13 Dec. ; acquitted 15 
Dec. 1887. Leon Serne sentenced to twenty 
years' penal servitude ; Goldfinch acquitted 21 Jan. i3 

Houndsditch, 4 persons (foreigners) perish, 20 Jan. , 

Bay -tree tavern, No. 5, St. Swithin's-lane 12 May, , 

Messrs. Garrould's, drapers, &c, Edgware-road, 6 
women perish ; 6 a.m. 30 May ; jury censures the 
kitchen-maid for carelessness with a lucifer- 
match, and two fire-brigade men for neglect 
of duty 11 June, , 

Messrs. Doulton's potteries, Lambeth ; great part 
of the works destroyed, damage 15,000?. 11 Dec. 

IFarringdon meat market, thirty shops destroyed 

6 Jan. 18 

Ward's Wharf, Commercial-rd., Lambeth; damage 
about 20,000? 7-8 Feb. , 

Messrs. W. & D. Gibb's great soap-works, Milton- 
street and surrounding premises destroyed, 
estimated damage 250,000?. ... 6 May, , 

Messrs. W. H. & F. Croker, builders, and Messrs. 
Bonsey, corn merchants, extensive buildings 
near Great Dover-street, Borough . ."July, ,. 

Messrs. Burroughs and Wellcome, manufacturing 
chemists. Bell-lane, Wandsworth, fireman Jacobs 
suffocated ; (long inquest) . . .11 Oct. , 

The Salvation army offices, Queen Victoria-street, 
upper floors destroyed .... 3 Dec. , 

Block of buildings in Charterhouse-square, W. 
Sinithfield (Mr. Burgess, printer, Messrs. Rud- 
diman, Johnston & Co.,publishers, & Mr. Ferranti, 
electrical engineers) ; great destruction . 25 Dec. , 

Forest-gate District Industrial school, London, E., 
partly destroyed ; 26 boys, aged between 7 and 



373 



FIEES. 



12 years, suffocated ; many escaped through the 
energy of Mr. Charles Duncan, the supermtend- 
ant, and other officials, early 1 Jan.; inquest, 
verdict, accidental death with strong recommend- 
ations 20 Jan. : 

Premises of Messrs. James & Pike, mantle manu- 
facturers, back of the General Post-office, partly 
destroyed, estimated loss 40,000/. . . 3 Feb. 

Premises of Messrs. Gay, Armstrong & Co., skin 
merchants, Westminster-bridge-road, 2 lives lost 

18 Feb. 

Sir W. A. Rose & Co.'s great oil mills, Bankside, 
Southwark, destroyed ; London illuminated by 
the blazing oil ; no loss of life, two firemen in- 
jured, horses rescued ... 24 April, 

Old Sun, coal wharf, Messrs. Ray, destroyed 

29 Aug. 
Messrs. Rowley & Brock, hat-makers, premises in 

Cloth-fair destroyed, by the combustion of 
naphtha; 8 deaths, 3 men and 5 women, about 1 p.m. 

13 Oct. 

Messrs. Vogan & Co.'s granaries, &c, Mill-street, 
Dockhead, destroyed ; great fire . . 9 Nov. 

Wellington barracks, Westminster, much injured ; 
six persons hurt ; no deaths through the gallant 
and orderly conduct of the soldiers [two children 
died afterwards] . . . . 12 Nov. 

Messrs. Lever, Wright & Co., furriers, Bunhill- 
row ; great loss . . . . 28 Nov. 

Herbert-passage, Strand ; four lives lost 21 Dec. 

Messrs. Davidson, paper manufacturers, Upper 
Thames-street, Queen Victoria-street, &c, Messrs. 
Frankau, fancy goods importers, Revillon Freres, 
furriers, and other firms in Upper Thames street, 
and Queen Victoria street ; a large block of build- 
ings wholly or partially destroyed, tenanted by 
Messrs. C. Davidson, paper-makers, Messrs. Revii- 
lon, furriers, and 16 other firms ; St. Beliefs church, 
damaged; estimated loss 500,000/. midday, 30 Dec. 

Hope's chemical works, Hackney-wick, destroyed . 

30 Dec. 
Messrs. Morgan & Company, carriage builders, 

Long-acre, and others ; loss about 50,000/. 13 Feb. 

Messrs. J. Tylors, engineers, Newgate-street, and 
otherpremises, workshops destroyed ; serious loss 
to workmen 21 March, 

Messrs. Pay ton & Co., tea dealers, Tower-hill, and 
other premises, greatly damaged . 11 April, 

M. C. Duffy & Son, saw-mills, Stork's-road, Ber- 

mondsey, destroyed and about 24 private houses 

damaged ; inhabitants compelled to leave their 

homes hastily ; much suffering ; 5 a.m. — 6 p.m. 

29 April, et seq. 

House of John, Lord Romilly, 38, Egerton-gardens, 
Brompton, W., through the upsetting of a large 
spirit-lamp ; his lordship and two servants suffo- 
cated and others injured . . . .23 May 

Mr. Louis Tussaud s waxwork exhibition, Regent- 
street, destroyed by fire .... 20 June, 

25, Duncan-square, Hackney ; 3 lives lost . 

20 Aug. 

Tooley-street ; wharves, occupied by Messrs. Leach 
anil others, and several warehouses destroyed, 
4-5 Oct., enormous loss; lire still burning* 24 
Oct 

401, West Ferry-road, Millwall ; 5 deaths 16 Oct. 

Satcbwell-rents, Bethnal-green-road ; Mr. J. D. 
Rawlins' timber yard and other premises de- 
stroyed 12 Nov. 

Premises of Messrs. Everleigh and others in Fore- 
street, E.C 9, 10 Dec. 

Messrs. Rothschild and others, 11, Silk-street, 
Cripplegate, City, E.C 14 Dec. 

3, Cheyne-row, Chelsea, 2 lives lost . 15 Dec. 

Mr. Minnis and others, Lavender-hill, Battersea; 
2 lives lost 19 Dee. 

Messrs. Shoolbred's workshops and other premises, 
Mitford-place, Tottenhani-court-road . 22 Dec. 

Premises of Bottle Seal company, Eagle-wharf- 
road, N 23 Dec. 

Premises of A. Wicklow and others, Bermondsey- 
street, S.E 24 Dec. 

JIu 111 ford's Hour mills, Albert Embankment, near 
Vauxhall-bridge ; nearly destroyed . 27 Jan. 

Premises of Messrs. Grindley & Co. and others, 
Upper North-street, Poplar . . 27-29 Jan. 

J. Latham, timber-merchant, premises in Curtain- 



FIRE-WORSHIPPERS. 



374 



FISH, FISHERIES. 



road, E.C., many houses destroyed or injured, 
causing much distress . . . 8-n March, 189: 
House of Mr. Weston, butcher, 10, Lillie-road, 
Pnlhara ; his wife, 2 children and Miss Glover 

burnt to death 18 March, ,, 

Mr. G. Odone's restaurant, 152, Victoria-street, 

Westminster, 3 lives lost . . 29 March, ,, 
Messrs. Eyre &, Spottiswoode, the queen's printers, 
premises at Little New-street-hill, Fetter-lane, 
much injured and property destroyed (about 

15,000/.) 4 April, „ 

Premises of Page & Pratt and other firms, Great 
Saffron-hill, E.C., destroyed or much injured 

10 April, ,, 
Scott's supper-rooms, Coventry-street, Haymarket, 

4 youths perish 9 May, ,, 

Union-street, W.C., Mary Ann Flood, perishes in 

vainly endeavouring to save a child . 7 May, ,, 
There were 953 fires in 1854 ; 1113 in 1857 .' II:r 4 i n 
1858 (38 lives lost) ; 1183 in 1861. 1303 fires in 
1862 ; 1404 in 1863 ; and 1715 in 1864. In 1866, 
1338 fires (326 serious); in 1867, 1397 fires (245 
serious) ; in 1868, 1668 fires (235 serious) ; in 1869, 
1572 fires (199 serious) ; in 1870, 1946 fires (276 
serious) ; in 1871, 1842 (207 serious) ; in 1872, 
1494(120 serious); in 1873, 1548 (166 serious : 35 
lives lost) ; in 1874, 1573 (154 serious : 23 lives 
lost); in 1875, 1529 (163 serious : 29 lives lost); 
in 1876, 1632 (166 serious : 35 lives lost) ; in 1877, 
2 S33 (!59 serious: 29 lives lost); in 1878, 1659 
(170 serious); in 1879, 1718; 1880, 1871 (162 seri- 
ous; 33 lives lost) ; in 1881, 1991 (167 serious: 40 
lives lost) ; 1882, 1926 (164 serious : 36 lives 
lost); 1883, 2144 (184 serious: 39 lives lost) ; 1884, 
2,289 ( J 94 serious : 42 lives lost) ; 1885, 2,270 
(160 serious ; 47 lives lost) ; 1886, 2,149 ^S 1 
serious ; 49 lives lost) ; 1887. 2,363 (175 serious ; 
55 lives lost); 1888, 1,884(121 serious; 48 lives 
lost). In but few cases were the premises totally 
destroyed. 1889, 2,338 (153 serious, 44 lives lost) ; 
1890, 2,555 (153 serious, 61 lives lost) ; 1891, 2,892 
(193 serious, 47 lives lost): 
Several fires were occasioned by careless use of 
coal oils in 1861-2. 

FIRE-WORSHIPPERS : see Parsees. 

FIRST-FRUITS were offerings which made 
a large part of the revenues of the Hebrew priest- 
hood. First-fruits (called Annates, from annus, 
a year), in the Roman church, originally the profits 
of one year of every vacant bishopric, afterwards of 
every benefice, were first claimed by pope Clement V. 
in 1306, and were collected in England in 1316 ; but 
chronologers differ on this point. In the 26th of 
Henry VIII. 1534, the first-fruits were assigned, by 
parliament, to the king and his successors. Mary 
gave the Annates to the popes (1555); but Eliza- 
heth resumed them (1559). They were granted, 
together with the tenths, to the poor clergy, by 
queen Anne, in 1703. The offices of First-fruits, 
Tenths, and Queen Anne's Bounty were consoli- 
dated by 1 Vict. c. 20, 1838; see Augmentation of 
Poor Livings. Annates were long resisted in France, 
but not totally suppressed till 1789. 

FIRST OFFENDERS' PROBATION 
ACT, permits the conditional release of First 
Offenders in certain cases, passed 8 Aug. 1887. 

FIRTH COLLEGE : see Sheffield, 1879. 

FISH, FISHERIES, &c Laws for the pro- 
tection of fisheries were enacted by Edward I in 
1284 and by his successors. The rights of the 
JlmgLish and I rench fishermen were defined by treaty 
in E8jA;jBee Ichthyology, Herring, Whale, New- 
fotmdlwnd Fisheries, Oysters, Trawling. Theknown 
species of fish are about 8525. Giinther, 1880. 
Fishmongers' company of London (salt) ia?? ■ 

(stock) 1509 ; united .'.'..' 1^6 

Fishing towns regulated by an act passed in ' ' i*!. 
Fishing on our coast forbidden to strangers . ' .' j&L 
The Dutch paid 30,000/, for permission to fish on 

the coasts of Britain _ l6 6 



Corporation of Free British fisheries instituted . 1750 
Fish-machines, for conveying fish by land to Lon- 
don, set up in 1761 ; and supported by parlia- 
ment .......... 1764 

The British Society of Fisheries established m 

London in 1786 

The Irish Fishery Company formed in . Dec. 181S. 
In 1849, two peasants, Remy and Gehin, obtained 
medals for their exertions in cultivating fish in. 
France, and the government set up an establish- 
ment for this purpose at Huningue, under M.. 
Coumes. 
In i860 great progress had been made by M. Coste 

and others. 
Commission to examine into British fisheries was. 
appointed in i860, and acts to amend the law rev 
lating to fisheries in Great Britain and Ireland 

were passed 1861-2-3-8-g:- 

In April, Mr. Ponders placed in the Thames 76,000 
young fish (salmon, trout, char, and grayling) : 
and on 17 April, Mr. Frank Buckland demon- 
strated the importance of fish culture before the 
members of the Royal Institution, London . . 1863, 
In 1853 Mr. Buist began the culture of fish at Stor- 
montfield, Perthshire : reported highly successful, 

Sept. 1866. 
Act for the protection of freshwater fish passed, 

8 Aug. 1878; 
International fish and fishing exhibition at Berlin, 

opened by the Crown Prince . . .20 April, i88o> 
National fisheries exhibition at Norwich, opened 

by the prince of Wales . . . 18 — 30 April, i88l 
International exhibition at Edinburgh opened 

11 April, 1882? 
Fishery board for Scotland established . . . ,, 
National Fish Culture Association established . 1883. 
London Central Fish Market, Smithfield, opened 

10 May, ,, 
International fisheries exhibition, South Kensing- 
ton, London, opened and closed by prince of 
Wales, 14 May — 31 Oct. 1883. 335 gold medals 
(160 to Great Britain) awarded, and other testi- 
monials. Receipts, 140,346/. 13s. ; surplus, 
15,243/. 2,703,051 persons admitted. 
Sea Fisheries Act, 46 <fe 47 Vict. c. 22, relates to 
international convention concerning fisheries in 
North Sea. Sea Fisheries (Ireland) Act also 

passed 2 Aug. ,, 

International fisheries, Vienna, opened 29 Sept. 1884;- 
Aquaculture. — Mr. W. Oldham Chambers (in Times, 
10 Nov.) advocated the formation of ponds in 
waste lands for the cultivation of carp and other 
fish. Sir Lyon Playfair recommends the scheme 
to be taken up by government Times, 11 Nov. ,, 
A convention with France respecting sea fisheries, 
signed at Paris, n Nov. 1867 ; ratified by the 
"Sea Fisheries Act," passed, 13 July, 1868; 
amended 1884 ; convention signed . 14 Nov. 1885. 
Introduction of American salmon-trout tried at 

Burghley park in ,, 

Board of trade inquiry ordered concerning the in- 
juries done to British drift-net fishing by foreign 
trawlers in the north seas (see Trawling) Nov. 1886"- 
First stone of a new fish market laid, Farringdon- 

street, London . . . . . 13 Dee. ,, 
Conference at fishmongers' hall respecting railway 

charges, &c. 2 Feb. i8S;r 

Fishing school established at Baltimore (which see) 

Ireland 17 Aug. „ 

Many attacks on British fishermen by foreigners 

Aug.-Sept. „. 
One by Belgians near Southwokl . . 8 Sept. ,, 
Intervention of the king of the Belgians . Sept. ,, 
Conference on sea fisheries at fishmongers' hall 

opened 20, 23 March, 1888". 

New central fish market, Farringdon-street, opened 

7 Nov. ,, 
Mr. Francis Day, the author of important works on 

British and foreign fishes, died . .10 July, 18891 
The Sea Fisheries of the United Kingdom, produce 
in 1889 : fish 12,678,000 cwt., value 5,608,000/., 
shell fish added make 6,000,000/. 
International conference called by the National 
Sea Fisheries Protection Association opened at ' 
Fishmongers' hall, London . . .1 July, 1890- 
TJie Royal Provident Fund ft>r Sea Fishermen, 
founded 1884, incorporated .... 1891 



FISHGUARD. 



375 



FLAX. 



International declaration respecting the North Sea 
fisheries, ratified by act passed . . 21 July, 1891 

Piscatorial exhibition at the Royal Aquarium, 
Westminster .... middle Feb. 1892 

Fisheries Disputes, &c. The fisheries on the 
North American coast were settled by treaty, 
between Great Britain and the United States in 
1818, the privileges of the latter extended to 1866 
by treaty in 1854, aiK l renewed for ten years, 
1871, and again to 1885. On the failure of 
negociations, the restrictions of 1818 were 
revived March 1886. A joint commission was 
appointed, Rt. hon. J. Chamberlain (chief), hon. 
sir Lionel S. West afterwards lord Sackville, 
British minister, and sir Charles fupper, Aug. 
1887, received at Washington 19 Nov., met 22 
Nov. et seq 1887 

Treaty (with a modus Vivendi till ratified) was 
signed at Washington, 15 Feb. 1888 ; passed by 
Canadian parliament, 2 May ; royal assent, 16 
May ; United States senate refuse to ratify 

21 Aug. 1SS8 

FISHGUARD (Pembroke). On 22 Feb. 1797, 
1400 Frenchmen landed in Cardigan Bay. On the 
24 Feb. they surrendered to lord Cawdor with the 
Castlemartin yeomanry, and some countrymen, 
armed with scythes and pitchforks, near Fish- 
guard. 

FITZWILLIAM MUSEUM (Cambridge), I 
founded by Richard viscount Fitzwilliam, who died 
in 18 16, and bequeathed his colleciion of books, 
pictures, &c, to the university, with 100,000^. to 
erect a building to contain them. The building 
was begun by G. Basevi in 1837, and finished by 
Cockerell some years after. 

FIUME (meaning river) , the port of the king- 
dom of Hungary, on the Adriatic : a very ancient 
town, built on the supposed site of Tersatica, de- 
stroyed by Charlemagne about 799, and afterwards 
known as Vitopolis, Civita Sancti Viti ad Flumen, 
and finally Fiume. After being successively sub- 
jected to the Greeks, Romans, the eastern emperors, 
and the pope, it was transferred to the house of 
Austria. It was captured by the French early in 
the century, from whom it wa-* taken by the Eng- 
lish in 1813, and given to Austria in 1814. It was 
transferred to Hungary in 1822 ; to the Croats in 
1848 ; restored to Hungary in 1868. A new port 
and railways have been recently constructed (1877). 
Yisit of the emperor of Austria, entertained by 
admiral Hoskins and the British fleet, 23 June et seq. 
1891. 

FIVE FORKS, near Richmond, Virginia. 
Here general Sheridan turned the front of the Con- 
federates, and defeated them after a fierce struggle, 
I April, 1865. 

FIVE HUNDRED, Council of, esta- 
blished by the new French constitution, 22 Aug. 
1795, was unceremoniously dissolved by Napoleon 
Bonaparte, 10 Nov. 1799. 

FIVE MEMBERS, see under England, 4 
Jan. 1642. 

FIVE MILE ACT, 17 Chas. II. c. 2 (Oct. 

1665), forbade Nonconformist teachers who refused 
to take the non-resistance oath, to come within five 
miles of any corporation where they had preached 
since the act of oblivion (unless they were travel- 
ling'), under the penalty of 40^. They were relieved 
by Will. III. in 1689. 

FLADENHEIM, or FlATCIIEIM, Saxony. 
Here Rodolph of Swabia defeated the emperor 
Henry IV., 27 Jan. 1080. 

FLAG. The flag acquired its present form in 
the 6th century, in Spain ; it was previously small 



and square. Ashe. It is said to have been intro- 
duced there by the Saracens, before whose time 
the ensigns of war were extended on cross pieces of 
wood; see Carrocium. The honour -of- the -flag 
salute at sea was exacted by England from very 
early times ; but it was formally yielded by the 
Dutch in 1673. at which period they had been 
defeated in many actions. Louis XIV. obliged the 
Spaniards to lower their flag to the French, 1680. 
Renault. After an engagement of three hours 
between Tourville and the Spanish admiral Papa- 
chin, the latter yielded by firing a salute of nine 
guns to the French flag, 2 June, 1688. Idem ; see 
Salute at Sea, and Union Jack. 
The comte de Chambord definitively declined to give 

up the white flag for the tricolor (see France), 5 July, 

1871 and 27 Oct. 1873. 

FLAGELLANTS, at Perouse, about 1268, 
during a plague, they maintained there was no 
remission of sins without flagellation, and publicly 
lashed themselves. Clement VI. declared them 
heretics in 1349 : and 90 of them and their leader, 
Conrad Schmidt, were burnt, 1414. In 1574, 
Henry III. of France became a flagellant for a 
short time. 

FLAGEOLET, a musical instrument said to 
have been invented by Juvigny, about 1581 ; 
double flageolet patented by Wm. Bainbridge, 1803 ; 
improved 1809 and 1819. 

FLAMBEAUX, Feast of, see Argos. 

FLAMINEAN WAY, the great road from 
Rome to Ariminum in Umbria, made under the di- 
rection of C. Flaminius, when censor in 221 B.C., 
when he also constructed the Flaminium circus. In 
217 he was defeated and killed at the battle of the 
Trasimene lake, when resisting the march of 
Hannibal. 

FLAMMOCK'S REBELLION, see Rebel- 
lions, 1497. 

FLANDERS, the principal part of ancient 
Belgium, which was conquered by Julius Cresar, 51 
B.C. It became part of the kingdom of France, a.d. 
843, and was governed by counts subject to the 
king, from 862 till 1369, the first being Baldwin, 
Bras de Fer, who is said to have introduced the 
cloth manufacture. In 1204, Baldwin IX. became 
emperor at Constantinople. Iu 1369, Philip duke of 
Burgundy married Margaret, the heiress of count 
Louis II. After this, Flanders was subjected suc- 
cessively to Burgundy (1384), Austria (1477), and 
Spain (1555). In 1580 it declared its independence, 
but afterwards returned to its allegiance to the house 
of Austria. In 17 13 it was included in the empire 
of Germany. France obtained a part of Flanders 
by treaty in 1659 and 1679. See Burgundy and 
Belgium. 

FLANNEL, see Woollen. 

FLASHING SIGNALS, see under Fog. 

FLATBUSH, BATTLE OF, see Long Island. 

FLATTERY, CAPE (W. roast of North 
America), so named by captain Conk, because at a 
distance it had the deceptive appearance of a har- 
bour, 1778. 

FLAVIAN CJESARS, the Roman emperors 
Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian, 66-96. 

FLAX. The manufacture in Egypt in very 
early times was carried thence to Tyre about 588 
B.C., and to Gaul about I B.C. ; and thus reached 
Britain. It was ordered to be grown in England, by 



FLAYERS. 



376 



FLORAL HALL. 



statute, 24 Hen. VIII. 1533. For many ages the 
core was separated from the flax, the bark of the 
plant, by the hand. A mallet was next used ; but 
the old methods of breaking and scutching the flax 
yielded to a water-mill which was invented in 
Scotland about 1750 ; see Hem]). The duty imposed 
on imported flax, 1842, was repealed 1845. In 1851 
chevalier Claussen patented a method of " cotton- 
ing" flax. 

FLAYERS, see Ecorcheurs. 

FLEECE, see Golden Fleece. 

FLEET, see Navy. 

FLEET PRISON, MARKET, &c (London), 
were built over ttie small river Fleta, now used as a 
common sewer. In the reign of Henry VII. this 
river is said to have been navigable to Holborn- 
bridge. 

Fleet Prison was founded in the first year of 
Richard I. , and was allotted for debtors, 1640 ; and 
persons were committed here who had incurred 
the displeasure of the Star-Chamber, and for con- 
tempt of the court of Chancery. It was burnt 
during the Gordon riots, 7 June, 1780, and re- 
built 1781-2. It was pulled down in 1845 (and the 
debtors removed to the Queen's Bench prison). 
The site was sold to the London, Dover, and Chat- 
ham railway company for 6o,ooo£. on 2 June, 1864. 

Last vestige removed Feb. 1868 

Fleet-market, originally formed in 1737, was re- 
moved, and the site named Farringdon-street in 
1829. A new (Farringdon) market was opened 20 
Nov. 1829. The granite obelisk in Fleet-street, to 
the memory of alderman Waitlnnan was erected 

25 June, 1833 
Fleet Marriages. Between the 19th of October, 
1704, and 12 Feb. 1705, there were celebrated 295 
marriages in the Fleet without licence or certiii- 
cate of banns. 20 or 30 couples were sometimes 
. joined in one day, and their names concealed by 
private marks, if they chose to pay an extra fee. 
Pennant says that in his youth he was often ac- 
costed with, " Sir, will you please to walk in and 
be married?" Painted signs, of male and female 
hands conjoined, with the inscription, "Mar- 
riages performed within," were common along 
the building. 
' This abuse abolished by the Marriage Act . . 1753 

FLEETS, see Navy, Gr'at Britain. In 1886, 
Great Briiain, 20 turret-ships, 6 in progress, 29 
broadside ships, and numerous smaller vessels. 
France, 16 turret ships, 13 in progress, 12 other 
large vessels. Russia, 6 armour vessels, 1 in pro- 
gress (not formidable). Germany, 13 armoured 
ships. Italy, 14 armoured vessels, 7 in progress. 
Austria, 10 armoured vessels, 2 in progress. Greece 
. 2 armoured vessels. 
1 891. Great Britain, 82 ships (see Navy) ; France, 75 ; 
Russia, 48 ; Germany, 31 ; Italy, 22 ; Austria, 14 ; 
Greece, 5. 
1891. First-class battle-ships : Great Britain, 32 ; 
France, 14 ; Russia, 6. Second class : Great Britain, 
13 ; France, 13 ; Russia, 4. Armoured cruisers : 
Great Britain, 18 ; France, 12 ; Russia, 8. Protected 
cruisers: England, 46; France, 8; Russia, 2 (from 
the Navy Annual, 1891). 

FLEETWOOD, see Hythe. 

FLENSBORG, N. Germany. Here the Danes 
defeated the Slesingers and Germans, 9 April, 1848. 
It was entered by the Germans, 7 Feb. 1864. 

FLETA, an ancient English law treatise, an 
abridgment of Bract on, dated about 1290, said to 
have been composed in Fleta, in the Fleet prison, 
by some lawyer. 

FLEUR-DE-LIS, the emblem of France, said 
to have been brought from heaven by an angel to 
Clovis, he having made a vow that if he proved vic- 



torious in a pending battle with the Alemanni near 
Cologne, he would embrace Christianity, 496. It 
was the national emblem till the revolution in 1789, 
when the tricolor (white, red, and blue) was adopted. 
The comte de Chambord declared his adherence to 
the old national flag, 5 July, 1871 and 27 Oct. 1873. 

FLEURUS (Belgium), the site of several 

bittles. 

Between the Catholic league under Gonzales de Cor- 
dova, and the Protestant union (indecisive) 30 Aug. 1622 

The prince of Waldeck defeated by marshal Luxem- 
burg 1 July, 1690 

The allies under the prince of Coburg, defeated by 
the French revolutionary army commanded by 
Jourdan, who was enabled to form a junction 
with the armies of the Moselle, the Ardennes, and 
the north. (The French used a balloon to recon- 
noitre the enemy's army, which, it is said, contri- 
buted to their success) ... 26 June, 1794 

Here Napoleon defeated Blueher at the battle of 
Ligny (which see) 16 June, 1815 

FLIES- An extraordinary fall of these insects 
in London covered the clothes of passengers, 1707. 
Chamberlain. In the United States of America the 
Hessian fly, so called from the notion of its having 
been brought there by the Hessian troops in the 
service of England in the War of Independence, 
ravaged the wheat in 1777. Before and during the 
severe attack of cholera at Newcastle in Sept. 1853, 
the air was infested with small flies. 

FLINTS, see Man. 

FLOATING BATTERIES, see Batteries, 
and Gibraltar, 1781. 

FLOATING DOCKS, see Docks. 

FLODDEN FIELD (Northumberland). The 
site of a battle on 9 Sept. 1513, between the English 
and Scots ; in consequence of James IV. of Scotland 
having taken part with Louis XII. cf France against 
Henry VIII. of England. James, many of his 
nobles, and upwards of 10,000 of his army, were 
slain ; while the English, who were commanded by 
the earl of Surrey, lost only persons of small note. 

FLOGGING by the Jewish law was limited to 
forty stripes, "lest thy brother should seem vile 
unto thee," 1451 B.C. {Dent. xxv. 3). Win. Cobbett 
in 1810, and John Drakard in 181 1, were punished 
for publishing severe censures on flogging in the 
army. Flogging was made a punishment for at- 
tempts at garrotting in 1863 ; and for juvenile 
criminals, 1847 and 1850; for burglars carrying 
revolvers proposed; the bill enacting it was with- 
drawn 2 Aug. 1889. 

Flogging in the army much diminished by orders 

9 Nov. 1859 

First-class seamen not to be flogged, except after a 
trial, Dec. 1859 > more diminished . March, 1867 

By an amendment on the clause in the mutiny bill, 
flogging abolished in the army in time of peace 

April, 1868 

New regulations for the navy issued . 18 Dec. 1871 

Proposed total abolition negatived in commons 
(120-60), 20 June, 1876; (164-122), 10 April, 1877; 
(2*9-56) 20 May, 1879 

By the Army Discipline Act (42 & 43 Viet. c. 34), 
flogging reduced, and may be commuted by im- 
prisonment ,, 

Total abolition of flogging by Army Discipline Act 

April, 1881 

Substitutes for flogging (handcuffing, <fcc.) an- 
nounced Oct. 1881 

21 soldiers flogged . 1869 I 41 soldiers flogged . 1878 

61 sailors ,, . ,, | 8 sailors ,, ,, 

FLOODS, see Inundations. 

FLORAL HALL, adjoining Covent-garden 
theatre, is a large conservatory, 220 feet long, 75 



FLORALIA. 



377 



FLOWERS. 



feet wide, and 55 feet high, designed by Mr. E. M. 
Barry, and was opened with the volunteers' ball, 7 
March, i860. It was used as a flower-market, 22 
Hay-Aug. 1861. Hei-e was held the West London 
industrial exhibition, 1 May to 2 Aug. 1865. 

FLORALIA, annual games at Rome in honour 
of Flora, early instituted but not celebrated with 
regularity till about 174 B.C. 

FLORENCE {Florentia), capital of Tuscany 
{which see), and from 1864 to 1871, of Italy, is said 
to have been founded by the soldiers of Svlla (80 
B.C.), and enlarged by the Roman triumviri. In 
its palaces, universities, academies, churches, and 
libraries, are to be found the rarest works of sculp- 
ture and painting in the world. The Florentine 
academy and Academia delta Crmca (established 
1582) were instituted to enrich literature and im- 
prove the language of Tuscany ; the latter was so 
named, because it rejects like bran all words not 
purely Tuscan : both are now united under the 
former name. Population, 1890, 191,453. 
Destroyed by Totila .... about 541 

Rebuilt by Charlemagne .... about 800 
Becomes an independent republic . . about 1198 
Wars of the Guelphs and Ghibellines . 1215 ct seq. 

Dante born here 14 May, 1265 

Arti or guilds established 1266 

Factions of the Bianchi and Neri 1300 

Great plague, the Black Death 1348 

The influence of the Medici begins with Cosmo de' 

Medici, " the father of his country " . about 1420 

Death of Lorenzo de' Medici ... 8 April, 1492 
Savonarola strangled and burnt . . 23 May, 1498 

Appointment of Alexander de' Medici as perpetual 

governor 1530 

Cosmo de' Medici created grand-duke of Tuscany ; 

makes Florence his capital : see Tuscany . . 1569 
Revolution at Florence . . . .27 April, 1859 
Annexation to Sardinia voted by people, 11, 12 

March ; the king enters Florence . . 7 April, i860 
The king opens the exhibition of the industrial 

products of Italy . . 15 Sept. 1861 
Florence decreed the capital of Italy till the acqui- 
sition of Rome n Dec. 1864 

The king and court remove there . 13 May, 1865 

The Dante festival (the 600th anniversary of his 

birth) opened by the king ... 14 May, ,, 

Inauguration of a national rifle-meeting ; the king 

fires the first shot .... 18 June, ,, 
First assembly of Italian parliament here 18 Nov. „ 
The government removes to Rome as capital of Italy 

July, 1871 
Fourth centenary of Michel Angelo Buonarroti 

kept 12 Sept. 1875 

Torchlight procession ; shell thrown among crowd ; 

5 killed . . ... 18 Nov. 1878 

The brick duomo. begun by Arnulfo, 1294 ; dedi- 
cated by pope Eugenius IV., 1436 ; was completed 
by Brunelleschi, 1447 ; the facade was cased with 
marble by the Italian government and uncovered 
in presence of the king ... 12 May, 1887 
Other renovations of public buildings carried on 1883-6 
Successful visit of the Queen of England, 24 Maich 

— 22 April, 1888 
Equestrian statue of king Victor Emmanuel un- 
veiled 2oSept.i89o 

FLORES, or Isle of Flowers (one of the Azores, 
which see), discovered by Vanderberg in 1439; and 
settled by the Portuguese in 1448. 

FLORIDA, a peninsula, one of the southern 
states of North America, first discovered by Sebastian 
Cabot in 14.97. It was visited by Juan Ponce de 
Leon, the Spanish navigator, April 4, 1512, in a 
voyage be had undertaken to discover a fountain 
whose waters had the property of restoring youth to 
the aged who tasted them ! Florida was conquered 
by the Spaniards under Ferdinand de Soto in 1539 ; 
but the settlement was not fully established until 
1565. It was plundered by sir Francis Drake in 



1585 ; and by Davis, a buccaneer, in 1665. It was 
invaded by the British in 1702; and again by gen. 
Oglethorpe in 1740 ; ceded to the British crown in 
1763 ; taken by the Spaniards in 1781 ; and guaran- 
teed to them in 1783. Capital, Tallahassee. Popu- 
lation in 1880, 269,493; 1890, 391,422. 
The Americans purchase Louisiana from the French 

and claim West Florida • 1801 

The Spaniards compelled to cede all Florida to the 

United States 24 Oct. 1820 

Florida admitted as a state 1845 

Seceded from the Union, Dec. i860 ; readmitted 

(see United States) 1865 

A ship canal proposed ; company organized May 1883 
Alter long neglect, this beautiful and fertile wil- 
derness warmly taken up by British and Ameri- 
can capitalists 1883-4 

Yellow fever prevailed here, especially in Jackson- 
ville, in the autumn of 1888 

FLORIN, a coin first made by the Florentines. 
A. florin was issued by Edward III. which was cur- 
rent in England at the value of 6*. in 1337. Cam- 
den. This English coin was called floren after the 
Florentine coin, because the latter was of the best 
gold. Ashe. The florin of Germany is in value 
2s. \d. ; that of Spain, 4s. $\d. ; that of Palermo 
and Sicily, 2s. 6d. ; that of Holland, 2*. Ayliffe. 
Silver florins (value 2s.) were issued in England in 
1849. 

FLOWERS- Many of our present common 
flowers were introduced into England from the 
reign of Henry VII. to that of Elizabeth (1485- 
1603). The art of preserving flowers in sand was 
discovered in 1633. A mode of preserving them 
from the effects of frost in winter, and hastening 
their vegetation in summer, was invented in America, 
by Geo. Morris, in 1792. A very great number 
have been introduced from America, Australia, the 
Cape, &c, during the present century. Many of 
the dates in the following list, given in botanical 
works, are d' ubtfuL 
London, Flotver-glrl Brigade formed by baroness 

Burdett-Coutts and others . . . autumn 1880 

Acacia, N. America, before 1640 

Allspice shrub, Carolina 1726 

Aniseed tree, Florida, about 1766 

Arbor Vitse, Canada, before 1596 

Arctopus, Cape of Good Hope 1774 

Auricula, Switzerland 1567 

Azarole, S. Europe, before 1640 

Bay, Royal, Madeira . 1665 

Bay, sweet, Italy, before 1548 

Camellia, China 1811 

Canary bell-flower, Canaries 1696 

Canary Convolvulus, Canaries 1690 

Carnation, Flanders 1567 

Ceanothus, blue, New Spain 1818 

Chaste tree, Sicily, before 1570 

Christ's thorn, Africa, before 1596 

Chrysanthemums, China .... 1763 or 1790 

Convolvulus, many flowered 1779 

Coral tree, Cape 1816 

Coral tree, bell-flowered, Cape 1791 

Coral tree, tremulous, Cape 1789 

Creeper, Virginian, N. America 1629 

Dahlia, China 1803 

Dryandria, New Holland ... . . ,, 

Evergreen Thorn, Italy ... . . 1629 

Everlasting, giant-flowered, Cape . . . . 1781 

Everlasting, giant, Cape 1793 

Fernbusli, sweet, N. America . ... 1714 

Fox-glove, Canaries 1698 

Fuchsia fulgens, Mexico, about 1835 

Geranium, Flanders 1534 

Gillyflower, Flanders 1567 

Gold-plant, Japan 1783 

Golden-bell-flower, Madeira 1777 

Bawthom, American, before 1683 

I leal lis. Cape 1774-1803 

Honeyflower, great, Cape 1688 

Honeysuckle, Chinese, China 1806 



FLUORESCENCE. 



378 



FOG. 



Honeysuckle, fly, Cape 1752 

Honeysuckle, trumpet, N. America . . . . 1656 

Hyssop, S. Europe, before 1548 

Jasmine, C'ircassia, before . . . .'•'.. 1548 
Jasmine, Catalonia, East Indies .... 1629 
Judas tree, S. Europe, before . . . . . 1596 
Laburnum, Hungary . . . ' . . .1576 

Laurel, Alexandrian, Portugal, before . . . 1713 

Laurustine, S. Europe, before 1596 

Lavender, S. Europe, before 1568 

Lily, Italy, before 1460 

Lily, gigantic, N. South Wales 1800 

Lily, red coloured, S. America ..... 1623 
Loblolly bay, N. America, before . . . . 1739 

Lupine tree, Cape, about 1793 

Magnolia (see Magnolia), N. America . . . . 1688 

Magnolia, dwarf, China 1786 

Magnolia, laurel-leaved, N. America . . . . 1734 

Maiden-hair, Japan 1714 

Mignonette, Italy . . 1528 

Milk- wort, giant-flowered, Cape . . . .1713 

Milk-wort, showy, Cape . . . . . . 1814 

Mock orange, S. Europe, before .... 1596 

Mountain tea, N. America, before . . . . 1758 

Myrtle, candleberry, N. America . . . 1699 

Myrtle, woolly-leaved, China 1776 

Nettle tree, S. Europe, before ..... 1596 

Oleander, red, S. Europe ,, 

Olive, Cape, Cape 1730 

Olive, sweet-scented, China 1771 

Paraguay tea, Carolina, before 1724 

Passion-flower, Brazil ^92 

Passion-flower, orange, Carolina . . . .1792 

Petunia, S. America 1823 

Pigeon-berry, N. America 1736 

Pink, from Italy I5 6 7 

Ranunculus, Alps 1528 

Roses, Netherlands 1522 

Rose, China, China 1789 

Rose, damask, S. Europie, about 1543 

Rose, the Japan, China 1793 

Rose, the moss, before 1724 

Rose, the musk, Italy ...... 1522 

Rose, the Provence, Flanders 1567 

Rose, sweet-scented guelder, from China . . 1821 

Rose, tube, from Java and Ceylon . . . . 1629 
Rose without thorns, N. America, before . . 1726 

Rosemary, S. Europe 1548 

Sage, African, Cape i7 3I 

Sage, Mexican, Mexico 17 24 

St. Peter's wort, N. America I73 o 

Sassafras, N. America, before 1663 

Savin, S. Europe, before 1584 

Snowdrop, Carolina xj^b 

Sorrel-tree, N. America, before 1752 

Sweet-bay, S. of Europe, before .... 1548 

Tamarisk plant, Germany I5 6o 

Tea tree, China, about I7 68 

Tooth-ache tree, from Carolina, before . . 1739 

Trumpet-flower, N. America . .... . 1640 

Trumpet-flower, Cape 1823 

Tulip, Vienna I57 8 

Verbena, S. America ^27 

Victoria Regia, Guiana ^g 

Virginian creeper, N. America ^ig 

Virgin's bower, Japan I77 6 

Wax-tree, China I7 n, 

Weeping willow, Levant, before .... 1692 

Winter-berry, Virginia I73 6 

Youlan, China . . . . . .. xi&g 

FLUORESCENCE. When the invisible 
chemical rays of the blue end of the solar spectrum 
are sent through uranium glass or solutions of 
quinine, horse-chestnut bark, or stramonium datura, 
they become luminous. This phenomenon was 
termed " fluorescence" by its discoverer, professor 
Stokes, in 1852. By means of fluorescence Drs. 
Bence Jones and Dupre detected the presence of 
quinoidine in animal tissues; see Calorescence. 

FLUORINE, a gaseous element, obtained from 
fluor spur ; first collected over mercury by Priestley. 
Its property of corroding all vessels is so great that 
it is separated with great difficulty. It was named 
by Ampere in 1810. Its chemical history was 



further elucidated by Davy (1809), Berzelius (1824), 
and succeeding chemists. The corroding property 
of fluoric acid was employed in the arts in 1760, by 
Schwankhard of Nuremberg. Gmelin. 

FLUSHING-, a seaport of the Netherlands, on 
the isle of VYahheren. For the siege, see Wal- 
cher -en Expedition. It was fortified by Napoleon I., 
but the works were finally dismantled in 1867. The 
port improved, and new dock opened by the king 
of Holland, 8 Sept. 1873. 

FLUTE. The transverse flute, incorrectly 
termed the "German" instead of the Swiss flute, 
was known to the ancients. It was described by 
Michael Pretorius, of Wolfenbuttel, in 1620, and by 
Mersenne of Paris, in 1636. It was much improved 
by the French in the 17th century, by Quantz, 
Tacet, Florio, Potter, Miller, Nicholson, and others 
in the 18th. In the present century also the Nichol- 
sons, Boehm of Munich, Godfrey of Paris, Carter, 
Rockstro, and Rudall and Hose of London, have 
greatly contributed to the perfection of this instru- 
ment. See Flageolet. 

FLUXIONS, a branch of the higher mathe- 
matics, invented by Newton, 1665, similar to the 
differential calculus described by Leibnitz, 1684. 
A fierce controversy ensued as to the priority of the 
discovery. The finest applications of the calculus 
are by Newton, Euler, La Grange, and La Place. 
The first elementary work on fluxions in England 
is a tract of twenty-two pages in A Neiv Short 
Treatise of Algebra, together with a Specimen of the 
Natwe and Algorithm of Fluxions, by John Harris, 
M.A. London, 1702. 

FLYING, Artificial. In Greek mythology, 

Dnedalus is said to have attached wings of wax to 
the body of his son Icarus, who, neglecting the 
advice of his father, flew so high that the sun 
melted his wings, and he fell into the Icarian sea. 
Archytas is said to have made a flying dove, about 
400 B.C. Friar Bacon maintained the possibility 
of the art of flying, and predicted it would be a 
general practice, 1273. Bishop Wilkins says (1651), 
it will yet be as usual to hear a man call for his 
wings when he is going on a journey, as it is now 
to hear him call for his boots ! Borelli (about 1670) 
showed the futility of these speculations. About 
1800 sir George Cayley experimented on the sub- 
ject, and in 1843 Mr. Henson invented a flying: 
machine ; but nothing has been devised capable of 
serving a practical purpose. The motion of birds. 
in relation to aeronautics was much discussed by 
scientific men in 1867-8. At a meeting of the 
Aeronautical society, 26 March, 1868, it was stated 
that a member had actually, by his muscular force, 
aided by apparatus, risen from the ground and 
flown horizontally. Dr. James Pettigrew published 
his elaborate researches on flying, 1867-71.- M. 
Von Groof, a Belgian, "the flying-man," descended 
from a balloon by means of a parachute resembling 
wings, in 1874 : but was killed by falling through 
failure of his apparatus at Chelsea, 9 July. 
Mr. Simmonds tried his flying-machine (combining an 

umbrella and kite), at Chatham, and failed : it carried 

sand bags about 100 feet high ; and fell, 15 Dec. It 

failed again 23 Dec. 1875. 
Mr. H. C. Linfield tried his steam flying machine on the 

railway near West Drayton, 29 Aug. 1883. 

FLY SHEETS, see under Wesleyans. 

FO, RELIGION OF, the form of Buddhism {ivhich 
see) existing in China. 

FOG- In 1862 much attention was paid to the 
subject of fog signals by the Royal commission on 



FOIX. 



379 FOREIGN CATTLE MARKET. 



Lighthouses, &c. The use of bells, steam-trumpets, 
a battery of whistles blown by steam, the trans- 
mission of sound through water, the siren, &c, 
were considered. A fog horn blown by steam is in 
use at Dungeness lighthouse (1869). For Dr. Tyn- 
dall's experiments, see Acoustics. 

Continued fogginess in London, Nov. 1879, to Feb. 1880, 
caused much mortality ; very bad on 25 Dec. 1879. 

Fatal fogs, Dec. 1881, Jan. 1882 ; Jan. 1888, general 
over the British Isles and N. W. Europe. 

Mr. De Cordova's fog signals announced, March, 1883. 

Prof. Holmes' siren fog horn tried in the Zuyder 'Zee., 
reported successful, Sept. 1883. 

Capt. Barker's marine safety signal code for merchant 
vessels ; he indicates directions for sailing by combina- 
tions of short and long blasts of a fog horn, 1879— 1884. 

Improved fog signalling by sound set up at Ailsa 
Craig, mouth of the Clyde . . . 17 July, 1886 

Adin. Colomb's systems of signalling by flashing 
lights at night, or by spurts of sound in fogs, in- 
vented 1858 et seq., adopted 1868 ; these are con- 
sidered highly valuable for manoeuvring squad- 
rons of ships, and also for the army . . . 1890 

Lord Middleton's application in the house of lords 
for the appointment of a royal commission re- 
specting London fogs negatived . . 12 Feb. 1892 

Little fog m London, winter, 1801-2, except at 
Christmas ; very bad then throughout England. 

FOIX (S. France), a county established 1050, 
and united with Beam, 1290. About 1494 Catherine 
de Foix, the heiress, married Jean d'Albret, whose 
descendant, Henry IV., as king of France, united 
Foix to the monarchy, 1589. 

FOLK LOEE, a general name given by Mr. 
~W. J. Thorns, in 1846, to popular legends, fairy tales, 
local traditions, old outdying customs, superstitions, 
and similar matters. The formation of the Folk-lore 
society was advocated by Mr. W. J. Thorns in 
_" Notes and Queries" 1 Dec. 1877; established 
in 1878. National congresses are held. 

FOLKMOTE, or Folkmoot, Anglo-Saxon, a 
general assembly of the people to deliberate on 
general matters relating to the commonwealth, 
resembling the public meetings of later times. From 
these meetings, parliaments and other elective 
assemblies were gradually developed. The name 
was also given to local courts. 

FONT. Formerly the baptistery was a small 
place partitioned off in a church, within which a 
large font was placed, where the persons to be 
baptised (frequently adults) were submerged. 
Previously, lakes and rivers were resorted to for 
immersion. Fonts are said to have been set up in 
churches in the sixth century. 

FONTAINEBLEAU, near the Seine, France. 
The royal palace, founded by Robert le Pieux about 
999, enlarged and adorned by successive kings, was 
completed by Louis Philippe, 1837-40. Fontaine- 
bleau was entered by the Austrians, 17 Feb. 1814. 
Here Napoleon resigned his dignity, 4 April, and 
bade farewell to his army, 20 April, 1814. 
Peace between France, Denmark, ire. . 2 Sept. 1679 
Treaty between Germany and Holland . 8 Nov. 1785 
Treaty between Napoleon and Spain . 27 Oct. 1807 
The decree of FontaLnebleau for the destruction of 

British merchandise issued . . 19 Oct. 1810 

Concordat between Napoleon and pope Pius VII. 

25 Jan. 1813 

FONTENAILLE, or Fontenay {Fori, lane turn) , 
a village in Burgundy. Near here Charles the 
Bald and Louis the German totally defeated their 
brother the emperor Lothaire I. 25 June, 841. 
This victory, termed " the judgment of God," con- 
duced to the formation of the French monarchy. 

FONTENOY, near Tournay, in Belgium, the 
site of an obstinate sanguinary battle on 30 April 



(11 May, n.s.), 1745, between the French, com- 
manded by marshal Saxe, and the English, Hano- 
verians, Dutch, and Austrians, commanded by the 
duke of Cumberland. The king Louis XV. and the 
dauphin were present. The success of the British 
at the commencement is still quoted as an illustra- 
tion of the extraordinary power of a column ; and 
the advance of the Austrians during several hours 
at Marengo (14 June, 1800) was compared to it by 
Bonaparte. The allies lost 12,000 men, and the 
French nearly an equal number; but the allies 
were compelled to retire. Marshal Saxe (ill of the 
disordcr of which he afterwards died) was carried! 
about to all the posts in a litter, assuring his troops- 
that the day would be their own. 

FONTHILL ABBEY, Wiltshire, founded in 
1796, the mansion of William Beckford, author of 
" Vathek," and son of Alderman Beckford. He 
died 2 May, 1844. Within this edifice (which alone 
cost 273,000/.) were collected costly articles of 
virtu and art, and the rarest works of the old 
masters. The sale of the abbey and its contents to 
Mr. Farquhar took place in 1822 ; 7,200 catalogues- 
at a guinea each were sold in a few days. On 21 
Dec. 1825, the lofty tower fell, and in consequence 
the remaining buildings were sold. 

FOOD, see Provisions. A Food Journal pub- 
lished 1870; continued several years. Sale of Food 
and Drugs Act passed 11 Aug. 1875. Dr. Arthur 
Hill Hassall's "Food and its Adulterations" pub- 
lished 1854, and since. International food exhibi- 
tion at Agricultural Hall, Islington, 13-20 Oct. 
1880. Nasional food reform society, advocates- 
abstinence from animal food, 1883. "Foods: Com- 
position and Analysis," by A. W. Blyth, published 
1882. 

FOOLS, FESTIVALS OF, were held at Paris on 
the 1st of January, when, we are told, all sorts of 
absurdities were committed, from 1198 to 1438. Fools- 
or licensed jesters were kept at court in England up 
to the time of Charles I. 1625. Ths "order of Fools " 
founded by Adolphus, count of Cleves, for philan- 
thropic purposes, 138 1, existed in 1 520. 

FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE, see 

Cattle. 

FOOTPATH (National) Preservation Society, 
founded under the patronage of the duke of 
Westminster and others, 1884. Annual meeting 
Jan. 1890. 

FORBES MACKENZIE'S ACT (16 & 17 

Vict. c. 67) "for the better regulation of public- 
houses in Scotland," passed in 1853. It permits- 
grocers to sell spirits, &c, as usual, but forbids- 
drinking on the premises, which is to be confined to- 
places duly licensed. Much dram-drinking pre- 
viously took place in grocers' shops. 

FORCE, see Conservation, and Correlation. 

FOREIGN BOND-HOLDERS, were in- 
corporated by licence of the Itoard of Trade as art 
association 1 Aug. 1873. A fund was created for 
the protection of the investing public. At the 
annual meeting, 2 March, 1891, a favourable report 
was received. 

FOREIGN CATTLE MARKET. The city 

of London having been required to provide this- 
market before 1 Jan. 1872, by the Contagious- 
Diseases Act (for Animals), 1869, the Common 
Council, 7 Nov. 1870, agreed to the expenditure of 
160,000/. for the purpose. The site chosen, Dept- 
ford dockyard, was much opposed. The requisite 
alterations were made by Mr. Horace Jones, and the 



FOREIGN ENLISTMENT ACT. 



380 



FORGERY. 



market was formally opened by the lord mayor, 23 
Dec. 187 1 ; for use on 1 Jan. 1872. 

FOREIGN ENLISTMENT ACT, 59 Geo. 
III. c. 69 (1819), forbids British subjects to enter 
the service of a foreign state, without licence from 
the king or privy council, and prohibits the fitting 
out or equipping ships for any foreign power to be 
employed against any power with which our govern - 
jnent is at peace ; see Trials, 1862, 1863. In 1606, 
Englishmen were forbidden to enter foreign service, 
without taking an oath not to be reconciled to the 
pope. The act was suspended in 1835 on behalf of 
the British Legion [which see) . The act passed 9 
Aug. 1870, relates to illegal enlisting, shipbuilding, 
and expeditions. 

FOREIGNERS, see Alien and Law. 
Fon-ignerj in the United Kingdom: 1871, 113,779; 
in 18S1, 135,640; the Germans being about one- 
third. 

FOREIGN JURISDICTION ACTS, passed 
in 1843, 1865, and 1866, were extended and amended 
by 41 & 42 Vict. c. 67, passed 16 Aug. 1878 ; these 
acts were consolidated in 1890. 

FOREIGN LEGION. Foreigners have fre- 
quently been employed as auxiliaries in the pay of 
the British government; see Hessians. An act 
(18 & 19 Vict. c. 2) for the formation of a foreign 
legion as a contingent in the Russian war (1855), 
was passed 23 Dec. 1854.* The queen and prince 
Albert reviewed 3500 soldiers, principally Swiss 
and Germans, at Shorncliffe, 9 Aug. 1855. On the 
peace in 1856, many were sent to the Cape of Good 
Hope ; but not prospering, returned. 

FOREIGN LOANS, see Loans. 

FOREIGN MISSIONS, see Missions. 

FOREIGN OFFICE was established at the 
re-arrangement of the duties of secretaries of state 
in 1782. It has the exclusive charge of British 
interests and subjects in f reign countries. The 
secretary for foreign affairs negotiates treaties, 
selects ambassadors, consuls, &c, for foreign 
•countries, and grants passports. The new foreign 
office building in the Italian style (designed by 
Sir Gilbert Scott), was begun in 1864. A portion of 
it was inaugurated by Mr. Disraeli's reception, 25 
March, audit, was occupied by lord Stanley, 24 June, 
i868. See Administrations under separate heads, 
and Secretaries. 
Foreign Office Circular warning travellers and others 

that they will incur capture at their own risk Aug. 1881 
Important changes in the departments announced 

Feb. 1883 

FOREIGN ORDERS. No British subject is 
permitted to accept a foreign order from the sovereign 
of any foreign country, or wear the insignia thereof, 
without her majesty's consent, by orders issued in 
u8i2 and 1834; — regulations published in London 
Gazette, 10 May, 1855. 

FORESTALLING was forbidden by statutes 
(in 1350, 1552, &c), all repealed in 1844. 

FORESTS. There were in England, even in 
fhe last century, as many as 68 forests, 18 chases, 
and upwards of 780 parks. See New Forest.f 



* The endeavour to enlist for this legion, in 1854, in the 
United States, gave great offence to the American govern- 
ment. Mr. Crampton, our envoy, was dismissed, 28 
May, 1856, in spite of all the judicious pacific efforts of 
lord Clarendon. Lord Napier was sent out as our repre- 
sentative in 1857. 

t The commissioners appointed to enquire into the 
■state of the woods and forests, between 1787 and 1793, 
reported the following as belonging to the crown, viz. :— 



International Forestry exhibition at Edinburgh, re- 
commended by government, Nov. 1883 ; opened 
on 1 July ; closed .... 11 Oct. 1884 
" The Forester," by J. Brown ; new edition . . 1882 
Parliamentary committee on forestry appointed 

May, 1885 " 

FORESTS, Charter of the, Charta de 
Foresta, granted by Henry III. in 1217, was founded 
on Magna Charta, granted by king John, 15 June 
1215. It was confirmed in 1225 and 1297. See 
Woods. 

FORESTERS, Ancient Order of, a species of 
benefit society, founded on the principle that many 
can help one ; all religious and political discussions 
are strictly avoided. The 54th High Court at Read- 
ing ; number of members reported 690,000, 6 Aug. 
1888. At Bournemouth, 5 Aug. 1889. At Hull, 
4 Aug. 1890. At London ; 1 Aug. 1891. Number of 
members reported Dec. 1891, 830,720. Reported 
capital, 3,670,114/. 31 Dec. 1887. At Ipswich, I 
Aug. 1892. 

FOREST GATE, Essex, see Fires, 1 Jan. 1890. 

FORFARSHIRE STEAMER, on its passage 
from Hull to Dundee, on 6 Sept. 1838, was wrecked 
in a violent gale, and thirty-eight persons out of 
fifty-three perished. The Outer-Fern Lighthouse 
keeper, James Darling, and his heroic daughter 
Grace, ventured out in a tremendous sea in a coble, 
and rescued several of the passengers. 
The " journal of William Darling " from 1795 to i860 
published in 1887, states that forty -three persons out 
of sixty-one perished. 

FORGERY of deeds, or giving forged deeds in 
evidence, was made punishable by tine, by standing 
in the pillory, having both ears cut off", the nostrils 
slit up and seared, the forfeiture of land, and per- 
petual imprisonment, 5 Eliz. 1562. Since the 
establishment of paper credit many statutes have 
been enacted ; the latest Forgery act passed 9 Aug. 
1870. The Forged Transfer acts were passed to pre- 
serve purchasers of stock from losses by forged 
transfers, 1891 and 1892. Convictions for forgery and 
offences against the currency, 1887-8, 652 ; 1888-9, 
493 ; 1889-90, 420. 

Forgery first made punishable by death . . 1634 
Forging letters of attorney made capital . 1722 

Mr. Ward, M.P. , a man of wealth, expelled the house 
of commons for forgery, 16 May, 1726; and con- 
signed to the pillory : . . 17 March, 1727 
The first forger on the bank of England was Richard 
William Vaughan, once a linen-draper of Stafford. 
He employed a number of artists on different 
parts of the notes fabricated. He filled up 
twenty of the notes and deposited them in the 
hands of a young lady whom he was on the point 
of marrying, as a proof of his being a man of sub- 
ttance; no suspicion was entertained. One of 

In Berkshire, Windsor Forest and Windsor Great and 
Little Park. In Dorset, Cranburn Chase. In Essex, 
Waltham or Epping and Hainault Forest. In Gloucester- 
shire, Dean Forest. In Hampshire, the New Forest, 
Alice Holt, Woolmer Forest, and Bere Forest. In Kent, 
Greenwich Park. In Middlesex, St. James's, Hyde, 
Bushey, and Hampton-court Parks. In Northampton- 
shire, the forests of Whittlebury, Salcey, and Rockingham. 
In Nottingham, Sherwood Forest. In Oxford, Which- 
wood Forest. In Surrey. Richmond Park. Several of 
these have been disforested since 1851, viz. Hainault, 
Whichwood, and Whittlebury. A committee of the 
house of commons respecting forests, sat in 1863. 
Motion in parliament to preserve Epping Forest, adopted 
14 Feb. 1870 ; and the decision of the Master of the Rolls, 
10 Nov. 1874, stopped the enclosures by the lords of 
manors. The lord mayor Stone visited the forest in 
state 14 Oct. 1875. The commissioners' new schemewas 
published July, 1876. Memorial trees were planted by the 
duke and duchess of Connaught, 16 Oct. 1880. The forest 
was dedicated to the use of the people by the Queen, 
6 May, 1882. 



FOEKS. 



381 



FOETH. 



the artists informed, and Vaughan was executed 

at Tyburn i May, 1758 

Value of forged notes presented to the bank 1801-10 

nominally 101,661?. 
The bank prosecuted 142 persons for forgery or the 

uttering of forged notes 1817 

Thos. Maynard, the last person executed for forgery, 

31 Dec. 1829 
Statutes reducing into one act all such forgeries as 

shall henceforth be punished with death . . 1830 
The punishment of forgery with death ceases, except 
in eases of forging or altering wills or powers of 

attorney to transfer stock 1832 

These cases also reduced to transportable offences 1837 
A barrister, Jem Saward, and others, tried for 

forging numerous drafts on bankers 5 March, 1857 
The law respecting forgery amended in . 1861 and 1870 
For TV. Roupell's ease, see Trials . Aug. Sept. 1862 

An elaborate system of bill forgery in London, dis- 
covered by the Bank of England . 1 March, 1873 
Ralph Cooper, " king of the forgers," sentenced to 
fifteen years for forging a cheque of 3,670?. on the 
London & Westminster bank. . 24 March, 1888 

[See Executions (for forgery), 1776, 1777, et seq.] 
FORKS were in use on the Continent in the 13th 
and 14th centuries. Voltaire. This is reasonably 
disputed. In Fynes Moryson's Itinerary, reign of 
Elizabeth, he says, "At Venice each person was 
served (besides his knife and spoon) with a fork to 
hold the meat while he cuts it, for there they deem 
it ill manners that one should touch it with his 
hand." Thomas Coryate describes, with much 
solemnity, the manner 'of using forks in Italy, and 
adds, " I myself have thought it good to imitate the 
Italian fashion since I came home to England," 
1608. Two-pronged forks were made at Sheffield 
soon after. Three-pronged forks are more recent. 
Silver forks, previously only used by the highest 
classes, came into more general use in England 
about 1814. 

Mr. G. Smith found a bronze fork with two prongs at 

Kouyunjik, Assyria, 1873. 
A "flesh-hook of three teeth" mentioned 1 Sam. ii. 13, 

about 1 165 b.c. 

. FOEMA PAUPERIS. A person having a 
just cause of suit, certified as such, yet so poor that 
he cannot meet the cost of maintaining it, has an 
attorney and counsel assigned him on his swearing 
thathe is not worth 5;., by stat. 11 Hen. VII. 1495. 
— This act lias been remodelled, and now any per- 
son may plead in forma pauperis in the courts of 
law. 

FOEMIC ACID, the acid of ants (formica). 
Its artificial production by Pelouze in 183 1 was 
considered an event in the progress of organic 
chemistry. 

FOEMIGNI (N.W. France), Here the con- 
stable de Kichemont defeated the English, 15 April, 
1450. 

FOEMOSA, an island in the Pacific, 90 miles 
from the Chinese coast. In May, 1874, the Ja- 
panese, with the consent of a Chinese mandarin, 
chastised the savage tribes here for massacring 
Japanese sailors on their proposed settlement on 
the isle. The Chinese threatened war if they did 
not quit within 90 days, 18 Aug. 1874. By British 
interposition the Japanese withdrew, an indemnity 
having been agreed on ; treaty between Japan and 
China signed 31 Oct. 1874. Formosa flourished 
under the rule of Ting ; removed in 1878. The 
plant of the Woosung railway brought here in 1878. 
C-eorge Psalmanazar published his fabricated de- 
scription of Formosa in 1704. See China, 1884-5. 
Severe fighting between the Chinese and the 

natives Dec. 1889 ; Feb. 1890 

Nearly 200 Chinese soldiers massacred by an 

ambush, reported .... 13 March, „ 
General rebellion May, ,, 



FOENOVO (Parma, Italy). Near here Charles 
VIII. of 1- ranee defeated the Italians, 6 July, 
1495- 

FOESTEE'S ACT, see Education, 1870. 

FOET DU QUESNE, N. America. Near 
here general Braddock was surprised by a party of 
French and Indians, his troops routed and himself 
killed, 9 July, 1755. The fort was named Fori 
Fitt after its capture by Forbes, 24 Nov. 1758. It 
is now Fittsburg. 

FOET EEIE (Upper Canada). This fortress 
was taken by the American general Browne, 3 June, 
1814. After several conflicts it was evacuated by 
the Americans, 5 Nov. 1814. 

FOET GEOEGE, Inverness, N.W. Scotland, 
was erected in 1747, to restrain the Highlanders. — 
FORT WILLIAM, besieged by them in vain in 1 746, 
is now in ruins. 

FOETH, a great river of Scotland, rising In 
Ben Lomond, and entering the North Sea as an 
estuary, termed the Firth of Forth. The Forth 
and Clyde Canal was commenced 10 July, 1768, 
under the direction of Mr. Smeaton, and opened, 28 
July, 1790. A communication was thus formed 
between the eastern and western seas on the coast 
of Scotland. 

The Forth Railway-Bridge projected, and a raft 
launched in June, 1866. 

Mr. (afterwards sir T.) Bouch, of Edinburgh, was en- 
gaged to prepare plans for a suspension-bridge, 1878. 

The Forth bridge company accepted tenders from TVm. 
Arrol <fc Co. (1,250,01,0?.) for constructing bridge and 
railway, Oct. 1879; through Tay-bridge disaster, <fcc, 
the scheme was suspended and eventually abandoned 
by the company, 13 Jan. 1S81. 

The construction of the present Forth Bridge was 
undertaken by the company supported by the North 
British, North Eastern, Great Northern, and Midland 
railway companies ; the act was passed, June, 1882 ; 
engineers, Mr. John Fowler and Mr. Benjamin Baker,. 
whose plans were based on the cantilever or bracket 
principle ; Messrs. Wm. Arrol & Co. were the con- 
tractors. The rocky islet of Inchgarvie was of great 
importance in the construction of the bridge ; the 
works began by building the foundations, Jan.' 1883. 

The last bolt was driven, 6 Nov. 1889 ; the strength of the 
bridge was tested by the passage of nearly 2,000 tons, 
steamed halfway across, 21 Jan. ; and officially testtd 
for the board of trade, 20 Feb. 1890. 

The first train which crossed the entire bridge was 
driven by the marchioness of Tweeddale, carrying a 
distinguished company, in five minutes, 24 Jan. 1890. 

The prince of Wales after driving in the last rivet, in the 
presence of the duke of Edinburgh, the duke of Fife, 
prince George of Wales, the marquis of Tweeddale, 
the earl of Rosebery, and other distinguished visitors, 
including M. Eiffel, and other eminent engineers, said 
" Ladies and gentlemen, I now declare the Forth 
bridge open," 1.30 p.m. 4 March, 1890. 

The ceremony was followed by a banquet in a hall 
adjoining the works. 

The length of the bridge (from North to South 
Queensferry), with the approaching viaducts, is 
one mile 1,005 yards; the highest part of the bridge 
is 361 feet ; the clear headway under the centre of 
the bridge is 152 feet above high water. The greatest 
number of men employed at one time was 5,000. 56 
lives were lost during the construction, in spite of 
great precautions. 

Estimated cost 1,600,000?., actual cost about 2,500,000/. 

Mr. Matthew William Thompson, chairman of the Forth 
bridge and Midland railway companies, and Mr. John 
Fowler, were created baronets, Mr. Benjamin Baker, 
was made K.C.M.G., and Mr. William Arrol was 
knighted, 1890. 

The bridge was opened for the ordinary railway trains, 
2 June, 1890. 

The bridge slowly crossed by the queen coming south, 
19 June, 1891. 



FORTIFICATION. 



382 



"FOUK MASTERS." 



By the fall of scaffolding through high wind, 3 painters 

killed, 29 Sept. 1891. 
The bridge firmly withstood a violent gale, 29 Jan. 1892. 

FORTIFICATION. The Phoenicians were 
the first people to fortify cities. Apollodorus says 
that Perseus fortified Mycenae, where statues were 
afterwards erected to him. The modern system 
was introduced about 1500. Albert Diirer wrote on 
fortification in 1527 ; and great improvements were 
made by Vauban, who fortified many places in 
France; he died 1707. The new fortifications of 
Paris were completed in 1846 ; see Paris. In Aug. 
i860, the British parliament passed an act for the 
-expenditure of 2,000,000?. in one year upon the 
fortifications of Portsmouth, Plymouth, Pembroke, 
and Portland, the Thames, Medway, and Sheemess, 
Chatham, Dover, and Cork, and on the purchase of 
a central arsenal establishment ; the estimated ex- 
pense being 9,500,000/. A committee to investigate 
•our fortifications was appointed, 16 April, 1868. 

FORTIS, a powerful explosive invented in 
Belgium about 1887, said to be well adapted for 
mining purposes. In May, 1890, it was manu- 
factured by the Fortis Powder and Explosives Com- 
pany. Successful experiments at Liege, 8 Sept. 1891 . 

FORTNIGHTLY REVIEW, first published 
in 1865, edited by G. H. Lewes, succeeded by John 
Morley in 1867 and others. It was afterwards 
published monthly. 

FORTUNATE ISLES, see Canaries. 

FORTUNE BAY AFFAIR, see Canada, 
S878, 1880-1, and Neivfoundland. 

FORTUNE-TELLING is traced to the early | 

astrologers, by whom the planets Jupiter and Venus | 
were supposed to betoken happiness. The Sibyllas 
were women said to be inspired by Heaven; see 
■Sibyls and Gipsies. In England the laws against 
fortune -telling were at one time very severe. A 
declaration was published in France, II Jan. 1680, 
of exceeding severity against fortune-tellers and 
poisoners, under which several persons suffered 
death. Henaidt. Fortune-tellers, although liable 
by the acts of 1743 and 1824 to be imprisoned as 
rogues and vagabonds, still exist in England. 

FORTY-SHILLING FREEHOLDERS, 

see Freeholders. 

FORUM, at Pome, originally a market-place, 
became about 472 B.C. the place of assembly of the 
people in their tribes (the Comitia), and was 
gradually adorned with temples and public build- 
ings. — Near Forum Trebronii, in Mcesia, the 
Romans were defeated by the Goths, Nov. 251. 
After a struggle in the morass, the emperor Dccius 
and his son were slain and their bodies not re- 
covered. See Rome, 1885- 

FOSSALTA, near Bologna, central Italy. 
Here Enzo or Enrico, titular king of Sardinia, 
natural son of the emperor Frederick II., was de- 
feated and made prisoner, 26 May, 1249, and re- 
tained. He was kept in honourable captivity till 
his death, 14 March, 1272. 

FOTHERINGHAY CASTLE (Northamp- 
tonshire), built about 1400. Here Richard III. of 
England was born in 1450 ; and here Mary queen 
of Scots was tried, 11- 14 Oct. 1586, and beheaded, 8 
Feb. 1587. It was demolished by her son, James I. 
of England, in 1 604. 

FOUGHARD, near Dundalk, N. Ireland. 
Here Edward, brother of Robert Bruce, after 
invading Ireland in 1315, w r as defeated by sir John 



Bermingham, 5 Oct: 1318. Bruce was killed by 
Roger de Maupis, a burgess of Dundalk. 

FOUNDLING HOSPITALS are ancient. 
A species of foundling hospital was set up at Milan 
in 787, and in the middle ages most of the principal 
cities of the continent possessed one. The French 
government in 1790 declared foundlings to be the 
" children of the state." 

No Foundling hospital in England when Addison 
wrote in 1713 

London foundling hospital, projected by Thomas 
Coram, a sea-captain, incorporated, Oct. 1739 ; 
opened 2 June, 1756 

Handel gave an organ; opened it . .1 May, 1750 

It succours about 500 infant children ; Coram's 
statue was put up in 1856 

Foundling hospital in Dublin instituted in 1704. 
Owing to great mortality, and from moral con- 
siderations, the internal department was closed 
by order of government . . . 31 March, 1835 

Foundling hospital at Moscow, founded by Cathe- 
rine II. in 1772; about 12,000 children are re- 
ceived annually. 

FOUNTAINE COLLECTION of Renais- 
sance works, Faience, Limoges, Raffaelle, and 
Palissy enamelled ware, &c. (unequalled) ; and 
also a fine collection of coins, medals, carved ivory 
w r ork, &c, formed by sir Andrew Fountaine, in 
the reigns of Anne and George I. ; placed in 
Narford Hall, Norfolk, about 1730; sold by Christie 
and Mans ui for 91,112/., 16-19 June, 1884; by 
the sale of ancient drawings, on 11 July, the sum 
was raised to 96,278/. Sir Andrew "Fountaine 
died in 1873. 

FOUNTAINS. The fountain of Hero of 
Alexandria was invented about 150 B.C. Among 
the remarkable fountains at Rome are the Fontana 
di Trevi, constructed for pope Clement XII. in 
1735; the Fontana Paolina, erected for pope 
Paul V. in 1612 ; and Fontana dell' Acqua Felice, 
called also the Fountain of Moses. The fountains 
in the palace gardens at Versailles, made for 
Louis XIV., and the Grand Jet d'Eau, at St. Cloud, 
are exceedingly beautiful. There are above 100 
public fountains in Paris, the most striking being 
the Chateau d'Eau on the Boulevard St. Martin 
(by Girard, 181 1) and that at the Palais Royal. 
London is not remarkable for fountains ; the 
largest are in Trafalgar-square, constructed in 
1845, after designs by sir Charles Barry. There 
are beautiful fountains at Chatsworth, in Derby- 
shire, the seat of the duke of Devonshire. The 
magnificent fountains at the Crystal Palace, Syden- 
ham, were first publicly exhibited on 18 June, 
1856, in the presence of the queen and 20,000 
spectators. 
The fountain at Park-lane, London, W., the gift of Mrs. 

Brown, was inaugurated and uncovered, 9 July, 1875. 

It has statues of Chaucer, Shakspeare, and Milton, the 

work of Mr. Thomas Croft, and cost 5000L 

FOURIERISM, a social system devised by 
M. Charles Fourier (who died in 1837). The 
Phalanstery (from phalanx), an association of 400 
families living in one edifice, was to be so arranged 
as to give the highest amount of happiness at the 
lowest cost. The system failed ; caused, it is said, 
by the smallness of the scale on which it was 
tried. 

he Familistere, a somewhat similar system, established 

by M. Godin, a manufacturer of stoves &c, at Guise, N. 

France, was reported successful in Jan. 1886. 

."FOUR MASTERS," a name given to 
Michael, Conary, and Cucogry O'Cleiy, and Fer- 
feasa O'Mulconry, who compiled from original 
documents the annals of Ireland from 2242 B.C. to 



FOURTH ESTATE. 



3?3 



FRANCE. 



a.d. 1616. An edition of these " Annals," printed 
from autograph MSS., with a translation edited by 
Dr. John 0' Donovan, was published at Dublin in 
1851. The " Four Masters " lived in the first half 
of the 17th century. 

FOUETH ESTATE. Thomas Carlyle states 
that this term was applied to the newspaper press 
by Edmund Burke when speaking in the House of 
Commons. Burke died 9 July, 1797. 

FOURTH PARTY, a name facetiously given to 
lord Randolph Churchill, sir Henry Drummond 
"Wolff, Mr. (aft. sir) John Gorst, and a few other 
conservative members, active opponents of the gov- 
ernment, also termed "free lances." The other 
parties were liberals, conservatives, and home-rulers 
(1880-5). 

Lord Randolph Churchill and some of his friends 
desire to imitate Radical organization (popular, 
responsible, and representative), advocating 
" tory democracy " May, 1884 

He and some others took office under the 
Salisbury administration . . . June, 1885 

FOX, see Reynard. 

FOX and GRENVILLE ADMINISTRA- 
TION, see Grenville Administration. 

FOX-GLOVE (folks' or^ fairies* glove), a 
handsome indigenous flower. The canary fox-glove 
{Digitalis canariensis) came from the Canary 
inlands, 1698. The Madeira fox-glove came here 
in 1777. The fox-grape shrub {Vitus Vulpina), 
from Virginia, before 1656. 

FRAGA, N.E. Spain. Near here the Christians, 
under Alfonso I. of Aragon, were defeated by the 
Moors, 17 July, 1 134. 

FRANC, the current silver French coin (value 
iOd.), superseded the Here tournois by law in 
1795- 

FRANCE, the Roman Gaul (ivhich see). In 
the 5th century it was conquered by the Franks, a 
people of Germany, then inhabiting Frauconia, 
where they became known about 240. The country 
was gradually named Franhen-ric, Franks' king- 
dom. For the dynastic changes, see list of sove- 
reigns, infra. Previous to the revolution, France 
■was divided into 40 governments. In 1790 it was 
divided into 83 departments, and subsequently into 
130, including Corsica, Geneva, Savoy, and other 
places, chiefly conquests. In 1815 the departments 
were reduced to 86 ; in i860 they were raised to 89 
by the acquisition of Savoy and Nice,* re- 
duced to 87 by the loss of Alsace and Lorraine. The 
political constitution has been frequently changed 
since 1789. For details of more important events, 



* Population of France in 1700, 19,669,320 ; in 1762, 
21,769,163 ; in 1801, 27,349,003 ; in 1820, 30,451,187 ; in 
1836, 33,540,910 ; in 1846, 35,401,761 ; in 1856, 36,039,364; 
in 1861, including the new departments, 37,382,225 ; in 
1872 (after the war), 36,102,921. Population 31 Dec. 
1876, 36,905,788 ; 18 Dec. 1881, 37,672,048 ; 1886 (May), 
38,218,903; 1891,38,343,192. Population of the colonies 
<i876) (in 'Asia, Pondicherry, &c. ; Africa, Algeria, &c. ; 
America, Martinique, Guadaloupe, &c. ; Oceania, the 
Marquesas, &c), in 185S, 3,641,226, in 1872, about 
5,621,000 ; in 1877, about 6,440,660. [Alsace and Lorraine 
lost with population of 1,597,219 in 1871.] In May, 1862, 
the Moniteur asserted the effective army to be 447,000, 
with a reserve of 170,000 : virtually raised to 1,200,000 in 
1868 ; disposable force in 1869, about 1,350,000 ; in 1875, 
1,750,000; in 1880, 2,423,164 men, non-military adjuncts 
nbout 1,330,000. Revenue, 1890-1, 126,611,900'.. ; ex- 
penditure, 126,595,261?. ; 1890, imports, 218,080,000?, ; 
exports, 193,600,000?. 



see separate articles. The title of king of France, 
adopted by the English sovereigns from Edwd. 3rd, 
1340, was given up by Geo. 3 in 1802. 
The Fianks settle in that part of Gaul, till late 

called Flanders about 418 

Clovis, 481 ; defeats Syagrius and the Gauls at 
Soissons, 486 ; and the Alemanni at Tolbiae, near 
Cologne ; and embraces Christianity . . . 496 
He kills Alaric the Goth at the battle of Vougle, 
near Poictiers, unites his conquests from the 
Loire to the Pyrenees, and makes Paris his 

capital 507 

He X'roclaims the Salique law ; and dies, leaving 

four sons 511 

Frequent invasions of the Avars and Lombards, 562-584 
The mayors of the palace now assume almost sove- 
reign authority 584 

Charles Martel becomes mayor of the palace, and 

rules with despotic sway 714 

Invasion of the Saracens, 720 ; defeated by Charles 
Martel, near Tours .... 10 Oct. 732 

Reign of Pepin the Short , 752 

Charlemagne, king, 768 ; conquers Saxony and 
Lombardy, 773-4 ; crowned emperor of the West, 

25 Dee. 800 
The Normans invade Neustria, 876 ; part of which 
is granted Rollo, as Normandy, by Charles the 

Simple 9 ir 

Reign of Hugh Capet 987 

Paris made capital of all France 996 

Letters of franchise granted to cities aud towns by 

Louis VI. 1135 

Louis VII. joins in the Crusades 1146 

Philip Augustus defeats the Germans at Bouvines . 1214 
Louis VIII. , Cmur de Lion, frees his serfs . . . 1224 
Louis IX. conducts an army into Palestine ; takes 
Damietta, 1249 ; see Crusades; dies before Tunis, 

25 Aug. 1270 
Charles of Anjou conquers Naples and Sicily . 1266 
His tyranny leads to the massacre called the Sicilian 

Vespers (which see) 12S2 

Philip the Fair's quarrels with the Pope . . 1101-2 
Knights Templars suppressed .... 1307-8 

Union of France and Navarre 13 14 

English invasion — Philip VI. defeated at Cressy, 

26 Aug. 1346 
Calais taken by Edward III. . . .3 Aug. 1347 

Dauphiny annexed to France 1340 

Battle of Poictiers (which sec) ; king John taken 

(brought prisoner to England) . . 19 Sept. 1356 
France laid under an interdict by the pope . . 1407 
Battle of Agincourt (which see) . . .25 Oct. 1415 
Massacre of the Armaguacs by the Burgunilians, 

June, 1418 
Henry V. of England acknowledged heir to the 

throne I420 

Henry VI. crowned at Paris ; duke of Bedford re- 
gent . 1422 

Siege of Orleans raised, by Joan of Arc, 8 May ; 

battle of Patay ; the English defeated 18 June, 1429 
Joan of Arc burnt at Rouen . . . 30 May, 1431 
England lost all her possessions (but Calais) in 

France, between . ' . . . 1434 and 1450 
'• League of the public good " against Louis XI. 1 ly 1 

the nobles Dec. 1464-Oct. 1465 

Edward IV. of England invades France . . . 1475 
Charles VIII. conquers Naples, 1494 ; loses it . . 1496 
League of Cambray against Venice .... 1508 
Pope Julius II. forms the Holy League against 

France i 5II 

English invasion — battle of Spurs . . 16 Aug. 1513 
Interview on the Field of the Cloth of Gold between 

Francis I. and Henry VIII. of England . . . 1520 
Francis I. defeated and taken at Pavia . 24 Feb. 1525 

IYaee of Cambray 5 Aug. 1529 

Persecution of protestants begins .... 1530 
Royal printing press established, 1531 ; Robert 

Stephens prints his Latin Bible . . . . 1532 
Brittany annexed to France . . ... 
League of England with the emperor Charles V. ; 

Henry VIII. invades France 1544 

Peace with England .... 7 June, 1546 

Successful defence "f Met/, by the duke of Liuise . 1552 
He takes Calais (which sec) . . ... 1558 

Religious wars ; massacre of protestants at Vassy, 

1 March, 1562 
Guise defeats the Huguenots at Dreux 19 Dee. ,, 



FEANCE. 



384 



FEANCE. 



Guise killed at siege of Orleans, 18 Feb. ; temporary 

peace of Amboise .... 19 March, 1563 
Huguenots defeated at St. Denis . . 10 Nov. 1567 
At Jarnae 13 March ; at Moncontour . . 3 Oct. 1569 
Massacre of St. Bartholomew . . .24 Aug. 1572 
" Holy Catholic League " established . . . . 1576 
Duke of Guise assassinated by king's order, 23 

Dec. ; and his brother, the cardinal . 24 Dec. 1588. 
Henry III. stabbed by Jacques Clement, a friar, 1 

Aug. ; died 2 Aug. 1589 

Henry IV. defeats the league at Ivry 14 March, 1590 
Henry IV. becomes a Roman Catholic 25 July, 1593 

The league leaders submit to him . . Jan. 1596 
He promulgates the edict of Nantes . 13 April, 1598 
Silk and other manufactures introduced by him and 

Sully ....-.•• 1606-1610 
Quebec in North America settled . . . . 1608 
Murder of Henry IV. by Ravaillac . . 14 May, 1610 

Regency of Mary de Medici 1610-14 

The states-general meet and complain of the 

management of the finances . . -27 Oct. 1614 
Rise of the Concinis, 1610 ; their fall and death . 1617 

Navarre annexed to France 1620 

Vigorous and successful administration of Richelieu, 

begins with finance 1624 

Rochelle taken after a long siege .... 1628 

"Day of Dupes;" Richelieu's energy defeats the 

machinations of his enemies . . n Nov. 1630 
Richelieu organises the Academic de France . 1634-5 

His death (aged 58) 4 Dec. 1642 

Accession of Louis XIV., aged four years (Anne of 

Austria, regent) 14 Ma Y. 1643 

Administration of Mazarin ; victories of Turenne, 

1643-6 
Civil wars of the Fronde .... 1648, &c. 
Death of Mazarin, 9 March ; Colbert financial 

minister 1661 

War with Holland, &c. 1672 

Canal of Languedoc constructed . . . 1664-81 
Peace of Nimeguen .... 10 Aug. 1678 

Edict of Nantes revoked . . .22 Oct. 1685 

Louis marries Madame de Maintenon . . . . ,, 
War with William III. of England . . . 1689, &c. 

Peace of Ryswick 20 Sept. 1697 

War of the Spanish succession . . Sept. 1701 

French defeated at Blenheim . . .2 Aug. 1704 

At Ramillies 23 May, 1706 

Peace of Utrecht (which see) . . 11 April, 1713 
Dissensions of Jesuits and Jansenists ; the bull 

Unigenitus ...... Sept. „ 

Accession of Louis XV. ; stormy regency of the duke 

of Orleans 1 Sept. 1715, &c. 

Law's bubble in France (see Law) . . . . 1716 
French defeated at Dettingen ... 16 June, 1743 
Successful campaign of marshal Saxe . . . . 1746 
Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle . . . . 18 Oct. 1748 
Seven years' war begun .... May, 1756 
Damiens' attempt on life of Louis XV. . 5 Jan. 1757 
Canada lost— battle of Quebec . . 13 Sept. 1759 

The Jesuits banished from France, and their effects 

conflscateu I 7^ 2 

Peace of Paris ; Canada ceded to England, 10 Feb. 1763 
Louis XV. enslaved by madame du Barry . . . 1769 

Deat.li of Louis XV 10 May, 1774 

Famine riots at Versailles .... May, 1775 
The minister Turgot dismissed . . May, 1776 

Ministry of Necker Nov. ,, 

Louis XVI. assists America to throw off its depen- 
dence on England, at first secretly . . . . 1778 
Torture abolished in French judicature . . .3780 
Peace of Versailles with England . . 3 Sept. 1783 
The diamond-necklace affair (which see) . . -1785 
Meeting of the assembly of notables, 22 Feb. 1787 ; 

again 6 Nov. 1788 

Opening of states general (308 ecclesiastics, 285 

nobles ; 621 deputies, tiers etat) . 5 May, 1789 

The tiers etat constitute themselves the National 

Assembly 17 June, ,, 

The French revolution commences with the de- 
struction of the Bastille (which see) . 14 July, „ 
The National Assembly decrees that the title of the 

" king of France " shall be changed to that of the 

" king of the French " .... 16 Oct. „ 
The property of the clergy confiscated . 2 Nov. ,, 

Emigration of nobles . . . . Oct. -Dec. „ 
Confederation of the Champ de Mars ; France de- 
clared a limited monarchy ; Louis XVI. swears 
to maintain the constitution . 14 July, 1790 



The silver plate used in the churches transferred to 

the mint and coined ... 3 March, i79r 

Death of Mirabeau .... 2 April, ,, 

The king, queen, ami royal family arrested at 

Varennes, in their flight . . . .21 June, ,, 
Louis (a prisoner) sanctions the National Constitu- 
tion 15 Sept. „ 

War declared against the emperor . 20 April, 1792 
The Jacobin club declare their sittings permanent, 

18 June, ,, 
The multitude, bearing the red bonnet of liberty, 

march to the Tuileries to make demands on the 
king . 20 June, ,, 

First coalition against France ; commencement of 
the great French war .... June, ,, 
[See Battles, 1792 to 1815.] 
The royal Swiss guards cut to pieces ; massacre of 

5000 persons ..... 10 Aug. ,, 
Revolutionary tribunal set up . . . 19 Aug. ,, 
Decreeof the National Assembly against the priests ; 

40,000 exiled ..... 26 Aug. ,, 
Massacre in Paris ; the prisons broken open, and 

1200 persons (100 priests) slain . 2-5 Sept. ,, 
Murder of the princess de Lamballe . 3 Sept. ,, 
The National Convention opened . 17 Sept. ,, 
Convention establishes a republic, 20 Sept. ; pro- 
claimed 22 Sept. ,, 

Duke of Brunswick defeated at Valmy 20 Sept. ,, 
The French people declare their fraternity with 
all nations who desire to be free, and offer help, 

19 Nov. ,, 

Flanders conquered Dec. 

Decree for the perpetual banishment of the Bourbon 

family, those confined in the Temple excepted, 

20 Dec. ,, 
Louis imprisoned in the Temple distinct from the 

queen, and brought to trial, 19 Jan. ; condemned 
to death, 20 Jan. Beheaded in the Flace de Louis 

Ouinzp. .21 Jan. 1793 

Committee of public safety established 21 Jan. ,, 
War with England and Holland declared 1 Feb. „ 

War in La Vendee March, „ 

Reign of terror — proscription of Girondists, 31 

May; establishment of convention 23 June, ,, 

Marat stabbed by Charlotte Corday . 13 July, „ 
The queen beheaded . ... 16 Oct. ,, 

Execution of the Girondists . . . 31 Oct. ,, 

Philip Egalite, duke of Orleans, who had voted for 
the king's death, guillotined at Paris (see Orleans), 
6 Nov. ; and madame Roland . . 8 Nov. ,, 
Worship of goddess of reason . . 10 Nov. ,, 

Adoption of new republican calendar . 24 Nov. ,, 
Execution of Danton and others, 5 April ; of madame 
Elizabeth ... ... 12 May, 1794 

Robespierre president, 4 June ; he and 71 others 

guillotined 28 July, ,, 

Abolition of the Revolutionary Tribunal 15 Dec. ,, 

Peace with Prussia 5 April, 1795 

Insurrection of the Faubourgs . . 20, 21 May, ,, 
Louis XVII. dies in prison ... 8 June, ,, 
French directory chosen . . . .1 Nov. ,, 
Bonaparte's successful campaigns in Italy, 1796, &c 
Babeuf s conspiracy suppressed . . 12 May, ,, 
Pichegru's conspiracy fails . . . May, 1797 

Expedition to Syria and Egypt (which see) July, 1798 
European coalition against France . . April, 1799 
Council of live Hundred deposed by Bonaparte, 

who is declared First Consul . . 10 Nov. ,, 
He defeats the Austrians at Marengo . 14 June, 1800 
His life attempted by the infernal machine, 24 Dec. „ 
Peace of Amiens (with England, Spain, and Hol- 
land) signed .... 25-27 March, 1802 
Amnesty to the emigrants . . . April, ,, 
Legion of Honour instituted . . .19 May, ,, 
Bonaparte made consul for life . . • 2 Aug. ,, 
The bank of France established . . 14 April, 1803 
Declaration of war against England . 22 May, „ 
Conspiracy of Moreau and Pichegru against Bona- 
parte, 15 Feb. ; Pichegru found strangled in prison 

(see Georges) 6 April, 1804 

Due d'Enghien executed . . . .21 March, ,, 
France made an empire ; Napoleon proclaimed em- 
peror, 18 May ; crowned by the pope 2 Dec. ,, 
He is crowned king of Italy . . .26 May, 1805 
Another coalition against France . . . Aug. ,, 
Napoleon defeats the allies at Austerlitz 2 Dee. „ 
And the Prussians at Jena . . .14 Oct. 1806 
And the Russians at Eylau ... 8 Feb. 1S07 



FKANCE. 



385 



FRANCE. 



His interview with the czar at Tilsit, 26 June ; peace 

signed 7 July, 

His Milan decree against British commerce, 

17 Dec. 

New nobility of France created . . 1 March, 

Abdication of Charles IV. of Spain and his son, in 

favour of Napoleon, 5 May ; insurrection in Spain, 

27 May, 
Commencement of the Peninsular war (see Spain), 

July, 
Alliance of England and Austria against France, 

April, 
Victories in Austria; Napoleon enters Vienna, May, 

Peace of Vienna 14 Oct. 

Divorce of the emperor and empress Josephine 

decreed by the senate . . . .16 Dec. 

Marriage of Napoleon to Maria Louisa of Austria, 

1 April, 
Holland united to France ... 9 July, 
Birth of the king of Rome (since styled Napoleon II. ), 

20 March, 18 
War with Russia declared . . .22 June, 18 

Victory at Borodino 7 Sept. , 

Disastrous retreat ; French army nearly destroyed, 

Oct. , 
Alliance of Austria, Russia, and Prussia against 

France March, 18 

The British enter France . . . .7 Oct. , 
Surrender of Paris to the allies . . 31 March, 18 
Abdication of Napoleon negotiated . 5 April, , 
Bourbon dynasty restored, and Louis XVIII. arrives 

in Paris 3 May, , 

Napoleon arrives at Elba .... 4 May, , 
The Constitutional Charter decreed . 4-10 June, , 
Quits Elba, and lands at Cannes . 1 March, 18 

Arrives at Fontainebleau (the 100 clays), 20 March, , 
Joined by all the army ... 22 March, , 
The allies sign a treaty against him . March, , 
He abolishes the slave trade . . 29 March, , 
Leaves Paris for the army ... 12 June, , 
Defeated at Waterloo . . . .18 June, , 
Returns to Paris, 20 June ; abdicates in favour of 

his infant son 22 June, , 

Intending to embark for America, he arrives at 

Rochefort 3 July, , 

Louis XVIII. enters Paris . . . .3 July, 

Napoleon surrenders to capt. Maitland, of the 

Bellertrphon, at Rochefort . . .15 July, 

Transferred at Torbay to the Northumberland, and 

with admiral sir George Cockburn sails for St. 

Helena 8 Aug. 

Arrives at St. Helena to remain for life 15 Oct. 

Execution of marshal Ney ... 7 Dec. 
The family of Bonaparte excluded for ever from 

France by the law of amnesty 
Duke of Berry murdered 
Death of Napoleon I. (see Wills) 
Louis XVIII. dies ; Charles X. king , 
National Guard disbanded 
War with Algiers ; dey's fleet defeated 
Seventy-six new peers created 
Election riots at Paris ; barricades ; several per- 
sons killed 19-20 Nov. ,, 

The Villele ministry replaced by the Martignac, 

4 Jan. 1828 
Beranger imprisoned for political songs 10 Dec. „ 
Polignac administration formed . . 8 Aug. 1829 
Chamber of deputies dissolved . . 16 May, 1830 

Algiers taken 5 July, „ 

The obnoxious ordinances regarding the press, 
and reconstruction of the chamber of deputies, 

26 July, ,, 
Revolution commences with barricades 27 July, ,, 
Conflicts in Paris between the populace (ulti- 
mately aided by the national guard) and the army, 

28-30 July, ,, 
Charles X. retires to Rambouillet ; flight of his 

ministry, 31 July ; he abdicates . . 2 Aug. ,, 
The duke of Orleans accepts the crown as Louis- 
Philippe 1 7 Aug. „ 

The constitutional charter of July published, 

14 Aug. ,, 
Charles X. retires to England . . 17 Aug. ,, 
Polignac and other ministers tried and sentenced to 

perpetual imprisonment 21 Dec. „ 

The abolition of the hereditary peerage decreed 
by both chambers ; the peers (36 new peers being 



12 Jan. 


1816 


13 Feb. 


1820 


5 May, 


1821 


16 Sept. 


1824 


30 April, 


1827 


4 Nov. 


,, 


5 Nov. 


„ 



created) concurring by a majority of 103 to 70, 

27 Dec. 1831 
The ABC (abaisses) insurrection in Paris sup- 
pressed 5-6 June, 1832 

Charles X. leaves Holyrood-house for the conti- 
nent 18 Sept. ,, 

Ministry of Soult, duke of Dalmatia . . 11 Oct. ,, 
Bergeron and Benoit tried for an attempt on the 

life of Louis-Philippe ; acquitted . 18 March, 1833 
The duchess of Berry, who has been delivered of a 
female child, and asserts her secret marriage 
with an Italian nobleman, sent to Palermo, 9 June, , . 
Death of La Fayette . . . .20 May, 1834 
Marshal Gerard takes office . . .15 July, ,, 

M. Dupuytren dies 8 Feb. 1835 

Due de Broglie, minister .... Feb. ,, 
Fieschi attempts the king's life . . 28 July, ,, 
[He fired an infernal machine as the king and his 
sons rode along the lines of the national guard, 
on the Boulevard du Temple. The machine 
consisted of twenty-five barrels, charged with 
various missiles, and lighted simultaneously by a 
train of gunpowder. The king and his sons es- 
caped ; but marshal Mortier, duke of Treviso, 
was shot dead, many officers dangerously 
wounded, and upwards of forty persons killed 
or injured.] 

Fieschi executed 19 Feb. 1836 

Louis Alibaud fires at the king on his way from the 

Tuileries, 25 June ; guillotined . . 11 July, „ 
Ministry of count Mole, vice M. Thiers . 6 Sept. ,, 

Death of Charles X 6 Nov. ,, 

Attempted insurrection at Strasburg by Louis 
Napoleon (afterwards emperor), planned, it is 
said, by Filain de Persigny, 29-30 Oct. ; he is sent 

to America 13 Nov. ,, 

Prince Polignac and others set at liberty from Ham, 

and sent out of France . . . -23 Nov. ,, 
Meunier fires at the king on his way to open the 

French Chambers ... 27 Dec. ,, 
Amnesty for political offences ... 8 May 1837 
" Idees Napoleoniennes," by prince Louis Napo- 
leon, published 1838" 

Talleyrand dies 20 May, ,, 

Marshal Soult at the coronation of the queen of 

England 28 June, ,, 

Birth of the count of Paris . . . 24 Aug. ,, 
Death of the duchess of Wurtemberg (daughter of 

Louis Philippe), a good sculptor . . 2 Jan. 1839 
Insurrection of Barbes and Blanqui at Paris, 12 May, ,, 
M. Thiers, minister of foreign affairs . 1 March, 1840 
The chambers decree the removal of Napoleon's re- 
mains from St. Helena to France . .12 May, ,, 
[By the permission of the British government these 
were taken from the tomb at St. Helena (15 Oct. 
1840), and embarked on the next day on board 
the Belle Poule French frigate, under the com- 
mand of the prince de Joinville ; the vessel 
reached Cherbourg on 30 November ; and on 15 
December the body was deposited in the Hotel 
des Invalides. The ceremony was witnessed by 
1,000,000 of persons ; 130,000 soldiers assisted in 
the obsequies : and the royal family and all the 
high personages of the realm were present ; all 
the relatives of the emperor were absent, being; 
proscribed, and in exile or in prison. The body- 
was finally placed in its crypt on 31 March, 
1861.] 
Descent of prince Louis Napoleon, general Montho- 
lon, and 50 followers, at Vimereux, near Bou- 
logne, 6 Aug. ; the prince sentenced to imprison- 
ment for life 6 Oct. ,, 

Darines fires at the king ... 15 Oct. , y 

M. Guizot, minister of foreign affairs . 29 Oct. ,, 
Project of law for an extraordinary credit of 140,000,000 
of francs, for erecting the fortifications of Paris, 

15 Dec. ,, 
The duration of copyright to 30 years after the 

author's death, fixed . . . .30 March, 1S41 
Bronze statue of Napoleon placed on the column 
of the grande armee, Boulogne . 15 Aug. 

Attempt to assassinate the duke of Aumale (king's 

son) on return from Africa . . 13 Sept. ,, 

The duke of Orleans, heir to the throne, killed by a 

fall from his carnage . . . .13 J lll y> 1842 
The queen of England visits the royal family at 

Chateau d'Eu 2 to 7 Sept 1843 

An extradition treaty with England signed . . „ 

C O 



FKANCE. 



386 



FRANCE. 



War with Morocco, May ; peace . . 10 Sept. 1844 
The king visits England ; received by the queen 6 

Oct. ; installed k.g. 9 Oct. ; departs . 13 Oct „ 
Attempt of Lecompte to assassinate the king at 

Fontainebleau 16 April, 1846 

Louis Napoleon escapes from Ham . 25 May, ,, 
The seventh attempt on the life of the king : by 

Joseph Henri 29 July, „ 

Spanish marriages : marriage of the queen of Spain 
with her cousin, and of the due de Montpensier 
with the infanta of Spain ... 10 Oct. „ 
Disastrous inundations in the south . . 18 Oct. ,, 
The Praslin murder (see Praslin) . . 18 Aug. 1847 
Death of marshal Oudinot (duke of Reggio) at Paris, 
in his 91st year, 13 Sept. ; Soult made general of 
France, in his room .... 26 Sept. ,, 
Jerome Bonaparte returns to France after an exile 

of 32 years 10 Oct. ,, 

Surrender of Abd-el-Kader . . . 23 Dec. ,* 
Death of the ex-empress, Maria Louisa, 18 Dec. ; 

and of madame Adelaide . . . • 3° Dec. „ 
The grand reform banquet at Paris prohibited, 

21 Feb. 1848 
Revolutionary tumult in consequence; impeach- 
ment and resignation of Guizot, 22 Feb. ; barri- 
cades thrown up, the Tuileries ransacked, the 
prisons opened, and frightful disorders committed, 

23-24 Feb. „ 
Louis Philippe abdicates in favour of his infant 
grandson, the comte de Paris, who is not ac- 
cepted ; the royal family and ministers escape, 

24 Feb. ,, 
A republic proclaimed from the steps of the Hotel 

deVille 26 Feb. „ 

The ex-king and queen arrive at Newhaven in Eng- 
land 3 March, „ 

Grand funeral procession in honour of the victims 

of the revolution 4 March, „ 

The provisional government resigns to an executive 
commission, elected by the National Assemblv of 
the French Republic . ■ - 7 Ma y> .. 

[The members of this new trovernment were : MM. 
Dupont de l'Eure, Arago, Garnier-Pages, Marie, 
Lamartine Ledru-Rollin, and Cremieux. The 
secretaries : Louis Blanc, Albert, Flocon, and 
Marrast.] 
The people's attack on the assembly suppressed, 

15 May, „ 
Perpetual banishment of Louis Philippe and his 

family decreed 26 May, „ 

Election of Louis Napoleon (to the National As- 
sembly) for the department of the Seine and three 
other departments .... 13 June, „ 

Rise of the red Republicans : war against the troops 
and national guard ; more than 300 barricades 
thrown up, and firing continues in all parts of 
Paris during the night ... 23 June, „ 
The troops under Cavaignac and Lamoriciere, with 
immense loss, drive the insurgents from the left 

bank of the Seine 24 June, „ 

Paris declared in a state of siege . . 25 June, „ 
The Faubourg du Temple carried with cannon, and 

the insurgents surrender ... 26 June, ,, 
[The national losses caused by this outbreak esti- 
mated at 30,000,000 francs ; 16,000 persons killed 
and wounded, and 8000 prisoners were taken. The 
archbishop of Paris was killed while tending the 
dying, 26 June.] 
Cavaignac, president of the council . . 28 June, „ 
Louis Napoleon takes his seat in the National As- 
sembly 26 Sept. „ 

Paris relieved from a state of siege, which had con- 
tinued four months .... 20 Oct. ,, 
Solemn promulgation of the constitution of 4 Nov. , 

in front of the Tuileries . . . .12 Nov. „ 
Louis Napoleon elected president of the French 

republic, 11 Dec. ; proclaimed . . 20 Dec. „ 
[He had 5,587,759 votes ; Cavaignac, 1,474,687 ; Le- 
dru-Rollin, 381,026; Raspail, 37,121 ; Lamartine, 
21,032 ; and Changarnier, 4,975.] 
Military demonstration to stifle an anticipated in- 
surrection of the reds . . . . "29 Jan. 1849 
Death of king Louis Philippe, at Claremont, in 

England 26 Aug. 1850 

Liberty of the press restricted . . 26 Sept. ,, 
Gen. Changarnier deprived of the command of the 
national guard , - , 10 Jan. 185 1 



Death of the duchess of Angouleme, daughter of 

Louis XVI. , at Frohsdorf . . . 19 Oct. 1851 

Death of marshal Soult .... 26 Oct. „ 
Electric telegraph between England and France 

opened 13 Nov. ,, 

Factious oppositions in the chamber ; alleged plots 

Nov. ,, 
Coup d'etat planned by the prince-president, Per- 
signy, and De Morny ; carried out by C. de 
Maupas, minister of police, St. Arnaud, and 
others ; legislative assembly dissolved ; universal 
suffrage established, and Paris declared in a state 
of siege ; the election of a president for ten years 
proposed, and a second chamber or senate, 

2 Dec. ,, 
MM. Thiers, Changarnier, Cavaignac, Bedeau, La- 
moriciere, and Charres arrested, and sent to the 
castle of Vincennes .... 2 Dec. ,, 

About 180 members of the assembly, with M. Ber- 
ryer at their head, attempting to meet, are ar- 
rested, and Paris is occupied by troops. 

2 Dec. „ 
M. Charles Baudin, a deputy, shot dead while 

protesting against the violation of the law 2 Dec. „ 
Sanguinary conflicts in Paris ; the troops victorious, 

3-4 Dec. „ 
Consultative commission founded . . 12 Dec. „ 
Voting throughout France for the election of a 
president of the republic for ten years ; affirma- 
tive votes 7,473,431, negative votes 641,351. 

21-22 Dec. ,, 
Installation of the prince-president in the cathe- 
dral of Notre Dame ; the day observed as a 
national holiday at Paris, and Louis Napoleon 
takes up his residence at the Tuileries, 

1 Jan. 1852 
Generals Changarnier, Lamoriciere, and others, 

conducted to the Belgian frontier . . 9 Jan. ,, 
83 members of the legislative assembly banished ; 
575 persons arrested for resistance to the coup 
d'etat Of 2 Dec. , and conveyed to Havre for trans- 
portation to Cayenne .... 10 Jan. ,, 

[The inscription " Lioerty, Fraternity, Equality," 
ordered to be forthwith erased throughout France, 
and the old names of streets, public buildings, 
and places of resort to be restored. The trees 
of liberty are everywhere hewn down and 
burnt. ] 
The national guard disbanded, reorganised anew, 
and placed under the control of the executive ; 
the president appointing the officers . 10 Jan. „ 
A new constitution published . . 14 Jan. ,, 

Decree obliging the Orleans family to sell all their 
real and personal property in France within a 
year ....... 22 Jan. ,, 

Second decree, annulling the settlement made by 
Louis Philippe upon his family previous to his 
accession in 1830, and annexing the property to 
the domain of the state . . . .22 Jan. „ 

The birthday of Napoleon I. (15 Aug.) decreed to be 

the only national holiday . . . 17 Feb. ,, 
The departments of France released from a state of 
siege ...... 27 March, ,, 

Legislative chambers installed . . 29 March, ,, 
A crystal palace authorised to be erected in the 

Champs Elysees at Paris . . -30 March, ,, 
Plot to assassinate the prince-president discovered 

at Paris 1 July, ,, 

President's visit to Strasburg . . ig July, ,, 
M. Thiers and others permitted to return to France, 

8 Aug. „ 
The French senate prays " the re-establishment of 
the hereditary sovereign power in the Bonaparte 

family " 13 Sept. ,, 

Enthusiastic reception of the prince-president at 

Lyons . . ■ 19 Sept. ,, 

Infernal machine, to destroy the prince-president, 

seized at Marseilles .... 23 Sept. „ 
Prince-president visits Toulon, 27 Sept. ; and Bor- 
deaux, where he says "the empire is peace" 
(L'Empire e'est lapaix) .... 7 Oct. ,, 
He releases Abd-el-Kader (see Algiers) . 16 Oct. , 
He convokes the senate for November to deliberate 
on a change of government, when a senatus consul- 
turn, will be proposed for the ratification of the 

French people 19 Oct. -" 

Protest of comte de Chambord . . .25 Oct. ' 



FRANCE. 



387 



FRANCE. 



Ju his message to the senate, the prince-president 
announces the contemplated restoration of the 
empire, and orders the people to he consulted 

upon this change 4 ~biov. 1852 

Votes for the empire, 7,824,189; noes, 253,145; 

null, 63,326 21 Nov. „ 

The prince-president declared emperor ; assumes 
the title of Napoleon III. . . . 2 Dec. „ 

His marriage with Eugenie de Montijo, countess of 
Teba, at Notre-Dame .... 29 Jan. 1853 

4312 political offenders pardoned . . .2 Feb. ,, 
Bread riots . . . . . . Sept. ,, 

Military camp at Satory, near Paris . . Sept. „ 
Emperor and empress visit the provinces (many 

political prisoners discharged) . . . Oct. ,, 
Francis Arago, astronomer, &c. , died . . 2 Oct. „ 
Attempted assassination of the emperor — ten per- 
sons transported for life .... Nov. ,, 

Reconciliation of the two branches of the Bourbons 
at Frohsdorf . . . . . .20 Nov. ,, 

Marshal Ney's statue inaugurated exactly 38 years 
after his death on the spot where it occurred, 

7 Dec. ,, 
War declared against Russia (see Russo-Turkish War) 

27 March, 1854 
Visit of prince Albert at Boulogne . 5 Sept. ,, 
Death of marshal St. Arnaud . . . 29 Sept. „ 
Emperor and empress visit London 16-21 April, 1855 
Industrial exhibition at Paris opened . 15 May ,, 
■Queen Victoria and prince Albert visit France, 

18-27 Aug. ,, 
Attempted assassination of the emperor by Pianort, 
28 April ; by Bellemarrc . ... 8 Sept. ,, 

Death of count Mole 24 Nov. ,, 

. Birth of the imperial prince ; amnesty granted to 

1000 political prisoners ... 16 March, 1856 
Peace with Russia signed . . 30 March, ,, 

Awful inundation in the south . . . June, ,, 
^Subscriptions in London to relieve the sufferers 
amounted to 43,000^. Sir Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy, 
of Bombay, gave 500L for the same purpose.] 
Distress in money market .... 6 Oct. ,, 
Sibour, archbishop of Paris, assassinated by Verger, 

a priest 3 Jan. 1857 

Elections (3,000,000 voters to elect 257 deputies) : 
gen. Cavaignac elected deputy, but declines to 

take the oath 21, 22 June, ,, 

•Conspiracy to assassinate the emperor in Paris de- 
tected n July, ,, 

Death of Beranger, popular poet . . 16 July, ,, 
Longwood, the residence of Napoleon I. at St. 

Helena, bought for 180,000 francs . . . . ,, 
The conspirators Grilli, Bartolotti, and Tibaldi, 
tried, convicted, and sentenced to transportation, 

&c 6, 7 Aug. ,, 

Emperor and empress visit England . 6-10 Aug. ,, 
The emperor meets the emperor of Russia at Stutt- 
gart 25 Sept. ,, 

Death of Eugene Cavaignac (aged 55) . 28 Oct. ,, 
■Death of Mdlle. Rachel (aged 38) . . 4 Jan. 1858 
Attempted assassination of the emperor by Orsini, 
Pieri, Rudio, Gomez, &c, by the explosion of 
three shells (two persons killed, many wounded) 

14 Jan. ,, 
.(Felix Orsini, a man of talent and energy, earnest to 
obtain Italian independence, was born Dec. 1819 ; 
studied at Bologna in 1837 ; joined a secret society 
in 1843 ; was arrested and condemned to the gal- 
leys for life in 1844 ; was released in 1846 ; took 
part in the Roman revolution in 1848, when he 
was elected a member of the assembly ; and on the 
fall of the republic, fled to Genoa in 1849, anil 
came to England in 1853. Entering into fresh 
conspiracies, he was arrested in Hungary, Jan. 
1855, and sent to Mantua ; he escaped thence and 
came to England in 1856, where he associated 
with Kossuth, Mazzini, &c. ; delivered lectures, 
and where he devised the plot for which he suf- 
fered. In his will he acknowledged the justice of 
his sentence.] 
Public safety bill passed— bold protest against it by 

Ollivier 18 Feb. „ 

France divided into five military departments ; 
general Espinasse becomes minister of the interior, 

Feb. , 
"Napoleon III. ct VAngktcrre" published n Mar. ,, 



Intemperate speeches in France against England- 
misconceptions between the two countries par- 
tially removed in March, 1858 

Republican outbreak at Chalons suppressed 

9 March, ,, 
Orsmi and Pieri executed . . .13 March, 
Simon Bernard, tried in London as their accomplice^ 

acquitted I2 . I7 April, „ 

Marshal Pelissier, ambassador to London, 

15 April, ,, 
Espinasse retires from ministry of the interior [he 
was killed at the battle of Magenta, 4 June, 1859] 

June, ,, 
Queen of England meets the emperor ; visits Cher- 

_, bo'uig 4> 5 Aug. „ 

Conference at Paris respecting the Danubian prin- 
cipalities closes IQ Aug. „ 

Dispute with Portugal respecting the Charles et 

Georges (lolnoh sec) settled ... 23 Oct. „ 

Trial of comte de Montalembert . . 25 Nov. 
[In Oct. 1858, the comte published a pamphlet en- 
titled " Un Debat sur I'Inde," eulogising English 
institutions and depreciating those of France. 
He was sentenced to six months' imprisonment 
and a fine of 3000 francs, but was pardoned by the 
emperor, 2 Dec. The comte appealed against the 
sentence of the court, and was again condemned ; 
but acquitted of a part of the charge. The sen- 
tence was once more remitted by the emperor 
(21 Dec). In Oct. 1859, the comte published a 
pamphlet entitled *' Fie IX. et la France en 1849 
et 1859," in which Ens-land is severely censured 
for opposition to popery.] 
Emperor's address to the Austrian ambassador (see 

Austria) r j an . l8sg 

Marriage of prince Napoleon to princess Clotilde of 
Savoy . . . . . . . 30 Jan. ,, 

Publication of " Napoleon III. et I'ltalie " . Feb. 

On the Austrians invading Sardinian territories, 

France declares war, and the French enter ; the 

empress appointed regent ; the emperor arrives at 

Genoa 12 May, „ 

Loan of 20,000,000 francs raised . . 21 May, ,, 
Victories of the allies (French and Sardinians) at 
Montebello, 20 May ; Palestro, 30, 31 May ; Ma- 
genta, 4 June ; Melegnano (Marignano), 8 June ; 
Napoleon enters Milan, 8 June ; victory of allies 

at Solferino 24 June, 

Armistice agreed on 6 July, 

Meeting of emperors of France and Austria at Villa 

Franca „ jxtly, 

Peace agreed on I2 July, 

Louis Napoleon returns to Paris 17 July, 

The emperor addresses the senate, 19 July ; and the 

diplomatic body 21 July, 

Reduction of the army and navy ordered . Aug. 
Conference of Austrian and French envoys at Zurich 

(see Zurich) 8 Aug. -No v. 

Amnesty to political offenders . 17-18 Aug. 
Violent attacks of the French press on England re- 
pressed Nov. 

" he Pape et le Congres " published ; 50,000 sold in a 

few days . Dec. 

Count Walewski, the foreign minister, resigns ; 

M. Thouvenel succeeds him . . Jan. i860 

The emperor announces a free trade policy ; Mr. 

Cobden at Paris 5 Jan. 

Commercial treaty with England signed . 23 Jan. 
L'Univcrs suppressed forpublishingthe pope'sletter 

to the emperor. 29 Jan. 

Treaty for the annexation of Savoy and Nice signed 

24 March, 
The press censured for attacking England, 

7 April, 
The emperor meets the German sovereigns at Baden 

15-17 June, 
Jerome Bonaparte, the emperor's uncle, dies 

(aged 76) 24 June, 

The emperor, in a letter to count Persigny, dis- 
claims hostility to England . . .25 July, 
The emperor and empress visit Savoy, Corsica, and 

Algiers i-i 7 Sept 

New tariff comes into operation . . . 1 Oct. 

Public levying of Peter's pence forbidden, and free 

issue of pastoral letters checked . . . Nov. 

The empress visits London, Edinburgh, Glasgow, 

&c, privately Nov.-Dec 

c c 2 



FBANCE. 



FKANCE. 



Important ministerial changes ; greater liberty of 
speech granted to the chambers ; two sets of 
ministers appointed — speakers and administra- 
tors ; Pelissier made governor of Algeria ; Per- 
signy, minister of the interior ; Flahault, English 
ambassador.. .... Nov. & Dec. i860 

Passports for Englishmen to cease after 1 Jan. 1861 

16 Dec. ,, 

Six bishoprics vacant Dec. ,, 

Persigny relaxes the bondage of the press, Dec. 11 ; 

[but for a short time] .... 20 Dec. ,, 
The emperor advises the pope to surrender his re- 
volted provinces 31 Dec. ,, 

" Rome et les Eveques " published . . . 6 Jan. 1861 
Jerome (son of Jerome Bonaparte and Elizabeth 
Paterson, an American lady) claims his legitimate 
rights ; non-suited after a trial 25 Jan. -15 Feb. „ 
[The marriage took place in America, on 24 Dec. 
1803 ; but was annulled, and Jerome married the 
princess Catherine of Wurtemberg, 12 Aug. 1807 ; 
their children are the prince Napoleon and the 
princess Mathilde (see Bonaparte). ] 
Purchase of the principality of Monaco for 4,000,000 

francs, Feb. 2; announced . . . 5 Feb., ,, 
Meeting of French chambers, 4 Feb. ; stormy de- 
bates in the chambers . . Feb. & March, ,, 
" La France, Rome, et Vltalie " published 15 Feb. ,, 
Angry reply to it by the bishop of Poitiers, who 

compares the emperor to Pilate . . 27 Feb. „ 
Failure of Mires, a railway banker and loan con- 
tractor, &c. ; he is arrested . . .17 Feb. ,, 
Many influential persons suspected of participating 
in his frauds ; the government promise strict 

justice Feb. & March, ,, 

Eugene Scribe, dramatist, dies (aged 80) 20 Feb. „ 
Speech of prince Napoleon in favour of Italian 
unity, the English alliance, and against the pope's 
temporal government . . . 1 March, ,, 

Strong advocacy of the temporal government of the 
pope in the chambers ; the French army stated to 
consist of 687,000 men . . . March, „ 
Circularforbiddingthe priests to meddle withpolitics 

11 April, ,, 
Liberal commercial treaty with Belgium . 1 May, „ 
Publication in Paris of the due dAumale's severe 
letter to prince Napoleon, 13 April. Printer and 
publisher fined and imprisoned . . . May, „ 
Declaration of neutrality in the American conflict 

11 June, ,, 
Official recognition of kingdom of Italy . 24 June, ,, 

Visit of king of Sweden 6 Aug. ,, 

Conflict between French and Swiss soldiers at Ville- 

la-Grande 18 Aug. ,, 

Mires, the speculator, sentenced to five years' im- 
prisonment 29 Aug. „ 

Commercial treaty between France, Great Britain, 

and Belgium comes into operation . 1 Oct. „ 
Meeting of emperor and king of Prussia at Com- 

piegne, 6 Oct. ; and king of Holland . 12 Oct. ,, 
French troops enter the valley of Dappes (Switzer- 
land) to prevent an arrest ... 27 Oct. „ 
Convention between France, Great Britain, and 
Spain, respecting intervention in Mexico, signed „ 

(see Mexico) 31 Oct. „ 

Embarrassment in the government finances ; Achille 
Fould becomes finance minister, 14 Nov. ; with 

enlarged powers 12 Dec. „ 

The emperor reminds the clergy of their duty " to- 
wards Ctesar " z Jan. 1862 

French army lands at Vera Cruz . . .7 Jan. „ 
The French masters of the province of Bienhoa, in 

Annam 20 Jan. „ 

Fruitless meeting of French and Swiss commis- 
sioners respecting the Ville-la-Grande conflict 

3 Feb. „ 
Fould announces his finance scheme (reduction of 
4j per cent, stock to 3 per cent. , and additional 
taxes and stamp duties) ... 24 Feb. ,. 
Fierce debate in the legislative chamber, in which 

prince Napoleon takes part . . .27 Feb. „ 
French victories in Cochin-China (6 provinces ceded 

to France) 28 March, „ 

The Spanish and British plenipotentiaries decide to 
quit Mexico ; the French declare war against the 
Mexican government (for the events see Mexico) 

16 April, ,, 



Sentence against Mires examined and reversed at 

Douai ; he is released . . . .21 April, 1862: 
Treaty of peace between France and Annam signed 

3 June, 
Duke Pasquier dies (aged 96) . . 5 July, 

New commercial treaty with Prussia . 2 Aug. 
Newspaper La France, opposed to Italian unity, set 

up by Lagueronniere Aug. 

Ship Prince Jerome, with reinforcements for Mexico, 

burnt near Gibraltar ; crew saved . . Aug. 

Camp at Chalons formed on account of Garibaldi's 

movements in Sicily ; broken, when he is taken 

prisoner 29 Aug. 

Great sympathy for him in France . . Sept. 
Treaty of commerce with Madagascar . 12 Sept. 
Drouyn de Lhuys made foreign minister in room of 

Thouvenel 15 Oct. 

Baron Gros, ambassador at London in room of 
cornte de Flahault, resigned . . 18 Nov. 
Serjeant Glover brings an action in the court of 
queen's bench against the eomte de Persigny and 
M. Billault, claiming 14,000?. for subsidising the 
Morning Chronicle, and other newspapers 22 Nov. 
The emperor inaugurates "Boulevard Prince Eu- 
gene," Paris 7 Dec. 

Great distress in the manufacturing districts through 
the cotton famine and the civil war in America 

Dec. 
Treaty of commerce with Italy signed . 17 Jan. : 
Revolt in Annam suppressed . . .26 Feb. 
Convention regulating the French and Spanish fron- 
tiers concluded 27 Feb. 

Resignation of Magne, the " speaking minister," in 

the assembly 1 April, 

Dissolution of the chambers ... 8 May, 
Persigny issues arbitrary injunctions to electors 

May, 
Thiers, Ollivier, Favre, and other opposition candi- 
dates elected in Paris . . 31 May- 15 June, 
Changes in the ministry — resignation of Persigny, 
Walewski, and Rouland ... 23 June, 
The empress visits queen of Spain at Madrid Oct. 
Baron Gros resigns, prince Tourd'Auvergne becomes 
ambassador at London .... 14 Oct. 
Death of Billault (born 1805) " speaking minister " 
in legislative assembly, 13 Oct. ; succeeded by 
Rouher, as " minister of state " . . 18 Oct. 
The emperor proposes the convocation of a European 
congress, and invites the sovereigns or their de- 
puties by letter 4 Nov. 

Thiers and his friends form a new opposition 

9 Nov. 
The invitation to the congress declined by England 

25 Nov. 
Thiers speaks in the chamber . . 24 Dec. 
Arrest of Grego and other conspirators against the 
emperor's life, 3 Jan. ; tried and sentenced to 
transportation and imprisonment . . 27 Feb. 18641 
Convention between France, Brazil, Italy, Portugal, 
and Hayti, for establishing a telegraphic line be- 
tween Europe and America . . 16 May, „ 
Death of marshal Pelissier, duke of Malakoff, 

governor of Algeria (born 1794) . . 22 May, ,, 
Convention between France and Japan signed by 

Japanese ambassadors at Paris . . 20 June, ,„ 
Convention of commerce, &c. , between France and 

Switzerland, signed . . . -30 June, ,, 
Prince Napoleon Victor, son of prince Napoleon 

Jerome and princess Clotilde, born . 16 July, ,, 

Convention between France and Italy respecting 

evacuation of Rome, &c. . . -15 Sept. ,» 
Garnier-Pages and 12 others who had met at his 
house for election purposes, convicted as mem- 
bers of a society " of more than 20 members " 

7 Dec. ,, 
Death of the emperor's private secretary and old 

friend, Mocquard 9 Dec. „ 

Death of Proudhon (born 1809), who said " la pro- 
priety e'est le vol " .... 19 Jan. 1865 
The clergy prohibited from reading the pope's ency- 
clical letter of 8 Dec. in churches ; much, excite- 
ment ; the archbishop of Besangon and other 

prelates disobey 5 Jan. „ 

The prince Napoleon Jerome appointed vice-presi- 
dent of the privy council .... Jan. „ 
Decree for an international exhibition of the products 
of agriculture and industiy, and of the fine aits, 
at Paris, on 1 May, 1867 . . . . 1 Feb. „ 



FEANCE. 



389 



FEANCE. 



Treaty with Sweden signed . . . 14 Feb. 1865 

The minister Duruy's plan of compulsory education 
rejected by the assembly . . 8 March, 

Death of the due de Morny, said to be half-brother 
of the emperor 10 March, 

" Loi des suspects " (or of public safety) suffered to 
expire 31 March, 

Attempted assassination of a secretary at the 
Russian embassy .... 24 April, 

The emperor visits Algeria . . . 3-27 May, 

Inauguration of the statue of Napoleon I. at 
Ajaecio, with an imprudent speech by prince 
Napoleon Jerome, 15 May ; censured by the 
emperor, 23 May ; the prince resigns his offices 

9 June, ,, 

The English fleet entertained at Cherbourg and 
Brest, 15 Aug. et seq. ; review of the fleets 

15 & 21 Aug. „ 

The French fleet entertained at Portsmouth, 

29 Aug. -1 Sept. „ 

Protest of the United States against French inter- 
vention in Mexico — prolonged correspondence (see 
Mexico) . . . . Aug. 1865-Feb. 1866. 

Count Walewski nominated president of the corps 
legislatif 2 Sept. ,, 

Death of general Lamoriciere . . . n Sept. ,, 

The queen of Spain visits the emperor at Biarritz 

11 Sept. „ 

Notice given of the abrogation of the extradition 
treaty in six months 4 Dec. ,_. 

Riots of republican students at Paris (several ex- 
pelled from the Academy of Medicine) . 18 Dec. ,, 

Emperor opens chambers with a pacific speech 

22 Jan. 1 866 

At Auxerre, Napoleon expresses his detestation of 
the treaties of 18 15 6 May, „ 

In a letter says that m regard to the German war, 
"France will observe an attentive neutrality" 

11 June, ,, 

The emperor of Austria cedes Venetia to France, and 
invites the emperor's intervention with Prussia 

4 J ul y» » 

Empress of Mexico arrives at Paris . . 8 Aug. ,, 

Note to the Prussian government desiring rectifica- 
tion of the French frontier to what it was in 
1S14 ; declared by Prussia to be inadmissible 

Aug. „ 

Resignation of M. Drouyn de Lhuys, foreign minis- 
ter (succeeded by the marquis de Moustier) 

2 Sept. „ 

inundations in the south ; railways destroyed, 

Sept. ,, 

Pacific circular of the emperor sent to foreign 
courts 16 Sept. ,, 

Death of M. Thouvenel, formerly foreign minister, 

18 Oct. „ 

Commission appointed to inquire into the advisa- 
bility of modifying the organisation of the army; 
the emperor president ; report . . 30 Oct. ,, 

The French troops quit Rome . .3-11 Dec. ,, 

Publication of letter from the comte de Chambord 
to his adherents in favour of the pope's temporal 
power, dated 9 Dec. „ 

Commercial treaty with Austria signed . n Dec. „ 

General opposition to the army organisation plan 
published 12 Dec. ,, 

Richelieu's head, after many removals, deposited in 
the Sorbonne 17 Dec. ,, 

Imperial decree announcing political reforms ; 
interpellation in the chambers ; relaxation of the 
restriction on the press ... 19 Jan. 1867 

Ministerial changes ; Rouher becomes minister of 
finance; Niel, of war, &c. . . . Jan. ,, 

The chambers opened by the emperor . 14 Feb. ,, 

Emile Girardin fiued for libel in La Liberie, 

7 March, ,, 

Severe speech of Thiers on foreign policy, 18 March, ,, 

International exhibition opened (see Paris), 

1 April, „ 

Resignation of Walewski, president of the chamber, 
29 Mar.; succeeded by M. Schneider 11 April, ,, 

Scheme for organising the army rejected by com- 
mittee . , .... May, ,, 

Paris visited by the czar, 1-12 June ; and the king 
of Prussia 5-14 June, „ 

Three provinces in Annani annexed to the French 
empire 25 June, „ 



International conference at Paris respecting mone- 
tary currency . . . 17 June-9 July, 2?6j 

The emperor distributes the prizes of the inter- 
national exhibition 1 July, ,, 

Protectorate of France over Cambodia assured by 
treaty 15 July „ 

Law abolishing imprisonment for debt adopted by 
the senate 18 July, „ 

Meeting of the emperors of France and Austria at 
Salzburg 18-21 Aug. „ 

The emperor's letter recommending money to 
be expended in improving intercommunica- 
tion by means of railways, canals, and roads, 

15 Aug. ,, 

Emperor of Austria visits Paris . 23 Oct. -2 Nov. ,, 

French troops enter Rome (see Rome) . 30 Oct. ,, 

Garibaldians defeated at Mentana . . 3 Nov. „ 

Lord Lyons received as British ambassador 9 Nov. ,, 

Pacific and liberal speech of the emperor on open- 
ing the chambers .... 18 Nov. ,, 

" Napoleon III. et VEurope en 1867," published, 

Nov. „ 

During a debate in the legislative assembly, Rouher, 
the minister, says, " We declare that Italy shall 
never seize upon Rome " (the government sup- 
ported by 238 votes to 17) . . . 5 Dec. „ 

12 persons convicted for belonging to a secret 
seditious society .... about 24 Dec. ,, 

Friendly reception of foreign ministers . 1 Jan. 1868 

New army bill (allowing 100,000 men to be added 
to the army annually ; establishing a new national 
guard, &c. ; giving the empire virtually an army 
of 1,200,000 men), passed in the Corps Ugislatif 
(206 to 60) 1 Jan. „ 

Ten journals fined for printing comments on legis- 
lative debates end of Jan. ,, 

M. Magne announces a deficiency in the budget ; 
and a loan for 17,600,000^. . . .29 Jan. ,, 

The army bill passes the senate — 125 to 1 (Michel 
Chevalier, who spoke warmly against it), 30 Jan. ; 
becomes law 4 Feb. „ 

The "Arcadians" (new ultra-conservative party) 
oppose the new press law ; fierce debates on it, 

Feb. „ 

New press law passed in legislative chamber, 240 
to 1 (M. Berryer) March, ,, 

" Les Titres de la Dynastie imperiale " appeared, 

about 20 March, ,, 

Riotous opposition to enlistments for "garde 
mobile" (new national guard) at Bordeaux, 
Toulon, and other towns . 20 March, et seq. „ 

Defeat of an attack on free trade in the chamber, 

May, „ 

New press law put in force ; increasing facility for 
publishing new journals . . . June, ,, 

The assembly closes .... 30 July, ,, 

Rochefort's weekly satirical pamphlet La Lanterne. 
suppressed ; he and his printer condemned to 
fine and imprisonment, escapes to Belgium, Aug. ,, 

M. Berryer, the advocate (born 1790) died, 29 Nov. ,, 

Ministerial changes ; marquis de la Valette, foreign 
minister, in room of De Moustier ; Forcade de la 
Roquette minister of the interior . . Dec. ,, 

The Moniteur replaced by the Journal officiel, 

1 Jan. 1869 

Meeting of the assembly .... iS Jan. ,, 

De Moustier dies 5 Feb. „ 

Death of Lamartine (born Oct. 1792), 28 Feb. ; of 
Tin] ilong, president of the senate . 1 March, „ 

Dissolution of the legislative assembly of 1863, 

26 April, ,, 

Difference with Belgium respecting the Luxem- 
bourg railway settled . . . 27 April, ,, 

Fierce election riots at Paris, 9 June ; the emperor 
and empress ride boldly through the Boulevards, 

11 June, „ 

The new legislative chamber meets ; the oppo- 
sition to the government more than trebled, 

26 June, ,, 

Message from the emperor announcing important 
political changes ; introducing ministerial respon- 
sibility, &c.,read i2July ; resignation of ministers, 

13 July, ,, 

New ministry: Forcade de la Roquette (interior); La 
Tour d'Auvergne (foreign) ; Chasseloup-Laubat, 
president, &c 17 J"ly. .. 

M. Rouher made president of the senate 20 July, ,, 

French Atlantic telegraph completely laid 23 July, ,, 



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390 



FRANCE. 



Marquis de la Valette appointed ambassador in 

London '-.■'■'■} .... July, 1869 

The political changes announced to the senate, 

5 Aug. „ 

Marshal Niel, war minister, aged 66 dies, 13 Aug. „ 
Centenary of the birth of Napoleon I. ; amnesty 
granted to political offenders ; increased pen- 
sions to survivors of the grand army ; troops re- 
viewed by the imperial prince (the emperor ill), 

i S Aug. „ 
Ultra-liberal speech of prince Napoleon Jerome in 
the senate 1 Sept. „ 

New constitution promulgated . . 10 Sept. „ 

Pere Hyacinthe (name Loyson), popular Carmelite 
preacher at Paris, protests against papal infalli- 
bility and encroachments, and resigns by letter, 

20 Sept. ,, 

Great excitement at Paris through discovery of 
Tropmann's murder of the Kinck family at Pantin, 

about 19 Sept. „ 

Proposed meeting of republicans at Paris (did not 
take place) 26 Oct. ,, 

Agitation against free trade . Oct., Nov., Dec. ,, 

Journey of the empress to the East ; arrival at 
Constantinople, 13 Oct. ; at Alexandria, 13 Nov. „ 

Pirm and temperate manifesto of the left (ultra 
republican opposition) issued . about 16 Nov. ,, 

Henri Rochefort (of La LatUerne) elected a deputy 
for Paris 22 Nov. „ 

The chambers opened by the emperor witli a liberal 
speech -29 Nor. „ 

Resignation of ministers announced . 27 Dec. ,, 

New liberal ministry formed by Emile 011ivier(jus- 
tice); Daru (foreign); Le Bceuf (war) . 3 Jan. 1870 

Resignation of M. Haussmann — rebuilde.r of Paris — 
prefect of the Seine, . . . about 6 Jan. „ 

Victor Noir, a journalist, killed by Pierre Bona- 
parte during an interview at Auteuil respecting 
a challenge sent to M. Rochefort . 10 Jan. ,, 

Tropmann, the murderer, executed . . 19 Jan. „ 

Great excitement amongst lower orders ; prosecu- 
tion of Rochefort for libel in his paper, the Mar- 
seillaise; he is sentenced to fine and imprison- 
ment 22 Jan. ,, 

Barricades erected in Paris, and riots after the ap- 
prehension of Rochefort, 7 Feb.; soon quelled, 

8, 9 Feb. „ 

Jules Favre's attack on the ministry in the cham- 
ber defeated (236 to 18) . . . 22 Feb. „ 

Charles, comte de Montalembert, eminent author, 
dies (see 1858) 13 March, ,, 

Trial of Pierre Bonaparte at Tours ; acquitted 
(but ordered to pay 1000I. to Noir's family) ; 

21 — 27 March, „ 

Emperor's letter to Ollivier, agreeing to modifica- 
tion of the constitution of the senate 22 March, „ 

Senatus consultum communicated to the senate, 
28 March ; adopted . . . .20 April, „ 

Ministerial crisis : resignation of Daru and other 
ministers opposing the proposed plebiscite, 

10 April, ,, 

Proclamation of the emperor respecting changes in 
the constitution .... 24 April, ,, 

Conspiracy against the emperor's life detected ; 
Baurie (aged 22) and others arrested, 

about 30 April, ,, 

Plebiscite to ascertain whether the people approve 
of above changes,— yes, 7,527,379; no, 1,530,909, 

8 May, „ 

Ollivier ministry reconstructed, 13 April; due de 
Grammont foreign minister . about 15 May, „ 

Rioting and barricades in Paris, 9, 10 May ; about 
100 arrested, many sentenced to imprisonment, 

14 May, „ 

Speech by the emperor on receiving result, of the 
plebiscite ...... 23 May, 

The Orleans princes address the, legislative assem- 
bly, demanding their return to France, 19 June ; 
opposed by 173 to 31 .... 2 July, „ 

Discovery of a plot against the emperor's life, 

5 J«iy, „ 

Great excitement through the nomination of prince 
Leopold of Hohenzollern Sigmaringen for the 
Spanisli throne ; warlike speeches of the ministers, 

5, 6, 7 July, „ 

The prince Leopold withdraws from candidature ; 
guarantees required by France from Prussia re- 



fused ; France decides to declare war against 
Prussia, 15 July; declaration signed 17 July, 

[For events of the war, see Franco-Prussian War.} 

The empress appointed regent . . 23 July, 

The emperor joins the army . . .28 July, 

Publication of the Marseillaise of Rochefort ceases, 

end of July, 

The government declare that they are only "at war 
with the policy of Bismarck " . . 2 Aug. 

Great excitement in Paris through the false an- 
nouncement of a great victory ■. . .6 Aug. 

State of siege proclaimed in Paris after the great 
defeat of MacMahon at Wcerth . . 7 Aug. 

Decrees for the enlargement of the national guard, 
appealing to patriotism and deprecating discord, 

7, 8 Aug. 

At Blois, the conspirators against the emperor's 
life sentenced to Ions imprisonments . 8 Aug. 

Energetic measures taken for the defence of Paris ; 
Changarnier offers his services to the emperor ; 
well received 8 Aug. 

The government appeals to France and Europe 
against Prussia 8 Aug. 

Stormy debate in the Corps Ugislatif; (M. de Keratry 
called on the emperor to abdicate ; M. Guyot 
Montpeyroux said that the army were "lions led 
by asses"); resignation of Ollivier and his 
ministry 9 Aug. 

New ministry formed : General Cousin-Montauban 
comte de Palikao (distinguished in the war with 
China), minister of war, chief: M. Chevreau, 
minister of the interior : M. Magne, minister of 
finance ; M. Clement Duvernois, minister of com- 
merce and agriculture : admiral Rigault de 
Genouilly, minister of marine ; baron Jerome 
David, minister of public works ; prince dc la 
Tour d'Auvergne, minister of foreign affairs ; and 
others 10 Aug. 

Decree for the great augmentation of the army 
during the war, and appointing a "defence com- 
mittee " for Paris .... 10 Aug. 

The Orleans princes (the due d'Aumale, prince de 
Joinville, and due de Chavtres), proffer their 
services in the army ; declined . . Aug. 

Extraordinary sitting of the Corps Ugislatif respect- 
ing the new levies . . Sunday, 14 Aug. 

Great disturbances at La Villette, a suburb of 
Paris : about 200 armed men attack the police, 
crying '■ Vive la Republique ! " soon suppressed, 
and many arrested .... 14 Aug. 

The government declare against any negotiations 
for peace 34 Aug. 

Atrocious murder of M. Allain de Moneys, sus- 
pected of republicanism and Germanism ; he was 
half killed by blows and then burnt to death by 
infuriated peasants at Hautefaye, Dordogne, not 
far from Bordeaux . . . . 16 Aug. 

General Trochu (Orleanist), energetic and able 
author of "l'Armee franchise en 1S67," appointed 
governor of Paris, 17 Aug. : issues a stirring pro- 
clamation 18 Aug. 

A loan of 750 million francs announced, 21 Aug. 

Frequent diplomatic conferences at the British 
embassy respecting mediation . about 22 Aug. 

Confident statement of the national position by 
the ministry 23 Aug. 

M. Thiers placed on the defence committee, 

about 26 Aug. 

Decree of M. Trochu for the expulsion from Paris 
of all foreigners not naturalized . 28 Aug. 

Death of count Flahault de la Billarderie, chancellor 
of the legion of honour, aged 85 (served under 
Napoleon I., Louis Philippe, and Napoleon III.), 

31 Aug. 

Deputation from 10,000 persons call on Trochu 
to assume the government : he declines, 

8 p.m., 3 Sept. 
The news of the final defeat of MacMahon near 
Sedan, and the surrender of the emperor and the 
remainder of MacMahon's army (90,000), to the 
king of Prussia announced by comte de Palikao to. 
the legislative assembly! Jules Favre declares 
for defending France to the last gasp, attacks the- 
imperial dynasty, and proposes concentration of 
all power in the hands of general Trochu, amid 
profound silence . . . 3.35 a. m. , 4 Sept. 
The ruin of MacMahon's aimy announced in the 
Journal officicl .... 4 Sept. 



1870 



FEANCE. 



391 



FEANCE. 



On the proposition of Thiers the chamber appoints 
a commission of government and national de- 
fence, and orders the convocation of a constituent 
assembly, and adjourns . 3.10 p.m., 4 Sept. 1870 

At the resumption of the sitting of the assembly it 
is invaded by the crowd, demanding a republic ; 
most of the deputies retire. Gambetta and other 
liberal members of the " left " proclaim the depo- 
sition of the imperial dynasty and the establish- 
ment of a republic . . 4. 15 p.m., 4 Sept. „ 

Last meeting of the senate ; it declares adhesion to 
the emperor 4 Sept. „ 

Proclamation of a "government of defence," gene- 
ral Trochu, president; MM. Leon Gambetta (inte- 
rior), Jules Simon (public instruction), Jules 
Favre (foreign), Cremieux (justice), Jules Picard 
(finance), general LeFlo(war), Fourichon(marine), 
Magnin (agriculture), Dorian (public works), 
Etienne Arago (mayor of Paris), Keratry (police). 

4 Sept. ., 

An informal meeting of the legislative assembly 
held, M. Thiers, president. M. Jules Favre re- 
ports to it the formation of the provisional 
government ; some protest ; Thiers recommends 
moderation, and the meeting retires, 

evening 4 Sept. „ 

The empress, the comte de Palikao, and other minis- 
ters secretly leave Paris and enter Belgium, 

evening, 4 Sept. „ 

Legislative chamber dissolved ; senate abolished ; 
regular troops and national guard fraternize ; 
" perfect order reigns " . . . 5 Sept. „ 

M. Favre calls on the United States of America 
for moral support 5 Sept. ,, 

The emperor Napoleon arrives at Wilhelmshohe, 
near Cassel . . . 9.35 p. m. 5 Sept. ,, 

The republican deputies in the Spanish cortes greet 
the republic 5 Sept. „ 

Henri Rochefort added to the government 5 Sept. ,, 

The red republican flag raised at Lyons 5 Sept. „ 

Victor Hugo and Louis Blanc arrive in Paris, 6 Sept. „ 

Jules Favre, in a circular to French diplomatic 
representatives, while j.irofessing desire for peace, 
says, " We will not cede either an inch of our 
territories or a stone of our fortresses " 6 Sept. „ 

Proclamation of general Trochu, saying that the 
defence of the capital is assured . . 6 Sept. „ 

The police replaced by national guards . 6 Sept. ,, 

Proffered services of the Orleans princes again 
declined 6 Sept. ,, 

The imperial cone spondence seized, about 7 Sept. „ 

The government proclaim that to-day, as in 1792, 
the republic signifies the hearty union of the army 
and people for the defence of the country 7 Sept. ,, 

The republic recognised by the United States, 

8 Sept. „ 

The defence committee summon the king of Prussia ,, 
to quit French territory without loss of time 

8 Sept. ,, 

Reappearance of the Marseillaise : Rochefort resigns 
editorship, and disclaims connection on account 
of a violent article ; the paper ceases to appear 
soon after 8 Sept. ,, 

Decree convoking the constituent assembly, to be 
composed of 750 members (to be elected on 16 
Oct.) 8 Sept. „ 

The imperial prince at Hastings, 7 Sept., joined by 
the empress . . . . . .8 Sept. „ 

Victor Hugo publishes an address to the Germans, 
appealing to their fraternal sentiments 9 Sept. ., 

Cattle plague began in Alsace and Lorraine Sept. „ 

The republic recognised by Spain, 8 Sept. ; by 
Switzerland 9 Sept. ,, 

M. Thiers arrives in London on a mission from the 
government 13 Sept. ,, 

Lyons said to be ruled by a " committee of safety ; " 
red flag raised ; reign of terror . . 13 Sept. ,, 

Letter from M. Pietri, private secretary to the 
emperor, stating that " his master has not a 
centime in foreign funds " . . 15 Sept. „ 

Elections for constituent assembly ordered to take 
place on 2 Oct 16 Sept. „ 

The academies of the institute protest against the 
bombardment of the monuments, museums, &e. , 
in Paris 16 Sept. ,, 

Diplomatic circular from M. Jules Favre : he admits 
lie has no claim on Prussia for disinterestedness ; 
urges that statesmen should hesitate to continue 



a war in which more than 200,000 men have 
already fallen ; announces that a freely elected 
assembly is summoned, and that the government 
will abide by its judgment, and that France, left 
to her free action, immediately asks the cessation 
of the war, but prefers its disasters a thousand 
times to dishonour. He admits that France has 
been wrong, and acknowledges its obligation to 
repair by a measure of justice the ill it has done 

17 Sept 1870 

A government delegation at Tours under M. 
Cremieux, the minister of justice ; the foreign 
ambassadors proceed there . . 18 Sept. ,, 

Manifesto of the red republicans signed by general 
Cluseret, placarded in Paris . . about 1 3 Sept. 

Bronze statues of Napoleon ordered to be made 
into cannon .... about 19 Sept. ,, 

Stern proclamation of Trochu respecting the cowar- 
dice of the Zouaves on 19 Sept. . 20 Sept. „ 

M. Duruof in a post-balloon quits Paris with mail- 
bags, arrives at Evreux, and reaches Tours 

23 Sept. „ 
The Journal official replaced by the Moniteur 

universel as the organ of the government, 

about 23 Sept. „ 
Esquiros struggles to maintain order at Marseilles 

24 Sept. „ 
Failure of the negotiations for peace between count 

Bismarck and Jules Favre ; manifesto of thegovern- 
ment at Tours, calling on the people to rise and 
either disavow the ministry or "fight to the 
bitter end ; " the elections for the assembly sus- 
pended Sept. 24 ,, 

All Frenchmen between 20 and 25 years of age pro- 
hibited leaving France . . about 26 Sept. ,, 

Great enthusiasm in the provinces on the failure of 
the negotiations ; " war to the knife " and levee en 
masse proclaimed by the prefects ; efforts made to 
excite warlike ardour in Brittany by M. Cathe- 
liiieau 26, 27 Sept. ,, 

The due dAumale consents to become a candidate 
for the representative assembly, and promises 
submission to the de facto government for defence 

about 27 Sept. ,, 

Attempted insurrection of the red republicans at 
Lyons ; order restored by national guards ; general 
Cluseret disappears .... 28 Sept. „ 

Great order in Paris maintained by the national 
guard ; report from surgeon-major Wyatt, 

28 Sept. ,, 

All between 21 and 40 to be organised as a national 
garde mobile ; all men in arms placed at the dis- 
posal of the minister of war . . 30 Sept. ,, 

The empress and her son residing at Camden-house, 
Chiselhurst, Kent .... Sept. „ 

The elections for the constituent assembly (753 
members) ordered by the delegates at Tours to 
take place on 16 Oct. . . 29 Sept. — 1 Oct. ,, 

Proclamations of general Trochu for maintaining ,, 
order in Paris .... about 1 Oct. ,, 

Marseilles said to be unsettled : many arrested, 

i Oct. „ 

The elections deferred, till they can be carried out 
throughout the whole extent of the republic, by 
order of the government at Paris . 1 Oct. ,, 

M. Cremieux becomes delegate minister of war at 
Tours in room of admiral Fourichon, still minister 
of marine 3 Oct. 

Gustave Flourens, heading five battalions of national 
guards, inarches to the Hotel de Ville and 
demands chassepots (not to be had) . 5 Oct. „ 

Suppression of the schools of the " brethren of the 
Christian doctrine " by the republicans : much 
dissatisfaction 8 Oct. ,, 

All Frenchmen under 60 years of age forbidden to 
quit France 8 Oct. 

M. Gambetta escapes from Paris in a balloon, 7 Oct. ; 
arrives at Rouen and declares for "a pact with 
victory or death," 8 Oct. ; arrives at Tours and 
becomes minister of war as well as of the interior 

9 Oct. „ 

Address from the comte de Chambord, saying that 
his whole ambition is to found with the people a 
really national government . . 9 Oct. ,, 

Battalions of amazons said to be forming in Paris 

12 Oct. „ 
Blanqui, Gustave Flourens, Ledru-Rollin, Felix 
Pyat, and other red republicans defeated in their 



FRANCE. 



392 



FRANCE. 



attempts to establish the commune at Paris to 
supersede the government, 10, n Oct. : reconcilia- 
tion effected by Rochefort . about 14 Oct. 

Riots at Honfleur : the people oppose the embarka- 
tion of cattle to England, 12 Oct. ; similar riots at 
St. Malo 15 Oct. 

M. Edmond Adam, prefect of police ; ■ replacing 

M. de Keratry, sent on a foreign mission, 

about 16 Oct. 

M. de Keratry quits Paris in a balloon, 12 Oct. ; at 
Madrid fails in obtaining assistance from Prim 

19, 20 Oct. 

Marseilles disturbed by red republicans ; Esquiros 
still in office 19 Oct. 

Publication of the imperial correspondence seized 
in the Tuileries Oct. 

Decree for a loan of io,ooo,ooo£. issued on behalf of 
the French government ... 25 Oct. 

The imperial guard suppressed . . 26 Oct. 

Circular of Gambetta stigmatising the surrender of 
Metz (on 27 Oct.) as a crime . . 28 Oct. 

Death of M. Baroche in Jersey . . 30 Oct. 

M. Thiers arrives in Paris with news of the sur- 
render of Metz and the proposals for an armistice 

30 Oct. 

Riots in Paris : general Trochu threatened ; the 
principal members of the defence government im- 
prisoned in the Hotel de Ville ; Ledru-Rollin, 
Victor Hugo, and Gustave Flourens, and others, 
established as a committee of public safety and 
of the commune of Paris, under the direction of 
M. Picard ; the national guard releases the 
government, and order is restored . 31 Oct. 

General Boyer, replying to Gambetta, says, " We 
capitulated with hunger " . . . 31 Oct. 

The empress arrives at Wilhelmshohe ; interview of 
Bazaine with the emperor . . .31 Oct. 

Etienne Arago and other mayors of Paris resign, 

1 Nov. 

Marshals Canrobert and Le Boeuf and many generals 
at Wilhelmshohe . . . . 1 Nov. 

Proclamation of Gambetta calling on the army to 
avenge the dishonour at Metz . 1 Nov. 

The government proclaim a plebiscite in Paris on 3 
Nov. to ascertain whether the people maintain 
the power of the government of national defence 

1 Nov. 

M. Rochefort, member of the defence government, 
resigns 2 Nov. 

Result of the plebiscite: — for the defence govern- 
ment, 557,976 ; against, 62,638 . 3 Nov. 

Resignation of M. Esquiros at Marseilles, succeeded 
"by M. Alphonse Gent .... 3 Nov. 

The ex-empress returned to Chiselhurst 3 Nov. 

Mobilisation of all able-bodied men between 20 and 
40, ordered 4 Nov. 

Failure of the negotiations for an armistice 6 Nov. 

Felix Pyat and others arrested for the affair of 31 
Oct 6 Nov. 

■" France can do nothing now but carry on with 
such courage and strength as remain to her a war 
a outrance." — Guizot. ... .8 Nov. 

Decree for melting some of the church-bells to make 
cannon 10 Nov. 

Alexander Dumas, novelist and dramatist, dies 

10 Dec. 

The delegate government removed from Tours to 
Bordeaux n Dec. 

Murder of lieut. Arnaud at Lyons by the people for 
resisting them 20 Dec. 

Trial of 21 peasants for murder of M. Moneys (see 
16 Aug.): 4 condemned to death; others to im- 
prisonment .... about 23 Dec. 

Firm proclamation of Trochu at Paris . 30 Dec. 

Gambetta at Bordeaux declares that the govern- 
ment only holds office for defence of the country; 
demonstration in honour of the republic 1 Jan. 

Foreigners not permitted to leave Paris by the 
Germans lg Jan. 

Fierce speech of Gambetta at Lille, demanding con- 
tinuance of the war . . . .22 Jan. 

Disturbances at Paris suppressed by the army, 

23 Jan. 

Resignation of Trochu ; Vinoy made governor of 
Paris 24 Jan. 

Capitulation of Paris ; armistice signed by Favre 
and Bismarck 28 Jan. 

Disavowed by Gambetta at Bordeaux . 31 Jan. 



1870 



Manifesto of the due d'Aumale in favour of a con- 
stitutional monarchy 1 Feb. 

Arrival of food from London to relieve Paris (see 
Mansion-house) 3 Feb. 

The defence government publish their reasons for 
capitulation (2,000,000 people in Paris with only 
ten days' provisions), 4 Feb. ; and annul Gam- 
betta's decree, 4 Feb.; he and his ministry resign, 

5, 6 Feb. 

Railway accident between Bandoz and St. Nizaire ; 
explosion of casks of gunpowder ; 60 killed ; 
about 100 wounded .... 5 Feb. 

Four murderers of M. Moneys (16 Aug. 1870) exe- 
cuted 8 Feb. 

Proclamation of Napoleon III. " Betrayed by 
fortune," he condemns the government of 4 Sept. ; 
states that his government was four times con- 
firmed in 20 years ; submits to the judgment of 
time; saying "that a nation cannot long obey 
those who have no right to command " 8 Feb. 

General election of a national assembly . 8 Feb. 

M. F. P. J. Grevy elected president . . Feb. 

First meeting of the new national assembly, 12 Feb. 

Supplementary armistice signed . . 15 Feb. 

Garibaldi resigns his election, 13 Feb. ; Grevy 
elected president by 519 out of 538 . 16 Feb. 

Termination of the war ; the Belfort garrison 
(12,000) marches out with military honours, 

16 Feb. 

" Pact of Bordeaux : " M. Thiers made chief of the 
executive power, by agreement of the different 
parties in the assembly, 17 Feb. ; voted 18 Feb. 

Thiers ministry; Dufaure (justice); Jules Favre, 
(foreign), Picard (interior), Jules Simon (public, 
instruction), Lambrecht (commerce), gen. Leflo 
(war), admiral Pothuan (marine), De Larcy 
(public works) 17 Feb. 

The French government recognised by the great 
powers of Europe 18 Feb. 

The due de Broglie appointed French minister at 
London 21 Feb. 

Negotiations for peace between Thiers and Bis- 
marck 22, 23, 24 Feb. 

Preliminaries of a treaty of peace accepted by MM. 
Thiers and Favre, and 15 delegates of the national 
assembly at Versailles (cession of parts of Alsace 
and Lorraine, including Strasbourg and Metz, 
and payment of five milliards of francs — 
2oo,ooo,oooJ.), 25 Feb. ; signed . . 26 Feb. 

Intense excitement in Paris ... 27 Feb. 

Preliminaries of the treaty accepted by the assembly 
(546 to 107) ; the fall of the empire unanimously 
confirmed ; and the emperor stigmatised 1 Mar. 

A strong party of the national guard seize some 
cannons and transport them to Montmartre and 
Belleville, to defend themselves against the 
Germans entering Paris . . .1 March, 

The emperor of Germany reviews about 100,000 of 
his troops at Longchamps near Paris, 1 March, 

About 30,000 Germans enter Paris, 1 March ; re- 
main 48 hours ; depart ... 3 March, 

Impeachment of the defence government demanded 
by the party of the left (Victor Hugo, Louis 
Blanc, Quinet, and others) . . 6 March, 

The ex-emperor jnotests against his deposition, 

6 March, 

The army of the north and other special army corps 
dissolved 7-10 March, 

Meeting of national guard in Paris quelled, 

10 March, 

The national assembly vote for removal to Ver- 
sailles (461-104) . * . . . 10 March, 

Le Vengeur and four other violent journals sup- 
pressed in Paris by Vinoy . . 11 March, 

Blanqui, Flourens, and others condemned for 
insurrection of 31 Oct. 1870 . . 12 March, 

Central committee of republican confederation of 
national guards (termed " the government of the 
Buttes ") meet ; depose Vinoy and appoint Gari- 
baldi general-in-chief ... 15 March, 

Insurrection at Paris : the regular troops take 
possession of the Buttes Montmartre and Belle- 
ville, for the assembly ; the national guard 
attempt to recover them ; after a brief conflict 
the troops fraternise with the insurgents, who 
capture and shoot generals Lecomte and Clement 
Thomas, and take possession of the Hotel de 
Ville ; barricades erected in Belleville and 



1871 



FRANCE. 



393 



FRANCE. 



other places ; general Vinoy with the gendarmerie 
retire across the Seine . . . 18 March, 18 
The insurgents nominate a central committee of 
the national guard, headed by Assy, a workman, 
which takes possession of public offices ; Thiers 
issues a circular, enjoining obedience to the 

assembly lg March, . 

The central committee order communal election in 
Paris, 19 March ; and liberate about 11,000 
political prisoners in Paris . . 20 March, , 
The national assembly meet at Versailles ; propose 
conciliatory measures ; and appoint a committee 
to support the government . . 20 March, 
Napoleon III. arrives at Dover . 20 March, 

The Journal des Debuts and other papers renounce 
the central committee . . .20 March, 
The bank of France saved by the courage of the 
governor, marquis de Plceuc, and by the forbear- 
ance of citizen Beslay ... 20 March, 
The assembly appeal to the nation and the army, 

21 March, 
Requisitions levied on the Paris shop-keepers, 

21 March, 

Unarmed demonstration of the Friends of Order ; 

they are fired on by the insurgents ; 10 killed, 

20 wounded 22 March, 

Lullier arrested by the central committee, 22 March, 

Admiral Saisset appointed commander of the 

national guard for the assembly . . 23 March, 

The 69th regiment of the line retire to Versailles, 

23 March, 
The central committee appoint some of their dele- 
gates generals 24 March , 

The insurgents hold central Paris ; Saisset returns 

to Versailles . ... 25 March, 

Municipal elections at Paris ; 200,000 out of 500,000 

vote ; majority of two-thirds in favour of the 

insurgents 26 March, 

The government of the commune proclaimed at the 

Hotel de Ville 28 March, 

Meeting of the conference for the peace at Brussels, 

28 March, 

Gustave Flourens, Blanqui, and Felix Pyat now at 

the head of the movement : they propose revival 

of the system of the Italian republics of the middle 

ages 29 March, 

The remission of part of the rents due by tenants 

ordered ; the standing army to be named the 

national guard .... 29 March, 

Reign of terror : " Paris has no longer liberty of the 

press, of public meeting, of conscience, or of 

person." — LeSoir 1 April, 

Military operations commence 9 a.m. ; action at 
Courbevoie ; Flourens marches his troops to 
Versailles, via Rueil .... 2 April, 
The corps d'armee of general Bergeret at the Rond 
Point, near Neuilly, stopped by the artillery of 
Mont Valerien ; exchange of shot between Fort 
Issy and Fort Vanves, occupied by the insurgents, 

and Meudon 3 April, 

General Duval made prisoner in the engagement at 
Chatillon and shot ; death of Flourens at Cliatou ; 
Delescluze, Cournet, and Vermorel succeed Ber- 
geret, Budes, and Duval on the executive com- 
mission ; Cluseret, delegate of war, and Bergeret, 
commandant of Paris forces . . 4 April, 
Communist insurrection at Marseilles suppressed, 
; _;_ ; ^ ~ ~~ 4 April, 

General Cluseret commences active operations ; 
military service compulsory for all citizens under 
40 ; the archbishop of Paris arrested 5 April, 
Extension of action to Neuilly and C< mrbevoie ; severe 
decree concerning complicity with Versailles, and 
arrest of hostages ; Dombrywski succeeds Berge- 
ret as commandant of Paris ; the guillotine burnt 
on the Place Voltaire .... 6 April, 
Federals abandon Neuilly ; commission of barri- 
cades created and presided over by Gaillard 
Senior ; military occupation of the railway ter- 
mini by the insurgents ... 8 April, 
Insurgents repulsed in an attempt to take Chatil- 
lon ; forts Vanves and Montrouge disabled ; 
Mont Valerien shells the Avenue des Ternes ; 
Bergeret arrested by order of the commune, 

9 April, 

Marshal MaeMahon, commander-in-chief for the 

assembly, distributes his forces, and commences 

the investment of Fort Issy . . 11 April, 



Versailles batteries established on Chatillon ; the 
Orleans railway and telegraph cut ; communica- 
tions of the insurgents with the south inter- 
cepted ; decree ordering the fall of the column 

Vendome I2 April, 

Publication of the reports of the sittings ot the 

commune J 3 April, 

The redoubt of Gennevilliers taken ; the troops ot 
Versailles advance to the Chateau de Becon, a 
post of importance ; Assy at the bar of the 

commune J 4 April, 

The national assembly pass the new municipal bill 

(419-18) 14 April, 

Complementary elections ; organisation of a court- 
martial under the presidence of Rossel, chief 
officer of the staff .... 16 April, 
Capture and fortification of the Chateau de Becon 
by the Versailles troops . . . 17 April, 
Station and houses at Asnieres taken by the army 

of Versailles 18 April, 

The communists appeal to the nation 19 April, 
Bagneux occupied by the Versaillais ; reorganisa- 
tion of commissions ; Eudes appointed inspector- 
general of the southern forts ; transfers his quar- 
ters from Montrouge to the palace of the Legion 

of Honour 20 April, 

The Versailles batteries at Breteuil, Brimbonon, 
Meudon, and Moulin de Pierre trouble the federal 
fort Issy, and battery between Bagneux and 
Chatillon shells fort Vanves ; truce at Neuilly 
from 9 a.m. to 5 p.ln. ; the inhabitants of 
Neuilly enter Paris by the Porte des Ternes, 

25 April, 
Capture of Les Moulineaux, outpost of the insur- 
gents, by the troops, who strongly fortify them- 
selves on the 27th and 28th . . 26 April, 
Cemetery and park of Issy taken by the Versaillais 
in the night ; freemasons make a new attempt at 
reconciliation ; the commune levies a sum of 
two millions of francs from the railway companies, 

29 April. 
A flag of truce sent to fort Issy by the Versaillais, 
calling upon the federals to surrender ; general 
Elides puts fresh troops in the fort, and takes 
the command ; Cluseret imprisoned at Mazas by 
order of the commune ; Rossel appointed provi- 
sional delegate of war . . . -3° April, 
The Versaillais take the station of Clamart and the 
Chateau of Issy ; creation of the committee of 
public safety ; members : Antoine Arnauld, Leo 
Meillet, Ranvier, Felix Pyat, Charles Gerardm ; 
aUeged massacre of communist prisoners, 1 May, 
Lacretelie carries the redoubt of Moulin Saquet, 

3 May, 
Colonel Rossel appointed to the direction of 
military affairs, defines the military quarters of 
Dombrowski, La Cecilia, Wroblewski, Bergeret, 
and Eudes • S Mai- 
Central committee of the national guard charged 
with administration of war ; the Chapelle expia- 
toire condemned to destruction— the materials to 

be sold by auction 5 May, 

Concert at the Tuileries in aid of the ambulances. 

Suppression of newspapers ... 6 May, 

Battery of Moutretout (70 marine guns) opens lire ; 

Thiers exhorts the Parisians to rise against the 

commune 8 ""&' 

Morning ; insurgents evacuate the fort Issy ; the 

committee of public safety renewed ; members : 

Ranvier, Antoine Arnauld, Gaiubon, Eudes, 

Delescluze ; Rossel resigns . .8 May, 

Treaty of peace with Germany signed at Frankfort, 

10 .May, 

Cannon from the fort Issy taken to Versailles ; 
decree for the demolition of M. Thiers' house ; 
Delescluze. appointed delegate of war 10 May, 

Thiers opposed ; "tiers to resign ; the assembly vote 
confidence in Mm (495-10) . . . n May, 

Troops take possession of the Convent des Oiseaux 
at Issy. and the Lyceum at Vanves ; Auber, the 
composer, dies, aged 89 . . . • 12 May, 

Triumphal entry of the troops into \ ersailles w.th 
flags and cannon taken from the convenl : evacua- 
tion of the village of Issy completed ; fort Vanves 
taken by the troops . . . . 13 May. 

Vigorous cannonade from the batteries of Courbe- 
voie, Becon, Asnieres, on Levallois ami Chchy 



1871 



FRANCE. 



394 



FRANCE. 



both villages evacuated ; commencement of the 
demolition of house of M. Thiers . . 14 May, 

Report of the re-armament of Montrnartre 15 May ; 

The column Vendome overthrown . . 16 May, 

Secession from the communist government ; a 
central club formed ; a battalion of women formed, 

17 May, 

Stringent conscription in Paris . about 17 May, 

Silver ornaments in churches seized ; explosion of 
a cartridge factory near the Champ de Mars ; 
above 100 killed 17 May, 

The assembly adopt the treaty of peace 18 May, 

Rochefort brought a prisoner to Versailles ; last 
sitting of the commune . . . 21 May, 

Noon, explosion of the powder magazine of the 
Manege d'Etat-Major (staff riding-school) ; the 
hostages transferred from Mazas to La Roquette ; 
Assy arrested in Paris by the Versaillais ; the 
assembly votes the re-erection of the column 
Vendome ; M. Ducatel, at the risk of his life, 
having signalled that the way was clear, the 
Versailles troops enter Paris by the gates of St. 
Cloud and Montrouge, 2 p.m., 21 May; take 
possession of the south and west, and about 
10,000 prisoners, after some conflicts . 22 May, 

Montrnartre taken by Douai and Ladmirault : 
death of Dombrowski. Morning : Assy arrives 
at Versailles ; execution of gendarmes and Gus- 
tave Chaudey at the prison of Sainte-Pelagie. 
Night : the Tuileries set on fire ; Delescluze and 
the committee of public safety hold permanent 
sittings at the Hotel de Ville . . 23 May, 

Morning : Palais Royal, Ministry of Finance, 
H6tel de Ville, &c, set on fire. 1 p.m.. the 
powder magazine at the Palais du Luxembourg 
blown up ; the committee of public safety organ- 
ise detachments of fusee-bearers ; petroleum 
pumped into burning buildings ; Raoul Rigault 
shot in the afternoon by the soldiers. Evening: 
execution in the prison of La Roquette of the 
archbishop, abbe Deguerry, president Bonjean, 
and 64 others, hostages . . . .24 May, 

The forts Montrouge, Hautes-Bruyeres, Bicetre 
evacuated by the insurgents ; the death of Deles- 
cluze reported ; executions in the Avenue 
dTtalie of the Peres Dominicans of Arcueil, 

25 May, 

16 priests and 38 gendarmes shot at Belleville by 
the insurgents ; many women fighting, and cast- 
ing petroleum into fires, shot . 26, 27 May, 

The Buttes Chaumont, the heights of Belleville, 
and the cemetery of Pere Lachaise carried by the 
troops ; taking of the prison of La Roquette by 
the marines ; deliverance of 169 hostages ; the 
investment of Belleville complete ; last position 
captured by MacMahon ; fighting ends, 

5 p.m., 28 May, 

Federal garrison of Vincennes surrendered at dis- 
cretion 29 May, 

Reported results of seven days' fighting in Paris : 
regular troojis, 877 killed, 645 wounded, 183 miss- 
ing ; insurgents, about 50,000 dead, 25,000 pri- 
soners ; nearly all the leaders killed or prisoners ; 
about a fourth part of Paris destroyed 22-27 May, 

Estimated loss of property through the insurrection, 
32,000,000? April, May, 

Thiers' decree for disarming Paris and abolishing 
the National Guard of the Seine . . . 29 May, 

Victor Hugo expelled from Belgium . 30 May, 

Reported wholesale execution of prisoners by the 
marquis de Gallifet ; Paris put under martial law ; 
about 50,000 insurgents still at large . 30 May, 

Severe letter from prince Napoleon Jerome to Jules 
Favre, dated 3I May, 

Changes in the ministry ; resignation (and reappoint' 
ment of some) of those who had been members 
of the government of defence . . 6 June, 

Solemn funeral of Darboy, archbp. of Paris 7 June^ 

Abrogation of the laws of proscription by the as- 
sembly (484—103) ; elections of the due d'Aumale 
and the prince de Joiuville declared valid 

8 June, 

Important speech of Thiers for maintaining the re- 
public at present . 8 June 

Imposition of new taxes (463,000,000 francs) and a 
loan proposed by M. Pouyer Quertier . 12 June 

Gen. Trochu's powerful speech defending the "go- 
vernment of national defence " . 13, 14 June, 



Army of reserve ordered to be dissolved 14 June, 1873 

Financial measures of M. Pouyer-Quertier opposed 
by Dufaure and the free-traders about 14 June, „ 

Theatres and public places reopened in Paris about 

20 June, „ 

Letter from M. Guizot to M. Grevy recommending 
political moderation to all parties, and main- 
tenance of the present government, published 

22 June, „ 

The loan of 2 milliards francs (8o,ooo,oooZ.) decreed 
26 June ; subscription opened, 27 June ; about 4 
milliards subscribed for in France alone 28 June ,, 

132 members elected for the assembly ; includes 
Gambetta, and a few legitimists and Bonapart- 
ists ; the rest support the government . 2 July, ,, 

Letter from the comte de Chambord at Chambord, 
professing devotion to France, and adhesion to 
modern policy and liberality ; but declining to 
give up the white flag of Henry IV. ; he retires to 
Germany to avoid all pretext for agitation, dated 

5 J ul y. » 

The government said to have 500 votes in the 
assembly; bill for new taxes passed (483 to 5) 

8 July, „ 

2o,ooo,oooZ. part of the indemnity, paid to the Ger- 
mans about 14 July, „ 

Prince Napoleon Jerome expelled from France (at 
Havre) 15 July, „ 

M. Devienne, president of the court of cassation, 
acquitted of blame for settling disputes relative 
to an imperial scandal (in Nov. i860) . 21 July, ,, 

Jules Favre, foreign minister, resigns about 23 July ; 
succeeded by Charles de Remusat about 3 Aug. „ 

Full compensation for losses claimed by the invaded 
provinces refused by Thiers, who acknowledges 
no debt, but proposes to act generously . Aug. „ 

Trial of communist prisoners at Paris, begun about 

8 Aug. „ . 

Great dissensions in the assembly between the 
monarchists and republican parties ; resignation 
of Thiers not accepted, 24 Aug. ; prolongation of his 
power and the sovereign and constituent authority 
of the assembly voted (443 to 227) about 25 Aug. „ 

Thiers' powers prolonged, and nominated president 
of the French republic, by the assembly ; to con- 
tinue till the assembly shall terminate its 
labours ; (the Rivet- Vitet proposition), 491-93 

31 Aug. „ 

French postage increased .... Sept. „ 

Societe de Prevoyance established to counteract the 
Internationale ; becomes permanent . Sept. -„ 

Ferre and Lullier sentenced to death, others to 
transportation or imprisonment, 2 Sept. ; 3 women 
(petroleuses) sentenced to death for throwing 
petroleum on fires 5 Sept. „ 

Bill for making the whole nation bear the losses of 
the invaded provinces adopted by the assembly 

6 Sept. „ 
Rossel, communist general, sentenced to death 

8 Sept. „ 

Message from Thiers to the assembly ; consideration 
of the budget adjourned 12 Sept. ; read 13 Sept. „ 

Disarmament of the national guard begun at Lyons, 
&c 14 Sept. „ 

Bill introduced concerning treaty with Germany 
relating to tariff on goods from Alsace and Lor- 
raine, and the reducing German troops in France 
to 50,000 men, 14 Sept. ; adopted by the assembly 
(533-33) ; the session declared closed, 2 a.m. 

17 Sept. „ 

Courts-martial on communists go on . . Sept. „ 

" Permanent Committee" of 25 of different rjarties 
appointed by the assembly to watch over the 
course of the government during the recess (17 
Sept. -4 Dec.) 15 Sept. „ 

25,000 communists yet to be tried ; about half to be 
set free 15 Sept. „ 

Evacuation of Paris forts by the Germans begun 

about 20 Sept. ,, 

Rochefort(of " LaLanterne" and " LeMot d'Ordre") 
sentenced to life-imprisonment . . 21 Sept. „ 

Difficulty in settling the Alsace and Lorraine treaty 

21 Sept. „ 

M. Pouyer-Quertier, the French finance minister, 
arrives at Berlin 8 Oct. „ 

M. Lambrecht, minister of the interior, dies sud- 
denly, 8 Oct. ; succeeded by M. Casimir Perier 

10 Oct.. ,, 



FEANCE. 



395 



FEANCE. 



Tranquil election of above 2000 general councillors 

Oct. 

Convention for evacuation of 6 departments, and 
finance convention of Alsace and Lorraine signed, 
12 and 13 Oct. ; exchanged . . .21 Oct. 

Count Benedetti publishes an apology, attacking the 
Prussian government ; count Bismarck replies (in 
"Official Journal") disproving his assertions 

22 Oct. 

Dispute with Tunis settled . . about 25 Oct. 

Prince Napoleon resigns his seat in the council- 
general of Corsica ; and denounces intimidation 

28 Oct. 

Insurrection in Algeria ended . . . Nov. 

Eight of the murderers of generals Lecomte and 
Thomas condemned .... 18 Nov. 

Eossel, Ferre, and Bourgeois, communist leaders, 
shot at Satory in presence of 3000 soldiers 28 Nov. 

Gaston Cremieux executed at Marseilles . 30 Nov. 

Territory held by Germans put into state of siege 

4 Dec. 

Meeting of the national assembly . . 4 Dec. 

Sixteen political parties said to exist . . Dec. 

Thiers reads his message to the assembly ; depre- 
cates free trade, but proposes moderate protec- 
tion of French manufactures . . 7 Dec. 

Sharp despatch from count Bismarck in reference 
to the acquittal of murderers of Germans at 
Melim and Paris 7 Dec. 

After some discussion with M. Thiers, the due 
d'Aumale and prince de Joinville take their seats 
in the assembly 19 Dec. 

A committee of the assembly decide against the 
assembly removing to Paris . . 22 Dec. 

Joseph Lemettre condemned to death for 27 crimes 
(chiefly atrocious murders) ... 23 Dec. 

Income-tax proposed and negatived . . 28 Dec. 

Vautram, a government candidate, elected deputy 
for Paris, and not Victor Hugo . . 7 Jan. 

The due de Persigny dies . . . 12 Jan. 

Long debate in the assembly ; opposition to the 
2U'oposed taxes on raw materials ; government de- 
feated (377-307) . . . -19 Jan. 

Resignation of Thiers and the ministry opposed by 
the assembly; M'Mahon writes that the army will 
respect the orders of a majority of the assembly, 
but not obey dictatorship ; Thiers resumes office 

20 Jan. 

Death of Aries Dufour, of Lyons, St. Simonian and 
free-trader ..... about 22 Jan. 

The government taxes voted . . .22 Jan. 

Conviction of the assassins of archbishop Darboy 
and others (on 24 May, 1871), 1 to death 23 Jan. 

Manifesto of the comte de Chambord ; his mind un- 
changed ; he will not become a legitimate king by 
revolution 29 Jan. 

Abrogation of the commercial treaties with Great 
Britain and Belgium determined on . Feb. 

Sardou's play, " Rabagas," satirising the radicals ; 
causes much excitement . . . .1 Feb. 

Proposed return of the assembly to Paris negatived 
(377-318) ; resignation of Casimir Perie'r, minister 
of the interior 2 Feb. 

League for commercial liberty formed . . Feb. 

Five communists sentenced to death for murder of 
the Dominicans on 25 May . . . 17 Feb. 

Blanqui condemned to transportation to a fortified 
prison about 17 Feb. 

M. Rouher elected a member of the assembly about 

15 Feb. 

Universal subscription to pay the indemnity to the 
Germans begins Feb. 

Manifesto in favour of a constitutional monarchy 
signed by about 280 of the " Right," about 21 Feb. 

Assassins of generals Lecomte and Clement Thomas 
executed 22 Feb. 

Janvier de la Motte, a prefect, prosecuted for forgery, 
&c. , by government, acquitted ; M. Pouyer-Quer- 
tier, who gives evidence in his favour, resigns, 
about 5 March, 

Joseph Lemettre executed . . .5 March, 

The treaty of commerce with Great Britain (i860), 
denounced (to cease in 12 months) . 15 March, 

War budget of 27,000,000/. (formerly 10,000, oool.) 
proposed ...... March, 

Publishers of "Figaro" convicted of libel against 
general Trochu ; moderate punishment 2 April, 



1872 



Abolition of passports for British subjects an- 
nounced 10 April, 

Law against the International Society placarded 

22 April, 

In a letter, the ex-emperor takes upon himself the 
whole responsibility of the surrender at Sedan 

12 May, 

Rouher in the assembly repels the due d'Audiffret 
Pasquier's severe attack on the empire 21 May, 

Three more condemned communists shot 25 May, 

The due dAumale speaks in the chamber in favour 
of the army organisation bill . . .28 May, 

Marshal Yaillant dies 4 June, 

Thiers threatens to resign at opposition in the 
chamber about 9 June, 

Interview of delegates of the majority (the right) in 
the assembly with Thiers (respecting his policy) ; 
much censured 20 June, 

Budget for 1873 ; deficiency, 4,800,000?. ; 8,000,000/. 
to be raised ; Thiers advocates duty on raw mate- 
rials, and opposes income-tax 26 June, et seq. 

The majority in the assembly propose MacMahonas 
president in room of Thiers . . . July, 

New convention between Germany and France re- 
specting speedy payment of the indemnity and 
evacuation of territory, signed . . 29 June, 

Anniversary of the destruction of the Bastille cele- 
brated by public dinners ; important moderate 
speech by Gambetta at Ferte-sous-Jouarre, 14 July, 

Announcement of a public loan of 120,000,000/. at 
6 J per cent 26 July, 

Three communists (murderers of hostages) executed 
at Satory 25 July, 

The loan subscribed for, nearly 12 times the amount, 
chiefly in France July, 

Thiers' financial measures carried (taxes on raw 
materials, &c.) ; the session of the assembly closed 

3 Aug. 

Meeting of Guizot and Thiers at Val Richer 11 Sept. 

Three more communist murderers shot at Satory 

15 Sept. 

Arrest of Edmond About at Saverne, by the Ger- 
mans, on account of a newspaper article (written 
Oct. 1871), 14 Sept. ; released . . 21 Sept. 

Attempted celebration of the anniversary of the 
establishment of the first French republic ; ban- 
quet at Chambery stopped . . .22 Sept. 

M. Thiers and the ministry in Paris . . Sept. 

Progress of Gambetta in the south ; violent speech 
at Grenoble against Thiers ... 27 Sept. 

Pilgrimage of about 20,000 persons to the grotto of 
the Virgin Mary at Lourdes, on account of alleged 
miracles (the Virgin was said to have appeared to 
two girls, 14 Feb. 1858) .... 6 Oct. 

Report that the Russian minister remonstrated on 
Gambetta's speech at Grenoble . . Oct. 

The supreme council of war constituted ; includes 
MacMahon, Canrobert, due d'Aumale, and other 
eminent generals ; first meeting, Thiers present 

9 Oct. 

Prince Napoleon and princess Clothilde come to 
Paris ; expelled by order of the government (he 
protests) . . 12 Oct. 

Letter from the comte de Chambord to M. de la 
Rochette, protesting against a republic, and assert- 
ing that France can be saved by a monarchy 
alone ; that she is catholic and monarchical, and 
cannot, therefore, perish ; dated . . 15 Oct. 

Elections for vacancies in the assembly ; radical 
republicans mostly elected ... 20 Oct. 

The Germans evacuate Haute Marne and other de- 
partments Oct., Nov. 

Banquet of the monarchical party at Bordeaux 

31 Oct. 

New commercial treaty with Great Britain signed at 
London 5 Nov. 

Re-assembling of the national assembly, 11 Nov. ; 
Thiers in his message declares that the republic is 
the legal government ; and that to exist it must 
be conservative ; and proposes changes 12 Nov. 

Service of prayer on behalf of the assembly 17 Nov. 

Fruitless attack of general Changarnier on Thiers' 
policy and Gambetta's Speech at Grenoble; mo- 
tion to pass to order of the day ; majority for 
government, 150 ; (300 did not vote) . 18 Nov. 

The result becomes the law of . . 10 Nov. 

M. Kerdrel proposes a commission to consider 
Thiers' proposals for changes ; adopted 19 Nor. 



1S72 



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396 



FEANCE. 



Thiers threatens to resign ; crisis . 19, 20 Nov. 
Report of the commission read by M. Batbie, claim- 
ing the right of the assembly to frame a constitu- 
tion with a. responsible ministry ; the president 
not to speak in the assembly, &c. ; he advocated 
" gouvernement de combat " . . 26 Nov. 
Amendment proposed by Dufaure, minister of jus- 
tice, accepting ministerial responsibility, rejected 
by the committee .... 28 Nov. 

3VL Thiers addresses the assembly ; declares he pre- 
fers the English to the American system ; but 
that a monarchy in France is at present impos- 
sible ; that he is faithful to the republic ; and 
that he wishes to render it conservative ; and that 
he has for two years served his country with 
boundless devotion ; Dufaure's amendment car- 
ried by 370-334 (union of royalists with Bonapart- 
ists against the radicals) . . -29 Nov. 
Vote of censure on the home minister (Lanfranc) 
carried ; 305-299 ; he resigns . . 30 Nov. 
Agitation respecting the appointment of the com- 
mission of 30, proposed by Dufaure ; it consists 
of 19 for the right, 11 for the government, 6 Dec. ; 
changes in the ministry announced . 8 Dec. 
Manifesto of the left, proposing a dissolution of the 
assembly by legal means ... 10 Dec. 

Negatived by the assembly (490-201) . 14 Dec. 
Powerful si^eech of Thiers to the commission of 30 

16 Dec. 

Execution of Poitevin, a traitor . . 23 Dec. 

Debt (before the war, about 460,500,000?.)— 

748,700,000?. ...... Dec. 

Illness of the ex-emperor .... 4 Jan. 

Meeting of the national assembly . . 6 Jan. 

Death of Napoleon III. at Chiselhurst 9 Jan. 

Bonapartist manifesto ; " the emperor is dead, but 
the empire is living and indestructible " 15 Jan. 
'The "30 committee" considering Tallon's project 

for a constitution Jan. 

'Three communist murderers shot at Satory 22 Jan. 
Reported recognition of the comte de Chambord as 
king by the Orleans princes . . .26 Jan. 
Powerful speech of Thiers before the commission of 
30 against their proposed changes . . 2 Feb. 
The commission of 30 close their meetings 8 Feb. 
Letter of the comte de Chambord published ; destroys 
all hopes of the fusion of the Bourbons . Feb. 
Debate begins on the report of the commission, 
which reserves the legislative rights of the present 
assembly, and the adherence to the provisional 
state in accordance with the " pacte de Bor- 
deaux," 27 Feb. ; powerful speech of Thiers in 
favour of this "truce of parties," adopted (475- 

5:99) 4 March, 

Convention for the total evacuation of the depart- 
ments in Sept. on payment of indemnity, signed 

at Berlin 15 March, 

Declaration in the assembly " that M. Thiers has de- 
served well of his country " . . 17 March, 
M. Grevy resigns the presidency on account of the 
conduct of the party of the right, b April ; 
M. Buffet, a liberal Bonapartist, elected in oppo- 
sition to Martel, the government candidate, 4 April, 
M. Barodet, radical, ex-mayor of Lyons, elected 
member of the assembly for Paris by a large ma- 
jority over the minister de Kemusat . 27 April, 
Changes in the ministry :— Casimir Perier, interior ; 
W. H. Waddington, of Cambridge, public in- 
struction (in room of De Goulard and Jules 

Simon) ^ May, 

Meeting of the national assembly, 19 May ; the 
government introduce their constitutional bills, 
21 May ; the due de Broglie leads an attack on 
the government, 23 May ; speech of Thiers ; the 
government defeated (362-34S) at a sitting, 2 p. m. , 

24 May, 
Resignation of Thiers and his ministry accepted 
(368-339), 24 May ; marshal McMahon, due de 
Magenta (born 1808) elected president of the re- 
public by 390 votes (the left did not vote); he 
accepts the office, declaring his independence of 
party, 24 May ; in his message to the assembly 
he says, " The post in which you have placed me 
is that of a sentinel, who has to watch over the 
integrity of your sovereign power. " . 26 May, 
The due de Broglie chief of the new ministry 

26 May, 



1872 



General Ladmirault succeeds MacMahon in the 
command of the army of Versailles . 3 June, 1873 

Private circular of the minister to prefects re- 
questing them to sound newspapers of his de- 
partment ; censured in the assembly . 11 June, „ 

The assembly (by a large majority) order the prose- 
cution of Ranc, formerly a communist, now 
deputy for Lyons .... 19 June, ,, 

Visit of the Shah 5 July, „ 

Grand review of the renovated army at Paris, and. 
assembly prorogued . . . .10 July, „ 

Renewal of the Anglo-French treaty of 23 Jan. 
i860 (till 30 June, 1877) ; signed 24 July ; ratified 

29 July, ,, 

Evacuation of all the French territories by the 
Germans, except Verdun, by . . .2 Aug. „ 

Fusion of the Legitimists and Orleanists ; after an 
interview of the comte de Paris with the comte 
de Chambord; the latter recognised as chief 

5 Aug. „ 

Odilon-Barrot died 6 Aug. „ 

The imperial prince Napoleon declares the policy 
of his family to be "Everything by the people 
for the people " 15 Aug. „ 

Last instalment of 10,000,000?. of the indemnity of 
200,000,000?. paid ..... 5 Sept. ,, 

About 2,700 communists yet to be disposed of 

Sept.. ,, 

Verdun quitted by the Germans ._ . 13 Sept. „ 

The last quitted the French territory . 16 Sept. „ 

Due Decazes ambassador for London . . Oct. „ 

Letter from comte de Chambord to the vicomta 
de Rodez-Benavent ; not explicit ; shows ten- 
dency to concession ; says, "I want the co-opera- 
tion of all, and all have need of me " dated 

19 Sept. „ 

Prince Napoleon Jerome joins the republican party, 

26 Sept. ,, 

Letter from Thiers to mayor of Nancy, censuring 
the fusionists, who "without the consent of 
France pretend to decide upon her destinies" 

29 Sept. „ 

France divided into 18 new military regions ; 18 
generals appointed . . . -30 Sept. ,, 

Trial of marshal Bazaine, late commander of the army 
of the Rhine in 1870, for alleged treachery and 
misconduct at Metz ; due d'Aumale president of 
the court ; begins 6 Oct. ,, 

Changes in the ministry ; due Decazes foreign and 
Changarnier war minister . . .6 Oct. ,, 

Rouher's letter to the Bonapartists against the 
monarchists 9 Oct. ,, 

M. Remusat and 3 other republicans elected de- 
puties ....... 12 Oct. ,, 

Ranc condemned to death in contumaciam 13 Oct. „ 

M. Lemoinne (in the Journal des Debats) says "The 
partisans of an absolute monarchy make a tabula 
rasa of history ; for them nothing has occurred. 
If that be so, nothing will return " . 15 Oct. 

Manifesto of the monarchists proposing restoration 
of the monarchy, guaranteeing all necessary 
liberties, &c 18 Oct. „ 

M. Leon Say and the left centre decline negotia- 
tion with the monarchists ; who threaten absten- 
tion in the next elections, if successfully opposed 

23 Oct. „ 

Letter from the comte de Chambord to M. 
Chesnelong ; he says, " I retract nothing, and 
curtail nothing of my previous declarations. I 
do not wish to begin a reign of reparation by an 
act of weakness ; if enfeebled to-day, I should 
be powerless to-morrow ; I am a necessary pilot ; 
the only one capable of guiding the ship to port, 
because I have for it a mission of authority." 
dated 27 Oct. „ 

M. Leon Say and the left centre say the moment 
has arrived for the organisation of a conservative 
republic 30 Oct. „ 

Meeting of national assembly ; message from mar- 
shal MacMahon, requesting increased and pro- 
longed power (ten years) ; this referred to a com- 
mittee of 15 ; voted urgent (by 360 to 350) 5 Nov. „ 

M. Buffet re-elected president . . 6 Nov. „ 

Conspiracy at Autun to seize marchioness Mac- 
Mahon ; offenders convicted . . . 7 Nov. ,, 

Eight of the committee vote for prolongation of 
MacMahon's presidency for five years after date 
of meeting of the next legislature, under existing 



FRANCE. 



397 



FRANCE. 



conditions till the passing of constitutional laws ; 
the others vote for ten years' prolongation with- 
out conditions 13 Nov. 

M. Laboulaye's report of the committee laid before 
the assembly; MaeMahon's message suggesting 
7 years' prolongation of his powers . 17 Nov. 

Warm debate in the assembly ; majority of 68 for 
ministers, 18 Nov. ; 7 years' power voted to 
marshal MacMahon (383-317), jg Nov. ; decree 

20 Nov. 

Incognito visit of the comte de Chambord to Paris 
about 20 Nov. 

Ministry resigns, 20 Nov. ; re-constituted ; due de 
Broglie, minister of interior ; due Decazes, 
foreign minister ; announced . . 26 Nov. 

Committee of 30 for constitutional changes, com- 
pleted 4 Dec. 

Holds its first meeting, Batbie, president 5 Dec. 

Embassy to London declined by Guizot ; accepted 
by the due de la Rochefoucauld-Bisaecia Dec. 

Bazaine's trial ends ; he is found guilty of capitu- 
lating with his army (of 170, 000 men) in the open 
field ; of negotiating dishonourably with the 
enemy, and surrendering a fortified place ; sen- 
tence, death and degradation, 10 Dec. ; com- 
muted to 20 years' imprisonment . .12 Dec. 

Peaceful republican demonstration in Paris at the 
funeral of Victor Hugo's second son, Frangois, 

28 Dec. 

Meeting of the assembly ; majority against the 
nomination of mayors bill, through the legiti- 
mists (268-226), 8 Jan. ; the ministry resign, 9 
Jan. ; vote of confidence in the ministry (379 to 
329), 12 Jan. ; the ministers resume office 13 Jan. 

Vote for ministers on the nomination of mayors 
bill (341-336) 17 Jan. 

The Ultramontane newspaper, L'Unlvers (edited 
by M. L. Veuillot), suspended for 2 months for 
attacks on Italy and Germany, about 19 Jan. 

Nomination of mayors bill passed, 21 Jan. ; many 
mayors replaced Feb. 

A person calls himself comte Albert de Bourbon, 
and claims to be son of Louis XVII. ; his claim 
rejected 27 Feb. 

Ledru-Rollin and Lepetit elected members of 
the national assembly . . . .1 March, 

New electoral law presented by the committee ; 
about 3 millions disfranchised . 11 March, 

Demonstration at Chiselhurst on prince Louis 
Napoleon's coming of age (at 18) ; 6000 French- 
men present ; he says that he waits the result of 
the 8th plebiscite .... 16 March, 

Gabriel Hugelmann, political spy and swindler, 
convicted and sentenced to 5 years' imprison- 
ment 25 March, 

Ferrand, contractor (made about 8o,oooZ. during 
war), fined and imprisoned, about . 25 March, 

Proposal of Dahirel, legitimist, of a law enacting 
that on 1 June the assembly should vote for 
either a monarchy or republic, negatived (330- 
256) 27 March, 

Assembly adjourns to 12 May . . 28 March, 

Two republican deputies elected . 29 March, 

Reported escape of Rochefort, the communist, from 
New Caledonia . . announced 30 March, 

Death of Beule", ex-minister . . .4 April, 

Newspapers warned not to attack the septennate 

12 April, 

Clement Duvernois, ex-imperial minister, arrested 
for suspected fraud .... 14 April, 

The assembly meets, 12 May ; the ministry de- 
feated on electoral law (381-317), resigns 16 May, 

M. Goulard failing to form a ministry, the presi- 
dent re-appoints the former without Broglie ; 
nominal head, gen. De Cissey . . 22 May, 

Prince Hohenlohe, the new German ambassador, 
received by the president ; mutual professions 
of peace 23 May, 

Rochefort and other communists arrive at San 
Francisco . . . announced 21 May, 

Bourgoing, a Bonapartist, elected for Nievre (as- 
serted that he was devoted to the marshal) 

24 May, 

Thiers addresses some Gironde friends ; refers to 
the failure of his opponents ; and recommends 
dissolution of the assembly . . 24 May, 

Electoral bill; assembly pass to second reading 
(.393-3 18 ) 1 June, 



1873 



1874 



Ledru-Rollin's speech a failure . . 3 June, 1874 

Hot disputes between republicans and Bonapar- 
tists ; left centre demand the establishment of 
the republic, or dissolution of the assembly 

8, 9 June, „ 

Bonnard, communist, condemned for murder, 25 
Feb., shot 6 June, ,, 

Electoral bill ; age of electors fixed at 21, not 25 
(defeat of ministry) . . . .10 June, „ 

Gambetta having called the Bonapartists "misera- 
Ues," is struck at a railway station by comte de 
Sainte Croix, xi June, who is condemned to fine- 
and imprisonment . . . -13 June, „ 

Casimir Perier (leader of left centre) moves for 
recognition of the republic ; MacMahon president 
til? 20 Nov. 1880, and revision of the constitu- 
tion ; voted "urgent " (345-341) . 14, 15 June, , T 

Due de Rochefoucauld-Bisaceia's motion for re- 
storation of the legitimate monarchy negatived ; 
he resigns British embassy . . .15 June, ,„ 

Rochefort in London .... 19 June, ,, 

The " fusion " between legitimists and Orleanists 
ended ; conflict now between republicans and 
Bonapartists June, ,„ 

Grand review of 60,000 men at Longchamps, near 
Paris 28 June, , f 

In his order of the day, marshal MacMahon de- 
clares that with the army he will maintain the 
authority of the land for the seven years 29 June, ,, 

Casimir Perier's motion negatived by commission 
of thirty 29 June, „ 

Manifesto from comte de Chambord, saying, 
" France has need of monarchy. My birth has 
made me your king. . . The Christian and 
French monarchy is in its very essence limited 
(temperre). It admits of the existence of two 
chambers : one nominated by the sovereign, the- 
other by the nation. . I do not wish for 

those barren parliamentary struggles, whence 
the sovereign too frecpuently issues powerless, 
and enfeebled. . . I reject the formula of 
foreign importation, which all our national tradi- 
tions repudiate, with its king who reigns and 
does not govern." — Signed, Henri V. . 2 July, ,, 

" L' Union," legitimist paper, suspended for pub- 
lishing the above 4 July, , y 

M. Goulard, ex-minister, dies . . 4 July, „ 

Debate on the manifesto ; legitimists defeated ; 
ministers defeated on a motion in favour of the 
septennate, resign (368-331) ; their resignation 
not accepted by the marshal . . 8 July, „ 

He states, in a message to the assembly, his deter- 
mination to maintain the law of 20 Nov. , and ex- 
horts them to pass the constitutional laws 

9 July, ,, 

"Figaro" suspended for 15 days for attacking the 
assembly 11 July, ,, 

Reports of committee, by Ventavon (the bill pro- 
poses maintenance of the authority of the presi- 
dent of the republic ; ministerial responsibility ; 
two legislative assemblies ; dissolution of the 
chamber of deputies by the president ; &c), sus- 
pended 16 July, ,, 

Casimir Perier's motion for a republic rejected 
(375-313) 23 July, „ 

Malleville's motion for dissolution of the assembly 
rejected (374-332) > 

The assembly adjourns (to 30 Nov.) . . 5 Aug. ,, 

Marshal Bazaine escapes from the isle of Ste. 
Marguerite (see Dec. 1873) 10 p.m. [His wife as- 
serted that he descended by an old gutter by 
means of a knotted rope ; was received into a> 
boat by her and her nephew, Alvarez de Rul, 
and conveyed to the steamer Baron Ricasola, 
which landed him at Genoa] . . .9 Aug. 

Forcade de Roquette, a minister under the empire, 
dies, aged 53 16 Aug. 

MaeMahon's progress in the N.W. provinces ; well 
received 17 Aug. 

Vendome column restored ... 31 Aug. 

Comte de Jarnac, minister at London, arrives there 

4 Sept. 

Death of M. Guizot . . . .12 Sept. 

Bazaine's defence, sent by him to the New Yuri- 
Herald, dated 6 Sept., published in London 

14 Sept. 



FRANCE. 



FRANCE. 



'Trials for complicity in Bazaine's escape ; col. 
Villette and others sentenced to imprisonment 

17 Sept. 1874 

'Thiers, at Vizille near Grenoble, in reply to an 
address, says, " Since you cannot establish the 
monarchy, establish the republic, and do it 
frankly and sincerely " . . . . 27 Sept. ,, 

Poirier executed at Chartres for 5 murders 29 Sept. ,, 

Severe note from Spanish government complaining 
of French neglect in regard to the Carlists on 
the Spanish frontier .... early Oct. „ 

Clement Duvernois, ex-imperial minister, con- 
victed of fraud ; 2 years' imprisonment 25 Nov. „ 

Political Parties. 

Extreme right. Legitimists : adherents of Henry V. 
Moderate right : monarchists. Bight centre: 
septennates, Imperialists or Bonapartists. Left 
centre : moderate republicans (chief, Thiers). 
Left : more pronounced. Extreme left : radicals 
(chief, Gambetta) Nov. „ 

St. Genest's pamphlet, " V Assembles et la France," 
inciting to a coup d'etat . . . end of Nov. „ 

<Comte de Chambord requests his friends not to 
vote so as to prevent or delay the restoration of 
the monarchy Nov. ,, 

Four ornamented volumes of addresses from towns, 
&c. , in Prance, conveying thanks for relief during 
the war 1870-1 (inscribed on the outside, "Bri- 
tannia grata Gallia") with about 12,000,000 
signatures, presented to the queen by M. D'Agiout 
and the comte de S'errurier [placed in the British 
Museum for inspection] .... 3 Dec. ,, 

The assembly meets ; firm moderate message from 
MacMahon 3 ^>ec. „ 

Sudden death of M. Ledru-Bollin . 31 Dee. „ 

President in his message having recommended the 
passing a bill for constituting a senate, motion 
against it passed (420 to 250), 6 Jan. ; ministers' 
resignation not accepted .... 7 Jan. 1875 

■Cost of the war (395,400,000?.) announced Jan. 

Eniile Pereire, financier . . . died 6 Jan. 

A Bonapartist elected deputy for Hautes-Pyrenees 

17 Jan. 

Nine days' debate on the new army bill . Jan. 

Stormy debate on Ventavon's bid for organising 
MacMahon's powers, 1st reading passed (557 to 
146) 22 Jan. 

Laboulaye's amendment rejected (359-335) 29 Jan - 

Wallon's amendment (the president of the republic 
to be elected by absolute majority of the two 
chambers for 7 years, and to be eligible for re- 
election ; the republic virtually established) ; 
passed 1 a.m. 31 Jan. 

Great satisfaction throughout the country Feb. 

Duprat's amendment carried (senate to be chosen 
by universal suffrage), 11 Feb. ; third reading of 
the constitutional bill rejected (357-345) ; pro- 
posed dissolution of the assembly negatived 
1(407-266), 12 Feb. ; message from the marshal 
disapproving of last votes ... 13 Feb. 

Senate bill (senate to consist of 300 ; 225 to be 
elected by the departments, 75 by national 
assembly) 22 Feb. 

Laws passed constituting French republic by union 
of moderate monarchists and republicans ; legiti- 
mists and Bonapartists defeated ; senate bill 
passed (448-244), 24 Feb. ; final vote for republic, 
constitutional laws passed (436-262) 

5 p.m. 25 Feb., published 1 March, 

New ministry under Buffet constituted ; Buffet, 
interior; Dufaure, justice; Leon Say, finance; 
Wallon, instruction ; De Meaux, agriculture and 
commerce ; Cissey war ; Decazes, foreign ; Mon- 
taignac, marine ; Caillaux, public works 

10 March, 

Due d'Audiffret Pasquier elected president of the 
assembly almost unanimously . -15 March, 

Death of M. Jarnac-Chabot, ambassador at London 

22 March, 

Assembly adjourns to 11 May . . 20 March, 

Edgar Quinet, author of " Les J6suites," a staunch 
republican, died . . . . 27 March, 

Powerful speech of Gambetta at Belleville, de- 
fending the new constitution . . 23 April, 

Meeting of the assembly, 11 May ; the ministry 
propose to refer a bill to the committee of 30 ; 



defeated; part of the committee resign, 18 May; 
new committee elected (republican majority) 

26 May, 1875 

Louis Blanc's speech against the conservative re- 
public, 21 June; self-denying resolution of the 
left party (to avoid delaying the dissolution by 
speaking, &c.) June, ,, 

Destructive inundations at Toulouse ; about 1000 
lives lost, with much property . 23 June, ,, 

Election of baron de BoUrgoing, a Bonapartist, an- 
nulled by the assembly, 13 July ; warm defence 
of his party by Rouher (on the charge of there 
being a central committee of Bonapartists in 
Paris with branches in the provinces, actively 
endeavouring to overthrow the republic in 1874) 

14 July, „ 

Fierce debate in assembly ; Buffet defends the 
imperialistic prefects, and gains vote of con- 
fidence ; the left not voting . . 15 July, ,, 

H. Roehefort, after challenging Paul de Cassagnac, 
declines accepting the conditions of the combat 
at Geneva Aug. ,, 

The assembly adjourns .... 4 Aug. „ 

Naquet, an "irreconcilable" republican, attacks 
Gambetta for his moderation . end of Aug. ,, 

Plon having lost by publishing " Julius Csesar," 
by Napoleon III., sues the emperor's executors ; 
fails ; and is adjudged to pay costs . . Aug. „ 

L'Echo de Blois fined for libel on the due d'Aumale 

28 Aug. „ 
"Les ResponsaJiilitcs," pamphlet recommending the 

comte de Chambord to resign his rights to the 
crown Aug. ,, 

Belgian and German pilgrimage to Lourdes (see 
1872) Sept. ,, 

Admiral De la Ronciere Noury superseded for 
writing a letter animadverting on the republic 
(2 Sept.) 8 Sept, „ 

Alleged adhesion of the Orleanist party to the 
republic about 10 Sept. ,, 

Important speeches ; M. Thiers at Arcachon de- 
fending his policy ; advocating a conservative 
republic, and censuring delay ; M. Rouher at 
Ajaccio, advocating imperialism and universal 
suffrage, and asserting that the nation will not 
accept the republic as a definite government 

17 Oct. „ 

Important letter of Gambetta to his frier.ds at 
Lyons (in favour of the conservative republic), 
said to be " too advanced for the moderate, and 
too moderate for the advanced." . . 25 Oct. ,, 

Meeting of the- assembly : due d'Audiffret re- 
elected president 4 Nov. ,, 

The assembly virtually votes its dissolution before 
31 March, 1876 ; 6 months' residence in a com- 
mune to give right to vote, 9 Nov., majority for 
ministers ; the scrutin d'arrondissement adopted 
instead of scrutin de list'e (357-326) ; able speech 
of Gambetta for the latter . . 11 Nov. ,, 

New Catholic University opened . .17 Nov. ,, 

Beginning of ballot for senators for life ; due 
d'Audiffret Pasquier elected ; the result dis- 
closes a breach between the legitimists and 
Orleanists ; government defeated . . 9 Dec ,, 

Committees on the bills relating to the press and 
the state of siege protest against them strongly 

about 13 Dec. ,, 

Seventy-five senators for life (52 republicans) 
elected by the assembly . . 9 — 21 Dec. „ 

Powerful speech of Buffet in favour of rigid press 
law and state of siege, 23 Dec. ; much censured, 
but approved in a letter by MacMahon 24 Dec. ,, 

Majority for ministers (376-303) . . 24 Dec. ,, 

Solemn funerals of generals Clement Thomas and 
Lecomte, killed by the communists (18 March, 
1871); violent recrimination in the assembly 

27 Dec. ,, 

Re-election to the assembly declined by the due 
d'Aumale, 27 Dec. ; by the prince de Joinville, 

29 Dec. ,, 
New press law (abolishing interdiction) passed ; 

state of siege raised excepit in Paris, Versailles, 
Lyons, and Marseilles ; proposal to raise it at 
Paris negatived (369-279) ... 29 Dec. „ 
The assembly prorogued till 8 March, 1876 31 Dec. „ 
Powerful letter from Gambetta . . 31 Dec. ,, 
Communist trials report : 9,596 convicted ; no 
sentenced to death Dec. ,, 



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Ministerial crisis : difference between Buffet and 
Say respecting an electoral list ; resignation of 
Say ; withdrawn at MacMahon's request. 10 Jan. 
et seq.; the marshal issues a proclamation, coun- 
tersigned by Buffet ; he says, " I think that the 
constitution ought not to be revised before having 
been loyally worked. I shall fulfil to the end 
the mission entrusted to me." . . 13 Jan. 1876 
New Catholic university inaugurated at Paris by 

the archbishop . . . . .10 Jan. ,, 
Commencement of election of senators in depart- 
ments 17 Jan. ,, 

General prosperity ; revenue for 1875 estimated 
100,000, 000L, said to be the highest ever received 

by any government Jan. ,, 

Election of senators ; mostly moderate republicans ; 
Thiers for Belfort nearly unanimous ; Buffet and 
Louis Blanc rejected ; Victor Hugo elected 30 Jan. ,, 
Resignation of Leon Renault, prefect of police, 

opposed to Buffet .... 9 Feb. „ 

Election of deputies ; great majority of repub- 
licans, 20 Feb. — 5 March ; resignation of Buf- 
fet, about 22 Feb. ; Dufaure chief minister, with 

a modified cabinet 24 Feb. ,, 

Estimated result of elections : moderate repub- 
licans, 270 ; radicals, .60 ; Bonapartists, 92 ; Or- 
leanists, 58 ; legitimists, 36 . . 7 March, ,, 
Dufaure's ministry complete (including Decazes, 

Say, Waddington, de Cissey, &c.) about 9 March, ,, 
Senate and assembly meet, 8 March ; due d'Audif- 
fret Pasquier elected president of senate ; M. F. 
P. Jules Grevy, president of assembly 13 March, „ 
Amnesty bill for communists introduced in the 
senate by Victor Hugo ; in the assembly by 

Raspail 21 March, „ 

Proposed international exhibition, Paris,for 1 May, 

1878 5 April, ,, 

Archbishop Guibe.rt, of Paris, declines to give 
evidence concerning the election of comte de 

Mun as deputy April, ,, 

Gambetta president of budget committee for 1877 

about 19 April, ,, 
Queen Victoria in Paris ; received by the president, 

21 April, „ 
Death of Ricard, popular liberal minister of the 
interior, aged 48, 12 May; succeeded by M. De 
Mercere, under-secretary . about 15 May, ,, 
Debate on the amnesty to communists, 14 May ; 
rejected (394-52), 17 May; Victor Hugo's speech 
in favour of amnesty ; proposal rejected almost 

unanimously 22 May, ,, 

Funeral procession of Michelet at Paris 18 May, ,, 
M. Buffet, ex-minister, elected life-senator 16 June, ,, 
87 communists pardoned . . .28 June, ,, 

Casimir Pe'rier dies 6 July, ,, 

Nearly 2,000,000?. voted for public instruction 

31 July, „ 
Chambers prorogued . . . .12 Aug. ,, 
68 communists pardoned ... 17 Aug. ,, 
Observatory at Puy de D6me near Clermont in- 
augurated 22 Aug. ,, 

New fortifications round Paris nearly completed, 

Sept. „ 
The assembly reopened, 30 Oct. ; the due Decazes' 

firm pacific speech .... 3 Nov. ,, 
Prince Napoleon Jerome becomes prominent in the 

assembly Nov. ,, 

Resignation of Dufaure's ministry through defeats 

in the senate, &c 2 Dec. ,, 

Pardons and commutations granted to many com- 
munist convicts 2 Dec. ,, 

New ministry: Jules Simon, president of the 
council and minister of interior; Martel, justice ; 
others remain . . . . 12, 13 Dec. ,, 
Estimated revenue 109,000,000/. . . . Dec. ,, 

Chambers opened 9 Jan. 1877 

Gambetta president of the budget . . 26 Jan. ,, 
Above fifty prefects, hostile to the republic, re- 
moved Jan. ,, 

Gen. Changarnier died, aged 83 . -14 Feb. ,, 
Paul de Cassagnac fined ami imprisoned for libel 
against chamber of deputies in the "Pays," 

5 April, ,, 
Rochefort's " Lantemc " re-published . April, ,, 
M. Jules Simon compelled to yield to Gambetta in 

the chamber 4 May, ,, 

Peremptory letter of censure from marshal Mac- 



Mahon to Jules Simon causes him and his 

ministry to resign 16 May, 

The due de Broglie forms a ministry (royalist and 
imperial), De Fourtou, interior ; Cailloux, finance ; 
Paris, public works ; De Meaux, agriculture ; 
Brunet, public instruction ; (Decazes, foreign, 
and Berthaut, war, remain) . . 17 May, 
Gambetta's resolution in chamber in favour of par- 
liamentary government carried, (355 - 154) 17 May ; 
protest of 363 liberal deputies signed . 18 May, 
The marshal prorogues the chambers for a month ; 
a fim manifesto issued by the left . 18 May, 
Many changes made in the prefects . 20 May, 

Thiers -accepted as leader by the republicans ; 
Brogtte's circular for repressing the press issued 
about 29 May, 
Bonnet Duverdier, chief of municipality of Paris ; 
arrested for speaking against the marshal, 1 June ; 
sentenced to fine and imprisonment . 8 June, 
Meeting of chambers ; stormy debate in second 
chamber, 16 June ; vote against government 
carried (363-158) .... 19 June, 
The deputies vote the necessary supplies, but not 

direct taxes 21 June, 

The senate votes dissolution of the chambers (150- 

130) 22 June ; decreed ... 25 June, 

The marshal, in an order of the day, after a review 

at Longehamps, says : " I appeal to the army to 

defend the dearest interests of the country," 

2 July, 
Quarrels among Bonapartists (Rouher against 

Cassagnac) July, Aug. 

Repressive measures towards the press, <fee. July.Aug. 
Prosecution of Gambetta (and Murat, editor of the 
"Republique Franchise," in which it appeared) 
for a speech at Lille (29 July) in which he said 
the marshal must, if the elections be against 
him, " submit or resign " (" se soumettre ou se 

demettre") about 25 Aug. 

Thiers dies, aged So ; 3 Sept. public funeral ; no 

disorder 8 Sept. 

Gambetta and Murat convicted ; sentence 3 months 
imprisonment and fine of 80I. 11 Sept. ; on appeal 
sentence affirmed .... 22 Sept. 

The marshal's excursions to various places ; recep- 
tion differs . . . . ' . Aug. Sept. 
In his manifesto respecting the elections, he refers 
to his successful government, and says : " I 
cannot obey the injunctions of the demagogy ; 
I can neither become the instrument of radical- 
ism nor abandon the post in which the constitu- 
tion has placed me " . . -19 Sept. 
Thiers' manifesto to electors (an historical defence 
of the republic and late chamber) published 

24 Sept. 
The clergy energetically support the government 

Sept. Oct. 
Temperate manifesto of the left, 4 Oct. ; of Grevy 

and Gambetta 7 Oct. 

Justificatory manifesto of the marshal, appealing 

to voters IX Oct. 

Gambetta convicted for placarding his address ; 
fine 150/. and 3 months' imprisonment 12 Oct.' 
M. de Fourtou interferes very energetically in 
elections ; foreign papers stopped', &c. . Oct. 
General election ; quiet and dignified ; results : 
defeat of Bonapartist and clerical parties ; (of 
506 official candidates about 199 elected ; re- 
publicans, 320) I4 Oct. 

Final result: 325 republicans; 112 Bonapartists; 

96 monarchists 2 s Oct. 

Ministry hold office till successors appointed ; M.' 
Pouyer-Quertier fails to form 11 ministry . Nov! 
Election of departmental councils who elect sena- 
tors ; majority for republicans . . 4 Nov. 
Meeting of chambers . . . . 7 Nov'. 
Census for 1876 announced ; 36,905,788 (increase of 

802,867 over 1872) 8 Nov. 

The marshal determines not to resign ; his ministry 

agree to remain temporarily ; announced 8 Nov. 

F. P. Jules Grevy re-elected president of the 

chamber of deputies now constituted . 10 Nov. 

Albert Greyy's resolution for the appointment of a 

commission of 33 to inquire into the conduct of 

the government respecting elections, 13 Nov. ; 

carried after a warm debate (312-205) . 15 Nov. 

Debate in senate on M. Kerdiels motion respecting 



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400 



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ministers ; vote in their favour indirectly reflect- 
ing on Grevy's resolution, <&c. ('151-129) 19 Nov. 1877 

Eesignation of ministers announced . 20 Nov. „ 

New ministry formed under gen. Rochebouet, 
president ; no member of it in the senate or 
assembly ; termed " ministry of affairs " 23 Nov. „ 

No confidence in the new ministry voted in the 
second chamber (323-208) ... 24 Nov. „ 

Important meeting of commercial men at Paris ; 
petition to the marshal agreed on .2 Dec. „ 

The chamber refuses to discuss the budget 4 Dec. „ 

The ministry resign ; negotiations with Dufaure to 
form a parliamentary ministry fail ; Batbie (see 
26 Nov. 1872) also fails . . . 7-13 Dec. „ 

The marshal submits unconditionally 13 Dec. A 
thorough republican ministry formed under M. 
Dufaure, president of the council and minister 
of justice ; De Marcere, interior ; Waddington 
(protestant), foreign affairs ; Bardoux, public 
instruction ; general Borel, war ; vice-admiral 
Pothuau, marine ; Le'on Say, finance ; Teisserenc 
de Bort, commerce ; De Freycinet, public works : 
announced ; the marshal in his message accepts 
the will of the country . . . 14 Dec. „ 

Restrictions of the press removed ; many prefects 
resign and others are removed 15 Dec. et seq. ,, 

Death of gen. Aurelle de Paladines . . 17 Dec. ,, 

Budget voted ; chambers adjourn. . 18 Dec. ,, 

Limoges affair ; gen. Rochebouet said to have 
issued orders to gen. de Bressoles for a military 
movement which he issued 12 Dec. ; major Labor- 
dere denounces the orders as illegal, 13 Dec. ; 
the orders nullified by the change of ministry, 
14 Dec. ; De Bressoles suspended for alleged 
mistake ; Labordere cashiered ; much excitement 
in Paris on account of suspected preparations for 
a coup d'etat Jan. 1878 

Legislative assembly meets ... 8 Jan. 

Gen. Ducrot dismissed from command for suspected 
connection with projected coup d'ttat 10, 11 Jan. ,, 

Committee of 18 liberal deputies (formed in May) 
virtually dissolve . . . . 13 Jan. „ 

Break up of combined reactionary parties ; the 
ministry generally successful . . March, „ 

International exhibition at Paris opened by the 
marshal president (see Paris) . . 1 May, „ 

Joan of Arc and Voltaire centenaries celebrated, 

30 May, ,, 

M. Waddington, foreign minister, a plenipotentiary 
at the Berlin Conference . 13 June — 13 July „ 

Temporary strikes of workmen . . July, Aug. ,, 

Republican success in electing departmental coun- 
cils Aug. „ 

Solemn commemoration of death of Thiers at Notre 
Dame, &c. 3 Sept. „ 

Execution of Barre, stockbroker, and Lebiez, 
medical student, for murder of a milkwoman for 
her funded property .... 7 Sept. „ 

Review of 55,000 soldiers at Vincennes . 15 Sept. „ 

Powerful speech of Gambetta at Romans (depart- 
ment Drome), proposing abolition of the exemp- 
tion of theological students from military service, 
18 Sept., and at Grenoble . . . 10 Oct. „ 

Dupanloup, bishop of Orleans, dies suddenly, 11 Oct. ,, 

The assembly meets 28 Oct. ,, 

12,000 national lottery tickets of 1 franc sold (see 
Lotteries) .... . \ip to Nov. „ 

Energetic manifesto of united Legitimists, Orlean- 
ists, and Bonapartists against republicans re- 
specting election of senators . .13 Nov. ,, 

Elections of Paul de Cassagnac (7 Nov.) and M. 
Fortou invalidated by the Chamber, 18 Nov. ; of 
Decazes 7 Dee. „ 

Letter from comte de Chambord to M. de Mun 
maintaining his rights ; published . 25 Nov. ,, 

All foreign commercial treaties denounced in view 
of a new tariff 31 Dec. „ 

Elections for Senate ; 64 republican, 16 opposition, 

5 Jan. 1879 

Compulsory resignation of gen. Borel, war minister, 
13 Jan. ; succeeded by gen. Gresley . 13 Jan. ,, 

Meeting of chambers ; M. Martel elected president 
of the senate 15 Jan. ,, 

Confidence in the ministry voted in chamber of 
deputies (223-121) .... 20 Jan. ,, 

2,245 communists pardoned by decree, issued 17 Jan. ' ,, 

Ministerial programme : pardons to communists ; 



check of clerical influence upon education ; dis- 
missal of officials opposed to the republic, &c. 

16 Jan. 1879 
Drawing of the national lottery begun . 26 Jan. „ 
Budget: revenue, about 110,242, 812L; expenditure, 

110,177,304? Jan. „ 

Marshal MacMahon refuses to supersede military 
officers, 28 Jan. resigns ; F. P. Jules Grevy elected 
president by the senate, and deputies united as 
"The National Assembly" (536 for Grevy ; 99 

for gen. Chanzy) 30 Jan. ,, 

Gambetta elected president of the chamber, 31 Jan. ,, 
Resignation of Dufaure ; 1 Feb. new ministry formed 
by M. Waddington ; changes (see Nov. 1877) ; M. 
le Royer (keeper of seals and justice), Jules Ferry 
(public instruction), M. Lepere (agriculture), adtn. 
Jaureguiberry (marine) ... 4 Feb. „ 
Communist amnesty bill passed by chamber of depu- 
ties 21 Feb. „ 

Resignation of M. de Marcere, minister of the in- 
terior (police scandals), 3 March ; succeeded by 
M. Lepere . . ... 4 March, ,, 

Admiral Pothuau, ambassador to England, March, ,, 
Impeachment of De Broglie and Rochebouet (late 
ministers) recommended by a commission, . 

8 March, „ 
Impeachment negatived by the chamber (317-159) ; 

vote of censure passed (240-154) . 13 March, ,, 
Proposed return of the assemblies to Paris ; congress 

to be appointed (315-128) . . .22 March, ,, 
M. Ferry's education bills to check clerical influ- 
ences, abolishing Jesuit colleges, &c. March, ,, 
Pardon of 252 communists signed . 8 April, „ 
Blanqui (a convict) elected for Bordeaux 20 April, ,, 
Pardon of 400 communists signed . 24 May, ,, 
Prince Louis Napoleon killed while reconnoitering 

in Zululand . . . . . 1 June, ,, 

Blanqui's election annulled by the chamber (372-33), 

4 June ; pardoned and released . 11 June, „ 
Pardon of 288 more communists signed . 5 June, „ 
Violent opposition of Paul de Cassagnac ; he is ex- 
pelled the house for 3 days for abusing govern- 
ment '. 16 June, ,» 

Congress of senate and deputies vote for their 

return to Paris (526-249) ... 20 June, (> 
M. Ferry's law of superior public instruction passed 

by the deputies 9 July, ,, 

President Grevy's first grand military review at 

Longchamps 13 July, ,, 

Fete of the republic 14 July, ,, 

Prince Napoleon Jerome coldly accepted as chief of 

the Bonapartists . . . . 20 July, ,, 
Comte de Chambord' s letter : " With the co-opera- 
tion of all honest men, and with the grace of God, 
I may save France, and will " . . 26 July, ,„ 
Chambers prorogued .... 2 Aug. ,, 

Treaties of commerce with England prolonged ; 

signed 10 Oct. ,, 

Humbert, an amnestied communist, elected to the 
municipal council, Paris, n Oct.; imprisoned for 
seditious speeches, &c, 22 Oct. ; election an- 
nulled 4 Nov. ,, 

About 60 mayors in La Vendee dismissed for cele- 
brating comte de Chambord's birthday . Nov. ,, 
The senate and assembly meet again at Palis, 

27 Nov. ,„ 
Michel Chevalier, political economist, dies, 28 Nov. , T 
M. Waddington demands a vote of confidence, 2 Dec. ,, 
[Republican sections : left centre, pure left, ad- 
vanced left, extreme left.] 
Ministerial majority (22 1-97); many abstainers, 4 Dec. ,, 
Resignation of Lepere and Le Royer, ministers, 

n, 12 Dec. ,, 
Resignation of the Waddington ministry . 21 Dec. ,, 
New ministry (more republican left) formed by 
M. de Freycinet ; includes Jules Ferry (public 
instruction) and Lepere (interior) ; not Wadding- 
ton or Leon Say . . . . 28, 29 Dec. „ 
Gen. Farre, new war minister, dismisses heads of 

departments in War office .... Jan. 1880 
Meeting of the Chambers .... 13 Jan. , r 
M. de Freycinet's moderate programme 16 Jan. ,, 
Death (ex-foreign ministers) : due de Gramont, 16 

Jan. ; Jules Fa vre .... 20 Jan. „ 
Budget for 1881 announced : estimated revenue, 
110,935,000?. ; 960,000?. more than for 1880 ; sur- 
plus, 1,300,000/, Feb. ,, 

Death of M. Cremieux ... 10 Feb. „ 



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401 



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Plenary amnesty for communists rejected toy the 
Chambers 12 Feb. i£ 

Debate in senate : 7th clause of Ferry's education 
bill (abolishing Jesuit schools, &c); Jules Simon 
speaks against it ; rejected (148-129) 9 March, 

Decree dissolving order of Jesuits and other orders 
in France 29 March, 

Letter from prince Napoleon Jerome in favour of 
the decree ; offends Bonapartists, about 5 April, 

Many bishops and others protest against the de- 
cree April, . 

Pacific circular of M. de Freycinet respecting inter- 
national relations 16 April, 

Ministerial defeat on public meetings bill ; M. Le- 
pere resigns, 15 May ; M. Constans succeeds, 

18 May, . 
General Martel, president of senate, resigns ; suc- 
ceeded by M. Leon Say ... 20 May, 

Amnesty bill for political offences, 19 June ; pre- 
sented by M. de Freycinet, 19 June ; passed by 
the chambers (333-140) . . . .21 June, 

Otaheite formally annexed to France . 29 June, , 

Expulsion of religious orders (much officially op- 
posed) carried into effect with Jesuits 30 June, 

Amnesty bill passed for all, except incendiaries and 
assassins, by senate (143-138) . . 3 July, , 

The president, Grevy, grants a general amnesty, 10 
July ; Rochefort warmly received in Paris, 12 July, 

First grand republican national fete . 14 July, 

Chambers prorogued 15 July, 

Elections of councils-general ; great majority for 
republicans (anti-clerical and anti-Bonapartist), 

1 Aug. , 

MM. Grevy, Gambetta, and Leon Say, witness the 
launch of a man-of-war at Cherbourg, &c, 

8— 11 Aug. , 

M. de Freycinet, in a speech at Montauban, ex- 
presses disagreement with his colleagues respect- 
ing decree against religious orders ; resigns, 

19 Sept. 
New ministry : Jules Ferry (premier and public 

instruction), adm. Clouet (marine), Sadi-Carnot 
(public works), Barthelemy St. Hilaire (foreign) ; 
other offices unchanged . . .20 Sept. , 

Two important letters from Guibert, abp. of Paris, 
to the president, recommending suspension of 
execution of the decree of 29 Marcli against reli- 
gious orders, delivered . . . 6, 15 Sept. , 

Felix Pyat, editor of the Commune, sentenced to im- 
prisonment and fine for justifyingregicide,i9 Oct. , 

Carmelites and other religious orders expelled, 

16 Oct. — Nov. , 

Meeting of the assembly : majority against the 
ministry (who resign) (200-166) . . 9 Nov. , 

The ministry withdraw their resignation on vote of 
confidence (240-149) .... 12 Nov. , 

M. Baudry d'Asson, deputy, excluded 9 Nov.; re- 
fuses to retire from the chamber ; forcibly ex- 
pelled 11 Nov. , 

Violent attacks of Rochefort (in I'Intransigeant) on 
Gambetta ; crushing replies . . . Dec. , 

Municipal council elections strongly in favour of 
the government 9 Jan. 18 

Meeting of the chambers .... 20 Jan. , 

Bill greatly freeing the press brought in 26 Jan. , 

Projected loan of 40,000,000^ (public debt, about 
1,200,000^) immediately taken up for 30 times the 
amount March, , 

Di-scussion respecting the scrutin de liste (which 
see), advocated by Gambetta ; opposed by presi- 
dent Grevy, who yields . . -21, 22 March, , 

Expedition to N. Africa to chastise the Kroumirs ; 
invasion of Tunis . . . March, April, , 

Treaty with the bey signed (see Tunis) 12 May, , 

Excitement at Marseilles and in Italy (which see), 

13 May, et seq. , 

M. Bardoux's bill for the scrutin dc liste adopted by 
the chamber of deputies (243-235) . 18 May, , 

The Tunis treaty ratified by the chamber (453-1), 

23 May, , 

Warm reception of Gambetta at Cahors and other 
places 25 May, , 

Proposed revision of the constitution negatived in 
the chambers 31 May, , 

The scrutin de liste rejected by the senate (148-114), 

9 June, , 

Adjournment of the chambers . . . July, , 



Election addresses. M. Rouher retires from poli- 
tical life (virtual end of Bonapartism), about 31 
July ; prince Napoleon Jerome advocates pro- 
gress — "everything for and by the people" — 
about 31 July ; speeches of M. Gambetta at 
Tours, Belleville, 12 Aug., advocating revision 
of the constitution, Aug. ; M. Jules Ferry at 
Nancy deprecates division . about 11 Aug. : 

Negotiations for treaty of commerce broken off; 
announced 16 Aug. 

Elections ; triumph of Gambetta and moderate re- 
publicans ; gain of about 44 members ; hopeless 
minority of extremists of both kinds . 21 Aug. 

French treaty. French government propose meeting 
of the commissioners at Paris on 22 Aug.; England 
requests 3 months' extension of existing treaty; 
France declines ; negotiations stopped ; an- 
nounced 18 Aug. 

Complications respecting Tripoli cleared up about 

18 Aug. 

General elections ; great republican majority; num- 
ber of extremists on both sides much reduced 
21 Aug. et seq. 

Negotiations respecting the commercial treaty re- 
sumed (France agrees to 3 months' extension of 
the treaty from 8 Nov.) . . .19 Sept. 

Capuchins and other orders relieved from their 
monastic vows by the pope . . . Oct. 

Meeting of new chamber of deputies . 28 Oct. 

M. Brisson elected president ... 3 Nov. 

Treaty with the bey of Tunis confirmed by the 
chamber. Vote of censure on the Ferry ministry 
respecting Tunis war negatived by a great ma- 
jority, 9 Nov. ; the ministry resign . 10 Nov. 

New ministry gazetted ; M. Gambetta (minister of 
foreign affairs and premier), M. Cazot (justice), 
M. Waldeck-Rousseau (interior), M. Allain-Targe 
(finance), general Campenon (war), M. Gougeard 
(marine), M. Paul Bert (education and worship), 
M. Raynal (public works), M. Rouvier (com- 
merce and colonies), M. Cochery (posts and tele- 
graphs), M. Deves (agriculture), and M. Proust 
(Arts) 12 Nov. 

Moderate declaration of Gambetta to the chambers 
(everything to be for France) . . . 15 Nov. 

M. H. Rochefort acquitted of bitter libel against 
M. Roustan in I'Intransigeant ; a virtual censure 
of the Tunis affair 15 Dec. 

Anglo-French treaty negotiations stop ; French 
concessions insufficient ... 30 Dec. 

Elections for senators ; republicans gain 27 ; now 
207 —93 ; opposition announced . . 9 Jan. 

Much speculation ; panic on the bourse, 19 Jan. ; 
checked by resolution 

The League of Patriots established to support the 
army by encouraging military spirit, and support 
M. Gambetta ... ... 

Defeat of the government; rejection of the scrutin 
de liste (305 — 119) ; resignation of M. Gambetta, 

26 Jan. 

New ministry : M. de Freycinet (president of the 
council and minister for foreign affairs), M. Leon 
Say (finance), M. Jules Ferry (public instruction), 
M. Goblet (interior and public worship), M. Hum- 
bert (justice), general Billot (war), admiral Jau- 
reguiberry (marine), M. Varroy (public works), 
M. Tirard (commerce), M. Mahy (agriculture), 
M. Cochery (posts and telegraphs) 30, 31 Jan. 

Failure of the Union Generale company ; continu- 
ance of panic 30 Jan. 

Arrest of Bontoux, president, and Feder, manager 

2 Feb. 

Proposed revision of constitution negatived, 287—66 

6 Feb. 

Anglo-French treaty renewed till 1 March, 6 Feb. ; 
till 15 May 27 Feb. 

M. Tissot ambassador at London . . March, 

New education bill passed; much government in- 
terference .... about 31 Marcli, 

Commercial convention with Great Britain for ten 
years proposed April, 

Vote of confidence in the government (298 — 70) 

1 June, 

Crisis : confidence in the ministry respecting Egypt 
voted (286 — 105) .... 20 July, 

Vote of credit lor protection of Suez canal negatived 
on motion of M. Clemenceau (416 — 75); resigna- 
tion of ministry 29 July 

D D 



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402 



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The New French ministry, composed as follows : 
M. Duclerc (president of the council and minister 
for foreign affairs), M. Tirard (finance), M. Deves 
(justice) , M. Fallieres (interior) , M. Pierre Legrand 
(commerce, and ad interim public works) , general 
Billot (war), admiral Jaureguiberry (the navy), 
M. Cochery (post office and telegraphs), M. de 
Mahy (agriculture), M. Duvaux (public instruc- 
tion) - • i Aug. 188 

Gambetta advocates activity in foreign affairs, and 
abstention in domestic ; Clemenceau the reverse, 
July — Aug. ; chambers prorogued. . 9 Aug. ,, 
Disturbance amongst the miners of the Saone and 

Loire about 17 Aug. ,, 

The Bonapartists select prince Victor as their chief 

about 31 Aug. „ 
The compulsory education act comes into operation 

2 Oct. „ 
Discovery of an organisation of anarchists (alleged 
origin at Geneva, and prince Krapotkine, mem- 
ber) ; tracts distributed by groups of young men 
throughout the country ; attempted insurrection 
at Montceau-les-Mines suppressed . Aug. ,, 
Many arrested [9 convicted, 22 Dec] . 21 Oct. „ 
Place of trial changed ; dynamite explosions threa- 
tened about 26 Oct. „ 

Disturbances at Lyons ; anarchy and panic ; busi- 
ness and amusements suspended ; the town said 
to be held by the mob ... 27 Oct. „ 

Government official note promising public security 

27 Oct. ,, 
Arrest connected with an explosion at a cafe (one 
man killed) on 23 Oct. ; railway station held by 

troops 28 Oct. „ 

Much dynamite seized 29 Oct. ,, 

Great distress in Lyons Oct. ,, 

Panic subsiding in Paris, &c. . . 8 Nov. ,, 

Opening of the chambers .... 9 Nov. ,, 
Crown jewels (value about 100,000?.) stolen from 

the cathedral of St. Denis ... 23 Nov. „ 
Treaty with the king of Congo negotiated by M. 

Brazza ratified 21 Nov. ,, 

Death of Louis Blanc 6 Dec. „ 

MM. Bontoux & Feder, directors of the " Union 
Generate" (a financial company established in 
1878, and patronised by the legitimists, clergy, 
and the middle classes), sentenced to imprison- 
ment and tines for gross frauds, which caused 
very great universal distress (it stopped 28 Jan.) 

20 Dec. ,, 
Prince Krapotkine, anarchist,arrested about 21 Dec. ,, 
Death of M. Gambetta, aged 44. after several weeks 
illness through an accidental wound, midnight, 

31 Dec. ,, 
His grand state funeral at Paris . . 6 Jan. 188 

Death of gen. Chanzy, aged about 60 . . 5 Jan. „ 

Death of gen. Vinoy Jan. ,, 

Trial of Krapotkine and about 50 anarchists begun 

at Lyons 8 Jan. „ 

He sentenced to 5 years' imprisonment and fine, 

others to imprisonment ... 19 Jan. ,, 
Gambetta's remains removed and re-buried at Nice 

13 Jan. ,, 
Prince Napoleon publishes a manifesto against the 

government ; arrested ... 16 Jan. „ 

M. Floquet's bill for expulsion of Bourbons and 

Bonapartes 16 Jan. ,, 

Government bill of M. de Fallieres for power to 

expel the same 20 Jan. „ 

Ministerial crisis 23 Jan. „ 

Expulsion bill adopted by committee . 25 Jan. „ 
M. Duclere's ministry resigned . . .28 Jan. ,, 
Ministry re-constituted under M. Fallieres 29 Jan. ,, 
M. Fabre's bill permitting princes to remain with 
deprival of civil rights, discussed, 29 Jan. ; passed 
by the chamber (343-163) . . . 1 Feb. ,, 
Prince Napoleon's indictment quashed ; released, 

9 Feb. „ 
Expulsion bill rejected by the senate ; amendment 
of MM. Say and Waddington adopted (165-127) ; 
princes to'be expelled only after trial . 12 Feb. ,, 
Resignation of M. Fallieres and ministry 13 Feb. ,, 
M. Barbey's bill empowering the president to expel 
princes when dangerous, adopted by the deputies, 
15 Feb. ; rejected by the senate . .17 Feb. „ 
M. Jules Ferry (opportunist) forms a ministry 
(Gambettist) ; M. Jules Ferry (premier and 
minister of public instruction), M. Challemel- 



Lacour (foreign affairs), M. Waldeck-Rousseau 
(interior), M. Martin Feuille (justice), General 
Thibaudin (war), M. Charles Brun (marine), 
M. Tirard (finance), M. Raynal (public works), 
M. Meline (agriculture), M. Cochery (posts and 
telegraphs), M. Herisson (commerce) . 21 Feb. 1 
Decree for retirement of the Orleanist princes from 
the army in virtue of the law of 1834 (the due 
d'Aumale, the due de Chartres, and the due 
d'Alengon), approved by the deputies (295-103), 

24 Feb. 
M. Clemenceau's motion for revision of the Consti- 
tution rejected by the deputies . 6 March, 
Open-air meeting of artisans out of work at Paris 
excited to violence by Louise Michel the anar- 
chist and others ; bakers' shops rifled ; checked 
by police, 9 March; many arrested 10 March, 
Louise Michel arrested ... 30 March, 
Trial of madame Monasterio and others for putting 
her daughter Fidelia in a mad-house, and ill- 
usage ; case referred back to public prosecutor, 

March, 
Death of Louis Veuillot, ultramontane, editor of 

VUnivers 8 April, 

Marshal Bazaine publishes his defence at Madrid. 
Conversion of Rentes bill (5 to 4J) passed 27 April, 
Museum of revolution established at Versailles, 

20 June, 
Louise Michel sentenced to 6 years' imprisonment, 
and others to different terms . . 23 June, 
National fete ; colossal statue of the Republic un- 
covered 14 July, 

M. Waddington, ambassador in London, appointed 
about 16 July, arrives ... 23 July, ' 

The chambers close 2 Aug. 

The inauguration of the monument (byM. Barrias) 

erected atCourbevoie to commemorate the defence 

of Paris in 1870-1 .... 12 Aug. 

Death of the comte de Chambord, aged nearly 63 

24 Aug. 
Statue of Lafayette unveiled at Lepuy . 6 Sept. 
Great royalist meeting at Paris; little excitement, 

20 Sept. 

The king of Spain received by president Grevy at 

Paris ; hooted by the mob . . 29 Sept. 

Gen. Thibaudin, minister of war, resigns, 5 Oct. ; 

succeeded by gen. Campenon . . 9 Oct. 

M. Jules Ferry declares for a Republic of ' ' common 

sense," and opposition to the extreme left at 

Rouen, 13 Oct. ; and at Havre . . 14 Oct. 

The government awards 1,000?. to Mr. Shaw (see 

Madagascar, 1883) . . . about 15 Oct. 

The chambers meet 23 Oct. 

Correspondence between France and China respect- 
ing Tonquin published in Times; China firm in 
resisting French encroachments. . 29 Oct. 
Debate on Tonquin; votes of confidence in minis- 
try (339-160) . . . 29-31 Oct.; 10, 18 Dec. 
M. Ferry becomes foreign minister on the retire- 
ment of M. Challemel-Lacour ; other changes in 
the ministry . . . about 17-20 Nov. 
Government defeated on Algerian colonisation (249- 

211) 28 Dec. 

Death of M. Rouher, prime minister of Napoleon 

III 3 Feb. : 

Industrial crisis in Paris ; defeat of the government ; 

a committee of investigation into the condition of 

the working classes appointed (254-249) 4 Feb. 

Proposals for loan of 14,000,000?. issued 12 Feb. 

Government defeated on its seditious meetings bill, 

16 Feb. 
Death of Francois Mignet, French historian, aged 

about 87 24 March, 

Statue of Gambetta (by Falquieres) at Cahors, un- 
veiled by M. Jules Ferry ... 14 April, 
Municipal elections : radicals rather more than 
opportunists ; few of other parties . May, 

Bill for revision of the Constitution (abolition of 
life senators, &c.) brought in by M. Jules Ferry, 

24 May, 
Prince Victor acknowledged chief of the Bona- 
partists ; his father publishes painful correspon- 
dence . . . . . . June, 

Cholera prevalent in the south, &c. (see Cholera) 

June, ct seq. 

Colossal statue of Liberty by Bartholde given to 

the United States of America unveiled by M. 

Jules Ferry at Paris . -4 Jnly 



FRANCE. 



403 



FRANCE. 



Revision bill, modified by the senate, accepted by 
the deputies 31 July, 

Congress of senate and deputies meet at Versailles, 
M. Le Royer, president ... 4 Aug. 

The revision of the Constitution accepted by the 
congress, 509-172 .... 13 Aug. 

Excitement about the price of bread at Paris and 
other places Oct., Dec. 

Wife of M. Clovis Hugues, a deputy, shoots Morin, 
a slanderous libeller, in the Palace of Justice ; he 
dies ; [she acquitted ! 8 Jan. 1885] . 27 Nov. 

Credit for Tonquin war adopted by the deputies, 
282-187, z8 Nov. ; by the senate . n Dec. 

Resignation of gen. Campenon, war minister, 3 Jan. 
succeeded by gen. Lewal ... 5 Jan. 

Senatorial elections (67 republicans and 20 con- 
servatives returned) . . . 25-26 Jan. 

The Chamber votes for engagement of unemployed 
workmen on public works ... 5 Feb. 

The Ferry ministry resign in consequence of defeat 
in the chamber 30 March, 

New ministry formed by M. Brisson . 6 April, 

Peace with China, announced . . 7 April, 

Duty on foreign corn voted by the senate 27 March, 

M. Ferry's ministry defeated on vote of credit for 
_ Chinese war (308-161) ; resigns . . 30 March, 

Vote of credit for 2,000,000?., 31 March ; for 
6,000,000? 7 April, 

New ministry ; H. Brisson (president and justice), 
D. E. Freycinet (foreign), Allain Targe (interior), 
Goblet (public instruction and worship), gen. 
Campenon (war), adm. Galiber (marine), Clama- 
geran, afterwards Sadi-Carnot (finance), and others 

6 April, 

Bosphore Egyptien Affair. See Egypt . May, 

Anarchist demonstration at Pere la Chaise ; many 
wounded by the police ... 24 May, 

Death of Victor Hugo, poet, dramatist and novelist, 
aged 83, 22 May ; buried in the Pantheon ; pro- 
cession 3 miles long, all Paris spectators 1 June, 

Scrutin de liste bill passed with the senate's amend- 
ments 8 June, 

Death of admiral Courbet . . . 11 June, 

Great excitement in Paris about Olivier Pain (see 
Soudan) Aug. 

Chambers prorogued 6 Aug. ; parliamentary elec- 
tions, 200 conservatives, 230 moderates or oppor- 
tunists, 150 radicals .... 4 Oct. 

The ministers not re-elected resign . 6 Oct. 

M. de Freycinet shot at in the Place de la Concorde 

29 Oct. 

New chamber meets .... to Nov. 

Republican party disorganised . . 10 Nov. 

The ministry propose retrenchment in colonial war 
expenditure, and consideration of church dis- 
establishment ..... 16 Nov. 

Report of committee on Tonquin recommends vote 
of 19,000,000 francs instead of 75,000,000 proposed 
by government 16 Dec. 

Great commercial depression, attributed to govern- 
ment prodigality, &c Dec. 

v ote for government (274-270) . . 21-23 Dec. 

F. P. Jules Grevy elected president for seven years 
(457 for Grevy, 68 for M. Brisson) . 28 Dec. 

M. Brisson's ministry resigns . . .29 Dec. 

New ministry ; M. de Freycinet (president and 
foreign affairs), M. Demole (justice), M. Sarrien 
(interior), M. Goblet (education), M. Sadi-Carnot 
(finance), general Boulanger (war), admiral Aube 
(marine and colonies), M. Ba'ihaut (public works), 
M. Develle (agriculture), M. Lockroy (commerce), 
M. Granet (posts and telegraphs) . . 7 Jan. 

Amnesty for political offenders granted . 14 Jan. 

The prefect of Eure (M. Barreme) assassinated in a 
railway carriage 13 Jan. 

Riotous strike of 3,000 miners at Decazeville, in 
Aveyron, murder of M. Watrin, manager, end of 

Jan. 

New elections increase the Republican members |i> 
400, the Right 184 . . . . about 16 Feb. 

M. Sadi-Carnot's budget ; proposed new loan of 
about 58,500,000?. (70,000,000/. really wanted) 17 
March ; the modified loari immediately sub- 
scribed for, 20,000,000?. passed by the deputies 

21 April, 

Abp. Gnibert of Paris, in a letter to president 
Grevy, protests against prohibiting monks anil 
nuns to teach in schools . . about 1 April, 



M. Barthelemy's book, " Avant la Bataille," advo- 
cating the re-conquest of Alsace and Lorraine, 
published .... about 6 April, 

Grand reception of the comte de Paris on account 
of the marriage of his daughter with the duke of 
Braganza 15 May ; causes republican jealousy 

May, 

Bills for giving discretionary power to expel the 
Orleans princes and prince Napoleon and son 
from France and confiscating their property, 
introduced in the chambers (M. Freycinet in- 
fluenced by M. Clemenceau) 27 May ; reported 
disagreement in the cabinet on the subject 2, 3 . 
June ; bill for immediate expulsion of heads of 
families and heirs of dynasties who have reigned 
in France passed by the chamber n June ; and 
by the senate (137-122) 22 June ; promulgated ; 
the Bonapartes quit France 23 June ; the comte 
de Paris and family leave ; at Dover he issues a 
protest declaring monarchy to be the most 
suitable government for France, and j)laees him- 
self as head of the royalists . . . 24 June, 

Death of Guibert, abp. of Paris . . .8 July, 

The due d'Aumale remonstrates against the depri- 
vation of his rank in the army ; his expulsion 
from France voted 13 July ; rev. W. J. Drought, 
English chaplain at Chantilly, expelled from 
France for delivering an address of sympathy 
to the duke Aug. 

Session closed 15 July, 

Celebration of the 100th birthday of M. Chevreul, 
chemist and physicist ... 31 Aug. 

Education bill permitting lay teachers only passed 
by the chamber 28 Oct. 

Ministry defeated in the chamber (by 13 majority), 
resigns 3 Dee. 

New ministry : M. Goblet (president and interior), 
M. Flourens (foreign), M. Dauphin (finance), M. 
Berthelot(publicinstruction), M. Sarrien (justice), 
gen. Boulanger (war), adm. Aube (marine), M. 
Granet (posts and telegraphs), M. Lockroy 
(commerce), M. Millaud (public works), M„ 
Develle (agriculture) .... Dee. 

Continued deficit ; budget rejected ; amended one 
accepted by government ... 22 Jan. 

Panic on the bourse through war rumours 1 Feb. 

Bill for increasing duty on foreign corn adopted by 
the chamber (318-248) 14 March ; by the senate 
25 March ; duty on foreign cattle and meat raised 

March 

M. Schnaebell, commissary of police, arrested near 
Pagny-sur-Moselle, territory doubtful, and sent 
to Metz 20 April ; charged with treason 22 April ; 
statements contradictory ; released by order of 
the emperor William ... 29 April, 

Sale of the crown jewels for 274,560?., diamonds 
289,000?. ; the diamonds distributed between the 
Louvre and other museums . . 12-23 May, 

The Goblet ministry defeated on the budget bill 
(275-257) ; resigns t 7 May, 

MM. Freycinet, Floquet, Deves and Duclerc fail 

May, 

M. Rouvier forms a moderate ministry, consisting 
of M. Rouvier (finances, posts and telegraphs), 
M. Flourens (foreign affairs), M. Mazeau (justice), 
M. Fallieres (interior), M. Spullcr (public instruc- 
tion and worship), M. Barbcy (marine and 
colonies), gen. Ferron (war), M. Dautresme (com- 
merce and public works), M. Barbe (agriculture) 

30 51 ay, 
Gen. Boulanger, the late war minister, issues a 

monitory order to the army . . 30 May, 
Exemption of ecclesiastical students (seminarists) 

abolished in new army bill . . 25 June, 
Gen. Boulanger warmly received in his progress 

to Clermont Ferrand .... 9 July. 
Radical attack on' the ministry defeated (382-120) 

11 July, 
Pranzini, a sordid profligate, convicted of the 

murder of Marie Regnault and two other women 

13 July; executed 31 Aug. 

Session closed 22 .inly. 

Gen. Boulanger challenges M. Ferry for remarks in 
a speech about 29 July ; seconds differ ; no result 

Aug. 
Mobilization of 17th army corps, near Toulouse 

31 Aug. 

D D 2 



i33 7 



FRANCE. 



404 



EKANCE. 



Manifesto of the comte de Paris calling for the re- 
establishment of a constitutional monarchy by 
universal suffrage as specially needful for France 

14 Sept. 

M. Brignon killed, and M. Wangen de Girolseck 
(French sportsmen) wounded by Kaufmann, a 
German soldier and gamekeeper, near the boun- 
dary in the Vosges 24 Sept. ; German redress given, 
2, 500L presented .to Mad. Brignon announced 7 Oct. 

Military scandal ; gen. Caffarel of the war office 
convicted by a military tribunal of dishonourable 
conduct in trafficking with decorations 13 Oct. 

Gen. Boulanger under arrest for thirty days for 
remarks respecting the scandal . . 14 Oct. 

Amicable conventions respecting Suez Canal and 
New Hebrides signed at Paris . . 24 Oct. 

Prince Victor Napoleon issues a Bonapartist 
manifesto 25 Oct. 

The chambers meet 27 Oct. 

Lord Lyons, British ambassador, retires (appointed 
in 1867) ; [died 5 Dec. ;] succeeded by the earl of 
Lytton Oct. 

Trial of gen. Caffarel and others ; discharged 7 Nov. 

Gen. count D'Andlau and Madame Rattazzi sen- 
tenced to imprisonment and fines for trafficking 
in decorations 14 Nov. 

M. Wilson, son-in-law of the president, implicated ; 
also charged with tampering with documents 

Nov. 

The old four-and-a-half per cent, rentes converted 
to three per cents, accepted ... . Nov. 

M. Rouvier defeated in the chamber on a motion of 
M. Clemenceau (317-227) ; the ministry resigns ; 
M. Grevy refuses to resign 19 Nov. ; but is com- 
pelled by the combination of opposite parties ; 
the Rouvier ministry retains office ; on their 

' announcing that M. Grevy defers his resignation 
the chamber immediately adjourns (531-3) 1 Dec. ; 
receives M. Grevy's resignation . . 2 Dec. 

National assembly at Versailles ; congress of 
senators and deputies (833) ; M.. Sadi-Carnot 
("moderate independent") elected president 
(616) ; general Saussier, an unwilling candidate 
(148) ; (MM. Ferry and de Freycinet withdrawn) 

3 Dec. 

M. Goblet fails to form a ministry 9 Dec. ; M. 
Fallieres fails 10 Dec. 

Attempted assassination of M. Ferry by Aubertin, 
a lunatic, in the lobby of the chamber of deputies, 
a narrow escape 10 Dec. 

The tribunals find no case against M. Wilson 

13 Dec. 

New ministry : M. Tirard (finance and premier), 
M. Flourens (foreign affairs), M. Fallieres (justice), 
M. Sarrien (interior), M. Faye (education and 
worship), M. de Mahy, afterwards adm. Krantz, 
Jan. 1888 (marine and colonies) ; M. Loubet 
(public works), M. Dautresme (commerce), M. 
Viette (agriculture), gen. Logerot (war) 13 Dec. 

The session of the chambers closed . 18 Dec. 

Mr. Archibald M'Neill, journalist, wounded and 
drowned (suspected murder) at Boulogne 20 Dec. 
1887 ; Vermersch arrested . . . Jan. 

Gen. Boulanger deprived of his command for in- 
subordination in visiting Paris against orders ; 
announced 15 March, 

Death of M. L. H. Carnot, father of the president, 
aged 86 z (, March, 

Trial of M. Wilson for traffic in decorations ; 
sentenced to two years' imprisonment, loss of 
civil rights for five years, and fine of 3,000 francs, 
1 March ; sentence quashed by court of appeal 

26 March, 
Gen. Boulanger tried by court of five generals ; 

sentenced to retirement 26 March; confirmed 

27 March, 
M. Tirard's ministry defeated when opposing 

urgency for revision of constitution (26S-234) ; 

resigns 30 March, 

M. Floquet forms a ministry : M. Charles Floquet 
(president of the council and minister of the 
interior), M. de Freycinet (war), M. Goblet 
(foreign affairs), admiral Krantz (marine and the 
colonies), M. Peytral (finance, posts, and tele- 
graphs), M. Edouard Lockroy (public instruction, 
fine arts, and worship), M. Deluns Montaud 
(public works), M. Ferrouillat (justice), M. Pierre 



1887 



Legrand (commerce and industry), M. Viette 

(agriculture) 3 April, 

Gen. Boulanger begins to form a party ; elected 

deputy for the Dordogne (59,500-35,750) 8 April ; 

for the Nord (172,528-75,901) . . 15 April, 
Rise of an anti-parliamentary party, a mixture of 

conservatives, radicals, &c. . . . April, 
After vote of confidence in the ministry (379-177), 

it is defeated on the revision question (340-215) 

19 April, 
A committee advises postponement of revision ; 

riots between students and Boulangists 20 April, 
Great circulation of gen. Boulanger's (alleged) 

" German Invasion, no. 1 " 8 May ; soon fell off 

18 May, 
Royalist banquet at the chateau de Mons, near St. 

Etienne ; powerful speech of general de Charette 

27 May, 

Gen. Boulanger's motion in the chamber for 
urgency in the revision of the constitution 
rejected (377-186) .... 4 June, 

The manifesto of the comte de Paris to the mayors 
of communes against the republic signed 6 July, 

Gen. Boulanger in the chamber demands dissolu- 
tion, firmly resisted by M. Floquet ; the general 
accuses M. Floquet of falsehood, resigns his seat, 
and leaves the House in great excitement, 12 
July ; duel, gen. Boulanger seriously, and M. 
Floquet slightly wounded, 13 July ; gen. Boulan- 
ger reported convalescent . . .20 July, 

Unveiling of the Gambetta monument at Paris by 
president Carnot . . . .13 July, 

National fete passes quietly . . .14 July, 

67,000,000 francs voted for the defence of Brest, 
Toulon and Cherbourg ... 17 July, 

Session of chambers closed . . . 18 July, 

Gen. Boulanger defeated in elections for Ardeche, &c. 

July, 

Funeral of Eudes the communist ; rioting sup- 
pressed ; no deaths 8 Aug. 

Diplomatic dispute with Italy respecting Massowah 
(MM. Goblet and Crispi). . . . Aug. 

Gen. Boulanger elected for tire Nord, Somme, and 
Charente 19 Aug. 

Death of marshal Bazaine, aged 77 . .23 Sept. 

Decree of president Carnot and M. Floquet respect- 
ing resident foreigners and immigrants 2 Oct. ; 
registration causes much annoyance ; time pro- 
longed to 1 Jan. 1889 ... 28 Oct. 

The League of the Rose formed to promote the re- 
establishment of the monarchy . autumn, 

The chambers re-open ; M. Floquet introduces a 

bill for the revision of the constitution, which is 

declared urgent 15 Oct. ; much dissatisfaction 

16 Oct. et seq. 

Graduated tax on incomes above 2,000 francs pro- 
posed by M. Peytral .... 22 Oct. 

Increase of Boulangist demonstrations . Oct. 

Prado, alios count Linska de CasfTllon, and other 
names, a daring unprincipled adventurer, the 
husband and associate of many women, whom he 
had robbed of jewelry, &c, and some of whom 
he was strongly' suspected to have murdered, is 
convicted of the murder and robbery of diamonds 
of Marie Aguetant, an unfortunate, in Paris (14 
Jan. 1886) 14 Nov - 

M. Numa Gilly tried for defamation against the 
budget committee ; acquitted for want of evidence 

17 Nov. 

Festival of the League of Patriots (Boulangists) 

25 Nov. 

Demonstration at Paris in honour of M. Baudin, a 
deputy killed on the barricades 2 Dec. 1851, 

2 Dec. 

Powerful speech of M. Challemel-Lacour on the 
demoralization of parliament by reckless faction 

19 Dec. 
Prado executed (see 14 Nov.) ... 28 Dec. 
Windfall of 1,218,000 francs to the government (see 

Tontine) Dec. 

Gen. Boulanger elected for the department of the 
Seine (244,000) ; M. Jacques, advanced republican, 
(162,000) 27 Jan. 

M. Floquet has majority of 62 in the chamber 

31 Jan. 

Bill for replacing the scrutin de lute by the scrutin 
d'arrondissement carried in the chamber (268-222) 
11 Feb. ; in the senate (228-54) • *3 Feb. 



18S9 



FEANCE. 



405 



FEANCE. 



The ministerial scheme for the revision of the 
constitution rejected (307-218); they resign 

14 Feb. 1 

Dissension between the opportunists and the 
radicals ... ... Feb. 

M. Meline fails to form an opportunist ministry 

18 Feb. 

M. Tirard forms a mixed ministry, including several 
ex-premiers : M. Tirard (premier and minister of 
commerce), M. Constans (interior), M. Spiiller 
(foreign), M. de Freycinet (war), M. Eouvier 
(finance), M. Thevenet (justice), adm. Jaures 
(died 13 March ; succeeded by admiral Krantz) 
(marine), M*. Fallieres (education), M. Yves Guyot 
(public works), M. Faye (agriculture) 21, 22 Feb. 

The League of Patriots, established in 1882, becoming 
seditious and connected with Boulangism, sup- 
pressed by the government 28 Feb. ; alleged 
number 240,000 ; protest about 2 March ; MM. 
Deroulede, Laguerre, and others, committee 
of the League, prosecuted ; trial 2 April ; each 
lined 100 fr 6 April, 

Fall in the shares of the Comptoir d'Bscompte de 
Paris through speculations in copper (which see), 
Feb. ; suicide of M. Denfert-Bochereau, the mana- 
ger, 5 March ; panic ; checked by the intervention 
of government and bank of France, 9 March ; 
supported by Messrs. Rothschild and other 
bankers, March ; reconstituted successfully 

March-May, 

Decree of expulsion of the due d'Aumale revoked 
■ 7 March; the due received by M. Carnot, 12 March, 

Manifesto of gen. Boulanger to the Nord against 
the government .... 18 March, 

He escapes to Brussels 1, 2 April ; his trial for con- 
spiracy by the senate proposed ; issues manifesto 
5 April ; expects expulsion ; arrives in London 

24 April, 

The senate meets as a high court for his trial 

12 April, 

M. Chevreul, chemist, dies aged 102 . 9 April, 

M. Carnot, the president, opens the "Revolution 
Exhibition" of relics, at Paris . 18 April, 

Great Royalist banquet at Paris . . 1 May, 

Centenary celebration of the meeting of the States 
General (afterwards the Constituent Assembly) 
5 May, 1789 — president Carnot in the presence of 
a grand assembly in the " Hall of Mirrors," 
Versailles, delivers a eulogium on the revolution 

5 Ma y. 

[On his way to Versailles, the president's carriage 

was fired at by a semi-lunatic named Perrin — 

sentenced to four months' imprisonment 28 May] 

The Universal Exhibition opened by the president 
(see Paris) 6 May, 

New army bill reducing the term of service from 
five years with exemptions to three years, nomi- 
nally without exemptions, passed by the chamber 

July 9, 

M. Quesnay de Beaurepaire hands in the indictment 
against gen. Boulanger .... 7 July, 

Sale (at Paris) of the pictures, tapestries, china, 
&c, of M. Secretan (ruined by speculations in 
copper) ; enormous prices realised, 1-4 July ; 17 
of M. Secretin's pictures were sold by Messrs. 
Christie in London for 27,824?.. 10s. . 13 July, 

Anniversary of the fall of the Bastille celebrated in 
France, the United States, <tc. . 14 July, 

Bill prohibiting a man to be candidate for more 
than one place in the chamber passed by the 
senate 15 July, 

Cantonal elections : republicans, 752 ; conserva- 
tives, 497 ; gen. Boulanger, 12 . . 28 July, 

The chamber votes 2,400,000?. for the increase of 
the navy (3 ironclads, &c.) ; the session closed 

15 July, 

Indictment against gen. Boulanger, charging him 
when director of infantry in 1882, with courting 
popularity by corruption, &c, and when minister 
of war in 1886 with malversation of public money, 
and plotting against the state, with count Dillon, 
H.Rochefort and other confederates; they are cited 
to appear before the High Court of Justice on 6 
Aug.; non-appearance to be followed by loss of civil 
rights and sequestration of property 17, 28 July, 

Gen. Boulanger appeals to the people in reply to 
the indictment 6 Aug. 



The trial of gen. Boulanger, count Dillon, and H. 
Rochefort begins 8 Aug. 1889 

Sentenced to deportation to a fortress, and payment 
of costs of the trial 14 Aug. ,, 

The comte de Paris, prince Gerome Napoleon, his 
son Victor, and gen. Boulanger set forth their 
claims for political power . . . Aug. ,, 

Elections of the chamber of Deputies ; decisive 
victory of the government . 22 Sept. and 6 Oct. ,, 

[112 Monarchists, 62 Bonapartists, 325 Re- 
publicans, 41 Bonlangists, 32 uncertain Liberals. 
Gen. Boulanger's election was annulled.] 

The universal exhibition closed . . .6 Nov. ,, 

The new chamber opened, 12 Nov. ; M. Floquet 
elected president . . . . 18 Nov. ,, 

Moderate statement by M. Tirard . . 19 Nov. ,, 

The Boulangist demonstration easily quelled 

12 Nov. ,, 

Supreme naval council created by decree . 6 Dec. ,, 

Gen. Boulanger's election, and that of several 
Boulangists, for Montmartre, annulled by the 
chamber (370 — 123) .... 9 Dec. ,, 

Three Boulangist deputies expelled from the 
chamber for disorderly conduct . . 20 Jan. 1890 

The duke of Orleans (aged 21) comes to Paris, and 
offers to enter the army ; arrested , 7 Feb. ; sen- 
tenced to two years' imprisonment for breaking 
the exile law of 1886, 12 Feb. ; taken to Clairvaux 

25 Feb. ,, 

Miners' strike at St. Etienne, 2,700 out . 20 Feb. ,, 

Resignation of M. Constans, minister of the In- 
terior, succeeded by M. Leon Bourgeois 1 March, ,, 

M. Tirard and his cabinet defeated in the senate, 
resign . . . . . . 14 March, ,, 

New ministry, M. de Freycinet (premier and war 
minister), M. Rouvier (finance), M. Constans 
(interior), M. Bourgeois (public instruction), M. 
Ribot (foreign), M. Fallieres (justice and public, 
worship), M. Jules Roche (commerce), M. Deville 
(agriculture), M. Barbey (marine), M. Guyot 
(public works) March, ,, 

M. Camot's tour in S. France, Corsica, &c. 16 — 27 

April ,, 

The Boulangists totally defeated in the Paris muni- 
cipal elections 27 April, ., 

Suspected anarchist plot : the marquis de Mores, 
Louise Michel, and about 300 others arrested, 
28 April — 2 May ; the marquis and others liberated 

3 May, et seq. „ 

The labour day of the working classes passes off 
tranquilly at Paris, &c. . . . 1 May, „ 

Strike of thousands of workmen at Croix, Roubaix 
and Tourcoing, in the Nord ; serious rioting sup- 
pressed by the military, 1, 2 May; strikes sub- 
siding 8 May, ,, 

AVar with Dahomey, which see . . Feb. , May, ,, 

Trial of M. Secretan and other directors of the 
Comptoir d'Escompte for fraud, &c, see above 

Feb. 1889—5 May, ,, 

M. Secretan sentenced to 6 months' imprisonment 
and fine of 10,000 francs ; the others received less 
sentences 28 May, ,, 

Gen. Boulanger submits to the government ; the 
Boulangist committee dissolves . . 21 May ,,. 

17 Russian Anarchists or Nihilists, engaged in the 
manufacture of explosives at Raincy, arrested 

29 May, et seq. ,, 

All discharged except 8 ... 25 June, ,, 

The duke of Orleans pardoned and expelled from 
France 3 June, , r 

Revelations respecting the affairs of the Credit 
Foncier ; investigation ordered by government, 

9 May, ,, 

Explanations given by M. Christophle, May ; the 
inspectors' report stated that the establishment 
had departed from its original object and gone 
into banking, d'e., without proper precautions, 
but that it is stable .... 21 June, ,, 

Trial of 8 Russian Nihilists, 4 July ; 6 men con- 
victed sentenced to 3 years' imprisonment ; 
Landesen the instigator (absent) to 5 years' 
imprisonment, two women acquitted . 5 July, ,, 

Close of the session .... 6 Aug. „ 

Anglo-French agreement (which see) signed in 
London 5 Aug. 

Violent cyclone in the department of the Aude ; 
great destruction of vines, 15 Aug. also at 
Drcux 18 Aug. , 



FEANCE. 



406 



FEANCE. 



" Les Coulisses du Boulangisme," by M. Mermeix, 
published by liim in the Figaro, describing an 
alleged conspiracy of Royalists, early Sept. ; 
causes much excitement and involves the author 
in several duels, in one of which he is wounded 

15 Sept. 181 
Destructive storms and floods in the departments 
of Gard, Ardeche and Herault, with loss of life 

21 — 24 Sept. , 
Meeting of chamber of deputies . . 20 Oct. , 
The Union for the promotion of Free Trade in Raw 

Materials, &c, formed in Paris . . Oct. , 
Assassination of gen. Michael Seliverskoff, aged 69, 
wealthy retired Russian general and formerly 
a minister of secret police, at the Hotel de Bade, 
Paris, 18 Nov. ; died .... 19 Nov. , 
Mme. Due Quercy, MM. Labruyere and Gregoire 
sentenced to imprisonment for aiding the escape 
of Padlewski, the suspected murderer of gen. , 
Seliverskoff(i9 Nov.) . . . .23 Dec. , 
The French Africa Committee formed ; expeditions 

rjroposed Nov. , 

The government defeated in the chambers on a 

financial question (303 — 248) . . 28 Nov. , 
Cardinal Lavigerie and other prelates declare their 
adhesion t to the republic, with the approval of 

the pope Dec. , 

Parliamentary session opened . . . 13 Jan. i£ 

Vote of censure on the ministry relative to the loan 

of gold by the Bank of France to the Bank of 

England, during the Baring crisis (see London, 

15 Nov. 1890), negatived (419 — 29) . 17 Jan. . 

Communication between Paris and London by 

telephone {which see) ... 18 March, . 
The performance, of Sardou's new play Thermidor 
{which see), stopped by order of the ministry 

27 Jan. 
Michel Eyraud sentenced to death, and Gabrielle 
Bompard sentenced to 20 years' penal servitude, 
for murder of Toussaint Gouffe, a process-server, 
whom they had inveigled to their rooms, about 
25 July, 1889. His decomposed body was found 
at Millery (Rhone;, 13 Aug., to which place it 
had been carried in a trunk. Gabrielle confessed 
to the police, Jan. 1890. Eventually, Eyraud 
was brought from the Havanah, Cuba, to Paris 
(five days' trial at Paris), 20 Djc. 1890 ; executed 

3 Feb. 
Royalist demonstration in Par'.s in honour of the 

duke of Orleans 7 Feb. 

The empress Frederick visits Paris, chiefly on be- 
half of the Berlin International Exhibition of 
Fine Arts ; many French works promised, after- 
wards withdrawn, through popular opposition, 
chiefly of the Boulangists and others 18 — 27 Feb. 
Financial panic in Paris, through embarrassment 
of the Societe des Depots et Comptes Courants, 
relieved by the Bank of France and others 

12 March, 
Death of prince Napoleon, son of Jerome (see 

Bonaparte) 17 March, 

Annual banquet of the Republican Association at 

the Elysee 21 March, 

Census of the population taken . . 12 April, 

"Labour day" generally quiet; some excitement 

at Paris — dynamite explosion, little damage ; 

fighting at Lyons, Marseilles and other places 

1 May, 
Riots at Fourmies (Nord) suppressed by the mili- 
tary ; 14 persons killed and about 40 wounded - 

1 May, 
Many strikes in the department of the Nord, about 

6 May, 
National fete celebrated . . . -14 July, 
A protectionist customs tariff adopted by the 
chamber (385 — m) .... 18 July, 
A French naval squadron under admiral Gervais 
warmly received at Cronstadt . . 23 July, 
Visited by the Czar, 25 July. The French officers 
received at St. Petersburg, 28 July. The fleet 
leaves Cronstadt, 4 Aug. The fleet {Marengo flag- 
ship, with Admiral Gervais), 6 other vessels, 
and 2 torpedo boats arrive in Osborne Bay, near 
Portsmouth, 5 - 3o p.m., 19 Aug. Admiral Gervais 
and officers presented to the queen at Osborne, 
and dined with her, 20 Aug. The fleet inspected 
by the queen ; admiral Gervais and officers dine 



with admiral the earl of Clanwilliam and officers 

at Portsmouth ..... 21 Aug. 1! 

Dinner with the duke of Connaught, 24 Aug. ; 

departure of the fleet .... 26 Aug. 

Death of ex-president M. Jules Grevy, aged about 84 

9 Sept. 
Suicide of gen. Boulanger in a cemetery near 

Brussels'- 3° Se Pt- 

M. de Giers, the Russian foreign minister, visits M. 
Carnot, M. de Freycinet, and M. Ribot . 20, 

21 Nov. 
Death of Robert, earl of Lytton, British ambas- 
sador, much regretted, at Paris . 24 Nov. 
Xavier Gouthe Soulard, archbishop of Aix, sen- 
tenced to a fine of 3,000 francs, for writing an 
insulting protest against a circular of M. Fallieres 
the minister of public worship, respecting pil- 
grimages 24 Nov. 

New customs bill issued ; it authorized the govern- 
ment to. prolong or modify the treaties expiring 

15 Feb. 1892 3 J)ec - 

M. de Freycinet takes his seat as a member of the 
French Academy .... 10 Dec. 
Stormy debate in the chamber on church and state ; 
the government support the concordat {whicli see) ; 
majority for government (243 — 223) . 11-13 Dec. 
The marquis of Dufferin and Ava appointed British 
ambassador at Paris, announced . 12 Dec. 
Death of Mons. Freppel, bishop of Angers, power- 
ful champion of the French church . 22 Dec. 
Walter Bedwell and John S. Cooper convicted of 
acting as British spies in relation to the arsenal 
at St. Etienne ; sentenced to fine and imprison- 
ment 26 Dec. 

The new tariff bill passed by the senate . 26 Dec. 

Best vintage since 1884 ; reported . . Jan. j 

M. Constans, a minister, having been attacked by 

M. Laur, a Boulangist deputy strikes him as he 

leaves the tribune ; his apology accepted by the 

chamber 19 Jan. 

The new" minimum" tariff comes into operation 
with Great Britain and some other powers, 1 Feb. ; 
the "maximum" tariff to be enforced in Spain, 
Portugal, Italy, Roumania, and the United States 

Feb. 

The De Freycinet cabinet defeated in a debate on 

the Associations bill (relating to church and 

state), resign 18 Feb. 

Encyclical of the pope to the French bishops en- 
joining submission to the government of the 

republic 16 Feb. 

76 French bishops accept the declaration of car- 
dinal Lavigerie and four other cardinals, Dec. 
1890, recognizing the republic 26 Jan — 19 Feb. 
MM. Rouvier and Bourgeois successively fail to 

form a ministry 23-26 Feb. 

New ministry : M. Loubet (premier and minister 
of interior), M. de Freycinet (war), M. Ribot 
(foreign affairs), M. Rouvier (finance), M. Bour- 
geois (public instruction), M. Ricard (justice and 
public worship), M. Cavaignac (marine), M. De- 
velle (agriculture), M. Jules Roche (commerce), 
M. Viette (public works) ... 28 Feb. 
The ministerial declaration accepted by the cham- 
ber (341 to 91) 3 March, 

Death of Etienne Arago, statesman and dramatist 
(brother of the astronomer), aged 90 . 7 March, 
Dynamite explosions in the Boulevard St. Ger- 
main, in Paris, attributed to the anarchists 

11 March et seq. 
Explosion at the Lobau barracks, buildings injured, 

15 March, 

Bill introduced to punish the authors of explosions 

with death, 15 March ; several arrests 17 March, 

The marquis of DufTerin received as ambassador by 

president Carnot . . . .21 March, 

A bomb factory in Paris discovered, 23 March ; 

other explosions at the houses of legal officials 

in Rue de Clichy, 6 injured ." . 27 March, 

Ravachol, otherwise Leon Leger (real name said to 

be Francis Kbnigstein), a notorious anarchist, 



* Georges Ernest J. M. Boulanger, born at Rennes, 
29 April, 1837 ; entered the army 1856 ; served with dis- 
tinction in Algeria, Italy, Cochin China, and at Paris, 
1870-1 ; brigader-general, 1880 ; sent on a mission to 
America, 1881 ; general of division at Tunis, 1884 ; 
minister of war, 7 Jan. 1886 {*ee above), 1887-1891. 



FRANCE. 



407 



FRANCE. 



arrested in the Cafe Very in the Boulevard Ma- 
genta, through the agency of Lherot, a w liter, 
and M. Very 30 March, 181 

The anti-dynamite bill passed by the senate, 

31 March, ,, 

Louis Anastey, who murdered his benefactress, 
Madame Dellard, mother of baron Dellard, at 
Paris, 4 Dec. 1891, executed . . 9 April, ,, 

'The chamber votes 300,000,000 francs for an expedi- 
tion against Dahomey .... 11 April, „ 

Order for the prosecution of the archbishop of Avig- 
non and the bishops of Nimes, Montpellier, Va- 
lence, and Viviers, for their concerted addresses 
to the Catholic electors in opposition to the state, 

about 22 April, ,, 

Many anarchists arrested at Paris, Lyons, and other 
places, 51 in Paris, reported . . 22 April, „ 

The restaurant of M. Very wrecked by explosion : 
he and 4 others seriously wounded (MM. Very 
and Hamonod died, May) . . . 25 April, „ 

Trial of anarchists ; Ravaehol and Simon sentenced 
to penal servitude for life, 3 others acquitted, 

26, 27 April, ,, 

"' Labour day " at Paris, &c, very orderly through 
precautions 1 May, ,, 

The stipends of several bishops stopped on account 
of their pastorals, &c. .... May, ,. 

Many suspected anarchists released 7 May, et seq. ,. 

Public funeral of M. Very ; the premier, M. Loubet, 
present 13 May, ,, 

The proceedings of the government approved by 

the chamber 21 May, , 

[See Tonquin.] 

Sovereigns of France, 
merovingian race. 
Pharamond (his existence doubtful). 

428. Clodion the Hairy ; his supposed son ; king of the 
Salic Franks. 

447. Merovaeus, or Merovee ; son-in-law of Clodion. 

458. Childeric ; son of Merovee. 

481. Clovis the Great, his son, real founder of the mo- 
narchy. His four sons divided the empire : 

511. Childebert ; Paris. 

,, Clodoinir; Orleans. 

,, Thierry ; Metz ; and 

,, Clotaire ; Soissons. 

534. Theodebert ; Metz. 

548. Theodebald ; succeeded in Metz. 

558. Clotaire I. ; sole ruler. Upon his death the king- 
dom divided between four sons : viz. , 

561. Charibert, ruled at Paris. 

,, Gontram, in Orleans and Burgundy. 

,, Sigebert, at Metz, and ) Both assassinated by 

,, Chilperic, at Soissons. J Fredegond. 

575. Childebert II. 

584. Clotaire IL ; Soissons. 

596. Thierry IL, sou of Childebert; in Orleans. 
,, Theodebert II. ; Metz. 

613. Clotaire IL ; became sole king. 

■628. Dagobert I. the Great, son of Clotaire II. ; divided 
Lhe kingdom between his two sons : 

638. Clovis II. , Burgundy and Neustria. 
,, Sigebert IL, Austrasia. 

656. Clotaire III., son of Clovis II. 

670. Childeric II. ; sole king ; assassinated, with his 
queen and his son Dagobert, in the forest of Livri. 
,, Thierry III. ; Burgundy and Neustria. 

674. Dagobert II. , son of Sigebert, in Austrasia; assas- 
sinated 679. 

691. Clovis IIL (Pepin, mayor of the palace, rules iu his 
name ; succeeded by his brother). 

695. Childebert III. , the Just ; Pepin supreme. 

711. Dagobert HI., son of Childebert. 

715. Clnlperic IL, deposed by Charles Martel, mayor of 
the palace. 

717. Clotaire IV., of obscure origin, raised by Charles 
Martel to the throne ; dies soon after; Chilperic 
is recalled from Aquitaine. 

720. CtiUperie IL restored; shortly afterwards dies at 

Noyon ; succeeded by 
,, Thierry IV., son of Dagobert III,, surnamed de 
Ckclles; died in 737. Charles Martel now reigns 
under the new title of "duke of the French." 
lleuauU. 

737. Interregnum, till the death of Charles Martel, in 741. 



814. 
8 40. 
877. 
879. 



922. 
9 2 3- 

936. 
954' 



742. Childeric III. , sou of Chilperic II. , surnamed the 
Stupid Carloman and Pepin, the sons of Charles 
Martel, share the government. 

THE CARLOV1NGIANS. 

752. Pepin the Short, son of Charles Martel ; he is suc- 
ceeded by his two sons, 
768. Charles the Great (Charlemagne) and Carloman; 
Charles crowned Emperor of the West, by 
LeoIII.,800. Carloman reigned but three years. 

Louis I. le Dcbonnaire, Emperor ; dethroned, but 
restored to his dominions. 

Charles, surnamed the Bald, King ; Emperor in 
875 ; poisoned by Zedechias, a Jewish physician. 

Louis II. , the Stammerer, son of Charles the Bald, 
King. 

Louis III. and Carloman II. ; the former died in 
882, and Carloman reigned alone. 

Charles III. le Gros; a usurper, in prejudice to 
Charles the Simple. 

Eudes, or Hugh, count of Paris. 

Charles III. (or IV.), the Simple; deposed, and 
died in prison in 929; he married Edgiva, 
daughter of Edward the Elder, of England, by 
whom he had a son, King Louis IV. 

Robert, brother of Eudes ; crowned at Rheims ; 
Charles killed him in battle. Henault. 

Rudolf or Raoul, duke of Burgundy ; elected king, 
but never acknowledged by the southern pro- 
vinces. Henault. 

Louis IV. d'Outremer, or Transmarine (from having 
been conveyed by his mother into England), son 
ofCharlesIII. (or IV.); diedbyafallfromhishorse. 

Lothaire, his son; reigned jointly with his father from 
952, and succeeds him at 15 years of age, under 
the protection of Hugh the Great ; poisoned. 

Louis V., the Indolent, son of Lothaire; also 
poisoned, it is supposed by his queen, Blanche ; 
last of the race of Charlemagne. 



THE CAPETS. 

Hugh Capet, the Great, count of Paris, &c. , eldest 
son of Hugh the Abbot, 3 July ; he seizes the 
crown, in prejudice to Charles of Lorraine, uncle 
of Louis Transmarine. From him this race of 
kings is called Capevingians and Capetians. He. 
died 24 Oct. 

Robert II. , surnamed the Sage ; son; died lamented, 
20 July. 

Henry I. , son ; died 29 Aug. 

Philip I. the Fair, VAmoureux; son; succeeded at 
8 years of age ; ruled at 14 ; died 3 Aug. 

Louis VI. , surnamed the Lusty, or le Gros; son; 
died 1 Aug. 

Louis VII. ; son ; surnamed the Young, to distin- 
guish him from his father, with whom he reigned 
for some years ; died 18 Sept. 

Philip II. (Augustus) ; son ; succeeds at 15 ; 
crowned at Rheims in his father's lifetime ; died 

14 July. 

Louis VIII., Cceur de Lion; son ; died 8 Nov. 
Louis IX. ; son ; called St. Louis ; ascended the 

throne at 15, under the guardianship of his 

mother, who was also regent ; died in his camp 

before Tunis 25 Aug. 
Philip IIL, the Hardy; son; died at Terpignan, 

6 Oct. 
Philip IV., the Fair; son; king in his 17th year 

died 29 Nov. 
Louis X. ; son ; surnamed Hutin, an old word for 

headstrong, or mutinous ; died 5 June. 
John I., posthumous sou of Louis X.; born 

15 Nov. ; died 19 Nov. 

Philip V. the Long (on account of his stature); 

brother of Louis ; died 3 Jan. 
Charles IV., the Handsome; brother; died 31 Jan. 

1328. 

HOUSE OF VALOIS. 

rhilip VI., de Valois, the Fortunate; grandson of 

Philip III. ; died 23 Aug. 
John II. the Good; sou; died suddenly in the Savoy 

in London, 8 April. 
Charles V., the Wise; son; died 16 Sept. 
Charles VI. the Beloved; son; died 21 Oct. 
Charles VII., the Victorious ; son ; died 22 July. 
Louis XI. ; son; able but Cruel : died 30 Aug. 
Charles VIII., the Affable; son ; died 7 April. 



1031. 
1060. 



1223. 
1226. 



1270. 
1285. 
1314. 
1316. 



1328. 
i35°- 

1364. 
1380. 
1422. 
1461. 
1483. 



FEANCE. 



408 



FEANCE. 



1498. Louis XII., Duke of Orleans; the Father of his 

People ; great-grandson of Charles V. ; died 1 Jan. 
1515. Francis I. of Angouleme; called the Father of 

Letters ; great-great-grandson of Charles V. ; 

died 31 March. 
1347. Henry. II. ; son ; died of a wound received at a 

tournament at the nuptials of his sister with the 

duke of Savoy, accidentally inflicted by the comte 

de Montmorency, 10 July. 
1539. Francis II. ; son ; married Mary Stuart, queen of 

Scots ; died 5 Dec. 
1360. Charles IX. ; brother ; Catherine de Medicis, his 

mother, regent ; died 30 May. 
1574. Henry III. ; brother; elected king of Poland; last 

of the house of Valois ; stabbed by Jacques 

Clement, a Dominican friar, 1 Aug. ; died 2 Aug. 

1589. 

HOUSE OF BOURBON. 

1589. Henry IV. , the Great, of Bourbon, king of Navarre ; 

son-in-law of Henry II. ; murdered by Francis 

Ravaillac, 14 May. 
1610. Louis XIII., the Just; son; died 14 May. 
1643. Louis XIV., the Great, Dieudonne; son; died 

1 Sept. 
1715. Louis XV, the Well-beloved; great-grandson; died 

20 May, 
1774. Louis XVI., his grandson; ascended the throne in 

his 20th year ; married the archduchess Marie 

Antoinette, of Austria, May, 1770 ; dethroned, 

14 July, 1789; guillotined, 21 Jan. 1793, and his 

queen, 16 Oct. following. 

[Louis was executed Monday, 21 January, 1793, at 
eight o'clock a.m. On the scaffold he said, "French- 
men, I die innocent of the offences imputed to me. I 
pardon all my enemies, and I implore of Heaven that 

my beloved France " At this instant Santerre 

ordered the drums to beat, and the executioners to 
perform their office. When the guillotine descended, 
the priest exclaimed: "Son of St. Louis! ascend to 
heaven." The bleeding head was then held up, and a 
few of the populace shouted, " Vive la Republique ! " 
The body was interred in a grave that was immediately 
afterwards filled up with quick lime, and a strong 
guard was placed around until it should be consumed. ] 

1793. Louis XVII. , son of Louis XVI. He never reigned ; 
and died in prison, supposed by poison, 8 June, 
1795, aged 10 years 2 months. It is believed 
by some that he escaped to England, and lived 
there some time as Augustus Meves.* In 1874 
a person calling himself Auguste de Bourbon 
claimed to be his son. In France also Albert de 
Bourbon, son of one Naundorff, claimed to be 
son of Louis XVII. At a trial in Paris, when 
Jules Favre was his counsel, the verdict was 
strongly against his claim, 27 Feb. 1874. 

THE FIRST REPUBLIC. 

1792. The National Convention (750 members), first 

sitting, 21 Sept. 

1793. The Directory (Lareveillere Lepaux, Letourneur, 

Rewbell, Barras, and Carnot) nominated 1 Nov. ; 
abolished, and Bonaparte, Ducos,. and Sieyes 
appointed an executive commission, Nov. 1799. 
1799. The Consulate. Napoleon Bonaparte, Camba- 
ceres, and Lebrun appointed consuls, 24 Dec. 
Napoleon appointed consul for 10 years, 6 May, 
1802 ; for life, 2 Aug. 1802. 

first empire. (See article Bonaparte Family.) 

[Established by the senate 18 May, 1804.] 

1804. Napoleon (Bonaparte) I. ; born 15 Aug. 1769. 

He married, 
1st, Josephine, widow of Alexis, vicomte de 

Beauharnais, 8 March, 1796 (who was divorced 

16 Dec, 1809, and died 29 May, 1814) ; 
2nd, Maria-Louisa of Austria, 2 April, 1810 (she 

died 17 Dec. 1847). Son, Napoleon Joseph, duke 

of Reichstadt, bom 20 March, 1811 ; died, 22 

July, 1832. 
He renounced the thrones of France and Italy, 

and accepted the isle of Elba for his retreat, 5 

April, 1814. 
Again appeared in France, 1 March, 1815. 

* He died insane, Jan. 1880 



Was defeated at Waterloo, 18 June, 1813. 
Abdicated in favour of his infant son, 22 June, 

1815. 
Banished to St. Helena, where he dies, 5 May, 

1821. (See France, 1840.) 

BOURBONS RESTORED. 

1814. Louis XVIII. (comte de Provence), brother of 
Louis XVI. ; born 17 Nov. 1755 ; married Marie- 
Josephine-Louise of Savoy ; entered Paris, and 
took possession of the throne, 3 May, 18 14 ; 
obliged to flee, 20 March, 1815 ; returned 8 July, 
same year ; died without issue, 16 Sept. 1824. 

1824. Charles X. (comte d'Artois), his brother ; born 9 Oct. 
1757 ; married Marie-Therese of Savoy ; deposed 
30 July, 1830. He resided in Britain till 1832, 
and died at Gratz, in Hungary, 6 Nov. 1835. 
[His grandson, Henry, due de Bordeaux, called 
comte de Chambord, son of the due de Berry ; 
born 29 Sept. 1820 ; married princess Theresa of 
Modena, Nov. 1846 ; no issue ; styled himself 
Henri V. See France, 1870, et seq.] 

house of Orleans. (See Orleans.) 
1830. Louis-Philippe, son of Louis-Philippe, duke of 
Orleans, called Egalite, descended from Philippe, 
duke of Orleans, son of Louis XIII. ; born 6 
Oct. 1773 ; married 25 Nov. 1809, Maria-Amelia, 
daughter of Ferdinand I. (IV.) king of the Two 
Sicilies ; (she died 24 March, 1866). Raised to the. 
throne as king of the French, 9 Aug. 1830 ; abdi- 
cated 24 Feb. 1848. Died in exile, in England, 
26 Aug. 1850. 
[Heir : Louis-Philippe, count of Paris ; born 24 
Aug. 1838.] 

SECOND REPUBLIC, 1 848. 

The revolution commenced in a popular insurrection at 
Paris, 22 Feb. 1848. The royal family escaped by 
flight to England, a provisional government was estab- 
lished, monarchy abolished, and France declared a 
republic. 

Charles-Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte, declared by the 
National Assembly (19 Dec.) president of the republic 
of France ; and proclaimed next day, 20 Dec. ; elected 
for ten years, 22 Dec. 1851. 

French empire revived. (See Bonaparte.) 
[1821. Napoleon II. (decreed to be so termed by 
Napoleon III. on his accession). . Napoleon, 
Joseph, son of Napoleon I. and Maria-Louisa, 
archduchess of Austria ; born 20 March, 1811 : 
created king of Rome. On the abdication of his 
father he was made duke of Reichstadt, ia 
Austria ; and died at the palace of Schoenbrium, 
22 July, 1832, aged 21.] 
1852. Napoleon III. formerly president of the French 
republic, elected emperor, 21, 22 Nov. 1852 ; 
proclaimed, 2 Dec. 1852 ; surrendered himself a 
prisoner to the king of Prussia at Sedan, 2 Sept. 
1870 : deposed at Paris, 4 Sept. ; arrives at Wil- 
helmshohe, near Cassel, 5 Sept. ; deposition con- 
firmed by the national assembly, 1 March ; he 
protested against it, 6 March, 1871 ; diedat Chisel- 
hurst, England, 9 Jan. 1873; buried there 15 Jan. 

Empress : Eugenie-Marie (a Spaniard, countess of 
Teba), born 5 May, 1826 ; married 29 Jan. 1853. 

Heir: Napoleon -Eugene -Louis-Jean -Joseph, son ; 
styled Napoleon IV., born 16 March, 1856; killed 
in Zululand, 1 June, 1879 ; buried beside his 
father at Chiselhurst (the prince of Wales and 
other princes present), 12 July, 1879 [both re- 
moved to mausoleum, Farnborough, 9 Jail. 
1888]. See Wills. 

At the celebration of the fdte Napoleon, 15 Aug., 
1873, the prince declared the policy of his. 
family to be "Everything by the people, for 
the people." 

[On 18 Dec. 1852, the succession, in default of issue 
from the emperor, was determined in favour ot 
prince Jerome-Napoleon and his heirs male.] 

THIRD REPUBLIC. 

I. Louis Adolphe Thiers (born 16 April, 1797) appointed 
chief of the executive power, 17 Feb., and president 
of the French republic, by the national assembly, 31 
Aug. 1871 ; resigned, 24 May, 1873 ; died, 3Se.pt. 1837. 



FRANCE, ISLE OF. 



409 



FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 



II. Marshal M. E. Patrice Maurice MacMahon, due de 
Magenta, elected president, 24 May ; nominated for 
seven years, 20 Nov. 1873. 

III.. Francois Paul Jules Grevy (born 15 Aug. 1813) ; 
elected 30 Jan. 1879 ; re-elected 28 Dec. 1885 ; re- 
signed 2 Dec. 1887. 

IV. Marie-Frangois Sadi-Carnot (born 11 Aug. 1837); 
elected 3 Dec. 1887. 

FRANCE, ISLE OF, see Mauritius. 

FRANCHE COMTE, in upper Burgundy, E. 
France, was conquered by Julius Ca?sar, about 45 
B.C. ; by the Burgundians, earl}' in the fifth century, 
a.d. ; and by the Franks about 534. It was made 
a county for Hugh the Black in 915, and received 
its name from having been taken from Kenaud III. 
(1127-48), and restored to him. By marriage with 
the count's daughter, Beatrice, the emperor 
Frederick I. acquired the county, 1156. Their 
descendant, Mary of Burgundy, by marriage with 
the archduke Maximilian, conveyed it to the house 
of Austria, 1477. It was conquered by the French, 
1668; restored by the treaty of Aix la Chapelle, 
2 May, 1668 ; again conquered ; and finally annexed 
to France by treaty, 1678. 

FRANCHISE. A privilege or exemption 
from ordinary jurisdiction, and anciently an asylum 
or sanctuary where the person was secure. In 
Spain, churches and monasteries were, until lately, 
franchises for criminals, as formerly in England ; 
see Sanctuaries. In 1420, the elective fkan- 
chise for counties was restricted to persons'having 
at least 40*. a year in land, and resident ; for recent 
changes, see Reform. 

FRANCIS' Assault on the Queen. 

John Francis, a youth, fired a pistol at queen Vic- 
toria as she was riding down Constitution-hill, in 
an open barouche, accompanied by prince Albert, 30 
May, 1842. The queen was uninjured. Previous 
intimation having reached the palace of the inten- 
tion of the criminal, her majesty had commanded 
that none of the ladies of her court should attend 
her. Francis was condemned to death, 17 June 
following, but was transported for life. He was 
liberated on ticket-of-leave in 1867. 

FRANCISCANS. Grey or Minor Friars, an 
order founded by St. Francis d'Assisi, about 1209. 
Their rules were chastity, poverty, obedience, and 
very austere regimen. About 1220 they appeared in 
England, where, at the time of the dissolution of 
monasteries by Henry VIII., they had fifty-five 
abbeys or other houses, 1536-38. 

FRANCISCO, SAN, the largest city in Cali- 
fornia, which see. The centenary of the foundation 
of the city by Franci-can monks, 8 Oct. 1776, was 
celebrated in 1876. The city suffered by earth- 
quakes in 1868 and 1872. Population, 18S0, 233,959; 
1890, 298,997. 

FRANCONIA, or Feankenland (on the 
Maine), formerly a circle of the German empire, 
part of Thuringia, was conquered by Thierry, king 
of the Franks, 530, and colonized. Its count or duke, 
Conrad, was elected king of Germany, 8 Nov. 911 ; 
and his descendant was the emperor Conrad III., 
elected 1 138, and another duke. Franconia was made 
a distinct circle from Thuringia in 1512. At its sub- 
division in 1806 various German princes obtained 
a part ; but in 1814 the largest share was awarded 
to Bavaria. 

FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR originated in 
the emperor of the French's jealousy of the greatly 
increased power of Prussia, through the successful 
issue of the war with Denmark in 1864, and with 



Austria in 1866. The German Confederation was 
thereby annulled, and the North German Con- 
federation established under the supremacy of 
the king of Prussia, to whose territories were 
further annexed Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nas- 
sau, Frankfort, and other provinces. This great 
augmentation of the power of Prussia was mainly- 
due to the energetic policy of count Bismarck- 
Schonhausen, prime minister since Sept. 1862. 

In a draft treaty, secretly proposed to the Prussian 
government by the French emperor in 1866 : " 1. 
The emperor recognises the acquisitions which 
Prussia has made in the last war"; 2. The king of 
Prussia promises to facilitate the acquisition of 
Luxemburg by France ; 3. The emperor will not 
oppose a federal union of the northern and 
southern states of Germany, excluding Austria ; 
4. The king of Prussia, in case the emperor should 
enter or conquer Belgium, will support him in 
arms against any opposing power ; 5. They enter 
into an alliance offensive and defensive. " 

[This draft treaty was published in the Times, 25 
July, 1870. After some discussion, its authenti- 
city was admitted ; count Bismarck asserting; 
that it emanated entirely from the French em- 
peror, and that the scheme had never been 
seriously entertained by himself.] 

In March, 1867, a dispute arose through the French 
emperor's proposal for purchasing Luxemburg 
from the king of Holland, which was strongly op- 
posed by Prussia, as that province had formed 
part of the dissolved Germanic Confederation ; 
and the affair was only settled by a conference of 
the representatives of the great powers in London, 
at which the perfect neutrality of Luxemburg 
was determined, together with the withdrawal of 
the Prussian garrison and the destruction of the 
fortifications 7-11 May, 1867 

Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (con- 
nected with the Prussian dynasty, and brother of 
Charles, prince of Roumania), consented to be- 
come a candidate for the throne of Spain, 4 July, 1870 

This was denounced by the French government. 
Threatening speeches were made in the French 
chamber by the due de Grammont, the foreign 
minister, and eventually, after some negotiation 
and the intervention of Great Britain, prince Leo- 
pold, with the consent of his sovereign, declined 
the proffered crown . . . .12 July, ,, 

The submission did not satisfy the French govern- 
ment aud nation, and the demand for a guarantee 
against the repetition of such an acceptance 
irritated the Prussian government, and led to the 
termination of the negotiations, the king refusing 
to receive the count Benedetti, the French 
minister 13 July, r , 

Energetic but fruitless efforts to avert the war were 
made by earl Granville, the British foreign 
minister about 15 July, „ 

War was announced by the emperor, with the 
hearty consent of the great majority of the 
chambers. The left or-republiean party opposed the 
war ; M. Thiers and a few others only protested 
against it as premature .... 15 July, ,, 

[After his surrender on 2 Sept. , the emperor told 
count Bismarck that he did not desire war, but 
was driven into it by public opinion. He appears 
to have been greatly deceived as to the numerical 
strength of his army, and its state of preparation.] 

" The greatest national crime that we have had the 
pain of recording since the days of the first 
French revolution has been consummated. War 
is declared — an unjust but premeditated war." — 
Times, 16 July, 1870. 

(For details of the battles see separate articles.) 

French Army, about 300,000 : — 

1st corps, uuiler marshal MacMahon. 
2nd corps, under general Frossard. 
3rd corps, under marshal Bazaine. 
4th corps, under general Ladmirault. 
5t.l1 corps, under general De Fully. 
6th corps, under marshal Canrobert, 
Imperial guard, under general Bouibaki. 
Commander-in-chief, the emperor : general Le Bceuf, 
second ; succeeded by marshal Bazaine. 



FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 



410 



FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 



P .rcssian Army, about 640,000 : — 

1. Northern, under general Vogel von Falckenstein, 

about 220,000, defending the Elbe, Hanover, &c. 
.2. Right, under prince Frederick Charles, about 

180,000. 
3. Centre, under generals Von Bittenfeld and Von 

Steinmetz, about 80,000. 
.4. The left, under the crown prince of Prussia, about 

166,000. 
•Commander-in-chief, king William ; second, general 
Helmuth Karl Bernhard von Moltke (born 26 Oct., 
1800 ; died 24 April, 1891). 

The North German army, at the beginning of August, 
consisted, firstly, of 550,000 line, with 1,200 guns and 
53,000 cavalry ; secondly, of 187,000 reserve, with 234 
.guns and 18,000 cavalry ; and, thirdly, of 205,000 land- 
wehr or militia, with 10,000 cavalry, making a grand 
total of 944,000 men, with 1,680 mobilised guns and 
103,000 horses. 

To these must be added, firstly, the Bavarians, 69,000 
line, with 192 guns and 14,800 horses — 25,000 reserve 
with 2,400 horses, and 22,000 landwehr ; secondly, the 
Wiirtembergers — 22,000 line witli 54 guns and 6,200 
horses, 6,500 reserve, and 6,000 landwehr ; and, thirdly, 
the Badenese — 16,000 line with 54 guns, 4,000 reserve, 
and 9,600 landwehr. 

All the German troops taken together as under arms at 
present, 1,124,000 men. Aug. 1870. 

Four weeks previously, on the peace footing, they num- 
bered only 360,000. 

The French and Germans in this war were considered to 
be equally brave and efficient ; but the French generals 
appear to have acted greatly upon impulse. The Ger- 
mans seem to have been invariably guided by a well 
matured plan, their tactics mainly consisting in bring- 
ing vast masses to bear on the point where they were 
anxious to prevail. From Saarbriiek to Sedan, Moltke 
appears to have left nothing to chance ; and all his ar- 
rangements were ably carried out. 

The causes of the early ruin of the French army were : 
" 1, the enormous superiority of the Germans in regard 
to numbers ; 2, the absolute unity of their command 
and concert of operation ; 3, their superior mechanism 
in equipment and supplies ; 4, the superior intelli- 
gence, steadiness and discipline of the soldiers ; 5, 
superior education of the officers, and the dash and 
intelligence of the cavalry." — Quarterly Review. 

Estimated cost of the war to France, 395,400,000/., Jan. 
1875- 



War resolved on by the French government, 15 July ; 
declaration delivered at Berlin . . 19 July, 1870 

The north German parliament meet at Berlin, and 
engage to support Prussia in the war 19 July, ,, 

Wiirtemberg, Bavaria, Baden, and Hesse Darm- 
stadt declare war against France, and send con- 
tingents to the army . . . . 20 July, ,, 

War proclamation of the emperor Napoleon, de- 
claring that the national honour, violently excited 
. . . alone takes in hand the destinies of the 
country 23 July, ,, 

Part of the bridge at Kehl blown up by the 
Prussians 23 July, ,, 

Proclamation of the king that " love of the common 
fatherland, and the unanimous uprising of the 
German races, have conciliated all opinions, and 
.dissipated all disagreements .... The war will 
procure for Germany a durable peace, and from 

i this bloody seed will arise a harvest blessed by 
God — the liberty and unity of Germany," 25 July, ,, 

Skirmish at Niederbronn ; a Bavarian officer killed, 

26 July, ,, 

Day of general prayer observed in Prussia, 27 July, „ 

The emperor Napoleon joins the army ; at Metz.as- 
sumes the chief command, and issues a proclama- 
tion declaring that the war will be long and severe, 

28, 29 July, „ 

Repulse of a French attack at Saarbriiek, 30 July, „ 

20 Badenese enter France at Lauterburg ; Mr. 
Winsloe killed ; some captured ; others escape 
with valuable information . . . 31 July, ,,, 

Proclamation of the king of Prussia to his people, 
granting an amnesty for political offences, and 
"resolving, like our forefathers, placing full 
trust in God, to accept the battle for the defence 
of the fatherland " .... 31 July, „ 



He leaves Berlin for the army, 1 Aug., and an- 
nounces that " all Germany stands united in arms" 

3 Aug. ] 

The French government announce that ' ' they 
make war, not against Germany, but against 
Prussia, or rather against the policy of count 
Bismarck " 2 Aug. 

The French under Frossard bombard and take Saar- 
briiek in the presence of the emperor and his 
son ; the Prussians, dislodged, retire with little 
loss 2 Aug. 

The due de Grammont, French foreign minister, pub- 
lishes a circular replying to Bismarck's charges 
against France 3 Aug. 

The crown prince crosses the Lauter, the boundary 
of France, and defeats the French under Frossard, 
storming the lines of Wissembourg and Geisberg ; 
general Douay killed 4 Aug. 

Battle of Woerth : in a desperate, long-continued 
battle the crown prince defeats marshal MacMa- 
hon and the army of the Rhine ; they retire to 
Saverne to cover Nancy .... 6 Aug. 

Battle of Forbach : Saarbriiek recaptured, and For- 
bach (in France) taken by generals Von Goeben 
and Von Steinmetz, after.a fierce contest; all the 
French retreat 6 Aug. 

General Turr publishes, in a letter, statements of 
proposals by Bismarck for the annexation of Lux- 
embourg and Belgium by France, in 1866 and 
1867 6 Aug. 

The emperor, reporting these defeats, says, "Tout 
peut se retablir " 7 Aug. 

The Germans occupy Forbach, Haguenau, and Saar- 
guemines 7 Aug. 

Marshal Bazaine appointed to the chief command 
of the French army at Metz (about 130,000); 
MacMahon has about 50,000 near Saverne ; Can- 
robert about 50,000 near Nancy . . 8 Aug. 

Nine French iron-clads pass Dover for the Baltic, 

9 Aug. 

St. Avoid occupied by the Germans . 9 Aug. 

Marshal Bazaine takes command of the army at 
Metz .9 Aug. 

Phalsburg invested 9 Aug. 

Treaty with Great Britain guaranteeing the neu- 
trality of Belgium, signed on behalf of Prussia, 
9 Aug. ; of France .... 11 Aug. 

Forced resignation of the Ollivier ministry 9 Aug. 

New ministry constituted under general Cousin 
Montauban ; comte de Palikao, war minister, 

10 Aug. 
Strasburg invested by the Germans . . 10 Aug. 
The king of Prussia, at Saarbriiek, proclaims that 

" he makes war against soldiers, not against 
French citizens " .... 10 Aug. 

Lichtenburg capitulates to the Germans 10 Aug. 

MacMahon's army retreating upon the Moselle, 

11 Aug. 
The little fortress, " La Petite Pierre," evacuated, 

11 Aug. 
Communication with Strasburg cut off 11 Aug. 
Nancy occupied by the Germans without resistance, 

12 Aug. 
The Bavarians pass the Vosges . . . 12 Aug. 
The king at St. Avoid forbids conscription for the 

French army in territories held by Germans, 

13 Aug. 
Marshal Bazaine made commander of the army ol 

the Rhine . . 13 Aug. 

Bombardment of Strasburg begun . 14 Aug. 

The French government declare that " there can 

be, for a moment, no question of negotiation of 

peace" 14 Aug. 

Blockade of the German ports on the Baltic, from 

15 Aug., announced by the French admiral, 

14 Aug. 
Many French volunteer sharp-shooters (francs- 

tireurs) take the field (not recognised as soldiers 
by the Germans) .... about 14 Aug. 
Toul refuses to surrender ... 14 Aug. 

The emperor retires to Verdun . . 14 Aug. 
Marshal Bazaine's army defeated in several long- 
continued sanguinary battles before Metz (see 
Metz) :— 

1. Battle of Courcelles (Pange or Longeville) 

gained by Von Steinmetz and the 1st army, 

14 Aug. 



870 



FEANCO-PEUSSIAN WAE. 



411 



FEANCO-PEUSSIAN WAE. 



2. Battle of Vionville or Mars-la-Tour, gained 

by prince Frederick Charles and the 2nd 
arniy 16 Aug. 

3. Battles of Gravelotte and Rezonville, gained 

by the combined armies commanded by 
the king 18 Aug. 

French sortie from Strasburg repulsed; German 
attack on Phalsburg repulsed . . 16 Aug. 

MacMahon reaches Chalons, 16 Aug. ; joined by the 
emperor; his army between 130,000 and 150,000, 

20 Aug. 

The king appoints governors-general of Alsace and 
Lorraine 17 Aug. 

Energetic fortification of Paris by general Troehu, 
the governor, and the "defence committee" 

18 Aug. 

Estimated German losses : killed, wounded, and 
missing, 2088 officers, 46,480 men; up to 18 Aug. 

Severe bombardment of Strasburg . 19 Aug. 

MacMahon's army of the Rhine retreats as the 
Prussians under the king and crown prince 
advance; prince Frederick Charles opposed to 
Bazaine at Metz ; [German armies in France about 
500,000 ; the French armies about 300,000 ; com- 
munications between marshals Bazaine and Mac- 
Mahon very difficult] . . . about 20 Aug. 

Lieut. Harth, a Prussian spy, tried and shot at 
Paris 20 Aug. 

MacMahon raises his camp at Chalons 20 Aug. 

The troops extended along the line of the Maine, 

21 Aug. 
Exportation of food prohibited . . . 21 Aug. 
Bazaine at Metz said to be completely isolated, 

22 Aug. 
MacMahon at Rheims with his army, including the 

remains of the corps of Failly and Canrobert ; he 
marches in hope of joining Bazaine, 23 Aug. ; the 
crown-prince and prince of Saxony start in pur- 
suit, 23 Aug. ; march upon Chalons . 24 Aug. 
Prussian royal head-quarters removed from Pont a 
Mousson to Bar-le-Duc (125 miles from Paris) 

24 Aug. 
The alleged violation of the neutrality of Belgium 

denied by its government ... 25 Aug. 
The Germans enter the arrondissement of Vassy, 

25 Aug. 
Germans repulsed in an attack on Verdun, 25 Aug. 
Soo French national guards captured at St. Mene- 

hould 25 Aug. 

Chalons occupied by the Germans . . 25 Aug. 

Capitulation of Vitry, a small fortress . 25 Aug. 

Formation of three German armies of reserve in 
Germany, and a fourth army in the field, under 
the crown-prince of Saxony, to co-operate with 
the crown-prince of Prussia against Paris, 26 Aug. 

Strasburg suffering much by bombardment, 

23-26 Aug. 

Powerful sortie of Bazaine from Metz repulsed, 

26 Aug. 
Phalsburg heroically resisting . . 26 Aug. 
Thionville invested by the Germans . 27 Aug. 
Engagement at Busancy, between Vouziers and 

Stenay : a regiment of French chasseurs nearly 
annihilated 27 Aug. 

Two German armies (220,000) marching on Paris, 

28 Aug. 

Continued retreat of MacMahon's army; severe 
fighting at Dun, Stenay, and Mouzon 28 Aug. 

Nicholas Schull, a German spy, shot atMetz 28 Aug. 

Vrizy, between Vouziers and Attigny, stormed by 
the Germans 29 Aug. 

Municipal meetings at Berlin, Konigsberg, and 
other German cities, protest against foreign inter- 
vention for peace ... 30, 31 Aug. 

MacMahon's army, about 150,000, accompanied by 
the emperor, retreating northwards ; part of it, 
under De Failly, surprised and defeated near Beau- 
mont, between Mouzon and Moulins ; several other 
engagements, unfavourable to the French, oc- 
curred during the day .... 30 Aug. 

Count Bismarck-Bohlen installed governor of Alsace 
at Haguenau 30 Aug. 

The Germans enter Carignan ; attack the French in 
the plain of Douzy ; the French, at first success- 
ful, are defeated, and retreat to Sedan 31 Aug. 

A French army of old soldiers, about 100,000, are 
said to be forming near Lyons . .31 Aug. 



1870 



Bazaine defeated in his endeavour to escape from 

Metz ; after a fierce struggle, retreats into Metz, 

31 Aug. 1 Sept. 

Battle round Sedan: begun at 4 a. in. between 
Sedan and Douzy ; the French at first successful ; 
after a severe struggle and dreadful carnage, the 
Germans victorious; MacMahon wounded, 5.30 
p.m. ; general de Wimptt'en refuses to accept the 
terms offered by the king of Prussia . 1 Sept. 

Capitulation of Sedan and the remainder of Mac- 
Mahon's army ; the emperor surrenders to the 
king (see Sedan) 2 Sept. 

Vigorous 'artillery action at Strasburg ; a sortie 
repulsed 2 Sept. 

Revolution at Paris after the declaration of the 
capture of MacMahon's army ; proclamation of a 
republic (see France) .... 4 Sept. 

Rheims occupied by the Germans and the king, 

5 Sept. 
Jules Favre, the French foreign minister, in a 

circular to the French diplomatic representa- 
tives, says, " We will not cede either an inch of 
our territories or a stone of our fortresses " 

6 Sept. 
General Vinoy and a corps sent too late to aid 

MacMahon ; retreat and arrive in Paris, 6, 7 Sept. 

St. Dizier occupied by the Germans . . 7 Sept. 

Strasburg invested by 60,000 men . . 8 Sept. 

Verdun vigorously resisting ... 8 Sept. 

The German army, in five corps, advancing on Paris, 

9 Sept. 

Laon surrendered to save the town from destruc- 
tion ; by the accidental or treacherous explosion 
of a magazine seme of the German staff and many 
French perish 9 Sept. 

Metz, Strasburg, Thionville, Phalsburg, Toul, 
Bitsche, and other fortified places holding out, 

10 Sept. 

Messages between belligerents transmitted by lord 
Lyons (at Paris) and count Bernstorff (Prussian 
minister) in London .... 9-10 Sept. 

German attack on Toul repulsed . . 10 Sept. 

Bridge at Creil over the Oise blown up . 12 Sept. 

Seven German corps (about 300,000 men) approach- 
ing Paris, which is said to contain 300,000 com- 
batants 13 Sept. 

M. Thiers arrives in London on a mission from the 
government 13 Sept. 

Colmar occupied by the Germans . . 14 Sept. 

General Troehu reviews the troops in Paris, 13 Sept. ; 
delivers a stirring address ; the daily guard 
ordered to be 70,000 ... 14 Sept. 

Estimated German loss : 60,000 killed and wounded ; 
between 20,000 and 30,000 sick; about 1,000 
prisoners -15 Sept. 

French prisoners in Germany : 62 generals, 4,800 
officers, 140,000 privates, about . 15 Sept. 

Correspondence between count Bernstorff and earl 
Granville respecting neutrality, said to have 
been broken ; denied by the earl 1-15 Sept. 

Siege of Paris begun ; ingress and egress prohibited 
without a permit .... 15 Sept. 

Blockade of the Elbe and Weser non - effective, 

15 Sept. 

Important circular of M. Favre, condemning the war 
and recognising the obligations of the country, 

17 Sept. 
Circular letters of count Bismarck, recounting the 

history of French aggressions on Germany, and 
asserting the necessity of obtaining material 
guarantees for the future safety of Germany, and 
removing the frontiers and point of attack further 

west 13, 16 Sept. 

Prussian head-quarters at Mcux (20 miles from Paris) 

18 Sept. 
32 German merchant ships reported to have been 

captured by the French fleet up to . iS Sept. 

Vessels sunk in the Seine and Marne, and other 
vigorous defensive measures adopted, 18, 19 Sept. 

Paris said to be completely invested ; the fortifica- 
tions reconnoitred by the king, who has fixed his 
head-quarters at Baron Rothschild's chateau at 
Ferrieres, near Lagny . . . 19 Sept 

Three French divisions under general Vinoy attack 
the Germans on the heights of Sceaux ; repulsed 
with loss of 7 guns and 2500 prisoners : tin' defeat 
attributed to the disorder of the Zouaves; the 
national guard behave well . . . 19 Sept. 



1870 



FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAE. 



412 



FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 



Count Bismarck consents to receive Jules Favre 
(about 16 Sept.); they meet at Chateau de la 
Haute Maison, 19 Sept. ; and at the king's head- 
quarters, Ferrieres, near Lagny . 20 Sept. 

Jules Favre reports to the government the result 
of his interviews with count Bismarck : Prussia 
demands the cession of the departments of the 
Upper and Lower Rhine and part of that of 
Moselle, with Metz, Chateau Salins and Soissons, 
and would agree to an armistice in order that a 
French constituent assembly might meet ; the 
French to surrender Strasburg, Toul and Verdun 
(or Phalsburg according to Favre), and Mont 
Valerien, if the assembly meet at Paris ; these 
terms are positively rejected by the French 
government 21 Sept. 

Versailles and the troops there surrender, 19 Sept. ; 
entered by the crown prince of Prussia 20 Sept. 

A lunette captured at Strasburg . . 20 Sept. 

General von Steinmetz sent to Posen as governor- 
general ; prince Frederick Charles sole commander 
before Metz 21 Sept. 

Sevres surrenders 22 Sept. 

The blockade of German ports raised; officially 
announced in London . . . .22 Sept. 

The French government issue a circular expressing 
readiness to consent to an equitable peace, but 
refusing "to cede an inch of our territory or a 
stone of our fortresses " . . -23 Sept. 

Three conflicts before Paris : at Drancy, Pierrefitte, 
and Villejuif ; the two last reported favourable to 
the French 23 Sept. 

Toul surrenders after a most vigorous resistance, 

23 Sept. 

Levee en masse of men under 25 ordered by the 
French government .... 23 Sept. 

Germans repulsed in conflicts before Paris ; said by 
them to be unimportant ... 23 Sept. 

Verdun invested by the Germans . . 25 Sept. 

Desperate ineffective sallies from Metz, 

23, 24, 27 Sept. 

All the departments of the Seine and Marne occu- 
pied by Germans .... 26 Sept. 

The iron cross given by the crown prince of Prussia 
to above 30 soldiers beneath the statue of Louis 
XIV. at Versailles 26 Sept. 

Circular of Von Thile, Prussian foreign minister, 
stating that as the ruling powers in France 
decline an armistice, and as no recognised govern- 
ment exists in Paris (the government de facto 
being removed to Tours), all communications 
with and from Paris can only be carried on so far 
as the military events may permit . 27 Sept. 

Clermont occupied by the Germans after a brief 
vigorous resistance, overcome by artillery, 

27 Sept. 

Commencement of attack on Soissons . 28 Sept. 

Capitulation of Strasburg, 27 Sept. ; formally sur- 
rendered 28'Sept. 

Sortie of general Vinoy's army (at Paris) ; repulsed, 
after two hours' fighting, crown prince present; 
above 200 prisoners taken ; general Giulham 
killed 30 Sept. 

Above 375,000 national guards said to be in Paris, 

30 Sept. 

Conflict near Rouen ; at first favourable to the 
French ; their loss 1,200 killed and wounded ; 300 

prisoners 30 Sept. 

Beauvais captured by the Germans . 30 Sept. 
Mantes occupied by the Germans . . 1 Oct. 
Circular from count Bismarck, disclaiming any in- 
tention of reducing France to a second-rate po wer, 

1 Oct. 
The American general Burnside visits M. Favre, 

1 Oct. 
Surgeon-major Wyatt writes that Paris is well- 
provisioned, and nearly inexpugnable . 1 Oct. 

M. Thiers' fruitless visit to Vienna, 23 Sept. ; to 
St. Petersburg, 27 Sept. ; dined with the czar, 

2 Oct. 
The grand duke of Mecklenburg at Rheims ap- 
pointed governor of the country conquered in ad- 
dition to Alsace and Lorraine . . .2 Oct. 

M. Favre, in the name of the diplomatic body, 
requests count Bismarck to give notice before 
bombarding Paris, and to allow a weekly courier : 
the count declines both requests, but permits the 
passage of open letters ; reported . . 3 Oct. 



1870 



Count Bismarck in a circular corrects Favre's re- 
port of the negotiations, and accuses the French 
government of keeping up the difficulties opposed 
to a conclusion of peace ; reported . . 3 Oct. 

Epernon and La Ferte occupied by the Germans 
after an engagement .... 4 Oct. 

The king's head-quarters removed to Versailles ; 
arrival of the king, Bismarck, Moltke, and others, 

5 Oct. 

The Germans victors in several small engagements, 

2-6 Oct. 

General Treskow, in command of a German army, 
to advance into Southern France . . 5 Oct. 

Colmar occupied by the Prussians for an hour, 

5 Oct. 
Battle at Thoury ; General Reyan, with the ad- 
vanced guard of the army of the Loire under 
general La Motte Rouge, defeats the Germans 
between Chaussy and Thoury, and captures some 
prisoners and cattle . . . . .5 Oct. 

Fictitious manifesto of the emperor Napoleon III., 
entitled " Les Idees de I'Empereur," advocating 
peace on moderate terms, dated 26 Sept., pub- 
lished in the imperialist journal in London, La 
Situation, and in Daily News, 4 Oct. ; disclaimed 
by the emperor 6 Oct. 

M. Thiers' mission to foreign courts reported to be 
quite abortive 6 Oct. 

Part of the army of Lyons, under general Dupre, 
defeated by the Badenese under general Von 
Gegenfeld, near St. Remy; French loss, about 
1,500, and 660 prisoners ; German loss, about 430, 

6 Oct. 
General Burnside leaves Paris in order to meet 

count Bismarck 7 Oct. 

Great sortie from Metz ; the Germans surprised ; 
40,000 French engaged ; repulsed after severe con- 
flicts ; French loss, about 2,000 ; German, about 
600 ........ 7 Oct. 

Estimated number of French prisoners in Germany, 
3577 officers, and 123,700 men . . 8 Oct 

Neil Breisach bombarded .... 8 Oct. 

Breton volunteers organising by M. Cathelineau ; 
volunteers in the west organising by general 
Chare tte (from Rome) . . . . 8 Oct. 

German attack on St. Quintin vigorously repulsed, 

8 Oct. 
Long despatch, from count BernstorfF to earl Gran- 
ville, complaining of the British supplying arms 
to France 8 Oct. 

M. Thiers again at Vienna ... 8 Oct. 
Garibaldi arrives at Tours ; enthusiastically re- 
ceived ; reviews the national guard at Tours, 

9 Oct. 
Direct mediation declined by Russia, Great Britain, 

and Spain 10 Oct. 

Prussian circular to the European powers, regret- 
ting the obstinate resistance of the French govern- 
ment to peace, and foretelling the consequences 
— social disorganisation and much starvation, 

10 Oct. 

Ablis, near Paris, burnt for alleged treachery 
(killing sleeping soldiers) . . . .10 Oct. 

M. Gambetta escapes from Paris by a balloon, 7 
Oct. ; in his proclamation at Tours, states that 
Paris possesses 560,000 troops ; that cannon are 
cast daily, and that women are making cartridges ; 
he urges unanimous devoted co-operation in 
carrying on the war .... 10 Oct. 

Part of the army of the Loire defeated at Arthenay, 
near Orleans, by Bavarians under Von der Tann ; 
about 2,000 prisoners taken . . .10 Oct. 

Prussian attack on Cherizy repulsed . 10 Oct. 

French reply to Bismarck's circular on the negotia- 
tions 10 Oct. 

About 20 villages burnt, and 150 peasants shot for 
illicit warfare . . . up to n Oct. 

The French fleet appears off Heligoland . ri Oct. 

3,000 national guard mobilised at Rouen . 11 Oct. 

Three first shots tired against Paris. . 11 Oct. 

Orleans captured by gen. Von der Tann after nine 
hours' fighting ; the army of the Loire defeated 
retires behind the Loire . . . .11 Oct. 

Stenay captured by a sortie from the French garri- 
son of Montmedy 11 Oct. 

Gen. Bourbaki accepts the command at Tours; 
gen. La Motte Rouge superseded in the command 



1870 



FEANCO-PEUSSIAN WAE. 



413 



FEANCO-PEITSSIAN WAE. 



of the army of the Loire by gen. D'Aurelle de 
Paladines 12 Oct. 

Battalions of Amazons said to be forming in Paris, 

12 Oct. 

Favourable intelligence from Paris by balloons re- 
ceived . . . . . . .12 Oct. 

Garibaldi appointed commander of the French 
irregulars 12 Oct. 

Epinal captured by the Germans . . 12 Oct. 

M. Aries Dufour of Lyons appeals to the people of 
Great Britain for active sympathy in endeavouring 
to obtain peace 12 Oct. 

Breteuil occupied by the Germans after a sharp 
resistance 12 Oct. 

Slight engagements (termed victories by the French) 
before Paris 13 Oct. 

All the Vosges district in arms ; no regular army ; 
the defiles occupied by the francs-tireurs, 13 Oct. 

Reported successfu i sorties ; Neu Breisach com- 
pletely invested 13 Oct. 

Reported French success at Bagneux, near Paris — 
the Prussians surprised . . . -13 Oct. 

St. Cloud fired on by the French and burnt, 

13, 14 Oct. 

Frequent sorties from Metz . about 14 Oct. 

Sharp fight at Ecouis ; the French escape from 
being surrounded 14 Oct. 

Gambetta announces that the Germans are dis- 
lodged from their innermost belt round Paris, 

14 Oct. 

M. Thiers arrives at Florence ; Garibaldi at Besan- 
qou 14 Oct. 

Gen. Boyer, aide-de-camp to marshal Bazaine, ar- 
rives at Versailles and meets count Bismarck, 

14 Oct. 

Gen. Trochu's letter to the mayors of Paris, on re- 
organising the national guard and repressing the 
ardent desire for immediate action . 15 Oct. 

Soissons surrenders after three weeks' investment 
and four days' bombardment . . .16 Oct. 

French successes before Paris denied by the Prus- 
sians, who hold the same position as on 19 Sept., 

16 Oct, 

M. Gambetta proceeds to the army of the Vosges ; 
gen. Bourbaki appointed commander of the army 
of the north ; gen. Maziere appointed to a com- 
mand in the army of the Loire . . 17 Oct. 

Montdidier attacked by the Germans : 150 mobile 
guards captured 17 Oct. 

The emperor Napoleon declares that " there can be 
no prospect of peace, near or remote, on the basis 
of ceding to Prussia a single foot of French 
territory ; and no government in France can 
attach its signature to such a treaty and remain 
in power a single day " .... 17 Oct. 

4,000 French attacked and defeated near Chateaudun 
after ten hours' fighting and the barricaded town 
stormed 18 Oct. 

Circular of Jules Favre, asserting that Prussia 
" coldly and systematically pursues her task of 
annihilating us. France has now no illusions 
left. For her it is now a question of existence. 
. . . We prefer our present sufferings, our perils, 
and our sacrifices to the consequences of the 
inflexible and cruel ambition of our enemy. 
France needed, perhaps, to pass through a 
supreme trial — she will issue from it transfigured," 

18 Oct. 

Asserted repulse of the Germans at Fort Issy before 
Paris 18 Oct. 

Despatch from earl Granville to count Bismarck 
urging the negotiations for peace on terms lenient 
to the French 20 Oct. 

Conclusive reply of earl Granville to count Bern- 
storff's charge of breach of neutrality . 21 Oct. 

Vigorous sortie from Mont Valerien against Ver- 
sailles ; an engagement at Malmaison ; the French 
retire after three hours' fighting, losing about 
400 killed and wounded and 100 prisoners ; Ger- 
man loss about 230 killed and wounded, 21 Oct. 

Chartres occupied by the Germans under Wittich, 

21 Oct. 

Intervention of the British government (supported 
by the neutral powers) to obtain an armistice for 
the election of a national assembly . 21 Oct. 

Vesoul occupied by the Germans . . 21 Oct. 

Many deserters from Metz . 20—22 Oct. 

Schelestadt bombarded vigorously . 22 Oct. 



1870 



Engagement near Evreux .... 22 Oct. 
Fighting at Vouray, Cussey, &c. , in the Vosges ; 

French " army of the east " defeated 22 Oct. 

German attack on Chatillon le Due repulsed by gen. 

Cambriels 22 Oct. 

M. de Keratry assumes command of the army in 

Brittany 23 Oct. 

St. Quentin taken by the Germans after half-an- 

hour's cannonading, 21 Oct. ; evacuated by them, 

23 Oct. 
Reported failure of the suggestions concerning an 

armistfee, through Prussia demanding that 
France should consent to a cession of territory, 

24 Oct. 
Gambetta informs the mayors of towns that "re- 
sistance is more than ever the order of the day," 

24 Oct. 

Reported negotiations for the surrender of Metz, 

24 Oct. 

Thiers undertakes the mission to obtain an armistice, 

about 24 Oct. 

Capitulation of Schelestadt (2,400 prisoners and 120 
guns taken) 24 Oct. 

A girl calling herself a successor of Jeanne d'Arc at 
Tours 24 Oct. 

Marshal Bazaine surrenders Metz and his army, 
" conquered by famine " (see Metz and France, 
Oct.-Dec. 1873) 27 Oct. 

The French defeated near Gray (Haute Saone) by 
Von Werder 27 Oct. 

About 2000 sick and wounded of both nations in 
Versailles 27 Oct. 

Le Bourget, near Paris, recaptured by the French, 

28 Oct. 

A. safe-conduct given to M. Thiers to enter Paris for 
negotiation 28 Oct. 

Despatch from count Bismarck to earl Granville, 
expressing desire for the meeting of a French 
national assembly to consider terms of peace ; but 
statingthat overtures must come from the French, 

28 Oct. 

Badenese troops defeated near Besangon ; Prussian 
attack on Formerie on the Oise repulsed 28 Oct, 

Gen. Von Moltke created a count on his 70th birth- 
day 28 Oct. 

Vigorous proclamation of Bourbaki to the French 
army of the north 29 Oct. 

The crown prince and prince Frederick Charles 
created field-marshals .... 29 Oct. 

Dijon captured after bombardment . . 29 Oct. 

The francs-tireurs defeated by the Wurtembergers 
between Montereau and Nangis . . 29 Oct. 

Estimated : 856,000 Germans in France ; French 
prisoners in Germany, 223,000 . . 29 Oct. 

Le Bourget retaken by the Germans ; heavy losses 
on both sides ; about 1200 French prisoners, 

30 Oct. 

Proclamation of Gambetta, accusing Bazaine of 
treason ; the war to go on . . . 30 Oct. 

M. Thiers enters Paris . . . .30 Oct. 

Garibaldi defending Dole (Jura) with about 7500 
men 31 Oct. 

M. Thiers receives powers from the French defence 
government to treat for an armistice, and has in- 
terviews with count Bismarck, 31 Oct. and 1 Nov. 

Gen. Bourbaki attempting to form an army of the 
north, near Lille .... Oct. — Nov. 

Thionville invested 1 Nov. 

The francs-tireurs dispersed in several slight en- 
gagements between Colmar and Belfort, 2, 3 Nov. 

Letter from marshal Bazaine repelling the charge 
of treason 2 Nov. 

Count Bismarck offers an armistice of 25 days 
for the election of a French national assembly, 

3 Nov. 

Defeat of an attempted revolution in Paris : see 
France 3 Nov. 

M. Favre declares to the national guard that the 
government has sworn not to yield an inch of 
territory, and will remain faithful to this engage- 
ment 3 Nov. 

Proclamation of Garibaldi to the army of the 
Vosges, and appealing to other nations, 

about 3 Nov. 

" Campanile de 1S70 ; par tin, Offider attache 1 a 
Vital major-general" (a pamphlet ascribed to 
the emperor), appears in the Daily Telegraph, 

Nov. 



1S70 



FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 



414 



FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 



Failure of the negotiation, as count Bismarck will 
not permit food to enter Paris during the armis- 
tice without any military equivalent ; M. Thiers 
ordered to break off negotiation . . 6 Nov. 1870 

Chateaudun recaptured by the French . 6 Nov. „ 

The Prussian semi-official journal says, " The 
French government having refused to listen to 
reason the cannon will be resorted to for giving 
them a lesson" 7 Nov. „ 

Bombardment of Thionville . . . 7 Nov. „ 

Circulars on the armistice negotiations— of M. 
Favre, 7 Nov. ; of Count Bismarck . 8 Nov. „ 

The king's permission for the election of a French 
national assembly declined by the French govern- 
ment 7 Nov. » 

Orders that no one shall enter or quit Paris, 7 Nov. ,, 

A Prussian column repulsed in an attack on the 
army of the Loire at Marchenoir . 7 Nov. ,, 

Capitulation of Verdun .... 8 Nov. ,, 

Seven persons, captured in balloons from Paris, sent 
to German fortresses to be tried by court martial, 

8 Nov. „ 

The French fleet off Heligoland . . 8 Nov. „ 

German corps, under Manteuffel, advancing on 
Amiens and Rouen 8 Nov. ,, 

Firm circular from M. Favre to French diplomatic 
representatives, about .... 8 Nov. ,, 

The Germans enter Montbeliard (Doubs) 9 Nov. „ 

The Germans, under gen. Von der Tann, defeated 
between Cculmiers and Baccon, near Orieans, 
retire to Thoury . • • 9 Nov. »» 

M. Thiers' report of the unsuccessful negotiations 
for an armistice .... dated 9 Nov. „ 

Reported naval victory of the Prussian steamer 
Meteor over the French steamer Bouvet off 
Havannah ...... 9 Nov. .. 

Continued fighting; Orleans retaken by general 
D'Aurelle de Paladines : French losses, 2000; 
Germans about 700, and 2000 prisoners 10 Nov. „ 

Capitulation of Neu Breisach, 5000 prisoners and 
100 guns taken 10 Nov. ,, 

The French repulsed near Montbeliard on the Swiss 
frontier ■ • ™ Nov. „ 

Von der Tann's army reinforced by 30,000, now 
70,000, the grand duke of Mecklenburg com- 
mander; the Loire army about 150,000, but only 
12,000 regulars • * 2 Nov. „ 

Bankers at Berlin and Frankfort arrested for deal- 
ing in French war loan . . . about 12 Nov. ,, 

Dole, near Dijon, occupied by the Germans, 

13 Nov. „ 

Calm, truthful proclamation of gen. Trochu, at 
Paris ■ J 4 Nov. ,, 

The armies in central France have been placed 
under prince Frederick Charles and the grand 
duke of Mecklenburg .... 14 Nov. ,, 

Eleven French towns, 3653 guns, 155 mitrailleuses, 
nearly 500,000 chass'epots, about 90 eagles and 
standards, and nearly 4,000,000?. in money, taken 
by the Germans . . . . up to 14 Nov. ,, 

Montmedy completely invested . . 15 Nov. „ 

French sorties from Mezieres repulsed, 15 Nov. ; 
from Belfort repulsed . . • 16 Nov. „ 

The grand duke of Mecklenburg repulses the army 
of the Loire near Dreux, which is captured by 
Von Treskow 17 Nov. »> 

Successful French sortie from Mezieres, 500 Ger- 
mans said to be killed ... 17 Nov. „ 

Germans victorious in an engagement near Cha- 
teaudun ; French claim the success 18 Nov. „ 

Ricciotti Garibaldi said to have beaten 700 or 800 
men at Chatillon 19 Nov. >• 

The national guard at Evreux repulse a German 
attack 19 Nov. „ 

The German army under prince Frederick Charles 
and the grand duke of Mecklenburg (135,000) 
said to be retreating towards Paris . 19 Nov. „ 

Paris engirdled with a second line of investment, 

20 Nov. ,, 
French attempt to release La Fere repulsed with 

heavy loss 20 Nov. ,, 

Several balloons from Paris captured about 20 Nov. „ 
French mobile guard defeated at Bretoncelles, 

21 Nov. ,, 
Bombardment of Thionville begun . . 22 Nov. „ 
Ham occupied by the Prussians . . .22 Nov. „ 
Prince Frederick Charles takes up a position near 

Orleans 24 Nov. „ 



Thionville, in flames, cajiitulates, with about 2000 
prisoners 24 Nov. 16 

The Germans repulsed near Amiens and nearStagil, 

24 Nov. , 
La Fere surrenders, after two clays' bombardment, 
with about 70 guns and 2000 men . 27 Nov. . 

The Garibaldians defeated near Pasques (Cote d'Or) 
by Von Werder 27 Nov. , 

The French army of the north defeated by Man- 
teuffel between Villers Bretonneux and Soleur, 
near Amiens 27 Nov. , 

Amiens occupied by Von Goeben after a severe en- 
gagement 28 Nov. , 

Severe engagement near Beaune la Rolande (Loiret) 
between part of the army of the Loire under 
D'Aurelle de Paladines and the Germans under 
Voigts Rhetz ; prince Frederick Charles ar- 
rives and turns the day ; the French retire ; 
heavy loss on both sides . . . .28 Nov. 

M. de Keratry resigns his command, accusing M. 
Gambetta of misconduct, 28 Nov. ; Bourbaki ap- 
pointed to command an army corps . 29 Nov. 

Fruitless endeavours of the army ii. Paris and the 
army of the Loire to unite . 29 Nov. — 4 Dec. 

Sorties from various parts of Paris repulsed with 
loss 29 Nov. j 

Great sortie of 120,000, under generals Trochu and 
Ducrot, who cross the Marne ; severest conflict 
between Champigny-sur-Marne, Brie-sur-Marne, 
and Villiers-sur-Marne ; the French retain the 
taken possessions, but their advance is checked ; 
great loss on both sides (chiefly Saxons and Wtir- 
tembergers engaged) . . . . 30 Nov. 

The contest resumed at Avron ; the Germans retake 
Champigny and Brie ; the French retreat 2 Lee. 

The army of the Loire : Chanzy defeated by the 
grand duke of Mecklenburg at Bazoche des 
Hautes, 2 Dec. ; near Chevilly (the French report 
these engagements indecisive) . . .3 Dec. 

Prince Frederick Charles dislodges an encampment 
in the forest of Orleans. . . . 3 Dec. 

Ducrot bivouacks in the woods of Vincennes, 
3 Dec. ; he issues a final order of the day, re- 
ferring to two days' glorious battles . 4 Dec. 

General D'Aurelle de Paladines entrenched before 
Orleans ; proposes to retreat ; the government 
opposes him, but yields ; he determines to await 
the attack ; part of his army defeated by prince 
Frederick Charles, and the grand duke of Meck- 
lenburg ; he retreats with about 100,000 men ; 
Orleans threatened with bombardment; surrenders 
at midnight 4 Dec. 

The Germans said to be in pursuit of D'Aurelle de 
Paladines (superseded) .... 5 Dec. 

10,000 prisoners, 77 guns, and 4 gun-boats cap- 
tured at Orleans 5 Dec. 

Rouen occupied by Manteuffel . . 6 Dec. 

General order of the king of Prussia, " We enter 
on a new phase of the war . . . Every attempt to 
break through the investment or relieve Paris has 
failed" 6 Dec. 

The grand duke of Mecklenburg attacks gen. 
Chanzy and the army of the Loire near Beau- 
gency ; indecisive, 7 Dee. ; the Germans victo- 
rious, taking about 1 100 prisoners and six guns, 
and occupying Beaugency (severe loss to Germans), 

8 Dec. 
Gen. Manteuffel's army in two parts, one occupies 

Evreux, and inarching to Cherbourg; the other 
marching to Havre .... 8 Dec. 

Continued severe engagements between the Ger- 
mans and the army of the Loire ; the defeated 
French retreat (7 battles in 9 days) 9, 10 Dec. 

Vigorous siege of Belfort ; obstinately defended, 

9 Dec. 
Pamphlet (attributed to the emperor Napoleon) 

published under the name of his friend, the mar- 
quis de Gricourt, throwing the blame of the war 
upon the French nation . . early in Dec. 

Fighting along the whole line of the army of the 
Loire, under general Chanzy and others ; it re- 
treats, but obstinately resists . 5 — 10 Dee. 

Brilliant action by De Chanzy . . . 11 Dec. 

The delegate government transferred from Tours to 
Bordeaux ; Gambetta remains with the army of 
the Loire ... ,11 Dee. 

Dieppe occupied by the Germans . 12 Dec. 



FEANCO-PEUSSIAN WAE. 



41-5 



FEANKFOET. 



La Fere threatened by Faidherbe, commander of 

the army of the north . . . 12 Dec. 1870 

Phalsburg surrenders, subdued by famine ; com- 
mencement of bombardment of Montmedy, 

12 Dec. „ 
Evreux and Blois occupied by the Germans, 13 Dec. ,, 
Montmedy surrenders .... 14 Dec. „ 

Sharp engagement at Freteval ; which is taken and 

abandoned by the Germans . . 14 Dec. „ 

Nuits near Dijon captured by the Badenese under 

Von Werder, after a severe conflict . 18 Dec. , 
The French government issue a circular against the 
propagation of false news . . . .20 Dec. , 

Conflict at Monnaie : about 6000 French gardes 

mobiles driven back to Tours . . 20 Dec. , 
Vigorous sortie from Paris repulsed — an artillery 
action . . .... 21 Dec. , 

Tours partially shelled ; submits, but not occupied 

by Germans 21 Dec. , 

Chanzy and part of the army of the Loire said to have 
reached Le Mans and joined the Bretons, about 

21 Dec. , 
Seven hours' battle at Pont a Noyelles between 
Manteuffel and the army of the north under Faid- 
herbe : both claim the victory ; Faidherbe re- 
treats 23 Dec. , 

Six English colliers, said to have had Prussian per- 
mits, after delivering coal at Rouen, are sunk in 
the Seine at Duclair near Havre by the Prussians 
• for strategic reasons ... 21 Dec. , 

Explanation given by Bismarck and compensation 
promised . . .... 26 Dec. , 

hanzy, in a letter to the German commandant at 
Vendome, accuses the Germans of cruelly pillag- 
ing St. Calais, and, denying his defeat, says, " We 
have foughtyou and held youin check since 4 Dec." 

26 Dec. , 
Trochu said to be making Mont Valerien a vast 

citadel 27 Dec. , 

Mont Avron, an outlying fort near Paris, after a 
day's bombardment, abandoned and occupied by 

the Germans 29 Dec. , 

Alleged defeat of the Germans by detachment of 

Chanzy's army near M'ontoire . . 27 Dec. , 

Several small engagements in Normandy — reported 

successful to the French . . 28 — 31 Dec. , 
Capitulation of Mezieres with 2000 men and 106 

guns 1,2 Jan. 18 

Severe battles near Bapaume between the army of 
the North under Faidherbe and the Germans under 
Manteuffel and Von Gceben ; victory claimed by 
both, the French retreat . . . 2, 3 Jan. , 
Indecisive conflict near Dijon le Mans : between 
general Chanzy and prince Frederick Charles, 

6 Jan. , 
Daujoutin , S. of Belfort, stormed by Germans, 6 Jan. , 
Bombardment of eastern front of Paris, and of the 
southern forts, 4 Jan. ; forts of Issy and Vanvres 

silenced 6 Jan. , 

Fortress of Rocroy taken by the Germans, 5, 6 Jan. , 
General Roy defeated near Jumieges . 7 Jan. , 

Von Gceben in the north, Manteuffel sent to the east 

about 7 Jan. , 
Conflicts (in the east) between Von Werder and 

Bourbaki at Villarais, south of Vesoul 9, 10 Jan. , 
Bombardment of Paris, many buildings injured, 
and people killed : the French government appeal 
to foreign powers . . . . g, 10 Jan. , 
Capitulation of Peronne with garrison . 9 Jan. , 
Chanzy retreating ; defeated near Le Mans by prince 
Frederick Charles and the grand duke of Mecklen- 
burg 11 Jan. , 

Prince Frederick Charles enters Le Mans ; after 6 
days' fighting, (about 20,000 French prisoners 
made ; German loss about 3400) . 12 Jan. , 

Vigorous sorties from Paris repulsed . 13 Jan. , 
Chanzy retreating, 14 Jan. ; defeated near Vosges, 

15, 16 Jan. , 
Indecisive conflicts between Bourbaki and Von 

Werder, near Belfort ... 15, 16 Jan. , 

St. Quentin recaptured by Isnard under Faidherbe, 

16 Jan. , 
Bourbaki defeated near Belfort after three days' 

fighting, 15 — 17 Jan. ; retreats south 18 Jan. , 

The grand duke of Mecklenburg enters Aleneon, 

17 Jan. , 
Bombardment of Longwy begun . . 17 Jan. , 
Faidherbe defeated near St. Quentin ; after seven 



hours' fighting ; by Von Gceben, 4000 prisoners 
taken 19 Jan. 187X 

Great sortie from Paris of Trochu and 100,000 men 
repulsed with loss of about 1000 dead and 50C0 
wounded . ... . . .19 Jan. 

Bourbaki hard pressed by Von Werder 19 Jan.' '* 

Armistice for two days at Paris refused 22 Jan. ,, 

Bombardment of St Denis and Cambrai 22 Jan. „ 

Faidherbe asserts that the German successes are 
exaggerated 22 Jan. ,, 

Resignation of Trochu ; Vinoy, governor of Paris, 

23, 24 Jan. ,,. 

Favre opens negotiations with Bismarck 24 Jan. „. 

Longwy capitulates ; 4000 prisoners, 200 guns, 

25 Jan. ,y. 

Letter from M. Guizot to Mr. Gladstone proposing 
the demolition of fortresses on both sides of the 
Rhine ; and the maintenance of the balance of 
power by congresses ; published . 26 Jan. , r 

Capitulation of Paris ; armistice for 21 days signed 
by count Bismarck and Jules Favre 28 Jan. ,,. 

The forts round Paris occupied by the Germans, 

29 Jan. >y . 
Advance of German troops into France suspended, 

30 Jan. ,,. 
Bourbaki and his army, about 80,000, driven by 

Manteuffel into Switzerland near Pontarlier, about 
6000 having been captured . 30 Jan. ,1 Feb. ,,. 
French loss about 350,000 men, 800 guns up to Jan. ,, 
Dijon occupied by the Germans . 1 Feb. t> 

Belfort capitulates with military honours 13 Feb. 
Negotiations for peace between Thiers and Bismarck 

22 — 24 Feb. ,j. 
Preliminaries of a treaty accepted by Thiers, Favre, 
and 15 delegates from the national assembly ; it 
includes cession of parts of Lorraine, including 
Metz and ThionviHe and Alsace less Belfort ; and 
payment of 5 milliards of francs, 200,000,000?. , 
25 Feb. , signed 26 Feb. , accepted by the national 

assembly z March, „ 

German loss in battles throughout the war ; killed 

or died soon after, 17,570 ; died of wounds 

eventually 10,707; total killed and wounded 

127,867. 

German troops enter Paris and remain 48 hours, 

' , i — 3 March, ,,. 

They quit Versailles . . . .12 March, 
Conference for peace open at Brussels, 28 March j* 
Treaty of peace signed at Frankfort, 10 May ; ratified 
by the French national assembly . 18 May, 

FEANCS-TIEEUES, free shooters, took an 
active part in the Franco-Prussian war from about 
14 Aug. 1870; and more especially after the sur- 
render of MacMahon's army at "Sedan, 2 Sept. 
Their conduct was much censured. 

FEANKENHAUSEN, N. Germany: near 
this place Philip, landgrave of Hesse, and his allies- 
defeated the insurgent peasantry headed by Munzer 
the anabaptist, 15 May, 1525. 

FEANKFOET-ON-THE-MAINE, central Ger- 
many, founded in the 5th century; was the resi- 
dence of Charlemagne in 794 ; walled by Louis I. 
838; a capital city, 843; an imperial city, 1245. 
Population in 1885, 154,513; in 1S90, 179,550; see- 
Germain/. 

Union of Frankfort : treaty between France, Sweden, 
Prussia, and other German states led to war with 
Austria •■.... 22 May 174A 

Frankfort captured by the French by a surprise,' 

_, . ,. , _■ ,, 2 Jan. 175Q. 

Captured by Custme, 28 Oct. ; retaken by the 
Prussians 2 D ec I7g2 

Bombarded by the French; surrendered to Kleber, 

16 July, 1796- 

Made part of the confederation of the Rhine . 1806 

A grand duchy under Carl von Dalberg . . i 8 io . 

Republic restored; appointed capital of the Ger- 
manic confederation j3 ic - 

Vain attempts at insurrection by students, April, 
1833 May, 1834: 

The Frankfort diet publish a federative constitution, 

30 March, 1848 



FKANKFOET. 



416 



FEANKLIN. 



The plenipotentiaries of Austria, Bavaria, Saxony, 
Hanover, Wiirtemberg, Mecklenburg, &c, here 
constitute themselves the council of the Germanic 
diet i Sept. 1850 

The German sovereigns (excepting the king of 
Prussia) met at Frankfort (at the invitation of 
the emperor of Austria), to consider a plan of 
federal reform, 17 Aug. ; the plan was not 
accepted by Prussia .... 22 Sept. 1863 

Meeting of diet of Germanic confederation; con- 
demn the treaty of Gastein . . 1 Oct. 1865 

The diet adopts the Austrian motion, that Prussia 
has broken the treaty ; the Prussian representative 
declares the confederation at an end, and proposes 
a new confederation .... 14 June, 1866 

Entered by the Prussians, who exact heavy supplies, 

• 16 July, ,, 

Annexed to Prussia by law of 20 Sept. ; promulgated 
at Frankfort ; (the legislative corps and 15,000 
citizens protest against it) . . . 8 Oct. „ 

Visited by the king of Prussia ; an ancient cathedral, 
•St. Bartholomew (founded 1315, completed 1512), 
destroyed by fire . . . . 14. is Au 8- l86 7 

Frankfort supported Prussia in the war July, 1870 

Treaty of peace between France and Germany, signed 
here 10 May, 1871 

Eiots through rise in price of beer ; suppressed 
by N. German soldiers : 37 of the people killed ; 
about 100 wounded . . . 21, 22 April, 1873 

International Electro-Technical congress opened 

8 Sept. et seq., 1891 

FEANKFOET -ON -THE -ODER (N. Ger- 
many) ; a member of the Hanseatie league ; suffered 
much from marauders in the middle ages, and in 
the thirty years' war. The university was founded 
in 1506, and incorporated with that of Breslau in 
181 1. Near Frankfort, 12 Aug. 1759, Frederick of 
Prussia was defeated by the Russians and Austrians 
see Cunnersdorf. Population, 1890, 55,724. 

FEANKING LETTEES, passing letters free 
of postage, was claimed by parliament about 1660. 
The privilege was restricted in 1839, and abolished 
after the introduction of the uniform penny postage, 
10 Jan. 1840. The queen was amongst the first 
to relinquish her privilege. 

FEANKLIN, the English freeholder in the 
middle ages; see "the Franklin's Tale," in 
Chaucer's Canterbury Tales (written about 1364). 

FEANKLIN, Search for. Sir John Frank- 
lin, with captains Cfozier and Fitzjames, in H. M. 
ships Erebus and Terror (carrying in all 138 
persons), sailed on his third arctic expedition of 
discovery and survey, from Greenhithe, on 24 May, 
J 845; see North-west Passage. Their last des- 
patches were from the Whaletish islands, dated 12 
July, 1845. Their protracted absence caused intense 
anxiety, and several expeditions were sent from 
England and elsewhere in search of them, and 
coals, provisions, clothing, and other necessaries, 
were deposited in various places in the Arctic seas 
by our own and by the American government, by 
lady Franklin, and numerous private persons. The 
Truelove, captain Parker, which arrived at Hull, 
4 Oct. 1849, from Davis's Straits, brought intelli- 
gence (not afterwards confirmed) that the natives 
had seen sir John Franklin's ships in the previous 
March, frozen up by the ice in Prince Regent's 
inlet. Other accounts were equally illusory. Her 
majesty's government, on 7 March, 1850, offered a 
reward of 20,000^. to any party of any country, that 
should render efficient assistance to the crews of the 
missing ships. Sir John's first winter quarters were 
found at Beechy island by captains Ommanney and 
Penny. 

1. H.M.S. Plover, capt. Moore (afterwards under 
capt. Maguire), sailed from Sheerness to Behring's 
.Straits, in search . . . . 1 Jan. 1848 



2. Land expedition under sir John Richardson and 
Dr. Rae, of the Hudson's Bay Company, left 
England 25 March, 1848 

LSir John Richardson returned to England in 
1849, and Dr. Rae continued his search till 1851.] 

3. Sir James Boss, with the Enterprise and Investi- 
gator (12 June, 1848), having also sailed in search 
to Barrow's Straits, returned to England (Scar- 
borough) 3 Nov. 1849 

4. The Enterprise, capt. Collinson, and Investigator, 
commander M'Clure, sailed from Plymouth for 
Behring's Straits .... 20 Jan. 1850 

[Both ships proceeded through to the eastward.] 

5. Capt. Austin's expedition, viz. : Resolute, capt. 
Austin, C.B. ; Assistance, capt. Ommanney; 
Intrepid, lieut. Bertie Cator ; and Pioneer, lieut. 
Sherard Osborn, sailed from England for Barrow's 
Straits 25 April, ,, 

[Returned Sept. 1851.] 

6. The Lady Franklin, capt. Penny ; and Sophia, 
capt. Stewart, sailed from Aberdeen for Barrow's 
Straits 13 April, „ 

[Returned home Sept. 1851.] 

7. The American expedition in the Advance and 
Rescue, under lieut. De Haven and Dr. Kane (son 
of the judge), towards which Mr. Grinned sub- 
scribed 30,000 dollars, sailed for Lancaster Sound 
and Barrow's Straits ; after drifting in the pack 
down Baffin's Bay, the ships were released in 
1851 uninjured 25 May, ,, 

8. The Felix, sir John Ross, fitted out chiefly by the 
Hudson Bay Company, sailed to the same locality, 

22 May, ,, 
[Returned in 1851.] 

9. H.M.S. North Star, commander Saunders, which 
had sailed from England in 1849, wintered in 
Wolstenholme Sound, and returned to Spithead, 

28 Sept. ,, 

10. H.M-S. Herald, captain Kellett, C.B., which 
had sailed in 1848, made three voyages to 
Behring's Straits, and returned in . . 1851 

Lieut Pirn went to St. Petersburg with the intention 

of travelling through Siberia to the mouth of the 

river Kolyma ; but was dissuaded from proceeding 

by the Russian government . . 18 Nov. „ 

[The Enterprise and Investigator (see No. 4 above) 

not having been heard of for two years.] 

11. Sir Edward Belcher's expedition, consisting of 
— Assistance, sir Edward Belcher, C.B. ; Resolute, 
captain Kellett, C.B. ; North Star, capt. Pullen ; 
Intrepid, capt. M'Clintock; and Pioneer, capt. 
Sherard Osborn, sailed from Woolwich 15 April, 1852 

[This expedition arrived at Beechy Island 14 
Aug. 1852. The Assistance and Pioneer pro- 
ceeded through Wellington Channel, and the 
Resolute and Intrepid to Melville Island ; the 
North Star remaining at Beechy Island.] 

LADY FRANKLIN'S EQUIPMENTS. 

Lady Franklin, aided by a few friends (and by the 
"Tasmanian Tribute" of 1500?.), equipped four 
expeditions (Nos. 12, 13, 14, 16). 

12. Prince Albert, capt. Forsyth, sailed from Aber- 
deen to Barrow Straits . . . 5 June, 1850 

[Returned 1 Oct. 1850.] 

13. The Prince Albert, Mr. Kennedy, accompanied 
by lieut. Bellot, of the French navy, and John 
Hepburn, sailed from Stromness to Prince 
Regent's Inlet 4 June, 1851 

[Returned Oct. 1852.] 

14. The Isabel, commander Inglefield, sailed for the 
head of Baffin's Bay, Jones's Sound, and the 
Wellington Channel, 6 July ; and returned Nov. 1852 

15. Mr. Kennedy sailed again in the Isabel, on a 
renewed search to Behring's Straits . . 1853 

16. H.M.S. Rattlesnake, commander Trollope, des- 
patched to assist the Plover, capt. Maguire (who 
succeeded capt. Moore), at Point Barrow in April ; 
met with it Aug. ,, 

17. The second American expedition, the Advance, 
under Dr. Kane .... early in June, „ 

18. The Pha'nix (with the Breadalbane transport), 
commander Inglefield, accompanied by lieut. 
Bellot, sailed in May ; he returned, bringing des- 
patches from Sir E. Belcher, <fec. . . Oct. ,, 

The Investigator and sir E. Belcher's squadron 
were safe ; but no traces of Franklin's party had 



FRANKLIN. 



417 



FREDERICKSBURG. 



been met with. Lieut. Bellot was unfortunately 
drowned in August while voluntarily conveying 
despatches for sir E. Belcher. Capt. M'Clure had 
left the Herald (10) at Cape Lisburne, 31 July, 
1850. On 8 Oct. the ship was frozen in, and so 
continued for nine months. On 26 Oct. 1850, 
while on an excursion party, the captain dis- 
covered an entrance into Barrow's Straits, and 
thus established the existence of a N.E. — N.W. 
passage. In Sept. 1851, the ship was again fixed 
in ice, and so remained till lieut. Pirn and a party 
from capt. Kellett's ship, the Resolute (11), fell in 
with them in April, 1853. Tne position of the 
Enterprise (4) was still unknown. 

A monument to Bellot's memory was erected at 
Greenwich. His " Journal " was published in 1854 

Dr. Rae, in the spring of 1853, again proceeded 
towards the magnetic pole; and in July, 1854, 
he reported to the Admiralty that he had pur- 
chased from a party of Esquimaux a number of 
articles which had belonged to sir J. Franklin 
and his party — namely, sir John's star or order, 
part of a watch, silver spoons, and forks with 
crests, &c. He also reported the statement of 
the natives, that they had met with a party of 
white men about four winters previous, and had 
sold them a seal ; and that four months later, in 
the same season, they had found the bodies of 
thirty men (some buried), who had evidently 
perished by starvation ; the place appears, from 
the description, to have been in the neighbour- 
hood of the Great Fish river of Back. Dr. Rae 
arrived in England on 22 Oct. 1854, with the 
relics, which have since been deposited in Green- 
wich hospital. He and his companions were 
awarded 10,000?. for their discovery. 

19. The Phainix, North Star, and Talbot, under the 
command of capt. Inglefield, sailed in May, and 
returned in Oct. 1854 

Sir E. Belcher (No. 11), after mature deliberation, 
in April, 1854, determined to abandon his ships, 
and gave orders to that effect to all the captains 
under his command ; and capt. Kellett gave 
similar orders to capt. M'Clure, of the Investigator. 
The vessels had been abandoned 15 May* when 
the crews of the Phcen ix and Talbot (under capt. 
Inglefield) arrived (19). On their return to 
England all the captains were tried by court 
martial and honourably acquitted 17-19 Oct. „ 

Capt. Collinson's fate was long uncertain, and 
another expedition was in contemplation, when 
intelligence came, in Feb. 1855, that he had met 
the Rattlesnake (16) at Fort Clarence on 21 Aug. 
1854, and had sailed immediately, in hopes of 
getting up with capt. Maguire in the Plover (1), 
which had sailed two days previously. Capt. 
Collinson having failed in getting through the ice 
in 1850 with capt. M'Clure, returned to Hong- 
Kong to winter. In 1851 he passed through 
Prince of Wales's Straits, and remained in the 
Arctic regions without obtaining any intelligence 
of Franklin till July, 1854, when, being once 
more released from the ice, he sailed for Fort 
Clarence, where he arrived as above mentioned. 
Captains Collinson and Maguire arrived in England 
i" May, 1855 

20. The third American expedition in search of 
Dr. Kane, in the Advance, consisted of the 
Release and the steamer Arctic, the barque Enngo, 
and another vessel under the command of lieut. 
H. J. Hartstene, accompanied by a brother of 
Dr. Kane as surgeon, . . . 31 May, ,, 

[On 17 May, 1855, Dr. Kane and his party quitted 
the Advance, and journeyed over the' ice, 1300 



* Capt. Kellett's ship, the Resolute, was found adrift 
1000 miles distant from where she was left, by a 
Mr. George Henry, commanding an American whaler, 
who brought her to New York. The British government 
having abandoned their claim on the vessel, it was 
bought by order of the American congress, thoroughly 
repaired and equipped, and entrusted to capt. II. J. 
Hartstene, to be presented to queen Victoria. It arrived 
at Southampton, 12 Dec. 1856 ; was visited by her majesty 
on the t 6th ; and formallysurrendered on the 30th. When 
the ship was broken up a desk was made of the wood, 
and presented by queen Victoria to the president of the 
United States, 29 Nov. t88o. 



miles, to the Danish settlement ; on their way 
home in a Danish vessel, they fell in with lieut. 
Hartstene, 18 Sept. ; and arrived with him at 
New York, n Oct. 1855. Dr. Kane visited 
England in 1856 ; he died in 1857.] 

The Hudson's Bay Company, under advice of Dr. Rae 
and sir G. Back, sent out an overland expedition, 
June 1855, which returned Sept. following. Some 
more remains of Franklin's party were discovered. 1855 

21. The 18th British expedition (equipped by lady 
Franklin and her friends, the government having 
declined to fit out another) — the Fox, screw 
steamer, under capt. (since sir) F. L. M'Olintock, 
R.N. (see No. 11) — sailed from Aberdeen 1 July, 
1857 ; returned .... 22 Sept. 1859 

On 6 May, 1859, lieut. Hobson found at Point 
Victory, near Cape Victoria, besides a cairn, a tin 
case, containing a paper, signed 25 April, 1848, 
by capt. Fitzjames, which certified that the ships 
Erebus and Terror, on 12 Sept. 1846, were beset in 
lat. 70 50' N. , and long. 98 23' W. ; that sir John 
Franklin died 11 June, 1847; and that the ships 
were deserted 22 April, 1848. Captain M'Clintock 
continued the search, and discovered skeletons 
and other relics. His Journal was published in 
Dec. 1859 ; and on 28 May, i860, gold medals 
were given to him and to lady Franklin by the 
Royal Geographical Society. 

Mr. Hall, the arctic explorer, reported, in Aug. 1865, 
circumstances that led him to hope that capt. 
Crozier and others were surviving. 

A national monument by Noble, set up in Waterloo- 
place, was inaugurated, 15 Nov. 1866. It is 
inscribed to " Franklin the great navigator and 
his brave companions who sacrificed their lives 
in completing the discovery of the north-west 
passage, a.d. 1847-8." 

Sir John Franklin discovered the north-west passage 
by sailing down Peel and Victoria Straits, now 
named Franklin Straits. 

" Franklin search expedition," under lieut. Sehwatka, 
of U.S. navy, in an overland expedition in summer 
and autumn of 1879, discovers some human 
remains of the crews of the ships and other 
things ; he set up memorials, and brought away 
the remains of lieut. John Irving, of the Terror ; 
and returned to Massachusetts about 23 Sept. 1880 

Remains of lieut. John Irving buried at Edinburgh, 

7 Jan. 1 881 

FRANKS (or freemen), a name given to a com- 
bination of the North-western German tribes about 
240, which invaded Gaul and other parts of the 
empire with various success in the 5th century ; 
see Gaul and France ; see Franking. 

FRASER'S MAGAZINE, first appeared, 
Feb. 1830 ; discontinued Oct. 1882. 

FRATRICELLI (Little Brethren), a sect of 
the middle ages, originally strict Franciscan monks. 
Their numbers increased, and they were condemned 
by a papal bull in 13 1 7 ; and suffered persecution ;. 
but were not extinct till the 16th century. They 
resembled the " Brethren of the Free Spirit." 

FRAUDS, Statute of. 29 Charles II., c. 3,. 

1677. " An act for prevention of frauds and per- 
juryes." 

FRAUDULENT TRUSTEES ACT, 20 & 

21 Vict. c. 54, passed Aug. 1857, in consequence of 
the delinquencies of sir John D. Paul, the British 
Bank frauds, &c. It was brought in by sir R. 
Bethell, then attorney-general (afterwards lord 
Westbury), and is very stringent. 

FRAUNHOFER'S LINES, see Spectrum. 

FREDERICKSBURG (Virginia,N. America). 
On 10 Dec. 1862, general Bumside and the federal 
army of the Potomac crossed the small deep river 
Rappahannock. On 1 1 Dec. Fredericksburg was 
bombarded by the federals and destroyed. On the 
13th commenced a scries of desperate unsuccessful 
attacks on the confederate works, defended by 

V, B 



FEEDEBICKSHALD. 



418 



FEEEMASONBY. 



generals Lee, Jackson, Longstreet, and others. 
General Hooker crossed the river with the reserves, 
and joined in the conflict, in vain. On 15 and 16 
Dec. the federal army recrossed the Rappahannock. 
The battle was one of the most severe in the war. 

FEEDEBICKSHALD (Norway). Charles 
XII. of Sweden was killed by a cannon-shot before 
its walls, while examining the works. His hand 
was on his sword, and a prayer-book in his pocket, 
11 Dec. 1718. 

FEEE CHUECH OF ENGLAND. An 

Episcopal Church founded in 1844, and enrolled in 
her majesty's High Court of Chancery in 1863. 

The bishops are Benjamin Price (bishop primus), who 
resides at Ilfracombe ; Frederick Newman, at Ashford, 
Kent ; and a missionary bishop, Henry Orion Meyers, 
at Hounslow. 

This church grew out of the Oxford traetarian move- 
ment of 1830. The first church was planted at Bridge- 
town, Devon, by the rev. James Shore, M.A., curate 
of the parish ; it was built by the duke of Somerset, 
and opened in 1844. Two other churches were esta- 
blished in the same year— one at Exeter, and the other at 
Ilfracombe. But it was not till 1849 that much progress 
was made, when an impetus was given to the movement 
by the late bishop of Exeter's (Philpott) prosecution 
of Mr. Shore, for preaching in his diocese without his 
licence. The work spread, and the organization was 
enrolled under a deed poll as an " Episcopal Church." 
But as " Consecration " could not be obtained a bishop 
president was elected till 1876, when the secession of 
the right rev. bishop Cummins from the "Protestant 
Episcopal Church of America " (the first bishops of 
which church were consecrated by the archbishop of 
Canterbury at Lambeth Palace chapel, in 1787), af- 
forded an opportunity, which was embraced, of 
obtaining episcopal consecration for the bishops of 
the Free Church of England in the Canterbury line of 
episcopal succession. 

The services of the F. C. E. are conducted exactly as 
those of the evangelical section of the national church, 
excepting the omission of some words in the offices 
which express doctrines opposed to the Protestant 
Beformation. 

FEEE CHUECH OF SCOTLAND was 

formed by an act of secession of nearly halt the body 
from the national church of Scotland, headed by Dr. 
Thos. Chalmers and other eminent ministers, 18 May, 
1843. The difference arose on the question of the 
right of patrons to nominate to livings; see Patron- 
age. The Free Church claims for the parishioners 
the right of a veto. Much distress was endured the 
first year by the ministers of the new church, 
although 366,719/. 14s. 3<£- had been subscribed. 
In 1853 there were 850 congregations ; in 1873, 954. 
A large college was founded in 1846. In 1856 the 
sustentation fund amounted to 108,638/. from which 
was paid the sum of 138/. each to 700 ministers. 
The Rev. Mr. Knight, censured for opinions re- 
specting prayer, seceded ... 22 Oct. 1873 
The Reformed Presbyterian Church (see Came- 

ronians), joined the Free Church . . 25 May, 1876 
Professor Robertson Smith, generally censured for 
his article "Bible, &c," in the " Encyclopedia 
Britannica," 1875, after long consideration by the 
assembly, admonished only . . 27 May, 1880 
Professor Robertson Smith expelled from his pro- 
fessorship, but to retain salary, by the general 
assembly (394—231) .... 26 May, 1881 

FEEE CHUECH SOCIETY, or National 
Association for Freedom of Public Worship, esta- 
blished in 1857, to abolish the pew-rent system 
and revive the weekly offertory to defray the ex- 
penses of public worship. The Free and Open 
Church Association was formed in 1866. 

FEEE COMPANIES and LANCES, see 
Condottieri. 



FEEEDMEN'S BUREAUS, established in 
the Southern States of North America in March, 
1865, to protect the freed negroes. Having the 
support of martial law, these bureaus became very 
oppressive, and the act of congress making them 
permanent was vetoed by president Johnson in 
Feb. 1866. 

FEEE EDUCATION ACT. See under 
Education, 1891. 

FEEEHOLDEES. Those under forty shil- 
lings per annum were not qualified to vote for 
members of parliament by 8 Hen. VI. c. 7, 1429. 
Various acts have been passed for the regulation of 
the franchise at different periods. The more recent 
were, the act to regulate polling, 9 Geo. IV., 1828 ; 
act for the disqualification of freeholders in Ireland, 
which deprived those of forty shillings of this privi- 
lege, passed 13 April, 1829 ; Reform acts, 1832, 
1867, 1868. County elections act, 7 Will. IV., 1836. 
See Chandos Clause. 

FEEE HOSPITAL, EOYAL, Gray's Inn- 
road, founded in 1828 by Dr. William Marsden 
(born Aug. 1796), who actively superintended it till 
his death, 16 Jan. 1867. In 1851, he founded the 
Cancer Hospital (Brompton), which see. Patients 
admitted without letters. In 1878 Mr. Wm. Birks 
Rhodes, "the Hounslow miser," bequeathed to the 
hospital about 39,000/. 

FEEE LABOUE BEGISTEATION 

SOCIETY, established for the benefit, of em- 
ployers and non-unionist workmen, in opposition 
to trades' unions, about July, 1867. 

FEEE LAND LEAGUE, see Zand. 

FEEE LIBEAEIES, see Libraries. 

FEEEMASONEY. Writers on masonry, 
themselves masons, affirm tfcat it has had a being 
" ever since symmetry began, and harmony dis- 
played her charms." It is traced by some to the 
building of Solomon's temple; and it is said the 
architects from the African coast, Mahometans, 
brought it into Spain, about the 9th centuiy. A 
modern speculative cosmopolitan freemasonry with 
some analogies has essential differences from some 
early secret societies, and is not earlier than 
the seventeenth century. In 1717, the grand lodge 
of England was established ; that of Ireland in 
1730; and that of Scotland in 1736. Freemasons 
were excommunicated by the pope in 1738; again 
condemned, 30 Sept. 1865. Freemasons' Hall, 
Great Queen - street, London, built 1771 ; re- 
built, and consecrated 14 April, 1869. Partly 
burnt, 3 May, 1883. The charity instituted, 1788. 
The duke of Sussex and the earl of Zetland 
were each twenty-five years grand-master of Eng- 
land. Earl de Grey, afterwards marquis of Ripon, 
was installed grand-master of the English free- 
masons in room of the earl of Zetland, 14 May, 
1870. The marquis (on becoming a Romanist) re- 
signed 1 Sept. 1874. He was succeeded by the 
prince of Wales; installed in the Royal Albert 
Hall, 28 April, 1875. The duke of Leinster, grand- 
master for Ireland for 60 years, died 10 Oct. 1874 • 
succeeded by the duke of Abercorn. The prince of 
Wales was installed at Edinburgh as patron of tbe 
freemasons of Scotland, 12 Oct. 1870. As grand- 
master past and present of the mark masons, 
London, 8 Dec. 1883. Installed as Grand Master of 
the Grand Lodge, 1 July, 1886. Prince Leopold 
installed as master of the " lodge of antiquity" (at 
one time held by sir Christopher Wren) , 25 June, 
1879. 
Royal Masonic Institutions : for girls (Battersea), 

founded 1788; for boys (Wood Green), 1798; for 

the aged and widows 1842 



FKEE POETS. 



419 



FEENCH EEVOLUTIONS. 



FEEE POETS, see Hanse Towns. 

FEEE STATE, see Orange. 

FEEETHINKEES, professors of natural re- 
ligion ; see JJeists. 

FEEE TEADE principles, advocated by Adam 
Smith in his " Wealth of Nations" (1776), tri- 
nrnphed in England when the corn laws were 
abolished in 1846, and the commercial treaty with 
France was adopted in i860. Richard Cobden, who 
was very instrumental in passing these measures, 
■and termed " Apostle of Free Trade," died 2 April, 
3865. Since 1830 the exports have been tripled. 
'See French Treaty. An agitation for free trade has 
begun in the United States. A reform league was 
formed at Boston, 20 April, 1869; and the move- 
ment became active in New York in Nov., and has 
since continued. A free-trade budget was brought 
in by the ministiy in Sydney in 1873. A new free- 
irade league was inaugurated in London in Dec. 
1873 ; and one at Melbourne, Australia, Sept. 1876. 
Free trade warmly advocated in New South Wales, 
supported in New Zealand; opposed in Canada and 
in Victoria, Australia, 1877-80. Much agitation 
against free-trade in 1880-2. See Anti-Corn Law 
League, and Fair Trade. American Free Trade 
League formed at Detroit, June, 1883. Protection, 
■which sec, dominant in Europe, Feb. 1885 et seq. 

President Cleveland's message strongly urges fiscal 
reform, large reduction of protective duties and other 
taxation 6 Dec. 1887. 

Reform elub at New York to support tariff reform ; first 
banquet 21 Jan. t888. 

Powerful speech of M. Leon Say on behalf of free trade 
in the chamber of deputies, pointing out the dangers 
of retrogression 9 and 11 May, 1891. 

The marquis of Salisbury, in a speech at Hastings, advo- 
cates duties on foreign luxuries r8 May, 1892. 

FEEEZING, see Congelation and Lee. 

"FEEIHEIT," German newspaper. See 
Trials, 18S1. 

FEENCH ASSOCIATION for the ad- 
vancement OF THE SCIENCES was established 
by the general assembly, 22 April, 1872, its chief 
founders being Mil. Balard, Claude Bernard, De- 
launay, Dumas, Pasteur, Berthelot, Wurtz, and 
others. It held its first meeting at Bordeaux, 
5 Sept. 1872, when many foreign scientific men 
were present, M. De Quatrefages, president; second, 
Lyons, 21 Aug. 1873; third, Lille, 20 Aug. 1874; 
fourth, Nantes, 19 Aug. 1875 » fifth, Clermont 
Ferrand, 19 Aug. 1876; sixth, Havre, 30 Aug. 1877; 
seventh, Paris, 22 Aug. 1878 ; eighth, Montpellier, 
28 Aug. 1879; ninth, Rheims, II Aug. 1880; 
tenth, Algiers, 14 April, 1881 ; La Rochelle, 23 
Aug. 1882; Rouen, 17 Aug. 1883; Blois, 3 Sept. 
1884 ; Grenoble, 12 Aug. 1885 ; Nancy, 12 Aug. 
1886 ; Toulouse, 22 Sept. 1887 ; Oran, Algeria, 29 
March, 1888; Paris, 8-14 Aug. 1889; Limoges, 
7-14 Aug. 1890; Marseilles, 17 Sept. 1891 ; 
Pau, 1892; Besanc,on, 1893. 

FEENCH CHUECH, see Church of France. 

FEENCH EXHIBITION, at Earl's Court, 
West Brompton, London, W., was opened by the 
lord mayor Isaacs, 17 May, closed 1 Nov. 1890. 
The exhibition principally consisted of objects which 
appeared in the Universal Exhibition at Paris, 1889. 
It included works of art, manufactures, books, pano- 
ramas of parts of Paris, and a hypodrome. In the 
•" Wild East grounds " appeared Algerian Arabs, with 
their families and steeds ; a chariot drawn by three 
African lions was driven by their owner round the 
arena. 



FEENCH LANGUAGE is mainly based on 
the rude Latin of the western nations subjugated 
by the Romans. German was introduced by the 
Franks in the 8th century. In the 9th the Gallo- 
Romanic dialect became divided into the Langue 
d'oc of the south and the Langue d'oil of the north. 
The dialect of the Isle of France became predomi- 
nant in the 12th century. The French language as 
written by«Froissart assimilates more to the modern 
French, and its development was almost completed 
when the Aeademie Franchise (established by Riche- 
lieu in 1634) published a dictionary of the language 
in 1674. The French language, laws, and customs 
were introduced into England by William I., 1066. 
Law pleadings were changed from French to English 
in the reign of Edward III., 1362. Stoiv. 



PRINCIPAL FEENCH AUTHORS. 

Born Died 



Chanson de 






Roland 


nth century. 


Roman d' 






Alexandre 


12th century. 


R. Wace Ro- 






man de Brut 


12th century. 


Roman de la 






Rose 


12th century. 


Villehardouin 


. 1 160 


1213 


Join vi lie . 


• 122 3 


I 3 I 9 


Froissart 


- 1333 


1410 


Monstrelet about 1390 


*453 


Comines . 


• 1445 


1509 


Marot . 


• 1495 


1544 


Rabelais . 


• 1483 


!553 


Ronsard 


• J 5 2 4 


1585 


Montaigne 


• 1533 


1592 


Baza 


• 1519 


1605 


Malherbe . 


• I55S 


1628 


Des Cartes . 


• 1596 


1650 


Pascal 


• 1623 


1662 


Moliere 


. 1622 


1673 


La Rochefou- 






cauld . 


• 1613 


1680 


Corneille 


. 1606 


1684 


La Fontaine 


. 1621 


!695 


Mad. de Sevigi 


re 1626 


1696 


La Bruyere 


• 1645 


1696 


Racine . 


• 1639 


1699 


Bossuet . 


. 1627 


1704 


Bourdaloue . 


■ 1632 


1704 


Bayle 


• l6 47 


1706 


Flechier 


• 1 <532 


1710 


Boileau . 


• 1636 


1711 


Fenelon 


• 1651 


17*5 


Vertot 


• 1655 


J 735 


Rollin . 


. 1661 


1741 


Massillon . 


. 1663 


1742 


Le Sage 


. 1668 


*747 


Montesquieu 


. 1689 


1755 


Voltaire . 


. 1604 


1778 


■T. J. Rousseau. 1712 


1778 


DAlembert 


• 1717 


1783 


Diderot 


• 1713 


1784 


Buffon . 


• *7°7 


17S8 


Beaumarchais 


• i73 2 


1799 


Marmontel 


• i7 2 3 


1799 


Mad. Cottin 


• 1773 


1807 



'Born 

■ 1738 
• 1737 
. 1766 

■ 1746 

■ J 773 
1793 



I79S 
1780 
1804 



Delille . 
St. Pierre . 
De Stael . . 
De Genlis . 
Sismondi . . 

C. Delavigne . 
Chateaubriand. 
Balzac 

D. F. Arago 
Augustin 

Thierry . . 
Beranger . 
Eugene Sue . . 
Alfred deMusset 1810 
A. Eugene 

Scribe . 1751 

A. de Vigny . 1797 
A. G. De Ba- 

rante . . 1782 
A. F. Villemain 1790 
Victor Cousin . 1792 
A De la Martine 1790 
Sainte Beuve . 1804 
Alexandre 

Dumas . . 1803 
C. F. Montalem- 

bert . .1810 
P. Merimee . 1803 
Theophile 

Gautier . 181 1 
Amedee Thierry 1797 
F. Guizot . . 1787 
Jules Michelet. 1798 

E. Quinet . . 1803 
L. A. Thiers 
Lanfrey . 
Louis Blanc 
L. H. Martin 

hist. . . . 
Victor Hugo 
E. About . 
E. Renan . 
H. A. Taine . 
Erekmann 
Chatrian . , 
Alphonse Karr. 
Octave Feuillet 1812 



Died 
1813 
1814 
1817 

1830 



1799 1850 
1786 1853 



1797 
1828 
1811 

1810 
1802 
182S 
1823 
1828 
1822 
1826 



1856 
1857 
1857 
1857 



1863 

1866 
1867 



1870 

1870 
1870 

1872 
1873 
1874 
1874 

1875 
1877 
1877 



FEENCH NATIONAL SOCIETY, for 

social, commercial, and artistic purposes, founded 
in London 15 Jan. 1881. 

FEENCH NAVY, see Navy. 

FEENCH PEOTESTANT HOSPITAL, 

founded in 1708 to maintain poor descendants of 
French protestant refugees, 40 females, 20 males. 

FEENCH EELIEF FUND, see Mansion- 
house Fund. The French peasant relief fund, 
originated by the Daily News, in Sept. 1870, was 
closed April, 1871. 

FEENCH EEVOLUTIONS, see France. 

1789, 1830, 1848, 1870. 



FRENCH RE VOL Y. CALENDAR. 420 



FROBISHER'S STRAITS. 



FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY CA- 
LENDAR. In 1792, the French nation adopted 
a calendar professedly founded on philosophical 
principles. The first year of the era of the republic 
began at midnight, between 21 and 22 Sept. 1792; 
but its establishment was not decreed until the 
4th Frimaire of the year II., 24 Nov. 1793. The 
calendar existed until the 10th Nivose, year of the 
republic XIV., 31 Dec. 1805, when the Gregorian 
mode of calculation was restored by Napoleon I. 
1800 was not a leap year. 

AUTUMN. 

Vendemiaire . . Vintage month, 22 Sept. to 21 Oct. 
Brumaire . . . Fog month . . 22 Oct. to 20 Nov. 
Frimaire . . . Sleet month . 21 Nov. to 20 Dec. 

WINTER. 

Nivose . . . . Snow month . 21 Dec. to 19 Jan. 
Pluviose . . . Rain month . 20 Jan. to 18 Feb. 
Ventose . . . Wind month . 19 Feb. to 20 Mar. 

SPRING. 

Germinal . . . Sprouts' month, 21 Mar. to 19 April. 
Floreal . . . . Flowers' month, 20 April to 19 May. 
Prairial . . . Pasture month, 20 May to 18 June. 

SUMMER. 

Messidor . . . Harvestmonth, 19 June to 18 July 
Fervidor, or 

Thermidor . . Hot month . . 19 July to 17 Aug. 

Fructidor . . Fruit month . 18 Aug. to 16 Sept. 

SAT5TSCUL0TIDES, OR FEASTS DEDICATED TO 

Les Vertus .... The Virtues . .17 Sept. 

Le Genie . . . . Genius . . . 18 Sept. 

Le Travail .... Labour . . .19 Sept. 

L'Opinion . ... Opinion . . . 20 Sept. 

Les Recompenses . . Rewards . .21 Sept. 

FRENCHTOWN (Canada), was taken from 
the British by the American general Winchester, 
22 Jan. 1813, during the second war with the 
United States of America. It was retaken by the 
British forces under general Proctor, 24 Jan., and 
the American commander and his troops were made 
prisoners. 

FRENCH TREATY, the term given to the 
treaty of commerce between Great Britain and 
France, signed 23 Jan. i860, at Paris, by lord 
Cowley and Richard Cobden and by the ministers 
MM. Baroche and Bouher. The beneficial results 
of this treaty compensated for the depression of 
trade occasioned by the civil war in North America 
(1861-5). The French assembly determined that 
on 15 March, 1871, this treaty should cease in 12 
months from that date. A fresh treaty was signed 
at Paris 29 Jan. 1873. Free trade was somewhat 
restricted, but the new French navigation law was 
relaxed. Negotiations for a new treaty began in 
London, 26 May, 1881. See France, 1881-2. 

FRESCO PAINTINGS are executed on 
plaster while fresh. Very ancient ones exist in 
Egypt, Italy, and England, and modern ones in the 
British houses of parliament, at Berlin, and other 
places. The fresco paintings by Giotto and others 
at the Campo Santo, a cemetery at Pisa, executed 
in the 13th century, are justly celebrated. Sse 
Stereochromy. 

FRESHWATER FISH, see Fish. 

FRETEVAL (Central France). Here Richard 
I. of England defeated Philip II. of France, and 
captured his royal seal, archives, &c, 15 July, 
1 194. Freteval was taken by the Germans, 14 Deo., 
1870, and soon abandoned. 

FRIARS (from the French frere, a brother) ; 
eee Minorites, Carmelites, Dominicans, Franciscans, 
Crutched Friars, and other orders. 

FRIDAY, the sixth day of the week ; so called 
from Friga, or Frea, the Scandinavian Venus, the 



wife of Thor, and goddess of peace, fertility, and 
riches, who with Thor and Odin composed the 
supreme council of the gods. See Good Friday and 
Black Friday. 

FRIEDLAND (Prussia). Here the allied 
Russians and Prussians were beaten by the French,, 
commanded by Napoleon, on 14 June, 1807. The 
allies lost eighty pieces of cannon and about 18,000 
men ; the French about 10,000 men. The peace of 
Tilsit followed, by which Prussia was obliged to 
surrender nearly half her dominions. 

FRIENDLY ISLES, in the Southern Pacific, 
consist of a group of more than 150 islands, form- 
ing an archipelago of very considerable extent. 
These islands were discovered by Tasman, in 1643 - T 
visited by Wallis, who called them Keppel Isles, 
1767 ; and by captain Cook, who named them on 
account of the friendly disposition of the natives, 
1773. Subsequent voyagers describe them as very 
ferocious. 

FRIENDLY SOCIETIES, which originated 
in the clubs of the industrious classes, were sub- 
jected to slight control in 1793, and have been 
regulated by various enactments. Other acts were- 
passed in 1855, 1858 and i860 ; important ones, 
II Aug. 1875, 24 July, 1876, 1882 and 1887. In 
London, the Defoe Friendly Society dates from 
1687; the Norman, 1 703; the Lintot, 1708. 
An example of fraud, credulity, and mismanagement was. 
given on investigation by the registrar-general into the 
affairs of the ' ' Independent Mutual Brethren Friendly 
Society," founded in 1873, and broken up in 18S6- 
Members, 2,225,000 ; capital, about i6,ooo,oooJ. ; re- 
turn, July, 1891. 

FRIENDS, see Quakers, and under Clergy. 

FRIENDS OF THE PEOPLE, an association 
formed in London to obtain parliamentary reform, 
1792. 

FRIESLAND : EAST (N. Germany), the 
ancient Frisia, formerly governed by its own counts. 
On the death of its prince Charles Edward, in 1744, 
it became subject to the king of Prussia; Hanover 
disputed its pos-ession, but Prussia prevailed. It was 
annexed to Holland by Bonaparte, in 1806, to the 
French empire, 1810 ; and awarded to Hanover in 
1815. The English language is said to be mainly 
derived from the old Frisian dialect. — Friesland, 
West, in Holland, was part of Charlemagne's- 
empire in 800. It passed under the counts of 
Holland about 936, and was one of the seven pro- 
vinces which renounced the Spanish yoke in 1580. 
The term Chevaux de Frise (or Cheval de Frise, a 
Friesland Horse) is derived from Friesland, where- 
it was invented. 

FRIULI (Venetia), made a duchy by Alboin 
the Lombard, when he established his kingdom 
about 570. It was conquered by Charlemagne. 
Henri, a Frenchman, made duke, was assassinated 
in 799, which was the fate of duke Berengarius, 
king of Italy and emperor, in 924. The emperor 
Conrad gave the duchy to his chancellor Poppo, 
patriarch of Aquileia, in the nth century ; it was 
conquered by Venice in 1420 ; annexed to Austria, 
1797; to France, 1805; to Austria, 1814; to Italy, 
1866. 

FROBISHER'S STRAITS, discovered by 
sir Martin Frobisher, who tried to find a north- 
west passage to China, and after exploring the coast 
of New Greenland, entered this strait, n Aug. 
1576. He returned to England, bringing with him 
a quantity of black ore, supposed to contain gold, 
which induced queen Elizabeth to patronise a second 
voyage. This led to a third fruitless expedition. 
He was mortally wounded at Brest, Nov. 1594. 



FECEBEL SOCIETY. 



421 



FRUITS. 



FECEBEL SOCIETY, established to promote 
the Kindergarten system {which see), 1874; annual 
meeting, 17 Jan. 1889. 

FEOGMOEE, near Windsor, Berks. A house 
here, built by IS'ash, was the residence of queen 
Charlotte and afterwards of the duchess of Kent. 
Here is situate the mausoleum of the late prince 
consort. See Albert. 

FEOHSDOEF, a village near Vienna, lately the 
a-esidence of the comtedeChambord, seeFrance, 1873. 

FEOJSTDE, CIVIL WARS OF THE, in France, 
in the minority of Louis XIV. (1648-52), during 
the government of queen Anne of Austria and 
■cardinal Mazarin, between the followers of the 
court and the nobility, and the parliament and 
the citizens. The hitter were called Froncleurs 
{slingers), it is said, from an incident in a street 
quarrel. In a riot on 27 Aug. 1648, barricades were 
■erected in Paris. 

FEOSTS. The following are some of the most 
remarkable recorded : (see Gold.) 
The Euxine Sea frozen over for 20 days 401 

A frost at Constantinople, when the two seas there 

were frozen a hundred miles from the shore, 

Oct. 763 — Feb. 764 
A frost in England on Midsummer-day is said to 

have destroyed the fruits of the earth . . . 1035 

Thames frozen for 14 weeks 1063 

Dreadful frosts in England from Nov. to April . 1076 

The Cattegat entirely frozen 1294 

.Baltic passable to travellers for six weeks . . 1323 
The Baltic frozen from Pomerania to Denmark . 1402 
In England, when all the small birds perished . 1407-8 
The ice bore riding upon it from Liibeck to Prussia, 1426 
Severe frost , when large fowl of the air sought 

shelter in the towns of Germany . . . . 1433 
The river frozen below London-bridge to Gravesend, 

from 24 Nov. to Feb. 10 1434 

The Baltic frozen, and horse passengers crossed 

from Denmark to Sweden 1460 

The winter so severe in Flanders that the wine 

distributed was cut by hatchets .... 1468 
Carriages passed over from Lambeth to Westminster 1515 
Wine in Flanders frozen into solid lumps . . . 1544 
Sledges drawn by oxen travelled on the sea from 

Rostock to Denmark 1548 

Diversions on the Thames . . .21 Dec. &c. 1564 
The Scheldt frozen so hard as to sustain loaded 

waggons 1565 

The Rhine, Scheldt, and sea at Venice frozen . . 1594 
Fires and diversions on the Thames . . . . 1607-8 
The rivers of Europe and the Zuyder Zee frozen ; 

ice covers the Hellespont 1622 

Charles X. of Sweden crossed the Little-Belt over 

the ice from Holstein to Denmark, with his whole 

army 1658 

The forest trees, and even the oaks in England, 

split by the frost ; most of the hollies were killed ; 

the Thames covered witli ice eleven inches thick ; 

and nearly all the birds perished, Dec. 1683— Feb. 1684 
" The people kept trades on the Thames as in a 

lair, till 4 Feb. 1684. About forty coaches daily 

plied on the Thames as on drye land. Bought 

this book at a shop upon the ice in the middle of 

the Thames." Entry in the memoranda of a 

Citizen. 
The wolves, driven by the cold, entered Vienna, 

and attacked cattle and men 1691 

Three months' frost, with heavy snow, from Dec. 

to March 1709 
A fair held on the Thames, and oxen roasted ; frost 

continued 24 Nov. to 9 Feb. 1716 

One lasted 9 weeks, when coaches plied upon the 

Thames, and festivities and diversions of all 

kinds were enjoyed upon the ice. (The "hard 

winter") 1740 

From 25 Dec. to 16 Jan. and from 18 to 22 Jan. ; 

most terrible 1766 

One general throughout Europe ; the Thames pass- 
able opposite the Custom House Nov. to Jan. . 1789 
One from 24 Dec. 1794, to 14 Feb. 1795, with the 

intermission of one day's thaw . . 23 Jan. 1795 
Intense frosts ..... all Dec. 1796 



Severe frost in Russia 1812 

Very destructive to the French army in its retreat 
from Moscow. Napoleon commenced his retreat 
on the 9th Nov. The men perished in battalions, 
and the horses fell by hundreds on the roads. 
France lost in the campaign of this year more 
than 400,000 men. 
Booths erected on the Thames ; the winter very 

severe in Ireland 1813-14 

Severe frost (Thames blocked) . 7 Jan.-Feb., 1838 

The frosts so intense in parts of Norway, that 
quicksilver freezes, and persons exposed to the 
atmosphere lose their breath . . 2 Jan. 1849 
Very severe frost in London, 14 Jan. to 24 Feb. ; 

and very cold weather up to 26 June . . . 1855 
On 22 Feb. fires were made on the Serpentine, 
Hyde Park. A traffic on the ice of 35 miles long, 
was established in Lincolnshire ... ,, 

Very severe frost, 20 Dec. i860 ; to . 5 Jan. 1861 

Very severe frosts Dec. 1874 

Long frost with thaws . . 22 Nov. 1879-2 Feb. 1880 
Very severe frost in Britain, begun 18 Jan. lasted 

about 14 days 1881 

Fairs on the Thames recorded, 1564, 1607-8, 1620, 
1683-4 (special), 1688-9,1715-16, 1739-40, 1788-9, 
1813-14. 
A frost in Britain began 25 Nov. 1890, and con- 
tinued with intermissions till . . 22 Jan. 1891 
A trap with a tandem team driven across the Serpen- 
tine . . . . . . . 16 Jan. ,, 

FEOST'S INSUBBECTION, see Newport. 

FEUCTLDOB CONSTITUTION; that 
promulgated in France on the 5th Fructidor, 
year 3, or 22 Aug. 1795. See Directory for 
changes. 

FEUITS. Several varieties introduced into 
Italy, 70 B.C. etscq. Many exotic fruits and flowers, 
previously unknown in England, were brought 
thither between 1500 and 1578, and very many in 
the present century See Gardening, and Flowers. 
A conference of British fruit-growers was held at 
the Crystal Palace, London, 7 Sept. ; association 
formed 11 Oct. 1888. Many donations were made 
to the fund for the encoimigement of fruit-culture, 
founded by the lord mayor and the Fruiterers' 
Company, autumn, 1889. Successful fruit-growing 
reported, Dec. 1890. Many of the following dates 
are uncertain : — 

Almond-tree, Barbary, about 1548 

Apples, Syria 1522 

Apple, custard, N. America 1736 

Apple, osage, ditto 1818 

Apricots, Epirus 154° 

Cherry-trees, Pontus 100 

Cherries, Flanders 1540 

Cornelian cherry, Austria 1596 

Currant, the hawthorn, Canada 1705 

Fig-tree, S. Europe, before .... 1548 

Gooseberries, Flanders,, before 154° 

Grapes, Portugal 1528 

Lemons, Spain I5S4 

Limes, Portugal, about 1554 

Limes, American, before 175 2 

Melons, before i54° 

Mulberry, Italy 1520 

Mulberry, white, China, about .... 1596 

Mulberry, the red, N. America, before . . . 1629 
Mulberry, paper, Japan, before .... 1754 

Nectarine, Persia 1652 

Olive, Cape 173° 

Olive, the sweet-scented China 177 1 

Oranges 1595 

Peaches, Persia 1562 

Pears, uncertain * 

Pine-apple, Brazils 1568 

Pippins, Netherlands i5 2 5 

Plums, Italy 1522 

Pomegranate, Spain, before 1548 

Quince, Austria J 573 

Quince, Japan I79 6 

Raspberry, the Virginian, before 1696 

Strawberry, Flanders '53° 

Strawberry, the Oriental, Levant . • • • '724 
Walnut, the black, N. America, before . . • i6?<» 



FUCHSIA. 



422 



FUTTEHGHUR. 



FUCHSIA, ail American plant named after the 
German botanist Leonard Fuchs, about 1542. The 
Fuchsia fulgens, the most beautiful variety, was 
introduced from Mexico, about 1830. 

FUEL, see Coal, Bogs. In the autumn of 
1873, it was announced that Louis Ravneckers, a 
French peasant, had discovered that earth mixed 
with coal and a little soda made good fuel. 

FUENTES DE ONORO (central Spain). 
On 2 May, 181 1, Massena crossed the Agueda with 
40,000 infantry, 5000 horse, and about 30 pieces of 
artillery, to relieve Almeida. He expected every 
day to be superseded in his command, and wished 
to make a last effort for his own military character. 
"Wellington could muster no more than 32,000 men, 
of which only 1200 were cavalry. He however de- 
termined to fight rather than give up the blockade 
of Almeida. After much lighting, on 3 May, night 
came on and stopped the conflict. Next day Mas- 
sena was joined by Bessieres with a body "of the 
Imperial guard ; and on 5 May, made his grand 
attack. In all the war there was not a more dan- 
gerous hour for England. The tight lasted until 
evening, when the lower part of the town was 
abandoned by both parties— the British maintaining 
the chapel and crags, and the French retiring a 
cannon-shot from the stream. Napier. 

FUESSEN, Bavaria. By a treaty signed here, 
22 April, 1745, peace was made between Maria 
Theresa, queen of Hungary, and the elector of 
Bavaria, the latter renouncing his claim to the 
imperial crown and recovering his lost territories. 

FUGGEE, an illustrious German family (the 
present head, prince Leopold Fugger Babenhausen, 
since 28 May, 1836), derives its" origin from John 
Fugger, a master weaver in Augsburg in 1370; 
and its wealth by trade, and by money-lending to 
monarchs, especially the emperors. 

FUGITIVE OFFENDERS ACT passed, 

27 Aug. 1881. ' 

FUGITIVE SLAVE BILL passed by the 
American legislature in 1850. It imposed a fine of 
IOOO dollars and six months' imprisonment on any 
person harbouring fugitive slaves or aiding in their 
escape. This law was declared to be unconsiitu- 
tional by the judges of the superior court on 3 Feb. 
1855, was carried into effect with great" diffi- 
culty, and was not received by Massachusetts. 
It was repealed 13 June, 1864; see Slavery in 
America. 

FUGITIVE SLAVE CIRCULARS, see 

Slavery. 

FUGUE in Music (in which one part seems to 
chase another), is described in Morley's " Introduc- 
tion to Practieall Mnsicke," 1597. Sebastian Bach 
and Handel were eminent fugue-writers. 

FULDA ("W. Germany), the seat of an abbey, 
founded by St. Boniface, the apostle of Germain, 
in 744. It was made a bishopric in 1752, and'a 
principality in 1803. Napoleon incorporated it with 
Frankfort m 1810; but in 1815 it was ceded to 
Hesse-Cassel. 

FULFORD, Yorkshire. Here Harold Har- 
drada of Norway, and Tostig, brother of Harold of 
England, defeated the eaiis Edwin and Morcar 
20 Sept. 1066 ; and the people near York submitted 
to them ; see Stamford-bridge. 

FULLER CASE, see India, 1876. 

FUMIGATION. Acron, a physician of Agri- 
gentum, is said to have first caused great fires to 
be lighted and aromatics to be thrown into them 



to purify the air, and thus to have stopped the 
plague at Athens and other places in Greece, about 
473 B-c 

FUNDS, see Stocks, and Sinking Fund, and 
Foreign Bondholders. 

FUNERALS. David lamented over Saul and 
Jonathan, 1056 B.C., and over Abner, 1048 B.C. 
2 Sam. i. and iii. In Greece, Solon was the first 
who pronounced a funeral oration, according to 
Herodotus, 580 B.C. The Bomans pronounced 
harangues over their illustrious dead. Theopompus- 
obtained a prize for the best Funeral Oration in 
praise of Mausolus, 353 B.C. Popilia was the first 
Roman lady who had an oration pronounced at her 
funeral, which was done by her son, Crassus ; and 
it is observed by Cicero that Julius Caesar did. the- 
like for his aunt Julia and his wife Cornelia. — 
Funeral Games, among the Greeks and Romans- 
included horse-races, dramatic representations, pro- 
cessions, and mortal combats of gladiators. These 
games were abolished by the emperor Claudius,. 
a.d. 47. A tax was laid on funerals in England, 
1793- 

Church of England Funeral and Mourning Eeform 
Association, founded at Sheffield, by earl Nelson 

and others 5 Oct. 187S 

See Burials and Windsor. 

Public Funerals voted by parliament : — 

Duke of Rutland, in Ireland . . .17 Nov. 1787 

Lord Nelson (see Nelson) . . . .9 Jan. 1806 

Win. Pitt 22 Feb. „ 

Chas. Jas. Fox 10 Oct. ,, 

Richard Brinsley Sheridan . . .13 July, 181& 

George Canning 16 Aug. 1827' 

Duke of Wellington 18 Nov. 1852 

Viscount Palmerston (at her majesty's request), 

27 Oct. 1865 

Lord Napier of Magdala (by order) . 21 Jan. 1890 

FURNACE, see Blowing-machines, Iron. 

FURNITURE. Specimens of Egyptian fur- 
niture, represented on the interior walls of the 
pyramids, appear in Bosellini's " Monumenti dell' 
Fyitto," 1832-44, Vol. II. Mr. J. G. Pollen's- 
" Ancient and Modern Furniture and "Woodwork "■ 
in the South Kensington museum, 1874, illus- 
trated by photographs and engravings, was pub- 
lished, July, 1874. Many interesting examples- 
will be found in Fosbroke's " Encyclopedia of 
Antiquities" Vol. I. 1825. 

FURRUCKABAD (N. India), a province ac- 
quired by the East India company, in June, 1802. - 
Near the capital of the same name, 17 Nov. 1804, 
lord Lake defeated the Maharatta chief Holkar, and 
about 60,000 cavalry, himself losing 2 killed and 
about 20 wounded. 

FURS were worn by Henry I. about 1 125. 
Edward III. enacted that all persons who could not 
spend joo£. a year should be prohibited this species 
of finery, 28 March, 1336-7, 

FUSILIERS. Foot soldiers, formerly armed 
with fusees with slings to sling them. The 7th. 
regiment (or Royal English Fusiliers) was raised, 
II June, 1685; the 21st (or Royal North British), 
23 Sept. 1679; the 23rd (or Royal Welsh), 17 March, 
1688. Grose. 

FUSION of the French legitimists and Or- 
leanists into one monarchical party, 5 Aug. 1873. 
See France. 

FUTTEHGHUR (India). Here Nana Sahib 
massacred both the English defenders of the fort and 
their Sepoy assailants, July, 1857 ; and here the 
Sepoy rebel's weie defeated by sir Colin Campbell, 
7. Jan. 1858. 



G. 



GABELLE. 



GALLEYS. 



GABELLE (from Gabe, a gift), a term applied 
to various taxes, but afterwards restricted to the 
duty upon salt, first imposed by Philip the Fair on 
the French in 1286. Duruy. Uur Edward III. 
termed Philip of Valois, who exacted the tax 
rigorously, the author of the Salic law (from sal, 
salt), 1340. The assessments were unequal, being 
very heavy in some provinces and light in others ; 
owing to exemptions purchased from the sovereigns. 
The tax produced 38 millions of francs in the reign 
of Louis XVI. It was a giievous burden, and 
tended to hasten the revolution, during which it 
was abolished (1790). 

GADES, S.W. Spain, an anc'ent town suc- 
cessively subjected by the Phoenicians, Carthagi- 
nians, and Romans ; see Cadiz. 

GAELIC, the northern branch of the Celtic 
languages, Irish, Erse or Highland Scottish, and 
Manx. The "Dean of Lismore's book" (written 
1511-51) contains Gaelic poetry; specimens were 
published, with translations, in 1862, by rev. T. 
M'Lachlan. See Celts, Clan-na-gael. 

Gaelic Society 0/ London, founded 1777. 

Gaelic speaking population of Scotland, 1881, 231,602. 

The Gaelic Union, organised in Ireland, proposed the 

publication of a monthly journal, to be devoted to 

Irish literature, 1 Nov. 1882. 
A Gaelic athletic association existing in Ireland ; 

said to be infected with fenianism . . Dec. 1887 

GAETA (the ancient Cajeta), a fortified Nea- 
politan seaport, has undergone several remarkable 
sieges. It was taken by the French, 4 Jan. 1799; 
by the English, 31 Oct. T799; by the French, 
18 July, 1806; and by the Austriaus in 1815 and 
182 1. . Here pope Pius IX. took refuge, 24 Nov. 
1848, and resided more than a year. Here also 
Francis II. of Naples, with his queen and court, 
fled, when Garibaldi entered Naples, 7 Sept. i860; 
and here he remained till the city was taken by 
the Sardinian general Cialdini, 13 Feb. 1861, after 
a severe siege, uselessly prolonged by a French fleet 
remaining in the harbour. Cialdini was created 
duke of Gaeta. 

GAGGING ACT, properly so called, meant 
to protect the king and government from the 
harangues of seditious meetings, was enacted 8 Dec. 
1 795» when the popular mind was much excited. 
In Dec. 1819, soon after the Manchester affray, an 
act was parsed for restraining public meetings and 
cheap periodical publications; it was popularly called 
"gagging bill." See Six Acts. Statutes coerc- 
ing popular assemblies, particularly in Ireland, have 
been also so designated. See Germany, 1879. 

GAIETY THEATRE, Strand, opened 21 Dec. 
1808, Mr. John Hollingshead, manager. 

GAIKAS AND GALEKAS, see Kaffraria. 

GALAPAGOS, islands ceried to the United 
States by Ecuador, 3 Nov. 1854, the British, French, 
and other powers protesting against it. 

GALATIA, a province of Asia Minor. In the 
3rd century B.C. the Gauls under Brennus invaded 
Greece, crossed the Hellespont, and conquered the 
Troas, 278 ; were checked by Attalus I. in a battle 



about 241 ; and then settled in what was called 
afterwards GallograDcia and Galatia. The country 
was ravaged by Cneius Manlius, 189 B.C., and was 
finally annexed to the Roman empire, 25 B.C., on 
the death of the king Amyntas. Paul's Epistle to 
the Galatians was probably written a.d. 58. 

GALATZ (Moravia). The preliminaries of 
peace between Russia and Turkey signed here, 
II Aug. 1791, led to the treaty of Jassy, 9 Jan. 
1792. The site of several conflicts, in which the 
Russians defeated the Turks, Nov. 1769; 10 May, 
1828. 

GALAXY, see Milky Way. 

G ALICIA, a province, N.Vf. Spam, was con- 
quered by D. Junius Brutus, 136 B.C. and by the 
Vandals a.d. 419; and was subdued by successive 
invaders. In 1065, on the death of Ferdinand I. 
king of Castile and Leon, when his dominions were 
divided, his son Garcia became king of Galicia. 
Ruling tyrannically, he was expelled by his brother 
Sancho ; returned at his death in 1072 ; was again 
expelled by his brother Alfonso, 1073 > an( ^ died im- 
prison in 1091. Alfonso, son of Urraca, queen of 
Castile, was made king of Galicia by her in 1109. 
He defended his mother, a dissolute woman, against 
her husband, Alfonso VIL, and at her death in 
1 126, acquired Castile, and once more re-united the 
kingdoms. 

GALICIA, Poland. East Galicia was acquired 
by the emperor of Germany at the partition 
in 1772; and West Galicia at that of 1795. 
The latter was ceded to the grand duchy of Warsaw 
in 1809; but recovered by Austria in 1815. The- 
appointment of count Goluchowski, a Pole, as 
governor, in Oct. 1866, gave much satisfaction to 
the Poles, about 2,000,000 in this province ; see 
Poland, note. 

Stry, a prosperous town, destroyed by fire ; loss of life 
and great privation, 18 April ; above 100 deaths 
reported, 22 April, 1886. 

Lisko (about 7,000 inhabitants) burnt, 27-28 April, 1886. 

For emigration frauds, see Austria, March, 1890. 

G ALIGN ANT S WEEKLY MESSEN- 
GER, English newspaper, published in Paris ; 
began in 1814, at the restoration. William Galig- 
nani died Dec. 1882, aged 84. 

GALL, ST. (in Switzerland). The abbey, 
founded in the 7th century, was surrounded by a 
town in the 10th. St. Gall became a canton of the 
confederation in 1815. 

GALLERIES, see National, Louvre, and 
Vemailles. 

GALLEYS, long boats, sometimes with sails, 
with seats for rowers, varj ing in number, much 
employed by the Venetians and Genoese till the 
16th century. "Galley slaves" were condemned 
criminals employed in navigation. In France they 
had a general of galleys, of whom the baron de la 
Garde was the first, 1544. The punishment of the 
galleys (aalires) was superseded by the " travaux 
forces," forced labour, regulated by a law of 1854, 
the men being called "forgats." 



GALLICAN CHUECH. 



424 



GANGES. 



GALLICAN CHUECH, see Church of 
France. 

A building for the Catholic Gallican church, was opened 
by father Hyacinthe Loyson, 9 Feb. 1879. 

GALLIPOLI, the ancient Callipolis, a sea- 
port in Turkey in Europe, 128 miles west of Con- 
stantinople. It was taken by the Turks in 1357, 
and fortified by Bajazet I. The first division of the 
French and English armies proceeding against the 
Eussians landed here in March and April, 1854. 

GALLIUM, new elementary metal, discovered 
by Lecoq de Boisbaudran, by means of the spectro- 
scope : reported to French academy of sciences, 
20 Sept., and 6 Dec. 1875. 

GALOCHES, French for overshoes, formerly 
of leather ; but since 1843 made of vulcanised India 
rubber. The importation of Galoshes was prohibited 
by 3 Edw. IV. c. 4 (1463). 

GALVANISM and GALVANOPLAS- 

TICS, see under Electricity. 

GALWAY (W. Ireland). The ancient settlers 
'here were divided into thirteen tribes, a distinction 
:not yet forgotten. It was conquered by Richard de 
Burgo in 1232. In 1690 Gal way city declared for 
king James, but was taken by general Ginckel soon 
after the decisive battle of Aughrim, 12 July, 1691. 
Here is one of the new colleges, endowed by 
government, pursuant to act 8 & 9 Vict. c. 66 
(1845), inaugurated, 30 Oct. 1849, see Colleges and 
Ireland, 1872-3. 

In 1858 the sailing of mail steam packets from Galway to 
America began ; but the subsidy ceased in May, 1861, 
.through the company's breach of contract, which 
'■occasioned much discussion in parliament. In July, 
1863, the contract for the conveyance of mails from 
Galway to America was renewed, and 75,000^ voted for 
the purpose. The scheme was not successful. On 9 
Nov. the steamer Anglia struck on the Black rock, and 
the mails were taken to Dublin. The last packet sailed 
in Feb. 1864. 
The Duke of Edinburgh warmly received here, middle 
of Aug. 1884. 

; GAMBIA, West Africa. The proposed ces- 
sion of Gambia to France in exchange for other 
territories was opposed in Jan. 1876, and eventually- 
given up. Administrator, R. B. Llewelyn (1891). 
Gambia separated from Sierra Leone and made an 

independent colony, 22 Dec. 1888. 
Chief town, Bathurst. Some villages of a marauding 

chief punished for aggressions, about 7 Jan. 1892. 
Toniataba destroyed after a battle ; capt. A. S. Roberts 
killed, 28 April ; successful British expedition, re- 
ported 11 May, 1892. 

GAMBOGE, a medicine and pigment, brought 
from India by the Dutch, about 1600. Hermann 
in 1677 announced that it was derived from two 
trees of Ceylon, since ascertained to belong to the 
order Guttifera. 

G AME LAWS are a remnant of the forest 
laws imposed by William the Conqueror, who, to 
preserve his gamp, made it forfeiture of property 
to disable a wild beast, and loss of eyes, for a stag, 
buck, or boar. The clergy protested against amelio- 
rations of these laws, under Henry III. The first 
game act passed in 1496. Game certificates were 
first granted with a duty in 1784. The Game act 
(1 & 2 Will. IV. c. 32), greatly modifying all pre- 
vious laws, was passed in 183 1. By it the sale of 
game is legalised at certain seasons. By the Game 
Poaching Preventive act, passed in 1862, greatly 
increased powers were given to the couuty police. 
Licences to kill game (3/. a year) granted for the 
year 1856-7, 28,950; for 1865-6, 43,231; for 1869, 



54,203 ; received for licences, 1877-8, 196,352/. ; 

1883-4, 177,834^. ; 1887-8, 179, 143/. Convictions 

under the game laws in 1869, 10,345. 

Motions for abolition made annually in commons 
by Mr. P. Taylor, lost (160-87) . . 2 March, 1880 

The Ground Game act, to protect farmers from in- 
jury to crops, 43 <fc 44 Vict. c. 47, passed 7 Sept. ,, 

Proposed reduction of licence to shoot game to xl. 
for short periods April, 1883 

A gaming act relating to hares was passed in . . 1892. 

GAMES. Candidates for athletic games in 
Greece were dieted on new cheese, driea figs, and 
boiled grain, with warm water, and no meat. The 
sports were leaping, foot-races, quoits, wrestling, 
and boxing ; see Capitoline, Isthmian, Olympic, 
Pythian, Secular Games, American Baseball, &c. 
Gaming was introduced into England by the Saxons; 
the loser was often made a slave to the winner, and 
sold in traffic like other merchandise. Camden. 
Act prohibiting gaming to all gentlemen (and inter- 
dicting tennis, cards, dice, bowls, &c. , to inferior 
people, except at Christmas time) ... 1541 

Gaming-houses licensed in London . . . . 1620 
Any person losing, by betting or playing, more than 
100L at any one time, not compellable to pay the 

same, 16 Chas. II 1663 

Bonds or other securities given for money won at 
play not recoverable ; and any person losing more 
than 10/. may sue the winner to recover it back, 

9 Anne, c. 14 1710 

Act to prevent excessive and fraudulent gaming, 
when all private lotteries and the games of faro, 
basset, and hazard were suppressed . . . 1739 
The profits of a gaming-house in London for one 
season have been estimated at 150,000^. In one 
night a million of money is said to have changed 
hands at this place. Leigh. A bankrupt was 
refused his certificate because he had lost 5/. at 
one time in gaming .... 17 July, 1788 
Three ladies of quality convicted in penalties of 

50L each for playing at faro . . March 11, 1797 
Gaming-houses were licensed in Paris until . . 1838 
Amended laws respecting games and wagers, 8 & 9 
Vict. c. 109(1845); by 3 Geo. IV. c. 114 (1822), a 
gaming-house keeper is to be imprisoned with 
hard labour ; and by 2 & 3 Vict. c. 47, gaming- 
houses may be entered by the police, and all per- 
sons present taken into custody . . . . 1839 

Betting-houses suppressed 1853 

Public gaming-tables totally suppressed at Wies- 
baden, Homburg, &c. See Monaco . 31 Dec. 1S72 
Mr. Jenks, proprietor of the Park Club house, and 
others, heavily fined for gambling, 7 Feb. ; sen- 
tence confirmed .... 24 June, 1884 
The clock tower club and institute, Newington 
Butts, a bad gambling house suppressed ; John 
James Hunt, the proprietor, sentenced to six 
months' penal servitude ... 23 Sept. 1887 
The proprietors of the Field Club (Mr. Seaton) and 
of the Adelphi Club (Mr. S. C. Cohen) fined each 
500Z. for keeping a gambling house, London, W., 
the subordinates fined ; the players discharged 

20 & 23 May, 1889 
Similar prosecutions and penalties . . 1889-92 
National anti-gambling league begins work in 
Glasgow . • April, 1891 

GAMUT. The scale of musical intervals (com- 
monly termed do or ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la, to which 
si was added afterwards), for which the first seven 
letters of the alphabet are now employed, is men- 
tioned by Guido Aretino, a Tuscan monk, about 
1025. 

GANDAMAK (orGuNDAMTIK),N. India. A 
treaty with Yakoob Khan, ameer of Afghanistan, 
was signed here by major Cavagnari, 26 May, 1879, 
principal articles, British to hold Khyber Pass, &c. 
a British Resident to be at Cabul, annual subsidy 
of 60,000/. to the ameer, &c. The treaty was not 
carried out, see Afghanistan, Sept. 1879. 

GANGES, the great sacred river of N. India, 
which rises in the S. Himalayas, receives several 



GANGS. 



425 



GAS. 



great rivers, divides into several brandies, ending in 
the Bay of Bengal. The Ganges Canal, for irrigating 
the country between the Ganges and ihe Jumna. 
The main line (525 miles long) was opened 8 April, 
1854. The immense ditricu.ties in its execution 
were overcome by the skill and perseverance of its 
engineer, sir Proby Cautley. In Oct. 1864, sir 
Arthur Cotton asserted that the work was badly 
done, and the investment only paid 3 per cent. 

GANGS, see Agricultural Gangs. 

GAOL DISTEMPEE, see Old Bailey. 

GAOLS, see Prisons. 

GAEDENEES' CHEONICLE, a weekly 
paper, long edited by Dr. John Lindley, first ap- 
peared, 2 Jan. 1841. 

GAEDENING. The first garden, Eden, 
planted by God. Gen. ii. The Scriptures abound 
with allusions to gardens, particularly the Song of 
Solomon and the prophets ; and Christ's agony took 
place in a garden. Xenophon describes the gardens 
at Sardis; and Epicurus and Plato taught in gardens. 
Theophrastus's History of Plants was written about 
322 B.C. Horace, Virgil, and Ovid derive many 
images from the garden (50 B.C. to a.d. 50) ; and 
Pliny's Tusculan villa is circumstantially described 
(about a.d. 100). The Romans introduced garden- 
ing into Britain, the religious orders maintained it, 
and its cultivation increased in the 16th century, 
when many Flemings came here to escape the per- 
secutions of Philip II. Miller's dictionary was pub- 
lished in 1724; the Horticultural Society {which 
see) was established in 1804; Loudon's Encyclo- 
paedia of Gardening was first published in 1822, and 
liis Encyclopaedia of Plants in 1829; an act for the 
protection of gardens and ornamental grounds in 
cities was passed in 1863. See Botany, Flowers, 
Fruits. Gardeners' Eoyal Benevolent Institution, 
founded 1838. 

GAEIGLIANO, a river (S. W. Italy). After 
long waiting and refusing to recede a step, the great 
captain Gonsalvo de Cordova made a bridge over 
this river, 27 Dec. 1503, and surprised and totally 
defeated the French army. Gaeta surrendered a 
few days after. 

GAEOTTE, a machine for strangling criminals, 
used in Spain. After five years' interval, a young 
woman, her lover, and an accomplice thus executed 
in Madrid for murder, 11 April, 1888. Many at- 
tempts to strangle made by thieves (termed 
" garotters,") in the winter of 1862-3, l eu " to the 
passing of an act in July, 1863, termed the "Ga- 
rotting Act," to punish these acts by flogging, which 
proved effectual. 

GAETEE, Order of tiie. Edward III., 

when at war with France and eager to draw the 
be~t soldiers of Europe into his interest, projected the 
revival of king Arthur's round table, and proclaimed 
a solemn tilting. On New Year's day 1343-4, ne 
published letters of protection for the safe coining 
and returning of such foreign knights as would 
venture their reputation at the jousts and tourna- 
ments about to be held. These took place 23rd 
April, 1344. A table was erected in Windsor castle 
of 200 feet diameter, and the knights were enter- 
tained at the king's expense. In 1346 Edwaid gave 
his garter for the signal of a battle that had been 
crowned with success (supposed to be Cressy), and 
being victorious on sea and land, and having David, 
king of Scotland, a prisoner, he, in memory of these 
exploits, is said to have instituted this order, 23 
April, 1340. See below. 



Edward III. gave the garter pre-eminence among 
the ensigns of the order ; it is of blue velvet bor- 
dered with gold, with the inscription in old 
French — " Hpni soit qui mnl y pense " (Evil be to 
him who evil thinks) The knights are installed 
at Windsor, and styled Equites av/rece Periscelidis, 
knights of the golden garter. Beatson. 
The order until king Edward VI. 's time was called 
the order of St. George, the patron saint of 
England. His figure on horseback, presented as 
holding a spear, and killing the dragon, was first 
worn by the knights of the institution. It is sus- 
pended by a blue ribbon across the body from the 

shoulder. 

Instituted, according to Selden, 23 April, 1344 ; 

aceoi ding to Nicolas, 1347; to Ashmole . . 1349 

The office of " Garter king of arms of Englishmen" 

instituted . . . between May and July, 1417 
Additions to the statutes decreed . . . 1421, 1423 
Order of the Garter in Ireland instituted by 

Edward IV. , 1466; abolished ... . 1494 

Collar and George of the order instituted by 

Henry VII about 1497 

The statutes reformed by order, 28 May, 1519; 

issued 23 April, 1522 

The ceremonies altered in consequence of the 

reformation 20 April, 1548 

Revision of the statutes 1560 

The annual feast of St. George discontinued . . 1567 
The escocheon converted into a star . . . 1629 
The number of knights increased by seven . . 1786 

The order reconstituted ; to consist of the sovereign, 
the prince of Wales, 25 knights companions, and 
lineal descendants of George III. , when elected, 

17 Jan. 1805 
Several European sovereigns elected . . . 1813-14 
Abdul Aziz, sultan of Turkey, invested with the 
garter by the queen on board her yacht at the 

naval review 17 July, 1867 

The shah of Persia invested by the queen at Wind- 
sor 20 June, 1873 

Alphonso XII. of Spain invested with the order at 
Madrid 11 Oct. 1881 

ORIGINAL KNIGHTS. 

King Edward III. , sovereign. 

Edward, prince of Wales (called the Black Prince). 

Henry, duke of Lancaster. 

Thomas, earl of Warwick. 

John, captal de Buch. 

Ralph, earl of Stafford. 

William, earl of Salisbury. 

Roger, earl of Mortimer. 

Sir John Lisle. 

Bartholomew, lord Burghershe 

John, lord Beauchamp. 

John, lord Mohun, of Dunster. 

Sir Hugh Courtenay. 

Thomas, earl of Kent. 

John, lord Grey, of Rotherfield. 

Sir Richard Fitz-Simon. 

Sir Miles Stapleton. 

Sir Thomas Wale. 

•Sir Hugh Wrottesley. 

Sir Nele Loryng. 

Sir John Chandos. 

Sir James Audeley. 

SirOtho Holand." 

Sir Henry Earn. 

Sir Sanchet d'Abrichecourt. 

Sir Walter Paveley. 

GAS, in chemistry, a permanently elastic aeri- 
form fluid; see Oxygen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Chlo- 
rine, &c. 

It is stated that Monge and Clouet condensed sul- 
phurous acid before 1800, and Northmore lique- 
fied chlorine 1S05 

Faraday determined a gas to be the vapour of a 
volatile liquid existing at a temperature consider- 
ably above the boiling point of the liquid ; and 
that the condensing points of different gases are 
merely the boiling points of the liquids producing 
them ; he by pressure condensed chlorine gas into 

a liquid 1823 

Other gases liquefied by intense cold and great 
pressure (as indicated by Faraday) ; oxygen by 



GASUONY 



426 



GATESHEAD. 



Cailletet, at Paris, 2 Dec, and independently by 
Raoul Pictet at Geneva . . . .22 Dec. 1877 

Nitrogen, hydrogen, and atmospheric air, liquefied 
by Cailletet, soon after 1877-8 

The process exhibited at the Royal Institution, 
London, by prof. James Dewar . 14 June, 1878 

Ozone liquefied by Hautefeuille and Chappuis, Paris, 

Oct. 1880 

Liquefied gases used by Krupp in casting guns, &c. 1884 

See Giffard's gun, in article Cannon.. 

Prof. Thos. Graham's paper on the law of the 
diffusion of gases appeared, 1834 ; he showed that 
platinum and other metals can absorb gases . . 1866 

Furnaces in which gases are used as fuel invented by 
C. W. Siemens, and employed in glass works, &c. 1861 

Gas engines. Barnett patented a plan for em- 
ploying heated gas as a motive power . . . 1838 

Lenoir's gas-engine, in which the motive power is 
obtained by the ignition of combined gases by 
electricity 1861 

143 of these engines had been working in Paris ; 
and introduced into England . . . Deo. 1864 

Pierre Hugon's gas-engine (said to be superior to 
Lenoir's, 1S71) exhibited 1867 

The Otto-Langen gas engine, exhibited in 1876, lias 
been superseded by the Otto Silent Gas Engine. 

Gas engines have been greatly improved by Messrs. 
Crossley Bros., and are now so largely employed 
that sir F. Bramweil foretold their eventually 
superseding steam engines ... 5 Sept. t8S8 

Mr. Purnell's gas engine, of simple construction, 
driven by a mixture of gas and air, exhibited at 
"Webber Street, S.E Jan. 1890 

Katural gas rising from the ground largely em- 
ployed as fuel at Pittsburg, U.S. &c, 1884 et seq., 
long known to the Persians, Chinese, and others. 

GASCONY (S. W. France), a duchy, part of 
Aquitaine {which see). 

GAS INSTITUTE. _ The name assumed, 16 
June, 1881, by the British Association of Gas 
Managers, founded in 1863 for the advancing of gas 
engineering. 

GAS-LIGHTS; theinflammable aeriform fluid, 
earburetted hydrogen, evolved by the combu.-tion of 
coal, was described by Dr. Clayton in 1739. 

Application of coal gas to the purposes of illumina- 
tion tried by Mr. Murdoch, in Cornwall . . . 1792 

Gaslight introduced at Boulton and Watt's foundry 
in Birmingham 1798 

Lyceum Theatre lit with gas as an experiment by 
Mr. Winsor 1803 

Permanently used at the cotton-mills of Phillips 
and Lee, Manchester (1000 burners lighted) . 1805 

Introduced in London, at Golden-lane, 16 Aug. 
1807; Pall Mall, 1809 ; generally through LondoruSi4-2o 

Mr. David Pollock, father of the late chief baron, 
was governor of the first " chartered" gas com- 
pany which began in 1810 (called " the gas light 
and coke company.") 1812 

Gas first used in Dublin, 1818 ; the streets generally 
lighted Oct. 1825 

Gas-lighting introduced in Paris, 1819 ; ten gas 
companies in Paris .... July, 1865 

Sydney, in Australia, was lit witli gas 25 May, 1841 

The sale of gas is regulated by acts passed in . . i8to 

The gas-pipes in and round London extend upwards 
of 2000 miles, and are daily increasing. It was 
said in i860, that of the gas supply of London a 
leakage of 9 per cent, took place through the 
faulty .joints of the pipes. 

Processes to obtain illuminating gas from water 
have been patented by Cruickshanks (1839), White 
(1849), ana others. Water-gas made by Buck's 
process mixed with ordinary gas tried and re- 
ported successful at Chichester, Aug. 1873 ; at 
Harrogate Aug. 1890 

Water-gas employed in metallurgy by Mr. Samson 
Fox at Leeds, reported .... Sept. „ 

A combination of various processes set up by Mr. 
Samson Fox at the Leeds forge works 29 Sept. 
1887, and reported successful . . . Jan. 1889 

Gas-meters patented by John Malam (1820), sir W. 
Congreve (1824), Samuel Clegg (1830), Nathan 
Defries (1838), and others 



Explosion of a large gasometer at the London Gas- 
light Company's works at Nine-elms ; 10 persons 
killed, and many injured (first accident of the 
kind) 31 Oct. 1863 

Moscow first lit with gas ... 27 Dee. 1866 

An economical gas produced from bitumen at 
Woolwich arsenal Jan. 1868 

Central Gas Company, London, established . . 1S49 

Gas successfully tried as fuel for the generation of 
steam by Jackson's patent . . . April, 1868 

The Central Gas company robbed of about 70,000?. 
by Benjamin Higgs, a clerk ; discovered, April, 1869 

Gas-light tried at Howth lighthouse, near Dublin, 

July, „ 

Gasworks clauses act passed . . 13 July, 1871 

By the London gas act, passed 13 July, 1868, ordi- 
nary gas charged 3s. gel. the 1000 cubic feet, after 
1 Jan. 1870. The charges raised on account of 
dearness of coal and labour, Jan. 1874 

Strike of London gas-stokers, 2400 out, 2 Dec. ; the 
inconvenience met by great exertion, 2-6 Dec. ; 
several tried and imprisoned . . . Dec. 1872 

Gas supply of London : receipts 1872, 2,133,000?. ; 
1873, 2,544,000?. 

Capital of metropolitan companies, 12,681,818?. 
("Chartered Company," 9,096,771?.); total annual 
income, 3,926,769?. (average profit, 9?. 3s. 51?. per 
cent.) J 879 

Street gas lit by electricity, by Mr. St. G. Lane 
Fox's method ; a trial, partially successful, Pall 
Mail, &c 13 April, 1878 

Depression in gas companies through prospects of 
electric light, Oct. 1878 ; recovery . . . 1879-80 

Explosions of gas-mains near Bedford-street, Totten- 
ham-eourt-road, London ; 2 killed ; others in- 
jured ; much property destroyed . . 5 July, 1880 

"Koh-i-noor Gas," produced from shale oil by 
Messrs. Rogers, of Watford, (said to be pure 
and cheap) 1881-3 

Mr. West's and Mr. Cooper's inventions for the 
economical production of pure coal gas, with 
reduction of human labour, at Tunbridge wells 
gasworks Jan. et seq. 1884 

The Bower-lamp, a combination of the Grimstone 
patents, on the regenerative principle, (the pro- 
ducts of combustion being burned), invented by 
Messrs. G. Bower and son, St. Neots, Hunts . i884 

Mr. Lawrence's gas economizer, professing to 
increase light and diminish expense, exhibited 
by a company 29 Nov. 1888 

Strikes of gas-stokers in Southwark and Manchester 
successfully resisted . . . .12 Dec. 1889 
See Strikes, Feb. 1890. 

The London Gas Light and Coke Company (which 
illuminates the metropolis the north of the 
Thames) makes great preparations against a pos- 
sible strike. A conference with the Union ; no 
strike or lockout ensues .... 3 Oct. 1890 

GAS MUSIC, see PyropJwne. 

GASTEIN (Salzburg, Austria). The long dis- 
cussion between Austria and Prussia respecting the 
disposal of the duchies conquered from Denmark, 
was closed by a provisional convention signed here 
by their ministers (Blum for Austria and Bismarck 
for Prussia) 14 Aug. 1865. This convention was 
severely censured by the other powei's and abrogated 
in 1866. 

Austria was to have the temporary government of Hol- 
stein, and Prussia that of Sleswig ; the establishment 
of a German fleet was proposed, with Kiel as a Federal 
harbour, held by Prussia ; Lauenburg was absolutely 
ceded to Prussia, and the king was to pay Austria as a 
compensation 2,500,000 Danish dollai-s. 
Emperors of Austria arid Germany met at Gastein 

Aug. 1886 
GATE-MEETINGS, see Races. 

GATES, see London Gates. 

GATESHEAD, a borough in Durham, on the 
Tyne, opposite Newcastle. At Gateshead-fell, 
William I. defeated Edgar Atheling and his Scotch 
auxiliaries in 1068. Gateshead was made a par- 
liamentary borough by the reform act in 1832. Re- 



GATLING GUN. 



427 



GEMS. 



turns one member (1885). Population, i88r, 
65,803; 1891,85,709. 

Between twelve and one o'clock, 5, 6 Oct. 1854, a fire 
broke out in a worsted manufactory here, which set 
flre to a bond warehouse containing a great quantity of 
nitre, sulphur, &c. , causing a terrific explosion, felt at 
nearly twenty miles' distance, and totally destroying 
many buildings, and burying many persons in the 
ruins. At the moment of the explosion, large masses 
of blazing materials flew over the Tyne and set fire to 
many warehouses in Newcastle. About fifty lives were 
lost, and very many persons were seriously wounded. 
The damage was estimated at about a million pounds. 

Collapse of chemical condensers through tire at the Friar 
Goose chemical works, on the Tyne, near Gateshead ; 
seven men killed, 26 July, 1891. Estimated loss 
about 10,000/. 

At the Theatre Royal, by a panic caused by an alarm of 
fire, 11 persons, chiefly young, are crushed to death ; 
the exit from the gallery was insufficient, 26 Dec. 1891. 

GATLING GUN ox BATTERY. An 

American invention exhibited at Paris in 1867. It 
is intended to discharge at once a number of pro- 
jectiles smaller than the shells of field guns, and it 
has as many locks as barrel-. It was tried at Shoe- 
buryness and rejected as inferior to a field gun firing 
shrapnel. A powder to be used in the Gatling. in- 
vented by 11. Pertuiset, was tried in Loudon, 
Aug. 1870. 

GAUGAMELA, see Arbela. 

GAUGES (in railways). Much discussion 
(termed '"the battle of the gauges") began among 
engineers about 1833. Mr. I. M. Brunei approved 
of the broad gauge, adopted on the Great Western 
Railway ; and Ai r. K. Stephenson, Joseph Locke, 
and others, chose the narrow*. A 2 foot gauge 
was recommended in Feb. 1870, having Leon 
successful on the Festiniog railway, Wales ; 
■with Robt. Fairlie's ''bogie" engine was much 
adopted at home and abroad. About 2CO miles of 
the S.W. lines of the Great Western were altered 
from the broad to the narrow gauge in a few days, 
June, 1874, and on 20-23 May, 1892, the broad 
gauge was totally superseded on the Great Western. 

GAUGING, -measuring I he contents of any 
vessel of capacity, with lespectto wine and other 
liquids, was established by a law, 27Edw. III. 1352. 

GAUL AND GAULS. Gallia, the ancient 
name of France and Belgium. The Gauls termed 
by the Greeks Galatie, by the-Romans, Galli or 
Celtse, came originally from Asia, and invading 
Eastern Europe, were driven westward, and settled 
in Spain (in Gulicia), North Italy (Gallia Cisalpina), 
France and Belgium (Gallia Transalpina), and the 
British isles (the lands of the Cymry or Gaels). 

B.C. 

The Phocseans found Massilia, now Marseilles . 600 

The Galli Senones under Brennus defeat the Romans 

at the river Allia, and sack Home, but are repulsed 

from the Capitol, accept a ransom and retire ; a 

fabulous legend asserts that they were defeated 

and expelled by Camillas 300 

Defeated 360 

The Gauls defeated by the Romans at Sentinuni . 295 
The Senones defeat the Romans at Arretium ; 

nearly exterminated by Dolabella . . . . 2S3 
The Gauls overrun Northern Greece, 280 B.C. ; are 
beaten at Delphi, 279 ; and by Antigonus, king of 

Macedon 2-/3 

The Gauls defeated with great slaughter near Pisa . 225 
The Insubres totally overthrown by Marcellus, and 
their king Viridomarus slain ..... 222 

They assist Hannibal 218, &e. 

The Romans conquer Gallia Cisalpina, 220; invade 

Gallia Transalpina, with varied success. . 121-58 
They colonise Aix, 123 B.C. ; and Narbonne . . 118 



Julius Csesar subdues Gaul in 8 campaigns . . 58-50 
Lyons (Lugdununi) founded . . 41 

A.V. 

Druids' religion proscribed by Claudius ... 43, 
Adrian visits and favours Gaul, hence called Re- 
storer of the Gauls 120 

Introduction of Christianity 160 

Christians persecuted . . 177, 202, 257, 286, 288; 
The Franks and others defeated by Aurelian . . 241 
And by Probus, 275, 277 ; who introduces the cul- 
ture of the vine 280 

Maximian defeats the Franks 281 

Constantine proclaimed emperor of Gaul . . . 306 
Julian arrives to relieve Gaul, desolated by bar- 
barians ; defeats the Alemanni at Strasburg . 357 
Julian proclaimed emperor at Paris, 360; dies . . 363, 
Gaul harassed by the Alemanni . . . 365-377 
Invasion and settlement of the Burgundians, 

Franks, Visigoths, &e 378-450 

Clodion, chief of the Salian Franks, invades Gaul ; 

is defeated by Aetius 447 

The Iluns under Attila defeated by Aetius near 

Chalons 451 

iEgidius, the Roman commander, murdered . . 464 
Childeric the Frank takes Paris ....,, 
All Gaul, west of the Rhone, ceded to the Visi- 
goths 475 

End of the Roman empire of the West, and estab- 
lishment of the kingdom of the Franks . . 476 
(See France.) 

GAUNTLET, an iron glove, first introduced m 
the 13th century, perhaps about 1225. It was- 
commonly thrown down as a challenge to an 
adversary. 

GAUZE, a fabric much prized among the 
Roman people. " Brocades and damasks and tab- 
bies and gauzes ha\ e been lately brought over " (to 
Ireland). Lean Swift, in 1698. The manufacture 
of gauze and articles of a light fabric at Paisley-, in 
Scotland, began about 1759. 

GAVEL-KIND (derived from the Saxon gif 
eal ci/n, "give ail suitably;" or from gafolcynd, 
and yielding rent), the custom in Kent of dividing 
paternal estates in land, the wives to have half, the 
rest equally among male children, without any dis- 
tinction, 550. By the Irish law of gavel-kind, even 
bastards inherited. Davies. Not only the lands of 
the father were equally divided among all his sons, 
but the lands of the brother also among all his- 
brethren, if he had no issue of his own. Law Lict. 

GAZA, a city of the Philistines, of which Sam- 
son carried off the gates about 1120 B.C. {Judges 
xvi.) It was taken by Alexander after a long siege, 
332; and near to it Ptolemy defeated Demetrius- 
l'olioreetes, 312 B.C. It was taken by Saladin a.d. 
1170; by Bonaparte, March, 1799; and by the 
Egyptians under Ibrahim Pacha in 1831. 

GAZETTES, see Newspapers. 

GELHEIM, near Worms, central Germany. 
Here the emperor Adolphus of Nassau was de- 
feated and slain by his rival Albert I. of Austria, 
2 July, 1298. 

GEMAEA or GHEMARA, see Talmud. 

GEMS. The Greeks excelled in cutting precious 
stones, and many ancient specimens remain. The 
art was revived in Italy in the 15th century. In 
Feb. 18G0, Ilerz's collection of gems was sold for 
10,000/. Rev. C. King's "Antique Gems" ap- 
peared in i860, and his "Natural History of Pre- 
cious Stones and Gems" in 1S65. Dr. A. Billing's 
" Science of Gems," 1868. Artificial gems have- 
been produced by chemists (Ebelmen, Deville, 
W'ohler, and others), 1S58-65. 
The duke of Marlborough's collection, valued at 
60,000/., sold by auction to -Mr. Bromilow for 
36,750/ 28 J une, 1875 



GENEALOGY. 



428 



GENOA. 



GENEALOGY, from the Greek genea, birth, 
descent. The earliest pedigrees are contained in 
the 5th, 10th, and nth chapters of Genesis. The 
first book of Chronicles contains many genealogies. 
The pedigree of Christ is given in Matt. i. and 
Lulce iii. Man} r books on the subject have been 
published in all European countries ; one at Magde- 
burg, Theatrum Genealogicum, by Henninges, in 
1598. Anderson, Royal Genealogies, London, 1732. 
Sims' Manual for the Genealogist, &c, 1888. will 
be found a useful guide. The works of Collins 
(1756 et &eq.), Edmondson (1764-84), and Nicolas 
(1825 and 1857), on the British peerage, are highly 
esteemed. The Genealogical society, London, estab- 
lished in 1853. " The Genealogist," published 
quarterly, began 1875. "The Genealogist's Guide to 
Printed Pedigrees," by George W. Marshall, pub- 
lished in 1879. 

GENERAL ASSEMBLY, see Church of 
Scotland. 

GENERAL COUNCILS, WARRANTS, 

see Councils, Warrants. 

GENERALS. Matthew de Montmorency 
was the first general of the French armies, 1203. 
Henault. Balzac states that cardinal Richelieu 
coined the word Generalissimo, upon his taking the 
supreme command of the French armies in Italy, 
in 1629. Ulysses Grant was the first general of the 
army of the United States of America, so styled in 
1S66; see Commanders-in-Chief. 

GENERATION (in Chronology), the interval 
of time between the birth of a father and the birth 
of his child: ^ years are allowed for the average 
length of a generation. Harvey's thesis " Oinne 
vivum ex ovo " (Every living being springs from an 
egg), has been disproved by the researches of Von 
Sebold and others. See Spontaneous. 

GENEVA, a town of the Allobroges, a Gallic 
tribe, 58 B.C. ; became part of the empire of Charle- 
magne, about a.d. 800; and capital of the kingdom 
of Burgundy, 426. 

The Republic founded in 1512 

Emancipated from Savoy 1526 

Calvin settled here, and obtaining much influence, 
Geneva was termed the " Rome of Calvinism " 

about 1536 
Through him Servetus burnt for heresy, 27 Oct. 1553 
Geneva allied to the Swiss Cantons . . . . 1584 
Insurrection, Feb. 1781 ; about 1000 Genevcse, in 
consequence, applied, in 1782, to earl Temple, 
lord-lieutenant of Ireland, for permission to settle 
in that country : the Irish parliament voted 
5o,oooZ. to defray the expenses of their journey, 
and to purchase them lands near Waterford. 
Many of the fugitives came to Ireland in July, 
1783 ; but they soon after abandoned it ; many 

Genevese settled in England 1784 

A revolution ; executions and imprisonments, 

July, 1794 
Geneva incorporated with France . 26 April, 1798 
Admitted into the Swiss Confederation, 30 Dec. 1813 
The constitution made more democratic . . . 1846 
Revolution, through an endeavour of the Catholic 
cantons to introduce Jesuits as teachers ; a pro- 
visional government set up ... 7 Oct. 1848 
[The scheme was withdrawn.] 
About 50 persons from Geneva land at Thonon and 
Evian, to set up the Swiss flag; but are brought 
back by Swiss troops .... 30 Mar. i860 
Election riots, with loss of life, through the indis- 
cretion of M. Fazy 22 Aug. 1864 

49th annual meeting of the Helvetic Society of 

National Sciences held . . . 21-23 Aug. 1865 
Violent peace congress — Garibaldi present, 

12 Sept. 1867 
The Alabama arbitration commission met ; received 
the cases and adjourned to 15 June, 1872, 18 Dec. 1871 



1872 

1873 

1875 
1878 

1879 



Formal meeting of the commission (see Alabama), 

15 June, 
Monsignor Mermillod, nominated bishop of Geneva 

(in the diocese of the bishop of Lausanne), and 

vicar apostolic ; his arrest proposed, 2 Feb. ; 

ordered to quit, if he will not submit to the civil 

government by 15 Feb. he is expelled 17 Feb. 
Geneva visited by the shah . . . July, 
The ex-duke of Brunswick dies here and bequeaths 

his vast property (above 764,0002.) to the city 18 Au; 
Violent hail storm ; great destruction of glass and 

crops 7, 8 July, 

Rousseau centenary celebrated . . 2 July, 
The duke of Brunswick's remains placed in the 

grand mausoleum .... 7 Sept. 

Riots through Salvation army . Jan. -Sept. 

Collision of steam boats on the lake, 20 persons 

drowned 23 Nov. 

Explosion of a boiler on the steamer Mont Blanc 

on the lake ; 26 pei sons perish . . q July, 
Population, 1888 : Canton, 105,509 ; City, &c., 71,8c 



GENEVA CONVENTION, for the succour 
of the wounded in time of active warfare. Having 
been a witness of the horrors of the battle-field of 
Solferino, 24 June, 1859, M. Henri Dunant, a 
S«iss, published his experiences, which induced 
the Societe Genevoise d' Utilite Publique in Feb. 
1863 to discuss the question whether relief societies 
might not be formed in time of peace to help the 
wounded in time of war by means of qualified volun- 
teers. At an international conference held 26 Oct. 
1863, fourteen governments, including Great Britain, 
France, Austria, Prussia, Italy, and Kussia, were 
represented by delegates. The propositions then 
drawn up were accepted as an international code by 
a congress which met at Geneva, 8 Aug. 1864, and 
on 22 Aug. a convention was signed by twelve of 
the delegates, and it was eventually adopted by all 
civilised powers except the United' States. Inter- 
national conferences were held at Paris in 1867 and 
at Berlin in 1869 for further developing in a practi- 
cal manner the objects of the Geneva conference. 
The International Society (termed "the Red Cross 
Society"), established in consequence of these pro- 
ceedings was very energetic in relieving the wounded 
and sick during the Franco-Prussian war in 1870, 
its flag being recognised as neutral. See jLid to 
Sick and Wounded. Above 13,000 volunteers said 
to be employed in attending the sick and wounded, 
Sept.— Dec, 1870. At a meeting in London, 6 Aug., 
1872, M. Dunant proposed a plan for the uniform 
treatment of prisoners of war. 

GENOA, the ancient Genua (N. Italy). Its 
inhabitants were the Ligures, who submitted to the 
Romans, 115 B.C. It partook of the revolutions of 
the Roman empire. Population, 1890, 206,485. 

Genoa becomes a free commercial state . about 1000 

Frequent wars with Pisa 1070- 1284 

Frederick II. captures 22 galleys, and vainly be- 
sieges Genoa 1241 

The families of Doria and Spinola obtain ascendancy, 

about 1270 
The Genoese destroy the naval power of Pisa at 

Melora (which see) .... 6 Aug. 1284 
Frequent wars with Venice . . 1218-32 ; 1293-99 
Rafaele Doria and Galeotto Spinola, appointed 
itains 



cap' 



1335 



Simon Boecanegra made the first doge, 1339 : set 

aside by the nobles, 1344; re-appointed . . . 1356 
Great discord ; many doges appointed . . . 1394 
Genoa successively under protection of France, 
1396; of Naples, 1410; of Milan, 1419 ; losing and 



regaining freedom 



1421-1512 



Sacked by the Spaniards and Italians under Prosper 
Colonna 1522 

Andrew Doria deserts the French service, and 
restores the independence of his country . . 1528 

Genoa bombarded by the French . . May, 1684 

By the British Sept. 1745 



GENS-D'AEMES. 



429 



GEOLOGY. 



1746 
1747 
1750 
1797 



1800 
1805 
1814 



1849 



Taken by the imperialists, who are soon after ex- 
pelled Sept. 

Another siege raised .... 10 June, 

The celebrated bank failed 

Genoa made the Ligurian republic . . May, 

The city, blockaded by a British fleet and Austrian 
army, until literally starved, evacuated by capitu- 
lation, 5 June ; it was surrendered to the French, 
soon after their victory at Marengo . 14 June, 
Genoa annexed to the French empire . 4 June, 

Surrenders to the English and Sicilians 18 April, 
United to the kingdom of Sardinia . . . Dec. 
The city seized by insurgents, who, after a murder- 
ous straggle, drove out the garrison and pro- 
claimed the Ligurian republic, 3 April ; but sur- 
rendered to general La Marmora . . 11 April, 
Columbus's first voyage, 1492, celebrated . Sept. 

GENS-D'AEMES were anciently the king's 
horse-guards only, but afterwards the king's gardes- 
du-corps ; the musqueteers and light horse were 
reckoned among them. There was also a company 
of gentlemen (whose number was about 250) bearing 
this name. Scots guards were about the persons of 
the kings of France from the time of St. Louis, 
who reigned in 1226. They were organised as a 
roj r al corps by Charles VII. about 1441 ; the younger 
sons of Scottish nobles being usually the captains. 
The name gens-d' amies was afterwards given to the 
police ; but becoming obnoxious, was changed to 
" municipal guard" in 1830. 

GENTLEMAN (from gentilis, of a. yens, a race 
or clan). The Gauls observing that during the 
empire of the Komans, the scutarii and gentiles had 
the best appointments of all the soldiers, applied to 
them the terms ecuyers and gentilshomines. This 
distinction of gentlemen was much in use in Eng- 
land, and was given to the well-descended about 
1430. Sidney. Gentlemen by blood were those 
who could show four descents from a gentleman 
who had been created bj' the king by letters patent. 

GENTLEMEN- AT-AEMS (formerly styled 
the Band of Gentlemen Pensioners) is the oldest 
corps in England, with the exception of the Yeomen 
of the Guard. The band was instituted by Henry 
VIII. in 1509, and was originally composed entirely 
of gentlemen of noble blood, whom he named his 
pensioners or spears. William IV. commanded 
that it should be called his majesty's honour- 
able corps of gentlemen-at-arms, 7 March, 1834. 
Curling. 

GENTLEWOMEN'S SELF-HELP IN- 
STITUTION, London, established by the earl of 
Shaftesbury, duchess of Sutherland, and others, 
May, 1870. 

GEODESY (from daio, I divide), the art of 
measuring the surface and determining the figure 
of the earth, &c. Col. A. Clarke's "Geodesy," 
published 1880. See Latitude. 
The 7th International Geodetic congress met at 
Rome 15-24 Oct. 1883. It recommended the 
international unification of the hour, and longi- 
tude with Greenwich. An international con- 
ference of 40 delegates met at Washington, 1 Oct., 
president Adm. Rogers, agree to recommend 
Greenwich as prime meridian ; France and Brazil 

abstain 13 Oct. 1884 

The terms of a universal day were also agreed upon 

t Nov. ,, 
International geodetic conference met at Berlin 
27 Oct. 1886 ; met at Salzburg, 17 Sept. 1888 ; at 
Paris 3 Oct. 1889 

GEOGEAPHY. The first geographical re- 
cords are in the Pentateuch, and in the book of 
Joshua. Homer describes the shield of Achilles as 
representing the earth surrounded by the sea, and 
also the countries of Greece, islands of the Archi- 



pelago, and site of Troy. Iliad. The priests taught 
that the temple of Apollo at Dclphos was the centre 
of the world. Anaximander of Miletus was the 
inventor of geographical maps, about 568 B.C. 
Hipparchus attempted to reduce geography to a 
mathematical basis, about 135 B.C. Strabo, the 
great Greek geographer, lived 71-14 B.C. Ptolemy 
flourished about 139 a.d. The science was brought 
to Europe by the Moors of Barbary and Spain, 
about 1240. Lenglet.* Maps and charts were intro- 
duced into England by Bartholomew Columbus to 
illustrate his brother's theory respecting a western 
continent, 1489. Geography is now divided into 
mathematical, physical, and political, and its study 
has been greatly promoted during the present 
century by expeditions at the expense of various 
governments and societies. The Royal Geographical 
Society of London was established in 1830 ; that of 
Paris in 182 1. The Geographical Society's exhi- 
bition opened by the marquis of Lome, 9 Dec. 1885. 
The society issued a circular for promoting a more- 
uniform spelling of geographical names, Dec. 1891. 
— See Africa, North West 1'assage, §-c. 
An international congress of geographers held at 
Antwerp in 1871 ; 2. at Paris, 3 Aug. 1875 ; 3. at 
Venice, 15 Sept. 1881 ; 4. Paris, 6-11 Aug. 1889 ; 

5. Berne 10-14 Aug. i8gr 

Dr. August Heinrich Petermann, founder and edi- 
tor of the celebrated " Mittheilungen fiber wich- 
tige neue Erforsehungen auf der Gesamnitgebiete 
der Geographie" in 1855, and an eminent carto- 
grapher, died 26 Sept. 1878 

A congress on commercial geography met at Brussels, 

Oct. 1879 
Mr. E. H. Bunbury's "History of Ancient Geo- 
graphy among the Greeks and Romans," published 
1879. He refers especially to Hecatajus, Hero- 
dotus, Hanno, Pytheas (discoverer of Britain) ; 
Eratosthenes (born B.C. 276) made a map ; and 
to Ptolemy, about a.d. 139. 
E A. Freeman's "Historical Geography of Europe," 

published 1 S8'i 

65 geographical societies in the world . . Jan. ,, 
British Commercial Geographical Society ; founded 
at the mansion house, London, 15 July, met 

27 Oct. 1884 
Scottish Geographical Society, Edinburgh, inaugu- 
rated 3 Dec. ,, 

Manchester Geographical Society established Jan. 1885. 
Sudden death of the great Russian explorer, gen. 
Prjevalsky at Vernoje in Asia, announced 2 Nov. 1888' 

GEOK TEPE, a strong Turkoman fortress ;. 
see Russia, 1879-81. 

GEOLOGY, the science of the earth, is said 
to have been cultivated in China before the Chris- 
tian era, and occupied the attention of Aristotle, 
Theophrastus, Pliny, Avicenna, and the Arabian 
writers. 

In T574 Mercati wrote concerning the fossils in the pope's. 
museum : Oesalpino Majoli, and others (1597), Steno 
(1669), Scilla (1670), Quirini (1676), Plot and Lister 
(1678), Leibnitz (16S0) recorded observations, and put 
forth theories on the various changes in the crust of 
the earth. 
Hooke (1668), in his work on Earthquakes, said that 
fossils, " as monuments of nature, were more certain 
tokens of antiquity than coins or medals, and though 
difficult, it would not be impossible to raise a chrono- 
logy out of them. " 
Burnet's "Theory of the Earth," appeared in 1690,. 

Winston's in 1696. 
Button's geological views (1749) Were censured by the 
Sorbonne in 1751, and recanted inconsequence. The 
principle he renounced was that the present condition 
of the earth is due to secondary causes, and th.it these 
same causes will produce further changes. His more 
eminent fellow-labourers and successors were (icsnei 
(1758), Michell (1760), Raspe (1762-73), Pallas and 
Saussure (1793-1800). 
Werner (1775) ascribed all rocks to an aqueous origin, 
and even denied the existence of volcanoes in primitive 



GEOLOGY. 



430 



GEOLOGY. 



geological times, and had many followers, Kirwan, De 
Luc, &c— Hutton (1788) supported by Playfair (1801) 
warmly opposed Werner's views, and asserted that the 
principal changes in the earth's crust are due to the 
energy of fire. The rival parties were hence termed 
Neptunists and Vulcanists. 

JUr. A. Geikie and other eminent modern geologists 
ascribed the origin of the landscape features of the 
earth chiefly to denudation by the action of water 
1865 et seq. ' 

William Smith, the father of British geology (who had 
walked over a large part of England) drew up a Tabular 
View of British Strata, in 1799, and published it and 
liis Geological Map of England and Wales, 1812-15 ; 
died 28 Aug. 1839. The Rev. Adam Sedgwick, another 
father, died 27 Jan. 1873, aged 87. Sir Charles Lyell, 
died 22 Feb. 1875. 

In 1803 the Royal Institution possessed the best geologi- 
cal collection in London, collected by H. Davy, C. 
Hatchett, and others ; the proposal of sir John St. 
Aubyn, sir Abraham Hume, and the right lion. C. F. 
Greville, to aid the government, in establishing a 
school of mines there in 1804-7, was declined, 13 Nov. 

in 1807 the Geological Society of London was established. 
By collecting a great mass of new facts, it greatly 
tended to check the disposition to theorise, and led to 
the introduction of views midway between those of 
Werner and Hutton. 

The Geological Society of Dublin, 1832 ; of Edinburgh, 
1834; of France, 1830; of Germany, 1848. 

In 1835 Mr. (afterwards sir Henry) De la Beche suggested 
the establishment of the present Museum of Geology, 
which began at Craig's-court, and which was removed 
to its present position in Jermyn-street. To him are 
also due the valuable geological maps formed on the 
ordnance survey. The building was erected by Mr. 
Pennethorne, and formally opened by the prince con- 
sort, 14 May, 1851. Attached to the Museum are the 
Mining Records office, a lecture theatre, laboratories, 
&c. Sir H. De la Beche, the first director, died 13 
April, 1855 ; succeeded by sir Roderick Murchison, 
who died 22 Oct. 1871 ; succeeded by professor( after- 
wards sir) A. C. Ramsay, March, 1872, died 9 Dec. 
1891 ; by Archibald Geikie, 1881, knt., 1891. 

A great many maps have been published, with memoirs. 
The survey of England on the scale of an inch to a 
mile, was completed in Jan. 1884. Some maps have 
been made on a scale of six inches to a mile. The 
surveys of Scotland and Ireland are in progress 

A similar institution was established at Calcutta by the 

E. I. Company in 1840. . 

International geological congress originated at the 
Buffalo meeting of the American association for the 
advancement of science in 1876 ; met at Paris 1878 ; 
Bologna, 26 Sept. 1881 ; Berlin, 29 Sept. 1885 ; London, 
17 Sept. 1888. 
The English standard works on geology at the present 
time are those of Lyell, Murchison, Phillips, De la 
Beche, Mantell, Ansted, and Geikie. 
Cuvier and Brongniart's work on Geology of Paris, 1808, 

et seq. 
L. Agassiz, " Poissons Fossiles, 1833-45. ,..,-, 

The strata composing the earth's crust may be divided 

into two great classes : 
J Those generally attributed to the agency of water ; 
II. To the action of tire : which may be subdivided as 
follows :— 
Aqueous formations, stratified, rarely crystalline :— 
Sedimentary or fossiliferous rocks. 
Metamorphic or unfossiliferous. 
Igneous formations, unstratitied, crystalline :— 
Volcanic, as basalt, &c. 
Plutonic, as granite, &c. 
Fossiliferous, or Sedimentary, rocks are divided into three 
great series : — .,..»» 

The Palaeozoic (most ancient forms of life) or 

Primary. 
The Mesozoic (middle life period), or Secondary. 
The Neozoic or Cainozoic (more recent forms of life), 
or Tertiary. 

Table of Strata {chiefly from Lyell). 
NEOZOIC : 
I. Post-Tertiary : 
A. Post-Pliocene: 

t Recent: Marino strata; with human re- 
mains; Danish peat; kitchen middens; 



bronze and stone implements ; Swiss lake- 
dwellings ; temple of Serapis at Puzzuoli. 

2. Post-Pliocene: Brixham cave, with flint 

knives, and bones of living and extinct 
quadrupeds ; ancient valley gravels ; glacial 
drift ; ancient Nile mud ; post-glacial N. 
American deposits : remains of mastodon; 
Australian breccias. 

II. Tertiary or Cainozoic Series : 

B. Pliocene : 

3. Newer Pliocene (or Pleistocene) Mammalian 

beds, Norwich Crag. [Marine Shells.] 

4. Older Pliocene: Red and Coralline Crag 

(Suffolk, Antwerp). 

C. 5, 6. Miocene: Upper and Lower; Bordeaux; 

Virginia sands and Touraine beds ; Pikerme 
deposits near Athens ; volcanic tuff and 
limestone of the Azores, &e. ; brown coal of 
German y, &c. [Mastodon, Gigantic 
Elk, Salamander, &c] 

D. 7, 8, 9. Eocene : Upper, Middle, and Lower ; 

Freshwater and Marine beds ; Barton Clays ; 
Bracklesham Sands; Paris Gypsum; Lon- 
don Plastic, and Thanet Clays. [Palms, 
Birds, &c] 

III. Secondary or Mesozoic Series : 

E. 10. Cretaceous: Upper ; British Chalk ; Maestri cht 

•beds. — Chalk with and without Flints, 
Chalk Marl. Upper Green Sand, Gault, 
Lower Green Sand. [M esosaurus; Fish, 
Mollusks, &c] 
11. Lower (or Neocomian or Wealden) ; Kentish 
rag ; Weald Clay ; Hastings Sand. [Iguano- 
clon, Hylceosaurus, &c] 

F. 12. Oolite: Upper; Purbeck beds, Portland Stone 

and Sand, Kimmeridge Clay ; Lithographic 
Stone of Solenhofen with Archwopteryx. 
[Fish.] 
,13. Middle: Calcareous Grit, Coral Rag, Oxford 
Clay, Kelloway Rock. [Belemnites and . 
Ammonites. ] 

14. Lower: Cornbrash, Forest Marble, Bradford 

Clay, Great Oolite, Stonesfield Slate, Fuller's 
Earth, Inferior Oolite. [Ichthyosaurus, 
Plesiosaurus, Pterodactyl.] 

G. 15. Lias: Lias Clay and Marl Stone. [Ammo- 

nites, Equisetum, Amphibia, Laby- 
rinthodon. ] 
H. 16. Trias : Upper ; White Lias, Red Clay, with 

Salt in Cheshire, Coal Fields in Virginia, 
N.A. [Fish, Dromatherium.] 
17. Middle or Muschelkalk (wanting in England). 
[Encrinus; Placodus gigas.] 

15. Lower : New Red Sandstone of Lancashire 

and Cheshire. [Labyrinthodon, Foot- 
prints of Birds and Reptiles.] 
IV. Primary or Palaeozoic Series : 

I. 19. Permian: Magnesian Limestone, Marl Slates, 

Red Sandstone and Shale, Dolomite : Kup- 
ferschiefer. [Firs, Fishes, Amphibia.] 

K. 20, 21. Carboniferous, Upper and Lower: Coal 

Measures, Millstone Grit, Mountain Lime- 
stone. [Ferns, Catamites, Coal.] 

L. 22, 23, 24. Devonian, Upper, Middle, and Lower: 

Tilestones, Cornstones, and Marls, Quartz- 
ose, Conglomerates. [Shells, Fish, Tri- 
lobites. ] 

M. 25, 26, 27. Silurian, Upper, Middle, and Lower: 

Ludlow Shales, Aymestry Limestone, Wen- 
lock Limestone, Wenlock Shale, Caradoc 
Sandstone, Llandeilo Flags ; Niagara Lime- 
stone. [Sponges, Corals, Trilobites, 
Shells.] 

N. 28, 29. Cambrian, Upper and Lower : Bala 

Limestone, Festiniog Slates, Bangor Slates 
and Grits, Wicklow Rock, Hasleets Grits, 
Huronian Series of Canada. [Zoophytes, 
Lingula, Ferns, Sigillaria, Stig- 
maria, Catamites, and Cryptogamia.] 

O. 30. Laurentian, Upper Gneiss of the Heb- 

rides (?) : Labradorite Series, N. of the St. 
Lawrence ; Adirondack Mountains, New 
York. 
31. Lower: Gneiss and Quartzites, with Inter- 
stratified Limestones, in one of which, 1000 
feet thick, occurs a foraminifer, Eozobn 
Canadense, the oldest known fossil. 



GEOMETEY. 



431 



GERMAIN", St. 



GEOMETEY, so termed from its original ap- 
plication to measuring the earth, is ascribed to the 
Egyptians ; the annual inundations of the Nile 
having given rise to it by carrying away the land- 
marks and boundaries. 

Thales introduced geometry into Greece, about 600 B.C. 
Pythagoras cultivated the science about 580. 
The doctrine of curves originally attracted the attention 

of geometricians from the conic sections, which were 

introduced by Plato, about 390 b. c. 
Euclid's Elements compiled about 300 b. c. 
Archimedes, a discoverer in geometry, 287-212 B.C. 
The conchoid curve invented by Nicomedes, 220 B.C. 
Ptolemy, the astronomer, 2nd century a. d. 
Geometry taught in Europe in the 13th century. 
Books on geometry and astronomy were destroyed in 

England as infected with magic, 7 Edw. VI., 1552. 

Stow. 
Descartes published his Analytical Geometry , 1627. 
Sir Isaac Newton (Arithmetica Universalis, &c), 1642- 

1727. 
Simson's edition of Euclid, first appeared, 1756. 
La Place's Mecanique Celeste, 1799-1805. 

GEOEGE. A gold coin current at 65. 8d. in 
the reign of Henry VIII. Leake. 

GEOEGE, ST., the tutelary saint of England, 

and adopted as patron of the order of the garter by 

Edward III. His day is 23 April ; see Garter, 

and Knighthood. 

St. George was a tribune in the reign of Diocletian, and 
being a man of great courage, was a favourite ; but 
complaining to the emperor of his severities towards 
the Christians, and arguing in their defence, he was 
put in prison, and beheaded, 23 April, 290. — On that 
day, in 1192, Richard I. defeated Saladin. 

St. George's, Hanover-square, returns one M.P., by act 
passed 1885. Population, 1881, 149,748 ; 1891, 134,122. 

St. George's in the East returns 1 member by the act 
of 1885. Population, 1881, 47,157 ; 1891, 45,546 

The Order of the Sons of St. George, established at 
Philadelphia as a society to succour emigrants (see 
under Emigration). It gradually acquired political 
influence, and many branches were formed in order 
to counteract the dominant aggressive policy of the 
Irish party. It works in unison with the " British 
American association " which was formed to promote 
naturalization — its organ being the British American, 
a weekly newspaper, Dec. 1887. 

GEOEGES' CONSPIEACY, in France. 
General Moreau, general Pichegru, Georges Cadou- 
dal, who was commonly known by the name of 
Georges, and others, were arrested at Paris, charged 
with a conspiracy against the life of Bonaparte, and 
for the restoration of Louis XVIII., Feb. 1804. 
Pichegru was found strangled ih prison, 6 April. 
Twelve of the conspirators, including Georges, were 
executed 25 June, and others imprisoned. Moreau 
was exiled, and went to America. In 1813 he w r as 
killed before Dresden (which see). 

GEOEGIA, the ancient Iberia, now a province 
of S. Russia, near the Caucasus, submitted to Alex- 
ander about 331 B.C., but threw off the yoke of his 
successors. It was subjugated to Rome by 1'ompey, 
■65 B.C., but retained its own sovereigns. Chris- 
tianity was introduced into it in the 3rd century. 
In the 8th century, after a severe struggle, Georgia 
was subdued by the Arab caliphs ; by the Turkish 
sultan Alp-Arslan, 1068; and by the Tartar hordes, 
1235. From the 14th to the iStli centuries, Georgia 
■was successively held by the Persian and Turkish 
monarchs. In 1 740 Nadir Shall established part of 
Georgia as a principality, of which the last ruler 
Heraclius, surrendered his territories to the czar in 
1799; and in 1802 Georgia was declared to be a 
Russian province. — Georgia, in North America, 
was settled by gen. Oglethorpe, in 1732. Separating 
from the congress of America, it surrendered to the 
British, Dec. 177^; find its possession was of vast 



importance to the royalists in the war. Count 
d'Estaing joined the American general Lincoln, and 
made a desperate attack on Georgia, which failed, 
and the French fleet returned home ; the colony 
was given up to the Union by the British in 1783. 
It seceded from the Union, by ordinance, 18 Jan. 
1861, and was conquered by Sherman in 1864-5, an( l 
readmitted as a state Jan. 1868. A ridiculous negro 
insurrection suppressed Aug. 1875. Population 
in 1880, 1,542,180; 1890, 1,837,353; Atlanta, 
65,533; Savannah, 43,189. See United States. — ■ 
Georgia, in the Pacific, was visited by captain 
Cook in 1775. Population 1880, 1,542,180; capital, 
Atlanta. 
Riots at Jessop : fight between whites and negroes ; 

22 negroes killed and 2 whites . 25, 26 Dec. 1889 
Destructive cyclone with loss of life in many places. 

6 Jan. 1892 

GEOEGIUM SLDTTS, the first name of the 
planet Uranus (which see), discovered 13 March, 
1781. 

GEEBEEOI (Normandy, N. France). Here 
William the Conqueror was wounded in battle by 
his son Robert, who had joined the French kino- 
Philip I., 1078. 

GEEM THEOEY OF DISEASE sup- 
poses "that many diseases are due to the presence 
and propagation in the animal system of minute 
organisms [termed microbes] having no part or 
share in its normal economy." Maclagan, 1876. 
See Animalcules and Bacteria. Dr. Cohn, of 
Breslau, whose work was published in 1872, 
classifies bacteria as — I. Sphcero or micrococci; II. 
Micro-bacteria, or bacteria proper (rod-shaped) ; III. 
Desmo-baeteria, the same but longer; IV. Spiro- 
bacteria, spiral-shaped or curly. Translation of 
his work, 1881. 

The doctrine of conlaginm animatum was held in the 
middle ages and put forth in the 16th century, but 
contagious organisms were not discovered till the 19th 
by professors Pasteur, Tynrlall, and others, 1875 et seq. 
At the British Association, 14 Sept. 1870, professor 
Huxley expressed his concurrence with the ""erin 
theory." See under Dust and Vivisection, 1882. 
Dr. Robert Koch is said to have identified the micro- 
scopical germs of cattle disease, of consumption, of 
cholera, and other diseases, 1879 et seq., discredited in 
England, May, June, 1885. See Tuberculosis. 
Dr. E. Klein in Feb. 1885 reported his investigations on 
the relation of bacteria to cholera. At the Roval 
Institution on May 27, 1887, he demonstrated the 
propagation of scarlet fever by microbes in cow's 
milk. 
Numerous specimens of these germs were exhibited at the 
Royal Institution in illustration of professor Tyndall's 
discourse on " Living contagia," 16 Jan. 1885. 
By taking means to exclude these germs from wounds, 
<Sic, sir Joseph Lister introduced anti-septic surgery 
about 1870. 
" Louis Pasteur," by M. Radot, his son-in-law, gives an 
account of Pasteur's success in mitigating the virulence 
of some diseases by inoculation. A translation by lady 
Claud Hamilton was published in Feb. 1885. 
M. Engelmann demonstrated the action of microbes in 
the development of vegetable cells from carbonic acid 
and moisture in the atmosphere. 
Fur Pasteur institute see Hydrophobia, 
Professors Behring and Kisasato of Berlin announce 
their method of treating tetanus and diphtheria Jan 
1891. 
Discovery of the influenza bacillus by Dr. Richard 
Pfeiffer, announced Jan. 1892. 

GEEMAIN, ST., near Paris. The palace 
here was begun by Louis the Fat, 1124, and en- 
larged and embellished by his successors, especially 
by Francis I., Henry IV., and Louis XIV. Here 
James II. of England resided in state after his 
abdication, in 1689, and here he died, 16 Sept. 1701 ; 
see Treaties. 



GERMAN ASSOCIATION. 



432 



GERMAN UNION. 



GERMAN ASSOCIATION, see German 

Union. 

GERMAN COLONIZATION SOCIETY, 

constituted at Frankfort, 6 Dec. 1882. A Charter 
was granted by the emperor to Dr. Carl Peters 
and others, whereby this society was authorised 
to acquire Usagara, N'Gury, and other territories 
west of Zanzibar, 27 Feb. 1885. 

GERMAN EAST AFRICA, see under 
Africa. 

GERMAN EXHIBITION at Earl's Court, 
"West Brompton, London, W. Hon. President, 
duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha ; hon. President of 
committee in Germany, prince Blucher von Wahl- 
statt ; director-general, John J. B.. Whitley, assisted 
by lieut. F. Jaffe. Opened by the lord mayor, 
Mr. Joseph Savory, in the presence of the marquis 
of Lome, and many eminent persons, 9 May ; closed 
10 Oct. 1891. Total number of visitors, 1,377,908. 
The galleries contained specimens of arts classified 
in nine groups ; 300 artists were represented by 700 
pictures, and a gigantic trophy of Germania and 
many interesting models. 

GERMANIA, colossal statue, see Germany, 
Sept. 1883. 

GERMANIC CONFEDERATION, 

superseding the confederation of the Rhine {which 
see), was constituted 8 June, 1815; held its first 
diet at Frankfort, 16 Nov. 1816, and its last, 24 Aug. 
1866. See next article. It comprised — 

I. Austria 2. Prussia ; 3. Bavaria ; 4. Saxony ; 

5. Hanover ; 6. Wlirtemberg ; 
7. Baden; 8, 9. Hesse (electorate and grand duchy); 
10. Denmark (for Holstein and Lauenburg) ; 

II. Netherlands (for Luxemburg) ; 

12. Saxe-Weimar, Saxe-Coburg, Saxe-Meiningen, 

and Saxe-Altenburg ; 

13. Brunswick and Nassau ; 

14. Mecklenburg -Schwerin, and Mecklenburg - 

Strelitz ; 

15. Oldenburg, three Anhalts, and two Schwarz- 

burgs ; 

16. Two Hohenzollerns, Liechtenstein, two Reuss, 

Sehaumburg-Lippe, Lippe, and Waldeck ; 

17. Free cities : — Liibeek, Frankfort, Bremen, and 

Hamburg. 

The diet declares for a constituent assembly, 30 
March, which met .... 18 May, 1848 

The diet remits its functions to the archduke John, 
vicar of the empire (see Germany) . . 12 July, „ 

The diet re-established, meets . . 30 May, 1851 

The emperor of Austria proposes a reform of the 
confederation, 17 Aug. ; accepted by the diet, 
1 Sept. ; rejected by Prussia . . 22 Sept. 1863 

The diet celebrates the fiftieth anniversary of its 
establishment 8 June, 1865 

Vote of the majority of the diet supports Austria in 
the dispute respecting Sehleswig and Holstein ; 
Prussia announces her withdrawal from the con- 
federation, and its dissolution ; the diet declares 
itself indissoluble, continues its functions, and 
protests ...... 14 June, 1866 

The diet removes to Augsburg during the war, 

14 July, „ 

The confederation renounced by Austria at Nikols- 
burg 26 July, ,, 

The diet holds its last sitting . . 24 Aug. ,, 

GERMAN CONFEDERATION, North, 

established in room of the Germanic Confederation 
(which see) : population 1867, estimated 29.906,092. 
The confederation ceased on the re-establishment 
of the German empire, 1 Jan. 187 1. 

The king of Prussia invites the states of North 
Germany to form a new confederation 16 July, 18(36 

Treaty of alliance, offensive and defensive, between 
Prussia and the following states : — Saxe-Weimar, 
Oldenburg, Brunswick, Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe- 
Coburg-Gotha, Anhalt, two Sehwarzburgs, Wal- 



deck, the younger Reuss, two Lippes, Liibeck, 

Bremen, and Hamburg, signed . . 18 Aug. 1866 

And two Mecklenburgs .... 21 Aug. „ 

And Hesse (for country north of the Maine), 3 Sept. ,, 

And the elder Reuss .... 26 Sept. ,, 

And Saxe-Meiningen 8 Oct. „ 

And Saxony 21 Oct. „ 

Meeting of North German Parliament (295 deputies 

from the 22 states) at Berlin . . . 24 Feb. 1867 
See Germany. 

GERMAN HOSPITAL, Dalston, founded 
1845, for Germans, and English in cases of accident. 
German Society of Benevolence and Concord, esta- 
blished 1817. 

GERMANITES, a name given to a sect, of 
which members appeared in the British Mediter- 
ranean fleet in 1867. They called themselves " non- 
fighting men," and hold no communion with other 
religious bodies. 

GERMANIUM, a new metal discovered by 
"Winkler early in 1886. 

GERMAN LANGUAGE has two great 
branches : hoch and platt Deutsch, high and low 
German. The former became the literary language, 
principally through its use by Luther in his trans- 
lation of the Bible and in other works, 1522-34. 
The latter is that spoken by the lower classes. 
There are many dialects : the satirical epic in low 
German, "Reineke Fuchs," appeared in 1498 ; see 
Reynard. 

PRINCIPAL GERMAN AUTHORS. 

Bom. Died. 
Ulfilas (Gothic Bible) about a.d. 360 

Martin Luther (German Bible, &c. 1522-34). 1483 1546 

Han's Sachs 1494 I57 8 

Godf. Leibnitz 1646 1716 

G. F. Gellert 1715 I7 6 9 

G. E. Lessing 1729 1783 

G. A. Biirger 1748 1794 

J. G. von Herder 1744 -1803 

Fred. T. Klopstock 1724 1803 

Im. Kant 1724 1804 

J. C. Fred, von Schiller .... 1759 ^05 

Ch. M. Wieland 1733 ^ij 

C. T. Korner 1791 1813 

Jean Paul Richter 1763 1825 

J. H. Voss ... ... 1751 1826 

F. Schlegel . . ... 1772 1820 

G. W. F. Hegel . . ... i 77 o 1831 
B. G. Niebuhr ... . . 1776 1831 
J. W. von Goethe. . . . 1749 11832 
Wm. von Humboldt . . . . 1767 1835 

A. Wm. Schlegel i 7 6 7 1845 

L- Tieck i 773 ^53 

H. Heine i 7Q7 z s 5 6 

Alex, von Humboldt . . . . . 1769 1859 

Ernst M. Arndt 1769 1S60 

Chr. Carl J. Bunsen 1791 ;[86o 

F. C. Schlosser 1776 1861 

J. Hillebrand ...... 1788 1862 

G. G. Gervinus 1805 1871 

E. H. Fichte 1797 ^79 

Leopold Ranke 1795 18S6 

Theod. Mommsen 11817 

GERMAN OCEAN, see North Sea. 

GERMANS, ST., was made the seat of the 
bishopric of Cornwall for a short time, about 905. 

GERMAN SILVER, an alloy of nickel, 
copper, and zinc, first made at Hildburghausen in 
Germany. There are many patents ; Cutler's 
1838, Parkes', 1844, &c. 

GERMAN UNION of Natural Phi- 
losophers, the forerunner of the British Asso- 
ciation, was founded by Oken, at Leipsic, in 1822 ; 
partly to promote political unity in Germany. It 
has met annually, except in troubled years, such as 
1848, 1866, and 1870; 50th time, 17 Sept. 1877; 
meeting at Dantzic, 18 Sept. 1880; Salzburg, 



GERMANY. 



433 



GERMANY. 



18 Sept. 18S1 ; Eisenach, 18 Sept. 1882 ; Frei- 
burg, 17 Sept. 1883; Magdeburg, 18 Oct. 1884; 
Strasburg, 17 Sept. 1885 ; Berlin, 16 Sept. 1886 ; 
Wiesbaden, 18 Sept. 1887; 61st at Cologne, 18 
Sept. 1888; 62nd at Heidelberg, 1889; 63rd at 
Bremen, Sept. 1890; 64th at Halle, Sept. 1891. 
The Union is now termed the " German Association 
"of Naturalists." 

" GERMANY ( Ger man ia,A leman i«), anciently, 
as now, divided inlo independent states. The Ger- 
mans long withstood the attempts of theKomans to 
subdue them ; and although that people conquered 
some parts of the country, they were expelled before 
the clo.-e of the 3rd century. In the 5th century 
the Huns and other tribes prevailed over the greater 
portion of Germany. In the latter part of the 8th 
century, Charlemagne subdued the Saxons and 
other tribes, and was crowned emperor at Rome, 
25 Dec. 800. A list of his successors is given in 
another page. At the extinction of his family, the 
empire became elective, 911, and was subsequently 
obtained by members of the house of Hapsburg 
(from 1437 till 1804). Germany was divided into 
cireles, 1501-12. The confederation of the Rhine 
was formed 12 July, 1806; the Germanic confede- 
ration, 8 June, 1815 ; and the North German con- 
federation, 18 Aug. 1866; the treaty ratified, 8 Sept. 
1866. The present German empire was established 
in 1871. The emperor is styled " German em- 
peror." {See that date below). See Franco- 
Prussian War, 1870-71. Population of the German 
empire 1880, 45,234,061 ; in 1885, 46,855,704; 1890, 
49,421,803. 

The empire of Germany was established Jan. 1, 1871, 
founded upon treaties concluded between the North 
German confederation (which see) and, 1. the grand 
duchies of Baden and Hesse, 15 Nov. 1870; 2. the 
kingdom of Bavaria, 23 Nov. 1870 ; 3. the kingdom of 
Wiirtemberg, 25 Nov. 1870 ; ratified, 29 Jan. 1871. 
William I., king of Prussia, was proclaimed German 
emperor at Versailles, 18 Jan. 1871, 

Population in 1871 (including Alsace-Lorraine, con- 
quered, 1870), 41,069,846. The parliament (reichstag) 
is elected by manhood suffrage and ballot. 

The first chancellor of the empire, prince Otho von 
Bismarck, May, 1871 ; resigned 18 March, 1890. 

The Teutones, united with the Cymry, defeat the 

Romans at Noreia B.C. 113 

After varying success are defeated by Marius . 102 

Drusus invaded Germany 12-3 

Battle of Teutoburg ; Hermann or Arminius de- 
stroys the Romans under Varus . . a.d. 9 

Hermann assassinated 19 

The Franks invade Gaul 238 

Great irruption of Germanic tribes into Gaul 450 et seq. 
Charlemagne after a long contest subdues the 

Saxons, who become Christians . . . 772-785 
He is crowned emperor of the West at Rome by the 

pope 25 Dec. 800 

He adds a second head to the eagle, to denote that 
the empires of Rome and Germany are united 

in him 802 

Louis (la Dabonnaire) separates Germany from 

France 839-840 

The Germans under Arnold take Rome . . . 896 
The German princes assert their independence, and 

Conrad I. of Franconia reigns . . 8 Nov. 911 
(The electorate began about this time. See Electors.] 
Reign of Henry I. [king], surnamed the Fowler ; 
lie vanquishes the Huns, Danes, Vandals, and 

Bohemians 918-934 

Otho I. extends his dominions, and is crowned 

emperor by the pope 962 

Otho II. conquers Lorraine 978 

Henry III. conquers Bohemia 1042 

Contest between Henry IV. and Gregory VII. (Hilde- 

brand) 1075 

Henry's humiliation at Canossa (which sec) . . 1077 
He takes Rome 1084 ; and Gregory dies in exile at 
Salerno 1085 



Disputes with the pope relating to ecclesiastical 
investitures 1073-1123 

The Guelph and the Ghibeline feuds begin . . 1140 

Conrad III. leads an army to the holy wars ; it was 
destroyed by Greek treachery .... 1147 

Frederick Barbarossa emperor, 1152 ; wars in Italy, 

IX 54-77 

He destroys Milan 1162 

Ruins Henry the Lion (see Bavaria) . . . 1180 
Is drowned during the crusade in Syria, 10 June, 1190 

Teutonic order of knighthood „ 

Hanseatie league established . . . about 1245 
Reign of Rodolph, count of Hapsburg, chosen by 

the electors 1273 

The edict, called the Golden Bull, by Charles IV. . 1356 

The Tyrol acquired 1363 

Sigismund, king of Bohemia, elected emperor. He 
betrays John Huss and Jerome of Prague, who 
are burned alive (see Bohemia) . . . 1414-16 
Sigismund driven from the throne, Albert II., duke 

of Austria, succeeds 1437 

The Pragmatic Sanction confining the empire to the 

house of Austria 1439 

Peasants' wars 1502, 1514, 1524 

Era of the Reformation (see Lutheranism) . . . 1517 
German Bible and liturgy published by Luther, 

1522-46 
Luther excommunicated by the diet at Worms, 

17 April, 1521 
War with the pope — the Germans storm Rome . 1527 
Diet at Spires ; Protestants condemned, 13 March, 1529 
Confession of Augsburg published . . 25 Jan. 1530 
Protestant League of Smalcalde . . . 31 Dec. 1531 
The anabaptists seize Minister, 24 June, 1535 ; de- 
feated, and John of Leyden slain .... 1536 

Death of Luther 18 Feb. 1546 

War with the Protestants . . .26 June, ,, 

Who are helped by Henry II. of France — Peace of 

Religion at Passau 31 July, 1552 

Abdication of Charles V. announced . 25 Oct. 1555 

Hungary joined to the empire 1570 

The Thirty years' war begins between the Evangelic 
union under the elector palatine, and the Catholic 
league under the duke of Bavaria .... 1618 
Battle of Prague, which ruined the elector palatine, 

8 Nov. 1620 
Gustavus-Adolphus of Sweden invades Germany, 

June, 163c 
Gustavus-Adolphus, victor, killed at Lutzen, 

16 Nov. 1632 
Treason of Wallenstein ; he is assassinated, 25 Feb. 1634 
End of the Thirty years' war : treaty of Westphalia, 
establishing religious toleration . . 24 Oct. 1648 

War with France 1674 

John Sobieski, king of Poland, after defeating the 
Turks, obliges them to raise the siege of Vienna, 

12 Sept. 1683 

Peace of Ryswick (with France) . . 20 Sept. 1697 

The peace of Carlowitz (with the Turks) 26 Jan. 1699 

War with France, &c, 6 Oct. 1702 ; Marlborough's 

victory at Blenheim . . . -13 Aug. 1704 

Peace of Utrecht 11 April, 1713 

The Pragmatic Sanction (which see) . . . . 1722 
Francis I. , duke of Lorraine, marries the heiress of 
Austria, Maria-Theresa (1736) ; she succeeds her 
father, and becomes queen of Hungary, 20 Oct. 1740 
The elector of Bavaria elected emperor as Charles 

VII 22 Jan. 1742 

He dies Jan. 20; Francis I., duke of Lorraine, 

elected emperor 15 Sept. 1745 

The Seven years' war between Austria and Prussia 
and their respective allies begins Aug. 1756 ; ends 
with the peace of Hubertsburg . . 15 Feb. 1763 

Lorraine ceded to France 1766 

Joseph II. extends his dominions by the dismem- 
berment of Poland, 1772 ; many civil reforms and 

liberal changes 1782 

War with Turkey 17S8 

Victory of the Austrians and Russians at Rininik, 

22 Sept. 17S9 
J. G. Basedow, educational reformer, dies 25 July, 1790 

The Rhenish provinces revolt 1793 

Francis I. joins in the second partition of Poland, 1795 
In the ruinous wars between Germany and Fiance, 
the emperor loses th • Netherlands, all his terri- 
tories west of the Rhine, and his states in Italy, 

1 793-1803 
F P 



GERMANY. 



434 



GERMANY. 



Cessions of territory to France by the treaty of 

Luneville 9 Feb - l8cI 

Francis II. assumes the title of Francis I. , emperor 

of Austria n Aug. 1804 

Napoleon establishes the kingdoms of Bavaria and 

Wiirtemberg, 1805 ; and of Westphalia, 1807 ; 

dissolution of the German empire ; formation of 

the confederation of the Rhine . .12 July, 1806 

North Germany annexed to France . 13 Dec. 1810-11 

Commencement of the war of independence : the 

order of the iron cross instituted . . March, 1813 
Final defeat of the French at Leipsie 16-19 Oct. ,, 
Congress of Vienna . . 1 Nov. 1814 & 25 May, 1815 
The Germanic confederation (which see) formed 

8 June, 1818 
The Zollverein (which see) formed . . . ,, 

" Society for promoting the knowledge of ancient 

German history," founded by Stein . . . 1819 
A German scientific association formed, "Naturfor- 
scher Vereine " (see German Union) . . Sept. 1822 

General depression in trade 1824 

Death of J. H. Voss, poet, &c. . . 29 March, 1826 

Revolution at Brunswick (flight of the duke) 7 Sept. 1830 
In Saxony (abdication of the king) . 13 Sept. ,, 
Death of Goethe, poet, novelist, and philosopher, 

22 Marth, 1832 
Becker's song about the free German Rhine ; and 
Alfred de Musset's song in reply, " Le Rhin 
Aliemand " (see Rhine) appear .... 1841 
Excitement about Ronge, the Catholic reformer, 

and the holy coat of Treves 1844 

Insurrection at Vienna and throughout Germany 

(see Austria, Hungary, &c.) 1848 

Revolt in Schleswig and Holstein (see Denmark) 

March, „ 
The king of Prussia takes the lead as an agitator, to 
promote the reconsolidation of the German em- 
pire, by a proclamation ... 27 March, ,, 
German national assembly meet at Frankfort (see 

Germanic confederation) ... 18 May, ,, 
Archduke John of Austria elected vicar of the em- 
pire 12 July, „ 

The national assembly elects the king of Prussia 

emperor, 28 March ; he declines . . 3 April, 1849 
He recalls the Prussian members of the assembly, 

14 May, ,, 
The Frankfort assembly transfers its sittings to 

Stuttgardt ... . . 30 May, , , 

Treaty of Vienna between Austria and Prussia for 
the formation of a new central power for a 
limited time ; appeal to be made to the govern- 
ments of Germany .... 30 Sept. „ 
Protest of Austria against the alliance of Prussia 

with the smaller German states . 12 Nov. ,, 
Treaty of Munich between Bavaria, Saxony, and 
Wiirtemberg, for a revision of the German con- 
federation 27 Feb. 1850 

Parliament meets at Erfurt . . . March, ,, 
The king of Wiirtemberg denounces the insidious 

ambition of the king of Prussia . 15 March, ,, 
German diet meets at Frankfort . . 10 May, „ 
Hesse-Cassel sends no representative to Erfurt, 7 
June ; Hesse-Darmstadt withdraws from the 
Prussian league .... 20 June, ,, 

Austria calls an assembly of the German confedera- 
tion, 19 July ; which meets at Frankfort, 2 Sept. „ 
Austrian, Bavarian, and Prussian forces enter 

Hesse-Cassel (see Hesse-Cassel) . . 12 Nov. ,. 
Conferences on German affairs at Dresden, 

23 Dec. 1850, to 15 May, 1851 
Max Schneckenburger, author of the song " Die 

Wacht am Rhein," died )t 

Re-establishment of the diet of the Germanic con- 
federation at Frankfort ... 30 May, ,, 
Conference at Nuremberg relative to a general code 

of commerce 15 Jan. 1857 

Great excitement in Germany at the French suc- 
cesses in Lombardy : warlike preparations in 
Bavaria, &c. .... May and June, 1859 
Meetings of new liberal party in Eisenach, Saxe 
Weimar, 17 July ; seven resolutions put forth 
recommending that the imperfect federal consti- 
tution be changed ; that the German diet be re- 
placed by a strong cent'al government ; that a 
national assembly be summoned ; and that Prus- 
sia be invited to take the initiative 14 Aug. ,, 
This proposal not accepted by Prussia, and warmly 
opposedby Hanover Sept. ,, 



The Austrian minister, Rechberg, severely censur- 
ing the duke of Saxe Gotha, for a liberal speech, 
4 Sept. ; and accusing the Prussian government 
of favouring the liberals, meets with cutting 
retorts ... .... Sept. 1839. 

Death of Ernst Moritz Arndt, patriot and poet, 

29 Jan. i860 

The federal diet maintains the Hesse-Cassel consti- 
tution of T852 against Prussia . 24 March, „ 

Meeting of the French emperor and the German 
sovereigns at Baden, 16, 17 June ; and of the czar 
and the emperor of Austria and the regent of 
Prussia at Toplitz .... 26 July, &c. ,, 

Meeting at Coburg in favour of German unity 
against French aggression ... 5 Sept. ,, 

Dispute with Denmark respecting the rights of 
Holstein and Schleswig .... Nov. ,, 

First meeting of a German national shooting match 
at Gotha 8-1 1 July, 1861 

Meeting of German national association at Heidel- 
berg ; decides to form a fleet . . 23 Aug. , y 

Subscriptions received for fleet . Sept. and Oct. ., 

The national association meet at Berlin ; they re- 
commend the formation of a united federal 
government with a central executive, under the 
leadership of Prussia . . . .13 March, 1862 

Meetings of plenipotentiaries from German states 
on federal reform . . .8 July — 10 Aug. ,, 

Deputies from German states meet at Weimar, and 
declare that Germany wants formation into one 
federal state 28, 29 Sept. , t 

Congress of deputies from German states declare 
in favour of unity .... 21 Aug. 1863 

The emperor of Austria invites the German 
sovereigns to a congress at Frankfort, 31 July ; 
king of Prussia declines, 4 Aug. ; nearly all the 
sovereigns meet, 16, 17 Aug. ; they approve the 
Austrian plan of federal reform, 1 Sept. ; which 
is rejected by Prussia . . . .22 Sept. ;l 

The diet determines to have recourse to federal exe- 
cution in Holstein if Denmark does not fulfil her 

obligations 1 Oct. ,? 

50th anniversary of the battle of Leipsie celebrated 

18 Oct. „ 
Death of Frederick VII. of Denmark . 15 Nov. ,, 
German troops enter Holstein for "federal execu- 
tion" (see Denmark for events) . . 23 Dec. ,, 

Death of Maximilian II. of Bavaria . 10 March, 1864 
Prussia retains the duchies ; discussion between 
Austria and Prussia ; the diet adopt the resolu- 
tion of Bavaria and Saxony, requesting Austria 
and Prussia to give up Holstein to the duke of 
Augustenburg ; rejected . . .6 April, 1865 
50th anniversary of the establishment of the Ger- 
manic coufederation . . . . • 8 June, „ 
The Gastein convention (which see) . . 14 Aug. )r 
Condemned by the diet at Frankfort . . 1 Oct. ,, 
The diet calls on Austria and Prussia to disarm, 

19 May, 1866 
Meeting of deputies from smaller German states 

condemn the impending war . . .20 May, ,, 
Austria declares that Prussia has broken the treaty 
by invading Holstein, 11 June; the diet adopts 
this, by 9 votes ; the Prussian representative de- 
clares the Germanic confederation at an end, and 
invites the members to form a new one, excluding 

Austria 14 June, 

The Prussians enter Saxony, and the war begins, 

15 June, 
The diet determines for war, 16 June ; proclaims 
prince Charles of Bavaria general of the confedera- 
tion troops 27 June, 

[For the war and its consequences, see Prussia, 
and German Confederation, North.] 
Treaty of alliance between Prussia and the northern 

states ; ratified 8 Sept. 

Continued disputes between the diet and Austria 
and Prussia respecting Schleswig-Holstein, 

Oct. and Nov. 
Draft of new constitution for North Germany 

settled 9 Feb. 

Elections commence .... 12 Feb. 

North German parliament opened at Berlin by the 

king of Prussia, 24 Feb. ; Dr. Simson elected 

president 2 March, 

The federal constitution adopted (printed in 
Almanach de Gotha, 1868) ; the parliament closed, 

17 April, 



GERMANY. 



435 



GERMANY. 



The constitution put in action i Jul} 7 , 

Meeting of 50 deputies from parliaments of Bavaria, 

Wlirtemberg, Baden, and Hesse Darmstadt, 

declare necessity of union with North Germany, 

Aug. 
Luxemburg evacuated by the Prussian garrison, 

9 Sept. 
New North German parliament meets, 10 Sept. ; 

closed 26 Oct. 

Opened by king of Prussia, 23 March ; closed, 

20 June, 

Delegates from the Zollverein meet, April ; close 

23 May, 

Inauguration of the Luther monument at Worms 
by the king of Prussia . . . .25 June, 

German rifle association meeting at Vienna, 26 
July ; addressed by Von Beust at the close, giving 
as toast, " Peace and Reconciliation " . 6 Aug. 

After negotiations between Bavaria, Wlirtemberg, 
and Baden, July, a South German military com- 
mission appointed Oct. 

Wilhelmshafen, at Hippens, bay of Jahde, Olden- 
burg, the first German military port, inaugurated 
by the king of Prussia . . . .17 June, 

Centenary of the birth of Alexander von Humboldt 
celebrated 14 Sept. 

Count Arnim, German representative at Rome, 
protests against the doctrine of papal infallibility 

May, 

German parliament opened by the king, 14 Feb. ; 
closed 26 May, 

Count Bismarck announces the declaration of war 
by France, and terms it groundless and presump- 
tuous 19 July, 

Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Hesse Darmstadt, and 
Baden, support Prussia in the war declared by 
France (See Franco-Prussian War). 15 July, 

Munich, Stuttgart, and other cities, declare for 
union with North Germany . . about 6 Sept. 

Socialists declare against annexation of Alsace, &e. 

Sept. -Nov. 

Baden and Hesse Darmstadt join the North German 
Confederation by treaty, about 15 Nov. ; also 
Wurtemberg, 25 Nov. ; and Bavaria, 23 Nov. ; re- 
taining certain powers in military and diplomatic 
affairs Nov. 

The North German parliament opened at Berlin by 
Dr. Simson on behalf of the king . . 24 Nov. 

The parliament vote 100,000,000 thalers to continue 
the war 28 Nov. 

The king of Bavaria, in a letter to the king of 
Saxony, proposes the king of Prussia to be 
nominated emperor of Germany about 4 Dec. 

The parliament in an address request the king 
to become emperor (votes for, 188 ; against, 6), 

10 Dec. 
The address solemnly presented to the king in an 

assembly of princes by Dr. Simson . . 18 Dec. 

Re-establishment of the German empire, 1 Jan. ; 
William I. of Prussia proclaimed emperor at Ver- 
sailles 18 Jan. 

Mr. Odo Russell (aft. Id. Ampthill) appointed am- 
bassador at Berlin 

Several German bankers condemned to imprison- 
ment for subscribing to the French loan 3 Jan. 

Preliminaries of peace with France signed at Ver- 
sailles 26 Feb. 

The emperor reviews part of his army at Long- 
champs, near Paris 1 Mar. 

First Reichstag or imperial parliament opened at 
Berlin by the emperor, 397 members. 21 .Mar. 

The new constitution of the empire comes into 
force 4 May, 

Chancery of the empire : prince Bismarck, chan- 
cellor 12 May, 

The treaty of peace ratified . . . 16 May, 

Dr. Dollinger, of Munich, excommunicated for 
opposing the dogma of papal infallibility, 18 
April ; made D.C.L. of Oxford . . June, 

Triumphal entry of the German armies into Berlin ; 
statue of Frederick William IV. inaugurated, 

16 June, 

Dr. Dollinger elected rector of the university of 
Munich 29 July, 

The emperors of Austria and Germany meet at 
Salzburg, Bismarck and Beust present 6-8 Sept. 

The Bavarian minister of public worship declares 



1870 



against the dogma of papal infallibility in a letter 

to the archbishop of Munich . . 27 Sept. 1871 

The German parliament opened by the emperor; 
who expresses his conviction " that the new Ger- 
man empire will be a reliable shield of peace," 

16 Oct. ,, 

Reform in the coinage : introduction of a gold coin 
approved by the federal council about 6 Nov. ,, 

Law forbidding the clergy to meddle with politics 
in the pulpit .... about 26 Nov. ,, 

Triennial war-budget voted ... 1 Dec. ,, 

Sharp despatch from count Bismarck to the Ger- 
man ambassador at Paris respecting the acquittal 
of murderers of Germans at Melun and Paris, 

7 Dec. ,, 

Ultramontane agitation against the government; 
excitement amongst the Polish Romanists ; count 
Bismarck carries his school inspection bill against 
the Roman catholic clergy .... Mar. 1872 

The empress-queen visits England . . May, ,, 

Bismarck reports to the parliament the pope's 
refusal to receive cardinal Hohenlohe as ambas- 
sador 14 May, , r 

Bill for the expulsion of the Jesuits passed in the 
German parliament (131-93); end of session, 
19 June ; the law published . . .5 July, .,, 

Inauguration of a memorial to Von Stein, the pa- 
triotic statesman at Nassau, by the emperor 

9 July, ,, 

Imperial congress : the czar arrives at Berlin, 
5 Sept. ; the emperor of Austria, 6 Sept. ; both 
leave ; prince Bismarck declares the meeting t<> 
be merely an act of friendship ; ' ' prince Gortscha- 
koff thankful that nothing was written," about 

6 Sept. ,,. 

Great emigration of young men to America to avoid 
the conscription; forbidden by government, 

Sept. „ 

The German parliament opened . . 12 Mar. 1873 

Treaty with France settling the total evacuation of 
the departments held by German troops on pay- 
ment of the indemnity in Sept. signed 15 Mar. ,, 

The emperor William warmly received at St. Peters- 
burg 27 April— 11 May, ,, 

The monetary reform law passed, 23 June ; the par- 
liament closed ..... 25 June, „ 

Last payment of French war indemnity . 5 Sept. ,,, 

The emperor's visit to Vienna . . 17 Oct. ,,. 

Elections for the parliament — (397 members ; about 
two-thirds nationalist liberals ; about 100 ultra- 
montauists) 10 Jan. 1S74 

Parliament opened 5 Feb. „ 

Letter from earl Russell to the emperor, expressing 
sympathy of himself and others with the struggle 
against the pope, 28 Jan. ; the emperor replies 

18 Feb. ,, 

Bismarck confined by illness . March, April, ,, 

Constitutional struggle in the parliament res- 
pecting the army bill .... March, ,, 

The government require 401,659 men (instead of 
360,000) permanently : — compromise ; the army 
to be settled for seven years . about 10 April, ,, 

The parliament session closed by the emperor witli 
a pacific speech .... 26 April , 

German Liberal Association, formed against Par- 
ticularists and Ultramontanists . about June, 

Count Harry Arnim, formerly ambassador at Rome 
and Paris, suddenly arrested and imprisoned in 
Berlin : ostensibly for refusing to give up official 
papers, 4 Oct, ; released on bail . . 28 Oct. ,, 

Parliament opened by the emperor ; declaration of 
firm legislative and defensive policy . 29 Oct. ,, 

Bismarck resigns the chancellorship after an ad- 
verse vote in the parliament, 16 Dec, on a vote 
of confidence (199-71) retains it . . 18 Dec. ,, 

Important registration law for births, deaths, and 
marriages passed Jan. 1875 

Civil marriage bill passed ... 25 Jan. ,, 

International rifle meeting at Stuttgart . 1 Aug. ,, 

Statue of Hermann (or Arminius), by Von Bandel, 
at Detmold, uncovered by the emperor William 

16 Aug. ,, 

Parliament meets; pacific speech of the emperor 
read 27 Oct. ,, 

The imperial bank of Germany opens . 1 Jan. 187 

Proposal for purchase of all (lie railways by the 
imperial government (opposed in the south) 

20 March, ,, 
F F 2 



GERMANY. 



436 



GERMANY. 



The czar at Berlin .... n May, 1876 

Parliament opened with a royal pacific speech, 

30 Oct. ,, 
Elections : liberal majority ; socialist democrats 

elected for Berlin . . . . 10, 11 Jan. 1877 
Parliament opened by the emperor : he hopes for 

peace in the east . . . .22 Feb. „ 

Supreme Court for Germany settled to be at Leipsic 

by parliament 21 March, ,, 

New code of laws enacted ,, 

Resignation of Bismarck as chancellor, 3 April ; 

withdrawn 8 April, „ 

Exportation of horses forbidden . . 7 July, ,, 
Parliament re-opened .... 6 Feb. 1878 
In consequence of the attempted assassination of 
the emperor by HOdel, 11 May, a stringent bill 
to repress socialism is brought into the parlia- 
ment, and rejected (251— 57) . . 24, 25 May, ,, 
' Grosser Kurfiirst, ironclad, sunk by collision with 
Konig Wilhelm off Folkestone, about 300 lost 

31 May, „ 
The emperor fired at and wounded by Dr. Karl 
Edouard Nobiling, a professor of philology and 

socialist, at Berlin 2 June, „ 

The tarown-prince authorised to direct public affairs, 

4, 5 June, ,, 
Parliament dissolved . . . .12 June, „ 

Death of king George of Hanover . . 12 June, ,, 
Emil Heinrich Max Hftdel condemned 10 July, ,, 
Elections held (severe struggle) . . 30 July, ,, 
The Berlin conference (ivhinh see) 13 June — 13 July, ,, 
Hodel executed at Berlin ... 16 Aug. „ 
New parliament opened : national liberals, 123 ; 119 
imperialists and conservatives ; 105 centre (Ro- 
man Catholics, &c.) .... 9 Sept. ,, 
Dr. Nobiling dies of self-inflicted wounds, 10 Sept. ,, 
The emperor quite recovered ; announced 14 Sept. „ 
The repressive Socialist Bill piassed (72 majority) 

19 Oct. „ 
Decree for expulsion of Socialists and others, issued 

Nov. „ 
The emperor returns to Berlin and resumes govern- 
ment 5 Dec. ,, 

174 clubs, 44 newspapers, and 157 other papers 

suppressed by injunctions up to . . Dec. „ 
Parliamentary Discipline Bill (to "muzzle" 
speakers); a "Gagging Bill" introduced about 

9 Jan. 1879 
Bismarck's negotiations with the Roman curia re- 

spectingtheFalklaws(CMMMW;:a?)i7i/) fruitless Jan. „ 
" Gagging " Bill rejected by the parliament 7 March, ,, 
Prince Bismarck's protectionist tariff bill virtually 

passed, about 9 May, „ 

Resignation of Von. Forckenbeck (liberal), presi- 
dent of the parliament, 20 May ; election of an 
ultramontane, about . . . .22 May, „ 
The emperor's golden wedding kept . n June, „ 
Resignation of Falk and other ministers ; an- 
nounced 30 June, „ 

Bismarck in the parliament disclaims connection 

with the liberal party .... 9 July, „ 
The customs bill finally passed (217-117) ; session 

closed I2 July, ,, 

Ministry reconstituted about . . . 14 July, 
Adm. Batsch tried and sentenced to 6 months' im- 
prisonment for loss of Grosser Kurfiirst (see 31 

May, 1878) July, „ 

Grand military manoeuvres at Konigsberg 5-9 Sept. „ 
Meeting of Bismarck and Jacobini, papal nuncio, at 

Gastein, about j6 Sept. 

Bismarck visits Vienna ; renews friendship with 

Andrassy, 21-24 Sept. ; supreme court for all 

Germany, opened at Leipsic . . . 1 Oct. 

New code of laws made in 1877 come into operation', 

Nov. ,. 
Bill for enlargement of the army (by 27,000 men), 

proposed j an .' l88o 

German parliament opened ; pacific speech from the 

emperor I2 F e b. „ 

In the Federal Council 22 small states out-vote 
Prussia, Saxony, and Bavaria, respecting new 

stamp duties 3 April 

Bismarck's resignation not accepted by the em- 
peror ; the states give in. . . . . April, 
The new army bill passed (186-96) . . 9 April' 
The parliament prorogued . . .10 May, 
" New Liberal " party formed by secession from the 
reactionary " National Liberals " . . Aug. 



Grand army manoeuvres in a plain 10 miles south 

of Berlin 10 Sept. et seq. 1880 

German parliament opened . . .16 Feb. 1S81 
German army manoeuvres near Hanover 30 Aug. 

and Sept. ,, 
G neral elections ; large liberal majority . 28 Oct. „ 
The parliament opened by Prince Bismarck with 

pacific message from the emperor . 17 Nov. „ 
Bismarck says Germany is not to be ruled after 

English fashion 29 Nov. ,, 

He is defeated in a financial question 169-83 1 Dec. ,, 
Imperial rescript against parliamentary government 

published 7 Jan. 1882 

Violent debates in the parliament . 24 Jan. et seq. ,, 
Bismarck's tobacco tax bill rejected by his economic 
council 21 March; rejected by Parliament 276-43 

14 June „ 
Important autumn manoeuvres near Brcslau 

6 Sept. ,, 
German Colonization Society constituted at Frank- 
fort 6 Dec. ,, 

The budget rejected by the chambers . 11 Dec. ,, 
Death of Prince Charles, brother of the Emperor 

21 Jan. 1883 
Enthusiastic commemoration of Luther's birth (see 

Lutheranism) Aug. -Sept. ,, 

Autumn manoeuvres at Merseburg, 15 Sept., at 

Homburg 20 Sept. ,, 

Germonia, a colossal statue, &c, by Prof. Schilling, 
a national memorial of German unity and victories 
of 1870-1 set up in the Niederwald at Rudesheim 
on the Rhine, uncovered by the emperor William 
in the presence of German sovereigns and 5,000 
spectators ; Von Moltke there but not Bismarck 

28 Sept. ,, 

[Plot to blow up the monument by dynamite and 

destroy the royal and eminent persons present 

this day, frustrated by bad weather ; discovered 

in 1884]. 

The fourth centenary of Luther's birth (10 Nov. 

1483) celebrated at Erfurt, Halle, &c. 31 Oct., et s«q. „ 
Successful visit of the Crown Prince to Spain and 

Italy 23 N0V.-22 Dec. „ 

Prince Bismarck refuses to present to the chamber 

a letter of condolence from the United States on 

the death of the eloquent Dr. Lasker, formerly 

his supporter, afterwards his opponent . Feb. 1884 

German parliament opened; disputes respecting 

the Lasker affair .... 6, 7 Mar. ,, 
Mr. Sargent, the obnoxious U.S. minister, settled 
to be removed to St. Petersburg, 26 Mar. ; de- 
clined 27 Max - . ,, 

Anti-socialist lawprolonged fortwo years (189-157), 
10 May; trial of Kraszewski, Polish poet and 
novelist, and captain Hentsch, ex-telegraph 
official at Leipsic, ior high treason in military 
communications to Austrian, French, and other 
governments in 1866-71 ; Kraszewski sentenced to 
32 years' imprisonment [released on bail Nov. 1885]; 
Hentsch to 9 years' penal servitude . 12-19 May, >> 
Foundation of the new German parliament-house 

at Berlin laid by the emperor . . .9 June „ 
Autumn manoeuvres at Diisseldorf, 15 Sept., et seq. „ 
German colony founded at Cameroons, and 
Bimbia, west coast of Africa, by HerrNachtigall ; 

Aug. „ 
Death of Lord Ampthill, British ambassador, Aug. ; 

succeeded by Sir Edward Malet . . Sept. „ 
Elections for the parliament ; number of liberals 

diminished, social democrats increased 28 Oct. „ 
Parliament opened by the emperor . 20 Nov. ,, 
Bismarck defeated ; votes for payment of members, 
180-99, 2 6 Nov. ; parts of May ecclesiastical laws 

repealed (217-93) 3 T)ec. ,, 

Eight dynamitards, Friedrich A. Reinsdorf and 
others for attempting to kill the emperor, 28 Sept., 
1883 (see above) : tried at Leipsic ; F. A. Reins- 
dorf, Rupsch, and Kiichler sentenced to death ; 
two to imprisonment ; three acquitted 15-22 Dec. ,, 
German flag said to be hoisted on N. coast of New 

Guinea, New Britain, and other islands, Dec. ,, 
Great increase of emigration (fivefold) . . 1879-18S4 
"Germany does not want colonies" — Bismarck, 
1871 — 180,000 marks voted for protection of 

colonies 10 Jan. 1885 

Speech of Prince Bismarck attacking the Gladstone 

cabinet 2 Mar. ,, 

Dispute said to be settled . . . .9 Mar. ,, 



GEEMANY. 



437 



GEEMANY. 



Lieske convicted of murder of Rumpff at Frankfort 

i July, i 

Parliament opened , . . . 19 Nov, 

Prince Bismarck's "Schnapps" (dram of spirits) 

monopoly bill introduced 11 Jan. ; rejected by 

committee 12 March, 

Sarauw sentenced to 12 years' penal servitude for 
high treason (giving information respecting 
fortresses to the French government). 1 1 Feb. 

Prince Bismarck reproves parliament for opposing 
government bills .... 26 March, 

The " Schnapps " bill rejected (181-3) 27 March, 

Socialist law prolonged for two years 31 March, 

Leopold von Ranke, the historian, died (aged go) 

23 May, 

Autumn manoeuvres at Strasburg ; the army 
reported to be perfect . . about 15 Sept. . 

Parliament opened 25 Nov. . 

Bill for increase of the army (41,000) for seven 
years brought in 3 Dec. ; much opposed by 
clericals, socialists, and others ; adjourned to 
Jan. 1887, 17 Dec. 1886 ; amendment limiting 
increase to three years carried (183-154) ; parlia- 
ment immediately dissolved - . 14 Jan. i£ 

Elections : (efforts to make the army parliamentary 
instead of imperial) ; majority for the govern- 
ment 21 Feb. . 

Parliament opened .... 3 March, . 

Army bi.l passed (227-31) . . . 11 March, . 

Treaty of alliance with Austria and Italy signed 

13 March, . 

The emperor's 90th birthday royally celebrated at 
Berlin 22 March, , 

Arrest of M. Schnasbell (see under France) 

20-22 April, , 

Foundation stone of opening lock of a canal from 
the Baltic to the North Sea, 61 miles long, laid 
at Holteuau near Kiel by the emperor ; (esti- 
mated cost 7,800,000/.) ... 3 June, . 

Eight Alsatians, members of the " Ligue des 
Patriotes " formed for the reunion of Alsace- 
Lorraine to France (advocated by M. Deroulede, 
a fiery poet of " La Revanche ") tried at Leipsic 
for high treason, 13 June ; four sentenced to one 
to two years' imprisonment ; four acquitted 18 
June ; Klein and Grebert sentenced to six and five 
years' respectively - . . . . 8 July, 

Parliament closed 18 June, 

The emperor present at military manoeuvres at 
Stettin 12 Sept. 

Celebration of 25th anniversary of Prince Bis- 
marck's premiership of Prussia . 23 Sept. 

Border disputes (see France) 

Signor Crispi, Italian premier, visits prince Bis- 
marck .... . 2, 3 Oct. 

The czar formally received in Berlin . 18 Nov. : 

Meeting of the parliament . , . . 24 Nov. 

Statement in the Cologne Gazette of the existence of 
letters &c, purporting to come from prince Bis- 
marck sent to the czar tending to create dis- 
affection ; asserted to be forged ; attributed to 
Orleanists, especially princess Clementine of 
Coburg, daughter of king Louis Philippe . Nov. 

Cabannes sentenced to ten years' penal servitude for 
selling military secrets to the French government 

19 Dec. 

Indisposition of the crown prince, (since termed 
perichondritis), winters in Italy and S. France 
under the care of sir Morell Mackenzie, 1887 ; 
stated to be malignant growth in the larynx ; 
tracheotomy performed (the German doctors ami 
sir Morell Mackenzie differ) . . . Feb. : 

Herr von Puttkamer's more stringent anti-socialist 
bill opposed by all parties ; revelations of govern- 
ment detectives inciting socialists to violence in 
Zurich: the bill committed 30 Jan. 1888 ; passed 

17 Feb. 

Defensive treaty with Austria against Russian or 
other aggression, 7 Oct. 1S79 ; first published 

3 Feb. 

Powerful speech of prince Bismarck, alike for peace 
and preparation for war ... 6 Feb. 

Serious illness of the emperor ; prince William 
(grandson) entrusted with official powers, 17 Nov. 
1887 ; this publicly announced . 8 March, 

" The great emperor who founded Germany's unity 
is dead." — Prince Bismurck . . 9 March, 



The emperor Frederick III. arrives at Berlin 

11 March, 

Solemn German national funeral of the emperor at 
Berlin ; preseut the kings of Belgium, Saxony, 
and Roumania, the prince of Wales and the duke 
of Cambridge, the crown princes of Austria, 
Russia, Denmark, and other princes and nobles 
(not the emperor Frederick, prince Bismarck, 
and count Moltke) .... 16 March, 

Parliament prorogued . . . .20 March, 

Rescript empowering the crown prince to act for 
the emperor in state affairs when required 

21 March, 

Visit of the queen of England. . 24-26 April, 

Continued improvement of the emperor's health 

15 May, 

The emperor becomes much worse 11, 12 June ; dies 
(of cancer of the larynx) . . . 15 June, 

Simple, impressive funeral at Potsdam 18 June, 

The imperial parliament opened by the emperor 
with much pomp ; many princes present ; in his 
speech the emperor said " I will follow the same 
path by which my deceased grandfather won the 
confidence of his allies, the love of the German 
people, and the goodwill of foreign countries," 
25 June. The house adjourns after voting a 
cordial address 26 June, 

Herr Dietz, a former railway official in Alsace- 
Lorraine, his wife and Appel convicted of treason 
and giving railway information to the French 
government, 5 July ; Dietz sentenced to ten 
years' penal servitude, his wife to four years, 
and Appel to ten years' confinement. 9 July, 

The emperor's visit to the czar at Peterhof, 19-23 
July ; visited Stockholm and Copenhagen July, 

The emperor arrives at Vienna, 3 Oct. ; at Rome, 
11 Oct. ; at Naples . . . . 16 Oct. 

Sir Morell Mackenzie publishes " The Fatal Illness 
of Frederick the Noble " ; its sale temporarily 
prohibited in Germany ; he stops the sale in 
England of the German surgeon's report of the 
case ; statements differ . . about 15 Oct. 

Opening of parliament by the emperor 22 Nov. 

The East African bill passed, granting money for 
the defence of German interests and the suppres- 
sion of the slave trade, 30 Jan. ; adopted by the 
federal council (see Africa, German Fast Africa), 

1 Feb. : 

The empress Frederick and her daughters visit 
England . . . .19 Nov. 1888-26 Feb. 

Three German war vessels lost ; nine officers and 
87 men drowned, in a storm off Samoa (which 
see) 16 March, 

Great strike of coal miners in Westphalia (which 
see) May, 

The King of Italy, his son and Signor Crispi 
warinlv received at Berlin . . 21-26 May, 

33 Silesian miners engaged in the strikes ; sen- 
tenced to various terms of penal servitude ( En- 
kel, the ringleader, to 7 years for riotous con- 
duct) 24 July, 

Prince Bismarck's bill to compel the working 
class, with the assistance of the state and 
their employes, to provide for sickness (passed 
1883), for accidents (passed 1884), for old age and 
infirmity, passed .... 24 May, 

The emperor with a fleet arrives at Spithead, 1 
Aug., and proceeds to the queen at Osborne, 
2 Aug. ; created a British admiral ; present at 
the grand naval review, 5 Aug., and at a sham 
fight at Aldershot, 7 Aug. ; queen Victoria made 
colonel of a German regiment to be called " The 
Queen of England's Own," about 3 Aug. ; the 
emperor leaves England .... 8 Aug. 

The emperor of Austria and his heir at Berlin, 

12-15 Aug. 

The emperor visits Strasburg, well received, 20 
Aug. ; at Metz. 24 Aug. 

The -emperor present at the autumn army man- 
oeuvres near Hanover .... Sept. 

Prince Bismarck declines to give state support to 
the German colonial company in S.W. Africa, 

Sept. 

Tin 1 czar visits Berlin .... n-i3<>et. 

The imperial parliament opened with a pacific 
speech 22 Oct. 

Bill for amending the socialist law of 1878, pro- 
longing it indefinitely, introduced . . Oct. 



GERMANY. 



4S8 



GERMANY. 



The emperor and empress present at the marriage 
of his sister to the duke of Sparta, 27 Oct. ; warmly- 
received by the sultan at Constantinople 

2-6 Nov. 
Visit Venice . . .... 12 Nov. 

The Austrian and German emperors meet at Inns- 
bruck I4 Nov. 

91 Socialists, members of a secret society, tried at 
Elberfeld fur illegally promoting socialism, 20 
Nov. et seq. ; 47 acquitted, the rest sentenced to 
imprisonment(terms 18 months to 14 days) 30 Dec. 
The stringent anti-socialist bill rejected (169—98), 
the parliament closed with a moderate speech by 

the emperor 25 Jan. 

Two rescripts issued by the emperor, urgently re- 
commending action tor the improvement of the 
condition of the working classes, and suggesting 
the co-operation of France, England, Belgium, 
and Switzerland. See Berlin . . 4 Feb. 

Elections for the new parliament, increased num- 
ber of socialists elected. See Cartel. 20 Feb. et seq. 

Resignation of prince Bismarck, chancellor of the 
empire 18 March, 

He declines being created duke of Lauenburg, 

about 23 March, 

He is succeeded by gen. George von Caprivi de Ca- 
prera de Montecucculi . . about 20 March, 

Count Herbert Bismarck, secretary for foreign 
affairs, resigns, succeeded by baron Marschall von 
Biederstein about 1 April, 

New colonial department formed, reported 16 April, 

About 25,000 workmen on strike in Germany re- 
ported 30 April, 

The demonstration in favour of an eight hours 
working day passes off tranquilly . 1 May, 

The new parliament opened by the emperor ; in his 
speech, while professing ardent desire for peace, 
he required supplies for the increase of the army 
(18,000,000 marks) 6 May, 

Vote of 4,500,000 marks, and an annual subsidy of 
350,000 marks, for the suppression of slavery, 
and protection of German interests in East Africa 
proposed by gen. von Caprivi . . 12 May, 

First German national horse show (at Berlin) 
12 June, et seq. 

The new army bill passed by the parliament 

28 June, 

Anglo-German convention (which see) respecting 
East Africa, signed at Berlin . . 1 July, 

Newly created colonial department subjected to the 
chancellor in July 

The emperor visits queen Victoria ' at Osborne 
4-8 Aug. ; visits Heligoland (which see) 10 Aug. 

The emperor visits Russia ; met by the czar at 
Nawa, 17 Aug. ; at Peterhof ; left . 23 Aug. 

Naval review at Kiel 3" Sept. 

Military manoeuvres in Silesia . . . Sept'. 

Cordial meeting of the German emperor and the 
emperor of Austria at Rhonstock in Silesia 
17-20 Sept. ; at Vienna &c. . . 1-8 Oct. 

The socialist (or "muzzling ") law of 1878 expires ; 
great demonstration . . . .30 Sept. 

International socialist congress at Halle, Prussian 
Saxony 12-18 Oct. 

establishment of a colonial council decreed 15 Oct. 

Birthday of field marshal count Hellmuth Moltke 
(born 26 Oct., 1800) celebrated at Berlin ; the 
emperor, the king of Saxony and other German 
sovereigns and the count himself present 26 Oct. 

Marriage of the princess Victoria, daughter of the 
empress Frederick II., to prince Adolphus of 
bchaumburg-Lippe, at Berlin . . IQ Nov. 

The parliament (adjourned in July) meets 2 Dec 

The emperor at a conference in Berlin, strongly 
advocates reform in public education 4-17 Dec 

Sudden death of Field-Marshal von Moltke, aged 90, 
24 April ; grand military funeral, accompanied by 
the emperor, German sovereigns, state officers 
ambassadors and a great multitude, Berlin 
28 April ; quiet interment at Kreisau in Silesia 

-„ . _ , 29 April, 

Prince Bismarck elected deputy for the parliament 
at Geestemiinde x May 

The parliament adjourns (the important Trades 
Law Amendment Act passed) . . 9 May, 

The triple alliance renewed . . .28 June' 

Tour of the emperor and empress; they land at 
Hell oland 30 June ; arrive at Amsterdam (in 



1890 



the Hohenzollcrn) ; warmly received by the queens, 
1 July ; at the Hague and Rotterdam, 3 July ; re- 
ceived at Port Victoria by a British squadron ; 
arrive at Windsor (which see). 4 July ; at Bucking- 
ham palace ; receptions and opera at Covent, 
Garden, 8 July ; garden party at Marlborough 
house ; state concert at Albert hall, 9 July ; visit 
the Naval Exhibition ; state entry into the city ; 
banquet at Guildhall ; speech of the emperor 
(" My aim is above all the maintenance of peace") 
10 July ; he reviews about 25,000 volunteers at 
Wimbledon ; at Crystal palace ; review of National 
Fire Brigade ; concerts ; dinner by the prince of 
Wales; grand fireworks, 11 July; at St. Paul's; 
visit to Hatfield (marquis of Salisbury), 12 July ; 
banquet at Hatfield ; farewell to the queen at 
Windsor ; the empress goes to her five sons at 
Felixstowe, Suffolk, 13 July ; the emperor proceeds 
from London to Leith ; embarks on the Bohen- 
zollern, sails up the Forth to view the bridge, and 
then proceeds to the coast of Norway, 13, 14 July; 
lands at various places, 18 July et .-.eg. ; at North 
Cape, 21 July ; leaves Bergen, 4 Aug. ; arrives at 
Kiel, 8 Aug. ; the empress and the princes leave 

Felixstowe 6 Aug. 1891 

Great rise in the price of grain, especially rye, 
through the prohibition of exportation by the 

czar Aug. ,, 

Socialist congress at Erfurt closed . . 21 Oct. ,, 
Strike of journeymen printers throughout Germany 

for a 9 hours day begun at Berlin about 2 Nov. ,, 
The WeUsenburrj, ironclad named by the emperor at 
Stettin . . .... 14 Dec. ,, 

New commercial treaty with Austria, Italy, and 

Belgium, adopted by the parliament . Dec. ,, 
Gen. von Caprivi made a count . . . 18 Dec. ,, 
The printers' strike supported by above 3,oooL sent 
by English trade unions, 2 Jan. ; collapse of the 

strike reported 15 Jan. 1892 

The emperor's speech at Brandenburg, in which he 
severely censures the opponents of his political 
policy, Styling them "grumblers," causes great 
sensation among all parties . 24 Feb. et seq. ,, 
Several newspapers at Berlin confiscated for re- 
printing the Times leader on the emperor's speech 

3 March, ,, 
Rioting at Berlin, Hanover, Dantzig and other 

places through distress . 25 Feb. et seq. ,, 

Ministerial crisis in Prussia (which see) 22 March, ,, 
The government defeated in the parliament ; the 

vote for an imperial corvette negatived 29 March, ,, 
The parliament prorogued . . 31 March, ,, 

See Prussia. 
Emperors of Rome and Kings of Germany, 
carlovingian race. 
800. Charles I. the Great, or Charlemagne. 
814. Louis I. le Debonnaire, king of France. 
840. Lothaire I. , or Lother, son of Louis ; died in a 

monastery at Treves, Sept. 855. 
855. Louis II., son of Lothaire. 
875. Charles II., the Bald, king of France ; died 877. 
38i. Charles III., the Fat, crowned king of Italy; de- 
posed ; succeeded by 
387. Arnulf or Arnoul ; crowned emperor at Rome, 896. 
899. Louis III., the Blind. 
„ Lou:s IV., the Child, son of Anmlf; the last of the 
Carlovingian race in Germany. 

SAXON DYNASTY. 

911. Otho, duke of Saxony; refuses the dignity on 

account of his age. 
,, Conrad I., duke of Franconia, Icing. 
918. Henry I., the Fowler, son of Otho, duke of Saxony, 

king. 
936. Otho I. , the Great, son of Henry, crowned by pope 

John Xtl. , 2 Feb. 962, the beginning of the holy 

Roman empire. 
973. Otho II. , the Bloody : massacred his chief nobility 

at an entertainment, 981 ; wounded by a poisoned 

arrow. 
983. Otho III. , the Red, his son, yet in his minority, 

poisoned. 
1002. Henry II., duke of Bavaria, surnamed the Holy 

and the Lame. 

HOUSE OF FRANCONIA. 

1024. Conrad II., surnamed the Salique. 

1039. Henry III., the Black, son. 

1056. Henry IV., son; a minor; Agnes, regent; deposed 



GEEMANY. 



439 



GHENT. 



by his son and successor ; Rudolph (1077) and 

Herman (1082) nominated by the pope ; and 

Conrad (1087). 
1106. Henry V. ; married Maud or Matilda, daughter of 

Hemy I. of England. 
ii2$. Lothaire II., surnamed the Saxon. 

HOUSE OF HOHENSTAUFEN, OR OF SUAB1A. 

1138. Conrad III., duke of Franconia. 

1152. Frederick I. Barbarossa ; drowned by his horse 

throwing him into river Saleph, 10 June, 1190. 
1190. Henry VI. , son, surnamed Asper, or Sharp ; detained 
Richard I. of England a prisoner; died 1197. 
[Interregnum and contest for the throne between 
Philip of Suabia and Otho of Brunswick.] 
2198. Philip, brother to Henry; assassinated at Bam- 
berg by Otto of Wittelsbaeh. 
i2c8. Otho IV., surnamed the Superb ; excommunicated 

and deposed ; died 1218. 
3215. Frederick II., king of Sicily, son of Henry VI. : 
deposed by his subjects, who elected Henry, 
landgrave of Thuringia, 1246; Frederick died in 
1250, naming his son Conrad his successor; but 
the pope gave the imperial title to 
1247. William, earl of Holland (nominal). 
1250. Conrad IV., son of Frederick. 
[His son Conradin was proclaimed king of Sicily, 
which was, however, surrendered to his uncle 
Manfred, 1254 ; on whose death it was given by the 
pope to Charles of Anjou in 1263. Conradin, on the 
invitation of the Ghibeline party, entered Italy with 
a large army, was defeated at Tagliacozzo, 23 Aug. 
1268, and beheaded at Naples 29 Oct., thus ending 
the Hohenstaufen family.] 
E256. [Interregnum.] 

1257. Richard, earl of Cornwall, and Alphonso, of Castile, 
merely nominated. 

HOUSES OF HAPSBURG, LUXEMBURG, BAVARIA, ETC. 

1273. Rudolph, count of Haps burg. 

1291. [Interregnum.] 

1292. Adolphus, count of Nassau, to the exclusion of 

Albert, son of Rodolph : deposed ; slain at the 

battle of Gelheim, 2 July, 1298, by 
1298. Albert I., duke of Austria, Rodolph's son; killed 

by his nephew at Rheinfels, 1 May, 1308. 
1308. Henry VII. of Luxemburg. 

1313. [Interregnum.] 

1314. Louis IV. of Bavaria, and Frederick III. of Austria, 

son of Albert, rival emperors ; Frederick died in 

I 33°- 

2330. Louis reigns alone. 

E347. Charles IV. of Luxemburg. (At Nuremberg, in 

1356, the Golden Bull became the fundamental 

law of the German empire.) 
E378. Wenceslas, king of Bohemia, son, twice impri- 
soned ; forced to resign ; but continued to reign 

in Bohemia. 
1400. Frederick III. duke of Brunswick; assassinated 

immediately after his election, and seldom placed 

in the list of emperors. 
,, Rupert, count palatine of the Rhine; crowned at 

Cologne ; died 1410. 
1410. Jossus, marquess of Moravia ; chosen by a party of 

the electors ; died next year. 
,, Sigismund, king of Hungary ; elected by another 

party, on the death of Jossus recognised by all ; 

king of Bohemia in 1419. 

HOUSE OF AUSTRIA. 

1438. Albert II. the Great, duke of Austria, and king of 

Hungary and Bohemia ; died 27 Oct. 1439. 

1439. [Interregnum.] 

1440. Frederick IV. (or III.) surnamed the Pacific; 

elected emperor 2 Feb., but not crowned until 
June, 1442. 

1493. Maximilian I., son; died in 1519. In 1477 he 
married Mary of Burgundy. 
Francis I. of France and Charles I. of Spain be- 
came competitors for the empire. 

1519. Charles V. (I. of Spain) son of Joan of Castile and 
Philip of Austria, elected ; resigned both crowns, 
1556; retired to a monastery, where he died 
21 Sept. T55S. 

1556. Ferdinand I., brother; succeeded by his son 

1564. Maximilian II. king of Hungary and Bohemia. 

1576. Rodolph II., son. 

11612. Matthias, brother. 

*6ig. Ferdinand II., cousin, king of Hungary. 

1637. Ferdinand III., son. 



1658. Leopold I. , son. 

1705. Joseph I. , son. 

1711. Charles VI., brother. 

1740. Maria-Theresa, daughter, queen of Hungary and. 

Bohemia ; her right sustained by England. 
1742. Charles VII. elector of Bavaria, rival emperor, 

whose claim was supported by France. 
[This competition gave rise to a general war. 

Charles VII. died Jan. 1745.] 
1745. Francis I. of Lorraine, grand-duke of Tuscany, 

consort of Maria-Theresa. 
1765. Joseph II., son. 
1790. Leopold II., brother. 
1792. Francis II., son, became emperor of Austria only, 

as Francis I., 1804. 

See Austria. 

house of hohenzollern (See Prussia). 
1871. William I. king of Prussia, 18 Jan. (born 22 

March, 1797 ; died 9 March, 1888 ; empress, 

Augusta, born 30 Sept. 1811, died 7 Jan. 1890). 
1888. Frederick (William) III. "the Noble," son; born 

18 Oct. 1831 ; died 15 June, 1888 (married 

princess Victoria, princess royal of England 

(born 21 Nov. 1840) 25 Jan. 1858). 
,, William II., son, born 27 Jan. 1859 (married 

princess Auguste Victoria (born 22 Oct. 1858), 

27 Feb. 1881. 
Heir : William, born 6 May, 18S2 ; other children. 
See Prussia. 

GERMINAL INSURRECTION, in the 

faubourgs of Paris, suppressed on 12th Germinal, 
year III. (1 April, 1795). 

GEEONA (N. E. Spain), an ancient city, fre- 
quently besieged and taken. In June, 1808, it 
successfully resisted the French ; but after suffer- 
ing much by famine, surrendered 12 Dec. 1809. 

GEEEYMANDEEING, an American slang 
term, signifying the arranging the political divisions 
of a state, so that the minority may get the advan- 
tage over the majority. The name is derived from 
the action of Elbridge Gerry, governor of Massa- 
chusetts, in 181 1. The Irish Party causelessly 
applied the term to earl Spencer, lord-lieutenant of 
Ireland, in regard to electoral boundaries in 1885. 

GEESATJ, a Swiss valley, near the Rigi, 
about 4 miles i>5 r 3, the site of a miniature republic, 
which bought its independence in 1359, maintained 
it till 1798, and still, every May, elects government 
officers. 

GESTA EOMANOEUM; a collection of 
popular tales derived from Oriental and classical 
sources, written in Latin by an unknown author, 
about the middle of the 14th century, and one of 
the first books printed in the 15th. These tales 
have been largely used by our early poets and 
dramatists, including Shakspeare. The English 
translation, by the Rev. C. Swan (from an edition 
printed at Hagenau, 1508), appeared 1824. 

GETTYSBUEG (Philadelphia). Here severe 
fighting took place 1-3 July, 1803, between the in- 
vading confederate army under generals Lee, Long- 
street, and Ewe 11, and the federals under general 
George Meade. The confederates were long suc- 
cessful, but eventually were compelled to retire 
from Pennsylvania and Maryland. The killed and 
wounded on each side estimated at about 15.000. 
Grand national and military demonstration held 
here, 1-3 July, i838. 
GHEMAEA, see Talmud. 
GHENT (Belgium), an ancient city, built about 
the 71I1 century, during the middle-ages became 
very rich. John, third son of Edward III. of Eng- 
land, is said to have been born here in 1340 (hence 
named John of Gaunt) during the revolt under 
Jacob Vi.n Artevelde. a brewer, whose son Philip 
revived the insurrection against Louis, count of 
Flanders, 1379-82. Popu'aton in 1887, 147,912 ; 
in 1890, 153,740. 



GHIBELINES. 



440 



GIBRALTAR. 



Ghent rebelled against Philip of Burgundy, 1451 ; against 
the emperor Charles V., 1539; severely punished, 1540. 

"Pacification of Ghent" (when the north and south pro- 
vinces of the Netherlands united against Spain) pro- 
claimed 8 Nov. 1576, broken up 1579. The 300th anni- 
versary celebrated 3-10 Sept. 1876. 

Ghent taken by Louis XIV. of France, 9 March, 1678 ; and 
by the duke of Marlborough, 1706. 

Ghent seized by the French, 1793 ; annexed to the 
Netherlands, 1814 ; made part of Belgium, 1830. 

Peace of Ghent, between Great Britain and America, 
signed 24 Dec. 1814. 

New docks opened at Ghent by the king, Sept. 1881. 

GHIBELINES, see Guelphs. 

GHIZNEE, or GHUZNEE (East Persia), the 
seat of the Gaznevides, who founded the city, 969. 
They were expelled by the Seljuk Tartars in 1038. 
The British under sir John Keane attacked the 
strong citadel of Ghiznee at 2 a.m. 23 July, 1839. 
At 3 o'clock the gates were blown in by the artillery, 
and under cover of a heavy fire, the infantry forced 
their way into the place and at 5 fixed the British 
colours on its towers. — It capitulated to the 
Afghans, 1 March, 1842, who were defeated 6 Sept. 
and general Nott re-entered Ghiznee 7 Sept. same 
vear. Seized for Musa Khan by Mahomed Jan in 
Jan., retaken after a conflict, 19-20 April, 1880. 

GHOORKAS, see Goorkas. 

GHOSTS, produced by optical science. Mr. 
Dircks described his method at the British Associa- 
tion meeting in 1858. Dr. John Taylor produced 
ghosts scientifically in March; and Mr. Pepper ex- 
hibited the ghost illusion at the Royal Polytechnic 
Institution, July, 1863. See Cock-lane Ghost. 

GIANTS are mentioned in Gen. vi. 4. The 
bones of reputed giants, 17, 18, 20, and 30 feet high, 
have been proved to be remains of animals. — The 
battle of Marignano (1515) has been termed the 
" battle of the Giants." See Dwarfs. 
Og, king of Bashan, of the remnant of the giants : his 

bedstead was 9 cubits long (about 16J feet). 1451 b.c. 

(Devi. iii. n.) 
Goliath of Gath's "height, was 6 cubits and a span." 

Killed by David about 1063 b.c. (i Sam. xvii. 4.) 
Four giants, sons of Goliath, killed (2 Sam. xxi. 15-22) 

about 1018. 
The emperor Maximin (a.d. 235) was 8} feet in height, 

and of great bulk. Some say between 7 and 8 feet ; 

others above 8. 
*' The tallest man that hath been seen in our age was 

one named Gabara, who in the days of Claudius, the 

late emperor, was brought out of Arabia. He was 

9 feet 9 inches high. " Pliny. 
John Middleton (born 1578), commonly called the child 

of Hale (Lancashire), whose hand, from the carpus to 

the end of his middle linger, was 17 inches long; his 

palm 8i inches broad ; his whole height 9 feet 3 inches. 

Plot, Nat. Hist, of Staffordshire, p. 295. 
Patrick Cotter, Irish giant, born in 1761, was 8 feet 

7 inches in height ; his hand, from the commencement 

of the palm to the extremity of the middle finger, 

measureel 12 inches, and his shoe was 17 inches long ; 

died Sept. 1806. 
Charles Byrne, called O'Brien, 8 feet 4 inches high ; died 

1783 ; his skeleton is in the Museum, Royal College of 

Surgeons. 
■ Big Sam, porter of the prince of Wales, atCarlton-palace, 

near 8 feet high, performed as a giant in " Cymon," 

at the Opera-house, 1809. 
M. Brice, a native of the Vosges, 7 feet 6 inches high. 

He exhibited himself in London, Sept. 1862, and Nov. 

1863. 
Robert Hales, the Norfolk giant, died at Great Yarmouth, 

22 Nov. 1863 (aged 43). He was 7 feet 6 inches high, 

and weighed 452 lbs. 
Chang-Woo-Gow, a Chinese, aged 19, 7 feet 8 inches 

high, exhibited himself in London in Sept., foe., 

1865. Grown to 8 feet, exhibited at Westminster 

Aquarium ; with him Brustav, a Norwegian, 7 feet 9 

inches, aged 35, 11 June, 1880. 
Capt. Martin Van Buren Bates, of Kentucky, and Miss 

Ann Hanen Swann, of Nova Scotia, both about 7 feet 



high ; exhibited themselves in London, in May ; and 
married at St. Martin's-in-the-Fields, 17 June, 1871. 
Marian, the amazon queen, 8 feet 2 inches high ; born 
at Benkeudorf, Thuringia, 21 Jan. 1866 ; exhibited in 
London, July, 1882. 
Josef Winkelinaier, an Austrian, 8 ft. 9 in. (born 1865), 
healthy, exhibited in London, 10 Jan. 1887 ; died at 
Lengau, 24 Aug. 1887. 
Elizabeth Lyska, Russian, aged 12, height 6 ft. 8 in- 
exhibited at the Royal Aquarium, London, Nov. 1889. 
GIAOUR, Turkish for infidel, a term applied 
to all who do not believe in Mahomedanism. — 
Byron's poem, " The Giaour," was published in 
1813. 

GIBRALTAR. The ancient Calpe (which, 
with Abyla, on the opposite shore of Africa, ob- 
tained the name of the Pillars of Hercules), a town 
on a rock in South Spain, on which is placed a 
British fortress, considered impregnable. The 
height of the rock, according to Cuvier, is 1437 
English feet. It was taken by the Saracens under 
Tank, whence its present name (derived from Gibel- 
el-Tarik), in 711. Population, 1891, civilians, 
19,100; troops, 5.896. 

Taken from the Moors, 1309 ; surrendered to them, 
1333; finally taken from them by Henry IV., of 
Castile, 1462 ; strengthened by Charles V. . . 1552 
Attacked by the British under sir George Rooke, 
the prince of Hesse-Darmstadt, sir John Leake, 
and admiral Byng, 21 July ; taken . 24 July, 1704 
Besieged by the Spanish and French ; they 1 se 
10,000 men ; the victorious English but 400, 

11 Oct. „ 
Sir John Leake captured several ships, and raised 

the siege 10 March, 1705 

Ceded to England by treaty of Utrecht 11 April, 1713 
The Spaniards in an attack repulsed with great 

loss ' 1720 

They again attack it with a force of 20,000 men, 

and lose 5000 ; English loss, 300 . . 22 Feb. 1727 
Siege by the Spaniartls and French, whose arma- 
ments (the greatest brought against a fortress) 
wholly overthrown .... 16 July, 1779 
In one night their floating batteries were destroyeel 
with red-hot balls, and their whole line of works 
annihilated by a sortie commanded by general 
Eliott; the enemy's loss in munitions of war, on 
this night, was estimated at upwards of2,ooo,ooo£. 
sterling ; the army amounted to 40,000 men, 

27 Nov. 1781 
Grand defeat by a garrison of only 7000 British, 

13 Sept. 1782 
The duke of Crillon commanded. 12,000 of the best 
troops of France. 1000 pieces of artillery were 
brought to bear against the fortress, besides 
which there were 47 sail of the line, all three- 
deckers ; 10 great floating batteries, esteemed 
invincible, carrying 212 guns; innumerablefrigates, 
xebeques, bomb-ketches, cutters, and gun and 
mortar-boats ; while small craft for disembarking 
the forces covered the bay. For weeks together 
6000 shells were daily thrown into the town. 

Blockade ceased 5 Feb. 1783 

Royal battery destroyed by fire . . . Nov. 1800 
Engagement between the French and English fleets 
in the bay; H.M.S. Hannibal, 74 guns, lost, 

6 July, 1803 
The Royal Carlos and St. Hermenigildo,Spajiish ships, 
each of 112 guns, blew up, with their crews, at 
night-time, in the straits here, anil all on board 

perished 12 July, ,, 

A malignant disease caused great mortality Sept. 1804 

A dreadful plague raged 1805 

A malignant fever raged .... Aug. 1814 

Again : courts of justice and places of worship 

closed by proclamation ... 5 Sept. 1828 
The fatal epidemic ceased . . . .12 Jan. 1829 
Destructive storm ..... 17 Nov. i834 h 
Bishopric of Gibraltar established .... 1842 
Gen. sir Richard Airey appointed governor Sept. 1S65 
Popular eliscussion respecting its exchange for 

Ceuta Dec. 1868 — Jan. 1869 

Destructive fire 28 June, 1874 

Gen. sir Fenwick Williams of Kars, governor, 

Aug. 1870— Nov. 1875 



GIBSON GALLEEY. 



441 GLADSTONE ADMINISTRATIONS. 



Destructive storm and floods . . 23-24 Nov. 1875 
Lord Napier of Magdala, governor . . . Jan. 1876 
Visit of prince of Wales . . . 15 April, ,, 
Sir John Miller Adye, governor . . 1 Jan. 1883 
General sir Arthur Hardinge, governor . Nov. 1886 
Gen. hon. sir Leicester Smyth, Aug. 1890 ; died 

27 Jan. 1891 
Gen. sir Lothian Nicholson . . . April, ,, 
For the loss of Utopia steamer (see Wrecks) 17 March, ,, 

GIBSON GALLERY, see Royal Academy. 

GIFFORD LECTURESHIPS, on Natural 
Theology in its widest sense -without reference to 
creeds, i'oundi d in the Universities of Edinburgh, 
Glasgow, Aberdeen, and St. Andrews, by bequest 
of 80,000/., by Adam Lord Gifibrd, a Scotch judge, 
21 Aug. 1885. 

GILBERT CLUB was established 28 Nov. 
1889, by sir Wm. Thomson (lord Kelvin in P'eb. 
1892), president, sir F. Brumwell, professors D. E. 
Hughes, G. Forbes, Silvanus Thompson, and other 
physicists, to celebrate the tercentenary of William 
Gilbert and his work, and to publish translations of 
his "De Magnete," and other works connected 
with magnetism and electricity. 

GILBERTINES, an order of canons and 
nuns established at Sempringham, Lincolnshire, 
by Gilbert of that place, 1131-1148. At the disso- 
lution there were 25 houses of the order in England 
and Wales. 

GILCHRIST TRUST. A fund of between 
3000/. and 4000/., left by Dr. John Gilehri-t in 
1841 to promote education. Office, 4, The Sanctuary, 
S.W. 

GILDING on wood formed part of the decora- 
tions of the Jewish tabernacle, 1490 B.C. {Exod. 
xxv. 11); was practised at Home, about 145 k.c. 
The capitol was the first building on which this 
enrichment was bestowed. Pliny. Of gold leaf for 
gilding the Romans made but 750 leaves, four 
fingers square, out of a whole ounce. Pliny. Gild- 
ing with leaf gold on bole ammoniac was first intro- 
duced by Margaritone in 1273. See Electrotype. 

GIN, ardent spirit, flavoured with the essential 
oil of the juniper berry. The "gin act," 1735, 
laying an excise of 5s. per gallon upon it, passed 
14 July, 1736. In London alone 7044 houses sold 
gin by retail; and a man could intoxicate himself 
for one penny. Salmon. About 1700 gin-shops 
were suppressed in London in 1750. Clarke. 

GIN (contracted from engine), a machine for 
separating cotton wool from the seed ; see under 
Cotton. 

GINGER, the root of the Amomum Zinziber, 
a native of the East Indies and China, now culti- 
vated in the West Indies. In 1842 the duty was 
reduced from 53.S. to 10s. per cwt. of foreign ginger, 
and from us. to 5s. per cwt. of that from .British 
colonies. 

GIPSIES, see Gypsies. 

GIRAFFE or Camelopaed, a native of the 
interior of Africa, was well known to the ancients. 
In 1827 one was brought to England for the first 
time as a present to George IV. It died in 1829. 
On 25 May, 1835, four giraffes, obtained by M. 
Thibaut, were introduced into the Zoological gar- 
dens, Regent's park, where a young one was born 
in 1839. The last giraffa living at the Zoological 
gardens died 28 March, 1892. 

GIRLS, charities for. 
Girls' Industrial Home, Stoekwell, established . . 1857 
Girls' Home, 22, Charlotte-street, Portland-place, 

established 1867 

Girls' Friendly Society, to provide homes, <fec, for 

working girls, supported by the archbishops and 

bishops, founded 1878 



GIRONDISTS, an important party during the 
French revolution, principally composed of deputies 
from the Gironde. They were ardent republicans, 
but after the cruelties of Aug. and Sept. 1 792, laboured 
in vain to restrain the cruelties of Robespierre and 
the Mountain party, and their leaders, Brissot, 
Vergniand, and many others, were guillotined 
31 Oct. 1793. Lamartine's " Histoire des Giron- 
dins," published in 1847, tended to hasten the 
revolution of 1848. 

GIRTON COLLEGE, Cambridge, for the 
higher education of women. It began at Hitchin, 
1869; removed here, and was opened Oct. 1873. 
Newnham college, Cambridge, in connexion with 
it, was opened 18 Oct. 1875. Miss Anne Clough, 
who ably managed the little hall from which the 
college rose in 1871, died 27 Feb. 1892. 
Miss Charlotte Angas Scott, aged about 22, attained the 

position of "wrangler" (for mathematics), Jan. 1880. 
Lady Margaret and Somerville halls, similar institutions 

established at Oxford, 1884. 
Miss Agneta Frances Ramsay, of Girtnn, and Miss B. 

M. Hervey of Newnham, obtained the highest honours, 

see Cambridge, 18 June, 1887. 

GISORS, BATTLE OF (France), on 20 Sept. 
or 10 Oct, 1 198, when Richard I. of England defeated 
the French. His parole for the day, " Dieu et 
mon droit" — "God and my right" — afterwards 
became the motto to the arms of England. 

GITSCHIN (Bohemia), was captured by the 
Prussians after a severe conflict with the Austrians, 
29 June, 1866. Near Gitschin, the same evening, 
the crown prince of Prussia was victor in another 
engagement. 

GIURGEYO (Wallachia). Here the Russians 
were defeated by the Turks, aided by some English 
officers, 7 July, and repulsed in an attack, 23 July, 
1854. 

GLACIARIUM, at King's-road, Chelsea; 
containing a surface of artificially made ice for 
rinking, constructed by Dr. John Gamgee, and 
opened March, 1876. The freezing was accomplished 
by Raoul Pictet's process, and W. E. Ludlow's 
rotary engine and pump were employed. Dr. 
M'Leod's newly invented skating surface, success- 
fully tried at Lillie Bridge, 10 May, 1884. 

GLADIATORS were originally malefactors, 
who fought for their lives, or captives who fought 
for freedom. They were first exhibited at the 
funeral ceremonies of the Romans, 26^ B.C., and 
afterwards at festivals, about 215 B.C. Their revolt 
under Spartacus, 73 B.C., was quelled by Crassus, 
71. When Dacia was reduced by Trajan, 1000 
gladiators fought at Rome in celebration of his 
triumph, for 123 days, a.b. 103. These combats 
were suppressed in the East by Constantino the 
Great, 325, and in the West by Theodoric in t;oo. 

GLADSTONE ADMINISTRATIONS.* 

Mr. Disraeli resigned 2 Dec. and was succeeded by 

* William Ewart Gladstone, born 29 Dec. 1809 ; master 
of the mint, Sept. 1841; president of the board of trade, 
May, 1843 — Feb. 1845 ; secretary for colonies, Dec. 1845 
— July, 1846; chancellor of the exchequer, Jan. 1S53 — 
Feb. 1855, June, 1859 — June, 1866; lord high com- 
missioner extraordinary to the Ionian Isles, Nov. 1858; 
M.P. for Newark, 13 Dec, 1832-46; for Oxford, 1847-65; 
for South Lancashire, 1865-8; for Greenwich, Nov. 1868 ; 
announced the dissolution of parliament, 2^ Jan. 1874; 
resigned, 17 Feb. 1874; temporarily resigned leadership of 
liberal party, 13 Jan. 1875; elected M.P. for Mid-Lothian 
(1579-1368)^ 5 April, 1880; his ministry resigned on 
account of minority on the budget bill (264-252) 
9 June, 1885 ; he declines an earldom, 16 June, 1S85. 

Among the measures carried by the Gladstone ministries 
are :— The Irish church act, the Irish land act of 1870, 
the education act, the ballot act, the Irish land law act 



GLADSTONE ADMINISTRATIONS. 442 GLADSTONE ADMINISTRATIONS. 



Itfr. Gladstone, whose ministry received the seals 
9 Dec. 1868. In consequence of a majority of three 
against the Irish University bill, early on 12 March, 
1873, Mr. Gladstone tendered his resignation, but 
withdrew it a few days after, as Mr. Disraeli de- 
clined office with the existing house of commons. 
Changes were made Aug. -Sept. 1873 > t ne niinistry 
resigned 17 Feb. 1874. 

FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1868-74). 

dfirst lord of the treasury, Win. Ewart Gladstone (and 

chancellor of exchequer, Aug. 1873). 
Zord chancellor, sir Wm. Page Wood, baron Hatherley, 

resigned; sir Roundell Palmer, baron Sel borne, 

Oct. 1872. 
Lord president of the council, Geo. Fred. Samuel Robinson, 

earl de Grey and Ripon (marquis of Ripon, 1871); 

■■succeeded by Mr. Austin Bruce, made lord Aberdare, 

Aug. 1873. 
Lord privy seal, John Wodehouse, earl of Kimberley ; 

succeeded by viscount Halifax, July, 1870. 
Chancellor of the exchequer, Robert Lowe; succeeded by 

Mr. Gladstone, Aug. 1873. 
Secretaries — home, Henry Austin Bruce ; succeeded by 

Mr. Lowe, Aug. 1873 ; foreign, Geo. Wm. Fred. Villiers, 

earl of Clarendon (died 27 June, 1870); succeeded by 

earl Granville ; colonies, Granville Geo. Leveson-Gower, 

■earl Granville ; succeeded by earl of Kimberley, July, 

1870; war, Edward Ca.d.vell; India, George Douglas 

Campbell, duke of Argyll. 
Chancellor of duchy of Lancaster, Frederick lord Dufferin, 

appointed governor-general of Canada ; succeeded by 

H. E. Childers, Aug. 1872; by John Bright, Sept. 1873. 
First lord of admiralty, Hugh Culling Eardley Childers; 

succeeded by G. Joachim Goschen, 9 March, 1871. 
Chief secretary for Ireland, Chichester S. Fortescne ; 

succeeded by the marquis of Hartington, 1 Jan. 1871. 
President of board of trade, John Bright; succeeded by 

Chichester S. Fortescue, Dee. 1870. 
President of poor law {now local government) boa.rd, 

George Joachim Goschen ; succeeded by James Stans- 

feld, 9 March, 1871. 
Wm. Edward Forster, vice-president of the committee 

of council on education ; admitted to the cabinet, 

July, 1870. 

The above formed the cabinet. 
Lord-lieutenant of Ireland, John Poyntz earl Spencer. 
■Office of works, Austen Layard ; succeeded by Acton S. 

Ayrton, Nov. 1869 ; by Wm. Patrick Adam, Aug. 1873. 
Postmaster-general, Spencer C. Cavendish, marquis of 

Hartington ; succeeded by Wm. Monsell (not in the 

cabinet), Jan. 1871 ; by Dr. Lyon Playfair, Nov. 1873. 

This ministry carried — the disestablishment of the 
Irish church in 1869; the Irish tenant act in 1870; was 
censured in the house of loids for advising the royal 
warrant abolishing purchase in the army (162 — 82), 
1 Aug. 1871 ; carried the ballot in 1872. See letter in 
note, Disraeli Administration. 

SECOND ADMINISTRATION (28 April, 1880 — 9 June, 1885). 

See under England and Parliament. 

First lord of the treasury (and chancellor of the exchequer 
till 16 Dec. 1882), Wm. Ewart Gladstone. 

Lord chancellor, Roundell Palmer, baron Selborne. 

Lord president of the council, John Poyntz, earl Spencer; 
succeeded by Chichester S. Fortescue, lord Carlingford, 
9 March, 1883. 

Lord privy seal, George Douglas Campbell, duke of Ar- 
gyll; resigned; succeeded by lord Carlingford, April, 
1S81 ; Archibald Philip Primrose, earl of Rosebery, 
11 Feb. 1885. 



of 1S81, the employers' liability act, the agricultural 
holdings act, the burials act, the ground game act, the 
franchise act. 

He introduces his Irish bill, see Ireland, 8 April ; 
3-ejected (343-313), 7-8 June ; minority in general 
■election ; resigns 20 July, 1S86 ; opposes the government 
crimes bill unsuccessfully Feb.-July, 1887 ; receives 
silver trophy presented by the hon. Joseph Pulitzer, 
editor of New York World, the result of subscriptions 
and public entertainments, 9 July, 1887. 

The term " grand old man" is said to have been first 
applied to Mr. Gladstone by Mr. Henry Labouchere, M.P., 
about April, 1881, and sonn generally adopted. Mr. 
^Gladstone made many speeches in and out of parliament, 
1887 et seq. 



Secretaries —home, sir Wm. Hareourt ; foreign affairs, 
George Leveson-Gower, earl Granville ; the colonies, 
John Wodehouse, earl of Kimberley, succeeded by 
Edward, earl of Derby, 16 Dec. 1882 ; India, Spencer 
C. Cavendish, marquis of Hartington, succeeded by 
John Wodehouse, earl of Kimberley, 16 Dec. 1882 ; 
war, Hugh C. E. Childers, succeeded by marquis of 
Hartington, 16 Dec. 1882. 

First lord of tlie admiralty, Thos. Geo. Baring, earl of 
Northbrook. 

Chancellor of the exchequer, Hugh C. E. Childers, 16 Dec. 
1882. 

Lord-lieutenant of Ireland, John Poyntz, earl Spencer, 
May, 1882. 

Chancellor of duchy of Lancaster, John Bright ; resigns 
about 15 July, 1882 ; earl of Kimberley, 25 July ; John 
George Dodson (afterwards lord Monk Bretton), 28 
Dec. 1882; George O. Trevelyan, about 20 Oct. 1884. 

President of local government board, John George Dodson, 
succeeded by sir Charles Wentworth Dilke, 28 Dec. 
1882. 

President of board of trade, Joseph Chamberlain. 

Postmaster-general, George Shaw Letevre, entered the 
cabinet, n Feb. 1885. 

The above formed the cabinet. 

Lord -lieutenant of Ireland, Franeis Thomas de Grey, 
earl Cowper ; resigned, May, 1882 ; earl Spencer (see 
above). 

Postmaster-general, Henry Fawcett, died 6 Nov. 1884 ; 
George Shaw Lefevre, 18 Nov. 1884. 

Chief secretary for Ireland, W. E. Forster ; resigned about 
2 May, 1882 ; lord Frederick Cavendish, 4 May ; assas- 
sinated, 6 May ; G. O. Trevelyan, 9 May, 1882 ; Henry 
Campbell Bannerman, about 20 Oct. 1S84. 

Chief commissioner of works, W. P. Adam, succeeded by 
G. Shaw Lefevre till Nov. 1884. 

Attorney-general, sir Henry James. 

Solicitor-general, sir Farrer Herschell. 

Governor-general of India, Geo. Fred. Samuel Robinson, 
marquis of Ripon ; succeeded by Frederick Temple 
Hamilton-Blackwood, earl of Dufferin, Nov. 1884. 

Chairman of ways and means, Dr. Lyon Playfair. 

third administration (2-6 Feb. resigned 20 July, 1886). 
See under England and Parliament. 

First lord of the treasury, Wm. Ewart Gladstone. 

Lord chancellor, sir Farrer Herschell (lord Herschell). 

Lord president of the council, John Poyntz, earl Spencer. 
Secretaries — home, Hugh C. E. Childers ; 'foreign, 
Archibald Philip Primrose, earl" of Rosebery ; colonial, 
George Leveson-Gower, earl Granville ; India, John 
Wodehouse, earl of Kimberley ; war, Henry Campbell- 
Bannerman. 

Chancellor of the exchequer, sir William George Granville 
Vernon -Hareourt. 

First lord of the admiralty, George Frederick Samuel 
Robinson, marquis of Ripon. 

President of the local government board, Joseph Chamber- 
lain, succeeded by James Stansfeld, 27 March, 1886. 

Secretary for Scotland, George Otto Trevelyan; suc- 
ceeded by John William Ramsay, earl of Dalhousie ; 
(not in the cabinet), 27 March, 1886. 

President of the board of trade, Anthony John Mundella. 

Chief secretary for Ireland, John Morley. 

The above formed the cabinet. 

Lord lieutenant of Ireland, John Campbell Hamilton- 
Gordon, earl of Aberdeen. 

Postmaster-general, George Grenfell Glyn, lord Wolverton. 

First commissioner of works, Albert Edmund Parker, earl 
of Morley ; succeeded by Victor Alexander Bruce, earl 
of Elgin, 13 April. 

Attorney-general, sir Charles Russell, Q.C. 

Solicitor-general, sir Horace Davey, Q.C. 

Chancellor of duchy of Lancaster, Edward Heneage ; suc- 
ceeded by sir U. Kay-Shuttleworth, 10 April, 1886. 

FOURTH ADMINISTRATION. 

(Succeeded the second Salisbury Administration, 

which see, i3 Aug. et seq.). 

First lord of the treasury and lord privy seed, Win. Ewart 

Gladstone. 
Lord high chancellor, Lord Herschell. 
Lord president of the council and secretary of state for 

India, Earl of Kimberley. 
Secretaries — home, Herbert Henry Asquith ; foreign, 

Archibald Philip Primrose, earl of Rosebery ; colonial, 

George Frederick Samuel Robinson, marquis of Ripon ; 

War, Henry Campbell-Bannerman. 



GLADSTONIANS. 



443 



GLASGOW. 



First lord of the admiralty, John Poyntz, earl Spencer. 
Chancellor of the exchequer, sir William George Granville 

Vernon-Harcourt. 
Chief secretary for Ireland, John Morley. 
Secretary for Scotland, sir George Trevelyan. 
President oj the board of trade, Anthony John Mundella. 
President of the local government board, Henry H. Fowler. 
First commissioner of works, George John Shaw-Lefevre. 
Chancellor of duchy of Lancaster, James Bryce. 
Postmaster-general, Arnold Morley. 
Vice-president of the committee of council on education, 

Arthur Acland. 

The above form the cabinet. 
Lord-lieutenant of Ireland, Robert O. A. Milnes, baron 

Houghton. 
Financial secretary to the treasury, Mr. Hibbert. 
Attorney-general, sir Charles Russell. 
Solicitor-general, John Rigby. 
Lord advocate for Scotland, J. B. Balfour. 
Attorney-general for Ireland, the MacDermot. 
Lord chancellor of Ireland, Samuel Walker. 
President of the board of agriculture, Herbert Gardner. 
Lord chamberlain, Charles Robert, baron Carrington. 
Secretary to the admiralty, sirUghtred Kay-Shuttleworth. 
Secretary to the local government board, sir W. Foster. 

GLADSTONIANS. A name given to the ad- 
herents of Mr. Gladstone in his Irish policy; they 
included earl Granville, earl Spencer, marquis of 
KipoE, earl of Rosebery, sir W. Vernon-Harcourt, 
Mr. John Morley, and other liberals, 1886; see 
Liberals. 

GLASGOW (Lanarkshire), the largest city in 
Scotland. Its prosperity greatly increased after the 
union in 1707, in consequence of its obtaining some 
of the American trade. Glasgow returns seven 
M.P.'s by Act passed 25 June, 1885. See Population. 
The cathedral or high church, dedicated to St. 

Kentigern or Mungo, began about . . . 1136 

Erected into a burgh 1190 

Charter was obtained from James II. . . . 1451 
University founded by Pope Nicholas V. and bishop 

Turnbull 1450 

Made a royal burgh by James VI 1611 

Town wasted by a great fire 1652 

Charter of William and Mary 1690 

Glasgow Courant, the first newspaper published . 1715 
First vessel sailed to America for its still great 

import, tobacco 1718 

Great Shawfield riot 1725 

Calico printing begun, about 1742 

Plundered by rebels 1745 

Theatre opened 1764 

Power-loom introduced 1773 

Theatre burnt ; Glasgow Herald published . . . 1782 

Chamber of commerce formed 1783 

Trades' hall built 1791 

Walter Stirling's public library founded, by will . ,, 



Spinning machinery by steam introduced . . 1795 
Anderson's university founded . . 7 May, ,, 

New College buildings erected 181 1 

Great popular commotion . . . April, ,, 

Trials for treason followed .... July, ,, 

Theatre again burnt Jan. 1829 

The loyal exchange opened . . . 3 Sept. ,, 

Great fire, loss 150,000? 14 Jan. 1832 

The Glasgow lotteries, the last drawn in Britain, 
were granted by licence of parliament to the 
commissioners for the improvement of Glasgow. 
The third and final Glasgow lottery was drawn in 
Loudon, at Coopers' Hall, 28 Aug. 1834. Their 
repetition was forbidden by 4 Will. IV., c. 37 . 1834 
British Association meet here . . .24 Sept. 1840 
Wellington's statue erected . . . . 8 Oct. 1844 
False alarm of lire at the theatre, when 70 persons 

are crushed to death .... 17 Feb. 1849 
Visit of the queen and prince Albert . . 14 Aug. ,, 
British Association meet (2nd time) 12 Sept. 1855 

Failure of Western Bank of Scotland, and City of 

Glasgow bank, and other (inns . . Nov. 1857 

In which great frauds were discovered . . Oct. 1858 
New water-works at Loch Katrine opened by the 

queen 14 Oct. 1859 

[Supplies 25,000,000 gallons daily, can supply 
50.000,000 ; engineer, J. F. Bateman ; cost about 
9iS,ooo/. independent of price paid for old works. ] 



Self-supporting cooking establishments for work- 
ing classes begun by Mr. Thos. Corbett, 21 Sept. i860 
Glasgow visited by the empress of the French, 

27 Nov. 

Theatre burnt again 3 1 Jan - l86 3 

Visited by lord Palmerston ; installed lord rector, 

29 March, ,. 
Industrial exhibition opened . . 12 Dec. 1865 

Fine stained glass windows, by German artists, put 

up in the cathedral by private munificence 1859-66 
Site of the old university sold to railway company; 

new buildings to be erected near Western-park . 1866 
Great reform demonstration ; visit of John Bright, 

16 Oct. ,, 
The duke of Edinburgh inaugurates the statue of 

the prince consort, in George's-square 18 Oct. ,, 
Glasgow and Aberdeen universities to elect one 
M.P., and Glasgow to elect three instead of two 
M.P.'s, by the Scotch reform act, passed 13 July, 1868 
Foundation of the new university buildings laid by 

the prince of Wales .... 8 Oct. ,, 
Foundation of Albert bridge laid . 3 June > l8 7° 

The new university buildings opened . 7 Nov. ,, 

[The spire completed 14 Oct. 1887.] 
Technical college established about . . . . ,, 
Scott centenary celebrated ... 9 Aug. 1871 
Fraser and Maclaren's warehouse, Buchanan-street, 

burnt ; about 100,000?. lost . . 27 March, 1872 
Explosion at Tradeston flour mills ; about 14 lulled ; 

loss -0,000? 9 J^y. » 

Mr. Disraeli installed lord rector . . 19 Nov. 1873 
Mr. Stephen Mitchell bequeaths 70,000?. to tound a 

free library, &c - ■ spring, 1874 

Great fire in Buchanan-street . . 22 April, 1876 

British Association meeting (3rd) . . . . ,, 
Rt lion. R. A. Cross receives freedom of the city 

2 Oct. „ 
Foundation of new post-office laid by the prince of 

Wales J 7 Oct. „ 

Statue of Burns in George's square uncovered by 

lord Houghton . . . -. . . 25 Jan. 1877 
New stock exchange opened . . 3 April, ,, 
Weaving school opened .... 3 Sept. ,, 
Freedom of city presented to gen. U. Grant, ex- 
president, U.S 13 Sept. „ 

New Queen's dock opened ... 18 Sept ,, 
Freedom of city presented to the marquis of 

Hartington 5 Nov. „ 

Statue of Thos. Campbell, in George's square, un- 
covered 28 Dec. „ 

Apothecaries' hall burnt, loss about 30,000?. 9 June, 187S 
Stoppage of "City of Glasgow" bank, with many 

branches, total ruin to many, see Banks 2 Oct. „ 
National fund formed to relieve sufferers, 9 Nov. ; 

amount received, about 118,000?. . . 12 Nov. ,, 
Glasgow relief bank founded, 321,423?. received, 

13 Dec. ,, 
" City of Glasgow" bank : Stronach and some direc- 
tors sentenced to 18 months' imprisonment, others 
to 8 months, see Trials 1 Feb. 1879 

Theatre Royal burnt . ... 2 Feb. ,, 

Boiler" explosion, Glasgow ironworks, 23 killed, 

5 March, ,, 
Statue of Livingstone,' George's-square, unveiled, 

19 March, ,, 
Sir Win. Harcourt, home secretary, receives freedom 

of the city 25 Oct. 1881 

Mr. Macdonakl, M. P., bequeaths a mining library 

and 1000/. to the university . . . Nov. ,, 
Black and Wingate's weaving mills burnt 3 Dee. ,, 
Great fires : Anchor line engine works on the Clyde 

and Parker's soap works; damage, about 50,000?. 18S2 
Destmctive fire in the Trongate, 15,000?. estimated 

damage r 7 Aug. „ 

The duke of Albany receives the freedom of the city 

14 Oct. „ 
Galbraith's spinning mill burnt . . .14 Get. ,, 
Rt lion. W. E. Forster receives the freedom of the 

city 18 Dec. „ 

Mr. Bright installed as lord rector . 22 Marcn, 1003 
The Daphne steamer, during launch in the Clyde, 

heels over; 124 perish . . . . 3 July, ,, 

Wylie and Lochhead's premises, near Buchanan- 
street, burnt. ; loss about 200,000?. . . 3 Nov. ,, 
"John Elder" professorship of naval architecture 
at the university endowed by Mrs. Elder, 12,500?. 

announced Nov. ,, 
Mr. Fawcett, M.P., elected lord rector . 15 Nov. ,, 



GLASGOW. 



444 



GLASTONBURY. 



Trial of Terence M'Dermott and nine other ribbon- 
men at Edinburgh for conspiracy to blow up 
buildings in Glasgow ; M'Dermott and four sen- 
tenced to penal servitude for life, rive others to 
seven years ..... 17-21 Dec. 1883 

Through Glasgow Improvement Act, great numbers 
of horrible rookeries removed, 1866, and whole- 
some houses erected . . . announced ,, 

Great popular demonstration in favour of the 
government and the Franchise bill ; Mr.Trevelyan 
there 6 Sept. 1884 

Visit of the marquis of Salisbury ; great conser- 
vative demonstration . . .30 Sept. et acq. ,, 

Star theatre : 15 persons killed through false panic 
of fire 1 Nov. „ 

Templeton's carpet manufactory burnt, about 
30,000?. damages 28 Jan. 1886 

Underground railway opened . . 15 March, ,, 

The Elderslie rock in the Clyde near Renfrew 
removed by dynamite ; cost about 40,000?. . 

Bailie Young, Councillor Duncan and five other 
persons killed and many injured by poisonous 
gases of ignited gunpowder rushing into the 
vacancy occasioned by the blasting of an 
enormous mass of rock near Loch Fyne 25 Sept. ifi 

Glasgow blind asylum burned down ; damage about 
10,000? 3 Dec - > 

Jubilee fete of 30,000 school children . 10 Sept. ig 

Great international exhibition, the largest in the 
empire since that in London in 1862 ; patron, the 
queen; the buildings in the west end park 
occupied about 16 acres, cost about 70,000?. ; 
opened by the prince and princess of Wales ; the 
route of the procession was five miles (fine day) 8 
May; visit of the. queen, magnificent reception, 
new municipal buildings, George's-square, inaugu- 
rated ; the exhibition publicly visited 22 Aug. ; she 
visited Paisley 23 Aug., privately, the exhibition, 
the university, and queen Margaret's college, 
24 Aug. The queen was the guest of sir 
Archibald Campbell of Blytheswood 22-24 Aug. ; 
exhibition closed, 10 Nov. 1888; reported number 
of visitors, 5,748,379, surplus 40,000?. 

Destructive thunderstorm with loss of life 19 May, iE 

Fire in Buchanan-street, 155,000?. damages 14 Oct. . 

Destructive storm, the exhibition and other 
buildings much injured, and loss of life 16 Nov. . 

Mr. Win. Stirling bequeaths 20,000?. to Glasgow 
charities ; he died Sept. i£ 

The magnificent municipal buildings in George's- 
square, architect Mr. Wm. Young; cost about 
550,000?., opened by the lord provost, sir James 
King 7 Oct. , 

Mr. R. Ramsay's hide and wool mart burnt ; esti- 
mated loss, 30,000?. . . . . 27 Oct. , 

Messrs. Templeton's carpet-weaving mill, in the 
course of erection at Greenhead, during a gale 
falls on the sheds where about 140 girls were at 
work, about 29 killed 1 Nov. . 

Co-operative societies of the United Kingdom 22nd 
annual congress (the earl of Rosebery president), 

26 May, etseq., 1! 

The freedom of the city given to Mr. H M. Stanley, 

12 June, 

Meeting of miners' delegates from all parts of Scot- 
land demanding increase of wages, &c, 

15 Sept., et seq., . 

Strike and lock-out in the iron-works, respecting 
wages 4 Oct. , 

The earl of R,osebery receives the freedom of the 
city 10 Oct. 

Great meeting of Scotch railway men ; a general 
strike resolved on ; see under Railways 21 Dec. , 

Eastern-end Industrial Exhibition opened by the 
marquis of Lothian . . . .23 Dec. , 

Freedom of the city presented to the marquis of 
Salisbury 20 May, ii 

Great strike of shipwrights on the Clyde, 5 July ; 

ended 20 Aug. , 

Visit of the lord mayor of London and sheriffs, 

17-22 Aug. , 

Mr. A. J. Balfour, lord rector of the university, 
delivers his address on " Progress" 26 Nov. „ 

Messrs. Wm. Primrose's flour mills burnt ; loss 
about 10,000? 27 Feb. il 

Erection of a new fine art gallery at the west-end 
proposed by a committee ... 13 April, 

Proposed reduction of wages of seamen and fire- 



men ; great meeting of the men, 28 April ; strike 
begins 4 May, 1892 

GLASGOW, Bishopric of. Kennet, in his 

Antiquities, says it was founded by St. Kentigern, 
alias Mungo, in 560; Dr. Heylin, speaking of the 
see of St. Asaph, in Wales, sa} s that that see was 
founded by St. Kentigern, a Scot, then bishop of 
Glasgow, in 583. This prelacy became archiepiscopal 
in 1491, ceased at the Kevolution, and is now a 
post-revolution bishopric. The cathedral, com- 
menced in 1 121, has a noble crypt; see Bishops. 

GLASITES (in Scotland) and SANDEMANIANS 
(in England). In 1727, John Glas, a minister of 
the church of Scotland, published "The Testimony 
of the King of Martyrs, concerning his Kingdom 
(John xviii. 36)," in which he opposed national 
churches, and described the original constitution of 
the Christian church, its doctrines, ordinances, 
officers, and discipline, as given in the New Testa- 
ment. Having been deposed in 1728, he and others 
established several churches formed upon the pri- 
mitive models. The publication of a series of letters 
on Ilervey's " Theron and Aspasio," by Robert 
Sandeman, in 1757, led to the establishment of 
churches in London and other places in England, 
and also in North America. 

GLASS. The Egyptians are said to have 
known the art of making glass 1150 B.C. The 
discovery of glass took place in Syria. Pliny. 
Glass-houses \\ ere erected in Tyre. It was in use 
among the Romans in the time of Tiberius; and 
we know, from the ruins of Pompeii, that windows 
were formed of glass before 79. 
Glass is said to have been brought to England by 

Benedict Biscop, abbot of Wearmouth, in . . 676 
The glass manufacture established in England at 

Crutched-friars, and in the Savoy (Stow) . . 1557 
Great improvements have been made in the manu- 
facture, through the immense increase of chemical 
knowledge in the present century. Professor 
Faraday published his researches on the manu- 
facture of glass for optical purposes in . . 1830 
The duties on glass, first imposed 1695 ; repealed, 

1698; re-enacted, 1745 ; finally remitted, 24 April, 1845 
Glass- Painting was known to the ancient Egyp- 
tians. It was revived about the 10th century, 
and is described in the treatise by the monk 
Theophilus ; was practised at Marseilles in a 
beautiful style, about 1500, and attained great 
perfection about 1530. Specimens of the 13th 
century exist in England ; C. Winston's work is 
the best on the subject, 1846, new edition . . 1S6S 
Glass - Plate, for coach -windows, mirrors, &c, 
made at Lambeth by Venetian artists, under the 
patronage of Villiers, duke of Buckingham . . 1673 
The manufacture was improved by the French, 
who made very large plates ; and further im- 
provements in it were made in Lancashire, when 
the British Plate Glass company was established 1775 
Manufacture of British sheet glass introduced by 

Messrs. Chance, of Birmingham, about . . . 1832 
Tampered or Toughened glass: M. De laBastie's pro- 
cess (plunging heated glass into a hot bath of 
oleaginous or alkaline compounds) announced, 
April, 1875 ; largely manufactured in France, and 

sold cheap in London 1876 

Mr. Frederick Siemens described his process for pro- 
ducing strong homogeneous tempered glass at the 

Society of Arts 26 Feb. 1885 

The application of glass for rails proposed by Mr. 
H. Lindsay-Bucknalland for railway sleepers pro- 
posed by Mr. F. Siemens, 1885-6. This glass 
asserted to be much stronger than iron. 

GLASTONBURY (Somerset), traditionally 
said to have been the residence of Joseph of 
Arimathea, and the site of the first Christian church 
in Britain, about 60. A church was built here 
by Ina about 708. The town and abbey were 
burnt, 1 184, and an earthquake did great damage 
in 1275. Richard Whiting, the last abbot, who 



GLEBE. 



445 



GLOUCESTER. 



had IOO monks and 400 domestics, was hanged on 
Tor-hill in his pontificals for refusing to take the 
oath of supremacy to Henry VIII., 14 Nov. 1539. 
The monastery was suppressed 1540. 

GLEBE (glcba, a clod), the land belonging to a 
parish church, or ecclesiastical benefice. 
An act to facilitate the sale of glebe land was passed in 
1888. 

GLEE, a piece of unaccompanied vocal music, 
in at least three parts. Their composition began 
early in the 18th century. Eminent composers, 
Samuel "Webbe (1 740-1816), Stevens, Callcott, Hors- 
ier, Danby, Paxton, Lord Momington, Spufibrth, 
&c. The Glee Club, founded by Dr. J. W. Callcott, 
Dr. Arnold, and others, 1787. 

GLENALMOND, Perthshire. Trinity 
College here, projected in 1841, was opened in 
1847. It was lounded principally by the exertions 
of Mr. \V. E. Gladstone and Mr. 'Hope Scott, aided 
by dean Ramsay, the duke of Buccleuch, the 
marquis of Lothian, and o:her gentlemen, to sup- 
port the Scottish episcopal church. Toe site was 
given by Mr. George Patton, afterwards lord Glen- 
almoud, 1846. The foundation stone of a new 
wing was laid by Mr. W. E. Gladstone, I Oct. 1891. 
GLENCOE MASSACRE of the Macdonalds, 
a Jacobite clan, for not surrendering before 1 Jan. 
1692, the time stated in king William's proclama- 
tion. Sir John Dalrymple, master (afterwards 
earl) of Stair, their enemy, obtained a decree " to 
extirpate that set of thieves," which the king is 
said to have signed without perusing. Every man 
under 70 was to be slain. This mandate was trea- 
cherously executed by 120 soldiers of a Campbell 
regiment, hospitably received by the Highlanders, 
13 Feb. 1692. About 60 men were slain ; and many 
women and children, turned out naked in a freez- 
ing night, perished. This excited great indigna- 
tion ; and an inquiry was set on foot, May, 1695, 
but no capital punishment followed. 

GLENDALOUGH, or " Seven Churches," an 
ancient Irish bishopric, said to have been founded 
by St. Keven in 498; united with Dublin, 1214. 

" GLOBE. The globular form of the earth, the 
five zones, some of the principal circles of the 
sphere, the opacity of the moon, and the true causes 
of lunar eclipses, were taught, and an eclipse pre- 
dicted, by Thales of Miletus, about 640 B.C. Pytha- 
goras demonstrated, from the varying altitudes of 
the stars by change of place, that the earth must 
be round ; that there might be antipodes on the 
opposite part of the globe ; that Venus was the 
morning and evening star ; that the universe con- 
sisted of twelve spheres — the sphere of the earth, 
the sphere of the water, the sphere of the air, the 
sphere of fire, the spheres of the moon, the sun ; 
Venus, Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the 
spheres of the stars ; about 506 B.C. — Aristarchus 
of Samos maintained that the earth turned on its 
own axis, and revolved about the sun, which doc- 
trine was held by his contemporaries as so absurd, 
that the philosopher nearly lost his life, 280 B.C. ; 
see Circumnavigators. 

To determine the figure of the earth, a degree of latitude 

has been measured in different parts of the world ; by 

Bouguer and La Condamine in Peru, and by Mauper- 

tuis and others in Lapland, 1735. 

Estimated density s - 6 that of water; weight, 6,000,000, 

000,000,000,000,000 tons. — Proctor, 1875. 
France and Spain measured by Meehain, Delambre, 

Biot, and Arago, between 1792 and 1821. 
Measurements made in India by col. (afterwards sir 

George) Everest, published in 1830. 
Experiments made by pendulums to demonstrate the 
rotation of the earth by Foueault in 1851 ; and to 
determine its density by Maskelyne, Bailly, and 



others ; and in 1826, 1828, and 1854, by Mr. (aft. sir) 
G. B. Airy, the astronomer royal. 
Artificial Globes. It is said that a celestial globe was 
brought to Greece from Egypt, 368 B.C., and that 
Archimedes constructed a planetarium about 212 B.C. 
The globe of Gottorp, a concave sphere, eleven feet in 
diameter, containing a table and seats for twelve per- 
sous, and the inside representing the visible surface 
of the heavens, the stars and constellations, all dis- 
tinguished according to their respective magnitudes, 
and being turned by means of curious mechanism, 
their true position, rising and setting, are shown. 
The outside is a terrestrial globe. The machine, called 
the globe of Gottorp, from the original one of that 
name, which, at the expense of Frederick II. duke of 
Holstein, was erected at Gottorp, under the direction 
of Adam Olearius, and was planned after a design found 
among the papers of the celebrated Tycho Brahe. 
Frederick IV. of Denmark presented it to Peter the 
Great in 1713. It was nearly destroyed by fire in 
1757 ; but it was afterwards reconstructed. Coxe. 
The globe at Pembroke-hall, Cambridge, erected by Dr. 

Long (master, 1733), eighteen feet in diameter. 
In 1 85 1 Mr. Abrahams erected in Leicester-square, for 
Mr. Wyld, a globe 60 feet 4 inches in diameter, lit 
from the centre by day, and by gas at night. It was 
closed in July, 1861 ; the models were sold, and the 
building eventually taken down. 
Mi. James Wyld, geographer to the queen, died 17 April 
1887. ' L ' 

GLOBE THEATRE, Backside (London), 

was built by agreement dated 22nd Nov. 1593, 
and licensed to Shakespeare and others ; see 
Theatres, and Shakespeare's Theatre. — The Globe 
" Theatre," erected on the site of Lyon's-inn, 
Strand, was opened 28 Nov. 1868, Mr. Sefton Parry, 
manager.— The Globe evening newspaper; formerly 
whig, now conservative ; established 1803. 

GLOIRE, French steam frigate, see Wavy. 
French. 

GLORY, the nimbus drawn by painters round 
the heads of saints, angels, and holy men, and the 
circle of rays on images, adopted from the Ca?sars 
and their flatterers, were used in the 1st century. 
The doxology, " Gloria Patri," is very ancient, 
and originally without the clause " as it was in 
the beginning," &c. In the Greek it began with 
" doza," glory. 

GLOUCESTER (Roman Gleviim), submitted 
to the Romans about 45, and to the Saxons 577'. 
The statutes of Gloucester, passed at a parlia- 
ment held by Edward I. 1278, relate to actions at 
law. This city was incorporated by Henry III. • 
and was fortified by a strong wall, which was de- 
molished after the Restoration, in 1660, by order of 
Charles II., as a punishment for the successful 
resistance of the city to Charles I., under col. 
Massey, Aug., Sept. 1643. The Gloucester and 
Berkeley canal was completed in April, 1827. 
Gross bribery took place here at the election for the 
parliament in 1859.— The Bishopric was one of 
the six erected by Henry VIII. in 1541, and was 
formerly part of' Worcester. It was united to 
Bristol in 1836, but in 1884 an act was passed to 
provide for their again becoming separate bishoprics. 
The church, which belonged to the abbey, and its 
revenues, were appropriated to the maintenance of 
the see. The abbey, which was founded by king 
Wulphere about 700, was burnt in 1102, and again 
in 1 122. In it are the tombs of Kohert, duke of 
Normandy, and Edward II. In the king's books, this 
bishopric is valued at 315/. 17*. 2d. per annum. 
Present income, 5000^. _ An act was passed in 1884 
to provide for the disunion of the sees of Gloucester 
and Bristol. Population, 1881,36,542 ; 1891, 39,444. 

RECENT BISHOPS OF GLOUCESTER AND BRISTOL. 

1802. George Isaac Huntingford, translated to Hereford 

June, 1815. 
1815. Hon. Hen. Ryder, translated to Lichfield, 1824. 



GLOVES. 



446 



GOETHE SOCIETY. 



1824. Christopher Bethell, translated to Exeter, 1830. 

1830. James Henry Monk, died. 

1856. Charles Baring, translated to Durham, Sept. 1861. 

1861. Wm. Thomson, translated to York, 1862. 

1862. Charles John Ellicott (present bishop). 
GLOVES. Woodstock and Worcester leather 

gloves are of ancient celebrity. In the middle 
ages, the giving a glove was a ceremony of inves- 
titure in bestowing lands and dignities; and two 
bishops were put in possession of their sees by each 
receiving a glove, 1002. In England, in the reign 
of Edward II. the deprivation of gloves was a 
ceremony of degradation. The Glovers' company 
of London was incorporated in 1556. Embroidered 
gloves are presented to judges at maiden assizes. 
The importation of foreign gloves was not permitted 
till 182s. "Gloves and their Annals," by S. W. 
lieck, published in 1883. 

GLUCINUM (from glukus, sweet). In 1798 
Yauquelin discovered the earth glucina (so termed 
from the sweet taste of its salts). It is found in 
the beryl and other crystals. From glucina \Y ohler 
and Bussy obtained the rare metal glucinum in 
1828. Gmelin. 
GLUCOSE, see Sugar. 

GLUTEN, an ingredient of gram, particularly 
wheat, termed the vegeto-animal principle (con- 
taining nitrogen). Its discovery is attributed to 
Beccaria in the 18th century. 

GLYCEBTNE, discovered by Scheele, about 
1779, and termed by him the " sweet principle of 
fats," and further studied by Chevreul, termed the 
"father of the fatty acids." It is obtainedpure 
by saponifying olive oil or animal fat with oxide of 
lead, or litharge. Glycerine is now much employed 
in medicine and the arts. 

GLYOXYLINE (invented by Mr. (aft. sir) F. 
A. Abel, the chemist of the war department, in 1867) , 
an explosive mixture of gun-cotton, pulp and 
saltpetre saturated with nitro-glycerine. it was 
abandoned for compressed gun-cotton. 

GNOMIUM, a new element recently discovered 
by Gerhard, Kruss, and F. W. Schmidt (1889). 

GNOSTICS (from the Greet gnosis, know- 
ledge), a sect who, soon after the preaching of 
Christianity, endeavoured to combine its principles 
-with the Greek philosophy. Among their teachers 
were Saturnius, in; Basi'lides, 134; and Valentine, 
140. Priscillian, a Spaniard, was burnt at Treves 
as a heretic, in 384, for endeavouring to revive 
Gnosticism. 

GOA (S.W. Hindostan), was taken by the Por- 
tuguese under Albuquerque in 1510, and made their 
Indian capital. It was visited by the prince of 
Wales, 27 Nov. 1875. New harbour and railway 
works inaugurated, 31 Oct. 1882. 
Election riots, conflict with the police and mili- 
: tary, 17 persons shot dead, accounts conflicting, 

22, 23 Sept. 1S90 

Order restored 26 Sept. ,, 

Treaty with Great Britain (1878) respecting customs 
duty, and an annual payment to Portugal of 2 
lakhs of rupees, suffered to expire through dis- 
agreement 14 Jan. 1892 

GOAT SHOW at Alexandra palace, 16-22 
Sept. 1880, supported by the British Goat Society, 
recently established. A goat farm for the supply of 
milk established near Dorking, 1882. 
Annual shows of the British goat society have been 
held ; one opened 8 June, 1886. 
GOBELIN-TAPESTBY, so called from a 
house at Paris, formerly possessed by wool-dyers, 
whereof the chief (Jehan Gobelin), in the reign of 
Francis I., is said to have found the secret of dyeing 
scarlet. This house was purchased by Louis XIV. 



about 1662, for a manufactory of works for adorn- 
ing palaces (under the direction of Colbert), espe- 
cially tapestry, designs for which were drawn by Le 
Brun, about 1666. Establishment (1878) cost about 
8000/. a year. 

" GOD BLESS YOU!" see Sneezing. 

" GOD SAVE THE KING" This melody 
is said to have been composed by John Bull, Mus. 
D., in 1606, for a dinner given to James I. at 
Merchant Taylors' Hall ; others ascribe it to Henry 
Carey, author of " Sally in our alley," who died, 
4 Oct. 1743. It was much sung 1745-6. It has been 
claimed by the French. The controversy on the 
subject is summed up in Chappell's •' i'opular Music 
of the Olden Times" (1859). The melody has been 
adopted for the German national anthem (" Heil dir 
im Siegerkranz !"), and also for the Danish. 
The words translated in 15 East Indian dialects . 1882 
Meeting at the Mansion-house to promote their 

adoption 2 Nov. ,, 

GODEBICH ADMINISTBATION. Vis- 
count Goderich * (afterwards earl of Ripon) became 
first minister on the death of Mr. Canning, 8 Aug. 
1827 ; he resigned 8 Jan. 1828. 
Viscount Goderich, first lord of the treasury. 
Duke of Portland, president of the council. 
Lord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor. 
Earl of Carlisle, lord privy seal. 
Viscount Dudley, Mr. Huskisson, and the marquis of 

Lansdowne, foreign, colonial, and home secretaries. 
Lord Palmerston, secretary-at-war. 
Mr. C. W. Wynn, president of the India board. 
Mr. Charles Grant(aft.erwar<is lord Glenelg), board of trade, 
Mr. Herries, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Mr. Tierney, master of the mint, &c. 

GODFATHEBS and Godmothers, or 
sponsors. The Jews are said to have had theni at 
circumcision ; but there is no mention of them in 
scripture. Tradition say r s that sponsors were first 
appointed by Hyginus, a Roman bishop, about 154, 
during a time of persecution. In Roman Catholic 
countries bells have godfathers and godmothers at 
their baptism. 

GODOLPHIN ADMINISTBATIONS 
(see Administrations), 1684 and 1690. Lord 
Godolphin became prime minister to queen Anne, 
8 May, 1702. The cabinet was notified in 1704. 
The earl resigned 8 Aug. 1710, and died 1712. 
Sidney, lord (afterwards earl) Godolphin, treasury. 
Sir Nathan Wright, lord keeper. 

Thomas, earl of Pembroke and Montgomery, lord pre- 
sident. 
John Sheffield, marquis of Normanby (afterwards duke 

of Normanby and Buckingham), privy seal. 
Hon. Henry Boyle, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Sir Charles Hedges and the earl of Nottingham (the latter 

succeeded by Robert Harley, created earl of Oxford in 

1704), secretaries of state. 

GODS, Greek and Roman ; see under Mythology. 

GODWIN SANDS, sand-banks off the east 
coast of Kent, occupy land which belonged to 
Godwin, earl of Kent, the father of king Harold II. 
Earl Godwin is said to have died suddenly', 15 April, 
1053. This ground was afterwards given to the 
mouastery of St. Augustin at Canterbury; but 
the abbot neglecting to keep in repair the wall that 
defended it from the sea, the tract was submerged 
about I IOO, leaving these sands, upon which many 
ships have been wrecked. Salmon. 

GOETHE SOCIETY (ENGLISH), 
founded in February, 1886, for making known and 

* Born 1782 ; held various inferior appointments from 
1809 to 1818, when he became president of the board of 
trade ; was chancellor of the exchequer from 1818 to 
April, 1827, when he became colonial secretary, which 
ofhce he held in the Grey cabinet, Nov. 1830 ; created earl 
of Ripon, 1833 : died 28 Jan. 1859. 



GOG. 



447 



GOLDEN FLEECE. 



illustrating German literature. Professor Max 
M tiller, president. Inaugural meeting, 28 May. 
GOG AND MAGOG, see Guildhall. 
GOLD (mentioned Gen. ii. 11), the purest, and 
most ductile of all the metals, for which reason it 
has been considered by almost all nations as the 
most valuable. It is too soft to be used pure, and 
to harden it it is alloyed with copper or silver : our 
coin consists of twenty-two carats of pure gold, and 
two of copper. By 17 & 18 Vict. c. 96 (1854), gold 
wares are allowed to be manufactured at a lower 
standard than formerly ; — wedding rings excepted, 
by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 60 "(1855). Th* 3 present stated 
price is 3^. 17*. iOj^. per oz. ; see Coin of England, 
and Guineas. In 1816, it was enacted by 56 Geo. III. 
c. 68, that " gold coins only should be legal tender 
in all payments of more than 40s," the tender of 
silver being previously unlimited. 
Estimated amount of gold in the ivorld; value, 1848, 

560,000,000!. ; 1875, 1,000,000,000?. 
The value of gold compared with silver is said to have 
been estimated in the time of Herodotus, b.c. 450, 
about 10 to 1 ; of Plato, b.c. 38, 12 to 1 ; a.d. 1876, 
more than 15 to 1. See Silver. 
The weight of the maharajah of Travancore in gold 

given in charity (an old custom), May, 1885. 
The Amalgamation of Gold is described by Pliny (about 
77) and Vitruvius (about 27 B.C.). The alchemist Basil 
Valentine (in the 15th century) was acquainted with 
the solution of the chloride of gold and. fulminating 
gold. Andreas Cassius, in 1685, described the pre- 
paration of gold purple, which was then adapted by 
Kunkel to make red glass, and to other purposes. 
Gmelin. Gold has been subjected to the researches of 
eminent chemists, such as Berzelius and Faraday. 
Mr. Rowland Jordan, of London devised a new and 
successful method of preventing waste, in separating 
gold from its ore, announced Oct. 1884. 
H. R. Cassel's process for extraction of chlorine used in 

London, 1885. 
Mr. B. C. Molloy's hydrogen-amalgam process for ex- 
tracting gold from the ores exhibited by Messrs. 
Johnson of Finsbury, London, Aug. 1887. 
Mr. T. Rowland Jordan's method of extracting gold, 

exhibited in George Street, London, B.C., Oct. 1889. 
Gold Mines. Gold was found most abundantly in 
Africa, Japan, and South America. In the last it 
was discovered by the Spaniards in 1492, from which 
time to 1731 they imported into Europe 6000 millions 
of pieces of eight, in register gold and silver, exclu- 
sively of what were unregistered. 

Peter the Great re-opened ancient gold mines in 
Russia, 1699. 

The Ural or Oural mountains of Russia long pro- 
duced gold in large quantity. 

A piece of gold weighing ninety marks, equal to 
sixty pounds troy (the mark being eight ounces), was 
found near La Paz, a town of Peru, 1730. 

Gold discovered in Malacca in 1731 ; in New Anda- 
lusia in 1785 ; in Cejdon, 1800; 2887 oz. of gold, value 
9991?., obtained from mines in Britain and Ireland in 
1864 ; it has been found in Cornwall, and in the county 
of Wicklow in Ireland (1797). 

Gold discovered in California, Sept. 1847; and in 
Australia, 1851. On 28 April, 1858, a nugget, said to 
weigh 146 pounds, was shown to the queen. It is 
estimated that between 1851 and 1859 gold to the value 
of 88,889,435!. was exported from Victoria alone (see 
California and Australia severally). 

Gold discovered in what is now termed New Columbia 
in 1856 : much emigration there in 1858. 

Gold discovered in New Zealand, and in Nova Scotia 
in 1861. 

Gold discovered in South Africa (Transvaal republic, 
<&c), and discovered in Sutherlandshire ; much excite- 
ment, Oct. 1868 ; in West Australia, reported Sept. 1870 ; 
in the Bendigo fields, Victoria, Nov. 1871 ; in Laud 
of Midian, by capt. R. Burton, announced, May, 1877. 
The district of Witwatersrand, S. Africa, declared a 
public goldfleld 20 Sept. 1886. 

The prosperous town of Johannesburg erected, 
March 1887. 

Productive gold fields discovered in the valley of 
the Djolgute river, opposite Ignachino on the Amoor, 



May, 1884 ; a Russian colony with foreign adventurer* 
formed, January, 1885. 

Great discovery of auriferous quartz, E. of the- 
Transvaal, 1886. 

Discovery of alluvial gold at Waukaranga, South. 
Australia, Oct. 1886. 

Alleged discovery of gold at mount Lyell in Tasmania, 
July, 1886. p'w^ 

"Midas "gold nugget named "lady Loch," weight 617- 
ozs ; value 2,537/.. ! found in the Midas gold companv's- 
claim, 3 Aug. 1887 ; exhibited with other nuggets by 
Miss Alice Cornwall at Queen Victoria-street, London 
28 Oct. 1887. 

Discovery of gold in large quantities in Mr. Pritchard 
Morgan's Gwynfynydd mines. Mawddach valley, 
Merionethshire, Wales, announced, Times, 7 Dec. 1887 ~ 
great success reported ; the crown claims heavy royall 
ties, April, but makes concessions, May, 1888 ; work 
going on, April, 1889-90. Yield of gold valued at. 
50,000!., royalty paid to the state, reported March,. 
1890 ; legal decision by Mr. Justice North that the- 
mine is royal property ; working restrained till the 
royalties are paid to the state, 6 Aug. 1890 ; the mine- 
transferred to a company, which obtained a licence, 
and paid royalties. 

Mr. Morgan's appeal against the decision of Aug. 6, dis- 
allowed, 21 Jan. 1891 ; his estate seized by the govern- 
ment for the royalties due, 22 March ; the bailiffs 
withdrawn, pending an arrangement ; work resumed,, 
early April, 1892. 

Important gold discoveries in Queensland, which see* 
1882-9. 

In Malay Peninsula, announced Aug. 1889. 

Gold mining greatly developed in the Transvaal district,. 
Johannesburg, founded in 1887. 

Gold found in Western Australia, July, 1891. 

Gold obtained in United Kingdom ; value in i86r^ 
10,816!. ; in 1862, 20,390!. ; in 1863, 1747!. ; in 1864, 
9991!. ; in 1865, 5894!. ; in 1868, 3522?. ; in - 1876, 1138!. ;, 
in 1878,2848?.; in 1880, 38!. ; in 1882,863!. ; in 1887, 210!.;. 
in 1888, 29,982!. ; in 1889, 13,227!. ; in 1890, 675?. 

Gold Wire was first made in Italy about 1350. An 
ounce of gold is sufficient to gild a silver wire above 
1300 miles in length ; and such is its tenacity that a 
wire the one-eighteenth part of an inch will bear the- 
weight of 500 lb. without breaking. Fourcroy. 

Gold Leaf. A single grain of gold may be extended 
into a leaf of fifty-six square inches, and gold leaf can 
be reduced to the 300,000th part of an inch, and gilding 
to the ten-millionth part. Kelly's Cambist. 

Gold Robbery. Three boxes, hooped and sealed, con- 
taining gold in bars and coin to the value of between 
18,000?. and 20,000!. were sent from London, 15 Mav, 
1855. On their arrival in Paris, it was found that 
ingots to the value of 12,000?. had been abstracted, 
and shot substituted, although the boxes bore no- 
marks of violence. Many persons were apprehended 
on suspicion; but the police obtained no trace till 
Nov. 1856. Three men named Pierce, Burgess, and 
Tester, were tried and convicted 13-15 Jan. 1857, om 
the evidence of Edward Agar, an accomplice. They 
had been preparing for the robbery for eighteen mouths- 
previous to its perpetration. 

GOLD COAST, West Africa, discovered ancT 
named by Santarem and Escobar in 1471 ; settlements- 
made by the Dutch ; transferred to Great Britain, 
by treaty, signed 2 Feb. 1872 ; joined with Lagos 
to form the "Gold Coast Colony," governor, capt. 
Geo. Cumine Strahan, appointed 1874 ; Sandfori 
Freeling, 1876; Herbert Taylor Ussher, 1879; sir- 
Samuel Rowe,2$ Jan. 1881 ; "William A. G. Toun"- 
died 25 April, 1885 ; sir W. Bradford Griffith, 1886. 
Population of the colony and protectorate, estimated 
at 1.500,000. Capital Ghristiansburg. 

GOLD FISH (the golden carp, cyprinus 
auratus), brought to England from China in 1691 ; 
but not common till about 1723. 

GOLDEN BULLS, EOSE, see Bulls, Rose, 
note. 

GOLDEN FLEECE (see Argonauts). Philip, 
the Good, duke of Burgundy, in 1429, at his mar- 
riage, instituted the military order of " Toison (For'" 
or "golden fleece ; " it was said on account of the 



GOLDEN HORDE. 



418 



GOEDON MEMOEIAL. 



profit he made by wool. The number of knights 
was thirty-one. The king of Spain, as duke of 
Burgundy, afterwards became grand master of the 
order. The knights wore a scarlet cloak lined with 
ermine, with a collar opened, and the duke's cipher, 
in the form of a 13, to signify Burgundy, together 
with flints striking tire, with the motto "■Ante 
ferit, quarn jlamma micat." At the end of the 
collar hung a golden fleece, with this device, 
" Pretium non vile laborum." The order afterwards 
became common to all the princes of the house of 
Austria, as descendants of Mary, daughter of 
Charles the Bold, last duke of Burgundy, who 
married Maximilian of Austria in 1477, and now 
belongs to both Austria and Spain, in conformity 
with a treaty made 30 April, 1725. P'or the legend 
of the Gulden Fleece, see Argonauts. 

GOLDEN HOEDE, a name given to the 
Mongolian Tartars, who established an empire in 
Kaptchak (or Kibzak), now S.E. Russia, about 
1224, their ruler being Batou, grandson of Gengis 
Khan. They invaded Russia, and made Alexander 
Newski grand-duke, 1252. At the battle of Biela- 
wisch, in 1481, they were crushed by Ivan III. and 
the Nogai Tartars. 

GOLDEN LEGEND, "Legenda Aurea." 
The lives of our Lord and the saints, written by 
Giacomo Varaggio, or Jacobus de Voragine, a 
Dominican monk about 1260; first printed 1470 ; 
a translation printed by Caxton, 1483. 

GOLDEN NUMBEE, the cycle of nineteen 

years, or the number that shows the years of the 

moon's cvcle ; its invention is ascribed to Meton, of 

Athens, about 432 B.C. Pliny. To find the golden 

number or year of the lunar cycle, add one to the 

<iate, and divide by 19; the quotient is the number 

of cvcles since Christ, and the remainder the golden 

number. The golden number for 1 893, 13; 1894,14; 

1805, 15 ; 1896, [6. 

GOLDEN WEDDING, see Wedding. 

GOLDSMID FAMILY. Aaron Goldsmid, 

a native of Holland, settled in London in 1763, and 

brought with him wealth and important commercial 

influence. His son Asher joined in establishing 

the firm of Mocatta and Goldsmid, bullion brokers 

to the Bank of England. The Goldsmids became at 

the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th 

.century most distinguished financiers of the realm. 

Isaac Lyon, the son of Asher Goldsmid, was conspicuous 

in the formation of the London Institution, the 

building of the London Docks, the earliest attempts 

in the introduction of railways, the improvement of 

prisons, the establishment of the Society for the 

Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, and the founding of 

the London University (afterwards called University 

College). In his numerous national and philanthropic 

■works he was aided by his sons, Francis Henry, and 

Frederick David. In 1844 the queen of Portugal 

conferred on him the title of Baron da Palmeira, in 

recognition of his services in regulating the debt due 

t>y Brazil to Portugal. Regarding him and his son 

Francis, see also "Jews." 

GOLDSMITHS' COMPANY (London) 

heo-an about 1327, and incorporated 16 Rich. II., 

1392. The old hall was taken down in 1829, and 

the present magnificent edifice by Philip Hardwick, 

was opened 15 3u\y, 1835 ; see Assay, and Standard. 

The first bankers were goldsmiths. 

Goldsmiths' hall marks on gold and silver plate are five :— 

1 The sovereign's head (after 1784) ; 2, lion passant (the 

standard mark), probably introduced between 1538 and 

I5S 8 • 3, the standard mark, fixed 8 & 9 Will. III. 

11696-7; 4, leopard's head, the hall mark; 5, the 

maker's mark (an old custom). 

[The date-letter is one of an alphabet of 20 letters ; A to 

U or V, J being omitted. The letter is changed on 30 

May annually, and the shape of the letter every 20 years ; 



thus 1716, A, &c. ; 1736, a, &e. ; 1756, % &c. ; 1776, 

a, &c. ; 1796-1816, A, &c. ; 1816-36, a, &c. ; 1836-56, gl, 

&c. ; 1856-76, a, &c. ; 1876-1896, A, &c. The earliest 

known alphabetical series began 1438-9.] 
A parliamentary commission on hall marking reported 

in favour of its continuance with modifications, May, 

1879. 
The company offer about 85,000!. for the establishment of 

the goldsmiths' company's polytechnic institute, New 

Cross, Surrey, Oct. 18S8 ; accepted by the Charity 

Commissioners, 1889. See Polytechnic Institutions. 
Goldsmiths' exhibition at Vienna opened, 22 April, 1889. 

GOLIATH, training-ship, burnt, 22 Dec. 1875 '■> 
see under Wrecks. 

GOMAEISTS, see Arminians. 

GONFALONIEE, or Standard Bearer 
OF JUSTICE, originally a subordinate officer in 
Florence; instituted 1292; became paramount in 
the 15th century, and was suppressed, 27 April, 
1532, when the constitution was changed and Alex- 
ander de Medicis made duke. 

GOOD FEIDAY (probably God's Friday), 
the Friday before Faster day, on which a solemn 
fast has long been held, in remembrance of the 
crucifixion of Christ on Friday, 3 April, ^, or 
15 April, 29 Its appellation of good appears to be 
peculiar to the church of England ; our Saxon foie- 
t'athers denominated it Long Friday, on account of 
the length of the offices and fastings enjoined on 
this day. See Paster. 

GOODMAN'S FIELDS THEATEE, 
London, opened 1729. Here David Garrick made 
his debut as Richard III., 19 Oct. 1741. The new 
theatre erected about 1746, was burnt down, June, 
1802. The Garrick Theatre here was opened in 
1830 ; burnt, 4 Nov. 1846 ; and since rebuilt. 

GOOD TEMPLAES (first lodges formed in 
America) , pledge themselves not to make, buy, sell, 
furnish, or cause to be furnished, intoxicating 
liquors to others as a beverage. The first English 
lodge was formed at Birmingham in May, 1868. 
There were said to be 3743 lodges, and 210,255 
members in the United Kingdom in 1874. Special 
session of the Grand Lodge of England, 8, 9 Sept. 
1889. 

GOODWIN, see Godwin. 

GOODWOOD EACES, see Paces. 

GOOJEEAT (N. India), see Guzerat. 

GOOEKHAS, a warlike tribe of Nepaul, 
became prominent in the 17th century. Their in- 
vasions were defeated about 1791 by the Chinese, 
whose vassals they became. In a war with the 
British in 1814 they were at first successful, but 
were eventually subdued, and a treaty of peace was 
signed in Feb. 1816. Since 1841 the native regi- 
ments have been largely recruited by Goorkhas, 
who have rendered valuable service in nearly all 
our Indian wars, and in Afghanistan, 1878-9. 

GOOSE, see Michaelmas. 

GOEDIAN KNOT, is said to have been made 
of the thongs that served as harness to the waggon 
of Gordius, a husbandman, afterwards king of 
Phrygia. Whosoever loosed this knot, the ends of 
which were not discoverable, the oracle declared 
should be ruler of Persia. Alexander the Great cut 
away the knot with his sword until he found the 
ends of it, and thus, in a military sense at least, 
interpreted the oracle, 3^0 B.C. 

GOEDON MEMOEIAL ; proposed by lady 
Burdett-Coutts in the Times, 24 Feb. 1885. See 
Khartoum, and Mansion PLousc. 

Committee formed : the prince of Wales, duke of Cam- 
bridge, archbishop of Canterbury, Mr. Gladstone, 

marquis of Salisbury, cardinal Manning, Chinese 

minister, marquis of Lome, earl Granville and other 

persons, 24 Feb. et seq. 1885. 



GORDON RIOTS. 



419 



GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. 



Proposed grant of 2o,oooL to the Gordon family, March, 
1885. 

Gordon Memorial Hospital at Port Said proposed at 
Mansion House, London, 14 March, 1885. 

Subscriptions 20,320^ 19 Oct. 1885 ; given to trustees of 
Gordon boys' home. Port Said hospital scheme given 
up, 30 May, 1885. 

Opening of penny subscription to establish a Gordon 
camp at Aldershot for the military training of 
destitute boys ; originated by Mr. Hallam Tennyson, 
May, 1885. 

Gordon league to provide entertainment for the very 
poor, instituted by the princess Louise and others, 19 
May, 1885 ; first meeting 18 Oct. 1885. 

A Gordon memorial boys' home proposed 1 July, united 
with memorial fund, 20 July, opened at Fareham near 
Portsmouth, 1 Oct. 1885. At the annual meeting it 
was stated that 160 boys were sheltered ; an appeal was 
made for means to increase the number, 21 May, 1889 ; 
again 5 July, 1890. 

A statue proposed by government, about 14 July, 1885. 

Statue by Mr. Hamo Thornycroft set up in Trafalgar- 
square, 25 Sept. ; uncovered by Mr. D. R. Plunket, 16 
Oct. 1888. 

Another statue, by Mr. Onslow Ford, at the school of 
military engineering, Chatham, uncovered by the 
prince of Wales, 19 May, 1890. 

GORDON'S "NO POPERY" RIOTS, 

occasioned by the zeal of lord George Gordon, 

June 2-9, 1780. 

On 4 Jan. 1780, he tendered the petition of the Protestant 
Association to lord North. 

On P'riday, 2 June, he headed the mob of 40,000 persons 
who assembled in St. George's Fields, under the name 
of the Protestant Association, to carry up a petition to 
parliament for the repeal of the act which granted 
certain indulgences to the Roman Catholics. The mob 
proceeded to pillage, burn, and pull down the chapels 
and houses of the Roman Catholics first, but after- 
wards of other persons, for nearly six days. The Bank 
was attempted, the gaols opened (the King's Bench, 
Newgate, Fleet, and Bridewell prisons). On the 7th, 
thiity-six fires were seen blazing at one time. At 
length by the aid of armed associations of the citizens, 
the horse and foot guards, and the militia of several 
counties, then embodied and marched to London, the 
riot was quelled on the 8th. 

210 rioters were killed and 248 wounded, of whom 75 
died afterwards in the hospitals, and many were tried, 
convicted and executed. 

The loss of property was estimated at i8o,oooZ. 

Lord George was tried for high treason and acquitted, 
5 Feb. 1781. He died a prisoner for libel, 1 Nov. 1793. 

Alderman Kennett was found guilty of a dereliction of 
duty, 10 March, 1781. 

GOREE, a station near Cape Verd, W. coast 
of Africa, planted by the Dutch, 1617. It was 
taken by the English admiral Holmes in 1663 ; 
seized by the French, 1677 ; and ceded to them by 
the treaty of Nimeguen in 1678 ; taken by the 
British in 1758, 1779, 1800, and 1804; ceded to 
France, 1814. Governor Wall was hanged in Lon- 
don, 28 Jan. 1802, for the murder of sergeant Arm- 
strong, committed while governor at Goreein 1782. 

GOREY (S.E. Ireland). Near here the king's 
troops under colonel Walpole were defeated, and 
their leader slain, by the Irish rebels, 4 June, 1798. 

GORGET, the ancient breast-plate, was very 
large, varying in size and weight. The present 
diminutive breast-plate came into use about 1660, 
see Armour. 

GORHAM CASE, see Trials, 1849-50. 

GORILLA, a powerful ape of W. Africa, about 
five feet seven inches high. It is a match for the 
lion, and attacks the elephant with a club. It is 
considered to be identical with the hairy people 
called Gorullai by the navigator Hanno, in his 
Periplus, about 400 B.C. In 1847 a sketch of a 
gorilla's cranium was sent to professor Owen by Dr. 
Savage, then at the Gaboon river, and preserved 
specimens have been brought to Europe, and a 



living one died on its voyage to France. In 185 1 
professor Owen described specimens to the Zoolo- 
gical Society; in 1859 he gave a summary of our 
knowledge of this creature at the Royal Institution, 
London; and in 1861 several skins and skulls were 
there exhibited by M. Du Chaillu, who stated that 
he killed 21 of them in his travels in Central Africa. 
The gorilla was not known to Cuvier. 
A young gorilla landed at Liverpool, 21 June, 1876 ; went 
to Berlin ; was exhibited at Westminster aquarium, 
23 July ; died at Berlin, 13 Nov. 1877 ; another brought 
to the Crystal palace, England, soon died, Aug. 1879. 
An African gorilla landed at Liverpool, Sept. 1881. 
Another Sept. 1885. 

One placed in the zoological gardens, London, Oct. ; 
died 9 Dec. 1887. 

GOSPELLERS, a name given to the followers 
of Wicklifl'e, who attacked the errors of popery, 
about 1377. "Wicklift'e opposed the authority of the 
pope, the temporal jurisdiction of bishops, &c., and 
is called the father of the Reformation. 

GOSPELS (Saxon god-spell, good story). Mat- 
thew's and Mark's are conjectured to have been 
written between a.d. 38 and 65 ; Luke's 55 or 65 ; 
John's, about 97. Irenaeus in the 2nd century 
refers to each of the gospels by name. Dr. Robert 
Bray was one of the authors of the Society for the 
Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Countries, 
incorporated in 1701. A body termed "Bray's 
Associates," still exists; its object being to assist in 
forming and supporting clerical parochial libraries. 
GOSPORT (Hampshire), contains the Royal 
Clarence victualling yard. The great Haslar hos- 
pital, near Gosport, was built in 1762. 

GOTHA, capital of the duchy of Saxe Coburg- 
Gotha. Here is published the celebrated Almanack 
de Gotha, which first appeared in 1764, in German. 
Population, 1890, 29,134. 

GOTHARD, see Golthard and Alps. 
GOTHENBURG SYSTEM (in Sweden). 
Bv this alcoholic drinks are dispensed by persons 
deriving no protit from the sale. It was advocated 
in England by Mr. Chamberlain, M.P., and much 
discussed, 1876-7. 

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE began about 
the 9th century after Christ, and spread over -Europe. 
Its great feature is the pointed arch ; hence it has 
been suggested to call it the pointed style. " Gothic" 
was originally a term of reproach given to this style 
by the renaissance architects of the 16th century, 
its invention has been claimed for several nations, 
particularly for the Saracens. The following list is 
from Godwin's Chronological Table of English 
Architecture : — 
Anglo-Roman— b. c. 55 to about a.d. 250— St. Martin's 

church, Canterbury. 
Anglo-Saxon— a.d. 800 to 1066— Earl's Barton church 

St. Peter's, Lincolnshire. 
Gothic Anglo-Roman— a.d. 1066 to 1 135— Rochester 
cathedral nave ; St. Bartholomew's, Smithfield ; St. 
Cross, Hants, &c. 
Early English, or Pointed — a.d. ii35to 1272 — Temple- 
church, London ; parts of Winchester, Wells, Salis- 
bury, and Durham cathedrals, and Westminster Abbey. 
Pointed, called Pure Gothic— a.d. 1272 to 1377— Exeter 
cathedral, Waltham Cross, &c, St. Stephen's, West- 
minster. 
Florid Pointed— a.d. 1377 to 1509— Westminster Hall 
King's College, Cambridge ; St. George's Chapel, Wind- 
sor ; Henry VII. 's Chapel, Westminster. 
Elizabethan — a.d. 1509 to 1625— Northumberland 
House, Strand, pulled down 1874 ; part of Windsor 
Castle ; Hatfield House, Schools at Oxford. 
Revival of Grecian architecture about 1625. Banqueting 

House, Whitehall, &o. 
The revival of Gothic architecture commenced about 
1825, mainly through the exertions of A. W. Pugin. 
The controversy as to its expediency was rife in 1860-1. 

G G 



GOTHLAND. 



450 



GEAMMAEIANS. 



GOTHLAND, an isle in the Baltic sea, was 
conquered by the Teutonic knights, 1397-8 ; given 
up to the Danes, 1524; to Sweden, 1645; conquered 
by the Danes, 1677, and restored to Sweden, 1679. 

GOTHS, a warlike nation that inhabited the 
country between the Caspian, Pontus, Euxine, and 
Baltic seas. They entered Mcesia, took Philippo- 
polis, massacring thousands of its inhabitants ; de- 
feated and killed the emperor Decius, 251 ; but were 
defeated at Naissus by Claudius, hence surnamed 
Gothicus, 320,000 being slain, 269. Aurelian ceded 
Dacia to them in 272 ; but they long troubled the 
empire. After the destruction of the Roman western 
empire by the Heruli, the Ostrogoths, under Theo- 
deric, became masters of the greater part of Italy, 
•where they retained their dominion till JJ53, when 
they were finally conquered by N arses, Justinian's 
general. The Visigoths settled in Spain, and 
founded a kingdom, which continued until the 
■country was subdued by the Saracens. 

GOTTHAED, ST., near the river Raab, Hun- 
gary. Here the Turks, under the grand vizier 
Kupriuli, were totally defeated by the Imperialists 
and their allies, commanded by Montecuculi, 1 Aug. 
1664. Peace followed this great victory. See Alps. 

GOTTINGEN (Hanover), a member of the 
Hanseatie league about 1360. The university 
"' Georgia Augusta," founded by George II. of 
England in 1734, was opened 1737. It was seized 
hy the French, 1760, and held till 1762. In 1837 
several of the most able professors were dismissed 
for their political opinions. Population, 1890,23,693. 

GOVEENESSES' BENEVOLENT IN- 
STITUTION, was established in 1843, and incor- 
porated in 1848. It affords to aged governesses 
^annuities and an asylum ; and to governesses in 
distress a temporary home and assistance. 

GOVEENMENT Annuities Act, see An- 
nuities. The building of the new Government 
•Offices began in 1861. 

GOVEENMENT OE IEELAND BILL, 
-see Ireland, 1886. 

"GOVEENOUE, The," a moral and educa- 
tional work, full of anecdotes, by sir Thomas Elyot, 
first published in 153 1 ; an annotated edition with 
a glossary by Mr. H. H. S. Croft was published in 
1880. 

GOWEIE CONSEIEACY. John Ruthven, 
earl of Gowrie, in 1600, reckoning on the support of 
the burghs and the kirk, conspired to dethrone James 
VI. of Scotland, and seize the government. For 
this purpose the king was decoyed into Gowrie' s 
house in Perth, on 5 Aug. 1600. The plot was frus- 
trated, and the earl and his brother, Alexander, 
•were slain on the spot. At the time, many persons 
believed that the young men were rather the victims 
than the authors of a plot. Their father, William, 
*was treacherously executed in 1584 for his share in 
the raid of Ruthven, in 1582 ; and he and his father, 
Patrick, were among the assassins of Rizzio, 9 
March, 1566. 

GEAAL, Holy (Sangreal). The publication 
•of Tennyson's poem with this title, Dec. 1869, led 
to much discussion. Tennyson treats it as the cup 
in which Christ drank at the Last Supper. The 
mediaeval romances treat it as the dish which held 
the paschal-lamb. The word is probably old French, 
grial, from the old Latin gradalis, a dish. 

GEACE, a title assumed by Henry IV. of Eng- 
land, on his accession, in 1399. Excellent Grace 
was assumed by Henry VI. about 1425. Till the 
time of James I. 1603, the king was addressed by 
that title, but afterwards by the title of Majesty 



only. " Your Grace " is the manner of addressing 
an archbishop and a duke in this realm. — The term. 
"Grace of God" is said to have been taken by 
bishops at Ephesus, 431 (probably from I Cor. xv. 
10), by the Carlovingian princes in the 9th century, 
by popes in the 13th century; and about 1440 it was 
assumed by kings as signifying their divine right. 
" Dei gratia" was put on his great seal by Wil- 
liam II. of England, and on his gold coin by 
Edward III. The king of Prussia's saying, that 
he would reign " by the grace of God," gave much 
offence, 18 Oct. 1861. 

GEACE AT MEAT. The ancient Greeks 
would not partake of any meat until they had first 
offered part of it, as the first fruits, to their gods. 
The short prayer said before, and by some persons 
after meat, in Christian countries, is in conformity 
with Christ's example, John vi. 11, &c. 

GE^ECIA MAGNA, colonies planted by the 
Greeks, 974-748 B.C. ; see Italy. 

GEAFFITI, a term given to the scribblings 
found on the walls of Pompeii and other Roman 
ruins ; selections were published by Wordsworth in 
1837, and by Garrucci in i8<;6. 

GEAFTON ADMINISTEATION, suc- 
ceeded that of lord Chatham, Dec. 1767. The duke 
resigned, and lord North became prime minister, 
Jan. 1770; see North's Administration. 
Augustus Henry, duke of Grafton, first lord of the trea- 
sury [born, 1735 ; died 1S11]. 
Frederick, lord North, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Earl Gower, lord president. 
Earl of Chatham, lord privy seal. 
Earl of .Sherburne and Viscount Weymouth, secretaries of 

state. 
Sir Edward Hawke, first lord of the admiralty. 
Marquis of Granby, master-general of the ordnance. 
Lords Sandwich and Le Despencer, joint postmasters- 
general. 
Lords Hertford, duke of Ancaster, Thomas Townshend, 

Lord Camden, lord chancellor, succeeded by Charles 
Yorke (created lord Mordeu), died (it is said by his own 
hand) 20 Jan. 1770. 

GEAHAM'S DIKE (Scotland), a wall built in 
209 by Severus Septimus, the Roman emperor, or, 
as others say, by Antoninus Pius. It reached from 
the Firth of Forth to the Clyde. Buchanan relates 
that there were considerable remains of this wall in 
his time, and vestiges of it are still to be seen. 

GEAIN. Henry III. is said to have ordered a 
grain of wheat gathered from the middle of the ear 
to be the origiual standard of weight : 12 grains to 
be a pennyweight ; 12 pennyweights one ounce, and 
12 ounces a pound Troy. Laicson. 
An act for the safe carriage of grain (43 & 44 Vict. c. 43), 

passed 7 Sept. 1880. 

GEAMMAEIANS. A society of grammarians 
was formed at Rome so early as 276 B.C. Blair. 
Apollodorus of Athens, Varro, Cicero, Messala, 
Julius Caesar, Nicias, iElius Donatus, Remmius, 
Palemon, Tyrannion of Pontus, Athenaeus, and other 
distinguished men, were of this class. A Greek 
grammar was printed at Milan in 1476 ; Lily's 
Latin grammar (Brevis Institutio), 1513 ; Lindley 
Murray's English grammar, 1795 ; Cobbett's English 
grammar, 1818. — Harris's Hermes was published in 
1750, Home Tooke's " Epea Pteroenta," or the 
"Diversions of Purley," in 1786, treatises on the 
philosophy of language and grammar. Cobbett 
declared Mr. Canning to have been the only purely 
grammatical orator of his time ; and Dr. Parr, 
speaking of a speech of Mr. Pitt's, said, " We threw 
our whole grammatical mind upon it, and could not 
discover one error." The science of grammar has 
been recently much studied with excellent results. 



GEAMMAE SCHOOLS. 



451 



GEATTAN'S PAELIAMENT. 



GEAMMAE SCHOOLS, see Education. 

GEAMME, see Metrical System. Gramme 
machine, see under Electricity. 

GEAMOPHONE and Graphophone, see 

under Phonograph. 

GEAMPIAN HILLS (central Scotland). At 
Ardoch, near Mons Grampius of Tacitus, the Scots 
and Picts under Galgacus were defeated by the 
Romans under Agricola, 84 or 85. 

GEAMPOUND (Cornwall) was disfranchised 
in 1 82 1, for bribery and corrupt practices in 18 19. 
Sir Manasseh Lopez was sentenced by the court of 
king's beneh to a tine of 10,000^. and two years' 
imprisonment. 

GEAN, (Hungary). Here the Hungarians 
■defeated the Austrians, 27 Feb. 1849. 

GEANADA, a city, S. Spain, was founded by 
the Moors in the 8th century, and formed at first 
part of the kingdom of Cordova. In 1236, Mo- 
hammed-al-Hamar made it the capital of his new 
kingdom of Granada, which was highly prosperous 
till its subjugation by the " great captain," Gonsalvo 
de Cordova, 2 Jan. 1492. In 1609 and 1610 the 
industrious Moors were expelled from Spain, by the 
t)igoted Philip III., to the lasting injury of his 
•country. Granada was taken by marshal Soult in 
1810, and held till 1812. See New Granada. Popu- 
lation, 1887: province, 484,638 ; city, 73,006. 
In the 2>rovi%ce of Granada, five towns were destroyed, 
914 persons killed, with an immense loss of property, 
through the earthquakes of 25 Dee. et seq. 1884. 

GEANAEIES were formed by Joseph in 
Egypt, 1715 b. c. (Genesis xli. 48.) There were 
three hundred and twenty-seven granaries in Rome. 
Univ. Hist. Twelve new granaries were built at 
Bridewell to hold 6000 quarters of corn, and two 
store houses for sea-coal to hold 4000 loads, thereby 
to prevent the sudden dearness of these articles by 
great increase of inhabitants, 7 James I. 1610. 
■Stow. 

GEAND ALLIANCE between the emperor 
and the Dutch States- General (principally to 
prevent the uniou of the French and Spanish 
monarchies in one person), signed at Vienna, 12 
May, 1689, to which England, Spain, and the duke 
■of Savoy afterwards acceded. 

GEAND COMMITTEES, see Committees. 

GEAND-DUKE, see Duke. 

GEANDEES, see Spanish Grandees. 

GEAND. JUNCTION" CANAL (central 
England), joins several others, and forms a water 
communication between London, Liverpool, Bristol, 
and Hull. The canal commences at Braunston, on 
the west borders of Northamptonshire, and enters 
the Thames near London. Executed 1793-1805. 

GEAND JUEIES, see Juries. 

. GEANDMONTINES, a monastic order estab- 
lished in Limousin, in France, by Stephen, a 
gentleman of Auvergne, about 1076. They came to 
England in the reign of Henry I. (1100-35). 
Tanner. 

GEAND PENSIONAEY, a chief state 
functionary in Holland, in the 16th century. In 
the Constitution given by France to the Batavian 
republic, previously to the erection of the kingdom 
of Holland, the title was revived and given to the 
head of the government, 29 April, 1805, Rutger 
Jan . Schimmelpenninck being made the grand 
pensionary; see Holland. 



GEAND EEMONSTEANCE, see Remon- 
strance. 

GEANICUS (a river 1ST. W. Asia Minor), near 
which, on 22 May, 334 b. c, Alexander the Great 
signally defeated the Persians. The Macedonian 
troops (30,000 foot and 5000 horse) crossed the 
Granicus in the face of the Persian army (600,000 
foot and 20,000 horse). Justin. The victors lost 
fifty-five foot soldiers and sixty horse. Sardis 
capitulated, Miletus and Halicarnassus were taken 
by storm, and other great towns submitted to the 
conqueror. 

GEANSON, near the lake of Neufchatel, 
Switzerland, where Charles the Bold, duke of 
Burgundy, was defeated by the Swiss, 3 March, 
1476. 

GEANTON PIEE, breakwater, &c. forming 
a harbour, on the Forth, three miles from Edin- 
bui-gh, were constructed by Messrs. Stevenson, at 
the cost of about 500,000^., given by Walter, duke 
of Buccleuch, 1835-44. 

GEAPES. Previously to the reign of Edward 
VI. grapes were brought to England in large quan- 
tities from Flanders, where they were first cultivated 
about 1276. The vine was introduced into England 
in 1552 ; being first planted at Bloxhall, in Suft'olk. 
In the gardens of Hampton-court palace is a vine, 
stated to surpass any in Europe ; it is 72 feet by 20, 
and has in one season produced 2272 bunches of 
grapes, weighing 18 cwt. ; the stem is 13 ineb.es in 
girth; it was planted in 1769. Leigh. 

GEAPHIC, illustrated weekly journal, estab- 
lished 4 Dec. 1869. The Daily Graphic first 
appeared 4 Jan. 1890. 

GEAPHITE (from the Greek graphein, to 
write), a peculiar form of mineral carbon, with a 
trace of iron, improperly termed black lead and 
plumbago. In 1809 sir Humphry Davy investi- 
gated into the relations of three forms of carbon, 
the diamond, graphite, and charcoal. A rude kind 
of black lead pencil is mentioned by Gesner in 1565. 
Intei-esting results of sir B. C. Brodie's researches 
on graphite appeared in the International Exhi- 
bition of 1862. Fresh discoveries were made in the 
nearly exhausted Borrowdale mines, Cumberland, 
in 1875. 

GEAPHOSCOPE, an optical apparatus for 
magnifying and giving fine effects to engravings, 
photographs, &c, invented by C. J. Rowsell; ex- 
hibited in 187 1. 

GEAPHOTYPE, a new process for obtaining 
blocks for surface-printing, the invention of Mr. De 
Witt Clinton Hitchcock in 1S60. It was described 
by Mr. Fitz-Cook at the Society of Arts, 6 Dec. 
1865. Drawings were made on blocks of chalk with 
a silicious ink ; when dried, the soft parts were 
brushed away, and the drawing remained in relief ; 
stereotypes were then taken from the block. 

GEATES. The Anglo-Saxons had arched 
hearths, and chafing-dishes were in use until the 
introduction of chimneys about 1200 ; see Chimneys 
and Stoves. 

GEATTAN'S PAELIAMENT, a name 
popularly given to the Irish parliament, after it 
had been declared independent, mainly by the exer- 
tions of Henry Grattan, by an act passed in Eng- 
land, May, 1782. It came to an end by the passing 
of the Act of Union, 2 July, 1800. In 1806, Grattan 
said of his parliament " I have a parental recollec- 
tion. I sat by her cradle ; I followed her hearse." 
Grattan strongly urged the passing of an act for 
Catholic emancipation till his death 4 June, 1820. 

G G 2 



GRAVELINES. 



452 



GREECE. 



GEAVELINES (N. France^. Here the 
Spaniards, aided by an English fleet, defeated the 
French on 13 July, 1558. 

GRAVELOTTE, Battle of, 18 Aug. 187c 
See Metz. 

GRAVESEND, Kent (Domesday Graveshaf), 
on the Thames ; burned by the French, 1380 ; 
chartered by Elizabeth, 1562 ; fortified, 1588 ; de- 
structive fire, 24 Aug. 1727; has one M.P. by act 
of 1867. Population, 1881,23,302; 1891,24,067. 

GRAVITATION, as a supposed innate power, 
was noticed by the Greeks, and also by Seneca, who 
speaks of the moon attracting the waters, about 38. 
Kepler investigated the subject about 1615, and 
Hooke devised a system of gravitation about 1674. 
The principles of gravity were demonstrated by 
Galilep at Florence, about 1633 ; but the great law 
on this subject, laid down by Newton in his 
"Principia," in 1687, is said to have been proved by 
him in 1670. The fall of an apple from a tree in 1666 
is said to have directed his attention to the subject, 
Newton says, "I do not anywhere take on me to define 
the kind or manner of any action, the causes or physi- 
cal reasons thereof, or attribute forces in a true and 
physical sense to certain centres, when I speak of 
them as attracting, or endued with attractive powers. " 
On 15 July, 1867, M. Chasles laid before the Paris 
Academy of Sciences some letters alleged to be from 
Newton to Pascal and others tending to show that to 
Pascal was due the theory of gravitation. The authen- 
ticity of these letters was authoritatively denied, and 
their forgery and his own delusion were acknowledged 
by M. Chasles before the academy 13 Sept. 1869. 

GREAT BETHEL, see Big Bethel. 

GREAT BRITAIN, the name given in 1604 
to England, Wales, and Scotland {which see). 
King James I. styled himself king of Great Britain, 
1604. See Population. " Greater Britain," the title 
of sir Charles Dilke's book, describing his travels in 
the British colonies, published in 1868 ; 8th edition, 
June 1885. 

GREAT BRITAIN, EASTERN, &c, see 

under Steam. — The Eastern Counties Railway 
assumed the name of Great Eastern in 1862, 
when it was incorporated. The Great Northern 
Railway Company, an amalgamation, was incor- 
porated in 1846. Their station at King's-cross, 
London, was opened in Oct. 1852. — The Great 
Western Railway opened as far as Maidenhead, 
4 June, 1838; as Twyford, 1 July, 1839; between 
London and Bristol, 30 June, 1841 ; was re-modelled 
by acts of 1867 and 1869. 

GREAT EXHIBITION, see Exhibition. 

GREAT PAUL, see Bells. 

GREAT SEAL of ENGLAND. The first 
seal used by Edward the Confessor was called the 
broad seal, and affixed to the grants of the crown, 
1048. Baker's Chron. The most ancient seal with 
arms on it is that of Richard I. James II., when 
fleeing from London in 1688, dropped the great seal 
in the Thames. The great seal of England was 
stolen from the house of lord chancellor Thurlow, 
in Great Ormond-street, and carried away, with 
other property, 24 March, 1784, a day before the 
dissolution of parliament ; it was never recovered, 
and was replaced the next day. A new seal was 
brought into use on the union with Ireland, 1 Jan. 
1801. A new seal for Ireland was brought, into use 
and the old one defaced, 21 Jan. 1832. The Great 
Seal Offices Act, passed 7 Aug. 1874, abolished 
certain offices, transferred duties, &c. The Great 
Seal Act passed, 2 Aug. 1880, relates to appoint- 
ment of judges, patents, &c. 



GREECE, anciently termed Hellas. The 
name of Gratia first occurs in the writings of Aris- 
totle (b.c. 384-322). Greece was so called from an, 
ancient king, Greecus, and Hellas from another king, 
Hellen, the son of Deucalion. From Hellen's sons, 
Dorus and iEolus, came the Dorians and jEolians;- 
another son Xuthus was father of Achseus and Ion, 
the progenitors of the Achaeans and Ionians. 
Homer calls the inhabitants indifferently Myrmi- 
dons, Hellenes, and Achaians. They were also- 
termed Danai, from Danaus, king of Argos, 1474 B.C. 
Greece anciently consisted of the peninsula of the 
Peloponnesus, Greece outside of the Peloponnesus,, 
Thessaly, and the islands. The principal states of 
Greece were Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Thebes,. 
Arcadia, and afterwards Macedon (all which see). 
The limits of Modern Greece are much more con- 
fined. Greece became subject to the Turkish empire- 
in the 15th century. The population of the kingdom, 
established in 1829, 96,810; in 1861, 1,096,810, with 
the Ionian isles (added in 1864), about 1,348,522; 
in 1870, 1,457,894; in 1879, 1,979,147; in 1889,, 
2,187,208. "The early history is mythic, and the 
dates purely conjectural. 

Sicyon founded (Eusebius) . . . . B.C. 2089* 
Uranus arrives in Greece (Lenglet) . . . 2042- 

Revolt of the Titans ; War of the Giants . . . * * 

Inachus king of the Argives 1910 

Kingdom of Argos begun by Inachus (Eusebius) . 1856 
Reign of Ogyges iD Boeotia (Eusebius) . . . . 1796 
Sacrifices to the gods introduced by Phoroneus . 1773; 

Sicyon now begun (Lenglet) , 

Deluge of Ogyges (which see) ^764 

A colony of Arcadians emigrate to Italy under 
CEnotrus : the country first called (Enotria, 
afterwards Magna Grcecia (Eusebius) . . . 1710. 
The Pelasgi hold the Peloponnesus 1700-1550 ; suc- 
ceeded by the Hellenes .... isso-isoo 
Chronology of the Arundelian marbles commences 

(Eusebius) 1582 

Cecrops arrives from Egypt . . .about i<y;o, 

The Areopagus established 1 §£4 

Deluge of Deucalion (Eusebius) .... 1503 

Panathencean games instituted 149S 

Cadmus with the Phoenician letters settles in Boeotia, 

and founds Thebes .... about, 1493 

Lelex, first king of Laconia, afterwards called 

Sparta 1490 

Danaus said to have brought the first ship into 
Greece, and to have introduced pumps (see Argos) 1485, 

Reign of Hellen (Evsebius) 1459 

First Olympic games at Elis, by the Idcei Dactyli . 1453 
Who are said to have discovered iron . . . 140& 

Corinth re-built and so named 1384 

Eleusinian mysteries instituted by Eumolpus (1356) 

and Isthmian games . 1326 

Kingdom of Mycense created out of Argos . . . 1313 
Pelops, from Lydia, settles in south Greece, 
(Peloponnesus) .... about 1283 



1263, 



1225 
1213- 



1 193 



Argonautic expedition (which see) 

The Pythian games begun by Adrastus 

War of the seven Greek captains against Thebes 

The Amazonian war . . ... 

Rape of Helen by Theseus . ... 

Rape of Helen by Paris 

Commencement of the Trojan war 

Troy taken and destroyed on the night of the 7th of 

the month Thargelion (27th of May, or nth June) 1184 
jEneas said to arrive in Italy . . . about 1182. 
Migration of iEolians who build Smyrna, <fcc. . . 1123 
Return of the Heraclidas .... about 1 103: 
Settlement of the Ionians in Asia Minor . . 1044 

The Rhodians begin navigation laws . . . . 916 

Lycurgus flourishes 884 

Olympic games revived at Elis, 884 ; the first 

Olympiad . 776"- 

The Messenian wars 743-669 

Sea-fight, the first on record, between the Corin- 
thians and the inhabitants of Corcyra . . . 664 

Byzantium built 657 

Seven sages of Greece (Solon, Periander, Pittacus, 

Chilo, Thales, Cleobulus, and Bias) flourish, about 590. 
Persian conquests in Ionia 544, 



GREECE. 



453 



GREECE. 



.Sybaris in Magna Graecia destroyed : 100,000 Cro- 

tonians under Milo defeat 300,000 Sybarites . . 508 
Sardis burnt by the Greeks, which occasions the 

Persian invasion, 504 ; Thrace and Macedonia 

conquered 496 

Athens and Sparta resist the demands of the king 

of Persia 491 

The Persians defeated at Marathon . 28 Sept. 490 
Xerxes invades Greece, but is checked at Thermo- 
pylae by Leonidas Aug. 480 

Battle of Salamis (lohich see) ... 20 Oct. „ 
Mardonius defeated and slain at Plataea ; Persian 

fleet destroyed at Myeale ... 22 Sept. 479 

Battle of Eurymedon (end of Persian war) . . . 469 

Athens begins to tyrannise over Greece . . . 459 

The sacred war begun 448 

"War between Corinth and its colony Corcyra . . 435 
Leads to the Peloponuesian war . . . 431-404 
Disastrous Athenian expedition to Syracuse 415-413 

Retreat of the 10,000 under Xenophon . . . 400 

Death of Socrates 399 

The sea-fight at Cnidus 394 

The peace of Antalcidas 387 

Rise and fall of the Theban power in Greece . 370-360 

Battle of Mantinea ; death of Epaminondas . . 362 

Ambitious designs of Philip of Macedon . . . 353 
Sacred wars ended by Philip, who takes all the 

cities of the Phoceaiis 346 

Athens and allies declare war against Philip, 340 ; 

who totally defeats them at Chserjnea {which see) 338 

Philip assassinated by Pausanias . . . . 336 

Alexander, his son, subdues the Athenians, and 

destroys Thebes „ 

Alexander conquers the Persian empire, 334-331 ; 

dies 323 

Greece harassed by his successors ; the iEtolian and 

Achaian leagues revived 284-280 

Greece invaded by the Gauls, 280 ; they are defeated 

at Delphi, 279 ; and expelled .... 277 

Dissensions lead to Roman intirvention . . . 200 
.Macedon made a Roman province, after the defeat 

of the last king, Perseus, at Pydna . . . . 168 
■Greece conquered by Mummius and made a Roman 

province 147-146 

Greece visited and favoured by Augustus, 21 b.c. ; 

and by Hadrian a.d. 122-133 

Invaded by Alaric 396 

Plundered by the Normans of Sicily . ... 1146 
Conquered by the Latins, and subdivided into 

small governments 1204 

The Turks under Mahomet II. conquer Athens and 

part of Greece 1456 

The Venetians hold Athens and the Morea . . 1466 
Greece mainly subject to the Turks . . . . 1540 
The Morea held by Venice, 1687 ; till taken by the 

Turks 1715 

Great struggle for independence with Russian help ; 

1770 et seq., fruitless insurrection of the Suliotes 1803 
Secret Society, the Hetairia, established . . . 1815 
Insurrection in Moldavia ami Wallachia, in which 

the Greeks .join, suppressed 1821 

Proclamation of prince Alexander to shake off the 
Turkish yoke, March, 1821 ; he raised the stan- 
dard of the cross against the crescent and the 
war of independence began . . 6 April, ,, 
The Greek patriarch put to death at Constantinople 

23 April, ,, 
The Morea gained by the Greeks . . June, ,, 
Missolonghi taken by Greeks . . . . Nov. ,, 
Independence of Greece proclaimed . . 27 Jan. 1822 
Siege of Corinth by the Turks . . . Jan. „ 
Bombardment of Scio ; its capture ; most horrible 
massacre recorded in modern history (see Chios) 

11 April, ,, 
The Greeks victors at Thermopylae, &c. 13 July, „ 

Massacre at Cyprus July, ,, 

Corinth taken 16 Sept. „ 

National congress at Argos . . .10 April, 1823 
Victories of Marco Botzaris, June ; killed 10 Aug. ,, 
Lord Byron lands in Greece to devote himself to its 

cause Aug. ,, 

First Greek loan Feb. 1824 

Death of lord Byron at Missolonghi . . 19 April, ,, 
Defeat of the capitan pacha, at Samos . 16 Aug. ,, 
Provisional government of Greece set up 12 Oct. ,, 
Ibrahim Pacha lands, 25 Feb. ; takes Navarino, 23 
May ; Tripolitza . . . . 30 June, 1825 



The Greek fleet defeats the capitan pacha June, 1825 
The provisional government invite the protection 

of England July, „ 

Ibrahim Pacha takes Missolonghi by assault, after a 

long and heroic defence . . . . 23 April, 1826 
70,000?. raised in Europe for the Greeks . . . ,, 
Rescind Pacha takes Athens . . .2 June, 1827 
Egypto-Turkish fleet destroyed at Navarino, 20 Oct. ,, 
Treaty of London, between Great Britain, Russia, 

and France, on behalf of Greece, signed 6 July, ,, 
Count Capo d'Istria president of Greece 18 Jan. 1828 
The Panhellenion or Grand Council of State estab- 
lished 2 Feb. ,, 

National bank founded . . . .14 Feb. „ 
Convention of the viceroy of Egypt with sir Edward 
Codrington, for the evacuation of the Morea, and 
delivery of captives .... 6 Aug. ,, 
Patras, Navarino, and Modon surrender to the 

French 6 Oct. „ 

The Turks evacuate the Morea . . . Oct. ,, 
Missolonghi surrendered to Greece . .16 May, 1829 
Greek National Assembly commences its sittings 

at Argos 23 July, ,, 

The Porte acknowledges the independence of 

Greece by the treaty of Adrianople . 14 Sept. ,, 
Prince Leopold declines the sovereignty 21 May, 1830 
Count Capo d'Istria, president of Greece, assas- 
sinated by the brother and son of Mavromichaelis, 
a Mainote chief whom he had imprisoned, 9 Oct. 1831 
The assassins immured within close brick walls, 
built around them up to their chins, and sup- 
jilied with food until they died . . 29 Oct. ,, 
Otho of Bavaria made king of Greece by a conven- 
tion signed 7 May, 1832 

Colocotroni's conspiracy .... Sept. ,, 

He is condemned but spared . . .7 June, 1834 
Otho I. assumes the government . . 1 June, 1835 
University at Athens established, 1837 '• building 

commenced 1839 

A bloodless revolution at Athens is consummated, 
establishing a new constitution, enforcing minis- 
terial responsibility and national representation, 

14 Sept. 1843 
The king accepts the new constitution 16 March, 1844 
Admiral Parker, in command of the British Medi- 
terranean fleet, blockades the harbour of the 
Piraeus, the Greek government having refused the 
payment of moneys due to British subjects, and 
to surrender the islands of Sapienza and Caprera, 

18 Jan. 1850 
France interposes her good offices, and the blockade 

is discontinued 1 March, ,, 

Negotiations terminate, and the blockade of Athens 

is renewed 25 April, ,, 

Dispute with France accommodated 21 June, ,, 

Insurrections against Turkey in Thessaly and Epi- 
rus, favoured by the Greek court, Jan. and Feb. ; 
lead to a rupture between Greece and Turkey, 

28 March, 1854 

After many remonstrances, the English and French 

governments send troops which arrive at the 

Piraeus ; change of ministry ensues, and the king 

promises to observe a strict neutrality, 25, 26 May, „ 

A newspaper in the modern Greek language printed 

in London, beginning .... 9 July, i860 
Great Britain, France, and Russia remonstrate 
with the Greek government respecting its debts, 

18 Oct. „ 
Agitation in the Ionian isles for annexation to 

Greece ; the parliament prorogued . . March, 1861 
The king retires to Bavaria .... July, ,, 
Attempted assassination of the queen by Darios, an 

insane student 18 Sept. ,, 

Great earthquake in the Peloponnesus . 26 Dec. ,, 
Leopold of Bavaria proposed as heir to the throne, 

Jan. 1862 
Military revolt begins at Nauplia . . 13 Feb. ,, 
Blockade of the coast decreed . . 9 March, „ 
The insurgents demand reforms and a new succes- 
sion to the throne April, ,, 

The royal troops enter the citadel of Nauplia ; in- 
surgents removed .... 25 April, „ 
Change of ministry : Colocotroni becomes premier, 

7 June, ,, 

Insurrection begins at Patras and Missolonghi, 17 

Oct. ; a provisional government, established at 

Athens, deposes the king, 23 Oct. ; he and the 

queen flee ; arrive at Corfu, 27 Oct. ; the Euroj 



GEEECE. 



454 



GEEECE. 



pean powers neutral ; general submission to pro- 
visional government . . . . 31 Oct. 1862 

Great demonstrations in favour of prince Alfred of 
Great Britain, who is proclaimed king at Lamia 
in Phthiotis, 22 Nov. ; great excitement in his 
favour at Athei s 23 Nov. ,, 

The provisional government establish universal 
suffrage .4 Dec. ,, 

The national assembly meets at Athens . 22 Dec. ,, 

The national assembly elects M. Balbis president, 
29 Jan. ; and declares prince Alfred king of 
Greece by 230,016 out of 241,202 votes 3 Feb. 1863 

Military revolt of lieut. Canaris against Bulgaris 
and others, who resign, 20 Feb. ; a new ministry 
appointed under Balbis . . . .23 Feb. „ 

The assembly decides to offer the crown to prince 
William of Schleswig-Holstein, 18 March ; pro- 
claim him as king George I. . .30 March, „ 

Protocol between the three protecting powers, 
France, England, and Russia, signed at London, 
consenting to the offer of the crown on condition 
of the annexation of the Ionian isles to Greece, 

5 June, ,, 
The king of Denmark accepts from the aged admiral 

Canaris the Greek crown for prince William, 
whom he advises to adhere to the constitution 
and gain the love of his people . . 6 June ,, 
Military revolt at Athens, suppressed 30 June — 

9 July, „ 
The king arrives at Athens, 30 Oct. ; takes the oath 

to the constitution 31 Oct. ,, 

The Balbis ministry formed . . .28 April, 1864 
Protocol annexing the Ionian isles to Greece, signed 
by M. Zaimis and sir H. Storks, 28 May ; the 
Greek troops occupy Corfu, 2 June ; the king 

arrives there 6 June, „ 

New ministry under Canaris formed . 7 Aug. „ 

The assembly recognises the debt of 1824 5 Sept. „ 

After much delay, and a remonstrance from the king, 

19 Oct. a new constitution (with no upper-house) 

is passed by the assembly, 1 Nov. ; and accepted 

by the king 28 Nov. „ 

New ministry under Coumoundouros 29 March, ,, 
The anniversary of the beginning of the war of inde- 
pendence (6 April, 1821) kept with enthusiasm, 

6 April, ,, 
The king visits the eastern provinces ; general 

tranquillity 20 April, ,, 

The king opens chamber of deputies . 9 June, ,, 

Death of Alexander Mavroeordato, one of the early 
patriots 18 Aug. ,, 

The king gives up one-third of his civil list to re- 
lieve the treasury . . .25 Sept. ,, 

An economical financial policy proposed ; a new 
ministry formed Nov. ,, 

Brigandage prevails ; frequent ministerial changes 
under Deligeorges, Coumoundouros, Bulgaris, and 
Boufos Oct. 1865— June, 1866 

New ministry under Bulgaris and Roufos, 23 Jan. ,, 

Chambers vote payments to themselves ; suddenly 
dissolved by the king . . . .3 Feb. „ 

Great agitation in favour of the Cretan insurrection 
(see Candia) Aug. -Dee. ,, 

New ministry headed by Coumoundouros . Jan. 1867 

Manifesto of the so-named "Greek nation," issued 
at Paris 19 April, „ 

Great sympathy with the insurrection in Candia ; 
the blockade run by Greek vessels with volun- 
teers, arms, and provisions . . April, et seq. ,, 

Marriage of the king with the grandduchess Olga 
of Russia 27 Oct. „ 

Their cordial reception at Athens . . 24 Nov. ,, 

New ministry under Moraitinis, 1 Jan. ; under Bul- 
garis Feb. 1868 

Constantine, duke of Sparta, heir to the crown, 
bom 2 Aug. „ 

Greek vessel Enosis fires on Turkish vessels and 
enters port of Syra .... 14 Dec. „ 

Rupture between Turkey and Greece in conse- 
quence of Greek armed intervention in Candia 
(which see) Dec. „ 

After a conference of representatives of the Western 
powers at Paris, Jan., their requisitions were 
accepted, and diplomatic relations between 
Turkey and Greece resumed . . .26 Feb. 1869 

Prince and princess of Wales visit Athens, 19 April, ,, 

Law authorising the cutting the isthmus of Corinth 

..... 7 Nov. ,, 



New ministry under M. Zaimis . 9 Jan. 1870 

Concession to cut a canal through the isthmus of 

Corinth granted to a French company . April, „, ' 
Lord and lady Muncasterand a party of English 
travellers seized by brigands at Oropos, near 
Marathon ; lord Muncaster and the ladies sent to 
treat ; 25,000!. demanded as ransom, with free 
pardon 11 April, ,„ 

The brigands retreating, and surrounded by troops, 
kill Mr. Vyner, Mr. Lloyd, Mr. Herbert, and the 
count de Boyl . . . . . 21 April, ,,, 

Great excitement ; the king shows great liberality ; 
but many influential persons are charged with 
connivance at brigandage . . May, June, ,* 

Several brigands killed ; seven captured, tried and 
condemned, 23 May ; five executed . 20 June, , y 

A new ministry under M. Deligeorges . 19 July, ,, 

Greek college opened at Bayswater, London,W. 1 Oct. , p 

Decree for suppression of brigandage issued Oct. ,, 

Two gentlemen carried off . . . 11 Oct. ,, 

A new ministry under M. Coumoundouros 22 Dec. ,, 

Coumoundouros ministry resigns . . 6 Nov. 187a 

Succeeded by Zaimis 8 Nov. ,, 

Bulgaris minister, 7 Jan. ; resigns ; Deligeorges 
again minister 26 July, 1872; 

The Laurium mines of lead, zinc, &c, were pur- 
chased by MM. Roux and Serpieri and a company, 
1863 ; and worked profitably ; roads being made 
and a village built. The mines having been heavily 
taxed and scoria? claimed by the government, 
loss ensued ; the company's offer to sell the mines 
to the government was accepted, but payment 
evaded by the legislature. Hence arose disputes 
with France and Italy, and ministerial changes 
in Greece autumn, ,„ 

Speech of the king to the legislature, announcing 
formation of roads and other improvements. 
[The Laurium mines had been purchased by M. 
Syngros, a Greek capitalist, supported by the 
banks] 25 Feb. 1873 

52nd anniversary of Greek independence kept in 
London 5 April, „ 

The university at Athens closed, through insubor- 
dination of the students . . . . Dec. „ 

New cabinet under Bulgaris, 22 Feb. ; resigns, 27 
April ; resumes office ... 7 May, 18745. 

Tricoupi minister, 8 May; dissolves chambers, 31 
May ; meet Aug. 1875, 

Greece neutral in regard to insurrection in the 
Herzegovina .... July— Sept. „ 

The prince of Wales warmly received at Athens, 

18 Oct. „ 

New ministry under Coumoundouros, about 27 Oct. ,, 

Several ex-ministers fined for extortion from bishops 
and others on appointment . . . April, 1876 

The king and queen travelling in England in July ; 
at the Crystal palace .... 19 July „ 

Greece neutral in the Servian war . . July „ 

Deligeorges forms a ministry, 8 Dec. ; replaced by 
Zaimis and Coumoundouros . . 10 Dec. „ 

Deligeorges prime minister, 10 March — 28 May ; 
succeeded by a coalition ministry, 29 May ; re- 
formed under the aged Canaris . . 3 June, 1877 

National excitement for war allayed by the king, 

29 May, ,, 

Discovery of relics at Spata near Athens ; tombs 
containing bones, precious metal ornaments, &c. 
(removed to Athens by M. Stamataki) about 1 July, ,, 

Revival of the Theban "sacred band," instituted 
by Epaminondas (to be ioco instead of 300) about 

July, , r 

Death of the aged Canaris, 1 4 Sept. ; the king takes 
his place as president ... 14 Sept. „ 

British and Turkish governments remonstrate with 
Greece for apparently arming against Turkey, 

Sept., Oct. „ 

Death of Bulgaris, statesman, about . 10 Jan. 1878? 

New ministry under Coumoundouros . . 23 Jan. „ 

Insurrection in Thessaly against Turks, 28 Jan. ; 
10,000 Greeks enter the country, retire at the 
armistice early in Feb. „ 

Insurrection struggling ; battles at Maerinitza, 28, 29 
March ; Mr. C. Ogle, Times correspondent, killed 
by Turks (investigation led to no result) 29 March, ,,, 

Insurrection closed through British intervention ; 
announced 6 May, ;> 

Greece disappointed by the Berlin treaty, 13 July : 



GEEECE. 



455 



GEEEK CHUECH. 



rectification of the frontiers by the sultan, pro- 
posed about 24 July, 1878 

Safvet Pacha's despatch resisting the claims for 

Greece 8 Aug. „ 

New ministry under Tricoupis . . -31 Oct. ,, 
Defeated in assembly, 4 Nov. ; Coumoundouros 

forms a ministry 7-10 Nov. „ 

Recruiting law for the army (all men between 21 

and 40 liable) Nov. ,, 

Death of Deligeorges, late minister . . 26 May, 1879 
Monument of Mr. Ogle set up at Athens . Aug. ,, 
Recruiting law came into force . . .1 Jan. 1880 
Crisis ; Coumoundouros remains . . 28 Jan. ,, 
Tricoupis ministry formed . . 22 March, ,, 

Berlin conference to propose settlement of the 

Turkish and Greek frontiers, meets . 16 June, „ 
The king visits England ; receives freedom of Lon- 
don, 16 June ; leaves .... 5 July, ,, 
Order for mobilisation of the army signed, 5 Aug. ,, 
The king and queen arrive at Athens after a long 
European torn - ; national feeling warlike ; Thes- 
saly and Epirus demanded . . .17 Oct. ,, 
King's speech opening parliament ; moderate and 

firm 21 Oct. ,, 

Tricoupis ministry defeated ; resigns . 22 Oct. ,, 
Coumoundouros forms a ministry . . 25 Oct. ,, 
Much discussion with negotiations respecting 
Greek and Turkish frontiers, (see Turkey), 

Oct. 1880— May, 1881 
Convention between Turkey and Greece agreed to 
at Constantinople ; Thessaly ceded to Greece, 

24 May ; signed 2 July, ,, 

Carried into effect ; Greek flag raised in Arta, 6 July, ,, 
The parliament dissolved by the king . 4 Nov. ,, 
New ministry under Tricoupis . . 15 March, 1882 
Cutting of the Isthmus of Corinth begun (see 

Corinth) 5 May, „ 

Frontier disputes in Thessaly, between Greeks and 
Turks, at Navantyk, near Derbend, Bosnia, 

about 26 Aug. ,, 

Settlement 9 Nov. ,, 

Death of the statesman Coumoundouros, much 

lamented 9 March, 1883 

Improved finances ; good budget, announced March, 1884 
Tricoupis ministry resigns, 17 Feb. ; M. Delyannis 
unsuccessful ; M. Tricoupis resumes office 

21 Feb. 1885 

Chamber dissolved 23 Feb. ,, 

Railway between Athens and Corinth opened 

15 April, ,, 
Tricoupis ministry resigns through minority in 
elections about 20 April ; Delyannis ministry 

formed 1 May, ,, 

Enthusiastic military movements consequent upon 

the coitp d'etat in Roumelia . . . Oct. „ 
Vote for loan of 1,200,000/. ... 7 Nov. ,, 
Increased warlike demonstration ; British inter- 
vention supported by the great powers, about 
23 Jan. ; foreign ironclads sent to Suda bay, 

Crete 30 Jan. et s&i. „ 

Great discovery of statuary, &c, near the Acropolis, 

Athens ,, 

National fete to commemorate declaration of inde- 
pendence in 1821, 6 April, 1884, and . 6 April, 1886 
Proposed loan of about 800, oool. to raise the army 
from 85,000 to 1 10,000, about 14 April ; and calling 

out of reserves 19 April, „ 

Ultimatum of the powers calling upon Greece to 
disarm, delivered 26 April; special intervention 
of the French minister, about 26 April ; inadequate 

reply of Greece 30 April, ,, 

The British, Austrian, German, and Italian 

ambassadors leave Athens ... 7 May, ,, 
Greek troops sent to the front . . 7-8 May, ,, 
Blockade of Greek ports notified and enforced, 

8 May, ,, 
Resignation of M. Delyannis, 9 May ; M. Tricoupis 
declines to form a ministry, 10 May ; M. 
Papamichalopoulos also declines, n May ; pro- 
visional one formed by M. Yalvis, 12 May ; 
succeeded by M. Tricoupis . . 20 May, „ 

The king signs a decree for disarmament, 24 May, 

announced to the powers . . . 1 June ,, 
Fighting at the outposts near Nezeres ; the origin 
uncertain ; 20-21 May ; about 200 killed and 
wounded ; armistice agreed on, 24 May ; formal 
declaration of the raising of the blockade 7 June ,, 
Great electoral reform bill passed 17 June, „ 



New chamber opened .... 3 Feb. 1887 

The 100th anniversary of the birth of Lord Byron, 
celebrated at the Greek church, Bayswater, 
London, W 22 Jan. 1888 

The king returns to Athens after a foreign tour 

- 8 Oct. „ 

Celebration of the 25th anniversary of the king's 
accession . • 31 Oct. ,, 

National industrial exhibition at Athens opened by 
the king 1 Nov. ,, 

Marriage of the princess Alexandra and the arch- 
duke Paul of Russia .... 17 June, 1889 

The king visits Paris . . . .22 July, „ 

Marriage of the duke of Sparta and the princess 
Sophie of Prussia, at Athens, in the presence of 
the empress Frederick (her mother), the king 
and queen of Greece (his parents) ; the king and 
queen of Denmark, the German emperor and 
empress, the prince and princess of Wales, the 
Czare witch of Russia, and other relatives, 27 Oct. ,, 

Prince Albert Victor of Wales at Athens, 

17 April, et seq. 1890- 

Formation of a " Young Greek party" at Athens, 
leader M. Ralli Aug. ,, 

Statues, &c, supposed to be the work of Phidias, 
at Rhamnus in Attica ; discovered during ex- 
cavations made for the Archaeological School of 
Athens; reported .9 c * i " " 

Elections ; great majority for the opposition, 

26 Oct. ,, 

M. Tricoupis resigns, 28 Oct. ; M. Delyannis forms 
a ministry, 3 Nov. ; the new chamber opened by 
the king 10 Nov. ,, 

By an avalanche near Trikkala, 25 persons are 
killed 29 Jan. 1891 

Seventieth anniversary of Greek Independence, 
celebrated 6 April, „J 

Death of the grandduchess Paul (see abore, 1889), 

25 Sept. ,, 

A commission exonerates M. Tricoupis from charges 
against him, about .... 27 Dec. ,,. 

Mr. Egerton, appointed British minister at Athens, 
in succession to the Hon. sir Edmund J. Monson, 
about 21 Jan. 1892- 

A fanatical mob attack and destroy the new Pro- 
testant church at the Piraeus and ill-use the 
ministers and congregation ; the riots suppressed 

by the military 14 Feb. ,, 

The proposed impeachment of M. Tricoupis 

dropped by the government . . .22 Feb. ,, 
The king, for financial reasons, dismisses M. Del- 
yannis ; a new ministry formed by M. Constan- 
topoulo, 1 March ; the king is supported by the 
parliament, large retrenchments to be made, 

5 March, , r 
Dissolution of the chamber, 25 March ; new 
chamber elected ; majority for M Tricoupis, 15 
May ; he forms a new ministry . 22 June, ,, 

KINGS OF GREECE. 

1832. Otho I., prince of Bavaria; born, 1 June, 1815 ; 
elected king, 7 May, 1832 ; under a regency till 
1 June, 1835 ; married, 22 Nov. 1836, to Maria 
Frederica, daughter of the grand-duke of Olden- 
burg ; deposed, 23 Oct. 1862 ; died in Bavaria, 26. 
July, 1867. 
1863. George I. (son of Christian IX. of Denmark), king.- 
of the Hellenes ; born 24 Dec. 1845 ; made king 5 
June, takes the oath 31 Oct. 1863 ; declared of age, 
27 June, 1863 ; married grand-duchess Olga of 
Russia, 27 Oct. 1867. 
Heir: Coustantine. duke of Sparta, born 2 Aug. 1S68 : 
married to the princess Sophie of Prussia, 27 Oct., 1889. 
Heir, George, born 19 July, 1890. 

GEEEK AECHITECTUEE, see Architec- 
ture. 

GEEEK CHUECH, or Eastern church, 
established in Russia and Greece, disowns the 
supremacy of the pope, and is strongly opposed to 
many of the doctrines and practices of the Roman 
church. The Greek orthodox confession of faith 
appeared in 1643 ; see Fathers of the Church. This 
church, in 1876, had 279 dignitaries, under the 
patriarch of Constantinople ; 136 bishops, 66 in 
Russia, 24 in Greece, 15 in Jerusalem, II in 
Austria, &c. 



GEEEK EMPIRE. 



456 



GREENLAND. 



Catechetical school at Alexandria (Origen, Clemens, 

&c.) 180-254 

Rise of monachism about 300 

Foundation of the churches of Armenia, about 300 ; 

of Georgia or Iberia 318 

First council of Nice (see Councils) .... 325 
Rivalry between Rome and Constantinople begins 

about 340 
"Dlphilas preaches to the Goths . . . about 376 
Nestorius condemned at the council of Ephesus . 431 
Monophysite controversy ; churches of Egypt, 
Syria, and Armenia, separate from the church of 

Constantinople 461 

Close of the school of Athens ; extinction of the 

Platonic theology 529 

The Jacobite sect established in Syria by Jacobus 

Baradseus . 541 

The struggle with the Mahometans begins . . 634 
The Maronite sect begins to x>revail . about 676 
The Paulicians severely persecuted . . . . 690 
Iconoclastic controversy begins . . about 726 

Pope Gregory II. excommunicates the emperor Leo, 
which leads to the separation of the Eastern 
(Greek) and Western (Roman) churches . . . 729 

Image worship condemned 734 

Foundation of the church in Russia : conversion of 

princess Olga, 955 ; of Vladimir . . . . 988 
The Maronites join the Roman church . . . 1182 
Re-union of Eastern and Western churches at the 

council of Lyons, 1274 ; again separated . . . 1277 
Proposed union with the Church of England . . 1723 
The patriarchate of Moscow established, 1582 ; sup- 
pressed in 1762 

Successful drainage of lake Topolias (the ancient 
Cephissis and Copais), much land reclaimed and 
disease prevented .... t88i et seq. 
The archimandrite Nilos, representing Constanti- 
nople and 4 patriarchates, visits London on be- 
half of the Greek clergy in the Danubian princi- 
palities 1863 

The pope's invitation to an oecumenical council, 8 
Dec. 1869, firmly declined by the patriarch of 

Constantinople about 3 Oct. 1868 

Letter from the patriarch Gregory to the archbishop 
of Canterbury acknowledging receipt of English 
prayer-book, and objecting to some of "39 

Articles," dated 8 Oct. 1869 

Greek church at Liverpool consecrated by an arch- 
bishop 16 Jan. 1870 

A new church of S. Sophia consecrated by the arch- 
bishop of Corfu 5 Feb. 1882 

Political reforms in Turkey affect privileges of the 
Greek church ; see Turkey, 1883 ; new patriarch 
Joachim IV. (archbishop of Dercos) not elected 
till 13 Oct.; ratified by the Porte 18 Oct. 1884; 

resigns Nov. 1886 

Dionysius, bishop of Adrianople, elected patriarch 

4 Feb. 1887 
He resigns through disapproval of the appointment 
of Bulgarian bishops in Macedonia by the 
Turkish government, about 5 Aug. ; after fruit- 
less negotiations, the Oecumenical Synod orders 
the closure of a'l the orthodox churches in 
Turkey, 15 Oct. ; the sultan renews and defines 
former rights and privileges granted to the 
church, about 25 Oct. ; this not accepted by 
the synod, 27 Oct. ; churches generally con- 
tinued closed Nov. 1890 

Decision of the Turkish government respecting 
various disputed points, issued 2 Dec. 1890 ; 
the disputes ended ; the patriarch remains, the 
churches re-opened .... 6 Jan. 1891 

Neophytos, archbishop of Nikopolis, elected pa- 
triarch in succession to Dionysius V. 8 Nov. ,, 

GREEK EMPIRE, see Eastern Empire. 

GREEK FIRE, a combustible composition 
(now unknown, but thought to have been princi- 
pally naphtha), thrown from engines, said to have 
been invented by Callinicus, an engineer of Helio- 
polis, in Syria, in the 7th century, to destroy the 
Saracens' ships, which was effected by the general 
of the fleet of Constantine Fogonatus, and 30,000 
men were killed. A so-called "Greek fire, pro- 
bably a solution of phosphorus in bi-sulphide of 



carbon, was employed at the siege of Charleston, 
U.S., in Sept. 1863. 

GREEK LANGUAGE. The study was re- 
vived in western Europe about 1450; in France, 
1473; William Grocjn, or Grokeyn, an English 
prulessor of this language, introduced it at Oxford, 
about 1491, where he taught Erasmus, who himself 
taught it at Cambridge in 1510. Wood' s Athen. 
Oxon. England has produced many eminent Greek 
scholars, of whom may be mentioned Richard Bent- 
ley, died 1742 ; professor Richard Porson, died 1808; 
Dr. Samuel Parr, died 1825 ; and Dr. Charles 
Burner, died 1817. " Society for promoting Helle- 
nic Studies,'' formed 16 June, 1879. Modem Greek 
literature is now cultivated. See Aristotelian and 
Egyptian Exploration. 
Homer flourished . . . . about B.C. 962-927 

Hesiod about 850 

iEsop . 572 

Auacreon about 559 

jEschylus 525-456 

Herodotus about 443 

Pindar 522-439 

Aristophanes 427 

Euripides 480-406 

Sophocles 495-405 

Thucydides 470-404 

Xenophon 443"359 

Plato 429-347 

Isocrates 436-338 

Aristotle . 384-322 

Demosthenes 382-322 

Menander about 321 

jEschines 389-314 

Theocritus about 272 

Epicurus 342-270 

Tlieophrastus 287 

Archimedes . 287-212 

Polybius 207-122 

Diodorus B.C. 50— a. d. 13 

Strabo 10 

Dionysius Halicarnassus .... about 30 

Plutarch about 96 

Ejiictetus about 118 

Appian . . . . . . about 147 

A man . . . '. . . . about 148 

Athenasus about 194 

Lucian . about 120-200 

Herodian about 204 

Louginus dies 273 

Julian, emperor 33J-363 

(See Fathers, and Philosophy.) 

GREENBACKS, a name given, from the 
predominating colour of the ink, to notes, for a 
dollar and upwards, first issued by the United 
States government, in 1862. Notes for lower sums 
(oven 3 cents) w r ere termed "fractional currency." 
For Greenbachers see United States, 1878. 

GREEN-BAG INQUIRY took its name 
from a Green Bag, full of documents of alleged 
seditions, laid before parliament by lord Sidmouth, 
3 Feb. 1817. Secret committees presented their 
reports, 19 Feb. ; and bills were brought in on the 
21st to suspend the Habeas Corpus act, and prohibit 
seditious meetings then frequent. 

GREEN CLOTH, BOARD OF, in the depart- 
ment of the lord-steward of the household, included 
an ancientcourt(abolished in 1849), with jurisdiction 
of all offences committed in the verge of the court. 

GREENLAND, an extensive Danish colony 
in North America, discovered by Icelanders, under 
Eric Raude, about 980, and named from its verdure. 
It was visited by Frobisher in 1576, and by Jobn 
Davis, 1585. The first t-hip from England to Green- 
land was sent for the whale-fishery by the Muscovy 
company, 2 James I. 1604. In a voyage performed 
in 1630, eight men were left behind by accident, 
who suffered inn edible hardships till the following 



GREENOCK. 



457 GRENVILLE ADMINISTRATIONS. 



year, when the company's ships brought them home. 
Tindal. The Greenland Fishing company was in- 
corporated in 1693. — Hans Egede, a Danish mission- 
ary, founded a new colony, called Godhaab, or Good 
Hope, in 1720-3 ; and other missionary stations have 
been since established. Scoresby surveyed Greenland 
in 1821 ; and captain Graah, by order of the king of 
Denmark, in 1829-30. Population in 1878, about 
9408; in 1888, 10,221. Nordenskjold and others 
advanced into the interior, and found nothing but 
mountainous ice and snow, July-Sept. 1883. 

Dr. Pridtjof Nansen, Mr. Sverdrup, and two other 
Norwegians and two Lapps wearing snow shoes crossed 
Greenland from E. to W., amid great hardships, 17 July 
et seq. 1888, and arrived at Copenhagen, 21 May, 1889. 
Important results to be published. 

Dr. Nansen described his journey across Greenland at a 
meeting of the Royal Geographical society, 24 June, 
1889. 

His first crossing of Greenland was published in Dec. 
1890. 

GREENOCK (W. Scotland). Charters were 
granted, in 1635 to John Shaw, and 1670 to his 
son sir John, of the barony of Greenock. It was a 
fishing station till 1697, when the Scottish Indian 
and African company resolved to erect salt-works 
in the Frith, and thus drew the aitention of sir 
John Shaw, its superior, to its maritime advan- 
tages. It was made a burgh of barony in 1757, 
and a parliamentary burgh in 1832. The erection 
ot the new quay was entrusted, about 1773, to James 
Watt, who was born here in 1736. The East India 
harbour was built 1805-19, and Victoria harbour 
1846-50. James Watt docks opened by provost 
Shankland, 5 Aug. 1886. End of strike of iron 
shipbuilders {8 weeks), 24 Aug. 1891. Population, 
1891, 63,498. 

GREEN PARK (near Buckingham palace, 
London) forms a part of the ground enclosed by 
Henry VIII. in 1530, and is united to St. James's 
and Hyde-parks by the road named Constitution- 
hill. Over the arch at the entrance, the Wellington 
statue was placed in 1846. On the north side was 
a reservoir of the Chelsea water-works, rilled up in 
1856. 

GREENWICH (Kent), anciently Grenawic, 
an ancient manor, near which the Danes murdered 
the archbishop Elphege, 1012. The Hospital 
stands on the site of a royal residence erected in the 
reign of Edward I. and "mu-h enlarged by his suc- 
cessors. Here were born Henry VIII., his daugh- 
ters Mary and Elizabeth, and here his son Edward 
VI. died. Charles II. intended to build a new 
palace here, but. erected one wing only. Greenwich 
returns one M.P. by act of 1885. Population, 18S1, 
131,233; 1891, 134,184. 

William III. and Mary converted the palace into a 
Royal hospital for seamen, 1694, and added new 

buildings, erected by Wren 1696 

100 disabled seamen admitted 1705 

The estates of the attainted earl of Derwentwater 

(beheaded in 1716) bestowed upon it . 1735 

A charter granted to the commissioners 6 Dec. 1775 

The chapel, the great dining-hall, and a large portion 
of the buildings appropriated to the pensioners 

destroyed by lire 2 Jan. 1779 

The chapel rebuilt 1789 

Sixpence per month to be contributed by every sea- 
man ; the payment advanced to one shilling, from 

June, 1797 
The payment abolished in 1829, and that of "the 

merchant seamen's " sixpence also in . . . 1834 
The hospital had lodging for 2710 seamen and a 

revenue of about 1 50,000^. per annum . . . 1853 
Greenwich Fair was discontinued . . April, 1857 
The office of the commissioners was abolished . . 1865 
Reported annual income, 155, 532Z., 1867 ; income 
168,305^., 1887-8. 



By an act of parliament, about 900 indoor pensioners 
received additions to their pensions, quitted the 
hospital, 1 Oct. 1865 ; henceforth to be used as an 
infirmary. All the remaining inmates, except 31 
bedridden persons, had left the place . 1 Oct. 1869 

The patients of the Dreadnought seamen's hospital 
removed here 13 April, 1870 

Acts for the application of the revenues were passed 

in 1869-1872 

Amended by act passed 1883. 

A part of the buildings appropriated for a naval col- 
lege, opened 1 Feb. 1873 

Greenwich Royal Hospital Schools (on the industrial 
plan), opened under the auspices of Mr. Childers, 1870 

Construction of great steam-ship ferry (on the 
American system) over the Thames, authorised 
by the commons ; formally opened . 13 Feb. 1888 

GREENWICH OBSERVATORY, built at 
the S'dicitation of sir Jonas Moore and sir Christo- 
pher Wren, by Charles II., on the summit of Flam- 
steed-hill, so called from the first astronomer-royal. 
The building was founded, 10 Aug. 1675, and Flam- 
steed commenced his residence, 10 July, 1676. In 
1852, an electric telegraph signal ball in the Strand 
was completed, and put in connection with Green- 
wich observatory. Greenwich recommended as the 
universal meridian by the Geodetic Congress at 
Rome, Oct. 1883, and at an international conference 
at Washington, 13 Oct. 1884. Telegraphic com- 
munication completed between Greenwich and 
M'Gill college observatory, Montreal, 1890. 

ASTRONOMERS-ROYAL. 

John Flamsteed 1675 

Edmund Halley 1719 

James Bradley 1742 

Nathaniel Bliss 1762 

Nevil Maskelyne 1765 

John Pond 1811 

George Biddell Airy (knt. 1872) .... 1835 

(Under whose superintendence the apparatus was 
greatly increased and improved ; he died, 2 Jan. 1892.) 
Wm. Henry Mahoney Christie . . . Aug. 1881 

GREGORIAN CALENDAR, see Calendar, 
and New Style. — Gkegokian Chant received its 
name from pope Gregory I., who is siid to have 
improved the Ambrosian chant, about 590. See 
Chanting. 

Gregorian Modes, musical scales as set in order by pope 
Gregory the Great about 590. On these the ritual 
music of the western churches is founded. 

GRENADA, a West India island, discovered 
by Columbus in 1498 ; settled by the French, 1650; 
captured by the British, 5 April, 1762 ; re-taken by 
the French, July, 1779 ; given up by them by treaty 
of Versailles, 3 Sept. 1783. Population in 1891, 
53,209. See Granada, New Granada, and Wind- 
ward Isles. 

GRENADE, an explosive missile, so named 
from yranada, Spanish, invented in 1594. It is a 
small hollow globe, or ball, of iron, about two 
inches in diameter, which is tilled with tine powder, 
and set on tire by a fusee at a touchhole. 

GRENADIERS. The Grenadier corps was a 
company armed with a pouch of hand-grenades, 
established in France in 1667 ; and in England in 
1685. Brown. See Guards and Army, 1890. 

GRENELLE, see Artesian Wells. 

GRENOBLE (the Roman GratianopolU), 
S.E. France. Here Napoleon was received on his 
return from Elba, 8 March, 1815, and here he issued 
three decrees. 

GRENVILLE ADMINISTRATIONS. 

The first succeeded the Bute administration, 8 April, 
1763 ; and resigned in July, 1765. 



GEESHAM COLLEGE. 



458 



GEISONS. 



George Grenville (born 1712, died 1770), first lord of the 

treasury and chancellor of the exchequer. 
Earl Granville (succeeded by the duke of Bedford), lord 



Duke of Marlborough, privy seal. 

Earls of Halifax and Sandwich, secretaries of state. 

Earl Gower, lord chamberlain. 

Earl of Egmont, admiralty. 

Marquis of Granby, ordnoMce. 

Lord Holland (late Mr. Fox), -paymaster. 

Welbore Ellis, secretary-at-war. 

Viscount Harrington, treasurer of the navy. 

Lord Hillsborough, first lord of trade. 

Lord Henley (afterwards earl of Northington), lord chan- 
cellor. 

Duke of Rutland, lords North, Trevor, Hyde, <&c. 

Second Grenville administration, formed after the 
death of Mr. Pitt, on 23 Jan. 1806. From the ability 
of many of its members, their friends said it contained 
" all the talents, wisdom, and ability of the country," a 
term applied to it derisively by its opponents. The 
death of Mr. Fox, 13 Sept. 1806, led to changes, and 
eventually the cabinet resigned, 25 March, 1807 : — ■ 

Lord Grenville, first lord of the treasury. 

Lord Henry Petty (afterwards marquis of Lansdowne), 
chancellor of the exchequer. 

Earl Fitzwilliam, lord president. 

Viscount Sidmouth (late Mr. Addington), privy seal. 

Charles James Fox, foreign secretary. 

Earl Spencer, home secretary. 

William Windham, colonial secretary. 

Lord Erskine, lord chancellor. 

Sir Charles Grey (afterwards viscount Howick and earl 
Grey), admiralty. 

Lord Minto, board of control. 

Lord Auckland, board of trade. 

Lord Moira, master general of the ordnance. 

ft. B. Sheridan, treasurer of the navy. 

Richard Fitzpatrick, &c. 

Lord Ellenborough ( lord chief justice) had a seat in the 
cabinet. 

GEESHAM COLLEGE (London), esta- 
blished by sir Thomas Gresham in 1575, founder of 
the Royal Exchange. He left a portion of his pro- 
perty in trust to the city and the Mercers' company 
to endow this college for lectures in divinity, astro- 
nomy, music, geometry, civil law, physic, and 
rhetoric ; he died 21 Nov. 1579. The lectures 
commenced in Gresham's house, near Broad-street, 
June, 1597 (where the founders of the Royal Society 
first met in 1645). 'I he buildings were pulled down 
in 1768, and the Excise office erected on its site, 
the property having been acquired by the crown 
for an annuity of 500^. The lectures were then 
read in a room over the Royal Exchange for many 
years. On the rebuilding of the exchange, the 
Gresham committee erected the present building in 
Basinghall-street, which was designed by G. bmith, 
and opened for lectures. 2 Nov. 1843. It costabo-v e 
70002. In 1871 the college acquired a valuable col- 
lection of books and pictures, bequeathed by Mrs. 
Ilollier. Changes respecting the lectures were 
advocated in 1875, and some made in 1876. 
The amalgamation of the university teaching ex- 
tension society advocated by Mr. Goschen, 15 Oct. 1888 
The proposal to make the college a teaching uni- 
versity for London was referred to a royal com- 
mission, March. Earl Cowper, chairman ; first 
meeting . ..... 30 June, 1892 

GEETNA GEEEN (Dumfries, S. Scotland, 
near the boroer). Here runaway marriages were 
contracted for many years, as Scotch law ruled that 
an acknowledgment before witnesses made a legal 
marriage. John Paisley, a tobacconist, and termed 
a blacksmith, who officiated from 1 760, died in 1814. 
His first residence was at Megg's Hill, on the com- 
mon or green betwixt Gretna and Springfield, to 
the last of which villages he removed in 1782. A man 
named Elliot was afterwards the principal officiating 
person. The General Assembly, in 1826, in vain 



attempted to suppress this system ; but an act of 
parliament, passed in 1856, made these marriages 
illegal after that year, unless one of the persons 
married had lived in Scotland 21 days. 

GEEY ADMINISTRATION succeeded the 
Wellington administration, which resigned 16 Nov. 
1830. It carried the Parliamentary and Corporation 
Reform Acts {which see), and terminated 9 July, 
1834. 

Earl Grey,* first lord of the. treasury. 
Lord Brougham, lord chancellor. 
Viscount Althorpe, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Marquis of Lansdowne, president of the council. 
Earl of Durham, privy seal. 
Viscounts Melbourne, Palmerston, and Goderich, home, 

foreign, and colonial secretaries. 
Sir James Graham, admiralty. 
Lord Auckland and Mr. Charles Grant (afterwards, 183c, 

lord Glenelg), boards of trade and control. 
Lord Holland, cJiancellor of duchy of Lancaster. 
Lord John Russell, paymaster of the forces. 
Duke of Richmond, earl of Carlisle, Mr. Wynne, &c. 
E. G. Stanley (afterwards earl of Derby), chief secretary 

for Ireland, became colonial secretary, March, 1833. 

GEEY COAT HOSPITAL, Westminster, 
founded (for girls) 1698 ; reconstituted 1873. 

GEEY FEIAES, see Christ's Hospital. 
GEEYTOWN, see Mosquito Coast. 

GEIFFITH'S VALUATION of land in 
Ireland; that calculated by Mr., afterwards sir 
Richard Griffith (appointed commissioner in 1828) 
and published about 1850 ; 4th edition, 1855 ; 
much discussed, 1880- 1. 

GEIMM'S LAW of the transmutation of 
consonants in the Aryan family of languages ; pro- 
pounded by Jacob L. Grimm in his " History of 
the German Languages," in 1848. 

Labials. Dentals. Gutturals 
Greek, Latin, Sanskrit p b f it d th k g ch 
Gothic . . . . / p b \ th t d k 

Old High German . . b (v) f p\ d z t g ch k 
Examples : Sanskrit, pitri ; Greek and Latin, pater ; 
Italian, padre; Spanish, padre; French, pere; Gothic, 
fadrein (pi.); Old High German, vatar ; English, father. 

GEIQUALAND WEST and EAST, two dis- 
tricts in British South Africa, containing diamond 
fields. The first diamond was discovered in West 
Griqualand in March, 1867, and caused a great in- 
flux of immigrants from all nations, and the forma- 
tion of many settlements. Diamonds to the value 
of 12,000,000^. were found there between 1S71 and 
1880, and about 15,000,000/. between 1883 and 1887. 
The district was annexed to Cape Colony 27 Oct. 
1871, and incorporated with it in 1880. Kimberley, 
the capital, was founded in 1871; population in 
1890, about 6,000 Europeans and 10,000 natives. 
GinauALAND East, between the Kaffir border and. 
Southern Ratal, was annexed to Cape Colony in 
1875 ; population in 1888, 98,000. 
By a tremendous explosion of stored dynamite near 

Kimberley, only two men were killed . Jan. 1884 
Kimberley was the site of the South African and 

International Exhibition, Opened by sir H. B. 

Loch 8 Sept. iSq2 

GEISONS, a Swiss canton ; see Caddee. It 
was overrun by the French in 1798 and 1799. The 
ancient league was abolished, and the Grisons be- 
came a member of the Helvetic confederation, 19 
Feb. 1803. 

* Born 13 March, 1764 ; M.P. , as Charles Grey, in 1786 ; 
first lord of the admiralty and afterwards foreign secre- 
tary in 1S06 ; resigned in 1806 on account of his favouring 
Roman Catholic emancipation ; died 17 July, 1845. 



GEISSELL CASE. 



459 



GUATEMALA. 



GEISSELL CASE, see Parliament, 1879-80. 

GRIST-TAX (imposta sul macinato). Prin- 
ciple of the tax adopted by the Italian parliament, 
I April, 1868. 

GROAT, from the Dutch groat, value of four- 
pence, was the largest silver coin in England until 
after 135 1. Fourpenny pieces were coined in 1836 
to the value of 70,884^. ; in 1837, 16,038/. ; discon- 
tinued since 1856. 

GROCERS anciently meant "ingrossers or 
monopolisers," as appears by a statute 37 Kdw. III. 
1363 : " Les marchauntz nomez engrossent totes 
maners de merchandises vendables." The Grocers' 
company, one of the twelve chief companies of 
London, was established in 1345, and incorporated 
in 1429. 

The Grocers' and Shopkeepers' Licensing Acts passed 
in i860 and 1861, authorises the sale by them of wine, 
spirits, and beer, in bottles. 

GROCHOW, near Praga, a suburb of Warsaw. 
Here took place a desperate contiiet between the 
Poles and Russians, 19, 20 Feb. 1831, the Poles re- 
maining masters of the field of battle. The Rus- 
sians shortly after retreated, having been foiled in 
their attempt to take Warsaw. 'ihey are said to 
have lost 7000 men, and the Poles 2000 ; see also 
Poland, 1 86 1. 

GROG, sea term for rum and water, derived its 
name from admiral Eclw. Vernon, who wore grogram 
breeches, and was hence called " Uld Grog." About 
1 745, he ordered his sailors to dilute their rum with 
water.* 

GROSSER KURFttRST, see Wrecks, 1878. 

GROSVENOR GALLERY, &c, Bond- 
street, London, W., for the exhibition of modern 
pictures, erected by sir Coutts Lindsay, at a cost 
of about 100,000/., supported by eminent artists, 
Aug. 1876; opened 1 Alay, 1877. The last regular 
exhibition in the Grosvenor Gallery was that of the 
society of British Pastellists, opened 18 Oct. 1890 ; 
the building was afterwards solely occupied by the 
Grosvenor club, by whom pictures for sale were 
from time to time exhibited. 

Differences in regard to management having arisen, 
a secession of subscribers ensued, who, headed 
by Messrs. Halle and Comyns Carr, opened " The 
New Gallery," {which see) Regent Street 9 May, 1888 

GROSVENOR GALLERY LIBRARY, 

opened 25 March, 1880. 

GROUND GAME, see Game. 

GUADALOUPE, a West India Island, dis- 
covered by Columbus in 1493. The French took 
possession of it in 1635, and colonised it in 1664. 
Taken by the English in 1759, and restored in 1763. 
Again taken by the English m 1779, 1794, and 1810. 
The allies, in order to allure the Swedes into the 
coalition against France, gave them this island. 
It was, however, by the consent of Sweden, restored 
to France at the peace in 1814. It was again taken 
by the British, 10 Aug. 1815, and restored to the 
French. July 1816. 

GUAD-EL-RAS (N. W. Africa). Here the 
Spaniards signally defeated the Moors, 23 March, 

■* He did great service in the West Indies, by taking 
Portobello, Chagre, &c. ; but by his disagreement with 
the commander of the land forces, the expedition against 
Carthagena, in 1741, is said to have failed. He was dis- 
missed the service for writing two pamphlets attacking 
the admiralty ; he died 30 Oct. 1757. 



i860, after a severe conflict : general Prim mani- 
fested great braver}-, for which he was ennobled. 
The preliminaries of peace were signed on the 25th, 

GUANO or HUANO (the Peruvian term for 
manure), the excrement of sea-birds that swarm or* 
the coasts of Peru and Bolivia, and of Africa and 
Australia. It is mentioned by Herrera in 1601, and 
Garcilasso stated that the birds were protected by 
the incas. Humboldt was one of the first by whom 
it was brought to Europe, in order to ascertain its 
value in agriculture. The importation of guano 
into the United Kingdom appears to have commenced 
in 1839. 283,000 tons were imported in 1845 (of 
which 207,679 tons came from the western coast of 
Africa); 243,016 tons in 1851 (of which 6522 tons- 
came from Western Australia) ; 131,358 tons in 
1864; 237,393 tons in 1865 ; 135,697 tons in 1866; 
280,311 in 1870 ; 114,454 iu 1875 ; iS 2 -"?^ in 1877 ; 
177,793 i 11 ^78; 74,221 in 1883; 21,175 iu 1887; 
1888, 24,432 ; 1889, 28,604; 1890, 27,095. 

GUARANTEES. The " Guarantee by Com- 
panies ai-t," relating to the security by means of 
sureties required for persons employed in the public- 
service, was passed 20 Aug. 1867 (30 & 31 Vict, 
c. 108). 

GUARDIAN, a moderate high-church weekly- 
journal, first published 21 Jan. 1846. 

GUARDS. The custom of having guards is- 

said to have been introduced by Saul, 1093 B.C. 

Body guards were appointed to attend the kings of Eng- 
land, 1 Henry VII. 1485. 

Horse Guards were raised 4 Edw. VI. 1550. 

The royal regiment of guards was first raised by Charles 
II. in Flanders in 1656, colonel, lord Wentworth • 
another regiment was raised by colonel John Russell,. 
1660, under whom they were combined in 1665. The- 
Coldstream Guards, raised by general Monk, were con- 
stituted the 2nd regiment in 1661 ; see Coldstream. 
These guards were the beginning of our standing army. 

Gen. sir F. Wm. Hamilton's " History of the Grenadier 
Guards," an elaborate work, appeared 1874. 

The Horse Grenadier guards first troop, raised in 1693, 
was commanded by general Cholmondeley ; the second 
troop was raised in 1702, and was commanded by lord. 
Forbes ; this corps was reduced in 1783, the officers- 
retiring on full pay. See Army, 1890. 

Guards' Institute, Francis-street, Vauxhall-bridge road ;. 
reading and lecture rooms, &c, for all officers and 
soldiers in the metropolis ; inaugurated by the duke of 
Cambridge, 11 July, 1S67. 

See Horse Guards, Yeomen, National, and Imperials 
Guards. 

GUASTALLA, N. Italy, a city, near which 
the imperial army, commanded by the king of 
Sardinia, was defeated by the French, 19 Sept. 
1734. The ancient duchy, long held by the dukes 
of Mantua, was seized by the emperor of Germany, 
1746, and ceded to Parma, 1748. After having: 
been comprised in the Italian republic, 1796, and 
subjected to other changes, it was annexed to 
Parma, 1815, and to Modena, 1847. 

GUATEMALA. A republic in Central Ame- 
rica, revolted from Spain, 1821, and declared inde- 
pendent, 21 March, 1847. Constitution settled,. 

2 Oct. 1859. President (1862), general Raphael 
Oarrera, elected 1851 ; appointed for life, 1854;. 
died 14 April, 1865 ; succeeded by Vincent Cerna,. 

3 May, 1865-9. Manuel Garcia Granedos, Dec. 
1872 ; R. Barrios, 9 May, 1873 ; General Barillas, 
Jan. 1886. A war between Guatemala and San 
Salvador broke out in Jan. 1863; and on 16 June- 
the troops of the latter were totally defeated. An 
insurrection became formidable, July, 1871. Alliance- 
with Honduras against San Salvador, March, 1872. 



GUEBRES. 



460 



GUILDHALL. 



Population, 1887, 1,394,233 ; 1891, 1,452,003. 

■Capital Guatemala. 

Col. Gonzales, commandant of San Jose' de Guatemala, 
imprisoned, flogged, and nearly killed Mr. John Magee, 
the British consul, who was rescued by capt. Morse, 
■of the Pacific Mail Company's steamer, Arizona, about 
24 April, 1874. 

Announced, that Gonzales had been sentenced to five 
years' imprisonment, and that Mr. Magee had received 
io.oooZ. as compensation, Oct. 1874. 

Plot to kill the president and his ministry ; conspirators 
shot, 7 Nov. 1877. 

^General Barrios's i>roposal to re-unite the States of Central 
America under himself, as dictator, March ; resisted ; 
defeated and killed in a severe battle at Chalchuapa, 
2 April, 1885 ; succeeded by Barillas ; peace signed 
16 April, 1885. M. L. Barillas, president, 15 March, 
1886. 

War with San Salvador, which see, July-27 Aug. 1890. 

Revolt against president Barillas, suppressed, July- 
Aug. 1890. 

The insurgent general and ex-minister Bunundia shot 
while resisting arrest on board the U.S. steamer 
Aeapulco, 28 Aug.; his young daughter fails in her 
attempt to shoot the U.S. minister, Mizner, 1 Sept. 
1890. 

Peace with San Salvador signed ; announced 17 Nov. 
1890. 

Gen. Barrios assumes office as president, 16 March, 1892. 

GUEBKES (from the Arabic Kafir, unbeliever), 
a name given to the descendants of the fire- worship- 
pers of Persia by their Arab conquerors, in the 7th 
century. They are now represented by the Parsees 
-of Bombay, whither they migrated, see Parsees. 

GUELPHIC ORDER of knighthood was 
instituted for Hanover by the prince regent, after- 
wards George IV., 12 Aug. 1815. 

GUELPHS AND GHIBELINES, names 
given to the papal and imperial factions who de- 
stroyed the peace of Italy from the 12th to the end 
•of the 15th century (the invasion of Charles VIII. 
of France in 1495). The origin of the names is 
ascribed to the contest for the imperial crown 
between Conrad of Hohenstaufen, duke of Swabia, 
lord of Wiblingen (hence Ghibelin), and Henry 
nephew of Well', or Guelf, duke of Bavaria, in 1138. 
The former was successful; but the popes and 
several Italian cities took the side of his rival. Hie 
Guelf and Hie Gibelin are said to have been used 
as war-cries in 1140, at a battle before Weinsberg, 
in Wurternberg, when Guelf of Bavaria was defeated 
by the emperor Conrad IV. who came to help the 
rival duke Leopold.* The Ghibelines were almost 
totally expelled from Italy in 1267, when Conradin, 
the last of the Hohenstaufens, was beheaded by 
Charles of .Anjou. Guelph (of uncertain origin), 
is the popular name of the present royal family of 
England ; see Brunswick. 

The Guelph Exhibition of pictures and objects of 
interest connected with the Royal House of Guelph, was 
opened in the New Gallery, Regent street, 31 JDec. 1890 ; 
closed, 9 April, 1891. The queen contributed greatly to 
"the exhibition, and gave it its name. 

Guelph Fund, see under Cumberland. 

GUERNSEY, see Jersey. Major-gen. sir 
Edward Bulwer appointed governor of Guernsey in 
.succession to licut.-gen. Elkington, March, 1889. 

GUERRILLA, Spanish, "a little war"; a 
term applied to the armed peasants who worried 
the French armies during the Peninsular war, 
1808-14. The resistance of the dacoits to the 
British in Burmah was of guerrilla character. 



* It is stated, traditionally, that the emperor con- 
demned all the men to death, but permitted the women 
to bring out whatever they most valued ; on which they 
carried out their husbands on their shoulders. 



GUEUX (beggars), a name given by the comte 
de Barlaimont to the 300 Protestant deputies from 
the Low Countries, headed by Henri of Brederode 
and Louis of Nassau, who petitioned Margaret, 
governess of the Low Countries, to abolish the 
inquisition, 5 April, 1566. The deputies at once 
assumed the name as honourable, and immediately 
organised armed resistance to the government ; see 
Holland. 

GUIANA (N.E. coast of South America), dis- 
covered by Columbus in 1498, visited by the 
Spaniards in the 16th century ; and explored by sir 
Walter Raleigh in 1596 and 1617. The French 
settlements here were formed in 1626-43 > an( ^ the 
Dutch, 1627-67. Demerara, Essequibo, and Berbice 
were ceded to Great Britain in 1814 ; see Demerara. 
Governor of British Guiana, John Scott, 1868 ; 
James Robert Longden, 1874 ; C. H. Kortright, 1876; 
sir Henry T. Irving, 1882; Viscount Gormanstown, 
Dec. 1887. 
Mr. Kaufmann discovered in the goldfields 633 valuable 

diamonds early in 1891. 
Revolt in Dutch Guiana of the lower against the upper 

classes ; much alarm, 13 May, 1891. 

GUIDE-BOOKS for travellers are an English 
invention. Paterson's "British Itinerary," ap- 
peared in 1776; the last edition in 1840: when it 
was superseded by railway guides. Galignani's 
" Picture of Paris," 1814. Murray's " Handbook 
for Travellers on the Continent," the parent of the 
series, appeared in 1836. The publication of Carl and 
Fritz Ba'deker's foreign guide-books began in 1828 
with a handbook for the Rhine in German-French. 
This was followed by German handbooks for other 
parts of the continent, which owed much to Murray's 
handbooks, and included much original matter. 
The first English editions appeared in i860. See 
Murray. 

GUIDES, a corps in the French army, espe- 
cially charged with the protection of the person of 
the general, was formed by Bessieres, under the 
direction of Bonaparte, who had been nearly 
carried off by the enemy, 30 May, 1796. Several 
squadrons of "guides" were formed in 1848, to 
guard the ministers. They formed a portion of 
the imperial guard till Sept. 1870. 

GUIENNE, a French province, was part of 
the dominions of Henry II. in right of his wife 
Eleanor, 1152. Philip of France seized it in 1293, 
which led to war. It was alternately held by 
England and France till 1453, when John Talbot, 
earl of Shrewsbury, in vain attempted to retake it 
from the latter. 

GUILDHALL (London) was built in 141 1. 
When it was rebuilt (in 1669), after the great fire 
of 1666, no part <>f the ancient building remained, 
except the interior of the porch and the walls of 
the hall. The front was erected in 1789; and a 
new roof built, 1864-5. Beneath the west window 
are the colossal figures of Gog and Magog, said to 
represent a Saxon and an ancient Briton ; replaced 
older ones, 1708; renewed, 1837. The hall can con- 
tain 7000 persons. Here were entertained the allied 
sovereigns in 1814, and Napoleon III., 19 April, 
1855 ; and here the city industrial exhibition was 
held, 6 March, 1866, and the International Botanical 
banquet, 22 May, 1866. A memorial window, the 
gift of the cotton workers of Lancashire, to com- 
memorate the munificence of the metropolis towards 
them in the famine of 1862-4, waa uncovered, 15 
July, 1868. The prince consort memorial window 
was unveiled in the presence of prince Arthur, 



GUILDS. 



461 



GUN- COTTON. 



3 Nov. 1870. A library existed in the Guildhall in 
1426, from which books were taken by the protector 
Somerset in the reign of Edward VI. A new 
library was founded, 2 June, 1824. This library is 
open to the public. The new handsome building by 
Horace Jones was opened by the lord chancellor 
Selbome, 5 Nov. 1872 ; seeLondon. The law sittings 
which had been removed to the Royal law courts, 
were resumed in the Guildhall, 28 Oct. 1891, when 
the lord chief justice was received by the lord mayor. 
Art gallery opened 24 June, 1886. 
Magnificent memorials by J. E. Price published Nov. 

1886. 
Guildhall School of Music founded (62 pupils) 1880 ; new 

building on the Thames Embankment, 9 Dec. 1886 

(2,053 pupils). 
Visit of the German emperor and empress, see Germany, 

10 July, 1891. 

GUILDS. Associations of men of the same 
class or trade, formed for mutual aid and protection ; 
in England, of Saxon origin, about the 8th century. 
In the middle ages there were religious, social, 
mercantile, and craft guilds. Some of the London 
livery companies were formed out of the merchant 
and craft guilds in the 13th century. See Companies. 

The guild of Corpus Christi, York, had 14,800 members 
when a return respecting these guilds was ordered to 
be made, 1388. 

The Early English Text Society published the "Ordi- 
nances " of more than 100 guilds, 1870. 

"The Gild Merchant," by Charles Gross, Ph.D., pub- 
lished in 1891, is a valuable work. 

The " Guild of Literature and Art" (including sir E. B. 
Lytton, C. Dickens, and others) founded an institu- 
tion (on ground given by sir E. B. Lytton, at Stevenage) 
consisting of thirteen dwellings, retreats for artists, 
scholars, and men of letters, which were completed 
and inaugurated, 29 July, 1865. 

The revival of religious guilds began in 1851, with 
that of St. Alban, which held its 21st anniversary 
20 June, 1872. 

Guilds Inquiry Commission, see Comx>anies. 

GUILLOTINE, an instrument for causing 
immediate and painless death, named after its sup- 
posed inventor, a physician named Joseph Ignatius 
Guillotin. In 1866 M. Dubois, of Amiens, stated 
that the idea only was due to Guillotin, who at a 
meeting of the legislative assembly in 1789 ex- 
pressed an opinion that capital punishment should 
be the same for all classes. Accordingly, at the 
request of the assembly, M. Louis, secretary of the 
"Academie de Chirurgie," submitted to it on 20 
March, 1792, a mode of capital punishment, "sure, 
quick, and uniform," which, he had invented. The 
first person executed by it was a highway robber 
named Pelletier, on 25 April ; and Dangremont was 
its first political victim, 21 Aug. following. Guillotin 
died in 1814. The guillotine at Paris was burnt 
by the communist insurgents, 7 April, 187 1. A 
similar instrument (called the Mannaia) is said to 
have been used in Italy, at Halifax in England 
(see Halifax), and in Scotland, there called the 
Maiden and the Widow. 

GUINEA (W. coast of Africa) was discovered by 
the Portuguese about 1446. From their trade with 
the Moors originated the slave trade, sir John Haw- 
kins being the first Englishman who engaged in this 
traffic. Assisted by English gentlemen with money 
for the purpose, he sailed from England in Oct. 1562, 
with three ships, proceeded to the coast of Guinea, 
purchased or forcibly seized 300 negroes, sold them 
profitably at Hispaniola, and returned home richly 
laden with hides, sugar, ginger, and other mer- 
chandise, in Sept. 1563. This voyage led to similar 
enterprises. Hahlmjt. See Slave Trade. An African 
company to trade with Guinea was chartered 1588. 
The Hutch settlements here were transferred to 



Great Britain, 6 April, 1872. See Elmina, and 

Ashantees. 

Portuguese settlement ; troops defeated with loss in an 

attack upon the natives at Inhim and Bandim ; 4. 

officers and 71 men killed, reported 21 April, 1891. 

GUINEAS, English gold coin, so named from 
having been first coined of gold brought by the- 
African company from the coast of Guinea in 1663, 
valued then at 20s.; but worth 30s. in 169=5. Re- 
duced at various times; in 1717 to 21s. In 1810 
guineas were sold for 22*. 6d. ; in 1816, for 27s. . In 
181 1 an act was passed forbidding their exportation^ 
and their sale at a price above the current value, 21s. 
The first guineas bore the impression of an elephant, 
having been coined of this African gold. Since the 
issue of sovereigns, 1 July, 1817, guineas have not 
been coined. 

GUINEGATE, Battles op, h July, 1302, 

and 16 Aug. 1513. See Spurs. 

GUINNESS TEUST, see Artisans. 

GUISE, a French ducal family :— 
Claude of Lorraine, first duke, a brave warrior, 

favoured by Francis 1. ; died . . . April, 1550 
Francis, the great general, born, 1519 ; assassinated, 

24 Feb. 1563 
Henry, head of the Catholic, league ; born 1550 ; 

revenged his father's death ; assassinated by order 

of Henry III. . ... 23 Dec. 1588 

Charles, first opposed, and then submitted to, 

Henry IV. ; died 1640 

Henry died without issue .... . 1664. 

GULLIVEE'S TEAVELS, by Dean Swift, 
first published 1726-7. 

GUN, see Artillery, Cannon, Fire-arms. — Gun- 
CLTJB, for pigeon-shooting, founded by sir Gilbert 
East, in 1862, had 200 members, noblemen and 
gentlemen, in July, 1867. 

GUN-COTTON, a highly explosive substance, 
invented by professor Schonbein, of Basel, and 
made known in 1846. It is purified cotton, steeped 
in a mixture of equal parts of nitric acid and sul- 
phuric acid, and afterwards dried, retaining the 
appearance of cotton wool. See Collodion. Its nature 
was known to Braconuot and Pelouze. 
The diet of Frankfort voted, 3 Oct. 1846, a recompense, 
of 100,000 florins to professor Schonbein and Dr. 
Boettger, as the inventors of the cotton powder, pro- 
vided the authorities of Mayence, after seeing it tried, 
pronounced it superior to gunpowder as an explosive. 
Improvements were made in the manufacture of gun- 
cotton by an Austrian officer, Baron von Lenk, about. 
1852, and it was tried by a part of the Austrian army 
in 1855, but did not obtain favour. 
In 1862 details of the manufacture were communicated 
by the Austrian government to our own government, 
and Mr. (late sir Frederick) Abel, our war-office, 
chemist, was directed to experiment on the constitu- 
tion and desirability of gun-cotton. The British Asso- 
ciation also appointed a scientific committee to consider 
its merits. A complete decision was not arrived at. 
The first trial of English-made gun-cotton was made in 
the spring of 1864, at the manufactory at Stowmarket, 
Suffolk, by Messrs. Prentice. 
There was manufactured, by a company, the " patent safety 
gun-cotton," according to Mr. Abel's patent (including 
the pulping, compressing, and wet processes), based. 
on researches commenced in 1866. The cotton was 
said to be explosive by detonation, and not by 
ignition. A great explosion took place at Stowmarket; 
24 persons were killed (including A. E. II. and W. R. 
Prentice, managers) ; about 60 were dreadfullywounded, 
and nearly the whole town was destroyed as it' by a 
bombardment, 11 Aug. 1871. 
The verdict at the inquest attributed the explosion to 
the culpable "addition of sulphuric acid to the gun- 
cotton subsequent to its passing the tests required by- 
government," 6 Sept. 1871. 



GUNDAMUK. 



462 



GUTTA PEECHA. 



A government commission, appointed in Sept. to con- 
sider the manufacture and use of gun-cotton, reported 
in favour of both, with special regard to compressed 
gun-cotton, 13 Dec. 1871. 

Another report recommended this gun-cotton to be 
stored wet, with drying apparatus near ; and to be 
kept in slighter boxes, 25 July, 1872. 

Mr. E. O. Brown, of the war department, Woolwich, dis- 
covers that wet gun-cotton can be exploded by con- 
cussion by a detonating fuse, about Nov. 1872. 

It is used as an explosive agent in mining, &c. 

<Gun-Cloth, made on a similar principle, was patented 
by Mr. W. A. Dixon, about 1866. 

Cotton-Gunpowder, patented by Mr. R. Punshon, 1871. 

A modified form was tried and reported successful, near 
Faversham, 3 Feb. 1875. See Ivory. 

GUNDAMUK, see Gandamuk. 

GUN LICENCE ACT, passed 9 Aug. 1870 ; 
annual licence, 10s. Licences issued : year 1876-7, 
77,068; 1877-8, 75,571 ; 1880-1, 72,834; 1881-2, 
74,063. See under Game Laws, 1883. 

GUNPOWDEE. The invention of gunpowder 
as generally ascribed to Bertholdus or Michael 
•Schwartz, a Cordelier monk of Goslar, south of 
.Brunswick, in Germany, about 1320. But many 
writers maintain that it was known much earlier 
in various parts of the world. Some say that the 
Chinese and Hindoos possessed it centuries before. 
Its composition, moreover, is expressly mentioned 
by Roger Bacon, in his treatise l)e Nullitate 
JIagice. He died in 1292 or 1294. Various sub- 
stitutes for gunpowder have been recently invented, 
such as the white gunpowder of Mr. Horsley and 
Dr. Ehrhardt, and gun-paper by Mr. Hochstodten. 
A new gunpowder by M. Newniayer, of Toy a, near 
leipsic, was discussed in Nov. 1866. " Pellet gun- 
powder" was ordered to be used in gun-charges in 
the army, March, 1868. An act to amend the law 
•concerning the making, keeping, and carriage of 
gunpowder, &c. was passed 28 Aug. i860, and other 
acts since. See Birmingham, 1870. In May, 1872, 
a company was formed to manufacture Mr. R. 
Punshon's patent cotton -gunpowder, asserted to be 
very safe and controllable. The manufacture of the 
new German " brown " or " cocoa" powder, set up 
at Chil worth in Surrey, 1886. See Chronoscope. 

The use of gunpowder was denounced by Ariosto, 1516 ; 
by Jean Marot, 1532 ; by Cervantes, 1604 ; termed 
" villanous salt-petre " by Shakspeare, about 1598. 

English War Gunpowder : 75 parts nitrate of potash 
(saltpetre) ; 10 sulphur ; 15 carbon. These proportions 
may be slightly varied. 

W. Hunter, after a careful examination of the question, 
in 1847, thus states the result: — "July and August, 
1346, may be safely assumed to be the time when the 
explosive force of gunpowder was first brought to bear 
on the military operations of the English nation. " 

Above 11 tons of gunpowder on board the Lottie Sleigh, 
in the Mersey, exploded ; much damage done in Liver- 
pool and Birkenhead, but no lives lost, 16 Jan. 1864. 

About 104,000 lbs. of gunpowder exploded at the Belve- 
dere powder magazines of Messrs. Hall & Co., at 
Plumstead, near Woolwich ; 13 persons perished, and 
the shock was felt at 50 miles' distance, 1 Oct. 1864. 
Searching inquiries were made into the circumstances, 
and new regulations for the keeping and transmission 
of powder issued in November ; see Dartford. 

Mr. Gale, a blind gentleman of Plymouth, on 22 June, 
1865, patented his method of rendering gunpowder 
uninflammable by combining with it finely powdered 
glass, which can be readily separated by a sieve when 
the powder is required for use. Successful public 
experiments were made. 

Mr. Gale exhibited his process before the queen at 
Windsor, 10 Nov. 1865, and it was severely tested at a 
martello tower, near Hastings, 20 June, 1866. The 
attainment of perfect security was still doubtful. 
Gale's Protected Gunpowder Company was formed, 
Oct. 1865, and wound up, March, 1867. 



Great explosion at Messrs. Hall's powder-mills, near 

Faversham ; 11 men killed, much damage done ; shock 

felt at Canterbury, 10 miles off, 28 Dec. 1867. Another 

explosion about 21 Dec. 1868. 
Dixon & Beck's works blown up ; 9 lives lost, 25 July, 

1868. 
Explosion at Hounslow mills, 3 lives lost. 6 Sept. 1872 ; 

again one life lost and great destruction of property, 3 

May, 1887. 
Milner's powder-magazines placed in fire at Woolwich 

arsenal and found secure, 8-9 Oct. 1872. 
About s tons of gunpowder in barrels exploded in the 

barge Tilbury, on the Regent's Canal, near the North 

Bridge-gate, Regent's-park, nearly 5 a.m. 2 Oct. 1874. 

Three men on the barge killed ; sh ock felt about 3omiles 

off ; destruction extended over about a square mile ; 

some houses thrown down ; very many windows blown 

in ; the house of Mr. Alma Tadema, the artist, much. 

injured. 
The powder was sent by Pigou and Wilks to Derbyshire 

for blasting purposes ; — order of the barges : Ready, 

tug steamer; Jane, Dee, Tilbury, Limehouse, and 

Haxokesbury. 
6333Z. had been subscribed for the sufferers up to 1 May 

1875. 
Verdict of Inquest — Explosion caused by ignition of 

vapour from benzoline by a fire or light in the cabin 

of the Tilbury. The Junction Canal Company guilty 

of gross negligence, and the present laws inadequate 

for public safety, 19 Oct. 1874. 
The company declared responsible on trial (by Capt. 

Jackson), 14 May, 1875. 
One thousand and fifty-four claims had been settled for 

63,660?., June, 1876. 
Recently smokeless gunpowder has been produced ; the 

Duttenhofer, the Stein, the Pallina, the Schultz and 

Hengst, Chilworth and Lebel powders give very little 

smoke, 1888-9. 
The smokeless gunpowder of Herr Falkenstein tried 

at Berlin, reported efficient, Aug. 1889. 
Sir F. A. Abel, in a discourse at the Royal Institution, 

31 Jan. 1890 (Proceedings, vol. XIII.), explained and 

illustrated the merits and demerits of "smokeless 

explosives." Smokeless gunpowder much used in the 

autumn manoeuvres, 1890. 
See Rome, 23 April, 1891. 
Gunpowder exported : 1876, 14,268,672 lbs. ; 1880, 

14,927,500 lbs. ; 1885, 12,763,900 lbs. ; 1890, 

10,330,400 lbs. 

GUNPOWDEE PLOT, for springing a mine 
under the houses of parliament, and destroying the 
three estates of the realm — king, lords, and commons 
— there assembled, was discovered on 4 Nov. 1605. It 
was projected by Robert Catesby early in 1604, and 
several Eoman Catholics of rank were in the plot. 
Guy Faux was detected in the vaults under the 
house of lords, hired for the purpose, preparing 
the train for being fired on the next day. Catesby 
and Percy (of the family of Northumberland) were 
killed at Holbeach house, whither they had fled, 
8 Nov. ; and Guy Faux, sir Everard Digby, Rook- 
wood, "Winter, and others, were executed, 30, 31 
Jan. 1606. Henry Garnet, a Jesuit, suffered as an 
accomplice, 3 May following. An anonymous letter 
sent to lord Monteagle led to the discovery. It 
contained the following words, " Though there be 
no appearance of any stir, yet I say they shall 
receive a terrible blow this parliament, and yet 
they shall not see who hurts them." The vault 
called Guy Faux cellar, in which the conspirators 
lodged the barrels of gunpowder, remained till 
1825, when it was converted into offices. 

GUNTEE'S CHAIN, used in measuring land, 
invented by Edmund Gunter, in 1606. 

GUENEY'S ACT, 31 & 32 Vict., c. 116 \ 
(1868), amends the law relating to larceny and 
embezzlement. 

GUTTA PEECHA is procured from the sap 
of the Isonandra Gutta, a large forest tree, growing 
in the Malayan peninsula and on the islands near 



GUY'S HOSPITAL. 



463 



GYEOSCOPE. 



it. It was made known in England by Drs. De 
Almeida and Montgomery, at the Society of Arts, 
in 1843. As a non-conductor of electricity it is in- 
valuable in constructing submarine telegraphs, an 
application suggested by Faraday and Werner Sie- 
mens independently, 1847. 70,176 cwts. were im- 
ported into the United Kingdom in 1890. 

GUY'S HOSPITAL (London). Thomas Guy, 
a wealthy bookseller, after bestowing large sums on 
St. Thomas's, determined to found a new hospital. 
At the age of seventy-six, in 1721, he commenced 
the present building, and lived to see it nearly 
completed. It cost him 18,793/., and, in addition, 
he endowed it with 219,499/. In 1829, 196,115/. 
were bequeathed to this hospital by Mr. Hunt, to 
provide accommodation for 100 additional patients. 
Income much reduced by agricultural depression ; 

ioo,oooZ. proposed to be raised ; Mansion House, 

ij,oool. received 20 Dec. 1886. 

GUZEEAT, a state in India, founded by Mah- 
moud the Gaznevide, about 1020, was conquered by 
Akbar in 1572 ; and became subject to the Mahrattas 
1732 or 1752. At the battle of Guzerat, near the 
Chenab, in the Punjab, 21 Feb. 1849, lord Gough 
totally defeated the Sikhs and captured the town of 
Guzerat. 

GWALIOE, an ancient state in Central India 

occupied by the Mahrattas ; since 1803, under British 

protection. Scindiah, the maharajah, remained 

faithful during the revolt of 1857 ; visit of the 

prince of "Wales, 31 Jan. 1876. His present of 

carved stone work of a gate, arrived in London in 

the autumn of 1884. Population, 1881, 1,115,857. 

The ancient citadel was taken by major Popham in the 

Mahratta war in 1780 ; seized by the rebels during 

the Indian mutiny, 13 June ; and retaken by sir Hugh 

Rose, 19 June, 1858. Surrendered to the maharajah 

by lord Dunerin, the viceroy, 2 Dec. 1885, for 15 lakhs 

of rupees; actually surrendered, 10 March, 1886. The 

maharajah Bhajeerut Rao Scindiah, aged 51, died 21 

June, 1886. Succeeded by his son, a boy, with a 

regency. 

Gwalior visited by the marquis of Lansdowne, warmly 

received, 18 Nov. 1891. 

GYMNASIUM, a place where the Greeks 
performed public exercises, and where philosophers, 
poets, and rhetoricians repeated their compositions. 
In wrestling and boxing the athletes were often 
naked (gymnos), whence the name. A London 
gymnastic society, formed in 1826, did not flourish. 
In 1862, M. Ravenstein set up another gymnastic 
association. The German Gymnastic Institution, 
in St. Pancras-road, London, was opened on 29 Jan. 
1865, and a large and perfect gymnasium at Liver- 
pool was inaugurated by lord Stanley, 6 Nov. 1865. 
A London athletic club existed in Nov. 1866. 



GYMNOSOPHIST^E, a set of naked philo- 
sophers in India. Alexander (about 324 B.C.) was 
astonished at the sight of men who seemed to 
despise bodily pain, and endured tortures without 
a groan. Pliny. 

GYPSIES, Gipsies, or Egyptians 

(French, Bohemiens ; Italian, Zingari; Spanish, 
Gitanos ; German, Zlgeuner) ; vagrants, supposed 
to be descendants of low-caste Hindoos expelled by 
Timour, about 1399. They appeared in Germany 
and Italy early in the 15th century, and at Paris in 
1427. In England an act was made against their 
itinerancy, in 1530; and in the reign of Charles I. 
thirteen persons were executed at one assizes for 
having associated with gypsies for about a month. 
The gypsy settlement at Norwood was broken up, 
and they were treated as vagrants, May, 1797. 
There were in Spain alone, previously to 1800, 
more than 120,000 gypsies, and many communities 
of them yet exist in England. Notwithstanding 
their intercourse with other nations, their manners, 
customs, visage, and appearance are almost wholly 
unchanged, and their pretended knowledge of 
futurity gives them power over the superstitious. 
Esther Faa was crowned queen of the gypsies at 
Blyth, on 18 Nov. i860. The Bible has been trans- 
lated into gypsy dialects. Gypsy parliaments are 
occasionally held. Geoi-ge Smith, king of the 
gypsies, Falcoln hall, Edinburgh, protested against 
the Movable Dwellings bill, 10 Jan. 1891. The 
Gypsy Lore society, founded in 1888, had 70 mem- 
bers in 1891, and published a journal. 
George Borrow fraternised with the gypsies and wrote 
several works describing his adventures, especially 
"TheZincali" (1841) ; "The Bible in Spain " (1842) ; 
" Lavengro" (1850); and a " Dictionary of the Gypsy 
Language " (1874). He was born in 1803, and died in 
Aug. 1 88 1. 
A band of 89 gypsies from Corfu, with 500Z. bound for 
America, landed at Millwall docks, July ; passage 
refused them at Liverpool ; connection disclaimed by 
the Greek government ; some remain at Liverpool 
and others at Hull, Aug.-Sept. 1886. Wandering in 
England, Oct. 1886 ; at Sunderland, April, 1887. 
Some of them conveyed to King's Cross station, 
London, 16 April, 1887 ; at Chester, April, 1887. 
Matilda II. crowned queen of the American gypsies near 
Dayton, Ohio, Nov. 1888. 

GYEOSCOPE (from gyrere, to revolve), the 
name of a rotatory apparatus invented by Fessel of 
Cologne (1852), and improved by professor Wheat- 
stone and M. Foucault of Paris. It is similar in 
principle to the rotatory apparatus of T3ohnen- 
berger of Tubingen (born 1765, died 1831). — The 
gyroscope, by exhibiting the combined effects of the 
centrifugal and centripetal forces, and of the 
cessation of either, illustrates the great law of 
gravitation. 



H. 



HAARLEM. 



HAILEYBUEY COLLEGE. 



HAARLEM, an ancient town in Holland, once 
the residence of the counts, was taken by the duke 
of Alva, in July, 1573, after a siege of seven 
months. He violated the capitulation by butcher- 
ing half the inhabitants. The lake was drained, 
1 839-5 J. Population, 1890, 51,626. 

HABEAS CORPUS. The subjects' Writ of 
Right, passed " for the better securing the liberty 
of the subject," 31 Charles II. c. 2, 27 May, 1679. 
If any person be imprisoned by the order of any 
court, or of the queen herself, he may have a writ 
of habeas corpus, to bring him before the court of 
queen's bench or common pleas, which shall deter- 
mine whether his committal be just. This act 
(founded on the old common law) is next in im- 
portance to Magna Charta. The Habeas Corpus act 
can be suspended by parliament for a specified time 
when the emergency is extreme. In such a case 
the nation parts with a portion of its liberty to 
secure its own permanent welfare, and suspected 
persons may then be arrested without cause or 
purpose being assigned. Blackstone. 
Act suspended for a short time in . 1689, 1696, 1708 
Suspended for Scots' rebellion . . . 1715-6 
Suspended for twelve months .... 1722 
Suspended for Scots' rebellion in . . 1745-6 
Suspended for American war .... 1777-9 
Again by Mr. Pitt, owing to French revolution . 1794 
Suspended in Ireland, on account of the great re- 
bellion 1798 

Suspended in Eng'.and, 28 Aug. 1799 ; and 

14 April, 1 801 
Again, on account of Irish insurrection . . . 1803 
Again, owing to alleged secret meetings (see Green 

Bag) 21 Feb. 1817 

Bill to restore the Habeas Corpus brought into par- 
liament 28 Jan. 1818 

Suspended in Ireland (insurrection) . 24 July, 1848 

Restored there 1 March, 1849 

Suspended again (see Fenians), 17 Feb. 1S66 ; 
26 Feb. and 31 May, 1867 ; and 28 Feb. 1868 till 

25 March, 1869, and virtually in 1881 
The constitution of the United States provides that 
"the privilege of habeas corpus shall not be sus- 
pended, unless when, in cases of rebellion or 
invasion, the public safety may require it ;" but 
does not specify the department of the govern- 
ment having the power of suspension. A series 
of contests on this subject between the legal 
and military authorities began in Maryland, 

May, 1861 
In consequence of the affair of John Anderson (see 
Slavery in England, note), an act was passed in 
1862, enacting that no writ of Habeas Corpus should 
issue out of England into any colony, &c, 
having a court with authority to grant such 
writ. 

HABITUAL CRIMINALS ACT, for the 

more effectual prevention of crime, giving powers 
for the apprehension of habitual criminals on sus- 
picion, passed 11 Aug. 1869; 117,568 reported in 
the metropolis, 1873. 
A black book, printed at Brixton prison, contained the 

names and aliases of 12,164 criminals, selected from 

179,601 entered on the register, 1869-76 

HABITUAL DRUNKARDS, see 

Drunkards. 

HABSBURG, see Hapsburg. 



HACKNEY, a parish N.E. of London ; by 
the division of the Tower Hamlets, was made a 
metropolitan borough by the Reform act, 15 Aug., 
1867. Two members were eleeted. The election 
4 Feb. 1876, void, through neglect of officers. Re- 
turns three members by the act of 1885. Popula- 
tion, 1881, 186,462 ; 1891,229,531. 

HACKNEY COACHES, probably from the 
French coche-d-haquenee, a vehicle with a hired 
horse, haquenee. Their supposed origin in Hackney, 
near London, is a vulgar error; see Cabriolets, and 
Omnibuses. 
Four were set up in London by a capt. Bailey ; 

their number soon increased .... 1625 

They were limited by the star-chamber in 1635; 

restricted in 1637 and in 1652 

The number was raised to 400, in 1662 ; to 700, in 

1694 ; to 800, in 1715 ; to 1000, in 1771 ; to 1100, in 

1814; and finally, to 1300, in .... 1815 

One-horse hackney carriages (afterwards cabriolets) 

permitted to be licensed ,, 

All restriction as to number ceased, by 2 Will. IV. 

(the original fare was is. a mile) .... 1831 
Two hundred Hackney Chairs were licensed . .1711 
Office removed to Somerset-house . . . . 1782 
Coach-makers made subject to a licence . . . 1785 
Lost and Found Office for the recovery of property 

left in hackney coaches, established by act 55 

Geo. Ill 1815 

All public vehicles to be regulated by the act 16 & 

17 Vict. cc. 33, 127, by which they are placed 

under the control of the commissioners of police, 

June and Aug. 1853 
By the Metropolitan Carriages Act, passed 12 Aug. 

1869, various restrictions respecting the amount 

of fare, &c., were removed, commencing 1 Jan. 1870. 
Further regulations for cabs issued by the home 

secretary 10 March, 187 1 

HADRIAN, see Adrian. 
HADRIANOPLE, see Adrianople. 

HAFSFIORD (Norway). Here Harold Hiir- 

fager, in a sea-fight, finally defeated his enemies ; 
and consolidated his kingdom, 872. A millenary 
festival was held throughout .Norway, and a monu- 
ment to his memory at Hangesund, inaugurated by 
prince Oscar of Sweden, 18 July, 1872. 

HAGUE, capital of the kingdom of Holland, 
once called the finest village in Europe ; the place 
of meeting of the states-general, and residence of 
the former earls of Holland since 1250, when 
William II. built the palace here. Population in 
1887, 149,447 ; in 1890, 160,531. 
Here the states abjured the authority of Philip II. 

of Spain 1580 

A conference upon the five articles of the remon- 
strants, which occasioned the synod of Dort . . 161 o 
Treaty of the Hague, (to preserve the equilibrium 
of the North), signed by England, France, and 

Holland 21 May, 1659 

The De Witts torn in pieces here . . .4 Aug. 1672 
The French, favoured by a hard frost, took posses- 
sion of the Hague ; the inhabitants and troops 
declared in their favour ; general revolution en- 
sued, and the stadtholder and his family fled to 

England 19 Jan. 1795, 

The Hague evacuated by the French . . Nov. 1813; 
The stadtholder returned .... Dec. ,, 

HAILEYBURY COLLEGE (Herts), 
wherein students were prepared for service in India ; 



HAINAULT. 



465 



HAMBURG. 



it was founded by the East India Company in 1806 : 

was closed in 1858, and became a private educational 

establishment. 

In the case of " Hutt and another v. the Governors of 
the College and others," Mr. Robertson, the head- 
master, and Mr. Fenning, assistant, were exonerated 
from the charges of unlawfully expelling Henry Hutt, 
aged 15, on suspicion of stealing money ; and the boy 
was declared innocent by the Queen's Bench Division, 
19 June ; 100I. awarded to the plaintiffs, 27 June, 
1888. 

HAINAULT, a province in Belgium, anciently 
governed by counts, hereditary after Regnier I., 
who died in 916. The count John d'Arsenes became 
count of Holland in 1299. Hainault henceforth 
partook of the fortunes of Flanders. 

HAINAULT FOREST (Essex), disafforested 
in 1851. Here stood the Fairlop oak (which see). 

HAIR. In Gaul, hair was much esteemed, 
hence the appellation Gallia comata ; cutting olf 
the hair was a punishment. The royal family of 
France held it as a privilege to wear long hair art- 
fully dressed and curled. " The clerical tonsure is of 
apostolic institution ! " Isidorus Hispalensis. Pope 
Anicetus forbade the clergy to wear long hair, 155. 
Long hair was out of fashion during the pro- 
tectorate of Cromwell, and hence the term Sound- 
heads ; in 1795; and also 1 80 1. — Hair -powder came 
into use in 1590; and in 1795 a tax of a guinea 
was laid upon persons using it, which yielded at 
one time 20,000^. per annum. The tax was repealed 
24 June, 1869, when it yielded about lOOQl. a year. 
See Beard. 

Some members of a Burmese family totally covered with 
hair were exhibited in London in July, 1886. 

HAITI, see Hayti. 

HAKLUYT SOCIETY, established for the 
publication of rare voyages and travels, 15 Dec. 
1846, was named after Richard Hakluyt, who pub- 
lished his " Principal Navigations, Voyages, and 
Discoveries made by the English Nation," in 1589; 
and died 23 Nov. 1616. 

HALF CROWNS, see under Coinage and 
Crowns. 

HALIARTUS, a town in Boeotia, near which 
Ly sander the Spartan general was killed in battle 
with the Thebans, 395 B.C. 

HALICARNASSUS, Caria (Asia Minor); the 
reputed birth-place of Herodotus, 484 B.C. ; the site 
of the tomb of Mausolus, erected 352; was taken by 
Alexander, 334; see Mausoleum. 

HALIDON HILL, near Berwick, where, on 
19 July, 1333, the English defeated the Scots, the 
latter losing upwards of 14,000 slain, among whom 
were the regent Douglas and a large number of the 
nobility ; a comparatively small number of the 
English suffered. Edward Balliol thus became king 
of Scotland for a short time. 

HALIFAX (Yorkshire). The woollen manu- 
factory was successfully established here in the 
15th century. The power of the town to punish 
capitally (by a peculiar engine resembling the 
guillotine) anj r criminal convicted of stealing to 
the value of upwards of thirteen pence halfpenny, 
was used as late as 1650. In 1857, Mr. J. Cross- 
ley announced his intention of founding a college 
here, and Mr. F. Crossley presented the town with 
a beautiful park. Boiler explosion at Batme and 
Pritchard's ; Mr. Pritchard and 5 men killed, 9 
Oct. 1879. Public demonstration for the franchise 
bill, 9 Sept. 1884. Population, 1881, 73,630; i8gr, 
82,864. 



Halifax, the capital of Nova Scotia, was founded 
in 1749 by the hon. Edwd. Cornvvallis, and named 
after the earl of Halifax. Population, 1881, 36,100; 
1891, 38,556. About 31 were burnt to death in 
an almshouse hospital here . . . Nov. 1882 

Large graving dock opened . . .20 Sept. 1880. 

Great fire, 10 wharves and 35 warehouses destroyed 

1 Oct. 1891 

HALIFAX ADMINISTRATION. 

Charles, earl of Halifax, was appointed first lord of 

the treasury, 5 Oct. 1714. He died 19 May, 1715, 

and was succeeded by Charles, earl of Carlisle, on 

10 Oct. following; and Robert Walpole became 

premier. 

Charles, earl of Halifax, first lord of the treasury. 

William, lord Cowper, aft. earl, lord chancellor. 

Daniel, earl of Nottingham, lord president. 

Thomas, earl of Wharton, privy seal. 

Edward, earl of Oxford, admiralty. 

James Stanhope, afterwards earl Stanhope, and Charles, 

viscount Townshend, secretaries of state. 
Sir Richard Onslow, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Dukes of Montrose and Marlborough, lord Berkeley, 

Robt. Walpole, Mr. Pulteney, &c. 

HALIFAX AWARD, see Canada, 1877. 

HALL, principal apartment in mediaeval man- 
sions. Westminster and Eltham halls are fine 
examples ; see Westminster Hall. 

HALL MARK, see Goldsmiths and Standard. 

HALLE (Saxony, N. Germany), first men- 
tioned in 801, was made a city by the emperor 
Otho II. in 981. The orphan-house here was estab- 
lished by August Francke, 1698-9. Halle suffered 
much by the Thirty years' and Seven years' wars. 
It was stormed by the French, 17 Oct. 1 806, and 
added to the kingdom of Westphalia ; but given up 
to Prussia in 1814. Population, 1891, 101,401. 

HALLELUJAH and AMEN (Praise the 
Lord, and So be it), expressions used in the 
Hebrew hymns ; said to have been introduced by 
Haggai, the prophet, about 520 B.C. Their intro- 
duction into Christian worship is ascribed to St. 
Jerome, about a.d. 390. 

HALLS in London, see Agricultural, Egyptian, 
Exeter, Floral, Freemasons' , Independents, James's, 
St., Music and Westminster. 

HALYS, a river (Asia Minor), near which a 
battle was fought between the Lydians and Medes. 
It was interrupted by an almost total eclipse of the 
sun, which led to peace, 28 May, 585 b.c. (the 
fourth year of the 48th Olympiad). Plin. Nat. 
Hist. ii. Others give as the date 584, 603, and 
610 B.C. This eclipse is said to have been predicted 
many years before by Thales of Miletus. Hero- 
dotus, i. 75. 

HAM, on the Sonime, N. France. The castle 
was built in 1470 by the constable Louis of Luxem- 
bourg, comte de St. Pol, beheaded by Louis XI. 
19 Dec. 1475- Here were imprisoned the ex- 
ministers of Charles X., 1830 ; and Louis Napoleon 
Bonaparte after his attempt at Boulogne, from Oct. 
1840 till 25 May, 1846, when he escaped. 

HAMBURG, formerly a free city, N. W. 
Germany, founded by Charlemagne, about 809. It 
joined the Hanseatic league in the 13th century, 
and became a flourishing commercial citv. Popu- 
lation of the State, 1875, 388,618 ; 'in 1880, 
453,869; in 1885, 518,620; [890,622,530; of the 
city, 1885, 305,690; 1890, 323,923. Hamburg 
Massacre; see Massacres, 1876. 
A free imperial city by permission of the dukes of 
Holstein, 1296 ; subject to them tiil 1618 ; pur- 
chased its total exemption from their claims . 1768 

II 11 



HAMILTON. 



466 HANDEL'S COMMEMORATIONS, 



French declared war upon Hamburg for its 
treachery in giving up Napper Tandy ; see Tandy, 

Oct. 1799 
British property sequestrated . . March, 1801 
Hamburg taken by the French after the battle of 

Jena, in 1806 

Incorporated with France 1810 

Evacuated by the French on the advance of the 

Russians into Germany 1813 

Restored to independence by the allies . May, 18 14 
Awful fire here, which destroyed numerous churches 
and public buildings, and 2000 houses ; it con- 
tinued for three days .... 4 May, 1842 
Half the city inundated by the Elbe . 1 Jan. 1855 
New constitution granted by the senate, July, i860; 

the new assembly (of 191 members) first met, 6 Dec. i860 
The constitution began . . . . 1 Jan. 1861 
Hamburg joined the N. German confederation, 

21 Aug. 1866 

Joined the German empire, Jan. ; its privileges as a 

free port confirmed 16 April, 1871 ; these were 

given up, and Hamburg joined the Zollverein, 

being the last of the German free ports . 15 Oct. 1888 

The emperor William II. with a hammer completes 

the new great harbour works . . 29 Oct. „ 

Exhibition of Trade and Industry . 15 May— 7 Oct. 1889 
Strike of gas-workers, city some time in darkness ; 
violent rioting, checked by armed police, with 
bloodshed .... about 13-15 May, 1890 

Visitation of cholera, see Addenda . Aug. -Sept. 1892 

HAMILTON, Ontario, the Birmingham of 
Canada, founded in 1813. Population, in 1861, 
19,096; 1886, 41,280. 

HAMILTON PALACE SALE. The total 
sum realised by the sale of the vast collection of 
pictures and other works of art, cabinets, crystals, 
&c. amounted to 397,562/. 20 Julj r , 1882. 

The MSS. purchased by the German government ; 
reported price about 70,000?., Oct. 1882. Part 
resold to the British Museum, soon after. The 
greater part returned to London for sale ; the 
British Museum bought the most valuable part 
for 15,189?. 15s. 6c? May, 1889 

Sale of the united Beckford and Hamilton libraries 
realised 86,444? 1883-4 

HAMMERSMITH, a parish in S. Middlesex, 
made a parliamentary borough in 1885, returning 
one member. A suspension bridge was erected 
1825-7 ; a new one was opened by Prince Albert 
"Victor, 18 June, 1887. 

HAMPDEN CLUBS, see Radicals, and 
Chalgrove. 

HAMPSTEAD, N.W. of London; originally 
a chapelry of Hendon, was made a parish after the 
Eeformation. The ancient chapel was taken down 
1745; and a church was consecrated, 8 Oct. 1747. 
An act authorising the Metropolitan Board of Works 
to purchase the heath, from sir John Maryon 
"Wilson, bart., passed 29 June, 1871, and the heath 
was formally taken possession of by the Metropo- 
litan Board of Works, 13 Jan. 1872, 45,000/. being 
paid. Hampstead returns one M. P. by act of 1885. 
Population, 1881,45,452; 1891,68,425. 

Temporary small-pox hospital established . . 1S71 

Charges of mismanagement against the officers ; 
official inquiry (33 meetings, from 23 Sept. to 
3 Nov.); inquiry respecting disappearance of a 
child, Elizabeth Bellue ; medical officers exone- 
rated from blame Dec. ,, 

A small-pox hospital erected here by Metropolitan 
District Asylum Board was much opposed, and 
led to litigation, see Trials, 1878 ; the house of 
lords on appeal decided against the inhabitants 

7 March, 1881 

Finally the board agreed to buy the property 
affected for 20,000? Dec. 1883 

The Board voted 152,500?. towards the purchase of 
" Parliament Hill " fields, about 261 acres, as an 
addition to the heath ; the parishes of Hampstead 
and St. Pancras having voted 50,000?. . 14 Oct. 1887 



50,000?. given by the Charity Commissioners andi 
above 46,000?. subscribed by the public ; final 
meeting of the Hampstead Heath Extension 
Committee, 23 March, 1889. The duke of West- 
minster, chairman, and Mr. Shaw Lefevre, vice- 
chairman. 

For Hampstead, or rather Kentish town murder, 
see Ti-ials Dec. 1890 

On Easter Monday, above 100,000 persons were on 
the heath ; 2 women and 6 boys were suffocated 
by the dense crowd descending the stairs at the 
railway station, 6 p.m. ... 18 April, 1892 

HAMPTON COTJET PALACE (Middle- 
sex), built by cardinal Wolsey on the site of the- 
manor-house of the knights-hospitallers, and in. 
1525 presented to Henry VIII. ; perhaps the most 
splendid offering ever made by a subject to a 
sovereign. Here Edward VI. was born, 12 Oct. 
1537 ; here his mother, Jane Seymour, died, 24 Oct. 
following ; and here Mary, Elizabeth, Charles, and 
others of our sovereigns resided. Much was pulled 
down, and the grand inner court built by William 
III. in 1694, when the gardens, occupying 40 acres, 
were laid out. The vine was planted 1769. Here? 
was held, 14-16-18 Jan. 1604, the Conference 
between the Puritans and the Established church 
clergy, which led to a new translation of the Bible ; 
see Conference. An alarming fire in apartments; 
over the picture gallery extinguished ; one woman, 
suffocated, 14 Dec. 1882. 

By another fire many apartments destroyed and in- 
jured, 19 Nov. 1886 ; estimated damage 20,000?. 

HAN APES OFFICE (of the court of chan- 
cery), where writs relating to the business of the 
subject, and their returns, were anciently kept in 
hanaperio (in a wicker hamper) ; and those relating- 
to the crown, in parva baga (a little bag) . Hence 
the names Hanaper and Petty Bag Office. The- 
office was abolished in 1842. 

HANAU (Hesse-Cassel), incorporated 1303. 
Here a division of the combined armies of Austria) 
and Bavaria, of 30,000 men, under general Wrede, 
encountered the French, 70,000 strong, under Na- 
poleon I., on their retreat from Leipsie, 30 Oct. 
1813. The French suffered very severely, though 
the allies were compelled to retire. The county off 
Hanau was made a principality in 1803 ; seized by 
the French in 1806 ; incorporated with the -duchy 
of Frankfort in 1809 ; restored to Hesse in 1813^ 
which was annexed to Prussia in 1866. 

HANDEL'S COMMEMORATIONS. 

The first was held in Westminster abbey, 26 May,. 
1784; king George III. and queen Charlotte, and: 
above 3000 persons being present. The band con- 
tained 268 vocal and 245 instrumental performers^ 
and the receipts of three successive days were 
12,746/. These concerts were repeated in 1785,. 
1786, 1787, and 1791. 

Second great commemoration, in the presence of king 
William IV. and queen Adelaide, when there were 644. 
performers, 24, 26, 28 June, and 1 July, 1834. 
Great Handel festival (at the Crystal Palace) on the 
centenary of his death, projected by the Sacred 
Harmonic Society. Grand Rehearsal at the Crystal; 
Palace, 15, 17, 19 June, 1857, and 2 July, 1858. 
Performances : Messiah, 20 June ; Selections, 22 June ; Is- 
rael in Egypt, 24 June, 1859, when the prince consort, the 
king of the Belgians, and 26,827 persons were present. 
There were 2765 vocal and 393 instrumental performers, 
and the performance was highly successful. The re- 
ceipts amounted to about 33,000?., from which there 
were deducted 18,000?. for expenses ; of the residue 
(15,000?.), two parts accrued to the Crystal Palace Com- 
pany, and one part to the Sacred Harmonic Society. 
Handel's harpsichord, original scores of his oratorios, 
and other interesting relics, were exhibited. 
Handel festivals (at the Crystal Palace) : 4000 performers • 
highly successful ; 23, 25, 27 June, 1862 ; again, 26, 2S* 



HANDEL SOCIETIES. 



467 



HANSE TOWNS. 



30 June, 1865 ; again, 15, 17, 19 June, 1868 (about 
25,000 present) ; also, 19, 21, 23 June, 1871 (about 
84,000 persons subscribed) ; also, 22, 24, 26 June, 1874 
(total present, 78,839) ; also, 25, 27, 29 June, 1877 
(present, 74,124) ; 18, 21, 23, 25 June, 1880 (present, 
79,643) ; 15, 18, 20, 22 June, 1883 (present, 87,769) ; 
(centenary) 22, 24, 26 June, 1885 (present, 85,437) ! 2 5j 
27, 29 June, 1888, chorus above 3,000 (present 86,337) ; 
1891, 19, 22, 24, 26 June. 

HANDEL SOCIETIES ; for publication of 
Handel's works : — 

Founded in London, 1843 ; first volume issued, 1843-4; 
society dissolved, 1848 ; work continued by Cramer & 
Co. completed, 1855. 

Founded at Leipsic, in 1856 ; publications began, 1858. 

Handel and Haydn Society, Boston, U.S. for perfor- 
mances only; founded 181 5. 

HANDKERCHIEFS, wrought and edged 
with gold, used to be worn in England by gentle- 
men in their hats, as favours from young ladies, 
the value of them being from five to twelve pence 
for each in the reign of Elizabeth, 1558. Stoiv' s 
Chron. Paisley handkerchiefs were first made in 
1743- 

HANDS, imposition of, was performed by Moses 
in setting apart his successor Joshua (Num. xsvii. 
23); in reception into the church, and in ordination, 
by the apostles {Acts viii. 17 ; 1 Tim. iv. 14). 

HANG-IN G-, Drawing, and Quarter- 
ing, said to have been first inflicted upon William 
Marise, a pirate, a nobleman's son, 25 Hen. III., 
1241. Five gentlemen attached to the duke of 
Gloucester were arraigned and condemned for trea- 
son, and at the place of execution were hanged, cut 
down alive instantly, stripped naked, and their 
bodies marked for quartering, and then pardoned, 
25 Hen. IV. 1447. Stotv. The Cato-street con- 
spirators (which see) were beheaded after death by 
hanging, 1 May, 1820. Hanging in chains (pirates, 
murderers, and others), an old custom, was 
abolished in 1834; see Death. 

HANGO BAY (Finland). On 5 June, 1855, 
a boat commanded by lieut. Geneste left the 
British steamer Cossack with, a flag of truce to 
land some Russian prisoners. They were fired on 
by a body of riflemen, and five were killed, several 
wounded, and the rest made prisoners. The Rus- 
sian account, asserting the irregularity to have 
been on the side of the English, was not sub- 
stantiated. 

HANOVER (N. W. Germany), successively an 
electorate, and a kingdom, chiefly composed of 
territories which once belonged to the dukes of 
Brunswick (which see). Population of the province 
in 1859, 1,850,000; in 1875, 2,017,393; in x 885, 
2,172,702; 1890, 2,230,491; of the city, 1885, 
139,731; 1890,165,499. It was annexed to Prussia, 
which see, at the close of the war, 20 Sept. 1866 ; 
see Guelph. 

Hanover became the ninth electorate . . 19 Dec. 1692 
Suffered much during the seven years' war . 1756-63 
Seized by Prussia .... 3 April, 1801 

Occupied and hardly used by the French, 5 June, 1803 

Delivered to Prussia in 1805 

Retaken by the French 1807 

Part of it annexed to Westphalia . . . . 1810 

Regained for England by Bemadotte . 6 Nov. 1813 
Erected into a kingdom . . . .12 Oct. 1814 
The duke of Cambridge appointed viceroy, 

and a representative government established, 

Nov. 1816 

Visited by George IV Oct. 1821 

Ernest, duke of Cumberland, king . 20 June, 1837 
He granted a constitution with electoral rights, 

1848 ; which was annulled in obedience to the 

decree of the federal diet . . . 12 April, 1855 



The king claims from England crown jewels, which 
belonged to George III. (value about 120,000?.), 
1857 : by arbitration, the jewels given up . Jan. 1858 
Stade dues given up for compensation, 12 June, 1861 
In the war the king takes the side of Austria ; and 
the Prussians enter and occupy Hanover, 

13 June, et seq. 1866 
The Hanoverians defeat the Prussians at Langen- 
salza, 27 June ; but are compelled to surrender, 

29 June, ,, 
Hanover annexed to Prussia by law, 20 Sep ; pro- 
mulgated b Oct. ,, 

Protest of the king of Hanover addressed to Europe 

23 Sept. ,, 
Arrangement with Prussia by a treaty ratified 

18 Oct. 1867 
The king celebrates his " silver wedding " at Hiet- 
zing, near Vienna, expressing hopes of recovering 

his kingdom, &c 18 Feb. 1868 

Part of his property sequestrated by Prussia, 

March, ,, 
Still further, in consequence of his maintaining a 
Hanoverian legion (the king protested against it), 

Feb. 1869 
TheemperorWilliam II. warmly received at Hanover, 
during the autumn manoeuvres . .11 Sept. 1889 

ELECTORS. 

1692. Ernest- Augustus, youngest son of George, that son 
of William, duke of Brunswick-Luneburg, who 
obtained by lot the right to marry (see Bruns- 
wick). He became bishop of Osnaburg in 1662, 
and in 1679 inherited the possessions of his 
uncle John, duke of Calenberg ; created Elector 
of Hanover in 1692. 
[He married, in 1659, the princess Soxihia, daugh- 
ter of Frederick, elector palatine, and of Eliza- 
beth, the daughter of James I. of England. In 
1701, Sophia was declared next heir to the British 
crown, after William III., Anne, and their de- 
scendants. ] 

1698. George-Lewis, son of the preceding ; married his 
cousin Sophia, the heiress of the duke of Bruns- 
wick-Zell ; became king of Great Britain, 1 Aug. 
1714, as George I. 

1727. George-Augustus, his son (George II. of England),. 
11 June. 

1760. George- William-Frederick, his grandson (George 
III. of England), 25 Oct. 



1814. George-William-Frederick (the precedingsovereign), 
first king of Hanover, 12 Oct. 

1820. George-Augustus-Frederick, his son (George IV. 
of England), 29 Jan. 

1830. William-Henry, his brother (William IV. of Eng- 
land), 26 June ; died, 20 June, 1837. 
[Hanover separated from the crown of Great 
Britain.] 

1837. Ernest-Augustus, duke of Cumberland, brother to 
William IV. of England, on whose death he 
succeeded (as a distinct inheritance) to the 
throne of Hanover, 20 June. 

1851. George V. (born 27 May, 1819), son of Ernest ; 
ascended the throne on the death of his father, 
18 Nov. His states annexed to Prussia, 20 Sept. 
1866 ; visited England, May, June, 1 876 ; died, 
12 June, 1878. 

1878, Ernest-Augustus II., son, born 21 Sept. 1845 ; 
niaintamed his claims in a circular to the 
sovereigns of Europe, dated 11 July, 1878 ; 
married princess Thyra of Denmark, 21 Dec. 
1878. See Cumberland. 

HANOVER SQUARE, built about 1718; 
the concert rooms opened by John Gallini, 1 Feb. 
1775; the house taken for a club, Dec. 1874; re- 
built, 1875. 

HANSARD'S DEBATES, see Reporting. 

HANSE TOWNS. The Hanseatic league 
(from Iiansa, association), formed by port towns in 
Germany against the piracies of the Swedes and 
Danes : "began about 1140; the league signed 1241. 
At first it consisted only of towns situate on the 
coasts of the Baltic sea, but iu 1370 it was composed 

H h 2 



HANSOM. 



468 



HAEP. 



of sixty-six cities and forty-four confederates. The 
league proclaimed war against Waldemar, king of 
Denmark, about the year 1348, and against Eric in 
1428, with forty ships and 12,000 regular troops, 
besides seamen. On this several princes ordered 
the merchants of their respective kingdoms to with- 
draw their effects. The Thirty years' war in Ger- 
many (1618-48) broke up the strength of the asso- 
ciation, and in 1630 the only towns retaining the 
name were Liibeck, Hamburg, and Bremen. The 
league suffered also by the rise of the commerce of 
the Low Countries in the 15th century. Their 
privileges by treaty in England were abolished by 
Elizabeth in 1578. 

HANSOM, see Cabriolets. 

HANWELL LUNATIC ASYLUM, for 

Middlesex, established 1831. 

HAPSBURG (Habsbtjbg or Habichts- 

BUKG), HOUSE OF, the family from which the 
imperial house of Austria sprang in the nth cen- 
tury, Werner being the first named count of Habs- 
burg, 1096. Hapsburg was an ancient castle of 
Switzerland, on a lofty eminence near Schintznach. 
Eodolph, count of Hapsburg, became archduke of 
Austria, and emperor of Germany, 1273 ; see 
Austria, and Germany. 

HARBOURS. England has many fine natural 
iarbours; the Thames (harbour, dock, and depbt), 
Portsmouth, Plymouth, &c. Acts for the improve- 
ment of harbours, &c, were passed in 1847, 1861, 
and 1862. 

HAEES AND EABBITS ACT. See 

Game. 

HAEFLEUE, seaport, N.W. France, taken 
by Henry V., 22 Sept. 1415. 

HAELAW (Aberdeenshire), the site of a 
desperate indecisive battle between the earl of 
Mar, with the royal army, and Donald, the lord of 
the Isles, who aimed at independence, 24 July, 141 1. 
This conflict was very disastrous to the nobility, 
some houses losing all their males. 

HAELEIAN LIBEAEY, containing 7000 
manuscripts, besides rare printed books, bought by 
Edward Harley, afterwards earl of Oxford and 
Mortimer, 1705, et seq., is now in the British 
Museum. A large portion of his life and wealth 
■was spent on the collection. He died 21 May, 
1724. The Harleian Miscellany, a selection from 
the MSS. and Tracts of his library, was published 
in 1744 and 1808. 
Haelbian Society, founded in 1869 for the publication 

of heraldic visitations, &c. 

HAELEY ADMINISTRATION, see Ox- 
ford. 

HAELEY STEEET, London, W. At No. 
139, the house inhabited by Mr. Henriques, the de- 
composed body of a woman, stabbed in the breast 
and covered with chloride of lime, was found 3 
June ; verdict of coroner's inquest, wilful murder 
by person unknown, 14 June, 1880. 

HAEMONICA, or musical glasses (tuned by 
regulating the amount of water, and played by a 
moistened finger on the rim), were played 011 by 
Gluck in London, 23 April, 1746 ; "arranged" by 
Puckeridge and Delaval, and improved by Dr. 
Franklin in 1760; Mozart, Beethoven, and others 
composed for this instrument ; see Copophone. 
"Harmonicon," an excellent musical periodical, 
edited by "W. Ayrton, Jan. 1823 — Sept. 1833. 



HAEMONICHOED, a keyed instrument, in 
which sounds are produced by friction, invented by 
Th. Kauff'mann in 18 10. 

HAEMONISTS, a sect, founded in Wiirtem- 
berg by George and Frederick Bapp, about 1780. 
Not much is known of their tenets, but they held 
their property in common, and considered marriage 
a civil contract. They emigrated to America, and 
built New Harmony in Indiana in 1815. Bobert 
Owen purchased this town about 1823 ; but failed 
in his scheme at establishing a "social" community 
and returned to England : see Socialists. The 
Harmonists removed to Pittsburg in Pennsylvania 
in 1822. 

HAEMONIUM, a keyed instrument, resem- 
bling the accordion, the tones being generated by 
the action of wind upon metallic reeds. The 
Chinese were well acquainted with the effects pro- 
duced by vibrating tongues of metal. M. Biot 
stated, in 1810, that they were used musically by 
M. Grenie ; and in 1827-29, free reed stops were 
employed in organs at Beauvais and Paris. The 
best known harmoniums in England are those of 
Alexandre and Debain, the latter claiming to be the 
original maker of the French instrument. In 1841, 
Mr. W. E. Evans, of Cheltenham, produced his 
English harmonium, then termed the Organ-Har- 
monica, and by successive improvements he produced 
a fine instrument, with diapason quality, and great 
rapidity of speech, without loss of power. 

HAEMON Y, the combination of musical notes 
of different pitch, appears not to have been practised 
by the Greeks. 
Hucbald, a Flemish monk, published combinations in 

his " Enchiridion Music*," 9th century. 
Harmony greatly promoted by Palestrina, and especially 

by Monteverde. 
Jean de Muris wrote "Ars Contrapuncti " in 14th 

century. 
Francis of Cologne described " descant," 1600. 
Beethoven greatly enlarged the range of harmonic bases. 

HAENESS, chariots and the leathern dress- 
ings used for horses to draw them, are said to have 
been the invention of Erichthonius of Athens, who 
was made a constellation after his death, under the 
name of Bootes (Greek for ploughman), about 
1487 B.C. 

HAEO, CRY OF {Clameur de Haro), tradition- 
ally derived from Baoul, or Bollo, of Normandy, 
ancestor of our Norman princes of England. Bollo 
administered justice so well, that injured persons 
uttered the cry "7T« Rou ! Ha Rou ! A monaide, 
mon prince, on me fait tort." The cry was raised 
in a church in Jersey in 1859. It has now no legal 
effect. 

HAEP. Invented by Jubal, 387; B.C. {Gen. iv. 

2l). David played the harp before Saul, 1063 B.C. 

(1 Saw. xvi. 23.) The Cimbri, or English Saxons, 

had this instrument. The celebrated Welsh harp 

was strung with gut; and the Irish harp, like the 

more ancient harps, with wire. Erard's improved 

harps were first patented in 1795. 

One of the most ancient harps existing is that of Brian 

Boroimhe, monarch of Ireland : it was given by his 

son Donagh to pope John XVIII., together with the 

crown and other regalia of his father, in order to obtain 

absolution for the murder of his brother Teig. Adrian 

IV. alleged this as being one of his principal titles to 

the kingdom of Ireland in his bull transferring it to 

Henry II. This harp was given by Leo X. to 

Henry VIII., who in'esented it to the first earl of 

Clanriearde : it then came into possession of the family 

of De Burgh ; next into that of MacMahon of Clenagh, 

county of Clare ; afterwards into that of MacNamara 

of Limerick; and was at length deposited by the right 



HARPER'S FERRY. 



469 



HATFIELD'S ATTEMPT. 



hon. William Conyngham in tlie College Museum, 
Dublin, in 1782. 
The claviharp, fitted like the pianoforte with a keyboard, 
and played like the pianoforte, was introduced into 
Brussels and Antwerp by Mdlle. Dratz, and played on 
by her at Prince's Hall, London, 13 March, 1888. 

HARPER'S FERRY (Virginia), see United 
States, 1859-62. 

HARPSICHORD, see Pianoforte, note. 

HARRISON'S TIME-PIECE, made by 
John Harrison, of Foulby, near Pontefract. In 
1714, the government offered rewards for methods 
of determining the longitude at sea ; Harrison came 
to London, and produced his first time-piece in 
1735 ; his second in 1739; his third in 1749; and 
his fourth, which procured him the reward of 
20,000^. offered by the Board of longitude, a few years 
after. He obtained 10,000/. of his reward in 1764, 
and other sums, more than 24,000/. in all, for fur- 
ther improvements in following years. 
In the patent museum at South Kensington is an eight- 
day clock made by Harrison in 171 5. It strikes the 
hour, indicates the day of the month, and with one 
exception (the escapement) its wheels are entirely 
made of wood. The clock was going in 1871. 

HARROGATE (Yorkshire). The first or old 
spa in Rnaresborough forest was discovered by capt. 
Slingsby in 157 1 : a dome was erected over the well 
by lord Rosshn in 1786. Two other chalybeate 
springs are the Alum well and the Towit spa. The 
sulphureous well was discovered in 1783. The 
theatre was erected in 1788. The Bath hospital was 
erected by subscription in 1825. Population, 188 1, 
9,482 ; 1S91, 13,917. 

HARROW -ON -THE -HILL SCHOOL 

(Middlesex), founded and endowed by John Lyon 
in 1 57 1. To encourage archery, the founder . in- 
stituted a prize of a silver arrow to be shot for 
annually on the 4th of August ; but the custom has 
been abolished. Lord Palmerston, sir R. Peel, the 
statesman, and lord Byron, the poet, were educated 
here. The school building suffered b} r fire, 22 Oct. 
1 838. The school arrangements were modified by 
the public schools act, 1868. Charles II. called 
Harrow church " the visible church." 

HARTLEPOOL, E. Durham, an ancient sea- 
port, said to have been burnt by the Danes, 800, 
fortified by the Braces and others, and chartered by 
John. The foundation of West Hartlepool, with 
its harbour, docks, churches, &c, is due to the 
sagacity, skill, and energy of Mr. Ralph Ward 
Jackson. The work began in 1844, and the harbour 
■was opened 1 June, 1847. The population, about 
400 in 1840, was 16,998 in 1881 ; and 21,521 in 
1891. West Hartlepool, 1881,29,448; 1891,42,492. 
Mr. R. W. Jackson, first M.P. for "The Hartle- 
pool*" in 1868-74. died 6 Aug. 1880, muchhonoured 
at home and abroad. 

HARTLEY COAL MINE (Northumber- 
land). On 16 Jan. 1862, one of the iron beams, 
about 20 tons weight, at the mouth of the ventilating 
shaft, broke and fell, destroyed the brattice, divided 
the shaft, and carried down sufficient timber to kill 
five men who were ascending the shaft, and buried 
alive 202 persons, men and boys. Several days 
elapsed before the bodies could be removed. Much 
sympathy w as shown by the queen and the public, 
and about 70,000/. were collected for the bereaved 
families. The coroner's verdict asserted the neces- 
sity of two shafts to coal mines, and recommended 
that the beams of colliery engines should be of 
malleable instead of cast iron. 



HARTWELL (Buckinghamshire), the retreat 
of Louis XVIII. , king of France, 1807-14. He 
landed in England at Yarmouth, 6 Oct. 1807, took 
up his residence at Gosfield-hall, in Essex, and 
afterwards came to Hartwell, as the count de Lille. 
His consort died here in 1810. On his restoration, 
he embarked at Dover for France, 24 April, 1814. 
See France. 

HARUSPICES, priests or soothsayers, of 
Etruscan origin, who foretold events from observ- 
ing entrails of animals. They were introduced to 
Rome by Romulus (about 750 B.C.), and abolished 
by Constantiue, a.d. 337, at which time they were 
seventy in number. 

HARVARD COLLEGE, Cambridge (Mas- 
sachusetts, JS'orth America), was founded by the 
general court at Boston, on 28 Oct. 1636. It derived 
its name from John Harvard, of Emmanuel College, 
Cambridge, who bequeathed to it his library and a 
sum of money in 1638. 250th anniversary of its 
foundation kept 6-8 Nov. 1886. 

HARVEIAN ORATION. William Harvey 
bequeathed his property to the Royal College_ of 
Physicians. The annual delivery of the oration 
began in 1656. See under Stood. 

HARWICH, a sea-port, Essex, a Roman 
station, and the Saxon Harewic ; chartered by 
Edwd. 2nd ; absorbed into Essex, 1885. 

Near here Alfred defeated the Danish fleet. 
Parkeston, the new port near Harwich, was constructed 
in 1882. 

HASTINGS, a cinque-port, Sussex; said to 
owe its name to the Danish pirate Hastinge, who 
built forts here, about S93 ; but Mr. Kemble thinks 
it was the seat of a Saxou tribe named Hastingas- 
At Senlac, now Battle, near Hastings, more than 
30,000 were slain in the conflict between Harold II> 
of England and William duke of Normandy, the 
former losing his life and kingdom, 14 Oct. 1066, 
his birthday. He and his two brothers were interred 
at Waltham abbey, Essex. The new town, St. 
Leonard' s-on-sea, was begun in 1828. A new pier 
here was inaugurated by earl Granville, 5 Aug. 
1872. New town-hall opened by the mayor, 7 
Sept. 1881. Convalescent home and Alexandra 
Park opened by the prince of Wales, 26 June, 1882. 
Marine parade much damaged by high tide, 24 Nov. 
1882. Great conservative meeting, powerful speech 
of the marquis of Salisbury, 18 May, 1892. Popu- 
lation, 1881,42,258; 1891,52,340. 

HASTINGS' TRIAL. Warren Hastings, 
governor-general of India, was tried by the peers of 
Great Britain for high crimes and misdemeanours. 
Among other charges was his acceptance of a present 
of 100,000/. from the nabob of Oude ; see Chunar, 
Treaty of. The trial occupied 145 days, and lasted 
seven years and three months ; commencing 13 
Feb. 1788, terminating in his acquittal, 23 April, 
1795. Mr. Sheridan's speech on the impeachment 
excited great admiration. 

Hastings was born in 1732 ; went to India as a writer in 
1750; became governor-general of Bengal in 1772 : of 
India, 177^ ; governed ably, but, it is said, unscrupu- 
lously and" tyrannically, till he resigned in 1785. The 
expenses of his trial (70,000?.) were paid by the East 
India Company ; and a pension was granted to him. 
He died a privy-councillor in 1818. 

HATELEY FIELD, see Shrewsbury. 

HATFIELD'S ATTEMPT. On 15 May, 
1800, during a review in Hyde-park, a shot from an 
undiscovered hand was fired, which wounded a 
young gentleman who stood near king Geo. III. In 
the evening, when his majesty was at Drury-lane 



HATHEELEY'S ACT. 



470 



HAYTI. 



theatre, Hatfield fired a pistol at him. Hatfield 
was confined as a lunatic till his death, 23 Jan. 1841, 
aged 69 years : 

HATHEELEY'S ACT, see Bankrupt. 
HATS, first made by a Swiss at Paris, 1404. 
When Charles VII. made his triumphal entry into 
Eouen, in 1449, he wore a hat lined with red velvet, 
and surmounted with a rich plume of feathers. 
Henceforward, hats and caps, at least in France, 
began to take the place of chaperons and hoods. 
Henault. Hats were first manufactured in England 
by Spaniards in 1510. Stow. Very high-crowned 
hats were worn by queen Elizabeth's courtiers ; and 
high crowns were again introduced in 1783. A 
stamp-duty laid upon hats in 1784, and in 1796, 
was repealed in 181 1. Silk hats began to supersede 
beaver about 1820. 

None allowed to sell any hat for above 20& nor cap for 
above 2s. 8&, 5 Henry VII. 1489. Every person above 
seven years of age to wear on Sundays and holidays, a 
cap of wool, knit, made, thickened, and dressed in 
England by some of the trade of cappers, under the 
forfeiture of three farthings for every day's neglect, 
1571. Excepted : maids, ladies, and gentlewomen, and 
every lord, knight, and gentleman, of twenty marks of 
land, and their heirs, and such as had borne office of 
worship, in any city, town, or place, and the wardens 
of London companies, 1571. 

HATTEEAS EXPEDITION, see United 
States, Aug. 1861. 

HATTON GAEDEN, now covered by a mass 
of houses, was formerly the garden of a palace of 
the bishop of Ely, demised to the crown and 
given by queen Elizabeth to sir Christopher Hatton, 
the lord keeper, who died 20 Nov. 1591. See 
Jewel Robberies. 

HAU-HAU FANATICS, see New Zealand, 
1865. 

HAVANNAH, capital of Cuba, West Indies, 
founded by Velasquez, 15 1 1 19; taken by lord Albe- 
marle, 14 Aug. 1762; restored, 1763; the remains 
■of Columbus were brought from St Domingo and 
-deposited in the Cathedral here, 1795. By an ex- 
plosion of gunpowder here, 34 persons were killed, 
=and about 100 injured, 17 May, 1890. 

HAVEE-DE-GEACE (N. W. France) was 
defended for the Huguenots by the English in 1562 ; 
who, however, were expelled in 1563. It was bom- 
barded by Rodney, 6 to 9 July, 1759; by sir Richard 
Strachan, 25 May, 1798; and blockaded, 6 Sept. 
1803. The attempts of the British to burn the 
shipping here failed, 7 Aug. 1804. The Inter- 
national Maritime Exhibition here opened, 1 June, 
1868; another exhibition, 7 May, 1887. The volun- 
teers visited Havre : began to shoot, 26 May ; 50 
British received prizes, 29 June, 1874. The French 
Association for Science met here, 30 Aug. 1877. 
Population, 1891, 109,541. 

HAWAII, see Owhyhcc, and Sandwich Isles. 

HAWKEES AND PEDLARS were first 
licensed in 1698. Licensing commissioners were 
appointed in 1810. The expense of licensing was 
reduced in 1861, and regulated by the Pedlars' Act, 
1871. Exemptions from charges ou licences 
granted by the Hawkers Act, 1888. 

HAWKING, see Falconry. 

HAY, average value of the produce of the United 
fiingdom in 1874, 48,000,000^, Hay-making ma- 
chinery exhibited at Taunton, July, 1875. Mr. 
¥m. A. Gibbs's apparatus, with artificial heat for 
drying hay, corn, &c. : tried atGilwell Park. Ching- 
ford, Essex, reported successful, 3 July, 1875 ; at other 



places in July, 1880. His drying machines used 
for other purposes, such as gunpowder works (1885). 
See Ensilage. 

HAYMAN CASE, see Rugby. 

HAYMAEKET (Westminster), opened in 
1664, was removed to Cumber laud-market, I Jan. 
1831. The Haymarket theatre was opened in 1702; 
see Theatres. 

HAYTI or HAITI, Indian name of a West 
Indian island, discovered by Columbus in Dec. 
1492, and named Hispaniola, and afterwards St. 
Domingo. Before the Spaniards fully conquered 
it, thej r are said to have destroyed, in battle or cold 
blood, three million of its inhabitants, including 
women and children, 1495. The island now com- 
prises the Dominican republic {which see) in the 
east, and the republic of Hayti in the west. The 
population of Hayti in 1887 was about 550,000 ; 
capital, Port-au-Prince. 

Hayti seized by the filibusters and French bucca- 
neers 1630 

The French government took possession of the 

whole colony 1677 

The negroes revolt against France . . 23 Aug. 1791 
And massacre nearly all the whites 21-23 June, 1793 
The French directory recognise Toussaint l'Ouver- 

ture as general -in-chief 1794 

The eastern part of the island ceded to France by 

Spain 1795 

Toussaint establishes an independent republic in 

St. Domingo 9 May, 1801 

He surrenders to the French ... 7 May, 1802 
Is conducted to France, where he dies . . . 1803 
A new insurrection, under the command of Dessa- 

lines; the French quit the island . . Nov. ,, 
Dessalines proclaims the massacre of all the whites, 
29 March ; crowned emperor of Hayti, as Jacques I. , 

Oct. 1804 
He is assassinated, and the isle divided 17 Oct. 1806 
Henry Christophe, a man of colour, president in 
Feb. 1807 ; crowned emperor by the title of Henry 
I., while Pethion rules as president at Port-au- 
Prince March, 18 n 

Numerous black nobility and prelates created . ,, 
Pethion dies ; Boyer elected president . May, 1818 
Christophe commits suicide, Oct. 1820; the two 
states united under Boyer as regent for life, Nov. 
1820; who is recognised by France . . . 1825 

Revolution : Boyer deposed 1843 

St. Domingo and the eastern part of Hayti pro- 
claim the "Dominican republic" Feb. 1844 ; recog- 
nised by France, 1848 ; Buenoventura Baez, 

president 1849-53 

Hayti proclaimed an empire under its late president 
Solouque, who takes the title of Faustin I., 
26 Aug. 1849; crowned . . . 18 April, 1S52 
Santana, president of the Dominican republic, 

1853-6; succeeded by B. Baez .... 1856-8 
Faustin attacking the republic of St. Domingo, 

repulsed 1 Feb. 1856 

Revolution in Hayti: general Fabre Geffrard pro- 
claims the republic of Hayti . . 22 Dec. 1858 

Faustin abdicates 15 Jan. 1859 

Geffrard takes oath as president of Hayti 23 Jan. ,, 
Sixteen persons executed for a conspiracy against 

Geffrard Oct. „ 

Jose Valverde elected president of the republic of 

St. Domingo, or Dominican republic . March, 1858 
Spanish emigrants land : a declaration for reunion 
with Spain signed 18 March, decreed by the 

queen 20 May, 1861 

Insurrection against Spain in St. Domingo, 18 Aug. 1863 
A Spanish force sent; the insurgents generally 

defeated 1864 

Great fire at Port-au-Prince; 600 houses destroyed, 

23 Feb. 1865 
St. Domingo renounced by Spain . . 5 May, ,, 
Military insurrection under Salnave against Gef- 
frard, 7 May; Cape Hayti seized . . 9 May, ,, 
Cabral provisional president of St. Domingo, Sept. 
1865 ; B. Baez proclaimed president . 14 Nov. „ 



HAYTI. 



471 



HEAT. 



Valdrogue, a rebel vessel, fires into British Jamaica 
packet, near Acul, St. Domingo, 22 Oct. ; C'apt. 
Wake, H. M. S. Bulldog, threatens Valdrogue ; 
.Salnave orders the removal of refugees from 
British consulate at Cape Hayti, shoots them, 
and destroys the building. The Bulldog, failing 
to obtain satisfaction, shells the fort, sinks the 
Valdrogue, but gets on a reef; the crew is taken 
out, and she is blown up. H.M.S. Galatea and 
Lily take the other forts and give them up to 
Gerhard ; the rebels flee inland . . 9 Nov. 

Capt. Wake censured by court-martial for losing 
his ship Jan. 

Hayti — another revolt against Geffrard suppressed, 

5-1 1 July, 

Revolution ; Geffrard flies ; banished for ever ; 
Salnave president of Hayti . . 27 March, 

.New constitution June, 

Revolution caused by Pimentel ; Baez flies ; Cabral 
becomes president of St. Domingo . . June, 

Revolt against Salnave .... Sept. 

The ex-emperor Faustin (born a slave, 1791), died 

Aug. 

City of San Domingo nearly destroyed by the 
hurricane 30 Oct. 

B. Baez, president of Dominican republic, March, 

Insurrection against Salnave, 10 May ; said to be 
successful, 26 May; English consul protecting 
foreigners June, 

Salnave defeats insurgents, and kills his prisoners, 

3 June, 

Salnave proclaims himself emperor, Aug. ; offers an 
amnesty Oct. 

•Civil war continued : Saget and Dominguez pro- 
claimed president by their respective followers, 

Oct. 

Salnave, finally defeated, flies to the woods, 18 Dec. 
1868 ; captured, tried, and shot . . 15 Jan. 

Sale of Samana bay to the United States discussed, 

Jan. 

Gen. Nissage Saget elected president of Hayti for 
four years (from 15 May) . . -19 March, 

Baez supports an insurrection against Hayti Aug. 

Tranquillity of Hayti reported by Saget . 9 May, 

Gen. Gaiiier d'Aton, president of St. Domingo, 

Oct. 

Michel Domingue elected president of Hayti (from 
15 May) 14 June, 

Insurrection in St. Domingo in favour of Baez, 

30 Aug. 

Insurrection headed by Louis Tanis about 7 March, 

Cruel executions of suspected persons by presi- 
dent Domingue .... 20 March 

Insurrection successful, Domingue flies to St. 
Thomas's middle of April 

Election of Boisrond Canal as president of Hayti, 

19 July, 

Peaceful revolution in St. Domingo; president 
Espaillat replaced by Gonzales . . . Oct. 

Insurrection in St. Domingo ; city surrounded by 

Guillermo aud Bellini ; Baez almost powerless, 

about 22 Feb. 

Guillermo declared president . . March, 

Revolution ; hard fighting ; Boisrond Canal resigns ; 

about 17 July, 

Gen. Salomon elected president of Hayti 22 Oct. 
[re-elected 14 July, 1886] 

Hayti reported tranquil . . . . 1 Jan. 

Don Fernando Arturo de Marino, a priest, president 
of San Domingo, Oct. 1880 ; said to become dic- 
tator June, 

Revolution broke out March 25, and government 
troops defeated .... 31 March, 

Bridge exploded by rebels, about 2000 killed May, 

Insurrection nearly quelled ; amnesty proclaimed 
end of June 

Fresh insurrection ; battle at Jacmel indecisive 

3 Aug. 

Negro insurrection at Port-au-Prince, suppressed 
after damage to persons and property 22 Sept. 

Alp, British steamer, fired on by the government Oct. 

Death of the rebel leader Bazelais ; surrender of 
rebel town Jeremie, announced 26 Dec; collapse 
of the insurrection . . . about 10 Jan. 

Gen. F. Bellini proclaimed president of San Domingo 

11 Aug. 

Sir Spencer St. John in his Black Republic describes 



1870 



1871 
1872 

1873 

1874 

1875 



1877 



the degraded, profligate, cruelly savage condition 

of Hayti 1884 

General Ulises Heureaux elected president of San 
Doviingo for 1886-8 . . . 28 June, 1886 

Insurrection ; rebels defeated : reported 14 Aug. „ 

National bank of Hayti ; mysterious disappearance 
of bonds and cheques ; M. Vouillon, the director, 
charges Mr. D'Almena (American), sub-manager, 
and Mr. Coles (British), accountant, with theft, 
and others with receiving, summer 1884 ; prisoners 
tried, at first acquitted, afterwards illegally 
convicted and imprisoned ; the American, French, 
and British governments protest ; British squad- 
ron at Port-au-Prince ; prisoners released 1885-6 

Revolution in Hayti; gen. Salomon deposed ; arrives 
in Cuba 16 Aug. ; dies at Paris . . 19 Oct. 1888 

Insurrection of gen. Telemaque ; in an attack on 
the Palais National at Port-au-Prince killed with 
300 of his followers 29 Sept. ; civil war between 
north and south Hayti Oct. „ 

Gen. Legitime elected president . . 22 Oct. ,, 

Cape Haytien bombarded . ... 7 Dec. ,, 

Gen. Hippolyte installed president at Haytien ; 
announced 1 Jan. 1889 

Indecisive conflict between gens. Hippolyte and 
Legitime .21 Dec. 188S 

General Legitime recognised as president by Great 
Britain and France Feb. 1S89 

President Legitime defeated by gen. Hippolyte ; 
reported 29 Jan. ,, 

Gen. Hippolyte defeated about . . 20 Feb. ,, 

Dessalines captured ; announced . 16 April, ,, 

Reported advance of Gen. Hippolyte on Port-au- 
Prince 28 May ,, 

The blockade of Haytian ports, of November last- 
declared to be non-effective, and the ports to be 
open; London Gazette . . . 12 July, ,, 

Unsuccessful attacks of gen. Hippolyte on Port-au- 
Prince . . -ii, 12, and about 25 July ,, 

Port-au-Prince surrendered to gen. Hippolyte by 
gen. Legitime (who goes to France) . 24 Aug. ,, 

Gen. Hippolyte elected president . . 16 Oct. ,, 

Gen. Hippolyte confirmed as president . 15 May, 1890 

Attempted revolution at Port-au-Prince suppressed 
with bloodshed, about 30 killed . . 28 May, 1891 

M. Rigaud, French citizen, shot; 80,000 francs paid 
to his widow by the Haytian government . 

reported 20 July, „ 

The ministry censured by the chamber, then re- 
signs 15 Aug. ,, 

New cabinet formed . . . . 17 Aug. „ 

By an overflow of the river St. Marc, about 80 lives 
lost 14 Aug. ,, 

An amnesty proclaimed .... 10 Dec. ,, 

HEAD ACT, see Ireland, 1465. 
HEALTH, General Board of, was 

appointed by the act for the promotion of the 
public health, passed in 1848. This board was 
reconstructed in Aug. 1854, and sir Benjamin 
Hall was placed at its head, with a salary of 
2000I. ; succeeded by "W. F. Cowper, Aug. 1855, 
and by Ch. B. Adderley in 1858. In 1858 this board 
was incorporated into the privy council establish- 
ment; Dr. Simon being retained as medical officer. 
See Ilyqiene, Bi/r/eiojjolis, Sanitation, Exhibitions, 
Public Health, &c. 

HEARTH, or Chimney, Tax, on every 
fire-place or hearth in England, was imposed by 
Charles II. in 1662, "when it produced about 
200,0001'. a year. It was abolished by William and 
Mary at the Revolution in 1689 ; imposed again, 
and again abolished. 

HEAT (called by French chemists Caloric). 
Little progress had been made in the study of the 
phenomena of heat till about 1757, when Joseph 
Black put forward his theory of latent heat (heat, 
be said, being absorbed by melting ice), and of 
specific heat. Cavendish, Lavoisier, and others, 
continued Black's researches. Sir John Leslie put 
forth his views on radiant heat in 1804. Count 
llumford put forth the theory that heat consists in 



HEBREWS. 



472 



HELIGOLAND. 



motion among the particles of matter, which view 
he supported by experiments on friction (recorded 
in 1802). This theory (now called the dynamical 
or mechanical theory of heat, and used to explain 
all the phenomena of physics and chemistry) has 
heen further substantiated by the independent re- 
searches of Dr. J. Meyer of Heilbronn and of Mr. 
James P. Joule of Manchester, who assert that 
heat is the equiyalent of work done. Mr. Joule, 
in his papers published 1841-2, laid the foundation 
of the science of thermo-ds namics, on which he 
worked till his death, 11 Oct. 1889. The Joule 
Memorial fund proposed, 30 Nov. 1889, was insti- 
tuted by the Royal Society, Jan. 1890. In 1854, 
Sir William Thomson, of Glasgow, published his 
researches on the dynamical power of the sun's rays. 
Thermo-electricity, produced by heating pieces of 
copper and bismuth soldered together, was discovered 
by Seebeck in 1823. A powerful thermo-electric 
battery was constructed by Marcus of Vienna, in 
1865. Professor Tyndall's "Heat, a Mode of 
Motion," first published Feb. 1863, third edition, 
1868, sixth edition, 1880. The researches of 
philosophers are still devoted to this subject; see 
Boiling Colore seer/ ce. Greatest heat in the hot 
summer of 1868 : at Nottingham, in sun, 122-4; m 
shade, 92-2, 22 July, I p.m. : 14 Aug. 18/6, 95-7 in 
the shade; 147 m sun; 26 June, 1878, 95 in the shade. 
Sir George Cayley invented a heated-air engine in 1807, 
and Mr. Stirling applied it to raising water in Ayr- 
shire in 1818. One invented by Mr. Wenham was 
described in 1S73. Improvements have been made by 
C. Wm. Siemens. Coal gas is generally employed. — 
See Gas Engines. 
Captain JohnEricsson constructed a ship, in which caloric, 
or heat, was the motive power. On 4 Jan. 1853, it sailed 
down the bay of New York, at the rate of 14 miles an 
hour, it is said at a cost of 80 per cent, less than steam. 
Although caloric engines were not successful, capt. 
Ericsson continued his experiments, and patented an 
improved engine in 1856. In 1868 he proposed con- 
densation of the sun's rays, and their employment as 
a motive power ; in March, 1889, he exhibited his 
apparatus in New York shortly before his death, 
aged 86. 
Mr. C. Prince states that on 14 July, 1847, the temperature 
was 98° in the shade at Uckfleld, Sussex. In London, 
94°- 1 in the shade, 15 July, 1881. In London, W. 
11 Aug. 1884, in the shade, 92'6. In Princetown, 
Dartmoor, 94° in the shade, 24 July, 1885. London, 
91° in the shade, 31 Aug. 1885. See United States, 1892. 

HEBREWS; see Jews. The Epistle to the 
Hebrews ascribed to St. Paul is dated 64. The 
chief classic authors of all nations, except Greece, 
have been translated into Hebrew. 

HEBRIDES (the Ebuda of Ptolemy and the 
Hebudes of Pliny), western isles of Scotland, long 
subject to Norway ; ceded to Scotland in 1264 ; and 
annexed to the Scottish crown in 1540 by James V. 
The heritable jurisdictions were abolished in 
1747- 

HEBRON (in Palestine). Here Abraham re- 
sided, i860 B.C. ; and here David was made king of 
Judah, 1048 B.C. On 7 April, 1862, the prince of 
Wales visited the reputed cave of Machpelah, near 
Hebron, said to contain the remains of Abraham 
and his descendants. 

HECATOMB, an ancient sacrifice of a hundred 
oxen, particularly observed by the Lacedaemonians 
when they possessed a hun dred cities. The sacrifice 
was subsequently reduced to twenty -three oxen, and 
goats and lambs were substituted. 

HECLA, MOUNT (Iceland). Its first re- 
corded eruption is 1004. About twenty-two erup- 
tions have taken place, according to Olasson and 
Paulson. Great convulsions of this mountain oc- 



curred in 1766, since when a visit to the top in 
summer is not attended with great difficulty. Per- 
haps the most awful volcanic eruption on record 
took place in 1784-5, when rivers were dried up, 
and many villages overwhelmed or destroyed. The- 
mount was in a state of violent eruption from 2 Sept. 
1845, to April, 1846. Three new craters were- 
formed, from which pillars of fire rose to the height 
of 14,000 English feet. The lava formed several 
hills, and pieces of pumice stone and scoriae of 2 
cwt. were thrown to a distance of a league and a half - 
the ice and snow which had covered the mountain 
for centuries melted into prodigious floods. 

HEGIRA, EBA OF THE, dates from the flight 
(Arabic hejra) of Mahomet, from Mecca to Medina, 
on the night of Thursday, 15 July, 622. The era 
commences on the 16th. Some compute this era 
from the 15th, but Cantemir proves that the 16th 
was the fir&t day. 33 of its lunar years are equal to 
32 of tho.-e of the vulgar era. 

HEIDELBERG (Germany) was the capital 
of the Palatinate, 1362- 17 19. The protestant elec- 
toral house becoming extinct in 1693, a war ensued, 
in which the castle was ruined, and the elector 
removed his residence to Mannheim. It was an- 
nexed to Baden in 1802. Here was the celebrated 
tun, constructed in 1343, when it contained twenty- 
one pipes of wine. Another was made in 1664, 
which held 600 hogsheads. It was destroyed by the 
French in 1688 ; but a larger one, fabricated in 
1 75 1, which held 800 hogsheads, and was formerly 
kept full of the best Khenish wine, is said to be 
mouldering in a damp vault, empty, since 1769. 
Population, 1890, 31,737. 

The anniversary of the foundation of the university in 
13S6 was enthusiastically celebrated early in August! 
1886. 

HELDER POINT (Holland). The fort and 
the Dutch fleet lying in the Texel surrendered to 
the British under the duke of York and sir Ealph 
Abercromby, for the prince of Orange, after a con- 
flict. 540 British were killed, 30 Aug. 1799. The 
place was left in Oct. ; see Bergen. 

HELENA, ST., an island in the South Atlantic 
Ocean, discovered by the Portuguese under Juan d® 
Nova Castilla, on St. Helena's day, 21 May, 1502.' 
The Dutch afterwards held it until 1600, when they 
were expelled by the English. The British East 
India Company settled here in 165 1 ; and the 
island was alternately possessed by the English ami 
Dutch until 1673, when Charles II., on 12 Dec, 
assigned it to the company once more. St. Helena 
was the place of Napoleon's captivity, 16 Oct. 18 15 ; 
and here he died, 5 May, 1821. His remains were 
removed in 1840, and interred at the Hotel des In- 
valides, Paris ; see France, 1840. The house and 
tomb have been purchased by the French govern- 
ment. The bishopric was founded in 1859. 
Governor, adm. sir Cha*. Elliot, 1863-9 > adm. 
Charles George Edward Patey, 1869 ; Hudson Ralph 
Janisch, 1873, died April, 1884; col. Grant Blunt; 
lion. Wm. Grey Wilson, 18S9. Population, 1871, 
6241; in 1883, 5,085 ; 1891, 4,116. Revenue, 1891, 
8,7281?. ; expenditure, 9,032,?. 
No crime, debt or disease reported by the governor 

spring, 1S90 
By the fall of a rock near Jamestown, 9 persons 

killed 1 May, „ 

HELIGOLAND, an island in the North Sea, 
formerly a dependence of the duchy of Holstein, 
subject to Denmark, was taken from the Danes by 
the British, 5 Sept. 1807 ; made a depot for British 



HELIOGEAPHY. 



473 



HEPTAECHY. 



merchandise ; confirmed to England by the treaty 
of Kiel. 14 Jan. 1814. In a naval engagement oil' 
Heligoland, between 'he Danes and the Austrians 
and Prussians, the allies were compelled to retire, 

9 May, 1864. A fashionable bathing place for 
Germans. Governor, col. llenry F. B. Maxse, 
1863; lt.-col. J. T. N. O'Brien, 1881 ; Mr. A. C. 
S. Barkley, Nov. 1888. Heligoland was ceded to 
Germany by the Anglo-German agreement, 18 
June ; given up by Mr. Barkley to the new Gernian 
governor, 9 Aug. ; visited by the emperor 
William II., and proclaimed part of the empire, 

10 Aug. 1890. Population, 1881, about 2000. 

HELIOGEAPHY (from hellos, the sun). 
A system of telegraphing by mirrors flashing the rays of 

the sun, said to have been employed by the ancients 

in the time of Alexander, about 333 B.C. 
A portable heliograph, invented by Mr. H. Mance, of the 

Persian telegraph department, was announced in 1875. 

It was employed in India, 1877-78 ; and in the Afghan 

and Zulu campaigns, 1879-80. See also Photography. 

HELIOMETEE, an instrument for measur- 
ing the diameters of the sun, moon, planets, and 
stars, invented by Savary, in 1743; applied by M. 
Bouguer, in 1744. A fine heliometer, by Eepsold 
of Hamburg, was set up at the liadcliffe observatory, 
Oct. 1849. 

HELIOPOLIS; see Baalbec (in Syria). The 
name was also given to a city in Lower Egypt (the 
biblical On or Bethshemesh) in the earliest known 
times, a chief seat of the worship of the sun. It 
suffered much by the Persian invasion, 525 B.C., 
and was in ruins in the time of Strabo, who died 
about a.d. 24. 

HELIOSCOPE (a peculiar sort of telescope, 
prepared for observing the sun so as not to affect 
the eye), was invented by Christopher Scheiner in 
1625. 

HELIOSTAT, an instrument invented to make 
a sunbeam stationary, or apparently stationary, in- 
vented by s'Gravesande about 1719, and greatly 
improved by Malus and others. One constructed 
by MM. Foucault and Duboscq was exhibited at 
Paris in Oct. 1862. 

HELLAS, in Thessaly, the home of the Hel- 
lenes and the Greek race, which supplanted the 
Pelasgians from the 15th to the nth century B.C., 
derived its name from Hellen, king of Phthiotis, 
about 1600 B.C. The Hellenes separated into the 
Dorians, JEolLins, Ionians, and Achaians. The 
present king of Greece is called '" king of the 
Hellenes :" see Greece. 

HELLENIC SOCIETY,to promote Hellenic 
studies, formed at a meeting, 16 June, 1879, by Mr. 
C. T. Newton and others. Journal published 1881, 
et seq. 

HELLESPONT (now the Strait of the Darda- 
nelles) was named after Helle, daughter of Atha- 
mas, king of Thebes, who was drowned here. 
According to the legendary story of the loves of 
Hero of Sestus, and Leander of Abydos, Leander 
■was drowned in a tempestuous night as he was 
swimming across the Hellespont (about one mile), 
and Hero, in despair, threw herself into the sea, 
dated seventh century B.C. Lord Byron and lieut. 
Ekenhead also swam across, 3 May, 1810. See 
Xerxes. 

HELL-FIEE CLUBS- Three of these as- 
sociations were suppressed, 172 1. They met at 
Somerset-house, and at houses in "Westminster and 
in Conduit-street. 



HELLHOFFITE, a new powerful and safe 
explosive, composed of nitrates, &c, invented by 
Hellhoffand Gruson of St. Petersburg, announced 
August, 1885. 

HELMETS, among the Romans, were pro- 
vided with a vizor of grated bars, to raise above the 
eyes, and beaver to lower for eating; the Greek 
helmet was round, the Roman square. Richard I. 
of England wore a plain round helmet; but most 
of the English kings had crowns above their hel- 
mets. Alexander III. of Scotland, 1249, had a 
fiat helmet, with a square grated vizor, and the 
helmet of Robeit I. was surmounted by a crown, 
1306. Gwilllm. 

HELOTS, captives, derived by some from the 
Greek helein, to take ; by others from Helos, a city 
which the Spartans hated for refusing to pay tri- 
bute. The Spartans, it is said, ruined the city, 
reduced the Helots to slavery, and called all their 
slaves and prisoners of war Hclotcc, 700 B.C. The 
number of the Helots was much enlarged by the 
conquest of Messenia, 668 B.C. ; and is considered 
to have formed four-fifths of the inhabitants of 
Sparta. In the Peloponnesian war the Helots be- 
haved with uncommon bravery, and were rewarded 
with liberty, 431 B.C. ; but the sudden disappear- 
ance of 2000 manumitted slaves was attributed to 
Lacedaemonian treachery. Herodotus. The con- 
nection between the Helots and Helos, is now con- 
sidered mythical. 

HELVETIAN EEPTJBLIC Switzerland 
having been conquered by the French in 1797, a 
republic was established April, 1798, with this title; 
see Switzerland. 

HELVETII, a Celto-Germanic people, who 
inhabited part of what is now called Switzerland. 
They joined the Cimbri, were with them when the 
Romans were defeated near Geneva, and the consul 
Longinus killed, 107 B.C., and when they them- 
selves were defeated by Marius and Catulus, 101. 
Invading Gaul, 61 B.C., they were defeated and 
massacred by Julius Caesar, 58 B.C., near Geneva. 

HEMP AKD Flax. Flax was first planted in 
England, when it was directed to be sown for fish- 
ing-nets, 1532-3. " Bounties were paid to encourage 
its cultivation in 1783; and every exertion should 
be made by the government and legislature to ac- 
complish such a national good. In 1785 there were 
imported from Russia, in British ships, 17,695 tons 
of hemp and flax." Sir John Sinclair. The im- 
portation of hemp and flax in 1870, was 3,^10,178 
cwt. ; in 1877, 3,502,44.7 cwt. ; in 1879, 2,943,738 
cwt. ; in 1883, 3,082,109 cwt. ; in 1887, 3,105,169 
cwt.; in 1890, 3,777,364 cwt. The cultivation of flax 
was revived at the dearth of cotton during the 
American civil war, 186 1-4. 

HENGESTDOWN (Cornwall). Here Egbert 
is said to have defeated the Danes and West 
Britons, 835. 

HENOTICON (from the Greek henotes, unity), 
an edict of union for reconciling the Eutyehians with 
the church, issued by the emperor Zeno at the in- 
stance of Acacius, patriarch of Constantinople, 482. 
It was zealously opposed by the popes of Rome, and 
was annulled by Justin I. in 518. The orthodox 
party triumphed, and many heretic bishops were 
expelled from their sees. 

HEPTAECHY (or government of seven rulers) 
in England was gradually formed from 4155, when 
Hcngist became king of Kent. Ii terminated in 
828, when Egbert became sole monarch of England. 
There were at first nine or ten Saxon kingdoms, but 



HEEACLEA. 



474 HEEITABLE JURISDICTIONS. 



-Middlesex soon ceased to exist, and Bernicia and 
Deira were generally governed by one ruler, as 
Northumbria : see Britain. 

HEEACLEA, see Pcmdosia. 

HEBACLIDiE, descendants of Hercules, who 
•were expelled from the Peloponnesus about 1200 
•B.C., but reconquered it in 1048, 1103-4 or n 09 B.C., 
a noted epoch in chronology, all the history pre- 
•eedirjg being accounted fabulous. 

HEBALDBY- Marks of honour were used in 
the first ages. Nisbet. The Phrygians had a sow ; 
the Thracians, Mars; the Romans, an eagle; the 
Goths, a bear; the Flemings, a bull; the Saxons, 
a hoi-se ; and the ancient French a lion, and after- 
wards the fleur-de-lis {which see). Heraldry, as an 
.art, is ascribed first to Charlemagne, about 800 ; and 
next to Frederick Barbarossa, about 1152; it began 
and grew with the feudal law. Mackenzie. The great 
English works on Heraldry are those of Barcham 
■or Barkham, published by Gwillim (1610) , Edmond- 
.-son (1780), and Burkes "Armory" (1842; new 
■ed. 1883, contains a history and the arms of above 
■66,00a British families, &c). See Blazonry. 
JEdward III. appointed two heraldic kings-at-arms 

for the south and north (Surroy, Norroy) . . 1340 
Hichard III. incorporated and endowed the 

Heralds' College 1483-4 

Philip and Mary enlarged its privileges, and con- 
firmed them by letters patent . . 15 July, 1554 
formerly, in many ceremonies, the herald repre- 
sented the king's person, and therefore wore a 
crown, and was always a knight. 
The college has an earl marshal, 3 kings of arms 
(Garter, Clarencieux, and Norroy), 6 heralds 
(Richmond, Lancaster, Chester, Windsor, Somer- 
set, and York), 4 pursuivants, and 2 extra heralds; 
see Earl Marshal, and Kings-of-Arms. 
The building in Doctors' Commons, London, was 
erected by sir Christopher Wren (after the great 

fire in 1666) 1683 

Heralds' Visitations were occasionally held in 
former times, at which the landed gentry were 
required to attend to prove their pedigrees, which 
were then entered in a book. The last is said to 
have been held in 1687. Some of the records have 
been printed. 
A heraldic exhibition to which the queen contri- 
buted was opened in Edinburgh, July — August, 
1891. The Treatise by the Rev. J. Woodward and 
the late G. Burnett was completed in two vols. . 1892 

HEBAT, on the confines of Khorasan, a strong 
city, called the key of Afghanistan. It was con- 
quered by Persia, early in the 16th century ; by the 
Afghans, in 1715 ; by Nadir Shah, 1731 ; recovered 
iby the Afghans, 1749. The Persians, baffled in an 
attempt in 1838 ; took it 25 Oct. 1856, in violation 
•of the treaty of 1853 ; and war ensued between 
■Great Britain and Persia. Peace was made in April, 
1857 ; and Herat was restored 27 July following. 
It was seized again by Dost Mahommed, 26 May, 
1863 ; taken by Yakoob Khan, rebelling against his 
•father, 6 May, 1871. Yakoob, reconciled to his 
father, was made governor, 16 Sept. 1871. 
Ayoub governor for his brother Yakoob, ameer at 

Cabul ........ May, 1879 

3Iutiny, many officials killed . . .5 Sept. ,, 
Ayoub invades Candahar {which see) ; defeated, 

1 Sept. ; returns to Herat .... Sept. 1880 
His troops defeated in several conflicts ; Ayoub 

flees to Persia ; and the Ameer's general enters 

Herat Oct. 1881 

S\>r following events, see Afghanistan. 

HEEBEET HOSPITAL for Soldiers, Wool- 
wich, erected 1866. 

HEBCULANEUM, an ancient city of Cam- 
pania, overwhelmed, together with Pompeii, by an 
eruption of lava from Vesuvius, 23 or 24 Aug. 79. 



Successive eruptions laid them still deeper under 
the surface, and all traces of them were lost until 
excavations began in 1711 ; andin 1713 many anti- 
quities were found. In 1738 excavations were re- 
sumed, and works of art, monuments, and memorials 
of civilized life were discovered. 150 rolls of 
MSS. papyri were found in a chest, in 1754 ; and 
many antiquities were purchased by sir VVilliani 
Hamilton, and sold to the British Museum, where 
they are deposited ; but the principal relics are 
preserved in the museum of Portici. The " Anti- 
chita di Ercolano," 8 vols, folio, were published by 
the Neapolitan government, 1757-92. 

HEEEDITY. The transmission of qualities 
of like kind of those of the parents has been 
specially studied by Mr. Francis Galton, F.R.S. 
who published " Hereditary Genius," 1869, and 
" Eecords of Family Faculties," containing tabular 
forms to be filled up, in order to obtain authentic 
data for his new science of "Eugenics." Money 
prizes, 5^. and upwards, were offered for the best 
records. His "Inquiries into Human Faculty" 
was published in 1883, and "Natural Inheritance" 
in 1889. 

HEBEFOBD was made the seat of a bishopric 
about 676, Putta being first bishop. The cathedral 
was founded by a nobleman named Milfride, in 
honour of Ethelbert, king of the East Saxons, who 
was treacherously slain by his intended mother-in- 
law, the queen of Mercia. The tower fell in 1786, 
and was rebuilt by Mr. Wyatt. The cathedral was 
re-opened after very extensive repairs, on 30 June, 
1863. The see is valued in the king's books at 768?. 
per annum. Present income, 4200/. Population, 
1881, 19,821 ; 1891, 20,267. 

BISHOPS. 

1803. Folliott H. W. Cornwall, translated to Worcester, 

1808. 
1808. John Luxmoore, translated to St. Asaph, 1815. 
1815. George Isaac Huntingford, died 29 April, 1832. 
1832. Hon. Edward Grey, died 24 June, 1837. 
1837. Thomas Musgrave, trans, to York, Dec. 1847. 
1847. Renn D. Hampden, died 23 April, 1S68. 
1868. James Atlay ; consecrated 24 June. 

HEEETICS (from the Greek hairesis, choice). 
Paul says, "After the way they call heresy, so wor- 
ship I the God of my fathers," 60 (Acts xxiv. 14). 
Heresy was unknown to the Greek and Roman 
religions. Simon Magus is said to have broached 
the Gnostic heresy about 41. This was followed by 
the Manichees, Nestorians, Arians, &c. ; see In- 
quisition. It is stated that the promulgation of 
laws for prosecuting heretics was begun by the 
emperor' Frederick II. in 1 220; and immediately 
adopted by pope Honorius III. 
Epiphanius chosen bishop of Constantius in Cyprus, 
367, wrote "Panarium," a discourse against here- 
sies, died 402 

Thirty heretics came from Germany to England to 
propagate their opinions, and were branded in 
the forehead, whipped, and thrust naked into the 
streets in the depth of winter, where, none daring 
to relieve them, they died of hunger and cold 

(Speed) 1160 

Laws against heretics repealed, 25 Henry VIII. 1534-5 
The last person executed for heresy in Britain was 

Thomas Aikenhead, at Edinburgh . . . 1696 
[The orthodox Mahommedans are Sonnites ; the 
heretics — Shiites, Druses, &c.l 

HEEITABLE JUEISDICTIONS (i. e., 
feudal rights) in Scotland, valued at 164,232^., were 
abolished by the act 20 Geo. II. c. 43 (1747), and 
restored to the crown for money compensation after 
25 March, 174S. Heritable and Movable Bights, in 
the Scottish law, denote what in England is meant by 
real and personal property : real property in Eng- 



HEEMANDAD, SANTA. 



475 



HESSE. 



land answering nearly to heritable rights in Scot- 
land, and personal property to the movable rights. 

HEEMANDAD, SANTA (Spanish for holy 
brotherhood), associations of cities of Castile and 
Arragon to defend their liberties, began about 
the middle of the 13th century. The brotherhood 
was disorganised in 1498, order having been firmly 
established. It is said to have been continued as a 
species of voluntary police. 

HEEMAS, author of "the Shepherd," a 
Christian apocryphal book, supposed to have been 
written about 131. Some believe Hernias to he 
mentioned in Romans xvi. 14. 

. HEEMETIC . SOCIETY, a mystical, spi- 
ritual philanthropic association, based upon Chris- 
tianity, founded by Dr. Anna Kingsford, early in 
1884, * presumed author of "The Perfect Way" 
(lectures delivered in 188 1, and since published). 
Mrs. Anna Kingsford died 22 Feb. 1888. See under 
Theosophists. 

HEEMITS, see Monacldsm. 

HEENE BAY, Kent, a watering-place, begun 
1830 ; the pier, five-eighths of a mile long, having 
decayed, a new one was opened, 27 Aug. 1873, by 
lord mayor Waterlow. Population, 1881, 2,816; 
1891, 3,829. 

HEEO, British Man-of-War, see Wrecks, 
[811. 

HEEEEEA (Arragon). Here don Carlos, of 
Spain, in his struggle for his hereditary right to 
the throne, at the head of 12,000 men, encountered 
and defeated general Buerens, who had not much 
above half that number of the queen of Spain's 
troops. Buerens lost about 1000 in lulled and 
wounded, 24 Aug. 1837. 

HEEEING-FISHEEY was largely en- 
couraged by the English and Scotch in very early 
times. The " statute of herrings," passed in 
1357, placed the trade under government control. 
The mode of preserving herrings by pickling was 
discovered about 1397. Anderson. The British 
Herring-Fishery company was instituted 2 Sept. 
1750. A scientific commission in relation to the 
fishery was appointed in 1862. 

HEEEINGS, Battle of the, fought 

12 Feb. 1429, obtained its name from the due de 
Bourbon being defeated while attempting to inter- 
cept a convoy of salt fish, on the road to the English 
besieging Orleans. 

HEEENHUTEES, see Moravians. 

HEESCHEL TELESCOPE, see Telescopes. 

HEETFOED, Hertfordshire, a Saxon town. 
Castles were erected here by Alfred and by Edward 
the Elder. Charters were granted in 1588 and 
1680. All Saints' church burnt, 21 Dec. 1891. 
Population, 1881, 7,747 ; 1891, 7,232. 

HEETFOED COLLEGE, Oxford ; founded 
in 1312; dissolved, 1 805; revived, and Magdalen 
hall incorporated with it, 1874. 

HEEULI, a German tribe, which ravaged 
Greece and Asia Minor in the 3rd century after 
Christ. Odoacer, their leader, overwhelmed the 
western empire and became king of Italy, 476. He 
was defeated and put to death by Theodoric the 
Ostrogoth, 491-3. 

HEEVEY ISLANDS (Pacific Ocean), 
Rarotonga, &c. British protectorate proclaimed, ?o 
Sept. 1888. 



HEEZEGOVINA or HeRTSEK (European 
Turkey), originally a part of Croatia, was united 
with Bosnia in 1326, and made the duchy of St. 
Saba by the emperor Frederic III. in the following 
century. It was ceded to Turkey in 1699 at the 
peace of Carlowitz. In Dec. 1861 an insurrection 
against the Turks broke out, fostered by the prince 
of Montenegro. It was subdued; and on 23 Sept. 
1862, Vucatovitch, chief of the insurgents, surren- 
dered on behalf of his countrymen to Kurschid 
Pasha, and an amnesty was granted. 

An insurrection against the Turks breaks out, chief 
leader said to be Lazzaro Socica ; several conflicts 
with varying results 1 July, 1875 

Turks said to be defeated at Nevesinje . 12 July, ,, 

The European Powers counsel to send a commis- 
sion to redress grievances ... 22 Aug. ,, 

Server Pacha unsuccessful; Turkish victories re- 
ported Aug. „ 

The insurgents in a document describe their suffer- 
ings, as Christians ; demand full and real free- 
dom, and declare that they will not be subject 
to the Turks again . . . . 12 Sept. ,, 

Futile intervention of foreign consuls . Sept. ,, 

Sanguinary engagements ; various results; 29 Sept., 

13 Oct., 11 — 14 Nov. ,, 

Insurgents defeated near Trebinje ; Bacevics, a 
leader, killed .... 18 — 20 Jan. 1876 

Negotiations of the Austrian gen. Rodich fail ; 
the insurgents ask too much . . . April „ 

Mukhtar Pasha said to have defeated insurgents, 
and revietualled Niksichs besieged . 29 April ,, 

Other engagements reported . . May, June, ,, 

The new Sultan, Murad, grants an armistice for 
negotiation June ,, 

All intelligence very uncertain. July, 1875 — July, ,, 
See Turkey. 

Herzegovina was occupied by the Austrians in 
Aug. 1878, in conformity with the treaty of 
Berlin 13 July, 1878 

Fighting at Mostar, the capital . . .4 Aug. ,, 

Novi-Bazar quietly occupied by Austrians, 8 Sept. 1879 

Insurrection (see Austria) .... Jan. 1882 

HESSE ("W. Germany), the seat of the Catti, 
formed part of the empire of Charlemagne; from 
the rulers of it in his time, the present are de- 
scended. It was joined to Thuringia till about 
1263, when Henry I. (son of a duke of Brabant and 
Sophia, daughter of the landgrave of Thuringia) 
became landgrave of Hesse. The most remarkable 
of his successors was Philip the Magnanimous 
(1509), an eminent warrior and energetic supporter 
of the lieformation, who signed the Augsburg Con- 
fession in 1530 and the League of Smalcald in 1531. 
At his death, in 1567, Hesse was divided into 
Hesse-Cassel and Hesse-Darmstadt, under his 
sons William and George, and their descendants 
played an eminent part in the convulsions of Ger- 
many during the 17th and 18th centuries.* In 1803 
Hesse-Cassel became an electorate, and in 1806 
Hesse-Darmstadt a grand duchy; which titles were 
retained in 1814. In 1807 Hesse-Cassel was incor- 
porated with the kingdom of Westphalia, but in 
1813 the electorate was re-established. Capital, 
Darmstadt. Population (1875), grand duchy, 
884,218; (1885), 956,611; (1890), 993,659. 

Hesse-Cassel (made an electorate, 1803 ; incor- 
porated with Westphalia, 1807 ; restored, 1813). 



* Six thousand Hessian troops arrived in England, in 
consequence of an invasion being expected in 1756. The 
sum of 471,000^. three per cent, stock was transferred to 
tin.' landgrave of Hesse, for Hessian auxiliaries lost in 
the American war, at 30^. per man, Nov. 1786. The 
Hessian soldiers were again brought to this realm at the 
close of the last century, and served in Ireland during 
the rebellion in 1798. 



HESSIAN FLY. 



476 



HIGH AND LOW CHITKCH. 



ELECTORS. 

1803. William I. ; born 3 June, 1743 ; succeeded as land- 
grave, 1785 ; made elector, 1803 ; deprived of his 
states, 1806; restored, 1813; died 27 Feb. 1821. 

1821. William II. ; born 28 July, 1777; died 20 Nov. 1847. 

1847. Frederic William ; bom 20 Aug. 1802. 

Tlie elector, in 1850, remodelled the constitution 
given in 1831 (by which the chamber had the 
exclusive right of voting the taxes), and did not 
convene the chamber until the usual time for 
closing the session had arrived, when his de- 
mand for money for 1851 was laid before it. The 
chamber called for a regular budget, that it 
might discuss its items. The elector dissolved 
the chamber, and declared his dominions in a 
state of siege, 7 Sept. 1850. 

He fled to Hanover, and subsequently to Frank- 
fort; and on 14 Oct. he formally applied to the 
Frankfort diet for assistance to re-establish his 
authority in Hesse. On 6 Nov. an Austro- 
Bavarian force of 10,000 men entered Hesse- 
Cassel, under the command of Prince Thurn- 
und-Taxis, who fixed his head-quarters in Hanau ; 
and on the next day a Prussian force entered 
Cassel. The elector returned to his capital, the 
taxes having been collected under threats of 
imprisonment, 27 Dec. 1850. 

The constitution of 1831 was abolished, and a new 
one established, 1852. 

The conflict was soon resumed, and continued 
till, by law of 20 Sept. 1866, Hesse-Cassel was 
annexed to Prussia, 8 Oct. 1866. 

The ex-elector's property sequestrated for intriguing 
against Prussia, 2 Nov. 1868 and Feb. 1869. He 
died 6 Jan. 1875. 

The landgrave of Hesse mysteriously drowned 
near Batavia, 14 Oct. 1888. 

Hesse -Darmstadt. (Population, Dec. 1885, 
956,611.) 

GRAND-DUKES. 

1806. Louis I. ; born 14 June, 1753 ; died 6 April, 1830. 
1830. Louis II. ; born 26 Dec. 1777 ; died 16 June, 1848. 

1848. Louis III. ; born 9 June, 1806. By treaty with 

Prussia, 15 Sept. 1866, he ceded the northern 
part of Hesse-Darmstadt, and paid a war con- 
tribution ; supported Prussia in the Franco- 
Prussian war, Aug. 1870 ; died 13 June, 1877. 
1877. Louis IV., nephew, born 12 Sept. 1837 ; married 
princess Alice of Great Britain (born 25 April, 
1843), 1 July, 1862 ; died of diphtheria after 
nursing her husband and children, 14 Dec. 1878. 
The grand-duke died 13 March, 1892. 

Issue: Ernest Louis ; Frederick- William, 2nd son, 
killed by a fall, 29 May, 1873 ; and 5 other 
children. 
[Sisters married : Victoria to prince Louis of 
Battenberg, 30 April; Elizabeth to Grand- 
duke Sergius of Russia, 15 June, 1884.] 
1892. Ernest Louis ; born 25 Nov. 1868. 

Hesse-Homburg, a landgraviate, established by 
Frederic, son of George of Hesse-Darmstadt, 
in 1596. His descendant, Augustus-Frederic, 
married 7 May, 1818, Elizabeth, daughter of 
George III. of England, who had no issue. 

The landgraviate was absorbed into the grand 
duchy of Hesse in 1806, but re-established in 
1815 with additional territories. The landgrave 
Ferdinand succeeded his brother, 8 Sept. 1848, 
and died 24 March, 1866. 

Hesse-Homburg annexed to Prussia, 8 Oct. 1866. 

HESSIAN FLY (Cecidomyia destructor), the 
American wheat midge, very destructive to the 
corn in the United States in 1786, whither it is 
said to have been brought by the Hessian soldiers 
in British pay — hence its name. 

The crops suffered severely in New York state in 1846 
and t886. It appeared in England in 1788, and was 
described by sir Joseph Banks. Its appearance here in 
1887 occasioned much alarm throughout the country. 
Its action said to be checked by a parasite — Saw-fly 
(Ceraphron destructor) — W. Fream, Aug. 1887. Very 
prevalent in eastern coast of Britain, not much inland. 
Ormerod, Aug. 1887. 
In twenty English and ten Scotch counties ; the alarm 

considered to be exaggerated. Pari. Rep. Sept. tt87- 
Presence of the insect reported in Lincoln, Suffolk, 
Herts, Perthshire 28 July, 1890 



HETEROGENY, see Spontaneous Genera- 
tion. 

HEWLEY'S CHARITY, see Unitarians. 

HEXAMETER, the most ancient form of 
Greek verse, six measures or feet, each containing 
two long syllables (a spondee), or a long one and 
two short (a dactyl), the form of verse in which 
Homer wrote his Iliad and Odyssey, and Virgil the 
JSneid. 

HEXHAM or HaGITLSTAD, Northumberland. 
The see of Hexham was founded about 678; it had 
ten bishops successively, but by reason of the rapine 
of the Danes it was discontinued; the last prelate 
appointed 810. At the Battle of Hexham the 
Yorkist army of Edward IV. obtained a complete 
victory over the Lancastrian army of Henry VI., 
15 May, 1464. Population, 1881, 5,919; 1891, 
5,945- 

HEXTHORPE, Yorkshire, see Railway Ac- 
cidents, 16 Sept. 1887. 

HIBBERT FUND. Bobert Hibbert on 19 
July', 1847, established a trust fund " for the pro- 
motion of comprehensive learning and thorough 
research in relation to religion as it appears to the 
eye of the scholar and philosopher, and wholly apart 
from the interest of any particular church or 
system." 

Hibbert lectures ; first course of, seven by prof. 
Max Miiller (given at Westminster) "on the 
Origin and Growth of Religion, as illustrated by 
the Religions of India" . 25 April — 30 May, 1878 
Since given by M. Renouf, in 1879 ; M. Ernest Renan, 
6—14 April, 1880 ; by Mr. T. W. Rhys Davids, 
26 April — 24 May, 1881 ; by professor Kuenen, 
25 April— May, 1882 ; by Mr. C. Beard, 1883 ; by 
professor Albert Reville, 21 April et seq. 1884 ; by 
Professor O. Pfleiderer, 1885 ; Mr. J. Rhys, 1886 ; 
by professor A. Sayce, .... April, 1887 

HIBERNIA, Ibernia, Ivernia, and Ierne, a 

name given to Ireland by ancient writers (Aristotle, 
Ptolemy, &c.) ; see Ireland, and Wrecks, 1833. 

HICKS'S HALL,.Clerkenwell, London. The 
sessions-house of the justices of Middlesex was 
long so named on account of its having been erected 
for them by sir Baptist Hicks, at his own expense, 
1611-12. 

HIEROGLYPHICS, literally sacred sculp- 
tures or engravings, the representation of objects to 
express language, used by the ancient Egyptians, 
Mexicans, and other nations. The Egyptians used 
about 1700 hieroglyphs, engraved on stone, painted 
on wood, and written on papyri. They were either 
phonetic or ideographic. Their invention is 
mythically ascribed to Athotes. See ' ' Book of the 
Dead," in article Death. Young, Champollion, 
Bosellini, Lepsius, Brugsch, Mariette, Ihabas, 
Birch, and others (in the present century) have 
much elucidated Egyptian hieroglyphics ; see 
Eosetta Stone. 

HIGH and LOW CHURCH, sections in 
the Church of England became prominent in the 
reign of Elizabeth. High church principles were 
maintained by Abp. "Whitgift, and set forth by 
Eichard Hooker " the judicious" in his Ecclesias- 
tical Polity, 1593-7. They were opposed by the 
Puritans. The contest, hot in the reign of Anne, 
has continued since. Dr. Sacheverell, preacher at St. 
Saviour's, Southwark, was prosecuted for two sedi- 
tious sermons preached (14 Aug. and 9 Nov. 1709) 
to create apprehension for the safety of the church, 
and to excite hostility against dissenters. His 
friends were called High Church and his opponents 
Low Church, or moderate men, 1720. The queen 



HIGH COMMISSION. 



477 



HISTORY. 



favoured Sacheverell, and presented him with the 
rectory of St. Andrew's, Holborn. He died in 1724. 

HIGH COMMISSION, Court of, an 
ecclesiastical court, erected by 1 Eliz. c. I, 1559, 
by which all spiritual jurisdiction was vested in 
the crown. It originally had no power to fine or 
imprison; but under Charles I. and archbishop 
Laud it assumed illegal powers, was complained of 
by the parliament, and abolished in 1641. 

HIGH CONSTABLE, see Constable. 

HIGH COUET OF JUSTICE, see Supreme 
Court. 

HIGH COUET OF JUSTICIAET, see 

Supreme Court and Law. 

HIGHGATE AECHWAY, over a road made 
to avoid the hill ; first stone laid by Edward Smith, 
31 Oct. 1812 ; toll through ceased, 1 May, 1876. 
See London, Nov. 1889. 

HIGHGATE COLLEGE, founded by sir 
Roger Cholmeley, 1565. 

HIGHLANDS (of Scotland), long held by 
semi-barbarous clans, were greatly improved by the 
construction of military roads by general Wade, 
about 1725-6; by the abolition of heritable juris- 
diction of feudal" rights in 1747, and by the esta- 
blishment of the Highland and Agricultural Society 
in 1784; centenary celebrated at Edinburgh, Julj^, 
1884. See Regiments, Crofters. 
Highland Society of London, founded 28 May, 1778. 

Highland Land League held fifth annual conference at 

Oban, 15 Sept. 1887. 

HIGHNESS. The title of Highness was given 
to Henry VII. ; and this, and sometimes Your 
Grace, was the manner of addressing Henry VIII. ; 
but about the close of the reign of the latter, the 
titles of "Highness" and "Your Grace" were 
absorbed in that of "Majesty." Louis XIII. of 
Eranee gave the title of Highness to the prince of 
Orange, in 1644; this prince had previously only 
the distinction of Excellency. Louis XIV". gave 
the princes of Orange the title of High and Mighty 
Lords, 1644. Henault. 

HIGH PEIEST, see Priest. 

HIGH TEEASON. To regulate the trials 
for this crime the statute, so favourable to liberty, 
the 25th of Edward III., 1352, was enacted, by 
which two living witnesses are required. By an act 
parsed 19 April, 1821, this provision was extended 
to Ireland, parliament having refused to sanction 
the sentence of death against the duke of Somerset. 
In 1800 it was enacted that when the overt act was 
a direct attempt on the life of the sovereign, the 
trial should be conducted in the same manner as in 
the case of an indictment for murder; see Treason. 

The last two cases of execution for high treason : — 

I. William Cundell alias Council, and John Smith; 
tried on a special commission, 6 Feb. 1812, being two of 
fourteen British subjects taken in the enemy's service in 
the isles of France and Bourbon. Mr. Abbot, afterwards 
lord Tenterden and chief justice, and sir Vicary Gililis, 
attorney -general, conducted the prosecution, and Mr. 
Brougham, aft. lord Brougham, defended the prisoners. 
The defence was, that they had assumed the French 
uniform to aid their escape to England. They were 
hanged and beheaded on the lodge of Horsemonger-lane 
gaol on 16 .March, 1812. 

All the other convicts were pardoned, upon condition 
of serving in colonies beyond the seas. 

II. The Cato-street Conspirators (which see), executed 
1 May, 1820 



HIGHWAYS, seeJRoads. 

HILL, EOWLAND, Memorial Fund, 

see Mansion House. 

HILLSBOEOUGH (Down, N.E. Ireland), 
founded by sir A. Hill, in the reign of Charles I. 
Here were held two great protestant meetings in 
favour of the Irish church: (1.) on 30 Oct. 1834, 
to protest against the "appropriation clause;" 
(2.) 30 Oct. 1867, in consequence of a commission of 
inquiry into the Irish church establishment, and the 
agitation consequent thereon. 

HIMALAYA, a range of mountains between 
India and Tibet. Its loftiest peak is Mount Everest, 
height 29,002 ft., the highest known in the world. 
Mr. W. W. Graham, with two Swiss guides, ascended 

Mount Kabru (height 24,000 feet) and three other 

mountains over 19.000 feet in the Sikkim group with 

much difficulty, Nov. 1883. 

HIMEEA (Sicily). Here (in 480 B.C.) Gelon 
of Syracuse and Theron of Agrigentum defeated 
the Carthaginians; and at Ecnomus, near here, 
the latter defeated Agathocles of Syracuse, 310 B.C. 

HINDOO EEA (see CWe'-?/«^«)began3ioiB.c., 
or 756 before the Deluge, in 2348. The Hindoos 
count their months by the progress of the sun 
through the zodiac. The Samoat era begins 56 B.C. ; 
the Saca era a.d. 79. 

HINDOSTAN, see India. 

HIPPODEOME, a circus for horse-riding. 
One opened by Mr. John Whyte, near Notting-hill, 
London, on 29 May, 1837, was closed in 1841 by the 
Kensington vestry. See under Agricultural Hall. 

HIPPOPHAGY, see Horse. 

HIPPOPOTAMUS (Greek, river-horse), a 

native of Africa, known to, but incorrectly described 
by, ancient writers. Hippopotami were exhibited 
at Rome by Antoninus, Commodus, and others, 
about 138, 180, and 218. The first brought to 
England arrived 25 May, 1850, and was placed in 
the Zoological Gardens, Regent' s-park, London ; 
(died, 11 March, 1878;) another, a female, four 
months old, was placed there in 1854 (died, Dec. 
1882). One born here, 21 Feb. i87i,and another born 
1 Jan. 1872, lived a few days only; another born 
5 Nov. 1872. Two young ones born at Paris in May, 
1858, and June, 1859, were killed by their mother. 
One born at Amsterdam, 29 July, 18615. 

HISPANIA, Latin name of Spain. 
HISPANIOLA, see Ha ,jti. 

HISTOLOGY (from hist os, a web), the science 
which treats of the tissues which enter into the 
formation of animals and vegetables; mainly prose- 
cuted by the aid of the microscope. Schwann 
Valentin, Kolliker, Quekett, and Robin are cele- 
brated for their researches. Professor Quekett's 
"Lectures on Histology" were published in 18152 
and 1854. Important "Atlas of Histology," By 
Drs. E. Klein and E. N. Smith, published in 1SS0; 
" Elements of Histology," by Dr. E. Klein, third 
edition published in 1884. 

HISTOEY. The Bible, the Parian Chronicle, 
the histories of Herodotus, " the father of history," 
and Ctesias, and the poems of Homer, are the 
foundations of early ancient history. Later ancient 
history is considered as ending with the destruction 
of the Roman empire in Italy, 476. Modern history 
dates from the age of Charlemagne, about 800. 
There was not a professorship of modern history in 
either of our universities until the years 1724 and 
1736, when Regius professorships were established 



HITTITES. 



478 



HOLLAND. 



by George T. and George II. At Oxford pro- 
fessor E. A. Freeman, appointed 1884, died 16 March, 
1892, succeeded by Mr. J. A. Froude, April, 1892. 
— Royal Historical Society, London, established 
1868, Earl Russell president, 1872, incorporated 
by charter, Aug. 1889. A commission was appointed 
31 Aug. 1869, to examine historical MSS. in the pos- 
session of institutions and private families, and to 
publish any considered desirable. It has issued 
several reports, 1870, et seq. New commission 
appointed, 18 June, 1883. 

HITTITES, descendants of Hetk, second son 

of Canaan, a commercial tribe, from whom Abraham 

bought a grave for his wife i860 B.C. Gen. xxiii. 

They opposed Joshua, B.C. 1451 ; and the Egyp- 

tians, about 1340 B.C. 

The castle of Jerablus, a mound and ruins, 20 miles 
below Beredjik on the Euphrates ; was visited by Henry 
Maundrell, 1699 ; by Dr. Pococke, 1745 ; and by J. H. 
Skene and Mr. Geo. 'Smith (died 1876), who agreed in 
considering the remains to be those of Carchemish, the 
ancient capital of the Hittites, captured and annexed 
by Sargon, king of Assyria (about 721 B.C.) when the 
nation was thoroughly subdued. The site had been 
held successively by Hittites, Assyrians, Babylonians, 
Greeks, Romans, and Arabs. 

A rich harvest may be expected from its exploration. 

Captain C. R. Conder's discovery of a key to the 
language of Hittite inscriptions on bas-reliefs, gems, 
&c, some of which were discovered by Burckhardt, 
1808, and re-discovered by Mr. Palmer in 1870, an- 
nounced 26 Feb. 1887 ; they consist of invocations, 
hymns, &c. to the sun, &c. His "Altaic Hieroglyphs 
and Hittite Inscriptions " published 1887. 

Prof. A. Sayce, in 1879, considered the Hittites to have 
been in very early times the predominant power in 
Asia Minor and N. Syria. The investigations of 
Messrs. Ramsay, Hogarth and Headlam, in 1890, sup- 
ported by the English Asia Minor Exploration Fund, 
lead to many discoveries which are described in the 
Times of 25 July, 1891. 

HOBAET TOWN or HOBART, a sea-port 
and capital of Van Diemen's Land, was founded in 
1804 by col. Collins, the first lieutenant-governor, 
who died here in 1810. Population in 1881, 21,118 ; 
in 1891, 24,905. 

HOBHOUSE'S ACT, 1 & 2 Will. IV. c. 60, 
1831, relates to vestries and charities. 

HOCHKIRCHEN (Saxony). Here, on 14 
Oct. 1758, the Prussian army, commanded by 
Frederick II., was surprised and defeated by the 
Austrians commanded by count Daun. Marshal 
Keith, a Scotsman in the Prussian service, was 
killed. The Austrian generals shed tears, and 
ordered his interment with military honours. A 
conflict between the Russians and Prussians and the 
French, in which the last were victorious, took 
place 21 May, 1813. 

HOCHSTADT, a city on the Danube, in 
Bavaria, near which several important battles have 
been fought: (1.) 20 Sept. 1703, when the Im- 
perialists were defeated by the French and Bavarians, 
under marshal Villars and the elector of Bavaria. 
(2.) 2 (N. S. 13) Aug. 1704, called the battle of 
Blenheim (which see). (3.) 19 June, 1800, when 
Moreau totally defeated the Austrians, and avenged 
the defeat of the French at Blenheim. 

HOFWYL, see Pestalozzian System. 

HOGrUE, see La Hogue. 

HOHENLINDEN (Bavaria). Here the 
Austrians, commanded by archduke John, were 
beaten by the French and Bavarians, commanded 
by Moreau, 3 Dec. 1800. The peace of Luneville 
followed. 



HOHENSTAUFEN, see Germany, and 

Guelphs. 

HOHENZOLLERN, the reigning family in 
Prussia. Its origin is referred to Thassilo, about 
800, who built the castle of Hohen-zollern. In 
141 7, Frederick of Nuremburg, his descendant, was 
made elector of Brandenburg. The princes of 
Hohenzollern-Hechingen and Hohenzollern-Sig- 
maringen abdicated in favour of the king of Prussia, 
7 Deo. 1849. Charles, son of Charles Anthony, 
the prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, was 
elected prince of Roumania, 20 April, 1866 (see 
Danuhian Principalities). His brother Leopold, 
nominated candidate for the throne of Spain, with- 
drew July, 1870 ; their father Charles Anthony 
died 2 June, 1885. See Brandenburg , and Prussia. 

HOLBEIN SOCIETY, for obtaining photo- 
lithographic representations of ancient wood en- 
gravings, established in 1868, sir William Stirling 
Maxwell president. 

HOLBORN (Holeborne, in Doomsday book), 
said to be identical with the river Fleet. Holborn- 
hill, in the time of Stow, 1600, was termed " heavy- 
hill." Gerard, the herbalist, speaks of his " house 
in Holborne," 1597. The Holborn-theatre was 
opened by Mr. Sefton Parry, 6 Oct. 1866, with 
"Flying Scud," a new jhece, by Mr. Dion 
Boucicault. The Holborn amphitheatre was opened 
25 Mav, 1867. The Holborn valley viaduct, founded 
by Mr. F. H. Fry, 3 June, 1867 (Mr. William 
Haywood, chief engineer), was opened for foot- 
passengers 14 Oct., and inaugurated by the queen, 
6 Nov. 1869. "Middle-row" was pulled down in 
1867. Western Approach-street opened 25 June, 1868. 
The statue of prince Albert uncovered by the prince 
of Wales, 9 Jan. 1874. Holborn town-hall opened 
by the lord mayor, 18 Dec. 1879. 

HOLIDAYS, see Bank Holidays. 

HOLLAND (Hollow land, or, some say, 
Wooded land), a kingdom, N.W. Europe, the chief 
part of the northern Netherlands, composed of land 
rescued from the sea, and defended by immense 
dykes. It was inhabited by the Batavi in the time 
of Cresar, who made a league with them. It became 
part of Gal lia Belgica, and afterwards of the kingdom 
of Austrasia. From the 10th to the 15th century it 
was governed by counts under the German emperors. 
In 1861, the population of the kingdom in Europe 
was 3,521,416; of the colonies, 18,175,910; of both 
in 1863, 21,805,607; 1876, 3,865,456 ; colonies, 
about 25,110,000; 1879, kingdom, 4,012,693 ; 1887, 
4,450,870. Revenue, 1889, 10,184,158^.; expendi- 
ture, 11,256,249^. 

The parties termed Hooks, (followers of Margaret, 
countess of Holland,) and Cod-fish, (supporters of 
her son William, who endeavoured to supplant 
her,) create a civil war, which lasts many years . 1347 
Holland united to Hainault, 1299 ; and Brabant . 1416 
Annexed to Burgundy by duke Philip, who wrests 
it from his niece Jaqueline, of Holland, daughter 

of the last count 1436 

Annexed to Austria through marriage of Mary of 

Burgundy with archduke Maximilian . . . 1477 
Government of Philip of Austria . ... 1495 

Of Margaret of Austria and Charles V. . . . 1506 

Of Philip II i 5 s5 

Philip II. establishes the Inquisition ; the Hol- 
landers ha.ving zealously embraced the reformed 
doctrines ; severe persecution ; about 100,000 
persons said to have perished 1555 et seq. ; the 
Confederacy of Gueux (Beggars) formed by the 

nobles 1566 

Compromise of Breda presented . . . Jan. „ 
Commencement of the revolt under "William, prince 
of Orange 1572 



HOLLAND. 



479 



HOLLAND. 



Elizabeth of England declines the offered sovereignty, 

but promises help 1575 

The pacification of Ghent — union of the North and 

south provinces 1576 

The seven northern provinces contract the league of 

Utrecht 1579 

And declare their independence . . 25 July, 1581 
Assassination of William of Orange . 10 July, 1584 
The ten southern provinces conquered by the prince 

of Parma . . 1585 

The provinces solicit help from England and France ; 
expedition of the earl of Leicester ; English and 

Dutch disagree 1585-7 

Battle of Zutphen— sir Philip Sidney mortally 

wounded 22 Sept. 1586 

Prince Maurice appointed stadtholder . . . 1587 
Death of Philip II. His son Philip III. cedes the 
Netherlands to Albert of Austria, and the infanta 

Isabella 1598 

Campaigns of Maurice and Spinola . . . 1599-1604 
Maurice defeats the archduke at Nieuport 2 July, 1600 
The independence of the United Provinces recog- 
nised ; truce of Antwerp for twelve years, 

9 April (30 March), 1609 

Batavia in Java built 1610 

Pierce religious dissensions between the Arminians 

and Gomarists 1610-19 

Maurice favours the latter and intrigues for royal 

power 1616 

Synod of Dort ; persecution of the Arminians T618-19 
Execution of the illustrious Barneveldt 14 May, 1619 
Renewal of the war ; Maurice saves Bergen-op-Zoom 1622 
His tyrannical government : plot against him, and 

sixteen persons executed 1623 

His death ; his brother Frederick succeeds him, and 

annuls the persecution 1625 

Manhattan, now New York, North America, founded ; 

massacre of English at Amboyna, East Indies 1624 

Victories of Van Tromp, who takes two Spanish fleets 

off the downs . . 16 Sept. and 21 Oct. 1639 

Peace of Westphalia, the republic recognised by 

Europe 1648 

War with England — naval actions — Blake defeats 
De Ruyter, 22 Oct. ; but is surprised by Van 
Tromp, who takes some English ships, and sails 
through the channel with a broom at his mast- 
head 29 Nov. 1652 

Indecisive sea-fights, 12-14 June ; death of Van 
Tromp, 21 July ; peace follows .... 1653 

Victorious war with Sweden 1659 

Another war with England 1665 

Indecisive sea-fights, 1-4 June ; victory of Monk 

over De Ruyter 25 July, 1666 

Triple alliance of England, Holland, and Sweden 

against France 1668 

Charles II. deserts Holland ; joins France . . 1670 

The French overran Holland 1671 

Desperate condition of the States — the populace 
massacre the De Witts — William III. made stadt- 
holder 1672 

The French repelled by the sluices being opened ,, 

Indecisive campaigns 1673-7 

William marries princess Mary of England . 1677 

Peace with France (Nimeguen) .... 1678 
William becomes king of England . . . 1689 

Sanguinary war with France . . . 1689-96 

Peace of Ryswick signed ... 20 Sept. 1697 

Death of William . .... 8 March, 1702 

No stadtholder appointed — administration of 

Heinsius ,, 

War against France and Spain ; campaigns of Marl- 
borough 1702-13 

Peace of Utrecht .... n April, 1713 

Holland supports the empress Maria-Theresa . 1743-8 
William Henry hereditary stadtholder . . . 1747 
Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle . . . 18 Oct. 1748 

War with England for naval supremacy — Holland 

loses colonies 1781-3 

Civil wars in the Low Countries . . . 1787-9 

The French republicans inarch into Holland ; the 

people declare in their favour .... 1793 
Unsuccessful campaign of the duke of York . 1794 

Tlic Batavian republic established in alliance with 

„ France 1795 

Battle of Camperdown, Duncan signally defeats the 

Dutch 11 Oct. 1797 

The Texel fleet, of twelve ships of the line, with 



thirteen Indiamen, surrenders to the British 

admiral, without firing a gun . . 30 Aug. 

A new constitution is given to the Batavian republic ; 

the chief officer (R. J. Schimmelpenninek) takes 

the title of grand pensionary . . 26 April, 
Holland erected into a kingdom , and Louis Bonaparte, 

father of Napoleon III. , declared king . 5 June, 
The ill-fated Walcheren expedition . July, Sept. 

Louis abdicates 1 July, 

Holland united to France .... 9 July, 
Restored to the house of Orange, and Belgium 

annexed to its dominions . . -17 Nov. 
The prince of Orange jiroclaimed sovereign prince of 

the united Netherlands ... 6 Dec. 

Religious discord between Holland and the southern 

provinces 1817 

The revolution in Belgium ... 25 Aug. 

Belgium separated from Holland . . 12 July, 
Holland makes war against Belgium . . 3 Aug. 
Treaty between Holland and Belgium, signed in 

London 19 April, 

Abdication of William 1 7-10 Oct. 

Death of the ex-king William I. . . 12 Dec. 

Louis Bonaparte, count de St. Leu, ex-king of 

Holland, dies of apoplexy at Leghorn . 25 July, 
The king agrees to political reform, March ; a new 

constitution granted ... 17 April, 

Death of William II. ... 17 March, 

Re-establishment of a Roman Catholic hierarchy 

announced 12 March, 

General van den Bosch's scheme carried out by the 

society of beneficence of home colonization in east 

Holland for destitute persons of all sorts, started 

about 1815, having failed is modified ; free and 

penal colonies constituted ; (generally successful) 
Inundations : 40,000 acres submerged ; nearly 

30,000 villagers made destitute Jan. and Feb. 
Great fire at Endschede, the Manchester of Holland, 

loss about a million pounds . . 7 May, 

The states-general pass a law for the abolition of 

slavery in the Dutch West Indies [after 1 July, 

1863] 6 Aug. 

Treaty for capitalising Scheldt dues signed 12 May, 
Slavery ceases in the Dutch West Indies 1 July, 
50th anniversary of deliverance from France, 17 Nov. 
Commencement of canal to connect Amsterdam with 

the North sea 8 March, 

The government undertake a canal to connect 

Rotterdam with the sea . . . March, 

Commercial treaty with France . . 7 July, 
New ministry (protectionist) . . .1 June, 
Correspondence with Prussia respecting the 

Prussian garrison in Luxemburg . July-Aug. 
The lower chamber barely passes a vote of censure 

on the ministry respecting government of Java, 

<fec. ; the king dissolves the chamber . 10 Oct. 
Alleged treaty with France respecting cession of 

Luxemburg (which see) ... 22 March, 
The fortifications of Luxemburg razed . May, 
Long struggle between the ministry and the cham- 
bers, Nov. iS67-May, 1868, the ministry resign ; a 

new ministry formed by M. de Thorbecke, June, 
International exhibition opened at Amsterdam by 

prince Henry . . ' . . .15 July, 
Meeting of the chambers ; strict neutrality in the 

Franco-Prussian war to be maintained 19 Sept. 
Cession of Dutch possessions in Guinea to Great 

Britain, voted 7 July, 

Tercentenary celebration of the commencement of 

Dutch independence by the capture of Briel, 

1 April, 
Death of de Thorbecke, a great statesman 4 June, 
A new ministry formed by Devries . . 29 June, 
Discussions respecting the war against the Sultan 

of Achin in Sumatra (which see) . . April, 
New port at Flushing opened by the king . S Sept. 
Expedition against the Achinese (see Sumatra) 

embarks Dec. 

New ministry, under Dr. Heemskirk . 2S July, 

New penal code issued Aug. 

Tercentenary of Pacification of Ghent celebrated, 

Sept. 
Canal between North sea and Amsterdam, passed 

by a monitor (see 1865)4 Oct. ; inaugurated by 

the king r Nov. 

New ministry ; president, baron Kappeijne van de 

Coppello 3 Nov. 



1806. 
1809. 



1830 
183= 



1840- 



1859. 
i86x 



1863 
1865 

1866 



1S67- 
1S6S 



1S70 
1871 

187= 



1874 
1S75 



1S76 



iS 77 



HOLLAND. 



iSO HOLSTEIX AND SOHLESWIG. 



Marriag? Henry, the king's brothel 

ess SI . th of Prussia . 24 Aug. i , c -. c 

... g s brother, aged 5 S 

i; Jan. tSyg 
It. Van Lyndon . to Aug. 
". ■ . a . .. l visit England . . .-.- April, *88s 
;..:.. . ■ I 

stry resign . . 9 May, „ 
. I u ..-.. sa I .. s afcinet 

i Mar, tSS : 
>" . - Ler Dr. Heenisfeerk putei 

2S A", t '.. .. 

. . .-,.:...-..- ... . 

i May, „ 

....... a appointed 

is May, .. 
FBelg i . . . . : 

Amsterdam, 8sc iS > :. sis . .. 

..">- received at Brussels 

20-22 May, tS&i 
si J ane, „ 
a bss1 be regent if 

I Aug. ,, 

Resignai 3 13 April; dec! nedby 

g saAj : 

;'s ass . ' : " V .'.". i ■■• i 
c siitnt 3S : : . . . sed i 

3° SfoT. 1SS7 

x tr minis ' '" April, iSSS 

ang; thequee 

x S3 . - 

_ . - - - --"-" 

. a ssu - - snent 

May. iSSg 
:\: jota anniversary of the king's 

session . 1- May, •• 

.... able of 

a State tog 

■ 1S90 
a ntat s sitting af the 
j5 bakes the oath . 20 Xbv. .. 

K g lliani in., a real constitutional 
3 dang iter Wuhehuui _; 
N - grand al . . .4 Dec .. 

S 
Visit the < ss, see 

1-3 ^ ""•>"■ --"- 

stry,S July : v.. 
■"■.'•'...■ ;A © . 

stei . "- ctviiet 

r "-"- Aug. .. 

Ne . . : ■ ■ H « jueen-regent 

isSept .. 

MRAXOB [SW . . > '- ■ ■ U>ERS. 

130s P 

1530. K le5 ss m - • ■ .' ' i 

.: \ (ss . s .-■ : . ms n fa 

: ge in 1539. 

\ - . 1579 kail* 3 V an assas- 

DL of S 15^ 

,, - 3 son; steles 

. . I 

s 

... STABT- 

o - junger son of Wil- 

»)S JTHOIJDKB. 

- - 
_ - . be had a 

. -.- 
- d De Witt, grand pens 

. . - 

- . - . 

1 -- 

- S 5TA1 

Ham III., los - 

inexed to 

. - - - ITS 

SS ■ • 

bv his s 

French 

- - 

a re- 



Knras Asr> c" ass 
iScc- Louis Bo ..-.- .. .. \ g Bouans by his 

brother Napoleon, 5 June, tSofi abdicated, 31 
July. -.;-..- 
■ /..'Hand again united to Prance,] 
-.-.:- stored. 'William-Frederick, 

177s), proclainie 1 S Pee. 
18x3 ; rook the oath of fidelity as sovereign 
prince, 30 March. 1S14; assumed the style of 
king of the NETHERfcASBS, 16 March, 1J15 : for- 
ma:,, sd in favour of hiss -. ■.>..- : 
died 1 j Dec. 1843. 
.- ' . ".".. born 6 Dee. 170s ; succeeded on his 
father's abdication; died 1- March, 1S49, sue- 
. . i by 
1S49. William I XL. son: bora 10 Fteb. 1S1-: married 
Sophia : White berg, 18 Tune, tSso. (She 
Lied, 3 June. 1877 ) Ess : W Uiani, | rinee of 
_ . m 4 Sept [S40; lied a June. 1879; 
Alexander (philosoj a . V rn .-5 Aug. 1851 : 
died ai June. 1884. Married Emma of Waldeck- 
Pyrr.: nt, - fan. -.;-; : Ess : Wilhehnina, born 
21 Aug. t8So. I'.; Lv ng lied S3 Nov 1S90 
1S90. v\" I . pieeu-raothea reg laughter. 

HOLLAND . Xev, see A - and A.us- 

HOLLO\YAY HOSPITALS and COL- 
LLJi E. rhos. Holloway, proprietor of the popu- 
lar oiutraenr. &c, ofiered the government 250,000^. 
:. erect, for : .. as* .: line middle classes, a Sana- 
torium or asylum for the insane, and hospitals for 
incurables and eonyal scents. The asylum was 
ere feed at 5:. Anne's Hill. Ecliam, near Virginia 
Water, 1873 ' -. ;. Opened by the prinee of 
Tales t6 June. 1885. 

EOTAi HoiiOWiS Coixr";e fos the Higher EnrcA- 
ligham. First liriek laid. ia Sept. 

r87o. Opened .. :.. ijneen, 30 June, iSSS. It in- 
les 1 iding-room. museum, and picture 

gallery. Estimated si 900,000 ; endowment 

sogsqodL The princely buildings are 

renaissance sryle. temp. Francis 1. ^1515--.;.- 

rc;r. W. Grassland There is good 8 . ... ."...:. n 

for s5« stud nts. H*e session apened 4 O^r. [887. 

Mt. H: _ . 250,000! . and pi as* I too,ooo?. 

H« li I . • Dec, 1SS3, 

sgedSs, leai ngan nunense -.:.:••-.. .-.".thorrgh he was 
as during his lifetime ; he is said to 

". ..-_-..- arinad ::-:rseinents. 

HOLMFIKTH FLOOD. On 5 Feb. 1852, 

Llberry reservoir above Holmnrtli. nearHnd- 

. YorksMre, burst its banks, and levelled 

four mills and many ranges of other buildings, 

killing more than or persons, and devastating pro- 

pertj estimated at above half a mill:;::. 

HOLOPHOTE. a form :: lamp in whi ' 
light is converged and dire fee 1 : a particular spot 
cut collisions at sea. &e. 1': . Is 

have been invented by Stevenson, MSiedonald, 
. . . and ithers, ; v - 

HOLSTEIX axi> SCHLESWIG [N.W. 
Germany 3 once belonging to l>enmark. 

The eountry, inhabited by Saxous. was subdued by 
Charlemagne in the beginning of the orh century, 
.::...::.. 3 . strtof the duchy of Saxony. 

Ln 1106 x [HO, Adolphus of Schauenberg ) 
. ; mt of Holstein : his descendants ruled till 14^0, 
when Adolphus VII. died without issue, and the 
states : Holstein and Schleswig elected Christian, 
kingof Denmark, bis nephew, as their duke, I . . 
:. ii if his arms. Da 1544. his grandson, Christian 

1 his states : ngst - tners, with 

- - wild remain s 
to Denmark. The eldest branch of the f;unily reigned 
in Denmark till the decease of Frederick VII., 

; > 1 1863. From a y _ ach v the dukes 

stein-boi 3 I thr ;": marriagt . 

:... % _- of Sweden from 1751-1818, and the 



HOLY ALLIANCE. 



481 



H.OLYEOOD PALACE. 



reigning family in Russia since 170-2, when the 
duke, as the husband of Anne, became czar, In 
1773, Catherine II. of Rus.-.ia ceded Jfolst.ein-Got- 
torp to Denmark in exchange for Oldenburg, &o. 
Thednchiea irere occupied by the Swedes in [813, 
hut restored to Denmark in 1814, and on 28 May, 
1831, constituent assemblies were granted to them. 
Since 1844 disputes have been rife betwi en the 
duchies and Denmark, and in 1848 the states-general 
of the duchies voted their annexation to the German 
confederacy, in which they were supported by 
Prussia; war ensued, which lasted till 1850, when 
they submitted to Denmark. The agitation in the 
duchies, encouraged by Prussia, revived in 1857. 
The Germans in Schleswig desired it to be made a 
member of the German confederation, like Hol.-.tein ; 
but both duchies demanded a local government more 
independent of Denmark, which change- were re- 
sisted by that power. For the events of the war of 
1864, see Lenrnark. By the convention signed at 
Gastein {which see), 14 Aug. 1865, the government 
of Holstein was left with Austria, and that of 
Schleswig with Prussia. The whole of Hol.-.tein 
and part of Schleswig were ceded to Prussia by the 
treaty of Prague, signed 23 Aug. 1866. Population 
in i860, 1,004,473. I ne S tn clause, directing North 
Schleswig to be given to Denmark if the people 
voted for it, was not acted on, although claimed ; 
and was abrogated, Feb, 1879. 

HOLY ALLIANCE was ratified at Paris, 26 
Sept. 1815, between the emperors of Russia (its 
originator) and Austria, and the king of Prussia, by 
which they ostensibly bound themselves, among 
other things, to be governed by Christian principles 
in all their political transactions, with a view to 
perpetuating the peace they had achieved. The 
compact was severely censured in this country as 
opposed to rational liberty. 

HOLY BEOTHEEHOOD, see Sermandad. 

HOLY CEOSS, Society of, formed in 1855, 
by several clergymen of the Church of England, 
"for deepening "spiritual life in their brethren;" 
president, the Rev. A. H. ilackonochie. It favours 
auricular confession and other Eomanist practices. 
One of its books " The Priest in Absolution," was 
censured by the bishops in convocation, 6 July. 
1877, and caused much public excitement. See 
under Winchester. 

HOLYDAYS ACT, see Bank Rolidays. 

HOLY GHOST, see Esprit. 

HOLYHEAD, W. Anglesea. A college was 
established here in the 12th century. The harbour 
was improved by Rennie, and Holyhead was made 
the chief packet station for Ireland. The break- 
water, erected by Rondel and Hawkshaw (1846 et 
seq.) was inaugurated by the prince of Wales. 19 
Aug. 1873 ; and a new harbour and railway exten- 
sion inaugurated bv the prince, 17 June, 1880. 
Population, 1881, 8,680; 1891, 8,726. 

HOLY ISLAXD, see Lindisfarne. 

HOLY LEAGUE, see Leagues. 

HOLY "MATT) OF TTe.nt, Elizabeth Barton 
was incited by the Roman Catholic party to oppose 
the Reformation by pretending to inspirations from 
heaven. She foretold the speedy and violent death 
of Henry VIII. if he divorced Catherine of Spain, 
and married Anne Boleyn, and direful calamities to 
the nation. She and her confederates were executed 
at Tyburn, 5 May, 1534. 

HOLYOKE, Massachusetts, U.S. A Roman 
Catholic church here took tire ; a panic ensued ; and 



ftbontSc i . -.Tit or trampled to death, 2' '-' 
May, [875, 
HOLY PLACES IH Pales-tote. TL^e 

. .. ; I : .:.. i ..-■.: : .... r itlOn betWee.' 

(jreek and L.- ... In 

the reign of Francis I. they were placed under 1 
monk . . by the Pre:. ...tent; but 

the Greeks from time to time obtained rlnnan.-. : 
the Porte invalidating the rights of the Latins. :. 1 
were at last (in 175"; expell 
buildings, which w^re coram, (be 

Greeks by a hatti-scheriff, or imperial ordi-o 
The holy sepulchre partial I , lestt '07 fire and 

rebuilt .'-...-. ..0 claim additional 0.0 .- 

leges, an.fi ca ; ... iSofi 

The Russian and French guveuuu - .0 1 .-..-. - 1 
c.vr. Dashhofl and M. MareeHns) to adj . it "... 
pute ; an. arrangement prevented by "... i Sbae —-" 

revolution 1^21 

The subject again agitated, and the Porte proposed 
that 3 mixed eonmna I ... sateen '.the 

rival claims. M. Titoff, the Ru.-. . . leting 

on behalf of the Greeks, and M. Laralette B i 
French env« I the Latins, took tip the 

question, very warmly 1850 

A firman issued by the Porte, confirm:' g in ..."-- 
lating the rights p.-: - ated tc the 

Greek Christ, is, declaring thai the LaSms 

had no right to claim, exclusive possession, of cer- 
tain holy pii . . "out permitting them, to 
possess a key of the church at Bethlehem, fee., as 

in former times g March, 1:5^ 

The French government acquiesced with much dis- 
satisfaction ; but the Russian envoy still d- 
the key to be withheld from the Latin ro 
1L L> Ozeroff made a formal declare". 1 the 
. . t of Russia to protect the -".-. .lox in virtue 

the treaty : i-i □ .---_ ...i demanded 

that the firman of 5 Mare i read 

at Jerusalem, although it militated against his 
t oosions, which was accordingly done The 
dispute still continued, the Porte being exposed 
to the rttaehs : 'joth the Russian and French 

govern m ents March. : '. 5 -■ 

Prince Menschikoff arrives at Constantinople as 
envoy extraordinary, and in addition to the claims 
respecting the holy places, made demands respect- 
ing the protection of the Greek Christians in 
Turkev which led to the war of 1854-6. (See Russa- 
Turkish War) 2 3 Feb. ,, 

HOLY EOAIAX EMPIRE. The German 
empire received, this title under the emperor Otho I. 
the great, crowned at Rome by pope John XLL, 2 
Feb. 962. See Rome, and Germany. 

HOLY EOOD or CROSS. A festival insti- 
tuted on account of the recovery of a large piece of 
the cross by the emperor Heraclius, after it had 
been taken away, on the plundering of Jerusalem, 
about 615. The feast of the invention (or finding) 
of the Cross is on 3 May ; that of the exaltation of 
the Cross, 14 Sept. At Boxley abbey, in Ken:, 
a crucifix, called the Rood of Grace ; at the di?; . 1 - 
tion it was broken in pieces as an imposture by 
Hilsey, bishop of Rochester, at St. Paui's eross, 
London, 1536. 

HOLYEOOE PALACE (Edinburgh), 
merly an abbey, was for several centuries the resi- 
dence of the monarchs of Scotland. The abbey, of 
which some vestiges remain, was founded by David 
I. in 1 128, and in the burial-place within its « 
are interred several of his successors. The palace 
is a large quadrangular edifice of hewn stone, with 
a court within surrounded by piazzas. In the 
north-west tower is the bed-chamber which was 
occupied by queen Mary; and from an adjoining 
cabinet to it David Rizzio, her favourite, was dragged 
forth and murdered, 9 March, 1566. The north- 
west towers were built by James V"., and the re- 
maining part of the palace was added during the 

1 I 



HOLY SEPULCHRE. 



482 



HOMICIDE. 



reign of Charles II. Mr. Pinkerton states that the 
palace was burnt in 1650, and rebuilt in 1659. 
Great improvements were made in 1857. The 
queen held her court here, 30 Aug. 1850. 

HOLY SEPULCHRE, a Byzantine church 
in modern Jerusalem. Fergusson, Eobinson, and 
others, consider the true site of the holy sepulchre 
to be the mosque of Omar, the " dome of the Rock." 
The question is still undecided. The order of the 
Holy Sepulchre was founded by Godfrey of Bouillon, 
1099 ; revived by pope Alexander YI. 1496 ; re-or- 
ganised, 1847 and 1868. 

HOLY WARS, see Crusades. 

HOLY "WATER is said to have been used in 
churches as early as a.d. 120. Ashe. 

HOLY WEEK, or the "Week of Indulgences," 
is the week before Easter. See Passion Week. 

HOME AND COLONIAL SCHOOL 
SOCIETY, Gray's Inn Road; founded 1836. 
Governesses and teachers are trained. 

HOME HOSPITALS' ASSOCIATION 

for Paying Patients, founded in July, 1877. 
The first home hospital, in Fitzroy-square, London, 
was opened 28 June, 1880. Supported by the 
queen, 1884. 7th annual meeting, 10 June, 1885. 

HOME MISSIONARY SOCIETY, 

founded 1819. In 1878 it had 192 stations, and 
employed 187 agents and 243 lay preachers. 

HOME RULE. The Home Government As- 
sociation (for Home Rule), established in Dublin 
in 1870; held its first anniversary meeting, 26 June, 
1871. It includes both catholics and protestants 
amongst its members. 
Mr. Isaac Butt, a leader of the movement, elected 

M. P. for Limerick .... 20 Sept. 1871 
Home rule advocated by archbishop McHale and 

others of the Romanist clergy in Ireland . . 1873 
The programme of the party requiring an Irish par- 
liament of queen, lords, and commons, and other 
powers, published .... 25 Oct. „ 
A. conference at the Rotondo, Dublin, reported a 

failure* 18 — 21 Nov. ,, 

A motion in the commons in favour of home rule 

defeated (314 to 52) .... 20 March, 1874 
Mr. I. Butt's motion for a committee on the sub- 
ject, 30 June ; was negatived (458 to 61), 2, 3 July, 1875 
again (291 to 61), 30 June, 1 July, 1876 ; again (417 
to 67) ... .24 April, 1877 

Stormy convention at Dublin, Mr. Butt, chairman, 

21, 22 AUg. „ 

The home rule party in the house of commons very 
obstructive (see Parliament) . . . . „ 

Meeting of home rule M.P.'s at Dublin ; Mr. Butt 
still leader 9 Oct. ,, 

He virtually gives in to the obstructionists, Jan. ; 
resigns April, 1878 

Meeting at Dublin, 14 Oct.; continued dissensions 
between moderate party (Mr. Butt and others) 
and obstructives (Mr. Charles Stewart Parnell 
and others) . ... Oct. — Nov. ,, 

Death of Mr. Butt, 5 May ; succeeded as leader by 
Mr. Win. Shaw ^g 

Mr. Parnell proposes election of a convention to 
meet at Dublin, 11 Sept. ; this is opposed by 
Mr. W. Shaw, Mitchell Henry, and others Sept. ,, 

Meeting at Dublin ; pronounced opposition to 
British government . . . . 20, 21 Jan. 1880 

About 65 home rulers in the new parliament, under 
Mr. Shaw and Mr. Parnell . . . April, „ 

Mr. Parnell chosen by 45 as parliamentary chair- 
man 17 May, ,, 

31 home rulers voted with the government ; 16 with 
Mr. Parnell 13 July, ,, 

Home rule convention at Newcastle-on-Tyne, 9 Aug. ,, 

Meeting at Dublin ; Mr. Justin McCarthy appointed 
vice-president ; resolution to resist coercion in 
Ireland adopted . ; . . „ . 27 Dec. „ 



Trial of Mr. Parnell and others at Dublin (see 
Trials) . . . 28 Dec, 1880 — 25 Jan. 1881 

Strong manifesto of Mr. Parnell ; a counter one by 
Mr Shaw Feb. „ 

Home rule agitation revived ; meeting at Dublin 

8 Nov. ,, 

Mr. Shaw, opposed to the separatists, secedes from 
the party about 3 Dec. ,, 

Home rule movement in Scotland;^ first annual meet- 
ing of the burgh convention at Edinburgh 
propose a representative assembly to legislate on 
Scotch affairs, subject to the approval of parlia- 
ment 4 April, 1882 

Proposal for Scotch home rule rejected by the 
commons 20 Feb. 1890 

Again (no house) 6 March, 1891 

Home rule conference at Dundee, 25 Sept. 1889 ; at 
Edinburgh, 24 Sept. 1890 ; again at Edinburgh, 

12 March, 1892 

The home rule league (closing meeting, 24 Nov. 
1882) merged into Irish national league; first 
meeting 7 Feb. 1883 

Mr. A. M. Sullivan, an eminent nationalist 

died 17 Oct. 1884 

Mr. Parnell and 85 followers elected for parliament 
Dec. 1885, again, July 1886 

For Mr. Gladstone's Irish government (Home 
Rule) bill see Ireland .... 8 April, ,, 

British home rule association started in London, 
10 Feb. ; United kingdom home rule league formed 
23 July ; these two combined as the home rule 
union about 1 Dec. ,, 

Annual meetings held 1891 

It publishes a new Home Rule bill differing from 
Mr. Gladstone's Aug. ,, 

Dr. Clarke's resolution for giving home rule 
separately to England, Scotland, Ireland, Wales, 
rejected by the commons . . 29 April, 1892 

(See Ireland, Parliament, and Pamelliles.) 

HOME SECEETAEY, see Secretaries, and 
all the administrations under the name of their 
premier. New Home Office, Westminster, occupied 
6 Aug. 1875. 

" HOME, Sweet Home." The words are 
attributed to John Howard Payne, an American 
actor, who died in 1852 ; the music is said to be 
Sicilian, but it is probably by sir Henry Bishop, 
who introduced the song into Clari, or the Maid of 
Milan, in 1823. 

HOMEE'S ILIAD and ODYSSEY, the 

earliest and most perfect epic poems in the world. 
The first begins with the wrath of Achilles, and 
ends with the funeral of Hector; the second re- 
counts the voyages and adventures of Ulysses, after 
the destruction of Troy. Various dates are assigned 
to these works, from 962 to 915 B.C. Among the 
thousands of volumes burnt at Constantinople, 
a.d. 477, are said to have been the works of Homer, 
written in golden letters on the great gut of a 
dragon, 120 feet long. 

F. A. Wolf, in his Prolegomena, in 1795, argued that the 
Homeric poems were composed of independent epic 
songs, collected and arranged by Peisistratus about 
550 b. c. This theory occasioned much controversy. 

The first English version of the Iliad, by Arthur Hall, 
appeared in 1581. The present text is attributed to the 
time of Pericles, who died b. c. 429. The most cele- 
brated versions of Homer's works are Chapman's, 1616 ; 
Hobbes', 1675 ; Pope's, 1715-25 ; Cowper's, 1791. The 
translation of the Iliad by the earl of Derby (1S64) is 
much commended. 

HOMICIDE is said to have been tried at Athens 
by the Areopagites. Among the Jews, wilful 
murder was capital; but for chance-medley the 
offender was to tiee to one of the cities of refuge, and 
there continue till the death of the high-priest, 
1451 B.C. (Num. xxxv.). 9 Geo. IV. c. 31 (1828), 
distinguishes between justifiable homicide and 
homicide in its various degrees of guilt, and cir- 



HOMILDON HILL. 



483 



HORN; HORNPIPE. 



•cumstances of provocation and wilfulness; see 
Murder. 

Animals have been tried and punished for killing 
human beings. A bull was hanged for homicide 
near the abbey of Beaupres . . . May, 1499 

HOMILDON HILL (Northumberland), where 
the Scots, headed by the earl of Douglas, were de- 
feated by the Percies (among them Hotspur), 14 
Sept. 1402. Douglas and the earls of Angus, Mur- 
ray, Orkney, and the earl of Fife, son of the duke 
of Albany, and nephew of the Scottish king, with 
many of the nobility and gentry, were takeD pri- 
soners. 

HOMILIES in early Christian times were dis- 
courses delivered by the bishop or presbyter, in a 
homely manner, for the common people. Charle- 
magne's " Honiilarium" was issued 809. The Book 
of Homilies drawn up by abp. Cranmer, and pub- 
lished 1547, and another prepared by an order of 
convocation, 1563, were ordered to be read in those 
•churches that had not a minister able to compose 
iproper discourses. 

HOMOEOPATHY, a hypothesis promulgated 
in his '"Organon of Medicine," 1810, and in other 
works, by Dr. Samuel Hahnemann, of Leipsic (died 
2 July, 1843), according to which every medicine 
has a specific power of inducing a certain diseased 
state of the system {similia similibus curardur, likes 
are cured by likes) ; and if such medicine be given 
to a person suffering under the disease which it has 
a tendency to induce, such disease disappears, be- 
cause two similar diseased actions cannot simul- 
taneously subsist in the same organ. Branch. 
Infinitesimal doses of medicine, such as the mil- 
lionth of a grain of aloes, have been employed, it is 
said, with efficacy. The system requires the patient 
to regulate his diet and habits carefully. It has 
led to a more accurate study of the materia medica. 
Introduced into England, 1827. The Hahnemann 
hospital was opened inBloomsbury-square, 16 Sept. 
1850. " The World's Convention of Homoeopathic 
Physicians" opened at Philadelphia, 26 June, 1876, 
London School of Homoeopathy, founded 15 Dec. 
1876. Homoeopathic congress met at Liverpool, 
14 Sept. 1877. Under the heading Odium Medicum, 
inany controversial letters from allopaths and 
homoeopaths appeared in the Times, Jan. 1888. 

HOMOUSION and HOMOIOUSION 

'{Greek, same essence, and similar essence or being), 
terms employed with respect to the nature of the 
Father and the Son in the Trinity. The orthodox 
party adopt i-d the former term as a party cry at the 
council of Nice, 325 ; the Arians adopted the latter 
at Seleucia, 359. 

HOMS, Syria. Here Ibrahim Pacha and the 

Egyptians severely defeated the Turks, 8 July, 1832. 

HONDURAS, discovered by Columbus in 
1502, and conquered by the Spaniards 1523, is 
one of the republics of Central America ; see 
America. Great Britain ceded the Bay Islands 
to Honduras, 28 Nov. 1859. President, general 
J. M. Medina, elected 1 Feb. 1864, and in 1869. 
Provisional president, C, Arias (Dec. 1872). P. 
Leiva, 1875; M . A. Soto, 29 May, 1877 ; general Louis 
Bogran, 27 Nov. 1883 ; re-elected, 1887. Gen. 
Pariano Leista elected 10 Nov. 1891. War with 
San Salvador, May, 187 1, and May, 1872. The 
town of Oni'ia, Spanish Honduras, was bombarded 
by H.M.S. Niobe, to obtain redress for injuries to 
British subjects, 19 Aug. 1873. Population, 1889, 
43 I i9 I 7 ! capital, Comayagua. 
Insurrection ; Tegucigalpa besieged ; the president, 

gen. Bogran, surrounded ; reported 11 Nov. ; he 



escapes, gen. Sanchez holds the capital, 12 Nov. ; 
gen. Bogran recovers the capital ; gen. Sanchez 

commits suicide 15 Nov. 1890 

Insurrection, headed by sen. L. Sierra, reported 
12 Dee. ; sen. Bonilla proclaimed president 

12 Dec. 1891 

British Honduras, Central America, was settled 
by English from Jamaica soon after a treaty with 
Spain in 1667. They were often disturbed by the 
Spaniards, and sometimes expelled, till 1783. Balize 
or Belize, the capital, is a great seat of the maho- 
gany trade. In 1861, the population was 25,635 ; 
in 1881, 27,452; 1891, 31,471- Governor, James 
K. Longden, 1867; Wm. VV. Cairns, 1870; major 
Robert Miller Mundy, 1874; r - p - Barlee, 1877; 
Roger Tuckfield G<dd"sworthy, 1884; sir Cornelius 
A. Moloney, Feb. 1891. 

HONG-KONGr, an island off the coast of 
China, was taken by capt. Elliott, 23 Aug. 1839, 
and ceded to Great Britain, 20 Jan. 1841. Its 
chief town is Victoria, built in 1842, and erected 
into a bishopric in 1849. Sir John Bowring, gover- 
nor from 1854 to 1859, was succeeded by sir Hercules 
Robinson: Governors, sir Rich. G. MacDonnell, 
1865 ; sir Arthur Edward Kennedy, 1872 ; John 
Pope Hennessy, Nov. 1876; sir G. F. Bowen, Dec. 
1882 ; sir G. C. Strahan, appointed Jan. 1887 ; 
died 17 Feb. 1887; sir George William des Voeux, 
1887; sir Wm. Robinson, July, 1891. Population 
200,99© (1886). 
The queen's jubilee warmly celebrated by the British 

and Chinese, 9, 10 Nov. 1887. 
The governor, sir Geo. W. des Vceux, reports the flourish- 
ing state of the colony, Nov. 1889. 
Visit of the duke and duchess of Connaught, 1-4 April, 
1890. 

HONI SOIT QFI MAL Y PENSE, "Evil 
be to him who evil thinks." It is mythically said 
that the countess of Salisbury, at a ball at court, 
happening to drop her garter, the king, Edward III. , 
took it up, and presented it to her, with these words, 
which afterwards became the motto of the order of 
the garter ; see Garter. 

HONOUR. Temples were erected to Honour by 
Scipio Africanus, about 197 B.C. ; and by C. Marius, 
about 102 B.C. — The Legion of Honour was created 
by Bonaparte in 1802. 

HONVEDS, the militia of Hungary. They 
supported the rebellion against the emperor in 1849, 
but on the completion of the changes whereby the 
independence of Hungary was secured, in 1868, 
they offered a loyal address to the emperor-king. 

HOOKS AND CODFISH, party names, see 
Holland, 1347. 

HOOP-PETTICOAT, see Crinoline. 

HOPS are said to have been introduced into 
England from Flanders in the early part of the 
1 6th century, and to have been much cultivated in 
Kent by Reginald Scot in the 16th century. In 
the year ending 5 Jan. 1853, there were 46,157! 
acres under hops in England and Wales, chiefly in 
Herefordshire, Kent, and Worcestershire, which 
paid 447,144^. duly; the quantity yielded was 
51, 102,494 lbs., whereof 955,855 luS- were ex P olted - 
The duty on hops was repealed in 1862, after many 
applications. An act for preventing fraud in the 
trade was passed in June, 1866.— The hop and malt 
exchange, Southwark, was opened in Oct. 1867. 

HORATII AND CURIATII, see Borne, 

669 B.C. 

HORN ; HORNPIPE. The horn is thought 
to be, next to the reed, the earliest wind instrument, 



HOENE TOOKE. 



484 



HOETICULTUEE. 



and has been found among most savage nations. It 
was first made of horn, hence the name ; afterwards 
of brass, with keys, for the semi-tones, in the last 
century. — The dance called the Hornpipe is sup- 
posed to be so named from its having been per- 
formed to the Welsh pib-com, that is hornpipe, 
about 1300. Spencer. Many hornpipes were com- 
posed in the 1 8th century. The ' < College hornpipe ' ' 
was very popular. 

HOENE TOOKE, &c. The trial of Messrs. 
Hardy, Tooke, Joyce, Thelwall, and others, on a 
charge of high treason, caused a great sensation. 
They were taken into custody on 20 May, 1794. 
Mr. Hardy was tried 29 Oct., and, after a trial of 
eight days, was honourably acquitted. John Home 
Tooke was tried and acquitted, 20 Nov. ; and Mr. 
Thelwall was acquitted, 5 Dec; the others were 
discharged. Acts were passed to prohibit Mr. Thel- 
wall' s political lectures in 1795. 

HOEOLOGY, see Clocks. The British Horo- 
logical institute, Clerkenwell, London, established 
in 1858, for the benefit of watchmakers, publishes a 
monthly journal. 

HOESE. The people of Thessaly were excel- 
lent equestrians, and probably first among the 
Greeks who broke them in for service in war; 
whence probablv arose the fable that Thessaly was 
originally inhabited by centaurs. "Solomon had 
40,000 stalls of horses for his chariots, and 12,000 
horsemen," 1014 B.C. 1 Kings iv. 26. The Greeks 
and Komnns had some covering to secure their 
horses' hoofs from injury. In the 9th century 
horses were only shod in time of frost. Shoeing 
was introduced into England by William I., 1066. 
"The Horse," by W. Youatt, new edition, 1880. 
See Races. 

British horses. Their great strength is described by 
Julius Csesar about 54 b.c. Henry VIII. estab- 
lished a royal stud, and enacted laws to promote 
the breed of strong horses in certain shires, hence 
the term shire horses ; these afterwards became 
draught or cart horses. 
The horse-tax was imposed in 1784. Its operation 
was extended, and its amount increased, in 1796 ; 
and again in 1808. The existing duty upon 
"horses for riding" only, in England, amounts to 

about 350,0002. per year 1862 

Annual licence duty on horses and mules, 10s. 6tf. 
each ; horse-dealers' licence, 12Z. 10s. (act passed 
1869) . • • • . • • • • • • l8 7° 

Mr. J. S. Rarey, an American, made a great sensa- 
tion in London by taming vicious and wild horses, 
and even a zebra from the Zoological Gardens. 
His system is founded on a profound study of the 
disposition of the animal, and on kindness. He 
initiated many illustrious persons in his method 
(on 20 March, lord Palmerston and twenty others) 
binding them to secrecy ; from which they were 
released in June, when his book was reprinted in 
England without his consent . . 1858, 1859 

He was engaged to instruct cavalry officers and 

riding masters of the army . . . July, 1859 
He gave a lecture to the London cabmen, 12 Jan. 
i860 ; and in the same year he received a present 
of 20 guineas from the Society for the Prevention 
of Cruelty to Animals .... May, i860 

Mr. Sydney Galvayne, Australian horse-trainer, 
exhibited and taught his method of training 
at the Wellington Riding School, London, June, 
1890 ; his patrons included the queen with many 
peers and military officers. 
Great annual horse-shows held at the Agricultural 
Hall, Islington, began .... July, 1864 

Horse-flesh. An establishment for the sale of it as 
human food was opened at Paris on 9 July, 1866, 
with success, and its use as food strongly advo- 
cated. About 150 persons (including sir Henry 
Thompson and sir John Lubbock) dined on horse- 
flesh at the Langhani hotel, London . . 6 Feb. 1868 



A great Franco-Anglo-American horse, mule, and 

donkey banquet was held at Paris . . 3 April, 1875. 
The sale of horse-flesh, &c, regulation act, passed 

24 June, 1889 
Subscriptions (of 100L each person for five years) 
to improve the breed of horses, proposed by earl 
Calthorpe, headed by the prince of Wales, many 
nobles and gentlemen, the London General Omni- 
bus Company, and others . . . June, 1875 
Horse-shoes. Goodenough's American horse-shoes, 
made by machinery, put on cold (patented i860), 
were used by the London General Omnibus Com- 
pany, Oct. -Dec. 1868. The international horse- 
shoe company for adopting the patent was estab- 
lished early in 187c* 

Horse epidemic (" epizootic "), from Canada, at New 
York, Boston, &c. , caused much inconvenience, 

Oct. 1872 
Scarcity of horses in Britain ; a commission of in- 
quiry appointed, Feb. , reported (no result) Aug. 1873; 
[Another commission issued its report Dec. 1887. 
The queen's plate for races in Great Britain 
abolished, and the money to be devoted to the 
improvement of the breed of horses.] 
Stud Company, to improve the breed of horses, 
held first annual meeting . . .20 Sept. „ 

Horse duty taken off . 1874 

British Empire Horse-supply Association, esta- 
blished Spring 1878 

English Cart-horse Society (since named the Shire 
Horse Society), established, earl of Ellesmere, 
president, 3 June, 1878. The shows are held at 
the Agricultural hall, Islington. 
The queen and some of the royal family, present at 
the show of the Hunter and Hackney Horse Show 
at the Agricultural hall . . .5 March, i8gr 
13th annual Shire horse show at the Agricultural 

hall 23 Feb. 1892. 

The English Horse Society's first show at Olympia, 

W. Kensington, 15 May, 1889 ; at Islington, 29 May, 1890 
Horses imported 1862-1872, 79,000; 1873- 1882, 
197,000. Horses now exported, 1890, 12,192. 

HOESE GUAEDS. The regiment is said to 
have been instituted in the reign of Edward VI. 
1550, and revived by Charles II. 1661. The first 
troop of Horse Grenadier Guards was raised in 1693, 
and was commanded by general Cholmondeley; and 
the second troop, commanded by lord Forbes, was 
raised in 1702. There was a reduction of the Horse 
and Grenadier Guards, and Life Guards, as now 
established, were raised in their room, 26 May, 
1788. Philips. The present edifice called the 
Horse Guards was erected about 1758. In the front 
are two small arches, where horse-soldiers, in full 
uniform, daily mount guard. In the building was 
formerly the office of the commander-in-chief, now 
in Pall Mall. 

HOESE-EACING, see Races. 

HOETENSIAN LAW, passed by Q. Hor- 
tensius, dictator, 286 B.C., after the secession of the 
plebeians to the Janiculum, affirmed the legislative 
power granted them by previous laws in 446 and 
336 B.C. 

HOETICULTUEE (from hortus and cultura) , 
the art of cultivating gardens ; see Gardening. 

The (now royal) Horticultural society of London 
founded by sir Joseph Banks and others in 1804 ; 
incorporated, 17 April, 1809; transactions first 

published 1812 

Planting the garden at Chiswick begun . . . 1822 

Annual exhibitions 1831 

The library sold 1859 

Proposal for laying out a garden for the society on 
the Brompton estate, belonging to the Crystal 
Palace Commissioners, July, 1859 ; received the 
support of the queen, nobility, &c. , and Mr. 
Nesfield's design was adopted, May, i860 ; the 
new gardens opened by the prince consort, who 
planted a Wellingtonia gigantea (which see) 5 June. 
The queen planted one . . . .24 July i86r 



HOSIEEY. 



48-5 



HOSPITALS. 



Dr. John Lindley (who " raised horticulture from 
an empirical art to a developed science ") secre- 
tary, 1822-62 died 1 Nov. 1865 

The Albert memorial uncovered in the presence of 
the prince and princess of Wales . . 10 June, 1863 

An International Horticultural exhibition was 
opened in the gardens. . . . 23-31 May, 1866 

International horticultural exhibition opened 

24 Aug. 1881 

The society compelled to quit south Kensington, 
the greater part of the ground being required for 
the imperial institute. The council of the 
society proposes important alterations and 
.appeals for support, 9 Dec. 1887. At the 
annual meeting, 14 Feb. 1888, arrangements 
were made for the maintenance of the society. 
.Shows to be held at the drill hall of the London 
Scottish volunteers, James-street, Westminster ; 
first opened 27 March, 1888. The revival of the 
society reported at the meeting . . 12 Feb. 1889 

International horticultural exhibition at Earl's 
court, Kensington, with extra attractions (in- 
cluding " the Wild West," by col. Cody), opened 
by the duke of Connaught ... 7 May, 1892 

Horticultural societies established at Edinburgh, 
1809 ; at Dublin 1817 

HOSIERY, see Stockings, and Cotton. 
HOSPITALLEES, see Malta. 
HOSPITAL SUNDAYS are said to have 
iegun at Birmingham, 13 JSov. 1859. Glasgow 
began hospital Sundays about 1844. It is said the 
present system of hospital Sunday began at Man- 
chester in 1870. Near the end of 1872, it was pro- 
posed that collections for the benefit of hospitals and 
dispensaries in London should be annually made on 
•one Sunday in the year at all places of worship. 
A committee for effecting this met at the Mansion- 
Jhouse, 31 Jan. 1873; and soon after, 15 June was 
appointed as the day for the collection. 

Hospital Sundays in London : 
1873. 15 June. About 25,511?., received on the day 
from about 1200 places of worship, including 
Jews ; 1859?. received afterwards (July). 
24,571?. awarded to 54 hospitals; 2185?. to 
53 dispensaries. 

14 June. About 29,817?. received. 
13 June. About 26,703?. received. 
18 June. About 27,042?. received. 

(23,943?. awarded to 73 hospitals ; 2,336?. to 

45 dispensaries, 9 Aug. 1876.) 
17 June. 26,083?. received ; 25,870?. distributed. 
30 June. About 24,904?. received, 25 July. 

15 June. 26,501?. received ; 24,961?. distributed. 
13 June. 12,000?. received, 16 June ; 29,000?., 

5 July; 30,000?., 12 July; 30,411?., 31 Oct. ; 
total, 30,423?., Nov. 

1881. 19 June ; received up to 29 June, 25,000?. ; Nov. 

31,855'- 

1882. 11 June ; total receipts (9 Dec.) 34,146?. 

1883. 10 June ; 26,000?. ; 19 June ; total, 33,935?.; 1 Dec. 

39.3 2 9'- 

1884. 15 June ; 11 July; 32,000?. 

1885. 14 June ; total receipts, 34,320?. ; Dec. 

1886. 27 June ; total receipts, 40,399?. ; 30 Nov. 

1887. 19 June ; total receipts, 40,607?. ; 30 Nov. 
2888. 10 June ; total receipts, 40,379?. ; 10 Dec. 

1889. 23 June ; amount received up to 29 July, 41,107?. ; 

up to 31 Oct. 41,744?. 
2890. 8 June; amount received up to n June, about 

15,000?. ; 28 Nov. 42,814?. 
S891. 7 June ; amount received up to 2 July, 39,000?. ; 

24 Nov. 45,330?. (5,000?. from the duke of 

Cleveland and 1,000?. from sir Savile 

Crossley). 
1892. 19 June ; received, 29 July, 40,228?. (sir Savile 

Crossley, 1,000?., 24 June). 
Hospital Saturdays in London for work- 
men, began 17 Oct. 1874, tae movement being 
greatly promoted by capt. Charles Mercier and lord 
Brabazon ; about 6463/. said to have been collected : 



1874. 

£■875. 
E876. 



2877. 
2878. 
1879. 



1875. 


31 July . 


• 5,343'- 


1878. 


7 Sept. . 


. 6,528?. 


z8 7 6. 


2 Sept. . 


• 5,525'- 


1879. 


6 Sept. . 


• 6,152?. 


1877. 


1 Sept. . 


4,500?. 


1S80. 


4 Sept. . 


. 6,604?. 



1881. 3 Sept. . . 8,372?. I 1883. 1 Sept. . . 9,497?. 

1882. 2 Sept. . . 8,861?. I 1884. 6 Sept. . . 10,173?. 

1885. 18 July ; total receipts, 11,192?. 8s. iokZ. ; 31 Dec. 

1886. 17 July ; total receipts, 12,213?. ! 3 1 Cec. 

1887. 11 June; total receipts, 11,300?.; Dec. 

1888. 14 July ; receipts, 9,069?. ; 11,426?. Dec. 

1889. 13 July ; outdoor receipts, 4,644?. ; workshop 

collections, 8,800?. ; total, 14,090?. 

1890. 12 July ; outdoor receipts, 5,096?. ; workshop 

collections, nearly 15,000?. ; total receiijts, 
Jan. 1891, 20,333?. 

1891. 18 July ; receipts up to 4 Jan. 1892, 19,646?. 

1892. 16 July ; receipts up to 8 Sept., nearly 1,200?. 

HOSPITALS, originally Eospitia for the 
reception of travellers. That at Jerusalem, built 
by the knights of St. John, 11 12, was capable of 
receiving 2000 guests, and included an infirmary 
for the sick. The "five royal hospitals" under 
" the pious care of the lord-mayor of London," are 
St. Bartholomew's, St. Thomas's, Bridewell, Beth- 
lehem, and Christ's ; see Infirmaries, and Dispen- 
saries. Benjamin Attwood, who gave anonymously 
about 250,000?". in cheques of 1000Z. to hospitals, 
&c, died in 1874. In April, 1890, the house of lords 
appointed a select committee to enquire into the 
management of metropolitan hospitals and similar 
institutions, first sitting 5 May. Reports issued, 
1890, 1891, 1892. The Hospital, a weekly periodical, 
first appeared, 1886. 

In 1 883 there were in the metropolis 24 general and 
no special hospitals ; described in Low's hand- 
book to the charities of London. 
Royal Commission respecting hospitals for in- 
fectious diseases (lord Blachford, sir James 
Paget, and others) appointed . . Nov. 1881 

The Hospitals Association for the consideration and 
discussion of hospital management, &c. , origin- 
ated in the National Social Science Association, 

1881, et seq. ; founded 1884 

Bethlehem (oldest lunatic asylum in Europe except 

one at Granada) founded 1547 

Cancer, Brompton 1851 

Charing-cross, founded 1818 ; new hospital built . 1831 

Consumption, Brompton 1841 

Dental 1858 

Dreadnought ship (seaman's) 1821 

Evelina (baron Rothschild's) 1869 

Fever - . 1802 

Free Royal, Gray's Inn-lane 1828 

German, Dalston 1845 

Great Northern, 1856; New Central at Holloway . 1888 

Guy's (see Guy's) 1721 

Hahnemann (homoeopathic) 1850 

Idiots' 1847 

Incurables 1850 

Jews' 1747 

King's College 1839 

Lock 1746 

London 1740 

London Ophthalmic, Royal, Finsbury . . . 1804 
London Ophthalmic, Central, Gray's Inn-road . . 1843 

Lying-in, British 1749 

,, City of London 1750 

,, General, Lambeth 1765 

,, Queen Charlotte's 1752 

,, Queen Adelaide's 1824 

Middlesex 1745 

National Dental, Gt. Portland-street . . . 1861 
North-west London hospital, Kentish-town-road. 1878 

Orthopaedic 1838 

Samaritan Kree, for women and children . 1847 and 1889 

Small Pox 1746 

St. Bartholomew's (see Bartholomew, St.) . 1102, 1546 

St. George's . . 1733 

St. John's, Leicester Square (skin) .... 1863 

St. Luke's (lunatics) 1751 

St. Mark's 1835 

St. Mary-le-bone 1871 

St. Mary's, Paddingtou 1843 

St. Thomas's (removed 1862 and 1871) . . . . 1553 
Sick Children, 1851 ; new building opened . Nov. 1875 
Temperance Hospital, opened . . . Oct. 1873 
Throat, Golden-square, founded by Dr. (after sir) 
Morell Mackenzie . .... 1863 



HOST. 



486 



HUDSON'S BAY. 



Throat and Ear diseases, Gray's Inn-road March, 1874 

University College 1833 

"Westminster 1719 

Westminster Ophthalmic, Royal 1816 

"Women's, Soho-square 1842 

"Women and Children (superintended by women), 

Crawford-street 1866 

HOST, ELEVATIOX OF THE, introduced into 
Roman Catholic worship, and prostration, said to 
have been enjoined about 1201. Pope Gregory IX. 
was the first pontiff who decreed a bell to be rung as 
a signal for the people to adore the host, 1228. Pees. 
HOT BLAST, see Blowing Machine. 

HOTEL DE YILLE, Paris, the residence 
of the chief magistrate, the prefect of the Seine, was 
begun in 1533, and completed, after his own design, 
by Dominico da Cortona, 1628. Here La Fayette 
introduced Louis- Philippe, the citizen-king, to the 
people, Aug. 1830 ; and here the republic was pro- 
claimed, 26 Feb. 1848. The communists, who had 
established themselves here, set fire to the building, 
24 May, 1871, after their total defeat. The Hotel 
was reopened 13 July, 1882. 

H6TEL DIEU see Pares, 656, 1S77. 

HOTEL METBOPOLE, Northumberland 

Avenue, London, an enormous building with highly 
decorated suites of rooms,designed by F. & H. Francis, 
F. F. Sanders and others, completed May, 1885. 

HO UK. The early Egyptians divided the day 
and night each into twelve hours, a custom adopted 
by Jews or Greeks probably from the Babylonians. 
The da3 - is said to have been first divided into hours 
from 293 B.C., when L. Papirius Cursor erected a 
sun-dial in the temple of Quirinus at Pome. Pre- 
viously to the invention of water-clocks (which see) 
158 B.C., the time was called at Rome by public 
criers. In England, the measurement of time was. 
in early days, uncertain : one expedient was by 
wax caudles, three inches burning an hour, and sis 
wax candles burning twenty-four hours, said to 
have been invented by Alfred, a.d 886 ; see Day. 
For Hours of Prayer, see Breviary. The Hour, 
daily conservative newspaper, first appeared, 24 
March, 1873 ; last time, 11 Aug. 1876. 

HOUSE DUTY was imposed in 1695. Its 
rate was frequently changed till its repeal. It was 
re-imposed as a substitute for the window-tax, in 
1851. The duty was reduced for houses rented at 
from 20/. to 40/. to 2d., and for those rented at from 
40^. to 60/. to 4.0*. and bd., 17 April, 1890. In the 
year 1872-3 it produced 1,243,818/. ; in 1875-6, 
1,421,052/. ; 1880, 1,623,000/. ; 1885, 1,885,000/. ; 
1891, 1,570,000/. See Taxes. House League, see 
Ireland, 1886. 

HOUSEHOLD SUFFBAGE, after one 
year's residence, was introduced into parliamentary 
elections for boroughs, by the reform act passed 15 
Aug. 1867. Attempts have been frequently made 
to extend household suffrage to counties, and have 
failed ; Mr. (afterwards sir) G. 0. Trevelyan's pro- 
posal lost in the commons (287 to 173)*, 13 May, 
1874; (268 to 166), 7 July, 1875; (264 to 165), ^o 
May, 1876; (276 to 220), 29 June, 1877; (271 to 
219), 22-23 FeD - 1878; (291 to 226), 4 March, 
1879. The object was effected by the act of 1884-5. 

HOUSELESS POOB ACT (Metropolitan) 
passed, 1864; made perpetual, 1865. See 1'oor and 
Artisans'. 

HOUSE of Commons, Lords, &c, see 

Parliament, Lords, and Commons. 

HOUSING OF THE POOB ACT, rassed 
14 Aug. 1885 ; another important act passed, iS 
Aug. 1890; Bee under Artisans. 



HOYAS, see Madagascar. 

HOWABD ASSOCIATION, instituted in 
1866, under the patronage of the late lord Brougham, 
for the improvement of prison discipline and pre- 
vention of crime. See Prisons. The annual award 
of a Howard medal was determined on by the Sta- 
tistical Society of London, Dec. 1873. 

HOWABD FAMILY. John Howard, son, 
of Margaret, the heiress of the Mowbrays, was- 
created earl marshal and the 7th duke of Norfolk in. 
1483. He was slain with his master, Richard III.,. 
at Bosworth, 22 Aug. 1485. His son was restored 
to the earldom of Surrey in 1489 ; in reward for 
having gained the victory of Flodden, 9 Sept. 1513, 
he was created the 8th duke of Norfolk, in 1514- 
Thomas, the 10th duke, was beheaded for conspiracy 
against queen Elizabeth on behalf of Mary, queen- 
of Scots, in 1572. Henry Fitzalan Howard, now 
the 2 1 st duke of Norfolk, and the 15th of the- 
Howard family, premier duke and earl of England 
and hereditary earl marshal, w r as born in 1847. 

HOWABD MEDAL. One was awarded by 
the Statistical Society to the best essay " On the- 
Improvements in Education during the 18th and' 
19th centuries," in Nov. 1S79. 

HOWITZEB, a German piece of ordnance, 
ranking between a cannon and a mortar, came intc> 
use early in the 18th century. 

HUASCAE, see Peru, 1877 and 1S79. 

HUBEBTSBUBG (Saxony). The treaty 
between the empress, the king of Prussia, and the- 
elector of Bavaria, signed here, 15 Feb. 1763, ended 
the Seven years' war, whereby Prussia gained 
Silesir, 

HUDDEBSFIELD, a manufacturing town,. 
W. R. Yorkshire, chiefly the property of the Rams- 
den family. Sir John Ramsden built the town- 
hall, 1765. The theatre was burnt, i5thFeb. 1880- 
the new market hall opened, 31 March, 1880. Popu- 
lation, 1881, 86,502 ; 1891,95,422. 
First Musical Festival . . . 20-22 Oct. 18S1 
Fine art and industrial exhibition opened 1 July, 1883, 
Beaumont park opened by the duke of Albany 

13 Oct. ,, 

HUDIBBAS. The first three cantos of this 
political satire, by Samuel Butler, appeared in. 
1663 ; the other parts in 1664 and 1678. 

HUDSON'S BAY, discovered by Sebastian 
Cabot, 1512, and re-discovered by captain Henry 
Hudson, when in search of a north-west passage to 
the Pacific Ocean, 1610, had been visited by 
Frobisher. The "governor and company of adven- 
turers of England trading to Hudson' s Bay ," obtained 
a charter from Charles II. in 1670. The "fertile- 
belt" was settled by lord Selkirk in 1812. For 
these territories the bishopric of Rupert's Land 
was founded, 1849. The charter having expired,, 
the chief part of the company's territories, on the- 
proposition of earl Granville, the colonial secretary 
(9 March, 1869), were transferred to the Dominion 
of Canada for 300,000/., and a right to claim a cer- 
tain portion of land within fifty years, and other 
privileges; the company having consented to this, 
9 April, 1869. A portion of the people resisted the 
annexation, and gen. Louis Riel proclaimed inde- 
pendence and seized the company's treasury, Jam 
1870. On 3 or 4 March he tried and shot Thomas 
Scott, a Canadian, who had escaped from his cus- 
tody. Col. (afterwards lord) Wolseley con- 
ducted a Canadian expedition to the territories (now 
named Manitoba), and issued a proclamation to the 
loyal inhabitants, 23 July, saying "our mission 



HUE. 



487 



HUNGARY. 



is one of peace." Kiel was unsupported and offered 
no resistance. The licut. -governor, Adams George 
Archibald, arrived 3 Sept. The Company had a 
large sale of furs in 1888. See Manitoba and 

Western Territories. 

HUE, see Tonquin, 1883. 

HUE AND CRY, the old common-law pro- 
cess of pursuing " with horn and with voice," from 
hundred to hundred, and county to county, all 
robbers and felons. Formerly, the hundred was 
bound to make good all loss occasioned by the rob- 
beries therein committed, unless the felon were 
taken; but by subsequent laws it is made answer- 
able only for damage committed by riotous 
assemblies. Tbe pursuit of a felon was aided 
by a description of him in the Hue and Cry, a 
gazette established for advertising felons in 17 10. 
Ashe. 

HUGSTETTEN, Baden; see Railway Acci- 
dents, 1882. 

HUGUENOT SOCIETY of London, estab- 
lished by sir H. Austen Layard and other descend- 
ants of Huguenots, about 15 April, 1885. The 
society publishes historical works, 1888. 

HUGUENOTS, a term (derived by some from 
the German Jiidgeuossen, confederates ; by others 
from Hugues, a Genevese Calvinist) applied to the 
Reformed party in France, followers of Calvin. 
They took up arms against their persecutors in 
1561. After a delusive edict of toleration, a great 
number were massacred at Vassy, 1 March, 1562, 
when the civil wars began, which lasted with some 
intermission till the edict of Nantes in 1598 (re- 
voked in 1685). The massacre of St. Bartholomew's 
day, 24 Aug. 1572, occurred during a truce ; see 
Culvinists, Protestants, Bartholomew, Edict, and 
Camisard. S. Smiles's '' History of the Huguenots," 
appeared in 1867. The crypt in Canterbury cathe- 
dral, assigned to French protestants in 1550, is 
still used by them for divine worship. 

HULL (E. Yorkshire), a rising commercial 
place in 1200, was named Kingston-upon-Hull in 
1296 by Edward I., who purchased the town, 
formed the port, and granted a charter. Great fire ; 
damage about 100,000^., 15 Aug. 1864. Royal 
Albert dock opened by the prince of Wales, 21 
July, 1869. Inauguration of the Alexandra dock, 
and the Hull and Bamsley railway, 23 Jan. 1883. 
Dr. Hillmuth appointed Suffragan Bishop of Hull 
(under Ripon), March, 1883. Fire at Messrs. Stead's 
crushing mills, about 80,000/. damage, 16 March, 
1885. il ull returns three M. P. 's by act passed 25 
June, 1885. See under Population. Serious dis- 
pute between the Shipping Federation and the 
Dockers' Union closed 31 Dec. 1890. 

HULSE'S FOUNDATIONS. The rey. 
John Hulse, who died in 1790, bequeathed his 
estates in Cheshire to the university of Cambridge 
for the advancement of religious learning : — by the 
maintenance of two scholars; the payment of a 
prize of 40/. annually for a theological dissertation ; 
the establishment of the office of Christian advocate 
(made a professorship of divinity, 1 Aug. i860) ; and 
the payment of a lecturer, to be chosen annually. 
The first Hulsean lectures were given by the rev. 
Christopher Benson, in 1820. 

HUMAITA, a strong post on the river Para- 
guay, fortified at a great cost with a battery of 
300 cannon, by Lopez, the president of Paraguay, 
and believed to be impregnable, was passed by the 
Brazilian ironclads, 17 Feb. 1868. On the 19th, 
Caxias, the Brazilian general, stormed a work to 



the north of Humaita, and captured many stores. 
Humaita itself, after a severe siege, was abandoned, 
24 July, 1868. 

HUMANE SOCIETY, ROYAL (London), 
for the recovery of persons apparently drowned, 
was founded in 1774, by Dr». Goldsmith, Heberden, 
Towers, Lettsom, JIawes, and Cogan, but princi- 
pally by the last three. The society has above 280 
depots supplied with apparatus. The principal one 
was erected in 1794, on a spot of ground given by 
George III. on the north side of the Serpentine 
river, Hyde-park. The motto of this society is 
appropriate — " Latcat scintillula forsan" — "a 
small spark may perhaps lie hid." Nearly 500 
persons were relieved in 1887; 544 in 1890; 536 
persons rewarded for bravery. See Itrowning, and 
Lisbon, Dec. 1890. 

HUMANISM, a name given to the philoso- 
phical study of man's personality as distinguished 
from a class, especially advanced by Petrarch and 
other energetic advocates of the revival of the study 
of ancient classic literature, termed the " new 
learning," and ('' literal humaniures") the age of 
the renaissance, in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centu- 
ries, whereby freedom of thought and language 
was greatly promoted. 

HUMANITARIANS, a small sect in London, 
founded by Mr. Kaspary, a German Jew. Their 
moral principles are set forth in "The Fifteen Doc- 
trines of the Religion of God," written in 1866. 
These include pantheism and transmigration of souls. 

HUMANITY, Religion or, see Positive 

Philosophy ', and Secularism. 

HUMILIATI, a congregation of monks, said 
to have been formed by some Milanese nobles, who 
had been imprisoned by Frederick I. 1162. The 
order had more than ninety monasteries ; but 
was abolished for luxury and cruelty by pope 
Pius V., and the houses were given to the 
Dominicans, Cordeliers, and other communities in 
1570. 

HUMMING-BIRDS. Mr. Gould's beautiful 
collection of the skins of these birds exhibited at 
the Zoological Gardens, Loudon, in 1851, was bought 
with other birds for the British museum for 3000/., 
April, 1881. His elaborate work on them in five 
folio volumes, with richly coloured plates, was com- 
pleted in 1862. 

HUNDRED, a Danish institution, was a part 
of a shire, so called, as is supposed, from its having 
been composed of a hundred families, at the time 
the counties were originally divided, about 897. 
The hundred-court is a court-baron held for all the 
inhabitants of a hundred instead of a manor. 
Hundred days ; a term given to Napoleon's resto- 
ration, dating from his arrival in Paris, 20 March, 
to his departure on . . -29 June, 1815 

Hundred years' war, in French history, com- 
menced with the. English invasion in 1337. 

HUNGARY, part of the ancient Pannonia and 
Dacia, was subjected to the Romans about 106, and 
retained by them till the 3rd century, when it was 
seized by the Goths, who were expelled about 376 
by the Huns. See Huns, and Attila. After Attila's 
death, in 453, the Gepidao, and in 500 the Lombards 
held the country. It was acquired by the Avars 
about 568, and retained by them till their destruc- 
tion by Charlemagne in 799. About 890 the 
country was settled by a Scythian tribe, named 
Vingours or Uhgri (whence the German name 
Ungarn) and the Magyars of Finnish origin. The 
chief of the latter, Arpad (889), was the ancestor of 



HUNGAEY. 



HUNGAEY. 



a line of kings (see below). The progress of the 
Magyars westward was checked by their defeat by 
the emperor Henry the Fowler, 934. Population 
of the kingdom, including Transylvania, Fiume, 
Croatia, and Slavonia, 31 Dec. 1887, 16,901,023; 
in 1890, 17,449,705. Eevenue, 1890, 355,307,000 
florins ; expenditure 355,815,000 florins. See 
Austria. 

Stephen, founder of the monarchy of Hungary, em- 
braces and establishes Christianity and subdues 
the Slaves, <fec. , receives the title of the Apostolic 

king from the pope 997 

The Poles overrun Hungary 1061 

Bela III. introduces the Greek civilisation 1174, &c. 

Ravages of the Tartars under the sons of Genghis 
Khan, throughout Hungary, Bohemia, and Russia, 

1241 et seq. 
Golden Bull of Andrew II. granting personal 
rights ......... 1222 

Death of Andrew III. , end of the Arpad dynasty . 1301 
Victories of Louis the Great in Bulgaria, Servia, 

and Dalmatia 1344-82 

He inarches into Italy and avenges the murder of 

his brother, Andrew, king of Naples . . . 1348 
Sanguinary anarchy: Elizabeth, queen of Louis, 
is drowned : and King Mary, the daughter, mar- 
ries Sigismond, of Brandenburg ; they govern with 

great severity 1382 

[The Hungarians had an aversion to the name of 
queen; and whenever a female succeeded to the 
throne, she was termed ki?ig.] 
Sigismond's atrocious cruelties compel his subjects 

to invite the assistance of the Turks . . . 1393 
Battle of Nicopolis : Bajazet vanquishes Sigismond 

and a large army 28 Sept. 1396 

Sigismond obtains the crown of Bohemia, and is 

elected emperor of Germany 1410 

Albert of Austria succeeds to the throne of 

Hungary 1437 

"Victories of the great John Hunniades (reputed 
illegitimate son of Sigismond) over the Turks 1442-4 

"Who obtain a truce of ten years 1444 

Broken by Ladislas king of Hungary (at the pope's 
instigation) ; he is defeated and slain, with the 
papal legate, at Varna . . . . 10 Nov. ,, 
John Hunniades escapes ; becomes regent . 1444-53 

Raises siege of Belgrade, 14 July ; dies 10 Sept. . 1456 
Hungarians insult Turkish ambassadors; war en- 
sues : Solyman II. takes Buda .... 1526 
Disastrous battle of Mohatz (which see) 29 Aug. „ 

Hungary subject to Austria „ 

Peace of Vienna, granting toleration to Protestants, 

23 June, 1606 
John Sobieski defeats the Turks in several battles, 

and raises the siege of Vienna . . 12 Nov. 1683 
The duke of Lorraine retakes Buda (which sec) 2 Sept. 1686 
Prince Louis of Baden defeats the Turks at Salenc- 

kemen 19 Aug. 1691 

Prince Eugene defeats them at Zenta 11 Sept. 1697 

Peace of Carlowitz *. . 26 Jan. 1609 

Pragmatic sanction, autiiorising female succession 

to the throne . 1722-3 

Servia and Wallachia ceded to Turkey at the peace 

of Belgrade 1739 

The Hungarians enthusiastically support Maria- 
Theresa against France and Bavaria . . . 1740 
The protestants permitted to have churches . 1 784 
Independence of Hungary guaranteed . . 1790 

The diet meets ; Hungarian academy established . 1825 
The people, long discontented with the Austrian 

rule, break out into rebellion . . n Sept. 1848 
Murder of the military governor, count Lamberg, 
by a mob at Pesth ; the Hungarian diet appoint 
a provisional government under Kossuth and 
Louis Batthyany, 28 Sept. ; Hungarians defeat 

' the ban of Croatia 29 Sept. ,, 

The diet denounces as traitors all who acknowledge 
the emperor of Austria as king of Hungary, 

8 Dec. „ 
The insurgents defeated by the Austrians at 
Szaikszo, 21 Dec. ; at Mohr by the ban Jellachich, 

29 Dec. ,, 
Buda-Pesth taken by Windischgratz . 5 Jan. 1849 
Bern defeats the Austrians at Hermannstadt, 

21 Jan. „ 



Hungary declares itself a free state, Kossuth 
supreme governor . . . .14 April, 

The Hungarians defeat the Imperialists before Gran, 

18 April, 

March of the Russian army through Gallicia to 
assist the Austrians 1 May, 

The Austro-Russian troops defeat the Hungarians 
at Pered ... . . 20 June, 

Battles of Acs between the Hungarians and Aus- 
trians ; former retire . . . . 2, 10 July, 

Hungarians defeat Jellachich . . .14 July, 

The Hungarians defeated by the Russians : Gorgey 
retreats after three days' battle . . 15 July, 

Battle before Komorn, between the insurgents and 
the Austro-Russian army . . . 16 July, 

Insurgents under Bern enter Moldavia, 23 July ; 
defeated by the Russians at Schassberg 31 July, 

Utter defeat of the Hungarian army before Temes- 
war, by gen. Haynau .... 10 Aug. 

Gorgey and his army surrender to the Russians, 

13 Aug. 

Kossuth, Andrassy, Bern, &c. , escape to the Turkish 
frontiers, and are placed under protection at 
New Orsova (see Turkey) . . . 21 Aug. 

Komorn surrenders to the Austrians ; close of the 
war. 27 Sept. 

Louis Batthyany tried at Pesth, and shot ; many 
other insurgent chiefs put to death at Arad 6 Oct. 

Amnesty granted to the Hungarian insurgents, who 
return home 16 Oct. 

Bern dies at Aleppo .... 10 Dec. 

Count Julius Andrassy, in exile, sentenced to death, 
as traitor ; announced ... 23 Feb. 

The country remains in an unsettled state ; many 
executions ....... 1 

Crown of St. Stephen and royal insignia discovered 
and sent to Vienna . . . 8 Sept. 

Amnesty for political offenders of 1848-9 12 July, 

The emperor and empress visit Buda . 4 May, 

During the Italian war in 1859, an insurrection in 
Hungary was in contemplation, and communica- 
tions took place between Louis Napoleon and 
Kossuth ; which circumstances it is said led the 
emperor of Austria to accede to the peace of Villa- 
franca so suddenly, and shortly afterwards to 
promise many reforms and to grant more liberty 
to the protestants in Hungary . Aug. -Oct. 

Recall of archduke Albert; general Benedek ap- 
pointed governor April, 

Demand for restoration of the old constitution ; re- 
union of the Banat and Voivodina with Hungary, 
&o Oct. 

Restoration of old constitution promised 20 Oct. 

Sehmerling appointed minister . . 13 Dee. 

National conference at Gran . . . Dec. 

Demand for the constitution of 1848 . Jan. 

The emperor promulgates a new liberal constitu- 
tion for the empire 26 Feb. 

Which does not satisfy the Hungarians March, 

Hungarian diet opened .... 6 April, 

Meeting of the Reichsrath at Vienna : no deputies 
present from Hungary or Croatia . 29 April, 

Count Teleki (see Austria, i860) found dead in his 
bed at Pesth : intense excitement . 8 May, 

The diet votes an address to the emperor, desiring 
restoration of the old constitution . . 5 July, 

The military begin to levy the taxes . . July, 

Imperial rescript refusing the entire independence 
of Hungary, 21 July: the diet protests, 20 Aug. ; 
and is dissolved .... 21 Aug. 

The archbishop of Gran, the primate, indignantly 
protests against the act of the imperial govern- 
ment Sept. -Oct. 

Summoned to Vienna ; he stands firm 25 Oct. 

The magistrates in the comitat of Pesth resign ; 
military government established ; passive resist- 
ance of the nobility Dec. 

Amnesty declared for political offences, and cessa- 
tion of prosecutions . . . .18 Nov. 

Newspapers confiscated for publishing seditious 
speeches 29 March, 

The emperor visits Buda-Pesth ; well received ; 
inauguration of a new policy ; the rights of Hun- 
gary to be restored .... 6-9 June, 

Imperial rescript, abolishing the representative con- 
stitution of the empire, with the view of restoring 
independence of Hungary, &e. . . 21 Sept. 



1851 

853-5 

1853 
1856 
1857 



1859 



1862 
1863 

1865 



HUNGAEY. 



489 



HUNGAEY. 



The Deak or moderate party demand restoration of 
the monarchy, with a responsible government, 

ii Nov. 1865 

The emperor visits Pesth ; the diet opened, 14 Dec. ; 
Carl Szentivanyi elected president . 20 Dec. ,, 

Emperor and empress arrive at Pesth . 29 Jan. 1866 

Hungarian legions join the Prussian army, June : 
(after the peace, they were allowed to return to 
their allegiance) Oct. ,, 

Prolonged political negotiations for autonomy; 
Deak and national party wearied, threaten to 
break off Oct. „ 

Hungarian diet opened by a conciliatory rescript, 

19 Nov. ,, 

Deak's address in reply, demanding the restoration 
of the constitution, adopted by the diet with a 
large majority 15 Dec. „ 

Much opposition to the convocation of the Reichs- 
rath Jan. 1867 

Restoration of the constitution of 1848 ; an inde- 
pendent ministry appointed, headed by count 
Julius Andrassy 17 Feb. „ 

[Andrassy carries freedom of the press, removal of 
Jewish disabilities and promotes railways, &c, 
1867 et seq.] 

The Croats protest against incorporation with 
Hungary 25 May, ,, 

The emperor and empress crowned at Buda with 
the ancient ceremonies .... 8 June, ,, 

Amnesty granted for all political offences 9 June, ,, 

The coronation gift to the emperor of 50,000 ducats 
bestowed on orphans and invalids . 10 June, ,, 

Discussion between the Austrians and Hungarians 
respecting the division of the liability for the 
national debt Aug. -Sept. „ 

A financial convention signed by deputations, 

23 Sept. ,, 

Kossuth's letter to his constituents at Waitzen, 
censuring Deak and the moderate party Oct. „ 

Deak joined by Klapka and other liberals Nov. ,, 

The " Nazarenes," a sect resembling Quakers, be- 
come prominent Nov. ,, 

Bills for financial arrangement with Austria, and 
for Jewish emancipation, received royal assent, 

29 Dec. „ 

First trial by jury of press offences ; (fine and im- 
prisonment inflicted for publishing a letter of 
Kossuth) 27 Feb. 1868 

Kossuth (elected a member of the legislature) 
resigns by letter 14 April, „ 

A Croatian deputation accepjts union with Hungary, 

27 May, „ 

Prince Napoleon Jerome's visit ; warmly received, 

June, ,, 

Dispute respecting the apportionment of the army 
settled 5 Dec. „ 

The diet of 1865 closed with an address from the 
eruperor 10 Dec. ,, 

Congress of Hungarian Jews opened ; Joseph Eotvos 
minister 14 Dee. ,, 

Powerful counter-addresses from Andrassy and 
Kossuth published Jan. 1869 

Royal Hungarian guard organised . . 9 Feb. ,, 

Chamber of deputies meet . . . 22 April, ,, 

Remains of Louis Batthyany (executed and pri- 
vately buried, Oct. 1849), re-interred solemnly in 
the public cemetery, Pesth . . .9 June, 1870 

Count Andrassy promotes the neutrality of Austria 
in the Franco-German war . . . July, ,, 

Joseph Eotvos, author, patriot, and minister, died, 
deeply lamented, aged 58 . . .3 Feb. 1871 

Autumn military manoeuvres, near Waitzen, 22 Sept. 

et seq. „ 

Andrassy succeeds count von Beust as foreign minis- 
ter at Vienna ; count Lonyay, Hungarian premier, 

14 Nov. ,, 

The diet, after sitting three years, dissolved, 

16 April, 1872 

Elections ; increased majority of the Deak or con- 
stitutional party, July ; diet opened 4 Sept. ,, 

Resignation of the count Lonyay ministry, 2 Dec. ; 
Szlavy forms a ministry .... Dec. ,, 

The Fiume railway partly opened . . 24 June, 1873 

Buda-Pesth formally constituted the capital, Nov. ,, 

Ministry resigns ; crisis ; Bitto forms a cabinet, 

20 March, 1874 

Parliament closes 14 Aug. ,, 



Ministry resigns, n Feb. ; coalition ministry under 
baron von Wenckheim formed, 26 Feb. — 1 March, 1875 

Elections ; greatly fh favour of government July, ,, 

Koloman Tisza, chief of the ministry . 20 Oct. ,, 

Death of the constitutional patriot, Francis Deak, 
28 Jan., state funeral .... 3 Feb. 1876 

Ministerial crisis ; Tisza resigns ; remains in office 

Feb. 1877 

Projected raid into Roumania to favour the Turks 
cheeked; censured by Klapka end of Sept. ,, 

Miskolcz nearly destroyed by a waterspout, 30 Aug. 1878 

Resignation of Szell, finance minister, 26 Sept. ; 
followed by that of the Tisza ministry . 4 Oct. ,, 

Tisza ministry retained modified . . 5 Dec. ,, 

Distressing inundation at Szegedin ; great loss of 
life and much property (see Inundations), 

12, 13, March, and 12 Dec. 1879 

Murder of lord chief justice George von Majlath 
von Szekhely, about .... 29 Mar. 1883 

Joseph Scharf and nine other Jews tried at Nyireghy- 
haza for alleged murder of a Christian maid, 
Esther Solymosi (on 1 April, 1882) . June, ,, 

Acquitted 3 Aug. ,, 

Violent auti-jewish riots Pesth, Zala, Egersseg, &c. 
July, Aug. ; martial law proclaimed 29-30 Aug. „ 

Three men convicted of the murder of the chief 
justice 6 Oct. ,, 

Thirty-six Socialists arrested at Pesth ; many ex- 
pelled about 13 Mar. 1884 

Liberal majority in the elections, about 13 June, ,, 

National exhibition at Buda-Pesth opened by the 
emperor 2 May ; closed .... 4 Nov. 1885 

Bi-centenary of the recapture of Buda from the 
Turks celebrated 2 Sept. 1886 

Panic in the Franciscan church in Kadna through 
ignition of the altar cloth ; 15 persons crushed to 
death 12 Sept. „ 

M. Tisza declares for maintenance of the treaty of 
Berlin and Bulgarian independence . 30 Sept. ,, 

Increased army estimates voted . . 5 March, 1887 

Accident through explosion of dynamite at Jasz 
Bereny near Pesth ; 27 persons killed 5 July, ,, 

Bronze statue of Francis Deak unveiled by the 
emperor 29 Sept. ,, 

Great opposition to M. Tisza's army bill ; demon- 
stration in Buda-Pesth .... Feb. 1889 

The small town of Paks totally destroyed by fire 

20 July, ,, 

The army ordered to be styled "Imperial and Royal" 
by desire of the Hungarian ministry . 19 Oct. ,, 

Count Julius Andrassy dies in Istria, 18 Feb. ; 
funeral service at Buda-Pesth ; the emperor and 
ministry present, 21 Feb. ; buried in family vault 
at Terebes 22 Feb. 1890 

M. Tisza, the premier, an earnest liberal, resigns, 
through opposition of his colleagues, 7 March, 
succeeded by count Julius Szapary 13 March, ,, 

The town of Moar burnt, estimated damage 2,000,000 
florins 7 Aug. ,, 

Unveiling at Arad of the national monument of the 
13 generals executed 6 Oct. 1849 . . 6 Oct. ,, 

At Bistritz on the Waag, about 30 persons were 
drowned by the upsetting of a ferry-boat, 10 Nov. „ 

Death of cardinal John Simor, archbishop of Gran, 
primate of Hungary, who crowned the king and 
queen in 1867, 23 Jan. ; succeeded by arch-abbot 
Claude Vaszara 1 Nov. 1891 

Currency reform bills (gold to be the basis) intro- 
duced into the diet 14 May, 1892 

Death of gen. Klapka, the hero of Komorn (buried 
at Buda-Pesth] . . . about 17 May, ,, 

SOVEREIGNS. 

997. St. Stephen, duke of Hungary (son of Geisa); es- 
tablished the Roman catholic religion (1000), 
and received from the pope the title of Apostolic 
King, still borne by the emperor of Austria, as 
king of Hungary. 

1038. Peter, the German ; deposed. 

1041. Aba or Owen. 

1044. Peter, again : deposed ; and his eyes put out. 

1047. Andrew I. ; deposed. 

1061. Bela I. : killed by the fall of a ruinous tower. 

1064. Salamon, son of Andrew. 

1075. Geisa I. sou of Bela. 

1077. Ladislas I. the Pious. 

1095. Coloman, son of Geisa. 

1 1 14. Stephen II. named Thunder. 



HUNGEEFOED BEIDGE. 



490 



HUTCHINSONIANS. 



1131. Bela II. : had his eyes put out. 

1141. Geisa II. : succeeded by his son, 

1 161. Stephen III.: and Stephen IV. (anarchy). 

1173. Bela III.: succeeded by his son, 

1 196. Emeric: succeeded by his son, 

1204. Ladislas II. ; reigned six months only. 

1205. Andrew II. son of Bela III. 
1235. Bela IV. 

1270. Stephen IV. (or V.) his son. 

1272. Ladislas III. : killed. 

1290. Andrew III. surnamed the Venetian, son-in-law of 
Bodolph of Hapsburg, emperor of Germany (last 
of the house of Arpad), died 1301. 

1301. Wenceslas of Bohemia, and (1305) Otho of Bavaria, 
who gave way to 

1309. Charobert, or Charles Robert of Anjou. 

1342. Louis I. the Great ; elected king of Poland, 1370. 

1382. Mary, called King Mary, daughter of Louis. 

1385-6. Charles Durazzo. 

1387. Mary and her consort Sigismond : the latter be- 
came king of Bohemia, and was elected emperor 
in 1410. 

1392. Sigismond alone (on the death of Mary). 

1437. Albert, duke of Austria, married Elizabeth, daughter 
of Sigismond, and obtains the thrones of Hun- 
gary, Bohemia, and Germany ; dies suddenly. 

1439. Elizabeth alone : she marries 

1440. Ladislas IV. king of Poland, of which, kingdom he 

was Ladislas VI. : slain at Varna. 

1444. [Interregnum.] 

1445. John Hunniades, regent. 

1458. Ladislas V. posthumous son of Albert : poisoned. 
„ Matthias-Corvinus, son of Hunniades. 

1490. Ladislas VI. king of Bohemia: the emperor Maxi- 
milian laid claim to both kingdoms. 

1516. Louis II. of Hungary (I. of Bohemia): loses his 

life at the battle of Mohatz. 

/John Zapolski, waivode of Transylvania, elected 

1 by the Hungarians, and supported by the sul- 

I tan Solyman; by treaty with Ferdinand, he 

1526. { founds the principality of Transylvania, 
1536- 
Ferdinand I. king of Bohemia, brother to the 
emperor Charles V. ; rival kings. 

1540. Ferdinand alone : elected emperor, 15-58. 

1563. Maximilian, son; emperor in 1564. 

1572. Rodolph, son; emperor in 1576. 

1608. Matthias II. brother; emperor in 1612. 

1618. Ferdinand II. cousin, emperor. 

1625. Ferdinand III. son ; emperor, 1637. 

1647. Ferdinand IV. son ; died in 1654, three years before 
his father. 

1655. Leopold I. brother: emperor, 1657. 

1687. Joseph I. son: emperor in 1705. 

1712. Charles VI. (of Germany), brother, and nominal 
king of Spain. 

1 741. Maria-Theresa, daughter; empress; survived her 
consort, emperor Francis I., from 1765 until 
1780; see Germany. 

1780. Joseph II. son, emperor in 1765: succeeded to 
Hungary on the death of his mother. 

1790. Leopold II. brother; emperor; succeeded by his 
son, 

1792. Francis I. son (Francis II. as emperor of Ger- 
many): in 1804 he became emperor of Austria 
only. 

1835. Ferdinand V. son: Ferdinand I. as emperor of 
Austria. 

1848. Francis-Joseph, emperor of Austria, nephew; suc- 
ceeded on the abdication of his uncle, 2 Dec. 
1848 ; crowned king of Hungary, 8 June, 1867. 
See Austria. 

HUNGEEFOED BEIDGE, over the 
Thames from Hungerford-stairs to the Belvedere- 
road, Lambeth, opened I May, 1845, was taken 
down in July, 1862, to make way for the Charing- 
cross railway-bridge, and transferred to Clifton 
{■which see). The market (opened in July, 1833), 
was removed at the same time. 

HUNS, a race of warlike Asiaties, said to have 
conquered China, about 210 B.C., and to have been 
expelled therefrom about a.d. 90. They invaded 
Hungary, about 376, and drove out the Goths. 
Marching westward, under Attila, they were tho- 



roughly beaten at Chalons by the consul Aetius, 
451 ; see Attila. 

HUNTEEIAN OEATION, annually at the 
Royal College of Surgeons, London, founded 1813. 

HUNTEEIAN SOCIETY (surgical) esta- 
blished Feb. 1819 ; first president, sir fm. Blizard. 
See Surgeons, College of. 

HUNTING : an ancient pastime. The " Bokys 
of Hawking and Huntyng," by Lame Julyana 
Barnes, was printed at St. Alban's, i486. 

HUNTINGDON, Huntingdonshire ; a Saxon 
town; a royal castle was erected here by Edward 
the Elder, 917 ; the town was incorporated in 1189. 
Oliver Cromwell, the protector, was born here 
25 April, 1599. Population, 1881, 4,228 ; 1891, 
4,349- 

HUNTINGDON CONNECTION, see 
White jitldites . 

HUEEICANES, see Cyclones and Storms. 

HUSSAES, Hungarian militia, provided by 
the landholders ; instituted by Matthias Corvinus, 
about 1359. (Hussar is derived from huss, 20 ; and 
at; price.) The British Hussars were enrolled in 
1759- 

HUSSITES. After the death of Huss,* many 
of his followers took up arms, in 1419, and formed a 
political party under John Ziska, and built the 
city of Tabor. He defeated the emperor Sigismond, 
11 July, 1420, and a short truce followed. Ziska, 
blinded at the siege of Rabi, beat all the armies 
sent against him. He died of the plague, 18 Oct* 
1424, and is said to have ordered a drum to be made 
of his skin to terrify his enemies even after death. 
Two Hussite generals, named Procopius, defeated 
the imperialists in 1431 ; and a temporary peace 
ensued. Divisions took place among the Hussites, 
and on 30 May, 1434, they were defeated, and Pro- 
copius the elder slain at Bomischbrod or Lippau. 
Toleration was granted by the treaty of Iglau, and 
Sigismond entered Prague 23 Aug. 1436. The Hus- 
sites opposed his successor, Albert of Austria, and 
called Casimir of Poland to the throne ; but were 
defeated in 1438. A portion of the Hussites existed 
in the time of Luther, and were called "Bohemian 
brethren." 

HUSTINGS (said to be derived from house 
court, an assembly among the Anglo-Saxons), an 
ancient court of London, being its supreme court of 
judicature, as the court of common council is of 
legislature. The court of hust.yngs was granted to 
the city of London, to be holden and kept weekly, 
by Edward the Confessor, 1052. One was held to out- 
law defaulters, 6 Dec. 1870. Winchester, Lincoln, 
York, &c, were also granted hustings courts. 

HUTCHINSONIANS included many emi- 
neut clergy, who did not form any sect, bdt held 
the opinions of John Hutchinson, of Yorkshire 
(1674-1737) ; they rejected the Newtonian system, 
and contended that the scriptures contain a complete 
system of natural philosophy. His work, " Moses' 

* The clergy having instigated the pope to issue a bull 
against heretics, John Huss (born in Bohemia in 1373), a 
zealous preacher of the Reformation, was cited to appear 
before a council of divines at Constance, the emperor 
Sigismond sending him a safe-conduct. He presented 
himself accordingly, but was thrown into prison, and 
after some months' confinement was adjudged to be 
burned alive, which he endured with resignation, 6 or 7 
July, 1415. Jerome of Prague, his intimate friend, who- 
came to this council to support and second him, also 
suffered death by fire, 30 May, 1416, although he also had 
a safe-conduct. 



HYDASPES. 



491 



HYDEOCHLOEIC ACID. 



Principia," was published in 1724. He derived all 
things from the air, whence, he said, proceeded fire, 
light, and spirit, types of the Trinity. In 17 12 he 
invented a time-piece for finding the longitude. He 
died in 1737. 

HYDASPES, a river in India, where Alex- 
ander the Great defeated Porus, after a severely 
contested engagement; 327 B.C. 

HYDE-PAEK (London, W.), the ancient 

manor of Hyde, belonging to the abbey of West- 
minster, became crown property at the dissolution, 

1535. It was sold by parliament in 1652 ; but was 

resumed by the king at the restoration in 1660. 

The Serpentine was formed 1730-33. 

Colossal statue of Achilles, cast from cannon taken 
in the battles of Salamanca, Vittoria, Toulouse, 
and Waterloo, and inscribed to "Arthur, Duke of 
Wellington, and his brave companions in arms, by 
their countrywomen, " erected on . .18 June, 1822 

Hyde Park corner entrance erected . . . . 1828 

Marble arch from Buckingham Palace set up at 
Cumberland Gate .... 29 March, 1850 

Crystal palace erected for the great exhibition. . 185 1 

Disturbances in consequence of a Sunday bill hav- 
ing been brought before parliament by lord Robert 
Grosvenor, which was eventually withdrawn, 

Sundays, 24 June, and 1 and 8 July, 1855 

Riotous meetings held here, on account of the high 
price of bread . . Sundays 14, 21, 28 Oct. ,, 

Democratic meetings on the reform question, March, 1859 

The queen reviewed 18,450 volunteers . 23 June, i860 

Great meeting of admirers of Garibaldi, 28 Sept. ; who 
are violently attacked by the Irish ; many persons 
wounded 5 Oct. 1862 

Public meetings in the park henceforth prohibited, 

9 Oct. „ 

20,000 volunteers reviewed by the prince of Wales, 

28 May, 1864 

Proposed reform meeting in the piark opposed ; 
great rioting ; the palings broken down, and much 
damage done ; fierce conflicts with the police, and 
many hurt 23, 24 July, 1866 

Peaceful reform demonstrations in the park, 

6 May and 5 Aug. 1867 

Regulations with restrictions on public meeting in 
the parks issued (afterwards modified) . Oct. 1872 

Meeting of Fenian sympathisers in Hyde park con- 
trary to the regulations . . . .3 Nov. „ 

Odger and others prosecuted and fined . . Nov. ,, 

The convictions confirmed by the judges on appeal 

22 Jan. 1873 

Great meeting on behalf of the Tichborne claimant, 
Dr. Kenealy and Mr. Guildford Onslow present, 

Easter Monday, 29 March, 1875 

Great meetings for and against government policy 
on the eastern question 

Sundays 24 Feb. and 10 March, 1878 

Great orderly meeting to protest against arrest of 
Irish agitators (Killen, Daly, and Davitt) 

30 Nov. 1879 

About 40,000 persons meet to protest against 
arrest of Mr. Parnell and others ; Mr. O'Donnell 
chief speaker ; little sympathy . 23 Oct. 1881 

Mass meeting to support the London government 
bill 13 July, 1884 

Great demonstration ; seven meetings of trade dele- 
gates, political clubs, &c, about 40,000, to pro- 
test against the peers' rejection of the franchise 
bill and to support the Gladstone Ministry 

21 July, ,, 

Demonstration for abolition of house of lords ; nine 
meetings, Sunday 26 Oct. ,, 

Great meeting of the social democratic federation, 
Sunday 21 Feb. 1886 

Great demonstration against the Irish coercion 
bill 11 April, 1887 

Jubilee entertainment of about 30,000 children of 
elementary schools, see Jiibilee . . 22 June ,, 

Meeting of the unemployed ; dispersed by the 
police after a fight, 18-19 Oct. 1887 ; orderly 
meetings . . .23 Oct., and 15, 20, 27 Nov. „ 

Orderly demonstration to meet the released Irish 
M.P.'s, Mr. T. D. Sullivan and Mr. E. Harrington, 

13 Feb. 1888 



Demonstration against proposed compensation to 
publicans dispossessed by local government bill, 

2 June, 1888; 

Meetings to protest against the treatment of Mr. 
W. O'Brien, M.P., and others in prison (see 

Ireland) ; 10 Feb. 1889. 

See Strikes, 1889. 

Meeting of Postmen's union . . . 20 Oct. ,, 

Demonstrations in relation to the proposed bakers' 
strike and the Silverton strike . . 10 Nov. ,, 

Great meeting of men employed on railways 

15 Dec. ,, 

Meeting of trades unions to support the gas-stokers' 
union 19 Jan. 1890 

"Labour Day " demonstrations, see Working-men 

1, 4 May, „ 

Great meeting of railway workers and others 

11 May, , r 

Demonstration against government proposal to 
compensate publicans and others for loss of 
drink licences 7 June, ,„ 

" Labour Day " demonstrations, orderly ; foreign 
anarchists, 1 May ; building trade unions, 2 May ; 
combined trades unions, in favour of an eight 
hours working day ; present, Mr. Cunniughame 
Graham, M.P., Messrs. John Burns, Ben Tillet, 
Tom Mann, and Dr. Aveling . . 3 May, 1891 

Mass meeting to support the omnibus strike 

7 June, , P 

Great demonstration of the building trades in 
favour of an eight hours day . . 27 Sept. ,, 

Great meeting of the Salvation Army to welcome 
gen. Booth on his return from his long tour in 
Europe, Africa, Asia, and Australia . 13 Feb. 189a 

Mass meeting of London anarchists . 10 April, ,, 

Mass meeting of members of the National Union of 
Clerks 24 April ,, 

" Labour Day ; " great orderly meeting to support 
and promote an international 8 hours working 
day 1 May, ,, 

HYDEEABAD (S. India), the territory of the- 
Nizam (the greatest mahometan potentate in 
India), who derives his authority from Azof Jah, 
a chief under Aurungzcbe, who made him viceroy as- 
Nizam-ool-Moolk, regulator of the state. He died 
in 1748. Population in 1881, 9,845,594; in 1891, 
10,458,930. 

Civil war between his descendants ensues . 1748-65 
Nizam Ali dethroned his brother, 1761 ; ravaged 
the Carnatic, 1765 ; made a treaty with the East 
India Company, 1766; he joined Hyder Ali ; left 
him, 1768; acquired part of Tippoo Sultan's terri- 
tories ; and became feudatory of the British 

empire, 1799 et seq. ; died 1802* 

One of his successors, Secunder Jah, ruled feebly; 

died, succeeded by an illegitimate son . . 1829, 
The Nizam died, leaving his young son in charge 
of Salar Jung ; enjoining him to support the 
British during the mutiny, which he did faith- 
fully i8 57 -S 

Sir Salar Jung made K. C.S.I. ; visits Europe ; pre- 
sented to the Queen, 29 June ; returned to Bom- 
bay, 24 Aug. 1876 ; died .... 8 Feb. 1883 
The young Nizam Mir Mahbub Ali (aged 18) 
installed at Hyderabad by the viceroy of India, 
the marquis of Ripon .... 5 Feb. 18S4. 
The Nizam in a letter to lord Dufl'erin, the viceroy, 
makes an offer to present 20 lakhs of rupees 
for three years, total 600,000/., for the defence of 
the N.W. Indian territories, Sept.; acknowledged 
with thanks by the viceroy, announced 10 Oct. ; 
and by the queen, about 26 Oct. 1887 ; the offer 
with others declined (see India) . 18 Nov. 188S 
The long-standing disputes between the Nizam's 
government and the Decean company, settled on 
terms approved by the India office, signed at 

Hyderabad 2 Jan. 1890. 

See Chloroform, 1889-90. 
For the "imperial diamond " case, see Trials, Dec. 1891- 

HYDEAULIC PEESS, see under Hydro- 
statics. 

HYDEOCHLOEIC ACID or Chloriiyd-- 
RIC ACID, the only known compound of chlorine 
and hydrogen, was discovered by Dr. Priestley, 1772 ; 



HYPEOGEN. 



492 



HYPNOTISM. 



its constitution determined by Davy, 1810. It is 
also called muriatic acid and spirit of salt; see 
under Alkalies. 

HYDEOGEN (from hydor, water). Paracelsus 
observed a gas rise from a solution of iron in oil of 
vitriol, about 1500; Turquet de May erne discovered 
its inflammability, 1656; as did Boyle, 1672; Le- 
mery noticed its detonating power, 1700. In 1766 
Cavendish proved it to be an elementary body ; and 
in 1781, he and Watt first showed that in the com- 
bination of this gas with oxygen, which takes place 
when it is burnt, water is produced ; subsequently 
Lavoisier decomposed water into its elements, and 
gave hydrogen its present name instead of "inflam- 
mable air." One volume of oxygen combines with 
two volumes of hydrogen to form water. Hydrogen 
is never found in the free state. It was liquefied 
by Eaoul Pictet and Cailletet, end of 1877. 

HYDEOGENIIJM, a hypothetical metal. 
In a paper read before the Royal Society, 7 Jan. 
1869, Mr. Thomas Graham, master of the Mint, 
suggested that a piece of the metal palladium, into 
which hydrogen had been pressed, became an " alloy 
of the volatile metal hydrogenium." 

HYDEOGEAPHY is the description of the 
surface waters of the earth. The first sea-chart is 
attributed to Henry the Navigator, in the 16th cen- 
tury. There is a hydrographic department in the 
British admiralty, by which a series of charts has 
been issued. 

HYDEOMETEE, the instrument by which 
is measured the gravity, densitj-, and other pro- 
perties of liquids. The oldest mention of the 
hydrometer occurs in the 5th century, and may be 
found in the letters of Synesius to Hypatia ; but it 
is not improbable that Archimedes was the inventor 
of it, though no proofs of it are to be found. Beck- 
mann. Archimedes was killed in 212 B.C., and 
Hypatia was torn to pieces at Alexandria, a.d. 415. 
Robert Boyle described a hydrometer in 1675 : 
Baume's (1762) and Sykes', about 1818, have been 
much employed. Modifications of the apparatus 
have been invented. 

HYDEOPATHY, a term applied to the treat- 
ment of diseases by cold water, practised by Hippo- 
crates in the 4th century B.C., by the Arabs in the 
10th century a.d., and revived by Dr. Currie in 
1797. A system was suggested in 1825 by Vincenz 
Priessnitz, of Grafenberg, in Austrian Silesia. The 
rational part of the doctrine was understood and 
maintained by Dr. Sydenham, before 1689. Priess- 
nitz died 26 Nov. 1851. 
A grand hydropathic establishment at Bushey. Herts, 

opened, 13 Feb. 1883. Many others exist throughout 

the kingdom. 

HYDEOPHOBIA, in man, rabies in animals, 
M. Pasteur announced his discovery of a method of 
checking this disease, analogous to vaccination. 
He operates on monkeys and other animals suc- 
cessfully, May, on dogs, Aug. 1884 ; on 40 persons 
14 Dec. 1885. An international hospital, after- 
wards termed the Pasteur institute, founded 
(40,000?.. subscribed)May, 1886; opened by president 
Carnot, 14 Nov. 1888. Out of 726 cases treated, 4 
deaths reported 12 April, 1886 ; 1673 persons 
treated, 1 May, 1888, to 1 May, 1889. The prin- 
ciple much opposed 1886-7. A British commis- 
sion for inquiry (sir James Paget, Dr. Burdon 
.Sanderson, and others) appointed 12 April, 1886 ; 
visits Paris, and reports confidence in M. Pas- 
teur's treatment, 27 June, 1887. M. Pasteur pro- 
poses and verifies other applications of his prin- 
ciples, 1887-8. The book,"M. Pasteur, Histoire 
<l'un Savant," was published in 1883 ; and an 
English translation by lady Claud Hamilton in . 1885 



Reported number of patients by M. Pasteur since 
1885, 6,950, up to 28 June, 1889 ; 1,810 patients, 
13 deaths in the year, Oct. 1889. 

Meeting of eminent men at the mansion house, 
London, to establish a fund to support the 
Pasteur institute, 1 July ; above 2,000?. sub- 
scribed 2 Oct. 1889 

See Mansion House Funds. 

1,546 patients (10 deaths) 1890 

HYDEOSTATICS, &c, were probably first 
studied in the Alexandrian school about 300 B.C. 
Pressure of fluids discovered by Archimedes, 

about b. c. 250 
The forcing pump and air fountain invented by Hero 

about 120 
Water mills were known . . . about a.d. i 
The science revived by Galileo, Castellio, Torricelli, 
and Pascal (who suggested the principle of the 
hydraulic press) .... 17th century 
The theory of rivers scientifically understood in . 1697 
The correct theory of fluids and oscillation of waves 

explained by Newton 1714 

A scientific form was given to hydro-dynamics, by 

Bernouilli 1738 

Joseph Bramah's hydrostatic or hydraulic press pa- 
tented first in 1785 

Sir Win. Armstrong's hydraulic crane patented . 1846 

John Crowther's 1825 

Dr. Emil Fleischer's Hydromotor successfully ap- 
plied to the propulsion of ships on the Elbe, 
near Dresden 11 Oct. 1883 

HYGEIOPOLIS (city of health), planned by 
Dr. B. Ward Richardson, in 1876. A company was 
proposed for its erection, Jan. 1877. No result. 

HYGIENE (Hygeia, goddess of health), see 

Sanitation. 

International congresses on Hygiene and Demo- 
graphy : 1. Brussels, 27 Sept. 1876 ; 2. Paris, 1 
Aug. 1878 ; 3. Turin, Aug. 1880 ; 4. Geneva, 4 
Sept. 1882 ; 5. Hague, 21 Aug. 1884 ; 6. Vienna, 
26 Sept. 1887 ; 7. London, the queen patron, the 
prince of Wales president ; met . 10-17 Aug. 1891 

HYGEOMETEE, an instrument for measur- 
ing the moisture in the atmosphere. That by 
Saussure (who died in 1799) is most employed. It 
consists of a human hair boiled in caustic lye, and 
acts on the principle of absorption. Brande. 
Daniell's hygrometer (1820) is much esteemed. M. 
Crova's new hygrometer, said to be ver) r accurate, 
described, June, 1882. 

HYMNS- The song of Moses is the most an- 
cient, 1491 B.C. (Exod. xv.) The Psalms date 
from about 1060 B.C. to about 444 B.C. (from David 
to Ezra). The hymns of the Jews were frequently 
accompanied by instrumental music. Paul (a.d. 
64) speaks of Christians admonishing one another 
" in psalms and hymns and spiritual songs" {Col. 
iii. 16.) The composition of hymns for the 
Christian church is very ancient. The hymns 
of Dr. Watts (died 1784), of John Wesley (died 
1791), and of his brother Charles (died 1788), 
are used by English churchmen and dissenters. 
"Hymns, Ancient and Modem," edited hj rev. sir 
Henry Baker, first appeared in i860. "A Diction- 
ary of Hymnology," edited by the rev. John Julian, 
was published Jan. 1892. 

HYPNOTISM (Greek hi/pnos, sleep) or ner- 
vous sleep, terms given by Mr. Braid (in 1843) to a 
sleep-like condition, produced in a person by steadily 
fixing his mind on one particular object. Minor 
surgical operations have, it is said, been performed 
without pain on persons in this state. Tbe lecture 
by R. Heidenhain, at Breslau 19 Jan. 1880, on 
"Hypnotism or Animal Magnetism" was trans- 
lated by L. C. Wooldridge; and published in 1888. 
See Mesmerism. 
" The use of hypnotical suggestion " (the entire 

concentration of the mind on one subject caused 



HYPOTHEC. 



493 



HYTHE. 



by the suggestion of another person) in medical 
practice, has been advocated by Bernheim, 
Beaunis and other foreign physicians, Oct. 1889 ; 
but strongly opposed by other eminent physi- 
ologists, especially Du Bois Reymond . Oct. 1890 

The first meeting of the International Congress on 
Hypnotism took place at Paris . . Aug. 1889 

Prof. Germane's experiments were exhibited at the 
Aquarium, Westminster .... Nov. 1891 

HYPOTHEC, LAW OF, in Scotland gives 
landlords a preferential right to levy for rent and 
follow and seize crops and cattle. A bill for its 
abolition was brought in annually since 1874. One 
was read a second time 19 March, 1879, but did not 
pass till 24 March, 1880 (43 Vict. c. 12) ; which 
came into operation 11 Nov. 188 1. 



HYPSOMETEE, a thermometrical barometer 
for measuring altitudes, invented by F. J. Wollaston 
in 1817, much improved by Kegnault, about 1847. 

HYRCANIA, Asia, near the Caspian, a pro- 
vince subject to Persia, B.C. 334; held by Par- 
thians, 244. It is now Mazenderan, a Persian 
province. 

HYTHE, Kent, a cinque-port. The haven has- 
been choked up with sand since the end of the 
16th century. A school of musketry was established 
here in 1854, under the charge of major-gen. 
Charles Crawford Hay. He resigned in 1867. 
Railway to Sandgate opened. 9 Oct. 1874. Popula- 
tion, 1881,4,173; 1891,4,351. 



I. 



IAMBIC VEESE. 



IDAHO. 



IAMBIC VEESE, mythically named from 
6he poetical effusions of Iambe, an attendant of 
Metanira, wife of Celeus, king of Sparta. Archi- 
lochus is said to have been the first who wrote 
satirical iambic verses B.C. 700. 

IBEEIA, see Georgia, and Spain. 

IBEEUS, a river in N.E. Spain, now called 
Ebro, which see. It was very important during the 
second Punic war, 218 — 201 B.C. 

ICE. Galileo observed ice to be lighter than 
•water, about 1597. See Congelation, where is a 
notice of the ice-making machines of Harrison and 
of Siebe. In 1841 there were sixteen companies in 
Boston, U.S., engaged in exporting ice, brought 
from Wenham lake and Fresh and Spy Ponds, 
about 18 miles from that city. The trade was begun 
by Mr. Tudor in 1806. 156,540 tons -were sent 
from Boston alone in 1854. In New York, in 1855, 
305,000 tons were stored up, of which 20,000 were for 
"exportation. The Wenham lake company import ice 
largely from their ponds near Christiania, Norway, 
from whence 43,359 tons were shipped to Great 
Britain in 1865. 

Regelation and other properties, exhibited by professor 
Faraday, in 1850, became the subject of investigation 
by eminent physicists of the day, especially J. D. Forbes, 
Dr. Tyndall, and sir William Thomson. 

" ley night " or " silver thaw " in London, 22 Jan. 1867. 
After a severe frost came rain freezing as it fell. Many 
accidents occurred in consequence of the glassy pave- 
ments and roads. 

ICELAND (North Sea), discovered by Norwe- 
gian chiefs, about 861 ; according to some accounts, 
It had been previously visited by a Scandinavian 
pirate. Population, 1888, 69,224. 

Colonised by Norwegians . . ... 874 

Had a republican government, and a flourishing 
literature, till it was subjected to Hakon, king of 
Norway 1264 

Christianity introduced .... about 1000 

The annual general assembly was termed Althing : 
there were four great schools, like universities, 
founded in the nth century ; and education was 
general . 

The great warrior, statesman, and poet, Snorri Stur- 
luson, was murdered . . . .22 Sept. 1241 

Protestantism introduced about . . . -1551 

Thousands perished by famine through failure of 
the crops 1 753-4 

■ A new constitution signed by the king, 5 Jan. , 
came into operation 1 Aug., when king Christian 
of Denmark visited Iceland, and the thousandth 
anniversary of the colonisation was celebrated at 
the capital, Reykjavik . . . . 1 Aug. 1874 

Cleasby's great Icelandic-English Dictionary, pub- 
lished in England 1869-73 

Iceland has suffered much by volcanic eruptions, 
especially in 1783 ; and on 29 March, 1875, whole 
districts of pasture land were devastated. 

A reported severe famine (see Mansion House funds). 

Summer, 1882 

Belief was given by prof. Magnusson to many 
sufferers Oct. ,, 

A large emigration of Icelanders to west Canada, 
1872 et seq. 

Agitation for home-rule ; resisted by Denmark, 
Nov. 1885 ; demanded by the diet July-Aug. 1886 

Death of Dr. Vigfusson, great Icelandic scholar 

Feb. 1889 



Exhibition of Icelandic handicraft at Kensington 

..May, 1889 
Mr. Frederick W. W. Howell ascended the Orsefa 
Jbkull (about 6,550 feet) . . .17 Aug. 1891 

See Eddas and Hecla. 

ICENI, a British tribe which inhabited chiefly 
Suffolk and Norfolk. In 61, while Suetonius Pau- 
linus was reducing Mona (Anglesey) they marched 
southwards and destroyed Verulam, London, and 
other places, with great slaughter of the Romans ; 
but were defeated by Suetonius near London, and 
their heroic queen Boadicea or Boudicca died or 
committed suicide. 

" ICH DIEN," / serve, the motto under the 
plume of ostrich feathers found in the helmet of 
the king of Bohemia slain at the battle of Cressy, at 
which he served as a volunteer in the French army, 
26 Aug. 1346. Edward the Black Prince, in respect 
to his father, Edward III., who commanded that 
day, though the prince won the battle, adopted the 
motto, which has since been borne with the feathers, 
by the heirs to the crown of England. 

ICHNOLOGY, the science of footprints, treats 
of the impression made in mud or sand by the 
animals of former ages. Dr. Duncan discovered the 
footprints of a tortoise in the sandstone of Annan- 
dale, in 1828 ; since then numerous discoveries 
have been made by Owen, Lyell, Huxley, and 
others. 

ICHTHYOLOGY, the science of fish. 
Eminent authors are Aristotle (384 — 322 B.C.), 
Willoughby, Ray, Valenciennes, Cuvier, Owen, 
Agassiz, &c. Yarrell's " British Fishes" (1836-59) 
is a classical work ; see Fish. 

ICONIITM (Syria). Here Paul and Barnabas 
preached, 38. Soliman the Seljuk founded a king- 
dom here in 1074, which lasted till 1307, when it 
was conquered by the Turks. It had been subdued 
by the Crusaders in 1097 and' 1 190 ; see Konieh. 

ICONOCLASTS (image-breakers). The con- 
troversy respecting images (which had been intro- 
duced into churches for popular instruction about 
300) was begun about 726, and occasioned much 
disturbance and loss of life in the Eastern Empire. 
Leo Isauricus published two edicts for demolishing 
images in churches in that year, and enforced them 
with great rigour in 736. The defenders of images 
were again persecuted in 752 and 761, when Con- 
stautine forbade his subjects becoming monks. The 
worship of images was restored by Irene in 780. 
This schism was the occasion of the second council 
of Nice, 787. Theophilus banished all the painters 
and statuaries from the Eastern Empire, 832. The 
Iconoclasts were finally excommunicated at the 
8th general council at Constantinople, 869-870. 
This controversy led to the separation of the Greek 
and Latin churches. Many images in churches 
were destroyed in Scotland and the Netherlands in 
the 16th century, and in England during the 
Reformation and the civil war, 1641-8. 

IDAHO, a northern " territory" of the United 
States of Nortli America, was organised in 1863 ; 
as a state, 1890. Capital Boisee. Population in 
1880, 32,610; 1890, 84,385. 



IDENTISCOPE. 



495 



IMPEACHMENT. 



IDENTISCOPE, an optical apparatus for 
combining two photograph portraits into one, sold 
in 1884. See Com2iosite Portraits. 

IDES (Latin Idus), were eight days in the 
Roman and church calendar, following the Nones. 
They were reckoned backward. In March, May, 
July, and October, the 8th Idus was on the 8th of 
the month, the 7th on the 9th, &c, the first, or Ide, 
being the 15th. In the other months the 8th Ide fell 
on the 6th, and the first on the 13th. On the Idus 
of March (the 15th) 44 B.C., Julius Csesar was as- 
sassinated. 

IDIOTS. About 1855 there were in England, 
exclusive of lunatics, pauper idiots, or idiots pro- 
tected in national institutions, males, 3372 ; females, 
3893; total, 7265 ; see Lunacy. The Idiot Asylum 
at Earlswood, near Reigate, Surrey, began in 1847 ; 
was chartered, 1862 ; additional buildings were 
founded by the prince of Wales, 28 June, 1869. 
The foundation of the Imbecile Asylum, Caterham, 
was laid by Dr. Brewer, M.P., 17 April, 1869. 
Idiots Act passed, 1886. 

IDOLS. Images are mentioned in Gen. xxxi. 
19, 30, 1739 B.C. The Jews frequently deserted the 
worship of God for idols till their captivity, 588 B.C. 
Edict of Theodosius for the suppression of idolatry, 
392. Idolatry was revived in Britain by the Saxons 
about 473, but it gave way in Britain, after the 
coming of Augustin, about 597. See Iconoclasts, 
Week. 

IDSTEDT (N. Germany). Here the insurgent 
army of Holstein and Schleswig, commanded by 
Willisen, was defeated by the Danes, 25 July, 1 850. 

IDUMiEA, the country of the Edomites, the 

descendants of Esau, the brother of Jacob : see Gen. 

xxxvi., Josh. xxiv. 4. 

The Edomites prevent the Israelites from passing 
through their country b. c. 1453 

They are subjugated by David 1040 

They revolt against Ahaziah, 892 ; and are severely 
defeated by Amaziah 827 

They join the Chaldseans against Judah, and are 
anathematised in Psalm cxxxvii. . . about 570 

John Hyrcanus, the Maccabee, subjugates and en- 
deavours to incorporate them with the Jews . . 125 

Herod the Great, son of Antipater an Idumsean, 
king of Judsea 40 

IEBNE, see Ireland. 

IGLAU, see Hussites. 

ILBEBT BILL, see India, 1883. 

ILDEFONSO, ST., Spain. Here was signed a 
treaty between France and Spain, 19 Aug. 1796; 
and another by which France regained Louisiana, 
I Oct. 1800. 

ILIUM (Asia Minor), see Troy. 

ILLINOIS, a western state of North America, 
was settled by the French in 1 749 ; acquired by 
the British, 1763 ; made a territory, 1809 ; and ad- 
mitted into the Union as a state, 3 Dec. 1818. 
Capital, Springfield. Population, 1880, 3,077,871; 
1890, 3,826,351. 

By flooding of a coal mine 75 men drowned 16 Feb. 1883 
Convent and school at Belleville burnt, about 

27 young persons perish . . -5-6 Jan. 1884 
See Railway Accidents, 11 Aug. 1887. 

ILLUMINATED BOOKS. The practice 
of adopting ornaments, drawings, and emblematical 
figures, and even portraits, to enrich MSS., is of 
great antiquity. Varro wrote the lives of 700 
illustrious Romans, which he embellished with 
their portraits, about 70 B.C. Plin. Nat. Hist. 



Some beautiful missals and other works were 
printed in the 15th and 16th centuries, et seq. , and 
fine imitations have lately appeared. 

ILLUMINATI, heretics who sprang up in 
Spain, where they were called Alombrados, about 
1575. After their suppression in Spain, they ap- 
peared in France. One of their leaders was" friar 
Anthony Buchet. They professed to obtain grace 
and perfection by their sublime manner of prayer. 
A secret society bearing this name, opposed to 
tyranny and priestcraft, was founded at Ingoldstadt, 
Bavaria, by Dr. Adam Weishaupt, in May, 1776, 
and was suppressed in 1784-5. 

ILLUSTEATED LONDON NEWS, the 
earliest publication of the kind, established by Mr. 
Herbert Ingram, M.P., first appeared on 14 "May, 
1842. Jubilee number published, 14 May, 1892. 
He purchased the Illustrated Times, first published 
9 June, 1855, and incorporated it with the Penny 
Illustrated Paper, established by the Ingram 
family ; first number . . . . I2 Oct. 1861 
Mr. Ingram and his eldest son were accidentally 
drowned in the Lady Elgin in Lake Michigan, 

(see Wrecks) 8 Sept. i860 
Illustrated Sporting and Dramatic News, begun . 1874 
English Illustrated Magazine begun by Macmillaii 

Oct. 1883 
ILLYBIA (now Dalmatia, Croatia, and Bosnia), 
after several wars (from 230 B.C.) was made a 
Roman province, 167 B.C. In 1809 Napoleon I. 
gave the name of Illyrian provinces to Camiola, 
Dalmatia, and other provinces, then part of the 
French empire, now Carinthia, Carniola, &c. 

. ILMENIUM, a metal of the tantalum group, 
discovered by R. Herrmann, about 1847, but re- 
jected by chemists ; its claims were reasserted by 
him in 1867. 

IMAGE WOESHLP, see Iconoclasts. 

"IMITATION OF JESUS CHEIST " 
(De Imitatione Christi). The author of this devo- 
tional work is unknown. It has been attributed to 
an abbot Gersen (whose very existence is doubtful) ; 
to Jean Gerson, the celebrated chancellor of Paris' 
who died in 1429 ; and to Thomas a. Kempis, said 
to have been merely a compiler and editor, who died 
25 July, 1471. 

IMMACULATE CONCEPTION, see Con- 
ception. 

IMMIGEATION into the United Kingdom 
first estimated in the Emigration Report for 187c 
In 1870, 49, 157; in 1874, 118,129; in 1875, 94,228'; 
in 1876, 93,557; m 1877, 81,848; 1S79, 53,973 
1881,77,105; 1883,100,503; 1884, 123,466; 188c 
113,549; 1886, 108,879; 1887, 119,013 («,«8 
foreigners); 1888, 128,879; 1889, 147,398; 1890, 
155,910. Compare this with Emigration. 

IMMOETALS (Greek, athanatot), the flower 
of the Persian army, limited to 10,000 in number 
and recruited from the nobility alone, about 500 
B.C. The name was also given to the body-guard of 
the emperors at Constantinople in the 4th and 5th 
centuries. 

IMPEACHMENT. The first impeachment 
by the commons house of parliament, and the first 
of a lord chancellor, Michael de la Pole, earl of 
Suffolk, was in 1386. By statute 12 & 13 Will. 
& Mary, 1700, it was enacted that no pardon under 
the great seal shall be pleaded to an impeachment 
by the commons in parliament. 

Impeachment of Warren Hastings, 13 Feb. 1788, to 25 

April, 1795 ; acquittal. 
Impeachment of lord Melville, 9 April ; acquittal 12 

June, 1806. 



IMPERIAL CHAMBER. 



496 



IMPOSTORS. 



Inquiry into the charges of colonel Wardle against the 
duke of York, 27 Jan. to 20 March, 1809 ; acquittal. 

Trial of Caroline, queen of George IV., by bill of pains 
and penalties, before the house of lords, commenced 
16 Aug. ; Mr. Brougham entered on her majesty's de- 
fence, 3 Oct. ; and the last debate on the bill took place 
10 Nov. 1820 ; see Queen Caroline. 

Impeachment of the president .; see United States, 1868. 

IMPERIAL CHAMBER, see Aulic Council. 

IMPERIAL DEFENCE : an act for de- 
fraying the expenses of carrying into effect an 
agreement for naval defence with the Australasian 
colonies, and providing for the defence of certain 
ports and coaling stations, and for making further 
provision for imperial defence, passed 13 Aug. 
1888. See Colonies. 

IMPERIAL FEDERATION of Great Bri- 
tain and her colonies (for defence, &c.) , the principle 
was affirmed, and a provisional committee of an 
association constituted at a great meeting of emi- 
nent politicians of all parties, and representatives 
of the colonies, held at Westminster Palace Hotel, 
Mr. "W". E. Forster, M.P. in the chair, 29 July ; 
a league constituted 18 Nov. 1884. The electric tele- 
graph has now brought the colonies into closer com- 
munication than Exeter and Newcastle were formerly. 
In 1885 many of the colonies offered military assist- 
ance in the Soudan ; which was accepted. 
Conference at the Colonial and Indian Exhibition, 
London ; earl Rosebery, president, 1 July, 1886 ; 
rt. hon. Edward Stanhope, Sept. 1892. The report of 
sir Rawson Rawson discloses great difficulties through 
opposing tariffs, March, 1888. 
Fourth annual meeting of the League held in London 23 
May, 1889 ; meeting at the Mansion-house 15 Nov. 
1889 ; meeting at Edinburgh 12 Feb. ; at People's 
Palace, E. London, duke of Cambridge in the chair, 
28 April, 1890 ; at Westminster, 18 June, 1891. 

IMPERIAL GUARD of France, was created 
by Napoleon from the guard of the convention, the 
directory, and the consulate, when he became 
emperor in 1804. It consisted at first of 9775 men, 
but was afterwards enlarged. It was subdivided in 
1809 into the old and young guard. In Jan. 1814, 
it numbered 102,706. It was dissolved by 
Louis XVIII. in 1815 ; revived by Napoleon III. in 
1854. It surrendered with Metz to the Germans 
27 Oct. 1870; and was abolished by government 
soon after. It took part in the Crimean war in 1855. 

IMPERIAL INSTITUTE of the colo- 
nies AND INDIA, to represent arts, manufac- 
tures, and commerce : established as a memorial of 
the queen's jubilee, proposed by the prince of 
"Wales in a letter to the lord mayor of Loudon, 13 
Sept. 1886. 

Preliminary meeting at the Mansion House, 27 Sept. 
prince of Wales's committee meet 10 Nov. 1.886. 
Sir Frederick Abel, organizing secretary . Nov. 1886 
Issue of report recommending the constitution of 
the Institute at South Kensington, consisting of 
two sections ; I. to illustrate the commercial and 
natural resources of the Colonies and India ; II. 
the condition of the natural products and manu- 
factures of the United Kingdom ; with suitable 
accompaniments .... 23-24 Dec. ,, 
Meetings at St. James's Palace and Mansion House 

12 Jan. 1887 
Sir. F. Abel expounded the objects of the Institute 
at the Royal Institution with the approbation of 
the prince of Wales, who was in the chair 22 April, ,, 
25,000/. awarded to the Institute out of the surplus 

of the Colonial Exhibition of 1886 . 30 April, „ 
Architect, Mr. T. E. Colcutt ; contractors, John 

Mowlem and Co. 
Munificent donations from Indian princes ; the 
maharajah of Jodhpore gave io,oool. June, 1887 ; 
maharajah Holkar of Indore, 100,000 rupees, Feb. 
1889; the Maharajah of Jeypore, 20,000/. Nov 



1890 ; the Indian government grant 1,000/. annu- 
ally for the museum . . beginning Nov. 1891 

Foundation stone laid by the queen ; (ode by Mr. 
Lewis Morris, music by sir Arthur Sullivan, 
sung ; addresses) 4 July, 1887 

20,000?. received from Canada . . 24 Aug. ,, 

Amount received or definitely promised, 400,000?. 

Oct. „ 

Receipt of 310,000?. exclusive of the Indian contri- 
bution, reported 2 July, 1888 

See Oriental studies, 1890. 

The premiers of the Australasian colonies, announce 
their hearty co-operation in the work of ;the Insti- 
tute, June, 1890; the constitution of the Imperial 
Institute, published in the London Gazette, 28 
April, 1891 ; the prince of Wales nominated first 
president ; governing body 18 governors, 12 nomi- 
nated by the queen, 6 by the president, and 8 
ex-officio officers, abp. of Canterbury, lord chan- 
cellor, and others. First meeting of the per- 
manent governing body, Lord Herschell elected 
chairman, and the executive council constituted 

23 July, 1891 

The Institute was partly opened to the Fellows and 

public 22 June, 1892 

IMPERIAL PARLIAMENT, see Commons, 

Lords, Parliament, and Reform. 

IMPERIAL THEATRE at the Aquarium, 
Westminster {which see). 

IMPERIALISM. The word was much used 
in 1878, to signify that which related to the welfare 
of the British empire as a whole, in contradistinc- 
tion to that of Great Britain itself or any other 
separate part of the empire. 

IMPORTS of Merchandise. _ The vast 

progressive increase of our commercial intercourse 
with other countries is shown by our imports and 
exports {which see) : — 

VALUE OF IMPORTS INTO GREAT BRITAIN, FROM ALL 
PARTS OF THE WORLD. 



[n 1710 . 


• £4,753.777 


In 1869 . 


£295,460,214. 


1750 . 


7,289,582 


1870 . 


• 303,257,493 


1775 • 


. 14.815.855 


1871 . 


■ 33 I ,o I 5,4 8 » 


1800 . 


• 3°>57°>6°5 


1875 • 


• 373,939,577 


1810 . 


. 41,136,135 


1876 . 


• 375,154,703 


1820 . 


• 36.514,564 


1877 ■ 


. 394,419,682: 


1830 . 


. 46,245,241 


1878 . 


• 368,77 ,742 


1840 . 


62,004,000 


1879 • 


• 362,99 I > 8 75 


1845 . 


. 85,281,958 


1880 . 


. 411,229,565 


1850 . 


. 95,252,084 


1881 . 


• 397,022,489 


1851 . 


• 103,579,582 


1882 . 


. 413,019,608 


1856 . 


• I72.544. I 54 


1883 . 


. 426,891,579. 


1857 • 


. 187,844,441 


1884 . 


. 390,018,569 


1859 • 


. 179,182,355 


1885 . 


• 370,967,955 


1861 . 


. 217,485,024 


1886 . 


• 349,863,472 


1864 . 


. 274,952,172 


1887 . 


. 362,227,564 


1865 . 


. 271,072,285 


1888 . 


• 387,635, 743- 


1866 . 


. 295,290,274 


1889 . 


• 427> 6 37,59S 


1867 . 


. 275,183,137 


1890 . 


. 420,691,997 


1868 . 


. 294,693,608 


1891 . 


• 435,44i>264 


From foreign counl 


ries. 


Exports to 


1871 


1875 


1877 


1877 


£258,071,062 


£289,515,606 


£304,865,684 


£176,593,870' 


From 


British posses 


sions. 




£72,944,418 


84.423.97 1 


89.553,99 8 


75,752,i5» 


IMPOSTORS. The 


following are among the- 



most extraordinary : — 

Mahomet promulgated his creed, 604 : see Mahometan/ism. 

Aldebert, a Gaul, in 743, pretended he had a letter from 
the Redeemer, which fell from heaven at Jerusalem ; 
he seduced multitudes to follow him into woods and 
forests, and to live in imitation of John the Baptist. 
He was condemned by a council at Rome in 745. 

Gonzalvo Martin, a Spaniard, pretended to be the angel 
Michael in 1359 : he was burnt by the inquisition in 
Spain in 1360. 

George David, son of a waterman at Ghent, styled him- 
self the son of God, sent into the world to adopt 
children worthy of heaven : he denied the resurrection, 
preached in favour of a community of women, and 
taught that the body only could be defiled by sin ; he 



IMPRESSIONISTES. 



497 



INCOME TAX. 



had many followers ; died at Basle, 1556, promising to 
rise again in three years. 

Otreflef, a monk, pretended to be Demetrius the son of 
Ivan, czar of Muscovy, whom the usurper Boris had 
put to death ; he maintained that another child had 
been substituted in his place : he was supported by 
Poland ; his success led the Russians to invite him to 
the throne, and deliver into his hands, Feodor, the 
reigning czar, aud all his family : his imposition dis- 
covered, he was assassinated in his palace, 1606. 

Sabbata Levi, a Jew of Smyrna, amused the Jews and 
Turks a long time at Constantinople and other places, 
by personating our Saviour, 1666. 

Joseph Smith, see Mormonites. 

Apparition of our Lady of Salette ; the imposture ex- 
posed and several persons prosecuted, April, 1846. 
The superstition revived and flourishing, Aug. 1872. 

Pilgrimage of about 20,000 persons to Lourdes, in the 
Pyrenees, on account of alleged miracles (the virg : n 
was said to have appeared to two girls, 11 Feb. 1858), 
•6 Oct. 1872 ; see France. 

Insurrection of the Mahdi, see Soudan, 1881 et seq. 

An adventurer, who named himself " Comte Blanco," 
and " prince Louis Marie Cesar of Bourbon, grandson 
of Ferdinand VII. of Spain," was recognised at Paris 
in 1869 by queen Isabella and others. Detected by a 
.photographer as his son-in-law. Supported by a rich 
English widow. Kept a small court at Jurangon near 
Pau, as a king. Deposed and expelled by the police. 
He afterwards went to Holland and England, and died 
in London. 

IN BRITISH HISTORY. 

A man pretending to be the Messiah, and a woman as- 
suming to be the Virgin Mary, were burnt, 1222. 

Jack Cade assumed the name of Mortimer ; see Cade, 1450. 

In 1487, Lambert Simnel, tutored by Richard Simon, a 
priest, supported by the duke of Burgundy, personated 
the earl of Warwick. Simnel's army was defeated by 
Henry VII. , and he was made a scullion in the king's 
kitchen. 

For Warbeck's imposture in 1492, see Warbeck. 

Elizabeth Barton, styled the Holy Maid of Kent, spirited 
up to hinder the Reformation by pretending to inspira- 
tions from heaven, foretelling that the king would 
have an early and violent death if he divorced Cathe- 
rine of Spain and married Anne Boleyn. She and 
her confederates were executed at Tyburn, 21 April, 1534. 

& n !553 (first year of Mary's reign, after her marriage with 
Philip of Spain), Elizabeth Croft, a girl 18 years of age, 
was secreted in a wall, and with a whistle made for the 
purpose, uttered many seditious speeches against the 
queen and the prince, and also against the mass and 
confession, for which she did penance. 

William Hacket, a fanatic, personated our Saviour, and 
was executed for blasphemy, 1591. 

Valentine Greatrix, an Irish impostor, who pretended to 
cure all diseases by stroking the patient : his imposture 
deceived the credulous, and occasioned very warm dis- 
putes in Ireland and England about 1666. Boyle and 
Flanisteed believed in him. 

Dr. Titus Oates, see Oates. 

Robert Young, a prisoner in Newgate, forged the hands 
of the earls of Marlborough, Salisbury, and other 
nobility, to a pretended association for restoring king 
James : the lords were imprisoned, but the imposture 
being detected, Young was lined 1000?. , and put in the 
pillory, 1692. He was afterwards hanged for coining. 

Three French refugees pretend to be prophets, and raise 
tumults ; convicted as impostors, Nov. 1707. 

Mary Tofts of Godalming, by pretending she bred rabbits 
within her, so imposed upon many persons (among 
others, Mr. St. Andre, surgeon to the king), that they 
espoused her cause, 1726. 

The Cock-lane ghost impostures by William Parsons, his 
wife, and daughter, 1762 ; see Cock-lane Ghost. 

Johanna Southcote, who proclaimed her conception of 
the Messiah, and had a multitude of followers ; she 
died 27 Dec.1814. 

W. Thorn, see Thomites. 

Louis XVII., see France, list of sovereigns. 
[See Abstinence and Sugar.] 

IMPRESSIONISTES,. a name given to 
artists who aim at producing rapid unstudied 
effects independent of the canons of art, such as 
Manet, Duez, and others in France. In England 
Mr. Whistler exhibited such pictures in 1877, ^ n " 



eluding moonlight scenes, &c, painted in two days, 
showing great sense of colour. For Mr. Kuskin's 
criticisms see Trials, 1878. The Inipressionistes 
are also characterized as illustrators of their own 
times by pure art ; MM. Manet, Durand, Euel, 
Degas, and Renoir, are French examples; they 
exhibited in London in June, 1882 and since, 
especially in April, 1889. 

. IMPRESSMENT of Seamen, affirmed by 

sir M. Foster to be of ancient practice. The stat. 
2 Rich. II. speaks of impressment as a matter well 
known, 1378. The first commission for it was 
issued 29 Edw. III. 1355. Pressing, either for the 
sea or land service, declared to be illegal by the 
parliament, Dec. 1641, but practised till present 
times. Impressment was not resorted to in the 
Russian war, 1854-5. 

IMPRISONMENT FOR DEBT, see Arrests, 
Debtors, and Ferrars' Arrest. 

IMPROPRIATION (applying ecclesiastical 
property to lay purposes). On the suppression of 
abbeys in 1539, their incomes from the great tithes 
were distributed among his courtiers by Henry 
VIII. ; and their successors constitute 7597 lay 
impropriators. 

INCAS, see Peru. 

INCENDIARIES. See Arson. 

INCEST. Marriage with very near relations, 
almost universally forbidden, took place in Egypt, 
Persia, and Greece. For recent cases see Portugal, 
1760, 1777, and 1826; Italy, 1888. The table of 
kindred in the book of common prayer was set forth 
in 1563. For the Hebrew law see Leviticus, chap, 
xviii. 1490 B.C. 

INCH. It was defined in 1824 by act of par- 
liament, that 39- 13929 inches is the length of a 
seconds pendulum in the latitude of London, vi- 
brating in vacuo at the sea level, at the temperature 
of 62° Fahrenheit ; see Candle, and Standard. 

INCHCAPE BELL, see Bell Rock. 

INCLOSURE ACT, to facilitate the inclo- 
sure and improvement of commons, appointing 
commissioners, etc., 8 & 9 Vict. c. 118, passed 
8 Aug. 1845 ; another act passed in 1876 ; see 
Commons. 

INCOME TAX. In 1512, parliament granted 
a subsidy of two-fifteenths from the commons, and 
two-tenths from the clergy, to enable the king to 
eater on a war with France. In Dec. 1798, Mr. 
Pitt proposed and carried, amid great opposition, 
resolutions for increased taxes "as an aid for the 
prosecution of the war" with France. 
Graduated duties on income imposed, beginning with 

60?. per annum, by the act passed 9 Jan. 1799. 
The " property tax " passed which levied a rate of 5 per 

cent, on all incomes above 150?. and lower rates on 

smaller incomes, 11 Aug. 1803. 
Increased to 6 J per cent. 1805 ; 10 per cent, embracing 

the dividends at the bank, 1806. 
In 1800 the tax produced 5,716,572?. ; in 1804, 4,650,000?. ; 

in 1806, 11,500,000?. ; in 1808, 16,548,985?. ; in 1S15, 

I4.978,557 ? - 
The tax produced from lands, houses, reutages, &c, 

8,657,937?. : from funded and stock properties, 

2,885,505?. ; the profits and gains of trade, 3,831,088?. ; 

and salaries and pensions, 1,174,456?. Repealed 18 

March, 1816, on motion of H. Brougham. 
Sir Robert Peel's bill imposing the present tax at a rate 

of 7<?, in the pound (2?. 18s. 41/. per cent.) per aim. (for 

three years) passed 22 June, 1842. 
It produced about 5,350,000?. a-year ; and led to repeal of 

about 12,000,000?. indirect taxes. 
Renewed for three years, 1845 : and 1848. 
Large meetings assembled in Trafalgar-square, London 

(for the ostensible purpose of opposing the income tax) ; 

K K. 



INCOEPOEATED. 



498 



INDEMNITY BILL. 



rioting ensued, which was soon quelled, S, 7 March, 
1848. 
Tax continued for one year in 1851 and 1852. 
The tax of jd. limited to seven years (till i860) ; to he 
gradually reduced in amount; but all incomes from 
100I. to 150I. made liable to scl. in the pound for all 
that period : the tax also extended to Ireland, June, 
1853. 
In consequence of the Crimean war, the rate was doubled, 

14&, 1854. 

zd. (making i6ii) added to the tax on incomes above 

150I., and ijci on those between 100I. and 150I. ; the 

former being is. ^d. , the latter 1 1 Jcl in the pound, 1855. 

The former assessment reduced to yd. , the latter to $d. , 

1857. Both became $d. , 1858. 
The former raised to gd. , the latter to 6M. • and the tax 
on incomes, derived from lands, tenements, &c. , raised 
from 3^d to s^d. for England, and from i\d. to i,d. for 
Scotland and Ireland, July, 1859. 
The assessment on incomes raised — on those above 100Z. 

to yd. ; on those above 150L to ioci 
[The object of the increase was to provide for a deficiency 
occasioned by extra expenditure for defending the 
country, April, i860.] 
A committee to inquire into the working of the income 

tax appointed, 14 Feb. 1861. 
Reduction of the last assessment from yd. to 6d., and 
from iod. to gd. for three-quarters of the financial year 
1861-62. 
The rates of 6d. and gd. to continue, April, 1862. 
The rate of 7c?. on all chargeable incomes ; ^d. on 
farms, &c. , in England ; and 2 JcZ. in Scotland and Ire- 
land. Incomes under 100I. a-year exempted ; those 
above 100L and under 200I. allowed an abatement on 
60I. , 8 June, 1863. 
The rate of 6d. on chargeable incomes, with some exemp- 
tions and abatement, 13 May, 1864. 
The rate of $d. on chargeable incomes, with same exemp- 
tions and abatement, May, 1865 ; continued, 1866, and 
1867. 
Raised to $d. (for year ending 1 April, 1868), to provide 

for Abyssinian war, Nov. 1867. 
Raised to 6d. (for 1868-9), Mav > l8 °8. 
Reduced to 5c?. in the pound, April, 1869 ; to \d., April, 
1870. Raised to 6d. on account of re-organisation of 
army, abolishing purchase, 1871. Reduced to $d. , 
April, 1872. 
Renewed agitation against the tax ; conference at Bir- 
mingham, 22 May ; at the Mansion-house, London, 
proposed formation of a National Anti-Income Tax 
League, 13 Dec. 1872. 
Reduced to 3d from 6 April, 1873 ; to 2d. , 23 April, 1874. 
Mr. C. Lewis's motion for reducing or abolishing the 

tax defeated (139-38), 3 July, 1874. 
Raised to 3d. ; incomes under 150J. to be exempt ; 
120I. of incomes under 400I. exempt, April, 1876. 



Raised to 5d. (through preparations for war), April, 1878. 

Raised to 6d. by Mr. Gladstone, June ; act passed, 12 
Aug. 1880. 

Reduced to 5& by Mr. Gladstone ; budget 4 April, 1881. 

Raised to 6^d. for the year (in consequence of the 
Egyptian expedition) , Aug. 1882. 

Reduced to 50!. April, 1883. 

Raised to 6d. 1 Dec. 1884 ; to Sd. 30 April, 1885 ; con- 
tinued, April, 1886 ; reduced to 7$. April, 1887 ; land,. 
&c, England 3^. ; Scotland and Ireland, 2.\d. (act 23-. 
May, 1887); reduced to 6d. 16 May, 1888; continued 
April, 1889-92. 

Mr. Bartley's motion for a committee to enquire 
into the working and incidence of the income-tax 
negatived by the commons (161-106) . 24 Feb. 189s 

The house of lords decides on appeal that religious 
and charitable societies are exempt from income- 



PRODUCE OF THE INCOME TAX. 




1842 . 


■ £571.055 


1872(31 


March) £9,084,000- 


1844 


• S.io^So? 


1873 


,, 


■ 7.403.73& 


1846 . 


• 5.395.391 


1874 


„ 


- 5.641,791 


1852 


• 5.509,637 


1875 


rr 


• 4,315, I 3 2 ' 


1855 (31 March) 


. 10,642,621 


1876 


,, 


4,109,000. 


1856 


15,070,958 


1877 


,, 


5,284,091 


1857 


16,089,933 


1878 


„ 


. 5,820,000. 


1858 


11,586,115 


1879 


„ 


8,710,000 


1859 


6,683,587 


1880 


,, 


9,230,000-- 


i860 „ 


9,596,106 


1881 


Tt 


. 10,650,000. 


1861 


10,923,186 


1882 


„ 


• 9,945,°°°' 


1862 „ 


10,365,000 


1883 


M 


. 11,900,000 


1863 


10,567,000 


1884 


,, 


- 10,718,00c- 


1864 „ 


9,084,000 


1885 


„ 


- 12,000,000- 


1865 


7,958,000 


1886 


„ 


. 15,160,000- 


1866 „ 


6,390,000 


1887 


,, 


. 15,900,00c 


1867 


5,700,000 


1888 


,, 


. 14,440,000- 


1868 


6,177,000 


1889 


,, 


. 12,700,000 


1869 „ 


8,618,000 


1890 


„ 


. 12,770,000- 


1870 


10,044,000 


1891 


„ 


. 13,250,000 


1871 


6,350,000 1 








(Estimated thai 


id. in the 


pound yields 


772,000?. a- 


year, 1842 ; 


1, 727, 000 1. 


1876; 


I,0O0, 


xol., 1878 ". 


1,980,000, 188; 


■) 








TOTAL ANNUi 


L VALUE OF 


PROPERTY AND PROFITS 


AS 


SESSED, UNI' 


CED KINGDOM. 












£430,368,976' 


1873 . 








513,807,284. 










5?8,294,97E 










601,450,977 










629,397,962. 










636,154,693. 










645,158,689. 










660,358,613. 










698,407,540s. 





ESTIMATED ANNUAL INCOME. 








England and "Wales. 


Scotland. 


Ireland. 




1814 


1891 

165,956,061 
306,854,829 


1814 


1891 

19,682,692 
33,772,698 


1854 


1891 


Real property, land, &c. . . 
Professions, trades, &c. . 


•53,495,000 
34,288,000 


6,643,000 
2,771,000 


11,892,000 
4,780,000 


13,660,855 
10,963,164 




87,783,000 


472,810,890 


9,414,000 


53,455,39° 


16,672,000 


24,624,019 



INCOEPOEATED, see Authors, Law. 

INCUMBENTS' BESIGNATION ACT, 

with provision for pensions, passed 13 July, 187 1, 
amended 1887. 

INCUMBEEED ESTATES, see Encum- 
bered Estates. 

INCUEABLES. The royal hospital for in- 
curables, founded by Dr. Andrew Heed, at Car- 
shalton in Surrey, in 1850, has since been removed 
to Putney. 

British Home for Incurables, Clapham-rise, esta- 
blished 1861 

National Hospital for Incurables, Oxford . . . 1874 
Home for Incurable Children, Maida- vale . . 1875 



INDEMNITY BILL, by which the minister 
of the crown or the government is relieved from 
the responsibility of measures adopted in extreme- 
and urgent cases, without the previous sanction of 
parliament. One was passed 19 April, 1801 ; an- 
other to indemnify ministers against their acts 
during the suspension of the Habeas Corpus act, 
was carried in the commons (principal divisions, 
190 to 64) ; and in the lords (93 to 27), 10 March, 
1818. In 1848 and 1857, bills of indemnity were; 
passed for the suspension of the Bank Charter act 
by the ministry; see Oblivion. An indemnity bill 
is passed at the end of every session of parliament 
for persons who transgress through ignorance of th& 
law. The practice began in 1715. 



INDEPENDENCE. 



499 



INDIA. 



INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION 

OF, by United States of North America, 4 July, 
1776, is annually celebrated. 

" INDEPENDENT THEATRE," a name 
assumed by a company conducted by Mr. J. T. 
Green at the Royalty Theatre, providing entertain- 
ments resembling those of the Thiutre-Libre of 
M. Antoine, to include the plays of Ibsen and 
Tolstoi which could not be licensed in this country. 
As the theatre is supported by subscription, and no 
money taken at the doors, it is considered inde- 
pendent of the lord chamberlain's censorship in 
regard to the plays performed. Ibsen's " Romers- 
holm" was performed 23 Feb., and his " Ghosts" 
13 March, 1891. Other performances were given 
at the private theatre in the club-house erected on 
the site of Evans' hotel, Covent Garden, 22 May, 
1891 et seq. An EDglish version of Zola's " Therese 
Raquin" given at the Royalty, 9 Oct. 1891. Other 
pieces licensed by the lord chamberlain, 4 March, 
1892. The censorship accepted, July, 1892. 

INDEPENDENTS or Congregational- 
ISTS, hold that each church or congregation is 
independent of all others in religious matters ; that 
there is no absolute occasion for synods or councils, 
whose resolutions may be taken for advice, but not 
as decisions to be peremptorily obeyed ; and that one 
church may advise or reprove another, but has 
no authority to excommunicate. Robert Brown 
preached these doctrines about 1585, but, after 32 
imprisonments, he eventually conformed to the 
established church. A church was formed in Lon- 
don in 1593, when there were 20,000 independents. 
They were driven by persecution to Holland, where 
they formed several churches ; that at Leyden was 
under Mr. Robinson, often regarded as the author 
of Independency. In 1616 Henry Jacobs returned 
to England and founded a meeting-hous3. Crom- 
well, himself an independent, obtained them tole- 
ration, in opposition to the Presbyterians. The 
independents published an epitome of their 
faith, drawn up at a conference at the Savoy, in 
1658 ; and the congregational union of England 
and Wales formed in 1831, published their " de- 
claration of faith, order, and discipline," in 1833. 
In 1851 they had 3244 chapels for 1,067,760 per- 
sons in England and Wales; in 1887, the con- 
gregationalists had 4338 churches and mission 
stations; annual meetings are held; see Worship. 
The first independents in Scotland were the Glasites 
{ivhich see). The first independent church in 
America was founded by the followers of John 
Robinson, at Plymouth, New England, in 1620. 

Congregational Fund Board to assist poor minis- 
ters, established 1695 

Congregational Board of Education, Homerton . 1843 

Nonconformist Bicentenary fund begun . . 1862 

The Congregationalist Memorial-hall, Farringdon- 
strect, London, erected in memory of the minis- 
ters ejected in 1662, as a home for religious 
societies, was subscribed for and opened 19 Jan. 1875 

An important congregationalist synod, held in 
London i . early in Oct. ,, 

Rev. John Waddington's "Congregational History, 
1200-1854," published .... 1869-78 

Samuel Morley, a wealthy London merchant, a 
liberal supporter of the independent churches, 
and general philanthropist, died , . . 5 Sept. 1886 

James Spicer, a man of similar, qharacter, died 

23 Jan. 1888 

The first International Council of Congregational- 
ists held at Memorial-hall, Lou-don, Rev. R. W. 
Dale presiding . . . . 13— 24 July, 1891 

INDEXES OP PROHIBITED BOOKS. 

The Index by which the reading of the Scriptures 
was forbidden (with certain exceptions) to the laity, 



was confirmed by a bull of pope Clement VIII. in 
1595- 

The council of Nice (325) forbade magical books. 

Pope Paul IV., 1555, began the "Index" published by- 
Pius IV., 1559. The Talmud and heretical books were 
especially prohibited, causing much dissatisfaction. 
The Inquisition .was engaged in the work, which was 
organized by the Council of Trent. The Congregation 
of the Index was instituted and rules laid down. 

The Indexes are— 1. Prohibitoriits, of books absolutely 
forbidden to be read ; 2. Expiirgatorius, of books not 
• to be licensed till purged from error. 

Many of the works, of the great authors of France- 
Spain, Germany, and England, are thus prohibited! 
On 25 June, 1864, Hugo's " Les Miserables " and 
other books were added to the number and many- 
others since. 

INDEX SOCIETY, established by the libra- 
rians of various London scientific and literary 
institutions and societies, and literary men, to form 
a library of indexes, and to make indexes to rare 
serial works, important books, &c. 17 Dec. 1877. 

INDIA or HlNDOSTAN. The Hindoo his- 
tories ascribe their origin to a period ages before 
the ordinary chronologies. The Tynans, Egyptians, 
and Romans carried on commerce with India. 
The expansion, consolidation, and conciliation of 
India have been greatly effected during the reign of 
queen Victoria, 1837 et seq. 117 native states 1888.* 

Religions : the pre-historic Hindu or Vedic system was 
reformed and superseded by Buddhism about b.c. 
500. The reformed and modified Vedic system, since 
termed Brahmanism, was restored about a.d. 500, and 
prevailed till the introduction of Mahometanism, early 
in the nth century ; see Population in foot-note, 
below. 

Provinces, Bengal, Bombay, Madras, Punjaub, N.W. 
and central provinces, Assam, and Burmah. 

Northern India is said to have been invaded and con- 
quered by an Arian race from central Asia, between 
b.c. 1500 and 1000. 

Invasion of Alexander the great ; king Porus is de- 
feated, submits and retains his kingdom . . 327 

Irruptions of the Mahometans, under Mahmud 
Ghuzni, 100 [-24. He captured Somnath . a.d. 1024. 

Extinction of the house of Ghuzni, 1186 ; rule of the 
slave-kings of Delhi, 1206-1288 ; of the Kilghis and 
house of Toghlak, 1288-1412 ; of the Syuds, 1412-50; 
of the house of Lodi 1450-1526* 

Pathan, or Afghan empire, founded . . . . 1205 

Invasion of the Moguls under Genghis Khan, 1219 ; 
he died . . . . . 1227- 

The Mogul Tartars, under the conduct of Timour, 
or Tamerlane, invade Hindostan, and take Delhi ; 



* British India extends from 8" to 34" N. lat. and from 
70° to 90° E long, (exclusive of the Burmese additions), 
about 1,500,000 square miles. The population in all 
India, 1881, 252,541,210 ; 1891, 286,696,960 ; British India,, 
221,356,187 ; Native States, 66,803,485. (Hindoos. 
207,654,407; Mussulmans, 57,365,204; Christians, 
2,284,191 ; Jains, 1,416,109; Sikhs, 1,907,836 ; Buddhists, 
7,101,057; Parsees, 89,887; Jews, 17,180; forest tribes, 
animal worshippers, 9,302,083.) Cotton was planted in 
1839, and the tea-plant in 1S34. Railways (8545 miles in 
1879) and the electric telegraph are being rapidly con- 
structed, and canals for irrigation ; see Ganges Canal ; 
railways in 1890-1, 16,996 miles open. The Indian 
revenue in 1854-5 was 20,371,450/. The expenditure, 
22,915, 160?. In 1858-9: revenue. 36,060, 788?. ; expenditure, 
49,642,350?. In 1869-70 : revenue, 52,942,482?. : expendi- 
ture, 56,184,489/.. In 1875-6, revenue, 52,515,780?. ; ex- 
penditure, 55,117,536?. In 1877-8, revenue 58,969,301?. ; 
expenditure, 66,917,000?. ; 1881-2, revenue 73,606,000?. ; 
expenditure, 71,113,000?.; 1883-4, revenue, 67,274,000?. ; 
expenditure, 66,617,000?. ; 1886-7, revenue, 77,337, 134RX. 
(ten rupees); expenditure, 77, 158, 707 Rx. ; revenue, 
1889-90, 85,085, 203RX. ; expenditure, 82,473, 170HX. 
Exports and imports, 1837, about 21,000.000?.; 1856. 
53,000,000?.; 1885-6, 156,000,000?.; 1888-9, about 
8o,ooo,oooBx. ; 1890-1, ig6,26o,382Rx. 

K K 2 



INDIA. 



500 



INDIA. 



defeat the Indian army, 1397 ; conquer Hindostan, 
and butcher 100,000 of its people . . . 1398-9 
Passage to India discovered by Vasco da Gama . 1497 
The first European settlement (Portuguese) estab- 
lished by him at Cochin (S. Coast) . . . . 1502 

Albuquerque governor-general, 1508 ; dies at Goa, 1514 
Conquest of India completed by the sultan Baber, 
founder of the Mogul empire .... 1519-26 

Reign of his son Humayun .... 1531-56 

Reign of Akbar, greatest sovereign of Hindostan 

1556-1605 
The Portuguese introduce tobacco . . . . 1600 

The Dutch first visit India, 1601 ; establish a United 
East India Company . . . . . . 1602 

Tranquebar granted to the Danes . . . . 1619 

Reign of Jehanghir 1605-27 

Reign of Shah Jehan ; golden age of the Moguls, 1627-58 
Aurungzebe dethrones his father and murders his 

brothers, 1658; reigns .... 1658-1707 
French East India Company established . . . 1664 
Rise of the Mahratta power under Sevajee, 1659 ; he 

assumes royalty, 1674; dies . ... 1680 

Aurungzebe conquers Golconda, &c. . . . 1687 

His prosperity wanes, 1702 ; dies . . .22 Feb. 1707 
Bahadoor Shah succeeds, 1707; dies . . . 1712 
Jehander Shah, 1713 ; dethroned and killed . . 1718 

Accession of Mahomed Shah 1719 

Independence of the Nizam of the Deccan . . . 1723 
Rise of the Mahratta families, Holkar and Scindiah 1730 
Invasion of the Persian Nadir Shah or Kouli Khan : 
at Delhi he orders a general massacre, and 150,000 
persons perish ; carries away treasure amounting 
to 125,000,000?. sterling ...... 1739 

Mahomed Shah dies 1748 

The Mogul empire now became merely nominal, in- 
dependent sovereignties being formed by petty 
princes. In 1761, Shah Alum II. attacking the 
English was defeated at Patna, 15 Jan. In 1764, 
after the battle of Buxar, he was thrown upon the 
protection of the English, who established him at 
Allahabad. After the victory at Delhi in 1803, 
gen. Lake restored the aged monarch to a nominal 
sovereignty, which descended at his death to his 
son, Akbar Shah. Akbar died in 1837, and was 
succeeded by the last king of Delhi (Ms son), who 
received a pension of about 125,0002. per annum. 
He joined the mutiny in 1857; was tried in 1858, 
and transported to Rangoon ; died there, 1 1 Nov. 
1862.] 

BRITISH POWER IN INDIA. 

Attempt made to reach India by the north-east and 

north-west passages 1528 

Sir Francis Drake's expedition 1579 

Levant company's land expedition .... 1589 
First commercial adventure from England . . . 1591 
First charter to the London company of merchants 

(see India Company) 1600 

Factories established at Surat, &c 1612 

Sir Thos. Roe, first English ambassador . . . 1615 
Madras founded, 1640; made a presidency . . . 1652 
Bombay ceded to England as part of dowry of 

Catherine, queen of Charles II 1662 

French company established 1664 

They settle at Pondicherry 1668 

Calcutta purchased 1698 

"War between the English and French in India 1746-9 

English besiege Pondicherry, the seat of the French 

government, without success .... 1748 

Clive takes Arcot 1751 

Peace made 1754 

Severndroog and other strongholds of the pirate 

Angria taken 11 Feb. 1756 

Capture of Calcutta by Surajah Dowla ; suffocation 

of English in the Black hole (which see) 20 June, „ 
Calcutta retaken by Clive, 2 Jan. ; lie defeats the 

Soubah at Plassey .... 23 June, 1757 
Fort William, the strongest fort in India, built ,, 

French successful under Lally 1758 

But lose nearly all their power .... 1759 

The French under Lally defeated by sir Eyre Coote 

near Wandewash .... 2 July, 1760 

Hyder Ali usurps the sovereignty of Mysore . 1763-4 
Conquest of Patna .... 6 Nov. 1763 

Battle of Buxar (which see) . . . 23 Oct. 1764 

The nabob becomes subject to the English . . 1765 
Lord Clive obtains the Dewanny by an imperial 

grant, which constitutes the company the receivers 



of the revenue of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa, and 
gives the British the virtual sovereignty of these 

countries 12 Aug. 1765 

Treaty with Nizam Ali : the English obtain the 

Northern Circars .... 12 Nov. 1766 

Hyder Ali ravages the Carnatic . . Jan. 1769 

Frightful famine in Bengal 1770 

Warren Hastings governor of Bengal 13 April, 1772 

India Bill ; supreme court established (see India 

Bills) 1773 

Treaty with Bhootan 1774 

Death of Clive ; ungratefully treated . . . . „ 
Accusations commence against Warren Hastings ; 
accused of taking a bribe from a concubine of 
Meer Jaffier (see Hastings) . . 30 May, 1775 

Nuncomar, a Brahmin, accuses Warren Hastings of 

receiving bribes .... 11 March, 1776 
Is hanged for forgery ' . . . . 5 Aug. „ 
[Sir Elijah Impey, the judge, was censured at the 
time, but afterwards vindicated] 

Pondicherry taken 11 Oct. 1778 

Fortress of Gwalior taken by Popham . 4 Aug. „ 
Hyder Ali overruns the Carnatic, and defeats the 

British, 10 Sept. ; takes Arcot . . 31 Oct. 1780 

Hyder Ali defeated by sir Eyre Coote . 1 July, 1781 
Warren Hastings accused of taking more bribes (see 

Chwnar) 19 Sept. ,, 

Bussy lands with a French detachment March, 1782 

War with Hyder Ali aided by the French . ,, 

Hyder Ali overthrown by Coote . . 2 June, ,, 
Death of Hyder, and accession of his son, Tippoo 

Sahib Dec. „ 

Tippoo, who had taken Cuddalore, now takes 

Bednore April, 1783 

Pondicherry restored to the French, and Trin- 

comalee to the Dutch ,, 

Fox's India bill thrown out ,, 

Pitt's India bill establishing the board of control 

{which see) 1784 

Ignoble peace with Tippoo . . . 11 March, ,, 
Charges against Warren Hastings .... 1786 

His trial begun 13 Feb. 1788 

War with Tippoo renewed 1790 

Bangalore taken (see Bangalore) . . 21 March, 1791 
Cornwallis defeats Tippoo at Arikera . 15 May, ,, 
Fortress of Savandroog taken . . . 21 Dec. ,, 
Definitive treaty with Tippoo ; his two sons hostages 

19 March, 1792 
Civil and criminal courts erected .... 1793 

Pondicherry again taken ,, 

Tippoo's sons restored ... 29 March, 1794 
First dispute with the Burmese ; adjusted by 

general Erskine . 1795 

Warren Hastings acquitted . . 23 April, ,, 

Government of lord Mornington, afterwards mar- 
quis Wellesley .... 17 May, 1798 
Seringapatam stormed by gen. Baird ; Tippoo Sahib 

killed, 4 May ; Mysore divided . . 22 June, 1799 
Victories of the British ; the Carnatic conquered 1800 
The nabob of Furruckabad cedes his territories to 

the English for a pension . . .4 June, 1802 
Important treaty of Bassein (with Mahratta s) 

31 Dec. „ 
Mahratta war. Victories of sir Arthur Wellesley 

and general Lake 1803 

Wellesley's great victory at Assaye . 23 Sept. ,, 
Pondicherry (restored 1801) retaken . . Dec. ,, 
War with Holkar ■ .... 1804-5 
Capture of Bhurtpore ... 2 April, 1805 
Lord Wellesley superseded by the marquis Corn- 
wallis, who dies 5 Oct. „ 

The Mahratta chief, Scindiah, defeated by the 

British; treaty of peace . . . 23 Nov. „ 
Treaty of peace with Holkar . . . 24 Dec. ,, 
Sepoy mutiny at Vellore ; 800 executed . July, 1806 
Cumoona surrenders .... 21 Nov. 1807 
Mutiny at Seringapatam quelled . . 23 Aug. 1809 
Act opening the trade to India . . . July, 1813 

War with Nepaul 1814-15 

Holkar defeated by sir T. Hislop . . 21 Dec. 1817 

Pindaree war. English successful . . . 1817-18 

Peace with Holkar 6 Jan. 1818 

Burmese war. The. British take Rangoon 5 May, 1824 
Lord Combermere commands in India . . . ,, 

Malacca ceded, and Singapore purchased . ,, 

Barrackpore mutiny, many sepoys killed . Nov. ,, 
General Campbell defeats the Burmese near Prome, 

25 Dec. 1825 



INDIA. 



501 



INDIA. 



Bhurtpore stormed by Conibennere 18 Jan. 1826 

Peace with the Burmese . . 24 Feb. ,, 

[They pay i,ooo,oooZ. sterling, and cede a great 

extent of territory. ] 
Abolition of suttees, or the burning of widows (see 

Suttee) , 7 Dec. 1829 

Act opening the trade to India, and tea trade, &c, 
to China, forming a new era in British com- 
merce 28 Aug. 1833 

Coorg annexed ; Rajah deposed . . 10 April, 1834 

The natives admitted to the magistracy 1 May, „ 

The Nawab Shumsoodden put to death for the 
murder of Mr. Frazer, British resident 8 Oct. 1835 

Severe famine 1837-8 

Slavery abolished ... .1 Aug. 1838 

Afghan, war. Proclamation against Dost Mahomed 

1 Oct. ,, 
The British occupy Candahar . . 21 April, 1839 

Battle of Ghiznee ; victory of sir John (afterwards 

lord) Keane (see Ghiznee) ... 23 July, ,, 
Wade forces the Khyber pass . . 26 July, „ 

English defeat Dost Mahomed . . 18 Oct. 1840 

Kurrock Singh, king of Lahore, dies ; at his funeral 
his successor is killed by accident, and Dost 
Mahomed, next heir, surrenders to England 5 Nov. ,, 
Rising against the British at Cabul ; sir Alex. 

Burnes and others murdered . . 2 Nov. 1841 
Sir Wm. Macnaghten assassinated . . 23 Dec. ,, 
Jellalabad held by sir R. Sale . . . 1841-2 

The British under a convention evacuate Cabul, 
placing lady Sale, (fee, as hostages with Akbar 
Khan ; a massacre ensues of about 16,000 men, 
women, and children . . . 6-13 Jan. 1842 
The British evacuate Ghiznee . . 1 March, „ 

Sortie from Jellalabad ; general Pollock forces the 

Khyber pass 5 April, ,, 

Ghiznee retaken by general Nott . . 6 Sept. ,, 
General Pollock enters Cabul . . 16 Sept. ,, 
Lady Sale and other prisoners rescued by sir R. 

Shakspeare : arrive at gen. Pollock's camp2i Sept. ,, 
Cabul evacuated after destroying the fortifications 

12 Oct. „ 
Scinde war. Ameers defeated by sir Charles Napier 

at Meanee 17 Feb. 1843 

Scinde annexed to the British empire ; sir Charles 

Napier governor June, „ 

Gwalior war. Battles of Maharajpoor and Punniar : 
the strong fort of Gwalior, the " Gibraltar of the 

East," taken 29 Dec. ,, 

Danish possessions in India purchased . . . 1845 
Sikh war.* The Sikhs cross the Sutlej river and 

attack the British at Ferozepore . 14 Dec. ,, 

Sir H. Hardinge, after a long rapid march, reaches 
Moodkee ; the Sikhs (20,000) make an attack ; 
after a hard contest they retire, abandoning their 
guns (see Moodkee) .... 18 Dec. ,, 
Battle of Ferozeshah (which see) . 21, 22 Dec. ,, 
Battle of Aliwal ; the Sikhs defeated (see Aliwal 

and Sutlej) 28 Jan. 1846 

Great battle of Sobraon ; the enemy defeated with 

immense loss (see Sobraon) . . 10 Feb. ,, 

Citadel of Lahore occupied by sir Hugh Gough, and 

the war terminates . . . .20 Feb. ,, 

Sir R. Sale dies of his wounds received at Moodkee 

(18 Dec. 1845) 23 Feb. ,, 

The governor-general and sir Hugh Gough raised to 
the peerage, as viscount Hardinge and baron 
Gough ; receive the thanks of parliament and of 
the E.I. company .... 2, 6 March, ,, 
Treaty of Lahore signed .... 9 March, ,, 
Vizier Lall Singh deposed . . . 13 Jan. 1847 

Mr. Vans Agnew and lieut. Anderson killed by 

the troops of the dewan Moolraj . 21 April, 1848 
Lieut. Edwardes joins general Courtland, and most 
gallantly engages the army of Moolraj, which he 
defeats after a sanguinary battle of nine hours, at 

Kennyree 18 June, ,, 

General Whish raises the siege of Mooltan through 
the desertion of Shere Singh . . 22 Sept. ,, 

* Runjeet Singh, long the ruler of the Sikhs and the 
Punjab, lived in amity with the British. After his death, 
27 June, 1839, several of his successors (children and 
grandchildren) were in turn assassinated. During the 
minority of his grandson Dhuleep Singh, the favourite of 
the Maharanee, Lall Singh, ruled ; and finding the 
army ungovernable, sanctioned the unprovoked attack 
on the British, as given above. 



Cavalry skirmish at Ramnuggur . . 22 Nov. 1848 
Shere Singh, entrenched on the right bank of the 
Chenab, with 40,000 men and 28 pieces of artil- 
lery ; gen. Thackwell crosses the river with 8 
infantry regiments, with cavalry and cannon, 1 
Dec, and attacks his left flauk at Sadoolapore, 

3 Dee. „ 
Lord Gough attacks the enemy's advanced position; 

victory of Chillianwallah (which see) . 13 Jan. 1849 

Unconditional surrender of the citadel of Mooltan 
by Moolraj (see Mooltan) ... 22 Jan. 

Victory of Guzerat (which see) . . 21 Feb. ,, 

Sir Chas. Napier appointed comm. -in-chief, 

7 March, ,, 

The Sikhs surrender unconditionally 14 March, „ 

Formal annexation of the Punjab to the British 
dominions ; Dhuleep Singh obtains a pension of 
4o,oooZ 29 March, ,, 

Moolraj sentenced to death for the murder of Mr. 
Agnew and lieut. Anderson, Aug. ; commuted to 
transportation for life .... Sept. „ 

Sir Charles Napier disbands the 66th Bengal native 
infantry, for mutiny . . . .27 Feb. 1850 

Dr. Healy, of the Bengal army, and his attendants, 
murdered by the Aft'reedis . . . 20 March. ,, 

Embassy from the king of Nepaul to the queen 
of Great Britain arrives in England (see Nepaul) 

25 May, ,, 

Resignation of his command in India by sir Charles 
Napier 2 July, ,, 

His farewell address to the Indian army 15 Dec. ,, 

Burmese war. Death of Bajee Rao, ex-peishwa of 
the Mahrattas. [His nephew Nana Sahib's claim 
for continuance of the pension (8o,oooZ.) refused.] 

28 Jan. 1851 

A British naval force arrives before Rangoon, in 
the Burman empire, and commodore Lambert 
allows the viceroy thirty-five days to obtain in- 
structions from Ava . . . 29 Oct. ,, 

The viceroy of Rangoon interdicts communication 
between the shore and the British ships of war : 
and erects batteries to prevent their departure, 

4 Jan. 1852- 
[Commodore Lambert blockades the Irawaddy ; 

the Fox, Hermes, <fec. , attacked by the batteries, 
destroy the fortifications, and kill nearly 300 of 
the enemy. ] 
Martahan (5 April), Rangoon (14 April), and Bassein 

stormed by the British ... 19 May, , r 
Pegu captured, afterwards abandoned . 4 June, ,, 
Prome captured by capt. Tarleton . 9 July, ,, 

Pegu recaptured by general Godwin . 21 Nov. , r 

Pegu annexed to our Indian empire by proclama- 
tion of the governor-general . . 20 Dec. ,, 
Revolution at Ava ; the king of Ava deposed by his 

younger brother Jan. 1853 

Rangoon devastated by fire ... 14 Feb. „ 
Capt. Lock and many men killed in an attack on the 
stronghold of a robber chief, 3 Feb. ; which is 
taken by sir J. Cheape . . -19 March, ,, 
First Indian railway opened (from Bombay to 

Tannah) 16 April, ,, 

Termination of the war .... June, ,, 
New India bill passed .... 20 Aug. „ 
Death of general Godwin .... 26 Oct. ,, 
Assassination of capt. Latter . . 8 Dec. ,, 

Rajah of Nagpoor dies, and his territories fall to 

the E. I. Company n Dec. ,, 

Opening of Ganges Canal 1854 

Opening of the Calcutta railway . . 3 Feb. 1855 
Treaty of friendship with Dost Mahomed of Cabul 

30 March, ,, 
Insurrection of the Sonthals (whiSh see) . July ,, 
Which is only finally suppressed . . May, 1856 

Oude annexed (see Oiulc) .... 7 Feb. ,, 

MUTINY OK THE NATIVE ARMY. 

Mutinies in the Bengal army : at Barrackpore, &c, 

several regiments disbanded . . . March, 1857 
"India is quiet throughout." — Bombay Gazette. 

1 May, ,, 
Mutiny at Meerut* (near Delhi) 10 May. The 
mutineers seize Delhi, commit dreadful out- 
rages, and proclaim the king of Delhi emperor, 

11-12 May, &c. ,, 

* On the introduction of the improved (Enfield) mus- 
ket in the Indian army, greased cartridges had been 



INDIA. 



502 



INDIA. 



Three native regiments disbanded at Lahore by 
the energy of Mr. Montgomery and brigadier 
Corbett, who save the Punjab . . 12 May, 1857 

Martial law proclaimed by the British lieut. -gover- 
nor, J. ft. Colvin May, „ 

British troops under general Anson advance on 
Delhi : his death 27 May, ,, 

Mutineers often defeated . . 30 May-23 June, „ 

Mutiny at Lucknow .-'•... . . . 30 May, „ 

Neill suppresses the mutiny at Benares, 3 June ;• 
and recovers Allahabad . . . .4 June, „ 

Mutiny spreads throughout Bengal : fearful atroci- 
ties committed * ....,, 

Native troops disbanded at Mooltan, which is 
saved 11 June, ,, 

'Ex-king of Oude arrested . . . 14 June, ,, 

■fiiiege of the residency at Lucknow by the rebels, 
commences 1 July, ,, 

'Sir H. Lawrence dies of his wounds at Lucknow, 

4 J ul y. .. 

The liberty of the press restricted . .^4 July, ,, 

Sir H. Barnard commanding before Delhi dies of 
cholera, succeeded by general Reed . 5 July, ,, 

General Nicholson destroys a large body of rebels 
at Sealcote 12 July, ,, 

Cawnpore surrenders to Nana Sahib, who kills the 
garrison, &c. , 28 June ; he is defeated by general 
Havelock, 16 July : who re-captures Cawnpore 
(see Cawnpore) 17 July, „ 

Mutinies suppressed at Hyderabad, 18 July ; and at 
Lahore 20 July, „ 

♦General Reed retires, and sir Archdale Wilson takes 
the command before Delhi . . .22 July, ,, 

Revolt at Dinapore : the British repulsed with 
severe loss at Arrah .... 25 July, ,, 

Heroic exertions and numerous victories of general 
Havelock and his army, although suffering from 
disease 29 July, to 16 Aug. ,, 

Lord Canning's so-called "clemency" proclama- 
tion 31 July, ,, 

Victory of Neill at Pandoo Nuddee . . 15 Aug. „ 
■ General Nicholson's victory at Nujuffghur pie dies 
23 Sept.] 25 Aug. „ 

Assault of Delhi, 14 Sept. ; taken, 20 Sept. ; the 
king captured, 21 Sept. ; his son and grandson 
slain by colonel Hodson ... 22 Sept. ,, 

Sir James Outram joins Havelock and serves under 
him 16 Sept. ,, 

Mavelock marches to Lucknow and relieves the be- 
sieged residency ; retires and leaves Outram in 
command ; Neill killed . . 25, 26 Sept. ,, 

Colonel Greathed defeats the rebels at Bolundsho- 
hur, 27 Sept. ; destroys a fort at Molaghur, 29 



brought from England. These were objected to by the 
i-native soldiers, and the issue of them was immediately 
■discontinued by orders in Jan. 1857. A mutinous spirit 
.however gradually arose in the Bengal native army. 
In March several regiments were disbanded, followed by 
others, till in June the army had lost by disbandment 
and desertion, about 30,000 men. On 5 April, a sepoy, 
and on 20 April, a jemadar, or native lieutenant, were 
executed. At the end of May 34 regiments were lost. 
In April, 85 of the 3rd Bengal native cavalry at Meerut 
refused to use their cartridges. On 9 May they were 
committed to gaol. On Sunday, the 10th, a mutiny in 
the native troops broke out ; they fired on their officers, 
killing col. Finnis and others. They then released their 
comrades, massacred many Europeans, and tired the 
public buildings. The European troops rallied and drove 
.them from their cantonments. The mutineers then fled 
rfco Delhi (which see). 

* At the end of June the native troops at the follow- 
ing places were in open mutiny : Meerut, Delhi, Feroze- 
.porc, Allyghur, Roorkee, Murdaun, Lucknow, Cawnpore, 
Nusseerabad, Neemuch, Hansi, Hissur, Jhansi, Mehidpore, 
Jirllundur, Azimghur, Futtehghur, Jaunpore, Bareilly, 
Shahjehanpore, Allahabad. At the stations printed in 
italics, European women and children were massacred. 
— The Relief Fund for the sufferers in India was com- 
menced 25 Aug. 1857. The Queen, the emperor Napo- 
leon, and the Sultan, gave each 1000J. In Nov. 1857, 
280,749^. had been collected ; in Nov. 1858, 433, 620Z. In 
Dee. 1861, 140,000/. had been distributed to sufferers in 
India ; and 100,000/. to those at home ; 246,069/. re- 
mained for the benefit of widows and orphans. A fast ' 
■was observed on 7 Oct. 



Sept. ; takes Allyghur, 5 Oct. ; and defeats rebels 

at Agra 10 Oct. 1857 

Sir Colin Campbell (afters, lord Clyde) appointed 
commander-in-chief, 11 July ; arrives at Cawnpore 

3 Nov. „ 

Marches to Ahimbagh, near Lucknow, 9 Nov. ; and 
takes Secunderabagh .... 16 Nov. ,. 

Joined by Havelock, he attacks the rebels and 
rescues the besieged in the residency, 18-25 Nov. ,, 

Havelock * dies of dysentery at Alumbagh, 24 Nov. ,, 

General Windham (at Cawnpore) repulsed with 
loss in an attack on the Gwalior contingent, who 
take part of Cawnpore .... 27 Nov. ,, 

Sir C. Campbell arrives at Cawnpore, which he re- 
takes, 28 Nov. ; and defeats the Gwalior rebels, 

6 Dec. • ,, 

The rebels defeated by Seaton, 14, 17, and 27 Dec. ; 
at Goruckpore by Rowcroft, 27 Dec. ; and at Fut- 
tehghur by sir C. Campbell . . .2 Jan. 1858 

Lucknow strongly fortified by the rebels Jan. ,, 

Generals Rose, Roberts, Inglis, and Grant, victo- 
rious in many encounters . . Jan. and Feb. ,, 

Trial of king of Delhi ; sentenced to transportation 

27 Jan. to 9 March, ,, 

Sir C. Campbell marches to Lucknow, 11 Feb. ; the 
siege commences, 8 March ; taken by successive 
assaults ; the enemy retreat ; Hodson killed, 

14-19 March, „ 

Severe proclamation of the governor-general in 
Oude t 14 March, ,, 

General Roberts takes Kotah . . 30 March, ,, 

Sir Hugh Rose beats the enemy severely, and takes 
Jhansi . . . . . .4 April, „ 

General Whitelock takes Budaon . . 19 April, ,, 

Death of capt. sir W. Peel, of small-pox, at Cawn- 
pore 27 April, ,, 

General Penny killed in Rohilcund . . 4 May, ,, 

Bareilly recaptured 7 May, „ 

Sir Hugh Rose defeats the rebels several times — at 
Kooneh, May 11, and near Calpee, which he re- 
takes 23 May, „ 

Victory of sir E. Lugard at Jugdespore 29 May, ,, 

The rebels seize Gwalior, the capital of Scindiah, 
who escapes to Agra . . . .13 June, ,, 

The rebels defeated by sir H. Rose (the heroic 
Ranee of Jhansi killed), 1 7 June ; Gwalior retaken 
and Scindiah reinstated ... 19 June, „ 

Tantia Topee heads a division of the rebels . . ,, 

Rajahs of Jeypore, &c. , surrender ; Rohilcund and 
other provinces tranquillised . . July, ,, 

General Roberts destroys the remains of the 
Gwalior rebels 14 Aug. ,, 

Many Oude chiefs surrender . . . Aug. ,, 

An attempt of disbanded regiments to retake their 
arms at Mooltan, suppressed by major Hamilton 
(300 killed on the spot, and 800 slain or captured 
afterwards) 31 Aug. ,, 

The government of the East India Company ceases, 

1 Sept. ,, 

General Mitchell defeats Tantia Topee, near Raj- 
ghur 15 Sept. „ 

The queen proclaimed throughout India — lord Can- 
ning to be the first viceroy . . . 1 Nov. ,, 

Campaign in Oude begins ; several chiefs submit, 
others subdued 1-30 Nov. ,, 

At Dhooden Khera lord Clyde (formerly sir C. Camp- 
bell) defeats Beni Mahdo . . .24 Nov. ,, 

Flight of Tantia Topee — he is beaten in Guzerat by 
major Sutherland .... 25 Nov. ,, 

The ex-king of Delhi sails for the Cape of Good 
Hope, 4-1 1 Dec. ; the colonists refuse to receive 
him ; he is sent to Rangoon ,, 

Brigadier John Jacob dies at Jacobabad (greatly 
lamented) ... . . 6 Dec. ,, 

Indecisive skirmishes with Ferozeshah , Dec. „ 

Who joins Tantia Topee : they are defeated in 
several small engagements . . Jan. 1859 

* Born 5 April, 1795 ; educated at the Charterhouse, 
London, where he was called " old Fhlos ;" went to India, 
1823 : served in the Burmese war, 1824 ; and in the 
Sikh war, 1845. He was a Baptist. 

t Lord Ellenborough, the minister for India, sent, un- 
known to his colleagues, a despatch severely censuring 
this proclamation. This despatch became public and 
led to his resignation and very nearly to the defeat of 
the ministry, a vote of censure being "moved for in both 
houses of parliament, but not carried. 



INDIA. 

Enforcement of the Disarming Act in the north- 
west provinces Jan. 

The Punjab made a distinct presidency i Jan. 

Rebels completely expelled from Oude ; enter Ne- 

paul Jan. 

Guerilla warfare continues in Rohilcund . Feb. 
Tantia Topee hemmed in ; deserted by his troops, 

about 25 Feb. 

Defeat of the Begum of Oude and Nana Sahib by 

general Horsford .... 10 Feb. 

The new Indian tariff creates much dissatisfaction, 

March, 
Maun Singh surrenders .... 2 April, 
Tantia Topee taken, 7 April ; hanged . 18 April, 
Thanksgiving in England for pacification of India 

1 May, 

Mutinous conduct of British troops lately in the 

company's service at Meerut and other places, on 

account of their transfer to the queen's service 

without bounty 5 May, 

Sir Hope Grant defeats Nana Sahib in the Jorwah 

pass 23 May, 

A court of inquiry appointed . . . June, 
Sir Chas. Wood becomes sec. for India . 22 June, 
Dissatisfaction among the troops at their transfer 
from the service of the company to that of the 
crown, without a bounty, settled by discharge 
offered to them, which about 10,000 accept July, 
Thanksgiving day observed in India . . 28 July, 
An income tax bill (called " the Trades' and Pro- 
fessions' Licensing Bill ") passes the legislative 
council ; great meetings at Calcutta and Madras 
protesting against it . . . . Sept. 

Rajah Jey-loll Singh hanged . . . 1 Oct. 
Nana Sahib, in force, in Nepaul on the frontiers of 

Oude Oct. 

Insurgents in Nepaul dispersed . . 24 Dee. 

Important financial changes made by Mr. James 

Wilson, new finance secretary . . . Feb. 

■Company formed to obtain cotton, flax, <fec. , from 

India March, 

Paper currency determined on March, 

Bahadoor Khan, ex-king of Bareilly, hanged for 
murders caused by him . . . .2 March, 
Sir Chas. Trevelyan recalled from Madras, for pub- 
lishing a government minute against Mr. Wilson's 

commercial scheme May, 

Sir Hugh Rose takes command of the Indian army, 
amalgajnated with the British . . July, 

Lord Clyde arrives in London . . 18 July, 

Lord Canning's recommendation that the adopted 
successors of Indian princes should be recognised 
agreed to by the home government . 21 July, 
Death of sir H. Ward, new governor at Madras, 
3 Aug. ; and of Mr. James Wilson . .11 Aug. 
Nana Sahib, supposed to have died of jungle fever 
in Aug. 1858, is said to be living in Tibet . Dec. 
Mutiny of 5th European regiment at Dinapore, sup- 
pressed ; breaks out again, 5 Oct. ; is again sup- 
pressed, Wm. Johnson shot, and the regiment dis- 
banded ...... 13 Nov. 

British troops repulsed in Sikkim . . Nov. 

Agitation against the income tax suppressed at 

Bombay and other places .... Dec. 

Excitement against sir Chas. Wood's grant of 

520,000^. to descendants of Tippoo Sahib . Dec. 

Mr. Samuel Laing, successor to Mr. James Wilson, 

arrives 10 Jan. ] 

Awful famine in N.W. provinces through failure 
of the crops ; immense exertions of the govern- 
ment and others to relieve the sufferers, 

Jan. -June, 
Expedition marches against Sikkim ; natives retire 

Feb. 
Disturbances in the indigo districts . . March, 
Kootoob-ood-deen, grandson of Tippoo Sahib, mur- 
dered by his servants . . . .31 March, 
British subscriptions for relief of the famine com- 
mence at the Mansion-house, London, with 4000?., 
28 March ; 52,000^ subscribed 20 April ; closes 

with 114,807! Nov. 

Order of the " Star of India" (ickich sec) constituted 

25 June, 

Exc.itemcut through the printing and circulation of 

" Nil Darpan," a Hindu drama libelling the indigo 

planters June, 

The rev. James Long, the translator, sentenced to 
tine and imprisonment Aug. 



503 



INDIA. 



New Indian council and newhigh court of judicature 
established Aug. 1861 

Mr. J. P. Grant, lieut. -governor of Bengal (who had 
authorised the translation of " Nil Darpan ") and 
Mr. Seton Kerr, his secretary (who had, without 
authority, distributed copies) are censured and 
resign Sept. „ 

Law of property in India altered ; sale of waste 
lands authorised Oct. ,, 

Lords Harris and Clyde, sir J. Lawrence, Dhuleep 
Singh, and others invested with the Star of India 
by the queen 1 Nov. „ 

Reported prosperity of Indian finances ; licence tax 
not to be reimposed 31 Dec. ,, 

First meeting of new legislative council ; includes 
several Indian princes .... 18 Jan. 1862 

Lord Elgin, new governor-general, installed at Cal- 
cutta 12 March, ,, 

Lord Canning arrives at Southampton, 26 April ; 
dies 17 June, „ 

Mr. S. Laing returns to England through ill health ; 
censured by sir C. Wood ; he justifies himself and 
resigns . July, „ 

High court of judicature at Bengal inaugurated 

12 July, „ 

Reported suspension of sale of waste lands Aug. ,, 

Rao Sahib hanged for murders during the revolt 

8 Sept. ,, 

Great increase in the cultivation of cotton in India, 
reported Oct. „ 

Sir Charles Trevelyan, new finance minister, arrives 

8 Jan. 1863 

First agricultural exhibition at Calcutta 19-30 Jan. „ 

Rise of Ram Singh, a fanatic, in N.W. provinces Oct. ,, 

War with warlike hill-tribes on the N.W. frontiers, 
Oct. ; severe conflict, gen. Chamberlain wounded, 
20 Nov. ; command assumed by major-gen. John 
Garvock, who totally defeated the enemy (about 
15,000) in Chamta pass, 15, 16 Dec. ; war ended 

29 Dec. „ 

The Hindu religion deprived of government support 

Dec. ,. 

Death of the viceroy, lord Elgin . . 20 Nov. „ 

Sir John Lawrence, his successor, assumes office 

12 Jan. 1864 

Excitement amongst the Hindoos on account of go- 
vernment suppressing funeral rites on sanitary 
grounds March, 

Prosperous financial statement of sir Charles Tre- 
velyan April, 

Mr. Ashley Eden, envoy at Bhootan, seized and 
compelled to sign a treaty giving up Assam 

about April, 

Gold currency (a sovereign = 10 rupees) ordered to 
be introduced at Christmas . . . July, 

Terrific cyclone— immense loss of life, property, and 
ships at Calcutta and elsewhere . . .5 Oct. 

Grand durbar, held by sir John Lawrence, at La- 
hore ; 604 native princes present . . 18 Oct. 

War with the Bhootanese- -fortress of Dhalimcote 
taken 12 Dec. 

Much commercial speculation at Bombay . Dec. 

The Bhootanese attack on Dewangiri repulsed 
with severe loss, 29 Jan. , evacuated by the British 

Feb. 1865 

Opening of the Indo-European telegraph — a tele- 
gram from Kurrachee received . . 1 March, 

W. Massey succeeds sir C. Trevelyan as finance 
minister; he arrives at Calcutta . 31 March, 

Sir Charles Trevelyan declares a large deficit in the 
revenue 1 April, 

Dewangiri recaptured by gen. Tombs . 2 April, 

Sir Hugh Rose retires from command of the army ; 
which is assumed by sir Win. Mansfield, 23 April, 

Sir Charles Trevelyan's plans reversed by sir C. 
Wood May, 

Dentil of the able and beneficent hoi. Juggonath 
Sunkersett, the recognised representative of the 
Hindoo community . . . . 31 July, 

Negotiation with the Bhootanese . . July, 

Shipwreck of the Eagle Speed near Calcutta; 265 
coolies perish through neglect . . 24 Aug. 

Peace with the Bhootanese signed . . 13 NoV. 

Much dissatisfaction at mildewed cotton goods 
being received from England . . July-Oct. ,, 

Settlement of the question respecting marriage of 
Hindoo converts April, 1866 

"Simla Scandal." Trial of capt, E. Jervis ; ac- 



INDIA. 



504 



INDIA. 



quitted on charge of peculation of stores belong- 
ing to sir W. Mansfield, commander-in-chief, but 
condemned for insubordination ; sentence (dis- 
missal from the service) approved by sir "W. 

Mansfield 17 Sept. 1866 

Awful famine in Orissa, Bengal ; about 1,500,000 

perished Aug. -Nov. „ 

Relief by Government Oct. „ 

Dr. Cotton, bishop of Calcutta, accidentally drowned 

6 Oct. „ 
Famine abating ; official inquiry ordered . Nov. „ 
Great durbar held at Agra, by sir J. Lawrence 

10-20 Nov. „ 
Simla case ; sentence against capt. Jervis confirmed, 
and sir W. Mansfield censured by the duke of 
Cambridge, by letter dated . . . 17 Jan. 1867 
Deficiencies in the revenue ; Massey's proposed new 

licence tax much opposed . '. April & May, ,, 
False rumour of mutiny at Meerut . . 20 May, „ 
Report on Orissa famine ; authorities blamed, June, „ 
Deficiency in revenue for 1867, 2,400,0002. reported 

Aug. „ 
Massacre of Hindoo chiefs by the nawab of Tonk 

(for which he was deposed) . . .1 Aug. ,, 
Grand durbar at Lucknow . . .9-17 Nov. ,, 
The fierce Wagheers of Kattywar, in a night attack, 
are nearly exterminated ; cajits. Hibbert and La 

louche killed 29 Dec. ,, 

Mr. Massey's budget ; surplus of Soo.oocZ. ; licence 
tax abolished, tax on trades, &c. , substituted ; ex- 
penditure of 1,700,000?. on public works proposed 

14 March, 1868 

War on the N. W. frontier ; the Bazotees, fanatical 

Mahometans, defeated by general Wilde; 30 killed 

and wounded ; all dispersed, 4 Oct. ; villages burnt 

as punishment for outrages . . . Oct. ,, 

Death of the begum of Bhopal, who helped the 

British during the mutiny . . .30 Aug. ,, 
The duke of Argyll secretary for India . 9 Dec. ,, 
Arrival of the earl of Mayo, the new viceroy, at 

Calcutta 12 Jan. 1869 

Severe famine 1868-9 

Sir R. Temple's budget ; deficiency of about 

2,750,000?. ; a 1 per cent, income tax put on 

(excessively opposed) .... March, 1869 

Meeting of the viceroy and Shere Ali, the Afghan 

sovereign, who receives a subsidy and presents 

27 March, ,, 
New divorce act in operation . . .1 April, „ 
Rise of a body of Indian religious reformers termed 

the Brahmo Somaj (see Deism) . . . Aug. ,, 
Act for the better governing India and defining the 

eovernor-general's powers passed . . n Aug. ,, 
India visited by the duke of Edinburgh, Dec. 1869- 

April, 1870 
Railway between Calcutta and Bombay completed 

March, „ 
Announced deficiency in the revenue ; increased 
taxation proposed; much opposition to the in- 
come tax May, ,, 

Grand durbar at Bhurtpore ... 10 Oct. ,, 
Lamented death of sir H. Durand, from fall from an 

elephant 1 Jan. 1871 

Sir Proby Cautley, designed Ganges canal works, 

&c. , died, aged 68 25 Jan. ,, 

Volunteer system proposed for India . . Jan. ,, 
Indian finance committee appointed . . Feb. „ 
Sir R. Temple's budget .... 9 March, ,, 
Moulvi Liakat Ali, a cruel rebel who in 1857 ruled 

as viceroy at Allahabad, apprehended . 5 July, „ 
Indian civil engineering college, Cooper's-hill, opened 

by the duke of Argyll, secretary for India, 5 Aug. „ 
Justice Norman stabbed at Calcutta, 20 Sept. ; dies 
21 Sept. ; assassin convicted, 28 Sept. ; executed 

4 Nov. ,, 
Much corrupt opposition to the income tax reported 

Nov. ,, 
Lord Mayo visits Palumpore fair, and holds a rural 

durbar 6 Nov. „ 

Military expedition under generals Nutthall and 
Bourchier, aided by the rajah of Munnipore, against 
the Looshais, about 13 Nov. ; skirmishes, 1 Dec. „ 
Death of the earl of Ellenborough, a late governor- 
general (see Somnath) .... 22 Dec. ,, 
Skirmishes with the Looshais, 21, 23 Dec. ; they 

sue for peace 29 Dec. ,, 

The king of Siam visits Calcutta . . 7-12 Jan. 1872 
Outbreak of the Kookas, near Loodiana, severely 



suppressed by commissioners Cowan and Forsyth 

(see Kookas) 15-17 Jan. 1872 

Camp at Delhi ; military manoeuvres, by sir H. 

Tombs and others .... 13-23 Jan. ,, 
Looshais repulsed and strongholds taken 28 Jan. )Jb 
The viceroy arrives at Rangoon, 28 Jan. ; on his 
return he visits the convict establishment in the 
Andaman Islands, and is assassinated at Port 
Blair by Shere Ali, a convict, while about to 
embark in the Glasgow ... 8 Feb. ;> 

Lord Napier acts as viceroy . . -23 Feb. , r 
Looshais surrender unconditionally ; army returning 

28 Feb. ,„ 
The Kamous tribe, while carrying off Looshai cap- 
tives, defeated, and captives rescued ; British re- 
turning to Calcutta .... 7 March, ,, 
Shere Ali hanged, without confessing associates, 

12 March, ,, 
Annual pension from Indian government to lady 
Mayo, 1000Z. ; grant of 20,000?. for children, 

March, ,, 
Sir Richard Temple's budget favourable ; income 

tax to be reduced April, , r 

Lord Northbrook sworn in as viceroy . 3 May, ,„ 
Liakat Ali, on confession, condemned to transporta- 
tion for life 27 July, ,, 

Christian marriage bill passed . . . July, ,, 

The begum of Bhopal made a knight of the Star of 

India at Bombay .... 16 Nov. ,, 

Changes in criminal procedure ; compromise in ,, 
The income tax not renewed . . .21 March, 1873 
Riots of the Moplahs, Mahometan fanatics, on 
coast of Malabar, suppressed by military ; about 

13, 14 Sept. ,„ 
New tax (road cess) reported successful . Oct. „ 
Messrs. Bernard, Geddes, & Robinson appointed 
commissioners in anticipation of famine in 

Bengal Nov. ,, 

Sir B. Temple appointed superintendent of relief 

in Behar Jan. 1874 

15 districts (25,000,000 inhabitants) much dis- 
tressed ; 11 districts (14,000,000) affected 

middle of Jan. ,„ 
Subscriptions at Mansion-house (which see), London 

begun 24 Jan. ,, 
1,000?. given by the Queen . . . . 4 Feb. ,, 
The marquis of Salisbury secretary for India, 21 Feb. ,, 
Report from Calcutta: " people well employed on 
public works ; no adult should die now from 

starvation " 25 March, ,,, 

A loan, not exceeding 10,000,000?. for India Govern- 
ment authorised by parliament . . 30 March, , t 
Sir R. Temple installed lieut.-gov. of Bengal in 
room of sir George Campbell : about 500 deaths 
from disease and hunger reported, about 8 April, , „ 
The famine kept under ; estimated net expendi- 
ture on relief, 6,500,000?. (see Mansimi-house) May, ,„ 
Crisis of famine past ; reported declining ; much 

rain ; good prospects .... June, ,, 
Only 24 deaths from famine alone ; 125,000?. raised 
for relief in London . . . .27 July, ,,. 

Abundance of rain Sept. ,, 

Sadun Khan, a cruel leader in the mutiny, sen- 
tenced to death Sept. ,, 

A person said to be Nana Sahib captured at Gwalior 
by the Maharajah Scindia (identity since dis- 
proved) 21 Oct. ,, 

Attempts to poison col. Phayre, resident at Baroda, 

Nov. ; he is replaced by col. Pelly . . Dec. ,, 
Outrages of Dufflatribes on N. W. frontier (trouble- 
some, 1838-9; 1852; Feb. 1873); expedition against 

them Dec. ,, 

Mulhar Rao, gaekwar of Baroda, carried to Calcutta 
for trial for attempting to poison col. Phayre ; 
his child recognised as his successor, provision- 
ally 14 Jan. 1875 

The Duffla tribes surrender and pay line . 29 Jan. ,, 
The gaekwar's trial begins, 3 native judges (Scin- 
diah, the maharajah of Jeypore, and one other) 

and 3 British 23 Feb. „ 

Lieut. Holeombe and a surveying party (about 70) 
in Assam, massacred by Naga natives 

about 24 Feb. ,, 

Close of inquiry into the conduct of the gaekwar 

of Baroda ; verdict of 3 British judges, guilty ; ol 

3 natives, not proved ; 30 March ; he is deposed 

for misgovernment by the viceroy, and ordered 



INDIA. 



505 



INDIA. 



to live in British India with suitable provision ; 
proclamation that a successor be appointed 

23 April, 1875 

Naga tribes chastised severely ; the objects of the 
expedition accomplished . . 15-25 March, „ 

Eldest son of the gaekwar appointed successor 

22 May, ,, 

Difficulties with Burmah .... May, „ 

Mission of sir Douglas Forsyth to Mandalay (see 
Burmah) June, „ 

New gaekwar of Baroda installed . . 3 June, „ 

Establishment of a new Mahometan college for the 
N. W. provinces (chiefly by Ahmed Khan) ; an- 
nounced July, „ 

Dispatch from marquis of Salisbury on repeal of 
cotton duties Sept. „ 

The Prince of Wales sails for India, 11 Oct., arrives 
at Bombay 8 Nov. ; warmly received at Baroda, 
9 Nov. ; at Goa, 27 Nov. ; in Ceylon, 1-8 Dec. ; 
at Madras, 13 Dec. ; at Calcutta, 23 Dec. ; grand 
reception of Indian potentates . . 24 Dec. ,, 

Unveiled statue of Lord Mayo at Calcutta . 1 Jan. 1876 

At Benares, Lucknow, (fee, 5 Jan. et seq.; in Nepaul, 
12 Feb. ; sails from Bombay . .13 March, ,, 

Lord Lytton, new viceroy, takes oath at Calcutta, 

12 April, „ 

The Queen proclaimed Empress of India in London 

1 May, ,, 

Indian finances : deficiency through depreciation 
of silver currency; loss about 2,300,000?., pro- 
posed loan of 4,000, oool. . . . 11 Aug. ,, 

Vice-regal proclamation of the Queen's title, 
"Empress of India ; " (to be proclaimed at Delhi, 
1 Jan., 1877) 19 Aug. ,, 

Sir John Strachey appointed financial minister, 
about 17 Oct. ; governor of N.W. Provinces Nov. ,, 

At Agra Mr. Fuller slapped for neglect a native 
servant, 31 Oct. 1875, who died soon after ; he 
was fined by a magistrate ; sentence considered 
too light by the high court; the viceroy in a 
minute censured all ; this caused much dissatis- 
faction ; (lord Salisbury supported the viceroy, 
1877) July, „ 

Famine in Bombay, Madras, &c. . Nov., Dec. ,, 

Proclamation of the queen as empress of India 
with much magnificence at Delhi, by the viceroy; 
also at Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay 1 Jan. 1877 

Creation of the " Order of the Empire of India" an- 
nounced 1 Jan. „ 

Sir R. Temple removed from Bengal to Bombay 

19 Jan. ,, 

Relief works organizing, favourable reports an- 
nounced 29 April, „ 

The raids of the Affreedis on N.W. frontiers sup- 
pressed ; announced . . end of April, „ 

Famine formidable, but energetically met June, ,, 

Misery increasing; establishment of "Mansion- 
house relief fund " (which see) . 12 Aug. „ 

The secretary for India authorised by parliament 
to raise a loan for 5,000,000?. . . 14 Aug. ,, 

919,771 employed by government; 1,326,971 relieved 
gratuitously ; reported . . ' 29 Aug. ,, 

Disturbances on N.W. frontier; raids of the Jawa- 
kies, or Jowakies, an Affreedi tribe ; chastised 
by expedition under sir Rd. Pollock, 29, 30 Aug. ; 
again by gen. Keyes .... Nov. „ 

Copious rain in the south reported ; greatly im- 
proved prospects . . . Sept., Oct. „ 

Formation of a new N.W. government proposed 

Oct., Nov. „ 

Mansion-house Indian fund closed, by request of 
the duke of Buckingham (by telegram) 5 Nov. ,, 

Jummu, the Javvakies' stronghold, taken ; they 
are defeated and dispersed . Nov., Dec. ,, 

Sir John Strachey 's budget ; 1,500,000?. to be 
raised annually for famines (they cost 16,000,000?. 

I in five years) ; taxation raised ; trade licences, 
&c. ....... Dec. „ 

" Imperial Order of the Crown of India," for ladies ; 
instituted 3 t Bee. ,, 

The Jawakies defeated by cavalry, 15 Feb. ; sur- 
render unconditionally ; announced 22 Feb. 1878 

Bill to restrain licence of the native press, passed 
by the council at Calcutta . . 14 March, „ 

The Indian press commission to help and control 
the press, established 

Budget; cost of famine about 3,450,000?. March, ,, 



Native Indian troops sent to Malta, April; com- 
mended by the duke of Cambridge, June ; re- 
moved to Cyprus .... Aug. 1873 

War with Afghanistan (which see) . . Sept. ,, 

England now holds the passes through which India 
is acsessible by land .... Feb. 1879 

Revenue— Gross receipts, 65,207,694?. . . . 1878-9 
Expenditure, 67,545,201?. . . ,, ,, 

8545 miles of railways opened (expenditure about 
120,000,000?.) up to . . . . 31 March, 1873 

Treaty of peace signed at Gandamuk (rvhich see), 

26 May, ,,. 

Indian railways guarantee act passed . n Aug. , r 

Loan of sum under 5,000,000?. for India ; authorized 
by act 15 Aug. ,- 

Disaffection and plundering of the Rumpa hill tribes, 
Aug. ; subdued Oct. ,, 

Mutiny and massacres at Cabul (see Afghanistan), 

Sept. „ 

Murder of Mr. Damant, commissioner, in Naga 
hills by natives, during an outbreak . 14 Oct. ,, 

New stringent rules for newspaper correspondents 
with army ; issued Oct. , r 

Lord Lytton fired at by Busa, a half-mad, intoxi- 
cated East Indian ; no injury . . 12 Dec. ,, 

Rumpa rebellion in Central India dying out ; several 
defeats of rebels ,, 

Naga raids and murders .... Jan. i88o> 

Indian budget, by sir John Strachey, surplus of 
119,000?. reported 24 Feb. ,, 

Marquis of Ripon, new viceroy, arrives at Calcutta ; 
col. Gordon, his secretary ,,, 

Errors in the budget, through mistakes in esti- 
mating. Afghan war expenses ; large deficiency ; 
announced May ; sir John Strachey resigns (suc- 
ceeded by major Baring) . . . June, ,, 

Deficiency stated to be about 900,000?. by marquis 
of Hartington 5 July, ,„ 

By a landslip the hill station Nynee Tal or Naini 
Tal, in the Himalayas, destroyed ; many lives lost 
(see Landslips) 18 Sept. , r 

Sir Donald Stewart appointed commander-in-chief 
of the Indian army .... Jan. 1883 

Death of Gholam Hussein Khan, able and faithful 
friend to the British .... March, ,, 

War declared against the Wazaris, 12 April ; ends 
with their submission . . . about 8 May, ,, 

Proposals for loan of 3,000,000?., issued, 27 June, , r 

Budget introduced by the marquis of Hartington ; 
revenue, 68,484,666?. ; expenditure, 69,667,615?. ; 
deficit, 1,182,949? 22 Aug. ,, 

The budget for 1882-3 — Revenue, 66,439,000?. 9 Mar. 1882 
Expenditure, 66,174,000?. . 

The Indian contingent distinguished in Egyptian 
war Aug.— Sept. ,, 

Officers visit London .... Nov. ,,. 

The Sirhind canal (502 miles, for irrigation) opened 
by the viceroy 24 Nov. ,, 

Mr. llbert's Criminal Procedure Amendment bill 
strongly opposed by all the non-official Europeans 
and the army throughout India ; very great 
meeting at Calcutta .... 28 Feb. 1883 

European and Anglo-Indian defence association, 
Calcutta, formed ; first meeting . 29 March, ,, 

An Anglo-Indian association for the natives formed 
in London April, 

Mr. Banerjee, editor of the Bengalee, sentenced to 
two months' imprisonment for gross libel against 
judge Norris ; great excitement of Hindoos, 
monster meeting at Calcutta [appeal refused in 
England, July] . . . about 11 May, ,, 

Dreadful inundation in Cachar, N.E. Calcutta, caus- 
ing great distress ; prompt British help 16 May, ,„ 

Major Baring succeeded by sir Auckland Colvin as 
finance minister July, ,, 

High courts of Bombay and Madras favour, that of 
Calcutta opposes, the Ilbert bill . July — Aug. ,, 

Abundant food supply and great prosperity Oct. ,, 

Ilbert bill : compromise announced ; Europeans 
allowed to claim a jury wholly or partly European 

21 Dec. ,, 

Akha raids into Assam ; major Beresford's forces 
repulsed 24 Dec. ,, 

Budget — revenue 71,727,000? 1883-4 

expenditure, 70,340,000?. . . . „ ,, 

The Akhas dispersed by gen. Hill . . 8 Jan. 1884 

He returns Jan. ,, 

Ilbert bill amended and passed 25 Jan. 



INDIA. 



506 



INDIA. 



"Great increase of cultivation and exports through 
railways since 1848. 

^Exports: 25,000,0002. raised to 147,837,920?. in 1883 

announced 1 

Stndian budget: finances sound and improving, 8 Aug. 

.Expedition to the Zhob valley to punish the Kakar 

Pathans for their raids into British territory 

about 22 Sept. 

'They are defeated by gen. Tanner ; 56 killed 23 Oct. 

.No resistance reported, 6 Nov.; troops return 

22 Nov. 

"Upwards of 1000 addresses from natives to the 
marquis of Bipon on his leaving India . Nov. 

JEarl of Dufferin installed viceroy at Calcutta 13 Dec. 

^Budget — revenue, 70,690,681?. ' 188 

expenditure, 71,077,127/ ,, 

Important Bengal tenancy bill passed 11 March, 1 

.■Sir A. Colvin's budget ; combined surplus of 3 years 
(1882-5), 1,378,000?. ; lessened by depreciation of 
silver currency; revenue for 1885-6, 73,508,100?. ; 
expenditure, 1885-6, 76,488,960?. . . 17 March, 

Sir Donald Stewart, with 50,000 men, ordered to 
advance to Quetta March, 

Meeting of the Ameer of Afghanistan and the viceroy 
at Bawul Pindi conference and durbar 2-12 April, 

'The na vvab of Moorshedabad and other princes offer 
to sell their jewels, &c, to provide money to aid 
the British government in India against Bussia 

April-May, 

Thorough defence of India determined on by the 
British government, declared . . 12 May, 

Proposed loan of 10,000,000?. 21 May, et seq. ; act 
passed 22 July, 

'The formation of native volunteer corps under the 
commander-in-chief .... May, 

'Lord Bandolph Churchill appointed secretary for 
India 24 June, 

Sir Frederick Roberts appointed commander-in- 
chief ; announced 30 July, 

National congress of 71 delegates (principally law- 
yers, schoolmasters, and editors, not Mahometans) 
meet at Bombay, express great loyalty to the 
■queen, and pass nine resolutions to endeavour 
to obtain a royal commission of inquiry and 
increased political power . . end of Dec. ,, 

■Grand military review at Delhi held by the viceroy 
(35,000 troops, 709 officers, &c.) . . 19 Jan. 1886 

Upper Burmah annexed by proclamation of the 
viceroy, lord Dufferin . . . .1 Jan. ,, 

Powerful speech of lord Dufferin ; deficit of about 
2,000,000?. through war preparations, &c. ; pro- 
posed increase of income-tax . . 4 Jan. ,, 

SLady Dufferin's fund for providing female medical 
practitioners for the natives of India, highly 
successful 1885-6 

income-tax bill passed .... 29 Jan. 1886 

Earl of Kimberley appointed secretary for India, 

about 6 Feb. ,, 

Sir A. Colvin's budget, 1886-7 ; revenue, 75,798,700?. ; 
expenditure 75,616,500? 24 March, ,, 

-Sir Richard, aft. viscount Cross, appointed secretary 
for India July, ,, 

National Indian congress at Calcutta, 400 delegates 
(Hindoos) to promote native advancement, 28 
Dec. 1886 ; and again early in ... 1887 

The queen's jubilee celebrated with great magnifi- 
cence ; honours distributed ; 25,000 prisoners of 
good character released . . 16 Feb. et seq. ,, 

Maharajah of Indore and many Indian princes 
present at the jubilee celebration in Westminster 
Abbey . , 2I j une , „ 

53,390 miles of railway in India ; reported . . . ,, 

The nizam of Hyderabad in a letter to lord Dufferin 
the viceroy, offers to present 20 lakhs of 
rupees for three years, total 600,000?., for the 
defence of the N.W. territories, Sept. ; acknow- 
ledged with thanks ; announced . 10 Oct. ,, 

The rajah of Kaparthala ofTers his army and five 
lakhs of rupees for the defence of India ; 
announced ^ Oct. 

Four lakhs offered by rajah of Nabha . . Nov." " 

Similar offers by other princes . . . Nov. ,] 

Subscriptions to lady Dufferin's jubilee fund in 
support of the national association for supplying 
female medical aid amounts to 478,465 rupees in 
India, and 1,770?. in England 15 Oct. ; amount 
received 50,000? 25 Oct. 



Districts in Beloochistan annexed (which see) 
announced Nov. 18 

India 4 per cent, stock converted into 3J per cent, 
by act 23 May, , 

The maharajah of Darbhanga in Bengal, establishes 
a female medical hospital in aid of lady Dufferin's 
fund autumn, , 

Military demonstration against Sikkim (which see) 
ordered .24 Jan. 18 

Budget 1887-8 ; great deficit ; tax on petroleum 
and increase of salt duty proposed Jan. ; passed 

10 Feb. , 

Lord Dufferin, the viceroy, announces his intention 
of resigning, for private reasons . . 9 Feb. 

Moderate National Indian Congress at Madras 
recommends representative institutions, &c. Feb. 

Major L. R. Battye and captain H. B. Urmiston 
and five Sepoys killed by the Akozais during an 
exploration on British territory near Black 
Mountain, N.W. frontier . . . 10 June, 

Black Mountain expedition, or " The Hazara 
Field Force " under general McQueen to avenge 
the outrage of 19 June ; organized Sept. ; advance, 
seizure of Manakadana 4 Oct. ; the enemy defeated 
with the loss of 200 men by gen. Galbraith ; 
guerrilla warfare ; British success at Kotkai with 
slight loss 5 Oct. ; villages burnt, enemy retiring ; 
British casualties, 59 killed and wounded 9 Oct. ; 
gen. McQueen advances 18 Oct. ; more villages 
burnt ; col. Crookshank dies of wounds 24 Oct. ; 
the tribes submit and pay fines 21-30 Oct. ; 
Gorapher peak of the Chaila mountains, 9,500 feet, 
taken by gen. Channer 2 Nov. ; return com- 
menced 5 Nov. ; final submission announced 

18 Nov. 

Lord Dufferin at a durbar at Patiala announces 
the decision of the government to decline the 
acceptance of money from the princes ; but 
recommends to raise the character of their armies 
and so to fit them to combine with the British 
for defence of India .... 18 Nov. 

Farewell address of 700 native ladies presented to 
lady Dufferin privately ... 4 Dec. 

Installation of the marquis of Lansdowne as 
viceroy ; departure of lord Dufferin . 10 Dec. 

Raid of Lushais on the Chittagong border announced 

23 Dec. 

Native Indian congress at Allahabad (moderate 
and illogical) opened . . . .26 Dec. . 

Fortress of Quetta, a bulwark of India, finished 

Jan. 16 

Raid of Chittagong hill tribes on British territory 
near Tipperah, 24 villages destroyed, above 100 
British subjects killed and 91 carried off prisoners, 
announced 28 Jan. . 

Sukkur bridge opened . . . .27 March, 

Mr. Arthur Travels Crawford, an able commissioner 
for 34 years in Bombay, after a long investiga- 
tion, was acquitted of serious charges of financial 
misconduct, but was for indiscreet borrowing 
dismissed the service. After some correspondence 
the sentence was confirmed by lord Cross, secre- 
tary for India, in a despatch . . 29 March, , 

Military expedition sent to chastise the hill tribes 
for their raids and the murder of lieut. Steward ; 
object effected ; reported . . . April, , 

Proposal for a new 4 per cent, loan (20,000,000 
rupees) issued 1 July, , 

Subscription list closed .... 30 July, , 

Lord Reay's condoning the native Bombay officials, 
who confessed themselves guilty of bribery and 
corruption in relation to the Crawford case, much 
censured, but eventually approved by the govern- 
ment . . .... Sept. , 

Tantia Bheel, robber chief of the central provinces, 
a kind of Robin Hood, in the Holkar territory 
began his career about 1874 ; robbed the rich and 
helped the poor ; lately suffered much, captured 
about 18 Aug., convicted of murder (in 1879), 
about 20 Oct., executed at Jubbulpore . 4 Dec. , 

Tour of the viceroy in the N.W. provinces, Oct. ; 
a durbar held at Quetta . . . .19 Nov. , 

5th native Indian Congress meets at Bombay (Mr. 
Bradlaugh present) . . .26 Dec. et seq. , 

Military expedition of sir R. G. Sandeman to pro- 
mote commerce by opening a road through the 



INDIA. 

Zhob districts, N.W. frontier, reported success- 
ful without bloodshed .... 2 Feb. 
Treaty with China respecting Sikkim, which see, 

signed i 7 March, 

Sir David Barbour's budget presented ; a large 

surplus 21 March, 

Prince Albert Victor of Wales received at Bombay 
by the duke of Connaught and lord Reay ; Hy- 
derabad, 15 Nov. ; Madras, 19 Nov. ; Mysore, 23 
Nov. ; Rangoon, 20 Dec. ; Mandalay, 24 Dec, 
1889 ; Calcutta, received by the viceroy, 3 Jan. 
1890 ; Benares, 14 Jan. ; Lucknow, 18 Jan. ; 
N.W. provinces, 20 Jan. et seq. ; Lahore, 25 Jan. ; 
Khyber pass, 31 Jan. ; Delhi, 9 Feb. ; Bombay, 
22 March ; embarked for home . 28 March, 
Expeditions (organised by gen. Gordon) to chas- 
tise the Chins and Lushais for their raids, and to 
form a road connecting Upper Burmah and Lower 
Bengal ; gen. Symons proceeds from the east, 
gen. Tregear from the west, to form a junction, 
Jan. ; the resistance generally feeble ; the troops 
at times suffered much by disease ; the Yokwa 
Chins submit to gen. Symons, 10 Jan. ; peaceful 
surrender of Mongpunga or Lienpunga, a Lushai 
chief ; construction of road proceeding ; recon- 
naissances and skirmishes ; 200 Hakas submit, 
two villages burnt ; health of troops improved ; 
junction of the two parties reported, Feb. . 
Guerilla warfare ; Haka chiefs submit . about 

22 March, 
The Tashon chiefs submit to gen. Symons and pay 
fine and tribute . . reported 24 March, 
Major Gordon-Cumming on convoy duty, shot 
dead, from an ambuscade . about 24 March, 
Ten days' reconnaissance of gen. Symons south- 
ward ; col. Tregear at Haka . 13-16 April 
The new road to Haka completed connecting Bur- 
mah and India ; Haka and other posts garrisoned 
reported 20 April, 
Gen. Symons and the expedition return to India . 

1 May et seq. 

Submission of Malliam-pai chiefs to gen. Tregear; 

raiding to cease, roads to be made, &c. 20 May, 

Increased agitation in India and England against 

Hindoo child marriages .... Aug. 

Revolution at Manipur . . . . 21 Sept. 

Insurrection in Cambay with bloodshed, the nawab 

appeals to the British for help : they restore 

order reported 23 Sept. 

[Major Kennedy, a political officer, was autho- 
rised to redress grievances, reform the finances, 
&c, Jan. 1891.] 

Insurrection in Manipur in N.E. state ; the Maha- 
rajah abdicates in favour of his brother, who had 
seized the palace, &c. . . . 21-24 Sept. 
Eruption of the Lushais near Dalleswary river ; 
capt. Herbert Browne killed, reinforcements sent 
reported 12 Sept. 
Lieut. Swinton killed in an attack . . 2 Oct. 
The Black Mountain Expedition under gen. sir J. 
M. M'Queen starts, 22 Oct. ; returns . 3 Nov. 
The Zhob valley expedition under gen. White arrives 

at Fort Sandeman 30 Oct. 

Ultimatum sent ; skirmish ... 30 Oct. 

The tribes submit . . . reported 12 Nov. 

Tlie Lushai party under capt. Shakespear and 

Mr. Pughe advance to Jadunas village, 34 miles 

W. of Fort White, 6 Nov. ; returns successful . 

20 Nov. . 
Tour of the viceroy in the N.W., he visits Delhi, 
&c, Nov.; holds a durbar at Agra, 24 Nov.; 

Benares 4 Dec. , 

Indian Factory commission ; report with recom- 
mendations issued .... early Dec. , 
The principal Lushai chiefs surrender uncondi- 

, tionally o Dec. , 

The 6th National Congress of mixed character, no 
government officials present, 26-30 Dec, 1890; 
sir A. Scoble introduces a bill into the legislative 
council to raise the age of consent to marriage by 

girls from 10 to 12 9 Jan. 1! 

Capt. Rundall witli 200 rifles marches to Lushailand 

about 22 Jan. , 

A strong force marches against the marauding 

tribes of the Miranzai valley on the N.W. frontier 

about 30 Jan. 

Several tribes submit . about .16 Feb. et seq. 

Mukkmudin, principal chief of the Rubbia Klieyl ' 



507 



INDIA. 



1S90 



tribe, surrenders, reported 19 Feb. ; the force re- 
t" rus about 24 Feb. 18 

The important factory bill for the protection of 
women and children passed . . 19 March, , 

After much public discussion, the "age of consent 
to marriage bill" is passed by the legislative 
council 1Q March, ,, 

Disastrous expedition to Manipur, which see 

March , 

Sir D. Barbour's financial statement ; reported sur- 
plus, 20 March ; he recommends a commission to 
consider the currency and the introduction of a 
gold standard, &c March, , 

Black Mountain Expedition, N.W., under gen. Elles, 
two columns under col. Williamson and col. 
Hammond, starts about 15 Jan., crosses the 
frontier about 15 March, „ 

The Ghazis attack the Pioneers, slight loss, 19 
March ; successful movement forward 26 March, „ 

Sharp engagement, 9 soldiers killed . 5 April, ,, 

Road-making party attacked, 14 sepoys killed 

reported 7 April, ,, 

Bridge of boats over the Indus, broken up 

about 20 April, ,, 

The party ascend the Machai peak, 9,800 feet high, 
a few shots exchanged, 18 April ; difficult travel- 
ling, severe weather, April; huts to be con- 
structed for the troops .... May ,, 

The country evacuated by the British . . Dec. „ 

Miranzai Valley Expedition.— Sir W. Lockhart with 
7,000 men at Kohat preparing to resist the Orak- 
zais and other tribes (Panthans and Afreedes) ; 
sudden attack of the tribes repulsed by the Pun- 
jaub infantry, reported 12 April ; the Samana 
heights held by Syed Mir Basha, a fanatical 
priest ; the Mollahs preaching a. jihad, which see 

reported 12 April ,, 

Sir W. Lockhart with three columns captures some 
outposts, and clears the Samana ridge, col. 
Cramer and major Egerton severely wounded, 17, 
18, April ; successful fighting; the enemy dis- 
persed and villages burnt, 19, 20 April ; about 
300 Orakzais killed, they disperse, and other 
tribes retreat . .- .21 April et seq. 

Sir W. Lockhart advances against the very aggres- 
sive Akhel tribe ; severe fighting, several villages 
destroyed 22 April, 

Samana range occupied ; several tribes submit 

April, May, 

Sir W. Lockhart advances to punish the Shekhans, 
29 April, their towers blown up ; various tribes 
submit, accepting conditions . . .3 May, 

The tribes restore stolen property, and seek for 
peace ; all opposition ceases, reported 12 May ; 
the troops ordered to return . . .17 May, 

A representative meeting of delegates agrees to re- 
solution to be sent to the viceroy condemning 
sir Joseph Pease's resolution respecting opium, 
adopted by the commons, 12 April (see Opium) 

12 May 

Alarming deficiency of rain, especially in Madras, 

Rajputana, the Punjaub, and the south, middle 

of July ; supply of rain in north and north-west 

about 2 Aug. 

Trial of the Bangabasi newspaper for sedition con- 
cluded ; jury disagree ; no verdict, 24 Aug., the 
defendants submit and apologise . . 23 Sept. 

A good supply of rain in Malabar and other 'places 
about 27 Sept. 

The N.W. provinces relieved . . . Sept. 

The Hunza and Nagar tribes oppose British road- 
making ; fighting ensues near Gilgil, N. of Cash- 
mere ; a fort of Nilt, taken by lieut.-col. Durand 
who is wounded ; several sepoys killed . 2 Dee. 

Further successes of capt. Colin Mackenzie, lieut. 
Manners Smith and others near Nilt ; about 70 
natives killed ; other places occupied ; Jafar 
Khan of Nagar submits ; end of the war 

20-22 Dec. 

Seventh Indian National congress opened at Nag- 
pur with strong professions of loyalty 28-30 Dee. 

Gen. sir Frederick Sleigh Roberts created a peer as 
Baron Roberts of Candahar . . . Feb. 1 



INDIA. 



508 



INDIA COMPANY, EAST. 



M. Clement Thomas, governor-general of French 
India, received by the viceroy at Calcutta 

8 Jan. et seq. 

General mourning throughout India at the death of 
the duke of Clarence and Avondale . 14 Jan. 

Death of col. sir Robert Groves Sandeman, 29 Jan. ; 
eulogised by the viceroy in council (see Beloo- 
chistan) Feb. 

Increased gloom in the districts threatened by 
famine through want of rain . Feb., March, 

Total employed on relief works, 32,855 

early March, 

Sir Juland Danvers, able government director of 
Indian guaranteed railway companies for fifty 
years, retires 23 March, 

Famine relief works ; persons employed ; Madras, 
48,000 ; Bombay 2,000 ; Bengal, 17,000 ; Burma, 
28,000 ; Mysore, 13,000 ; Rajputana, 33,000 

reported 2 April, 

The Hunza-Nagar rising suppressed, and order re- 
stored reported 25 March, 

Desultory war with the Lushai tribes, the British • 
under Mr. M'C'abe generally successful 

March, April, 

The Lushais attack the tea-estate at Boorooncherra 
and kill 52 coolies . . reported 4 April, 

Advance of capt. Shakespeare . . . April, 

Death of gen. sir Lewis Felly, M.P., an able official, 
aged 67 22 April, 

Report of the Public service commission ; import- 
ant changes recommended . about 24 April, 

Extensive rising of the Lushai tribes ; several con- 
flicts, villages destroyed, about 24 April ; several 
chiefs surrender to Mr. M'Cabe, about 26 April ; 
tranquillity gradually restored . . 3-29 May 

Rain in Bengal . . . end of April, May, 

71,000 total on relief works . . .12 May, 

Themaharajah of Ulwar, enlightened and loyal, dies 

22 May, 

His heir 10 years old ; his minister assassinated 

reported 26 May, 

Indian Currency Association formed to promote 
the abolition of silver as the sole standard in 
India May, 

The maharajah gaekwar of Baroda dines with the 
queen at Windsor (see above, 1874-5) . 4 July, 

Good monsoon ; famine averted ; relief woiks 
diminished July, 

Value of the ru pee reduced to is. 3d. ; great anxiety, 

Aug. 

GOVERNORS-GENERAL OF INDIA, (fee* 

Warren Hastings assumes the govt. . . 13 April, 

Sir John Maepherson 1 Feb. 

Lord Cornwallis 12 Sept. 

Sir John Shore (afterwards lord Teignmouth) 28 Oct. 
Lord (afterwards marquis) Cornwallis again : he 

relinquished the appointment. 

Sir Alured Clarke 6 April, 

Lord Mornington (afterwards Marquis Wellesley) 

17 May, 
Marquis Cornwallis again . . . .30 July, 
Sir George Hilaro Barlow . . . .10 Oct. 

Lord Minto 3I July, 

Earl of Moira, afterwards marquis of Hastings, 4 Oct. 

Hon. John Adam 13 Jan. 

George Canning, relinquished the appointment 
William, Lord (afterwards earl) Amherst. 1 Aug. 
Hon. W. Butterworth Bayley . . 13 March, 
Lord Win. Cavendish Bentinck . . 4 July, 

[This nobleman became the first governor-general 
of India, under the act 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 85 : 
Aug 28, 1833.] 
Sir Charles Theophilus Metcalfe (afterwards lord 

Metcalfe) 2Q March, 

William, lord Heytesbury ; did not proceed . . 
George, lord Auckland (afterwards earl of Auckland) 

4 March, 
Edward, lord Ellenborough . . 28 Feb 

William Wilberforce Bird ... 15 June, 
Sir Henry (afterwards viscount) Hardinge, 23 July, 
James-Andrew, earl (afterwards marquis) of Dal- 

housie 12 Jan. 1848 

* Several of these appointments were provisional, as, 
for instance, sir Alured Clarke, sir George Hilaro Barlow, 
hon. William Butterworth Bayley, William Wilberforce 
Bird, &c. The appointments of governors-general were, 
of course, of earlier date than their assumption of office. 



1772 
17S5 



1805 

1807 
1813 
1823 



1835 



1836 
1842 
1S44 



Charles John, viscount Canning, appointed, July, 1855 
Proclaimed the first viceroy throughout India, 1 Nov. 1858 
James, earl of Elgin, appointed, Aug. 1861 ; died 

20 Nov. 1863 
Sir John Lawrence appointed . Dec. ,, 

Richard Southwell, earl of Mayo (see Mayo) ap- 
pointed. [Assassinated 8 Feb. 1872.] . Oct. 1868 
Thomas George Baring, lord Northbrook . Feb. 1872 

Edward Robert Bulwer Lytton, lord Lytton, took 

oath at Calcutta 12 April, 1876 

George Frederick Samuel Robinson, marquis of 

Ripon Maj', 1880 

Frederick Temple Hamilton-Blackwood, earl of 
Dufferin, Sept. 1884 ; created marquis of Dufferin 
and Ava .... T2 Nov. 1888 

Henry Charles Keith Fitz-maurice, marquis of 
Lansdowne, installed . . . .10 Dec. ,, 

INDIA COMPANY, EAST. The first com- 
mercial intercourse of the English with the East 
Indies was a private adventure of three ships fitted 
out in 1591. Only one of them reached India; and, 
after a voj age of three years, the commander, cap- 
tain Lancaster, was brought home in another ship, 
the sailors having seized his own ; hut his in- 
formation gave rise to a mercantile voyage, and the 
establishment of a company, whose first charter, im 
Dec. 1600, was renewed in 1609, 1657, 1661, 1693, 
and 1744. Its stock in 1600 consisted of 72,000^., 
when it fitted out four ships. Meeting with success, 
it continued to trade, and India stock sold at 500^. 
for a share of 100^. in 1683. 
A new company (the "English") was chartered 5 
Sept. 1698, and the old (the "London") suspended 
from trading for three years ; the two were united 1702 
New East India company established . . . . 1708 
Privileges of the company continued till 1783 . . 1744 
Affairs of the company were brought before parlia- 
ment, and a committee exposed a series of in- 
trigues and crime Aug. 1772 

As remedial measures two acts passed, (one autho- 
rised a loan of i,ooo,oooZ. to the company; the 
other celebrated as the India bill) effected most 
important changes in the constitution of the 
company and its relations to India. A governor- 
general was appointed to reside in Bengal, to 
which the other presidencies were then made 
subordinate ; a supreme court of judicature was 
instituted at Calcutta: the salary of the governor 
was fixed at 25,000^. per year ; that of the council 
at io,oooZ. each ; and of the chief judge at 8000J. ; 
the affairs of the company were controlled ; all the 
departments were re-organised, and all the terri- 
torial correspondence was henceforth to be laid 
before the British ministry . . . June, 1773 

Mr. Pitt's bill appointing the Board of Control 

(tohich see), passed 18 May, 1784 

The company's charter was renewed for 20 years . 1793 

Trade with India thrown open 18 13 

Trade to China opened ; Charter renewed till 1854 . 1S33 
The government of India was continued in the 
hands of the company till parliament should 

otherwise provide 1853 

In consequence of the mutiny of 1857, anc ^ the dis- 
appearance of the company's army, the govern- 
ment of India was transferred to the crown, the 
Board of Control was abolished, and a Council of 
State for India instituted by the act 21 & 22 Vict. 
c. 106, which received the royal assent, 2 Aug. * 1858 
The company's political power ceased on 1 Sept., 
and the queen was proclaimed as Queen of Great 
Britain and the Colonies, &c. , in the principal 
places in India, amid much enthusiasm 1 Nov. ,, 
The company to be dissolved, 1 June, 1874, and 



* Lord Palmerston brought in a bill for the purpose on 
12 Feb., which was accepted by the house on 18 Feb. 
He resigned on the following day, and the bill dropped. 
A similar bill was introduced by Mr. Disraeli on 12 March ; 
but many of its details being objected to, it was with- 
drawn. On lord John Russell's proposition, the house 
proceeded to consider the matter by way of resolutions ; 
on 17 June, lord Stanley brought in the above mentioned 
bill, being the third on the subject introduced during the 
session. 



INDIA, COUNCIL OF. 



509 



INDIANS. 



dividends redeemed, bj' the " East India Stock 
Dividend Redemption Act," passed . 15 May, 1873 
The East India-House built 1726; enlarged and a 
new front erected, 1799 ; sold with the furniture, 
1861 ; pulled down in Sept. and Oct. . . . 1862 

INDIA, COUNCIL OF, established by act of 
parliament, 2 Aug. 1858, in the place of the board 
of control (which see). It consists of 15 members 
(salary 1200I. a year), eight of whom were appointed 
by the queen, and seven elected by the directors of 
the East India company. The members may not 
sit in parliament. The council met first on 3 Sept. 
1858, when lord Stanley, secretary of state for India, 
presided. The members of the first council are 
recorded below. Members were added to the 
council by an act, passed 20 June, 1892. 



Charles Mills. 
John Shepherd. 
Boss D. Mangles. 
William J. Eastwick, 



ELECTED. 

Sir J. Weir Hogg. 
Elliot Macnaghten. 
Henry T. Prinsep. 



APPOINTED. 



Sir Frederick Carrie. 
Sir Henry Rawlinson. 
Sir R. Hussey Vivian. 
J. Pollard Willoughby. 



Sir John Lawrence. 
Sir Henry Montgomery. 
Sir Proby Cautley, and 
Win. Arbuthnot. 



queen Victoria so pn> 
1876, in India, 1 Jan. 



INDIA, Empress of 

claimed in London, 1 May 

1877. Order of the Indian Empire instituted, 

1 Jan. 1878. Enlarged, 15 Feb. 1887. 

INDIA MUSEUM, The, was proposed by 
sir Charles Wilkins and approved by the East India 
company in 1798. The valuable collections were 
removed from Leadenhall-street to Fife house, 
behind the chapel royal, Whitehall, and opened 
24 July, 1861 ; removed to the East India 
museum, which was opened to the public May, 
1869 ; removed to South Kensington, opened June, 
1875 ; closed 25 Oct. 1879, and the collections re- 
moved to Kew Gardens Museum, there re-opened 
17 May, 1880. 

INDIAN ASSOCIATION (National), to 
promote social progress and education in India, was 
established under the patronage of the princess of 
Wales in 1870. Annual meetings held 1892. 

INDIANA, a western state of North America. 
It was included in Ohio till 1801; was constituted 
a territory in 1809, and admitted into the Union 
II Dec. 1816. Capital, Indianapolis; popula'ion, 
1890, 105,436. Population, 18S0, 1,978,301 ; 1890, 
2,192,404. 

At a great fire at Indianapolis about 13 firemen 
were killed and 19 injured — estimated loss 200,000 
dollars '17 March, 1890 

By the burning of an hospital at Indianapolis, 19 
persons perish 22 Jan. 1892 

INDIAN CIVIL SERVICE COLLEGE, 

established at Cooper's hill, Surrey, 1870. 

INDIAN INSTITUTE, Oxford; promoted 
by professor Monier Williams, 1875 et seq. ; 
established 1878 ; first stone of the building laid, 

2 May, 1883; opened, 14 Oct. 1884. 

The Institute has received liberal donations from 
Indian princes ; reported .... Dec. 1891 

INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS, ad- 
vocating legislative and administrative changes in 
favour of the natives, met at Bombay, end of Dec. 
1885, and annually since. Not favoured by Ma- 
hometans. See India, 1885 et seq. 

INDIANS occupying the south-western parts 
of the United States, termed Indian territory, in 
direct connexion with the government, were num- 



bered at 239,506 in 1861; 261,912 in 1881 ; 244,704 
in 1 89 1. The larger tribes are the Cherokees (22,000), 
the Chocktaws (18,000), the Creeks (13,550), and 
the Chickasaws (5000); the Sioux (30,600). A 
large proportion are in comfortable circum- 
stances, and have schools and churches ; other tribes 
are the Delawares, Sacs, Foxes, Shawnees, Sioux, 
and Ioways. During the American civil war in 1861, 
the Choctaws joined the confederates, who per- 
mitted two Choctaw delegates to sit in congress ; 
the first being Sampson Folsom and Eastman Lo- 
man ; but the principal chief of the Cherokees, on 
4 May, 1861, issued a proclamation of neutrality, 
which was maintained with great difficulty. In a war 
provoked by outrages general Sheridan defeated the 
Indians, and they surrendered unconditionally Dec. 
1868. Negotiations undertaken by the Quakers had 
no effect, and the war was renewed June, 1869. 
As a chastisement for murders and other outrages 
major Baker killed 173 Indians, including women 
and children, Jan. 1870. In June following a 
deputation of eminent chiefs was received by the 
president at Washington, and promises and presents 
were made to them. On 1 Oct. 1869 prince Arthur 
visited the villages of the Canadian Indians, and 
was made a chief of the "Six Nations." A depu- 
tation of Indian chiefs were well received by the 
president at Washington, Jan. 1870. A meeting of 
delegates from various tribes met at Ocmulgee, 5-17 
June, 1871, and agreed to a constitution for the 
common government by means of a senate and par- 
liament representing 17 tribes of 60,000 people; see 
Modoc. 

Professor Marsh reports to the president of the 
United States the corruption and fraudulent 
conduct of the "Indian Ring," the officials em- 
ployed to pay compensation, and deal with the 
Indians (this said to cause war of 1876) ; cor- 
roborated by gen. Custer .... July, 1875 
[Bishop Butler, an American, said that if the In- 
dians were treated as fairly as they are in Canada 
there would be no wars, 1878.] 
Thirteen Iroquois and 14 Canadians performed the 
Canadian national game " La Crosse," before the 
Queen at Windsor ... 27 June, 1876 

Gen. Geo. A. Custer, a brave, able officer, attacks 
about 2,500 Sioux Indians, led by Sitting Bull, an 
able chief, on Little Horn river, Montana, in a 
ravine ; he and his family and nearly all his 
force destroyed (275 killed, 60 wounded) 25 June, ,, 
Urgent measures taken by the United States govern- 
ment, Sheridan put in command . . July, ,, 
Sheridan unsuccessful ; commissioners arrange a 
treaty with the Sioux Indians to remove for self- 

sustentation 7 — 27 Oct. ,, 

War going on ; gen. Howard opposed to an able 

chief, Joseph July, 1877 

The tribe "Nez Perces ". defeat the U.S. troops in 
Idaho, and kill about 33, during and after the 

battle about 14 Sept. ,, 

Great conference of Indian chiefs with president 
Hayes, at Washington ; they accept terms 

end of Sept. ,, 
"Sitting Bull" and Sioux Indians defeated in a 
raid retire to Canada [when pardoned returned 

to his tribes] July, 1879 

Fighting witli Indians at Mill creek, near Rawlins, 
in Colorado ; 17 whites and major Thornbury 
killed, 29 Sept. ; gen. Merritt entrenched ; said 
to be surrounded ; reinforced ; Indians retreat 

14 Oct. „ 
200 Apache Indians turn and kill 32 of the pursuing 

whites 9 Nov. ,, 

Indians in Canada. In 1883, 110,505 ; in 1892, 
121,638 ; numbers increasing ; condition im- 
proving and prosperous 1892 

The Sioux sell to the United States 11,000,000 acres, 
part of their Dakota reservation, for 14,000,000 
dollars ; the Chippewa agree to sell 4,000,000 
acres of their lands .... Aug. 1889 
A rising of the Sioux Indians, about 25,000, in Bad- 
Lands (the Mauvaises Terres of the French pio- 



INDIANS. 



510 



INDUCTION. 



neers), in South Dakota, stated to be suffering by- 
want, in consequence of the reduced government 
rations ; they are incited by their fanatical medi- 
cine men, who predict the coming of a conquer- 
ing Messiah, and begin their ghost war-dances ; 
they attack the outlying white settlers and 
friendly Indians ; marauding and outrages ensue, 
causing great alarm ; troops and supplies of food 
sent to the Dakota frontier ; the Sioux are soon 
joined by other tribes, Nov. ; col. Wm. F. Cody, 
" Buffalo Bill " (see American Exhibition), sent to 
the front ...... 23 Nov. 18c 

Gen. Miles, chief, commanding in Dakota aided by 
gen. Brook ; the troops in Missouri, Nebraska, 
Kansas, Dakota, Montana, and Wyoming, ordered 

for active service 25 Nov. ,, 

Rapid advance of troops and cannon into the reser- 
vations ; Little Wound and other Sioux chiefs 

tender submission 26 Nov. ,, 

Father Jule, a missionary, visits the Indian forti- 
fied camp, to dissuade them from war ; the older 
chiefs inclined to yield, the younger determined ; 

he returned 6 Dec. „ 

The hostile Indians said to be demoralised by a 

display of troops and cannon . . . 12 Dec. „ 
The old Sioux chief Sitting Bull (see above, 1876-7) 
captured by the police, 14 Dec, and in an 
attempt to rescue him, his son Crow Foot and 
himself are killed with others, and his camp is 
occupied by the troops . . . .15 Dec. ,, 
Gen. Miles' head-quarters at Rapid city . 18 Dec. ,, 
Red Cloud, at a great council, recommends sur- 
render, and warns resisters . . 19 Dec. ,, 
Battle of Wounded Knee Creek. 
Desiring to revenge Sitting Bull's death, the re- 
mains of his band join Big Foot's band on Chey- 
enne River ; they start lor Badlands, and are 
joined by other Indians, making about 160 war- 
riors in all ; they are met by the 7th cavalry 
under lieut. Hawthorne, and artillery under 
major Whiteside, and made to surrender, 28 Dec. ; 
in the evening major Forsyth with other troops 
arrives. While pretending to surrender their 
arms, at the command of major Whiteside, the 
Indians suddenly attack the dismounted troopers, 
and a murderous hand-to-hand .light ensues ; the 
Indians are joined by others, and additional 
troops arrive, the Indians flee to the ravines, are 
pursued by the artillery, much slaughter ensues ; 
during the confused fight, Big Foot and his 
band were nearly exterminated, together with 
many women and children (about. 200). Capt. 
Wallace, lieuts. Casey and Mann, and several 
non-commissioned officers and privates were 

killed 29 Dec. , 

Vigorous attack on the Pine Ridge Agency, re- 
pulsed, 29 Dec. et seq. ; sharp skirmish in which 
nearly 3,000 Indians are dispersed by major 

Forsyth 29, 30 Dec. , 

The great body of 3,000 Indians near Pine Ridge 
Agency, gradually surrounded by the 2nd In- 
fantry regiment under gen. Brook 2 Jan. et seq. i2 
A sharp Indian attack on supply waggons repulsed 

5 Jan. , 
Kansas and other states called on to supply troops 

7 Jan. , 
Gen. Miles receives the submission of the rebel 
chiefs of the Brules ; provisions sent to the 

Indians 14 Jan. , 

About 4,000 Indians, nearly surrounded by the 
troops, come in and surrender their arms . . , 
15 Jan. et seq. , 
Gen. Miles, in an address, commends his troops, 

and declares the war at an end . . 19 Jan. , 
He takes 40 Indians and also some friendly chiefs to 
Washington, Feb. ; they have a conference with 
Mr. Noble, secretary of the Interior, 7 Feb., and 
president Harrison . . . .12 Feb. , 

Proposed enlistment of about 2,000 young Indians, 

as separate companies in the army about 10 Feb. , 
The delegates return to Pine Ridge from Washing- 
ton, much dissatisfied with their reception ; their 
loyal chief " American Horse," comi>lains bitterly 
of the injustice and harshness of the government 
and the officials, but speaks well of gen. Miles 

23 Feb. , 



Revolt of the Chippewa and other Indians in Min- 
nesota and Arizona, reported 12 July ; defensive 
measures ordered by government . July, 1891 

Great mining explosion at Krebs, in the Indian 
territory ; about 70 men killed . . 7 Jan. 1892 

INDIA RUBBER, see Caoutchouc. 

INDICTION, a Roman term original ly applied 
to a tribute of corn, paid every fifteen years, and to 
the time at which it was paid. The first examples 
in the Theodosian code are of the reign of Con- 
stantius II., who died 361. — In memory of the great 
victory obtained by Constantine over Maxentius, 
8 Cal. Oct. 312, the council of Nice ordained that 
the accounts of years should be no longer kept by 
the Olympiads, but by the Indiction, which has its 
epocha 1 Jan. 313. It was first used by the Lathi 
church in 342. 

INDIGO, the dye obtained from the woad 
plant, isatis linctoria, was used by the Egyptians, 
and other ancient nations ; and the processes are 
described by Pliny. After the passage of the Cape of 
Good Hope, in 1497, it was gradually superseded by 
the eastern indigo, got from the indigofera. The 
mention of indigo occurs in English statutes in 1581- 
Its cultivation was begun in Carolina in 1747. The 
quantity imported into Great Britain in 1840 was 



5,831, 269IDS.; in 1845, 10,127,488 lbs. 



1850, 
1861, 
1869, 
1871, 
in 1876, 



70,482 cwt. ; in 1859, 63,237 cwt. _ 
83,109 cwt.; in 1866, 74,256 cwt.; 

86.721 cwt.; in 1870, 79,255 cwt.; 
106,307 cwt. ; in 1874, 85,707 cwt. 

88.722 cwt. ; in 1877, 60,640 cwt. ; in 1879, 80,146 
cwt.; in 1880, 58,283 cwt.; in 1881, 81,088 cwt.; 
in 1882, 95,272 cwt. ; in 18S3, 100,243 CVf *- '■> i n 
1884, 104,423 cwt. ; in 1885, 94.314 cwt. ; in 1887, 
76,700 cwt. ; in 1888, 78,128 cwt.; in 1889, 90,238 
ewt. ; in 1890, 81,854 cwt. 

After long continued experiments, especially by 
prof. A. Baeyer, the dye has been prepared artifi- 
cially from its chemical elements in coal tar 1869-80 

Professor H. E. Roscoe, at the Royal Institution, 
proved that the properties of the artificial and 
natural indigo were identical . . 27 May, 1881 

INDIRECT CLAIMS, see Alabama, Wash- 
ington. 

INDIUM, a metal discovered in the arsenical 
pyrites of Freiberg by F. Reich and T. Richter in 
1863. Its name is due to its giving an indigo blue 
ray in its spectrum. 

INDIVIDUALIST CLUB, proposed to be 
formed for the physical and political benefit of the 
working classes, on the principle of self-help, Feb. 
1885. 

INDORE, a province of British India; the 
principal native rulers have been the Mahratta 
chiefs, named Holkar, rivals of the Scindiahs at 
Gwalior. Rao Holkar received a grant of territory 
from the British in 17^3. After severe conflicts the 
Mahratta chiefs were finally quelled in 1818. The 
town of Indore, founded in 1 767, was destroyed by 
Scindiah after a battle on 14 Oct. 1801. The 
maharajah Shivaja Rao Holkar died 17 June, 1886. 
Succeeded by his son, Tuckaji Rao Holkar, who was 
present at the queen's jubilee in London in 1887. 
Indore was visited by the viceroy, the marquis of 
Lansdowne, 24 Nov. 1891. Population, 1881, 
i,055> 21 7- 

INDUCTION of electric currents, discovered 
by Faraday, and announced in his "Experimental 
Researches," published in 1831-2. Ruhmkorff's 
magneto-electric induction coil was constructed in 
1850; See under Electricity. 



INDUCTIVE PHILOSOPHY. 



511 



INFIRMARIES. 



INDUCTIVE PHILOSOPHY, based on 
the results of observations and experiments, really 
common sense, is especially expounded by Bacon in 
the second book of his " Novum Organon" pub- 
lished 1620. Wm. Harvey (1578-1657) endeavoured 
"to search out the secrets of nature by the way of 
experiment." See Blood. 

INDULGENCES in the early church were 
the moderation of ecclesiastical punishment. The 
papal system for the absolute pardon of sin, com- 
menced by Leo. III. about 800, were granted in 
the nth century by Gregory VII., and by Urban 
II.,. and by others, in the 12th century as rewards 
to the crusaders. Clement V. was the first pope 
who made public sale of indulgences, 1313. In 
1517, Leo X. published general indulgences 
throughout Europe, and the resistance to them led 
to the Reformation. 

INDUSTRIAL DWELLINGS, see 

Artisans. 

INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITIONS, in Great 
Britain, are now frequent. One for South London 
was opened at Lambeth, I March, 1864; for North 
London, by earl Russell, at the Agricultural hall, 
Islington, 17 Oct. 1864; for West London, at the 
Floral hall, Covent-garden, 1 May, 1865; for the 
city of London, at Guildhall, 6 March, 1866; one 
was opened at York, 24 July, 1866; and several 
since. The "Workmen's International Exhibition, 
Agricultural Hall, London, was opened 16 July; 
closed, 31 Oct. 1870. 

INDUSTRIAL PROPERTY; an inter- 
national conference for its protection was opened at 
Paris, 6 March, 1883 ; third, at Rome, 30 April, 
1886 ; at Madrid, 1890. 

INDUSTRIAL REMUNERATION 
CONFERENCES, at Prince's Hall, Piccadilly, 
London, held 28-30 Jan. 1885. Papers read on the 
relation between Capital and Labour, &c. by lord 
Bramwell, sir Thomas Brassey, and others. 

INDUSTRIAL AND PROVIDENT 
SOCIETIES ACTS, 1852 and 1862, were 
amended by acts passed 1867, 1871, and 1876. 

INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS ACT, 21 & 22 

Vict. c. 48 (1857) was enacted to make better pro- 
vision for the care and education of vagrant, desti- 
tute, and disorderly children. Another act was 
passed, 1861. These acts were consolidated by an 
act passed in Aug. 1866. Forty-seven of these 
schools had been certified under these acts up to 
29 Sept. 1864. The act was extended to Ireland, 
1868. England and Wales, 1872, 71 schools (4870 
boys, 1516 girls) ; in 1890, 133 schools. 

.INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES, see Co-opera- 
tive Societies. 

INDUSTRIAL VILLAGES, the formation 
of these by the removal of workmen from towns, 
was proposed at a meeting of the Society of Arts, 
26 June, 1885. Annual meeting, 26 July, 1888. 

INDUSTRY, see Scientific. 
INEBRIATES, see Drunkards. 

INFALLIBILITY OF THE POPE, in 

regard to faith and morals, was decreed by the Va- 
tican Council, and promulgated, 18 July, 1870. The 
doctrine was much opposed in Germany, and led to 
the constitution of the church named "Old Ca- 
tholics," which see. Mr. Gladstone's pamphlets, 
"The Vatican Decrees in their bearing on Civil 



Allegiance," published Nov. 1874, and "Vati- 
canism," in Feb. 1875. 

INFANTICIDE, especially female, was very 
prevalent in barbarous countries. Lord Macartney 
stated that 20,000 infants were killed annually; it 
is now gradually decreasing in India. On 12 Nov_ 
185 1, Mr. Raikes induced the Chohan chiefs to 
agree to resolutions against it, and a great meeting; 
in the Punjab was held for the same purpose, 
14 Nov. 1853. Much suspicion was caused in Lon- 
don in 1867 through the deaths of children farmed 
out to improper persons. The agitation revived,, 
June, 1870. Margaret Waters was convicted of the- 
murder of John Cowen, an illegitimate infant, by 
poison and neglect, 23 Sept. 1870. She had adopted) 
about 40 children, receiving a few pounds as pre- 
mium; in four years, many had died. John and 
Catherine Barns, of Tranmere, near Birkenhead, 
convicted of manslaughter 29 Oct. 1879 > a gross- 
case. See Trials, 1879. The Infant Life Protec- 
tion act passed 25 July, 1872. Female infanticide- 
prohibited in China about June, 1873. 

INFANTRY, foot soldiers ; their organisations 
much improved during the wars of Charles V. and 
Francis I., in the 16th century. The British army- 
comprised 99 regiments of regular infantry in 1858,, 
when the Canadians raised a regiment which is 
termed the 100th. The number, now 109, includes- 
the nine regiments formerly in the pay of the East 
India company, and several colonial corps. Marshal 
Soult (or marshal Bugeaud) said, "The British 
infantry is the finest in the world : happily there- 
is not much of it." In 1891, 69,274. 

INFANTS' RELIEF ACT, passed 7 Aug, 
1874, to amend the law relating to contracts niade- 
by persons under age. 

The powers of wives and widows in respect to the carfe 
and training of their children, were somewhat en- 
larged in 1839, more so in 1873, and very much more; 
by a bill brought in by Mr. James Bryce, read "a second, 
time 26 March, 1884. 

Guardianship of Infants Act passed, 1886. 

INFANT SCHOOLS began in New Lanark,, 
Scotland, in 1815 ; in London in 1818. 

INFECTIOUS DISEASES. By an act. 
passed 30 Aug. 1889, notification of any person? 
suffering from infectious disease is required to be? 
given by the nearest relative or any person in 
charge, and also by the medical attendant to the- 
medical officer of health of the district. An act to* 
prevent the spread of infectious disease was passed 
4 Aug. 1890. 

INFERNAL MACHINES, see France, 1800, 
1835, and 1858; Baltic, note; Dynamite ; Russia? 
1 880- 1 ; Liverpool, 1881 ; Uxplosives. 

INFIRMARIES. Ancient Rome had no- 
houses for the cure of the sick ; diseased persons- 
were carried to the temple of JEsculapius for cure- 
Institutions for the accommodation of travellers,, 
the indigent, and sick were founded by the em- 
peror Julian about 362; and infirmaries or hospitals- 
were frequently built to cathedrals and monas- 
teries. The emperor Louis II. caused infirmaries 
situated on mountains to be visited, 855. In Jeru- 
salem the knights and brothers attended on the 
sick. There were hospitals for the sick at Constan- 
tinople, in the nth century. The oldest mention; 
of physicians and surgeons established in infirm- 
aries occurs in 1437. Bcckmann ; see Hospitals, 
Parish workhouse infirmaries established, 1867. 



INFLUENZA. 



512 



INQUISITION. 



INFLUENZA, a name given in Italy about 
1741 to an epidemic febrile catarrh with variations, 
probably known to the ancient*. 
It prevailed in Europe in 1510, and has since frequently 
appeared, generally commencing in Russia and 
■.thence spreading over the continent. It appeared in 
JBritain in 1762 and frequently since, especially in 
1830-1, 1833, 1836-7, and 1847. It appeared at Paris in 
1866-7, and at Berlin, 1874-5. In Oct. 1889, it was 
severe in St. Petersburg, and thence spread over 
Europe, reaching Great Britain, Canada and the 
United States N.A., Jan. 1890, causing indirectly the 
•deaths of several eminent persons. In the spring, the 
•disease was severe in India and Australia. In 1891 
the disease was severe in the west of the United States 
N.A., and in London and other parts of England, and 
also on the continent. The disease reappeared in Jan. 
1892, in much the same localities. In London the 
general mortality was much increased, all classes 
being attacked. The death of the duke of Clarence 
■and Avondale, 14 Jan. 1892, was attributed to pneu- 
monia following influenza. Report of the epidemic of 
1889-90, by Dr. Parsons, issued by government, about 
.3 July, 1891. Special government inquiry into the 
disease ordered, early Feb. 1892. 

INFOEMEES, upon penal statutes, com- 
pounding with defendants without leave of the 
■court, were punishable with fine and pillory, by 
18 Eliz. c. 5 (1576). Their share of a penalty was 
regulated by 2 & 3 Vict. c. 71 (1839). 

INFUSOEIA, see Animalcules. 

INGESTEE HALL, Staffordshire, destroyed 
by fire 12 Oct. 1882. It was built in 1676. Many 
valuable portraits, &c. were destroyed. 

INGOUE, a river rising in the Caucasus and 
falling into the Black Sea. Omar Pasha, marching 
to the relief of Ears, crossed this river on 6 Nov. 
1855, with 10,000 men, and attacked the Russians, 
12,000 strong, who, after a struggle, retreated with 
the loss of 400 men. The Turks had 68 killed and 
242 wounded. Kars, however, was not saved. 

INK. The ancient black inks were composed of 
soot and ivory black, and Vitruvius and Pliny men- 
tion lamp-black; but they had ink of various 
colours, as red, gold, silver, and purple. Red ink 
was made of vermilion and gum. Indian ink was 
brought from China, and must have been in use by 
the people of the east from the earliest ages. Invis- 
ible, or Sympathetic Inks, were known at early 
periods. Ovid (a.d. 2) teaches young women to 
write with new milk. Receipts for preparing in- 
visible ink were given by Peter Borel, in 1653, and 
by Le Mort, in 1669. Beckmann. 

INKEEMANN (Crimea) . The Russian army 
(about 40,000) having received reinforcements, and 
being encouraged by the presence of the granddukes 
Michael and Nicholas, attacked the British (8000) 
near the old fort of Inkermann, before daybreak, 
5 Nov. 1854. They were kept at bay for six hours 
till the arrival of 6000 French. The Russians were 
then repulsed, leaving 9000 killed and wounded. 
The loss of the allies was 462 killed, 1952 wounded, 
and 191 missing. Sir George Cathcart, and generals 
Strangways, Goldie, and Torrens, were among the 
6lain. On 15 Nov. 1855, an explosion of about 
100,000 lbs. of gunpowder occurred near Inker- 
mann, and caused great loss of life. 

INLAND NAVIGATION, see Canals. 

INLAND EEVENUE BOAED was con- 
stituted in Feb. 1849. It comprises the boards of 
Excise, Stamps, and Taxes {which see). The law 
respecting the inland revenue amended 1871. 



INNOCENTS' DAY, 28 Dec. in the western 
church ; 29 Dec. in the Greek or eastern church ; 
see Childermas. 

INNS at Rome were regulated by laws ; and 
Edward III. enacted that they should be subjected 
to inquiry, 1353. See Taverns, and Victuallers. 

INNS OF COUET (London) were established 
at different periods, in some degree as colleges for 
teaching the law. Annual revenue in 1872 said to 
be about 25,000^. 
The Temple founded, and the church built by 

Knights Templars 1185 

The Inner and Middle Temple made inns of law 

about 1340 ; the Outer about (Stow) . . . 1560 
Barnard's Inn, an inn of Chancery (on sale, 49,400^. 

refused 20 June, 1888, let to Art Workers' Guild, 

Oct. 1888) 1445 

Clement's Inn before 1478 

Clifford's Inn, 20 Edw. Ill 1345 

Furnival's Inn, 5 Eliz 1563 

Gray's Inn, 32 Edw. Ill . 1357 

Lincoln's Inn, 4 Edw. II 1310 or 1312 

Lyon's Inn 1420 

New Inn, 1 Hen. VII 1485 

Serjeants' Inn, Fleet Street 1429 

Serjeants' Inn, Chancery-lane (sold for 57,000?. 23 

Feb. 1877) 1666 

Staples Inn, 4 Hen. V 1415 

Thavies' Inn, 10 Hen. VIII. 1519 

Staple Inn, Clement's Inn, and Clifford's Inn said 

to he sold to builders Dec. 1884 

INNSBEUCK, capital of the Tyrol, captured 
by Maurice of Saxony in 1552 ; by the Bavarians 
in 1703 ; by the French and Bavarians, 1805. 
Much fighting took place in 1809, and Innsbruck 
changed masters several times, being finally taken 
by the Austrians, 12 Aug. The emperor Francis 
Joseph met queen Victoria here, 23 April, 1888. 

INOCULATION, see Small Fox. Lady Mary 
Wortley Montagu introduced inoculation from 
smallpox to England from Turkey. In 1 718 she 
had her son inoculated at Adrianople with success. 
She was allowed to have it first tried in England on 
seven condemned criminals, 1721 ; and in 1722 two 
of the royal family were inoculated. The practice 
was preached against by many of the bishops and 
clergy until 1760. Dr. Mead practised inoculation 
very successfully up to 1754, and Dr. Dimsdale of 
London, inoculated Catherine II., empress of 
Russia, in 1768. Of 5964 who were inoculated in 
1797-99, on ^y three died. An inoculation hospital 
was established in 1746. Vaccine inoculation was 
introduced by Dr. Jenner, 21 Jan. 1799; he had 
discovered its virtue in 1796, and had been making 
experiments during the intermediate three years. 
Inoculation was forbidden by law in 1840. See 
Vaccination, Sheep, and Hydrophobia. 

INQUESTS, see Coroner. 

INQUISITION or Holy Office. Pre- 
vious to Constantine (306), heresy and spiritual 
offences were punished by excommunication only ; 
but shortly after his death capital punishments 
were added, and inquisitors were appointed by 
Theodosius, 382. Priscillian was put to death in 384 
by the emperor Maximus. Justinian decreed the 
doctrine of the four holy synods as to the holy scrip- 
tures and their canons to be observed as laws, 529 ; 
hence the penal code against heretics. About 800 
the power of the western bishops was enlarged, and 
courts were established for trying and punishing spi- 
ritual offenders,even with death; the punishment be- 
ing termed in Spain auto-da-fe, " an act of faith." 
In the 12th century many heresies arose, and during 
the crusades against the Albigenses, Gregory IX., 



INSANITY. 



513 



INTENDMENT OF CEIMES. 



in 1233, established by rules the inquisitorial 
missions sent out by Innocent III., 1210-15, and 
committed them to the Dominicans. Pietro da 
Verona (styled Peter Martyr), the first inquisitor 
who burnt heretics, assassinated by an accused gon- 
falonier, 6 April, 1252, was canonized. 

Pierre de Castelnau sent against the Albigenses, 
1210 ; St. Dominic made the first inquisitor- 
general I2I5 

The Inquisition constituted by Gregory IX. , 1233 ; 
established in Aragon, 1233 ; Venice, 1249 ; 

France, 1255 ; Castile 1290 

The Inquisition revived by a bull . . 1 Nov. 1478 
The Holy Office was reinstituted in Spain by Ferdi- 
nand and Isabella ; Torquemada inquisitor- 
general I4 8 

Nearly 3000 persons burnt in Andalusia, and 17,000 

suffer other penalties .... . 1481 

" Instructions " of the new tribunal promulgated, 

29 Nov. 1484 
New articles were added . . . 1488 & 1498 

Established in Portugal 152b 

The establishment resisted in Naples, and only 
introduced into other parts of Italy with jealous 
limitations by the temporal power . . 1546-7 
New ordinances in 81 articles compiled by the 

inquisitor-general Valclez 1561 

Suppressed in France by edict of Nantes . . . 1598 
Carnesecchi executed at Rome, 1567, and Galileo 
compelled to abjure his philosophical opinions . 
Louis XIV. revoked the edict of Nantes, but re- 
fused to introduce the Inquisition . . . . 1685 
20 persons perish at an auto-da-fe at Goa . -1717 

Gabriel Malagrida, a Jesuit, burnt at Lisbon . . 1761 
A woman accused of making a contract with the 

devil burnt at Seville .... 7 Nov. 1781 
The tribunal abolished in Tuscany and Lombardy . 1787 
Suppressed in Spain by Napoleon, 4 Dec. 1808, and 

by the Cortes , 12 Feb. 1813 

Restored by Ferdinand VII. . . 21 July, 1814 

Finally abolished by the Cortes .... 1820 
[Llorente states that in 236 years the total number 
of persons put to death in Spain by the Inquisi- 
tion was about 32,000 ; 291,000 were subjected to 
other punishments.] 

INSANITY, see Lunatics. 

INSECTS. About 200,000 species known, Jan. 
1877. An exhibition of these creatures, illustrat- 
ing their structure, food, and habits, was opened 
in the gardens of the Tuileries, at Paris, 7 Sept., 
1874; at the Westminster Aquarium, 9 March, 1878 ; 
and in the Zoological gardens, Regent's park, 1881. 
See Entomology. 

INSOLVENCY. The first insolvent act was 
passed in 1649, but it was of limited operation ; a 
number of acts of more extensive operation were 
passed at various periods, and particularly in the 
reign of George III. The benefit of the act known 
as the Great Insolvent Act, was taken in England by 
50,733 insolvents from the time of its passing in 
1814, to March, 1827, a period of thirteen years. 
Since then the acts relating to insolvency' have 
been several times amended. Persons not traders, 
or being traders whose debts are less than 300^., 
might petition the court of bankruptcy, and pro- 
pose compositions, and have pro tern, protection 
from all process against their persons and property, 
by 6 Vict. c. 116 (1842). In 1861, by a new bank- 
ruptcy act, the business of the insolvent debtors' 
court was transferred to the court of bankruptcy ; 
and a number of imprisoned debtors were released 
in Nov. 1861. See Bankrupts. 

INSTITUTE OF France, see Academies 
(Pans). On 25 Oct. 1795, all the Royal Academies, 
viz., the French academy, the academy of inscrip- 
tions and belles lettres, that of the mathematical 
and physical sciences, of the fine arts, and of the 
moral and political sciences, were combined in one 



body, under the title of "Institut National," after- 
wards Royal, Imperial, and again National. 

INSTITUTES, see Code, Actuaries, Agricul- 
ture, Architects, Chemical, Inventors, $c. 

INSTITUTION, see Royal, London, Civil 
Engineers, &c. 

INSUEANCE on Ships and Merchan- 
dise. Suetonius conjectures that Claudius was 
the first contriver of the insurance of ships, 
a.d. 43. 

Insurance in general use in Italy, 1194, and in 
England 1560 

Insurance policies first used in Florence . . . 1523 

The first law relating to insurance was enacted . 1601 

Insurance of houses and goods against Fire, in 
London, began the year following the Great Fire 
of London 1667 

An office set up for insuring houses and buildings, 
chiefly on the plan of Dr. Barton, one of the first 
and most considerable builders of London . . „ 

The first regular office set up in London was the 
Hand-in-Hand 1696 

First Life Insurance Office (the Amicable), esta- 
blished 1706 

Sun fire-office established 1710 

The Sun introduces the double option system (in- 
vented by Mr. Harris Saunders) combining two 
forms of assurance against death and old age, 
announced 1889 

The first Marine Insurance was the Royal Exchange 
Insurance, and the London Insurance . . . 1720 

Duty first laid on insurances of is. 6c?. per 100I. in- 
sured, 1782 ; duty increased 1797 

In 1857, 1,451, 110J. were paid as duty for fire insur- 
ances on property amounting to 72,136,585?. 

A new Commercial Union fire insurance, founded 
in consequence of the increased charges of the 
companies Sept. i86r 

Rate of tax on insurance, reduced from 3s. to is. 6d. 
per cent, on stock in trade, from 13 May, 1864 ; 
on household goods 1865. 

Sea insurance duties reduced . . .31 May, 1867 

Policies of Assurance act (enabling assignees of 
assurances to sue in their own names for policy 
monies), passed .... 20 Aug. „ 

Fire insurance duties totally repealed . 24 June, 1869 

Albert Assurance Company failfor about 8,000,000?. 

Aug. „ 

Acts amending the law respecting life assurance 
companies passed 1870-1-2 

The " People's Provident Assurance Society," established 
2 Sept. 1854; named European Assurance Society , 1869; 
said to have absorbed 44 other societies ; brought 
into chancery, 1871 ; subjected to arbitration by act 
of parliament, 1872 ; first meeting before lord West- 
bury, 22 Oct. 1872 ; successive arbitrators, lord 
Romilly, sir Win. James ; Mr. Francis Reilly (last) ; 
final award signed 2 Sept. 1879. Immense loss to 
shareholders. 

A scheme for the insurance of the lives of its 
sailors, and others, proposed by the Shipping 
Federation, see under Shipping . . April, 1891 

AMOUNT INSURED. 

1782 £130,000,000 

1802. ..... . 220,000,000 

1822. ...... 399,000,000 

1842. ..... . 652,000,000 

1862. ..... 1,007,000,000 

Sum insured in 125 offices, about 338,000,000?. ; ac- 
cumulated life-funds, 94,000,000/. ; premium income 
nearly 11,000,000?. — Board of Trade Report, 1874. 

INSUEEECTIONS, see Conspiracies, Mas- 
sacres, Rebellions, Riots, &c. 

INTELLIGENCE DEPARTMENTS, 

Military, see under Army, 1 April, 1873 ; Naval, 
see under Navy, I Feb. 1887. 

INTENDMENT of Crimes, in cases of 

treason, wounding, burglary, &c, intention proved 
was made as punishable as crime completed, by 7 

L L 



INTEEDICT. 



514 



INUNDATIONS. 



Geo. II. 1734. The rigour was modified by sir 
Eobert Peel's revision of the statutes, 4-10 Geo. IV. 
1823-29. 

INTEEDICT or Ecclesiastical Cen- 
sure, seldom decreed in Europe till the time of 
Gregory VII. 1073, but often afterwards. "When a 
prince was excommunicated, all his subjects re- 
taining their allegiance were excommunicated also, 
and the clergy were forbidden to perform any part 
of divine service, or any clerical duties, save the 
baptism of infants, and taking the confessions of 
dying penitents. In 11 70, pope Alexander put all 
England under an interdict ; and when king John 
was excommunicated in 1208, the kingdom lay 
under a papal interdict for six years. England was 
put under an interdict, on Henry VIII. shaking off 
the pope's supremacy, 1535 ; and pope Sixtus V. 
published a crusade against queen Elizabeth of 
England in 1588 ; see Excommunication. 

INTEEEST, see Usury. The word interest 
was first used in an act of parliament of the 21st 
James I. 1623, wherein it was made to signify a 
lawful increase by way of compensation for the use 
of money lent. The rate fixed by the act was 8^. 
for the use of 100?. for a year, in place of usury at 
10I. before taken. The Commonwealth lowered the 
rate to 61. in 1651 ; confirmed in 1660; and by an 
act of the 13th of queen Anne, 1713, it was reduced 
to 5^. The restraint being found prejudicial to 
commerce was somewhat relaxed in 1839, and was 
totally removed by 17 & 18 Vict. c. 90 (1854). 

INTEEIM OE AUGSBURG, a decree issued 
by the emperor Charles V. in 1548, with the view 
of attempting to reconcile the Catholics and Pro- 
testants, in which it entirely failed. It was revoked 
in 1552. The term Interim has been applied to 
other decrees and treaties. 

INTEEMEDIATE EDUCATION ACT 

for Ireland, passed 16 Aug. 1878. 

INTEEMEZZI, light dramatic entertain- 
ments, introduced between the acts of a tragedy, 
comedy, or grand opera ; of very ancient origin. 
They became more important in the 16th century. 
Those connected with Bardi's " Amico JFido," 
1589, were very fine. 

INTEEMITTENT FILTEATION of 

Sewage, a process much advocated by Professor E. 
Frankland and others, in 1875, and stated to have 
been successful at Merthyr Tydvil since 1872. 

INTEENATIONAL AFEICAN ASSO- 
CIATION, see Congo. 

INTEENATIONAL, see under Chess, 
Cholera, Copyright, Education, Electricity, Exhi- 
bitions, Geneva, Havre, Horticulture, Literary, 
Statistics, Scientific, Working-men, and Wounded. 

INTEENATIONAL LAW. See Neutral 

Powers. 

The professorship of international law, at Cambridge, 
endowed by bequest of Dr. Win. Whewell, master of 
Trinity College, 1867. 

The Association for the Reform and Codification of the 
Law of Nations first met at Brussels, 10 Oct. 1873 ; 
Geneva, 2-5 Sept. 1874 ; The Hague, Sept. 1875 ; 
Bremen, 1876; Antwerp, 30 Aug.— 3 Sept. 1877; 
Frankfort, about 20 Aug. 1878 ; London, n Aug. 1879 ; 
Berne, 24 xVug. 1880; Cologne, 16-19 Au S- 1881 ; Liver- 
pool, about 15 Aug. 1882; Turin, 11 Sept. 1882; Milan, 
11 Sept. 1883 ; London, July, 1887 ; Liverpool, end of 
Aug. 1890. 

The Institute of International Law was organized at 
Ghent by Dr. Lieber, M. Jaquemyns, and M Moy- 
nier, in 1873. It has since met at Geneva, 1874 ; 



the Hague, 1875 ; Zurich, 1876 ; Paris, 1878 ; Brus- 
sels, Sept. 1879; Oxford, 6-10 Sept. 1880; Turin, 1882; 
Munich, 4 Sept. 1883 ; Hamburg, 9 Aug. 1885 ; Heidel- 
berg, 5 Sept. 1887 ; Lausanne, 8 Sept. 1888; Hamburg, 
7 Sept. 1891 ; 6 Sept. 1892. 

See under Peace. 

INTEEOCEANIC CANAL between the 
Atlantic and Pacific. See Panama. 

INTEE-PAELIAMENTAEY CON- 
FEEENCES, held by members of different legis- 
latures, when not in session, see under Peace. 

INTEEPEETATION ACT, " for consoli- 
dating enactments relating to the construction of 
acts of parliament and for further shortening the 
language used in acts of parliament " was passed 
30 Aug. 1889. 

INTEEEEGNUM, see Commonwealth. 

INTESTATE. A person who dies without 
leaving a will. Intestates' Estates act passed, 25 
July, 1890. 

INTEANSIGENTES, or Irreconcileables, a 
party of extreme republicans in Spain, who with- 
drew from the Cortes and became very troublesome, 
1 July, 1873 ; joined by communists they held Car- 
thagena from August to 12 Jan. 1874. 

INUNDATIONS. The following are among 
the most remarkable : — 
An inundation of the sea in Lincolnshire laid under 

water many thousand acres. Camden . a.d. 24s 
Another in Cheshire, by which 3000 persons and 

an innumerable quantity of cattle perished . . 353 

An inundation at Glasgow, which drowned more 

than 400 families. Fordv/n ..... 758 
The Tweed overflowed its banks, and laid waste 
the countiy for 30 miles round . . . . 836 

An inundation on the English coasts, demolished a 
number of sea-port towns 1014 

Earl Godwin's lands, exceeding 4000 acres, over- 
flowed by the sea, and an immense sand-bank 
formed on the coast of Kent, now known by the 
name of the Godwin sands. Camden. . . . 1100 

Flanders inundated by the sea, and the town and 
harbour of Ostend totally immersed . . . 1108 

More than 300 houses overwhelmed at Winchelsea 
by an inundation of the sea . . 1280 

At the Texel, which first raised the commerce of 
Amsterdam .... - . 1400 

The sea broke in at Dort, and drowned 72 villages, 
and 100,000 people (see Dort) . . 17 April, 1421 

The Severn overflowed during ten days, and carried 
away men, women, and children, in their beds, 
and covered the tops of many hills ; the waters 
settled upon the lands, and were called the 
Great Waters for 100 years after, 1 Richard III. 
Hollinshed. . . ... 1483 

A general inundation by the failure of the dikes in 
Holland ; the number of drowned said to have 
been 400,000 ........ 1530 

The waters rose above the tops of the houses, and 
above 100 persons perished in Somersetshire and 
Gloucestershire 1607 

At Catalonia, where 50,000 persons perished . . 1617 

An inundation in Yorkshire, when a rock opened, 
and poured out water to the height of a church 
steeple. Vide Phil. Trans. .... 1686 

Part of Zealand overflowed, 1300 inhabitants were 
drowned, and incredible damage was done at Ham- 
burg ... 1717 

At Madrid, several of the Spanish nobility and 
other persons of distinction perished . . 1723 

In Yorkshire, a dreadful inundation, called Ripon 
Flood - ... 1771 

In Navarre, where 2000 persons lost their lives by 
the torrents from the mountains . Sept. 1787 

Inundation of the Liffey, which did immense 
damage in Dublin, 12 Nov. 1787 ; again, 2-3 Dee. 1802 

Lorca, a city of Murcia, in Spain, destroyed by th 
bursting of a reservoir, which inundated mor a 
than 20 leagues, and killed 1000 persons, besides 
cattle r r , 14 April ,, 



INUNDATIONS. 



515 



INUNDATIONS. 



At Pesth, near Presburg, the overflow of the 
Danube, by which. 24 villages and their inhabi- 
tants were swept away .... April, 1S11 

In the vicinity of Salop, by the bursting of a cloud 
during a storm, many persons and much stock 
perished May, „ 

Dreadful inundation in Hungary, Austria, and 
Poland, in the summer of 1813 

Overflow of the Danube ; a Turkish corps of 2000 
men, on a small island near Widdin, surprised, 
and met instant death .... 14 Sept. ,, 

In Silesia, 6000 inhabitants perished, and the ruin 
of the French army under Macdonald was accele- 
rated by the floods ; also in Poland 4000 lives 
were supposed to have been lost . . . . „ 

At Strabane, Ireland, by the melting of the snow 
on the surrounding mountains, most destructive 
floods were occasioned . . .2 Jan. 1816 

In Germany, the Vistula overflowed ; many villages 
were laid under water, and great loss of life and 
property was sustained . . .21 March, ,, 

In England, 5000 acres were deluged in the Fen 
countries June, 18 19 

Enundation at Dantzic, occasioned by the Vistula 
breaking through some of its dikes, by which 
10,000 head of cattle and 4000 houses were de- 
stroyed, and numerous lives lost . . 9 April, 1829 

'The " Moray Floods," caused by rainfall, when the 
Spey and Findhorn rose in some places 50 feet 
above their ordinary level, and caused great de- 
struction of property. Many lives were lost, and 
whole families who took refuge on elevated places 
were with difficulty rescued. Sir T. Dick Lauder. 

3, 4, 27 Aug. „ 

At Vienna, the dwellings of so.ooo of its inhabitants 
laid under water Feb. 1830 

so, 000 houses swept away, and about 1000 persons 
perished, at Canton, in China, in consequence of 
an inundation, occasioned by incessant rains. 
Equal or greater calamity was produced by the 
same cause in other ports of China . Oct. 1833 

Awful inundation in France : the Saone poured its 
waters into the Rhone, broke through its banks, 
and covered 60,000 acres ; Lyons was inundated ; 
in Avignon 100 houses were swept away; 218 
houses were earned away at La Guillotiere ; and 
upwards of 300 at Vaise, Marseilles, and Nismes ; 
the Saone had not attained such a height for 238 
years . . . . .31 Oct. to 4 Nov. 1840 

SJamentable inundation at Brentford and the sur- 
rounding country ; several lives lost, and im- 
mense property destroyed ... 16 Jan. 1841 

Disastrous inundation in the centre, west, and 
south-west of France ; numerous bridges, with 
the Orleans and Vierzon viaduct, swept away ; 
the latter had cost 6,000,000 of francs. The 
damage done exceeded 4,000,000?. sterling. The 
Loire rose twenty feet in one night . 22 Oct. 1846 

Lamentable catastrophe at Holmtirth (see Holm- 
firth Flood) . . . 4 Feb. 

Inundation of the valleys of the Severn and Teme 
after a violent thunderstorm . . 5 Sept. 

Inundations of the basins of the Rhine and the 
Rhone, overflowing the country to a great extent, 

19 Sept. 

Hamburg half-flooded by the Elbe . . 1 Jan. 

Inundations in south of France, with immense 
damage (see France) . . May and June, 

In Holland, nearly 40,000 acres submerged, Jan. 

Great inundation through the bursting of the out- 
fall sluice at St. Germain's, near King's Lynn 
(see Levels) .... 4-15 May, 1862 

Another marshland sluice bursts ; many acres 
inundated 4 Oct. ,, 

Bursting of the Bradfield reservoir (see Sheffield) ; 
about 250 persons drowned . . 11 March, 1864 

Great inundations in France . . 26 Sept. etscq. 1866 

Great floods in north of England, immense damage 
in Yorkshire, Lancashire, and Derbyshire ; farms 
destroyed, mines flooded, mills thrown down, 
railways stopped ; and much suffering at Leeds 
(about 20 drowned), Manchester, Preston, Wake- 
field, &e 16-17 Nov. ,, 

Inundations at Cork, Dublin, and other places, 

about 30 Jan. 1869 

Inundation at Rome, causing great distress ; re- 
lieved by the king ... 28, 29 Dec. 1870 



1852 



1855 



1856 
1861 



Great inundations from the mountains in N. Italy ; 
the Po and other rivers overflow ; thousands of 
people unhoused ; Mantua, Ferrara, &c. , suffer 
much latter part of Oct. 1872 

Floods on banks of the Thames through very high 
tide 20 March, 1874 

Mill River Valley, near Northampton, Massa- 
chusetts, U. S., several villages destroyed 
through the bursting of a reservoir, badly dam- 
med ; above 144 perished . . 16 May, ,, 

Eureka, Nevada ; through rain and a waterspout ; 
between 20 and 30 persons perish . 24 July „ 

Pittsburg and Alleghany, W. Pennsylvania ; storm 
of rain ; the rivers overflow ; about 220 persons 
drowned 26 July, ,, 

A large part of Toulouse destroyed by the rising of 
the Garonne ; about 1000 lives lost and much 
property (St. Cyprien quarter, a sepulchre) 

June, 1875 

Heavy rains cause inundations in West of England 
and Wales ; destruction and loss of life at New- 
port and Monmouth, 15-16 July ; in the midland 
and western counties, especially near Notting- 
ham, about 17-23 Oct. ; again . . 13-16 Nov. ,, 

Great storms in India ; Ahmedabad inundated ; 
about 20,000 homeless . . . 22-24 Sept. ,, 

Severe inundations in Holland and France Mar. 1876 

Severe floods in England through heavy rain, 

25-31 Dec. ,, 

Piers at Folkestone, Dover, and Hastings much in- 
jured 1 Jan. 1877 

Much damage through floods on banks of the 
Thames, and throughout the country, middle of 

June, ,, 

Inundations in London through heavy rain, 

10, 11 April, 1878 

Szegedin, Hungary ; through storms and rain, the 
dams of the river Theiss gave way ; the town was 
nearly destroyed ; out of 6566 houses, only 331 
stocd ; many parsons drowned ; thousands home- 
less, 12-13 March, 1879. [Another inundation here 
not quite so disastrous, about 3 June, 18S7 ; again 
March, 1888]. 

North Italy ; much damage through overflowing 
of the Po and Mincio .... June, ,, 

Inundations in Murcia, Spain, through heavy rains ; 
provinces of Andalusia, Alicante, Almeria, and 
Malaga ; about 1000 lives lost ; much damage to 
property ; about 2000 houses destroyed, 

16, 17 Oct. ,, 

Again in Hungary .... about 10 Dec. ,, 

Midland counties of England ; much damage, 

about 8-11 Oct. 1880 

Much rain; floods in Cheshire, Lancashire, &c. 

Aug. 1881 

Great inundations in S.E. Europe through rains 

Oct. „ 

Inundations by the rising of the Lossie and Spey, 
N. Scotland ; bridge is broken and other damage 

mid. Sept. 1882 

Inundations in the Tyrol ; much damage with loss 
of life in north Italy and Hungary, and south of 
France Sept. „ 

In Germany : great rise Of the Rhine and Danube, 
Nov.— Dec. ; destruction of five villages with 
above 250 houses, near Wiesbaden ' . Dec. „ 

Great floods in the Thames valley and midland 
counties of England Dec. „ 

Much destruction near Worms ; about 60 drowned 

early in Jan. 1883 

Raab in Hivngary partly submerged . . 10 Jan. ,, 

In Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Cincinnati . . Feb. ,, 

Cachar in India in great distress . . 16 May, „ 

In Silesia, the river Neisse rises ; much damage 

about 21 June, ,, 

In Thames valley, Ontario, Canada, much destruc- 
tion of property, about 30 lives lost 

about 11-12 July, ,, 

Overflow of the river Peneus, Thessaly, Greece ; 
much damage . . . . announced 29 Oct. ,, 

Great inundations in Ohio, Pennsylvania, <fec. ; 
about 15 deaths and 5000 homeless about 7 Feb. 1884 

Disastrous floods in E. Spain . end of May, ,, 

Floods in Galicia ; new railway bridge over the 
Vistula destroyed ; 20 lives lost about 23 June, ,, 

Great inundation through heavy rains in eastern 
Spain ; much distress in Alicante, Almeria and 
Valencia ....... Not. ,, 

Ll2 



INVALIDES. 



516 



IODINE. 



Great inundation of lower town of Montreal ; 
about 5oo,oooL damage ; much privation 

17-18 April, 1881 

Great inundation at Mandalay, Burmah . 18 Aug. ,, 

Great floods in S. United States . . . July, 188; 

Great overflow of the Hoang-Ho or Yellow River 
(see China), Sept.-Oct. 1887, and Sept. 1889. 

Overflow of the Elbe ; about 100 villages sub- 
merged ; loss of life and destruction of property, 
about 26 March ; also of the Vistula, about 77 
villages submerged . . . about 27 March, i88< 

Great flood in the Canton river ; 3,000 people said 
to be drowned, announced ... 8 May, ,, 

Destructive freshet in the Mississippi ; Illinois 
coast ; Quincy, Hannibal, Alexandria and other 
towns overflowed . . . . 17 May, ,, 

Inundations in Mexico through heavy rains ; great 
loss of life 17-20 June, ,, 

Heavy rains caused the rising of rivers in Essex 
and Kent ; form lakes navigable by boats ; stop 
railways ; sweep away the crops from the soil, 
creating much calamity 30-31 July, 1 Aug. 188! 

Great floods also in Germany, July, Aug. ; France 
and Switzerland Oct. ,, 

Destructive floods in the midland and S.W. 
England ; Leicester, Bristol, Taunton and other 
places suffer much .... 8, 9 March, 1881 

Conemaugh Valley, &c. See Pennsylvania & United 
States May, ,, 

Destructive floods in China and Japan (which see) 
July, Aug. 1889 ; and China . . . Aug. 1891 

Disastrous floods on the upper Severn ; much 
suffering early Feb. ,, 

Destructive floods through heavy rains in the Mis- 
sissippi valley and Southern States, U.S.A. (see 
Mississippi) .... about 13 Marc ,, 

Destructive floods in Austria, Bohemia, central 
Europe and France. See Neiv South Wales 

Aug. — Sept 

Overflow of the Orinoco and tributaries, S. America, 
causing great destruction . . 16, 17 Sept. ,, 

Destructive inundations caused by violent gales 
throughout Europe, especially in Germany, 
Austria, Mecklenburg, Baltic coast, Belgium, and 
Denmark 23-25 Nov. ,, 

Serious floods in Kent, &c. , through the thaw, after 
the long frost ; also in many places on the Con- 
tinent Jan. 189: 

Destructive inundations in W. Virginia, Ohio, Alle- 
ghany, &c, about 17 Feb. ; in Arizona (which 
see) reported 2 March ; in Tennessee and Missis- 
sippi about 8 March 

Destructive floods by the rising of the Yang-tse- 
Kiang ; great loss of life at Foochoo about 21 July 

Great floods in Posen, loss of life and destruction 
of property about 26 July 

Heavy rains and destructive floods in E. Lancashire 

13, 14 Aug. 

Heavy rains and destructive inundations in Spain 
(ivhich see) 13 Sept. et seq. 

Disastrous floods in Spain, France, Italy, and 
England (especially S. and W.) about 22 Oct. et seq. 

Collapse of buildings through floods at Limoux, 
France ; about 20 persons killed, about 25 Oct. 

Great floods in Somersetshire, with destruction of 
buildings and crops ; travelling impeded, much 
distress Nov. 

Disastrous floods in Andalusia, Murcia, and Estre- 
madura, about 12 March, et seq., and in upper 
Italy ; railway communications stop 

about 31 March, 1892 

Rise of the rivers in Illinois ; 15 towns flooded (see 
Mississippi and Iowa) . . . about 6 May „ 
See Mansion House Funds. 

INVALIDES, H6TEL DES, Paris, founded 
in 167 1 by Louis XIV. Its chapel contains the 
body of Napoleon I., deposited there 15 Dec. 1840. 

INVASIONS of the British Islands, 

8ee Britain, and Bancs. From the death of Edward 
the Confessor, only the following invasions marked 
(s) have been successful : — 
William of Normandy (s.) . . . . 29 Sept. 1066 

The Irish Io6g 

The Scots, 1091 ; king Malcolm killed . . . Iogl 



Robert of Normandy 1103 

The Scots , . 1136 

The empress Maud . . .... 1139 

Ireland, by Fitz-Stephen (s.) 1169 

Ireland, by Edward Bruce 13 15 

Isabel, queen of Edward II. (s.) .... 1326 

Duke of Lancaster (s.) . 1399; 

Queen of Henry VI 1462 

Earl of Warwick (s.) 1470 

Edward IV. (s.) . 1471 

Queen of Henry VI 147,1 

Earl of Richmond (s.) . - . . . . . i4S"5 

Lambert Simnel ........ 1487 

Ferkin Warbeck 1495 

Spaniards and Italians, Ireland 1580 

Ireland, Spaniards ....... i6ar 

Duke of Monmouth . 1685 

William of Orange (s.) ...... 1688. 

James II. , Ireland . . .... 16S9- 

Old Pretender 1708 

Pretender again 171.5 

Young Pretender 1745 

Ireland (see Thurot) , 1760 

Wales, the French 1797 

Ireland : the French land at Killala (which see) . . 179S 

INVENTION. See Cross, Patents. An inter- 
national exhibition of inventions and music at 
South Kensington in 1885; proposed, .Aug. 1884; 
opened by the prince of "Wales, 4 May, 1885 ; chair- 
man, sir F. J. Bramwell ; closed 9 Nov. 1885 ; 
3,760,581 persons admitted. The receipts were- 
214,403^. See Colonies. 

INVENTOES' INSTITUTE, established in 
May, 1862 ; first president, sir David Brewster. 

INVEBABY, Argyllshire, made a royal burgh, 
1648. The duke of Argyll's castle, rebuilt by Adam, 
1745-8, was greatly injured by fire, 12 Oct. 1877. 

INVEENESS (N.W. Scotland), a city of the 
Picts up to 843. It was taken by Edward I. ; re- 
taken by Bruce, 13 13; burnt by the lord of the 
islea, 141 1 ; taken by Cromwell, 1649; and by 
prince Charles Edward in 1746. He was totally 
defeated at Culloden, about five miles from Inver- 
ness, 16 April, 1746. Population, 1S81, 17,365 ; 
1891, 19,214. 

INVESTIGATION. See Delicate. 
INVESTITUEE of Ecclesiastics, was a 

cause of discord between the pope and temporal 
sovereigns in the middle ages ; and led to actual 
war between Gregory VII. and the emperor Henry 
IV. 1075-1085. The pope endeavoured to deprive 
the sovereign of the right of nominating bishops 
and abbots, and of investing them with the cross 
and ring. Henry V. gave up the right, by treaty, 
Feb. 1 in ; but other sovereigns resolutely refused 
to concede it. 

INVINCIBLE AEMADA or Spanish 
ARMADA, see Armada. 

INVINCIBLES, IEISH, see D-ish Invin- 
cibles, Fenians and Ireland, 1882-3. 

INVOCATION of the Virgin and 

SAINTS to intercede with God. This practice of 
the Romish church has been traced to the time 
of Gregory the Great, 593. The Eastern church 
began (in the 5th century) by calling upon the 
dead, and demanding their suffrage as present in 
the divine offices. 

IODINE (from the Greek iodes, violet-like), 
was discovered by M. De Courtois, a manufacturer 
of saltpetre at Paris in 1812, and investigated by 
M. Clement, 1813. On the application of heat it 
rises in the form of a dense violet-coloured vapour, 
easily evaporates, and melts at 220 degrees : it 
changes vegetable blues to yellow, and a seven- . 



IONA. 



517 



IRELAND. 



thousandth part converts water to a deep yellow 
colour, and starch into a purple. 

IONA, ICOLMKILL, or Hll, one of the 
Hebrides. About 565 St. Columba founded a 
monastery here, which flourished till the 8th and 
9th centuries, when it was frequently ravaged by 
the Norsemen. Other religious bodies afterwards 
were formed here, and the isle was long esteemed 
sacred. 

IONIA (Asia Minor). About 1040 B.C. the 
Iones, a Pelasgic race, emigrated from Greece, and 
settled here and on the adjoining islands. They built 
Ephesus, Smyrna, and other noble cities. They 
were conquered by the great Cyrus about 548 B.C. ; 
revolted 504, but were again subdued. After the 
victories of Cimon, Ionia became independent and 
remained so till 387, when it was once more sub- 
jected to Persia. It formed part of the dominions 
of Alexander and his successors ; was annexed to 
the Roman empire, 133, and conquered by the 
Turks. — Ionia was renowned for poets, historians, 
and philosophers. The "Antiquities of Ionia" 
were published by Chandler, Revett, and Pars, 
1769-1840, and the Dilettanti Society, 1840-1881. 

IONIAN ISLANDS (on W. coast of Greece). 
Corfu, the capital, Cephalonia, Zante, Ithaca, Santa 
Maura, Cerigo, and Paxo. They were colonised by 
the Iones, and partook of the fortunes of the Greek 
people ; were subject to Naples in the 13th cen- 
tury, and in the 14th to Venice. 
The islands ceded to France by the treaty of Campo 

Formio 17 Oct. 1797 

Formed into the republic of the seven islands under 

Russia and Turkey ... 21 March, 1800 

Restored to France by treaty of Tilsit . 7 July, 1807 
Taken by the English .... 3-is Oct. 1809 
Formed into an independent state under the protec- 
tion of Great Britain (sir Thomas Maitland, lord 

high commissioner) 5 Nov. 1815 

A constitution ratified . . . .11 July, 1817 
A university established at Corfu . . . . 1823 
The constitution liberalised during the government 

of lord Seaton . . ... 1848-9 

In consequence of complaints, Mr. W. E. Gladstone 

went out on a commission of inquiry, <fec. . Nov. 1858 
Sir H. Storks, lord high commissioner . Feb. 1859 
The parliament declare for annexation to Greece, 

March, 1861, and April, 1862 
The islands annexed to Greece, 28 May ; the British 
troops retired, 2 June, and king George I. arrived 
at Corfu (see Greece) .... 6 June, 1864 

IONIC ORDER of Architecture, an 

improvement on the Doric, was invented by the 
Ionians about 1350 B.C. Vitruvius. Its distinguish- 
ing characters are the slenderness and flutings of 
its columns, and the volutes of rams' horns that 
adorn the capital. 

IONIC SECT of Philosophers, founded 

by Thales of Miletus about 600 B.C. distinguished 
for its abstruse speculations under his successors 
and pupils, Anaximander, Anaximenes, Anaxa- 
goras, and Archelaus, the master of Socrates. They 
held that the world is a living being, and that water 
is the origin of all things. 

IOWA, a western state of North America, was 
organised as a territory 12 June, 1838; and ad- 
mitted into the Union, 28 Dec. 1846. Capital, Des 
Moines. Population, 1880, 1,624,615; 1890, 
1,911,896. 

Sioux City suffered much by inundations, causing 
great loss of life . . . about 18 May, 1892 
IPSUS (Phrygia), BATTLE OF, Aug. 301 B.C., 
when Seleucus was confirmed in his kingdom of 
Syria by the defeat and death of Antigonus, king 
of Asia. The latter led into the field an army of 
about 70,000 foot, and 10,000 horse, with 75 ele- 



phants. The former had 64,000 infantry, besides 
10,500 horse, 400 elephants, and 120 armed chariots. 
Plutarch. 

IPSWICH (Suffolk), the Saxon Gippeswic, 
was ravaged by the Danes, 991 and 1000. Wolsey 
was born here, 1471 ; and founded a school in 1525. 
The port was greatly improved by the erection of 
wet docks, 1837-42. The railway to London was 
opened 25 June, 1846; and the new town-hall, 
29 Jan. 1868. New corn exchange opened, 26 July, 
1882. 

IQUIQUE, see Chili, 1879. 

IRELAND, anciently named Eri or Erin, 
Ierne and Hibernia, is said to have been first 
colonised by Phoenicians. The early mythical 
history has many beautiful legends. The Irish 
language is a branch of the Gaelic. See Church 
of Ireland, and Population, 1891, 4,706,162. " The 
Annals of the Four Masters," edited by O'Donovan, 
were published in Irish and English, 1848. J. T. 
Gilbert's " History of the Viceroys of Ireland," 
published 1865. See foot-note p. 527. 

A.D. 

A rrival of St. Patrick . . probably 4th or 5th century 
Christianity established .... about 448 
The Danes and Normans, known by the name of 

Easterlings, or Ostmen, invade Ireland . . 795 
They build Dublin and other cities . . . about 800 
Brian Boroimhe totally defeats the Danes at Clon- 

tarf ; and is killed . . . . 23 April, 1014 
Magnus III. , king of Norway, defeated and slain 

during an invasion 1103 

[In the 12th century Ireland is divided into five 
kingdoms, viz. : Ulster, Leinster, Meath, Con- 
naught, and Munster, besides a number of petty 
principalities, whose sovereigns continually warred 
with each other.] 
Adrian IV. permitted Henry II. to invade Ireland, 
on condition that he compelled every Irish family 
to pay a carolus to the holy see, and held it as a 

fief of the Church 1155 

Dermot MacMurrough, king of Leinster, driven from 

his throne for his oppression 1166 

Flees to England, where he takes an oath of fidelity 

to Henry II. who promises to restore him . . 1168 
Invasion of the English under Fitz-Stephen . . 1169 
Landing of Strongbow at Waterford . . ,, 

Dermot dies 1171 

Henry II. lands near Waterford, and receives the 
submission of the princes of the country, settles 
the government, and makes his son John lord of 

Ireland . May, 1177 

Invasion of king John, English laws, &c, intro- 
duced 1210 

Invasion of Edward Bruce, 1315 ; crowned king . 1316 
Defeated and slain at Foughart, near Dundalk 1318 

Lionel, duke of Clarence, third son of Edward III., 

marries Elizabeth de Burgh, heiress of Ulster . 1361 
Statute of Kilkenny passed by him (which see) . . 1367 
Richard II. lands at Waterford withatrain of nobles, 
4000 men-at-arms, and 30,000 archers ; gains the 
affection of the people by his munificence, and 
confers the honour of knighthood on then chiefs 1394 
Richard again lands in Ireland .... 1399 

The sanguinary Head act passed at Trim, by the 
earl of Desmond, deputy, to suppress robbery. 
Much slaughter is said to have ensued . . . 1465 
Apparel and surname act (the Irish to dress like the 

English, and to adopt surnames) ....,, 
Sir Edward Poynings sent to punish the Anglo- 
Irish for supporting Perkin Warbeck ; he enacts 
a law. subjecting the Irish parliament to the 

English council 1494 

Great rebellion of the Fitzgeralds, or Geraldines 

subdued 1534 

Henry VIII. assumes the title of king, instead of 

lord of Ireland 1542 

The reformed religion embraced by some of the Eng- 
lish settlers in the reign of Edward VI. . . 1547 
Ireland finally divided into shires . . . . 1569 
Printing in Irish characters introduced by N. Walsh, 
chancellor of St. Patrick's . 1571 



IEELAND. 



518 



IEELAND. 



700 Italians, headed by Fitzmaurice, land in Kerry ; 
they are treacherously butchered by the earl of 

Ormond 1580 

Insurrection of Shan O'Neill, earl of Tyrone, 1561 ; 
pardoned and received in London, 1562 ; rebels 
and becomes dominant in Ulster, 1564 ; assassi- 
nated 2 June, 1567 

Great expedition of Walter Devereux, earl of Essex, 
to put down the O'Neills, sanguinary, but un- 
successful . . 1573 et seq. 

Hugh or Shan O'Neill, who had been brought up 
at the court of Elizabeth, returns to Ireland as 
earl of Tyrone ; revolts, 1597 ; defeats the English 
at Blackwater (which see) . . 14 Aug. 1598 

Unsuccessful expedition of Robert, earl of Essex 1599 
O'Neill invites over the Spaniards, and settles them 
in Kinsale ; defeated by the lord depul y Mountjoy 

1601-2 
Flight of the earls of Tyrone, Tyrconnel, and others, 

to join the Spaniards 1606 

In consequence of repeated rebellions and for- 
feitures, 511,465 acres of land in the province of 
Ulster became vested in the crown, and James I. 
after removing the Irish from their hills and fast- 
nesses, divides the land among such of Ids English 
and Scottish protestant subjects as choose to 
settle there. (See Irish Society) . . . 1609-12 
Ulster civil war : More and Maguire's rebellion : the 
catholics said to conspire to expel the English, 
and massacre the protestant settlers in Ulster, 
commenced on St. Ignatius' day [some doubt the 

massacre] 23 Oct. 1641 

O'Neill defeats the English under Monroe at Ben- 

burb 5 June, 1646 

Massacre and capture of Drogheda by Cromwell 

11 Sept. 1649 
Cromwell and Ireton reduce the whole island and 

redivide it 1649-1656 

Landing of James II 12 March, 1689 

3000 protestants attainted . . . July, ,, 

William III. lands at Carrickfergus . 14 June, 1690 
Battle of the Boyne ; James defeated . 1 July, ,, 
Treaty of Limerick (see Limerick) . 3 Oct. 1691 

Linen manufacture encouraged .... 1696 

Popery act passed 1704 

Excitement against Wood's halfpence (which see) . 1724 

Thurot's invasion (see Thurot) 1760 

Indulgences granted to the catholics by the relief 

Ml 1778 

Ireland admitted to a free trade .... 1779 
Henry Grattan claims independence for the Irish 
parliament in speeches delivered 19 April, 1780, 

and 16 April, 1782 
The Irish parliament declared independent by an 
act passed in the English parliament, May 1782 ; 
confirmed by another act passed .... 1783 
Genevese refugees received in Ireland, and an asylum 

given them in Wateriord 1783 

Order of St. Patrick established „ 

Society of United Irishmen founded . . . 1791 

Orange clubs, <fcc, formed (see Diamond) . . . 1795 
Irish rebellion commenced 4 May, 1798 ; cost 150,000 

Irish lives, 20.000 English ; gradually suppressed 1799 
LegislativeUnionofGreatBritainandlreland iJan. 1801 
Emmett's insurrection .... 23 July, 1803 

English and Irish exchequers consolidated 5 Jan. 18 17 
Visit to Ireland of George IV. . 11 Aug.-i6 Sept. 1821 
The Catholic Association organised by Daniel 

O'Connell and others (see Roman Catholics) . 1823 

The currency assimilated . . . . 1 Jan. 1826 
Daniel O'Connell is elected M.P. for Clare, but does 

not sit 5 July, ^28 

Roman catholic emancipation act passed 13 April, 1829 
Customs consolidated .... 6 Jan. 1830 

Dr. Whately, supporter of Irish National School 

system, becomes abp. of Dublin .... 1831 
Irish reform act passed ... 7 Aug. 18^2 

Poor laws introduced : act passed . . 31 July, 1838 
•' Young Ireland" (which see) party formed . . 1840 

Population by census, 8,196,597 .... 1841 
Great Repeal movement, lead by O'Connell ; meet- 
ing at Trim (see Repeal) ... 16 March, 1843 
Molly Maguire, a secret society, formed . . . ,, 
O'Connell's trial (for political conspiracy), found 

guilty (see Trials) ... 15 Jan.-i 2 Feb. 1844 
Appointment of new commissioners of charitable 
bequests (rank of the R. C. bishops recognised) 

18 Dec. „ 



Irish National Education Board incorporated 

23 Sept. 1845 
Committal of William Smith O'Brien to the custody 

of the serjeant-at-arms, for contempt in not obey- 
ing an order of the bouse of commons to attend a 

committee 30 April, 1846 

Failure of the potato crop throughout Ireland ; 

sufferers relieved by parliament . . . ,, 
William Smith O'Brien and the " Young Ireland," or 
physical force party, secede from the Repeal Asso- 
ciation 29 July, ,, 

O'Connell's last speech in the commons 8 Feb. 1847 

Grants from Parliament amounting to io,ooo,oooj. 
to relieve the people suffering from famine and 

disease ,> 

Death of O'Connell at Genoa, on his way to Rome, 
in his 73rd year ; he bequeathed his heart to Rome 

15 May, , y 
Deputation from the Irish people (?) — Smith O'Brien, 
Meagher, O'Gorman, &c. — to Lamartine and 
others, members of the provisional government at 

Paris 3 April, 1848 

Great meeting of "Young Irelanders" at Dublin 

4 April, ,, 
Arrest of Mitchell, editor of the " United Irishman" 

13th May, ,y. 
State trials in the Irish queen's bench 15-27 May, ,„ 
Mitchell found guilty and sentenced to transporta- 
tion for 14 years . . . . .26 May, , r 
Arrest of Gavan Duffy, Martin, Meagher, Doheny, 

&c. , for felonious writings, speeches, &c. 8 July, ,, 
Confederate clubs prohibited . . .26 July, ,„ 
The Habeas Corpus act suspended . 26 July, ,, 
O'Brien's rebellion suppressed . . . 2g July, „ 
Arrest of Smith O'Brien at Thurles ; he is conveyed 

to Kilmainham gaol, Dublin . . 5 Aug. „. 
Arrest of Meagher, O'Donoghue, <fcc. . . 12 Aug. „. 
Martin sentenced to transportation . 14 Aug. „ 
Encumbered estates act passed . . Sept. ,, 

Smith O'Brien, Meagher, and the other confederates 

tried and sentenced to death ... 9 Oct. „ 
The Irish court of queen's bench gives judgment 
on writs of error sued out by the prisoners con- 
victed of high treason, and confirms the judgment 

of the court below 16 Jan. 1849; 

O'Brien, Meagher, McManus, and O'Donoghue trans- 
ported 9 July, ,, 

Orange and catholic affray at Dolly's Brae ; several 

lives lost 12 July, ,, 

Her majesty visits Ireland, and holds her court at 

Dublin castle 5 Aug. „ 

First court under the encumbered estates act (which 

see) held in Dublin .... 24 Oct. ,, 

Queen's university in Ireland established 15 Aug. 1850 
Synod of Thurles condemns queen's colleges 22 Aug. ,', 
Census taken ; population, 6,574,278 . 30 March, 1851 
Roman catholic university originated, aad large 

sums subscribed 5 May, „ 

Death of R. Lalor Sheil, at Florence . 25 May, ,, 
McManus escapes from transportation, and arrives 

at San Francisco, in California . . 5 June, ,„ 

The Irish Tenant League hold a meeting on the site 

of the battle of the Boyne ... 14 July „ 
First meeting of the " Catholic Defence Association" 

17 Oct. „ 
Meagher escapes from Van Diemen's Land and ar- 
rives at New York 24 May, 185a: 

Cork National Exhibition opened . 10 June, ,, 

Irish Industrial Exhibition set on foot; Mr. Dargan, 
arailway contractor, contributes towards it 26,000?. 

24 June, ,„ 
"Tenant Right" demonstration at Warrenstown 

dispersed by the magistrates . . 3 July, ,„ 

Fierce religious riots at Belfast . . 14 July, ,,. 
Fatal election riot at Six-Mile Bridge . 22 July, ,„ 
Irish members of parliament found a "Religious 

Equality Association "... 10 Sept. „. 
Cork Industrial Exhibition closed . '. 11 Sept. ,, 
Income tax extended to Ireland . . . June, 1853; 
Mitchell escapes from Hobart Town . 9 June, ,, 

Dublin Exhibition opens . . . .12 May, ,, 
Queen visits Ireland .... 29 Aug. ,,. 
Tenant Right League conference . . 4 Oct. „ 
Dreadful railway accident near Dublin . 5 Oct.. ,,, 

Dublin Exhibition closed 1 Nov. ,, 

Train wilfully upset after an Orange demonstration 

at Londonderry, one person killed and many hurt 

15 Sept. 1854 



IRELAND. 



519 



IRELAND. 



A pardon granted to O'Brien ; he shortly after re- 
turned to Ireland 3 May, 

Religious riots at Belfast .... Sept. 

Progress of cardinal Wiseman in Ireland Sept. 

A packet from Galway reaches N. America in six 
days Sept. 

Proclamation against secret societies . Nov. 

Arrests of members of Phoenix Society . Dec. 

Proposed demonstration of landlords (headed by 
marquis of Downshire) given up . -27 Jan. 

National Gallery founded .... Feb. 

Agitation against the Irish National School system, 

Sept. 

Religious revival movement in the north, particu- 
larly at Belfast Oct. 

Great emigration to America in the spring 

Many Irishmen enlist in the service of the pope, 
May, June ; many return dissatisfied . July, 

The remainder taken prisoners by the Sardinians are 
released, and return to Dublin, where they receive 
an ovation Nov. 

Attempted revival of Repeal agitation . . Dec. 

Agrarian outrages ; alderman Sheehy murdered, 

23 Oct. 

Census taken ; population, 5,798,967 . 8 April, 

Suspension of packet service between Galway and 
America through the company's breach of contract, 

23 May, 

Visit of the prince of Wales, 29 June ; and the queen 
and prince consort . . . 24-31 Aug. 

Irish Law Court commission appointed 13 Dec. 

Numerous agrarian murders ; Gustav Thiebault, 28 
April ; Francis Fitzgerald, 16 May (and others) ; 
Michael Hayes shoots Mr. John Braddell, 

30 July, 

The primate, J. G. Beresford, abp. of Armagh, dies, 
aged 89 19 July, 

Building for the catholic university founded, 

20 July, 

An Orange demonstration at Belfast leads to de- 
structive riots 17 Sept. 

Great agricultural distress ; many murders and out- 
rages, end of 1862, beginning of . 

Galway packet service restored by subsidy of 70,000?. 
(see Galway) Aug. 

Insignificant " Nationalist " meeting . 15 Aug. 

Death of archbishop Whately . . .8 Oct. 

Great emigration of able-bodied labourers in . 

Appearance of the Fenians (which see) . . Jan. 

Death of Smith O'Brien, descendant of king Brian 
Boroimhe 16 June, 

Address of the " National Association " to liberate 
tenant capital, recover the property of the Catho- 
lic church, <&c 12 Jan. 

Opening of the International Exhibition at Dublin 
by the prince of Wales ... 9 May, 

General election favourable to the government and 
liberal party July, 

Importation of cattle from England prohibited on 
account of the plague ... 25 Aug. 

Seizure of the newspaper "Irish People" and 30 
Fenians (see Fenians) . 15-17 Sept. 14 Oct. 

International Exhibition closed . . 9 Nov. 

Stephens escapes from gaol . . . 24-25 Nov. 

Fenian trials began at Dublin, 27 Nov. ; Thomas 
Clarke Luby convicted of treason felony ; sen- 
tenced to 20 years' penal servitude . 1 Dec. 

O'Leary and others convicted, Dec. ; O'Donovan 
Rossa sentenced to imprisonment for life, 

13 Dec. 

More Fenians arrested and convicted at Cork and 
Dublin Jan., Feb. 

Discovery of an arms manufactory at Dublin ; the 
city and county proclaimed as put under the pro- 
visions of the Peace Preservation act, n Jan. 

Habeas Corpus act suspended ; many Fenians flee 

17 Feb. 

Agitation respecting Irish church ; debates in par- 
liament April, 

Lord Abercorn made lord-lieutenant . July, 

About 320 suspected Fenians remain in prison, 

1 Sept. 

Great seizure of fire-arms .... 15 Dec. 

Clare and other counties proclaimed under Peace 
Preservation act Dec. 

Election riots at Dungarvan ; capt. Barthol-Kelly 
killed 28 Dec. 



1856 
1857 



1859 



i860 



1863 



Death of Win. Dargan, promoter of Irish Exhibition, 

7 Feb. 1867 

Irish college of science established atDublin early in ,, 

Another Fenian outbreak (see Fenians), 5-13 March, „ 

Appointment of commission respecting church of 
Ireland agreed to .... 24 June, ,, 

Chancery and Common-law Offices act passed, 20 Aug. „ 

Irish church commission appointed, earl Stanhope 
chairman 30 Oct. ,, 

More trials of Fenians .... Nov. ,, 

Execution of Fenians (Allen, Gould, and Larkin) 
for murder of Brett, a policeman, at Manchester, 

23 Nov. „ 

Funeral demonstrations for them at Cork, 24 Nov. ; 
Dublin and Limerick . . . . 1 Dec. „ 

Party funeral processions prohibited . . 12 Dec. „ 

Protest of Irish noblemen and gentlemen against 
Irish church establishment signed, about 12 Dec. ,, 

Declaration of many Roman catholic clergy profes- 
sing loyalty, but claiming self-government for 
Ireland 23 Dec. „ 

Bp. Moriarty, of Kerry, publishes a circular censur- 
ing the funeral processions for Fenians 30 Dec. ,, 

Prosecution of the "Irishman" newspaper for 
sedition 10 Jan. 1868 

Arrest of Geo. Francis Train on his arrival from 
America, on suspicion of Fenianism ; soon dis- 
charged (claimed 10,000?.) . . . 18 Jan. ,, 

Publication of facts proving the increased pro- 
sperity of the country . . . 28 Jan. ,, 

Great protestant defence meeting at Dublin, many 
peers present . . . . . • 6 Feb. ,, 

Habeas Corpus act saspended till 1 March, 1869 (S3 
persons detained on suspic.on) . . .Feb. „ 

Messrs. Sullivan and Pigott, convicted of seditious 
libels in their newspapers (the " Weekly News " 
and "Irishman"), sentenced to imprisonment 
and fine 18, 19 Feb. „ 

Mr. Johnston, grand master of an Orange lodge, im- 
prisoned for infraction of Party Processions act, 

March, ,, 

Train arrested for debt ... 3 March, „ 

Four nights' debate on Ireland in the Commons 
ended (Mr. Gladstone declared for disestablish- 
ment of the Irish protestant church) 16 March, „ 

Irish reform bill introduced into the Commons, 

19 March, „ 

Debate on Mr. Gladstone's proposal for a committee 
on his resolutions for the disestablishment of the 
•church (carried by 328 to 272), 30 March to early 
morning of 4 April, ,, 

Mr. Featherstonehaugh, J. P., a deputy-lieu t. , shot 
dead while returning from Dublin (he had re- 
cently raised the rent of his tenants) . 15 April, „ 

Visit of prince and princess of Wales ; arrive at 
Dublin ; intense enthusiasm . . 15 April, „ 

The prince and princess at Punchestown races, 

16 April, ,, 

The prince installed as a knight of St. Patrick, 

18 April, „ 

The prince and princess at review in Phcenix-park, 
20 April ; leave Dublin ... 24 April, „ 

Increased emigration to United States . April, ,, 

Mr. Gladstone's first resolution passed in the com- 
mons (by 330 to 265) early on 1 May ; second and 
third resolutions passed ... 7 May, ,, 

Irish archbishops and bishops present address to 
the queen at Windsor, on behalf of the Irish 
Church establishment . . . .14 May, „ 

Irish Church commission recommend consolidation 
of dioceses and other reforms (1st report), 27 July, „ 

Earl Spencer lord lieutenant .... Dec. ,, 

Visit of prince Arthur . . .5 April e t seq. 1869 

Many murders : Mr. Anketell, 3 March ; Mr. Brad- 
shaw, J. P., 24 April ; Capt. Tarleton 28 April, „ 

Mayor of Cork, for a speech eulogizing Fenians, 27 
April, compelled to resign . . . 11 May, „ 

Address of archbishop Leahy condemning agrarian 
murders ... . . 16 May, „ 

Irish Church bill introduced into the commons, 1 
March ; after much opposition passed, 26 July, „ 

Irish mixed schools denounced by abp. Cullen ; 
support for'a Catholic university demanded in a 
circular elated 18 Aug. ,, 

Great agitation for amnesty to the Fenian jnvicts, 

Oct. „ 

Tenant-right ' agitation ; a conference at Cork, 10 
Sept. ; county meeting at Kilkenny . 18 Oct. , ,, 



IEELAND. 



520 



IEELAND. 



Jeremiah O'Donovan Rossa, a Fenian convict, 

ele*cted M. P. for Tipperary . . 25 Nov. 1869 

Many agrarian outrages . . . Jan., Feb. 1870 

O'Donovan Rossa's election annulled . 10 Feb. ,, 
Irish Church convention met . about 21 Feb. „ 
Irish Land bill, read a second time in commons 
(442 against 11), 1 a;m., 12 March; read second 
time in the lords . . . . 17 June, „ 

New "Irish Peace Preservation act" passed, 

4 April, ,, 
Eight counties placed under this act . 29 April, „ 
Reported growth of a " Nationality " party among 

the Protestants July, ,, 

Irish Land act passed . . . . 1 Aug. „ 
The " Home Government Association," to include 

all parties, meet at Dublin . . . 1 Sept. ,, 
Aggressive outrages and murders . . Nov. ,, 
Some Fenian convicts released from prison, Jan. 1871 
John Martin, a nationalist, elected M. P. , for Meath, 

5 Jan. ,, 
Census taken ; population, 5,402,759 . 3 April, „ 
Bill for protection of life and property in West- 
meatli brought in (and passed 16 June) on account 

of ribandism 2 May, „ 

Chief constable Talbot shot, night of 11 July ; died 

15 July, „ 
Visit of the prince of Wales to open the Royal 
Agricultural exhibition . . . . 1 Aug. „ 

Riot through attempted repression of Fenian 

sympathisers ; several killed . . 7 Aug. „ 
French deputation (comte de Flavigny and others) 
to thank the Irish for the assistance of the Irish 
ambulance during the war ; warmly received, 
with seditious demonstrations against England, 

16-28 Aug. ,, 
Mr. Isaac Butt, leader of Home-rule movement, 

elected M. P. for Limerick . . . 20 Sept. „ 
The R. C. bishop of Deny, the O'Donoghue, and 
0'Bhers, declare against the movement, Jan. ; 
members in its favour elected for Galway and 
Kerry ... .... Feb. 1872 

Peaceful state of the south ; few prisoners for trial, 

March, „ 
Mrs. Neill murdered at her own door near Dublin, 

27 May, ,, 
Capt. Nolan, M. P. for Galway, unseated for intimi- 
dation by his agents ; the R. C. bishops and 
clergy severely censured by justice Keogh in 
giving sentence .... about 27 May, ,, 

O'Byrne v. Marquis of Hartington, and others 
(police) for exceeding duty in suppressing a 
meeting in Phoenix-park, Dublin, in Aug. 1871 ; 
verdict for plaintiff, 25L damages . 11 July, ,, 
Fathers Loftus and Quain tried for undue interfer- 
ence inGalway election ; jury disagreed, 10-14 Feb. 1874 
Mr. Gladstone brings into the commons the Irish 

University bill (rejected and withdrawn) 13 Feb. „ 
The R. C. bishop of Clonfert, Dr. Duggan, tried 

and acquitted (see Dublin) . . 15-19 Feb. ,, 
Trial : O'Keeffev. Cardinal Cullen ; begins (see Trials) 

12 May, ,, 
Home rule and amnesty associations active, Oct. „ 
Motions in favour of Home-rule (which see) defeated 

in parliament . . . 20 March & 3 July, ,, 
Ireland reported very prosperous . . Aug. „ 

John Mitchell (see above, 1848, 1853), elected M.P. 
for Tipperary, 16 Feb. ; election declared null by 
the Commons ; he died 20 March ; his friends, 
John Martin, M.P., died 29 March ; and sir John 

Gray, M.P. died 9 April, 1875 

Mitchell's election declared void . . 26 May, „ 
Peace Preservation Act renewed . . 28 May, „ 
Centenary of the birth of Daniel O'Connell cele- 
brated at Dublin, many foreign R. C. dignitaries 
present ; much dissension at the banquet between 
the Clerical and Home-rule parties . . 6 Aug. „ 
Mr. McSwiney, lord mayor of Dublin, endeavours 
to form a new party for " faith and fatherland," 
opposed to Home-rule . . . Aug. -Sept. ,, 
Catholic synod at Maynooth ; mixed education 

censured Sept. „ 

Riots at Callan, Mr. O'Keeffe's chapel and house 

attacked (28 men committed for trial) . n Oct. „ 
Dissension between members of O'Connell cen- 
tenary committee, which is dissolved . 26 Nov. „ 
Agrarian outrage, Mr. Bridges and party fired on in 
daylight, the coachman killed ; several wounded 



at Mitchelstown, Cork (Crowe convicted of mur- 
der 25 July, executed 25 Aug.) . . 30 March, 1876 

O'Keeffe (see above, May, 1874) submits to cardinal 
Cullen for compensation .... May, „ 

An Irish university bill introduced by Mr. Butt 

(withdrawn) 16 May, ,, 

County officers and courts act passed . 14 Aug. 1877 

Supreme court of judicature act for Ireland, passed 

14 Aug. „ 
Temporary strike of men on Great Southern and 

Western railway, about . . . 14-22 Sept. „ 
Dr. Moriarty, R.C., bp. of Kerry, patriotic, judi- 
cious died 1 Oct. ,, 

Mr. Gladstone's private visit . 17 Oct. et seq. ,, 
The judicature act comes into operation . 1 Jan. 1878 
The earl of Leitrim (eccentric), his clerk, and driver 
shot dead near his lodge, Manor Vaughan, Done- 
gal 2 April, ,, 

Bill for reducing Irish borough suffrage to il. re- 
jected in the commons (232-26) . 15 May, „ 
Irish Sunday closing (public houses) bill, much op- 
posed ; passed 16 Aug. „ 

Irish intermediate education act passed . 16 Aug. ,, 
Irish volunteer bill lost .... 7 Aug. 1879 
Bill to abolish the Queen's University, and to 
establish a new university (for Roman catholics), 
introduced by lord chancellor Cairns, 30 June ; 
carried in commons (257-90), 25 July ; passed 

15 Aug. ,, 
Prevention of crime act passed . . 15 Aug. „ 
An Trish national convention to meet at Dublin, 

proposed by Mr. Charles Stewart Parnell (see 
Home Rule) 11 Sept. „ 

Progresses of Mr. Parnell ; much anti-rent agitation 

autumn, „ 

Appeal for the Irish national land league by Mr. 
Parnell, soliciting subscriptions to buy the land 
for the tenants 9 Oct. ,, 

Exciting speeches of Mr. Parnell at Navan 

11, 13 Oct. ,, 

James Bryce Killen, barrister, J. W. Daly, pro- 
prietor of " Connaught Telegraph," and Michael 
Davitt (ex- Fenian, on ticket of leave) arrested at 
Dublin for sedition (at anti-rent meeting at 
Gurteen, Sligo, 2 Nov.) ; [prosecution lapsed,] 

19 Nov. ,, 

Great orderly meetings held at Dublin, Balla, &c. 

21 Nov. et seq. ,, 

Government arrangements for relieving distress 
published in Dublin .... 22 Nov. „ 

Pastoral by abp. McCabe against the agitation ; 
read 23 Nov. „ 

Thos. Brennan arrested for seditious speech (at 
Balla, on 22 Nov.) 5 Dec. „ 

The duchess of Marlborough (the viceroy's wife) 
appeals for help for distress in the west (Times). 
(See under Mansion House, 1879) . 18 Dec. ,, 

Mr. Parnell arrives at New York to agitate for help 
to relieve Ireland politically and pecuniarily 2 Jan. 1880 

Riots at Carraroe, Connemara, and other places in 
Galway, in consequence of notices of eviction 

2 Jan. et seq. ,, 

Contributions to the famine funds arrive from 
Canada, Australia, India, United States, <fcc. 

Jan. Feb. 

Mr. Parnell's agitation said to be a dead failure Feb. 

2o,ooo£. received from lord mayor of London ; 
(Dublin co. returns, 82,422^.) . . 28 Feb. 

Seed supply act passed 1 March, 

Relief of distress (Ireland) act passed 15 March, 

Relief fund : 129,000^ received up to 25 March ; 
141, 562Z up to 17 April, 

Charter for new Irish university signed by the queen 

19 April, 

Relief for Irish distress brought in the Constellation 
from United States ; arrives at Cork 20 April, 

Received for Irish distress, 177,4012. ; distributed, 
i7°>357* up to 23 July, 

Compensation for Disturbance bill (to check evic- 
tions, restrain landlords, and benefit tenants), 
2nd reading in commons (295-217), 5-6 July ; 
passed in commons (303-237), 27 July ; rejected 
by the lords (282-51) .... 3 Aug. 

Mr. Thos. Boyd, crown solicitor, and sons fired at 
and wounded, Charles killed, at Shanlough, near 
New Ross .... Sunday, Aug. 8, 

40 cases of arms (960 weapons), stolen from the 



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521 



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June, a Norwegian vessel, in the docks at Cork, 
ii Aug. ; some found concealed . 13 Aug. 
Rioting at Dungannon, Belfast . 15-18 Aug. 
Violent speech of Mr. Dillon, M.P., at Kildare, in 
favour of the land league 15 Aug. ; termed 
"wicked and cowardly" by Mr. W. E. Forster, 
who justifies the terms in parliament 23 Aug. 
Mr. Parnell proposes that tenant should become 
owner of land after paying 35 years' just rent Sept. 
The duchess of Marlborough's relief fund ; total re- 
ceived from all parts 135,2452., and ugl. interest 
from the Bank of Ireland ; reported 19 Sept. 

Lord Mountmorres shot at Kutheen near Clonbar, 
■Gal way, about 8 p.m. . . . 25 Sept. 

Progress of agitation ; exciting speeches of Messrs. 
Parnell, Redpath, Dillon, and others advocating 
the principle of " boycotting " . Sept., Oct. 
105 leading landowners with agents wait on the 
lord lieutenant at Dublin, describing the terrorist 
state of the south and west of the country and 

need of protection 7 Oct. 

R. C. abp. McCabe's pastoral against agitation and 
murders ; read in chapels . . .10 Oct. 
Agrarian outrages ; John Downing, a driver, killed 
by a shot aimed at his employer, Mr. Samuel 
Hutchins, near Drimoleague, Cork . 16 Oct. 
Arrest of Timothy M. Healy, Mr. Parnell's secre- 
tary, and Mr. Walsh, for intimidation of Mr. 
Manning (on 16 Oct.) ... 26, 27 Oct. 
Messrs. Parnell and others arrested for conspiracy 
and intimidation to prevent tenants paying rent, 
<Sic. (19 counts) ; notices served 3 Nov. et seq. 
Mr. Boycott of Lough Mask farm, near Ballinrobe, 
Mayo, besieged ; his labourers threatened ; his 
tradesmen refuse to supply him ; — his crops 
gathered by immigrant labourers, protected by 

military, &c 11, 12 Nov. 

Mr. Henry Wheeler, land agent, murdered 12 Nov. 

Mr. Forster, Irish Secretary, sends a circular to the 

magistrates reminding them of their statutory 

powers about 8 Dec, 

Mr. W. Bence Jones of Ballinascorthy, treated like 

Mr. Boycott Dec. 

Three judges (Fitzgerald, Barry, and Dowse), de- 
liver alarming charges on state of country Dec. 
Trial of Mr. Parnell and others for conspiracy, 

begins (see Trials) 28 Dec. 

Jury disagree ; discharged ... 25 Jan. 1 
About 25,000 soldiers in Ireland . . Jan. 

Report of Agricultural Commission (for Ireland) 
issued ; great distress, 1877-9 ! good harvest, 
1880 ; it opposes the three F's. ; recommends emi- 
gration in some districts .... Jan. 
Bill for protection of life and property (termed 
coercion bill) brought in by Mr. Forster, 24 Jan. ; 
long debates ; much obstruction (see Parliament) ; 
passed commons, (281-36), 25, 26 Feb. ; passed 
lords, 1-3 March ; royal assent . . 3 March, 
Peace preservation bill (arms bill) ; introduced 1 
March ; passed commons, 11, 12 March ; passed 
lords, 18 March ; royal assent . . 21 March, 
Many agitators arrested; 23 in Kilniainham gaol, 

10 March, 
" Clan-Na-Gael " secret society to replace Fenians 

said to be formed March, 

Irish land bill (" legalized confiscation" — Beacons- 
field) introduced into the commons by Mr. Glad- 
stone ... ... 7 April, 

More arrests (total about 40) up to 20 April, 

Cruel outrages in different places ; Dublin city pro- 
claimed under coercion act, 1 May ; John Dillon, 
M.P. arrested [released Aug.] . . 2 May, 

Division in Irish parliamentary party ; Mr. Parnell 
and others oppose the land bill, about . 5 May, 
Increase in amount of crime . . April, May, 
Total arrests, 54 ; increase of evictions . May, 
Irish land bill read 2nd time (352-176); Mr. Parnell 
and about 20 retire, 19, 20 May ; 3rd time (220-14) 

29 July, , 

Agrarian outrages, 439, Jan. ; 170, Feb. ; 146, 

March ; 296, April ; 238 in three weeks . May, 

Riots connected with evictions at Scareff, co. Clare ; 

some persons killed ; many injured . 2 June, 

Rioting at various places in co. Cork., &c, 

5, 6, 7 June, 

Population diminished one ninth in ten years (by 

•census) ... ... June, 

First publication of United Ireland . . July, 



Land bill in house of lords ; read 2nd time, 2, 3 
Aug. ; 3rd time (with amendments), 8 Aug. ; the 
commons reject some of the amendments, 12 
Aug. ; the lords resist, 13 Aug. ; the commons 
modify the amendments, 15 Aug. ; the lords 
yield, 16 Aug. ; royal assent . . 22 Aug. iE 

Increased boycotting of shop-keepers and others, 
and much cruelty Sept. , 

Great meeting of delegates from the Land League, 
denouncing the land act as a sham ; Mr. Parnell 
present ... ... 17-19 Sept. , 

Mr. Parnell arrested on charge of inciting to in- 
timidation and for urging non-payment of rent ; 
put into Kilniainham gaol, Dublin (a-hich see) 

13 Oct. 

This arrest "legal, merited, and expedient," Times 

15 Oct. , 

Arrest of Messrs. Sexton, O'Kelly, J. P. Quinn, 
secretary of Land League, Dillon, O'Brien, and 
others 14-16 Oct. . 

Violent rioting at Dublin and Limerick ; about 
2000Z. damage ; soon suppressed ; more arrests 

15-18 Oct. . 

More troops sent to Ii eland from Chatham, &c. ; 
manifesto of the Land League denouncing the 
government, and ordering non-payment of rent 

18 Oct. , 
This manifesto censured by archbishop Croke 

19 Oct. 
First meeting of the Irish Land Commission court ; 

addressed by justice O'Hagan . . 20 Oct. . 
Great calm at Dublin and Limerick 20 Oct. ct seq. 
The lord lieutenant on the responsibility of Mr. 
W. E. Forster proclaims the suppression of 
the Land League as an illegal and criminal 
organization, 20 Oct. ; the leaders declare for 
passive resistance ; archbishop M'Cabe's pastoral 
against the Land League manifesto read in R. C. 
churches in Dublin . . . .30 Oct. , 

Important decisions in favour of tenants by sub- 
commissions at Belfast, &c. . . . Nov. , 
2448 persons in prison ; more arrests ; some released 

announced 5 Nov. , 
Home rule meeting at Dublin . . .8 Nov. , 
Death of Dr. M'Hale, archbishop of Tuam, "Lion 

of the fold of Judah" .... 8 Nov. , 
Above 40,000 applications to the land courts 

12 Nov. , 
Continuance of agrarian murders and outrages Nov. , 
Strike against payment of rent in Limerick ; evic- 
tions ordered 30 Nov. , 

Irish Property Defence association (formed Nov. 
1880) active and successful (see Mansion-house 

Fund) Nov. — Dec. , 

Great increase of crime in Munster announced Dec. , 
An association formed to support the law 

about 20 Dec. , 
Proclamation against possession of arms iu Dublin, 
<fcc. ....... 27 Dec. , 

Appointment of five special magistrates, with extra 
powers, in disturbed districts ; 4439 agrarian 
outrages in the year . . . about 30 Dec. , 
Several lady land leaguers arrested 2 Jan. et seq. 18 
Day of humiliation for Protestants . . 13 Jan. , 
About 40 suspects arrested . . 28 Jan. , 

Frequent murders reported .... Feb. , 

Committee to enquire into working of land act 
voted by lords (96 — 53, 17 Feb.), earl Cairns, 
chairman . . . . . -23 Feb. , 

Michael Davitt, convict, elected M.P. for co. 
Meath, 22 Feb. ; annulled by the commons, 

28 Feb. ,, 
Bailey, an informer against Land League, murdered 

at Dublin 25 Feb. ,, 

Mr. Gladstone's resolution against the lords' com- 
mittee, 27 Feb. ; carried (303 — 235) 9-10 March, ,, 
The lords' committee sit .... March, ,, 
Continuance of murderous outrages . . March, ,, 
Archbishop M'Cabe created cardinal 27 March, ,, 

Mr. Forster confesses failure of government policy 
through influence of secret societies 27 March, „ 

511 suspects in prison 1 April, „ 

Mr. Parnell released en parole for ten days, 

10 April, ,, 
New government policy ; resignation of Mr. W. E. 
Forster [Mr. Forster narrowly escaped assassin- 
ation several times] ; release of Mr. Parnell and 
other suspects ; earl Spencer appointed lord lieu- 



IRELAND. 



522 



IEELAND. 



tenant about 2 May, 1882 ; release of Michael 
Davitt 6 May, ] 

Earl Spencer enters Dublin ; lord Frederick Caven- 
dish, new chief secretary, and Mr. T. H. Burke, 
permanent under-secretary, assassinated by stab- 
bing, by four men (" Invincibles ") about 7 p.m., 
in Phoenix-park, Dublin, 6 May ; manifesto ex- 
pressing abhorrence of the deed signed by C. S. 
Parnell, J. Dillon, and M. Davitt . . 7 May, 

Government offers io.oooZ. reward for discoveries 
of the murderers ; Mr. G. O. Trevelyan appointed 
chief secretary 9 May, 

Bill for the prevention of crime in Ireland intro- 
duced by sir W. V. Harcourt (new tribunal of 
three judges without jury for special occasions ; 
powers of police increased ; alien act to be 
revived ; supervision of newspapers and of assem- 
blies, &c), 11 May, 1882 ; second reading 
(3 8 3—45) i9- 2 ° Ma y. 

Many arrests 12 May et seq. 

Alleged agreement of the government with Mr. Par- 
nell and party, early May, i882,sarcastically termed 
the treaty of Kilmainham ; arrears of rent bill, 
second reading (269— 157) . . 23-24 May, 

Mr. Walter Bourke and corporal Wallace, his escort, 
shot dead by five men near Gort, Gal way 8 J une, 

Mr. John Henry Blake, agent to the marquis of 
Clanriearde, and his steward, Mr. Kane, shot 
dead near Loughrea . ... 29 June, 

A long discussion in the commons on the preven- 
tion of crime bill ; 23 Irish members suspended, 
30 June — 1 July, 

Mr. Parnell and home rulers withdraw, July, 1882 ; 
22 arrests at Loughrea, 4 July ; government de- 
feated in an amendment checking domiciliary 
visits of suspected persons at night, 207 — 194 ; 
prevention of crime bill read third time, 7-8 July ; 
passed by the lords, 11 July; royal assent, 

12 July, 

17 counties proclaimed . . . about 13 July, 

170 suspects in custody . . . .2 Aug. 

The Lords' committee on the land act adjourns, 

15 Aug. 

Mr. Edmund Dwyer Gray, M.P., high sheriff of 
Dublin, ex-lord mayor, sentenced to three months' 
imprisonment and a fine of 500L for contempt of 
court in articles in Freeman's Journal attacking 
the jury on trial of Francis Hynes . 16 Aug. 

Arrears bill passed in the commons (285 — 177), 21 
July; by the lords, with injurious amendments 
(169—98), 31 July; which are modified or .nega- 
tived by the commons, 8, 9 Aug. ; the revision 
accepted by the lords, 10 Aug. ; royal assent, 

18 Aug. 

50 suspects released .... about 18 Aug. 

John Joyce and his wife, son, and daughter, shot 
dead by band of men near Maatntrasma, in 
Oloncler district, Galway, for giving information 
to the police . . . 17-18 Aug. 

John Leahy, aged farmer, of Scarteen, Killarney, 
murdered by a moonlight party . . 20 Aug. 

Discontent and insubordination of the constabulary 

at Dublin, Cork, and especially at Limerick, 

settled by firmness and judicious concessions 

end of Aug. 

Dismissal of some police for holding a public meet- 
ing in Dublin ; all the police of the city resign ; 
order maintained by the military, who charge on 
rioters in the evening, 1 Sept. ; special constables 
sworn in 2 Sept. ; resignation withdrawn peni- 
tently with respectful petition, 3 Sept. ; 208 re- 
instated 6-7 Sept. 

Execution of Francis Hynes (for murder of John 
Doloughty)at Limerick, 1 1 Sept. ; of Patrick Walsh, 
for murder of Martin Lyden, at Galway, 22 Sept. 

Successful progress of the lord lieutenant, earl 
Spencer, in the west . . . middle Sept. 

Conviction of Michael Walsh, for murder of Kava- 
nagh, a policeman, 29 Sept. ; penal servitude for 
life 19 Oct. 

Mr. E. D. Gray released . . . .30 Sept. 

Expiration of coercion act ; all suspects released 

30 Sept. 

Land league fund in North America closed 6 Oct. 

Nationalistic conference at Dublin constitutes a 
new Irish National League (ultra) to obtain self- 
government and land-law reform, Mr. C. Parnell 
president 17 Oct. 



Diminution of agrarian crime . . April — Nov. 1 

Murderous assault on justice Lawson at Dublin by 
Patrick Delany, a returned convict . 11 Nov. 

Irish land commission report issued about 13 Nov. 

The land corporation of Ireland dissolved Nov. 

Conviction of murderers of Joyce family ; Patrick 
Joyce, 15 Nov. ; Patrick Casey, 17 Nov. ; Myles 
Joyce, 18 Nov. [all executed, 15 Dec] ; Michael 
Casey, Thomas Joyce, John Casey, and Martin 
Joyce, confess ; sentence commuted ; Thomas 
Casey and Philbyn, approvers . . 21 Nov. 

Murderous assault on detectives in Dublin ; Cox 
killed ; his murderer, Dowling, severely wounded 

25 Nov. 

Mr. Field, a juryman, stabbed, 27 Nov. ; reward of 
5000Z. for assassin ; Dublin proclaimed under 
martial law 28 Nov. 

Patrick and Thomas Higgins convicted of murder 
of Haddys at Lough Mask [executed 15-17 Jan. 
1883] . .• . . . .13 and 16 Dec. 

Also Michael Flyn 20 Dec. 

Sylvester Poff, James Barrett, convicted of murder, 
at Cork 22 Dee. 

Emigration from Ireland, 89,566 in the year . . 

Great distress in Donegal in the north-west ; 3433 
agrarian outrages in the year . . Dec. 1882 — : 

Arrest in Dublin of 21 persons, suspected of con- 
spiracy to murder . . . . 12, 13 Jan. 

Robert Farrell, approver, reveals plot for assassi- 
nation of the government ... 19 Jan. 

The pope's letter to archbishop McCabe, exhorting 
the clergy against secret societies, &c. about 20 Jan . 

Execution of Sylvester PofT and James Barrett, at 
Tralee, for murder 23 Jan. 

M. Davitt, Thos. Healy, M.P., and P. Quinn bound 
over for seditious speeches, 24 Jan. ; elect to be 
imprisoned, 6 Feb. ; imprisoned . . 8 Feb. 

Eight men charged with complicity in murder of 
lord Frederick Cavendish and Mr. Burke 3 Feb. 

Irish national league, first meeting . . 7 Feb. 

Revelations of James Carey, approver, implicating 
the Land League (Thos. Brennan, sec, and P. J. 
Sheridan) ; statement respecting the Irish Invin- 
cibles; arrest of Mrs. F.Byrne, charged with trans- 
mitting arms, &c, 17 Feb. ; discharged 20 Feb. 

Accused prisoners committed for trial . 20 Feb. 

Mr. W. E. Forster's defence in the commons, and 
charges against Mr. Parnell ; Mr. O'Kelly sus- 
pended for a week, for givinghim the lie 22-23 Feb. 

Mr. Parnell's unsatisfactory reply . . 23 Feb. 

Arrest of Mr. Byrne at Paris, 27 Feb. ; released, 
about 9 March, 

Flight of Patrick Egan, treasurer of the Land 
League, from Dublin, 1 March; in New York 

12 March, 

Many thousand young forest trees for planting 
given by English, Scotch, and Irish nurserymen 

spring, 

K. C. bishops advocate government relief for dis- 
tress in Connaught, Jan. ; refused, poor-law relief 
reckoned sufficient March, 

Twelve members of the "Patriotic Brotherhood" 
(established at Crossmaglen, 1881) sentenced to 
penal servitude for conspiracy to murder land- 
lords . . . . . . 28 March, 

Phoenix-park murders ; Robt. Farrell, Jas. Carey, 
and others, approvers ; trial of Joseph Brady, 
convicted, 11-13 April ; Timothy Kelly, third 
trial, 7-0 May ; Thomas Caffrey pleads guilty, 
2 May ; Patrick Delany and Daniel Cm-ley, 16-18 
April ; Michael Fagan . . . 25-27 April, 

Irish convention at Philadelphia ; Parnell's policy 
adopted ; dynamiters defeated . 25-27 April, 

Detection of conspiracy of the "Vigilance" murder 
organization at Dublin; jirisoners examined, 

May, 

Powerful circular from the pope, strictly enjoining 
the bishops to abstain from favouring disaffection 
to the government, not to subscribe to testimo- 
nials, &c. [archbishop Croke, of Cashel, had given 
50Z. to the Parnell testimonial, &c] . 11 May, 

James FitzHarris and others convicted of con- 
spiracy to murder ; sentenced to penal servitude 
16 May et seq. 

Messrs. Davitt, Healy, and Quinn released 4 June, 

Executed : Joseph Brady (actual murderer), 14 



IEELAKD. 



523 



IEELAND. 



May ; Daniel Curley, 18 May ; Michael Fagan, 28 
May ; Thomas Caff'rey, 2 June ; Timothy Kelly, 

9 June, : 

Irish lace exhibition at the Mansion-house, London 
25 June— 7 July, 

James Carey, the approver, shot dead by Patrick 
O'Donnell, 29 July, on board the Melrose Castle, 
near Port Elizabeth, South Africa . 29 July, 

Loans amounting to 4,600,000?. for public works 
authorised by parliament ... 25 Aug. 

National League invade Ulster, strongly resisted 
by the Orangemen at Auchnacloy, Dungannon, 
and other places .... end of Sept. 

Sir Stafford Northcote warmly received at Belfast, 
Londonderry, <fec 3 Oct. 

Meeting of National League at Ennis prohibited 

S Oct. 

Meetings of Orangemen and National Leaguers at 
Garrison, Fermanagh, prohibited . . 13 Nov. 

Patrick O'Donnell convicted . . .1 Dee. 

Mr. Trevelyan reports great diminution in agrarian 
outrage Oct. — Dec. 

38,000?. presented to Mr. Parnell ("as a national 
tribute " from the Irish pieople) at a banquet at 
the Rotunda, Dublin . . . 11 Dec. 

Execution of Patrick O'Donnell (see 29 July), at 
Newgate, 17 Dec. ; of James Poole, at Dublin, 
for murder of John Kenny, informer . 18 Dec. 

A Parnellite land law amendment bill rejected by 
the commons (as tending to confiscation), by 
235—72 5 March, : 

Earl Spencer warmly received at Belfast 18 June, 

Serious libellous charges against Mr. Bolton, crown 
solicitor ; subornation of witnesses, &c. 

July, Aug. 

Charges disproved ; letter from earl Spencer 23 Aug. 

Irish National League convention at Dublin, Mr. 
P. O'Connor in the chair ; urges revival of agita- 
tion against the government ... 6 Sept. 

Death of Mr. A. M. Sullivan, eminent Nationalist 

17 Oct. 

Mr. H. Campbell-Bannerman, chief secretary, 
sworn in 24 Oct. 

Maamtrasma trial impugned ; their verdict sup- 
ported by the commons '219 — 48) . 28 Oct. 

Attempted explosion of Edinburn-house (Samuel 
Hussey, land agent) by dynamite, near Tralee, 
Kerry ; no deaths .... 28 Nov. 

Death of cardinal McCabe, pacific and loyal 11 Feb. 

Parnellite manifesto directing Nationalist corpora- 
tions to maintain an attitude of reserve during the 
prince of Wales' visit in April, issued about 16 Mar. 

The prince of Wales arrives at Dublin, 8 April ; 
sails from Larue .... 27 April, 

The Irish R. C. bishops summoned to Rome ; 
arrive 21 April ; rebuked by the pope for 
disloyalty, &c, in separate interviews, 27 April- 
15 May ; bishop Nulty's pastoral, foretelling 
secession of Ireland from Rome, causes great 
displeasure ; the bishops oppose projected reforms 
at Maynooth, but are said to submit, announced 
19 May ; dismissed about ... 25 May, 

The earl of Carnarvon, lord lieutenant, arrives in 
Dublin 30 June, 

Sir William Hart-Dyke appointed chief Secretary 

June 

Stoppage of the Munster bank for about 70,000?. ; 
fraud disclosed July-Aug. 1885 ; reconstituted ; 
opened 19 Oct. 

Lord Ashbourne's act, granting 5,000,000?. for the 
purchase of land by tenant to be paid by instal- 
ments, passed 14 Aug. 

Progress of the earl of Carnarvon, lord lieut. in the 
west ; well received ... 17 Aug. el seq. 

Mr. Parnell's resolute declaration to the nationalists 
at Dublin 25 Aug. 

Prevention of crime act expires ; revival of boy- 
cotting and outrages .... Sept. 

The first county con vention , for controlling elections, 
held at Wicklow under Mr. Parnell . 5 Oct. 

Cork defence union formed (the earl of Band on 
president) against the tyranny of the national 
league . Oct. 

The Cork steam packet company threatened with 
boycotting by the league ; the company deter- 
mined on resistance .... 10 Oct. 



Aghadoe house, Killarney (Mr. Hussey's), attacked 
by "moonlighters" and defended with fire-arms 

11 Oct. zl 

Manifesto of Mr. Parnell claiming "home rule" 
&c, published n Nov. 

Castle farm, Molahiffe, in Kerry, attacked for arms 
by moonlighters ; Mr. John O'Connell Curtain 
killed, while his sons and daughters bravely 
resist ; one assailant killed . . 13 Nov. 
[S. Cassey and D. Daly convicted of burglary, 
&c. 21 Dec] 

Elections : home-rule manifesto issued 21 Nov. 

Irish defence union formed to support local defence 
unions 

Mr. W. H. Smith, M.P., chief secretary for a short 
time '• Jan. 1 

The earl of Aberdeen, as lord lieut., and John 
Morley, as chief secretary, sworn in . 10 Feb. 

Irish loyal union, report to Mr. Gladstone, the 
systematic cruel oppression of the national 
league 27 March, 

Mr. Gladstone in a long speech introduces a bill 
" to make better provision for the future govern- 
ment of Ireland " ; it proposes to establish a 
legislative body to sit in Dublin, to consist of 
two orders each with a veto ; I. twenty-eight 
representative peers and seventy-five members 
elected for ten years ; II. the present 103 Irish 
members, and 101 additional : the lord lieutenant 
with a privy council to be independent of Great 
Britain ; the new body empowered to enact laws 
and to impose and collect taxes, except the 
customs, but not to interfere with the army and 
navy, or foreign and colonial affairs, and not to 
enact any religious endowment ; present legal 
and police arrangements to remain temporarily 
subject to the crown ; no Irish members to sit at 
Westminster, 8-9 April ; read first time, 13-14 
April ; seeond reading rejected (343 [250 conser- 
vatives, 93 liberals]-3i3) ... 7-8 June, 

The loyal and patriotic union formed May, 1885 ; 
great meeting at H. M.'s theatre, London, earl 
Cowper in the chair, the marquises of Salisbury 
and Harrington, and many leading eonservath e 
and liberal leaders present. Resolutions con- 
demning Mr. Gladstone's Irish government bill 
passed ; petitions to be presented to parliament 

14 April, 

Sale and purchase of land bill introduced by Mr. 
Gladstone ; (proposed creation of 50,000,000?. 3 
per cent, stock from 1887-90) read 1st time 

16 April, 

944 agrarian offences in 1885, reported . April, 

Archbishop Croke and his clergy express warm 
gratitude to Mr. Gladstone . about 30 April, 

Important meetings of liberals and conservatives 
against Mr. Gladstone's policy . 14-15 May, 

Intimidation practised by the " house league " 
upon owners of houses in Kerry &c, to procure 
reduction of rent May, 

Riots at Belfast (which see) . 9, 10 June et seq. 

Armagh and Tyrone proclaimed under peace preser- 
vation act ...... 18 June, 

Dissolution of parliament ; Mr. Gladstone being in 
a minority, resigns 20 July ; Marquis of Salisbury 
supported by unionists, resumes office 26 July, 

The marquis of Londonderry as lord lieut., and 
sir Michael Hicks-Beach as chief secretary, 
appointed 26 July, 

Convention of about 1,000 delegates of Irish 
national league of America meet at Chicago ; 
John Fitzgerald elected president 19-22 Aug. 

Gen. sir Redvers Buller with civil plenary powers 
appointed to command in Kerry, Clare, and Cork ; 
arrives at Killarney .... 30 Aug. 

Mr. Parnell's amendment on the address negatived 
(304-181) 27, 28 Aug. 

Mr. Parnell introduces tenants' relief bill, n Sept. ; 
rejected (297-202) .... 21-22 Sept. 

Capture of moonlighters and arms at Castleisland, 
Kerry 26 Sept. 

Two women shot by moonlighters for refusing to 
cive ui) arms at a farm near Williamstown, Cork, 
6 l 4 Oct. 

Plans of organization (termed plan of campaign) of 
tenantry in ench estate against the landlords 
with stringent measures proposed (probably 
by Mr. John Dillon, leader of the national 



IEELAND. 



524 



IEELAND. 



party, and Mr. William O'Brien) in United 
Inland, organ of the national league (the tenant 
was to pay his rent to the league, and be sup- 
ported by it if evicted) .... 21 Oct. 1886 

Sir Kobert Hamilton, under secretary (said to be 
home ruler) resigns; (sir Red vers Buller temporary 
successor) ; col. Turner acts in Kerry 30 Nov. ,, 

Increased agrarian agitation . . . Nov. ,, 

Offices opened for the receipt of rents at Charleston, 
Mayo (lord Dillon's estate), many deposits 2 Dec. ,, 

Prosecution of Mr. Dillon ; the attorney-general 
terms the " plan of campaign " a combination of 
debtors to coerce creditors n Dec. ; 'court of 
queen's bench requires Mr. Dillon to find securi- 
ties for good behaviour, or be imprisoned for six 
months I4 Dec. ,, 

Messrs. Dillon, Wm. O'Brien, Matthew Harris, and 
Sheehy arrested whilst receiving rents on lord 
Clanricarde's estate, the books and money seized 

16 Dec. ,, 

Proclamation against " plan of campaign " 18 Dec. ,, 

Bents still illegally received by several M.P's. 

about 18 Dec. et seq. „ 

The seat of prosecution removed from Loughrea to 
Dublin 20 Dec. „ 

Mr. Pamell states that he defers his opinion on the 
plan of campaign . . . about 18 Dec. ,, 

Chief Baron Palles in sentencing 36 Irish rioters, 
censures the "dispensing power" of the executive 
and the abstention of the police during riots at 
evictions 5 Jan. 1887 

Prosecution of Mr. Dillon, five other M.P's., and 
Mr. O'Brien (editor of United Ireland) begun at 
Dublin, 23 Dec. ; committed and bailed n Jan. 

Mr. Parnell's amendment on the address relating to 
Irish affairs negatived (352 [68 liberals]-246) 

11, 12 Feb. 

Evictions resisted by armed men ; an " emergency " 
man dies of wounds at Ballycar . 14, 15 Feb. 

Resignation of sir M. Hicks-Beach, chief secretary, 
for ill-health ; succeeded by Mr. Arthur J. 
Balfour 5 March, 

Riots at Youghal with bloodshed . 8 March, 

Justice O'Brien at Kerry says : " Law is at an end. 
There is a state of war with authority. " 10 March, 

*' Parnellism and crime " (which see) published in 
the Times 7 March, et seq. 

Arrest of father Keller (supported by abp. Walsh) for 
contempt of court in refusing to give evidence 
(as a confessor) in a bankruptcy case, 18 March ; 
committed to prison 19 March ; father Ryan 
committed for same cause . . 29 March, 

Increase of crime and lawlessness in south and 
west March, 

Trial of Messrs. Dillon and others, 14 Feb. ; jury 
disagreeing, discharged 24 Feb. ; proceedings 
withdrawn 1 April, 

Fathers Keller and Ryan and others released 

21-24 May, 

Liberal unionist organization begins in Ireland 

24 May, 

New criminal law procedure bill introduced by Mr. 
Balfour, 28 March ; much opposition, Irish 
members and others retire 17-30 June, read 3rd 
time 8-9 July, passed by the lords 18 July ; 
royal assent* 19 July, 



* Members of parliament sentenced to imprisonment 
under the new act. 1887. Mr. W. O'Brien 31 Oct. ; Mr. 
E. Harrington 1 Dec; Mr. T. Harrington 19 Dec; 
Mr. Hooper 19 Dec. ; Mr. Sheehy 21 Dec. 

1888. Mr. J. R. Cox 25 Jan. ; Mr. P. O'Brien 8 Feb. ; 
Mr. Pyne 15 Feb. ; Mr. Flyn 25 Feb. ; Mr. Gilhooly 5 
March ; Mr. W. O'Brien 3 May, 20 June ; Mr. Condon 27 
May ; Mr. Dillon 20 June ; Mr. James O'Kelly 10 Aug. ; 
Mr. Redmond 26 Sept. 

1889. Mr. John O'Connor 31 Jan. ; Mr. D. Sheehy 1 
Feb. ; Mr. J. R. Cox 2 Feb. ; Mr. T. Condon 7 Feb. ; Mr. 
Kilbride 8 Feb. ; Mr. W. O'Brien 19 Feb. ; Mr. Carew 
21 Feb. ; Dr. Tanner 7 Match ; Mr. Condon, Mr. Connor, 
and Dr. Tanner 1 May ; Mr. Conybeare 3 May ; Mr. W. 
O'Brien and Mr. Gilhooly 25 Aug. ; Mr. Redmond 22 
Sept. 

1890. Messrs. Wm. and Patrick O'Brien and John 
Dillon 19 Nov. 

1891. Mr. W. O'Brien and J. Dillon, 13 Feb 31 July. 



Evictions at Bodyke in Clare, on property of 
colonel O'Callaghan; violently resisted early June, 1S87 

Labourer shot by a gang near Killarney 13 June, ,, 

Prince Albert Victor and George of Wales visit 
Ireland 27 June, „ 

Jubilee address of unionist Roman catholics to the 
queen 29 June, „ 

Great meeting at Cork to resist the operation of the 
crimes act 19 July, ,, 

Eighteen counties proclaimed under the crimes act ; 
twelve counties partly proclaimed, together with 
Dublin and nine other cities . . 23 July, ,, 

Monsignor Persico visits Ireland on behalf of the 
pope July, ,, 

New Irish land bill (favourable to the tenant) 
passed ; royal assent .... 23 Aug. ,, 

The national league proclaimed as a " dangerous 
association " 19 Aug ; Mr. Gladstone's motion for 
an address to the queen against the proclamation 
negatived (272-194) . . ■ . 25-26 Aug. „ 

Nationalist meeting at Ballycoree in Clare pro- 
claimed 31 Aug. ; attempted meeting dispersed 

4 Sept. „ 

Meeting in support of Mr. W. O'Brien, M.P., 
and Mr. Mandeville, who refuse to obey the 
magistrates' summons respecting speeches at 
Mitchelstown on 9, 10 Aug. ; about 150 horse- 
men and crowd, about 3,000, armed with 
bludgeons and stones ; Messrs. Labouchere, 
Dillon, Brunner and other M.P's. present ; the 
police with the government reporter (Conderon) 
attacked with stones and bludgeons, retreat to 
barracks ; return reinforced ; compelled to fire ; 
Michael Lonergan and John Shinnery killed 
and many wounded ; town quieted by military 

9 Sept. ,, 

Constable Whelehan killed and three others 
wounded in defending T. Sexton's house near 
Lisdoonvarna against moonlighters . 11 Sept. ,, 

[Leary and four others sentenced to penal servitude 
10 Dec] 

The national league in Clare and several baronies 
(200 branches) suppressed by proclamation 20 Sept. , , 

Mr. O'Brien and Mr. Mandeville sentenced to three 
months' imprisonment ... 24 Sept. ,, 

The lord mayor of Dublin (Mr. T. D. Sullivan) 
charged with offence against the crimes act (see 
Dublin) 6 Oct. „ 

Many meetings of suppressed branches of the 
national league 9 Oct. „ 

Mr. Joseph Chamberlain, M.P., warmly received at 
Belfast and other places in Ulster by the liberal 
unionists and others . . . 11 Oct. et seq. „ 

Verdict of coroner's jury on deaths at Mitchelstown ; 
wilful murder against county inspector Brown- 
rigg, sergeants Ryder and Kirwan, and con- 
stables Gavan, Brennan, and Doran . 12 Oct. ,, 

[Verdict quashed by the queen's bench, Dublin, 
10 Feb. 1888.] 

Col. sir Joseph West Ridgeway succeeds sir 
Redvers Buller as under-secretary for Ireland 

about 15 Oct. „ 

Midnight meeting at Woodford ; Mr. O'Brien 
present 16 Oct. ,, 

Cork county and city placed under the crimes act 

24 Oct. „ 

At a riotous meeting at Woodford which had been 
proclaimed, Mr. Wilfrid Blunt, the chairman, 
and others arrested, and the meeting dispersed, 
23 Oct; Mr. Blunt sentenced to two months' 
imprisonment ; appeals ... 27 Oct. ,, 

[Sentence confirmed 7 Jan. i388.] 

Many evictions violently resisted, autumn . ,, 

Mr. W. O'Brien withdraws his appeal ; after 
resistance sent to prison for three months ; 
sentence confirmed against Mr. Mandeville, two 
months' imprisonment, 31* Oct ; removed from 
Cork to Tullamore gaol, King's county 2 Nov. ,, 

Other arrests and imprisonments . . Nov. „ 

Limerick city proclaimed . . about 14 Nov. „ 

The national league suppressed in Kerry 22 Nov. ,, 

Serious riots at Limerick through attempted 
meeting to inaugurate a memorial of the so- 
called martyrs executed at Manchester (which 
see) in 1867 . . . . . 27 Nov. 

Great unionist meeting at Leinster hall, Dublin, to 
receive lord Harrington and Mr. Gbschen ; the 



IRELAND. 



525 



IRELAND. 



most eminent persons in professions, learning, 
' commerce &c. present ... 29 Nov. 18 
Death of Dr. Daniel M'Gettigan, R. C. archbishop 
of Armagh ; judicious, tolerant, and amiable 

3 Dec. , 
Convention of Irish landlords in Dublin to consider 
their prospects and conduct, 15 Sept. ; require 

legislation 13-15 Dec. , 

Father Matthew Ryan, R. C, sentenced to one 

month's imprisonment for sedition . 22 Dec. , 
Large reductions of rents ordered by the land 

commission 27 Dec. , 

Many arrests under the crimes act, and imprison- 
ments Dec. 1887-Jan. 18 

Visit of the marquis of Ripon and Mr. John 

Morley, M.P., to Dublin ... 1-3 Feb. , 
Mr. Parnell's amendment on the address attacking 
the government Irish policy moved, 13 Feb. ; 
negatived (317-229) . . . . 17 Feb. , 
Mr. Parnell's land law amendment bill dealing with 
arrears rejected (328-243) . . 21 March, 
Attempted proclaimed meetings dispersed by the 
police and military at Loughrea, Ennis (by col. 
Turner), and other places ... 8 April, , 
The plan of campaign and boycotting condemned 
by the pope on moral grounds, 18 April ; rescript 

issued 20 April, 

Mr. Carew's county government bill rejected 

(282-195) 25 April, 

Execution of Daniel Hayes and Daniel Moriarty for 
the murder of James Fitzmaurice, a farmer (on 

31 Jan.) 28 April, 

Execution of James Kirby at Tralee gaol for the 
murder of Patrick Quirke at Liscahane, Kerry, 

(8 Nov. 1887) 7 Ma y. 

The exchequer division affirms right of county 

court to increase sentences on appeal 17 May, 

Meeting of catholic M.P's. in Dublin, who 

resist the pope's interference in political affairs, 

17 May ; of others in Phoenix park . 20 May, 

The R. C. bishops accept the papal rescript May, 

Mr. John Morley's motion for vote of censure of the 

government for its Irish policy negatived (366- 

273) 25-27 June, 

The duke of Argyll's resolution in the lords 
warmly commending the government's Irish 
policy accepted nem. con. ... 12 July, 
Evictions on the Vandeleur estate violently but 
unsuccessfully resisted . . 19, 20, 24 July, 
Coroner's inquiry into the death of Mr. John 
Mandeville (imprisoned Nov. 1887) ; 19 July ; 
[suicide of Dr. Ridley of Tullamore gaol, 20 July ; 
1888] verdict — disease caused by ill-usage in 

prison 28 July, 

Mr. Parnell in the house of commons asserts the 
letters attributed to him in Parnellism and crime 
to be forgeries, and the charges against him to be 
false, 6 July ; Mr. Parnell'srequestfor a select com- 
mittee to investigate the charges in the Times 
refused by the government, 9 July ; Mr. W. H. 
Smith proposes the appointment of a royal 
commission of judges to examine these charges, 
12 July ; bill read first time, 16-17 July ; names 
mentioned, sir James Hannen, president, Mr. 
Justice Day, and Mr. Justice A. L. Smith ; act 

passed 13 Aug. 

Great diminution of crime ; boycotting reduced by . 

three-fourths in twelve months . . Aug. 
Mr. Parnell proceeds against the Times in the 

Scotch courts Aug. 

See Parnellite commission. 
Nonconformist ministers of Ireland present an 
address to the marquises of Salisbury and 
Hartington, protesting against the separatist 

policy 14 Nov. 

Mr. E. Harrington fined 500L for contempt of 
court in his paper, the Kerry Sentinel . Nov. 
Renewal of lord Ashbourne's act of 1885, granting 
5,000,000?. proposed Nov. ; Mr. Gladstone's 
amendment rejected (330-246), 20 Nov. ; 2nd read- 
ing carried (299-224), 22 Nov. ; passed 24 Dec. 
Verdict for Mr. Joyce against lord Clanricarde for 

libel on appeal Dec. 

Letter from pope to Irish people expressing 
sympathy and advice and gifts to the Irish 

churches 1 Jan. 

Mr. Win. O'Brien, M.P., sentenced to four months' 



imprisonment, 25 Jan. ; (escaped), arrested at a 
meeting at Manchester .... 29 Jan. i£ 
Deputy inspector Win. Limerick Martin killed 
while attempting to arrest father McFadden, P. P. , 
at Gweedore, Donegal .... 3 Feb. , 
The court of session, Edinburgh, dismisses Mr. 
Parnell's action against the Times with costs 

5 Feb. 

Mr. Dillon, sir Thomas Esmonde, and Mr. Deasy, 

M.P.'s, Home Rule delegates to Australia, &c, 

arrive at Adelaide .... 11 April, 

Mr. Parnell moves for a trial against the Times in 

the exchequer division, Dublin 11 Feb. ; finally 

stopped April, 

Great decrease of agrarian outrages (1881, 4,439 ; 

1888, 660) announced .... 21 Feb. 

Liberal subscription to support Mr. Olphert of 

Gweedore, Donegal, in his conflict with the 

national league and the plan of campaign May, 

The negotiations between Sir. T. W. Russell and Mr. 

Shaw to settle the dispute fail . . May, 

Resisted evictions on the Vandeleur, Lansdowne, 

Smith-Barry, Ponsonby, and other estates 

May-July, 
Mr. A. J. Balfour explains his bills for the improve- 
ment of Ireland (drainage of the Bann, Barrow, 
and Shannon, by grants of 383,000?., and the con- 
struction of light railways was also proposed) 

31 May, 
Mr. William O'Brien arrested for speech at Clona- 

kilty 30 June, 

Mr. W. O'Brien and Mr. Parnell announce the 
formation of a New Tenants' Defence League, 
{which see) . . . . . . 10, n July 

Dr. Tanner sentenced to one month's imprisonment 
for an assault, and to three months for contempt 

of court 29 July, 

The light railways bill read scond time 19 July, 

The mission of Mr. Dillon and other delegates to 

Australia to obtain support for home rule, reported 

unsuccessful ; meetings at Sydney, Melbourne, 

and Brisbane, protest against them . . July, 

The Suck drainage bill and the light railways bill 

passed 30 Aug. 

Father O'Dwyerandg of his parishioners sentenced 
to 5 months and other terms of imprisonment for 
intimidation and conspiracy . . middle Sept. 
Mr. William O'Brien sentenced to two months' im- 
prisonment and Mr. James Gilhooly to six weeks 

25 Aug. 
The earl of Zetland sworn in as lord lieutenant 5 Oct. 
National league proclaimed in Dnngarvan district 
7 Oct., and in places in county Tipperary, n Oct. 
Mr. Justice Gibson at Maryborough tries persons 
implicated in the murder of deputy-inspector 
Martin at Gweedore (3 Feb.) 17 Oct. Sentences 
for manslaughter Wm. Coll, 10 years' penal servi- 
tude : — pleaded guilty, Patrick Roarty and Domi- 
nick Rogers, 7 years' ; Connell M'Gee, 5 years' ; 3 
others, 6 months' imprisonment with hard labour ; 
fathei M'Fadden reprimanded . . 30 Oct. 
The mission of Mr. Dillon and other M.P.'s to 
Australia, said to have received 27,000?. ; proceeds 
to New Zealand .... about 31 Oct. 
Meeting of the Tenants' Defence Association at 

Thurles 28 Oct. 

The tenants on the Ponsonby estate, who have paid 
no rent and refused very liberal terms, appeal 

against ejectment 5 Nov. 

Failure of Plan of Campaign through combination of 
landlords ; the tenants of the Olphert estate 

pay the rent due Nov. 

Mr. Parnell speaks at Nottingham 17, 18 Dec. ; 
visits Mr. Gladstone at Hawarden, 18 Dec. ; at 

Liverpool 19 Dec. 

First meeting of the Landlords' convention at 

Dublin 18 Dec. 

Proclamations relaxing the stringency of the Crimes 

act in some counties . . . 24 Jan., 16 Feb. 

The Irish Democratic Labour Association started 

at Cork by Michael Da vitt . . . 21 .tan. 

Mr. Parnell's censure of the government policy in 

Ireland (negatived 307-240) . . 14-18 Feb. 

Mr. Joseph Gillis Biggar, M.P., eminent Parnellite, 

dies suddenly 19 Feb. 

New Land Purchase bill introduced by Mr. A. J. 
Balfour 24 March, read 2nd time, 348-286 1 May, 



IRELAND. 



526 



IRELAND. 



'The new Land Purchase bill re-introduced by Mr. 
A. J. Balfour 28 Nov. 

Ponsonby estate, Cork (237 tenants), plan of cam- 
paign adopted, Nov. 1886 ; evicted, 1887, 10 ; 
1888, 3 ; 1889, 32 ; the remainder without resist- 
ances I 7 - 3° April, 

Nationalist meeting at New Tipperary, held though 
proclaimed ; Messrs. Dillon, W. O'Brien, J. 
O'Connor, and others present . . . 25 May 

"General Viscount Wolseley appointed commander- 
in-chief in Ireland (beginning Oct., succeeding 
prince Edward of Saxe-Weimar) . . July, 

Thomas Walsh and two others sentenced to seven 
years' penal servitude for moonlight outrages 

26 July 

The National League issues a circular to its branches 

urging exertions to obtain subscriptions, &c, 

announced 7 Aug. 

.•Strikes in Dublin, Belfast, and other places 

July, et seq. 

Tour of Messrs. John Dillon and William O'Brien 
in Tipperary, &c. ; arrested with three M.P.'s and 
seven others, on charge of conspiring to induce 
Mr. Smith Barry's tenants not to pay rent, and 
to intimidate them ; bailed, 18 Sept. ; prosecu- 
tion begun at Tipperary before Mr. J. B. Irwin 
and Mr. G. B. Shannon ... 25 Sept. 

{Mr. W. O'Brien and Mr. Dillon do not appear, 
10 Oct. ; at Paris, 16 Oct. ; sail for America, 25 
Oct. ; at New York, 2 Nov.] 

Sentences: W. O'Brien, M. P., John Dillon, M. P., 
Patrick O'Brien, M.P., and John Cullinane, 6 
months' imprisonment ; Michael O'Brien, Dalton, 
Patrick Mockler, and Thos. Walsh, 4 months' 

19 Nov. 

Mr. A. J. Balfour visits Mayo and other western 
districts threatened with famine; warmly re- 
ceived 24-3° Oct. 

Bridget Flanagan, daughter of Patrick, shot dead 

in her bed by moonlighters, probably in mistake 

for her father, who had taken a derelict farm 

about 28 Oct. 

Mr. Balfour visits Donegal, &c. . . 4-7 Nov. 

Extensive evictions on the Olphert's estate at Fal- 
carragh 12 Nov. et seq. 

Intervention of the R. C. bishop of Raphoe, Dr. 
O'Donnell : Mr. Olphert requires the total aban- 
donment of the "plan of campaign" on the 
estate ; no agreement 12 Nov. ; evictions proceed 

15 Nov. 

The National League suppressed in townlands in 
Fermanagh, Monagan and Waterford . 14 Nov. 

Mr. Balfour introduces new Land Purchase and 
Congested Districts bills, 27 Nov. ; and a bill to 
relieve the congested districts by providing seed 
potatoes, and by the construction of railways, 
roads, &c, 4 Dec. ; royal assent given to the bills 

9 Dec. 

For the division in the Irish Home Rule party see 
Parnellites Dec. 

Mr. Parnell warmly received at Dublin, Cork, &c. 
10 Dec. et seq. 

He forcibly occupies the office of United Ireland at 
Dublin, 9, 10 Dec. ; two rival editions issued 

12 Dec. 

North Kilkenny election ; Mr. Vincent Scully, Par- 
nellite, opposed by sir J. Pope Hennessy, anti- 
Parnellite ; fierce conflicts ; Hennessy elected. 

23 Dec. 

Moonlighters of Clare and Leitrim, convicted of 
outrages, at Sligo : sentenced to penal servitude : 
Timothy Lalor for life ; seven others for 20 years ; 
four for two years, and two for 1 year . 19 Dec. 

'The construction of the light railways begun at 
Valencia ; road-making begun . . . Dec. 

'The anti-Parnellite newspaper named Insuppressible 
about 24 Dec. 

The earl of Zetland, lord lieutenant, and Mr. A. J. 
Balfour appeal to the public for assistance in the 
relief of the distress in the congested districts 
of the western coast, 3 Jan. (see Irish Distress 
Fund), published 5 Jan. 1 

Relief works actively progressing ; several thou- 
sands employed — men, women, and children Jan. 

The Inswppressiole stopped . . . . 24 Jan. 

Mr. Shaw-Lefevre's resolution for the application 
of arbitration in disputes between landlord and 
tenant negatived (213-152) . . . 3oJaD. 



Bartholomew Sullivan executed at Tralee for the 
murder of Patrick Flahive (30 Aug. ^1886), who 
had taken an evicted farm . . . . 2 Feb. 1 

Men employed on light railways, 281 ; unskilled, 
7,412 2 Feb. 

Mr. Parnell refuses to resign his leadership ; dis- 
ruption of the party, 11 Feb. ; Messrs. W. O'Brien 
and J. Dillon, after fruitless conferences with Mr. 
Parnell at Boulogne, come to Folkestone, are 
arrested and conveyed to Clonmel gaol, 13 Feb. ; 
to Galway 19 Feb. 

Mr. John Morley's resolution, condemning the 
Tipperary prosecutions, negatived by the com- 
mons (320-245) 16-17 Feb. 

Mr. Parnell commences a long series of public meet- 
ings on Sundays ; at Roscommon and other places 

22 Feb. 

The National Press, anti-Parnellite paper, first pub- 
lished 7 March 

National Federation {which see), anti-Parnellite, 
inaugurated at Dublin . . . . 10 March 

Mr. A. J. Balfour reports to the commons the suc- 
cessful results of the efforts made to relieve Irish 
distress ; 55,831?. voted for relief works, &c. ; 
136,200?. for construction of light railways (7,392 
persons employed on 28 Feb.) . .12 March 

Great decrease of crime in the south, reported by 
justice Monroe 18 March, 

The countess of Zetland, Miss Balfour, and others 
visit the relieved districts ; warmly received 

6-1 1 April 

The lord lieutenant visits counties Cork, Kerry, 
Clare, and Galway ; warmly received 5-14 May 

Explosion of a powder magazine by dynamite at 
Donaghadee, co. Down . . . -13 May 

The crimes act suspended throughout Ireland, 
except in co. Clare and a few baronies . 13 June 

Mr. A. J. Balfour in the commons reports the com- 
plete success of his remedial measures . 22 July 

Mr. W. O'Brien and Mr. Dillon liberated from gaol ; 
declare their opposition to Mr. Parnell . 31 July 

Purchase of Land and Congested Districts act 
passed . 5 Aug. 

The Freeman's Journal proprietors determine to 
support the anti-Parnellites . . .28 Aug. 

Visit of the duke of Cambridge to inspect the forces ; 
arrives in Dublin 26 Sept. 

National League convention at Limerick . Oct. , 

Mr. Parnell delivers an address at Greggs, Galway, 
27 Sept. ; dies of rheumatic fever near Brighton, 
6 Oct. ; public Nationalist funeral at Dublin, 
orderly and impressive . . . .11 Oct. 

Mr. Wm. L. Jackson becomes chief secretary 

9 Nov. 

Relief works closed as not required . . Nov. 

The Independent, new Parnellite journal, published 

18 Dec. 

Mr. J. E. Redmond, Parnellite, elected M.P. for 
Waterford, in opposition to Mr. Michael Davitt, 
the clerical candidate . . . -23 Dec. . 

The corporation of London, the Irish Society, and 
43 London companies, summoned to appear in 
Dublin to answer charges respecting the manage- 
ment of their Irish estates . . . 2 Jan. 18 

Landowners' convention, annual meeting 3, 4 Feb. , 

Mr. Justin M'Carthy elected by the anti-Parnellites 
sessional chairman 5 Feb. , 

Above 150 tenants on the Ponsonby estate sign 
agreements to purchase their holdings under the 
Ashbourne act Feb. , 

Irish Education bill introduced by Mr. Wm. L. 
Jackson, 22 Feb., much opposed by the R. C. 
clergy early March , 

Evicted Tenants' (relief) bill rejected by the com- 
mons (229-174) 2 March , 

The National Press amalgamated with the Freeman's 
Journal (litigation ensued) . about 25 March , 

Meeting of Ulster men at Belfast to form a conven- , 
tion to oppose Home Rule (to be on 17 June) 

8 April , 

Meeting of Irish unionist alliance at Dublin 

28 April , 
Local Government bill (which see) introduced by 
Mr. Balfour, 18 Feb., read 2nd time, 24 May; 

withdrawn 13 June, ,, 

The education bill passed . . .27 June, ,, 

Ulster convention (which see) at Belfast . 17 June, ,. 
Great unionist meetings at Dublin . . 23 June, „ 



IRELAND. 



527 



IRELAND. 



1014. 



1072. 



1132. 



1172. 



KINGS AND GOVERNORS OF IRELAND.* 
KINGS. 

979 or 980. Maol Ceachlin II. (Malachi) deposed, 
xooi or 1002. Brian Baromy or Boroimhe, king of Mini- 
ster, slain after totally defeating the Danes at 
Clontarf, 23 April, 1014. 

Maol Ceachlin II. restored ; dies 1022 or 1023. 
[Disputed succession.] 

Donough, or Denis, O'Brian, son. 

Tirloch, or Turlough, nephew ; dies 1086. 
-1132. The kingdom divided ; fierce contests for it. 

Tordel Vach ; killed in battle. 

Roderic, or Roger, O'Connor. 

Henry II. king of England. 

[The English monarchs were styled "Lords of 
Ireland" until the reign of Henry VIII., who 
first styled himself king.] 

governors of Ireland (with various titles. )t 

172. Hugues de Lasci. 1 173, Rich. Fitz-Gislebert, earl of 
Pembroke. 11 76, Raymond leGros. ii77,prince 
John (afterwards king), made lord of Ireland. 

1184 et seq. Justiciars. The changes were so frequent 
that the more important officers only are given. 
See "Gilbert's History of the Viceroys," 1865. 

1189, 1203, 1205. Hugues de Lasci. 

1199, 1204. Meiller Fitz-Henri (son of Henry II.) 

1215, 1226. Geoffrey de Marreis. 

1229-32-33. Maurice Fitzgerald. 

1308. Piers Gaveston, earl of Cornwall. 1312, Edmund 
le Botiller. 1316, Roger de Mortimer. 1320, 
Thomas Fitzgerald. 1321, John de Bermingham. 
1327, earl of Kildare. 1328 and 1340, Prior 
Roger Utlagh. 1332, sir John d'Arcy. 1337, 
sir John de Cherlton. 1344, sir Raoul d'Ufford. 
1346, sir Roger d'Arcy ; sir John Moriz. 1348, 
Walter de Bermingham. 135s, Maurice, earl of 
Desmond. 1356, Thomas de Rokeby. 1357, 
Almeric de St. Amand. 1359, James, earl of 
Ormond. 1361, Lionel, duke of Clarence. 1367, 
Gerald, earl of Desmond. 1369 and 1374, Wil- 
liam de Windsor. 1376, Maurice, earl of Kildare, 
and James, earl of Ormond. 1380, Edmund Mor- 
timer, earl of March. 1385, Robert de Vere, 
earl of Oxford. 1389 and 139S, sir John Stanley. 
1391, James, earl of Ormond. 1393, Thomas, 
duke of Gloucester. 1395, Roger de Mortimer, 
earl of March, killed. 1398, Reginald Grey and 
Thomas de Holland. 

1401 and 1408, Thomas, earl of Lancaster. 1413, sir John 
Stanley and sir John Talbot. 1420, James, earl 
of Ormond. 1423, Edmund de Mortimer, earl of 
March. 1425, sir John Talbot. 1427, sir John 
de Grey. 1428, sir John Sutton, lord Dudley. 
1431 and 1435, sir Thomas Stanley. 1438, Leon, 
lord de Welles. 1446, John, earl of Shrewsbury. 
1449, Richard, duke of York. 1461, George, 
duke of Clarence. 1470, earl of Worcester. 1478, 
John de la Pole, earl of Suffolk. 1481, Richard, 
earl of Kildare. 1483, Gerald, earl of Kildare. 
1484, John de la Pole, earl of Lincoln. 1485, 
Jasper, duke of Bedford. 1494, Henry, duke of 
York, afterwards Henry VIII. (his deputy, sir 
E. Poynings). 1496, Gerald, earl of Kildare, 
and in 1504, 1513. 1521, Thomas Howard, earl 
of Surrey. 1529, Heniy, duke of Richmond. 

* The list of Irish sovereigns, printed in previous edi- 
tions, has been omitted. The Irish writers carry their 
succession of kings very high. The learned antiquary, 
Thomas Innes, of the Scots' College of Paris, expressed 
his wonder that "the learned men of the Irish nation 
have not, like those of other nations, yet published the 
valuable remains of their ancient history whole and en- 
tire, with just translations, in order to separate what is 
fabulous, and only grounded on the traditions of their 
poets and bards, from what is certain history." "O'Fla- 
herty, Keating, Toland, Kennedy, and other modern 
Irish historians, have rendered all uncertain, by deducing 
their history from the Deluge with as much assurance as 
they deliver the transactions of Ireland from St. Patrick's 
time. " — Anderson. 

t Lords justices and deputies, and latterly Lords 
Lieutenant It has been several times proposed to 
abolish the viceroyalty of Ireland, but without success. 
The last time 25 March, 1858, 



Gerald, his son, 1556-61. Thomas, earl of 
Sussex. [Among the lord deputies, 1560, &c, 
sir Wm. Fitzwilliam. 15S4, sir John Perrotj. 
1599, Robert, earl of Essex. 

1603. Sir Charles Blount, lord Mountjoy, made earl of 
Devonshire. 1640, Thos. , viscount Wentworth, 
earl of Strafford. 1643 and 1648, James, marquis 
of Ormond. 1647, Philip, lord Lisle. 1649, Oliver 
Cromwell. 1657, Henry Cromwell. 1662, James 
Butler, duke of Ormond. 1669, John Roberts, 
lord Roberts. 1670, John, lord Berkeley. 1672, 
Arthur Capel, earl of Essex. 1677, James Butler, 
duke of Ormond. 1685, Henry Hyde, earl of 
Clarendon. 1687, Richard Talbot, earl of Tyr- 
connel. 1690, Henry Sydney, lord Sydney. 1695, 
Henry Capel, lord Capel. 

1700. Laurence Hyde, earl of Rochester. 1703, James 
Butler, duke of Ormond. 1707, Thomas, earl of 
Pembroke. 1709, Thomas, earl of Wharton. 
1710, James, duke of Ormond, again. 1713, 
Charles, duke of Shrewsbury. 1717, Charles, 
duke of Bolton. 1721, Charles, duke of Grafton. 
1724, John, lord Carteret. 1731, Lionel, duke of 
Dorset. 1737, William, duke of Devonshire. 
1745, Philip, earl of Chesterfield. 1747, William, 
earl of Harrington. 1751, Lionel, duke of Dor- 
set, again. 1755, William, duke of Devonshire, 
1757, John, duke of Bedford. 1761, George, earl 
of Halifax. 1763, Hugh, earl of Northumberland. 
1765, Francis, earl of Hertford. 

1767. George, viscount Townshend, 14 Oct. 

1772. Simon, earl of Harcourt, 30 Nov. 

1777. John, earl of Buckinghamshire, 25 Jan. 

1780. Fred., earl of Carlisle, 23 Dec. 

1782. Win. Henry, duke of Portland, 14 April. 
,, George, earl Temple, 15 Sept. 

1783. Robert, earl of Northington, 3 June. 

1784. Charles, duke of Rutland, 24 Feb.; died 24 Oct. 

1787. 
1787. George, marquis of Buckingham (late earl Temple), 

again, 2 Nov. 
1790. John, earl of Westmorland, 5 Jan. 
1794. William, earl Fitzwilliam, 10 Dec. 

,, John, earl Camden, n March. 
1798. Charles, marquis Cornwallis, 13 June. 
1801. Philip, earl of Hardwicke, 25 May. 

1806. John, duke of Bedford, 18 March. 

1807. Charles, duke of Richmond, ig April. 
1813. Charles, earl Whitworth, 26 Aug. 
1817. Charles, earl Talbot, 9 Oct. 

1821. Richard, marquis Wellesley, 29 Dec. 

1828. Henry, marquis of Anglesey, 1 March. 

1829. Hugh, duke of Northumberland, 6 March. 

1830. Henry, marquis of Anglesey, again, 23 Dec. 

1833. Marquis Wellesley, again, 26 Sept. 

1834. Thomas, earl of Haddington, 29 Dec 

1835. Henry, marquis of Normanby, 23 April 

1839. Hugh, viscount Ebrington, afterwards earl For 

tescue, 3 April. 
1841. Thomas Philip, earl de Grey, 15 Sept. 
1844. William, lord Heytesbury, 12 July. 

1846. John William, earl of Bessborough, 9 July ; died 

16 May, 1847. 

1847. George William Frederick, earl of Clarendon, 26 May. 

1852. Archibald William, earl of Eglinton, 28 Feb. 

1853. Edward Granville, earl of St. Germans, Jan. 
1855. George, earl of Carlisle, March. 

1858. Archibald, earl of Eglinton, again, Feb., resigned. 

1859. George, earl of Carlisle, again, June; died 5 Dec. 1864! 
1864. John, lord Wodehouse, aft. earl of Kimberley, 1 Nov. 
1866. James, marquis of Abercorn, July ; made duke, 

6 Aug. 1868. 
1868. John, earl Spencer, Dec. 

1874. James, duke of Abercorn, Feb. ; died 37 Oct. 1S85. 
1876. John, duke of Marlborough, 28 Nov. 
1880. Francis T. de Grey, earl Cowper, 5 May. Resigned 

April, 1882. 
1882. John Poyntz, earl Spencer, May. 

1885. Henry Howard Molyueux Herbert, earl of Car- 

narvon, 24 June, resigned Jan. 1886. 

1886. John Campbell Hamilton Gordon, earl of Aber- 

deen, about 5 Feb. 

1886. Charles Stewart Vane-Tempest-Stewart, marquis of 
Londonderry, Aug. 

1889. Lawrence Dundas. Earl of Zetland, 29 May ; mar- 
quis, Aug. 1892. 

1892. Robert O. A. Milnes, baron Houghton, 18 Aug. 



IRELAND FORGERIES. 



528 



IRON. 



IRELAND FORGERIES. In 1786 W. H. 
Ireland made public the Shakspeare manuscripts 
which he had forged, and deceived many critics. 
The play, " Vortigern," was performed at Drury- 
lane theatre on 2 April, 1796. He shortly after ac- 
knowledged the forgery, and published his "Con- 
fessions" in 1805. He died in 1835. 

IRELAND, YOUNG, a party (or rather 
"school"), formed for the regeneration of the 
country, founded by Thos. Oshorne, Charles Gavan 
Duffy (who established and conducted " The 
Nation" from 1842 to 1855), Smith O'Brien and 
others in 1840. Some of their proceedings led to the 
state trials of 1843 and 1848. Mr. Duffy (afterwards 
premier of Victoria, Australia, and K.C.M.G.) pub- 
lished "Young Ireland, a Fragment of Irish History, 
1840-50," in 1880. The formation of a "Young 
Ireland league," was proposed at a meeting in 
Dublin, 17 Sept. 1891. 

IRIDIUM AND OSMIUM. In i804Tennant 
discovered these two rare metals in the ore of 
platinum, in which, in 1845, Claus discovered a 
third, Ruthenium. Iridium is said to be the 
heaviest known metal, 1878. See Weights. 

IRISH CHURCH; see Church of Ireland. 
The Irish Presbyterian Church act, passed 16 June, 
1871, regulates the management of certain trust 
properties for that church. 

IRISH DISTRESS FUND, to relieve the 
sufferers by the failure of the potato crop in the 
■western coasts of Ireland, was started in Dublin by 
the lord lieutenant, the earl of Zetland, and Mr. 
A. J. Balfour, the chief secretary, 3 Jan. 1891. 
Eeceived, up to 26 Jan. 39,000/. ; up to 9 April, 
49,067/. The queen gave 200/. ; the mayor of Bel- 
fast 2,000/. ; sir Edward C. Guinness (lord Iveagh) 
2,000/. Large donations of clothing were also re- 
ceived. 

IRISH EXHIBITION, in the Olympia, W. 

Kensington, opened by the Lord Mayors of London 

(De Keyser), and Dublin (Sexton), 4 June, 1888. 

It included natural products, manufactures of all 
kinds, valuable antiquities, fine works of art, 
facsimiles of a castle, round towers, a village &c, 
horses and cows. The amusements comprised 
theatrical performances, concerts, races, &c. 
Lord Arthur Hill, honorary secretary ; among 
the patrons were the duke of Westminster, lord 
Leitrim, lord Charles Beresford, sir John 
Lubbock, archbishop of Canterbury, cardinal 
Manning, lord Hartington. The exhibition was 
closed Oct. 1888 

The exhibition was financially unsuccessful, and 
an indemnity fund was started in . . July, 1891 

IRISH INVINCIBLES, a secret society 
established in Dublin Nov., 1881, said by James 
Carey, a member, to have been formed by one Walsh 
and others, from England, to "make history" by 
killing tyrants. Each member was bound to obey 
orders, under pain of death. By some of its 
members the life of judge Lawson was attempted, 
and lord Frederick Cavendish and Mr. Burke 
murdered, 6 May, 1882. Mr. W. E. Forster was 
frequently watched with a similar intention. See 
under Fenians, Ireland, 1S82-3. In Feb. 1883 
there were said to be 250 members in Great Britain 
and Ireland. " The general No. 1," was said to be 
a wealthy man. "Murder leagues," and "assas- 
sination circles" were mentioned. 

IRISH LAND BILLS, see Ireland, 1870, 
1880-81, 1887, 1890. 

IRISH LAND LAW ACT (44 & 45 Vict. 
c. 49, passed 22 Aug. 1881. See Ireland, April- 



Aug. 1 881). It settles the rights of landlords and 
tenants ; establishes a court of commission, which 
first met, 20 Oct. 1881, to try differences between 
them, and determines the conditions by which 
tenants may become proprietors ; it affirms the 
virtual ownership of tenants with the power of 
selling their rights, securing the payment of a just 
rent to the landlords to be settled by the court, and 
restricting evictions. First court of commission, 
sergeant O'Hagan, Edward Falconer Litton, and 
John Edward Vernon. Royal Assent, 22 Aug. 
1881. 
Important decisions in favour of tenants by the 

sub-commissions at Belfast, &c. . . Nov. 1881 

Above 2500 applications to the land courts up to 

11 Nov. ,, 
Bill for amending purchase clauses of land act; 
means of purchase greatly facilitated : not above 
5,ooo,ooo£. to be advanced by the state in one 
year, and not more than 20,000,000?. in all ; bill 
introduced by Mr. Trevelyan, 27 May, withdrawn 

10 July, 1884 

' IRISH LANGUAGE, a branch of the' Celtic 
or Gaelic, of which much literature exists in books 
and MSS. of early date. The New Testament was 
published in Irish in 1603, and the Old in 1685. A 
society for the preservation of the Irish language 
has been formed ; in its annual report for 1890, it 
was stated that Irish is taught in 45 national 
schools. 

IRISH LOYAL AND PATRIOTIC 
UNION, see Ireland, 1886. Annual meetings, 
held. 

IRISH NATIONAL LEAGUE. See Ire- 
land, 17 Oct. 1882. 

IRISH PROPERTY DEFENCE ASSO- 
CIATION, formed by landlords, Nov. 1880. 

IRISH REPUBLIC. Treasonable plans for 
its establishment dated 1869, were discovered in 
James F. Egan's garden in Birmingham, April, 
1884. 

IRISH SOCIETY, The Honourable, 

the name given to a committee of citizens of twelve 
London companies invited by king James I. to 
colonize the confiscated lands in the north of 
Ireland, termed the Ulster plantations, including 
Londonderry and Coleraine, 1609. The committee 
received a charter, 1613, which was taken away in 
1637, and restored after various changes 1670. The 
affairs of this company and its methods of business 
were discussed in parliament in 1868 and 1869. 
The sale of the companies' estates under lord Ashbourne's 
act began in 1887. Receipts from the estates in 1887, 
9,o6iL besides receipts for fisheries and other rents. 
The select committee respecting the Irish Society 
(sir Win. T. Marriott, Mr. John Morley, sir 
Richard Temple, and others), first met, 17 July, 
1889 ; met again 9 June et seq., 1890. Three 
reports adopted, 4 May, 1891 ; see Ireland Jan. 1892 

IRISH UNIVERSITY BILL (to com- 
bine Trinity College and the Catholic College), in- 
troduced by Mr. I. Butt, 16 May, 1876; withdrawn. 

IRON- The Greeks ascribed the discovery of 
iron to themselves, and referred glass to the Phoe- 
nicians. Moses relates that iron was wrought by 
Tubal- Cain (Gen. iv. 22). Swedish iron is very 
celebrated, and Dannemora is the greatest mine of 
Sweden. — The weekly publication " Iron" began 
18 Jan. 1873. See Stei I. 
Belgium, an early seat of the iron manufacture ; coal said 

to have beeu employed at Marehe-les-dames, 1340. 
British iron cast by Ralph Page and Peter Baude, in 

Sussex, 1543. Rymer's Fcedcra. 
Iron-mills used for slitting iron into bars for smiths, by 

Godfrey Bochs, 1590. 



IRON. 



529 



IRRIGATION. 



Tinning of iron introduced from Bohemia, 1681. Till 
■about 1730 iron ores were smelted entirely with wood 
charcoal, which did not wholly give way to coal and 
coke till 1788. 

The operation termed puddling, and other very great 
improvements in the manufacture, invented by Mr. 
Henry Cort, about 1781, who did not reap the due re- 
ward of his ingenuity. He died in 1800. 

Mr. James B. Neilson of Glasgow, patented his hot air 
blast in 1828 ; see under blowing machines. 

Mr. Henry Bessemer patented his method of manufac- 
turing iron and steel, 17 Oct., 5 Dec, 185s; 12 Feb., 
1856. 

Strike of the puddlers and lock-out of the masters in 
Staffordshire, Northumberland, &c, lasted during 
March, April, and May, 1865. 

Ironworkers of Great Britain determine to form one 
trades' union, with one executive, Oct. 1866. 

Strike of ironworkers in the north over, 31 Dec. 1866. 

Mr. Win. Robinson announced a method of making 
wrought iron from cast iron by means of magnetism, 
July, 1867. 

Mr. John Heaton's process for making steel announced 
about Nov. 1867, discussed Oct. 1868. 

One of the finest, thickest, and heaviest armour-plates 
•ever rolled in the world was pressed into the very per- 
fection of a manufactured armour-plate at the great 
Atlas Ironworks of sir John Brown and Co. , Sheffield. 
The size of it when in the furnace was a little over 20 
feet long by about 4 feet broad and 21 inches thick. 
Its rough weight was over 21 tons. It was built up in 
the furnace before being rolled by five mould plates, 
each 3 inches thick, and one solid plate of 6 inches. 
This mass when reduced by intense heat to the con- 
sistency of dough, was withdrawn from the furnace, 
and in the course of less than a quarter of an hour was 
passed between the enormous rollers many times, was 
reduced to a compact slab of iron of a uniform thick- 
ness of 15 inches, and then passed on to its bed to cool 
till fit for having its rough edges planed down to the 
proper dimensions, 6 Sept. 1867. Armour-plate 24 
inches thick rolled at same works, Oct. 1876. 

iron forts (cost about i,ooo,ooo2. made by Whitworth and 
Co. at Manchester) put up at Spithead early in 1872. 

Mr. Crampton's iron furnace, in which definite propor- 
tions of coal dust and air are introduced under pressure, 
was tried at Woolwich and was reported successful, 
May, 1873. 

Ironstone miners in Yorkshire : great strike through 
reduction in wages, May, 1874. 

Iron trades, see Employers. 

Iron merchant vessels built in i860, 181 ; in 1877, 545. 

Alfred Newman, an eminent art iron-worker ; of the 
"smithy," Haymarket, London, dies aged 35, Jan. 
1887. 

Iron Manufacture : between 1865-75 the capital invested 
rose from 7,ooo,oooL to 29,000,000?. Number of pud- 
dling furnaces rose from 3462 to 7159 ; also great 
increase in blast furnaces. 

Great depression since 1876 ; due to excessive production 
and increased and cheap manufacture of steel ; revival 
1889 et seq. 

Iron and Steel congress at New York . Sept. -Oct. 1890 

Strike or lock-out in the Scotch iron trade respect- 
ing wages 4 Oct. ,, 

IRON PRODUCED IN GREAT BRITAIN. 

1740 . . 59 furnaces . . 17,350 tons. 

. . 61,920 ,, 

124,789 ,, 

227,000 ,, 

250,000 ,, 

400,000 ,, 

581,367 „ 

. . 1,396,400 ,, 

• i,99 8 »SS8 „ 

. 2,701,000 ,, 

In 1855, 3,217,154 tons of pig iron were produced; in 
i^Sl* 31659,447 tons ; in 1865, 4,819,254 tons ; in 1869, 
5-445.757 tons ; in 1873, 6,566,451 tons ; in 1876, 6,555,997 
tons; in 1879, 5,995,337 tons; in 1882, pig, 8,586,680 
tons ; in 1884, 7,811,727 tons; in 1886, 7,009,754 tons ; 
in 1887, 7,559>5i8 tons ; in 1888, 7,998,969 tons ; in 1889, 
8,322,824 tons ; in 1890, 7,904,214 tons. 
Exports of Iron and Steel, from United Kingdom. 
i860, 1,502,500 tons; 1865, 1,687,071 tons; 1870, 
21825,575, tons ; 1875, 2,457,306 tons; 1879, 2,883,484 



1788 


• 77 


1796 . 


. 121 


1802 


. 168 


1806 . 


. 227 


1820 


. 260 


1825 . 


• 374 


1840 


. 402 


1848 . 


. 623 


1852 


■ 655 



tons; 1883, 4,043,308 tons ; 1885, 3,130,682 tons; 1887, 
4,143,028 tons; 1888, 3,966,593 tons; 1889,4,186,182; 
1890, 4,001,430. 

IRON and STEEL INSTITUTE, the duke 
of Devonshire, president, held its first meeting in 
London 22 June, 1869, first provincial meeting at 
Merthyr-Tydvil, 6 Sept. 1870 ; first foreign meeting at 
Liege, 18 Aug. 1873; second at Paris, 16 Sept. 1878. 
Frequently at other places (Vienna, 19 Sept. 1882) ; 
at Ne»v York, Sept., Oct., at Ottawa, Nov. 1890. 

IRONCLADS, see Circular, Navy, and United, 
States, 1862; Germany, 1878. 

IRON CROSS, an order of knighthood esta- 
blished by Frederick William III. of Prussia, 

10 March, 1813, to honour patriotic bravery in the 
war against France ; was revived by William I. in 
the Franeo-Prussian war, and awarded by him to 
his son for bis victory at Wissembourg, 4 Aug. 
1870. About 40,000 persons were decorated in 
1870-71. 

IRON CROWN (of Italy), of gold and pre- 
cious stones, set in a thin ring of iron, said to have 
been forged from a nail of Christ's cross, was made 
by order of Theudelinde for her husband, Agilulf, 
king of the Longobards, 591. She presented it (to 
be kept) to the church at Monza. Charlemagne 
was crowned with this crown, and after him all 
the emperors who were kings of Lombardy; 
Napoleon I. at Milan, on 26 May, 1805, put it on 
his head, saying, " Dleu me I' a donnce ; gare a qui 
y touchera." (God has given it to me; woe to 
him who touches it.) The crown was removed from 
Monza to Mantua by the Austrians, on 23 April, 
1859. After the peace of Vienna in 1866, the 
crown was given up to general Menabrea on 

11 Oct., and presented to king Victor Emmanuel, 
at Turin, on 4 Nov. The order of the " Iron 
Crown of Italy," instituted by Napoleon 26 May, 
1805, was abolished in 1814, but revived by the 
emperor of Austria 12 Feb. 1816; see Gotha. The 
order of the Crown of Italy was instituted by king 
Victor Emmanuel 20 Feb. 1868. 

IRON-MASK, the Man with the.* A 

mysterious prisoner in France, wearing a mask and 
closely confined under M. de St. Mars, at Pignerol 
(1679), Exilles(i68i), Sainte Marguerite (1687), and 
at the Bastille (1698), where he died 19 Nov. 1703. 
He was of noble mien, and was treated with pro- 
found respect ; but his keepers had orders to de- 
spatch him if he uncovered. M. de St. Mars himself 
always placed the dishes on his table, and stood in 
his presence. 

IRON-PLATED SHIPS, see Ironclads. 

IRREDENTISTS, see Italia Irredenta. 

IRRIGATION, practised in the east and in 
Egypt from the most remote ages. It was strenu- 



* The following conjectures have been made as to his 
identity : — An Armenian patriarch forcibly carried from 
Constantinople (who died ten years before the mask) ; 
the due de Vermandois, son of Louis XIV., reported to 
have perished in the camp before Dixmude ; the due de 
Beaufort, whose head is reported to have been taken off 
before Candia ; James, duke of Monmouth, executed on 
Tower-hill ; a son of Anne of Austria, queen of Louis 
XIII., either by cardinal Mazarine, or by the duke of 
Buckingham ; the twin brother of Louis XIV. (a conjec- 
ture received by Voltaire and others) ; Foucquet, an 
eminent statesman in the time of Louis XIV. ; and a 
count Matthioli, secretary of state to Charles III., duke 
of Mantua. M. Delort and the right hon. Agar Ellis 
(afterwards lord Dover) endeavoured to prove Matthioli 
to have been the person. The mask, it seems, was not 
made of iron ; but of black velvet, strengthened with 
whalebone, and fastened behind the head with a padlock. 

M M 



IBUN. 



530 



ISTEIA. 



ously advocated for India by sir A. Cotton and 
others at the Social Science Congress at Manchester, 
Oct. 1866. In 1865 acts were passed for utilising 
London sewage in the irrigation of grass land, and 
the results are said to be generally favourable. The 
subject was much discussed, Aug. 1873. A method 
of producing artificial rain from ponds by means of 
steam-power, patented by Isaac Brown, of Edin- 
burgh, was tried by Mr. Coleman, at Stoke Park, 
and reported successful ; see Sewage, and Inter- 
mittent Filtration. 

IBUN (a frontier village of Spain) . On 16 May, 
1837, the British auxiliary legion under general 
Evans, marched from St. Sebastian to attack Irun 
(held by the Carlists), which after a desperate re- 
sistance was carried by assault, 1 7 May. 

IBVLNGITES, followers of Edward Irving,* 
now called the " Holy Catholic Apostolic Church." 
They use a liturgy (framed in 1842, and enlarged 
1853), and have church officers named apostles, 
angels, prophets, &c. In 1852 lighted candles were 
placed on the magnificent altar, and burning of 
incense during prayers was prescribed. The Gothic 
church in Gordon-square was solemnly opened 
I Jan. 1854. It is said that all who join the church 
offer it a tenth of their income. They had 30 
chapels in England in 1851. 

ISANDULA, Isandlana, or Isandlwana, termed 
the "English Cremera"; see Zululand, 22 Jan. 
1879. 

ISATTBIA (a province in Asia Minor), con- 
quered by the Bomans B.C. 78, by the Saracens 
a.d. 650; was retaken by the emperor Leo III., 
who founded the Isaurian dynasty, 718, which 
ended with Constantine YI. in 797. Isauria was 
incorporated with Turkey 1387. 

ISCHIA, see Earthquakes, 1883. 

ISEENIA (S. Italy). Here the Sardinian 
general Cialdini defeated the Neapolitans, 17 Oct. 
i860. 

ISLAM, or ESLAM, submission to God, the 
name given to Mahometanism {which see). 

ISLE OF France, Man, &c, see Mauri- 
tius, Man, &c. 

ISLES, BISHOPRIC OF. This see contained 
not only the Hebrides, or Western Isles, but the 
Isle of Man, which for nearly 400 years had been a 
separate bishopric. The first bishop of the Isles 
was Amphibalus, 360 ; see lona. Since the revo- 
lution (when this bishopric was discontinued) the 
Isles have been joined to Moray and Boss, or to 
Boss alone. In 1847, however, Argyll and the Isles 
were made a seventh post -revolution and distinct 
bishopric ; see Bishops. 

ISLINGTON (anciently Isendone, Iseldone, 
and "Merrie"), a large suburban parish in N. 
London, still containing Boman and medieval 



* Edward Irving was born 15 Aug. 1792, and was en- 
gaged as assistant to Dr. Chalmers, at Glasgow, in 
1819. In 1823 he attracted immense crowds of distin- 
guished persons to his sermons at the Scotch church, 
Hatton-garden. A new church was built for him in 
Regent-square in 1827. Soon after, he propounded new 
doctrines on the human nature of Christ: and the " Ut- 
terances of Unknown Tongues," which began in his con- 
gregation with a Miss Hall and Mr. Taplin, 16 Oct. 1831, 
were countenanced by him, as of divine inspiration. He 
was expelled from the Scotch church, 15 March, 1833. 
His church, " reconstituted with the threefold cord of a 
sevenfold ministry," was removed to Newman-street. 
He died 8 Dec. 1834. 



remains, and old buildings, all gradually disap- 
pearing. Four members were allotted to Islington 
by the Act of 1885. Population, 1801, 10,121; 
1881, 282,865 ; 1891, 319,433. Churches in 1837^ 
4 ; 1887, about 35. 
The great northern central hospital, Holloway-road, 

opened by the prince of Wales . . 17 July, 1888; 
Union Chapel, Compton-terrace, erected in 1802 
by a union of Episcopalians and Nonconformists ; 
rebuilt, opened 5 Dec. 1877 ; completed and sur- 
mounted by a tower, Oct. 1889. The rev. Dr. 
Henry Allon, at first co-pastor (1843) with the 
first minister, the rev. Thomas Lewis, and after- 
wards sole pastor, an accomplished writer and 
active administrator of schools, &c. , died, aged 
73 (colleague and successor, the rev. Wr Harwood) 

16 April, 1892: 

Public baths and wash-houses opened by the lord 
mayor Evans . . , 21 May and 26 July ,, 

ISLY (N.W. Africa). Here Abd-el-Kader, the 
Arab chief, was totally defeated by the French,, 
under Bugeaud, 14 Aug. 1844. 

ISMAIL (Bessarabia) was taken by the Bus- 
sians, 6 Aug. 1770, after a long siege, when the 
Bussians lost 20,000 men ; the town was taken by 
storm, 22 Dec. 1790 ; when Suwarrow, the most 
merciless warrior of modern times, put the brave- 
Turkish garrison (30,000 men) to the sword and 
delivered up Ismail to pillage, and ordered the 
massacre of 6000 women. It was again captured 
by the Bussians 26 Sept. 1809, and retained till 
the treaty of Paris in 1856, when it was ceded to- 
Moldavia. 

ISMAILIA, the half way station on the Suez 
Canal.' It is supposed to occupy nearly the site of 
Barneses. Sir Samuel Baker named it Ismailia in- 
stead of Gondokoro, May, 1869. The rebel Egyp- 
tian army was defeated near here by the British, 25 
Aug. 1882. See Egypt. 

ISPAHAN was made the capital of Persia by 
Abbas the Great, in 1 590. It lost its supremacy in 
1796, when Teheran became the capital. 

ISRAEL, KINGDOM OP, see Jeivs.— Handel's 
oratorio, " Israel in Egypt," first performed 4 April,. 
1739. 

ISSTJS (Asia Minor), the site of Alexander' s- 
second great battle with Darius, whose queen and 
family were captured, Oct. 333 B.C. The Persian 
army, according to Justin, consisted of 400,000 
foot and 100,000 horse; 61,000 of the former and 
10,000 of the latter were left dead on the spot, 
and 40,000 were taken prisoners. Here the emperor 
Septimius defeated his rival Niger, a.d. 194. 

ISTAMBOUL, see Constantinople. 

ISTEB, see Danube. 

ISTHMIAN GAMES received their name 
from the isthmus of Corinth, where they were ob- 
served: their institution is mythically attributed 
to Sisyphus of Corinth, 1326 B.C., and to Theseus- 
in honour of Neptune about 1234 The games, 
which were solemnly kept every third year, were 
discontinued at the destruction of Corinth by Lucius 
Mummius, 146 B.C. The games were revived by 
Julius Ca3sar, 60 B.C. ; and by the emperor Julian, 
a.d. 362, and ceased in 396, when Corinth was 
sacked by the Goths. 

ISTBIA was finally subdued by the Bomans, 
177 B.C. After various changes it came under the 
rule of Venice in 1378, and was annexed 1420. It 
was obtained by Austria 1796; by France 1806 ; 
by Austria 1814. Population in 1890, 317,610. 



ITALIA IEBEDENTA. 



531 



ITALY. 



ITALIA IRREDENTA (" unredeemed 
Italy"), a secret society which first appeared in 
Italy Not. 1877, and said to have 200 committees, 
the chief at Naples. Its professed object is to add 
to the Italian kingdom Trieste, the Tyrol, and other 
Austrian provinces on the Adriatic. 

Cry for Italia Irredenta : meetings at Rome, &c. 

21 July, 1878 
In 1879, col. Haymerle, an Austrian military resident 
at Rome, published "Beg Italicce," freely discussing the 
subject. The Italians were much annoyed, and the pub- 
lication was disavowed by the Austrian government. 
Sig. Crispi, in a speech at Florence, strongly de- 
clares against the Irredentists . . . 8 Oct. 1890 

ITALIAN ASSOCIATION FOE THE 

ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, first met at 
Pisa, under the patronage of the grand duke of 
Tuscany, in 1837. It met in Rome, 20 Oct. 1873, 
and at other places since. 

ITALIAN BENEVOLENT SOCIETY, 

London, founded by the king of Italy and others, 
1861. 

ITALIAN CATHOLIC CHUECH (be- 
tween two and three thousand persons) ; first 
bishop, Domenico Panelli ; a synod met at Naples 
in 1875. Great progress reported Feb. 1888. 

Its statute (of 62 articles) asserts that the Catholic 
church is nothing but the society of all believers in 
Jesus Christ, and that he only is its supreme head and 
pastor ; rejects all miracles since the death of the 
Apostles ; declares that the Catholic faith is only that 
revealed in the Holy Scriptures, &c. The congregation 
of St. Paul, of the Italian Catholic church headed by 
lions. Savarese, declared heretical, Oct. 1884. 

ITALIAN EXHIBITION, West Brompton, 
London, opened by the Lord Mayor, 12 May, 1888. 

It comprised models of the Roman forum, coliseum &c, 
diorama of the bay of Naples &c, paintings, sculpture, 
manufactures and natural products of Italy. The 
celebrated sculptor, signor Focardi, had a studio 
there and did work. Closed 31 Oct. 1888. 

ITALIAN LANGUAGE, based on Latin, is 
said by Dante to be formed of a selection of the 
best portions of the different dialects. Pure ele- 
gant poetry was written by Guido Cavalcanti, who 
died 1301 ; and good prose by Malespini, about 1250. 

PRINCIPAL ITALIAN AUTHORS. 





Born 


Died 




Bom 


Died 


Dante . 


1265 


1321 


Parini 


• 1729 


1799 


Petrarca . . 


1304 


1374 


Alfieri . 


• J 749 


1803 


Boccaccio . 


1313 


J 375 


Volta . 


• I 745 


1826 


Machiavelli . 


1469 


1527 


Monti 


• 1754 


1828 


Ariosto 


1474 


I 533 


Leopardi 


■ 1798 


1837 


Guicciardini 


1482 


1540 


Gioberti 


. 1801 


1852 


Tasso . . 


1544 


1595 


Nicolini . 


. 1782 


1861 


Galileo 


1564 


1642 


Manzoni 


• 1784 


1873 


Metastasio . 


1698 


1782 


Amari 


. 1806 


1889 


Goldoni 


1707 


*795 









The following terms are often used with reference to 
certain periods in the history of Italian literature and 
art. 

1. Trecento (three hundred), from the birth of Dante 
(1265) to the death of Boccaccio (1375), which two, 
with Petrarca, are styled "the triumvirate of the 
Trecento." 

2. Quattrocento (four hundred), from 1375 to the revival 
of Italian literature by Lorenzo de' Medici in the 15th 
century. During this period Latin was revived, to the 
prejudice of Italian. 

3. Cinquecento (five hundred), from about 1480 to 1590. 
A sensuous style of art, founded on the heathen my- 
thology, began to prevail. 

4. Seiccnto (six hundred), from 1590 to 1700. The bad 
taste which prevailed (luring this period is ascribed to 
the influence of the Spaniards and the Jesuits through- 
out Italy. Seicentisti is a term of reproach. 

The Trecento and Cinquecento were the most flourishing 
periods. 



ITALIAN EEPUBLIC was the name given 
to the remodelled Cisalpine republic. Napoleon 
Bonaparte, president, Jan. 1802. 

ITALY, a name mythically derived either from 
Italus, an early king, or italics, a bull calf. The 
invading Pelasgians from Greece, and the Abori- 
gines (Umbrians, Oscans, and Etruscans), com- 
bined, form the Latin race, still possessing the 
southern part of Europe. The history of Italy is 
soon absorbed into that of Rome, founded 753 B.C. 
In the middle ages it was desolated by intestin e 
wars and the interference of the German emperors ; 
since then, Spain, France, and Germany struggled 
for the possession of the country, which has 
been divided among them several times. Spain, 
which predominated in Italy during the 16th and 
17th centuries, yielded to the house of Austria at 
the beginning of the 18th. The victories of Bona- 
parte in 1797-8 changed the government of Italy; 
but the Austrian rule was re-established at the 
peace in 1814. In 1848 the Milanese and Venetians 
revolted and joined Piedmont, but were subdued by 
Radetzky ; see below. The hostile feeling between 
Austria and Piedmont gradually increased till war 
broke out in April, 1859. The Austrians were 
defeated, and the kingdom of Italy, comprising 
Piedmont, Sardinia, Lombardy, Tuscany, Modena, 
Parma, the Romagna, Naples, and Sicily was re- 
established, 17 March, 1861, by the Italian parlia- 
ment (consisting of 443 deputies from 59 provinces). 
On 29 Oct., 1 861, the internal government was re- 
organized ; the 59 provinces were placed under pre- 
fects, subject to four directors-general. War with 
Austria was declared 18 June, 1866; and on 3 Oct., 
peace was signed at Vienna, and Venetia was ceded 
to Italy ; see beloiv for the events. The settlement 
of the kingdom of Italy was consummated by the 
occupation of Rome as the capital, 1870. Esti- 
mated population of the kingdom, 1862, 25,003,635 
(Rome was added in 1870). 1878, 28,209,620; 
Jan. 1882, 28,452,639 ; 1890, 30,158,408. 1890-91, 
revenue, 78,129,383/.; expenditure, 81,850,050/.; 
imports, 71,905,383/.; exports, 51,171,079/. For 
other details see Rome and the various Italian 
cities throughout the volume. 

Early history mythical ; Italy (Saturnia) fabled to 
have been ruled by Saturn during the golden age 

B.C. 2450 
Arrival of GSnotras from Arcadia, 1710 ; and of 

Evander ; reign of Latinus . . . about 1240 
iEneas the Trojan said to land in Italy, defeat and 
kill Tumus, marry Lavinia, daughter of king 
Latinus, and found Lavinium, in South Italy, 1182, &c. 
Greek colonies (see Magna Grcecia) founded . . 974-443 

Romulus builds Rome 753 

[For subsequent history, see Rome.] 
Odoacer, leader of the Heruli, establishes the king- a.d. 

dom of Italy 476 

The Ostrogoths invade Italy, 489, and retain it till 491 
They are expelled by the Imperial generals Narses 

and Belisarius 552 

[See Kings of Italy, tm&Iron Croron.'] 
Narses, governor of Italy, invites the Lombards 

from Germany, 568 ; wlio overrun Italy . . . 596 
Invasion and defeat of Constans II. ... 662 

Venice first governed by a doge ... . . 697 
Pepin gives Ravenna to the pope . . . 754 

Charlemagne invades Italy, 774 ; overcomes the Lom- 
bards ; crowned emperor of the west at Rome by 

pope Leo III 25 Dec. 800 

The Saracens invade Italy and settle at Bari . . 842 
Invasion of Otho I. 951 ; crowned emperor, 2 Feb. 962 

Genoa becomes important 1000 

The Saracens expelled by the. Normans . 1016-17 

The Normans acquire Naples from the pope . . 105 1 
Pope Gregory VII., Hildebrand, pretends to uni- 
versal sovereignty, in which lie is assisted by 
Matilda, countess of Tuscany, mistress of the 

greater part of Italy 1073-85 

M M 2 



ITALY. 



532 



ITALY. 



Disputes between the popes and emperors, relative 
to ecclesiastical investitures, begin (and long agi- 
tate Italy and Germany) .... about 1073 
Rise of the Lombard cities .... about 1120 

Who war with each other 11 44 

The Venetians obtain many victories over the 

Eastern emperors 1125 

Wars of the Guelfs and Ghibelines (which see) begin 

about 1 161 
Frederic I. (Barbarossa) interferes : his wars 1154-75 

Lombard league formed 1167 

His defeat at Legnano .... 29 May, 11 76 

Peace of Constance 1183 

Civil wars again "99. &c. 

Rise of the Medici at Florence . . . about 1251 
Wars of Frederick II. and the Lombard league, 1236-50 
His natural son, Manfred, king of Sicily, defeated 
and killed at the battle of Benevento, by Charles 

ofAnjou 26 Feb. 1266 

Who defeats Conradin, at Tagliacozzo . 23 Aug. 1268 

The Visconti rule at Milan 1277 

The Sicilian vespers ; massacre of the French, who 

are expelled from Sicily . . 30 March, 1282 
Clement V. (pope, 1305), fixes his residence at Avig- 
non in France 1309 

Louis Gonzaga makes himself master of Mantua, 
with the title of imperial vicar .... 1328 

First doge of Genoa appointed 1339 

Lucca independent 1370 

Rome again the seat of the pope 1377 

Charles VIII. of France invades Italy, 1494, and 

conquers Naples, 1495 ; loses it in . . . 1496 
Louis XII. joins Venice and conquers Milan (soon 

lost) 1499 

League of Cambray (1508) against Venice, which is 

despoiled of its Italian possessions . . . 1509 
Leo X. pope, patron of literature and art . . 1513-22 
Wars of Charles V. and Francis I. 1515-21 

Francis defeated and prisoner at Pa via 24 Feb. 1525 

Parma and Placentia made a duchy for his family 
by pope Paul III. (Alexander Farnese) . . . 1545 

Peace of Cateau-Cambresis 1559 

War of the Mantuan succession . . . 1627-31 
Catinat and the French defeat the duke of Savoy 

at Marsaglia 4 Oct. 1693 

War of Spanish succession commences in Italy . 1701 

Battle of Turin 7 Sept. 1706 

Division of Italy at the peace of Utrecht, 11 April, 1713 
The duke of Savoy becomes king of Sardinia . . 1720 
Successful French campaign in Italy . . . . 1745 
Milan, &c, obtained by the house of Austria, 1706 ; 

confirmed by treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle . . . 1 748 
Italy overrun by the French . . . May— Dec. 1796 
Division of the Venetian states by France and 
Austria by the treaty of Campo Formio ; Cisal- 
pine republic founded .... 17 Oct. 1797 
Pius VI. deposed by Bonaparte . . . Feb. 1798 
The Russians, under Suwarrow, defeat the French 

at Trebia, &c 1799 

Bonaparte crosses the Alps, 16-20 May ; defeats the 

Austrians at Marengo . . . -14 June, 1800 
The Cisalpine becomes the Italian republic (Bona- 
parte, president) Jan. 1802 

Napoleon crowned king of Italy . . 26 May, 1805 
Eugene Beauharnois made viceroy of Italy . . . „ 
Austria loses her Italian possessions by the treaty 

of Presburg ; ratified .... 1 Jan. 1806 
The kingdom ceases on the overthrow of Napoleon, 
1814 ; the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom esta- 
blished for Austria 7 April, 1815 

Formation of the young Italy party by Mazzini ; in- 
surrections 1831-33 

Italian Association for Science first met (at Pisa) . 1837 
Insurrection in Lombardy and Venice, March ; sup- 
ported by the king of Sardinia and by the pope, 

April, 1848 
The king defeated at Novara, abdicates, 23 March ; 
and Lombardy reverts to Austria . . May, 1849 
[See Sardinia and Austria.} 

" Napoleon III. et l'ltalie " published . . Feb. 1859 
The Austrian ultimatum, rejected by Sardinia, 

26 April, , 
The Austrians cross the Ticino, 27 April ; and the 

French enter Genoa 3 May, , 

Peaceful revolution at Florence, 27 April ; Parma, 

3 May ; Modena 15 June, , 

The Austrians defeated at Montebello, 20 May ; 



Palestro, 30-31 May ; Magenta, 4 June ; Marig- 
nano, 8 June ; Solferino ... 24 June, 

Provisional governments established at Florence, 
27 April ; Parma, May ; and Modena [the sove- 
reigns retire] 15 June, 

Insurrection in the papal states Bologna, Fer- 
rara, &e 13-15 June, 

Massacre of the insurgents at Perugia by the Swiss 
troops . .... 20 June, 

The allies cross the Mincio . . . 1 July, 
Armistice between Austria and France 8 July, 

Preliminaries of r?eace signed at Villafranca ; Lom- 
bardy surrendered to Sardinia . .11 July, 

Italy dismayed at the peace ; agitation at Milan, 
Florence, Modena, Parma, &c. ; resignation of 
count Cavour as minister . . . July, 

The pope appeals to Europe against the king of 
Sardinia 12 July, 

Garibaldi exhorts the Italians to arm . 19 July, 

Grand duke of Tuscany abdicates . 21 July, 

Constitutional assemblies meet at Florence, 1 1 Aug. ; 
and at Modena 16 Aug. 

Tuscany, Modena, Parma, and the Romagna enter 
into a defensive alliance, and declare for annexa- 
tion to Piedmont, 20 Aug. -10 Sept. ; fiscal restric- 
tions between them and Piedmont abolished, 

10 Oct. 

Assassination of col. An viti at Parma . 5 Oct. 

Garibaldi appeals to the Neapolitans ; subscriptions 
in Italy and elsewhere to supply arms for the 
Italians Oct. 

Tuscany, &c. , choose the prince Eugene of Carignan- 
Savoy, as regent of central Italy, 5 Nov. ;. the king 
of Sardinia refusing his consent, the prince de- 
clines the office, but recommends the chevalier 
Buoncampagni 14 Nov. 

Treaty of Zurich (establishing Italian confederacy, 
&c. ), signed 10 Nov. 

Garibaldi retires from Sardinian service . 18 Nov. 

New Sardinian constitution proclaimed 7 Dec. 

The pope condemns the pamphlet " Le Pape et le 
Congres" ...... 31 Dec. 

The emperor Napoleon recommends the pope to 
give up the legations . . . .31 Dec. 

The pope refuses and denounces the emperor, 

8 Jan. 

Count Cavour charged with the formation of a 
ministry ..... 16 Jan. 

Annexation to Sardinia voted for (by universal suf- 
frage) in Parma, Modena, and the Romagna, 13 
March ; Tuscany, 16 March ; accepted by the king, 
18-22 March, 

Treaty ceding Savoy and Nice to France signed, 24 
March ; approved by the Sardinian parliament, 

29 May, 
The French troops retire from Italy . . May, 
Vain insurrections in Sicily . 4 April ; 2 May, 
Garibaldi lands at Marsala in Sicily, 11 May; as- 
sumes the office of dictator, 14 May ; defeats 
the Neapolitans at Calatifimi, 15 May ; and 
at Melazzo, 20 July; by .a convention the 
Neapolitans agree to evacuate Sicily (see Sicily), 

30 July, 
Garibaldi lands at Reggio in Calabria, 18 Aug. ; 

enters Naples ; king Francis retires . 7 Sept. 

Insurrection in Papal States, 8 Sept. ; the Sardi- 
nians enter, n Sept. ; defeat the papal troops 
at Castel-fidardo, 18 Sept. ; take Ancona, 

17-29 Sept. 

Victor-Emmanuel takes the command of his army, 

4 Oct. 

The Sardinians enter kingdom of Naples, 15 Oct. ; 
defeat Neapolitans at Isernia . . 17 Oct. 

Garibaldi defeats Neapolitans attheVolturno, 1 Oct. 
1860 ; meets Victor-Emmanuel, and says, " King 
of Italy ! " the latter replies, " I thank you ! " 

26 Oct. 

By universal suffrage (plebiscitum), Sicily and 
Naples vote for annexation to Sardinia 21 Oct. 

Capua bombarded ; the Neapolitans retire, 2 Nov. ; 
and are defeated at the Garigliano . . 3 Nov. 

Victor-Emmanuel enters Naples as king, 7 Nov. ; 
Garibaldi resigns the dictatorship and retires to 
Caprera 9 Nov. 

Victor-Emmanuel receives homage from the Neapo- 
litan clergy, &c. ; gives money to encourage educa- 
tion ; appoints a ministry, including Poerio, <&c. , 

Nov 



1859 



ITALY. 



533 



ITALY. 



Siege of Gaeta commences ; attack by sea pre- 
vented by the presence of the French fleet, 

3 Nov. &c. i860 

Treaty of Zurich signed (see Zurich) . 10 Nov. ,, 

Decree in honour of Garibaldi's army . 16 Nov. ,, 

Reactionary movements suppressed . Nov. -Dec. „ 

Prince of Carignan-Savoy appointed lieutenant of 
Naples Jan. 1S61 

The French fleet retires from Gaeta, 19 Jan. ; after 
severe bombardment it surrenders ; Francis II. 
retires to Rome 13 Feb. „ 

Monastic establishments in Naples abolished, with 
compensation to the inmates ; schools established, 

Feb. „ 

Assembly of the first Italian parliament, 18 Feb., 
which decrees Victor-Emmanuel king of Italy, 

26 Feb. and 14 March, „ 

Naples unsettled through reactionary intrigues of 
the papal party . . . March and April, ,, 

Italy recognised by Great Britain . 31 March, „ 

Order for the levy of 70,000 soldiers . April, „ 

Cavour forms a new ministry, including members 
from all parts of Italy .... April, „ 

The pope protests against the kingdom, 15 April, „ 

Altercation in parliament between Cavour and 
Garibaldi, 18 April ; reconciled . 25 April, ,, 

Bourbouist bands defeated . . 7 May, &c. „ 

Prince of Carignan resigns ; San Martino appointed 
lieutenant at Naples ... 13 May, „ 

Death of count Cavour, aged 52 . .6 June, „ 

Ricasoli forms a ministry to continue Cavour's policy, 

11 June, „ 

The kingdom recognised by France . 24 June, ,, 

San Martino resigns the government of Naples ; 
active measures taken against the insurgents and 
brigands by Cialdini, his successor, appointed, 

16 July, „ 

The king opens the exhibition of Italian industry 
at Florence 14 Sept. „ 

The kingdom recognised by Portugal and Belgium, 
1 Oct. ; divided into fifty-nine prefectures, &c, 

13 Oct. „ 

Skirmishes in the south with brigands and foreign 
emissaries in the cause of Francis II. . . Oct. „ 

Cialdini retires, and La Marmora becomes lieu- 
tenant-general of Naples ... 2 Nov. ,, 

Brigandage still prevailing in the south, aided by 
the king of Naples ; insurgents defeated ; and 
many killed 19 Nov. „ 

Jose Borges, a Spaniard, lands in Calabria, 15 
Sept. ; calls on the people to rise for Francis II., 
Sept. ; taken and shot .... 8 Dec. ,, 

The reactionist warfare continues ; cruelties of 
the brigands lead to reprisals, 

Dec. 1861, Jan. and Feb. 1862 

Ricasoli compelled to resign by court influence, 
1 March ; Rattazzi forms an administration, 

3 March, „ 

The kingdom recognised by Prussia . 1 March, ,, 

Surrender of Civatella del Tronto, the last Bourbon 
fortress in Sicily .... 14 March, ,, 

Triumphant progress of Garibaldi through Italy, 
establishing rifle clubs . March and April, ,, 

Mr. J. F. Bishop, an active English Bourbonist 
propagandist, captured . . . .2 April, ,, 

Conspiracy among the Neapolitan soldiers at Milan 
suppressed 19 April, „ 

The king received at Naples with great enthusiasm, 

28 April, ,, 

The French general Guyon aids in the suppression 
of the Bourbonist brigands . . . April, ,, 

The kingdom recognised by Russia . . 3 July, „ 

Garibaldi proceeds to Sicily ; at Marsala he calls 
for volunteers, giving as his watchword, " Rome 
or death ! " 19 July, ,, 

Calls on the Hungarians to rise . . 26 July, ,, 

The king issues a proclamation against his proceed- 
ings, as tending to rebellion ... 3 Aug. ,, 

Garibaldi enters Catania, and organises a provisional 
government 19 Aug. ,, 

Sicily proclaimed to be in a state of siege, 21 Aug. ; 
and put under general Cialdini . . 22 Aug. „ 

Garibaldi issues his last proclamation ; embarks at 
Catania ; lands at Melito, in Calabria, and marches 
towards Reggio, 25 Aug. ; La Marmora proclaims 
a state of siege, 26 Aug. ; Garibaldi and his fol- 
lowers fall in with the royalists under Pallavicmi, 
at Aspromonte, where, after a short skirmish, he 



is wounded and taken prisoner, 29 Aug. ; removed 

to Varignano, near Spezzia . . .1 Sept. 1862 

Mr. J. F. Bishop sentenced to 10 years' imprison- 
ment 6 Sept. ,, 

General Durando issues a diplomatic circular con- 
demning Garibaldi's proceedings, yet asserting 
the necessity of the Italian government possess- 
ing Rome 10 Sept. ,, 

A subscription in England enables professor Part- 
ridge, of King's College, London, to go to Garibaldi, 

19 Sept. ,. 

Princess Maria Pia married by proxy to the king of 
Portugal 27 Sept. „ 

Garibaldi issues a rhetorical appeal to the English 
nation, urging its intervention for the cause of 
liberty 28 Sept. ,, 

Inflammatory manifesto addressed to the people of 
Italy by Joseph Mazzini .... Sept. ,, 

Amnesty granted to Garibaldi and his followers, 

5 Oct. „ 
Sharp reply of M. Drouyn de Lhuys to Durando's 

note 8 Oct. ,, 

End of state of siege in Naples and Sicily . 17 Oct. ,, 
Disorderly encounter between Italians and Austrians 

on the banks of the Po . . . .1 Nov. ,, 
Father Passaglia and 10,000 (out of 80,000) Italian 

priests sign a declaration against the temporal 

authority of the pope Nov. ,, 

Garibaldi removed to Pisa, 9 Nov. ; ball extracted 

from his foot by Zanetti . . . .23 Nov. ,, 
Meeting of parliament ; determined opposition to 

Rattazzi, 18 Nov. ; he resigns . . 30 Nov. ,, 
New ministry formed by Farina . . 9 Dec. ,, 
It declines further negotiations with France on the 

Roman question 18 Dec. ,, 

Commercial treaty with France signed . 17 Jan. 1863 
Farina resigns ; Minghetti succeeds . 24 March, ,, 
Grand Cavour canal for irrigation of Piedmont 

opened 1 June, ,, 

Income tax bill passed July, ,, 

Tristany and other bandits captured . . July, ,, 
Commercial treaty with Great Britain signed, 

6 Aug. ,, 

Death of Farina 5 Sept. „ 

Several bandits captured on board the French ship 

Aunis ; given up to France, July ; restored to Italy, 

12 Sept. „ 

The army of Piedmont (50,000) consolidated by La 
Marmora and expanded into the "army of Italy" 
(250,000) ....... Oct. ,, 

The king visits Naples ; reviews National Guard, &c. 

11-17 Nov. ,, 

Mr. (after sir) James Hudson, British minister, 
greatly assisted Cavour in the unification of 
Italy 1852-63 

General election ; triumph of the moderate party, 

Jan. 1864 

Garibaldi's visit to England amidst much enthusiasm, 

April, ,, 

Franco-Italian convention signed (French troops to 
quit Rome in two years [from 6 Feb. 1865], 
Florence to be the capital of Italy, &c), 

15 Sept. ,, 

Riots at Turin in consequence ; many persons killed 
by the military 21-22 Sept. ,, 

Minghetti and his colleagues blamed ; resigned ; a 
ministry formed by La Marmora . . 24 Sept. ,, 

Garibaldi denounces the convention . 10 Oct. ,, 

Desperate state of the finances announced by Sella, 
the minister ; he proposes stringent remedies, 

Nov. ,, 

Railway from Turin to Florence opened . 4 Nov. ,, 

The convention approved by the chamber of depu- 
ties, 19 Nov. ; by the senate (after an able speech 
by Cialdini, 6 Dec.) 9 Dec. ,, 

Decree for transfer of the capital published, 11 Dec. ,, 

Prince Humbert resides at Naples . . . Dec. ,, 

Stated that 346 brigands had been killed in action ; 
453 taken in action, and 732 surrendered ; about 
300 remain to be tracked ; many pretend to be 
subjects of the ex-king Francis II. of Naples, 

Dec. „ 

Demonstration against the king at Turin, 30 Jan. ; 
he goes to Florence 3 Feb. 1865 

Amnesty for political offences published ; brigandage 
in the Neapolitan and Roman states increasing, 

March, ,, 



ITALY. 



534 



ITALY. 



Fruitless negotiations with the pope by Vegezzi 

respecting the position of bishops, April to July, 1865 
The king and court proceed to Florence, 13 May ; 
he opens the Dante festival, the 600th anniversary 

of the poet's birth 14 May, „ 

Mr. Moens, a British subject, seized and retained 

by brigands 15 May, „ 

45 monks and others arrested at Salerno on charge 

of a Bourbonist conspiracy . . . 12 June, M 
Inauguration of a national rifle meeting at Florence ; 

the king fires the first shot . . 18 June, „ 
Numerous atrocities committed by brigands ; Giar- 

dullo and 8 brigands captured . . 19 June, ,, 
The kingdom recognised by Spain . . J une, ,. 
Mr. Moens released after a ransom of 5000Z. had 

been paid 26 Aug. „ 

Bank of Italy established . . . .7 Nov. „ 
French troops leaving Italy ; general election, the 

moderate party predominate . . . Nov. ,, 

The new parliament meets at Florence . 18 Nov. ,, 
Serious financial deficiency ; heavy taxation pro- 
posed, 13 Dec. ; much dissatisfaction ; the minis- 
ters resign, 21 Dec. ; a new ministry formed under 

La Marmora 31 Dec. „ 

Death of the patriot and soldier, Massimo D'Azeglio, 

15 Jan. i86( 
Formation of the "Consorzio Nazionale," a public 
subscription for reducing the national debt, 

27 Feb. ,, 
Massacre of Protestants at Barletta, Naples ; attri- 
buted to priests .... 19 March, ,, 
Alliance with Prussia .... 12 May, ,, 
Volunteers numerously enlisted . 7 June, et seq. ,, 
War declared against Austria . . 18 June, ,, 
New ministry formed under Ricasoli . 20 June, ,, 
Royal manifesto to the people . . 20 June, „ 
The army, headed by the king, crosses the Mincio, 

23 June ; defeated at Custozza . . 24 June, „ 
"Venetia ceded to France by the emperor of Austria, 

3 July, ,, 
Fruitless conflicts ; the volunteers under Gari- 
baldi defeated at Monte Suello . . 4 July, „ 
Bill for suppression of monasteries and confiscation 

of property passed .... 7 July, „ 
Cialdini crosses the Po, and enters Venetia, 8 July, „ 
Naval battle near Lissa ; Italians defeated by Aus- 

trians (Re d'ltalia and Palestro blown up), 20 July, „ 
The Italians beaten at Versa ; the last conflict, 

26 July, ,, 
Armistice for four weeks signed . . .12 Aug. ,, 
Volunteers disbanded ; Garibaldi retires to Caprera, 

15 Aug. „ 
Treaty of peace with Austria signed at Vienna, 

3 Oct. ; ratified 12 Oct. ,, 

Court constituted at Florence to try admiral Persano 

for neglect of duty at battle of Lissa . n Oct. „ 
The Austrians retire from Peschiera, 9 Oct. ; 
Mantua, 10 Oct ; Verona, 16 Oct. ; Venice, 

17 Oct. „ 
General Menabrea pays to count Mensdorff a sum 
of money, and receives the iron crown of Italy, 

11 Oct. „ 
National loan freely subscribed . . Oct. „ 

Plebiscitum in Venetia ; for annexation with Italy, 

641,758 ; against, 69 . . . . 21 Oct. „ 
This result reported, and the iron crown presented 

to the king at Turin .... 4 Nov. „ 
The king enters Venice, 7 Nov. ; visits Verona, 

Mantua, &c. Nov. „ 

Circular of Ricasoli to the prefects, recommending 
industrial development and commerce, forbidding 
agitation, and enjoining neutrality regarding Rome, 

is Nov. „ 
Letter from Ricasoli to the clergy recommending a 

free church in a free state . . .26 Nov. ,, 
Persano committed for trial ; examination begins, 

1 Dec. ,, 
Parliament opened by the king, who declares that 

" Italy is now restored to herself" . 15 Dec. „ 
Sig. Tonello received by the pope, 15 Dec. ; many 

bishops return to their dioceses . . Dec. „ 
Persano acquitted of cowardice at Lissa . 30 Jan. 1S67 
Government proposal for investing part of the 
property of the religious bodies for support of 
clergy (" Free Church and Ecclesiastical Liquida- 
tion bill ") brought forward . . . Jan. ,, 
reat reduction in the army (to 146,000) ordered, 

Jan. ,, 



Defeat of the ministry on question of the right of 
public meetings in Venetia, 11 Feb. ; parliament 

dissolved 13 Feb. 1867 

Ricasoli reconstructs his ministry . 17 Feb. ,, 

The pope accepts Italian help to suppress brigandage, 

March, ,, ; 

Elections give a majority for government March, ,, 

Resignation of Ricasoli, 5 April ; a ministry formed 
by Rattazzi 8 April, ,, 

Persano condemned ; degraded and dismissed the 
service for disobedience, incapacity, and negli- 
gence . . . . . . 15 April, „ 

Treaty of commerce with Austria signed at Florence, 

23 April, ,, 

Public funeral of the patriot Carlo Poerio 1 May, „ 
Italy joins in the conference at London respecting 

the Luxemburg question . . 7-1 1 May, ,, 

National financial embarrassments ; the king 
gives up part of his civil list ; proposed sale 
of church lands, and reduction of expenditure, 

May, et seq. ,, ' 
17,200,000^. advanced for church lands by Fould 

and others of Paris May, „ 

Church property bill passed . . . Aug. „ 
Garibaldi, about to enter the Roman territory with 
volunteers, captured by Italian government at 
Sinalunga (or Asinalunga)and sent to Alessandria, 

23 Sept. „ 
Sent to Caprera, 27 Sept. ; escapes to Leghorn, 

and is sent back 2 Oct. ,, 

Bands of Garibaldians invade Roman territories, 

Sept. -Oct. „ 
Garibaldi escapes from Caprera . . 15 Oct. ,, 
Embarkation of French troops at Toulon, suspended 
by the resignation of Rattazzi and his ministry, 

20 Oct. ,, 
Cialdini tries to form a ministry in vain, 21-25 Oct. „ 
Garibaldi at Florence announces an expedition 

against. Rome 22 Oct. ,, 

The French minister Moustier's circular against 

the invasion 25 Oct. ,, 

Garibaldians defeated at Viterbo . . 25 Oct. „ 
Enter Roman territories ; defeat papal troops, and 

take Monte Rotondo . . .26, 27 Oct. „ 
Menabrea's ministry formed ; proclamation of Vic- 
tor-Emmanuel against the Garibaldian invasion, 

27 Oct. „ 
Riots at Naples", Turin, Pavia, and other places, 

suppressed .... 26-28 Oct. et seq, ,, 
French army arrives at Civita Vecchia, 28 Oct. ; two 

brigades enter Rome .... 30 Oct. ,, 
Royal Italian troops enter papal territory ; Mena- 
brea's justificatory circular ; suppression of insur- 
rectional committees in Italy . . 30 Oct. ,, 
De Moustier's reply .... 1 Nov. „ 
Garibaldi defeated at Mentana, 3 Nov. ; retreats into 
Italy with his son ; captured and sent to Var- 
ignano, gulf of Spezzia .... 4 Nov. ,, 
Fiery manifesto of Mazzini ... 8 Nov. „ 
Garibaldi sent to Caprera . . . .25 Nov. ,, 
French proposal of a European conference on 

Roman question discussed . . 9 Nov. -Dec. ,, 
French troops left Rome for Civita Vecchia, 3 Dec. ,, 
Meeting of parliament ; judicious firmness ; an 

amnesty for Garibaldians proclaimed . 5 Dec. „ 
Long army debate ; vote against the ministry (201 

to 199) ; Menabrea resigns . . .22 Dec. ,, 
His ministry reconstituted ... 5 Jan. iS6£ 

M. Cambray Digny's financial statement : great 

deficit ; a grist tax proposed . . .21 Jan. „ 
Exculpatory letter of La Marmora issued . Feb. „ 
Government financial measures announced Feb. „ 
New order of knighthood, the "Crown of Italy," 

constituted 20 Feb. „ 

Grist tax adopted after 21 days' debate . 1 April, „ 
Enthusiastic reception of the crown prince of Prussia, 

20, 21 April, ,, 
Marriage of prince Humbert to his cousin Mar- 

gherita at Turin .... 22 April, ,, 
Frightful atrocities committed by brigands in 

south Italy April, May, „ 

Grist tax adopted by the senate . . Juue, ,, 
Arrangement made for debt of the late papal pro- 
vinces 3° July. i> 

Government tobacco monopoly ordered to be farmed ; 
resignation of the ministers, Lanza and Sella, 

8 Aug. „ 



ITALY. 



535 



ITALY. 



Long continued rain ; dreadful inundations in the 
K Alpine regions ; great storm . . 27 Sept. 1S68 
Meeting of chamber of deputies ; Garibaldi with- 
draws 24 Nov. „ 

Ministerial victory respecting the grist tax in the 

chambers 26 Jan. 1869 

Thomas, duke of Genoa, entered a pupil at Harrow 

(see Spain, 1870) April, „ 

Circular of Menabrea against the council at Rome, 

5 Oct. „ 
Victor-Emmanuel Ferdinand, son of prince Hum- 
bert, born at Naples . . . .11 Nov. „ 
Serious illness and recovery of the king, 6-20 Nov. ,, 
Offered resignation of Menabrea, about 19 Nov. ; ,, 

Cialdini and Sella unable to form a ministiy, 10 

Dec. ; Lanza and Sella succeed . 13 Dec. 

<Ecumenical council at Borne (see Rome, Councils) 

opened 8 Dec. ,, 

Republican risings in Pavia and otherplaces quelled, 

about 24 March, 1870 
^Neutrality in the Franco-Prussian war announced, 

18 July, additional armaments ordered . 4 Aug. ,, 
Mazzini arrested at Palermo and sent to Gaeta, 

14 Aug. „ 
Fruitless mission of prince Napoleon to obtain help 

for France 21-25 Aug. ,, 

•Circular note from the government recounting the 

failure of all attempts to conciliate the pope since 

i860 ; and proposing favourable terms 29 Aug. „ 
French vessel Orenoque placed at Civita Vecchia on 

behalf of the pope . . . . Aug. „ 

.Respectful letter from the king to the pope, 

announcing the occupation of Rome necessary to 

order 8 Sept. ,, 

The Italian troops enter the papal territories (see 

Rome); occupy Viterbo and other places, 12 Sept. ,, 
General Bixio marches towards Rome, 18, 19 Sept. „ 
After a short resistance, the Italians under General 

Cadorna enter Rome. [FordetailsseeEo?re«.]2oSept. ,, 
Plebiscite in papal territories : for union with the 

kingdom of Italy (out of 167,548 voters) 133,681 ; 

against 1507 2 Oct. „ 

■The king receives the result of the plebiscite, 8 Oct. ,, 
Rome incorporated with Italy by royal decree, 

general La Marmora governor . . 9 Oct. ,, 
Arrival of La Marmora at Rome as viceroy ; reported 

agitation in Nice for reunion with Italy or 

autonomy Oct. ,, 

Capture and death of Pilone, a great Bourbonist 

brigand chief 14 Oct. ,, 

Mazzini arrives at Florence . . . 15 Oct. ,, 
Amnesty to political offenders proclaimed, 10 Oct. ; 

including Mazzini .... 16 Oct. ,, 
Diplomatic circular announcing the occupation of 

Rome as the capital of Italy . . .18 Oct. „ 
Soman provinces united into one, with five sub- 
prefectures 19 Oct. „ 

Ministerial changes completed . 30 Oct. „ 

Ricasoli retires into private life ; about 14 Nov. ,, 
Amadeus, duke of Aosta, the king's second son, 

elected king by the Spanish cortes . 16 Nov. ,, 
Elections favourable to the government ; all the 

ministers elected . . . about 28 Nov. ,, 
Parliament meets ; the king declares Rome to be 

the capital of Italy .... 5 Dec. ,, 

Bills introduced for the transfer of the capital and 

the preservation of the pope's rights, about 

10 Dec. ,, 
The Cenis tunnel completed . . 25 Dec. ,, 

Great inundation ; the king visits Rome 31 Dec. ,, 
The senate vote the transfer of the capital from 

Florence to Rome (94 — 39) . . 26 Jan. 1871 

The king and ministers remove to Rome, 1, 2 July, 

which is inaugurated as the capital . 3 July, ,, 
The parliament opened there by the king 27 Nov. ,, 
Telegraphic conference at Rome . 18 Dec. ,, 

-Joseph Mazzini dies at Pisa . . 10 March, 1872 

Elections favourable to the liberals . . Aug. „ 
Great inundations in the valley of the Po, &c, loss 
of life and of much property ; much saved by the 
exertions of the military . . . Oct. „ 

Opposition to the income-tax in the assembly ; 

majority for government (144 — 116) . . Dec. „ 
Great sorrow at the death of Napoleon III., 9 Jan. 

proposals for monument in Milan . . Jan. 1873 
Bill dealing with the religious establishments at 
Rome introduced April, „ 



The Lanza-Sella ministry resign; but resume office at 

the request of the king . . about 4 May, 1873 
Death of Alessandro Manzoni . . .22 May, ,, 
Death of Urbano Rattazzi . . .5 June, „ 
Law for expulsion of Jesuits passed . 25 June, „ 

See Jesuits. 
Lanza and Sella resign, 26 June ; a ministry formed 

by Minghetti 10 July, „ 

The king's visit to Vienna, 17 Sept. ; to Berlin, 

22-26 Sept. ,, 
Monuments to Cavour at Turin inaugurated by the 

king 8 Nov. „ 

The king opens parliament with congratulatory 

speech 15 Nov. „ 

Academy of San Luca replaced by a new academy, 

Jan. 1874 
National festival on the 25th anniversary of the 

king's accession . ... 23 March, ,, 

Minghetti ministry defeated on a finance bill ; their 

resignation not accepted by the king . 24 May, „ 
Accoltellatori (secret assassinating societies) re- 
ported in Ravenna and other places, Sept.-Oct. ,, 
About 80 secret extortioners (see Canwrra) in 

Naples seized and transported . . Sept.-Oct. ,, 
Teodali, a papal chamberlain, seized by brigands, 

ransomed for 2000?. . . . about 8, 9 Oct. ,, 
The Orenoque (French) sails from Civita Vecchia 

13 Oct. „ 

Jesuits ordered to quit their establishments 

15 Oct. „ 

Result of elections in support of government, Nov. ,, 

The Camorra, Maffei, and Brigantaggio (terrorist 
secret societies) prevalent in south Italy . 1874-5 

Garibaldi declines a sum of money (3500J.) voted to 
him' 31 Dec. 1874 

He enters Rome amid great excitement, takes his 
seat in the chamber of deputies, and takes the 
oath to the king 24 Jan. 1875 

Accepts the sum voted and devotes it to improve- 
ment of the Tiber, &c 12 Feb. „ 

The emperor of Austria and king of Italy meet at 
Venice 5-7 April, „ 

Treaty of commerce with Great Britain, to expire 
26 June, 1876, announced . . . June, „ 

Synod of Italian Catholic church (which see) held 
at Naples Aug. „ 

Elections of parish priests declared valid in opposi- 
tion to the bishops .... July-Aug. „ 

Michel-Angelo fete at Florence . . 12 Sept. „ 

Italian Catholic congress, blessed by the pope, 
meets at Florence; scanty attendance, 22-25 Sept. „ 

Visit of the emperor of Germany to Milan; warmly 
received by the king and people . . 18-23 Oct. ,, 

Minghetti ministry defeated on the budget, 18 Mar. ; 
resign 19 March, 1876 

Agostino Depretis forms a cabinet . . March, „ 

The Diulio, great iron-clad, launched at Castella- 
mare, in presence of the king . . .8 May, „ 

Discovery of a " black book" in the home-office, re- 
cording misdeeds of many officials, &c. ; gives 
much offence .... . June, „ 

Italian geographical society's expedition in Africa ; 
ill-treated at Zeila ; the khedive informed July, ,, 

Marchese Mantegazza tried for forging the signa- 
tures of the king and prince Humbert on bills 
and letters to obtain money ; confessed, but re- 
fused to disclose name of associate or instigator, 
18 Aug. ; sentence, 8 years' penal servitude 

31 Aug. ,, 

Elections ; great majority for Depretis ministry, 

about 6 Nov. ,, 

Maria Vittoria, duchess of Aosta, ex-queen of Spain, 
aged 28, dies, greatly lamented . . 8 Nov. ,, 

Parliament opened by the king . . 20 Nov. ,, 

Discovery near Verona of above 50,000 coins of Gal- 
lienus and others, eliieliy bronze . . Jan. 1877 

Bill for repressing clerical abuses adopted by the 
deputies ; the pope expresses j^reat displeasure in 
his circular to foreign powers, 21 March ; the 
bill rejected by the senate . . - 7 May, ,, 

Antonelli Case— Countess Loreta Lambertini claims 
property of her alleged father, cardinal Antonelli ; 
resisted' by his brothers, 30 June; trial; her case 

not proved 6 Dec. „ 

Ministerial changes . . . about 12 Nov. „ 
Monument at, Montana (which sec) inaugurated, 

25 Nov. „ 



ITALY. 



533 



ITALY. 



Resignation of the ministry, 15 Dec. ; Depretis 
re-forms his ministry (Nicotera replaced by 
Crispi) 16-26 Dec. 1877 

Father Curci (see Jesuits) publishes "Dissidio Mo- 
demo fra la Chiesa e l'ltalia," against the pope's 
temporal power Dec. „ 

Death of La Marmora, aged 74, 5 Jan. ; death of 
king Victor Emmanuel II., 9 Jan. ; his funeral ; 
procession 2 miles long ; buried in the Pantheon, 
Rome 17 Jan. 1878 

Death of pope Pius IX. 7 Feb. ; election of Leo 
XIII 20 Feb. „ 

Antonelli Case— the countess permitted to appear in 
court: the case deferred . . . . Feb. „ 

Resignation of the Depretis ministry . 10 March, „ 

Cairoli forms a liberal ministry, Corti foreign mi- 
nister ; new men . . . .23 March, „ 

Seismet Doda, finance minister, announces probable 
surplus June, ,,'' 

Dandnlo, largest Italian ironclad, launched at 
Spezzia, in presence of the king . . 10 July, „ 

Popular discontent at the Berlin treaty ; desire for 
acquiring Trent and Trieste ; cry of " Italia irre- 
denta!" (vhich see) meetings at Rome, &c. 

about 21 July, ,, 

Death of Giorgio Pallavicino, senator, patriot, friend 
of Cavour, aged 84 3 Aug. „ 

David Lazzaretti, " the saint," a peasant, aged 48, 
founder of a religious socialistic sect in 1868, with 
12 apostles, &c, and creed somewhat protestant ; 
proposed to erect seven hermitages ; marched to- 
wards Arcidosso, in Tuscany, with between two 
and three thousand followers ; David, clad in a 
half-regal, half-pontifical costume, proclaiming 
the Christian republic, resisted dispersion by the 
police, who, when fired on, fired and killed David 
and one of his followers ; these retired, carrying 
off David's body 18 Aug. „ 

Ministerial crisis ; resignation of Corti and others, 
19 Oct. ; of all the Cairoli ministry . 22 Oct. „ 

Sig. Cairoli reconstitutes the ministry . 25 Oct. „ 

Attempted assassination of the king at Naples by 
Giovanni Passanante,an internationalist, aged 29 ; 
the king and Cairoli, the minister, slightly 
wounded 17 Nov. „ 

" Pietro Barsanti " Clubs (in memory of a sergeant 
executed for gross insubordination a few years 
ago) become prominent ; oppose ministry, autumn, ,, 

The Cairoli ministry defeated on vote of confidence 
(263-189), 11 Dec. ; resign . . .12 Dec. ,, 

Sig. Depretis's ministry takes office . 19 Dec. „ 

Passanante condemned to death at Naples, 7 March ; 
to perpetual imprisonment (by the king), 29 March, 1879 

Antonelli case : the countess Lambertini's appeal 
rejected 3 July, „ 

Government defeated on the grist bill (251-159); re- 
signs 3 July, ,, 

Sig. Cairoli forms a ministry . . 8-12 July, ,, 

New clerical conservative party issues a manifesto, 

iE Aug. ,, 

" Res Italicce" pamphlet (see Italia Irredenta), Aug. ,, 

The followers of Lazzaretti tried and acquitted, 

12 Nov. ,, 

Cairoli ministry reconstructed . 18-24 Nov. >> 

First publication of " Aurora," a papal daily news- 
paper, at Rome 1 Jan. 1880 

Parliament opened by the king ; relief of taxation 
promised 17 Feb. ,, 

Majority in chamber against ministers, 17 Feb.; its 
resignation not accepted by the king, 29 April ; 
dissolution of the chamber . . 2 May, ,, 

Elections : absolute majority for the Cairoli minis- 
try ; parliament meets . . . .26 May, ,, 

Cordigliani, a half-mad tailor, condemned to im- 
prisonment for throwing paving-stones at a group 
>f deputies (25 June) .... 26 Aug. „ 
Celebration of capture of Rome by Italians in 1870, 

20 Sept. ,, 

Italia, great ironclad, launched at Castellamare, 

29 Sept. ,, 

Garibaldi (and his son Menotti) resign as deputies 
on account of the imprisonment of his son-in-law, 
gen. Canzio, for republican manifestations, 27 
Sept. ; Garibaldi goes to Genoa, Oct. ; Canzio re- 
leased 10 Oct. ,, 

Col. John Whitehead, " Garibaldi's Englishman," 
dies, aged 69 21 Nov. „ 

Resignation of Cairoli and his cabinet, 8 April ; re- 



turn to office ; censured 011 account of the Tunis 

affair 18 April, 1 

The Cairoli ministry again resign . 14 May, 

M. Depretis forms a ministry . . 28 May, 

Father Curci publishes "New Italy and Old Zealots ," 

June, 
The king and queen warmly received at Vienna, 

28-31 Oct. 

The government complain of Vatican intrigues 

about 28 Dec. 

Death of Lanza, General Medici patriot, died 9 Mar. 

Opening of St. Gothard railway from Lucerne to 

Milan 20, 21 May, j 

Death of Garibaldi at Caprera deeply lamented 

2 June, 
Buried there in the presence of thousands 8 June, 
Parliament dissolved .... 4 Oct. 

Destructive floods in North Italy . Sept., Oct. 
Elections in favour of the ministry about 28 Oct. 
First reform parliament opened by King Humbert 

22 Nov 
Death of the duke of Sermoneta . . . 12 Dec. 
Demonstrations against Austria on account of 

execution of Oberdank for threatening the 

emperor's life .... 20-22 Dec. 

International fine art exhibition opened at Rome 

21 Jan. : 
Specie payments resumed ... 12 April, 
Lepanto, Italian built iron-clad launched at Leg- 
horn ; the king present .... 17 Mar. 
The four-hundredth anniversary of Raphael's birth 

celebrated at Rome .... 28 Mar. 

Confidence in the Depretis ministry voted (348-29) ; 

it resigns, and returns . . 25, 26 May, 

New important treaty with Great Britain signed, 

15 June, 
About 50 persons perish by fire in a theatre at 

Dervio, near Como .... 24 June, 
King Victor Emmanuel's body removed to the Pan- 
theon 5 Jan. ; thousands of pilgrims visit his tomb 

up to 21 Jan. 

Death of Sig. Sella, great financial minister, 14 Mar. 
Resignation of the Depretis ministry, 20 Mar. ; 

reconstituted ... 22 Mar.-io April, 
Discussion respecting the sale of the Propaganda 

property at Rome April, 

National exhibition at Turin opened by the king, 

26 April, closed 20 Nov. 

Fifth ironclad launched at Castellamare . 
Twenty-one new members added to the Senate 

28 Nov. 
Total number of soldiers in the army, 2,113,969 

1 Jan. 
Navy consisted of 112 vessels afloat or building 

1 Jan. 
Heavy snow storms in Piedmont, near Mont Cenis ; 

many avalanches ; many villages destroyed ; very 

great loss of life .... 16-28 Jan. 
Expedition to Assab to avenge the massacre of 

Guiletti and Bianchi 

Ironclad Cattclfidardo arrived at Beilul . 25 Jan. 
The ministry determine to assist Great Britain in 

the Soudan .... .6 Feb. 

Italian flag hoisted at Massowah (which see) 6 Feb. 
Resignation of the Depretis ministry on account of 

Mancini's foreign policy, 18 June ; reconstituted 

about 24 June, 

Ironclad Francisco Morosini launched at Venice 

30 July, 
Elections : ministerial majority about 55, about 

" 24 May, 
Death of Marco Minghetti (prime minister in 1864 

et seq.), aged 70 10 Dec. 

Depretis ministry resigns ... 8 Feb. 
Destructive earthquakes (which see) 23, 24 Feb. 
Several statesmen having declined office, the 

Depretis ministry resumes office . 5 March, 
Defensive treaty of alliance with Austria-Hungary 

and Germany signed ... 13 March, 
Coalition cabinet formed, Depretis, foreign minister, 

premier 3 April, 

Depretis dies, aged 74, 29 July ; M. Crispi becomes 

premier Aug. 

Signor Crispi visits prince Bismarck . 2, 3 Oct. 
Signor Crispi at Turin declares his policy to be 

thorough peace 25 Oct. 

Parliament opened . . . . .16 Nov. 



ITALY. 



537 



ITALY. 



Increased formation of workman, socialistic, and 
republican leagues 1882-87 

Duke Torlonia, syndic of Rome, dismissed for 
congratulating the pope on his jubilee 2 Jan. 1888 

The progress of the Italian catholic church 
opposed to the papacy, reported . . Feb. „ 

Fall of vast avalanches in north Italy ; 23 persons 
killed at Valtorta, 23 Feb. ; 30 persons killed at 
Sparone, 29 Feb. 1888 ; above 200 persons 
said to have perished in the Alps Feb.-March ,, 

Italian exhibition (which see), London, 12 May,- 

31 Oct. „ 

The abolition of capital punishment passed by the 
chambers June, ,, 

Cheap popular edition of the Italian bible (with 
Cassell's illustrations) issued by signor Sonzogno, 
editor of the Secolo, Milan . . . July, ,, 

For war with Abyssinia, see Massowah . . 1887-88 

Marriage of the duke of Aosta, ex-king of Spain, 
with his niece princess Loetitia, daughter of his 
sister Clotilde and prince Napoleon Jerome, 

11 Sept. 1888 

The emperor William II. warmly received at Rome, 
11 Oct. ; 32,000 troops reviewed at Centocelle, 13 
Oct. at Naples ; (launch of the great ironclad 
Re Umberto at Castellamare) . . 16 Oct. ,, 

Landslip between Salandra and Graseano ; de- 
struction of an excursion train, about 22 persons 
killed 20 Oct. ,, 

Marquis of Dufferin, British ambassador, received 
by the king 7 Jan. 1889 

Death of Father Gavazzi, church reformer, aged 80 

9 Jan. ,, 

Opening of parliament by the king . 28 Jan. ,, 

Signor Crispi resigns 28 Feb. but reconstitutes his 
ministry 7 March, ,, 

The king, his son and Signor Crispi warmly re- 
ceived at Berlin .... 21-26 Mar. ,, 

Death of Benedetto Cairoli, aged 63, patriot and 
statesman, associated with Victor Emanuel, 
Cavour and Garibaldi, in the unification of Italy, 
deeply lamented 8 Aug. ,, 

Sig. Cr.spi injured by a stone thrown at him during 
a carriage drive by Emilio Caporali, a silly youth 

13 Sept. ,, 

The king ratifies treaty of 2 May with Abyssinia . 

2 Oct. „ 

Italian protectorate over Abyssinia announced 

14 Oct. ,, 

The parliament opened with a cheerful speech by 
the king 25 Nov. ,, 

Death of the duke of Aosta, aged 44 . 18 Jan. 1890 

Ministry defeated in the senate on a minor ques- 
tion, 5 May ; the crisis passes over 9 May, et seq. ,, 

Democratic congress at Rome, 470 associations re- 
presented 11 May, et st>q. „ 

Riots at Conselice, in the Romagna, 3 or 4 rioters 
killed by the military . . . about 24 May ,, 

Confidence in Signor Crispi's ministry voted (329-61) 

31 May, ,, 

The prince of Naples visits St. Petersburg, Berlin 

May, June, ,, 

Major Gaetani Casati returns from his expedition 
to Bmin pasha (see Africa) ; received at Rome, 14 
July ; by the king 17 July, „ 

Sig. Filonanli becomes director of the Italian East 
Africa company . . . announced 12 Aug. „ 

Anglo-Italian steamer line (Naples, Palermo, and 
London), inaugurated ... 22 Aug. ,, 

Destructive cyclone— San Marino, Turin, Como, 
Naples, Sardinia, &c. ... 26 Aug. „ 

Great ironclad, Sardegna, launched at Spezia 

20 Sept. ,, 

Conference at Naples, of representatives of Great 
Britain and Italy, respecting the limits of the 
territories in East Africa ; sig. Crispi and lord 
Dufferin present ; disagreement respecting 
Kassala, &c. ; the conference closes without 
result 4-10 Oct. ,, 

The parliament dissolved ... 24 Oct. ,, 

Parliamentary elections held, great majority for 
the government 23 Nov. ,, 

Ministerial changes .... 8-9 Dec. ,, 

Parliament opened 10 Dec. ; confidence in the 
ministry voted 19 Dec. ,, 

Signor Crispi defeated on a financial question (186- 
123), and resigns 31 Jan. 1891 

New Ministry ; marquis di Rudini (president and 



foreign minister), and others, 6 Feb. et seq. ; they 
propose maintenance of peace, and reduced ex- 
penditure, &c. 11 Feb. : 

Vote of confidence in the ministry adopted . 

21 March, 

Treaty for the delimitation of the British and 
Italian spheres of influence in East Africa, signed 
at Rome 15 April 

Financial difficulties ; opposition to reduction of 
the army expenditure . . about 31 March 

Trial of 179 persons connected with the Mala Vita 
conspiracy at Bari, see Cainorra . . April 

The triple alliance renewed ... 28 June, 

Tour of the prince of Naples ; arrives in London, 
received by the prince of Wales, 22 July ; dined 
with the queen at Osborne, 24 July ; visited the 
marquis of Salisbury at Hatfield, 25 July ; other- 
visits ; with lord Mayor, 28 July ; made E.G. at 
Osborne, 3 Aug. ; visits Edinburgh and other 
places in Scotland, 7 Aug. et seq. ; at Newcastle, 
14 Aug. ; leaves for Bergen, &c. . 15 Aug. 

The mail steamer Taormina sunk by collision with 
the Greek steamer Thessalia, off Cape Sunium, 
about 60 lives lost, 2 a.m. . . 12 Sept. 

The Russian foreign minister, M. de Giers, meets 
the Marquis di Rudini, the Italian premier, at 
Milan, 12 Oct. ; they visit the king at Monza (no 
political results) . . . 13 and 17 Oct. 

Trial of 60 anarchists .... 14 Oct. 

New commercial treaty with Austria and Germany 
signed at Rome . . . . . 16 Dec. 

Lord Vivian succeeds lord Duflerin as British 
minister about 22 Jan. 

Death of count de Launay, minister at Berlin suc- 
cessively for Sardinia and Italy for 37 years 

7 Feb. 

Signor Crispi retires from public affairs . 

about 15 Feb. 

Cipriani Palla and other anarchists sentenced to 
different terms of imprisonment . 24 March 

Resignation of the cabinet through differences re- 
specting finance, 14 April ; most of the resigna- 
tions withdrawn .... 21 April, 

Difficulty with the United States settled, see New 
Orleans about 14 April, 

Anarchist leaders arrested in Rome and other 
places, 25 April, et seq. ; 48 arrested up to 29 
April ; 42 arrests on ... 30 April, 

The Rudini ministry, defeated in the Chamber 
(193-185), resign . . . . 5 May, 

A new ministry formed by sig. Giolitti n-15 May, 

Resignation of the ministry not accepted by the 
king 27 May, 



476. 



526. 
S34- 
536. 
54°- 

54i- 



573- 
575- 
59'- 
615. 
625. 
636. 

652. 

653- 
661. 
662. 
671. 
686. 
700. 
701. 



KINGS OF ITALY. 

Odoacer, king of the Heruli, invades Italy, ami 
becomes king, conquered and slain by 

Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, an able prince. 
He put to death the philosophers Boethius and 
Symmaehus, falsely accused, about 525. 

Athalaric, his grandson, dies of the plague. 

Theodatus elected ; assassinated. 

Vitiges elected. 

Theodebald (Hildibald) elected ; assassinated. 

Totila, or Badiula, a great prince ; killed in battle 
against the imperial army under Narses. 

Theias falls in battle. 

Italy subject to the eastern empire till 

Alboin, king of the Lombards, with a huge mixed 
army, conquers Italy ; poisoned by his wife 
Rosamond, for compelling her to drink wine out 
of a cup formed of her father's skull. 

Cleoph ; assassinated. 

Autharis ; poisoned. 

Agilulph. 

Adaloald ; poisoned. 

Arioakl. 

Rotharis ; married the widow of Arioald ; pub- 
lished a code of laws. 

Rodoald (son); assassinated. 

Aribert I. (uncle) 

Bertharit and Godebert (sons) ; dethroned by 

Grimoald, duke of Benevento. 

Bertharit re-established. 

Cunibert (son). 

Luitbert , dethroned by 

Ragimbert. 

Aribert II. (son). 



ITALY. 



538 



IVET. 



712. Ansprand elected. 
„ Luitprand (son), a great prince, and a favourite of 

the churcli. 
744. Hildebrand (nephew) ; deposed. 

„ Eaehis, duke of Friuli, elected ; became a monk. 
•749. Astolph (brother). 
•756. Desiderius (Didier), quarrelled with the pope 

Adrian, who invited Charlemagne into Italy, by 

whom Desiderius was deposed, and an end. put 

to the Lombard kingdom. 
-781. Pepin er Carloman (son of Charlemagne). 
:Si2. Bernard. 
.820. Lothaire (son of Louis le De'bonnaire) 

EMPERORS. 

•875. Charles the Bald. 

•877. Carloman. 

$79. Charles the Fat 

888. Berenger L 

889. ,, and Guy. 
■894. ,, and Lambert. 

•9 21 - .* and Rudolph of Burgundy. 

•526. Hugh of Provence. 

<94S. Lothaire II. 

.950. Berenger II. and Adalbert his son ; deposed in 96) 

by the emperor Otho the Great, who added Italy 

to the German empire. 

MODERN KINGS OV ITALY. 

3805. Napoleon I. proclaimed king of Italy, 18 March ; 
crowned at Milan, 26 May ; abdicated, 1814. 

2861. Victor-Emmanuel II. (of Sardinia, which see), born 
14 March, 1820 ; declared king of Italy by the 
parliament, 17 March, 1861 ; died 9 Jan. 1878. 

1878. Humbert (son), born 14 March, 1844; married his 



cousin Margherita (born 20 Nov. 1851), 22 April, 
1868. 
Heir : Victor-Emmanuel (son), prince of Naples, 
born 11 Nov. 1869. 

ITHACA, kingdom of Ulysses, see Ionian 
Isles. It was explored by Dr. Schliemann, in 1878 ; 
few discoveries being made. 

ITINEBAKIES. The Eoman Itinerarium 
was a table of the stages between important places. 
The "Itineraria Antonini," embracing the whole 
Eoman empire, usually ascribed to the emperor 
Aurelius Antonius, and his successors, a.d. 138-180, 
was probably based upon the survey made by order 
of Julius Caesar, 44 B.C. The "Itinerarium 
Hierosolymitanum " was drawn up for the use of 
the pilgrims about a.d. 333. 

IVOBY was brought to Solomon from Tarshish, 
about 992 B.C. (1 Kings x. 22). The colossal statues 
of Jupiter, Minerva, &c, by Phidias, were formed 
of ivory and gold, 444 B.C. Ivory tusk, 7 feet long, 
sent by the Zulu king Cetywayo to lord Chelms- 
ford, as a token of peace, summer, 1879. Celluloid, 
an imitation of ivory, tortoiseshell, etc., composed 
of guncotton and camphor, used for the manufacture 
of buttons, billiard balls, and various ornaments, 
reported dangerous as being inflammable at low 
temperatures, Feb. 1892. 

IVKY (near Evreux, N.'W. France). Here 
Henry IV. totally defeated the due de Mayenne, 
and the League army, 14 March, 1590. 



J. 



JACOBINS. 



JAMAICA. 



J was distinguished from I by the Dutch scholars 
of the 16th century, and introduced into the alphabet 
by Giles Beys, printer, of Paris, 1550. Dufresnoy. 

JACOBINS, a name given to the Dominicans 
in France, because their first convent was the 
hospital of the pilgrims of St. James (Jacobus), 
at Paris, at the request of pope Honorius III. 
(1216-27). The Jacobin club (first called "club 
Breton " ) consisted of about forty gentlemen 
and men of letters, who met in the hall of the 
Jacobin friars, at Paris, in Oct. 1789, to discuss 
political and other questions. Similar societies 
were instituted in all the principal towns of the 
kingdom. The club was closed 11 Nov. 1794. 

JACOBITES* a Christian sect, so called from 
Jacob Baradaeus, a Syrian, about 541 ; see Euty- 
chians. — The partisans of James II. (Latin, 
Jacobus II.) were so named after his expulsion from 
England in 1688-9. 

A sentimental revival of Jacobitism appeared in Eng- 
land in 1891, the "White Hose League" having been 
formed. The marquis de Ruvigny and other members 
of the " Legitimist Jacobite League " were stopped in 
their attempt to place a large floral wreath on the 
tomb of Mary, queen of Scots, in Westminster Abbey, 
8 Feb. 1892. 

JACOBUS, a gold coin, so called from king 
James I. of England, in whose reign it was struck, 
1603-25. 

JACQUAED LOOM, for figured fabrics, in- 
vented by Joseph Marie Jacquard, of Lyons, and 
patented 23 Dec. 1801. 

JACQUEBIE, a term applied to bands of 
revolted peasants (headed by one Caillot, called 
Jacques Bonhomme), who ravaged France during 
the captivity of king John in 1358, and were quelled 
with much bloodshed. Similar insurrections oc- 
curred in Germany. One was termed the Bundschuh, 
from the large shoe especially worn by peasants, in 
1502 ; and another termed the Bund (or league) of 
the Poor Conrad, 1514 and 1524, which also cost 
about 100,000 lives, and led to the insurrection of 
the anabaptists. 

JAFFA, a seaport of Syria, celebrated in scrip- 
ture as Joppa, whence Jonah embarked (about 862 
B.C.), and where Peter raised Tabitha from the dead 
(a.d. 38) ; in mythology the place whence Perseus 
delivered Andromeda. Jafla was taken by the 
caliph Omar, in 636 ; by the Crusaders, 1099 ; by 
Saladin, 1 193; byLouisIX., 1252; and by Bonaparte, 
7 March, 1 799 ; the French were driven out by the 
British in J une, the same year. Here, according to 
sir Robert Wilson, were massacred 3800 prisoners 
by Bonaparte ; but this is doubted. Jaffa suffered 
by an earthqdake in Jan. 1837, when it is said that 
13,000 persons were killed. 

JAGELLONS, a dynasty whichat times reigned 
over Lithuania, Poland, Hungary, and Bohemia, 
beginning with Jagellon, duke of Lithuania 
(husband of Hedwig, daughter of Louis of Hungary, 
1384), who became king of Poland as Ladislas III. 
or V. in 1399, and ending with Sigismund II., who 
died in 1572. 

JAINS, see Jeynes. 



JAMAICA, a W. India island, discovered by 
Columbus, 3 May, 1494, and named St. Jago. It 
was conquered from the Spaniards by admiral 
Penn, with land forces commanded by Venables, 
3 May, 1655, and settled soon after. Population in 
1861, 13,816 whites; 81,074 coloured; 346,374 
blacks; "in 1871, 506,154; whites, 13,101 ; coloured, 
100,346; blacks, 392,707; in 1881, 585,582; 1891, 
639,491. Revenue, 1890-1, 764,045/. ; expenditure, 
510,058/. The government of Jamaica includes 
Turks and Caicos islands. 

An awful earthquake here . . .2 June, 1692 

The Maroons (runaway slaves) permitted to settle 

in the north of the island 1738 

Desolating hurricanes in . . . 1722, 1734, & 1751 
In June, 179s, the Maroons rose against the English, 

and were not quelled till .... March, 1796 
Many transported to Sierra Leone .... 1800 

Slave trade abolished 1 May, 1807 

Tremendous hurricane, by which the whole island 
was deluged, hundreds of houses washed away, 
vessels wrecked, and 1000 persons drowned, Oct. 1815 

Bishopric .established 1824 

Insurrection of the negro slaves ; numerous planta- 
tions burnt ; the governor, lord Belmore, declared 

martial law 22 Dec. 1831 

Emancipation of the slaves . . . 1 Aug. 1834 

About 50,000 die. of cholera in 1850 

In May, 1853, the dissension between the colonial 
legislature and sir Charles Grey, the governor, 
occasioned his recall ; his successor, sir H. Barkly, 

arrived Oct. 1853 

Bishopric of Kingston established . . . . 1856 
Charles Henry Darling appointed governor . . 1857 
Edward John Eyre appointed governor . July, 1864 
Negro insurrection begins at Mo rant-bay, by resist- 
ing the capture of a negro criminal, 7 Oct. ; the 
court-house fired on ; baron Ketelholdt, rev. V. 
Herschell, and others cruelly murdered, and many 

wounded n Oct. 1865 

Rebellion spreads, and many atrocities are com- 
mitted ; it is suppressed by the energy of the 
governor, the military and naval officers, volun- 
teers, the Maroons, and the loyal negroes, 

13-24 Oct. „ 
George Wm. Gordon, a coloured member of the 
legislature, convicted of encouraging the rebel- 
lion, 21 Oct. ; executed . . . .23 Oct. ,, 

Paul Bogle executed 24 Oct. ,, 

Numerous executions .... Oct. <fe Nov. ,, 
Sir Henry Storks summoned from Malta, and sent 
to Jamaica, with Messrs. Russell Gurney and John 
B. Maule, as commissioners, to inquire respecting 
the disturbances, and the measures taken in sup- 
pressing them .... 11 Dec. et seq. ,, 
Governor Eyre temporarily suspended ; sir Henry 

Storks arrives in Jamaica . . . .6 Jan. 1866 
The legislative assembly of Jamaica dissolves itself, 
and abrogates the constitution (which had existed 

200 years) 17 Jan. ,, 

1600Z. subscribed at Jamaica for defence of gov. 

Eyre Feb. ,, 

Commission ojiened 23 Jan. ; closed . 21 March, „ 
They receive evidence of the existence of widely 
spread discontent during 1S65; they reported that 
439 persons had suffered by martial law ; that about 
1000 dwellings had been burnt ; that about 600 
(many women) had been flogged ; that they con- 
sidered the punishments inflicted excessive, the 
executions unnecessarily frequent, the burning 
the houses wanton ; and that they saw no proof 
of Gordon's complicity in the outbreak, or in 
an organised conspiracy against government, 

9 April, „ 
The " Jamaica Government act " passed in England 

23 March, „ 



JAMES'S GAZETTE, ST. 



540 



JAPAN. 



Sir J. P. Grant gazetted governor in room of governor 

. Eyre 16 July, 1866 

A " Jamaica Committee," J. S. Mill, chairman, pro- 
pose prosecution of governor Eyre . . 27 July, ,, 
He arrives at Southampton, 12 Aug. ; welcomed by 

a banquet 21 Aug. ,, 

A committee for his defence formed . . Sept. „ 
The governor, sir J. P. Grant, promulgates the new 
constitution ; opening of the legislative council 
(consisting of the governor and six members), 

16 Oct. „ 
G. D. Ramsay, accused of murder, discharged oy 

grand jury 18 Oct. „ 

Warrants issued against gov. Eyre, col. Nelson, and 
lieut. Brand, Feb. ; the grand jury discharges 
the bills against Eyre, 29 March, and the others, 

11 April, 1S67 
A bill of indictment for misdemeanor against 
governor Eyre brought in, 15 May ; discharged by 

grand jury 2 June, 1868 

Chief-justice Cockburn disclaimed agreement with 
part of justice Blackburn's charge on the occasion ; 
an almost unexampled case ... 8 June, „ 
Trial of Phillips v. Eyre (for beating and imprison- 
ment during the rebellion of 1866) ; Eyre pleaded 
act of indemnity ; verdict for defendant 29 Jan. 1869 
Episcopal church disestablished . . .31 Dec. ,, 
Appeals in England for its support . . July, 1870 

Legal expenses of Mr. Eyre ordered to be paid, after 

discussion in the commons . . .8 July, 1872 
Many estates in Jamaica offered for sale in the 

London papers July, ,, 

Returning prosperity reported . . . May, 1873 
Sir Win. Grey appointed governor . . March, 1874 
Sir Anthony Musgrave, appointed governor . Nov. 1876 
Edward Everard Rushworth, governor, April, 1877 ; 

gen. sir Henry Wylie Norman . . . Oct. 1883 
Destructive Are at Port Antonio . . 18 Oct. ,, 

Introduction of representative government pro- 
posed ; Sir Henry W. Norman arrives 21 Dec. ,, 
Great public dissatisfaction at the proposals, Feb. 1884 
The legislature rejects proposed confederation 

with Canada 11 Nov. ,, 

Sir Henry Arthur Blake appointed governor Dec. 1888 
Rioting of the 1st West India regiment at the races 
at Kingston ; severe conflict with the police, 
who are badly injured ; the rioting quelled by 
pickets from the camp . reported 28 Jan. 1891 

The International exhibition at Kingston was sug- 
gested by Mr. Win. Fawcett, director of public 
gardens, 9 July 1889 ; 15,000^. subscribed by the 
public, and 15,000/. given by the government, 
Mr. S. Lee Banty, general manager ; the exhi- 
bition was opened by prince George of Wales, 
who was in the harbour with a squadron, 27 Jan., 
and closed by the governor . . 2 May, ,, 

Jamaica made the head-quarters of the Imperial 
forces in the West Indies announced . March, ,, 

JAMES'S GAZETTE, ST., anti-radical 
evening paper, edited by Fred. Greenwood, formerly 
editor of Pall Mall Gazette, first appeared, 31 May, 
1880. Price 2d., reduced to id. 2 Jan. 1882. 

JAMES'S HALL, ST., near Piccadilly, 
erected for public meetings, &c, was opened on 
25 March, 1858, with a concert for the benefit of 
the Middlesex hospital. Mr. Owen Jones was the 
architect. The " Popular Monday Concerts" es- 
tablished by Mr. Thos. Chappell here began 14 Feb. 
1859. 

The Moore and Burgess (" Christie ") Minstrels have 
performed here regularly since 1865. 

JAMES'S PALACE, ST., &c, London, was 
built by Heury VIII. on the site of an hospital of 
the same name, 1530-6. It has been the official 
town -residence of the English court since the fire at 
Whitehall in 1698. 
The Park a marsh till Henry VIII. enclosed and 

laid it out in walks . : 1530 

Much improved by Charles II. , who employed Le 
Notre to plant lime-trees, and to layout "the 
mall," for the purpose of playing a game with a 

ball called a mall 1668 

William III. granted a passage into it from Spring- 
gardens !6g9 



A grand display of fireworks took place here at the 
peace, when the pagoda bridge erected here by 
sir W. Congreve was burnt . . . 1 Aug. 1814 

The park improved by Geo. IV. . . . 1827 et seq. 

The enclosure first opened to the public in Jan. 
1829 : the opening by Carlton-steps in . . .1831 

The marble arch at Buckingham -palace removed 
to Cumberland-gate, Hyde-park . 29 March, 1851 

An iron bridge over the ornamental water con- 
structed 1857 

JAMES'S THEATRE, ST., erected by 
Beazley for John Braham, the singer; opened 
14 Dec. 1835. See Theatres. 

JANINA, see Albania. 

JANISSARIES (Turkish ieni tcheri, new 
soldiers), an order of infantry in the Turkish army; 
originally, young prisoners trained to arms ; were 
first organised by Orcan, about 1330, and remodelled 
by his son Amurath I. 1360 ; their numbers being 
increased by following sultans. In later days they 
degenerated from their strict discipline, and several 
times deposed and killed the sultans. During an in- 
surrection, 14-15 June, 1826, when nearly 3000 of 
them were killed, the Ottoman army was re-orga- 
nised by Mahmud II. and a firman was issued on 
17 June, abolishing the Janissaries. 

JANSENISTS, persons who embraced the 
doctrines of Cornelius Jansen, bishop of Ypres, who 
died in 1638. The publication of his " Augustinus" 
1640, in which he maintained the doctrine of free 
grace, kindled a fierce controversy, and was con- 
demned by a bull of pope Urban VIII. in 1642. 
Through the Jesuits Jansenism was condemned by 
Innocent X. in 1653, and by Clement XI., in 1713, 
by the bull Unigenitus. This bull the French 
church rejected. Jansenism still exists at Utrecht 
and Haarlem ; see Port Royalists. Loos, abp. of 
Utrecht, died, June, 1873. 

JANUARY derives its name from Janus, an 
early Roman divinity. January was added to the 
Roman calendar by Numa, 713 B.C. He placed it 
about the winter solstice, and made it the first 
month, because Janus was supposed to preside over 
the beginning of all business. In 1751 the legal 
year in England was ordered to begin on 1 Jan. in- 
stead of 25 March. Mild Januaries in England, 1804, 
mean temperature, 43*2 ; 1834, 44 4 ; 1846, 437 ; 
JS/S. 43'4! 1884, 43-9; 1890, 43-5 (on 18 days 
above 50). 

JANUS, TEMPLE OF, at Rome, was erected 
by C. Duilius in 3rd century B.C., kept open in time 
of war, and closed in time of peace. It was shut 
at the close of the first Punic war, 235 B.C.; and under 
Augustus. 29, 25, and 5 b.c. 

JAPAN, an Asiatic empire, comprehends four- 
large islands, Niphon or Nippon, Shikoku, Kyushu, 
and Yezo, and about 3,850 small ones. Iu 1869 
Tokio, previously called Jedo, was declared the 
eastern capital till 500 a.d., the ancient Kyoto, re- 
named Saikyo or Sakei, becoming the western. 
Population, 1890, 40,453,461. 
The early history is legendary till a. d. 500. Jimmu Tenno, 

the founder of the present dynasty, is said to have 

reigned B.C. 665. 
The empress Jingo is said to have conquered Corea 

201 A.D. 
Corean civilization introduced 285. 
Introduction of Buddhism from Corea about 552. 
Its hierarchy established, 624. 
Yoritomo, Slwgun or generalissimo, since called by the 

Chinese Tycoon, usurps supreme power, the Mikado or 

emperor becoming the spiritual emperor, 1192 et seq. 
Sanguinary wars among the chiefs during four centuries. 
Japan visited by Marco Polo, a Venetian, about 1275-95. 

[His " Maravigliose Cose " printed 1496.] 



JAPAN. 



541 



JAPAN. 



Weak rival dynasties in the north and south, 1333-92. 

Japan visited by Mendez Pinto, a Portuguese, about 
I537-58- 

Tyeyasu, victorious over southern barons, establishes a 
strictly conservative government at Jedo, 1600. 
(His dynasty lasted till 1868.] 

The Portuguese establish trading settlements about 1543, 
and introduce Jesuit missionaries who make many 
converts ; by a fierce persecution beginning 1590, the 
Portuguese and their missionaries are expelled, and 
their converts massacred, 1637-42. 

The Dutch settlements under severe restrictions, suffered 
to remain for a time, 1600 et seq. 

The learned Engelbert Kiempfer visits Japan about 1690. 
[All foreigners rigidly excluded from Japan till 1853.] 

An American expedition, under commodore Parry, 
reaches Jedo, and is favourably received ; but 
Temains only a few days ... 8 July, 1853 

A treaty of commercial alliance concluded between 
the two countries .... 31 March, 1854 

A similar treaty with Great Britain . 14 Oct. ,, 

With Russia 26 Jan. 1855 

Destructive earthquake ; Anasaca and Simoda de- 
stroyed, Jedo much injured . . .23 Dec. 1854 

Nagasaki and Hakodadi opened to European com- 
merce . 1856 

Commercial treaty with Russia . . 19 Aug. 1858 

Lord Elgin visits Japan, with a present of a steamer 
for the emperor, and is honourably received, 
July ; obtains the treaty of Jedo, opening 
Japan to British commerce ... 26 Aug. ,, 

The secular emperor dies (aged 36) . 16 Sept. „ 

Mr. (afterwards sir) Rutherford Alcoek appointed 
consul-general, Dec. 1858 ; envoy extraordinary, 

Nov. 1859 

A Japanese embassy visits Washington, New York, 
&c. , United States . . 14 May — 30 June, i860 

Attack on the British embassy at Jedo ; some 
persons wounded .... 5 July, 1861 

Embassy received at Paris, 13 April ; London, June ; 
in Holland, Prussia, <fec. . . July— Sept. 1862 

Foreign ministers transfer the residence from Jedo 
to Yokohama 27 June, ,, 

Mr. Richardson murdered and his companions 
cruelly assailed by a Japanese noble and his suite, 

14 Sept. „ 
[Monument erected by Mr. Kurokawa, a Japanese 
gentleman, in honour of Mr. Richardson, 1884.] 

The batteries and vessels of the prince of 
Nagato fire on an English and a French vessel 
at the entrance of the straits of Simonosaki, 

15, 19 Nov. ,, 

Some English, French, and American vessels bom- 
bard his forts and his vessels . . 15-19 July, 1863 

Reparation demanded ; ioo,oooZ. paid by the govern- 
ment ; the prince of Satsuma resists payment of 
25,oooZ. , his portion ; admiral Kuper enters the 
bay of Kagosima, and is fired upon ; whereupon he 
bombards the town and bums the prince's 
steamers 15 Aug. ,, 

The Japanese minister announces that the ports 
opened by virtue of the treaties will be closed, 

24 June, ,, 

The prince of Satsuma pays the 25,000^. n Dec. „ 

The Japanese government refuse to abide by the 
treaties ; a combined fleet enters the straits of 
Simonosaki, 4 Sept. ; and attacks and destroys 
the Japanese batteries . . . 5, 6 Sept. 1864 

Major Baldwin and lieut. Bird murdered, 20 Nov. ; 
two assassins executed .... Dec. „ 

Sir Harry Parkes appointed to succeed sir R. 
Alcoek as envoy April, 1865 

Treaties with England, France, &c, ratified, 25 Nov. ,, 

Two more ports opened .... Jan. 1866 

Death of the tycoon : his successor said to be 
favourable to foreigners . . . Sept. ,, 

Town of Yokohama and third part of European 
settlement destroyed by fire . . 26 Nov. ,, 

Jedo and other places opened to trade, by the 
government 25 April, 1867 

Visit of sir Harry Parkes to the tycoon, Stots Bashi, 

1 May, ,, 

Prince Minbontaiyou, brother of the tycoon, ar- 
rives at Dover, 2 Dec. ; presented to the queen, 

4 Dec. ,, 

Osaka and Niogo opened to European commerce, 

1 Jan. 1868 



Insurrection of the Daimios ; rivalry between the 

mikado and tycoon, Dec. ; foreigners neutral, 

27 Jan. — Feb. 

Japanese outrages on French sailors ; culprits exe- 
cuted, 16 March ; further outrages punished, 

23 March, 

The mikado's troops defeat the tycoon's, who flies, 
26-30 Jan. ; the mikado's defeated near Jeddo, 

10-17 May, 

After long war and varying success the rebellion 
ends ; the mikado re-established . . July, 

Majority of the mikado proclaimed . . Nov. 

His marriage, 9 Feb. ; another rebellion of the 
tycoon's partisans Feb. 

Visit of the duke of Edinburgh, 29 Aug. ; received 
by the mikado 22 Sept. 

The tycoon submits to the mikado . . Dec. 

Great progress of internal improvements, and 
assimilation to European civilisation ; proposed 
establishment of railways, telegraphs, &c. . 18' 

Industrial exhibition opened at Kioto 10 April, 

Destructive fire at Jedo .... May, 

Embassy of distinguished Japanese arrives at 
Washington, 4 March : in London . . 17 Aug. 

Pacific mail screw steamer America burnt at Yoko- 
hama ; about 40 killed ... 24 Aug. 

First railway (from Yokohama to Shinagawa) 
opened, 12 June, to Jedo ; opened by the mikado, 

Oct. 

Japanese ambassadors received by queen Victoria. 

5 Dec. 

English proposed as the national tongue . Dec. 

Public library at Tokio established .... 

Insurrection, through desire for war with Corea ; 
soon suppressed . . . . Feb.-April, 

A successful expedition against Formosa to chas- 
tise savage tribes for massacring Japanese sailors, 
May ; Chinese protest, Aug. ; Japanese withdraw 
(see Formosa), announced .... Nov. 

Mr. L. Haber, German consul, murdered at Hako- 
dadi, by a fanatic, 8 Aug., executed . 26 Sept. 

The Japanese minister received by queen Victoria, 

3 Mar. 

The mikado decrees a new constitution ; 2 cham- 
bers, &c i 4 April, 

The mikado opens a parliament of officials, nomi- 
nated by himself, in Jedo . . .20 June, 

Industrial exhibition 

Insurrection of Satsuma and other clans specially 
against the ministry, Feb. ; suppression an- 
nounced Sept. 

" Foo Soo," iron-clad man-of-war, launched at Pop- 
lar, London, Chinese ambassador present, 

14 Apl. 

Insurrection suppressed ; power of the Daimios 
virtually suppressed; principals only punished; 
announced I3 Oct. 

Progress in Japan : 3744 post-offices ; 22,053,430 
letters, and 7,372,566 domestic newspapers sent 
by post ; 2 railways in operation ; 34 lighthouses ; 
ample religious freedom and virtual free trade . 

Okuto, able reforming minister of the interior, 
killed by six men (political motives) . 14 May, 

Scientific works in English, published by Tokio 
university x s- 

Imperial decree convoking a national assembly in ' 
1890 I2 Oct. 

Entirely new criminal code enforced . . 

53,760 primary schools and compulsory education 
established autumn, 

The Japanese commander in chief with presents 
received by the queen at Windsor . 25 Nov. 

Rev. Arthur W. Poole, consecrated Anglican bishop 
of Japan x q Oct. 

All Japan to be thrown open to foreign trade, with 
mixed tribunals . . . annouueed Nov. 

Death of the last tycoon .... April 

A new order of hereditary nobility instituted Sept! 

The national religion disestablished and freedom 
given to other religions . . . n Aug. 

A Japanese village exhibited in London, iSS^; 
burnt 2 May ; re-opened . . 2 Dec. 

A Japanese dictionary printed in Roman characters, 
completed summer, 

Amicable correspondence between the mikado and 
the pope Oct. 

Bishop Poole died 9 July ; succeeded by rev. E. 
Bickersteth Nov. 



0-71 
1872 



1874 



1S75 



1876 
1877 



1S7S 



1884 



18S5 



JAPAN. 



542 



JAVA. 



Gradual adoption of alphabetical in place of ideo- 
graphic writing by agency of the Roma-ji-Rai, or 
Roman Alphabet Association .... 1885 
Decree giving enlarged power to the prime minister 

solely responsible to the mikado . . 1 Dec. „ 
Prince Komatsu arrives in London to confer on the 
prince of Wales the order of the chrysanthemum 
20 Nov. ; received by the queen at Windsor 

22 Nov. 1886 
Count Ito, the prime minister, energetically intro- 
duces western dress and habits . . spring, 1887 
Death of Shimadju Saburo, ex-prince of Satsuma 

6 Dec. „ 
Japanese commission to examine the fine arts in 
Europe and America ; reports in favour of Japan ; 
"pure art is asleep in Japan, but dead in 

Europe " 1886-7 

Japanese Fine Art Exhibitions opened in London T887-8 
Completion of the translation of the Bible into 

Japanese celebrated .... 3 Feb. 1888 
Volcanic eruption at Sho-Bandai-San ; reported 400 

persons killed 15-18 July ,, 

New constitution promulgated by the mikado at 
Tokio ; the houses of lords and commons esta- 
blished ; religious liberty and general freedom 

granted 11 Feb. 1889 

The government desires new commercial treaties 
with the European powers ; they hesitate ; one 
with the United States promptly signed, Feb. ; 
with Russia 8 Aug. ; with Italy, with Germany, 

with France ,, 

Destructive storms and inundations in Yezo, &c. , 

April, ,, 
On west coasts, 1,200 houses destroyed . June, ,, 
Volcanic eruption on Ishima Island, 300 houses 

destroyed ; 170 persons killed . 13, 14 April „ 
Earthquakes at Kumamoto, 19 persons perish 

. 28 July-3 Aug. ,, 
The southern island of Kiushiu, embankments, &c, 
destroyed, July ; S.E. Japan the Chikugo river 
rose 28J feet above its usual level twice, 73,694 
persons made destitute .... Aug. ,, 

Japanese commission of enquiry respecting parlia- 
mentary procedure in Europe, arrives in London 
early in ...... . Oct. ,, 

Japanese national banks reported highlv prosperous, 

Oct. „ 
Nine non-treaty ports opened to commerce, early 

Oct. „ 
Several changes in the ministry . Oct. -Dec. ,, 
N. Japan, destructive gales, 11 Sept., total loss 12 
prefectures devastated ; 2,419 persons killed, 
above 90,000 destitute, 50,000 houses swept away ; 
150,000 acres of crops destroyed, 6,000 bridges 
destroyed, reported . . . about 18 Nov. „ 
Volcanic eruption of the Zoo, Bingo district, 

Fukuvama buried, inhabitants escaped 16 Jan. 1890 
Violent cyclone on the coast ; 900 fishing boats 

wrecked, great loss of life . . . 24 Jan. ,, 
The pope proposes to appoint a metropolitan, and 

four bishops for Japan . . .12 March ,, 
National Industrial and Fine Art Exhibition opened 

at Tokio by the Mikado . . . 27 March, „ 
New civil code promulgated ... 21 April, „ 
The duke and duchess of Connaught visit Yoko- 
hama 15-22 April, ,, 

The mikado institutes a new order of knighthood, 
"the Golden Falcon," to commemorate the 
2,555th anniversary of the coronation of Jimmu 
Tenno, the semi-mythical first sovereign of Japan, 

reported 12 May, ,, 

First parliamentary election . . . 1 July, ,, 
The Japanese mail steamer, Muslia Mam, founders 
in a gale off the Japanese coast losing nearly all 
her crew, reported .... 18 Sept. ,, 
The first Japanese parliament, opened by the 

emperor, with great rejoicing . . 29 Nov. ,, 
The parliament house (wood) burnt down 15 Jan. 1891 
The Japanese commodore, Canaka, warmly re- 
ceived by the sultan at Constantinople, and 
thanked for help given to the wrecked Ertogrul 

(18 Sept. 1890) 8 Feb. „ 

Death of prince Sanjo, prime minister since 1868, 

highly honoured 18 Feb. ,, 

The czarewitch travels in Japan ; wounded by a 
fanatic at Otsa, 1 1 May, visited by the mikado, 

13 May, „ 
Collision between the Tamaye and the Miyoshi 



(racing in Suirakami Bay, off the coast of Yezo), 
about 260 lives lost .... 12 July, 1891 

Typhoon at Kobe, H.M.S. gunboat Tweed and many 
other vessels sunk with great loss of life 16 Aug. „ 

Very destructive earthquake on the Niphon islands ; 
about 84,000 houses and railways, bridges, <&c. , ,, 
destroyed ; about 10,000 persons killed and 
300,000 homeless ; minor shocks follow ; esti- 
mated loss 2,000,000?. ... 28 Oct. ,, 

The parliament, opposing the government, dis- 
solved 25 Dec. ,, 

Government ordinance to provide for the relief of 
the sufferers by the earthquake . 29 Dec. ,, 

Violent election riots with loss of 22 lives 15 Feb. 1892 

The establishment of a Roman Catholic hierarchy 
authorized, reported . . . .15 March, ,, 

The Japanese parliament opened by the mikado, 

6 May, ,, 

RETGNING EMPEROR OR MIKADO. 

Mutsu Hito, born 3 Nov., 1852; succeeded his 
father, Komei Tenuo, 1867. . . 13 Jan. 1867 
Heir apparent, prince Haru, installed 3 Nov. 1889. 

JAPAN SOCIETY, London, was founded by 
lord de Saumarez, professors "W. Anderson, Church r 
and others, to promote the study of Japanese art, 
science, finance, commerce, language, literature, 
etc. ; instituted Jan. ; inaugural meeting, 29 April, 
1892. 

JAPGONITTM, a new metal discovered by 
professor A. Church in combination with the zircon 
of Ceylon. The spectrum was shown by Mr. H. 
Sorby, 6 March, 1869. 

JAENAC (W. France). On 13 March, 1569, 
the duke of Anjou, afterwards Henry III. of France, 
here defeated the Huguenots under Louis, prince of 
Conde,who was killed in cold blood by Montesquieu. 
The victor (seventeen years of age), on account of 
his success here and at Moncontour, was chosen 
king of Poland. 

A Jarnac Stroke ; a term of opprobrium, is derived 
from the Seigneur de Jarnac, who, in a duel with 
La Chataigneraye, for a great insult, disabled 
his antagonist by an unexpected wound in the 
ham 1547 

JASMINE or JESSAMINE {Jasminum offici- 
nale), native of Persia, &c, was brought hither from 
Circassia, before 1548. The Catalonian jasmine came 
from the East Indies, in 1629, and the yellow Indian 
jasmine in 1656. 

JASSY, the capital of Moldavia, frequently 
occupied by the Russians ; taken by them in 1 739, 
1769, and 1828. A treaty between them and the 
Turks was signed here, 9 Jan. 1792. Population, 
1885, 90,000. 

JAVA, a large island in the Eastern Archi- 
pelago, is said to have been reached by the Portu- 
guese in 151 1, and by the Dutch in 1595. The 
latter, who now possess it, built Batavia, the 
capital, about 1619 ; see Batavia. The atrocious- 
massacre of 20,000 of the unarmed natives by the 
Dutch, sparing neither women nor children, to 
possess their effects, took place in 1740. The 
island capitulated to the British, 18 Sept. 1811. 
The sultan was dethroned by the English, and the 
hereditary prince raised to the throne, in June, 

1 8 13. Java was restored to Holland by treaty in 

1814, and given up in 1816. The English promoted 
free labour instead of forced ; but the Dutch re- 
verted to the old system, and in 1830 abolished 
free labour, introducing the " culture system," by 
which the government controls the cultivation of 
the land and buys the produce at its own price. In 
Aug. i860, the Swiss soldiers here, aided by the 
natives, mutinied, but were soon reduced, and many 
suffered death. The diminished prosperity of Java 



JAWAKIES. 



543 



JERUSALEM. 



led to warm discussions in the Dutch chamber in 

1866. 

The valuable "History of Java," by sir T. Stamford 
Raffles (successful governor 1811-16), was published 
1817. 

Java has a great many volcanoes, and has frequently 
been devastated by eruptions and earthquakes ; those 
of 5 Jan. 1699, 31 Oct. 1876, and 10 June, 1877, were 
very destructive. 

Java and neighbouring isles desolated by a series of 
violent eruptions from about two-thirds of its 46 vol- 
canoes, beginning with Krakatoa, casting up immense 
quantities of lava, mud, ashes, and fragments of rocks, 
darkening the air for about 50 square miles. Moun- 
tains were split up, some disappeared, and many new 
craters were formed. Rumbling noises heard 25 Aug., 
violent eruptions of Krakatoa 26 Aug. There was 
much submarine disturbance, and an immense " tidal 
wave" destroyed Anjer and other places, 27 Aug. 
The lighthouses in the straits of Sunda were swallowed 
up, and new volcanic peaks appeared, rendering navi- 
gation highly dangerous. Loss of life estimated at 
35,000, 25-28 Aug. Great atmospheric, oceanic, and 
electrical disturbances for thousands of square miles. 
See under Sun, 1883. 

A committee of the Koyal Society issued a report on the 
eruption Oct. 1888. 

Serious volcanic outbreaks ; great destruction ; about 
500 persons perish, early May, 1885. 

Insurrection of the natives at Anjer ; some Europeans 
and natives killed ; the revolt checked by the police 
and settled, 16 July, 1888. 

JAWAKIES, see India, 1877-8. 

JEAN DE LUZ, ST. (S. France, near the 
Pyrenees). Soult's strong position here was taken 
by general Hill and marshal Beresford, 10 Nov. 1813. 

JEDDA, the port of Mecca, Arabia. On 15 June, 
1858, the fanatic Mahometans massacred twenty-six 
of the Christian inhabitants, among them the Eng- 
lish and French consuls and part of their families ; 
but many fled to the shipping. On the delay of 
justice, commodore Pullen, with the Cyclops, bom- 
barded the town, 25, 26 July. On 6 Aug. eleven of 
the assassins were executed ; the ringleaders after- 
wards. 

JEDO or YEDO (the name was changed to 
Tokio about 1869), the eastern capital of Japan, on 
the island of Niphon. Here was signed the treaty 
with Great Britain, 26 Aug. 1858 ; see Japan. 5000 
houses destroyed by fire, 8 Dec. 1873, and 2,547, 
March, 1890. 

JEHAD, see Jihad. 

JELLALABAD, Afghanistan, defended by sir 
Eobert Sale from 8 Jan. to 5 April, 1842, when the 
siege was raised by general G. Pollock, who de- 
stroyed the fortifications. 

JE MAINTIENDRAI, "I will maintain," 
the motto of the house of Nassau. When William 
III. came to the throne of England, he continued 
this, but added "the liberties of England and the 
Protestant religion," at the same time ordering 
that the old motto of the royal arms, " Dieu et mon 
droit," should be retained on the great seal, 1689. 

JEMAPPES (N.W. Belgium), the site of the 
first pitched battle gained by the French republicans 
(under Dumouriez), in which 40,000 French troops 
drove out 19,000 Austrians, who were entrenched 
in woods and mountains, defended by redoubts and 
many cannon, 6 Nov. 1792. The number killed on 
each side was reckoned at 5000. 

JENA and AUERSTADT (Central Germany), 
where two battles were fought, 14 Oct. 1806, be- 
tween the French and Prussians. The French were 
commanded at Jena by Napoleon, and at Aucrstadt 
by Davoust : the Prussians by prince Hohenlohe at 
the former place, and the king of Prussia at the 



latter. The Prussians were defeated, losing nearly 
20 ? 000 killed and wounded, and nearly as many 
prisoners, and 200 field pieces ; the French lost 
14,000 men. Napoleon advanced to Berlin, and 
issued the Berlin decree {which see). 

JENKINS' EAR. An ear of Robert Jenkins,, 
captain of a merchant-vessel, Rebecca Guar da Costas v 
was torn off, with many insults, by a Spaniard in 
1731. He appeared before parliament in 1738, when 
the convention of the Pardo was severely discussed. 
Jenkins' story was verified by Admiralty Records- 
in 1889. 

JENNERIAN INSTITUTION, founded; 
1803; see Vaccination. 

JEPHTHAH delivered Israel from the Ammo- 
nites B.C. 1143, Judges xi. "Jephthah," Handel's- 
last oratorio ; composed 21 Jan. — 30 Aug. 1 751; per- 
formed 26 Feb. 1752. 

JERSEY. The chief island of the channel 
archipelago (which includes Guernsey, Sark, Alder- 
ney, &c), formerly held by the Romans in the 3rd 
and 4th centuries after Christ — Jersey being termed 
Csesarea. The isles were captured by Rollo, and; 
thus became an appanage of the duchy of Nor- 
mandy, and were united to the crown of England 
by his descendant, William the Conqueror. The 
inhabitants of the Channel Islands preferred to re- 
main (subjects of king John, at the period of the 
conquest of Normandy by Philip Augustus, and 
while retaining the laws, customs, and (until lately), 
the language of their continental ancestors, have 
always remained firm in their allegiance to Eng- 
land. Almost every war with France has been 
characterised by an attack on Jersey, the most for- 
midable of which, under the baron de Rullecour,. 
was defeated by the English garrison and Jersey 
militia, commanded by major Pierson, 6 Jan. 1781.. 
Mr. J. Bertrand Payne, in his " Armorial of Jersey," 
and his ' ' Gossiping Guide,' ' has exhaustively treated; 
the general and family history of the island. Jersey 
became a place of refuge for MM. Rouher, Baroche, 
Drouyn de Lhuys, and other distinguished French 
imperialists, Sept. 1870. Some of the Trappists 
and other monks expelled from France, settle in 
Jersey, 1880-1. Philip Gosset, sentenced to 5 years* 
imprisonment for fraud against the state (£27,000) , 
and a banking company, 8 May, 1886. Governor, 
gen. C. B. Ewart, 188*7. The population of the- 
channel isles in 1861 was 90,978 ; in 1871, 90,563 ; 
in 1881, 87,702; 1891,92,272. 

JERSEY CITY, U.S.A., population iS8o„ 
120,722; 1890,163,003. See New Jersey. 

JERUSALEM, called also SAXEM, 1913 B.C. 
{Gen. xiv. 18). Its king was slain by Joshua, 145E 
B.C. It was taken by David, 1048 B.C., who dwelt 
in the fort, calling it the city of David ; see Jews* 
and Holy Places. Population about 1887, 43,000. 

The first temple founded by Solomon, 1012 b. c. ; and 

solemnly dedicated on Friday . . 30 Oct. 1004; 
Jerusalem taken by Chosroes the Persian, a.d. 
614; retaken by the emperor Heraclius, 628; by 
the Saracens, 637 ; and by the Crusaders, when 
70,000 infidels were put to the sword ; a new 
kingdom founded .... 15 July, 1099 
The " assize of Jerusalem," a code of laws, estab- 
lished by Godfrey of Bouillon, king . . . IIO o- 
King Guy defeated at Tiberias, and Jerusalem taken 

by Saladin 2 Oct. 1187- 

By the Turks, who drive away the Saracens, 1217 <fc 1239- 
Surrendered to the emperor Frederick II. by treaty, 122& 

Surrendered to the Crusaders 1243. 

Taken by Carismians I2 44_ 

Taken from the Christians I2 g r 

Taken by the Turks i SI 6. 

Held by the French under Bonaparte . Feb. 1799 



"JERUSALEM DELIVERED." 514 



JESUS CHRIST. 



Jerusalem visited by the prince of Wales, &c, 

31 March, 1862 

Convention for the preservation of the holy sepul- 
chre, signed on behalf of Russia, France, and 
Turkey 5 Sept. ,, 

Jerusalem and the neighbourhood surveyed by a 
party of royal engineers since . . Sept. 1864 

Visited by the prince of Prussia, 4 Nov. ; by the 
emperor of Austria .... 9 Nov. 1869 

•Greatly benefited by sir Moses Montefiore, who 
visited it for the seventh time, when aged 90 . 1875 

Discovery of pavement attributed to Constantine 

Nov. 1887 

Mr. Carl Prosch's cycloraniic painting of Jerusalem, 
a.d. 33, was exhibited in York-street, Westminster 

Dec. 1890 

A railway from Jerusalem to Jaffa constructed by 
a French company ; opened . . . 13 Sept. 1892 

A panorama of Jerusalem, &c, exhibited in Vic- 
toria-street, Westminster . . .18 April, 1892 

CHRISTIAN KINGS. 

Godfrey of Bouillon (styled himself " baron of the 

holy sepulchre ") 1099 

Baldwin I •> 1100 

Baldwin II. 1118 

FulkofAnjou 1131 

Baldwin III 1144 

Amauri (or Almeric) 1162 

Baldwin IV 1173 

Sibyl, then his son Baldwin V. .... 1185 

Guy de Lusignan 1186 

Henry of Champagne 1192 

Amauri de Lusignan 1197 

Jeanne de Brienne 1210 

Emperor Frederick II 1229-39 

Protestant Bishopric of Jerusalem erected by treaty 
7 Sept. 1841, under the protection of Great Britain 
an.1 Prussia: 
S. M. S. Alexander consecrated bishop, 7 Nov. . 1841 
Samuel Gobat, bishop, 1846 ; died 11 May . . 1879 
Joseph Barclay, LL.D., consecrated 25 July, 1879; 

died '.22 Oct. 1881 

'{No successor appointed ; the compact dissolved 
June, 1886 ; formally announced, 18 Aug. 1887. 
An exclusively Anglican bishop was proposed by 
the archbishop of Canterbury ; subscriptions in- 
vited, Feb. 1887. Dean G. F. P. Blyth, April, 
1887, was appointed bishop.] 
The Jerusalem, Cowper's Court, Cornhill, originally 
a coffee-house, opened early in the 17th century ; 
burnt in the great fire 1666, and again in 1748, 
last rebuilt in 1880. It is supported by a com- 
pany and subscribers, and forms a rendezvous for 
ship-owners, brokers, and others closely con- 
nected with shipping and commerce with the 
Fast, Australasia and the Cape. 

' ' JERUSALEM DELIVERED," the great 
Italian epic, by Tasso, was published in 1 580. 

JERVIS'S ACTS, 11 & 12 Vict., cc. 42, 43 
(1848), relate to legal proceedings against criminals. 

JESTER is described as "a witty and jocose 
person, kept by princes to inform them of their 
faults, and of those of others, under the disguise of 
a waggish story." Several of our kings, particu- 
larly the Tudors, kept jesters. Kahere, the 
founder of St. Bartholomew's priory, West Smith- 
field, London, 1133, is said to have been a court 
jester and minstrel. There was a jester at court in 
the reigns of James I. and Charles I., but we hear 
of no licensed jester afterwards. 

JESUITS. The society or company of Jesus, was 
founded by Ignatius Loyola, a page to Ferdinand V. 
of Spain, subsequently an officer in his army, and 
afterwards canonised. Having been wounded in 
both legs at the siege of Pampeluna, in 1521, he 
devoted himself to theology, and renounced the 
military for the ecclesiastical profession. He dedi- 
cated his life to the Blessed Virgin as her knight ; 
made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and on his 
return laid the foundation of his society at Paris, 



16 Aug. 1534. He presented his institutes, in 
^^ to pope Paul III., who made many objec- 
tions ; but Ignatius adding to the vows of chastity, 
poverty, and obedience, a fourth of implicit sub- 
mission to the holy see, the institution was con- 
firmed by a bull, 27 Sept. 1540. The number of 
members was not to exceed sixty, but that restric- 
tion was taken oft' by another bull, 14 March, 1543 ; 
and popes Julius III., Pius V., and Gregory XIII. 
granted many privileges. Loyola died 31 July, 
1556. Francis Xavier, and other missionaries, the 
first brethren, carried the order to the extremities 
of the habitable globe, but it met with great opposi- 
tion in Europe, particularly in Paris ; see Paraguay 
and Jansenists. The order still exists in many 
European states contrary to the laws. 
The society condemned by the Sorbonne, Paris, 
1554; expelled from France, 1594; re-admitted, 
1604 ; but after several decrees is totally sup- 
pressed in France and its property confiscated . 1764 
Ordered by parliament to be expelled from Eng- 
land, 1579, I 58i» 1586, 1602 ; and by the Catholic 

relief act in 1829 

Expelled from — Venice, 1607; Holland, 1708; Por- 
tugal, 1759; Spain 1767 

Abolished t>y Clement XIV. . . . 21 July, 1773 

Restored by Pius VI. .... 7 Aug. 1814 

Father Pierre J. Beckx, elected general 1853 ; active 

and successful ; retired, 1883 [died 4 March, 1887]. 

Expelledfrom — Belgium, 1818 ; Russia, 1820; Spain, 

1820, 1835; France, 1831,1845; Portugal, 1834; 

Sardinia, Austria, and other states, 1848 ; Italy 

and Sicily i860 

The chief of the order appeals to the king of Sar- 
dinia for redress of grievances . . 24 Oct. „ 
Report of the order ; total number of Jesuits, 8167 : 

in France, 2422 : in 1866 ; 12,947 reported Jan. 1892 
In consequence of the activity of the order on be- 
half of the papal supremacy, a bill for its expul- 
sion from Germany passed by the parliament at 
Berlin (131-93), 19 June; promulgated . 5 July, 1872 
The head quarters of the order proposed to be re- 
moved from Rome to Malta .... Oct. 1873 
Expulsion of the Jesuits from Italy,decreed 25 June ; 

carried into execution, 20 Oct. —2 Nov. . . . ,, 
Father Curci, orthodox and eloquent, resigned (vir- 
tually expelled) for recommending the pope to 
submit to loss of temporal power, Oct. 1877 ; 
publishes "II Moderno Dissidio fra la Chiesa e 

l'ltalia." Dec. 1877 

Submits to the Pope in a humble letter ; received 

into favour .... about 16 Oct. 1884 

27 Jesuits' colleges in France ; 848 teachers . . 1879 
The order in France dissolved by decree, 30 March, 1880 
Decree for expulsion of Jesuits and other orders 

from France, 30 March ; carried out . 30 June, ,, 
A large gathering of Jesuits of all countries at Rome; 
Father Anderledy appointed Vicar-General Sept. 
1883; dies ...... .20 Jan. 1892 

JESUIT'S BARK, called by the Spaniards 
fever-wood, from the cinchona or chinchona tree, 
discovered, it is said, by a Jesuit, about 1535 (and 
used by the order). Its virtues were not generally 
known till 1633, or 163S, when it cured of fever the 
wife of the viceroy (Chinchona) at Peru, hence 
termed pulvis comitissce. It was sold at one period 
for its weight in silver, and was introduced into 
France in 1649 ; and is said to have cured Louis 
XIV. of fever when he was dauphin. It came into 
general use in 1680, and sir Hans Sloane intro- 
duced it here about 1700. The cinchona plant, 
largely planted in the Neilgherry hills, India, in 
1861, is said to be thriving greatly, and also in 
Ceylon; see Quinine. 

JESUS CHRIST, the Saviour of the 

WORLD, see Nativity. For his birth see Anno 
Domini. The following dates are given by ecclesi- 
astical writers: — 

Christ's baptism by John, and his first ministry 
(English Bible) a.d. 27 



JEIT DE PATIME. 



545 



JEWS. 



He celebrated the last passover, and instituted the 
sacrament on Thursday ... 2 April, 33 

Was first crucified on 3 April, at three o'clock in 
the afternoon ; arose. . . . 5 April, ,, 

See Crucifixion. 

Ascended to heaven from Mount Olivet 14 May, „ 

The Holy Spirit descended on his disciples on Sun- 
day, the day of Pentecost . . . 24 May, ,, 

■ffhe divinity of Christ, denied by the Arians, was 
affirmed by the council of Nice .... 325 

JEU DE PAUME (the tennis court). The 
king having closed the hall of the assembly at Ver- 
sailles, the third estate (tiers-etat) met here, 
and swore not to dissolve till a constitution was 
established, 20 June, 1789. (It is the subject of 
a painting by David.) Commemorated 20 June, 
1883. 

JEWELLERY was received by Rebekah as a 
marriage gift, 1857 B.C. {Gen. xxiv. 53). Pliny the 
elder says he saw Lollia Paulina (wife of Caius 
Osesar, and afterwards Caligula) wearing ornaments 
valued at a sum equal to 322,916/. sterling. Jewels 
were worn in France by Agnes Sorel in 1434, and 
encouraged in England about 1685. The standard 
of gold for jewellery, except wedding rings, was 
lowered by parliament in 1854. 

JEWEL ROBBERIES,see Trials, 187 1, 1873, 
and Dec. 1891. 
The countess of Dudley's jewels (value 15,000/.) 

stolen at Great Western Railway Station 12 Dec. 1874 
Messrs. Williams, of Hatton Garden, London, 

robbed of 25,000?. worth . . .25 March, 1876 
Duchess of Cleveland, at Battle Abbey, Sussex, 

robbed of between 5000?. and 10,000/. worth, 

early in Feb. 1877 
Countess of Aberdeen's (value above 5000/.) stolen, 

Halstead Place, Sevenoaks. Kent . 19 Nov. ,, 
Hatton Garden Post-Office, London ; gas suddenly 

extinguished at 5 p.m., two mail bags stolen, one 

containing diamonds, and other jewels, watahes, 

&c. , in registered letters ; value above 15,000/,. 

16 Nov. 1881 
Lord Arthur Hill Trevor's house, Bryn-Kinalet, near 

Chirk, Wales, robbed of jewels valued 60,000/. 

Sunday, 4 Dec. ,, 

JEWISH COLONIZATION ASSOCI- 
ATION, registered as a company by the Board of 
Trade, Sept. 1891. Nominal capital, 2,000,000/. ; 
promoted by lord Rothschild, sir Julian Uroldsmid, 
and other gentlemen to carry out baron Hirsch's 
scheme for the emigration of distressed Jews from 
Europe and Asia to N. or S. America. 

First general meeting ; amount subscribed 39,826/. 
(Messrs. N. M. Rothschild, 10,000/. ; Messrs. R. 
Raphael, 4,000/. ; sir Julian Goldsmid, 3,000/. ; 
Messrs. S. Montagu, Mrs. Nathaniel Montefiore, 
E. L. Raphael, and Messrs. Stern, 2,000/. each), 
14 Oct. 1891 ; 89,463/. received up to . 29 Dec. 1891 

Negotiations with the Argentine republic for settle- 
ments. The arrangements placed under the com- 
mand of lieut. -col. Albert Goldsmid . . Dec. ,, 

JEWISH DISABILITIES, see under Jews, 
1269- 1867. 

JEWISH EEA and Calendar. The Jews 

usually employi d the era of the Seleucidas until the 
15th century, when a new mode of computing was 
adopted. They date from the creation, which they 
consider to have been 3760 years and 3 month's 
before the commencement of our era. To reduce 
Jewish I ime to ours, subtract 3761 years. The Jewish 
year consists of either twelve or thirteen months, of 
29 or 30 days. Ths civil year commences with the 
month Tisri, immediately after the new moon fol- 
lowing the autumnal equinox ; the ecclesiastical 
year begins with Nisan. 



Civil year, 5649. 
Tisri 

Marchesvan 
Chislev . 
Thebet 
Sebat 



began 6 Sept. il 
6 Oct. 
5 Nov. 
5 Dec. 
3 Jan. 1 



Adar . 2 Feb. ; Ve-Adar or 2nd Adar * 4 March 

Nisan or Abib 2 April, 

Ijar 2 May, 

Sivan 31 May, 

Tliammuz 30 June 

Ab 29 July, 

Elul 28 Aug. 

The Jewish calendar is given annually in the best 
almanacks. 

* Intercalated every third year, to supply the defi- 
ciency of the Jewish year of 354 days. 

JEWS, successively called Hebrews, Israelites, 
and Jews, the descendants of Abraham, with w r hom 
God made a covenant, 1898 B.C. Gen. xvii. See 
Jerusalem. Computed number of Jews in the 
world May 1889, 6,300,000 (Europe 5,400,000, 
Africa 350,000, America, 250,000). The following 
dates are generally those by Usher given in the 
English Bible ; differing dates are given by Hales, 
Clinton, and other chronologers. 
Call of Abram to enter Canaan . . .B.C. 1921 

Isaac born to Abraham 1896 

Birth of Esau and Jacob 1837 

Death of Abraham 1822 

Joseph sold' into Egypt 1729 

The male children of the Israelites thrown into the 

Nile ; Moses born 1571 

The Passover instituted ; the Israelites go out of 

Egypt, and cross the Red Sea .... 1491 
The law promulgated from Mount Sinai . . . 1491 

The Tabernacle set up 1490 

Death of Moses ; Joshua leads the Israelites into 

Canaan and conquers it 145 1 

The first bondage (Othniel, judge, 1405) . . . 1413 
The second bondage (Ehud, 1325) . . . . 1343 
The third bondage (Deborah and Barak, 1285) . 1305 

The fourth bondage (Gideon, 1245) . . . . 1252 
The fifth bondage (Jephthah, 1187) .... 1206 

The sixth bondage 1157 

Samsoa slays the Philistines 1136 

Samuel governs as judge, about 1120 

Samson pulls down the temple of Dagon . . .1117 

Saul made king 1095 

David slays Goliath, about 1063 

Death of Saul ; David made king . . . . 1055 

David besieges and takes Jerusalem, and makes it 

his capital 1048 

Solomon king, 1015 ; lays the foundation of the 

temple, 1012 ; which is dedicated . . . 1004 

Death of Solomon ; the kingdom divided . . . 975 

KINGDOM OF ISRAEL. 

Jeroboam establishes idolatry 975 

Bethel taken from Jeroboam ; 500,000 Israelites 

slam 957 

Israel afflicted with the famine predicted by Elijah 906 

The Syrians besiege Samaria 901 

Elijah translated to heaven 896 

Miracles of Elisha the prophet 895 

The Assyrian invasion under Phul . . . -771 

Pekah besieges Jerusalem 741 

Samaria taken by the king of Assyria : the ten tribes 
are carried into captivity, and an end is put to the 

kingdom of Israel . 721 

KINGDOM OF JUDAH. 

Shishak, king of Egypt, takes Jerusalem, and pil- 
lages the temple 971 

Abijah defeats the king of Israel, 500,000 men are 
slain in battle ....... 957 

Asa defeats the Ethiopians ; abolishes idolatry . 941 
Jehoshaphat orders the law to be taught 912; defeats 
the Ammonites, <fee. ...... 896 

Usurpation and death of Athaliah . . . . 884 

Hazael desolates Judah 857 

Pekah, king of Israel, lays siege to Jerusalem ; 
120,000 of the men of Judah are slain in one day. 741 

Hezekiah abolishes idolatry 726 

N N 



JEWS. 



546 



JEWS. 



Sennacherib invades Judea, but the destroying angel 
enters the camp of the Assyrians, and in one night 
destroys 185,000 of them 710 

Holofernes said to have been killed at the siege of 
Bethulia by Judith 

In repairing the temple, Hilkiah discovers the book 
of the law, and Josiah keeps a solemn Passover . 

Nebuchadnezzar subjugates Judea .... 

He takes Jerusalem after a long siege . . . . 

Jerusalem fired, the temple burnt, the walls razed 
to the ground 587 

KINGS. 

Saul began to reign . . .B.C. 1095 
David, king of Judah, 1055 ; of all Israel, 1048 
Solomon ,, .... 1015 



656 



624 
605 



PROPHETS. 

Samuel. 
Nathan. 



B.C. 

975 
958 

955 
953 
93° 
029. 
925 
918 
914. 
897 



857 
839 
825, 

810 

784. 
775 
772. 
761 
759> 
758 
742. 
73° 
726 
698 
643 
641 



Kings of Judah. 
Eehoboam . 
Abijah . . . 
Asa . 



Jehoshaphat 



Jehoram 
Ahaziah 
Athaliah 
Joash or Jehoahaz 



Kings of Israel. 
Jeroboam I. 

Nadab (954) . 
Baasha ,, . 
Elah „ 
Zimri . 
Omri 
Ahab . 

Ahaziah 
Jehoram or Joram 



Amaziah 



Jehoahaz. 
Jehoash (841) 
Jeroboam II. . 



Uzziah or Azariah 



Jotham . 
Ahaz . 

Hezekiah . 
Manasseh. 

Anion 
Josiah 
C Jehoahaz 
\ (Shallum). 
( Jehoiakim. 
( Jehoiachin 
< (Coniah), 
I Zedekiah. 



Anarchy 
Zeehariah 

( Shallum. 

\ Menahem. 

Pekahiah. 

Pekah. 



Hoshea. 
[Captivity, 721.] 



Ahijah. 

Azariah. 
Hanani. 
Jehu. 



Elijah. 

Elisha. 
Jahaziel. 



Jor.ah. 
J Hosea. 
( Amos. 

Joel. 



f Isaiah & 
t Micah. 



. Jeremiah. 
. Zephaniah 

. Habakkuk 

. Daniel. 
. Ezekiel. 



BABYLONISH CAPTIVITY. 

Daniel prophesies at Babylon . . . . b. c. 603 
Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego, refusing to wor- 
ship the golden image, are cast into a fiery fur- 
nace, but are delivered by the angel . . . 587 

Obadiah prophesies „ 

Daniel declares the meaning of the handwriting 
against Belshazzar ; cast into the lion's den ; pro- 
phesies the return from captivity, and the coming 
of the Messiah 538 

RETURN FROM CAPTIVITY. 

Cyrus, sovereign of all Asia, publishes an edict for 
the return of the Jews and rebuilding of the 

temple 

Haggai and Zeehariah prophets .... 
The second temple finished . . 10 March, 

The Jews delivered from Hainan by Esther . . 
Ezra, the priest, arrives in Jerusalem to reform 

abuses 

Here begin the 70 weeks of yeirs predicted by 
Daniel, being 490 years before the crucifixion of 

the Redeemer 457 

The walls of Jerusalem built by Nehemiah . . 445 

M alachi the prophet 415 

[The Scripture history of the Jews ends, according 
to Eusebius, in 442 B.C. ; and from this time Jo- 
seplms and the Roman historians give the best 
• account of the Jews. ] 



536 



458 



Alexander the Great marches against Jerusalem to> 
besiege it, but, it is said, on seeing Jaddus, the' 
high-priest, clad in his robes, he declares he had 
seen such a figure in Macedonia, inviting him to 
Asia, and promising to deliver the Persian empire 
into his hands ; he goes to the temple, and offers 
sacrifices to the God of the Jews .... 332 
Jerusalem taken by Ptolemy Soter . ... 320- 
Ptolemy Philadelphus said to employ 72 Jews to 

translate the Scriptures . about 285. 

The Sadducee sect formed . . . . 25c 

Jews massacred at Alexandria . . . . 216- 

Antiochus takes Jerusalem, pillages the temple, and 

slays 40,000 of the inhabitants . - 17c 

Government of the Maccabees begins . . . . 166' 
Treaty with the Romans ; the first on record with 

the Jews i6r. 

Judas Hyrcanus Aristobulus assumes the title of 

" king of the Jews " 107 

Alexander Jannteus suppresses a rebellion of Phari- 
sees cruelly . . . . . . . .86- 

Jerusalem taken by the Roman legions under 

Pompey 63; 

The temple plundered by Crassus .... 54. 
Antipater made intendant of Judfea by Julius 

Csesar 49 

Herod, son of Antipater, marries Mariamne, grand- 
daughter of the high priest ..... 42- 

Invasion of the Parthians 40- 

Herod employs the aid of the senate ; they decree 

him to be the king ,, 

Jerusalem taken by Herod and the Roman general 

Sosius 37 

Herod kills Mariamne, 29 ; rebuilds the temple 29-18: 

Jesus Christ born 4 

Pontius Pilate is made procurator of Judea a.d. 26- 
John the Baptist begins to preach . . . ,, 
Christ's ministry and miracles, 27-33 ; &i s cruci- 
fixion and resurrection 33: 

The Jews persecuted for refusing to worship Cali- 
gula 38- 

Receive the right of Roman citizenship . . . 4E 
Claudius banishes Jews from Rome . . .50- 

Invasion of Vespasian 68- 

Jews settle at Merida, Spain 69- 

Titus takes Jerusalem ; the city and temple sacked 

and burnt, and 1 ,100,000 of the Jews perish, 8 Sept. 70- 
Targum of Onkelos written about . . . . ioo- 
Adrian rebuilds Jerusalem (calling it iElia Capito- 

lina), and erects a temple to Jupiter . . . 130- 
Rebellion of Bar-cochba ; takes Jerusalem 132 ; 
killed in war with Julius Severus, 135 ; desola- 
tion of Judea 135-136 

More than 580,000 of the Jews are slain by the 

Romans ,, 

Jews favoured by Antoninus Pius ; college of Jam- 

nia opened 138 

The Mischna (see Talmud) compiled by Rabbi Judah, 

the prince before 200 

The Jews favoured by Severus, 196 ; by Constan- 
tine, 310 ; by Julian, 363 ; persecuted by Constans 353 

Jews massacred at Alexandria 415 

The Babylonian Talmud completed . . about 6oo> 
Jerusalem taken by Omar ...... 655 

Jews first mentioned in English chronicles . . 740' 
Formation of the sect termed Karaites (which see) 

by Anan, about 754 

Jewish college founded at Cordova . . . . 948 

Talmud translated into Arabic 1006 

Jews said to be banished from England by Canute 1020 
Polygamy in Christian countries prohibited by the 

Jewish synod at Worms 1030 

Jews return to England 1066 

[Chiefly settled in London and Lincoln.] 
The Jews massacred in London, on the coronation 

day of Richard I. , at the instigation of the priests 1189- 
500 Jews besieged in York castle by the mob, cut 

each other's throats to avoid their fury . . 1190 
Jews of both sexes imprisoned ; their eyes or teeth 
plucked out, and numbers inhumanly butchered, 

by king John . 1204 

The Rabbi Moses Maimonides died ....,, 
700 Jews are slain in London, a Jew having forced a 
Christian to pay him more than 2s. per week as 
interest on a loan of 20s. (Stoiv.) . . . . 1262 
Statute that no Jew should enjoy a freehold . . 1269 
Every Jew lending money on interest compelled to 



JEWS. 



547 



JEWS. 



wear a plate on his breast, signifying that he was 
a usurer, or to quit the realm. (Stoiv.) . . . 1274 
267 Jews hanged and quartered, accused of clipping 
coin ......... 1278 

All Jews (16,511) banished from England. (Rapin.) 1290 
Much pillaged and persecuted in France during the 

14th and 15th centuries. 
A fatal distemper raging in Europe ; they are sus- 
pected of having poisoned the springs, and num- 
bers are massacred. (Lenglet.) . . . . 1348 

Several hundred thousand Jews banished from 

Spain, Portugal, and France . . . 1492-94 
Edicts against Jews rescinded by pope Sixtus V. . 1585 

Jews favoured in Holland 1603 

After having been banished England 370 years, they 

are permitted to return by Cromwell . . . 1650 
Who grants a pension to Manasseh Ben Israel . 1655 

First Portuguese synagogue, King-street, Duke's- 

place, erected 1656 

Statute to compel them to maintain their protestant 

children enacted 1702 

Jews acquire right to possess land in England . . 1723 
Bill to naturalise the professors of the Jewish reli- 
gion in Ireland (where 200 Jews then resided) 

refused the royal assent 1746 

Statute to naturalise them in England passed . . 1753 
Bepealed on the petition of all the cities . . . 1754 
The Jews of Spain, Portugal, and Avignon are de- 
clared to be citizens of France 1790 

The synagogue, Duke's-place, London, E., conse- 
crated 26 March „ 

The Jews in France emancipated . . 27 Sept. 1791 
Sitting of the great Sanhedrim of Paris convened by 
the emperor Napoleon . . . .18 Sept. 1806 

Jews' hospital, London, founded ,, 

London society for promoting Christianity among 

the Jews established 1808 

Jews' free school, Spitalfields, London, established 1817 
Alexander of Bussia grants land on the sea of Azoph 

to converted Jews .... 1 Sept. 1820 
The brothers Rothschild made barons of the Aus- 
trian empire 1822 

Jews' orphan asylum founded 1831 

Mr. (aft. sir) Francis H. Goldsmid, the first Jew 

called to the British bar 1833 

Mr. David Salomons elected sheriff of London (the 
first Jewish one) ; an act passed to enable him to 

act 24 June, 1835 

Bill for Jewish emancipation in England lost on the 
second reading by a majority in the commons, 228 

against 165 17 May, 1836 

Moses Montefiore, esq. , elected sheriff of London, 
and knighted by the queen, being the first Jew on 
whom that honour has been conferred . 9 Nov. 1837 
Ukase of the emperor of Bussia, permitting the title 
of citizen of the first class to be held by any Jew 
who renders himself worthy of it . . . . 1839 
Owing to the disappearance of a Greek priest, a per- 
secution of the Jews began at Damascus (see Da- 
mascus) 1 Feb. 1840 

Jewish mission to the East under sir Moses Monte- 
fiore ,, 

Dr. Nathan M. Adlcr installed chief rabbi of the 

Jews in the empire, London . . 9 July, 1845 
Congregation of British Jews formed (see below) 1840-1 
Sir F. H. Goldsmid founded the Jewish Infant school 1841 
Sir Isaac Lyon Goldsmid, the first Jew made a 

Baronet „ 

Act to relieve Jews elected to municipal offices from 

taking oaths, &e. , 9 Vict 1846 

Baron Lionel de Bothschild returned to Parliament 
for the city of London by a majority of 6619 votes ; 
his opponent, lord John Manners, polling only 

3104 3 J ul y. 1849 

Alderman Salomons elected member for Greenwich, 

28 June, 1851 

Neither permitted to. sit ,, 

The Jews' Oaths of Abjuration bill passed the house 

of commons 3 July, ,, 

Baron Rothschild again returned for the city of 
London at the general elections, July, 1852; 
March, 1857 : July, 1857 : aua July> 1865. 
Violent outbreak against the Jews in Stockholm, 

3 Sept. 1852 
The Jewish Oath bill passed in commons, 15 April ; 

thrown out in the lords . . . 29 April, 1853 
Alderman Salomons the first Jewish lord mayor of 
London . ... 9 Nov. 1855 



The Jewish Oath bill several times passed in the 

commons and thrown out in the lords . . 1854-7 
Edgar Mortara, a Jewish child, forcibly taken from 
his parents by order of the archbishop of Bologna, 
on the plea of having been baptized when an in- 
fant by a Boman Catholic maid-servant 

24 June, 1858 
Sir F. H. Goldsmid, the first Jew made Q.C. . . ,, 
An act passed enabling Jews to sit in parliament by 

resolution of the house .... July, , , 
Baron Lionel de Bothschild takes his seat as M.P. 

for London ... 26 July, ,, 

To commemorate this event he endowed a scholar- 
ship in the City of London School . . . . ,, 
The BYench government having in vain urged Mor- 
tara's restoration to his parents, sir Moses Monte- 
fiore proceeds to Borne (but obtains no redress), 

22 Dec. 

Alderman Salomons elected M.P. for Greenwich 

(died 18 July, 1873) ; baron Meyer de Bothschild 

for Hythe 15 Feb. 1859 

Protest respecting the seizure of the boy Mortara 
signed at London by the abp. of Canterbury, and 
bishops, noblemen, and gentlemen, sent to the 
French ambassador, Oct. ; and presented by lord 

John Bussell Nov. „ 

Board of guardians for the relief of the Jewish 
poor, one of the grand institutions of the Jews in 

London, founded in ,, 

Oppressive laws against the Jews in the Austrian 

empire annulled 6, 10 Jan. i860 

Act passed permitting Jewish M. P. 's to omit from 
the oath the words " on the faith of a Christian," 

6 Aug. ,, 
Additional political privileges granted to the Jews 

in Bussia, 26 Jan. ; and in Poland . June 1862 
Jews persecuted at Rome .... Dec. 1864 
Alderman Benjamin Samuel Phillips, second Jewish 

lord mayor 9 Nov. 1S65 

Persecution of Jews at Bucharest reported, July, 1866 
A synagogue at Berlin, said to be the largest and 

most beautiful in the world, consecrated, 5 Sept. ,, 
Jewish emancipation bill, Hungary, received royal 

assent 29 Dec. 1867 

Benjamin Disraeli, of Jewish extraction, premierof 

England 29 Feb. 1868 

Jews' synagogue at Barnsbury , London, N. , founded 
by baron F. Rothschild, 24 Dec. 1867, consecrated 

29 March, ,, 
Jews permitted to return to Spain . . . Oct. ,,. 
Jewish congress at Pesth opened by the minister of 

public worship, Ebtvbs ... 14 Dec. „ 

It closes and presents the new statutes to the 

ministers 25 Feb. 1869 

Jewish reform convention at Philadelphia, U.S., 

alterations in rituals, &c. , resolved on . Oct. ,, 
Alfred Davis, a Jew, a munificent benefactor of 

education, Jewish and Christian, died 7 Jan. 1870 

New central synagogue in Great Portland-st. , W., 
founded by baron Rothschild, 18 March, 1869 ; 

consecrated 7 April, ,, 

" Hebrew Literature Society" established in London 

29 June, ,, 
Anglo-Jewish Association constituted for the moral, 
social, and intellectual progress of Jews (in con- 
nection with the Universal Israelitish Alliance, 
in Paris). First president, the late Mr. Jacob 

Waley, M.A 2 July, ,, 

The emperor of Brazil attended worship at the 

West Central London synagogue . . 8 July, ,, 
Jews permitted to work on Sundays by a Workshops 

Act „ 

Society formed at Birmingham to resist proselytism ,, 
A Jew made M.A. at Oxford (after the abolition of 

tests) 22 June, 1871 

Sir George Jessel, a Jew, solicitor-general, Nov. 

187 1 ; master of the rolls . . 29 Aug. 1873 

Estimated number of Jews in Great Britain, 51,520 ; 

in London, 39,833 1876 

New synagogue founded at Bayswater . 7 June, 1877 
Movement against the Jews in Berlin, etc., (JmU u- 
hetze); opposed by Mommsen, Virchow.and others; 
censured by the crown prince; debate in the cham- 
bers ; no vote, 22 Nov. Many Jews leave Berlin, 

Dec. 1S80 
Anti-Semitic league formed ; presents a petition to 
Bismarck to restrict the liberty of the Prussian 

Jews 13 April, 1881 

N N 2 



JEW'S HAEP. 



543 



JOCKEY CLUB. 



Jews severely persecuted at Kieff and other places 

in South Russia .... . May, 188 

About 60,000 Russian Jews request permission to 

return to Spain, granted . . . June, ,, 

Persecution going on in Prussia, the emperor 

interfering to stop it ... Aug. ,, 

Severe restrictive edict against the Jews in Russia 
issued, but not fully carried out, increasing civil 

disabilities May, et seq. 188: 

Committees formed at Berlin and London to receive 
money to help Jewish emigration, April; 108,759^. 
received in London .... 25 Oct. ,, 
New synagogue at Abbey-road, London, N.W. 

consecrated 30 July, ,, 

The Jews violently attacked at Presburg, Hun- 
gary ; martial law proclaimed . . 29 Sept. ,, 

Trial of Jews (see Hungary) 188 

Violent attacks on Jews at St. Petersburg, Pesth, 

Zala Egcrszeg, &e. . . . July, Aug. ,, 
Death of Charlotte, Baroness de Rothschild, great 

benefactress I3 Mar. 188, 

Jews still persecuted in Russia . Aug. et seq. ,, 
Commission to enquire into the condition and 

rights of the Jews Oct. ,, 

Sir Moses Monteliore completes his 100th year, 
celebrated by Jews all over the world as a 
very great benefactor (27 Oct. Jewish Calendar) 
25-26 Oct. 1884 ; died . . . 28 July, 188 = 

The Jews enjoy at present full citizenship in Europe 
(with the exception of Portugal, Roumania, 
Russia and Spain) ; also in the United States . 1884 
■Sir Nathaniel de Rothschild, son of Lionel, created 
a peer ; takes his seat 9 July, 1885 ; made lord- 
lieut. of Buckinghamshire . . . May, i83c 

Estimated population of the Jews in the world, 

6,377,602 I 88c 

Exhibition of Anglo-Jewish antiquities at the Roval 

Albert Hall opened .... 4 April, 1887 
Expulsion of Jews from Odessa and Finland 

decreed April, 1888 

Henry Aaron Isaacs, 3rd Jewish lord mayor 

Nov. 188c 
Dr. Nathan Adler, chief rabbi, London, dies 

21 Jan. 189c 

Enforcement of the severe edict of May, 1882, 

against the Jews in Russia, about 2,000,000 said 

to be ordered, July ; officially contradicted at 

St. Petersburg, 6 Aug. ; many Jews expelled from 

Russia Dec. 

At a great meeting in the Guildhall, London, an 
appeal to the Czar to mitigate the laws against 
the Jews agreed to (see under London, Feb. 1891) 

10 Dec. ,, 
The reported scheme of baron Hirsch to purchase 
land in America, or elsewhere, to receive the 
banished Jews, pronounced premature. 12 May, 1891 
Dr. Hermann Adler chosen chief rabbi by dele- 
gates 4 June „ 

Expulsion of Jews from S. Russia ordered 

about 29 May ,, 
Relaxation of the persecution ; enforcement of the 
decree of expulsion from St. Petersburg ad- 
journed about 18 July „ 

3,000 acres of land at Hulberton, Cumberland 
county, New Jersey, purchased by Mr. Leon 
Lait, a Russian, for a Hebrew colony 

. about 20 July ,, 

lhe Jewish Colonization Association, which see, 

founded about 11 Sept. „ 

Anti-Jewish riots at Starodoub and other districts 
in Russia, about 30 deaths ; order restored by 
the military, 170 arrests . . n Oct. et seq. ,, 
Reformed or British Jews. In 1840 and 1841 a 
congregation was formed by certain families of 
Spanish and German Jews, for uniting two sec- 
tions of the community, and for simplifying the 
ritual observances. Their West London Syna- 
gogue in Burton-street, opened 1 Jan 1842 ■ re- 
moved to Margaret-street, Regent-street, 1840- 
succeeded by a magnificent synagogue, in Upper 
Berkeley-street, consecrated . .22 Sept 1870 

The Reformed Jews recognise the authority of the 
Old Testament or written law only, and reject 
the oral law embodied in the Talmud, which is 
accepted by the Orthodox or Rabbinical Jews. 

JEW'S HAEP (probably Jaws' harp), an 
ancient instrument. Charles Eulenstein produced 



remarkable effects with Jew's harps at the Royal 
Institution, London, 15 Feb. 1828. 

JEYNES or JAINS, a sect of Buddhists, in 
India, dating from the gth century. They do not 
recognise a creator, but believe matter to be eternal, 
and ref 1 ain from destroying life, considering animals 
to be sacred. 

Their discipline is very strict ; a trial for defama- 
tion of character by a libel, accusing certain 
members of breaking the laws of caste, lasted 34 
days at Moorshedabad, and cost above 100,000 
rupees. The verdict was for the defendants 

March, 1891 

JEYPOOE, one of the four principal Rajpoot 
states of India, tributary to the British. The 
new capital, Jeypoor, termed the Paris of India, 
was built in the last century. The Maharajah, 
friendly to the British, by whom he was supported, 
died in Sept. 1880 ; he nominated a successor, in- 
stalled 30 Sept. 1880. 

JEZEEELITES, New and Latter House of 
Israel, was founded by James Jershom Jezreel 
(James White), who died 1885. They assert that 
the Gospel is sufficient, for the salvation of the soul, 
but for the salvation of the body the Law must be 
added. Head quarters, Gillingham, Kent. 

JIHAD, or religious warfare against unbelievers, 
although inculcated in the Mohammedan law, was 
prohibited by the Sheeahs, and only permitted by 
the Sonnites in some cases ; certainly not with, 
any nation with whom they had made a treaty of 
peaae. The Jihad was preached by fanatics in India 
in 187 1, and prohibited by government. 
A jihad against the Russians was announced by the 

sheikh-ul-Islam, at Constantinople, about 28 May, 1877 
A jihad against the British in Afghanistan, pro- 
posed by Shere Ali . . . . Oct. 1878 
A jihad against the British was proclaimed by 
Arabi Pasha .... about 24 July, 1882 
See Egypt. 

JINGO PAETY, a name given (in 1878) to 
persons who preferred war with Russia to submis- 
sion to her aggressive policy. A popular song said— 
" We don't want to fight, but, by jingo if we do, 

We've got the ships, we've got the men, and we've got 
the money too." 
" By jingo " occurs in Jarvis's " Don Quixote," and the 

" Vicar of Wakefield." 

JOAN OF AEC, the maid of Orleans, born at 
Domremy, imagined that she had a divine com- 
mission to expel the English, who under the earl of 
Salisbury were besieging Orleans. Charles VII. 
entrusted her with the command of some French 
troops, and she raised the siege, and entered Orleans 
with supplies, 29 April, 1429 ; and the English, 
who were before the place from 12 Oct. preceding, 
abandoned the enterprise 8 May following. She 
captured several towns in the possession of the 
English, whom she defeated in a battle near Patay, 
18 June, 1429. She was wounded several times 
herself, but never shed any blood with her own 
hand. She was taken at the siege of Compiegne, 
25 May, 1430 ; and, after a trial, burnt for a witch, 
at Rouen, 30 May, 1431. A statue of Joan of Are, 
the work of the late princess Marie of France, was 
inaugurated at Orleans, 13 Sept. 185 1, and the i 
435th anniversary of the deliverance of the city 
was celebrated there on 14 May, 1865. The anni- 
versary of her death celebrated, 30 May, 1878. See 
Tat ay. Her statue at Beaurevoir unveiled 9 Aug., I, 
at Domremy 26 Aug. 1891. 

JOCKEY CLUB. SeeHaces. 



JOHANNESBURG. 



549 



JOURNALS. 



JOHANNESBURG, see Transvaal, 1887 et 
seq. 

JOHN BULL, a nickname given to English- 
men, is said to be derived from Dr. Arbutlmot's 
satire "John Bull," published 1712. — Brewer. 
"John Bull," a coined}', by George Colman the 
younger, was performed 1805. The "John Bull," 
a Tory newspaper, supported by Theodore Hook, 
was first published 1820. Its publication ceased in 
1S92. 

"JOHN COMPANY," a name formerly 
given to the East India Company, was sometimes 
given to the South Africa Company, 1891. See 
Zambesi. 

JOHN DOE and Richard Roe, names 

well known, as standing pledges for the prosecution 
of suits. In early times real and substantial per- 
sons were required to pledge themselves to answer 
to the crown for an amercement or fine set upon 
the plaintiff, for raising a false accusation, if he 
brought an action without cause, or failed in it; 
and in 1285, 13 Edw I. sheriffs and bailiffs were, 
before they made deliverance of the distress, to re- 
ceive pledges for pursuing the suit, and for the 
return of the property, if return were awarded. 
But this becoming a matter of form, the fictitious 
names of Doe and Roe were used until the form was 
declared to be no longer necessary by the Common 
Law Procedure Act, 1852. 

JOHN O' GROAT'S HOUSE, an ancient 
house formerly situated on Duncan's Bay Head, 
the most northerly point of Great Britain, deriving 
its name from John of Groat, or Groot, and his 
brothers, originally from Holland, said to have set- 
tled here about 1489. 

The house was of an octagon shape, being one room, with 
eight windows and eight doors, to admit eight mem- 
bers of the family, the heads of different branches of it, 
to prevent their quarrels for precedence at table. Each 
came in by this contrivance at his own door, and sat 
at an octagon table, at which, of course, there was no 
chief place or head. 

JOHN, ST., see Newfoundland, Cambridge, 

New Brunswick and Oxford. 

St. John's Night, or Midsummer eve, 23 June : bonfires 
are still made in Ireland, and in some parts of Eng- 
land, and thought to be the relic of a pagan custom — 
resembling the Phoenician worship of Baal. 

JOHN, ST., Knights of, see Malta. 

The Knights of St. John (Johanniter Hitter), a Luthe- 
ran order of high rank, formed by Frederick Wil- 
liam III. of Prussia, 23 May, 1812, and reorganised 15 
Oct. 1852. These knights co-operated with the knights 
of St. John of Malta and various other bodies in 
rendering energetic assistance to the wounded during 
the Franco-Prussian war, in 1870-1 ; the chief office 
being at the ancient gate of the priory of St. John, 
Clerkenwell, London, E.C. ; the duke of Manchester 
being a prior of the order. 

The Russian and English orders claim connection with 
the original institution at Malta as two of its langues. 

T e St. John Ambulance Association, founded and estab- 
lished by the Order of St. John of Jerusalem in 1877 : 
its objects are — 1. The dissemination of instruction 
in " first aid," i.e., the preliminary treatment of the 
sick and injured pending the doctor's arrival ; 2, 
lectures to women on home nursing and hygiene ; 
3, the deposit in appropriate localities of material 
(such as stretchers, hampers, splints, bandages, &c.) 
for use in case of accident; 4, the development of 
ambulance corps for the transport of the sick and 
injured. Upwards of 250 administrative "centres" 
and some thousands of "detached classes " have been 
formed in all parts of the United Kingdom, India, the 
Colonies, and elsewhere abroad, and over 100,000 
certificates of proficiency have been awarded. Sir 
Edmund A. H. Lechmere, bart., M.P., chairman ; 
John Parley, esq., honorary director of stores and 



manager of transport department ; major sir Herbert 
C. Perrott, bart., chief secretary. The prince of 
Wales installed at St. John's Gate as Grand Prior of 
the Order of the Hospital of St. John of Jerusalem in 
England recently incorporated by Royal Charter, 
18 July, 1888. 

JOHN'S GATE, ST. (St. John's Square, 
Clerkenwell, London), a tine vestige of monastic 
building, was the gate of the priory of St. John of 
Jerusalem (suppressed in 1540), and was the place 
where the Gentleman' s Magazine was first pub- 
lished, 6 March, 1731. The house was often visited 
by Dr. Johnson, Uarrick, and their friends. The 
gate was purchased for the Order of the Knights of 
St. John, by Sir Edmund A. H. Lechmere, Bt., 
secretary of the English league. The first meeting 
held here 24 June, 1874. 
The prince of Wales installed here as Grand Prior of 

the Order of the Hospital of St. John of Jerusalem in 

England, recently incorporated by royal charter, 

18 July, 1888. 

JOHNSON'S CLUB, see Literary Club. 

JOHNSTOWN INUNDATION, see under 
Pennsylvania, 1889. 

JOHORE. A state and town in the Malay 
Peninsula. The sultan received by the queen, at 
Windsor, 21 Feb. 1891. During his visit, some 
territorial arrangements were made. He left 
England 15 Maich, 1891. 

JOINT STOCK COMPANIES (good and 
bad) have been very numerous during the present 
century (especially in 1825, 1846, 1866, and 1872). 
Many acts have been passed for their regulation ; 
the most important in 1844, 1855, 1857 and 1858. 
An important act for the incorporation, regulation, 
and winding-up of trading companies and other 
associations passed in 1862, was amended in 1867 ~ r 
see Companies, and Limited Liability. 1544 new- 
companies were registered in the year 1881-2. 

JONATHAN, BROTHER. This national 
name for America is attributed to "Washington's 
reliance for advice and support on Jonathan Trum- 
bull, governor of Connecticut, whom he termed 
"the first of patriots." (Trumbull died 9 Aug. 
1785). — Breicer. 

JORDAN, a river of Palestine, crossed by 
the Israelites B.C. 1451, when they entered 
Canaan. A plan for forming a canal from the 
Mediterranean to the gulf of Akabah was discussed 
at the British A?sociation Sept. 1883. 

JOSHUA, successor of Moses, led the Israelites 
into Canaan. B.C. 1451. (See Bible.) Handel's- 
14th oratorio "Joshua" was finished 19 Aug. • 
1747 ; produced 9 March, 1748. It contained " See 
the Conquering Hero comes," afterwards trans- 
ferred to "Judas Maccabtcus." 

JOURNAL DES SAVANTS, see Reviews. 

JOURNALISTS, National Associa- 
tion OF, established at Birmingham, 1884. 
The annual meeting at London was largely at- 
tended, 18 Dec. 1887 ; at Newcastle . Feb. 1888 
Institute of Journalists, Loudon, inauguratedo Mar. 

1889 ; incorporated .... 8 Feb. 1890 
First annual conference held at Birmingham 27 Sept. ,, 

JOURNALS, see Newspapers. 

JOURNALS of the House of Commons, 

commenced in 1547, first ordered to be printed in 
1752, when 5000/. were allowed to Mr. Hardmge 
for the execution of the work. The journals of the 
House of Peeks (commencing 1509) were ordered 
to be printed in 1767. 



JOWAKIES. 



550 JUDGE ADVOCATE GENERAL. 



JOWAKIES, see India, 1877-8. 

JUAN FERNANDEZ, an island in the 
Pacific, named from its discoverer in 1567. Alexan- 
der Selkirk, a native of Scotland, left on shore here 
by his captain in Nov. 1704, and lived alone till he 
was discovered by captain Bogers in 1709. He died 
lieutenant of H.M.S. Weymouth, 1723. A monu- 
ment to his memory was erected on the island in 
1868, then colonised by Germans. From his nar- 
rative De Foe is said to have derived his Adventures 
of Robinson Crusoe, first published in 17 19. The 
present governor, Eodt, a Swiss adventurer, settled 
on the island about 1874. 

JUAN, SAN, a small island, near Vancouver's 
island. The possession of this island, on account of its 
commanding the straits between British Columbiaand 
the United States territories, led to disputes between 
the two countries, owing to the doubtful interpre- 
tation of the treaty of Washington respecting the 
boundaries, 12 June, 1846. See United States, 1859 
and i860. The matter (by the treaty of Washing- 
ton, 8 May, 187 1) was referred for arbitration to 
the emperor of Germany, who decided in favour 
of the United States, Oct. 1872. The isle was 
evacuated by the British 22 Nov. following. 

JUBILEES (Heb. yobel, the sound of a 
trumpet). The Jews were commanded to cele- 
brate a jubilee every fifty years, 1491 B.C. 
{Lev. xxv. 8.) Among the Christians a jubilee 
every century was instituted by pope Boniface VIII. 
in the year 1300. It was ordered to be celebrated 
every fifty years by pope Clement VI. ; and by 
Urban VI. every thirty-third year ; and by Six- 
tus V. every twenty-fifth year. 
National jubilee in England on account of George 

III. entering the 50th year of his reign, 25 Oct. 1809 
Jubilee in celebration of the general peace, and of 
the centenary of the accession of the Brunswick 

family ' 1 Aug. 1814 

Shakspcare's Jubilee, projected by David Garrick, 
was celebrated at Shakspeare's birth-place, 
Stratford-on-Avon . . . . 6, 7, 8, Sept. 1769 
A Shakspeare festival at Stratford . . 23 April, 1836 
A Shakspeare festival at Stratford . 23 April, 1E65 
The Scott centenary celebrated (he was born 15 Aug. 

1771) 9 Aug. 1871 

International musical jubilee at Boston, U.S., (see 

Boston) 17 June— 4 July, 1872 

•Queen Victoria's Jubilee, 1887 (accession 20 June, 
1837). Grand procession witnessed by many 
thousands ; solemn thanksgiving service in 
Westminster Abbey, in the presence of the queen, 
the royal family, the kings of Denmark, Belgium, 
Greece and Saxony ; the crown princes of Ger- 
many, Austria, Portugal and Sweden ; the grand 
duke Sergius of Russia, Amadeus, duke of Aosta, 
prince Ludwig of Bavaria, the maharajah Holkar 
and many Indian princes, the queen of Hawaii, 
also the dignitaries of the empire, and many 
persons eminent in science, art, and literature 

21 June, 1887 

By her majesty's command, a picture representing 

the scene, was painted by Mr. W. E. Lockhart, 

K.S.A., and by her permission was exhibited at 

Waterloo House, Pall Mall (engravings were sold 

by Messrs. Doig & Co.)'. 

Magnificent illuminations throughout the metro- 
polis ; two deaths recorded^ and not many 
personal injuries .... 21 June, ,, 
Jubilee beacon fires throughout England and Wales, 
started on the Malvern Hills 10 p.m., and seen 
from Cottington Hill, Hants ; over 80 fires seen 

21 June, ,, 
About 26,000 elementary school children entertained 
in Hyde Park at the instance of Mr. Lawson of 
the Daily Telegraph. The queen presents a 
memorial cup to P'lorence Dunn, aged 12, of St. 
Mary's, Westminster ; the prince of Wales and 
many of the nobility present . . 22 June, ,, 
Grand fete in Pontypool park, Monmouthshire, or- 



ganized by captain Gus. Bevan (who was thanked 
by the queen) ; about 80,000 persons present ; 
great Eisteddfod ; a prize of 200?. awarded to 
Dowlais choir ; fireworks, &c. . . n April, 1887 
Jubilee celebrated in India and all the colonies, 
and tin oughout the civilized world, June ; envoys 
from th e pope (Mon~. Ruff o Scilla), Japan and Siam , , 
Citizens' thanksgiving service at St. Paul's, after 

formal procession from Guildhall . 23 June, ,, 
The queen issues a letter to the nation, expressing 
her profound gratitude for the very kind reception 
of the vast multitude during her progress to and 
return from Westminster Abbey, and her high 
admiration for the excellent order preserved 

24 June, ,, 
Jubilee yacht race round the island (see Yachts) 

14-27 June, ,, 
28,000 volunteers reviewed by the queen at Bucking- 
ham Palace, 2 July ,, 

The queen lays foundation-stone of the Imperial 

Institute 4 July, ,, 

The queen reviews about 60,000 men at Aldershot 

9 July, „ 
Grand naval review by the queen (see Navy of 

England) 23 July, ,, 

The presents given to the queen exhibited at St. 
James's Palace, rich, beautiful, and eccentric, 

12 Sept. ,, 
Medals presented to the metropolitan police for 
their conduct during the jubilee celebration 

ordeied 3 Sept. ,, 

The queen expresses her thanks for jubilee addresses 

from all parts of the empire . . 14 Sept. ,, 
Great number of addresses from municipal corpo- 
rations, scientific societies, and other bodies 

27 June, ,, 
East India chiefs received and decorated at Windsor 

30 June, ,, 
The queen thanks the mayors and municipal bodies 

for their presents ; London Gazette . . 4 Nov. ,, 
Long official account of the jubilee proceedings, 

London Gazette .3 Jan. 1888 

Jubilee offering of the women of Great Britain and 
Ireland (from id. to il.) ; 75,000?. presented to 
the queen 22 June ; her letter of thanks published 
2 July, 1887 ; sum increased to 84,116?. in March, „ 
The queen approved the application of about 
70,000?. for the sick poor, and the benefit of 
nurses and nursing institutions. About 10,000?. 
was set apart for a colossal statue of the prince 
consort, andabout 4,116?. fora personal ornament 
to be worn by the queen ; reported 20 April, ,, 
The bronze equestrian statue, by sir J. E. Boehm, 
was set up near Virginia water, Windsor great 
park, and was uncovered by the queen . 12 May, 1890 
Statue of the queen by Sir J. E. Boehm, subscribed 
for by the graduates, unveiled by the prince of 
Wales at the University of London, Burlington 
Gardens 8 May ; one by L. J. Williamson, at the 
College of Physicians, Thames Embankment 
unveiled . . . . . . .24 May, 1889 

Picture of the Emperor William I. and his family, 
painted by Anton von Werner, presented to the 
queen by the Germans residing in England . . 

16 May, ,, 
Royal Victoria [Jubilee] Hospital, Bournemouth, 
cost 8,000?., opened by the prince of Wales 

16 Jan. 1S90 
The Jubilee offering of the officers of the British 
army. — A silver gilt centre piece, representing 
the greatness of the empire, designed by Mr. 
Alfred Gilbert, R.A., presented to the queen at 
Buckingham j'alace by the duke of Cambridge 

and a deputation 10 May ,, 

See Church House, Imperial Institute, & Nurses. 

J UDAH, see Jews. 

JUDAS MACCABEUS, Handel's 12th ora- 
torio, composed 9 July— 11 Aug. 1746; produced I 
April, 1747. See Maccabees. 

JUDGE ADVOCATE GENERAL, and 

judge martial of all the forces, an ancient office, 
held by patent from the crown. He is the legal 
adviser of the commander-in-chief in military cases, 
and by his authority all general courts martial are 



JUDGES. 



551 



JUNKER PARTY. 



lield. An advocate-general accompanied the army 
to France in 1625, and the office was constituted 
soon after the restoration, lir. Samuel Barrowe 
was appointed 1666. 

.John R. Davison appointed Dec. 1870; died 15 Apr. 1871 
-Sir Robert Phillimore (admiralty judge) acted pro- 
visionally 1871-3 

Acton S. Ayrton ... 21 Aug. 1873 — Feb. 1874 
.Stephen Cave . . . Feb. 1874 — Nov. 1875 

Geo. A. F. Cavendish Bentinck, 25 Nov. 1875 — May, 18S0 
■George Osborne Morgan .... May, ,, 

William T. Marriott June, 1885 

-John Wm. Mellor 15 Feb. 1886 

William T. Marriott, July, 1886-92 ; knighted April, 1888 

JUDGES appointed by God, when the Israelites 
were in bondage, ruled from 1402 B.C. till the ela- 
tion of Saul as king, 1095 ; see Jews, Chancellor*, 
Justices, Circuits, Lords Justices, Vice- Chancellors, 
Privy Councils, and Supreme Court. 
J udges punished for bribery and Thomas de Wey- 

land banished 1289 

William de Thorp hanged for bribery . . . 1351 
John de Cavendish beheaded by the Suffolk rebels, 1381 
Tresylian, chief justice, executed for favouring 

despotism, and other judges condemned . . . 1388 
The prince of Wales said to have been committed 
by judge Gascoigne for assaulting him on the 

bench 1412 

.Sir Thos. More, late lord chancellor, beheaded, 

6 July, 1535 
-Judges threatened with impeachment, and Berkeley 
taken off the bench and committed by the com- 
mons, on a charge of treason . . 13 Feb. 1641 
Three judges inii>eached for favouring the levying 

ship-money 1680 

.Judge Jefferies committed by the lord mayor to the 

Tower, where he died 1689 

The judge's office made tenable for life (during good 
behaviour) instead of during the pleasure of the 

crown by 13 Wdl. III. c. 2 1702 

'Their commissions made permanent, notwith- 
standing the demise of the crown (by 1 Geo III.) 1761 
Three additional judges appointed, one to each law 

court, 1784 ; and again in 1830 

A new judge took his seat as vice-chancellor, 5 May, 1813 
Two new vice-chancellors appointed . . . 1841 
A third vice-chancellor and two new chancery 

judges (styled lords-justices) appointed . . . 1851 
_4 council of judges, was by the judicature act of 
1873, oi-dered to be held at least once every year, 
011 such day as should be fixed by the lord chan- 
cellor and lord chief justice, to consider the 
operation of the act, and such councils were held 
17, 21, 23 June, 1892. In their report issued 6 
Aug. , they propose many important legal reforms, 
ffn the case <sf Mr. Buckley, attorney-general of 
New Zealand, v. Mr. Worley B. Edwards, a puisne 
judge, the judicial committee of the privy council 
decided that the appointment of a judge is not 
valid unless the payment of his salary is pre- 
viously secured by statute . . .21 May, ,, 

JUDICATURE, see law; Supreme Court. 
JUDICIAL COMMITTEE of the Privy 

COUNCIL, see Privy Council. 

JUDICIAL SEPARATION of married per- 
sons may now be decreed by the Divorce Court, 
■established by act of parliament in 1857. The 
^persons separated may not marry again. 

JUGGERNAUT, correctly Jagannath, or 
•" Lord of the World," one of the incarnations of 
Krishna, is an idol formed of an irregular pyramidal 
hlack stone, with two rich diamonds to represent 
•eyes; the nose and mouth are painted vermilion. 
The number of pilgrims that visit the god is stated 
at 1,200,000 annually. Formerly some were crushed 
Tby the wheels of the car (so lately as Aug. 1864) ; a 
great many never returned, and, to the distance of 
ififty miles, the way was strewed with human bones. 
The temple of Juggernaut has existed about Soo 



years. The state allowance to the temple was sus- 
pended by the Indian government in June, 1851. 
The festival was kept, June, 1872. Twelve persons 
were said to be killed by accident, Aug. 1873. The 
festival of 1878 reported a failure. 

JUGURTHINE WAR. Jugurtha murdered 
his cousin, Hiempsal, king of Numidia, and usurped 
his throne, 1 18 B.C. He gave Adherbal a share in the 
government, but killed him in 1 12. He then pro- 
voked the Romans to war. Caecilius Metellus was 
first sent against him, and defeated him in two bat- 
tles; and Marius brought him in chains to Koine to 
adorn his triumph, 106 B.C., where he was put to 
death in 104. This war has been celebrated by 
the pen of Sallust. 

JULIAN ERA and YEAR, see Calendar. 
Julian period (by Joseph Scaliger, about 1583), a 
term of years produced by the multiplication of 
the lunar cycle 19, solar cycle 28, and Romau 
indiction 15. It consists of 7980 years, and began. 
4713 years before our era. It has been employed in 
computing time to avoid the ambiguity attendant 
on reckoning any period antecedent to our era, an 
advantage in common with the mundane eras used 
at (different times. By subtracting 4713 from the 
Julian period, our era is found ; if before Christ, 
subtract the Julian period from 4714. 

JULIERS, a Prussian province; made a duchy 
in 1356; became the subject of contention on the 
extinction of the ruling family in 1609 ; was allotted 
to Neuburg in 1659 ; seized by the French in 1794; 
and ceded to Prussia in 1815. 

JULY, the seventh, originally fifth, Roman 
month, named by Marc Antony from Julius Csesar, 
the dictator of Rome, who was bom in it. 
The early part of July, 1888, was very cold ; many 

thunderstorms, followed by destructive floods in the 

latter part. See Inundations. 
July Revolution. See France, 1830. 

JUNE, originally the fourth, now the sixth 
month, owes its name to Junius, which some derive 
from Juno, and others from Juniores, this being the 
month for the young, as May was for aged persons. 
Ovid, in his Fasti, introduces Juno as claiming this 
month. " Glorious 1st of June ; " see Ushant. 

JUNG RIVER, west Africa. Natives chas- 
tised for outrage on Mr. Laborde, envoy, and others, 
by gen. ilavelock, governor of Sierra Leone, May, 
1882. 

JUNIUS' S LETTERS began in the Public 
Advertiser, 21 Jan. 1769. 

They have been ascribed to Mr. Burke, Mr. William 
Gerard Hamilton, commonly called Single-speech Hamil- 
ton, John Wilkes, Mr. Dunning (afterwards lord Ash- 
burton), serjeant Adair, the rev. J. Rosenhagen, John 
Roberts, Charles Lloyd, Samuel Dyer, general Lee, the 
duke of Portland, Hugh Boyd, lord George Saekville. 
and sir Philip Francis. The last-named is generally 
considered to have been the author. Junius said, " I 
am the depositary of my own secret, and it shall perish 
with me." The work of Mr. Chabot and lion. E. T. B. 
Twisleton was considered decisive of sir Philip Francis 
being Junius, May, 1871. "Junius is as much unknown 
as ever."— Afhencewn, 8 Sept. 1888. 
Sale of manuscript papers of sir Philip Francis, re- 
ported to be inconclusive respecting " Junius" 

June, 1892 

JUNKER PARTY {Junker, German for 
young noble), a term applied to the aristocratic 
party in Prussia, which came into power under 
Otho von Bismarek-Sehouhauscu, appointed prime 



JUNO. 



552 



JUSTICIAES. 



minister, 9 Oct. 1862. Their political organ is the 
Kreuz-Zeitung '. 

JUNO, the planet discovered by M. Harding, of 
Lilienthal near Bremen, 1 Sept. 1804. Its distance 
from the sun is 254 millions of miles, and it ac- 
complishes its revolution in four years and 128 
days, at the rate of nearly 42,000 miles an hour. 

JUNONIA, festivals in honour of Juno (the 
Greek Hera, or Here) at Rome, and instituted 431 B.C. 

JUNTA. The Spanish provincial juntas or 
councils declared against the French in 1808, aud 
incited the people to insurrection. 

JUNTO, a name given to the leaders of the 
■whig party in the reigns of William III. and Anne 
(1689-1714.) ; the chiefs were admiral Edward 
Russell, John Summers, Charles Montague, and 
Thomas Warton. 

JUPITER, known as a planet to the Chaldeans. 
The. discovery of the satellites, incorrectly attributed 
to Simon Mayr (Marius) in 1609, was made by 
Galileo on 8 Jan. 1610; see Planets. Jupiter's 
moons were all invisible on 21 Aug. 1867 ; a very 
rare occurrence. A fifth satellite is said to have 
been discovered by Mr. Barnard at the Lick obser- 
vatory, 9 Sept 1892. — Jupiter Ammon's temple in 
Lib) a was visited by Alexander, 332 B.C. Cambyses' 
army sent against it perished miserably, 525 B.C. 
The Greek Zeus was the Roman Jupiter, contracted 
from Diovis pater, the father of Heaven. 

JURIDICAL SOCIETY was established in 
Feb. 1855, and opened with an address by sir R. 
Bethell on 12 May following. 

JURIES. Trial by jury was introduced into 
England during the Saxon heptarchy, mention 
being made of six Welsh and six Anglo-Saxon 
freemen appointed to try causes between the English 
and Welsh men of property, and made responsible, 
with their whole estates real and personal, for false 
verdicts. Lombard. By most authorities their 
institution is ascribed to Alfred about 886. In 
Magna Charta, juries are insisted on as the great 
bulwark of the people's liberty. When either 
party is an alien born, the jury shall be one half 
denizens, and the other half aliens, stat. 28 Edw. 
UL 1353. By the common law a prisoner upon 
indictment or appeal might challenge peremptorily 
thirty-five, being under three juries ; but a lord ol 
parliament, and a peer of the realm, who is to be 
tried by his peers, cannot challenge any of his 
peers. An act for the trial by jury in civil cases in 
Scotland was passed in 1815. An act to consolidate 
and amend the laws relating to juries in Ireland 
was passed ^ Will. IV. 1833. A new act respecting 
juries, reguiating their payment, &c, was passed 
9 Aug. 1870. The clause respecting their pa} nient 
was rescinded by act passed 28 Feb. 1871. Laws 
respecting juries in Ireland amended, 14 Aug, 1871. 
New Juries bill brought in by the attorney-general, 
sir John Coleridge, Feb. 1873. Juries are sum- 
moned to assist the coroner in investigating the 
causes of sudden or violent death.— Grand Juries 
(of not less than 12 or more than 23 persons), decide 
whether sufficient evidence is adduced to put the 
accused on trial.— The constitution of 1791 esta- 
blished the trial by jury in France.— An imperial 
decree abolished trial by jury throughout the Aus- 
trian empire, 15 Jan. 1852.— Trial by jury beg-an 
in Russia, 8 Aug. 1866; in Spain, 1889— A true bill 
for libel granted against alderman sir F. Truscott in 
his absence, who was honourably acquitted, 18 Sept. 
1879. 



Coercion or Juries. — It is said tliat in early- 
times the suitors used to feed the jury empanelled in 
their action, and hence arose the common law of denying 
sustenance to a jury after the hearing of the evidence. 
A jury may he detained during the pleasure of the judge 
if they cannot agree upon a verdict ; and may be con- 
fined without meat, drink, or fire, candle light excepted, 
till they are unanimous.— Some jurors have been fined 
for having fruit in their pockets, when they were with- 
drawn to consider of their verdict, though they did not 
eat it. Leon Dyer, 137. A jury at Sudbury not being 
able to agree, and having been some time under duress, 
forcibly broke from the court where they were locked up, 
and went home, 9 Oct. 1791. Phillips. In Scotland,. 
Guernsey, Jersey, and Prance, juries decide by a ma- 
jority ; in France, since 1831, a majority of two-thirds is- 
required. 

"JUSTE MILIEU" (moderation and con- 
ciliation ti parties), according to Louis- Philippe (in 
1830), is the only principle of government which 
can secure the welfare of France. 

JUSTICE GENERAL, Lord, Scotland, see- 
Court of Session. 

JUSTICES OF THE PEACE are unpaid local 
magistrates, invested with extensive powers_ in 
minor cases, but subject to supersession and punish- 
ment by the King's Bench for an abuse of their 
authority. They were first nominated by Wil- 
liam I. in 1076. Stow. Persons termed conserva- 
tors of the peace in each county were appointed by 
I Edw. III. c. 2, 1327 ; and their duties were 
defined in 1360. The form of a commission of the 
peace settled by the judges, 23 Eliz. 1580. Saw- 
kins ; see Eyre. 

JUSTICES, LORDS, were appointed by 
English sovereigns to govern during their absence - r 
especially by William III., George 1. and George II. 
(1695-1760). George 111. never left England. In 
Sept. 1821, when George IV. went to Hanover, 
lords justices were appointed, the duke of York 
being the first. No such appointment has been 
made during the present reign, it having been 
decided by the law authorities in 1843 to be un- 
necessary when the queen went to France. Ireland 
is always ruled by lords justices when the lord- 
lieutenant is out of the country, or his office is 
vacant.— Two lords justices of the court of appeal in 
chancery, having rank next after the chief baron 
of the exchequer, were appointed from I Oct. 1851, 
salary 6000I. For recent changes see Appeal. 
1 85 1. Sir James L. Knight-Bruce, resigned Oct., died 
7 Nov. 1866. 
,, Robert lord Cran worth (afterwards lord chan- 
cellor). 
1853. Sir George Jas. Turner, Jan., died, 9 July, 1867. 

1866. Sir Hugh M. Cairns, 29 Oct., became lord-chan- 

cellor, 29 Feb. 1868. 

1867. Sir John Rolt, July ; resigned Feb. 1868. 

1868. Sir Charles Jasper Selwyn, 8 Feb., died 11 Aug. 

1869. 

1868. Sir William Page Wood, March ; lord-chancellor, 

2 Nov. 

1869. Sir George M. Giffard, Dec, died 13 July, 1870. 

1870. Sir George Mellish, July; died 15 June, 1877. 
1875. Sir Richard Baggallay, Nov. 

Present Lords Justices. 

1881. Sir Nathaniel Lindley. 

1882. Sir Charles S. C. Bowen. 

1883. Sir Edward Fry, 9 April. 
1885. Sir Henry Lopes, Dec. 
1890. Sir Edwd. E. Kay, Nov. 

1892. Sir Archibald Levin Smith, June. 

JUSTICIARS. In ancient times the kings oi 
England used to hear and determine causes; but it 
is declared by law that if the king cannot deter- 
mine every controversy, he, to ease himself, may 
divide the labour among persons, men of wisdom 
and fearing God, and out of such to appoint judges. 
The Saxon kings of England appointed a judge 



JUSTICIAEY. 



553 



JUVENILE OFFENDERS. 



after this manner, who was, in fact, the king's 
deputy. After the Norman conquest, the person 
invested with that power bad the style of Capitalis 
Justiciee, or Justiciarius An g lice. These judges 
continued until the erection of the courts of king's 
bench and the common pleas. The first justiciars 
of Pmgland were Odo, bishop of Bayeux, and 
"William Fitz-Osborne, in 1067; and the last was 
Philip Basset, in 1261, or Hugh le Uespencer, 1263 
(Henry III). Authorities vary. 

JUSTICIAEY, Cotjut OP, see Court of 
Justiciary. 

m JUSTINIAN CODE compiled by a commis- 
sion appointed by the emperor Justinian I. Feb. 528, 
wherein was written what may be termed the 
statute law (scattered through 2000 volumes re- 
duced to fifty). It was promulgated, April, 529. 
To this code Justinian added the Digest or Pan- 
dects, the Institutes, and Novels, promulgated 
16 Nov. 534. These compilations have since been 
called, collectively, the bod}- of civil law {Corpus 
Juris Civilis). 

JUTE, the fibres of two plants, the chonch and 
isbund {Corchorns olitorius and Corchorus cap- 



sularis), since 1830 extensively cultivated in 
Bengal for making gunnycloth, &c. Jute has been 
much manufactured at Dundee as a substitute for 
flax, tow, &c, and in July, 1862, assertions were 
made that it could be employed as a substitute lor 
cotton. In 1853, 275,578 cwt. ; in 1861, 904,092: 
cwt. ; in 1871, 3,454,120 cwt. ; in 1874,4,270,164 
cwt.; in 1875, 3,416,617 cwt.; in 1877,3,649,877 
cwt.; in 1879, 4,759,363cwt.; in 1881, 4,928,805 cwt.;; 
in 1883, 7.385,028 cwt. ; in 1885, 285,674 tons ; in 
1887, 327,221 tons, of undressed jute were im- 
ported into the United Kingdom ; in 1888, 313,828. 
tons ; in 1889, 383,453 tons; in 1890, 369,958 tons. 

JUTLAND (Denmark), the home of the Jutes- 
who settled in our southern counties. South Jut- 
land was taken by the allies in 1 8 1 3, and restored 
in 1814. 

JUVENILE OFFENDERS. In .1838, an 
act was passed for instituting a prison tor instruct- 
ing and correcting juvenile offenders, and the mili- 
tary hospital at Parkhurst in the Isle of Wight was 
appropriated for this purpose. An act for their 
committal to reformatories was passed in 1854. 



K. 



KAABA. 

KAABA, see Caaba. 

KABYLES, see Algiers. 

KADSEABZ, see Parsees. 

KAFFBAEIA, an extensive country in S. 
Africa, extending from the north of Cape Colony to 



Our war with the natives began 



ithe Orange river, 
in 1798. 

The Kaffirs, headed by Mokanna, a prophet, attack 
Grahamstown ; repulsed with much slaughter . 1819 

.Again defeated, 1828, 1831 1834 

'The Kaffirs rise ; sir Harry Smith, the governor, pro- 
claims martial law, and orders the inhabitants 
to rise en masse to defend the frontier 31 Dec. 1850 

■•Disastrous operations against the Kaffirs in the 
Waterkloeff follow ; colonel Fordyce and several 
officers and men of the 74th regiment killed 6 Nov. 1851 

'Wreck of the Birkenhead with reinforcements from 
England (see Birkenhead) ... 26 Feb. 1852 

The hostilities of the Kaffirs having assumed all 
the features of regular warfare, the governor- 
general, Cathcart, attacked and defeated them, 

20 Dec. „ 

'.The conditions offered by Cathcart accepted, and 
peace restored 9 March, 1853 

Death of Makomo, an eminent chief . n Sept. 1873 

Insurrection of Langalibalele, suppressed ; see 
Natal . ... . . . . „ 

Kreli, a Galeka chief in the Transkei territory at- 
tacks the Fingoes and their British protectors ; 
repulsed at Ibeka . . .24 and 29 Sept. 1877 

■■Sir Bartle Frere, the governor general, with officers 
and volunteers proceeds to the spot ; Kreli de- 
feated by commandant Griffith, his kraal burnt, 
9 Oct. ; deposed and his lands annexed . Oct. „ 

Galekas defeated and expelled from their territories 

2 Deo. „ 

SRise of the Gaikas under Sandilli, an old chief 
(who after education relapsed into barbarism), 
about 30 Dec. „ 

■Getywayo, king of the Zulus, troublesome ; sir B. 
Frere requests help ; 90th regiment and a battery 
of artillery sent from England . . . Jan. 1878 

British advance ; rebels defeated, 24, 26 Jan. ; at 
Quintana, 7 B^eb., by gen. Thesiger (about 400 
Kaffirs killed; Sandilli escapes,) 18, 19 March; 
again (capt. Donovan, lieut. Ward, and capt. 
Shawe killed,) about 21 March ; continued fight- 
ing, sometimes severe . . . March — May, „ 

;Sandilli and other chiefs reported dead ; his sons . 
captured; Kaffir refugees in dreadful condition June, „ 

.Amnesty proclaimed to all surrendering rebels, 
about 2 July, „ 

'Thanksgiving day for restoration of peace . 1 Aug. ,, 
War still lingered on the borders during Aug. „ 

Tini Macomo and Gangubele condemned to death as 
traitors ; intercession for them in London ; re- 
prieved Sept. „ 

iFor the war, see also Basuio Land, T -ansvaal, and 
Zululand. 

KAGOSIMA, see Japan, 1863. 

KAINAEDJI (Bulgaria). Here a treaty was 
^signed, July, 1774, between the Turks and Russians, 
■which opened the Black Sea, and gave the Crimea 
to the latter. 

KALAFAT, on the Danube, opposite the 
fortress of Widden. This place was fortified by the 
'Turks under Omar Pacha when they crossed the 
river, 28 Oct. 1853. In December, prince Gort- 
sehakoff; with the Russian army, determined to 
storm their intrcnchnients. The conflict lasted frond 
31 Dec. to 9 Jan. 1854, when the Russians were 



KANSAS. 

compelled to retire. Among these conflicts one 
occurred at Citate, 6 Jan. ; see Citate. Kalafat 
was invented 28 Jan. and general Schilders attacked 
it vigorously on 19 April, without success, and the 
blockade was raised 21 April. 

KALAKH, ancient capital of middle Assyria ; 
where many discoveries have been made by Layard 
and others. See Assyria. 

KALEIDOSCOPE, an optical instrument, 
which, by an arrangement of mirrors, produces a 
symmetrical reflection of various transparent sub- 
stances placed between, was invented by Dr. (after- 
wards sir David) Brewster, of Edinburgh; it was 
suggested in [814, and perfected in 1817 ; see 
Debusscope. 

KALEVALA, epic poem, see Finland. 

KALENDS, see Calends. 

KALI YUGH, see Call Yugh. 

KALITSCH (Poland). Here the Eussians 
defeated the Swedes, 19 Nov. 1706, and here the 
Saxons, under the French general, Reynier, were 
beaten by the Russians under Winzingerode, 
13 Feb. 1813. 

KALMAE, see Calmar. 

KALMUCK, see Tartar. 

KALUNGA FOET (E. Indies), attacked un- 
successfully by the British forces, and general 
Gillespie killed, 31 Oct. 1814; and again unsuccess- 
fully, 25 Nov. It was evacuated by the Nepaulese, 
30 Nov. same year. 

KAMPTULICON, a substance used for floor- 
ing, patented by Elijah Galloway in 1843, and 
manufactured since 1851, by Messrs. Tayler, 
Harvey, and Co. It is composed of India-rubber 
and cork, combined by masticating machines. 

KAMTSCHATKA, a peninsula, E. coast of 
Asia, was discovered by Morosco, a Cossack chief, 
1690; taken possession of by Russia in 1697; and 
proved to be a peninsula by fiehring in 1728. Four 
months, commencing at our midsummer, may be 
considered as the spring, summer, and autumn 
here, the rest of the year being winter. The 
amiable captain Clarke, a companion of captain 
Cook, died in sight of Kamtschatka, 22 Aug. 1779, 
and was buried in the town of St. Peter and Paul, 
in the peninsula. 

KANDAHAE, see Candahar. 

KANGABOOS, animals indigenous to Aus- 
tralia (first seen by captain Cook, 22 June, 1770), 
were bred at San Donato, the estate of prince 
Demidoff, in 1853, and since. 

KANSAS, a western state in N. America, 
organised as a territory, 30 May, 1854 ; admitted 
into the union, 29 Jan. 1861 ; and left open to 
slavery, contrary to the Missouri Compromise ; see 
Slavery in America. During 1855-8 this state was 
a scene of anarchy and bloodshed through fruitless 
efforts to make it "a slave state. Capital, Leaven- 



KAPUNDA. 



555 



KENSINGTON. 



worth; population, 1880, 996,096; 1890, 1,427,096; 

cit y> 132,716. 

Uniontown destroyed by the bursting of a dam 
caused by heavy rains, several lives lost, re- 
ported 17 June 1889 

Destructive cyclone at Wellington and other places 
with loss of life 27 May 1892 

EAPUNDA, see under Wrecks, 1887. 

KARAITES (or Readers), the protestants of 
Judaism, a remnant of the Sadducees, foinied iuto 
a sect by Anan-ben-David, in the 8th century. They 
profess adherence to the Scriptures alone, and re- 
ject the Talmud and Rabbinical traditions. They 
still exist in Turkey, Poland, the Crimea, and other 
parts of the East. Their name is of uncertain 
•origin. 

KARRACK, see Garrach. 

KARS, a town in Asiatic Turkey, captured by 
the Russians under Paskiewich, 15 July, 1828, 
after three days' conflict. In 1855 it was de- 
feuded by general Fenwick Williams, with 15,000 
men, and with three months' provisions and three 
days' ammunition, against the Russian general 
Mouravieff, with an army of 40,000 infantry and 
10,000 cavalry. The siege lasted from 18 J une to 
28 Nov. 1855. The sufferings of the garrison were 
very great from cholera and want of food. The 
Russians made a grand assault on 29 Sept. but were 
repulsed with the loss of above 6000 men, and the 
garrison were overcome by famine alone. Sand- 
with. Kars was restored to Turkey, Aug. 1856. 

On accepting general Williams' proposal for surrender- 
ing, general Mouravieff said: — "General Williams, you 
have made yourself a name in history ; and posterity 
will stand amazed at the endurance, the courage, and 
the discipline which this siege has called forth in the 
remains of an army. Let us arrange a capitulation that 
will satisfy the demands of war, without disgracing 
humanity." In 1856 the general was made a baronet, 
with the title of sir William Fenwick Williams of Kars, 
and granted a pension ; he died 26 July, 1883. 
The Russians besieging Kars, compelled to retire 

by Mukhtar Pacha, . . . about 13 July, 1877 
Under the grand duke Michael and Loris Melikotf, 

defeated 2, 4 Oct. ; defeat the Turks at Aladja 

Bagh (which see) . . . . 14, 15 Oct. „ 
Kars taken, after 12 hours' fighting, by surprise 

(it is said by treachery) . . 17, 18 Nov. ,, 
{Killed and wounded : Russian, about 2500; Turkish, 

5000 ; with loss of 10,000 prisoners, 100 guns, &c] 
Kars ceded to Russia by the Berlin treaty 13 July, 1878 

KASHGARIA, central Asia ; subdued by 
China; annexed by Keeu Lung, 1760; insurrec- 
tions subdued, 1826 et seq. Mahomed Yakoob Beg, 
during an insurrection of the Tungani, made him- 
self ruler of Kashgaria, 1866, and sent envoys to 
London, &c, 1867. He was at length attacked by 
the Chinese, totally defeated, and said to have been 
assassinated, 1 May, 1877. The capital, Kashgar, 
was taken, and the country regained by China, 
Kov. ; and the war closed, l»ec. 1877. 

KASHMIR, see Cashmere. 

KASSASSIN (4 battles) ; see Egypt, 28 Aug. 
and g Sept. 1882. 

KATHARINE'S HOSPITAL, ST., founded 
about 1 148, by Matilda, queen of Stephen, and re- 
founded by Eleanor, queeu of Henry III., 1273. 
The hospital was removed to Regent's Park in 1827, 
the site having been bought for 163,000/. by the 
St. Katharine's docks company. The brethren are in 
orders, and not restricted from marriage ; the sisters 
are unmarried or widows. Aschool, attached in 1829, 
was enlarged in 1849. 
Order of St. Katharine for nurses instituted by the 



queen ; annual payment 50L for 3 years, badge 

for life ; first investiture ... 4 June, 1879 

KATSBACH (Prussia) ; near this river the 
Prussian general liliicher defeated the French 
under MacDonald and Ney, 26 Aug. 1813. He 
received the title of prince of Wahlstatt, the name 
of a neighbouring village. 

KEATING'S ACT, 18 & 19 Vict. c. 67 (1855) 
relates to bills of exchange. 

KEBLE COLLEGE (Oxford), founded in 
memory of the rev. John Keble, author of the 
" Christian Year," born 25 April, 1792, died 
29 March, 1866. The first stone of the building 
was laid by the archbishop of Canterbury, 25 April, 
1868; the building was dedicated, 23 June, 1870 ; 
the chapel, the gift of "William Gibbs, was dedicated, 
and the library opened, 25 April, 1876. 

KEEPER of the King's Conscience. 

The early chancellors were priests, and out of their 
supposed moral control of the king's mind grew 
the idea of an equity court in contradistinction to 
the law courts. A bill in chancery is a petition 
through the lord chancellor to the king's conscience 
for remedy in matters for which the king's common 
law courts afford no redress. The keeper of the 
king's conscience is therefore now the officer who 
presides in the court of chancery; see Chancellor 
and Lord Keeper. 

KEEPER (LORD) of the Great Seal 

OF ENGLAND differed only from the lord chan- 
cellor in that the latter had letters patent, whereas 
the lord keeper had none. Richard, a chaplain, 
is said to have been the first keeper under Ranulph, 
in 1 1 16. Foss says that the distinction between the 
two offices was made 1232. The two offices were 
made one by 5 Eliz. 1563. Cowell ; see Chancellor. 
The office of lord keeper of the great seal of 
Scotland was established in 1708, after the union. 

KELTS, see Celts and Gauls. 

KENILWORTH CASTLE (Warwickshire), 
was built about 1 120, by Geoffrey de Clinton, whose 
grandson sold it to Henry III. It was enlarged 
and fortified by Simon de Montfort, to whom Henry 
gave it as a marriage portion with his sister Eleanor. 
Queen Elizabeth conferred it on her favourite, 
Dudley, earl of Leicester. His entertainment of 
the queen commenced 19 July, 1575, and cost the 
earl daily wool. 

After the battle of Evesham and defeat and death of 
Simon de Montfort, by Prince Edward (afterwards 
Edward I.) 1265, Monfiort's younger son, Simon, shut 
himself up in Keuilworth castle, which sustained a siege 
for six months against the royal forces of Henry III., to 
whom it at length surrendered. Upon this occasion was 
issued the " Dictum de Kenil worth," or "ban of Keuil- 
worth," enacting that all who had borne arms against 
the king should pay him the value of their lands for 
periods varying from 7 years to 6 months. 

KENNINGTON COMMON (Surrey) . The 
Chirtist demonstration, 10 April, 1848, took place 
on the common. It was directed to be laid out as a 
public pleasure-ground in 1852. 

KENSAL GREEN, see Cemeteries. 

KENSINGTON : the palace was purchased 
by William III., from lord chancellor Finch, who 
made the road through its park. The gardens were 
improved by queens Mary, Anne, and Caroline, who 
died here. Here died George, prince of Denmark, 
and George If. ; and here queen Victoria was born, 
24 May, 1819. Kensington returns two M.P.'s by 
Act of 18S5. 



KENT. 



556 



KHERSON. 



By permission of the government, a military "band 

played in Kensington gardens on Sundays, Aug. 1855 

Objected to ; discontinued 1856 

New parish church erected by sir Gilbert G. Scott 

was consecrated 14 May, 1872 

New town-hall by ft. Walker opened by the duchess 

of Teck 7 Aug. 1880 

Free central public library opened by the princess 

Louise 29 Nov. 1889 

Population, 1881, 1,63,151; 1891, 166,321. 
See South Kensington. 

KENT, see Britain and Holy Maid. Odo, 
bishop of Bayeux, brother of William the Con- 
queror, was made earl of Kent, 1067; and Heniy 
Grey was made duke of Kent in 1710 ; he died with- 
out male heirs in 1740. Edward, son of George III., 
was created duke of Kent in 1799, was father of 
queen Victoria, and died 23 Jan. 1820 ; see England. 

KENT, an Eastlndiaman, of 1350 tons burthen, 
left the Downs, 19 Feb. 1825, bound for Bombay. 
In the Bay of Biscay she encountered a dreadful 
storm, 28 Feb. On the next day she accidentally 
took fire, and all were in expectation of perish- 
ing, either by the tempest or the flames. The 
Cambria, captain Cook, bound to Vera Cruz, provi- 
dentially hove in sight, and nearly all on board 
were saved. The Kent blew up, 2 March. 

. KENTISH FIRE, a term given to the con- 
tinuous cheering common at the protestant meetings 
held in Kent, 1828 and 1829, with the view of 
preventing the passing of the Catholic Belief 
bill. — Kentish Petition to the house of commons, 
censuring its proceedings, was signed at Maidstone, 
29 April, 1 701. It gave much offence. 

KENTISH TOWN, N.W. London, an old 
manor, church property, originally formed part of 
the great forest of Middlesex. Since 1855 building 
has very greatly increased. 

KENTUCKY, a western state of N. America, 
admitted into the union 1792. It declared for strict 
neutrality in the conflict between the North and 
South in April, 1861, but was invaded by the 
Southern troops in August. On their refusal to 
retire, after much correspondence, the legislature 
of Kentucky gave in its adhesion to the union, 
27 Nov. 1861. In the campaign that ensued sharp 
skirmishes took place, and uii 19 Jan. 1862, the 
confederates under Zollicoffer were defeated and 
himself killed at Mill Spring, and in March no con- 
federate soldiers remained in Kentucky ; capital, 
Frankfort. Population, 1880, 1,648,690 ; 1890, 
1,858,635. See United States. 

Murderous ten years' feud or vendetta at Morehead, 
Rowan county, chiefly between Holbrooks and 
Underwoods, beginning with a charge of horse- 
stealing against John Martin, sometimes rising 
to actual war. Closed by the sheriff killing 
Craig Tolliver and his gang . . 22 June, 1887 

By the fall of a new bridge between Covington and 
Newport, about 30 workmen perished 15 June, 1892 

KEKBEKAN, BATTLE OF, see Soudan, 10 
Feb. 1885. 

KERMADEC ISLANDS, north of New 
Zealand, annexed by the British Government, Mav. 
1886. •" 

KEROSELENE, a new ancesthetic, derived 
from the distillation of coal-tar by Mr. W. B. Merrill, 
of Boston, U.S., was made known early in r86i. 

KERTCH, formerly Panticapaeum, capital of 
the ancient kingdom of Bosporus, late a flourishing 
town on the straits of Yenikale, sea of Azof. It 
was entered by the allies (English and French) 
24 May, 1855 ; the Prussians retired after destroying 



stores, &c. The place was dismantled by the 
allies, and most of the inhabitants removed. 

KET'S REBELLION: a revolt in July, 
1549, instigated by William Ket, a tanner, of 
Wymondham, Norlblk. He demanded the abolition 
of inclosures and the dismissal of evil counsellors. 
The insurgents amounted to 20,000 men, but were 
quickly defeated by the earl of Warwick. More 
than 2000 fell ; Ket and others were tried 26 Nov., 
and hanged soon after. 

KEW (Surrey). The palace was successively 
occupied by the Capel family and Mr. Molyneux ; 
by Frederick, prince of Wales, 1 730, and George III. 
Queen Charlotte died here, 4 Nov. 1818. A new 
palace erected by George III., under the direction 
of Mr. Wyatt, was pulled down in 1827. The 
gardens contained a tine collection of plants, and 
were decorated with ornamental buildings, most of 
them erected by sir William Chambers, about 1760. 

BOTANIC GARDENS. 

Mr. Aiton retired from his office of director, after 
fifty years' service 1843 

Succeeded by sir William Hooker, 1 April, 1841, at 
whose recommendation the gardens were opened 
to the public daily. The royal kitchen and forcing 
gardens incorporated with the botanic gardens . 1847 

Collections in the museum of Economic Botany 
began with the private collection of sir William 
Hooker, given by him in . ,, 

Under his charge the gardens were greatly im- 
proved, and magnificent conservatories erected. 

He died 12 Aug. 1865, and was succeeded by his 
son, Dr. (now sir Joseph) D. Hooker, 1865, who 
resigned (succeeded by Mr. W. T. Thiselton Dyer) 

30 Nov. 1885 

687,972 (great increase) visitors in . . . . 1877 

The Meteorological Observatory presented to the 
British Association, 1842 ; purchased by J. P. 
Gassiot for io,ooo£. , and presented to the Royal 
Society 1873 

Great damage done to conservatories and plants 
by storm (cost about 2000Z.) . . .23 Aug. 1879 

Miss Marianne North's present of a collection of pic- 
tures of fruit and flowers of all nations, painted by 
herself, and placed in a building erected at her ex- 
pense, opened to the public . . summer, 1882 

[She died, Sept. 1890. Her "Recollections of a 
Happy Life," were published early in 1892.] 

Gardens first opened at noon . . .1 April, 1883 

The valuable bulletins first issued .... 1887 

KEYS. See locks. 

KHARTOUM, capital of Nubia, at tbe con- 
fluence of the Blue and White Nile, built by Mo- 
hamed Ali, 1820. Its prosperity was destroyed by 
the rapacity of the governors. Population in 1877 
only about 15,000. 

After successful administration col. Charles George 
Gordon compelled to leave Khartoum, and re- 
turned to England 1877 

In his defence of Khartoum against the Mahdi (from 
Feb. 1884) he was greatly aided by colonel John 
Donald Stewart and Mr. Frank Power, correspon- 
dent of the Times (who were both massacred 
during an expedition, Sept. 1884). He manifested 
much military skill, political sagacity, tender 
humanity, and marvellous power in inducing his 
followers to overcome serious difficulties and 
patiently endure great sufferings and privations. 
Khartoum was surrendered, and Gordon and his 
faithful followers killed, early on 26 Jan. 1885. 
See under •Sowdcwi. 

KHEDIVE, or Kcdervi, king or lord, a title 
given to the viceroy of Egypt, instead of vali or 
viceroy, 14 May, 1867. 

KHELAT, see Beloochistan. 

KHERSON, an ancient Dorian colony (deriving 
its name from Chersonesus, a penins ,ia), came 
under the sway of the great Mithridates about 120 



KHERSON. 



007 



KILFENORA. 



B.C. ; and afterwards under that of Rome, A.D.30. It 
continued important, and its possession was long 
disputed by the Russians and Greeks. Justinian II. 
cruelly treated it. It was taken by Vladimir, grand- 
duke of Russia in 988, when he and his army received 
Christian baptism, and he married the emperor's 
sister Anne, who obtained Kherson as her dowry. 
The city was destroyed by the Lithuanians ; and the 
Turks found it deserted when they took possession 
of the Crimea in 1475. What ancient remains the 
Turks and Tartars had spared, the Russians con- 
veyed away for the construction of Sebastopol. 

KHERSON, a Russian city on the Dnieper, 
founded 1778. Potemkin, the favourite of Catherine, 
who died at Jassy in 1791, is buried here, and John 
Howard, the English philanthropist, who died here, 
20 Jan. 1790, is buried about three miles from the 
town, where an obelisk has been erected to his 
memory, by the czar Alexander I. 

KHIVA (formerly Carasmia), in Turlcistan, 
A<ia, succe sively formed part of the territories of 
the Seleucidas, Bactria, Parthia, Persia, and the 
Califate, till about 1092, when it was subjugated by 
the Seljuk Tartars, by the Moguls in 1221, and by 
Timour the Tartar in 1370, whose descendants 
ruled till 151 1, when they were expelled by the 
Uzbegs, a Turkish tribe who still inhabit the 
country. An expedition sent against it by the 
emperor Nicholas of Russia in 1839 perished through 
the rigour of the climate in 1840. In 1875, colonel 
F. A. Burnaby reached Khiva, after a perilous ride, 
when his progress was stopped by Russian jealousy. 
To obtain redress for many outrages, a Russian 

expedition sent to Khiva .... Feb. 1873 
After several defeats the town, Khiva, surrendered 

unconditionally .... 10 June, ,, 

The khan fled, but returned, and became a vassal 

of the czar 5 July, ,. 

An insurrection against the Russians repressed and 

punished Aug. ,, 

Part of Khiva annexed .... 15 Oct. 
The country disturbed by revolts . . . 1873-4 

KHOKAND, a khanate in central Asia, sub- 
ject to China about 1760; rebelled and became 
tributary only, 1812. A rebellion, which broke out 
in Sept. was suppressed Oct. 1874. 
War with Russia ; gen. Kaufraann defeats about 

30,000 men, 4 Sept. ; entered Khokand without 

resistance, and the khanate virtually subdued . 

16 Sept. 1875 
He defeats 5000 more .... 21 Sept. „ 
The people expel the new khan . . 21 Oet. ,, 
Part of Khokand annexed by Russia . . Oct. ,, 
The people rise and massacre Russian garrison, 

announced 28 Nov. ,, 

Rebels totally defeated at Assake (chiefs submit) 

30 Jan. 1876 
Khokand formally annexed as Ferghana . 29 Feb. ,, 

KHUSCHK-I-NAKHUD, see Maiwand. 

KHYBER PASS (the principal northern 
entrance into Afghanistan from India) . It is ten 
miles west of Peshawnr, extending about thirty- 
three miles towards Jellalabad ; lying between lofty 
slate cliff's, varying from 600 to 1000 feet in height; 
held by Afreedees and other warlike tribes, to whom 
Dost Mahomed formerly paid subsidies, which 
were discontinued by his son Shere Ali, ameer of 
A fghanistan. 

The pass forced by col. Wade, 26 July, and gen. 
sir John Keane retired through it after his vic- 
torious campaign 1839 

Again forced by general (aft. sir George) Pollock, 
on his way to chastise Cabul for the massacres in 
the previous winter . . . 5-14 April, 1842 
At Ali Musjid, a fort in the pass, the further ad- 
vance of sir Neville Chamberlain on a mission 



from the viceroy to the ameer was forbidden, 
with threats of violence . . . 22 Sept. 1878 
The pass held by the British . . till March, 1881 
The viceroy, the marquis of Lansdowne, rode 
through the pass .... 30 Oct. 1889 

See Afghanistan. 

KIDDERMINSTER (Worcestershire), re- 
nowned for its carpet manufactures, established 
about 1735. -ft was ma de a parliamentary borough, 
again in 1832. The statue of Richard Baxter, the 
nonconformist, was unveiled by Mrs. Philpotts, 
wife of the bishop of Worcester, 28 July, 187? ; an 
address was delivered by dean Stanley. Fierce 
rioting through carpet trade disputes quelled, 4-8 
April, 1884. Typhoid fever prevalent, Sept. to 
Oct. 1884, 87 deaths. Population, 1881, 24,270; 
1891, 24,803. 

KIDNAPPING ACTS (1872 and 1875), 
passed to prevent and punish criminal outrages 
upon natives of the islands in the Pacific Ocean ; 
see Slavery, Queensland, and Melanesia. 

KIEF (Kiov or Kiow), chief town of a province 
of the same name in European Russia, made a 
principality 1137, annexed to Poland 1386, aud 
after several changes was ceded to Russia 1686. 
Population of the province, i88h, 3,026,036. 
The cathedral of St. Sophia was founded in 1037, 

the Greek academy 1588, and the university in 

1834. 

KIEL, chief town of Holstein, a seaport, and a 
member of the Hanseatic league in 1300. The 
university was founded in 1665. By a treaty 
between Great Britain, Sweden, and Denmark, 
signed here 14 Jan. 1814, Norway was ceded to 
Sweden ; see Norway. An extraordinary assembly 
of the revolted provinces, Schleswig and Holstein, 
met here 9 Sept. 1850. By the convention of 
Gastein between Austria and Prussia, 14 Aug. 1865, 
the former w r as to govern Holstein, but Kiel to be 
held by Prussia as a German federal port. This 
was annulled in 1866 by the issue of the war. Popu- 
lation, 1890, 69,214. 

Foundation stone of opening lock of the canal 
from the Baltic to the North Sea laid by the 
emperor 3 June, 1887 

KILCULLEN (Kildare) . Here a large body 
of the insurgent Irish defeated the British forces 
commanded by general Dundas, 23 May, 1798. The 
general in a subsequent engagement overthrew the 
rebels near Kilcullen-bridge, when 300 were slain. 

KILDARE (E. Ireland). The Curragh or 
race-course here was once a forest of oaks. Here 
was the nunnery of St. Bridget, founded by her in 
the 15th century, and here was a building called the 
fire-house, where, it is supposed, the nuns kept the 
inextinguishable fire which existed till the re- 
formation. The see was one of the earliest episco- 
pal foundations in Ireland; St. Conlajth, who 
died 519, the first prelate. The first Protestant 
bishop was Thomas Lancaster, in 1550. The see is 
valued, by an extent returned 39 Hen. VIII., at 
69/. lis. \d. Irish per year. Kildare was united to 
Dublin in 1846; see Dublin. The insurrection in 
Kildare, which swelled into the rebellion, com- 
menced, 23 May, 1798. On that night, lieut. Gilford 
of Dublin and a number of other gentlemen were 
murdered by insurgents. This rebellion was quelled 
in 1799. The Curragh is now a military camp. 

KILFENORA (Clare), a bishopric, said to 
have been founded by St. Pacinian. Cardinal 
Paparo, in 1 152, rendered it a suffragan see to 
Cashel ; but in 1660 it was annexed to Tuam, and 
to Killaloe in 1752. 



KILIMA-NJAEO. 



55S 



KINETOGEAPH. 



KILIMA-NJAEO, a lofty volcanic mountain 

in E. Equatorial Africa, discovered by Rebmann in 

1848. 

Mr. H. H. Johnston ascended 16,200 feet from the 
summit of Kibo Nov. 1884 

Dr. Hans Meyer (unsuccessful 1887 and 1888), with 
Herr Purtscheller and one native, climbed up the 
icy steeps to the highest pinnacle of the ridges of 
the volcanic crater about 19,700 feet high, which 
he named " Kaiser Wilhelm's Peak," after having 
planted on it the German flag, 6 Oct. ; they left 
the mountain 30 Oct. 1889 

Dr. Meyer gave an account of his travels to the 
Royal Geographical Society, London . 14 April, 1890 

Major von "Wissmann establishes a fortified station 
at Kilima-Njaro, in charge of lieutenant Witzleben 
15 Feb. 1891 ; Germans defeated ; fort abandoned 
10 June ; re-occupied without fighting 29 July, 1892 

KILKENNY (S. E. Ireland), an English 
settlement about 11 70. The castle was built 1195, 
by Wm. Marshall, earl of Pembroke. At the par- 
liament held here by Lionel duke of Clarence 1367, 
the statute of Kilkenny was passed.* After a siege 
the town surrendered to Cromwell, 28 March, 1650, 
on honourable terms. 

KILLALA (Mayo) was invaded by a French 
force landing from three frigates, under general 
Humbert, 22 Aug. 1798. The invaders were joined 
by the Irish insurgents, and the battles of Castlebar 
and Colooney followed ; and the French were de- 
feated at Ballynamuck, 8 Sept. same year. 

KILLALA (Sligo), an early see. The author 
of the Tripartite life of St. Patrick, says, "that in 
434 he came to a pleasant place where the river 
Muadas (Moy) empties itself into the ocean ; and 
on the south banks of the said river he built a noble 
church called Kil-Aladh, of which he made one of 
his disciples, Muredach, the first bishop." The see 
of Achonry was united to Killala in the 1 7th century ; 
and both were united to Tuam in 1839 ; see 
Tuam and Bishops. 

KILL ALOE (Clare), a see supposed to have 
been founded by St. Molua, whose disciple, St. 
Flannan, son to king Theodoric, consecrated at 
Home by John IV. in 639, was also bishop. At the 
close of the 12th century, Roscrea was annexed to 
Killaloe, and Kilfenora has been held with it. 
Clonfert and Kilmacduach were added in 1836. 

KILLIECKANKIE (a defile in Perthshire). 
Here the forces of "William III. commanded by 
geueral Mackay were defeated by the adherents of 
James II. under Graham of Claverhouse, viscount 
Dundee, who fell in the moment of victory, 17 
or 27 July, 1689. 

KILMACDUACH (Gal way). This see was 
held with Clonfert, from 1602. St. Coleman was its 
first bishop, in the 7th century. It was valued, 29 
Eliz. 1586, at 13?. 6s. 8^. per annum. It is united 
to Killaloe. 

KILMAINHAM HOSPITAL (Dublin), 
the noble asylum of aged and disabled soldiers in 
Ireland, built by Wren, was founded by Arthur, 
earl of Granard, marshal-general of the army in 
Ireland, 1675 ; and the duke of Ormond perfected 
the plan in 1679. 

* It enacted among other things, "that the alliance 
of the English by marriage with any Irish, the nurture of 
infantes, and gossipred with the Irish, be deemed high 
treason." And again, "if anie man of English race use 
an Irish name, Irish apparel], or anie other guize or 
fashion of the Irish, his lands shall be seized, and his 
"body imprisoned, till he shall conform to English modes 
and customs." Said never to have been enforced. It 
abolished the Brehon laws. 



The term Treaty of Kilmainham was applied to an 
alleged agreement between Mr. Gladstone's government 
and'Mr. Parnell and other land-leaguers imprisoned in 
the Kilmainham gaol on 13 Oct. 1881. The government 
is said to have entered into a negotiation with them while 
there, May, 1882. 

KILMALLOCK (Limerick). An abbey was 
founded here by St. Mochoallog or Molach about 
645, and an abbey of Dominicans was built in the 
13th century. Ware. A charter was granted to 
Kilmallock by Edward VI., and another by Eliza- 
beth in 1584. The town was invested by the Irish 
forces in 1598, but the siege was raised by the earl 
of Ormond. There was much fighting here in 1641 
and 1642 ; see Fenians, March, 1867. 

KILMOBE (Armagh), an ancient town, whose 
bishops were sometimes called Brefinienses, from 
Brefney, and sometimes Triburnenses, from 
Triburna, a village; but in 1454, the bishop of 
Triburna, by assent of pope Nicholas V., erected 
the parish church of St. Fedlemid into a cathedral. 
Florence O'Connacty, the first bishop, died in 1231. 
Valued, 15 Jas. I. with Ardagh, at 100I. per annum. 
The joint see of Elphin and Ardagh was united to 
it in 1841. 

KILSTTH (central Scotland). Here Montrose 
defeated the Covenanters, 15 Aug. 1645, and 
threatened Glasgow. 

KIMBEBLEY, see under Griqualand. 
Kimberley'' s Act, see under Crime. 

KIMMEEIDGE CLAY: Rev. H. Moule 
announced his successful use of this clay for fuel 
and gas-making, March, 1874 ; practicability 
doubted. 

KINBUEN, a fort, at the confluence of the 
rivers Bug and Dnieper. Here Suwarrow defeated 
the Turks, 28 June, 1788. Kinburn was taken by 
the English and French, 17 Oct. 1855. Three 
floating French batteries, said to be the invention 
of the emperor, on the principle of horizontal shell- 
firing, was very effective. On the 18th the 
Russians blew up Oczakoff, a fort opposite. 

KINDEB-GABTEN (children's garden), a 
system of education devised by Froebel, but prac- 
tically carried out by Mr. and Mrs. Ronge, in 
Germany, in 1849, and in England in 1851. The 
system, founded mainly on self-tuition, and en- 
livened by toys, games, and singing, is set forth in 
Ronge's " Kinder-garten," published in 1858; and 
has been partially adopted in English schools. The 
Frcebel Society established 1874. Annual meeting 
18 Jan. 1884. 

KINDEED, TABLE OF, in the Book of Com- 
mon Prayer, was set forth in 1563, see Leviticus, 
chap, xviii., B.C. 1490. 

KINEMATICS (Greek hineo, I move), the 
science of motion. Reuleaux's " Kinematics of Ma- 
chinery," translated by A. B. W. Kennedy; pub- 
lished, June, 1876. " Kinematism " is a method of 
treating certain diseases by movement. Prof. 
Rankine's ." Machinery and Millwork " first ap- 
peared, 1809; new ed. 1876; see Motion. 

KINETOGEAPH, a machine invented by 
Mr. Thomas A. Edison, combining electricity with 
photography, by means of which the movements of 
the actors in a scene at the theatre (accompanied by 
their voices and the music) are reproduced upon a 
screen. The kinetograph was described by Mr. 
Edison at New Tork 28 May, and in the Times, 
29 May, 1 89 1. 



KING. 



559 



KING'S BENCH PRISON. 



KING : German Konig, equivalent in mean- 
ing to the Latin Rex, Scythian Reis, Spanish Ret/, 
Italian Re, French Roy : Hebrew Rosch. Rex is 
thought to be connected with the Hindu rajah, de- 
rived from the Sanscrit ragan, the root of which is 
arg, argami, to possess. Rex therefore means 
possessor. Nimrod was the first founder of a 
kingdom, about 2245 B.C. The "manner of the 
king" is set forth in I Samuel viii., 11 12 B.C. 
Saul was the first king of Israel, 1095 B.C. Most 
of the Grecian states were originally governed by 
kings ; and kings were the first rulers in Rome. 
King of England. — The style was used by Egbert, 
828 ; but the title Rex gentis Anglorum, king of 
the English nation, existed during the Heptarchy ; 
see Britain. 
The plural phraseology, we, its, our, was first adopted 

among English kings by John .... 1199 
Pope Leo X. conferred the title of " Defender of the 

Faith" on Hemy VIII. . . . 11 Oct. 1521 

Henry VIII. changed lord of Ireland into king. . 1542 
The style "Great Britain " was adopted at the union 

of England and Scotland, 6 Anne . . . . 1707 
That of the " United Kingdom of Great Britain and 
Ireland " at the union, when the royal style and 
title was appointed to run thus: — " Georgius 
Tertius, Dei Gratia, Britanniarum Rex, Fidei 
Defensor," " George the Third, by the grace of 
God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and 
Ireland, king, Defender of the Faith" (France 

being omitted) 1 Jan. 1801 

Hanover omitted in the queen's style 21 June, 1837 

The queen was proclaimed in all the important 
places in India, as "Victoria, by the Grace of 
God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain 
and Ireland, and the colonies and dependencies 
thereof in Europe, Asia, Africa, America, and 
Australia, queen," <fec. (see Empress). 1 Nov. 1858 

The national assembly decreed that the title of 
Louis XVI. " king of France," should be changed 
to "king of the French" . . . 16 Oct. 1789 
The royal title in France abolished .... 1792 
Louis XVIII. styled "by the grace of God king of 

France and Navarre " 1814 

Louis-Philippe I. was invited to the monarchy under 

the style of the " king of the French " . 9 Aug. 1830 
The emperors of Germany, in order that their 
eldest sons might be chosen their successors 
in their own life-time, politically obtained them 
the title of "king of the Romans." The first 
emperor so elected was Henry IV. . . . 105s 
Richard, brother of Henry III. of England, was 
induced to go to Germany, where he disbursed vast 
sums under the promise of being elected next 
emperor ; he was elected " king of the Romans" 
(but failed in succeeding to the imperial crown) 1256 
The title of "king of France" assumed, and the 
French arms quartered, by Edward III., in right 
of his mother, 1340 ; discontinued by Geo. III. 1802 
The style "king of Rome" was revived by 

Napoleon I. for his son, born . . 20 March, 1811 
The title " king of Italy" conferred on Victor Emma- 
nuel II. of Sardinia by Italian parliament i7March, 1861 

KING-OF-ARMS: three for England,— 

Garter, Clarencieux, andNorroy ; Lyonking-at-arms 
for Scotland, and Ulster for Ireland. These offices 
are very ancient : Clarencieux is so named from 
Lionel, third son of Edward III., the sovereign who 
founded the order of the Garter ; see Garter-. 
Lionel having by his wife the honour of Clare, was 
made duke cf Clarence; which dukedom afterwards 
escheating to Edward IV., he revived the office of 
Clarence king-at-arms. The office of Bath king-of- 
arms, created in 1725, was changed to Gloucester 
king-of-arms, 14 June, 1726. Ulster was substi- 
tuted, it is said, in lieu of Ireland king-of-arms, by 
Edward VI., 1553 ; but the monarch himself named 
it as a new institution. 

KING'S ADVOCATE, see Queen's. 
KING'S BENCH, or Queen's Bench, 

COURT OF, obtained its name from the king- 



sometimes sitting here on a high bench, and the* 
judges, to whom the judicature belongs in Ms- 
absence, on a low bench at his feet. This court ins 
ancient times was called Curia Domini Regis. The- 
court of queen's bench sat for the last time, July, 
1875, (see Supreme Court). Chief justice Cockburn 
received the freedom of London, 9 March, 1876 ; 
said to be the first case of the kind. The Queen's- 
Bench Division of the high court of justice till i88r 
consisted of the chief justice of England and four- 
judges. The chief justice of the queen's bench 
division is now chief justice of England ; the ex- 
chequer and common pleas division were abolished, 
in 1881. 



1687. 



1709. 



1718. 
1725- 

1733- 



1737- 
1754- 
1756. 



CHIEF JUSTICES IN ENGLAND 

1509. John Fineux. 
1526. John Fitz James. 
1539. Sir Edward Montagu. 
1546. Sir Richard Lyster. 

1552. Sir Roger Cholmely. 

1553. Sir Thomas Bromley. 

1554. Sir William Portman. 
1556. Sir Edward Saunders. 
1559. Sir Robert Catlyn. 
1573. Sir Christopher Wray. 
1591. Sir John Popham. 
1607 Sir Thomas Fleming. 
1613. Sir Edward Coke. 
1616. Sir Henry Montagu. 
1620. Sir James Ley. 
1624. Sir Ranulph Crewe. 
1626. Sir Nicholas Hyde. 
1631. Sir Thomas Richard- 
son. 

1635. Sir John Bramp- 

ston. 

1643. Sir Robert Heath. 

1648. Henry Rolle. 

1655. John Glyn. 

1659. Sir Rd. Newdigate. 
,, Robert Nicholas. 

1660. Sir Robert Foster. 
1663. Sir Robert Hyde. 
1665. Sir John Kelyng. 
1671. Sir Matthew Hale. 
1676. Sir Richard Rayns- 

ford. 

1678. Sir William Scroggs. 

1681. Sir Francis Pember- 
ton. 

1683. Sir Edmund Saun- 
ders. 
Sir George Jefferies, 



1832. 



1850. 



1859. 



■ROM HENRY VIII. 

aft. lord Jefferies; 
and lord chanc. 

Sir Edward Herbert. 

Sir Robert Wright. 

Sir John Holt. 

Sir Thomas Parker., 
aft. lord Parker,, 
earl of Macclesfield^ 
and lord chanc. 

Sir John Pratt. 

Sir Robert Raymond., 
aft. lord Raymond- 
Sir Philip Yorke, aft^ 
Id. Hardwicke and: 
lord chanc. 

Sir William Lee. 

Sir Dudley Ryder. 

Wm. Murray, lord, aft„ 
earl of Mansfield. 

Lloyd, lord Kenyon^ 
9 June. 

Sir Edward Law, 12-. 
April ; aft. lord 
Ellenborough. 

Sir Charles Abbott,. 
4 Nov. ; aft. lord 
Tenterden. 

Sir Thomas Denman, 7- 
Nov. ; aft. lord Den- 
man : resigned. 

John, lord Campbell, 
March ; aft. lord 
chancellor. 

Sir Alexander Cock- 
burn, June ; (died 
20 Nov. 1880). 

John Duke, lord Cole- 
ridge, 26 Nov. 



chief justices jn Ireland (see Supreme Court). 



1690. Sir Richard Reynell, 

6 Dec. 

1695. Sir Richard Pyne, 

7 June. 

1709. Allan Brodriek, 24 

Dec. 
1711. Sir Richard Cox; 5 

July. 
1714. W. Whitshed, 14 Oct. 
1727. JohnRogerson, 3 Apr. 
Thomas Marlay, 29 

Dec. 
St. George Caulfield, 

27 Aug. 
1760. Warden Flood, 31 

July. 
1764. John Gore, 24 Aug. ; 

aft, earl Annaly. 
1784. John Scott, 29 April ; 

aft. earl of Clonmel. 
1798. Arthur Wolfe, 13 

June ; aft. lord Kil 



1741. 



i75i- 



Emmet's insurrec- 
tion^ July, 1803); 

1803. William Dowries, 12: 
Sept. ; aft. lord 
Dowries. 

1822. Chas. Kendal Bushe.. 
14 February. 

1841. Edward Pennefather.. 
10 November. 

1846. Francis Blackburne^ 
23 Jan. 

1852. Thos. Lefroy, March, 

t866. James Whiteside,. 
July ; died 25 Nov. 
1876. 

1877. George Augustus Chi- 
chester May, 9 Feb. 

1887. Sir Michael Morris.. 
Jan. 

18S9. Sir Peter O'Brien, 
Dec, made lord of 
appeal as lord 
Morris, Dec. 



warden (killed in 

KING'S BENCH PRISON (Southwark),. 
near the site of one of the oldest prisons of London, 
long used for the confinement of debtors. Here, it 
is said, prince Henry (afterwards Henry V.) was 
committed by Justice Gascoigne. The prison was 



KING'S BOOK. 



560 



KNIGHTS. 



burnt down by the London rioters, 7 June, 1780; 
see Gordon's No-Popery Riots. It was rebuilt in 
1781, and contained about 230 rooms. Formerly, 
the debtors were allowed to purchase the liberties, 
to enable them to have houses or lodgings without 
the walls, or to purchase day-rules, to go out of 
the prison under certain regulations. The rules 
included iSt. George's Fields, &c. A consequence 
of the bankruptcy act, 1861, was the release of 
many insolvent debtors ; and an act was passed 
in 1862 " for discontinuing the queen's prison 
and removal of the prisoners to Whitecross- street 
prison." The buildings, used as a military prison, 
were pulled clown and the site sold, 1879-80. 

KING'S BOOK, or "Valor Ecclesiasticus 
temp. Henrici VIII." the return of the commis- 
sioners appointed in 1534 to value the first fruits 
and tenths granted to the king. An edition by 
John Bacon ("Liber Regis") was published in 
1780, and it was printed for the Record Commission, 
1810-25. 

KING'S BOUNTY, an annual grant of 
IOOO/. for the Maunday royal alms distributed by 
the lord high almoner, began early in the reign of 
George III. and continued till 10 George IV. 1829. 
See Maunday. 

KING'S COLLEGES, see Aberdeen and 
Cambridge. King's College, London, incorporated 
14 Aug. 1829, and opened 8 Oct. 1831. It was 
incorporated with the university of London in 1837. 
The hospital w;is founded in 1839. The dining- 
hall and kitchen fell in, through drainage, 8 a.m., 
6 Dec. 1869 ; no lives were lost. The council of the 
■college issues an appeal to the public for additional 
funds (50,000/.), 24 Jan. 1891. 

KING'S COUNSEL, the first under the 
degree of Serjeant was sir Francis Bacon, made 
so, honoris causa, without patent or fee, in 1604, 
by James I. The first modern king's counsel was 
sir Francis North, afterwards lord keeper, in 1663. 

KING'S COUNTY (Ireland), formed out of 
confiscated property, and so named from Philip, king 
of Spain, the husband of queen Mary of England, 
in 1556. 

KINGS CROSS MAEKET, N. London, 

opened 7 Aug. 1868 ; did not succeed. 

KINGSDOWN'S ACT, 24 & 25 Vict. c. 114 
(^1861) relates to wills. 

KING'S EVIL (scrofula), formerly supposed 
to be cured by the king's touch; the first being 
Edward the Confessor, in 1058. In the reign of 
Charles II. 92,107 persons were touched; and, ac- 
cording to Wiseman, the king's physician, they 
were nearly all cured ! Queen Anne officially an- 
nounced in the London Gazette, 12 March, 1712, her 
intention to touch publicly. The custom was 
dropped by George I., 1714. 

KING' S SPEECH. The first from the throne 
is said to have been by Henry I., 1107. 

KING'S THEATRE, see Opera-house. 

KINGSTON, see Hull. -KINGSTON, Ja- 
maica, was founded in 1693, after the great earth- 
quake in 1692 which destroyed Port Royal ; it was 
constituted a city, 1802." An awful fire here 
ravaged a vast portion of the town, and consumed 
500,000/. of property, 8 Feb. 1782 ; another fire in 
1843; another great fire; town nearly destroyed; 
estimated loss about 3,000,000/., 5 deaths an- 
nounced, 11 Dec. 1882. See Mansion House. The 
bishopric was established in 1856; see Jamaica. 



KINGSTON . TRIAL. The duchess of 
Kingston was arraigned before the lords in West- 
minster-hall, on a charge of bigamy, having 
married first, captain Hervey, afterwards earl of 
Bristol, and next, during his lifetime, Eveyln 
Pierrepont, duke of Kingston, 15-22 April, 1776. 
She was found guilty, but, on pleading the privilege 
of peerage, the punishment of burning in the hand 
was remitted, and she was discharged on paying the 
fees. 

KINGSTOWN (Dublin). The harbour here 
was commenced in June, 1817. The name was 
changed from Dunleary in compliment to George 
IV., w r ho here embarked for England at the close 
of his visit to Ireland, 3 Sept. 1821. The Kings- 
town railway from Dublin was opened 17 Dec. 
1834. 

KIRBEKAN, BATTLE OF, see Soudan, 10 
Feb. 1885. 

KISSING the hands of great men was a Grecian 
custom. Kissing was a mode of salutation among 
the Jews, 1 Samuel x. 1, &c. The " kiss of 
charity," or " holy kiss," commanded in the Scrip- 
tures {Romans xvi. 16, &c), was observed by the 
early Christians, and is still recognised by the 
Greek church and some others. Kissing the pope's 
foot (or the cross on his slipper) began with Adrian 
I. or Leo III. at the close of the 8th century. 

KIT-KAT CLUB, of above thirty noblemen 
and gentlemen, instituted in 1703, to promote the 
Protestant succession. The duKe of Marlborough, 
sir R. Walpole, Addison, Steele, and Dr. Garth 
were members. It took its name from its dining at 
the house of Christopher Kat, a pastry-cook in 
King-street, Westminster. 

KITT'S, see Christopher's, St. 

KLADDERADATSCH, the German 
" Punch," first published in Berlin, by Albert 
Hoffmann, the proprietor, originally a bookseller's 
assistant. He amassed a fortune, and died 10 Aug. 
1880, aged 62. 

KNEELING. The knee was ordered to be 
bent at the name of Jesus (see Philippians ii. 10), 
about the year 1275, by the order of the pope. The 
ceremony of a vassal kneeling to his lord is said to 
have begun in the 8th century. 

KNIGHTS. The word knight is derived from 
the Saxon Cniht, a servant {i.e., servant to the 
king, &c). The institution of the Roman knights 
{Equites or horsemen, from equus, a horse), is 
ascribed to Romulus, about 750 B.C., when the 
curiae elected 300. Knighthood was conferred in 
England by the priest at the altar, after confession 
and consecration of the sword, during the Saxon 
heptarchy. The first knight made by the sovereign 
with the sword of state was Athelstane, by Alfred, 
a.d. 900. Spelman. The custom of ecclesiastics 
conferring the honour of knighthood was sup- 
pressed in a synod held at Westminster in 
1 100. Ash-mole' s Institutes. Salmon. On the 
decline of the empire of Charlemagne, all Europe 
being reduced to a state of anarchy, the proprietor 
of every manor became a petty sovereign ; his 
mansion was fortified by a moat, and defended by a 
guard, and called a castle. Excursions were made 
by one petty lord against another, and the women 
and treasure were carried oft' by the conqueror At 
length the owners of rich fiefs associated to repress 
these marauders, to make property secure, and to 
protect the ladies ; binding themselves to these 
duties by a solemn vow, and the sanction of a 
religious ceremony. Cervantes' " Don Quixote," a 



KNIGHTS. 561 

satire on knight-errantry, was published in i6oq ■ 
see Banneret, Chivalry, Tournaments, Rolu Sepul- 
chre, John, and Michael. 



PRINCIPAL MILITARY, RELIGIOUS, AND HONORARY 
ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD.* 

African star, Congo state . 
Albert the Bear, Anlialt 
Albert, Saxony . 
Alcantara, instituted about . 
Alexander Nevskoi, St., Russia 
Amaranta, Sweden {female) 
Andrew, St., Russia . 



1156 
1722 
1645 



1191 
*73i 
1360 
161S 



1162 



Andrew, St. .Scotland (see Thistle) ' . '7S7/1540' 
Angehc Knights, Greece . 7 7 „°' 

Anne, St., Holstein, now Russia " 

Anuonciada, Savoy, about 

Annunciada, Mantua . 

Anthony, St. , Hainault " ' 

Anthony, St., Bavaria . 
Avis, Portugal, about 
Bannerets. See Bannerets. 

ttsSrltd 399 -. *"**&"**) ■ • • TO 

Bee, France {female) I213 

Bento d Avis, St. , Portugal' ' ' ' I7 ? 3 

Black Eagle, Prussia . Il62 

Blaise, St., Armenia, 12th century ' ' I?01 

Blood of Christ, Mantua . , 

Bridget, St., Sweden . l6 ° 8 

Broomflowers, Prance ' ' ' ' I3 

Brotherly (or Neighbourly) Love, Austria ( female-) ' t™r 
Ca atrava, Castile, instituted by Sancho III ' ' 7 8 

Catherine, St., Palestine 

Catherine, St. , Russia {female) 

Charles, St., Wurtemberg 

Charles X^stVe™^ 6o ™^™)> ^ain Ip 

Chase, Wurtemberg . l8lr 

Christ, Livonia I7 ° 2 

Christ, Portugal and Rome ' ' ' I2 ° 3 

• 1317 
• • 1558 

• 1783 



KNIGHTS. 

Francis Joseph, Austria 

Frederick, Wurtemberg 

Friesland (or Crown Royal), France 

Garter {which see), England . 

Generosity, Brandenburg 

Genet, France 

George, St., and the Reunion, Naples ' 

George, St., Angelic Knights . 

George, St. , Austria 



. 1849 

. . 1830 

. 802 

• ■ 1349 
. 1685 

• . 726 
1800 and 18 19 

. 1191 

G tion e: B St '' 1)7f '" 5el ' ° f the Maculate 'Conce 7 p: ' 494 



rter) 



1729 



1158 
1063 
1714 
1759 



George, St., England (see Garie, 

George, St., Genoa / ■ . . . 1349 

*47 2 

1839 

1818 

1492 

1769 

1317 

. 1200 

1190 

1522 



about 



George, St. , Hanover 

George, St. , Ionian Isles . 

George, St. , Rome 

George, St. , Russia . 

George, St. , Spain 

George, St., Venice . 

Gerion, St., Germany . 

Glaive, Sweden . 

Glory, Turkey . 

Golden Angel (afterwards St. George), 

Golden Falcon, Japan (which see) . 

Good *& inst ^ te 4 at Bruges by Philip the 9 
tiood, Austria and Spam ,„,,„ 

Golden Lion, Hesse Cassel ' ' • IO Jan - ^29 

Golden Lion, Nassau, and Holland ' ' ' lilt 

Golden Shield and Thistle, France . ' ' „£ 

Golden Spur, by Pius IV " 37 ° 

Golden Stole, Venice, before' ' ' ' I5S9 

Gregory, St., Rome 
Guelphie, Hanover 
Henry, St. , Saxony 
Henry the Lion, Brunswick 



737 
1831 
1815 
1736 



1618 
1660 



1217 
1822 



Christian Charity, France 
Cincinnati, America (soon dissolved) 
Compostello (see St. James) 
Conception of the Virgin 

Concord, Prussia 

Constantine, St., Constantinople, 'about 313 • by 
to n N e apTes. SaaC ' " 9 ° ; Parma > ^99 ; since removed 
Crescent, Naples, 1268. Revived 
Crescent, Turkey ■ . . . 

Cross of Christ . ' * ' " ■ lBo 

Cross of the South, Brazil 
Crown of Italy 
Crown of India (female) 
Crown of Oak, Netherlands 
Crown, Prussia . 
Crown Royal, France (Fries/and)' 
Crown, Wurtemberg 

D w!ioKffi^ the widow Louisa Eli - 

Denis, St., France . . 

Distinguished service, British army' 
Dog and Cock, France 

Dove of Castile . . 

Dragon, Hungary . ' 

Dragon Overthrown, German 

Eagle (see Black, Mexican, Red', White) 
Ear of Corn and Ermine, Brittany, about 
Elephant, Denmark (about 1 i QO ),' by Christian I ' 
Elizabeth, St., Portugal and Brazil (female) ' 

Elizabeth Theresa, Austria (female) ' ' ' 

Empire of India . . 

Esprit, St., France . 

Ferdinand, St., Naples . 

Ferdinand, St., Spain . ■ . . 

Fidelity, Baden . 

Fidelity, Denmark . 

Fools, Cleves . . 

Francis I., Two Sicilies 



31 Dee. 1877 



802 
1818 

1671 

1709 
1267 
1886 
500 
r 379 
J 439 
1418 

1442 
1462 
1801 
r 75o 
1877 
!579 



1715 
J 732 
1380 
1829 

and E tb! ar ?< e ?, and C 2 rr i Cte ^ d from Edmondson, CarlislT 
do htfnl £ lmana <* de Gotha ; " the earlv dates are 

iStS^-SSMg wcre iustitutcd ■"•*■ *£ 



Hermengilde, St., Spain ' ' ' ' J* 

Hohenzollern, Prussia ' ' " T 

Holy Ghost, France . ' 

Holy Sepulchre (which see) ' ' T ' ' 

Holy Vial (St. Remi), France ' ' IO "' 

Malta" 61 ' 8 (WMCh See) ' IO " ; 0f Rh odes, '1308'; of 

H cS) St B'aS any (by the dUke ° f Juliers '"* ' 
Imtiaz (Turkey) . ' • • • * 

Iron Cross, Prussia N<m » 

Iron Crown, Lombardy, 1805; revived ' ' 
linn Helmet, Hesse Cassel ' ' ' 

Isabella, St., Spam, 1804; Portugal ( female) ' 
Isabella the Catholic, Spain female) . 

James, St., Holland ' • • . . 

James, St., Portugal 

Ja aTdPo S rtuga f l the SW ° rd ' Santiago, ' II75: Spain 
Januarius, St. , Naples . ' " 

Jerusalem (see Malta) 

Jesus Christ, Rome, instituted by John XXII ' *"*" 

1320. Reformed as Jesus and Mary, by Paul V '' l6 , e 

Joachim, St., Germany ' ^ v - ' l0l 5 

John of Aeon, St. , after ' • ■ . . 1755 

JSt a^SSE* St . (see ^*)-'^ ■ ?3 

Joseph, St., Tuscany 

Julian of Alcantara, St 

Katherine St., England (female nurses) 

Knot, Najiles . . ' 

La CaJza, Venice, about 

Lamb of God, Sweden 

Lazarus, St., France, before 
of St. Maurice, Savoy 

Legion of Honour, France 

Leopold, Austria . 

Leopold, Belgium 

Lily of Aragon 

Lily of Navarre, about ' 

Lion, Holland 

Lion (see Sun) . 

Lion of Ziihringen, Baden' . 

Lioness, Naples, about • • . . 1S12 

Loretto, Lady of . ' ' J 399 

Louis, Bavaria . X 5S7 

Louis, Hesse Darmstadt ' ' l82 7 

Louis, St., France l8 °7 

Louisa, Prussia (female) ' '. ' ■ l6 93 

Malta (see Hospitallers). l8l 4 

Maria de Merced, St., Spain 

Maria Louisa, Spain (female) ' I2liJ 

Maria Theresa, Austria I7 9 2 

J 757 

O 



1814 
1851 

1579 
1496 

499 



1816 
1814 
1801 
1815 
1290 
1310 

"77 
1738 



181 



1154: united with that 



1156 
1879 
1352 
737 

1564 



1572 
1802 



1410 

1043 
1815 



KNIGHTS. 



582 



KOLA. 



Mark, St. , Venice, about 828. Renewed . . . 1562 

Martyrs, Palestine 1014 

Maurice, St., Savoy 1434 

Maximilian Joseph, Bavaria 1806 

Medjidie, Turkey 1852 

Merit, Bavaria 1808, 1866 

Merit, Belgium 1867 

Merit, Hesse Cassel . - ... . . . 1769 

Merit, Oldenburg 1838 

Merit, Prussia . . .... . . . 1740 

Merit, Saxony 1815 

Merit, Wiirtemberg 1859 

Merit, Military, Baden . 1807 

Mexican Eagle . . 1865 

Michael, St. , Bavaria 1693 

Michael, St., France 1469 

Michael, St., Germany . . . . . .1618 

Michael and George, Sts. , 1818 ; re-organised, March, 1869 

Montjoie, Jerusalem, before 1180 

Neighbourly Love, Austria (female) .... 1708 
Nicholas, St. (Argonauts of), Naples . . . . 1382 

Noble Passion, Saxony 1704 

Oak of Navarre, Spain 722 

Olaf, St., Sweden 1847 

Osmanie, Turkey ........ 1861 

Our Lady of Montesa 1316 

Our Lady of the Conception of Villa Vigosa . .1818 

Our Lady of the Lily, Navarre 1043 

Palatine Lion 1768 

Palm and Alligator, Africa, granted to Gov. Camp- 
bell in 1837 

Passion of Jesus Christ, France .... 1384 

Patrick, St. , Ireland 1783 

Paul, St., Rome 1540 

Pedro I. , Brazil T826 

Peter, Frederick Lewis, Oldenburg . . . 1838 

Peter, St., Rome 1530 

Philip, Hesse Darmstadt 1840 

Pius, founded by Pius IV 1559 

Pius IX. , Rome 1847 

Polar Star, Sweden. Revived 1748 

Porcupine, France .......... 1393 

Reale, Naples, about 1399 

Red Eagle, Prussia, 1705, 1712, 1734. Revived . 1792 

Redeemer (or Saviour), Greece 1833 

Remi, St. (or Holy Vial), about .... 499 

Rosary, Spain 1212 

Rose, Brazil 1829 

Round Table, England, by Alfred (see Garter), 516 or 528 
Royal Red Cross (female) . . .23 April, 1883 

Rue Crown, Saxony 1807 

Rupert, St., Germany 1701 

Saviour, Aragon 1118 

Saviour, or Redeemer, Greece 1833 

Saviour of the World, Sweden 1561 

Savoy, Italy 1815 

Scale, Castile, about 1316 

Scarf, Castile, 1330. Revived 1700 

Sepulchre, Holy, Palestine . . .... 1099 

Seraphim, Sweden 1260 or 1265 

Ship and Crescent, France 1 269 

Slaves of Virtue, Germany (female) . • . . . 1662 

Stanislas, St. . Poland . 1765 

Star, France 1022 

Star, Sicily 1351 

Star of India, British 1861 

Star of the Cross (female), Austria . . . . 1668 

Star of the North, Sweden 1748 

Stephen, St. , Hungary 1764 

Stephen, St., Tuscany 1561 

Sun and Lion, Persia 1808 

Swan, Flanders, about 500 

Swan, Prussia (female) ..... 1440, 1843 

Sword (or Silence), Cyprus, 1195 

Sword, Sweden, 1525. Revived 1748 

Templars (see Templars) 11 19 

Teste Morte (Death's Head), Wiirtemberg (female) . 1652 
Teutonic, Austria, about 1190; abolished, 1809; 

1522; re-organised 1840, 1865 

Thistle of Bourbon 1370 

Thistle, Scotland, 809. Revived . . 1540, 1687 

Thomas of Aeon, St. , after ... . 1377 

Toison d'Or (Golden Fleece) 1429 

Tower and Sword, Portugal, 1459. Revived . . 1808 
Tusin, or Hungarian Knights, about . . . 1562 

Two Sicilies 1808 

Vasa, Sweden 1772 

Vigilance, or White Falcon, Saxe-Weimar . . . 1732 



Virgin Mary, Italy . 1233 

Virgin of Mount Carmel, France 1607 

Wends, Mecklenburg 1864 

White Cross, Tuscany 1814 

White Eagle, Poland, about 1325. Revived . . 1705 

White Falcon, Saxe-Weimar 1732 

Wilhelm, Holland 1815 

Wing of St. Michael, Portugal n 72 

Wladimir, St., Russia 1782 

Female Knights. It is said that the first were, the 
women who preserved Tortosafrom the Moors in 1149, 
by their stout resistance. Large immunities were 
granted to the women and their descendants. Several 
female orders appear in the preceding list. Ladies 
have^een admitted to several male orders. 
Knights of Glyn and Kerry in Ireland. The heads 
of two branches of the family of Fitzgerald, who still 
enjoy the distinctions bestowed on their ancestors by 
sovereigns in the 13th century. The 19th knight of 
Kerry died 6th Aug. 1880. 
Knights of the Shire, or of Parliament ; summoned 
by the king's writ and chosen by the freeholders, first 
summoned by Simon de Montfort, in 1258, and in a 
more formal manner, 20 Jan. 1265. There are writs 
extant as far back as 11 Edward I., 1283. The knights 
are still girded with a sword when elected, as the writ 
prescribes. 
Knights of Labour. A large secret trade union in the 
United States, said to have been originated by a man 
named Stevens in Philadelphia in 1869, for protection 
of workmen against capitalists. They were ener- 
getic in the promotion of railway and other strikes, 
especially in Missouri in March, 1886. Head quarters 
at Philadelphia, May, 1886. The society is condemned 
by the pope. Decline of the order reported Aug. 1888 ; 
active in Aug. 1890. 

KNIVES. In England, Hallamshire (the 

country round Sheffield) has been renowned for its 
cutlery for five centuries; Chaucer speaks of the 
" Sheffield thwytel." Stow says that Richard 
Mathews on the Fleet-bridge was the first English- 
man who made fine knives, &c. ; and that he ob- 
tained a prohibition of foreign ones, 1563. Clasp 
or spring knives became common about 1650 ; com- 
ing originally from Flanders. — Knife -cleaning ma- 
chines were patented by Mr. George Kent in 1844 
and 1852 ; others have been invented, by Masters, 
Price, &c. ; see Forks. 

KNOW-NOTHINGS, a society which arose 
in 1853, in the United States of N. America. Their 
principles w r ere embodied in the following proposi- 
tions (at New York, 1855). They possessed several 
newspapers and had much political influence : — 

1. The Americans shall rule America. 

2. The Union of these States. 

3. No North, no South, no East, no West. 

4. The United States of America — as they are — one and 

inseparable. 

5. No sectarian- interferences in our legislation or in the 

administration of American law. 

6. Hostility to the assumption of the pope, through the 

bishops, &c, in a republic sanctified by Protestant 
blood. 

7. Thorough reform in the naturalisation laws. 

8. Free and liberal educational institutions for all sects 

and classes, with the Bible, God's holy word, as a 

universal text-book. 

A. society was formed in 1855 in opposition to the above, 

called Know-Somethings. Both bodies were absorbed 

into the two parties, Democrats and Republicans, at 

the presidential election in Nov. 1856. 

KNUTSFORD, Cheshire. The foundation 
stone of St. Paul's college for the northern counties 
here was laid, 24 Sept. 1873. 

KOH-I-NOOR, or " Mountain of Light," the 
East India diamond; see Diamonds. 

KOLA, a West African nut, from which is ob- 
tained, by grinding, a stimulating and sustaining- 
drug, much used by the natives in long journeys, 
enabling them to endure thirst and hunger. 



KOLIN. 



563 



KEOUMIES. 



KOLIN" or KOLLIN (Bohemia). Here the 
Austrian general Daun gained a signal victory over 
Frederick the Great of Prussia, 18 June, 1757. In 
commemoration, the military order of Maria Theresa 
was instituted by the empress-queen. 

KOLN, see Cologne. 

KOMOEN or COMORO (Hungary), an ancient 
fortress town, often taken and retaken during the 
wars with Turkey. Near it the Hungarians, under 
sjen. Klapka, defeated the Austrians, II July, 1849, 
hut surrendered the town 1 Oct. 

KONIEH (formerly Iconium) . Here the 
Turkish army was defeated by the pasha of Egypt, 
.after a long sanguinary fight, 21 Dec. 1832. The 
.grand vizier was taken prisoner. 

KONIGGBATZ (Bohemia). Near here was 
fought the decisive battle between the Austrians 
-commanded by marshal Benedek, and the Prussians 
■commanded by their king William I., 3 July, 1866. 
Prince Frederick Charles halted at Kammeniz on 
Monday, 2 July, his troops commenced their march 
;at midnight, and the first shot was fired about 7-30 
;a.m. 3 July. The attack began at Sadowa (after 
which the battle is also named) about 10 o'clock, 
and a desperate struggle ensued, the result ap- 
pearing uncertain, till the army of the crown prince 
■of Prussia arrived about i2 - 30. "When Chlum, 
which had been taken and lost seven times by the 
Prussians, was taken for the eighth time, the fate 
■of the day was decided ; and the retreat of the Aus- 
trians, at first orderly, became a hasty disastrous 
flight. About 400,000 men were engaged in this 
•battle, one of the greatest in modern times. The 
Austrians are said to have lost 174 guns, about 40,000 
killed and wounded, and 20,000 prisoners. The 
Prussians lost about io,OOOmen. The victory gave 
the supremacy in Germany to Prussia, unity to 
North Germany, and Venetia to Italy ; and led to 
the legislative independence of Hungary. 

KONIGSBEEG, the capital of east Prussia, 
was founded by the Teutonic knights in 1255, and 
•became the residence of the grand master in 1457. 
It joined the Hanseatic league in 1365. It was 
-ceded to the elector of Brandenburg in 1657, and 
here Frederick III. was crowned the first king of 
Prussia in 1701. It was held by the Russians 
3758-64, and by the French in 1807. Here king 
William I. and his queen were crowned, 18 Oct., 
«86i. Population, in 1885, 151,151; 1890, 161,528. 

KONIGSTEIN TUN (Nassau, Germany), 
most capacious, was built by Frederick Augustus, 
king of Poland, in 1725. It was made to hold 
233,667 gallons of wine ; and on the top, which was 
railed in, was accommodation for twenty persons to 
regale themselves. The famous tun of St. Bernard's 
was said to hold 800 tons ; see Heidelberg Tun. 

KOOKAS, a warlike reforming sect in N. W. 
India, founded by Baluk Ram about 1845, and after 
his death, about 1855, headed by Ram Singh, who 
preached the restoration of the old Sikh religion, 
which venerated cattle and punished their slaugh- 
terer. After several outrages against the Mahome- 
tans, an outbreak of the Kookas took place near 
Loodiana, which was vigorously suppressed, 15 
Jan. 1872, by commissioner Cowan, who ordered 
49 prisoners to be blown from cannon, 17 Jan. 
Several others were tried and executed by com- 
missioner Forsyth soon after. For this severity 
Mr. Cowan was ordered to be dismissed, and Mr. 
Forsyth removed to another station, April, 1872. 
The Kooka leaders claim 800,000 followers ; but 
the probable number is about one-tenth. 



KORAN or Alcoran (Al Kuran), the 

sacred book of the Mahometans, was written about 
610, by Mahomet (who asserted that it had been 
revealed to him by the angel Gabriel in twenty- 
three years), and published by Abu-bekr about 635. 
Its general aim was to unite the professors of idolatry 
and the Jews and Christians in the worship of one 
God (whose unity was the chief point inculcated), 
under certain laws and ceremonies, exacting obe- 
dience to Mahomet as the prophet. The leading ar- 
ticle of faith preached is compounded of an eternal 
truth and a necessary fiction, namely, that there is 
only one God, and that Mahomet is the apostle of God. 
Gibbon. The Koran was translated into Latin in 
1143; into French, 1647; into English by Sale, 
1734; and into other European languages, 1763 
et seq. It is a rhapsody of 6000 verses, divided 
into 114 sections; see Mahometanism, &c. 

KOBEISH, an Arab tribe which had the charge 
of the Caaba, or shrine of the sacred stone of Mecca, 
and strenuously opposed the pretensions of Maho- 
met. It was defeated by him and his adherents, 
623-30. 

KOSSOVA, see Cossova. 

KOSZTA AFF ALB. Martin Koszta, a Hunga- 
rian refugee, when in the United States in 1850, 
declared his intention of becoming an American 
citizen, and went through the preliminary forms. 
In 1853 he visited Smyrna, and on 21 June was 
seized by a boat's crew of the Austrian brig Huzzar. 
By direction of the American minister at Constan- 
tinople, captain Ingraham, of the American sloop St. 
Louis, demanded his release ; but having heard that 
the prisoner was to be clandestinely transported 
to Trieste, he demanded his surrender by a certain 
time, and prepared to attack the Austrian vessel on 
2 July; Koszta was then given up. On 1 Aug., the 
Austrian government protested against these pro- 
ceedings in a circular addressed to the European 
courts, but eventually a compromise was effected, 
and Koszta returned to the United States. 

KOYUNJIK, the site of the ancient Nineveh 
(ivhich see). 

KEAAL, a Dutch name for a South African 
village. See Zululand. 

KEAKATOA, see Java, 1883. 

KEAO. A hairy female Burmese child exhi- 
bited at the Westminster Aquarium, Jan. 1883 ; 
thought incorrectly by some to be a specimen of 
the missing link between man and the anthropoid 
apes. 

KEASNOI (central Russia). Here the French 
defeated the Russians, 15 Aug. 1812 ; and here they 
were themselves defeated after a series of conflicts, 
14-18 Nov. following. 

KEEASOTE, see Creasote. 

KBEMLIN, a palace at Moscow, built by De- 
metri, grand-duke of Russia, about 1376. It was 
burnt down in Sept. 1812, and rebuilt in 1816 ; 
partl3 r burnt about 23 Jul}', 1879. 

KBIEGSPIEL, see War Game. 

KEOMSCHBODEB GAS, a new hydro- 
carbon (air saturated with petroleum spirit), was 
tried in May, 1873, at Great Marlow, for street 
lighting, and reported successful. The gas was 
said to be cheap and quickly generated, the com- 
bustion giving a brilliant white smokeless light. 

KEOUMIES, see Tunis. 

o o 2 



KEITPP. 



564 



KYELE SOCIETY. 



KETJPP'S CAST STEEL Factory, Essen, 
Bhenish Prussia, established 1810. About 10,500 
men employed, exclusive of about 5000 miners and 
others (1876). 

KEYPTOGEAPH, see Cryptograph. 

KIT KUX KLAN, the name of a secret society 
in the southern states of the Union, principally in 
Tennessee in North America, bitterly opposed to the 
ruling men. Early in 1868, this society issued lists 
of proscribed persons, who, if they did not quit the 
country after warning, becameliable to assassination. 
General Grant endeavoured to suppress this society 
in April. Its repression by the militia in Arkansas 
was ordered, Nov. 1868, and it became the subject 
of legislation at Washington, June, 1871. 

KULD JA, a revolted province of China ; was 
seized by Bussia in 1871, and restored by treaty 
in 1879. 

KULTUE-KAMPF, the conflict in Prussia 
respecting worship, see Prussia, 1873, et seq. 

KUNNEESDOEF, Battle of, see Own- 

nersdorf. 

KTJNOBITZA, in the Balkan. Here John 
Hunniades, the Hungarian, defeated the Turks, 24 
Dec. 1443. 

KUEDISTAIST, Western Asia (the ancient 



Assyria), subject partly to Turkey and Persia. 
In Oct. 1880, the Kurds, savage tribes, nominal 
Mahometans, invaded and ravaged Persia, andi 
were subdued after fierce conflicts with then - chief, 
Obeid-ullah, a Turkish sheikh, Nov. Dec. 1880, 
In 1 88 1 he went to Constantinople and was well re- 
ceived, but kept in a kind of honourable restraint, 
Sept 1881. In Sept. 1882 he escaped to Kurdistan 
and incited the Kurds to revolt against Persia ; 
captured by the Turks ; rescued by his son, Nov. 
1882 ; said to have died at Mecca in 1883. 

KUEEACHEE, a flourishing port in N. W„ 
India, capital of Sind, was taken by the British, 3 
Feb. 1839. 

KUSHK-I-NAKHTJD, see Maiwand. 

KUSTEIN" or CUSTREST (Prussia), a fortified 
town, besieged and burnt by the Eussians, 22 Aug, 
1758 ; taken by the French in 1806 ; given up, 1814. 

KYELE SOCIETY (named after John Kyrle, 
who died 1724, extolled by Pope as the Man of 
Eoss), started by Misses Miranda and Octavia Hill 
in 1875, and founded in 1877 by prince Leopold, 
princess Louise, the duke of Westminster, and 
others, with the object of "bringing beauty home 
to the people," by means of decorative art, gar- 
dening, music, &c. First public meeting held 
27 Jan. 1881. 



L. 



s. d. 



LADOCEA. 



L. 



d. see Coin. 



LABARUM, see Standards. 

LABORATORY- The Royal Institution labo- 
ratory, the first of any importance in London, was 
established in 1800, and rebuilt, 1872. In it were 
made the discoveries of Davy, Faraday, Tyndall, 
and Frankland ; see Royal Institution. The Royal 
Laboratory, Woolwich Arsenal, was re-organised in 

LABOUR COMMISSION. The relations 
between capital and labour having been greatly 
disturbed in recent years, especially since 1888, 
leading to many strikes, the government were in- 
duced to appoint a royal commission " to inquire 
into the relations between employers and employed, 
and to report whether legislation can with advan- 
tage be directed to remedy any evils that may be 
disclosed," &c. 

Among the persons nominated, 10 April, 1891, were 
the following : the marquis of Hartington (duke 
of Devonshire, 21 Dee. 1891) chairman, the earl of 
Derby, sir M. Hicks-Beach, Mr. Mundella, Mr. 
Courtnev, Mr. Jesse Collings, Mr. Burt, sir F. 
Pollock," Mr. Tom Mann, Mr. Plimsoll, with 
several chairmen of public companies and em- 
ployers of labour. Secretaries, Mr. John Burnett 
and Mr. Geoffrey Drage. Miss Orme, Miss Abra- 
hams, Miss Collett and Miss Irwin were appointed 
lady sub-commissioners .... March 1892 
First meeting, the marquis of Hartington in the 

chair 1 May 1891 

The first report laid before parliament . 1 April 1892 

LABOUR QUESTION. The relations be- 
tween capital and labour have been much discussed 
in recent years. See Germany, 1889-90 ; Berlin, 
Strikes, Trades Union, Shipping, Gas Light, 

Working-men, (Labour Day), I May, 1890-2, 

United States, 1 Sept. 1890-2. 

LABOURERS, Statute of, regulating 

wH&es, enacted 1349, 1357. A conference of philan- 
thropists on the condition of agricultural labourers 
was held at Willis's rooms, Westminster, 28 March, 
1868. La.bouj.ung Classes Dwelling House Acts, 
passed, 1855, and May, 1866. Labourers' (Ire- 
land) Act passed 1886. See Agriculture, Artisans, 
and Working-men. 

A labourers' league was established to assist the 
labourers in the exercise of the rights given 
them by the Local Government Act . May, 1888 

LABRADOR (North America), discovered by 
Sebastian Cabot, 1497 ; visited by Corte Real in 
1500 ; made a Moravian missionary station in 1771. 
Much distress through famine reported Sept. 1884. 

LABUAN, an Asiatic island, N. W. Borneo; 
ceded to the British in 1846, and given up to sir 
James Brooke in 1848. The bishopric was founded 
1855. Governor, John Pope Hennessy, 1867, sir II. 
E. Bulwer, 1871 ; Herbert Taylor "Usher, 1875; 
Chas. Cameron Lees, 1879; P. "Leys, 1884; Van- 
deleur Creagh Nov. 1889. Labuan was given up 
to the North Borneo company in 1889. Successful 
progress reported Nov. 1890; see Borneo. 

LABURNUM? Cytisus laburnum, called also 
the golden chain, was brought to these countries 
from Hungary, Austria, &c, about IS7°- Ashe. 



LABYRINTHS. Four are mentioned: the 
first, said to have been built by Doedaius, in the 
island of Crete, to secure the Minotaur, about 1210 
B.C. ; the second, of Arsinoe, in Egypt, in the isle 
of Mosris, by Psammeticus, king of that place, about 
665 B.C.; the third, at Lemnos, remarkable for its 
sumptuous pillars, which seems to have been a sta- 
lactite grotto ; and the fourth, at Clusium, in Italy, 
erected by Porsenna, king of Etruria, about 520 B.C. 
Pliny. The labyrinth of Woodstock is connected 
with the story of Fair Rosamond ; see Rosamond. 
The Maze at Hampton Court was formed by 
William III. in the 17th century. 

LACE is said to have been made in the 14th 
century in France and Flanders. Its importation 
into England was prohibited in 1483 ; but it was used 
in the court costume of Elizabeth's reign. Dresden, 
Valenciennes, Mechlin, and Brussels, have long been 
famous for their fine lace. An ounce weight of 
Flanders thread has been frequently sold for four 
pounds in London ; and its value, when manufac- 
tured, has been increased to forty pounds, ten times 
the price of standard gold. A framework knitter of 
Nottingham, named Hammond, is said to have in- 
vented a mode of applying his stocking-frame to the 
manufacture of lace from studying the lace on his 
wife's cap, about 1768. Macculloch. So many 
improvements have been made in this manufacture, 
particularly by Heathcote (1809, 1817, &c), Morley 
and Leaver (181 1, &c.), that a piece of lace which 
about 1809 cost 17^. may now be had for js. (1853). 
Ure. The process of "gassing" by which cotton 
lace is said to be made equal to fine linen lace, was 
invented by Samuel Hall of Basford, near Notting- 
ham. He died in Nov. 1862. Seguin's "La Den- 
telle ; Histoire," &c, published, 1874. Dish lace 
exhibition at the Mansion House, London, 25 June- 
7 July, 1883. Scheme for encouraging the Irish 
lace manufacture supported by the government, 
^ne, 1884. Mrs. Bury Palliser's "History of 
j_ .ce," 3rd edition, 1875. 

LACED.ZEMON or LACONIA (Tzakonia), see 
Sparta. 

LA CROSSE. A game of ball, with running, 
among the Red Indians of Canada ; adopted succes- 
sively by the French and English settlers, and 
transmitted to the United States and to the United 
Kingdom. Its rules were systematised by Dr. Beers 
in i860. Many clubs have been formed. 

_ LACTEALS (absorbent vessels connected with 
digestion), were discovered in a dog by Jasper 
Asellius of Cremona, 1622, and their termination in 
the thoracic duct by Pecquet, 165 1 ; see Lymphatics. 

LADIES' COLLEGES, see under GlRTON 
College. 

LADIES' NATIONAL AID ASSOCIA- 
TION, formed to contribute to the relief of the 
sick and wounded in the Soudan and Egypt. Ori- 
ginated by the duchesses of Buccleuch, St. Albans, 
and Marlborough, the marchioness of Salisbury and 
others, Feb. 1885. Sec Aid. 

LADOCEA, in Arcadia. Here Clcoraenes III. 
king of Spai ta, defeated the Achaean league, 226 B.C. 



LADEONE ISLES. 



566 



LAMMAS-DAT. 



LADEONE ISLES (N. Pacific), belonging to 
Spain, discovered by Magellan in 1520. lie first 
touched at the island of Guam. The natives having 
stolen some of his goods, he named the islands the 
Ladrones, or Thieves. In the 17th century they 
obtained the name of Marianna islands from the 
queen of Spain. 

LADY. The masters and mistresses of manor- 
houses, in former times, served out bread to the poor 
weekly ; and were therefore called Lafords and Lef- 
days — signifying bread givers (from hlaf, a loaf) : 
hence Lords and Ladies. Wedgewood considers this 
fanciful, and derives the words from the Anglo- 
Saxon, laford, lord, and hlcefdig, lady. — Lady day 
(March 25), a festival instituted about 350, according 
to some authorities, and not before the 7th century 
according to others ; see Annunciation^. The year, 
which previously began on this day, was ordered to 
begin on Jan. i,in France in 1564; and in Scotland, 
by proclamation, on 17 Dec. 1599; but not in Eng- 
land till 3 Sept. 1752, when the style was altered. 

LADY-BIEDS. About 18th August, 1869, 
great flights of these insects alighted on the S.L. 
coasts of England, and arrived as far as London; a 
similar event occuired in 1867. 

LAFFELDT, Holland. Here marshal Saxe 
defeated the English, Dutch, and Austrians, 2 July, 
1747- 

LAGOS, in the Bight of Benin (Africa), was 
assaulted and taken by the boats of a British squa- 
dron, under commodore Bruce, 26, 27 Dec. 1851. This 
affair arose out of breaches of a treaty for the sup- 
pression of the slave-trade. In 1861, the place was 
ceded to the British government, and created a set- 
tlement : Henry Stanhope Freeman, first governor, 
see Gold Coast Colony. 
Governor, sir Cornelius A. Moloney in 1SS9 ; 

Gilbert T. Carter in Feb. 1891 

Treaty with the king of Jebu securing freedom of 

roads, signed at Lagos by delegates . 21 Jan. 1892 
The Jebus and Egbas threaten Lagos and the Gold 

Coast; trade suspended, about 21 April ; this is 

checked by the arrival of troops under capts. 

Bayly and Larrymore, major Madden and col. 

Scott April 1892 

The Jebus repulsed in their attack on Col. Scott's 

expedition and their villages taken 12 May et se.q. ,, 
Total defeat of the Jebus, surrender of the king, 

Jebu Ode occupied, army dispersed . May 17-20 ,, 
The, road for traders opened, tranquillity restored 

27 May ,, 

LAGOS BAY (Portugal). Here was fought a 
battle between admiral Boscawen and the French 
admiral De la Clue, who lost both his legs in the 
engagement, and died next day, 17, 18 Aug. 1759. 
The Centaur and Modcste were taken, and the Re- 
doubtable and Ocean run on shore and burnt : the 
scattered remains of the French fleet got into Cadiz. 

LAHOGUE (correctly Hague) (N.W.France), 
Battle of, 19 May, 1692, when the English and 
Dutch fleets under admirals Russell and Booke, de- 
feated the French fleet commanded by admiral Tour- 
ville. The English burnt thirteen of the enemy's 
ships, and destroyed eight more, thus preventing a 
descent upon England. 

LAHORE (N. W. India), was taken by Baber 
about 1520, and was long the capital of the Mongol 
empire. It fell into the power of the Sikhs in 1798. 
It was occupied by sir Hugh Gough, 22 Feb. 1846, 
who in March concluded a treaty of peace. See 
Durbar. Visit of the prince of Wales, 18 Jan. 1876, 
and of his son prince Albert Victor, who laid the 
foundation stone of the "Jubilee Museum and 
Technical Institute of the Punjab," 2-5 Feb. 1890. 
Population in 1891, 176,120. 



LAING'S NEK, see Transvaal, 1881. 

LAKE DWELLINGS contain relics of the 
stone, iron, and brass ages. Herodotus (about 450 
B.C.) described the Pseonians as living on platforms 
in Lake Prasias. In 1855, Dr. Keller discovered 
the remains of lake habitations whichhadbeen sup- 
ported on piles in several Swiss lakes ages ago; His 
book was published in England in 1866. Similar 
relics discovered in lake Constance, March, 1882 ; 
they have also been discovered in Britain and 
various parts of Europe, Africa, and South America; 
they are now considered to be evidence of a stage in 
human progress. The artificial fortified islands- 
termed "Crannoges" discovered in some Irish lakes 
are attributed to the 9th and 10th Centuries. They 
have been frequently used as places of refuge. 
Artificial lake, see under Liverpool, 1881 et seq. 

LAKE POETS, a term applied to Wordsworth 
(1770-1850), Coleridge (1772-1834), and Southey 
(1774-1843), from their residence in the neighbour- 
hood of the lakes of Westmoreland. 

LAKE EEGILLUS (Italy), where, tradition 
states, the Romans defeated the Latin auxiliaries of 
the expelled Tarquins, about 498 B.C. 

LAKES CHAMPLAIN, ERIE, aot> ON- 
TAEIO were the scenes of many actions between 
the British and Americans in the war of indepen- 
dence (about 1776 and 1777), and in the war of 
1813-14. 

LAMAISM, the religion of Mongolia and Thibet; 
(dating about 1357), is a corrupt form of Buddhism 
{which see) . 

LAMBETH, parish, N. E. Surrey, became the 
seat of the abps. of Canterbury, 1 197. Lambeth 
returned two members by the Reform Act of 1832, 
and four by act of 1885. Population, 188 1, 253,699 ; 
1891, 279,202. 

Lambeth Palace. A considerable portion was 
built in the 13th century, by Hubert Walter, 
archbishop of Canterbury. The tower of the 
church was erected about 1375; and other parts of 
the edifice in the 15th century. Simon of Sudbury, 
archbishop of Canterbury, was killed here by the 
followers of Wat Tyler, who attacked the palace, 
burnt the furniture and books, and destroyed the 
registers and public papers, 14 June, 1381. The 
domestic portion of the palace was greatly enlarged 
for archbishop Howley (who died 1848), by Mr. 
Blore, at an expense of 52,000/. The palace was- 
reopened after restoration, Oct. 1873 ; see Canter- 
bury, Articles. For Lambeth Conference see Pan- 
Anglican Synods. Lambeth bridge was freed from 
toil 24 May, 1879. 

Lambeth degrees are those conferred by the archbishop of 
Canterbury by virtue of 25 Henry YIIL, c. 21., 1533-4. 

LAMIAN WAE, 323 b.c. (excited by Demos- 
thenes, the orator), between Athens a«d her allies- 
and Antipater, governor of Macedon. Antipater 
fled to Lamia, in Thessaly, and was there besieged. 
He escaped thence and defeated his adversaries at 
Cranon, 322 B.C. 

LAMMAS-DAY, the 1st of August, one of our 
four cross quarter-days of the year. Whitsuntide 
was the first, Lammas the second, Martinmas the 
third, and Candlemas the last ; and such partition 
of the year was once equally common with the pre- 
sent divisions of Ladyday, Midsummer, Michaelmas, 
and Christmas. Some rents are yet payable at each 
of these quarterly days in England, and very gene- 
rally in Scotland. Lammas probably comes from 
the Saxon hlainni(essc, loaf mass, because formerly 
upon that day our ancestors offered bread made of 



LAMPETEE COLLEGE. 



567 



LAND. 



newwheat. Anciently, those tenants that held lands 
of the cathedral church of York were by tenure to 
bring 1 a lamb alive into church at high mass. 

LAMPETEE COLLEGE (Cardiganshire), 
was founded by bishop Burgess in 1822, and 
incorporated 1828. Henry James Prince, founder 
of the Agapemone {which see), was one of the 
revivalist Lampeter brotherhood, instituted among 
the students here about 1836. 

LAMPS. The earthen lamp of Epicfetus the 
philosopher sold after his death for 3000 drachmas. 
Lamps with horn sides said to be the invention of 
Alfred. London streets were first lighted with oil- 
lamps in 1681, and with gas-lamps iu 1814. A 
lamp "constructed to produce neither smoke nor 
smell, and to give considerably more light than any 
lamp hitherto known," was patented by M. Ainie 
Argand in 1 784, and was brought into general use 
in England early in the present century. On his 
principle are founded the lamps invented by Carcel 
about 1803, and since 1825, the moderator lamps of 
Levavasseur, Hadrot, and Neuburger. See Safety 
Lamp. Paraffin oil and naphtha spirit are now 
much used in lamps. The Water Safety Lamp in- 
vented by Mr. Devoll, was tried and approved 
2 June, 1S90. The flame is extinguished by the 
water if the lamp is overturned. 

LANAEK (W. Scotland), was aRoman station, 
and made a royal burgh 1103. 

LANCASHIEE was created a county palatine 
by Edward III. for his son John of Gaunt, who had 
married the daughter of Henry first duke of Lan- 
caster, in 1359, and succeeded him in 1362. The 
court of the duchy chamber of Lancaster was 
instituted in 1376. On the accession of Henry IV. 
in 1399 the duchy merged into the crown. Net 
revenue to the queen in 1888, 50,000/. ; total 
receipts, 86,284/. For chancellors, fee Grey, and 
other administrations. See Cotton. 

LANCASTEE, supposed to have been the 
Ad Alaunam of the Romans. Lancaster was 
granted by William I. or IT. to Roger de Poitou, 
who erected a castle upon its hill. It was taken 
by the Jacobites, Nov. 1715 and Nov. 1745. It was 
disfranchised for bribery by the Reform act of 
1867. The public park, value about 23,000/., was 
presented by Mr. Jas. Williamson, of Ry lands, 21 
Nov. 1 88 1." The Storey Institute (technical), 
founded by sir Thomas Storey by a gift of 20,000/. 
in memory of the queen's jubilee in 1887 when he 
was mayor, opened by the marquis of Hartington, 
23 Oct. 1891. Population, 18S1, 24,239; 1891 
31-038. 

LANCASTEEIAN SCHOOLS,, based on a 
system of education by means of mutual instruction, 
devised by Joseph Lancaster about 1796, were not 
much patronised till about 1808. The system led 
to the formation of the British and Foreign School 
society, in 1805, whose schools are unsectarian, and 
use the Bible as the only means of religious instruc- 
tion. Lancaster was accidentally killed at New 
York in 1838. 

LANCASTEIANS, see Roses. 

LANCEES, see Regiments. 

LANCET, a weekly medical journal, established 
and edited by Thomas Wakley, surgeon (after- 
wards coroner for Middlesex and M.P.for Finsbury), 
first published 3 Oct. 1823. An injunction obtained 
by Mr. Abernethy %gainst the publication of his 
lectures in the "Lancet," was dissolved by the lord 
chancellor in 1825. Mr. Wakley died 16 May, 



1862. The proprietors of the "Lancet" have at 
various times employed medical men as commis- 
sioners of enquiry. The reports of the Analytical 
Sanitary Commission of the " Lancet" in 1851-54, 
were published by Dr. A. H. Hassall, as " Food and 
its Adulterations," in 1855. The "Lancet" com- 
missioners (three physicians) enquired into the 
state of workhouse infirmaries in London, 1865, and 
in the country, 1867. 

LAND is said to have been let generally in 
England for is. per acre, 36 Hen. VIII. 1544. The 
whole rental of the kingdom was about 0,000,000/. 
in 1600 ; about 14,000,000/. in 1688. In 1798 Mr. 
Pitt proposed his income tax of 10 per cent, on an 
estimate of 100 millions, taking the rent of land at 
50 millions, that of houses at 10 million*, and the 
profits of trade at 40 millions ; but in his estimate 
were exempted much land, and the inferior class of 
houses. The rental of the United Kingdom was 
estimated at 59,500,000/. in 1851. An act for ren- 
dering the transfer of land more easy was pas-ed in 
1862 ; see Agriculture, Domesday, old and new. 
A species of Land-tax was exacted in England in the 
10th century, which produced 82,000?. (see Banc- 
gelt) in 1018 

Land Banks were proposed by Yarranton in . . 1648 
The Land-tax grew out of a subsidy scheme of 4s. in 
the pound (which produced 500,000?. in 1692), im- 
posed 1699 

Ministers were left in a minority in the house of 
commons on the land tax bill in 1767; it being 
the first instance of the kind on a money but 
since the revolution. Its rate varied in different 
years from is. to 4.S. in the pound 
Mr. Pitt made the tax perpetual at 4s. in the pound, 
but introduced his plan for its redemption, 

2 April, 1798 
The tax in 1810 produced 1,418,337?. ; in 1820, 
1,338,420?. ; in 1830, 1,423,618?. ; in 1840, 1,298,622?. ; 
in 1852, 1,151,613?. ; in year 1872-3, 1,108,225?. 
in 1875-6, 1,090,177?.; 1880, 1,047,000?.; 1885, 
1,065,000?. ; 1891, 1,030,000?. From the revolu- 
tion to the year 1800, the land-tax had yielded 
227,000,000?. 
Land-tax and house-duty (to 31 March), in 1873, 
2,440,000?. ; 1876, 2,496,000?. ; 1877, 2,532,000/. ; 
1878, 2,670,000?. ; 1879, 1,075,511?. (land tax only). 
Land Allotments. Lord Braybrooke's successful 
experiment in Essex, of allotting small portions 
of land to poor families, to assist them and relieve 

the parish poor-rates 18 19 

[The little colony was first called Pauper Gardens, 
but afterwards Nexv Village, and it is calculated 
that 200?. per annum were saved to the parish.] 
Landed Estates Court, established to "facilitate the 
sale and transfer of land in Ireland " (see Encum- 
bered Estates Act) 1858 

The Land Registry office for transfer of land opened 
in 1862 ; reported to be a failure by a commission, 

March, 1870 
Land Tenure Reform League held its first 

meeting, John Stuart Mill in the chair, 15 May, 1871 
Bill to facilitate sale and transfer of land by means 
of registration brought in by lord chancellor Sel- 
borne, 29 April, 1873 ; by lord chancellor Cairns, 

26 March, 1S74 
The transfer of land in Scotland facilitated by the 

conveyancing act passed . . .7 Aug. ,, 

Agricultural holding act and land transfer act for 

England passed 13 Aug. 1875 

4 bills respecting land introduced by lord chancellor 

Cairns 23 Feb. 1880 

Owners of Land in England and Wales (exclusive of 
the metropolis), of less than one acre, 703,289; 
one acre and more, 269,547. Estimated value, 
124,000,000?. ; tithes — estimated, 5,000,000?. 

Settled Land Act passed 1882 

[Tenants for life acquire power to sell or lease and 

use the proceeds.] 
A new land commission unites in one body the En- 
closure, Copyhold, and Tithes commissions . . ,, 
New Agricultural Holdings Act passed . . . 1883 
Nationalization of the land advocated by the Trade 



LAND CREDIT COMPANY. 



568 



LANGUAGE. 



Union Congress, 1882 ; negatived by the same at 
Nottingham (90-34) .... 14 Sept. 1883 
The National Land Company founded by the 
dukes of Argyll and Westminster, the earl of 
Ripon, and others, for the object of buying land 
to be sold in small portions to be farmed, 24 April, 1885 
Purchase of land (Ireland) act passed, 14 Aug. ■ 
1885 ; said to have worked well ; another act 
passed, see Ireland .... 24 Dec. 1888 
Allotments and small holdings association founded 
to carry out the allotments act of 1882, 1883-4 > 
second annual meeting . . . 11 Jan. 1886 
The political cry "Three acres and a cow" much 
used during the elections of Nov.-Dec. 1885 (said 
to have originated in a handbill printed at Bir- 
mingham), and to have been acted upon by lord 
Tollemache in regard to his labourers. He died 
9 Dec. 1890, aged 85. ,, 

Free land league formed, supported by Mr. Arthur 
Arnold and others ; it proposes nationalization 
of the land and changes in tenure and transfer 1885-6 
Irish land commission ; earl Cowper, lord Miltown, 
sir J. Caird and others, announced 21 Sept. 1886 ; 

report presented 24 Feb. 1887 

Land, transfer bill (England) read second time in 

the lords, 25 April, 1887 [dropped]. 
New Irish land bill passed ... 23 Aug. ,, 
Allotments in England and Wales, 643,315 existing in 1886 
Allotments act enabling sanitary authorities to 
acquire land, make arrangements, &c, passed 

16 Sept. 1887 
Welsh land league formed (see under Wales) . „ 
Large reduction of rents ordered by the land com- 
mission 27 Oct. ,, 

Lord Ashbourne's purchase of land act passed (see 
Ireland) 14 Aug. 1885 ; another act passed 24 
Dec. 1888 ; great success reported Nov. 1889. 
Land had been sold amounting in value to 
3,792,532^. up to . . . -31 Dec. 1888 

The lord chancellor's land transfer bill dropped 

5 July 1889 

New allotment act passed 1890 

New purchase of land bill introduced by Mr. A. J. 
Balfour (see Ireland), 24 March, 1890 ; dropped, 
14 July, 1890 ; re-introduced in two parts, 27 Nov.; 
2nd reading, 3 Dec. 1890 ; passed . . 5 Aug. 1891 
[This act provides further funds for the purchase of 
land in Ireland, and makes permanent the Land 
Commission, it also creates a Congested Districts 
Board.] 

LAND CREDIT COMPANY (for Silesia), 
established by Frederick the Great ; see Credits 
Fonder s, 1763. 

LAND LAW ACT, see Irish Land Law Act. 

LANDEN or NeERWINDEN (Belgium). 
Near here the French under marshal Luxembourg 
defeated the allies, commanded by William III. of 
England, chiefly through the cowardice of the 
Butch, 19 July (N.S. 29), 1693. The duke of Ber- 
wick, illegitimate son of James II., fighting on the 
side of France, was taken prisoner. 

LANDGEAVE (from land and graf, a 
count), a German title, which commenced in 1130 
with Louis III. of Thuringia, and became the title 
of the house of Hesse about 1263. 

LAND LEAGUE, see under Leagues and 
Ireland, 1879. 

LANDLORD, see Sent and Ireland, 1887, et 
seq. 

LANDLORD AND TENANT ACT (Ire- 
laud), passed I Aug. 1870. 

LAND NATIONALIZATION SO- 
CIETY, formed at Westminster 16 Jan. 1882. The 
object has been warmly advocated by Mr. Henry 
George in his "Progress and Poverty," published 
Feb. 1881, and since. He condemns compensation. 
He met about 2,000 men at the Royal Exchange, 
London, 17 Jan. 1885. 



LANDSHUT (Silesia), where the Prussians 
were defeated by the Austrians under marshal 
Laudohn, 23 June, 1760. 

LANDSLIPS. Landslips are due to decay of 

the rocks or excessive saturation of the soil by 

rain. 

Rossberg mountain behind the Rigi slipped down, 
burying villages and hamlets with above 800 in- 
habitants 1806 

Lyme Regis, Dorset, a strip of chalk cliff three- 
fourths of a mile long, between 100 and 150 feet 
high, undermined by rain, slid forward on the 
beach, carrying fields, houses, and trees 

24 — 27 Dec. 1839 

Naini or Nynee Tal, a sanitary hill-station in the 
Himalayas, India, was destroyed by the descent 
of the mountain ; about 30 valuable British lives 
(including major Martin Morphy, col. Fred. Sher- 
wood Taylor, and capts. F. T. Goodeve, H. S. F. 
Haynes, and A. Balderston) and 200 natives 
perished 18 Sept. 1880 

Near Northwich, Cheshire, salt works stopped 

- 6 Dec. et seq. ,, 

Elm, Glarus Canton; fall of about 30 houses; above 
150 persons perished . . . .11 Sept. 1881 
See Quebec, 1889. 

LANDWEHR (German, land-defence).' A 
force so named was raised in Austria in 1805, and in 
Prussia in 1813, against the French. This force, 
the militia of Germany, especially of Prussia, 
was very effective in the war with Austria in 1866, 
and in that with France in 1870. No ranks in life 
are exempt from this service, and many persons in 
foreign countries returned to serve in 1870. 

LANGD ALES ACT, Lord, 7 Will. IV. & 
I Vict. c. 26 (1837), relates to copyholds, &c. 

LANGENSALZA (N. Germany). Here the 
Hanoverian army on its way to join the Bavarians 
was attacked by the Prussians, who were defeated 
with the loss of about a thousand killed and 
wounded, and 012 prisoners, 27 June, 1866. The 
victory was of little avail, for the Hanoverians 
were soon surrounded by Falckenstein, and com- 
pelled to capitulate on honourable terms on 29 
June. 

LANGOBARDI, see Lombards. 

LANGSIDE (S. Scotland), where the forces 
of the regent of Scotland, the earl of Murray, de- 
feated the army of Mary queen of Scots, 13 May, 
1568. Mary fled to England and crossed the Solway 
Frith, landing at Workington, in Cumberland, 16 
May. Soon afterwards she was imprisoned by 
Elizabeth. 

LANGUAGE must either have been revealed 
originally from heaven, or the fruit of human 
invention. The latter opinion is embraced by 
Horace, Lucretius, Cicero, and most of the Greek 
and Roman writers ; the former by the Jews and 
Christians, and many modern philosophers. Some 
suppose Hebrew to have been the language spoken 
by Adam ; others say that the Hebrew, Chaldee, 
and Arabic are only dialects of the original tongue. 
" And the whole earth was of one language and of 
one speech," Genesis xi. 1.* George I. in 1724, and 
George II. in 1736, appointed regius professors of 
modern languages and of history to each of the 
universities of England. 

* Eminent Linguists. — Anas Montanus, editor of the 
Antwerp Polygiott Bible (1527-98) ; sir Win. Jones 
(1746-94) ; Cardinal Giuseppe Mezzofanti (1774-1849) is 
said to have known 114 languages or dialects, and 50 
well ; and Niebuhr (1776-1831) knew 20 languages in 
1807, and more afterwards ; Hans Cononvonder Gabe- 
lentz knew many languages critically : he died 3 Sept. 
1874, aged nearly 67. 



LANGUE D'OC. 



569 



LATEEAN. 



The original European languages were thirteen, viz. : 
Greek, Latin, German, Selavonian, spoken in the east; 
"Welsh ; Biscayan, spoken in Spain ; Irish ; Albanian, 
in the mountains of Epirus ; Tartarian ; the old 
Illyriau ; the Jazygian, remaining yet in Liburnia ; the 
Chaucin, in the north of Hungary ; and the Finnic, in 
east Friesland. 

From the Latin sprang the Italian, French, Spanish, and 
Portuguese. 

The Turkish is a mixed dialect of the Tartarian. 

From the Teutonic sprang the present German, Danish, 
Swedish, Norwegian, English, Scotch, &c. 

There are 3424 known languages, or rather dialects, in 
the world. Of these, 937 are Asiatic ; 587 European ; 
276 African ; and 1624 American languages and dialects. 
Adelung. 

In 1861 and 1862 professor Max Miiller lectured on the 
"Science of Language" at the Eoyal Institution, 
London. He divides languages into three families : — 

I. Aryan (in Sanskrit, noble). 

Southern Division. India (Prakrit, and Pali ; Sanskrit ; 
dialects of India ; Gipsy). 

Iranic (Parsi ; Armenian, &c). 

Northern Division. Celtic (Cymric : Cornish, Welsh, 
Manx, Gaelic, Breton, &c. ). 

Italic (Oscan ; Latin ; Umbrian ; — Italian, Spanish, Por- 
tuguese, French, &c). 

Illyric (Albanian). 

Hellenic (Greek, and its dialects). 

Wendic (Lettic : Old Prussian ; Slavonic dialects, — 
Bohemian, Russian, Polish, Lithuanian, &c). 

Teutonic (High German : Modern German ; Low German : 
Gothic ; Anglo-Saxon ; Dutch ; Frisian ; English. 
Scandinavian: Old Norse, Danish, Swedish, Nor- 
wegian, Icelandic). 

II. Semitic : Southern. Arabic (including Ethiopia 
and Amharic). Middle. Hebraic (Hebrew, Samaritan, 
Phoenician inscriptions). Northern. Aramaic (Chaldee, 
Syriac, Cuneiform inscriptions of Babylon and 
Nineveh). 

• III. Turanian (from Tura, swiftness). 

Northern Division. Tungusic (Chinese, &c.) ; Mongolic ; 
Turkic ; Samoyedic, and Finnic. 

Southern Division. Taic (Siamese, &e.) ; (Himalayas); 
Malayic (Polynesia, &c); Gangetic ; Lonitic (Bur- 
mese, &c); Munda ; Tamulic. 

LANGUE D'OC, see Troubadours. 

LANGUEDOC (a province, S. France), 

formed part of the Roman Gallia Narbonensis ; was 
named Gothia, as having been held by the Visi- 
goths 409, who were expelled by the Saracens, in 
turn driven out by Charles Martel in the 8th cen- 
tury. In the dark ages the country was named 
Septimania (probably from its containing seven 
important towns) : afterwards Languedoc (from its 
dialect, see Troubadours), about 1270, when an- 
nexed to the monarchy. It suffered during the 
persecutions of the Albigenses and Huguenots. 

LANSDOWN, near Bath (Somersetshire). 
The parliamentary army under sir Wiu. Waller was 
here defeated, 5 July, 1643. 

LANTERNS of scraped horn were invented in 
England, it is said, by Alfred ; and it is supposed 
that horn was used for window lights also, as glass 
was not generally known, 872-901. Stow. London 
was lighted by suspended lanterns with glass sides, 
I4I5- 

LANTHANUM, a rare metal discovered in 
the oxide of cerium, by Mosander in 1839. 

LAOCOON, an exquisite work of Grecian art, 
in marble, modelled by Agesander, Athenodorus, 
and Polydorus, all of Rhodes, and other eminent 
statuaries (about A.D. 70) ; it repi'esents the death 
of the Trojan hero, Laocoon, priest of Neptune, 
and his two sons, as described by Virgil. sEncis, 
ii. 200. It was discovered in 1506 in the Sette 
Salle near Rome, and purchased by pope Julius II. 
It is now in the Vatican. 



LAODICEA, see Seven Churches. 

LAON (N. France). A succession of actions 
between the allies (chiefly the Prussians) and the 
French, was fought under the walls of the town, 
which ended in the defeat of the latter with great 
loss, 9-10 March, 1814. Laon surrendered to the 
Germans 9 Sept. 1870. As the last man of the 
garde mobile left the citadel, a French soldier, in 
contravention of the capitulation, blew up the 
powder magazine, causing great destruction to the 
town and fortress. The grand-duke V\ illiam of 
Mecklenburg-Schwerin was bruised, and 95 German 
riflemen and 300 French gardes mobiles were killed 
or wounded ; general Theremin Du Hame, the com- 
mander, was wounded. The French attributed the 
explosion to accident. 

LA PEEOUSE'S VOYAGE. In 1785 La 
Perouse sailed from France for the Pacific, with 
the Boussole and Astrolabe under his command, 
and was last heard of from Botany Bay, in March, 
1788. Several expeditions were subsequently de- 
spatched in search of Perouse ; but no certain in- 
formation was obtained until captain Dillon, of the 
East India ship Research, ascertained that the 
French ships had been cast away on the New 
Hebrides, authenticated by articles which he 
brought to Calcutta, 9 April, 1828. 

LAPLAND or SAMELAND (N. Europe), 
nominally subject to Norway in the 13th century, 
and now to Sweden and Russia. Several Lap- 
landers were exhibited at the Westminster Aqua- 
rium, Nov. 1877. 

LA PLATA, the capital of the Argentine 
province of Buenos Ayres, which see, was founded 
in 1882. Population in 1888, 65,000. See Wrecks, 
1874. 

LAECENY, French, larcen ; Latin, latro- 
cinium ; see Theft. 

LAEENTALIA, see Laicrentalia. 

LAEGS (Ayrshire, S. Scotland). Here the 
great expedition of Haco of Norway was finally 
defeated by Alexander III. after a succession of 
skirmishes, 3 Oct. 1263. 

LA EOTHIEEE (France). Here the French, 
commanded by Napoleon, defeated the Prussian 
and Russian armies, with great loss, after a despe- 
rate engagement, I Feb. 1814. This was one of 
Napoleon's last victories. 

LAEYNGOSCOPE, an instrument consist- 
ing of a concave mirror, by which light is thrown 
upon a small plane mirror placed in the pos- 
terior part of the cavity of the mouth. By its 
means the vocal chords" of the interior of the 
larynx, &c., are exhibited, and have been photo- 
graphed. It was invented by Mr. Manuel Garcia, 
and reported to the Roval Society 24 May, 1855. 
One constructed by Dr. Turck was greatly modified, 
in 1857, by Dr. Czermak, who exhibited its suc- 
cessful action in London in 1862. A similar appa- 
ratus is said to have been constructed by Mr. John 
Avery, a surgeon in London, in 1846. The Biitish 
Laryngolo^ical and Rhinulogical Association was 
founded in 1888. 

LA SALETTE, see Pilgrimarjcs. 

LATEEAN, a church at Rome, dedicated to 
St. John, "the mother of all the churches," was 
originally a palace of the Laterani, a Roman family, 
and was given to the bishops of Rome by Constan- 
tine, and inhabited by them till their removal to 
the Vatican in 1377. ' Eleven councils have been 
held there. 



LATHE. 



570 



LAUEEL. 



LATHE. The invention is ascribed to Talus, 
a grandson of Daedalus, about 1240 B.C. Pliny 
ascribes it to Theodore of Samos, about 600 B.C. 
Great improvements have been made in recent 
times. 

LATHOM- HOUSE (Lancashire), was 
heroically defended for three months against the 
parliamentarians, by Charlotte, countess of Derby. 
She was relieved by prince llupert, 27 May, 1644. 
The house was, however, surrendered 4 Dec. 1645, 
and dismantled. 

LATIN KINGDOM, Empire, &c, see la- 
tium, Eastern Empire 1204, and Jerusalem. 

LATIN LANGUAGE (founded on the Oscan, 
Etruscan, and Greek), one of the original languages 
of Europe, and from which sprang the Italian, 
Erench, and Spanish ; see Latium. A large por- 
tion of our language is derived from the Latin. 
It ceased to be spoken in Italy about 581 ; and was 
first taught in England by Adelmus, brother of 
Ina, in the 7th century. The use of Latin in law 
deeds in England gave way to the common tongue 
about 1000; was revived in the reign of Henry II. ; 
and again was replaced by English in the reign of 
Henry III. It was finally discontinued in religious 
worship in 1558, and in conveyancing and in courts 
of law in 1731 (by 4 Geo. If. c. 25). A corrupt 
Latin is still spoken in Roumelia. The foreign pro- 
nunciation of Latin (a, ah; e, a; i, e, &c.) was 
adopted in English universities and many schools 
about 1875-6. For "Latin name," see Latium. 

PRINCIPAL LATIN WRITERS. 

Died I 
Plautus . . B.C. 184 Lnean . 
Ennius . . . 169 | Seneca 

Terence . (flourished) 166 , Pliny the Elder 



Cato the Elder 

Lucilius 

Lucretius . . . 

Julius Caesar 

Cicero . . . . 

Catullus 

Sallust . . . . 

Vitravius (flourished) 

Propertius . . . 

Virgil .... 

Tibullus .... 

Horace 

Celsus (flourished) a.d. 

Livy .... 

Ovid .... 

Paterculus . 

Persius . . . . 



Died 

• 65 

• 65 
79 
So 



149 '■ Quintilian (flourished) 
103 ! Valerius Flaccus ,, . 81 
52 Pliny the Younger ,, . 100 
44 Statius . . (about) 100 
43 Tacitus . (flourished) 100 
40 Silius Italicus . . 101 
34 Martial . (flourished) 104 
27 Suetonius . (about) 120 
26 Juvenal . . . . 128 
19 Aulus Genius 
18 (flourished) 169 

" Apuleius . . . 174 

Ammianus Marcellinus 390 
Claud ian . . . . 408 
Maerobius . . . 415 
Boetliius . . . . 524 
62 



(See Fathers of the Church.) 
LATIN UNION (Monetary), that of France, 
Italy, Belgium, and Switzerland, to maintain the 
use of the same coinage, from 1865 et seq. ; le-con- 
stituted in 1885 ; arranged to be continued from 
year to year, autumn 1889; renewed till <;i Dec. 
1893, Oct. 1891. 

LATITAT, an ancient writ, directing the 
sheriff to apprehend persons to be brought be 'ore 
the king's bench court, had its name irom its being 
supposed that the person was lying 1 id, and could 
not be found in the county to be taken by bill. 
The writ was abolished by the Uniformity of Pro- 
cess act, 23 May, 1832. 

LATITUDE. First determined by Hippar- 
chus of Nice, about 162 B.C. It is the" extent of 
the earth or the heavens, reckoned from the equa- 
tor to either pole. Mauperfuis, in 1737, in latitude 
66-20 measured a degree of latitude, and made it 
69-493 miles. Swanberg, in 1803, made it 69-292. 
At the equator, in 1744, four astronomers made it 
68-732; andLambton, in latitude 12, made it 68-743. 



Mudge, in England, made it 69-148. Cassini, in 
France, in 1718 and 1740, made it 69-12 ; and Biot, 
68-769 ; while a recent measurement in Spain makes 
it but 68-63— less than at the equator, and contra- 
dicts all others, proving the earth to be an oblate 
spheroid (which was the opinion of Cassini, Ber- 
nouilli, Euler, and others), instead of a prolate 
spheroid ; see Longitude. 

LATITUDINAEIANS, a name given to 
certain theologians who endeavoured to reconcile 
the church and nonconformists in the 17th cen- 
tury, such as Hales, Chillingworth, Tillotson, and 
Burnet. 

LATIUM, now CAMPANIA (Daly), the coun- 
try of the Latini and their mythical king, Latinus, 
popular date, 1240 B.C. Laurentum was the capi- 
tal of the country in the reign of Latinus, Lavi- 
nium in that of JEneas, and Alba in that of Asca- 
nius ; see Italy, and Rome. 

The Latms ally with Rome . . . (about) b. c. 520 
Join Porsenna to restore Tarquin II. 508 

Defeated by Romans near Lake Regillus . 498 or 496 
League with the Romans, 463 ; desert them in 

trouble, 388 ; union restored .... 359 
Defeated in war ; (before the great victory, near 
monut Vesuvius, the consul, P. Decius Mus, de- 
voted himself to death, 340), 339 ; subdued and 

incorporated with Rome 338 

Obtain Roman citizenship 90. 

The "Latin n:ime" in the 3rd century, B.C., in- 
cluded the colonies in ' Italy founded by the 
Romans in their conquered territories, as well as 
those founded by the Latins. 

LA TEAPPE, see Trappists. 

LATTEE-DAT SAINTS, see Mormonites. 

LAUDANUM, see Opium. 

LAUDEEDALE EAELDOM, Ac. (dated 
from 1590). Major Frederick Henry Mainland's 
claim to it established before the House of Lords, 
22 July, 1885. A romantic story. 

LAUENBUEG, a duchy, N. Germany ; was 
conquered from the "Wends by Henry the Lion of 
Saxony, about 1152; ceded to Hanover, 1689; in- 
corporated with the French empire, 1810 ; ceded to 
Denmark, 1815 ; annexed by Prussia, 14 Aug. 1865 ; 
possession taken 15 Sept. following; see Gastein. 

LAUFACH, Bavaria (S. W, Germany), was 
taken by the Prussians under "Wrangel, on 13 July, 
1866, after a sharp action, in which the Hessians 
were defeated, the Prussian needle gun being very- 
efficacious. 

LAUNCESTON, Cornwall. The granite 
church was erected in 151 1 ; the new town-hall 
in 1887. Population, 1881, 3,808; 1891, 4,345. 
LAUNCESTON, Tasmania, was founded 1804 ; in- 
corporated 1858 ; made a city 1889. Population, 
1881, 12,753. 

LAUNDEY, London and Provincial Steam 
Laundry, Batte'Sca, erected by a company; opened 
in 1880; and others since. 

LAUEEATE, see Poet Laureate. 

LAUEEL was sacred to Apollo, god of poetry ; 
and from the earliest times the posts, and generals 
of armies, when victors, were crowned with laurel. 
Petrarch was crowned with laurel, 8 April, 1341. — 
The Prunus laurocerasus was brought to Britain 
from the Levant, before 1629; the Portugal laurel, 
Prunus lusitanica, before 1648 ; the royal bay, 
Laurus indica, from Madeira, 1665; the "Alexan- 
drian laurel, Ruxcus raccmosus, from Spain, before 
1713; the glaucous laurel, Laurus aggregata, from 
China, 1806 or 1 82 1. 



LATTRENTALIA. 



571 



LAW. 



LAITRENTALIA were festivals celebrated at 
Rome in honour of Acca Laurentia, or Larentia, 
said to have been either the nurse of Romulus and 
Remus, or a rich dissolute woman, who bequeathed 
her property to the Roman people. The festival 
commenced about 621 B.C., and was held on the 
last da}' of April and the 23rd of December. 

LAUEIUM MINES, see Greece, 1872. 

LAURUSTTNUS, Viburnum Tinus, an ever- 
green shrub, was brought to England from the 
south of Europe, before 1596. 

LAUSANNE, capital of the canton of Vaud, 
Switzerland, originally a Roman station. The 
cathedral was consecrated in 1275, and the univer- 
sity founded 1535. Here Gibbon completed his 
"Decline and Fail," 27 June, 1787. The Inter- 
national Workmen's congress assembled here Sept. 
1867. Population, 188S, 33,340. 

LA VALETTA, see Malta. 

LAVALETTE'S ESCAPE. Count Lava- 
lette, for joining the emperor Napoleon on his 
return in 1815, was condemned to death, but escaped 
from prison in the clothes of bis wife, 20 Dec. 1815. 
Sir Robert Wilson, Mr. Michael Bruce, and captain 
J. H. Hutchinson, aiding the escape, were sen- 
tenced to three months' imprisonment in the 
French capital, 24 April, 1816. Lavalette was per- 
mitted to return to France in 1820, and died in 
retirement in 1830. 

LA YENDEE (W. France). The French 
royalists of La Vendee took arms in March, 1793, 
and were successful in a number of hard-fought 
battles with the republicans, between 12 July, 
1793, and 1 Jan. 1794, when they experienced a 
severe reverse. Their leader, Henri comte de La- 
rochejaquelin, was killed, 4 March, 1794. A short 
peace was made at La Jaunay, 17 Feb. 1795. The 
war was terminated by gen. Hoche in 179b, and a 
treaty of peace was signed at Luc_on, 17 Jan. 1800 ; 
see Chouans- 

LAVENDER, Lavandula spica, brought from 
the south of Europe, before 1568. 

LAW, see Canons, Codes, Common Laiv, Civil 
Law, Crime, Digest, Supreme Court. 1 he Jewish 
law was given by God, and promulgated by Moses, 
1491 B.C. 

The laws attributed to Phoroneus, in the kingdom 
of Argos were reduced to a system by Draco, for 
the Athenians, 623 B.C. ; whose code was super- 
seded by that of Solon, 594 B.C. 
The Spartan laws of Lyeurgus were made about 
844 B.C. ; they remained in full force for about 
700 years, and formed a race totally different from 
all others living in civilised society. 
The Roman laws of Servius Tullius 566 B.C. were 
amended by the Twelve Tables published in 449 
B.C., and remained in force till Justinian, nearly 
a thousand years. 

BRITISH LAWS. 

The British laws of earliest date were translated 

into the Saxon in a.d. 590 

Saxon laws of Ina published about . . . . 690 
Alfred's code of laws, the foundation of the common 

law of England, is said to have been arranged 

about 886 
Edward the Confessor collected the laws . 1050-1065 
Stephen's charter of general liberties . . . 1136 
Henry II. 's confirmation of it . . 1154 and 1175 
The maritime laws of Richard I. (see Olerori) . . 1195 
Magna Charta, by king John, 1215 ; confirmed by 

Henry III. 1216 et seq. (see Magna Charta, and 

Forests Charter). 
Lord Mansfield; lord chief justice of the king's 

bench, declared, "That no fiction of law shall 



ever so far prevail against the real truth of the 
fact, as to prevent the execution of justice," 

21 May, 1784. 
Many legal technicalities were got rid of by 14 & 15 
Vict. c. 100. The act for the improvement of the 
administration of criminal justice, passed 7 Aug. 1851 

LAWYERS. 

Pleaders of the bar, or barristers, are said to have 
been first appointed by Edward 1 129:? 

" No man of the law " to sit in parliament, by stat. 
of 46 Edward III. and 6 Hen. IV. ... 1372: 

This prohibition was declared to be invalid by Coke 
and unconstitutional by Blackstone; attention was 
drawn to it in July, 1871 ; and the statutes were 
repealed 187E 

Serjeants, the highest members of the bar, were alone 
permitted to plead in the court of common pleas. 
The first king's counsel under the degree of Ser- 
jeant was sir Francis Bacon, in ... . 1604. 

Law Association charity for widows founded in . 1817 

Incorporated Law Society of solicitors formed in 
1823 ; plan enlarged, 1825 : a charter obtained, 
1831 ; renewed, 1845 ; new charter, 1872. The 
building in Chancery-lane, from the designs of 
Vulliamy, was commenced in 1829. 

Juridical Society established in ... 1855, 

Law Times, established .... 8 April, 1843. 

Law Journal Jan. 1866. 

The establishment of a legal university strongly 
advocated by the lord chancellor and others, Jan. 1871 

The council of legal education put forth a scheme 
involving many changes, Nov. 1872 ; another 
scheme, Dec. 1891. 

Legal Practitioners' Society, established . Nov. 1873. 
See Barrister, Counsel. 

LAW REFORM. 

Law Amendment Society, founded in 1843. It holds- 
meetings during the session of parliament, and pub- 
lishes a journal and reports. Its first chairman was 
lord Brougham, who introduced the subject of Law 
Reform by a most eloquent speech in the house of 
commons, on 7 Feb. 1828. Many acts for Law Reform 
have been passed since, and vigorous measures pro- 
posed. 

Royal commission to inquire into the operation and con- 
stitution of the English courts of law, &c, issued 18 
Sept. 1867. 

The Judicature Commission (appointed 1867) recom- 
mended the consolidation of all the superior courts, 
into one supreme court divided into chambers, April,. 
1869. It issued its fifth and last report, Sept. 1874. 

The High Court of Justice Bill introduced into the house 
of lords, 18 March, 1870, was dropped near the end of 
the session. 

Royal Commission on the administrative departments of 
Courts of Justice (Lord Lisgar and others) appointed,. 

4 Oct., 1873. 

Supreme Court of Judicature Bill introduced by lord, 
chancellor Selborne for establishing a High Court of ' 
Justice, and a High Court of Appeal 13 Feb., passedi 

5 Aug. 1873. 

Its operation deferred from 2 Nov... 1874 to 1 Nov., 187s 

The abolition of the house of lords as an Appeal 
Court rescinded 1875, 

Commission on Legal Procedure ; report, recom- 
mending simplifying changes, published 8 Oct. 1881 

New rules issued July, 1883, 

International commission on judicial reform recom- 
mends the establishment of an international 
tribunal for dealing with foreigners, except in 

capital cases May, 1884). 

See Supreme Court for details. 

Law-Courts.— Commissioners appointed in 1859 reported. 
in favour of the concentration of the law-courts in. 
London, on a site near Carey-street, Chancery-lane, 
about 7 acres, on which stood about 400 houses. 
The estimated expense was about 1,500,000^., which it. 
was recommended to take from the accumulated 
Chancery fund, termed " Suitors' fund." Acts of par- 
liament to carry out the plan were passed in 1S65 and 
1866. 

Competitive designs were invited, and after much dis- 
cussion (public and professional), Mr. Street's design, 
was selected, 30 May, 1868; much attacked, but ap- 
proved by the commission, Aug. 1S70; contracts signed 
17 Feb. 1874, and the works were begun immediately 
by Bull and Son, to be finished in 1881. 



LAW'S BUBBLE. 



572 



LEAD, BLACK. 



There were to be 18 courts, varying in size; a central hall, 
231 feet long, 48 feet wide, 30 feet high ; principal 
entrance in the Strand. . 

Offices in Eastern Block occupied 21 April, 1879. 

Buildings completed, Oct. 1882. 

Opened by the queen, 4 Dec. 1882. 

All the buildings constitute by statute the Palace of 
Justice. 

The Courts occupied Hilary sittings, 11 Jan. 1883. 

Law Reports : A new and more economical plan of 
preparing and publishing law reports was finally 
adopted by a committee of barristers on 11 March, 1865 
(see Year-books). 

Law Terms, see Terms, abolished by Supreme Court of 
Judicature Act, 5 Aug. 1873. 

International Law, see Neutral Powers and International 
Law. 

Expenditure for law and justice from the public purse ex- 
clusive of county rates, in the year 1865-6, 2,344,540?. 

Courts of J" 'Mice : salaries, &e., one year (to 31 March, 
1877), 631,791?. 

LAW S BUBBLE . John Law, of Edinburgh 
(born 1681), was made comptroller-general of the 
finances of France, upon the strength of a scheme 
lor establishing a bank, and an East India and a 
Mississippi company, by the profits of which the 
national debt of France was to be paid off. See 
Mississippi. He first offered his plan to Victor 
Amadeus, king of Sardinia, who told him he was 
not powerful enough to ruin himself. The French 
ministry accepted it; and in 1716, he opened a 
bank in his own name, under the protection of the 
duke of Orleans, regent of France, and the de- 
luded rich subscribed for shares both in the bank 
and the companies. In 1718 Law's was declared 
a royal bank, and the shares rose to upwards of 
twenty-fold the original value ; so that, in 1719, 
they were worth more than eighty times the amount 
of all the current specie in France. In 1720 this 
fabric of false credit fell to the ground, spreading 
ruin throughout the country. Law died in poverty 
at Venice in 1729. — Tne South Sea Bubble in Eng- 
land occurred in 1720; see South Sea. 

LAWN TENNIS, see Tennis. 

LAYAMON'S BBUT, or Chronicle of Britain, 
a poetical semi-Saxon paraphrase of the Brut of 
Wace, made between 1 100 and 1230, was published 
with a literal translation by sir Frederick Madden, 
in 1847. 

LAYBACH (near Trieste, in Illyria). A con- 
gress met here in Jan. 1821, and was attended by 
the sovereigns of Austria, Russia, Prussia, and 
Naples. It broke up in May, after having issued 
two circulars, stating it to be their resolution to 
occupy Naples with Austrian troops, and put down 
popular insurrections. 

LAYEE'S CONSPIRACY. Christopher 
Layer, a barrister, conspired with other persons to 
seize George I., the prince of Wales, loi-d Cadogan, 
and the principal officers of state, to seize the tower, 
to plunder the bank, and bring in the Pretender. 
Layer was hanged, 17 May, 1723. He was hanged 
for enlisting soldiers for the Pretender. Bishop 
Atterbury was accused of complicity and attainted, 
but permitted to quit the country. 

LAY BROTHERHOOD of St. Paul, 

for the diocese of London, was formed by the 
bishop of Marlborough, with, the sanction of the 
hishop of London in 1891. 

LAY HELPERS, to hold a position between 
the clergy and laity, proposed by the archbishop of 
Canterbury, and others, Oct. 1881. The association 
of Lay Helpers for London began in 1865. 

LAYMEN, HOUSE OF, composed of 102 
members elected in the dioceses, as a purely 



consultative body to assist the Convocation of the 
clergy, its main object being the promotion of 
church reform. It first met with Convocation at 
"Westminster, 16 Feb. 1886. Lord Selborne, chair- 
man ; Mr. G. A. Spottiswoode, vice-chairman. 
They met in the Church house, 12 Feb. 1890. 

LAZARISTS (the Priests of the Mission), a 
congregation devoted to education, founded by St. 
Vincent de Paul, 1625, were so named from their 
first establishment in a house which once belonged 
to the military order of St. Lazarus. They are also 
called Vincentines. 

LAZARO, ST. (N. Italy). Here the king of 
Sardinia and the Imperialists defeated the French 
and Spaniards after a long and severe conflict, 4 
June, 1746. 

LAZISTAN, a Turkish province in the pacha- 
lik of Trebizond, on the Black sea. Batoum, its 
seaport, was ceded to Russia by the treaty of Berlin, 
13 July, 1878. The inhabitants at first resisted the 
change, but submitted on persuasion, many emi- 
grating. 

LAZZARITES, see Italy, 1878. 

LAZZARON1 (from lazzdro, Spanish for a 
pauper or leper), a term applied by the Spanish 
viceroys to the degraded beings in Naples, half- 
clothed and houseless. No man was born a lazza.ro ; 
and he who turned to a trade ceased to be one. The 
viceroy permitted the lazzaroni to elect a chief with 
whom he conferred respecting the imposts on the 
goods brought to the markets. In 1647, Masaniello 
held the office, and made an insurrection; see 
Naples. In 1793, Ferdinand IV. enrolled several 
thousands of lazzaroni as pikemen (spontoceers), 
who generally favoured the court party ; on 15 
May, 1848, they were permitted, on the king's 
behalf, to commit fearful ravages on the ill-fated 
city. — Colletta. 

LEAD is found in various countries, and is 
abundant in various parts of Britain, and in some 
places richly mixed with silver ore. The famous 
Clydesdale mines were discovered in 1513. Pattin- 
son's valuable method for extracting the silver was 
made known in 1829. The lead-mines of Cumber- 
land and Derbyshire yield about 15,000 tons per 
annum. British mines produced 65,529 tons of 
lead in 1855 ; 69,266 in 1857, 67,181 in 1865; 73,420 
in 1870; 58,777 in 1875; 58,667 in 1876; 51,6351 
1879 ; 50,328 in 1882 ; 40,075 in 1884 ; 37,896 in 
1887; in 1888, 37,578; 1889,35,604; 1890, 33,590. 

Leaden pipes for the conveyance of water were 
brought into use in 1236 

In 1859, 23*690 tons of pig and sheet lead were 
imported, and 18,414 tons exported ; in 1866, 36,946 
tons imported ; 27,383 tons exported ; in 1875, 
79,825 tons imported, 35,398 tons exported ; in 
1883, 101,715 tons imported, 39,315 tons exported; 
in 1887, 114,493 tons imported, 44,301 tons ex- 
ported ; in 1888, 132,880 tons imported, 48,616 
tons exported ; in 1889, 145,203 tons imported, 
52,040 tons exported ; in 1890, 158,649 tons im- 
ported, 55,557 tons exported. 

By an explosion caused through ignited gas at the 
Mill Close lead mine, Derbyshire, five men were 
killed, 3 Nov. 1887. Explosions in lead mines 
are very rare. 

The deadly manufacture of white lead greatly 
ameliorated by the sublimation process invented 
in America and adopted by John Hall & Sons of 
Bristol in 1886 

Professor Mac Ivor's new process was reported 
cheap, quick and safe ; works, Claphain, 
London, S.W July, 1.890 

LEAD, BLACK, see Graphite. 



LEADENHALL MAEKET. 



573 



LECTIONAEY. 



LEADENHALL MAEKET, London, 
founded by sir Richard Whittington, in 1408, and 
presented to the city. A granary was added by Simon 
Eyre, 1419. The demolition of the old market 
began in Sept. 1880; first stone of new one laid 28 
June ; opened by the lord mayor, 15 Dec. 1881 ; 
cost 47,5001?. 

LEADVILLE. A high mining district in 
Colorado ; highly successful results of excavations 
for the precious metals, 1878 et seq. 

LEAGUES. Four kings combined to make 
war against five, about 1913 B.C. {Gen. xiv.) The 
kings of Canaan combined against the invasion 
of the Israelites, 145 1 B.C. The more emi- 
nent Greek leagues were the iEtolian, powerful 
about 320 B.C., which lasted till 189 B.C., and the 
Achasan, revived 280 B.C., which was broken up by 
the conquest of Greece by the Romans, 146 B.C. 
The fall of these leagues was hastened by dissension. 

Hanseatic league 1140 

Lombard leagues against the emperors (see Lom- 

bardy) 1167 and 1226 

Caddee league (which see) about 1396 et seq. 
League of the Public Good was formed in Dec. 1464, 
by the dukes of Calabria, Brittany, and Bourbon, 
and other princes against Louis XL of France, 
under pretext of reforming abuses ; an indecisive 
battle was fought at Montnleri, 16 July ; and a 

treaty was signed 25 Oct. 1465 

League of Cambray against Venice .... 1508 
Holy League (the popie, Venice, &c), against 

Louis XII 1510 

League of Smalcald 1530 

League of the Beggars (Gueux) ; the protestants so 
called (though Roman Catholics joined the league) 
to oppose the institution of the Inquisition in 

Flanders 1566 

The Holy League, to prevent the accession of 
Henry IV. of France, who was then of the re- 
formed religion, was formed at Peronne and lasted 
till Henry embraced Romanism . . . 1576-93 
League of Wurtzburg, by Catholics ; of Halle, by 

Protestants 1610 

League against the emperor 1626 

Solemn League and Covenant in Scotland, against 
the episcopal government of the Church (see 

Covenant) 1638 

League of Augsburg against France . . . . 1686 
League of St. Sebastian instituted to promote the 
restoration of his temporal dominions to the 
pope, about 1870 ; held 9th annual meeting in 

London 20 Jan. 1879 

League in aid of Christians in Turkey formed ; earl 

of Shaftesbury, chairman, . . -27 July, 1876 
National Irish Land League ostensibly formed to 
buy up farms for the tenants ; supported by Mr. 
Parnell and others, 1879 ; its enforcement of 
stringent rules against landlords and loyal tenants 
created a reign of terror ; led to legislation. See 

Ireland 1 880-1 

Charged with complicity and outrages ; dissolved 

by government 20 Oct. 1881 

New Irish National league formed (see Ireland, 
1882 et seq.) (Organ United Ireland, 1886). 17 Oct. 1882 
See Home Rule, 1890, and National Federation. 
Free land league, see Land. 

Seventh annual convention of the Irish national 
league of Great Britain met at Cardiff, 29 Oct. 
1887, at Birmingham, 29 Sept. 1888 ; Manchester, 
Sept. 1889 ; Edinburgh, 27 Sept. 1890 ; London, 

12 Dec. 1891 
Several other leagues formed to obtain home rule 

1879 ^ se 1- 
" National Land League of Great Britain " formed ; 
Mr. Justin McCarthy, president, 26 March ; met 
at Newcastle-on-Tyne, 29 Aug. 1881, and at other 
places since. 
National league for the unification and consolidation 
of the empire, met at Westminster ; strongly op- 
posed to unfair free trade . . 8 Sept. et seq. „ 

LEAP-YEAE or Bissextile, originated 

with the astronomers of Julius Cajsar, 45 B.C. They 
fixed the solar year at 365 days, 6 hours, compris- 



ing, as they thought, the period from one vernal 
equinox to another ; the six hours were set aside,, 
and at the end of four years, forming a day, the 
fourth year was made to consist of 366 days. The 
day thus added was called intercalary, and was- 
placed a day before the 24th of February, the sixth 
of the calends, which was reckoned tivice, hence 
called bissextile or twice sixth. This added day 
with us is Feb. 29th ; see Calendar. This arrange- 
ment makes the year nearly three minutes longer 
than the astronomical year: to obviate this, 1700 
and 1800 were not, and 1900 will not be leap-years, 
but 2000 will be one; see Calendar and Year. 

LEABNING and the Arts flourished 

among the Greeks, under Pisistratus, 537 B.C., 
and especially under Pericles, 444 b.c ; and with 
the Romans at the commencement of the Christian 
era, under Augustus. The Greek refugees caused 
their revival in Italy, particularly after the taking of 
Constantinople by the Turks in 1453, and the inven- 
tion of printing shortly before,— the period of the Re- 
naissance. Leo X. and his family (the Medici) greatly 
promoted learning in Italy, in the 16th century ; 
when literature revived in France, Germany, and 
England ; see Literature, and authors under Greek, 
Latin, English, and other languages. 

LEASE (from the French Earner, to let), a kind 
of conveyance invented by Serjeant Moore, soon 
after the statute of uses, 27 Henry VIII. 1535. 
Acts relating to leases were passed in 1856 and 
1858. Forged Leases ease, see Trials, Jan. 1878. 

LEATHEE was very early known in Egypt 
and Greece, and the thongs of manufactured hides 
were used for ropes, harness, &c, by all ancient 
nations. The Gordian knot was made of leather 
thongs, 330 B.C. A leather cannon was proved at 
Edinburgh, fired three times, and found to answer, 
23 Oct. 1778. Phillips. The duty on leather im- 
posed 1697, produced annually in England^ 
450,000^. and in Ireland about "50,000^. It was 
abolished, 29 May, 1830. Many bankruptcies were 
declared in the leather trade, in the autumn of i860 
in England. In the case of Lawrence, Mortimore, 
and Co., enormous fraudulent dealings in bills were 
disclosed. A plan for making artificial leather out 
of cuttings, &c, was made known in i860. — 
Leather cloth (invented by Messrs. J. R. & C. P. 
Crockett, of Newark, U.S., and patented in 1849) is 
unbleached cotton coated with a mixture of boiled 
linseed oil and turpentine, and coloured. The Lea- 
ther-cloth company, London, successors to Messrs. 
Crockett, was established, 1859. An exhibition of 
leather manufactures at Northampton in 1873 i at 
the Agricultural Hall, London, 1^-23 Sept. 1880; 
26 Sept. 1881 ; and 15 Sept. 1882. 

LEBANON {white mountain), the mountain 
range between Syria and North Palestine, assigned 
to Israel, but never conquered, and long attached 
to Syria. Special ordinance for preservation of the 
ancient cedar forest, Sept. 1881. The governor- 
general since 1861 has been appointed by Turkey, 
subject to the assent of the great powers. Governors, 
1873, Rustem Pasha ; 1883, Wassa Pasha, died 29 
June, 1892 ; successor Nauum Effendi ; see Asms- 
sins, Druses, Ifarouites, and Syria. 

LECH, a river, S. Germany, near which at re 
village named Rain the cruel "imperialist general 
Tilly was defeated by the Swedes, under Gustavus 
Adolphus, 5 April, 1632, and died of his wounds. 

LECTION AEY, the name given to the Ang- 
lican table of scripture lessons ; see Common 
Prayer. 



LECTURES. 



574 



LEGION OP HONOUR. 



LECTURES. Those on Physic were instituted 
by Dr. Thomas Linacre, of the College of Physicians 
.(foumded by Henry VIII.) about 1502. Clinical 
lectures, at the bed-side of the patients in hospitals 
;are said to have been given (by Dr. John Ruther- 
ford) in Edinburgh, about 1748; in Dublin, about 
2785; in London, by sir B. C. Brodie (1813-17). 
.Mr. G. Macilwain, about 1824, gave surgical clin- 
ical lectures in connection with a dispensary. 
'The political lectures of Thelwall, commenced in 
■Jan. 1795, were interdicted by an act of parliament. 
In the autumn of 1857 and since, many distinguished 
noblemen and gentlemen lectured at mechanics' 
institutes. An act passed in 1835 prohibited the 
publication of lectures without the consent of the 
lecturers. See Gresham College, Boyle' s Lectures, 
Royal and London Institutions, Trials, 1887, &c. 

LEEDS (Yorkshire), the Saxon Loidis, once a 
Roman station, received a charter in 1627. See 
^Population. 

Leeds bridge built 1327 

Shenfleld's grammar school founded . . . . 1552 
Coloured Cloth hall built 1758 ; White Cloth hall . 1775 
Literary and Philosophical society established . 1820 
Enfranchised by the Reform act (2 members) . . 1832 
Magnificent new town-hall opened by the queen, 

the mayor, Peter Fairbairn, knighted 7 Sept. 1858 
Musical festivals begun . . . 7-10 Sept. ,, 

.British Association met here . . . Sept. „ 
•Great Reform meeting ; Mr. Bright there 8 Oct. 1866 
An additional M. P. given to Leeds by Reform act, 

15 Aug. 1867 
Exhibition of art treasures, opened by the prince 

of Wales, 19 May, closed . .31 Oct. 1868 

Soundhay-park inaugurated as a public park by 
prince Arthur, and new exchange founded, 

19, 20 Sept. 1872 
•Church congress met .... 8-11 Oct. ,, 
New bridge opened .... 9 July, 1873 

Musical festival 14-17 Oct. 1874 

Yorkshire college of science opened 26 Oct. 1874 ; 
new buildings opened by the prince of Wales 

15 July, 1885 
"Yorkshire exhibition of arts and manufactures 
opened by the duke of Edinburgh . . 13 May, 1875 

Theatre Royal burnt 28 May, „ 

New exchange opened . . . .31 Aug. ,, 
Yorkshire college for science formally opened by 

the duke of Devonshire .... 6 Oct. ,, 
-•Great amphitheatre burnt ; loss, about 30,000?. 

2 March, 1876 

Musical festival 19-22 Sept. 1877 

New municipal offices and public free library opened 

17 April, 1884 
Leeds returns five M.P's by act passed 25 June, 1885 
Fine art gallery and museum cost io,oooZ. opened 

3 Oct. 1888 
•Col. J. T. North presents Kirkstall Abbey and 

grounds to the corporation . . . Jan. 1889 
Sir Edward Baines, chief proprietor of the Leeds 
Mercury, M.P. for Leeds 1859-74 ; knighted 1880, 
liberal nonconformist ; died, aged 89 2 March, 1890 
Strike of gas-stokers ; the town in darkness ; above 
15,000 rioters attacking the gasworks, repulsed 
after fighting ; many persons severely injured, 
police re-inforced from neighbouring towns, and 
by the military, 30 June ; strike ends by con- 
cession to strikers .... 3 July, ,, 
Meeting of British association . . .2 Sept. „ 
At a church bazaar, Oldfield, Wortley, 11 out of 15 
children dressed in cotton wool, with Chinese 
lanterns, perished through fire . 31 Dec. et seq. „ 
The dispute between the corporation and the gas- 
stokers amicably settled ... 26 Feb. ,, 
Great fire in the stores under the railway arches ; 
estimated loss, about 200,000?. . . 13 Jan. 1892 

LEEK, the Welsh emblem, worn on St. David's 
day, I March. The custom is traditionally as- 
signed to a command from Dewi or David, after- 
wards archbishop of St. David's, in 519. The 
Britons are said to have worn a leek in their caps 
when Cadwallader defeated the Saxons, 540. 



LEESBURG HEIGHTS, see Ball's Bluff. 

LEEWARD ISLES, West Indies : Antigua, 
Barbuda, Montserrat, St. Christopher's, Nevis, 
Anguilla, Virgin Isles, and Dominica {which see). 
An act for their federation passed 21 Aug. 1871. 
Governor-general of the British Isles, col. Stephen 
John Hill, 1863; sirB. C. C. Pine, 1869; sir H. 
Turner Irving, 1873 ; Iron. Ceo. Berkeley, 1874; sir 
J. H. Glover, Dec. 1881 ; sir Chas. Cameron Lees, 
1883 ; Viscount Gormanston, Aug. 1885 ; sir Charles 
Bullen Hugh Mitchell, Dec. 1887. ; Mr. W. F. H. 
Smith, Nov. 1888. Total population of the isles in 
1891, 125,379- 

LEGACIES. In 1780 receipts for legacies 
were subjected to a stamp duty, and in 1796 the 
legacy duty was imposed. The impost was increased 
several times subsequently, particularly in 1805, 
1808, and 1845. In 1853 the legacy duty was 
extended to landed or real property. Further 
changes were made in 188 1 ; see Succession Duty 
Act, and Wills. John Camden Neild, an eccentric 
miser, died 30 Aug. 1852, bequeathing about 250,000/. 
to the queen. Received for legacy and succession 
duties in year 1870-1, 2,963,372/. ; 1875-6, 
3,548,956/.; 1876-7,3,675,802/.; 1880-1,2,827,377/.; 
i83i-2, 2,814,145/.; 18S7-8, 2,814,560/. Legacy 
duty 1888-9, 2,830,378/. ; 1889-90, 2,723,886/. ; 
1890-1, 2,626,016/. See Succession. 

LEGAL PRACTITIONERS' SOCIETY, 

for reforming abuses, &c, established Nov. 1873. 

LEGATES (legaius). Roman ambassadors; 
and also governors of the provinces into which 
Augustus divided the empire, 27 B.C. Legates are 
also ambassadors from the pope. The legate's 
court in England, erected in 1 5 16 by cardinal 
Wolsey, to prove wills, and for the trial of offences 
against the spiritual laws, was soon discontinued. 

LEGATIONS were the twenty administrative 
divisions in the states of the church, governed by 
legates. The3 r rebelled in 1859-60, and are now 
included in the kingdom of Italy ; see Rome. 

LEGHORN, Livorno, Tuscany, a mere village 
in the 15th century, owes its prosperity to the 
Medici family. It suffered dreadfully by an 
earthquake in 1 741 ; and was entered by the French 
army, 27 July, 1796, but the British property had 
been removed. It was held by the French 1796-9 
and retaken, 1800. It was unsuccessfully attacked 
by the British and Italian forces in Dec. 1813. 
The Austrians took this city from the insurgents, 
12, 13 May, 1849, and quelled a slight insurrection, 
July 6, 1857. In June, 1857, above 60 persons 
were killed at the theatre, through an alarm of fire ; 
see Tuscany. Population, 1890, 104,960. 

LEGION, a corps of soldiers in the Roman 
armies, said to have been formed by Romulus, when 
it consisted of 3000 foot and 300 horse, about 720 B.C. 
When Hannibal was in Italy, 216 B.C., the legion 
consisted of 5200 soldiers ; and under Marius, in 
88 B.C., it was 6200 soldiers besides 700 horse. 
There were ten, and sometimes as many as eighteen, 
legions kept at Rome. Augustus had a standing 
army of 45 legions, together with 25,000 horse and 
37,000 lignt-armed troops, about 5 B.C.; and the 
peace establishment of Adrian was thirty of these 
formidable brigades. A legion was divided into ten 
cohorts, and every cohort into six centuries, with a 
vexillum, or standard, guarded by ten men. The 
peace of Britain was protected by three legions. 
See Thundering Legion. 

LEGION OF HONOUR, a French order 
embracing the army, civil officers, and other indi- 



LEGITIMISTS. 



LEMUKES. 



viduals distinguished for services to the state ; 
instituted by Napoleon Bonaparte, when first consul, 
19 May, 1S02, to replace the old suppressed orders of 
knighthood, &e. The order was confirmed by Louis 
XVIII. in 18 15, and its constitution modified in 
1816 and 1851. The honour was conferred on many 
British subjects who distinguished themselves in 
the Russian war, 1854-6, and in the Paris exhibitions 
of 1855, 1867, 1878 and 1889. The palace and offices 
were burnt by the communalists, 23 May, 1871. The 
Legion comprised upwards of 54,000 members in 
1887. The alleged traffic in decorations caused 
much excitement in the autumn of 1887. See 
France. 

LEGITIMISTS, a term (since 1814) applied 
to those who support the claims of the elder branch 
of the Bourbon family to the throne of France, 
whose representative, Henry, due de Bordeaux, called 
comte de Chambord, born 29 Sept. i820,died 24 Aug. 
1883. They held a congress at Lucerne on 24-29 
June, 1S62, and agreed to continue a pacific policy. 
The party was active in Feb. 1871-5. Their efforts to 
recover power have proved ineffectual ; see France. 

LEGNAGO, a fortress on the Adige, N. Italy, 
one of the Quadrilateral. It was captured by the 
French in 1796; but reverted to the Austrians in 
1815. It was surrendered to the Italians in Oct. 
1866. 

LEGNANO, Lombardy". Here the emperor 
Frederick Barbarossa was defeated by the Milanese 
and their allies, 29 May, 1 1 76, and the treaty of Con- 
stance ensued in 1 183. 

LEICESTER (central England), a bishopric 
for a short time in the 8th century, returned two 
members to parUameut in the reign of Edward I. 
Here Richard III. was buried, 25 Aug. 1485 ; and 
here cardinal TTolsey died, 29 Nov. 1530. During 
the civil war, Leicester was taken by Charles I. 31 
May, and by Fairfax, 17 June, 1645. The stocking 
manufacture was introduced in 1680. New town- 
hall opened, 8 Aug. 1876. New Abbey park opened 
by the prince of Wales, 29 May, 1882. Population, 
1881, 122,376; 1891, 142,051. 
Riot occasioned by a strike, quelled by the police, 

1 1-12 Feb. ; end of strike . . . 19 Feb. 1S86 
William Gray Lowe, merchant, found dead by a 

revolver shot in a Midland railway carriage here, 

21 Aug. ,, 
Great opposition to vaccination 1883 etseq. ; sanitary 

precautions strictly enforced, see Vaccination T887 
Messrs. Bradshaw & Payne's shoe factory burnt, 

loss above 15,000? 29 Oct. 1889 

LEICESTER SQUARE, London. See 
Globe. The square, after remaining some time in a 
disreputable state, was renovated by Mr. Albert 
Grant, who bought up the enclosure, and presented 
it to the Metropolitan Board of Works, 2 July, 
1874. 

LEIGHLIN (W. Carlow), a see founded by 
St. Laserian, about 628. Burchard, the Norwegian, 
the son of Garmond, founded or endowed the priory 
of St. Stephen of Leighlin. Bishop Doran, appointed 
in 1523, was murdered by his archdeacon, Maurice 
Cavenagh, who was hanged on the spot where the 
crime was committed. Beatson. In 1600 Leighlin 
was united to Ferns ; the combined see united to 
Ossory in 1835 ; see Ferns and Bishops. 

LEININGEN (or Linange), a principality 
partly in Bavaria, Baden, and Hesse, mediatised in 
1806. The present prince Ernest, born 9 Nov. 1830, 
a captain in the British navy, is the son of prince 
Charles, the half-brother of queen Victoria. Feodore, 
dowager princess of Hohenlohe Langcnburg, the 



queen's half-sister, died 23 Sept. 187^, aged nearly 
65. Her son, count Gleichen, afterwards prince 
Victor of Hohenlohe, born 1833, died 31 Dec. 1891. 
He entered the British navy in Sept. 1848, and was 
long in active service, especially in the Crimean 
war. He was also an eminent sculptor. The first 
husband of the duchess of Kent, prince Enrich of 
Leiningen, died 4 July, 1814. 

LEINSTER, a kingdom in 1167, now one of 
the four provinces of Ireland. The abduction of 
Devorgilla, wife of O'Ruarc, a lord of Connaught, 
by Dermot king of Leinster in 1152, is asserted to 
have led to the landing of the English and the 
subsequent conquest. The province of Leinster gave 
the title of duke to Schomberg's son in 1690. The 
title became extinct in 1719, and was conferred on 
the family of Fitzgerald in 1766. 

LEIPSIC (Saxony), an ancient city, famous 
for its university (founded 1409) and its fair (1458). 
At Breitenfeld, near here, Gustavus Adolphus, king 
of Sweden, defeated the Imperialists, under Tilly, 
7 Sept. 1631 ; and the Imperialists were again 
defeated here by the Swedes, under Torstensen, 23 
Oct. 1642. Here took place, on 16, 18, 19 Oct. 1813, 
'■'■the battle of the nations," between the French 
army and its allies, commanded by Napoleon 
(160,000), and the Austrian, Russian, and Prussian 
armies (240,000 strong). The French were beaten 
chiefly owing to 17 Saxon battalions, their allies, 
turning upon them in the heat of the engagement. 
80,000 men perished on the field, of whom more 
than 40,000 were French, who also lost 65 pieces of 
artillery, and many standards. The victory was 
followed by the capture of Leipsic, of the rear 
guard of the French army, and of the king of Saxony 
and his family. The 50th anniversary was cele- 
brated 18 Oct. 1863. The Leipsic book fair began 
1545. The new Supreme Court for all Germany, 
opened here 1 Sept. 1879. Population in 1885, 
170,340; in 1890, 353,272. 

LEITH, the port of Edinburgh, was burnt by 
the earl of Hertford in 1544. It was fortified by the 
French partisans of queen Mary in 1560, and 
surrendered to the English. The "Agreement of 
Leith" between the superintendents and ministers 
was made, Jan. 1572. The docks were begun 
1720. Leith was made a burgh in 1833. Popu- 
lation, 1891, 69,696. 

LEITHA, a river dividing the Austrian terri- 
tories ; see ^Austria. 

LEITH HILL, near Dorking, Surrey, said to 
have been a Roman station, and has a view of 
eleven counties, being about 1000 feet above the 
sea level. The lofty tower on its summit was 
erected in 1766 by Mr. Richard Hull the then owner 
of Leith Hill Place, he died 18 Jan. 1772 and was 
buried within the tower. 

LELEGES, a Pelasgic tribe which inhabited 
Laconia about 1490 B.C., and after many contests 
merged into the Hellenes , see Hellas. 

LE MANS, a French city, department of the 
Sarthe. Here the retreating French general Chanzy 
was overtaken and defeated by the Germans under 
prince Frederick Charles and the grand-duke of 
Mecklenburg, after some conflicts : 10, II Jan. 1871. 
Le Mans was entered 12 Jan. In six days' fighting 
about 22,000 French made prisoners. 

LEMURES- The ancients supposed that the 
soul, after death, wandered over the world, and 
disturbed the peace of the living. The happy 
spirits were called Lares familiares, and the 



LENNIE MUTINY. 



576 



LEVELS. 



unhappy, Lemures. The Roman festival, Lemu- 
ralia, kept on 9, 11, 13 May, is mythically said to 
have been instituted by Romulus about 747 B.C., 
to propitiate the spirit of the slaughtered Remus. 

LENNIE MUTINY. See Mutinies, 1875. 

LENT (from the Saxon, lencten, spring). The 
forty days' fast observed in the Greek, Roman catho- 
lic, English, andotherchurchesfromAsh-Wednesday 
to Easter-day. The commencement of Lent varied, 
hut in the 8th or 9th century Ash Wednesday 
became the first day. Lent was first observed in 
England by command of Ercombert, king of Kent, 
in 640 or 641. Baker's Chron. Flesh was prohibited 
during Lent; but Henry VIII. permitted the use of 
white meats by a proclamation in 1543, which con- 
tinued in force until, by proclamation of James I., 
in 1619 and 1625, and by Charles I., in 1627 and 
163 1, flesh was again wholly forbidden; see Ash- 
JJ edncsday, Quadragesima. 

LEON, KINGDOM OF, see under Spain. 

LEONAEDS' ACTS, Lord St., 22 & 23 
Vict. c. 35 ; 23 & 24 Vict. c. 38 (1859-60), relate to 
legal proceedings. 

LEONINE CITY (Cittd Leonina or Sorgo), 
formerly a suburb, now included in the city of 
Rome, was founded by Leo IV., pope 847-55, and 
named Leopolis. It comprehends the castle of St. 
Angelo, the hospital of San Spirito, the Vatican 
palace and gardens, and St. Peter's. Its possession 
-was allotted to pope Pius IX. when the Italian royal 
troops entered Rome, 20 Sept. 1870. About 1500 
inhabitants of the Leonine city voted for union with 
the kingdom of Italy, 2 Oct. 1870. 

LEONINES, hexameter and pentameter verses, 
rhyming at the middle and the end, are said to have 
been first made by Leoninus, a canon, about the 
middle of the 12th century, or by pope Leo II. 
about 682. 

LEOPOLD'S, PEINCE, ANNUITY 
ACT (passed 7 Aug. 1874), provided for him 
15,000/. a year, from 7 April, 1874, when he came 
of age. 

LEPANTO (near Corinth), Battle of, 7 Oct- 
1571: when the combined fleets of Spain, Venice, 
Genoa, Malta, and Pius V., commanded by don 
John of Austria, defeated the whole maritime force 
of the Turks,and completely checked their progress. 
LEPROSY, a skin disease described in Leviticus 
xiii. (b.c. 1490), which prevailed in ancient times 
throughout Asia. It has now almost disappeared 
from Europe. It chiefly affected the lower classes, 
yet occasionally proved fatal to the very highest 
personages. Robert Bruce of Scotland died of leprosy 
in 1329. A hospital for lepers was founded at 
Granada, by queen Isabella of Castile, about 1504, 
and a large number of leper houses were founded in 
Britain. Dr. Edmondson met with u case in Edin- 
burgh in 1809. 

The great increase of leprosy in the Sandwich Islands 
compelled the government tn isolate the lepers, and 
large numbers were transported to Molokai, where 
they endured much suffering. Since 1873 Father 
Joseph Damien (de Venster), R. C. Belgian mission- 
ary, devoted his whole life most successfully to their 
general relief, and finally died of their disease, aged 49, 
10 April, 1889. Other missionaries, male and female, 
are continuing his labours. 
The Father Damien Memorial Fund ', under the auspices 
of the prince of Wales, was founded about 18 June, 
1889 ; and on 29 June it was determined to set up a 
memorial statue of Father Damien at Kalawao, and to 
establish a fund for the medical treatment of the 
disease in the United Kingdom, and for the promotion 
of the study of it at home and abroad especially n 
India 



Sir Henry B. Loch founds a hospital at Robben 

island, Cape Colony ... .8 April, 1890 
National Leprosy Fund ; subscription dinner at the 
Hotel Metropole, the prince of Wales in the chair, 

13 Jan. ,, 
The Albert Victor leprosy hospital at Calcutta 

founded Jan. ,, 

The lion, sir Dinshaw Manockjee Petit presents 
100,000 rupees to found a leper hospital at Bombay, 
announced . . . . . 7 Feb. ,, 

The British leprosy commission arrived at Calcutta, 

Nov. ,, 
LEEIDA, the ancient Ilerda, E. Spain, founded 
by the Carthaginians. Near it Julius Ctesar de- 
feated Pompey's lieutenants, 49 B.C. It was made 
the residence of the kings of Aragon, 1 149. It was 
captured for Philip V. by the French under theduke 
of Orleans, I30ct. I707,and bySuchet,i3 May,i8iO. 

LESSONS, see Common Prayer. 

LETTEES, see Alphabet, Anonymous, Belles 
Lettres, Copying Machine, Epistles, Literature, 
Marque, and Privateers. 

LETTEES DE CACHET, sealed letters 
issued by the kings of France since about 1670, by 
virtue of which those persons against whom they 
were directed were thrown into prison or exiled. 
The National Assembly decreed their abolition, 1 
Nov. 1789. 

LETTUCE, introduced into England from 
Flanders about 1520. It is said that when queen 
Catherine wished for a salad, she bad to send to 
Holland or Flanders for lettuce. 

LEUCTEA, in Bceotia, N. Greece, where the 
Thebans under Epaminondas defeated the superior 
force of Cleombrotus, king of Sparta, 8 July, 371 B.C. 
4000 Spartans, with their king, were slain. r Ihe 
Spartans gradually lost their preponderance in 
Greece. 

LEUDES, from the German, Leute, people. 
Native feudal vassals, faithful to the German and 
French sovereigns in the 6th and 7th centuries. 

LEUTHEN (S. Prussia) ; see Lissa. 

LEVANT (the East), a term applied to Greece, 
Turkey, Asia Minor, &c. Levant companies, in 
London, were established in 1581, 1593, and 1605. 

LEVELLEES, a fanatical party in Germany, 
headed by Muncer and Storck in the 16th century, 
who taught that all distinctions of rank were usurpa- 
tions on the rights of mankind. At the head of 
40,000 men, Muncer commanded the sovereign 
princes of Germany and the magistrates of cities to 
resign their authority ; and on his march his followers 
ravaged the country. The landgrave of Hesse at 
length defeated him at Frankenhausen, 15 May, 
1525 ; 7000 of the enthusiasts fell in the battle, and 
the rest fled ; their leader was taken and beheaded 
at Mulhausen. The English " Levellers," powerful 
in parliament in 1647, were put down by Cromwell 
in 1649, and then leader Lilburn imprisoned. At 
the period of the French revolution some Levellers 
appeared in England. A " Loyal Association" was 
formed against them by John Reeves, Nov. 1792. 

LEVELS. The great Level of the Fens is a 
low-lying district of about 2000 square miles, in 
Lincolnshire, Huntingdonshire, Cambridgeshire, and 
Norfolk, said to have been overflown by the sea 
during an earthquake, 368. It was long after ware's 
an inland sea in winter, and a noxious swamp in 
summer, and wasgraduallydrained — by the Romans, 
the Saxons, and especially by the monks during the 
reigns of the Plantagenet kings. One of the first 
works on a large scale was carried out by Morton, 
bishop of Ely, in the reign of Henry VII. A general 



LEVEBIAN MUSEUM. 



577 



LIBEEALS. 



drainage act was passed by the advice of lord Burgh- 
ley, in 1601, but little work was done till the reign 
of James I., who, in 1621, invited over the great 
Dutch engineer, Cornelius Vermuyden, to assist in 
the general drainage of the country. After complet- 
ing several great works, Vermuyden agreed (in 1629) 
to drain the " Great Level." He was at first 
prevented from proceeding with his undertaking 
through a popular cutcry against foreigners ; but 
eventually, aided by Francis, earl of Bedford, in 
spite of the great opposition of the people, for whose 
benefit he was labouring, he declared his great work 
complete in 1652. lie also reclaimed much valuable 
land at Axholme, in Lincolnshire, 1626-30, and 
many Dutch and French protestants settled here 
about 1634; and a few of their descendants still 
remain. — 'there are the Middle, Bedford, South, 
and North Levels. 

The drainage of the Great Level employed the 
talents of Rennie (about 1807), and of Telford 
(1822), and of other eminent engineers. 
The Middle Level commission cut through certain 

barrier banks, and replaced them by other works 1844 
These were reported unsound in March, and the 
outfall sluice at St. Germains, near King's Lynn, 

gave way 4 May, 1862 

High tides ensuing, about 6000 acres of fertile land 
were inundated, causing a loss of about 25,000?. 
After unwearied, and, for a while, unsuccessful 
efforts, a new coffer dam was constructed under 
the superintendence of Mr. Hawkshaw, which was 

reported sound July, „ 

Another inundation, begun through the bursting 
of a marshland sluice, near Lynn, was checked 

4 Oct. „ 
New outfall sluice opened ... 26 Nov. 1877 

LEVEEIAN MUSEUM, formed by sir Ash- 
ton Lever, exhibited to the public at Leicester- 
house, London ; it was offered to the public, in 
1785, by the chance of a guinea lottery, and won by 
Mr. Parkinson, in 1785, who sold it by auction, in 
lots, May-July, 1806. 

LEVIATHAN", see Steam Navigation. 

LEWES (Sussex), where Henry III., king of 
England, was defeated by Montfort,earl c' Leicester, 
and the barons, 14 May, 1264. Blaa,M. The 
king, his brother Richard, king of the Romans, and 
his son Edward, afterwards Edward I., were taken 
prisoners. One division of Montfort's army, a body 
of Londoners, gave way to the furious attack of 
prince Edward, who, pursuing the fugitives too far, 
caused the battle to be lost; see Evesham. Popu- 
lation, 1881, 11,199; 1891, 10,997. 

LEXICON, see Dictionaries. 

LEXINGTON" (Massachusetts), Battle of, at 
the beginning of the war of independence. The 
British obtained the advantage, and destroyed the 
stores of the revolted colonists, but lost in the battle 
273 men, killed and wounded, 19 April, 1775. The 
Hostilities thus commenced continued to 1783. — 
Lexington, a town in Missouri, U.S., fortified by 
the Federals, was attacked by the confederate general 
Price, on 29 Aug., and after a gallant resistance by 
colonel Mulligan, surrendered on 21 Sept. 1861. 

LEYDEN (Holland), Lugdunum Batavorum, 
important in the 13th century. Between 31 Oct. 
1573, and30ct. 1574, when it was relieved, itendured 
two sieges by the armies of Spain, during which 6000 
of the inhabitants died of famine and pestilence. In 
commemoration the university was founded, 1575. 
In l6q9 two-thirds of the population perished by a 
ievcr, which, it was said, was aggravated by its 
improper treatment by professor De la Boo. The 
university was almost destroyed by a vessel laden 
with 10,000 lbs. weight of gunpowder blowing up, 



and demolishing a large part of the town, and killing 
numbers of people, 12 Jan. 1807. The Leyden jar 
was invented about 1745, by Kleist, -Muschenbroek, 
and others ; see Electricity. Population, 1890, 
43-510. 

The third centenary of the foundation of the univer- 
sity celebrated joyfully .... 8 Feb. 1875 

LIBEL. By the Roman laws of the Twelve 
Tables, libels which affected the reputation of another 
were made capital offences. In the British law, 
whatever renders a man ridiculous, or lowers a man 
in the opinion and esteem of the world, is deemed a 
libel. " The greater the truth the greater the libel," 
the well known law maxim of a high authority, is 
now disputed; see Trials, 1788, 1790, 1792, 1803, 
1808 et seq., 1863, 1882 ; and (note) Patents and 
Times. 

Dispersing slanderous libels made felony . . 1545 
Win. Prynne, a puritan lawyer, fined 5000Z., placed 
in the pillory, where his ears were cut off, and 
imprisoned, for writing " Histriomastix," a con- 
demnation of stage plays : which was considered 
to be a libel on the queen, who favoured them, 
1633 ; he was tried and further punished for his 

satirical writings in 1637 

Fox's libel bill, which enlarged the discretionary 
power of juries in cases of libel, thrown out by the 

lords in 1791 ; passed in 1792 

Blasphemous and seditious libels, on the second 

offence, made punishable with transportation . 1819. 
An action for libel was brought in the court of 
King's Bench by a bookseller named Stockdale, 
against Messrs. Hansard, the printers to the house 
of commons ; this action related to an opinion 
expressed in a parliamentary report of a book 
published by Stockdale, 7 Nov. 1836. Lord Den- 
man, in giving judgment, said he was not aware 
that the authority of the house of commons could 
justify the publication of a libel— an opinion 
which led to some proceedings on the part of the 
house, and to other actions by Stockdale . 1837-39 
Verdicts were given in his favour, and in Nov. 1839, 
the sheriffs took possession of Hansard's premises. 
This caused much excitement in parliament, and 
they were ordered to appear at the bar of the 
house of commons, and were formally committed 
to the custody of the serjeant-at-arms, 21 Jan., 
but immediately discharged : the conflict was 
maintained by the law officers and the commons 

till May, 1840 

A law was passed giving summary protection to 
persons employed by parliament in the publication 
of its reports and papers . . .14 April, „ 
The severity of the law in respect to newspapers 

relaxed by lord Campbell's act, 6 <fc 7 Vict. c. 96 . 1843- 
A bill relieving newspapers from actions for libel in 
reporting speeches at lawful public meetings, read 
third time in the commons, Aug. 1867, but 
dropped ; read 2nd time 1 April; and withdrawn, 

1 July, 1868 
Wason v. Walter (" Times") ; parliamentary reports 

and fair comments, declared no libel . 25 Nov. ,, 
Newspaper Libel Act passed . . 27 Aug. 1S81 

New Libel Law passed .... 24 Dec. 1888 

LIBEEALS, a name given to the more ad- 
vanced Whigs and reformers since 1828. The party 
held office under Earl Grey, Viscount Melbourne, 
Earl Russell, Viscount Palinerston, and Mr. W. E. 
Gladstone. See Administrations. 
The Liberal, a paper begun by Byron, Shelley and 

Leigh Hunt, 4 numbers only published . . 1822 
New city liberal club ; earl Granville, president ; 

organised May, 1874 

New liberal club for west end, founded . June, „ 
A new liberal cry proposed "Free church, schools, 

and land " (Mr. Chamberlain) . . autumn. ,. 
Mr. Gladstone resigned the leadership of the party 
in the commons, 13 Jan. ; his successor, the 
marquis of Hartington . . . 13 Jan. 1875 
Associations composed of elected delegates to or- 
ganise liberal voters, have been formed in Bir- 
mingham, Southward, Bradford, and other bo- 
roughs 1876 (t M 7 

V P 



LIBEEATION OF EELIGION. 



578 



LIBEAEIES. 



Mr. W. E. Forster refused to submit to the dicta- 
tion of the committee of the Bradford associa- 
tion in respect to his voting . . . Aug. 1878 
See Caucus. 
National Liberal Federation : constituted at Bir- 
mingham, 31 May, 1877 ; first annual meeting (at 
Leeds), 22 Jan. 1879. At the meeting at Notting- 
ham, 18 Oct. 1887, Mr. Gladstone severely con- 
demned the government Irish policy and action ; 
also at Birmingham . 5 Nov. 1888 

Again at Manchester .... 3 Dec. 1889 

At Liverpood 18 March, 1890 

At Newcastle-on-Tyne (which see) . . 1 Oct 1891 
Great liberal conference at Leeds . . 17 Oct. 1883 
National liberal club, Westminster, founded Nov. 
1882 ; inaugural banquet, 2 May, 1883 ; founda- 
tion of house at Whitehall laid by Mr. Gladstone, 

4 Nov. 1S84 
The liberal majority in 1885, 82 (exclusive of 86 

Parnellites) 
Many secessions (lord Hartington, lord Selborne, 
earl Derby, Mr. John Bright, Mr. GSschen, Mr. 
Chamberlain, sir John Lubbock, sir H. James, 
and others) against Mr. Gladstone's Irish policv 
(termed unionist or dissentient liberals, the old 
liberal party have since been named Gladstonians) 
Jan.-May ; at a conference they resolve to sup- 
port the Salisbury government . . 7 Dec. 1886 
Inaugural meeting of the London Liberal and Radical 

Union 11 Jan. 1887 

"Round Table" conference at sir Wm. Harcourt's, 
for re-union of unionists and Gladstonians ; 
reported unsuccessful . . 13 Jan. e.t seq. ,, 
The Liberal Unionist, a new review published 

30 March, „ 
Lord Hartington and a great many liberal unionists 

retire from the National Liberal Club . . Dec. 1888 
'The National Radical Union becomes the National 

Liberal (see Radical) . . . .24 April, 1889 
The Women's Liberal Confederation (Gladstonian) 

consists of 33,500 members . . . May, ,, 
A great Liberal Unionist banquet at the Crystal 
palace, in honour of the marquis of Hartington, 

13 May, 1890 
National Liberal Unionist conference at Manchester ; 
sir Henry James chairman, the marquis of Hart- 
ington and the duke of Argyll present 10 Nov. 1891 

LIBEEATIQN OF EELIGTON from 
State Patronage and Control. Society 

for, was established by eminent political dissenters, 
May, 1844. 16th triennial conference opened, 
3 May, 1892. 

" LIBEEATOE," a name popularly given to 
Mr. Daniel O'Connell, for his successful exertions 
relating to Roman Catholic emancipation, com- 
pleted by Parliament in 1829. " Liberator " was 
the name of an American anti-slavery journal 
founded by Wm. Lloyd Garrison, Jan. 1831, and 
edited by him till i856. He was aided by Mr. 
John G. Whittier. 

LIBEEIA, the republic of freed and indigenous 
negroes on the coast of Upper Guinea, West Africa, 
was founded in 1822 by the American Colonisation 
Society, which was established by Henry Clay in 
1816 : capital, Monrovia. The independence of Li- 
beria was proclaimed, 24 Aug. 1847 ; recognised by 
Europe in 1848, by America, in 1862. Presidents: 
J. J. Roberts, an able statesman, 1847; Daniel B. 
Warner, elected 1864; James Spriggs Payne, in- 
stalled 6 Jan. 1868 ; E. J. Roy, president, Jan. 
1870, was deposed, Oct. 187 1 ; escaped from prison; 
drowned, Feb. 1872. J. J. Roberts re-elected Jan. 
1872 and 1874 ! died 215 Feb. ; J. Spriggs Payne, 
elected 3 June, 1876; A. W. Gardner, 1878; A. J. 
Russell, 1883 ; H. R. W. Johnson, 7 Jan. 1884. 
Population, about 20,000 civilized Africans, above 
100,000 natives. 

The territories largely increased by annexations, 
1847 et seq., and by the adhesion of Maryland, a 
negro republic (founded 1821-54) • • • • 1857 



The president Roberts, visits the exhibition in 
London ......... 1862 

War with the aborigines at Cape Palmas; fighting, 17 Sept. 
Liberia successful . . . . . . Oct. 1875 

Peace concluded March, 1876 

Kingdom of Medina {which see) annexed ; an- 
nounced Feb. 1880 

LIBEETINES (signifying freedmenand their 
sons), was a sect headed by Quintin and Corin, 
about 1525, who held monstrous opinions. 

LIBEETY, see Press and Trees. A colossal 
statue of Liberty, 150 feet high by M. Bartholdi, 
French sculptor, presented to the United States of 
N. America, was set up at New York Harbour and 
was publicly dedicated 28 Oct. 1886. 

LIBEETY AWT) PEOPEETY DE- 
FENCE LEAGUE, formed by lords Elcho 
(since earl of Wemyss), B ram well, and others, to 
obviate the effects of legislation since 1871- First 
meeting 5 July; first general meeting 29 Nov. 1882. 
The league has many affiliated societies. At the 
general meeting on 1 July, 1886, M. Leon Say was 
president. 

LIBEAEIES-* Accadimor Chaldean libraries 
are said to have been formed 1700 B.C. The remains 
of those formed by Assyrian monarchs (744 et seq.) 
at Nineveh, &c, consisting of tablets of baked clay, 
were discovered by Botta, Layard, and others, 1843 
et seq.; see Nineveh. Diodorus Siculus describes a 
library in the tomb of Osymandyas, king of Egypt. 
A public library was founded at Athens by Pisis- 
tratus, about 540 B.C. Another was founded by 
Ptolemy Philadelphus, 284 B.C. It was partially de- 
stroyed when Julius Caesar set fire to Alexandria 47 
B.C. 400,000 valuable books in MS. are said to 
have been lost by this catastrophe. Blair, 
The first private library was Aristotle's. Strabo. B.C. 334 
The first library at Rome brought from Macedonia 167 
According to Plutarch, the library at Pergamos con- 
tained 200,000 books. It came into the posses- 
sion of the Romans at the death of Attalus III., 
who bequeathed his kingdom to the Roman people 133 
The library of Appellicon, sent to Rome from 

Athens, by Sylla 86 

Library founded at Constantinople by Constantine, a.d. 

about 355 
An Alexandrian library, said to have been burnt by 

the caliph Omer 1 640 

Library at St. Mark's, Venice, begun, by gifts from 

Petrarch, 1352 ; enlarged by cardinal Bessarion . 1468 
Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, collected a 

library of nearly 500,000 volumes at Buda ; died . 1490 
The first public library in Italy founded at Florence 
by Niccolo Niccoli, one of the great restorers of 
learning. At his death he left his library to the 
public, 1436. Cosmo de' Medici enriched it with 
the invaluable Greek and Hebrew MSS. about 1560 
The Vatican Library at Rome, founded by pope 
Nicholas V. in 1447, and improved by Sixtus V., 1588 
(contained about 150,000 volumes and 40,000 
MSS., 1868). 
Imperial Library of Vienna, founded by Frederick 

III. in 1440, and by Maximilian. 1 1500 

Royal Library of Paris, founded by John 1350, en- 
larged by Charles V., 1364 ; said to contain 815,000 
volumes and 84,000 MSS. in i860 ; 1,700,000 vols 
in 1876. A new reading-room has been built. 
Royal Libraries founded at Copenhagen by Christian 
III. about 1533 : at Stockholm, by Gustavus Vasa, 
about 1540 : at Munich, by Albert III. . about 1550 
Escurial at Madrid, commenced with the foundation 

of the palace, by Philip II 1557 

Harvard University Library (see Harvard), Massa- 
chusetts, U.S., founded 1632, endowed . . 1638 
Imperial Library at St. Petersburg (principally the 
spoils of Poland), founded .... 1714 

* A Conference of British and foreign librarians met at 
the London Institution, 2 Oct. 1877. It founded the 
Library Association of the United Kingdom. 



LIBEAEY ASSOCIATION. 



579 



LICHFIELD. 



Astor Free Publie Library, New York, founded by 
John Jacob Astor, by gift of 80,000?., 1839; he 
died in 1848, and the library has since been 
warmly supported by his wealthy son, Wm. 
JBlackhouse Astor (died 1875), and his grandson, 
John Jacob Astor (died 1890). 

LIBRARIES IN GREAT BRITAIN. 

Ilichard de Bury, chancellor and high treasurer of 
England, purchased thirty or forty volumes of the 
abbot of St. Alban's for fifty pounds' weight of 
silver 1341 

University Library, St. Andrews, founded . . 141 1 

Glasgow University Library, founded about . . 1473 

Lambeth palace Library founded by abp. Bancroft, 

about 1610 

Sion College Library, founded 1630 

Royal Society Library, founded 1667 

Harleian Library (which see) begun .... 1705 

University Library, Cambridge, founded 1475 ; Geo. 
I. gave 6000 guineas to purchase Dr. Moore's col- 
lection 1715 

Bodleian Library at Oxford, founded 1598 ; opened 
8 Nov. 1602. See Bodleian. 

Cottonian Library, founded by Sir Robert Cotton 
about 1588 ; appropriated to the public, 1701 ; 
partly destroyed by fire, 1731 ; removed to the 
British Museum (which see) 1753 

Dr. Daniel Williams's Public Library. He died, 
1716 ; bequeathed his library and money for a 
building, which was opened at 49, Redcross-street, 
City, in 1729 ; it was successively removed to 
Queen's-square, Bloomsbury, 1864, and to Graf- 
ton-street East, and opened . . . Sept. 1873 

Radcliffe Library at Oxford, founded by the will of 
Dr. Radcliffe, 1714 ; opened 1749 

The Libraries of the Royal Institution (founded 
1803), the London Institution (1805), and the 
1 loyal College of Surgeons (1786), have classified 
catalogues. 

Library of the University of Dublin (1601), and the 
A Ivocates' Library in Edinburgh (1680), are ex- 
tensive and valuable. 

Library of East India Company, founded . . 1800 

Itojul Libraries in England: that of Edward IV., 
mentioned 1480, increased in the reigns of Edw. 
VI. and James I. ; much enlarged by Richard 
Bentley, while librarian, 1 694-1 735 ; added to the 
British Museum by Geo. II., 1759 ; rich library of 
Geo. III., presented to the nation, 1823 ; deposited 
in the British Museum 1829 

In 1609 the Stationers' Company agreed to give a 
copy of every book published, to the Bodleian 
Library, Oxford. By 14 Charles II. c. 33 (1662), 
three copies were required to be given to certain 
public libraries ; by 8 Anne, c. 19(1709), the num- 
ber was increased to nine ; by 41 Geo. III. c. 107, 
to eleven ; which number was reduced to rive by 
5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 110(1835): the British Museum, 
the Bodleian, Oxford, the Public Library, Cam- 
bridge, the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh, and 
Trinity College, Dublin. 

Free Libraries successfully established, since 1850, 
at Manchester, Liverpool, Salford, &c. Many 
others formed under acts passed in 1845, 1850 & 1856 

On 5 Nov. 1855, a proposal to establish a Free Li- 
brary in the city of London was negatived, and 
in 1857 that in Marylebone was closed for want of 
support, but was re-opened 1 May, 1890. 

The new city library, Guildhall (free) was opened 

S Nov. 1872 

Metropolitan Free Library Association formed, 

4 April, 1879 

The great library collected by Charles Spencer, 3rd 
earl of Sunderland, the property of the duke of 
Marlborough, partly sold by auction (under the 
Blenheim Settled Estates Act of 1880) 1-12 Dec. 1881 

Library of sir Francis Drake and family sold, Mar. 1883 

United Hamilton and Beckford libraries sold for 
86,444? 1883-4 

The Syston Park library (sir John Hay ford Thorold) 
including a Mazarin bible, early printed classics, 
&C., sold for about 28,000?. . . 12-20 Dec. 1884 

The library of Michael Wodhull, collected in the 
last century, realized by 10 days' sale 11,973?. 4 s - 6d. 

21 Jan. 1886 

133 free libraries established up to . . 1887 



Lord Aylesford's library sold for 10,754?. ; nine 

days' sale 20 March, 1888 

See Circulating Library. 

LIBEAEY ASSOCIATION of the 
UNITED KINGDOM, founded at a conference of 
librarians at the London Institution, 2 Oct. 1877. 
It met at Oxford, 1-3 Oct. 1878 ; at Manchester, 23 
Sept. 1879; Ldinburgh, 5 Oct. 1880; London, 1881 ; 
Cambridge, 5 Sept. 1882; Liverpool, 11 Sept. 1883; 
Lublin, 30 Sept. 1884 ; Plymouth, 15 Sept. 1885 ; 
London, 28 Sept. 1886; Birmingham, 20 Sept. 
1887 ; Glasgw, 4 Sept. 1888 ; London (Gray's Inn), 
2 Oct. 1889; Reading, 16 Sept. 1890 ; Nottingham, 
16 Sept. 1891 ; Paris, 12 Sept. 1892. 

LIBEO D'OEO (Book of Gold). The title o 
an ancient register of 24 ruling Venetian families 
before 813; and also of another book, dated 150(5, 
recording the genealogies of the noble houses who 
ruled Venice till the fall of the republic in 1797. 

LIBYA, Greek name for all Africa, but specially 
for the interior as distinguished from the north; it 
is mentioned by Homer and described by Herodotus. 
It was temporarily subdued by (Jambyses, king of 
Persia, about 525 B.C. The country was explored 
for trade purposes by Ptolemy II., III., and IV., 
kings of Egypt. 

LICENCES. This mode of levying money was 
introduced by Richard I. about 1 190 ; but was then 
confined to such of the nobility as desired to enter 
the lists at tournaments. 

Games and gaming-houses licensed in London . 1620 

Licence system for excisable articles enforced in 
various reigns, from the 12th Charles II. 

Lottery office-keepers to take out licences, and pay 
50?. for each. This reduced the number from 400 
to 51 Aug. 

General licensing act, 9 Geo. IV. e. 61 . 

Licences for public-houses granted in 1551, and for 
refreshment-houses, with wine licences . . . 

In the case of Sharp v. Wakefield, thehouse of lords, 
on appeal, decided that the licensing justices have 
the power of refusing to renew a licence to 
publicans, when they think fit . 20 March, 

The licensing system was applied to India as a kind 
of income-tax, 1859 : ceased in ... 

Licences for the sale of tea, coffee, chocolate, and 
pepper were abolished and other licences modified 
by acts passed in x 8 

Licensing Reform Agitation . . . .18 

Acts for licensing plays and playhouses by the lord 
chamberlain, were passed in 1736 (10 Geo. II. 
c. 28) ; and in 1843 (6 & 7 Vict. c. 68) ; and for 
music and dancing in public-houses, in 1752 (25 
Geo. II. c. 36). 

New licensing act, regulating the sale of intoxicating 
liquors ; very much opposed ; passed and came 
into operation . . ." . .10 Aug. 1872 

Another licensing act passed . . .30 July, 1S74 

The licensing clauses of the local taxation bill 
(much opposed), dropped by the government, 

24 June, 1850 

Licences issued : 1877, 21,729; 1881, 29,085. 
See Press. 

LICHFIELD (Staffordshire). The see of 
Mercia (at Lichfield) was founded about 656; re- 
moved to Chester, 1075 i to Coventry, 1102. Inii2i 
Robert Peche was consecrated bishop of Lichfield 
and Coventry. By an order in council, Jan. 1837, 
the archdeaconry of Coventry was added to the see 
of Worcester, andDr. Samuel Butler became bishop 
of Lichfield. This see has given three saints to the 
Romish church ; and to the British nation one lord 
chancellor and three lord treasurers. It is valued 
in the king's books at 559^. 18s. 2d. Present income, 
4200/. Population, 1881, 8,349; I S9 I > 7,864. 
Lichfield cathedral was first built about 656 ; the pre- 
sent structure was founded by Roger de Clinton, the 

F p 2 



1660 



1778 
1828 

IS60 



70-71 



LICHFIELD HOUSE COMPACT. 580 



LIFE-BOAT. 



37th bishop, in 1148. Walter de Langton (bishop in 
1296), built the chape] of St. Mary, now taken into the 
choir, and under bishop Heyworth (1420) the cathedral 
was perfected. The building was despoiled at the 
Reformation, and was scandalously injured in the par- 
liamentary war (when its monuments, its fine sculp- 
tures, and beautifully painted windows, were demo- 
lished). It was repaired at the restoration, 1660; in 
1788 ; and by Gilbert G. Scott, 1860-63 and l8S 4- 
In Lichfield castle, king Richard II. kept his Christmas 
festival, 1397, when 200 tuns of wine and 2000 oxen 
were consumed. A charter was granted to Lichfield, 
constituting it a city, by Edward VI., 1549. It was 
absorbed into the county in 1885. 

BISHOPS OF LICHFIELD AND COVENTRY. 

1781. James, earl of Cornwallis, died 1824. 
1824. Hon. Henry Ryder, died 31 March, 1836. 

BISHOPS OF LICHFIELD. 

1836. Samuel Butler, died 4 Dec. 1839. 

1839. James Bowstead, died n Oct. 1843. 

1843. John Lonsdale, died 19 Oct. 1867. 

1867. Geo. Aug. Selwyn, late bishop of New Zealand, 

died 11 April, 1878. 
1878. William Dalrymple Maclagan, consecrated 24 June, 

translated to York, May, 1891. 
1891. Hon. Augustus Legge, June. 

LICHFIELD HOUSE COMPACT, said 
to have been made between the Whig government 
and Daniel O'Connell in 1835 at Liehfield-house, 
13, St. James's-square. 

LICINIAN LAWS. In 375 b.c, C. Licinius 
Stolo and L. Sextius, tribunes of the people, pro- 
mulgated various rogationes or laws to weaken the 
power of the patricians and benefit the plebeians : 
one was to relieve the plebeians from their debts ; 
another enacted that no person should possess more 
than 500 jugera of the public land, or more than 
100 head of large cattle, or 500 of small, in the 
Roman states; and the third, that one of the con- 
suls should be a plebeian. After much opposition 
these were carried, and L. Sextius became the first 
plebeian consul, 366. Another law, 56 B.C., of this 
name, imposed a severe penalty on party clubs, or 
societies assembled for election purposes; and 
another, about 103 B.C. (brought forward by P. 
Licinius Crassus), limited the expenses of the table. 

LICK OBSEKV ATOPY, see under Obser- 
vatory. 

LIEBENAU (Bohemia). Here -was fought 
the first action of the seven weeks' war, 26 June, 
1866; when the Austrians were compelled to 
retreat by the Prussians under general Von Horn. 

LIECHTENSTEIN, a principality, _S. Ger- 
many. Population, in 1880, 9124. Constitutional 
charter, 26 Sept. 1862. Prince John II., born 5 
Oct. 1840, succeeded his father Alois- Joseph, 12 
Nov. 1858. 

LIEGrE (Belgium), a bishopric, under the Ger- 
man empire, from the 8th century till 1795. Liege 
frequently revolted against its prince-bishops. 
After a severe contest, the citizens were beaten at 
Brusthem, 28 Oct. 1467, and Liege taken by Charles 
the Bold, duke of Burgundy, who treated them with 
gi - eat severity. In 1482 Liege fell into the power 
of De la Marck, the Boar of Ardennes, who killed 
the bishop, Louis of Bourbon, and was himself 
defeated and killed. liege was taken by the duke 
of Marlborough, 23 Oct. 1702; and by the French 
and others, at various times, up to 1796, when it 
was annexed to France. It was incorporated with 
the Netherlands in 1814, and with Belgium in 1830. 
Iron-works were established at Liege in the 16th 
century, and have been greatly enlarged by the 
Cockerills in the 19th, see Seraing. An inter- 
national volunteer shooting contest held here, Sept. 



1869. The Iron and Steel Institute met here 18- 
Aug. 1873. Dynamite explosions ; the church of 
St. Martin much injured, 1,2 May; nine anarchists- 
convicted ; sentences, penal servitude, one, 25 
years ; two, 20 years ; four, 15 years ; one, 10 years; 
one, 3 years ; trial, 18-26 July, 1892. Population ? 
in 1890, 149,789. 

LIEGNITZ, see Ffaffendorf. 

LIEUTENANTS, Lord, for counties, were 
instituted in England, 3 Edw. VI., 1549, and in 
Ireland in 1 83 1. Their military jurisdiction abo- 
lished by Army Regulation Act, 10*71. For the lords- 
lieutenant of Ireland, see Ireland. 

LIFE ASSURANCE COMPANIES ACT P 

passed 9 Aug. 1870, requires the companies to pub- 
lish annual returns of receipts, expenditure, &c. 

LIFE-BOAT, &c, see Wrecks. 

Patent granted to Mr. Lionel Lukin for a life-boat . 1785; 

A reward, offered by a committee in South Shields 
for a life-boat, 1788, obtained by Mr. Henry Great- 
head, of that town (he received 1200Z. from parlia- 
ment), 1789 ; it first put to sea . . 30 Jan. 1790 

Another life boat was invented by William Would- 
have. His name was inscribed on a memorial 
erected in honour of Henry Greathead on the 
pier at South Shields, uncovered . 25 June, 18901 

31 life-boats built, and 300 lives saved up to . . 1804 

The duke of Northumberland offered a reward of 
105Z. for a life-boat, 1850 ; obtained by Mr. James 
Beeching, of Yarmouth 1851 

The tubular life-boat of Mr. H. Richardson, the 
Challenger, patented in Jan. ; a cruise was made 
by him from Liverpool to London in it . .1852 

The National Life-boat Institution, founded in 1824 ; 
its journal first published, 1852. In 1856 it received 
a bequest of io,oooZ. from Hamilton Fitzgerald, 
esq., and of 39,000?,. from Mr. Wm. Birks Rhodes, 
"the Hounslow miser," in 1878. 

185 life-boats in the United Kingdom, 1865 ; 284, 1884 ; 
293, 1888 ; 303, 1891. 

Lives saved by the Institution's life-boats, £c, 1824-91, 
36,179 :— 

1877 
1878 
1879 



1824 . 


. 124 


1834 . 


214 


1844 • 


• 193 


1854 


355 


1864 . 


. 698 


1874 


743 


187s ■ 


. 921 


1876 


. 600 



1048 


1885 


555 


616 


1886 . 


. 761 


8S5 


1887 . 


572 


697 


1888 . 


. 617 


1121 


1889 . 


627 


884 


1890 . 


■ 555 


955 


1891 . 


736 


792 







Hans Busk Life-ship Institute founded . Oct. 1869 

The American Life-raft, composed of cylinders 
lashed together, sailed from New York, 4 June, 
1867, navigated by three men, capt John Mikes 
and Messrs. Miller and Mullane, and arrived at 
Southampton, 25 July following. 

Life-Preserver, the ax>paratus of capt. Manby 
(brought into use in Feb. 1808), effects a com- 
munication with the distressed vessel by a rope, 
thrown by a shot from a mortar, with a line 
attached to it. For the night, a night-ball is 
provided with a hollow ease of thick pasteboard, 
and a. fuse and quick match, and charged with 
fifty balls, and a sufficiency of powder to inflame 
them. The fuse is so graduated that the shell 
shall explode at the height of 300 yards. The 
balls spread a brilliant light for nearly a minute, 
and give a clear view of every surrounding object. 
In 20 years, 58 vessels and 410 of their crews and 
passengers had been saved. Capt. Manby died 
18 Nov. 1854, aged 89. See Rockets. 

The Boat-Lowering Apparatus, in consequence 
of many being lost when boats wei'e lowered from 
the Amazon in 1852, invented by Mr. Charles 
Clifford, of London, in 1856, has been much ap- 
proved of, and has been generally adopted in the 
royal navy. 

Capt. Kynaston's hooks were approved by admiral 
sir Baldwin Walker in 1862, and by a, committee 
on the subject in 1872. 

Exhibition of life-boats, life-rafts, &c, at the 
London Tavern opened 15 April, 1873. 



LIFE-GUAEDS. 



581 



LIGHTHOUSE. 



Hicks' Life-raft, reported good on trial in East India 
docks i Oct. 1874 

iCapt. Boyton's Life preserving dress (of india-rubber) 
with means for signalling at sea, tried by him on 
the Thames successfully, 23 Jan. and 6 March, 
.at Cowes, before the queen, while in the water 
lie fired rockets, caught fish, &c. , 5 April ; nearly 
■crossed the channel from Dover (paddled two 
miles an hour) ; stopped by the French pilot 

April, 1875 

Captain Boyton crossed the Channel from Grisnez 
to the South Foreland in 235 hours . 28-2(5 May, ,, 

Christie's Life-saving raft tried on the Thames, 
could not be sunk .... 17 March, ,, 

Edmund Thompson's Life-raft, partially successful off 
Poplar 22 April, ,, 

Boyton race on the Thames by six young men, three 
prizes awarded by the duchess of Teck . 10 Aug. ,, 

Rev. E. L. Berthon's Collapsible Life-boat taken out by 
the Essequibo, and proved to be successful Sept. 1882 

Gold medal given to vice-admiral Ward, chief inspec- 
tor of life-boats for 32 years . . . Aug. 1883 

Much assistance rendered by life-boats during a 
severe gale . . 14-16 Oct. and 8, 9 Dec. 1886 

The Mexico wrecked near Southport ; the Lytham 
lifeboat saves 12 lives ; the Southport and St. 
Anne's lifeboats capsized without righting them- 
selves ; 27 of the crews perish . . 9 Dec. ,, 

Adequate subscriptions for their wives and families 
and nucleus of a permanent fund formed Dec. ,, 

'The Storm King patent life-boat 30 feet long, with 
its inventor, capt. Joergensen and a man named 
Nelsen, left London 12 Sept. 1889, encountered 
heavy gales ; arrived at Cape Town . 2 March, 1890 

Death of Joaquin Lopez, boatman, aged 92, who 
had saved many lives from drowning and received 
foreign honours ..... 22 Dec. 1890 

The queen presents the Albert medal to Laurence 
Hennessy, seaman, for having saved the lives of 
31 men during ship-wrecks . . .18 Feb. 1892 

The Duke, of Northumberland, a new fast steel 
steam life-boat, with 15 water tightcompartments, 
designed by Messrs. R. and H. Green, to be 
stationed at Harwich, tried on the Thames near 
Black wall, 24 July, and since brought into service, 1890 

About 714 lives saved by lifeboats, during the great 
gale 6, 7 Nov. „ 

LIFE GUARDS, see Guards. . 

LIFE INSURANCE, see Insurance and An- 
tiuities. 

LIFE-PEERAGES. A bill for creating them 
was read a second time in the lords, 27 April, 1869. 
hut afterwards rejected. Two peers for life created 
to act as appeal judges, 5 Oct. 1876. See Lords. 

LIFE, PRESERVATION OF. See Sani- 
tation. 

LIFE-SHIPS. To promote the construction 
and use of ihese the Hans Busk Life-Ship Institute 
was founded, Oct. 1869. The life-ship, Peronelle, 
was launched at Southampton, 25 Aug. 1873. 

LIGHT. The law of refraction discovered by 
Snellius, about 1624. The motion and velocity of 
light discovered by Reaumur, and after him by 
Gaesini, and calculated by "Rcemer (1676) and 
Bradley (1720). Its velocity ascertained to beabout 
190,006,000 of miles in sixteen minutes, or nearly 
200,000 miles in a second, which is a million of 
times swifter than the velocity of a cannon ball, 
about 1667. The light of the sun takes tight 
minutes and eight seconds for its transmission 
through space to the earth. See Emission Tliconj. 
The undulatory theory of light, its polarisation, and 
its chemical action, have all been made known in the 
present century by Dr.Thos. Young, Weber, Fresnel, 
Malus, Arago," Riot, Brewster, Wheatstone, Hitter, 
Niepce, Daguerre, Talbot, Stokes, Tyndall, Ray- 
leigh, Dewar, Crookes, &c. ; see Optics, Plioto- 
graphi/, Calorescence, Fluorescence. 



Velocity of Light. Direct determination by the 
toothed-wheel method by Fizeau agreed with 

the astronomical result 1849 

Foucault, with the revolving mirror, gave 298,000 

kilometres in a second of mean time . . . 1865 
Comu's improved tooth-wheel apparatus gave 

3c 0,400 kilometres in a second of mean time . . 1874 
Professor Simon Neva nib, of Washington, with 
his " photc tachometer " (completed in May, 1880) 
gave 299,860 kilometres in a second of mean time, 1886 
Mr. Wm. Crookes, F.B.S., considered that he had 
demonstrated the mechanical action of light by experi- 
ments with delicate balances in the highest piocurable 
vacuum, and calculated the foice of the sun's rays upon 
the earth to be 2.3 tons to the square mile, 1873-6. 
His apparatus was termed Badicmeter {which see). After 
much investigation, Mr. Crookes admitted that the ac- 
tion was not clue to radiation, but to difference of heat- 
absorption and the reaction of residual air. 

Mr. Crookes at the Boyal Society announces experi- 
ments respecting an ultra-gaseous state of matter, sup- 
porting 1he emission theory ... 5 Dec. 1878 
Dr. C. Wm. Siemens reported to the Royal Society 
that the electric light acts on vegetation like 
solar light 4 Dec. 1880 

LIGHT BRIGADE. Ste Balalclava. 

LIGHTHOUSE, called Pharos (now phare, 
French; faro, Italian), from one erected at Pharos, 
(which see) near Alexandria, Egypt, 550 feet high, 
said to ha\e been visible forty-two miles, about 283 
B.C. There was one at Messina, at Ehodes, &c. 
The light was obtained by fires. A coal-fire light 
was exhibited at Tynemouth castle, Northumber- 
land, about 1638. The first true lighthouse erected 
in England was the Eddystone lighthouse (which 
see) in 1758-60. Lights were exhibited in various 
places by the corporation of the Trinity-house early 
in the 16th century. 2814 lighthouses in the world 
(1867). 

BRITISH LIGHTHOUSES. 

The lighthouse (40 years old, height 80 feet, weight 300 
tons) on the pier at Sunderland, Durham, was moved 
forward 500 feet without stopping the illumination, 
under the superintendence of Mr. John Murray, 
October, 1841. 

The Commissioners on Lights, &c. (1861), report 171 
shorelights in England, 113 in Scotland, and 73 in 
Ireland (total, 357) ; and 47 floating-lights. 

6 lighthouses building, April, 1867. 

The French have 224 iighthouses on shore. 

The source of light in our lighthouses is principally 
oil ; but in harbour lights gas has been successfully 
used. Glass reflectors were used in 1780, and copper 
ones in 1807. A common coal-fire light was discon- 
tinued at St. Bees so recently as 1822. Fresnel's 
Dioptric system (which see), devised about 1819, was 
adopted forthe first time in England by Messrs.Wilkins, 
at the direction of the corporation of the Trinity-house, 
1 July, 1836. 

The most brilliant artificial light ever produced— derived 
from magneto-electricity by a machine devised by 
professor Holmes— was first employed at the South 
Foreland lighthouse, near Dover, on 8 Dec. 1858 ; and 
at Dengeness (or Dungeness) in 1S62. Mr. Holmes' 
arrangement, and a similar one constructed by M. 
Serin, were shown at the International exhibition, 
London, in 1862. 

Mr. H. Wilde's apparatus for producing a most powerful 
magneto-electric light, on trial in northern light- 
houses, Oct. 1866. 

Lime-light (which see) employed at the S. Foreland light- 
house in 1861. 

Gas light tried successfully at Howth Bailey lighthouse, 
Dublin Bay, Julv, 1869. 

Mr. Wighaiu's triform light : glass belt round the gas- 
light, prisms below the belt, and prisms forming a 
cupola : tried near Dublin ; approved by Dr. Tyndall, 
July, 1873. 

C. Wm. Siemens' magneto-electric light used at tho 
Lizards, 29 March, 1878. 

The cost of erecting the three great British lighthouses 
—viz., the Skerry-Vore (west coast), 158 feet high, 
83,126?. ; the Bishop Bock, Scilly Isles, 145 feet high, 



LIGHTING UP. 



582 



LIMITATIONS. 



36,559?.. ; and the Bell Rock, Scotland, 117 feet high, 
61,331?, 

Return to inquiries respecting officials, their duties, 
salaries, &c. issued early in Dec. 1883. 

Important experiments at South Foreland on electricity, 
gas, and oil as illuminants, June, 1884. Report 
adopted by Trinity House : electric light brightest, 
but most expensive ; gas and oil nearly equal ; oil re- 
commended for practical purposes ; electricity for 
special use on headlands, &c, about 25 Aug. 1885. 

Royal commission respecting telegraph communication 
between lighthouses met, 18 June, 1892. 

LIGHTING UP (Towns, &c), see London, 
1684, 1694; ® as and Electric Light. 

LIGHTNING-CONDUCTORS were first 
set up for the protection of buildings by Franklin 
shortly after 1752, when he brought down electricity 
from a thunder-cloud. Richmann, of St. Peters- 
burg, was killed while repeating these experiments, 
Aug. 1752. The first conductor in England was set 
up at Payne's Hill, by Dr. Watson,' In 1766 one 
was placed on the tower of St. Mark, at Venice, 
which has since escaped injury, although frequently 
injured by lightning previously. A powder maga- 
zine at Glogau, in Silesia, was saved by a conductor 
in 1782 ; and, from the want of one, a quantity of 
gunpowder was ignite 1 at Brescia in 1767. and above 
3000 persons perished. In 1762, Dr. Watson 
recommended conductors to be used in the navy ; 
and they were employed for a short time, but soon 
fell into disuse from want of skill and attention. 
Mr. (afterwards sir William) Snow Han is devoted 
his attention to the subject from 1820 to 1854, and 
published a work, in 1843, detailing his experiments. 
In 1830, above thirty ships were fitted up with his 
conductors, and in 1842 his plans were adopted, and 
his conductors are now manufactured in the royal 
dockyards. In 1854 parliament granted him 
5000/. 

LIGNY (near Fleurus, Belgium), where Napo- 
leon defeated the Prussian army under Blucher, 
16 June, 1815; see Waterloo. 

LIGUORIANS, or Redemptorists, a 
Roman catholic order, established in 1732 by Alfonso 
de Liguori, approved by pope Benedict XIV., 1749. 

LIGURIANS, a Celtic tribe, N. Italy, invaded 
the Roman territory, and were defeated 238 B.C. 
They were not subjugated till 172 B.C. — The Ltgu- 
bian Republic, founded in May, 1797, on the ruin 
of Genoa, was incorporated with Prance in 1805, 
and then merged into the kingdom of Italy. 

LILAC TREE, Syringa. The Persian lilac 
from Persia was cultivated in England about 1638; 
the common lilac by Mr. John Gerard about 1597. 

LILLE, see Lisle. 

LILLI-BURLERO, part of the refrain of a 
popular song ridiculing the Irish pnpists, 1688. 
The words are attributed to lord Wharton, the 
music to Henry Purcell. 

LILY, a native of Persia, Syria, and Italy, was 
brought to England before 1460; the martagon 
from Germany, 1596. 

LLLYBiEUM, a strong maritime fortress of 
Sicily, besieged by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, 276 B.C.. 
and relieved by the Carthaginians 275 b.c. It was 
taken by the Romans, 241 B.C., after a siege of 
nine, years, which led to the end of the second 
Punic war. 

LIMA (Peru). In 1534, Pizarro, marching 
through Peru, was struck with the beauty of the 
valley of Itimac, and there he founded this city, and 
gave it the name of Ciudad de los Reyes, or city of 



the kings, 1535. Here he was assassinated, 26 June, 
1541. Awful earthquakes occurred here, 1586, 1630, 
1687, and 28 Oct. 1746. In 1854-5, thousands 
perished by yellow fever. Mr. Sullivan, the British 
consul, was assassinated at Lima, II Aug. 1857; see 
Peru, 1872, 1881-3. Population, 1876, 101,488. 

LIMBURG (Netherlands), a duchy in the 10th 
century ; acquired by the dukes of Brabant about 
1288 ; added to Burgundy about 1429 ; passed to 
the house of Austria in 1477 ; became one of the 
United Provinces, 1609; conquered and annexed to 
the French republic, 1795; restored to the Nether- 
lands, 1814; divided between Holland and Belgium, 
1830; completely separated from the German con- 
federation by treaty, 11 May, 1867. 

LIME or LINDEN" TREE, probably introduced 
in the 16th century. The limes in St. James's 
park are said to have been planted at the suggestion 
of Evelyn, who recommended multiplying odorifer- 
ous trees, in his " Fumifugium " (1661). A lime- 
tree planted in Switzerland in 1410, existed in 
1720, the trunk being thirty-six feet in circum- 
ference. 

LIME-LIGHT, produced by the combustion 
of oxygen and hydrogen or carburetted hydrogen on 
a surface of lime. This light evolves little heat and 
does not vitiate the air. It is also called Drummond 
Light, after its inventor, lieut. Thomas Drummond, 
who successfully produced it as a first-class light in 
1826, and employed it on the ordnance survey. It 
is said to have been seen at a distance of 112 miles. 
It was tried at the South Foreland lighthouse in 
[861. , Lieut. Drummond was born, 1797, died 
T5 April, 1840. To him is attributed the maxim 
that " property has its duties as well as its rights." 

LIMERICK, anciently Lumneach (S. W. Ire- 
land). About 550, St. Munchin is said to have 
founded a bishopric and built a church here, which 
latter was destroyed by the Danes in 853. Donald 
O'Brien, king of Limerick, founded the cathedral 
about 1200. Limerick obtained its charter in 1 195, 
when John Stafford was made first provost; and its 
first mayor was Adam Servant, in 1 198. It was 
taken by Ireton after six months' siege in 1650. In 
Aug. 1690 it was invested by the English and 
Dutch, and surrendered on most honourable terms, 
3 Oct. 1691.* An awful explosion of 218 barrels of 
gunpowder greatly shattered the town, killing IOO 
persons, 1 Feb. 1694. Another explosion of gun- 
powder here killed many persons, 2 Jan. 1837. 
Awful and destructive tempest, 6-7 Jan. 1839. A 
new graving-dock was opened by the lord-lieutenant, 
earl Spencer, 13 May, 1873. Population, 1881, 
38,555; 1891,37,072. 

LIMITATIONS, Statute of, 21 James I. 

c. 16, 1623. By it actions for trespass or debt, or 
simple contract, must be commenced within six 
years after the cause of action, and actions for 
assault, menace, or imprisonment within four years. 
The Real Actions Limitation act, 1874, fame into 
operation i Jan. 1879. 

* By the treaty it was agreed that all arms, property 
and estates should be restored ; all attainders annulled, 
and all outlawries reversed ; and that no oath but that 
of allegiance should be required of high or low ; the free- 
dom of the Catholic religion was secured ; relief from 
pecuniary claims incurred by hostilities was guaranteed ; 
permission to leave the kingdom was extended to all who 
desired it ; and a general pardon proclaimed to all then 
in arms. Burns. This treaty was annulled by the Irish 
parliament, 1695. Limerick is still called "the city of 
the broken treaty." 



LIMITED LIABILITY. 



583 



LINN^EAN SYSTEM. 



LIMITED LIABILITY. An act for limit- 
ing the liability of joint stock companies, 18 & 19 
Vict. c. 133 (passed 1855), was several times 
amended 1856-7-8. On 31 May, 1864, "3830 joint 
stock companies had been formed and registered on 
the limited liability principle, and 938 had ceased 
to exist." Much calamity in 1866 was occasioned 
by the abuse of the system. The Companies act of 
1862 was ameuded in 1867. 1241 registered in 1874 ; 
1,791 registered in 1886; total 1862-86, 25,042. 
The principle adopted by some joint stock banks 
in 1879-80. See under Banks. 

LIMOGES AFFAIR, see France, Dec. 1877. 

LIMOURS MURDERS, N.-central France. 
Several barbarous murders, especially of aged 
people, took place here, Jan., Sept., Nov., 1873, 
and Jan. 1874; several persons denounced, proved 
innocence. In June, 1874, one Foirier confessed to 
similar murders at Nogent and other places, in 
Nov. 1873 and Jan. 1874. Executed at Chartres, 
29 Sept. 1874. 

LINCELLES (N. France), where the allied 
English and Dutch armies defeated the French, 
18 Aug. 1793. General Lake commanded three 
battalions of foot guards. 

LINCOLN, the Roman Lindum Colonia, and 
at the period of the conquest rich and populous. It 
was taken several times by Saxons and Dane*. The 
castle was built by "William I. in 1086. Without 
Newport-gate upon Lincoln plain was fought the 
battle between the partisans of the empress Maud, 
commanded by the earl of Gloucester, and the army 
of Stephen, in which the king was defeated and 
taken prisoner, 2 Feb. 1141. I ouis, dauphin of 
France, invited over by the discontented barons in 
the last year of king John's reign, was acknowledged 
by them as king of England here ; but the nobility, 
summoned by the earl of Pembroke to Gloucester 
to crown Henry III., marched against Louis and 
the barons, and defeated them in a most sanguinary 
fight (called the Fair of Lincoln), 20 May, 1217; 
and Louis withdrew. Population, 1881, 37?3 r 3 j 
1891. 41,491. 

LINCOLN, Bishopric of. Sidnacester or 

Lindisse and Dorchester, two distinct sees in Mercia, 
were united about 1078, and the see was removed 
to Lincoln by bishop Remigius de Feschamp, who 
built a cathedral (1086), afterwards destroyed by 
fire, but rebuilt by bishop Alexander (1127) and 
bishop Hugh of Burgundy. The diocese is very 
large, although the dioceses of Ely (1109), Oxford, 
and Peterborough (1541) were formed from it, and 
were further enlarged in 1837. The see was valued 
at the dissolution of monasteries at 2065?. per 
annum ; and after many of its manors had been 
seized upon, it was rated in, the king's books at 
894/. 10s. id. Present income, 4500^. It has given 
three saints to the church of Koine, and to the civil 
state of England six lord chancellors. The great 
bell of the cathedral, called Great Tom of Lincoln, 
weighs four tons eight pounds. 

RECENT BISHOPS. 

1787. George Pretyman (afterwards Tomlinc), translated 
to Winchester, 1820. 

1820. Hon. George Pelham, died 1 Feb. 1827. 

1827. John Kaye, died 19 Feb. 1852. 

1852. John Jackson, translated to London, 1869.. 

1869. Christopher Wordsworth, consecrated 24 Feb. ; re- 
signs Dee. 1884 ; died 21 March, 1885. 

1885. Edward King, Feb. For his trial lor ritualistic 
practices, see under Canterbury. 

LINCOLN'S-INN (London), derives its name 
from Henry de Lacy, carl of Lincoln, who erected a 
mansion on this spot in the reign of Edward I., 



which had been the bishop of Chichester's palace. 
It became an inn of court, 1310. The gardens of 
Lincoln' s-inn-fields were laid out bj T Inigo Jones, 
about 1620, and erroneously said to occupy the same 
space as the largest pyramid of Egypt, which is 
764 feet square ; Lmcoln's-inn square being 821 feet 
by 625 feet 6 inches. "William lord Russell was 
beheaded in Lincoln' s-inn-fields, 21 July, 1683. 
The square (formed in 1618) was enclosed with iron 
railings about 1737. The new hall and other build- 
ings were opened, 30 Oct. 1845, and the square 
planted. The theatre in Lincoln's-inn-fields was 
built in 1695; rebuilt in 1714 ; made a barrack in 
1756, and pulled down in 1848. 

LINCOLN TOWER, Westminster Bridge 
Road, was erected by the united subscriptions of 
Britons and Americans, as a memorial of the aboli- 
tion of slavery, and of Abraham Lincoln, president. 
The foundation-stone was laid by general Sdienk, 
then American minister here, 9 July, 1874; and the 
head stone was placed by the Rev. Newman Hall, 
minister of Surrey chapel, 28 Sept. 1875. The 
tower, which is 220 feet high, co-t about ~OOOl. 
The church, named Christ church (to r< place- 
Surrey chapel), and schools adjoining (cost about 
60,000?.), were dedicated, 4 July, et scq. 187G. '1 he 
rev. Rowland Hill's body was removed from Surrey 
chapel and placed here, 14 April, 1881. 

LINDISFARNE, or Holy Island, on tie 

coast of Northumberland, became a bishop's see, 
635. It was ravaged by the Danes under Kegnar 
Lodbrok in 793, and the monastery destroyed by 
them in 875. The see was then removed to Chest er- 
le-street, and to Durham in 995 (or 990). 

LINEN. Pharaoh ai-rayed Joseph in vestures 
of tine linen, 1716 B.C. {Gen. xli. 42.) 
First manufactured in England by Flemish weavers, 

under the protection of Henry III. . . . 1253 
A company of linen weavers established in London 1368 
The art of staining linen known . . . about 1579, 
A colony of Scots in the reign of James I., and other 
Presbyterians who fled from persecution in suc- 
ceeding reigns, planted themselves in the north- 
east part of Ireland, and there established the 
linen manufacture, which was liberally en- 
couraged by the lord deputy Wentworth in 16^4 ; 

by William III 1698 

Hemp, flax, linen, thread, and yarn, from Ireland, 

permitted to be exported duty free . . . . 1696 
Irish linen board established in 1711 ; the Linen- 
hall, Dublin, opened 1728 ; the board abolished . 1828 
A board of trustees to superintend the Scotch linen 

manufacture established 1727 

Duty on linen taken off i860 

Dunfermline in Fifeshire, Dundee in Forfarshire, 
and IBarnsley in Yorkshire are chief seats of our 
linen manufacture. 

LINGAM, an ancient Hindoo god (much 
worshipped by women), who had many temples in 
Delhi, before the Mahometan conquest. One of 
his idols set in gold, diamonds, and other precious 
stones, was sold bv Messrs. Phillips of Bond Street, 
London, for 2,450?., 5 Dec. 1888. 

LINLITHGOW - BRIDGE (near Edin- 
burgh), near which the forces of the earl of Angus, 
who held James V. in their power, defeated the 
forces of the earl of Lennox, who, after receiving 
promise of quarter, was killed by sir James Hamil- 
ton, 1526. Mary, queen of Scots, was born in the 
palace of Linlithgow, 8 Dec. 1542, James V., her 
father, dying of a broken heart, 14 Dec , in conse- 
quence of his defeat by the English at Solway 
Moss, 25 Nov. previous. 

LINNiEAN" SYSTEM of botany, arranged 
bv Linne or Linnnms, a Swede, 1725-30. He 



LINOTYPE. 



584 



LITERARY CONGRESS. 



classed the plants according to the number and 
situation of the sexual parts, and made the flower 
and fruit the test of his various genera. Linnreus 
lived from 1707 to 1778. His library and herbarium 
were purchased by sir James E. (then Dr.) Smith, 
and given to the Linnean Society in London, which 
was instituted in 1788, and incorporated 26 March, 
1802 ; at Milan, about 20 Sept. 1892. 
The centenary of the foundation of the Linnean Society 
celebrated ; gold medals were presented to sir Joseph 
Hooker, and sir Bichard Owen, 24 May, 1888. 

LINOTYPE. See under Printing. 

LION AND UNICORN, the former English, 
the latter Scottish, became the supporters of the 
royal arms on the accession of James I. in 1603. 
The lions in Trafalgar-square, designed by sir Edwin 
Landseer, were uncovered, 31 Jan. 1867. 
Lion. True lions belong to the old world exclu- 
sively. They existed in Europe, Egypt, and 
Palestine, but have long disappeared from those 
countries ; their present country being Africa. A 
lion named Pompey died in the Tower of London 
in 1760, after 70 years' confinement. 
Mr. Gordon dimming, the lion-slayer, published 

his "Sporting Adventures in South Africa " in . 1850 
Van Amburgh was very successful in taming lions ; 
hut many have perished through rashness. The 
Lion-queen was killed at Chatham, 1850 ; and 
Massarti (John McCarthy) was killed by a lion, 

3 Jan. 1872 
lion Sermon preached annually on 16 Oct. at St. 
Katherine Cree church, London, in memory of 
the escape of sir John Gayer from a lion in Arabia 

16 Oct. 1630 
LIPPATJ, see Hussites. 

LIPPE, a constitutional principality (N.W. 
Germany). Population, 1885, 123,212; 1890, 
12,814. Prince Leopold, born 1 Sept. 1821; suc- 
ceeded his father, Leopold, 1 Jan. 185 1 ; died 8 Dec. 
1875 — hi s brother Waldemar, born 18 .April, 1824, 
succeeded. Lippe became a member of the North 
German confederation, 18 Aug. 1866. 

LIPPSTADT, see Liitzen. 

LIQUEFACTION. See Gases and Cold. 

LISBON (Olisippo, and Felicitas Julia, of the 
ancients) was taken by the Arabs about 716, and 
became important under the Moorish kings, from 
whom it was captured by Alfonso I. of Portugal in 
1 147. It was made the capital of Portugal by 
Emanuel, 1506. Lisbon has suffered much by 
earthquakes, ai-.d was almost destroyed by one, 
I Nov. 1755; see Earthquakes. The court fled to 
the Brazils, 10 Nov. 1807, and on 30 Nov. the 
French, under Junot, entered Lisbon,' and held it 
until the battle of Vimeira, in which they were 
defeated by the British, under sir Arthur Weilesley, 
21 Aug. 1808. A military insurrection at Lisbon, 
21 Aug. 1831, was soon suppressed, and manv sol- 
diers were executed ; see Portugal. Population in 
1885, 243.010. 

A pleasure boat on the Tagus upset, about 6a 
drowned 2 <5 MaV) lS 

Lisbon Steam Tramway Company, favoured by duke 
of Saldanha, ambassador in London ; company 
promoted by baron Albert Grant and others'; 
tramway could not be made ; see Trials . July,' 1876 

Great fire at the dockyard, estimated loss ioo,oooL', 

17-18 Dec. 1883 

Great excitement through the British ultimatum 



respecting East Africa (see Portugal) 



Jan. 1890 



LISLE (now Lille), N. France, has a strong 
citadel by Vauban. It was besieged by the duke 
of Marlborough and the allies ; and, though deemed 



impregnable, was taken after a thiee months' siege 
in 1708. It was restored by the treaty of Utrecht, 
in 1713, in consideration of the demolition of the 
fortifications of Dunkirk. Lisle sustained a severe 
bombardment from the Austrians, who were obliged 
to raise the siege, 7 Oct. 1792. Population, 1886, 
188,272; 1891, 200,935. 

The French Association for the Advancement of 
Science met here 20 Aug. 1874 

LISMORE (S Ireland.) St. Cartbagh. first 
bishop, 636, says : " Lismore is a famous and holy 
city, of which neailv one-half is an asylum where 
no woman dare enter." The castle (built by king 
John when earl cf Moreton, 1 185,) burnt in 1645, 
was rebuilt with great magnificence by the duke of 
Devonshire. The cathedral, built 636, was re- 
paired by Cormac, s on of Muretus, king of Muns- 
ter, about 1130. The bishopric was united to that 
of Waterford, about 1363; and both to Cashel in 
1839. 

LISSA (or Leuthcn, Silesia). Here the king 
of Prussia vanquished Charles of Lorraine ; COOO 
Austrians were slain, 5 Dec. 1757. — Lissa, in 
Poland, was laid in ruins by the .Russian army in 
the campaign of 1707. — Lissa. an island in the 
Adriatic. Near here the Italian fleet, commanded by 
Persano, was defeated with severe loss by the Aus- 
trian fleet, commanded by Tegethoff, 20 July, 1S66. 
The Italians had 23 vessels, 11 of which were iron- 
clads, and the Austrians had 23 vessels, 7 only 
being ironclads. 
Persano, when in sight of the enemy, quitted his 
ship, the lie d'ltalia, and hoisted his flag on the 
Affondatore. His ironclads did not keex> well 
together. 
During the action, the ironclad Palestro took fire 
and exploded, and all on board perished (except 
19 out of 200 men), exclaiming, Viva il Re! Viva 
Italia! The Re d'ltalia was surrounded and sunk 
by the Austrians. The Re di Portobello disabled 
the Austrian line-of-battle ship Kaiser, and com- 
pelled her to run ashore. Both parties soon after 
retired from the conflict, which had lasted four 
hours. 
Admiral Persano was tried for misconduct and 
dismissed the service (see Italy) . 15 April, 1867 
Battle off Lissa. 
Capt. Win. Hoste in the Amphion, with two other 
frigates ; the Active, Capt. J. A. Gordon ; the 
Cerberus, Capt. H. Whitby ; and the Volage, 
22-gun ship, Capt. P. Hornby, defeated a Franco- 
Venetian squadron which attacked him ; he 
captured two vessels, the Corona and Bellona; 
he was badly wounded . . . 13 March, 181 1 

LITANIES (Greeklitaneia, supplication), were 
first used in processions, it is said, about 469 ; others 
say about 400. Litanies to the Virgin Mary were 
first introduced by pope Gregory I. about 59^. 
The first English litany was commanded to be used 
in the Reformed churches by Henry VIII. in 1544. 

LITERARY CLUB (at first called " The 
Club" and "Johnson's Club"), founded by Dr. 
Johnson and sir Joshua Reynolds, in 1764. Haw- 
kins, Topbam Beauclerk, Goldsmith, Burke, and 
Bennet Langton, were among the first members. 
The opinion formed of a new work by the club was 
speedily known all over London, and had great in- 
fluence. The club still exists. Mr. W. E. Glad- 
stone and other eminent men are members. Hallani, 
Maeaulay, the marquis of Lai^downe, and bishop 
Blomfield were members; Dr. Milman, dean of St. 
Paul's, was in the chair at the centenary dinner, on 
7 June, 1864 

LITERARY AND ARTISTIC CON- 
GRESS, International, met at Paris (Victor Hugo, 
president), 17 June; and founded "International 



LITERARY FUND. 



585 



LIVERPOOL. 



Literary Association," 28 June, 1878 ; met in Lon- 
don, 9-14 June, 1879; at Lisbon, 20 Sept. 1S80; at 
Vienna, 20-29 Sept. 18S1; at Berne, 10 Sept. 1883; 
at Brussels, 27 Sept. 1884 ; at Berne, 7 Sept. 1885 ; 
at Madrid, 8 Oct. 1887 ; at Venice, 19 Sept. 1888 ; 
at Paris, 20 June, 1889; at Berne, 5 Oct. 1889; 
in London, 4 Oct. 1890; at Neufchatel, 26 Sept. 
1891 ; at Milan, about 20 Sept. 1892. 
LITERARY FUND, Royal, was founded 

in 1790. to relieve literary men of all nations, by 
JJavid Williams,* the Mend of Benjamin Franklin, 
and incorporated in 1818. The kingof the Belgians 
presided at the annual dinner, 8 May, 1872; the 
prince of Wales at the centenary dinner, 14 May, 
1890. The permanent fund in 1892 was 12 737;. 

LITERARY PROPERTY, SOCIETIES, 

&c.', see Authors, Copyright, Societies, &c. 

"Literary Production Committee " of authors ; proposed 
formation, with the object of obtaining a good price 
for their works, July, 187S. 

LITERATURE, see letters, English, Trench, 
German, Greek, Italian, Lectin, and Spanish 
Language; comprehends eloquence, poetr}', history, 
language, and their subdivisions. 

LITHIUM, the lightest metal known (specific 
gravity 059 : atomic weight 7) is obtained from an 
alkaline substance termed lithia ; discovered by M. 
Arf\ved:-on,.a Swede, in 1817. 

LITHOFRACTEUR, or " STOira-BitEAK- 
Elt," an explosive material, a modification of dyna- 
mite (composed of gun-cotton, nitro-glycerine, with 
the constituents of gunpowder, and other sub- 
stances), invented by professor Engels of Cologne, 
and made by Krebs, in 1869. It was occasionally 
used by the Germans in the war 1870-1, and was 
tried and well reported of for power and safety at 
Kant BJawy quanies, near Shrewsbur}', 9, 10 May, 
1871, and again on 20 Feb. 1872, before the govern- 
ment explosive committee, with similar results. 

LITHOGRAPHY (drawing on stone). The 
invention is ascribed to Alois Sennefelder, about 
1796 ; and shortly afterwards the art was announced 
in Germany, and was known as polyautography. It 
became partially known in England in 1801, etseq., 
but its general introduction is referred to Mr. 
Ackermann, of London, about 1817. Sennefelder 
died in 1841. Improvements have been made by 
Engelmann and many others; see Printing in 
Colours. 

LITHOSCOPE. An instrument for distin- 
guishing precious stones, invented by sir David 
Brewster ; described by him Jan. 1864. 

LITHOTOMY. The surgical operation of 
cutting for the stone, it is said, was performed bj r 
Ammonius, about 240 b.c. The ''small apparatus," 
so called from the few instruments used in the 
operation, was practised by Cehus, about a.d. 17. 
The " high apparatus " waspraeti-ed (on a criminal 
at Paris) by Colot, 1475 ; by Franco, on a child, 

* Floyer Sydenham, an eminent Greek scholar, of 
Wadliam college, Oxford, and translator of some of the 
works of Plato, was arrested and thrown into prison for 
a trifling debt due for his frugal meals, and there, in 
178s, died of a broken heart in want and misery, when 
nearly eighty years of age. The sympathy excited gave 
rise to this institution, since well supported. Williams 
was in early life a dissenting minister, and wrote on 
education. He was consulted by the early revolutionary 
party in France as to the form of a constitution for that 
country ; he, Dr. Priestley, sir James Mackintosh, and 
other distinguished Englishmen, having been previously 
declared French citizens. He died 29 June, 1816. 



about 1566 ; and in England, by Dr. Douglass, 
about 1519. The "lateral operation," invented by 
Franco, much performed in Paris by Freie Jacques, 
in 1697, has been greatly improved. The "great 
apparatus" was invented bv John de Komauis, and 
described by his pupil Maiianus Sanctus, 1524. 

LITHOTRITY (or bruising the stone). The 
apparatus produced by M. Leroy d'Etiolhs in 1S22 
has since been improved. 
Prizes of 6000 and 10,000 francs were awarded M. Jean 

Civiale for his method of operation, 1827 & 1829. 

LITHUANIA, formerly a grand-duchy, N. E. 
of Prussia. 'Ihe natives (belonging to the Slavonic 
race) long maintained their independence against 
the Russians and Poles, hi 1386, their grand-duke 
Jagellon became king of Poland and was baptized : 
Lithuania was not incorporated with Poland till 
1501, when another duke Casimir, became king of 
that country. The countries were formally united 
in 1569. The larger part of Lithuania now belongs 
to Russia, the remainder to Prussia. 

LITURGIES (from the Greek leitos, public, 
and ergon, work). The Greek and Roman liturgies 
are very ancient, having been committed to writing 
about the 4th and 5th centuries. The Romish church 
recognises four: the Roman or Gregorian, the Am- 
brosian, the Uallican, and the Spanish or Mosarabic. 
The Greek church has two principal liturgies : St. 
Chrysostom's and St. Basil's, and several smaller 
ones. Parts of these liturgies are attributed to the 
Apostles, to St. Ignatius, 250, to St. Ambrose (died 
397), and to St. Jerome (died 420). 
The present English Liturgy was first composed, 
and was approved and confirmed by parliament, 
in 1547-8. The offices for morning and evening 
prayer were then put into nearly the same form 
in which we now have them, and published 1549 
and 1552. 
At the solicitation of Calvin and others, the liturgy 

was reviewed and altered 1551 

It was first read in Ireland, in the English lan- 
guage, in 1550, and in Scotland, where it occa- 
sioned a tumult, in 1637, an d was withdrawn . 1638 
The liturgy was revised by Whitehead, formerly 
chaplain to Anne Boleyn, and by bishops Parker, 
Grindall, Cox, and Pilkington, dean May, and 
secretary Smith. 
John Knox is said to have used a liturgy for several 
years. The rev. Robert Lee, of Edinburgh, intro- 
duced a form of prayer in public worship, but 
gave it up when ordered to discontinue it in May, 
1859 ; he soon after resumed it, and the discussion 
on the subject ceased only at his death, 14 March, 1868 
See Common Prayer. 

LIYERIES OF THE CITY OF LON- 
DON. The term is derived from the custom of the 
retainers of the lord mayor and sheriffs wearing 
clothes of the form and colour displaced by those 
functionaries. Liveries were regulated bv statute 
in 1392, and frequently since. The nobility gave 
liveries to their retainers. See Companies. 

LIVERPOOL (W. Lancashire), is supposed to 
be noticed in Domesday-book under the name Esme- 
dnne, or Smedune* Soon after the conquest, 
William granted that part of the country situated 
between the rivers Mersey and Ribble to Roger of 
Poitiers, who, according to Camden, built a castle 
here, about the year 1089. It afterwards was held 



* In other ancient records its appellations arc Litherpul 
a.nd Lyrpul, signifying probably in the ancient dialect, the 
lower pool ; though some have deduced its etymology 
from a pool frequented by an aquatic fowl, called the 
■' Liver," or from a sea-weed of that name ; and others, 
from its having belonged to a family of the name of 
Lever, whose antiquity is not sufficiently established to 
justify their conclusion. 



LIVERPOOL. 



586 



LIVERPOOL. 



by the earls of Chester and dukes of Lancaster. 
Liverpool is the second city of the Empire. The 
income of the estates of the Corporation 13?. in 
1672, now about 12,500,000/. (1888), from renewal 
fines, &c. Changes in the leases, &c, proposed by 
the Corporation postponed, Jan. 1888. See under 
Population. 
Liverpool made a free borough by Henry III. . 1225 

Made an independent port 1338 

Liverpool " a paved town " (Leland) . . . . 1559 
" The people of her majesty's decayed town of 
Liverpool " petition Elizabeth to be relieved from 

a subsidy . . 1571 

Separated from the duchy of Lancaster . . : 1628 
Town rated for ship-money in only 26?. by Charles I. 1634 
Besieged and taken by prince Rupert 26 June, 1644 

Made a separate parish 1698 

The old dock constructed, 1699 ; the first ship, the 
Marlborough, entered ... . . 8 June, 1700 

Blue-coat hospital founded 1709 

The town vigorously opposes the Young Pretender 1745 

Town- hall commenced 1749 

Infirmary established „ 

Seamen's hospital founded 1752 

Salthouse dock opened 1753 

Liverpool library founded 1757 

A most destructive fire 1762 

House of industry founded 1770 

Theatre licensed, 1771 ; opened .... 1772 
Liverpool equips, at the commencement of the war 
against France, 120 privateers, carrying 1986 guns, 

and 8754 seamen 177S 

First musical festival 1784 

King's dock constructed 1785 

[The Queen's dock was also constructed about the 
same time. ] 

Memorable storm raged 1789 

The exchange burnt 1795 

The town-hall destroyed by fire , 

The Athenaeum opened .... 1 Jan. 1799 

Union news-room erected 1800 

The Lyceum erected 1802 

Awful fire ; loss exceeded 1,000,000?. . 14 Sept. ,, 

Corn exchange opened .... 4 Aug. 1808 

Royal Exchange completed 1809 

Statue of George III. commenced . . 25 Oct. ,, 
Fall of St. Nicholas' tower, 28 killed . n Feb. 1810 

Royal Institution founded 1814 

Wellington-rooms built 1815 

Royal Institution opened by Mr. Rosooe . 2 Nov. 1818 

American seamen's hospital 1820 

Prince's dock opened . . . .19 July, 1821 
St. John's market-place .... Feb. 1822 
Royal Institution incorporated . . . ,, 

Marine Humane Society formed 1823 

New house of industry erected 1824 

Liver theatre opened 1825 

Old dock closed . 1826 

Foundation of new custom-house laid . 12 Aug. 1828 

Blackrock lighthouse built, and light first shown, 

1 March, 1830 
Lunatic asylum founded, 1792 ; new buildings 

erected ,, 

Clarence dock completed .... Sept. ,, 
Liverpool and Manchester railway opened* 15 Sept. „ 

Zoological gardens opened 1833 

Great tire ; 300,000?. property destroyed . 1 Jan. ,, 
Lock hospital and Waterloo dock opened . . 1834 
Victoria and Trafalgar docks opened . 8 Sept. 1836 

British Association meet here, 1st time . Sept. 1837 

Mechanics' institute opened ,, 

New fish-market opened .... 8 Feb. ,, 

Apothecaries' company formed „ 

Liverpool and Birmingham (Grand Junction) rail- 
way opened 4 July, „ 

Railway to London (now the North-Western) opened 
its entire length I? Sept. 1838 

* The first grand work of the kind, about 31 miles long 
The first shaft was commenced in Oct. 1826, and the ex- 
cavation of the tunnel, one mile and a quarter long, Jan. 
1827 ; the tunnel was completed in Sept. 1828, and opened 
30 July, 1829. At the opening of the railroad, the duke 
of Wellington and other illustrious persons were present ; 
and Mr. Huskisson who alighted during a stoppage of 
the engines, was knocked down by one of them, which 
went over his thigh and caused his death, 15 Sept. 1830. 



Statistical society and Polytechnic society founded 

The Liverpool steamer, of 461-horse power, sails for 
New York . . . " . . .28 Oct. 

Awful storm raged 6 Jan. 

Foundation of the collegiate institution laid by lord 
Stanley 

Liverpool Philharmonic society founded . . . 

Foundation of St. George's hall and courts laid . . 

Immense fire ; property worth more than half-a- 
million sterling destroyed ... 25 Sept. 

Mr. Huskisson 's statue erected . . . Oct. 

Procession of Orangemen ; fatal riot . 14 July, 

The queen visits Liverpool ... 9 Oct. 

British Association meet here, 2nd time . Sept. 

St. George's hall opened . . . .18 Sept. 

Bread riots (150,000 persons out of employ through 
the frost) 19 Feb. 

Great landing stage for large steamers opened, 1 Sept. 

Many commercial failures . . Sept. to Nov. 

Association for Social Science meets ■ . Oct. 

Sailors' home (cost 30,000?.) burnt . . 29 April, 

Free library, &c. , founded by Mr. (afterwards sir) 
W. Brown, M. P. for S. Lancashire, 15 April, 1857 '> 
free library, &c. opened . . . .11 Oct. 

Free Museum opened 17 Oct. 

Brownlow Hill church and workhouse school burnt, 
and 23 lives lost (20 children) . . 8 Sept. 

Explosion of nj tons of gunpowder in the Lottie 
Sleigh, in the Mersey, great damage . 16 Jan. 

Death of sir Wm. Brown, a great benefactor to Liver- 
pool 3 March, 

Additional M.P. (now 3) by Reform act, 15 Aug. 

Royal bank of Liverpool stopped . . 21 Oct. 

Greek steamer (Bu.biilina) in the Mersey exploded ; 
about 19 lives lost .... 29 Nov. 

Reverdy Johnson, the United States' minister 
warmly received 22 Oct. 

A Greek church consecrated by the Greek arch- 
bishop of Syra 16 Jan. 

Panic through false alarm of fire at St. Joseph's 
Cathplic chapel, 15 lives lost . . 23 Jan. 

Stanley park, 100 acres (cost 42,000?.) opened 7 May, 

Stanley hospital ; foundation laid by the earl of 
Derby 6 June, 

British Association meets here third time 14 Sept. 

Equestrian statue of the queen unveiled 3 Nov. 

Seamen's Orphan Institution founded . 11 Sept. 

Sefton park opened by prince Arthur . 20 May, 

Great landing-stage burnt; loss abt. 150,000?. 28 July, 

Duke of Edinburgh lays foundation of the Art 
Gallery, 29 Sept. ; and opens the Seamen's 
Orphanage 30 Sept. 

About 325,000?. bequeathed to charities by R. L. 
Jones, a timber merchant .... Jan. 

Visit of M. Michel Chevalier, free-trader 21 April, 

Statue of Wm. Rathbone, eminent merchant, un- 
veiled 1 Jan. 

Rotunda theatre burnt .... 9 July, 

Walker Art Gallery (gift of the mayor. Andrew 
Walker), cost above 30,000?., opened by the earl 
of Derby 6 Sept. 

Bishoprics Act, permitting the erection of a see at 
Liverpool, passed . . . . 16 Aug. 

Panic through false alarm of fire at Colosseum 
theatre ; 37 persons crushed to death 11 Oct. 

Strike of dock labourers and sailors ; riots sup- 
pressed, 7 Feb. ; strike ends . about 25 Feb. 

Mysterious disappearance of Miss Edwards, 3 Sept. ; 
found in London . . ... .21 Oct. 

Bishopric established . . . -24 March, 

Liverpool nominated a city . . . April, 

Foundation of University college ; about 88,000?. 
subscribed Oct. 

New water works in the valley of the river Vyrnwy, 
25 miles from Oswestry, begun, 14 July, 1881 ; 
inaugurated by the duke of Connaught starting a 
fountain at Liverpool . . . .14 July, 
[Lake 4 miles long formed, A mile to 200 yds. wide, 
Llanwddyn village covered, 68 miles of aque- 
ducts, tunnels, pipes, &c. The undertaking was 
projected in 1879 by Mr. G. F. Deacon, aided 
by Mr. C. Hawksley and Mr. J. Bateman, and 
carried out by Mr. Deacon as chief engineer.] 

Discovery of infernal machines in steamers Malta 
and Bavarian announced . . .24 July, 

Plot to blow up the town-hall discovered ; bag of 
explosives found at door ; 2 Fenians apprehended 
10 June ; convicted, sentenced to penal servitude, 



1839 



1851 



1855 
1857 



1S64 



1872 



1875 
1877 



1S7S 
1879 



LIVEEPOOL. 



587 



LOANS. 



James McGrath for life ; James McKnivett, 

15 years . . .... 2 Aug. 1881 

Dock space in 1810, 26 acres forships, 704,000 tons ; 

in 1857, 209 acres, tonnage, 4,320,000. 
New Langton dock opened by the prince and prin- 
cess of Wales, and named Alexandra. . 8 Oct. ,, 
University College inaugurated by the earl of Derby, 

14 Jan. 1882 
New court-house founded . . .1 June, „ 
Home for ancient mariners opened by the duke of 

Edinburgh 16 Dec. ,, 

Lancelot's hay warehouse burnt (damage about 

100,000?.) 21 April, 1883 

Mersey tunnel, opened (see under Tunnels) 13 Feb. 1885 
Liverpool returns nine M.P.'s by act passed 25 June, ,, 
International Exhibition of Navigation, Commerce, 

&c. ; proposed by alderman David Radcliffe ; 

adopted by the earl of Derby ; 60,000?. subscribed ; 

site granted by the corporation 1885 ; opened by 

the queen ; alderman Radcliffe, the mayor, 

knighted 1 1 May ; the queen leaves 13 May ; 

2,468,098 visitors ; reported receipts 131,032?. ; 

expenditure 150,167?. ; closed . . ' 8 Nov. 1886 
Riots ; socialist, orangemen, &c. . 19 Sept. ,, 

Messrs. Lewis's premises with a clock-tower burnt ; 

estimated loss 250,000?. ... 24 Dec. ,, 

Royal Jubilee Exhibition opened by the princess 

Louise 16 May, 1887 

First meeting of the National Association for the 

Advancement of Art . . . . 3-7 Dec. 1888 
Strike of sailors and firemen end of May ; ended 

12 July, 1889 
Frequent dock strikes, met by a supply of men 

Feb., March, 1890 
About 20,000 men on strike, reported 7 March ; 

soldiers from Preston arrive, 18 March ; dispute 

settled 31 March, ,, 

The duke of Clarence and Avondale opens the new 

Royal Infirmary 29 Oct. ,, 

Mr. George Holt presents 10,000?. to endow a chair 

of physiology in University College . 3 June, 1891 
Naval exhibition opened by lord George Hamilton, 

1 Feb. 1892 
Great cotton fire at Bramley Moor Dock ; estimated 

loss, about 100,000' 15 Feb. ,, 

Mr. John Hartnup killed by falling from the top of 

the Liverpool observatory, Birkenhead, of which 

lie was director 21 April, ,, 

LIVEEPOOL ADMINISTBATION. 

Shortly after the assassination of Mr. Perceval 

(II May, 1812), the earl of Liverpool became first 

minister.* His administration terminated when he 

was attacked by apoplexy, 17 Feb. 1827, and Mr. 

Canning succeeded as prime minister, 10 April. 

Earl of Liverpool, first lord of the treasury. 

Earl of Eldon, lord chancellor. 

Earl of Harrowby, lord president of the council. 

Earl of Westmorland, ?orf? privy seal. 

N. Vansittart, chancellor of the exchequer (succeeded by 

F. J. Robinson, 1823). 

Viscount Sidmouth, home secretary (succeeded by Robert 

Peel, 1822). 
Viscount Castlereagh, aft. marquis of Londonderry, 

foreign secretary (succeeded by George Canning, 1822). 
Earl Bathurst, colonial secretary. 
Viscount Melville, first lord of admiralty. 
Earl of Buckinghamshire, board oj control (succeeded by 

G. Canning, 18 16 ; C. Bathurst, 1820 ; C. Wynne, 1822. 
Charles Bathurst (1813), chancellor of duchy of Lancaster 

(succeeded by N. Vansittart, lord Bexley, 1823). 

Wellesley Pole, afterwards lord Maryborough, 1815, 
master of the mint. 

F. J. Robinson, 1818 ; W. Huskisson, 1823, hoard of trade. 

Earl of Mulgrave, ordnance (succeeded by duke of Wel- 
lington, 1819). 

LIVEEPOOL BisnorRic established by 
order of the privy council, 24 March, 1880; St". 
Peter's church to be the cathedral; first bishop, 
John Charles Ryle, D.D. 



* Robert Jenkinson, born 7 Jan. 1770, entered the house 
of commons under Mr. Pitt ; opposed the abolition of t lie 
slave trade in 1702; became lord Hawkesmiry in 1796; 
became foreign minister under Mr. Addington, in 1801 ; 
succeeded his father as earl of Liverpool hi iSoS ; died 4 
Dec. 1828. 



LIVINGSTONE, see under Africa, 1856 et 
seq. 

LIVONIA, a Russian province on the Baltic 
sea, first visited by some Bremen merchants about 
1 158. It has belonged successively to Denmark, 
Sweden, Poland, and Russia. It was finally ceded 
to Peter the Great in 1721. Population in 1886, 
1,239,728. 

LIVEET D'OUVEIEE, a species of work- 
man's passport, introduced into France by Turgot 
about 1781 ; abolished 23 March, 1869. 

LLANDAFF (S. Wales). The first known 
bishop was St. Dubritius, said to have died in 612. 
The see is valued in the king's books at 154^. 14-s. id. 
per annum. Present income 4200^. 

RECENT BISHOPS. 

1782. Richard Watson ; died 4 July, 1816. 

1816. Herbert Marsh; trans, to Peterborough, 1819. 

1819. Win. Van Mildert ; translated to Durham, 1826. 

1826. Charles Richard Sumner ; translated to Win- 

chester, 1827. 

1827. Edward Copleston ; died 14 Oct. 1849. 
1849. Alfred Ollivant, died 16 Dec. 1882. 

1883. Richard Lewis, consecrated 25 April, 1883. 

LLEEENA, see Villa Franca. 

LLOYD'S (London), at the Royal Exchange- 
about 1692. A cotfee-house, kept by Edwd. Lloyd, 
Abchurch-lane, became a place of meeting of mer- 
chants. After several removals it was established 
finally at the Royal Exchange in 1774, and re- 
mained there till the fire in 1838, when it was 
removed till the present building was completed in 
1844. Here resort eminent merchants and ship- 
owners, and here are effected insurances on ships and 
merchandise. A Register of ships began about 
1764; and the terms A. 1, &c. were used about 
1775. Two societies (underwriters and merchants) 
were united, and one register issued, Oct. 1834. 
Jubilee celebrated, 31 Oct. 1884. Lloyd's is sup- 
ported by subscribers who now pay annually 5/. 5s., 
formerly 4/. 4s. The books kept here contain an 
account of the arrival and sailing of vessels, and 
are remarkable for their early intelligence of 
maritime affairs. Many new signalling stations. 
established, 1882-3. First annual issue of the 
" Univei-sal Shipping Register," published here, 
May, 1886. In 1803, the subscribers instituted; 
the Patriotic Fund {which sec). The Austrian 
Lloyd's, an association for general, commercial, 
and industrial purposes, was founded at Trieste, by 
Baron Bruck, in 1833. It has established regular 
communication between Trieste and the Levant, 
by means of a fleet of steamers carrying the mails, 
and publishes a journal. 

LOADSTONE, see Magnetism. 

LOAN EXHIBITIONS, see Exhibitions,. 
National Portraits, Scientific Apparatus, eye. 

LOANO, Piedmont (N. Italy). Here the Aus- 
trians and Sardinians were defeated by the French, 
under Massena, 23. 24 Nov. 1795. 

LOANS for t.;e puMic service were raised by 
Wolsey in 1522 and 1525. In 1559 Elizabeth 
borrowed 200,000^. of the city of Antwerp, to en- 
able her to reform her own coin, and sir Thomas 
Gresham and the city of London joined in ihe- 
securitv. Rnpin. The amount of some of the 
English and other loans, during memorable periods, 
viz. : — 

Seven years' war . . 1755 to 1763 .£52,100,000 
American war . . . 1776(01784 . 75,500,000 
French revolutionary war . 170.1 tn 1802 . 168.500,000 
War against Bonaparte . 1803 to 1S14 . 206,300,000 



LOAN SOCIETIES. 



588 



LOCKS. 



z loans, 1813 . . . 21,000,000?. and £22,000,000 

War against Russia . . 1855 to 1856 . 16,000,000 

For deficiency in revenue 1856 . 10,000,000 

[Both taken by the Rothschilds alone.] 

By Bast India Company . . 1858 . 8,000,000 

A subscription loan (18,000,000?.) to carry on the war, 
against France, filled up in London in 15 hours and 
20 minutes (see Loyalty Loans), 5 Dec. 1796. 

French loan on 9 July, 1855, on account of the war with 
Russia. The French legislature passed a bill for raising 
by loan 750 million francs (30,000,000?. sterling). On 
the 30th the total subscribed in France amounted to 
3.652,591,985 francs (about 146,103,679?.), nearly five 
times the amount required ; 2,533,888,450 francs were 
from Paris ; from the departments, 1,118,703,535 francs. 
The number of subscribers was 316.864. No less than 
231,920,155 francs were made up by subscription of 50 
francs and under. About 600 millions came from foreign 
countries. The English subscription of 150,000.000 
francs was returned, as double the amount required 
had been proffered. 

The French government raised a loan of 20,000,000?. for 
the Italian war from its own people without difficulty, 
May, 1859. 

A Turkish loan, in 1854, at 7^ per cent., recommended 
by lord Palmerston ; a loan of 5,000,000?. , at 4 per 
cent., on the security of England and France, was 
taken up by Rothschild in Aug. 1855, and was well 
received : the stock rose to a small premium. 

French loan for 17,600,000?. announced 29 Jan. 1868. 

French loan 2,000,000,000 francs for 80,000,000?. : nearly 
twice the amount subscribed in Prance alone, 28 June, 
3871 ; another loan, of (120,000,000?. at 6\ per cent.) 
'for speedy payment of the indemnity and evacuation 
of the provinces held by the Germans ; announced 26 
July, 1872 ; above twice the amount subscribed. See 
France. 

Foreign Loans Committee: appointed to inquire con- 
cerning certain loans to Honduras, Costa Rica, and 
Paraguay, in their report comment on the exaggerated 
statements respecting the revenues and resources of 
the states in the prospectuses, the efforts of the con- 
tractors to make fictitious markets ; the proceedings 
■on the stock exchange to maintain their prestige ; the 
.-secrecy adopted in the proceedings ; " the best secu- 
rity against the recurrence of such evils will be found, 
not so much in legislative enactments as in the en- 
lightenment of the public as to their real nature and 
origin, thus rendering it more difficult for unscrupulous 
persons to carry out schemes .... which have ended 
in so much discredit and disaster," July, 1S75. 

LOAN SOCIETIES. The laws relating to 
them were amended by the act 3 & 4 Vict. c. no ; 
passed Aug. 1840. 

LOBSTERS and CEABS- The size at which 
they are to be sold is regulated by the Fisheries 
act, 1877. 

LOCAL GOVERNMENT ACT, passed in 
1858, was amended in 1861. Scotch 1 >cal govern- 
ment bill introduced by the krd advocate, J. P. B. 
Eobertson, 8 April, passed 26 Aug. 1889. 
Mr. Ritchie's Local Government Bill (England & Wales) 
read first time 19 March ; second time nem. con. 20 
April ; royal assent 13 Aug. 1888 ; 51 & 52 Vict. c. 41. 

I. Establishes County Councils in every adminis- 
trative county as defined by the act. Council to 
•consist of councillors and aldermen, with a chair- 
man ; electors to be parliamentary voters, and male 
and female ratepayers. 

II. 61 boroughs constituted county boroughs ; the 
metropolis constituted the county of London, super- 
seding the Metropolitan Board of Works. 

III. Boundaries. 

IV. Finance. 

V. Supplemental. 

VI. Transitory provisions ; first election (for three 
years) in Jan., and duties entered on 1 April, 1889. 

Local Government (Boundaries) Act. See under 

Boundary Acts, 1887. 
Local Government (Electors) Act passed 16 May 

i838. • 
Irish Local Government Bill introduced by Mr. A. J. 

Balfour (due provision made for the rights of minorities) 

read first time 18 Feb. ; second reading (339-247), 

24. May ; withdrawn, 13 June, 1892. 



LOCAL GOVERNMENT BOARD (anew 
department of the government, comprising the 
supervision of the public health, and local govern- 
ment together with the powers and duties of the 
Poor Law board, including education, police, 
highways, &c), was established in pursuance of 
an act passed 14 Aug. 1871. First president, Mr. 
James Stansfeld, appointed president of the poor 
law board, March, 1871. Mr. (aft. sir John) Lam- 
bert, C.B., first secretary, appointed Sept. 1871. See 
Gladstone and other Administrations. See London, 
15 March, 1883. 

LOCAL LOANS ACT, passed 13 Aug. 1875, 
By the National Debt and Local Loans Act passed 
12 July, 1887, the local loans stock was created. 
In May, 1891, the local indebtedness was stated to be 
about 195,400,0001., which is still increasing, being the 
result of expenditure by local authorities on important 
public works, frequently reproductive, and also sani- 
tary improvements. The debtors include nearly all 
the great towns in the kingdom. 

" LOCAL OPTION," see Permissive Bill. 

LOCAL PARLIAMENTS. The first of 
these mimic parliaments was opened in Liverpool, 
about 1864; a conference of about 150 delegates 
from 146 of these assemblies, with 20,000 members, 
in Great Britain, met at the Crystal Palace, 20-23 
May, 1883. 

LOCAL RATES in England, come from 26 
sources. » 

Local self-government is a chaos of authorities, of rates, 

and areas. 67. /. Ooschen. 

See Probate Duty, 1888. 
The Lonion Ratepayers' Defence League formed (the 

duke of Westminster president) 18 Nov. 1891. 

LOCHLEVEN CASTLE (Kinross), built on 
an isle in Loch Leven, it is said by the Picts, was 
the royal residence of Alexander III. and his queen 
when taken from it to Stirling. It was besieged 
by the English in 1301, and in 1334. Patrick 
Graham, first archbishop of St. Andrews, im- 
prisoned for attempting to reform the church, died 
here about 1*478. The earl of Northumberland was 
confined in it, 1569. It was the place of queen 
Mary's imprisonment in 1567, and of her escape on 
Sunday, 2 May, 1568. 

LOCKE'S ACT, 23 & 24 Vict. c. 127 (i860), 
relates to legal proceedings. 

LOCKE KING'S ACTS; 17 & 18 Vict, 
c. 113 (1854), and 30 & 31 Vict. c. 69 (1867), relate 
to mortgages. 

LOCK HOSPITAL, established 1747; the 
asylum, 1787. 

LOCK-OUTS, see Strikes. 

LOCKS, early used by the Egyptians, Greeks, 
Romans, and the Chinese. Denon Iras engraved an 
Egyptian lock of wood. Du Cange mentions locks 
and padlocks as early as 1381. 
Barron's locks (on the many-tumbler principle) were 

patented in 1778; Bramali's, in 1788; and Chubb's 

" detector" locks in 1818. 
Mr. E. Beckett Denison (now lord Grimthorpe) in- 
vented a lock asserted to be secure against picking, in 

1852. 
New locks have been produced by Messrs. Day and 

Newell, Yale, Andrews, and others, especially in 

America. 
Mr. Hobbs, an American, exhibited his own locks in 

the Crystal palace, in 1851, and showed great skill in 

picking others. 
A " Key Bureau " to aid in the recovery of lost keys 

(charge is. per annum) established in Loudon in 1885. 



LOCOMOTIVES. 



589 



LOMBARD MERCHANTS. 



Chubb's "panic door lock" for easy opening of doors 

in theatres announced Oct. 1887. 
Mr. F. J. Biggs's tubular lock, said to be cheaper and 
[_ better than mortice locks, manufactured by a syndi- 
cate in London, May, 1890. 

LOCOMOTIVES, see Railways. The use of 

steani locomotives on ordinary roads is regulated by 
acts passed in 1861, 1865, and 1878. 

LOCRIANS, an ancient people of Northern 
Greece. They resisted Philip of Macedon, were 
aided by the Athenians and Thebans, and defeated 
by him at Chaeronea, 6 or 7 Aug. 338 B.C. 

LOCUSTS, one of the plagues of Egypt, 1491 
B.C. {Exod. x.) The ravages of locusts in Cyprus 
have been greatly checked by the skill and energy 
of Mr. Richard Matteiand Mr. Samuel Brown, 1881 
et seq. A swarm of locusts settled upon the ground 
about London, and consumed the vegetables; great 
numbers fell in the streets ; they resembled grass- 
hoppers, but were three times the size, and their 
colours more variegated, 4 Aug. 1748. They in- 
fested Germany in 1749, Poland in 1750, S. Africa 
1797, 1877, and Warsaw in June, 1816. They are 
said to have been seen in London in 1857. Russia 
was infested by them in July, i860; Algeria, 
severely,in 1866, 1874, 1889, and 1891-2 ; Sardinia 
in 1868; and Minnesota, U.S., 1873-74; S. Russia, 
June, 1884; Cjprus, 1884 ; N. India, June, July, 
1891 ; Morocco, Dec. 1891, June, 1892. 

LODGERS paying 10I. a year for a whole year 
for apartments without furniture, acquired the 
suffrage, by Reform act passed 15 Aug. 1867. Act 
to protect their goods from distraint, passed 16 Aug. 
187 1. The lodger franchise much increased by 
the Parliamentary and Municipal Registration act 
of 1878 ; and by the new Reform Rill, 6 Dee. 1884. 

The assembled judges decide that with a non-resident 
landlord the lodger is a householder; with a resident 
landlord he must qualify as a compound householder. 

LODGING-HOUSES. An act placing com- 
mon lodging-houses under the watch of the police 
was passed in 1851. In that year a model lodging- 
house erected by prince Albert appeared at the Great 
Exhibition. Since then, blocks of lodging-houses 
for the poor have been erected by Baroness Burdett- 
Coutts and others. Mr. Peabody's donation of 
12 March, 1862, has been appropriated for a similar 
purpose ; see Peabody. On 19 Nov. 1863, the city 
of London voted 20,000^. and a piece of land in 
Victoria-street (now Farringdon-road) for the pur- 
pose. See London, 1845. 

LODI (N. Italy). Napoleon Bonaparte, com- 
manding the French army, totally defeated the 
Austrians, under Beaulieu, after a bloody engage- 
ment, at the bridge of Lodi, 10 May, 1796. The 
republican flag floated in Milan a few days after. 
Monument to Victor Emmanuel inaugurated, 16 
Sept. 1883. 

LOGARITHMS, the indexes of the ratio of 
numbers one to another, were invented by John 
Napier, baron of Merchiston, who published his 
canon, or table, in 1614. The invention was com- 
pleted by Mr. Henry Briggs, at Oxford, who pub- 
lished tables, 1616-18. The method of computing 
by means of marked pieces of ivory was discovered 
about the same time, and hence called Napier's 
bones. 

" The Construction of Logarithms," 1619, by John 
Napier, baron of Merchiston, translated with notes, 
and a catalogue of Napier's works by Win. Rae Mac- 
donald, published in 1889. 



LOGIC, " the science of reasoning." Eminent 
works on it are by Aristotle; Bacon, Novum 
Organon ; Locke on the Understanding ; and the- 
modern treatises on Logic, by archbishop Whately, 
sir "William Hamilton, and Mr. John Stuart Mill! 
Earl Stanhope's Demonstrator, or Logical Machine, in- 
vented in the latter part of the 18th century, was de- 
scribed by rev. Robert Harley to the British Associa- 
tion, 19 Aug. 1878. 
In his "Principles of Science," 1874, Mr. Win. Stanley 
Jevons describes his "Logical Abecedarium " and 
" Logical Slate." 
G. Boole on " Laws of Thought," 1854. 
J. Venn's "Symbolic Logic," July, 1881. 

. LOGIERIAN SYSTEM of musical educa- 
tion, commenced by J. B. Logier, in Jan. 1815, and 
introduced into the chief towns of the United King- 
dom, Prussia, &c. He died in 1846. 

LOG-LINE, used in navigation, about 1570 ^ 
first mentioned by Bourne in 1577. It is divided, 
into spaces of 50 feet, and the way which the shij> 
makes is measured by a half-minute sand-glass, 
which bears nearly the same proportion to an hour 
that 50 feet bear to a mile : the line used in the- 
royal navy is 48 feet. 

LOGOGRAPH, apparatus invented by Mr. W. 
H. Barlow, about 1874, to give graphic representa- 
tion of the vibratory motions of the air-waves of 
speech, somewhat resembling a telegraphic mes- 
sage. 

LOGOGRAPHIC PRINTING, in which 
the commoner words were cast in one mass, was 
patented by Henry Johnson and Mr. Walter of the 
Times in 1 783. Anderson' s " History of Commerce," 1 
vol. iv. was printed by these types in 1789. 

LOGRONO, see JSfafara. 

LOI DES SUSPECTS, enacted by the 
French convention, 17 Sept. 1793, during the reign 
of terror, filled the prisons of Paris. The Public- 
Safety bill, of a similar character, was passed, 
18 Feb. 1858, shortly after Orsini's attempt on the- 
life of the emperor, Napoleon III. 

LOLLARDS (by some derived from the German 
lollen, to sing in a low tone, by others derived from 
the English verb to loll or lounge) the name given 
to the first reformers of the Roman catholic religion- 
in England, the followers of Wykliffe. The sect is 
also said to have been founded in 13 15 by Walter 
Lollard, who was burnt for heresy at Cologne in 
1322. The Lollards are said to have devoted them- 
selves to acts of mercy. The first Lollard martyr 
in England was William Sawtree, parish priest of 
St. Osith, London, 12 Feb. 1401, when the Lollards 
were proscribed by parliament, and numbers of 
them were burnt alive. Sir John Cobham, lord 
Oldcastle, a follower of Wykliffe, was accused of 
treason and condemned, Sept. 1413. Ho escaped to. 
Wales, where he was captured, and brought to 
London and burnt, 25 Dec. 1418. Lollards' "tower, 
part of the bishop's prison, was near St. Paul's, not 
Lambeth palace. Dr. Maitland. 

LOMBARDISTS, disciples of Peter Lombard, 
the schoolman, bishop of Paris, author of the " Book 
of Sentences," who died in 1164. 

LOMBARD MERCHANTS, in England, 

were understood to be composed of natives of pome- 
one of the four republics of Genoa, Lucca, Florence, 
or Venice. Anderson. Lombard usurers were sent 
to England by pope Gregory IX. to lend money to- 
convents, communities, and private persons who- 
were not able to pay down the tenths which were 
collected throughout the kingdom with great rigour 
that year, 13 Hen. III. 1299. They had off ces in 



LOMBAEDY. 



590 



LONDON. 



the street named after them to this day. Their 
usurious transactions caused their expulsion from 
the kingdom in the reign of Elizabeth. 

LOMBAEDY (N. Italy) derived its name 
from the Longobardi, a German tribe from Branden- 
burg, said (doubtfully) to have been invited into 
Italy bv Justinian to serve against the Goths. 
Their chief, Alboin, established a kingdom which 
lasted from 568 to 774. The last king, Desiderius, 
was dethroned by Charlemagne. (For a list of 
the Lombard kings, see Italy.) About the end ot 
the 9th century the chief towns of Lombardy forti- 
fied themselves, and became republics. The first 
Lombard league, consisting of Milan, Venice, 
Pavia, Modena, &c, was formed to restrain the 
power of the German emperors, in 1167. On 29 
May, 1 1 76, they defeated the emperor Frederick 
Barbarossa at Legnano, and eventually compelled 
him to sign the peace of Constance in 1183. In 
1226 another league was formed against Frede- 
rick II., which was also successful. After this, 
pelty tyrants rose in most of the cities, and foreign 
influence quickly followed. The Guelf and Ghibel- 
line factions greatly distracted Lombardy; and 
from the 15th century to the present time, it has 
been contended for by the German and French 
sovereigns. The house of Austria obtained it in 
1748, and held it till 1797, when it was conquered 
by the French, who incorporated it with the Cisal- 
pine republic, and in 1805 with the kingdom of 
Italv. On the breaking up of the French empire 
in 1815. the Lombardo- Venetian Kingdom was 
established by the allied sovereigns and given to 
Austria, who had lost her Flemish possessions. 
Lombardy and Venice revolted, and joined the king 
of Sardinia in March, 1848; but they did not sup- 
port him well, and were again subjected to Austria 
after his defeat at No vara, 23 March, 1849. An 
amnesty for political offences was granted in 1856 
Great jealousy of Sardinia was felt by Austria aftei 
1849. In 1857 diplomatic relations were suspended; 
and in April, 1859, war broke out; the Austrians 
crossing the Ticino and entering Piedmont. The 
French emperor declared war against Austria, and 
immediately sent troops into Italy. The Austrians 
were defeated at Montebello, 20 May ; Palestro, 30, 
31 May ; Magenta, 4 June ; and Solferino, 24 June. 
By the peace of Villafranca (11 July), the largest 
part of Lombardy was ceded to Louis Napoleon, who 
transferred it to the king of Sardinia. It now forms 
part of the new kingdom of Italy, to which Venetia 
was also surrendered by the treaty of Vienna, 
3 Oct. 1867. Population 1890, 3,906,958. 

LONATO (Brescia, N. Italy). Here Napoleon 
Bonaparte defeated Wurmser and the Austrians, 3 
Aug. 1796. 

LONDON, the capital of 1he British empire. 
The earliest history is traditional. The Celtic name 
is said to have been Lyn-din, lake-fort ; Tacitus in 
the first century, calls it Londinium ; and describes 
it as a flourishing trading city ; it was afterwards 
called Augusta, an appellation frequently given to 
great cities ; several other forms of the name appear 
in documents, such as Lundenbyrig, Lundonia, and 
London-wic. In i860, London and the suburbs 
were estimated to cover 121 square miles (11 miles 
each way, being three times as large as in 1800 ; in 
1880 122 square miles. The population of the 
"city" in 1801,156,859; in 1811,120,909; ini82i, 
125,434; in 1831, 125,574; in 1.841, 125,008; in 
1 85 1, 122,440; 1111861, 112,063; in 1871,74,897; in 
1881, 50,652. Day census, 25-30 April, 201,061 ; 
1891, 5 April, 37,694 (day census, 27 April, 301,384). 
For London and suburbs, 1801 et seq. see table in 



article Population (5 April, 1891, 4,231,431). 
Eevenue of corporation, 1862, 437,341/.; 1875, 
655,391/.: expenditure, 592,244/. ; in 1877, revenue, 
634,734/.: expenditure, 667,812/. Annual rate- 
able value (metropolitan district) April, 1881, 
27,405,488/. ; the " city," 3,537,561/. Jan. 1888, 
34,340.596/. The " port" of London extends from 
London Bridge to the Norih Foreland. Tonnage 
entering and leaving the port, 1871, 7,600,000; 
1885, 12,000,000 (dues paid over 41,000/.). London 
returns 2 instead of 4 members to parliament by Act 
of 1885. See Docks, Mayors, Metropolitan Boardof 
Works, London County Council, and Treaties. 

The town appears to have prospered under British, 
Roman, and Saxon rules, and to have been much 
indebted to Alfred and his successors, but suffered 
greatly by the Danes ; it was not attacked by Wil- 
liam I., by whom the citizens were conciliated, and its 
corporate government was recognized by his son 
Henry I. The city receh ed many favours from the 
Plantagenet kings, but frequently resisted their 
exactions. London is governed by the lord mayor, 
the court of aldermen, the common council, and other 
offices. London was not included in the municipal 
corporations Act, 1835. The London county council 
was constituted by the local government Act passed 
in 18S8. 
London (metropolitan district), contains 6612 miles 
of streets ; 528,794 inhabited houses ; population, 

4,025,659 June, 1873 

Income of the city estates, 538, 6$il. . . . ,, 
Aulus Plautius invades Britain and erects a fort 

on the Thames 41 or 43 

Boadicea, queen of the Iceni, defeats the Romans 
and burns London ; she is defeated by Suetonius 

and dies by suicide 61 

London held' by the rebel emperors, Carausius and 

Allectus 286 

Conjectured date of the building of the wall . 350-369 
800 vessels said to be employed hi the port of Lon- 
don for the export of corn 359 

St. Paul's church founded by Ethelbert, about . 597 
London termed the ecclesiastical capital of the East 

Saxons 

Mellitus, first bishop (soon expelled) . 

A plague ravages London 644 

Great fire which nearly consumed the city . 
London pillaged by the Banes, 839; these expelled 

Alfred repairs and strengthens London . 
Easterlings settle in London before . 

Another great fire 

Tower built by William I. .... 

First charter granted to the city by the same king' 1079 

Another great fire, St. Paul's burnt . 

606 houses thrown down by a tempest 

Important Charter granted by Henry I. . 

St. Bartholomew's priory founded by Rahere, about ,, 

London-bridge built, 1014 ; burnt with part of the 

city 1 136 

Charter granted by Henry II n 54 

Old London-bridge begun 11 76 

Henry Fitz-Ailwin, the first mayor (served twenty- 
four years) see below, 1889 . . . 1189 or 1191 

Massacre of Jews ,, 

First stone bridge finished 1209 

Charter of king John ; mayor and common council 

to be elected annually 1214 

Foreign merchants invited, settle here . 1199-1220 

Charter of Henry III 1233 

Watch in London, 38 Henry III 1253 

Privileges granted to the Hanse merchants (which 
see) 1259 



* It is still preserved in the city archives. This 
charter is written in beautiful Saxon characters, on a 
slip of parchment six inches long, and one broad, and is 
in English as follows: — "William the king greeteth 
William the bishop, and Gosfrith the portreeve, and all 
the burgesses within London, French and English, 
friendly. And I acquaint you, that I will that ye be all 
there law-worthy as ye were in king Edward's days. And 
I will that every child be his father's heir, after his father's 
days. And I will not suffer that any man do you any 
wrong. God preserve you." 



LONDON. 



591 



LONDON. 



The liberties and privileges of the city maintained 

and enlarged by Walter Harvey, mayor . . 1272 
Tax called murage, to keep the walls and ditches in 
repair ....... about 1282 

Henry le Waleys and 5 others first M. P.' s for London 1284 
Water brought from Tyburn to West Cheap . . 1285 
Expulsion of the Jews by Edward I. (16,511) . . 1290 
The manor of South wark conveyed to the citizens 1327 

Charter granted by Edward III 1328 

Terrible pestilence, in which 50,000 (?) citizens 
perish *........ 1348 

London sends 4 members to parliament . . . 1355 
William of Walworth lord mayor . . . . 1380 

Wat Tyler's rebellion (see Tyler) .... 1381 

Aldermen elected for life 1394 

Great plague, 30,000 (?) died 1406 

City first lighted at night by lanterns . . . . 1415 
Guildhall commenced 1411, finished . . . 1416 
Whittington thrice lord mayor, viz., 1397, 1406, 1419 
Jack Cade's rebellion ; see Cade .... 1450 
First civic procession on the water ; sir John Nor- 
man lord mayor 1453 

Falconbridge attempts the city . . . .1471 

Printing-press set up by Caxton ,, 

Sweating sickness rages 1485 

Fleet diteli navigable . 1502 

St. Paul's school founded by dean Colet . . 1509 

The fatal sweat, Sudor A nglicus 1517 

Evil May-day {which see) ,, 

Streets first paved (Viner's Slat.) . . . . 1533 

" Bills of Mortality " ordered to be kept . . . 1538 

Dissolution of religious houses 1539 

St. Bartholomew's monastery changed to an hospital , , 
Forty taverns and public houses allowed in the 

city, and three in Westminster, act 7 Edw. VI. . 1553 
Christ's hospital founded by king Edw. VI. . ,, 

Russian trading company established . . . . „ 

Coaches introduced about 1563 

Royal Exchange built (sen Exchange) . . . . 1566 
New buildings in London forbidden "where no 
former hath been known to have been," to pre- 
vent the increasing sizet 1580 

Thames water conveyed into the city by leaden 

pipes 1580-94 

Stow publishes his survey 1598 

Nearly all London yet built of wood . . . 1600 
30,578 persons said to perish by the plague . . 1603 
Thomas Sutton founds Charterhouse school, &c. . 1611 
New river water brought to London . . . .1613 
Principal streets! paved . . . . . . 1616 

Hackney coaches first plied 1625 

A great plague „ 

Building of the western parishes, St. Giles's, <fec. 

begun . . . . 1640 

The city held for the parliament .... 1642 

London fortified 1643 

Jews allowed to return to London by Cromwell . 1650 
Banking begun by Francis Child . . about 1660 
Royal Society of London chartered . . . . 1662 

The great plague (see Plagues) 1665 

" Oxford" afterwards " London Gazette " published 

7 Nov. ,, 
Great fire of London (see Fires) . . 2-6 Sept. 1666 

* This terrible pestilence broke out in India, and 
spreading itself westward through every country on the 
globe, reached England. Its ravages in London were 
so great, that the common cemeteries were not sufficient 
for the interment of the dead ; and various pieces of 
ground without the walls were assigned for burial-places. 
Amongst these was the waste land now forming the 
precincts of the Charter-house, where upwards of 50,000 
bodies were then deposited. Tins disorder did not sub- 
side till 1357. Leigh. 

t This proclamation or decree was dated from None- 
such, 7 July, 1580, and it was forbidden to erect new 
buildings where none had before existed in the memory 
of man. The extension of the metropolis was deemed 
calculated to encourage the increase of the plague ; 
create a trouble in governing such multitudes ; a dearth 
of victuals ; multiplying of beggars, and inability to 
relieve them ; an increase of artisans more than could 
live together ; impoverishing other cities for lack of 
inhabitants. The decree stated that lack of air, lack of 
room to walk and shoot, &c. , arose out of too crowded a 
city. A proclamation to the same effect was also issued 
by James 1. 



Act for a "new model of building " in the city . 1666 
Monument erected by Wren (see Monument) . 1671-7 

St. Paul's founded .... 21 June, 1675 

A London directory published 1679 

Charter granted by Charles II. .... 16S0 

Penny post established 1683 

London partly lit at night by Edward Heming's 

patent 1684-5 

Settlement of French protestants .... 1685 
Charter declared forfeited, 1682 ; but restored . . 1689 

Bank of England established 1694 

St. Paul's opened 2 Dec. 1697 

Awful storm .... 26 Nov.-i Dec. 1703 

Sacheverel's sermon and mob (see Riots) . . . 1709 
Act for the erection of fifty new churches . . 1711 
South Sea bubble commenced, 1710 ; exploded (see 

South Sea, Company) i-j2o 

Chelsea water works formed 1722 

Bank of England built 1732-4 

Glass lamps in the street . . between 1694 & 1736 
Fleet ditch covered, and Fleet market opened . 1737 
" Great Frost," 25 Dec. 1739 to 8 Feb. . . . 1740 

London Hospital instituted ,, 

New Mansion-house founded, 1739 ; completed . . 1753 

British Museum established ,, 

Society of Arts established ,, 

The New road, 1755-6 ; City road projected about 1760 

Eight gates removed 1760-1 

Shop signs removed 1762 

Westminster paving-act passed ....,, 
Blackfriars-bridge opened ... 19 Nov. 1769 

The lord mayor (Brass Crosby) committed to the 

Tower by the House of Commons for a breach of 

privilege 27 March, 1771 

Lord George Gordon's No-popery mob (see Gordon's 

mob) June, 1780 

Thanksgiving of George III. at St. Paul's Cathedral 

23 April, 1789 
Building of Camden town, begun . . . . 1791 
London docks opened .... 20 Jan. 1799 

London Institution founded 1805 

Lord Nelson's funeral .... 9 Jan. 1806 

Gas first exhibited in Pall Mall 1807 

Riots on the committal of sir F. Burdett to the 

Tower 6 April, 1810 

The Mint finished I 8n 

Regent-street begun ^13 

Civic banquet to the allied sovereigns at Guildhall, 

18 June, 1814 

Custom-house burnt 12 Feb. 

The city generally lighted with gas . . . " 

Waterloo-bridge opened ... 18 June, 1817 

New Custom-house opened ( 

Southwark-bridge opened ... 24 March, 1S19 
The great increase in building commences . . . 1820 
Bank of England completed by sir John Soane . 1821 
Tumults at queen Caroline's funeral . 14 Aug. ,, 

Cabs introduced ^23 

London Mechanics' Institution founded . . . ,, 

Bubble companies' panic ^s 

London University chartered . . .11 Feb. 1826 
27 turnpikes removed by act of parliament . . 1827 

New Post-office completed 1829 

Farringdon-market opened , 

Omnibuses introduced ,, 

New metropolitan police began . . 29 Sept. ,, 

Co vent-garden market rebuilt 1830 

Memorable political panic, 5 Nov. ; and no lord 

mayor's show g Nov. „ 

New London-bridge opened . . . . i Aug. 1831 
General Fast on account of the cholera in England, 

6 Feb. 1832 
Hungerford-market opened ... 3 July, 1833 
Houses of parliament burnt . . . .16 Oct. 1834 
City of London school founded ....,, 

The queen dines at Guildhall . . .9 Nov. 1837 
Royal Exchange burnt .... 10 Jan. 1838 
Railway opened from London to Birmingham, 

17 Sept. ; to Greenwich . . . . 28 Dec. ,, 
Penny-postage begun .... 10 Jan. 1840 
Railway to Southampton opened . n May, 

Wood pavement tried ; fails .... „ 

London library established 1841 

Railway to Bristol opened . . . 30 June, ,, 
Blackwall railway opened . . . .2 Aug. ,, 
Railway to Brighton opened . . .21 Sept. ,, 
Thames Tunnel opened . . . . 25 March, 1S43 
Royal Exchange opened by the queen . 28 Oct. 1844 



LONDON. 



592 



LONDON. 



Erection of baths and wash-houses begins . . . 1844 

Fleet prison taken down ,, 

New building act begins operation . . 1 Jan. 1845 

Penny steamboats begun ,, 

Model lodging houses built ,, 

Railway mania ,, 

Twopenny omnibuses begun 1846 

Great Chartist demonstration in London (see 

Chartists) 10 April, 1848 

Re-api>earance of the cholera . . . Sept. 1849 
Coal Exchange opened .... 30 Oct. „ 
Lord mayor's great banquet (of mayors)— (see Lord 

Mayors) 21 March, 1850 

Attack upon general Haynau ... 4 Sept. ,, 
Great Exhibition opened, 1 May ; closed, 11 Oct. . 1851 
Duke of Wellington dies, 14 Sept. ; his funeral at 
St. Paul's (see Wellington) . . 18 Nov. 1852 

Cab-strike 27-29 July, 1853 

Visit of king of Portugal . . . .19 May, 1854 
Attack of cholera .... Aug. & Sept. ,, 
Meeting for Patriotic fund .... 2 Nov. ,, 
Visit of emperor and empress of the French to the 

lord mayor 19 April, 1855 

The queen distributes Crimean medals . 18 May, „ 
Failure of Paul, Strahan, & Co. (see Trials) 5 June, ,, 
Metropolitan Local Management act passed 14 Aug. ,, 
Visit of the king of Sardinia . . 30 Nov. ,, 

Metropolitan Board of works, first meeting 22 Dec. ,, 
Peace proclaimed, 29 April ; illuminations and fire- 
works in the parks .... 29 May, 1856 
Royal British Bank stops payment (see British Bank) 

4 Sept. „ 
Meetings of unemployed operatives in Smithfleld, 

Feb. 1857 
Many commercial failures ; Bank charter act sus- 
pended 12 Nov. ,, 

James Morison (originally a poor boy), who mainly 
introduced the system of quick returns and small 
profits, dies exceedingly rich . . 30 Oct. ,, 

Metropolis divided into 10 postal districts 1 Jan. 1858 
Great Eastern launched (began 3 Nov. 1857)31 Jan. ,, 
Complaints of the state of the Thames ; act for its 

purification passed . . - . . .2 Aug. ,, 
Panic on stock exchange (40 or 50 failures) at re- 
ported French and Russian alliance against Aus- 
tria April, 1859 

A strike among the building trades, and a lock-out 
by the masters, 8 Aug. ; the latter require the men 
to sign a document, declaring that they will not 
belong to any society which interferes with the 
freedom of the workman ; the strike was dying 

out in Nov. „ 

Disgraceful riots at the church of St. George's in 
the East, through the indiscretion of the Trac- 
tarian clergyman, the rev. Bryan King, Sept. and 
Oct. The church (closed for a time) re-opened : 
fresh disturbances on 6, 13, 20 Nov. ; the agita- 
tion continued till Mr. King retired ; a coin promise 
was effected . . ... 29 July, i860 

Metropolitan railway (underground) commenced in 

spring of „ 

Great distress through the severe winter ; thousands 

relieved at the police offices . Dec. i860, & Jan. 1861 
Another strike in the building trades commences, 

22 March, ,, 
A street railway in the metropolis opened near 

Bayswater (temporary) . . .23 March, ,, 

Great fire near Tooley-street (see Fires) 22 June, ,, 
Sale of the East India house . . 23 June, 186? 

Meeting to establish the " City of London College," 

bishop of London in the chair . . 2 Oct. ,, 
Mr. George Peabody, the American merchant, gives 
150,000!. to ameliorate the condition of the poor 
and needy of London ... 12 March, 1862 
The International Exhibition opens . 1 May, „ 
Thames embankment bill passed, after much dis- 
cussion Aug. ,, 

Fights in Hyde-park between the Garibaldians and 

Irish 28 Sept. <fe 5 Oct. „ 

Public meetings there prohibited . 9 Oct. ,, 

Comtesse de Silly leaves 4000Z. to poor of London ,. 
The Metropolitan railway opened . . 10 Jan. 1863 
Pneumatic despatch company begins to convey 

post-office bags 21 Feb. ,, 

Princess Alexandra of Denmark enters London, 

7 March, ,, 
Prince and princess f Wales present at the city ball 
at Guildhall . .... 8 June, „ 



Appeal of the bishop of London on account of the 
spiritual destitution of the metropolis (see Church 

of England) June, 1863 

The common council vote 20,000^. and a site in 
Victoria-street, E.C. (now Farringdon-road), for 
a lodging-house for the poor . . 19 Nov. ,, 

New street between Blackfriars and London-bridge 

opened 1 Jan. 1864 

Charing Cross railway opened . . .11 Jan. ,, 
First block of Peabody's dwellings in Spitalnelds 

opened 29 Feb. „ 

Garibaldi enters London, n April ;- receives the 

freedom of the city .... 21 April, ,, 
Many turnpikes in the N. suburbs abolished, 1 July, ,, 
Great excitement through the murder of Mr. Briggs 

in a carriage of the N. London railway . 9 July, „ 
The first railway train enters the city of London 

near Blackfriars-bridge ... 6 Oct. ,, 

North London industrial exhibition, Islington, 

opened by earl Russell . . . .17 Oct. ,, 
Excitement through the performance of the Daven- 
port brothers Oct. -Dec. ,.. 

Great bullion robbery in Lombard-street, 3 or 4 Dec. ,, 
Many burglaries in London ; great robbery at 

Walker's, the jewellers, Cornhill . . 4, 5 Feb. 1865 
South London industrial exhibition opened by earl 

of Shaftesbury 1 March, ,, 

The prince of Wales present at the opening of the 
main drainage works, at the southern outfall 

near Erith 4 April, ,,, 

Prince of Wales opens the international reformatory 

exhibition at Islington . . . 19 May, ,, 
Cattle puague breaks out in cow houses near Barns- 
bury, about 27 June, t> 

Investigation into the state of the workhouse in- 
firmaries from several paupers dying through 

neglect Aug. ,.. 

Many turnpikes in the S. suburbs abolished, 31 Oct. „ 
Mr. Peabody adds ioo,ooo£. to his gift of 1862, 

29 Jan. 1866 
City industrial exhibition opened by lord mayor, 

6 March, ,, 
Horrible murder of Sarah Millson in Cannon-street 

(culprit undiscovered) . . . . n April, ,. 
Black-Friday ; commercial panic ; failure of Overend, 
Gurney, & Co., Discount Company (see Bank, 

11 May) 10 May, „ 

Agra and Masterman's bank stops ; greatexcitement, 

6 June, ,,. 
Shocking revelations in London workhouse in- 
firmaries June, et seq. ,, 

Cholera prevails in east London (see Cholera), 

July-Sept. ,, 
Riots in Hyde-park . . . . 23, 24 July, „. 
Cannon-street railway station opened . 1 Sept. , y 
Lord mayor honourably entertained at Brussels by 

the king of the Belgians .... Oct. ,,. 

Working classes industrial exhibition at Islington 

closed 12 Nov. t> 

Report of committee at common council recom- 
mending enlargement of constituency voting for 
municipal questions (from about 6700 to 15,000) 

12 Nov. ,, 
Reform demonstration by trades unions ; procession 
of about 25,000 to Beaufort-house grounds, Bromp- 

ton 3 Dec. ,, 

Estimated population of the " City " by day, 

283,520; by night, about 100,000 . . Dec. „ 
Severe frost : 40 lives lost by breaking in of ice on 

ornamental waters in Regent's park . 15 Jan. 1867/ 
" Icy night " ; many accidents through fall of rain 

and immediate frost 22 Jar. ,„ 

London Street Reform Association organised, Jar. ,, 
Great distress in east London ; large subscriptions ; 
Mansion-house Metropolitan Relief Fund esta- 
blished 26 Jan. ,. 

Metropolitan poor act passed . . 29 March, , r 
London conference on Luxembourg question 

7-1 1 May, ,„ 
First stone laid of Holborn viaduct, 3 June ; of new 

meat market 5 June, ... 

The lord mayor entertained the viceroy of Egypt 
11 June ; the Belgians, 12 July ; the Sultan, 

18 July, 1867 
The Sultan gives 2500Z. to the poor of London, 

22 July, 

Electors for M.P.'s to have 3 votes only, by Reform 

act passed . p . f • 15 Aug- 



LONDON. 



593 



LONDON. 



County Court for the city established by act of par- 
liament 20 Aug. 1S67 

Edvv. M'Donnell shot by supposed Fenian, 28 Sept., 

died 5 Oct. „ 

'Tailors' strike, began 22 April ; over . . Oct. ,, 
Lord mayor's state coach not used . . 9 Nov. ,, 
Common Council undertake erection of another 

cattle market (for foreign cattle) . . 6 Dec. ,, 
Premeditated explosion outside Clerkenwell house 
of detention to release Fenians (7 persons killed 
and about 50 wounded) . . . 13 Dec. ,, 

Much excitement through other attempted explo- 
sions ; about 30,000 special constables sworn in, 

17-24 De ■:. ,, 
Mysterious disappearance of the rev. B. Speke in 

Westminster 8 Jan, 1868 

Great distress in the east of London through want 
of employment ; meeting of employer and em- 
ployed ; work offered to the iron shipwrights at 
lower wages declined .... 25 Jan. „ 
52,974 special constables in the metropolis up to 

28 Jan. ,, 
Mr. Speke (partially insane) found in Cornwall, 

24 Feb. ,, 
(East) London Museum Site act passed . 28 Feb. ,, 
The queen lays foundation-stone of the new St. 

Thomas's hospital .... 13 May, ,, 

Western approach street, Holborn Valley, opened, 

25 June, ,, 
Part of the Albert (southern) embankment of the 

Thames opened 30 July, ,, 

King's Cross market opened ... 7 Aug. ,, 
Midland Counties railway station opened 1 Oct. ,, 
Great meeting to relieve sufferers by South American 

earthquake (n, oool.) collected . . . 13 Oct. ,, 
New meat market, Smithfield, inaugurated by the 

lord mayor, 24 Nov. ; opened to the public,! Dec. ,, 
Mr. Peabody gives another 100,000!. to the poor of 

London 5 Dec. ,, 

London Association for prevention of poverty and 

crime founded 17 Dec. ,, . 

S. London industrial exhibition opened 1 March, 1869 
Columbia market, Bethnal-green, erected by Miss 

Burdett-Coutts ; opened by her . . 28 April, ,, 
Statue of Mr. Peabody uncovered, prince of Wales 

present 23 July, „ 

Inauguration of the Holborn viaduct and the new 

Blackfriars bridge by the queen . . • 6 Nov. ,, 
Inauguration of the Victoria (northern) Thames em- 
bankment by the prince of Wales . . 13 July, 1870 
International workmen's exhibition at Islington 

opened by the prince of Wales . . 16 July, ,, 
London ratepayers' school-board association esta- 
blished 8 Oct. „ 

New city library and museum founded near Guild- 
hall 27 Oct. „ 

London education board elected . . 29 Nov. ,, 
Foundation-stone laid of new general post-office, 

16 Dec. ,, 
Mansion-house Relief Fund established for the 

French (24,000!. raised in 4 days) . 18 Jan. 1871 

A 1 1 dresses of the corporation presented . 28 Feb. ,, 
Royal Albert hall, Kensington, opened by the queen, 

29 March, ,, 
First annual International Exhibition at South 
Kensington opened by the prince of Wales (closed 

30 Oct.) 1 May, ,, 

St. Thomas's hospital opened by the queen, 

21 June, ,, 
Hampstead heath purchased by Metropolitan board 

of works for 45,000!. ; act passed . 29 June, ,, 
The freedom of the city presented to prince Arthur, 

13 July, „ 
Tolls on the Commercial roads, London, E., ceased, 

5 Aug. „ 
Queen Victoria-street opened, 4 Nov. ; St. Andrew's 

street, <fec. , opened 20 Nov. ,, 

New lieutenancy appointed, 1 Nov. . 8 Dec. ,, 

National thanksgiving for the recovery of the prince 
of Wales ; the queen and prince go to St. Paul's. 

27 Feb. 1872 
Strike of building trades begun, 1 June (see Strikes) ; 

lock-out by the masters begun . . 19 June, ,, 
East London Museum at Bethnal-grcen opened by 

the prince and princess of Wales . . 24 June, ,, 
Murder of Mrs. Squires and daughter in Hoxton 
(undiscovered) .... noon 10 July, ,, 



Failure of Gledstanes and Co. (East India firm) for 
nearly 2,000,000!. ; announced . . 22 Aug 1872 

Builders' strike aud lock-out ends by agreement, 
about 27 Aug. ,, 

Epidemic smallpox .... July-Sept. ,, 

Second annual International Exhibition opened 
1 May ; closed 19 Oct. ,, 

New City Library and Museum at Guildhall opened 
by the lord chancellor .... 5 Nov. ,, 

Brutal murder of Harriet Buswell, a gay woman, 
in Great Coram-street (undiscovered) 25 Dec. ,, 

Forgery on the Bank of England to amount of 
80,000!. detected March, 1873 

Banquet to mayors of corporate towns at the Man- 
sion-house 26 March, ,, 

Victoria-park visited by the queen ; she went 
through Islington and returned through the city, 

2 April, „ 
The City temple (to replace the Poultry chapel) 

founded near Holborn Viaduct . . 19 May, ,, 
First Hospital Sunday {which see) . .15 June, ,, 
The Shah of Persia at a banquet at Guildhall, 20 June, ,, 
The common council vote 10,000!. to buy Upton 

park, West Ham Nov. ,, 

Bank-rate, 9 per cent., panic on stock exchange 

7 Nov. ,, 
Continued fog, much sickness, and many accidents 

8-13 Dec. „ 
National training school for music, South Ken- 
sington ; foundation laid by the duke of Edin- 
burgh 18 Dec. ,, 

Tichborne case closed (see Trials) . . 28 Feb. 1874 

Duke and Duchess of Edinburgh enter London 

12 March, ,, 
Fourth International Exhibition, opened 6 April, ,, 
City liberal club, earl Granville, president, organ- 
ized May, ,, 

The czar entertained at Guildhall . . 18 May, ,, 
City Temple, Holborn Viaduct, opened . 19 ,, ,, 
Banquet to provincial mayors at Mansion-house 

3 June, ,, 
Second Hospital Sunday . . . 14 June, ,, 
The czar presents 1000!., to the bishop and the lord 

mayor for the poor of London . . 2 July, ,, 

First Hospital Saturday (which see) . . 17 Oct. ,, 

Freedom given to sir Garnet J. Wolseley . 22 Oct. ,. 

International exhibition closed . . 31 Oct. ,, 

Lord mayor Stone and the sheriffs at the opening 
of the new opera-house, Paris . . .5 Jan. 1875 

Congregational Memorial hall, Farriugdon-street, 
opened 19 Jan. ,, 

Arrival of Moody and Sankey (see Revivals), first 
meeting 9 March, ,, 

Lord Elcho's bill for municipal government with- 
drawn May, ,, 

Great Failures in the iron trade . . 31 ,, ,, 

Arrival of the Sultan of Zanzibar . . 9 June, ,, 

Failure of Alex. Collie & Co. led to others (Collie 
absconded 9 Aug.) .... June, July, ,, 

British and foreign mayors, burgomasters, prefets, 
&c. , entertained by the lord mayor . . 29 July, ,, 

Discussion on widening London Bridge Sept. -Oct. ,, 

First pile of steam-ferry landing-place from Wap- 
ping to Rotherhithe struck by lord-mayor Stone 

11 Oct. ,, 

Prince Leopold takes up his freedom . . 25 Oct. ,, 

Grocers' company wing, London hospital, opened 
by the queen 7 March, 1876 

Freedom of the city given to chief-justice Cockburn 
(said to be first case of the kind) . 9 March, ,, 

Banquet and ball to the prince of Wales on his 
return from India (11 May) . . . 19 May, ,, 

Lord Elcho's resolution for reforming the corpora- 
tion and establishing a metropolitan government 
withdrawn from the Commons . . 13 June, „ 

Stock exchange very dull; new 3 per cent, con- 
sols, 974 24 July, ,, 

Public meeting at Mansion-house respecting atro- 
cities in Bulgaria (see Turkey) . . 18 Sept. ,, 

" Great Eastern-street " (from Shoreditch to Old- 
street), opened . . 12 Oct. ,, 

Visit of municipal officers of Paris, to inspect rail- 
ways, &c. ... 30 April— 8 May, 1877 

Sir John Bennett thrice elected alderman, rejected 
by court of aldermen, third time, 16 Oct. ; Edgar 
Brefiitt elected by court of aldermen . 23 Oct. ,, 

Temple Bar removed . . . 2 — 14 Jan. 1878 

Revival of trade ; bank discount 4 per cent. 1 Aug. „ 

Q Q 



LONDON. 



594 



LONDON. 



Banquet to the ministers after the treaty of Berlin ; 
freedom of city given to the earl of Beaeonsfield 
and the marquis of Salisbury . . 3 Aug. 

The Parochial Charities commission appointed (the 
duke of Northumberland, canon R. Gregory, pre- 
bendary Wm. Rogers, and others) . 9 Aug. 

Bank discount raised to 5 per cent. . 12 Aug. 

Great Eastern-street completed and opened Aug. 

Foundering of the Princess Alice (xvhich see) through 
collision with the Bywell Castle in Thames (see 
Mansion House Fund) .... 3 Sept. 

"Waterloo-bridge opened toll-free . . 5 Oct. 

" City and Guilds of London Institute for the ad- 
vancement of Technical Education," formally 
constituted n Nov. 

City Church and Churchyard Protection Society 
formed Feb. 

New-formed street between Shoreditch and Bethnal- 
green opened (it completes direct road from 
Oxford-street to Old-ford) ... 29 March. 

Holborn Town-hall opened by the lord mayor, 

18 Bee. 

The king of Greece receives freedom of the city, 

16 June, 

Municipality of London bill introduced by Mr. Firth 
and others 25 June, 

Explosion of gas main near Tottenham-court-road ; 
2 deaths ; much property destroyed . 5 July, 

City Livery Companies' Commission appointed (earl 
of Berby, duke of Bedford, lord Sherbrooke, lord 
Coleridge, sir R. A. Cross, <&c.) . . July, 

Topographical Society of London founded, 28 Oct. 

Temple Bar Memorial uncovered (see Temple), 8 Nov. 

Mansion-house {which see) ; attempt to blow it up 
detected 16 March, 

Elcho shield placed in Guildhall, 10th time 29 Oct. 

Mr. W. Ward bequeaths 20,000?., and other property 
to the Corporation, announced . 17 Nov. 

City of London College near Moorgate-st. ; founda- 
tion laid 31 March, 

The lord Mayor takes freedom of the city to the 
King of the Netherlands at the Hague . 20 Sept. 

New city of London schools, Victoria Embankment, 
opened by the prince of Wales . . 12 Bee. 

Freedom given to lord Alcester . . 11 April, 

City of London Parochial Charities act, 46 & 47 
Vict. c. 56, passed 20 Aug. 

Much excitement about the dwellings of "Out-cast 
London" through Mr. G. R. Sims, "How the 
poor live," &c Autumn, 

Meeting at the Mansion House to raise 50,000?., to 
aid the Beaumont legacy, in establishing a great 
institution for the instruction and recreation- of 
the people of the East end . . .14 Bee. 

New street from King William street to the Tower 
opened 25 Jan. 

1,000?. offered by government, and 1,000?. by 
railway companies, for discovery of dynamite 
conspirators about . . .3 March, 

See Dynamite, and Explosions, 1883-4. 

Freedom of the city given to the earl of Shaftesbury, 
a life-long social philanthropist . . 5 March, 

Proposed settlement of Oxford and Cambridge 
university men in E. London to improve social 
life May, 

Remains of Roman architecture, &c. discovered 
during excavations in Bevis Marks, E.C. . Aug. 

The common council meet in their new chamber at 
Guildhall 2 Oct. 

The common council agree to the construction of a 
low-level bridge between the Tower and Horsely- 
down, with lifting sections for the passage of 
ships, cost about 750,000?. . . .24 Oct. 

Great meeting of unemployed social democratic 
federation on Thames embankment ; proceed to 
local government board ; dissatisfied and riotous 

16 Feb. 

Freedom of the city presented to prince Albert 
Victor of Wales 29 June 

Tower bridge act passed ... 14 Aug 

Meeting of citizens at Guildhall ; sir John Lub- 
bock's resolution against an Irish parliament 
carried ... . 2 April, 

Foundation stone of the Tower bridge laid by the 
prince of Wales. . . . . 21 June, 

Fire panic in Hebrew dramatic club, Spitalfields, 
17 killed 18 Jan. 

Parliamentary committee to enquire into charges ot 



i879 



spending corporation funds to oppose municipal 
reform bill report the charge to be partially 
sustained in getting up metropolitan ratepayers' 
protection association ; bogus meetings and 
much agitation (19,550?. spent in 1882-5), about 
21 May, 1887 ; charge declared not proved by 
the common council .... 9 Feb. 1 

The queen receives the lord mayor and others with 
their jubilee address .... 9 May, 

The queen proceeds from Paddington to Mile End 
to open the "People's Palace"; visits the 
Mansion-house ; the houses in the route 
splendidly decorated ; the line kept by the 
military, volunteers, and police ; no disorder, 

14 May, 

Death of sir Horace Jones, city architect, aged 68, 

21 May, 

Terrific storm, destructive of life and property 
began 5.30 p.m., lasting about 4 hours 17 Aug. 

Increased spread of scarlet and other fever 

Sept.-Oct. 

Torchlight meeting of liberal and radical clubs 
at Rotherhithe, about 12,000 present condemning 
the Irish policy of the government . 24 Oct. 

Special constables sworn in (see Riots) 17-19 Nov. 

Freedom of the city of London conferred on the 
marquis of Hartington . . . 18 April, 

The new city of London court opened by the lord 
mayor 6 Dec. 

The great fiee steam ferry between north and south 
Woolwich opened by lord Rosebery 23 March, 

The lord mayor Whitehead visits the exhibition at 
Paris, and is honourably entertained 6 May «t seq. 

Freedom of the city given to the marquis of 
Dufferin (with banquet) ... 29 May, 

Freedom of the city presented to prince George of 
Wales 1 June, 

Strike of dock labourers (see Strikes) . Aug. -Sept. 

Ball at the Mansion-house to celebrate the 700th 
anniversary of the mayoralty . -29 Oct. 

Grand lord mayor's show arranged by Hon. Lewis 
Wingfield 9 Nov. 

Sir Sydney H. Waterlow presents a park at South 
Hampstead (see Waterlow Park) . .12 Nov. 

Lord Napier of Magdala dies 14 Jan. ; grand mili- 
tary funeral, St. Paul's . . . .21 Jan. ] 

The freedom of the city given to Mr. H. M. Stanley 
(see Soudan, 1887 et seg.) . . -13 May 

New art gallery of the corporation opened by the 
lord mayor 10 June 

Temporary strikes of the postmen and police (which 
see) July 

Excavations near the post-office, St. Martin's-le- 
Grand ; discoveries of Roman remains, the town 
ditch, &c Sept. 

City and S. London Electric Railway opened by 
the prince of Wales .... 4 Nov. 

The Corporation medal commemorating the founda- 
tion of the mayorality in 1189, completed by 
Messrs. Kirkwood of Edinburgh . . Nov. 

Financial crisis through the serious difficulties of 
Messrs. Baring (liabilities, 21,000,000/.), who are 
promptly and .judiciously assisted by the Bank of 
England, William Lidderdale, governor, aided by 
the Bank of France, and other establishments ; 
panic hardly averted . . 8-15 Nov. et seq. 

Baring Brothers constituted a limited liability 
company, principally by Mr. T. C. Baring and the 
family ; registered 24 Nov. 

Great meeting in the Guildhall, London, appealing 
to the czar on behalf of the Jews, 10 Bee. 1890 ; 
memorial and the lord mayor's letter, returned to 
him, through the foreign office, by the Russian 
ambassador without comment . . 7 Feb. : 

The telephone system between London and Paris 
inaugurated (see Telephone) . . 18 March 

Freedom of the city presented to Mr. William 
Lidderdale, governor of the bank of England 

6 May 

Omnibus strike (which see) . . . 7-13 June, 

State visit of the German emperor and empress (see 
Germany) 10 July 

The prince of Naples dines with the lord mayor 

28 July 

The London Ratepayers' Defence League formed at 
a meeting at the Guildhall . . .18 Nov. 

Beath of Mr. Benjamin Scott, aged 7S, chamber- 



LONDON, BISHOPRIC OF. 



595 



LONDON HOSPITAL. 



lain since 1858, died, 17 Jan. ; succeeded by alder- 
man Win. J. R. Cotton . . . . 5 Feb. 1892 
Sir Charles Hall, Q.O., elected recorder . 8 Feb. „ 
[See England; and the occurrences not noticed 
here, under their respective heads.] 

LONDON, BISHOPRIC OF, is said tradition- 
ally to have been founded in tlie reign of Lucius, 
about 179. Restitutus, bishop, is said to have 
been present at the council of Aries, 314. Augustin 
made Canterbury the metropolitan see of England. 
Mellitus was first bishop in 604 ; expelled 616 ; 
first successor, Cedd, 6$6. The see has given to the 
church of Koine five samts, and to the realm sixteen 
lord chancellors and lord treasurers ; it was valued 
in the king's books, at 119^. 8s. $d. per annum. 
Present income, io,OOo£. In 1845 Hertford and part 
of Essex were taken from the see of London and 
added to that of Eochester. 

HECENT BISHOPS. 

1787. Beilby Porteus, died 14 May, 1809. 

iSog. John Randolph, died 28 July, 1813. 

1813. W. Howley, trans, to Canterbury, Aug. 1828. 

1828. Charles James Blomfield ; resigned Oct. 1856 

(died 5 Aug. 1857). 
1856. Archibald Campbell Tait, translated to Canterbury, 

Dee. 1868. 
1869. John Jackson, from Lincoln, elected 14 Jan. (had 

consecrated 84 new churches, 1869-79), &izd- 6 

Jan. 1885. 
1885. Fred. Temple, translated from Exeter. 

LONDON BRIDGE. The first bridge said 
to have been built 994, was much injured by the 
Danes 1008 and destroyed by a flood 1091. Another 
bridge erected by command of William II., was 
burnt in 1136. The late old bridge was com- 
menced about 1 1 76, by Peter of Coleehurch, and 
completed in 1209, with houses on each side, con- 
nected together by large arches of timber which 
crossed the street. 

A fire at the Southwark end brought crowds on the 
bridge ; the houses at the north end caught Are 
likewise, and prevented their escape : and up- 
wards of 3000 persons lost their lives, being 
either killed, burned, or drowned . . July, 1212 
The bridge restored in 1300, again destroyed by fire 
in 1471 ; 13 Feb. 1632, and . . . Sept. 1725 

All the houses pulled down 1756 

Waterworks begun, 1582 ; destroyed by fire . . 1774 
The toll discontinued .... 27 March, 1782 
In 1822 the corporation advertised for designs for a 
new bridge : that by John Rennie was approved, 
and the works were executed by his sons John 
and George. The first pile was driven 200 feet to 
the west of the old bridge, 15 March, 1824 ; the 
first stone was laid by the lord mayor, alder- 
man Garratt 15 June, 1825 

The bridge opened by William IV. and his queen, 

1 Aug. 1831 
The cost was 506,000?. 

Plans for widening the bridge rejected . . . 1875 
It was computed that on 17 March, 1859, there 
passed over London-bridge 20,498 vehicles (of 
which 4483 were cabs and 4286 omnibuses), and 
167,910 persons (107,074 on foot, and 60,836 in 
vehicles). In April 1881 in one day (24 hours) 
passed over 78,943 passengers in 10,733 vehicles. 
Attempt to explode S.W. end, damage to property, 
not life ; near 6 p.m. 13 Dec. 1884, 500I. reward 
offered. 

LONDON CONFERENCE, of representa- 
tives of the chief European powers to reconcile Aus- 
tria, Prussia, and Denmark, met 25 April to 25 June, 
1864, without effect. A conference in London re- 
specting the treaty of Paris, 1856, led to a treaty 
signed 13 March, 187 1 ; see Black Sea. 
Conference respecting Egyptian affairs; earl Gran- 
ville, foreign secretary, &c, H. C. E. Childers, 
chancellor of the exchequer, met the following 
ambassadors i Count Karolyi (Austria), M. Wad- 
dington (France), count Minister (Germany), 



count Nigra (Italy), count De Staal (Russia), and 
Musurus Pasha (Turkey), 28 June, 1884; ad- 
journed without result sine die . .2 Aug. 1884 

LONDON COUNTY COUNCIL was 

constituted by the Local Government Act of 1888, 
and to it was transferred the powers, duties, 
property and debts, and liabilities, of the Metro- 
politan Board of Works (which sec). The council 
consists of 118 members, elected by the ratepayers 
of the parishes, and 19 aldermen, including a 
chairman. The old "city" retains most of its 
ancient privileges. 
The duke of Westminster first lord lieutenant 

announced 24 Oct. 1888 

First council elected ; the earl of Rosebery, sir 
John Lubbock, Mr. Benjamin Cohen, and Mr. 
Henry Clarke returned for the city (lady Sand- 
hurst and Miss Cobden elected councillors) 

7 Jan. T889 
First provisional meeting, sir John Lubbock 
chairman, 31 Jan. ; 19 aldermen elected, including 
lord Lingen, lord Hobhouse, and the earl of 
Meath, the majority progressive radicals, 5 Feb. ; 
the earl of Rosebery appointed chairman, sir 
John Lubbock vice-chairman (both unpaid), Mr. 
J. F. Bottomley Firth deputy-chairman (salary 
2000/.) 12 Feb. 1889. Mr. Firth died suddenly 
about 4 Sept. ; succeeded by Mr. Alfred H. 
Haggis (salary 1000Z.), 7 Nov. 1889 ; he died sud- 
denly . . . . . . .24 Nov. 1891 

The council entered on its duties by order of the 

local government board . . . 21 March, 1889 
The queen's bench decides on appeal of lady Sand- 
hurst that women are disqualified for election 
as councillors, 16 May, 1889 ; see Women . 1889-90 
Sir John Lubbock elected chairman to succeed the 
earl of Rosebery (resigned), 22 July ; sir Thomas 
H. Farrar, vice-chairman, 29 July ; the three 

officers re-elected 7 Nov. 1890 

The council was authorised to raise mo-iey by acts 

passed 1889-90 ; another act passed . . . 1892 
Second council elected (progressives, 83 ', moderates, 
35), 5 March ; the earl of Rosebery elected 
chairman ; Mr. John Hutton, vice-chairman ; Mr. 
Dickinson, deputy-chairman, 15 March; the earl 
of Rosebery resigns 22 June ; succeeded by Mr. 
John Hutton 12 July, ,, 

LONDONDERRY or Derry (N. Ireland), 
mentioned 546. An abbey here was burned by the 
Danes in 783. A charter was granted to the Lon- 
don companies in 1615. The town was surprised, 
and sir George Powlett, the governor, and the 
entire garrison were put to the sword by rebels, in 
1606. It was besieged by O'Neill in 1641. A grant 
was made of Deny, with 210,000 acres of land, to 
various companies in London, in 1619, when it took 
its present name. The siege of Derry by James II. 's 
army commenced 20 April, 1689. The garrison 
and inhabitants were driven to the extremity of 
famine; but under the rev. George Walker, they 
defended it until the siege was raised by gen. 
Kirke, on 30 July. James's army, under the French 
general Rosen, retired with the loss of about 9000 
men. Foyle College act passed, 1874. A grand 
iron bridge over the Eoyle, opened I Jan. 1878. 
Riots through orange opposition to the mayor of 
Dublin's visit, 31 Oct. 1883. Population 1881, 
29,162; 1891,32,893. The lord lieutenant, the earl 
of Zetland, opened the new Guildhall, 31 July, 1890. 

LONDON DIALECTICAL SOCIETY, 

see Dialectical. 

LONDON GAZETTE, sec Newspapers. 

LONDON HOSPITAL, Whitechapel, in- 
stituted Nov. 1740; for seamen, labourers, &c. 
Foundation of present building laid by adin. sir 

Peter Warren, 15 Oct. 1752 ; had 130 beds . . 1760 
The queen opened the Grocers' company's wing 

(raising number of beds to 790) . . 7 March, 1876 

Q Q 2 



LONDON INSTITUTION. 



536 



LONDON WATER SUPPLY. 



LONDON. INSTITUTION, "for the ad- 
vancement of literature and the diffusion of useful 
knowledge," in imitation of the Royal Institution, 
was founded in 1805 by sir Francis Baring, bart., 
and others, at 8, Old Jewry, Cheapside, and incor- 
porated 30 April, 1815. Prof. Poison, the first 
librarian, died 25 Sept. 1808. The present building 
in Finsbury-circus was opened on 21 April, 1819; 
the first lecture was delivered by Mr. W. T. Brande, 
on 5 May following. Mr. W. R. Grove, Q.C. 
(afterwards justice) (the inventor of the Voltaic 
battery which bears his name), was the first pro- 
fessor of experimental philosophy, 1840-6. The 
institution possesses an excellent library, lecture- 
room, and laboratory. Thomas Baring, M.P., long 
president, died 18 Nov. 1873; succeeded by Dr. 
"Warren de la Bue ; by Mr. Henry Hucks tibbs, 2 
March, 1886. 

LONDON LIBRARY (circulating), at first 
in Pall-mall, now in St. James's-square, was 
founded by lord Eliot and others, 24 June, 1840, 
and opened 1 May, 1841. The latest catalogues were 
printed in 1875-88. 

LONDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY, es- 
tablished 1795. In 1878 there were 151 European, 
and 543 ordained native missionaries : receipts in 
1887, 105,382/; 1891, 114,293/. 

LONDON MUNICIPAL BILL, intro- 
duced by sir W. Harcourt, 8 April ; withdrawn, 
10 July, 1884. 

The corporation of London was to be so extended as to 
comprehend the whole Metropolitan area ; common 
council, (240 members) elected triennally by burgesses 
of 39 districts, to be sole governing body, and to com- 
bine functions of existing corporation, Metropolitan 
Board of Works, and other local authorities ; and to 
elect annually a Lord Mayor and Deputy Mayor ; and 
to control all local affairs except Poor Law Administra- 
tion, Education, and Police. 
Common council adopt a scheme, for creation of nine 
municipal corporations in addition to that of London, 
5 Nov. ; published in Times, 6 Nov. 1885. 
For opposition to the London municipal bill, see 
London, 21 May, 1887. 

LONDON MUNICIPAL REFORM, a 

league was founded 10 March, 1881, to promote 
one representative municipal government for the 
metropolis ; meetings were held in Oct. 1881 ; 
chairman of council, Mr. J. F. B. Firth, M.P. for 
Chelsea. Annual meetings are held. 

LONDON PARKS AND WORKS ACT, 

placed Battersea Park, Kennington Park, Bethnal 
Green Museum Gardens, Chelsea Embankment, 
and Victoria Park, under the direction of the 
Metropolitan Board of Works, 1887. 

LONDON PHILANTHROPIC SO- 
CIETY was founded 1841, to supply bread and 
coal to the poor. 

LONDON RAILWAYS, principal exten- 
sions and branches incorporated. 
London and Blaekwall, 1836 ; London, Brighton, and 
South Coast, 1846 ; London, Chatham and Dover, 
1853 I London and Greenwich opened 1838 ; London 
and North-Western (formed out of the London and 
Birmingham, Grand Junction and Manchester and 
Birmingham), 1846 ; London and South- Western (and 
Southampton till 1839), opened 1840 ; acts consoli- 
dated, 1855 ; Metropolitan, 1854 ; Metropolitan Dis- 
trict, 1864 ; Midland, 1844 ; North London, 1846 
South Eastern, 1836. 

LONDON SACRED HARMONIC SO- 
CIETY, formed after the dismissal of Mr. Sur- 
man, conductor of the Sacred Harmonic Society 
6 March, 1848 ; gave last concert, 22 Dec. 1856. 

LONDON SALVAGE CORPS, maintained 
by the Insurance Companies, established 1866. 



LONDON SCHOOL BOARD, see Edu- 
cation, 1870, et seq. 

LONDON STEAMER, see Wrecks, fee., 11 
Jan. 1866. 

LONDON STONE. A stone said to have 
been placed by the Romans in Cannon-street, then 
the centre of the city, 15 B.C. London stone was 
known before the time of "William I. It was re- 
moved from the opposite side of the way in 1742 ; 
and again moved to its present position in the wall 
of St. S with in' s church, 1798. It was against this 
stone that Jack Cade is traditionally said to have 
struck his sword, exclaiming "Now is Mortimer 
lord of this city ! " 1450. 

LONDON, UNIVERSITY OF. The "Lon- 
don university " was founded by the exertions of lord 
Brougham, Thomas Campbell, sir Isaac L. Goldsmid, 
and others; thedeed of settlement dated II Feb. 1826. 
The building was commenced 30 April, 1827 (when the 
first stone was laid by the duke of Sussex) ; and 
was opened by an inaugural lecture from professor 
Bell, 1 Oct. 1828. On 28 Nov. 1836, two charters 
were granted: by one the "London university" 
was changed to "University college," and by the 
other the University of London was established, 
with a chancellor and other officers. New charters 
were granted to the latter on 5 Dec. 1837 and 21 
April, 1858. It has power to grant degrees to 
students of the universities of the united kingdom, 
and of many collegiate establishments; and to 
women, by a supplemental charter, 1878. Its offices 
were long in Burlington-house, Piccadilly, London. 
The university was enfranchised by the Reform 
act of 1867, and Robert Lowe was elected the first 
M.P. 17 Nov. 1868 ; succeeded by sir John Lubbock, 
June, 1880. The new buildings in Burlington- 
gardens, erected by Mr. Pennethorne, were inaugu- 
rated by the queen 11 May, 1870. Chancellors : earl 
of Burlington (aft. duke of) Devonshire, 1836; earl 
Granville, 1856 (died 31 March, 1891) ; earl of 
Derby, April, 1891. University Sail, Gordon- 
square, was founded in 1847. University College, 
new buildings opened, Oct. 1880. A scheme for 
establishing a teaching university of London, with 
four faculties (arts, laws, science and medicine) 
set forth at the Society of Arts, by lord Reay, and 
others, 15 Dec. 1884, and 5 Feb. 1885. 
The report of the royal commission on the subject 
appointed in 1888 — Lord Selborne, sir George 
Stokes, sir Wm. Thomson, sir James Hannen, Dr. 
Ball, and Mr. Welldon — recommends that a 
teaching university for London should be pro- 
vided by the improvement and extension of the 
university of London .... May, 1889 
Another scheme propounded by the senate of the 
university of London, Feb. ; not approved by the 
colleges, March ; rejected by the convocation 

(461-197) 12 May, 1S91 

University college issues an appeal to the public 
for additional funds (50,000?.) to enable it to 

carry on its work 24 Jan. ,, 

Royal commission to consider the charter of the 
proposed teaching university in and for London, 
nominated : earl Cowper, chairman, lord Reay, 
bishop Barry, sir Lyon Playfair, Dr. J. S. Burdon 
Sanderson, and 8 others, 25 April ; met . 2 June, 1892 

LONDON WATER SUPPLY. 

Metropolitan Board of Works undertook to supply 
water from the Chalk, and also from the Thames 
above Teddington, with two sets of pipes, for 
12,000,000/. ........ 1878 

Negotiations with the water companies by Mr. 
Smith, begun Oct. 1879 ; annuities proposed to 
he given to the companies, 29,734,281/., with ad- 
ditional payments making in all a capital payment 
of 33,018,836/., yearly interest to be paid by the 
consumers, 1,240,673/. 



LONE STAR. 



597 



LONGITUDE. 



London Water Supply Commission (sir William 
Harcourt, chairman) appointed 3 June, reported 
recommending water supply to be placed under 
control of some responsible public body (or Water 
Trust) to be created ; non-acceptance of Mr. 
Smith's proposal ; that the undertakings of exist- 
ing companies be purchased upon fair and reason- 
able terms, if not, the endeavour to obtain an 
independent supply, signed . . .3 Aug. 1880 
See Dobbs' case, trials, 30 Nov. 1883. 

Metropolitan wacer bill, checking the systems of 
the Companies rejected in the commons (197-152) 

11 March, 1884 

LONE STAR, a secret society formed in 1848, 
in Alabama and other southern states of the North 
American Union, for the " extension of the institu- 
tions, power, influence, and commerce of the 
United States over the whole of the western hemi- 
sphere, and the islands of the Atlantic and Pacific 
oceans." The first acquisitions to be made by the 
order were Cuba and the Sandwich Islands. The 
knowledge of the existence of this society reached 
England in Aug. 1852. 

LONG ISLAND or FlATBUSH (N. America), 
Battle of, 27 Aug. 1776, between the British troops 
under sir William Howe, and the revolted Ameri- 
cans, who suffered a severe defeat, alter a well- 
fought action, losing 2000 men killed and wounded 
and IOOO prisoner?. 

LONGEVITY. Methuselah died, aged 969, 
2349 B.C. (Gen. v. 27). Golour M'Crain of the Isle 
of Jura, one of the Hebrides, is mythically said to 
have kept 180 Christmases in his own house, and died 
in the reign of Charles I. "In 1014 died Johannes 
de Temporibus, who lived 361 years (!)" Stow. 
Thomas Parr, a labouring man of Shropshire, was 
brought to London by the earl of Arundel, in 1635, 
and said to be in his 153rd year and in perfect 
health.; he died 15 Nov. 111 the same year. Henry 
Jenkins, of Yorkshire, died in 1670, and was buried 
in Bolton churchyard, 6 Dec. aged 169 years (?) The 
researches of sir G. Uornewall Lewis, professor 
Owen, Mr. Wm. J. Thorns (in his " Human Longe- 
vity," May, 1873) anu others, have disproved many 
alleged cases of longevity ; and few statements 
of lives extending much beyond a century can be 
relied on. There were no records of baptism till 
the 16th century. In last decade about 800 alleged 
centenarians registered ; 204 men. LVaths of 25 
men and 66 women aged above 100 registered in 
1881. See Abstinence. 

Alleged instances (most of them evidently false). 
Died. Aged. 

1656. James Bowles, Killingworth . . . . 153 

1691. Lady Eccleston, Ireland 143 

1759. James Sheil, Irish yeoman 136 

1766. Colonel Thomas Winslow, Ireland . . . 146 

1772. Mrs. Clum, Lichfield 138 

1774. William Beeby, Dungarvan (an ensign who 
served at the battles of the Boyne and Augh- 

rim) 130 

1780. Robert Mao Bride, Hemes 130 

,, Mr. William Ellis, Liverpool .... 130 

1785. Cardinal de Solis no 

1797. Charles Macklin, actor, London . . . . 107 

1806. Mr. Creeke, of Thurlow 125 

Catherine Lopez, of Jamaica . . . . 134 

1813. Mrs. Meighan, Uonoughmore .... 130 

1814. Mary Innes, Isle of Skye 127 

1816. Jane Lewson, Coldbath-fields, Clerkcnwell . 116 
1840. Mi's. Martha Rorke, of Dromore, county of 

Kildare, 27 Aug 133 

1S53. Mrs. Mary Power (aunt of Rd. Lalor Shiel), 

Ursuline convent, Cork, 20 March . . . 116 
1S58. James Nolan, Knockardrane, Carlow . . . 116 

1874. Anthony Beresford (born 8 Feb. 1772) died at 

Alstonlield, 3 March, autlientic . . . 101 

1875. Count Jean Fred. Waldeck, painter ; born at 

Prague, 16 March, 1766 ; died at Paris, 29 
April, 1875 109 



Died. Aged. 

1875. Jacob Wm. Liming, at Morden college . . 103 

1876. Madame Hulsenstein, said to have been maid 

of honour to the empress Maria Theresa . .119 
,, Elizabeth Abbott, Ipswich, said to be . . 105 

1877. Pleasance, widow of sir James E. Smith, bo- 

tanist, (b. n May, 1773 ; d. 3 Feb. 1877) . 103 
,, Eunice Bagster, wife of Samuel, Bible book- 
seller, London, zi Aug. .... 100 
187S. Thomas Budgen, Spitalfields, London 4 Aug. 104 

1879. Jane Hooper, St. Pancras, London . . . 102 
,, Rev. Canon Beadon, Stoneham . . . . 102 
,, Margaret Crook, Durham 112 

1880. Sarah Way, Bristol .... 104! 
,, Johannette Polack (born Genth) ; Wiesbaden 

101 and 5 months 

1881. Martha Gardner, Liverpool, 10 March 104 and 5 

months 
,, Fanny Bailey, Worthing, 6 April . . . 103^ 
,, Annie Webb, sister of Sir Joseph Maxwell, Aug. 102 
,, Jane Pinkerton, of Lower Crumpsall, Man- 
chester, (born 10 June, 1774) died 5 Oct. . 107 
,, Archibald M' Arthur, Dunoon, born 1777 . 104 

1882. James Smith, St. Mary Cray, born 1777 

died* 27 Nov. aged nearly 105 
„ Thomas Bramley, Ilkeston, Derby, born 

29 Dec. 1777, died Dec. .... 105 

1883. Betty Morgan, Garth in Wales, died 26 Feb. 107 
,, Stephen Lewes, Southampton, died May . . 106 

1884. Rhoda Dunn, Hunstanton, Norfolk . . 103 

1855. Sir Moses Montefiore, Ramsgate, died 28 July, iooj 
„ Mrs. Townsend, Faringdon, Berkshire, died 

29 May 102 

1856. Miss Joanna Hastings (aunt of G. W. Hastings, 

M.P.), Great Malvern (born 14 March, 1782), 

died 12 March 103- 

,, Richard Holmes, Heathfield, Sussex, died 

5 May 107 

,, Sarah Marshall, Nantyglo, Wales, died 6 Aug. . 107 
,, W. Nicholson, Wenden, Essex, died 15 Dec. . 103 

1887. Miss Jane Gibson, Glasgow, died Dec. . . 102^ 
,, The death of 31 alleged centenarians reported 

in 1887. 

1888. M. Dimitrios Antippa died Jan. . . 115 (?)• 

,, Caroline Heathorne, died 3 Feb 104;. 

„ Pattison Jolly, Dublin, died 5 Feb. . . 104 

,, Thomas Eggleston, West Virginia, IT. S., died 

3 May 111J 

1889. Mrs. R. Chapman, Lewes, died March . . 105 
,, Eugene Chevreul, Paris, 9 April . . . 102 
,, Mrs. Catherine Voss, Shortlands, died 17 July 104. 
,, Madame Poulaillon, or Roux, at Toulouse, 

died Nov. 106 

1890. Mr. Edward Grubb, Bristol, died about 1 July 109 

1891. Ann Telford, at Maryport, died 3 March . . in 
,, Mrs. Ann Starling, Birmingham, died 30 Sept. 103 

1892. Magdalen Ponsa, at Vienna, died 4 Feb. . .117 

EXAMPLES FURNISHED BY DR. J. WEBSTER, r.R.S. 

(unautlienticated) 
Died. Buried at Aged. 

1652. Dr. W. Meade, Ware, Herts .... 148J 
1711. Mrs. Scrimshaw, Rosemary-lane . . . 127 
1739. Margaret Patten, Christehurch, Westminster . 136 
1741. John Rovin, Temeswar, Hungary . . . 172 
1757. Alexander M'Culloch, Aberdeen . . . 132 
1759. Donald Cameron, Rannach, Aberdeenshire . 130 

1763. Mrs. Taylor, Piccadilly 131 

1766. John Mount, Langham, Dumfries . . . 136 

,, John Hill, Leadhills, near Edinburgh . . . 130 

1771. Mr. Whalley, Rotherhithe . . . .121 

1775. Widow Jones, Campbell 125 

1780. Mr. Evans, Spitalfields 139 

1784. Mary Cameron, Braemar, Aberdeen . . . 129 
1791. Archbd. Cameron, Keith, Aberdeenshire . . 122 
1851. Jean Golembeski, Hotel de's Iuvalides, Paris . 126 

LONGITUDE, determined by Hipparchus, at 
Nice, who fixed the first degree in the Canaries, 
162 B.C. Harrison made a time-keeper, in a.d. 
!759i which in two voyages was found to correct 
the longitude within the limits required by the act 
of parliament 12 Anne, 1714; and obtained the 
reward; see Harrison's Timepiece. The chrono- 
meters of Arnold, Eamshaw, and Breguet, are 
highly esteemed. Chronometers are now received 
on trial at Greenwich Observatory. The actrelatin 



LONGMANS MAGAZINE. 



598 



LOEDS, HOUSE OF. 



to the discovery of the longitude at sea was repealed 
in 1828. The Bureau des Longitudes at Paris was 
established in 1795. 

LONGMAN'S MAGAZINE first published 
(to replace " Frazer's"), Nov. 1882. 

LONGOBARDI, see Lombardy. 

LONG PARLIAMENT met 3 Nov. 1640; 
was forcibly dissolved by Cromwell 20 April, 1653. 

LONGWOOD, in St. Helena (S. Atlantic 
Ocean), the residence of the emperor Napoleon from 
10 Dec. 1815 till bis death, 5 May, 1821. 

LONGWY (N.E. France), a frontier town, 
was taken by the allied army of Austrians and 
Prussians, 23 Aug. 1792, the beginning of the great 
war. It was again taken 18 Sept. 18 15. After a 
bombardment it surrendered to the Germans, 25 
Jan. 1871. 

LOOCHOO ISLES; N. Pacific; long nomi- 
nally subject to Japan ; with a nearly independent 
king. Disputes between China and Japau respect- 
ing them, 1879 ; the isles annexed by Japan, 1879. 

LOOKING-GLASSES, see Mirrors. 

LOOM: was used by the Egyptians. Theweaver's 
otherwise called the Dutch loom, was brought into use 
in London from Holland, about 1676. There were, in 
1825, about 250,000 hand-looms in Great Britain, 
and 75,000 power-looms, each being equal to three 
hand-looms, making twenty-two yards each per 
■day. The steam-loom was introduced in 1807 ; see 
Cotton, Electric-loom, Jacquard, Pneumatic-loom. 

LOOSHAIS, a predatory nomadic Indian 
tribe, about 300 miles east of Calcutta. They fre- 
quently robbed the British tea plantations, killing 
the planters and carrying off their children. An 
expedition to chastise them was successful, Dec. 187 1 . 

LORD, see Lady. "When printed in the Eng- 
glish Bible in small capitals Lord stands for Jeho- 
vah, the self-existing God, the name first revealed 
to Moses, 1491 B.C. Exod. vi. 3. "When Lord is in 
ordinary type, it represesents A.donai, lord or 
master. 

LORD ADVOCATE, CHAMBERLAIN, 
CHANCELLOR, &c., see Advocate, Chamber- 
lain, Chancellor, &c. 

LORD MAYOR, see Mayors. 

LORD'S DAY ACT, 29 Chas. II. c. 7, see 
Sabbath. 

LORD'S SUPPER, instituted by Jesus Christ 
{Matt. xxvi. 17), 33, see Sacrament and Transub- 
stantiation. 

LORDS.* The nobility of England date their 
creation from 1066, when William Fitz-Osborn is 
said to have been made earl of Hereford by Wil- 
liam I. ; and afterwards Walter d'Evreux, earl of 
Salisbury; Copsi, earl of Northumberland; Henry 
de Ferrers, earl of Derby ; and Gherbod (a Fleming) 
earl of Chester. Twenty-two other peers were made 
in this sovereign's reign. The first peer created by 
patent was lord Beauchamp of Holt Castle, by 
.Richard II. in 1387. In Scotland, Gilchrist was 



* Peers of England are free from all arrests of debts, as 
being the king's hereditary counsellors ; therefore a x'eer 
cannot be outlawed in any civil action, and no attach- 
ment lies against his person ; but execution may be taken 
upon his lands and goods. For the same reason, they 
are free from all attendance at courts leet or sheriffs' 
turns ; or, in case of a riot, from attending the 2'osse 
comitates. He can act as a justice of the peace in any 
s.t of the kingdom. See Baron, Earl, &o. 



created earl of Angus by Malcolm III. 1037. In 
Ireland, sir John de Courcy was created baron of 
Kingsale, &c, in 1181; the first peer after the 
obtaining of that kingdom by Henry II. 

LORDS, HOUSE OF. T^ie peers of England 

were summoned ad eoiisulendiim, to consult, in early 
reigns, and by writ, 6 & 7 John, 1205 ; but the 
earliest writ extant is 49 Hen. III. 1265. The 
commons did not form a part of the great council of 
the nation until some ages after the conquest ; see 
Parliament. The house of lords in eludes the spiritual 
as well as temporal peers of Great Britain. The 
bishops are supposed to hold certain ancient baronies 
under the kins;, in right whereof they have seats in 
this house. Some of the temporal lords sit by de- 
scent, and some by creation : others by election, 
since the union with Scotland in 1 707, and with 
Ireland, 1801. — Scotland elects 16 representative 
peers, and Ireland, 28 temporal peers for life. The 
house of lords in Jan. 1892, consisted of 6 princes of 
the blood, 2 archbishops, 20 dukes, 21 marquises, 
138 earls, 31 viscounts, 313 barons, and 24 bishops ; 
in all, 555. 

House of lords at death of Charles II. 1685 . 176 peers. 

,, ,, Will. III. 1702 . 192 

,, ,, Anne, 1714 . . 209 

„ ,, Geo. I. 1727 . . 216 

,, ,, Geo. II. 1760 . . 229 

,, „ Geo. III. 1820 . 339 

,, ,, Geo. IV. 1830 . . 396 

Will. IV. 1837 . 456 

In the 18th Vict. 1855 . . - . . . 448 

,, 24th Vict, i860 462 

,, 32nd Vict. 1868 464 

,, 39th Vict. 1876 494 

„ 41st Vict. 1878 501 

The king, barons, and clergy enact the constitutions 

of Clarendon in 1164 

Obtain Magna Charta in 1215 

Held the government 1264-5 

House of lords abolished by the commons, 6 Feb. 1649 

,, ,, met again, . . .25 April, ,, 
Unite with the commons in making William and 

Mary king and queen 1689 

Reject the great reform bill, 7 Oct. 1831 ; pass it, 

4 June, 1832 
The parliament house destroyed by fire . 16 Oct. 1834 
Take possession of their new house . 15 April, 1847 

Oppose successfully the creation of life peerages,* 

7 Feb. t8s6 
Voting by proxy abolished by standing order, 

31 March, 1868 
New regulations respecting committees 2 April, ,, 
Six new peers were gazetted . . 17 April, ,, 

Bankrupt peers not to sit or vote, decided 10 Feb. ; 

settled by act 13 July, 1871 

That peers cannot vote for M. P. 's affirmed by court 

of common pleas on appeal . . . 15 Nov. 1872 
Two peers for life may be created by her majesty as 

lords of apjieal in ordinary, to aid the house of 

lords ; as a court of ultimate appeal (see Supreme 

Court). 
Lords Blackburn and Gordon created peers for life 

5 Oct. 1876 
Entitled to sit and vote in parliament while appeal 

judges ; first sitting .... 21 Nov. ,, 

Lord Rayleigh (said to be) the first peer elected a 

professor of physics (at Cambridge) 12 Dec. 1879 ; 

Royal Institution, London .... 1887 
Proposed abolition of the hereditary principle 

negatived (202-166) in the commons, 5 March, 

1886 ; (223-162) 9 March, 1888 ; (201-160) 17, 18 

May, 1889; (201-139) ... 21 March 1890 

* Peerage for life only, with the title f lord Wensleydale 
of Wensleydale, was granted to baron sir James Parke, 
10 Jan. 1856 ; the house of lords opposed his sitting and 
voting as a peer for life, and on 25 Jul} 7 , 1856, he was 
created a peer in the usual way, with the title of lord 
Wensleydale of Walton. He died in 1868. A bill for 
creating life peerages was read a second time in the lords 
27 April, 1869, but afterwards rejected. 



LOEDS JUSTICES. 



599 



LOUEENCO MAEQUES. 



Lord Blackburn having resigned, permitted to sit 
by appellate jurisdiction act .... 1887 

The earl of Rosebery's motion for a committee to 
consider reform of the house of lords rejected 
(97-50) 19 March, 1888 

Lord Dunraven's bill for reforming the constitution 
of the house of lords withdrawn on the promise 
of the government dealing with the question 

26 April, ,, 

Marquis of Salisbury's bill for creation of life peers 
and exclusion of those whom he termed "black 
sheep " read first time 18 June ; second time 10 
July ; dropped July, ,, 

The lords of appeal are peers for life (see under 
Appeals). 

LOEDS JUSTICES, see Justices and Appeal. 

LOEDS LIEUTENANTS, see Lieutenants 
and Ireland. 

LOEDS OF THE PALE, see Pale. 

LOEENZO MAEQUEZ, see Zourenco. 

LOEETTO, near Ancona, Italy. Here is the 
Casa Santa, or Holy House, in which it is pretended 
the Virgin Mary lived at Nazareth, and said to have 
been carried by angels into Dalmatia from Galilee 
in 1291, and brought here a few years after. The 
lady of Loretto, gaudily dressed, stands upon an 
altar holding the infant Jesus in her arms, sur- 
rounded with gold lamps. Loretto was taken by the 
French in 1797; the holy image, which had been 
carried to France, was brought back with pomp, 5 
Jan. 1803. 

L'OEIENT (W. France). Lord Bridport off 
this port defeated the French fleet, 23 June, 1795. 
The loss of the French was severe - that of the 
British inconsiderable. — The French flag-ship, 
L'Okiext, blew up during the battle of the Nile, I 
Aug. 1798. Admiral Brueys and about 900 men 
perished. 

LOEEAINE (Lotharingia), formerly a French 
now a German province, became a kingdom under 
Lothaire (son of the emperor Lothaire I.) about 
85; ; and was divided at his death, in 869, part of 
it being made a duchy. From the first hereditary 
duke, Gerard, nominated by the emperor Henry III. 
in 1048, descended the house of Lorraine, repre- 
sented now by the emperor of Austria, whose ances- 
tor, the empress Maria Theresa, married in 1736 
Francis formerly duke of Lorraine, then of Tuscany. 
Lorraine, given to the dethroned king of Poland, 
Stanislaus L, for life, was, at his death in 1766, 
united to France ; see Nancy. Lorraine was the seat 
of war in Aug. 1870, and about the fifih part, in- 
eluding Metz and Thionville, was annexed to 
Germany at the peace, 26 Feb. 1871. 

LOTS- Casting lots, as an appeal to God, was 
eacred among the Jews, Proverbs xvi. 33. It was 
employed in the division of the land of Canaan, 
about 1444 B.C., by Joshua (xiv.), and in the elec- 
tion of Matthias the apostle, a.d. 33, Acts i. — Lots 
for life or death have been frequently cast. For an 
instance, see Wales, 1649, note. 

LOTTEEIES are said to have originated in 
Florence about 1530, and to have been legalised in 
France in 1539, and soon became common. They 
were prohibited by pope Benedict XIII. (1724-30), 
and sanctioned by Clement XII. (1730-40). See 
Art Union under Arts and .Paris (exhibition 1889). 
The first mentioned in English history took 
place, day and night, at the western door of 
St. Paul's cathedral It contained 40,000 " lots " 
at ios. each lot, the profits were for repairing the 
harbours, and the prizes were pieces of plate, 

11 Jan. -6 May, 1569 



A lottery, granted by the king, in favour of the 
colony of Virginia (prizes, pieces of plate), drawn 
near St. Paul's ... 29 June-20 July, 1612 
First lottery for sums of money took place in . . 1630 
Lotteries established (for more than 130 years 

yielded a large annual revenue to the crown) . . 1693 
Lotteiy for the British Museum .... 1753 
Cox's museum, containing many rare specimens of 

art, disposed of by lottery ..... 1773 
An act passed for the sale of the buildings of the 
Adelphi by lottery . . . . 16 June, „ 

Irish state lottery drawn 178° 

Lottery for the Leverian Museum . . . 1784-5 
For the Pigott diamond, permitted, Jan. 2, 1801 ; it 
was afterwards sold at Christie's auction for 9500 

guineas ■ • 10 May, 1802 

For the collection of pictures of alderman Boydell, 

by act 1804-5 

Lotteries abolished by 6 Geo. IV. c. 60, Oct. ; the 

last drawn 18 Oct. 1826 

Act passed declaring that the then pending Glasgow 

lottery should be the last 1834 

A.11 act passed imposing a penalty of 50I. for adver- 
tising lotteries in the newspapers .... 1836 
Lotteries suppressed in France . . 1793 an( i 1836 
Mr. DethierV twelfth-cake lottery, Argyll-rooms, 

Hanover-square, suppressed . . .27 Dec. i860 
Twelve million national lottery tickets of one franc 
each, sold at Paris to pay for prizes to exhibitors, 
and expenses of working men visitors, 1878; 1st 
prize worth 5,000!., 2nd, 4,000?., 3rd and 4th 
2,oooZ. ; total 230,000 rewards. Drawing began 

26 Jan. 1879 

LOUDON-HILL, orDRTJMCLOG; see Drum- 
clog. 

LOUIS-D'OE, a French gold coin of 24 francs, 
first struck bv Louis XIII. in 1640; it was not 
legal, 1795-1814; superseded by the Napoleon, 
1810. 

LOUISIANA (N. America), one of the United 
States ; discovered by Ferdinand de Soto, 1541 ; 
traversed by M. de Salle, 1682 ; settled by Louis 
XIV. (from whom it derived its name), about 1698. 
It formed the basis of Law's Mississippi scheme, 
1717. It was ceded to Spain when all east of the 
Mississippi was given to England, 1763. Capital, 
Baton Kouge; commercial capital, New Orleans. 
Population, 1880,939,946; 1890, 1,118,587. 

Restored to France 1801 

Sold to the Americans, 1803 ; and made a state . 1812 
Gen. Jackson defeated the British at New Orleans, 

8 Jan. 1815 
Seceded from the Union by ordinance . 25 Jan. 1861 
Adni. Farragut takes New Orleans for the Federals, 

28 April, 1862 
ouisiana restored to the Union .... 1865 
The state disturbed by factions and civil war : at 

Grant parish many negroes massacred 11 April, 1873 
See jSicw Orleans and Mississippi. 

LOUIS, St., commercial capital of the Missis- 
sippi valley. Founded by the French in 1764. 
Population 'in 1870, 310,864; 1880,350,518; 1890, 
451,770. See Mauritius. 

LOUISVILLE, chief commercial town in 
Kentucky, U.S., founded 1773; named after Louis 
X\ I., France, 1780. The town suffered greatly by 
a tornado, 27 March, 1890, when about 93 persons 
perished; see Storms. Great fires and explosion, 
about 25 persons perished, 8, 9 Dee. 1891. Popula- 
tion, 1880, 123,758; 1890, 161,129. 

LOUEDES, Hautes Pyrenees, S. France, see 
France, 1872- 1875. 

LOUEENCO MAEQUES. a Portuguese 
settlement, E. 'coast of Africa. In May, 1879, a 
treaty was agreed to permitting a railway to be 
made' to the Transvaal territory. Its ratification 
was opposed in the chambers at Lisbon in 1881, and 
led to a change of ministry. See Portugal, 1881, 
and Del agon Bug. 



LOTJVKE. 



600 



LUGDUNUM. 



LOUVRE, in Paris, is said to have been a royal 
residence in the reign of Dagobert, 628. It was a 
prison-tower constructed by Philippe Augustus in 
1204. It afterwards became a library, and Charles 
VI. made it his palace (about 1364). The new 
buildings, begun by Francis I. in 1528, were enlarged 
and adorned by successive kings, particularly Louis 
XIV. — Napoleon I. turned it into a museum, and 
deposited in it the finest collection of paintings, sta- 
tue^, and treasures of art known in the world. The 
chief of those brought from Italy have since been 
restored to the rightful possessors. The magnificent 
buildings of the new Louvre, begun bj- .Napoleon I. 
and completed by Napoleon III., were inaugurated 
by the latter in great state, 14 Aug. 1857. The 
library was destroyed and other buildings much 
injured by the communists, May, 1871. 

LOVE FEASTS, see Agapm. 

LOW COUNTRIES, the PaysBas, now Hol- 
land and Belgium (which see) . 

LOWER EMPIRE. Some historians make 
it begin with the reign of Valerian, 253 ; others 
with that of Constantine, 323. 

LOWERING BOAT APPARATUS, see 

Life-boats. 

LOW SUNDAY, the first Sunday after Easter, 
said to derive its name from the inferiority of its 
solemnities to those of Easter Sunday ; see Easter. 

LOYAL AND PATRIOTIC UNION, 

see Ireland, 1886. 

LOYALISTS, a term applied to the Royalist 
party during the American war of 1775-83, and to 
the supporters of the Union in Ireland in 1883. 

LOYALTY LOANS were raised during the 
revolutionary wars. The term was applied to one 
opened in London 5 Dec. 1796; in fifteen hours and 
twenty minutes the sum of eighteen millions sterling 
was subscribed ; see National Association. 

LUBBOCK'S ACT, Sir John, see Bank Holi- 
days' Act. 

LUBECK, a city in N. Germany, one of the 
four republics of the German confederation, was 
built in the I2th century, and was chief founder of 
the Hanseatic league about 1240, which lasted till 
1630. Lubeck was -declared a free imperial city 
about 1226 ; but was frequently attacked by the 
Danes. The French took it by assault, 6 N r . 
1806, and Napoleon incorporated it with his em r .rs 
in 1810. On his fall in 1814 it became once more a 
free imperial city. It joined the North German 
confederation 18 Aug. 1866. Population in 187 1, 
52,158; in 1880, 63,571; in 1885, 67,658; I890, 
76,485. 

LUCANIANS, a warlike people of S. Italy, 
defeated Alexander of Epirus at Pandosia, 332 B.C. ; 
were subdued by the Romans, 272 ; revolted after 
the battle of Cannse, 216; were reduced by Scipio, 
201 ; again revolted, 90 ; admitted as Roman citi- 
zens, 88. 

LUCCA (central Italy), a Roman colony, 177 
B.C. ; a Lombard duchy, a.d. 1327; a free city about 
1370 ; took an active part in the civil wars of the 
Italian republics. It was united with Tuscany, and 
given as a principality to Eliza Bonaparte by her 
brother Napoleon I., 1805. Lucca, as a duchy, was 
given to Maria Louisa, widow of Louis, king of 
Etruria, in 1814. It was exchanged by her son 
Charles-Louis for Parma and Plaeentia" in 1847 ; 
was annexed to Tuscany, and with it became part 
of the kingdom of Italy, in i860. 



LUCERNE (Switzerland) became independent 
in 1332, and joined the confederation. The city 
Lucerne is said to derive its name from a light 
(lucerna) set up to guide travellers. It dates from 
the 8th century, and was subject to the abbots- 
of Murbach, who surrendered it to the house of 
Hapsburg. It was taken by the French in March, 
1798, and was for a short time capital of the Hel- 
vetic republic ; which, as the focus of insurrection 
against the French, was suppressed Oct. 1802. As 
a catholic canton, Lucerne was very active on 
behalf of education by the Jesuits, 1844 ; see Swit- 
zerland. Population, 1888 : canton, 135,360 ; city, 
20,314. 

LUCIA, ST. (West Indies), first settled by 
the Knglish, 1639; expelled by the natives; settled 
by French in 1650 ; taken by the British severaS 
times in the subsequent wars. Insurrection of 
the Fiench negroes, April, 1795. St. Lucia was 
restor. d to France at the peace of 1802 ; but was 
seized by England, 1803, and confirmed to her in 
1814. Population in 1871, 31,811 : 710 whites. In 
1880,38,265; 1891,41,713; see Windward Isles. 

LUCIFER MATCHES .came into use about 
1834. Friction matches were invented by Walker 
of Stockton-on-Tees, 1829. In March, 1842, Idr. 
R uben Partridge patented machinery for manu- 
facturing the splints. In 1845, Schrotter of 
Viem a produced his amorphous phosphorus (by 
heating ordinary phosphorus in a gas which it 
cannot absorb), by the use of which lucifers are 
rendered less dangerous, and the manufacture less 
unhealthy. Phosphoros (Greek) and lucifer (Latin), 
both signify light-bearer. 

Mr. Lowe's proposed tax on lucifers (with " e luce. 
lucellum, " on the box) was much opposed and with- 
drawn, April, 1871. For their exertions, a drinking 
fountain at Bow was inaugurated as a memorial to 
Bryant and May, 5 Oct. 1872 The match manufacture 
was made a monopoly in France in Oct. 1872, for 
750,000!. 

Strike of women and girls at Bryant and May's, assisted 
by socialists, 5-17 July, 1888. 

The Swedish match company formed in 1888 reported 
unsuccessful, 6 March, 1889. 

The manufacture in France became a state mono- 
poly 1 Jan. 1890 

LUCIGEN, fl strong light for open-air work, 
produced by apparatus invented by Lyle and 
Hannay. The fuel is hydro-carbon oil and com- 
pressed air. It was tried at the King's Cross 
Station, Dec. 1885, and has been employed on the 
Forth Bridge Works. Exhibited at the Crystal 
Palace, 14 Sept. 1887. 
Messrs. F. Braby & Co. patent a light created by a 

combination of heated oil, water and compressed air. 

The light said to be equal to 2,500 candles. It is 

intended to light public works and large areas, 

Oct. 1888. 

LUCKNOW, the capital of Oude, since 1675 ; 
see Oude, and India, 1857. Visit of prince of 
Wales, Jan. 1876. 

LUDDITES. Large parties of men under this 
designation, derived from Ned Lud, an idiot, who 
once broke some frames in a passion, commenced 
depredations at Nottingham, breaking frames and 
machinery, Nov. 181 1. Skirmish with the military 
there, 29 Jan. 1812. Serious riots occurred again 
in 1814; and numerous bodies of unemployed arti- 
sans committed great excesses in 1816 e t seq. Several 
of thi se Luddites were tried and executed, 1813 and 
1818; see Derby. 

LUGDUNUM. see Leyden and Lyons. 



LUMINOUS PAINT. 



601 



LUTHERANISM. 



LUMINOUS PAINT, invented by Mr. W. 
H. Balmain, of University College, London ; 
patented by Ihlee and Home, of London. 

Phosphorescent materials ; lime and sulphur mixed 
with oil or water; clock-faces, statues, <fcc., painted 
with this mixture, exposed to light, remain luminous 
for some time. Besides domestic uses, it is applied to 
military purposes. 

LUNAR SOCIETY, Birmingham, about 1780. 
The members, Joseph Priestley, James Watt, Eras- 
mus Darwin, Dr. Withering, and others, met near 
the full of the moon, to discuss philosophy and 
politics. 

LUNATICS. Insanity (defined by sir fra. 
Hamilton as " the paralysis of the regulating or 
legislating faculties of the mind "). 
" The king shall have the custody of the lands of 
natural fools," &c, 17 Edw. II. . . . . 1324 

Marriages with lunatics declared void, 15 Geo. II. 
c. 30 ........ . 1742 

Others were made in . ... 1774 and 1828 

Act regarding criminal lunatics passed . Aug. 1840 
Lunacy act, 8 & 9 Vict. c. 100, passed . . . 1845 
The numerous laws respecting lunatics were con- 
solidated and amended by 16 & 17 Vict. cc. 70, 96, 



97 



A new lunacy act for Scotland passed . . . 18 

An act to amend the law relating to commissions of 
lunacy passed (said to be in consecpience of the 
Wyndham case ; see Trials, 1862) . . . .18 
A parliamentary committee, reports favourably of 

the present system of custody of lunatics . .18 
Lunacy Regulation act amended . . . . 18 

A trial of Lunatics act passed . . . 25 Aug. 18 
A stringent Lunacy bill introduced by lord chan- 
cellor Selborne, 26 March, 1885 ; re-introduced 
by lord chancellor Herschell, 1 March, 1886 ; 
passed by the lords, 1 April, 1887 ; another bill 
introduced ; dropped .... 10 July, 1888 
11,954 lunatics in charge in Scotland . . 1 Jan. 1889 
Lunacy acts amendment bill passed 26 Aug., 1889, 

and a consolidating act in 1890 ; amended . . 1891 
The Cathcart case (see Trials) . . . July, ,, 

TREATMENT OF THE INSANE. 

Till the end of the last century lunatics were treated 
with cruel severity ; see Conolly " On the Treat- 
ment of the Insane," 1856. 

The insane were exhibited at Bethlem as a show, 
for id. or 2d. till 1770 

Enlightened principles of treatment were intro- 
duced by Wm. Tuke, at the Society of Friends' 
" Retreat," at York, and by Pinel, at theBicetre, 
Paris, with very great success . . . . 1792 

Esquirol succeeds Pinel, and strongly recommends 
instruction in the management of mental dis- 
orders . 1810 

Exposure of enormous cruelties in the Bethlem 
hospital 1815 

This led to gradual improvements, and at last to 
the total abolition of mechanical restraints at 
Lincoln, 1837 '• an d at Hanwell Asylum (under 
the superintendence of Dr. John Conolly) and at 
other places 1839 

Psychological Journal first published by Dr. Forbes 
Winslow 1S48 

Journal of Mental Science, by Dr. J. C. Bucknill . 1852 
See Hospitals. 

Lunatics in charge in England and Wales, 1 Jan. 1855. 

Private. Pauper. 

Male. Female. Male. Female. Total. 

County Asylums . 132 123 6008 7316 13.579 

Hospitals . . 895 723 91 94 1,803 

Licensed houses . 1448 1350 1034 1279 5. in 



2475 2196 7133 



20,493 



Lunatics, Idiots, and Persons of Unsound Mind in 
England and Wales : 
1 Jan. 



Registered. 


1 Juii. 


Registered 


36,672 


1863 . 


43,118 


38,058 


1864 . 


44.795 


39.647 


1865 • 


45.950 


41,129 


1866 


47,648 



Jan. 


Registered 


1867 . 


49,086 


1868 . 


51,000 


1869 . 


53,i77 


1870 . 


54,713 


1871 


56,755 


1872 


58,640 


1S73 • 


60,296 


1874 ■ 


02,027 


1875 • 


63,793 


1876 . 


64,916 


1877 . 


66,636 


1878 . 


68,538 



Jan. 



ib 7 g 



Registered 
71,191 

73."3 
74,842 
76,765 
78,528 

79.704- 
80,156 
80,891 
82,643. 
84,340 
86,067 
86.795 
87,848 



Criminal lunatics in charge, Oct. 1890, 926. 

1878. Male lunatics, 31,024 ; female, 37,514 ; ratio, 27.57 
per 10,000. 

Ratio per 1000 to the population : 1859, 1. S6 ; 1865, 
e.18 ; 1870, 2.47 ; 1874, 2.62. 

Jn 1851, there were in Ireland nearly 15,000 lunatics of 
all classes ; in Scotland in 1851, 3362 in charge ; in 1855., 
7403 ; of which only 3328 were under the protection of 
the law. 

LUND-HILL, near Barnsley, in South York- 
shire. While toe miners were dining in the pit, 19 
Feb. 1857, the inflammable gas took tire and 
exploded. About 189 miners perished. In April 
and May bodies were still being extricati d. There- 
had been great laxity of discipline in the pit. 
7000^. were subscribed for the bereaved. 

LUNEBURGr, see Brunswick. 

LUNEVILLE (France), PEACE OF, con- 
cluded between the French republic and the emperor 
of Germany, confirmed the cessions made by the 
treaty of Campo Forinio, stipulated that the Rhine-,, 
as far as the Dutch territories, should form the- 
boundary of France, and recognised the Batavian, 
Helvetic, Ligurian, and Cisalpine republics, 9 Feb. 
1801. 

LUPERCALIA, a yearly festival observed at 
Rome on 15 Feb. instituted in memory of Romulus- 
and Remus, according to Plutarch; but according: 
to Livy, brought by Evander into Italy. These 
fe:ists are said to have been abolished in 496, by 
pope Gelasius, on account of their great disorders. 

LUSATIA, a marquisate in N. Germany, 
given to John of Bohemia, 1319 ; obtained by 
Matthias of Hungary, 1478 ; ceded to Saxony ia 
163c. 

LUSHAIS, see Chins. 

LUSIAD, the great epic poem of the Portu- 
guese, written in honour of their discoveries in 
India, by Luis de Camoens, and publis' ed by him 
at Lisbon, 1572. The English translations are by 
sir Richard Fanshawe, 1655; by Wm. Julius Mickle, 
1775; and others; the latest and best by J. J. 
Aubertin, 1884. 

LUSITANIA, see Portugal. 

LUSTRUM, an ancient expiatory sacrifice 
made foi the Roman people, at the end of every 
five years, after the census had been taken. Every 
fifth year was called a lustrum ; and ten, fifteen, or 
twenty years, were commonly expressed by two, 
three, or four lustra, 'lhe last lustrum took place, 

74 A »- 

LUTE, an ancient instrument of oriental origin, 
(Arabic, al'ud) ; said to have been brought to 
Mecca, in the 6th century A.D., and thence to 
Europe. J. S. Bach and others composed tor the 
"Western lute in the 18th century. 

LUTHERANISM, * the form of C hri stianity 

* Martin Luther was born at Eisleben, 10 Nov. 1483; 
studied at Erfurt, 1501 ; was professor of philosophy at 
Wittenberg, 1508 ; resisted the sale of indulgences, 1517 ; 
defended himself at Augsburg, 151S ; at Worms, 1520; 



LUTINE. 



602 



LYDDITE. 



professed by the majority of the people of the north 
of Germany, Prussia, Denmark, and Sweden. The 
■doctrines are mainly embodied in Luther's cate- 
chisms, in the Augsburg Confession, and in the 
Formula Concordia: of the Lutherans, published in 
1580. Their first university was founded at Mar- 
burg, in 1527, by Philip, landgrave of Hesse. The 
Luther memorial at W orras was unveiled in presence 
•of the king of Prussia and other sovereigns, 25 
June, 1868. Fourth centenary of Luiher's birth 
■celebrated at Halle, Eisleben (where he was born), 
Berlin, and throughout Germany ; also at London, 
Edinburgh, Dublin, and other places in the united 
kingdom ; at Paris, and other places on the con- 
tinent, 31 Oct. — 17 Nov. 1883- 

LUTINE, see Wrecks, 1799. 

LUTZEN, or LUTZENGEN (N. Germany). 

Here Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, defeated 
the imperif lists under Wallenstein, 16 Nov. 1632, 
but was himself killed ; and here the French army, 
commanded by Napoleon, defeated the combined 
armies of Bussia and Prussia, commanded by general 
"Wittgenstein, 2 May, 1813. The battles of Bautzen 
and Wurschen immediately followed (19-21 May), 
both in favour of Napoleon. The allies were com- 
pelled to pass the Oder, and an armistice was 
agreed to, afterwards prolonged; but, unfortunately 
for the French emperor, this did not produce 
peace. 

LUXEMBURG, a grand duchy held by the 
king of Holland till Nov. 1890. Luxemburg, the 
capital, once considered the strongest fortified city 
in the world, has been many times besieged and 
taken : by the French in 984, 1443, 1479, 1542-3 ; 
•by the Spaniards in 1544 ; by the French in 1684; 
restored to Spain in 1697 ; taken by the French in 
1701 ; given to the Dutch as a barrier town, but 
ceded to the emperor at the peace in 1713. It 
withstood several sieges in the last century. It 
surrendered to the French after a siege, from Nov. 
S794 to July, 1795 ; and was retaken by the allies 
in May, 1814. Population of the grand duchy, 
3867,199,958; 1875, 205,158; 1885, 213,283 ; 1890, 
211,088; city, 18,187. 

The grand duchy was annexed to the Netherlands, 
still remaining a member of the Germanic con- 
federation, the capital having a Prussian garrison 1815 
A portion given to the new kingdom of Belgium . 1830 
After the dissolution of the Germanic confedera- 
tion, the emperor Napoleon objected to the Prus- 
sian garrison, and offered to buy the grand duchy 
from the king of Holland . . . March, 1867 
Sn consequence of the opposition of Prussia, a con- 
ference of representatives of the great powers met 
in London, 7-1 1 May, who agreed upon a treaty 
guaranteeing the neutrality of the province, the 
retirement of the Prussian garrison, and the dis- 
mantling the fortress of Luxemburg 7-1 1 May, ,, 
The Prussian soldiers retired . . . Nov. ,, 
The fortifications dismantled .... Aug. 1870 
The people protest against absorption into Germany, 

21 Oct. „ 
They are accused of violating neutrality, and the 
abrogation of the treaty is mooted by Prussia, 

early in Dec. ,, 

The king of Holland, their sovereign, declared that 

he would maintain the treaty, 15 Dec. ; and the 

government protested against the charge, 19 Dec. ,, 

New treaty with Prussia ; indemnity to be paid for 

breaches of neutrality ; fortresses to be garrisoned 

by Germans Feb. 1871 

Fortifications transformed to civil purposes . . 1874 
The duke of Nassau, on the severe illness of the 
king of Holland, assumed the regency of Luxem- 
burg 10 April, 1889 

was excommunicated, 16 June, 1520 ; began his German 
bible, 1521 ; married Katherine de Bora, 1525 ; published 
his German bible complete, 1534 ; died 18 Feb. 1546. 



The king recovers and resumes the government 

3 May, 1889 

The duke reassum.es the government as regent, 
6 Nov. ; becomes grand duke on the death of the 
king, 23 Nov. ; takes the oath and opens the par- 
liament 9 Dec. 1890 

Grand Duke, 1890, Adolphus William Charles, 
(titular duke of Nassau), born 24 July 1817. 

LUXOR, or El-Uksub, Egypt, see Thebes. 

LUXURY. Lucullus (died 49 B.C.), at Borne, 
was distinguished for inordinate luxury ; see Sump- 
tuary Lav)s. 

LYCEUM (originally a temple of Apollo 
Lyceus, or a portico, or gallery, built by Lyceus, 
son of Apollo) was a spot near thellissus, in Attica, 
where Aristotle taught philosophy; and as he 
generally taught as he walked, his pupils were 
called peripatetics, ualkers-aboiit, and his philoso- 
phy that of the Lyceum, 342 B.C. Stanley ; see 
Theatres. 

LYCIA (Asia Minor), subject successively to 
Croesus (about 560 B.C.), to the Persians (546 B.C.), 
to Alexander the Great (333 B.C.), and to his suc- 
cessors the Seleucidse. The Bomans gave Lycia to 
the Rhodians (188 B.C.). It became nominally free 
under the Romans, and was annexed to the empire 
by Claudius. The marbles brought from Lycia by 
sir Charles Fellows were deposited in the British 
Museum, 1840-46. 

LYCURGUS, see Laws. 

LYDIA, or Mseonia, an ancient kingdom in 
Asia Minor; the early history -wholly mythical. 
Of a long dynasty of kings, the last was Croesus, 
"the' richest of mankind." The coinage of gold 
and silver monej r , and other useful inveations, are 
ascribed to the Lydians. ^Esop, the Phrygian 
fabulist, Alcman, the first Greek poet, Thales of 
Miletus, Anaximenes, Xenophanes, Anacreon of 
Teos, Heraclitus of Ephesus, &c., flourished in 
Lydia. 
Agron, a descendant of Hercules, reigns in Lydia, 

Hand. . about B.C. 1223 

The kingdom, properly so called, begins under 

Ardys I. Blair 797 

Alyattes I. reigns 761 

Myrsus commences his rule 747 

Reign of Candaules (or Myrsilus) .... 735 
Gyges, first of the race Mermnadpe, kills Candaules, 
marries his queen, usurps the throne about 690, 
and makes great conquests . . . about 716 
Ardys II. reigns, 678 ; the Cimbri besiege Sardis, 

the capital of Lydia 635 

The Milesian war, commenced under Gyges, is con- 
tinued by Sadyattes, who reigns . . . . 628 

Reign of Alyattes II. 617 

Battle upon the river Halys, between the Lydians 
and Medes, interrupted by an almost, total eclipse 
of the sun. This eclipse had been predicted many 
years before by Thales of Miletus. Blair. 

28 May, B.C. 585 
Croesus, son of Alyattes, succeeds to the throne, 
and conquers Asia Minor .... 560-50 

Croesus, dreading Cyrus, whose conquests had 
reached to the borders of Lydia, crosses the 
Halys to attack the Medes-, with 420,000 men and 
60,000 horse ........ 548 

He is defeated, pursued, and besieged in his capital 
by Cyrus, who orders him to be burned alive ; 
the pile is already on fire, when Croesus calls 
aloud Solon ! and Cyrus hearing him, spares his 
life. Lydia made a province of the Persian 

empire . 546 

Sardis burnt by the Ionians 499 

Lydia conquered by Alexander .... 332 
Becomes part of the kingdom of Pergamus . . 283 

Conquered by the Turks a.d. 1326 

LYDDITE, the English name for the French 
Melenite (which see). 



LYING-IN HOSPITALS. 



603 



LYRE. 



LYING-IN HOSPITALS. The first, esta- 
blished in Dublin by Dr. Bartholomew Mosse, a 
physician, amid strong opposition, was opened 
March, 1745; see Hospitals. 

LYMPHATICS (absorbent vessels connected 
with digestion), discovered about 1650 by Rudbek 
in Sweden, Bartholin in Denmark, and Jolyffe in 
England. Asellius discovered the laeteals in 
1622. In 1654, Glisson ascribed to these vessels the 
function of absorption ; and their properties were 
studied by "Win. and John Hunter, Monro, Hew- 
son, and other great anatomists. 

LYNCH LAW, punishment inflicted by pri- 
vate individuals, independently of the legal authori- 
ties. The origin of the term is doubtful ; the 
practice has been attributed to James Lynch Fitz- 
Stephen, warden of Galway, about 1526, to Lynch, 
a farmer in Virginia, and to Lynch, a person sent to 
America to suppress piracy, 1687-8. "Judge 
Lynch'' is thought by some to be a mythical person. 
This mode of administering justice still exists in 
the outlying districts of the United States. Four 
robbers were taken from prison and hanged by a 
vigilance committee at New Albany, on the Ohio, 
11 Dec. 1868. 
Cases occurred at Savannah, Georgia, and near 

Bessemer, Alabama, and Como, Mississippi. 

Nov. 1890 
At Salina village, Boulder county, Colorado 

2i Feb. 1891 
New Orleans (which sec) .... 14 March „ 

See Washington State. 
Numerous cases in 1891-92 

. LYNDHTJRST'S ACT (5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 54), 
introduced by lord Lyndhurst, rendered valid cer- 
tain marriages within the forbidden degrees (with 
•deceased wife's sister) up to that time, but prohi- 
bited them for the future ; passed 31 Aug. 1835. 

LYONS (S. France), the Roman Lugdunum, 
founded by M. Plancus, 43 B.C. The city was re- 
duced to ashes in a single night by lightning, a.d. 
59, and was rebuilt in the reign of Nero. It was 



a free city till its union with France in 1307. 
Population in 1886, 367,822; in 1891, 401,930. 

Battle near Lyons ; Clodius Albinus defeated and 

slain by Septimius Severus . . 19 Feb. 197 
Two general councils held here (13th and 14th), 

1245, 1274 

Silk manufacture commenced 1515 

Lyons taken by the republicans after 70 days' siege, 
9 Oct. ; awful pillage and slaughter follow ; the 
Convention decreed the demolition of the city, 

12 Oct. 1793 
Capitulated to the Austrians . . . March, 1814 

Entry of Napoleon 8 March, 1815 

An insurrection among the artisans, which led to 
great popular excesses ; quelled by an army, 

21 N0V.-31 Dec. 1831 
Dreadful riots, put down by military . 15 April, 1834 
Railway to Paris opened . . . 7 April, 1839 

A dreadful inundation at Lyons (see Inundations), 

4 Nov. 1840 
Another insurrection quelled, with much loss of life, 

15 June, 1849 
Grand banquet to Louis Napoleon . 15 Aug. 1850 
A committee of public safety appointed here and the 
redflagraised soonaftertherevolutionin Paris. M. 
Saigne, calling himself president, gen. Cluseret (ex- 
pelled from Paris), and other extreme republicans, 
defeatedin their endeavours to depose M. Challemel 
Lacour, the prefect of the Rhone, who was well 
supported by the national guard ; gen. Mazure, 
the military commander, accused of treacherous 
inaction, was arrested ... 28 Sept. 1870 
Arnaud, commandant of the national guard, mur- 
dered by the mob, after a mock trial, for resist- 
ing them 20 Dec. „ 

Visited by marshal MacMahon . . . Sept. 1876 
Rioting, see France Oct. 1882 

LYRE. Its invention is ascribed to the Grecian 
Hermes (in Latin Mercury), who, according to 
Homer, gave it to Apollo, the first that played upon 
it with method, and accompanied it with poetiy. 
The invention of the primitive lyre, with three 
strings, is ascribed to the first Egyptian Hermes. 
It is said that Terpander added several strings to 
the lyre, making the number seven, 673 B.C., and 
that Phrynis, a musician of Mitylene, added two 
more, making nine, 4^8 B.C. 



M. 



MACADAMISING. 



MACEDON. 



MACADAMISING, a system of road-making 
invented by Mr. John Macadam, and published by 
him in an essay, in 1819, having practised it in 
Ayrshire. H e prescribed stones to be broken to six 
ounces weight, and the use of clean Mints and granite 
clippings. Hereceived 10,000^. from parliament; was 
appointed surveyor-general of the metropolitan roads 
in 1827, and died in 1836 ; see Roads. 

MACAO (in Quang-tong, S. China) was given 
to the Portuguese as a commercial station in 1586 
(in return for their assistance against pirates), sub- 
ject to an annual tribute, which was remitted in 1886. 
Here Camoens composed part of the " Lusiad." The 
abuses of the Coolie trade by the Portuguese, led to 
its abolition here by the British and Chinese govern- 
ments in 1873. 

MACARONI. This name, given to a poem by 
Theophilus Folengo, 1509, continues to designate 
trifling performances, as buffoonery, puns, ana- 
grams, "wit without wisdom, and humour without 
sense." His poem was so called from a nutritious 
preparation of wheat-flour in tubes and threads. 
These poems, in Italy and France, gave rise to 
Macaroni academies, and in England to Macaroni 
clubs (about 1 772), when everything ridiculous in 
dress and manners was called " Macaroni." 

MACCABEES, a name of the As-r.onteans, who 
commenced their career during the persecution of 
AntiochusEpiphanes, 167 B.C. Mattathias, apriest, 
resisted the tyranny ; and his son, Judas Maccabams, 
defeated the Syrians in three battles, 166, 165 B.C. ; 
but fell in an ambush, 161 B.C. His brother Jona- 
than made a league with the Romans and Lace- 
daemonians, and after an able administration was 
treacherously killed at Ptolemais by Tryphon, 
143 B.C. His brother and successor, Simon, was 
also murdered, 135 B.C. John Hyrcanus, son of 
Simon, succeeded. His son Judas, called also Aris- 
tobulus, took the title of king, 107 B.C. The history 
of the Maccabees is contained iu five books of that 
name, two of which are included in our Apocrypha. 
Four are accounted canonical by the Roman Catholic 
church ; none by Protestant communions. 

The magnificent Maccabees chapel at Geneva, founded 
in 1415, by the cardinal Jean de Broguier, president of 
the council of Constance and the place of his sepulchre. 
The building much injured and desecrated at the time 
of the Reformation was fimly renovated in 1881 and 
fitted up as a museum. 

MACCLESFIELD, Cheshire, was incorpor- 
ated in 1260, disenfranchised in 1885. The church 
of St. Michael was founded by queen Eleanor in 
1278 ; the grammar-school in 1502. Population, 
1881, 37,514; 1891,36,009. 

MACDONALD AFFAIR, see Prussia, 1861. 

MACE, a weapon anciently used by the cavalry 
of most nations, was originally a spiked club, hung 
at the saddle-bow, and usually of metal. Maces 
■were also early ensigns of authority borne hefore 
officers of state, the top being made in the form of 
anopeu crown, and commonly of silver gilt. The 
lord chancellor and speaker of the house of commons 
have maces borne before them. Edward III. granted 
to London the privilege of having gold or silver 



maces carried before the lord mayor, sheriffs, alder- 
men, and corporation, 1354. It was with the mace 
usually carried before the lord mayor on state 
o casions, that Walworth, lord mayor of London, is 
said to have knocked the rebel Wat Tyler off his 
horse, for rudely approaching Richard II., a cour- 
tier afterwards de?patching him with his dagger, 
15 June, 1 381. Cromwell, entering the house of 
commons to disperse its members and dissolve the 
parliament, ordered one of his soldurs to "take 
away that bauble," the mace, which was done, and 
the doors of the house loeked, 20 April, 1653. 

MACEDON (N. Greece). The first kingdom 
is said to have been founded by Caranus, about 761 
B.C. It was successively under the protection of 
Athens, of Thebes, and Sparta, until the reign of 
Philip, the father of Alexander the Great, who by 
his political wisdom and warlike exploits made it a 
powerful kingdom, and paved the way for his son's 
greatness. 
Reigns of Caranus, about 761 ; Perdiccas I., 729; 

Argeeus I. , 684 ; Philip I. , 640 or 6oq. 
Reign of Amyntas, 540 ; of Alexander I. . B.C. 500 
Macedon conquered by the Persians, 513; delivered 

by the victory of Platsea 479 

Reign of Perdiccas II 454 

Potidsea, revolting, 433 ; re-taken by the Athenians 429, 
Archelaus, natural son of Perdiccas, murders the 
legitimate heirs ; seizes the throne, and improves 
the country. 413 ; murdered by a favourite, to 
whom he promised his daughter in marriage 

Pausanias reigns 

Reign of Amyntas II., after killing Pausanias 
The IUyrians enter Macedonia, expel Amyntas, and 
make Argaeus, brother of Pausanias, king . . 
Amyntas again recovers his kingdom 
Reign of Alexander II., 369; assassinated . . . 
Reign of Perdiccas III., 364 ; killed in battle . 
Reign of Philip II., and institution of the Mace- 
donian phalanx 

He defeats the Athenians and Illyrians . . 360, 

He takes Amphipolis 358 

He conquers Thrace, Illyria, and Thessaly . 356-352 



399 
394 
393 

39 2 

39° 
367 
360 

359 



Birth of Alexander III. the Great 

Close of the first sacred war 

Illyricum overrun by the army of Philip . 

Thrace made tributary to Macedon . . . . 

Aristotle appointed tutor to Alexander . 

War against the Athenians 

Philip besieged Byzantium unsuccessfully 

Battle of Charonea ; Philip victor . . . . 

Philip is assassinated by Pausanias at iEgse during 

the celebration of games in honour of his 

daughter's nuptials; Alexander III., the Great, 

succeeds 

The Greeks appoint him general of their armies 

against the Persians 

The Thebans revolt ; he levels Thebes to the 

ground ; the house of Pindar alone left 
He passes into Asia, and gains his first battle over 

Darius at the Granicus ... 22 May, 

Sardis surrenders, Halicarnassus taken, and cities 

in Asia Minor ....... 

Menmon ravages the Cyclades ; Darius takes the 

held with 460,000 infantry, and 100,000 cavalry 
Darius defeated at Issus (which sec) . . Nov. 
Alexander on his way to Egypt, lays siege to Tyre, 

which is destroyed after seven months 
Damascus is taken ; Gaza surrenders 
Alexander enters Jerusalem ; Egypt conquered 

Alexandria founded . . . ' . 
The Persians totally defeated at Arbela . 1 Oct. 
Alexander master of Asia ; enters Babylon 
Sits on the throne of Darius at Susa 



356 
346" 
344 
343. 

34i 
340 
33& 



MACEDONIANS. 



605 



MADAGASCAE. 



Parthia, Media, &e. , overrun by him . . b. c. 329 
Thalestris, queen of the Amazons, visits him . ,, 

He puts his friend Parmenio to death, on a charge 

of conspiracy supposed to be false ,, 

His expedition to India ; Porus, king of India, is 
defeated and taken ; and the country as far as the 
Ganges, is overrun . . . . . . 327 

Callisthenes is put to the torture for refusing to 

render divine homage to Alexander . . . 328 
Voyage of his admiral Nearchus from the Indus to 

the Euphrates 32S-325 

Returns to Babylon, 324 ; dies .... 323 

Philip III. (Aridseus) king 323 

Alexander's conquests are divided among his 
generals, 323 ; his remains are transported to 
Alexandria, and buried by Ptolemy . . . 322 
The Greeks defeated by Antipater and the Mace- 
donians, near Cranon (which see) . . . . ,, 
Cassander reigns, 316 ; rebuilds Thebes . . . 315 

Seleucus recovers Babylon 312 

Cassander kills Roxana and her son (the last of 

Alexander's family), and usurps the throne . . 311 
Battle of Ipsus (which see) ; Antigonus killed . . 301 

New division of the empire ,, 

Death of Cassander 298 

Reign of Alexander V. and Antipater, his sons . „ 
Demetrius I. , Poliorcetes, son of Antigonus, murders 

Alexander, and seizes the crown of Maeedon . 294 
Achsean league formed against Maeedon . . 281-243 
Governments of Pyrrhus, 287 ; Lysimachus, 286 ; 

Ptolemy Ceraunus 281 

Irruption of the Gauls ; Ptolemy killed . . . 279 

Sosthenes governs 278 

Reign of Antigonus Gonatas, son of Demetrius . 277 
Pyrrhus invades Maeedon, defeats Antigonus, and 
is proclaimed king .... . . 273 

Pyrrhus slain ; Antigonus restored . . . 272 

Antigonus takes Athens 268 

The Gauls again invade Maeedon . . . . „ 

Revolt of the Parthians 250 

Reign of Demetrius II 239 

Philip, his son, 232 ; set aside by Antigonus Doson 229 
Philip V., 220; allies with Hannibal, 211; wars 

unsuccessfully against the Hhodians . . . 202 
Philip defeated by the Romans at Cynoscephalas 197 
Reign of Perseus, his son, 178 ; war with Rome . 171 
Perse'us defeated at Pydna ; Maeedon made a. 

Roman province 168 

Perseus and his sons walk in chains before the 
chariot of jEmilius in his triumph for the con- 
quest of Maeedon 167 

Insurrection of Andriscus, calling himself Philip, 

son of Perseus, quelled 148 

Macedonia plundered by Theodoric the Ostro- 
goth a.d. 482 

Conquered by the Bulgarians 978 

Recovered by the emperor Basil 1001 

Formed into the Latin kingdom of Thessalonica, by 

Boniface, of Montferrat 1204 

After various changes, conquered by Amurath II., 

and annexed to Turkey 1430 

A Macedonian Society formed to urge the execution 
of the Treaty of Berlin (1878) was active in 1885. 

MACEDONIANS, a semi-Arian sect, followers 
of Macedonius, made bishop of Constantinople 
about 341. His appointment was greatly opposed 
and led to much bloodshed. He was expelled by 
the decree of a council held 360. 

MACHIAVELLIAN PEINCIPLES, 

tho>e of iNicolo Machiavelli of Florence (born 
1469, died 1527), in his '• Practice of Politics" and 
"The Prince." By some they are styled "the 
most pernicious maxims of government, founded on 
the vilest policy ; " by others as ''sound doctrines, 
notwithstanding the prejudice erroneously raised 
against them." The author said that if he taught 
princes lo be tyrants, he also taught the people to 
destroy tyrants. "The Prince" appeared at Rome 
in 1532, and was translated into English in 1 761. 

MACIEJOVICE (near Warsaw, Poland). 
Here the Poles were totally defeated by the Russians, 
and tneir general, Kosciusko, taken prisoner, 10 
Oct. 1794, after a murdeious action. He strenuously 



endeavoured to prevent the junction of the Russian 
and Austrian armies. The statement that he said 
"Finis Polomte!" is contradicted. 

MACKENZIE BASIN, see Canada, 1888. 

MADAGASCAE (S. E. coast of Africa), a 

large island (capital, Antananarivo), said to have 

been discovered by Lorenzo Almeida, 1506. The 

people are called Hovas. Population, about 

3,500,000 (1884). 

Portuguese settlement, 1548 ; destroyed by the 
French one, 1642, on arrival of a French governor 1669 

The French attempted to settle at Antongel-bay in 1774 

Count Benyowski supreme in the island, Oct. 1775 ; 
killed in an encounter with the French 23 May, 1786 

Their establishment at Fort Dauphin fell into the 
hands of the English with Bourbon and Mauritius 
hi 1810-11 

The settlements ceded to king Radama, on his 
giving up the slave trade 1818 

Radama I. king 1810, who favoured Europeans and 
encouraged Christianity, died .... 1828 

A reactionary policy under his energetic queen 
Ranavalona, 1828. The English missionaries who 
came in 1820 obliged to depart . . . . 1835 

The application of the native laws to the European 
settlers occasioned an unsuccessful attack on the 
town of Tamatave, by a united expedition from 
the English at the Mauritius, and the French 
from the isle of Bourbon . . . June, 1845 

All amicable intercourse ceases, the native Christians 
suffer persecution 1846 et seq. 

The French defeated in an attack on the island, 

19 Oct. 1855 

Conspiracy against the queen frustrated . June, 1857 

The rev. W. Ellis published accounts of his three 
visits to the island, on behalf of the London 
Missionary Society, in 1854-5-6 1S58 

The queen dies ; succeeded by her son Radama II., 
a Christian 23 Aug. 1861 

Treaty with Great Britain and France signed, 

12 Sept. 1862 

Arevolution ; the kingand his ministers assassinated ; 
the queen Rasoherina proclaimed sovereign, May, 1863 

Embassy from Madagascar arrives at Southampton, 

Feb. 1864 

Disputes with the French . . . . Nov. ,, 

Treaty with Great Britain ; Christians to be tole- 
rated, &c., 27 June, 1865 ; ratified . . 5 July, 1866 

Rev. Win. Ellis's " Madagascar Revisited," pub- 
lished j Feb. 1867 

The queen died in March ; her cousin, Ranava'ona II. , 
succeeded as queen, 1 April, 1868 ; baptized, Feb. 1869 

Dr. Henry Rowley was consecrated bishop of 
Madagascar, Dec. 1872 ; Dr. R Kestell-Cornish 1874 

African slavery prohibited, 1873 ! solemnly June, 1877 

Disputes with the French begin respecting land 
given to Laborde, a missionary, reclaimed by the 
Hovas ; aggressive insolent conduct of French 
consuls, Cassas, Meyer, and Baudais . . 1879 et seq. 

The French claim protectorate of part of N.W. Ma- 
dagascar, by virtue of a treaty made with rebel 
chiefs, 1840- 1 ; on appeal, the British government 
correspond with the French ministry July, Aug. 1S82 

The queen Ranavalona II. dies about 13 July; 
succeeded by her niece Ranavalona III. . July, ,, 

Native embassy to France objecting to French 
protectorate, &c. Oct. ,, 

The French government unyielding Nov. ; the 
envoys come to London ; received by earl 
Granville, 2 Dec, by the queen . . 12 Dec. , 

Friendly modification of the treaty of 1868 with 
England Feb. 1883 

Arrival of French war vessels in Madagascar 23 Feb. ,, 

Treaty with the United States ratified about 

14 March, ,, 

H.M.S. Dryad at Tamatave . . . 14 April, „ 

Treaty with Germany .... 15 May, , 

Admiral Pierre bombards and seizes the custom- 
house at Majunga24 May ; Adin. Pierre bombards 
Tamatave, unresisting 11 June, captures it.n June, „ 

French ultimatum, offered and rejected, announced 

13 June, 

Tenoarivo destroyed; state of siege at Tamatave; 
adin. Pierre orders the British consul, T. C. 
Pakenhanl (ill) to quit within 24 hours, who dies, 



MADDEE. 



606 



MADEAS. 



22 June. Mr. Shaw, missionary, arrested ; capt. 
Johnson of the Dryad insulted ; the British go- 
vernment demands explanations 12 July, satisfac- 
tion ordered to be given . . . Aug. 1883 
Adm. Pierre reports repulse of two night-attacks 

on ... .22 June and 5 July, ,, 

Release of Mr. Shaw about . . . .7 Aug. „ 

Adm. Pierre dies 10 Sept. ,, 

The Hovas retake French posts, except Majunga 

announced 6 Sept ,, 

Mr. Shaw at Exeter Hall, describes his arrest, false 
charges against him, cruel usage and abrupt 

release 27 Sept. , , 

Great mortality among French troops . Sept. ,, 
1000Z. awarded to Mr. Shaw, and apology made to 
the British government by the French, announced 

about 29 Oct. ,, 
Much British property destroyed . . . Nov. ,, 
French demand raised, by M. Baudais . . Jan. 1884 
The French chambers vote to support French 

honour in Madagascar (450 — 32) . . 27 March, ,, 
French attack on the Hova camp repulsed 27 June, ,, 
Two blue books published by the Hova government 
giving the history of the disputes with the 

French, 1879-84 Aug. „ 

Desultory warfare and negotiations reported, 

French settlements in progress at Majunga, &c. ; 

the Hovas prepare for war .... Aug. „ 

The French bombard Mahanoro . . .22 Sep. ,, 

Mr. T. Wilkinson, missionary and trader, expelled 

' from Antananarivo for newspaper correspondence 

Nov. „ 
The Hovas severely defeated . . .2 Dec. ,, 
The French take forts after sharp conflict 6-11 Dec. ,, 
Seven French ships of war at Tamatave, the Hovas 

retreating inland Jan. 1885 

French chambers vote for maintaining of status quo, 

July- Aug. ,, 
Unsuccessful French attack o"n the Malagasy 

position near Tamatave ... 10 Sept. ,, 
Another conflict (undecisive) announced 28 Sept. „ 
Negociations for peace fail ; French protectorate 

rejected 13 June-17 Aug. „ 

Treaty signed conceding partial French control on 

foreign affairs ; 400,000!. as compensation for * 

local injuries &c, by the agency of adm. Miot. 20 

Dec. 1885 ; ratified by French senate 13 March, 

M. Lemyre de Villers, first French resident April, ,, 

Tamatave evacuated by the French, re-occupied by 

the natives . . ... 25 Jan. 1887 

Prosperity of the island reported . . .Oct. 1889 
French protectorate recognised by Great Britain 

S Aug. 1890 
Massacre of about 200 complaining natives, by the 

governor of Belanona, reported . . 9 Jan. 1891 
The governor and his brother tried and executed, 

reported 24 March „ 

Dr. Catat, at Paris, reports the results of an 
exploring scientific expedition in Madagascar 
sent out in 1888, by the government 23 March, ,, 
Insurrection in the Comoro Islands (near Mada- 
gascar), ruled by Arab chiefs under French pro- 
tection ; massacres and exactions. Prince Salim 
refuses to negotiate with Dr. Ormieres, the 
French resident, reported . . . 28 March, ,, 
The residents take refuge in the ships ; slaves hold 

the town in Johanna Island, reported 3 April, ,, 
Murder of Dr. Beziat, chief of the French medical 
staff, reported 30 Oct. ,, 

MADDEE, the root of the Bubia tinctoria, 
highly valued for dyeing properties. See Alizarine. 

MADEIEA, an island, N. W. coast of Africa, 
discovered, it is said, in 1344, by Mr. Macham, an 
English gentleman, or mariner, who fled from 
France for an illicit amour. He was driven here 
by a storm, and his mistress, a French lady, dying, 
he made a canoe, and carried the news of his dis- 
covery to Pedro, king of Aragon, which occasioned 
the report that the island was discovered by a 
Portuguese, 1345. It is asserted that the Portu- 
guese did not visit this island until 1419 or 1420, 
or colonise it until 1431. It was taken by the 
British in July, 1801 ; and again by admiral Hood 
and general Beresford, 24 Dec. 1807, and retained 



in trust for the royal family of Portugal, who had 
emigrated to the Brazils. It was restored to the 
Portuguese in 1814. Since 1852 the renowned 
vintages here have been almost totally ruined by the 
vine disease (oidium) . Population, 1882, 133,955. 
Opposition of the peasantry to new taxation ; 
fighting with bloodshed announced . 16 Jan. 1888 

MADIAI PEESECUTION, see Tuscany. 

MADEAS (S. E. Hindostan), called by the 
natives Chennapatam, colonised by the English, 
1640. Population of the province, 1881, 30,812,745 ; 
^i, 35,588,850; of the city, 1881,405,848; 1891, 
449,950. 
Fort St. George built, 1641 ; made a presidency . 1653 

Bengal placed under Madras 1658 

Calcutta, hitherto subordinate to Madras, made a 

presidency 1701 

Madras taken by the French . . 14 Sept. 1746 

Restored to the English 1749 

Vainly besieged by the French under Lally, 12 Dec- 1758 
Hyder marches to Madras and obtains a favourable 

treaty April, 1769 

Sir John Lindsay arrives .... July, 1770 
He is succeeded by sir R. Hartland Sept. 1771 

Lord Pigot, governor, imprisoned by his own coun- 
cil, 24 Aug. 1776 ; dies in confinement, 17 April, ' 
1777 ; his enemies convicted and fined 1000!. each, 

11 Feb. 1780 
Sir Eyre Coote arrives .... 5 Nov. ,, 

He defeats Hyder 1 July, 1781 

Lord Macartney arrives as governor . . 22 June, ,, 
The Madras government arrest gen. Stuart for dis- 
obedience, and send him to England . . June, 1783 
Lord Cornwallis arrives here . . .12 Dec. 1790 
Sir C. Oakley succeeds gen. Win. Meadows as 

governor 1 Aug. 1792 

Madras system of education introduced (see Moni- 
torial) 1795 

Lord Mornington (afterwards the marquis Wellesley) 
visits here . . . . . . . Dec. 1798 

General Harris with the Madras army enters Mysore, 
5 March ; and arrives at Seringapatam, 5 April, 
which is stormed by the British under major- 
general Baird, and Tippoo Sahib killed . 4 May, 1799 
Appointment of sir Thomas Strange, first judge of 

Madras under the charter ... 26 Dec. 1800 
More than 1000 houses in Madras burnt . . Feb. 1803 
The Madras army under general Arthur Wellesley 
(afterwards duke of Wellington) marches for Poo- 

nah (see India) March, ,, 

Mutiny among the native forces at Vellore ; 600 

sepoys killed ; 200 executed ... 10 July, 1806 
Mutiny of the sepoy troops at Madras . ... 1809 
Arrival of lord Minto at Madras, who publishes a 

general amnesty . ... 29 Sept. „ 

Awful hurricane, by which the ships at anchor were 
driven into the town and seventy sail sunk, many 

with their crews May, 1813 

Madras attacked by the Pindarees . . . .1817 
Appointment of the rev. Dr. Corrie, first bishop of 

Madras 14 Feb. 1835 

Sir Charles Trevelyan, governor, Jan. 1859 : recalled 
for publishing a minute in opposition to Mr. Jas. 
Wilson's financial schemes ... 10 May, i860 
[Appointed financial secretary and a member of 
the Indian council at Calcutta, Oct. 1862.] 
His successor, sir H. Ward, dies at Madras, 2 Aug. ,, 
Sir Wm. Dennison appointed governor, Nov. i860 ; 

arrives 18 Feb. 1861 

Lord Napier appointed governor . . 31 Jan. 1866 
Arrival of the duke of Edinburgh . . 22 March, 1870 
Lord Hobart appointed governor, Feb. 1872 ; died, 27 

April ; the duke of Buckingham appointed May, 1875 
Visit of the prince of Wales . . 13 Dec. ,, 

The Rt. Hon. W. P. Adam appointed governor, 
Aug. 1880 : died 24 May ; the Rt. Hon. M. E. 
Grant Duff appointed governor . . June, 1881 
He reports " a deep peace broods over the land," 

natives advancing in civilization . . . Jan. 1884 
The right hon. Robert Bourke (created lord Conne- 

mara) appointed governor . . . Aug. 1886 
Great accidental fire began in booths at a fair 
in the people's park ; great panic, about 405 
persons said to have perished . . 31 Dec. ,, 



MADEID. 



607 



MAGDEBUEG. 



25 persons killed by an explosion of gunpowder at a 
village festival 14 Oct. 1888 

A severe famine in Ganjam, the last crops having 
failed through deficiency of rain ; high prices 
and much destitution ; about 15,000 persons 
employed on relief works ; deaths from cholera ; 
about 1,400 weekly middle of May et seq. 1889. 
Lord Connemara visits the district . June, 1889 

Government relief aided by native princes ; 9,429 
persons employed on public works ; 865 deaths 
from cholera in one week ; reported . 18 June „ 

Lord Connemara reports improvement in the con- 
dition of Ganjam ; employed on works, 15,425 ; 
deaths from cholera in a week, 602 ; reported 

9 Jul y. » 

Lord Connemara resigns, much regretted . Nov. 1890 
Beilby Lawley, lord Wenlock, appointed governor 

about 1 Dec. 1890 ; arrives . . 19 Jan. 1891 
A famine commissioner appointed . 19 Jan. 1892 

Tour of lord Wenlock . . . April, May, ,, 
Heavy rains, improved prospects . May, June, July, ,, 
Employed on relief works, 15,728, Sept. 1889 ; 
19,655, 10 Nov. 1891 ; 29,319, 16 Feb. 1892 ; 64,000, 
5 May; 53,000, 22 July ; under 9,000 . 3 Sept., „ 
Works stopped, reported . . . .22 Sept. ,, 
[For other events, see India.] 

MADEID (New Castile), mentioned in history 
as Majerit, a Moorish, castle. Population in 1887, 
470,283. 

Sacked by the Moors 1190 

Fortified by Henry III. about 1400 

Humiliating treaty of Madrid between Charles V. 

and Francis I. , his prisoner . . . 14 Jan. 1526 
Made the seat of the Spanish court by Philip II. . 1560 

The Escurial built 1563 et seq. 

Taken by lord Galway . . . -24 June, 1706 

The old palace burnt down 1734 

Madrid taken by the French . . . March, 1808 
The citizens attempt to expel the French ; defeated 

with much slaughter . . . .2 May, ,, 
Joseph Bonaparte enters Madrid as king of Spain 

(but soon retires) 20 July, ,, 

Madrid retaken by the French . . .2 Dec. ,, 
Retained till it is entered by Wellington 12 Aug. 1812 
Ferdinand VII. restored .... 14 May, 1814 
Madrid pronounces for provisional government 

against Isabella II 29 Sept. 1868 

English protestant church authorised . 9 Nov. ,, 
Madrid (with Alcala de Henares) made a bishopric 

early in 1885 

The bishop Martinez Izquierdo shot on the steps of 

the pro-cathedral by Cayetano Galeote, a priest 

suspended by him, 18 April ; dies . 19 April, 1886 
Destructive hurricane, about 32 persons killed and 

about 320 wounded, 12 May ; sufferers visited by 

the queen 13 May, ,, 

Population, in 1857, 271,254 ; in 1870, 332,024 ; 1884, 
391,829. 

See Spain, 1840 et seq. 

MADBIGAL, an unaccompanied song for three 
or more voices, of which fine examples are by Eng- 
lish composers. Madrigals, invented in the Nether- 
lands, were adopted in Italy, where fine specimens 
were produced. Many were published by Morley, 
1594; Weelkes, 1597; Wilbye, 1598; and Bennet, 
1599. The Madrigal Society in London began in 
1 741. English Glee and Madrigal Union founded 
in 185 1. Kimbault's " Bibliotheca Madrigalium " 
published 1847. The madrigal, " Summer is i cumen 
in" is attributed to the 13th or 14th century. 

MAESTEICHT (Holland), the ancient Tra- 
jectum ad Mosam, the capital of Limburg. It re- 
volted from Spain, and was taken by the prince of 
Parma in 1579, when a dreadful massacre took 
place. In 1632, the prince of Orange reduced it 
after a memorable siege, and it was confirmed to 
the Dutch in 1648 ; Louis XIV. took it in 1673 > 
William, prince of Orange, invested it in vain in 
1676 ; but in 1678 it was restored to the Dutch. 
In 1748 it was besieged by the French, who were 



permitted to take possession of the city on condi- 
tion of its being restored at the peace then nego- 
tiating. In Feb. 1793, Maestricht was unsuccess- 
fully attacked by the French, but they became 
masters of it, Nov. 1794. In 1814 it was made part 
of the kingdom of the Netherlands, and now 
belongs to Holland. Population, 1891, 32,225. 

MAFIA, a secret terrorist murderous society ire 
Sicily, comprising all classes ; became prominent 
in i860. It is opposed to the Camorra. Efforts for 
the suppression of both were made by the govern- 
ment in 1874-5. See New Orleans, 1890. 

MAGAZINE, at first a miscellaneous periodical 
publication. There are now magazines devoted to 
nearly every department of knowledge. The fol- 
lowing are the dates of the first publication of the 
principal magazines, some of Avhich are extinct. 
In Jan. 1865, 544 magazines; in Jan. 1872, 639- 
in Jan. 1889, (including reviews) 1,593 i ln Jan - 
1892, 1901 were in course of publication in Great 
Britain and Ireland ; see Revieivs and Newspapers. 



1877 



Gentleman's 


I 73 I 


Cornhill . 


London . . . . 


I 73 2 


Macmillan's . . . 


Scots . 


1739 


Good Words 


Royal . . . . 


*759 


Quiver . . . . 


Court . 


1760 


St. Paul's . 


Gospel . . . . 


1768 


Nineteenth Century . 


Lady's 


1772 


Many new ones pub- 


European . . . 


1782 


lished . . 18 


Methodist . 


1784 


Magazine of Art . . 


Evangelical . . . 


1792 


Antiquary . 


Monthly 


1796 


Century . . . . 


Philosophical . . 


I79S 


Harper's 


Blackwood's 


1817 


Longman's . . . 


New Monthly . . 


1814 


Merry England . 


Fraser's 


1830 


English Illustrated . 


Metropolitan . . . 


1831 


Murray's . 


Penny. 


1832 


Seribner's . . . 


Tait's . . . . 


1833 


Strand 


Cassell's Family Maga 




Staler 


zme 


i853 





1860-78 
1878 



MAGAZINE EIFLES, see under Fire- 
arms. 

MAGDALA, a very strong place in Abyssinia; 
(which see). On Good Friday, 10 April, 1868, the 
troops of the emperor Theodore attacked the first 
brigade of the British army under sir Bobert 
Napier, and were repulsed with great slaughter. 
On the next day all the European prisoners were 
given up, but Theodore himself refused to sur- 
render ; and on Easter Monday, 13 April, Magdala 
was stormed, and Theodore himself killed— it is- 
said by his own hand. — British loss, 2 killed ; 20 
wounded : Abyssinian loss, about 500 killed and 
wounded out of about 5000. Magdala was burnt to 
the ground by the British, 17 April, 1868. 

MAGDALENS and Magdalenettes„ 

communities of nuns, consisting chiefly of penitent 
courtesans. The order of penitents of St. Magdalen 
was founded 1272, at Marseilles. The convent of 
Naples was endowed by queen Sancha, 1324. That 
at Metz was instituted in 1452. At Paris, 1492. 
The Magdalen at Rome was endowed by pope 
Leo X., in 1515, and favoured by Clement YIII. in 
1594. The Magdalen hospital, London, was founded 
in 1758, under the direction of Dr. Dodd. The 
asylum in Dublin was opened in June, 1766. 

MAGDEBUEG (Prussia). The archbishopric 
was founded about 967. The city suffered much 
during the religious wars in Germany. It was 
besieged and taken by the elector Maurice, Nov. 
1550, and Nov. 1551 ; blockaded for seven months- 
by the imperialists, under "Wallenstein, in 1629 ; 
and barbarously sacked by Tilly on 10 May, 1631. 



MAGELLAN. 



638 



MAGNESIUM. 



It was given to Brandenburg in 1648 ; was taken 
by the French, 8 Nov. 1806 ; annexed to the king- 
dom of Westphalia, 9 July, 1807 ; restored to 
Prussia, May, 1813. Valuable fine art collection 
hurnt 6 April, 1891 Population, 1890, 202,325. 
The Magdeburg Experiment is shown by means of a hollow 
sphere, composed of two hemispheres, fitting air-tight. 
When the air is exhausted by the ah -pump, the hemi- 
spheres are held together by the pressure of the atmo- 
sphere, and require great force to separate them. The 
apparatus was suggested by Otto von Guericke, the 
inventor of the air-pump. He died in 1686. Brande. 

MAGELLAN, Straits of (connecting the 
Atlantic and Pacific oceans), was passed by Fer- 
nando de Magelhaens (Magellan), a Portuguese, on 
27 Nov. 1520. He gave the latter ocean its name 
on account of its calmness. Magellan completed 
the first voyage round the world, with a fleet of 
discovery fitted out by the emperor Charles V., but 
was killed in 152 1. The Spaniards had a fort here, 
■called Cape Famine, because the garrison perished 
from want. 

MAGENTA, a small town in Lombardy, near 
which the French and Sardinians defeated the 
Austrians, 4 June, 1859. The emperor Louis 
Napoleon commanded, and he and the king oi 
Sardinia were in the thickest of the fight. It is 
said that 55,000 French and Sardinians, and 75,000 
Austrians were engaged. The former are asserted 
to have lost 4000 killed and wounded, and the 
Austrians 10, coo, besides 7000 prisoners. The 
French generals Fs] inasse and Clerc were killed. 
The arrival of general MacMahon during a deadly 
struggle between the Austrians and the French, 
greatly contributed to the victory. The contest 
near the bridge of Buffalora was very severe. The 
Austrians fought well, but were badly commanded. 
The emperor and king entered Milan on 8 June 
following; MacMahon and Regnault d'Angely were 
created marshals of France. A monument erected 
here in memory of the slain was solemnly inaugu- 
rated 4 June, 1872. — The red dye, rosaniline, ob- 
tained by chemists from gas-tar, is termed magenta; 
see Aniline. 

MAGI, an order of priests and teachers among 
the ancient Modes and Persians, with much political 
power. One of them who on the death of Oambyses 
asserted that he was Smefdis, a son of Cyrus, and 
•claimed the throne of Persia, was deposed by Darius 
Hystaspes, 521 B.C., and a massacre of the Magi 
followed. ' They retained their religious position 
till the later Roman empire. The constitution of 
the order is traditionally assigned to Zoroaster, the 
'Znrathustra of the Zendavesta, whose time and very 
existence are uncertain, the 6th century b.c being 
mentioned. lie is said to have taught the know- 
ledge of Ormuzt, the supreme good principle, to the 
Magi, whom he classified as learners, masters, and 
perfect scholars, the possessors of all spiritual 
power, and the science of the age, see Parsees. 
The name Magi has been applied to the " wise 
men" of Mutt, ii., and the Parsees at Bombay are 
■descendants of the Guebres or fire- worshippers. 

MAGIC, see Alchemy, Witchcraft, &c. The 
•invention of the Magic Lantern is ascribed to 
Roger Bacon, about 1260, but more correctly to 
Athanasius Kircher, who died 1680. Sir David 
Salomons, in a discourse at the Royal Institution on 
" Optical Projection," exhibited an arrangement of 
the magic lantern, in which by the use of lenses 
•magnifying up to 4,500 diameters, he stated that he 
was enabled to magnify a postage stamp to the size 
■of 2\ acres, 26 Feb. 1892. See Godwin's "Lives 
of the Necromancers," 1834, and Ennemoser's 
" History of Magic," translated by W. Howitt, 1854. 



MAGISTEATES, see Justices. Stipendiary 
borough magistrates may be appointed by 5 & 6 
Will. IV. c. 76, 1835; and by 26 & 27 Vict. c. 97, 
1863. The present arrangement of metropolitan 
magistrates (the chief sitting at Bow-street) was 
made by acts of parliament in 1792 and 1839. 
Eleven courts were appointed in 1840. Their salaries 
raised from 25 March, 1875. Henry Fielding, the 
novelist, was acting magistrate for Westminster 
and at Bow-street. He was succeeded by his half- 
brother, sir- John Fielding, in 1 761 ; by 

Sir William Addington 1780 

Sir Richard Ford 1800 

Mr. Read 1806 

Sir Nathaniel Conant 1813 

Sir Robert Baker 1820 

Sir Richard Birnie 1821 

Sir Frederick Roe 1823 

Mr. T. J. Hall 1839 

Sir Thomas Henry (died suddenly, 16 June, 1876) . 1864 
Sir James Taylor Ingham, July, 1876 ; died 5 March, 

1890 ; succeeded by sir John Bridge about 

22 March, 1890 
The new offices, Bow-street, opened . . 4 April 1881 

MAGNA CHAETA. Its fundamental parts 
were derived from Saxon charters, continued by 
Henry I. and his successors. On 20 Nov. 1214, the 
archbishop of Canterbury and the barons met at 
St. Edmondsbury. On 6 J<m. 1215, they presented 
their demands to king John, who deferred his 
answer. On 19 May they were censured by the 
pope. "On 24 May they marched to London, and 
the king was compelled to yield. The charter was 
sealed by John at Runnymede, near Windsor, 
15 June, 1215. It was many times confirmed, by 
Henry III. and his successors. This last king's 
grandcharter was granted in 1224, and was assured 
by Edward I.; see Forests. Ihe original MS. 
charter is lost. The finest MS. copy, which is at 
Lincoln, was reproduced by photographs in the 
"National MSS." published by government, 1865. 

MAGNA GR^ECIA, the independent states 
founded by Greek colonists in South Italy, Sicily, 
&c. Cumse, in Campania, is said to have been 
founded in 1034 B.C., Pandosia and Metapontum 
in 774 B.C. These states were ruined through siding 
with Hannibal when he invaded Italy, 216 B.C. 
Syracuse founded about . . . . b. c. 734 

Leontinum and Catana 730 

Sybaris 721 

Crotona ... 710 

Tarentum . . 708 

Locri Epizephyrii 673 

Lipara 627 

Agrigentum 582 

Thurium 432 

MAGNANO (N. Italy). Here Scherer and a 
French army were defeated by the Austrians under 
Kray, 5 April, 1799. 

MAGNESIA (Asia Minor). Here Antiochus 
the great, king of Syria, was defeated by the 
Scipios, 190 B.C. — Magnesia alba, the white alkaline 
earth used in medicine, was in use in the beginning 
of the 1 8th century. Its properties were developed 
by Dr. Black in 1755. 

MAGNESIUM, a metal first obtained from 
magnesia by sir Humphry Davy in 1808, and since 
produced in larger quantities by Bussv, Deville, 
and especially by Mr. E. Sonstadt, in 1862-4. Its 
light when burnt is very brilliant, and is so rich in 
chemical rays that it may be used in photography. 
Lamps made for burning magnesium wire, were 
employed by the excavators of the tunnel through 
Mount Cenis. By its light photographs of the in- 
terior of the Pyramids were taken in 1865. Larkin's 



MAGNETISM. 



609 



MAHOMETANISM. 



magnesium lamp (in which the metal is burnt in 
the form of a powder) was exhibited at the Royal 
Institution on I June, 1866, and before the British 
Association at Nottingham in Aug. 1866. 

MAGNETISM. The attractive power of the 
loadstone or magnet was early known, and is re- 
ferred to by Homer, Aristotle, and Pliny ; it was 
also known to the Chinese and Arabians. The 
Greeks are said to have obtained the loadstone from 
Magnesia in Asia, iooob.c. Roger Bacon is said 
to have been acquainted with its property of point- 
ing to the north (1294). The invention of the 
mariner's compass is a.-cribed to Flavio Gioia, a 
Neapolitan, about 1310; but it was known in Nor- 
way previous to 1266; and is mentioned in a French 
poem, 1 150. See under Electricity. 
Robert Norman, of London, discovered the dip of 

the needle about 1576 

Gilbert's treatise "De Magnete," published . . 1600 
Halley's theory of magnetic variations published . 1683 
Marcel observed that a suspended bar of iron be- 
comes temporarily magnetic by position . . 1722 
Artificial magnets made by Dr. Gowan Knight . . 1746 
The variation of the compass was observed by Bond, 
about 1668 ; the diurnal variation by Graham, 
1722 ; on which latter Canton made 4000 observa- 
tions previous to 1756 

Coulomb constructed a torsion balance for deter- 
mining the laws of attraction and repulsion, 1786 ; 
also investigated by Michell, Euler, Lambert, 

Robison, and others 1750-1800 

The deflection of the magnetic needle by the voltaic 

current was discovered by GErsted . . . 1820 
Mr. Abraham invents a magnetic guard for persons 

engaged in grinding cutlery 1821 

The magnetic effects of the violet rays of light ex- 
hibited by Morichini, 1814 ; polarity of a sewing 
needle so magnetised shown by Mrs. Somerville . 1825 
Mr. Christie proves that heat diminishes magnetic 

force about ,, 

Sir W. Snow Harris invents various forms of the 

compass 1831 

Magnetic north pole discovered by commander (aft. 
sir) James Clark Ross (during sir John Ross's 

second voyage) 1 June, ,, 

Electricity produced by the rotation of a magnet by 
professor Faraday, 1831 ; his researches on the 
action of the magnet on light, on the magnetic 
properties of flame, air, and gases (published 
1845), on dia-magnetism (1845), on magno-crys- 
tallic action (1848), on atmospheric magnetism 
(1850), on the magnetic force . . . . 1851-2 
Magnetic observations established in the British 
colonies under the superintendence of col. Edward 

Sabine 1840 et seq. 

Prof. Tyndall proves the existence of dia-magnetic 

polarity 1856 

Mr. Archibald Smith described the results of his 
investigations respecting the deviation of the 
compass in iron ships at the Royal Institution, 

9 Feb. 1866 
Wm. Robinson patented a method of making wrought 
iron from cast iron by the help of magnetism, 

announced, July, 1867 
Wilde's magneto-electric machine exhibited (see 

under Electricity) „ 

In the present century our knowledge of the phe- 
nomena of magnetism has also been greatly in- 
creased by the labours of Arago, Ampere, Hans- 
teen, Gauss, Weber, Poggendorft', Sabine, Lamont, 
Du Moncel, Archibald Smith, &c. (see Animal 
Magnetism). 
In the Royal Institution, London, is a magnet by 
Logeman, of Haarlem, constructed on the princi- 
ples of Dr. Elias, which weighs 100 lb, and can 
sustain 430 lb. Hsecker, of Nuremberg, con- 
structed a magnet weighing 36 grains, capable of 
sustaining 146 times its own weight. This was 
exhibited in 1851, also at the Royal Institution. 
Sir E. Sabine, eminent for life-long researches in 
magnetism, died (aged 94), 26 June, 1883. 

MAGNETO-ELECTRICITY, the discovery 
of professor Faraday ; see under Electricity. Mag- 



neto-electricity has been recently applied to tele- 
graphic and to lighthouse purposes. The South 
Foreland lighthouse, near Dover, was illuminated 
by the magneto-electric light in the winter of 
1858-9 and 1859-60 (the light removed to Dungeness 
in 1861), the Lizards, by Dr. C. "William Siemens' 
magneto-electric light, 1878. See Faradisation. 

MAGNOLIA. Magnolia glauca was brought 
here from N. America, 1688. The laurel-leaved 
Magnolia, Magnolia grandiflora, from N. America, 
about 1734- The dwarf Magnolia, Magnolia pumila, 
from China, in 1789; and (also from China), the 
brown stalked, 1789; the purple, 1790; and the 
slender, 1804. 

MAGUIRE, see Molly. 

MAGYARS, see Hungary. 

MAHARAJPOOR (India). Here sir Hugh 
Gough severely defeated the Mahratta army of 
Gwalior, 29 Dec. 1843. Lord Ellenborough was 
present. 

MAHDI (Guided by God), a name assumed by 
several Mahometan fanatics claiming to be divinely 
sent reformers and liberators. An eminent example 
is found in Ibn Tumert, the Almohade Mahdi in the 
12th century. See Babysm, and for the latest Mahdis 
see Soudan, 1881, et seq. A Mahdi has risen in 
Bokhara, named Mahomed Abdallah Ben Oman, 
May, 1884. See Dervishes. 

MAHEDPORE, see Mehedpore. 

MAHOGANY is said to have been brought to 
England by Raleigh, in 1595 ; but not to have come 
into general use till 1720. 

MAHOMETANISM embodied in the Koran, 
includes — the unity of God, the immortality of the 
soul, predestination, a last judgment, and a sensual 
paradise. Mahomet asserted that the Koran was 
revealed to him by the angel Gabriel during a 
period of twenty-three years. He enjoined on his 
disciples circumcision, prayer, alms, frequent ablu- 
tion, and fasting, and permitted polygamy and 
concubinage. 

The Mahometan year, 1306-7. Months ; Jornada I., 
begins(3 Jan. 1889); Jornada II., (2 Feb.); Rajab, 
(3 March); Shaaban, (2 April) ; Ramadan, d May); 
Shawall, (31 May) ; Dulkaada, (29 June); Dulheg- 
gia, (29 July) — 1307; Muharram, (28 Aug.); Sap- 
tiar, (27 Sept.); Rabia I., (26 Oct.); Rabia II., 
(25 Nov.) ; Jornada I., (24 Dec). 
Mahomet, Mohammed (the name is spielt many 
ways), born at Mecca .... 569 or 

Announced himself as a prophet . . . about 

Fled from his enemies to Medina (his flight is called 

the Hegira) . . . . . .15 July, 

Overcomes his enemies (the Koreish, the Jews, &c.) 

in battle 623-5 

Defeats the Christians at Muta 629 

Is acknowledged as a sovereign .... 630 
Dies, it is said, of slow poison, administered by a 
Jewess to test his divine character . 8 June, 

The Mahometans are divided into several sects, the 
two chief being the Sonnitcs, or the Orthodox 
(who recognised as caliph Abubeker, the father- 
in-law of Mahomet, in preference to Omar anil 
Ali), and the Shiites (Sectaries), or Fatimites, the 
followers of Ali, who married Fatima, the pro- 
phet's daughter. 
The former (also called Sunnites) recognise the 
"Sunua" (traditions) sayings of Mahomet (sup- 
plementary to the Koran) which the Shiites 
reject. Husan and other sons of Ali were mur- 
dered a.d. 680, and a miracle play and a festival 
in their honour are still observed. 
The Ottoman empire is the chief seat of the Son- 
nites, the sultan being considered the representa- 
tive of the caliphs ; Persia has been for centuries 
the stronghold of the Shiites. 
The Mahometans termed Saracens, conquered 

11 K 



57° 
611 



622 



632 



MAHRATTAS. 



610 



MAJUBA HILL. 



Arabia, North Africa, and part of Asia, in the 
7th century ; in the 8th they invaded Europe, 
conquering Spain, where they founded the cali- 
fat of Cordova, which lasted from 756 to 1031, 
when it was broken up into smaller govern- 
ments, the last of which, the kingdom of 
Grenada, endured till its subjugation by Ferdi- 
nand in 1492 ; but the Moorish Mahometans were 
not finally expelled from Spain till . . . . 1609 

Their progress in France was stopped by their 
defeat at Tours by Charles Martel, in . . . 732 

After a long contest, the Turks under Mahomet II. 
took Constantinople ; he made it his capital and 
the chief seat of his religion 1453 

Though considered to be declining, Mahometanism 
is calculated as including 100 millions amongst its 
votaries. 

Coomroodeen Tyabjee, a Mahometan, admitted to 
practise as an attorney in England, having taken 
the oaths upon the Koran . . . Nov. 1858 

Budroodeen Tyabjee, a Mahometan, called to the 
bar 30 April, 1867 

The first Mahometan mosque in England erected at 
Maybury, Woking, Surrey, to be completed by 
the exertions of Dr. G. W. Leitner (not a Maho- 
metan) Aug. 1889 

The representation of a play called Mahomed on 
the English stage, was stopped by request, aided 
by the intervention of the sultan . . Dec. 1890 

A Mahometan marriage at the Moslem Institute, 
Liverpool, the first in England . 18 April, 1891 

"The Life and Teachings of Mohammed, or, The 
Spirit of Islam," by Syed Ameer Ali, m. a.., a judge 
in Bengal, published in 1873 and 1891. 

MAHEATTAS, a people of Findostan, Avho 
originally dwelt north-west of the Deccan, which 
they overran about 1676. They endeavoured to 
overcome the Mogul, but were restrained by the 
Afghans. They entered into alliance with the East 
India company in 1767, made war against it in 
1774, again made peace in 1782, and were finally 
subdued in 1818. See India 1803, et scq., Givalior 
and Indore. 

MAID, see Holy Maid, Elizabeth Barton, and 
Joan of Arc, maid of Orleans. 

MAIDA (Calabria) where the French, com- 
manded by general Regnier, were signally defeated 
by the British under major-general sir John Stuart, 
4*July, 1806. 

MAIDEN, see Guillotine. 

MAIDS OF HONOUR. Anne, daughter of 
Francis II. duke of Brittany, and queen of Charles 
VIII. and Louis XII. of France (1483-98), had 
young and beautiful ladies about her person, called 
maids of honour. The queen of Edward I. of 
England is said to have had four maids of honour 
(1272-1307) ; queen Victoria has eight. 

MAIDSTONE, Kent, a British town, anciently 
termed the city of the Med way (Caer Meguaid), a 
possession of the archbishops ofi Canterbury in 
1086-7. It wa? chartered by several kings, from 
Edward VL to George II. The royalist Kentish 
men were here defeated by Faixfax, 1648. The 
archbishop's palace was built in 1348. Maidstone, 
which previously sent two members to parliament, 
since 1885 sends one. Population 1881, 29,263 ; 
1891, 32,150. 

MAIL-COACHES, for the conveyance of 
letters, were first set up at Bristol by Mr. John 
Palmer, of Bath, 2 Aug. 1784. They were employed 
for other routes in 1785, and soonbecame general 
in England. The mails were first sent by rail in 
1838. 

MAILLOTINS (small mallets), a name given 
to certain citizens of Paris, who, in March, 1382, 
violently opposed the collection of new taxes 
imposed by the duke of Anjou, the regent. They I 



armed themselves with small iron mallets (taken 
from the arsenal), and killed the collectors ; for 
which they were severely punished in Jan. 1383. 

MAIMING- AND WOUNDING, see Coventry 
Act. 

MAINTENANCE, see Barratry. 

MAIN PLOT, a name given to a conspiracy 
to make Arabella Stuart sovereign of England in 
place of James I. in 1603. Lord Cobham, sir 
Walter Raleigh, and lord Grey, were condemned 
to death for implication in it, but reprieved ; others 
were executed. Raleigh was executed, 29 Oct. 
1618. 

MAINE, 1, a province, N.W. of France, seized 
by William I. of England in 1069. It. acknowledged 
prince Arthur, 1199; was taken from John of 
England by Philip of France, 1204 ; was recovered 
by Edward III. in 1357 ; but given up, 1360. After 
various changes it was finally united to France by 
Louis XL in 1481. — 2. MAINE (N. America), 
was discovered by Cabot, 1497 ; and colonised by 
the English 1630 et seq. ; it became a state of the 
union in 1820. Capital Augusta. Population, 1880, 
648,936; 1890,661,086. The boundary line between 
the British and the United States territories in 
Maine was settled by the Ashburton treaty, con- 
cluded 9 Aug. 1842. The Maine liquor law, pro- 
hibiting the manufacture, sale, and use of intoxi- 
cating drinks, with certain exceptions, was enacted 
in 185 1. In 1872, it was officially reported to have 
greatfy decreased drunkenness and rendered the 
trade disreputable. 

MAIWAND, Afghanistan, about 50 miles from 
Candahar. On 27 July, 1880, gen. J. Burrows marched 
from Kushk-i-Nakhud, and attacked the army of 
Ayoob Khan, about 20,000 men, entrenched here on 
the river Helmund, and after four hours' severe 
conflict was compelled to retreat. About 300 of the 
British with many officers fell (including lieut.-col. 
Galbraith, major G. F. Blackwood, captains Garratt, 
McMath, Cullen, Roberts, and others), especially 
officers of the 66th regiment ; with about 700 of the 
native troops killed or missing. The British com- 
manders were censured. Ayoob Khan did not 
improve his victory, and was totally defeated by 
gen. sir F. Roberts, 1 Sept. 1880. See Mazra. 

MAJESTY. Among the Romans, the emperor 
and imperial family were thus addressed, and also 
the popes and the emperors of Germany. The 
style was given to Louis XI. of France in 1461. 
Voltaire. Upon Charles V. being chosen emperor 
of Germany in 15 19, the kings of Spain took the 
style. Francis I. of France, at the interview with 
Henry VIII. of England, on the Field of the Cloth 
of Gold, addressed the latter as Your Majesty, 1520. 
James I. used the style "Sacred," and "Most 
Excellent Majesty." 

MAJOLICA WARE, see Pottery. 

MAJORCA, see Balearic Isles, and Minorca. 
Majorca opposed Philip V. of Spain in 1714 ; but 
submitted, 14 July, 17 15. Its first railway, from 
Palnia, capital of the Balearic isles, to Inca, 18 
miles, opened, 24 Feb. 1875. 

MAJUBA HILL (see Transvaal) . On Satur- 
day night, 26 Feb. 1881, above 600 men under sir 
George P. Colley marching from the camp at Mount 
Prospect, ascended Majuba hill overlooking Laing's 
Nek, where the Boers were encamped, to surprise 
them. The attack of the Boers began 10.30 a.m. of 
the 27th. Fierce conflicts ensued ; eventually over- 
whelmed by numbers and deadly fire, the British 
were routed and fled. Sir George Colley fell with 



MAKALAKA. 



611 



MALTA. 



his face to the enemy. Boer loss about 150. About 
350 British engaged. Loss : killed, 3 officers and 
about 82 men; many wounded, 122 prisoners, and 
some missing. 

MAKALAKA, see Mashona. 

MALABAB (W. coast of Hindostan). The 
Portuguese established factories here in 1505 ; the 
English did the same in 1601. 

MALACCA, on the Malay peninsula, E. Indies, 
svas made a Portuguese settlement in 151 1. The 
Dutch factories were established in 1640. The 
Dutch government exchanged it for Bencoolen in 
Sumatra in 1824, when it was placed under the 
Bengal presidency. It is now part of the Straits 
■Settlements (which see). 

MALAGA (S. Spain), a Phoenician town, taken 
by the Arabs, 714 ; retaken by the Spaniards, after 
a long siege, 1487; see Naval Battles, 1704. An 
insurrection against the provisional government 
was put down with much slaughter, 31 Dec. 1868. 
Population in 1887, 134,106. 

MALAKHOFF, a hill near Sebastopol, on 
which was situated an old tower, strongly fortified 
by the Prussians during the siege of 1854-55. T ne 
allied French and English attacked it on 17, 18 
June, 1855, and after a conflict of forty-eight hours 
were repulsed with severe loss ; that of the English 
being 175 killed and 1126 wounded; that of the 
French 3338 killed and wounded. On 8 Sept. the 
French ag;iin attacked the Malakhoff; at eight 
o'clock the first mine was sprung, and at noon the 
French flag floated over the conquered redoubt ; see 
Sebastopol. In the Malakhoff and Redan were found 
3000 pieces of cannon of every calibre, and 120,000 
ibs. of gunpowder. 

MALA VITA (evil life), the name of a secret 
society in south Italy ; the highest of its three grades 
is the Camorristi ; see Gamorra. 

MALAY AECHIPELAGO, see Moluccas, 
Philippines, Straits, &c. 

MALDON (Essex), built 28 B.C., is supposed 
to have been the first Roman colony in Britain. 
It was burnt by queen Boadicea, and rebuilt by the 
Romans; burnt by the Danes, a.d. 991, and rebuilt 
by the Saxons. Maldon was incorporated by Philip 
and Mary. Absorbed into the county, 1885. The 
singular custom of Borough- English is Kept up 
here, by which the youngest son, and not the 
eldest, succeeds to the burgage tenure on his 
father's death ; see Borough- English. 

MALEGNANO or MelegnANO, modern 
names of Marignano {which see). 

MALICIOUS DAMAGES. The law re- 
specting them was consolidated and amended by 
24 & 25 Vict. c. 97. This act protects works of art, 
electric telegraphs, &c, 1861. 

MALINES, see Mechlin. 

MALLTSTS' ACT, 20 & 21 Viet. c. 57, relating 
to the powers of women in regard to property, was 
passed in 1857. 

MALMESBUBY, Wiltshire, an old market- 
town. The abbey, founded about 670, was several 
times destroyed by the Dane? and restored. Its 
chief was made a mitred abbot by Edward 
III. Athelstan was buried in the abbey. Thomas 
Hobbes, the philosopher, was born here, 5 April, 
1588. By the act of 1885, Malmesbury was disen- 
franchised and absorbed into the county. Popula- 
tion, 1881, 3,176; 1891, 2,964. 



MALO, ST. (N.-W. France). This port, as a 
great resort of privateers, sustained a tremendous 
bombardment by the English under admiral Benbow 
in 1693, and under lord Berkeley in July, 1695. In 
June, 1758, the British landed in considerable force 
in Cancalle bay, and went up to the harbour, 
where they burnt upwards of a hundred ships, and 
did great damage to the town, making a number 
of prisoners. It is now defended by a very strong 
castle, and the harbour is very difficult of access. 

MALO-JAEOSLAVITZ, near Moscow, cen- 
tral Russia : the site of severe encounters between 
the Russians and the retreating French army, 
24 Oct. 1812. The latter were victorious, but with 
great loss. 

MALPLAQUET (N. France). Here the 
allies under the duke of Marlborough and prince 
Eugene defeated the French, commanded by mar- 
shal Villars, 11 Sept. 1709. Each army consisted 
of nearly 120,000 choice soldiers. There was great 
slaughter on both sides, the allies losing 18,000 
men, which loss was but ill repaid by the capture of 
Mons. 

MALT, barley prepared for brewing and distil- 
lation. A duty was laid upon malt in 1667 ; re- 
pealed but reimposed 1697, et seq. Important acts 
for the regulation of malt duties were passed in 
1830 and 1837. In March, 1858, there were 6157 
licensed maltsters in the United Kingdom. The 
duty on malt in 1863 amounted to 6,273,727/. 
In 1864 the duty was remitted on malt used for 
cattle feeding; and in 1865, an act was passed 
allowing the excise duty to be charged according to 
the weight of the grain used. A parliamentary 
committee to consider repeal of malt tax was agreed 
to, 14 Ma} r , 1867, without success ; a motion to 
repeal the tax was negatived (244-17), 23 April, 
1874. Tax abolished, 1880 (when it was 2s. 8^d. a 
bushel). It ceased 1 Oct. 1880. 

Revenue from the malt duties : in the year ending 31 
March, 1850, 5,391,322?. ;— 1854, 5,418,4182. ;— 1856, 
6,676,849?.; — 1857 (tax reduced), 5,690,950?.; — 1860, 
6,648,881?.;- 1862, 6,208,813?.; 1867, 6,816,385?.;— 1871, 
6,978,37^-;— 1872,6,910,366?. ;— 1873, 7,544,175?.;— 1877, 
8,040,378?.;— 1878, 7,721,548?. 

Malt made and retained in the United Kingdom : in 
1825, 36,205,451 bushels ; in 1835, 42,892,012 ; in 1847, 
35.3°7> 8l 5; in 1857, 44,545,649; in 1861, 46,650,100; in 
1870, 56,775,614 ; in 1875, 63,015,676. 

MALTA (formerly Melita), an island in the 
Mediterranean, held successively by the Phoeni- 
cians, Carthaginians, and Romans, which last con- 
quered it, 259 B.C. The apostle Paul was wrecked 
here, a.d. 02. (Acts x'xvii., xxviii.) Malta was 
taken by the Vandals, 534; by the Arabs, 870; and 
by the Normans from Sicily, JO90. With Sicily it 
became successively part of the possessions of the 
houses of Hohenstaufen, of Anjou (1266), and of 
Aragon (1260). In 1530 Charles V. gave it to the 
Knights Hospitallers, who defended it most cou- 
rageously and successfully, in 1551 and 1565, against 
the Turks, who were obliged to abandon the enter- 
prise after the loss of 30,000 men. The island was 
taken by Bonaparte in the outset of his expedition 
to Egypt, 12 June, 1798. He found in it 1200 
pieces of cannon, 200,000 lbs. of powder, two ships 
of the line, a frigate, four galleys, and 40,000 mus- 
kets, besides an immense treasure collected bv 
superstition ; and 4500 Turkish prisoners, whom he 
set at liberty. Malta surrendered to the British 
under Pigot, 5 Sept. 1800. At the peace of Amiens 
it was stipulated that it should be restored to the 
knights. The British, however, retained possession, 
and the war recommenced between the two nations ; 

R E 2 



MALTA. 



612 



MAN". 



but by the treaty of Paris, in 1814, the island was 
guaranteed to Great Britain. A legislative con- 
stitution was established in 1849 ; and after various 
changes was replaced by a more popular one pro- 
claimed 22 Dec. 1887. La Valetta, the capital, 
was founded in 1557 by the grand master 
La Valetta, and completed and occupied by the 
knights, 18 Aug. 157 1. The Protestant college 
was founded in 1846. A grand new naval dry dock 
•was opened, May, 187 1. Governor of Malta and 
Gozo, sir Patrick Grant, March, 1867 ; sir C. T.Van 
Straubenzee, 1872 ; sir Arthur Borton, 1878 ; gen. 
sir John Lintorn A. Simmons, 1884; lt.-gen. sir 
Henry D'Oyly Torrens, March, 1888, died 1 Dec. 
1889; lieut'.-gen. sir H. A. Smyth, Dec. 1889 — 
The visit of prince of Wales, 6 April, 1876. Great 
immigration of destitute Europeans from Alexandria 
(see Egypt) middle June, 1882 ; about 2200, 6 July, 
1882. ' See Cholera. Population of Malta and ad- 
jacent isles in 1890, 165,662. 
Negotiations respecting the Roman Catholics and 

marriage laws concluded by sir J. L. Simmons ; 

see under Pope, Leo XIII. ... 7 April, 1890 
Jubilee statue of the queen unveiled, 6 Aug. 1891, 

by lady Smyth. 

MALTA, KNIGHTS OF. A military religious 
order, called also Hospitallers of St. John of Jeru- 
salem, Knights of St. John, and Knights of Rhodes. 
Some merchants of Main, trading to the Levant, 
obtained leave of the caliph of Egypt to build a 
house for those who came on pilgrimage to Jerusa- 
lem, and whom they received with zeal and charity, 
1048. They afterwards founded a hospital for the 
reception of pilgrims, from whence they were called 
Hospitallers (Latin, hospes, a guest). The military 
order was founded about 1099; confirmed by the 
pope, 1 1 13. In 1 1 19 the knights defeated the Turks 
at Antioch. After the Christians had lost their 
interest in the East, and Jerusalem was taken, the 
knights retired to Acre, which they defended 
valiantly in 1290. John, king of Cyprus, gave 
them Limisso in his dominions, where they stayed 
till 13 10, in which year they took Bhodes, under 
their grand master De Vallaret, and the next year 
defended it under the duke of Savoy against an 
army of Saracens. The story that his successors 
have used F. E. E. T. (Fortitudo ejus Rhodum 
tenuit, or his valour kept Bhodes) for their device 
is much doubted. From this they were also called 
knights of Rhodes; but Rhodes being taken by 
Solyman in 1522, they retired into Candia, thence 
into Sicily. Pope Adrian YI. granted them the 
city of Viterbo for their retreat; and in 1530 the 
emperor Charles V. gave them the isle of Malta. 
The order was suppressed in England in 1540; re- 
stored in 1557; and again suppressed in 1559. St. 
John's Gate, Clerkenwell, a relic of their possessions, 
still exists. The emperor Paul of Russia declared 
himself grand master of the order in June, 1799. 
After the death of the grand master, Tommasi di 
Contara, in 1805, the order was governed by a lieu- 
tenant and a college at Rome, till Pope Leo XIII. 
made count Ceschi a Santa Cisce (lieutenant since 
14 Feb. 1871) grand master, 28 March, 1879. The 
knights sent a hospital establishment into Bohemia 
during the war in 1866. which afforded great relief 
to the wounded and sick. 

MAMELON, a hill, one of the defences of 
Sebastopol, was captured by the French, 7 June, 
1855- 

MAMELUKES, originally Turkish and Cir- 
cassian slaves, established by the sultan of Egypt as 
a body-guard, about 1240. They advanced one of 
their own corps to the throne of Egypt, May, 1250, 



and continued to do so until it became a Turkish 
province, in 1517, when the beys took them into pay, 
and filled up their ranks with renegades from 
various countries. On the conquest of Egypt by 
Bonaparte, in 1798, they retreated into Nubia;- but, 
assisted by the Arnauts, reconquered Egypt from 
the Turkish government. In 1804, Napoleon em- 
bodied some of them in his guard. On 1 Marchi, 
1811, they were decoyed into the power of the- 
Turkish pacha, Mehemet Ali, and slain at Cairo. 

MAMERTINI, sons of Mamers or Mars, were- 
Campanian soldiers of Agathocles. They seizeds 
Messina in Sicily, in 281, B.C., and when closely- 
besieged by the Carthaginians, and Hiero of Syra- 
cuse, in 264, they implored the help of the Romansy 
which led to the first Punic war. 

MAMMOTH, an extinct species of elephant. 
An entire mammoth, flesh and bones, was dis- 
covered in Siberia, in 1799. Remains of this 
animal have since been found at Harwich, in 1803, 
and at places in Europe, Asia, and America. 

MAN, ANTIQUITY OF. In 1836, M. Boucher 
de Perthes found some rude flint implements, 
which he believed to be of human manufacture, 
mingled with bones of extinct animals, in the old) 
alluvium near Abbeville in Picardy, France, and also- 
in 1847, near Amiens. Similar flints have since been 
found in Sicily by Dr. Falconer, at Brixham by 
Mr. Pengelly, and lately in various parts of the 
world. Hence many geologists infer that man ex- 
isted on the earth many ages earlier than has beem 
hitherto believed. 

Some burnt bricks found in the Nile are considered 

to be 20,000 years old, and some bones found in 

lacustrine deposits in Florida, 30,000 years old. 

The " Engis skull" found by Schmerling in the 

valley of the Meuse about 1834 

Fossil human remains found in extinct volcanos of 

St. Denis, near Puy en Velay .... 1844 
A human jaw said to have been found in the drift 

at Moulin Quignon, near Abbeville . March, 1863 
Sir Charles Lyell's "Antiquity of Man" was pub- 
lished in 1863 (4th edition, 1873), and sir John 
Lubbock's " Prehistoric Times," 1865 (4th ed. 1878)* 
The skeleton of a man supposed to have been a con- 
temporary of the mammoth and cave-bear was 
found with polished flint implements by M. 
Riviere in the Cavillin cavern, near Mentone, 
26 March, 1872. Mr. W. Pengelly went to exa- 
mine these remains. 
" The Ancient Stone Implements, Weapons, and Or- 
naments of Great Britain," by John Evans, F.R.S., 
published, July, 1872 ; and his "Ancient Bronze 
Implements, Weapons, &c." published. May, i88e 
" In our day the quaternary mail is a fact univer- j 
sally accepted ; but the tertiary man is a pro-- 
blem under discussion." — Virchow . . . 1877 

MAN, ISLE OF, was subdued by Edwin, king 
of Northumberland, about 620 ; by Magnus of Nor- 
way, 1098 ; by the Scots, 1266 ; occupied by Edward 
at thewish of the inhabitants 1290; recovered by the 
Scots in 13 13 ; but taken from them by Montacute, 
afterwards earl of Salisbury, to whom Edward III. 
gave the title of king of Man, in 1343. It was 
afterwards subjected to the earl of Northumber- 
land, on whose attainder Henry IV. granted it in 
fee to sir John Stanley, 1406. It was taken from 
this family by Elizabeth, but was restored in 1610 
to the earl of Derby, through whom it fell by in- 
heritance to the duke of Athol, 1735. He received 
70,000/. from parliament for all his rights in 
1765; and the nation was charged with the further 
sum of 132,944/. for the purchase of his remaining 
interest in the revenues of the island in Jan. 1829. 
The countess of Derby held the isle against the 
parliament forces for a time in 165 1. The new 



MANASSAS JUNCTION. 



613 



MANCHESTEE. 



•queen's landing pier (cost 46,400^.) inaugurated 
•by the lieut. governor, H. B. Loch, 1 July, 1872. 
Act relating to the harbours and coasts, passed June, 
1872 The first railway (from Douglas to Peel) 
opened, 1 July, 1873. Population, 1871, 54,042 ; in 
;88i, 53,558; 1891, 55,598. Revenue, 1889-90, 
63,824^., expenditure, 57,947/. Proposed reform of 
the house of keys, Dee. 1886 ; partly negatived, 
26 Jan. 1887. .New Customs Act passed in 1887. 
The Bishopric is said to have been presided over 
by Amphibalus about 360. Some assert that St. 
Patrick was the founder of the see, and that Ger- 
manus was the first bishop, about 447. It was 
united to Sodor in 1 1 13. The bishop has no seat in 
the house of lords; but lord Auckland (bishop, 
1847-54) sat by right of his barony. Present 
income, 2000 1. 
The foundation stone of the Eiffel tower at Douglas 

laid by the earl of Lathom ... 23 Oct. 1890 
According to custom, five bills, which had received 
the royal assent, one for the re-distribution of 
seats in the house of Keys, were promulgated to 
the legislature, in the open air, by the lieut.- 
governor, Spencer Walpole . . 30 March, 1891 

RECENT BISHOPS OF SODOR AND MAN. 

E784. Claudius Crigan: died in 1813. 

1813. George Murray, trans, to Rochester, 1827. 

1828. William Ward ; died in 1838. 

1838. James Bowstead, trans, to Lichfield, Dec. 1839. 

1840. Henry Pepys, trans, to Worcester, 1841. 

1841. Thos. Vowler Short, trans, to St. Asaph, 1846. 

1846. Walter Augustus Shirley ; died in 1847. 

1847. John Eden (lord Auckland), trans, to Bath, 1854. 
1854. Hon. Horatio Powys ; died 31 May, 1877. 

1877. Rowley Hill, consecrated 24 Aug ; died. 27 May, 

1887. 
r887. John Wareing Bardsley ; translated to Carlisle, 

Dec. 1 89 1. 
1891. Norman D. J. Straton, Dec. 
Recent lieut. -governors : H. B. Loch, 1863; Spen- 
der Walpole, 1882. 

MANASSAS JUNCTION (Virginia, United 
S>'ates), an important military position, where the 
Alexandria and Manassas Gap railways meet, near 
a creek named Bull Run. I. It was held by the 
confederates in 1861, when they were attacked by 
the federal general Irwin McDowell. He began 
his march from Washington on 16 July, and gained 
some advantage on the 18th at Centreville. On 
the 21st was fought the^V.s^ battle of Bull Run. 
The federals, who began the fight, had the advan- 
tage till about ttiree o'clock p.m., when the con- 
federate general Johnston brought up reinforcements, 
which at first the federals took for their own troops. 
After a brief resistance, the latter were seized with 
sudden panic, and, in spite of the utmost efforts of 
their officers, fled, abandoning a large quantity of 
arms, ammunition, and baggage. The confederate 
generals Johnston and Beauregard did not think it 
prudent to pursue the fugitives, who did not halt 
till they arrived at Washington. The federal army 
is said to have had 481 killed, ion wounded, 
12 16 missing. The loss of the confederates was stated 
to be about 1500. -In March, 1862, when the army 
of the Potomac, under general McClellan, inarched 
into Virginia, they found that the confederates had 
quietl)* retreated from the camp at Manassas. 2. On 
30 Aug. 1862, this place was the site of another great 
battle between the northern and southern armies. 
In August, general "Stonewall" Jackson, after 
compelling the federal general Tope to retreat, de- 
feated him at Cedar mountain on the 9th, turned 
his flank on the 22nd, and arriving at Manassas 
repulsed his attacks on the 29th. On the 30th 
general 11. E. Lee (who had defeated general 
McClellan and the invading northern army before 
Richmond, 26 June to 1 July) joined Jackson with 



his army, and Pope received reinforcements from 
Washington. A desperate conflict ensued, which 
ended in the confederates gaining a decisive victory, 
compelling the federals to a hasty retreat to Centre- 
ville, where they were once more routed, 1 Sept. The 
remains of their arm}' took refuge behind the lines 
of Washington on 2 Sept. Pope was at once super- 
seded, and McClellan resumed the command to 
march against the confederates, who had crossed 
the Potomac and entered Maryland; see United 
States. 

MANCHESTER (Lancashire), in the time of 
the Druids, was one of their most principal stations, 
and had the privilege of sanctuary attached to its 
altar, in the British language Meyne, a stone. It 
was one of the seats of the Brigantes, who had a 
castle, or stronghold, called Mancenion, or the place 
of tents, near the confluence of the rivers Medlock 
and Irwell. '1 he site of this, still called the 
"Castle Field," was, about 79, selected by the Ro- 
mans as the station of the Conors Prima Frisiorwn, 
and called by them Mancunium ; hence its Saxon 
name Manceastre, from which its modern appella- 
tion is derived. Lewis. See under Population. 
Mancenion taken from the Britons . . . . 488 
Captured by Edwin of Northumbria . . . 620 

The inhabitants become Christians . . about 627 
The town taken by the Danes, 870 ; retaken . . 92^ 
The charter (Magna Charta of Manchester), 14 May, 1301 
" Manchester cottons " introduced .... 1352 

The church made collegiate 1421 

Free grammar-school founded 1516 

Privilege of sanctuary moved to Chester . about 1541 
An aulnager (measurer) stationed here . . . 1565 
Sir Thomas Fairfax takes the town . . . . 1643 
The walls and fortifications razed .... 1652 
Cheetham college, or Blue-coat hospital, founded 1653 
Tumult raised by " Syddall, the barber," afterwards 

hanged 171 5 

Prince Charles Edward, the Young Pretender, 
makes it his quarters .... 28 Nov. 1745 

Queen's theatre first built 1753 

The Infirmary instituted, 1752 ; built . . . 1755 
The inhabitants discharged from their obligation to 

grind their corn at Irk-mill 1759 

Cotton goods first exported 1760 

Manchester navigation opened, by Bridgewater 

canal 1761 

Lunatic asylum founded 1765 

Agricultural society instituted 1767 

Christian, king of Denmark, visits Manchester, and 

puts up at the Bull-inn 1768 

Tue Queen's theatre rebuilt 1775 

Subscription concerts established .... 1777 
Riots against machinery . ... 9 Oct. 1779 
Manufacture of muslin attempted here . about 1780 
Philosophical society established . . . . 1781 

New Bailey bridge completed 1785 

Queen's theatre burnt down, 19 June, 1789 ; re- 
erected . . 1790 

New Bailey built „ 

Assembly-rooms, Mosley-street, built . . . . 1792 

Philological Society instituted 1803 

Fever hospital erected, 1805 ; Theatre-royal . . 1806 

The portico erected , 

The weavers' riot 24 May, 1S08 

Exchange and Commercial buildings erected, Jan. 1809 
Manchester and Salford water-works established . ,, 

Blanketeers' meeting 4 Nov. 1817 

Lock-hospital established 1819 

Manchester reform meeting (called Peterloo) of from 
60,000 to 100,000 persons, men, women, and chil- 
dren. Mr. Hunt, who took the chair, had spoken 
a few words, when the meeting was suddenly as- 
sailed by a charge of cavalry, assisted by a 
Cheshire regiment of yeomanry, the outlets being 
occupied by other military detachments. The 
unarmed multitude were driven upon each other ; 
many were ridden over by the horses, or cut down 
by their riders. The deaths were n, men, 
women, and children, and the wounded about 600 

16 Aug. ,, 
New Brunswick-bridge built .... 18.20 



MANCHESTER. 



614 



MANCHESTER. 



Chamber of commerce established .... 1820 

Law library founded „ 

Natural History society projected .... 1S21 

New Quay company founded 1822 

Deaf and Dumb school instituted .... 1823 

Royal Institution formed ,, 

Floral and Horticultural society established . . ,, 

Mechanics' institution founded 1824 

Musical festival first held 1828 

At the launch of a vessel which keeled and upset, 
upwards of 200 persons precipitated into the 

river ; 51 perished 29 Feb. „ 

In a tumult, a factory burnt, and much machinery 

destroyed 3 May, 1829 

New concert-room established , 

The races established 1830 

Manchester and Liverpool railway opened — Mr. 

Huskisson killed (see Liverpool) . 15 Sept. „ 

Manchester made a parliamentary borough (2 mem- 
bers) by Reform act . . . .7 June, 1832 

Choral society established 11833 

Statistical society formed (the first in England), 

2 Sept. ,, 
Church-rate refused .... 3 Sept. 1834 

Manchester incorporated, by Municipal Reform act 1835 
Manchester and Leeds railway act passed . . . 1836 

Geological Society instituted 1838 

Charter of incorporation . . . .2360! 
Manchester police act .... 26 Aug. 1839 
Great disorders in the midland counties among 

artisans : they extend to this town . . Aug. 1842 
British Association meet here . . .23 June, 
Great free-trade meetings held here (see Com Laws) 

14 Nov. 1843 
Important meeting held at the Athenaeum (see 

Athenceum) 3 Oct. 1844 

Great anti-corn law meeting, at which 64,984?. were 

subscribed in four hours ... 23 Dee. 1845 
The Queen's-park, Peel-park, and Philip's-park, 

opened Aug. 1846 

Manchester made a bishopric . . 10 Aug. 184- 

Opening of Owens collegiate institution, to which 

John Owens bequeathed 100,000?. . 10 March, 1851 

The Queen's visit to Manchester . . .7 Oct. 
Great meeting in the Free-trade hall, to greet M. 

Kossuth ZI ]Sf v. 

The engineers' strike ... 3 Jam-26 April! 1852 
The Guild of Literature entertained at a banquet by 

the citizens 3I Aug. 

Opening of the Free library . . . . 2 Sept " 
Great Free-trade banquet ... 2 Nov. 
Manchester declared to be a city, and formally so 

gazetted x g April, 1853 

Great strike of minders and piecers . . 7 Nov. 1855 
Exhibition of Art Treasures determined on, 20 
• May, 1856 ; 1115 old paintings, 689 new paintings, 
969 water-colours, 388 British portraits, &c. col- 
lected ; opened by prince Albert, 5 May ; visited 
by the Queen, 29, 30 June; visited by 1,335,915 
persons; expenses, 99,500?., receipts, 98,500?.; 

closed I? Oct. 1857 

Sir John Potter, a benefactor to the town, died 

-r, ,.■,.. ,. . 2 5 Oct. 1858 

British Association meet here (2nd time), 4 Sept. 1861 
Great county meeting ; 130,000?. subscribed to the 

Lancashire Relief fund 2 Dec 1862 

Meeting of the Church Congress . . 13-15 Oct' 1S63 
Great Reform meeting ; Mr. Bright there. 24 Sept.' 1866 
Manchester Education bill committee appointed 
Additional M.P. granted by Reform act 15 Aug! 1867 
Meeting of Manchester and Liverpool agricultural 

society Au „ 

Trades' Unions commission opened ; evidence ob- ' 

tained of gross outrages . . . 3 . 2 , Sevt 

Two Fenians, Kelly and Deasy, forcibly taken from ' 

a police-van, near Manchester, and Brett a 

policeman killed j3 gg,^ 

23 persons committed for trial ; trial, '29 Oct -12 " 
Nov. ; five condemned to death for murder 1 
Nov. ; others to imprisonment ; Allen, Gould 
and Larkin executed ... 23 Nov' 

Jacob Bright elected M.P. (Lily Maxwell, 'a widow' " 

voted for him) z6 Nov ' 

False alarm of fire at Lang's music-hall, 23 killed, ' 

New town-hall founded .... \V00t' ^ 
Manchester Reciprocity Association founded, Sept.' i860 

3, 4 Nov. ,, 



National Education Union meet . 



Bishop James Prince Lee died, 24 Dec. 1869 ; suc- 
ceeded by James Fraser .... Jan. 1870 
Alexandra- park (provided by the corporation) 

opened 6 Aug. ,, 

Owens college new buildings founded . 23 Sept. ,, 
Grammar school : additional building opened by 

earl of Derby 25 Oct. 1871 

Visit of Mr. Disraeli; enthusiastically received, 

2-5 April, 1872 
The library at the Athenaeum burnt . 24 Sept. 1873 
Proposal to rebuild the cathedral by subscription, 

spring, 1874. 
Athenaeum lecture- rooms opened by lord chief just. 

Cockburn, the marquis of Salisbury, &c. 22 Jan. 1875 
Humphry Nichols, who had given about ioojoooL 

to public charities, died ... 31 Oct. „ 
Statue of Cromwell (by M. Noble) gift of Mrs. 

Abel Heywood, uncovered . . .1 Dec. „ 
Rev. Thos. Middleton bequeaths 14,000?. to Royal 

Infirmary May, 1876 

Proposal to make Owens college a university, July, ,, 
Death of sir Elkanah Armitage, a great benefactor 

26 Nov. ,, 
New town-hall opened, by Mr. Abel Heywood, the 

mayor 13 Sept. 1877 

Owens college made the nucleus of Victoria Univer- 
sity (which see) . . . July, 1880 
New school of art opened by the earl of Derby, 

27 April, 1883 
Visit of the dukes of Edinburgh and Albany 12 Dee. „ 
Formation of a ship canal by junction of the Mersey 
and Irwell ; Mr. William's plan approved about 

26 Sept. 1882 
Fine art and industrial exhibition opened . 20 Oct. „ 
Fire at Messrs. Wilkinson and Hodgkinson's, about 

100,000?. damage 17 Nov. ,, 

New fine art gallery opened . . . 31 Aug. 1883 

Edmund Potter, manufacturer and benefactor of 
the city, died aged 81 . . . .26 Oct. ,, 

Three great meetings to support the government 
and the franchise bill . . . . 26 July, 1884 

Great conservative demonstration, present the 
marquis of Salisbury, sir R.Cross, lord Randolph 
Churchill, and others . . .... 9 Aug. ,, 

Manchester Geographical Society established Jan. 1885 
Manchester returns six M. P. 's by act passed 25 June, ,, 
Royal Jubilee Exhibition of manufactures, science, 
and art opened by the prince and princess of 
Wales, 3 May ; closed .... 10 Nov. 1887 

[4,765,137 .persons admitted ; receipts about 
250,000?. The surplus over 43,000?. given to 
the Manchester Whitworth Institute, Dec. 
1889.] 
Sir Joseph Whitworth's trustees propose the estab- 
lishment of the Whitworth Institute of Art and 

Industry May, 1888 

Prince Albert Victor opens Birchfield recreation 

grounds and lads' club ... 20 Oct. ,, 

Manchester new college, transferred to Oxford, 

opened .25 Oct. 1889 

The Manchester Whitworth Institute chartered, 
Nov. 1889 ; inaugurated by the marquis of Har- 
rington 17 July, 1890 

The Queen's theatre burnt . . . 17 Aug. „ 
Messrs. Holland's cotton mill burnt, estimated 
loss, 120,000?. ..... 17 Aug. ,, 

Statue of Mr. John Bright unveiled by the earl of 

Derby 10 Oct. i8gr 

Earl Spencer installed chancellor of the Victoria 
university 25 May, 1892: 

Manchester ship canal act (with conditions) passed 
July, 1885 ; company formed, proposed capital 
8,000,000?. Oct. 1885. To hold property of Bridge- 
water Navigation Company ; to occupy about 
7,500 square miles. Contract for work taken by 
Lucas and Aird for 5,750,000?. July ; execution of 
the scheme suspended through non-subscription 
of capital announced 24 July, 1886 ; first sod cut 
at Eastham by lord Egerton of Tatton 1 1 Nov. 
1887 ; satisfactory progress in the work reported, 
about one third done .... June, 188a 

Mr. J. A. Walker, the contractor, dies 25 Nov. ; 
progress retarded by the bursting of the Mersey 
bank at Statham 7 Nov. 1890 

Water of the Mersey first admitted into the East- 
ham section of the canal, 18, 19 June, 1891. 
Collapse of part of the embankment near the 



MANCHESTER. 



615 



MANIPUR. 



Eastham section ; new embankment quickly con- 
structed, i2 July ; the first flotilla of traffic from 
Ellesmere port passed down the ship canal into 

the Mersey 16 July, 1891 

Through the error of a pointsman, George Pratt, 
aged 16, a train of carriages conveying rock debris 
and soil was precipitated down an embankment 
60 feet deep, killing 10 men at supper below ; 6 
men on the train leaped from it and thus escaped, 

about 1 a.m 18 July, ,, 

Amount expended, 10,359,597^ up to . 1 Aug. ,, 
The Manchester Corporation lent 3,000,000?., 1891 ; 
1,500,000?. more required .... Aug. 1892 

MANCHESTER, Bishopric of. An order 

in council in Oct. 1838, declared that the sees of 
St. Asaph and Bangor should be united on the next 
vacancy in either, and that the bishopric of Man- 
chester should be immediately created within the 
jurisdiction of the archiepiscopal see of York; the 
county of Lancaster for that purpose to be detached 
from Chester. By act 10 Vict. (1847) the sees of 
St. Asapli and Bangor were to exist undisturbed, 
and that of Manchester was to be created. 

BISHOPS. 

1847. James Prince Lee ; died 24 Dec. 1869. 
1870. James Fraser, Jan. 1870 ; died 22 Oct. 1885. 
1886. James Moorhouse, D.D. (bishop of Melbourne,), 
Jan. 

MANDALAY, see Burmah. 

MANER.U, near Puente de la Reyna Navarre. 
Here took place a conflict between the republicans, 
under Moriones, and the Carlists, under Otto ; both 
claimed a victory ; 6 Oct. 1873. The Carlists were 
considered to have the advantage. 

MANGANESE. Black oxide of manganese, 
long used to decolorise glass, and called Magnesia 
nigra, was formerly included among the ores of iron. 
Its distinctive character was proved by the re- 
searches of Pott (1740), Kaim and Winter! (1770), 
and Scheele and Bergmann (1774) > ^ was nr8 t 
eliminated by Gahn. Manganese combined with 
potassium is called mineral chameleon, trom its 
rapid change of colour under certain circumstances. 
Forehammer employed it as a test for the presence 
of organic matter in water ; and Dr. Angus Smith, 
successfully applied this test to air in 1858. The 
oxide is the important ingredient in Condy's "dis- 
infecting fluid." Manganese bronze, a new metal 
produced by Mr. P. M. Parsons, inventor of white 
brass, 1876. Manganese steel produced by Messrs. 
Pfeil & Co. 1887. 

MANICA, a territory in S. Africa in Mashona- 
land, near Mozambique, which on account of its 
mines, the Portuguese vainly endeavoured to 
acquire in the 16th century. See Zambesi. 
The territory was acknowledged to be under the influ- 
ence of Portugal by the convention of Aug. 1890. 

MANICHEANS, a sect founded by Manes, 
in Persia, about 261. It spread into Egypt, Arabia, 
and Africa. A rich widow, whose servant Manes 
had been, left him much wealth, after which he as- 
sumed the title of Apostle, or envoy of Jesus 
Christ, and announced that he was the paraclete 
or comforter that Christ had promised to send. He 
maintained two principles, the one good he called 
light, the other bad he called darkness. He re- 
jected the Old Testament, and composed a system of 
doctrine from Christianity and the dogmas of the 
ancient fire-worshippers. Sapor, king of Persia, 
believed in him at one time ; but afterwards 
banished him. He was burnt alive by Bahrain or 
Varanes, king of Persia, in 277. His followers 
dispersed, and several sects sprang from them. 



MANILLA (built about 1573), capital of the 
Philippine isles, a great mart of Spanish commerce. 
Manilla was taken by the English, 6 Oct. 1762, 
when the archbishop engaged to ransom it for about 
a million sterling; never wholly paid. Manilla 
has suffered greatly by earthquakes. It is stated 
that nearly 3000 persons perished by one in 1645. 
In Sept. 1852, the city was nearly destroyed, and 
on 3 July, 1863, about a thousand lives were lost. 
The duke of Edinburgh was hospitably entertained 
here, 19 Nov. 1869. See Earthquakes 1852, 1863, 
1880. Destructive typhoon, 20, 21 Oct. 1882. 

MANIPUR (Manipore), a small native state, 
N.E. India, adjoining Assam and Burmah; popula- 
tion, 1881,221,070; army about 5,000. 
The state has long been protected by the British from 
theattacks of the Burmese. In 1834, Gumbheer Singh, 
the restored rajah, died, and was succeeded by his 
son, Chandra Kirti Sing, two years old. The regent, 
Nar Singh, a relative, usurped the government, and 
ruled till his death in 1850, when the young rajah was 
restored ; a British resident being afterwards p'a.'ed in 
the capital, with good effect. Much trouble was giv( n 
by rival members of his family till 1866 ; he died in 
1885 or 1886. He left eight sons, who formed opposirg 
parties. The eldest. Sura Chandra Singh, Lecan.e 
maharajah, and appionted his eldest brother, Kula 
Chandra Dhuya Singh, jubraj, or heir-ap parent, after- 
wards termed regent, a weak, incapable man. In Sept. 
1890, his brother, Takendrajil Singh, the senaputti, or 
commander-in-chief, dethroned the maharajah and set 
up the jubraj in his place. The maharajah retired to 
Calcutta. 
On 21 Feb. 1891, Mr. James W. Quinton, chief commis- 
sioner of Assam, was directed to proceed with a 
sufficient force to Manipur, to recognise the regent, 
and to remove the senaputti. He entered Manipur 
22 March, with 470 men and officers, civil and 
military, and was well received by the regent and 
the senaputti, but could not succeed in getting 
the latter to attend a durbar or court. Mr. Quin- 
ton as an ultimatum required the surrender of 
the senaputti, the letter being taken by Mr. F. St 
C. Grimwood, political agent, without any result, 23 
March. On the 24th, colonel Skene proceeded with 
250 men to arrest the senaputti at his house within 
the fort inchisure, of which they obtained possession 
after a sharp struggle, during which lieut. Bracken- 
bury was mortally wounded. The senaputti had 
escaped. About 10 a.m., the Manipuris opened fire 
on the residency in front, and about noon on the rear, 
and shelled it. About 4 p.m. the troops were with- 
drawn from the senaputti's house, and all the force 
was posted in the residency, which was seriously 
damaged by artillery about 5 p.m., and the ammuni- 
tion began to fall short. About 7 p.m. negotiations 
were re-opened by letter from Mr. Quinton, and the 
firing ceased, but the conditions offered by the regent 
could not be accepted. Having been invited by the 
senaputti halfway between the residency and the 
palace, Mr. Quinton took with him colonel Skene, 
Mr. F. St. C. Grimwood, Mr. H. Cossins, an I lieut. 
Simpson, unarmed, and without escort. After a long 
parley, the party entered the fort and were seen no 
more, and it was afterwards discovered that they 
were all killed (beheaded or otherwise). The tiring 
re-commenced about midnight. The ammunition 
having been greatly reduced, it was decided to retire 
from the residency, and to march across the country 
to meet captain Cowley's advancing party. This was 
done about 2 a.m. on the 25th, the party taking with 
them 17 wounded, and Mrs. Grimwood, who displayed 
much judgment, courage, and humanity. There was 
no serious resistance during the march, but a few 
skirmishes occurred. About 10 a.m. they nut captain 
Cowley's party, who supplied them with food and 
other assistance. They continued their march, ar- 
riving, mi 30 March, atLakhipuron the Cachar frontier. 
Lieut. C. J. W. Grant hearing, on 27 March, of the 
disaster at Manipur, volunteered to attempt the relief 
of the British captives, and marched with So native 
soldiers from Tainu in Burmah, 28 March; entrenched 
himself near Thobal, 31 March; held out against the 
attacks of the Manipuri army (about 3,000) till 7 



MANITOBA. 



616 



MANSION-HOUSE. 



April ; and resisted negotiations judiciously ; 

only i killed. 

[Lieut. Grant was made major and otherwise 

honoured.] 

About 2,000 Manipuris, entrenched near Tamu, 

attacked and disperse 1 by general Graham's 

party, captain Drury being especially successful, 

25 April ; three columns under gen. Graham, and 
others from different directions converge at 
Manipur, which they find totally deserted, the 
regent, senaputti, and other princes having fled, 

26 April ; the palace had been blown up ; the 
heads of Mr. Quinton and his companions were 
found in the enclosure. 

Funeral ceremony was held over the exhumed bodies 
of Mr. Quinton and his companions, 30 April ; 
general Collett was left in command at Manipur, 
some of the troops left. The Manipuris returned 
to their homes, May ; the regent and his minister 
were captured, 8 May, and the senaputti, 

about 23 May, 1891 

The regent, the senaputti, and prince Angao Sena, 
a younger brother, were tried for rebellion and 
abetting to murder, and sentenced to death (all 
appealed) 9-20 June, ,, 

The sentences of death on the senaputti and the 
Tongal general, as implicated in the murders, 
were confirmed. The sentences on the regent 
and his younger brother commuted to transporta- 
tion for life to the Andaman Islands ; forfeiture 
of property, announced 10 Aug. The senaputti 
and the Tongal general hanged at Manipur, 

13 -A-Ug- ,, 

It was decided that Manipur should still be ruled 
by a native prince, 23 Aug. ; and Chura Chand, 
.aged 5, great grandson of Nar Singh, was appointed 
rajah, 13 Sept. ; dignity to be hereditary, subject 
to the government of India ; an annual tribute to 
be paid ; declaration communicated . . Oct. „ 
'The young prince was invested with a dignity, 

29 April, 1892 

MANITOBA, see Rupert- s Land and Hudson' s 
Bay (N. America). Manitoba was made a part of 
the confederation in 1870. Capital, Winnipeg. 
Population, 1886, 108,640 ; 1891,154,442. Lieut.- 
gov., John C. Schultz. A ienian attack on the 
.colony was suppressed by American troops about 
12 Oct. 1871. For insurrection in the neighbouring 
provinces in March, 1885, see Canada. For the 
Red Iliver Railway disputes see Canada, Oct. 1888. 

MANNHEIM (S. Germany), founded in 1606, 
became the court residence of the palatine of the 
Rhine in 17 19 ; but his becoming elector of Bavaria 
in 1777 caused the removal of the court to Munich. 
Mannheim surrendered to the French, under com- 
mand of general Pichegru, 20 Sept. 1795. On 31 
Oct. the Austrians under general Wurmser defeated 
the French near the city. Several battles were 
fought with various success in the neighbourhood 
during the wars of Napoleon I. Kotzebue,the popu- 
lar dramatist, was assassinated at Mannheim, by 
Sand, a student of Wurtzburg, 2 April, 1819. Popu- 
lation, 1890, 79 044. 

MANOMETER (Greek, manos, thin), an in- 
strument for measuring the rarity of the atmo- 
sphere, gases, and vapours. One is said to have 
been made by Otto von Guericke about 1660, and 
the "statical barometer" of Robert Boyle was 
a simple manometer. Various forms of the appara- 
tus were devised by Ramsden (about 1773), DV R° v 
(1777), by Cazalet (1789), and by Bourdon and 
others. A manometer was constructed for the in- 
vestigation respecting the elasticity of steam con- 
ducted by Prony, Arago, Dulong, and Girard, 1830. 

MANOBS are as ancient as the Saxon times, 
and imply a territorial district with its jurisdiction, 
rights, and perquisites. They were formerly called 
baronies, and still are lordships. Each lord was 
empowered to hold a court called the court-baron 



for redressing misdemeanors, and settling disputes 
between the tenants. Cabinet Lawyer. 

MANSFIELD COLLEGE, Oxford, for the 
study of Nonconformist theology opened in tempo- 
rary rooms 19 Oct. 1886. The new college solemnly 
opened, 14 Oct. 1889. 

MANSION-HOUSE, London. The resi- 
dence of the lord mayor. It is situate at the east 
end of the Poultry on the site of the ancient Stocks- 
market. It was built of Portland stone by George 
Dance the elder, 1739-53 > repaired and redecorated, 
1867-68 ; see Mayor. 

Attempt to blow up part of Mansion- House ; a box 
of gunpowder (40 lbs.) discovered in a window, 
east side, about 11 p.m. 16 March, 1881 ; again, 

12 May, 18.82 

Visited by the queen, after opening the People's' 

Palace 14 May, 1887 

Mansion-House Funds : — 

French Relief Fund for the sufferers by the siege 
of Paris, was established at a meeting . j8 Jan. 1871 

In four days about 24,000?. had been received ; up 
to 4 March, 113, 599L ; finally, 126,609?. Col. H. 
Stuart Wortley and Mr. George Moore went to 
Paris on 3 Feb. with 68 tons of provisions, and 
personally superintended theirdistribution by the 
clergy, foreign consuls, and others. An official 
report issued by the lord mayor, dated 7 Nov. 
1871, showed a balance of 4679?. in hand. 

Bengal Relief Fund, begun 24 Jan. 1874 ; prince 
of Wales became patron, 24 Feb. ; public meeting, 

14 April; above 55,000?. subscribed, 19 March; 
125,000?., 27 July, when the fund was closed. 

Eastern War Sufferers' Fund ; 9400?. received 
up to 6 Oct. 1876; 18 Oct. 13,000?. ; 27 Oct. 
14,200?. 

Inundations Relief Fund ; 1877, received, 11 Jan. 
3600?. ; 20 Jan. 8100?. ; closed, 14 Feb., 8792?. 

Indian Famine Relief Fund, 1877-8; announced, 

15 Aug. ; received up to 20 Aug. 12,000?. ; 11 Sept. 
135,000?.; 23 Oct. 415,000?.; 5 Nov. 446,100?.; 
(fund declared closed by request of the duke of 
Buckingham, governor-general of Madras) ; since 
received, 22 Dec. 493,000?. ; 15 Jan. 1878, 503,000?. 
Wound up, 515,200?. received ; — 506,063?. sent to 
India 20 May, 187S 

" Eurydice " Fund (see Wrecks, 24 March, 1878) ; 
received for families of the men, 5496?.; trans- 
mitted 25 Sept. ,, 

" Princess Alice " Relief Fund ; opened 5 Sept. 

1878 ; received, 21st Sept. 25,000?.; 1 Oct. 31,400?. 
See Princess Alice. 

Abercarne Colliery Explosion Fund ; opened 
14 Sept. 1878 ; received, 21 Sept. 11,500?.; 21 Oct. 
29,300?. : above 18,000?. received in the country. 

Dinas Colliery Explosion Fund (for 180 widows 
and children) ; opened in .... Feb. 1879 

Hungarian Floods Fund ; opened 14 March ; re- 
ceived 18 March, about 4,200?. ; May 1, 11,248?. ,, 

Zulu War Fund ; opened, 31 March ; received 
2 April, 3,400?. ; 25 April, 10,300?. . . ,, 

Rowland Hill Memorial proposed 9 Sept. 1879 ; 
the lord mayor, Whetham, announced that as 
about 100?. only had been subscribed ; the money 
would be returned ; another committee was then 
formed, and lord mayor Truscott assumed charge 
of the fund, 11 Nov. ; 6,300?. received 12 Dec. 

1879 ; about 16,000?. 26 Feb. 1880 ; 17,286?. 5 Jan. 1881 
Duchess of Marlborough's Irish Relief Fund ; 

opened on appeal by her grace, 22 Dec. 1879 ; 

about 2,300?. received 29 Dec. ; total sent to 

Dublin, 34,164?. 6s. 6d. ; fund closed . 10 Aug. 1880 
" Atalanta " Fund ; to relieve sufferers by loss of 

the Atalanta (which see) ; opened . . 15 June, ,, 
Truro Cathedral Fund opened 14 July ; received, 

1,085? 9 Nov. „ 

Risca Colliery Explosion Fund, opened 16 July ; 

received 7,317?. 9 Nov. ,, 

Naini Tal Landslip Fund ; opened . 22 Oct. „ 
Agram Earthquake Fund ; opened . 17 Nov. „ 
Penygraig Colliery Explosion Fund ; opened, 

13 Dee. ,, 
Chios or, Scio Earthquake Fund ; opened 7 April, 1881 



MANSION-HOUSE. 



617 



MAEBUEG. 



Defence or Property in Ireland Fund, (" to up- 
hold the rights of property against organized 
combination, to defend and to sustain freedom of 
contract and liberty of action,'') begun, 13 Dec; 
1881 ; 18,226/. applied, balance of 1,2682. trans- 
ferred to Irish Defence Union . . 18 Dee. 

Egyptian Refugees Fund: 2,100?., 30 June, 1882; 
2,700?., 6 July ; 7,800?., n Aug. ; 8,000?., 10 Sept. ; 
21, 308? 10 April, 

Relief of Persecuted Russian Jews Fund, begun 

1 Feb. 1882 ; 46,000/., received, 13 Feb. ; 50,365/. 
ao Feb. ; about 72,000/., 19 May. Fund closed 
108,759/., received (over 110,000/. received, finally 
closed 9 July, 1886) 25 Oct. 

Fund for Emigration of the Unemployed, es- 
tablished 13 April; unsuccessful, closed 25 April, 

Iceland Famine Fund, formed 29 Aug. 1882 ; 
1,500/. received 6 Sept. ; 2,800/. 14 Sept. ; 3,700/. 

21 Sept.; 5,505/., closed .... April, 
Clay Cross Colliery Explosion Fund, about 14 

Nov.; 496/. ios. 61I. remitted ; fund closed, 26 Jan. 
Jamaica Fire Relief Fund, established, 22 Jan. 

received 4,400/. ; 21 Feb. 7,620/. ; closed, received 

7,850/. . 9 April, 

West Coast of Scotland Fund, 2,200/. received 

3 April ; 3,964/. 12 April ; 4,861/. 8 May; 5,159/. 

fund closed 23 July, 

Fund for Sufferers by North Sea Gale, 

(6 March) 12 April, 

Ischia Earthquake Fund, opened 14 Aug. ; 1,200/. 

22 Aug. ; about 29,000/. 12 Oct. ; closed 31 Oct. 
Egyptian Cholera Fund, opened 31 Aug. about 

2,731/. received ; closed . . . .9 Nov. 

Eastern Counties Earthquake Fund, begun 26 
April, 1884 ; 2,000/. received, 2 May ; 3,000/. 5 May ; 
6,000/. 15 May ; 9,900/. 10 June ; 10,413/. 31 July, 

Nisero Fund (see Nisero), established 17 July ; 
405/. received from earl of Derby and others ; 600/. 
received from Rotterdam, Aug.; 1,237/. received, 
fund closed 1 Dec. 

Neapolitan Cholera Fund, 1,000/. sent off, Oct. 1 
final remittance, 323/.. .... Nov. 

Gordon National Memorial Fund, (see Gordon 
Memorial) begun 25 Feb. ; 13,500/. received up to 
8 April ; king of Belgium gives 100/. . 8 April, 

Spanish Cholera Fund begun n Sept. ; 4191Z. 
received ; closed 4 Nov. 

Unemployed Relief Fund, begun about 5 Feb. ; 
over 3,300/. received ; 76,225/. 26 March ; 76,819?. 
31 March ; 77,910/. (1,200/. collected in the streets 
3 April) 7 April; closed 19 April ; total received 
78,629/. 

St. Paul's Cathedral Approach Fund, begun 

about 5 Feb. 

Earthquake Fund for sufferers in Greece and 
Charleston, U.S. 7 Sept. ; 5,000/. 17 Sept. ; 6,500/. 
24 Sept. ; closed .... 26 Oct. 

Colonial and Indian Institute Fund proposed as 
a memorial of the queen's jubilee by the prince of 
Wales 13 Sept. 1886 ; 27,500/. received 27 Oct. 

Exeter Theatre Fire Relief Fund 8 Sept. ; the 
queen gives 100/. ; announced 12 Sept. ; 1,300/. to 

16 Sept. 

Prussian Inundation Fund, 9 April ; 3,000/. 
received 13 April, 

Chinese Famine Fund proposed 22 Jan. ; 5,300?. 
received 30 Jan.; 18,250/. 4 March; 21,706/. 26 
March ; fund closed, over 32,654/. received May, 

The fund in aid of the Royal Agricultural Jubilee 
Show (see Windsor) amounted to 5,516/. 1 Aug. 

Pasteur Institute Fund established (see Hydro- 
phobia), 1 July, 1889 ; received from the prince of 
Wales 105/., the duke of Westminster 200/., the 
duke of Northumberland 100/., and many others ; 
amount received, 2,839/ Dec. 

Fruit Culture Fund begun by the lord mayor ; 
the duke of Westminster gave 50/., baroness Bur- 
dett-Coutts 50/., and others . . .14 Oct. 

Lord Napier of Magdala Memorial Fund. 
Received from city companies and others 2,000?., 
8 Feb. 1890 ; total received, 5,446/. . 10 Nov. 

Llanerch Colliery Explosion Fund. Contri- 
butions received, 11 Feb., 363/. ; 1 March, 5,000/. ; 
7,333/. remitted 23 May, 

Morfa Colliery Explosion Fund, 15 March. 
Contributions received, 22 March, about 1,300/. ; 

2 June, 2,800/. ....... 

Lord Strathnairn (sir Hugh Rose) Memorial 



Fund. Amount received, 17 June, 1,500?. 2,700?. 

6 Nov. Liberal contributions received from 

Indian princes 1890 

Salonica Fire Relief Fund, 19 Sept. 3,373?. 

received, 7 Nov. ; fund closed . . 8 Nov. ,, 
Serpent Wreck Relief Fund (see Navy, 10 Nov. 

1890, el seq.) started by request about 20 Nov.; 

2,750/. received 8 Jan. 1891 

Mauritius Hurricane Fund, opened 30 April, 

1892; received about 1,300/., 24 May; (closed) 

12,083/. ... 20 Sept. 1892 

MANSOUEAH (Lower Egypt). Here Louis 
IX. was defeated by the Saracens and taken pri- 
soner, 5 April, 1250. He gave Damietta and 400,000 
livres for his ransom. Mansourah suffered much 
by cholera, summer, 1883. 

MANTTNEA (Arcadia, Greece). Here— (1) 
Athenians and Argives were defeated by Agis II. of 
Sparta, 418 B.C. (2) And here Epaminondas and 
the Thebans defeated the combined forces of Lace- 
daemon, Achaia, Elis, Athens, and Arcadia, 362 B.C. 
Epaminondas was killed in the engagement, and 
Thebes lost its power among the Grecian states. The 
emperor Adrian built a temple at Mantinea in honour 
of his favourite Alcinoiis. The town was also called 
Antigonia. Utber battles were fought near it. 

MANTUA (N. Italy), an Etruscan city, near 
which Virgil was born, 70 B.C. Mantua was ruled 
by theGonzagas, lords of Mantua, from 1328 to 1708, 
when it was seized by the emperor Joseph I. It 
surrendered to the French, 2 Feb. 1797, after a 
siege of eight months ; retaken by the Austrians 
and Russians, 30 July, 1799, after a short siege. 
After the battle of Marengo (14 June, 1800), the 
French again obtained possession of it. It was in- 
cluded in the kingdom of Italy till 1814, when it 
was restored to the Austrians, who surrendered it to 
the Italians, 11 Oct. 1866, after the peace. 

MANU, see Menu. 

MAOEIS, see New Zealand. 

MAPLE-TEEE. The Acer rubrum, or scarlet 
maple, was brought here from N. America, before 
1656. The Acer Negundo, or ash-leaved maple, 
before 1688. From the Acer saccharinum (intro- 
duced here in 1 735) the Americans make good sugar. 

MAPS, see Charts, and Mercator. 

MAEANON, see Amazon. 

MAEATHON (in Attica). Here, on 28 or 29 
Sept 490 B.C., the Greeks, only 11,000 strong, de- 
feated the Persian army amounting to about 1 10,000. 
The former were commanded by Miltiades, Aristides, 
and Themistocles. Among the slain (about 6400) is 
said to have been Hippias, who had been expelled 
from A thens, and was the instigator of the war. The 
Persian arniy was forced to retreat to Asia; see 
Greece. 
Investigations in 1890 on the presumed site of this battle 

led to the discovery of vases, and the probable grave 

of the 192 Athenians who fell. 

MAEBLE. Dipcenus and Scyllis, statuaries of 
Crete, were the first artists who sculptured marble, 
and polished their works; all statues previously 
being of wood, about 568 B.C. Pliny. The edifices 
or monuments of Rome were constructed of, or orna- 
mented with, tine marble. The ruins of Palmyra 
are chiefly of white marble. The marble arch, 
London, erected at Buckingham palace, 1830, was 
removed to Hyde-park, March, 1851. 

MAEBUEG (VV. Germany). The cathedral 
was founded, 1231 ; and the first Protestant univer- 
sity in 1527. It suffered much during the Seven 
years' war, 1753-O0. 



MARCH. 



618 



MARKET. 



MARCH, the first month of the Roman year, 
until Numa added January and February, 713 B.C. 
It is said that Romulus gave to this month the 
name of his supposed father, Mars; though Ovid 
observes, that the people of Italy had the month of 
March before the time of Romulus, but placed it 
differently in the calendar. The year commenced 
on the 25th of this month till 1753; see Year. The 
March of 1845 an d 1886 had much frost and skating. 

MAECHES- The old boundaries between 
England and Wales, and England and Scotland. 
The Lords Marchers of the Welsh borders had vice- 
regal authority ; the wardens of the Scotch marches 
were subordinate officers. These powers were abol- 
ished, 1536, and 1689. 

MARCHFELD (Austria). Here Ottocar II. 
of Bohemia was defeated and slain by his rival, the 
emperor Rodolph of Hapsburg, 26 Aug. 1278 ; see 
Bohemia. 

\ MARCIONITES,Mlowersof Marcion, a here- 
tic, about 150, who preceded the Manichees, and 
taught similar doctrines. Cave. 

MARCOMANNI, a people of Southern Ger- 
many, expelled the Boii from Bohemia, and, united 
with other tribes, invaded Italy about 167, but were 
repelled by the emperors Antoninus and Verus. They 
were defeated by the legion called, from a fabled 
miracle, the Thundering Legion, 179; and finally 
driven beyond the Danube by Aurelian, 271. 

MARENGO (N. Italy). Here the French army, 
commanded by Bonaparte, after crossing the Alps 
into Piedmont, attacked the Austrians, 14 June, 
1800 ; his army was retreating, when the arrival of 
general Dessaix turned the fortunes of the day. The 
slaughter on both sides was dreadful. By a treaty 
between the Austrian general Melas and Bonaparte, 
signed 15 June, the latter obtained twelve strong 
fortresses, and became master of Italy. 

MARESCHALS or Marshals, in France, 
were the esquires of the king, and originally had 
the command of the vanguard to observe the enemy 
and to choose proper places for its encampment. 
Till the time of Francis I., in 15 15, there were but 
two marshals, who had 500 livres per annum in 
war, but no stipend in time of peace. The number 
was afterwards greatly increased. Napoleon's mar- 
shals were renowned for skill and courage ; see 
Marshal. 

MARGARINE, see under Butter. 

MARGATE, Kent, Royal sea-ba'hinginfirmary 
founded 1792, enlarged 1882. The town-hall was 
erected in 1820. Population, 1881, 16,030 ; 1891, 
18,419. 

MARIAN PERSECUTION, see Protestants. 

MARIGNANO (nowMAlEGNAlfO), N. Italy, 
near Milan. Three battles have been fought near 
here — I. Francis I. of France defeated the duke of 
Milan and the Swiss, 13, 14 Sept. 1515 ; above 20,000 
men were slain. This conflict has been called the 
Battle of the Giants. — 2. Near here was fought the 
battle of Pavia (which see), 24 February, 1525. — 3. 
After the battle of Magenta, 4 June, 1859, the Aus- 
trians entrenched themselves at Malegnano. The 
emperor sent marshal Baraguay d' Uilliers with 
16,000 men to dislodge them, which he did with a 
loss of about 850 killed and wounded, on 8 June. 
The Austrians are said to have lost 1400 killed and 
wounded, and 900 prisoners, out of 18,000 engaged. 

MARINE BIOLOGICAL ASSOCIA- 
TION. See Biology. 



MARINER'S COMPASS, see Compass, and 



MARINES, soldiers serving on ship-board, 
were first established vsith the object of form- 
ing a nursery to man the fleet. An order in 
council, dated 16 Oct. 1664, authorised 1200 sol- 
diers to be raised and formed into one regiment. In 
1684, the third regiment of the line was called the 
Marine Regiment ; but the system of having soldiers 
exclusively for sea service was not carried into effect 
until 1698, when two marine regiments were formed. 
More regiments were embodied in subsequent years; 
and in 1 74 1 the corps consisted of ten regiments, 
each 1000 strong. In 1759 they numbered 18,000 
men. In the latter years of the French war, ending 
in 1815, they amounted to 31,400, but there weie 
frequently more than 3000 supernumeraries. The 
jollies, as they are called, frequently distinguished 
themselves. The "Royal Marine Forces" (so 
named 1 May, 1802), now comprehend artillery and 
light infantry. The vote for 1857 was for l6,000> 
marines, inclusive of 1500 artillery. P- S. Nicolas. 
Marine Engineers' Institution, founded in 1872. 
Officers of the marines made equal in rank with 
those in the army and navy, Dec. 1882. 

MARINE SOCIETY (for the maintenance 
and instruction of boys for the navy), was founded 
by Jonas Hanway, 1756, and incorporated, 1772. It 
instituted the first training ship on the Thames, 
1786. H.M.S. Warspite was burnt, without loss 
of life, 3 Jan. 1876 ; and the boys were removed to 
the Conqueror. 

MARINO, SAN, a republic in central Italy. 
Its origin is ascribed to St. Marinus, a hermit, who 
resided here in the 5th century. Its independence 
lost for a short time, to Goesar Borgia, 1503, and to 
the pope, 1739; was confirmed by pope Pius VII. 
in 1817. A convention with Italy, 27 March, 1872. 
Population, in 1 858, about 8000 ; in 1869, 7303 ; in 
1874, 7816; in 1891, about 8,000. 

MARIOLATRY, worship of the virgin Mary, 
began in the 4th century, greatly increased in the 
10th. 

MARIONETTES, puppet plays. The fan- 
toccini, popular in Italy in the 15th century; in 
the 18th in England, and Germany. See Punch. 

MARITIME EXHIBITION at Havre 
opened by representatives of the government 1 June, 
1868 : (anoihcr at Havre, 7 May, 1887) ; a similar 
exhibition was opened at Naples by the prince of 
Piedmont, 17 April, 1871; at Paris, 10 July, 1875; 
at Liverpool, 11 May, 1886. 

An International Maritime conference, at which 23 
nations were represented by 50 delegates, Portu- 
gal not included, met at Washington, and were 
received by Mr. secretary Blaine and introduced 
to president. Harrison. Adm. Franklin, U.S., 

elected president 16 Oct. 1889 

Conference closed 31 Dec. ,, 

[Subjects discussed by committees : lights, signal- 
ling, rules of the road, life saving systems, sea- 
worthiness, sailors, routes at sea.] 
A government blue book issued on the subject, 

Nov. 1890 

MARK, a silver coin of the northern nations, 
and the name mark-lubs is still retained in Denmark. 
In England, the mark means the sum of 13s. qd., 
and the name is retained in law courts. 

MARKET, see Smithjield, Metropolitan Cattle 
Market, Leadenhall, Farringdon, Columbia, and 
Coveut Garden Markets. New market constructed 
by Great Eastern Railway Co. at Bishopsgate 



MARK'S, ST. 



619 



MARRIAGE. 



street; opened, I July, 1882. Wholesale fish, and 

poultry market opened, 19 Oct. 1882. 

Royal Commission on Market Rights and Tolls 

appointed in 1888 ; issued first report March, 1889 
The Market and Fairs act, 1887, amended . . 1891 
Final report Jan. 1891, recommending reforms. 

MARK' S, St. (Venice) . The church was erected 
between 977 and 1043. 

The restorations of the Palace of the Doges were 
completed and exposed to view . . Nov. 1889 

MARLBOROUGH, a town in Wiltshire ; a 
royal manor mentioned in Domesday book. King 
Henry III. passed the " Statutes of Malbridge " in 
the ancient castle in 1267. Marlborough returned 
two members to parliament since Edward I. Ab- 
sorbed into the county, 1885. The grammar 
school was founded by Edward VI. — Marlbokough 
House, Pall Mall, London, was built by Wren for 
the duke of Marlborough, 1709-10; was bought for 
the princess Charlotte and prince Leopold in 1817 ; 
held by queen Adelaide till 1849, and became the 
residence of the prince of Wales, 1863. See Gems. 
Population, 1881, 3,343; 1891, 3,012. 

MARLOWE MEMORIAL, a committee de- 
termine to erect a memorial to Christopher Mar- 
lowe, the dramatist (1564-93), in Canterbury, Dec. 
1888. The statue unveiled by Mr. H. Irving, 
16 Sept. 1891. 

MAROCCO, see Morocco. 

MARONLTES, Christians in the East, fol- 
lowers of one Maron in the 5th century ; they are 
said to have embraced the errors of the Jacobites, 
Nestorians, and Monothelites. About 1 180 they 
numbered 40,000, living in the neighbourhood of 
mount Libanus, and were of service to the Christian 
kings of Jerusalem. They were reconciled to the 
church of Rome soon after. Eor an account of the 
massacres of the Marouites in i860, see Druses. 

MAROONS, a name given in Jamaica to run- 
away negroes. When the island was conquered 
from the Spaniards, a number of their negroes tied 
to the hills and became very troublesome to the 
colonists. A war of eight years' duration ensued, 
when the Maroons capitulated on being permitted 
to retain their free settlements, about 1730. In 
1795 they again took arms, but were speedily put 
down and many were transported. Brande. 

MARPHSTGER, village, near Saarbruck. The 
Virgin and Satan said to have been seen by children ; 
and miracles wrought, 3 July, 1876. The priest, 
Neureuter, acquitted of the charge of imposture, 
April, 1879. 

MAR-PRELATE TRACTS, virulently at- 
tacking episcopacy, were mostly written, it is 
believed, by Henry I'enry, who was cruelly executed, 
29 May, 1593, for writing seditious words against the 
queen (found about his person when seized). The 
tracts appeared about 1586. Some had very singular 
titles: such as '* An Almand for a Parrat," "Hay 
any Worke for Cooper ? " &c. They were collected 
and reprinted in 1843. 

MARQUE, LETTERS OF, see Privateer. 

.MARQUESAS ISLANDS (Polynesia) were 
discovered in 1595 by Mendana, who named them 
after the viceroy of Peru, Marquesa do Mendocja. 

They were visited by Cook in 1 774, and were taken 
possession of by the Trench admiral Uupetit Thouars, 
I May, 1842. 

MARQUIS, a dignity, called by the Saxons 
markin-reve, by the Germans markgrave, took its 



original from mark or March, a limit or bound (see 
Marches); the office being to guard or govern the 
frontiers of a province. Marquis is next in honour 
to a duke. The first Englishman on whom the title- 
was conferred was the favourite of king Richard II. r 
Robert de Vere, earl of Oxford, created marquis of 
Dublin, and placed in parliament between the dukes 
and earls, 1385. James Stewart, second son oi 
James III. of Scotland, was made marquis of Or- 
mond, in 1476, without territories, afterwards earl 
of Ross. 

MARRIAGE was instituted by God {Gen. ii.) t 
and confirmed by Christ {Mark x.), who performed 
a miracle at the celebration of one {John ii.). Ma- 
trimonial ceremonies among the Greeks are ascribed 
to Cecrops, king of Athens, 1554 B.C. See Age T 
Affinity. 

Law favouring marriage passed at Rome . .B.C. iS 
Priests forbidden to marry after ordination a.d. 325. 

Marriage in Lent forbidden 366- 

It was forbidden to bishops in 692, and to priests in 
1015 ; and these latter were obliged to take the 

vow of celibacy 1073. 

Statute prohibiting marriages between certain 

persons within prohibited degrees 25 Hen. VIII. 1533-4. 
The celebration of marriage, as a sacrament, in 
churches ordained by pope Innocent III. about 
1199 ; and so affirmed by the council of Trent . . 1547 
Marriages solemnised by justices of the peace under 

an act of the commons 1655 

A tax laid on marriages, viz. : marriage of a duke, 

50?. ; of a common person, 2s. dd 1695 

Irregular marriages prohibited (see Fleet Marriages) 1753. 

Marriages again taxed 1784 

New marriage act, 1822 ; partially repealed . . 1823. 
Acts prohibiting marriages by Roman Catholic 
priests in Scotland, or other ministers not belong- 
ing to the church of Scotland, repealed . . 1834. 
The present marriage act for England, authorising 
marriages without religious ceremony, by regis- 
trar's certificate, or in a dissenting chapel, passed 
1836 [amended in 1837 and 1856]. 

Marriage Registration act 1837 

Amendment acts passed in . . . 1840 and 1856 
A bill to suppress irregular marriages in Scotland 

(see Gretna) passed in ,, 

A court established for Divorce and Matrimonial 
Causes, which has the power of giving sentence of 
judicial separation for adulter} - , cruelty, or deser- 
tion without cause for two years and upward (see 

Divorce) 1857 

Act to render the children of certain marriages 
within forbidden degrees {with deceased wife's 
sister) legitimate ; such marriages in future pro- 
hibited (Lyndhurst's act, which see) ; (efforts made 
to legalise marriage with deceased wife's sister 

ever since) 1835, 

The Marriage Law Reform association instituted (to 
legalise a marriage with a deceased wife's sister), 
15 Jan. 1851. A bill for this purpose passed the 
commons, 2 July ; was rejected by the lords, 23 
July, 1858 ; again rejected, 1862 : and again by 
the commons, 2 May, 1866 ; and 30 April, 1870, 
rejected by the lords (77-73) 19 May, 1870 ; passed 
by commons, 9 March, rejected by the lords (97- 
71), 27 March, 1871 ; passed by commons in 1872, 
1873 ; and rejected by the lords (49-74), 14 March, 
1873; rejected by commons (171-142), 17 Feb. 
1875; by the lords (101-81); (the prince of Wales 
and duke of Edinburgh voted for it), 6 May, 1S79 '• 
(101-90), 25 June, 1S80; (132-128), 12 June, 1882; 
read second time by commons, (165-148) 11 June ; 
rejected by lords (145-140) . . .28 June, 1883 
Resolution for it adopted by the 001111110118(238-127) 
6 May, 1884; rejected by the lords (149-127) 24 
May, 1886; read 2nd time by commons (230-182) 
18 April, 1888 ; again for Scotland 3 April : re- 
jected by the lords (147-120) . . 9 May, 1889. 
Read 2nd' time by the commons (222 — 155), 30 
April, 1890; (202—155) 11 Feb. ; withdrawn, 

17 June, 1891 
These marriages made legal by the legislature at 
Melbourne, Nov. 1S72 ; at Sydney, 1875; in 
New Zealand, 1880 ; Canada .... 1882 



MAEEIAGE. 



620 



MAES. 



A bill for the recognition in Great Britain of such 
colonial marriages was read a 2nd time in the 
commons, 28 Feb. 1877 ; (21 majority) 27 Feb. 1878 

In the case of Brook v. Brook, it was decided that 
such a marriage celebrated in a foreign country 
was not valid 17 April, 1858 

This decision confirmed on appeal to the house of 
lords, ou 18 March, t86i 

A commission appointed to inquire into the work- 
ing of the marriage laws of Scotland, 22 March, 
1865, reported strongly in favour of changes being 
made to insure uniformity, simplicity, and cer- 
tainty July, 1868 

Consular Marriage Act, enabling acting British 
consuls abroad to solemnize marriages, passed 

16 July, 1868 

The law amended by act passed . . . 1890 

Married Women's property act passed . 9 Aug. 1870 

Marriage Law of Ireland amended by an act passed 
10 Aug. 1870 ; amended .... July, 1871 

Matrimonial Causes Act (which see), passed . . 1878 

An act to encourage regular marriages in Scotland ; 
passed 8 Aug. „ 

Marriage Act passed 1886 extends hour of marriage 
from 12 to 3 p.m. in England and Wales. 

Marriages Abroad act passed . . 27 June, 1892 

Commander Christopher Bethell's marriage with 
Teepoo, a JBaralong woman, in Bechuanaland, 
according to native rites, declared invalid in 
England ('^Bethell v. Hildyard ") . 15 Feb. 1888 

REGISTERED MARRIAGES IN ENGLAND AND WALES. 



1750 


. 40,300 


1854 


■ 159,727 


c8oo . 


• • 73 


228 


1855 (Crimean Wa 


') 152,113 


1810 


. . . 84 


473 


1856 


• i59>337 


E815 . 


. . 91 


946 


1857 • 


• 159,097 


11820 


. 96,883 


1858 


. 156,070 


1825 . 


• ■ 98,378 


1859 . 


. 167,723 


1830 


. 102 


437 


i860 


. 170,156 


1840 . 


. 121 


083 


1861 (Cottonfamine) 163,706 


1845 


• 143,743 


1862 


. 164,030 


iS 4 8 . 


. . . 138 


230 


1863 . 


■ 173-510 


E850* 


- 152 


744 


1864 


. 180,387 


S853 • 


. . 164 


520 








MARRIAGES IN 


THl! 


UNITED KINGDOM. 






England and Wales. 


Scotland. - 


Ireland, t 


K865 


• • 185,474 




23,527 





1866 


. 187,776 




23,629 


30,151 


1867 


• ■ I79.IS4 




22,521 


29,796 


1868 


. 176,962 




21,853 


27.753 


1869 


. 176,970 




22,083 


27,277 


1870 


. 181,655 




23,788 


28,835 


1871 


. . 190,112 




23,966 


28,060 


1872 


. 201,267 




25,580 


27,114 


1873 


. . 205,615 




26,730 


26,270 


1874 


. 202,010 




26,247 


24,481 


1875 


. 201,212 




25,921 


24,037 


1876 


. 201,874 




26,563 


26,388 


1877 


• • 194-352 




25,790 


24,722 


1878 


. 190,054 




24,333 


25,284 


1879 


. . 182,082 




23,462 


2 3>254 


1880 


• ^^s 




24,489 


20,363 


1881 


. . 197,290 




25,948 


21,826 


T882 


. 204,405 




26,574 


22,029 


1883 


. . 206,384 




26,855 


21,368 


J884 


. 204,301 




26,061 


22,585 


1885 


• • 197,745 




25,256 


21,177 


1886 


196,071 




24,469 


20,594 


1887 


. . 200,518 




24,876 


20,945 


1888 


203,821 




25,305 


20,060 


1889 


. . 213,865 




26,318 


21,521 


1890 


223,028 




27,441 


20,990 


iSgi 


. . 226,025 




27,949 


21,421 



Royal Marriage Act, 12 Geo. III. c. 11, was passed in 
1772, in consequence of the marriage of the duke of 
Gloucester, the king's brother, with the widow of the 
earl Waldegrave, and of the duke of Cumberland with 

* Of these marriages, it is stated in the registrar's re- 
turns that 47,570 men and 70,601 women could not write, 
and that they signed the marriage register with their 
marks. — In France, the marriages were 208,893 in 1820 ; 
243,674 in 1825 ; and 259,177 in 1830. As respects Paris, 
7754 marriages were, bachelors and maids, 6456 ; bachelors 
and widows, 368 ; widowers and maids, 708 ; widowers 
and widows, 222. 

t Approximative, through doubtful returns. 



the widow of colonel Horton and daughter of lord Irn- 
ham. [By this act, none of the descendants of George II. , 
unless of foreign birth, can marry under the age of 25, 
without the consent of the king ; at and after that age, 
after twelve months' notice given to the privy council, 
they may contract such marriage, which shall be 
good unless both houses of parliament disapprove. 
The marriage of the duke of Sussex with the lady 
Augusta Murray, solemnised in 1793, was pronounced 
illegal, 1794, and the claims of their son, sir Augustus 
d'Este, declared invalid, by the house of lords, 9 July, 
1844. He married lady Cecilia Underwood (afterwards 
duchess of Inverness), 1831. 

H. R. H. the princess Louise was married to the mar- 
quis of Lome by the queen's consent, 21 March, 1871. 

Half Marriage. Semi-Matrimonium. Among the 
Romans concubinage was a legitimate union, not 
merely tolerated but authorised. The concubine had 
the name of semi-conjux. Men might have either a 
wife or a concubine, provided they had not both to- 
gether. Constantine the Great checked concubinage, 
but did not abolish it. This ancient custom of the 
Romans was preserved, not only among the Lombards, 
but by the French when they held dominion in that 
country. Cujas assures us that the Gascons and other 
people bordering on the Pyrenean mountains had not 
relinquished this custom in his time, 1590. The women 
bore the name of " wives of the second order." He- 
nault. See Morganatic Marriages. 

Double Marriages. There are some instances of a hus- 
band and two wives (but they are very rare) in countries 
where polygamy was interdicted by the state. The first 
Lacedaemonian who had two wives was Anaxandrides, 
the son of Leon, about 510 B.C. Dionysius of Syracuse 
married two wives, viz. : Doris, the daughter of Xenetus, 
and Aristomache, sister of Dion, 398 b.c It is said 
that the count Gleichen, a German nobleman, was per- 
mitted, under peculiar circumstances, by Gregory IX. , 
in a.d. 1237, to marry and live with two wives. The 
Mormonites practise and encourage polygamy. 

Forced Marriages. The stat. 3 Henry VII. (1487) made 
the principal and abettors in marriages with heiresses, 
&c. , contrary to their will, equally guilty as felons. 
By 39 Eliz. (1596) such felons were denied the benefit 
of clergy. This offence was made punishable by trans- 
portation, 1 Geo. IV. (1820). The remarkable case of 
Miss Wharton, heiress of the house of Wharton, whom 
captain Campbell married by force, occurred in William 
III. 's reign. Sir John Johnston was hanged for seizing 
the young lady, and the marriage was annulled by 
parliament, 1690. — Edward Gibbon Wakefield was tried 
at Lancaster, and found guilty of the felonious abduc- 
tion of Miss Turner, 24 March, 1827 ; and his marriage 
with her was immediately dissolved by act of parlia- 
ment. 

Marriages by Sale. Among the Babylonians, at a cer- 
tain time every year, the marriageable females were 
assembled, and disposed of to the best bidder. This 
custom is said to have originated with Atossa, daughter 
of Belochos, about 1433 B.C. 

Fleet Marriages. SeeFleet. 

MAEEIED WOMEN, see Wives. 

MAEES MUEDEES, see Ratcliffe Highicay. 

MAE'S INSUEEECTION. John, earl of 
Mar, proclaimed James III. at Braemar, Aberdeen- 
shire, 6 September, 1715- He was defeated at 
Sherift'muir, 13 Nov., and escaped from Montrose 
with the Pretender, 4 Feb. 1716. 

MAES, a planet, next to the earth in order of 
distance from the sun; the spots on its surface were 
first observed by Fontana, in 1636. Two satellites 
were discovered by professor Asaph Hall, at Wash- 
ington, U.S., 11 Aug. 1877. 

M. Dubois of Paris suggests that these satellites may 
be planetoids attracted by Mars, Aethra and another of 
these bodies having disappeared about the time of the 
discovery. 
M. Schiaparelli, of Milan, describes configurations like 
canals, 1882, and M. Perrotin since has mapped them 
and asserts that Mars has an atmosphere and clouds 
(1887) 
" They have likewise discovered two lesser stars or sa- 
tellites which revolve about Mars." — Swift, Gulli- 
ver's Travels— Voyage to Laputa, about 1726. 



MARSAGLIA. 



621 



MARTINIQUE. 



MARSAGLIA (Piedmont, N. Italy). Here 

the imperialists under prince Eugene and the duke 
of Savoy were defeated by the French under Catinat, 
4 Oct. 1693. 

MARSEILLAISE HYMN.. The words and 
music are ascribed to Eouget de Lille, or L'Isle, a 
French engineer officer, who, it is said, composed it 
by request, 1792, to cheer the conscripts at Strasburg. 
It derived its name from a body of troops from 
Marseilles marching into Paris in 1792 playing the 
tune. This account is doubted by some (1879). The 
author was pensioned by Louis Philippe, 1830, and 
died in 1836. 

MARSEILLES. The ancient Massilia (S. 
France), a maritime city, founded by the Phocseans 
about 000 B.C. ; an ally of Rome, 218 B.C. Cicero 
styled it the Athens of Gaul, on account of its excel- 
lent schools. Population, 1881, 360,099 ; 1891, 
375.3/8- 
Taken by Julius Cassar after a long siege . . b.c. 49 

By Eurie the Visigoth a.d. 470 

Sacked by the Saracens 839 

Marseilles a republic 1214 

Subjected to the counts of Provence . . . 1251 

United to the crown of France 1482 

The plague rages 1649 

It carried off 50,000 of the inhabitants. The bishop 
Belsunce devotedly exerted himself to relieve the 
sufferers ........ 1720-1 

Revolutionary commotions here . . 30 April, 1789 
Marseilles opposes the revolutionary government, 

and is reduced 23 Aug. 1793 

Dissensions and conflicts between the French and 

Italians ; much stabbing ; several deaths ; about 

200 arrests, 19, 20 June ; city quiet . 22 June, 1881 

Pharo Chateau and Park presented to the city, 

by the ex-empress Eugenie, Dec. 1882 ; finally 

accepted July, 1883 

Inauguration of great drainage works; M. Frey- 
cinet, the premier, and 4 other ministers present, 

8 Oct. 1891 
See Cholera. 

MARSHALS- Two were appointed in London 
to clear the streets of vagrants, and to send the 
sick, blind, and lame to asylums and hospitals for 
relief, 1567. Northouck. 

MARSHALS, British Field-. This rank 

■was first conferred upon John, duke of Argyll, and 
George, earl of Orkney, by George II. in 1736. The 
duke of Cambridge was made field-marshal, 9 Nov. 
1862 ; the prince of Wales, 29 May, 1875 '■> wr d 
Napier of Magdala, I Jan. 1883, died 14 Jan. 1890; 
sir Patrick Grant, 24 June, 1883; and lord William 
Paulet, 1886, see Mareschal. 

MARSHALS op France, appointed by 

Napoleon I. during his wars, 1804- 14. 
Arrighi, duke of Padua ; died 21 March, 1853. 
Augereau, duke of Castiglione ; died 12 June, 1816. 
Bernadotte, prince of Ponte Corvo, king of Sweden, 

1818 ; died 8 March, 1844. 
Berthier, prince of Neufchatel and Wagram, killed or 

committed suicide at Bamberg, 1 June, 1815. 
Bessieres, duke of Istria; killed at Lutzen, 1 May, 1813. 
Brune, murdered at Avignon, 2 Aug. 1815. 
Clarke, H. J. W., due de Feltre ; died 28 Oct, 1818. 
Clause!, Bertrand, comte de ; died 21 April, 1842. 
Drouet, J. Baptiste, comte d'Erlon ; died 25 Jan. 1844. 
Davoust, prince of Eckmiihl and duke of Auerstadt ; 

died 1 June, 1823. 
Duroc, G. Christophe Michel, due de Friuli ; killed at 

battle of Mackersdorff 23 May, 1813. 
Gerard, Etienne Maurice ; died 17 April, 1852. 
Gouvion Saint-Cyr, Laurent ; died 17 March, 1830. 
Gnmchy, died 29 May, 1847. 
Jourdan, peer of France ; died 23 Nov. 1833. 
Juncit, duke of Abrantes ; suicide, 29 July, 1813. 
Iv-llrmiann, duke of Valnry ; died 12 Sept, 1820. 
Lannes, duke of Montebello. wounded at Aspem ; died 

31 May, 1809. 



Lauriston, Jacque Alexandre Bernard Law; died i.j 

June, 1828. 
Lefebvre, duke of Dantzic ; died 14 Sept. 1820. 
Maedonald, duke of Tarento ; died 24 Sept. 1840. 
Maison, Nicolas Joseph, marquis ; died 13 Feb. 1840. 
Marmont, duke of Ragusa ; died 2 March, 1852. 
Massena prince of Essling and duke of Rivoli ; died .$ 

April, 1817. 
Molitor, Gabriel Jean Joseph ; died 28 July, 1849. 
Moncey, duke of Conegliano ; died 20 April, 1842. 
Mortier, duke of Treviso, killed by Fieschi, 28 July, 1835. 
Murat, king of Naples, executed 13 Oct. 1815. 
Ney, prince of Moskwa, duke of Elchingen, executed! 

7 Dec. 1815. 
Oudinot, duke of Reggio ; died 13 Sept. 1847. 
Perignon, marquis de ; died 25 Dec. 1818. 
Poniatowski, prince Josef Anton, wounded at Leipsie, 

and drowned 19 Oct. 1813. 
Serrurier, Jean Mathieu Philibert, comte ; died 21 Dec. 

1819. 
Soult, duke of Dalmatia ; died 26 Nov. 1851. 
Suchet, duke of Albufera ; died 3 Jan. 1826. 
Victor, duke of Belluno ; died 1 March, 1841 

. MARSHALSEA COURT, having jurisdic- 
tion in the royal palace, was very ancient, of high 
dignity, and coeval with the common law. Since 
the decision of the case of the Marshalsea (see lord 
Coke's 10 Rep. 68) no business has been done in this 
court ; but it was regularly opened and adjourned 
at the same time with the Palace court, the judges- 
and other officers being the same. These courts- 
were removed from Southwark to Scotland-yard in 
1 801, were abolished by parliament, and discontinued 
31 Dec. 1849; see Prisons. 

MARSI, a brave people of Southern Italy, who, 
after several contests, yielded to the Romans, about 
301 B.C. During the civil wars they and their 
allies rebelled, having demanded and been refused 
the rights of Roman citizenship, 91 B.C. Aitei 
many successes and reverses, they sued for and 
obtained peace and the rights they required, 87 B.C. 
The Marsi being Sociioi the Romans, this was called 
the Social war. 

MARSTON-MOOR (near York). The Scots 
and parliamentary army were besieging York, when 
prince Rupert, joined by the marquis of Newcastle, 
determined to raise the siege. Both sides drew up 
on Marston-moor, on 2 July, 1644, ar >d tne content 
was long undecided. Rupert, commanding the 
right wing of the royalists, was opposed by Oliver 
Cromwell, at the head of troops disciplined by him- 
self. Cromwell was victorious; he drove his op- 
ponents off the field, followed the vanquished, 
returned to a second engagement and a second vic- 
tory. The prince's artillery was taken, and the 
royalists never recovered the blow. 

MARTELLO TOWERS, said to have been 
erected by Charles V. on the coasts of Italy. 
Similar circular buildings were erected in the be- 
ginning of the present century, on the southern 
coast of England, and other parts of the empire, as 
defences against invasion. The towers were said by 
some to be named from Cape Martello, or Mortella hi 
Corsica. They are now being destroyed as obsolete. 

MARTIAL LAW, see Courts-Martial, and 
Military Law. 

MARTINESTI, see Rimnik. 

MARTINIQUE (French West Indies), dis- 
covered in 1493 or 1502; settled by France, 1635. 
This and the adjacent isles of St. Lucia and 
St. Vincent, and the Grenadines, were taken by tin- 
British from the French in Feb. 1762. They were 
restored to France at the peace of the following' 
year. They were again taken, 16 March, 1794"; 
restored at the peace of Amiens in 1802 ; again 



MAETINMAS. 



622 



MASS. 



captured 23 Feb. 1809. A revolution in this island 
in favoixr of Napoleon was finally suppressed by 
the British, 1 June, 1815, and Martinique reverted 
to its French masters. Severe earthquakes occurred 
here in 1767 and 1839. 

'Great destruction of life and property was caused by a 
cyclone and earthquake about 18 Aug. 1891 ; estimated 
deaths 378, besides losses by shipwrecks. Estimated 

loss 2,000,000^. 

MAETINMAS, 11 Nov., the feast cf St. 
Martin, bishop of Tours, in the 4th century, is 
quarter day in parts of the north of England 
and in Scotland. The high sheriffs of England and 
Wales are nominated on the morrow of St. Martin, 
12 Nov. 

MAETIN'S HALL, ST. (Long Acre, London), 
svas opened as a concert-room for Mr. John Hullah, 
on 11 Feb. 1850 ; burnt down 26 Aug. i860; rebuilt, 
1861 ; opened as the New Queen's Theatre, by 
Mr. Alfred Wigan, 24 Oct. 1867. 

MAETYES. Stephen, the first Christian 
martyr, was stoned, 33. The festivals of the 
martyrs, of very ancient date, took their rise about 
the time of Polycarp, who suffered martyrdom about 
169. St. Alban is the English protomartyr, 286 ; 
see Persecutions, Protestants, and Diocletian Era. 
The Martyrs' Memorial, Smithfield, erected by the 
Protestant Alliance, was inaugurated II March, 
1870. The Martyrs' memorial church, St John's- 
street, Clerkenwell, was consecrated 2 June, 1871. 

MAEY-ANNE- Secret republican associa- 
tions, especially in France. The name was given to 
the republic of 1792, to the guillotine, and to little 
statuettes of Liberty. 

MAETLAND, named after queen Henrietta 
Maria, one of the first thirteen United States of 
North America, was granted in 1632 to lord Balti- 
more, and settled by a company of English 
Romanists in 1634. It contains the district of 
Colombia, in which Washington is situate. It con- 
tinued in the Union when the other slave states 
.■seceded in i860 and 1861. The confederate arnty, 
under general Lee, after their victory at Bull Run, 
30 Aug. 1862, crossed the Potomac and entered 
"Maryland. They were followed by the federal 
army under McClellan. Severe conflicts ensued, 
especially on 17 Sept., at Antietam Creek, with 
great loss on both sides, each claiming the victory. 
The confederates retired into Virginia in good order, 
and it is said with much booty. Capital, Anna- 
polis ; population, 1880, 934,943 ; 1890, 1,042,390. 

MAEY-LE-BONE, a large parish, N.-W. 
London. The name is corrupted from St. Mary at the 
Bourne, or brook,— Tyebourne. It was chiefly pas- 
ture land in 1 760. The manor was acquired by the 
duke of Portland in 1813. The hunting-grounds 
mow form Regent's park {which see). The parishes 
of Marylebone, St. Pancras, and Paddington were 
made a parliamentary borough in 1832. By act of 
1885 Marylebone alone returns two M.P.'s. Six 
men killed by fall of a new house in Great Titch- 
field Street, 9 Nov. 1888. Population, 1881, 154,910; 
1891, 142,381. 

Hew higher gradeand technical schools presented by ladies 
Howard de Walden and Ossington opened 30 July, 1890 
Mary-le-bone gardens — attached to the "Rose of Nor- 
mandy "— a place of public entertainment, opened in 
the middle of the 17th century ; mentioned by Pepys ; 
closed 23 Sept. 1776 ; a music hall erected here, 1855. 
The Marylebone Murder.— Miss Lucy Clark, dressmaker, 
aged 49, living at 86, George St., Portman Sq., found 
murdered 23 Jan. 1888. 



MASANIELLO, see Naples, 1647. Auber's 
opera, "La Muette de Portici" (1828), was pro- 
duced in London as '' Masaniello," 4 May, 1829. 

MASCAT, see Muscat. 

MASHONA, Makalakaland and Matabele 

lands, territories in south Africa, ruled by Loben- 

gula, who entered into agreement with the British 

government, 11 Feb. 1888. 

A deputation of two head men from him, was received 
by queen Victoria, 2 March, 1889, requesting pro- 
tection against a syndicate, to which he had incon- 
siderately conceded lands. The concession was 
afterwards legally withdrawn. See Zambesi, 1889. 

The Imperial Mission conveying queen Victoria's letter 
to Lobengula, recommending the British South 
African company, favourably received by him at 
Buluwayo, the Matabele capital, 29 Jan. 1890. 

Successful progress of colonization, reported May, 1892. 

Explorations of Mr. J. Theodore Bent ; he discovers at 
Zimbabwe, an ancient fortress (probably Phoenician), 
a temple with ornamented walls, monoliths, specimens 
of good pottery, relics of gold-mining, etc., June-Aug. 
1891. Mr. Bent gave an account of his exploration at 
a meeting of the "Royal Geographical Society, 22 Feb. 
1892. 

MASKS. Masks of painted papyrus are said 
to have been occasionally worn by kings and priests 
of ancient Egypt. Horace attributes them to 
iEschylus; yet Aristotle says the inventor and time 
of their introduction were unknown. — Modern 
masks, and muffs, fans, and false hair for the 
women , were devised in Italy, and brought to Eng- 
land from France in 1572. Stow ; see Iron Mask. 

MASONIC INSTITUTIONS, see-Freema- 
sonry. 

MASOEAH (Hebrew, tradition), a collection 

of conjectural readings (Keris) of the Hebrew text 

of the Old Testament, with critical, grammatical, 

and exegetical remarks by various Jewish doctors, 

written between the 6th and 10th centuries, who 

also furnished the Masoretic vowel points. 

The first Rabbinical Hebrew Bible, containing the 

Masorah, Targums, and comments, was printed by 

Bomberg at Venice, 1518. The " Book of the Masorah, 

the Hedge of the Law," was first printed at Florence, 

1750. 

MASQUEEADES were in fashion in the 
court of Edward III., 1340; and in the reign of 
Charles II. 1660, masquerades were frequent among 
the citizens. The bishops preached against them, 
and made such representations as occasioned their 
suppression, 9 Geo. I. 1724. They were revived 
and carried to a shameful excess in violation of the 
laws, and tickets of admission to a masquerade at 
Ranelagh were on some occasions subscribed for at 
twenty-five guineas each, 1776. Mortimer. At 
the close of a bal masque, given by Anderson the 
Wizard, 5 March, 1856, Co vent-garden theatre was 
destroyed by fire. 

MASQUES) precursors of the opera, introduced 
into England in the latter part of the 16th century; 
many were written by Ben Jonson ; one at the 
Middle Temple on the marriage of princess Eliza- 
beth, Feb. 1613. Milton's "Comus" was represented 
at Ludlow castle in 1634. 

MASS, in the Roman church, is the office or 
prayers used at the celebration of the Eucharist, in 
memory of the passion of Christ, and to this every 
part of the service alludes. The general division 
consists in high and low ; the first is that sung by 
choristers, and celebrated with the assistance of a 
deacon and sub-deacon ; low masses are those in 
which the prayers are rehearsed without singing. 
Mass was first celebrated in Latin about 394 ; it was 



MASSACHUSETTS. 



623 



MASSACEES. 



introduced into England in the 7th century. Pro- 
stration was enjoined at the elevation of the host in 
1201. Dr. Daniel Rock, in "The Church of our 
Fathers " (1849), describes an ancient MS. of " The 
Service of the Mass, called the Rite of Salisbury," 
compiled for that cathedral, by St. Osmund and 
others, during the 12th century. The English 
communion service was adopted in 1549 ; see Missal, 
and Ritualism. 

MASSACHUSETTS, the mother state of 
New England, North America, founded b} T the 
English puritans at Plymouth-rock, 1620. It 
abolished slavery 1783, and adopted the constitution 
of the United States, 1788. Capital, Boston. Pop- 
ulation, 1880, 1,783,085; 1890, 2,238,943. See 
Filgrim Fathers and Boston. 

Great fire at Lynn, a large shoe-making town. 296 
buildings destroyed, and about 8,000 persons destitute, 
estimated loss 5,000,000 dollars, 26 Nov. 1889. 

MASSACEES. The following are among the 
most remarkable, probably exaggerated : — 

BEFORE CHEIST. 

Of all the Carthaginians in Sicily, 397. 

2000 Tynans crucified and 8000 put to the sword for not 

surrendering Tyre to Alexander, 331. 
Of 2000 Capuans, friends of Hannibal, by Gracchus, 211. 
A dreadful slaughter of the Teutones and Ambrones, near 

Aix, by Marius, the Roman general, 200,000 being left 

dead on the spot, 102. 
The Romans throughout Asia, women and children not 

excepted, massacred in one clay, by order of Mithri- 

dates, king of Pontus, 88. 
A great number of Roman senators massacred by Cinna, 

Marius, and Sertorius, 87. 
Again, under Sylla and Catiline, his minister of ven- 
geance, 82. 
At Perusia, Octavianus Cresar ordered 300 Roman senators 

and other x>ersons of distinction to be sacrificed to the 

manes of Julius Caesar, 40. 

AFTER CHRIST. 

At the destruction of Jerusalem, 1,100,000 Jews are 
said to have been put to the sword, 70. 

The Jews, headed by one Andra?, put to death many 
Greeks and Romans, in and near Cyrene, 115. 

Cassius, a Roman general, under the emperor M. 
Aurelius, put to death 300,000 of the inhabitants of 
Seleucia, 165. 

At Alexandria, many thousands of citizens were mas- 
sacred by order of Antoninus, 215. 

The emperor Probus is said to have put to death 400,000 
of the barbarian invaders of Gaul, 277. 

Of the Gothic hostages by Valens, 378. 

Of Thessaloniea, when 7000 persons invited into the 
circus were put to the sword, by order of Theodosius, 
39°- 

Of the circus factions at Constantinople, 532. 

Massacre of the Latins at Constantinople, by order of 
Andronicus, 1184. 

Of the Albigenses and Waldenses, commenced at Toulouse, 
1208. Thousands perished by the sword and gibbet. 

Of the French in Sicily, 1282 ; see Sicilian Vespers. 

At Paris, of the Armagnacs, at the instance of John, 
duke of Burgundy, 1418. 

Of the Swedish nobility, at a feast, by order of Chris- 
tian II., 1520. 

Of Protestants at Vassy, 1 March, 1562. 

Of 70,000 Huguenots, or French Protestants, in France 
(see St. Bartholomew), 24 Aug. 1572. 

Of the Christians in Croatia by the Turks, when 65,000 
were slain, 1592. 

Of the pretender Demetrius, and his Polish adherents, 
at Moscow, 27 May, 1606. 

Of Protestants in the Valteline, N. Italy, 19 July, 1620. 

Of Protestants at Thorn, put to death under a pretended 
legal sentence of the chancellor of Poland, for being 
concerned in a tumult occasioned by a Roman Catholic 
procession, 1724. All the Protestant powers in Europe 
interceded to have this unjust sentence revoked, but 
unavailingly. 

A.t Batavia, 12,000 Chinese were massacred by the natives, 
Oct. 1740, under the pretext of an intended insurrec- 
tion. 



At the taking of Ismail by the Russians, 30,000 old and 
young were slain, Dec. 1790 ; see Ismail. 

Of French Royalists (see Septembrizers), 2 Sept. 1792. 

Of Poles, at Praga, 1794. 

In St. Domingo, where Dessalines made proclamation for 
the massacre of all the whites, 29 March, 1804, and 
many thousands perished. 

Insurrection at Madrid, and massacre of the French, 
2 May, 1808. 

Massacre of the Mamelukes, in the citadel of Cairo, 
1 March, 181 1. 

Massacre of Protestants at Nismes, perpetrated by the 
Catholics, May, 1815. 

Massacre at Scio, 22 April, 1822 ; see Chios. 

Of the Janissaries at Constantinople, 14 June, 1826; at 
Cabul (see Afghanistan), 1841. 

600 Kabyles suffocated in a cave in Algeria, 18 June, 
1845 ; see Dahra. 

Massacre of Christians at Aleppo, 16 Oct. 1850. 

Of 136 emigrants at Mountain Meadows, Utah (said to 
be by Mormons whom they had offended) ; a few chil- 
dren spared ; 18 Sept. 1857. 

[Bishops Ph. K. Smith and Lee accused; Brigham Young 
exonerated, 1875. Bp. Lee sentenced to death, Oct. 
1876 ; shot, 23 March, 1877.] 

Of Maronites, by Druses, in Lebanon, June, i860 ; and of 
Christians, by Mahometans, at Damascus, 9-11 July, 
i860 ; see Druses and Damascus. 

Of 173 N.-W. Indians (including women and children) 
(as a chastisement for murders, outrages, and rob- 
beries), by major Baker, of U.S. army, Jan. 1870. 

Of French missionaries and others, at Tien-tsin, 22 per- 
sons (see China), 21 June, 1870. 

Of foreigners, by the native Gauchos in the Tandel dis- 
trict, Buenos Ayres, S. America, 1 Jan. 1872. 

Of about 90 French colonists and others in New Cale- 
donia, by natives, during a revolt, June, 1878. 

Of about 6 negro militia-men, who had made a patriotic 
demonstration on 4 July, by whites, at Hamburg, 
South Carolina, 9 July, 1876. 

Of Mehemet Ali Pacha, and others, at Ipek, near Scu- 
tari, by Albanians, 6 Sept. 1878. 

At Cabul (see Afghanistan), 1879. 

Alexandria (see Egypt), n June, 1882. 

Of Christians in Cochin-China ; 24,000 reported to be 
massacred, summer, 1885 ; and about 22,000 in Annam 
by rebels, July-Dec. 1885. 
See Indians, Minnesota, Modoc Indians, and Turkey, 

1876. 

MASSACRES IN BRITISH HISTORY. 

Of 300 British nobles, on Salisbury Plain, by Hengist, 
about 450. 

Of the monks of Bangor, to the number of 1200, by Ethel- 
frid, king of Bernicia, 607 or 612. 

Of the Danes in the southern counties of England, in 
the night of 13 Nov. 1002, by order of Ethelred II. At 
London it was most bloody, the churches being no 
sanctuary. Amongst the rest was Gunilda, sister of 
Swein, kmg of Denmark, left in hostage for the per- 
formance of a treaty but newly concluded. Baker. 

Of the Jews, in England. Some few pressing into West- 
minster hall at Richard I.'s coronation, were put to 
death by the people ; and a false alarm being given 
that the king had ordered a general massacre of them, 
the people in many parts of England slew all they met. 
In York 500, who had taken shelter in a castle, killed 
themselves, rather than fall into the hands of the 
multitude, 1189. 

Of the Bristol colonists, at Cullcn's Wood, Ireland (see 
Cullen's Wood), 1209. 

Of the English factory at Amboyna, in order to dispossess 
its members of the Spice Islands, Feb. 1624. 

Massacre of the Protestants in Ireland, in O'Neill's rebel- 
lion, which began 23 Oct. 164 1 . Upwards of 30,000 British 
were killed in the commencement of this rebellion. Sir 
William Petty. In the first three or four days of it, 
forty or fifty thousand of the Protestants were de- 
stroyed. Lord Clarendon. Before the rebellion was 
entirely suppressed, 154,000 Protestants were massa- 
cred. Sir W. Temple. 

Of the Macdonalds <>f Glencoe (see Glencoe), 13 Feb. 1692. 

Of 184 men, women, and children, chiefly Protestants, 
burnt, shot, or pierced to deatli by pikes ; perpetrated 
by the insurgent Irish, at the barn of Scullabogue, 
Ireland, in 1798. Musgrave. 

Of Europeans at Meerut, Delhi, &C, by mutineers of the 
native Indian army (see India), May and Juno, 1857. 



MASSAGET^J. 



624 



MATHEMATICS. 



Of Europeans at Kalangan, on the south coast of Borneo, 
i May, 1859. 

Of the Europeans at Morant bay, Jamaica, by the in- 
furiated negroes, n-12 Oct. 1865 ; see Jamaica. 

Of lieut. Holcombe and surveying party (about 70) in 
Assam on Naga hills ; about 24 Feb. 1875. 

Of Mr. Margary and servants (with col. Browne's expedi- 
tion into Western China; at Manwyne, by Chinese, 
21 Feb. 1875. 

Of commodore Goodenough, of the Pearl, and 2 seamen, 
by natives of Santa Cruz island, South Pacific ocean ; 
attacked 12 Aug., died 20 Aug. 1875. 

Of prof. Palmer and others ; see Egypt, 1882. 

Of gen. Gordon ; see Khartoum, 1885. 

Of Mr. Qninton and others, in Manipur (which see), about 
24 March, 1891. 

MASSAGETiE, an ancient Scythian people 
(probably the ancestors of the Goths), who invaded 
Asia about 635. In a conflict with them Cyrus the 
Great was killed, 529 b.c. 

MASSILIA, see Marseilles. 

MASSORAH, see Masorah. 

MASSOWAH, a port on the Red Sea, subject to 
Egypt. Certain commercial rights secured to Abvs- 
sinia by treaty with England and Egypt, May, 1884. 
The Italian flag hoisted beside the Egyptian, 6 Feb. 1885 
The Abyssinians under Ras Aloula severely defeat 

the Arabs at Kufeit near Amadib . 23 Sept. ,, 
Government of Massowah assumed by the Italians 

2 Dec. „ 
Abyssinians attack Massowah and Italian outposts 

but suffer loss and retire . . 18 Jan. et seq. 1887 
About 500 Italians proceeding with supplies to 
Sahati cut off by Abyssinians under Ras Aloula 
at Dagoli, near Massowah . . 25-26 Jan. ,, 
Negotiations with Ras Aloula with respect to release 

of prisoners 11 March, ,, 

Skirmishes between Italians and Deber tribe 

27-28 March, ,, 
Major Savoiroux made a prisoner, still kept by the 

Abyssinians, April ; released . . Sept. ,, 

Proclamation issued declaring that a state of war 
exists in Massowah and its dependencies, with 
blockade of ports .... 2 May, „ 
The chief Kantibay submits to Italy . 18 Oct. ,, 
Declared to be in a state of siege . . 10 Nov. ,, 
Italy notifies to the powers that it has annexed 

Massowali July, 1888 

Protectorate proclaimed at Zulla . . 3 Aug. ,, 

Severe defeat of Italians at Sanganeiti on the borders 
through native treachery ; four Italian officers 

killed Aug. „ 

Keren occupied and annexed by the Italians 2 June, 1889 
Gen. Baldissera occupies Asmara . . 4 Aug. ,, 
About 1,000 dervishes severely defeated after their 
incursion into Italian-protected country ; captives 
and booty rescued, reported . . 29 June, 1890 
Gen. Gandolfi, new governor, announces the termi- 
nation of military rule, in the Italian possessions 
on the Red Sea 1 July ,, 

MASTER OF THE CEREMONIES, see Cere- 
monies. 

MASTER and Servant Act (amending 

the statute respecting them) was passed 20 Aug. 
1867 ; another act repealing parts of preceding acts 
was passed 26 July, 1889. See Servants. 
Royal commission to examine into its working, 
reported 31 July ; published evidence . Oct. 1874 

MASTER of the Great Wardrobe, an 

ancient office abolished in 1 782 ; duties transferred 
to the lord chamberlain. 

MASTER of the Revels, an officer of the 
court. Solomon Dayrolle was the last appointed. 
Part of the duties were transferred to the licenser of 
plays, 1737. 

MASTER OF THE ROLLS, an equity judge, 
derives his title from having the custody of all 
charters, patents, commissions, deeds, and recog- 



nizances, entered upon rolls of parchment ; his de- 
crees are appealable to the court of chancery. The 
repository of public papers, called the Rolls, wa< in 
Chancery-lane. The rolls were formerly kept in a 
chapel founded for the converted Jews; but after 
the Jews were expelled the kingdom in 1290 it was 
annexed for ever afterwards to the office of the 
mastership of the rolls. Here were kept all the 
records since the beginning of the reign of king 
Richard III., 1483; all prior to that period being 
kept in the Tower of London ; see Records. The 
first recorded master of the rolls was either John de 
Langton, appointed 1286, or Adam de Osgodeby, 
appointed 1 Oct. 1295 ; but it is clear that the office 
was in existence long before. Hardy. The duties 
were define) in 1833; the salary regulated in 1837. 
Changes by the judicature act of 1881. By the 
supreme court of judicature act, the master of the 
rolls was made a judge of appeal only. 

RECENT MASTERS OF THE ROLLS. 

Sir fin, Grant appointed . . . .27 May, 180a 

Sir Thomas Plumer 6 Jan. 1818 

Robert, lord Gifford 5 April, 1824 

Sir J. S. Copley (aft. lord Lyndhurst) . 14 Sept. 1826 

Sir John Leach 3 May, 1827 

Sir C. Pepys (aft. lord Cottenham) . 29 Sept. 1834 
Henry Bickersteth (aft. lord Langdale) . 19 Jan. 1836 
Sir John (baron 1865) Romilly . . 28 March, 1851 
Sir George Jessel (a Jew), 29 Aug. 1873 ; died, 

21 March, 1883 
Sir ffm. Baliol Brett (lord Esher, 1885) . 3 April, ,, 

MASTERS in Chancery, chosen from the 

equity bar, were first appointed, it is said, to assist 
the ignorance of sir Christopher Hatton, lord chan- 
cellor of England, in 1587. The office was abolished 
in 1852. The offices of the masters in the queen's 
bench, common pleas, and exchequer divisions of 
the high court of justice were amalgamated into 
one central office in the high court of justice in 
1879. 

MASTODON, see Mammoth. 

MATABELE LAND. See Mashona. 

MATACAO, a small island near Sierra Leone ; 
secured to the British by treaty, 18 April, 1826. 
It was occupied by the French, March, 1879 > an( * 
after some discussion was left by them June fol- 
lowing. 

MATCHES, see Lucifers. 

MATERIALISM, the doctrine held by those 
who maintain that the soul of man is not a spiritual 
substance distinct from matter, but is the result of a 
particular organisation of matter in the body. The 
term is rather loosely applied to the system of 
Epicurus, about 310 B.C. ; Hobbes, about a.d. 1642 ; 
Priestley, about 1772; and many eminent men in 
the present day. It is not necessarily identical 
with atheism. 

MATERNITY CHARITY, ROYAL, Fins- 
bury; founded 1757. 

MATHEMATICS formerly signified all kinds 
of learning ; but the term is now applied to the 
sciences relating to numbers and quantity ; see 
Arithmetic. Among the most eminent mathe- 
maticians were Euclid, 300 B.C.; Archimedes, 
287 B.C. ; Descartes, died 1650 a.d. ; Barrow, died 
1677; Leibnitz, died 17 16; sir Isaac Newton, died 
1727; Euler, died 1783; Lagrange, died 1813 ; 
Laplace, died 1827 ; and Dr. Peacock, died 1858 ; 
sir G. B. Airy, Bartholomew Price, J. J. Sylvester, 
and I. Todhunter, (died 1884,) are eminent 
mathematicians. Mary Somerville, born 1 790, au- 
thor of the "Mechanism of the Heavens," died 1873. 



MATHURINS. 



625 



MAYNOOTH COLLEGE. 



The London Mathematical Society was founded, 16 
Jan. 1865 ; professor Aug. De Morgan, president. 
.John Thomas Crossley, author of the popular " Intel- 
lectual Calculator," died 29 April, 1889, aged 89. 

MATHURINS, see under Trinity. 

MATINS. The service or prayers first per- 
formed in the morning or beginning of the day in 
the Roman Catholic church. The French Matins 
were the massacre of St. Bartholomew, 24 Aug. 
1572. The Matins of Moscow were the massacre of 
prince Demetrius, and the Poles his adherents, in 
the morning of 27 May, 1606. 

MATRIMONIAL CAUSES ACT, passed 

1859. By the act passed 27 May, 1878, a magistrate 
may grant judicial separation with maintenance to 
a wife suffering from a husband's violent usage. 
The act was amended in 1884. 

MATTER is held to exist in three states: 
gaseous, liquid, and solid. Mr. William Crookes 
considers that there is a fourth state, "radiant 
matter," subtler than any of these, 1879-80. See 
Light. 

MATTERHORN, a part of the main ridge of 
the Alps, about 14,836 feet high, S. Switzerland. 
After various fruitless attempts by professor Tyn- 
dall and other eminent climbers, in i860, the sum- 
mit was reached on 14 July, 1865, by Mr. Edward 
Whymper and others. During their descent, four 
of the party were killed. Mr. Hadow fell; the 
connecting rope broke, and he himself, lord Francis 
Douglas, the rev. Mr. Hudson, and Michael Croz, 
a guide, slipped down, and fell from a precipice 
nearly 4000 feet high. Miss Walker, with her 
father, ascended the Matterhorn, 22 Jul} 7 , 187 1. 
Three gentlemen ascended without a guide, 21 July, 
1876. Dr. W. 0. Moseley, an American, was killed 
here, 14 Aug. 1879. Three persons attempting the 
ascent perished 12 Sept. 1890. 

MAUNDY-THURSDAY (derived by Spel- 
man from mande, a hand-basket, in which the king 
was accustomed to give alms to the poor ; by others 
from dies mandati, the day on which Christ gave 
his grand mandate, that we should love one an- 
other), the Thursday before Good Friday. Wheatly. 
On this day it was the custom of our sovereigns or 
their almoners to give alms, food, and clothing to as 
many poor persons as they were years old. It was 
begun by Edward III., when he was fifty years of 
age, 1363, and is still continued. 

MAUR, ST., see Benedictions. 

MAURITANIA (N. Africa), with Numidia, 
became a Roman province, 33 B.C. Augustus created 
(30 B.C.) a kingdom formed of Mauritania and part 
of Getulia, for Juba II., a descendant of the ancient 
African princes. Suetonius Paulinus suppressed a 
revolt here, a.d. 42, when it was made a province, 
divided into parts. The country was subjugated 
by the Vandals, 429, and Greeks, 533, and fell into 
the hands of the Arabs, about 680; see Morocco, and 
Ifoors. 

MAURITIUS, or Isle of France (in the 

Indiin Ocean), was discovered by the Portuguese, 
1505 ; but the Dutch were the first settlers in 1598. 
They called it after prince Maurice, their stock- 
holder, but on the acquisition of the Cape of Good 
Hope, they deserted it ; and it continued unsettled 
until the French landed, and gave it the name of 
one of the finest provinces in France, 1715- This 
island was takrn by the British, 2 Dec. 1810, and 
confirmed to them by the treaty of Paris in 18 14. 
The bishopric was founded 1854. Sir Henry Barkly, 



govex-nor, in 1863, succeeded by sir Arthur H. 
Gordon, 1870; sir Arthur Purves Phayre, 1874; 
sir George F. Bowen, 1878; sir J. Pope Hennessy, 
Dec. 1882; sir Charles Cameron Lees, Sept. 1889. 
Population in 1861, 313,462; in 1875, 344,602 ; in 
1890, 377,986. In 1866 two railways were in pro- 
gress ; both now opened. By an awful hurricane, 
on 11 March, 1868, great damage was done to 
shipping and buildings, with much loss of life. 
A responsible government granted with a legislative 

assembly July-Sept. 1885 

Dissensions between sir J. Pope Hennessy and 
Mr. Clifford Lloyd and the council, April ; Mr. 
Lloyd removed (made governor of the Seychelles) ; 
sir Hercules Robinson as royal commissioner 
investigates the affairs, and suspends the governor 
from action, announced 28 Dec. 1886. Sir J. Pope 
Hennessy reinstated with admonition July, 1887 ; 
arrives at Mauritius .... 22 Dec. 1888 
Violent hurricane, great destruction of buildings, 
shipping and crops ; one-third of port Louis de- 
stroyed, with about 600 deaths, 29 April ; total 
number of deaths reported, 1,230 . 14 July, 1892 
Relief committtes organised (see 'Mansion house). 
Loan of 6oo,oooL to the colony guaranteed by the 

British government . . . about June, ,, 
The queen 50Z. 

MAUSOLEUM. Artemisia married her own 
brother, Mausolus, king of Caria, Asia Minor, 
377 B.C. At his death, 353, it is said she drank in 
liquor his ashes after his body had been burned, and 
erected to his memory at Halicarnassus a monument, 
one of the seven wonders of the world (350 B.C.), 
termed Mausoleum. She invited all the literary 
men of her age, and proposed rewards to him who 
composed the best elegiac panegyric upon her hus- 
band. The prize was adjudged to Theopompus, 357 
B.C. She died 352 B.C. The statue of Mausolus is 
among the antiquities brought from Halicarnassus 
by Mr. (aft. sir) C. T. Newton in 1857, and placed 
in the British Museum. A mausoleum for the royal 
family of England was founded by the queen at 
Frogmore, 15 March, 1862. 

MAUVE (French for malva, mallow), a dye 
produced by Dr. Stenhouse from lichens in 1848 ; 
now produced from Aniline {which see). 

MAY, the fifth month of the year, received its 
name, some say, from Romulus, who gave it this 
appellation in respect to the senators and nobles of 
his city, who were denominated majores ; others 
supposed it was so called from Maia, the mother of 
Mercury, to whom they offered sacrifices on the first 
day. The ancient Romans used to go in pi-ocession 
to the grotto of Egeria on May -day; see Evil 
May-day. 
Mrs. Elizabeth Montague (who died in 1800) gave for 

many years, on May-day, an entertainment at her 

house in Portman-square, to the chimney-sweepers of 

London. 
The annual festival of " Jack in the Green," and his 

companion sweeps, has gradually ceased, 1816. 
See under Working Men, May 1890, 1S91 and 1892. 

MAYENCE, see Mentz. 

MAY-FLOWER, see Pilgrim Fathers. 

"MAY LAWS," see Prussia, May, 1S73. 

MAYNOOTH COLLEGE (Ireland), 
founded by parliament, 1795, and endowed by a 
yearly grant voted for the education of students 
designed for the Roman Catholic priesthood in 
Ireland. An act for its government was passed in 
1800. It contains about 500 students. Permanent 
endowment of this college (30,000^. for the enlarge- 
ment of the buildings and 26 000/. annually) was 
granted by parliament, June, 1845. This occasioned 
much controversy in England, a motion being made 

s s 



MAYO ASSASSINATION. 



626 



MAYOES, LOED. 



for its abolition almost every session. The college 
was repaired and enlarged in i860. By the Irish 
Church act, passed 26 July, 1869, the annual parlia- 
mentary grant was to cease after 1 Jan. 187 1 ; a 
compensation being made. A synod held here, 
Sept. 1875, condemned mixed education. The build- 
ings were much injured by fire, 31 Oct. 1878 ; dam- 
age estimated at 10,000^. The pictures and books 
were saved. 

MAYO ASSASSINATION. BichardSouth- 
well Bourke, earl of Mayo, was born 21 Feb. 1822. 
As lord Naas he was chief secretary for Ireland, in 
the Derby and Disraeli administrations, 1852, 1858-9, 
1866-8. In Sept. 1868, he was appointed viceroy 
of India, and energetically fulfilled the duties. He 
was assassinated at Port Blair in the Andaman 
islands, on a visit of inspection, by Shere Ali, a 
convict, 8 Feb. 1872. The Indian government 
granted an annual pension of 1000/. to the countess, 
and 20,000^. for the children ; and iooo£. a year 
was added to lady Mayo's pension by parliament, 
voted unanimously, 22 July, 1872. 

MAYOES OF THE PALACE, high officers in 
France, who had great influence during the later 
Merovingian kings, termed " faineants ," do-no- 
things: — Pepin the Old (or de Landen), 622 et seq.; 
Pepin Heristal, 687-714 ; Charles Martel, despotic, 
714-741 ; Pepin le Bref, 741, who shut up Chil- 
deric III. in a monastery, and himself took the 
kingdom, 752. 

MAYOES of Corporations. At the time 

of the Norman conquest, 1066, the chief officer of 
London was called port-grave, afterwards softened 
into port-reeve, from Saxon words signifying chief 
governor of a harbour. He was afterwards called 
provost ; but in Henry II. 's reign the Norman title 
of maire (soon after mayor) was brought into use. 
At first the mayor was chosen for life, but after- 
wards for periods of irregular duration ; now he is 
chosen annually, but is eligible for re-election. He 
must be an alderman, and have been sheriff. His 
duties commence on 9 Nov. In early times the 
mayor was always an M.P. for the city The prefix 
10ED is peculiar to the chief civic officer of London, 
Dublin, Edinburgh, York, Dundee, Glasgow, and 
Belfast. 

The first mayor of London, Henry Fitz-Ailwin, 
held office for 24 years, appointed . 1189 or ngi 

Sir Henry Piekard, who had been lord mayor of 
London in 1357, sumptuously entertained in one 
day four monarchs : Edward, king of England ; 
John, king of France ; the king of Cyprus ; and 
David, king of Scotland ; the Black Prince and 
many of the nobility being present. Stow. . . 1363 

Sir John Norman, lord mayor, went by water to be 
sworn at Westminster, and it is said instituted 
lord mayor's show 1453 

The more costly pageants of the show laid aside . 1685 

The lord mayor entertained the prince regent of 
England, the emperor of Russia, king of Prussia, 
and numerous foreigners of high rank 18 June, 1814 

The lord mayor, Famcombe, gave a banquet to 
prince Albert and the mayors of most of the 
boroughs of the United Kingdom, in further- 
ance of the project of the great International 
Industrial Exhibition, 1851 . . 21 March, 1850 

The lord mayor, sir F. Moon, entertained the em- 
peror and empress of the French . 19 April, 1855 

The lord mayor, B. S. Phillips, entertained the king 
and queen of the Belgians, July ; entertained by 
them at Brussels Oct. 1866 

The lord mayor entertained the viceroy of Egypt, 
n June ; the sultan, 18 July, 1867; the shah of 
Persia, 20 June, 1873 ; the czar . . 18 May, 1874 

Lord Mayor Nottage died while in office (the first 
since William Beckford, who died 21 June, 1770), 

11 April, 1885 



813-14 



1808-9. 

1809- 

1810- 

1811- 

1812- 

1813 

1814- 

1815- 

1816- 

1817- 

1818- 

1819- 

1820- 

1821- 

1822- 

1823- 

1824- 

1825- 

1826- 

1827- 

1828- 

1829- 

1830- 

1832- 

1833- 

1834- 

1835- 

1836. 

1837 



LORD MAYORS OF L0ND0K 

1800-1. Sir William Staines, bart. 
1801-2. Sir John Earner, bart. 

Charles Price. 

John Perring. 

Peter Perehard. 

Sir James Shaw. 

Sir William Leighton, bart. 

John Ainsley. 

Sir Charles Flower, bart. 

Thomas Smith. 

11. Joshua Jonathan Smith. 

12. Sir Claudius S. Hunter, bart. 

13. George Scholey. 
Sir William Domville, bart. 

15. Samuel Birch. 

16. Matthew Wood. 

17. Matthew Wood again. 

18. Christopher Smith. 

19. John Atkins. 

20. George Brydges. 

1. John T. Thorpe. 

2. Christopher Magnay. 
William Heygate. 
Robert Waithman. 
John Garratt. 
William Venables. 
Anthony Browne. 
Matthias Prime Lucas 
William Thompson. 
John Crowder. 

and 1831-2. Sir John Key, bart. 

3. Sir Peter Laurie. 

4. Charles Farebrother. 

5. Henry Winchester. 

6. William Taylor Copeland. 

7. Thomas Kelly. 
•8. Sir John Cowan, bart. 

1838-9. Samuel Wilson. 

40. Sir Chapman Marshall, bart. 
Thomas Johnson. 
John Pirie. 

3. J. Humphrey. 

4. Sir W. Magnay, bart. 

5. Michael Gibbs. 

6. John Johnson. 

7. Sir George Carroll. 

8. John Kinnersley Hooper. 

9. Sir James Duke, bart., M.P. 
50. Thomas Farn combe. 

Sir John Musgrove. 

William Hunter. 

Thomas Challis, M.P. 

Thomas Sidney. 

Sir Fras. G. Moon, bart. 

David Salomons, Jew. 

Thomas Quested Finnis. 

Sir Robert W. Carden (bart. , May, 1887), (died 20 
Jan. 1888). 
1858-9. David W. Wire. 
1859-60. James Carter. 
1860-1. William Cubitt, M.P. 
1861-2. William Cubitt, again. 
1862-3. W. A. Rose. 
1863-4. Wm. Lawrence. 
1864-5. Warren S. Hale. 
1865-6. Benj. Sam. Phillips, Jew. 
1866-7. Thos. Gabriel. 
1867-8. Wm. Ferneley Allen. 
1868-9. James Lawrence. 
1869-70. Robert Besley. 
1870-1. Thomas Dakin. 

2. Sills John Gibbons. 

3. Sir Sidney Hedley Waterlow 

4. Andrew Lusk, M.P. 

5. David Henry Stone. 

6. Wm. James Richmond Cotton. 

7. Sir Thomas White. 

8. Thomas Scambler Owden. 

9. Sir Charles Whetham. 
_ 80. Sir Francis Wyatt Truscott. 
0-1. Wm. McArthur. 
1-2. John Whittaker Ellis ; bart. May. 
2-3. Henry Edmond Knight. 
3-4. R. N. Fowler, M.P. 

4-5. George Swan Nottage; died 11 April, 1885. 
5. Sir R. N. Fowler, bart. M.P., re-elected 14 April 
5-6. John Staples. 



1840- 

1841 

1842 

1843 

1844 

1845 

1846 

i8 47 

1848 

1849 

1850- 

1851-2 

1852-3 

£853-4 

1854-5 

1855-6 

1856-7 

1857-8 



1871 
1872- 
1873 
1874 
1875 
1876 
1877 
1878 



MAZABIN BIBLE. 



627 



MECHLIN. 



1886-7. Sir Reginald Hanson (bart., May, 1887) 

1887-8. Polvdore de Keyser (Belgian R.C.) (knt. Oct. 

1888). 

1888-9. James Whitehead (bart., Nov. 1889). 

1889-90. Sir Henry Aaron Isaacs, Jew. 

1890-1. Joseph Savory (bart. , July, 1891.) 

1891-2. David Evans (knt, July, 1892). 

LORD MAYORS OF DCBL1N. 

John le Decer was appointed first provost in 1308 ; 
a gilded sword was granted to be borne before the 
provost by Henry IV 1407 

Thomas Cusack appointed first mayor . . . 1409 

The collar of SS. and a foot company granted by 
Charles II. to the mayors 1660 

Sir Daniel Bellingham, the first mayor honoured 
with the title of lord, by Charles II. , who granted 
500I. per annum, in lieu of the company of foot . 1665 

The new collar of SS. granted by William III. to the 
mayor, value 1000Z. , the former having been lost 
in James II. 's time .... = .. 1697 

MAZAEIN BIBLE, see Printing, 1450-5. 

MAZEA (or Baba Wali), near Candahar, 
Afghanistan. Here gen. sir Frederick Sleigh 
Roberts totally defeated Sirdar Mahomed Ayoob 
Khan, and captured his camp and all his cannon, 
I Sept. 1880. Amongst the killed were colonel F. 
Brownlow, capt. St. John F. Frome, and capt. £. 
Straton ; lieut. Hector Maclaine (made prisoner 27 
July) was found recently murdered. Ayoob Khan 
with some followers fled towards Herat. 

MAZUBKA, a Polish dance of the 16th cen- 
tury, introduced into England about 1845 i Chopin's 
music for the mazurka is much admired. 

MEAL TUB PLOT, against the duke of 
York, afterwards James II., contrived by one 
Dangerfield, who secreted a bundle of seditious 
letters in the lodgings of colonel Maunsell, and then 
gave information to the custom-house officers to 
search for smuggled goods, 23 Oct. 1679. After 
Dangerfield' s apprehension, on suspicion of forging 
these letters, papers were found concealed in a 
meal-tub at the house of a woman with whom he 
cohabited, which contained the scheme to be sworn 
to, accusing the most eminent persons in the Protes- 
tant interest, who were against the duke of York's 
succession, of treason, — particularly the earls of 
Shtiftesbury, Essex, and Halifax. On Dangerfield 
being whipped the last time, as part of his punish- 
ment, 1 June, 1685, one of his eyes was struck out 
by a barrister named Robert Francis. This caused 
his death, for which his assailant was hanged. 

MEASUEES, see Weights, and Micrometer. 
" Not men, but measures," a phrase used in par- 
liament by Brougham, 2 Nov. 1830. 

MEAT, see Provisions. 

MEAT-BISCUIT, said to have been invented 
by Cecil Borden, 1850. See Milk. 

MEATH (Ireland). Many episcopal sees in 
Meath (as Clonard, JDuleek, and others of less note) 
were fixed at Clonard, before 1151-2, when the 
division of the bishoprics in Ireland was made by 
John Paparo, then legate from Pope Eugene III. 
Eugene was the first styled bishop of Meath, about 
1 1 74. Meath was valued, 30 Henry YIIL, at 
373^. 12s. per annum. 

MECCA (in Arabia), the birth-place of Ma- 
homet, about 571, whence be was compelled to flee, 
15 July, 622 (the Hegira). On one of the neigh- 
bouring hills is a cave, where it is asserted he 
retired to perform his devotions, and where the 
greatest parr of the Koran was brought to him by 
the angel Gabriel, 604. Mecca, after being vainly 
besieged by Hosein for the caliph Yezid, 682, was 



taken by Abdelmelek, 692. In 1803 it fell into the 
hands of the Wahabees, a Mahometan sect. They 
were expelled by the pacha of Egypt in 1818, 
who retired in 1841. It is said "that 160,000 
pilgrims visited Mecca in 1858, and only 50,000 
in 1859. The grand shereef was assassinated by a 
fanatic, 21 March, 1880. Pilgrimage to Mecca 
still continues ; annual average, 93,350 (1887). 

MECHANICAL ENGLNEEES' INSTI- 
TUTION. See under Engineers, 1847. 

MECHANICS. The simple mechanical 
powers have been ascribed to heathen deities ; the 
axe, wedge, wimble, &c., to Dsedalus; see Steam 
Engine, Motion. 

Aristotle writes on mechanics about . . b. c. 320 
The properties of the lever, &c. , demonstrated by 

Archimedes, who died 212 

[He laid the foundations of nearly all those inven- 
tions, the further prosecution of which is the 
boast of our age. -Wallis (1695).] 
The hand-mill, or quern, was very early in use ; the 

Romans found one in Yorkshire. 
Cattle-mills, moke jumentarice, were also in use by 

the Romans. 
The water-mill was probably invented in Asia ; the 
first that was described was near one of the 

dwellings of Mithridates 70 

A water-mill is said to have been erected on the 

river Tiber, at Rome 50 

Pappus wrote on mechanics . . about a. d. 350 

Floating-mills on the Tiber 536 

Tide-mills were, many of them, in use in Venice 

about 1078 
Wind-mills were in very general use in the 12th 

century. 
Saw-mills are said to have been in use at Augsburg 1332 
Theory of the inclined plane investigated by Cardan 

about 1540 

Work on Statics, by Stevinus 1586 

Galileo's " Seienza Mecanica " 1634. 

Theory of falling bodies, Galileo .... 1638 

Laws of percussion, Huygens, Wallis, Wren, about 1660 
Theory of oscillation, Huygens .... 1670 

Epicycloidal form of the teeth of wheels, Roemer . 1675 
Percussion and animal mechanics, Borelli ; he died 1679 
Application of mechanics to astronomy, parallel- 
ism of forces, laws of motion, &c, Newton, 
Hooke, &c. ...... 1666-1700 

Problem of the catenary with the analysis, Dr. 

Gregory 1697 

Spirit level (and many other inventions) by Dr. Hooke 

from 1660 to 1702 
D'Alembert's researches on dynamics . about 1743 
Lagrange's " Meeanique Analytique " published . 1788 
Laplace's " Meeanique Celeste " published 1799-1805 
Borgnis' Dictionnaire de Meeanique appliquee aux 

Arts, 10 vols. 1818-23 

Edward H Knight's excellent "Practical Dic- 
tionary of Mechanics," published . . 1877-S4 
[Among the best modern writers on the science of 
mechanics are Poncelet, Whewell, Barlow, Mose- 
ley, Delaunay, Rankine, Bartholomew Price, Ball 
and Willis.] 

MECHANICS' INSTITUTIONS. One 

was founded by Dr. Birkbeck in London, and 
another in Glasgow, in 1823; and soon after others 
arose in different parts of the empire. They have 
revived since 1857, many noblemen and gentlemen 
giving lectures in them. 

MECHANICS' MAGAZINE, weekly; esta- 
blished 30 Aug. 1823 ; was incorporated with a new 
paper termed " Iron," Jan. 1873. 

MECHLIN or MALINES (Belgium), re- 
nowned for its lace manufacture, was founded iu 
the 6th century; destroyed by the Normans in 884; 
sacked by the Spaniards, 1572 ; taken by the prince 
of Orange, 1578, and by 'the English," 1580; and 
frequently captured iu the 17th and 18t.l1 centuries, 
partaking in the evil fortunes of the country. A 

s s 2 



MECKLENBURG. 



623 



MEDICINE. 



Roman Catholic congress was held here Sept. 1867. 
Population 1890, 50,962. 

MECKLENBURG (N. Germany), formerly 
a principality in Lower Saxony, now independent 
as the two grand duchies of Meeklenburg-Sehwerin 
(population in 1885, 575,152; 1890, 578,565) and 
Mecklenburg- Strelitz (population in 1885, 98,371 ; 
1890, 97,978). The house of Mecklenburg claims 
to be descended from Genseric the Vandal, who 
ravaged the western empire in the 5th century, 
and died 477. During the Thirty years' war Meck- 
lenburg was conquered by Wallenstein, who became 
its duke, 1628 ; it was restored to its own duke, 
1630. After several changes the government was 
settled in 1701 as it now exists in the two branches 
of Schwerin and Strelitz. In 1815 the dukes were 
made grand dukes. The dukes joined the new 
North German confederation by treaty, 21 Aug. 
1866. 



1815. 



1815. 
1816. 



GRAND-DUKES OP MECKLENBURGSCHWERIN. 

Frederic-Francis I. ; died 7 March, 1842. 
Frederic-Francis II. ; born 28 Feb. 1823 ; died 15 

April, 1883. 
Frederic-Francis III. son, born 19 March, 1851. 

GRAND-DUKES OF MECKLENBURG-STRELITZ. 

Charles ; died 6 Nov. 1816. 

George, born 12 Aug. 1779; died 6 Sept. i860. 

Frederic William, horn 17 Oct. 1819 ; married prin- 
cess Augusta of Cambridge, 28 June, 1843. 

Heir: his son, Adolphus-Frederic, born 22 July, 
1848. 

The royal family of England is intimately allied 
with the house of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. King 
George III. married Charlotte, a daughter of the 
duke, in 1761; their son, the duke of Cumber- 
land (afterwards king of Hanover) married 
princess Frederica Caroline, a daughter of the 
duke, in 1815. 

MEDALS, see Numismatics. The ancient 
medals resembled medallions. Modern medals 
began about 1453 in the 15th century with the 
works of Vittore Pisano, of Verona, who died 
1456, and his followers. Charles I. author- 
ized the presentation of a badge or medal for 
"forlorn hopes" soldiers, May, 1643. The house 
of commons resolved to grant rewards and medals 
to the fleet whose officers (Blake, Monk, Penn and 
Lawson) and men gained a glorious victory over 
the Dutch fleet, off theTexel, in 1653. Blake's medal 
of 1653 was bought by his majesty, William IV. for 
150 guineas. In 1692 an act was passed for apply- 
ing the tenth part of the proceeds of prizes for 
medals and other rewards for officers, seamen, and 
marines. Subsequent to Lord Howe's victory, 
1 June, 1794, it was thought expedient to institute 
a naval medal. Medals were struck for the victory 
of Waterloo ; a general war medal (for the war 
1793-1814) was ordered in 1847 ; and special medals 
were given after the Caff're and Chinese wars. Medals 
were presented by the queen to persons distin- 
guished in the war in the Crimea, 18 May, 1855. 
Medals were given to arctic voyagers of 1875-6, in 
1877; after Egyptian war, 1882, distributed by the 
queen at Windsor, 21 Nov. 1882; medals for the 
Soudan war, ordered, 2 Sept. 1885 ; a Burmah medal 
was given for the war, 1885-7. Col. Eaton exhi- 
bited 1000 medals in New Bond-street, May, 1880. 
See Victoria Gross. 
Society of Medallists formed in the spring of 1885 by the 

hon. C. W. Freniantle, deputy-master of the Mint, 

president, sir Frederick Leighton and others. 
Jubilee medal designed by sir Frederick Leighton, 

P.R.A., issued. 
A list of military and naval medals is given in Whitaker's 

Almanack in 1888. 
General Fred. Brine possesses a fine collection of war 

medals which he has exhibited. 



MEDIA, a province of the Assyrian empire, 
revolted, 71 1 B.C. Its chronology is doubtful. 
Arbaces, reputed founder of the monarchy about b. c. 842 

Succeeded by eight kings (Ctesias), or by four 

(Herodotus). 
Deioces, founder of Eebatana, reigns , . . . 709 
Phraortes, or Arphaxad, reigns ; (he conquers Persia, 

Armenia, and other countries) .... 656 

Warlike reign of Cyaxares 632-594 

War with the Lydians (see Halys) .... 603 

Astyages reigns 594 

Astyages deposed by Cyrus, who established the 

empire 'of Persia (which see) .... 560 

MEDIAEVAL, see Dark Ages. 

MEDICAL ACT, see Medical Council. 

MEDICAL ASSOCIATION, British, 
founded in 1832 for the promotion of medical science 
and the maintenance of the honour of the medical 
profession. It holds annual meetings at different 
places in the United Kingdom, and publishes the 
" British Medical Journal" weekly. 

MEDICAL BENEVOLENT COLLEGE, 

Royal, (Epsom,) opened in 1855 by the prince 
consort. It provides an asylum tor 20 pensioners 
male and female ; and 40 foundation scholars (sons 
of medical men) are fed, clothed, and educated. 

MEDICAL CONGRESSES, International, 
have been held at Paris, 1867; Florence, 1869; 
Vienna, 1873 ; Brussels, 1875 ! Geneva, 1877 ; 
Amsterdam, 1879 ; the seventh was held in 
London, 2-9 August, 1881 ; eighth, Copenhagen, 
10 Aug. 1884; ninth, Washington, 5-10 Sept. 
1887 ; tenth, at Berlin, 4-9 Aug. 1890. 

MEDICAL COUNCIL. The Medical Act, 
1858, " to regulate the qualifications of practi- 
tioners in medicine and surgery;" was amended 
in i860, and an important amendment act, with- 
drawn 25 July, 1884, passed 1886. It esta- 
blished "the General Council of Medical Edu- 
cation and Registration of the United King- 
dom." The first meeting of this council took 
place on 23 Nov. 1858, when sir B. C. Brodie was 
elected first president (who on 30 Nov. was elected 
president of the Royal Society). He was succeeded 
by Mr. J. H. Green in June, i860 ; by Dr. George 
Burrows, Jan. 1864; by Dr. George Edward Paget 
in 1870; and by Dr. Henry Wentworth Acland in 
1874; Mr. John Marshall in 1887, and by sir 
Richard Quain, bart., in 1891. The first Medical 
Register was issued in July, 1859. In 1862 the 
council was incorporated by parliament, and autho- 
rised to prepare and sell a new Pharmacopoeia, 
which was published as the "British Pharmaco- 
poeia," in 1864. New editions have appeared since. 

MEDICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON, 

founded 1773. Royal Medical and Chirurgical 
Society, founded 1805. 

MEDICI FAMILY, the restorers of litera- 
ture and the fine arts in Italy, were chiefs or 
signori of the republic of Florence from 1434, in 
which year Cosmo de' Medici, who had been 
banished from the republic, was recalled and made 
its chief; he ruled for thirty years. Lorenzo de' 
Medici, styled "the Magnificent," and the "Father 
of Letters," ruled Florence from 1469 to 1492. 
Giovanni de' Medici (pope Leo X.) was the son of 
Lorenzo. Roscov. From 1569 to 1737 the Medici 
family were hereditary grand dukes of Tuscany 
(which see). Cattarina de' Medici became queen of 
France in 1547, and regent in 1550. She plotted 
with the duke of Alva to destroy the Protestants 
in 1565. 

MEDICINE, see Physic, and Physicians. 



MEDINA. 



629 MELBOUENE ADMINISTRATIONS. 



MEDINA (Arabia Deserta), famous for the 
tomb of Mahomet, in a large mosque, lighted by 
rich lamps. Medina was called the City of the 
Prophet, because here Mahomet was protected when 
he tied from Mecca, 15 July, 622 ; see Hegira. 
Medina was taken by the Wahabees in 1804 ; re- 
taken by the pauha of Egypt, 1818. 

MEDINA, Bopora country, Africa, a kingdom 
annexed to Liberia by consent, announced Feb. 
1880. It is rich in forests and African products, 
with gold, iron, and other minerals. 

MEDINA DE ^ EIO SECO (Valladolid, 
Spain). Here Bessieres defeated the Spaniards, 
15 July, 1808. 

MEDIOLANITM, see Milan. 

MEDIUM, see Spiritualism. 

MEDUN, near Podgoritza, European Turkey. 
In a ravine here, the Turks, under Mahmud 
Pacha, were severely defeated \>y the Montenegrins, 
14 Aug. 1876. 

MEEANEE. The Belooehees, amounting to 
30,000 infantry, with 15 guns and 5000 cavalry, 
posted in a formidable position at Meeanee, were 
defeated with great loss on 17 Feb. 1843, by lieut.- 
gen. sir Charles Napier, with 2600 men of all 
arms, 

MEEEUT (near Delhi). Here the Indian 

mutiny began, 10 May, 1857; sec India. 

MEG^EEA, see Wrecks, 187 1. 

MEGALOPOLIS, a city of Arcadia, founded 
by the advice of Epaminondas, 371 B.C., long sub- 
ject to the Macedonians. Having joined the 
Acha?an League, 234 b c, it was taken and plun- 
dered by Cleomenes of Sparta, 222 B.C. It was 
partly restored 221, but gradually decayed. 
During the excavations carried on for the British school 
of Archaeology of Athens, many discoveries were made, 
including the site of a great theatre, a tumulus with 
bones, ornaments, etc., reported April, 1890. 

MEGAPHONE, a form of telephone (wJdch 
see), invented by Mr. T. A. Edison, for the use of 
the deaf; announced 1878. 

MEGAEA, a city of ancient Greece, was sub- 
dued by the Athenians in the 8th century B.C. 
Pericles suppressed a revolt, 445 B.C. The Mega- 
rians founded Byzantium 657 B.C. Megara became 
a free city 307, and joined the Achasan League, 242, 
and sent a second colony, 628 B.C. The Megarian 
(Eristic or disputatious) school of philosophy was 
founded by Euclid and Siilpo, natives of Megara. 

MEHADPOEE or MAHEDPORE (W.India). 
Here sir Thomas Hislop and sir John Malcolm 
defeated the Mahrattas under Holkar, 21 Dec. 1817. 

MEININGEN COUET COMPANY. See 

under Theatres : Drury-lane. 

MEISTEESINGEES, see Minnesingers. 

MELANESIA, South-west Pacific Isles. The 
rev. J. C. Patteson (son of sir Juhn), born 1827, was 
consecrated missionary bishop of Melanesia. He 
and the rev. J. Atkin were murdered at the isle of 
Santa Cruz, one of th- Queen Charlotte group, by the 
natives, Sept. 1871, it is supposed in revenge for 
the kidnapping natives for slaves for Queensland 
and the Fiji isles, a measure wbich the bishop 
himself strenuously opposed. 

MELAZZO (W. Sicily). Here Garibaldi, on 
20, 21 July, i860, defeated the Neapolitans under 
general Bosoo, who lost about 600 men; Garibaldi's 



loss being 167. The latter entered Messina; and 
on 30 July a convention was signed, by which it 
was settled that the Neapolitan troops were to 
quit Sicily. They held the citadel of Messina till 
13 March, 1861. 

MELBOUENE (Australia) capital of Victoria 
{which see). It was founded by J. P. Fawkener, 
29 Aug. 1835 ; and laid out as a town by order of 
sir R. Bourke, in April, 1837. The first land sale 
took place in June, and speculation continued till 
it caused wide-spread insolvenc3 r , in 1841-2. 
Population in 1851,23,000; 1891,491,378. 

Made a municipal corporation, 1842 ; a bishopric . 1847 
First legislative assembly of Victoria meets . . 1852 
Gold found in great abundance about 80 miles from 
Melbourne in the autumn of 1851, and immense 
numbers of emigrants flocked there in conse- 
quence, causing an enormous rise in the prices of 

provisions and clothing „ 

The city greatly improved with public buildings, 

handsome shops, <fcc _ . 1853 

The Victoria bank, Ballarat, broken open, and 
14,300?. in money and 200 ounces in gold dust 
carried otf [one of the robbers was taken in Eng- 
land, sent back to Melbourne, and there tried 

and hanged] 8 Oct. 1854 

University founded 1855 

Monster meeting held at Ballarat respecting the 
collection of the gold licences, followed by riots, 
during which the Southern Cross flag was raised ; 
intervention of the military ; 26 rioters and three 
soldiers killed, and many wounded . 30 Nov. „ 
The mayor comes to London to congratulate the 

queen on the marriage of the princess royal . 1858 

Intercolonial exhibition opened . . .25 Oct. 1866 
Arrival of the duke of Edinburgh . . 23 Nov. 1867 
Great telescope set up at the Observatory early in 1869 
Theatre-royal burnt .... 19 March, 187:2 
International exhibition opened by the marquis of 

Normanby 1 Oct. 1880 

Direct railway to Sydney completed . June, 1883 
Centenary exhibition to celebrate the foundation of 
New South Wales colony opened by sir Henry 
Brougham Loch, the governor, 1 Aug. 1888-31 Jan. 1889 
Great meeting to support Imperial Institute 9 May, ,, 
Great fire in Collins street, 3 firemen killed, loss 
about 200,000?. ..... 13 Sept. ,, 

Meeting of Australian delegates respecting the 

federation (see Australasia) . . 6-14 Feb. 1890 
Great strike of officers and men employed in ship- 
ping connected with the marine association, 

about 15 Aug. ,, 
A union of employers formed, 4 Sept. ; plenty of 

free labour 11Se.pt. ,, 

Gradual resumption of work ; end of the strikes 

announced at a mass meeting . . 14 Nov. ,, 

The new Anglican cathedral consecrated 22 Jan. 1891 
Destructive overflow of the Yarra-Yarra owing to 
heavy rains about n July, et seq. ; floods subside ; 
12,000?. subscribed for sufferers . 21 July, ,, 
The Standard Bank of. Australia stops payment; 

temporary panic 4 Dec. ,, 

The new great Western dock opened by lord Hope- 

toun 22 March, 1892 

Melbourne murder: Frederick Bailey Deeming (alias 
Albert Oliver Williams), tried for the murder of 
Emily Mather whom he married at Liverpool 
17 Oct., and brought to Australia 15 Dec, and 
murdered at Windsor near Melbourne about 
25 Dec. 1891 ; convicted 28 April-2 May ; executed 

23 May, ,, 
[It was stated that in Feb. 1881, he married 
Marie James, went with her to Sydney, and 
was there convicted of fraud in 1882 ; that 
he took Dinham Villa, Rainhill, near Widnes, 
Lancashire, England, 23 July, 1891 ; and 
there murdered his wife and four children 
about 26, 27 July, 1891 ; he was charged with 
the murders, by the verdict of the coroner's 
jury, 28 March, 1892.] 

See Victoria. 

MELBOUENE ADMINISTRATIONS. 

On the retirement of earl Grey, 9 July, 1834, 



MELEGNANO. 



630 



MENAI STEAIT. 



viscount Melbourne * became first minister of the 
crown, 16 July. When viscount Althorp became 
earl Spencer, on his father's decease, Nov. same 
year, lord Melbourne waited on the king to receive 
his majesty's command as to the appointment of a 
new chancellor of the Exchequer, when his majesty 
said he considered the administration at an end. 
Sir Robert Peel succeeded, but was compelled to re- 
sign in 1835, and lord Melbourne returned to office. 
His administration finally terminated, 30 Aug. 
1841, sir Robert Peel again coming into power; see 
Administrations. 

first administration, July, 1 834 resigned 
Nov. 1834. 
Viscount Melbourne, first lord of the treasury. 
Marquis of Lansdowne, lord president. 
Earl Mulgrave, privy seal. 
Viscount Althorp, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Viscount Duncannon, viscount Palmerston, and T. Spring 

Rice (afterwards lord Monteagle), home, foreign, and 

colonial secretaries. 
Lord Auckland, admiralty. 
Mr. Charles Grant (afterwards ord Glenelg), and Mr. C. 

P. Thomson (afterwards lord Sydenham), boards of 

control and trade. 
Lord J ohn Russell, paymaster of the forces 
Lord Brougham, lord chancellor. 
Sir John Hobhouse, Mr. Elliee, marquis of Conyngliam, 

Mr. Littleton, &c. 

SECOND ADMINISTRATION, April, 1835. 

Viscount Melbourne, first lord of the treasury. 

Marquis of Lansdowne, lord president. 

Viscount Duncannon, privy seal, and woods and forests 

(succeeded by earl of Clarendon, Jan. 1840). 
T. Spring Rice, chancellor of the exchequer (succeeded by 

Francis T. Baring, Aug. 1840). 
Lord John Russell, home secretary (succeeded by marquis 

of Normanby, Aug. 1839). 
Viscount Palmerston, foreign secretary. 
Lord Glenelg, colonial secretary (succeeded by marquis 

of Normanby, Feb. 1839; lord John Russell, Aug. 1839). 
Viscount Howick, secretary-at-war (succeeded by T. B. 

Macaulay, Sept. 1839). 
Lord Auckland, admiralty (succeeded by earl of Minto, 

Sept. 1835). 
Sir John C. Hobhouse, board of control. 
C. Poulett Thomson, board of trade (succeeded by Henry 

Labouchere, Aug. 1839). 
Lord Holland, chancellor of duchy of Lancaster (succeeded 

by earl of Clarendon, Oct. 1840). 
The chancellorship in commission ; sir C. Pepys (after- 
wards lord Cottenham), became lord chancellor, Jan. 

1836. 

MELEGNANO, see Marignano. 

MELENITE, a new explosive invented by M. 
Turpin, a French chemist ; approved by the French 
War Minister, Dec. 1886. Several persons killed 
by an explosion of this material at Belfort. The 
patent was bought by Messrs. Armstrong & Co., of 
Elswick, named Lyddite, and sold by them to the 
British Government, announced Oct. 1888. 
By an explosion of melenite at Bourges four work- 
men were killed Io0c t. 1890 

ine mchnite scandal, notice by the chamber of 
deputies, May, June, 1891. M. Turpin and 
captain Tripone sentenced to imprisonment, 
exile and fines for receiving monev for communi- 
cations respecting melinite to foreigners, 17 June, 1891 
MELFI (Apulia, S. Italy) was nearly destroyed 
by an earthquake, 14 Aug. 1851 : about 600 persons 
perished. 

MELODISTS' CLUB, founded in 182; by 
admirers of Uibdin ; prizes were offered. 

MELODRAMA, in which dialogue is inter- 
spersed with music, began in Germany in the 18th 

* Win. Lamb, born in 1779; became M.P. for West- 
minster, 1812 ; secretary for Ireland, 1827 ; succeeded his 
father as viscount Melbourne, 1828 ; died, 24 Nov 1848 



century, and was introduced here by Thomas Hol- 
croft. 

MELOEA or MELORIA, a small isle in the 
Mediterranean, near which the Pisan fleet defeated 
the Genoese, in 1241, capturing many bishops going 
with much treasure to a council. The total destruc- 
tion of the Pisan fleet on 6 Aug. 1284, by the 
Genoese near the same place, after a most sanguinary 
conflict, was considered to be the just punishment 
of their impiety. 

MELOS (now Milo), one of the Cyclades in the 
iEgean sea, early colonised by the Spartans 
During the Peloponnesian war the Melians 
adhered to Sparta, till the island was captured, 
after seven months' siege, by the Athenians, who 
massacred all the men and sold the women and 
children as slaves, 416 B.C. A statue of Venus, 
found here in 1820, was placed in the Louvre, 1834. 

MEMBEES OF PAELIAMENT 

(Charges and Allegations) ACT, passed 

13 Aug., 1888. See under Ireland and Parnellites. 

MEMEL, an important commercial port in 
Prussia, built about 1252 by the Livonian order. 
It was fortified by the Teutonic knights, 1404. 
It was almost totally destroyed by fire, 4 Oct. 
1854. 

^ MEMNONEIUM or Bameseion (Thebes, 
Egypt), the first Egyptian monarch — 4455, Britgsck, 
the tomb of Osymandyas, according to Diodorus, 
now considered to be that of Rameses III., about 
1200, Brugsch. 

MEMOEIAL HALL, see Independents. 

MEMOEY, see Mnemonics. 

MEMPHIS, an ancient city of Egypt ("of 
which the very ruins are stupendous"), is said to 
have been built by Menes. It included several 
grand temples with the tombs of the kings. 
The invasion of Cambyses, 525 B.C., began the 
ruin of Memphis, and the founding of Alexandria, 
332, completed it. It was restored by Septimius 
Severus,A.D. 202. In the 7th century, under the 
dominion of the Saracens, it fell into decay. — 
Memphis, Tennessee, U. S., on the Mississippi, was 
taken from the confederates by the federals after a 
severe conflict, 6 June, 1862. 
The cyclorama of Memphis as it might have appeared at 

the departure of the Israelites from Egypt 1491 B.C. 

painted by Herr Edmund Beringer, was exhibited at 

Niagara-hall, Westminster, Jan. 1892. 

"MEN OF THE BEIGN." by T. Humphry 

Ward, published 1885. " Celebrities of the Cen- 
tury," by L. C. Sanders, 1887. 

MEN OF THE TIME, a Dictionary of Con- 
temporaries, first published 1852 ; 12th edition, by 
T. Humphry Ward, 1887. 13th edition "Men 
and Women of the Time," edited by G. W. Moon, 
1891. — " Men of Mark," printed photographs, 
with biographical sketches, by Mr. T. Cooper, first 
appeared Jan. 1876. 

MENAGEEIE, see Zoology, Tower. 
Mr. Phineas Taylor Barnum's great menagerie at Bridg- 
port, Connecticut, burnt ; a great many animals perish ; 
loss about 140,000?. 20 Nov. 1887. Mr. Barnum stated 
to have purchased the old Wombwell's collection Jan. 
1888. See Barnum. 

MENAI STEAIT (between the Welsh coast, 
and the isle of Anglesey). Suetonius Paulinus, 
when he invaded Anglesey, transported his troops 
across this strait in flat-bottomed boats, 59. In 
crossing this strait, a ferry-boat was lost, and fifty 



MENDICANT FEIAES. 



631 



MEECUEY. 



persons, chiefly Irish, 4 Dec. 1785. The road from 
London to Holyhead has long been regarded as the 
highway from the British metropolis to Dublin; 
Mr. Telford was applied to by the government to 
perfect this route by the London and Holyhead 
mail-coach road, which he did by erecting beautiful 
suspension bridges over the river Conway and the 
Menai Strait, commenced in July, 1818, finished in 
July, 1825, opened 30 Jan. 1826. The Britannia 
tubular bridge over the Menai was constructed by 
Stephenson and Fairbaira in 1 849-50 ; see Ttibular 
Bridges. 

MENDICANT FEIAES. Several religious 
orders commenced alms-begging in the 13th century, 
in the pontificate of Innocent III. They spread 
oyer Europe, and formed many communities ; but 
at length by a general council, held by Gregory X. 
at Lyons, in 1272, were reduced to four orders — 
Do mini cans, Franciscans, Carmelites, and Augus- 
tuses. The Capuchins and others branched off; 
see Franciscans, &c. 

MENDICITY SOCIETY (Red Lion-square, 
London), was established in 1818 for the suppression 
•of public begging, and other impositions. Tickets 
received from the society are given by subscribers 
to beggars, who obtain relief at the society's house, 
if deserving. Up to 1872 the society had caused 
above 23,000 vagrants to be convicted as impostors. 
In 1857, 54,074 meals; in i860, 42,912; in 1865, 
•52,137; in 1872, 26,330; in 1878, 55,180 were dis- 
tributed. In 1857, 3785 ; in 1865, 3809 ; in 1872, 
.2192; and in 1878, 1700 begging letters were in- 
vestigated; in 1891, 1358 ; 1384 cases were relieved 
an 1887. See Poor. The society has been much 
aided by the action of the Charity Organization 
society ; established in 1870. 

MENDOZA, in the Argentine republic, nearly 
•destroyed by an earthquake, one of the most awful 
recorded, 20 March, 1861 : above 7000 persons 
perished. 

MENIPPEE, see Satire. 

MENNONITES, four sects of Dutch, Flemish 
and German baptists ; derive their name from Menno 
•Symonis (1505-61), formerly a catholic priest, who 
hecame a teacher and leader of the anabaptists, 
about 1537, and published his " True Christian 
Belief" in 1556 ; subsequently divisions and changes 
ensued. The Mennonites, objecting to war, emi- 
grated from Prussia to Odessa, to escape military 
•■service, and went thence to America, 1878. 

MENSUEATION. The properties of conic 
sections were discovered by Archimedes, to whom 
the chief advancement in mensuration may be 
attributed. He also determined the ratio of spheres, 
spheroids, &c, about 218 B.C. ; see Arithmetic. 
The Mensurator, a new machine for the solution 
of triangles, was explained by Mr. W. Marsham 
Adams, at the British Association Meeting at 
Brighton, Aug. 1872. 

MENTANA, (near Monter Rotondo, in the old 
papal states). Here Garibaldi and his volunteers, 
after having intrenched his positions at Monte 
llotondo and Mentana on their march towards 
Tivoli, on Sunday, 3 Nov. 1867, were totally 
■defeated by the pontilical and French troops under 
generals Kanzlar and Polhes, after a severe con- 
flict, in which general Failly said " the Chassepot 
aides did wonders." There were about 5000 men 
on each side, but the Garibaldians were very badly 
armed. The loss of the papal and French troops 
was about 200 killed and wounded ; that of Garibaldi 
about 800. Garibaldi crossed the Italian frontier. 



and was arrested at Correse, and eventually sent to 
Caprera (about 25 Nov.). See Rome. A monu- 
ment to the Garibaldians who fell here was inau- 
gurated 25 Nov. 1877. 

MENTZ or MayEjNTCE (S.W. Germany), the 
Roman Moguntiacum, built about 13 B.C. The 
archbishopric was founded by Boniface, 745. Many 
diets have been held here ; and here John Faust 
established a printing press, about 1440. A festival 
in honour of John Gutenberg was celebrated here 
in 1837, another June, 1890. See Printing. Mentz 
was given up to the Prussians, 26 Aug. 1866. 
Population 1890, 72,934. 

MENU, INSTITUTES OF, the very ancient 
code of India. Sir Win. Jones, who translated them 
into English (1794), considers their date should be 
placed between Homer (about 962 B.C.) and the 
Roman Twelve Tables (about 449 B.C.). 

. MEECANTILE MAEINE ACT was passed 
in Aug. 1850, and amended Aug. 1851. 

MEECATOE'S CHAETS, said to have been 
constructed by Gerard Mercator or Kaufl'mann and 
published 1556, and applied to navigation by Edward 
Wright about 1599. 

MEECHANDISE MAEKS ACT, passed 
in 1862 to punish forgeries of trade-marks. Another 
act passed in 1887 ; reported very effectual, 1890 ; 
amended 1891. 

At an International Conference on the subject of 
fraudulent trade-marks, held at Madrid 7-14 April 
1890, an important convention was agreed to. 

MEECHANT ADVENTUEEES' COM- 
PANY, established by the duke of Brabant in 
1296, was extended to England in Edward lll.'s 
reign, and was formed into a corporation in 1564. — 
The Merchant-Taylors, a rich company of the 
city of London, of which many kings have been 
members, were so called after the admission of 
Henry VII. into their company, 1501, but were in- 
corporated in 1466. Their school was founded in 
1 561. Stow. 

MEECHANT SHIPPING ACT of 1854 
was amended by acts passed in 1862, 1867, 1871, 1872, 
and 1873. The Act suddenly passed 13 Aug. 1875, 
gave further power to the Board of Trade for 
stopping unseaworthy ships. Other Acts passed 
1876, 1880, 1882, 1883, 1889; see Courts of Survey, 
and Seamen. 

Loss of life at sea having groatly increased, a new 
bill brought in by Mr. Joseph Chamberlain, pre- 
sident of the Board of Trade, to prevent over- 
loading, under-manning, and over-insurance, 19 
May ; withdrawn .... 3 July, 1884 
Royal commission to inquire into merchant ship- 
ping (earl of Aberdeen, the duke of Edinburgh, 
Mr. J. Chamberlain, Mr. Burt, Mr. H. Green, Mr. 
T. C. Baring and eight others), gazetted 28 Oct. 
1884; last meeting .... 31 July, 1885 

First report issued 15 Nov. ,, 

Royal commission on loss of life at sea appointed 

4 March, 1886 
Issue report recommending such alteration of law 
(if marine insurance as would prevent owners 
from making profit by the loss of their ships and 
other changes 27 Aug. 1887 

MEECHANTS were protected by Magna 
Charta, 1215, and by many statutes. See Acton 
Burnel. An attempt made by queen Anne's ministry 
to exclude merchants from sitting in the house of 
commons in 1711, failed. 

MEECIA, sec under Britain. 

MEECUEY, the planet nearest the sun, and 
the smallest known to the ancients. The transit 
of Mercury over the sun's disk, of rare occurrence 



MEECY. 



632 



METAMOEPHISTS. 



aud first observed by Gassendi, 1631, was well ob- 
served 5 Nov. 1868; at Athens'), 10 May, 1891. See 
Calomel and Quicksilver. The Greek god Hermes 
was the Roman Mercury. 

MEECY, ORDER OF (in France), was estab- 
lished with the object of accomplishing the redemp- 
tion of Christian captives among the Saracens, by 
John de Matha in 1198. Henault. Another order 
was formed by Pierre Nolasque in Spain, 1223. 

MEEIDA (Spain), a town in Estremadura 
(built by the Romans), was taken by the French, 
Jan. 1811. Near this town, at Arroy dos Molinos, 
the British army under general (afterwards lord) 
Hill defeated the French under general Girard, 
after a severe engagement, 28 Oct. 181 1. The 
British took Merida from the French in 1812, 
general Hill leading the combined forces of English 
and Spanish troops. 

MEEIDIAN, see under Geodesy. 

MEEINO SHEEP, imported into England 
from Spain, 1788, are thought to be descendants of 
English sheep taken to Spain as part of the dowry 
of John of Gaunt' s daughter Katherine, 1390. 

MEEOE, an ancient city and country of 
Africa, near the sources of the Nile, said to have 
flourished under sacerdotal government in the time 
of Herodotus, about 450 B.C. 

The priest-king Brgainenes massacred the priests and 

became absolute, about 300 b.c. 
The ruins of the ancient capital, were discovered by 

Caillaud between 1819 and 1822. 

MEEOVINGIANS, the first race of French 
kings, 418-752 ; see France and Mayors. 

MEEEIMAC, see United States, 1862. 

MEEEY-ANDEEW. The name is said to 
have been first given to Andrew Borde, a physician, 
who lived in the reign of Henry VIII., and who, on 
some occasions, on account of his facetious manners, 
appeared at court, 1547. 

MEESEY TUNNEL, see Tunnel. 

MEETH YE-T YDVIL (Glamorganshire) . 
Eiots commenced here, 3 June, 1831, and continued 
for several days ; many persons were killed and 
wounded ; see Coal {Accidents). 

MEETON (Surrey). At an abbey here, the 
barons under Henry III., 23 Jan. 1236, held a 
parliament which enacted the Provisions of Merton, 
the most ancient body of laws next after Magna 
Charta. They were repealed in 1863 ; see Bastards. 
The statute of Merton also provides for the in- 
closm-e of common lands. 

MEEV, or Meru (the ancient Antiochia Mar- 
giana), a town of independent Turkestan, Central 
Asia. It flourished under the Seljuk Turks, especi- 
ally under Sultan Alp Arslan ; it was sacked by the 
Monguls in 1221 ; it became subject to Persia in 
1510; to the emir of Bokhara in 1787; to the 
Turkomans in 1856, and to Russia 1883-4. See 
Mussia and Turkestan. 

MESMEEISM. Frederick Anthony Mesmer, 
a German physician, of Merseburg, published his 
doctrines in 1766, contending, in a thesis on 
planetary influence, that the heavenly bodies dif- 
fused through the universe a subtle fluid which acts 
on the nervous system of animated beings. Quitting 
Vienna for Paris, in 1778, he gained numerous 
proselytes and much money by experiments with 
and without metallic plates, producing effects termed 
then, "animal magnetism" now "hypnotism." 



A committee of physicians and philosophers investi- 
gated his pretensions, and Bailly, in a paper drawn 
up in 1784, exposed the futility of animal mag- 
netism. Mesmerism excited attention again about 
1848, when Miss Harriet Martincau and others- 
announced their belief in it. In 1859, the Mesmeri© 
Infirmary issued its tenth annual report, archbishop 
Whately being president, and the earl of Carlisle- 
and Mr. Monckton Milnes (since lord Houghton) 
among the vice-presidents. See Animal Magnetism 
and Hypnotism. 

MESSALIANS, a sect professing to adhere to 
the letter of the gospel, about 310, refused to work, 
quoting this passage, "Labour not for the foocj 
that perisheth." 

MESSENIA (now Maura-Matra) , in the 
Peloponnesus, an ancient kingdom. It had long 
s.inguinary wars with Sparta. It was at first 
governed by kings ; after its restoration to power 
in the Peloponnesus it formed an inferior republic,, 
under the protection first of the Thebans, and after- 
wards of the Macedonians. 

Tae first Messenian war began 743 B.C. ; was occa- 
sioned by violence ottered to some Spartan 
women in a temple of devotion common to both 
nations ; the king of Sparta being killed in his 
efforts to defend the females. Eventually, Ithome 
was taken, and the Messenians became slaves to 

the conquerors b.c 724 

The second war, to throw off the Spartan yoke, com- 
menced about 685, ending in the defeat of the 

Messenians, who fled to Sicily 668 

The third war, (the Messenians emigrate) . 464-455 

MESSIAH, synonymous with Christ "the 
anointed," foretold by JJaniel ix. 25, about 538 B.C. 
"We have found the Messias, which is, being in- 
terpreted, the Christ." John i. 41. "The Mes- 
siah," Handel's greatest oratorio, composed by 
him in twenty-three days (22 Aug. -14 Sept. 1741), 
was first performed at Lublin, 13 April, 1742, the 
receipts being given by him to the charities of that 
city. 

MESSINA (Sicily), so named by the Samians, 
who seized this city, then called Zancle, 671 B.C. 
It was seized by the Mamertini {which see), about 
281 B.C. It belonged for many ages to the Roman 
empire ; was taken by the Saracens, about a.d. 829. 
Priestley. Roger the Normaii took it from them by 
surprise, about 1072. 
Revolts against Charles of Anjou, and is succoured 

by Peter of Aragon 1282 

Revolts in favour of Louis XIV. of France, 1676 ; 

the Spaniards punish it severely .... 1678 
Almost ruined by an earthquake and eruption of 

Etna 1693 

Nearly depopulated by a plague .... 1740 
Half destroyed by an earthquake . . . . 1783 

Head-quarters of the British forces in Sicily, prior to 1814 
An insurrection here subdued ... 7 Feb. 1848 
Garibaldi enters Messina after his victory at Melazzo 

20-21 July, i860 
The citadel surrenders to Cialdini . . 13 March, 1861 
Population i8go, 142,000. 

METALS. Tubal-Cain is mentioned as an 
" instructor of every artificer in brass and iron." 
(Gen. iv.) The Phoenieians had great skill in 
working metals. Bunsen and Kirchhoff's method 
of chemical analysis by means of the spectrurn has 
added oacsium, rubidium, thallium, indium, gallium, 
and others to the known metals. See Elements, 
Mines, Iron, and the other metals. " Metallurgy," 
published by Dr. John Percy, 1861-80; he died 19 
June, 1889. 

METAMOEPHISTS in the 15th century 
affirmed that Christ's natural body, with which he 
ascended into heaven, was wholly deified. 



METAPHYSICS. 



632 



METEORS. 



METAPHYSICS, the science of abstract 
reasoning, or that which contemplates the existence 
of things without relation to matter. The term, 
literally denoting "after physics," originated from 
these » ords having been put at the head of certain 
essays of Aristotle, which follow his treatise on 
Physics. Mackintosh. Modern metaphysics arose 
in the 15th century — the period when an extra- 
ordinary impulse was given to the study of the 
human mind in Emope, commonly called the " re- 
vival of learning.'' Hobbes, Cudworth, S. T. Cole- 
ridge, Dugald Stuart, and sir W. Hamilton, were 
eminent British metaphysicians, and Descartes, 
Pascal, Kant, Schilling, and Fichte, foreign ones. 
See Pliilosophy. 

METAURUS, a river in central Italy, where 
Hasdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, was defeated 
and slain, 207 B.C., when marching with abundant 
reinforcements. The Romans were led by Livius 
and Claudius Nero, the consuls. The latter com- 
manded the head of Hasdrubal to be thrown into 
his brother's camp. The victory saved Rome. 

METEMPSYCHOSIS, a doctrine attributed 
to Pythagoras, about 528 B.C., asserts the trans- 
migration of the soul from one body to another. 
It is also ascribed to the Egyptians, who would 
eat no animal food lest they should devour the 
bod}- into which the soul of a deceased friend had 
passed. They had also an idea that so long as the 
body of the deceased was kept entire, the soul 
would not transmigrate ; and therefore embalmed 
the dead. See Buddhism. 

METEOROGRAPH, an apparatus for the 
invention of which father Secchi of Rome received 
a prize at the Paris International Exhibition, July, 
1867. It is self-acting, and registers the various 
changes of the atmosphere in the form of a dia- 
gram. 

METEOROLOGY (from the Greek meteoros, 
aerial), the science which treats of the phenomena 
which have their origin in the air, such as rain, 
lightning, meteors, fogs, &c. Bacon, Boyle, and 
Franklin wrote on the subject. 

Meteorological Society of the Palatinate, established 
1780. 

Meteorological Society of London, first met, 15 Oct. 
1823. 

John Dalton's essay on meteorology appeared in 1793. 

Luke Howard's work on the clouds appeared in 1802, 
and his " Barometrographia " in 1848. See Clouds. 

Sir W. Reed published his work on the " law of storms " 
in 1838. The works of Daniell (1845), Ksemtz (1845), 
Miiller (1847), anc l Buehan (1867) are esteemed. 

The "British" Meteorological Society, established in 
1850, chartered in 1866, became Royal, Oct. 1883. By 
the exertions of Mr. James Glaisher, long the 
secretary, the apparatus at Greenwich was erected ; 
and meteorology has appeared in the " Greenwich 
Observations " since 1848. See Balloon — Scientific 
Ascents. 

The royal meteorological society's annual exhibitions 
began in 1880. 

Meteorological observatories have been erected in all 
parts of the globe. 

The Meteorological department of the Board of Trade, es- 
tablished in 1855, under admiral Fitzroy, commenced 
the publication of reports in 1857. The admiral pub- 
lished his "Weather-Book" in 1863. His exertions 
are said to have overworked his brain ; and on 30 
April, 1865, he died by his own hand. The Meteoro- 
logical office was soon after placed under the direction 
of Mr. Robert H. Scott. It has issued apparatus and 
instruction books to captains of ships and established 
observatories in many places in the empire. It was 
handed over to the Royal Society in 1871, and endowed 
by Mr. J. P. Gassiot. 

The Kew meteorological observatory given to the British 
Association in April, i860. It was placed under the 



Meteorological council nominated by the Royal Society, 
but appointed by the treasury. R. H. Scott, secretary, 
July, 1877. 

At the recommendation of M. Le Vernier and admiral 
Fitzroy, meteorological information, obtained by the 
telegraph from the principal places in the United King- 
dom, has been transmitted daily to Paris, and thence 
to other parts of Europe since 1 Sept. i860. 

Storm-warnings first issued in Holland through M. 
Buys Ballot, i860. His "law of the winds" points- 
out the relation between the direction of the wind, 
and the atmospheric pressure. 

Storm-warnings hrst sent to the coast by the Board of 
Trade, 6 Feb. ; and first published 31 July, 1861 ; sus- 
pended, 7 Dec. 1866 ; restoration proposed, Nov. 1867 ; 
reissued at Christmas 1867, and have been since 
continued. 

Daily international bulletin of the imperial observatory 
at Paris, under the direction of M. Le Verrier, fiist 
published in MS. 1 Jan. 1858, first issued to subscribers, 
4 Nov. 1863. (This was the first chart with united 
maps.) 

" Daily weather charts " first issued by the Meteorological 
Office, 1 Oct. (first prepared in M.S. 3 Sept. 1860)1872; 
" Weekly Weather Report" first published, n Feb. 1878. 

International Meteorological congress at Vienna, 2-16 
Sept. 1873 ; at Rome 14-22 April, 1879 ; and at Berne, 
9-12 Aug. 1880. 

" Weather Charts and Storm Warnings," by R. H. Scott, 
published, 1876 et seq. 

Wrecks diminished in consequence, June 1876-7, 1805 ; 
1879-81, 891. 

Circular issued relating to a new plan for obtaining in- 
formation from ships at sea, &e., 14 April, 1882. 

Observatory erected on Ben Nevis ; Mr. R. T. Omond 
appointed director, 6 Sept.; opened 17 Oct. 1883. New 
tower erected, 1884. 

A French academy of meteorology organised a successful 
balloon ascent, 9 Aug. 1879. 

An observatory on Sonnblick Salzburg (10,177 feet 
high), opened about 1 Sept. 1886. 

Daily forecasts for midland counties, 1886, 310. Absolute 
successes 247, absolute failures 26 ; and partial or 
doubtful successes 36, announced in Times, 7 Feb. 
1887. 

Weather plant (Abrus precatorius) exhibited by professor 
Nowak at Vienna ; changes in the weather said to be 
foretold by alteration in the leaves attributed to electro- 
magnetism in 24 to 48 hours previously, Aug. -Sept 
1888. The plant is grown in the Botanical society's, 
gardens, London. Many other plants possess this, 
property (W. So-werby), Sept. 1888. During the experi- 
ments made at the Jodrell laboratory, Kew, by 
Dr. Oliver and Herr Joseph Nowack in October 1S89, 
when many weather changes occurred, only one fore- 
cast was given by the weather plant which therefore 
cannot be relied upon for meteorological purposes. 

International Meteorological Congress at Munich 26 Aug. 
et seq. 1891. 

The 13th annual exhibition of meteorological apparatus, 
London, opened 15 March 1892. 

See Barometer, Thermometer, &c. 

METEORS, Luminous, include shooting 

stars, tire-balls, and falling stones or aerolites. 
They were described by Halley, Wallis, and others 
early in the 17th century. The periodicity of the 
star showers about the 10th of August (termed in 
the middle ages St. Lawrence's tears) was dis- 
covered separately by Quetelet, 1836, and by Her- 
rick in 1837. The following are remarkable epochs 
for their annual return : —2 Jan.; 29 July; 3 and 
9-12 Aug. ; 8-14 Nov. ; 11 Dec. It. 1\ Greg. See 
August. 

The magnificent continuous star-shower of 14 Nov. 1866, 
had been predicted by professor Newton some time 
previously. A fine display occurred on the night of 
13 Nov. 1868, in the United States. A similar phenome- 
non had been witnessed by Humboldt at Cumana 
(S. A.), 12 Nov. 1799 ; and by Dr. D. Olmsted, at New- 
haven (U.S.), 13 Nov. 1833. They were well observed in 
Britain and Europe, 27 Nov. 1872 ; and in Southern 
and Western Europe, 27 Nov. 1885. 
AKrolites, falling-stones, accompanying meteors, are 
found in our museums. They contain iron, nickel, and 
other minerals. 



METHOD. 



634 METROPOLITAN ASSOCIATION. 



Mr. Norman Lockyer announces his theory, based on 
spectrum experiments that all self-luminous bodies in 
the celestial spaces are composed of meteorites or 
masses of vapour produced by heat brought about by 
condensation of meteor swarms due to gravity, royal 
.•society, 17 Nov. 1887. 

.METHOD (Greek, a way of transit) , that which. 
•gives to knowledge its character. S. T. Coleridge's 
(treatise en the science of method is prefixed to the 
first volume of the " Encyclopaedia Metropolitana." 
£845. 

'The most recent work on this subject is Professor 
• Stanley Jevons' " Principles of Science : a Treatise on 
Logic and Scientific Method," 1874. " The powers of 
mind concerned in creation of science are discrimina- 
tion, detection of identity, and retention." 

METHODISTS, see Wesleycms. 

METHUEN TREATY, a treaty for regulat- 
ing the commei'ee between Great Britain and Portu- 
gal, made 27 Dec. 1 703, concluded by Paul Methuen, 
<our ambassador at Lisbon. It greatly favoured the 
importation of port wine into this country by 
lowering the duty, to the discouragement of French 
wines. It was abrogated in 1834. 

METHYL, a colourless inodorous gas, a com- 
pound of hydrogen and carbon, obtained in the 
free state first by Frankland and Kolbe separately, 
in 1849. 

METHYLATED SPIRITS. By an act 

passed in 1855 a mixture of spirits of wine with 10 
per cent, of its hulk of wood-naphtha, or methylic 
alcohol, is allowed to be made duty free for use in 
the arts and manufactures, not less than 450 gal- 
lons being made at one time. In 1861 an act was 
passed permitting the methylated spirits to be re- 
tailed by licence. - 

METONIC CYCLE, a period of 19 years, or 
6940 days, at the end of which the changes of the 
moon fall on the same days ; see Calippic Period, 
Golden Number. 

METRIC SYSTEM. Before the revolution 
(there was no uniformity in French weights and mea- 
sures. On 8 May, 1790, the constituent assembly 
•charged the Academy of Sciences with, the organisa- 
tion of a better system. The committee named for 
the purpose by the academy included the names of 
Bertholiet, Borda, Delambre, Lagrange, Laplace, 
Mecbain, and Prony. Delambre and Mechain were 
charged with the measurement of an arc of the meri- 
dian between Dunkirk and Barcelona, and from their 
calculations the metre, which is equal to a ten-mil- 
lionth part of the distance between the poles and the 
.equator (3-2808 English feet) was made the unit of 
length and the base of the system by law on 7 April, 
1795. The system was completed in 1799, aud made 
by law the only legal one on 2 Nov. 1801. A decree 
on 12 Feb. accommodated the old measures to the 
new system ; but on 4 July, 1837, it was decreed 
that after. 1 Jan. 1840, the metric and decimal 
system in its primitive simplicity should be used in 
ail business transactions. The example of France 
has been followed by the greater part of Europe 
and will probably in time be adopted in the British' 
empire. 
Unit of Surface, ceniiare=a, square metre=fi96o 

English yard (a square decametre or are— 100 square 

metres). 
Unit of Volume or Solidity, sthre—a, cubit metre. 
Unit of Capacity, litre=a, cubic decimetre (or lothofa 

metre)=i '76077 English pint. 
Unit of Weight, ?ramme=weight of a cubic centimetre 

(the 100th part of a metre) of distilled water=o'56438 

English drachm. 
Unit of Money, the franc, a piece of silver weighing 5 

grammes. 



The multiples of these units are expressed by Greek 
numerals (deca-, 10 ; hekato-, 100 ; kilo-, 1000 ; myria-, 
10,000. The divisors are expressed by Latin numerals 
(deci-, 10 ; centi-, 100 ; milli-, 1000). 

Sir John Wrottesley brought the subject before 
parliament 25 Feb. 1824 

A commission of inquiry appointed at the instance 
of the chancellor of the exchequer, Mr. Spring 
Rice (since lord Monteagle) . . . May, 1838 

Another commission was appointed (both consisted 
of eminent scientific men, and reported strongly 
in favour of the change) . . .20 June, 1843 

A committee of the house of commons reported to 
the same effect 1 Aug. 1853 

Mr. Gladstone, admitting the advantages of the 
system, thought its introduction premature. 

Decimal Association formed for the purpose of 
obtaining the adoption of the system . June, 1854 

Another commission for inquiry was appointed, 
consisting of lords Monteagle and Overstone, and 
Mr. J. G. Hubbard, who published a preliminary 
report (with evidence), but expressed no opinion, 

Nov. 1855 

An International Decimal Association formed in . „ 

The decimal currency adopted in Canada 1 Jan. 1858 

The new weights and measures bill (an approxima- 
tion to the decimal system) was passed . . 1862 

An act passed "to render permissive the use of the 
metric system of weights and measures," 29 July, 1864 
(repealed by weights and measures act, 1878). 

A bill for the compulsory adoption of the metric 
system rejected by the commons . . 26 July, 1871 

Meeting at the Mansion-house, London, advocating 
its adoption 17 Jan. 1872 

International Congress to promote the universal 
adoption of the metric system . . 24 Sept. ,, 

International convention for adopting metric sys- 
tem, signed at .Paris, by representatives of 
Austria, Germany, Russia, Italy, Spain, Portugal, 
Turkey, Switzerland, Belgium, Sweden, Denmark, 
United States of America, Argentine Republic, 
Brazil; and Peru, 20 May, 1875, England . 1884 

The system (to come into force in 1889) adopted by 
Sweden May, 1876 

International congress on weights and measures 
met at Paris 4 Sept. 1878 

Adoption of decimal system proposed in house of 
commons by Mr. Ashton W. Dilke ; negatived 
(108-28) 29 March, 1881 

METRONOME, to regulate time in the per- 
formance of music. A metronome with double 
pendulum, invented by Winkel, was adopted suc- 
cessfully by Maelzel, and patented by him in 
1816. 

METROPOLIS op Great Britain in- 
cludes the cities of London and "Westminster, and 
the boroughs of Southwark, Finsbury, Maryle- 
bone, Tower- Hamlets, Hackney, Lambeth, and 
Chelsea, in which great changes were made by the 
re-distribution of seats act, 1885. The Metropolis 
Management Act, 18 & 19 Vict. c. 122, was passed in 
1855 ; estimated gross value of property, 6 April, 
1889, 38,462,493/.; rateable, 31,592,387/.; see 
Loudon. 

METROPOLIS ROADS ACT (passed in 
1863) transferred the management of certain roads 
north of the Thames from the commissioners to the 
parishes, and abolished certain turnpikes and toll- 
bars. 

METROPOLIS WATER ACT, 1852, 
amended, 187 1. 

METROPOLITAN (from the Greek metro- 
polis), a title given at the council of Nice, 325, to 
certain bishops who had jurisdiction over others in 
a province. 

METROPOLITAN ASSOCIATION for 
Improving the Dwellings of the In- 
dustrious Classes. Founded 15 Sept. 1841 ; 
incorporated 16 Oct. 1845. 

Capital originally 100,000?. ; increased to 200,000^. 



METEOPOLITAN BOAKD OF WOEKS. 635 METEOPOLITAN STEEETS ACT. 



(1884). Dividend not to exceed 5 per cent. Secretary, 
and chief originator, Mr. Charles Gatliff; offices, 118, 
Finsbury-circus. The late rt. hon. lord Claud Hamilton 
member 1845-84 ; chairman for 13 years. 

METEOPOLITAN BOAED of WOEKS 

was established by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 120 (1855),* 
amended in 1862. It held its first meeting and 
elected Mr. (aftds. sir) John Thwaites as chairman, 
22 Dec. 1855. The office was in Spring-gardens. In 
1858, its powers were extended in order to effect the 
purification of the Thames by constructing a new 
main drainage for the metropolis. The board was 
authorised to raise a loan and levy 3d. in the pound 
on the property in the metropolis. It was also 
authorised to construct the Thames Embankment. 
In 1861 the board received nearly a million pounds, 
and expended 900,000/. ; see Sewage, and Thames. 
Sir John Thwaites, the chairman, died 8 Aug. 1870, 
aged 55. Much discussidn ensued respecting the 
appointment of his successor ; Mr. Bruce, the home 
secretary, having intimated the probability of the 
office being abolished by parliament, with other 
changes, II Aug. Col. (aftds. sir) James Mac- 
naghten McGarel Hogg (created baron Maghera- 
raorne, June, 1887), a member of the board, was 
elected chairman for one year, 18 Nov. 1870 ; 
annually till 1889 (he died 27 June, 1890). The 
board was empowered to borrow money by acts 
passed 1869-87. Its powers extended over 117 
square miles, and 3,266,287 persons in 1873. It was 
composed of delegates from various local boards, &c. 
Royal commission of inquiry into the working of 
the board appointed by parliament, 1888. Lord 
Herschell chairman ; charges against Messrs. 
Robertson, Goddard, and others ; many dismissed 

June-July, 1888 
The commissioners' " interim " report discloses 
cases of negligence, inefficiency, irregularities, 
errors in judgment, and some evidence of 

corruption Nov. „ 

The eminent engineer of the Board, sir Joseph 
Bazalgette, appointed 1856; resigns Feb. 1889; 

he died 15 March, 1891 

The board was abolished by the local government 
act of 1888, and its powers, duties, property, 
debts and liabilities transferred to the London 
county council, beginning 21 April, 1889 ; carried 
into effect by the local government board, 

21 March, ,, 
The board accepted a tender for the construction 
of a tunnel from Blackwall to Greenwich for 
318,840^. from Messrs. S. Pearson & Sons, 

15 March, ,, 
Final report of the commission issued . 4 May „ 

METEOPOLITAN BUILDING ACTS, 
see Building. 

METEOPOLITAN CATTLE MAEKET, 

inaugurated by the lord mayor and corporation on 
Wednesday, 13 July, 1855, in presence of the prince 
consort. It is situated in Copenhagen-fields, an 
elevated site north of London, occupying an area of 
about fifteen acres, larger by nine acres than Smith- 
field, and capable of containing 30,000 sheep, 6400 
bullocks, 1400 calves, and 900 pigs. In the centre 
is a circular building, let to bankers and others 
having business connected with graziers and cattle- 
agents. Within and around the market are erected 
several large taverns. A place is set apart for 
slaughtering animals, with approved appliances for 
purposes of health, by ventilation, sewerage*, &c. ; 
there is also a place for haystands. Sales com- 
menced on Friday, 15 June, 1855. — An act for 
establishing a meat and poultry market in Smith- 
field {.which see) was passed in i860. 

* " For the management of public works in which the 
metropolis has a common interest." 



METEOPOLITAN COMMONS. Acts re- 
specting them passed 1866, 1869, and 1878. See 
Commons. 

METEOPOLITAN CONVALESCENT 
INSTITUTION, Fire Brigade, and 
HOUSELESS POOR. See Convalescent, Fire 
Brigade, and Houseless Poor. 

METEOPOLITAN DISTEICT ASY- 
LUM BOAED, instituted by parliament in 1867, 
proceeded to erect hospitals at Haverstock-hill, 
Caterham, &c, 1868, causing much discontent in 
several parishes. The asylum for idiots at Leaves- 
den, near Watford, Herts, inaugurated 27 Sept. 
1870. An act respecting the board passed in 1884. 
The epidemic of fevers, especially scarlet, caused 

greatly increased demand for accommodation for 

patients, well met Sept. 1887-Jan. 1888. The 

spread of small-pox greatly checked. 

METEOPOLITAN DBAINAGE, see 

Sewers. 

METEOPOLITAN DEINKING FOUN- 
TAIN and Cattle Trough Association ; 

founded 1859. See Drinking Fountains. 

METEOPOLITAN MEAT MAEKET, 

Smithtield, erecied in accordance with an act passed 
in i860, was inaugurated by the lord mayor, James 
Lawrence, 24 Nov. 1868, and opened for business, 
I Dec. 

METEOPOLITAN MUNICIPAL ASSO- 
CIATION met 11 Dec. 1866. 

METEOPOLITAN POLICE ACTS, 1829 
et seq., consolidated in 1887. 

METEOPOLITAN POLICE MAGIS- 
TRATES, see Magistrates and Police. 

METEOPOLITAN POOE ACT, "for the 
establishment in the metropolis of asylums for the 
sick, insane, and other classes of the poor," passed 
29 March, 1867; was amended in 1869; see Poor. 

METEOPOLITAN EAILWAY {Under- 
ground}, at first between Paddington and "Victoria- 
street, near Holborn. The act for it passed in 1853 ; 
the construction began in the spring of i860 ; and it 
was opened for traffic, 10 Jan. 1863. Many serious 
difficulties were overcome with great skill and 
energy by the engineer, John Fowler, and the con- 
tractors, Jay, Smith, and Knight. In the first six 
months of 1865 there were 7,462,823 passengers. 
It has been continued and there is now an Inner 
and Outer Circle, and it has been supplemented by 
the Metropolitan Districts Railway. 

METEOPOLITAN SCHOOL BOAED, 

instituted by the Elementary Education act, 1870, 
was elected 29 Nov. 1870 (for three years). It in- 
cluded lord Lawrence, lord Sandon, professor Hux- 
ley, Miss Garrett, M.D., and Miss Davies. At its 
first meeting, 15 Dec, lord Lawrence was elected 
chairman, and Mr. C. Reed, M.P., vice-chairman; 
and it was decided that the chairman should be 
unpaid at present. On 27 Nov. 1873, 30 Nov. 1876, 
and 27 Nov. 1879, Mr. (afterwards sir) Charles 
Reed was elected chairman. He died 25 March, 
1881, succeeded bvMr. Edwd. North Buxton. Rev. 
J. R. Diggle, elected chairman, 3 Dec. 1885; re- 
elected A Oee. 1888. and 3 Dec. 1891. For history, 
&c., see Education. 1870 etseq. 

METEOPOLITAN STEEETS ACT 

(30 & 31 Vict. c. 134) " for regulating the traffic in 
the metropolis, and for making provision for the 
greater security of persons passing through the 



METTRAY. 



636 



MEXICO. 



streets," passed 20 Aug. 1867. A short, act, modi- 
fying the clauses relating to costermongers and cabs, 
was passed 7 Dec. 1867. 

METTEAY, see Reformatory Schools. 

METZ, a fortified city in Lorraine, annexed to 
the empire of Germany, 10 May, 1871. It was 
the Roman JDivodunum or Meti, capital of the 
Mediomatrici, a powerful Gaulish tribe, and after- 
wards of the kingdom of Austrasia, or Metz, in the 
6th century. It was made a free imperial city, 985. 
It was besieged by Charles VII. of France for seven 
months in 1444, and was ransomed for 100,000 
florins ; was captured by Henry II., 10 April, 1552, 
and successfully defended by the duke of Guise 
against the emperor Charles V. with an army of 
100,000 men, 31 Oct. 1552 to 15 Jan. 1553. Metz 
Avas ceded to France by the peace of Westphalia, 
24 Oct. 1648, and was fortified by Vauban and Belle- 
isle. On 28 July, 1870, the emperor Napoleon III. 
arrived at Metz and assumed the chief command. 
After the disastrous defeats at Woerth and Forbach, 
on 6 Aug. the whole French army (except the corps 
of MacMahon, De Failly, and Douay) was concen- 
trated here, 10, II Aug., and by delay was hemmed 
in by the Germans. Marshal Bazaine assumed the 
chief command, 8 Aug. The emperor departed with 
the vanguard, which crossed the Moselle early on 
14 Aug. Population, 1890, 60,194. 

1. Battle of Pange or Courcelles, gained by the 

first army under Von Steinmetz, after several 
hours' fighting, with great German loss, 

14 Aug. 1870 
Bazaine was censured for not advancing on 

15 Aug. „ 

2. Battle of Vionville or Mars-la-Tour, gained by 

the 2nd army under prince Frederick Charles, 
after twelve hours' fighting. By the unex- 
pected unmasking of a mitrailleuse battery, 
Henry, prince of Reuss, and many German 
nobles were killed in a few moments. The 
victory was at first claimed by the French. 
(This battle, the most sanguinary in the war 
hitherto, included a Balaclava charge of a 
German regiment of cavalry upon a French 
battery, by which it was decimated, but to 
which the victory was greatly due. Twice as 
many Germans were killed as at Koniggratz, 
the killed and wounded being estimated at 
17,000. The French loss was said to have 
been equally great) . . . 16 Aug. 1870 
Bazaine masses his troops for a decisive conflict, 

17 Aug. „ 
3 Battle of Rezonville or Gravelotte, gained by 

the combined 1st and 2nd armies, commanded 
by the king in person, after twelve hours' 
fighting. " The most desperate struggle took 
place on the slopes over Gravelotte, which 
the Germans gained by nightfall, after re- 
peated fatal charges ; the fortune of the day 
being long in suspense. But the right of the 
French had been outflanked, they fell back 
fighting to the last, and retired under cover 
of Metz. The French are said to have lost 
19,000 ; and the Germans, 25,000." (The king, 
on the 19th, had not undressed for thirty ' 
hours. The carnage is considered to have 
been unexampled ; a large number of French 
prisoners were made ; and enormous loss was 
experienced by the imperial guard. The Ger- 
man army included Saxons and Hessians), 

18 Aug. „ 
Bazaine repulsed in a sortie at Courcelles, near Metz 

(he claimed a victory) ... 26 Aug. „ 

His whole army defeated by gen. Manteuffel of the 
army of prince Frederick Charles, in a battle 
lasting from the morning of 31 Aug. to noon, 

1 Sept. „ 
Von Steinmetz sent to govern Posen ; prince 
Frederick Charles sole commander before Metz, 

21 Sept. ,, 
Three vigorous but ineffective sallies, 

23, 24, 27 Sept. ,, 



About 100,000 soldiers estimated in Metz, 30 Sept. 1870 

Great sortie ; the Germans surprised ; about 40,000 
French engaged ; they are repulsed after a severe 
engagement from 3 p.m. till dark ; loss about 2000 
French and 600 Germans ... 7 Oct. „ 

About 600 oxen and 500 sheep captured during a 
sortie 8 Oct. „ 

General Boyer arrives at Versailles to treat for 
terms of capitulation .... 14 Oct. ,, 

Metz surrenders with the army, including marshals 
Bazaine, Canrobert, and Le Bceuf ; 66 generals ; 
about 6000 officers ; 173,000 men, including the 
imperial guard ; 400 pieces of artillery ; 100 
mitrailleuses ; and 53 eagles or standards, 27 Oct. ,, 

The capitulation was signed at Frescati by generals 
Jarras and Stiehle on behalf of the French and 
German commanders . . ... 27 Oct. „ 

General order to the army issued by marshal Bazaine, 
saying that they were "conquered by famine," 

27 Oct. „ 

Order to the army issued by prince Frederick 
Charles, recognising their bravery, great obedi- 
ence, calmness, cheerfulness, and devotion, 

27 Oct. „ 

The Germans enter Metz ... 29 Oct. ,, 

One cause of the fall of Metz was the great army it 
contained ; it might have been successfully de- 
fended by 20,000 men. 

Marshal Bazaine was tried and condemned to death 
for surrendering Metz and the army, 6 Oet.- 
10 Dec. ; punishment commuted to 20 years' 
imprisonment, 12 Dec. ; he escaped from Isle St. 
Marguerite 9 Aug. 1874 

The German emperor and empress were well re- 
ceived at Metz 23 Aug. 1889 

See France. 

MEXICO, anciently Anahuac, N. America, is 
said to have been conquered by the Aztecs, who 
founded the city of Mexico about 1325. It was dis- 
covered in 15 1 7, and conquered by Fernando Cortez, 
1519-21 ; explored by Alexander von Humboldt, 
1799-1804. It consL-ts of 27 confederate states. It 
is stated that there have been above 260 insurrec- 
tions in Mexico since 1821. Population, 1874, 
about 9,276,079 ; 10,447,974 in 1882 ; 1890, 
",395.712; the city, Mexico, 329,535. 

Montezuma emperor 1503 

Cortes lands, 1519; captures the city of Mexico . 1521 
Mexico constituted a kingdom. Cortes, governor . 1522 
Mendoza, first viceroy of New Spain, 1530; estab- 
lishes a mint 1535 

Unsuccessful insurrections of Miguel Hidalgo, 1810; 

of Morelos, 1815 ; of Mina 1817 

Mexico declared independent by the treaty of 

Aquala 23 Aug. 1821 

Augustin Iturbide, president of a provisionaljunto, 
Feb. ; Mexico formed into an empire ; the crown 
declined by Spain ; Iturbide made emperor, May, 1822 
Compelled to abdicate .... 26 March, 1823 
Mexican federal republic proclaimed . 4 Oct. ,, 
Iturbide went to England ; returns and endeavours 

to recover his dignity ; shot . . .19 July, ^24 
Federal constitution established . . . Oct. ,, 
Treaty of commerce with Great Britain April, 1825 

Expulsion of the Spaniards decreed . March, 1829 

Spanish expedition against Mexico surrendered, 

26 Sept. „ 
Mexican revolution : the president Guerrero de- 
posed 23 Dec. ,, 

Santa Anna president 11 May, 1833 

Independence of Mexico recognised by Brazil, 

June, T830; by Spain .... 28 Dec. 1836 
Declaration of war against France . . 30 Nov. 1838 
This war terminated .... 9 March, 1839 
War with the United States . . . 4 June, 1845 
The Mexicans defeated at Palo Alto, and at Mata- 

moras 8 May, 1846 

Santa Fe captured, 22 Aug. ; and Monterey, 24 Sept. „ 
Battle of Buena Vista ; the Mexicans defeated by 
general Taylor, with great loss, after two days' 

fighting 22 Feb. 1847 

The Americans, under general Scott, defeat the 

Mexicans at Cerro Gorda . . .18 April, ,, 
The Mexicans beaten in several actions; Mexico 
taken by assault by general Scott . 15 Sept. ,, 



MEXICO. 



637 



MEXICO. 



Treaty of peace ratified . . . .19 May, 

Political convulsions .... Sept. 

President Arista resigns, 6 Jan. ; and Santa Anna 
returns, Feb. ; dictator . . . 16 Dec. 

He abdicates ; Carera elected president . Jan. 

Who also abdicates ; succeeded first by Alvarez, 
and afterwards by general Comonfort . Dec. 

Property of the clergy sequestrated . 31 March, 

New constitution established . . .5 Feb. 

Beginning of a reformed Church by Aguilar and 
others 

Comonfort chosen president . . . July, 

Coup d'etat ; constitution annulled by the church 
party ; Comonfort compelled to retire, 1 1 Jan. ; 
general Zuloaga takes the government, 21-26 Jan. 

Benito Juarez declared constitutional president at 
Vera Cruz 11 Feb. 

Civil war : several engagements . Aug. to Nov. 

General Miguel Miramon nominated president at 
Mexico by the Junta 6 Jan. 

Zuloaga abdicates 2 Feb. 

In consequence of injury to British subjects, ships 
of war sent to Mexico .... Feb. 

Miramon forces the lines of the liberal generals, 
enters the capital, assumes his functions as 
governor, and governs without respect to the 
laws of life and property . . .10 April, 

Juarez confiscates the church property 13 July, 

Miramon and the clerical party defeat the liberals 
under Colinia 21 Dec. 

He besieges Vera Cruz, 5 March; bombards it; 
compelled to raise the siege . . 21 March, 

General Zuloaga deposes Miramon, and assumes 
the presidency .... 1 May, 

Miramon arrests Zuloaga, 9 May ; the diplomatic 
bodies suspend official relations with the former, 

10 May, 

Miramon defeated by Degollado . . 10 Aug. 

He governs Mexico with great tyranny; seizes 
152,000/. belonging to English bondholders, Sept.; 
the foreign ministers quit the city . . Oct. 

He is defeated ; compelled to retire ; Juarez enters 
Mexico, 11 Jan. ; re-elected president . . 19 Jan. 

Juarez made dictator by the congress . 30 June, 

The Mexican congress decides to suspend payments 
to foreigners for two years . . 17 July, 

Which leads to the breaking off diplomatic relations 
with England and France . -27 July, 

In consequence of many gross outrages on foreign- 
ers, the British, French, and Spanish govern- 
ments, after much vain negotiation, claiming 
efficient protection of foreigners, and the payment 
of arrears due to fundholders, sign a convention 
engaging to combined hostile operations against 
Mexico 31 Oct. 

The Mexican congress dissolves, after conferring 
full powers on the president . -15 Dec. 

Spanish troops land at Vera Cruz, 8 Dec; it sur- 
renders 17 Dec. 

A British naval and French military expedition 
arrives 7, 8 Jan. 

The Mexicans resist, and invest Vera Cruz ; their 
taxes raised 25 per cent Jan. 

Miramon arrives, but is sent back to Spain by 
the British admiral Feb. 

Project of establishing a Mexican monarchy, for 
archduke Maximilian of Austria, disapproved of 
by British and Spanish governments . Feb. 

Negotiation ensues between the Spanish and Mexi- 
cans ; convention between the commissaries of 
the allies and the Mexican general Doblado, at 
Soledad 19 Feb. 

The Mexican general Marquez takes up arms 
against Juarez ; and general Almonte joins the 
French general Lorencez ; Juarez demands a com- 
pulsory loan, and puts Mexico in a state of siege, 

March, 

Conference between plenipotentiaries of the allies 
at Orizaba; the English and Spanish declare for 
peace, which is not agreed to by the French, 
9 April ; who declare war against Juarez, 

16 April, 

The Spanish and British forces retire ; the French 
government sends reinforcements to Lorencez, 

May, 

The French, induced by Marquez, advance into 
the interior; severely repulsed by Zaragoza, at 
Fort Guadaloupe, near Puebla » . 5 May, 



1853 
1855 



1857 



1862 



Juarez quits the capital ... 31 May, 1862 

The French defeat the Mexicans at Cerro de Borgo, 
near Orizaba 13, 14 June, ,, 

The Mexican liberals said to be desirous of nego- 
tiation Aug. „ 

Gen. Forey and 2500 French soldiers land 28 Aug. ,, 

Letter from the emperor Napoleon to Lorencez 
disclaiming any intention of imposing a govern- 
ment on Mexico ; announced . . Sept. ,, 

Death of Zaragoza, a great loss to the Mexicans, 

8 Sept. „ 

Gen. Forey deprives Almonte of the presidency at 
Vera Cruz, and appropriates the civil and mili- 
tary power to himself .... Oct. ,, 

Ortega takes command of the Mexicans 19 Oct. ,, 

The Mexican congress assembles, and protests 
against the French invasion . . . 27 Oct. ,, 

The French evacuate Tampico . . 13 Jan. 1863 

Forey marches towards Mexico . . .24 Feb. ,, 

Siege of Puebla; bravely defended, 29 March; 
severe assault, 31 March to 3 April ; it is sur- 
rendered at discretion by Ortega . . 18 May, ,, 

Juarez and the republican government remove to 
San Luis de Potosi . . . 31 May, ,, 

Mexico occupied by the French, under Bazaine, 
5 June ; Forey and his army enter, 10 June ; pro- 
visional government ,, 

Assembly of notables at Mexico decide on the es- 
tablishment of a limited hereditary monarchy, 
with a Roman Catholic prince as emperor ; and 
otter the crown to the archduke Maximilian of 
Austria : a regency established . . 6-10 July, ,, 

The French re-occupy Tampico . . 11 Aug. ,, 

Marshal Forey resigns his command to Bazaine, 
and returns to France . . . .1 Oct. ,, 

The archduke Maximilian will accept the crown if 
it be the will of the people . . . 3 Oct. ,, 

The Mexican general Comonfort surprised and shot 
by partisans 12 Nov. ,, 

Successful advance of the imperialists ; Juarez 
retires from San Luis de Potosi, 18 Dec. ; it is 
entered by the imperialists . . . 24 Dec. ,, 

The French occupy various places Jan. & Feb. 1864 

The ex-president, general Santa Anna, lands at 
Vera Cruz, professing adhesion to the empire, 
27 Feb. ; dismissed by Bazaine . 72 March, ,, 

Juarez enters Monterey, which becomes the seat of 
the republican government . . . 3 April, ,, 

The archduke Maximilian definitively accepts the 
crown from the Mexican deputation at Miramar, 

10 April, ,, 

The emperor and empress land at Vera Cruz, 29 May ; 
enter the city of Mexico . . . 12 June, ,, 

The emperor visits the interior ; grants a free press, 

Aug. „ 

The republicans defeat the imperialists at San Pedro, 

27 Dec. ,, 

Juarez, at Chihuahua, exhorts the Mexicans to 
maintain their independence . 1 Jan. 1865 

The emperor institutes the order of the Mexican 
eagle , 

Surrender of Oaxaca to marshal Bazaine 9 Feb. ,, 

A constitution promulgated . . .10 April, ,, 

Ortega, at New York, enlists recruits for the repub- 
lican army, May ; discountenanced by the U. S. 
government June, ,, 

Anniversary of Mexican independence ; descend- 
ants of Iturbide made princesses, &c. 16 Sept. ,, 

The emperor proclaims the end of the war, and 
martial law against all armed bands of men ; 
much indignation excited ... 2 Oct. ,, 

Juarist generals taken prisoners ; shot . 16 Oct. ,, 

The American government protests against the 
French occupation .... Nov.-Dec. ,, 

Presidency of Juarez expires ; he determines to 
continue to act, 30 Nov. ; he flies to Texas, 20 Dec. ,, 

Bagdad, on the ltio Grande, seized by American 
Juarists, 4, 5 Jan. ; occupied by the American 
general Weitzcl, 5 Jan. ; lvis conduct disavowed ; 
and Bagdad re-occupied by imperialists, 20 Jan. 1866 

Ministerial changes . . . March-April, ,, 

Emperor Napoleon agrees to withdraw all his sol- 
diers from Mexico betwconNov. iS66and Nov. 1S67 

April, „ 

Guerilla warfare going on, numerous conflicts, with 
varying success .... March-May, ,, 

Matamoras captured by the liberals, under Escobrdo, 

23, 24 June, ,, 



MEXICO. 



638 MICHAEL, ST., AND GEORGE, ST. 



The empress Charlotte departs for Prance, 13 July ; 
conspiracy against the government suppressed, 

15-17 July, 1866 
Convention between Maximilian and the French ; 
transfer of the receipts of the customs to France, 

30 July, „ 
Juarez and his party take Tampico . . 1 Aug. ' „ 
The Americans disallow Maximilian's blockade of 

Matamoras 17 Aug. ,, 

Dissension among the liberals ; three rival presi- 
dents, Juarez, Ortega, and Santa Anna, 

Sept. -Oct. „ 
The empress solicits help from France, in vain, 

Sept. ; she falls ill Oct. „ 

Firm speech of emperor Maximilian . .19 Sept. „ 
Emperor leaves Mexico for Orizaba ; giving autho- 
rity to Bazaine Oct. ,, 

The French evacuate several places . . Nov. ,, 
Imperial council at Orizaba determine to maintain 

the empire 24 Nov. ,, 

Death of Augustin Iturbide . . . 11 Dec. ,, 
Maximilian, at the head of the army, arrives at 

Queretaro iq Feb; 1867 

Departure of the French, 13 Jan., 5 Feb., 14 March, ,, 
Contest for supremacy between Juarez, Diaz, and 

Ortega April. ,, 

Queretaro, after many conflicts, captured by 

treachery ; Mendez shot . . . .15 May, „ 
Emperor Maximilian, Miramon, and Mejia, after 

trial, shot 19 June, ,, 

Mexico city taken after 67 days' siege ; republic re- 
established 21 June, ,, 

Surrender of Vera Cruz . . . . 25 June, ,, 
Santa Anna captured ; detained a prisoner July, „ 
Juarez enters Mexico ; convokes the assembly to 

elect a president . . . .14, 15 July, ,, 

Marquez and others said to be organising resistance 

to Juarez Aug. ,, 

Numerous executions ; reign of terror Aug. et seq. ,, 
PoriirioDiaz said to be nominated for the presidency, ,, 

Sept. „ 
Santa Anna sentenced to eight years' banishment, 

Oct. „ 
Maximilian's body given up to the Austrian admiral 

Tegethoff 26 Nov. „ 

Mexican congress opened ; Juarez acting as provi- 
sional president; foreign consuls said to be leaving, 

8 Dec. „ 
Juarez re-elected president . . . Dec. ,, 
Juarez inaugurated as president . about 25 Dee. ,, 
Maximilian's body buried at Vienna . 18 Jan. 1868 
Eebellion against Juarez in Yucatan and other pro- 
vinces Jan. -Feb. „ 

Hasty blockade of Mazatlan by capt. Bridge of 
H.M.S. Chanticleer, for an outrage 20 June ; 
raised by admiral Hastings . . . July, ,, 
Treaty with United States adopted . . Dec. ,, 

Insurrection at Puebla suppressed . . Feb. 1869 
General Almonte dies at Paris . . - March, ,, 
Encounter between Mexicans and United States 
troops who had pursued some Indian depreda- 
tors ; about 40 Americans killed ; reported, 

12 April, 1871 
Election for president ; Diaz, 1982 votes ; Juarez, 
1963 ; Lerdo, 1366 ; Juarez retains the power, 

27 July, „ 

Insurrections arise Aug. ,, 

Insurrection headed by Negrete, Eiveras, and 

others, suppressed with much slaughter 12 Oct. ,, 
Juarez re-elected president .... Oct. ,, 
Insurgents under Porflrio Diaz twice defeated ; 

announced Jan. 1872 

Civil war going on with varying success, April- June, , , 
Bebels nearly subdued . . . . 1 July, ,, 
Death of Benito Juarez (aged about 68) by apoplexy 

18 July, ,, 
The country tranquil ; Diaz accepts the amnesty ; 

announced 14 Aug. ,, 

Lerdo de Tejado (of good character) elected presi- 
dent, Oct. ; Diaz submits .... Nov. ,, 
Bailway from Mexico city to Vera Cruz completed ; 

runs 23 Jan. 1873 

Customs' tariffs liberalised . . . July, 1S74 
A senate voted by the Congress . . . Aug. ,, 
Beligious orders suppressed . . . Dec. ,, 
Beligious disturbances : Catholic outrages on Pro- 
testants Jan. 1875 



Insurrection by Porflrio Diaz, March ; he takes Ma- 
tamoras 1 April, 1876 

Progress of reformed church ; union with episcopal 
church of United States proposed . April, ,, 

Insurgents defeated at Oaxaca, 29 May ; at Quinre- 
taro June, ,, 

Death of Santa Anna, ex-president . . 20 June, ,, 

Diaz defeats the government troops at Tekoar, 
12 Nov. ; enters Mexico, assumes power as provi- 
sional president 20 Nov. ,, 

President Lerdo de Tejado retires ; Iglesias takes 
arms as president .... Dec. ,, 

Diaz defeats Iglesias, who retreats ; Diaz elected 
president, 18 Feb. ; proclaimed . .5 May, 1877 

Brief rebellion ; about 80 hanged ; announced, 

28 Dec. 187S 

Insurrection of Negrete ; Diaz marches against 
him ; becomes president . . .16 June, 1879 

Manuel Gonzalez elected, 11 July ; succeeds 1 Dec. 1880 

About 200 lives lost through precipitation of train 
on San Morelos railway into the river near 
Cuartla, through fall of bridge night of 24 June, 1881 

Increase of railways constructed by Americans . ,, 

British envoy re-appointed (sir Spencer St. John), 
June ; received 17 July, 1883 

Bemains of an ancient city discovered in Sonora, 
near Magdalena, including a great pyramid, 
rooms cut in a stony mountain, implements, &c. 
and hieroglyphic inscriptions . . . ,, 

Diplomatic relations with Great Britain resumed, 

announced, Aug. 1884 

Concession obtained from the Mexican government 
by Mr. James B. Eades for 99 years for the con- 
struction of a railway for the conveyance of ships 
across the isthmus ; estimated cost, 15,000,000?. ; 
model exhibited at Long Acre, London . Aug. ,, 

Biots in Mexico city on account of conversion of 
English debt ; bloodshed . . . 18 Nov. ,, 

Porflrio Diaz inaugurated president . . 1 Dec. ,, 

Impending state insolvency through public works 
speculations ; funding debts and loan proposed ; 
much dissatisfaction .... June, 1885 

Insurrection at Nuevo Leon suppressed, Dec. 1885 ; 
another insurrection, Guerro captured, insurgents 
signally defeated ; disturbances between the 
people of El Paso and the Texans ; interference 
of the United States and Mexican governments, 

July, 1886 

Mr. Cutting, an American journalist in Texas, 
imprisoned for libel ; the U.S. government inter- 
venes, July- Aug. ; Mr. Cutting released 23 Aug. ,, 

Inundations through heavy rains ; great loss of 
life, especially at Leon and Silas 17-20 June, 188S 

Wreck of an excursion steamer on Lake Chapala ; 
loss of 50 lives March, 1889 

Two companies of soldiers, while bathing, mas- 
sacred by Yaqui Indians from Sonora ; the 
government send 4,000 men to punish the In- 
dians, announced 12 Oct. ,, 

Famine in the agricultural districts, government 

assistance given, reported ... 10 Dec. 1891 
Insurrection ; gen. Lorenzo Garcia killed by his 
troops, who join the rebels under Garza in Texas ; 
he captures 45 soldiers and kills 4 officers, re- 
ported, 31 Dec. 1891 ; Garza's band dispersed, re- 
ported, 4 Jan. ; Dias re-elected president n July, 1892 

EMPERORS. 

1822. Aug. Augustin Iturbide, Feb. ; abdicated 23 
March, 1823 ; shot for attempting to recover his. 
authority, 19 July, 1824. 

^864. Maximilian (brother to the emperor of Austria), 
born 6 July, 1832 ; accepted the crown, ic 
April, 1864 ; married 27 July, 1857, te princess 
Charlotte, daughter of Leopold I., king of the 
Belgians ; adopted Augustin Iturbide as his 
heir, Sept. 1865 ; shot (after a trial), 19 June, 
1867. 
MEZZOTINTO, see Engraving. 
MHOW COUKT-MAKTIAL, see Trials, 

Nov. 1863. 

MICHAEL, St., and GEORGE, St. 
This order of knighthood, founded for the Ionian 
Isles and Malta, 27 April, 1818, was reorganised in 
March, 1869, in order to admit servants of the 



MICHAELMAS. 



639 



MIDDLESEX. 



crown connected with the colonies. Among the 
first of the new knights were the earl of Derby, earl 
Eussell, and earl Grey. See Knights. 

MICHAELMAS, 29 Sept., the feast of St. 
Michael, the reputed guardian of the Eoman 
Catholic church, under the title of "St. Michael 
and All Angels." Instituted, according to Butler, 
487. 

The custom of eating goose at Michaelmas has been 
erroneously attributed to Queen Elizabeth's eating of 
the bird at dinner on 29 Sept. 1588, at the house of sir 
Neville Umfreyville, at the time she heard of the 
destruction of the Spanish Armada. The custom is of 
much older date, and is observed on the continent. 
Clavis Calenduria. 

MICHAEL'S MOUNT, St. (Cornwall), is 
considered by some to be the Iktis of Diodorus 
Siculus, and an ancient resort of the tin merchants. 
St. Michael was said to have appeared on the 
mount, 495 or 710; and the place, thus reputed 
holy, became the seat of a body of monks, who 
received a charter from Edward the Confessor, 
1044, and many privileges from pope Gregory YIL, 
1079. 

MICHIGAN, a north-west state of N. America, 
settled by the French, 1670; admitted into the union, 
26 Jan. 1837. Capital, Lansing. Population, 1880, 
1,636,937 ; 1890, 2,093,889. 
About 500 persons perish and 10,000 made homeless 

by destructive forest fires on . . 5 Sept. 1881 
Great fire at Grandhaven, 41 buildings destroyed, 

about 30 Sept. 1889 
Explosion at Messrs. Farriwold's dynamite factory 

at White Pigeon, 16 men killed . . 3 Sept. 1891 

MICEOBES, see Germ. 

MICBOMETEB, an astronomical instrument 
used to measure any small distances and the minuter 
objects in the heavens, such as the apparent dia- 
meters of the planets, &c, was invented by Wm. 
Gascoigne, who was killed at the battle of Marston- 
moor, 2 July, 1644. It was improved by Huyghens 
about 1652. Sir Joseph Whitworth made a ma- 
chine to measure the millionth of an inch, about 
1858 ; the measurement of the 30,000th of an inch 
is now common. 

MICEOPHONE (Greek, micros, little; phone, 
sound), a name given byWheatstone, in 1827, to an 
instrument for rendering weak sounds audible by 
means of solid rods. The name was also given to 
an arrangement invented (in Dec. 1877) by pro- 
fessor D. E. Hughes (an American, an inventor 
of the printing telegraph), and shown to the Eoyal 
Society, 9 May, 1878. 

An electric current is established between two mode- 
rately conducting bodies (such as pieces of charcoal, 
metallised by being plunged when heated into mer- 
cury) resting slightly upon each other, mounted on a 
piece of thin wood. If the contact is so made that 
one of the bodies may be easily displaced, minute 
sounds produced on the wood disturb the electric 
conductivity at the place of contact, and may be heard 
by the help of the telephone. The sonorous and 
electric waves are thus rendered synchronous, and 
become convertible. The tread of a fly sounds like 
that of a large quadruped. See Telephone. 

MICBOPHITE, amicroscopic plant, especially 
parasitic ; some physiologists consider bacteria and 
bacilli to be microphites, 1890. 

MICEOSCOPES, said to have been in- 
vented by Jansen, in Holland, about 1590 ; by 
Galileo, about 1610; by Fontana, in Italy, and 
by Drcbbel, in Holland, about 162 1. Those 
with double glasses were made at the period 
when the law of refraction was discovered, about 
1624. Solar microscopes were invented by Dr. 



Hooke. In England great improvements were made 
in the microscope by Benjamin Martin (who in- 
vented and sold pocket microscopes about 1740), by 
Henry Baker, F.ll.S., about 1763, and still greater 
during the present century by Wollaston, Eoss, 
Jackson, Varley, Hugh Powell, and others. Diamond' 
microscopes were made by Andrew Pritchard va 
1824 ; and the properties of "test objects" to prove 
the qualities of microscopes, discovered by him and 
Goring in 1824-40. A binocular microscope {i.e., for 
two eyes), was constructed by professor Eiddell in? 
1851, and Wenham's important improvements were 
made known in 1861. Treatises on the microscope- 
by J. Quekett (1848), by Dr. W. B. Carpenter (1856 
et seq.), by Dr. Lionel Beale (1858 et seq.), and 
Griffith and Henfrey's " Micrographic Dictionary" 
(1856, 1875, and 1883), are valuable. The Micro- 
scopical Society of London was established 20 Dec. 
1839, and the Quekett Microscopical Club, 1865. In 
1865 Mr. H. Sorby exhibited his spectrum microscope;, 
by which the millionth of a grain of blood was 
detected. 

MICEO-TASIMETEE, a new instrument 
invented by Mr. T. A. Edison, in which he has ap- 
plied the principle of the carbon microphone to the 
measurement of infinitesimal pressure ; announced 
July, 1878. He proposes to apply the principle to- 
delicate barometers, thermometers, hygrometers,, 
&c. 

MIDDLE AGES, see Bark Ages. 

MIDDLE-CLASS EXAMINATION and- 
SCHOOLS, see Education (1858, and 1865-8). 
Middle-Class Education Corporation, established in 

1866, for education of children of clerks and others ia 

similar ranks of life. Building in Cowper-streetj, 

London. 

MIDDLE-LEVELS, see Levels. 

MIDDLESBEOUGH, N. Eiding of York- 
shire, on the Tees, a coal port and a chief seat of the 
iron manufacture, the first house erected by George 
Chapman, April, 1830. New dock, and literary and 
scientific institution opened, Oct. 1875. Mr. Henry 
W. F. Bolckow and John Vaughan, heads of great 
iron-works (Mr. Bolckow, the first mayor and M.P., 
died 18 June, 1878). The prosperity of the Cleve- 
land district, which had greatly declined since 1874, 
began to revive in the autumn of 1879. At the 
jubilee celebration, 6 Oct. 188 1, a bust of Mr. 
Bolckow was unveiled ; and one of Mr. Vaughan; 
was unveiled 2 June, 1884. See under Steel. Popu- 
lation, 1861, 18,992; 1881, 55,934; 1891, 75,516. 
South Gare breakwater, nearly i\ miles long, 
begun in 1864, opened by the right hon. W. H. 
Smith . . . .- . . . 25 Oct. 188S 
A town hall &c. opened by the prince and princess 

of Wales 23 Jan. 1889 

Stoppage of the firm of Messrs. Downey & Co., iron 

manufacturers 28 March, 1892- 

Great distress in the district through the Durham 
miners' strike, April etseq. ; relieved by subscrip- 
tions in London, &c. . . . May, June, 1892- 

MIDDLESEX, the metropolitan county of 
England, was the seat of the Trinobantes in the 
Eoman province, Flavia Canadensis, and the Mid- 
del-Sexe, or Middle Saxons, in the kingdom of 
East-Sexne, or Essex. Lionel Cranfield was cre- 
ated earl of Middlesex, 16 Sept. 1622; succeeded by 
his sons, James, 1645-51; Lionel, 1651-74, when, 
the title became extinct. Charles SaVkville was 
made earl in 1675 ! and his son became duke of 
Dorset in 1720. 
Middlesex returns forty-eight M.P's. by act passed 

25 June, 1S85 
The Middlesex county record society was estab- 



MIDDLESEX HOSPITAL. 



640 



MILITAEY EXHIBITION. 



lished in 1884. It has issued three volumes con- 
taining session rolls &c. (1549 e * se Q ) Nov. 1888. 
The earl of Strafford, lord lieutenant, president 1888 

MIDDLESEX HOSPITAL, London, 
founded, 1745; incorporated, 1836; cancer ward 
endowed, 1791. 

MEDIAN, now Arz MADIAN, N.W. Arabia; 
anciently held by the descendants of Midian, a son 
of Abraham. Having enticed the Israelites to idol- 
atry, they were severely chastised, 1452 B.C. ' They 
invaded Canaan about. 1249 B.C., and were tho- 
roughly defeated by Gideon. 

•Capt. Richard F. Burton explored the ruined cities of 
Midian in 1877, and found the remains of ancient 
mines, many relics, and gold. An expedition, equipped 
""by the khedive of Egypt, and placed under his com- 
mand, started from Suez, 10 Dec. 1877, and returned 
20 April, 1878. He brought home 25 tons of geological 
specimens, specimens of silver and copper ore, many 
coins and other antiquities, and photographs of the 
remains of ruined cities, &c. 

MIDLAND INSTITUTE, Birmingham, 

incorporated 1854. 

MIDLAND BAIL WAY STATION, St. 

Pancras, N. London, possessing the largest known 
roof in the world (245 feet 6 inches wide, and 698 
feet long), was opened for traffic I Oct. 1868. The 
engineer was Mr. H. W. Barlow. The architect of 
the magnificent Gothic hotel was sir G. Gilbert Scott. 

MIDWIFERY. Women were the only practi- 
tioners among the Hebrews and Egyptians. Hippo- 
crates, in Greece, 460 B.C., is styled the father of 
■midwifery, as well as of physic. It advanced 
under Ceisus, who flourished a.d. 37, and of Galen, 
•who lived 131. In England midwifery became a 
■science about the period of the institution of the 
college of physicians, 10 Hen. VII. 1518. Dr. 
Harvey engaged in the practice of it, about 1603 ; 
Astruc affirms that madame de la Valliere, mistress 
of Louis XIV., in 1663, employed Julian Clement, 
a surgeon, with great secrecy. 

MILAN, Mediolanum, capital of the ancient 
Liguria, now Lombardy, is reputed to have been 
%uilt by the Gauls, about 408 B.C. The cathedral 
termed duomo was built about 1385. Population 
1890, 414,551. 

■Conquered by the Roman consul Marcellus . B.C. 222 
Seat of government of the western empire . a.d. 286 

■Council of Milan 346 

St. Ambrose, bishop of Milan 375 

Milan plundered by Attila 452 

Included in the Ostrogothic kingdom, 489 ; in the 

Lombard kingdom 569 

Becomes an independent republic .... 1101 
The emperor Frederic I. takes Milan, and appoints 

a p>odesta 1158 

It rebels ; is taken by Frederic and its fortifications 

destroyed 1162 

.Rebuilt and fortified 11 69 

The Milanese defeated by the emp. Frederic II. . 1237 
The Visconti become paramount in Milan . . . 1277 
John Galeazzo Visconti takes the title of duke . 1395 
Francesco Sforza, son-in-law of the last of the Vis- 
conti, subdues Milan and becomes duke . . . 1450 
Milan conquered by Louis XII. of France . . 1499 
'The French expelled by the Spaniards . . . 1525 
Milan annexed to the crown of Spain . . . 1540 
Great plague alleviated by the archbishop Bor- 

romeo 1576 

Milan ceded to Austria 1714 

Conquered by the French and Spaniards . . . 1743 
"Reverts to Austria, upon Naples and Sicily being 

ceded to Spain 1748 

Seized by the French .... 30 June, 1796 

Retaken by the Austrian s 1799 

Regained by the French . . . 31 May, 1800 
Made the capital of the kingdom of Italy, and Napo- 
leon Bonaparte crowned with the iron crown here, 

26 May, 1805 



The Milan decree of Napoleon against all continental 

intercourse with England ... 17 Dec. 1807 
Insurrection against the Austrians ; flight of the 

viceroy 18 March, 1848 

Surrenders to the Austrians ... 5 Aug. ,, 
Treaty of peace between Austria and Sardinia, 

6 Aug. 1849 
Another revolt promptly suppressed and rigorously 

punished 6 Feb. et seq. 1853 

Milan visited by the emperor of Austria . Nov. 1856 
Amnesty for political offences granted . Dec. 1857 
After the defeat of the Austrians at Magenta, 4 June, 
Napoleon III. and the king of Sardinia enter Milan, 

8 June, 1859 
Peace of Villafranca ; a large part of Lombardy 

transferred to Sardinia ... 12 July, ,, 
Victor-Emmanuel enters Milan as king . 8 Aug. i860 
Reactionary plots of Neapolitan soldiery suppressed, 

29, 30 April, 1861 
The Victor-Emmanuel gallery opened by the king, 

15 Sept. 1867 
The arts exhibition opened by the king 26 Aug. 1872 
Visit of the emperor of Germany . . 18-23 Oct. 1875 
The Mentana Memorial inaugurated by Garibaldi, 

4 Nov. 1880 
National exhibition, opened by the king 5 May, 1881 
Visit of the emperor William II. . . 19 Oct. 1889 
See Italy. 

MILBANK PENITENTIARY, West- 
minster : The very unhealthy site was purchased 
of the Marquis of Salisbury in 1799 for I2,ooo7. 
The building, a modification of Jeremy Bentham's 
Panopticon {which see), first received convicts 27 
June, 1816. 

In consequence of many deaths during a great epi- 
demic the convicts were placed in Woolwich hulks, 
1822-3. O n lf > June, 1843, a committee reported the 
penitentiary a failure. The system was abolished in 
parliament, and the building styled Milbank prison. 

The buildings ordered to be pulled down and site sold, 
1888.- 

It was finally closed 6 Nov. 1890. 

MILETUS, a Greek city of Ionia, Asia Minor, 
founded about 1043 B.C. The Milesians "defended 
themselves successfully, 623-612 b.c. During the 
war with Persia it was taken, 494, but restored, 
449. Here Paul delivered his celebrated charge 
to the elders of the church of Ephesus, a.d. 60 
{Acts xx.). 

MILFORD HAVEN (Wales). Here the 
earl of Richmond, afterwards Henry VII., landed on 
his way to encounter Richard III. whom he defeated 
at Bosworth, 1485. The packets from this port to 
Ireland, sailing to Waterford, were established in 
1787. The dock-yard, established here in 1790, 
was removed to Pembroke in 1814. Sham naval 
fights here 16 Aug. et seq. 1886. 
Milford Haven adopted as an Atlantic terminus by 
the Anchor line company ; their steamer, the 
City of Rome, arrives .... 24 Oct. 1889 

MILITARY ASYLUM, Royal, at Chehea, 

" for the children of the soldiers of the regular 
army." The first stone was laid by the duke of 
York, 19 June, 1801, 

MILITARY EDUCATION, see Army, 
June, 1868. 

MILITARY EXHIBITION, Royal, 
Chelsea, president the duke of Cambridge, was 
opened by the prince of Wales, with the princess, 
the duke of Edinburgh, and other distinguished 
persons, 7 May, 1890; visited by the queen, 4 July. 
The exhibition consisted of the industrial work of 
the soldiers, articles of military equipment, pictures 
lent, and other objects of interest ; military sports, 
drills, &c. Mr. Spencer's strong war balloon 
ascended 10 May, et seq. The exhibition was 
intended to promote the increase of soldiers' insti- 
tutes in towns. 



MILITAEY KNIGHTS. 



641 



MINES. 



The exhibition closed i Nov. 1890 

The profits were reported to be 9,744^. . 9 May, i8qi 

MILITAEY KNIGHTS of WINDSOE, 
see Poor Knights oj Windsor. 

MILITAEY or MAETIAL LAW is built 
on no settled principle, but is entirely arbitrary, 
and, in truth, no law ; but sometimes indulged, 
rather than allowed, as law. Sir Matthew Hale. 
It has been several times proclaimed in parts of 
these kingdoms, and in 1798 was almost general in 
Ireland, where it was also proclaimed in 1803. 

MILITIA, the standing national force of these 
realms, is traced to king Alfred, who made all his 
subjects soldiers, 872-901. See Army Defence. 

Commission of array to raise a militia . . . 1122 

Revived by Henry II n 7 6 

Again revived IS57 

Said to amount to 160,000 men .... 1623 

The militia statutes 1661 to 1663 

Supplemental militia act passed .... 1796 
Irish militia ottered its services in England, 

28 March, 1804 
General militia act for England and Scotland, 1802 ; 

for Ireland 1809 

Enactment authorising courts-martial to inflict 

imprisonment instead of flogging passed . . 1814 
Acts to consolidate the militia laws . i852*-54, 1882 
Militia embodied on account of the Russian war, 

1854 ; on account of the Indian mutiny, 1857 ; and 

on account of the war in the Soudan . 18 Feb. 1885 

Militia reserve act passed 1867 

Militia in 1872, 139,018; 1875, 149,330; 1877, 134,500; 

in 1884, 82,525 ; in 1886, 108,196 ; in 1887, 110,488 ; 

1888, 141,593 ; 1890, 113,163. 
Militia (volunteers) Enlistment Act, consolidating 

and amending the laws passed . . n Aug. 1875 
A committee on the state of the militia reported, 

Feb. 1890, greatly increased efficiency since 1850. 

MILITIA OF JESUS, a society of Roman 
Catholic youth of France and Italy, formed to sup- 
port the papal cause by moral agencies, became 
known in 1877. 

MILK. The type of food as containing all 
things needful for the development of the animal 
body. A process for its condensation was in- 
vented by Mr. Gail Borden, near New York, in 
1849, for which he was awarded a medal at the 
Great Exhibition in 1851, when he erected factories. 
He invented meat biscuit, 1850. The Anglo-Swiss 
condensed milk company was established in 1866; 
and since then the Aylesbury company. 
Typhoid fever (said to be caused by bad milk, pre- 
vailed) in London, Aug., Sept. 1873; about 20 died 
of fever through milk, at and near Eagley, Lan- 
cashire March, 1876 

MILKY WAY (Galaxy) in the heavens. 
Juno is said by the Greek poets to have spilt her 
milk in the heavens after suckling Mercury or 
Hercules. Democritus (about 428 B.C.) taught that 
the via lactea consisted of stars, which Galileo 
(1610-42) proved by the telescope. See Stars, 1892. 

MILLENAEIANS (or Chiliasts) suppose that 
the world will end at the expiration of the seven 
thousandth year from the creation; and that during 
a thousand years (millennium) Christ and the saints 
will reign upon the earth ; see Rev. xx. The 
doctrine was very generally inculcated in the 2nd 

* This militia act was consequent upon the then pre- 
vailing opinion of the necessity of strengthening our 
national defences against the possibility of French 
invasion. The act empowered her majesty to raise a 
force not exceeding 80,000 men, of which number 50,000 
were to be raised in 1852, and 30,000 in 1855 ; the quotas 
for each county or riding to be fixed by an order in 
council. 



and 3rd centuries, by Papias, Justin Martyr and 
others. 

.MILLENAEY PETITION, presented to 
king James on his accession, 1603, on behalf of 
nearly a thousand Puritan ministers against the 
"human rites and ceremonies " of the church of 
England. 

MILLS. Moses forbade mill-stones to be taken 
in pawn, because it would be like taking a man's 
life to pledge. Deut. xxiv. 6. The hand-mill was 
in use among the Britons previously to the con- 
quest by the Romans. The Romans introduced the 
water-mill. Cotton mills moved by water were 
erected by sir Richard Arkwright, at Cromford, 
Derbyshire. He died in 1792. See Mechanics. 
Mill-work exhibition at the Agricultural Hall, 
London, N. 10-18 May, 1881. 

MILWAUKEE. A town in Wisconsin, 
North America, founded 1835. The New Hall hotel 
was burnt 4 a.m. 10 Jan. 1883, when about 109 
persons perished. George Sclieller, lessee of the 
bar-room, arrested for arson about 17 Jan. 1883. 
Population, 1890, 204,486. 

MINCIO, a river of Lombardy. Here the 
Austrians wei - e repulsed by the French under 
Brune, 25-27 Dec. 1800; and by Eugene Beau- 
harnais, 8 Feb. 18 14, near Valeggio. 

MIND-CUEE. A sect termed Christian 
Scientists in Boston, U.S., led by Mrs. M. B. G. 
Eddy, professed to cure bodily diseases by acting on 
the mind through the body, by staring, &c, 1885, 
et seq. 

MINDEN (Prussia), Battle of, i Aug. 

1759, between the English, Hessians, and Hano- 
verians (under prince Ferdinand of Brunswick), 
and the French (under marshal De Contades), who 
were beaten and driven to the ramparts of Minden. 
Lord George Sackville (afterwards lord George 
Germain) who commanded the British and Hano- 
verian horse, for some disobedience of orders was 
tried by a court-martial on his return to England, 
found guilty, and dismissed, 22 April, 1760. He 
was afterwards restored to favour, and became 
secretary of state, 1776. 

MINEEALOGY, the science of minerals, is 
a branch of geology; see Geology, Mines, and 
Crystallography. It was not mucli studied by the 
ancients. George Agricola in the 16th century 
made the first attempt to treat it scientifically. 

The study of mineralogy was advanced by Becker, 

Kircher, and Woodward in the 17th century. 
A British Mineralogical Society established in . . 1800 
Haiiy's " Traite de Mineralogie " appeared in . . 1801 
Mineralogical society of Great Britain held first 

meeting in London, 3 Feb. 1876, and others since. 
Another society termed itself h, jfc, I, Miller's 

symbol for the face of a crystal .... 1876 
James D. Dana's "System of Mineralogy," 5 th 

edition l883 

MINES. Strabo and Tacitus enumerate gold 
and silver as among the products of Britain. The 
earliest instance of a claim to a mine royal being 
enforced occurs 47 Hen. III. 1262. It related to 
mines containing gold, together with copper, in 
Devonshire. In Edward I.'s reign, according to 
Mr. Ruding, the mines in Ireland, which produced 
silver, were supposed to be so rich that the king 
directed a writ for working them to Robert de 
Ufford, lord justice, 1276. The lend mines of Cardi- 
ganshire, from which silver has ever since been ex- 
tracted, were discovered by sir Hugh Middleton in 

T x 



MINERVA. 



642 



MINT. 



1871 
1872 



1873 



the re ign of James I. ; see Coal, and the various 
metals. 

Mining Journal established . . .29 Aug. 1835 

The Royal School of Mines, &e., Jermyn-street, 
St. James's, opened in .... Nov. 1851 

An act for the regulation of mines passed in . . i860 

A Miners' Protection Association proposed by Mr. 
William Gumey and others in . . March, 1862 

Value of the total mineral produce of the United 
Kingdom estimated at 29,155, 701?. in 1854; 
31,680,581?. in 1859 ; 41,521,705?. in 1868 ; 
46,094,600?. in 1870 ; 69,041,158?. in 1873 ; 
63,737, 881?. in 1879 ; 88,042,457?. in 1881 ; 
64,076,424?. in 1884 ; 58,653,689?. in 1887 ; 
100,802,657?. iu 1890. 

Miners' conference, for amelioration of their con- 
dition, held at Merthyr Tydvil ; well conducted ; 
Mr. Halliday president .... Oct. 

Metalliferous Mines Regulation act passed 10 Aug. 

The Amalgamated Association of Miners begun in 
Lancashire about 1869, held a conference at New- 
port, 1872 ; at Bristol . . . .8 Oct. 

Royal commission on mines (see under Coal) ap- 
pointed, Feb. 1879. Report issued . Nov. 1881 

A miners' national conference on wages, &c. ; opened 
at Birmingham, 20 April, 1881 ; at Manchester, 
29 Aug. 1882, and frequently at other places. 

Miners' association of Northumberland vote against 
continuance of payments to their M.P's, Messrs. 
Burt and Fenwick, 19 Sept. ; vote rescinded, 
Nov. 1887 ; further agitation on the subject ; 
again rescinded April, 1888 

National Miners' Federation annual conferences, 
1889 ; Birmingham, 22 Jan. et seq. 1890 ; Birming- 
ham, 7 Jan. 1891 ; Stoke-on-Trent . 12 Jan. 1892 

International exhibition of mining and metallurgy, 
Crystal palace . . . .28 July — 11 Oct. 1890 

Institute of Mining Engineers meets at Nottingham, 

24 Sept. „ 

International congress of miners at Jolimont, Bel- 
gium, 20-24 May, 1890 ; at Paris, 31 March-4 
April, 189 1 ; at Westminster . 7-10 June, 1892 

See Coal 1889 et seq. 

Persons employed in mines in the United Kingdom 
in 1888, about 592,696; in 1891, 707,411. 

Accidents in mines, see under Coal. 

MINERVA, see Parthenon and Athens. 

MINGRELIA, the ancient Colchis, mentioned 
in the legend of "Jason, the Argonauts, and the 
Golden Fleece." A province of Asiatic Eussia, 
prince Nicolas having ceded his rights to the Czar 
in 1867. In 1887 the prince was spoken of as a 
candidate for the Bulgarian throne. 

MINIE RIFLE, invented at Vincennes, about 
1833, by M. Minie (born 1810). From a common 
soldier he raised himself to the rank of chef 
d'escadron. His rifle, considered to surpass all 
made previous to it, was adopted by the French, 
and, with modifications, by the British, 1852. 

MINIMIZERS- A name given to certain 
writers who advocate the limitation of the sove- 
reign power of the state as much as possible to the 
protection of life and property, which is styled 
by professor Huxley "administrative nihilism." 
They include "W. von Humboldt, J. S. Mill (in his 
"Essay on Liberty "), and Mr. Herbert Spencer 
(in his "Political Institutions"), 1882. 

MINIMS (from minimi, the least), an order of 
monks, founded by S. Francisco di Paolo (1416 — 
1507), in Calabria, received their name, as profes- 
sing themselves inferior to the Minorites (from 
minor, less) ; see Franciscans. St. Francis died 
in France in 1 ^07 ; where he had established houses 
of his order. 

MINISTER OF WAR, see War Minister. 
MINISTERS, see Administrations. 

MINISTERS in Scotland: church patronage 
was abolished in 1874. 



MINNESINGERS, lyric German poets, of 
the 12th and 13th centuries, who sang of love and 
war to entertain knights and barons of the time. 
The Meistersingers, their successors, an incorporated 
fraternity in the 14th century, composed satirical 
ballads for the amusement of the citizens and lower 
classes. Hans Sachs, a shoemaker (1494-1576), a 
poet of the reformation, was for a time their dean. 
His works were published at Nuremberg, 1560. 
"Owleglass" and " Reynard the Fox," are attri- 
buted to the Meistersingers. 

MINNESOTA, a western state of N. America, 
was organised as a territory, 3 March, 1849, and 
admitted into the union in 1857. On 17 Aug. 1862,. 
the Sioux Indians commenced a series of outrages- 
at Acton in Messier county, desolating the country 
and massacring above 500 persons, of both sexes, 
and of all ages. General Sibley beat the Indians- 
in two battles and rescued many captives. Thirty- 
eight Indians were executed as assassins. Capital 
St. Paul. 
The great Tribune buildings at Minneapolis were 

burnt, about 20 persons perished . . 30 Nov. i88g> 
Tornado, much destruction and loss of life in St. 
Paul and the neighbourhood ; the Sea-King, 
steamer, on lake Pekin upset, about 100 persons 
drowned, and many others in small boats ; total 

loss about 250 13 July, 1890? 

Destructive tornado with loss of life 15, 16 June, 1892: 
Population, 1880, 780,773 ; 1890, 1,301,826. 

MINORCA AND MAJORCA, the Balearic 
Isles (which see). Port Mahon in Minorca was- 
captured by lieutenant-general Stanhope and sir 
John Leake in 1708, and was ceded to the British 
by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713. It was retaken 
by the Spanish and French in July, 1756, and 
admiral Byng fell a victim to public indignation 
for not relieving it; see Byng. It was restored to> 
the British at the peace in 1763; taken 5 Feb. 
1782 ; again captured by the British under general 
Stuart, without the loss of a man, 15 Nov. 1798; 
given up at the peace of Amiens, 25 March, 1802. 

MINORITIES. In the new reform bill, 
passed 15 Aug. 1867, provision was made for the 
representation of minorities in constituencies with 
three members by limiting each elector to two votes . 
It was introduced as an amendment by lord Cairns 
in the lords, 30 July, and accepted by the commons, 
Aug. 1867. The principle was adopted in a new 
constitution by the state of Illinois, U.S., July, 
1870. See Proportional Representation. 

MINSTER, or MONASTERIUM, a place oc- 
cupied by monks ; see Westminster and York. 

MINSTRELS, originally pipers appointed by 
lords of manors to divert their copyholders while at 
work, owed their origin to the glee men or harpers 
of the Saxons, and continued till about 1560. John 
of Gaunt erected a court of minstrels at Tutbury in 
1380. So late as the reign of Henry VIII. they 
intruded without ceremony into all companies, even 
at the houses of the nobility ; but in Elizabeth's 
reign they were adjudged rogues and vagabonds 
(1597)- 

MINT. Athelstan enacted regulations for the 
government of the mint about 928. There were 
several provincial mints under the control of that 
of London. Henry I. is said to have instituted a 
mint at Winchester, 1125. Stow says the mint was 
kept by Italians, the English being ignorant of 
the art of coming, 7 Edw. I. 1278. The operators 
were formed into a corporation by the charter of 
Icing Edward LTL, in which condition it consisted 
of the warden, master, comptroller, assay-master, 



MINUET. 



643 



MISSOUEI. 



workers, coiners, and subordinates. The first entry 
of gold brought to the mint for coinage occurs in 
18 Edw. III. 1343. Tin was coined by Charles II. 
1684; and gun-metal and pewter by his successor 
James after his abdication. Sir Isaac Newton was 
wai-den, 1699-1727, during which time the debased 
coin was called in, and new issued at the loss of 
the government. Between 1806 and 1810, grants 
amounting to 262,000/. were made by parliament 
for the erection of the present mint, which was 
completed in 1810; it was injured by fire, 31 Oct. 
1815. The new constitution of the mint, founded 
on the report of the hon. "Wellesley Pole, took 
effect in 1817. Professor Thomas "Graham, the 
master of the mint, died 16 Sept. 1869. By the 
Coinage Act, passed 4 April, 1870, the office was 
combined with that of the chancellor of the ex- 
chequer, the duties being transferred to the deputy- 
master (Sir C. "W. Fremantle), k.c.b., i Jan. 1890. 
After reorganization, the work ^as resumed, 8 Dec. 
1882. See Coin. 

MASTERS OF THE MINT. 



1817. "Wellesley Pole. 
1823. Thomas Wallace. 

1827. George Tierney. 

1828. J. C. Hemes. 
1830. Lord Auckland. 

1834. James Abererombie. 

1835. Alexander Baring. 
,, Henry Labouchere. 



1841. William E. Glad- 
stone. 

1845. Sir George Clerk. 

1846. Richard L. Sheil. 
1850. Sir John F. Herschel, 

F.R.S. 

1855. Thomas Graham, 

F.R.S. 



MINUET, a French dance, said to have been 
first danced by Louis XIV., 1653. 

MINUS, see Plus. 

MIEACLE PLAYS, see under Drama. 

MIEIDITES, or MlRDITES, see Turkey, 
1877. 

MIEEOES. In ancient times mirrors were 
made of metal ; those of the Jewish women of 
brass. Mirrors of silver were introduced by Praxi- 
teles 4th century B.C. Mirrors or looking-glasses 
were made at Venice, a.d. 1300 ; and in England, 
at Lambeth, near London, in 1673. The improve- 
ments in manufacturing plate-glass, and that of 
very large size, have cheapened looking-glasses very 
much. Various methods of coating glass by a 
solution of silver, thus avoiding the use of mer- 
cury, so injurious to the health of the workmen, 
have been made known ; by M. Petitjean in 185 1 ; 
by M. Cimeg in 1861, and by Liebig and others. 

MISCHNA, see Talmud. 

MISEEEEE {Psalm li.) sung at Eome in the 
" Tenebrce," the service in Holy or Passion "Week, 
in a peculiarly effective manner, to old music. One 
arrangement is by Costanzo Festa, dated 1517. 

.MISSAL, or MASS BOOK, the Eomanist 
ritual compiled by pope Gelasius 1. 492-6 ; revised 
by Gregory I. 590-604. Various missals were in 
use till the Koman missal was adopted by the coun- 
cil of Trent, 1545-63. The missal was super- 
seded in England by the book of common prayer, 
1549- 

MISSIONAEY BISHOPS, see under 
Bishops. 

MISSIONS,* see Mark xvi. 15. Among the 
Romanists, the religious orders of St. Dominic, St. 

* Missions, "a series of sermons, generally by a 
' missioner,' or special preacher, often followed by con- 
fessions and communions " (a species of revivalism), 
were authorised in the metropolis by the bishops of 
London, Winchester, and Rochester, held 1865 and 
since. 



Francis, St. Augustin, &c, have missions to the 
Levant and to America. Marco Polo is said to have 
introduced missionaries into China, 1275. The 
Jesuits have missions to China {which see) and to 
most other parts of the world. Among the Protes- 
tants, an early undertaking of this kind was a 
Danish mission, planned by Frederick IV. in 1706. 
The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in 
foreign parts was established 1701, and the Mora- 
vian Brethren encouraged missions about 1732. 
The London Missionary Society held their first 
meeting, 4 Nov. 1794. Most Christian sects now 
support missions. British Contributions to Foreign 
Missions; 1871, 855,742/.; 1877, 1,100,793/. (in 
1871-7, 6,977,586/.) 

Great congress of protestant missions in London ; a 
large number of societies represented ; the earl of 
Aberdeen president, 9-19 June, 1888. 

Commander Allan Gardner, R. N. , who left England in 
the Ocean Queen in Sept. 1850, on the Patagonian mis- 
sion, with Mr. Williams, surgeon, Mr. Maidment, 
catechist, and four others, died on Picton Island, at 
the mouth of the Beagle Channel, to the south of 
Tierra del Fuego, having been starved to death ; all 
his companions having previously perished, 6 Sept. 
1851. 

M. Schoffter, a missionary to Cochin-China, was publicly 
executed at Son-Tay, by order of the grand mandarin, 
for preaching Christianity, such preaching being pro- 
hibited by the law of that country, 4 May, 1851. 

MISSISSIPPI, a great river, N. America, 
explored by De Soto about 1541. Captain Glazier 
discovered its source, 1884. Its length is now stated 
to be 2,960 miles. The Mississippi trade was begun 
in England, in Nov. 1716. Law's Mississippi scheme 
in France, commenced about the same period, ex- 
ploded in 1720; at which time the nominal capital 
is said to have amounted to 100,000,000/. The ruin 
of thousands soon followed. See Law's Bubble. 

Population, 1880, 1,131,597 ; 1890, 1,289,600. 

The great Eads bridge at St. Louis opened, 4 July, 

By the explosion of the boiler of the Corona at 
Port Hudson on the Mississippi, 43 persons 
perished 3 Oct. 

The North American state, Mississippi, was settled 
in 1716 ; admitted as a state of the union, 1817 ; 
seceded from it by ordinance, 8 Jan. 1861 ; sub- 
mitted, 1865. Capital, Jackson. 

About 85,000 persons made homeless through floods 
in the lower Mississippi valley early in March, 

The Mississippi valley suffers much by frequent 
inundations ; one was very disastrous in March, 
April, 1890, when thousands of square miles were 
immerged, many towns isolated, and communi- 
cations cutoff. Louisiana suffered much in April 
following. 150,000 dollars voted by congress to 
relieve the sufferers . . . .25 April, 

Grenada nearly destroyed by fire . . 14 Jan. 

The great cantilever bridge over the river, 3 miles 
long, at Memphis, joining Tennessee and Arkan- 
sas, completed ; cost, 600,000?., announced 

11 April, 1892 

Destructive, floods ; about 250 lives lost, about 13 
April et seq. ; about 1,500 sq. miles covered near 
St. Louis ; 11 million dollars estimated loss ; 
great loss of life ; floods abating . . 25 May, ., 

MISSOLONGHI, a town in Greece, taken 
from the Turks, 1 Nov. 1821, and heroically and 
successfully defended against the Turks by Marco 
Botzaris, Oct. 1822—27 Jan. 1823. It was taken 22 
April, 1826, after a long siege. Here Lord Byron 
died, 19 April, 1824. A statue of Byron was un- 
veiled here, 6 Nov. 1S81, It was surrendered to the 
Greeks in 1829. 

MISSOUEI, a south-western state in N. 
America, was settled in 1763, and admitted into the 
union, 10 Aug. 1821. It decided on neutrality in 

T T 2 



1S74 



1090 
1891 



MITCHELSTOWN. 



644 



MODOC INDIANS. 



the conflict of 1861, but was invaded by both the 
confederate and federal forces in June of that year, 
and became one of the seats of war. Capital, 
Jefferson city; population, 1880, 2,168,380; 1890, 
2,679,184; see United States, 1861 et seq. — Great 
railway strike March, 1886. The university library, 
Columbia, burnt, 9 Jan. 1892.— For the MISSOURI 
COMPROMISE, see Slavery in America. The 
Missouri river is 3,047 miles long. 

MITCHELSTOWN, Cork, see Ireland, 9 
Sept. 1887. 

MITHEIDATE, a medical preparation in the 
form of an electuary, supposed to be an antidote to 
poison and the oldest compound known, is said to 
have been invented by Mithridates, king of Pontus, 
abaut 70 B.C. 

MITHRIDATIC WAR, caused by the mas- 
sacre of 80,000 .Romans, by Mithridates VI. , king of 
Pontus, 88 B.C., and remarkable for its duration, 
its many sanguinary battles, and the cruelties of its 
commanders. Mithridates having taken the consul 
Aquilius, made him ride on an ass through a great 
part of Asia, crying out as he rode, "I am Aquilius, 
consul of the Romans." He is said to have killed 
him by causing melted gold to be poured down his 
throat, in derision of his avarice, 85 B.C. Mithri- 
dates was defeated by Pompey, 66 B.C.; and com- 
mitted suicide, 63 B.C. 

MITRAILLEUSE, or MlTRAILLETJR, a 
machine-gun in which 37 or more large-bored rifles 
are combined with breech-action, by means of which 
a shower of bullets may be rapidly projected by one 
man. It was invented in Belgium, and adopted by 
the French emperor soon after the Prusso -Austrian 
war in 1866, and was much used in the Franco- 
Prussian war in 1870. Its peculiar " dry, shrieking, 
terrible sound" was described in the bombardment 
of Saarbriick, 2 Aug. 1870. Modifications of the 
mitrailleuse have been made by Montigny and 
others. The Fosbery mitrailleuse was tried and 
approved at Shoeburyness, n Aug. 1870. — It is 
mentioned in Grose's Military Antiquities (1801) 
that in England, in 1625, a patent was granted to 
'William Drummond for a machine composed of a 
number of muskets joined together, by the help of 
which two soldiers can oppose a hundred, and 
named, on account of itseffect, "thunder carriage," 
or more usually, "fire carriage." An English 
mitrailleuse, a modification of the American gatling, 
containing 50 cartridges, was tried at Woolwich, 18 
Jan. 1872; fifty of them were ordered to be made 
by Armstrong. 

MITRE. The cleft cap or mitre was worn by 
the Jewish high-priest, 1491 B.C. It had on it a 
goldun plate inscribed "Holiness to the Lord." 
Exodus xxxix. 28. The most ancient mitre that 
h is the nearest resemblance to the present one is 
that upon the seal of the bishop of Laon, in the 10th 
century. Fosbroke. Anciently the cardinals wore 
mitres, but at the council of Lyons, in 1245, they 
were directed to wear hats. 

MITYLENE, or LESBOS, iEgean Sea. Near 
here the Greeks defeated and nearly destroyed the 
Turkish fleet, 7 Oct. 1824. 

MNEMONICS, artificial memory, was intro- 
duced by Simonides the younger, 477 B.C. Arund. 
Marbles. "Mnemoniea" was published by John 
"Willis in 1618; and the " Memoria Technica" of 
Dr. Grey first appeared in 1730. A system of 
mnemonics was announced in Germany in 1806-7.J 



MOABITES, descendants of Lot, a people 
living to the south-east of Judaea. They were fre- 
quently at war with the Israelites, and were sub- 
dued vvith divine help by Ehud about 1336, by 
David about 1040, and by Jehoshaphat, 895 B.C., 
but often harassed the Jews in the decay of their 
monarchy. The discovery of a stone with inscrip- 
tion in Phoenician characters, said to relate to 
Mesha, king of Moab, referred to in 2 Kings, iii., 
was announced in Jan. 1 870, and impressions were 
exhibited soon after, causing much discussion among 
orientalists, and its authenticity was doubted. 

MOCKERN (Prussia). Here the French army 
under Eugene Beauharnais were defeated by the 
Prussians under Yorck, 5 April, 1813 ; and here 
Bliicher defeated the French, 16 Oct. 1813. 

MODELS. The first were figures of living 
persons, and Dibutades, the Corinthian, is the 
reputed inventor of those in clay. His daughter, 
being about to be separated from her lover, traced 
his profile by his shadow on the wall ; her father 
filled up the outline with clay, which he afterwards 
baked, and thus produced a figure of the object of 
her affection, giving rise to an art till then unknown, 
about 985 B.C. 
A beautiful model of the new town of Edinburgh, before 

the building began, was formed in wood. 
A model was made of a bridge over the Neva, of uncom- 
mon strength as well as elegance ; and of the moun- 
tains of Switzerland, by general Puffer (1766-85). 
M. Choffln's model of Paris also was remarkable for its 

precision. 
Fine models of Gibraltar, Quebec, and other fortified 
places, are deposited in the Rotunda at Woolwich. 
See Waxwork. 

MODENA (formerly Mutina), capital of the 
late duchy in Central Italy; was governed by the 
house of Este, from 1288 till 1796, when the last 
male of that house, the reigning duke Hercules III., 
was expelled by the French. By the treaty of 
Campo Formio, the Modenese possessions were 
incorporated with the Cisalpine republic, 1797, and 
with the kingdom of Italy, 1805. The archduke 
Francis of Este, son of the archduke Ferdinand of 
Austria, and of Mary, the heiress of the last duke, 
was restored in 1814. Modena, in accordance with 
the voting by universal suffrage, was annexed to 
Sardinia on i8 March, i860. Population of the 
city, 1881, 31,053 ; of the province, 1881, 279,254, 
1889, 303,541. 

GRAND DUKES. 

18 14. Francis IV. An invasion of his states by Murat 
was defeated, 11 April, 1815. He was expelled 
by his subjects in 1831, but was restored by the 
Austrians. 

1846. Francis V. (born 1 June, 1819) succeeded 21 Jan. 
His subjects rose against him soon after the 
Italian war broke out, in April, 1859. He fled 
to Verona, establishing a regency, 11 June ; 
which was abolished, 13 June ; Farina was ap- 
pointed dictator, 27 July ; a constituent assembly 
was immediately elected, which offered the 
duchy to the king of Sardinia, 15 Sept., who 
incorporated it with his dominions, 18 March, 
i860. Francis died, 20 Nov. 1875. 

MODERADOS. A political party in Spain, 
long headed by Ramon Maria Narvaez, duke of 
Valencia (who died 23 April, 1868), who opposed 
the Progresistas headed by Espartero and Prim. 
The party was reinforced by the favourers of Don 
Carlos, after his total defeat in 1876. 

MODOC INDIANS (a few hundreds), 
dwelling in lands south of Oregon, were removed to 
other lands by the United States government. Not 
obtaining subsistence, they returned to their old 
possessions, and their able leader captain Jack de- 



MOESIA. 



645 



MONDAY CONCERTS. 



feated the troops sent to expel them, 17 Jan. 1873. 
During negotiations for a peaceful settlement, they 
decoyed the United States commissioners into an 
ambush (11 April), and massacred general Canby 
and about 40 othei s. Fighting took place, 15, 16 
April, and the Indians retreated to almost impreg- 
nable positions. The troops were fh-ed on, and 
suffered much loss, 27 April. The Indians were 
gradually surrounded. Jack and about twenty war- 
riors held out desperately. Some surrendered, and 
he himself was captured, I June ; tried, July, and 
executed 3 Oct. 1873. 

MCESIA (now Bosnia, Servia, and Bulgaria), 
was finally subdued by Augustus, 29 B.C. It was 
successfully invaded by the Goths, a.d. 250, who 
eventually settled here ; see Goths. 

MOGULS, see Tartary. 

MOHACZ (Lower Hungary). Here Louis king 
of Hungary, defeated by the lurks under Solyman 
II. with the loss of 22,000 men, was suffocated by 
the fall of his horse in a muddy brook, 29 Aug. 1526. 
Here also prince Charles of Lorraine defeated the 
Turks, 12 Aug. 1687. 

MOHAMMEDAN, see Mahometanism. 

MOHAMMERAH, a Fersian town near the 
Euphrates, captured, after two hours' cannonading, 
by sir James Outram, during the Persian war, 26 
March, 1857. News of the peace arrived 4 April. 

MOHILEV, or MOHILEF (Russia). Here 
the Russian army, under prince Bagration, was 
signally defeated by the French under marshal 
Davoust, prince of Eckmiihl, 23 July, 1812. 

MOHOCKS, ruffians, who went about London 
at night, wounding and disfiguring the men, and 
indecently exposing the women. One hundred 
pounds were offered by royal proclamation in 1712, 
for apprehending any one of them. Northouck. 
The "scourers" of the seventeenth century resemble 

the Mohocks. 

MOHURR UM, a Mahometan festival in honour 
of the prophet's nephews: at its celebration in Bom- 
bay, Feb. 1874, the Mahometans fiercely attacked 
the Parsees, and were quelled by the military. 

MOKANNA (Hakim ben Allah), "The Veiled," 
prophet, founder of a sect in Khorassan in the eighth 
century. He pretended to be an incarnation of 
God, and therefore veiled his face, but really to con- 
ceal the loss of an eye. He rebelled against the 
calif Almahdi, was for a tune successful, but was 
subdued in 780, when he and the remains of his 
followers took poison. He is the subject of a poem 
by Thos. Moore in Lalla Rookh, 181 7. 

MOLDAVIA, see Danubian Principalities. 

MOLINISTS, a Roman Catholic sect, followers 
of Louis Molina, a Jesuit, born 1535. He maintained 
the reconcilability of the doctrines of predestination 
and free will, 1588. 

MOLLY MAGUIRE, the name of a secret 
society in Ireland in 1843, and of another society 
(originally Buckshot, about 1853) in mining dis- 
tricts, United States {which sec), 1877. It ceased 
about March, 1879. 

MOLOKANI, a sect in "West Russia, said to 
date from the 16th century, who maintain primi- 
tive Christian doctrines and practices ; well de- 
scribed by Mr. D. Mackenzie Wallace in his 
" Russia," published 1877. 

MOLUCCAS, an archipelago in the Indian 
Ocean (the chief island, Amboyna), discovered by 



the Portuguese, about 1511, and held by them. 
secretly until the arrival of the Spaniards, who 
claimed them, till 1529, when Charles V. yielded 
them to John III. for a large sum of money. The 
Dutch conquered them in 1607, and have held them 
ever since, — except from 1810 to 1814, when they 
were subject to the English. 

MOLWITZ (in Prussian Silesia). Here the 
Prussians, commanded by Frederick II., obtained a 
great victory over the Imperialists, 10 April (0. S. 
30 March), 1741. 

MOLYBDENUM, a whitish, brittle, almost 
infusible metal. Scheele, in 1778, discovered mo- 
lybdic acid in a mineral hitherto confounded with 
graphite. Hjelm, 1782, prepared the metal from 
molybdic acid; and in 1825 Berzelius described 
most of its chemical characters. Gmelin. 

MOMBASA, chief town of the British East 
Africa territories; increasing prosperity reported, 
July, 1890. See Africa {British East). 

MONACHISM (from the Greek memos, 
alone). Catholic writers refer to the prophet Eli- 
jah, and the Nazarites mentioned in Numbers, ch. 
vi., as early examples. The first Christian ascetics 
appear to be derived from the Jewish sect of the 
Essenes, whose life was very austere, practising 
celibacy, &c. About the time of Constantine 
(306-22) numbers of these ascetics withdrew into 
the deserts, and were called hermits, monks, and 
anchorets ;* of whom Paul, Anthony, and Pacho- 
mius were most celebrated. Simeon, the founder 
of the Stylitse (or pillar saints), died 451. He is 
said to have lived on a pillar thirty years. St. 
Benedict, the great reformer of western monachism, 
published his rules and established his monastery at 
Monte Casino, about 529. The Carthusians, Cister- 
cians, &c, are varieties of Benedictines. In 964, 
by decree of king Edgar, all married priests were 
ineffectually ordered to be replaced by monks. 
Religious orders expelled from France, by decree, 
29 March, 1880. Relieved of their vows by the 
Pope, 1881. See Abbeys, and Benedictines. 

MONACO, a principality, N. Italy, held by 
the Genoese family Grimaldi since 968. By treaty 
on 2 Feb. 1861, the prince ceded the communes of 
Roquebrune and Mentone, the chief part of his 
dominions, to France, for 4,000,000 francs. The 
prince, Charles III., bom 8 Dec. 1818, succeeded 
his father Florestan, 20 June 1856 ; died 10 Sept. 
1889, was succeeded by Albert, born 13 Nov. 1848. 
A commercial convention between the prince and 
France, signed 9 Nov. 1865, was much discussed as 
tending towards the abolition of the French naviga- 
tion law3. Petitions against Monte Carlo, the great 
gaming establishment, 1880-4. Population, 1888, 

r 3>3 4- 

MONARCHY. Historians reckon various 
grand monarchies— the Chaldfflan, Assyrian, Baby- 
lonian, Median, Persian, Grecian, Parthian, and 
Roman {which see). 

MONASTERIES, see Abbeys. 

MONCONTOUR (near Poitiers, France). 
Here the admiral Coligny and the French Protes- 
tants were defeated with great loss by the duke of 
Anjou (afterwards Henry III.), 3 Oct. 1569. 

MONCRIEFF SYSTEM, see Cannon. 

MONDAY CONCERTS, see under Music. 

* The anchorites of the 12th, 13th, and 14th centuries 
must not be confounded with the anachorets and ancho- 
rets, or hermits. The former wore confined to solitary 
cells ; the latter permitted to go where they pleased. 



MONDOVI. 



646 



MONTE CASINO. 



MONDOVI (Piedmont). Here the Sardinian 
army, commanded by Colli, was defeated by Napo- 
leon Bonaparte, 22 April, 1796. 

MONETAEY CONFEBENCES, Interna- 
tional, opened at Paris, 16 Aug. 1878 ; and 19 April, 
1881 ; Cologne, 11-13 Oct. 1882; Paris, 21 July, 
adjourned, 5 Aug. 1885; the union continued till 
I Jan. 1887 : conventions signed, 6 Nov., and 8 
Dec. 1885. A congress was held at Paris II Sept. 
et seq., 1889. See Latin Union. 

MONEY is mentioned as a medium of com- 
merce in Genesis xxiii., i860 B.C., when Abraham 
purchased a field as a sepulchre for Sarah. The 
coinage of money is ascribed to the Lydians. 
Moneta was the name given to their silver by the 
Romans, it having been coined in the temple of 
Juno-Moneta, 269 B.C. Money was made of dif- 
ferent metals, and even of leather and other articles, 
both in ancient and modern times. It was made 
of pasteboard by the Hollanders so late as 1574. 
The czar Nicholas struck coins in platinum. See 
Coin; Gold; Copper; Mint; Banks, &c. For 
Money Orders, see Post Office. 

MONEYEES travelled with our early kings, 
and coined money as required ; see Mint. 

MONGOLS, see Tartary. 

MONITEUE TJNIVEESEL, aFrenchnews- 
paper, was established in Paris by C. J. Panc- 
koucke, 5 May, 1789 ; daily paper, 24 Nov. 1789 ; 
the organ of the government, 28 Dec. 1799. It was 
superseded by the Journal Officiel, 1 Jan. 1869 ; 
resumed its official position about 23 Sept. 1870 ; and 
was again superseded by the Journal Officiel, Feb. 
187 1. It became the organ of MacMahon's govern- 
ment in 1875. 

MONITOEIAL SYSTEM (in education), 
in which pupils are employed as teachers, was used 
by Dr. Bell in the Orphan Asylum at Madras in 
1795) an( l was a ^ so adopted by Joseph Lancaster, 
in London ; see Education. 

MONITOE SHIPS, see United States. The 
American monitor, Miantonomah, arrived at Ply- 
mouth in June, 1866, and excited much attention. 

MONK, see Monachism. 

MONMOUTH, Monmouthshire, was a Roman 
station, afterwards a Saxon fortress. The ancient 
castle rebuilt by John, lord of Monmouth, 1257, be- 
came the property of John of Gaunt, and in it his 
grandson, Henry V., was born, 9 Aug., 1388. Mon- 
mouth was first incorporated in 1550. Population, 
1881, 6,111 ; 1891, 5,470. 

MONMOUTH'S EEBELLION. James, 
duke of Monmouth (born at Rotterdam, 9 April, 
1649), a natural son of Charles II. by Lucy Waters, 
was banished England for his connection with the 
Rye-house plot, in 1683. He invaded England at 
Lyme, n June, 1685; was proclaimed king at 
Taunton, 20 June; was defeated at Sedgmoor, near 
Bridgewater, 6 July ; and beheaded on Tower-hill, 
15 July. 

MONOCHOED, a box of tbin wood, with a 
bridge, over which is stretohed a wire or chord, said 
to have been invented by Pythagoras, about 600 B.C. 

MONOLITH, Greek for single stone; see 
Obelisk. 

MONOPHYSITES, see Eutychicms. 

MONOPOLIES were formerly so numerous 
in England that parliament petitioned against 
them, and many were abolished, about 1601-2. 



They were further suppressed by 21 Jas. I., 1624. 
Sir Giles Mompesson and sir Francis Mitchell were 
punished for their abuse of monopolies, 1621. In 
1630, Charles I. established monopolies of soap, 
salt, leather, and other common things, to supply a 
revenue without the help of parliament. It was 
decreed that none should be in future created by 
royal patent, 16 Chas. I. 1640. 

MONOTHELITES, heretics who affirmed 
that Jesus Christ had but one will, were favoured 
by the emperor Heraclius, 630 ; they merged into 
the Eutychians {which see). 

MONEOE DOCTBINE, a term applied to 
the determination expressed by James Monroe, 
president of the United States, in his message to 
the congress, 2 Dec. 1823, not to permit any Euro- 
pean power to interfere with the concerns of any 
independent states of North or South America. 
This doctrine was referred to in 1859 and 1865. 

MONTANA, a territory of the United States, 
north America, formed out of Idaho ; became a 
territory in 1864, and a state in 1889. Capital, 
Helena. Population in 1880,39,159; 1890,132,159. 

MONTANISTS, followers of Montanus, of 
Ardaba, in Mysia, about 171, who was reputed to 
have the gift of prophecy, and proclaimed himself 
the Comforter promised by Christ. He condemned 
second marriages as fornication, permitted the dis- 
solution of marriage, forbade avoiding martyrdom, 
and ordered a severe fast of three lents ; he hanged 
himself with Maximilla, one of his female scholars, 
before the close of the 2nd century. Cave. The 
eloquent father, Tertullian, joined the sect, 204. 

.MONT BLANC, in the French Alps, is the 
highest mountain in Europe, being 15,781 feet 
above the level of the sea. The summit was first 
reached by Jacques Balmat in June, 1786, and 
afterwards by H. B. Saussure, aided by Balmat, 
on 2 Aug. 1787. The summit was attained by Dr. 
Hamel (when three of his guides perished) in 1820, 
and by many other persons before and since. Ac- 
counts of the ascents of Mr. John Auldio, Charles 
Fellows (1827), and of professor Tyndall (1857-8) 
have been published ; see Alps. 57 ascents re- 
ported in 1873 ; 64 in 1881. 

Herr Bothe and a guide killed by an avalanche, 

20 Aug. 1891 

Erection of an observatory on the summit pro- 
posed ; work proceeding, July ; stopped about 
28 Aug. ; 3 deaths. Favourable report by M. 
Janssen to the Academy of Sciences, 2 Nov. 1891. 
Preparations for a renewal of the work, with pre- 
cautions June, 1892 

By the torrents consequent on the fall of a glacier, 
the " Etablissement des Bains" at St. Gervais 
and two villages were destroyed, and about 130 
persons perished . . . . n, 12 July, ,, 

MONT CENIS, see Alps. 

MONTEBELLO, in Piedmont, where Lannes 
defeated the Austrians, 9 June, 1800, and acquired 
his title of duke of Montebello ; and where, after 
a contest of six hours, the French and Sardinians 
defeated the Austrians, who lost about IOOO 
killed and wounded, and 200 prisoners, 20 May, 
1859. The French lost about 670 men, including 
general Beuret. 

MONTE CAELO, see Monaco. 

MONTE CASINO (Central Italy). Here 
Benedict formed his first monastery, 529. After 
affording a refuge for many eminent persons, its 
monastic character was abolished by the Italian 



MONTEM. 



647 



MONTI DI PIETA. 



government in 1866, care being taken for the pre- 
servation of its historical and literary monuments. 

MONTEM, see Eton. 

MONTENEGRO, an independent principality 
in European Turkey, was conquered by Solyman II. 
in 1526. It rebelled early in the 18th century, and 
established a hereditary hierarchical government in 
the family of Petrovitsch Njegosch, — permitted, but 
not recognised by the Porte. Its independence 
■was declared by the treaty of Berlin, 13 July, 
1878. Population, in 1891, 200,000. Capital, 
Cettinje. 

The nephew and successor of the Vladika, Peter II., 
declined to assume the ecclesiastical function, 
and declared himself a temporal prince, with the 
title of Daniel I., 1851 ; and "began war with 

Turkey 1852 

Montenegro put in a state of blockade . 14 Dec. ,, 
Alter indecisive encounters, tranquillity restored by 
the influence of the arms and negotiations of 
Omar Pacha, the general of the Turkish army ; he 

left the province 25 Feb. 1853 

Blockade raised 10 April, ,, 

"War again broke out ; the Turks defeated at Gra- 

hovo, June ; peace restored .... Nov. 1858 
The country much disturbed through the tyrannical 
conduct of prin.ce Daniel, who was assassinated 

(aged 35) 14 Aug. i860 

Succeeded "by his nephew Nicolas, or Nikita, 

(married) 8 Nov. ,, 

An insurrection ia the Herzegovina, favoured by 
the Montenegrins ; the blockade of Montenegro, 

4 April, 1 861 
Omar Pacha invaded the province with an army of 

32,000 men in Aug. ,, 

Many conflicts with various success, but latterly in 
favour of the Turks ; peace made, Turkish supre- 
macy recognised 8-9 Sept. 1862 

Murderous cruarrels between Christians and Mussul- 
men at Podgoritza ; 21 Montenegrins said to be 

killed by Turks 20 Oct. 1874 

Threatened war prevented by intervention of the 
great powers ; each nation to punish culprits 

Jan. 1875 
.Some rioters executed .... 15 May, „ 
Montenegro with difficulty restrained from inter- 
vention in Herzegovina . Autumn and "Winter, „ 
The prince declared war and joined the Servians 

2 July, 1876 
.See Turkey and Rtisso-Turlcish war . . 1876-7-8 
Declared independent of Turkey by treaty of San 
Stefano, 3 March ; (with new boundaries, and 
Antivari for a seaport) by the Berlin treaty 

13 July, 1878 
Podgoritza surrendered by Turkey . . 7 Feb. 1879 
After much resistance by the Albanians, and nego- 
tiation with Turkey, Gussinge surrendered, April, 1880 
Frontier disputes with Turkey settled, Nov. 1882 ; 

the prince well received at Constantinople, Sept. 1883 
Building to contain state library, museum, and 

theatre, at Cettinje founded . . 12 May, 1884 
A constitution promised . . . May, „ 

Temporary fighting between Turks and Monte- 
negrins at Cettinje . . . . 3, 4 July, 1886 
The prince visits the czar at St. Petersburg May, 1889 
Severe famine relieved by the great exertions of the 
prince, Sept. ; aided by Russia, Hungary, and 

Turkey Oct. „ 

About 11,360 persons emigrate to Servia, Oct., Nov. 
1889 ; famine continues, more emigration needed, 

March, 1890 
Oolonel Bosko Martinovitch, cousin of the prince, 

murdered ; the assassin lynched . . 7 July, „ 
Frequent Albanian raids checked by Turks, 

July, Aug. ,, 
■Great distress through snow-storms . early Feb. 1891 

PRINCES. 

1851. Daniel, born 25 May, 1826 ; assassinated, 13 Aug. 

i860. 
i860. Nicolas, or Nikita (nephew), born 7 Oct. 1841 ; 
married princess Milena, 8 Nov. i860. 
Hdr, Dauilo, born 29 June, 1871. 



MONTENOTTE, a village in Piedmont, 
memorable as being the site of the first victory 
gained over the Austrians by Napoleon Bonaparte, 
12 April, 1796. 

MONTEEEAU (near Paris). On the bridge 
of Montereau, at his meeting with the dauphin, 
John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, was killed by 
Tanneguy de Chatel in 1419. This event led to 
our Henry V. subduing France, the young duke 
Philip joining the English. Here the allied armies 
were defeated by the French, commanded by Napo- 
leon, with great loss in killed and wounded ; hut 
it was one of his last triumphs, 18 Feb. 1814. 

MONTEREY (Mexico), was taken by general 
Taylor after a three days' conflict with the Mexi- 
cans, 21-23 Sept. 1846. 

MONTE-VIDEO (S. America), was taken by 
storm by the British forces under sir Samuel Auch- 
rauty, but with the loss of nearly one-third of our 
brave troops, 3 Feb. 1807. It was evacuated 7 July 
the same year, in consequence of the severe repulse 
the British met with at Buenos-Ayres ; see Buenos- 
Ayr es. Monte-Video, a subject of dispute between 
Brazil and Buenos-Ayres, was given up to Uruguay, 
1828. For recent war, etc., see Brazil and Uruguay. 
Fire at celebration service for Garibaldi, about 20 
killed, 11 June, 1882. 

MONTFERRAT (Lombardy), House of, 

celebrated in the history of the Crusades, began 
with Alderan, who was made marquis of Mont- 
ferrat, by Otho, about 967. Conrad of Montferrat 
became lord of Tyre, and reigned from 1 187 till 
1 191, when he was assassinated. "William IV. died 
in a cage at Alexandria, having been thus impri- 
soned nineteen months, 1292. Violante, daughter 
of John II., married Andronicus Pakeologus, em- 
peror of the East. Their descendants ruled in 
Italy amid perpetual contests till 1533, when John 
George Paheologus died without issue. His estates 
passed after much contention to Frederic II. Gon- 
zaga, marquis of Mantua, in 1536, and next to the 
duke of Savoy. 

MONTGOMERY, capital of Alabama, United 
States, founded 181 7. Here the state convention 
passed the ordinance of secession from the union 
on II Jan. 1861; here the confederate congress met 
on 4 Feb. and elected Jefferson Davis president, 
and Alexander Stephens vice-president, of the con- 
federate states of North America; and here they 
were inaugurated on 18 Feb. On 21 May the 
congress adjourned to meet on 20 July at Ilich- 
mond, in Virginia, that state having joined the 
confederates and become the seat of war. 

MONTH (from mona, Anglo-Saxon moon), the 
twelfth part of the calendar year. See Year, 
Calendar, January and other months, French Revo- 
lutionary Calendar and Jewish Era. 

Lunar Month. — The period of one revolution of the 
moon (syuodical) ; mean length, zgd. 12ft. 44m. 2.87s. 

Sidereal Month.— Time of moon's revolution from a star 
to the same again, 271/.. 7/1. 43?)!.. 11.5s. 

Solar Month.— The time the sun passes through one 
sign of the zodiac, 30CZ. io7t.. 29m. 4.1s. 

Information respecting the months of the Egyptians, 
Jews, Greeks, Romans, Persians, and other nations will 
be found in sir H. Nicolas's "Chronology of History." 
See under Jewish era and Mahomctanism. 

MONTI DI PIETA, charitable institutions 
for advancing money on pledges, were first estab- 
lished at Perugia, Florence, Mantua, and other 
Italian cities, 1462, et scq. The Franciscans, in 
149}, began to receive interest, which was per- 
mitted by the pope, in 1515. Monts de Hetd 



MONTIEL. 



648 



MOOLTAN. 



established in France 1777, were suppressed by the 
Revolution, but restored, 1804 ; regulated by law, 
185 1 -2 ; see Paivnbroking . ' 

MONTIEL (Spain), Battle of, 14 March, 

1369, between Peter the Cruel, king of Castile, and 
his brother Henry of Trastamare, aided by the 
French warrior, Bertrand du Guesclin. Peter 
was totally defeated, and afterwards treacherously 
slain. 
MONTIGNY, see under Firearms. 

MONTLHEEY (Seine -et-Oise, France), 
site of an indecisive battle between Louis XI. and a 
party of his nobles, termed " The League of the 
Public Good," 16 July, 1465. 

MONTMARTRE, HEIGHTS OF, near Paris, 
taken by Blucher, 30 March, 1814. They were 
fortified during the communist insurrection, March, 
1871 ; and retaken by the army of Versailles, 28 
May. 

MONTMIRAIL (Marne, France). Here 
Napoleon defeated the allies, 11 Feb. 1814. 

MONTPELLIER (S. France), built in the 
8th century, prospered as the neighbouring city 
Maguelonne decreased. It was acquired by mar- 
riage by the king of Arragon, 1204 ; by the king of 
Majorca, 1276; was ceded to France, 1349; given 
to Charles the Bad, king of Navarre, in exchange 
for Mantes, &c, 1365 ; sequestered by France, 
1378. It was seized by the Huguenots early in the 
reign of Henry III., and held by them till Sept. 
1622, when it surrendered after a siege, followed 
by a treaty of peace, 20 Oct. Sexcentenary of the 
University celebrated, president Carnot present, 23 
May, 1890. 

MONTREAL, the second city in Lower 
Canada, founded by the French, and named Ville 
Marie, 18 May, 1642. Population, 1881, 140,747 ; 
1891, 216,650. 

Surrendered to the English . . . 8 Sept. 1760 
Taken by the Americans ... 12 Nov. 1775 
Retaken by the British . . , .15 June, 1776 
The church, Jesuits' college, prison, and many 

buildings burnt down ... 6 June, 1803 

Great military affray . . . .29 Sept. 1833 

Bishopric founded . 1836 

Riots against the government ... 6 Nov. 1837 
The self-styled "loyalists" of Montreal assault the 
governor-general, lord Elgin; enter the parlia- 
ment-house, drive out the members, and set Are 

to the building 25 April, 1849 

A bishopric established 

A destructive fire 23 Aug. 1850 

Another, destroying 1200 houses; the loss esti- 
mated at a million sterling . . .12 July, 1852 
At an anti-papal lecture here by Gavazzi, riots en- 
sued, and many lives were lost . . 10 June, 1853 
The cathedral destroyed by fire . . 10 Dec. 1856 
Victoria railway bridge (which see) formally opened 

by the prince of Wales .... 25 Aug. i860 
Fierce riots at the attempt to bury Joseph Guibord, 
a Roman Catholic, while under censure, in the 
Roman Catholic cemetery .... Sept. 1875 
[He belonged to the " InstitutCanadien," censured 
for possessing forbidden books; he died in 1869; 
after much litigation, the privy council judicial 
committee affirmed his right to burial against the 
clerical authorities.] 
Riot at a memorial Romanist procession ; 1 man 

killed 2 6 Sept. „ 

Guibord buried with military and police escort, 

16 Nov. ,, 

Violent bread riots I7 Dec. 

Fierce orange riots, with loss of life 12 July et seq. 1877 
Ice palace erected and carnival held . 23 Jan. 1883 
Prevalence of small pox ; riots against compulsory 
vaccination suppressed, 29 Sept. ; 1,622 deaths in 
October T oo, 



Great inundation through ice gorge of the lower 
town ; about 1,000,000?. damage ; much privation 

17-18 April, 1886 

Great fires in 1887-8 

The Longue Pointe Lunatic Asylum burnt, about 

80 persons perish 6 May, 1890 

Visit of the duke and duchess of Connaught 2 June, „, 
Great fire at the Cote St. Antoine suburb ; the loss , 

about 50,000 dollars . . . .28 July, „ 
Visit of the comte de Paris, banquet . 25 Oct. ,, 
Great labour demonstration ... 7 Sept. 189E 

MONTSERRAT, a W. India island, dis- 
covered by Columbus in 1493, and settled by the 
British in 1632. It has several times been takert 
by the French, but was secured to the British in 
1783. Population, 1891, 11,762. See Leeward Isles: 

MONUMENT of LONDON, built by sir 
Christopher Wren, 1671-7. The pedestal is forty 
feet high, and the edifice altogether 202 feet, that 
being the distance of its base from the spot where 
the tire which it commemorates commenced. It is 
the loftiest isolated column in the world. Its 
erection cost about 14,500^. The staircase is of 
black marble, consisting of 345 steps.* Fall of 
part of the stone coping, no one injured, 25 Sept. 
1888 ; examined and repaired ; re-opened 14 Jan. 
1889. Of the four original inscriptions, three 
were Latin, and the following in English, — cut 
in 1681, obliterated by James II. ; re-cut in the- 
reign of "William III.; and finally erased by order 
of the common council, 26 Jan. 1831. They pro- 
duced Pope's indignant lines :— 

" Where London's column, pointing at the skies, 
Like a tall bully, lifts the head, and lies." 

THIS PILLAR WAS SET VP IN PERPETVAL REMEMBRANCE 
OF THAT MOST DREADFUL BURNING OF THIS PROTESTANT 
CITY, BEGUN AND CARRYED ON BY Y e TREACHERY AND- 
MALICE OF Y e POPISH FACTION, IN Y e BEGINNING OF 
SEPTEM. IN Y* YEAR OF OUR LORD 1666, IN ORDER TO Y« 
CARRYING ON THEIR HORRID PLOT FOR EXTIRPATING Y a 
PROTESTANT RELIGION AND OLD ENGLISH LIBERTY, AND 
Y= INTRODUCING POPERY AND SLAVERY. 

MONUMENTS, see Ancient. An act passed 
22 July, 1878, empowers the Metropolitan board of 
works to take care of Cleopatra's needle, and other 
monuments. 

MONZA, or Monsa, formerly capital of the 
kingdom of Lombardy, frequently besieged. The 
cathedral was founded in the sixth century. The 
iron crown of Italy (which see) was kept here till 
1859. See Italy, Oct. 1891. 

MOODKEE (India). Here, on 18 Dec. 
1845, the Sikhs attacked the advanced guard of 
the British, commanded by general Gough, and 
were repulsed three miles, losing many men and 
fifteen pieces of cannon. Sir Robert Sale was 
mortally wounded. The battle preceded that of 
Ferozeshah (which see). 

MOOLTAN (N. W. India), an ancient city, 
was stormed by RunjeetSing, 1818. Here his son, 
Moolraj Sing, ruler of the Sikhs, treacherously 
murdered Mr. Vans Agnew and lieutenant Ander- 
son, 21 April, 1848. Several conflicts took place 
between the British and the Sikhs, in which the 
latter were beaten, and Mooltan taken after a pro- 
tracted siege, 2-22 Jan. 1849. 

* William Green, a weaver, fell from this monument, 
25 June, 1750. A man named Thomas Craddock, a baker, 
precipitated himself from its summit, 7 July, 1780. Mr. 
Lyon Levy, a Jewish diamond merchant, of considerable 
respectability, threw himself from it, 18 Jan. 1810; as 
did more recently three other persons : in consequence 
of which a fence was placed round the railing of the 
gallery in 1839. 



MOON. 



649 



MORGARTEN. 



MOON. Opacity of the moon, and the true 

causes of lunar eclipses, taught by Thales, 640 B.C. 

Hipparchus made observations on the moon at 

Rhodes, 127 B.C. Posidonius accounted for the 

tides from the motion of the moon, and said that 

the moon borrows her light from the sun, 79 B.C. 

Diog. Laert. 

Maps of the moon constructed by Hevelius, 1647. 
Cassini ......... 1680 

Beer and Madler's map published . . . . 1834 

Professor John Phillips invited the British Associa- 
tion to make arrangements to obtaiu a "syste- 
matic representation of the physical aspect of the 
moon " 1862 

Photographs of the moon taken by Draper at New 
York, 1840; by Bond, 1850; by Mr. Warren de la 
Rue, 1857 ; by Rutherford 1871 

Hansen's "Tables of the Moon," calculated at the 
expense of the British and Danish governments, 
published at the cost of the latter . . . 1857 

The British Association " lunar committee " publish 
two sections of a map of the moon, on a scale of 
200 inches to her diameter . . . July, 1867 

The earl of Rosse made experiments on the radiation 
of heat from the moon 1868-73 

Professor S. P. Langley, of Washington, U.S., pub- 
lished the results of experiments relative to the 
temperature of the moon . . . Nov. 1887 

Mr. C. V. Boys, of South Kensington, described at 
the Royal Institution how he obtained evidence 
of the heat of the moon by means of his very 
sensitive thermopile composed of quartz fila- 
ments, according to the anticipations of professor 
Piazzi Smyth . . . -17 April et seq. 1890 

Professor J. F. Julius Schmidt, of Athens, com- 
pleted his map of the moon after 34 years' work : 
diameter 2 metres 1874 

Mr. James Nasmyth and Mr. J. Carpenter published 
the result of many years' observations, in "The 
Moon " 1874 ; new edition, 18S5 

Mr. Edmund Neison published "The Moon and 
the Conditions and Configurations of its Surface" 

July, 1876 

Professor Schmidt's map published at Berlin . . 1878 
See Eclipses. 

"MOONLIGHTERS," a name given to the 
perpetrators of night outrages in 18S0. See Ireland 
1885. 

MOORS, formerly the natives of Mauritania 
{which see), but afterwards the name given to the 
Numidians and others, and now applied to the 
natives of Morocco and the neighbourhood. 
They frequently rebelled against the Roman 
emperors, and assisted Genseric and the Vandals 
in their invasion of Africa, 429. They resisted 
for a time the progress of the Saracens or Arab 
Mahometans, but were overcome in 707, and 
in 1019 were by them introduced into Spain, 
where their arms were long victorious. In 1063 
they were defeated in Sicily by Roger Guiscard. 
The Moorish kingdom of Grenada was set up 
in 1237, and lasted till 1492, when it fell before 
Ferdinand V. of Castile, mainly owing to infernal 
discord. The expulsion of the Moors from Spain 
was decreed by Charles V., but not fully carried 
into effect till 1609, when the bigotry of Philip 
III. inflicted this great injury to his country. About 
1 5 1 8 the Moors established the piratical states of 
Algiers and Tunis (which see). In the history of 
Spain, the Arabs and Moors must not be con- 
founded. 

MOPLAHS, industrious fanatical Mahometans 
in Malabar, E. Indies, gave trouble by their attacks 
on Hindoos and the British, especially in 1845 ; an 
outbreak was suppressed about 15 Sept. 1873. 

MORAL PHILOSOPHY, the science of 
ethics, defined as the knowledge of our duty, and 
the art of being virtuous and happy. Socrates 



(about 430 B.C.) is regarded as the father of 
ancient, and Grotius (about 1623) the father of 
modem moral philosophy; see Ethics and Philo- 
sophy. 

MORAT (Switzerland), where Charles the Bold 
of Burgundy was completely defeated by the Swiss, 
22 June, 1476. A monument, constructed of the 
bones of the vanquished, was destroyed by the 
French in 1798, and a stone column erected. 400th 
anniversary kept, 1876. 

MORAVIA, an Austrian province, occupied by 
the Slavonians about 548, and conquered by the 
Avars and Bohemians, who submitted to Charle- 
magne. About 1000 it was subdued by Boleslas of 
Poland, but recovered by Ulrich of Bohemia iu 
1030. After various changes, Moravia and Bohemia 
were amalgamated into the Austrian dominions in 
1526. Moravia was invaded by the Prussians in 
1866, and they established their head quarters at 
Briinn, the capital, 13 July. The demand of the 
Moravians for home rule was resisted Oct, 187 1. 
Strike of 30,000 coal miners at O-trau, and rioting 
suppressed by military, 16, 17 April, 1890. Popu- 
lation in 1890, 2,276,870. 

MORAVIANS, or United Brethren, 

said to have been part of the Hussites, who with- 
drew into Moravia in the 15th century; but the 
brethren assert that then sect was derived from the 
Greek church in the 9th century. In 1722 they 
formed a settlement (called Ilcrrnhut, the watch 
of the Lord) on the estate of count Zinzendorf. 
Their church consisted of 500 persons in 1727. 
They were introduced into England by count Zin- 
zendorf about 1738; he died at Chelsea in June, 
1760. In 1851 they had thirty-two chapels in Eng- 
land. They are zealous missionaries, and founded 
settlements in foreign parts, about 1732. London 
Association f unded, 1817. 

MORAY FLOODS, see Inundations, 1829. 

MORDAUNT, see Administrations, 16S9. 

MORDEN COLLEGE (Blackheath), alms- 
houses for decayed merchants, with pensions, esta- 
blished by sir John Morden, 1695 ; opened, 1702. 

MOREA, a name given to the Peloponnesus in 
the 13th century; see Greece. 

MORETON BAY (New S. Wales). The 
colony founded here in 1859 has since been named 
Queensland (which see). 

MORGANATIC* MARRIAGES, when the 
left hand is given instead of the right, between a 
man of superior and a woman of inferior rank, in 
which it is stipulated that the latter and her chil- 
dren shall not enjoy the rank or inherit the pos- 
sessions of the former. The children are legitimate. 
Such marriages are frequently contracted in Ger- 
many by royalty and the higher nobility. It has 
been asserted that our George I. was thus married 
to the duchess of Kendal ; the late duke of Sussex 
to lady Cecilia Underwood ; Frederic VI. of Den- 
mark to the countess of Banner, 7 Aug. 1850 ; and 
several Austrian princes, recently. 

MORGARTEN (Switzerland). 1300 Swiss en- 
gaged 20,000 Austrians, commanded by the duke 
Leopold, whom they completely defeated, 15 Nov. 
1315, upon the heights of Morgarten, overlooking 
the defile through which the enemy was to enter 
their territory from Zug. 

* Said to be derived from Morgengabe, the gift of 
a husband of a limited part of his property to such a 
bride on the morning after the marriage. 



MOEICE DANCE. 



650 



MOEOCCO. 



MOEICE DANCE, an ancient dance pecu- 
liar to some of the country parts of England, and, it 
is said, also to Scotland : it was performed before 
James I. in Herefordshire. 

MOEIEE INCIDENT, see Prussia, 1889. 

MOEISONIANS, followers of the Rev. James 
Morison of Kilmarnock, suspended for heterodoxy, 
1841. 

MOELEY HALL and Welbeck Institute, 
Ttegent Street, London, for the Young Women's 
Christian Association, opened by princess Christian, 

22 NOV. 1886. 

MOEMONS (calling themselves the Church 
of Jesus Christ of the Latter-day Saints). 
This sect derives its origin from Joseph Smith, 
■called the Prophet, who announced in 1823, at 
Palmyra, New York, that he had had a vision of 
the angel Moroni. In 1827 he said that be found 
the book of Mormon, written on gold plates in 
Egyptian characters. This book is said to have 
been written about 1812, by a clergyman named 
Solomon Spaulding (or by Martin Harris, who died 
.'Sept. 1875), as a religious romance in imitation of 
the scripture style. It was translated and published 
in America in 1830, in England in 1841. It fell 
into the hands of Eigdon and Smith, who deter- 
mined to palm it off as a new revelation. The 
Mormons command the payment of tithes, permit 
polygamy, encourage labour, and believe in their 
leaders working miracles. Missionaries are propa- 
gating these doctrines in Europe with more success 
than would be expected. 

'The Mormonites organise a church at Kirkland, 
Ohio . . 1830 

They found Zion, in Jackson county, Missouri 1831-2 

From 1833 to 1839 the sect endured much perse- 
cution, and, driven from place to place, was com- 
pelled to travel westwards ; till the city Nauvoo 
on. the Mississippi was laid out and a temple 
was built 1 840-1 

Joseph and his brother Hyram, when in prison on a 
charge of treason, shot by an infuriated mob, and 
Brigham Young chosen seer . . June, 1844 

Much harassed by their neighbours ; departure from 
Nauvoo determined on 1845 

The Great Salt Lake chosen "for an everlasting 
abode," and taken possession of . . 24 July, 1847 

The valley surveyed by order of the United States 
government 1849 

The provisional government abolished and the Utah- 
territory recognised by the United States ; Brig- 
ham Young appointed the first governor ; and the 
university of Deseret was founded . . 1849-50 

'The population, 11,354 1851 

The crops at the Utah settlement said to be de- 
stroyed by locusts .... Aug. 1855 

The United States judge at Utah resigned from 
inability to discharge his functions, in conse- 
quence of the violent and treasonable conduct of 
the Mormons, and their leader, Brigham Young 1857 

A conference of Mormon elders, &c, was held in 
London ; offensive speeches made and songs sung 
advocating polygamy . . . . 1 Sept. ,, 

The United States government sent an army to 
Utah : a compromise was entered into, and peace 
was established by governor Cummmgs in June, 1858 

A Mormonite meeting at Southampton . 18 Feb. 1861 

A French Mormonite priest preached at Paris in Oct. 1862 

"Latter-day Saints' " meetings held in London . 1S65 

Utah settlement visited by Hepworth Dixon : he 
stated that it contained 200,000 persons, and an 
army of 20,000 rifles. (" New America," published 
in 1867) 1866 

Reported schisms : through increasing opposition 
to polygamy June, 1867 

Synod held in Store-street, London (London con- 
ference said to include 11 72 members) 5 April, 1868 

650 new Mormonites sailed from Liverpool for Utah, 

6 June, ,, 



Bill depriving polygamists of civic rights passed 
U S. house of representatives . . March, 1870 

Brigham Young ordered to be tried for bigamy, 
flies ; Hawkins, a Mormonite elder, sentenced to 
three years' imprisonment for adultery, end of Oct. 1871 

Brigham Young surrenders for trial, 2 Jan. ; pro- 
ceedings annulled by the supreme court about May, 1872 

Brigham Young resigns temporal powers, 10 April, 1873 

The Mormonite conferences at the Holborn Amphi- 
theatre 25 May, ,, 

Nineteen missionaries for Britain arrive at Liverpool 

12 Nov. ,, 

Brigham Young again indicted for polygamy, about 

15 Oct. 1874 

Adjudged to support one of his wives while she sues 
for divorce, March ; imprisoned in his own house, 
for non-compliance, Nov. ; discharged . Dec. 1875 

Bp. J. D. Lee shot for his share in Mountain Mea- 
dows massacre, (Brigham Young suspected,) (see 
Massacres) 23 March, 1877 

Death of Brigham Young, aged 76 . 29 Aug. ,, 

John Taylor, chief of 12 apostles, became presi- 
dent oi' the church Sept. ,, 

Conference in London opened . . 30 Sept. „ 

Orson Pratt, a leader and eolleague of Joseph 
Smith, died Nov. 1881 

Six meeting-houses in London, March, 1882 ; esti- 
mated 85,000 English converts . . . 1837-82 

Polygamy in the United States abolished by Act 
passed 23 March, 1882 

Great meeting at Salt Lake ; 57 missionaries sent 
out 6 Oct. 1883 

Senator Edmund's bill for suppression of the Mor- 
mon church passed by the U.S. senate (38-7) 

9 Jan. 1886 

Meeting of Mormon elders and missionaries at St. 
George's Hall, Langham-place, London 12 Oct. ,, 

John Taylor died 25 July, 1887 

Decree for the suppression of the church ; appealed 
against ... ... Oct. 1888 

A new temple erected in Salt Lake City, capable of 
holding 14,000 persons, the granite walls 20 ft. 
thick at the base, taper upwards to 6 ft. 

reported Aug. 1889 

Many Mormons disenfranchised for taking an 
illegal oath ; the "Gentiles ' obtain majority in 
elections Feb. 1890 

President Woodruff and a conference of elders put 
forth a profession of faith, recognizing the Bible 
and the Book of Mormon as the Word of God, 
gifts of tongues, &c, and renouncing polygamy, 
about 25 Sept. ; adopted by the church at a great 
meeting 6 Oct. ,, 

144,352 Mormons in the United States, N. A. ; 
census of 1890. Mr. Joseph Smith, jun., son of 
the founder of Mormonism, heads a party op- 
posed to polygamy (about 30,000 members) Aug. 1891 

New settlement on land granted by the Mexican 
government in N. Mexico : arrangements made 
by Mr. John Young, son of Brigham Young ; a 
large number of Mormons ready to start from 
Utah, reported June, 1892 

MOENING POST, fashionable daily paper, 
favourable to the Whigs and High Church party, 
first appeared, 2 Nov. 1772. Conservative, 1874. 
Price reduced to id., 27 June, 1881. 

MOEOCCO, or MAROCCO, an empire in North 
Africa, formerly Mauritania (which see). In 105 1 
it was subdued for the Fatimite caliphs by the 
Almoravides, who eventually extended their do- 
minion into Spain. These Avere succeeded by the 
Almohades (1121), the Melinites (1270), and in 
1516 by the Scherifs, pretended descendants of 
Mahomet, the now reigning dynasty. The Moors 
have had frequent wars with the "Spaniards and 
Portuguese, due to piracy. Population, i8qi, about 
8,000,000 ; Fez, the capital, 140, to 150,000. 

Invasion of Sebastian of Portugal, who perishes 
with his army at the battle of Alcazar 4 Aug. 1578 

Tangiers (which see) acquired by England, 1662 ; 
given up 1683 

The Moors attack the French in Algeria at the 



MOEPHIA. 



651 



MOSCOW. 



instigation of Abd-el-Kader ; the prince de 
Joinville bombards Tangiers, 6 Aug. , and Mogadcr 

16 Aug. 1844 

Marshal Bugeaud defeats the Moors at the river 
Isly, and acquires the title of duke . 14 Aug. ,, 

Peace between France and Morocco . 10 Sept. ,, 

The Spaniards, who possess several places on the 
coast of Morocco (Ceuta, Penon de Velez, <fcc), 
having suffered much annoyance by Moorish 
pirates, declare war .... 22 Oct. 1859 

Negotiations fruitless : the Spanish government 
increasing their demands as the sultan yielded ; 
the English government interfered in vain. For 
the war, see Spain 1859-60 

A Moorish ambassador (the first since the time of 
Charles II.) in London. (He gave 200L to the 
lord mayor for the London charities) June-Aug. i860 

The British government gave a guarantee for a loan 
of 426,000^. to the sultan to meet his engagements 
with Spain 24 Oct. 1861 

Insurrection of a pretender, Elkadin ben Abder- 
ahman, suppressed Dec. 1873 

Prince Sidi Shereef visits Britain . . Aug. 1877 

The grand sherif of Wazan marries an English wife ; 
liberates his slaves, &c. ; persecuted, becomes a 
French subject Jan. 1884 

The rebel tribes of Benin Guild district defeated 
after a severe engagement . . 25 June, 1888 

The sultan's visit to Tangier delayed . Sept. ,, 

An exploring expedition under Mr. Joseph Thomson 
and Mr. Harold Crichton Browne aided by the 
Koyal and Geographical societies, spring and 

summer, ,, 

Disputes among the foreign consuls ; abuse of their 
powers and consequent Moorish resistance, 

autumn, ,, 

The sultan visits Tetuan after long absence, 5 Sept. ; 
Tangier 22 Sept. 1889 

Dispute with Spain respecting the seizure of a 
Spanish coasting vessel, Miguel Texesa, settled by 
due reparation .... about 29 Sept. ,, 

Affray between Moors and the Spanish cavalry of 
the fortress Melilla, several killed, 20 July ; 
peace restored 25 July, 1890 

The sultan defeats rebel tribes, and beheads 80 
prisoners, reported 20 Aug. ; further defeats of 
the rebels reported . . . .26 Sept. ,, 

The Moorish government agrees to pay 50,000^. as 
indemnity for murder of persons connected with 
a Bi'itish factory at Cape Juby in 1889 . Feb. 1891 

Sir William Kirby Green, the able British minister 
to Morocco, died 25 Feb. ; succeeded by sir 
Charles Euan Smith, from Zanzibar . . . „ 

Hostility of the Kabyles and other tribes to the 
governor ; two British war-vessels arrive off 
Tangier, about 5 Jan. ; 3 foreign vessels arrive, 

about 13 Jan. 1892 

Tranquillity restored by the sultan dismissing the 
governor, and appointing a successor . 22 Jan. „ 

Sir C. Euan Smith received by the sultan at Fez, 

14 May, „ 

A new commercial treaty considered . . May, „ 

Rebellion in Angera June, „ 



1822. Muley Abderahman. 

1859. Sidi Muley Mohammed, Sept., died Sept. 1873. 

1873. Muley Hassan (son), proclaimed 25 Sept. 

MOEPHIA, an alkaloid, discovered in opium 
by Serturner, in 1803. 

MOEPHOLOGY (Greek, morphe, form), the 
science of fomi and structure, as distinguished from 
physiology, studied in the 19th century, by Goethe, 
Gegenbaur, Haeckel, and others. 

MOEEILL TAEIFF, see United States, 1861. 

MOEEIS DANCE, see Morice. 

MOETALITY TABLES have been fre- 
quent lv compiled. The Northampton tables (for 
x 735-fo), by Dr. Price; the Carlisle tables (for 
1780-S7), by Dr. Hailsham; see Annuities awl Bills 
of Mortality. 

MOETAEA ABDUCTION", see Jews, 1858. 



MOETAES, a short gun with a large bore, and 
close chamber, for throwing bombs; said to have 
been used at Naples in 1435, and first made in 
England in 1543. The mortar left by Soult at 
Cadiz in Spain was fixed in St. James's-park in 
Aug. 1816. On 19 Oct. 1857, a colossal mortar, 
constructed by Mr. Robert Mallet, was tried at 
"Woolwich; with a charge of 70 lbs. it threw a 
shell weighing 2550 lbs. lh mile horizontally, and 
about f mile iu height. 

MOETELLA TOWEES, see Martello. 

MOETIMEE'S CEOSS (Herefordshire). 
The earl of Pembroke and the Lancastrians were 
here severely defeated by the young duke of York, 
afterwards Edward IV., 2 Feb. 1461. He assumed 
the throne as Edward IV. in March following. 

MOETMAIN ACTS (mort main, dead hand). 
When the survey of all the land in England was 
made by William I., 1085-6, the whole was found 
to amount to 62,215 knights' fees, of which the 
church then possessed 28,015, to which additions 
were afterwards made, till the 7th of Edward I., 
1279, when the statute of mortmain was passed, 
from a fear that the estates of the church might 
grow too bulky. By this act it was made unlawful 
to give any estates to the church without the king's 
leave ; and this act, by a supplemental provision, 
was made to reach all lay-fraternities, or corpora- 
tions, in the 15th of Richard II., 1391. Mortmain 
being such a state of possession as makes property 
inalienable, it is said to be in a dead hand. Several 
statutes have been passed on this subject; legacies 
hy mortmain were especially restricted by the 9th 
Geo. II., c. 36 (1736). Law consolidated and 
amended 1888 ; 1891. 

MOSAIC WOEK (the Roman opus tessella- 
tum), is of Asiatic origin, and is probably referred 
to in Esther, ch. i. 6, about 519 b.c. It had 
attained to great excellence in Greece, in the time 
of Alexander and his successors, when Sosos of 
Pergamus, the most renowned Mosaic artist of 
antiquity, flourished. He acquired great fame by 
his accurate representation of an " unswept floor 
after a feast." The Romans also excelled in Mosaic 
work, as evidenced by the innumerable specimens 
preserved. Byzantine Mosaics date from the 4th 
century after Christ. The art was revived in Italy 
by Tafi, Gaddi, Cimabue, and Giotto, who designed 
Mosaics, and introduced a higher style in the 13th 
century. In the 16th century Titian and Veronese 
also designed subjects for this art. The practice of 
copying paintings in Mosaics came into vogue in 
the 1 7th century ; and there is now a workshop in 
the Vatican where chemical science is employed in 
the production of colours, and where 20,000 different 
tints are kept. In 1861, Dr. Salviati of Venice had 
established his manufacture of "Enamel-mosaics," 
and in July, 1864, he fixed a large enamel Mosaic 
picture in one of the spandrils under the dome of 
St. Paul's cathedral, London. He has since 
executed commissions for the queen and other 
persons. He died Feb. 1890, aged 74. 

MOSANDEIUM. See Philippium. 

MOSCOW, the ancient capital of Russia, was 
founded, it is said, by Dolgorouki, about 1147. The 
occupation of the south of Russia by the Mongols, 
in 1235, led to Moscow becoming the capital, and 
beginning with Jaroslav II., 1238, its princes 
became the reigning dynasty. It is regarded as a 
holy city by the Russians. Population, 1S86 : 
province, 2,204,930; city, 1885, 753,469. 



MOSKIRCH. 



652 



MOZAMBIQUE. 



Cathedral of the Assumption built, 1326 ; of the 

Transfiguration 1328 

The Kremlin founded 1367 

Moscow plundered by Timour 1382 

By the Tartars 145 1, 1477 

Massacre of Demetrius and his Polish adherents, 

the "Matins of Moscow" . . . 27 May, 1606 
Moscow ravaged by Ladislas of Poland in . .1611 

The university founded 1705 

Entered by Napoleon I. and the French, 14 Sept. ; 
the governor, Rostopchin, is said, doubtfully, to 
have ordered it to be set on fire (11,840 houses 
burnt, besides palaces and churches) . 15 Sept. 18 12 
The French evacuate Moscow . . . Oct. ,, 
Railway to St. Petersburg opened . . . 185 1 

Industrial exhibition 16 July, 1865 

Very great tire, about 50 houses burnt . 18 June, 1876 
Zvartofsky's weaving-works burnt ; about 24 per- 
sons perish 8 March, 1880 

Exhibition of Russian arts and manufactures, 

summer, 1882 

St. Saviour's cathedral (erected to commemorate 

the retreat of the French in 1812), founded by 

Nicholas I., 27 July, 1838; consecrated 7 June, 1883 

The French exhibition of arts and manufactures 

solemnly opened, 11 May; \isited by the czar 

and czarina 30 May, 1891 

Admiral Gervais and the officers of the French 
fleet enthusiastically received . . 7 Aug. ,, 

MOSKIRCH (Baden). Here the Austriaus 
were defeated by Moreau and the French, 5 May, 



MOSKWA or Borodino, Battle of; see 

Borodino. 

MOSQUE, a Mahometan house of pra\ er. Fine 
examples exist in Spain, India, and other countries. 
The dome and porticos are leading features. After 
the c.iptiire of Constantinople in 1453 by Mahomet 
II., the church of St. Sophia- was transformed into 
a mosque, see Sophia, St. A mosque was erected 
in England in 1889 ; see under Mahometanism. 

MOSQUITO COAST (Central America). 
The Indians inhabiting this coast were long under 
the protection of the British, who held Belize and a 
group of islands in the bay of Honduras. The 
jealousy of the United States long existed on this 
subject. In April, 1850, the two governments 
covenanted not "to occupy, or fortify, or colonise, 
or assume, or exercise any dominion over any part 
of Central America." In 1855 the United States 
charged the British government with an infraction 
of the treaty ; on which the latter agreed to cede 
the disputed territory to the republic of Honduras, 
with some reservation.* The matter was finally 
settled in 1859. 

MOSS-TROOPERS, desperate plunderers, 
and lawless soldiers, secreting themselves in the 
mosses on the borders of Scotland. Many severe 
laws were enacted against them, but they were not 
extirpated till the 18th century. 

MOTETTS, short pieces of church music, some 
of which are dated about the end of the 13th cen- 
tury. Good motetts were written between 1430 
and 1480; and very fine ones in the 16th and 17th 
centuries. The "Motett Society," for the publi- 
cation of these works, was founded in 1847, by 
¥111 . Dyce. 

MOTION. On 13 Nov. 1873, professor Sylvester 
described to the London Mathematical Society a 

* St. Juan del Norte (Greytown) was held by the British 
on behalf of the Mosquitoes till the American adventurers, 
under col. Kinney, took possession of it in Sept. 1855. 
He joined Walker ; and on 10 Feb. 1856, their associate, 
Rivas, the president, claimed and annexed the Mosquito 
territory to Nicaragua. 



machine for converting spherical into rectilinear, 
and other motions, and lor producing perfectly 
parallel motion, the discovery of M. Peaucellier, a 
French engineer officer, about 1867. See Kine- 
matics. 

MOTTOES, ROYAL. Bieu et mon Droit, 
first used by Richard I., 1198. Ich clien. " I serve," 
adopted by Edward the Black Prince, at the battle 
of Cressy, 1346. Honi soit qui mat y pense, the 
motto of the Garter, 1349. Je maintiendrai, "I 
will maintain," adopted by William III., to which 
he added, in 1688, " the liberties of England and 
the Protestant religion." Semper eadem, was 
assumed by queen Elizabeth, 1558, and adopted by 
queen Anne, 1702. See them severally. 

MOUNTAIN MEADOWS, see Massacres. 

MOUNTAIN PARTY, see Clubs, French. 

MOUNT EVEREST, 29,002 feet high, the 
highest point in the Himalayas and as yet known 
in the world, was named after the late sir George 
Everest, superintendent of the trigonometrical sur- 
vey of India in Dec. 1843, by his successor, col. 
Andrew Waugh. 

MOUNTS, see Bernard, Calvary, Etna, Hecla, 
Olivet, and Vesuvius. 

MOURNING FOR THE DEAD. The Israel- 
ites neither washed nor anointed themselves during 
the time of mourning, which for a friend lasted 
seven days ; upon extraordinary occasions a month 
or more. The Greeks and Romans fasted. "White 
was used in mourning for the imperial family at 
Constantinople, 323. The ordinary colour for 
mourning in Europe is black ; in China, white ; 
in Turkey, violet; in Ethiopia, brown; it was 
white in Spain until 1498. Anne of Brittany, the 
queen of two successive kings of France, mourned 
in black, instead of the then practice of wearing 
white, on the death of her first husband, Charles 
VIII., 7 April, 1498. Henault. 

MOUSQUETAIRES or Musketeers, 
horse-soldiers under the old French regime, raised 
by Louis XIII., 1622. This corps was considered 
a military school for the French nobility. It was 
disbanded in 1646, but was restored in 1657. A 
second company was created in 1660, and formed 
cai-dinal Mazarin's guard. Henault. The Mousque- 
taires were abolished in 1775. 

MOZAMBIQUE, chief of the Portuguese 
territories, E. Africa, was visited by Vasco da 
Gama, 1498 ; conquered by the Portuguese under 
Tristan da Cunha and Albuquerque, 1506 ; a 
settlement was established, 1508. Capital, Mozam- 
bique, on an islet. 

Great rising of the natives against the Portuguese, who 
are said to have been severely defeated 23 Oct. ; the 
rebellion quelled Dec. 1886 ; temporary revival 2-4 
March, 1887. 
Territorial disputes with the sultan of Zanzibar led to 
war. The Portuguese stormed Tungi 16 Feb." ; the war 
ended early March, 1887. Fresh insurrection ; Bonga 
defeated by the governor after a severe conflict, 
announced 12 Jan. 1889. 
A company formed at Lisbon for the development of 
the resources of Mozambique, announced 12 Dec. 1889. 
For the disputes with England respecting East Africa, 
see under Zambesi. 
Much hostility shown towards the English at 

Quilimane. . May, June, 1890 

Col. Joaquim Jose Machado appointed governor- 
general of Mozambique . . about 17 June, ,, 
Lieut. Azevedo Continho, in the Shire seizes the 
James Stevenson, belonging to the British African 
lakes company, at Chimoro, and sends the crew 
to Quilimane' for trial, reported 31 July; he is 
censured by the government . . 2 Aug. „ 



MUCKEE. 



653 



MUECIA. 



Mr. H. H. Johnston, C.B., British consul at Mo- 
zambique, nominated consul-general for the 
Portuguese East Africa territories, announced, 

Jan. 1891 

A Portuguese royal charter granted to a company 
in Mozambique, 11 Feb. ; modified . 30 July, ,, 

MUCKEE, {hypocrites), a German sect ; see 

Ebelians and Brazil, 1874. 

MUGGLETONIANS, so called from Ludo- 
wic Muggletou, a tailor, known about 1641, promi- 
nent about 1650; convicted of blasphemy, Jan. 
1676 ; died, 1697. He and John Reeve affirmed 
that God the Fathei - , leaving the government of 
heaven to Elias, came down and suffered death in a 
human form. They asserted that they were the two 
last witnesses of God which should appear before 
the end of the world, Rev. xi. 3. This sect existed, 
1850. 

MUHLBEEG, on the Elbe, Prussia. Here 
the German protestants were defeated by the em- 
peror Charles V., 24 April, 1547, and John Frede- 
rick, elector of Saxony, was taken prisoner. 

MtJHLDOEF (Bavaria). Near this place 
Frederick, duke of Austria, was defeated and taken 
prisoner by Louis of Bavaria, 28 Sept. 1322. 

MTJLBEEEY-TEEES. The alleged first 
planted in England are in the gardens of Sion- 
house. Shakspeare is said to have planted a 
mulberry-tree with his own hands at Stratford- 
upon-Avon; and Garrick, Macklin, and others were 
entertained under it in 1742. Shakspeare' s house 
was afterwards sold to a clergyman of the name of 
Gastrel, who cut down the mulberry-tree for fuel, 
1765. A silversmith purchased the whole, and 
manufactured it into memorials. 

MULE, a spinning machine invented in 1779, 
by Samuel Crompton, born at Bolton, Lancashire, 
in 1753; named, from Crompton's residence, Hall- 
in-the-ivood-ivheel ; and muslin-wheel, from its 
giving birth to the British muslin and cambric 
manufacture ; and mule, from its combining the 
advantages of Hargreave's spinning jenny, and 
Ark wright's adaptation. It is stated that Crompton 
at the time knew nothing of the latter. He did not 
patent his invention, but gave it up in 1 780. It 
produced yarn treble the fineness and very much 
softer than any ever before produced in England. 
Parliament voted him 5000^. in 1812, now considered 
a most inadequate compensation. Mr. Koberts in- 
vented the self-acting mule in 1825. 

MULHAUSEN (in Alsace-Lorraine), an im- 
perial city, under Rodolph of Hapsburg ; joined the 
Swiss confederation in 1515 ; annexed to France in 
1798; conquered and annexed to Germany, 1870-1. 
The calico manufacture was introduced in 1746. 
Population, 1890, 76,968. 

MUMMIES (from the Coptic mum, bitumen, 
gum, resin) ; see Embalming . The mummies in the 
British Museum, with other Egyptian antiquities, 
were placed there about 1803 and since. Mr. Alex. 
Gordon, in 1737, published an essay on three 
Egyptian mummies, one of which was brought to 
England in 1722 by capt. Wm. Lethieullier ; two 
others came in 1734, one of which was retained 
by Dr. Mead, the other was given to the College 
of Physicians. In 1834, Mr. T. J. Pettigrew pub- 
lished a "History of Egyptian Mummies." The 
discovery of about 39 mummies of kings, priests, 
and other eminent persons in sarcophagi at Renneh, 
near Thebes, Upper Egypt, was announced in Aug. 
1881, supposed to be of the 21st dynasty, about 
1 100 B.C. 



The mummies of Rameses II. (Sesostris) and III. were 
uncovered by MM. Gaston Maspero and B. Brugsch in 
the presence of the khedive of Egypt and others 1 
June, 1886. 

A mummy, dated about 800 B.C., unrolled by Mr. 
E. A. Wallis Budge at University college, Lon- 
don 18 Dec. 1889 

Discovery of a large burial place of mummified 
cats, sacred animals, in central Egypt, sold as 
manure ; 28 tons brought to Liverpool . Feb. 1890 

Discovery by M. Grebaut, director-general of the 
excavations, of a vast tomb of the high priests of 
Amen, on the Libian mountains west of Thebes, 
near De'ir-el-Bahari, containing many sarcophagi, 
some dating from the nth dynasty, statuettes, 
papyri, votive offerings, &c. Three galleries 
opened, one empty ; the others contained 152 
mummies intact, 149 of the 21st dynasty, about 
1,100 B.C., and 2 of the 19th, the whole conveyed 
in barges to Cairo Feb. 1891 

The high priests of Amen, at Thebes, were a line of 
powerful prelates, beginning under the kings of 
the 12th dynasty, between 3,000 and 2,000 B.C. 

MUNCHENGEATZ (Bohemia) was taken by 
the Prussians under prince Frederick Charles, after 
a severe action, 28 June, 1866. The Austrians lost 
about 300 killed and 1000 prisoners, and the prince 
gained about 12 miles of country. 

MUNDA (now Monda, S. Spain). Here Cneius 
Scipio defeated the Carthaginians, B.C. 216; and 
here Julius Caesar defeated the sons of Pompey, 17 
March, 45, after a severe conflict. 

MUNDANE EEAS. That of Alexandria 
fixed the creation at 5502 B.C. This computation 
continued till a.d. 284, Alex, era, 5786; but in 
a.d. 285 ten years were subtracted, and 5787 be- 
came 5777. This coincided with the Muudane era 
of Antioch (which dated the creation 5492 B.C.). 
Nicolas. 

MUNICH, the capital of Bavaria, said to have 
been founded by duke Henry of Saxony, 962, on 
a site previously occupied by monks {Miincheri). It 
was taken by Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden in 
1632; by the Austrians, in 1 704, 1 741, and 1743 ; 
and by the French under Moreau, 2 July, 1800. It 
abounds in schools, institutions, and manufactories. 
The university was founded by king Louis in 1826. 
A Bavarian art-exhibition was opened here by 
prince Adalbert, 20 July, 1869. A congress of" Old 
Catholics" {which see) met here, 23 Sept. 1871. 
International exhibition opened, 19 July, 1879. 
International art exhibition opened 1 July, 1883 ; 
others, 1 June, 1888, and 1892. Centenary of King 
Louis I., 30-31 July, 1888. Visit of the emperor 
William II., 7 Sept. 1891. Population, Dec. 1871, 
169,693; 1880,230,023; 1885,261,981; 1890,348,317. 

MUNICIPAL COEPOEATIONS, &c; see 

Corporations. 

MUNSTEE (W. Prussia). The bishopric, said 
to have been founded by Charlemagne, 780, was 
secularised in 1802 ; seized by the French, 1806 ; 
part of the duchy of Berg, 1809; annexed to France, 
1810; ceded to Prussia, 1815. The Anabaptists, 
under John of Leyden, the king of Minister, held 
the city in 1534-5. Here were signed the prelimi- 
naries of the treaty of Westphalia {which see), 
or Munster, Jan. 1647; definitively signed 24 Oct. 
1648. Population, 1890, 49,344. — Munster, the 
southern province of Ireland, an ancient kingdom. 
See Ireland, 1014. In 1568 a commission was 
issued for its government by a president and coun- 
cil, and new colonies were founded in 1588. 

MUEADAL, see Toloso. 

MUECIA, a province, formerly a kingdom, 
N. E. Spain, was subdued by the Moors, 713; by 



MUEDEE. 



654 



MUSIC. 



Ferdinand of Castile, 1240; and divided between 

Castile and Arragon, 1305. Population, 1887 : 

province, 491,436 ; city, 98,538. 

Murcia, the capital, was sacked by the French under 
Sebastiani, 23 April, 1810. It was inundated by the 
Segura, after a violent storm, 15-17 Oct., 1879, when 
about 1000 persons perished. 

MUEDEE, the highest offence against the law 
of God. {Genesis ix. 6, 2348 B.C.) A court of 
Ephetse was established by Demopboon of Athens 
for the trial of murder, 11 79 B.C. The Persians did 
not punish the first offence. In England, dming 
a period of the heptarchy, murder was punished 
by fines only. So late as Henry VIII. 's time the 
crime was compounded for in Wales. Murderers 
were allowed benefit of clergy in 1503. Aggravated 
murder, or petit treason (a distinction now abo- 
lished), happened in three ways: by a servant 
killing his master, a wife her husband, and an 
ecclesiastical person his superior, stat. 25 Edw. III. 
1350. The enactments relating to this crime are 
very numerous, and its wilful commission has been 
rarely pardoned by our sovereigns. The act whereby 
the murderer should be executed on the day next 
but one after his conviction, was repealed, 1836; 
see Assassinations, Executions, Trials; also Lon- 
don, 1872, Bravo, Burton, Euston, Ratcliffe, Road, 
Richmond, Harley Street, Whitechapel, Poisoning ; 
Railways, 1864 and 1881 ; Slough, Melbourne. 

Murders in England and Wales (from Coroners' In- 
quests) : — 



*8 5 7 



. . 270 
. . 246 



1873 



226 


1874 .. 223 


272 


1875 •• 200 


255 


1876 .. 207 


261 


1877 .. 199 


265 


1878 .. 176 


222 


1879 .. 153 


226 


1880 . . 157 


257 


l88l .. 193' 


223 


(101 females) 



176 

177 

192 



MUEET (S. France). Here the Albigenses, 
under the count of Thoulouse, were defeated by 
Simon de Montfort, and their ally Peter of Arragon 
killed, 12 Sept. 12 13. 

MUEFEEESBOEOUGH (Tennessee, N. 
America) was the site of fierce conflicts between 
the federals under Rosencrans and the confederates 
under Bragg, from 31 Dec. 1862 to 3 Jan. 1863, when 
Bragg retired with great loss. This struggle is 
called also the battle of Stone River. 

MURIATIC ACID, see Alkalies. 

MUEBAY'S HANDBOOKS FOE TBA- 

VELLERS. The parent of the series, a" Handbook 
for Travellers on the Continent," which appeared in 
1836, was the work of Mr. John Murray the 
publisher. Handbooks for France, Switzerland, 
South Germany, &c, soon followed ; one for Algeria 
appeared in Oct. 1873 > one f° r Japan in 1884. 
Handbooks for all 1he counties in England except 
four, had appeared 1892. 
Murray's Magazine first published by John Murray, of 

50, Albemarle Street, London, W., Jan. 1887. 
Mr. John Murray, aged nearly 84, died 2 April, 1892. 

MUSCAT, or MASCAT, an Arab state on the 
gulf of Oman, was conquered by the Portuguese 
under Albuquerque in 1507, but recovered by the 
Arabs in 1648. 
Ahmad bin Sa'id repelled a Persian invasion and 

founded present dynasty 1741 

Sa'id, his son, succeeded 1775 

Sa'id bin Sultan, his son 1803 

Treaty with the British 1839 

At his death his territories divided ; after a con- 
flict, his son Sa'id Thuwainy obtained Oman ; and 
Majid, Zanzibar (which see) 1856 



Syud Redin compelled to fly, and a chief, Azan bin 
Gheo, seized the government . . . Oct. 1868 

The imaum endeavoured to regain his authority, 

Aug. 1870 

The city was taken by Sa'id Toorkee, and the chief 
killed about 30 Jan. 1871 

Sa'id Abdool Aseer said to be deposed by his bro- 
ther, Sa'id Toorkee, end of Dec. 1875 

Rebellion against the sultan . . . June, 1882 

The city of Muscat besieged by the sultan's brother, 
whose camp is shelled by the British ship Philo- 
mel ; siege raised, announced . . 29-31 Oct. 1883 

Rebels defeated and dispersed, announced 5 Nov. ,, 

Five Arab horses presented by the sultan received 
by the queen at Windsor . . .18 Nov. 1886 

Death of the sultan .... 6 June, 1S88 

MUSEUM, oi-iginally a quarter of the palace 
of Alexandria, like the Prytaneum of Athens, where 
eminent learned men were maintained by the pub- 
lic. The foundation is attributed to Ptolemy 
Philadelphus, who here placed his library about 280 
B.C. Besides the British Museum, Soane's Museum, 
and the Museum of Geology (which see), there are 
very many others in London. The opening of 
public museums and galleries on Sunday was long 
advocated in parliament: negatived by 271 to 68, 
19 May, 1874. Urban authorities authorised to 
provide museums and gymnasiums, by act passed 
3 July, 1891. 

MUSIC* "Jubal, the father of all such as 
handle the harp and the organ" (3875 B.C. Gen. 
iii. 21). The flute, and harmony, or concord in 
music, are said to have been invented by Hyagnis, 
1506 B.C. Arund. Marbles. Vocal choruses of 
men are first mentioned 556 B.C. Dufresnoy. See 
Organ, and other musical instruments. Prior to 
1600, the chief music in England was masses, 
ballads, and madrigals, but dramatic music was 
much cultivated from that time. About the end of 
James I. 's reign, a music professorship was founded 
in the university of Oxford by Dr. Wm. Hychin ; 
and the year 1710 was distinguished by the arrival 
in England of George Frederick Handel. Mozart 
came to England in 1763 ; Joseph Haydn in 1791 ; 
and Carl Maria von Weber in 1825. 
Dictionaries of Music, Rousseau's, published 1767 ; 
in " Encyclopedie Methodique," 1791 ; Fetis, 
"Biographie Universelle des Musiciens," 1835-44, 
and 1860-65. The publication of the excellent 
" Dictionary of Music and Musicians," edited by 
Mr. (aft. Sir) George Orove, begun Jan. 1878, 

was completed in 1890 

Monthly Musical Record published, 1871 et seq. 
Musical Notes, &c. See Gamut The first six are said 
to have been invented by Guy Aretino, a Benedictine 
monk of Arezzo, about 1025. Blair. The notes at 
present used were perfected in 1338. Counterpoint 
was brought to perfection by Palestrina about 1555. 
Gafforio of Lodi read lectures on musical composition 
in the 15th century, and they effected great improve- 
ment in the science. The Italian style of composition 
was introduced into these countries about 1616. 
The Musical Pitch was settled in France in 1859. The 
middle A to be 870 simple or 435 double vibrations in a 
second ; but through error of measurement the fork 
made gave (A) 439 double vibrations (C, 522). At a 
meeting on the subject, held at the Society of Arts, on 
23 Nov. i860, the concert pitch of C was recommended 
to be 528 vibrations in a second ; but the fork made by 
Mr. J. H. Griesbaeh gives 539! vibrations. Mr. Hullah 
adopted 512 vibrations. 
A lower pitch was adopted at concerts in London in Jan. 
1869. 528 vibrations for C adopted for performances 

* Pythagoras (about 555 B.C.) maintained that the 
motions of the twelve spheres must produce delightful 
sounds, inaudible to mortal ears, which he called "the 
music of the spheres. " St. Cecilia, said to have enticed 
an angel from the celestial regions by her melody, is 
termed the patroness of music. She died in the second 
century. 



MUSIC. 



655 



MUSIC. 



at the international exhibition of 1872, at a meeting, 
20 Jan. 1872. 

[Handel's tuning-fork, 1740, was 495 ; the Philharmonic 
Society's, 1813-43, was 515.] 

Mr. A. J. Ellis's elaborate " History of Mus'cal Pitch " 
is published in " Journal of the Society of Arts," 5 
March, 1880, and separately. 

Sir G. Macfarren and a meeting agree to French normal 
diapason, 20 June ; agreed to by international con- 
ference at Vienna, about 17 Nov. 1885. 

Musical Festivals in England. Dr. Bysse, chancellor 
of Hereford, about 1724, proposed to the members of 
the choirs, a collection at the cathedral door after 
morning service, when forty guineas were collected 
and appropriated to charitable riurposes. It was then 
agreed to hold festivals at Hereford, Gloucester, and 
Worcester, in rotation annually. Until the year 1753, 
the festival lasted only two days ; it was then ex- 
tended at Hereford to three evenings ; and at Glouces- 
ter, in 1757, to three mornings, for the purpose of in- 
troducing Handel's "Messiah," which was warmly 
received, and has been performed annually ever since. 
Musical festivals on a great scale are now annually held 
at various cathedrals in England ; see Handel and 
Crystal Palace. 

"Sons of the Clergy" annual musical performances at St. 
Paul's began 1709. 

Musical Festivals. Several were held on the conti- 
nent in the 18th century ; for Haydn at Vienna, 1808, 
1811; others at Erfurt 1811, Cologne 1821, and fre- 
quently since. 

Study of music greatly increased by the efforts and 
teaching of John Hullah since 1840 et seq. 

The Tonic sol-fa system, in which the letters d, r, m, /, s, 
I, t, (fordo, re, mi, fa, so, la, ££, or si) are used instead of 
notes, was invented by Miss Glover, of Norwich, and 
improved by rev. John Curwen, about 1841 ; he died 
t88o. 

The Tonic Sol-fa Association founded 1853 ; the college 
established 1862 ; jubilee celebrated at St. Paul's, 7 
July ; Crystal Palace, 18 July, 1891. 

Musical Institutions. The Ancient Academy of Music 
was instituted in 1710. It originated with numerous 
eminent performers and gentlemen wishing to promote 
the study of vocal harmony. 

Madrigal Society was established in 1741, and other musi- 
cal societies followed. 

" Ancient concerts " began, 1776 ; ceased, 1848. 

Royal Society of Music arose from the principal nobility 
and gentry uniting to promote the performance of 
operas composed by Handel, 1785. 

Philharmonic Society's concerts began in 1813. 

Royal Academy of Music, established 1822 {which see). 

Melodists' Club, 1825. 

New Philharmonic Society established 1852. 

Sacred Harmonic Society, Exeter hall, established 1831. 
Sooth performance, 13 Dec. 1867 ; performances at St. 
James's Hall, 1880-1. It ceased to exist in 1882 ; 
final concert, 28 April (Handel's "Solomon"). The 
new society gave its first concert, 23 Feb. 1883. 

British Orchestral Society, 1872. 

Catch Club formed, 1761 ; centenary kept, July, 1861. 

Glee Club formed, 1787. 

Musical Union, founded by John Ella, 1844 ; he died 2 
Oct. 1888. 

Harmonic Union (for performances of ancient and 
modern music), 1852-4. 

Musical Society of London, established 1858. 

" Popular Monday Concerts " at St. James's Hall, 
founded by Thos. Chappell, commenced with a " Men- 
delssohn night," 14 Feb. 1859 ; 1000th concert, 4 April, 
1887. 

London Academy of Music founded in 1S60. 

Cfficilian Society, London, founded by Z. W. Vincent and 
others in 1785 ; ceased in 1861. 

" Musical Education Committee " of the Society of Arts, 
London, with the prince of Wales as chairman, held its 
first meeting 22 May, 1865. Its first report, dated 27 
June, 1866, recommended the reconstitution of the 
Royal Academy. 

National Training School for Music; building near the 
Albert-hall, founded by the duke of Edinburgh, 
18 Dec. 1873 ; opened by him 17 May, 1876 ; first public 
concert, 23 June, 1879. Premises given up to the 
prince of Wales as Chairman of the proposed National 
College of Music, 6 April, 1882. 

Guildhall School of Music founded 1880 (see under 
Guildhall). 



Royal College of Music, Kensington ; establishment pro- 
posed at a meeting at Marlborough-house, the prince- 
of Wales in the chair, Aug. 1878, and 23 and 28 Feb. 
1882. Charter granted ; prince of Wales, president ;. 
sir George Grove, director ; 21 April, 1883 ; opened by 
the prince of Wales, 7 May ; reported successful ;. 
first annual meeting 28 May, 1884. 

Mr. Samson Fox, civil engineer of Leeds, presented. 
30,000?. (increased to 45,000?., 18 May, 1889), for the- 
erection of buildings ; personally accepted by the 
prince of Wales, Jan. 1888, who laid the foundation of" 
new buildings, 8 July, 1890. 

" Musical Association for the Investigation and Discus- 
sion of subjects connected with the Art and Science? 
of Music," founded 16 April, 1874, by Messrs. Spottis- 
woode, Wheatstone, Tyndall, G. A. Macfarren, J. 
Hullah, Sedley Taylor, Stone, Pole, Chappell, Barnby^ 
and others. Publishes its " Proceedings." 

Henry Leslie's musical choir formed about 1855 ; dis- 
solved 1880; re-organised, Mr. Randegger conductor,, 
July, 1882. 

Church Choral Society, London, incorporated as Trinity 
College, 1875. 

National Opera-house, N. Thames embankment, first brick 
laid by Mile. Tietjens, 7 Sept. ; first stone by the duke- 
of Edinburgh, 16 Dec. 1875. 

The Wagner Society in London gave concerts to intro- 
duce R. Wagner's so-called "Music of the Future" 
(the due combination of music and poetry), Feb. 1873. 

Wagner's Lohengrin, performed at Covent-garden, 8 May,, 
at Drury-lane, 13 June, 1875. Tannha/user performed air 
Covent-garden, 29 April, 1876. 

Three series of performances of Wagner's " Ring des 
Nibelungen," in four parts (Rhcingolcl, WaVcure, Sieg- 
fried, and Gotterdammerung), at Bayreuth, in 
presence of the emperors of Germany and Brazil, th& 
king of Bavaria, and many other sovereigns and. 
princes, 13 Aug., et seq., 1876 ; at Berlin, May, 1881. la 
London, 5 May, et seq. 1882. 

Wagner Festival, Royal Albert Hall, London (Wagner- 
present), 7 — 19 May, 1877. 

Richard Wagner died at Venice, 13 Feb. 1883. 

National Society of Professional Musicians founded irt 
1882. 

A fine collection of musical instruments at the Inven- 
tions Exhibition, South Kensington, opened 4 May 
1885. 

Josef Hofnian, aged about 10, plays brilliantly at St. 
James's Hall long classical pieces from memory,, 
summer and autumn ; goes to America, where his 
performances are stopped by a philanthropist, 1887. 

Otto Hegner, aged 11, plays in London, March, 1888. 

Copyright of musical compositions, restricting their 
unauthorized performance, passed 5 July, 1888. 

Musical Chamties. Royal Society of Musicians, estab- 
lished 1738 ; incorporated 1790. 

Royal Society of Female Musicians, established 1839 ? 
these two combined, 1866. 

Choir Benevolent Fund, 1851. 

Sacred Harmonic Benevolent Fund, 1855. 

EMINENT MUSICAL COMPOSERS. 

Born Die& 

Tallis . 1529 1585. 

Palestrina 1524 159+ 

T. Morley. . . .... 1550 1604. 

Orlando Gibbons 1583 1624. 

H. Lawes . . 1600 1662 

Dully 1633 1672: 

Purcell 1658 1695 

J. Seb. Bach* 1685 1750- 

G. F. Handel 1684 1759 

T. A. Arne i 7IO 1778 

C. Gluck 1714 1787 

W. A. Mozart 1756 1791 

Joseph Haydn 1732 1809. 

C. Dibdin 1748 1814. 

S. Webbe 1740 1817 

J. W. Callcott 1766 1821 

C. Weber 1786 182& 

F. Schubert 1797 1828 

L. Beethoven 1770 1827 

M. Cherubini 1760 1842 

F. Mendelssohn-Bartholdy .... 1809 1S4S 

F. Chopin 1810 1849; 

H. Bishop 1787 1855 

* He had eleven sons musicians ; four distinguished. 



MUSICAL GLASSES. 



656 



MYCENAE. 



Bom Died 

Jt. Schumann 1810 1856 

L. Spohr 1783 l8 59 

J. E. Halevy 1799 1862 

J. Meyerbeer ■ 1794 1864 

J. Rossini ... ... 1792 1868 

L. H. Berlioz 1803 1869 

M. W. Balfe 1808 1870 

D. T. Auber 1784 1871 

W. Sterndale Bennett . ... 1816 1875 

J. Raff 1822 1882 

R. Wagner ....... 1813 1883 

M. Costa 1810 1884 

Julius Benedict 1804 1885 

F. Liszt 1811 1886 

G. A. Maefarren 1813 1887 

Alfred Cellier 1844 1891 

G. Verdi 1814 

R. Franz 1815 

C. F. Gounod 1818 

A. Rubinstein 1830 

J. Brahms 1833 

J. Stainer 1840 

P. A. Dvorak 1841 

E. H. Greig 1841 

A. Sullivan . ._ 1844 

A. C. Mackenzie 1847 

O. V. Stanford 1852 

F. H. Cowen 1852 

MUSICAL GLASSES, see under Harmonic, 
and Copophone. 

MUSIC HALLS. In 1878, 347 of these were 
licensed in London : first class, 3 ; second class, 6 ; 
(third class, 13 ; fourth class, 53 ; &c. 

MUSKETS, see Firearms. 

MUSKETEY SCHOOLS at Hythe and 
Fleetwood were established in 1854 under major- 
general C. C. Hay. He resigned in 1867. The 
•school at Fleetwood was closed the same year. 

MUSLIN, a fine cotton cloth, so called, it is 
said, from having a downy nap on its surface, re- 
sembling moss (French, mousse) ; according to 
others, because it was first brought from Moussol, 
In India. M uslins were first worn in England in 
1670. Anderson. By means of the Mule {which 
see), British much superseded India muslins. 

MUTA (Syria). Here Mahomet and his fol- 
lowers defeated the Christians in his first conflict 
with them, 629. 

MUTE. A prisoner is said to stand mute, when 
being arraigned for treason or felony, he either 
makes no answer, or answers foreign to the pur- 
pose. Until 1 741, persons refusing to plead were 
subjected to torture by pressure. 
Walter Calverly, esq. , of Calverly in Yorkshire, having 

murdered two of his children, and stabbed his wife in 

a fit of jealousy, being arraigned for his crime at York 

assizes, stood mute, and was thereupon pressed to 

death in the castle, a large iron weight being placed upon 

his breast, 5 Aug. 1605. Stow. 
Major Strangeway suffered death in a similar manner 

at Newgate for the murder of his brother-in-law, Mr. 

Fussell, 1657. 
Judgment was awarded against mutes, as if they were 

convicted or had confessed, by 12 Geo. III. 1772. 
A man refusing to plead was condemned and executed at 

the Old Bailey on a charge of murder, 1778, and another 

on a charge of burglary at Wells, 1792. 
An act passed by which the court is directed to enter a 

plea of " not guilty " when the prisoner will not plead, 

1827. 

MUTINA (now Modena), N. Italy. Here 
Mark Antony, after defeating the consul Pansa, was 
himself beaten with great loss by Hirtius the other 
consul, and fled to Gaul, 27 April, 43 B.C. 

MUTINIES, BRITISH. The mutiny through- 
out the fleet at Portsmouth for an advance of wages, 



April, 1797. It subsided on a promise from the 
A dmiralty, which not being quickly fulfilled, occa- 
sioned a second mutiny on board the London man- 
of-war ; admiral Colpoys, and his captain, were put 
into confinement for ordering the marines to fire, 
whereby some lives were lost. The mutiny sub- 
sided 10 May, 1797, when an act was passed to raise 
the wages, and the king pardoned the mutineers. 

Mutiny of the Bounty, 28 April, 1789 ; see Bounty. 

Mutiny at the Nore, which blocked up the trade of the 
Thames, broke out on 27 May, 1797, and subsided 13 
June, 1797, when the principal mutineers were put in 
irons, and several executed (including the ringleader, 
who had assumed the name of rear-admiral Richard 
Parker), 30 June, at Sheerness. 

Mutiny of the Danae frigate ; the crew carried the ship 
into Brest harbour, 27 March, 1800. 

Mutiny on board admiral Mitchell's fleet at Bantry Bay, 
Dec. 1801, and January following (see Bantry Bay). 

Mutiny at Malta, began 4 April, 1807, and ended on the 
12th, when the mutineers (chiefly Greeks and Corsi- 
cans) blew themselves up by setting fire to a large 
magazine, consisting of between 400 and 500 barrels of 
gunpowder. 

Mutiny on the Flowery Land; bound from London to 
Singapore ; John Lyons and six foreign sailors mur- 
dered the captain and others, 10 Sept. 1863 ; a sailor 
named Tiffin separated from the rest, gave information, 
and seven were tried and five executed, 14-22 Feb. 
1864. 

Mutiny on the Jefferson Borden, U. S. schooner ; two 
mates murdered ; put down by the captain, 20 April ; 
vessel arrived at Gravesend. May ; 2 men condemned 
at Boston, U. S., 1 Oct., 1875. 

Mutiny on the Lennie, British ship, bound for America, 
captain and two mates murdered by foreign seamen, 
31 Oct. 1875. Van Hoydek, steward, managed to get 
the vessel to the Isle of Rhe ; n men seized and con- 
veyed to London, tried, 4 convicted, 4 May ; executed, 
23 May, 1876. 

Mutiny on the Caswell, Glasgow barque, eapt. G. Best : 
4 Jan., on way home from Valparaiso ; captain and 
3 men killed ; mutineers overcome by others, some 
killed; vessel brought to Queens'town, 13 May; 
Christos Baumbos sentenced to death. 31 July ; exe- 
cuted at Cork, 25 Aug. 1876. Giuseppe Pistoria exe- 
cuted at Cork, 25 Aug. 1879. 

Mutiny in 19th Hussars, Curragh camp, Dublin ; through 
discontent with officers on account of extra duty, 8 
Sept. ; 75 arrested ; court martial ; sentenced to penal 
servitude, 2 for 5 years, 2 for 6 years, 1 for 7 years, 1 
for 8 years, 14 Nov. 1877. 

Mutiny on board the Frank N. Thayer, U.S. ship, 700 
miles from St. Helena ; two coolies from Manila 
wound the captain, cause panic, kill six men, imprison 
others, set fire to the ship ; overpowered ; leap over- 
board 2-3 Jan. ; the captain and crew in boats reach 
St. Helena 10 Jan. 1886. 

For Indian Mutinies, see Madras, t8o6, and India, 1857. 

MUTINY ACT (1 & 2 Will, and Mary, c. 5), 
for the discipline, regulation, and payment of the 
army, &c, was passed 12 April, 1689, and has since 
been re-enacted annually. 

A parliamentary commission reported in favour of con- 
solidating and simplifying military law, by combining 
the mutiny act and articles of war in a new act to be 
passed annually, &c, July, 1878, called the Army 
(Annual) Act. See under Army, 1879 and 1881. 

MYCALE (Ionia, Asia Minor), BATTLE OF, 
fought between the Greeks (under Leotychides, the 
king of Sparta, and Xantippus the Athenian) and 
the Persians, 22 Sept. 479 B.C. ; the day on which 
Mardonius was defeated and slain at Plata?a by 
Pausanias. The Persians (about 100,000 men), 
who had just returned from the unsuccessful expe- 
dition of Xerxes in Greece, were completely de- 
feated, thousands of them slaughtered, and their 
camp burnt. The Greeks sailed back to Samos 
with an immense booty. 

MYCENZE, a division of the kingdom of 
Argivcs, in the Peloponnesus. It stood about fifty 



MYL^. 



657 



MYTHOLOGY. 



stadia from Argos, and flourished till the invasion 
of the Heraclidse. Early history mythical. 

Perseus removes from Argos, and founds Mycenae, 

B.C. 1431, 1313, or 1282 

Reign of Eurystheus . . . 1289,1274,01-1258 

[Towards the close of his reign is placed the story of 
the labours surmounted by Hercules.] 

iEgisthus assassinates Atreus ; Agamemnon suc- 
ceeds to the throne ; becomes king of Sicyon, 
Corinth, and perhaps of Argos 1201 

He is chosen generalissimo of the Grecian forces 
going to the Trojan war . . . about 1 193 

iEgisthus, in the absence of Agamemnon, lives in 
adultery with the queen Clytemnestra. On the 
return of the king they assassinate him ; and 
iEgisthus mounts the throne . . . 1183 

Orestes, son of Agamemnon, kills his mother and 
her paramour 11 76 

Orestes dies of the bite of a serpent. . . . 1106 

The Achaians are expelled ,, 

Invasion of the HeraclidEe, and the conquerors 
divide the dominions 1103 

Mycenae destroyed by the Argives . . . . 1468 

Discoveries on the supposed site of Mycenae made 
by Dr. Sehliemann : reported March, 1874-Sept. 1876 

Visited by the emperor of Brazil . . 15 Oct. ,, 

Discovery of tombs of Agamemnon, and others, 
and many treasures ; announced by Dr. Sehlie- 
mann 28 Nov. ,, 

Dr. Sehliemann reports his discoveries to the So- 
ciety of Antiquaries, London, 22 March ; pub- 
lishes his " Mycenae " .... Dec. 1877 

Renewed excavations with discoveries by Dr. 
Sehliemann Sept. 1888 

Dr. Sehliemann died at Naples . . .26 Dec. 1890 

MYLJ1, a bay of Sicily, where the Komans, 
under their consul Duilius, gained their first naval 
victory over the Carthaginians, and took fifty of 
their ships, 260 B.C. Here also Agrippa defeated 
the fleet of Sextus Pompeius, 36 B.C. 

MYOGRAPHION, an apparatus for deter- 
mining the velocity of the nervous current, invented 
by H. Helmholtz in 1850, and since improved by 
Du Bois Reyinond and others. 

MYSORE (S. India), was made a flourishing 
kingdom by Hyder Ali, who dethroned the reign- 
ing sovereign in 1761, and by his son, Tippoo 
Sahib, who considerably harassed the English. 
Tippoo was chastised by them in 1792, and on 
4 May, 1799, his capital, Seringapatam, was taken 
by assault, and himself slain. The English esta- 
blished a prince of the old royal family as maharajah 
of part of Mysore in 1799; being without an heir 
he was permitted to adopt a child of four years of 
age, in Aug. 1867 ; who succeeded him at his 
death, 27 Mar. 1868, and assumed the government 
in May, 1881. Tippoo's last surviving son, Gholam 
Mahomet, a British pensioner, died at Calcutta, 1 1 
Aug. 1872. Anew maharajah assumed the govern- 
ment about 13 Oct. 1889. Population, in 1881, 
4,186,188 ; in 1891, 4,859,760. 

MYSTERIES, derived from the Greek muste- 
rion, a mystery or revealed secret. The Sacred 



mysteries is a term applied to the doctrines of 
Christianity, called the " mystery of godliness," 
1 Tim. iii. 16, as opposed to the " mystery of 
iniquity," 2 Thess. ii. 7. The Holy Eucharist is 
also termed the sacred mysteries. The Profane mys- 
teries were the secret ceremonies performed by a se- 
lect few in honour of some deity. Prom the Egyptian 
mysteries of Isis and Osiris sprang those of Bacchus 
and Ceres among the Greeks. The Eleusinian mys- 
teries were introduced at Athens by Eumolpus, 1356 
b.c. — Mystery Plays; see Drama. 

MYSTICS, a name given to those theologians 
who, in addition to the obvious meaning of the 
Holy Scriptures, assert that there are interpreta- 
tions to be discovered by means of an emanation of 
the Divine "Wisdom, by which the soul is enlight- 
ened and purified; for which purpose they advocate 
seclusion for contemplation and asceticism. 
Mysticism taught at Alexandria by Clemens, Pantaenus, 
Origen, and others, who mingled Christianity and 
Platonism, 2nd and 3rd centuries. 
Much promoted by the works of the pseudo-Dionysius 

("The Mystic Theology," &c), 6th century. 
Introduced into the Western empire, 9th century. 
Eminent Mediaeval mystics (opposed by the schoolmen), 
Master Eckhart (1251-1329); John Tauler of Stras- 
burg, where he acted heroically during the plague, 
termed the "black death" (1290-1361); Henry Suso 
(1300-65). They aimed at a more spiritual religion 
than Romanism ; but their followers were charged 
with immorality, pantheism, communism, and main- 
taining private inspiration. 
Jacob Bohme or Behmen, the German mystic, published 
his "Aurora" (an alleged divine revelation) 1612; 
died, 18 Nov. 1624. 
For modern mystics, see Quakers, Quietists, Hutchin- 
sonians and Swederiborgians. 

MYTHOLOGY (Greek mytho*, fable), the 
traditions respecting the gods and early history of 
any people. For the Egyptian mythology, see 
Egypt. 

Greek Gods. Roman. 

ST" !*"»*■»' £|p™ te » f 

Zeus Jupiter (Diovis-pater). 

Plouton (Aides, Hades) . . . Pluto. 

Poseidon Neptune. 

Here or Hera Juno. 

Demeter Ceres. 

Hestia Vesta. 

Persephone Proserpine. 

Dionysius Bacchus. 

Jupiter's Children. 

Apollon Apollo. 

Ares Mars. 

Hermes Mercury. 

Hephaistos Vulcan. 

Athena or Athene Minerva. 

Aphrodite Venus. 

Artemis Diana. 

The chief Hindu gods are Brahma the creator, Vishnu, 
the preserver, and Siva the destroyer, but there have- 
been many changes in the Hindu Pantheon. 



N. 



NAAS. 

NAAS (E. Ireland). Here a desperate engage- 
ment took place between a body of royal forces and 
the insurgent Irish, 24 May, 1798, during the re- 
bellion. The latter were defeated with the loss of 
300 killed and many wounded. 

NABONASSAB, ERA OF, received its name 
from the prince of Babylon, under whose reign 
astronomical studies were much advanced in 
Chaldsea. The years contain 365 days each, with- 
out intercalation. The first day of the era was 
"Wednesday (said, in mistake, to be Thursday, in 
L' Art de Verifier les Bates), 26 Feb. 747 B.C. — 
3967, Julian period. To find the Julian year on 
which the year of Nabonassar begins, subtract the 
year, if before Christ, from 748; if after Christ, 
add to it 747. 

NACHOD (Bohemia). At this place the 
Prussians, under their crown prince, defeated 
the Austrians, after a severe conflict, 27 June, 1866. 
The Prussian Uhlans vanquished the Austrian 
cavalry. 

NACOLEA (Phrygia). Near here the usurper 
Procopius was defeated, and soon afterwards slain 
by the emperor Valens, 366. 

NAFELS (Switzerland). Here an Austrian 
army was defeated by a small body of Swiss, 1388. 

NAGA HILLS MASSACEE, see India, 

1875- 

NAG'S HEAD STOEY. Matthew Parker- 
was consecrated archbishop of Canterbury at Lam- 
beth, 17 Dec. 1559, by bishops Barlow, Coverdale, 
Scory, and Hodgkins. For forty-five years after, the 
Eomish writers asserted that Parker and others had 
heen ordained in an abnormal fashion by Scory at 
the Nag's Head Tavern, Cheapside. This fiction 
was refuted by Burnet, and is rejected by Eoman 
Catholic authorities, such as Lingard. 

NAHUM, FESTIVAL OF. Nahum, the seventh 
■of the twelve minor prophets, about 713 B.C.; the 
festival is kept by the Eastern church on 1 December. 

NAINI TAL, see Landslips, 18 Sept. 1880. 

NAISSUS (Mcesia). The Goths were defeated 
■near here with great slaughter by the emperor 
Claudius II., 269. 

NAJABA or NAVARRETE (N. Spain). At 
Logroiio, near these places, Edward the Black 
Prince defeated Henry de Trastamara, and re- 
established Peter the Cruel on the throne of 
Castile, 3 April, 1367. 

NAMES. Adam and Eve named then- sons. 
Gen. iv. 25, 26. A Roman citizen had generally 
three names ; pramomen, denoting the individual ; 
nomen, the gens or clan ; cognomen, the branch of 
the clan : sometimes he had the agnomen {e. g., 
Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus). The popes 
change their names on their exaltation to the 
pontificate, "a custom introduced by pope Sergius, 
whose name till then was Swine-snout," 687. 
Platina. Onuphrius (followed by most of the mo- 
dern authorities), refers it to John XII., 956; 
stating that it was done in imitation of SS. Peter 
and Paul, who were first called Simon and Saul. 
In France the name given at baptism was some- 



NAPLES. 

times changed. The two sons of Henry II. of 
France were christened Alexander and Hercules ; 
at their confirmation these names were changed to 
Henry and Francis. Monks and nuns, at their 
entrance into monasteries, assume new names. See 
Surnames. Miss Yonge's "History of Christian 
Names," published 1863 (new edition 1884). M. A. 
Lower's " Patronymica Britannica," i860. 

NAMUE, in Belgium, was made a county in 
932 ; taken by the French, 1 July, 1692 ; by Wil- 
liam of England, 4 Aug. 1695; ceded to the house 
of Austria by the peace of Utrecht, and garrisoned 
by the Dutch as a barrier town of the United Pro- 
vinces in 1715. The city of Nam ur was ceded to 
Austria, 17 13; taken by the French in 1746, but 
was restored in 1749. In 1782, the emperor Joseph 
expelled the Dutch garrison. In 1792 it was again 
taken by the French, who were compelled to 
evacuate it in 1793; regained 1794; delivered up 
to the allies, 1814; assigned to Belgium, 1831. It 
was a site of a severe conflict in June, 1815, between 
the Prussians and the French under Grouchy, when 
retreating after the battle of Waterloo. Population, 

1890, 29,794. 

NANCY (N.E.France), an ancient city, capital 
of Lorraine, in the 13th century. After taking 
Nancy, 29 Nov. 1475, and losing it, 5 Oct. 1476, 
Charles the Bold of Burgundy was defeated beneath 
its walls, and slain by the duke of Lorraine and 
the Swiss, 5 Jan. 1477 ; see Lorraine. Nancy was 
embellished by Stanislas, ex-king of Poland, who 
resided and died here Feb. 1766. It was captured 
by Bliicher, Jan. 1814, and on the retreat of Mac- 
Mahon's army, and expecting the German army, 
surrendered to four Uhlans, 12 Aug. 1870. It was 
restored at the peace. 

Grand fetes ; visits of president Carnot and the grand 
duke Constantine of Russia, 5-7 June, 1892. 

NANKIN, said to have been made the central 
capital of China, 420. It was the court of the 
Ming dynasty from 1369 till Yung-lo removed it to 
Pekin in 1410. On 4 Aug. 1842, the British ships 
arrived at Nankin, and peace was made. The rebel 
Tae-pings took it on 19, 20 March, 1853. It was 
recaptured by the Imperialists, 19 July, 1864, and 
found to be in a very desolate' condition. Esti- 
mated population, 1,000,000. 

NANTES (AV. France), formerly capital of the 
Namnetes. The edict in favour of the Protestants 
issued here by Henry IV., 13 April, 1598, was re- 
voked by Louis XIV., 22 Oct. 1685 (bicentenary cele- 
bration, 22 Oct. 1885). Awful cruelties were com- 
mitted here by the republican Carrier, Oct.-Nov. 
1793 ; see Browning. Population in 1886, 127,482 ; 

1891, 121,054. 

NAPHTHA, a clear combustible rock oil, 
known to the Greeks, called " oil of Media," and 
thought to have been an ingredient in the Greek 
fire {which see). 

NAPIEES BONES, see Logarithms. 

NAPLES, formerly the continental division 
and seat of government of the kingdom of the Two 
Sicilies, began with a Greek colony named Parthe- 
nope (about 1000 B.C.), which was afterwards 



NAPLES. 



659 



NAPLES. 



divided into Palseopolis (the old) and Neapolis (the 
new city) ; from the latter the present name is 
derived. The colon)' was conquered by the Romans 
in the Sanmite war, 326 B.C. Naples, after resisting 
the power of the Lombards, Franks, and Germans, 
was subjugated by the Normans under Roger Guis- 
•card, king of Sicily, a. d. 1 131. Few countries have 
had so many political changes, and cruel and des- 
potic rulers, or suffered so much by convulsions of 
nature, such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, &c. 
The eldest son of the king of Italy is styled prince 
of Naples. In 1856, the population of the kingdom 
of Naples was 6,086,030, of Sicily 2,231,020; total, 
9,117,050. It now forms part of the revived king- 
dom of Italy. Population of the province in 1889, 
1,060,032; of the city in 1890, 530,872. 
Naples conquered by Theodoric the Goth . . 493 

The city retaken by Belisarius 536 

Taken again by Totila . . . . . . 543 

Ketaken by Narses 552 

.Becomes a duchy nominally subject to the Eastern 

empire 568 or 572 

Duchy of Naples greatly extended . . . . 593 
Robert Guiscard, the Norman, made duke of Apulia, 

founds the kingdom of Naples .... 1059 
Naples conquered, and the kingdom of the Two 

Sicilies founded by Roger Guiscard II. . . . 1131 
The imperial house of Hohenstaufen (see Germany) 

obtains the kingdom by marriage, and rules 1194-1266 
The pope appoints Charles of Anjou, king, who de- 
feats the regent Manfred (son of Frederick II. of 
Germany) at Benevento (Manfred slain) 26 Feb. 1266 
Charles defeats Conradin (t)ie last of the Hohen- 
staufens who had come to Naples by invitation of 
fthe Ghibellines), at Tagliacozzo, 23 Aug. : Con- 

(radin beheaded 29 Oct. 1268 

The massacre called the Sicilian vespers (which see) 

30 March, 1282 
Andrew of Hungary, husband of Joanna I. murdered 

18 Sept. 1345 
His brother Louis, king of Hungary, invades Naples 1349 
ijueen Joanna put to death . . .22 May, 1382 
Alphonso V. of Arragon (called the Wise and Mag- 
nanimous), on the death of Joanna II. seizesNaples 1435 
Naples conquered by Charles VIII. of France . . 1494 
And by Louis XII. of France and Ferdinand of 

Spain, who divide it 1501 

Expulsion of the French 1504 

Naples and Sicily united to Spain . . . . ,, 
Insurrection of Masaniello, occasioned by the extor- 
tions of the Spanish viceroys. An impost was 
claimed on a basket of figs, and refused by the 
owner, with whom the populace took part, headed 
by Masaniello (Thomas Aniello), a fisherman ; 
rthey obtained the command of Naples, many of 
the nobles were slain and their palaces burnt, and 
the viceroy was compelled to abolish the taxes 
and to restore the privileges granted by Charles 

V. to the city June, 1647 

Masaniello, intoxicated by his success, was slain by 

his own followers 16 July, ,, 

Another insurrection suppressed by don John of 

Austria Oct. ,, 

Henry II. duke of Guise, lands, and is proclaimed 
king, but in a few days is taken prisoner by the 

Spaniards April, 1648 

Naples conquered by prince Eugene of Savoy, for 

the emperor 1706 

Discovery of Herculaneum (which see) . . .1711 
The Spaniards by the victory at Bitonto (26 May) 
having made themselves masters of both king- 
doms, Charles (of Bourbon), son of the king of 
Spain, ascends the throne, with the ancient title 

of king of the Two Sicilies 1734 

Order of St. Januarius instituted .... 1738 
Charles, becoming king of Spain, vacates the throne 
in favour of his third son, Ferdinand, agreeably to 

treaty 1759 

Expulsion of the Jesuits .... 3 Nov. 1767 
Dreadful earthquake in Calabria . . .5 Feb. 1783 
Enrolment of the Lazzaroni (which sec) as pikemen 

or spontoneers 1793 

The king flees on the approach of the French repub- 
licans, who establish the Parthenopcan republic, 

14 Jan. 1799 



Nelson appears ; Naples retaken ; the restored king 

rules tyrannically . . . . June, 1799 

Prince Caracciolo tried and executed by order of 

Nelson 29 June, ,, 

The Neapolitans occupy Rome . . 30 Sept. ,, 
Dreadful earthquake ; thousands perish . 26 July, 1805 
Treaty of neutrality between France and Naples 

ratified 9 Oct. ,, 

Ferdinand, through perfidy, is compelled to nee to 
Sicily, 23 Jan. ; the French enter Naples, and Jo- 
seph Bonaparte made king .... Feb. 1806 
The French defeated at Maida . . .4 July ,, 
Joseph Bonaparte, after beginning many reforms, 

abdicates for the crown of Spain . . June, 1808 

Joachim Murat made king (rules well) 15 July, ,, 

His first quarrel with Napoleon .... 1811 
His alliance with Austria .... Jan. 1814 
Death of queen Caroline .... 7 Sept. ,, 
Joachim declares war against Austria . 15 March, 1815 
Defeated at Tolentino .... 3 May, ,, 
He retires to France, 22 May, and Corsica : he madly 
attempts the recovery of his throne by landing at 
Pizzo : seized, tried, and shot . . 13 Oct. ,, 
Ferdinand, re-established, soon returns to tyrannical 

measures June, ,, 

A plague rages in Naples, Nov. 1815 to June . . 1816 
Establishment of the society of the Carbonari . . 1819 
Successful insurrection of the Carbonari under gen. 
Pepe ; the king compelled to swear solemnly to a 

new constitution 13 July, 1820 

The Austrians invade the kingdom, at the king's 

instigation ; general Pepe defeated . 7 March, 1821 
Fall of the constitutional government . 23 March, ,, 
Death of Ferdinand (reigned 66 years) . 4 Jan. 1825 

[In 30 years, 100,000 Neapolitans perished by various 

kinds of death.] 
Insurrection of the Carbonari suppressed . Aug. 1828 
Accession of Ferdinand II. , Boniba (as faithless and 

tyrannical as his predecessors) . . 8 Nov. 1830 
Dispute with England respecting the sulphur trade, 

1838 ; settled May, 1840 

Attilio and Emilio Bandiero, with eighteen others, 
attempting an insurrection in Calabria, are shot 

17 Jan. 1844 

[The statement that lord Aberdeen had given notice 

of this attempt was contradicted by his lordship.] 

Prospect of an insurrection in Naples ; the king 

grants a new constitution with liberal ministry, 

29 Jan. 1848 
Great fighting in Naples ; the liberals and the na- 
tional guard almost annihilated by the royal 
troops, aided by the lazzaroni . . 15 May, ,, 
A martial anarchy prevails ; the chiefs of the liberal 

party arrested in Dec. 1849 

Settembrini, Poerio, Carafa, and others, after a 
mock trial, are condemned, and consigned to hor- 
rible dungeons for life .... June, 1850 
After remonstrances with the king on his tyrannical 
government (May), the English and French am- 
bassadors are withdrawn ... 28 Oct. 1856 
Attempted assassination of the king by Milano 8 Dec. ,, 
The Cagliari, a Sardinian mail steamboat plying 
between Genoa and Tunis, sailed from the former 
port on 25 June, 1857, with thirty-three passen- 
gers, who, after a few hours' sail, took forcible 
possession of the vessel, and compelled the two 
English engineers (Watt and Park) to steer to 

Ponza 25 June, 1857 

[Here they landed, released some prisoners there, 
took them on board, and sailed to Sapri, where 
they again landed, and restored the vessel to its 
commander and crew. The latter steered imme- 
diately for Naples ; but on the way the vessel was 
boarded by a Neapolitan cruiser, and all the crew 
were landed and consigned to dungeons, where 
they remained for nine months waiting for trial, 
suffering great privations and insidts. This caused 
great excitement in England : and after much 
negotiation, the crew were released, the vessel 
given up to the British government, and 3000?. 
given as a compensation to the sufferers.] 
Italian refugees, under count Pisaccane, land in 
Calabria, are defeated, and their leader killed, 

27 June-2 July, „ 
Dreadful earthquake in the Apennines . 16 Dec. 
Amnesty granted to political offenders . 27 Dec. 185S 
Poerio and sixty-six companions released and sent to 
N. America, Jau. ; on their way, they seize the 

u u 2 



NAPLES. 



660 



NAPLES. 



vessel, sail to Cork, 7 March ; and proceed to 
London 18 March, 

Death of Ferdinand II., after dreadful sufferings, 

22 May, 

Diplomatic relations resumed with England and 
France June, 

A subscription for Poerio and his companions in 
England amounted to io.oool . . July, 

Insubordination among the Swiss troops at Nar>les, 
many shot, July 7 ; major Latour sent to Naples 
by the Swiss confederation . . .16 July, 

Army increased ; defences strengthened . Oct. 

Many political imprisonments ; the foreign ambas- 
sadors collectively address a note to the king 
stating the necessity for reform in his states, 26 
March ; the count of Syracuse recommends re- 
form and alliance with England . . April, 

Garibaldi lands in Sicily, 11 May ; defeats the Nea- 
politan army at Calataflmi . . . 15 May, 

Revolutionary committee at Naples . 15 June, 

Francis II. proclaims an amnesty ; promises a liberal 
ministry ; adopts a tricolor flag, &c. 26 June, 

Baron Bremer, French ambassador, wounded in his 
carriage by the mob . . . .27 June, 

A liberal ministry formed ; destruction of the com- 
missariat of the police in 12 districts ; state of 
siege proclaimed at Naples ; the queen-mother 
flees to Gaeta 28 June, 

Garibaldi defeats Neapolitans at Melazzo, 20 July ; 
enters Messina, 21 July ; the Neapolitans agree to 
evacuate Sicily 30 July, 

The king of Sardinia in vain negotiates with Francis 
II. for alliance July, 

Francis II. proclaims the re-establishment of the 
constitution of 1848, 2 July ; the army proclaim 
count de Trani king . . . .10 July, 

Garibaldi lands at Melito, 18 Aug. ; takes Reggio, 

21 Aug. 

Defection in army and navy ; Francis II. retires to 
Gaeta, 6 Sept. ; Garibaldi enters Naples without 
troops 7 Sept. 

Garibaldi assumes the dictatorship, 8 Sept. ; gives 
up the Neapolitan fleet to the Sardinian admiral 
Persano, 11 Sept. ; expels the Jesuits ; establishes 
trial by jury ; releases political prisoners Sept. 



He repulses the Neapolitans at Cajazzo, 19 Sept. ; 
defeats them at the Volturno . . .1 Oct. i860. 

The king of Sardinia enters the kingdom of Naples, 
and takes command of his army, which combines 
with Garibaldi's n Oct. ,,. 

Naples unsettled through intrigues . . Oct. , r 

Cialdini defeats the Neapolitans at Isernia, 17 Oct. ; 
at Venafro 18 Oct. ,, 

The plebiscite at Naples, <fcc. ; almost unanimous 
vote for annexation to Piedmont (1,303,064 to 
10,312) . 21 Oct. , r 

Garibaldi meets Victor-Emmanuel, and salutes him 
as king of Italy 26 Oct. , r 

The first English Protestant church built on ground 
given by Garibaldi ; consecrated . 11 March, 1865 

Cholera raged at Naples .... autumn, 1866 

Great eruption of Vesuvius began . 12 Nov. 1867 

Land-slip at Naples ; 20 persons engulfed 28 Jan. 1868 

Victor-Emmanuel, prince of Naples (son of prince 
Humbert), born at Naples . . .11 Nov. 1869 

Maritime exhibition opened a.t Naples . 17 April, 1871 

Great marine biological laboratory organised by Dr. 
Dohrn 1872 

Manzo and his band of brigands, (said to be the last) 
destroyed by soldiers . . . .20 Aug. 1873 

National exhibition of the fine arts opened at Naples 
by the king 8 April, 1877 

Death of Sisto Riario Sforza, cardinal archbishop, 
a proposed successor to the pope . 6 Oct. ,, 

Antonio Scialoia, statesman and financier, died, 
aged 61 about 17 Oct. ,, 

Revival of brigandage, chiefly in the south, July, Aug. 1878 

Asiatic cholera rages in Naples and Spezzia (see 
Cholera). The king energetic in relieving the 
sufferers, 7-14 Sept. ; disease dying out . 6 Oct. 1884, 

Naples visited by the king Humbert and the em- 
peror William II 16 Oct. 1888 

The king inaugurates new sanitary works 15 June, 1889 

Trial of the two dukes of Vilarosa for the murder 
of lieut. Leone, a suitor for the hand of their 
sister, 30 Dec. 1888 ; one brother acquitted, the 
other' sentenced to 5 years' imprisonment ; much 

indignation 22 Dec. i8gr 

[General history under Italy.} 



1131. Roger I. (of Sicily, 1130) Norman. 

1154. William I. the Bad ; son. 

1 166. William II. the Good ; son. 

1 189. Tancred, natural son of Roger. 

1 194. William III. son, succeeded by Constance, married 

to Henry VI. of Germany. 

1197. Frederick II. of Germany ' {Hohenstaufen). 



SOVEREIGNS OF NAPLES AND SICILY. 



1250. Conrad ; son. 

1254. Conradin, son ; but his uncle, 

1258. Manfred, natural son of Frederick II., seizes the 

government ; killed at Benevento, in 1266. 
1 266. Chas. of A njou, brother of St. Louis, king of Franca 

[Conradin beheaded, 29 Oct. 1268.] 
1282. Insurrection in Sicily. 



1282. 
1285. 
1309. 
1343' 



1385- 
1386. 
1414. 



1458. 
1494. 
*495- 



i5°3- 
1516. 
1556. 
1598. 



NAPLES. 

Charles I. of Anjou. 

Charles II. ; son. 

Robert the Wise ; brother. 

Joanna (reigns with her husband, Andrew of Hun- 
gary), 1343-45 : with Louis of Tarento, 1349-62 ; 
Joanna put to death (22 May, 1382) by 

Charles III., grandson of Charles II. : he becomes 
king of Hungary ; assassinated there, 1386. 

Louis I., titular, crowned. 

Louis II. , son of Louis I. 

Ladislas of Hungary. 

Joanna II., sister, dies in 1435, and bequeaths her 
dominions to Regniev of Anjou. They are ac- 
quired by 

Naples. {Separation ofNarih 

Ferdinand I. 
Alphonso II. abdicates. 
Ferdinand II. 
Frederic II. expelled by the French, 1501. 



{Separation of the Kingdoms in 1282.) rtcily. 

1282. Peter I. (III. of Arragon.) 
1285. James I. (II. of Arragon.) 
1295. Frederick II. 
1337. Peter II. 
1342. Louis. 
1355. Frederick III. 
1376. Maria and Martin (her husband). 
1402. Martin I. 

1409. Martin II. 

1410. Ferdinand I. 
1416. Alphonso I. 



1435. Alphonso I. thus king of Naples and Sicily. 

and Sicily in 1458.) sicily. 

1458. John of Arragon. 

1479. Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain. 



Ferdinand III. (king of Spain) 
Charles I. (V. of Germany). 
Philip I. (II. of Spain). 
Philip II. (III. of Spain). 

NAPLES. 

Charles III. of Austria. 



1735. Charles IV. (III. of Spain). 



The Crowns United. 

1621. Philip III. (IV. of Spain). 
1665. Charles II. (of Spain). 
1700. Philip IV. (V. of Spain), Bourbons. 
1707. Charles III. of Austria. 
{Separation in 1713.) sicily. 

I 1 71 3. Victor Amadeus of Savoy (exchanged Sicily for 
Sardinia, 1720.) 
The Two Sicilies. 
{Part of the empire of Germany, 1720-34.) 

I 1759. Ferdinand IV. fled from Naples to Sicily, x8o6. 



NAPOLEON CODE. 



661 NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL HALL 



NAPLES. 

1806. Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte. 
z8o8. Joachim Murat, shot 13 Oct. 1815. 



(Separation in 1806.) 

I 1806-15. Ferdinand IV. 

The Two Sicilies. 



E815. Ferdinand I., formerly Ferdinand IV., of Naples 

and Sicily. 
1825. Francis I. 
1830. Ferdinand II., Nov. 8 (termed king Bomba). 



1859. Francis II., 22 May; bom 16 Jan. 1836; last King 
of Naples ; deposed ; fled 6 Sept. i860. 

1861. Victor-Emmanuel II. of Sardinia, as King of Italy, 
March ; (see Italy, end). 



NAPOLEON CODE, see Codes. 

NAPOLEON MEMORIAL : subscriptions 
from the Royal family and the three services for a 
statue of prince Louis Napoleon (killed in Zulu- 
land, 1 June, 1879), were closed about 15 July, 
S879. The statue was placed in St. George's 
ichapel, Windsor, May, 1881 ; placing it in West- 
minster Abbey having been much opposed. 

NARBONNE (S. E. France), the Roman 
Narbo Martius, founded 1 18 B.C., made capital of a 
Visigothic kingdom, 462 ; captured by the Saracens, 
720; re-taken by Pepin le Bref, 759. Gaston de 
Foix, the last vicomte (killed at Ravenna, 11 April, 
1512), resigned it to the king in exchange for the 
duchy of Nemours. Many councils held here, 589- 
1374- 

NARCEINE AND NaRCOTINE, alkaloids 
obtained from Opium {which nee). Narceine was 
discovei-ed by Pelletier in 1832 ; and narcotine by 
Derosne in 1803. 
Crystallized narceine was stated by M. Laborde at Paris 

to be an innocuous anaesthetic, June 1890 

NARVA (Esthonia, Russia). Here Peter the 
Great of Kussia was totally defeated by Charles XII. 
of Sweden, then in his nineteenth year, 30 Nov. 
1700. The army of Peter is said to have amounted 
to 60,000, some Swedes affirm 100,000 men, while 
the Swedes were about 20,000. Charles attacked 
the enemy in bis intrenchments, and slew 18,000; 
30,000 surrendered. He had several horses shot 
under him. He said, "These people seem dis- 
posed to give me exercise." Narva was taken by 
Peter in 1704. 

NASEBY (Northamptonshire), the site of a 
decisive victory over Charles I. by the parliament 
army under Fairfax and Cromwell. The main 
body of the royal army was commanded by lord 
Astley ; prince Rupert led the right wing, sir Mar- 
maduke Langdale the left, and the king himself 
headed the body of reserve. The king fled, losing 
his cannon, baggage, and nearly 5000 prisoners, 
14 June, 1645. 

NASHVILLE (Tennessee, N. America) was 
occupied by the confederates in 1861, and taken 
by the federals, 23 Feb. 1862. Near here the con- 
federates under Hood were defeated by the federals 
under Thomas, 14-16 Dec. 1864. Population, 1890, 
76,168. 

NASSAU, a German duchy, made a county by 
the emperor Frederic I. about 1180, for Wolfram, a 
descendant of Conrad I. of Germany; from whom 
are descended the royal house of Orange now 
reigning in Holland (see Orange, and Holland), 
and the present duke of Nassau. Wiesbaden was 
made the capital in 1839. On 25 April, i860, the 
Nassau chamber strongly opposed the conclusion of 
a concordat with the pope, and claimed liberty of 
faith and conscience. The duke adopted the Aus- 
trian motion at the German diet, 14 June, and after 
the war the duchy wax annexed to Prussia by decree, 
20 Sept., and possession taken, 8 Oct. 1866. Popu- 
lation of the duchy in 1865, 468,311. 
1788. Count Frederic William made duke in 1806. 
1014. William-George, 20 Aug. 



1839. Adolphus-William-Charles, born 24 July, 1817 ; 
assumed the regency of Luxemburg 10 April, 1889, 
became grand duke on the decease of the king 
of Holland, 23 Nov. 1890. See Luxemburg. 

NATAL (Cape of Good Hope). Vasco de Gama 

landed here on 25 Dec. 1497, and heuce named it 

Terra Natalis. 

The Dutch attempted to colonise it about . . . 1721 

The Zulu power established about .... 1812 

Lieut. Farewell, with some emigrants, settled . 1823 

Capt. Allen Gardiner's treaty with the Zulus, 

6 May, 1835 

Dutch republic, Natalia, set up ; put down by the 
British 12 May, 1842 

Natal annexed to the British possessions . 8 Aug. 1843 

Made a bishopric (Dr John Wm. Colenso, bishop), 
1853 ; and an independent colony . . . 1856 

Attempts to depose bishop Colenso for unsound 
doctrine having failed, the rev. W. R. Macrorie 
was sent out as bp. of Maritzburg, to act with 
the clergy opposed to their bishop . Dec. 1868 

See Church of England, 1863-8. 

A bishop of Zululand appointed . . . . 1871 

Alleged insurrection of Caffres under Langalibalele, 
quickly suppressed . . . Nov. -Dec. 1873 

He and others were tried, it was said illegally, and 
punished with imprisonment ; he is sent to Bob- 
ben island 4 Aug. 1874 

Bishop Colenso came to England to advocate his 
ease ,, 

Sir Garnet Wolseley sent as temporary governor, 
Feb. ; Langalibalele released, and placed under 
surveillance out of the colony ; sir Garnet re- 
turns Aug. 1875 

Succeeded by Mr. Walter J. Sendall, appointed, 

Nov. 1881 

Great dissatisfaction in the colony at this appoint- - 
ment Nov. ,, 

Death of bishop Colenso . . . 20 June, 1883 

Governors of Natal : Robt. Wm. Keate, 1867 ; An- 
thony Musgrave, 1873 ; sir Benj. C. C. Pine, 1874 ; 
Sir H. Ernest Bulwer, Sept. 1878 ; sir Garnet 
Wolseley, May, 1879 ; sir George Pomeroy Colley, 
May, 1880; killed at the battle of Majuba Hill, 

27 Feb. 1881 

Sir Henry E. G. Bulwer nominated governor, Dec. 
i38i ; sir A E. Havelock, Nov. 1885 ; sir Charle? 
B. H. Mitchell Aug. 1889 

The legislative council offers to undertake the 
administration of Zululand at the cost of the 
colony to check the encroaching Boers about 22 
Oct. ; sanction refused by the British government 
announced 27 Oct. 1886 

Slight military mutiny ; two men killed in its 
suppression at Fort Napier . . 7 Aug. 1887 

The council vote for a free and responsible govern- 
ment 26 June, 1890 

At Pietermaritzburg (the capital) a statue of the 
queen by sir E. Boelnn was unveiled by sir 
Charles Mitchell 8 July, ,, 

The bill for a new constitution voted . 3 Feb 1891 

Parliament opened 30 April, ,, 

Constitutional bill passed, parliament prorogued, 

8 Aug. ,, 

Confirmation by the British government deferred, 

Dec. „ 

Conference of two Natal delegates, sir John Robin- 
son and Mr. Sutton, with lord Knutsford May, 1892 

Railway to Orange Free State opened . 13 July, ,, 

Population, 326,957 (20,490 whites), 1876 ; in 1886, 
442,697; in 1891, 543,913. See Zululand. 

NATIONAL ANTHEM, see God save the 
King. 

NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL HALL, 
see under Agriculture. 



NATIONAL ASSEMBLY. 



662 



NATIONAL DEBT. 



NATIONAL ASSEMBLY, French. 
Upon the proposition of the abbe Sieye«, the states- 
general of France constituted themselves the Na- 
tional Assembly, 17 June, 1789. On the 20th the 
hall of this new assembly was shut by order of the 
king ; upon which the deputies of the Tiers Etat 
repaired to the Jeu de Paume, or Tennis-court, and 
swore not to dissolve until they had digested a 
constitution for France. On the 22nd they met at 
the church at St. Louis. This assembly abolished 
the state religion, annulled monastic vows, divided 
France in*;o departments, sold the national do- 
mains, ( st iblished . a national bank, issued as- 
signats, and dissolved itself 21 Sept. 1792; see 
National Convention. In 1848 the legislature was 
again termed the National Assembly. It met 
4 May, and a new constitution was proclaimed, 12 
Nov. Anew constitution was once more proclaimed 
hy Louis Napoleon in Jan. 1852, after dissolving 
the National Assembly, 2 Dec. 1851. The present 
French National Assembly was elected 8 Feb., and 
met 12 Feb. 1871; new constitution adopted, 25 
Feb. 1875 ; see France. 

NATIONAL ASSEMBLY, German, see 
Germany, 1848. 

NATIONAL ASSOCIATIONS. .One was 
formed in 1584, headed by the earl of Leicester, to 
protect queen Elizabeth from assassination, in con- 
sequence of the discovery of various plots. Another 
was proposed in the house of commons, in Feb. 

1696, by sir Rowland Gwjn, for the defence of the 
person and government of William III. soon after 
the discovery of the assassination plot {which see). 
The members of both houses of parliament, and the 
majority of the mule population, joined it imme- 
diately ; all persons holding office under govern- 
ment were required to be members; see Aid to Sick 
and Wounded, Artillery, Arts, Colonies, Em- 
ployers, Farmers, Social Science, and Volunteers 
for other national associations. 

NATIONAL BENEVOLENT INSTI- 
TUTION, established 1812, incorporated 1859. 
Pensions are granted to decayed gentry, and to 
professional people, teachers, and others in reduced 
circumstances. 

NATIONAL CONVENTION of France, 
constituted in the hall of the Tuileries 17 Sept. and 
formally opened 21 Sept. 1792, when M. Gregoire, 
at the head of the National Assembly, announced 
that that assembly had ceased its functions. It was 
then decreed, '' That the citizens named by the 
French people to form the National Convention, 
being met to the number of 371, after having verified 
their powers, declare that the National Convention 
is constituted." This convention continued until 
a new constitution was organised, and the Execu- 
tive Directory was installed at the Little Luxem- 
bourg, 1 Nov. 1795 i see Directory. The Chartists 
(which see) in England formed a National Conven- 
tion in 1839. 

NATIONAL DEBT. The first mention of 
parliamentary security for a debt of the nation 
occurs in the reign of Henry VI. The present 
national debt may be said to have commenced in 
the reign of William III., 1689. It amounted, in 

1697, to about five millions sterling, and was then 
thought to be of alarming magnitude. The sole 
cause of the increase has been war. By an act 
passed 31 May, 1867, the conversion of 24,000,000^. 
of the debt into terminable annuities was pro- 
vided for. The law is consolidated by the national 
debt act, passed 9 Aug. 1870; amended by acts 
passed 1875, 1882, 1884, 1886 and 1887. By the 



national debt act, passed Aug. 1883, 70,241,908^. 
were immediately converted, and 173,300,000^. 
would be cancelled in 20 years. See Sinking Fund* 
and Local Loans. 



1689. William III, 

1702. Anne . 

1714. George I. 

1763. George III. (end of Seven 

nearly . 
1786. After American war 
1793. Beginning of French war 
1802. Close of French war 
18 17. English and Irish Exchequers 

dated 
1830. Total amount 
1840. Ditto 
1850. Ditto 

1854. Ditto 
(31 March) 

1855. Ditto 

1856. Ditto 

1857. Funded debt 
Unfunded . 

1858. Funded debt 
Unfunded . 

1859. Funded debt 
Unfunded . 

i860. Funded debt 

Unfunded . 
(31 March) 
i85i. Funded debt 

Unfunded 

1862. Funded debt 
Unfunded 

1863. Funded debt 
Unfunded 

1864. Funded debt 
Unfunded 

1865. Funded debt 
Unfunded 

1866. Funded debt 
Unfunded 

1867. Funded debt 
Unfunded 

1868. Funded debt 
Unfunded 

1869. Funded debt 
Unfunded 

1870. Funded debt 
Unfunded 

1 871. Funded debt 
Unfunded 

1872. Funded debt 
Unfunded 

1873. Funded debt 
Unfunded 

1874. Funded debt 
Unfunded 

1875. Funded debt 
Unfunded 

1876. Funded debt 
Unfunded 

1877. Funded debt 
Unfunded 

1878. Funded debt 
Unfunded 

1879. Funded debt 
Unfunded 

1880. Funded debt 
Unfunded 

1881. Funded debt 
Unfunded 

1882. Funded debt 
Unfunded 

1883. Funded debt 
Unfunded 

1884. Funded debt 
Unfunded 

1885. Funded debt 
Unfunded 

1886. Funded debt 
Unfunded 



war) 



consoli 



Debt. 

£664,263 
16,394,702: 
54> i45,3 6 3 

138,865,430 
249,851,628 
244,440,306 

572,0<DO,OOQ' 

848,282,477 
840,184,022 
789,578,7 2( > 
787,029,162 
775,041,272 

7°3r375,i°9< 
807,981,788 
780,119,722 
27,989,000 

779> 22 5,495 
25,911,500, 

786,801,154 
18,277,400. 

785,962,000 
16,228,300. 

785,119,609, 

16,689,000, 

784,252,338 

16,517,900 

783,306,739. 

16,495,400 

777,429,224 

13,136,000 

775,768,295 

10,742,500 

773,313,229 

8,187,700 

769,541,004 

7,956,800 

741,190,328 

7,911,100 

740,418,032 

8,896,100 

741,514,681 

6,761,500 

73 2 >°43> 2 7° 

6,091,000 
731,756,962 

5,155,100 
727,374,082 

4,829,100 
723,514,005 

4,479,600 
714,797,715 

5,239,00a 
7!3, 657,5i? 
*n, 401,800 
712,621,355 
*i3,943,8oo 
7:50,843,007/ 
*20,6o3,ooo 

7°9,43°> 593 
25,870,100 
710,476,355 

27,344,9oo 

709,078,526 

22,077,500 

7 9>49 8 ,547' 

18,007,700 
712,698,994 

14,185,400 
640,631,095 

14,110,600 
640,181,896 

14,033,100 
638,849,694 

17,602, Soo, 



* Including Suez Canal Bonds, 1876, 4,000,000/. ;. 1877, 
3,990,000/. ; 1878, 3,929,200/. 



NATIONAL DEFENCE. 



663 



NATIONAL GUARD. 



1887. Funded debt ..... £637,637,640 
Unfunded 17,517,900 

1888. Funded debt 609,740,743 

Unfunded 17,385,100 

1889. Funded debt 607,057,811 

Unfunded 16,093,322 

1890. Funded debt 585,959,852 

Unfunded 32,252,305 

1891. Funded debt 579,472,082 

Unfunded 36,140,079 

[Exclusive of terminable annuities, estimated, 1867, 

27,521, 513?.; 1872, 55,749,070?. ; 1876, 51,911,227?. ; 
1878, 46,335.589^] 

The National Debt and Local Loans Act passed 12 July, 
1887, see Local Loans. 

Mr. Matthew O'Reilly Dease, formerly M.P. for Louth, 
bequeaths about 40,000?. towards extinguishing the 
national debt ; he died 17 Aug. 1887. 

The National Debt Redemption Act with suitable pro- 
visions was passed; royal assent, 11 April, 1889. 

Sir Stafford Northcote's act provides the annual charge 
of 28,000,000?. ; the surplus to be devoted to the re- 
duction of the debt — 1876. 

The annual interest in 1850 was 23,862,257?. ; and the 
total interest, including annuities, amounted to 
27,699,740?. On 1 Jan. 1851, the total unredeemed 
debt of Great Britain and Ireland was 769,272,562?., 
the charge on which for interest and management was 
27,620,449?. The total charge on the debt for interest 
and management, 1872, 26,839,601?. Mr. Childers' plan 
for reducing national debt by terminable annuities, 
commencing 1885, April, 1883; National Debt Conver- 
sion of Stock act read 2nd time (117-34), 6 June; passed 
3 July, 18S4 ; accepted, 17 Oct. 1884, 18,666,000?. for 2J 
per cent. ; 4,451,000?. for 2J per cent., by government, 
nearly 12,000,000?. Annual charge reduced by 
2,000,000?., April, 1887. Reduced to 25,000,000?. by 
new act passed, royal assent, 31 May, 1889. 

Mr. Goschen's National Debt Conversion Act ; read 2nd 
time without division 16 March ; royal assent 27 March, 
1888. 

[3 per cent, stock reduced to 2? till 5 April, 1903, and 
afterwards to 2^, new stock not redeemable till 
5 April, 1923.] 

National debt redemption act passed 11 April, 1889. 

ESTIMATED FOREIGN NATIONAL DEBTS, 1884. 

£90,000,000 

Io6,000,000 

85,000,000 

21,000,000 

29,000 

11,000 

NATIONAL DEFENCE, see Colonial 

Defences Commission, under Colonies, 1879. 

Resolutions voted in the commons for supporting 
arrangements with the colonies in providing ships, 
&c, 850,000?. ; and for defence of various ports and 
coaling stations, 2,600,000?. 15 May, 1888. 

National Defence Act passed 13 Aug. i833 ; another 
act passed 31 May, 1889 ; see Navy, 1889. 

NATIONAL DRAMATIC ACADEMY 

was proposed by professor H. Morley and others in 
1879. 

NATIONAL FEDERATION (Irish) esta- 
blished in opposition to Mr. Parnell, by Mr. Justin 
M'Carthy and other M.P.'s, supported by the It. C. 
bishops and clergy; inaugural meeting at Dublin, 
10 March, 1891. Its organ is the National Press, 
first published, 7 March, 1891. See Ireland, March, 
1892. 

NATIONAL GALLERY, London, began 
with the purchase, by the British government, of 

the Angerstein collection of 38 pictures, for 57,000/., 
in 1824. The first exhibition of them took place in 
Pall-mall, on 10 May, 1824. Sir G. Beaumont 
(1826), Mr. Holwell Carr (1831), and many other 
gentlemen, as well as the British Institution, con- 
tributed many fine pictures; and the collection has 
been since greatly augmented by gifts and pur- 
chases. The present edifice in Trafalgar-square, 
designed by Mr. Wilkins, was completed and 



France 


£786,000,000 


Holland 


Italy 


. 406,500,000 


Portugal . 


Russia 


. 578,000,000 


Belgium 


Austria 


. 346,000,000 


Greece 


Spain 


(1881) 512,000,000 


Roumania 


Turkey 


(1881) 106,000,000 


Denmark . 



opened 9 April, 1838. In July, 1857, a commission 
appointed to consider the propriety of removing the 
pictures reported in favour of their remaining in 
their present locality ; and in i860, 15,000/. were 
voted to be expended in adapting the central part 
of the building to exhibition purposes. On 11 May, 
1861, the National Gallery was reopened after 
having been closed eight months, during which 
time great improvements were made in the internal 
arrangements. On 19 June, 1865, the house of 
commons voted 20,000/. to buy land to enlarge the 
building, and an act for this purpose was passed 
15 July, 1866. Visitors in 1866, 775,901; in 1871, 
911,658; in 1883, 849,604; sum voted for year 
1867-8, 15,895/., for 1876, 20,098/. Legacy from 
Francis Win. Clarke, about 24,000/., fell in 1880; 
1880, pictures 1040. 

Sir Charles Eastlake, director, 1850; sir Fred. AY. Burton, 

1864. 
A parliamentary return gives a list of pictures presented 
to or purchased for the National Gallery — 284 pre- 
sented, 256 bequeathed, and 313 purchased. The cost 
of the 313 purchases, which has been spread over 45 
years, has been 254,527?. Up to 1871, 337,195?. had 
been expended. The Peel collection (70 pictures), 
bought for 75,000?., spring, 1S71. Two pictures of the 
Blenheim Collection were bought for 83,520?., March, 
1885 (Raphael's "Ansidei Madonna" 70,000?.). The 
"Congress of Munster," a master-piece of Terburg 
(valued at 7280?. in 1868), presented by sir Richard 
Wallace, Oct. 1871. 
Mr. AYynn Ellis (a silk merchant, born July, 1780; died 
27 Nov. 1875) bequeathed about 800 pictures to the 
National Gallery on certain conditions. Re-opened ; 
new galleries erected by E. Barry : pictures re-arranged, 
Aug., 1876. 
About 1030 oil paintings in the gallery . March, 1882 
Mr. Henry Tate presents 57 modern pictures (value nearly 
90,000?.) announced 8 March ; declined by the govern- 
ment for want of space ; he proposes the establish- 
ment of a National gallery especially for British Art, 
17 June, 1890. 
The government proposes placing his pictures in galleries 

at South Kensington 26 June, 1890. 
Three of the earl of Radnor's pictures purchased for the 
gallery for 55,000?. (Holbein's "Ambassadors," and two 
portraits by Velasquez and Moroni), reported July, 1890. 
[The government gave 25,000?., lord Rothschild, sir 
Edward Guinness (since lord Iveagh) and Mr. Charles 
Cotes, each io,oooJ.l 
Mr. William Agnew offers to present 10,000?. towards the 
erection of a special National gallery of British art, 
near Kensington palace, 21 July, 1890. 
An anonymous donor (Mr. Henry Tate) through Mr. 
Humphry Ward, offers to the government So.ooo?. for 
the erection of a National gallery of British Art, 
12 March ; accepted by Mr. Goschen, 19 March, 1891. 
Mr. Tate, not approving of the site proposed by the 
government, withdraws his offer, 3 March, 1892. 

NATIONAL GUARD of France was 

instituted by the Committee of Safety at Paris on 
13 July, 1789 (the day before the destruction of the 
Bastile), to maintain order and defend the public 
liberty. Its first colours were blue and red, to 
which white was added, when its formation was 
approved by the king. Its action was soon para- 
lysed by the revolution, and it ceased altogether 
under the consulate and empire. It was revived 
by Napoleon in 1814, and maintained by Louis 
XVII!., but was broken up by Charles X., after a 
tumultuous review in 1827. It was revived in 1830, 
and helped to place Louis Philippe on the throne. 
In 1848 its reconstitution and its enlargement from 
80,000 to 100,000 men led to the frightful conflict of 
June, 1848. Its constitution was entirely changed 
in Jan. 1852, when it was subjected entirely to the 
control of the government. Formerly it had many 
privileges, such as choosing its own officers, &c. 
In consequence of the defection of part of the 
National Guard and the incompetency of the rest 



NATIONAL HEALTH SOCIETY. 664 



NATUEAL SELECTION. 



during the outbreak in Paris in 1871, its gradual 
abolition was decreed by the national assembly at 
Versailles (488-154), 24 Aug. 1871. The peaceful 
disarmament began in September. National Guards 
have been established in Spain, Naples, and other 
countries, during the present century. 

NATIONAL HEALTH SOCIETY, 

founded in 1873 for the collection and diffusion of 
sanitary knowledge, by lectures and otherwise. 

NATIONALISTS. See Ireland {Young), 
Home Rule, Farnellites, and Separatists. 

NATIONALITY ; a word much used since 
1848. In Poland, Hungary, Italy, and Germany, 
the strugglefor nationality has been long and severe. 
In 1866 agitationfor t his pi'irjciple began in Bohemia, 
Slavonia, and other parts of the Austrian empire. 
The nationality of Ireland is the alleged basis of 
the Fenian agitation ; see Ireland, 1870, and Home 
Government. 

NATIONALIZATION, &c. See under Land. 

NATIONAL LEAGUES, see Leagues, and 

Ireland, 1882, et seq. 

NATIONAL LIBERAL FEDERATION, 

see under Liberals. 

NATIONAL OPERA HOUSE, N. Thames 
Embankment ; Mr. M apleson, proprietor ; Mr. F. H. 
Fowler, architect; Mr. Wm. Webster, contractor. 
First brick laid by Mile. Tietjens, 7 Sept.; first 
stone laid by the duke of Edinburgh, 16 Dec. 1875. 
Failure of the scheme reported, Nov. 1877. Mate- 
rials sold, 24 June 1880, et seq. ; estimated loss by the 
scheme about 100,000^. ; the building was pulled 
down, May, 1888. 

NATIONAL PORTRAIT EXHIBI- 
TIONS proposed by the earl of Derby, earl Gran- 
ville, and others, at a meeting in London, 13 July, 
1865. They were held in what had been the re- 
freshment room of the Exhibition of 1862, at South 
Kensington. The 1st was opened 16 April ; closed 
18 Aug. 1866: 2nd, opened 3 May; closed 31 Aug. 
1867 : 3rd, opened 13 April ; closed 22 Aug. 1868. 

NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY was 
determined on in Feb. 1857, in pursuance of votes 
from both houses of parliament. The sum of 2000<?. 
was appropriated for the purchase of portraits of 
persons eminent in British history. Donations are 
received under certain restrictions. The gallery, 
Gt. Georere-street, Westminster, was opened 15 Jan. 
1859. . Director, &c, George Scharf, c.b. The 
collection was removed to South Kensington Dec. 
1869, and re-opened 28 March, 1870. The pictures 
removed to Bethnal Green museum for safety after 
the fire at the Indian museum, June, 1885. A 
-valuable collection of National Portraits appeared 
at the Manchester Fxhibition in 1857. 

The marquis of Salisbury at the Royal Academy dinner, 
stated that the government had received an anonymous 
offer to erect a building for the National Portrait 
Gallery, if a site were provided, 4 May, i88q. 

Mr. W. H. Alexander having given 100,000?., the 
north extremity of the National Gallery chosen for the 
site of the new building, July ; bill passed 26 July, 1889. 

National Portrait, Gallery for Scotland. — 3o,ooo;."offered 
by a gentleman to form a collection and erect a building 
1883-4. The building at Edinburgh was opened by the 
marquis of Lothian, 15 July, i88q. 

NATIONAL REFORM UNION, see under 

Jtfform Association. 



NATIONAL REVIEW, Conservative, first 
appeared March, 1883. 

NATIONAL SCHOOLS, see Education, and 
Music, 1873. 

NATIONAL SOCIETY for promoting the 
Education of the Poor in the principles of the esta- 
blished church of England, founded 1811, incorpo- 
rated 1817. In 1883 there were 2,385,374 children, 
and 28,000,000^. have been expended. Training 
colleges: St. Mark's, Chelsea, Whitelands, and 
Battersea. 

NATIONAL TESTIMONIALS (subscribed 
for) were presented to Kowland Hill (for his exer- 
tions in obtaining the penny postage), 17 June, 
1846; and to Miss Florence Nightingale (for her 
beneficent exertions for the sufferers during the 
Crimean war), 29 Nov. 1855. 

NATIONAL THRIFT SOCIETY, formed 
at Oxford in 1878. Meetings have been held at the 
Mansion House, London, 1880, et seq. The erection 
of a Thrift-hall proposed, 31 Dec. 1887. 

. NATIONAL TRADE SOCIETY formed 
in June, 1871, to watch over and secure the interests 
of traders, and promote amendments in the law 
affecting commercial interests. President, rt. lion. 
W. H. Smith, M.P. Civil Service trading, the in- 
come tax, and international exhibitions have been 
considered by the committee. 

NATIONAL TRAINING SCHOOL for 

Music, South Kensington, founded by the duke of 
Edinburgh, 18 Dec. 1873; opened by him, 17 May, 
1876. . 

NATIONAL UNION was formed in 1868 to 
combine a number of associations supporting the 
Conservative party. Lecturers were employed and 
pamphlets circulated. The party was termed Na- 
tionalists in Aug. 1871. lord handolph Churchill 
was chairman in 1884. Conference at Aberdeen, 
16 Oct. 1884. The twentieth annual conference 
held at Oxford, 22 Nov. 1887, and at other places 
since. 

NATIONAL UNION CONVENTION, 

see United States, 1866, and Dec. 1890. 

NATIONAL VIGILANCE ASSOCIA- 
TION, for the promotion of social purity, and the 
protection of women and children, founded by Dr. 
G. Bidding (bishop of Southwell), Mr. Samuel 
Morley and others, March, 1886. 
Annual meetings are held, latest 4 Nov. 1891. 

NATIONAL WORKSHOPS, see Ateliers 
Nalionaux. 

NATIVITY. There are three festivals in the 
Boman and Greek churches, under this name. The 
Nativity of Christ, also observed by the Protestants, 
on 25 Dec. (see Christmas) ; the Nativity of the 
Virgin Mary, not observed by the Protestants at all. 
Pope Sergius I., about 690, established the latter, 
but it was not generally received in France and 
Germany till about iooo ; nor by the eastern Chris- 
tians tiil the 12th century. The festival of the 
nativity of St. John the Baptist, 24 June, Midsum- 
mer-day, is said to have been instituted in 488. 

NATURAL HISTORY was studied by Solo- 
mon, 1014 B.C. (1 Kings iv. 33) ; Aristotle (384-322 
B.C.); by Theophrastus (394-297 B.C.); and by Pliny 
(23-79 a.d.) ; see Botany, Zoology, &c. 

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, see Philo- 
sophy. 

NATURAL SELECTION, see Species. 






NATURALISATION. 



665 



NAVAL BATTLES. 



NATURALISATION is defined to be "the 
making a foreigner or alien a denizen or freeman of 
any kingdom or citj r , and so becoming, as it were, 
both a subject and a native of a king or country 
that by nature he did not belong to." The first act 
of naturalisation passed in 1437 ; and various similar 
enactments were made in most of the reigns from 
that time; several of tbem special acts relating to 
individuals. An act for the naturalisation of the 
Jews passed May, 1753, but was repealed in 1754, 
on the petition of all the cities in England ; see 
Jews, for the privileges since granted them. The 
act for the naturalisation of prince Albert passed 
3 Vict., 7 Feb. 1840. A committee to inquire into 
the naturalisation laws, appointed May, 1868, earl 
of Clarendon chairman, met 25 Oct. 1868; reported 
about Feb. 1869 ; and new acts for this purpose were 
passed 12 May, 1870, and 25 July, 1872. In 1870 
there were about 9500 Americans in England, and 
about 2,500,000 British subjects in the United States 
of America. By the new act the latter were enabled 
to renounce their allegiance; and by the conven- 
tion signed 3 Feb. 1871, the nationality of British 
subjects was made dependent on choice and not on 
birth. 

NATUEALISM, a realistic style in literature, 
mainly introduced by Balzac, 1829, et seq. 
Edmond and Jules de Goncourt published " Medical and 

Physiological Novels," 1846, et seq. 
Emile Zola, in his " Rougon-Macquart " series, 1871, et 
seq., portrayed deformed and diseased rather than true 
nature. A dramatised form of his "Assommoir," en- 
titled " Drink," was much performed in London in 
1870. 

NATURE, a weekly illustrated journal of 
science, first appeared 4 Nov. 1869; editor, Mr. 
Joseph Norman Lockyer, F.BS. 
The French publication, La Nature, appeared in 1892. 

NATURE PRINTING. This process con- 
sists in impressing objects, such as plants, mosses, 
feathers, &c, into plates of metal, causing these 
objects, as it were, to engrave themselves ; and 
afterwards taking casts or copies fit for printing 
from. Kniphoft'of Erfurt, between 1728 and 1757, 
produced his Herbarium vivum by pressing the plants 
themselves (previously inked) on paper ; the im- 
pressions being afterwards coloured by hand. In 
1S33, Peter Kyhl, of Copenhagen, made use of steel 
rollers and lead plates. In 1842 Mr. Taylor printed 
lace. In 1847 Mr. Twining printed ferns, grasses,- 
and plants ; and in the same year Dr. Branson sug- 
gested the application of electrotyping to the im- 
pressions. In 1849, professor Leydolt, of Vienna, 
by the able assistance of Mr. Andrew Worring, ob- 
tained impressions of agates and fossils. The first 
practical application of this process is in Von 
Heufler's work on the Mosses of Arpasch, in Tran- 
sylvania; the second (the first in this country) in 
" The Ferns of Great Britain and Ireland," edited 
by Dr. Lindley, the illustrations to which were pre- 
pared under the superintendence of Mr. Henry 
Bradbury in 1855-56, who also in 1859-60 printed 
"The British Sea-weeds," edited by W. G. John- 
stone and Alex. Croall. The process was applied to 
butterflies by Joseph Merrin of Gloucester, in 1864. 

NATURFORSCHER GESELL- 
SCHAFT, see German Union. 

NAUCRATIS, see under Egypt Exploration 
Fund. 

NAUTICAL ALMANAC, first published in 

1767, edited by Dr. Neville Maskelyne, astronomer 
royal; the new and improved series began in 1834. 
Dr. John Kussell Hind, for many years superin- 
tendent, was succeeded by Mr. A. M. W. Downing, 
Jan. 1892. 



NAUVOO, Illinois, N. America, a city of the 
M.ormom.tes,(ichich see) ; founded 1840; left 1848. 

NAVAL AND MILITARY ADMINI- 
STRATION, Royal Commission appointed con- 
sisting of Lord Harrington, Lord R. Chun-hill, 
Lord Revelstoke, Mr. Campbell Bannerman, Mr. 
Ismay, General Brackenbury, Admiral Sir F. 
Richards, Sir R. Temple, and Mr. W. H. Smith, 7 
June, 1888. 
First report, containing various recommendations with 

evidence, issued 20 March, 1890. 
Mr. E. Stanhope, the war secretary, reports the proposal 
for the establishment of a council within the cabinet, 
for naval and military affairs, to decide on questions 
between the two departments, also to establish a war 
office council and a promotion board, 3 July, 1890. 

NAVAL AND MILITARY OFFICERS' 
ASSOCIATION, instituted to provide employ- 
ment for retired officers, proposed spring 1885. 

NAVAL ARCHITECTS' INSTITU- 
TION was established in Jan. i860. Annual 
sessions are held. 

NAVAL ARCHITECTURE. A scientific 
committee of fifteen appointed to consider the pre- 
sent state of naval architecture, and the require- 
ments of naval warfare ; 6 naval officers, 9 scientific 
men ; lord Dufferin chairman ; about 19 Dec. 1870. 
A royal school of naval architecture, established at 
South Kensington in 1864, merged into the Royal 
Naval College, Greenwich. 
M. Raoul Pictet, of Geneva, announced his discovery of 

a new kind of keel to glide over water, Aug. 1881. 

NAVAL ARTILLERY VOLUNTEER 
FORCE, ROYAL, established by act passed 5 Aug. 

1873- 

On March 22, 1889, a proposal to utilise these volunteers 
who are stationed at various ports, was made in the 
house of lords. 

NAVAL ASYLUM, Royal, begun at Pad- 
dington in 1801, was transferred to Greenwich in 
1807. The interior of the central portion of the 
building was commenced in 1613 by Anne, queen of 
James I., and completed in 1635 by queen Henrietta- 
Maria, whose arms still adorn the ceiling of the 
room in which her son Charles II. was born, 1630. 

NAVAL BATTLES. The first sea-fight on 
record is that between the Corinthians and Corcy- 
reans, 665 B.C. The following are among the most 
celebrated naval engagements : for the details of 
which see separate articles. 

B.C. 

Battle of Salamis (Greek victory) . . 20 Oct. 480 

Battle of Eurymedon (ditto) 469 

Battle of Cyzicus ; the Lacedemonian fleet taken by 

Alcibiades, the Athenian 410 

Battle of Arginusas 4°6 

Battle of iEgospotamos (Spartans victors) . . . 405 
The Persian fleet, under Conon, defeats the Spartan, 
at Cnidos ; Pisander, the Athenian admiral, is 
killed ; and the maritime power of the Lacede- 
monians destroyed . .... 394 
Battle of Mylse (Romans defeat Carthaginians) . . 260 
The Roman fleet, off Trepanum, destroyed by the 

Carthaginians 249 

The Carthaginian fleet destroyed by the consul Lu- 

tatius 241 

Battle of Aetium 3 1 

The emperor Claudius II. defeats the Goths, and 

sinks 2000 of their ships .... a.d. 269 
Battle of Lepanto (Turks defeated) . . 7 Oct. 1571 
Bay of Gibraltar; Dutch and Spaniards (a bloody 
conflict and decisive victory, giving for a time the 
superiority to the Dutch) . . . 25 April, 1607 
The Austrians defeat the Italians a1 Lissa(see TAssa) 

20 July, 186c 

NAVAL ENGAGEMENTS IN BRITISH IllSToKY. 
[Ilallain considers that the naval glory of Kngland 
can first be traced " in a continuous track of 
light" from the period of the Commonwealth.] 



NAVAL BATTLES. 



666 



NAVAL BATTLES. 



Alfred with 10 galleys, defeated 300 sail of Danish 
pirates 011 the Dorset and Hampshire coast. Asser's 
Life of Alfred 897 

Edward III. defeats the French near Slays 24 June, 1340 

Off Winehelsea ; Edward III. defeated the Spanish 
fleet of 40 large ships, and captured 26 29 Aug. 1350 

The English and Flemings ; the latter signally de- 
feated 1371 

Earl of Arundel defeats a Flemish fleet of 100 sail, 
and captures 80 ... 24 March, 1387 

Near Milford Haven ; the English take 8, and de- 
stroy 15 French ships 1405 

Off Harfleur ; the duke of Bedford takes or destroys 
nearly 500 French ships . . -15 Aug. 1416 

In the Downs ; a Spanish and Genoese fleet cap- 
tured by the earl of Warwick . . . . 1459 

Bay of Biscay ; English and French, indecisive, 

10 Aug. 15 12 

Sir Edward Howard attacks the French under Prior 
John; repulsed and killed . . . 25 April, 151 3 

The Spanish Armada destroyed . . 19 July, 1588 

Dover straits ; the Dutch admiral Van Tromp de- 
feated by admiral Blake 28 Sept. The Dutch 
surprise the English in the Downs, 80 sail engag- 
ing 40 English, several of which are taken or 
destroyed, 28 Nov. ; the Dutch admiral sails in 
triumph through the channel, with a broom at his 
mast-head, to denote that he had swept the English 
from the seas . . . . .29 Nov. 1652 

The English gain a victory over the Dutch fleet off 
Portsmouth, taking and destroying 11 men-of-war 
and 30 merchantmen. Van Tromp was the Dutch, 
and Blake the English admiral . 18-20 Feb. 1653 

Again, off the North Foreland. The Dutch and 
English fleets consisted of near 100 men-of-war 
each. Van Tromp commanded the Dutch ; Blake, 
Monk, and Deane, the English. Six Dutch ships 
taken ; 11 sunk, and the rest ran into Calais roads 

2 June, ,, 
Again, on the coast of Holland ; the Dutch lose 30 

men-of-war, and admiral Tromp was killed (the 
seventh and last battle) . . .31 July, „ 

At Cadiz, when two galleons, worth 2,000,000 pieces 
of eight, were taken by Blake . . . Sept. 1656 

Spanish fleet vanquished, and burnt in the harbour 
of Santa Cruz by Blake . . . .20 April, 1657 

English and French : 130 of the Bordeaux fleet de- 
stroyed by the duke of York (afterwards James II.) 

4 Dec. 1664 

The duke of York defeats the Dutch fleet off Har- 
wich ; Opdam, the Dutch admiral, blown up, with 
all his crew ; 18 capital ships taken, 14 destroyed 

3 June, 1665 
The earl of Sandwich took 12 men-of-war and 2 India 

ships 4 Sept. ,, 

A contest between the Dutch and English fleets for 
four days. The English lose 9, and the Dutch 15 
ships 1-4 June, 1666 

Decisive engagement at the mouth of the Thames, 
the English gain a glorious victory. The Dutch 
lose 24 men-of-war, 4 admirals killed, and 4000 
seamen 25, 26 July, ,, 

The Dutch admiral de Buyter sails up the Thames 
and destroys some ships . . . n June, 1667 

Twelve Algerine ships of war destroyed by sir Ed- 
ward Spragg . . . . . 10 May, 1671 

Battle of Southwold bay (see Solebay) 28 May, 1672 

Coast of Holland ; by prince Rupert, 28 May, 4 
June, and n Aug., sir E. Spragg killed ; d'Etrees 
and Ruyter defeated 1673 

Off Beachy Head ; the English and Dutch defeated 
by the French under Tourville . . 30 June, 1690 

Who is defeated by them near Cape LaHogue,i9 Mav > l6 9 2 

Off St. Vincent ; the English and Dutch squadrons, 
under admiral Rooke, defeated by the French, 

16 June, 1693 

Off Carthagena, between admiral Benbow and the 
French fleet, commanded by admiral Du Casse. 
Fought io Aug. 1702 

The other ships of the squadron falling astern, left 
Benbow alone to maintain the battle. A chain- 
shot shattered his leg, yet he would not he 
removed from the quarter-deck, but continued 
lighting till the morning, when the French 
sheered off. He died in Oct. following, of his 
wounds, at Jamaica, where, soon after his arrival, 
he received a letter from the French admiral, of 
which the following is a translation : — 



"Carthagena, 22 Aug. 1702. 
"Sir, — I had little hopes, on Monday last, but 
to have supped in your cabin ; yet it pleased God 
to order it otherwise. I am thankful for it. As 
for those cowardly captains who deserted you, 
hang them up, for by G — d they deserve it. 

"Du Casse." 

Captains Kirby and Wade were shot on their arrival 
at Plymouth, having been previously tried by a 
court-martial. 

Sir George Rooke defeats the French fleet off Vigo 
{which see) . . . . . .12 Oct. 1702 

Off Malaga ; bloody engagement between the French, 
under the count of Thoulouse, and the English, 
under sir George Rooke . . -13 Aug. 1704 

At Gibraltar ; French lose 5 men-of-war . 5 Nov. ,, 

In the Mediterranean, admiral Leake took 60 French 
vessels, laden with provisions . . .22 May, 1708 

Spanish fleet of 29 sail totally defeated by sir George 
Byng, in the Faro of Messina . . 31 July, 1718 

Bloody battle off Toulon ; Matthews and Lestoek 
against the fleets of France and Spain. Here 
brave captain Cornewallfell with 42 men, including 
officers ; and the victory was lost by a misunder- 
standing between the English admirals 11 Feb. 1743-4 

Off Cape Finisterre ; the French fleet of 38 sail taken 
by admiral Anson 3 May, 1747 

Off Finisterre ; when admiral Hawke took 7 men-of- 
war of the French 14 Oct. ,, 

Off Newfoundland ; when admiral Boseawen took 2 
men-of-war 10 June, 1755 

Off Cape Frangoise ; 7 ships defeated by 3 English, 

21 Oct. 1757 

Admiral Pocock defeats the French fleet iri the East 
Indies, in two actions, 1758, and again . . . 1759 

Admiral Boseawen defeats the French under De la 
Clue, off Cape Lagos .... 18 Aug. ,, 

Admiral Hawke defeats the French fleet, com- 
manded by Conflans, in Quiberon Bay, and thus 
prevents a projected invasion of England (see 
Quiberon Bay) 20 Nov. „ 

Keppel took 3 French frigates, and a fleet of mer- 
chantmen 9 Oct. 1762 

On Lake Champlain the provincial force totally de- 
stroyed by admiral Howe . . .11 Oct. 1776 

Capt. Sam. Marshall, of " the saucy.4refli.wsa," 32 guns 
(part of Keppel's fleet), summoned La Belle Poule 
to surrender off Ushant, and fired across her bow ; 
after two hours' conflict, the French made sail and 
escaped ..... 16 or 17 June, 1778 

Off Ushant ; a drawn battle between Keppel and 
d'Orvilliers 27 July, ,, 

In New England ; the American fleet totally de- 
stroyed 30 July, 1779 

Near Cape St. Vincent ; admiral Rodney defeated a 
Spanish fleet under admiral don Langara (see 
Rodney) . . 16 Jan. 1780 

At St. Jago ; Mons. Suffrein defeated by commodore 
Johnstone 16 April, 1781 

Dogger-bank, between admiral Parker and the Dutch 
admiral Zoutman : 400 killed on each side, 5 Aug. ,, 

Admiral Rodney defeated the French going to at- 
tack Jamaica ; took 5 ships of the line, and sent 
the French admiral, Comte de Grasse, prisoner 
to England 12 April, 1782 

The British totally defeated the fleets of France and 
Spain in the Bay of Gibraltar . . 13 Sept. ,, 

East Indies : a series of actions between sir Edward 
Hughes and Suffren, viz. : 17 Feb. 1782, the 
French had 11 ships to 9 ; 12 April they had 18 
ships to u, yet were completely beaten. Again, 
6 July, off Trincomalee, they had 15 to 12, and 
were again beaten with loss of 1000 killed, 3 
Sept. 1782 ; again 20 June, 1783 

Lord Howe defeated the French off Ushant, took 6 
ships of war, and sunk one . . .1 June, 1794 

Sir Edward Pellew took 15 sail ; burnt 7, out of a 
fleet of 35 sail of transports . . .8 March, 1795 

French fleet defeated, and 2 ships of war taken by 
admiral Hotham. Fought . . 14 March, ,, 

Admiral Cornwallis took 8 transports, convoyed by 
3 French men-of-war. Fought . . 7 June, ,, 

Eleven Dutch East Indiainen taken by the Sceptre, 
man-of-war, and some armed British Indiamen in 
company 19 June, ,, 

L'Orient : the French fleet defeated by lord Brid- 
port, and 3 ships of the line taken ; see L'Orient, 

23 June, „ 



NAVAL BATTLES. 



667 



NAVAL BATTLES. 



Dutch fleet, under admiral Lucas, in Saldanha Bay, 
surrenders to sir George Keith Elphiustone (see 
Saldanha Bay) 17 Aug. 1796 

Victory off Cape St. Vincent (which see) . 14 Feb. 1797 

Unsuccessful attempt on Santa Cruz ; admiral 
Nelson loses his right arm . . .24 July, ,, 

Victory of Camperdown (which see) . 11 Oct. ,, 

Of the Nile (ivhieh see) 1 Aug. 1798 

Off the coast of Ireland ; a French fleet of 9 sail, 
full of troops, as succours to the Irish, engaged 
by sir John Borlase Warren, and 5 taken, 12 Oct. ,, 

The Texel fleet of 12 ships and 13 Indiamen surren- 
ders to admiral Mitchell ... 30 Aug. 1799 

Capture of the Cerbere (which see) . . 29 July, 1800 

Copenhagen bombarded (see Copenhagen), 2 April, 1801 

Gibraltar bay ; engagement between the French 
and British fleets ; the Hannibal, of 74 guns, lost, 

6 July, 1801 

Off Cadiz ; sir James Saumarez obtains a victory 
over the French and Spanish fleets ; 1 ship cap- 
tured. Fought 12 July, ,. 

Sir Robert Calder, with 15 sail, takes 2 ships (both 
Spanish) out of 20 sail of the French and Spanish 
fleets, off Ferrol (Calder censured) . 22 July, 1805 

Victory off Trafalgar (which see) . . 21 Oct. „ 

Sir R. Strachan, with 4 sail of British, captures 4 
French ships, off Cape Ortega! . . 4 Nov. „ 

In the West Indies ; the French defeated by sir T. 
Duckworth ; 3 sail of the line taken, 2 driven on 
shore 6 Feb. 1806 

Sir John Borlase Warren captures 2 French ships, 

13 March, „ 

Admiral Duckworth effects the passage of the 
Dardanelles (see article Dardanelles) . 19 Feb. 1807 

Copenhagen fleet captured . . . .8 Sept. ,, 

The Russian fleet of several sail, in the Tagus, sur- 
renders to the British .... 3 Sept. 1808 

Aix or Basque Roads ; 4 sail of the line, &c, de- 
stroyed by lord Gammer . . . n-12 April, 1809 

Two Russian flotillas of numerous vessels taken or 
destroyed by sir J. Saumarez . . . July, ,, 

French ships of the line driven on shore by lord 
Collingwood (two of them burnt by the French 
next day) 25 Oct. „ 

Bay of Rosas, where lieut. Tailour, by direction of 
captain Hallowell, takes or destroys 11 war and 
other vessels (see Rosas Bay) ... 1 Nov. ,, 

Basseterre ; La Loire and La Seine, French frigates, 
destroyed by sir A. Cochrane . . .18 Dec. ,, 

The Spartan frigate gallantly engages a large French 
force in the bay of Naples ... 3 May, 18 10 

Action between the Tribune, captain Reynolds, and 
4 Danish brigs. Fought . . . .12 May, ,, 

Isle of Rlie ; 17 vessels taken or destroyed by the 
Armide and Cadmus . . . -17 July, ,, 

Captain Barrett, in the merchant vessel Cumber- 
land, with 26 men, defeats four privateers and 
takes 170 prisoners .... 16 Jan. 1811 

Twenty-two vessels from Otranto taken by the 
Cerberus and Active. .... 22 Feb. „ 

Off Lissa (which see); brilliant victory gained over 
a Franco-Venetian squadron byeapt. Win. Hoste. 

13 March, ,, 

Amazon French frigate destroyed off Cape Barfleur 

25 March, ,, 

Sagone Bay ; 2 French store-ships burnt by captain 
Barrie's ships 1 May, ,, 

The British sloop Little Belt, and American ship 
President: their rencontre . . 16 May, ,, 

Off Madagascar ; 3 British frigates under captain 



Schomberg, engage 3 French larger-sized, with 
troops on board, and capture 2 . .20 May, 

The Thames and Cephalus capture 36 French vessels 

July, 

The Naiad frigate attacked in presence of Bonaparte 
by 7 armed praams ; they were gallantly repulsed 

21 Sept. 

French frigates Pauline and Pomone captured by the 
British frigates Alceste, Active, and Unite 29 Nov. 

Rivoli, 84 guns, taken by Victorious, 74, 21 Feb. 

L'Orient : 2 French frigates, &c, destroyed by the 
Northumberland, capt. Hotham . 22 May, 

Guerriere, British frigate, 46 small guns, captured 
by the American ship Constitution, 54 guns (an 
unequal contest) 19 Aug. 

British brig Frolic captured by the American sloop 
Wasp 18 Oct. 

British frigate Macedonian taken by the American 
ship United States, large class . . 25 Oct. 

British frigate Java taken by the American ship 
Constitution, large class . . . .29 Dec. 

British frigate Amelia loses 46 men killed aud 95 
wounded, engaging a French frigate . 7 Feb. 

British sloop Peacock captured by the American 
ship Hornet ; she was eo disabled that she sunk 
with part of her crew ... 25 Feb. 

American frigate Chesapeake taken by the Shannon, 
captain Broke (see Chesapeake) . . 1 June, 

American ships Growler and Eagle taken by British 
gun -boats 3 June, 

American sloop Argus taken by the British sloop 
Pelican 14 Aug. 

French frigate La Trave, 44 guns, taken by the 
Andromache, of 38 guns . . . 23 Oct. 

French frigate Ceres taken by the British ship 
Tagus 6 Jan. 

French frigates Alcmene and Iphigenia taken by the 
VeneroMe 16 Jan. 

French frigate Terpsichore taken by the Majestic 

3 Feb. 

French ship Clorinde taken by the Dryad and 
Achates, after an action with the Eurotas, 25 Feb. 

French frigate L'Etoile captured by the Hebrus, 

27 March, 

American frigate Essex captured by the Plimbe and 
Cherub 29 March, 

British sloop Avon sunk by the American sloop 
Wasp 8 Sept. 

Lake Cham plain : the British squadron captured by 
the American, after a severe conflict, n Sept. 

American ship President cajitured by the Endymion 

15 Jan. 

Algiers bombarded by lord Exmouth ; see Algiers 

27 Aug. 

Navarino (which see) 20 Oct. 

Action between the British ships Volage and 
Hyacinth and 29 Chinese war-junks, which were 
defeated 3 Nov. 

Bombardment and fall of Acre. The British 
squadron under admiral Stopford achieved this 
triumph with trifling loss, while the Egyptians 
lost 2000 killed and wounded, and 3000 prisoners 
(see Syria) 3 Nov. 

Lagos attacked and taken by commodore Bruce, 
with a squadron consisting of the Penelope, Blood- 
hound, Sampson, and Teazer, war-steamers, and 
the Philomel brig of war . . 26-27 Dec. 

[For naval actions which cannot be called regular 
battles, see China, Japan, and Egypt, 1882.] 



1816 
1827 

1839 



1840- 



1851 



SHIPS TAKEN OR DESTROY]:!) BY THE NAVAL AND MARINE FORCES OF GREAT BRITAIN: 



Iii the French War, ending 1802. 


In the French V 


far, ending 18 


[4. 


Force. 


■i 

c 

1 




Q 


■a 

'3 

ci 
DO 


1 ?, 


Total 




Spanish. 
Danish. 


Russian. 


'C 


Total. 




45 


25 


II 


2 


83 


7° 


27 23 


4 





124 


Fifties .... 


2 


1 


O 





3 


7 


1 





1 


9 


Frigates 


133 


31 


20 


7 


191 


77 


36 24 


6 


5 


148 


Total .... 


161 


32 


55 


16 


264 


188 


64 


16 


7 


13 


2S8 


341 1 89 


86 


25 


541 


342 


127 


64 


'7 


19 


569 



NAVAL COLLEGE. 



NAVY. 



NAVAL COLLEGE, Eoyal, established 
at Greenwich Hospital, and opened I Feb. 1873. 

NAVAL DEFENCE ACTS, see Colonies, 
1865 and 1887 and Navy of England, 1889. 

NAVAL EXHIBITION, Eoyal, Chelsea 
embankment, was opened by the prince of Wales, 
2 May ; visited by the Queen, 7 May ; by the Ger- 
man emperor, 10 July ; by the prince of Naples, 28 
July; closed 24 Oct. 1891. 

Sir William Dowell was chairman of the executive com- 
mittee. 
The exhibition consisted of nine galleries, named Nelson, 
Benbow, &c, containing relics, pictures, ordnance, 
ancient and modern, models of the Victory, light- 
houses, &c., and an arctic panorama. There was also 
a lake for nautical evolutions. 
Total number of persons admitted 2,351,683 ; receipts, 
I S5.447 ? - > by the surplus profit, 47,010^, the Royal 
Naval Fund was founded, 29 June, 1892. 

NAVAL KNIGHTS of Windsor, see 

Poor Knights. 

NAVAL EESEEVE, EEVIEWS, 
SALUTE, AND VOLCJNTEEES, see under 
Nary. 

Naval volunteer home defence association, formed in 
1885 ; decided in May, 1889, to break up in June 
following. 

NAVAEINO (S. W. Greece), settled by the 
Arabs 6th century ; taken by the Turks, 1500 ; by 
Venetians, 1686; by Turks, 1718 ; by Greeks, 1821 ; 
by Turks, 1825. Near here, on 20 Oct. 1827, the 
combined fleets of England, France, and Russia, 
under command of admiral Codrington, nearly 
destroyed the Turkish and Egj'ptian fleet. More 
than thirty ships, many of them four-deckers, were 
blown up or burnt, chiefly by the Turks themselves, 
to prevent their falling into the hands of their 
enemies. This destruction of the Turkish naval 
power was characterised by the duke of "Wellington 
as an " untoward event." The port is also called 
Navarine. 

NAVAEEE, now a province of Spain, formed 
a part of the Roman dominions, and was conquered 
from the Saracens by Charlemagne, 778. His 
descendants appointed governors, one of whom, 
Garcias Ximenes, took the title of king in 857. In 
1076, king Sancho IV. was poisoned, and Sancho 
Ramorez of Aragon seized Navarre. In 1134, 
Navarre became again independent under Garcias 
JEtamorez IV. In 1234, Thibault, count of Cham- 
pagne, nephew of Sancho VII., became sovereign of 
Navarre ; and in 1284, by the marriage of the 
heiress Jane with Philip IV. le Bel, Navarre was 
'united to France. 

SOVEREIGNS OF NAVARRE. 

1274. Jane I. and (1284) Philip-le-Bel of France. 

1305. Louis X. Hutin of France. 

1316. Philip V. the Long, of France. 

1322. Charles I. the Fair, IV. of France. 

1328. Jane II. (daughter of Jane I.), and her husband 

Philip d'Evreux. 
1349. Charles II. , the Bad. 
3387. Charles III., the Noble. 
1425. Blanche, his daughter, and her husband, John of 

Aragon. 
1441. John II., alone, who became king of Aragon, in 

1458. He endeavoured to obtaiu the crown of 

Castile also. 
J1479. Eleanor de Foix, his daughter. 

,, Francis Phoebus de Foix, her son. 
1483. Catherine (his sister) and her husband John 

d'Albret. Ferdinand of Aragon conquers and 

annexes all Navarre south of the Pyrenees, 1512 



Lower Navarre (in France). 
1516. Henry d'Albret. 
1555. Jane d'Albret and her husband, Anthony de 

Bourbon, who died 1562. 
1572. Henry III. who became in 1589 king of France, to 

which Lower Navarre was formally united in 

1609. 

NAVIES, see Fleets. 

NAVIGATION began with the Egyptians and 
Phoenicians. The first laws of navigation originated 
with the Rhodians. The first account we have of 
any considerable voyage is that of the Phoenicians 
sailing round Africa. 

Plane charts and mariner's compass used about . 1420 
Variation of the compass observed by Columbus . 1492 
That the oblique rhomb lines are spiral, discovered 

by Nonius 1537 

First treatise on navigation 1545 

The log first mentioned by Bourne . . . -1577 

Merca tor's chart 1599 

Davis's quadrant, orbackstaff, for measuring angles, 

about 1600 

Logarithmic tables applied to navigation by 

Gunter 1620 

Middle latitude sailing introduced .... 1623 
Mensuration of a degree, Norwood . . . . 1631 

Hedley's quadrant 1731 

Harrison's time-keeper used ..... 1764 

Nautical Almanac first published .... 1767 
Barlow's theory of the deviation of the compass . 1820 
Quarterly Journal of Naval Science, edited by E. J. 

Reed, published April, 1872-5 

See Compass, Latitude, Longitude, Steam, &c. 

NAVIGATION LAWS. A code of maritime 
laws is attributed to Richard I. of England, said 
to have been decreed at the isle of Oleron, 
1194, and further enactments were made by 
Richard II. in 1381. — In Oct. 1651, the parliament 
passed an act entitled "Goods from foreign parts, 
by whom to be imported," the principles of which 
were affirmed by 12 Charles II. c. 18, "an act for 
the encouraging and increasing of shipping and 
navigation" (1660). The latter act restricts the 
importation and exportation of goods from or to 
Asia, Africa, or America, to English ships, of which 
the masters and three-fourths of the mariners are 
to be English. '1 his was followed by many acts 
of similar tenor ; which were consolidated by 3 & 4 
Will. IV. c. 54 (1833). These acts were in the 
whole or in part repealed by the act " to amend the 
laws in force for the encouragement of British 
shipping and navigation" (passed 12 & 13 Vict. c. 
29, 26 June, 1849, after much opposition), and 
which came into operation 1 Jan. 1850. The steam 
navigation act passed 14 & 15 Vict. c. 79, 1851, 
came into operation I Jan. 1852. The act regulating 
the navigation of the river Thames was passed in 
1786.— In Feb. 1865 the emperor recommended the 
modification of the French navigation laws ; in Feb. 
1872, new restrictions were laid upon foreign ships, 
chiefly affecting British. 

NAVIGATOES (or Navvies). These helpers 
in the construction of railways probably derived 
their name (about 1830) from formerly making the 
inland navigation in Lincolnshire, &c, and are 
doubtfully said to be descendants of the original 
Dutch canal labourers. Navvy Mission Society 
(new) met at Lambeth palace, 7 May, 1880. A 
"steam navvy" suitable for working in sand, 
gravel, or heavy clay, made by Messrs. Ruston, 
Proctor, & Co., of Lincoln, 1878. 

NAVY OF ENGLAND, " whereon, under the 
good providence of God, the wealth, safety, and 
strength of the kingdom chiefly depends," Act for 
the government of the Nary, bee Naval Battles. 



NAVY. 



669 



NAVY 



A fleet of galleys built by Alfred .... 897 

The number of galleys greatly increased under 
Edgar, who claimed to be lord of the ocean sur- 
rounding Britain about 965 

A formidable fleet equipped by the contribution of 
every town in England, in the reign of Ethelred II. 
when it rendezvoused at Sandwich, to be ready to 
oppose the Danes 1007 

A fleet collected by Edward the Confessor to resist 
the Norwegians, 1042 ; and by Harold to resist 
the Normans 1066 

Richard I. collected a fleet and enacted naval laws 
about 1191 

[The Cinque ports and maritime towns frequently 
furnished fleets commanded by the king or his 
officers. ] 

Edward III. 's fleet defeat the French at the battle 
of Sluys, 24 June, 1340; and the Spanish off 

"Winchelsea 29 Aug. 1350 

■ Henry V. made efforts to increase the navy . 1415-1422 

Henry VII. built the Royal Harry ; considered to be 
the beginning of the Royal Navy . . . . 1488 

The Trinity house established and the Navy office 
appointed (see Admiralty and Trinity house) . 1512 

[The navy then consisted of Great Harry, 1200 tons, 
two ships, of 800 tons, and six or seven smaller.] 

James I. and Charles I. improve the navy. The 
Sovereign of the Seas launched 1637 

Frigates said to have been first built . . . 1649 

James II. systematises sea-signals and improves the 
navy 1685-8 



Years. 


Ships. 


Tons. 


Men. 


Navy Estimates. 


1546 


58 


12.455 


8,546 


no account. 


1558 


27 


7,110 


3.565 


no account. 


1578 


24 


10,506 


6,700 


no account. 


1603 


42 


i7.°55 


8,346 


no account. 


1658 


157 


57,000 


21,910 


no account. 


1688 


173 


101,892 


42,000 


no account. 


1702 


272 


159,020 


40,000 


1,056,915?. 


1760 


412 


321,134 


70,000 


3,227,143 


1793 


498 


433.226 


45,000 


5,525,331 


1800 


767 


668, 744 


135,000 


12,422,837 


1808 


869 


892,800 


143,800 


17,496,047 


1814 


901 


966,000 


146,000 


18,786,509 



Reign of George III. ; dimensions of ships in- 
creased ; copper sheathing adopted for ships of 
every class ; establishments of naval stores pro- 
vided at all dockyards and naval stations ; and 
various improvements made in shipbuilding 1760- 

GreatBritainhadgoi ships; i77of theline,ini8i4; 621 
ships, some of 140 guns each, and down to survey- 
ing vessels of two guns only ; 148 sail employed 
on foreign and home service 

The screw propeller introduced in the Royal Navy, 

The total number of ships of all sizes in commission, 
183 1 Jan. 

The Navy consisted of 339 sailing and 161 steam 
vessels 

Naval Coast Volunteers' act passed . . Aug. 

Of 315 sailing vessels, 97 screw steamers, and 114 
paddle steamers April, 

Review of the Baltic fleet at Spithead by the Queen, 
10 March, 1854, and 23 April, 

Of 271 sailing vessels, carrying 9594 guns, and 258 
steam vessels, carrying 6582 guns ; together 573 
vessels, carrying 16,176 guns ; also 155 gun- 
boats, and in vessels on harbour service, July, 

Proclamation for manning the navy . . 30 April, 

Naval Reserve Force authorised . . . Aug. 

Flogging not to be inflicted on first-class seamen 
except after a trial Dec. 

Great excitement respecting the French Govern- 
ment building the plated frigate Gloire (see 
Navy of France) 

The Warrior, our first iron-plated steam frigate, 
the largestvesseltheninthe world except the Great 
Eastern (see Steam), length, 380 ft. breadth, 58 ft. ; 
iron-plate, 4^ inches thick; 6170 tons burthen; 
cost about 400,000?. ; launched [censured in 1864], 

29 Dec. 

A royal commission recommends the abolition of 
the board of admiralty, and the appointment of a 
minister of the navy department . . March, 



1830 



1850 
1853 

1854 

1856 



1859 



Lord Clarence Paget, secretary of admiralty, states 
that England has 67 steam ships of the line ; 
while France has 37, Russia 9, Spain 3, and Italy 1 

11 April, 

New act for the government of the navy (the Naval 
Discipline act) passes .... 6 Aug. 

Four iron-plated vessels (400 ft. long ; 59J ft. wide ; 
and cost about 600,000/. each) building . Dec. 

Cupola or Turret ships. Capt. Cowper Coles' mode 
of constructing iron-plated vessels, with a cupola 
or turret for firing from, the other parts of the 
vessel being nearly submerged, made known in, 
1855, and recommended to the admiralty in 1861 ; 
adopted by Ericson in the Monitor, 1862 ; pro- 
posed to be adopted by the British government, 

Six different kinds of plated vessels said to be con- 
structing ; E. J. Reed authorised to build the 
Enterprise as a specimen of an iron-plated sea- 
going vessel April, 

Royal Oak, iron-clad steamer, launched at Chatham, 

10 Sept. 

Twin or double screws for vessels of light draught 
introduced 

Mr. E. J. Reed appointed chief constructor of the 
Royal Navy Jan. 

Navy consists of 1014 vessels of all classes ; 85 line- 
of-battle ships ; 69 frigates ; 30 screw corvettes, 

Jan. 

Steam ram Valiant launched . . .14 Oct. 

Minotaur iron-steamer launched . . 12 Dec. 

Royal School of Naval Architecture, South Kensing- 
ton, established 

The turret-ship Sovereign, constructed on Coles' 
principle, put out of commission, and placed 
among reserved ships ; this blamed by some, Oct. 

Naval models from the time of Henry VIII. col- 
lected early in the present century by sir Robert 
Sejipings, removed to South Kensington Museum, 

Dec. 

29 iron-clad vessels building " to be ready for sea 
this year " March, 

Bellerophon, iron-clad, by Mr. E. J. Reed ; and the 
Lord Warden, iron-clad, launched . . May, 

A British fleet entertained at Cherbourg, Brest, &c. , 
15 Aug., &c. ; and a French fleet at Portsmouth, 

29-31 Aug. 

Royal Navy " consists of 735 vessels and steam- 
ships of all classes " (30 iron-clads ready for sea), 
(see under Cannon) .... July, 

New Naval Discipline act, passed . . . Aug. 

Difficult launch of the Northumberland iron-clad, 
17 March, et seq. ; effected . . .17 April, 

Experimental cruise of the iron-clad fleet in stormy 
weather ; general performance satisfactory (Times) 

Sept. -Nov. 

Acts for protection of naval stores passed, 1867 and 

150 wooden ships of all classes sold . 

[Of these were 7 line-of battle ships and 6 frigates, 
cost above 1,000,000?., sold for 87,543?.] 

Hercules, 12, armour-plated ship, 1200 horse-power, 
floated at Chatham 10 Feb. 

The Monarch, our first armour-clad turret ship, 
launched at Chatham .... 25 May, 

47 armoured vessels afloat, with 598 guns ; 66 
efficient unarmoured vessels ; and a large number 
of vessels of the old type, constitute the navy, 

April, 

Satisfactory trial trip of the Navy Reserve squadron , 

July, 

Explosion of the boiler of the Thistle gun-boat, 011 
trial trip ; 10 killed 3 Nov. 

Devastation, iron turret ship, first rivet of her keel 
clinched by Mr. Childers, the first lord, at Ports- 
mouth 12 Nov. 

Resignation of Mr. E. J. Reed, chief constructor, 

July. 

Ad in. sir T. M. C. Symonds reports on the Monarch 
and Captain turret ships (the latter said to be over- 
masted and unfit to cruise under sail alone) Aug. 

H.M.S. iron-clad frigate Triumph launched at 
Jarrow 27 Sept 

The Captain founders near Finisterre about 
12. 15 a.m 7 Sept. 

472 lives were lost, including the captain. Ilugli 
Burgoyne, Captain Cowper rules, (lie designer of 
the ship, Mr. Childers (a son of the first lord), 
and other officers, the (■lite of the service ; iS men 
of the crew were saved. " She capsized in a 



1865 



859-67 



1S70 



NAVY. 



670 



NAVY. 



heavy squall shortly after midnight, and went 
•down in three minutes." — Gunner's report. Her 
destruction was attributed to too low free-board, 
heavy top- weight, masts, and hurricane deck. 
She cost 440,000?. She was built by Messrs. 
Laird at Birkenhead. 
A court-martial for the nominal trial of James May, 
the gunner, and 17 other survivors, was held 27 
Sept. to 4 Oct. ; Mr. E. J. Reed and other emi- 
nent authorities were examined ; the verdict was, 
that the loss of the ship was due to instability 
from faulty construction : " a grave departure 
from her original design having been committed " 

8 Oct. 1870 
Iteport on the Monarch that her reserve of energy 

to prevent upsetting by a squall, is 16 to 1 of 
that of the Captain. — Times . . . 10 Nov. ,, 

Navy. — 55 armoured vessels afloat ; 9 constructing ; 
effective force afloat, 354 vessels ; and a large 
number of others 1871 

Megcera troopship lost near Amsterdam island (see 
Wrecks) 16 June, ,, 

The Aginoourt, capt. Hamilton Beamish, 6621 tons, 
struck on the Pearl Rock near Gibraltar, 1 1 a., m. 
11 July ; got off by great skill and management 
by the Hercules, capt. lord Guildford . 4 July, ,, 

I After trial, admirals Wellesley and Wilmot ordered 
to strike flags ; capts. Beamish and Well super- 
seded ; others censured ; lord Guildford com- 
mended, Aug. 1S71.] 

Turret vessels of the Monitor type designed by E. 
J. Reed, launched : the Glatton, 6 March ; Devas- 
tation, 12 July ; Cyclops ... 18 July, ,, 

ZN"ew rules respecting promotions, &c, published 

9 Feb. 1872 
The Thunderer, ocean-going turret ship, launched 

at Pembroke ..... 25 March, „ 

Lord Clyde, iron-clad, stranded off Pantellaria, 15 
March ; capt. Bythesea and staff-commander 
"May dismissed the service . . . . May, ,, 

A trial-trip of the Devastation reported successful, 

iS April, 1873 

Navy. — 23 great iron-clads ; 27 smaller . Aug. ,, 

*' We now carry 35-ton guns on board ships in tur- 
rets protected by 14-inch plates" (Times) 28 Aug. „ 

Hoyal Naval Artillery Volunteer force established 
by act passed 5 Aug , , 

H.M.S. Alexandra launched at Chatham . 7 April, 1875 

H.M.S. Vanguard, double-screw iron clad (cost 
350,000!.), sunk by collision with the Iron Duke 
•during a fog off the Wicklow coast ; crew (about 
400) saved ; 50 m. past noon . . .1 Sept. , , 

Court-Martial on capt. Dawkins ; assigned as causes : 
1. That the squadron (under admiral Tarleton), of 
which the Vanguard was one, was going at too 
great a speed for a fog ; 2. That captain Dawkins 
liad left the deck before an ordered evolution was 
performed ; 3. That the speed of the Vanguard 
had been injudiciously reduced ; 4, 5, 6. The in- 
creased speed of the Iron Duke, her improper 
siavigation, and want of signals ; captain Dawkins 
reprimanded and dismissed ; others reprimanded, 

29 Sept. ,, 

The Admiralty Minute considered the speed of the 
squadron no cause of the accident ; censured part 
of admiral Tarleton's evidence on responsibility 
of officers ; and removed lieutenant Evans of the 
Iron Duke from his command . . . 12 Oct. „ 

Iron Duke nearly lost through a valve left open, 

28 Nov. „ 

The Monarch, iron-clad, injured by collision with 
Norwegian ship Halden in the Channel 28 Nov. ,, 

The Inflexible, with 18-inch armour and four 81-ton 
guns, moveable by hydraulic power, launched by 
princess Louise at Portsmouth . . 27 April, 1876 

The Temiraire, smaller iron-clad, launched at Chat- 
ham 9 Ma y» » 

The Thunderer (see 1872 above) : explosion of a 
boiler through sticking of safety valves ; 45 deaths 
ensued ; about 50 injured ; during a trial trip in 
Stoke's Bay, near Portsmouth ; 14 July ; inquest 
begun 27 July ; (about 5,000?. subscribed for the 
sufferers,) ; verdict, accidental deaths . 30 Aug. ,, 

.BaccTwnife, unarm oured war-ship, launched, 19 Oct. „ 

Launched at Glasgow, Nelson, iron-clad . 4 Nov. ,, 
,, ,, Northampton . 18 Nov. ,, 

Euryalus, unarmoured corvette, launched at Chat- 
ham .31 Jan t8 77 



Commission of inquiry respecting the Inflexible, 

appointed about .... 14 July, 1877 
4 new ironclads bought .... March, 1878 
Dreadnought, iron-clad ; 10,886 tons ; engines, 8000 
horse-power ; four 38-ton guns, &c. ; most power- 
ful fighting ship in the world ; constructed . ,, 
Eurydice, H.M.S. frigate ; training ship, foundered 
in a gale off Dunose, Isle of Wight ; about 300 
perished with capt. Hare, 24 March ; with much 
skill and labour raised and taken to Portsmouth 
1 Sept., ordered to be broken up . . Sept. ,, 
The Thunderer (see 1876), a 38-ton gun explodes 
while practising, near Ismid, in the Sea of 
Marmora, Turkey ; 2 officers and 8 men killed, 
and between 30 and 40 wounded . . 2 Jan. 1879 
On investigation the cause assigned was that the 
gun was charged and missed fire ; re-charged and 
both charges were fired, when it exploded Feb. „ 
Agamemnon, iron-clad turret ship ; 8492 tons ; en- 
gines, 6000 horse-power; four 38-ton guns ; 
launched at Chatham ... 17 Sept. ,, 
Collision of the Achilles and Alexandra, off Larnaca, 
Mediterranean ; boats injured, &c. . 2 Oct. „ 

Sham naval attack on Portsmouth ; defended by 
torpedoes, &c 16 Oct. „ 

Thunderer gun experiments at Woolwich (confirm 
decision of investigation committee of Feb. 1879), 

9 Dee. 1879—3 FeD - l88 ° 

Atalanta training ship lost in gale (see Atalanta), 

12—16 Feb. ,, 

Great naval demonstration at Portsmouth ; attack 
on forts ; electric light used at night . 10 Aug. ,, 

Doterel, 6 guns ; capt. Richard Evans ; destroyed 
by explosion (attributed to formation of coal gas, 
3 Sept.) in Straits of Magellan ; out of 150 about 
143 persons perished 26 April, 1881 

Polyphemus, huge double-screw steam armour- 
plated ram and torpedo boat ; launched at Chatham 
(designed by sir G. Sartorius) . . 15 June, „ 

Launch of Canada corvette at Portsmouth, 26 Aug. ; 
of Conqueror, steel-clad turret ship, at Chatham 

8 Sept. ,, 

Triumph, explosion of xerotine siccative (a patent 
drier for paint) near Coquimbo, coast of Chili, 
23 Nov. ; 3 men killed, 7 wounded . . Jan. 1882 

Ajax, new armoured turret-ship, moved from Chat- 
ham 20 Feb. ,, 

Two very large armour-plated war-ships launched ; 
Edinburgh, at Pembroke, 18 March ; Colossus, at 
Portsmouth 21 March, ,, 

The Phoenix lost off Prince Edward's island, 12 Sept. ; 
commander Greenfell dismissed . . 1 Dec. „ 

The Collingwood, of "British Admiral class," 
launched at Pembroke ... 22 Nov. ,, 

Naval Intelligence Committee formed . . Dec. ,, 

The duke of Edinburgh appointed to command the 
Channel fleet .... about 26 Nov. 1883 

Collision of the Defence and Valiant in Bantry Bay, 
18 July; capt. Edwin John Pollard, of the De- 
fence, tried and dismissed from his ship for 
inefficiency 30 July, 1884 

Wasp, gun boat (comm. Nicholls), wrecked off Tory 
island (attributed to bad navigation) ; about 52 
perish 22 Sept. ,, 

Rodney, great iron-clad, launched by the duchess of 
Edinburgh, at Chatham .... 8 Oct. ,, 

Navy Discipline act amended „ 

Great Britain has 46 iron-clads . . . Dec. ,, 

Large and important additions to the navy autho- 
rised Feb. 1885 

Launch of Mersey, ' 'protected corvette, " at Chatham, 

31 March, ,, 

Benbow, ironclad battleship, launched at Blackwall, 

15 June, „ 

Sham battle near Bantry Bay, 30 June ; attempted 
attack on Greenock . . . . 14 July, ,, 

Icarus, warship, launched at Devonport 27 July, „ 

Severn, fast sailing steel corvette launched at 
Chatham 29 Sept. ,, 

Hero, steel built, armour-plated, turreted ram, 
launched at Chatham .... 27 Oct. „ 

Swallow, largest gun vessel launched at Sheerness, ,, 

27 Oct. ,, 

Camperdown, great ironclad war ship launched at 
Portsmouth ... . .24 Nov. „ 

The duke of Edinburgh takes command of the 
Mediterranean fleet .... 22 Feb. 1886 



NAVY. 

Anson, twin-screw armour-plated barbette ship, 
launched at Pembroke dockyard . 17 Feb. 1 

H.M.S. Collingwood, at Portsmouth, 43 ton gun 
burst ; no casualty, 4 May ; stated to be due to 
defective metal 6 Sept. 

Sham naval fights at Milford Haven 16 Aug. et seq. 

H.M.S. Orlando, first of the new class of belted 
cruisers, launched at Jarrow on Tyne . 23 Aug. 

The Undaunted, another belted cruiser, launched 
at Jarrow on Tyne .... 25 Nov. 

Narcissus, new belted cruiser, launched at Hull, 

15 Dec. 

The naval intelligence department formed as a 
committee, 10 April, 1884 ; as a department, 

1 Feb. 1 

Report of commission on admiralty contracts 
censures system and recommends changes, about 

10 March, 

Serpent, large torpedo cruiser launched at Devon- 
port 10 March, 

Victoria (first called Renown), armour clad war- 
ship, launched at Elswick yard, Newcastle, 

9 April, 
Sans Pareil, ironclad war-ship, launched at Black- 
wall 9 May, 

Serious collision between Ajax and Devastation on 
their way to Spithead ... 18 July, 

Grand jubilee naval review by the queen at Spit- 
head ; 135 vessels, 20, 200 men and about 500 guns, 

23 July, 

Naval manceuvres and torpedo experiments on the 
coast Aug. 

Trafalgar, great steel twin-screw turret ram ; 11,940 
tons, 345 feet long, 73 feet broad, launched at 
Portsmouth 20 Sept. 

Nile, ironclad, heaviest yet launched in England ; 
12,000 tons, 345 feet long, 73 feet broad ; launched 
at Pembroke dock .... 27 March, 

H.M.S. Magicienne, twin-screw swift cruiser, 
launched at Go van . . . . 12 May, 

H.M.S. Medea, twin-screw, second class cruiser, 
launched at Chatham .... 9 June, 

H.M.S. Marathon, cruiser, launched by princess 
Beatrice in the Clyde .... 23 Aug. 

Naval manoeuvres, sham capture of Liverpool and 
other ports Aug. 

Lord George Hamilton, first lord, at Glasgow, gives 
a favourable account of the state of the navy 

10 Oct. 
Navy afloat: 62 armoured vessels; 29 protected 

and partially protected ; 282 unprotected ; total, 
373 ships; tonnage, 679,144; cost, 35,635,719/. 

1 Jan. 
Lord George Hamilton proposes resolutions for the 
construction and equipment of 70 ships, includ- 
ing 10 battle ships, (8 first and 2 second class) 
anil 42 cruisers, 18 torpedo boats &c, to be com- 
pleted in 4^ years, cost 21,500,000?. (10,000,000?. 
from the consolidated fund in seven years; 
11,500,000?. from five years' navy estimates), 

7 March, 
The Northbrook programme of 1885 reported nearly 

complete 7 March, 

Lord George Hamilton's resolutions adopted by 

the commons 2-4 April, 

Sir A. Hoskins succeeds the duke of Edinburgh in 
command of the Mediterranean fleet 6 April, 

The Sultan, ironclad, run ashore on a rock at 
Comino channel, Maltese group, 6 March ; 
abandoned ; the crew saved ; after strenuous 
attempts to save her, the vessel sank, 14 March ; 
trial ; captain Rice reprimanded for sailing too 

close to shore 8 April, 

[The admiralty appointed a court to enquire into 
all the circumstances, 29, 30 May, when the 
duke of Edinburgh, who had directed the 
salvage operations, was examined ; the court 
reported its approbation of the steps taken for 
the recovery of the vessel] . . 15 June, 
The Sultan was raised 20 Aug., sailed to Malta 
26 Aug. ; at Spithead . . . .23 Dec. 
II.. M.S. Vulcan, swift cruiser, launched at Ports- 
mouth 13 June, 

Naval defence act passed, royal assent 31 May, 
Tlir fleet assembled for the autumn manoeuvres in- 
spected by the emperor William II. (and his 
brother prince Henry), the prince of Wales, and 
members of both houses of parliament. The dis- 



671 



NAVY. 



play consisted of 20 battle ships (9 first class, 9 
second class and 2 third class), 38 first class 
torpedo boats and other vessels, in all 106 vessels 
(the queen inspected the fleet later in the day), 

5 Aug. 18S 
The naval manoeuvres begin ; sham declaration of 
war, 15 Aug. ; English fleet commanded by adm. 
Tryon, Achill or foreign fleet by adm. Baird ; 
enemies' country, Ireland ; Dublin, Belfast, 
Waterford captured by Tryon ; Edinburgh cap- 
tured, Aberdeen, Sunderland and other towns 
bombarded by Baird, invasion repelled 

22-29 Aug. ,, 
Barham, steel-plated cruiser, launched at Ports- 
mouth n Sept. ,, 

Lilly gunboat struck on a rock, off Point Armour, 
Labrador coast, and sank, 7 lives lost ; heroic 
conduct of the crew, i6Sept. ; commander Russell 
and lieut. Sharp censured and dismissed 4 Oct. ,, 
Blake, protected cruiser, the largest yet constructed, 
length 375 ft., breadth 65 ft., launched at Chat- 
ham 23 Nov. ,, 

Gossamer and Gleaner, gun vessels, launched at 

Sheerness 9 Jan. 189 

Barracouta, cruiser (launched April, 1889), trial 
trip off Margate ; explosion ; Henry Ovendina and 
James Gould killed, 8 severely injured, 7 Feb. ; 
inquest, 10 Feb. ; verdict, accidental death ; 
engineer censured . . . .10 April, ,, 

Latona, war cruiser, launched at Barrow 22 May, ,, 
Pallas, second class cruiser, the first of a set con- 
structed under the Naval Defence act, launched 

at Portsmouth 30 June, ,, 

Blenheim, large cruiser, launched at Blackwall 

5 July, >> 
Naval manceuvres ; defensive fleet under adm. 
sir George Tryon ; enemy's fleet under adm. sir 
Michael Culme-Seymour ; kept the seas but could 
not be met with ; there was much practice and 
many evolutions but no conflict . 9-18 Aug. ,, 
Launch of Melampus, steel protected cruiser, at 

Barrow 2 Aug. ,, 

Andromache, cruiser, launched at Chatham, 14 Aug. ,, 
Serpent, torpedo-cruiser, started from Plymouth 
8 Nov. ; during a gale struck on a rock at Penta 
del Buey on the coast of Camariiias, 5 miles N. of 
cape Villano. Commander Harry L. Ross, lieuts. 
Guy A. J. Greville and Torquil Macleod, Mr. 
James W. Dixon, paymaster, and 169 others were 
drowned ; three seamen, Edwin Burton, Frederick 
Joseph Gould and Oney Luxton were the only 
survivors .... 10-30 p.m. 10 Nov. „ 
The bodies were honourably buried as they were 
washed ashore. Court martial verdict, error in 

navigation 16, 17 Dec. ,, 

A national fund for the relief of the families suffer- 
ing by the wreck, was started at Devonport by 
the duke of Edinburgh, 18 Nov. ; the duke gave 
100?., the duchess 50?., the queen 50?., the prince 
of Wales 25?., see Mansion House Fund and 
Soldiers' and Sailors' Families Association. 
Total sum collected 13,580?., reported . 15 Nov. 189: 
Edgar, first class cruiser, launched at Devonport 

24 Nov. 189c 
Pique, second class twin-screw cruiser ; launched at 

Howdon-on-Tyne .... 13 Dec. ,, 
Earnest appeal on behalf of the rank and file 
(warrant officers, &c), for a system of promo f ion ; 

circulated about 17 Jan. 1S9: 

The queen, in the presence of her three sons and a 
large company at Portsmouth, names and 
launches the Boyal Arthur, first class protected 
cruiser ; and also names, and causes the floating 
out of dock of the Royal Sovereign, the largest 
battleship in the Royal Navy (length 380 feet 
bread tli 75 feet); all very successful . 26 Feb. , 
The Empress of India, great ironclad, 14,150 tons, 
380 feet long, 75 feet broad, with 7 Whitehead 
torpedoes, launched at Pembroke docks by the 
duchess of Connaught . . . . 7 May, ,, 
Cordelia, cruiser ; 2 lieuts. and 4 men killed by the 
explosion of a gun while practising in the Pacific 

ocean 29 June, , 

Naval manoeuvres under admirals Seymour and 
Jones, tactical operations of all kinds 

1^ July-3 Aug. 
Endymion, armoured cruiser, launched at Hull, 



NAVY. 



672 



NEBULAE HYPOTHESIS. 



and named by the marchioness of Salisbury, 

22 July, 1 89 1 

Hood, great turret ship, length 380 ft., breadth 
75 ft., launched at Chatham, and named by Lady 
Hood 30 July, ,, 

Victoria, flagship, runs aground near Platea, 
W. Greece, 29 Jan. ; refloated, little injured, 
5 Feb. et seq. ; arrived at Malta for repairs, 
12 Feb. ; capt. Bourke reprimanded for negligence 
by a court martial .... 25 Feb. 1892 

Grafton, swift cruiser, launched at the Thames 
Ironworks Dockyard .... 30 Jan. ,, 

Repulse, great turret ship, length 380 ft. ; breadth 
75 feet ; launched at Pembroke, 27 Feb. ; the 
Ramilies, a similar vessel, was launched on the 
Clyde 1 March, ,, 

Gibraltar, first class protected cruiser, launched at 
Govan, near Glasgow ... 27 April, „ 

Jason, torpedo gunboat, launched at Barrow-in- 
Furness 14 May, ,, 

Resolution, first class battleship, launched at 
Jarrow-on-Tyne 28 May, „ 

Annual Expenditure of the British Navy. — 1850, 
6,942,3976 ;— 1854, 6,640,5966 1 — 1855 (to 31 March, 
Russian war), 14,490,1056 ; — 1856, 19,654,5856 ; — 1859, 
9,215,487?. ; — 1861, 13,331,668/. ; — 1862, 12,598,042/. ; 

— 1863, 11,370,5886 ; — 1864, 10,821,5966 ; — 1865, 
10,898,2536 ; — 1866, 10,259,7886 ; — 1867, 10,676,1016 ; — 
1868, 11,168,9496 ; — 1869, 11,366,5456 ; — 1870, 9,757,2906 ; 
— 1871, 9,456,6416 ;— 1872, 9,900,4866 ;— 1873, 9,543,0006 ; 

— 1874, 10,279,9006 ; — 1875, 10,680,4046 ; — 1876, 
10,285,1946 ; — 1877, 11,288,8726 ; — 1878, 11,053,9016 ; — 
1879, 10,586,8946 ; — 1880, 10,492,9356 ; — 1881, 
10,725,9196; — 1882, 10,483,9016; — 1883, 10,899,5006; — 
1884-5, 11,645,711/- ; 1885-6, . 12,694,9006 ; 1886-7, 
12,993,1006 ; 1887-8, 12,476,8006 ; 1888-9, 13,082,8006 ; 
1889-90, 13,685,4006 ; 1890-1, 14,557,8566 ; 1891-2, 
14,215,1006 ; 1892-3, 14,240,2006 

Naval Salute to the British Flag began in Alfred's 
reign, and though sometimes disputed, may be said to 
have been continued ever since. The Dutch agreed to 
strike to the English colours in the British seas, in 
1673. The honour of the flag salute at sea was also 
formally assented to by France in 1704, although it 
had been long previously exacted by England ; see 
Flag and Salutes at Sea. 

Naval Uniforms. The first notice of the establishment 
of a uniform in the British naval service, which we 
have met with, occurs in the Jacobite's Journal of 5 
March, 1748, under the head of " Domestic News," in 
these terms : — ' ' An order is said to be issued, re- 
quiring all his majesty's sea-officers, from the admiral 
down to the midshipman, to wear a uniformity of 
clothing, for which purpose pattern coats for dress 
suits and frocks for each rank of officers are lodged at 
the Navy-office, and at the several dockyards for their 
inspection." This is corroborated by the Gazette of 13 
July, 1757, when the first alteration in the uniform 
took place, and in which a reference is made to the 
order of 1748, alluded to in the journal above men- 
tioned, and which in fact is the year when a naval uni- 
form was first established. James I. had indeed 
granted, by warrant of 6 April, 1609, to six of his 
principal masters of the navy, "liverie coats of fine 
red cloth. " The warrant is stated to have been drawn 
verbatim from one signed by queen Elizabeth, but 
which had not been acted upon by reason of her death. 
This curious document is in the British Museum ; but 
king James's limited red livery is supposed to have 
been soon discontinued. — Quarterly Review. 

Navy Pay Office, organised in 1644, was abolished in 
1836, when the army and navy pay departments were 
consolidated in the Paymaster General's office. 

Navy List was first officially compiled by John Finlai- 
son, the celebrated actuary, and published monthly in 
1814 ; now quarterly. 

Naval Reviews. The queen reviewed the fleet at Spit- 
head, near Portsmouth, n Aug. 1853; again, March, 1854, 
before it sailed to the Baltic, at the commencement of 
the Russian war ; and again, at Portsmouth, on the 
conclusion of peace, in the presence of the parliament, 
&c. The fleet extended in an unbroken line of 5 miles, 
and consisted of upwards of 300 men-of-war, carry- 
ing 3800 guns, and manned by 40,000 seamen. There 
were about 100,000 spectators, 23 April, 1856. 

A grand naval review (15 great wooden ships, 15 iron- 
plated, 16 gun- vessels and boats), was held at Spithead 
(the queen, the sultan, and the viceroy of Egypt pre- 



sent), 17 July, 1867 ; another at Spithead before the 
shah of Persia, 23 June, 1873 : another at Spithead 
by the queen, (10 broadside ships, 8 turret ships, &c.,) 
3 Aug. 1878 ; another at Portsmouth, the queen and 
colonial visitors present (at the expense of the officers), 
23 July, 1886. 

Grand unexampled naval review (jubilee) by the queen 
at Spithead, 23 July, 1887 ; 135 vessels of all kinds, 
including 26 ironclads, 20,200 officers and men ; one 
man died through the bursting of a saluting gun. 

Naval Volunteers (or Reserve). By 16 & 17 Vict. c. 73 
(1853), the admiralty were empowered to raise a body 
of sea-faring men to be called the " Naval Coast Volun- 
teers," no to exceed 10,000, for the defence of the 
coast, and for actual service if required. In 1859, 
acts were passed to enable the admiralty to raise 
a number of men, not exceeding 30,000, as a re- 
serve force of seamen, to be called the " Royal Naval 
Volunteers." In November following, the admiralty 
issued a statement of the "qualifications, advantages, 
and obligations " of this reserve. The enrolment com- 
menced on 1 Jan. i860. The engagement is for five 
years, and the volunteers are entitled to a pension 
when incapacitated after the expiration of the term. 
At the prospect of war with the United States in Dec. 
1861, a great number of seamen at Hartlepool, Dundee. 
London, Aberdeen, &c. , offered their services. 

First enrolled body of Royal Naval Volunteers inspected, 
about 18 Jan. 1873. 

NAVY OF FRANCE. It is first mentioned in 
history, 728, when, like that of England at an early 
period, it consisted of galleys ; in this year the 
French defeated the Frisian fleet. The French 
fleet was almost annihilated by Edward III. at the 
battle of Sluys, 24 June, 1340. It was considerably, 
improved under Louis XIV. at the instance of his 
minister Colbert, about 1697. The French navy was 
in its splendour about 1781 ; became greatly reduo-.'d 
in the wars with England ; see Naval Battles. Ifc 
was greatly increased by the emperor Napoleon III., 
and in 1859 consisted of 51 ships of the line (14 
sailing vessels and 37 steamers), and 39S other 
vessels, in all 449; including vessels building, con- 
verting, or ordered to be built. The new French 
iron-clad frigate Gloire, constructed by M. Dupuy 
de Lome, launched in i860, was generally considered 
as successful. The Solferino and Magenta were 
launched in June, 1861 ; other iron vessels since. 
The Magenta was destroyed by fire, 6killed, 31 Aug. 
1875. The Devastation, a great iron-clad, launched 
at Lorient, 19 Aug. 1879. France had 22 battle- 
ships, II armoured vessels for coast defence, 
besides gun boats, cruisers and torpedo boats ; in 
all 256 vessels in 1888. The Supreme ISavy 
Council was created by decree, 6 Dec. 1889. See 
under Fleets. 

NAZAEENE, a name given to Jesus Christ, 
and his disciples ; but afterwards to a sect who re- 
jected the doctrine of Christ's divinity in the first 
century. A sect named Nazarenes, resembling the 
Society of Friends in Britain, became prominent in 
Hungary in the autumn of 1867. 

NEAPOLIS, see Naples. 

NEBEASKA, a N.W. territory of North 
America (part of Louisiana), was organised 30 May, 
1854. Capital, Lincoln ; Omaha city, very im- 
portant. Bradshaw destroyed by a tornado, 3 June, 
1890. Population, 1880, 452,402 ; 1890, 1,058,910. 

NEBULAE HYPOTHESIS, put forth 
by sir Wm. Herschel, 181 1, supposes that the uni- 
verse was formed out of shapeless masses of nebulas 
or clusters of small stars. It has not been generally 
received. In Oct. i860, Mr. Lassell strictly 
scrutinised the dumb-bell nebula, and stated that 
the brightest parts did not appear to be stars. In 
1865, Mr. Wm. Huggins reported that he had 



NECROMANCERS. 



673 



NERVES. 



analysed certain nebulae by their spectra, and be- 
lieved them to be entirely gaseous. 

For Mr. Norman Lockyer's theory see under Meteors, 
17 Nov. 1887. 

NECROMANCERS, see Magic. 

NECTARINE, the Amijgdalus Persica, ori- 
ginally came from Persia about 1562. Previously, 
presents of nectarines were frequently sent to the 
court of England from the Netherlands; and 
Catherine, queen of Henry YIIL, distributed thein 
among her friends. 

NEEDLES. "The making of Spanish needles 
was first taught in England by Elias Crowse, a 
German, about the eighth year of queeu Elizabeth, 
and in queen Mary's time there was a negro made 
dne Spanish needles in Cheapside, but would never 
teach his art to any." — Stoiv. The manufacture 
was greatly improved at "Whitechapel, London ; 
Kedditch, in Gloucestershire, and Hathersage, in 
Derbyshire. An exhibition of ancient needlework 
was formed at South Kensington Museum in 1873. 

NEEDLE-GUN (Zundnadelgewehr), a musket 

invented by J. N. Dreyse of Soemnierda, about 1827, 
and made a breech-loader in 1836, which was 
adopted by the Prussian general Manteuffel about 
1846. It was found to be a most effective weapon 
in the war with Denmark in 1864, and in that with 
Austria in 1S66. The ignition of the charge is pro- 
duced by a fine steel rod or needle being pressed 
through the cartridge. The principle is claimed 
for James "Whitley, of Dublin, 1823 ; Abraham 
Mosar, 1831 ; and" John Hanson, of Huddersfield, 
S843. 

NEERWINDEN, see Landen. 

NEGRO TRADE, see Slavery. 

NEGUS (wine and water), said to be named 
after col. Francis Negus, about 1 7 14. The sove- 
reign of Abyssinia is termed negus. 

NELSON'S VICTORIES, &c, see separate 

articles. 

Horatio Nelson, born at Bunihani Thorpe, Norfolk 

29 Sept. 1758 

Sailed with captain Phipps to the North Pole . 1773 

Distinguished himself in the West Indies . . . 1780 

Lost an eye at the reduction of Calvi, Corsica . 1794 

Captured Elba 9 Aug. 1796 

With Jervis, at the victory off St. Vincent, 14 Feb. ; 
knighted and made rear-admiral . 20 Feb. 1797 

Lost his right arm at the unsuccessful attack on 
Santa Cruz 25-26 July, ,, 

Gained the battle of the Nile, 1 Aug. ; created baron 
Nelson of the Nile .... 6 Nov. 1798 

Attacks Copenhagen, 2 April ; created viscount, 22 
May ; attacks Boulogne flotilla, and destroys 
several ships 15 Aug. 1801 

Appointed to chief command in the Mediterranean, 

20 May, 1803 

Pursues the French and Spanish fleets, March to 
Aug. ; returns to England, Aug. ; re-appears at 
Cadiz, and defeats the fleets in Trafalgar Bay, 
where he is killed 21 Oct. 1805 

I be Victory man-of-war arrived off Portsmouth with 
his remains 4 Dec. ,, 

The body lay in state in the Painted Hall, at Green- 
wich, 5 Jan. ; removed to the Admiralty, 8 Jan. ; 
funeral took place 9 Jan. 1806 

The prince of Wales (afterwards George IV.), the 
duke of Clarence (afterwards William IV.), and 
other royal dukes ; almost all the peers of England, 
and the lord mayor and corporation of London, 
with thousands of military and naval officers and 
distinguished men, followed the funeral car to St. 
Paul's : the military amounted to near 10,000, 
independent of volunteers. 

Kelson Column, Trafalgar-square, London, completed, 
and statue placed on it (see Statues) 4 Nov. 1843 



NEMEAN GAMES, celebrated at Nemea, 
in Achaia, said to have been instituted by the Ar- 
gives, in honour of Archemorus, who died by the 
bite of a serpent ; and revived by Hercules* who 
slew the Nemean lion. The conqueror was rewarded 
with a crown of olives, afterwards of green parsley. 
They were celebrated every third year, or, accord- 
ing to others, on the first and third year of every 
Olympiad. — Herodotus. They were revived by the 
emperor Julian, a.d. 362, but ceased in 396. 

NEO-PLATONISM or New Platonism, 

see Philosophy. 

NEPAUL (N. India) was conquered by the 
Ghoorkas, 1768, who made treaties with the British, 
I79i_and 1801 ; but frequently made incursions; 
and in consequence war with them commenced 1 Nov. 
1814 ; terminated 27 April, 1815. A treaty of peace 
was signed between the parties, 2 Dec. 1815. "War 
was renewed through an infraction of the treaty by 
the Nepaulese, Jan. 1816; and after several con- 
tests, unfavourable to the Nepaulese, the former 
treaty was ratified, 15 March, 1816. An extra- 
ordinary embassy from the king of Nepaul to the 
queen of Great Britain arrived in England, landing 
at Southampton, 25 May, and remained till Aug. 
l8tjO ; it consisted of the Nepaulese prince, Jung 
Banadoor, and his suite, to whom many r honours 
were paid. He supported the English during the 
Indian mutiny in 1857. The prince of Wales was 
honourably received in Nepaul, 12 Eeb. 1876. 
War with Thibet on account of robbed merchants 

May, id84 

Thibet submits June, ,, 

Revolution : the prime minister and son murdered ; 

22 Nov. 1885 
New ministry constituted : the maharajah, Pirthibi 

Bir Bikrmn Sah (born 7 Aug. 1875). 
Another revolution imminent, Dec. 1887 ; proves 

unsuccessful Jan. 1S88 

Gen. lord Roberts' visit to Nepaul, very satisfactory 

April, 1892 

NEPHALIA, sacrifices of sobriety among the 
Greeks, when they offered mead instead of wine to 
the sun and moon, to the nymphs, to Aurora, and 
to Venus ; and burnt any wood but that of the vine, 
fig-tree, and mulberry-tree, esteemed symbols of 
drunkenness, 613 B.C. 

NEPHOSCOPE (nephos, Greek, a cloud). An 
apparatus for measuring the velocity of clouds, in- 
vented by Karl Braun, and reported to the Academy 
of Sciences, Paris, 27 July, 1868. 

NEPTUNE, a primary planet, first observed 
on 23 Sept. 1846, by Dr. Galle at Berlin, in conse- 
quence of a letter from M. Le Verrier, who had 
conjectured from the anomalous movements of 
Uranus that a distant planet might exist nearly in 
the position where Neptune is situated. Calcula- 
tions to the same effect had been previously made 
by Mr. J. Couch Adams, of Cambridge ; but unfor- 
tunate delays occurred in their publication, and 
also of professor Challis's consequent discovery of 
the planet. The Royal Society of London awarded 
its gold medal to both astronomers as equals in the 
theoretical discovery. A satellite of Neptune was 
discovered by Mr. Lassell on 10 Oct. following. 
Neptune is said to have been seen by Lalandc, and 
thought to be a fixed star. The Greek god Poseidon 
became the Roman Neptune. Trof. J. C. Adams 
died 21 Jan. 1892. 

NEPTUNIUM, a new metal discovered in tan- 
talite, from Connecticut, by 11. Herrmann in 1877; 
not generally admitted by chemists. 

NERVES- Our knowledge of the nature and 
functions of the nervous system has been greatly 



NERVIL 



674 



NEW BRUNSWICK/ 



enlarged by the researches and experiments of phy- 
siologists during the present century. Sir Charles 
Bell announced his discovery of the distinction 
between the nerves of motion and sensation, 1810. 
He published papers on the nervous system, 
1821. See Craniology. 

NERVII, a warlike tribe in Belgic Gaul, were 
defeated in a severe battle by Julius Caesar 57, and 
subdued 53 B.C. 

NERWINDEN, see Landen. 

NESBIT, seeMsbet. 

NESTORIANS, the followers of Nestorius, 
bishop of Constantinople (428-431), who is repre- 
sented as a heretic. He was opposed by Eutyches ; 
see Eutychians. 
. He rejected the error of those who said Christ was 
a mere man, as Ebion, Paul of Samosata Photinus. 
2. He maintained that the Word was united to the 
humanity in Christ Jesus, and that this union was 
most intimate and strict. 3. He held that these two 
natures made one Christ, one Son, one Person ; only 
made up of two natures. 4. And this one Person may 
have either divine or human properties attributed to 
Him. 
Nestorian Christians in the Levant administer the 
sacrament with leavened bread and in both kinds, 
permit their priests to marry, and use neither con- 
firmation nor auricular confession. — DuPin. 
A Nestorian priest and deacon were in London in July, 
1862. 

NETHERLANDS. William Frederick, 
prince of Orange, assumed the title of King of the 
Netherlands 16 March, 1815, and his successors, 
kings of Holland, retain the title. See Flanders, 
Holland, and Belgium. 

NETLEY HOSPITAL, near Southampton, 
for invalid soldiers. The foundation stone was laid 
by the queen, 19 May, 1856. 

NEUFCHATEL, a canton in Switzerland, 
formerly a lordship, afterwards a principality. The 
first known lord was Ulric de Fenis, about 1032, 
whose descendants ruled till 1373, after which hy 
marriages it frequently changed governors. On the 
death of the duchesse de Nemours, the last of the 
Longuevilles, in 1 707, there were many claimants ; 
among them our William III. He and the allies 
however gave it to Frederick I. of Prussia with the 
title of prince. In 1806 the principality was ceded 
to France, and Napoleon bestowed it on his general 
Berthier, who held it till 18 14, when it fell to the 
disposal of the allies. They restored the king of 
Prussia with the title of prince with certain rights 
and privileges; but constituted it a part of the 
Swiss confederation. Population, 1888: canton, 
108,153; city, 16,261. 

After an unsuccessful attempt in 1831, the inhabit- 
ants repudiated their allegiance to Prussia, and 
proclaimed Neufchatel a free and independent 
member of the Swiss confederation . . . 1848 
The king of Prussia protested against this ; and a 
protocol was signed between England, France, and 
Austria, recognising his claims . . . . 1852 

Some of his adherents, headed by the count de Pour- 
tales, broke out into insurrection against the re- 
publican authorities, who, however, quickly sub- 
dued and imprisoned them, with the intention of 
bringing them to trial .... Sept. 1856 
"War threatened by the king of Prussia, and great 
energy and determination manifested by the Swiss. 
On the intervention of the English and French 
governments, a treaty was signed by which the 
king of Prussia virtually renounced his claims, on 
receiving a pecuniary compensation, which he 
eventually gave up. He retains the title of prince 
of Neufchatel, without any political rights 

11 June, 1857 
The prisoners of Sept. 1856 were released withouttrial 

18 Jan. ,. 



NEUROLOGICAL SOCIETY OF 

LONDON, formed to promote the study of nerves^ 
from a psychological, physiological, anatomical, 
and pathological point of view, 1887. First 
president Dr. Samuel Wilks, F.R.S. 

NEUSTRIA or WEST FkANCE, a kingdom 
allotted to Clotaire by his father Clovis, at his 
death in 511. His descendant, Charlemagne, be- 
came sole king of France in 771. It was conquered 
by the Northmen and hence named Normandy 
(which see) . 

NEUTRALITY LAWS. A commission, in 
a report issued in May, 1868, recommended changes. 
An act to make better provision for the preservation 
of neutrality was passed 9 Aug. 1870. John P. 
McDiarmid apprehended, for breach of neutrality 
laws, at Bow-street, 28 Oct. 1870. 

NEUTRAL POWERS. By the treaty of 
Paris, signed by the representatives of Great 
Britain, Fiance, Austria, Russia, Prussia, Turkey,, 
and Sardinia, on 16 April, 1856, it was determined 
that privateering should be abolished; that 
neutrals might carry an enemy's goods not con- 
traband of war ; that neutral goods not contraband 
were free even under an enemy's flag ; and that 
blockades to be binding must be effective. The pre- 
sident of the United States acceded to these provi- 
sions in 1861. See International Law. 

NEVADA, a western territory of the United 
States of N. America, organised 2 March, 1861 ;, 
admitted a state, 31 Oct. 1864. Capital, Carson 
city. Virginia city was nearly destroyed by fire, 26 
Oct. 1875; several lives were lost ; property about 
2,000,000 dols. ; 10,000 persons rendered homeless, 
Population of Nevada, 1880, 62,266; 1890, 45,761. 

NEVILLE'S CROSS or Durham, Battle 

OF, between the Scots under king David Bruce and 
the English it is said (probably incorrectly) under 
Philippa. consort of Edward III., and lord Percy,. 
12 or 17 Oct. 1346. More than 15,000 of the Scots- 
were slain, and their king taken prisoner. 

NEVIS (W. Indies), an island discovered by 
Columbus, planted by the English in 1628 ; takers 
by the French, 14 Feb. 1782 ; restored to the Eng- 
lish in 1783. The capital is Charleston. See Lee- 
ivard Isles. 

NEWARK (Nottinghamshire). The church 
was erected by Henry IV. Here, in the midst of 
troubles, died king John, 19 Oct. 1216; here the- 
royal army under prince Rupert repulsed the army 
of the parliament, besieging the town, 21 March,. 
1644; and here, 5 May, 1646, Charles I., after his 
defeat at Naseby, put himself into the hands of the- 
Scotch army, who afterwards gave him up to his 
enemies. Newark was first incorporated by Ed- 
ward VI., and afterwards by Charles II. Absorbed 
into the county, 1885. Population, 1881, 14,018; 
1891, 14,457. 

NEWARK, a town in New Jersey, U.S.A.,. 
settled in 1666, and chartered in 1836. Population 
in 1890, 181,830. 

NEW BRUNSWICK was taken from Nova 
Scotia, and received its name as a separate colon y 
in 1785. It was united with Canada for legislative 
purposes by an act passed 29 March, 1867. Popu- 
lation of New Brunswick in 1865, 272,780 ; in 1881, 
321,233; 1891, 321,294. Capital Frederickton. 
Lieut. -governor, Lemuel A. Wilmot, 1868 ; Samuel 
Leonard Tilley, 1874; Robert Duncan Wilmot, 1880; 
sir Samuel L. Tilley, 1886. 

Great fire at St. John, 20-22 June, 1877 ; destruction of 
12 churches, 25 public buildings ; thousands houseless ; 



NEWBURY. 



675 NEWCASTLE ADMINISTRATION. 



about 20 killed, loss about 3,000,000/. Subscriptions 

in Britain. 
Very destructive forest fires on both sides of the St. 

Lawrence, 10 June et seg. 1891. 
The St. Lawrence lumber mills burnt, 24 Sept. 1891. 

NEWBURY (Berkshire). Near here were 
fought two desperate battles — (1.) 20 Sept. 1643; 
between the army of Charles I. and that of the 
parliament under Essex ; it terminated somewhat 
favourably for tbe king. Among the slain was 
the amiable Lucius Cary, viscount Falkland, 
deeply regretted. (2.) A second battle of dubious 
result was fought between the royalists and the 
parliamentarians under Waller, 27 Oct. 1644. Popu- 
lation, 1881, 14,018; 1891, 14,457. 
A memorial to lord Falkland and his companions, at 

Newbury, was inaugurated by the earl of Carnarvon, 9 

Sept., 1878. 

NEW CALEDONIA (Pacific Ocean), dis- 
covered by Cook on 4 Sept. 1774, was seized by the 
French, 20 Sept. 1853, and colonised. The French 
government in Dec. 1864, redressed the outrages 
committed upon the British missionaries at a station 
established here in 1854. 
In the latter part of June, 1878, some of the native 

tribes revolted, burnt some of the towns and villages, 

and killed about 90 of the European colonists, men. 

women, children, and servants, including col. Gally- 

Passebose, the military commandant of the island. 

The insurrectionwas not subdued till the end of the year. 
Now used as a French penal settlement ; said to be very 

disorderly, 1884. See Recidivists. 

NEWCASTLE-TJPON-TYNE (Northumber- 
land), the Roman Pons iElia, the first coal port in 
the world,* and the commercial metropolis of the 
north of England. The coal-mines were discovered 
here about 1234. The first charter granted to the 
townsmen for digging coal was by Henry III. in 
1239. See Po2)idation. 

The castle built by Kobert Courthose, son of Wil- 
liam I. 1080 

Taken by William II. 1095 

St. Nicholas church built, about 1091 ; burnt in 1216 ; 
restored by Edward I., to whom John Baliol did 

homage here, 1292 ; rebuilt 1359 

Newcastle surrenders to the Scotch .... 1640 
Who here gave up Charles I. to the parliament 

30 Jau. 1647 

Occupied by general Wade in 1745 

Antiquarian Society established .... 1813 
Literary and Philosophical Society founded 1793 ; 

liberally endowed by Robert Stephenson . . 1858-g 
T. Bewick, the wood-engraver, dies .... 1828 
The magnificent market erected by Richd. Grainger, 
who greatly improved the town . . . .1835 

British Association met here 1838 

High level bridge erected by Robert Stephenson ; 

and grand central station built . . . 1846-50 
1538 persons die of cholera . 31 Aug. to 26 Oct. 1853 
Great fire through the explosion at Gateshead (which 

see) 5, 6 Oct. 1854 

Great distress through failure of Northumberland 
Joint-Stock Bank ...... Nov. 1857 

Richard Grainger dies, aged 63 . . . 4 July, 1861 
Enthusiastic leception of Mr. W. E. Gladstone, 

7-9 Oct. 1862 
British Association met here, second time 26 Aug. 1863 
Great fire at Brown's flour mills, <fec, near the new 
level bridge, which is injured ; about 70,000/. loss 

24 June, 1866 
The Central Exchange destroyed by fire 11 Aug. 1867 
Mr. Mawson, the sheriff, and Mr. Bryson, the town 
surveyor, and others, killed, while attempting to 



* In 1306 the use of coal for fuel was prohibited in 
London, by royal proclamation, chiefly because it injured 
the sale of wood for fuel, great quantities of which were 
then growing about the city ; but this interdiction did 
not long continue, and we may consider coal as having 
been dug and exported from this place for more than 500 
years. 



bury some nitro-glycerine in the town-moor, to 

get rid of it 18 Dec. 1867 

Strike of about 9000 engineers, for day's work of 

nine hours ; begun about 16 May, 1871 

College of Physical Science in connection with the 

Durham University, opened . . . Oct. ,, 
Engineers' strike closed : terms, nine hours a day, 
to begin on 1 Jan. 1872 ; men to work overtime 
when needed ; wages to remain the same ; ar- 
ranged by Mr. R. B. Philipson and Mr. Joseph 

Cowen 6 Oct. „ 

Elswick estate purchased by a committee for a 

public park, announced .... Aug. 1873 
New R. C. church built by the Dominicans, opened 

10 Sept. ,, 
New swing-bridge over the Tyne (2S1 feet long ; 
weight, 1450 tons, lifted by a hydraulic crane) ; 
begun 1868 ; completed . . . June, 1876 
Bishoprics act ; permitting the erection of a see at 

Newcastle, passed .... 16 Aug. 1878 
Technical college for north of England inaugurated 

24 Sept. 1880 
Centenary of birth of George Stephenson celebrated 

9 June, 1881 
Newcastle constituted a city; charter received 

S July, 1882 
Public library opened 13 Sept. 1880; the new 

building was opened . 1 Sept. ,, 

Sanitary Institute of Great Britain and congress 

meet here 26 Sept. 

Parks given by sir William Armstrong ; addition 

Feb. 1883 
Visit of prince and princess of Wales and family ; 
enthusiastic reception ; opening of Armstrong 
park, natural history museum, free library, 
Albert Edward dock, <fcc. . . 20, 21 Aug. 1884 

Great distress through want of employment Oct. ,, 
Royal mining, engineering, and industrial exhi- 
bition opened by the duke of Cambridge, 11 May ; 
2,002,273 admissions ; reported successful ; closed 

29 Oct. 1887 
Royal agricultural society's show opened 11 July; 

visited by the prince of Wales and sons 12 July, ,, 
Newcastle and Durham college of physical science : 
foundation stone laid by sir Wm. Armstrong 
(after lord), 15 June, 1887 ; opened by the 

princess Louise 5 Nov. 1S88 

Third meeting of the British Association 11 Sept. 1889 
The new college of medicine (founded by the duke 
of Northumberland in 1887) opened by the mayor 

2 Oct. „ 
Mr. John Fleming bequeaths above 100,000/. to 
local charities (Fleming Memorial Hospital for 
sick children, &c), announced . . Feb. 89 
Death of Mr. John Clayton, aged 98 ; 45 years 

town clerk (estate sworn at 728,746/.) . 14 July, ,, 
Threatened strike of persons employed on the 
North-Eastern railway, averted by concessions . 

about 20 Dec. , 
Newcastle programme, proposed at the meeting of 
the National Liberal Federation (by Mr. Glad- 
stone). Re-constitution of the house of lords ; 
one man, one vote ; shorter parliaments ; paid 
members ; settlement of the Irish question ; land 

laws, &c 1 Oct. et tea. 189 

Great strike of the engineers on the Tyne and Wear 

respecting overtime, 2 Nov., ended . . 7 Nov. ,, 
Strike and lock-out of ship-building engineers, and 
plumbers, on the Tyne, due to internal disputes, 
about 30 Jan. ; about 20,000 out of work, 12 
March ; arbitration accepted ; work resumed 

27 April, 1892 
The rev. Dr. John Collingwood Bruce, historian of 

" The Roman wall " dies, aged 86 . .5 April ,, 
End of the Durham miners' strike, see Coal . 

11 March- 1 June, ,, 

NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE, Bishopric 

OF, founded by Order in Council 17 May, 1882. 

BISHOP. 

1882. Ernest Roland Wilberforce consecrated at Durham, 
25 July, 1882. 

NEWCASTLE ADMINISTRATION, 

formed April, 1754; resigned Nov. 1756; when 
the duke of Devonshire became first lord of the 
treasury. 

x x 2 



NEWCASTLE. 



676 



NEWFOUNDLAND. 



Thomas Holies Pelham, duke of Newcastle, first lord of 
the treasury. 

Henry Bilson Legge, chancellor of the exchequer. 

Earl of Holdernesse and sir Thomas Robinson (after- 
wards lord Grantham), secretaries of state. The latter 
succeeded by Henry Fox (afterwards lord Holland). 

Lord Anson, first lord of the admiralty. 

Earl Granville, lord president. 

Lord Gower (succeeded by the duke of Marlborough 
1755), lord privy seal. 

Earl of Hardwicke, lord chancellor. 

Duke of Grafton, earl of Halifax, George Grenville, <&c. 

NEWCASTLE AND PITT ADMINIS- 
TRATION (see Chatham Administration) , formed 
June, 1757- After various changes it resigned May, 
1762 ; lord Bute coming into power. 
Thomas Holies Pelliam, duke of Newcastle, first lord of 

the treasury. 
William Pitt (afterwards lord Chatham), secretary of state 

for the northern department, and leader of the house of 

commons. 
Earl of Holdernesse, secretary of state for the southern 

department. 
Earl Granville, lord president. 
Earl Temple, privy seal. 
H. B. Legge, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Duke of Devonshire, lord chamberlain. 
Duke of Rutland, lord steward. 
Lord Anson, admiralty. 
Duke of Marlborough (succeeded by lord Ligonier), 

ordnance. 
Sir Robert Henley, lord keeper of the great seal. 
Henry Fox, George Grenville, viscount Barrington, lord 

Halifax, James Grenville, &c. 

NEW CHUECH, see Swedenborgians. 

NEW COLLEGE (St. John's Wood, London), 
erected by the Independent dissenters for the edu- 
cation of their ministers, 1850-1, was formed by 
the union of Homerton, Highbury, and Coward 
colleges. See Oxford. 

NEW DEPARTURE DEMOCRATS, see 

United States, 1871. 

NEW ENGLAND (N. America). The first 
settlement made in 1607, was named New England 
by captain Smith, in 1614. A band of 102 Puri- 
tans, now termed the " Pilgrim Fathers " (with 28 
women) arrived here in the Hay Flower, and 
founded the settlement on Plymouth Eock, 25 Dec. 
1620, which was named New Plymouth. This was 
the nucleus of Massachusetts, from whence were 
gradually developed New Hampshire, Vermont, 
Connecticut, and Rhode Island. In 1643 these 
settlements formed the first American confederation, 
a defensive union, with a constitution based on the 
Mosaic law, governed by a religious aristocracy, 
which lasted till 1693. "Maine was made an inde- 
pendent state in 1820. 

NEW FOREST (Hampshire), was made 
("afforested") by William the Conqueror, 1079-85. 
It is said that the whole country, for thirty miles 
in compass,_was laid waste. William Rufus was 
killed in this forest by an arrow shot by Walter 
Tyrrel, that accidentally glanced against a tree, 
2 Aug. 1 100, the site of which is now pointed out 
by a triangular stone. The New Forest Deer 
Removal act was passed 14 & 15 Vict. c. 76, 7 Aug. 
185 1. Agitation for the preservation of this forest, 
autumn, 1870. In accordance with an act passed 
in 1877, the forest is now managed by a court of 
Verderers as a public pleasure ground, and cattle 
farm. See Forests. 

NEWFOUNDLAND (N. America), discov- 
ered by John Cabot, who called it Prima 
Vista, 24 June, 1497. It was formally taken pos- 
session of by sir Humphry Gilbert, 1583. In the 
reign of Elizabeth, other nations had the advan- 



tage of the English in the fishery. In 1577 there 
were 100 fishing vessels from Spain, 50 from Portugal, 
150 from France, and only 15, but of larger size, 
from England. — Hakluyt. But the English fishery 
in some years afterwards (1625) had increased so 
much that the ports of Devonshire alone employed 
150 ships, which sold their fish in Spain, Portugal, 
and Italj r . The sovereignty of England was recog- 
nised in 1 7 13, by the treaty of Utrecht, certain 
rights on the " French shores " being reserved for 
France. Newfoundland obtained the privilege of 
a colonial legislature in 1832; and the bishopric 
was established in 1839. Population, 1884, 
197,335. Appalling fire at St. John's, a great 
portion of the town destroyed, the loss estimated at 
1,000,000/. sterling, 9 June, 1846. On 14 Jan. 
1857, a convention was concluded between the 
English and French governments, confirming cer- 
tain French privileges of fishery in exchange for 
others. The English colonists were dissatisfied 
with this convention. Newfoundland refused 
union with the dominion of Canada, March, 1869 ; 
a railway from St. John's to St. George's bay, 
proposed by the colonial government Aug. 1878. 
Capital, St. John's; population, 1884, 31,142. 
Governor, col. sir Stephen J. Hill, 1870 ; sir John 
H. Glover, Jan. 1876. Maxse died Sept. 1883 ; sir 
John Hawley Glover, Dec. 1883; died 30 Sept. 
1885; sir G. Wm. des Voeux, Feb. 1886; sir J. 
Terence N. O'Brien, Nov. 1888. See Canada, Nov. 
1877. 

Fishery Dispute. At Fortune bay, U.S., fishers 
fixed nets on Sunday, 13 Jan. 1878 ; this being 
contrary to local regulations, they were forcibly 
removed ; controversj' ensued ; Mr. Evarts on 
part of U. S government sent despatch, 24 Aug. ; 
correspondence, Sept. Oct. ; the marquis of Salis- 
bury refused compensation ; but earl Granville 
granted it ; is,oooZ. were awarded by arbitration 

28 May, 1881 

The French tri-colour flag set up at Cumberland 
Stage, near St. John's, by a French captain, 

9 Sept. 1882 

Conflicts between the Orangemen and Romanists 
at Harbour Grace ; several killed . 26 Dec. 1883 

Continued disputes through the British lobster fac- 
tories on the French shore 1890 

The people dissatisfied with the new arrangements 
begun after 1 July, 1889, termed modus vivendi. 
A great meeting at St. John's . 26 March, ,, 

Sir James Winter, ex-attorney-general, and other 
delegates, arrive in London . . .13 May, „ 

Address to the queen voted by the Newfoundland 
legislature 14 May, „ 

A French war vessel requests the stoppage of 
British fishing in St. George's bay ; indignation 
meeting at St. John's . . reported 24 May, ,, 

The parliament votes an address to the queen and 
is prorogued n June, ,, 

Fight between Newfoundlanders and French 
fishermen respecting lobsters, at Port-au-Port, 
with clubs, &c. ; the latter beaten 

about 19 June, ,, 

Capt. Sir Baldwin Walker of the Emerald, stops 
Mr. Baird's lobster factory at Sandy Point, about 
26 June ; Mr. Baird sues for damages . July, ,, 

French war vessel at Port-au-Port drives off 30 
British fishing vessels . . . .23 June, ,, 

Sir William Whiteway, premier, and Mr. Harvey, 
delegates in London, 3 July, e.t seq. ; the colonists 
claim extinction of French rights, about 5 Aug. ; 
Sir W. Whiteway returns to Newfoundland 

12 Nov. et seq. ,, 

The modus vivendi enforced by the Emerald and 
the Forward gunboat . . . Sept. el seq. „ 

Joseph Girardin, capt. of the French schooner 
Minegard, arrested for illegal acts ; imprisoned 
till fines were paid ; rescued from prison, regains 
his ship, puts off to sea ; the ship runs aground, 
and is again seized ..... Oct. ,, 

Great storm, destruction of shipping, buildings, &c. 

reported 8 Dec. ,, 



NEW FEANCE. 



677 



NEW GUINEA. 



Action of Mr. Baird against sir Baldwin Walker in 
the supreme court concluded ; judgment reserved 

10 Feb. 1891 

Verdict for Mr. Baird, 18 March ; appeal to the 
privy council, March, 1891 ; dismissed 4 Aug. 1892 

Arbitration accepted by the British and French 
governments, the modus vivendi to continue, 
agreement signed in London, 11 March, at Paris, 
13 March, and reported at St. John's 13 March, ,, 

Bdl brought into the house of lords to enforce the 
modus vivendi, early April ; read second time 

27 April, 1891 

Sir William Whiteway, and 4 other delegates 
appear at the house of lords, and make a state- 
ment 23 April, ,, 

The house of assembly adopts a petition to the 
queen, to ratily their convention with the United 
States 8 April, ,, 

The British fishermen of Fortune's bay, rise against 
the sale of bait to others, about 22 April ; stock- 
ade raised, and bait seized . about 28 April ,, 

After some negotiation, the modus vivendi coercion 
act (to last till 1893) is passed by both branches 
of the Newfoundland legislature . 26 May, ,, 

(The coercion bill in the British house of commons 
was withdrawn May). 

The French enforce the modus vivendi; difficulties . 

reported 18 June, ,, 

Sixty British lobster factories closed by order 
under the modus vivendi . . reported 7 July, ,, 

The Canadian government protests against the re- 
strictions on the supply of herrings as bait for 
the fisheries and threatens reprisals, about 28 
Nov. ; and imposes import duties on fish 8 Dec. „ 

A sudden blizzard off the coast drove out 220 fish- 
ing boats, 27 men perished by frost, &c. 27 Feb. 1892 

The modus vivendi, respecting lobsters, renewed 
by the British and French governments 4 April ,, 

The" French shore bill supported by the British 
government, for constituting a judicial commis- 
sion court to settle the disputes submitted to the 
house of assembly, 30 April ; rejected 14 May ; a 
joint committee on the subject appointed . 

19 May, ,, 

The dispute with Canada settled ; return to the 
status of 1889 . . . announced 21 May, ,, 

The French fishermen break the modus vivendi by 
destroying 300 British lobster traps 

about 13 June, ,, 

NEW FEANCE, see Canada. 

"NEW" GALLEEY, Regent Street, W., 
erected by seceders from the subscribers to the 
Grosvenor Gallery (which see), opened 9 May, 1888. 
In this building were held the Tudor, Stuart, 
Guelph, and Victorian exhibitions, which see. A 
picture exhibition was opened 25 April, 1892. 

NEWGATE, LONDON. The prison derives its 
name from the gate, to which was attached a small 
prison, gradually enlarged. One was erected in 1086 
by the bishop of London. It was used as a prison 
for persons of rank as early as 1218 ; but was rebuilt 
about two centuries afterwards by the executors of 
sir ltichard Whittington, whose statue with a cat 
stood in the niclie till the time of its demolition 
by the great fire of London, in 1666. It was then 
reconstructed; but becoming an accumulation of 
misery and inconvenience, was pulled down and 
rebuilt between 1778 and 1780. During the riots 
in 1780, the interior was destroyed by fire, but 
shortly afterwards restored. In 1857 the interior 
was pulled down to be re-erected on a plan adapted 
to the reformatory system. Newgate was disused 
as an ordinary prison, 31 Dec. 1881. Major Arthur 
Griffiths' " Chronicles of Newgate," published Jan. 
1884. See Old Bailey. Newgate market, es- 
tablished in 1681, was ordered to be abolished by 
an act passed in 1861, which took effect when the 
meat and poultry market in Smithfield was opened, 
I Dec. 1868. 

NEW GEENADA (S. America), discovered 
by Ujeda in 1499, and settled by the Spaniards in 



1536. It formed part of the new republic of Bo- 
gota, established in 1811; and, combined with 
Caracas, formed the republic of Colombia, 17 Dec. 
1819; see Colontbia. 

President M. Ospina entered on office 1 April, 1857 

After several reunions and dissolutions, the republic 
of New Grenada merged into the Grenadine Con- 
federation, which includes Bolivar, Antioquia, 
Panama, and other small states . 15 June, 1858 
Struggles between the conservatives, partisans of 

the old government, and the liberals . . Jan. 1861 
General Mosquera (liberal) deposes Ospina; and 

seizes the government . . . 18 July, ,, 
A congress of the states determine on union, under 
the name of the United States of Colombia, 

20 Sept. ,, 
Arnoleda, chief of the conservatives, assassinated 

(succeeded by Cassal) . . . . 1 Nov. 1862 
New constitution established . . .8 May, 1863 
Mosquera invites Venezuela and Ecuador to join 

the confederation Aug. ,, 

Ecuador declines — war ensues . . .20 Nov. ,, 
The troops of Ecuador defeated, 6 Dec. ; peace en- 
sues, and Ecuador remains independent 30 Dec ,, 
Coup d'etat of Mosquera, who declares himself dic- 
tator 11 March, 1866 

Mosquera deposed by Santos Acosta, who becomes 

provisional president ... 23 May, 1867 

Mosquera, the ex-president, exiled . . 1 Nov. ,, 
General Santas Gutierrez Vergara, the president, 
" deposed and imprisoned, and general Ponce made 
provisional president. Ponce compelled to ab- 
dicate; succeeded by Correoso, 29 Aug., who 
defeated his opponents ... 12 Nov. i%6& 
The republic now named Colombia {which see). 

NEW GUINEA or Papua, a large island,. 
Pacific Ocean, discovered by the Portuguese after 
tbeir settlement of the Moluccas between 151 1 and 
1530. It was visited by Saavedra, a Spaniard, in 
1528. It is said to have been named New Guinea 
by Ortiz de Retes, a Portuguese, 1549. Torres- 
Straits, which divide New Guinea and Australia,, 
were discovered by Torres, a Spaniard, in 1606. 
It was frequently visited by the Dutch in the 
17th century. They established a colony and 
erected a fortress, named Dubus, on the S.W. 
coast, in 1828, which was unsuccessful ; and re- 
moved in 1835. A lofty range of mountains was 
named after capt. Owen Stanley, who first saw them 
from his vessel on sea about 1849. 

On 9 Oct. the New Guinea Colonizing Association pro 
posed to lord Carnarvon, the colonial secretary, to 
send to New Guinea an expedition of 200 men with 50 
officers, in a ship of 1200 tons burden ; he declined 
to sanction it, and referred to dangers, 30 Oct. 1875 ; 
part of the island annexed by the Queensland govern- 
ment, announced April, 1883, with the approval of all 
Australia ; this act declared by the British government 
to be " null in point of law, and not to be admitted in 
point of policy," 2 July, 1883 ; signified by lord Derby's 
dispatch, also recommending a confederation of 
Australian states, 11 July, 1883. 

Mr. Maclvor's proposed expedition to New Guinea pro- 
hibited by lord Derby, Oct. 1883. 

Inter-colonial conference at Sydney recommend annexa- 
tion, 6 Dec. 1883. 

Protectorate of the southern part and adjacent islands 
under a high commissioner determined on, Aug. 1884 ; 
to be supported by the Australian colonics ; 
Major-Gen. Peter H. Scratchlcy appointed, Oct. 1884 ; 
protectorate proclaimed in New Guinea,. 6 Nov. 

German flag hoisted on northern part and adjacent 
islands ; Australian colonies protest, Dec. 1884. 

The German colony named Kaiser Wilhelm's Land, 
March, 1885. 

Agreement between England and Germany announced, 
19 June, 1885. 

Exploring expedition of geographical society of Austral- 
asia under captain Evorill, in New Guinea, Sept. 1885. 

Death of sir Peter Henry Scratchley announced, 3 Dec. 
1885. 

Bill regulating the government passed by legislature o." 
Queensland, 4 Nov. 1887. 



NEW HAMPSHIEE. 



678 



NEW OELEANS. 



New Guinea constituted an independent colony by 
letters patent, 30 Oct. 18S8. Seat of government, 
port Moresby ; administrator, Mr. (aft. sir) W. Mac- 
gregor. 

Sir Win. Macgregor explores the Owen Stanley 
range of mountains and names one Victoria 
(13,121 feet high), another Albert Edward (12,500 
feet), 40 miles inland from Port Moresby, . 

May, June, 1889 

Sir Wm. Macgregor lands at Demara with 22 men 
to search for murderers ; repulses an attack of 
250 natives and burns a village . . . . 

announced 15 Oct. „ 

Murder of Mr. J. Hedley and the crew of the cutter 
Isabel (while pearl fishing) . reported 1 Oct. 1890 

Massacre of 40 villagers by the Tugaree tribe . 

reported 9 Jan. 1891 

The British colony reported prosperous . Jan. 1892 

NEW HAMPSHIEE, one of the early united 
states of N. America, was settled in 1623, placed 
under Massachusetts, 1641 ; separated, 1679. Capital, 
Concord. Population, 1880, 346,991 ; 1890, 376,530. 

NEW HAEMONY, see Harmonists. 

NEW HEBEIDES (S. Pacific Ocean), dis- 
covered by Quiros, who believing them to be a 
continent named them Tierra Australia del Espiritu 
Santo, in 1606. Bougainville in 1768 found them 
to be islands ; and in 1774 Cook gave them their 
present name. On appeal, the British government 
promise protection to the natives against kid- 
napping, &c. 7 Feb. 1883. 
In 1878 the British and French governments agreed not 

to occupy these islands, but French aggressions have 

been protested against by the Australian colonies, 

1887. 
French vessels land troops here to protect their 

countrymen, 1 June, 1886. 
Land dispute between French Hebrides company and 

native christian mission, reported 15 Sept. 1886. 
Sir William Stawell appointed lieut-governor Jan. 1887. 
Convention signed at Paris ; the French troops to be 

withdrawn, 24 Oct. 1887 ; effected 15 March, 1888. 

NEW HOLLAND, see Australia, New South 
Wales, &c. 

NEW IEELAND, an island in the Pacific 
ocean, lat. 2 3' S. long. 152 E., 200 miles long, 25 
miles average width. An attempt of the French 
marquis de Bays to colonise this island was re- 
ported a disastrous failure in August, 1880, and 
May, 1881. The island is now named New Meck- 
lenburg. 

NEW JEESEY, one of the early United States 
of N. America, was settled by the Dutch from New 
York, 1620; and by Swedes in 1627. Capital, 
Trenton. Population, 1880, 1,131,116; 1890, 
1.444,933- 
The S. half of Seabright with fine buildings burnt, 

17 June (see Jews) 1891 

NEW JEEUSALEM CHUECH, see 

Swcdenborgians. 

NEW LANAEK (W. Scotland). A manu- 
facturing village founded by David Dale, 1783. 
Here his son-in-law, Bobert Owen, endeavoured to 
establish socialism in 1801 ; and here the first in- 
fant school was set up, 1815. 

" NEW LEAENING," a term applied to the 
revival of the study of the Bible and the Greek and 
Latin classics, in their original tongues in the 15th 
and 16th centuries, which conduced greatly to the 
Reformation. See Humanism. 

NEWMAEKET (Cambridgeshire), renowned 
for its horse-races. It is first mentioned in 1227; 
and probably derived its name from the market 
then recently established. James I. erected a hunt- 
ing seat here, called the king's house, to which 



Charles I. was taken as a prisoner in 1647, when 
the parliament army was quartered in the neigh- 
bouring village of Kennet. Charles II.. who was fond 
of racing, built a stand-house for the sake of the 
diversion, about 1667,* and from that period races 
have been annual to the present time ; and many 
extraordinary races have been run ; see Races. 
Population, 1881, 5,093 ; 1891, 6,213. 

NEW MEXICO (N. America), ceded to the 
United States in 1848, and organised as a territory, 
9 Sept. 1850 ; admitted as a state by the house of 
representatives, 1892. Capital, Santa Fe. Popula- 
tion, 1880, 119,565 ; 1890,153,593. 

NEWNHAM COLLEGE, see Girton. 

NEW OELEANS, capital of Louisiana, N. 
America (which see), founded in 1 717, under the re- 
genc3' of the duke of Orleans. In 1788, seven-eighths 
of the city were destroyed by fire. The British attacked 
New Orleans in Dec. 1814, and were repulsed with 
great loss by the Americans under general Jackson, 
8 Jan. 1815. New Orleans was surrendered to the 
Federals in April, 1862. The strong feeling of the 
inhabitants in favour of the Confederates and 
against the Federals induced general B. Butler to 
rule them with military rigour, occasionally degene- 
rating into brutal tyranny, especially towards 
females, May to October, 1862. He was replaced by 
general Banks, 16 Dec. 1862. Sanguinary riots; 
due to agitators, begun 30 July, 1866, only sup- 
pressed by martial law ; about 40 persons, white 
and coloured, were killed, and about 160 wounded, 
similar riots occurred, 24 Oct. 1868, and often since. 
Population in 1880,216,090; in 1890, 158,019. 
New Orleans. — John McEnery elected governor of Louis- 
iana by the southern whites, 4 Nov. 1872 ; but W. P. 
Kellogg, elected by the coloured people and their 
white friends, was recognised by the Federal govern- 
ment. To defend themselves against tyranny, the 
southerns formed the "white league," and collected 
arms, which they refused to surrender on demand on 
15 Sept. 1874. They deposed Kellogg at New Orleans 
after some resistance, and established McEnery as 
governor, but submitted to the president's proclama- 
tion ; and Kellogg was restored 18 Sept. 
The government troops eject members from the 

legislative assembly as unduly elected 4 Jan. 1875 
After much discussion, a peaceful uomxiromise April ,, 
Much trouble, 2 governors at one time, Jan. ; dis- 
putes settled in favour of Democrats by president 
Hayes ; prospect of peace . . 25 April, 1877 
" World's Industrial and Cotton Centennial " Expo- 
sition .... 16 Dec. 1884 — 30 May, 1885 
Another exposition opened ... 10 Nov. 1885 
Mississippi steamer, J. M. White, burnt, 30 lives 

lost . . ... about 14 Dec. 1888 

Mr. David Hennessy, chief of the police, assassinated 
by a party of the Sicilian vendetta society 
named MaAa, which see, 15 Oct. ; 17 men 

arrested 19, 20 Oct. 1890 

The committee of safety, aided by the Italian 
government, determine to clear the city from 
secret societies ; meeting held. . . 27 Oct. ,, 
Indictment of 17 Sicilians for the murder of Mr. 
Hennessy, 22 Nov. 1890 ; 9 tried ; 6 acquitted ; no 
verdict on 3, 13 March, 1891; the mob, invited 
by Mr. Parkerson, lawyer, and other citizens, 
break into th« gaol, and shoo I or hang 11 
prisoners (2 not American citizens). . 14 March, 1891 
Strong protest of the Italian government 15 March, ,, 

* During the races, on 22 March, 1683, Newmarketwas 
nearly destroyed by an accidental fire, which occasioned 
the hasty departure of the company then assembled, 
including the king, the queen, the duke of York, the 
royal attendants, and many of the nobility ; and to this 
disaster historians have ascribed the failure of the Bye 
house plot, the object of which was said to be the assas- 
sination of the king and his brother on the road from 
Newmarket to London, if the period of their journey had 
not been thus anticipated; see Rye House Plot. 



NEW PHILOSOPHY. 



679 



NEW SOUTH WALES. 



Secretary Blaine writes to Mr. Nicholls, governor 
of Louisiana, expressing the president's regret at 
the citizens' disparagement of the law ; Baron di 
Fava, the Italian minister, recalled by his govern- 
ment 31 March, 1891 

Correspondence between the Governments March, 

April, ,, 

The United States government pays to the Italian, 
25,000 dollars for the benefit of the heirs of the 
lynched Italians ; diplomatic relations resumed . 

about 14 April, 1892 

NEW PHILOSOPHY, a term applied in 

the 17th. century to that of Bacon {which see). 
NEW PLYMOUTH, see New England. 
NEWPOET (Monmouthshire) . Chartered by 

Edward IILand James I. Population, 1881, 38,469 ; 

1891, 54,695. 

Chartist Riots.— About 10,000 chartists {which see), 
from the neighbouring mines, armed with guns, pikes, 
&c. , arrived at Newport, 4 Nov. 1839. They divided 
themselves into two bodies — one, under the command 
of Mr. John Frost, an ex-magistrate, proceeded down 
the principal street ; whilst the other, headed by his 
son, took the direction of Stow-hill. They met in 
front of the Westgate hotel, where the magistrates 
■were assembled with about 30 soldiers of the 45th 
regiment, and several special constables. The rioters 
"broke the windows and fired on the inmates, by which 
the mayor, Mr. (afterwards sir Thomas) Phillips, and 
■several other persons, were wounded. The soldiers 
returned the fire, and dispersed the mob, which fled, 
leaving about 20 dead, and others wounded. A detach- 
ment of the 10th royal hussars arrived from Bristol, 
and the town became tranquil. 

Frost was apprehended on the following day, together 
with his printer, and other influential persons 
among the chartists. He and others were tried 
and sentenced to death (afterwards commuted to 
transportation) Jan. 1840 

An amnesty was granted them, 3 May, and they 
returned to England .... Sept. 1856 

Frost died, aged 96 .... 29 July, 1877 

JExplosion on the Tancarville petroleum steamer in 
the dry dock ; five men killed, many injured 

11 May, 1 89 1 

NEW RIVER, for the supply of London with 
'water, was begun 1609, and finished in 1613, when 
the projector, Hugh Myddelton, a London gold- 
smith, was knighted by James I. — Strype. This 
artificial river, which rises in Hertfordshire, * and 
which, with its windings, then forty- eight miles 
long, was brought to London, and opened 29 Sept. 
1613. So little was the benefit of it understood, that 
for above thirty years the seventy-two shares 
(equally divided into King's and Adventurers'), 
netted only 5/. apiece. Charles I. sold his shares to 
Myddelton's representatives for an annuity of 500/. 
Each of these shares was sold originally for 100/. A 
part of a share sold at the rate of 94,050/. the share, 
I Nov. 1876; part of a king's share at rate of 90,000/. ; 
of an adventurer's share at rate of 93,200/., 15 May, 
1878 ; king's share, rate 88,200/. ; adventurer's, 
■91,000/., Oct. 1878; king's share, rate 91,010/.; 
adventurer's, 94,500/., Nov. 1880; king's share 
rate, 85,800/. ; adventurer's, 85,200/. Nov. 1887. 
An entire freehold adventurer's share of the com- 
pany was sold by auction for 122,800^. to the 
Prudential Assurance Company . . 17 July, 1889 
The annual income of the company from land and 

water was stated to be 511,356'. in 1888 

An entire " King's Share " sold for 95,100?. 21 May, 1890 

NEAV ROAD, N. London (now Pentonville, 

Euston, and Marylebone roads) was cut through 

verdant meadows, 1756-7, after much opposition. 

NEW ROSS (Wexford), S. E. Ireland. Here 

* Myddelton turned the first sod atChadwell, a spring 
5-ising at the foot of a hill near Ware, 19 April, 1609 ; the 
•water issued out of a deep hole, and combined with 
another spring, A mwell : forming a river about 20 feet 
wide : he died poor, 10 Df <;. 1631. 



general Johnston totally defeated the rebels under 
Beauchamp D. Bagenal Harvey, 4 June, 1798. 

(NEW) RUGBY, Tennessee, United States, N. 
America, a colony of British farmers and others, 
founded on English principles by Mr. Thomas 
Hughes, Q.C., formerly M.P., author of " Tom 
Brown's Schooldays," &c; inaugurated 5 Oct. 1880. 
Keported failure of crops and prevalence of fever, 
Aug. 1881. Said to be not quite a failure by ener- 
getic persons, 13 Oct. 1881 ; more favourable re- 
ports, Sept. 1883. 

NEWRY (N. Ireland). In the rebellion of 
1641, Newry was reduced to a ruinous condition ; it 
was surprised by sir Con. Magenis, but was retaken 
by lord Conway. After the Bestoration the town 
was rebuilt. It was burnt by the duke of Berwick 
when fleeing from Schoniberg and the English 
army, and only the castle and a few houses escaped, 
1689. 

NEWS-LETTERS. News- writers in the 
reign of Charles II. collected from the coffee-houses 
information, which was printed weekly and sent 
into the country. The London Gazette, then the 
only authorised newspaper, contained little more 
than proclamations and advertisements. 

NEW MODEL, see Council of Officers. 

NEW SOUTH WALES, the principal 
colony of Australia on the eastern coast was explored 
and taken possession of and named by captain Cook 
in 1770. At his recommendation a convict colony 
was first formed here. Captain Arthur Phillip, the 
first governor, arrived at Botany Bay with 800 con- 
victs, 20 Jan. 1788; but he subsequently preferred 
Sydney, about seven miles distant from the head of 
Port Jackson, as a more eligible situation for the 
capital. A new constitution was granted in 1855 
(18 & 19 Vict. c.54). The Intercolonial Exhibition 
was opened at Sydney, by the governor-general lord 
Belmore, 30 Aug. 1870. It consisted of two depart- 
ments, agricultural and non- agricultural, A con- 
ference of delegates from the Australian colonies 
met at Sydney in Jan. 1873, to' deliberate on a cus- 
toms' union, postal and railway arrangements, &c. 
The ministry introduced a free trade budget near the 
end of the year. Industrial exhibition opened by 
the governor, 11 April, 1874. Population, (1856), 
269,722; (1862), 367,495 ; (1866), 411,388; (1871), 
519,163; ( 1 881), 750,006; (1891), 1,134,207. Im- 
ports 6,597,053/. in 1859; 20,960,157/. in 1883; 
18,806,236/. in 1887 ; 22,954,015/. in 1890 ; the ex • 
ports to 4,768,049/. in 1859, to 19,886,018/. in 1883, 
to 18,496,917/. in 1887, to 13,266,222/. in 1890. 1887 
revenue, 8,582,811/,; 1888, 8,963,000/.; 1889-90, 
8,519,159/.; expenditure, 11,077,964/.; 1889-90, 
9,811,251/. Governor, sir John Youna:, i860 ; earl 
of Belmore, 1867; sir Hercules Robinson, April, 
1872 ; lord Loftus, 1879; lord Carrington, 1885 ; 
the earl of Jersey, 1890. See Australia and Sydney. 
The bishopric of Australia was formed in 1836 ; New 
Zealand was detached in 1841, and Tasmania in 
1842 ; the diocese of Australia was again divided 
in 1847, the sees of Sydney, Newcastle, Adelaide 
and Melbourne being formed ; the diocese of 
Perth was formed 1857 ; Goulburn, 1863 ; Bathurst, 
1869 ; Grafton and Armidale, 1869 ; Ballarat, 1875 ; 
North Queensland, 1878 ; Riverina . . . . 1883 
Town of Jerilderie seized and robbed by the Victo- 
rian thieves, " Kelly gang" . 8-10 Feb. 1879 
International Exhibition opened by Lord A. Loftus, 

17 Sept. „ 
Building burnt down .... 22 Sept. 1882 
The Wolverene was presented as a gift from the 
British government to the government of New 
South Wales . . • 16 Jan. ,, 

Henry Partes, originally farm labourer, premier 
1S72-5, 1877, 1378-83. 



NEWSPAPEES. 



680 



NEWSPAPEES. 



New parliament ; resignation of ministry ; Mr. 
Alex. Stuart forms a new cabinet . . 3 Jan. 1883 

The legislature rejects the federal scheme by 1 vote 

about 1 Nov. 1884 

Military contingent ordered to be sent to the 
Soudan ; 3 o,oooi. subscribed for the Patriotic 
Fund, at Sydney, 23 Feb.; amount raised to 45,000^. 
3 March ; contingent starts, 3 March ; arrives at 
Suakim . . . 29-30 March ; left May, 1885 

Kesignation of ministry ; new one formed by sir 
John Robertson, 17 Dec. 1885 ; coalition formed 
by sir J. Robertson and sir Patrick Jennings, 

25 Feb. 1886 

Explosion at Bulli colliery; 85 men perish, 

23 March, 1887 

Proposal to change the name of the colony to 

Australia 23 Nov. ,, 

Reward of 25,000?. offered by government for the 
extermination of rabbits introduced from Europe. 
— M. Pasteur suggests the introduction of rabbits 
inoculated with microbes ; professor "Watson of 
Adelaide proposes a similar method, 1887 ; [re- 
ported unsuccessful, 1889-90.] 
Sir Henry Parkes premier .... 1887-8 
Centenary of the landing of captain A. Phillip at 

Sydney 24 Jan - et s -1- l883 

Severe Chinese restriction bill (against the treaties 
of Nankin and Pekin) passed by the assembly 

16-17 May, ,, 
Conference of Australasian ministers on the Chinese 

question 12 June, 1888 

Hon. G. R. Dibbs forms a new ministry, 15 Jan. ; 
defeated 17 Jan. ; dissolution of parliament ; 
elections, 2 Feb. 1889 ; sir Henry Parkes forms a 

ministry 14 March, 1889 

Great storm on the coast near Sydney with much 

loss of life and property . . 25 May et seq. „ 
Bill for the payment of legislature finally passed . 

20 Sept. ,, 
The town of Bourke temporarily submerged by the 
rising of the Upper Darling river, through heavy 
rain ; much property damaged, no loss of life . 

18-20 April, 1890 
New parliament opened . . . 29 April, „ 
For the great strikes, see Sydney . . . Aug. ,, 
Death of Sir John Robertson, eminent statesman, 
aged 75, premier 1860-63, 1868-70, 1875-77, 1885-6 

announced 8 May, 1891 
Parliament dissolved .... 7 June, ,, 

Elections ; 48 ministerialists, s6opposition, 31 labour 

candidates and others . . . .30 June, ,, 
Parliament opened 15 July; Mr. Dibbs' vote of 
want of confidence in sir Henry Parkes negatived 

(80 to 57) 23 July, „ 

The earl of Jersey's proclamation strictly forbid- 
ding all interference with free labour . 23 July, „ 
Settlement of the shearers' strike .... 

announced 11 Aug. ,, 
Resignation of sir H. Parkes and his ministry on 
account of the introduction of a bill limiting the 
hours of labour to 8 in coal-mines . . 19 Oct. ,, 
New ministry formed by Hon. G. R. Dibbs 23 Oct. „ 
The Eight hours bill passed . . . 1 Dec. ,, 
The new tariff bill voted by the legislative assem- 
bly by 50 votes against 3, 19 Dec. 1891 ; assent 

given, 2 March, 1892 

Great difficulty with the unemployed . April, ,, 
Railway accident near Bathurst, 9 persons killed . 

27 April, ,, 
Seven months' drought relieved by heavy rain 

26 May, ,, 
The hon. G. R. Dibbs, premier, arrives in London, 
8 June ; knighted, 23 July ; returned . 12 Sept. „ 

NEWSPAPEE PEOVINCIAL SO- 
CIETY, established in 1836, became the News- 
paper Society in 1889 ; see Press Association. 

NEWSPAPEES. The Roman Acta Biurna 
were issued, it is said, 691 B.C. In modern times, a 
Gazetta, which derived its name from its price, a 
small coin, was published in Venice (about 1536). 
The Gazette cle France, now existing, first appeared 
in April, 1631, edited by Renaudot, a physician. It 
■was patronised by the king, Louis XIII., who wrote 
one article for it, and by Richelieu. The first real 



newspaper published in England* was established, 
by sir Roger L' Estrange, in 1663; it was entitled 
the Public Intelligencer, and continued nearly 
three years, when it ceased, on the appearance of 
the Gazette. In the reign of James I., 1622, 
appeared the London Weekly Courant ; and in the 
year 1643 (the period of the civil war) were 
printed a variety of publications, certainly in no 
respect entitled to the name of newspapers See- 
Fourth Estate. The following are the titles of some 
of them : — 

England's Memorable Accidents. 
The Kingdom's Intelligencer. 
The Diurnal of Certain Passages in Parliament. 
The Mercurius Aulicus. 
The Scotch Intelligencer. 
The Parliament's Scout. 

The Parliament's Scout's Discovery, or certain Informa- 
tion. 
The Mercurius Civicus, or London's Intelligencer. 
The Country's Complaint, &c. 
The Weekly Accounts. 
Mercurius Britannicus. 

A paper called the London Gazette,-^ published 22 Aug. 
1642. The London Gazette of the existing series, pub- 
lished first at Oxford, the Court being there on account 
of the plague, 7 Nov. 1665, and afterwards at London, 
5 Feb. 1666. A valuable index (1830-1883) compiled! 
by Alex. Pulling for council of law reporting, pub- 
lished Nov. 1885. 
Printing of newspapers and pamphlets prohibited, 31 

Chas. I. 1680. Salmon's Chron. 
The regular newspapers commenced on the abolition of 

the censorship of the press, in 1695. 
Daily Courant said to have been first published in 1702- 

The stamp duty imposed 1711 

Sunday Newspapers began with The British Gazette and 
Sunday Monitor, 26 March, 1780 ; followed by the Ob- 
server, 1791 ; Bell's Messenger, 1796 ; Weekly Dispatch, 
1 801, &e. London ed. of New York Herald, 1889. 
A penny charged for every sheet, and a halfpenny 

for every half sheet 1724 

The duty made id. or 4L is. 8d. the 1000 . . . 1761 
The duty raised to ij<£ in 1776 ; to id. in 1789 ; to 

2M. in 1794 ; to 3J& in 1797 ; to \d. in . . . 1815 
Reduced to id., and \d. for a supplement in . . 1836 
Abolished, the compulsory stamp being retained 

only for postal purposes 1855 

This also ceased 30 Sept. 1870 

Newspapers first sent with a \d. stamp affixed to 
the cover 1 Oct. „ 

NUMBER OF STAMPS ISSUED TO BRITISH NEWSPAPERS. 

1S20 . . . 24,862,186 

1825 . . . 26,950,693 

1830 . . . 30,158,74a 

1S35 . . . 32,874,652 

1840 . . . 49,033,384. 

1843 • • • 56.433.97X 

851, there were 150 London* 
newspapers, in which appeared 891,650 advertisements ; 
222 English provincial newspapers, having 875,631 ad- 
vertisements. 

In Scotland, same year, there were no newspapers, having: 
249,141 advertisements. 

In Ireland, there were 102 newspapers, having 236,128 
advertisements. 

In that year the number of stamps issued was— in Eng- 
land, 65,741,271 at id., and 11,684,423 supplement 
stamps at hi. ; in Scotland, 7,643,045 stamps at id., and 



1753 • 




• 7.4H.757 


1760 




• • 9.404.790 


1774 • 




. 12,300,000 


1790 




. . 14,035,639 


1800 . 




. 16,084,905 


1810 




. . 20,172,837 


In the 


year 


ending 5 Jan. 



* Some copies of a publication are in existence called 
The English Mercur .</, professing to come out under the 
authority of queen Elizabeth, in 1588, the period of the 
Spanish Armada. The researches of Mr. T. Watts, of 
the British Museum, proved these to be forgeries, 
executed about 1766. The full title of No. 50 is " The 
English Merenrie, published by authoritie, for the pre- 
vention of false reports, imprinted by Christopher Bar- 
ker, her highness's printer, No. 50." It describes the 
Spanish Armada, giving " A journall of what passed since 
the 21st of this month, between her majestie's fleet and 
that of Spayne, transmitted by the Lord Highe Admiral, 
to the Lordes of council." 

t On 22 May, 1787, a London Gazette Extraordinary was 
forged, with a view of affecting the funds. 



NEWSPAPERS. 



681 



NEWSPAPERS. 



241,264 at Jd ; in Ireland, 6,302,728 stamps at id, and 
43,358 at Jet 

Reduction of newspaper duty from 4CI. to id took effect 
on 15 Sept. 1836. 

The distinctive die came into use 1 Jan. 1837. 

Duty on advertisements abolished, 1853. 

By the act passed 15 June, 1855 (18 & 19 Vict. c. 27), the 
stamp on newspapers, as such, was totally abolished, 
and to be employed henceforth only for postal pur- 
poses. Many new papers were then started, which 
were but of short duration. 

In 1857, 71 million newspapers passed through the post- 
office. In Jan. i860, 1060 newspapers ; in Jan. 1862, 
1165 newspapers ; and in Jan. 1868, 1404 newspapers 
were published in the United Kingdom. 

On 1 Oct. 1861, when the paper duty came off, the Times, 
Daily News, and Morning Post reduced their price to 
3d each copy unstamped. 

"Penny a Week Country Daily Newspaper," single copy 
%d. ; No. 1. 25 June, 1873. 

Petit Journal, Jd daily, established by Marioni, 1861 ; 
circulation about 840,000. 

Sell's "Dictionary of the World's Press" for 1887 
consists of 1,200 pages ; increased considerably, 1892 ; 
published annually. 

Newspaper libel and registration act passed 1881. 

Law of libel relating to newspapers amended 1888. 

Mitchell's annual newspaper press directory first pub- 
lished, 1846. 

Estimated newspapers in the world, 41,000, Aug. 1890. 

For copyright in newspaper articles, see Trials, June, 
1892 

IRISH NEWSPAPERS. 

The first was the Dublin Neivs-Letter, byJosephKay, 1685; 
Pue's Occurrences, 1700 or 1703. Faulkner's Journal was 
established by George Faulkner, " a man celebrated for 
the goodness of his heart and the weakness of his 
head," 1728. The oldest of the existing Dublin news- 
papers is the Freeman's Journal, founded as the Public 
Register, by the patriot Dr. Lucas, about 1763. The 
Limerick Chronicle, the oldest of the provincial prints, 
1766. 

PROVINCIAL NEWSPAPERS. 

Norwich Postman, 1706. Worcester Postman, 1709. Neio- 
castle-on-Tyne Courant, 1711. 

FOREIGN NEWSPAPERS. 

Gazette de Ve'nise, early in 17th century. 

Gazette cU France (now publishing), 1631. 

Journal de Paris, alleged first French daily paper, 1 Jan. 

1777- 
Galiqnani's Weekly Messenger, Paris, begun 1814. 
Chinese newspaper published in London . . 1876 

Arabic newspaper ,, ,, . . ,, 

The first newspaper set up in Germany, 1715. 
The first published in America, the Boston Neivs-Jetter, in 

1704 ; the first at Philadelphia in 1719 ; and the first in 

Holland in 1732. 
"America, whose population is 23 millions and a half, 

supports 800 newspapers (50 of these publishing daily), 

and their annual circulation is stated at 64,000,000. 

In Paris there exists 169 journals, literary, scientific, 

religious and political." — Westminster Review, 1830. 



REGISTERED NEWS- 
PAPERS. 

London daily 
London weekly . 
London generally 
Eng. prov. . . . 

Irish 

Scotch . . . . 
British isles . . 



1850. 1865. 1872. i£ 



166 209 23 



222 
102 

no 
14 



75° 
132 
140 

14 



9°3 
i34 
134 
17 



320 
950 
138 
152 
19 



18S1 1885. 1852. 

17 20 27 
— 318 340 

378 40s 461 

1087 1202 1302 
154 161 146 
181 184 206 

24 



Total newspapers in the United Kingdom, Jan. 1892, 
2255- 

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE PRINCIPAL LONDON NEWSPAPERS 

{Mitchell) DAILY (1892). 

Lloyd's List (with Shipping and Mercantile Gazette) 1726 

Public Ledger (commercial) 1759 

Morning Chronicle (liberal), 1770 ; extinct . . 1862 

Morning Herald (conservative), 1780, extinct 31 Dec. 1869 

Morning Post (whig, latterly conservative) . . . 1772 

Times (independent) 1 Jan. 1788 

Bun (liberal) extinct 1792 

Morning Advertiser (liberal) . . . 8 Feb. 1794 



Globe (whig : 1866 conservative) evening . . . 1803; 

Standard (conservative) even. (morn. 29 June, 1857) 1827 

Shipping and Mercantile Gazette . . 4 Jan. 1836 

Daily News (liberal) 21 Jan. 1846. 

Daily Chronicle and Clerkenwell News (liberal) . 1855 

Daily Telegraph* (liberal, latterly conserv.), 29 June, ,, 

Sporting Life (and Bell's Life in London) . . . 1859 

Morning Star (liberal), 1856 ; extinct . . Oct. 1869 
Pall Mall Gazette (independent), even. (morn. Jan.- 

April, 1870) 1865 

Sportsman Aug. ,, 

Glowworm (liberal), extinct ,, 

Echo £d (independent) Dec. 186S 

Hour (conservative) 24 March, 1873; extinct n Aug. 1876 

Continental Times (neutral) 187& 

St. James's Gazette (anti-radical) . . May, 1880- 

Financial News (independent) 1884 

Evening Post (independent) 1887- 

Financial Times (independent) 1888 

Star (radical) ,, 

Daily Graphic (illustrated) 1890. 

Moaning Leader 1892 

PRINCIPAL SUNDAY, WEEKLY, ETC. (1892). 



1763 
1787 
1789 
1 791 

1796 



Lond. Gazette 7 Nov. 1665 
St. James's Chronicle 
(conser.), united with 
" Press 
County Chronicle 
Mail .... 
Observer (whig) . 
Bell's Messenger (lib. 

conservative) 
Weekly Dispatch (lib.) 1801 
Examiner (lib. , extinct) 

1808-81 
Literary Gazette (ex- 
tinct) . . 1817-62 
John Bull (conserv.) 1820-92 
Bell's Life in London 
(sporting) now with 
Sporting Life (daily) 1822 
Sunday Times (lib. con.) „ 
Lancet (medical) . 1823 
Mechanic's Magazine 
(merged into "Iron," 

1873) • •' • ., 
Atlas (liberal) extinct . 1826 
Medical Gazette, 1827 ; 
Medical Times (uni- 
ted)i8so(exti)icti&8s) 1828 
Athenaeum (liter, and 

scientific) . ,, 

Spectator (liberal) . ,, 
Record (lib. conserv.) . ,, 
Court Journal (neut.) 
Mark Lane Express 
United Service Gaz. . 
Naval and Military 

Gazette (extinct) 
Mining Journal . 
Railway Times . 
Era (theatrical) . 
Publishers' Circular . ,, 
Ecclesiastical Gazette 1838 
Medical Press . ,, 

Tablet (Rom. Catholic) 1840 
Gardeners' Chronicle . 1841 
Nonconformist . ,, 

Punch . . . ,, 
Jewish Chronicle . ,, 
Pharmaceutical Journ. ,, 
Illustrated London 

News (liberal) . 1842 

Lloyd's Weekly Lon- 
don Newsi>aper(rad) ,, 
Builder . . . ,, 
Inquirer (lib.) . . ,, 
English Churchman 
& St. James's Chro- 
nicle (High Church). 1843 
News of the World 

(liberal) . . . ,, 
Law Times . . ,, 

Economist (liberal) . ,, 



1829 
1832 
1833 



1835 
1837 



Farmer (agricultural) 1843. 
Allen's Indian Mail 
(combined with 

Homeward Mail) . ,, 

Musical Times . . 1844 

Agricultural Gazette . ,, 
Guardian (High Church) 1846 

Educational Times . 184? 
Notes and Queries (lit. 

and antiquarian) . 1849. 

Journal of Gaslighting ,, 
Journal of Society of 

Arts . . . 1852 
Press (conserv.), united 
with "St. James's 
Chronicle" (extinct) 1853; 
Field (country gentle- 
men's) . . „ 
Civil Service Gazette . ,, 
British Medical Jour- 
nal . . . ,, 
Building News . . 1854 
Saturday Review (lit.) 1855 
Overland Mail . . ,, 
Engineer . . . 1856 
Court Circular . . ,, 
City Press (neutral) . 1857 
Homeward Mail. . „ 
Solicitors' Journal . ,, 
Bookseller . . . 1858 
Photographic News . ,, 
Chemical News . . 1859. 
Christian World . ,, 
Army and Navy Gaz. i860 
National Reformer . „ 
Catholic Times . . ,, 
Fun (comic) . . 1861 
Queen (ladies") . ,, 
Church Review (ritual.) ,, 
Owl (satirical) stopt — ■ 1864 
English Mechanic . 1865 
Engineering . . 1866 
Law Journal . . ,, 
Land and Water (nat. 

hist.) . . . ,, 

Bullionist . . . ,, 

Rock (Protestant) . 186S 

Vanity Fair . . ,, 

Bazaar . . . „ 

Academy (literary) . 1869. 

Architect . „ 

Nature (scientific) . ,, 

Graphic (illustrated) . ,, 

Freemason . . . „ 

Journal of Education 1870- 
Garden . . .1871 

British Mail . . 1872 

.Metropolitan . ,, 
lvon(manvfacturesand 

I science) . . . 1873 

1 Money . . . 1872 



144.000 copies sold ou 16th Dec. 1861. The prince 
sort died on the 14th. 



NEW STYLE. 



682 



NEW YOEK. 



Illustrated Sporting 




Knowledge . 


and Dramatic News 


1874 


People 


-Pictorial World . 




City Leader 


World 


,, 


County Council Times 


-Accountant 


t 


Pelican (society) . 


.British Architect 




Law Gazette 


.Sanitary Reeord 


,, 


Speaker (liberal) 


Whitehall Review 


1876 


Woman (for Indies) . 


.Bicycling News . 


,, 


Blackand White (illus- 


Truth .... 


1877 


trated) 


Referee 




Anti- Jacobin (conser- 


."Statist 


1878 


vative) 


Electrician 


,, 


Express (neutral) 


■Citizen 




Trade Unionist . 


lady's Pictorial . 


1880 




Royal Newspaper 


Pres 


s Fund, established 


(Chartered 1890. 







NEW STYLE. Pope Gregory XIII., in order 
to rectify the errors of the current calendar, pub- 
lished a new one, in which ten days were omitted — 
5 Oct. 1582, becoming 15 Oct. The new style was 
adopted in France, Italy, Spain, Denmark, Holland, 
Flanders, Portugal, in 1582, in Germany in 1584, 
■in Switzerland in 1583 and 1584, in Hungary in 
1 £87 ; and in Great Britain in 175 1. In 1752 
-eleven days were leit out of the calendar — 3 Sept. 
being reckoned as. 14 Sept. The difference between 
the old and new style up to 1699 was 10 dajs ; after 
1700, II days; after 1800, 12 days. In" Bussia, 
•Greece, and throughout the East, the old style is 
still retained. The czar, Alexander II., was born 
on the 17th April, 1818, old style, 29 April, new 
style ; see Calendar. 

NEW TESTAMENT, see Bible. 

NEWTONIAN PHILOSOPHY, the doc- 
trines respecting gravitation, &c, taught by sir 
Isaac Newton in bis " Principia," published in 
1687; see Gravitation. He was born 25 Dec, 1642; 
hecame master of the mint, 1699; president of the 
Eoyal Society, 1703 ; and died 20 March, 1727. A 
statue of him in marble by Eoubiliae was set up at 
Trinity College, Cambridge, 14 July, 1755, and one 
in bronze by Theed, at Grantham, 21 Sept. 1858, 
when lord Brougham delivered a discourse on the 
life and works of Newton. The latter statue cost 
1600L, a sum obtained by public subscription. 

NEWTOWNBARRY RIOT (S.E. Ireland). 
At a seizure of stock for tithes, a conflict ensued 
here between the yeomanry and the people, when 
thirty-five persons were killed or wounded, 18 June, 
1831. The jury at the inquest were unable to agree 
on a verdict. 

NEWTOWN-BUTLER (N. Ireland). On 
30 July, 1689, the Enniskilleners under Gustavus 
Hamilton thoroughly defeated the adherents of 
James II. commanded by general Maccarty, taking 
him prisoner with his artillery, arms, and baggage. 

NEW YEAR'S DAY, &c. The beginning 
of the Jewish year was changed and the passover 
instituted, 1491 B.C. A feast is said to have been 
instituted by Numa, and dedicated to Janus (who 
presided over the new year), 1 Jan. 713 B.C. 
On this clay the Romans sacrificed to Janus a cake of 
now sifted meal, with salt, incense, and wine ; and all 
the mechanics began something of their art of trade ; 
the men of letters did the same, as to books, poems, 
&c. ; and the consuls, though chosen before, took the 
•chair and entered upon their office this day. Nonius 
Marcellus refers the origin of New-year's gifts 
.among the Romans to Titus Tatius, king of the 
iSabines, who having considered as a good omen a 
present of some branches cut in a wood consecrated 
to Strenia, the goddess of strength, which he received 
on the first day of the new year, authorised the cus- 
tom afterwards, and gave these, gifts the name of 
.Sirens, 747 B.C. 



NEW YORK, the "empire state" of the 
United States of N. America, is said to have been 
discovered by Verrazano, a Florentine in the French 
service, about 1524, and rediscovered by Hudson, 
an Englishman in the Dutch service, in 1609, and 
settled by the Dutch in 1614, the city being named 
Manhattan and New Amsterdam ; but the English 
under colonel Nichols dispossessed them and the 
Swedes, 27 Aug. 1664, and changed its name, 
the king, Charles II., having given the territory to 
his brother, the duke of York. Population of the 
city, in i860, 805,651 ; in 1870, 942,292 ; in 1880, 
1,206,299; i n ^90, 1,515,301; of the state in 1880, 
5,082,871; in 1890, 5,997,853; of Albany, the state 
capita], in 1880,90,758; in 1890, 94,923 ; of Brook- 
lyn, in 1880, 566,663 ; in 1890, 806,343 ; of Buffalo, 
in 1880, 155,134; in 1890, 255,664. 
The city confirmed to England by the peace of 

Breda 24 Aug. 1667 

Taken by the Dutch, and named New Orange, 1673 ; 

surrendered 1674 

The city a principal point of the struggle for inde- 
pendence. It surrendered to the British forces 
under general Howe .... 15 Sept. 1776 
The city was evacuated by the British; "Evacua- 
tion day " made one of rejoicing ever since, 25 Nov. 1783 
Academy of the fine arts, and a botanical garden, 

established in 1804 

Fire here ; 674 buildings destroyed, and property 

valued at nearly 20,000,000 dollars . 16 Dec. 1835 

Astor library founded by John Jacob Astor I. ; see 

under Libraries 1S39 

Fire ; 302 houses burnt . . . .19 July, 1845 
The Park theatre destroyed by fire . 16 Dec. 1848 

Serious riot (several lives lost) at the theatre, 
originating in a dispute between Mr. Macready 
(English) and Mr. Forrest (American), actors, 

10 May, 1849 
New York Times first appeared . . 18 Sept. 185 1 
The Crystal Palace, containing an exhibition of 
goods from all nations, was opened in the presence 
of the president of the United States and many 
other dignitaries .... 14 July, 1853 
New York suffered severely by large commercial 
failures, and ' ' hunger demonstrations " took place 

during the panic Nov. 1857 

The Crystal Palace destroyed by fire . . 5 Oct. 1858 
A magnificent cathedral erected .... 1859 
Great fire ; about 50 lives lost . . .2 Feb. i860 
During the civil war of 1861 New York strongly 
supported the government of president Lincoln 
(republican, or abolitionist) ; but during 1862 a 
reaction gradually took place, and the opposition 
(democrat) candidates for congress were elected 

by large majorities Nov. 1862 

Fierce riots against conscription ; many persons 

killed and much property destroyed 13-17 July, 1863 
Barnum's museum burnt; great loss, 13 July, 1865 ; 

again 2 March, 1868 

Great loss and panic through James Fisk and 

others (the Erie Ring) buying up gold, 22-26 Sept. 1869 
Riot through an Orange procession ; about 30 killed, 

12 July, 1871 

Disclosure of great corruption in the municipal 

government (termed "Tammany frauds," from 

the council meeting in Tammany hall) ; public 

meeting to obtain prompt redress . 4 Sept. „ 

The Tammany party excluded from office by the 

elections Nov. „ 

Demonstrations of the International Society of 

Workmen repressed Dec. „ 

James Fisk, the railway and financial speculator, 
assassinated by Edw. Stokes, through jealousy , 

dies 7 Jan. 1872 

Collapse of the Erie railway ring, ruled by Fisk and 

Jay Gould ; new directors elected (including 

generals Dix and M'Clellan) . . March, ,, 

Much inconvenience by the horse disease . Oct. ,, 

Legal proceedings against Gould suspended ; he 

agrees to give up to the company 9,000,000 dollars, 

Dec. ,, 
Stokes convicted of murder ; 6 Jan. ; new trial, 

sentenced to imprisonment . . . . 30 Oct. 1873 
Barnum's museum again burnt ; menagerie de- 
stroyed ; reported Jan. „ 



NEW YOEK. 



6S3 



NEW ZEALAND. 



Financial excitement through the stoppage of Jay, 
Cooke, & Co. about . 18 Sept. 1873 

The hon. Wm. M. Tweed, of the Tammany Ring, 
convicted of embezzlement (sentenced to 12 
years' imprisonment) 19 Nov. Tweed permitted ,, 
to visit his own house, escapes . . 4 Dee. „ 

Death of W. B. Astor, very rich merchant 24 Nov. 1875 

Great lire, with loss of life, 30 buildings destroyed 

8 Feb. 1876 

Death of Alex. T. Stewart, very rich merchant 

10 April, ,, 

Tweed arrested at Vigo .... 8 Sept. ,, 

Some of the rocks named " Hell Gate," blown up to 
improve entrance into the harbour . 24 Sept. „ 

"Commodore" Vanderbilt, a "railway king" and 
great capitalist died Jan. 1877 

Tweed discloses the system of the " Tammany 
frauds," incriminating many persons Sept. „ 

Abp. Bayley dies 3 Oct. ,, 

Great fire at Greenfield's confectionery works, &c, 
50 to 60 persons perished . about 20 Dec. ,, 

Elevated street-railways in progress . . . 1877-8 

Tweed dies in gaol 12 April, 1878 

International exhibition here (in 1883) proposed . 1880 

Fall of O'Kelly, the " boss " of New York ; once 
very influential Dec. ,, 

Abbey-park theatre burnt . . . .30 Oct. 1882 

Peter Cooper, philanthropist, founder of the Cooper 
Institute, died aged 92 ... 4 April, 1883 

Bridge from New York to Brooklyn, 5989 feet long 
(constructed by the skill of Mr. and Mrs. 
Washington Rcebling), begun 3 Jan 1870; opened 
24 May ; 12 persons killed in a panic 30 May, ,, 

New Metropolitan opera-house opened . 22 Oct. ,, 

Centenary of " Evacuation day " celebrated 26 Nov. „ 

The Standard theatre burnt . . . 14 Dec. „ 

Severe panic in the stock-market, Wall-street, 
checked 12-14 May, 1884 

Attempt to kill capt. Phelan, 9 Jan. ; to kill 
O'Donovan Rossa (see Fenians) . . 2 Feb. 1885 

Great ironworkers strike ; compromise 1-16 June, „ 

General Grant's funeral (see United States) 8 Aug. ,, 

About nine acres of rock (Flood rock) in Hell Gate 
channel exploded by dynamite . . 10 Oct. ,, 

Great strike on S.W. railway, early March, 1886 ; 
men submit .... about 31 March, 1886 

Mr. Abram Hewitt elected mayor in opposition to 
Mr. Henry George .... 3 Nov. ,, 

Alderman McQuade for bribery, &c, sentenced to 
seven years' imprisonment and fine . 20 Dec. ,, 

Rev. Henry Ward Beecher, popular preacher, &c, of 
Plymouth church, Brooklyn, dies, aged 73, 

8 March, 1887 

Destructive blizzard, see Storm . 11-13 March, 1888 

Messrs. Fairbank's lard refinery works and other 
establishments on the river side, about half a 
mile in extent, burnt ; two persons killed, others 
missing ; loss about S3, 000, 000 . 19, 20 April, 1889 

Grand Washington celebration, see United States, 

29-30 April, 1 May, ,, 

John Jacob Astor, wealthy benefactor to charities, 
died 22 Feb. 1890 

Western Union Telegraph building destroyed by 
explosion and fire ; great loss . . 18 July, ,, 

Great fire in central New York ; estimated loss 
1,000,000 dollars . . . . . 30 July, ,, 

Strike of servants of the New York central railway, 
promoted by the Knights of labour, 8 Aug. ; de- 
feated, 11 Aug. ; fresh strike. . . 15 Aug. ,, 

Temporary financial panic connected with the 
crisis in London .... about 15 Nov. ,, 

Many commercial failures, about 10 Dec. ; confi- 
dence restored 12 Dec. ,, 

Clinton state prison nearly destroyed by fire, 3 Jan. 1891 

Great snow-storm ; electric light, telegraph, and 
telephone communication stopped . 24, 25 Jan. „ 

By a lire in Park-place above 60 persons perish 

22 Aug. ,, 

A man enters the office of Mr. Russel Sage, de- 
mands money, and causes a great explosion by 
dynamite by which he himself and 4 others are. 
killed 4 Dec. ,, 

The Hotel Royal, Sixth-avenue, burnt ; many 
perish 7 Feb. 1892 

Mr. William Astor died . . . . 25 April, „ 

Oswego lumber district nearly destroyed by fire . ,, 
about 21 May ,, 
See under United States. 



NEW ZEALAND (in the Pacific Ocean), 
discovered by Tasman in 1642. The country re- 
mained unknown, and was supposed to be part of a 
southern continent, till 1769-70, when it was cir- 
cumnavigated by captain Cook. In 1773, he 
planted several spots of ground on this island with 
European garden seeds; and in 1777, he found 
some fine potatoes. European population in i860, 
84,294; Dec. 1865, 190,607; 1874, 310,895, natives, 
46,016; in 1881,489,933; 1887, 603,34.0 Europeans, 
and 4196 natives; 1891, 626,830. 1859, imports, 
1,551,030/.; exports, " 551,484/. ; 1874, imports, 
6,464,687/.; exports, 5,610,371/. ; 1887, imports, 
6,245,515/.; exports, 6,865,169/.; 1890, imports, 
6,260,525/.; exports, 9,811,720/. 1887-8, revenue, 
3,521,490/.; expenditure, 4,082,634/.; 1890-91, 
revenue, 4,208,029/. ; expenditure, 4,081,566/. 
Public debt, 1888, 38,758,437/. ; 1891, 38,830,350/. 

The right of Great Britain to New Zealand recog- 
nised at the peace in 1814 

No constitutional authority placed over it until a 

resident subordinate to New South Wales . . 1833 
New Zealand company established ; Wellington 

founded 1839 

Capt. Hobson, the first governor, landed, 29 Jan. ; 
treaty of Waitangi signed, by which the chiefs 
cede a large amount of land 5 Feb. 1840 

New Zealand an independent colony and a bishop's 

see April, 1841 

Capt. (aft. adm.)Fitzroy, governor, Dec. 1843 to Nov. 1845 

Sir George Grey, governor 1846 

A charter, founded upon an act passed in 1846, 
creating powers municipal, legislative, and ad- 
ministrative 29 Dec. 1847 

This charter was not acted on ; a legislative council 

opened by the governor . . . .20 Dec. 1848 
Foundation of Auckland, 1840 ; Nelson and Tara- 
naki (or New Plymouth), 1841 ; Otago, 1848 ; Can- 
terbury 1850 

New Zealand company relinquish charter . ,, 

New constitution granted 1852 

Settlement of Canterbury, south island, founded 

(capital Christchurch) 1850-3 

Col. Wynyard, governor . . Jan. 1854 to Sept. 1855 

Governor Browne Oct. ,, 

An earthquake ; not much damage done, 23 Jan. ,, 

Constitution modified 1857 

New bishoprics established : Christ Church, 1856 ; 

Nelson and Wellington, 1858 ; Waiapu . . 1859 

Insurrection of the natives (Maoris) under a chief 
named William Kmg(Wirrimu Kingi), arising out 
of disputes respecting the sale of land ; the bishop 
Selwyn and others consider the natives unjustly 

treated March, i860 

Indecisive actions between the militia and volun- 
teers and the Maoris . . . 14-28 March, ,, 
War breaks out at Taranaki ; the British repulsed 

with loss 30 June, ,, 

Great excitement in Australia ; troops sent to New 

Zealand, under gen. Pratt, land . . 3 Aug. ,, 
Indecisive actions . . 10, 19 Sept. , 9, 12 Oct. ,, 
Gen. Pratt defeats the Maoris at Mahoetahi, and 

destroys their fortified places . . 6 Nov. ,, 
New Zealaud colonists in England justify the con- 
duct of the governor . . . . 22 Nov. ,, 
The Maoris defeated, 29 Dec. i860; 23 Jan., 24 Feb. 

16-18 March, 1861 
The war ends : surrender of natives . 19 March, ,, 
Sir George Grey re-appointed governor . June, ,, 
Gold discovered at Otago, &c. . . . June, „ 
A native sovereignty proclaimed ; 5000 British sol- 
diers in the island July, ,, 

Loyalty of the natives increasing . . May, 1862 
The Maori chiefs sign a poetical address of condo- 
lence to the queen on the death of the prince con- 
sort ; received Nov. ,, 

Natives attack a military escort and kill 8 persons, 

4 .May, 1S63 
Waikato tribe driven from a fort . . 17 July, ,, 
War spreads ; natives construct rifle pits . Aug. ,, 
Proposed confiscation of Waikato lands . . Sept. ,, 
Gen. Cameron severely defeats the Maoris at Ran- 
gariri 20 Nov. ,, 



NEW ZEALAND. 



6ii 



NEY'S EXECUTION. 



Continued success of gen. Cameron ; capitulation of 

the Maori king 9 Dec. 1863 

British attack on Galepa (the gate pah) repulsed 

with loss of officers and men . . 29 April, 1864 
Loan of 1,000,000?. to New Zealand ; guaranteed by 

parliament July, ,, 

Several tribes submit ... . . . Aug. „ 

Maori prisoners escape and form the nucleus of a 
new insurrection . . . . - . Sept. ,, 

Sir George Grey issues proposals of peace, 25 Oct. ; 
the Aborigines Protection Society send religious, 
moral, and political advice to the Maoris (con- 
sidered injudicious) .... Nov. ,, 

Change of ministry and policy ; seat of government 
to be removed from Auckland to Wellington on 

Cook's Strait 24 Nov. „ 

Maoris' attack on Cameron severely defeated, 25 

Jan. ; again 25 Feb. 1865 

Outbreak of the Pai Mariri or Hau-hau heresy, a 
compound of Judaism and paganism, amongst 
the Maoris ; the rev. C. S. Volkner murdered and 
many outrages committed, 2 March ; proclamation 
of governor sir George Grey against it; it is checked 
by the agency of a friendly native chief We-tako, 

April, „ 
William Thompson, an eminent chief, surrenders 

on behalf of the Maori king . . 25 May, „ 
New Zealand still unsettled . . . July, ,, 
The Hau-haus beaten in several conflicts, Aug. ; 
the governor proclaims peace, 2 Sept. ; British 
troops about to leave . . . .15 Sept. ,, 
The Maoris treacherously kill the envoys of peace ; 
resignation of the Weld ministry ; one formed by 

Mr. Stafford Oct. „ 

Bishopric of Dunedin, Otago, founded . . ,, 

General Chute subdues the Hau-haus . . Jan. 1866 
Progress of peace measures . . . April, ,, 
Murderers of Mr. Volkner executed . 17 May, ,, 

Governor announces cessation of the war, 3 July, „ 
Death of Wm. Thompson, the Maori chief, 28 Dec. ,, 
Sir George F. Bowen appointed to succeed sir 

George Grey ; gazetted ... 19 Nov. 1867 
Act relating to the government of New Zealand 

passed in the British parliament .... 1868 
Geo. Samuel Evans (an eminent colonist, i838-9)dies - 

23 Sept. ,, 

Te Kooti, a chief, and about 150 Maori convicts, 

escape from Chatham island to the mainland, 

4 July ; they repulse troops sent against them, 

7 Sept. ; massacre the whites at Poverty Bay, 

10 Nov. ,, 
Te Kooti and the rebels defeated by col. Whitmore ; 

130 Maoris killed 5 Jan. 1869 

Massacre of settlers at Taranaki . . 12 Feb. ,, 
Change of ministry : hon. Mr. Fox's proposal to 
pay for British troops declined by the home 

government Sept. „ 

Te Kooti, thrice defeated by the colonists and friendly 

natives, a fugitive Oct. „ 

Despatch from earl Granville, insisting on the 
withdrawal of the British troops (18th regiment) 
causes much dissatisfaction ... 7 Oct. ,, 
Friendly interview between Mr. McLean and the 

Maori king's minister . . . .8 Nov. ,, 
Increased demand for the New Zealand fibrous 

plant, Phormium tenax 1869-70 

Departure of the last British troops . . 22 Jan. 1870 
Te Kooti, refusing to surrender at discretion, 24 

Jan. , narrowly escapes . . . . 5 Feb. ,, 
Te Kooti's party attacked and dispersed ;his speedy 

capture anticipated .... 31 July, ,, 
The duke of Edinburgh, in the Galatea, at Welling- 
ton 27 Aug. „ 

Increase of prosperity reported ; loan of 4,000,000?,. 

proposed Aug. „ 

Political union of the islands effected . . Aug. ,, 
Murder of Mr. Todd, surveyor, by Maoris, 28 Dec. „ 
Te Kooti reported as living by plunder ; acting as a 

fanatical potentate Nov. 1871 

Friendly meeting of Mr. McLean with Wirrimu 
Kingi and other chiefs, who submit to the British 

government March, 1872 

Mr. Stafford's ministry resigns, succeeded by one 

under Mr. Waterhouse (the Fox party) about Oct. ,, 
Sir James Fergusson appointed governor, March, 1873 
The marquis of Normanby governor . . Nov. 1874 
The Maori king submits to the British government 

Feb. 1875 



The colony reported highly prosperous by sir 

Julius Vogel, ex-premier . . .31 Oct. 1877 
Sir Hercules G. R. Robinson, governor . Dee. 1878 

Disputes with the Maoris ; they expel British 
settlers near New Plymouth, Taranaki ; and 

plough the land 25 May, 1879 

The settlers recover their land by force 22 June, „ 
Great influence of Erueti, now Te Whiti, a fanati- 
cal Christian Maori, aged 45 ; he supports Maori 
claims, but checks bloodshed . . . . ,, 
Sir George Grey, too energetic liberal premier, com- 
pelled to resign'; succeeded by Hon. John Hall, 

Oct. „ 
Sir Arthur Hamilton Gordon appointed governor . 1880 
Apprehended outbreak at Parihaka under the Maori 

chief, Te Whiti; volunteers coming forward 3iOct. 1881 
Te Whiti arrested for sedition announced 6 Nov. ,, 
He counsels passive resistance . . 8 Nov. ,, 

124 arrests .... announced 17 Nov. ,, 
Difficulty peaceably settled . announced 3 Dec. ,, 
Resignation of the Hall ministry . about 10 April 1882 
Public debt, 31,400,000?,. ... 31 March, „ 
Sir William Jervoise, governor . . . ,, 

Several Maori chiefs in London ; received by the 

prince of Wales, 17 Aug. ; sail for home 7 Sept. ,, 
Release of Te Whiti, John, and others 8 March, 1883 

Mahuki and 20 others sentenced to imprisonment 

for outrages .... about 7 May, ,, 

Communication between New Zealand and the 
Thames by steamers ; time reduced to 40 days 
(14,000 carcases of sheep brought) . . Dec. ,, 
Tawhaio, the Maori king, arrives in London, 2 
June ; visits theatres, &c, and receives visitors ; 
received by the earl of Derby ; appeals for redress, 
referring to the treaty of Waitangi (1840), 22 July ; 
sails from Gravesend ... 20 Aug. 1884 

Mr. H. A. Atkinson forms a ministry, 28 Aug. ; 

resigns 30 Aug ,, 

Lieut. Bryce, colonial native minister, v. G. W. 
Rusden, for gross libel in " History of New 
Zealand," charging him with cruelty &c. to the 
Maoris ; damages awarded, 5,000?. 12 March, 1886 
Destructive volcanic eruption of Tarawera moun- 
tain ; about 60 miles of beautiful fertile country 
desolated by showers of lava, hot cinders, and. 
mud ; about 100 persons killed ; Wairoa de- 
stroyed 9, 10 June, ,, 

The Maori king reconciled, sits in the legislative 

council May, „ 

Maori incursions on European lands . . July, ,, 
Ministry resign 30 Sept. ; Mr. H. A. Atkinson 

forms a ministry 9 Oct. 1887 

The earl of Onslow, governor . . Nov. 188S 

The debate on the Representation bill to increase 

the number of country members of parliament at 

Wellington lasted 76 hours, adjourned 27 July ; 

amicable arrangement between town and country 

parties 29 July, 1889 

International exhibition at Dunedin opened 

about 26 Nov. ,, 
Rev. A. B. Suter, bishop of Nelson, declared 

primate Dec. „ 

A shipping strike begun at Wellington 5 Sept., 

ended 31 Oct. 1890. 

Resignation of ministry ; new cabinet under hon. 

J. Ballance 24 Jan. 1891 

First visit to the Uriwera country, North Island ; 
the earl of Onslow well received by the Maoris, 
reported April ; he resigns . . . Nov. ,, 
Women authorized to serve in parliament and to 
vote, at elections, 4 Sept. ; the bill rejected by 
the legislative council ... 10 Sept. „ 
The earl of Glasgow appointed governor . : Feb. 1892 
Sir George Grey's 80th birthday enthusiastically 

celebrated .... about 14 April. ,, 
Tawhaio, the 2nd Maori king, accepts a pension, 

May, ,, 
Buckley v. Edwards, see under Judges . 21 May, ,, 
Two Americans, Messrs. Witham and Webster's old 
claim for compensation for seizure of land, pur- 
chased from native chiefs ; the senate of U.S.A. 
recommend arbitration ... 26 May, ,, 
Arrival of the earl of Glasgow . . . 7 June, ,, 

NEY'S EXECUTION. Ney, duke of El- 
chingen, prince of the Moskwa, and one of the most 
valiant of the marshals of France, was shot as a 



NEZIB. 



685 



NICARAGUA. 



traitor, 7 Dec. 1815. On 7 Dec. 1853, his statue 
was erected on the spot where he fell. 

After the abdication of Napoleon I., 5 April, 18 14, Ney 
took the oath of allegiance to the king, Louis XVIII. 
On Napoleon's return to Prance from Elba, he inarched 
against him ; but his troops deserting, he regarded the 
cause of the Bourbons as lost, and opened the invader's 
way to Paris, March, 1815. Ney led the attack of the 
French at Waterloo, where he fought in the midst of 
the slain, his clothes pierced with bullet-holes, five 
horses having been shot under him ; night and defeat 
obliged him to flee. Though included in the decree of 
24 July, 1815, which guaranteed the safety of all 
Frenchmen, he was sought out, and on 5 Aug. taken 
at the castle of a friend at Urillac, and brought to trial 
before the Chamber of Peers, 4 Dec. The 12th article 
of the capitulation of Paris, fixing a general amnesty, 
was quoted in his favour in vain. 

NEZIB, Syria. Here Ibrahim and the 
Egyptians defeated the Turks, 24 June, 1839. 

NIAGARA (N. America) . At the head of this 
river, on the western shore, is Fort Erie, which was 
taken by the English, 24 July, 1759. It was 
abandoned in the war with the United States, 27 
May, 1813, but was retaken, 19 Dec. following. A 
suspension bridge of a single span of 820 feet over 
the Niagara, connecting the railways of Canada 
and New York, was opened in March, 1855. It is 
elevated 18 feet on the Canadian, and 28 feet on the 
American side. 

About eighteen miles below Fort Erie are the remarkable 
falls. The river is here 740 yards wide ; the half-mile 
immediately above the cataracts is a rapid, in which 
the water falls 58 feet ; it is then thrown, with aston- 
ishing grandeur, down a stupendous precipice of 150 
feet perpendicular, in three distinct and collateral 
sheets ; and, in a rapid that extends to the distance of 
nine miles below, falls nearly as much more. The river 
then flows in a deep channel till it enters lake Ontario, 
at Fort Niagara. 

The falls visited by the prince of Wales, Sept. i860. 

Blondin crossed the falls on a tight rope, 17 Aug. 1859. 

Professor Tyndall visited the falls, Nov., 1872, and lec- 
tured on them at the Royal Institution, 4 April, 1873. 

Company formed to utilize its water power mechani- 
cally, 1877. 

Capt. Matt Webb drowned while attempting to swim 
across the whirlpool rapids, 24 July, 1883. 

Niagara international park purchased by the U.S. govern- 
ment, opened 15 July, 1885. 

Mr. Carlisle D. Graham, an Englishman, passed through 
the rapids safely in a barrel shaped like a buoy, seven 
feet long, n July, 1886; again, 15 June, 1887. 

Wm. J. Kendall in a cork vest swims tlu'ough the 
rapids, 22 Aug. 1886. 

The huge upper table rock fell, due to weight of 
accumulated ice, 13 Jan. 1887. 

Mr. Hollingshead's grand " cyclorama " of Niagara, 
London, opened 12 March, 1888, closed 29 Nov. 1890. 

Mr. Carlisle D. Graham after long preparation said to 
have " shot Niagara (rapids) in a barrel" 25 Aug. 1889 

Mr. Dixon crosses Niagara river below the falls on a 
wire rope, 6 Sept. 1890. 

An international commission (president, sir Win. Thom- 
son, afterwards lord Kelvin) was appointed to consider 
the best method for utilizing 125,000 horse-power, of 
the force of the Niagara falls, which is computed to be 
about 4,500,000 horse-power. Prizes were given by the 
Cataract company to the authors of various projects 
9 Feb. 1 89 1. 

In the Times of 8 June, 1892, professor George Forbes, 
who was engaged in the undertaking, reported that 
the engineering works were nearly completed, and 
that the electrical arrangements by which the vast 
force was to be transmitted, were begun. 

The force is to be used in factories, in lighting Niagara 
Falls city, and in working railways, probably in 1893. 

NIBELUNGE NOTorNlBELUNGEN-LlED, 
a popular German epic of the 12th century, com- 
posed of various ancient mythical poems, termed 
6agas ; which according to the poet Wm. Morris, 



should be to our race what Homer was to the 
Greeks. 

The first critical edition, by K. Lachmann, appeared 1826 
and 1846. The best translation in modern German, by 
Simrock, 1827; a useful edition, with translation and 
glossary, by L. Braunfels, 1846 ; in English, by W. N. 
Lettsoin, 2nd ed. 1874. 

Richard Wagner's musical dramas, "The Ring of the 
Nibelungen," are based on this poem : the persons in- 
clude the great Northern gods and goddesses, the giants, 
the dwarfs, and the daughters of the Rhine (see under 
Music). 

NIC.EA, see Nice. 

NICARAGUA, a state in Central America 
{which see). The present constitution was estab- 
lished 19 Aug. 1858. At the commencement of 1855 
it was greatly disturbed by two political parties : 
that of the president, Chamorro, who held Granada, 
the capital, and that of the democratic chief, 
Castellon," who held Leon. The latter invited 
Walker, the filibuster, to his assistance, who in a 
short time became sole dictator of the state.* By 
the united efforts of the confederated states the 
filibusters were all expelled in May, 1857. On 
1 May, 1858, Nicaragua and Costa Rica appealed to 
the great European powers for protection. Nicaragua 
railway, a transit route between the Pacific and 
Atlantic, proposed, and company formed Nov. 1866. 
President T. Martinez elected, 1859 and 1863 ; 
Fernando Guzman, elected 1 March, 1867; Vicente 
Quadra elected 1 Feb. 1871 ; Pedro Joaquin Cha- 
morro, 1 Feb. 1875 ; Joaquin Zavala, 1 March, 
1879 J Dr. Adam Cardenas, Jan. 1883 ; Seflor 

* William Walker was born at Tennessee, in the 
United States, where he became successively doctor, 
lawyer, and journalist, and afterwards gold-seeker in 
California, whence he was invited to Nicaragua by 
Castellon, with the promise of 52,000 acres of land, ou 
condition of bringing with him a band of adventurers to 
sustain the revolutionary cause. Walker accepted the 
terms, and on 28 June landed at Realejo with 68 men. 
He increased his forces at Leon, aud soon after attacked 
the town of Rivas, where he was repulsed with loss. 
He then joined col. Kinney, who had occupied and 
governed Grey Town, 6 Sept. On 13 Oct. Walker cap- 
tured Grenada by surprise when in a defenceless state, 
shot Mayorga, one of the ministers, and established a 
rule of terror. By intervention of the American consul 
he made peace with the general of the state army, Corral, 
but shot him on 7 Nov. , on finding him corresponding 
with fugitives at Costa Rica. Walker at first was only 
general-in-chief ; but on Rivas, whom he had made 
president, deserting him, he became sole dictator. On 
14 May, 1856, his envoy Vijil was recognised by the 
president of the United States, whence also he obtained 
reinforcements during his retention of power. Costa Rica 
declared war against him, 28 Feb. 1856 ; the other states 
of central America soon followed the example, and a 
sanguinary struggle ensued, lasting till May, 1857. On 
25 Nov. 1856, Walker totally burnt Grenada, being unable 
to defend it, and removed the seat of government to 
Rivas. This place he surrendered to gen. Mora on 1 May, 
1857, on the intervention of capt. Davis, of the St. Mary's, 
U.S. Himself, his staff, and 260 men, were conveyed in 
that vessel to New Orleans, where they were received witli 
great enthusiasm. On 25 Nov., 1857, he again invaded 
Nicaragua, landing at Punta Arenas with 400 men ; but 
on 8 Dec. was compelled to surrender to capt. Paulding, 
U.S., and was conveyed to New York. He escaped 
punishment by nolle prosequi (2 June, 1858): but capt. 
Paulding was tried for exceeding orders, aud blamed — 
yet excused by president Buchanan. On 5 Aug. 1S60, 
Walker landed near Truxillo, Honduras, and took the 
fort on the 6th. On the 7th he proclaimed that he made 
war on the government, not on the people of Honduras. 
On being summoned to surrender his booty by capt. 
Salmon, R.N. , of the Icarus, he refused, and fled. He 
was pursued, caught, given up to the Honduras govern- 
ment, tried, and shot (12 Sept.). His followers were 
dismissed. Grey Town was surrendered to Nicaragua in 
i860. 



NICE. 



686 



NIGHTINGALE FUND. 



Carazo, 16 Dec. 1886. Don Benjamin Guera, 1889 ? 
Senor Bobert Sacasa, 1889. Population in 1888, 
282,845. 

Louis Napoleon, afterwards emperor, proposed the 
making a ship canal by the lake Nicaragua from the 
Atlantic to the Pacific, between 1842-4 ; the govern- 
ment of Nicaragua proposed it in 1846 ; colonel ChiMs 
made a survey in 1851 ; a company was chartered for 
85 years, and conventions were signed, but the capi- 
talists declined their support. 
The scheme was revived in Feb. 1875. See Panama ; and 

Loans. 
Treaty by which the United States may construct a 
canal (Menseall's plan) from San Juan (Grey Town) 
on the Caribbean sea to Brito, on the Pacific, with 
equal powers ; contrary to the Bulwer Clayton treaty, 
which see, about 16 Dec. 1884 ; rejected by the United 
States legislature, 30 Jan. 188=;. 
The senate and house pass the Nicaragua canal bill, ! 

7 Feb. 1889. 
The construction of a breakwater at Grey Town begun 

June, 1889. 
Death of sig. Carazo ; Dr. Sacaza elected president : re- 
ported 2 Aug. 1889 ; re-elected about 9 Oct. 1890. 
Tue construction of the Nicaragua canal begun 22 Oct. 
1889 ; the bill for it, abandoned by the U.S.A. senate, 
27 Feb. 1891. 
Insurrection in Granada suppressed with bloodshed (the 
leaders exiled), 23 Aug. 1891. 

NICE or Ntc.t.a, a town in Bithynia, Asia 
Minor, N. TV. Antigonus gave it the name Anti- 
goneia, which Lysimachus changed to Nicaea, the 
name of his wife. It became the residence of the 
kings of Bithynia about 208 B.C. At the battle of 
ISTice, a.d. 194, the emperor Severus defeated his 
rival, Pescennius Niger, who was again defeated at 
Issus, and soon after taken prisoner and put to 
death. The first general council was held here 19 
June to 25 Aug. 325, which adopted the Nicexe 
Creed and condemned the Arians. It was attended 
by 318 bishops from divers parts, who settled both 
the doctrine of the Trinity and. the time for observing 
Easter. An addition was made to the creed, 381 ; 
was rejected, 431. See Filioque. When the Cru- 
saders took Constantinople, and established a Latin 
empire there in 1204, the Greek emperors removed 
to Nice and reigned there till 1261, when they re- 
turned to Constantinople ; see Eastern Empire. 
Nice was taken by the Ottoman Turks in 1330. 

NICE (S. E. France) was the seat of a colony 
from Massilia, now Marseilles, and formed part of the 
Soman empire. In the middle ages it was subject 
to Genoa, and suffered from the frequent wars, 
being taken and re-taken by the imperialists and 
French. It was taken by the Austrians under 
Melas, 1800; seized and annexed to France 1792; 
restored to Sardinia in 1814. Nice was again 
annexed to France in virtue of the treaty of 24 
March, i860; the people having voted nearly 
unanimously for this change by universal suffrage. 
The French troops entered 1 April, and definite 
possession was taken 14 June following. Garibaldi, 
a native, vehemently protested against this annexa- 
tion. 
Fire at the opera house, and panic, about 70 killed, 

23 March, 1881 
International exhibition .... 6 Jan. 1884 
About 90 acres of forest destroyed by fire ; three persons 

perish ...."... 27 Feb. 1891 
Statue of Garibaldi unveiled . . . 4 Oct. ,. 

NICIAS, PEACE OF, between Athens and 
Sparta for 50 years, 421 B.C., negotiated by that 
unfortunate Athenian general, who with his col- 
league, Demosthenes, was put to death after the 
disastrous termination of the expedition against 
Syracuse, 413 B.C. 

NICKEL, a white, ductile, malleable, magnetic 
metal, employed in the manufacture of German 



silver. Cronstedt in 1 75 1 discovered nickel in the 
mineral copper-nickel. Nickel ordered to be sub- 
stituted for bronze coinage in France, 1882. 
The nickel heat engine of professor Stefan of Vienna in 
1885, consisted of plates of nickel fixed on a wheel 
which rotated when the metal was heated, in the 
presence of a magnet. Similar machines have been 
constructed by E. Berliner, 1885, Edison, 1887, and 
F. J. Smith, 1892. 

NICOBAE ISLES, Indian Ocean, S. of Bay 

of Bengal, given up by Denmark and occupied by 
Great Britain to suppress piracy ; announced June, 
1869. 

.. NICOLAITANES, a sect mentioned in Rev. 
ii. 6, 15, said to have sprung from Nicolas, one of 
the first seven deacons {Acts vi.), and to have 
advocated a community of wives, and to have denied 
the divinity of Christ. 

NICOaLEDIA, the metropolis of Bithynia, Asia 
Minor, N. AY., founded by king Nieomedes I., 264 
B.C., on the remains of Astacus ; destroyed by an 
earthquake, a.d. 1 15; and restored by the emperor 
Adrian, 124. The Eoman emperors frequently 
resided here during their eastern wars. Here 
Diocletian resigned the purple, 305 ; and Constan- 
tine died at his villa in its neighbourhood, 337. It 
surrendered to the Seljukian Turks, 1078 ; and to 
Orehan and the Ottoman Turks in 1338. 

NICOPOLIS, on the Danube, Bulgaria, 
founded by Trajan. Here was fought a battle be- 
tween the allied Christian powers under Sigis- 
mund, king of Hungary, afterwards emperor, and 
the Turks under Bajazet; said to have been the 
first battle between the Turks and Christians ; the 
latter were defeated, losing 20,000 slain, and as 
many wounded and prisoners, 28 Sept. 1396. Ni- 
copolis was taken by the Eussians after a severe 
conflict (2 pashas, about 6000 men, 2 monitors, 
and 40 guns were captured), 15, 16 July, 1877. 

NLELLO-WORK, believed to have been pro- 
duced by rubbing a mixture of silver, lead, copper, 
sulphur, and borax into engravings on silver, &c, 
an art known to the ancients, was practised in the 
middle ages, and said to have given to Maso 
Finiguerra the idea of engraving upon copper, about 
1460. 

NIE MEN, or AlEiiEL, a river flowing into the 
Baltic, and separating Prussia from Eussia. On a raft 
on this river the emperor Napoleon met Alexander 
of Eussia, 22 June 1807, and made peace with him 
and Prussia. He crossed the Niemen to invade 
Eussia, 24 June, 1812, and re-crossed with the 
remains of his army, 28 Dec. Near it the Poles 
defeated the Eussians 27 May, 1831. 

NIGEE. A great river of N."W. Africa. British 
settlements at the mouth established since 1841. 
Niger expedition, see Africa, 1841. British protec- 
torate with free trade affirmed by the West African 
Conference at Berlin, Dec. 1884 ; confirmed June, 
1885. 

The National African company incorporated in 1882 ; 
chartered as the Royal Niger company in 1886. 
Complaints against the company made by Germans in 
Africa, Nov. ; were rebutted by the company, 
Dec. 1889. 
The company reported prospering, 29 July, 1890. 
Samuel Adjai Crowther, a native African, first bishop of 
the Niger territory, rescued when a child from a slave- 
ship by the British, and taken to Sierra Leone 1822 ; 
baptised and educated ; became a missionary ; con- 
secrated at Canterbury cathedral, 1864; died 31 Dec, 
1891. 

NIGHTINGALE FUND. On 21 Oct. 1854, 
Miss Florence Nightingale left England with a 



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NIRVANA. 



638 



NON-CONFORMISTS. 



NIRVANA, see Buddhism. 

NISBET or NESBIT (Northumberland). Here 
.a battle was fought between the English and 
Scotch armies, the latter greatly disproportioned in 
strength to the former. Several thousands of the 
Scots were slain upon the field and in the pursuit, 
7 May, 1402. 

NISERO. See Acheen. 

NISI PRIITS ("unless before"), words in a 
writ summoning a person to be tried at Westmin- 
ster, unless the judges should come to hold their 
assizes in the place where he is. Judges sit in 
Middlesex by virtue of 18 Eliz. c. 12 (1576). 

NISMES (Nimes), S. France, was the flourish- 
ing Roman colony, Nemausus. Its noble amphi- 
theatre was injured by the English in 141 7. The 
Inhabitants embraced Protestantism, and suffered 
much persecution in consequence, and Nismes has 
frequently been the scene of religious and political 
■contests. The treaty termed the Pacification of 
Nismes (14 July, 1629) gave religious toleration for 
a time to the Huguenots. 

NITRE, see Saltpetre. 

NITRIC ACID, a compound of nitrogen and 
oxygen, formerly called aqua fortis, is said to have 
been first obtained in a separate state by Kaymond 
Lully, an alchemist, about 1287; but we are in- 
debted to Cavendish, Priestley, and Lavoisier for 
our present knowledge of its properties. H. 
■Cavendish demonstrated the nature of this acid 
in 1785. Nitrous acid was discovered by Scheele 
about 1774. Nitrous gas was accidentally dis- 
covered by Dr. Hales. Nitrous oxide gas (laugh- 
ing gas) was discovered by Dr. Priestley in 1776. 
The use of this gas as an anaesthetic, recommended 
by H. Davey in 1800, was begun in America (by 
Mr. "Wells, a dentist), 1844; in Paris, 1866; in 
London, 31 March, 1868, ingenious apparatus 
iiaving been invented for its application. 

NITROGEN or AZOTE (from the Greek a, no, 
and zao or zo, I live), an irrespirable elementary 
gas, and an important element in- food, discovered 
by Rutherford about 1 772. Before 1777, Scheele 
separated the oxygen of the air from the nitrogen, 
and almost simultaneously with Lavoisier dis- 
covered that the atmosphere is a mixture of these 
two gases. Nitrogen combined with hydrogen 
forms the volatile alkali ammonia, so freely given 
■off by decomposing animal and vegetable bodies. 

NITRO-GLYCERINE (also called Nitro- 
jLETJM), an intensely explosive amber-like fluid, 
discovered by Sobrero in 1847, is produced by add- 
ing glycerine (in successive small quantities) to a 
mixture of one part of nitric acid, and two parts 
of sulphuric acid. Alfred Nobel, a Swede, first 
attempted its application as an explosive agent, in 
1864. It has caused several most disastrous acci- 
dents, with great loss of life. In attempting to 
bury some nitro-glycerine in the town moor at 
Newcastle-on-Tyne, 17 Dec. 1867, an explosion 
took place, and seven persons lost their lives, in- 
cluding Mr. Mawson, the sheriff, and Mr. Bryson, 
town surveyor ; see Dynamite. Mr. Alfred Nobel's 
nitro-glyccrinc manufactory, near Stockholm, blown 
up; 15 persons killed, many injured, 10 June, 
1868. An act prohibiting its importation for a time, 
and regulating its transmission, was passed in 1869, 
and repealed by the Explosives Act of 1875. Secret 
manufacture discovered, see Birmingham, 1883. 

NIZAM, see Hyderabad. 



NOBILITY. The Goths, after they had seized 
a part of Europe, rewarded their heroes with titles 
of honour, to distinguish them from the common 
people. The right of peerage seems to have been 
at first territorial. Patents to persons having no 
estate were first granted by Philip the Fair of 
France, 1095. George Neville, duke of Bedford 
(son of John, marquis of Montague), ennobled in 
1470, was degraded from the peerage by parliament, 
on account of his utter want of property, 19 Edw. 
IV., 1478. Noblemen's privileges were restrained 
in June, 1773 ; see Lords, and the various orders of 
the nobility. 

In 1845 a statistical writer said that there were 500,000 
nobles in Russia, 239,000 in Austria ; in Spain (in 
1780), 470,000 ; in France (before 1790) 360,000 (of 
whom 4,120 were of the ancienne noblesse); in the 
United Kingdom, 1,631 with transmissible titles (dukes 
to baronets). 

NOBILITY OE FRANCE preceded that of 
England. On 18 June, 1790, the National Assembly 
decreed that hereditary nobility could not exist in 
a free state ; that the titles of dukes, counts, 
marquises, knights, barons, excellencies, abbots, 
and others, be abolished ; that all citizens take 
their family names ; liveries and armorial bearings 
also to be abolished. The records of the nobility, 
600 volumes, were burnt at the foot of the statue 
of Louis XIV., 25 June, 1792. A new nobility was 
created by the emperor Napoleon I., 1808. The 
hereditary peerage was abolished 27 Dec. 1831 ; re- 
instituted by Napoleon III., 1852. 

NOBLE, an English gold coin (value 6s. 8d.), 
first struck in the reign of Edward III., 1343 or 
1344, said to have derived its name from the excel- 
lency of the metal of which it was composed. 

NOCTURNE, a name given by John Field 
(who died 1837) to anew and very pleasing musical 
composition. He was followed very successfully 
by Chopin, who died, 1849. The term was adopted 
by Mr. Whistler, the artist, for his night pieces, 
in which he began with line, form, and colour, 
1877-8. 

"NOLUMUS LEGES ANGLIC MU- 
TARI," see Bastards, and Merton. 

NOMINALISTS (or Concepttjalists),^ 

scholastic sect, opposed to the Realists, maintain 
that general ideas have no existence outside our 
minds, and only exist by the names we give them. 
The founder of the sect, Jean Boscellin, a canon 
of Compiegne, was condemned by a council at 
Soissons, 1092, but the controversy was revived in 
the 12th century. Among the Nominalists are 
reckoned Abelard, St. Thomas Aquinas (partially), 
Occam, Hobbes, Locke, Berkeley, and Dugald 
Stewart. The Bealists assert that general ideas 
are real things with positive existence. 

NON-CONFORMISTS. The Protestants in 
England are divided into conformists and non- 
conformists, or, churchmen and dissenters. The 
first place of meeting of the latter, in England, 
was established at Wandsworth, near London, 
20 Nov. 1 ^72. The name of non-conformists was 
taken by the Puritans when the Act of Uniformity 
came into operation on 24 Aug. 1662 (termed 
" Black Bartholomew's day ") , when 2000 ministers 
of the established religion resigned, not choosing to 
conform to the statute passed " for the uniformity 
of public praj r ers and administration of the sacra- 
ments;" see Puritans, and Dissenters. The laws 
against them were relaxed by the Toleration act, 
24 May, 1689. — The Nonconformist newspaper 



NONES. 



6S9 



NORTHAMPTON. 



(edited by Mr. Edward Miall, aft. M.P.) first 

appeared 14 April, 1841. He died 29 April, 1881. 

The non-conformists presented to Mr. Miall 10,000 
guineas for his exertions on behalf of religious 
equality ... . . 18 July, 1873 

Meeting of bishops and dissenting ministers at 
Lambeth palace, to consider the alleged progress 
of irreligious thought . . . .24 July, 1876 

Mansfield college, Oxford, for Nonconformists, 
opened 1886 

NONES, in the Roman calendar, were the fifth 
day of each month, excepting March, May, July, 
and October, when the nones fell on the seventh 
day. 

NON-JURORS considered James II. to have 
been unjustly deposed, and refused to swear alle- 
giance to William III. in 1689. Among them were 
Sancroft, archbishop of Canterbury; Ken, bishop 
of Bath and Wells, and the bishops of Ely, Glou- 
cester, Norwich, and Peterborough, and many of 
the clergy, who were deprived 1 Feb. 1691. Non- 
jurors were subjected to double taxation, and 
obliged to register their estates, May, 1723. They 
formed a separate communion, which existed till 
the beginning of the present century. 

NON NOBIS, DOMINE ! (" Not unto us, 
Lord!" &c, Psalm cxv. 1), a musical canon, 
sung as a grace at public feasts, was composed by 
W. Birde in 1618. 

NON-RESISTANCE OATH (containing a 
declaration that it is unlawful to take arms against 
the king upon any pretence whatever), enforced by 
the Corporation act, 1661, was repealed in 17 19. 

NOOTKA SOUND (Vancouver's Island), 
discovered by captain Cook in 1778, and settled by 
the British in 1786, when a few British merchants 
in the East Indies formed a settlement to supply 
the Chinese market with furs ; but the Spaniards 
in 1789 captured two English vessels and took pos- 
session of the settlement. The British ministry 
demanded reparation, and the affair was amicably 
terminated by a convention, and a free commerce 
was confirmed to England in 1790. 

" NO-POPERY RIOTS," see Gordon. The 
cry was revived against the Catholic emancipation 
bill, 1829. 

NORDLINGEN (Bavaria). Here the Swedes 
under count Horn were defeated by the Austrians, 
27 Aug. 1634; and the Austrians and allies by 
Turenne in 1645. 

NORE MUTINY, see Mutinies. 

NORFOLK ISLAND (Pacific Ocean), dis- 
covered in 1774, by captain Cook, who found it 
uninhabited, except by birds. The settlement was 
made by a detachment from Port Jackson under 
governor Phillip, in 1788, in Sydney bay, on the 
south side of the island. This was at one time the 
severest penal colony of Great Britain. The island 
was abandoned in 1809, but re-occupied as a penal 
settlement in 1825. The descendants of the muti- 
neers of the Bounty were removed to it in June, 
1856, from I'itcairn's Island {which sec). 

NORICUM, see Austria. 

NORMAL SCHOOLS (from norma, a rule). 
One for the instruction of teachers, established at 
Paris by a law, 30 Oct. 1794, opened 20 Jan. 1795, 
under the direction of La Place, La Harpe, Haiiy, 
and other eminent men, was soon closed. Another, 
established by Napoleon in 1808, was closed in 1822. 
The plan was revived in 1826, and has been de- 
veloped in England and other countries. See 
Science and Art. 



NORMANDY (N. France), part of Neustria, 
a kingdom founded by Clovis in 511 for his son 
Clotaire, which, after various changes, was united 
to France by Charles the Bald in 837. From the 
beginning of the 9th century it was continually 
devastated by the Scandinavians, termed North- 
men or Normans, to purchase repose from whose 
irruptions Charles the Simple of France ceded the 
duchy to their leader Rollo, 905. Polio, the first 
duke, held it as a fief of the crown of France, and 
several of his successors after him, until William 
the seventh duke, acquired England, in 1066. It 
remained a province of England till the reign of 
king ' John, 1204, when it was conquered by 
Philip Augustus and reunited to France. It 
was re-conquered by Henry V., 1418, and held by 
England partially till 1450. The English still pos- 
sess the islands on the coast, of which Jersey and 
Guernsey are the principal. 

DUICES. 

912. Rollo (or Raoul), baptized as Robert. 
927. William I. Longsword. 
943. Richard I. the Fearless. 
996. Richard II. the Good. 

1027. Richard III. 

1028. Robert I. the DeviL 

1035. William II. (I. of England). 

1087. Robert II., Courthose (his son), after a contest de- 
spoiled by his brother. 
1 106. Henry I. (king of England). 
1135. Stephen (king of England-). 
1 144. Matilda and Geoffrey Plantagenet. 
1151. Henry II. (king of England in 1154). 
1 189. Richard IV. (I. of England). 
1190-1204. Arthur and John of England. 

NORTH ADMINISTRATION, formed by 

lord North, Jan. 1770, who resigned March, 1782. 

(Lord North entered into a league with the Whigs ; 

which led to the short-lived Coalition ministry, 1783. 

He succeeded to the earldom of Guildford in 1790, 

and died in 1792; see Coalition.) 

Frederick, lord North, first lord of the treasury, and chan- 
cellor of the exchequer. 

Earl Gower, lord president. 

Earl of Halifax, privy seal. 

Earl of Roehford, lord Weymouth (succeeded by lord 
Sandwich) and earl of Hillsborough, secretaries of state. 

Sir Edward Hawke, admiralty. 

Marquis of Granby, ordnance. 

Sir Gilbert Elliot, 'lord Hertford, duke of Ancaster, lord 
Carteret, &c. 

NORTHALLERTON (Yorkshire). Near 
here was fought the "battle of the Standard," 
where the English totally defeated the Scotch 
armies, 22 Aug. 1138. The archbishop of York 
brought forth a consecrated standard on a carriage 
at the moment when they were hotly pressed by the 
invaders, headed by king David. 

NORTH AMERICA, see America, United 
States, Indians, Canada, &c. 

NORTH AMERICAN REVIEW began 
at Boston, U.S., in 1815, as a rival of the Edin- 
burgh and Quarterly Reviews. It was published at 
first every second month; in 1818, quarterly; in 
1879, monthly, at New York. 

NORTHAMPTON was burnt by the Danes 
in IOIO. Here Henry III. proposed to found a 
university in 1260, and held a parliament in 126'). 
On 10 July, 14O0, a conflict took place between the 
duke of York and Henry VI. of England, in whieli 
the king was defeated, and made prisouer (the 
second time) after a sanguinary fight which took 
place in the meadows below the town. Northamp- 
ton was ravaged by the plague in 1637. It was 
seized and fortified by the parliamentary forces in 
1642. A fire nearly destroyed the town, 3 Sept. 

Y Y 



NORTH BRITON. 



690 



N.-E. AND -W. PASSAGES. 



1675. Eiots here because Mr. C. Bradlaugh was 
not elected M.P., 6 Oct. 1874, were suppressed by 
the military. Population, 1881, 51,881 ; 1891, 
61,016. 

NORTH BRITON, a newspaper, first pub- 
lished 29 May, 1762, supported by John Wilkes, 
M.P. for Aylesbury, and a London alderman, and 
very bitter against the earl of Bute's administra- 
tion, accusing him of unduly favouring the Scotch. 
InNo. 45 (termed "Wilkes's number"), the king was 
charged with uttering falsehood in his speech • 

published 23 April, 1763 

" General warrant " issued by lord Halifax against 

the authors, printers, and publishers 26 April, „ 
Wilkes and others arrested and committed to the 

Tower, and his house searched . . 30 April, ,, 
Brought by writ of habeas corpus before chief-jus- 
tice Pratt, and discharged, his arrest being re- 
garded as illegal 6 May, „ 

300I. damages granted to a printer for false impri- 
sonment 6 July, ,, 

No. 45 declared to be "a scandalous and seditious 
libel " by parliament, and ordered to be burnt by 

the hangman 15 Nov. ,, 

Riot at the burning in Cheapside . 3 Dec. ,, 

" General warrants" declared illegal by chief-justice 
Pratt ; 1000Z. damages awarded to Wilkes for 
seizure of. his papers .... 6 Dec. ,, 
4000J. damages obtained by Wilkes in an action 

against lord Halifax .... 10 Nov. 1769 
Wilkes elected lord mayor, 8 Oct. ; elected fifth time 

M.P. for Middlesex Oct. 1774 

Allowed to take his seat .... Jan. 1775 
Elected chamberlain of London, 1779; died, 26 Nov. 1797 

NORTHBROOKCLUB. Originated in 1879 
to promote comfort and social intercourse for young 
Indians of good families under education in Eng- 
land. New premises in Whitehall Gardens were 
inaugurated by the prince of Wales, 21 May, 1883. 
Lord Northbrook was an active promoter of the 
undertaking. 

NORTH CAROLINA, NORTH GER- 
MAN, see Carolina, German. 

NORTH-EAST and -WEST PASSAGES. 

The attempt to discover a north-west passage was 
made by a Portuguese named Corte Beal, about 
1500. In 1585, a company was formed in London 
called the "Fellowship for the discovery of the 
North-West Passage." From 1743 to 1818 parlia- 
ment offered 20,000^. for this discovery. In 1818 
the reward was modified by proposing that 5000^. 
should be paid when either no°, 120°, or 130° W. 
long, should be passed ; one of which payments was 
made to sir E. Parry. For their labours in the 
voyages enumerated in the list below, Parry, 
Franklin, Ross, Back, Richardson, M'Clure, Nares, 
and McClintock were knighted. 

Sebastian Cabot's voyages to the arctic regions, 1498, 1517 
Sir Hugh Willoughby's and Richard Chancellor's 
expedition to find a north-east passage to China, 
in the Edward Bonaventura, BonaEsperanza, and 
Bona Conftdentia, sailed from the Thames. 20 May, 1553 
Richard Chancellor, in the Edward, reached Arch- 
angel and Moscow ; the rest perished off the 

coast of Lapland, about 1554 

Sir Martin Frobisher's attempt to find a N.W. pas- 
sage to China 1576 

Capt. Davis's expeditions to find a N.W. passage, 

1585, 1586, 1587 
Barentz's Dutch expeditions (by N.E.) . . 1594-5 
Waymouth and Knight's expedition . . . . 1602 
Hudson's voyages (see Hudson's Bay) . . 1607-10 
Sir Thomas Button's . . . . . . . 1612 

Baffin's (see Baffin's Bay) 1616 

Foxe's expedition 1631 

[A number of enterprises, undertaken by various 

countries, followed.] 
Behring's voyages .... 1728, 1729, 1741 
Middleton's expedition 1742 



Moore's and Smith's . . . . . . . 1746 

Hearne's land expedition 1769 

Captain Phipps, afterwards lord Mulgrave, his ex- 
pedition ■ . 1773 

Capt. Cook, in the Resolution and Discovery July, 1776 

Mackenzie's expedition 1789 

Captain Duncan's voyage 1790 

The Discovery, captain Vancouver, returned from a 
voyage of survey and discovery on the north-west 

coast of America Sept. 1795 

Lieut. Kotzebue's expedition .... Oct. 1815 
Captain Ross and lieut. Parry in the Isabella and 

Alexander 1818 

Captain Buchan's and lieut. Franklin's expedition 

in the Dorothea and Trent ,, 

Franklin's second expedition 1819-22 

Lieuts. Parry and Liddon, in the Hecla and Griper, 

4 May, 1819 
They return to Leith .... 3 Nov. 1820 
Capts. Parry and Lyon in Fury and Hecla, 8 May, 1821-23 
Parry's third expedition with the Hecla . 8 May, 1824 
Capts. Franklin* and Lyon, after having attempted 
a land expedition, again sail from Liverpool, 

16 Feb. 1825 
Capt. Parry* again in the Hecla, sails from Dept- 
ford, and reaches a spot 435 miles from the North 
Pole, 22 June ; returns ... 6 Oct. 1827 

Capt. Ross* arrived at Hull, on his return from his 
Arctic expedition, after an absence of four years, 
and when all hope of his return had been nearly 

abandoned t 18 Oct. 1833 

Capt. Back and his companions arrived at Liver- 
pool from their perilous Arctic land expedition 
(1833), after having visited the Great Fish River 
and examined its course to the Polar Seas 8 Sept. 1835 
Capt. Back sailed from Chatham in command of his 
majesty's ship Terror, on an exploring adventure 

to Wager River 21 June, 1836 

[The Geographical Society awarded the king's annual 

premium to capt. Back for his polar discoveries 

and enterprise, Dec. 1835.] 

Sir John Franklin, and capts. Crozier and Fitzjames, 

in the ships Erebus and Terror, leave England, 

(see Franklin) 24 May, 1845 

[The north-west passage was discovered by sir 
John Franklin and his companions, who sailed 
down Peel and Victoria Straits, since named 
Franklin Straits. On the monument in Waterloo- 
place is inscribed — " To Franklin and his brave 
companions, who sacrificed their lives in completing 
the discovery of the north-west yMssage, a.d. 1847-8." 
Lady Franklin received a medal from the Royal 
Geographical Society.] 
Commanders Collinson and M'Clure, in the Enter- 
prise and Investigator, sailed eastward in search of 
sir John Franklin J .20 Jan. 1850 



* Sir John Franklin died 11 June, 1847 (see Franklin) ; 
sir E. Parry died 8 July, 1855, aged 65 ; and sir John 
Ross died 30 Aug. 1856, aged 80. 

t In 1830 he discovered Boothia Felix : on 1 June, 1831, 
his nephew, com. James Clark Ross, discovered the 
north magnetic pole, in 70° 5' 17" N. lat., and 96 46' 45" 
W. long. 

% Capt. M'Clure sailed in the Investigator in company 
with com. Collinson in the Enterprise in search of sir 
John Franklin, 20 Jan. 1850. On 6 Sept. he discovered 
high land, which he named Baring's land ; on the 9th, 
other land, which he named after prince Albert ; on the 
30th the ship was frozen in. Entertaining a strong con- 
viction that the waters in which the Investigator then lay 
communicated with Barrow's straits, he set out on 21 
Oct. , with a few men in his sledge, to test his views. On 
26 Oct. he reached Point Russell (73° 31' N. lat., 114° 14' 
W. long.), where from an elevation of 600 feet he saw 
Parry or Melville Sound beneath them. The strait con- 
necting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans he named after 
the prince of Wales. The Investigator was the first ship 
which traversed the Polar sea from Behring's straits to 
Behring island. Intelligence of this discovery was brought 
to England by com. Inglefield, and the Admiralty chart 
was published 14 Oct. 1853. Capt. M'Clure returned to 
England, Sept. 1854. In 1855, 5000?. were paid to capt. 
(afterwards sir Robert) M'Clure, and 5000Z. were distri- 
buted among the officers and crew. On 30 Jan. 1855. the 
Admiralty notified that the Arctic medal would be given 
to all persons engaged in the expeditions from 1818 to 1855. 



N.-E. AND -W. PASSAGES. 



691 NORTH- WESTERN RAILWAY. 



A north-west passage discovered by capt. M'Clure, 

26 Oct. 1850 
A German arctic expedition (the Germania and the 
Hansa) sailed, 15 June ; arrived at Pendulum bay, 
■Greenland, 18 July, 1869 ; the vessels parted ; the 
1 Germania arrived at Bremen, 11 Sept. 1870; the 
Hansa was frozen and sank, Oct. 1869 ; the crew 
escaped with provisions, and reached Copenhagen 

1 Sept. 1870 
A Norwegian arctic expedition sailed in the spring 1872 
A Swedish expedition under professor Nordensk- 
jold, sailed from Tromso, 21 July, 1872 ; unsuc- 
cessful ; returned summer 1873 

•Capt. Hall sailed from New York in the U. S. ship 
Polaris, 29 June, 1871 ; frozen in, Sept. ; died, 
8 Nov. After much suffering, the crew reached 

Newfoundland 9 May, ,, 

Mr. B. Leigh Smith sailed to lat. 81° 24', and dis- 
covered land to the N.E. of Spitzbergen, 1871 ; in 
other voyages he discovered under-currents of 
warm water flowing into the polar basin ; he re- 
lieved the Swedish expedition . . . 1872-73 
An Austro-Hungarian expedition in the Admiral 
Tegethoff, and the Isbbrjnen, under Weyprecht 
and Payer, sailed from Tromso, in Norway, 14 
July, 1872 ; the ships parted company, and the 
Tegethoff sailed northward and discovered Franz- 
Joseph Land, 31 Aug. 1873 ; frozen in, abandoned 
ship, May, 1874 ; reached Vardoe, Norway, by 
sledges, 3 Sept. ; arrived at Vienna . 25 Sept. 1874 
Mr. Disraeli consents to a new British arctic expe- 
dition, 17 Nov. 1874 ; 38,620^. voted for the ex- 
pedition 5 March, 1875 

Capt. G. S. Nares, of the Challenger, appointed to 
command the Alert, and capt. H. P. Stephenson 
to command the Discovery. 
Telegram from the queen to capt. Nares before 
starting : "I earnestly wisli you and your gallant 
companions every success, and I trust that you 
may safely accomplish the important duty you 
have so bravely undertaken." 
£11 the reply, " Her majesty may depend on all 

doing their duty." 
The ships sailed from Portsmouth 29 May, 1875 ; 

despatches received from Disco (all well) 15 July, 1875 
Alert (on return) arrived at Valentia, 27 Oct. ; tlie 
Discovery at Queenstown, 29 Oct, ; at Ports- 
mouth 2 Nov. 1876 

Results. Sledges reached 83 20' 26", 12 May, 1876 ; 
passage to the pole declared to be impracticable ; 
no signs of open polar sea ; ships wintered, 82 87' 
lat. ; sun absent 142 days ; no Esquimaux be- 
yond 8i° 52'. 
Out of 120 persons 4deaths (1 frost bitten, 3 scurvy) ; 
greatest cold, 72° — zero ; extremist N. point 
reached by Markham named Cape Colombia. 
Cost of the expedition, 120,000?. 

The " Voyage " published by Capt. Nares . .1878 
Expedition of capt. Allen Young in the Pandora 
(aided by lady Franklin), sailed 25 June ; returned 
19 Oct. 1875; sailed again, 2 June; returned3i Oct. 1876 
Dutch expedition sailed from Holland . April, 1878 
Mr. James Gordon Bennett's expedition ; lieut. de 

Long sailed in yacht Jeannette . . 8 July, 1879 
Dutch exploring expedition in Willem Barents, 
sailed for Arctic Ocean, 6 May ; successful ; re- 
turned to Hammerfest, Norway . . 24 Sept. ,, 
Another expedition in Vega, under prof. Nordensk- 
jold, started 4 July, 1878 ; at Port Dickson on the 
Yenisei, 6 Aug. ; at the mouth of Lena, 27 Aug. ; 
at Yakutsk, 22 Sept. ; imprisoned in ice near 
Tschuetshe settlement, 28 Sept. 1878 — 18 July, 
1879 ; passed East Cape, Behring's strait ; entered 
St. Lawrence Bay, in Pacific Ocean, 20 July ; 

readied Yokohama 2 Sept. ,, 

The North-East Passage from the Atlantic to the 
Pacific is thus accomplished ; chiefly at the ex- 
pense of Mr. Oscar Dickson, a merchant of Go- 
thenburg 1878-9 

Mr. ]j. Leigh Smith's successful expedition in his 
yacht Eira from and to Peterhead, 22 June — 

12 Oct. 1880 
Another expedition by him in the Eira, 14 June ; 

Eira seen in Straits of Nova Zembla . 8 July, 1881 
[The Eira injured by ice ; at Cape Flora sank in 
deep water, 21 Aug. ; stores saved, tent and 
house erected ; the party live on seals, walrus, 
&c. during winter, 1881-2 ; return voyage began 



(boats hauled, &c), 21 June ; fell in with a Dutch 
vessel, Willem Barents, and soon after with the 
Hope, near Matotchkin Straits, Nova Zembla, 
3 Aug. ; sail for home, 6 Aug. ; arrive at Aber- 
deen, 2o Aug.] 
Search for him proposed ; government to give 
5000Z. Geographical Society 1000Z. ; other sums 

offered March, 1882 

The Hope (Capt. Sir Allen Young) sails in search 

of the Eira 22 June, ,, 

Expedition in the Jeannette, which is crushed by 
ice, 23 June ; two boats with crew received by 
Russians at mouth of the Lena ; one boat missing, 
Dec. 1881 ; bodies of capt. de Long and others 
found near the mouth of the Lena, 23 March, 1882 ; 
conveyed to Philadelphia, and buried 23 Feb. 1884 
German arctic expedition, Germania sailed, summer, 

returned 23 Oct. 1882 

British circumpolar expedition started . 11 May, „ 
Arrived at Fort Rae, 30 Aug. ; good news 1 Dec. „ 
Austrian Polar expedition, Polar started 2 April, 
1882 ; returned to Drontheim n Aug. ; to Vienua 

22 Aug. 1883 
The British government presents the Alert to aid 
the expedition, under commander Winfield S. 
Schley, in search for the party under lieut. 
Greeley, 25 persons (which started for the Polar 
seas in the summer of 1881), Feb. 1884 ; the 
search expedition starts, 10 May, 1884 ; 5000?. 
reward offered by U. S. government for discovery 
of lieut. Greeley and party . . . May, 1S84 

Lieut. Greeley's party reached Cape Sabine, Smith's 
Sound, 83 deg. N. lat. ; 17 persons starved to 
death ; 1 drowned, 6 survivors found by com. 
Schley with the Thetis, 22 June ; arrive at St. 
John's, Newfoundland, 17 July ; at Portsmouth, 

New Hampshire 1 Aug. ,, 

[The Alert returned to the British government 

with thanks, Feb. 1885.] 
Colonel Gilder's expedition starts from Winnipeg 
2 Oct. 1886 ; returns ... 3 March, 1887 

(Charts of the latest discoveries are published in 
Petermann's " Mittheilungen der Geographie.") 

NORTHMEN or NORSEMEN, see Scandi- 
navia, and Normandy. 

NORTH SEA, or German Ocean, a canal 

connecting the sea with Amsterdam; opened by the 
king of Holland, 1 Nov. 1876. For the canal con- 
necting the North sea with the Baltic, see Baltic, 
1887-91. 

NORTHUMBERLAND AVENUE, W. 

LONDON. A fine new street opened 18 March. 
1876. 

NORTHUMBERLAND HOUSE, 

STRAND, LONDON, built on the site of a hospital, 
dedicated to the Virgin, by Henry Howard, earl of 
Northampton, was finished 1605; named Suffolk 
House by his nephew, Thomas, earl of Suffolk ; and 
afterwards named Northumberland House from his 
descendant, Elizabeth, marrying Algernon, earl of 
Northumberland, by whom it was partially rebuilt. 
The house was purchased by the Metropolitan 
Board of Works ; 497,000?. being paid for it, 
June. The lion (set up 1749) taken down, 3 
July, to be put up at Sion-house ; and the house 
sold for building materials and pulled down 
during the autumn iSy± 

NORTHUMBRIA, a Saxon kingdom, founded 
by Ida, 547 ; see under Britain. 

NORTH WESTERN PROVINCES of 

India, separated from 13eng.il in 1835 (Cude was 
annexed in 1856), and all were placed under ono 
lieut.-governorin 1877. Capital, Allahabad. Popu- 
lation in 1881, 44,107,869. Lieut-governors, Hon. 
sir Alfred Conryns Lyall, 1882 ; sir Auckland Colvin, 
autumn 1887. Chief - commissioner, A. Patrick 
MacDonnell, Nov. 1890. 

NORTH-WESTERN RAILWAY. 

LONDON AND, constituted by the amalgamation of 

Y Y 2 



NOEWAY. 



692 



NOEWICH. 



the London and Birmingham Grand Junction, and 
the Liverpool and Manchester railways, in 1847. 
Sir Richard Moon (director, 1848, chairman, 1862, 
on resigning, 20 Feb. 1891, reported the capital, 
Dec. 1890, to be about 110,077,934/., proprietors 
34,000, persons employed, about 60,000, mileage, 
1,900. See Crewe. 

NOEWA Y, until the 7 th century, was governed 
by petty rulers. About 630, Olaf Iratelia, of the 
race of Odin termed Ynglings or youths, expelled 
from Sweden, established a colony in Vermeland, 
the nucleus of a monarchy, founded by his de- 
scendant, Halfdan III. the Black, a great warrior 
and legislator, whose memory was long revered. 
Population, 1887, 1,925,000; 1891,1,988,997. 

Olaf Trsetelia, 630 ; slain by his subjects . . .640 
Halfdan. I., 640 ; Eystein I., 700 ; Halfdan II., 730 ; 

Gudrod, 784 ; Olaf Geirstade and Halfdan III. . 824 
Halfdan recovers his inheritance from his brother, 
whom he subdues, together with the neighbour- 
ing chiefs, 840 ; accidentally drowned . . . 863 
The chiefs regain their power during the youth of 
his son, Harold Harfager, or fair-haired, who vows 
neither to cut nor comb his hair till he recovers 

his dominion 865 

He defeats his enemies at Hafsfiord, 872 ; dies . . 934 
Eric I. (the bloody axe), his son, a tyrant, expelled, 

and succeeded by 
Hako (the Good). 940 ; he endeavours in vain to 

establish Christianity ; dies 963 

Harold II., Graafeld, son of Eric, succeeds . . . ,, 
Killed in battle with Harold of Denmark . . 977 

Hako Jarl, made governor of several provinces ; be- 
comes king, 977 ; his licentiousness leads to his 
ruin; deposed by Olaf I., Trygvasson ; and slain 

by his slave 995 

Olaf I. , 99s ; establishes Christianity by force and 

cruelty 998 

Defeated and slain, during an expedition against 
Pomerania, by the kings of Denmark and Sweden, 
who divide Norway between them . . . . 1000 
Olaf II., the Saint (his son), lands in Norway . . 1012 
Defeats his enemies and becomes king . . . 1015 
Fiercely zealous in the diffusion of Christianity 1018-21 
Successful invasion of Canute, who becomes king 1028-9 
Olaf expelled ; returns and is killed in battle . . 1030 
Sweyn, at the death of Canute, succeeds as king of 
Norway, but is expelled in favour of Magnus I., 

bastard son of Olaf II 1035 

Magnus becomes king of Denmark, 1036 ; dies . 1047 
Harold Hardrada, king of Norway . . . . ,, 
Invades England ; defeated and slain by Harold II. 

at Stamford -bridge 25 Sept. 1066 

Olaf III. and Magnus II. (sons), kings, 25 Sept. 1066 ; 

Olaf alone (pacific) 1069-1093 

Olaf III. founds Bergen 1070 

Magnus III. (Barefoot), son of Olaf . . . . 1093 
Invades the Orkneys and Scotland .... 1096 

Killed in Ireland 1103 

Sigurd I., Eystein II., and Olaf IV. (sons) . . ,, 
Sigurd visits the Holy Land as a warrior pilgrim 1 107-10 
Becomes sole king, 1122 ; dies . .... 1130 

Magnus IV. (his son) and Harold IV. . . . ,, 

Magnus dethroned . . . . . . 11 34 

Harold IV. murdered ; succeeded by his sons, Sigurd 

II., &c. ; civil war rages 1136 

Nicolas Breakspear (afterwards pope Adrian IV.), 
the papal legate, arrives, reconciles the brothers, 
and founds the archbishopric of Drontheim . .1152 
Numerous competitors for the crown ; civil war ; 
Inge I., Eystein III., Hako III., Magnus V. . 1136-62 

Magnus V. alone 1162 

Bise of Swerro, an able adventurer, who becomes 

king ; Magnus defeated ; drowned . . . 1186 
Swerro rules vigorously ; dies . . ... 1202 
Hako, his son, king, 1202 ; Guthrum, 1204 ; Inge II. 1205 

Hako IV. , bastard son of Swerro 1207 

Unsuccessfully invades Scotland, where he dies . 1263 
Magnus VI., his son (the legislator), dies . . 1280 

Eric II., the priest-hater, marries Margaret of Scot- 
land ; their daughter, the Maid of Norway, be- 
comes heiress to the crown of Scotland . . . 1286 
Hako V., his brother, king .... 1299-1319 



Decline of Norwegian prosperity. 

Magnus VII. (III. of Sweden), king . . . 1319-43 

Hako VI 1343-80 

Olaf V of Norway (II. of Denmark) . . . 1380-87 
Norway united with Denmark and Sweden under 

Margaret 1389 

At an assembly at Calmar the three states are 

formally united 1397 

Sweden and Norway separated from Denmark, 144S ; 
re-united ......... 145© 

Denmark and Norway separated from Sweden . 1523 
Christiania, the modern capital, built by Chris- 
tian IV 1624 

Norway given to Sweden by the treaty of Kiel ; 
Pomerania and Bugen annexed to Denmark 14 
Jan. ......... 1814 

The Norwegians declare their independence, 17 May, ,, 
The Swedish troops enter Norway . . 16 July, ,.,. 
Charles Frederic, duke of Holstein, elected king of 

Norway ; abdicates 10 Oct. , T 

Charles XIII. of Sweden proclaimed king by the 
National Diet (Storthing) assembled at Christiania; 
he accepted the constitution which declares Nor- 
way a free, independent, indivisible, and inalien- 
able state, united to Sweden . . 4 Nov. ,, 

Nobility abolished 182H 

The national order of St. Olaf instituted by king 

Oscar 1 1847 

Millennial festival of the establishment of the king- 
dom, kept 18 July, 1872 

The king Oscar II. crowned at Drontheim, 

17 July, 1873 
Statue of Charles John XIV. unveiled at Christiania 

7 Sept. 1875 
Christian Selmer succeeds Fk. Stang as prime 

minister 1881 

Disputes between the Storthings and the crown 

respecting constitutional changes . . . . ,, 
Elections ; liberal majority claiming Norwegian 

constitutional rights ; many republicans Oct. 1882 
Liberal leaders, Sorens Jaabcek (violent), Mr. Sver- 

drup (moderate) . . . ~ . . . Jan. 1883 
Opening of the Storthing, firm resistance of the 

crown ministers Feb. „ 

Who are threatened with impeachment, 9 March ; 

which is adopted 23 April, , r 

Exhibition of art and industry opened at Chris- 
tiania June, ,, 

Impeachment of the minister, Christian Selmer, 
and his 10 colleagues, for advising the king to 
veto the bill for ministerial responsibility . , r 

Trial of Selmer began . . . .22 Oct. , t 

Selmer found guilty by the supreme council of 
Norway ; sentenced to dismission from public 
service, and payment of expenses of prosecution, 

27 Feb. 1884 
M. Selmer resigns his post, the king accedes, but 

maintains his power of veto . . 12 March, ,, 
Trial and conviction of M. Kjerulf and other 

ministers .... 20 March — 1 April, „ 
The crown prince of Sweden appointed viceroy of 

Norway 19 March, „ 

New ministry formed (councillor Schweigaard and 

M. Carl Lovenskjold, and others) . 3 April, „ 
Besigns, 6 June ; M. Johan Sverdrup forms a 

liberal ministry 26 June, „ 

Besignation of the Sverdrup ministry, 2 July ; suc- 
ceeded by Emil Stang . . . •. 12 July, 1889 
Death of Christian A. Selmer . . about 9 Sept. 
Visit of the German emperor at Christiania, grand 

reception 1 July e i seq. 1890 

Besignation of the Stang ministry, in consequence 
of a vote in the parliament demanding greater 
independence for Norway in political policy, tend- 
ing to separation from Sweden . . 23 Feb. 1891 
M. Steen, the liberal leader, forms a cabinet 

5 March, ,, 
Norway desires autonomy in foreign affairs ; 
opposed by Sweden, Feb. ; adopted by the 
Storthing . . . . . . 10 June, 1892 

See Denmark and Sweden. 

NOEWICH (Norfolk), mentioned in history in 
the Saxon Chronicle at the period when Sweyn, 
king of Denmark, destroyed it by fire, 1004. See 
Population. 



NORWICH. 



693 



NOVARA. 



Artisans from the Low Countries establish here the 
.manufacture of baizes, &c, aboiit . . . . 1132 

Cathedral first erected in 1088, by bishop Herbert 
Losinga ; completed by bishop Middleton, about 1280 

A great plague 1348 

Church of the Blackfriars, now St. Andrew's-hall, 
erected 1415 

Norwich nearly consumed by Are .... 1505 

Public library instituted 1784 

John Stratford executed for poisoning John Burgess 
by arsenic 17 Aug. 1829 

Norwich new eanal and harbour were opened, 

3 June, 1 83 1 

Church congress met . . . .3-7 Oct. 1865 

The musical festival was attended by the prince of 
Wales 31 Oct. 1866 

Norwich and Norfolk Industrial exhibition opened 
in St. Andrew's-hall .... Aug. 1867 

British Association met here . . 20-26 Aug. 1868 

Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists' Society founded 1869 

Mutilated remains of a human body discovered near 
Norwich, 21-25 June, 1851 ; William Sherward, a 
publican of the place, confessed on 1 Jan. 1869, 
that they were the remains of his wife murdered by 
him ; he recanted, but was tried and condemned, 
and executed 20 April, „ 

Norwich Crown bank stopped ; much distress oc- 
casioned ; sir Bobert H. J. Harvey, the chief 
partner, commits suicide : died . 19 July, 1870 

Election commission ; much corruption disclosed 

Aug.-Sept. 1875 

Writ for election of M.P. suspended till dissolution 
of parliament, by act passed . . 15 Aug. 1876 

National fisheries exhibition (opened by the prince 
of Wales) 18-30 April, 1881 

The castle, long used as a prison, proposed to be 
.transformed into a museum, &c 1888 

NORWICH, Bishopric op, originally East 

Anglia ; die first bishop was Felix, a Burgundian, 
eent to convert the East Anglians about 630. The 
gee was divided into two distinct bishoprics — Elm- 
ham, in Norfolk, and Dunwich, in Suffolk, about 
673. Both sees suffered extremely from the Danish 
invasions, insomuch that after the death of St. 
Humbert, they lay vacant for a hundred years. At 
last the see of Elmham was revived, and Dunwich 
was united to it; but Arfastus removed the seat to 
Thetford, where it. continued till Herbert Losinga 
removed it to Norwich, 1094. This see has given to 
the church of Rome two saints ; and to the nation 
five lord chancellors. It was valued in the king's 
books at 899/. 18s. "jhd. per annum. Present income, 
4500/. ; see Bishoprics. 

RECENT BISHOPS OF NORWICH. 

1790. George Home ; died 17 Jan. 1792. 

1792. Charles Manners Sutton ; translated to Canterbury, 

1 Feb. 1805. 
1805. Henry Bathurst ; died 5 April, 1837. He was a 

strenuous supporter of catholic emancipation, 

and for a long time the only liberal bishop) in the 

house of peers. 
C837. Edward Stanley ; died 6 Sept. 1849. 
1849. Samuel Hinds ; resigned 1857. 
1857. Hon. John T. Pelham, May. 

NOTABLES, French assemblies of nobles, 
bishops, knights, and lawyers. An assembly of the 
notables was convened by the duke of Guise, 20 Aug. 
1560, and by other statesmen. Calonne, the minister 
of Louis XVI., summoned one which met on 22 
Feb. 1787, on account of the deranged state of the 
king's finances, and again in 1788, when he opened 
his plan : but as any reform militated too much 
against private interest to be adopted, Calonne was 
dismissed, and soon after retired to England. Louis 
having lost his confidential minister, De Vergennes, 
by death, called De Brienne, an ecclesiastic, to his 
■councils. The notables were re-assembled on 6 
Nov. 1788. In the end, the states-general were 
convoked 5 Dec. ; and from this assembly sprang 
the national assembly {which see). The notables 



were dismissed by the king, 12 Dec. 1788. — The 
Spanish notables assembled and met Napoleon 
(conformably with a decree issued by him command- 
ing their attendance), at Bayonne, 25 May, 1808. 

NOTARIES PUBLIC, said to have been 
appointed by the primitive fathers of the Christian 
church, to collect the acts or memoirs of the lives 
of the martyrs in the 1st century. — Du Fresno)/. 
This office was afterwards changed to a legal em- 
ployment, to attest deeds and writings, so as to esta- 
blish their authenticity in any other country. A 
statute to regulate public notaries was passed in 
1801, and statutes on the subject have been enacted 
since. 

"NOTES AND QUERIES," a medium of 
intercommunication for literary men and general 
readers, founded and edited by W. J. Thorns ; first 
published on 3 Nov. 1849 ; bought by sir C. W. 
Dilke, about Aug. 1872. 

NOTRE DAME, the cathedral at Paris, was 
founded in 1163, completed 1257. It narrowly es- 
caped destruction by the communists, May, 187 1. 
It has been beautifully and judiciously restored, at 
a cost of about 250,000/., under the superintendence 
of Viollet-le-Duc, 1866, et seq. 

NOTTINGHAM (Saxon, Snotingaham) . The 
castle here was defended by the Danes against 
king Alfred, and his brother Ethelred, who retook 
it, 868. It was rebuilt by William I. 1068 ; and 
ultimately became a strong fortress. See Popu- 
lation. 

Burnt in the civil wars . . . 1140,1153,1173 
Parliaments held . . 1194, 1337, 1386, 1394, 1397 

Here Charles I. raised his standard . 6 May, 1642 

The riots at Nottingham, in which the rioters broke 

frames, &c. . . . 14 Nov. 1811 to Jan. 1812 
Much similar mischief . ... April, 1814 

The Watch and Ward act was enforced . 2 Dec. 1816 
Nottingham castle was burnt by rioters duriug the 

Beform excitement .... 10 Oct. 1831 
Fierce election riots with "lambs" and others took 

place in July, 1865 

The British Association met . . 22 Aug. 1866 

Suffragan bishop— Henry Mackenzie, D.D. . . 1870 
The church congress met .... Oct. 1871 

A gentleman gives io,oooL to educate the working 

classes Jan. 1875 

University college buildings founded 27 Sept. 1877 

Midland Counties Art museum opened by the 

prince of Wales, 3 July, 1878 ; Mr. Henry Lam- 

min bequeaths to it paintings, &c. value 4,000?. 

Aug. 1890 
University free public library and free natural 

history museum opened by prince Leopold, duke 

of Albany 30 June, 1881 

50th anniversary of the foundation of the Mechanics 

Institution celebrated ; duke of St. Albans in the 

chair . . . . • • 1 Nov. et seq. 1887 
The Boyal Agricultural Society meet here, very 

successful 9 Jul y. l8S S 

New guildhall opened by the mayor . 27 Sept.. „ 
Settlement by conciliation of a great strike in the 

lace trade 9 Se l )t: - l88 9 

Wilhelm E. H. Arnemann, dentist, sentenced to 

20 years' penal servitude for shooting judge Bris- 

towe at the railway station (19 Nov. 1889) 

8 March, 1890 
Adcock's factory burnt, estimated loss, 40,000?. 

5 June, 1891 

NOVARA (N. W. Italy). Near this town the 
Austrian marshal Radetzky totally defeated the. 
king Charles Albert and the Sardinian army, 23 
March, 1849. The contest began at 10 a.m. and 
lasted till late in the evening; the Austnans lost 
396 killed, and had about 1850 wounded ; the Sar- 
dinians lost between 3000 and 4000men, 27 cannons, 
and 3000 prisoners. The king soon after abdicated 
in favour of his son Victor Emmanuel. 



NOVA SCOTIA. 



694 



NUNNERY. 



NOVA SCOTIA (N. America), was discovered 
by Cabot, 1497 ; visited by Verntzzani, 1524, and 
named Acadia ; settled in 1622, by tbe Scotch under 
sir "William Alexander, in the reign of James I. of 
England, from whom it received the name of Nova 
Scotia. Since its first settlement it has more than 
once changed proprietors, and was not confirmed to 
England till the peace of Utrecht, in 1713. It was 
taken in 1745 an ^ U58; Dut was a S a i n confirmed 
to England in 1763. Nova Scotia was divided 
into two provinces in 1784, and was erected into a 
bishopric in Aug. 1787. King's College, Windsor, 
was founded in 1788; see Baronets. Gold was 
found in Nova Scotia in 1861. By an act passed 
29 March, 1867, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick 
were united with Canada for legislative purposes. 
On the agitation for secession Mr. John Bright pre- 
sented a petition in the commons 15 May; his 
motion for a royal commission of inquiry negatived 
16 June, 1868. The agitation soon subsided. Lieut. - 
governor, sir Charles H. Doyle, 1867; Joseph Howe 
died soon after his appointment, 1 June, 1873 5 
Adams George Archibald, 1873 ; Matthew Henry 
Eichey, 1883; A. W. McLelan, 1888 (died 26 June, 
1890) ; M. B. Daly, 1890. Capital, Halifax. Popu- 
lation, in 1881, 440,572 ; 1891, 450,523. 
The gaol and other buildings at Picton were burnt 

by the act of a prisoner, who perished, about 

8 Nov. ; estimated loss, 10,000/ 1890 

The " Princess," a block of buildings at Yarmouth, 

burnt, loss about 10,000/. . reported 29 Dec. ,, 
Explosion at Sp.-ingliill coal mines; 122 deaths, 

21 Feb. ; subscriptions in England for sufferers ; 

the queen gives 30/. . . . ." March, 1891 

Construction of the Chignecto ship railway stopped, 

after the expenditure of 3,500,000/. ; 1,500,000/. 

more required Dec. ,, 

NOVATIANS, a sect which denied restoration 
to the church to those who had relapsed during per- 
secution, began with Novatian, a Boman presbyter, 
in 250 ; see Cathari. 

NOVELS (Novella?) , a part of Justinian's Code, 
published 535. See Romances. 

NOVEMBER [novem, nine), anciently the 
ninth month of the year. When Numa added 
January and February, in 713 B.C., it became the 
eleventh as now. The Boman senators wished to 
name this month in which Tiberius was born, by 
his name, in imitation of Julius Cresar, and Augus- 
tus; but the emperor refused, saying, " What will 
you do, conscript fathers, if you have thirteen 
Csesars ? " 

NOVEMBER METEORS, see Meteors. 

NOVGOROD (Central Bussia), made the seat 
of his government by Buric, a Varangian chief, in 
862, is held to be the foundation of the Bussian 
empire. In memory of the event the czar inaugu- 
rated a national monument at Novgorod, on 20 
Sept. 1862. Novgorod became a republic about 
1 150. Visited by the duke of Edinburgh, 20-27 
Aug, 1875. Population, 1886: province, 1,231,539; 
city, 66,585. 

NO VI (N. Italy). Here the French, com- 
manded by Joubert. were defeated by the Bussians 
under Suwarrow, with immense loss, 15 Aug. 1799. 
Among the French slain was their leader, Joubert, 
and other distinguished officers. 

NOVI BAZAR, see Herzegovina. 

NOVUM ORGANON, the great work of lord 
Bacon, containing his system of philosophy, was 
published 1620. 

NOXIOUS VAPOURS, see Alkalies and 

Chemical Works. 



NOYADES, see Browning. 

NUBIA, the ancient ^Ethiopia supra 2Egyptum r 
said to have been the seat of the kingdom of the Meroe,. 
received its name from a tribe named Nubes or 
Nubates. The Christian kingdom, with Dongola,. 
the capital, lasted till the 14th century, when it 
was broken up into Mahometan principalities. Ifc 
is now subject to the viceroy of Egypt, having been 
conquered by Ibrahim Pacha in 1822. 

NUCLEUS THEORY m Chemistry, see 

Compound Radicles. 

NUISANCES REMOVAL ACT; passed 
1848; amended 1849; see Sanitary Legislation. 

NUITS. A small fortified town, near Dijon, in 
Burgundy, N.E. France, chartered in 1212 ; fre- 
quently captured and ravaged, specially in 1569,. 
1576, and 1636. It was taken by the Badenese- 
under Von Werder, 18 Dec. 1870, after five hours'" 
conflict, in which above 1000 French are said to- 
have been killed and wounded, and 700 prisoners- 
taken. The German loss was also heavy. A depot 
of arms and ammunition was gained by the victors. 

NUMANTINE WAR. The war between the 
Romans and the Celtiberians (Celts who possessed 
the country near the Iber, now the Ebro) began T 
143 B.C., on account of tbe latter having given 
refuge to their allies the Sigidians, who had been 
defeated by the Bomans. Numantia, an unpro- 
tected city, withstood a long siege, in which the- 
army of Scipio Africanus, 60,000 men, was opposed 
by no more than 4000 men able to bear arms. The 
Numantines fed upon horse-flesh, and their own 
dead, and then drew lots to kill one another. At 
length they set fire to their houses, and destroyed 
themselves, so that not one remained to adorn the- 
triumph of the conqueror, 133 B.C. 

NUMIDIA (N. Africa), tbe seat of the war of 
the Romans with Jugurtha, which began in B.C., 
and ended with his subjugation and captivity, 106. 
The last king, Juba, joined Cato and was killed at 
the battle of Thapsus, 46 B.C., when Numidia be- 
came a Roman province ; see Mauritania. 

NUMISMATICS,, the science of coins and 
medals, an important adjunct to the study of history. 
In this country Evelyn (1697), Addison (1726), and! 
Pinkerton (1789), published works on medals. Pel- 
lerin's '' Eecueil des Medailles," 9 vols. 4to (1762). 
Buding's Annals is the great work on British 
coinage (new edition, 1840). — The Numismatie 
Society in London was founded by Dr. John Lee in 
1836. It publishes the Numismatie Chronicle. — 
Mr. Yonge Akerman's Numismatic Manual (1840} 
is a useful introduction to the science. Foreign 
works are numerous. 

NUNCIO, an envoy from the pope of Borne tc- 
catholic states. The pope deputed a nuncio to the 
Irish rebels in 1645. The arrival in London of a 
nuncio, and his admission to an audience by 
James II., July, 1687, is stated to have hastened 
the Bevolution. 

NUNNERY. The first founded is said to have 
been that to which the sister of St. Anthony retired 
at the close of the 3rd century. The fir.-t founded 
in France, near Poictiers, by St. Marcellina, sister 
to St. Martin, 360. — Bit Fresnoy. The first in 
England was at Folkestone, in Kent, by Eadbald, 
or Edbald, king of Kent, 630. — Bugdale; "see Abbeys 
and Monachism. The nuns were expelled from 
their convents in Germany, in July, 1785 ; in 
France, in Jan. 1790. In Feb. 1861, monastic 
establishments were abolished in Naples, com- 



NUREMBERG. 



695 



NYSTADT. 



pensation being made to the inmates. For me- 
morable instances of the fortitude of nuns, see 
Acre, and Coldingham. 

NUREMBERG-, a free imperial German city 
in 1219. In 1522, the diet here demanded ecclesi- 
astical reforms and a general council, and in 1532 
secured religious liberty to the Protestants. It was 
annexed to Bavaria in 1805. Albert Diirer was 
born here in 1471. Population, 1890, 142,403. 

NURSES, their qualifications have been 
greatly raised during this century by the influence 
of Florence Nightingale and the viscountess 
Strangford, who died 24 March, 1887 ; both ladies 
rendered eminent services to the sick and wounded 
in the Eusso-Turkish wars. Institution of Nurs- 
ing Sisters founded 1840, and many others since. 
See Nightingale Fund and John, St. 
Mr. Henry C. Burdett in Oct. 1887 proposed a scheme 
for the establishment of the National Pension Fund 
Royal 1890, for nurses and hospital officials. In Jan. 
1888 Messrs. Gibbs, Hambro, J.S. Morgan and Roth- 
schild presented 20,000?. towards its foundation ; in- 
corporated Feb. 1888. 
Certificates of membership of the fund presented by the 
princess of 'Wales at Marlborough House, 4 July, 1890, 



to about 650 nurses, who represented the first 1 000 

investors in the fund. 
The family of the late Junius S. Morgan presented 

7>73*?- 15s. 5(1. to the fund named after him, 18 Dec, 

1890. Total amount of the fund, io.oooZ. 
A second 1,000 nurses received at Marlborough House, 

25 July, 1891. 
70,000?. of the Women's Jubilee Offering was devoted to 

the benefit of nurses and nursing institutions for the 

sick poor by direction of the queen, 1887. See under 

Jubilee. 
British Nurses' Association, founded 1887, Royal 1891, 

princess Christian, president. 

NYASSALAND, the region S/W. and N.W. 

of Lake Nyassa, E. Africa, occupied by the African 
Lakes company of Glasgow since its foundation in 
1878. It contains missionary stations at Blantyre 
and Bandawe. Active measures are taken to sup- 
press the slave trade. See Africa, British 
Central. 

NYNEE TAL, see Landslips, 18 Sept. 1880. 

NYSTADT, S.W. Finland. By a treaty, 
signed here 30 Aug. 1721, Sweden ceded Livouia, 
Esthonia, and other territories to Russia. 



0. 



OAK. 

OAK, styled the monarch of the woods, and an 
emblem of strength, virtue, constancy, and long 
life. That produced in England is considered to be 
the best calculated for ship-building. In June, 403, 
the "Synod of the oak," was held at Chalcedon. 
The constellation Eobur Caroli, the oak of Charles, 
was named by Dr. Halley in 1676, in memory of 
the oak in which Charles II. saved himself from 
his pursuers, after the battle of Worcester, 3 Sept. 
165 1 ; see Boscobel, and Races. 
The evergreen oak, Quercus Ilex, brought from the 

south of Europe before 1581 

The scarlet oak, Quercus coccinea, brought from 

North America before 1691 

The chestnut-leaved oak, Quercus Prinus, from 

North America before 1730 

The Turkey Oak, Quercus Cerris, from the south of 

Europe I735 

The agaric of the oak was known as a styptic in . 1750 
Heme's oak, Windsor Park, mentioned in Shaks- 
peare's "Merry Wives of Windsor, " finally de- 
stroyed by the wind .... 31 Aug. 1863 
Existing Oaks, 1879. Cowthorpe, Yorkshire ; girth 
at the ground, 55 feet 6 inches. Newland, Glou- 
cester (mentioned in Domesday Book), 46 feet. 

OATES'S PLOT. Titus Oates, at one time 
chaplain of a ship of war, was dismissed for im- 
moral conduct, and became a lecturer in London. 
In conjunction with Dr. Tongue, he invented a plot 
against the Roman Catholics, who he asserted had 
conspired to assassinate Charles IL, and extirpate 
the Protestant religion. He made it known 12 Aug. 
1678, and in consequence about eighteen Eoman 
Catholics were accused, and upon false testimony 
convicted and executed ; among them the aged 
viscount Stafford, 29 Dec. 1680. Oates was after- 
wards tried for perjury (in the reign of James II.), 
and being found guilty, was fined, put in the 
pillory, publicly whipped from Newgate to Tyburn, 
and sentenced to imprisonment for life, May, 1685. 
Pardoned on the accession of William and Mary, 
and a pension of $1. a week granted to him, 1689. 

OATHS were taken by Abraham, B.C. 1892 
{Gen. xxi. 24), and authorised (b.c. 1491) Exod. 
xxii. 1 1 . The administration of an oath in judicial 
proceedings was introduced by the Saxons into 
England, 600.— Rapin. That administered to a 
judge was settled 1344. 

Icelandic Oath. " Name I to witness that I take oath 
by the ring, law-oath, so help me Freyand Niordh, 
and almighty Thor, as I shall this suit follow or 
defend, or witness bear, or verdict or doom, as I 
wit rightest and soothe stand most lawfully," &c. 
„ _ about 925 

Of Supremacy, first administered to British sub- 
jects, and ratified by parliament, 26 Hen. VIII. 

(Stmv's Chron.) !--,- 

Oaths were taken on the Gospels so early as 528*; 
and the words "So help me God aud all saints," 

concluded an oath until I550 

The ancient oath of allegiance, which contained a 
promise ' ' to be true and faithful to the king and his 
heirs, and truth and faith to bear of life and limb 
and terrene honour ; and not to know or hear of any 
ill or damage intended him without defending 
him therefrom," was modified by James I., a 
declaration against the pope's authority being 
added 1603 : it was again altered . . . ^89 

The affirmation of a Quaker was made equivalent to 
an oath, by statute, in 1696, ct seq. 



OBELISK. 

Op Abjukation, being an obligation to maintain 
the government of king, lords, and commons, 
the church of England, and toleration of Protes- 
tant dissenters, and abjuring all Roman Catholic 
pretenders to the crown, 13 Will. III. . . . 1701 

The Test and Corporation oaths modified by stat. 
9 Geo. IV. (see Tests) 1828 

Act abolishing oaths in the customs and excise de- 
partments, and in certain other cases, and substi- 
tuting declarations in lieu thereof, 1 & 2 Will. IV. 1831 

Affirmation, instead of oath, was permitted to 
Quakers and other dissenters by acts passed in 
1833, 1837, 1838, and 1863 (see Affirmation). 

In 1858 and i860, Jews elected M.P. were relieved 
from part of the oath of allegiance (see Jews). 

By 24 & 25 Vict. c. 66, a solemn declaration may be 
substituted for an oath by persons conscientiously 
objecting to be sworn in criminal prosecutions . 1861 

A bill for modifying the oath taken by Roman 
Catholics (passed by the commons), was rejected 
by the lords 26 June, 1865 

The oath to be taken by members of parliament 
was modified by an act passed . . 30 April, 1866 

New oath of allegiance provided by the 31st and 
32nd Vict. c. 72 (1868), to be taken by the mem- 
bers of the new parliament : — " I do swear that I 
will be faithful and bear true allegiance to her 
majesty queen Victoria, her heirs and successors, 
according to law, so help me God. " 

Bracllaugh Case, see Parliament, 1880. 

New parliamentary oaths bill brought in ; dis- 
charged 5 July, 1881 

Affirmations ordered to be accepted for oaths in 
France, 2 Feb. ; in Spain . . . April, 1883 

Mr. Bradlaugh's Oaths Bill, substituting an affirma- 
tion for an oath, in all cases when required ; 
royal assent 24 Dec. 1888 

OBELISK (Greek obelos, a spit, monoHt/ws, 
a single stone) . The Egyptian symbol of the su- 
preme God. The first mentioned in history was 
that of Rameses II., king of Egypt, about 1322 B.C. 
The Arabians called them Pharaoh's needles, and 
the Egyptian priests the fingers of the sun. Several 
were erected at Koine; one was erected by the 
emperor Augustus in the Campus Martius, on the 
pavement of which was a horizontal dial that 
marked the hour, about 14 B.C. Of the obelisks 
brought to Rome by the emperors, several have 
been restored and setup by various popes. One was 
excavated and set up in the piazza of St. John 
Lateran, Rome, by Sixtus V. 1588. 
Egyptian Obelisks. — 42 are known, some broken : 12 at 
Rome ; 1, from Luxor, set up in the Place de la Con- 
corde, Paris, Oct. 1836 ; 5 in England (2 British mu- 
seum ; 1 Alnwick ; 1 Soughton hall ; 1 on Thames em- 
bankment). 
The obelisks improperly named Cleopatra's Needles were 
erected by Thothmes III. at On (Heliopolis), about 160c 
b.c. One was removed to Alexandria by Augustus, 
about 23 b.c. After being long imbedded in the shore, 
it was acquired for Great Britain by sir Ralph Aber- 
croniby, in 1801 ; but not removed. It was ottered to 
the British government by Mehemet Ali, and again by 
the Khedive, 15 March, 1877. 
Mr. James Erasmus Wilson (knt. Nov. 1881) having 
offered to pay all expenses, Mr. John Dixon, the 
engineer, undertook to convey it to England. The 
vessel, Cleopatra, containing it sailed with the Olga 
21 Sept. During a violent gale, the vessels were 
separated, 14-15 Oct. ; six lives were lost in a fruit- 
less attempt to recover it. The Cleopatra, which was 
abandoned, was found by the Fitzmaurice (capt. 
Carter), and towed to Ferrol, whence it was towed by 
the Anglia, and arrived in Loudon, 20 Jan. 1878. 



OBLIVION. 



697 



ODESSA. 



The salvage awarded was 2000?., 6 April, 1878. 

After much discussion, the Thames embankment (be- 
tween Charing cross and Waterloo bridges) was selected 
for its site ; where, by much engineering skill, it was 
placed, 12 Sept. 1878. 

The obelisk weighs 186 tons, 7 cwt., 2 stones, 11 ft>. 
Height, from base to point, 68 feet 5^ inches. 

It was placed under the care of the metropolitan board 
of works by act passed 22 July, 1878. 

Sir J. Erasmus Wilson died 8 Aug. 1884. 

In London are three English obelisks : first in Fleet- 
street, at the top of Bridge-street, erected to John 
Wilkes, lord mayor of London in 1775 (see North 
Briton) ; and immediately opposite to it at the south 
end of Farringdon-street, stands another of granite to 
the memory of Robert Waithman, lord mayor in 1824, 
erected 25 June, 1833 > the third at the south end of 
the Blackfriars-road marks the distance of one mile 
and a fraction from Fleet-street. 

The Washington Obelisk, at Washington, TJ. S., 555 feet 
high, inaugurated, 21 Feb. 1885 

OBLIVION. In 1660 was passed an act of 
" free general pardon, indemnity, and oblivion for 
all treasons and state offences" committed between 
I Jan. 1637, and 24 June, 1660. The regicides and 
certain Irish popish priests were excepted. A similar 
act was passed 20 May, 1690. See Amnesty. 

OBSERVANCE, Fathers of the (or 

OBSERVANTS), a name given to certain members 
of the Franciscan order, about 1363, who volun- 
tarily undertook the observance of their rule in its 
pristine rigour. This reformation was after a time 
enforced by the pope. 

OBSERVATORIES, Astronomical. The 

first is said to have been erected on the top of the 
temple of Belus at Babylon about 2247 B.C. The 
first in authentic history was at Alexandria, about 
300 B.C., erected by Ptolemy Soter. " Observatory, 
a monthly review of astronomy," first appeared in 
1877. Observatories of early date probably existed 
in .Egypt, China, and India. 
First modern meridional instrument by Copernicus 1540 

First observatory at Cassel 1561 

Tycho Brahe's, at Uranienburg .... 1576 

Astronomical tower at Copenhagen . . . . 1657 

Royal (French) 1667 

Royal observatory at Greenwich {which see) . . 1675 

Observatory at Nuremberg 1678 

At Utrecht 1690 

Berlin, erected under Leibnitz's direction . .1711 

At Bologna 1714 

At St. Petersburg 1725 

At Pekin, about 1750 

Oxford, Dr. Radcliffe 1772 

Calton Hill, Edinburgh 1776 

Dublin, Dr. Andrews 1783 

Armagh, Primate Robinson 1793* 

Cambridge, England 1824 

Pulkowa, Russia 1839 

Cambridge, U.S. 1840 

Washington, U.S 1842 

Liverpool, England 1844 

Ben Nevis, Scotland 1883 

Lick Observatory, on a peak of Mount Hamilton, 
California, U.S. (4,200 feet above sea-level), en- 
dowed by James Lick of San Francisco (who died 
1 Oct. 1876); erected .... 1888 ct seq. 
The pope's new observatory erected in the Vatican, 
completed Jan. 1890 

OBSERVER, Sunday paper (liberal), esta- 
blished 1 791. 

OC (for hoc, yes); oil, now out, "yes." See 
French Language. 

O C A N A (central Spain), near which the 
Spaniards were defeated by the French, commanded 
by Mortier and Soult, 19 Nov. 1809. 

OCCULT SCIENCES (from occultm, con- 
ealed) ; see Astrology, Alchemy, Magic, &c. 



OCEANA, an imaginary republic, described in 
a book written by James Harrington, dedicated to 
Oliver Cromwell, and published in 1656. 

OCEAN MONARCH, an American emi- 
grant ship, left Liverpool, bound for Boston, 
24 Aug. 1848, having nearly 400 persons on board. 
When within six miles of Great Orme's head, Car- 
narvonshire, N. Wales, she took fire, and in a few 
hours was burnt to the water's edge, and 178 persons 
perished. 

The Brazilian steam-frigate, Alfonzo, happened to be out 
on a trial trip at the time, with the prince and princess 
de-Joinville and the duke and duchess d'Aumale on 
board, who witnessed the catastrophe, and aided in 
rescuing and comforting the sufferers. The crews and 
passengers of the Alfonzo and the yacht Queen of the 
Ocean saved 156 persons, and 62 others escaped by 
various means. 

OCTARCHY, see Britain. 

OCTOBER, the eighth month in the year of 
Romulus, as its name imports, and the tenth in the 
year of Numa, 713 B.C. October still retained its 
first name, although the senate ordered it to be 
called Fanstinus, in honour of Faustina, wife of 
Antoninus the emperor; and Commodus called it 
Invictus, and Domitianus. October was sacred to 
Mars. 

October Club. A party of country gentlemen in the 
house of commons, about 1710, which professed high 
church principles, and favoured Bolingbroke and the 
Jacobite cause. 

OCTROIS (from the low Latin auctorium, 
authority), a term applied to concessions from 
sovereigns, and to the taxes levied at the gates of 
towns in France on articles of food before entering 
the city. These octrois, of ancient origin, were 
suppressed in 1791 ; re-established, 1797, and re- 
organised in 1816, 1842, and 1852. In 1859, the 
octrois of Paris produced above 54 million francs. 
The Belgian government became very popular in 
July, i860, by abolishing the Octrois. The Coal 
and Wine dues of London were of this nature. 

ODDFELLOWS, Unity of, the name of a 
large friendly society, originally of a convivial 
character, which took its present name in 1812. It 
has numerous branches, but its headquarters are 
in Manchester. In 1886, there were 617,587 mem- 
bers; in 1892, 695.687 members, income, 1,361,314/.; 
capital, 7,630,228/. Reported capital 6,806,73b/. 31 
Dec. 1887. 

ODD VOLUMES, SETTE OF. A literary 

society established in London; dined at Freen^ oils' 
Tavern, London, Jan. 1884. The society prints for 
private distribution, small out-of-the-way works. 

ODES are very ancient ; amongst the Greeks 
they were extempore compositions sung in honour 
of the gods. Anacreon's odes were composed about 
532; Pindar's, 498 to 446; and Horace's from 24 
to 13, all B.C. Anciently odes were divided into 
strophe, antistrophe, aud epode; see Foets Lau- 
reate. 

ODESSA, a port on the Black Sea, built by 
the empress Catharine of Russia, 1 784-1792, after 
the peace of Jassy. In 18 17 it was made a free 
port, since when its prosperity has rapidly in- 
creased. It was partially bombarded by the British, 
21 April, 1854, in consequence of the Russian 
batteries having fired on a flag of truce, 6 April. 
On 12 May the English frigate Tiger stranded 
here, and was destroyed by Russian artillery. The 
captain, Giffard, and' many of his crew were killed, 
and the rest made prisoners. Population, 1885, 
240,000. 



ODOMETER. 



698 



OLD BAILEY. 



ODOMETER (from the Greek hodos, way, and 
metron, measure), see Pedometer. 

ODONTOLOGY (from the Greek odontes, 
teeth), the science of the teeth, may be said to 
have really begun with the researches of professor 
Richard Owen, who in 1839 made the first definite 
announcement of the organic connection between 
the vascular and vital soft parts of the frame and 
the hard substance of a tooth. His comprehensive 
work, "Odontography" (illustrated with beautiful 
plates), was published 1840-45. The Odontological 
Society was established 1856. 

ODRYSiE, a people of Thrace. Their king 
Teres retained his independence of the Persians, 
508 B.C. Sitalces, his son, enlarged his dominions, 
and in 429, aided Amyntas against Perdiccas II., of 
Macedon, with an army of 150,000 men. Sitalces, 
killed in battle with the Triballi, 424, was suc- 
ceeded by Seuthes, who reigned prosperously; 
Cotys, another king (382-353), disputed the pos- 
session of the Thracian Chersonesus with Athens. 
After 9 or 10 years' warfare, Philip II. of Macedon 
reduced the Odrysse to tributaries, and founded 
Philippopolis and other colonies, 343. The Romans, 
after their conquest of Macedon, favoured the 
Odrysa?, and in 42 their king Sadales bequeathed 
his territories to the Romans. The Odrysse, tur- 
bulent subjects, and often chastised, were finally 
incorporated into the empire by Vespasian, about 
a.d. 70. 

ODYL, the name given in 1845 by baron von 
Keichenbach to a so-called new "imponderable, or 
influence," said to be developed by magnets, crys- 
tals, the human body, heat, electricity, chemical 
action, and the whole material universe. The 
odylic force is said to give rise to luminous pheno- 
mena, visible to certain sensitive persons only. 
The baron's " Researches on Magnetism, &c, inrela- 
tion to the Vital Force," translated by Dr. Gregory, 
were published in 1850. Emanuel Swedenborg 
(died 1772) described similar phenomena. 

OECUMENICAL BISHOP (from the Greek 
cikoumene, the habitable, globe understood), " uni- 
versal bishop ;" a title assumed by John, bishop of 
Constantinople, 587. 

CENOPHYTA (Boeotia, N. Greece). Here 
Myronides and the Athenians severely defeated the 
Boeotians, 456 B.C. 

OFEN, see Buda. 

OFFA'S DYKE, the intrenchment from the 
"Wye to the Dee, made by OfFa, king of Mercia, to 
defend his country from the incursions of the 
Welsh, 779. 

OFFICIAL SECRETS ACT, passed 26 
Aug. 1889, punishes disclosures as a misdemeanour. 

OGULNIAN LAW, carried by the tribunes Q. 
and Cn. Ogulnius, increased the number of the 
pontiff's and augurs, and made plebeians eligible to 
those offices, B.C. 300. 

OGYGES, see Deluge. 

OHIO, a western state of North America, 
settled by the French in 1673, was ceded to the 
British with Canada, in 1763 ; extensively settled 
in 1788, and admitted into the Union, 29 Nov. 1802. 
Capital, Columbus ; see Storms, 1890. Explosion 
of 16 tons of gunpowder at King's powder mills, 20 
miles from Cincinnati, 20 persons killed, 15 July, 
1890. Population, 1880, 3,198,062; 1890,3,672,316. 

OHM'S LAAV, for determining the quantity 
of the electro-motive force of the voltaic battery, 



was published in 1827. It is in conformity with 
the discovery that the earth may be employed as 
a conductor, thus saving the return wire in electric 
telegraphy. 

OIL was used for burning in lamps as early as 
the epoch of Abraham, about 1921 B.C. It was the 
custom of the Jews to anoint with oil persons ap- 
pointed to high offices, as the priests and kings, 
Psalm exxxiii. 2; I Sain. x. 1 ; xvi. 13. The fact 
that oil, if passed through red-hot iron pipes, will 
be resolved into a combustible gas, was long known 
to chemists; and after the process of lighting by 
coal-gas was made apparent, Messrs. Taylor and 
Martineau contrived apparatus for producing oil- 
gas on a large scale, 1815. — Oil Springs ; see 
Petroleum. Oil Frescos; see under Painting. 
To supply oil to calm the waves, pipes were laid 
down in the port of Aberdeen ; experiments with 
Mr. Shield's apparatus, 26 Sept. ; successful ex- 
periments reported .... 4 Dec. 1882 
Scotch fishing vessels provided with oil tanks, Nov. 1885 
Mr. Shield's plans successful at Folkestone harbour, 

Jan. 1884 
Capt. Chetwind reports oil to be ineffectual in re- 
gard to breakers and surf . . . Oct. „ 
Mr. Gordon's oil-shells shot out at Montrose said 
to calm the sea 6 April, 1885 

OIL PAINTING, see Painting. The Insti- 
tute of Painters in Oil Colours established ; first 
President Mr. J. H. Linton ; 94 members elected, 
Feb. ; first exhibition opened 17 Dec. 1883. 

OIL RIVERS, a territory on the W. coast of 
Africa, between Cameroons and Lagos, adjoining 
the territories of the Royal Niger company, see 
Niger. It contains six main rivers, which derive 
their general name from palm oil, the chief product, 
with a population reported above 12,000,000. 

The country was visited first by missionaries early 
in the 19th century, and afterwards by traders, 
who by peaceful means, have gradually established 
plantations and nearly 40 factories in the interior. 
The region was placed under British protection, 
with a consul, in 1884. The traders formed them- 
selves into an association, Feb. 1890; major sir 
Claude MacDonald appointed commissioner, with 
consular jurisdiction Nov. 1890 

OKLAHOMA ("beautf ,1 land"), a part of 
the ''Indian Territory" situated between Texas, 
Kansas, and Arkansas, partly inhabited by Indians. 
The western part of the territory was ceded to the 
United States in 1866. It has been surveyed and 
divided into 85 townships. See United States, 1889. 

Great distress caused through the destruction of 
the promising crops by a hot wind (15 June) ; 
about 30,000 destitute persons, government relief 
promised Dec. 1890 

Towns : Guthrie, Oklahoma, Kingfisher, and others. 

Additional lands opened, Sept. 1891. Population, 
1890, 61,834. 

OLBERS, the asteroid, now termed Pallas, dis- 
covered by M. Olbers, in 1802. 

OLD BAILEY SESSIONS COURT, is 
held for the trial of criminals, and its jurisdiction 
comprehends the county of Middlesex as well as 
the city of London. It is held eight times in the 
year by the royal commi-sion of 01/er and terminer. 
The judges are, the lord mayor, those aldermen 
who have passed the chair, the recorder and the 
common-serjeant, who are attended by both the 
sheriff's, and one or more of the national judges. 
The court-house was built in 1773, and enlarged 
in 1808; see Central Criminal Court. 
During some trials in the old court, the lord mayor, 
one alderman, two judges, the greater part of the 
jury, and numbers of spectators, caught the gaol 
distemper, and died .... May, 1750 



OLD BELIEVEES. 



699 



OLYMPIADS. 



This disease was fatal to several . . . . 1772 

Twenty-eight persons killed at the execution of Mr. 
Steele's murderers at the Old Bailey . 23 Feb. 1807 
OLD BELIEVEES, a Russian sect, said to 
number about 12,000,000, originated in a revolt 
against the cruelties of the patriarch Nicon, 
whom they named Anti-Christ, 1654. They profess 
to adhere to the old reading of the Sclayonian 
sacred books, which have been superseded by the 
present Russian church. The czar Alexander II. 
granted liberty of worship to the sect in 1879. 

OLD CATHOLICS, the name assumed 
in Germany by the members of the Roman 
Catholic church opposed to the dogma of papal 
infallibility, headed by professor Dollinger of 
Munich (see Councils, 18 July, 1870). After 
three days' conference at Munich, Sept. 1871, they 
decided to set up independent worship, first meet- 
ing in a church given them by the town council of 
Munich. The abbe Michaud began a similar 
movement in Paris in Feb. 1872. Dr. Dollinger 
preached in favour of union with the church of 
England, March, 1872. Pere Hyacinthe (Charles 
Loyson), president of the party at Rome, issued a 
programme, respecting the Vatican decrees, recog- 
nising ecclesiastical authorities, demanding reform, 
yet opposing schism, about 5 May, 1872. The bishops 
of Lincoln (Wordsworth) and Ely (Browne) and the 
dean of Westminster (Dr. Stanley), by invitation 
attended the conference at Cologne, and delivered 
addresses, 20-22 Sept. 1872. The Old Catholics 
elected their first bishop, Dr. Joseph Reinkens, 
I June, 1873, who was recognised by the emperor 
and other powers. 
Congress of old Catholics held at Constance, 18 Sept. 

1873 ; at Freiburg 6 Sept. 1874 

First synod held in Germany at Bonn, opened 

27 May, ,, 
Dr. Dollinger received delegates from eastern and 
western churches at Bonn, with a view for union 
with the old Catholics ; and after much discussion 
certain preliminaries were agreed on ; much 
result was not expected ... 14 Sept. „ 
First old Catholic church in Berlin opened 30 Nov. ,. 
In Prussia about 20,000 old Catholics (about 

8,000,000 Romanists) 1875 

Congress at Bonn : bishop of Winchester, canon 
Liddon, and several oriental clergy present, 12 
Aug. ; agreement respecting the Jilioque clause 

16 Aug. ,, 
Circular put forth by the old Catholics at Bonn ask- 
ing for a church tor their worship ; (they declare 
opposition to the Vatican decrees of 18 July, 1870; 
they do not secede from the Catholic church, 
but desire Catholicism free from debasing doc- 
trines ; repudiate infallibility and supremacy of 
the pope ; sanction reading of the Bible, and 
divine worship in the vulgar tongue ; and mar- 
riage of priests) Dec. „ 

Congress at Bonn ; strong opposition to celibacy of 

clergy ; question deferred, early in . . June, 1876 
Congress at Mentz opens . . . 28 Sept. 1877 
Meeting at Berne : bishop C'otterill of Edinburgh 
and M. Hyacinthe Loyson there, 17 Aug. 1879 ; 
at Geneva, 23 May, 1880 ; at Baden-Baden 19-21 
Sept. 1880; at Vienna, .... 8 Sept. 1886 
Visits of the bishops of Lichfield (W. D. Maclagan) 
and Salisbury (J. Wordsworth), conferences at 
Bonn, &c, in Switzerland, and at Vienna Oct. 
1887 ; at Cologne, 12 Sept. 1890 ; at Lucerne, 

12 Sept. 1892 
[The doctrines of the Old Catholics closely resem- 
ble those of the church of England.] 
The progress of the Italian catholic church opposed 

to the papacy, reported .... Feb. 1888 
Dr. Dollinger's ninetieth' birthday celebrated at 
Munich, 28 Feb. 1889 ; he died . . 10 Jan. 1890 

OLDENBUBG-, a grand duchy in North Ger- 
many, was annexed to Denmark in 1448; in 1773, 
Christian VII. ceded the country to Russia in ex- 
change for llolstein Gottorp, and soon after the 



present dignity was established. The duke joined 
the North German confederation, 18 Aug. 1866, 
and obtained a slight increase of territory from 
Holstein, 27 Sept. following. Population in 1864, 
301,812; in 187 1, 314,591; in 1880, 337,478 ; 1890, 
354-968. 

DUKES. 

1773. Frederick Augustus. 

1785. Peter Frederick. The duchy was seized by Napo- 
leon, and annexed to his empire in 1811 ; but 
restored in 18 14. 

GRAND-DUKES. 

1829. May 21. Augustus. 
1853. Feb. 27. Peter, son ; born 8 July, 1827. 
Heir : Augustus, son ; born 16 Nov. 1852. 

OLDHAM, Lancashire, a village in 1760, was 
incorporated in 1849, and has sent two members to- 
p irliament since 1832, when William Cobbett was- 
elected one of the members. It has extensive- 
cotton manufactories. The hand-ome town-hall 
was built in 1841, and enlarged in 1879. Popula- 
tion, 1881, 111,343; I89 1 . I3M63- 

OLD MAN of the Mountain, see- 

Assassins. 
OLD STYLE, see New Style. 

OLEFIANT GAS, a combination of hydrogen 
and carbon, which burns with much brilliancy. 
In 1862, Berthelot formed it artificially by means- 
of alcohol. 

OLEBON, see Navigation Laws. 

OLIVES are named in the earliest accounts of 
Egypt and Greece. They were first planted in Italy 
about 562 B.C. The olive has been cultivated in 
England since 1648 a.d.; the Cape olive since 1730. 

OLMITTZ, the ancient capital of Moravia. 
Here the emperor Ferdinand abdicated, on behalf 
of his nephew, Francis Joseph, 2 Dec. 1848; and 
here the latter promulgated a new constitution,. 
4 March, 1849. A conference was held here, 29 Nov. 
1850, under the czar Nicholas, when the difficulties 
between Austria and Prussia respecting the affairs 
of Hesse-Cassel were arranged. 

OLTENITZA. A Turkish force having crossed 
the Danube, under Omar Pacha, established them- 
selves at Oltenitza, in spite of the vigorous attacks 
of the Russians, who were repulsed with loss, 2 and 
3 Nov. 1853. On the 4th a desperate attempt tc- 
dislodge the Turks by general Danueberg with 9000 
men, was defeated with great loss. 

OLYMPIA, "West Kensington, opened 27 Dec. 
1886. See under Agriculture, and Irish Exhibition, 
First great horse show of English Horse Society 

opened here 15 May, 1889. 

See under Horse. 
The pictures not accepted by the Royal Academy 
for exhibition in 1889 were exhibited here 

22 June, et seq., ,, 
See Barman's Show. 
Olympia opened as a skating rink for roller skates 

21 April, 189& 
Olympia taken by Mr. Augustus Harris and a 

syndicate Feb. 1891 

Representations of ancient and modern Venice, con- 
structed by Mr. Imre Kiralfy and by Mr. Wilson 
Bennison, exhibiting the scenery, the life of the 
inhabitants, manufactures (including Dr. Sal- 
viati's glass manufacture), 100 gondolas, with 
gondoliers, a grand aquatic carnival, and other 
entertainments ; opened . . .26 Dec. , r 

OLYMPIADS, the era of the Greeks, dating 
from 1 July, 776 B.C., the year in which Corcebus 
was successful at the Olympic games. This era 
was reckoned by periods of four years, each period 
being called an Olympiad, and in milking a date 
the year and Olympiad were both mentioned. The- 



OLYMPIC GAMES. 



700 



OPEEAS. 



computation of Olympiads ceased with the 305th, 
a.d. 440. 

OLYMPIC GAMES, so famous among the 
Greeks, said to have been instituted in honour of 
Jupiter by the Idsei Dactyli, 1453 B.C., or by 
Pelops, 1307 B.C., revived by Iphitus, 884 B.C., 
were held at the beginning of every fifth year, on 
the banks of the Alpheus, near Olympia, in the 
Peloponnesus, now the Morea, to exercise the youth 
in five kinds of combats; the conquerors being 
highly honoured. The prize contended for was a 
crown made of a kind of wild olive, appropriated to 
this use. The festival was abolished by Theodosius, 
a.d. 394. In 1858 M. Zappas, a wealthy Pelopon- 
nesian, gave funds to re-establish these games, 
under the auspices of the queen of Greece. — Olympic 
Theatre, London, opened 1806 ; see Theatres. 

OLYMPIEUM (near Peloponnesus) the great 
temple of Jupiter, erected by Libon, of Elis, about 
450, at the charge of the Eleans, after their con- 
quest of the country. For this temple Phidias 
made the colossal statue of the god, in gold and 
ivory, 437-433 B.C. 

The German explorations by Messrs. Hirschfeld and 
Bbttieher, planned by prof. Ernst Curtius, the his- 
torian, began in Oct. 1875. Torsos and other relics 
were found. Above 904 objects in marble, many coins, 
bronzes, inscriptions, &c., found, 1875-S. Explora- 
tions closed, Nov. 1880. 

OLYNTHUS, a city, 1ST. Greece. To re.-ist the 
predominance of Sparta, it formed a league with 
other cities, which was subdued in war, 382-379 B.C. 
It resisted Philip of Macedon, 350 B.C., by whom 
it was destroyed, 347. Demosthenes delivered three 
orations on its behalf, 349. 

OMEN'S, see Augury. Alexander the Great 
and Mithridates the Great are said to have studied 
omens. At the birth of the latter, 131 B.C., there 
were seen for seventy days together, two splendid 
■comets ; and this omen, we are told, directed all the 
actions of Mithridates throughout his life. — Justin. 

OMMIADES, a dynasty of Mahometan 
caliphs, beginning with Moawiyah, of whom four- 
teen reigned in Arabia, 661--750 ; and eighteen at 
Cordova, in Spain, 755-1031. Their favourite colour 
was green. 

OMNIBUS (from omnibus, Latin " for all"). 
The idea of such conveyances is ascribed to Pascal, 
about 1662, when similar carriages were started, 
but soon discontinued. They were revived in Paris 
about 11 April, 1828; and introduced into London 
by a coach proprietor n-.imed Shillibeer. The first 
omnibus started from Paddington to the Bank of 
England on Saturday, 4 July, 1829. Regulations 
were made respecting omnibuses by 16 & 17 Vict. 
e - 33 ( x 853). See Cabriolets and Hackney Coaches. 
The Loudon Omnibus Company was established in 
Jan. 1856. The saloon omnibuses ran in 1857-60. 
In Sept. 1865, it was stated that there were then 
funning about 620 omnibuses belonging to the 
General Omnibus Company, and 450 belonging to 
private proprietors ; in 1867, about 1050 omni- 
buses, with 13,000 drivers and conductors.— Sir 
£,. Mayne. In 1873 about 1400 omnibuses ; 1891, 
2,415. Dividend, Aug. 1878, 12\ per cent. An 
omnibus bill, one which deals with many topics. 
The London Road Car Company registered 1 Jan. 1883. 
The number of omnibuses greatly increased, daily 

additions with cheap fares, some id. and $d. 1889-92. 
Strike of the men employed by the General Omnibus 

and Road Car Companies, claiming a twelve hours' 

day, 7 June ; closed by concessions, 13 June, 1891. 
The Workers' co-operative omnibus company formed ; 

new omnibuses ordered, 30 Dec. 1891. 



OMNIMETEE, a new surveying apparatus 
(combining the theodolite and level, and com- 
prising a telescope and microscope), invented by 
Eckhold, a German engineer, to supersede chain 
measuring ; announced Sept. 1869. 

ONE POUND NOTES issued by the Bank 

of England, 4 March, 1797, withdrawn for England, 

1823 ; re-issued for a short time, 16 Dec. 1825. 

Mr. Goschen's proposal in 1891 to issue one pound 

notes to increase the reserve of gold at the Bank of 

England, was much discussed ; and at a meeting of 

the London chamber of commerce, the consideration 

of the question was deferred (51 to 14), 21 Jan. 1892. 

ONEIDA, collision with the Bombay; see 

United States, 1870. 

ONTAEIO, formerly Canada West, or Upper 
Canada; capital, Toronto. Bishopric founded 1 86 1. 
Comber, 30 miles from Amherstburg, destroyed by 
fire, 27 April, 1 89 1. Population, 1861,1,396,091; 
1881,1,923,228; 1891,2,112,989. Lieut.-governor, 
hon. sir Alexander Campbell, 1887. 

O. P. (old prices) EIOT began on the opening 
of the new Covent Garden Theatre, London, by 
J. P. Kemble, with increased prices of admission, 
18 Sept., and lasted till 16 Dec. 1809, when the old 
charges were restored. Of the play, Macbeth, not 
one word was heard, and great injury was done to 
the theatre. 

OPEN AIE MISSION, founded 1853. Races, 
fairs, &c, are visited by preachers. 

OPEN SPACES ACT (Metropolitan), 40 

&41 Vict. c. 35 (1877), authorises the Metropolitan 
Board of Works and the corporation of London to 
acquire open spaces for the benefit of the public. 
Acts consolidated in 1887. 

OPEEAS. Adam de la Hal » ? a Trouveie, sur- 
named " le Bossn d' Arras," born in 1240, is, as far 
as has yet been ascertained, the composer of the 
first comic opera, Li Gieus (Le Jeu) de Robin et de 
Marion. The Italian opera began with the II 
Satiro of Cavaliere, and the Dafne of Rinuccini, 
with music by Peri, about 1590. Their Eurydice 
was represented at Florence, 1600, on the marriage 
of Marie de Medicis with Henry IV. of France. 
L' Orfeo, Favola in Musica, composed by Monte- 
verde, was performed in 1607, and is supposed to 
have been the first opera that was ever published. 
About 1669, the abbot Perrin obtained a grant from 
Louis XIV. to set up an opera in Paris, where, in 
1672, was acted Pomona. 
Scarlatti produced 108 operas, 1680 etseq.; followed 

by Stradella, Lulli, and other composers. 
Pureell produced Dido and JEneas, 1677 ; and many 

others. 
Handel's Rinaldowas performed at the Haymarket ; 
he successfully broke through previous restric- 
tions 24 Feb. 1711 

Pepusch's Beggar's Opera 1728 

C. W. Gluck introduced a new style with reforms 

in his Orfeo ed Euridlce 1762 

Arne's Artaxerxes ,, 

J. H. Hasse produced many operas chiefly at Dres- 
den ......... 1731-63 

N. Logrosemo developed the opera buffa ; died . 1763 
Mozart's Le Nozze di Figaro, 1786 ; Die Zauberflote, 

1786 ; II Giovanni, 1787 ; La Clemenza di Tito . 1791 
Cimarosa's II Matrimonio Segreto, <&c. . . . 1792 

Centenary of the first performance of Mozart's II 
Giovanni at Prague celebrated in many European 
theatres, and at the Crystal Palace, London 

29 Oct. 1887 
Successful revival of the Italian opera 

14 May-21 July, 1888 

Storace's Waterman, <fcc 1788-96 

Cherubini's Lodoislca, 1791 ; Anacreon . . . 1803 
Beethoven's Fidelio 1805 



OPERAS IN ENGLAND. 



701 



OPORTO. 



1807 
1816 

1823 
1826 
1828 



1829 



1876 



Shield's Rosina, &c 1782 

Bishop's Guy Mannering, &e 

Spohr's romantic opera, Faust, 1818 ; Jessonda 

Weber's Der Freischiitz, 1821 ; Oberon . . . . 

Auber's Muette di Portici ; Masanidlo 

Kossini's II Tancredi, 1813 ; Barbieredi Siviglia and 
Otello, 1816 ; Gazza Ladra, 1817 ; Semiramide, 
1823 ; Guillaume Tell 

Bellini's La Somnanibula 

Donizetti's Lucia di Lammermor, 1835 ; Lucrezia 
Borgia ......... 

Verdi's Oberto, 1839 ; Rigoletto, 1851 ; Trovatore and 
Traviata, 1853, and others ; Otello 

Meyerbeer's Hubert le Diable, 1831 ; Huguenots, 1836 ; 
Prophete 

Bichard Wagner, reformer of the opera, and author 
of Tannhduser, 1845 ; Lohengrin, 1848 ; and the 
Ring des Nibelungen 

Gounod's Faust, 1859 ; Polyeucte . . . 

Sir A. Sullivan's chief operas (librettos by W. S. 
Gilbert) performed at the Savoy, 1881, et seq. 
H.M.S. Pinafore, 1878 ; Pirates of Penzance, 1879 ; 
Patience, 1881 ; lolanthe, 1882 ; Princess Ida, 1884 ; 
The Mikado, 1885 ; Ruddygore, 1887 ; Yeoman of 
the Guard, 1888. The Gondoliers, 7 Dec. 1889, per- 
formed before the queen at Windsor, 4 March, 
1891 ; Ivarilwe, see Royal English Opera, Theatres, 
1891 ; Haddon Hall (libretto by Sydney Grundy) 

24 Sept. 1892 

OPERAS IN ENGLAND. Sir William Dave- 
nant introduced a species of opera in London in 
1684. The first regularly performed opera was at 
York buildings in 1692. The first at Drury Lane 
was in 1 705. Handel's opera, Badamistus, was per- 
formed in 1 720, and others by him were frequently 
performed a few years after. Gay's Beggar's Opera, 
first performed in 1727 at the Lincoln's Inn theatre. 
It ran for sixty- three successive nights, but so 
offended the persons in power, that the lord 
chamberlain refused a licence for the performance 
of a second part of it entitled " Polly." By Gay's 
friends' subscription, his profits on its publication 
amounted to 1200/., whereas the Beggar's Opera 
gained him only 400?. By the exertions of Carl 
Kosa (Kose) and the company formed by him since 
1875, performances of the opera have been greatly 
promoted in England. The company was joined by 
Mr. Augustus Harris in April 1889, and obtained 
the command of Drury Lane in addition to Covent 
Garden and the Prince of Wales's.— Carl Bosa died, 
aged 46, 30 April, 1889, much lamented. See Theatres. 
The Opera Company liquidating Jan. 1890 ; arrange- 
ments with Mr. A. Harris terminating . Nov. 1890 
The Royal English Opera House, Cambridge-circus, 
Shaftesbury -avenue, erected by Mr. D'Oyly Carte, 
opened, 31 Jan., 1891. See under Theatres. 

OPERA COMIQUE, a new theatre, 299, 
Strand, opened 29 Oct. 1870, by Mdlle. Dejazet and 
a French company. The French opera comique 
began 1715 ; destroyed by fire, about 131 persons 
perish, 25, 26 May, 1887, see Paris. 

OPERA-HOUSE, The Italian, or 

Queen's, or (since 1837) Her Majesty's 

THEATRE. The original building is generally sup- 
posed to have been constructed by sir JohnVanbrugh, 
though Mr. Pennant attributes it to sir Christopher 
Wren. It was built as " the queen's (afterwards 
changed to king's), theatre " opened 9 April, 1705; 
and burnt down 17 June, 1789. The foundation of 
the new theatre was laid 3 April, 1 790; and the 
house was opened 22 Sept. 1791, on an improved 
plan ; a new exterior was erected in 1820, 
from designs by Mr. Nash, relievo by Mr. Budd, 
182 1. This theati-e was totally destroyed by fire 
on the night of 6-7 Dec. 1867. The loss of the 
lessee, Mr. Mapleson, was about 12,000/., and that 
of Mdlle. Titiens was valued at 2000/.; rebuilt, 
but internal arrangements not completed. Moody 



and Sankey's revival meetings were held here, 12 
April, 31 May, 1875. The new house was opened 
for Italian opera by Mr. Mapleson, 28 Aprii, 
1877 i see Theatres. The house was pulled down 
in 1892. — The English Opera (or Lyceum) 
was opened 15 June, 1816. It was entirely de- 
stroyed by fire 16 Feb. 1830. The new English 
Opera-house, or Lyceum, was erected from designs 
by Mr. S. Beazley, and opened in July, 1834; 
see Theatres and National Opera-house. 

OPHICLEIDE, the keyed bassoon, said to 
have been invented by Frichot, a Frenchman, in 
London, between 1791 and 1800. 

OPHTHALMIA, general term for disease of 

the eye. 

Ophthalmic hospitals were founded in London, 1804 am? 
1843. The Ophthalmological Society of Great Britain 
was founded in 1880 mainly by sir W. Bowman, the- 
first president. He died 29 March, 1892, having greatly 
advanced ophthalmic surgery. 

OPHTHALMOSCOPE, an apparatus for 
inspecting the interior of the eye, invented by 
professor H. Helmholtz, and described by hira 
in 1851. 

OPIUM, the juice of the white poppy, was- 
known to the ancients, its cultivation being men- 
tioned by Homer, and its medicinal use by Hippo- 
crates. It is largely cultivated in British India, 
and was introduced into China by our merchants, 
which led eventually to the war "of 1839, the im- 
portation being forbidden by the Chinese govern- 
ment. The revenue derived from opium by the 
Indian government in 1862 was about 7,850,000/.; 
in 1874, 8,000,000/. ; in 1880, about 10,500,000/., 
but it has since declined. Laudanum, a preparation, 
of opium : was employed early in the 17th century. 
A number of alkaloids have been discovered in 
opium : narcotine by Derosne, and morphia by 
Serturner, in 1803. A society for suppressing the- 
opium trade held meeting in London, 17 Jan. 1881, 
and since. 

The Chinese government derives a large revenue from 
the duty on imported opium which was fixed by the- 
treaty of 1858. The plant is now largely grown in 
China. 
Sir Joseph Pease's resolution condemning the cultiva- 
tion of opium in India, the traffic in 'the drug, and 
the revenue, was adopted by the house of commons 
(160-130), 10 April, 1891 ; this caused much excite- 
ment in India. 

OPORTO (W. Portugal), the ancient Calle, 
one of the most impregnable cities in Europe. 
After being held at various times by the Goths and 
Moors, Oporto was finally acquired by the christians 
IO92. Oporto is the mart of Portuguese wine known 
as " Port." A chartered company for the regula- 
tion of the port- wine trade was established in 1756. 
The French, under marshal Soult, were surprised, 
here by lord Wellington, and defeated in an action, 
fought 12 May, 1809. The Miguelites besieged 
Oporto, and were repulsed by the Pedroites, with 
considerable loss, 19 Sept. 1832. The Oporto wine 
company was abolished in 1834, but re-established 
by a royal decree, 7 April, 1838. An international 
exhibition was opened here by the king, 18 Sept. 
1865. Population, 1878, 105,838 ; see Portugal. 
The Baquet theatre burnt ; panic; about 100 lives'losi - 

20 March, 1888. 
Business paralyzed by the strike of masters and men 
connected with the wine trade, through the govern- 
ment favouring speculators for a monopolizing com- 
pany ; riots quelled by the military about 30 .May. 
et seq. 1889. 
Revolt of about 600 of the garrison, led by captain 
Leitao, joined by citizens ; suppressed by loyal troops ; 
the rebels fortify themselves in the Hotel d<> Ville; 
they surrender after bombardment; about 50 killed 



OPPOETUNISTS. 



702 



OEANGE FEEE STATE. 



and many wounded, 31 Jan. ; many persons, civil and 
military, arrested, 1-4 Feb. 1891. 

Trial by courts martial of about 300 soldiers and 21 civi- 
lians, 27 Feb. etseq. Sentences: captain Leitao, 6 years' 
cell imprisonment, followed by 10 years' transportation ; 
other officers and civilians various kinds ancl terms of 
imprisonment or transportation, the majority of the 
soldiers 18 months' imprisonment. 

The Abbe of St. Nicholas, acquitted 23 March, 1891. 

"The rebels all pardoned by the king on his birthday, 
28 Sept. 1891. 

"Visit of the king and queen, 18 Nov. 1891. 

Exhibition of National Manufactures opened by the 
king, 22 Nov., review of troops, 25 Nov. 1891. 

■Several banks stop payment about 18 March, 1892. 

OPPOETUNISTS, a name given to French 
politicians (especially the ultra-liberals,) who sus- 
pend agitation for their peculiar opinions till a 
suitable opportunity comes ; among them Gambetta 
was prominent, 1876-82. See France. Opportunism 
in England is defined as the modification of political 
policy as the necessities of the time dictate, Oct. 
i8gi. See Trimmer. 

OPTICS, a science studied by the Greeks; and 
hy the Arabians about the 12th century. See Light. 
burning lenses known at Athens . . . . b. c. 424 
A treatise on optics doubtfully attributed to Euclid, 

about 300 
ffhe magnifying power of convex glasses and con- 
cave mirrors, ancl the prismatic colours produced 
by angular glass, mentioned by Seneca, about a. d. 50 
Treatise on optics by Ptolemy . . . about 120 
Two of the leading principles known to the Pla- 

tonists 3°° 

■•Greatly improved by Alhazen, who died . . . 1038 
Hints for spectacles and telescopes, given by Roger 

Bacon about 1280 

Spectacles said to have been invented by Salvinus 

Armatus, of Pisa before 1300 

Camera obscura said to have been invented by Bap- 

tista Porta 1560 

'Telescopes invented by Leonard Digges about 1571 

' Kepler publishes his " Dioptrice " .... 1611 
"Telescope made by Jansen (said also to have in- 
vented the microscope), about 1609, and inde- 
pendently, by Galileo .... about 1630 
"Microscope, according to Huyghens, invented by 

Drebbel about 1621 

Law of refraction discovered by Snellius about 1624 

.'Inflection of light discovered, and the undulatory 

theory suggested by Grimaldi . . . about 1665 
Reflecting telescope, Jas. Gregory, 1663 ; Newton . 1666 
Motion and velocity of light discovered by Roemer, 

and after him by Cassini 1667 

fits velocity demonstrated to be 190 millions of 

miles in sixteen minutes.] 
Double refraction explained by Bartholinus . . 1669 

Cassegrainian reflector 1672 

Newton's discoveries in colours, &c. 1674 

Telescopes with a single lens by Tschirnhausen, 

about 1690 
Polarisation of light and undulatory theory dis- 
covered by Huyghens about 1692 

Structure of the eye explained by Petit . about 1700 
Aberration of light discovered by Bradley . -1727 
Achromatic telescope constructed by Mr. Hall (but 

not made public) in 1733 

■Constructed by Dollond, most likely without any 

knowledge of Hall's telescope .... 1757 
Herschel's great reflecting telescope erected at 

Slough 1789 

Dr. T. Young's discoveries (undulatory theory, &c.) 1800-3 

■Camera lucida (Dr. Wollaston) 1807 

Malus (polarisation of light by reflection) about 1808 
Fresnel's researches on double reflection, &c. . . 1817 
•Optical discoveries of Wheatstone . . 1838 et seq. 
Large telescope constructed by lord Rosse . . 1845 
Arago (colours of polarised light, &c). . .1811-53 
Sir D. Brewster, optical researches (see Kaleidoscope, 

Photography) . • • • ■ ■ 1814-57 

The spectroscope constructed and used by Kirch- 

hoff and Bunsen 1861 

Dr. Tyndall's Lectures on Light first illustrated by 
Duboscq's electric lamp, at the Royal Institution, 
London ....... ■ 1856 



Researches of Mr. Y> T m. Spottiswoode on polarised 
light 1871-8 

See Telescope, Microscope, Stereoscope, Pseudoscope, 
Spectrum, Photography, Magic, &c. 

OPTIC NEEVES are said to have been dis- 
covered by N. Varoli, a surgeon and physician of 
Bologna, about 1538.— Nouv. JDict. 

OPTIMISM (from opfimus, the best), the 
doctrine that everything which happens is for the 
best, in opposition to Pessimism (from pessvmus, 
the worst). The germ of optimism is to be found 
in Plato, and in St. Augustin, and other fathers; 
and has been especially propounded by Malebranche 
and Leibnitz, and adopted by Pope, Bolingbroke, 
Rousseau, and others. Optimism as expressed in 
the term, " the best of all possible worlds," is ridi- 
culed by Voltaire (1694- 1778) in his " Candide." 
The term meliorism (from mi-lior, better) has been 
lately introduced. See Pessimism. 

" OPTION," a term given at the time to the 
permission given to the inhabitants of Alsace and 
Lorraine by the German government to choose, 
before 30 Sept. 1872, whether they would quit 
their country or become German subjects. Great 
numbers emigrated into the French territories. The 
" option " of archbishops respecting their claims on 
a benefice becoming void on the creation or transla- 
tion of a bishop, was abolished in 1845. 

OEACIjES, a term applied to revelations made 
by God to man. They were given to the Jews at 
the Mercy-seat in the tabernacle ; see Exod. xxv. 
18-22. The Holy Scriptures are the Christian 
" oracles," Rom. iii. 2; r Pet. iv. II. King Aha- 
ziah sent to consult the oracle of Baalzebub at 
Ekron about 896 B.C. The Greeks consulted espe- 
cially the oracles of Jupiter and Apollo (see Bodona 
and Delphi); and the Italians those of Faunus, 
Fortune, and Mars. 

OEAN, Algeria (N. Africa), a Moorish city 
several times captured by the Spaniards ; defini- 
tively occupied by the French in 1831, who have 
since added docks, &e. 

OEANGE, a principality in S.E. France, 
formerly a lordship in the 9th or 10th century. 
It has been ruled by four houses successively : that 
of Giraud Adheniar (to 1 1 74) ; of Baux (1182 to 
1393) ; of Chalons (to 1530) ; and of Nassau (1530 
to 1 7 13) ; see Nassau. Philibert the Great, prince 
of Orange, the last of the house of Chalons, having 
been wronged by Francis I. of France, entered the 
service of the emperor Charles V., to whom he 
rendered great services by his military talents. 
He was. killed at the siege of Florence, 3 Aug. 1530. 
He was succeeded by his nephew-in-law, Bene of 
Nassau ; see princes of Orange under Holland. 
The eldest son of the king of Holland is styled the 
prince of Orange, although the principality was 
ceded to France in 1713. See Arausio. 

OEANGE FEEE STATE, a republic in 
South Africa, founded by Boers from Cape Colony 
in 1836. The British government proclaimed its 
authority over this territory, on 3 Feb. 1848, but 
declared it independent, 23 Feb. 1854. A consti- 
tution proclaimed, 10 April, 1854; revised, 1866, 
and 1879. The able president, sir John Henry 
Brand, first elected, 1863, died, 14 July, 188a. 
President Eeitz elected, 11 Jan. 1889. Defensive 
treaty with the Transvaal, about 13 March, ratified 
25 May, 1889. Concession granted to the Cape 
Government to construct a railway to Bloemfontem, 
the capital, May, 1889; railway opened at Bloem- 
fontein, 17 Dec. 1890. Population, 1885, 133,518. 



ORANGEMEN. 



703 



ORDNANCE SURVEY. 



ORANGEMEN. The "Battle of the Dia- 
mond," 21 Sept. 1795 (see Diamond), and the 
treachery experienced by the Protestants on that 
occasion, convinced them they would become an 
easy prey to the Eoman Catholics, from their small 
numbers, unless they associated for their defence, and 
consequently the Orange Society was formed in 1 795. 
The first Orange lodge was formed in Armagh ; 
but the name of Orangemen already existed. An 
Orange lodge was formed in Dublin ; the members 
published a declaration of their principles (the 
maintenance of church and state under the house 
of Brunswick) in Jan. 1798. After 1813 Orange- 
ism declined; but revived again in 1827, when 
the duke of Cumberland became grand-master; 
and it is stated that in 1836 there were 145,000 
Orangemen in England, and 125,000 in Ireland. 
After a parliamentary inquiry Orange clubs were 
broken up in conformity with resolutions of 
the house of commons; but were revived in 1845 
— 1889. In Oct. 1857, the lord chancellor of Ire- 
land ordered that justices of the peace should not 
belong to Orange clubs. The Orangemen in Canada 
were greatly excited during the visit of the prince 
of Wales in Sept. i860. Mr. Wm. Johnston, a 
grand master, convicted of violating the Party 
Processions Act, was elected M.P. for Belfast, Nov. 
1869. See Belfast. 

ORANGES. The sweet, or China orange, was 
first brought into Europe from China by the Portu- 
guese, in 1547 ; and it is asserted that the identical 
tree, whence all the European orange-trees of this 
sort were produced, is still preserved at Lisbon, in 
the gardens of one of its nobility. Orange- trees 
were first brought to England, and planted, with 
little success, in 1595 ; they are said to have been 
planted at Beddington park, near Croydon, Surrey. 
The duty on imported oranges was repealed in i860. 

ORATOR HENLEY. An eccentric English 
gentleman of some talents, in 1726, opened his 
<l oratory," a kind of chapel, in Newport-market, 
where he gave lectures on theological topics on 
Sundays, and on other subjects on Wednesdays, 
■every week. Novelty procured him many hearers ; 
hut he was too imprudent to gain any permanent 
advantage. He removed his oratory to Clare-market, 
and sank into obscurity previously to his death, in 
I756- 

ORATORIANS (from the Latin orare, to 
pray), a regular order of priests established by St. 
Philip Neri, about 1564, and so called from the 
oratory of St. Jerome, at Borne, where they prayed. 
They had a foundation in France, commenced by 
Guillaume Gibieuf and Pierre de Berulle (afterwards 
cardinal), 1612, approved by pope Paul V. 1613. — 
The rev. Frederick Faber and others, as "Fathers 
of the Oratory," established themselves first in 
King William-street, Strand, in 1848, and after- 
wards at Brompton. 

ORATORIO, a kind of musical sacred drama, 
the subject of it being generally taken from the 
Scriptures. The origin of our oratorios (so named 
from having been first performed in an oratory), is 
ascribed to St. Philip Neri, about 1550. The first 
true oratorio, Emilio del Cavaliere's " Rappresenta- 
zione," was performed at Rome in 1600. He was 
followed by Giovanni Carissimi, Alessandro Scar- 
latti, &c. The first oratorio in London was per- 
formed in Lincoln' s-inn theatre in Portugal-street, 



of Olives," 1803; Spohr's " Last Judgment " (pro- 



perly " Things"), 1825 ; Mendelssohn's " St. Paul " 
in 1836, and "Elijah" in 1846; Costa's "Eli," 
1865; "Naaman," 1864; S. Bennett's " Woman of 
Samaria," 1867; Benedict's "St. Peter," 1870; 
Macfarren's "John the Baptist," 1873; "Resur- 
rection," 1876 ; and "Joseph," 1877 ! Dr. P. Amies' 
"Hezekiah " 1878; professor Macfarren's "King- 
David," 180*3. 

ORCHIDS, a natural order of plants of a very 
peculiar organization, recently much cultivated. 
In 1880, a great establishment for their cultivation 
was set up at St. Albans by Mr. Sander, "the 
orchid king," patronised by the Rothschilds, who 
introduced him to the queen at Waddesdon Manor, 
14 May, 1890. 

ORCHOMENUS, a small Greek state in 
Bceotia, was destroyed by the Thebans, 367 B.C. ; re- 
stored by Philip II. of Macedon, 354 ; and given up 
by him to Thebes, 346. 

ORDEAL was known among the Greeks and 
Jews (Num. v. 2). It was introduced into England 
by the Saxons. A prisoner who pleaded not guilty 
might choose whether he would put himself for 
trial upon God and his country, by twelve men, as 
at this day, or upon God only. The trial by ordeal 
was abolished in 1218. 

ORDER OF THE CORPORATE RE- 
UNION, virtually a new episcopal church, said 
to arise out of the Christian Unity Association 
(which see). It proposed to form four stations, 
(Canterbury, York, Caerleon, and St. Andrews,) with 
rectors and provincials ; announced 1 1 Sept. 1877. 

ORDERS, see Knighthood. 

ORDERS IN COUNCIL were issued by the 
British government 7 Jan. and 11 Nov. 1807, pro- 
hibiting trade with the ports occupied by the 
French, being reprisals for Napoleon's Berlin decree 
(which see). They greatly checked the progress of 
manufactures in this country, and caused much 
distress till their removal in 1814. 

ORDINANCES, see Ordonnances, Self-Deny- 
ing Ordinances. 

ORDINATION of ministers in the Christian 
church began with Christ and his apostles ; see 
Mark iii. 14, and Acts vi. and xiv. 23. In Eng- 
land in 1549 a new form of ordination of ministers 
was ordered to be prepared by a committee of six 
prelates and six divines. 

. ORDNANCE OFFICE. Before the inven- 
tion of guns, this office was supplied by officers 
under the following names : the bowyer, the cross- 
bowyer, the galeater, or purveyor of helmets, the 
armourer, and the keeper of the tents. Henry VIII. 
placed it under the management of a master-general, 
a lieutenant, surveyor, &c. The master-general 
was chosen from among the first generals in the 
service of the sovereign. The appointment was 
formerly for life ; but since the restoration, was 
held durante bene placito, and not un frequently by 
a cabinet minister. — Beat.son. The letters patent 
for this office were revoked 25 May, 1S55, and its 
duties vested in the minister of war, lord Panmure. 
The last master-general was lord Fitzroy-Somerset, 
afterwards lord Raglan. The revival of the office 
recommended by the Ordnance Commission (see 
under Army, 1886). 

ORDNANCE SURVEY. The trigonome- 
trical survey of England was commenced by gen. 
Roy, in 1784, continued by col. Colby, and com- 
pleted by col. (aft. sir Henry) James in 1856. The 
publication of the maps (scale 7 inches to a mile), 



OEDONNANCES. 



7C4 



OEISSA. 



comnienced in 1819, under the direction of col. 
Mudge, and was completed in 1862 ; a large part 
of these maps have been coloured geologically. 
The survey of Ireland (6 inches to a mile) has 
been completed and published ; that of Scotland, 
completed Nov. 1882. By the survey act, passed 12 
May, 1870, the ordnance survey was transferred to 
the Board of Works, and by an act passed in 1889, 
to the Board of Agriculture, beginning 1 April, 1890. 
Directors, lieut.-gen. John Cameron, succeeded sir 
Henry James in 1875, died 30 June, 1878 ; col. A. 
C. Cooke; col. R. H. Stotherd, 1885. In 1892, 
several sets of maps were in course of public ition or 
preparation. 

OEDONNANCES, the laws enacted by the 
Capetian kings of France previous to 1789. They 
began with " in the name of the king," and ended 
with " such is our good pleasure." The first in 
Trench is dated 1287 (Philip IV.) The publication 
of these " ordonnances," ordered by Louis XIV., 
1706, is still in progress. The " ordonnances " of 
Charles X., promulgated 26 July, 1830, led to the 
revolution. 

OEEGON TEEEITOEY (N. America), is 
said to have been visited by Drake in 1579. Lieut. 
Broughton took possession of part of it for Great 
Britain in 1792. In I810 a settlement named 
Astoria, was founded by a New York Company. 
Oregon was occupied by the English in 1814, but 
was claimed by the United States government, to 
whom the greater part was ceded, after much nego- 
tiation, by the treaty of 12 June, 1846. Oregon 
was made a territory in 1848, and admitted as a 
state Feb. 1859. Capital, Salem. Population, 
1880,' 174,768; 1890,313,767 
By the fall of a train through a broken bridge ; in 

Wascow county 10 men were killed . 4 Feb. 1890 
Disastrous floods on the Willematte river, 6 Feb. ; 

much distress at Salem and Portland . 

about 7 Feb. ,, 
The overland Pacific train wrecked on the long 

trestle bridge over lake Labish, 4 lives lost and 

many injured . . - . . . 12 Nov. ,, 

OEGAN, a development of the pandean pipes ; 
the "organ" in Gen. iv. 21 should be trans- 
lated pipe. The invention is attributed to Ctesi- 
bius, a barber of Alexandria, about 250 B.C. ; and to 
Archimedes, about 220 B. c. The organ was brought 
to Europe from the Greek empire, and was applied 
to religious devotions in churches, about a.d. 657. 

Bellarmine. Organs were used in the western 

churches by pope Vitalianus, in 658.— Ammonias. 
It is affirmed that the oi-gan was known in France 
in the time of Louis I., 815, when one was con- 
structed by an Italian priest. The organ at Haar- 
lem is one of the largest in Europe ; it has 60 stops 
and 8000 pipes. At Seville is one with no stops 
and 5300 pipes. The organ at Amsterdam has a 
set of pipes that imitate a chorus of human voices. 
Of the organs in England that at St. George's Hall, 
Liverpool, by Mr. Willis, was the largest ; next in 
order that at York minster, and that in the music- 
hall, Birmingham. In London, the largest was, 
perhaps that of Spitalfields church ; and that in 
Christ Church was nearly as extensive. The erection 
of the famous Temple organ was competed for by 
Schmidt and Harris; after long disputes, the 
auestion was referred to vote, and Mr. Jefl'eries, 
afterwards chief justice, gave the casting vote in 
favour of Schmidt (called Father Smith), about 
1682 A monster organ was erected in the Crystal 
Palace, Sydenham, in June, 1857. The organ, by 
Willis at the Koj al Albert Hall, is now said to be 
the largest in the world ; 187 1. A larger proposed 
for a cathedral in Long Island, North America, 



1880. A noble organ (by Bryceson), with many 
appliances, opened in the hall, Primrose-hill-road, 
London, N. Jan. 1876. 
Barrel organs are said to have been first made early in 

the 1 8th century. The finest was the Apollouicon 

{which see). 

OEGANIC SYNTHESIS, see Chemistry. 

OEIEL COLLEGE (Oxford), founded in 
1326, by Adam de Brome, archdeacon of Stow, and 
almoner to king Edward II. This college derives 
its name from a tenement called V Oriole, on the 
site of which the building stands. 

OEIENTAL INSTITUTE, Woking, Surrey, 
established by high caste Hindoos, Mahometans, 
and Sikhs, for religious and educational purposes, 
about 1884. A mosque was erected here, Aug. 1889. 

OEIENTALISTS- The first International 
Congress of these scholars was held at Paris, 1 Sept. 
1873; M- Leon de Rosny, the founder, president. 
The second Congress met at the Royal Institution, 
in London, 14-19 Sept. 1874; Dr. S. Birch, 
president. The third Congress met at St. Peters- 
burg, 1 Sept. 1876 ; the fourth at Florence, Sept. 
1878. The fifth met at Berlin, 12-17 Sept. 1881, 
M. Dittman, president. The sixth at Leyden, 10 
Sept. 1883. The seventh, Vienna, 27 Sept. 1886. 
Eighth, Stockholm (president king Oscar II.), 2-7 
Sept. 1889. Independent, London, 1-10 Sept. 
1891. Ninth in London, 5-12 Sept. 1892. See 
Asiatic Societies. 

Oriental Studies ; Professor Max Miiller, in the 
presence of the prince of Wales, at the Royal In- 
stitution, gave a discourse to inaugurate the 
establishment of a school for modern oriental 
studies by the Imperial Institute, in union with 
University College and King's College, London 

11 Jan. 1890 

OEIFLAMME, see Auriflamma. 

OEIGENISTS pretended to draw their opinions 
from the writings of Origen, who lived 185-253. 
They maintained that Christ was the son of God 
in no other way than by adoption and grace ; that 
souls were created before the bodies ; that the sun, 
moon, stars, and the waters that are under the 
firmament, have souls ; that the torments of the 
damned shall have an end, and that the fallen 
angels shall, after a time, be restored to their first 
condition. They were condemned by councils, and 
the reading of Origen' s work was forbidden. — Burke. 
These doctrines were condemned by the council of 
Constantinople in 553. 

" OEIGIN OF SPECIES, by means of 

NATURAL SELECTION " by Charles Robert Dar- 
win, F.R.S., first published, 24 Nov. 1859. He was 
born 12 Feb. 1809, died 19 April, 1882. See 
Species. 

OEION STEAM-SHIP. On 18 June, 1850, 
this splendid vessel, bound from Liverpool to Glas- 
gow, struck on a sunken rock, northward of Port- 
patrick, within a stone's throw of land, and in- 
stantly filled. Of two hundred passengers more 
than fifty were drowned. 

OEISSA, an ancient kingdom of India, now a 
province of N. W. Bengal, conquered by Clive 
in 1755, and nearly all acquired by the company in 
1765. It suffered much by famine in 1770, and 
1792-3, and more especially from the end of 1865 
to Nov. 1866, when it is said about 750,000 per- 
sons perished. The government and officials were 
censured for neglect and want of forethought. It 
is also said that during a hurricane in Oct. 1836, 
22,500 persons were drowned. 



ORKNEY ISLES. 



705 



ORPHAN-HOUSES. 



ORKNEY and SHETLAND ISLES 
(North of Scotland), were conquered by Magnus III. 
of Norway, 1099, and were ceded to James III. as 
the dowry of his wife Margaret, in 1469. The 
Orkneys were the ancient Orcades; united with 
Shetland, they now form one of the Scotch coun- 
ties. The bishopric of Orkney, founded by St. 
Servanus early in the 5th century, some affirm by 
St. Colm, ended with the abolition of episcopacy in 
■■Scotland, about 16S9; see Bishops in Scotland. 

ORLEANS (a city in central France), formerly 
AureliemiiHi ; gave title to a kingdom, 491, and 
.afterwards to a duchy, usually held by one of the 
royal famity. Attila the Hun, besieging it, was 
defeated by Aetius and his allies, 451. It was be- 
sieged by the English under earls of Salisbury and 
'Suffolk, 12 Oct. 1428, bravely defended by Gaucour 
(as its fall would have ruined the cause of Charles 
VI. king of France), and i-elieved by the heroism 
of Joan of Arc, afterwards surnamed the Maid of 
Orleans, 29 April, 1429, and the siege was raised 
'3 May; see Joan of Arc. (The 439th anniversary 
was celebrated 10 May, 1868 ; the emperor and 
«mpress being present.) During the siege of Or- 
leans, Feb. 1563, the duke of Guise was assas- 
sinated. 

After nine hours' severe fighting, Orleans captured 
by the Germans, under general Von der Tann. 
More than 4000 prisoners were taken. The loss 
on both sides was heavy. About 35,000 on each 
side were engaged. The city was made to pay a 
war contribution of 60,000?. . . 11 Oct. 1870 
Von der Tann and the Bavarians defeated by 
generals DAurelle de Paladines and Pallieres, 
and Orleans re-taken. The Germans acknow- 
ledged the loss of about 700 men and 1000 pri- 
soners, chiefly wounded. The French asserted 
the numbers of both to be higher, and were much 
cheered with their victory. The French loss was 
heavy. The chief conflict took place between 
Coulmiers and Bacon or Baccon . 9, 10 Nov. ,, 
'.Severe conflicts at Bazoche and Chevilly, near Or- 
leans, between a part of the army of the Loire 
and prince Frederick Charles and the grand-duke 

of Mecklenburg 2-4 Dec. ,, 

A battle, during which the suburbs were stormed, 
and about 10,000 unwounded prisoners, 77 guns, 
and four gunboats taken. The French retired ; 
Orleans re-taken by the Germans . 5 Dee. ,, 

DUKES. 

Xouis contended for the regency with John the Fearless, 
duke of Burgundy, by whose instigation he was assas- 
sinated in 1407. 

Charles taken prisoner at Agincourt, 1415 ; released, 
1440; died, 1465. 

ouis, became Louis XII. of France in 149S, when the 
duchy merged in the crown. 

Bourbon Branch. — Philip, youngest son of Louis XIII. , 
born, 1640; died, 1701. 

'Philip II., son, born, 1673; regent, 1715; died, 1723. 

Louis, son, horn, 1703; died, 1752. 

Louis Philippe, son, born, 1725; died, 1785. 

Louis Philippe Joseph, son, born, 1747; orrposed the 
court in the French revolution ; took the name 
Vigalite, 11 Sept. 1792; voted for the death of Louis 
XVI.: was guillotined, 6 Nov. 1793. 

Louis Philippe, son, born, 6 Nov. 1773; chosen king of 
tii3 French, 9 Aug. 1830: abdicated, 24 Feb. 184S; 
died, 26 Aug. 1850. His queen, Marie Amelie, died, 
24 March, 1866 (see France). 

Ferdinand Philippe, son, duke of Orleans, born, 3 Sept. 
1810 : died, through a fall, 13 July, 1842. 

Louis Philippe, son, count of Paris, born, 24 Aug. 1838, 
married Maria Isabella, daughter of the di.ke of 
Montpi'ii-iier, 30 May, 1864. Son, Louis Philippe, duke 
of Orl'aus, born 7 Feb. 1859, see France, Feb. i?go. 

The demand of the Orleans princes to return to 
France, 19 June, refused by the legislative assem- 
bly after discussion .... 2 July, 1870 

Their request totserve in the army after the fall of 
the emp re declined Sept. „ 

{The due de Chartres served incognito.) 



After discussion, the due d'Aumale and the prince 
de Joinville permitted to take their seats as mem- 
bers of the national assembly . . 19 Dec. 18-0 

After much discussion, the comte de Paris at a per- ' 
sonal interview recognized the comte de Cliam- 
bord as the legitimate head of the Bourbon family 
and king of France . . . . 5 Aug 187a 

For consequent proceedings see France . 1873?^ «-'</ 

The bodies of king Louis Philippe and others of his 
family removed from England and buried in the 
mausoleum at Dreux ... 9 June, 1876 

Marriage of princess Marie, daughter of due de 
Chartres, to prince Waldemar of Denmark 22 Oct. 1885 

Marriage of princess Amelie, daughter of the comte 
de Paris to the duke of Braganza . 22 May, 1886 

Expulsion of the Orleans princes from France (see 
France) May-June, ., 

For acts of the comte de Paris see France, 1873, et S «<Z- 

The due de Montpensier, born 1824 (see Spain, 
1846 et seq.), died 4 Feb. 1850 

ORLEANS, NEW, sec JS f ew Orleans. 

ORMULTJM, a metrical version of the Gospels 
and Acts, in early English, made by Orm, an ecclesi- 
astic, in the 12th century, printed at Oxford in 
1852, from a MS. in the Bodleian. 

ORNITHOLOGY, see Birds. 

ORNITHORHYNCHUS, the duck-billed 
platypus, or water-mole, a singular compound of 
the mammal and the bird, a native of Australia, 
was first described by Dr. Shaw, in 1819. 

OROQUIETA, Navarre, N. Spain. Here don 
Carlos, calling himself king Carlos VII., grandson 
of don Carlos, brother of Ferdinand VII., com- 
manding about 4000 men, was suddenly attacked 
by general Moriones with about 2000, and defeated 
after a short conflict, 4 May, 1872. He fled, leav- 
ing 757 prisoners and 38 dead. 

ORPHAN-HOUSES. The emperor Trajan 
first formed establishments for this purpose. Pliny 
relates in his Panegyric that he had caused 5000 free- 
born children to be sought out and educated, about 
a.d. 105. Orphan houses properly so called arc 
mentioned for the first time in the laws of the em- 
peror Justinian. At the court of Byzantium the 
office of inspector of orphans, orphanotrophos, was 
so honourable that it was held by thebrother of the 
emperor Michael IV. in the nth century; see 
Foundling Hospitals. 

The Orphanotropheon at Halle, established by Au- 
gust Franeke 1698-9 

The Orphan Working Asylum for 20 boys was esta- 
blished at Hoxton in 1758. It is now situated at 
Haverstock-hill, and contains 350 boys and girls. 
Asylum for Female Orphans, Lambeth ; removed 

to Beddington, near Croydon; instituted '. . 1758 
London Orphan Asylum founded, 1S13 ; removed to 
Clapton, 1S23 ; new building at Watford, founded 
by the prince of Wales, 13 J uly, 1869 ; opened, 

20 July, 1871 
British Orphan Asylum, Clapham-rise, established 
1827; removed to Slough, Bucks; re-opened, 

25 June, 1S63 
The Infant Orphan Asylum at Wanstead (1827); 
and the Asylum for Fatherless Children (in 1844; 
settled at Reedham, Surrey), established mainly 
through the exertions of a congregational minister, 
the rev. Andrew Reed, D.D. 
Orphan-houses, Ashley-down, Bristol, founded by 
George M filler, a Prussian, supported entirely 
by voluntary contributions. (He began in a 
house in Bristol, 11 April, 1S36.) 2050 orphans 
were maintained, 1873 ; reported prosperous . 1876 
Erdington Orphanage and Alms-houses, near Bir- 
mingham, erected and endowed (with 250,000?.) 
by Josiah Mason, a manufacturer of Birmingham, 

1860-69 
Royal Albert Orphan Asylum, at Bagshot, esla- 
blished, 1864; additional buildings founded by 
the queen, 29 June, 1867. 

z z 



ORPHEONISTS. 



706 



OTOLOGY. 



Alexandra Orphanage for Infants, Holloway, 1864; 
foundation of building laid, 6 July, 1867. 

Stockwell Orphanage, Clapham-road, founded by 
Rev. C. Spurgeon, aided by legacy of Miss Hill- 
yard 1867 

Orphans' Homes : — Maida-hill, 1873; West-square, 
Southwark ; and Gravesend . . . . ,, 

ORPHEONISTS, see Crystal Palace, i860. 

OEPHEUS, STEAMER, see Wrecks, 7 Feb. 
1863. 

ORRERY, a planetary machine to illustrate 
and explain the motions of the heavenly bodies, 
appears to have been coeval with the clepsydra. 
Ptolemy devised the circles and epicycles that dis- 
tinguish his system about 130. The planetary 
clock of Finee was begun 1553. The planetarium 
of De Rheita was formed about 1650. The planet- 
arium, now termed the Orrery, it is said, was 
constructed by Eowley, after a pattern devised by 
the clock-maker, George Graham, at the expense of 
Charles Boyle, earl of Orrery, about 1715. A large 
" planetarium" was constructed by the rev. ¥m. 
Pearson, for the Royal Institution, London, about 
1803. An excellent planetarium, constructed in 
London by signor N. Perini, was exhibited in Dec. 
1879. 

ORSINI'S PLOT against the emperor Napo- 
leon III. ; see France, Jan. 1858. 

ORTHES or OrTHEZ (S. France), once capital 
of the principality of Beam. Near it the British 
and Spanish armies, commanded by Wellington, 
defeated the French, under Soult, "27 Feb. 18 14. 
The battle of Toulouse soon followed. 

ORTHOPAEDIC HOSPITALS, for the 
cure of club-foot, spinal curvatures, &c. : National, 
Great Portland street, founded, 1836 ; Eoyal, Han- 
over-square, 1838; City, 1851. 

OSBORNE HOUSE (Isle of Wight), was 
purchased by the queen in 1845, and rebuilt by 
Mr. Cubitt. 

_ OSMIUM, one of the heaviest known metals, 
discovered in platinum ore by Tennant in 1803. 

OSNABURG (N. Germany), made the seat of 
a bishopric, by Charlemagne, near the end of the 
8th century. After the treaty of Westphalia in 
1648, the bishop was a Roman Catholic and Protes- 
tant alternately, the latter being chosen from the 
house of Brunswick. Frederick, duke of York, the 
last bishop, resigned in 1803, when the lands were 
annexed to Hanover. He died 5 Jan. 1827. 

OSSORY (S. E. Ireland), BISHOPRIC OF, 
was! first planted at Saiger, about 402 ; translated 
to Aghadoe, in Upper Ossory, in 10^2; and to 
Kilkenny about the end of the reign of Henry II. 
It was united to Ferns and Leighlin in 1835. 

OSTEND (Belgium). An important sea-port 
in the nth century, was destroyed by the sea 1334, 
rebuilt and afterwards walled by Philip the Good, 
the duke of Burgundy, 1445; sustained a siege by the 
Spaniards, from July, 1601, to Sept. 1604, when it 
honourably capitulated. On the death of Charles 
II. of Spain, the French seized Ostend; but in 
1706, after the battle of Ramilies, it was retaken by 
the allies. It was again taken by the French in 
1745, but restored in 1748. In 1756, the French 
garrisoned this town for the empress-queen Maria 
Theresa. In 1792, the French once more took 
Ostend, which they evacuated iu 1793, but regained 
in 1794. Tno English destroyed (jie works of the 
.Bruges canal j hut; thp wind shifting; before they 



could re-embark, they surrendered to the French, 
19 May, 1798. The Ostend East India company, 
established 1723, was dissolved 1731. Riotous at- 
tacks on British fishermen landing fish quelled 
with bloodshed ; intervention of the king ; peace 
restored 23-30 Aug. 1887. Population, 1890, 24,712. 

OSTIA, a Boman port, at the mouth of the 
Tiber, said to have been founded by Ancus Marlins 
about 627 B.C. 

OSTRACISM (from the Greek ostralcon, a 

potsherd or shell), a mode of proscription at Athens, 
is said to have been first introduced by the tyrant 
Hippias; others ascribe it to Cleisthenes, about 510 
B.C. The people wrote the names of those whom 
they most suspected upon small shells ; these they 
put in an urn or box and presented to the senate. 
Upon a scrutiny, he whose name was oftenest 
written was sentenced by the council to be banished 
from his altar and hearth. 6000 votes were re- 
quired. Aristides, noted for his justice, and Mil- 
tiades, for his victories, were thus ostracized. The 
custom was abolished by ironically proscribing 
Hyperbolus, a mean person, about 338 B.C. 

OSTRICH (the struthios of the ancients), a 
native of Africa (see Job xxxix. 14). Ostriches 
were hatched and reared at San Donate, near Flo- 
rence, 1859-60; and at Tresco abbey, the seat of 
Augustus Smith, in the Scilly isles, 1866. 

. OSTROGOTHS, or Eastern Goths, were 

distinguished from the Visigoths (Western Goths) 
about 330. After ravaging eastern Europe, Thrace, 
&c, their great leader, Theodoric, established a. 
kingdom in Italy, which lasted from 493 to 553 ; 
see Italy. 

OSTROLENKA (Poland). Near here the- 
French defeated the Prussians, 16 Feb. 1807. In 
another battle here between the Poles and Russians- 
the slaughter was immense, but the Poles remained' 
masters of the field, 26 May, 1831. 

OTAGO, see New Zealand, 1848, 1861, 1866. 

OTAHEITE or Tahiti, an island in the S.. 
Pacific Ocean, seen by Byron in 1765, and visited ' 
in 1767 by captain Wallis, who called it George the 
Third Island. Captain Cook came hither in 1768" 
to observe the transit of Yenus ; sailed round the 
whole island in a boat, and stayed three months;: 
he visited it twice afterwards. See Cook. Omai, a* 
native of this island, was brought to England by 
Cook, and carried back in his last voyage. In 
1799, king Pomare ceded the district of Matavai to 
some English missionaries. Queen Pomare was* 
compelled to put herself under the protection of 
France, 9 Sept. 1843. She retracted, and Otaheite 
and the neighbouring islands were taken possession 
of by admiral Dupetit-Thouars in the name of thc- 
French king, Nov. 1843. T ne French imprisoned 
Mr. Pilchard, the English consul, 5 March, 1844, 
bat the act was censured in France. 

Queen Pomare IV., born, 23 Feb. 1813 ; succeeded hoi- 
brother, Pomare III., in Jan. 1827 ; died 17 Sept. 1877, 
having reigned 50 years. By consent of her successor 
the island was formally annexed to France, 29 June r 
1880. The queen arrived at Paris, 27 Feb. 1884. 

OTHEOSCOPE (from otheb, I propel), ap- 
paratus invented by Mr. W. Crookes, for studying 
molecular motion, the effects of radiation ; described 
by him, April, 1877. 

OTOLOGY, the science of the ear. A con- 
gress of Otologists met at Brussels, Sept. 1S88, 



OTTAWA. 

OTTAWA (formerly BYTOWN), on the river 
Ottawa, was appointed to be the capital of Canada 
by the queen in August, 1858. The executive 
council met here 22 Nov. 1865, and the Canadian 
parliament was, for the first time, opened here by 
the governor-general, lord Monck, on 8 June, 
1866. Mr. Darcy McGee, M.P. for Montreal (once 
an Irish agitator, but afterwards exceedingly loyal), 
was assassinated on his return from parliament, 
7 April, 1868. Fenians were suspected, and the 
town was put in a state of siege. Whelan, con- 
victed of the murder, 15 Sept. 1868, was executed 
Feb. 1869. A dominion exhibition was opened 
here 24 Sept. 1879. The duke and duchess of 
Connaught warmly received 4 June, 1890. Popula- 
tion in 1861, 14,669; in 1871, 21,545; in 1881, 
27,412; 1891, estimated 35,000. 

OTTEBBUBN (Northumberland). In 1388 
the Scotch besieged Newcastle and were driven off 
by Henry Percy (Hotspur), son of the earl of North- 
umberland. Percy pursued them to Otterburn, 
where a battle was fought on 10 Aug., in Avhich the 
earl of Douglas was killed and Percy taken pri- 
soner. On this battle the ballad of Chevy Chase is 
founded. 

OTTOMAN EMPIEE, see Turkey, 1299. 

OXIDE or OuDH (North India), formerly a 

vice-royalty held by the vizier of the great mogul. 

About 1760, it was seized by the vizier Sujah-ud- 

Dowlah, ancestor of the late king. 

Battle of Buxar, where Sujah and his ally, Meer 
Cossim, are totally defeated, and the British be- 
come virtually masters of Oude . . 23 Oct. 1764 

Reign of Asoph-ud-Dowlah, who cedes Benares, &c, 
to the East India Company, who place troops in 
Oude (see Chunar) 1775-81 

[The annual subsidy to the company in 1787 was 
500,000?. ; in 1794, 760,000?. ; in 1801, 1,352,347?.] 

More territories ceded to the company . . . 1801 

Ghazee-ud-deen becomes king, with the consent of 
the British 1819 

Dreadful misgovernment of Nusser-ud-deen 1827-37 

[At his death, the British resident, Colonel Lowe, 
promptly suppresses an insurrection.] 

Mahomed AH governs well .... 1837-42 

But bis son Umjeed Ali Shah .... 1842-7 

And grandson, Waud Ali Shah, exceed all their pre- 
decessors in profligacy .... 1847-56 

In consequence (by virtue of the treaty of 1801) 
Oude is annexed to the British territories, by 
decree, proclaimed 7 Feb. 1856 

The queen and prince of Oude, &c. , arrive in Lon- 
don to appeal 20 Aug. „ 

Oude joins the Indian mutiny; ex-king of Oude 
imprisoned (on suspicion) . . .14 June, 1S57 

The queen dies at Paris, 24 Jan. ; and the prince at 

London 26 Feb. 1858 

[For the war, see India, 1857-8.] 

Triumphal entry of the governor-general into Luck- 
now ; the Talookdars (landowners) receive a free 
grant of their estates . . . . 22 Oct. 1859 

Grand durbar held at Lucknow by the viceroy, sir 
John Lawrence 12 Nov. 1867 

Oude was annexed to the N.W. Provinces in . . 1856 

OUDENABDE (Belgium). Here the English 
and allies under the duke of Marlborough and prince 
Eugene thoroughly defeated the French besiegers, 
ir July, 1708. 

OULAET (S.E. Ireland). Here 5C00 Irish 
insurgents attacked the king's troops, in small 
numbers, 27 May, 1798. The North Cork militia, 
after great feats of bravery, were cut to pieces, five 
men only escaping. — Musgrave. 

OUNCE (from uncia), the sixteenth part of the 
pound avoirdupois, and twelfth of the pound troy. 
Its precise weight was fixed by Henry III., who 



™7 OWHYHEE. 

decreed that an English ounce should be 640 dry 
grains of wheat; that twelve of these ounces should 
be a pound; and that eight pounds should be a 
gallon of wine, 1233. 

OUEIQUE (Portugal), where Alfonso, count 
or duke of Portugal, is said to have encountered 
five Saracen kings and a great army of Moors, 25 
July, 1 139, and signally defeated them; and then 
to have been hailed the first king. Lisbon, the 
capital, was taken, and he soon after was crowned. 

OUTLAW, one deprived of the benefit of the 
law, and out of the sovereign's protection; a 
punishment for such as being called in law do con- 
temptuously refuse to appear. In the reign of 
Edward III. all the judges agreed that none but the 
sheriff only having lawful warrant therefor, should 
put to_ death any man outlawed. — Coivel. Outlawry 
in civil proceedings was abolished by 42 & 43 Vict, 
c. 59, 15 Aug. 1879. 

OUZEL GALLEY SOCIETY. In 1700, 

the case of the Ouzel Galley, a ship in the port of 
Dublin, excited great legal perplexity, and was 
referred to an arbitration of merchants, whose 
prompt decision was highly approved. This led to 
the present societ}', founded in 1705. 

OVATION, an inferior triumph which the 
Romans allowed those generals of their army whose 
victories were not considerable. Publius Posthumius 
Tubertus was the first who was decreed an ovation, 
503 b.c. A sheep (ovis) was offered by the general 
instead of a bull. 

OVEELAND MAIL, see Way horn. The 
overland mail travelled first through the Cenis 
tunnel to Brindisi, saving 24 hours, 5 Jan. 1872. 
Communication between the East and West has been 
greatly facilitated by the opening of the Suez 
Canal, 1869, and the railways between the 
Atlantic and Pacific oceans ; by means of the 
Canadian Pacific railway the China and Japan 
mails were conveyed from Yokohama to London 
in 25 days, arriving in London . . 13 May, 1891 

OVEBSEEBS of the poor for parishes were 
appointed in 1601 ; see Poor Laics. 

OWENS COLLEGE, Manchester, founded 
by means of a bequest of 100,000/. by John Owens 
merchant, who died in 1846. A new constitution 
was obtained in 1870, and the duke of Devonshire, 
president, laid the first stone of the new building 
23 Sept. 1870; and opened it, 8 Oct. 1873. Mr. 
E. E. Langworthy bequeathed 10,000/. to develop 
the chair of experimental physics, 1874. The 
college proposed as a university, 'July 1876-8. See 
Victoria University. 

OWHYHEE or HAWAII, an island in the 
N. Pacific Ocean, discovered Dec. 1778, by capt. 
Cook. On 14 Feb. 1779, he here fell a victim to a 
sudden resentment of the natives. A boat havin°- 
been stolen by one of the islanders, the captain 
went on shore to seize the king, and keep him as a 
hostage till the boat was restored. The people 
would not submit to this insult, and their resistance 
brought on hostilities, and captain Cook and some 
of his companions were killed. Great progress has 
been recently made in civilisation here; and an 
order of nobility and a representative assembly were 
instituted in i860. The population then was about 
120,000; about 60,000 in 1878; a railway opened 
in 1878. See Sandwich Isles and Leprosy. 
Eruption of the volcano Mauna Loa ceased, about 20 
miles of lava, 8 Feb. ; there have boon frequent out- 
breaks of volcanoes on the island with occasional 
shocks of earthquake ; earthquake shocks 5 May, 18S7 
et seq. ; 167 persons killed. 



OWNERS OF LAND. 



OXFORD UNIVERSITY. 



OWNERS OF LAND, see Domesday. 

OXALIC ACID, which exists in several 
plants, especially in sorrel, is now abundantly 
obtained, for use in the arts, from sawdust acted 
upon by caustic potash or soda, according to Dr. 
Dale's process, patented in 1862. 

OXFORD, an ancient city, restored by king- 
Alfred, who resided here and established a mint, 
&c., about 879. Returns one M.P. by Act of 
1885. See Topulation. 
Canute held a national council here . . . . 101S 

Stormed by William I. . 1067 

Charter by Henry II., the city granted to he bur- 
gesses by John 1199 

Henry III. holds the " mad " parliament here . . 1258 
Bishops Kidley and Latimer burnt here, 16 Oct. 

1555 ; and archbishop Cranmer . 21 March, 1556 
Fatal (or Black) Oxford Assizes, — when the high 
sheriff and 300 other persons died suddenly of an 

infection from the prisoners 1557 

Charles I. took Oxford, 1642, and held a parliament 

here 1644 

Taken by the parliament ... 24 June, 1646 
Charles II. held parliaments here . . 1665 & iCSi 

Visit of the allied sovereigns 1814 

British Association met here . . 1832, 1847, i860 
Oxford Military College, Cowley, opened . 20 Sept. 3876 
New high school opened . . . .15 Sept. 1881 
New theatre opened 13 Feb. 1886 ; greatly injured 
by lire 10, 11 March, 1892 

OXFORD ADMINISTRATION, formed 

29 May, 171 1. 

Boberfc, earl of Oxford (previously right lion. Robert 
Harley), lord treasurer. 

Sir Simon (afterwards lord) Harcourt, lord keeper. 

John, duke of Normanby and Buckingham, lord presi- 
dent. 

John, bishop of Bristol (aft. London), privy seal. 

Henry St. John (afterwards viscount Bolingbroke), and 
William, lord Dartmouth, secretaries of state. 

Bobert Benson (afterwards lord Bingley), chancellor of 
tlie exchequer. 

The duke of Shrewsbury succeeded lord Oxford, receiv- 
ing the lord treasurer's staff on 30 July, 1714, three 
days before the death of queen Anne. From the reign 
of George I. the office of lord treasurer has been exe- 
cuted by commissioners. 

OXFORD BISHOPRIC, established by 
Henry Till., formed out of Lincoln, first placed 
at Osney in 1542 ; removed to Oxford cathedral 
(formerly St. Erideswide, now Christ Church), 1545. 
Present income, 5000/. 

RECENT BISHOPS. 

1807. Charles Moss ; died, 16 Dec. 1S11. 

1812. William Jackson ; died, 2 Dec. 1815. 

1815. Edward Legge ; died, 27 Jan. 1827. 

1827. Charles Lloyd ; died, 31 May, 1829. 

1829. Richard Bagot ; translated to Bath, Nov. 1845. 

1845. Samuel Wilberforee ; translated to Winchester, 

Nov. 1869. 
1869. John Fielder Maekarness ; resigned about 21 June, 

1SS8 ; died 16 Sept. 1889. 
188S. William Stubbs ; translated from Chester, July. 

OXFORD DECLARATION, see Church of 
England, 1864. 

OXFORD HOUSE', see under University 
Teaching. 

OXFORD MARBLES, seeArundelian. 

OXFORD UNION SOCIETY, established 
as a debating- club, in 1823 ; amongst its early 
members, are or were Mr. Gladstone, bp. Wilberforce, 
lord Stanhope, abp. Manning, Sidney Herbert, abp. 
Tait, cvc. It held a jubilee festival, 22 Oct. 1873, 
the lord chancellor Selborne in the chair. 

OXFOBD UNIVERSITY. Alfred bunded 
'' the schools" about S79. 



Charter granted by Henry III 1248 

Charter of Edward III. 1355 ; of Henry VIII. . . i;io 

The university incorporated by Elizabeth . . 1570 

Beceives the elective franchise (to send two mem- 
bers to parliament) 1604 

Bodleian Library opened, 8 Nov. 1602 ; building- 
completed 161 3 

The botanic garden, &c., established by the earl of 
Danby 1622 

Badcliffe Library opened, 13 April, 1749 ; the 
Badeliffc observatory completed .... 1786 

A commission appointed (31 Aug. 1S50) to inquire 
into its " state, studies, discipline, and revenues ;" 
reported 27 April, 1S52 

Acts making alterations passed . . . 1854, 1856 

University Museum opened .... July, jSCo 

Examination statutes passed . 1801, 1S07, 1S50, iSts 

Extension of the university propjosed at a meeting 
held 16 Nov. 1865 

University tests abolished by act passed 16 June, 1871 

Boyal commission to inquire respecting university 
property, &c, appointed . . . . 6 Jan. 1P72. 

Income in 1871, reported to be : university, 
47,589?. os. 3d, colleges and halls, 366,253?. 16s. 3d., 
total, 413,842?. 16s. 6c? Oct, 1S74 

Hebdomadal board reported that about 100,000?. 
was needed for education in science . June, 1S75 

Lord Ilehester's bequest to promote the study of 
Slavonian literature, especially Polish ; first lec- 
tures given May, ., 

New commission appointed (lords Selborne and 
Bedesdale, Montague Bernard, sir M. W. Kidley, 
dean Burgoii, and Mr. Justice Grove) ; announced 

27 March, 1S76 

Oxford University Bill withdrawn July, 1876 ; the 
Universities Act passed . . . 10 Aug. 1877 

The commission publish a new scheme for profes- 
sors, &c, very restrictive . . .2 Nov. 18S0 

Statute passed admitting women to examination 

29 April, 1884 

Pusey memorial house, containing Pusey's library, 
&c., opened by bishop of Oxford . . 9 Oct. ,, 

4 sets of rooms at Queen's College destroyed by fire 

11 Dec. i8S~ 

Museum for gen. Pitt-Rivers' collection of ancient 
weapons, &e., presented to the university, opened 

Feb. 1887 

Combination of the municipal and academical civic 
powers in conformity with the local government 
act of 1888, consummated . . .0 Nov. 18E0 

Catherine T. Kiordon's attempt on the life of Dr. J. 
T. Bright, master of University College, 6 Nov. ; 
sentenced to 6 years' penal servitude . 15 Nov. 1850 

COLLEGES. 

University, said to have been founded by king 
Alfred, 872 ; founded by William, archdeacon of 
Durham, about 1232 

Balliol ; founded by John Baliol or Balliol, knt. 
(father to Baliol, king of the Scots), and Deborah, 
his wife 1263 

Merton College, by Walter de Merton, bishop of 
Rochester 1264 

Hertford College 1312 (dissolved in 1S05, and a 
Hertford scholarship appointed) 1805 ; revived, 
and Magdalen Hall incorporated with it. . . 1874 

Exeter, by V, 7 alter Stapleton, bishop of Exeter . 1314 

Oriel College, by king Edward II. ; Adam de Broine. 
archdeacon of Stowe 1326 

Queen's College, by Robert de Eglesfield, clerk, 
confessor to queen Pliilippa, consort of Edward 
III. ..... .... 1340 

New College, by William of Wykeham, bishop of 
Winchester ; first called St. Mary of Winchester, 
founded 1379 ; occupied 1386 ; (500th anniversary 
celebrated 14 Oct. 1879). 

All Souls' College, by Henry Chichely, archbishop 
of Canterbury 1437 

Magdalen, by William of Waynflete, bishop of Win- 
chester 1456 

Lincoln College, by Richard Fleming, 1427 ; finished 
by Rotherham, bishop of Lincoln . . . 1479 

Brazenose, by William Smyth, bishop of Lincoln, 
and sir Richard Sutton 1509 

Corpus Christi, by Richard Fox, bishop of Win- 
chester 1516 

Christ Church, by cardinal Wolsey, 1525 ; and 
afterwards by Henry VIII 1532 






OXFOKD. 



709 



OYSTER. 



Trinity, by sir Thomas Pope, on the basis of a pre- 
vious institution, called Durham College . . 1554 

.St. John's, by sir Thomas Wlryte, lord mayor of 
London I 55S 

Jesus CoUege, by Dr. Hugh Price and queen Eliza- 
beth 1571 

Wadham, by Nicholas Wadham, and Dorothy, his 
wife I( 5i3 

Pembroke, by Thomas Teesdale and Richard Wight- 
wick, clerk 1624 

Worcester, by sir Thomas Coke, of Bentley, in Wor- 
cestershire ; it was originally called Gloucester 
College i7H 

Keble College (see Kebh College) ; first stone laid by 
archbishop of Canterbury 25 April, 1868 ; conse- 
crated 23 June > lS 7° 

Indian Institute, founded 1878 or 1879. 

Somerville Hall, opened, 1879; Mansfield College, 
for Nonconformists !886 

Manchester New College .... . 1889 

Proposed establishment of Honour School of modern 
European languages 3 May, 1887 

halls (not incorporated). 

St. Edmund's 1269 

St. Mary's 1333 

New Inn Hall i39 2 

St, Mary Magdalen (incorporated with Hertford 

college 1874) I 4 8 7 

St. Alban's (united with Merton College, 1882) . 1547 

[Oxford University Calendar.] 
Fir.4 Professorships =— Divinity (Margaret), 1502; 

Divinity, Law, Medicine, Hebrew, Greek, 1540, 

&c. 

P.SCENT CHANCELLORS. 

i"o-->. William, baron Granville. 

1S34. Arthur, duke of Wellington. 

1S52. Edward, earl of Derby ; d. 23 Nov. 1S69. 

1S69. Robert, marquis of Salisbury, elected 12 Nov. 

OXFORD, PROVISIONS OP, for several poli- 
tical reforms; enacted by " the mad parliament," 
June 1258; several times annulled and confirmed 
during the "barons' war." 

OXFORD'S ACT, Bisnor OP, see District 

C'iii'.rchcs. 

OXFORD'S ASSAULT on the Queen. 

Edward Oxford, a youth who had been a servant 
in a public-house, discharged two pdstols at queen 
Victoria and prince Albert, as they were proceeding 
up Constitution-hill in an open phaeton from 
Buckingham palace, 10 June, 1840. He stood 
within a few yards of the carriage, but neither her 
majesty nor the prince was injured. Oxford was 
tried at the Old Bailey (10 July), and was adjudged 
to be insane, and sent first to Bethlehem hospital, 
next to Broadmoor ; and set at liberty in 1868, on 
condition of going abroad. 

OXFORD HOUSE, sec University 
Teaching. 

"OXFORD MOVEMENT, 1833-45, by 
It. W. Church," late dean of St. Paul's, published 
10 March, 1891 ; see Puseyism and Tractarianism. 

OXUS (the Persian and Turkish Djihoun, 
local name, Amou Darya), a river of Central Asia ; 
Hiipposed to have changed its course before 1000 
a.d., and to have resumed its ancient bed in 1878. 

OXYGEX, a gas (named from the Greek oxus, 
sharp, as being generally found in acids), is the 
most abundant of all substances, constituting about 
one-third of the solid earth, and forming about 
nine-tenths of water and one-fifth of the atmo- 
sphere. It was first separated from red oxide of 
mercury by Priestley, I.Aug. 1774, and by Scheele, 
who was ignorant of Priestley's discovery, in 1775. 
It is a supporter of animal life (in respiration), and 
of combustion. An oxygen gas company was 
announced in Dec. 1864; its object being the cheap 



manufacture of oxygen for its application to the 
production of perfect combustion in lamps, stoves, 
furnaces, &c. Oxygen was liquefied by Eaoul 
Pictet at Geneva ; (pressure, 320 atmospheres, 
temp. 140 below zero cent.) 22 Dec. 1877. Sec 
Ozone. 

Professor Dewar obtained 2 cubic centimetres ( T V of a 
fluid oz.) of liquid oxygen by means of liquid ethylene 
(the illuminating part of coal gas), temp. 140° below 
zero Cent, (by Wroblcwski and Olszewski's method) 
at the Royal 'institution, London, in the presence of 
the prince and princess of Wales, 26 June, 1884. He 
exhibited for the first time some solid oxygen in the 
form of snow (temperature -200 cent — 400 fahr.) pro- 
duced by placing liquid oxygen in a partial vacuum at 
the Royal Institution 27 May, 1886. 
Professor Dewar exhibited between 300 to 400 cer.ti- 
timetres liquid oxygen at the Faraday Centenary, 
26 June, 1801. The feeble magnetism of oxygen, 
demonstrated by Faraday, was shown by Professor 
Dewar to be greatly increased when reduced to the 
liquid state by a temperature of 180 below zero centi- 
grade ; announced 10 Dec. 1S01. Some liquid oxygen 
placed in the magnetic held, sprang to the poles and 
adhered to them till evaporated ; this was publicly 
exhibited by the professor at the Royal Institution, 
10 June, 1892. Several pints of liquid oxygen and 
liquid air were then produced in the presence of the 
audience. 
A -statue of Priestley, by F. J. Williamson, at Birming- 
ham, was unveiled by professor T. H. Huxley, 1 Aug. 
1874, the centenary of the discovery of oxygen. This 
was also celebrated at Northumberland, Pennsylvania, 
where he was buried, Feb. 1804. The following tele- 
gram was sent 31 July : "The brethren at the grave 
to the brethren at the home of Priestley send greet- 
ing on this centennial anniversary of the birth of 
chemistry." . 

A method of obtaining oxygen from air, devised and 
patented by M. Margis, of Paris. The principle is that 
of dialysis, or diffusion under pressure, Sept. i38a. 
See Gas (liquefaction). 

OYER AND TERMINER, a commission directed 
to the judges of the courts, by virtue whereof they 
have power to hear and determine treasons, felonies, 
&c., 1285. 

O YES ! A corruption of the French oyez, hear 
ye ! The ancient term still used by a public crier 
and by the usher of courts of justice to enjoin 
silence and attention. 

OYSTER (the Latin Ostrea edulis). British 
oysters are celebrated by the Roman satirist Juvenal " 
(Sat- iv. 140) about 160. The robbery of oyster- 
beds is prohibited by 7 &8Geo. IV. c. 29 (1827). 
About 15,000 bushels of oysters were said to be pro- 
duced from the Essex beds alone. In 1858 M. Costc 
commenced rearing oysters in great numbers on the 
coast of Brittany, and his plan has been found suc- 
cessful. 
An act for promoting the cultivation of oysters in 

the United Kingdom, passed . . Aug. iS56 

One for the preservation of oyster fisheries 3 May, 1S67 
Certain restrictions of the Oyster Fisheries act, 

1862, removed by the Fisheries act . . . 1868 
The fisheries (oyster, crab, and lobster) act forbids 
the sale of deep-sea oysters between 15 June and 4 
August ; and the sale of others, between 14 May 
and 4 August ; passed ... 10 Aug. 1877 

Professor Huxley at the Royal Institution asserts 
the uselessness of restrictions and a close, time for 
oysters, and the present uncertainty of culture 

11 May. t88 3 
Artificial breeding greatly promoted by professor 
Brooks of Baltimore, (who discovered non-her- 
maphrodite) lieutenant WinslOW, U.S., and M. 
Bouchen-Brandely, announced . . . June, 1884 
Act for the cultivation of oysters in Ireland passed „ 
Oysters, about 1830 the commonest of food, are. new be- 
coming scarcer and scarcer, although their reproduction 
is about a million fold. A committee recommend 
a close time for dredging, viz., 1 May to 1 Sept., deep- 



OZOKEEIT. 



710 



OZONE. 



sea fishing to be restricted, as at present, from 15 June 
to 15 Aug. ; no oyster to be sold under 2j inches in dia- 
meter. The Whitstable beds in 1875 are said to have 
produced about 79,564,000 oysters ; value about 
55,i4oZ. 

American and Portuguese oysters are now largely im- 
ported. 

Oysters successfully cultivated at Arcachon, near 
Bordeaux, i88g. 

OZOKERIT, a mineral hydro-carbon found in 
Moldavia and "Wallachia. From it is distilled a 
substance suitable for making candles, introduced 
in the autumn of 1871. 

OZONE (from the Greek ozein, to yield an 
odour), was discovered by Schonbein, of Basel, in 
1840, when experimenting with the then newly- 
invented battery of sir "Wm. Grove, and was recog- 
nised by him successively as a minute constituen t 
of the oxygen gas resulting from the electrolysis of 
water effected by a current of high tension ; of air 
or oxygen through which electric discharges have 
( aken place ; and of air in which moist phosphorus 
has been undergoing slow oxidation. 



Marignac determined the action of ozone on various 
substances to be due to their oxidation . . 1845 

Ozonometers constructed 1858 

M. Schonbein announced his discovery of another 
modification of oxygen, which he termed antozone, 
hitherto found only in the compound state (in 
peroxides of sodium, potassium, &c.) . . 1859 

The French Academy of Sciences appointed a com- 
mittee of eminent philosophers to inquire into 
the nature and relations of ozone . 4 Dec. 1865 

Andrews and Tait demonstrated ozone to be a con- 
densed form of oxygen .... i860, „ 

This further established by Soret and Brodie, by 
quantitative reactions. (Odling suggested and 
Brodie proved ozone to be 3 parts of oxygen com- 
pressed into the space of 2) 1872 

Ozone, generated by a current produced by Wilde's 
magneto-electric machine, employed to bleach 
sugar, by Edward Beane's patent . . Aug. 1868 

Liquefied by Hautefeuille and Chappuis . Oct. 1880 

Other properties since discovered . . . 1881-4 

The inhalation of ozone recommended as a remedy 
for phthisis ; the institution at St. Raphael on the 
Mediterranean opened for the purpose ; reported 

Dec. 1891 



p. 



PACIFICATION. 



PAINTING. 



PACIFICATION, Edicts of, the name 

usually given to the edicts of toleration granted by 

the French kings to the protestants ; see Ghent. 

First edict, by Charles IX. , permitting the exercise 
of the reformed religion near all the cities and 
towns in the realm .... Jan. 1562 

The reformed worship permitted in the houses of 
lords justiciaries, and certain other persons, March, 1563 

These edicts revoked, and all Protestant ministers 
ordered to quit France in fifteen days . . . 1568 

Edict, allowing lords and others to have service in 
their houses, and granting public service in cer- 
tain towns 1570 

f_In Aug. 1572, the same monarch authorised the 
massacre of St. Bartholomew (see Bartholomew).'] 

Edict of Pacification by Henry III., April; re- 
voked, Dec. 1576; renewed for six years Oct. 1577 

[Several edicts were published against the protes- 
tants after the six years expired.] 

Edict of Henry IV., renewing that of Oct. 1577 . 1591 

Edict of Nantes (which see), by Henry IV., 13 April, 1598 

Pacification of Nismes (which see) . . 14 July, 1629 

PACIFIC ISLANDERS. See Kidnapping 

Acts. 

PACIFIC OCEAN, the largest of the five 
oceans of the globe. It was first discovered in 15 13 
by Vasco Nunez do Balboa, and received its name 
from Magellan in 1521. Sir Francis Drake was the 
first Englishman who sailed upon it in 1577. See 
Magellan; Steam, 185 1 ; Wrecks, 1856; Kidnap- 
ping Acts ; Panamd. 

PACIFIC RAILWAY, North America, from 
Omaha citj T , Missouri, to Sacramento, California, 
1700 miles, opened 12 May, 1869. By a collision 
near San Francisco, about 15 persons were killed, 
14 Nov. 1869. For new Pacific railway see Canada, 
1881, et seq. By means of this railway, the China 
and Japan mails were conveyed from Yokohama to 
London in 25 days; received 13 May, 1891. 

PADLOCKS are said to have been invented 
by Beecher at Nuremberg, 1540, but are mentioned 
much earlier. 

PADUA, the Roman Patavium, in Venetia, N. 
Italy, said to have been founded by Antenor, soon 
after the fall of Troy. It flourished under the 
Romans. Patavian Latin was considered very 
corrupt, and is traced in Livy, a native of Padua. 
After being an independent republic, and a member 
of the Lombard league, Padua was ruled by the 
Carrara family from 1318 with a short interruption 
till 1405, when it was seized by the Venetians. 
The university was founded about 1220. It was 
elosed through disturbances, 1 848-50. 

PAGANS, the heathen, worshippers of idols, 
not agreeing in any set form or points of belief. See 
Idols. C'onstantine's nephew, Julian, attempted their 
restoration, 361; but Paganism was renounced by 
the Roman senate in 388, and finally overthrown 
in the reign of Thcodosius the younger, about 391. 

PAI MARIRE, a name given to the dogmas 
of the Hau-hau sect; see New Zealand, 186,5. 

PAINS AND PENALTIES, certain bills 
passed by the legislature to punish state offenders ; 
see Queen Caroline. 

PAINTING. This art was practised in Egypt 
and Greece in very early times; see under Arts. 



Polygnotus, said to be the first portrait and historic 
painter, lived about b.c. 450 

Zeuxis of Heraelea and Parrhasius of Ephesus, about 400 

Apelles about 332 

Pausias of Sieyon was the inventor of the encaustic, 
a method of burning the colour's into wood or 
ivory about 360-330 

Antiphilus, an Egyptian, is said to have been the 
inventor of the grotesque. Pliny. . . b.c. 332 

The art was introduced at Rome from Etruria, by 
Quintus Fabius, styled Pictor. Livy. . . . 291 

Excellent pictures broughtfrom Corinth by Mummius 146 

After the death of Augustus, not a single painter of 
eminence appeared for several ages ; Ludius, who 
was very celebrated, is supposed to have been the 
last about a. d. 14 

Painting on canvas seems to have been known at 
Rome in 66. Bede, the Saxon historian, knew 
something of the art, died 735 

Giovanni Cimabue, of Florence, revived the art ; he 
died 1300 

John Van Eyck, of Bruges, and his brother, Hubert, 
are regarded as the founders of the Flemish school 
of painting in oil 1415 

Uccello first studied perspective ; died . . . 1432 

Henry VIII. patronised Holbein, and invited Titian 
to his court about 1523 

In Aug. i860, the sale of lord Northwick's pictures 
occupied eighteen days. It produced 95,725?. A 
Carlo Dolci fetched 2010?., and a Murillo 1400?. 

The Bicknell collection, sold in April, 1863, pro- 
duced 25,600?. 

Mr. Win. Noy "Wilkins invented a process of using 
oil with mineral colours for frescoes in 1853 ; pub- 
lished his " Durability in Art " .... 1875 

Gainsborough's picture of Georgiana, duchess of 
Devonshire, bought by Messrs. Agnew for 10,100?., 
stolen from their house in Bond-street, London, 

24-25 May, 1S76 

Baron Albert Grant's collection said to have sold 
for 106,262?. 28 April, 1877 

Mr. Munro's Novar collection, sold for 64,975/. 
close of sale 3 June, 1878 

Leigh Court collection (sir P. W. Miles) sold for 
44,296? 2S June, 1884 

The collections of John Graham of Ayrshire : ancient 
masters sold for 69,168?. 12 April, 1886; modern 
masters, 62,297? 3° April, 18S7 

Mr. Bolckow's collection of about 70 modern 
pictures sold for 71,378?. . . .5 May, 1888 

Mr. Wells' (of Redleaf) collection of 104 pictures 

sold for 77,000? 10 May, 1S90 

See under Blenheim and Hamilton Palace. 

EMINENT PAINTERS. Bom OV 

School. Flourished. Pied. 

Guido da Siena . . . . i2zo 

Marghitone d'Arezzo . . Florentine . 12 12 1289 

Cimabue Ditto . . 1240 1300 

Giotto Ditto . . 1276 1336 

Simone Martiuo (Memmi) . Italian . . 1283 1344 

Andrea Orcagna . . . Ditto . . 1329 1389 

Hubert Van Eyck . . Flemish . 1366 1426 

J. Van Eyck . . . . Ditto . . 1366 1441 

Fra Angelico da Fiesole. . Italian . . 13S7 1455 

Felippo Lippi . . . . Ditto . . 1412 1469 

Domenico (jhirlandajo . . Ditto . . 1449 r 49S 

Andrea Mantegna . . . Ditto . . 1431 1506 

Giorgione .... Venetian . 1477 1511 

Sandro Botticelli . . . Italian . . 1437 1515 

Giovanni Bellini . . . Ditto . . 1426 1516 

Leonardo da Vinci . . . Florentine . 1452 1520 

Raphael d'Urbino . . . Roman . 14S3 1520 

Pietro Paolo Perugino . . Italian . . 1446 1524 

Albert Diirer .... German . 1470 1528 

Quentin Matsys . . . Flemish . 1460 1529 

Andrea Vannuchi (del Santo). Florentine . 148S 1530 

Correggio Lombardian 1494 1534 

Parmegiano .... Ditto . . 1503 1540 



PAINTING. 



fl2 



PAL^OLOGI. 



Hans Holbein . 


. . German 




Giulio Romano 


. Roman 


Sebastian del Piombo 


. . Venetian 


Lucas Cranacb 


. German 


Giovanni Razzi . 


. Siennese 


Michael Angelo Buonai 


otti . Florentine . 


Titian 


. . Venetian 


Paul Veronese 


. Ditto 


Tintoretto . 


. . Ditto . 


Annibal Caracci 


. Lombardian 






P. P. Kubens 


. Ditto . 


Domenichino 


. . Bolognese . 


Vandyck 


. Flemish . . 






"Wm. Dobson . 


. English 


Both .... 


. . Dutch . . 


P. Potter 


. Ditto . 






Spagnoletto . 


. Spanish 


Sn} r clers 


. . Flemish 


Velasquez 


. Spanish 


Zarbaran . 


. . Ditto 


N. Poussin 


. French 






Hobbima 


. Flemish 


A. Cuyp . 


. . Dutch. 


Samuel Cooper 


. English 


A. Vander Velde 


. . Dutch . . 


Salvator Rosa 


. Neapolitan . 


Rembrandt 


. . Dutch . . 


Gerard Douw . 


. Ditto . 


Sir Peter Lely . 


. . German 


Mieris 


. Dutch. 




. . Ditto 


Claude Lorraine 


. French 




. . Dutch . 


Murillo . 


. Spanish 




. . Dutch . 


Carlo Dolci . 


. Florentine 


Wouvermans 


. . Dutch . 


Le Bran . 


. French . 






W. Vander Velde . 


. Dutch . 


Watteau 


. . French . 


Sir Godfrey Kneller 


. German 


Sir J. Thomhill 


. . English . 


Huysum 


. Dutch. 


Hogarth 


. . English 


Canaletti 


. Venetian 


J. Mortimer 


. . English 


R. Wilson 


. Ditto 


Gainsborough . 


. . Ditto . 




C. J. Vernet . 


. French 




Sir J. Reynolds . 


. . English 




Romney . 


. Ditto 




George Morland 


. . Ditto . 




Barry . 


. Ditto 




George Stufobs . 


. . Ditto 






. . Ditto . 




Paul Sandby . 


. Ditto 






. . Ditto . 




Copley . 


. ' . Ditto 




West .... 






H. Raebnrn . 


. Ditto 










David 


. French 




Lawrence . . 


. . English 




Northcote 


. Ditto 




Thos. Stotliard . 


. . Ditto . 




A. C. H. Vernet . 


. French 




Peechey 


. . English 




Wm. Hilton . 


. Ditto 




Wilkie 






Haydon . 


. Ditto 










Etty . . . 


. Ditto 




Turner 


. . Ditto . 




Martin . 


. Ditto 




C. R. Leslie 


. . Ditto . 




Aug. Egg 


. Ditto . 




Wm. Mulready . 


. . Ditto 




J. E. H. Vernet 


. French 




P. V. E. De la Croix . 


. . Ditto 




Wm. Hunt 


. English 




D. Roberts 


. . Ditto . 





Born or 

School. Flourished. 
1495 
1492 
148S 
1472 
1479 
1474 
1477 
1532 
15 12 
1568 
156s 
1577 
1581 

1599 
1575 
1610 
1600 
1625 
1617 
1589 
1579 
1599 
1598 
1594 
159° 
1611 
1606 
1609 
1638 
1615 
1606 
1613 
1617 
1635 
1636 
1600 
1610 
1618 
1624 
1616 
1620 
1619 
1610 
1633 
1684 
1648 
1676 



1697 
1739 
1714 
1727 
1714 
1723 
1734 
1763 
1 741 
1724 
1761 
1725 
1756 
1738 
1738 
1786 
1741 
1748 
1769 
1746 
I75S 
1758 
1753 
1786 
1785 
17S6 
1788 
1787 
J 775 
1789 
1794 
1816 
1786 
1789 
1798 
1790 
1796 



Died. 
1543 
1546 
1547 
1553 
i5S4 
1564 
1576 
1588 
1594 
1609 
1625 
1640 
1641 
1641 
1642 
1646 
1650 
1654 
1655 
1656 
1657 
1660 
1662 
1665 
1666 
1670 
1672 
1672 
1672 
1673 
1674 



1694 
1707 
1721 
1723 
1732 
1749 
1764 
1768 
1779 
1782 
1788 
1789 
1792 
1802 
1804 



1815 
1820 
1823 
1825 
1825 
1830 
1831 



1839 
1839 
1841 
1846 



1S54 
1859 



1863 
1863 





Born or 






School. Flourished. 


Died.. 


W. F. Witherington 


. English 


1786 


1865. 


Clarkson Stanfield 


. . Ditto . . 


1798 


1867- 


P. Von Cornelius . 


. German 


1787 


1867 


J. D. A. Ingres . 


. . French . . 


1781 


1867 


Thos. Creswick 


. English 


i8n 


3869 


F. Overbeck 


. . German . . 


1789 


1869 


D. Maclise 


. English 


181E 


1870 


Sir George Hayter 


. . Ditto . . 


1792 


1871 


Sir E. Landseer 


. Ditto . 


1802 


1873 


W. Kaulbach 


. . German 


1805 


1374 


P. F. Poole . 


. English . . 


1806 


1879 


E. M. Ward 


. . Ditto . 


18.6 


1879 


E. W. Cooke ... 


. Ditto . . 


1810 


18S0- 


Gustave Dore 


. . French 


1832 


1883 


Johannes Makart . 


. German 


1840 


1884 


Thos. Webster . 


. . English 


1800 


1886 


Richd. Redgrave 


. Ditto . 


1804 


1888 


Frank Holl . 


. . Ditto. 


1846 


1888 


Arthur Stocks . 


. . Ditto . . 


1846 


1889. 


J olm R. Herbert . 


. Ditto . 


1810 


1890- 


J. C. Horsley . 


. . Ditto . 


1817 


1890 


C. W. Cope . 


. Ditto . 


1811 


1890- 


J. L. E. Meissonier . 


. . French . 


1815 


1891 


Edwiu Long . 


. English 


1839 


1S91 


Sir Wm. F. Douglas 


. Ditto . . 


1829 


i8qi. 


W. P. Frith 


. . Ditto . 


1819 




John Faed 


'. Ditto . . 


1820 




Fredk. Goodall . 


. . Ditto . 


1822 




Thomas Faed 


. Ditto . 


1826 




H. S. Marks 


. . Ditto . 


1829 




J. E. Millais . 


. Ditto . 


1829 




F. Leighton 


. . Ditto . 


1830 




Vicat Cole 


. Ditto . 


1833. 




G. D. Leslie 


. . Ditto . 


1835 




E. J. Poynter 


. Ditto . 


1836 




L. Alma Tadenia 


. . Dutch 


1836 




Thos. S. Cooper 


. English . 


1803. 




Edw. Armitage. 


. . Ditto . 


1817 




Sir J. Gilbert. 


. Ditto 


1817- 




J. C. Hook . 


. Ditto . 


. 1819 




J. Sant ' . . . 


Ditto . 


. 1S20 




J. F. Watts . 


. Ditto . 


. 1820 




Carl Haag . 


Ditto . 


. 182& 




Phil Calderon . 


. . Ditto . 


• 1833. 




J. A. M. Whistler . 


. Ditto 


1835 




W. 0. Orchardson. 


. . Ditto . 


• 183S 




E. J. Poynter 


. Ditto 


1836 




John Pettie 


. . Ditto . 


• 1839 




Marcus Stone 


. Ditto 


. 1 840 




Briton Riviere . 


. . Ditto . 


. 184& 




Jas. D. Linton 


. Ditto . 


. 184a 




Eliz. Thompson, since 


lady 














Sir John Pettie 


. Ditto . 


• l8 39 




Ouless 


. . Ditto . 


. 1848 




Hubert Herkomer . 


. Ditto 


. 1849 





PAISLEY, a borough, "W. Scotland, the Roman? 
Yanduava, and grew out of the priory of Passalet,; 
founded 1160-4 by Walter Stewart, made an abbey 
about 1220 ; burnt by the English 1307, rebuilt 15th. 
century. Made a burgh of barony 1488 and a Parlia- 
mentary borough 1832. Since 1805 Paisley silk and 
cotton shawls have been celebrated. Visited by the- 
Queen, 23 Aug. 1888. See Population. 

PALACE COUET, sec Marshalsea, and 

Green Cloth. 

PALACE OF JUSTICE, or Eoyal 
COURTS OF JUSTICE. The names given to the new 
Law r Courts, London. See Law Courts under Latv. 

PALACES, see Buckingham, St. James's, Par- 
liament, 1834-52, 1885, Pscurial, Tuilcrics, St. 
Cloud, Versailles, &c. 

PAL^EOGEAPHY, ancient writing; see 

Diplomatics, Writing. 

PAL2E0L0GI, a family which reigned as 
emperors of the east from 1260 to 1453. George 
Palreologus raised Alexius Comnemis to ihe thione 
in 108 1, and thereby founded his own family. An- 
drew, tlic last Pahtologus, son of Thomas, ruler of 



PALAEONTOLOGY. 



713 



PALESTINE. 



hie Morea, after the overthrow of Lis father, be- 
came a Mahometan at Constantinople about 1533. 
A person who called himself John Anthony Palajo- 
logus Lascaris died at Turin, Sept. 1874. His 
claims were doubted. 

PALAEONTOLOGY (from the Greek palaios, 
ancient, and onta, beings), treats of the evidences of 
organic beings in the earth's strata. It combines 
biology and geology {which see). Cuvier, Mantell, 
Agassiz, Owen, Edward Forbes, and lilainville, all of 
the present century, may be reckoned as fathers of 
this science. The Pala:oiitographieal society, which 
publishes elaborate monographs of British organic 
remains, was founded in 1847. The journal 
" Palaeontographica " (German) began 1851. Pro- 
fessor Owen's "Palaeontology" was published in 
i860. "Nearly 40,000 species of animals and 
plants have been added to the Systema Naturce by 
pakcontological research." Huxley. See Man. 

PALaEOPOLIS, see Naples. 

PALAIS EOYAL, Paris, originally Palais 
Cardinal, built for cardinal Eichelieu by Lemer- 
cier, 1620-36, received its present name when occu- 
pied by Louis XIII., to whom the cardinal gave it 
shortly before his death in 1642. Louis XIV., in 
1692, gave it to his nephew Philippe, duke of Or- 
leans, and it became the residence of his successors. 
It was confiscated by the republic in 1793, after the 
execution of Philippe Egalite. Louis Philippe re- 
sided in it, 1814-31. It suffered much injury at 
the revolution in 1848. Under the second empire 
it became the residence of prince Jerome and his 
son Napoleon. The buildings were much injured 
by fire by the communists, 24 May, 1871. 

PALATINATE OP THE Eiiine, one of the 
seven ancient electorates of Germany. It was long 
united to Bavaria, but was separated in 1294. — 
Frederic V., the elector palatine in 1610, married 
in 1613 Elizabeth, the daughter of James I. of Eng- 
land, and thus was an ancestor of queen Victoria ; 
see Hanover. In 1619 he was elected king of Bo- 
hemia, but lost all by his defeat by the Austrians 
at Prague in 1620. The Palatinate was horribly 
ravaged by Tilly in 1622, and by the French in 
i 688. Several thousands of the ruined peasantry 
were sent to America by the British government 
and people. The elector palatine, Charles Theo- 
dore, inherited Bavaria in 1778 ; since when the 
two electorates have been united ; see Bavaria. 

PALATINE. "William the conqueror made 
his nephew, Hugh De Abrincis, count palatine of 
Chester with the title of carl, about 1070. Edward 
III. created the palatine of Lancaster, 1539; see 
Lancaster, duchy of. The bishopric of Durham also 
made county palatine. There is also mention made 
of the county palatine of Hexham, in 33 Henry 
VIII. c. 10, which then belonged to the arcli- 
bishop of York, but by the 14th of Elizabeth 
it was dissolved, and made cart of the county of 
Northumberland. The palatinate jurisdiction of 
Durham was separated from the diocese, and vested 
in the crown, 6 Will. IV. c. 19, 21 June, 1836. 

PALE, the name given to the part of Ireland 
colonised by the English — viz., parts of the coun- 
ties of Louth, Lublin, Meath, and Kildare. Anglo- 
Irish rulers were termed lords of the pale. Their 
arbitrary exactions led to a royal commission of 
inquiry in 1537. The defection of the lords of the 
pale in 1641 was followed by a general insurrection, 
and the royal cause was ruined in 1647. In 1652 
Ireland was committed to the rule of four com- 
missioners. 



PALERMO (N.W.Sicily), the ancient l'an- 
ormus. It has been held by the Carthaginians, 415 
B.C. ; taken by the Romans, 254 i$.c. ; by the Sara- 
cens, A.n. 832 ; and by the .Normans, 1072. Here 
Uoger II. was crowned king of Sicily, 1130. 
Palermo was the scene of the (Sicilian Vesper* 
{ivhich see), 30 March, 1282. It suffered ircm. 
earthquake in 1726 and 1740. The king Ferdinand 
resided at Palermo from 1806 to 1815, while Naples 
was ruled by Joseph honaparte and Joachim Murat. 
It revolted against the tyranny of Ferdinand II. 
12 Jan. 1848. It was attacked by general Filan- 
gieri, 29 March, 1849, an ^ surrendered 011 14 May. 
It was taken by Garibaldi, 6 June, i860. An in- 
surrection against the abolition of the monastic 
establishments broke out in Palermo on 13 Sept.- 
1866, and was suppressed by the royal troops with 
much bloodshed; order was restored by 22 Sept. 
Population, 1890, 267,416. 

The Italian National Exhibition at Palermo opened 
in the presence of the king and the royal family, 
by sigrior Chimirri, minister of agriculture 

15 Nov. 1 89 1 

The exhibition included manufactures, fine arts, 
Greek relics, an Abyssinian department, &c, 

New monument to Garibaldi uncovered ; speech by 
sig. Crispi 27 May, 1892- 

PALESTINE, the name given by Moses 
{Exodus xv., 14) and oilier ancient writers, to a 
broad strip of land on the easteoa>t of the Mediter- 
ranean Sea, which originally included PJulistia, but 
was afterwards limited to tue part termed, the land 
of Cauaan or Israel, Judea, and the Holy Land : 
see Jews. After being several times conquered by 
the Saracens, and retaken from the 7th to the iotli 
century, and after being the scene of the wars of 
the Crusades {ivhich see), and other conflicts, Pales- 
tine was united to the Ottoman empire by Selim I. 
in 1516. See Bible (note), Holy Places, and Syria. 

Palestine visited by the prince of Wales, 

March and April, 1862 

" The Palestine exploration fund "was founded in 
London by many eminent persons as a society 
"for the investigation of the archaeology, topo- 
graphy, geology, and manners and customs of the 
holy Land ;" at the first meeting the archbishop 
of York (Dr. W. Thomson) was in the chair 

22 June, 1865 

By its means captain (after sir Charles) Wilson and 
a party left England for Palestine in Nov. 1865 : 
they arrived at Damascus, Dee. 20 ; and in the 
following spring explored Jezreel, Nazareth, and 
many other parts of the holy Land. 

Excavations in Jerusalem carried on by capt. (aft. 
sir Charles) Warren 1867-1870- 

The Moabite stone discovered 186S- 

The systematic trigonometrical survey of Palestine 
carried on by capt. Stewart, R.E., lieuts. Cornier 
and Kitchener, lt.E 1872-7 

A similar fund established at New York . . .1871 

The ordnance survey of Sinai by capts. Wilson and 
Palmer, published 1S72 

The surveying party attacked by natives, rescued 
by soldiers, after much suffering . . 10 July, 1875. 

Survey of Western Palestine completed ; announced 

Oct. 1877 

Publication of map (1 inch to the mile) in 26 sheets 

May, 18S0 

Map and Memoirs of the Survey of Western Pales- 
tine published 1800-1 

Survey of Eastern Palestine begun by lieuts. Conder 
and Kitchener 188 r 

The twenty-first anniversary of the foundation 
celebrated at the Royal Institution ; the abp. of 
York in the chair ...... 22 June, 1S06 

" Twenty-one years' work in the Holy Land," pub- 
lished June, „ 

For captain Conder's discovery of a key to the 
Hittite inscriptions see under Hittites, 26 Feb. i88j 

Finnan authorising excavutions granted with eon- 



PALESTEO. 



714 PALMEESTON-EUSSELL ADMIN". 



ditions ; the committee appoint Mr. Flinders 
Petrie, superintendant, announced . Feb. 1890 

The archbishop of Canterbury (Dr. Benson) suc- 
ceeds the archbishop of York, as president of the 
fund . April, 1891 

An association for the Colonization of Palestine by 
the Jews held an important meeting in east 
London 7 Feb. ,, 

PALESTEO (N. Italy). Here the Sardinians 
■defeated the Austrians, 30, 31 May, 1859. 

PALIMPSEST (from the Greek, palm, again; 
and psao, I efface), parchments written on after 
the previous writing had been partially effaced. 
Cardinal Mai, by removing the second writing in- 
some MSS., recovered the original. This was the 
•case with Cicero's " De Republica," published by 
Mai in 182 1. It had been covered by a treatise of 
Lactantius. 

PALL, PALLIUM, in the Eoman Church an 
ensign of dignity conferred by the pope upon arch- 
bishops. By a decretal of pope Gregory XI. (about 
1370), no archbishop could call a council, bless the 
chrism, consecrate churches, ordain a clerk, or con- 
secrate a bishop, till he had received his pall from 
the see of Borne. The pall was first worn by an 
Irish archbishop in 11,52, when Gelasius was recog- 
nised as primate of all Ireland. 

PALLADIUM, the statue of Pallas, said to have 
fallen from heaven near the tent of Ilus, as he was 
building Ilium, which the oracle of Apollo de- 
clared should never be taken so long as the Palla- 
dium was found within its walls. The Greeks are 
■said to have obtained it by craft during the Trojan 
war, 1 184 B.C. ; but some writers assert, another 
statue was taken, and that the real Palladium was 
conveyed from Troy to Italy by iEneas, 1183 B.C., 
and preserved by the Romans with the greatest 
secrecy in the temple of Vesta. — Palladium is a 
rare metal, discovered in platinum ore by Dr. "Wol- 
laston, in 1803. 

PALLAS, the planet, was discovered by Olbers, 
at Bremen, 28 March, 1802. 

PALLISEE'S CHILLED SHOT, see 

Cannon. 

PALL MALL, a street near St. James's 
palace, London, is named from a French game at 
ball (pale-mail, being a wooden mallet), re- 
sembling the modern croquet, having been played 
there about 1600, and introduced into England 
about 1660. Among eminent inhabitants were 
Nell Gwyn and Dr. Thomas Sydenham. The 
Pall Mall Gazette, a daily independent political 
and literary journal, first appeared 7 Feb. 1865, and 
was edited by Mr. Frederick Greenwood till 1 May, 
1880, when it became a liberal paper, edited by Mr. 
John Morley, who retired 25 Aug. 1883. Price 2d. 
reduced to id. 2 Jan. 1882. 

Nos. 6, 7, 8, 9 July, 1885, contained Mr. Stead's state- 
ments respecting offences against young women and 
children. Greatly disproved on investigation. See 
Trials, Oct. -Nov. 1885. 

PALMEESTON ADMINISTEATION.* 

The resignation of the Aberdeen administration was 



* Heury John Temple was born 20 Oct. 1784 ; was 
educated at Harrow, Edinburgh, and Cambridge ; suc- 
ceeded his father, viscount Palmerston, 1802 ; became 
M.P., and a junior lord of the admiralty, 1807; wassecre- 
tary-at-war, 1809-28, and a secretary for foreign affairs, 
Nov. 1830-34, April, 1835 to Sept. 1841, and July, 1S46 
to Dec. 1851, and home secretary, Dec. 1852 to March, 
1855, when he became first lord of the treasury. He was 
created lord warden of the cinque ports, 31 March, 1861 ; 
and master of the corporation of the Trinity house, 
16 June, 1862. He sat for Tiverton, 1835-65. He died 



announced 1 Feb. 1855, but nearly all its members 
returned to office soon after under lord Palmerston, 
lord Derby and lord John Russell having each iD 
vain endeavoured to form an administration. On 
22 Feb. Mr. Gladstone, sir James Graham, and Mr. 
Sidney Herbert resigned on account of the Sebas- 
topol inquiry. Lord John Russell resigned 13 July. 
Lord Canning was appointed governor-general of 
India, 4 July, 1855. This cabinet resigned 20 Feb. 
1858, in consequence of a vote of censure upon it 
for introducing the Foreign Conspiracy bill, and was 
succeeded by the Derby administration (which see). 

First lord of the treasury, Henry viscount Palmerston. 

Lord chancellor, lord Cranworth. 

President of the council, earl Granville. 

Lord privy seal, duke of Argyll ; next, earl of Harrowby ; 

afterwards the marquis of Clanricarde. 
Secretaries — home, sir George Grey ; foreign, carl of 

Clarendon ; colonial, Sidney Herbert (resigned Feb. 22) ; 

afterwards lord J. Russell (resigned July 13); sir 

"William Molesworth (died 22 Oct. 1855) ; next Henry 

Labouchere ; war, lord Panmure. 
Chancellor of the exchequer, W. E. Gladstone (resigned 

22 Feb.) ; next, sir G. Cornewall Lewis. 
First lord of the admiralty, sir James Graham (resigned 

22 Feb.) ; next, sir diaries Wood. 
Board of control, sir Charles "Wood ; next, R. Vernon 

Smith. 
Public ivories, sir "Win. Molesworth ; next, sir B. Hall 

(appointed 22 July, 1855). 
Postmaster-general, viscount Canning (appointed governor- 
general of India, 4 July) ; next, duke of Argyll. 
President of the board of trade, lord Stanley of Alderley. 
Marquis of Lansdowne, without office. 
Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, earl of Harrowby ; 

next, M. T. Baines (appointed 24 Nov. 1855). 

PALMEESTON-EUSSELL ADMINIS- 
TEATION. The second Derby administration 
{which see) resigned 11 June, 1859. Earl Granville 
was requested by the queen to form an administra- 
tion, and obtained the support of lord Palmerston, 
but not of lord John Russell : the two last then 
agreed to form a cabinet, which came into office 
18 June, 1859. On the decease of lord Palmerston, 
i80ct. 1 865, earl Russell became premier; sceM-itsselL 

First lord of the treasury, Henry viscount Palmerston. 
Lord high chancellor, John lord Campbell (died 23 June, 

1861) ; succeeded by sir Richard Bethell, made Lord 

SVestbury, who resigned 4 July, 1865 ; succeeded by 

lord Cranworth. 
Lord president of the council, earl Granville. 
Lord privy seal, duke of Argyll. 
Secretaries— foreign affairs, lord John (afterwards earl) 

Russell ; colonies, duke of Newcastle ; succeeded by 

Edward Cardwell, 8 April, 1S64; home, sir G. Cornewall 

Lewis ; succeeded by sir George Grey ; war, Sidney 

(afterwards lord) Herbert ; succeeded by sir G. C. 

Lewis (died 13 April, 1863), and by earl de Grey 

(1 May) ; India, sir Charles Wood. 
Chancellor of the exchequer, "Win. Ewart Gladstone. 
First lord of the admiralty, duke of Somerset. 
President of the board of trade, Thos. Milner Gibson. 

[This office was offered to Mr. R. Cobden, and declined 
by him.] 
Secretary of state for Ireland, Edward Cardwell; succeeded 

by sir R. Peel (not in the cabinet). 
Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, sir George Grey, 

bart. ; succeeded by Edward Cardwell ; and by earl 

Clarendon, 8 April, 1864. 
Postmaster-general, earl of Elgin (proceeded to China in 

April, i860) ; succeeded by lord Stanley of Alderley, 

appointed Sept. i860. 
Poor-law board, T. Milner Gibson ; succeeded by Charles 

P. ViUiers (9 July, 1S60). 
Palmerston's Act for abatement of smoke nuisance (16 

& 17 Vict. c. 128), 20 Aug. 1853. 

18 Oct., and was buried in "Westminster abbey, 27 Oct. 
1865. His statue at Romsey, by M. Noble, was un- 
covered by earl Russell, 21 July, 1868. Lady Palmer- 
ston died 11 Sept. 1S69, aged 82. 



PALM-SUNDAY. 



715 



PANAMA. 



PALM-SUNDAY. When Christ made his 
entry into Jerusalem, multitudes of the people who 
were come to the feast of the Passover, took branches 
of the palm-tree, and went forth to meet him, -33. 
It is usual, in some countries, to carry palms on the 
Sunday before Easter, hence called Palm-Sunday. 

PALMYBA (Syria) was supposed to have been 
the Tadnior in the wilderness built by Solomon, 
but was manifestly Grecian. The brilliant part of 
the history of Palmyra was under Odenatus and his 
queen Zenobia. At the death of Odenatus, Zenobia 
assumed the title of queen of the East, in 267. 
Aurelian defeated her at Emesa, in 272, and made 
her captive, 273, and killed Longinus, the philo- 
sopher, her friend. Palmyra is now inhabited by a 
few Arab families. The ruins were visited in 1751, 
by Mr. Wood, Avho published an account of them 
in 1753- 

PAMIRS, a lofty mountain ridge in Turkestan, 
Central Asia. 

Col. Gromtchevski's Russian exploring expedition 
stopped by Afghan and British outposts in 1889. 
Capt. Yonoff, with a military force, excludes capt. 
Younghusband and lieut. Davison, travellers, from 
the little Pamir, on the frontiers of Afghanistan, &c. 
The Russians afterwards retire on the advance of a 
party of Goorkhas, Aug. 1891. The Russian govern- 
ment declares the action of capt. Yonoff to be illegal, 
and apologises, Feb. 1892. 

PAMPELUNA (X. E. Spain, taken by the 
French on their invasion of Spain), was invested by 
1 he British, between whom and the French obstinate 
conflicts took place, 27 and 29 July, 1813. It sur- 
rendered to the British, 31 Oct. in that year. Popu- 
lation, 1887, 26,663. 

PAMPHLETS. Their first appearance 
amongst us is generally thought to have been in 
opposition to the church of Home. Those who were 
first convinced of the reasonableness of the "new 
learning," as it was then called, propagated their 
opinions in small pieces, cheaply printed, and (what 
was then of great importance) easily concealed. 
Political pamphlets began in Edward VI. 's time, 
and were very numerous in the 17th and 18th cen- 
turies (by De Foe, Swiff, Steele, and others). 
Paul Louis Courier wrote "Simple Discours" and other 
pamphlets against the priests and nobles after the 
restoration of the Bourbons, 1815. His "Pamphlet 
des Pamphlets," defending the pamphleteer (published, 
1824), probably led to his murder, 10 April, 1825. 
Large collections are in the libraries of the British 

Museum and the Royal and London Institutions. 
Certain enactments respecting panvphiets removed by an 
act passed July, 1869. 

PANAMA, the isthmus which joins the two 
Americas; see I)ari,en. Across this a ship canal 
was proposed by the Buliver-Clayton treaty, 
19 April, 1850. A treaty for the construction of a 
ship canal through the isthmus \>y the United 
States was signed by representatives of that govern- 
ment and that of Colombia 26 Jan. 1870. A railway 
was opened in 1855. In that year a new state, New 
Granada, was divided into eight federal states, one 
of which is named Panama. A revolution took 
place in Panama, on 9 March, 1865 ; the govern- 
ment was deposed, and don Jil Colunje became pre- 
sident; succeeded by Vincent Olarte, I Oct. 1866. 
Panama is now subject to Colombia (which see). 
Aspinwall, a town at the extremity of the Panama 
railway, named after its originator, Mr. Aspinwall, a 
New York merchant, was officially named Colon in 
I070. The government overthrown by Colombian 
troops without bloodshed, about 12 Oct. 1875. Civil 
war between Dr. Damaso Cervera and gen. li. Ruiz ; 
sharp fights; the Morro beats the Alajucla, 14 



Oct. 1884. General Santo Domingo Vila installed 
as president, 8 Jan. 1884. Rebellion ; government 
steamer Ecuadouan captures the rebel ship Buacho; 
much slaughter announced, 24 Dec. 1884. Insur- 
rection in Panama ; conflict with Colombian troops ; 
about 20 people killed. Insurgents destroy Aspin- 
wall railway terminus, &c. ; the United States 
government intervenes with troops, &c. to protect 
colonists and restore buildings ; rebels said to be 
totally defeated, 16 March-April. Railway re- 
opened with protected trains, 13 April, i885- 
Gen. Tlirr and a committee propose a canal Oct. 1876 
Lieut. L.A.B.Wyse's survey (1875) published autumn 1877 
Congress respecting a new canal meet at Paris ; P. 

De Lesseps president . . . . 1 May, 1879 
Seven schemes proposed ; canal from Gulf of Limon 

to Bay of Panama recommended (by 74-8) 29 May, ,, 
Scheme suspended for want of funds . . . ,, 
Canal through Nicaragua proposed by Americans ; 

favoured by gen. Grant .... Sept. „ 
Lesseps' scheme opposed by the United States 

government March, 1880 

Lesseps at Liverpool describes Iris plan ; canal to 

be 46 miles long 31 May, ,, 

Engineers leave Paris to proceed to the work, 3 

Jan. ; at work 24 Feb. 1881 

Mr. Blaine, the American secretary, issued a circu- 
lar to the European powers protesting against 
joint international guarantees of the neutrality of 
the canal, asserting that the guarantee of the 
United States of 24 July, 1846, is sufficient 25 Oct. ,, 
Railway and works partly destroyed by earthquakes 

7, 9, 10 Sept. 1882 
Colon and Aspinwall, with consulates, burnt by the 

rebels under gen. Aizpurn, announced 1 April, 1885 
United States marines defeat the rebels ; destroy 
barricades and occupy Panama^ to protect pro- 
perty and railway transit . about 24 April, ,, 
The Colombian government resume possession of 
Panama ; amnesty granted, with exceptions 

30 April, ,, 
Gen. Aizpurn arrested 4 May, 1885 ; martial law, 

about 12 June ; quiet restored . . July, ,, 

M. de Lesseps sails up about 3 miles . 20 Feb. 1886 
Ten m<;n killed by gunpowder explosion, announced 

31 March, ,, 
M. de Lesseps' proposal of a lottery loan opposed 

by the French premier, M. Tirard . . Jan. 188S 
The lottery loan bill passed by the deputies 28 
April ; by the senate 5 June ; progress of the 
scheme retarded .... July, ct scrj. „ 
M. de Lesseps asserts that the canal will be opened 

in July, 1890 21 Oct. ,, 

The necessary amount of subscriptions to the loan 
not received ; the company suspend payment 14 
Dec. ; the government bill permitting the com- 
pany to suspend payments for three months 
rejected by the chambers (256-181) . 15 Dec. ,, 
[about sixty million pounds already expended] 
M.de Lesseps resigns and proposes liquidation 15 Dec. ,, 
A great meeting of shareholders agree to the sus- 
pension of payments of coupons and annuities 
until the opening of the canal, and the raising of 
more capital, and profess continued confidence iu 

M. de Lesseps 27 Dec. ■■> 

Report received that perfect order remains at the 

works, which are still carried on . . 8 Jan. 1889 
The United States senate pass resolutions against 
any interference of foreign powers in regard to 

the canal 9 Jan. ,, 

New company for the completion of the canal 
started (the old 'company dissolved) .Ian. ; suf- 
ficient shares not taken up ; the company goes 

into liquidation Feb. ,, 

Gradual suspension of the works . . . Feb. „ 
The Panama Canal Bill to promote the continuance 
of the work passed by the chamber of deputies 

28 June, ,, 
Canal bill passed by the French senate . 11 July, ,, 
Report of Inquiry commission states that 
900,000,000 francs will be required to complete 

the canal 5 May, 1890 

Great fire at Colon (formerly Aspinwall), the 
Panama railway buildings ami a large part of the 
town destroyed . . . . 23. 24 Sept. ,, 
Arrangement between the company and the re- 



PAN-AMEEICAN CONGRESS. 



716 



PANTHEON. 



public of Columbia ; the time for the completion 
of the canal extended by ten years ; contract 
dated 10 Jan. i8go 

After visitation of the works, total collapse of the 
scheme reported ; legal investigation proposed 

Sept. 1891 

Eeport of M. Mcnclrieourt, the official liquidator, 
issued at Paris Nov. „ 

PAN-AMEEICAN CONGEESS- 34 dele- 
gates from the states of North, South, and Central 
America, met at Washington 30 Sept. 1889. Mr. 
Secretary Blaine was appointed president 2 Cct. 
They visit Chicago and other cities, Oct., meet at 
Washington 18 Nov. et seq. Construction of con- 
necting railways proposed Feb. 1890. Treaty 
adopting arbitration agreed on, &c. Banquet to 
president Harrison 16 April ; the delegates depart 
for home 19 April, 1890. 

PAN-ANGLICAN SYNOD, the popular 
name of a conference of 76 bishops, British, colonial, 
and American, who met at Lambeth-palace, 24-27 
Sept. 1867. They issued an address, published 
their resolutions, of a very general character, and 
formally closed their conference on 10 Dee. 
Another synod of about 100 bishops met . 2 July, 187S 
Grand closing service at St. Paul's . 27 July, „ 
An encyclical letter issued proposing an episcopal 
board of reference for ecclesiastical questions, &c, 
1878 ; another issued with practical moral recom- 
1 nendations, earnestly advocating unity and union 

with nonconformists 1888 

The third conference of 145 bishops was held at 
Lambeth 7-28 July ; the abp. of York preached 

at St. Paul's 27 July, „ 

See under Presbyterians. 

PANDEAN PIPES (said to be the Creek 
syrinx, and the ugab or organ of the Bible, Gen. iv. 
21 and Psalm cl.), usually seven tubes, popular in 
Britain early in the 19th century. A " Pre- 
ceptor" for JDavies' "new invented syrrynx" was 
published in 1807. 

PANDECTS, a digest of the civil law, made by 
order of Justinian, 533. It is stated that a copy of 
these Pandects was discovered in the ruins of Amalfi, 
1 137 ; removed from Pisa in 1415, and preserved in 
the library of the Medici at Florence, as the Pan- 
dect ce Florentines. 

PANDOSIA (Bruttium, S. Italy). Here 
Alexander, king of Epirus, was defeated and slain 
by the Bruttians, 326 B.C. Loevinus, the Roman 
consul, was defeated between Ileraclea and Pando- 
sia, in Lucania, by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, 28OB.C. 

PANEAS or PANIUS (Syria). Here Antioehus 
the Great defeated Scopas, the Egyptian general, 
•and his Greek allies, 198 B.C. 

PANICS, COMMERCIAL, generally the result 
of over-speculation; see Bubbles, South Sea, Law's. 
Through French war : government issued 5,000,000?. 

exchequer bills 1703 

Through Irish rebellion, &c. (3 per cents, at 44I) . 1797 
Through bubble companies, 770 banks stopped " 

winter, 1825-6 

Through railway mania Oct. 1S47 

Through American failures . . . Nov. 1857 
Through fear of European war . . . April, 1859 
Through over-speculation in limited liability com- 
panies May, 1866 

Through Franco-Prussian war . . to July, 1870 
Through Russian attack on Afghans at Penjdeh 
(temporary) . ... . . . 9 April, 1S85 

War panics at Paris and London . 3-4 Feb. 1887 

See London, 24 Nov. 1890. 

PANNONIA, part of Illyria, now Hungary, 
"Was finally subdued by Tiberius, a.d. 7-9. 

PANOPTICON of So -Ence and Art, in 

Leicester- square, erected in 1852-3 lor a chartered 



company, by Mr. T. II. Lewis, the architect; was. 
opened in 1854 for lectures, musical performances, 
&c. It had a very large electrical machine, battery,, 
&c. The speculation did not succeed; the building 
was sold in 1857, and in March, 1858, was opened for 
concerts and horsemanship, and called the Alhambra 
(which see). 

Jeremy Behtham's book "Panopticon, or the Inspection 
House," an establishment in which persons may be 
kex>t under inspection, published 1791 ; see Milbarik. 

PANOEAMAS, invented by Robert Barker, 
are bird's eye views painted round the wall of a 
circular building. In 1788 he exhibited at Edin- 
burgh a view of that city, the first picture of the 
kind. He then commenced similar exhibitions in 
London in 1789, having adopted the name " Pano- 
rama," and was ultimately enabled to build com- 
modious premises in Leicester-square for that 
purpose. Panoramas were exhibited on the conti- 
nent by himself and his associate, liobt. Fulton. 
M. Thuyer, having bought the invention from 
Fulton, exhibited panoramas in Paris about 1796. 
See Colosseum. (Barker died in April, 1806.) J. P. 
Loutherbourg, a painter, termed the panoramist,. 
invented the "Eidophusikon," natural phenomena, 
represented by moving pictures, exhibited at Lisle- 
street, Leicester-square, 3 April, 1781. "This was. 
certainly not a panorama." P/r. Rimbault. 

PANOEMUS, see Palermo. 

PANTAGEAPH (from the Greek panta, all 
things, and graphein, to write, and incorrectly 
termed Pentagraph), an instrument for copying,, 
reducing, or enlarging plans, &c, invented by 
Christopher Scheiner, about 1603 ; improved by pro- 
fessor Wallace, and called " Eidograph," about 1821. 

PANTALEON, a musical instrument (a drum 
with tuned strings), invented by Pantaleon Heben- 
streit, about 1735. 

PANTECHNICON, a range of buildings, Mot- 
combe-strcet, Knightsbridge, London, W., erected 
by Seth Smith, as a receptacle for paintings, 
jewellery, furniture, carriages, &c., 1830; was 
destroyed by fire 13 — 14 Feb. 1874, when much 
property was lost : re-built, 1874. 

PANTHAYS, Mahometans in the Chinese 
province, Yunan, became independent under a 
sultan, during the Tae-ping revolt, 1851-64. After 
its suppression, the Panthays, after a severe 
struggle, were also subdued. Their capital, Talifoo, 
was captured, and its inhabitants cruelly massacred 
in Feb. 1873. r ^ ne Panthays sent an embassy to* 
England in 1872, without effect. Sultan Suleiman 
committed suicide. 

PANTHEISM, the formula of which is 
"everything is God, and God is one," was espe- 
cially taught by Xenophanes, who died 500 B.C. 
The doctrine is attributed to Spinoza, Kant, Fichtc, 
and other modern philosophers. Amalric of Chartres, 
censured for holding the doctrine, recanted 13th 
century. He is said to have asserted that " all is- 
God, and God is all." 

PANTHEON, at Pome, a circular temple 
built by Agrippa, the son-in-law of Augustus, 
27 B.C. " It had niches in the wall, where the image 
or representation of a particular god was set up; the 
gates brass, the beams covered with gilt brass, and 
the roof covered with silver. Pope Boniface III. 
dedicated it to the Virgin Mary and all the saints, 
by the name of S. Maria della Rotunda, or "ad 
Martyres," a.d. 608.* — The Pantheon in London 

>: Victor Emmanuel, first king of united Italy was 
buried here, 17 Jan. 1878. 



PANTOGEN. 



"17 



PAPIEE MACHE. 



tvas erected by subscription, and opened 27 Jan. 

1772; formed into an opera house ; burned down 

14 Jan. 1792 ; rebuilt for masquerades in 1795 ; 

opened as theatre, 1812; made a bazaar in 1834. 

The bazaar was closed in 1867, and the premises 

taken by Gilbey and Co., wine merchants, who lent 

the south part for a temporary church. 

Pantheon, Paris, a magnificent building founded by 
Louis XV. in pursuance of a vow, dedicated to Ste. 
Genevieve; built by Soufflot, 1757-90; named Pan- 
theon, and decreed tu be a mausoleum for eminent 
men, 1791 ; made a church, 1806 ; named Ste. Gene- 
vieve, 1821 ; re-named Pantheon, 1S31 ; again a church, 
Nov. 1852; again secularised, 27 May, 1S85 ; received 
the remains of Victor Hugo, 1 June, 1885. 

PANTOGEN, see Atomic Theory. 

PANTOMIMES were representations by ges- 
tures and attitudes among the Greeks, and were 
introduced 011 the Roman stage by Pylades and 
JJathyllus, 22 B.C. Comic masques were introduced 
here from Italy about 1700. The first regular 
English pantomime is said to have been "Harle- 
quin executed," produced by John Rich at the Lin- 
«oln's-inn -fields theatre, 26 Dec. 1 717. Joseph 
Grimaldi (1779- 1837) was a most eminent clow 11. 

"PAPAL AGGRESSION." In a consistory 
holden in Rome, 30 Sept. 1850, the pope (Pius IX.) 
named fourteen new cardinals, of whom four only 
were Italians. Among them was Dr. Nicholas Wise- 
man, vicar-apostolic of the London district, who 
was at the same time nominated lord archbishop of 
"Westminster. 
Dr. Ullathorne enthroned as Roman Catholic bishop 

of Birmingham in St. Chad's cathedral 27 Oct. 1850 
A pastoral letter from Dr. Wiseman read in all the 
Roman catholic chapels of his see (all England 
parcelled out into Romish dioceses) . . 27 Oct. ,, 
The answer of the bishop of London (Dr. Blomfield) 
to a memorial from the protestant clergy of West- 
minster, against a Romish hierarchy in this 
country, was followed by the "Durham" letter 
from lord John Russell, then chief minister of the 
crown, to the bishop of Durham, in which he 
severely censured, not only the papal aggression, 
hut also the proceedings of the tractarian clergy 
of the Church of England ... 4 Nov. ,, 
Immediately from every quarter of England ad- 
dresses poured in to her majesty the queen, calling 
upon her and the government to resist the usurpa- 
tion ; 6700 addresses, it is said, had been voted 
from nearly as many influential meetings up to 

31 Dec. ,, 
Dr. Eriggs, created Roman catholic bishop of Bever- 
ley, was enthroned in St. George's chapel at York, 

13 Feb. 1851 
Dr. Browne, created bishop of Clifton, and Dr. 
Burgess, bishop of Shrewsbury : both consecrated 
in St. George's cathedral, Southwark 27 July, ., 
The Ecclesiastical Titles act, 14 <fc 15 Viet. c. Co, 
prohibited the constitution of bishops of pre- 
tended provinces under a penalty of 100?. Aug. ., 
Tt was not acted upon, and was repealed 24 July, 1871 

PAPAL INFALLIBILITY. This dogma, 

maintained by one party iu the Roman church,- 
tolerated by another, and utterly rejected by a 
third, was adopted and promulgated at the general 
council at homo 18 July, 1870, a great many bishops 
having withdrawn. The dogma was inculcated by 
the i'alse decretals of Isidore and others, but not 
adopted by the council of Trent ; seo Councils XXI. 
Professor Dollinger, the historian, was excommuni- 
cated at Munich for rejecting this dogma, iS April, 
1S71 : ha was made a D.U.L. at Oxford about 
16 June following; see Old Catholic*. The doc- 
trine was strenuously attacked by Mr. W. E. 1 ilad- 
etone, in his pamphlet, "The Vatican Decrees," 
2\ T ov. 1874. 

PAPAL STATES, see Some, and Fopes. 



PAPER, see Papyrus. Paper was probably 
made in Egypt, and centuries before the Christ i:iii 
era. It was made of cotton about 600 a. d. ; and or 
rags about 1300.* "White coarse paper was made 
by sir John Speilman, a German, at Dartford, in 
England, 33 Eliz. 1580; and here paper mills 
were ereeied. Stoic. Paper for writing and print- 
ing manufactured in England, and an act passed 
to encourage it, 2 Will. III. 1690 ; betore this 
time we paid for these articles to France and 
Holland 100,000/. annually. The French refugees 
taught our people ; we had made course brown 
paper almost exclusively, until they came among 
us; wc made white paper first in 1690. Anderson. 
Paper-making by a machine was suggested by 
Louis Robert, who sold his model to Didot, the 
great printer, who brought it to England, and, con- 
jointly with Fourdrinier, perfected the machinery. 
The latter obtained a patent for paper-making ma- 
chinery in 1801 ; and for manufacturing paper of 
an indefinite length in 1807. The machinery was 
improved by Bryan Donkin. A sheet of paper, 
13,800 feet long, and 4 feet wide, was made at 
Whitehall-mills, Derbyshire, in 1830; and one 
21,000 feet long, and 6 feet 3 inches wide, was 
made at Colyton in Devon in i860. Esparto, a 
Spanish grass, first imported in 1857, nas been 
largely employed in the paper manufacture s-inec 
1864. In 1866 wood was largely manufactured into 
paper at Philadelphia; and at the Paris exhibition, 
1867, fine specimens cf wood-paper were shown ; see 
Parchment (note). The paper duty, imposed in 
169A (producing, latterly, about 1,460,000/. annu- 
ally), after having been the subject of agitation for 
several years, was repealed in'1861. Hop-stalks 
said to be used for paper-making in France, 1873. 
Paper-mills in Great Britain, 1877, about 385 (England. 

300 ; Scotland, 65 ; Ireland, 20) ; annual produce about 

360,000 tons ; value, 16,090,000/. Great increase since 

that time. 
Paper-exhibition at Berlin, Aug. 1878 : contained not 

only great varieties of paper, but a paper house, tables, 

chairs, carpets, barrels, boats, &c. 
Paper pianoforte exhibited, soft tone, July, 1885. 
Bottles largely made of paper in America, 1887. 

PAPER-HANGINGS, &c. Stamped paper 
for this purpose was first made in Spam and Hol- 
land about 1555. Made of velvet and floss, for 
hanging apartments, about 1620. The manufacture 
of this kind of paper rapidly improved in this 
country during the present century. — Paper 
Bricks have been made in America ; and paper 
tubing for water and gas, made by M. Jaloureau of 
Paris, was shown in i860. 

PAPER-MONEY, see .Banana Greenbacks. 

PAPIER MACHE. This manufacture (of 
paper-pulp combined with gum and sometimes with 
china clay) has existed for above a century. Martin, 
a German snuff-box maker, is said to have learnt 
the art from one Eefevre about 1740. In 1745 it 
was taken up by Baskerville, the printer at Bir- 
mingham, and soon spread over that district. 
Papier mache is now largely employed in orna- 
menting the interior of buildings, &e. A large 

* Mr. Joseph Hunter (in the Archceologia, xxxvii.) 
states that the earliest paper which ue had seen was a 
MS. account-book, dated 130-', probably of Bordeaux 
manufacture. He gives engravings of manufacturers' 
marks, French and English, the dales of which range 
from 1330 to 1431. He also gives an extract from a work 
by Bartholus, a writer of the middle of the 14th century, 
in which mention is made of a paper manufactory in the 
Marches of Ancona At the end of \\ ynkin de Wbrde's 
edition of Bartholomaus De Propri tatibns Rernnt, 
1494, its thin paper, made by John Tate in England, is 
commended. 



PAPIN'S DIGESTEE. 



718 



PABDONS. 



dome at Brussels ordered to be made of it, Dec. 
1881. 

PAPIN'S DIGESTEE (see Steam), invented 
about 1 68 1. Denis Papin, a French philosopher, 
assisted Boyle in his experiments about 1678. 

PAPISTS, see Roman Catholics. 

PAPUA, see New Guinea. 

PAPYEUS, the reed from which was made 
the paper of Egypt and India, used for writings 
until the discovery of parchment, about 190 B.C. 
The earliest known specimens of papyri were found 
in the monuments attributed to the third dynasty, 
3966 B.C. Many papyri were discovered at Hercu- 
laneuni in 1754 ; and many were collected by the 
French in Egypt, 1798. A manuscript of the 
Antiquities of Josephus on papyrus, among the 
treasures seized by Bonaparte in Italy, and sent to 
the National Library at Paris, was restored in 181 5. 
Fae-similes of the largest known papyrus, found in 1855, 

behind Modinet Habu on the Nile, and now in the 

British Museum, were published with translations by 

the trustees in 1876. 

" PAEABLE, see Fable. 

PAEACHUTE, see Balloons, 1785, 1802, 1837, 
1874, 1887. 

PAEACLETE (Greek for comforter), a name 
given by Abelard to the convent which he founded 
in Champagne in 1122, of which Heloise became 
the first abbess. 

PAEADISE LOST, the great English epic 
by John Milton, appeared first in ten books in 1667; 
in twelve books in 1674. 

PAEADOX (Greek, para, beyond ; and doxa, 
opinion), something contrary to common opinion. 
Professor De Morgan's "Budget of Paradoxes" (of 
all kinds) was published in 1872. John Paget's 
" Paradoxes and Puzzles, Historical, Judicial, and 
Literary," published 1874. 

PABAFFIN (fromparum affinis, fromitshaving 
little affinity with anything), also called photogen, 
a solid substance, somewhat like spermaceti, pro- 
duced by distillation of coal, and first obtained by 
Reichenbach in 1830, and by Dr. Christison about 
the same time. It was procured from mineral oil by 
Mr. James Young about 1848 at Alfreton in Derby- 
shire. Soon after it was largely obtained from Bog- 
head coal. It is also obtained' from Irish peat. It 
makes excellent candles. Much litigation ensued 
through interference with Mr. Young's patent- 
right. 

PAEAGEAPH BIBLES, see under Bibles. 

PAEAGUAY, a republic in S. America, dis- 
covered by Juan Diaz de Solis in 1515, and by 
Sebastian Cabot in 1526; conquered by Alvarez 
Nunez in 1535, and civilized by the Jesuits, who 
in 1608 commenced their missions there and held 
it till their expulsion in 1768. Paraguay rose 
against the Spanish yoke in 1811. In 1814, Dr. 
Jose G. R. Francia was elected dictator ; he ruled 
vigorously but tyrannically ; he was succeeded on 
his death in 1840 by Vibal. From 1814 to 1844 the 
country was rigidly closed against foreigners. The 
president, C. A. Lopez, elected in 1844, was suc- 
ceeded by his son, Francis S. Lopez, Sept. 1862 
{see below). Paraguay was recognised as an inde- 
pendent state by the Argentine Confederation, 
14 July, 1852, and by Great Britain in 1853. 
Capital, Asuncion. Population in 1857, 1,337,439; 
in 1873, 221,079; in 1888 (estimated) 270,000. 
Hostilities between Paraguay and Brazil began when 

a Brazilian steamer was captured as an intruder 

on the Paraguay 11 Nov. 1864 



1865 



1871 
1874 



1877 



1890 



Brazil invaded in December 

Lopez invaded the territories of the Argentine re- 
public, which immediately made alliance with 
Brazil 14 April, 

The army of Lopez defeated .... Sept. 

The allies cax^tured Uruguyana and an army of Para- 
guayans .... . . 18 Sept. 

[For details of the war, see Brazil, 1865-9.] 

A provisional government installed ; Lopez totally 
defeated, proclaimed an outlaw . 17 Aug. 

Lopez killed near the Aquidaban . . 1 March, 

Peace signed with Brazil and the Argentine republic, 

20 June, 

President Salvador Jovellanos elected for three 
years 12 Dec. 

President Juan Bautista Gill . . 25 Nov. 

The president and his brother assassinated ; an- 
nounced April ; Higinio Uriarte, president 

12 April, 

President Candido Bareiro (for 4 years) . 25 Nov. 

President gen. B. Caballero . . .25 Nov. 

President gen. Escobar .... 25 Sept. 

President J. Gonzalez 1 Oct. 

Bevived prosperity of the country reported . Oct. 

Bevolutionary attempt by major Vera and others 
suppressed with bloodshed, reported . 24 Oct. 1891 

PAEALLEL MOTION, see Motion. 

PAEASOLS were used by the ancient Egyp- 
tians. A new form (said to have been devised by the 
duchess of Rutland) came into general use about 1820. 

PAEC AUX CEEFS, a deer-park at Ver- 
sailles, near Paris, made by Louis XII., and kept 
as such till 1694, when Louis XIV. took the land 
for building. The name was given to a house 
erected on it by madame Pompadour, popularly said 
to form a seraglio for Louis XV. in 1755. It was 
closed by madame Du Barry in 1771. 

PAECEL POST (advised by Rowland Hill in 
1842). Proposed in Parliament by Mr. H. Fawcett 
27 March ; act passed, 18 Aug. 1882 ; came into 
operation 1 Aug. 1883. Rates, from lib. 3d. to 
71b. is. 

Maximum weight raised to 11 lbs. from 1 May, 1886. 
Parcel Post extended to India, British Burmah, Aden, 

Gibraltar, and Egypt 1 July, 1885, and other countries 

since. 
Coldbath fields prison was converted into offices for the 

Parcel Post, 1887. 

PAECHMENT. Invented for writing books 
by Eumenes (some say by Attalus), of Pergamus, the 
founder of the celebrated library at Pergamus, 
formed on the model of the Alexandrian, about 
190 B.C. Parchment-books from this time became 
those most used, and the most valuable as well as- 
oldest in the world are written on the skins of 
goats. It should be mentioned that the Persians 
and others are said to have written all their records 
on skins long before Eumenes' time. 
Parchment paper (or vegetable parchment) was invented 
and patented in 1857, by Mr. W. E. Gaine, C.E., who 
discovered, that when paper is exposed to a mixture of 
two parts of concentrated sulphuric acid and one part 
of water for no longer time than is required to draw it 
through the fluid, it is immediately converted into a 
strong tough skin-like material. It must be instantly 
washed with water. -Its great strength points out 
many applications of this material, e.g., maps, schooL 
and account-books, and drawing-paper. In 1859 it ap- 
peared that a similar invention had been made in Paris 
by Figuier and Poumarede in 1846. 

PABDONS. General pardons were proclaimed 
at coronations : first by Edward III. in 1327. The 
king's power of pardoning is said to be derived a 
lege sues dignitatis ; and no other person has power 
to remit treason or felonies, stat. 27 Hen. VIII. 
1535. BlacJcstone. A pardon cannot follow an 
impeachment of the house of commons : stat. 
Will. III. 1700. 



PAEGA. 



719 



PAEIS. 



PAEGA, a city in European Turkey : retained 
its civic independence under the protection of 
Venice till 1797, when that state was conquered by 
the French. It resisted various attempts to cap- 
ture it ; and in 1806 was garrisoned by Russians. 
It was given up to the French in 1807; taken by 
the English, 22 March, 1814; surrendered to the 
Turks, 181 7 ; and abandoned by above 3000 of its in- 
habitants, who retired to the Ionian Isles, May,i8ic). 

PAEIAN MAEBLES, see Arunclclian 
Marbles. 

PAEIS (formerly Lutetia Parisiorum), the 
capital of France, situated on the river Seine, which 
cuts it into two unequal parts, the strongest being 
towards the north, and in which are three isles, 
la ville (the city), the lie St. Louis, and the tie 
Louviers. In the time of Julius Csesar, Lutetia 
comprised the city only. It was greatly improved 
by the emperor Julian, who made it his residence 
while he governed Gaul, 355 to 361. It became 
successively the capital of the kingdoms of Paris, 
Soissons, and Neustria, and eventually of all the 
kingdom. Many ecclesiastical councils were held 
at Paris, 360-1528. The representative of the house 
of Orleans is styled count of Paris. Population of 
Paris in 1856, 1,178,262; in 1872, estimated popula- 
tion, 1,851,792; in 1876, 1,988,806; in 1881, 
2,269,023; in 1891, 2,423,946; see France. 

Clovis makes Paris his residence . . about 508 

St. Denis founded 613 

Hotel Dieu hospital founded by bishop Landry 

about 656 
Paris ravaged by the Normans (or Danes), 845, 855, 

861 : suffered from famine .... 845-940 
Gallantly defended against the Danes by the count 

Eudes and the bishop Goslin 885 

University founded, about 1200 

Rebuilt 1231 

Church of Notre Dame built .... 1160-1270 

The parliament established 1302 

Suffers by the factions of the Armagnaes and Bur- 

gundians 1411-1418 

Taken by the English 1420 

Retaken by the French 1436 

Pont Notre Dame built 1499 

The Louvre commenced (see Louvre) . . . 1522 

Hotel de Ville founded 1533 

The Boulevards commenced 1536 

Fountain of the Innocents erected . . . . 1551 
The Tuileries begun (see Twileries) .... 1564 
Massacre of St. Bartholomew's . . 24 Aug. 1572 

The Pont Neuf begun 1578 

Vainly besieged by Henry IV 1589-90 

Entered by him March, 1594 

Hospital of Invalids 1595 

Place Roy ale begun 1604 

The Hotel-Dieu founded 1606 

Jardin des Plantes formed 1610 

The Luxembourg, by Mary de Medicis . . . 1615 

The Palais-Royal built 1629 

The Val-de-Grace 1645 

Conflicts of the Fronde 1648-53 

Royal palace at Versailles built ; the court removed ' 

there 1661-72 

The Academy of Sciences founded .... 1666 

The Observatory established 1667 

Champs Elysees planted 1670 

Arch of St. Denis erected 1672 

Palais d'Elysee Bourbon built 1718 

The Palace of the Deputies 1722 

The Military School 1751 

The Pantheon (which see) St. Genevieve, founded . 1764 
The French revolution breaks out ; the Bastile taken, 

14 July, 1789 

Pont de Louis XIV. finished 1790 

Cemetery of Pere la Chaise consecrated . . . 1804 
Pont des Invalides, &c, erected .... 1806 
Paris surrenders to the allies . . 30 March, 1814 

Paris lit with gas 18^ 

Revolution (see France) .... July, 1830 
Column of July founded .... 28 July, 1831 



Fortifications of Paris (for which 140,000,000 of 
francs were voted, 1833) commenced 15 Dec. 1840; 
completed March, 1846 

Revolution (see France) .... 22 Feb. 1848 

Paris much improved by Louis Napoleon (probable 
cost 12,800,000?.) 1853-62 

Industrial Exhibition opened by the emperor and 
empress, 15 May ; visited by queen Victoria and 
prince Albert (the first visit of an English sovereign 
to Paris since 1422), 24 Aug. ; exhibition closes, 

15 Nov. 1855 

Conference at Paris respecting the Danubian Prin- 
cipalities {which see) ; closes . . . Aug. 1858 

Bois de Boulogne opened as a garden of acclimatisa- 
tion . . 6 Oct. i860- 

Remains of Napoleon I. deposited in the Invalides, 

31 March, 1861 

A building was erected for a permanent industrial 
exhibition by a company .... Oct. 1862 

The scheme failed Feb. 1864- 

Boulevard-prince-Eugene opened by the emperor, 

7 Dec. 1863 

Decree for an international exhibition of the pro- 
ducts of agriculture, industry, and the fine arts, 
at Paris, in 1867 ; commissioners appointed, 

2T Feb. i86.f 

Cab strike, 4 days 1865. 

Fine arts exhibition opened . . . 1 May, 1866' 

The cathedral of Notre Dame and other buildings 
restored ,, 

International Exhibition on the Champ de Mars 
(with a new park, comprising more than 100 
acres) ; the oblong building designed by Leplay 
(enclosing 35 acres), 1245 feet wide, 1500 feet long, 
consisting of circles within circles ; the external 
corridor was a belt of iron, 85 feet high and 115 
feet wide ; opened by the emperor and empress, 

1 April, 

It was visited by the prince of Wales, the kings of 
Greece, Belgium, Prussia, and Sweden, the czar 
of Russia, the viceroy of Egypt, the sultan of 
Turkey, the emperor of Austria, and other inferior 
potentates May-Nov. 

Attempted assassination of the czar by Berezowski, 
a Pole 6 June, 

The czar and the king of Prussia entertained by 
M. Haussmann, prefect of Paris (cost 36,000?.), 

8 June, 

Departure of the czar, 11 June ; of the king of 
Prussia 14 June, 

Distribution of prizes to exhibitors by the emperor 
in the presence of the prince of Wales, the sultan, 
<fec. 1 July, 

Berezowski condemned to transportation for life, 

15 July, 

Visit of the emperor of Austria . 23 Oct. -2 Nov. 

Grand banquet to commissioners of international 
exhibition 26 Oct. ,,. 

Exhibition finally closed (instead of on 31 Oct.), 
Sunday, 3 Nov., gross receipts, 9,830,369 francs. 

Abbe Migne's great printing-office burnt, loss about 
360,000?- ...... 12 Feb. 

M. Haussmann, the prefect of the Seine, reported 
the budget of the city to exceed 9,200,000?. He 
resigned Jan. 1870- 

For the sieges and other recent events, see France 
and Franco-German War 1870-1 

Versailles becomes the seat of government, March, 1871 

Grand Opera-house burnt . . 28-29 Oct. 1S73. 

Great explosion with loss of life at Poirier's chemi- 
cal works, near Paris . . . . 19 Nov. 1S74 

Grand new opera-house ; decreed i860 ; designed 
by Gamier ; opened in state ... 5 Jan. 1S75 

Municipal officers visit Loudon, to inspect rail- 
ways, &c 30 April, 1877 

New Hotel Dieu finished .... Aug. ,, 

International Exhibition : site, two unequal 
parts divided by the Seine. The main building in 
the Champ de Mars covers 263,593 square yards : 
(765 by 360 yards;) the Trocadero (which sec) 
palace is a stone structure, with a rotunda sup- 
ported by columns, crowned by a dome, Banked 
by two lofty towers, the exterior gallery orna- 
mented with statues. 

The exhibition was opened by the president, mar- 
shal MacMahon (" in the name of the republic") 
in presence of the prince of Wales, the due 
d'Aosta, and other distinguished persons, 1 May, 187S 



PARIS. 



720 



PARKS. 



2",955 persons visited exhibition (a fete day) 

IS Aug. 1878 
tGrand distribution of medals by marshal Mac- 
Mahon, with speech . . . .21 Oct. ,, 

Closed Sunday 10 Nov. „ 

Total admissions, 16,032,725 ; daily average, 82,000 ; 

gross receipts, 12,653,746 francs. 
International exhibition of applied science opened, 

24 July, 1879 
The senate and assembly meet again at Paris, 27 Nov. . , 
Electrical exhibition and congress (see under Elic- 

iricity) Aug.-Oct. 1881 

Statue of Alexandre Dumas, sen. by G. Dore ^un- 
covered 4 Nov. 1883 

International exhibition of manufactures and pro- 
cesses 23 July— 23 Nov. 1885 

■Grand funeral of Victor Hugo . . 1 June, ., 
International Workmen's Exhibition and Congress 

opened 2 June, 1886 

Opera Comique destroyed by fire ; panic ; about 131 
lives lost 25-26 May ; M. Carvalho, the director, 
sentenced to three months' imprisonment and a 
fine of above 2,oooZ. ; and the fireman Andre to 
one month's imprisonment . . 15 Dec. 1S87 
Death of Mad. Boucicault, a great benefactress of 

the city, see Bon Marehe .... Dec. ,, 
Strike of navvies, about 22 July . ends 16 Aug. 1888 
Socialistic strikes of waiters and hairdressers Aug. „ 
Universal Exhibition of Arts, Manufactures, &o. 
(proposed in 1884), opened by president Carnot 
(about 209,000 persons admitted), 6 May ; 
officially closed, 6 Nov. 1889. The greatest of 
all the exhibitions hitherto held. The buildings 
were of colossal proportions, and with the charm- 
in<* gardens, occupied nearly the whole of the 
Champs de Mars. The chief galleries were sur- 
mounted by domes with, a central one. Archi- 
tect, M. Dutert ; engineer, M. Contamin, decora- 
tions in excellent taste. The gigantic Eiffel Tower, 
985 feet high, was constructed chiefly of iron by 
M. Eiffel and a company, it is said after the 
design of a young engineer Nonguier. The build- 
ing was inaugurated by M. Tirard, the premier, 31 
March. The electric lighting by Messrs. Davey, 
Paxman and Co., the Societe Gramme of Paris, 

verv good l8S S 

A grand nocturnal fete arranged by M. Alphand, 

manager * June, „ 

'Total paying visitors about 22,277,000, 2,723,000 

gratuitous ; 402,065 admitted . . 13 Oct. ., 

Receipts, 41,000,000 francs (i8,oco,ooo francs from 
the state ; 7,000,000 francs from the city) ; ex- 
penses 41,000,000 francs; surplus, 4,000,000 francs 

14 Nov. ,, 
Among the distinguished visitors were the prince 
and princess of Wales (9-15 June), the shah of 
Persia, the king of Greece, the duke of Braganza 
(since king of Portugal), the dukes of Cambridge 
and Edinburgh, prince Ferdinand of Bulgaria, 
the two sons of the khedive, and Milan, ex-king 
of Servia. 
Awards of medals by international jurors ; to 

British exhibitors, 910, out of 1,017. 
The French honours granted to British subjects 
were distributed by M. Waddington, the French 
ambassador, at the Mansion-house, London 

25 Jan. 3890 
Many international congresses on social, moral, 
scientific, literary, and artistic subjects met at 
Paris during the exhibition. 

The new commercial exchange was opened by 
M. Tirard, the premier . . . 24 Sept. 1SS9 

Death of sir Richard Wallace, benefactor to Paris, 
son of the marquis of Hertford . . 20 July, 1890 

Baron Haussmann, who, supported by Napoleon III. 
and aided by M. Alphand, rebuilt Paris (1853, ct 
sect.), dies, 11 Jan. 1891. Death of M. Alphand 
' 7 Dec. 1891 

The telephone system between London and Paris 
inaugurated (see Telephone) . . 18 March, ,, 

IMPORTANT TREATIES OF PARIS. 

Between England, France, Spain, and Portugal ; 
cession of Canada to Great Britain by France, 
and Florida by Spain .... 10 Feb. 1763 

Between France and Sardinia; the latter ceding 
Savoy, &c 15 May, 1796 



Between France and Sweden, whereby Swedish 
Pomerania and the island of Rugen were given up 
to the Swedes, who agreed to adopt the French 
prohibitory system against Great Britain 6 Jan. 1810 

Capitulation of Paris : Napoleon renounces the 
sovereignty of France .... 11 April, 1814 

Convention of Paris, between France and the allied 
powers ; the boundaries of France to be the same 
as on the 1st of January, 1792 . . 23 April, „ 

Peace of Paris ratified by France and all the allies, 

14 May, ,, 

Convention of St. Cloud, between marshal Davoust, 
and Wellington, and Blucher, for the surrender of 

Paris 3 July, 1815 

[The allies entered it on the 6th.] 

Treaty of Paris, between Great Britain, Austria, 
Russia, and Prussia, styling Napoleon the prisoner 
of those powers, and confiding his safeguard to 
England 2 Aug. ,, 

Establishing the boundaries of France, and stipu- 
lating for the occupation of certain fortresses by 
foreign troops for three years . . 20 Nov. „ 

Treaty of Paris, confirming the treaties of Chaumont 
and Vienna, same day . . . .20 Nov. ,, 

Treaty of Paris, to fulfil the articles of the Congress 
of Vienna 10 June, 1817 

Treaty of Paris between Russia and Turkey, Eng- 
laud, France, and Sardinia (revised 13 March, 
1871 ; see Russia) .... 30 March, 1856 

Declaration of Paris, signed by European powers, 
not by United States, March, 1856 : 1. Privateer- 
ing abolished. 2. Neutral flags to exempt an 
enemy's goods from capture, except contraband 
of war. 3. Neutral goods under an enemy's flag- 
not to be seized. 4. Blockade to be binding must 
be effective. This declaration was censured in 
parliament in 1871. 

Treaty of Paris between England and Persia. 

4 March, 1857- 

Treaty of Paris between the European powers, 
Prussia, and Switzerland, respecting Neufchatel, 

26 May, „ 

Important commercial treaty between France and 
England 23 Jan. 1S60 

Convention between France and Italy for with- 
drawal of French troops from Rome . 15 Sept. 1864 

PARISHES. Their boundaries in England 
are said to have been fixed by Honorius, archbishop 
of Canterbury, 636, or by Alfred about 890. They 
were enlarged, and the number of parishes was 
consequently reduced in the 15th century, when 
there were 10,000. Parish registers were com- 
menced in 1538. Acts were passed in 1844 an( * 
1856 by which new parishes may be formed out of 
too extensive ones; acts amended in 1869. The 
appointment of parish constables was made un- 
necessary by an act passed Aug. 1872. See Regis- 
ters, and Benefices. 

PARISIENNE, LA, popular song byCasimir 
Delavigne, celebrating the defeat of the troops rt 
Charles X. by the Parisians, 1 Aug. 1830; the 
music (an old air) was arranged by Auber. 

PARKES MUSEUM, see Sanitation. 

PARKESINE. A new substance, composed 
of gun-cotton, obtained from various vegetable 
bodies, and oil. It can be. formed with the pro- 
perties of ivory, tortoiseshell, wood, india-rubber, 
gutta-percha, &c. It is the invention of Mr. Alex- 
ander Parlces, of Birmingham, and was shown by 
him at the Exhibition in 1862. In Dec. 1865, at 
the Society of Arts, parkesine was proved to be an 
excellent electric insulator, and therefore likely to 
be suitable for telegraphic purposes. 

PARK LANE MURDER, sec Trials, 1872. 

PARKS. The Romans attached parks to their 
villas. Kulvius Lupinus, Pompey, and Hortcnsius, 
among others, had large parks. In England, the 
first great park of which particular mention is made 
was that of Woodstock, formed by Henry I., 1125. 



PAEK'S TEAVELS. 



721 



PAELIAMENT. 



Queen Caroline, consort of George II., inquired, it 
is said, of the first Mr. Pitt (afterwards earl of 
Chatham), how much it would cost to shut up the 
parks as private grounds. He replied, "Three 
crowns, your majesty." The design was never 
afterwards entertained. See Mnsbury, Southwark, 
Green, Hyde, James's, St., Regent's, Victoria, 
Alexandra, Battersea, West Sam, and People's 
Parks, Clissold, Waterlow, and Yellowstone Park, 
U.S., and London Parks Act. 

The Parks Preservation Society, established by Mr. 
F. G. Heath and others 1871 

The Parks' Regulation act, passed . 27 June, 1872 

By new regulations, Hyde, Battersea, Regent's, and 
Victoria parks are the only metropolitan parks in 
which public addresses may be given, under 
certain restrictions Oct. ,, 

These regulations (much objected to ; broken, and 
offenders fined) were modified by the home secre- 
tary Feb. 1873 

Acts for the establishment of public parks in Eng- 
land and Ireland were passed, 12 July, 1869; for 
Scotland 18 March, 1878 

Parks railway bill (Hyde Park, &c.) rejected by 
commons committee . . . .20 May, 1884 

By the London Parks and Works Act, the charge 
of Battersea park, Bethnal Green museum and 
garden, Chelsea embankment and Victoria park 
were transferred to the Metropolitan Board of 
Works 1887 

Clissold park, Stoke Newington, purchased for the 
public (price 96,045?.), 10 Jan. 1889. 

PAEK'S TEAVELS. Mungo Park set sail 
on his first voyage to Africa, under the patronage of 
the African society, to trace the source of the river 
Niger, 22 May, 1795 ; and returned 22 Dec. 1797, 
after having fruitlessly encountered great danger. 
He again sailed from Portsmouth on his second 
voyage, 30 Jan. 1805, appointed to a new expedition 
by government. It is stated that his party fired 
■011 tlie natives when resisted, and that he was killed 
at Broussa on the Niger, Nov. 1805. His "Travels 
in Africa" were published in 1799. 

PAELIAMENT (from the French parlement, 
discourse) derives its origin from the Saxon general 
assemblies, called Wittenagemot. The name was 
applied to the assemblies of the state under Louis VII. 
of France, about the middle of the 12th century, 
but it is said not to have appeared in our law till its 
mention in the statute of Westminster I., 3 Edw. I., 
1272 : and yet Coke declared in his Institutes, and 
6poke to the same effect, when speaker (1592), that 
tliis name was used even in the time of Edward the 
Confessor, 1041. The first clear account we have of 
the representatives of the people forming a house of 
commons, was in the 43rd Hen. III. 1258, when it 
was settled by the statutes of Oxford, that twelve 
persons should be chosen to represent the commons 
in the three parliaments, which, by the sixth statute, 
were to be held yearly. Burton's Annals. The 
general representation by knights, citizens, and 
burgesses, took place 49 Hen. III. 1265. Dug dale' s 
Summons to Parliament, edit. 1685 ; see Commons 
and Lords. The power and jurisdiction of parlia- 
ment are so transcendent and absolute, that it can- 
not be confined, either for causes or persons, within 
any bounds. It hath sovereign and uucontrollable 
authority in making and repealing laws. It can 
regulate or new-model the succession to the crown 
(as was done in the reigns of Henry VIII. and 
William III.). It can alter and establish the re- 
ligion of the country, as was done in the reigns of 
Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth. 
Sir Edward Coke* The ninth edition of May's 

* When the royal assent is given to a public bill, the 
clerk says " Le roi [or la rcine] le veut." If the bill be 



j' Practical Treatise on Parliament " was published 
in 1883 ; see Triennial and Septennial. Return of 
the names of members of parliament from the 
earliest period to the present time, ordered by the 
house of commons, 4 May, 1876, and 9 March, 1877. 
Part I. (12 13-1702), published 1879. See Reform 
and Local Parliaments. 

First summons of barons by writ directed to the 
bishop of Salisbury, by John .... 1205 

Parliament of Merton 1236 

An assembly (the mod parliament) . 11 June, 1258 

Simon de Montford, earl of Leicester, summons a 

parliament, including knights of the shire . . 1264 
First assembly of the commons as a confirmed repre- 
sentation. Dugdale 20 Jan. 1265 

First regular parliament (according to many his- 
torians), 22 Edw. 1 1294 

First a deliberative assembly ; it becomes a legisla- 
tive power, whose assent is essential to constitute 

a law 130S 

The commons elect their first speaker, Peter De la 

Mare 1377 

Parliament of only one day (Richard II. deposed) 

29 Sept. 1399 
" Parliamentum Indoctum" at Coventry (lawyers ex- 
cluded) 6 Oct. 1404 

Members obliged to reside at the places they repre- 
sented 1413 

Forty-shilling freeholders only to elect knights . . 1430 
" Parliamentum diabolicum" at Coventry : attainted 

the Yorkists 1459 

Journals of the lords commenced . . . . 1509 
Acts of Parliament printed in 1501, and consecutively 

from ,, 

Members protected from arrest (see Ferrars) . . 1542 
Journals of the commons begun .... 1547 
Francis Russell, son of the earl of Bedford, was the 
first peer's eldest son who sat in the house of 

commons 1549 

The Addled Parliament; remonstrated with James I. 
respecting benevolences ; dissolved by him in auger 

5 April, 1614 
The parliament in which were first formed the Court 
and Country parties, 1614, disputes with James I. 

June, 1620 
Charles I. dissolves parliament, which does not meet 

for eleven years 1629 

The Long Parliament (which voted the house of lords 

as useless) first assembled ... 3 Nov. 1640 
The bishops excluded from voting on temporal mat- 
ters ,, 

The Rump Parliament ; it voted the trial of Charles I. 

Jan. 1649 
House of peers abolished .... 6 Feb. ,, 
A peer sat as a member of the commons . . . „ 
Cromwell roughly dissolves the Long Parliament 

20 April, 1653 
A convention parliament (see Co nveniion) . . . 1660 
Roman catholics excluded from parliament . . 1678 
The commons committed a secretary of state to the 

Tower Nov. „ 

The speaker of the commons refused by the king . 1679 
A convention parliament (see Convention) . . 1688 
James II. convenes the Irish parliament at Dublin, 

which attaints 3000 protestauts . . . . 16S9 
Act for triennial parliament (see Triennial) . . 1694 
First parliament of Great Britain met . ' 23 Oct. 1707 
Members of the house of commons accepting any 
office of profit ordered to be re-elected by statute 

6 Anne, cap. 7 „ 

The Triennial act repealed, and Septennial act voted 

(see Septennial Parliament) . . . 7 May, 1716 
The journals ordered to be printed .... 1752 
Privilege as to freedom from arrest of the servants 

of members relinquished by the commons . . 1770 
The lord mayor of London (Oliver) and alderman 
Crosby committed to the Tower by the commons 
in Wilkes's affair 1771 

a private bill, he says " Soit fait comme il eat desiri." If 
the bill have subsidies for its object, he says, Le roi [or 
la reine] remercie scs loyaux sujets, accepte leur bin&volt nee, 
et aussi le veut. " If the king do not think proper to assent 
to the bill, the clerk says, " Le roi [or la rcinc] s'avisera," 
which is a mild way of giving a refusal. It is singular 
that the French language should still be used. 

3 A 



PAKLIAMENT. 



722 



PAELIAMENT. 



Reporting the debates permitted (see under Report- 
ing) about 1771 

Assembly of the first parliament of the United King- 
dom of Great Britain and Ireland . 2 Feb. 1S01 
Clergymen prohibited from becoming M.P.s . . ,, 
Sir F. Burdett committed to the Tower . 6 April, 1810 
Murder of Spencer Perceval, by Bellingham, at the 

house of commons .... 11 May, 1S12 
Return for Clare county, Ireland, of Mr. O'Connell, 
the first Roman catholic commoner elected since 

the Revolution 5 July, 1S28 

The duke of Norfolk took his seat in the lords, the 
first Roman catholic peer under the Relief bill (see 
Roman Catholics) .... 28 April, 1829 
The Reformed Parliament meet . . 7 Aug. 1832 
Joseph Pease, the first Quaker admitted M.P. on his 

affirmation . . . . - . . 15 Feb. 1833 
Houses of Parliament destroyed by fire . 16 Oct. 1834 
New houses of parliament commenced * . . . 1840 
The members of the commons' and lords' houses re- 
linquish the privilege of franking letters (see 

Franking) - . 10 Jan. „ 

Committal of Smith O'Brien by the commons for 

contempt (see Ireland) ... 30 April, 1846 
The peers took possession of their house, that por- 
tion of the palace being ready . . 15 April, 1847 
Reporters excluded by motion of John O'Connell for 

two hours 18 May, 1849 

The commons assemble in their new house 4 Nov. 1852 
The chairman of committees of the whole house ap- 
pointed to act as a deputy-speaker of the house of 

commons Aug. 1853 

The two houses began to communicate by letter . 1855 
Baron L. Rothschild, the first Jew admitted 26 July, 1858 
Court of referees to examine private bills established 1865 
Henry Fawcett (blind), elected M. P. . July, ,, 

The parliamentary oaths modified and made uniform 

30 April, 1866 
Arthur M. Kavanagh (without arms and legs), elected 

Nov. „ 
Her Majesty authorised to proclaim prorogation of 
parliament during the recess, by act passed 

12 Aug. 1867 
New Reform bill received royal assent . 15 Aug. „ 
Great dissatisfaction in the commons at the small- 
ness of their building ; a committee's report (pro- 
posing changes or a new house) printed . Oct. „ 
Changes in mode of dealing with private bills in 

court of referees March, 1868 

Vote by proxy in the house of lords abolished by 

standing order 31 March, „ 

Reform acts for Scotland and Ireland, and Parlia- 
mentary Boundaries act passed . . 13 July, ,, 
Parliamentary Elections act passed . 31 July, , 

Parliament dissolved n Nov. „ 

New parliament met .... 10 Dec. ,, 
Reporters excluded from the commons during de- 
bates on the Contagious Diseases act, 

24 May and 20 July, 1S70 
The commons sat from 2 p.m. 15 July, to 5.30 a.m., 

16 July, „ 
Meeting of parliament, in six days after proclama- 
tion, legalised by act passed ... 9 Aug. „ 
Death of the earl of Onslow, father of the house of 

lords, aged 93 24 Oct. „ 

Mr. Fawcett alone in the lobby (350-1, on grant of 
30,000!. to princess Louise on her marriage), 

16 Feb. 1871 
Bankrupt peers disqualified from sitting or voting 

in parliament by act passed . . 13 July, ,, 
Mr. Bonham Carter succeeds Mr. J. C. Dodson as 
deputy speaker and chairman of committees, 

8 April, 1872 

* Termed the " Palace of Westminster." The first con- 
tract for the embankment of the river was taken in 1837, 
by Messrs. Lee ; this embankment, faced with granite, is 
886 feet in length, and projected into the river in a line 
with the inner side of the third pier of old Westminster- 
bridge. Sir Charles Barry (born 1795, died 1S60) was the 
architect of the sumptuous pile of buildings raised since 
1840. The whole stands on a bed of concrete twelve feet 
thick ; to the east it has a front of about 1000 feet, and 
covers an area of nine statute acres. It contains 1100 
apartments, 100 staircases, and two miles of passages or 
corridors. The great Victoria tower at the south-west 
extremity is 346 feet in height, and towers of less magni- 
tude crown other portions of the building. 



Mr. Biggar and others caused reporters and others 
to be excluded from the debates in the commons-; 
much discussion ensued ; Mr. Disraeli's resolu- 
tion that strangers are not to withdraw without 
a vote of the house or order of the speaker, 
unanimously adopted ... 31 May, 1872: 

Only 89,938!. paid to members (commons) for sala- 
ries and pensions, civil, naval, and military July, ,, 

The ballot act passed .... 18 July „ 

Mr. Plimsoll, greatly excited, makes unparliamen- 
tary charges at the proposed withdrawal of the 
Merchant Shipping Bill, 22 July ; apologises ; 
motion for reprimand withdrawn . 29 July, 1875 

The commons through Irish members (principally 
Messrs. Parnell, Biggar, O'Donnell, Power, Gray, 
Kirk, and Nolan) sat from 3.45 p.m. 2 July, to 
7.15 a.m. 3 July; from about 4 p.m. 31 July, to 
6.10 p.m 1 Aug. 1877 

Temporary resolution to check obstructiveness (by 
abuse of the power of moving the adjournment of 
the house) passed (282-32) . . 27 July, ,, 

Major O'Gorman, M.P. for Waterford, "named" by 
the speaker for refusing to submit to his authority, 
6 Aug. ; apologises .... 7 Aug. 137& 

Much obstruction by home-rule party, June, July ; 
Mr. Parnell's virtual vote of censure of the 
speaker (for directing notes to be taken, &c.) lost 
(29-421) 11, 12 July, 1875 

Breach of privilege ; Mr. C. E. Grissell having stated 
that he could influence the committee on the 
" Tower high level bridge," is examined by a 
committee ; he and Mr. John Sandilands Ward 
convicted, 16 July ; Mr. Grissell went abroad ; 
order for his apprehension issued ; Mr. Ward ap- 
peared before the house ; taken into custody, 23 
July ; released, 30 July ; Mr. Grissell surrenders ; 
sent to Newgate, 14 Aug. ; released . 15 Aug. ,, 

Motion for quinquennial parliaments negatived, 
(110-160) 24 Feb. 1880 

Sir Stafford Northcote's resolutions against obstruc- 
tion, 26 Feb. ; adopted in the standing orders 
(160-20) 28 Feb. ,, 

Mr. Grissell arrested, and committed to Newgate, 
2, 3 March ; discharged . . .24 March, , r 

Mr. Charles Bradlaugh, M.P. for Northampton (not 
believing in God) objects to take oath of alle- 
giance ; his affirmation refused, 3 May ; his offer 
to take oath not permitted . . . 21 May, ,, 

A committee appointed ; recommends that he be 
allowed to affirm, 16 June ; much discussion en- 
sues ; resolution of Mr. Labouchere, M.P. for 
Northampton, that Mr. Bradlaugh be permitted 
to affirm, negatived (275-230) . . 22 June, •„. 

Mr. Bradlaugh's claim to take the oath, or affirm, 
denied by the house ; he refuses to withdraw, and 
is taken into custody, and imprisoned in the clock 
tower (vote 326-38), 23 June ; released by vote, 

24 June, „ 

Resolution moved by Mr. Gladstone that affirma- 
tion be accepted instead of an oath in certain 
eases ; opposed by sir Stafford Northcote as re- 
scinding vote of 22 June ; resolution accepted 
(303-249) 1, 2 July ; Mr. Bradlaugh affirms, is ad- 
mitted, and votes 2 July, „ 

See Trials, 1S81. 

The commons sat continuously 21 hours (devoted 
to Irish affairs) 26, 27 Aug. ,, 

Debate on Irish amendments to the address : 

Mr. Parnell's lost (57-435) • • 6-14 Jan. 1881 
Mr. Justin McCarthy's (37-201) . 17-19 Jan. ,, 
Mr. Dawson (36-274) . . . .20 Jan. ,, 
Mr. O'Kelly (34-178) .... 20 Jan. ,, 

House of Commons on Irish protection bill, sat 
from 4 p.m. 25 Jan. to 2 p.m. . . 26 Jan. „ 

Mr. Gladstone's motion for urgency carried (251- 
33) ...... ,, 

On first reading of Mr. Forster's coercion bill ; de- 
bate summarily closed by Mr. H. Brand, the 
speaker (termed coup d'etat) 4 p.m. 31 Jan. to 9.30 
p.m. : ' 2 Feb. „ 

Thirty-six Irish members, Mr. Parnell, Mr. Justin 
McCarthy, and others, suspended for the sitting 
for disorderly conduct ; Mr. Gladstone's resolu- 
tions ; speaker invested with all the powers of the 
house to regulate business when voted urgent by 
three-fourths of the members (at least 200) (234- 
15°) 3 Feb. „ 



PAELIAMENT. 



723 



PAELIAMENT. 



New stringent rules to be enforced when business is 

declared urgent by a minister of the crown ; laid 

on table by the speaker .... 9 Feb. 

Supplemental rules, 17 Feb. modified; acted on 

21 Feb. ; new rules announced 11, 12 March 

Mr. Gladstone's resolution for "urgency," with the 

supplies lost (212-296) . . . 14 March, 

Mr. Bradlaugh re-elected for Northampton, 9 April, 

His offer to take the oath opposed (208-175) ; he is 

forcibly removed, 26 April ; again ejected, 10 May, 

New parliamentary oaths bill discharged 5 July, 

Mr. Bradlaugh's attempt to enter the House of 

Commons, forcibly resisted by the police. Mr. 

Labouchere's motion to rescind the resolution of 

10 May, 18S1, negatived (191-7) . . 3 Aug. 

Differences between the houses on the land bill 

settled by mutual concessions . . 12-15 A-Ug. 

Mr. Bradlaugh not permitted to sit ; government 

motion negatived (2S6-228) . . .7 Feb. : 
New rules of procedure including the cloture (the 
power of closing a debate) and delegation of 
business, proposed by Mr. Gladstone . 13 Feb. 
Proposal for writ for Northampton negatived 
(307-18) ; Mr. Bradlaugh repeats oath and takes 
a seat ; withdraws when directed ; 21 Feb. ex- 
pelled (291-83) ; new writ to be issued . 22 Feb. 
Michael Davitt, convict, elected M.P. forco. Meatli 

22 Feb. 

Mr. Bradlaugh re-elected for Northampton 2 Mar. 

Resolution of 7 Feb. re-affirmed (286-228) . 6 Mar. 

Mr. Marriott's amendment on Mr. Gladstone's new 

rule negatived (31S-279) . . . 30-31 Mar. 

Discussion on the cloture deferred . . 1 May, 

Commons ; sat 2 p.m. -8 p.m. 30 hours, committee 

on prevention of crime bill; 25 Irish members 

suspended for wilful obstruction 30 June and 

1 July, 
Mr. O'Donnell suspended for 14 days (181-33) 3 ^ u h\ 
Difference between the two houses ; compromise 

(see Ireland) Aug. 

Mr. Bradlaugh publishes a determined manifesto, 

Times 23 Sept. 

Parliament meets 24 Oct. ; discussion on procedure 

resumed 25 Oct 

Mr. Gibbons' amendment (the cloture to be carried 
by two-thirds instead of bare majority) negatived 

322-238 1-2 Nov. 

The cloture adopted (304-260). . . 10-11 Nov. 
The new rules made standing orders 27 Nov.-i Dec. 
Affirmation bill introduced in the commons (184-53) 

19-20 Feb. 1 
Mi-. O'Kelly suspended for a week for giving Mr. 

Forster the lie 22 Feb. 

Grand committee's first meeting, Mr. Goschen 

chairman 9 April, 

Affirmation bill rejected by the commons (292-2S9) 

3-4 May, 

Mr. Bradlaugh not permitted to take the oath 4 May, 

His exclusion voted (232-65) . . .9 July, 

Arrested by Mr. Gosset, the sergeant-at-arms, for 

attempting to enter the house, 3 Aug. ; brings an 

action against the sergeant, 7 Dec. ; verdict for 

defendant 9 Feb. 1 

Mr. Bradlaugh administers the oath to himself, sits, 

and votes ; excluded by vote (228-120)11 Feb. ; 

re-elected for Northampton (4,032-3664) 19 Feb. ; 

vote for his re-exclusion (226-173) • ■ 2I Feb. 

New Reform bill introduced by Mr. Gladstone 

2S Feb. 

Comraons : irregular debate on Egyptian policy ; 

supplies ; sat from 12. 20 p.m. '15 March, to 5.45 a.m. 

(Sunday) 16 March, 

Queen v. Bradlaugh for voting without taking the 

oath, Queen's Bench .... 13 June, 

Verdict for the crown .... 30 June, 

Conflict between the lords and commons, respecting 

the Franchise bill, (see Reform) . . . . 

Explosion (dynamite) on the stair above the crypt 

in the house of commons ; much damage done ; 

two police constables, Wm. Cole and Thos. 

Cox, and Mr. Green seriously hurt. [Cole 

picked up a blazing parcel, to carry it out ami 

saved the building; he and Cox commended by 

the queen, and rewarded for steady courage. Cole 

received the Albert medal, in Westminster Hall 



26 March.]* Westminster Hall much injured by 
another explosion a few minute.; past 2 p.m. 

24 Jan. 1883 

Mr. Bradlaugh's appeal disallowed by the lords 
justices 28 Jan. „ 

The new rules and the cloture first applied ; Mr. 
O'Brien expelled 24 Feb. ,, 

Mr. Bradlaugh not permitted to take the oath 
(263-219) 6 July, ., 

Retirement of Mr. Ralph A. Gosset ; knightedaft ;r 
a long service and ten years sergeant-of-arais 
(died 27 Nov.) 30 Sept. ; succeeded by H. D. 
Erskine ,, 

Parliament dissolved 18 Nov. ,, 

New parliament meets 12 Jan. ; opened by the 
queen 21 Jan. 1800 

Mr. Bradlaugh takes the oath, intervention stoppe I 
by the speaker 13 Jan. ,, 

Mr. Gladstone introduces his bill, "to make better 
provision for the future government of Ireland ; " 
the House crammed, occupied by members from 
6 a.m 8 April, ,, 

Sir T. Erskine May (author of the " Practice of 
Parliament," 1884, et scq.) assistant clerk to the 
commons 1856 ; clerk 1871 ; retires 15 April 
(created lord Farnborough 10 May ; died 17 May) ; 
succeeded by Reginald Palgrave . . 1 May, ,, 

Death of lord Redesdale, chairman of committees 
since 1851, 2 May ; succeeded by the duke of 
Buckingham (122 against 103 for lord Morley) 

10 May, ,, 

New parliament meets (see England) . 5 Aug. ,, 

Parliament prorogued . . . .25 Sept. ,, 

New procedure rules with increased application of 
the closure, &c, introduced 21 Feb. ; first and 
principal rule adopted (222-120) . 16 March, 1887 

House of commons sat above 21 hours 21-22 March, ,, 

The commons decide that an article in the Times of 
May 2 on Mr. Dillon is not a breach of privilege 
(Mr. Dillon rejects the offer of a public prosecu- 
tion) 4, 5 May ; Mr. Gladstone's motion for a 
committee rejected (317-233) . . 6, 7 May, ,, 

Much obstruction of the opposition to the 
Criminal Law (Amendment) Ireland Bill in the 
commons ; many amendments 28 March, ct se-y. ,, 

Mr. T. Healy suspended for 14 days . 29 July, . ,, 

Mr. C. Graham and Mr. E. Harrington suspended 
for speaking disrespectfully of the house of lords 

13 Sept. „ 

New rules of procedure introduced ; rule 1 (limiting 
the sittings of the commons on ordinary days 
from 3 p.m. to 1 a.m.) passed 24 Feb. ; rule 2 
(giving the power of closure to a majority in a 
house of 100), 3-8 (for repressing disorder and 
waste of time) passed 28 Feb. ; 9-12 passed 29 Feb. ; 
13 (reviving grand committees, &c.) 7 March, i833 

Mr. C. A. V. Conybeare, M.P., suspended for a 
month (or to the end of the session) for libelling 
the speaker in the Star newspaper . 21 July, ,, 

Illegal attempt by constable Jeremiah Sullivan to 
arrest Mr. Sheehy, M.P., in the precincts of the 
House ; committee to consider breach of privilege 
appointed 26 Nov. ; breach affinned, but no 
action 7 Dec. ,, 

Dr. Tanner suspended for insulting Mr. Balfour 

21 Dec. ,, 

The house of lords meets to pass the Appropriation 
Bill, n.20 p.m 22 Dec. ,, 

Parliament meets, 21 Feb. ; prorogued . 30 Aug. iSVg 
Parliament meets 11 Feb. 1890 



* The chief Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police, 
sir E. Y. W. Henderson, issued an order stating that the 
Prime Minister directed the payment of 50?., each to Cole 
and Cox from the Royal Bounty Fund, and further, that 
the Home Secretary has approved of the payment of 
120I. to Cole and 70L to Cox, while sir James Ingham 
granted them the sum of 30?., each from the Bow-street 
Howard Fund. Both were granted a pension of 7SI. per 
annum each, April, 1886. Cole and Cox were each pre- 
sented with a money testimonial from the members of 
both Houses (108?. 10s. each ; Cole received a gold watch 
and chain). They both left the hospital at the end of 
March, 1885. On 5 Oct. 1885, John Colebrook, Esq., 
retired surgeon of the Indian army, a member of the 
Royal Institution of Great Britain, presented to both 
men a copy of this book at the institution 

3 A 2 



PAKLIAMENT. 



724 



PAELIAMENT. 



Mr. Labouchere suspended from sitting for a week, 
for asserting his disbelief in lord Salisbury's 
denial of connection with a conspiracy for de- 
feating the ends of justice in relation to a recent 
trial 28 Feb. 1890 

A select committee on procedure in parliament 
nominated (Mr. Goschen (chairman), Mr. A. J. 
Balfour, Mr. J. Chamberlain, Mr. Gladstone, sir 
W. V. Harcourt, lord Hartington, and others), 
27 June ; first met, 30 June. Mr. Balfour's 
report not accepted ; some of the members 

retire 14 July, „ 

[The committee recommended various means 
for saving the time of parliament in passing bills 
from one session to another, and for shortening 
the sessions, &c] 

The commons sat from 3 p.m. to 7 a.m. (obstruction 
to Irish light railways bill) . . 14, 15 Aug. ,, 

The resolution against Mr. Bradlaugh, 22 June, 
1880, ordered to be expunged from the journals 
of the commons, 27 Jan. ; he died . 30 Jan. 1891 

Sir William Whiteway, premier of Newfoundland, 
with other delegates, appears at the bar of the 
house of lords ; he makes a statement in defence 
of the colony's claims .... 23 April, ,, 

Mr. Cunninghame Graham, M.P., expelled from 
Prance for seditious speeches . . 11 May, „ 

Capt. Edmund Hope Verney expelled from the 
house of commons, having been sentenced to a 
year's imprisonment for a misdemeanour on his 
own confession . ... 12 May, ,, 

Mr. Atkinson, M.P., suspended for disrespect to 
the speaker 27 July, ,, 

Parliament prorogued 5 Aug. „ 

Mr. Edward S. W. De Cobain, M.P. for Belfast ; 
fled from justice ; commanded to attend the 
house on 23 July, 1891 ; expelled . 26 Feb. 1892 

Mr. George W. Hastings, M.P. for E. Worcester- 
shire, sentenced to 5 years' penal servitude for 
fraud as a trustee (see Trials), 11 March; ex- 
pelled from the house . . .21 March, „ 

Mr. Fenwick's resolution for the payment of 
members of parliament rejected by the commons 
(227 — 162) : .... 25 March, ,, 

Mr. James F. Buckley, Mr. John W. Maclure, M.P., 
Mr. William B. Hawkins, anil Mr. John Conacher, 
directors of the Cambrian railway, were admon- 
ished by the speaker, by direction of the house 
of commons, for a breach of privilege in dismiss- 
ing Mr. John Hood, a statiomnaster, on account 
of his evidence given to the committee on the 
hours of railway servants . . . 7 April, ,, 

Mr. Cuninghame Graham suspended for a week 
for disorderly conduct .... 4 May, ,, 

Parliament dissolved, 28 June ; new parliament 
meets 4 Aug. ,, 

NUMBED, AND DURATION OF PARLIAMENTS, FROM 
27 EDW. I. 1299, TO 37 VICT. 1874. 

Edward 1 8 pari, in 8 yrs'. reign 

Edward II 15 ,, 20 ,, 

Edward III. . . . . 37 ,, 50 ,, 

Richard II 26 ,, 22 ,, 

Henry IV 10 ,, 14 ,, 

Henry V 11 ,, • 9 ,, 

Henry VI 22 ,, 39 ,, 

Edward IV. . . . . . 5 ,, 22 „ 

Richard III 1 „ 2 

Henry VII 



Day of Meeting.* When Dissolved 




* Corrected by the blue-book, 
land," printed 1879. 



Parliaments of Eng- 



Mary 


5 Oct, 


1553 


5 Dec. . 


1553 




2 April . 


1554 


5 M ay . 


1554 




12 Nov. . 


1554 


16 Jan. 


1555 




21 Oct, . 


1555 


9 Dec. . 


,, 




20 Jan. 


1558 


17 Nov. . 


1558 


Elizabeth . . 


23 Jan. 


1559 


8 May . 


1559 




11 Jan. 


1563 


2 Jan. 


1567 




2 April . 


1571 


29 May . 


1571 




8 May . 


1572 


19 April . 


1583 




23 Nov. . 


1584 


14 Sept. . 


1585 




29 Oct. . 


1586 


23 March . 


15S7 




12 Nov. . 


1588 


29 March . 


1589 




19 Feb. . 


1593 


10 April . 


1593 




24 Oct. . 


1597 


9 Feb. . 


1598 




27 Oct. . 


1 601 


19 Dec. . 


1601 


James I. . 


19 March. 


1604 


9 Feb. . 


1611 




5 April. . 


1614 


7 June . 


1614 




16; 23, 30 










Jan. 


1621 


8 Feb. . 


1622 




12 Feb. 


1624 


27 March . 


1625 


Charles I. 


17 May . 


1625 


12 Aug. . 


,, 




6 Feb. . 


1626 


15 June . 


1626 




17 March . 


1628 


10 March . 


1629 




13 April . 


1640 


5 May . 


1640 


Long Parliament 


3 Nov. 


,, 


20 April 


1653 


Commonwealth 


3 Sept. . 


1654 


22 Jan. 


1655 




17 Sept, . 


1656 


4 Feb. . 


1658 




27 Jan. 


1659 


22 April . 


1659 




7 May . 




16 March . 


1660 


Charles II. . . 


25 April . 


1660 


29 Dec. 


,, 


Pensionary Pari. 


8 May . 


1661 


24 Jan. 


1679 




6 March . 


1679 


12 July . 


,, 


Seven Proroga- 










tions. 


17 Oct. . 


1679 


18 Jan. . 


16S1 


James II. . 


21 March 


1681 


28 March . 


1681 


(Convention.) 


19 May 


i68 S 


2 July . 


1687 


William III. . 


22 Jan. 


1689 


6 Feb. . 


1690 




20 March 


1690 


11 Oct. . 


1695 




22 Nov. . 


1695 


7 July . 


1698 




24 Aug. 


1698 


19 Dec. 


1700 


Anne . 


6 Feb. 


1 701 


11 Nov. . 


1 701 




30 Dec. 


,, 


2 July . 


1702 




20 Aug. 


1702 


5 April . 


1 7°S 




25 Oct, 


i7°5 


11 April 


1708 




18 Nov. 


1708 


28 Sept. . 


1710 




25 Nov. 


1710 


8 Aug. . 


1713 


George I. . . 


11 Nov. 


I 7 I 3 


15 Jan. 


i7!5 




21 March 


1715 


10 March 


1722 


George II. 


9 Oct, 


1722 


7 Aug. 


1727 




28 Jan. 


1728 


18 April 


1734 




14 Jan. 


1735 


28 April 


1 741 




4 Dec 


1741 


18 June 


!747 




10 Nov. 


*747 


8 April 


I 754 


George III. . . 


14 Nov. 


1754 


21 March 


1 761 




3 Nov. 


1761 


12 March 


1768 




10 May 


1768 


30 Sept. 


1774 




29 Nov. 


!774 


1 Sept. 


1780 




31 Oct. 


1780 


25 March 


1784 




18 May 


1784 


21 June 


1790 




26 Nov. 


1790 


20 May 


1796 




27 Sept. 


1796 


29 June 


1802 




16 Nov. 


1802 


24 Oct. 


1806 




15 Dec. 


1806 


29 April 


1807 




22 June 


. 1807 


24 Sept. 


1812 




24 Nov. 


. 1812 


10 June 


1818 


George IV. 


14 Jan. 


. 1819 


29 Feb. 


1820 




23 April 


. 1820 


2 June 


1826 




14 Nov. 


. 1826 


24 July 


1830 


William IV. 


26 Oct. 


• 1830 


22 April 


1831 




14 June 


• 1831 


3 Dec. 


1832 


, 


29 June 


• 1833 


30 Dec. 


1834 


Victoria . 


19 Feb. 


• 1S35 


17 July 


1837 




15 Nov. 


• 1837 


23 June 


1841 




19 Aug. 


. 1841 


23 July 


1847 




iS Nov. 


• 1847 


1 July 


18^2 




4 Nov. 


. 1852 


21 March 


1857 




1 April 


• 1857 


23 April 


1S59 




31 May 


• 1859 


6 July 


1S65 




1 Feb. 


. 1866 


11 Nov. 


1868 




10 Dec. 


. 1868 


26 Jan. 


1874 




5 March 


■ 1874 


23 March 


1S80 




29 April 


. 1880 


iS Nov. 


. 1885 


% 


12 Jan. 


1886 


26 June 


. 1886 




5 Aug. 


1886 


28 June 


. 1892 




4 Aug. 


. 1892 







PARLIAMENT. 



m 



PARNELLITES. 



PARLIAMENT of Ireland, it is said, 

began with conferences of the English settlers on 
the hill of Tara, in 1173. Writs for knights of the 
shire were issued in 1295. The Irish parliament 
met last on 2 Aug. i3oo; the bill for the union 
having passed. 

PARLIAMENT of Scotland consisted of 

barons, prelates, and abbots, and occasionally of 
burgesses. A great national council was held at 
Scone by John Balliol, 9 Feb. 1292 ; and by Robert 
Bruce at Canibuskenneth, in 1326. A house of 
commons was never formed in Scotland. The par- 
liament of Scotland sanctioned the act of union on 
16 Jan. 1707, and met for the last time on 22 April, 
same year. 

The parliament hall, Edinburgh castle, erected by 
James I., in 1434, was thoroughly and .judiciously 
restored by M. Hippolyte Blanc, at the expense of 
the late Mr. Nelson and family. The hall was re- 
opened, Feb. 1891. The undertaking was greatly pro- 
moted by the investigations of lords Napier and 
Ettriek, major Gore Booth, and Mr. R. Chambers. 

PARLIAMENT OF Paris was instituted by 
rhilip Augustus II., 1 190, and was made the chief 
court of justice in France by Philip IV. ; at his 
suggestion it revoked a bull of pope Boniface VIII., 
1302. It was suppressed by Louis XV., 1771 ; 
restored by Louis XVI., 1774 ; demanded a meeting 
of the states-general in 1787 ; and was suspended by 
the national assembly, 3 Nov. 1789; see Commune. 

PARLIAMENTARY AND MUNICI- 
PAL REGISTRATION ACTS (41 & 42 Vict. 
c. 26), passed 22 July, 1878. 

PARMA (N. Italy), founded by the ancient 
Etrurians. It took part Avith the Lombard league 
in the wars with the German emperors. It was 
made a duchy (with Placentia), 1545. Population 
of Parma and Modena, 1890, 1,034,712. 
United to Spain by Philip V.'s marriage with Eliza- 
beth Farnese 1714 

Battle near Parma ; the confederates, England, 
France, and Spain, against the emperor ; both 
armies claimed the victory . . 29 June, 1734 
Battle near the Trebbia ; the French under Maedon- 
ald, defeated by Suwarrow, with the loss of 10,000 
men and four generals .... 19 June, 1799 
The duke of Parma made king of Etruria . Feb. 1801 
Parma united to France : with Placentia and Guas- 
talla conferred on Maria Louisa, ex-empress, by 
treaty of Fontainebleau .... 5 April, 1814 
Parma occupied by the Austrians and Sardinians in 

the war of 1848 

The Sardinians retire after the battle of Novara, 

23 March, 1849 
The duke Charles II. abdicates in favour of his son, 

Charles III. (died 17 April, 1883) . 14 March, „ 
Charles III. stabbed by an assassin,* 26 March, dies, 

27 March, 1854 
Robert I., a minor(born9 July, 1848); whose mother 

becomes regent. 
War in Italy ; the Parmesans establish a provisional 
government ; the duchess-regent retires to Switzer- 
land 1 May, 1859 

Farina became dictator ... 18 Aug. ,, 
Annexation to Sardinia voted . . . 12 Sept. ,, 
Col. Anviti, a former obnoxious police minister, 
having rashly returned, cruelly murdered by the 

mob 5 Oct. ,, 

Parma is now part of the province of ./Emilia in the 
kingdom of Italy, to which it was annexed by de- 
cree after a plebiscite ... 18 March, i860 
Duchess-regent died 1 Feb. 1864 

PARNELLITES, the followers of Mr. Charles 
Stewart Parncll, the principal leader of the more 



* Antonio Carra, in revenge of a private injury, and 
on behalf of the Giovane Italiane. He was acquitted 

through a Haw in the evidence, and died in Philadelphia 
Aug. 1887. 



energetic section of the home-rule party, 1880 et 
seq. He was born 28 June, 1846, elested" M.P. for 
co. Meath, 1875-80; for Cork, 1880-91; became 
Irish parliamentary leader, with great influence, 
which he lost greatly, Nov. 1890 ; he died suddenly 
near Brighton, 6 Oct. 1891 ; solemn funeral at 
Dublin, 11 Oct. 1891. See Home Rule and In- 
land, 1879, et seq., and below. 
The Times publishes a series of articles headed 
"Parnellism and Crime," 7, 10, 14 March, 
1887 et seq. ; the third series published June, 
1887, related to the Clan-na-gael, based upon 
statements in United Ireland (Dublin), Irish 
World (New York), and other papers. The Tim s 
published the facsimile of a letter alleged to be 
signed by Mr. Parnell (dated 15 May, 1882), in 
which he is made to say "though I regret the 
accident of lord Cavendish's death, I cannot 
refuse to admit that Burke got no more than his 
deserts," 18 April, 1887. This letter Mr. Parnell 
in parliament termed an " anonymous fabri- 
cation " 1 a.m., 19 April, 1887 

Mr. Frank Hugh O'Donnell v. Mr. John Walter 
and others (for libel in the Times, " Parnellism 
and Crime"), damages claimed 50,000^, Queen's 
Bench Division, no case ; verdict for the de- 
fendants .' 2-5 July, 188 

Royal commission to examine into the-authenticity 
of charges against certain Irish members of 

parliament 17 Sept. ,, 

The court of session, Edinburgh, dismisses Mr. 
Parnell's action against the Times 23 Oct. 1888 and 

5 Feb. 1S89 
Mr. Parnell moves for a trial in the exchequer 

division, Dublin (afterwards stopped) n Feb. ,, 
Mr. Parnell's action against the 'Times in London 
deferred till Michaelmas sessions . .18 June, ,, 
Parnellite Commission. 
Sir James Hannen, president ; Mr. Justice Day ■ 
and Mr. Justice A. L. Smith, constituted by act 
passed 13 Aug. 1888. Preliminary meeting : sir 
C. Russell, Mr. Asquith, and others counsel for 
Mr. Parnell and other M.P.'s (65); attorney- 
general sir Richard Webster, Mr. W. Graham 
and others, for the Times, 17 Sept. 1888 ; pro- 
ceedings begin 22 Oct. 1888. Long examination 
of witnesses ; examination of Mr. Parnell's 
alleged letters, 14 Feb. 1889 ; after the evidence 
and cross-examination of Mr. Soarnes, solicitor, 
and Mr. Macdonald, manager of the Times, and 
of Mr. Houston from whom the alleged letters were 
obtained, Mr. Richard Pigott, Irish journalist, 
who had sold them to Mr. Houston, on cross- 
examination by sir Charles Russell, grossly 

prevaricated 20-22 Feb. ,, 

Mr. Pigott fled to Paris, and his confession that he 
forged some of the alleged letters, and had given 
false evidence, was read in the court, 27 Feb. 
(57th sitting) ; the attorney-general on behalf of 
the Times accepted the confession and expressed 
deep regret for the publication of the letters, 27 
Feb., which was confirmed by the Times 28 Feb. ,, 
Suicide of Richard Pigott at Madrid, 1 March ; 

buried there . ' . . . . 6 March, ,, 
Long address of sir C. Russell ends . 12 April, ,, 
Patrick Malloy sentenced to 6 months' hard labour 

for perjury before the commission . 1$ April, ,, 
On examination Mr. Parnell denies all complicity 

with crime .... 30 April-8 May, ,, 

Examination of archbishop Walsh and other priests 

8 May et set/. ,, 
91st to 100th sitting, Mr. T. Sexton and other M.P.'s 

examined . . .18 June till 4 July, ,, 

101st sitting : Michael Davitt examined . 4 July. ., 
106th sitting : Mr. Houston, secretary of the 
"Loyal and Patriotic Union'' (established in 
1885), states that in 1885 he purchased the copj - 
right of "Parnellism Unmasked" (by Richard 
Pigott). The court refuses to accede to the ap- 
plication of sir C. Russell to inspect the books of 
the "Loyal and Patriotic Union" . 12 July, ,, 
107th sitting: Mr. Parnell and his friends with 

their counsel withdraw from the case . 15 July, ., 
112II1 sitting: examination of the Land League 
account books and documents [important books 
lost] : adjournment to 24 Oct. 25 July, ,, 



PAENELLITES. 



726 



PAETITIQN TEEATIES. 



113th sitting, 24 Oct. : speech by Mr. Biggar. 
ivlr. M. Davitt began an address which was 
finished 31 Oct. 1889 

ii3th to 128th sitting :' Sir Henry James' address 
for the Times ... 31 Oct. — 22 Nov. „ 

The report of the commissioners was laid before 
parliament, 13 Feb. 1890. The following is an 
abridgment of their conclusions : — I. That the 
respondent members o parliament collectively 
were not guilty of conspiring for the absolute 
independence of Ireland as a separate nation, but 
that some of them (Messrs. M. Harris, Dillon, 
W. O'Brien, W. Redmond, O'Connor, J. Condon, 
and J. J. O'Kelly), together with Mr. Davitt, 
established the Land League mainly for that 
purpose. II. That the respondents [44] did con- 
spire to promote agrarian agitation, the non-pay- 
ment of rents, and the expulsion of the landlords 
(styled the English garrison). III. That they ac- 
quitted Mr. Parnell and others of the charge of 
insincerity in their denunciations of the Phoenix 
Park murders, and affirmed the fac-simile letter 
to be a forgery. IV. They found that the respon- 
dents did disseminate the Irish World and other 
newspapers, intending to incite to sedition and 
other crimes. V. That the charges of incitement 
to crime, except by intimidation, and of payments 
for that purpose, were not proved. VI. They 
found that the respondents did not denounce the 
system of intimidation, though they knew its 
effects ; and VII. That they defended persons 
charged with agrarian crime, and supported 
their families, but it was not proved that they 
subscribed for testimonials for, or were intimately 
associated with, notorious criminals, or aided 
their escape by payments. VIII. That they 
found that the respondents made payments to 
compensate persons injured in the commission of 
crime. IX. That the respondents did invite and 
obtain the assurance and co-operation of the 
Physical Force Party in America, including the 
Clan-na-Gael, and did not repudiate the action of 
that party. 

[Certain allegations against Mr. Parnell were 
declared not proved.] 
The report adopted with thanks, by the commons, 
after 7 days' debate, 3-1 1 March; by the lords 
(without a division), 21 March, 1890. Mr. Glad- 
stone's amendment rejected by 339 to 263. 
Parnell v. Walter and another, for libel, Queen's 
bench division, justices Denman and Wills ; 
damagos claimed, ioo,oooL ; 40s. paid into court, 
11 Jan. Verdict for the plaintiff, by consent, 

5,002'. damages 3 Feb: 1890 

[The publication voted not a breach of privilege 
by tli3 commons (260—212), n Feb. 189c] 

In consequence of the issue of the divorce suit, 
capt. O'Shea, Mrs. O'Shea and Mr. C. S. Parnell, 
15-17 Nov. 1890, Mr. Parnell was requested by 
Mr. W. E. Gladstone and other English liberals, 
to retire from the chairmanship of the Irish party. 
He declined, and issued a manifesto to the people 
of Ireland, giving an account of private confer- 
ences with Mr. Gladstone and Mr. John Morley, 
20 Nov. The Irish R.C. bishops demanded Mr. 
Parncll's retirement, 3 Dec. After a week's 
angry discussion in the commons' committee- 
room No. 15, the Irish party divided ; Mr. Justin 
M'Carthy, the vice-chairman, was elected chair- 
man by 44 members ; Mr. Parnell continuing 
chairman with 26 followers, 6 Dec. Manifestoes 
of the two parties issued . . 9, 10 Dec. 

Collapse of negotiations (chiefly at Boulogne) of ' 
Mr. Parnell, with Messrs. ffm. O'Brien, Dillon, 
Justin McCarthy, Sexton, and others ; Mr. Par- 
nell refuses to resign the leadership, n Feb ■ 
■counter manifestoes issued . 12 Feb. ei sea. 189 1 

Dispute between Mr. Parnell and Mr. M'Carthy 
respecting the disposal of the league funds (in 

_ Paris) Feb., March, ,.- 

Mr. Parnell in his campaign visits Roscommon, 
22 Feb., Drogheda, and other places 1 March, 

The National Federation (which sie) established by " 

the Anti-Parnellites . . . .10 March 
9 Parncllites, 72 Anti-Parnellites. elected M. P. ' 

July, 1892 



PAEOCHIAL CHAEITIES COMMIS- 
SION, see London, 1878, and under Charities, 
1883. 

PAEEICIDE- There was no law against it 
in Athens or Rome, such a crime not being supposed 
possible. About 172 B.C., L. Ostius having killed 
his father, the Romans scourged the parricide ; 
sewed him up in a leathern sack made air-tight, 
with a live dog, a cock, a viper, and an ape, and thus 
cast him into the sea. Miss Blandy was executed 
at Oxford for the murder of her father, April, 1752 ; 
see Trials, March, 1890. 

PAESEES or GuEBRES, the followers of 
Zerdusht, dwelt in Persia till 638, when, at the 
battle of Kadseah, their army was decimated by 
the Arabs, and the monarchy annihilated at the 
battle of Nahavend in 641. Many submitted to 
the conquerors, but others fled to India, and their de- 
scendants still reside at Bombay (where they are 
termed Parsees). Sir Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy, the 3rd 
baronet, was elected president of the community 
there, July, 1877. Mr. Dadabhai Naoroji, a Par- 
sea merchant, was for several years professor of 
Gujerati at University college, London. He was 
nominated as M.P. for the Holborn district, but not 
elected, 1886 ; elected 6 July, 1892, for Central 
Finsbury. " History of the Parsis," by Dosabhai 
Framji Karaka, published, 1884. See Bombay. A 
Parsee fire temple at Bombay was consecrated, Nov. 
1891. 

"PAETANT POUS LA SYEIE," popu- 
lar French song; words by comte Alexandre de 
Laborde; music by Hortense Beauharnois, wife of 
Louis Bonaparte, king of Holland, about 1809. The 
music became very popular after her son became 
emperor, in 1852, as Napoleon III. 

PAETHENON (from Greek parthenos, virgin), 
a temple at Athens dedicated to Minerva, erected 
about 442 B.C. In it Phidias placed his renowned 
statue of that goddess, 438 B.C. The roof was de- 
stroyed by the Venetians in 16S7. "The Parthenon" 
published by Mr. James Fergusson in 1883. See 
Elgin Marbles. 

PAETHEXOPEAN EEPUBLIC was esta- 
blished by the French at Naples (anciently called 
Parthenope), 23 Jan. 1799, and overthrown in June 
same year. 

PAETHIA (Asia). The Parthians were origi- 
nally a tribe of Scythians, who, being exiled, as 
their name implies, from their own country, settled 
near Hyrcania. Arsaces laid the foundation of an 
empire which ultimately extended over a large part 
of Asia, 250 B.C. ; the Parthians were never wholly 
subdued by the Romans. The last king, Artabanus 
V., was killed, a.d. 226; and his territories were 
annexed to the new kingdom of Persia founded by 
Artaxerxes, who had revolted against Parthia. 

PAETICULAEISTS. The name given to 
those Germans who desire the maintenance of the 
independence of the German states, and oppose 
their absorption into the empire. M. Gasser, one 
of them, failed in an attempt to form a ministry in 
Bavaria, Sept. 1872. 

PAETITION ACT, relative to the division of 

property sold by direction of the court of chancery, 
passed 25 June, 16S8. 

PAETITION TEEATIES. The first treaty 
between England and Holland for regulating the 
Spanish succession (declaring the elector of Bavaria 
next heir, and ceding provinces to France) was 
signed. 19 Aug. 1698; and the second (between 
France, England, and Holland, declaring the arch- 



PARTNERSHIP. 



727 



PATENTS. 



duke Charles presumptive heir of the Spanish mon- 
archy, Joseph Ferdinand having died in 1699), 13 
March, 1700. Treaty for the partition of Poland ; 
the first was a secret convention between Russia and 
Prussia, 17 Feb. 1772 ; the second between the 
same powers and Austria, 5 Aug. same year ; the 
third was between Russia, Austria, and Prussia, 24 
Oct. 1795. 

PARTNERSHIP. The laws respecting it 
were amended in 1863 and 1890; see Limited 
Liability. 

PARTY, see Processions. 

PASIGRAPHY (from Greek, pan, for all) : 
a system which professes to teach people to com- 
municate with each other by means of numbers 
which convey the same ideas in all languages. A 
society for this purpose was established at Munich ; 
and the president, Anton Bachmaier, published a 
■dictionary and grammar for German, French, and 
English, 1868 — :/! ; 4334 mental conceptions may 
be thus communicated. 

PASQUINADES. Small satirical poems ob- 
tained this name about 1533- 

At the stall of a cobbler named Pasquin, at Home, idle 
persons used to assemble to listen to his sallies, to re- 
late anecdotes, and rail at the passers-by. After the 
cobbler's death, his name was given to a statue to which 
lampoons were affixed. 

PASSAROWITZ TREATY, concluded 21 
July, 17 18, between Germany and Venice, and the 
Turks, by which the house of Austria ceded certain 
■commercial rights, and obtained from Turkey the 
Temeswar, Belgrade, and part of Bosnia, Servia, 
and Wallachia. The Turks gained the Morea. 

PASSAU (Germany), TREATY OF, whereby 
religious freedom was established, was ratified be- 
tween the emperor Charles V. and the protestant 
princes of Germany, 31 July, 1552. In 1662 the 
cathedral and great part of Passau were consumed 
by fire. 

PASSENGERS— by public vehicles, are pro- 
tected by 1 & 2 Will. IV. c. 22 (1831), 1 & 2 Vict. 
«. 79 (1838), and 16 & 17 Vict. c. ^ (1853) ; 
another act was passed in 1889. Mr. Cleghorn, 
under whom the front seat on the near side of one 
of the general omnibus company's carriages had 
given way, recovered 400^. damages against the 
company, in a verdict by consent, in the Queen's 
Bench, 10 Dec. 1856. The Ships' Passenger act, 
18 & 19 Vict. c. 119, passed in 1855, was amended 
in 1863 ; see Campbell's Act, and under Railways. 

PASSIONISTS, a congregation of clerks of 
the holy cross, founded by St. Paul of the Cross, 
who died 1775, and was canonized by the pope 
1867. A home was set up in England in 1841, and 
others since. The monastery, Highgate, London, 
N., solemnly blessed by cardinal Manning, and 
opened, 16 July, 1876. 

PASSION PLAY, see Drama. 

PASSION-WEEK, the name given since the 
Reformation to the week preceding Easter, was 
formerly applied to the fortnight. Archbishop 
Laud says the two weeks were so called ' ' for a 
thousand years together," and refers to an epistle, 
by Ignatius, in the 1st century, in which the prac- 
tice is said to have been "observed by all." The 
week preceding Easter is now by some termed 
"Holy Week," the previous week "Passion 
Week." 
Passion-Music: Gregory Nazianzen (a.d. 330-390) is said 

to have tirst set forth the history of the Passion in a 

dramatic form. 



Guidetti, in 1586, published music for this subject, 
which has been treated since by many composers. 

J. 8. Bach's great "Passion Musik," first performed on 
Good Friday, 1729, has been revived with great suc- 
cess in this country, beginning with that "according 
to St. Matthew," 6 April, 1854. 

PASSOVER, the most solemn festival of the 
Jews, instituted 1491 B.C. (Exodus xii.) in comme- 
moration of their coming out of Egypt; because 
the night before then departure, the destroying 
angel, who put to death the firstborn of the Egyp- 
tians, passed over the houses of the Hebrews with- 
out entering them; the door posts being marked 
with the blood of the Paschal Lamb killed the 
evening before. The passover was celebrated in 
the new temple, 18 April, 515 B.C. Usher. 

PASSPORT SYSTEM forbids subjects to quit 
one country or enter another without the consent of 
the sovereign thereof. In 1858 the system was 
somewhat changed in this country, and the stamp 
duty on passports was reduced from 5s. to 6d. 
Passports were abolished in Norway in 1859 '1 lVL 
Sweden in i860; and (with regard to British sub- 
jects) in France, 16 Dec. i860; in Italy, 26 Jane, 
1862 ; in Portugal, 23 Jan. 1863 ; and are falling 
into disuse in other countries. The passport system 
was established in the United States on 19 Aug. 
1861. The passport system, revived in France on 
account of the war, I Aug. 1870, was abolished by 
M. Thiers, 10 April, 1872, in compliance with the 
wish of the British government. 

PASTEUR INSTITUTE, Paris, see under 
Hydrophobia. 

PASTEL, a roll of paste made of different 
colours ground with gum water, used as a crayon. 
Pastel painting his been recently much practised 
on the continent. The Society of British Pastell Uts, 
president sir Coutts Lindsay, first exhibited at the 
Grosvenor Gallery, 18 Oct. 1890. Its members 
included Mr. Watts, Mr. Orchardson and other 
eminent artists. 

PASTON LETTERS, the correspondence of a 
Norfolk family, 1422-83, giving a picture of 
social life in England, were edited by sir John 
Fenn, and published in five volumes, quarto, 1787- 
1823. Their authenticity was questioned Sept. 
1865, but was satisfactorily vindicated by a com- 
mittee of the Society of Antiquaries in May, 1866. 
Part of the MS. was soon after purchased by the 
trustees of the British Museum. The publication 
of a new edition, by James Gairdner, with addi- 
tional letters, 1872—5. The MS. of the second 
series with other letters was found in 1875, by Mr. 
Frere, of Roydon Hall, near Diss, Norfolk. The 
MS. of the first series, long lost from the Royal 
Library, found in the library of col. Geo. Tomline 
at Orwell Park, who died 25 Aug. 1S89 ; announced 
April, 1890. 
311 MS. Paston letters put up for sale by Messrs. 

Christie, London, bought in at a high reserve, 

31 July, t88S 

PAT AY (France), where Joan of Arc, the nraid 
of Orleans, was present, when the earl of Biche- 
montc signally defeated the English, 18 June, 1429. 
Talbot was taken prisoner, and the valiant Fast. die. 
was forced to flee. In consequence, Charles VII. 
of France entered Rheims in triumph, and was 
crowned 17 July, following year, Joan of Arc as- 
sisting in the ceremony in full armour, and holding 
the sword of state, see Joan of Arc. 

PATENTS (hompalco, I lie open), licences and 
authorities granted by the king. Patents are said to 
have been granted for titles of nobility in 1344, by 



PATENT MEDICINES. 



723 



PATEONAGE. 



Edwardlll. They were first granted'for the exclu- 
sive privilege of printing books, in 1591. The pro- 
perty and right of inventors in arts and manufac- 
tures were secured by letters patent by an act passed 
in 1623. The later laws regulating patents are very 
numerous ; among them are 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 83 
(1835), and 15 & 16 Vict. c-83 (1852). By the latter 
Commissioners of Patents were appointed, viz., 
the lord chancellor, the master of the rolls, the attor- 
ney-general for England and Ireland, the lord 
advocate, and the solicitors-general for England, 
Scotland, and Ireland. In 1853, a journal was pub- 
lished under their authority, and indexes of patents, 
from March, 1617, to the present time. Specifica- 
tions of patents may be consulted by the public at 
the Free Library and Eeading-Eoom, in Southamp- 
ton buildings, opened 5 March, 1854. A museum 
containing models, portraits, &c, was established 
in 1859 at South Kensington, mainly by the exertions 
of Mr. Bennet Vfoodcroft. 
The " Illustrated Official Journal " combining six others 

published Jan. 1889, 
An international congress for the protection of patents 

met at Vienna, Aug. 1873 ; at Paris, 6 March, 1883. 
New patent bills introduced into parliament withdrawn, 
1875, 1876, 1879; Mr. Anderson's bill read, 15 June, 
1881. 
Patent Design and Trade Marks Act, 46 & 47 Viet. c. 57, 
passed 25 Aug. 1883, began 1 Jan. 1884; amended 
24 Dec. 1888. It greatly relieved patentees by lessen- 
ing fees, &c. 
In 1864, the alleged defalcations of Mr. Edmunds, a clerk 
in the patent office and an official of the house of lords, 
led to his retirement. He obtained a pension of Sool. , 
which was taken from him by a vote of the house of 
lords on 9 May, 1865. Much litigation ensued. In an 
action against Mr. Gladstone, the prime minister, and 
others, for a libel, Mr. Edmunds was non-suited, 21-22 
June, 1872 ; and he failed in actions against several 
newspapers for printing a treasury minute. His appeal 
to the house of lords failed 16 June, 1873. 
17,110 applications for patents in 1884 ; 16,101 in 1885 ; 
17,162 in 1886 ; 18,051 in 1887; 19,103 in 1888; 21,008 
in 1889 ; 22,888 in 1891. 
Royal commission to enquire into the law relating to 
letters patent appointed 1862 ; Mr. Hindmarch's re- 
port issued 1864. In pursuance of recommendations 
for the formation of a roll of patent agents, the Insti- 
tute of Patent Agents was registered 1882, chartered 
1891. It has given much attention to legislation re- 
■ specting patents. 

PATENT MEDICINES: received for stamps, 
year 1883-4, 159,238/. 

PATNA (N. India). Near here the English, 
under major Carnac, defeated the emperor Shah 
Alum on 15 Jan. 1761. The town was acquired by 
the British by their defeat of the sanguinary Meer 
Cassim, 23 Oct. 1764. 

PATEIAECHS (a name given to Abraham, 
Isaac, Jacob, and his sons). The ecclesiastical 
historian Socrates gives this title to the chiefs of 
Christian dioceses, about 440. It was first con- 
ferred on the five grand sees of Home, Constanti- 
nople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem'. The 
Latin church had no patriarchs till the 6th century. 
The first founders or heads of religious orders are 
called patriarchs. 

Nectarius, bishop of Constantinople, as cx-officio chief of 
the Eastern bishops, was nominated patriarch of Con- 
stantinople at the second general council of Constanti- 
nople, 9 July, 381. This led the way to the schism 
between the Eastern and Western churches. 

PATEICIANS, the highest citizens or aristo- 
cracy of Eomc ; their authority began with the city 
itself ; sec Home. 

PATRICK'S CATHEDEAL, ST. (Dublin), 
was founded in 1190 by archbishop Comyn, on the 



site of an old church. The cathedral was dese- 
crated in 1546, and used as a law court ; restored 
1553. After renovation by the munificence of the 
late sir Benjamin Lee Guinness, it was re-opened 24 
Feb. 1865. Several persons killed by the falling of 
a flying buttress, 14 Sept. 1882. See Dublin. 

PATRICK, ST., KNIGHTS OE, an order in- 
stituted by king George III., 5 Feb., the statutes- 
were signed 28 Feb. 1783. The number, originally 
fifteen, was increased in 1821, 1831, and 1833, and 
is now twenty-two. The prince of "Wales was- 
installed as knight, 18 April, 1868. — St. Patrick's 
Benevolent Society, London, instituted 1784. It 
sprang from ihe Irish Chaiitable Society, founded 
in 1704. 

PATRIOTIC ASSOCIATION, formed to 
aid in upholding the honour and interest of the 
British Empire. A meeting was held at St. James's 
Hall, London, 27 March, 1880. "England," a 
weekly paper, was published same day. The duke 
of Abercorn, earl Stanhope, and others, were sup- 
porters. 

PATEIOTIC BEOTHEEHOOD, see Ire- 
land, 1883. 

PATEIOTIC EUNDS, established to en- 
courage the army and navy in times of war. 

1. Founded by the subscribers to Lloyd's, " to animate 

the efforts of our defenders by sea and land " by 
providing a fund for the relief of themselves when 
wounded, and of their widows and orphans, and for 
granting pecuniary rewards and badges of distinction 
for valour and merit, 20 July, 1803 : 24 Aug. 1809, 
424, 832?. had been received, and 331,611?. expended. 
From 1803 to 1826 the total sum received was 
629,823?. 14s. id. 

2. A commission (headed by prince Albert) was appointed) 

to raise and distribute a fund bearing this name, for 
the relief of the families of those who might fall in 
the Russo-Turkish war, June ; a great meeting held, 
Nov. 1854. 

Large sums were collected from this country and the 
colonies, amounting to 1,171,270?. in July, 1855 ; to 
1,296,282?. on 16 Nov. 1855; finally to 1,460,861/. In 
Jan. 1874, 1,303,386?. expended. 

200,000?. appropriated to founding an asylum for 300- 
orphan girls (the Royal Victoria Patriotic Asylum) 
on Wandsworth common, the first stone of which 
was laid by the queen, 11 July, 1857. 

The royal family and many of the aristocracy con- 
tributed drawings, sold for high prices, in May, 1855. 

3. A large fund contributed for the relief of the sufferers 

by the Indian mutiny, Aug. 1857, 434>7 2 9'- collected 

up> to Nov. 1858. An act for its administration was 

passed, 12 Aug. 1867, amended 1886; see I nclia, 1857. 

The total of the funds administered was 755,102?., 31 

Dec. 1888 ; 764,211/., 31 Dec. 1890. 
The alleged mal-administration of the Patriotic Fund was 
brought before the house of commons by baron de 
Worms 9 Aug. 1880, and in Jan. 1881. 
Liberal subscriptions to the fund from Australia, 
on account of the Soudan war ; about 45,000?. at 

Sydney 2 March, 1885 

Patriotic volunteer fund instituted by lord mayor 
Whitehead, see Volunteers .... 1889 

PATEONAGE OF LIVINGS by Laymen in 
England is very ancient ; in Scotland was opposed 
by the books of discipline 1560 and 1578, abolished 
1049, restored 1660. The system led to the dis- 
ruption of the established church, and the foundation 
of the free church, 18 May, 1843. The abolition of 
lay patronage was earnestly advocated by the 
authorities of the established church in March, 
1870, and the duke of Argyll volunteered to resign 
his patronage in May. Of 1 109 livings 319 belonged 
to the crown, and about 600 to private persons. An 
act (37 & 38 Vict. c. 82) for abolishing patronage 
in Scotland, brought in by the duke of Eichniond, 
18 May, passed, 7 Aug. 1874. 



PAULIANISTS. 



■29 



PAVAN. 



PAULIANISTS or PatjlTNIANS, followers 
of Paul bishop of Samosata, afterwards patriarch of 
Aritioch, 260, who are said to have denied Christ's 
divinity and the trinity; he was excommunicated 
269 by a council at Antioch. 

PAULICIANS, a sect of Christian reformers, 
arose about 652. Although they were severely 
persecuted, they spread over Asia Minor, in the 9th 
century, and finally settled at Montford, in Italy, 
where they were attacked by the bishop of Milan 
in 1028. Severe decrees against them were made 
in 1 163, and they gradually dispersed; very 
probably sowing the seeds of the great reformation 
of the 16th century. 

PAUL JONES, a Scotchman, born 1742 ; died 
at Paris, 1792. He commanded an American 
privateer during the American war, and made 
daring depredations on British commerce. He 
pillaged the house of lord Selkirk, near Kirkcud- 
bright, and at Whitehaven burnt shipping in the 
harbour, April 1778. The Dutch permitted Paul 
Jones to enter their ports with two British ships of 
war which he had taken, and which the stadtholder 
peremptorily refused to deliver up, 1779- 

PAUL'S CATHEDRAL, ST. (London). 

For details of its history, see Dugdale's "History 
of St. Paul's," 1658 and 1716 ; Dean Milman's 
" Annals of St. Paul's," 1868 ; and Mr. ffm. Long- 
man's " History of the Three Cathedrals, dedicated 
to St. Paul," 1873. 

The first church, built 011 the site of a temple to 
Diana, supposed to have been destroyed during 
the Diocletian persecution (302), rebuilt in the 

reign of Constantine 223-337 

Demolished by the pagan Saxons, and restored by 
Ethelbert and Sebert . . . about 597-610 

Injured by fire 962 

Destroyed by the great conflagration, 1086, after 
which Mauritius, then bishop of London, com- 
menced a magnificent edifice with the highest 
spire in the world about 1087 ; completed . . 1240 

Nearly destroyed by fire 1444 

The spire burnt 1561 

A commission granted to Laud, then, bishop of 

London, to restore the cathedral . 2 April, 1631 

It was totally destroyed by the fire of . Kept. 1666 
Clearing of the ground began . . . May, 1674 
I'M rst stone of the present edifice laid . 21 June, 1675 
The choir opened for divine worship . 2 Dec. 1697 

The whole edifice completed under sir Christopher 

Wren (except some decorations, finished 1723) . 1710 
[The total cost (including 200 tons' weight of iron 

railing) was 1,511,202/..] 
Lord Nelson buried . . . .9 Jan. 1806 

Ball and cross restored by Mr. Cockerell . . 1822 

Duke of Wellington buried . . . 18 Nov. 1852 
Money having been subscribed to adapt St. Paul's 
for the purpose, evening services began, under 
the dome, when above 4000 persons were present, 

Sunday, 28 Nov. 1858 
A national guinea subscription for completing the 

interior ornamentation, began . . Feb. 1864 

87th meeting of the charity school children 3 June, 1869 
Great meeting held at the Mansion-house to complete 
the interior of the cathedral according to Wren's 
design, 13 July ; 34,708?. collected by . 4 Nov. 1870 
Dr. Church, the new dean, gave 1000?. . Nov. 1871 
National Thanksgiving for the recovery of the 

prince of Wales, see Thanksgiving . 27 Feb. 1872 
" Thanksgiving fund " established ....,, 
The ipteen gave 1000J., the prince 500?. . Feb. ,, 

After an interval, annual meeting of the children 

resumed— [not held 1878] . . ' . 9 Oct. 1873 
The iron railings (set up in 1710) sold, and soon 
after removed (the dean and chapter bought the 
enclosed space from the corporation) 8 Jan. ; for- 
mally opened 26 Jan. 1874 

Discussion respecting the ornamentation : Mr. 
Burges' plans censured, June ; the engagement 
with him rescinded . Nov. ,, 



Meeting to endeavour to obtain a peal of bells, the 
lord mayor, the dean, &c., present, 2 Nov. 1875 ; 
arrangements being made . . . Sept. 1876 

Grand concluding service of Lambeth episcopal 
synod ; about 100 bishops present . 27 July, 187S 

Peal of 12 beUs (by Taylor, of Loughborough) given 
by the corporation and some of the companies, 
dedicated ...... 1 Nov. ,, 

The corporation authorised to deal with the church- 
yard as an open space, 187S; opened as a garden 
by the lord mayor .... 22 Sept. i?79: 

Great Paul (see under Bells) dedicated . 3 June, 1882: 

Professor Palmer, capt. Gill, and lieut. Charrington 
buried in the crypt .... 6 April, 1883, 

The mutilated statue of queen Anne at the west 
front by Francis Bird, 1712 ; replaced by a new 
one by R. Belt and others ; uncovered by the 
lord mayor 15 Dec. 1S86 

Citizen's .jubilee service ... 23 June, 1887 

Lord Napier of Magdala buried . . 21 Jan. 189c* 

Memorial of Mr. William Bede Dalley, Australian 
statesman (the first colonial memorial) unveiled 
by the earl of Rosebery . . . . 17 July, , r 

" Reconciliation service," on account of the dese- 
cration of the cathedral by the> suicide of Edward 
Easton on 28 Sept 13 Oct. ,, 

Sir F. Edgar Boehm, sculptor, buried , 20 Dec. ,, 
See Reredos, 1891. 

DIMENSIONS. 

Length of St. Paul's from the grand portico to east feet. 

end 51a- 

Breadth, north to south portico . . . . 282; 

Exterior diameter of the dome .... 145. 

Height from ground to top of cross . . . . 404. 
[Stated by surveyor to be 365 feet from the pavement.] 
Campaniles, or bell towers, at each corner, height . 20S 

Breadth of western entrance 189 

Circumference of dome 420' 

Entire circumference of the building . ... 2292 
Diameter of ball <5 

PAUL'S CROSS, ST. (London), which stood 
at the north side of the cathedral, was a pulpit 
formed of wood, mounted upon steps of stone, and 
covered with lead, from which the most eminent 
divines were appointed to preach every Sunday in 
the forenoon. To this place the court, the mayor,, 
the aldermen, and principal citizens used to resort.. 
It was in use as early as 1259, and was appropriated 
not only to preaching, but to political and ecclesias- 
tical discourses, &c. The cross was demolished in 
1643, by order of the parliament. 

PAUL'S SCHOOL, ST., was endowed i» 
1512 by John Colet, dean of St. Paul's, for 153 boys- 
" of every nation, country, and class," in memory 
of the number of fishes taken by Peter. {John xxi. 
II). The first schoolhouse was burnt in 1666; the 
second, by Wren, was taken down in 1824, and 
another building erected by George Smith. William 
Lilly was the first master, and his grammar is still 
used by the school. Timbs, The claim of the Mercers' 
company to be owners instead of trustees of Colet' s 
estate was set aside by the vice chancellor, 11 
Feb. 1870. The school ordered to be removed to- 
West Kensington ; site bought, June, 1878. New 
building designed by Mr. Waterhousc opened by 
lord Selborne, 23 April, 18S4. The number of scho- 
lars has been increased. 

St. Paul's Industrial School, Mile End, ordered to 
be closed by the home secretary in consequence of 
serious charges against the managers ; brought 
forward by Mrs. Surr, member of the metropolitan 
School Board, Nov. ; she is warmly commended 
in the home secretary's letter, 15 Nov. ; who re- 
mitted the case to the public prosecutor . Nov. 1SS1 
Mr. T. Scrutton, manager, sued Miss Helen Taylor, 
and obtained 1000?. for damages; the charges were 

withdrawn 30 J une, 1S82 

PAUPEES, see Poor. 

PA VAN, Pavane, or Paviu, was a slow dance 
of the 1 6th and 17th centuries, sometimes accom- 
panied by singing. 



PAVEMENT. 



730 PEACE PEESEEVATION ACTS. 



PAVEMENT. The Carthaginians are said to 
have been the first who paved their towns with 
stones. The Komans, in the time of Augustus, had 
pavement in many of their streets ; the Appian 
way, a paved road, was constructed 312 B.C. In 
England there were few paved streets before Henry 
VII.' s reign. London was first paved about 1533. 
It was paved with flagstones between 1815 and 
1825. "Wood and asphalte paving were tried in 
1839, and have been disused since 1847 ; see Wood 
Pavement. Asphalte has been much used since 
1869. Wood reported to be the best for London, 
May, 1876. 
•Grano-metallic stone laid down in a plastic state in 

part of the Strand, London, and in other places, 1885 

PA VIA (N. Italy), the ancient Ticinum or 
Fapia. Its university, founded by Charlemagne, 
is said to be the oldest in Europe. Pavia was built 
by the Gauls, who were driven out by the Komans, 
and these in their turn were expelled by the Goths : 
in 568 it was taken 4jy the Lombards, and became 
the capital of their kingdom. In the 12th century 
it was erected into a republic, but soon after was 
-subjected to Milan and followed its fortunes. On 
.24 Feb. 1525, a battle was fought near here between 
the French and the Imperialists, when the former 
were defeated, and their king, Francis I., after 
fighting with heroic valour, and killing seven men 
with his own hand, was at last obliged to surren- 
der himself a prisoner. It was long asserted that 
Francis wrote to his mother, Louisa of Savoy, regent 
of the kingdom during his absence, saying, Tout 
.est perdu, madame, fors Vhonneur (All is lost, 
madam, except honour). The words are now said 
to have been, L'honneur et la vie qui est saidve. 

PAWNBEOKINGr. The Roman emperors 
lent money upon land. The origin of borrowing 
.money by means of pledges deposited with lenders 
is referred to Perugia, in Italy, about 1462. The 
institutions were termed monti dipietd (ivhich see). 
Soon afterwards, it is said that the bishop of 
■Winchester established a system of lending on 
pledges, but without interest. The business of 
pawnbrokers was regulated in 1756, and licences 
issued in 1783. The rate of interest on pledges was 
hxed in 1800. In London there were, in 1851, 334 
pawnbrokers ; and in England, exclusively of 
London, 1127 ; the number is increasing more than 
in proportion to the population. In i860 an act 
was passed enabling pawnbrokers to charge a half- 
penny for every ticket describing things pledged 
for a sum under 5.S. The acts relating to pawn- 
brokers were amended in 1856, 1859, i860. Pawn- 
brokers in Great Britain: 1851, 1873; in 1861, 
.2578; in 1871, 3540. The law was consolidated in 
the pawnbrokers' act passed 10 Aug. 1872. 

PAX, a small tablet, generally silver, termed, 
tabula pacts or osculatorium, kissed by the Poman 
Catholic priests and laity; substituted for the 
primeval kiss of peace in the early church. The 
Pax is said to have been introduced about the 12th 
•century. 

PAYMASTEE GENEEAL. In 1836 the 
army and navy pay departments were consolidated 
into the paymaster-general' s-office, sometimes held 
.by a cabinet minister. 

PEABODY FUND. Mr. George Peabody, 
an American merchant (born 18 Feb. 1795, died 4 
• Nov. 1869), who had made his fortune in London, 
gave on 12 March, 1862, 150,000/., on 21 Jan. 
1866, 100,000/., on 5 Dec. 1868, 100,000/., and by 
his will directed his trustees to pay 150,000/. — hi all 



500,000/. — to ameliorate the condition of the London 
poor. 

An autograph letter, promising her portrait in 
miniature, was sent him hy the queen, 28 March, 1866 

[Inscription on the miniature sent: — "V. R. pre- 
sented by the Queen to G. Peabody, Esq., the 
benefactor of the poor of London."] 

The first block of buildings for working classes, termed 
" Peabody dwellings," in Commercial street, Spital- 
fields, was opened 29 Feb. 1864 ; and others since, in 
Spitalfields, Islington, Shadwell, Westminster, Chel- 
sea, Bermondsey, &c. ; they have been found to be 
self-supporting, 1878. In 1879, net gain, 24,786?. ; 1885, 
23,691?. ; 1887, 24,902?. ; 1888, 29,611?. 

Mr. Peabody's statue, at the east end of the 
Eoyal Exchange, was inaugurated by the prince 
of Wales 23 July, 1869 

Funeral service at Westminster abbey . 12 Nov. ,, 

Funeral at Portland, U. S., prince Arthur present 

8 Feb. 1870 

He also gave large sums, for educational purposes, in. 
the United States. 

39,763?. expended on land and buildings in 1885, making 
the total expenditure 1,210,550?. 

Net gains, rent and interest in 1890, 28,656/. 

PEACE. A temple was dedicated to peace by 

Vespasian, 75 ; see Fire-tvorks, Treaties, Justices, 

&c. — "Peace of Beligion" (between catholics 

and protestants) was signed at Augsburg, 15 Sept. 

1555- 

A Peace Society, founded 1816, for the promotion 
of universal peace ; holds annual meetings ; pro- 
posed amalgamation with the International Arbi- 
tration and Peace Association (founded by Mr. 
Lewis Appletonin 18S0), Dec. 1884. The associa- 
tion divided in May, 1886, when the British arbi- 
tration association was founded by Mr. Appleton. 
A congress of the friends of peace, from all parts of 
the world, commenced its sittings at Paris, 22 Aug. 
i84'9- It met in London at Exeter hall, 30 Oct. 
following ; and at Frankfort, in St. Paul's church, 
22 Aug. 1850 ; at Birmingham, 28 Nov. 1850 ; and 
at Exeter hall, 22 July, 1851. A meeting was held 
at Manchester, 27 Jan. 1853 ; and at Edinburgh, 

12 Oct. 1853 

Mr. Bright and Mr. Cobden were among the most 
conspicuous members of the society. A deputa- 
tion from the Peace Society, consisting of Messrs. 
J. Sturge, A. Pease, and another Quaker friend, 
stated their views to the emperor of Russia at St. 
Petersburg, at an interview granted them in Feb. 1854 

At the stormy international arbitration and peace 
congress at Geneva, Garibaldi was present, 

9-12 Sept. 1867 

A peace congress met at Berne . . 24 Sept. 1868 

A t the peace congress held at Lausanne, the violence 
of the Communists at Paris in May, was warmly 
reprobated 25 Sept. 1S71 

Congress held at Lugano, 23 Sept. 1872 ; at the 
Hague, 25 Sept. 1873 ; at Paris, 6 Sept. 1875 ; at 
Geneva, Oct. 1877 ; at Paris, 25 Sept. 1878; at 
Brussels, 17 Oct. 1S82 ; at Berne . 4-9 Aug. 1884 

Meeting at Crystal Palace near London, 22 July, 
1885 ; another meeting 16 July, 1886 ; at Geneva, 
9 Sept. 1887 ; at Paris, 23 June, 1889 ; in Lon- 
don, i4July,i89o ; Romen Nov. 1891 ; Berne, Aug. 1892 

The principle of arbitration in place of war was 
adopted by the Pan-American Congress at Wash- 
inton ; a treaty was signed for several of the 

states 28 April, 1890 

Inter-Parliamentary Conferences, on International 
Arbitration (members of diiferent legislatures) : 
first meeting at Paris, M. Jules Simon president 
June, 1889 ; London, lord Herschell president, 
22 July, i8;o; Borne 3-7 Nov. 1S91 ; at Berne, 
Aug. 29, 30, 31, 1892. 
The International Arbitration Society meets at 
Frankfort, 17 Sept. 1890 ; at Westminster, 1 
July, 1891 ; again 30 May, 1892 

PEACE PEESEEVATION ACTS (Ire- 
land) : one passed 4 April, 1870, was continued in 
1876 to 31 June, 1880. A new act to last till 1 June, 

1886, passed 21 March, 1881, continued till 31 Dec. 

1887, 4 June, 1886. See Arms Fills. 



PEACHES. 



731 



PEEL ADMINISTRATIONS. 



PEACHES are said to have been introduced 
into this country from Persia about 1562. 

PEARLS, mentioned Job xxviii. 18. M. 
Beaumur, in 1717, alleged tbat pearls are formed 
like other stones in animals. An ancient pearl was 
valued by Pliny at 80,000/. sterling. One which 
was brought in 1574, to Philip II., of the size of a 
pigeon's egg, was valued at 14,400 ducats. A pearl 
named the Incomparable, spoken of by Be Boote, 
weighed thirty carats, equal to five pennyweights, 
and was about the size of a muscadine pear. The 
pearl mentioned by Tavernier, as beiug in possession 
of the emperor of Persia, was purchased of an Arab 
in 1633, and is valued at a sum equal to 110,400/. 
Value of pearls imported into Great Britain, 1856, 
56,162/. Artificial mother of pearl is said to Lave 
been made at Berne by Mr. K. Gehmia. 

PEASANTS' WAR, see Jacquerie. 

PEAT, see Bogs. A peat coal and charcoal 
company, established iu 1873, when coal was 
4I6'. a ton. 

"PECULIAR PEOPLE," a small sect 
founded iu London by Wm, Bridges and Jas. Ban- 
yard ini838; chief se it Essex. Two members, Thomas 
and Maryanne Wagstaffe, were tried and acquitted of 
manslaughter, 29 Jan. 1868. They had neglected 
g itting medical assistance for their sick child, and 
depended on the efficac3 r of their elders' prayers and 
anointing it with oil {James v. 14). Many eases of 
healing by these means are asserted. On 8 May, 1872, 
a father was convicted for neglecting to get medical 
advice for his child who died of small pox ; and the 
sect agreed to modify their practice. Establishments 
fur healing diseases by prayer exist in Germany. 
At another trial, Thomas Hines was acquitted, in accord- 
ance with the opinion of the comt ; Baron Pigott held 
that the case did not amount to criminal neglect be- 
cause the prisoner had not called in a doctor to his 
sick child, 19 Aug. 1874 ; similar eases since ; 1875-6. 
John Robert Downes (for neglect respecting scarlet fever) 
sentenced to 3 months' imprisonment 21 Sep>t. 1876. 

PEDESTRIANISM. Euchidas, a citizen of 
Platasa, went from thence to Delphi to bring the 
sacred lire. This he obtained, and returned with it 
the same day before sunset, having travelled 125 
English miles. No sooner had he saluted his fellow- 
citizens, and delivered the fire, than he fell dead at 
their feet. After the battle of Marathon, a soldier 
was sent from the field to announce the victory at 
Athens. Exhausted with fatigue, and bleeding 
from his wounds, he cried out, " Bejoice, we are 
conquerors!" and immediately expired. 
Foster Powel, the English pedestrian, performed many 
astonishing journeys on foot. His expedition from 
London to York and back again, in 1788, is said to 
have been completed in 140 hours. 
Captain Barclay, for a wager (on which many thousands 
of pounds depended), walked 1000 miles in 1000 suc- 
cessive hours, each mile in each hour, in forty-two 
days and nights (less 8 hours). His task was accom- 
plished on 10 July, 1809. 
Thomas Standen, aged 60, of Salehurst, walked noo 
miles in 1100 hours (1 mile in 1 hour), finished, 
July, 1811. 
Richard Manks, a native of Warwickshire, undertook (in 
imitation of captain Barclay) to walk 1000 miles in 
1000 hours : the place chosen was the Barrack-tavern 
cricket ground, in Sheffield ; he commenced on Monday, 
17 June, 1850, and completed the 1000 miles, 29 July 
fullowing, winning a considerable sum. 
On 7 Oct. 1861, a 12 miles foot-race was held, when 
Levett, the champion of England, ran 7 miles in 37 
minutes 27 seconds ; Deerfoot, a Seneca Indian, ran 12 
miles in 65 minutes 5 seconds ; and Mills ran 10 miles 
in 54 minutes 10 seconds ; other races followed. 
On 11 May, 1863, Deerfoot was beaten by White, who 
ran 10 miles in 52 minutes 14 seconds. 



Miss Richards walked 1000 miles in 1000 hours 

18 May-29 June, 1874 

Edward Payson Weston (American), at Newark, 
U.S., walked 500 miles in 5 days 23 hours 34 rain. 

21-26 Dec. ,, 

Wm. Perkins, at Lillie Bridge, London, S.W., 
walked 8 miles in less than one hour . 20 Sept. 1S7.5 

Match between AVeston and Perkins at Agricul- 
tural Hall, London, N., began 9.25 p.m. 8 Feb. 
1876 ; Perkins walked 50 miles in 9 h. 37 m. 41 s., 
rested 26 m., went on for 65 m., and stopped; 
Weston walked 50 miles in 9 h. 55 m. 52 s. , went 
on for 16 h., stopped for 1 h., went on to 24 h. 
(walked 109 miles 758 yards), . . 8-9 Feb. 1S76 

Weston began to walk 500 miles in 6 days at Agri- 
cultural Hall,' 12.5 a.m. 6 March, had walked 450 
miles 11 March; he walked m miles in 24 con- 
secutive hours at Manchester . . April, ,, 

Bella St. Clair walked 1000 miles in 950 hours 

25 July, et seq. „ 

Weston engaged to walk 505 miles in 6 days at 
Agricultural hall, London, walked 460 18-23 Dee. ,, 

Match between Weston and O'Leary, for 1000 gui- 
neas ; won by O'Leary, who walked 520 miles, 
AVeston 510 miles . . . .2-7 April, 187/ 

Wm. Gale, aged 45, walked 1500 miles in 1000 con- 
secutive hours, at Lillie bridge, London, S.W. 
26 Aug. -6 Oct. ; 4000 J-miles in 4000 consecutive 
10 minutes, at Agricultural hall, Loudon ; com- 
pleted 17 Nov. ,, 

Match of 17 pedestrians at Agricultural hall; 
O'Leary won, walked 520 miles 18-23 March, 1878 

Grand match (of 18 competitors) for championship 
and 500L , Agricultural hall ; 6 days and 6 nights ; 
won by W. Corkey, who walked 521 miles 

28 0ct.-2 Nov. ,, 

E. P. Weston starts to walk over England 2000 miles 
in 1000 consecutive hours (except on Sundays), 18 
Jan. ; fails by 22J hours . . . .28 Feb. 1879 

Weston walked sscfmiles at the Agricultural hall, 
and won sir John Astley's belt . 16-21 June, ,, 

Blower Brown walked 553 miles in 6 days (won long 
distance championship of England, Astley's belt, 
&c.) 16-21 Feb. 1SS0 

Belt, &e. won by Rowell . . . 1-6 Nov. ,, 

Wm. Gale attempts to walk 2500 miles in 1000 horns ; 
walks 24055 miles. . 20 Nov. 1880, to 1 Jan. 1881 

Weston walks 5000 miles yo. 100 days (on teetotal 
principles) . . .21 Nov. 1883-15 March, 1S84 

Littlewood wins sir John Astley's belt at Westmin- 
ster Aquarium ; 405 miles in six days . Nov. ., 

George Littlewood walks 623 miles, 1,320 yards in 
six days at New York ; declared champion of the 
world"; concluded 1 Dec. iSSS 

PEDLARS, see Hawkers . The Pedlars' act 
passed, Aug. 1871. 

PEDOMETER AND ODOMETER, appa- 
ratus for measuring the distance traversed by a 
walker or carriage. 

Odometers, or road-measurers, are said to have 
been known in the 15th century ; and improve- 
ments in them were made in England by Butter- 
field, about 1678; and by Meynier, in France 

about 1724 
Wm. Grayson's odometer, or road-measurer, to be 

attached to carriages, was patented . 1 Dec. 1S51 
Ralph Gouts' iicdomcUr for indicating the steps 

taken by a walker, was patented . 4 Nov. 1799 

Wm. Payne's pedometer for the waistcoat pocket, 
patented 15 Feb. 1S31 

PEEL ACTS. Among the most important 
were the Bank Acts of 1S19 and 1844; the acts 
amending the criminal laws, 1827 ; dividing 
parishes into districts, 1843, and the act repealing 
the corn laws in 1846. 

PEEL ADMINISTRATIONS.* The first 

♦ Sir Robert Peel was born 5 Feb. 178S ; entered par- 
liament in 1809 ; became under-secretary of the colonies 
in 1811, chief secretary for Ireland in 1812 ; M.P. for 
Oxford in 1818 (when he resigned his office); secretary 
for home department in 1822 ; resigned office and re- 
appointed in 1827 ; resigned again in 1830 ; became 



PEELITES. 



732 



PELEW ISLANDS. 



succeeded the Melbourne administration, which, 
was broken up on the retirement of lord Altliorp, 
the chancellor of the exchequer, in Nov. 1834. 
Sir E. Peel, then in Italy, was summoned home, 
the duke of Wellington holding the seals of office in 
the interim. They both resigned in April, 1835. 
In May, 1841, sir E. Peel carried a vote of want of 
confidence in the Melbourne cabinet, but did not 
take office ; and in Sept. of that year, he became 
again premier. He lost the. support of the conserva- 
tive party by obtaining the repeal of the corn laws, 
and resigned 29 June, 1846. 

First administration (Dec. 1834). 
Sir Robert Peel, first lord of the treasury and chancellor 

of the exchequer. 
Lord Lyndlmrst, lord chancellor. 
Earl of Rosslyn, lore!, president. 
Lord Wharncliffe, privy seed. 
Henry Goulburn, duke of "Wellington, and earl of 

Aberdeen, home, foreign, and colonial secretaries of state. 
Earl De Grey, first lord of the admiralty. 
Lord Ellenborough, and Alexander Baring, board of 

control and trade. 
Sir Edward Knatchbull, paymaster of the forces. 
J. C. Hemes, seer -etary-o] -war. 
Sir George Murray, master-general of the ordnance, &c. 

SECOND ADMINISTRATION (Sept. 1841). 

Sir Robert Peel, first minister. 

Duke of "Wellington in the cabinet without office, aft. 
commander-in-chief. 

Lord Lyndlmrst, lord chancellor. 

Lord Wharncliffe, lord president. 

Duke of Buckingham, lord privy-seal (succeeded by duke 
of Buccleueh). 

Sir James Graham, earl of Aberdeen, and lord Stanley, 
home, foreign, and colonial secretaries. 

Henry Goulburn, chancellor of the exchequer. 

Earl of Haddington, first lord of the admiralty. 

Earl of Ripon, board' of trade (succeeded by W. E. Glad- 
stone). 

Lord Ellenborough, India board (succeeded by lord Fitz- 
gerald ; succeeded by earl of Ripon). 

Sir Henry Hardinge, sir Edward Knatchbull, sir George 
Murray, &c. 

[Terminated 29 June, 1846, by sir Robert's resigna- 
tion.] 

PEELITES, a name given to gentlemen, whigs 
and tories, who adhered to sir Eobert Peel, after 
his defeat by the conservative party, on account of 
his free-trade measures carried in 1846. The 
principal were Henry Goulburn, ^Y. E. Gladstone, 
Sidney (afterwards lord) Herbert, sir James Gra- 
ham, Edward Cardwell, sir George Cleric, lord Lin- 
coln (afterwards duke of Newcastle), and lords 
Canning and Elgin, and others. Several of them 
became members of the Palmerston and Aberdeen 
administrations (which see). 

PEEL PICTURES. The family collection 
(70) were purchased for the National Gallery for 
75,000/. 1871. 

PEEP-O' -DAY-BOYS, insurgentsin Ireland, 

who visited the houses of their antagonists at 
break of day, in search of arms. They first appeared 
4 July, 1784, and were long the terror of the 
country ; see Defenders. 

PEEEESSES of the United Kingdom (in 
their own right) : 7 in 1885, Countess of Cromartie 
(duchess of Sutherland), baronesses Berkeley, Ber- 
ners, Burdett-Coutts, Le Despencer, Willoughby 
D'Eresby, Bolsover. In 1892, 6: viscountess Ham- 
premier in 1834 and 1841 (see above). He was thrown 
from his horse 29 June, and died 2 July, 1850. He greatly 
relaxed the severity of our criminal code in 1827, et scq. ; 
established the new police, and carried the catholic 
emancipation bill in 1829, and the repeal of the corn laws 
in 1846. Statues have been erected to him~at Salford, 
iu 1852 ; at Tamworth, Leeds, Bury, and Manchester, in 
1853 ; and in London and Birmingham in 1855. 



bleden and baronesses Berkeley, Berners, Bolsover, 
Burdett-Coutts and Macdonahf of Earnsclift'e. 

PEEES, see lords. 

PEGTJ, a province of Ihe Burmese empire, dis- 
covered by the Portuguese in 1520. Pegu, the 
capital, was taken by major Cotton, with 300 men, 
in June, 1852, without loss ; and afterwards 
abandoned. It was again occupied by the Burmese 
and strongly fortified, with a garrison of 4000 men. 
It was recaptured by general Godwin with 1200 
men and two guns, in two hours, with the loss of 
six killed and thirtj'-two wounded. The province 
was annexed to our Indian possessions, by procla- 
mation, 20 Dec. 1852, and has since prospered. In 
Feb. 1862, it was united with Arracan and Tenas- 
serim as British Burmah. 

PEIHO, see China, 1859, i860. 

PEISHWA, the prime minister of the Mah- 
rattas, seized the sovereign power and settled at 
Poonah, 1749. The title was abolished in 1818. 

PEIWAE PASS (Kotul), in the Khoorum 
valley, Afghanistan. Here general Koberts, with 
the 72nd highlanders and the Ghoorkas, defeated the 
Afghans, 2 Dec. 1878. Major Anderson and capt. 
Kelso were killed, and about 80 men were killed and 
wounded. The enemy's loss was very great. 

PEKIN, the capital of China, was built by 
Kachilai-Khan, grandson of Genghis- [Chan, about 
1267. Here was held the court of the Mongol or 
Yuen dynasty, 1280 to 1368. In 1369, Hung-wu, 
of the Ming dynasty, removed to Nankin, which, 
was the capital till Yung-lo removed his court to 
Pekin in 1410 ; and by him and his successors the 
city was enlarged, fortified, and beautified. It was 
visited by lord Macartney, Sept. 1793; surrendered 
to the allied English and French armies, 12 Oct. 
i860; and evacuated by them 5 Nov., after peace 
had been signed 24 Oct. It was described as being in 
a very desolate state, and the inhabitants scattered 
and indigent. English and French representatives 
were settled at Pekin, March, 1861. Preliminary 
Peace with France concluded here, 5 April, 1885. 
The famous temple or Altar of Heaven burnt 18 
Sept. 1889. Population, estimated 1874, 1)648,814. 

PELAGIANS, followers of Pelagius, a Briton, 
appeared at Home about 400. Their doctrines were 
condemned by councils at Jerusalem, Carthage, and 
other places, 415,530. They maintained : — 
1. That Adam was by nature mortal, and whether he had 
sinned or not would certainly have died. 2. That the 
consequences of Adam's sin were confined to his own 
person. 3. That new-born infants are in the same 
condition with Adam before the fall. 4. That the law 
qualified men for the kingdom of heaven, and was 
founded upon equal promises with the Gospel. 5. 
That the general resurrection of the dead does not fol- 
low in virtue of Christ's resurrection. 

PELASGI, the primitive inhabitants of Asia 
Minor, Greece, and Italy, appear to have belonged 
to the Indo-Germanie race. They were in Greece 
about 1900 B.C., and in Italy about 1600 B.C. They 
have been termed Tyrrheni, Sicanior Siculi, Apuli, 
&c. From the Pelasgi came the Dorians, jEolians, 
and Ionians ; all three being Hellenes or Greeks. 
The Pelasgi appear not to have had the art of 
writing, but have left numerous architectural re- 
mains ; they were probably a wealthy, powerful 
and intelligent people. 

PELEW ISLANDS (N. Pacific Ocean), dis- 
covered by the Spaniards in the 17th century. The 
East India Company's packet Antelope, captain 
Wilson, was wrecked here in 1783. The king, 
Abba Thullc, allowed captain Wilson to bring prince 



PELHAM ADMINISTRATION. 



733 



PENNSYLVANIA. 



Le Boo, his sou, to England, where he arrived 
in 1784, and died of the small-pox soon after. The 
East India Company erected a monument over his 
grave in Rotherhithe churchyard. 

PELHAM ADMINISTRATION. Mr. H. 

Pelham replaced the eaiiof Wilmington as premier, 
25 Aug. 1743 ; see Wilmington. Iu Nov. 1744, 
the following ministry was formed (termed " the 
broad bottom administration," because it compre- 
hended a grand coalition of the parties). It was 
dissolved by the death of Mr. Pelham, 6 March, 
1754- 
Henry Pelham, first lord of the treasury and chancellor of 

the exchequer. 
Lord Hardwieke, lord chancellor. 
Duke of Dorset, president of the council. 
Earl Gower, lord privy seal. 
Duke of Newcastle aud the earl of Harrington, secretaries 

of state. 
Duke of Montagu, master-general of the ordnance. 
Duke of Bedford, first lord of the admiralty. 
Duke of Grafton, lord chamberlain. 
Duke of Richmond, master of the horse. 
Duke of Argyll, keeper of the great seal of Scotland. 
Marquis of Tweeddale, secretary of state for Scotland. 

All of the cabinet. 
The duke of Devonshire and duke of Bolton were not of 
the cabinet. 

PELLS (from pellis, skin), receipts on parch- 
ment rolls deposited in the court of exchequer. 
By an act passed in 1834, the office of clerk of the 
pells was abolished, and a comptroller-general 
appointed. "Pell Records," or "Issues of the 
Exchequer," or payments made out of his revenue 
by James I., were published by the government in 
1836. 

PELOPIUM, see Niobium. 

PELOPONNESUS (the island of Pelops), a 
peninsula, S. Greece, termed Morea in the 13th 
century, said to have been settled by Pelops about 
1283 b.c. Pelopoxnesian War continued for 
twenty-seven years between the Athenians and the 
people of the Peloponnesus, with their respective 
allies, and is the most famous of the wars of Greece. 
It began by an attempt of the Boeotians to surprise 
Plattea, 431 B.C., on 7 May, and ended 404 by the 
taking of Athens by the Lacedaemonians. 

PELTJSIUM (now Tineli), formerly Sin, the 
key of Egypt. Here, in 525 B.C., Psammeticus III. 
was defeated by Cambyses, the Persian, Avho thereby 
■obtained possession of the kingdom. Pelusium 
surrendered to Alexander, 333 ; was taken by the 
Persians, 309; by Antiochus, 173; by Augustus, 
30 B.C. ; and after a protracted resistance by Am- 
rou, the Saracen, a.d. 638. 

PEMBROKE (S. Wales). A county palatine 
till 1536. The royal dockyai'd at Milford was 
moved to Pembrokein 1814. Pembroke College 
and Hall, see under Oxford and Cambridge. Popu- 
lation, i88r, 14,156; 1891, 14,978. 

PENAL LAWS, see Criminal Laws and 
Roman Catholics. Penal servitude was substituted 
for transportation by acts passed in 1853 and 1857, 
and amended in 1864. A penal servitude commis- 
sion appointed, 22 Jan. 1878. 
First session of the International Penal Law Union 

opened at Brussels 7 Aug. 18S9 

The Penal Servitude acts, 1853 et seq. combined by 

act passed 5 Aug. 1891 

PENANCE, a sacrament in the Roman church, 
arose out of the practice of auricular confession 
{which sec). The council of Trent, in its 14th ses- 
sion (1551), decreed that every one is accursed who 
shall affirm that this sacrament was not instituted 
by Christ. 



PENANG, or Pbin-ce op Wales's Island, 

was given up to the East India Company in 1786, 
by captain F. Light, who received it as a marriage 
portion with the daughter of the king of Keddah. 
After several changes it became one of the Straits 
Settlements {which see). 

PENDULUMS. The isochronous property 
of the pendulum is said to have been applied to 
clocks by Galileo about 1639, and by Richard Harris 
about 1641. Christian Iiuyghens claimed this dis- 
covery, 1658. See Clocks. George Graham in- 
vented the compensating pendulum, 1715. Experi- 
ments were made to determine the density of the 
earth by pendulums by Mr. (aft. sir) G. B. Airy 
(aftds. astronomer royal), and others, in a mine 
in Cornwall, in 1826 and 1828 ; and at Horton 
Colliery 1854. In 1851, M. Foucault demonstrated 
the rotation of the earth by the motion of a 
pendulum. 

PENGE MYSTERY, Surrey, see Trials, 
Sept. 1877. 

PENINSULAR WAR, see under Spain, 
1808-14. 
Wellington computed that he lost 36,000 men in 

this war — killed, prisoners, deserters, &c. He 

took great care of his men (1836). 

PENITENTIARIES. The London Female 
Penitentiary, Pentonville-road, was established in 
1807 ; and the British Penitent Female Refuge at 
Cambridge Heath, Hackney, in 1829. The Church 
Penitentiary Association, founded 185 1. See Jlill- 
bank . 

PENITENTS, see Magdalcns. The Penitents 
of the name of Jesus in Spain, were a congregation 
of persons who had led a licentious life, formed 
about 1550. The penitents of Orvieto were formed 
into au order of nuns about 1662. 

PENNSYLVANIA (N. America), the first 
state in the Union in regard to mineral wealth. 
The settlement by the Swedes here in 1643, 
was taken by the Dutch in 1655, and acquired 
\>y the British in 166L Pennsylvania was 
granted by Charles II. to the duke of York, 
1664; and it was sold to the Penn family, 
1681. [Pennsylvania was afterwards purchased 
from the Indians by the celebrated William 
Penn (son of admiral Penn), who' went out from 
England with a number of colonists ; from which, 
period the settlement gradually increased. Mr. 
Penn granted a charter in May, 1701, but the emi- 
grants from the Low Countries refused it, and 
separated themselves from the pr-ovince of Pennsyl- 
vania. They afterwards had their own assembly, 
in which the governor of Pennsylvania presided. 
This state adopted an independent constitution in 
1787, and established the present iu 1790. Capital, 
Earrisburg ; principal city, Philadelphia. It was 
strongly unionist during the civil war, 1861-5 ; see 
United States of America, anclPetroleum. For strikes 
see United States, 1877, 1882. Population in i860, 
2,906,370; in 1880, 4,282,891 ; 1890,5,258,014. 
Great destruction of property and life by a tornado, 

especially at Pittsburg and Reading, 9 Jan. i83g. 
Several days' violent storms and heavy rain in the 
Alleghanies, swelled the rivers awl caused the over- 
flow of the lakes, May, 1889. At 5 p.m. 31 May, the 
South Fork reservoir, a lake about 4 miles square burst 
the huge dam, and a mass of water rushed down the 
South Fork, four miles, by the deep circuitous Cone- 
maugh valley to its junction with the Conemaugfa 
river, driving all before it. For a distance of about 
12 miles round Johnstown the flood swept out towns 
and villages, destroying all the bridges, railways, and, 
factories. South Fork, Johnstown, Cambria city, 
Morrelville, Sheridan, and other flourishing towns 
were completely blotted out. A great mass of floating 
wreckage, which was stopped by a stone railway 



PENNY. 



734 



PEOPLE. 



bridge at Johnstown, took fire, above five hundred per- 
sons, who were hurled on the burning mass, perished. 
The most energetic measures were taken by the govern- 
ment, by several states and by the railway companies 
for the relief of the sufferers, and for averting imminent 
famine and pestilence. Bobbers of the dead and 
" living were lynched by a vigilance committee. Troops 
were sent to maintain order, liberal subscriptions were 
begun in London, Paris, and other places, June. 
It is stated that the dam had previously given visible 
signs of its being in a very insecure condition, and 
had not been properly constructed. Several towns 
and villages submerged, June ; many bridges swept 
away ; above 150 deaths reported, 
latest statistics state the result of the Johnstown 

disaster to be about 6,000 deaths . . 26 July, 1889 
Johnstown again inundated through heavy rains . 

about 16 Feb. 1891 
Panic in a theatre at Johnstown, 10 persons killed, 
many injured . . ... . .10 Dec. 1889 

Destructive storms with loss of life at Pittsburg 

and neighbourhood 8 Feb. 1890 

At Hartford coal-pit, Ashley, "Wyoming valley, 28 
men were entombed and 26 perished by a cave-in 

and explosion 15 May, „ 

A cyclone in the Wyoming valley and neighbour- 
hood, about 54 killed . . . about 19 Aug. „ 
By an explosion in the Friek mine, ten miles from 
Mount Pleasant, 151 out of 160 men perished 

27 Jan. 1 891 
Biotous strikes in the Pennsylvania coke district 
much destruction of property, ' reported 30 
March ; desperate fight ; 9 men killed, 2 April ; 
1,000 soldiers maintaining order, 3 April ; rioting 
renewed with desperate fights about 22 April, ,, 
A train containing 75 men thrown off the line while 
rushing through a burning forest near Conders- 
port, Potter county ; 5 men killed, many 

injured about 12 May, ,, 

After heavy rains, when the rivers had become torrents, 
early on 5 June, a cloud burst over the Pittsburg Oil 
regions, causing great inundations. At Titusville the 
tanks of oil and distilled benzine were upset and were 
ignited by lightning and the city was fired. A flaming 
stream, with floating wreckage carried all before it, de- 
stroying the bridges. Explosions followed, causing a 
panic, and the people fled to the hills, women and 
children being trampled on during the rush. The fiery 
river reachedOil city 18 miles distant, and a large part 
of it was reduced to ashes or submerged, 1892. 
It was reported that 150 persons were either drowned or 

burnt at Titusville, and about 200 missing. 
The loss of property at the two cities was estimated at 
3,000,000 dollars ; large sums were immediately sub- 
scribed for the relief of the sufferers, 6 June et seq. 
1892. 

PENNY. The ancient silver penny was the 
first silver coin struck in England, and the only one 
current among the Anglo-Saxons. The penny until 
the reign of Edward I. was struck with a cross, so 
deeply indented that it might be easily parted into 
two for halfpence, and into four for farthings, and 
hence these names. Copper penny and two-penny 
pieces were coined by Boulton and Watt, at Soho, 
Birmingham, in 1797, and were accounted the 
finest of our copper currency ; see Coins, &c. — 
Penny-Post ; see Post-Office. — The Penny 
Magazine began in 1832; the Penny Cyclopaedia 
in 1833 (supplements in 1846 and 1858). The 
Penny Receipt stamp was appointed in 1853 (post- 
age stamps authorised to be used for receipts after I 
June, 1881), and in 1858 a penny stamp was directed 
to be placed on bankers' cheques.— Penny Banks 
(in 1861 about 200) were established about 1850. 
They have become numerous, and in 1878 were 
authorised toinvesttheir funds. — PennyEeadings, 
for the working classes, became general in 1859. 
Carpenter's "Penny Readings," published in 1865-7. 
The value of the Roman penny (mentioned Matt. xx. 2), 

or denarius, was estimated at jhd. of our money. 
Penny dinners for poor Board school children; organi- 
zation proposed at Society of Arts, 6 Dec. 1884 ; see 
Destitute Children. A similar self-supporting system 
existed in the provinces. 



PENRUDEOCK'S REBELLION on be- 
half of Charles II. was suppressed, and colonel John 
Penruddock himself executed, 16 May, 1655. 

PENSIONS. The crown's power of granting 

them, often much abused, was materially checked 

by statute 1 Anne, c. 1 (1702). 

English pension list fixed at 95,000?. . . . 1781 

Irish pension list said to amount to 489^000?. . . . 1793 

Provision made by parliament to reduce all the pen- 
sion lists of the united kingdom from 145,000?. to 
a maximum of 75,000? 1S30 

A committee appointed to define the proper persons 
to whom pensions should be granted : it reported 
in favour of servants of the crown and public, and 
also of those who " by their useful discoveries' in 
science and attainments in literature and the arts, 
have merited the gracious consideration of their 
sovereign and the gratitude of their country " . 1S34 

The queen empowered to grant annually new pen- 
sions to the amount of 1200?. .... 1837 

The political offices pension act passed . 9 Aug. 1S69 

The pensions commutation acts passed . 29 June, 

1871 and 1SS2 

Death of Rev. Thos. Thurlow, nephew of the lord 
chancellor, whereby pensions for abolished 
offices, said to amount to 11,779?. ceased 26 Sept. 1874. 

Report of committee on such pensions published 

Sept. 1887 

Perpetual pensions were granted to the dukes of 
Grafton, Richmond, Marlborough, and many 
others in the 17th and 18th centuries. 

By virtue of an act passed in 1873, various perpetual 
pensions have been terminated by agreement for 
compensation 1890 

The Old Age Pension scheme of Mr. Joseph Cham- 
berlain, M.P., proposed the establishment of a 
state pension fund to be aided by annual parlia- 
mentary grants and contributions from local 
rates and from the annuitants, was considered by 
a committee of the commons, 16 March ; adopted . 

17 May, 1892 

PENTAGEAPH, see Pantograph. 

PENTAMETER YERSE (five feet), first 
used about the 7th century, B.C. ; see Elegy. 

PENTATEUCH, the five hooks of Moses, pro- 
bably written about 1452 B.C. See Bible. 

PENTECOST signifies the fiftieth, and is the 
solemn festival of the Jews, called also " the feast of 
weeks," because it was celebrated fifty days, or seven 
weeks after the feast of the Passover. 1491 B.C. {Lev . 
xxiii. 15 ; JSxod. xxxiv. 22) ; see Whitsuntide. 

PENTLAND HILLS (near Edinburgh). 
Here the Scotch presbyterians, since called Came- 
ron ians {which see), who had risen against the go- 
vernment on account of the establishment of episco- 
pacy, were defeated by the royal troops, 28 Nov. 1666. 

PENZANCE, Cornwall. The town was burnt 
by the Spaniards, July, 1595. It was taken by 
Fairfax in 1646. Here sir Humphry Davy was 
born, 17 Dec. 1778, and here was inaugurated his 
memorial statue, 17 Oct. 1872. Population, 1881, 
12,409; 1891, 12,448. 

PEOPLE. The duke of Norfolk and C. J. Pox, 
at a dinner in 1798, gave a toast "the majesty of 
the people," for which their names were struck off 
the list of privy councillors. A " people's petition " 
was presented to parliament by Mr. T. Duncombe, 
and rejected, 2 May, 1842. "People's Parks," 
principally through private liberality, have been 
opened since 1846, at Manchester, Halifax, Bir- 
mingham, Sheffield, Dundee, Bradford, Hull, Bath, 
Bolton, Liverpool, Leeds, &c. (which see). 
People's banks, based on co-operative principles 
have been successfully introduced into Germany 
and Italy by Dr. Sehulze-Delitzsch ; they begin with 
a deposit of z^d. and a monthly subscription of 
Sd. In 1387 there were 2,200 of these banks in 



PEOPLE'S PALACE. 



735 PERKINS' METALLIC TE ACTORS. 



Germany and in that year, less than half of 
them dealt with more than 50,000,000^ sterling. 
Their introduction into Great Britain is warmly 
advocated. 

People's Cafe Company established 1874, to give 
the working classes the advantages of club-houses, 
opened their first house in Upper Whitecross- 
street, London 16 April, 187s 

A " People's Tribute" to the earl of Beaconsfield, a 
gold wreath, made by Hunt & Roskell, by sub- 
scription of 52,800 pennies ; collected by the 
agency of Mr. Tracy Turnerelli. Its presentation 
was declined by the earl . . .16 June, 1879 
See Entertainment. 

PEOPLE'S PALACE, see Beaumont Trust. 
PEPPER was used by the Greeks ; licences to 
sell pepper abolished, 1869. Pepper imported into 
the United Kingdom in 1863, 16,810,467 lbs. ; in 
1883, 31.37S.589 Its. ; in 1887, 29,795,236 lbs. ; in 
1890, 29,691,858 lbs. 

PEPSIN, a peculiar organic substance found by 
Schwamrn in the gastric juice, and named by him 
from pepsis, digestion. It was experimented on by 
M. Blondlot in 1843, and has since been prescribed 
as a medicine. 

PEPYS' DIARY- Samuel Pepys was born 
23 Feb. 1632 ; became secretary to the admiralty 
about 1664; president of the Royal Society, 1684; 
died 26 May, 1703. His "Diary," as published, 
begins" 1 Jan. 1659-60; ends 31 May, 1669. 
The MSS. at Magdalene College, Cambridge, was 
deciphered by the Rev. John Smith. The first 
edition (with a selection from his correspondence) 
by Richard, lord Braybrooke, appeared in 1825. 
The publication of a new edition, "deciphered 
with additional notes by the Rev. Mynors Bright," 1 S75-9 

PERA, a suburb of Constantinople, the residence 
of the British and other ambassadors ; has frequently 
been destroyed by fire; see Turkey, 2 Aug. 1831, 
and 5 June, 1870. 

PERAK, see Straits Settlement. 

PERCEVAL ADMINISTRATION". It 

commenced on the dissolution of the duke of Port- 
land's, through his death, 30 Oct. 1809. Mr. Per- 
ceval was assassinated in the lobby of the house of 
commons, by Bellingham, n May, 1812. The earl 
of Liverpool succeeded as premier. 
Spencer Perceval [born 1762 ; chancellor of exchequer, 
1807], first lord of the treasu ry, chancellor of the exchequer, 
and chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. 
Lord Eldon, lord chancellor. 
Earl Camden, lord president. 
Earl of Westmorland, lord privy seal. 
Richard Ryder, marquis of "Wellesley, and earl of Liver- 
pool, home, foreign, and colonial secretaries. 
Lord Mulgrave, admiralty. 
Mr. Dumas, and earl Bathurst, boards of control and 

trade. 
Earl of Chatham, ordnance. 
Viscount Palmerston, secretary -at-war, &c. 

PERCUSSION CAPS, see Fire-arms. 

' PERCY FAMILY. William de Percy ob- 
tained lands in Yorkshire from William the Con- 
queror, and died at Antioch about 1096. 
The heiress of the last baron Percy married Josceline 
de Louvaine, son of Godfrey, duke of Brabant, in 

the reign of Henry II 1154-S9 

Henry de Percy, their descendant, created earl of 

Northumberland in 1377 

Many of his descendants were slain during the wars 

of the Roses. 
Lady Elizabeth Percy, the heiress of Josceline 
Percy, who died 1670, married Charles, duke of 
Somerset. 
Lady Elizabeth Percy, heiress of their son Algernon 
Seymour, duke of Northumberland, married sir 
Hugh Smithson, created duke of Northumber- 
land in 1766 



Their descendant, duke Algernon, died without 
issue, 12 Feb. 1865, and was succeeded by his 
cousin, George Percy, earl of Beverley, who dii d 
22 Aug. 1867 ; succeeded by George Algernon, the 
present duke. 

The Percy Society, for the publication of ancient 
ballads, &c, named after Dr. Percy, bishop of 
Dromore (died 1811), who published ballads, was 
established in 1840, published 94 little volumes, 
and was dissolved 1852- 

Pcrey Anecdotes, classified, compiled by J. C. Rol 
and Thomas Byerley, under the names of Sholto and 
Reuben Percy, 1820-3. 

PERED (Hungary)-. Here the Hungarians; 

under Gorgey were defeated by Wohlgemuth and 
the Russians, 21 June, 1S49. 

PEREKOP, an isthmus, five miles broad, 
connecting the Crimea with the mainland. It was 
called by the Tartars Orkapou, " gate of the Isth- 
mus," which the Russians changed to its present 
name, which signifies a barren ditch. The lines 
across the isthmus were forced by the Russian mar- 
shal Munich, May, 1736, and the fortress was taken. 
by Lacy, July, 1738. It was again strongly fortified 
by the khan, but was again taken by the Russians 
in 1771, who have since retained it. 

PERE-LA-CHAISE, see Cemeteries. 

PERFECTION, see Illuminati. 
. PERFUMERY. In Exodus xxx. (1490 B.C.), 
directions are given for making the holy incense, 
Philip Augustus of France granted a charter to the 
master perfumers in 1190. Perfumes became fash- 
ionable in England in the reign of Elizabeth. In 
i860 there were about forty manufacturing per- 
fumers in London ; in Paris about eighty. ]S T o 
such trade as a perfumer was known in Scotland in 
1763. Creech. A stamp-tax was laid on various- 
articles of perfumery in England, and the vendor 
was obliged to take out a licence in 1786. At the- 
corner of Beaufort-buildings, in the Strand, resided 
Lilly, the perfumer, mentioned in the Spectator. 

PERG-AMOS, see Seven Churches, 3. 

PERIODICAL LITERATURE, see News- 
papers, Magazines, and Reviews. "An Index to- 
Periodical Literature to 1 Jan. 1887." By W. F. 
Poole. Published in two volumes,i882-8. 

PERIPATETIC PHILOSOPHY, see Ly- 
ceum. 

PERIPLUS. The voyage of Hanno, the Car- 
thaginian navigator, probably in the third century 
B.C. His account of his travels, written in the- 
Punic language, was translated into Greek; an 
English translation, edited by Falconer, in London T 
1797. 

PERJURY. The early Romans threw the- 
offender headlong from the Tarpeian precipice ; and 
the Greeks set a mark of infamy upon him. After 
the empire became Christian, any one who swore- 
falsely upon the Gospels, was to have his tongue cut 
out. The canons of the primitive church enjoined 
eleven years' penance ; and in some states the false 
swearer became liable to the punishment he charged 
upon the innocent. In England perjury was pun- 
ished with the pillory, line, and imprisonment, 
1562. By the Abolition of Oaths bill, persona 
making a false declaration are deemed guilty of a 
misdemeanor ; Act 5 & 6 Will. IV. cc. 60 and 61, r> 
Sept. 1835. Perhaps the greatest perjurer in mo- 
dern times was Titus Oatcs ; see Oates. A woman 
named Alice Grey was convicted of many perjuries 
in 1856. See Trials, 1873. 

PERKINS' METALLIC TRACTORS, see 

Animal Magnetism. 



PEEMANENT COMMITTEES. 



m 



PEESIA. 



PEEMANENT COMMITTEES. One was 

appointed, 15 Sept. 1871, by the French national 
assembly to watch over the proceedings of the go- 
vernment during a recess. It consisted of 25 per- 
sons of various parties. A similar committee of the 
Spanish cortes, appointed 22 March, 1873, was per- 
emptorily dissolved by the government 22 April 
following. 

PEEMISSIVE PEOHIBITOEY BILL 

((which would give power to two-thirds of the rate- 
payers of a parish to refuse licences for the sale of 
intoxicating liquors) , advocated by the United King- 
dom Alliance party, was rejected by the house of 
•commons, 8 June, 1864; 12 May, 1869 (193-87) ; 17 
May, 1871 (206-124) '1 § Mav > l °7 2 (369-15) ; 7 May, 
1873 (321-81); 17 June, 1874 (301-75); 16 June, 
1875 (371-86) ; 14 June, 1876 (299-81); withdrawn, 
25 July, 1877 ; (278-84) 26 June, 1878. It is 
strongly advocated by sir "Wilfrid Lawson, late 
M.P.; resolution rejected (252-164) II March, 1879. 

Resolution to give local option (that is, power to the 
inhabitants of any place to stop licensing public- 
houses) was rejected by the commons (248-134) 5 
March, 1880; but adopted (229-203) 18-19 June, 1880; 
(196-154) 14 June, 1881 ; (228-141) 27 April, 1883; re- 
jected 29 April, 1891. 

'"Local Option," an Americanism, is said not to work 
satisfactorily in the United States. 

PEENAMBUCO, a province of Brazil, with a 
city of the same name, comprising Recife and 
other towns, founded in 1530 ; seized by the 
British, and retained for a month, 1594; insurrec- 
tions here, 1661, 1710, 1817, 1821, and 1829. Popu- 
lation, 1890, 190,000. 

PEEONNE (N. France) . Louis XL of France, 
liaving placed himself in the power of the duke of 
Burgundy, here was forced to sign a treaty, con- 
firming those of Arras and Conflans, and recognising 
the duke's independence ; 14 Oct. 1468. The not- 
ables declared the treaty invalid and the duke a 
traitor, Nov. 1470. 

PEEPENDICULAB, see Gothic Archi- 
tecture. 

PEEPETUAL EDICTS, see Edicts. 

PEEPETUAL MOTION. For this purpose 
machines have been constructed by the marquis of 
Worcester and many others, although the impossi- 
bility of attaining it was demonstrated by sir Isaac 
.Newton and De la Hire, and affirmed by the academy 
of sciences at Paris, 1775. It is still the object of 
•experiment by half-taught persons. See Pensions. 

PEEEANZABULOE, Perran in the sands 
•{in sabulo), Mid-Cornwall, named from Perran, the 
patron of tinners. The remains of an ancient 
British oratory or church, resembling the arrange- 
ment of protestant churches, were discovered in the 
■Band in 1835, with other interesting relics. 

PEESECUTIONS- Historians usually reckon 
ten general persecutions of the Christians ; see Jews, 
Heretics, Inquisition, Huguenots, Protestants, Mas- 
sacres, Bartholomew, St., &c. 

I. Under Nero, who, having set fire to Rome, threw 
the odium upon the Christians ; multitudes were 
massacred ; wrapt up in the skins of wild beasts, 
and torn and devoured by dogs ; crucified, burnt 
alive, &c. 64-68 

II. Under Domitian 95 

III. Under Trajan 106 

IV. Under Marcus Aurelius 166-177 

V. Under Septimus Severus .... 199-204 

VI. Under Maximus 235-8 

VII. Under Decius, more bloody than any preceding 250-2 

VIII. Under Valerian 258-60 

IX. Under Aurelian 275 



X. Under Diocletian, who prohibited divine wor- 
ship ; houses filled with Christians were set on 
fire, and many of them were bound together with 
ropes and cast into the sea .... 303-13 

PEESEPOLIS, the ancient splendid capital of 
Persia. Alexander is accused of settingfire to it, while 
intoxicated, 331 B.C. Ruins of this city still exist. 

PEESIA or IRAN, in the Bible called Elain,* 
W. Asia. The early history is mythical; see 
Media and Magi. Population of the present king- 
dom, about 6,500,000. 

Cyrus revolts against the Medes, and becomes king 
of Persia, 559 ; overthrows the Medo-Babylonian 
monarchy, about 557 ; conquers Asia-Minor about 
548 ; becomes master of the east, 536 ; killed in 
a war with the Massagetse 529 

Cambyses, his son, king, 529 ; conquers Egypt 
{which see) 525 

The false Smerdis killed ; Darius Hystaspes king, 
521 ; conquers Babylon 517 

Conquest of Ionia ; Miletus destroyed . . . . 498 

Darius equips a fleet of 600 sail, with an army of 
300,000 soldiers to invade the Peloponnesus, 
which is defeated at Marathon (which see) . . 490 

Xerxes (king, 485) ; recovers Egypt, 484 ; enters 
Greece in the spring at the head of an immense 
force ; battle of Thermopylae 480 

Xerxes enters Athens, after having lost 200,000 of 
his troops, and is defeated in a naval engagement 
off Salamis ,, 

Persians defeated at Myeale and Platsea . 22 Sept. 479 

Cimon, son of Miltiades, with a fleet of 250 vessels, 
takes several cities from the Persians, and de- 
stroys their navy, consisting of about 340 sail, 
near Cyprus 470 

His victories at the Eurymedon .... 469 

Xerxes is murdered in his bed by Artabanus . . 465 

Artaxerxes I. Longimanus, king, 465; marries Esther, 458 

Xerxes I. king, slain by Sogdianus, 425 ; who is de- 
posed by Darius II. , Nothus 424 

Artaxerxes II. Mnemon, king, 405 : battle of Cunaxa, 
Cyrus the younger killed 401 

Retreat of the 10,000 Greeks (see Retreat) . ,, 

War with Greece, 399 ; invasion of Persia . . . 396 

Peace of Antalcidas (which see) .... 387 

Artaxerxes III. (Ochus) kills all his relations at his 
accession . . . . . . . . 359 

He is killed by his minister Bagoas, and his son, 
Arses, made king 338 

Bagoas kills him and sets up Darius III. , Oodoma- 
nus, by whom he himself is killed . . . . 336 

Alexander the Great enters Asia ; defeats the Per- 
sians at the river Granicus, 334 ; near Issus, 333 ; 
at Arbela 331 

Darius III. treacherously killed by Bessus . . . ,, 

Alexander dies at Babylon, 323 ; when his empire was 
divided, Persia with Syria was allotted to Se- 
leucus Nicator, whose successors, the Seleucida;, 
ruled Persia, till it was conquered by the Par- 
thians, led by Arsaces I., the founder of the 
dynasty of the Arsacida? about 250 ; his successors 
ruled till the Persian revolt .... a.d. 226. 

Artaxerxes I. founds the Sassanides dynasty; re- a.d. 
stores kingdom of Persia 226 

Religion of Zoroaster restored and Christianity per- 
secuted 227 

Artaxerxes murdered ; succeeded by Sapor I. ; Ar- 
menia becomes independent under Chosroes . 240 

Sapor conquers Mesopotamia, 258 ; repels the Ro- 
mans and slays the emperor Valerian . . . 260 

Sapor assassinated ; succeeded by Hormisdas I. ; 
who favours the Manichees 272 

Varanes I. (Baharam) persecutes them and the 
Christians 273 

Varanes II. defeated by the emperor Probus ; makes 
peace 277 

Persia invaded by the emperor Cams, who conquers 
Seleucia and Ctesiphon 283 

Varanes III. king, 293 ; Narses .... 294 

The emperor Galerius conquers Mesopotamia, &e. . 298 

Peace with Diocletian „ 

* Elamite antiquities presented to the British Museum 
by col. Ross, 1S76. , 



PERSIA. 



737 



PERSPECTIVE. 



Hormisdas II. king 301 or 303 

Ormuz built about 303 

Sapor II. king, 309 ; proscribes Christianity, 326 : 
makes war successfully with Koine for the lost 

provinces 337-360 

The emperor Julian invades Persia ; slain near the 
Tigris, 26 June ; his successor Jovian purchases 
his retreat by surrendering provinces . . . 363 
Sapor annexes Armenia, 365 ; and Iberia, 366 ; 

makes peace with Rome 372 

Artaxerxes II. king, 380 ; Sapor III. . . . 385 
Armenia and Iberia independent . . . . 386 
Varanes IV., 390; Yezdejird I., 404; conquers Ar- 
menia 412 

Varanes V. , 420, persecutes Christians ; conquers 
Arabia Felix, 421 ; makes peace with the Eastern 

Empire for 100 years 422 

Armenia again united to Persia .... 428 

Wars with Huns, Turks, &c 430-2 

Yezdejird II. king, 440 ; Hormisdas III., 457 ; civil 
war, 458-86 ; Feroze king, 458 ; Pallas, 484 ; Kobad, 
486 ; Jamaspes, 497 ; Kobad again . . . 497 
His son, Chosroes I. king ; long wars with Justinian 

and his successors, with various fortune . . 531-79 
Successful campaigns of Belisarius . . . 541-2 

Hormisdas IV. continues the war ; degrades his 
general, Baharam, who deposes him ; but is 

eventually defeated 590 

Chosroes II. 591 ; renews the war with success, 603 ; 

Egypt and Asia Minor subdued . . . 614-6 
Chosroes totally defeated by the emperor Heraclius, 

who advances on Persia 627 

Chosroes put to death by his son, Sirocs, 628 ; Ar- 
taxerxes III. king, 629 ; Purandokt, daughter of 
Chosroes, reigns, 630 ; Shenendeh, her lover, 631 ; 
Arzcmdokt, her sister, 631 ; Kesra, 631 ; Ferokh- 

dad, 632 ; Yezdejird III 632 

Persia invaded by the Arabs ; the king flees, 641 : 
is betrayed to them and is put to death, and his 
army exterminated ... . . 642 

Persia becomes the seat of the Shiite or Fatimite 

Mahometans 661 

The Taherite dynasty established, 813 ; the Sof- 

feride, 872 ; the Samanide 902 

Persia subdued by Togrul Beg and the Seljukian 
Turks, 1038 ; who are expelled, 1194 ; subdued by 
Genghis Khan and the Mongols . . . . 1223 

Bagdad made the capital 1345 

The poet Hatiz died about 13S8 

Persia invaded by Timour, 1380 ; ravaged by him . 1399 

The poet Janii born 1414 

Persia conquered by the Turcomans 1468, who are 
expelled by the Shiites, who establish the Sophi 

dynasty under Ismail I. 1501 

Ispahan made the capital 1590 

The Turks take Bagdad ; great massacre . . 1638 

Georgia revolts to Russia 1783 

Teheran made the capital 1796 

War with Russia 18269 

Rupture with England through the Persians taking 

Herat {which see), 25 Oct. ; war declared 1 Nov. 1856 
Persians defeated ; Bushire taken . . 8-10 Dec. ,, 
General Outrani defeats the Persians at Kooshab, 8 

Feb. ; and at Mohammerah . . .26 March, 1857 
Peace ratified at Teheran ... 14 April, ,, 

Commercial treaty with France, &c. . June, ,, 

Herat given up by the Persians . . . July, ,, 
The sliah re-organizes the government . 9 Sept. 1858 
Railways in process of formation .... 1865 

Electric telegraph introduced 1867 

Great sufferings through three years' drought, ac- 
companied by fever and cholera ; about 16,000 
persons perished at Ispahan, &c. . July-Oet. 1871 
Collection in London for relief; above 13,000/. sub- 
scribed Oct. 1871— Feb. 1872 

Concession to baron Julius de Renter to make rail- 
ways, waterworks, &c. for 70 years, with great 

power 25 July, ,, 

Prosperity restored through a good harvest, March, 1873 
The shah starts to visit Europe, 19 April ; arrives at 
St. Petersburg, 22 May ; at Berlin, 31 May ; at 
Brussels, 16 June ; at London, 18 June ; receives 
the garter at Windsor, 2c June ; at Paris, 5 July ; 
at Turin, 25 July ; at Vienna, 30 July ; at Con- 
stantinople, 19 Aug. ; returned to Teheran 23 Sept. ,, 
The shah visits Europe in summer ; returned to 
Teheran 9 Aug. 1878 



Rebellious incursions of the Kurds suppressed after 
much bloodshed (see Kurdistan) . Oct. — Dec. 1880 

Treaty with Russia signed . . .22 Dec. 1881 

The Russians attack the Shohsovan tribes going 
into winter quarters, killed about 80 . Jan. 7886 

First railway constructed in Persia from Teheran 
to Shah-Abdul-Azim opened . . 25 June, 1888 

The river Karun decreed open to all nations by the 
intervention of England . . . 9 Sept. ,, 

The shah visits Europe ; at St. Petersburg, 23-26 
May ; Berlin, 9 June ; Amsterdam, 16 June ; Ant- 
werp, 22 June ; received by the prince of Wales 
at Gravesend, and sails to Westminster, 1 July ; 
at Windsor, 2 July ; at Guildhall, London 
3 July ; visits Birmingham and other places 7-29 
July ; Paris, 30 July ; Munich, 19 Aug. ; Vienna, 
23 Aug. ; Budapestii, 26 Aug. ; returns to Tehe- 
ran . . , 20 Oct. 1889 

Imperial bank of Persia established (concession to 
baron Julius de Reuter, 30 Jan.) . . 23 Oct. ,, 

Prince Malcolm Khan, long minister in London, 
recalled to Persia Dec. ,, 

Mirza Mahomet Ali Khan, new minister for Eng- 
land, received by the Marquis of Salisbury . 

4 March, 1890 

Great opposition of the priests and people to the 
monopoly of the Imperial tobacco regie (corpora- 
tion), 14 Dec. ; the monopoly abolished in the 
interior, 19 Dec. ; by a proclamation . 27 Dec. 1891 

Complete abolition of the monopoly demanded, 4 
Jan., granted 7 Jan. ; compensation to the com- 
pany to be paid April, 1892 

The Russian government offer to lend 500,000/. to 
pay the compensation to the tobacco corpora- 
tion, reported 23 April ; the otter declined ; a 
loan from the Imperial Bank of Persia, London, 
accepted about 16 May, ,, 

"Persia and the Persian Question," by the lion. 
George N. Curzon, M.P., published . May, ,, 

Sir H. D. Wolff, British minister . . . 1889 

A. D. SHAHS. 

1502. Ismail or Ishmael : conquers Georgia, 1519. 

1523. Tamasp or Tliamas I. 

1576. Ismail II. Meerza. 

1577. Mahommed Meerza. 

1585. Abbas I. the Great ; made a treaty with the Eng- 
lish, 1612 ; died in 1628. 

1628. Shah Sophi. 

1641. Abbas II. 

1666. Shah Sophi II. 

1694. Hussein ; deposed. 

1722. Mahmoud, chief of the Afghans. 

1725. Ashraff the Usurper ; slain in battle. 

1730. Tamasp or Thamas II. ; recovered the throne of 
his ancestors from the preceding. 
[Thamas-Kouli-Khan, his general, obtained great 
successes in this and the subsequent reigns. ] 

1732. Abbas III., infant son of Tamasp, under the re- 
gency of Kouli-Khan, who afterwards caused 
himself to be proclaimed king as 

1736. Nadir Shah (the victorious king) ; conquers India, 
1739 ; assassinated at Khorassan by his nephew. 

1747. Shah Rokh. 

1751. [Interregnum.] 

1759. Kureem Khan. 

1779. Many competitors for the throne, and assassina- 
tions till — 

1795. Aga-Mahommed Khan obtains the power, and 
founds the reigning (Turcoman) dynasty ; assas- 
sinated, 1797. 

1798. Futteh Ali-Shah. 

1S34. Mahonimed-Shah, grandson of Futteh : died, 10 
Sept. 1848. 

1848. Nasr-ul-Deen, orNassr-ed-Deen, son ; born 4 April, 
1831 ; the present shah of Persia ; said to be 
an able prince and friendly to Britain ; visited 
Europe, 1873, 1878 and 1889. 
ffetr : son, Muzafl'cr-ed-Dccn, born 1S50. 

PERSON, Offences against- The statute 

laws respecting these were consolidated and amended 
in 1861. 

PERSPECTIVE in drawing was observed by 
the Van Eycks (1426-46) and treated scientifically 
by Michael' Angelo, Leonardo da Vinci, and Albert 
Diirer, early in the 16th century. Guido Ubuldp 



PEETH. 



738 



PEEU. 



published a treatise in 1608 ; Dubreuil's treatise 
(.the " Jesuits' perspective") appeared in 1642, and 
the' mathematical theory was demonstrated by 
Brook Taylor in 1 731. 

PEETH (the old capital of Scotland) , said to have 
been founded by Agricola, about a.d. 70. It was 
besieged by the Eegent Robert, 1339. On 20 Feb. 
1437, James I. was murdered at the Black Friars' 
monastery here, by Robert Graham and the earl of 
Athol, for which they suffered condign punishment. 
Gowrie's conspiracy occurred here, 6 Aug. 1600. 
Perth was taken from the French garrison by the 
reformers, 26 June, 1559. The "Articles of Forth" 
relating to religious ceremonies, were agreed to by 
the General Assembly of Scotland, 25 Aug. 1618. 
Perth was taken by Cromwell in 1651 ; and by the 
earl of Mar after the battle of Dunblane, in 1715. 
The statue of the prince consort was inaugurated in 
the presence of the queen, 30 Aug. 1864. Popula- 
tion, 1881, 25 ; 25o; 1891, 30,760. 

PEETH, capital of western Australia {which 
see), founded 1829. Population, 1891, 9,617. 

PEEU (S. America), was long governed by 
incas, said to be descended from Manco Capac, who 
ruled in the 1 ith century. Population 1876, 2,6<)9 ; 945. 
Capital, Lima. 
Peru explored and conquered by Francisco Pizarro 

and Almagro 1524-33 

The last inea, Ataliualpa, put to death . 29 Aug. 1533 
Pizarro assassinated at Lima . . 26 June, 1541 
Fruitless insurrection of the Peruvians under Tapac 

Amaru, an inca 17S0 

San Martin proclaims the independence of Peru, 

28 July, 1S21 

War against Spain 14 Jan. 1824 

Bolivar made dictator . . . . . Feb. ,, 
Mariano Prado president ... 28 Nov. „ 
The Spaniards defeated at Ayacuelio, and freedom 

of Peru and Chili achieved 9 Dee. „ 

The new Peruvian constitution signed by the presi- 
dent of the republic .... 21 March, 1828 
War with Columbia ; treaty of peace 28 Feb. 1829 

After a succession of fierce party conflicts, general 
Ramon Castilla becomes president ; firm and 

politic 1845 

Exportation of guano began ' 1846 

His successor, Eehenique, deposed ; Castilla again 

president 1S55 

New constitution, 1856 ; modified . . . . i860 
Population (without Indians) about 2^- millions . 1859 
Marshal San Ramon president . . 24 Oct. 1862 

General J. A. Pezet president ... 3 April, 1863 
The Spanish admiral Pinzon took possession of the 
Chincha-isles (valuable for guano) belonging to 
Peru, stating that he would occupy them till the 
claims of his government on Peru were satisfied, 

14 April, 1864 
American congress at Lima ; plenipotentiaries from 
Chili and other states meet to concert measures 
for defence against European powers . Nov. ,, 
Negotiations followed by peace with Spain, 28 Jan. ; 

Chincha islands restored ... .3 Feb. 1865 
Revolt against president Pezet, 28 Feb. ; several 

provinces soon lost May, ,, 

The insurgents declare war against Spain . Oct. ,, 
They take Lima ; Pezet flies, and Canseco becomes 

president Nov. ,, 

Peru joins Chili, and declares war against Spain, 

Feb. 1866 
The Spanish admiral Nunez, in his attempt to bom- 
bard Callao, repulsed and wounded . 2 May, ,, 
The Spaniards quit Peruvian waters . 10 Slay, ,, 
Riots at Lima against religious toleration 15 April, 1867 
Invasion of ex-president Castilla, May ; dies of fever, 

30 May, ,, 
Mariano-Ignacc Prado resigns dictatorship ; made 

provisional president, 15 Feb. ; proclaimed, 

31 Aug. „ 
Insurrection against Prado ; lie resigns, 7 Jan. ; suc- 
ceeded by gen. La Puerto. ; Pezet's treaty with 
Spain confirmed 18 Jan. 1868 

Col. J. Balta president 1 Aug. „ 



1873 

1874 



1876 



Several towns in Peru suffered by great earthquakes 
(see Earthquakes) .... 13-15 Aug. t868 

Gold mines discovered at Huaeho . . . Oct. 1871 

Industrial exhibition opened at Lima . July, 1872 

Military insurrection at Lima : Tomas Gutierrez, 
minister of war, makes himself dictator, and im- 
prisons president Balta . . . . 22 July, ,, 

Unsupported by the people, and not recognised by 
diplomatic representatives, he orders Balta to be 
shot : is himself compelled to fly ; caught ; killed 
by the people, and hanged to a lamp-post ; col. 
Zavallos, vice-president, assumes the government ; 
order restored ; about 200 lives were lost during 
the coup d'etat . . . . 26 July, ,, 

Manuel Pardo elected president by the people, as- 
sumed office 2 Aug. ,, 

Armed riots in Lima at the execution of cols. Ganrio 
and Zevallo;i as rebels .... May, 

President Pardo escapes assassination . 22 Aug. 

Insurrection under Pierola ; he is defeated at 
Sorota, near Tarata .... 3 Dec. 

Talisman sailed from Cardiff for South America ; 
consigned to Peruvian rebels ; seized and con- 
demned as a prize, and English sailors impri- 
soned, Nov. 1874-Nov. 1875 ; report on ill-usage, 
English government promise inquiry . March, 

President, Mariana I. Prado ... 2 Aug. „ 

Reported insurrection of Nicolas de Pierolas, with 
about 6000 men, endeavouring to establish a 
southern confederacy .... 6-10 Oct. ,, 

He sails away with the Hnascar ironclad, 29 May ; 
this is attacked by adm. De Horsey, with H.M.S. 
Shah and Amethyst, as piratical, for attacking 
mail ships ; it is compelled to go into Lima and 
surrender ; the Peruvians resent British inter- 
ference, and threaten reprisals . . June, 1S77 

Peruvian government issues a circular to the 
powers, 10 June ; demands reparation 25 June, ,, 

Sir John Holker, att.-general, in house of com- 
mons, said that the Huascar had committed acts 
which made her an enemy of Great Britain, and 
had no belligerent rights ; and that De Horsey 
was justified in what he did . . 11 Aug. ,, 

Pierolas and his adherents amnestied . Aug. „ 

Ex-president Pardo, president of the senate, assas- 
sinated at Lima 16 Nov. 1E78 

Peru and Bolivia declare war against Chili, an- 
nounced 2 April, 1879 

For the events of the war, see Chili, 1879 — Pi 

Sanguinary revolution at Lima ; Pierolas proclaimed 

dictator ; Prado flees . . 22 Dec. et soj. ,, 
Lima occupied by the Chilians . . 17 Jan. 1881 
Seiior F. G. Calderon provisional president at Mag- 

dalena March, „ 

Anarchy in Lima March, ,, 

Pierolas, near Lima, declares for continual war, 

April, ., 
Pasco, a seaport, burnt by Peruvian soldiery ; about 

1000 inhabitants massacred, announced 20 Feb. 1882 
Pierolas quits Peru, announced . . 10 April, „ 
President Montero opposed to truce with Chili; 

disaffection May, ., 

President Iglesias formed a ministry about 12 

Sept.; he signs peace with Chili at Ancon 20 Oct. 1SS3 
Important territories surrendered. . . Oct. ,, 
Lima evacuated by the Chilians . . 23 Oct. ,, 
Arequipa surrendered to the Chilians . 26 Oct. „ 

Gen. Iglesias' government confirmed by elections, 

about 29 Jan. 1884 
Treaty with Chili ratified by the Notables, March ; 

partial evacuation of Peruvian territory May, ,, 
Gen. Caceres makes himself president in opposition 
to Iglesias ; enters Lima with a rabble, and is 
quickly repulsed .... 27 Aug. ., 
Montero oscillates between the two parties ; civil 
war continues ; Truxillo captured for Iglesias ; 
severe fighting announced . . . 17 Oct. ., 
Gradual submission to the government . Dee ,, 
Insurrection ; government troops defeated at 

Ayacuelio, announced . . . .2 May, 18S5 
Gen. Caceres defeated by gen. Iglesias at Huancayo, 

about 28 May, ,, 
Caceres' army disbanded, announced . 26 June, ,, 
Renewed heavy lighting announced, 9 July ; re- 
ported rebel victory .... 15 Aug. 
Government troops gain a victory over the forces 
of gen. Caceres, 16 Oct. ; at Jania about 19 Nov ; 



PERUGIA. 



739 



PETERSBURG, ST. 



Caeeres attacks Lima ; severe lighting ; Iglesias 
surrenders 2 Dec. ; Dr. Arenas elected president, 
3 Dec. ; Iglesias and Caeeres retire from Lima 
through foreign intervention . . 4 Dec. 1885 

Gen. Caeeres president .... 3 June, 1886 

Col. Remigio Morales Bermudez, president . 

10 Aug. 1890 

Revolutionary attempt of Pierolas' supporters near 
Lima defeated ; about 40 killed . . 2 Dec. ,, 

A new ministry formed by seuor Justiniaino Bor- 
gono, 24 Aug. 1891 ; succeeded by sen. Carlos 
Elias about 1 July, 1892 

PERUGIA, a city of central Italy ; as Perousia, 
anciently one of the Etruscan confederation. It 
allied itself with the Samnites, but was ruined by 
two defeats by the Romans, 309 and 295 B.C. It 
was taken by Octavius Caesar from the adherents 
of Antony ; many of whom were immolated on altars 
by their victor, 41. Leo X. took Perugia from the 
rival families Oddiand Baglioni, in a.d. 1520. An 
insurrection here against the pope was put down by 
the Swiss with great cruelty, 20 June, 1859 Perugia 
was taken by the Sardinian general Fanti, in Sept. 
i860, when the cruel papal general Schmidt and 
1600 men were made prisoners. 

PERUKE or WlG. The ancients used false 
hair, but the present peruke was first worn in France 
and Italy about 1620 ; and introduced into England 
about 1660, and prevailed more or less till about 
1810. 

It is said that bishop Blomfield (of London), in 1830, 
obtained permission for the bishops to discontinue 
wearing their wigs in parliament, of which they gra- 
dually availed themselves. On account of the heat, sir 
J. P. Wilde, and other judges and several counsel, 
appeared in court without wigs, 22, 23 July, 1868. 

PERUVIAN BARK, see Jesuits' Bark. 

PESCHIERA, a strong Austrian fortress, on 
an island in the Mincio, near the Lago di Garda, 
N. Italy. It has been frequently taken by siege : — 
by the French, 1796; by the Austrians and Russians, 
1799; by the French again, 1801 ; given up by 
them, 1814; taken by the Sardinians, May, 1848; 
retaken by Radetsky, March, 1849. The Sardinians 
were preparing to besiege it in July, 1859, when 
peace was made. It was given up to the Italians, 
9 Oct. 1866 ; see Quadrilateral. 

PESSIMISM (from pessimus, the worst), the 
opposite doctrine to optimism (which see). Mr. 
James Sully's " Pessimism, a History and a Criti- 
cism," was published in 1877. Arthur Schopen- 
hauer (1788-1860), an eminent pessimist, says,"AU 
life is effort, all effort is painful, the pains of life 
must predominate." 

PESTALOZZIAN SYSTEM of education 
was devised by John Henry Pestalozzi, bom at Zurich 
in Switzerland, in 1746, died 17 Feb. 1827. In 1775 
he turned his farm into a school for educating poor 
children in reading, writing', and working ; but he 
did not succeed. In 1798 he established an orphan 
school where he began with the mutual instruc- 
tion, or monitorial system, since adopted by Lan- 
caster; but his school was soon after turned into 
a hospital for the Austrian army. In 1802, in 
conjunction with Fellenberg, he established his 
school at Hofwyl, which at first was successful, but 
eventually declined through mismanagement. 

PESTH (Hungary), built about 839, on the 
east bank of the Danube, opposite Bada, was re- 
peatedly taken and besieged in the wars of Hungary, 
particularly with the Turks. The great insurrec- 
tion broke out here, and the minister, count Lam- 
berg, was killed, 28 Sept. 1848. Buda-Pesth was 
taken by the imperialists, 5 Jan. 1849. The Hun- 



garians afterwards defeated the Austrians, who were 
obliged to evacuate it 18 April, same year ; see 
Hungary. Buda-Pesth formally constituted 
capital of Hungary, Nov. 1873. 
Hungarian national exhibition opened 2 May, 1885.- 

PESTILENCE, see Blague. 

PETALISM (from the Greek petalon, a leaf), 
a mode of deciding upon the guilt of citizens of 
Syracuse, similar to the Athenian ostracism, the 
name being written on a leaf (generally of an 
olive) instead of on a shell, about 460 B.C. If guilt 
were established the sentence was usually banish- 
ment. 

PETARD, or PeTAR, an invention as- 
cribed to the Huguenots in 1579. Petards of 
metal, nearly in the shape of a hat, were employed 
to blow up gates or other barriers, and also in 
countermines to break through into the enemy's 
galleries. Cahors was taken by Henry IV. by 
means of petards, in 1 580, when it is said they were 
first used. " Hoised with his own petar." Shak- 
spear e, Hamlet iii. 4. 

PETER THE GREAT'S WILL, see under 
Wills. 

PETER THE WILD Boy, a savage creature 
found in the Harzwald, electorate of Hanover, - 
when George I. and his friends were hunting. 
He was found walking on his hands and feet, 
climbing trees like a squirrel, and feeding on 
grass and moss, Nov. 1725. At this time he was 
supposed to be thirteen years old. He died, while 
under the care of an English farmer, Feb. 1785, 
unchanged in his habits. 

PETERBOROUGH, anciently Medesham- 
stede (Northamptonshire) ; obtained its present 
name from a king of Mercia founding an abbey and 
dedicating it to St. Peter about 655. The church, 
destroyed by the Danes, was rebuilt with great 
beauty. The tower becoming dangerous, restora- 
tion resolved on, Dec. 1882. Foundation laid of 
new building, 7 May, 1884. Choir re-opened n 
July, 1889 ; Cathedral re-opened, 14 Oct., 1890. 
The bishopric was erected by Henry VIII., out of 
the lands of dissolved monasteries in the diocese of 
Lincoln. The first bishop was John Chambers, the 
last abbot of Peterborough, 1 541. The see was 
valued in the king's books at 4191?. 19s. nd. Pre- 
sent income 4500^. Population, 1881, 21,223; 
1891,25,172. 
Exhibition of relics of Mary queen of Scots opened 

19 July, 1887. 

RECENT BISHOPS. 

1794. Spencer Madan ; died, 8 Oct. 1813. 

1813. John Parsons ; died, 12 March, 1819 

1819. Herbert M irsh ; died, 1 May, 1839. 

1839. George D ivys ; died, 8 April, 1864. 

1864. Francis Jeune, May ; died 20 Aug. 1868. 

1868. Win Connor Magee ; elected 31 Oct. ; translate.! 

to York, 1891. 
1 89 1. Mandell Creighten, elected 13 March. 

PETERLOO, see Manchester Reform Meeting, 
16 Aug. 1819. 

PETERSBURG, ST., the modern capital of 
Russia, founded by Peter the Great, 27 May, 1 703. 
He built a small hut for himself, and some'wooden 
hovels. In 1710, the count Golovkin built the first 
house of brick; and the next year, the emperor, 
with his own hands, laid the foundation of a house 
of the same material. The seat of empire was 
transferred from Moscow to this place in 1712. 
Here, in 1736, a lire consumed 2000 houses; and 
in 1780, another fire consumed 11,000 houses; this 
last, fire was occasioned by lightning. .Again, hi 

3 b 2 



PETER'S CHURCH, ST. 



740 



PETROLEUM. 



June, 1796, a large magazine of naval stores and 
100 vessels were destroyed. The winter palace was 
burnt to the ground, 29 Dec. 1837. The railway to 
Moscow was finished in 1851 ; to Berlin, opened 
5 May, 1862. On 10 June, 1862, property to the 
amount of nearly a million sterling was destroyed 
by fire. Population, 1886: province, 1,660,859; 
city, 1885, 861,303. See Russia, 1862 et scq. — 
Petersburg, Virginia, see United States, 1864. 
Peace of St. Petersburg, between Russia and 
Prussia, the former restoring all her conquests to 

the latter, signed 5 May, 1762 

Treaty of St. Petersburg for the partition of Poland 

(see article, Partition Treaties) . . .5 Aug. 1772 
Treaty of St. Petersburg, led to a coalition against 

France .8 Sept. 1805 

Treaty of Alliance, signed at St. Petersburg, be- 
tween Bernadotte, prince royal of Sweden, and 
the emperor Alexander ; the former agreeing to 
join in the campaign against France, in return for 
which Sweden was to receive Norway 24 March, 1812 
Grand new Alexander II. bridge over tlie Neva 

opened 12 Oct. 1879 

Ship canal to Cronstadt completed, Feb. ; opened 

by the czar 27 May, 1885 

War memorial or glory monument uncovered by the 

czar 26 Oct. 1886 

•Semi-centennial anniversary of the foundation of 
the British and American chapel ; Russian digni- 
taries and foreign ambassadors present . 18 l)ec. 1890 

PETER'S CHURCH, ST. (Rome), originally 
erected by Constantine, 306. About 1450, pope 
Nicholas V. commenced a new church. The present 
magnificent pile was designed by Bramante; the 
first stone laid by pope Julius II. in 1506. In 
1514, Leo X. employed llaphael and two others to 
superintend the building. Paul III. committed the 
work to Michael Angelo, who devised the dome, in 
the construction of which 30,000 lb. of iron were 
used. The church was consecrated 18 Nov. 1626. 
The front is 400 feet broad, rising to a height of 
180 feet, and the majestic dome ascends from the 
centre of the church to a height of 324 feet; the 
length of the interior is 600 feet, forming one of 
the most spacious halls ever constructed. The 
length of the exterior is 669 feet; its greatest 
breadth within is 442 feet ; and the entire height 
from the ground 432 feet, Renewal of the leaden 
envelope completed, July, 1884. 

PETER'S PENCE, presented by Ina, king 
of the West Saxons, to the pope at Home, for the 
endowment of an English college there, about 725 ; 
so called because agreed to be paid on Peter Mass, 
I Aug. The tax was levied on all families pos- 
sessed of thirty pence yearly rent in land, out of 
which they paid one penny. It was confirmed by 
Oft'a, 777, and was afterwards claimed by the popes 
as a tribute from England, and regularly collected, 
till suppressed by Henry VIII. 1534. Camden. A 
public collection (on behalf of the pope) was for- 
bidden in France in i860. 

PETERS WALDEN (Germany), CONVEN- 
TION OF, between Great Britain and Bussia, by 
which a firm and decisive alliance between those 
powers was made against France, and the course of 
action against Napoleon Bonaparte was planned ; 
signed 8 July, 1813. This alliance led to the over- 
throw of Bonaparte in the next year. 

PETERWARDEIN (in Austria), was taken 
by the Turks, July, 1526. Here prince Eugene of 
Savoy gained a great victory over the Turks, 5 Aug. 
1716. 

PETITIONS. The right of petitioning the 
crown and parliament for redress of grievances is a 
fundamental principle of the constitution. Peti- 



tions are extant of the date of Edward I. In the- 

reign of Henry IV. petitions began to be addressed 

to the house of commons in considerable numbers. 

In 1837 there were presented to parliament 10,831 

petitions, signed by 2,905,905 persons; in 1859,. 

24,386, signed by 2,290,579; in 1867, 12,744, signed 

by 1,145,216. See Ab/torrers, and Rights. 

A petition from Boulogne for a consul was brought in, 

but not received by the commons . April-May, 1875 

Evidence before a committee of the commons disclosed 

systems whereby vast numbers of fictitious and 

forged signatures were obtained, rendering the 

petitions for and against the continuance of the 

London coal and wine dues utterly valueless, May, 1887- 

PETO'S ACT, 13 & 14 Vict. c. 28 (1850), 
renders more simple and effectual the titles by 
which religious bodies hold property. 

PETRA, the ancient Sela, in mount Seir, near 
mount Hor, in the land of Edom. In the 4th cen- 
tury B.C. it was held by the Nabathceaus, who- 
successfully resisted Antigonus. About a.d. 70 it 
was the residence of the Arab princes named 
Aretas. It w r as conquered by Cornelius Palma, and 
annexed to the empire under Trajan, 105, to which 
period its remarkabls monuments are ascribed. It 
was an important station for commercial traffic with 
Rome. It has been described by Burckhardt and 
other travellers. 

PETRARCH AND Laura ; celebrated for 
the refined passion of the former for the latter, 
began in 1327, and the chief subject of his sonnets. 
He was born 1 304, crowned witli laurel, as a poet 
and writer, on Easter-day, 8 April, 1341 ; and died 
at Arqua, near Padua, 18 July, 1374. Laura died 
6 April, 1348. A commemoration of his death at 
Avignon and other places, 18 July, 1874. 

PETRO-BRUSIANS, followers of Pierre de 
Bruys, an early reformer, who was burnt at St. 
Gilles, Languedoc, as a heretic, in 1130. 

PETROLEUM, rock oil or mineral oil 
similar to paraffin, has been found in many parts of 
the world, especially at Rangoon. In 1859 and since, 
a number of oil-springs were discovered in the bitu- 
minous coal regions of N. W. Pennsylvania, now 
termed " Petrolia," and others have been dis- 
covered in Ohio and other states, and also in Canada. 
Numerous artesian wells were sunk, manufactories 
erected, and an almost unlimited supply obtained ; 
between 1859^77, 2,802,500,000 gallons; in 1863, 
8,907,365 gallons. Inconsequence of the importation 
of this oil into this country, and many accidents 
having taken place through its inflammability at 
low temperature, acts for "the safe keeping of petro- 
leum" were passed, 29 July, 1862; July, 1868, Aug. 
187 1, and 1879. Petroleum became an awful weapon 
in the hands of the insurgents in Paris, 23-27 May, 
1871. About fifty killed by explosion at a petroleum 
manufactory near Rheims, 16 July, 1871. The Pe- 
troleum Association test petroleum, with the view 
of preventing the importation of that which is 
dangerous. Refined petroleum imported : 1872, 
5,670,674^ gallons; 1877, 33,474,9515 gallons; 1881, 
58,371,386 gallons. Unrefined and refined : 1882, 
59,695,982 gallons ; 1883, 70, 526,996 gallons; 1884, 
52,975,789 gallons; 1885, 73,873,641 gallons; 1886, 
71,251,736 gallons ; 1887, 77,390,435 gallons ; 1888, 
94,401,285 gallons; 1889, 102,881,256 gallons; 1890, 
105,080,863 gallons. 

Petroleum oil found in Luneberger Haidee, Han- 
over ; a colony formed named Qilheiin announced 

Aug. iS3i 
Petroleum fire at Bristol ; fire floated through the 

drains into the river . . . .30 Nov. ,, 
The great petroleum grounds near Baku, a Russian 
town on the Caspian, long monopolized, set free. 



PETROLEUSES. 



741 



PHER.E. 



1872 ; greatly developed by Ludwig (died April 
1888), and Robert Nobel, Swedes, since 1875 ; 
34,000,000 gallons of oil produced in 1875 ; 
Russia supplied 200,000,000 in 1882 ; exporta- 
tion begun and greatly increasing . . 1884-91 

IBaku is the site of the ancient fire worship by 
the followers of Zoroaster.] 

Petroleum largely discovered in Austrian Galicia, 1S85 

Mr. Edwin N. Henwood's invention for use of 
petroleum for the production of steam announced 
March, 1886 ; Spiel's petroleum engine an- 
nounced April, 1886 

Petroleum discovered in Egypt on the coast of the 
Red Sea, March, 1886 ; reported successful 22 Aug. 1887 

Petroleum found in Burmah . . . May, ,, 

Destructive lire at the Markoff petroleum fountain 
near Baku 25 July. ," 

Large quantities of natural gas now used as fuel in 
ironworks &c. in Pittsburg, &c. . 1884 et seq. 

Mr. Penn's system of lighting by petroleum lamps, 
was introduced at the Cuxton station, S.E. Rail- 
way Nov. 1890 

Mr. Chenhall's process for solidifying petroleum to 
form cheap steam fuel reported successful 19 Nov. 1891 

PETROLEUSES, a name given to women 
charged with throwing petroleum on the burning 
houses in Paris during the siege by the govern- 
ment, Wiry, 1871. 

PETROPAULOVSKI, a fortified town on 
the east coast of Kamtschatka, was attacked by an 
English and French squadron, 30 Aug. 1854. They 
destroyed the batteries, but failed in taking some 
Russian frigates, except the Sitka, a store-ship 
taken by the President, and a schooner taken by 
the Pique. Admiral Price was killed, it is sup- 
posed by the accidental discharge of his own pistol. 
A party of 700 sailors and marines landed to assault 
the place, but fell into an ambuscade; many were 
killed, including captain Parker and M. Bourasset, 
English and French officers. The objects of the 
attack were not attained, it is thought from 
want of stores. After this the Russians greatly 
strengthened their defences, but on 30 May, 1855, 
the allied squadron in the Pacific arriving here 
found the place deserted. The fortifications were 
destroyed, but the town was spared. The Russian 
ships escaped. 

PETTY BAG, clerk of the: power was given to 
the treasury, with consent of the lord chancellor 
and master of the rolls, to abolish this office, by the 
Great Seal Offices Act, 1874. 

PEVENSEY (Sussex), said to be the site of 
the Roman Anderida, on which a Norman castle 
was erected. Here William of Normandy landed, 
28 or 29 Sept. 1066. The duke of York, in the 
.reign of Henry IV., was for some time confined 
tvithin the walls of this castle; as was also queen 
Joan of Navarre, the last wife of Henry IV., who, 
with her confessor, friar Randal, was accused of a 
design to destroy Henry V., her step-son. 

PEWS in churches. " In a London will we 
read of sedile vocation, pciv" (a seat called pew), 
1453. Pews were censured by Latimer and Brad- 
ford, 1553. fPaleot. The church of Geddington 
St. Mary, Northamptonshire, long contained a pew 
dated 1602. The rev. W. M. II. Church (vicar 
1844-6) restored and re-scated the church, and pre- 
served the panel with the date in the door of the 
eurplice press. Another pew in the chancel was 
-dated 1604. 

PFAFFENDORF and Liegnitz (Silesia). 
Near these two places was fought a battle between 
the Imperialists and Prussians, 15 Aug. 1760. The 
Austrians were defeated by Frederick of Prussia, 
who thus prevented the junction of the llussian and 
Austrian armies. 



PHALANX, the Greek phalanx consisted of 
8000 men in a square battalion, with shields joined, 
and spears crossing each other. The battalion 
of Philip of Macedon, called the Macedonian pha- 
lanx, was formed by him about 360 B.C. 

PHALANSTERY, see Fourierism. 

PHALSBOURG (Pfalzburg, Palatine city), a 
strong town of Alsace, was founded in 1570, by the 
elector palatine George John. It was ceded to France 
in i66r, and its fortress erected by Vauban, 1679. 
It checked the progress of the victorious armies of 
the allies both in 1814 and 1815, and withstood the 
Germans from 16 Aug. to 12 Dec. 1870, when it 
capitulated unconditionally. It was retained at the 
peace in Feb. 187 1. 

PHARAOH'S SERPENTS, a dangerous 
chemical toy, composed of sulpho- cyanide of mer- 
cury, appeared in Paris in the summer of 1865. 

PHARISEES, a sect among the Jews; so 
called from pharash, a Hebrew word for separated, 
because they pretended to a greater degree of holiness 
than the rest of the Jew r s. Luke xviii. 9-12. The 
Talmud enumerates seven classes of Pharisees. 

PHARMACOPOEIA, a book of directions for 
the preparation of medicine, published by colleges 
of physicians, the earliest in England 1618. In 
1862 the General Medical Council were empowered 
to prepare and sell a new pharmacopoeia, to super- 
sede those of the colleges of London, Edinburgh, 
and Dublin, which was published in June, 1864 ; 
succeeded by a new one in May, 1867 ; reprinted, 
1890. 

PHARMACY : the knowledge of the chemical 
and medical properties of drugs and other things 
employed medicinally. The Pharmaceutical Society 
of Great Britain, founded I June, 1841, mainly by 
Mr. Jacob Bell, obtained its charter in 1843. It 
publishes a weekly journal. — The pharmacy act, 
1852, regulates the qualifications of pharmaceutical 
chemists. It was amended by the pharmacy act of 
1868 which required all sellers of poisons to be 
registered after 31 Dec. 1868; act amended in 1869. 
Sale of Food and Drugs Act passed . 11 Aug. 1875 
Pharmaceutical Society of Ireland was instituted 

by the Irish Pharmacy Act, passed . 11 Aug. ,, 
Pharmacy. — An international pharmaceutical con- 
gress (with an exhibition) was opened in London 

1 Aug. 1 88 1 
International Pharmaceutical congress at Brussels, 

31 Aug. 1885 

PHAROS, an island on the coast of Egypt, on 
which was erected the celebrated lighthouse called 
the tower of Pharos, begun by Sostratus of Cnidus, 
298, and completed by king Ptolemy Philadclphus 
about 283 B.C. On the top fires were constantly 
kept to direct sailors in the bay. See Liglithouscs. 

PHARSALIA, a strong city in Thcssaly, 
N. Greece. Near it Julius Ciesar defeated his rival 
Tompcy, 9 Aug. 48 B.C., and became virtually 
master of the known world. Pompey fled to Egypt, 
where he was treacherously slain, by order of 
Ptolemy the younger, then a minor, and his body 
left naked on the strand, till it was burnt by his 
faithful freedman, Philip. 

PHENOL, or phenic acid, names for carbolic 
acid {which see). 

PHENOPHTHALMOSCOPE, an appara- 
tus for investigating the movements of the eye-bnll, 
invented by Douders, of Utrecht, and announced in 
1870. 

PHER^E (Thcssaly, N. Greece), sec Thcssalij. 



PHIGALIAN MAEBLES. 



742 



PHILOSOPHY. 



PHIGALIAN MARBLES, in the British 
Museum, were purchased for it by the prince regent 
in 1815. They consist of portions of the frieze 
taken from the temple of Apollo Epicurus at 
Phigaleia in Arcadia, and are reputed to be works 
of the earlier school of Phidias, who died 432 B.C. 
The bas-reliefs represent the conflicts of the Greeks 
and Amazons, and of the Centaurs and Lapithse. 

PHILADELPHIA (Asia Minor), see Seven 
Churches. — Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, w.is 
planned by "William Penn 24 Oct. 1682. The first 
American congress assembled here in 1774, an ^ 
promulgated the declaration of independence on 
4 July, 1776. It was the capital of the Union till 
1800, when Washington was selected in its place. 
The National Union Convention held its first 
meeting here 14 Aug. 1866; see United States. 
Population 1880,847,170; 1890, 1,046,964. 

Beginning of centennial year celebrated witli great 

demonstration 2 Jan. 1876 

International exhibition opened by the president, 

the emperor and empress of Brazil present ; very 

successful ; about 130,000 persons present 

10 May, ,, 
Said to be the most extensive of all exhibitions 

hitherto ; vista of three-eighths of a mile ; main 

building 1900 feet long ; 6 other large buildings, 

and 200 smaller. 
Prizes awarded to exhibitors ; out of n,oco, 488 

given to Great Britain . . . .27 Sept. ,, 
About 80,000 persons admitted by payment daily, 

Sept. ; exhibition closed . . . 10 Nov. ,, 
[Total admitted, 9,789,392 ; daily average, 61,568 ; 

receipts, 3,813,749 dollars.] 
International congress respecting education July, ,, 
A permanent exhibition opened by president Hayes 

10 May, 1877 
Great storm : 384 dwellings, 31 churches, and many 

public buildings destroyed ; 8 ships sunk ; esti- • 

mated loss, 2,000,000 dollars . . 24 Oct. 1878 
Grand festival to honour gen. Grant on return from 

his long tour 17-24 Dec. 1879 

Foundation of city celebrated . . 24 Oct. 1882 
Great Irish convention . . . 25-27 April, 1883 
Fire at lunatic asylum, 28 perish . . 12 Feb! 1885 
Celebration of the centenary of the adoption of the 

federal constitution (see United States) 15 Sept. 1S87 
Mr. John Bardsley, the defaulting city treasurer, 

sentenced to 15 years' solitary confinement and 

heavy fine 2 j„] v , 1891 

The Grand Central theatre, the Times offices and 

other buildings burnt, several persons perish 

27 April, 1892 

PHILANTHEOPIC SOCIETY, for the 
reformation of criminal boys, was established in 
1788, and incorporated in 1806. It supports a farm- 
school at Eedhill, Eeigate, Surrey ; see Reformatory 
Schools. 

PHILHARMONIC SOCIETY (London), 
was established in 1813; first concert, 8 March. 
New Philharmonic Society began 1852. 

PHILIPHAUGH, near Selkirk, S. Scotland, 
where the marquis of Montrose and the royalists 
were defeated by David Leslie and the Scotch 
covenanters, 13 Sept. 1645. 

PHILIPPI (Macedonia), so named by Philip 
II. of Macedon. Here Octavius Crcsar and Marc 
Antony, in two battles, defeated the republican 
forces of Cassius and Brutus, who both committed 
suicide, Oct. 42 B.C. Paul preached here, a.d. 48, 
and wrote an epistle to the converts, 64. 

PHILIPPICS, the term applied to the orations 
of Demosthenes against Philip II. of Macedon, 
3.S2-34 1 B.C., and also to the orations of Cicero 
against Marc Antony (one of which, called divine 
by Juvenal, cost Cicero his life), 44-43 B.C. 



PHILIPPINE ISLES (in the Malay Archi- 
pelago), discovered by Magellan, in March, 1521, 
who here lost his life in a skirmish. They were 
taken possession of in 1.565 by a fleet from Mexico, 
which first stopped at the island of Zeba, and sub- 
dued it. In 1570 a settlement was effected at the 
mouth of the Manilla river, and Manilla became 
the capital of the Spanish possessions in the 
Philippines; see Manilla and Earthquakes. The 
Philippine commercial company was unsuccessful, 
1785. A successful Philippine exhibition was 
opened in Madrid, autumn 1887. 
Rebels defeated in a fierce engagement at Lanas . 

reported 10 Sept. 189X 
Mr. John Foreman's "Philippine Islands," was 

published in 1891. 

PHILIPPIUM, a metal of the yttrium series, 
found in Samarslrite earth (in llussia, North Caro- 
lina, &c.) by M. Marc Delafontaine, by means of 
the spectroscope ; announced Oct. 1878. Also said 
to have been found by Mr. Lawrence Smith, and 
named Mosandrium, July, 1878. 

PHILIPPOPOLIS, capital of (Eastern) Rou- 
melia, which see. Population, 18S8, 33,032. 

PHILISTINES, a people of Palestine, con- 
quered Israel, 1 156 B.C., and ruled it forty years. 
They were defeated by Samuel, 11 20; and by Saul 
and Jonathan, 1087. They again invaded Israel 
about 1063, when David slew their champion, 
Goliath. After David became king he thoroughly 
subdued them, 1040. In common with Syria their 
country was subjugated by the llomans, under 
Pompey, about 63. — In Germany, about 1830, 
Heine and the liberal party applied the temi 
"Philistines" to the opponents of progress, or con- 
servative party. 

In England the term has been applied to the 
opponents of "culture "and refinement, chiefly . 
among the upper middle classes by Mr. Matthew 
Arnold and others . ... 1867 ct seq. 

PHILOBIBLION SOCIETY, was insti- 
tuted in 1853 by Mr. ^- Monckton Milnes (aft. lord 
Houghton), M. Sylvain Van de "Weyer, the Belgian 
minister, and others. It publishes volumes of 
"Miscellanies," &c. 

PHILOLOGY, the science of language, much 
studied during the present century. 
John IIonie-Tooke's "Diversions of Parley "pub- 
lished 17S6 

Philological society of London established 18 May, 1842 
Lorenz Diefenbaeh's " Lexicon Comparativum " 1846-51 
32nd congress of German philologists met at Wies- 
baden, professor Curtius, president 26-29 Sept. 1877 
[See Language, Dictionaries, and GrammariaiCs.1 

PHILOSOPHEE'S STONE, see Alchemy. 

PHILOSOPHICAL LAMP, constructed 
by Johann Wolfgang Ddberciner, who applied in 
it the property possessed by spongy platinum of 
causing the combination of oxygen and hydrogen, 
discovered by him in 1823. 

PHILOSOPHY (love of wisdom), the know- 
ledge of the reason of things (distinguished from 
history, the knowledge of facts, and from mathema- 
tics, the knowledge of the quantity of tilings) — the 
hypothesis or system upon which natural effects are 
explained. Locke. Pythagoras first adopted the 
name of philosopher (such men having been 
previously called sages) about 528 B.C. Philoso- 
phers were expelled from Pome, and their schools 
suppressed, by Domitian, a.d. S3. Philosophy is 
now divided into: — 1. Moral or Ethical; 2. Intel- 
lectual ; 3. Natural or Physical. 



PHIPPS' EXPEDITION. 



743 



PHONOGRAPHY. 



MORAL AND INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY. 

Ancient Schools. — Pythagorean, about 500 b. c. ; Platonic 
(the academy), by Plato, 374 ; Peripatetic (the Lyceum), 
by Aristotle, 334 ; Sceptic, by Pyrrho, 334 ; Cynic by 
Diogenes, 330; Epicurean by Epicurus, 306; Stoic, by 
Zmo, 290 ; Middle Academy, by Arcesilaus, 278 ; New 
Academy, by Cameades, 160 ; New Platonists (who 
attempted to combine Piatonism with Christianity) : 
Animonius Saccas, died a.d. 243 ; Plotinus, died about 
270"; Porphyry, died about 305 ; Jambliehus, died 
about 333 ; Julian the emperor, died 363. 

Modern Systems. — Nominal, Jean Roscellin, about 
1052 ; Abelard, &c. ; Rational, Bacon, about 1624 ; Car- 
tesian, Descartes, about 1560: Reflective or Perceptive, 
Locke, 1690; Idealistic, Berkeley, 1710; Elective, 
Leibnitz, 1710 ; Common Sense, Eeid, 1750-70; Trans- 
cenlent.d, Kant, Hamilton, &c, 1770-1860 ; Scientific, 
Fichte, 1800-14 ; Absolute Identity, Sehellmg, 1800-20 ; 
Absolute Idealism, Hegel, 1810-30 ; Utilitarian, Ben- 
tham, Mill, &c. 1 790-1873 ; Positive, C'omte, 1830; 
Realism and Evolutionary Materialism, prevalent, Dar- 
win, Herbert Spencer, &c. 1873. 

natural philosophy. 
Greek and Latin. — Thales, about 600 B.C. ; Pythagoras, 
590 ; Aristotle and Plato, 350 ; Euclid, 300 ; Archi- 
medes, 2S7 ; Hipparchus, 150 ; Lucretius, about 100 ; 
Julius 0<esar, 50; Ptolemy, a.d. 150. 
Middle Ages. — Arabians: Ben Musa, 800; Alhazen, <fec, 
1 100. Herbert, Decimals, 959. Roger Bacon, Opus 
Majus, 1266. 
Inductive Philosophy : 
Copernicus's system published .... 1543 

Tyeho Brahc 1546-1601 

Gilbert's researches in electricity and magnetism 1600 

Kepler's Laws 1609-18 

Bacon's Novum Organum 1620 

Galileo's Dialogues 1632 

Royal Society begins {which see) . . . . 1645 
Otto Guericke — air pump and electi'ic machine . 1654 

Huyghens on pendulums 1658 

Newton — Fluxions, 1665 ; Analysis of Light, 1669 ; 
Theory of Gravitation, 1684 ; Principia pub- 
lished, 1687 ; death 1727 

Bradley discovers aberration „ 

Euler on Perturbation of the Planets . . . 1748 
Black on Heat ......... 1762 

Laplace on Tides 1775 

Lagrange, Mecanique Analytlque . . . . 1788 

Galvani and Volta's researches .... 1791 

Laplace, Mecanique Celeste. : 1799 

CErsted discovers electro-magnetism . . . 1819 

Faraday, magneto-electricity 1831 

Hers'chell, Whcwell, Tyndall, W. Thompson (lord 
Kelvin). 

[See Acoustics, Astronomy, Optics, Chemistry, 
Electricity, <fcc.] 

PHIPPS* EXPEDITION. The hon. captain 
Pbipps (afterwards lord Mulgrave) sailed from 
England in command of the Sea-Horse and Carcase 
ships, to make di-coveries, as near as possible to 
the North Pole. In August 1773, he was for nine 
(lays environed with barriers of ice, in the Frozen 
Ocean, north of Spitsbergen, 80° 48' N. hit. A 
brisk wind in two or three days accomplished their 
deliverance. They returned to England without 
having made any discoveries, 20 Sept. 1773. Nelson 
was coxswain to the second in command. 

PHLOGISTON, a term employed by Stahl to 
designate the matter or principle of tire; ''the in- 
flammable principle" of bisbop Watson, near the 
close of the 17th century. The chemical theory 
based upon it, considered to have been totally 
refuted by Lavoisier, 1 790, has been recently re- 
vived in a modified form. 

PHOCIS, a state in Northern Greece. The 
Phocians seized Delphi 357 B-C, and commenced 
the second Sacred War. They were opposed by 
Thebes and other states, and were utterly subdued 
by Philip 11. of Macedon in 346. 

PHOENICIA, on the sea coast of Syria. The 
natives were the most eminent navigators and 



traders of antiquity ; their cities or allied states 
being Tyre, Sidon, Berytus, Tripoli, Byblos, and 
Ptolemais, or Acre. From the 19th to the 13th 
centuries before Christ, they established colonies 
on the shores or isles of the Mediterranean — Car- 
thage, Hippo, Utica, Gades, and Panormus, and they 
are said to have visited the British Isles. Phoenicia 
was conquered by Cyrus, 537 B.C.; b} r Alexander, 
332 ; by the llomans, 47 ; and after partaking of 
tiie fortunes of Palestine, was added to the Ottoman 
empire, a.d. 1516. See Sidon and Tyre. 

PHQ3NIX CLUBS, of a treasonable charac- 
ter, were formed in Ireland in 1858. They met at 
night to drill. Several persons were arrested and 
tried in March, 1859, at Tralee ; but the jury could 
not agree on their verdict. Daniel Sullivan was 
condemned to penal servitude for ten years, April, 
1859. Eventually "some of the prisoners pleaded 
guilty, and were discharged on being bound over to 
keep the peace. 

PHCENIX PAEK MTJKDEKS, see Ire- 
land, 1882-3. 

PHONEIDOSCOPE, an instrument for ob- 
serving the colour-figures of liquid films under the 
action of sonorous vibrations, being a visible de- 
monstration of the vibratory and molecular motion 
of a telephone plate ; invented by Mr. Sedley Tay- 
lor, 1877 ; manufactured by S. C. Tisley & Co., 
London, 1878. 

PHONOGRAPH, a machine proposed to be 
attached to pianofortes and other keyed instru- 
ments, by which any music that is played may be 
written down on blank paper, since it rules and 
prints the notes simultaneously. It was patented 
by Mr. Fenby, 13 June, 1863. The motive-power 
is electro-magnetism. Machines with a similar 
object were projected by Mr. Creed in 1747; Mr. 
J. F. Unger in 1774 ; and by Mr. Carreyre in 
1827. 

A new phonograph by Thomas Elvey Edison, elec- 
trician of New Jersey, was announced Dec. 1877 
Linear indentations are made by means of a pin in 
a sheet of tinfoil by speaking or singing ; and 
from these casts may be taken. When these are 
rdaced upon the diaphragm of a telephone con- 
nected with revolving apparatus, the sounds may 
be reproduced with a weirdlike effect. Improved 
by Mr. Shelford Bidwell, 1879. See Telephone. 
A greatly improved instrument by Mr. Edison 
adapted for postal communication announced 
21 Nov. 1S37 ; successful experiments reported 

12 May, 1888 
Professor Graham Bell's graplwplwne, a modification 

of Edison's phonograph, was announced Nov. 1887 
Mr. Emile Berliner (of Washington) announced his 
gramophone, a modification of Leon Scott's 

plwnautograpli Nov. ,, 

The phonograph and graplwplwne were both exhibited 

to the British Association at Bath .' Sept. 1888 
Exhibitions of Mr. Edison's greatly improved 
phonograph, considered perfect in the record, 
reproduction and preservation of sounds of all 
kinds (wax is used in place of tinfoil) Nov. i338 ct seq. 
Mr. Edison receives phonograms from the duke of 

Cambridge, Mr. Gladstone, and others . Jan. 1889 
Mr. Edison adapts his phonograph to a "water 
motor as well as electricity . reported Sept. 1890 

PHONOGRAPHY (from the Greek phone, 
sound), suggested by Franklin, 1768. The Phonetic 
society, whose object was to render our mode of 
writing and printing more consonant to sound, was 
established, I March, 1843 ; sir W. C. Trevelyan, 
president, and Mr. Isaac Pitman, secretary, the 
latter being the inventor of the system which was 
made known in 1837. Among other works pub- 
lished by the promoters of the system, was the 
"Phonetic News," in 1S49; see Visible Sj>cech. 



PHONOPOEE. 



744 



PHOTOGEAPHY. 



Pickwick Papers in shorthand, first of a series, 
published by Mr. Pitman i May, 1883 

Messrs. Pitman tirst publish in phonography, the 
New Testament from engraved jjlat.es . 8 Oct. 1886 

Solfa system in shorthand first published 5 Feb. 1887 

The book of Common Prayer ; and a National 
" Phonographic Library " begun in . April, ,, 

Mr. Edison's talking dolls, which utter about 30 
words, by means of a concealed phonograph and 
clockwork, were exhibited at the Savoy Hotel, 
Westminster, 25 J?tly ; Edison's phonographic 
toy company announced . . . .July, 1890 

PHONOPOEE, an arrangement of telegraph 
Vires to facilitate transmission of sound, by check- 
ing' the influence of adjoining wires, the invention 
of Mr. C. Langdon Davies, announced, May, 1886. 
See Telephones. The system was stated to have 
worked successfully on the Sou!h Eastern railway 
between London and Folkestone, Feb. 1887, the 
Midland railway, and others, 18S9-92. 

PHONOSCOPE, an apparatus for testing the 
quality of musical strings, invented by M. Kcenig, 
and exhibited at the International Exhibition in 
1862. 

Mr. Edmunds' phonoscope, exhibited to the British As- 
sociation, Aug. 1878, is an instrument for producing 
figures and light from the vibrations of sound. 
The name phonoscope is given to apparatus used 
by M. M. G. Dumeny in photographing the lips 
of a speaker and so combining the images thus 
produced that they may be understood by a deaf- 
mute, June, 1892. See Photography, 1891. 

PHOSPHOE-BEONZE, an alloy of copper, 
tin, and phosphorus, invented by Messrs. Monte- 
riore-Levi and Kiinzel, of Belgium, in 1867. It is 
very hard, ductile, and elastic, with a colour le- 
sembling gold. 

PHOSPHOEESCENCE. The property pos- 
sessed by some bodies of retaining luminosity after 
exposure to light observed by the ancients ; espe- 
cially noticed by Vincenzo Cascariolo (1602), Boyle, 
Canton, "Wilson, and others; and specially studied 
by Edmond Becquerel, and Balmahi. See Lumi- 
nous Paint. 

PHOSPHOEUS was discovered in 1667, by 
Brandt, of Hamburg, who procured it from urine. 
The discovery was prosecuted by John Kunckel, a 
Saxon chemist, about 1670, and by the hon. It. 
Boyle about the same time. Nottv. Diet. Phos- 
phoric acid is first mentioned in 1743, but is said to 
have been known earlier. Gahn pointed out its 
existence in bones in 1769, and Sehcele devised 
a process for extracting it. Canton's phosphorus 
is so called from its discoverer, 1768. Phospho- 
rettcd hydrogen was discovered by Gengembre 
in 1812. The consumption of phosphorus lias 
immensely increased since the manufacture of 
lucifer matches. In 1845, Schrotter, of Vienna, 
discovered allotropic or amorphous phosphorus, 
Avhich ignites more slowly and is less unwholesome 
in working than ordinary phosphorus. 

PHOTOGEAPHY. The action of light on 
chloride of silver was known as early as tlie 16th 
century. The phenomenon was studied by Seheele 
(1777), Senebier (1790), Bitter and AVollaston 
(1801). From the results of these investigations, 
experiments were made by Thos. Wedgwood and 
Humphry Davy, in the Royal Institution, London, 
which were published in its Journal, 1802. Wedg- 
wood may be regarded as the first photographer. 
His paper was entitled "an account of a method 
of copying paintings upon glass, and of making 
profiles by the agency of light upon nitrate of 
silver." 



Further discoveries were made by Niepee in 1814, and 
sir J. Herschel in 1819. 

Louis J. M.-Daguerre commenced his experiments in 
1824 ; and in 1826 joined Joseph Nicephore Niepee, 
and worked with him till the death of the latter in 
1833. The production of Daguerreotype plates was 
announced in Jan. 1839 ; and the French chamber of 
deputies granted a pension to Daguerre and to Nicpee's 
son Isidore. 

In 1839 M r - Henry Fox Talbot first published his mode 
of multiplying photographic impressions by producing 
a negative photograph (i. e. , with the light and shades 
reversed) from which any number of positive copies 
may be obtained. His patent for producing the 
Taibotype or Calctype (on paper) is dated Feb. 1841. 

In 1851, Collodion (which see) was applied to photography 
by Mr. F. Archer. 

Herr Franz Veress of Klausenburg, Transylvania, 
photographs colours on glass and paper ; speci- 
mens are exhibited at the Photographic Institute at 
Vienna, March, 1890. 

The Photographic Society of London was established in 
1853. It publishes a journal. On 22 Dec. 1852, 774 
specimens of photography were exhibited at the rooms 
of the Society of Arts, Adelphi. 

Carte de Visite portraits (which sec) taken by M. Ferrier 
at Nice, 1857. 

In 1861 Mr. Thompson, of Weymouth, photographed the 
bottom of the sea. 

Photography was successfully applied to the transfer of 
works of art to wood blocks by Mr. John Leighton, in 
his illustrated edition of Lyra Germanica, 1861. 

In 1S61 professor O. M. Rood suggested the application 
of photography to the microscope. 

The tannin process introduced by major Russell about 
1861. 

The copyright of photographs is secured by an act passed 
in 1862. 

Dr. Henry Wright photographed objects of surgical inte- 
rest in Jan. 1863. 

The Wothlytype process, in which nitrate of silver anil 
albumen are discarded and a double salt of uranium 
and collodion substituted, invented by Wothly, was 
announced in the autumn of 1864. 

The light of ignited magnesium was employed for photo- 
graphs by Mr. Brothers, of Manchester, in the spring 
of 1864. 

Mr. H. Van der Weyde, an American artist, succeeded in 
making electric light very effectual in photography, 
1876-8. 

Photographs of the first page of the Times, containing 
many French advertisements (ij inch long by 1 inch 
wide), sent to Paris from Bordeaux by balloons, Jan. 
1871. 

Criminals ordered to be photographed (by the act for 
prevention of crime), from 2 Nov. 1871. 

Composite portraits (in which sometimes 9 components 
were used) formed by Mr. Francis Galton, by means 
of photography, 1877. 

The Autotype process for transferring and printing reported 
successful, April, 1873. 

Mr. E. J. Muybridge photographs, instantaneously, 
animals in rapid motion, 1881 et seq. See Zoopraxiscope. 

Capt. Abney photographs a disc in rapid motion by the 
electric spark, 17 March, 1882. 

Celestial Photography began with professor Bond, the 
astronomer, of Cambridge, U.S., who exhibited a 
photograph of the moon in 1851. Since then, Mr. 
Warren de la Rue, of London, has produced excellent 
photographs of the moon, and other heavenly bodies, 
and on 18 July, i860, photographed the solar 
eclipse. 

By means of the gelatine dry plate, the results of the 
astronomical work of years is now obtained in hours. 
Delicate details are obtained not only of comets 
nebula; and faint stars, but also of stars invisible by 
the most powerful telescopes. Since 1S76, Dr. W. 
Huggins and Mr. Andrew A. Common in England, and 
Mr. Draper in America, have been eminently success- 
ful in celestial photography. About 400 stars have 
been depicted in the space of two square inches. 

Photography successfully applied to the heavens by 
MM. Paul and Prosper Henry, 1885-6. Charts of the 
whole heavens expected in ten years. 

Decision by justice North that a photographer has no 
right to sell or exhibit photographs of private sitters ; 
"Pollard and wife v. The Photographic Company, 
Rochester," 20 Dec. 1888. 



PHOTOMETEE. 



745 



PHYSIC. 



Mr. A. A. Common's excellent telescope specially 
adapted for photography, set up at Killing, near 
London spring, 1890 

Mr. W. B. Woodbury s "Encyclopaedia of Photo- 
graphy," published 1890 et SP.q. 

M. Marey's method of photographing the motions of 
living animals by his chrono-photograph applied 
by M. G. Demeny to the movements of the lips in 
speech, the results being readable by deaf-mutes ; 

reported Aug. 1891 

*.' Photographie des Couleurs par la Methode inter- 
ferentielle de M. Lippmann,"by Aliihonse Berget, 
published June, ,, 

M. Lippmann announced his method of photograph- 
ing the spectrum in its natural colours by pro- 
ducing iridescence on the film, March, 1891-May, 1892 

Mr. F. E. Ives at the Royal Institution, .London, 
10, 17 May, 1892, exhibited his patented method of 
photographing colours, by which he produced 
colour prints. 

Photoheliograph, an apparatus for registering the 
position of the sun's spots by means of clockwork 
and photography ; erected at the suggestion of sir 
John Herschel at Kew observatory about 1857. It was 
used by Mr. Warren de la Rue to photograph the disc 
of the sun during the eclipse of 18 July, i860. 

Photogalvanography, the art of producing engravings 
by the action of light and electricity, The earliest 
specimens were produced by Nicephore Niepce, and 
presented by him in 1827 to the great botanist, Robert 
.Brown. Great advances have since been made in this 
Art by MM. Niepce de St. Victor (who published a 
treatise on it in 1856), Vitry, W. R. Grove, H. Fox 
Talbot, &c. In 1852, Paul Pretsch patented a process 
which lie called "Photogalvanography." 

Photoglyphic Engraving (a process by which the light 
actually etches a picture on a plate that may be and 
has been printed from) was patented by Mr. Fox 
Talbot in 1858, and is described and exemplified in the 
Photographic News, 9 and 16 Sept. 1859, a specimen 
being given in the latter number. 

Photozincography (a process by which photographs 
are transferred to zinc plates which may be printed 
from) was devised by sir Henry James, chief of the Ord- 
nance Survey, and made known in i860. By it maps, 
charts, and engravings may be printed at a small cost. 

Photo-Sculpture : M. Villeme's employment of photo- 
graphs in the formation of sculpture was announced in 
1863. 

Messrs. Goupil's process of Photogravure, rivalling 
mezzo-tint, reported highly successful ; fine pictures 
reproduced, Feb. 1884. 

PHOTOMETER (light measurer) ; one was 
constructed by Dr. W. Ritchie in 1825. Many im- 
provements have been made recently in photo- 
metry. See under Stars. 
Mr. A. Vernon Harcourt's new liolophotometer highly 

approved June, 1888. 
Stellar Photometry, the measurement of the light of the 
stars, has been much studied by astronomers, especi- 
ally by sir John Herschel, prof. Argelander, prof. C. 
Pritchard and others. Mr. W. J. Dibdin, in his " Guide 
to the measurement of light," published in 1889, de- 
scribes his application of terrestrial photometry to 
stellar light. 

PHOTOPHONE. In this apparatus, con- 
structed by professor Graham Bell and Mr. Sumner 
Tainter of Washington, in 1880, a thin plane 
mirror is thrown into vibration by the voice ; a 
beam of light is reflected from this mirror and re- 
ceived at a distance by a cell of the metal selenium; 
when, by arrangement, this is connected with a 
telephone, the sounds are reproduced. 

PHOTOSPHERE, see Sun, note. 

PHOTOTACHOMETER, an instrument for 
measuring the velocity of light, invented by Pro- 
fessor Simon Newcomb of Washington, 1879-80. 

PHRENOLOGY, see Craniology 

PHRYGIA (now Karamania), a province in 
Asia Minor, became part of the Persian empire in 



537 rt.c, and partook of its changes. After their 
defeat of Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, 190 
B.C., the Romans added Phrygia to the kingdom of 
Pergamus, which was bequeathed to them by 
Attalus III., the last, king, 133 B.C. 

PHYLLOXERA, see Vine. 

PHYSIC appears to have been first practised 
by the Egyptian priests. Pythagoras endeavoured 
to explain the philosophy of disease and the action 
of medicine, about 529 B.C. Hippocrates, the father 
of medicine, nourished about 422 B.C., and Galen, 
born a.d. 131, wa3 the oracle of medical science. 
About 980 Avicenna, an Arab, wrote a system of 
medicine. Dr. It. Quain's Dictionary of Medicine, 
published 1882. See Medical. 

The dogmatic age of medicine lasted till the Reforma- 
tion, when it was attacked by Paracelsus (1493- 1 541), 
and Vesalius (1514-64). Since 1800 medical practice 
has been completely transformed by physiological 
and chemical research. 
The discovery of the circulation of the blood, by Dr. 
Harvey, furnished an entirely new system of physio- 
logical and pathological speculation, 1628. See Medi- 
cal and Societies. 
Physician to the King.— John, the king's chaplain and 
physician (afterwards bishop of Bath and Wells), men- 
tioned 1090. 
The earliest mandate or warrant for the attendance of a 
physician at court is dated 1454, and 33 Henry VI., a 
reign fertile in the patronage which was afforded to 
practitioners in medicine ; but no appointment existed 
which can justly be called physician to the royal per- 
son. By this warrant the king, with the consent of 
his privy council, deputed to three physicians and two 
surgeons the regulation of his diet, and the administra- 
tion of such medicines and remedies as might be suffi- 
cient for his cure, without any allusion to the previous 
existence or permanency of the office which they were 
authorised for a time to fill, or to a remuneration for 
their services. — Life of Linacre. 
Miss Garrett (afterwards Mrs. Anderson) licensed at 
Apothecaries' hall, London, to practise medicine, 2S 
Sept. 1865. 
At a meeting of the Royal Medical and Chirurgical 
Society, 3 May, 1869, it was resolved that the " Royal 
Society of Medicine " (including the various sections) 
be founded ; the resolution was affirmed, 22 Feb. 1870 ; 
but in 1871 the project dropped. 
School of Medicine for Women in London (council : 
Professors Burdon-Sanderson and Huxley, Mrs. Garrett- 
Anderson, M.D., Mrs. Blackwell, M. D., and others); 
opened, Oct. 1874. 
Registration of medical women, permitted by Medical 

act, 39 it 40 Vict. c. 41, 11 Aug. 1876. 
The queen lays the foundation of the Medical Examination 
hall on the Victoria Embankment, 24 March, 1886. 
See Anatomy. 

EMINENT MEDICAL MEN. 

Bom Died 

Cornilius Celsus 14 a.d. 

Paulus iEgineta flourished .... about 630 

Averrhocs . . . . . . 12 Dec. 1198 

Thomas Linacre 1460 1524 

Paracelsus 1493 1541 

Ambrose Pare, French surgeon . . . 1517 1590 

William Harvey 1578 1657 

Thomas Sydenham 1624 1689 

Malpighi 1628 1694 

Hermann Boerhaave 1668 1738 

R. Mead 1673 1754 

Albert von Haller 1708 1777 

William Hunter 1718 1783 

John Hunter 1728 1793 

R. T. Laennec 1781 1826 

John Abernethy 1764 1831 

Astley Cooper 1768 1841 

Sir James Voting Simpson (introducer of 

anaesthetics) 1S11 1870 

Sir Henry Holland 1788 1873 

Henry Bence Jones 1813 1873 

Sir Thomas Watson 1792 1882 

Richard Quain 1803 1887 

Sir Wm. W. Gull 1816 1890 

Sir Jas. Risdon Bennett 1809 



PHYSIC GARDENS. 



746 



PICTS. 



Bom 
Sir George Paget . . . . . 1809 

Sir Jas. Paget 18 14 

Sir ffm. Jenner . 1815 

(Sir Richard Qnain 1816 

>Sir Morell Mackenzie 1837 1892 

John Eric Erichsen 181S 

Sir Joseph Fayrer 1824 

Sir Andrew Clark 1826 

Sir Joseph Lister 1827 

PHYSIC GARDEN'S. The first cultivated 
in England was by John Gerard, surgeon of 
London, in 1567 ; that at Oxford was endowed by 
the carl of Dauby, in 1652 ; that at Cambridge was 
commenced about the middle of the last century ; 
and that at Chelsea, originated by sir Hans Sloane, 
was given to the Apothecaries' company in 1721 ; 
tli s last was very much admired by Linnaeus. 

PHYSICAL SOCIETY, established 14 Feb. 
1874; Dr. J. II. Gladstone, first president. 

PHYSICIAN'S, Royal College op, of 

London (of England since 1858), was projected by 
Dr. Lin acre, physician to Henry VI1L, who, 
through his interest with cardinal Wolsey, obtained 
letters patent, constituting a corporate body of 
regular physicians in London, with peculiar privi- 
leges, 23 Sept. 1518. Linacre was elected the first 
president of the college. Dr. W. Harvey was a 
great benefactor to this institution, 1653. He built 
a library and public hall, which lie granted for ever 
to the college, with his books and instruments. 
The college was afterwards held in a building in 
Warwick-lane, erected by sir C. Wren, where it 
continued till 1825, when the present elegant stone 
edifice in Trafalgar-square was erected from designs 
by sir It. Smirke. — The College of Physician?, 
Dublin, was founded by charter of Charles II. 1667, 
and was re-incorporated in 1692. The Ro)-al Col- 
lege of Physicians, Edinburgh, 29 Nov. 1681. 

RECENT PRESIDENTS OF ROYAL COLLEGE, LONDON. 



Died j PIACENZA, see Placentia. 



1862. Sir Thomas Watson. 

1867. Sir James Alderson. 

1871. Sir George Burrows. 

1876. Sir James Kisdon 

Bennett. 

1881. Sir Win. Jenner. 

1888. Sir Andrew Clark. 



1796. Thomas Gisbornc. 
1804. Sir Lucas Pepys. 
1S11. Sir Francis Milman. 

1813. John Latham. 
1820. Sir Henry Halford. 

18 14. John Ayrton Paris. 
1857. Thomas Mayo. 

PHYSICS, see under Philosophy. 
PHYSIOGNOMY, a science which affirms 
that the dispositions of mankind may be discovered 
from the features of the face. The origin of the 
term is referred to Aristotle; and Cicero was at- 
tached to the science. It became a fashionable 
study from the beginning of the 16th century ; and 
in the 18th century, the essays of Le Cat and Per- 
nethy led to the modern system. 
J. K. Lavater, who endeavoured to raise physiognomy to 
the rank of a science, published his celebrated work 
" Physiognomische Fragmente," 1775-78, of which an 
English translation by Holcroft was published in 1793. 
The subject was considered by C. R. Darwin in his 
work " Expression of the emotions in Man and 
Animals," 1873, and by Mantegazza in his " Physiog- 
nomy and Expression," 1890. 

PHYSIOLOGY is that part of physics which 
treats of the inner constitution of animals and 
plant*, and the several functions and operations of 
all their organs and tissues. The works of Miillcr, 
Milne-Edwards, Huxley, and Carpenter are much 
celebrated, and Todd's " Cyclopaedia of Physiology " 
(1836-59) is a library in itself. Physiological 
Society, in London, founded by Dr. Burdon-Sander- 
so:i and others, early in 1876; sec Anatomy, Bi- 
ology, Morphology, Poyal Institution. Inter- 
national congresses of physiology : Basle, 1888 ; 
Liege, Aug. 1892. 



PIANETTE, a small upright piano introduced 
by Bord of Paris in 1857. 

PIANOFORTE.^ The invention is attributed 
to Cristofalli (or Cristofori), an Italian, J. C. 
Schroter, a German, and Marius, a Frenchman, 
early in the 18th century. The strings are struck 
by small hammers, and not by quills, as in harpsi- 
chords. Schroter is said to have presented a model 
of his invention to the court of Saxony, in 1717 ; 
and G. Silberman manufactured pianofortes with 
considerable success in 1772. Pianofortes were 
made in London by M. Zumpie, a German, 1766, 
and have been since greatly improved by Clementi, 
Broadwood, Collard, Kirkman, Erard, Pleyel, and 
others. 

Upright pianos, first made in this country, were sug- 
gested by Isaac Hawkins in 1800, and Thomas Loud, 
in 1802. Win. Southwell patented "cabinet pianos" 
in 1807 ; superseded, from about 1840, by the cottage, 
piccolo, and other pianos. 

A keyed instrument at Modena was named "piano e 
forte," 1598. 

A "stone pianoforte," formed of a series of flints and 
other stones of various sizes, collected in France aiul 
arranged by M. Baudre, was played on by him at the 
Royal Institution, on 16 March, 1866. 

The new transposing piano, invented by Mr. Henry 
Schallehn, was exhibited at the Savoy hotel, 
Westminster, 10 June, 1890. 

The Janko pianoforte, with a new arrangement of key- 
board, exhibited in the Portman rooms, London, W., 
24 Nov. et seq. 1S91, said to possess many advantages. 

See Grove's " Dictionary of Music," article "1'ianoforte." 

PICARDY (N. France), was conquered by the 
English in 1346, and by the duke of lmrgundy in 
141 7, to whom it was ceded by the treaty of Arras, 
21 Sept. 1435, and annexed to France by Louis XL, 
1463. 

PICCADILLY, a fine street, ^Y. London ; the 
name, of uncertain origin, was Pickadilla and Pi- 
gudello, about 1660, when a house of entertain- 
ment existed near the Haymarkct, termed Picka- 
dilly hall, after which buildings were gradually 
extended westwards. 

PICCOLO, a small piano introduced by Robert 
"Wornum in 1829. 

PICENTINES, a Sabine tribe, subdued by the 
Romans, and their capital, Asculum, taken, 268 rs.c. 
They began the Social war in 90, and were con- 
quered in 89 11. c. 

PICHEGRU'S CONSPIRACY, sec Georges, 

&c. 

PICKETING, see Trials, Aug. 1867. 
R. Read and four other cabinetmakers imprisoned 

for picketing . . . . . . May, 1875 

PICQUET, a game with cards, invented, 
it is said, by Joquemin, for the amusement of 
Charles VI. of France, then in feeble health, 1390. 
Mezeray. 

PICTS (possibly from Picti, painted), the name 
given to the earliest known inhabitants of the cast 



* The nucleus of the instrument was a little box over 
which was stretched strings : such was the citole, the 
dulcimer, and the psaltery. The clavitherium had keys ; 
the clavichord (about 1500) had dampers; successive 
improvements were the virginals (on which queen Eliza- 
beth played), the spinet (about 1700), and the harpsi- 
chord (with two rows of keys), said to have been used 
in the 15th century, for which Bach and Handel com- 
posed in the 17th century. A collection of harpsichords 
(one dated 1555) is in the South Kensington museum. 
A double-pianoforte (with two keyboards reversed), 
giving remarkable effects (patented by M. M. Mengeot), 
played on at Coveut-gardeu theatre, 21 Oct. 1878. 



PICTUEES. 



747 



PILNITZ. 



of Scotland, by the Eomans, who made expeditions 
into the country, 296 ct seq. ; see Roman Wall. 

PICTUEES, see Tainting. 

PIEDMONT (Pedemontiicm, Latin, foot of the 
mountains), a region in N. Italy, formerly the seat 
of government of the kingdom of Sardinia, which 
see, and Savoy. Population, 1890, 3,234,506. 

PIE-POUDEE COUET, the Court of Dusty 
Foot, w hose jurisdiction was established for cases 
arising at fairs and markets, to do justice to the 
buyer and seller immediately upon the spot. By 
stilt. 17 Edw. IV., it had cognizance of all disputes 
in the precincts of the market to which it might be- 
long, 147;. 

PIEE AND HABBOUE ACT, to facilitate 
the formation, management, and maintenance of 
piers and harbours in Great Britain and Ireland, 
was passed in 1862. 

PIETISTS, a Lutheran sect, instituted in 
Leipsic, by Philip James Spener, a professor of 
theology, about 1689, with the view of reforming 
the popular religion. He established "colleges of 
pietists," with preachers resembling those of the 
society of friends and the methodists in Britain, 
about 1760. A body resembling the Pietists, named 
Chasidim, arose among the Jews in the Ukraine, 
and spread through Poland and European Turkey. 

PIETEO BABSANTI Cltjb, see Italy, 1878. 

PIEZOMETEE (Greek piezo, I compress), an 
appirams for measuring the compressibility of 
liquids, invented by (Erstcd (died 185 1) ; improved 
by Desprctz & Saigey. 

PIGEONS were employed as earners by the 
ancients, Hirlius and Brutus corresponded by 
means of pigeons at the siege of Mouena. The 
pigeons of Aleppo served as couriers at Alexandretta 
and Bagdad. Thirty-two pigeons liberated from 
London at 7 o'clock in the morning, 22 Nov. 1819 ; 
at noon one of them arrived at Antwerp ; a quarter 
of an hour afterwards a second arrived; the re- 
mainder on the following day. Phillips. At a 
pigeon race, 25 July, 1872, from Spalding to Lon- 
don, the speed allowed was 90 seconds a mile ; see 
Post Office, 1870. 

Tn a pigeon race from Dover to Plymouth, some pigeons 
attained the velocity of 1,233 yards, 1,218 yards and 
i,ooS yards per minute 22 July, 1886. About 300 
pigeon-flying societies exist in France : the organization 
of carrier-pigeon stations ordered -by the minister for 
war, Jan. 1888. About 350 similar societies exist in 
Germany, stated Jan. 1888. 

National Peristeronic Society (originating from the Co- 
lumbarian Society, founded in 1750), has annual shows. 

A bill for prohibiting shooting pigeons rising from a 
trap, attended with cruelties, passed by the commons 
with large majorities, in 1883 and 1884(195 — 40), was 
rejected by the lords in 1883 (30 — 17), and on 9 May, 
18S4 (78—48). 

The London Columbarian society opened its 15th 
annual exhibition of pigeons, at the Westminster 
Aquarium, 2 Dec. 1891 

PIGMIES, see Divarjs. 
, PILCHAED FISHEEY. Peculiar to Lands 
End, Cornwall, reverts to AV. Ireland, after sus- 
pension of two centuries (stated July, 1883). 

PILGEIMAGE OF GEACE, a name as- 
sumed by religious insurgents in the north of Eng- 
land, who opposed the dissolution of the monasteries. 
The movement, which commenced in Lincolnshire 
in Sept. 1536, was suppressed in Oct. ; but soon 
after revived in Yorkshire; and an expedition, 
bearing the foregoing name, having banners on 
which were depicted the five wounds of Christ, was 



headed by Aske, and other gentlemen, and joined 
by priests and 40,000 men of York, Durham, Lan- 
caster, and other counties. They took Hull and 
York, with smaller towns. The duke of Norfolk 
marched against them, and by making terms dis- 
persed them. Early in 1537 they again took 
arms but were promptly suppressed, and the leaders,. 
several abbots, and many others, were executed. 

PILGEIMAGES began with the pilgrimage- 

of the empress Helena to Jerusalem, 326. They be- 
came very frequent at the close of the 10th centuiy. 
Eobert II. of France made several pilgrimages ; 
among others one to Rome about the year ioi6 r 
perhaps in 1020, when he refused the imperial 
dignity and the kingdom of Italy. The pilgrimage- 
to Canterbury is described by Chaucer in his Canter- 
bury Tales about 1383. The pilgrimage of Maho- 
metans to Mecca, the birth-place of the prophet, ia 
commanded in the Koran. It still continues, and 
is frequently accompanied by great outbreaks of 
cholera, which see. Pilgrimages to shrines of the 
Virgin Mary in France revived in 1873, and since, 
in consequence of miracles alleged to have taken 
place at La Salette in 1846 and at Lourdes, 11 
Feb. 1858 ; those of La Salette discredited by Pope 
Leo X., 1879. See Sacred Heart. 
100 American pilgrims received by the pope 9 June, 1S74 
About 100 agricultural labourers (locked out for 
being unionists) traversed England as pilgrims, 
receiving hospitality and money; beginning 

30 June, et sc'i. ,, 
English R.C. pilgrimage to shrine of St. Edmund. 

archbishop of Canterbury, at Pontigny Sept. ,, 
English pilgrimage to Lourdes directed by the "Ca- 
tholic Union of Great Britain," start proposed ; 

given up Aug. iSSo 

[See Boulogne] 

P1LGEIM FATHEES, the name given irt 
North America to a party of 74 English puritans 
and 28 women, members of John Bobinson's 
church, who sailed in the May Flower from Leyden 
to North America, and landed on I'lymouth Kock„ 
where they founded a colony, 25 Dec. 1620. 

"PILGEIM'S PEOGEESS from this; 
World to that which is to Come," written 

by John Bunyan, in Bedford gaol, where he was. 
imprisoned twelve years, 1660-72. The first part 
was published in 1678. A Hebrew version appeared 
in 1 85 1 ; see Bedford. 

PILLAE SAINTS, see Monachism. 

PILLOEY, a scaffold for persons to stand on, 
to render them publicly infamous. This punish- 
ment was awarded against persons convicted of 
forgery, perjury, libelling, &c. In some eases the 
head was put through a hole, the hands through 
two others, the nose slit, the face branded with one 
or more letters, and one or both ears were cut oft". 
There is a statute of the pillory, 41 Hen. III. 1256. 
Many persons died in the pillory by being struck 
with stones by the mob, and pelted with rotten eggs 
and putrid offal. It was abolished as a punish- 
ment except for perjury, 1815, and totally abolished 
in 1837. The last who suffered at the Old Bailey 
was Peter Jas. Bossy, for perjury, 22 June, 1830. 

PILNITZ (near Dresden, Saxony). The con- 
vention of Pilnitz took place between the emperor 
Leopold and the king of Prussia, 20 July, 1791. On 
27 /lug. the treaty of Pilnitz, or, as some style it, 
the Partition treaty, was finally agreed upon at 
Pavia by the courts' in concert. It was to the effect 
"that the emperor should retake all that Louis XIV. 
had conquered in the Austrian Netherlands, and 
uniting these provinces to the Netherlands, give 



PILOT. 



748 



PITCH. 



them to his serene highness the elector palatine, to 
be added to the palatinate ; Bavaria to be added to 
the Austrian possessions," &c. 

PILOT. The act relating to pilots, 16 & 17 
Vict. c. 129 (1853), with other acts, is embodied in 
the Merchant Shipping act; see Trinity- House. 

PILPAY, see Fables. 

PIMLICO, S.W. suburb of London, belonging 

to the Grosvenor family, who have built largely 

upon it since 1830. 

On 20 Dec. 1881, Georgina Moore, 7I years old, living 
with her parents in Winchester-street, disappeared ; 
her body was found by bargemen in the Medway, near 
Yalding, 30 Jan. 1882. Esther Pay, with whom she 
was last seen, accused of her murder, was acquitted, 
29 April, 1882. 

Pimlico poisoning case. See Trials, April, 1886. 

PINCHBECK, an alloy of 25 per cent, of zinc, 
and 75 copper, used for watch-cases, &c, named 
after Mr. Christopher Pinchbeck, a toyseller in Cock- 
burn-street, London, who died March, 1783. 

PINE-TREES. The stone pine (Pinus Pined), 

brought to these countries before 1548. The cluster 
pine (Pintts Pinaster), brought from the south of 
Europe before 1596. The Weymouth pine {Pintts 
Strobus), from North America, 1705. Frankincense 
pine (Finns Tceda), from North America, before 
1713. There are other varieties. 

PINKIE (near Edinburgh), where the English 
under the Earl of Hertford, protector, totally de- 
feated the Scots under the regent Arrun, 10 Sept. 
1547. There fell not 200 of the English, but above 
10,000 of the Scots. Above 1500 were taken prisoners. 

PINS have been found in British barrows (Fos- 
brolce) ; and are mentioned in a statute of 1483. Brass 
pins were brought from France in 1540, and first 
used in England, it is said, by Catherine Howard, 
queen of Henry YIII. Pins were made in England 
in 1543. Stow. They were first manufactured by 
machinery in England in 1824, under a patent of 
Lemuel Wellman Wright, of the United States. 

PIOMBINO, a principality, Italy, previously 
a-uled by the Appiani family, v as acquit ed by the 
Spaniards, 1589. It was ceded to France, 1801, 
and given by Napoleon to his sister Elise, wife of 
prince Bacciochi, who held it from 1805 1o 1815, 
when it was restored to the Buoncampagni family, 
subject to Tuscany. It became part of the kingdom 
of Italy, i860. 

PIPE ROLL SOCIETY, founded in 1884 
for printing all extant public records prior to the 
year a.d. 1200. 

PIRACY, Greek pirati, was severely sup- 
pressed by the Romans. Pompey destroyed the 
Cilician pirates, 67 B.C. ; sec Buccaneers. Many 
acts of parliament have been passed for the sup- 
pression of piracy ; the latest in 1837. 

PIRAEUS, the port of Athens, was united to 
the city by two long walls, one erected by 'Ihemisto- 
cles, and the other by Pericles, 456 B.C., which were 
destroyed by Lysander, 404 B.C. It was fortified by 
Conon, 393 B.C. The Piraeus was able to contain 
400 Greek vessels. It was occupied by the French 
during the Russian Avar in 1854. 

PIRMASENS (Bavaria). Here Morcau and 
the French were defeated by ihe duke of Brunswick 
and the Prussians, 14 Sept. 1793. 

PISA, an ancient city in Tuscany, was founded 
about six centuries before Christ, and was favoured 
by the early Roman emperors as a flourishing re- 



public. The citizens took an active part in the 
Italian wars of the middle ages, but became subject 
to Florence, after a long siege, 1405-6. In 1494 
Pisa became independent under the protection of 
Charles VIII. of France, but was retaken by tbe 
Florentines in 1509. The university was founded 
in 1343, and revived by the Medici in 1472 and 
1542. The rival popes, Benedict XIII. and Gre- 
gory XII., were deposed at a council held at Pisa in 
1409, and Alexander V. elected in their room. The 
Campanile or leaning tower was built about 1 154,* 
and the Campo Santo about the same time. 

PISCICULTURE, see Fisheries. 

PISTOLS, the smallest fire-arms, said to have 
been invented at Pistoia in Italy ; were first used by 
the cavalry of England about 1544. Of late years 
they have been made with a revolving cylindrical 
breech, in which are formed several chambers for 
receiving cartridges, and bringing them in succes- 
sion into a line with the barrel ready for firing. 
The earliest model of this kind of arm is to be found 
in the museum of the United Service Institution, 
and is supposed to date from the reign of Charles I. 
An eight-chambered matchlock revolver of the 16th 
century is placed in the Royal Artillery Museum, 
Woolwich. The manufacture of pistols by machinery 
was first introduced into England from the United 
States, America, in the year 1853, by col. Colt, who in- 
vented the Colt revolving pistol, 1851. This system 
of manufacture induced the British government to 
establish the Enfield armoury, in 1855 ; see Fire- 
Arms. 

PIT BROW WOMEN, see Coal, 23 June, 
1887. 

PITCAIRN'S ISLAND, in the Pacific Ocean, 

said to have been discovered by Pitcairn in 1768, 
seen by Cook in 1773, and since colonised by ten 
mutineers from the ship Bounty, captain Bligh, in 
1789 ; see Bounty. 

The mutineers remained unknown to England until 
discovered accidentally in 1814. A ship nearing the is- 
land was hailed by a swarthy youth in the English 
language, when it appeared that the mutineers, soon 
after settling there, had married some black women from 
a neighbouring island, and had become a well-conducted 
community under the care of Adams, the principal 
mutineer. He died in 1829, when George Hunn Nobbs, 
an Englishman, who arrived a few years before, became 
chief. In Aug. 1852 admiral Moresby spent a few days 
on the island. By his means Nobbs was sent to England 
and obtained ordination. His death (aged 86; an- 
nounced Jan. 1885. As their numbers increased, the 
island proved incapable of their support. The English 
government removed them, with all their property, in 
the ship Morayshire, on 3 May, 1856, and landed them, after 
a boisterous passage, on Norfolk Island, prepared pre- 
viously for theirreoeption,8 June. The government stocked 
Norfolk Island with 2000 sheep, 450 head of cattle, and 
twenty horses, and gave them stores to last twelve 
months ; their numbers were 96 males and 102 females. 

The island visited by H.M.S. Peterel was found to be 
prosperous, Dec. 1875. Population, 15 Aug. 1879, 93 ; in 
1890, 126. 

PITCH, see under Music. 



* The Campanile was erected to contain bells, and 
stands in a square close to the cathedral. It is built en- 
tirely of white marble, and is a cylinder of eight stories, 
each adorned with a round of columns, rising one above 
another. It inclines so far on one side from the perpen - 
dicular, that in dropping a plummet from the top, which 
is 188 feet in height, it falls sixteen feet from th base. 
Some thought this was done purposely by the architect ; 
others attributed it to an accidental subsidence of the 
foundation. From this tower Galileo made his observa- 
tion on gravitation (about 1635). 



PITT ADMINISTRATIONS. 



749 



PLAGUE. 



PITT ADMINISTRATIONS.* The first 
administration was formed on the dismissal of the 
Portland ministry 18 Dec. 1/8?, and termi- 
nated by resignation in 1801. The second was 
formed 12 May, 1804; and terminated (after various 
changes) by Mr. Pitt's death, 23 Jan. 1806. A 
public- funeral was decreed to him, and 40,000^. to 
pay his debts. 

ADMINISTRATION OF 1 783. 

William Pitt, first lord of the treasury and chancellor of 
the exchequer. 

Earl Gower, lord president. 

Duke of Rutland, privy seal. 

Marquis of Carmarthen, and earl Temple (immediately 
succeeded by lord Sydney), secretaries. 

Lord Thurlow, lord chancellor. 

Viscount Howe, admiralty. 

Duke of Richmond, ordnance. 

William Wyndham Grenville, Henry Dundas, &e. 

[Mr. Pitt was joined by the duke of Portland, earl 
Spencer, and other leading whigs in 1794 ; he continued 
minister until 1801. Many changes occurred in the 
ministry in the long period of seventeen years.] 

ADMINISTRATION OF 1804. 

William Pitt, first lord of the treasury. 

Lord Eldon, lord chancellor. 

Duke of Portland, succeeded by lord Sidmouth (late Mr. 
Addington), lord president. 

Earl of Westmorland, lord privy seal. 

Lord Hawkesbury, lord Harrowby (succeeded by lord 
Mulgrave), and earl Camden (succeeded by viscount 
Castlereagh), home, foreign, and colonial secretaries. 

Viscount Melville (succeeded by lord Barham), admiralty. 

Duke of Montrose, Mr. Dundas, &c. 

PITTSBURG, the second city of Pennsyl- 
vania, founded on the site of Fort Duquesne, which 
see, in 1759, and named Fort I'itt, afterwards Pitts- 
burg, in honour of the then British prime minister, 
"William Pitt. See United States, July, 1877. The 
exhibition building burnt, 3 Oct. 1883. Population 
in 1880,156,389; 1890,238,617. 
Upwards of 100 persons perish by a mining explo- 
sion near here . . . about 11 Nov. 1888. 
The use of coal as fuel gradually superseded in 
Pittsburg by inflammable gas rising from the 

ground 1884 et seq. 

Strike of about 10,000 railway men and coal-miners 

begins 1 Oct. 1891 

PITTSBURG LANDING (near Corinth, 
Tennessee). On Sunday, 6 April, 1862, a great 
battle was fought between the American federals 
under Grant and Prentiss, and the confederates 
under Albert Sydney Johnston and Beauregard. 
The latter began the attack and were victorious, 
but lost their able general Johnston. The federals 
were reinforced the next day and renewed the at- 
tack ; the confederates maintained their ground ; 
but soon after retired in good order to Corinth. 
This engagement is also named the battle of Shiloh. 

PIT URINE, a new narcotic, said to have been 
discovered in 1882 in Australia. It resembles a 
mixture of opium and tobacco, and is extracted 
from the dried leaves of the Duboisia pituri, 

PIUS IV., CREED OF, see Confessions. 

PLACENTIA (now Piacenza), N. Italy, 
founded by the Komans about 220 n.c. It suffered 
in all the convulsions attending the fall of the em- 
pire, and the wars of the middle ages. In 1254 it 
fell under the rule of the family of the Scotti. In 
1302 Alberto Scotto was overcome, and Placentia 

William Pitt, second son of the great carl of Chatham, 
was born 28 March, 1759; became M.P. 23 Jan. 1782; 
moved for a reform in parliament, 7 May, 1782 ; became 
chancellor of the exchequer, July, 1782 ; died 23 Jan. 
1 806. 



was united to Milan, then ruled by the Visconti. 
On their extinction in 1447, Placentia revolted, but 
was taken by Sforza duke of Milan, and treated 
very cruelly. In 1513 it was given to pope Leo X. 
In 1545, Paul III. gave it with Parma as a duchy to 
his son Peter Louis Farnese. The French and 
Spaniards were defeated by the Austrians and Sar- 
dinians near Placentia, 16 June, 1746; see Parma. 

PLACILLA, Chili, which see. The site of the- 
decisive victory of the congressists over president 
Balmaceda, 28 Aug. 1891. 

PLAGUE. The plagues of Egypt (1491 B.C.) 
are described in Exodus ix., &c. The first recorded 
general plague in all parts of the world occurred 
767 B.C. Petavius. At Home a desolating plague- 
prevailed, 453 b.c. The devastating plague at 
Athens, which spread into Egypt and Ethiopia, 430 
B.C., is admirably described by Thucydides. Another 
which raged in the Greek islands, Egypt, and Syria, 
destroyed 2000 persons every day, 187 B.C. Pliny. 
See Cattle. 

At Rome, a most awful plague ; 10,000 persons perished 
daily, a.d. 80. 

Again ravaged the Roman empire, 167, 169, 189. 

Another in the Roman empire. For some time 5000 per- 
sons died daily at Rome ; many towns entirely depopu- 
lated, 250-265. 

In Britain, a plague swept away such multitudes that 
the living were scarcely sufficient to bury the dead, 

43°- 

A long-continued dreadful one began in Europe in 558,. 
extended all over Asia and Africa. 

At Constantinople, when 200,000 of its inhabitants, 
perished, and in Calabria, Sicily, and Greece, 746-749. 

In London, 962. 

At Chichester, in England, an epidemical disease carried 
off 34,000 persons, 772. Will. Malms. 

In Scotland 40,000 persons perished, 954. 

In London, great mortality, 1094 ; and Ireland, 1095. 

Again, in London ; it extended to cattle, fowls, and other 
domestic animals, 1111. Holinshed. 

In Ireland ; after Christmas this year, Henry II. was 
forced to quit the country, 11 72. 

Again, in Ireland, when a prodigious number perished, 
1204. 

The " Black Death " in Italy, 1340. 

A plague raged throughout Europe, causing extensive? 
mortality. Britain and Ireland suffered grievously. 
In London alone 200 persons were buried daily in the 
Charterhouse-yard, 1348-9. (That at Florence described 
by Boccaccio.) 

In London and Paris a dreadful mortality prevailed in 
1361-2, 1367, 1369, and in Ireland in 1370. 

A great pestilence in Ireland called the Fourth, destroyed 
a great number of the people, 1383. 

30,000 persons perished of a dreadful pestilence in Lon- 
don, 1407. 

Again, in Ireland, superinduced by a famine ; great 
numbers died, 1466 ; and Dublin was wasted by a 
plague, 1470. 

An awful pestilence at Oxford, 1471 ; and throughout 
England, a plague which destroyed more people than 
the continual wars for the fifteen preceding years, 1478. 
Rapin : Salmon, 

The Sudor Anglicus, or sweating sickness, very fatal in 
London, 1485. Delaune. 

The plague in London so dreadful that Henry VII. and 
his court removed to Calais, 1499-1500. Stow. 

The sweating sickness (mortal in three hours), in Lon- 
don, 1506 ; and in 1517. In most of the capital towns 
in England half the inhabitants died, and Oxford was 
depopulated, 9 Henry VIII. Stoic. 

Limerick was visited by a plague, when many thousands 
perished, 1522. 

The sweating sickness again in England, 1528 ; and in 
North Germany in 1529 ; and for the fifth time in Eng- 
land, in 1551. 

30,578 persons perished of the plague in London alone, 
1603-1604. It was also fatal in Ireland. 

200,000 perished of a pestilence at Constantinople in 
1611. 

In London a great mortality prevailed, and 35,417 per- 
sons perished, 1625. 



PLAIN-SONG. 



750 



PLANETS. 



In France a general mortality ; at Lyons, 60,000 persons 

*Wa-uft>rou<'lit from Sardinia to Naples : (being intro- 
^SUo^itl. soldiers on board) . ra|e 
with such violence as to carry off 400,000 ot the mnaoi 

tTSaSS^VSn*-, began Dec. x66 4 , which 

rWv,\ve cl till the great conflagration of Sept. 1666. _ 
£ to SUlescdhSd by De Foe in his partially imagi- 

One ol tt mo°st awful plagues that ever raged, prevailed 
^S'a^P^S^ich carried off 80,000 of 

^%t^i£! y -s^r^^a» 

^l^a^at^S&in^ensenumbers we car- 

viP.l o f bv a pestilent disease in 1804 and 1805. 
AgafnaSXi- an epidemic fever much resembling 

■gBSBSBSSSiR 

A^t^tSKeSSv^ugland, resembling 
A f ypll us, -ear ^don l^nsJmi^^^. ^ ^ 

K^"^l>Ei?2fett» seLre. March 
rSTinTstracan, Jam-April, ,879. 



Falcan (between Mercury and the Sun), said to be 
discovered by M. Lescarbault a physician (not 
seen since), 26 March, 1859 ; said to have »«8nseen 
by Watson during the solar eclipse (doubted t>> 
Peters) ■ • • • 2 9> 3° Jul >> 

A red star seen by M. Trouvelot during the solar 
eclipse, most probably Vulcan . . o Aiaj , 

Minor Planets (according to Mr. G. F Chambers, 
Eoyal Astronomical Society, and others). 

1. Ceres, discovered by Piazzi (visible to the naked 

2 . Prills, "discovered at Bremen by Others (see 
Pallas) . ■■■■ ■ 28 *S 



1S78 
i33 3 
the 



1801 

1802 



PLAIN-SONG, see Chanting. 

PT,AN OF CAMPAIGN, see Ireland Oct. 
tS86 By this plan the tenant of a farm was to pay 
Ms rent to the National League instead of to the 
landlord, and was to be supported if evicted. B 

'Guiway, Oct. 1891. _ . 

PT ANE A true plane, so important in 
mSiTeVy 1 as been most successfully obtained by 
Sr JoTeph WMtworth. Fine specimens were ex- 
libited atthe Eoyal Institution in 187* 

PLANETARIUM, see Orrery. 

■pt ATSTRTS Jupiter was known as a planet to 

■♦hf Chinese and the Chaldeans, and inserted ma 

iV.f the heavens, made about 600 B.C., and in 

s aid to be in the national library at Paris The 
four satellites of Jupiter discovered by Galileo, 7 
S 160, Z Mars, Saturn. We now know nine 
T^Jrv manets termed major; Mercury, Venus, 
^Srit^rs,J-upiter, Saturn Uranus, Nep- 
tuneS Vulcan (doubtful) ; and secondary or 
Sr situated between the orbits of Mars and Ju- 
, ter ' The numerical order differs in the lists of 
T l^h Cerman aud French astronomers. In the 
S?'andSan lists , Aglaia to Pandora are 
numbered 47 to 55 ; Mcle.te is ^. 
Uranus, formerly called ^* » and 
Herschel; discovered by W. lieiscne ^ ^^ ^ 

giuw, Sidw) • • Gal ' 1& (hi consequence of the 
Jfep^ie hscove i« 1 by Ga .1 k v M. gept< 



3. Juiio, discovered by Harding 
4 Festo, discovered by Oibers . 

5. ytsircea, by K. C. HencKe . 

6. Hebe, by the same . 

7. Iris, by J. R. Hind . 

8. Flora, by the same . 
o. Metis, by A. Graham . 

10. Hygeia, by A. de Gaspans . 

11. Parthenojie, by the same . 
10. Fi'ctoria, by J. R. Hmd . 

13. Egeria, by A. de. Gaspans . 

14. Irene, by J. R. Hind . . 

15. Eunomia, by A. de Gaspans 

16. Psyc7ic, by the same 

17. Thetis, by R. Luther . . 

18. Melpomene, by J. R. Hmd . 
in. Fortuna, by the same 
20. Massilia, by A. de Gaspans . 
21 Lutetia, by H. Goldschmidt . . 

22. Calliope, by J. R. Hind . 

23. Thalia, by the same . _ . 

24. Themis, by A. de Gaspans . 

25. Phoccua, by M. Chacornac . 
26 Proserpine, by R. Luther 

27. Euterpe, by J. R. Hind 

28. Bellona, by R. Luther . . 
2 n Amphitrite, by Mr. Marth . 

30. C/raiwa, by J. R. Hind . 

31. Euphrosync, by James Ferguson 
32 Pomona, by H. Goldschmidt. 

33. Polyhymnia, by M. Chacornac . 

34. Circe, by the same . 
«. Leucothca, by R. Luther . . 
-6 Atalanta, by H. Goldschmidt 
37. Fides, by R. Luther . 
-8 Leda, by M. Cliacornac . 
, g . Lcetitia, by the same . 
40. Harmonia, by R. Luther _ . 
41 Daphne, by H. Goldschmidt . 

42. Jsis, by Norman Pogson 

43. Ariadne, by the same . 

44. Nysa, by H. Goldschmidt . 
45 Eugenia, bv the same 

I 46. Hestia, by N. Pogson . . 

47 *Mclcte, by H. Goldschmidt . 
1 48. Aglaia, by R. Luther . . 
I 4 „-. Doris, by H. Goldschmidt 
I ro Po?es, by the same . . .. • 

51 Firoittia, by James Ferguson . 
1 c 2 Nemausa, by M. Laurent . 

5. Eurojw, by H. Goldschmidt . 

54. Calypso, by R. Luther . . 

A Alexandra, by H. Goldschmidt 

56! Pandora, by Mr. Searle 

57. Mnemosyne, by R. Luther 

=8. Concoj-Jire, by the same _ . 

50. Daitae, by H. Goldschmidt . 

60. Olympia, by M. Chacornac . 

61 Erato, by MM. Forster and Lessmg 

62' £<*o (orlg. Titaiua), by J.. Ferguson 

63 .Ausonia, by A. de Gaspans . 

64. Angelina, by M. Tempel . • ■„,„„„,, 

65. (We (orig. Maximihana), by M. JTenvpel, 

66. Jtfai«,byH.P.Tuttle . . • S 1 Anvil, 

67. ^ia, by N. Pogson . . • 17 A , 

68. MR toy R Luther .. . . • *9 AP , }> 
69 Hespcria, by M. Scluaparelh 



1 Sept. 
29 March, 
. 8 Dec. 

1 July, 
. 13 Aug. 

18 Oct. 
. 25 April, 

12 April, 

. 11 May, 

13 Sept. 

. 2 Nov. 

19 May, 
. 29 July, 
17 March, 

17 April, 

24 June, 

. 22 Aug. 

19 Sept. 

. 15 Nov. 

16 Nov. 

. 15 Dec. 

. 5 April, 

. 6 April, 

. 5 May, 

8 Nov. 

1 March, 

. 1 March, 

22 July, 

. 1 Sept. 

. 26 Oct. 

. 28 Oct. 

6 April, 

. 19 April, 

19 April, 

. 5 Oct. 



1807 

184s 

1847 



1850 

1851 

1852 



1853 



1854 



1855 



8 Feb. 

31 March, 

. 22 Slav, 

23 May, 

. 15 April, 

27 May, 

. 28 June, 

16 Aug. 

. 9 Sept, 

15 Sept. 

. 19 Sept. 

19 Sept. 

4 Oct. 

. 22 Jan. 

6 Feb. 

4 April, 

. 10 Sept. 

10 Sept. 

. 22 Sept. 

24 March, 

9 Sept. 
12 Sept. 

14 Sept, 

15 Sept. 

10 Feb. 
4 March. 



1856 



i£57 



1858 



1859 
i860 



1S61 



* It was believed at first to be Daphne, No 4 aid 
hence was called "Pseudo-Daphne," when E. Schubert 
proved It to be a new planet. It was not re-discovered 
bv M Goldschmidt till 1 Sept. 1862 when it received its 
present name, that of the Muse ot Meditation. 



PLANETS. 



751 



PLANETS. 



83. 
84. 
85- 

86. 
87. 
88. 
89. 
go. 
91. 

Q2. 

93- 
94. 

95- 
96. 

97- 
98. 
99. 

100. 

101. 

102. 

103. 

104. 

105. 

106. 

107. 

108. 

109. 

no. 

in. 

112. 

"3- 
114. 
US- 
116. 

117. 
11S. 
119. 

I20. 
121. 
122. 
I23. 
124. 
125. 
I26. 
127. 
128. 
129. 
I30. 

13I- 

332. 

133- 

134- 
135- 
136. 
137- 
138. 
139- 
140. 
141. 
142. 
143. 
144. 
145- 
146. 
147. 
148. 
149. 
150. 
«5i- 
152- 
153- 



Pdnopcea, by H. Goldschmidt 
Feronia, by Peters and Safford 
Niobc, by It. Luther . 
Clytie, by II. P. Tuttle . 
Galatea, by M. Tompel 
Eurydicc, by C. H. P. Peters 
Freia, by M. d'Arrest 
Frigga, by C. H. F. Peters . 
Diana, by R. Luther 
Eurynome, by Jas. C. Watson 
Sappho, by N. Pogson 
Terpsichore, by M. Tempel . 
Alcmene, by R. Luther 
Beatrix, by A. de Gasparis . 
Clio, by R. Luther . 
lo, by C. II. F. Peters . 
Semele, by P. Tietjen 
Sylvia, by N. Pogson . 
Thisbe, by C. H. P. Peters 
Julia, by M. Stophan . 
Antiope, by R. Lutlier 
AZgina, by Alphonse Borelly 
Undina, by C . H. F. Peters 
Minerva, by J. C. Watson . 
Aurora, by the same 
Arethusa, by It. Luther 
JEgU, by M. Coggia . 
Clotlw, by M. Tempel . 
lanthe, by C. II. F. Peters 
Dike, by A. Borelly . . 
Hecate, by J. C. Watson . 
Helena, by the same 
Miriam, by C. II. F. Peters 
Hera, by J. C. Watson . 
Clymene, by the same 
Artemis, by J. C. Watson 
Dionc, by J. C. Watson . 
Camilla, by N. Pogson . 
Hecuba, by R. Luther* . 
Felicitas, by C. H. F. Peters. 
Lydia, by Alphonse Borelly 
Ate, by C. II. F. Peters . 
Jphigenia, by C. H. F. Peters . 
Amalthcea, by R. Luther 
Cassandra, by C. II. F. Peters . 
Thyra, by J. C. Watson 
Sirona (by R. Luther, 14 Sept.) 

Peters 

Lomia, by A. Borelly . 
Peitho, by R. Lutlier . . 
Althaea, by J. C. Watson 
Lachesis, by A. Borelly 
Hermione, by J. C. Watson . 
Gerda, by C. H. F. Peters 
Brunhilda, by C. H. F. Peters 
Alceste, by C. H. F. Peters. 
Liberatrix, by Prosper Henry 
Velleda, by Paul Henry . 
Johanna, by Prosper Henry . 
Nemesis, by J. C. Watson . 
Antigone, by C. II. F. Peters 
Electra, by C. H. P. Peters 
Vala, bv C. H. F. Peters 
JEthra, by J. C. Watson . 
Cyrene, by J. C. Watson 
Sophrosyne, by R. Luther . 
Hcrtha, by C. H. F. Peters . 
Austria, by J. Palisa . 
Melibcca, by J. Palisa . 
Tolosa, by M. Perrotin 
Juewa, by J. C. Watson. 
Suva, by J. Palisa 
Lumen, by Paul Henry . 
Polana, by J. Palisa . 
Adria, by J. Palisa 
Vibilia, by C. II. F. Peters 
Adeona, by C. II. F. Peters . 
Lucina, by A. Borelly . 
Protogeneia, by L. Schulhof 
Gallia, by Prosper Henry 
Medusa, by M. Perrotin 
Nuwa, by J. C. Watson . 
Ab iindantia, by J. Palisa . 
AUila, by Paul Henry 
Hilda, by J. Palisa 



1863 
1864 

1865 

1866 

1807 



5 May, 
29 May, 

13 Aug. 
7 April, 

29 Aug. 

22 Sept. 

21 Oct. 

12 Nov. 
15 March, 

14 Sept. 
2 May, 

30 Sept. 

27 Nov. 
26 April, 

25 Aug. 
19 Sept. 

4 Jan. 

16 May, 

15 June, 
. 6 Aug. 

1 Oct. 

. 4 Nov. 

7 July, 

24 Aug. 

6 Sept. 

23 Nov. 

17 Feb. 
17 Feb. 

, 18 April, 

28 May, 

11 July, 

15 Aug. 

22 Aug. 
. 7 Sept. 

13 Sept. 

16 Sept. 
10 Oct. 

17 Nov. 

2 April, 
. 9 Oct. 

. 19 April, 

14 Aug. 
. ig Sept. 

12 March, 

. 23 July, 

. 6 Aug. 

>y 0. H. F. 

. 8 Sept. 

12 Sept. 
15 March, 

3 April, 
. 10 April, 

12 May, 
. 31 July, 

31 July, 
. 23 Aug. 

11 Sept. 

5 Nov. 
. 5 Nov. 

. 25 Nov. 

. 5 Feb. 

. 17 Feb. 

24 May, 
. 13 June, 

16 Aug. 
. 27 Sept. 

18 Feb. 
18 March, ,, 

21 April, ,, 

. 19 May, „ 

10 Oct. ,, 

. 13 Oct. „ 

13 Jan. 1875 
. 28 " 



1S70 
1871 

1872 



1873 



1874 



!Ji 



23 



_an. 
Feb. 



3 June, 
3 June, 



8 Jun 
10 Jul 



y> 



7 An.,. 
21 Sept. 
18 Oct. 

1 Nov. 

2 Nov, 
2 Nov. 



* Atropos said to have been discovered by R. Luther, 
14 April, 1869. Not observed since. 



154- 
155- 
156. 
!57- 
158. 
159- 
160. 
161. 
162. 
163. 
164. 
165. 
166. 

!6 7 . 

168. 

169. 
170. 

171. 

172. 

173- 
174. 

175- 
176. 
177. 
178. 
179. 
1 So. 
181. 
182. 
183. 
184. 
1S5. 
186. 
1S7. 



190. 
191. 

192. 

J 93- 
194. 

195' 



200. 
201. 
202. 
203. 
204. 
205. 
206. 
207. 
208. 
209. 
210. 
211. 
212. 
213. 
214. 

215- 

216. 
217. 
218. 
219. 
220. 
221. 
222. 
223. 
224. 
225. 
226. 
227. 
228. 
229. 
230. 
231. 
232. 
=33- 
234- 
235- 
236. 

2 37- 
238. 

=39- 
240. 
241. 



Bertha, by Prosper Henry . . 4 Nov. 1875 

Scylla, by J. Palisa s Nov. „ 
Xanthippe, by J.- Palisa . . . 22 Nov. 

Dejanira, by A. Borelly . . 1 Dec. " 

Koronis, by V. Knorre ... 4 Jan. 1876 

Aemilia, by Paul Henry . . 26 Jan. ,, 

Unci, by C. H. F. Peters . . .20 Feb. ,, 

Athor, by J.C. Watson . . 18 April, ,, 

Laurentia, by Prosper Henry . 21 April, ,, 

Erigone, by M. Perrotin . . 26 April „ 

Eva, by Paul Henry . . .12 July, ,, 

Loreley, by C. H. F. Peters . . 10 Aug. ,, 

Bhodope, by C. H. F. Peters . -17 Aug. ,, 

Urda, by C. H. F. Peters . . 29 Aug. ,, 

Sibylla, by J. C. Watson . . 27 Sept. ,, 

y.elia, by Prosper Henry . . 2S Sept. ,, 

Maria, or Myrrha, by M. Perrotin 10 Jan. 1877 

Ophelia, by Alphonse Borelly . 13 Jan. ,, 

Baucis, by Alphonse Borelly . . 5 Feb. ,, 

Ino, by Alphonse Borelly . . 2 Aug. ,, 

Phmdra, by J. C. Watson . . .3 Sept. „ 

Andromache, by J. C. Watson . . 1 Oct. ,, 

Idunna, by C. H. F. Peters . . 14 Oct. „ 

Irma, by Paul Henry .... 5 Nov. ,, 

Belisana, by J. Palisa . . . 6 Nov. ,, 

Clytcmnestra, by J. -C. Watson . 12 Nov. ,, 

Garumna, by Mv Perrotin. . . 29 Jan. 1878 

Eucharis, by Cottenot ... 2 Feb. ,, 

Elsa, by J. Palisa .... 7 Feb. ,, 

Istria, by J. Palisa .... 8 Feb. ,, 

Dciopeia, by J. Palisa ... 28 Feb. ,, 

Lunik?, by C. H. F. Peters . 1 March, ,, 

Ccluta, by Prosper Henry . . 6 April, ,, 

Lamberta, by Coggia . . . n April, ,, 

Menippe, by C. H. F. Peters . 18 June, ,, 

Phthia, by C. H. F. Peters 9 Sept. ,, 

Ismene, by C. H. F. Peters . 22 Sept. ,, 

Kolga, by C. H. F. Peters . . 30 Sept. „ 

Nausikaa, by J." Palisa . . . 17 Feb. 1879 

Ambrosia, by Coggia ... 28 Feb. ,, 

Procne, by C. H. F. Peters . 21 March, ,, 

Eurykleia, by J. Palisa . . .22 April, ,, 

Philomela, by C. H. F. Peters . . 14 May, ,, 

Arete, by J. Palisa . . . 21 May, ,, 
Ampella, by Borellv ... 13 June, 

Byblis, by C. H. F.. Teters . . 9 July, „ 

Dynamene, by C. H. F. Peters . 27 July, ,, 

Peneliipe, by J.- Palisa . . . 7 Aug. „ 

Chrysei<, by C. H. F. Peters . . n Sept. ,, 

Pompeia, by C. H. F. Peters . . 25 Sept. ,, 

Callisto, by J. Palisa ... 8 Oct. ,, 

Martha, by J. Palisa .... 13 Oct. ,, 

Hcrsilio, by C. H. F. Peters . . 13 Oct. ,, 

Hedda, by J. Palisa .... 17 Oct. ,, 

Lacrimosa, by J. Palisa . . . 21 Oct. ,, 

Dido, by C. H. F. Peters ... 22 Oct. ,, 

Isabella, by J. Palisa . . . 12 Nov. ,, 

Isolda, by J. Palisa . . . .10 Dec. „ 
Medea, by J. Palisa ... 6 Feb. 
Lilcca, by C. H. F. Peters . . 16 Feb! 
Aschera, by J. Palisa. . . . 1 March, 
CEuone, by V. Knorre . . . . 7 April, 
Cleopatra, by J. Palisa . . . 10 April, 
Eudora, by Coggia . . . .30 Aug. 
Bianca, by J. Palisa ... 4 Sept. 
Thusnelda, by J. Palisa . . .30 Sept. 
Stephania, by J. Palisa ... 19 May, 

Eos, by J. Palisa 18 Jan. 

Isucia, by J. Palisa .... 9 Feb. ,, 

Bosa, by' J. Palisa ... 9 March, ',, 
Oceana, by J. Palisa . . .30 March, 
Henrietta, by J. Palisa . . . 19 April, 
Weringia, by J. Palisa . . . 19 July, 

J'hilosophia, by Paul Henry . . 12 Aug. ,' 
A git the, by J. Palisa . . . .19 Aug. 
Adelinda, by J/Palisa . . . . 22 Aug. ',' 

Athavwntis, by L. De Ball . . 3 Sept. ,' 

Vindobona, by J. Palisa . . 10 Sept. ,, 

Russia, by J. Palisa .... 31 Jan. 1883 

Asterope, by Borelly . . . n May, ,, 

Barbara, by C. H. F. Peters . . 12 Aug. ,] 

Carolina, by J. Palisa ... 28 Nov. ,, 

Honoria, by J. Palisa . . . 26 April, 1S84 

Caslestina, by J. Palisa . . . 27 June, ,, 
Hypatia, by V. Knorre. . . . 1 July, ,, 

Adrastea-, by J. Palisa . . . 18 Aug. ,, 

Vanadis, by Borelly ... 27 Aug. ,, 
Germania, by R. Luther . . . 12 Sept. ',, 



iSCo 



1S81 
18S2 



PLANETS. 



752 



PLATE. 



242. 
-243. 
244. 

2 45- 
246. 
247- 
248. 
249. 
250. 
251. 
252. 
253- 
=54- 
255- 
256. 
257- 



261. 
262. 
263. 
264. 
265. 
266. 
267. 
268. 
269. 
270. 
271. 
272. 

273- 
274. 
275- 
276. 
277. 

2 7 8. 

279. 
280. 
281. 
282. 
283. 



290. 

291. 

292, 

293' 

294. 

295' 
296, 
297 

2j8. 



3°4' 
3°5' 
306. 
3°7> 



3i4 
3i5' 
316. 
3 J 7- 



324' 
32S' 

326. 
327- 
32S. 

329. 



KriemMM, by J. Palisa . 
Ida, by J. Palisa 
Site, by J. Palisa . 
Vera, by J. Palisa 
Asporind, by Borelly 
Enkrale, by Luther 
l.ameia, bv J. Palisa . 
Use, by C." H. F. Peters . 
Betliita, by J. Palisa . 
Sophia, by J. Palisa 
Clementina, by Perrotin . 
Mathilde, by J. Palisa . 
Augusta, by J. Palisa 
Oppavia, by J. Palisa . 
Walpurga, by J. Palisa 
Silesia, by J. Palisa 
Tyche, by Luther . . . 
Aletheia, by C. H. F. Peters 
Huberla, by J. Palisa 
Pryw.no, by C. H. F. Peters 
Vcdda, by J. Palisa . 
Dresda, by J. Palisa 
Libussa, by C. H. F. Peters . 
Anna, by J. Palisa 
Aline, by J. Palisa . 
Tirza, by Charlois 
Adorea, by A. Borelly 
Justitia, by J. Palisa . 
Anahita, by C. H. F. Peters . 
Penthesilea, by V. Knorre . 
Antonia, by Charlois 
Atropos, by J. Palisa . 
Philagoria, by J. Palisa . 
Sapientia, by J. Palisa 
Adelheid by J. Palisa 
Elvira, by Charlois . 
Paulina, by J. Palisa . 
Thule, by J. Palisa . 
Philia, by J. Palisa 
Lvcre'ia, by J. Palisa 
Emma, by Charlois 
Amelia, by Charlois 

, by uharlois . 
Kegina, by J. Palisa . 
Idea, by Charlois or J. Palisa 
Nephthys, by C. H. F. Peters 
Glauke, by R. Luther 
Nenetta, by M. Charlois 
Bmna, by J. Palisa 
Alice, by J. Palisa 
Lvdovica, by J. Palisa . 
Brasilia, by M. Charlois . 
Felicia, by M. Charlois . 
Theresa, by J. Palisa . 
Phaetusa, by M. Charlois 
('axilla, by M. Charlois 
Brtptistina, by M. Charlois 
Thova, by J. Palisa 
Geraldina, by Charlois . 
Bavaria, J. Palisa 
( larisa, by Charlois . 
Josephine, by prof. Millosevich 
C%«, by J. Palisa 

, by Charlois . 
Unitas, by prof. Millosevich . 

,'by M. Charlois 

, by Mr. Borelly . 
Fraternitas, by J. Palisa 

, by Charlois 

, by Charlois 

, by M. Charlois . 
Chuldaea, by J. Palisa . 

, by Charlois 
Constantia, by Palisa . 

, by Charlois 

, by Charlois, . 

, by Charlois 

, by Charlois . 

, by J. Palisa 

, by J. Palisa . 

, by Borelly 
Brucia, by Dr. Wolf . 
Heidelberga, by Dr. Wolf. 

, by Dr. Palisa 
llmatar, by Dr. Wolf 

, by Dr. Wolf . 

, by Dr. Wolf . 

, by Dr. Wolf. 



22 S 
29 
14 

6 



Sept. 1884 

Sept. „ 

I. Oct. „ 

. o Feb. 1885 

. 6 March, ,, 

14 March, ,, 

. 5 June, ,, 

16 Aug. „ 
. 3 Sept. „ 

. 4 Oct. „ 

. 27 Oct. „ 

12 Nov. „ 

31 March, 1886 

31 March, ,, 

. 3 April, ,, 

5 April, ,, 
. 4 May, „ 

28 June, ,, 

. • 3 Oct. „ 

31 Oct. „ 

3 Nov. ,, 
. 3 Nov. „ 

22 Dec. ,, 

. 27 Feb. 1887 

17 May, ,, 
27 May, ,, 

9 June, „ 

21 Sept. ,, 

8 Oct. „ 

. 16 Oct. „ 

4 Feb. 1888 
8 March, ,, 

3 April, „ 

15 April, ,, 

. 17 April, ,, 

. . 3 May, „ 

16 May, ,, 

. 25 Oct. „ 

29 Oct. ,, 
. 31 Oct. „ 

. 28 Jan. 1889 

8 Feb. „ 

. 29 May „ 

. 3 Aug. „ 

3 Aug. „ 
. 25 Aug. „ 

20 Feb. 1890 

10 March, ,, 

, 20 March, ,, 

25 April, ,, 

. 25 April, ,, 

. 20 May, ,, 

15 July, ,, 

. 17 Aug. ,, 

19 Aug. ,, 
. 9 Sept. ,, 

9 Sept. ,, 

. 6 Oct, „ 

3 Oct, „ 

16 Nov. ,, 

14 Nov. ,, 

. 12 Feb. 1891 

. 14 Feb. ,, 

. 16 Feb. „ 

. 1 March, ,, 

5 March, ,, 

31 March, „ 

6 April, ,, 
. 16 May, „ 

11 June, ,, 

. 28 Aug. ,, 

30 Aug. „ 
. 1 Sept, „ 

4 Sept. ,, 
. 8 Sept, „ 

11 Sept, ,, 

. 24 Sept. ,, 

. 8 Oct. ,, 

. 12 Oct, ,, 

.15 Oct, „ 

27 Nov. ,, 

28 Nov. ,, 

20 Dec. ,, 
25 Feb. 1892 

. 4 March, ,, 

18 March, ,, 

19 March, ,, 
19 March, „ 



330. , by Dr. Palisa . . .19 March, 1892 

331. , by Dr. Wolf ... 21 March, ,,, 

332. Columbia, by M. Charlois . . 22 March, ,, 

333. , by M. Charlois . . .1 April, ,, 
[The later numbers are uncertain.] 

PLANIMETEB,, a machine for measuring the 
area of any figure by the passage of a tracer round 
about its perimeter. Amsler's planimeter (in use 
for several years) was described at the British 
Association meeting at Brighton, Aug. 1872. 

PLANING -MACHINE. One for wood was 
constructed by Bramah, about 1802 ; and one fo* 
iron by Joseph Clement in 1825. 

PLANTAGENET,* House of, to which 
belonged fourteen English kings, from Henry II„ 
1 154, to Eichard III., 1485 ; sec England, Kings. 

PLANTATIONS, sec Trade. 

PLASSEY, in Bengal, India, the site of a 
battle fought between the British under Clive, ans} 
the Hindoos under Surajah Dowlah, 23 June, 1757 ; 
68,000 men were vanquished by 1000 British and 
about 2000 sepoys. The victory laid the foundations 
of our empire in India. 

PLASTEE OF PARIS. Gypsum, sulphate of 
lime, used for moulds, statuary, &c, first found at 
Montmartre, near Paris, whence its name. The 
method of taking likenesses by its use was first 
discovered by Andrea del Verrochio, about 1466. 

PLATA, LA, see Argentine Republic. 

PLATJEA (Bceotia, N. Greece), site of the- 
battle between Mardonius, commander of the army 
of Xerxes of Persia, and Pausanias, commander of 
the Lacedaemonians and Athenians, 22 Sept.479n.Cy 
the same day as the battle of Myeale. Of 300,000 
Pci-sians scarce 3000 escaped with their lives. The* 
Grecian army, about 110,000, lost but few men^ 
The Greeks obtained immense plunder, and were* 
henceforth delivered from the fear of Persian in- 
vasions. Platsea, as an ally of Athens, was destroyed 
by the Thebans, 372 ; and rebuilt by Philip II. after 
his victory at Chferonea, 338. 

PLATE. In England, plate, with the excep- 
tion of spoons, was prohibited in public-houses by 
statute 8 Will. III. (1696). The celebrated Plate 
act passed in May, 1756. This act was repealed in 
1780. The act laying a stamp-duty upon plate- 
passed in 1784; see Goldsmiths' Company. By 
17 & 18 Vict, c. 96 (1854), gold wares were allowed 
to be manufactured at a lower standard ; but a later 
act excepted marriage rings. — The art of covering 
baser metals with a thin plate of silver, either for 
use or for ornament (plating), said to have been 
invented by a Birmingham spur-maker, who began 
with making the branches of a pair of spurs hollow, 
and filling the hollow with a slender rod of steel. 
He continued to make the hollow larger and the iron; 
thicker, till at last he merely coated the iron spur 
with silver ; see Electrotype. 

Mr. Wilfred Joseph Cripps' "Old English Plate," a valu- 
able work, containing the researches of Mr. O. Mor- 
gan, published, 1878. His "Old French Plate," 18S0. 



* Fulke Martel, earl of Anjou, having contrived the 
death of his nephew, the earl of Brittany, in order to» 
succeed to the earldom, Ins confessor sent him, in atone- 
ment for the murder, to Jerusalem, attended by only two- 
servants, one of whom was to lead him by a halter to the? 
Holy Sepulchre, the other to strip and whip him there, 
like a common malefactor. Broom, in French genet, in 
Latin genista, being the only tough, pliant shrub in. 
Palestine, the noble criminal was smartly scourged with, 
it, and from this instrument of his chastisement he was- 
called Planta-genisto, or Plantagenet; other accounts are: 
given. Skinner and Meseray. 



PLATE-WAYS. 



7o3 



PLUM. 



Duty on silver plate to be reduced gradually till abolished, 
from i June, 1881 ; abolished 17 April, 1890. 

PLATE-WAYS, on ordinary roads for waggons 
carrying goods, proposed at Liverpool about 1880, 
to supersede railways lor cheapness ; not adopted, 
Jan. 1883. 

PLATFORM, see Public Meetings. 

PLATINUM, the heaviest of all the metals, 
except iridium. The name originated with the 
Spaniards on account of its silvery colour ; Plata 
signifying silver. It was found in the auriferous 
sand of the river Pinto, in South America, and was 
unknown in Europe until 1741, when don Antonio 
Ulloa announced its existence in the narrative of his 
voyage to Peru. Grcig. In its ore have been found 
the metals palladium, rhodium, osmium, iridium, 
and ruthenium (which see). In 1859, M. H. S'.e.- 
Claire Deville made known a new method of obtain- 
ing platinum from its ore, in great abundance and 
purity; and at the international exhibition of 1862 
was shown a mass worth 3840;., weighing 2665 lb., 
of a metal hitherto considered infusible, obtained 
by his process, employing the oxy-hydrogen flame. 
See Philosophical Lamp, 
Dode's process for coating iron with platinum to prevent 

rust, shown at Johnson <fc Matthey's, 11 Jan. 1879. 

PLATONIC PHILOSOPHY, the most 
popular of all systems (see Philosophy). Plato's 
dialogues have been termed " Philosophy backed by 
example." He was a disciple of Socrates, 409 B.C., 
and died 347. The leading feature of his mind was 
comprehensiveness. 

PLATONIC YEAR, (he period of time which 
the equinoxes take to finish their revolution, at the 
eud of which the stars and constellations have the 
same place with regard to the equinoxes that they 
had at first. Tycho Brahe says that this year or 
period requires 25,816 common years to complete 
it ; Ricciolus computes it at 25,920 ; and Cassini at 
24,800; at the end of which time some imagined 
that there would be a total and natural renovation 
of the whole creation. 

PLATTSBURG. A British expedition against 
this place, a town of New York, on Lake Champlain, 
was designed under general sir George Prevost, but 
was abandoned after the naval force of England had 
suffered a defeat in an engagement with the 
Americans, 11 Sept. 1814, when the British 
squadron in Lake Champlain was captured ; see 
United States. 

PLAY-GROUNDS. In 1858 a society was 
established by the carl of Shaftesbury and other 
benevolent persons to provide play-grounds for the 
recreation of adults and the children of the humble 
classes. Ground was liberally ottered by the govern- 
ment, and by 1he marquis of "Westminster and 
others ; and in 1859 an act of parliament was passed 
to facilitate grants of lands for this purpose, for 
which part of Smithfield was to be reserved. The 
scheme was not successful. 

The Metropolitan Public Garden, Boulevard, and Play- 
ground association formed by lord Brabazon (aft. carl 
of Meath) and others in 1882 lias done good service 
in the east of London. 
The London Playing-fields Association founded ; very 
active in obtaining places, Feb. et seq. 1890-2 

PLAYS, sec Drama and Theatres. 

PLEADINGS. In the early courts of judi- 
cature in England, pleadings were made in the 
Saxon language; and in Norman- French from the 
period of the conquest in 1066 until 1362. Pleadings 
were ordered to be in English by 36 Edward III. 



1362, and Cromwell extended the rule to all legal 
proceedings 1650. In English law the proceedings 
are the mutual statements of the plaintiff's cause 
of action, and the defendant's ground of defence. 

PLEBEIANS, Plebes, or Plebs, the commons 
of Pome, as distinguished from the Patricians ; 
see Pome, 494-366 is.c. 

PLEBISCITUM, a term given to a law passed 
by the comitia tribute/, an assembly of the Roman 
people in their tribes, first established in 491 B.C. 
The term has been recently revived in France and 
Italy, and applied to Universal Suffrage {which see). 

PLETHYSMOGRAPH. an apparatus for 
detecting the state of the mind by observing the 
relations of the circulation of the blood from the 
heart to the brain, invented by M. Mossol, of Turin, 
1882. 

PLEVNA, Bulgaria, 27 miles N.N.W. of Nico- 
polis ; near the river Vid ; the site of very fierce 
conflicts duiing the llusso- Turkish war, 1877. 
Occupied by the Russians, 6 July, but retaken by 
Osman Pacha, 18 July, and held by him after 
severe combats, with Schildncr-Sehuldner, 19, 20 
July; with Krudeiur . . . 29-31 July, 1877 

The Russians lost about 2000 killed, 4000 wounded. 
The Russian attack was considered rash, like that 
at Balaclava, and a disastrous check. 
Osman Pacha defeated in a desperate sortie, about 

30 Aug. „ 
Gen. Scobeleff gained a great advantage by captu- 
ring Lovatz (or Lofteha) ... 3 Sept. ,, 
Siege began, 7 Sept., with an artillery duel lasting 

to 10 Sept. ,, 

Fruitless sanguinary conflicts . 11, 12 Sept. ,, 

Chefket Pacha carried in reinforcements to Plevna, 

about 22 Sept. ,, 

Todlebcn takes command of the staff . 28 Sept. „ 
Plevna completely invested ; reported 8 Nov. ,, 

Russian attacks repulsed . . 12, 15 Nov. ,, 
Osman Pacha, reduced by want of supplies, despe- 
rately endeavours to break out at night, 9 Dec. ; 
surrounded and defeated with great slaughter ; 
surrenders unconditionally (30,000 prisoners, 128 
officers, 100 guns) .... 10 Dec. ,, 

PLOTS, see Conspiracies, and Rebellions. 

PLOUGH. "Thou shalt not plough with an 
nx and au ass together." Beut. xxii. 10 (1451 B.C.). 
The Roman plough is minutely described by Virgil, 
about 31 B.C. Engines to plough grounds, whether 
inland or upland, were patented by David Ramsay 
aud Thomas Wildgoose, in 1618; and many im- 
provements in ploughs have been patented since. 
The application of steam power to ploughing was 
patented by John Upton in 1837, and by others since, 
more especially by lord Willoughby P/Eresby, the 
marquis of Twceddale, and the earl of Caithness ; 
see Steam- Plough. 
International trial of ploughs, <fcc. at Haarlem; prizes 

won by English makers (Howards, Ransomes, &c), 

17-19 Sept. 1879. 

PLOUGH MONDAY, in January, the first 
Monday after the Epiphany. It received the appel- 
lation from its having been fixed upon by our fore- 
fathers as the day upon which they returned to the 
duties of agriculture after enjoying the festivities 
of Christmas. Ashe. On Plough Monday, too, 
the ploughmen of the north country used to draw 
a plough from door to door and beg plough money 
to drink. Bailey. 

On Plough Monday, the lord mayor of London holds 
annually at Guildhall a grand court of wardmote, 
at which the election of the common council and other 
officers on St. Thomas' day , 21 Dec. is confirmed. 

PLUM. We have two native plums ; our finer 
1 kinds came from Italy and Flanders about 1522. 

3 c 



PLUMBAGO. 



754 



POICTIEES. 



The Diospyros Lotus, the date plum, was brought 
from Barbary, before 1596; the Pishamin plum, 
.jpiospyros virginiana, from America, before 1629. 
Formerly damsons, apricots, and peaches went by 
this name, as raisins do to this day. 

. PLUMBAGO, see Graphite. 

PLURALITIES. Clergymen have been re- 
strained from holding move than one benefice by 
several statutes; the first being 21 Henry VIII. 
1529.. In 1838 an act was passed prohibiting the 
holding of more than two benefices except they were 
at a distance less than ten miles ; and the law on 
'this subject was still further amended in 1S50, 1855, 
arid 1885, provisions being made for the amalgama- 
tion of neighbouring benefices. See .Electors. 

PLUBAL NUMBEE, see We. 

PLUS ( + ) AND MINUS (— )• Professor De 
Morgan attributes these signs to either Christopher 
Rudolf, who published a book on algebra about 1522, 
or Michael Stifelius, about 1544. 

PLYMOUTH, a fortified seaport in Devon- 
shire, originally Sutton, was incorporated as Ply- 
mouth in 1439. It was in 1588 the rendezvous of 
the English fleet of 120 sail under Howard, Drake, 
&c., which pursued the Spanish armada. The fine 
hotel and assembly-rooms were burnt 6 Jan. 1863 ; 
loss about 50,000! The National Association for 
Social Science met here, Sept. 1872. See Armada, 
1888, 1890, Breakwater, and Population. 
Plymouth dock constructed, about i6S9,named Devonport 
1824, is now a great naval arsenal extending nearly 
4 miles along the Hamoaze. It has two M. P. 's. 
The. new guildhall was opened by the prince of 

Wales 13 Aug. 1874 

New wing to British female orphan asylum (esta- 
blished about 1834), founded by the diike of Edin- 
burgh 7 Oct. ,, 

Art and industrial exhibition opened . 23 May, 1881 
Tercentenary of the birth of sir Francis Drake 

celebrated, statue unveiled . . .14 Feb. 1884 
Koyal Agricultural shows, 1865 . . 23-27 June, 1890 
The duke of Edinburgh appointed commander-in- 
chief at Devonport, assumes command . 4 Aug. ,, 
Two fishing-boats, Sunbeam and Alonzo, sunk by 
firing from the gunboat Plucky, one man drowned, 
30 Oct. Court martial ; lieut. Sydney R. Free- 
mantle acquitted of negligence, 24-27 Nov. Com- 
pensation made to the sufferers . . Dec. 1891 

PLYMOUTH BBETHBEN, a body of 
Christians calling themselves "the Brethren," first 
appeared at Plymouth about 1830. In 1851 they 
had 132 places of worship in England and Wales. 
They object to national churches as too latitudi- 
narian, and to other dissenters as too sectarian. 
They receive into communion all who confess Christ, 
and own the Holy Ghost as his vicar. Their doc- 
trines agree with those of most evangelical pro- 
testant churches, but they recognise no order of 
ministers. Mr. Darbj', regarded as their founder, 
afterwards separated from them with some ad- 
herents. 

PNEUMATIC DESPATCH COMPANY, 

to convey letters and parcels through tubes by means 
of atmospheric pressure and a vacuum. The com- 
pany's act was passed 13 Aug. 1859, and tubes were 
laid down in Threadneedle-street on 12 Sept. i860; 
and on 20 Aug. 1861, successful experiments were 
performed at Battersea. In 1862 tubes were laid 
down from the Euston railway station to the N. "W. 
post-office in Camden-town, and on 21 Feb. 1863, 
the conveyance of the mail-bags began. In Oct. 
1865, tubes had been laid down between Euston 
railway and Holborn; and on 7 Nov. several persons 
travelled in them. Engineer, Mr. Ilammell. The 



company stopped through insufficient support, 1876. 
A pneumatic tube by Siemens, employed to trans- 
mit telegraphic messages, began about Jan. 1871. 

. PNEUMATIC LOOM, in which compressed 
air is the motive power, invented by Mr. Harrison, 
was exhibited in London in Dec. 1864. A company 
was formed to bring it into general use. 

PNEUMATICS, the science which treats of 
the mechanical properties of air and gases; see Air, 
and Atmospheric Railways. 

PODESTA (from potestas, power), an Italian 
governor, afterwards a judge; one with supreme 
authority was appointed at Milan by the emperor 
Frederick I., when he took the city in I15S. 

PODOLL (Bohemia), the site of a severe con- 
flict between the Austrians and a part of the army 
of prince Frederick Charles of Prussia, 26 June, 
i860. The Prussians had the advantage. 

PODOSCAPHE, see Canoe. 
POET-LAUEEAT. Selden could not trace 

the precise origin of this office. 

Warton, in his History of English Poetry, states that in 
the reign of Henry III. there was a Versificaior Regis, 
to whom an annual stiiiend was first paid of one hun- 
dred shillings. 

ChaUcer, on his return from abroad, assumed the title 
of poet-laureat ; and in the twelfth year of Richard II., 
1389, he obtained a grant of an annual allowance of wine. 

In the reign of Edward IV. , John Kay was laure.it ; 
. Andrew Bernard was laureat, temp. Henry VII. ; and 
John Skelton, Temp. Henry VIII. 

James I. in 1615, granted to his laureat a yearly pension 
of 100 marks ; and in 1630, this stipend was augmented 
by letters patent of Charles I. to 100I. per annum, with 
an additional grant of one tierce of Canary Spanish 
wine to be taken out of the king's store of wine yearly. 
We believe that on Southey's appointment the tierce of 
Canary wine was commuted for 27/'. 

Laurence Eusden commenced a series of Birth-Day and 
New Year's Odes, which continued till the death of 
Pye, in 181 3. 

On the death of Warton its abolition was recommended 
by Gibbon, whose elegant compliment on the occasion 
still more forcibly applied on Wordsworth's death, in 
1850 — " This is the best time for not iilling up the office, 
when the prince is a man of virtue, and the poet just 
departed was a man of genius. " 

POETS-LAUREAT. 

Edmund Spenser, died 1599. 

Samuel Daniel, died 1619. 

Ben Jonson (born 1574), died 1637. 

Sir William Davenant, 1637 ; died 1668. 

John Dryden, 1670 ; deposed at the revolution, 1688. 

Thomas Shadwell, 1688 ; died 1692. 

Nahum Tate, 1692 ; died 1715. 

Nicholas Rowe, died 1718. 

Rev. Laurence Eusden, 1718 ; died 1730. 

Colley Cibber, 1730; died 1757. 

William Whitehead (on the refusal of Gray), 1757 ; died 

1785- 
Rev. Dr. Thomas Warton (on the refusal of Mason), 1785 ; 

died 1790. 
Henry James Pye, 1790: died 1813. 
Dr. Robert Southey (on the refusal of Scott), 1813 ; died 

21 March, 1843. 
William Wordsworth, 1843 ; died 23 April, 1850. 
Alfred (aft. lord) Tennyson (born 1809), installed 1850. 

POETEY. The song of Moses on the deliver- 
ance of the Israelites, and their passage through the 
Bed Sea, 1491 B.C. (Exodus xv.). Ancient Egyptian 
poetry still extant. Orpheus of Thrace was deemed 
the inventor of poetry amongst the Greeks; see 
Epics, Odes, Satire, Comedy, Tragedy, Sonnets, 
Ballads, Hymns, and Verse. 

POICTIEES (W. France), near which was 
fought the battle between Edward the Black Prince 
and John, king of France, in which the English 
arms triumphed, 19 Sept. 1356. The standard of 



POISONING. 



755 



POLAND. 



France was overthrown, many of her nobility slain, 
and her king was taken prisoner, and brought to 
London; see Tours, and VouyU. 

POISONING. A number of Roman ladies 
formed a conspiracy and poisoned their husbands. 
A female slave denounced 170 of them to Fabius 
Maximus, who ordered them to be publicly exe- 
cuted, 331 B.C. It was said that this was the 
first public knowledge they had of poisoning at 
Rome. Poisoning was made petty treason in Eng- 
land, and was punished by boiling to death (of 
which there are some remarkable instances), 23 
Henry VIII. 153 1 ; see Boiling to death. The 
frequency of eases of poisoning by means of arsenic, 
in England, caused the British legislature to pass 
a law rendering the sale of arsenic difficult (14 
Vict. c. 13, 6 June, 1851). Thesale of poison is now 
regulated by the Pharmacy act of 1868. Additional 
restrictions enacted by act passed in 1885. The 
Poisoned Grain Prohibition Act was passed 28 
July, 1863. 

A deadly poison freely administered by Italians in the 
seventeenth century, was called aqua to/ana, from the 
name of the woman Tofania, who made and sold it in 
small flat vials. She carried on this traffic for half a 
century, and eluded the police ; but, on being taken, 
confessed that she had been a party in poisoning 600 
people. Numerous persons were implicated by her, 
and many of them were publicly executed. All Italy 
was thrown into" a ferment, and many fled, and some 
persons of distinction, on conviction, were strangled 
in prison. It appeared to have been chiefly used by 
married women who were tired of their husbands. 
Four or six drops were a fatal dose ; but the effect was 
not sudden, and therefore not suspected. It was as 
clear as water, but the chemists have not agreed about its 
real composition. A proclamation of the pope described 
it as aquafortis distilled into arsenic, and others con- 
sidered it as a solution of crystallised arsenic. 
Between 1666 and 1676, the marchioness de Brinvilliers 
poisoned her father and two brothers and many others. 
She was executed, 16 July, 1676. 
W. Palmer was executed in 1856, and Miss M. Smith tried 
in 1857, for poisoning ; see 'Trials. Catherine Wilson, 
a noted poisoner, was executed on 20 Oct. 1862. 
Edward William Pritchard, M.D., was -.executed at 
Glasgow, 28 July, 1865, for the slow murder of his wife 
and her mother, by antimony. 
Nov. 1858, 17 persons died at Bradford through eating 
sweetmeats in which arsenic had been mixed by mis- 
take. Mr. Hodgson, a chemist, was tried for homi- 
cide, and acquitted. 
Weltmann, a bookbinder at Posen, poisoned 4 wives and 

2 children, about 1859. 
Christiana Edmunds, of Brighton, was convicted of 
murdering a child by poisoned sweetmeats ; other per- 
sons barely escaped (sentence remitted on the ground 
of insanity), 16 Jan. 1872. 
Mary Ann Cotton, imprisoned Oct. 1872, suspected of 
poisoning 16 persons, principally children ; convicted 
of poisoning her child, 7 March ; executed at Durham, 
24 March, 1873. 
About 25 wives convicted of poisoning their husbands 
at Gross Bedskereh in Hungary ; Theckla Popav was 
said to be the head of the conspiracy, Aug. 1882. 
Catharine Flanagan and Margaret Higgins (sisters) con- 
victed of poisoning Thomas Higgins, to obtain insur- 
ance money, 9 Feb. ; other charges not tried ; they 
confessed, and were executed, 3 March, 1884. 
Mad. Van Der Linden convicted of many poisonings at 

Leyden, 3 May, 1885. 
Albert Pel poisoned mother, wife, mistress and others, 
1872, et seq. ; convicted at Paris 13 June ; penal servi- 
tude 14 Aug. 1885. 
Dr. Philip Cross convicted at Cork 'of poisoning his wife 
with arsenic and strychnine 17 Dec. 1887 ; executed 
10 Jan. 1888. 
Mrs. Maybrick charged with the murder of her husband 
James Maybrick by poisoning with arsenic, 6 June, 
1S89; she was tried before Mi-. Justice Stephen at 
Liverpool, and convicted 31 July— 7 Aug.; sentence 
of death commuted to penal servitude" for life, 22 
Aug. 1880. 



Ten women tried at Mitrowitz in Hungary for 
poisoning their husbands with arsenic, 30 June ; 
four sentenced to death, four to penal servitude, 
and two acquitted 5 July, ^90 

Poisoning at a wedding breakfast at Louisville, 
U.S.A. ; 3 persons died . . . 18 April, 189 1 
See Bravo case. 

POITOU, an ancient province, "W. France, part 
of the dowry of Eleanor, queen of Henry II. of 
England, 1 151. It partook of the fortunes of Aqui- 
taine. 

POL A (Illyria), a very ancient city, where 
Augustus founded the colony Pietas Julia, which 
flourished during the empire. Off Pola, the Genoese 
fleet, under Doria, defeated the Venetians under 
Pisani, 5 or 6 May, 1379, with great loss. 

POLAND (N. E. Europe), part of ancient Sar- 
matia. It is said to have become a duchy under 
Lcchus or Lesko I. 550; and a kingdom under 
Boleslaus, about 992. 'the natives belong to the great 
Sclavonic family. The word Pole, from Poliani, 
is not older than the 10th century. Population of 
the kingdom of Poland (Russian) in 1857 was 
4)789,379 5 iu lg 67, 5,705,607; 1111872,6,528,017; 
in 1885, 7,416,958; in 1890, 8,256,562. 
Piastus, a peasant, is elected to the ducal dignity, 

about 842 

[Piastus is said to have lived to the age of 120, and 
his reign to have been so prosperous that suc- 
ceeding native sovereigns were called Piasts.] 
Introduction of Christianity, about . . . . 992 
Boleslas II. murders St. Stanislaus, the bishop of 
Cracow, with his own hands, 1079 ; his kingdom 
laid under an interdict by the pope, and his sub- 
jects absolved of their allegiance .... 10S0 
He flies to Hungary for shelter ; but is refused it 
by order of Gregory VII., and at length kills 

himself or dies in a monastery 1081 

Tartar invasion 1241 

Premislas assassinated 1296 

Louis of Hungary elected king .... 1370 

Ladislas VI. defeated and slain by the Turks at 

Varna 1444 

War against the Teutonic knights . . . 1410 ; 1447 
The Wallachian invaders carry off 100,000 Poles, 
and sell them to the Turks as slaves . . . 1498 

The Wallachians defeated 1531 

Splendid reign of Sigismund II 1548 

Lithuania incorporated with Poland . . . 1569 
Stephen forms a militia composed of Cossacks, on 

whom he bestows the Ukraine 1575 

Poland conquered by the Swedes and Russians, 

1654 ei se C- 

Recovered its independence 1660 

Abdication of John Casimir 1668 

Victories of John Sobieski over the Turks at Vienna 1683 
Many protestants killed after an affray at Thorn . 1724 

Stanislaus abolishes torture 1770 

An awful pestilence destroys 250,000 persons . . 1770 
Civil war so weakened the kingdom that it fell an 

easy prey to Russia, Austria, and Prussia . . 1772 
The first partition treaty . . . 17 Feb. ,, 

The public partition treaty, 5 Aug. ; acted on, 18 Sept. ,, 
A new constitution granted by the king 3 May, 1791 

The Russians, <fcc, on various pretexts enter 

Poland . 1792 

Second partition treaty signed 1793 

Insurrection under Kosciusko . . . March, 1794 
After many successes he is defeated by the Russians 

at Maciejoviee and taken prisoner . 10 Oct. „ 

Warsaw and Praga sacked by Suwarrow . 9 Nov. ,, 
Courland is annexed to Russia . 1795 

Stanislaus resigns his crown at Grodno; final par- 
tition of his kingdom .... 25 Nov. ,, 
Kosciusko set at liberty .... 25 Dec. 1796 

He arrives in London 30 May, 1797 

The Poles enter the French army and greatly help 

to gain their victories .... 1797 etseq. 
Stanislaus dies at St. Petersburg . . 12 Feb. 1798 

Napoleon I. enters Warsaw; his army wintered in 

Poland 1S06-7 

The Poles neglected by the treaty of Tilsit (which 

sec) 7 July, 1807 

3 C 2 



POLAND. 



756 



POLAND. 



General diet at Warsaw .... June, 

The central provinces (the duchy at Warsaw, be- 
tween 1807 and 1813) made the kingdom of Poland 
under Alexander of Russia . . .30 April, 

New constitution granted and Cracow declared to 
be a free republic .... 27 Nov. 

Polish diet opened Sept. 

A revolution at Warsaw; the army declare in 
favour of the people .... 29 Nov. 

The diet declares the throne vacant . . 25 Jan. 

Battle of Grochow, near Praga; the Russians lose 
7000 men ; the Poles, who keep the field, 2000, 

19, 20 Feb. 

Battle of Wawz (which see) . . 31 March, 

Insurrection in Wilna and Volhynia . 3 April, 

Russians defeated at Zelieho, 6 April ; Seidleee, 10 
April ; at Ostrolenka .... 26 May, 

The Russian general Diebitsch dies . . 10 June, 

Battle of Wilna ; Poles defeated . . 19 June, 

Grandduke Constantino dies . . .27 June, 

Battle of Minsk 14 July, 

Warsaw taken by Russians ... 8 Sept. 

The insurrection suppressed . . .5 Oct. 

Ukase issued by the emperor Nicholas, decreeing 
that the kingdom of Poland shall henceforth 
form an integral part of the Russian empire, 

26 Feb. 

Attempted revolution in Austrian Poland," 

22-27 Feb. 

The courts of Austria, Russia, and Prussia revoke 
the treaty of 1815, which constituted Cracow a 
free republic, and it is declared Austrian terri- 
tory 16 Nov. 

[This annexation was protested against by England, 
France, Sweden, and Turkey.] 

The kingdom of Poland declared a Russian pro- 
vince May, 

Great popular demonstration in commemoration of 
the battle of Cracow .... 25 Feb. 

Six members of the Royal Agricultural Society 
killed by the military .... 27 Feb. 

Great excitement at their funeral ; many citizens 
put on mourning; an address to the emperor 
Alexander signed by 60,000 persons ; mild conduct 
of prince Gortschakoff, the governor 1-7 March, 

Mukhanoff, curator of Poland, who had written a 
circular exciting the peasantry against their 
lords, quits Warsaw, which is illuminated in con- 
sequence 17 March, 

The government promises reforms and the re-estab- 
lishment of Poland as a separate kingdom ; yet 
abolishes the Agricultural Society . . 7 April, 

Great meeting in consequence ; which is dispersed 
by the military (now 32,000 strong) ; above 100 are 

killed anil wounded 8 April, 

Great agitation in the rural districts ; the Russian 
officials quit Lublin ; general Chruleff marches 

hither April, 

80,000 soldiers in Poland ; reign of terror in War- 
saw May, 

Death of prince Gortschakoff, lieut. -general of Po- 
land 30 May, 

New administrative council appointed . June, 
Death of prince Adam Czartoryski at Paris, aged 91, 

IS July, 



1830 
1831 



1832 
1846 



1847 



* On 22 Feb. 1846, an Austrian force under general 
Collin, which had entered Cracow on the approach of 
armed bands of peasantry, was attacked and driven out 
of the town. A provisional government was then pro- 
claimed by the insurgents, and two days afterwards they 
crossed the Vistula, expecting to be joined by the pea- 
santry of Gallicia, who were solicited by the nobles and 
clergy to strike a blow in the cause of liberty. The 
Austrian government, in order to prevent this junction, 
excited in the peasantry a suspicion of the motives of 
the nobles, and offered a reward for every noble de- 
livered up, alive or dead : a general massacre of the 
nobility and clergy in the circle of Tarnow followed : the 
insurgents from Cracow were defeated at Gdow, whence 
they retreated to Podgorze, a suburb of Cracow; here 
they were attacked by general Collin, and driven into 
Cracow on the 27th of February. The forces of the three 
powers then began to concentrate on Cracow ; the people 
in the town opened negotiations with the Austrians about 
a surrender, and while these were going on a Russian 
corps entered the town without resistance, and soon 
afterwards the revolution was at an end. 



Oppressive regulations issued respecting dress . i86j 
Fresh disturbances ; Warsaw put in a state of siege, 

Oct. „ 
Military arrests in churches in AVarsaw ; they are 

closed by the priests . . . -17 Oct. „ 
The governor, count Lambert, leaves Warsaw, 

23 Oct. „ 
General Gerstenzweig, the military governor, assas- 
sinated 25 Oct. ,. 

Bialobzeski, catholic archbishop of Warsaw, ar- 
rested, 19 Nov. ; tried and condemned to death 
as a rebel for closing the churches [he died shortly 

after] 18 Dec. ,, 

The new archbishop Felinski exhorts the Poles to 

submission 15 Feb. 1862 

Rigour of the government relaxed ; amnesty granted 

to 89 convicted political prisoners . 29 April, „ 
Attempted assassination of Wielopolski, a liberal 

Pole, president of the council . . 7 Aug. „ 
The grandduke Constantine appointed governor, 28 
May ; begins with lenient policy, but his life is 
attempted by Jaroszynsky, 3 July, who is executed, 

21 Aug. ,, 
Count Zamoyski, an eminent loyal Pole, exiled for 
presenting to the government the report of a 
meeting of nobles at Warsaw, for which he had 

been asked Sept. „ 

Telkner, the chief of the secret police, found mur- 
dered 9 Nov. ,. 

Severe military conscription without notice, 14 Jan. 1863 
Insurrection in the night : at Warsaw . 22 Jan. ,, 
Many Russians murdered ; Poland put in a state of 

siege 24 Jan. „ 

The Polish provisional government issues its first 

proclamation 2 Feb. „ 

Louis Mieroslawski announces himself as head of 
the Poles, 19 Feb. ; his band defeated and dis- 
persed 23 Feb. „ 

Marian Langiewicz declared dictator of Poland, 
10 March ; after several defeats he enters the 
Austrian territory, is detected and imprisoned, 

19 March, „ 
The insurrection becomes general, and is supported 
by the landed proprietors, Feb. ; successful 
guerilla warfare . . . March and April, ,, 
The secret central committee assumes the supreme 

command March, ,, 

The czar offers an amnesty to all who lay down 

arms before 13 May ; rejected . . 12 April, „ 
European intervention on behalf of Poland, 17 
April, &c. ; firmly replied to by the Czar, 

26 April, &c. „ 
The secret committee (as a provisional government) 
levies taxes, 3 May, and forbids payment of taxes 

to Russia 9 May, „ 

80,000?. taken from the Russian treasury at Warsaw 
for the provisional government, 12 June; the 
Poles claim the Poland of 1772 . . 26 June, ,, 
Fruitless intervention of European powers ; san- 
guinary rule of Mouravieff at Wilna . June, , , 
General Berg replaces the marquis de Wiepolski, as 

lieut. -gen., and governs with great rigour, 7 July ,„ 
Unsuccessful invasion of Volhynia by the Poles, 
under Wysocki and Horodycki, 1 July ; Felinski, 
the R. C. archbishop of Warsaw, banished, July ; 
frequent conflicts with varying results ; many 
captured priests and nobles executed . . Aug. ,„ 
Lelewel, a brave Pole, after several victories, killed 

in battle 6 Sept. ,, 

Earl Russell decides against armed intervention, 

Aug. : negotiation ceases . . . Sept. ,, 

Gen. Berg fired at from the Zamoyski hotel, War- 
saw, 19 Sept. ; the hotel destroyed . . Sept. „ 
Many eminent Poles executed, Oct. ; Win. Alger, 
an Englishman, shot at Warsaw for making 
grenades ; the hotel de ville fired . 9 Oct. „ 

Mourning forbidden to be worn for the Poles at 
AVarsaw, 27 Oct. ; 41 ladies arrested at night, 

3 Nov. ,, 
The Times correspondent expelled from Warsaw, 

27 Nov. ,, 
The abbe Machiewicz, a warlike priest, venerated 

as a martyr, hanged .... 28 Dec. ,, 
Mouravieff rules Lithuania with great rigour, Dee. ,, 
Numerous skirmishes, and many executions of 
prisoners captured by the Russians ; the insurrec- 
tion gradually dying out . . Jan. to April, 1864 



POLAND. 



757 



POLE STAR. 



The pope promulgates an arrogant encyclical letter 
to the Polish church .... 30 July, 1864 

Romuald Traugott, once a Russian colonel, head 
of the Polish provisional government, since Oct. 
1863, and five others, hanged . . 5 Aug. , , 

Decree for reorganising education at Warsaw, 
founding a university, &c. . . . 11 Sept. ,, 

The secret provisional government, after stating 
that 50,000 men had been slain, and 100,000 ex- 
iled to Siberia, still calls on the Poles to begin a 
" national war " 21 Sept. ,, 

Many Roman Catholic convents closed for partici- 
pating in the insurrection . . . Nov. 

Further measures for denationalising Poland 
adopted Dec. 

The ex-dictator Langiewicz released by the Aus- 
trians and sent to Switzerland the died May, 1887] 

Feb. 1865 

The abbe Stanislas Bizoski and his lieutenant, cap- 
tured and executed .... 23 May, ,, 

Estates of suspected sympathisers with rebels 
ordered to be sold 22 Dec. ,, 

Church property appropriated by the government ; 
the clergy to be paid by the state . . 9 Jan. 1866 

Military government ceases, and state of siege par- 
tially raised 17 Feb. 

Count Goluchowski, a Pole, made governor of 
Gallicia Oct. „ 

Insurrection of Polish exiles in Siberia, soon sup- 
pressed, July ; many executed . , Nov. ,, 

Decree abolishing all political distinctions of Po- 
land as a kingdom 19 Dec. ,, 

Promulgated 5 Jan. 1867 

Amnesty to political offenders proclaimed, 31 May, ,, 

Poland designated the " Vistula province " in a 
ukase Jan. 1868 

Its separate internal government abolished, and 
complete union with the empire effected, 29 Feb. ,, 

The distinct financial departments of Poland 
abolished April, ,, 

The Polish language interdicted in public places, 

Conciliatory policy towards the Poles in Russia and 
Austria proposed March, 1872 

•Count Berg, the last lieutenant-general for Poland, 
dies 18 Jan. 1873 

Polish language prohibited in courts of law and 
public offices in Russian Poland . . June, 1876 

The Czar and Czarina visit Warsaw (great precau- 
tions) 8-27 Sept. 1884 

About 34,700 Poles expelled from Prussia Oct. -Nov. 1885 

Movement for de-nationalising Poland (see Prussia) 

Feb. 1886 

Count Ladislaw Platu, active in the revolutions of 
i83oand 1863, dies in Switzerland (aged 83)23 April, 1889 

Conciliatory measures towards Polish landowners 
proposed May, „ 

The body of Adam Mickiewiez, the great Polish poet 
(1798-1855), brought from France, re-interred at 
Cracow 4 July, 1890 

■Second congress of Polish historians and arclueolo- 
gists opened at Leopol ... 17 July, ,, 

Centenary of the Polish constitution of 1791, cele- 
brated in Austrian Poland . . .3 May, 1891 

The emperor William II. appoints a Polish arch- 
bishop of Posen, 1891, and otherwise favours the 

Poles 1892 

See Cracow, Warsaw, and Russia. 

DUKES AND KINGS OF POLAND. 

842. Piastus, duke. 
861. Ziemovitus, his son. 
892. Lesko or Lescus IV. 
913. Ziemoniislas, son of Lesco. 
964. Miecislas I. becomes Christian. 
992. Boleslas I., surnamed the Lion-hearted ; obtained 
the title of King from the emperor Otho III. 
Miecislas II. 
1034. Richense or Riehsa, his consort, regent : driven 

from the government. 
1037. [Anarchy.] 

1041. Casimir I., her son, surnamed the Pacific ; he had 
retired to a monastery, but was invited to the 
throne. 
1058. Boleslas II., styled the Intrepid. 
1081. Ladislas I., called the Careless, dulcc. 
no2. Boleslas III., surnamed Wry-mouth. 
1138. Ladislas, son of the preceding, 



1 146. Boleslas IV., the Curled. 

1 1 73. Miecislas III., the Old ; deposed. 

1 1 77. Casimir II., surnamed the Just. 

1 194. Lesko V., the White : abdicated. 

1200. Miecislas III. : restored. 

1202. Ladislas III. : retired. 

1206. Lesko V. ; restored ; assassinated : succeeded by 

his son, an infant. 
1227. Boleslas V., surnamed the Chaste. 
1279. Lesko VI. ; surnamed the Black. 
1289. [Horrid anarchy.] 

1295. Premislas, styled king of Poland, governs wisely ; 

assassinated. 

1296. Ladislas I. (IV.), the Short : deposed. 

1300. Weneeslas, king of Bohemia, abandons Poland. 

1304. Ladislas IV., the Short. 

1333. Casimir III., the Great : encourages the arts, and 
amends the law : killed by a fall from his horse. 

1370. Louis, king of Hungary, elected Hug. 

1382. Maria ; and 1384 Hedwige (daughters of Louis), 
ami her consort, Jagcllo, duke of Lithuania, by 
the style of Ladislas V. 

1399. Ladislas II. (V.), alone : annexed Lithuania. 

1434. Ladislas III. (VI.), son ; succeeded as king of Hun- 
gary, 1440. 

1445. [Interregnum.] 
,, Casimir IV. 

1492. John (Albert) I. , son. 

1501. Alexander, prince of Livonia, his brother. 

1506. Sigismund I., brother ; obtained the surname of 
the Great. 

1548. Sigismund II., Augustus, son (last of the Jagellon 
dynasty) ; a splendid reign : added Livonia to 
his kingdom : died 1572. Interregnum. 

ELECTED MONARCH'S. 

1573. Henry de Valois, duke of Anjou, brother to the 
king of France ; he afterwards succeeded to the 
French throne. 

1575. Stephen Bathori, prince of Transylvania : estab- 
lished the Cossacks as a militia. 

1586. [Interregnum.] 

1587. Sigismund III., son of the king of Sweden, to the 

exclusion of Maximilian of Austria, elected by 
the nobles. 

1632. Ladislas IV. (VII.), Vasa, son of Sigismund III. ; 
succeeded by his brother. 

1648. John II., or Casimir V. ; abdicated 1668, and re- 
tired to France, where he died a monk, in 1672. 

1668. [Interregnum.] 

1669. Michael-Koributh-Wiesnowiski : in this reign the 

Cossacks join the Turks, and ravage Poland. 
1674. John III., Sobieski ; the last independent king: 

illustrious for victories over the Cossacks, Turks. 

and Tartars. 
1697. [Interregnum.] 
,, Frederick- Augustus I., son of John-George, electee 

of Saxony ; and elector in 1694 ; deprived of his 

crown. 
1704. Stanislas I. (Lezinski) : forced to retire from his 

kingdom in 1709. 
1709. Frederick-Augustus I. again. 
1733. Frederick- Augustus II., son of the r.ieceding 

sovereign. 

1763. [Interregnum.] 

1764. Stanislaus II. Augustus Poniatowski, resigned his 

sovereignty, 25 Nov. 1795 : died at St. Peters- 
burg, astate prisoner, 12 Feb. 1798. 

POLAR CLOCK. An optical apparatus in- 
vented by professor Whcatstone (about 1849), 
whereby the hour of the day is found by means of 
the polarisation of light. 

POLAR CONFERENCES, INTERNA- 
TIONAL, to organize setting up stations round 
the polar area for continuous scientific inves- 
tigation, met at Hamburg, 1879; at Berne in 1880; 
at St. Petersburg, 1-6 Aug. 1881, and at other 
places since. 

POLARISATION OF LIGHT, sec Optics. 

POLAR REGIONS, sec North- West Passage, 
and South Pole. 

POLE STAR or Polar Star, a star of the 
second magnitude, the last in the tail of the con- 



POLICE. 



758 



POLITICAL ECONOMY. 



stellation called the Little Bear . As its nearness to 
the North Pole causes it never to set to those in tlie 
northern hemisphere, it is called the seaman's 
guide. Two stars in the constellation Ursa Major, 
or Great Bear, are called pointers to the Polar star. 
The discovery of the Pole star is ascribed by the 
Chinese to their emperor, Hong-ti, the grandson 
(they say) of Noah, who reigned and nourished 
1970 B.C. Univ. Hist. 

POLICE. The London police grew out of the 
London watch, instituted about 1253. Its jurisdic- 
tion was extended 27 Eliz. 1585, and 16 Chas. I. 
1640; and the system improved by various acts in 
subsequent reigns. See Magistrates. 

Police offices : — The jurisdiction of twenty-one magis- 
trates, three to preside in each of the seven 
divisional offices, commenced . . .1 Aug. 1792 

The Thames police was established in . . 1798 

The Police Gazette (re-modelled by Mr. Howard 
Vincent in 1884) established 1828 

The London police, remodelled by Mr. (afterwards 
sir Robert) Peel, by 10 Geo. IV. 19 June, com- 
menced duty 29 Sept. 1829 

The London police improvement acts passed 3 Vict. 
1839, 4 Viet. 1840, which were amended by 19 & 20 
Vict. c. 2 1856 

In 1857 the total expenditure was 445,212?. for the 
metropolitan police, consisting of 17 superinten- 
dents, 140 inspectors, 630 sergeants, and 5296 
constables. 

The total efficient police force in England and 
Wales, exclusive of the metropolis, in Sept. 1859, 
was 11,309, and in Sept. 1863, 14,661 (see Con- 
stabulary). 

Division X was established to attend the Interna- 
tional Exhibition in 1862 

The whole jiolice and constabulary in England and 
Wales amounted to 23,032 men ; metropolitan 
police, 6590 ; city of London police, 743 ; dock- 
yard police, &c, 743 .... 29 Sept. 1863 

Metropolitan police, 7493, 1 Jan. 1866 ; 7548, i Jan. 
1867 ; great increase proposed in . . Dec. 1867 

Col. Rowan and Richard Mayne, commissioners of 
metropolitan police, appointed, 1829 ; Mayne died 

26 Dec. 1868 

Colonel (after sir Edmund) Henderson appointed 
commissioner in room of sir R. Mayne . Feb. 1869 

Resigns in consequence of the riots of 8 Feb. 1886 
(sw Riots), 22 Feb. 1886 ; succeeded by sir Charles 
Warren, 12 March, i8£6, who resigned 8 Nov. 1888 ; 
succeeded by Mr. James Monro, 26 Nov. 1888; 
resigns 10 June, 1890; succeeded by sir Edward 
Ridley C. Bradford, 20 June, 1890. 

The commissioner of the City of London police, sir 
James Frazer, appointed in 1863, resigned about 
26 June ; succeeded by col. Henry Smith, 28 July, 
1890. 

The ttrst annual report of the commissioner issued, 1870 

State : 8883 police constables for a radius of 15 miles 
from Charing Cross (exclusive of the city of Lon- 
don), including 3,563,410 inhabitants . Dec. 1869 

The detective police, only 15 men in June, 1869, has 
been since raised to 266 men and a superinten- 
dent, with good effect Oct. 1870 

State: 9655 of all ranks, Dec. 1871 ; 9958 . Dec. 1874 

Large meetings of police to agitate for an increase 
of pay 17-24 Oct. 1872 

Request granted ; meeting of some constables 
through misapprehension . . . 16 Nov. „ 

Some constables prosecuted, 18 Nov. ; 109 dis- 
missed ; 65 reduced in rank . . 20 Nov. „ 

Several policemen censured for misconduct and 
over-zeal, autumn 1873 

Police Detectives prosecution, see Trials . . 1877 

Appointment of commission to investigate detec- 
tive system in metropolitan police (sirH. Sehvyn- 
Ibbetson, lion. col. Win. Fielding, and others), 
about I3 Aug. „ 

Pay : first class constable, 30s. per week ; reserve, 
31s. 6d. ; lirst class sergeant, 36s. ; second class, 
34«- 1878 

Discontent among police respecting pay (crime said 
to have increased ; apprehensions diminished). 

Committee of inquiry (sir M. W. Ridley and Mr. J. 



B. Maule) appointed to inquire into the pay and 
organisation, about .... 8 Aug. 1878 

Various changes (with increase of pay in some 
cases) were ordered by the home secretary 

end of Aug. ,, 

20,000 peculiarly made whistles, received for distri- 
bution among the police .... March, 1884 

Metropolitan police 13,319 ; cost 1,059,628?. in . 1885 

Police arrangements north of Thames remodelled 

1 April, 1886 

Report of committee on the police, with vague 
recommendations, issued . . about 2 Oct. ,, 

Police Disabilities Removal Act-enabling police to 
vote at parliamentary elections passed 23 May, 1887 

Miss.Cass arrested in mistake by police-constable 
Endacott in Regent St. about 9.15 p.m. 28 June ; 
inquiry refused by home secretary July ; govern- 
ment defeated in commons (153-148) 5 July; 
Endacott acquitted of perjury . . 1 Nov. „ 

Medals presented to the metropolitan police for 
their conduct during the jubilee celebrations in 
June, ordered 3 Sept. ,, 

A testimonial to the police for their conduct at 
Trafalgar Square (see under Riots) ; combination 
of two funds Nov. ; appropriated to their con- 
valescent asylum at Dover .... Feb. 1888 

Charges against the police of levying black mail 
made by Mr. W. S. Caine and others in July, i887_ ; 
investigated and declared not proved by sir 
Charles Warren, Times .... 6 Feb. ,, 

Agitation respecting pay, pension, and hours 

May, June, 1890 

Bow-street station. Insubordination; 130 men for 
an hour refused to go on duty, 10 p.m. ; some 
transferred to another district, 40 dismissed, 
5 July ; rioting of dismissed men and roughs 
quickly stopped by the foot-guards, 7 July ; per- 
fect order in tlie force reported . . 8 July, ,, 

Increase of pay begun .... 17 Dec. ,, 

Metropolitan police, 14,081 ; cost 1,096,2777. 31 Dec. 1887 

Police of England and Wales, year 1871-2, 27,999 
men, cost 2,372,888?. (84?. 15s. a man) ; 1872-3, 
28,550 men, cost 2,567,481?.; 1874-5, 29,460 men, 
cost 2, 742,526?. ; 1875-6, 29,719111611, cost2, 849, 073?. ; 
1 87^-7, 3°i°i6 men, cost 2,902,635?. (per man, 
96?/. 14s.); 1877-8, 30,673 men, cost 2,980,592?. 
(per man, 97?. 3s. 51?.) ; 1878-9, 31,407 men, cost 
3,058,671?. (per man, 98?. 10s. 4'i.); 1881-2, 33,173 
men, cost 3,264,337?. ; 1882-3, 34,488 men, cost 
3*367,678?. ; 1886-7, 36,912 men, cost 3,711, 933?. ; 
1887-8, 37,296 men, cost 3,727,942?. ; 1888-9,37,957 
men, cost 3,734,916?. ; 1889-90, 39,221 men, cost 
3,846,508. 

Police of the United Kingdom, 1890 :— England and 
Wales, 39,221 ; Scotland, 4,103 ; Ireland, 13,921. 

POLICIES OF ASSUBANCE ACT, 
passed 20 Aug. 1867 ; see Insurance. 

POLITICAL ECONOMY, the science 
which has for its object the improvement of the 
condition of mankind, and the promotion of civili- 
sation, wealth, and happiness. Its history in this 
country may be dated from the publication of sir 
"Win. Petty's "Treatise on Taxes,'' 1662, and 
" Political Arithmetic," 1691 ; Dr. Adam Smith's 
"Wealth of Nations," 1776. The works of Mill, 
M'Culloch, and Fawcett are celebrated. A pro- 
fessorship of Political Economy was established at 
Oxford by Mr. Henry Drummond, M.P., 1825 ; 
and at Cambridge, first by Mr. G. Pryme, in 1828 ; 
but regularly established by the university in 1863, 
Henry Fawcett (blind) being the first professor. 
Archbishop Whately endowed a professorship at 
Trinity College, Dublin ; Isaac Butt first pro- 
fessor 1832 

The Political Economy Club, London, founded in 
1821, by Tlios. Tooke and others, to propagate 
free trade principles, kept the hundredth anni- 
versary of the publication of Smith's "Wealth of 

Nations " 31 May, 1876 

Mr. R. H Inglis Palgrave's "Dictionary of Political 

Economy," published 1891, et seq. 
Imaginary systems: Plato's "Republic;" he died 347 
B.C. Sir T. Mores " Utopia" 1548 ; sir P. Sidney's 
"Arcadia," 1690; James Harrington's "Oceana/ 



POLITICAL OFFICES. 



7-59 POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTION. 



1656 ; Win. Morris's "News from Nowhere," 1891 ; 
and E. Bellamy's " Looking Backwards," 1888. 

POLITICAL OFFICES PENSIONS 
ACT passed 9 Aug. 1S69. 

POLITICAL UNIONS were formed in Eng- 
land in 1831 to cany the Reform Bill : the most 
important was that of Birmingham. 

POLITICIANS. A politician is described as 
a man well versed in policy, or the well regulating 
and governing of a state or kingdom ; a wise and 
cunning man. A man of artifice ; one of deep 
contrivance. Soui/t. The term was first used in 
France about 1569. A new faction appeared, 
known by the name of Politicians, headed by the 
due d'Alenc.on and the Montmoreneies, and 
strengthened by the accession of the Huguenots in 
1574. The duke was arrested and the MonUnoren- 
cies sent to the Bastile. 

POLKA, a dance snid to li'ive been invented 
between 1830 and 1834 in Bohemia, and to have 
obtained its name in Prague in 1835. It became 
very popular, and was introduced into England 
about 1844. 

POLL ACT passed in Ireland by the Junto of 
the f ale, putting a price upon the heads of certain 
Irish ; the earl of Desmond being then deputy, 5 
Edward IV. 1465. This act long endured, see 
Ireland, 1465. 

POLLENTIA (Piedmont, N. Italy), the site 
of a great victory of Stilicho, the Imperial general, 
over Alaricthc Goth, 29 March, 403. 

POLL-TAX or Capitation Tax, existed 

among the ancient ltomans. It was first levied in 
England in 1380; and occasioned the rebellion of 
Wat Tyler (see Tyler), 1381. It was again levied 
in 1513. By the iSth Charles II. every subject 
was assessed by the head, viz., a duke 100L, a 
marquis Sol., a baronet 30/., a knight 20I., an 
esquire lol., and every single private person I2cl., 
1667. This grievous impost was abolished by 
William III. 16S9. 

POLLUTION OF RIVERS, see Rivers. 

POLO, the game of ball termed hockey played 
on horseback, became popular in England in 1872, 
having been introduced from India. Games were 
played by lancers and life-guards at Woolwich, 16, 
19 July. 1872. A polo club was formed, and inter- 
national contests held ; at Brighton one opened 
3 Aug. 1878. Polo is said to have been an old 
Russian game, mentioned 1492 under the name of 
Chugan, as brought from Persia. 

POLOTSK (Russia). The French under mar- 
shal Oudinot were here defeated by the Russians 
under general Wittgenstein, 30 and 31 July, 1812; 
the next day, the Russians were defeated. After 
several smaller actions with various results, Polotsk 
was stormed by the Russians, and retaken Oct. 1812. 

POLTOWA, see Fuliowa. 

POLYGAMY, &c., was permitted among the 
early nations, and now by Mahometans. In Media, 
it was a reproach to a man to have less than seven 
wives. Among the Romans, Mare Antony is 
mentioned as the first who took two wives. The 
practice was forbidden by Areadius, 394. The 
emperor Charles V. punished polygamy with death. 
In England, by stat. 1 James I. 1603, it was made 
felony, with benefit of clergy. It was formerly 
punished with transportation, but now by im- 
prisonment or penal servitude; see Marriages. 
Polygamy exists among the Mormons {which see). 



Abolished in the United States, 23 March, 1882.— 
Polyandry (where one woman has several hus- 
bands) is permitted in some eastern countries, the 
children having equal rights. 

POLYGLOT, from two Greek words denoting 
" many languages," is chiefly applied to editions of 
the Bible in several languages. 
Giustiniani published a polyglot psalter, 1576. 

1. The Complutensian Polyglot, in six vols, folio, wa3 
printed at Alcala (Complutensis), in Spain, 1502-14 ; 
the first edition published in 1522, at the expense of 
the celebrated cardinal Ximenes, costing 250,000 
ducats. Six hundred copies of it were printed ; three 
on vellum. Count MacCarthy, of Toulouse, paid 483?. 
for one of these copies at the Pinelli sale. 

2. The Polyglot, printed *at Antwerp, by Montanus, 8 
vols, folio, in 1559-69, at the expense of Philip II. of 
Spain. 

3. Printed at Paris, by Le Jay, in 10 vols, folio, 1628-45. 

4. Edited by Bryan Walton, in 6 vols, folio, 1654-7. 
Copies of all four are in the library of the British and 

Foreign Bible Society. 

5. Edited by Dr. Samuel Lee, published by S. Bagster,' i 
vol. folio, 183T. 

6. Hexaglot bible : begun by Henry Cohn ; conr- 
pleted by the Rev. Edwd. It. De Levante and others; 
6 vols. 4to, 1874. 

POLYNESIA, a name recently given to the 
isles in the great Pacific Ocean, see Owhyhes, 
Otnheite, Sandwich Islands, Fiji Isles, &c. These 
islands have been classified as Micronesia, Melanisia, 
and East Polynesia. The Polynesian society, Wel- 
lington, New Zealand, was founded in 1892. 

POLYPES, also named Hydra; {many-footed 
animals), on account of their property of repro- 
ducing themselves when cut in pieces, every part 
soon becoming a perfect animal ; first discovered by 
Leeuwenhoek, and described by him in the Philo- 
sophical Trans. 1703. The polypes are of the order 
Zoophytes, and are partly animal and vegetable. 

POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTION, 

ROYAL, Regent-street, London, was erected by 
Thompson in 1838, opened 6 Aug. 1839, ancl 
enlarged in 1848. it contained a hall of manufac- 
tures with machines worked by steam-power, 
lecture theatres, &c., diving-bell, electric machine, 
&c. Timbs. The institution did not prosper com- 
mercially, and its decline was hastened by the fall 
of a staircase on 3 Jan. 1859, when one person was 
killed and many injured. The institution Avas 
closed in May, 1859, but was re-opened by a new 
company on 12 Nov. i860; see Ecole l'olytech- 
nique. Professor Pepper, the director for many 
years, resigned in 1872 ; returned, 1878. The 
classes were formed into a college, which was in- 
augurated by the carl of Shaftesbury, 7 Oct. 1872. 
Polytechnic institution announced to be closed on 
27 Aug. 1881 ; affairs wound up. Plant sold for 
about 2000/. 23 March, 1882. In 1882 it was 
occupied by the Polytechnic young men's chris- 
tian institute, principally by the instrumentality 
of Mr. Quintin Hogg, for educational purposes, with 
about 2000 members. 
Prof. John Pepper lectured hereon Australia (from 

which he had just returned) . . . 9 Nov. 18S9 
Polytechnic Institutions established in south 
London promoted by the charity commissioners 
and liberally subscribed for .... 1888-9 
Polytechnic Institute or People's palace for S.W. 
London, Westminster, Chelsea, Fulham, &c, 
proposed and liberally supported by the duke of 
Westminster, president, earl Cadogan, Mr. H. C. 
Antrobus, and others . .... 1889-90 

With reference to the City of London Parochial 
Charities act of iSS^, the committee of Council 
on Education, reports approval of schemes for 
the management of the following institutions :— 
1, the City Polytechnic, comprising the North 



POMEGEANATE TEEE. 



760 



PONTUS. 



ampton and Birkbeck Institutes, and the City of 
London college ; 2, the Regent-street Polytech- 
nic Institute ; 3, the Battersea Polytechnic Insti- 
tute ; 4, the South-western Polytechnic Insti- 
tute ; 5, the Borough-road Polytechnic Institute 

April, 1891 

Memorial stone oftheBatterseaPolytechnic, the first 
of the series laid by the prince of Wales 20 July, ,, 

The Goldsmiths' Company's Technical and Reerea- 
tivelnstituteatNew-eross, Surrey, was opened by 
the prince and princess of Wales, 22 July, 1891 ; 
see Goldsmiths' Company. 

Polytechnic at Chelsea ; foundation stone laid by 
the prince and princess of Wales . 23 July, ,, 

See Beaumont Trust and GoldsrnWis' Company. 

POMEGEANATE TEEE (Ftmica Grana- 
tin) was brought to England from Spain before 
1584. 

POMEEANIA, a Prussian province, N. Ger- 
many, was held by the Poles, 980, and by Den- 
mark, 1210; made an independent duchy, 1479; 
and divided between Sweden and Brandenburg, 
1648. The Swedish part, awarded to Denmark in 
1814, was given up to Prussia for Lauenburg, 1815 ; 
see Denmark ; Wrecks, 1878. 

POMFEET or Pc-NTEFRACT (S. York). At 
the castle (built 10S0), Richard II. was confined 
and murdered, 10 Feb. 1400. Some writers assert 
that Richard escaped and died in Scotland. In this 
castle also, the earl Rivers, lord Grey, sir Thomas 
Vaughan, and sir Richard Haut or Hause, were 
put to death by order of the duke of Gloucester, 
then protector of England (afterwards Richard III.) 
about 26 June, 1483. The castle, which had stood 
four sieges, was dismantled in 1649. The first 
parliamentary election by ballot took place here, 
15 Aug. 1872, very quietly. It lost one of its two 
members in 18J5. Population, 1S81, 8,798; 1891, 
9,702. 

POMPEII (S. Italy), an ancient city of Cam- 
pania, was partly demolished by an earthquake in 
a.d. 63. It was afterwards rebuilt, but was over- 
whelmed by an eruption of Vesuvius, accompanied 
by an earthquake, on the night of 24 Aug. 79. The 
principal citizens were then assembled at a theatre 
where public spectacles were exhibited. The 
ashes buried the whole city and covered the 
surrounding country. After a lapse of fifteen 
centuries, a countryman, as he was turning up the 
ground, found a bronze figure ; and this discovery 
led to further search, which brought numerous 
other objects to light, and at length the city was 
uncovered. The part first cleared was supposed 
to be the main street, 1750. The kings of Naples 
greatly aided in exploring Pompeii, and the present 
Italian government resumed the work in 1863. 

A commemorative meeting of antiquaries and philo- 
sophers met at Pompeii, 25 Sept. 1879. 

Further discoveries made, autumn 1882 el seq. 

The remains of a handsome five-storied house were 
uncovered July, 1890 

POMPEY'S PILLAE stands about three- 
quarters of a mile from Alexandria, between the 
city and the lake Mareotis. The shaft is fluted, 
and the capital ornamented with palm-leaves ; the 
whole, which is highly polished, composed of three 
pieces, and of the Corinthian order. The column 
measures, according to some, 94 feet ; to others 
141, and even 160 feet; but of its origin, name, 
use, and age, nothing is certain. 
It is generally believed that the column has no reference 
to Pompey, to whom a mark of honour was, neverthe- 
less, set up somewhere about this part. One supposes 
the. edifice was dedicated to Vespasian, another to 
Sevcras ; and Mr. Clarke, from a half-effaced inscrip- 



tion on the base, considered that Adrian is the 
person honoured ; while many assert, from the same 
inscription, that it is dedicated "to Diocletian 
Augustus, most adorable emperor, tutelar deity of 
Alexandria. " 

PONDICHEEEY (S.E. India), the capital 
of French India, and first settled by the French in 
1674. It was taken from them by the Dutch in 
1693, restored 1697 ; besieged by the English, 1748; 
taken by them, Jan. 1761 ; restored, 1763; again 
taken, Oct. 1778; restored in 1783; taken 23 Aug. 
1793, and in 1803 ; restored, 181 5. Visited by the 
Viceroy of India (Earl Dufferin), Dec. 1886. 
Prosperous state of the colony reported Jan. 1889. 
Population in 1890, 283,053. 

PONDOLAND, the coast between Cape Colony 
and Natal, S. Africa, the British protectorate was 
proclaimed and notified, 6 Jan. 1885. 
Severe fighting among the natives reported, Feb.- 
March-April ; the chief Umhlangaro surrenders 
to the Cape authorities .... April, 1891 

PONT-A-CHIN, see Espierres. 

PONT-A-NOYELLES. .At this place, near 
Amiens, took place a tierce indecisive conflict, 
lasting from n a.m. to 6 p.m., between the Germans 
under Manteuffel and the French army of the north 
under Faidherbc, 23 Dec. 1870. Both sides claimed 
a victory; the French general asserted that he 
remained master of' the field. 

PONTEFEACT, see Fomfret. 

PONTIFFS (Latin Foniijiccs), the highest 
Roman sacerdotal order, established by Numa. The 
college first consisted of 4 patricians, with a chief 
(rontifex Maximus) ; to these 4 plebeians were 
added, by the Ogulnian law, 300 B.C. Sylla in- 
creased the number to 15 (8 majores, 7 minorcs), 
(81), and Julius Caesar to 16. T. Coruncanius, a 
plebeian, obtained this office, 254 li.c. 

PONTUS, in Asia Minor, seems to have been a 
portion of Cappadocia, and received its name fiom 
its vicinity to the Font us Euxinus. Artabazus Avas 
made king of Pontus by Darius II\ staspes in 
the 4th century rs.c. His successors were mere 
satraps of the kings of Persia. 

Reign of Mithridates I B.C. 383 

Ariobarzanes invades Pontus 363 

Mithridates II. recovers it 336 

Mithridates III. reigns . . . . . . . 301 

Ariobarzanes II. reigns 266 

Mithridates IV. is besieged in his capital by the 

Gauls, &c 252 

Mithridates attacks Sinope, and is obliged to raise 

the siege by the Rhodians 219 

Reign of Pharnaces, 190 ; betakes Sinope, and makes 

it the capital of his kingdom 183 

Reign of Mithridates V. . . . . . 157 

He is murdered in the midst of his court . . . 123 
Mithridates VI. sumamed the Great, or Eupator, 

receives the diadem at 12 years of age . . . ,, 

Marries Laodice, his own sister 115 

She attempts to poison him ; he puts her and ac- 
complices to death 112 

Mithridates conquers Scythia, Bosphorus, Colchis, 

and other countries m 

He enters Cappadocia 97 

His war with Rome 89 

Tigranes ravages Cappadocia . . . . .86 
Mithridates enters Bithynia, and makes himself 

master of many Roman provinces, and puts 80,000 

Romans to death ,, 

Archelaus defeated by Sylla, at Cluvronea ; 100,000 

Cappadocians slain . . . . . . ,, 

Victories and conquests of Mithridates up to this 

time 74 

The fleet of Mithridates defeats that under Lucullus 

in two battles 73 

Mithridates defeated by Lucullus . . . 69 



POONAH. 



761 



POOR. 



Mithridates defeats Fabius 68 

But is defeated by Ponipey 66 

Mithridates stabs himself, and dies .... 63 

Reign of Pharnaces ,, 

Cattle of Zela (see Zela) ; Pharnaces defeated by 

Caesar 47 

Darius reigns 39 

Polemon, son of Zeno, reigns 36 

Poleinon II. succeeds his father . . . a.d. 33 

Jlithridates VII. reigns 40 

Pontus afterwards became a Roman province. 
Alexis Comnenus founded a new empire of the 
Greeks at Trebisond, in this country, 1204, which 
continued till the Turks destroyed it in 1459. 

POONAH, a province, S.W. India, formerly 
the seat of the power of the peishwa of the 
Mahrattas, 1749. It was captured by Wellesley 
from Ilolkar, 19 April, 1803, for Bajce ltao, who 
had claimed British protection. Bajee resigned his 
office, 3 June, 1818, for a pension. Visited by the 
prince of "Wales, 13 Nor. 1875. 

POOR CHILDREN'S AID SOCIETY, 

for providing food, clothing, &c., established 1887. 

POOR KNIGHTS of Windsor, or Alms 

KNIGHTS. Soon after his institution of the order 
of the Garter, Edward III. founded this charity, for 
the provision of 24 (afterwards 26) poor persons 
eminent for military services. Edward IV. dis- 
charged the college from the support of the alms- 
knights, but Elizabeth re-established the charity 
for 13 knights, 1559. King "William IV. changed 
the name to the " Military Knights of Windsor," 
in consequence of their all having held commissions 
in the army, Sept. 1833. — The "Naval Knights of 
"Windsor" are maintained on a distinct foundation, 
under the bequest of Samuel Travers, 1724. The 
corporation was established in 1 798. An act making 
lieutenants and widowers eligible was passed in 
1867. Alterations made by act passed in 1885. 
An act to dissolve the corporation was pasicd iu 
1892. 

POOR. The poor of England, till the time of 
Henry VIII. , subsisted as the poor of Ireland until 
1838, entirely upon private benevolence. By statute 
23 Edw. III. 1349, it was enacted that none should 
give alms to a beggar able to work. By the com- 
mon law, the poor were to be sustained by " par- 
sons, rectors of the church, and parishioners, so that 
none should die for default of sustenance ; " and by 
15 llich. II. impropriators were obliged to distribute 
a yearly sum to the poor; but no compulsory law 
was enacted till the 27th Hen. VIII. 1535. The 
origin of the present rooit law is referred to the 
43rd of Elizabeth, 1601, by which overseers were 
appointed for parishes. 

First Poor Law commission, E. Chadwick assistant com- 
missioner, 1832-3. 
New Poor Law Board appointed (E. Chadwick, sec), 

1834 ; dissolved, 1846. 
Additional workhouses ordered to be erected, 1819, 1834. 
Poor Law Amendment bill passed 1834 ; * forming 

" Unions," &c, amended in 1836, 1838, 1846 and 1847. 
Poor Law (Ireland) act passed 1838 ; amended 1839. 
A Poor Law system established in Scotland, 1845. 
Poor Law (Ireland) Rate in aid act passed in 1849. 
In Scotland, in the year ending May, 1851, the number 
relieved was 141,870, at an average cost of 2/.' is. $d. 
and the expenditure was 535,943?. 

* "The principle of the poor law of 1834 (now in 
force): — (1) No one shall be allowed to perish through 
want of what is necessary for sustaining life and health ; 
(2) every destitute parent is bound to demand and obtain 
from the guardians what .is necessary for sustaining the 
health and life of his children ; neglect of this duty is 
criminal ; (3) it is obligatory on the guardians of the 
poor to afford sufficient relief to all persons unable to 
maintain themselves ; refusal an indictable Offence." 
(F. Petk.) 



In Ireland, the poor's rate for the year ending Sept. 1851, 

was 1,101,878!. 
Mr. Henry Mayhew publishes his " London Labour and 
the London Poor," 1851-2. 
I An agitation for the equalisation of poor's rates throughout 

the kingdom, began in 1857. 
1 The Times drew attention to the condition of the house- 
less poor in London, which led to measures for tlreir 
relief, Dec. 1858. 
] Society for relief of distress, St. James's, established i860. 
I Laws respecting removal of the poor amended in 1861. 
j Union relief act passed to enable certain unions to obtain 
temporary aid (on account of the distress in Lanca- 
shire through suspension of cotton manufactures), 1862. 
Metropolitan houseless poor act (authorising guardians to 
receive destitute persons into workhouses, anil the 
metropolitan board to reimburse them) passed, 29 
July, 1864. 
S Annual report of Poor Law board for 1864, shows great 
decrease of pauperism — issued Sept. 1865. 
40 refuges for houseless poor established in London, 1864-5. 
, " Casual wards " in London workhouses receive 1000 per 

night, Jan. 1865. 
! Union chargeability act passed, 1865. 
I Field-lane Refuge : new building formally opened by 

earl of Shaftesbury, 6 June, 1866. 
1 Metropolitan Poor act passed for establishment of asy- 
lums for the sick, insane, &c. , 29 March, 1867. 
! Poor Law Amendment act makes Poor Law board per- 
manent ; passed, 20 Aug. 1867. 
1 Much excitement respecting the bad condition of London 
workhouse infirmaries, June, 1866 ; of Farnham work- 
house, Oct. 1867. 
i Poor Law Amendment act passed . 31 July, 1868 
j Divided Parishes and Poor Law Amendment act 

passed 15 Aug. 1876 

1 Presidents of tlie Poor Law board: Gathorne Hardy, 
9 July, 1866 ; earl of Devon, May, 1867 ; G. j. 
Gbschen, 9 Dec. 1868 to March, 1871 ; see Local 
Government Board. 
; Minute of the poor law board defining limits of 
relief, and recommending organisation of metro- 
politan charitable institutions, 20 Nov., which is 
adopted by several parishes . . . Dec. 1869 
General order for boarding-out pauper children, 

issued 25 Nov. 1070 

Charity Organisation Society (see Charitable Relief), 

established, 1869 ; reported very successful Jan. 1878 
The act for more equal distribution of charge for 
relief of in-door poor (passed 20 June) came into 

operation 29 Sept. ,, 

Circular of poor law board respecting farming out 

pauper children 25 Nov. ,, 

New regulations for casual poor published in Times 

27 Nov. ,, 
Poor rate assessment acts amended . . . 18S2 

Poor law conference act passed . . iS June, 1883 
Commission to inquire into the state of the poor 
appointed ; abp. of Canterbury, earls Spencer, 
Onslow and others .... March, 1S8S 
New poor law act passed . . . .30 Aug. 1889 
Sir Edwin Chadwick, eminent poor law reformer, 

aged 90, died 5 July, 1890 

Housing of the poor, see Artisans. 
Received, for relief of the poor, in 1869, in England 
and Wales, 11,776,153?. ; in Scotland, 892,712/. ; in 
Ireland, 927,046/. : total, 13,595,911/. 
Paupers receiving relief 1 Jan. 1878 : England and 
Wales, 742,703 ; Ireland, 85,530 ; 14 May, 1877, 
Scotland, 96,404 ; total, 924,437 ; Feb. 1889, 
England and Wales, 762,853. 
Paupers in the metropolis receiving relief :— Dec, 
1869, 152,557; Dec, 1870, about 147,000; Dec, 
1871, about 124,000; July, 1872, 104,280; April, 
114,644 ; Aug., 104,578; Oct., 1873, 97,287 ; Sept., 
1874, 104,983; June, 1875,84,598 (indoor 32,661, 
out 51.937)'. D«-., 1875, 84,782 (indoor 35.673. 
out 49,109); July, 1876, 77,498 (indoor, 33,735, 
01^43,763); Jan. 1877, 82,950; June, 78,203 (in- 
door, 35,903); 8 Dec. 81,986 (indoor, 42,242); 27 
March, 1878, 84,753 (indoor, 41,403); 27 July, 
76,709 (indoor, 38,043) ; 31 Dec. 83.674 ; 8 Feb. 
1879, 94,765 (indoor, 45,095) ; 19 April, 83,075 ; 28 
June, 78,680 ; 27 Sept. 79,674 ; 717 vagrants ; 27 
Dec. 92,495. 1880, last week, March, 88,893 : 
(indoor, 46,738) ; June, 84,137 (vagrants, 931); 
Sept. 82,188; Dec 92,654 (vagrants, 697); 1881, 
last week March, 95,767 ; indoor, 32,012 ; vag- 



POPE. 

rants, 780; June, 86,404 (indoor, 48,293); 1881, 
Oct., 89,740 (indoor, 50,792, vagrants, 932) ; Dec. 
1st, 93,170 ; vagrants, 883 ; 1882, 1 April, 92,233 
(indoor, 51,480, vagrants, 788) ; June, 86,417 (in- 
door, 48,363, vagrants, 643); Sept. 88,581 (indoor, 
50,174, vagrants, 915); Dec. 96,687 (indoor, 
54,373, vagrants, 696); 1883, March, 97,743 (in- 
door, 54,836, vagrants, 497) ; June, 85,555 ] i- 
door, 49,713, vagrants, 386); Sept. 85,849 (indoor, 
50,917, vagrants, 461) ; 1884, Jan. 94,540 (indoor, 
55,965, vagrants, 471) ; April, 89,540 (indoor, 
54,122, vagrants, 528) ; Aug. 85,069 (indoor, 
51,849. vagrants, 482) ; Dec. 94,041 (indoor, 57,092, 
vagrants, 374); 1885, March, 94,047 (indoor 56,491, 
vagrants, 540); June, 85,555 (indoor, 49,713, vag- 
rants, 592) ; Sept. 86,119 (indoor, 51,968, vagrants, 
562) ; 26 Dec. 94,902 (indoor, 56,002, vagrants, 
322); 1886, 27 March, 101,982 (indoor, 56,507, 
vagrants, 463); 26 June, 87,171 (indoor, 51,570, 
vagrants, 454); 25 Sept. £7,604 (indoor, 52,628, 
vagrants, 650); 25 Dee. 98,611 (indoor, 57,520, 
vagrants, 475) ; 1887, 26 March, 103,726 (indoor, 
58,221, vagrants, 627) ; 27 Aug. 88,274 (indoor, 
53,164, vagrants, 619) ; 26 Nov. 101,852 (indoor, 
59,066, vagrants, 1,054); 1888, 28 Jan. 108,783 
(indoor, 60,883, vagrants, 1,165); 28 April, 102,617 
(indoor, 58,273, vagrants, 1,151); 28 July, 90,510 
(indoor, 52,875, vagrants, 976) ; 27 Oct. 96,030 
(indoor, 58,070, vagrants, 1,182); 1889, 26 Jan. 
124,734 (indoor, 61,521, vagrants, 1,119) J 2 7 April, 



762 



POPE. 



95,600 (indoor, 58,509, vagrants, 1,114); 29 June, 
88,699 (indoor, 54,460 ; vagrants, 605) ; 28 Sept. 
92,012 (indoor, 56,805; vagrants, 1,169); 28 Dee. 
97,661 (indoor, 60,111; vagrants, 775); 1890, 
5 April, 93,596 (indoor, 58,216; vagrants, 707); 
28 June, 87,600 (indoor, 54,267 ; vagrants, 765); 
27 Sept. 88,147 (indoor, 55,273 ; vagrants, 1,014) » 
27 Doc. 97,128 (indoor, 59,588; vagrants, 525); 
1891, 28 March, 92,395 (indoor, 58,364 ; vagrants, 
748); 27 June, 86,109 (indoor, 53,981 ; vagrants, 
772) ; 26 Sept. 86,072 (indoor, 54,478 ; vagrants, 
814); 31 Dec. 94,639 (indoor, 60,169; vagrants, 
743); 1S92, 26 March, 92,936 (indoor, 59,612; 
vagrants, 771); 26 June, 85,731 (indoor, 54,838; 
vagrants, 740). 
The powers and duties of the Poor Law board 
merged into the Local Government hoard by act 
passed 14 Aug. 1871 ; president, James Stansfeld ; 
G. Sclater-Booth Feb. 



A Poor-law 


act passed . 






15 Aug. 1879 




ENGLAND AND 


WALES. 




Exjicnde 1. 


Poor rates. 


Expended. 


Poor rateSi. 


In 1580 


. £188,811 


In 


1820 


■ £7>329,594 


1680 . 


• • 665,562 




1830 . 


. . 8,111,422 


1698 . 


819,000 




1835 - 


• 6,356,345 


1760 . 


. . 1,556,804 




1840 . 


. . 5,468,699 


1785 • 


. 2,184,950 




1845 


. 5,543,650 


1S02 .• 


. . 4,952,421 




1853 • 


. . 6,522,412 


1815 • 


• 5,418,845 









England & Wales, 1 Jan. 
Scotland . about 14 May 
Ireland . . 1 Jan.: 

Total . 



1849. 
934,4 T 9 
82,357 
620,747 

•. 1,637,523 



PAUPERS RECEIVING RELIEF (NOT VAGRANTS). 

l8 7 5- 
Sl5,58 7 



,217 



932,400 
78,433t 
59,541 



1,079, 39' 
126,187 
73,921 



Years ended 
Lady-do y. 



1S63 



; (1 Jan.) 



1870 
1871 
1872 

1873' 
1874 
1875 
1876 
1877 
1S7S 



i38 7 
i383 



i8co 



ENGLAND AND WALES. 

Average number of paupers. 

Indoor. Outdoor. 

122,613 786,263 

■ 121,232 744,214 

• • 113,507 731,126 
. 125,866 758,055 

. . 132,236 784,906 

• 136,907 942,475 
. . 133,761 881,217 

131,313 820,586 

• • 132,776 783,376 

• 137,310 794,236 
158,723 876,100 
163,071 876,478 

. . 165,324 914,067 

165,289 916,637 

• • 154,233 823,431 

• i54, 17 1 736,201 
■ • 149,558 679,723 

- I 53,7 11 661,876 
148,931 600,662 

• 157,191 57 1 >i59 
. . 166,875 575,828 

- 175,345 625,081 
. 189,394 648,636 

189,438 613,688 

• • 188,433 ' 



i"7,593 
190,184 
194,440 
196,853 
200,666 
198,191 
195,04s 



608,910 
586,717 
593,971 
6i3,i93 
620,436 
624,343 
611,941 
59 2 ,497 



',070,374 
* 1857. 



Expendi- 
ture. 

£5,878,542 
5,558,689 
5,454,964 
5,778,943 
6,077,922 
6,527,036 
6,423,381 ] 
6,264,966 ' 
6,439,517 I 
6,959,840 
7,498,059 
7,673,100 
7,644,307 i 

7,886,724 ; 
8,007,403 [ 
7,692,169 ; 
7,664,957 
7,488,481 
7,335,858 
7,400,034 
7,688,650 

7,829,819 : 

8,015,010 

8,102,136 

8,232,472 

8,353,292 

8,402,550 

8,491,600 

8,296,230 

8,176,768 

8,440,821 

8,366,477 

8,434-345 



',993 



799,296 
92,618 
115,684 



825,509 
"3,947! 



1889. ] 1890. ] 1S91. 
810,132787,545 774,905 
90,918 88,606 
109, 957; 107, 774' 106,972; 



1,031,449 1,011,007,903,925 



POPE (from the Greek Pappas and Papa, a 
father or grandfather), considered by Bomanists to 
be the visible chief'of the church, the vicar of Jesus 
Christ, and the successor of St. Peter. Ho stvles 
him elf " servant of the servants of God." The 
title 1 ope was formerly given to all bishops. It 
was first adopted by Hyginus, 139; and pope Boni- 
face III. induced Phocas, emperor of the east, to 
confine it to the prelates of Home, 6c6. By the 



79,499 1,002,475 1,007,598 
t 1S61. 

I connivance of Phocas also, the pope's supremacy 

over the Christian church was established ; see 

Italy, Reformation, and Home, Modern. 

Wilfrid, abp. of York, expelled from his diocese, 
appeals to the pope 

Custom of kissing the pope's too introduced . . 

Adrian I. caused money to be coined with his name 

Sergius II. the first pope who changed his name on 
his election, 844 ; some contend that it was 
Sergius I. 687, and others John XII. 

Indulgences for the pardon of sin granted by pope 
Leo III. about 

John XVIII. a layman, made pope .... 

The first pope who kept an army, Leo IX. . . . 

Gregory VII. (Hildebrand) obliges Henry IV., em- 
peror of Germany, to stand three days, in the 
depth of winter, barefooted at the gate of the 
castle of Canossa, to implore his pardon 

The pope's authority fixed in England . . . 

Appeals from English tribunals to the pope intro- 
duced (Viner), 19 Stephen . . . . . 1154 

Henry II. of England holds the stirrup for pope 
Alexander III. to mount his horse . . . 1161 

Celestine III. kicked the emperor Henry VI. 's 
crown off his- head while kneeling, to show his 
prerogative of making and unmaking kings . . 1191 

John king of England did homage to the pope's 
legate for his dominions, and bound himself and 
his successors to an annual payment to the pope, 

15 May, 1213 

The pope collected the tenths of the whole kingdom 
of England 1226 

The papal seat was removed for seventy years to 
Avignon in France 1308 

The pope's demands on England refused by parlia- 
ment 1363 

After the discovery of America, pope Alexander VI. 
granted to the Portuguese all the countries to the 
east, and to the Spanish all the countries to the 
west, of Cape Non, Africa, they might conquer . 

Pope Leo X. published the sale of general indul- 
gences throughout Europe 

Appeals to Rome from England abolished (Viner) . 1533; 

The words "Lord Pope " struck out of all English 
books 154* 

Kissing the pope's toe and other ceremonies abo- 
lished by Clement XIV. 1773 



679 
708. 
780 



956 



1024 
1054 



1077 
1079 



M93 



1517 



POPE. 



7G3 



POPE. 



The pope's political influence greatly diminished by 

the French revolution .... 1789-18 14 
His temporal power lost, see Rome . . .Dec. 1870 
See Pius IX. under Popes. 

BISHOPS AND POPES OF ROME 

(the navies in italics were antipopes) : 
42. St. Peter : (said to have been the first bishop of 
Rome, and to have been crucified, head down- 
wards, in 66.) 
* * St. Clement (Clemens Romanus) ; according to 
Tertullian. 

St. Linus :* martyred ? 

St. Cletus, or Anacletus ? martyred ? 

St. Clement II. : abdicated? 

St. Evaristus : martyred; multiplied churches. 

St. Alexander : martyred. 

St. Sixtus I. : martyred ? 

St. Telesphorus : martyred. 

St. Hyginus : condemns Gnostics ; called himself 
pope. 

St. Pius : martyred. 

St. Anicetus. 

St. Soterus : martyred under Marcus Antoninus. 

St. Eleutherius : opposed the Valentinians. 

St. Victor I. : martyred under Severus. 

St. Zephyrinus : claimed to be Peter's successor. 

St. Calixtus : martyred. 

[The chair vacant.] 

St. Urban I. : beheaded. 

St. Pontianus : banished by the emperor Maximin. 

St. Anterus : martyred. 

St. Fabian : martyred under Decius, 250. 

[The chair vacant. ] 

St. Cornelius : died. 

St. Lucius: martyred 252. Novatianus: (denied 
restoration to the repentant lapsed). 

St. Stephen I. : martyred in the persecution of 
Valerian. 

St. Sixtus II. (his coadjutor) : martyred three days 
before his disciple St. Laurence, in the persecu- 
tion of Valerian, 258. 

[The chair vacant] 

St. Diou'ysius : opposed the heresy of Sabellius. 

St. Felix I. died in prison. 

St. Eutychianus. 

St. Cams : a relative of the emperor Diocletian. 

St. Marcellinus : said to have lapsed under a severe 
persecution ? ; canonised. 

[The chair vacant. ] 

St. Marcellus : banished from Rome by the emperor 
Maxcntius. 

St. Eusebius : died the same year. 

St. Miltiades or Melchiades : coadjutor to Eusebius. 

St. Silvester : commencement of temporal power 
by gifts of Constantine. 

St. Marcus : died the next year. 

St. Julius I. : of great piety and learning ; main- 
tained the cause of St. Athanasius. 

Liberius : banished. 

Felix II., antipope : placed in the chair by Con- 
stans, during the exile of Liberius, on whose 
return he was driven from it with ignominy. 

[The emperor would have the two popes reign 
together ; but the people cried out, " One God, 
one Christ, and one bishop!''] 

Liberius again : abdicated. 

Felix became pope. 

Liberius again : martyred 365. 

St. Damasus : oppose'! the Arians : St. Jerome, 
his secretary, corrected Latin Bible. 

Ursinus : expelled by Valentinian. 

Siricius : combated heretics. 

St. Anastasius : proscribed works of Origen. 

St. Innocent I. : condemned Pelagians. 

St. Zozimus : ditto. 

St. Boniface I. : maintained by the emperor Hono- 
rius, against liidalius. 

St. Celestine I. : sent missions to Ireland. 

Sixtus III. : opposed Nestorius and Eutyches. 



66. 

73. 

91. 
100. 
109. 
119. 
127. 
139- 

142. 

157- 
168. 

177- 
193- 
202. 
219. 
222. 
223. 
230. 
235- 
236. 
250. 
251. 
252. 



258. 
259- 
269. 
275- 
2S3. 
296. 

3°4- 



310. 
3«- 
314- 

336- 
337- 

352- 
3SS- 



358. 

359- 
366. 

367- 
384- 
398- 
402. 
417. 
418. 

422. 
432- 



* St. Linus is frequently set down as the immediate 
successor of St. Peter ; but Tertullian maintains that 
it was St. Clement. In the first century neither the 
dates nor order of succession of bishops are reconcilable 
by even the best authorities. Some assert that there 
were two or ti.rje bishops of Rome at the same 
time. 



483. 
492 
496. 



5*4' 
523 

526 



53°. 
533' 

535' 
53& 



537. 
555. 
560. 

573' 
574' 

57S. 



604 

606 
607 
614 
617 
625. 
639 
640. 

642 
649 

654 

657 
672 
676 



683. 
684. 



701. 
7°5- 



715- 
73i- 



741. 
752- 



757- 
76;. 
768. 
772. 
795- 
816. 
817. 
824. 
827. 

844. 
847. 
855- 



867. 
872. 



St. Leo I. the Great : zealous ; restrained Alaric 

an able writer. 
St. Hilary ; rich, liberal. 
St. Simplicius : wise, prudent. 
St. Felix III. : opposed emperor Zeno respecting 

the Henoticon. 
St. Gelasius : opposed heresy ; fixed, the canon o£ 

Scriptures ; compiled the mass. 
St. Anastasius II. : congratulated Clovis. 
Symmachus : zealous against the Henoticon. 
Laurentius ; antipope. . 
Hormisdas : opposed Eutychians. 
John I. : sent to Constantinople by Theodoric ; 

tolerant. 
Felix IV. : introduced extreme unction as a sacra- 
ment. 
Boniface II. — Dioscorus. 
John II. : called Mercurius. 
Agapetus : converted Justinian. 
St. Silverius : son of pope Hormisdas, who had 

been married ; the empress Theodora procured 

his banishment into Lycia (where he died oT 

hunger), and made Vigilius pope. 
Vigilius : banished, but restored. 
Pelagius I. : an ecclesiastical reformer. 
John III. : great ornainenter of churches. 
[The see vacant.] 
Benedict I., surnamed Bonosus. 
Pelagius II. ; died of the plague. 
St. Gregory the Great : revised the liturgy ; sent 

Augustin to convert the Anglo-Saxons. 
Sabinianus : said to have introduced church 

bells. 
or 607. Boniface III. : died in a few months, 
or 608. Boniface IV. 
or 615. St. Deusdedit 
or 618. Boniface V. 

Honorius I. : interested in British churches. 
[The see vacant.] 
Severinus : ~v 

, >condemned Monothelites. 

liberal, 
favoured education in England. 



John IV. : 
Theodorus I. 
Martin I. : 
Eugenius I. : 
Vitaliamis : 



Adeodatus, the gift of God. 

Domnus I. : ornamented churches. 

St. Agathon : tribute to the emperor ceased. 

St. Leo II. : instituted holy water; favoured 
music. 

[The see vacant. ] 

Benedict II. 

John V. : learned and moderate. 

Conon. — Theodore and Pascal. 

Sergius : " governed wisely." 

John VI. : redeemed captives ; firm and wise. 

John VII. : moderate. 

Sisinnius : died 20 days after election. 

Constantine : wise and gentle ; visited Constanti- 
nople. 

St. Gregory II. : sent Boniface to convert Ger- 
mans. 

Gregory III. : independent- ; first sent nuncios to- 
foreign power. 3 . 

St. Zaeharias, a Greek. 

Stephen II. elected : died before consecration. 

Stephen II. or III. : temporal power of the church 
of Rome commenced. 

Paul I. : moderate and pious. 

Constantine TheophylacUis : killed by Lombards. 

Stephen III. or IV. : literary. 

Adrian I. : sanctioned images. 

Leo III. : crowned Charlemagne, 800. 

Stephen IV. or V. 

Pascal I. : ascetic, anil built churches. 

Eugenius II. : "father of the afflicted."- Zosimus. 

Valentinus. 

Gregory IV. ; pious and learned. 

Sergius II. 

Leo IV. : defeated the Saracens. 

Pope Joan's election fabulous (which sec). 

Benedict III. — A imstnsi us. 

Nicholas I., the Great: conversion of Bulgarians. 

Adrian II. : eminent for sanctity. 

John VIII. : crowned 3 emperors. 

Marinus or Martin II. : condemned Photius. 

Adrian III. : ditto. 



POPE. 



764 



POPE. 



885. Stephen V. or VI. : very charitable. 
S91. Formosus : political. — Sergius. 

596. Boniface VI. : deposed. 

597. Stephen VI. or VII. : vicious ; dishonoured the corpse 

of pope Formosus ; strangled by the people. 

,, Romanus.— Se/'jrtMS. 
©98. Theodoras II. : governed 22 days. 

„ John IX. 
900. Benedict IV. : " a great pope." 

903. Leo V. : expelled : died in prison. 
,, Christopher. 

[Several popes made by the infamous Marozia.] 

904. Sergius III. : disgraced by his vices. 
911. Anastasius III. 

913. Landonius, or Lando. 

914. John X. : stifled by Guy, duke of Tuscany. 

928. Leo VI. : considered an intruder. 

929. Stephen VII. or VIII. 

931. John XI. : son of Marozia ; imprisoned in the castle 

of St. Angelo, where he died. 
■936. Leo VII. : great for zeal and piety. 
939. Stephen VIII. or IX. : " of ferocious character. " 
942. Marinus II. or Martin III. : charitable. 
946. Agapetus II. : of holy life ; moderate. 
556. John XII., the infamous : deposed for adultery and 

cruelty ; and murdered. 
563. Leo VIII. : an honour to the chair 
964. Benedict V. : chosen on the death of John XII., 

but opposed by Leo VIII., who was supported 

by the emperor Otho : died at Hamburg. 
565. John XIII. , elected by the authority of the emperor 

against the popular will. 
■972. Benedict VI. : murdered in prison. 
■974. Domnus II. — Boniface VII. 
975. Benedict VII. 

984. John XIV. : imprisoned by Boniface VII. 
„ John XV. : died before consecration. 

985. John XVI. : loved gain. 

996. Gregory V. — John XVII. : expelled by the emperor, 

and barbarously used. 
999. Silvester II. (Gerbert) : learned and scientific ; said 
to have introduced the Arabic numerals, and 
invented clocks. 
1003. John XVII. : legitimate pope, died same year. 

,, John XVIII. abdicated. 
1009. Sergius IV. (original name "Bocca di Porco," Pig's 

Snout). 
1012. Benedict VIII. : supported by the emperor against 

— Gregory. 
1024. John XIX. : elevated by bribery. 
1033. Benedict IX. ; became pope, by purchase, at 

12 years of age ; expelled for vices. 
1044. Sylvester III. : 3 months. 
,, Gregory VI. : deposed. — Sylvester; and John XX. 
[The emperor very influential.] 

1046. Clement II. died the next year (Clemens Romanics 

the first Clement). 

1047. Benedict IX. again : again deposed. 

1048. Damasus II. : died soon after. 

„ St. Leo IX.: a reformer of simony and incontinence. 

1054. [The throne vacant one year.] 

1055. Victor II. : a reformer. 

1057. Stephen IX. or X. 

1058. Benedict X. ; expelled. 

,, Nicholas II. : increased the temporal power. 

1061. Alexander II. : raised the papal power. — Hono- 
ring II. 

X073. St. Gregory VII. (Hildebrand) : vigorous reformer ; 
opposed the emperor Henry IV. respecting in- 
vestitures ; and excommunicated him, 1076 ; re- 
stored him at Canossa, 1077; died, in exile, 
1085. 

1080. Clement III. (Guibert). 

1085. I The throne vacant one year.] 

1086. Victor III. (Didier) : learned. 
1088. Urban II. ; crusades commenced. 

1099. Pascal II. (Ranieri) : Tuscany given to the papacy 
by the countess Matilda. 

1118. Gelasius II. : retired to a monastery. — Gregory 

VIII. 

1119. Calixtus II. : settled investiture question, 
j 124. Honorius II. 

1130. Innocent II.: condemned heresies: held 2nd 

Lateran council. — Anacktus II. 
1 138. Victor IV. 

1143. Celestine II. : ruled 5 months. 

1 144. Lucius II. : killed by accident in a popular com- 

motion. 



1 145. Eugenius III. : ascetic. 

1 153. Anastasius IV. 

1154. Adrian IV., or Nicholas Brakespeare, the only 

Englishman elected pope : born at Abbot's Lang- 
ley, near St. Alban's ; Frederick I. prostrated 
himself before him, kissed his foot, held his 
stirrup, and led the white palfrey on which he 
rode. 

1 159. Alexander III.: learned; canonised Thomas a 
Becket ; resisted Frederick I. ; 11 59, Victor V. ; 
1164, Pascal III.; 1168, Calistus III. ; 1178, Inno- 
cent III. 

1181. Lucius III. — The cardinals acquire power. 

1 185. Urban III. : opposed Frederick I. 

1 187. Gregory VIII. : ruled only 2 months. 
,, Clement III. : proclaimed 3rd crusade. 

1 191. Celestine III. 

1 198. Innocent III. (Lothario Conti) : endeavoured to free 
Rome from foreign influence ; excommunicated 
John of England ; pireached crusade against the 
Albigenses, 1204. 

1216. Honorius III. : learned and pious. 

1227. Gregory IX. : preached a new crusade ; collected 
decretals. 

1241. Celestine IV. : died 18 days after his election. 
[The throne vacant 1 year and 7 months.] 

1243. Innocent IV. : opposed Frederick II. : gave the red 
hat to cardinals. 

1254. Alexander IV. : established inquisition in France. 

1261. Urban IV. : instituted feast of " Corpus Christi." 

1265. Clement IV., an enlightened Frenchman, pre- 
viously legate to England ; discouraged the 
crusacles. 

1268. [The throne vacant 2 years and 9 months.] 

1271. Gregory X. : held a council at Lyons to reconcile 
the churches of the east and west. 

1276. Innocent V. : died shortly after. 

,, Adrian V. : legate to England in 1254 ; died 36 days 

after election. 
„ Vicedominus : died the next day. 
„ John XX. or XXI. : died in 8 months. 

1277. Nicholas III. : died in 1280. 

1281. Martin IV., French : supported Charles of Anjou. 

1285. Honorius IV. : supported the French. 

1288. Nicholas IV. : endeavoured to stir up a new 

crusade. 
1292. [The throne vacant 2 years and 3 months.] 
1294. St. Celestine V. : ascetic ; resigned. 
,, Boniface VIII.: proclaimed that "God had set 

him over kings and kingdoms : " imprisoned his 

predecessor ; quarrelled with Philip of France ; 

laid France and Denmark under interdict. 

1303. Benedict XI. : a pious and liberal pontiff: said to 

have been poisoned. 

1304. [The throne vacant 11 months.] 

1305. Clement V. (Bcrtrand de Got) : governed by 

Philip of France ; removed the papal seat from 

Rome to Avignon, 1309. 
1314. [The throne vacant 2 years and 4 months.] 
13 16. John XXII. 

1334. Benedict XII. (Nicholas V. at Rome.] 
1342. Clement VI. : learned. 
1352. Innocent VI. : favoured Rienzi. 
1362. Urban V. : charitable ; a patron of learning. 
1370. Gregory XI. : protector of learning ; restored the 

papal chair to Rome ; proscribed Wicklifle's 

doctrines. 

Schism — 1378-1447. 
1378. Urban VI. : so severe and cruel that the cardinals 
chose Robert of Geneva, as 
„ Clement VII. 
T389. Boniface IX. 

1394. Benedict (called XIII.) at Avignon. 
1404. Innocent VII. : died in 1406. 
1406. Gregory XII. Angelo Corario. 

1409. Alexander V. : died, supposed by poison. 

1410. John XXIII. : deposed. 
1417. Martin V. Otho Colomia. 
1424. Clement VIII. : resigned 1429. 

1431. Eugenius IV. Gabriel Condolmera : deposed by the 
council of Basil, and Amadeus of Savoy chosen 
as Felix V., in 1439, who resigned 1449. 

1447. Nicholas V. : learned ; proposed crusade against 
Turks. 

1455. Calixtus HI. Alfonso Borgia : courageous. 

1458 Pius II. jEneas Silvius Piccolomini : learned. 

1464. Paul II. Pietro Barbo : preached a crusade. 



POPE. 



765 POPE. 



1471. Sixtus IV. : tried to rouse Europe against the 
Turks. 

1484. Innocent VIII. 

1492. Alexander VI. Roderic Borgia : poisoned at a feast 
by drinking of a bowl lie had prepared for 
another. 

1503. Pius III. Francisco Piccolomini : 21 days pope. 
,, Julius II. Julian della Rovere : martial ; began St. 
Peter's. 

1513. Leo X. Giovanni de' Medici : his grant of indul- 
gences for crime led to the Reformation ; patron 
of learning and art. 

1522. Adrian VI. : just, learned, frugal. 

1523. Clement VII. Giulio de' Medici : refused to divorce 

Catherine of Aragon, and denounced the marriage 
of Henry VIII. with Anne Boleyn. 

1534. Paul III. Alexander Farnese : approved the Jesuits. 

1550. Julius III. Giovanni M. Giocchi. 

1555. Mareellus II. : died soon after his election. 
,, Paul IV. John Peter Caraffa. He would not ac- 
knowledge Elizabeth queen of England ; insti- 
tuted " the Index" (which sec), and leagued with 
France against Spain. 

1559. Pius IV. Cardinal de' Medici: founded Vatican 
press. 

1566. St. Pius V. Michael Ghisleri : pious ; energetic. 

1572. Gregory XIII. Buoncampagno : great civilian and 
canonist : reformed the calendar. 

1585. Sixtus V. Felix Peretti : an able governor ; excom. 
Henry III. and Henry IV. of France. 

1590. Urban VII. ; died 12 days after election. 
Gregory XIV. Nicholas Sfrondrate. 

1591. Innocent IX. : died in two months. 

1592. Clement VIII. Hippolito Aldobrandini : learned 

and just : published the Vulgate. 

1605. Leo XI. : died same month. 
., Paul V. Camille Borghese ; quarrelled with Venice. 

1621. Gregory XV. Alexander Ludovisio : founded the 
Propaganda. 

1623. Urban VIII. Maffei Barberini : condemned Jan- 
senism. 

16 (.4. Innocent X. John Baptist Panfili : ditto. 

1655. Alexander VII. Fabio Chigi : favoured literature. 

1667. Clement IX. Giulio Rispogliosi : governed wisely. 

1670. Clement X. Emilio Altieri. 

1676. Innocent XI. Odescalchi : condemned Gallicanism 
and Quietism. 

1639. Alexander VIII. Ottoboni, 6 Oct. ; helped Leopold 
against Turks. 

1691. Innocent XII. Antonio Pignatelli : 12 July; con- 
demned Fenelon. 

1700. Clement XI. John Francis Albani : 23 Nov. ; issued 
the bull Unigenitus. 

1721 Innocent XIII. Michael Angelo Conti : the eighth 
of his family ; 8 May ; pensioned Jas. Ed. 
Stuart. 

1724. Benedict XIII. Orsini : 29 May; favoured J. E. 
Stuart. 

1730. Clement XII. Orsini : 12 July; restored San Marino 
(republic). 

1740. Benedict XIV. Lambcrtini : 17 Aug.; learned, 
amiable. 

1758. Clement XIII. Chas. Rezzonico : Avignon lost. 

1769. Clement XIV. Ganganelli : 19 May ; suppressed the 
Jesuits. 

1775. Pius VI. Angelo Braschi, Feb. 15: dethroned by 
Bonaparte ; expelled from Rome, and deposed in 
Feb. 1798 ; died at Valence, 29 Aug. 1799. 

iSoo. Plus VII. Barnabo Chiaramonte ; elected 13 March ; 
agrees to a concordat with France, 15 July, 1801 ; 
crowns Napoleon, 2 Dec. 1804 ; excommunicates 
him, 10 June, 1809 ; imprisoned, 6 July, 1809; 
restored in 1814; died, 20 Aug. 1823. (He re- 
stored the Jesuits, 1S14.) 

1823. Leo XII. Annibale della Genga, 28 Sept. 

1829. Pius VIII. Francis Xavier Castiglioni, 31 March. 

1831. Gregory XVI. Mauro Capellari, 2 Feb. : died, 1 June, 
1846. 

1846. Pius IX. Giovanni Maria Mastai-Ferretti (born 13 
May, 1792): elected, 16 June. See Rome, 1846-71. 

1848. His diplomatic relations with Great Britain au- 
thorised by parliament. 
[Act repealed, 1875.] 

1860-65. His powers in France greatly checked. 

1869. The " Late Sentential," regarding excommunica- 

tion and limiting absolution, signed, 12 Oct. ; 
issued, Dec. 

1870. TIic pope opens a general council (3 Dec. 1869), 



which propounds the doctrine of papal infalli- 
bility and list of anathemas (see Councils), Feb. ; 
deprived of the remains of his temporal power 
(see Rome), Dec. 

1871. Visited by the prince and princess of Wales, 27 

March ; celebrates a jubilee (25th anniversary 
of election), 16 June; nominates 14 Italian pre- 
lates, 24 Nov. 

1872. Perforins no Easter solemnities 31 March ; in hi* 

allocution complains of the persecution of the 
church in Italy, Germany, and Spain, Dec. 23. 

1873. Letter from the pope to the emperor of Germany 

complaining of his persecuting the bishops, ami 
asserting his authority over all baptized per- 
sons, 7 Aug. ; the emperor replies in justifica- 
tion, and asserts that there is no mediator be- 
tween God and man but Jesus Christ, 3 Sept. ; en- 
cyclical letter of the pope on wrongs of the church, 
21 Nov. ; he appoints 12 new cardinals, 22 Dec- 

1874. The papal nuncio expelled from Switzerland ; pro- 

tests by letter, 1 7 Jan. ; a bull (said to be forged), 
altering mode of electing a pope, &c, dated 28 
May, 1873; appears, Jan.; 3,600/. (from poor 
girls in Great Britain) presented to the pope by 
lady Herbert of Lea, 9 April ; the pope receive* 
100 American pilgrims, 9 June ; the English un- 
official secretary of legation at the papal court 
withdrawn; leaves, n Nov.; in his allocution, 
the pope exhorts the faithful to patience, and 
forbids priests meddling with politics, 21 Dec. 

1875. The pope re-appears at St. Peter's, after four years- 

seclusion, 9 Feb. ; he dedicates the universa 
church to "the sacred heart," 16 June; his 
nuncio issues a circular against religious tolera- 
tion in Spain, Sept. ; allocution : new cardinals, 
announced, 17 Sept. 

1876. Announces an exhibition of sacred objects at the- 

Vatican (in celebration of his jubilee) on 21 May, 
1877, Aug. ; perforins a requiem for the souls of 
his enemies, 2 Nov. ; death of his cardinal-secre- 
tary, Antonelli, 6 Nov. ; succeeded by Simeoni,. 
about 15 Nov. 

1877. Creates n new cardinals, and issues a warm allo- 

cution against the Italian government, 12 March ; 
and circular to foreign powers, on account of the- 
bill to repress clerical abuses, 21 March; creates. 

3 cardinals, 22 June ; 2 cardinals, &c, 28 Dee. 
Died 7 Feb. 1878. 

1878. Leo XIII. Gioacehino Pecci (born 2 March, 1810); 

elected, 20 Feb. 1878. 
Reduces his guards : holds a consistory, with an 
allocution; revives R. C. hierarchy in Scotland, 

4 March. 

Publishes encyclical endorsing policy of prede- 
cessor, but moderate, 25 April. 

Makes his secretary of state cardinal Franchi, 5 
March ; cardinal Nina, Aug. 

Issues an encyclical letter condemning commun- 
ism, socialism, and nihilism, as results of the 
Reformation ; dated 28 Dec. 

1879. Appoints 10 cardinals (including J. H. Newman), 

12 May. 

Issues encyclical against modern false, philosophy ; 
recommends Thomas Aquinas, early in Aug. 

1880. Issues encyclical on marriage, as a sacrament, ami 

against divorce ; published 18 Feb. 
Delivers an allocution censuring the government 

of Belgium (which see), and praising the bishops, 

20 Aug. 
Cardinal Nina, secretary, resigns for bad health, 

13 Oct.; cardinal Jacobini successor, 17 Nov. ; 
he resigned Dec. 1886 (died 28 Feb. 1S87). 

1881. Proclaims an extra jubilee for the distressed 

Church, 15 May, 

Issues an encyclical letter, asserting that all 
government is of divine origin, and that wars 
are consequences of the Reformation, July. 

Canonizes De Rossi and three others, 8 Dee. 

1882. Encyclical letter against heresy, socialism, &c. , 

read in London Churches, 5 Nov. 

1883. Circular to Irish bishops enjoining abstinence from 

disaffection to the government, 11 May. 

Letter to president Grevy censuring the re- 
publican warfare against religion, 23 June. 

Courteous, firm answer delivered, 8 Aug. 

L?tter from the Pope defending the papacy, and 
recommending the study of ecclesiastical history, 
Sept, 



POPE. 



766 



POPULATION. 



The Pope addresses 20,000 pilgrims in St. Peter's, 
and recognises Italian unity, 7 Oct. 

Visited by the crown prince of Germany, 18 Dec. 
1884.. Encyclical letter to French bishops, commending 
early French devotion to religion, and exhorting 
the bishops to re-double their vigilance in regard 
to heresy and infidelity, 11 Feb. 

In a letter to cardinal Jacobin! he offers 40,000?. 
to erect an hospital for cholera at Rome which 
he would visit, 10 Sept. 

Allocution, 8 cardinals and many bishops 
created, 10 Nov. 
11885. The Pope's messenger, father Giulianelli, well re- 
ceived by the emperor of China, April. 

Letter from the pope to the emperor of China, 1 
Feb. ; reply agreeing to receive a papal agent to 
protect R.C. missionaries, July. 

Encyclical letter condemning liberalism, &c. 6 Nov. 
E887. Monsignor Rampolla becomes pontifical secretary 
of state, March. 

Allocution 23 May. 

Letter from the pope asserting his territorial 
rights, 15 June. 

The pope's jubilee (on being ordained priest 31 
Dec. 1837). 

The duke of Norfolk, envoy extraordinary from 
queen Victoria, appointed, Dec. ; received by the 
pope 17 Dec. ; a massive basin and ewer of gold 
presented to the pope, 25 Dec. 
a888. The pope's grand jubilee ; masses at St. Peter's : 
present48 cardinals, 238 archbishops and bishops, 
and about 30,000 persons, 1 and 5 Jan. 

The pope's speech demanding the independence of 
the church, 3 Jan. 

The pope condemns the plan of campaign and boy- 
cotting on moral grounds, announced 27 April. 

The emperor William II. visits the pope 12 Oct. 

Address of English R.C. bishops to the pope pro- 
testing against Italian repressive legislation 
respecting his temporal power, 10 Nov. 
1889. The pope receives French pilgrims, 20 Oct. — Nov. 
1850. The pope's encyclical letter on the moral duties of 
Catholics now much neglected, issued, 6 Jan. ; 
published, 16 Jan. 

Negotiations respecting the Roman Catholics in 
Malta, between the British government and the 
liope, carried on by sir John Liutoni Simmons, 
concluded ; he leaves Rome, 7 April. 
1891. Encyclical concerning socialism and the Labour 
question issued about 16 May. 



1892. Encyclical to the French bishops enjoining on all 
good Catholics entire submission to the govern- 
ment of the republic, 16 Feb. ; obedience enforced 
by a brief, dated 3 May. 

POPE, A-, poet (1688— 1744). His bi-centenary 
was celebrated by an exhibition of books, pictures, 
and other relics, and a lecture by professor II. 
Morley at Twickenham Town Hall, 31 July, 1888. 

POPE JOAN. It is falsely asserted that, in 
the 9th century, a female named" Joan, having con- 
ceived a passion for Felda, a young monk, in order 
to be admitted into his monastery assumed the 
male habit, and that on the death of her lover she 
entered upon the duties of professor, and, being 
very learned, was elected pope, when 1 eo IV. died, 
in 855. Other scandalous particulars follow, ; "yet, 
until the reformation, the tale was repeated "and 
believed without offence." Gibbon. 

POPISH PLOTS, see Gunpowder Plot and 
Oates's Plot. 

POPLAE TEEES. The Tacamahac poplar 
(Populus Balsamifera) was brought hither from 
North America before 1692. The Lombardy poplar 
from Italy about 1758. 

POPLIN (or Tabinet), an elegant rich fabric 
composed of silk and worsted, introduced by the 
Huguenot refugees from France about 1693 ; first 
manufactured in Dublin. Irish poplins are still 
deservedly esteemed. 

POPULAE CONCEPTS, see under Music. 

POPULATION". The population of the 
world was estimated in 1869 at 1,228,000,000; 
(at- Washington, 1874), 1,391,032,000; 1882, 
1,433,887,500; 1890, 1,468,000,000 "( Havenstein) ; 
1891, 1,480,000,000 (Behm and Wagner). For the 
Population of Countries, see the table (after the 
Preface) facing page 1 . 



Europe 

Asia . 

Africa 

America 

Australia 

Polynesia 



275,806,741 . 

755,000,000 . 

200,000,000 . 

67,896,041 . 

1,445,000 1 

1,500,000 j 



312,39^,480 
831,000,000 
205,219,500 
86,116,000 

4,411,300 



357,379:°oo 
825,954,000 
163.953,000 
121,713,000 
3,230,000 
7,420,000 



ESTIMATED POPULATION OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 



1377 
1483 
1696 
z 700 



Population. 

. 5,240,000 

. . 5,565,000 

. 5,796,000 

. 6,064,000 

Estimated population of Ireland in 1652, 850,000; in 1712, 2,099,094; in 1754, 2,372,634 

POPULATION OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND BY CENSUS. 

(The earlier returns given below are approximate, and have been corrected in subsequent Reports.) 



Population, 




. 2,092,978 


1710 


. 4,689,000 


1720 


. 5,250,000 


1730 


■ 5,475.ooo 


1740 



1750 

1760 

1770 



Population. 
. 6,467,000 
. 6,736,000 
. 7,428,000 
• 7,953.ooo 



Population. 

1790 . . . 8, 67;, 000 

Estimated population of 

Scotland in 1751, 

1,255,663. 

in 1805, 5,395,456. 



Division, 


1801. 


1811. 


1S21. 


1831. 


1841. 


1851. 

16,854,142 

1,060,626 

2,870,784 

142,916 


1861. 


1871. 


England . . . 
Wales .... 
Scotland . . . 
Army, Navy, &c. 

Total . . . 
Ireland . . . 
Islands in Bri- ) 

tish seas . j" 


8,33i,434 

541.546 

1,599,068 

470,598 


9,551,888 
611,788 

1,805,688 
640, 500 


11,261,437 

717,438 

2,093,456 

319,30° 


13,089,338 

805,236 

2,365,807 

277,017 

16,537,398 
7>784,934 


14,995,138 

916,619 

2,620,184 

312,493 


18,949,130 

i,in,795 

3,061.251 

162,021 


21,487,688 

I,2l6,i20 

3,358,613 

207,198 


10,942,646 


12,609,864 
5.937,856 


1:4,391,631 
8,175,124 


18,844,434 
8,175,124- 


20,936,468 

6,515,794 

143,126 


23,284,197 

5,764,543 

143,779 


26,269,910 

5,402,759 

144,430 


27,595,388 


29,192,419 


3I,8l7,I0S 



Division. 


Year. 


Males. 


Females. 


Inhabited Houses. 


England and Wales . 


1861 


9,776,259 


10,289,965 


3,739,505 


,, ,, ,, • 


1871 


11,058,934 


n,653,33 2 


4,259, II 7 


!, ,,!!•• 


1881 


12,639,902 


13,334,537 


4,831,519 


!, ,, ,, • • 


1891 


14,050,620 


14,950,398 


5,460,976 


Scotland .... 


1861 


1,446,982 


1,614,269 


393,289 




1871 


1,601,633 


1,756,980 


419,635 


Ireland 


1861 


2,804,961 


2,959,582 


905,156 


" 


1871 


2,634,123 


2,768,636 


960,352 



Behm and Wagner. 



POPULATION. 



767 



POPULATION. 



Abstract of the Census of 4 April, 1S81, and of 5 April, 1S91 : England and Wales, 1881, 25,974,439 ; 1S91, 29,001,018. 
Scotland, 1881, 3,734,370 ; 1891,4,033,103. Ireland, 188 1, 5,159,839; 1891,4,706,162. [Wales, 1881, 1,360,503; 
1891, 1,518,914.] Channel Isles, 1881, 87,702; 1891, 92,272; Isle of Man, 1881, 53,558; 1891, 55,598; total of 
the United Kingdom, 1881, 35,246,561 ; 1891, 37,888,153. 



According to Reports published Aug., 1892: Scotland, 1881, 3, 

1891, 4,704,75c 



735,573 ; 1891, 4,025,647. Ireland, 1SS1, 5=174,236 ; 



POPULATION' OF THE PRINCIPAL TOWNS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 



Towns. 


1801. 


1811. 


1821. 


1831. 


1S41. 


1851. 


i86i.t 


1S71.T 


1881. 


1891. 


London 






















and suburbs . 


864,845 


1,009,546 


1,225,694 


1,474,069 


1,873,676 


2,362,236* 


2,803,034 


3,251,804 


3,83t,i94 


4,23i,43i 


Manchester, &c. 


94,876 


115,874 


161,635 


237,832 


242,583 


404,465 


357,979 


383,843 


462,303 


505,303 


Glasgow, &c. . 


77.385 


100,749 


147,043 


202,426 


274.533 


34 ,653 


394,857 


477,144 




792,728 


Liverpool . . 


79,722 


100,240 


131,801 


189,244 


286,487 


375,955 


443,938 


493,346 


552,508 


5i7,95i 


Edinburgh, &c. 


82,560 


102,987 


138,235 


162,403 


168,182 


193,929 


168,098 


196,500 




261,261 


Birmingham . 


73-670 


85,753 


106,721 


142,251 


182,922 


232,841 


296,076 


343,696 


400,774 


429,171 


Leeds, (fee. . . 


* * 


* * 


83,796 


123,393 


152,054 


172,270 


207,165 


259,201 


309,119 


367,506 


Bristol, &c. 


63,645 


76,433 


S7>779 


103,886 


122,296 


137,328 


154,093 


182,524 


206,874 


221,665 


Sheffield . 


1 * * 


* * 


69,479 


91,602 


111,091 


135,310 


185,172 


239,947 


284,508 


324,243 


Plymouth . . 


43,194 


56,060 


61,212 


75,534 


80,059 


. 102,380 


62,599 


69,414 


73,794 


84,179 


Portsmouth 


43,461 


52,769 


56,620 


63,026 


63,032 


72,096 


91,799 


112,954 


127,989 


159,255 


Norwich . 


36,832 


37,256 


50,288 


61,116 


72,344 


68,195 


74,891 


80,390 


87,842 


100,964 


Aberdeen . . 


27,608 


35,37° 


44,796 


58,019 


63,288 


71,945 


73,794 


88,125 




121,905 


Newcastle - 






















on-Tyne 


36,963 


36,369 


46,948 


57,937 


70,860 


87,784 


109,108 


128,160 


145,359 


186,345 


Paisley . . 


3i,i79 


36,722 


47,003 


57,466 


60,487 


69,951 


47,419 


48,257 




66,427 


Nottingham . 


28,861 


34,253 


40,415 


50,680 


57,407 


71-344 


74,693 


86,608 


186,575 


211,984 


Hull . 


34,964 


32,467 


41,874 


49,461 


71,629 


84,690 


97,661 


123,111 


86,502 


95,422 


Dundee . . 


26,084 


29,616 


3o,575 


45,355 


62,794 


77,829 


90,425 


118,974 




155,640 


Brighton . . 


7-339 


12,012 


24,429 


40,634 


46,661 


65,573 


87,317 


103,760 


107,546 


115,402 


Bath 


3o,n3 


32,214 


36,811 


38,063 


3S,30 4 


54,240 


52,528 


53,714 


51,814 


51,843 


York . . . 


23,692 


26,422 


29,527 


34,46i 


38,321 


40,359 


45,385 


50,761 


61,789 


66,984 


Preston . 


11,887 


17,065 


24,575 


33, II2 


50,131 


69,542 


82,985 


85,428 


96,537 


107,573 


■Cambridge . . 


13,360 


13,802 


14,142 


20,917 


24,453 


27,815 


26,361 


34,029 


35,363 


36,983 


•Oxford . 


15,124 


15,337 


16,364 


20,432 


23,834 


27,843 


27,560 


34,5M 


40,872 


45,74i 



In 1S51, 1,106,558 males, and 1,255,678 females. t 1S61 and 1871 : parliamentary limits of the boroughs. 



[The returns for 1S91 are taken from the Preliminary Report of the census.] 



Dublin, 18S1, 



249,602 ; 1891, 254,709. 
Waterford, 1891, 21,6 



Ireland. 
Belfast, 1881, 208,122; 1891, 
13. Londonderry, 1891, 32,89 



255,896. Cork, iS 
. Limerick, 1801 



,124; 1891, 75,070. 



POPULATION OF THE CHIEF CITIES OF THE WORLD. 



From latest returns in " AlnutiUKh de Gotlw," etc. 



Cities. 
Adelaide, .1891 . 
Alexandria, Egypt, 
Amsterdam, 1890 
Antwerp, 1890 . 
Athens, 1889 
Baltimore, U.S., 18 
Barcelona, 1887 
Basle, 1888 
Belgrade, 1890 
Berlin, 1890 
Berne, 1888 
Bologna, 1890 
Bombay, 1891 
Bordeaux, 1891 
Boston, U.S., 1 
Bremen, 1890 
Breslau, 1890 
Brooklyn, 1890 
Brussels, 1S90 
Buda-Pesth, 1890 
Buffalo, 1890 
Cadiz, 1887 
Cairo, 1883 
Calcutta, 1891 
Canton, 1890 
Chicago, 1890 
Christiania, 1891 
Cincinnati, 189a 
Cleveland, 1890 
Cologne, 1890 
Constantinople, 188 
Copenhagen, 1890 
Dresden, 1890 
Florence, 1890 . 
Fnvnkfort-on-Main, 



[88 : 



Inhabitants. 
133,220 
227,064 

417,539 
227,225 
107,846 

434,439 

272,481 

69,809 

54,458 

1,579,244 

46,009 

143,607 

804.470 

238,899 

448,477 

125,684 

335,174 
806,343 
182,305 
506,384 
255,664 

62,531 

368,10s 

840,130 

about 1,600,000 

1,099,850 

150,444 



261,353 
281,273 
873,565 
375,251 
276,085 
191,453 
179,850 



1890 



Cities. 

Geneva, 1888 
Genoa, 1890 
Ghent, 1890 
Hague, 1890 
Hamburg, 1890 . 
Hanover, 1890 . 
Konigsberg, 1890 
Leipsic, 1890 
Liege, 1890. 
Lille, 1891 . 
Lima, 1876 
Lisbon, 18S5 
Lubcek, 1890 
Lyons, 1891 
Madras, 1891 
Madrid, 1887 
Malaga, i83 7 
Marseilles, 1891 . 
Melbourne, 1891 
Messina, 1890 
Mexico, 1888 
Milan, iSco 
Montreal, 1881 . 
Moscow, 1885 
Munich, 1890 
Nankin, estimated 
Nantes, 1891 
Naples, 1890 
New Orleans. 1890 
New York, 1890 . 
Odessa, 1885 
Oporto, 1878 
Palermo, 1S90 . 
Paris, &c, 1891 . 
Pekin, 1874 



Inhabitants. 


Cities. I 


ihabiiants 


71,807 


Philadelphia, 1890 


1,046,964 




206,485 


Pittsburg, i3go . 


238,617 




153,740 


Prague, 1890 


184,109 




160,531 


Qnebec, 1891 


63,090 




323,923 


Kio Janeiro, 1S90 


500,000 




165,499 


Rome, 1890 


423,217 




161,528 


Rotterdam, 1890 


209,136 




353,272 


Rouen, 1891 


109,541 




149,789 


San Francisco, 1890 . 


298,997 




200,935 


Santiago, 18S5 


189,332 




101,488 


Seville, 18S7 


143,182 




243,010 


Smyrna, 1SS5 


186,510 




63,590 


Stockholm, 1890 


246,154 




403,322 


St. Etienne, 1891 


133,443 




449,95o 


St. Louis, 1890 . 


451,770 




470,283 


St. Petersburg, 1S85 . 


861,303 




134,106 


Stuttgart, 1890 . 


139,659 




375,378 


Sydney, 1891 


386,400 




491,378 


Teheran, estimated . 


210,000 




142,000 


Tien-tsin, 1S87 . 


950,000 




350,000 


Tokio, 1887. 


1,552,457 




414,551 


Toronto, 1S91 


181,220 




140,747 


Toulouse, 1891 . 


148,220 




753,469 


Tunis, estimated 


150,000 




348,377 


Turin, 1890 


320,80s 




r, 000,000 


Upsal, 1890 


21,5" 




121,054 


Utrecht, 1890 


86,116 




530,872 


Valencia, 1887 . 


170,763 




242,039 


Valparaiso, 1885 


104,952 




1,515,301 


Venice, 1830 


158,019 




240,000 


Vienna, 1890 


1,364,548 




105,838 


Warsaw, 1890 


443,426 




267,416 


Washington, U.S., i3;o 


230,392 




2,423,946 








1,648,814 







PORCELAIN. 



768 



PORTLAND ISLE. 



PORCELAIN, see Pottery. 

PORPHYROGENITITS, "bom in the pur- 
ple," a term applied to emperors of the east, born 
while their fathers were reigning. 

PORT BRETON, an isle near New Caledonia, 

South Pacific. 

In 1877 the marquis Du Breil de Rays purchased of the 
king Maragano a quantity of land on which to found 
a colony. Glowing prospectuses were issued in 
France, a company was formed, and, the scheme being 
favoured by the legitimists, a large number of shares 
were purchased and much money received. Other 
speculating companies were formed, and colonial 
government officers nominated. In spite of warning 
and prohibition several vessels sailed in 1879 with 
emigrants to meet with misery, disease, and, to a 
large extent, with death. A few who had been landed 
in New Caledonia got back to France and published 
an account of their sufferings. The marquis and some 
of his associates were brought to trial 27 Nov. 
1883 ; he was sentenced to four years' imprisonment 
and a fine of 3000 francs his associates to shorter im- 
prisonment, 2 Jan. 1884; on appeal, sentence con- 
firmed, 14 March, 1S84. 

PORTE, or Sublime Porte, official name 

of the court of the sultan of Turkey. Mostasem, 
the last of the Abbasside caliphs (1243-58), fixed in 
the threshold of the principal entrance to his palace 
at Bagdad a piece of the black stone adored at 
Mecca, and thus this entrance became the " porte " 
by eminence, and the title of his court. The sul- 
tans, successors of the caliphs, assumed the title. 
— Jlou'dlct, 

PORTEOL S MOB. Capt. Porteous, at Edin- 
burgh, on 15 April, 1736, commanded the guard at 
the execution of Wilson, a smuggler, who had 
saved the life of a fellow criminal, by springing 
upon the soldiers around them, and by main force 
keeping them back, while his companion fled. This 
excited great commiseration, and the spectators 
pelted the guard with stones. Fearing a rescue, 
Porteous ordered his men to fire upon the mob, and 
seventeen persons were killed or wounded. He 
was found guilty of murder, 22 June, 1736; but the 
queen granted him a reprieve (the king being then in 
Hanover). The people, at night, broke open the 
prison, took out Porteous, and hanged him on a 
dyer's sign-post, in the Grass-market, 7 Sept. 1736. 
None of the rioters were ever detected. 

PORTER. Dr. Ashe says that this beverage 
obtained its appellation on account of its having 
been drunk by porters in the city of London, about 
1730.* The number of licensed brewers in 1850, 
in England, was 2257; in Scotland, 154; and in 
Ireland, 96— total, 2507. On 17 Oct. 1814, at Meux's 
brewhouse two large vats of porter burst, destroy- 
ing neighbouring houses. Several lives were lost ; 
and the loss was between 8000 and 9000 barrels. 

Chief Brewers. In 1760. Barrels. 

Calvert & Co. brewed 74.734 

Whitbread. . 63,408 

Truman 60,140 

Sir William Calvert .- . 52,785 

Gifford & Co 41,410 



* The malt liquors previously in use were ale, beer, 
and twopenny, and it was customary to call for a pint or 
tankard of half-and-half,— i.e., half of ale, and half of 
beer. In the course of time it also became the practice 
to ask for a pint of three-thirds, meaning a third of ale, 
beer, and twopenny. To avoid trouble, Harwood, a 
brewer, made a liquor which partook of the united 
flavours of ale, beer, and twopenny, calling it entire, or 
entire butt beer, meaning that it was drawn entirely 
from one cask or butt. Being relished by porters and 
other wo.'king people, it obtained its name of porter, 
and was first retailed at the " Blue Last," Curtain-road. 
—Leigh. 



Chief Brewers. In 1760. Barrels. 

Lady Parsons 34>°Q8 

Thrale 3°>74° 

Huck & Co 29,615 

Harman 28,017 

Meux & Co 10,012 

In 1815. 

Barclay & Perkins 337,621 

Meux,'Reid, & Co 282,104 

Truman, Hanbury, <fc Co. . . . . 272,162 

Whitbread & Co. 261,018 

Henry Meux & Co 229,100 

F. Calvert & Co 219,333 

Combe, Delafield, & Co 105,081 

In 1840. 

Barclay, Perkins, and Co 361, 3 21 

Truman, Hanbury, &; Co 263,235 

Whitbread & Co 218,828. 

Keid and Co 196,442 

Combe, Delafield, & Co 177,542 

Felix Calvert & Co 136,387 

Sir Henry Meux & Co "6,547 

PORTERAGE ACT, regulating the charge for 
porterage of small parcels, passed 1799- 

PORT HAMILTON, see Corca. 

PORT JACKSON (New South Wales), thir- 
teen miles north of Botany Bay, was so named by 
capt. Cook in 1 770; see Sydney. Here the duke- 
of Edinburgh was shot by O'Farrell, a Fenian, 
12 March, 1868, but soon recovered. The assassin 
was hanged, 21 April. 

PORTLAND ADMINISTRATIONS. 

The first was the " Coalition ministry," of which 
William Henry Cavendish, duke of Portland,* as 
first lord of the treasury, was the head. It obtained 
the name of the "Coalition" ministry, and in- 
cluded, lord North with Mr. Fox, formerly in- 
veterate opponents. Formed 5 April, 1783 ; dis- 
solved by Mr. Titt's coming into power, Dec. same 
year. 

FIEST ADMINISTRATION. 

Duke of Portland, first lord of the treasury. 

Viscount Stormont, president of the council. 

Earl of Carlisle, privy seal. 

Frederick, lord North, and Charles James Fox, home and 

foreign secretaries. 
Lord John Cavendish, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Viscount Keppel, admiralty. 
Viscount Townshend, ordnance. 
Lord Loughborough, chief commissioner of great seal. 
Charles Townshend, Edmund Burke, Richard Fitz- 

patrick, Richard B. Sheridan, &e. 

SECOND ADMINISTRATION, 25 March, 1807. 

Earl Camden, lord president. 

Lord Eldon, lord chancellor. 

Earl of Westmorland, lord privy seal. 

Hon. Spencer Perceval, lord Hawkesbury (afterwards earl 

of Liverpool), Mr. Canning, and viscount Castlereagh 

(afterwards marquis of Londonderry), home, foreign, and! 

colonial secretaries. 
Earl Bathurst and Mr. Dundas, boards of trade and 

control. 
Lord Mulgrave, admiralty. 
Earl of Chatham, ordnance. 

PORTLAND CEMENT, first mentioned in 
a patent granted to Joseph Aspden, a bricklayer of 
Leeds, 1824. His son made the true cemeut at 
Northfleet. Its value as a building material was 
established by Mr. John Grant's tests, 1859-71. 
Portland cement concrete was used by Mr. E. A. 
Bernay in 1867. 

PORTLAND ISLE (off Dorset), the English 
Gibraltar. Fortified before 1142. Portland castle- 
was built by Henry VIII. about 1536. Off this 
peninsula a naval engagement commenced between 

* Bom 1738; became lord chamberlain, 1765; lord 
lieutenant of Ireland, 1782; premier, 1783; home secre- 
tary, 1794; lord president, 1801 ; premier again, 1807; 
died, 1809; when Mr. Spencer Perceval became premier. 



PORTLAND. 



F69 



PORTSMOUTH. 



the English and Dutch, 18 Feb. 1653, which con- 
tinued for three days. The English destroyed 
eleven Dutch men-of-war and thirty merchantmen. 
Van Tromp was admiral of the Dutch, and Blake of 
the English. — Here is found the noted freestone 
used for building our finest edifices. The Portland 
lights were erected 17 16 and in 1789. The pier, 
with nearly half a mile square of land, was washed 
into the sea hi Feb. 1792. Prince Albert laid the 
first stone of the Portland breakwater, 25 July, 
1849, and the last stone was laid by the prince of 
Wales, 10 Aug. 1872. Mr. James Rendel, the first 
chief engineer, was succeeded on his death in 1856 
by Mr. (aft. sir) John Coode. The breakwater and 
other harbour works cost 1,033,600/. exclusive of 
convict labour. The Portland prison was established 
in 1848. A mutiny among the convicts here in 
Sept. 1858, was promptly suppressed. 

PORTLAND (or Babbeeixi) VASE. This 
beautiful specimen of Greek art (composed of a 
glass-like substance, with figures and devices raised 
on it in white enamel ; height 10 mches ; diameter 
in the broadest part, 7 ; with a handle on each 
side) was discovered about the middle of the 16th 
century, in a marble sarcophagus in a sepulchre at 
a place called Monte del Grano, about 2\ miles 
from Pome. The sepulchre was supposed to have 
been that of the Roman emperor, Alexander Se- 
verus (222-235), aiw his mother Mammaea, and the 
vase is supposed to have been the cinerary urn of 
one of these royal personages. It was placed in the 
palace of the Barberini family, at Rome, where it 
remained till 1770, when it was purchased by sir 
"William Hamilton, from whose possession it passed 
to that of the duchess of Portland, 1787; at the 
sale of her effects, it is said to have been bought 
by the then duke of Portland, who, in 1810, de- 
posited it (on loan) hi the British Museum. On 
27 Feb. 1845, this vase was smashed to pieces with 
a stone by a man named "William Lloyd ; it has 
been skilfully repaired, and is now shown to the 
public in a special room. Josiah "Wedgwood made 
a mould of it, and took a number of casts. 

PORT MAHON, see Minorca. 

PORTO BELLO (S. America), discovered by 
Columbus, 2 Nov. 1502, was taken by Morgan the 
Buccaneer hi 1668 ; by the British under admiral 
Vernon, from the Spaniards, 21 Nov. 1739, and the 
fortifications destroyed. Before the abolition of the 
trade by the galleons, in 1748, it was the great mart 
for the rich commerce of Peru and Chili. 

PORTO FERRAJO, capital of Elba {which 
see); built and fortified by Cosmo I. duke of 
Florence, in 1548. The fortifications were not 
finished till 1628, when Cosmo II. completed them 
with great magnificence ; see France. 

PORTO NOVO (S. India). Here sir Eyre 
Coote, with about 9500 men and 55 light field- 
pieces, skilfully defeated Hyder Ali, ruler of the 
Camatic, with 80,000 men and some heavy cannon, 
I July, 1 781. Hyder lost about 10,000, the British 
587 killed and wounded. POETO NOVO, W. 
Africa, a French settlement on the coast of Daho- 
mey, which sac (1890 et scq.). 

PORTO RICO, a West India island, belong- 
ing to Spain ; discovered by Columbus in 1493. 
Attacks on it by Drake and Hawkins repulsed, 
1595. Revolt suppressed, 1823. Slavery abolished, 
23 March, 1873. 

PORT PHILLIP (New S. Wales), original 
name of the colony of Victoria (xchiclt sec). 



PORTRAIT GALLERY, &c, see National 
Portrait Gallery, and Composite Portraits. 
The, Society of Portrait Painters held its first exhi- 
bition at the Institute of Painters in Water 
Colours in Piccadilly, July 1891. The society 
includes the most eminent artists. Second exhi- 
bition June, 1892 

The formation of a " Britisli Museum of Portraits " 
(photographs), was proposed by Mr. James 
Glaisher in 1864, and partly begun. The under- 
taking resumed mainly by the exertions of Mr. 
Glaisher and the Amateur Photographic Associa- 
tion, and a collection of portraits deposited in 
the art department at South Kensington museum, 

July, i8gt 
PORTREEVE (derived from Saxon words 
signifying the governor of a port or harbour) . The 
chief magistrate of London was originally so styled ; 
but Richard I. appointed two bailiffs and afterwards 
London had mayors. Camden ; see Mayors. 

PORT ROYAL (N. America), capital of the 
French colony, Acadie, founded in 1604; after 
having been taken and restored several times, it was 
filially acquired by the British iu 1710, and named 
Annapolis. 

PORT ROYAL (Jamaica), once a consider- 
able town, was destroyed by earthquakes in 1602 
and 1692; laid in ashes by tire in 1702; reduced to 
ruins by an inundation of the sea in 1722 ; and 
destroyed by a hurricane in 1774. After these 
calamities, the custom-house and public offices were 
removed to Kingston. Port Royal was again greatly 
damaged by fire in 1 750; by another awful stomi 
111 1784 ; and by a devastating fire in July, 1815 ; 
in 1850 it suffered by cholera. 

PORT ROYAL DES Champs (near Paris) 
was a French Cistercian convent, founded by Odo, 
bishop of Paris, at the wish of king Philip Augus- 
tus, 1204. Having fallen into decay, it was revived 
and reformed hi 1608 by Angelica Amauld. In 
1625 the increased community removed to Paris. 
The Port Royal des Champs,' in 1656, became the 
retreat of the Arnaulds, Tillemont, Pascal, Lance- 
lot, and other eminent Jansenists, who devoted 
themselves to education, and produced the Port 
Royal grammars, logic, and other works. This 
institution was condemned by the pope iu 1709, 
and the buildings were pulled down, and tombs 
desecrated, by the order of Louis XIV., in 1710. 
The Port Royal at Paris was suppressed, with other 
monasteries, in 1790. 

PORTSMOUTH (Hampshire), the most con- 
siderable haven for men-of-war, and most strongly 
fortified place in England. The dock, arsenal, and 
storehouses were established in the reign of Henry 
VIII. See Population. 

The French under D'Annebaut attempted to destroy 
Portsmouth, but were defeated by viscount Lisle, 
in the then finest war-ship in the' world, the Great 

Harry IS4 5 

Here George Villiers, duke of Buckingham, was 

assassinated by Felton ... 23 Aug. 1628 

Admiral Byng (see Byng) on a very dubious sen- 
tence was shot at Portsmouth . . 14 March, 1757 
The dockyard was fired, the loss estimated at 

400,000? '3 July, 1760 

Another lire occasioned loss of 100,000?. 27 July, 1770 
[The French were suspected both times, but there 

was no actual proof.] 
Fire caused by James Aitken (John the Painter) 

7 Dec. 1776; executed . . . . 10 March, 1777 
Royal George {which see) sunk . . 29 Aug. 1782 
Grand naval mock engagement and parade of the 
fleet, the king being present, 22 to 25 June, 1773, 

and 30 June, 1794 

Another great fire occurred . . . . 7 Dec. 177c 
The king of the French with a fleet arrives at 
Portsmouth, sec France . . . 6 Oct. iGn. 



PORTUGAL. 



770 



PORTUGAL. 



A great naval review was held near Portsmouth on 

25 April, 1856 
Visited by a French fleet amid great rejoicings, 

29 Aug.-i Sept. 1865 
Easter Monday volunteer review, &c, very successful 

13 April, 1868 
Naval review at Spithead before the shah of Persia. 

23 June, 1873 
Explosion at Priddy's Hard ; 5 killed . 5 May 18S3 

See Navy of England, 1887, 1889, 1890, 1891. 
The emperor William II. visited Portsmouth, 5 

Aug. 1889, and 6 Aug. 1890 

The prince of Wales opens the new town-hall 

9 Aug. ,, 
The Amphitheatre music-hall burnt (cost, 10,000/.) 

25 Dec. „ 
The Royal Arthur and the Eoyal Sovereign launched 

by the queen, see Navy ... 26 Feb. 1891 
Visit of the French fleet, see France . 19-26 Aug. „ 

PORTUGAL, the ancient Lusitania. The pre- 
sent name is derived from Porto Callo, the original 
appellation of Oporto. After a nine years' struggle, 
under Yiriathes, a brave able leader, the Lusi- 
tanians submitted to the Roman arms about 137 B.C. 
Portugal underwent the same changes as Spain on 
the fall of the Roman empire. There are in 
Portugal two universities, that of Coimbra, founded 
in 1308, and the smaller one of Evora, founded in 
1533. Lisbon has also its royal academy, and the 
small town of Thomar has an academy of sciences ; 
but, in general, literature is at a low ebb in 
Portugal. The poet Camoens, called the Virgil 
of his country, and author of the Lusiad (1569), 
translated into English by Mickle, was a native of 
Lisbon. Population of the kingdom and colonies, 
3iDec.l863, 8,037,194; in 1872, kingdom 011 the con- 
tinent, with Madeira and Azores, 4,390,589; colonies, 
3,258,140 ; in 1878, kingdom and colonies, 8,031,831 ; 
1881, kingdom, 4,708,178. Estimated revenue, 
1890-1, 8,817,040/.; expenditure, 9,574,150?. The 
constitution granted in 1826 was revised in 1852. 
Settlement of the Alains and Visigoths here . . 472 

Conquered by the Moors 713 

The kings of Asturias subdue some Saracen chiefs, 

and Alfonso III. establishes bishops . . . 900 
The Moors, conquered by Alfonso VI. the Valiant, of 
Castile, assisted by many other princes and volun- 
teers ; Henry of Besancon (a relative of the duke 
of Burgundy and king of France), very eminent ; 
Alfonso bestowed upon him Theresa, his natural 
daughter, and Portugal as her marriage portion, 
which he was to hold of him as count . . . 1095 
Alfonso Henriquez defeats live Moorish kings, and 

proclaimed king ; see Owrique . . 25 July, 1139 
Assisted by a fleet of Crusaders on their way to the 
Holy Land, he takes Lisbon from the Moors, 

25 Oct. 1 147 
Part of Algarve taken from the Moors by Sancho I. 1189 
Reign of Dionysius I. or Denis, father of his coun- 
try, who builds 44 cities or towns in Portugal . 1279 
University of Coimbra founded .... 1308 
Military orders of Christ and St. James instituted, 

1279 and 1325 

Iiies de Castro murdered 1355 

John I., surnamed the Great, carries his arms into 

Africa 1415 

Maritime discoveries 1419-30 

Madeira and the Canaries seized .... 1420 

Code of laws digested 1425 

Lisbon made the capital .... about 1433 
Prince Henry, the navigator, dies .... 1460 
Passage to the East Indies by the Cape of Good 
Hope discovered by Vasco de Gama . 20 Nov. 1497 

Discovery of the Brazils 1499 

Brazil discovered by Cabral .... April, 1500 
Camoens, author of the Lusiad, born . about 1520 

The Inquisition established 1526 

University of Evora founded . . . 1451 or 1533 

African expedition ; king Sebastian defeated and 

slain in the battle of Alcazar . . . 4 Aug. 1578 
The kingdom seized by Philip II. of Spain . . . 1580 
The Dutch seize the Portuguese settlements in India, 

1602-20 



The Portuguese throw off the yoke, and place John, 
duke of Braganza, on the throne . . Dec. 

The Portuguese defeat the Spaniards at Villa Viciosa, 
1665 ; war ended by the treaty of Lisbon . 

Methuen treaty {which see) 

The great earthquake destroys Lisbon . 1 Nov. 

Joseph I. narrowly escapes death by assassins 

[Some of the first families were tortured to death ; 
their very names being forbidden to be mentioned ; 
the innocence of many was soon afterwards made 
manifest ; the Jesuits were also expelled.] 

Joseph, having no son, obtains a dispensation from 
the pope to enable his daughter and brother to 
intermarry, which took place . . 6 June, 

The Spaniards and French invade Portugal, which 
is saved by the English . . .1 762 and 

John, prince of Brazil, marries his aunt, Maria 
Francesea 

Regency of John (afterwards king), owing to the 
lunacy of queen Maria 

War with Spain, 3 March ; peace . . 6 June, 

Treaty between France and Spain for the partition 
of Portugal, Oct. ; French invasion ; Junot arrives 
at Lisbon, 27 Nov. ; the court sail for Brazil, 

29 Nov. 

Rise of the Portuguese ; several times defeated, 
June and July ; arrival of Wellington at Oporto, 
July; he defeats Junot at Vimiera, 21 Aug.; con- 
vention of Cintra confirmed . . 30 Aug. 

Oporto taken by Soult ... 29 March, 

Almeida taken by Massena ... 27 Aug. 

Massena defeated at Busaco . . 27 Sept. 

Wellington secures the lines of Torres Vedras Oct. 

Massena defeated at Fuentes de Onoro ; retreats, 

5 May, 

The British parliament grants the sufferers by war 
in Portugal ioo,ooo£. 

Portugal cedes Guiana to France .... 

Union of Portugal and Brazil 

Revolution begins in Oporto ... 29 Aug. 

Constitutional Junta established . . 1 Oct. 

Return of the court 4 July, 

Independence of Brazil ; the prince regent made 
emperor; see Brazil 12 Oct. 

The king modifies the constitution . . 5 June, 

Disturbances at Lisbon ; Miguel departs 1-9 May, 

Treaty with Brazil 29 Aug. 

Death of John VI 10 March, 

Dom Pedro grants a constitutional charter, and con- 
firms the regency 26 April, 

He relinquishes the throne in favour of his daughter, 
Donna Maria da Gloria . . . .2 May, 

Miguel takes oath of fealty at Vienna . 4 Oct. 

Marquis of Chaves' insurrection at Lisbon in favour 
of Dom Miguel 6 Oct. 

Dom Miguel and Donna Maria betrothed 29 Oct. 

Portugal solicits the assistance of Great Britain, 
3 Dec. ; departure of the first British auxiliary 
troops for Portugal . . . . .17 Dec. 

Bank of Lisbon stops payment . . 7 Dec. 

Dom Miguel made regent ; he arrives in London, 30 
Dec. 1827; takes the oath at Lisbon 22 Feb. 

The British armament quits Portugal, 28 April; 
foreign ministers withdraw ... 3 May, 

Sir John Doyle, a partisan of Donna Maria, arrested, 

13 June, 

Dom Miguel assumes the title of king . 4 July, 

He dissolves the three estates . . .12 July, 

His troops take Madeira ... 24 Aug. 

Release of sir John Doyle .... 7 Sept. 

The queen Donna Maria arrives in London 6 Oct. 

Miguel's expedition against Tcrccira defeated, 

11 Aug. 

Duke of Palmella appointed regent . March, 

Dom Pedro arrives in England . . .16 June, 

Insurrection in Portugal in favour of the queen ; 
more than 300 lives lost . . . 21 Aug. 

Dom Pedro's expedition sail from Belle-isle, 9 Feb. ; 
at Terceira proclaims himself regent, 2 April ; 
takes Oporto S July, 

The Miguelites attack Oporto and are defeated 
with considerable loss on both sides 19 Sept. 

Mount Cavello taken .... 9 April, 

Admiral Napier takes Dom Miguel's squadron oil' 
Cape St. Vincent 5 July, 

Lisbon evacuated by the duke of Cadaval; the 
queen proclaimed, 24 July ; enters Lisbon, 

22 Se2it. 



1640 

166S 
1703 
1755 
1758 



17C0 
!7 6 3 
1777 



1S14 
1815 
1820 



1024 
1825 
1826 



1827 
1S2S 



1S29 
1830 
1S31 



!8 3 2 
1833 



POETUGAL. 



771 



POETUGAL. 



After various conflicts Dom Miguel capitulates to 
the Pedroites, and Santarem surrenders, 26 May ; 
Dom Miguel embarks at Evora for Genoa, 31 May, 1834 
Massacres take place at Lisbon . . .9 June, ,, 
The Cortes declare the queen of age . 15 Sept. ,, 

Dom Pedro dies 24 Sept. ,, 

Oporto wine company abolished . . . ,, 

Prince Augustus (duke of Leuchtenberg) prince con- 
sort; married, 1 Dec. 1834; dies . 28 March, 1835 
The queen marries Ferdinand of Saxe Coburg, 

9 April, 1836 
Revolution at Lisbon .... 9 Aug. ,, 
Another outbreak there . . . .8 Nov. „ 
The duke of Terceira attempts to restore Dom 

Pedro's charter 18 Aug. 1837 

He and Saldanha fail, and embark for England, 

18 Sept. ,, 
Oporto wine company re-established . 7 April, 1838 
The northern province in a state of insurrection 

about this time 20 April, 1846 

The duke of Palmella resigns . . .31 Oct. „ 
Action at Evora, the queen's troops defeat the in- 
surgent forces 31 Oct. ,, 

British squadron under admiral Parker arrives in 
the Tagus, at the queen's request . 31 Oct. ,, 

Palmella banished 26 Nov. ,, 

Marquis of Saldanha defeats count Bomnnn at 

Torres Vedras 22 Dec. , 

The insurgents enter Oporto . . .7 Jan. 1847 
London conference : England, Prance, and Spain 
determine to assist the queen of Portugal to ter- 
minate the civil war . . . .21 May, ,, 
Submission of Sa. da Bandeira . . 11 June, ,, 
A Spanish force enters Oporto, and the Junto capi- 
tulates 26 June, „ 

An American squadron in the Tagus to enforce 

claims against the Portuguese . 22 June, 1850 

Military insurrection, headed by the duke of Sal- 
danha, who, being outstripped in his march on 
Santarem by the king of Portugal, flees northward 

10 April, 1851 
Oporto declares for the duke, who had left the city 
for Vigo to embark for England ; but is called 
back by the insurgents . . .24 April, ,, 
Saldanha's entry into Oporto . . 29 April. ,, 

The conde de Thomar, prime minister, resigns ; 

arrives in England .... 16 May, ,, 
Saldanha, prime minister . . . .23 May, ,, 
Dom Miguel marries the princess Adelaide of 

Lowenstein-Rosenberg ... 24 Sept. ,, 
Revision of the charter by the Cortes sanctioned by 
the queen ; the prince royal takes the oath to 

the constitution 18 July, 1852 

Conversion of the public debt . . 18 Dec. ,, 
Death of the queen Maria II. . . . 15 Nov. 1853 
King-consort recognised as regent . 19 Dec. ,, 

The young king visits England . . . June, 1854 
The slaves on royal domains freed . 30 Dec. ,, 
The king visits France .... May, 1855 
Inauguration of the king . . . 16 Sept. ,, 
Resignation of Saldanha ministry . . 5 June, 1856 
First Portuguese railway (from Lisbon to Santarem) 

opened 26 Oct. ,, 

Fever rages in Lisbon ; the king very active in 

relieving the sufferers . . Oct. and Nov. 1857 
The French emigrant ship for negroes, Charles-et- 

Georges, seized ..... 29 Nov. ,, 
Anger of the French government ; its ultimatum 
sent, 13 Oct. ; and ships of war to the Tagus; the 
vessel restored (see Charles-et-Georges) . 25 Oct. 1858 
Death of the duke of Terceira, prime minister, 
April 26 ; succeeded by the senhor Aguiar, May 2, 

who resigns 2 July, i860 

Death of the king, Pedro V. ; succeeded by his 

brother the duke of Oporto . . . n Nov. 1861 
Death of John, the king's brother . . 29 Dec. ,, 
The law of succession altered in favour of the king's 

sisters 3 Jan. 1862 

The due de Louie becomes minister . 21 Feb. ,, 
The king married to Princess Maria Pia of Savoy by 

proxy, at Lisbon 6 Oct. ,, 

Elections : majority for the government . Nov. ,, 
Birth of Dom Carlos, heir to the throne . 28 Sept. 1863 

Ministerial changes Jan. 1864 

Death of the celebrated statesman the duke of 

Palmella 2 April, ,, 

Free-trade measures introduced . . .1 June, ,, 
Frontier treaty with Spain concluded . 29 Sept. ,, 



1SC9 



1S69 
1S70 



1S74 
1875 
1876 



U.S. vessels Niagara and Sacramento in the Tagus 
fired on, through suspicion of their sailin<' after 
the confederate vessel Stonewall, 27 March • the 
difficulty with the U.S. government arranged. 

The premier, De Louie, resigns ; marquis Sa da *" $ 

Bandeira forms a ministry . . 17 April 
Constitutional privileges granted to the colonies' ' 

am ■ -u Ma y' » 

Another prince born . . . .31 July, 

New ministry formed ; Aguiar premier . 4 Sept! ,',' 
The international exhibition at Oporto opened by 

the king 18 Sept, „ 

The king visits England and France . . Dec. 
General Prim enters Portugal, 20 Jan. ; ordered to 

■ depart 17 Feb. iS''6 

Death of Dom Miguel, the ex-king . . 14 Nov. 
The king and queen of Spain visit Lisbon n Dec. " 
King and queen at the Paris exhibition, July-Aug. 1807 
New ministry under count d'Avila . 5 Jan. i3C8 

under Sa da Bandeira . . . 21 July, 

under the duke de Saldanha . . 7 Jafi! 

under the duke de Louie . . u Aug! 

Violent opposition of Saldanha ; ordered back to 

Paris as ambassador there ; he resigns Dec. 

Cortes dissolved j an . 

Saldanha heads a military insurrection ; seizes the 

royal palace ; forms a new ministry . 19 May, „ 
Neutrality in the French war proclaimed . July, „ 
Manifestation against Saldanha in Lisbon and 

Oporto . . .... 2 Aug. „ 

The French republic recognized . . . Sept. 
New ministry under the bishop of Vizeu, 30 Oct, 
New ministry under the marquis d'Avila, 30 Jan. ; 

under Fontes Pereira de Mello . 13 Sept.' 1S71 

Great fire at Lisbon I3 June, 1S72 

Conspiracy against the government ; officers in tin'' 

army arrested .... about 26 Aug. 
Death of Joaquim A. Aguiar, statesman (see i860, 

1865) 2 6 May, 

The duke of Coiinbra visits England . . Aug. 
The prince of Wales at Lisbon . . . 1 May, 
Financial crisis: banks of Oporto and Portugal 

suspend payment ; confidence soon returns, about 

19-24 Aus;. ., 
Death of the duke de Saldanha (buried in state at 

Lisbon) 2I Nov. ,, 

Marquis D'Avila forms a new ministry 5 March, 1S77 
Resigns after vote of censure ; new ministry formed 

under Fontes Pereira de Mel! i . . 29 Jan. 1S7S 
Ministry resigns, 30 May, new one formed by sen! 

A. J. Braamcamp .... 1 July 1S77 
Great demonstration in honour of Camoens and 

Vasco da Gama at Lisbon . . . June, 18S0 
Discussion in the chambers respecting treaty with 

Great Britain,respecting Loureneo Marques (wh ich 
see), E. Coast of Africa; ministry resigns; suc- 
ceeded by sen. Sampayo , . . 21-26 March, 1SS1 
Elections; majority in favour of ministry 21 Aug. 
The kings of Portugal and Spain open a new rail- 
way between Lisbon and Madrid . . 8 Oct. ,, 
Visit of the king and queen of Spain 10 Jan. et seq. 1SC2 
National art exhibition at Lisbon opened 

about 15 April, ,, 
Reform bill introduced abolishing hereditary 

peerage end of Fell. i"3; 

The king and queen visit Madrid . . 22 May, 
Ministry reconstructed by Pontes Pereira de Mello 

20 Oct. ,, 
Circular affirming Portuguese rights over the Congo 

issued Oct, ,, 
The crown prince returned from a visit to England 

21 Dec. ,, 
Government bill fur reform of constitution adopted 

by the deputies 8 Feb. 1884 

Mr. John Dixon's claims on the Guimaraes railway 
company for compensation for their taking the. 
Minlio railway, constructed by him; complaint 
of judicial delays ; British intervention ; discussed 

May, „ 
Death of the king consort Ferdinand aged 69, 

15 Dec 18S5 
The de Mello ministry resigns, succeeded by that of 

senhor Jose de Castro ... 19 Feb. 1886 

The king visits Great Britain, Denmark, and the 

continent (warmly received) Aug.-Scpt. 1886 ; 

returns f.o Lisbon . . . .26 Sept. ,, 

Strike and riots at Oporto (irt Ich see), about 30 May, 1S39 

3 I) 2 



POETUGAL. 



772 



POETUGAL. 



Dispute respecting the Delagoa railway (which see) 

June, et seq. i 

The wine trade much disturbed by bounties to 
wine-growers ; granted by the chamber, 12 June, 

Death of king Luis I., 19 Oct. ; funeral . 26 Oct. 

British remonstrances on Portuguese encroach- 
ments in East Africa (see Zambesi) . Nov., Dec. 

The king Carlos inaugurated ... 28 Dec. 

The king opens the cortes with a Ann temperate 
speech respecting B. Africa ... 2 Jan. 1 

Telegrams : lord Salisbury demands the immediate 
recall of the Portuguese forces from places in 
Africa under British protection or influence 

S Jan. 

Sen. Barros Gomes accedes, under conditions ; 
delays, 6 — 8 Jan. Ultimatum from lord Salisbury 
requiring immediate submission, threatening sus- 
pension of diplomatic relations ; the council of 
state accede to all the British demands, under 
protest 11, 12 Jan. 

Excitement in Lisbon and the provinces against 
the British, promptly suppressed ; about 63 
arrests, 13 — 16 Jan. ; the De Castro ministry 
resigns ; sen. Serpa Pimental forms a cabinet ; 
sen. Hintze Ribeiro, foreign minister . 14 Jan. 

Sen. Serpa Pimental informs the chamber that he 
submits to England, who has might while 
Portugal has right . . . . 15 Jan. 

The Blue-book containing correspondence between 
lord Salisbury and sen. Barros Gomes, 22 June, 
1387 to 20 Jan., 1890, published . . 12 Feb. 

Capt. Neves Perreira resigns, about . 18 Jan. 

Manifesto of the republican party, about . 19 Jan. 

The cortes dissolved .... 20 Jan. 

National defence fund started, 23 Jan. ; 55,000/. 
received up to 4 March (nearly 33,000?. subscribed 
by the king and royal family), about . n March, 

Dearees respecting public meetings, liberty- of the 
press, judicial reforms, &c, issued . 7 April, 

The new cortes opened by the king ; friendly 
relations with Great Britain, reported . 19 April, 

Major Serpa Pinto arrives at Lisbon, 20 April ; 
made one of the king's adjutants . 27 April, 

Anglo - Portuguese agreement respecting Africa, 
settled in London 20 Aug. 

Resignation of sen. Serpa Pimental ministry, 1 7 Sept. 

Gen . Chrysostomo d' Abreue-Sousa forms a ministry, 
13 Oct., opposed to the proposed convention; 
cortes closed 15 Oct. 

A modus vivendi agreed on for six months ; the 
agreement of 20 Aug. withdrawn ; the status quo 
ante maintained, 10 Nov. ; signed . 14 Nov. 

East Africa : Capt. Paiva and the Bihe expedition 
resisted on the river Caquiema ; fighting with 
the natives, with great loss . . . 1 Nov. 

Celebration of the 250th anniversary of the re- 
establishment of the monarchy . . 1 Dec. 

For the disputes with the S. Africa company 
respecting the Manica company, see under 
Zambesi ..... Sept. — Dec. 

Military expedition fo. the defence of Manica, sails 
from Lisbon . . . 15 Jan. and 12 Feb. 

Arrival of col. Paiva d'Andrade, complaining of the 
conduct of the British in Manica (see Zambesi, 

Nov. 1890) 19 Jan. 

Military revolt at Oporto (which see) . 31 Jan. 
The Malange steamer, with 700 men, arrives at 

Zanzibar 9 Feb. 

The cortes opened .... 4 March, 

The Countess of Carnarvon, steamer, seized by the 

Portuguese, see under Zambesi . . March, 

Loan of 10,000,000?. on the tobacco monopoly voted 

19 March, 

The cortes closed . . . . 20 March, 

Ministerial crisis ends, no change . . 17 April, 

Financial crisis ; heavy fall in the funds, through 

increase of the national debt and great depression 

of trade ; run upon the banks met by large coinage 

of silver, about .... 8 May, et seq. 

Decree authorising the suspension of payments by 

the banks ; the Bank of Portugal suspends cash 

payments for 60 days . . . . 11 May, 

Treaty extending the modus vivendi for one month, 

signed 14 May, 

Financial improvement reported . . 14 May, 

New ministry formed by senhor Joao Chrysostomo, 

president and war general . . . 21 May, 



New Anglo-Portuguese convention signed (after- 
wards ratified) 11 June, 1891 

Monetary crisis ; sovereigns sold at a high price ; 
traffic in silver coin . . " 20 July — 20 A.ug. „ 

Meeting of the cortes ; the king states that the 
treaty of June with England is being duly 
executed 2 Jan. 1892 

Expiration of the treaty of Goa (which see) . 14 Jan. ,, 

New cabinet formed by sen. Jose Dias Ferreira 

15 Jan. , t 

The minister of finance reports great deficiency in 
the revenue and great increase of debt, and pro- 
poses large reductions in the expenditure and 
increase of taxation ; accepted by the king, who 
proposes to largely reduce his civil list, and by 
the cortes .... 20 Jan. — 23 Feb. , r 

Violent cyclone at Lisbon, much damage ; esti- 
mated loss, 45,000?., 19 Feb. Great loss of life 
(105) and property on the coast by a violent gale 

27 Feb. and 6 March, ,, 

Revolts against the expedition to lake Nyassa in 
E. Africa, reported . . 3 March, et seq. , r 

The cortes closed by the king . . 2 April, ,, 

Ministry reconstituted by sen. Ferreira . 27 May, , r 

Decree reducing the temporary payments to foreign 
bondholders then due to one-third the amount ; 
protest of the bondholders . . 14 June, , r 

SOVEREIGNS OF PORTUGAL. 

1095. Henry, count or earl of Portugal. 

1112. Alfonso, his son, and Theresa. 

1128. Alfonso, count of Portugal, alone. 

1139. Alfonso I. declared king, having obtained a signal 
victory over a prodigious army of Moors on the 
plains of Ourique. 

1 185. Sancho I., son of Alfonso. 

1212. Alfonso II., surnamed Crassus, or the Fat. 

1223. Sancho II., or the Idle : deposed. 

1248. Alfonso III. 

1279. Denis or Dionysius, the father of his country. 

1325. Alfonso IV. , the Brave. 

1357. Peter, the Severe. 

1367. Ferdinand I., son. 

1385. John I., the Bastard and the Great ; natural 
brother ; married Pliilippa, daughter of John of 
Gaunt, duke of Lancaster. 

1433. Edward or Duarte. 

1438. Alfonso V., the African. 

1481. John II., the Great and the Perfect. 

1495. Emmanuel, the Fortunate ; cousin. 

1521. John III., son ; admitted the Inquisition, 1536, 
and the Jesuits, 1540. 

1557. Sebastian ; drowned after the great battle of Alea- 
zarquivir, in Africa, 4 Aug. 1578. 

1578. Henry, the cardinal, son of Emmanuel ; great uncle. 

1580. Anthony, prior of Crato, son of Emmanuel ; de- 
posed by Philip II. of Spain, who united Portu- 
gal to his other dominions. 



1580. 
1598. 
1621. 
1640. 



1656. 
16S3. 



Philip II. ) 
Philip III. Hvi: 



1792. 
1S16. 



1826. 



1826. 
1828. 



Philip III. }■ kings of Spain. 

Philip IV. ) 

John IV., duke of Braganza ; dispossessed the- 
Spaniards in a bloodless revolution, and was 
proclaimed king, Dec. 1. 

Alfonso VI. ; deposed in 1667, and his brother 
Peter made regent. 

Peter II. , brother. 

John V., son. 

Joseph Emmanuel ; son. The daughter and suc- 
cessor of this prince married his brother, by 
dispensation from the pope, and they ascended 
the throne, as 

Maria I. and Peter III. jointly. 

Maria I. alone : this princess afterwards falls into a 
state of melancholy and derangement ; dies, 1816. 

Regency — John, son (afterwards king) ; declared 
regent, 1791. 

John VI., previously regent. He had withdrawn 
in 1807, owing to the French invasion of Portu- 
gal, to his Brazilian dominions ; but the discon- 
tent of his subjects obliged him to return in 1821 ; 
died in 1826. 

Peter IV. (Dom Pedro), son ; making his election 
of the empire of Brazil, abdicated the throne of 
Portugal in favour of 

Maria II. (da Gloria) ; daughter ; seven years of age. 

Dom Miguel, brother to Peter IV, usurped the 



POET VICTORIA. 



773 



POST-OFFICE. 



crown, which he retained, amid civil conten- 
tions, until 1833. 
1833. Maria II. restored ; declared in Sept. 1834 to be of 
age ; married Augustus, duke of Leuchtenberg, 

1835 ; 2nd, Ferdinand of Saxe Cobnrg, 9 April, 

1836 (who died, 15 Dec. 1885) ; died, 15 Nov. 
1853. 

1853. Peter V. (Doni Pedro), son ; born 16 Sept. 1837 ; 

died, 11 Nov. 1861. 
1861. Luis I., brother ; born 31 Oct. 1838 ; married Maria 

Pia, daughter of Victor Emmanuel, king of 

Italy (born 16 Oct. 1847), 6 Oct. 1862 ; a judicious 

reformer; died, 19 Oct. 1889. 
1889. Dom Carlos (son), born 28 Sept. 1863 ; married 

Marie Amelie, daughter of the comte de Paris, 

22 May, 1886. 
Heir : Louis Philippe, born 21 March, 1887. 

POET VICTORIA, on the Medway, Kent, a 
new port for London, established by the South 
Eastern Railway Company; communications opened, 
Sept. 1884. 

POSEN, a Polish province, annexed to Prussia 
1772 and 1793; made part of the duchy of Warsaw, 
1807; restored to Prussia, 1815. An insurrection 
here quelled, May, 1848. 

About 2,000 Austrian Poles expelled Oct.-Nov. 1835. 
Prince Bismarck's plan for Germanizing Posen, see 

Prussia, Feb. 1886. 

POSITIVE PHILOSOPHY set forth by 

Auguste Comte, an eminent mathematician, born 
about 1795; died at Paris, 1852. M. P. Emile 
Littre, the great French philologist, ardently em- 
braced the system, and published "De la Philo- 
sophic Positive," in 1845. 

Comte's "Cours de Philosophic Positive," published 
1830-42 ; " Systeme de Politique Positive, ou Traite 
de Sociologie, instituant la Religion de l'Humanite 
(l'amour pour principe, l'ordre pour base, et le pro- 
gres pour but)," 1851-4. 
Jt professes to base itself wholly on positive facts or 
observed phenomena, and rejects all metaphysical 
conceptions, which it considers negatives, haying 
nothing real or true in them ; and dispenses with the 
science of mind. It sets aside theology and meta- 
physics as two merely preliminary stages in life ; and 
abandons all search after causes and essences of 
things, and restricts itself to the observation and 
classification of phenomena and the discovery of their 
laws. Comte asserted that Europe had now arrived 
at the third stage of its progress. 
Positivism does not recognise the supernatural or the 

future state. 
The Society of Positivists in London meet in Newton- 
hall, in Fleur-de-Lys-court, near Gough-square, on 
Sunday evenings, when discourses on philosophy, 
morality, science, politics, <fcc, are delivered. Their 
professed object is to promote the perfection of man 
toy means of education in its widest sense, aiming at 
the attaining of universal brotherhood independently 
of all professed religious sects ; concerts are occa- 
sionally given; Frederick Harrison, president (Pull 
Mall Gazette, 29 Nov. 1883). 
'' The Church of Humanity " is a modified form of 
positivism, described by Mr. Richard Congreve (Pull 
Mall Gazette, 17 Jan. 1884). 

POSSIBILISTS. A section of the liberal 
party in Spain; aiming at reforms: Sen. Castelar, 
a chief, Oct. 1883. 

The name is also given to the workmen's party in Paris, 
who aim at effecting social reforms by legal methods ; 
they are said to have prevented a revolutionary out- 
break of the violent Blanquists, or Autonomists, at 
the presidential election, 3 Dec. 1887. 

POSTAL UNION. General, was esta- 
blished by the Treaty of Berne, signed 9 Oct. 1874, 
and took effect from 1 July, 1875. From time to 
time conferences have been held at Berne, Jan. 
1876; Paris, 1878 and 1880; Lisbon, 1885. At 
the congress at Vienna, 20 May — 4 July, 1S91, the 
British Australasian colonies were added to the 
union. 



POSTING. Post-chaises were invented by the 
French, and, according to Grainger, were intro- 
duced into this country by Mr. "William Tell, son of 
the writer on husbandry. Posting was fixed by 
statute of Edward VI. at one penny per mile, 1548. 
By a statute, re-establishing the post-office, none 
but the postmaster or his deputies could furnish 
post-horses for travellers, 1660. The post-horse 
duty was imposed in 1 779. Post-horse duty yielded, 
in 1852, in England, 128,501^., and in Scotland, 
16,933^. 

POSTS, said to have originated in the regular 
couriers established by Cyrus, who erected pot- 
houses throughout the kingdom of Persia, about 
550 B.C. Augustus was the first who introduced 
this institution among the Romans, 31 B.C. This was 
imitated by Charlemagne about a.d. 800. — Ashe. 
Louis XI. first established post-houses in France 
owing to his eagerness for news, and they were the 
first institution of this nature in Europe, 1470. — 
Ilenaidt. An international commission respecting 
postal arrangements met at Paris, 1 1 May, and broke 
up 9 June, 1863. 

POST-OFFICE of England. In England, 

in the reign of Edward IV. 1481, riders on post- 
horses went stages of the distance of twenty miles 
from each other, in order to procure the king the 
earliest intelligence of the events that passed in the 
course of the war that had arisen with the Scots.— 
Gale. Richard III. improved the system of couriers 
in 1483. In 1543 similar arrangements existed in 
England. — Sadler's Letters. Post communications 
between London and most towns of England, Scot • 
land, and Ireland, existed in 1635. —Stri/pe. 
The first chief postmaster of England, sir Thomas 

Randolph, appointed by queen Elizabeth . . 15S1 
James I. appointed Matthew de l'Equester as 
foreign postmaster, 1619 ; and Chas. I. appointed 
"William Frizell and Thomas Witherings . . . 1632 
A proclamation of Chas. I., "whereas to this time 
there hath been no certain intercourse between 
the kingdoms of England and Scotland, the king 
now commands his postmaster of England for 
foreign parts to settle a running post or two to 
run night and day between Edinburgh and Lon- 
don, to go thither and come back again in six 

days" 1631 

The king commanded his "postmaster of England 
for foreign parts," to open a regular communica- 
tion by running posts between the metropolis 
and Edinburgh, West Chester, Holyhead, Ireland, 
Plymouth, Exeter, &c (Rates of postage — 1 letter 
carried under 80 miles 2d. ; under 140 miles, 41/. ; 
above that distance in England, 6d. ; to any part 
of Scotland, 8&). 
An enlarged office erected by the parliament in 
1643 ; and one more considerable in 1657, with a 
view " to benefit commerce, convey the public 
dispatches, and as the best means to discover and 
prevent many dangerous wicked designs against 
the commonwealth by the inspection of the cor- 
respondence " 1C57 

The Post-office as at present constituted was 

founded 12 Chas. II 27 Dec. 1660 

Farmed to John Mauley, 1653 ; to Daniel O'Neil . 1663 
Penny Post first set up in London and its suburbs 

by a Mr. Robert Murray, upholsterer . . . 1681 
He assigned his interest in the undertaking to Jlr. 
Dockwra, a merchant, 1683 ; but on a trial at the 
King's Bench bar it was adjudged to belong 1o 
the duke of York, as a branch of the general pose, 
and was thereupon afterwards annexed to the 

revenue of the crown ifijo 

This institution considerably improved and made a 

twopenny post, July, 1704. etscq. 
Cross posts established by Ralph Allen . . . 1720 
Between 1730 and 1740, the p »st was only trans- 
mitted three days a week between Edinburgh an I 
London : and the metropolis, on one oc •■■usioii, 
sent a single letter, which was for an Edinburgh 
banker, named Ramsay. 



POST-OFFICE. 



774 



POST-OFFICE. 



A penny post was first set up in Dublin . . . 1774 

The mails conveyed by coaches ; the first mail left 
London for Bristol (see Mail Coaches) . 2 Aug. ,, 

The mails first conveyed by railway, 1830; by the 
overland route to India 1835 

Post-office acts consolidated ... 12 July, 1837 

Early in 1837, Mr. Rowland Hill broached his plan 
of penny postage, which was adopted after a full 
investigation by a committee of the house of 
commons 1839 

The new postage law, by which the uniform rate of 
4(1. per letter was tried as an experiment, came 
into operation ...... 5 Dec. ,, 

The uniform rate of id. per letter of half an ounce 
weight, &c, commenced . . . 10 Jan. 1840 

Stamped postage covers came into use . 6 May, ,, 

Adhesive stamps invented by Mr. James Chalmers 
of Dundee, 1834 ; they came into use, superseding 
Mulready's allegorical envelope (of 1 May, 1840) 1841 

Reduction in postage. — to be id. instead of zd. for 
every ounce above the first . . . April, 1865 

Book-Post. — A treasury warrant issued, providing 
for the carriage by post of books, pamphlets, &c, 
under certain restrictions — 4 oz. for id. ; 8 oz. for 
id. , &c. 5 June, 1855 

Altered to under 2 oz., M. ; every additional 2 oz., 
or part of 2 oz. , %d. ; begun ... 7 Oct. 1870 

A Money-order Office, set up in 1792, was little used 
on account of the expense, till 1840. In 1839, 
188,291 money orders were issued for 313,1247.; in 
1861, 7,580,455 orders for 14,616,3487.; in 1865, 
orders were issued for 17,829,290/.; in 1870, for 
19.993.987Z- 

The Postal ( Snide first appeared in 1856 ; in which year 
London and the vicinity were divided into districts 
for postal purposes ; viz. , East, AVest, &c. The 
postmaster-general has issuedAnnualReports since 1854 

Postmaster empowered to purchase the electric 
telegraphs by act passed 31 July, 1868 ; work 
begun 5 Feb. 1869 

Post-office money order system applied to France 
by virtue of a convention signed . . 5 Aug. 1870 

Halfpenny stamped cards issued to the public, iOct. „ 

By the post-office act (passed 9 Aug. 1870) the 
newspaper stamp for posting was abolished; re- 
gistered newspapers and pamphlets or patterns 
under 2 oz. to be sent for M. on and after 1 Oct. 1870 

l'ostage lowered : Letters sent at the rate of id. for 
1 oz., i^d. for 2 oz., &c, from . . 5 Oct. 1871 

Short strike of telegraph clerks at Manchester, 
Liverpool, and Dublin .... Dec. ,, 

Pigeon post between London and Tours during the 
siege of Paris (48 day mails and 1186 night mails 
sent) . . . .18 Nov. 1870 — 28 Jan. ,, 

Post-office scandal, money spent from other funds on 
telegraph service without authority of parliament; 
censured by commons . . . 29 July, 1873 

Payment for registered letters reduced from ^d. to 
2d. ; charge for money orders raised ; new postal 
wrappers issued 1 Jan. 1878 

Telegraph acts consolidated and amended by 41 & 
42 Viet. c. 76 16 Aug. ,, 

Messrs. Warren de la Rue & Co.'s tender for supply 
of postage-stamps accepted . . . 17 June, 1879 

New postage stamps issued . . .6 Jan. 1880 

Pet in- ned letters, &c: 1867, 3,618,838; year 1878-9, 
'4,286,648 ; 1883-4, 5>73 2 .3 10 . 1890-1, 5,750,527. 

New system of receiving small sums for savings- 
banks by stamps tried in some counties ; gene- 
rally adopted „ 

New rates for money orders from is. . . 1 Jan. 1881 

International postal congresses met at Paris, 7 

April, 1878 ; and 9 Oct. 1880 ; at Lisbon, 16 

March, 1885 ; (agreement signed 21 March). 

Postage Stamps for id. authorised to be used for 

receipts after 1 June ; and for telegrams after 

1 Nov. „ 
Reduction of 6rf. for 480 Id. newspaper wrappers 

1 Jan. 1882 
Reply post-cards authorized, 16 March ; issued 

2 Oct, ,, 
Late letters received in the sorting carriage of mail 

trains at stations on and after . . 1 Nov. ,, 
Parcel post comes into operation . . 1 Aug. 1883 

Post-office protection act passed . . 14 Aug. 1884 
Postal orders (like bankers' cheques) largely used 

(since 1880) 1885 



Special postal trains established ; letters received 

later and delivered earlier ; beginning 1 July, 1885 
Private posting boxes in London sanctioned April, 1886 
After negotiation conveyance of American mails 
transferred from the Cunard and White Star 
companies to Inman, North German Lloyd and 
others till 28 Feb. 1887, Dec. 1886 ; amicable 

settlement Feb. 1887 

New sets of postage stamps issued ; the penny 

stamp unchanged 1 Jan. ,, 

" London Postmen's Rest," Dover, established by 

lord Wolverton, late postmaster . . Feb. ,, 
Rented night letter-boxes authorised after 1 Aug. 188S 
The government authorised to purchase the sub- 
marine electric telegraph with France 21 May, 1889 
Post cards to be sold 10 for 6d. or s|d. 1 July, ,, 

Payment of money, 10?., at post-offices by tele- 
graph authorised after 2 Sept., Aug. 1889 ; autho- 
rised for il. to 10/. from 1 March ; announced 

about 18 Feb. 1890- 
Meeting of postmen's union in Hyde park to dis- 
cuss grievances 20 Oct. 1889 

Jubilee of the establishment of the penny post 

celebrated 10 — 15 Jan. 1890. 

Uniform colonial and India postage (2 J(7,), long advo- 
cated by Mr. J. Henniker Heaton, M.P., adopted 
by the government .... 17 April, ,, 
Grand conversazione given by the lord mayor at 
the Guildhall ; present, the prince of Wales, 
Mr. Raikes, the postmaster-general, and other 
officers, 16 May. There was an interesting exhi- 
bition of objects connected with the postal service 

16—19 May, , T 
Exhibition of the Philatelic society's collection of 
postage stamps of all nations, at the Portman 
rooms, Baker-street, W., opened by the duke of 
Edinburgh, a zealous collector . . 19 May, ,„ 
Jubilee fete for the Roland Hill benevolent fund at 
South Kensington museum ; the queen patron, 
the duke of Edinburgh president. Exhibition of 
old and new postal operations and telegraphic 
communications in the United Kingdom, the 
colonies, and the United States, &c. Messrs. De 
la Rue's artistic Jubilee envelope, of which only 
a limited number were printed, was sold for is. 

each 2 July, ,, 

Agitation among the London postmen respecting 

pay, pension, and hours . . May — July, ,, 
Mass meeting of the postmen's union 7, 8 July, ,, 
About 100 postmen at the parcel post depot at 
Clerken well dismissed for attacking and expelling 
about 70 non-unionists, 10 July ; about 130 men 
dismissed for insubordination in other districts 

about 10 July, ,, 

[435, out of 6,000, dismissed up to 12 July, 1890.] 

New general post-office, north, near St. Martin's-le- 

Grand ; memorial stone laid by Mr. H. C. Raikes, 

postmaster-general .... 20 Nov. ,, 

Uniform colonial and India postage reduced to 2UI. 

for 5 oz., begins 1 Jan. 1891 ; to foreign countries, 

1 July, 1S92 
About 240 clerks in the Savings-bank department 
suspended for refusing to work overtime, 2 Jan. ; 
reinstated after apology ... 8 Jan. 1891 
" The Boy Messengers " and " District Messengers " 
companies, for the quicker conveyance of single 
letters for short distances, stopped by the post- 
office as illegal March, ,, 

The post-office express delivery service, for the 
quicker delivery of letters and parcels, by boy 
messengers, begins, 25 March ; at Edinburgh, 
Dublin, and other places, 26 March, et seq. ; ex- 
tended to the whole United Kingdom . 1 Aug. ,, 

[The actions against the companies in the 

queen's bench division stopped by arrangement, 

the companies submit, and agree to take out 

licences from the post-office, 14 April, 1891.] 

Automatic stamp distributors attached to the 

postal pillars, began ... 29 April, „ 

International postal union congress, meeting at 
Vienna ; sir A. Blackwood present ; various 
changes made to promote free communication 

20 May — 4 July, ,, 
Various improvements in the postal service begun 

1 Jan. and 1 June, 1892 
Post-office acts passed . 5 Aug. 1891, and 27 June, „ 



POST-OFFICE. 



775 



POST-OFFICE. 



NUMBER OF LETTERS, &C. , DELIVERED IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. 

i?39 (including 6,563,024 franks) . . 82,470,596 I 1851-5 (average) 410,000,000 

1840 ......... 168,768,344 I 1861-5 „ ...... 648,000,000 

1351 ........ 360,651,187 1866-70 ,, ...... 800,000,000 

Scotland, 36,512,649. Ireland, 35,982,782. Scotland, 76,000,000. Ireland, 60,000,000. 



1 














Net Rev 


snue. 




Letters. 


Post Cards. 


Books, 

Circulars, 

<fcc. 


News- 
papers. 


Money 
Orders. 


Telegrams. 








Postage & 
Money 
Orders. 


Tele- 
grams. 


1871 . 


867,000,000 


— 




— 


£22,573,547 


12,473,796 


£1,289,754 


£3 3,457 


: 1872 . 


885,000,000 


76,000,000 


114,000,000 


109,000,000 


25,019,683 


i5,535,78o 


1,523,976 


159,835 


1873 . 

1874 • 

1875 . 


907,000,000 

964,253,300 

. 1,008,392,100 


72,000,000 
79,000,000 
87,116,300 


129,000,000 
141,967,100 
158,666,600 


113,016,500 
117,032,900 
121,049,400 


26,802,264 
27,507,672 
27,688,255 


17,821,530 

i9> 2 53> 12 ° 
20,973,535 


1.555,361 
1,836,387 
1,894,141 


ii4,975! 
115,676 
245,116 


1876 . 
1877-8 


. 1,018,955,200 
• 1,057,732,3°° 


92,935,700 
102,237,300 


173,724,900 
189,300,600 


125,065,900 
128,558,000 


28,749,512 
29> I 53>452 


21,720,143 
22,171,867 


1,947,066 
2,056,692 


189,317 
169,428 


1878-9 

1879-80 

1880-1 

1882-3 

1883-4 


. 1,097,372,800 
• i, I2 7,997,5 00 
. 1,165,166,900 
. 1,280,636,200 
. 1,322,086,900 


111,445,700 
114,458,400 
122,884,000 
144,016,000 
153,586,100 


197,070,500 
213,963,000 
240,356,200 
288,206,400 
294,594>5oo 


i3°> 8 95,3oo 
130,518,400 
i33,796,ioo 
140,602,600 
142,702,300 


27,303,093 
26,371,020 
26,003,582 
27,597,883 
27,629,879 


24,459,775 
26,547,137 
29,411,982 
32,092,026 
32,843,120 


2,434,374 
2,497,687 
2,597,768 
2,755,562 
2,610,026 


257,500 
341,006 
368,815 
235,859' 
51,255 


1887-8 


. 1,512,200,000 


188,800,000 


389,500,000 


152,300,000 


26,334,126 


53,403,425 


2,771,517 


31,247 


1888-9 


• 1,558,100,000 


201,400,000 


412,000,000 


151,900,000 


26,618,052 


57,765,347 


3,039,874 


124,952 


1889-90 
1890-91 


. 1,650,100,000 
. 1,705,800,000 


217,100,000 
229,700,000 


441,900,000 
481,200,000 


1 59, 300,000 
161,000,000 


27,165,905 
27,867,887 


62,403,399 
66,409,211 


3,208,511 
3,163,989 


145,794 
i5o,33S 



REVENUE OF THE POST-OFFICE. 



1643. 


It yielded . 


£5,000 


1835. 


U. Kingdom^, 353,340 


1653. 


Farmed 


10,000 


1839. 


Ditto 




2,522,495 


1663. 


Farmed 


21,500 


1840. 


New 1 


ate . 


471,000 


1674. 


Farmed for 


43,000 


'845. 


Netrevenue 


761,982 


168=;. 


It yielded . 


65,000 


1850. 


Ditto 




803,898 


1707. 


Ditto . . 


111,461 


1855. 


Ditto 




1,137,220 


1714. 


Ditto 


145,227 


1859. 


Ditto 




1,150,960 


1723. 


Ditto . . 


201,805 


i860. 


Ditto 




1,102,479 


1744. 


Ditto . . 


235,492 


1861. 


Ditto 




1,161,985 


1764. 


Ditto . . 


432,048 


1862. 


Ditto 




1,236,941 


1790. 


Ditto . . 


480,074 


1863. 


Ditto 1 




1,037,404 


1S00. 


Ditto . . 


745,313 


1864. 


Ditto 




1,153,261 


1805. 


Gt. Britain 


1,424,994 


1865 


Ditto 




1,482,522 


1 8 10. 


Ditto . . 


1,709,065 


1866. 


Ditto 




1,397,986 


1815. 


Ditto . . 


1,755,898 


1867. 


Ditto 




1,421,364 


1820. 


U. Kingdom 


2,402,697 


1868. 


Ditto 




1,416,922 


1825. 


Ditto . . 


2,255,239 


1869. 


Ditto 




1,305,348 


1830. 


Ditto . . 


2,3°Ir43 2 


1870. 


Ditto 




1,493,610 



■ ; After payment for foreign and colonial mails. 

POST-OFFICES. 

The General Post-office of London was originally 
established in Cloak-lane, near Dowgate-hill, whence 
it was removed to the Black Swan, in Bishopsgate- 
street. After the great lire of 1666 it was removed to 
the Two Black Pillars, in Brydges-street, Covent- 
garden, and afterwards (about 1690) to sir Robert 
Viner's mansion in Lombard-street. It was transferred 
to the building in St. Martin's-le-Grand, erected on the 
site of an ancient college, from designs by R. Smirke, 
23 Sept. 1829. Foundation of a new general post-office 
laid 16 Dec. 1870 ; occupied 1873. 

The new post-office of Dublin opened, 6 Jan. 1818. 

The foundation of a new post-office at Edinburgh was 
laid by the prince consort in Oct. iS6i. 

Public receptacles for letters before 1840, 4,028 ; in 1865, 
16,246; in 1876, 24,171; in 1877, 25,082; Jan. 1879, 
25,767 ; in 1884, 31,700 ; 18S8, 36,750; 1891, 40,643. 

In i860, there were in the United Kingdom, 11,412 post- 
offiees; 1862, 11,316 ; 1875, 13,226 ; 1877, 13,447 ; Jan. 
1879, 13,881 ; 1884, 15,951 ; 1888, 17,587 ; 1S91, 18,806. 

Head ojji&s: 1870, 844; 1875, 886; Jan. 1879, 9°5 ; ^84, 
921. 

The street Letter-boxes were erected in March, 1855. The 
first one was placed at the corner of Fleet-street and 
Favringdon-street. There were in i860, 1,958 ; in 1875, 
10,186; Jan. 1879, 11,880; 1891, 21,837. 

Staff employed: 1862, 25,285; in 1872, 28,959; 1874, 
43,982; 1875, 44,644 ; 1879, 45,947; 1888, 56,460; 1891, 
63,868. 

Post-office Savings-banks established by parliament 
1861 (began Sept. 16); interest 2I- per cent.; govern- 
ment responsible to depositors. The number of these 
banks and the amount of deposits received on 31 March, 
i362, were— 



3wiiks. 


Deposits. 


1795 


. £668,879 10 2 


129 . 


28,392 2 10 


299 


10,237 9 8 


300 . 


. 26,064 18 8 


9 


1,679 *5 



England . 
Wales . 
Scotland . 
Ireland 
The Islands 



2532 £735,253 16 4 

London district .... 267,329 13 8 

1866. Computed total amount of capital held by these 
banks in the United Kingdom, 8,121,175?. 

Dec. 1870, 1,183,153 depositors in United Kingdom ; total 
sum held, 15,099,104?.; 10 Dec. 1871, total sum, 
17,303,815?. ; 31 Dec. 1874, 23,157,469?. 18s. iod. ; 
31 Dec. 1877, 29,713,529?.; 31 Dec. 1878, 30,946,962?. 
in 1883, 6,297,378 depositors ; total sum held, 
43,294,949?. ; 31 Dec. 1887, 6,916,327 ; total sum 
held, 53,974,065?. ; 31 Dec. 1890, 7,634,807?. ; 
8,776,566 depositors. 

postmasters. 

The number of postmasters (2) reduced to 1, 1822. 

The offices of postmaster-general of England and of Ire- 
land united in one person, 1831. 

Act passed permitting postmaster to sit in house of 
commons, July, 1866. 

1 323. Thomas, earl of Chichester. 

1826. Lord Frederick Montague. 

1S27. William duke of Manchester. 

1830. Charles duke of Richmond. 

1834. Francis marquis of Conyngham 

1835. William lord Maryborough. 
1835. Francis marquis of Conyngham. 

,, Thomas earl of Lichfield. 

1841. William viscount Lowther. 

1846. Edward earl of St. Germans. 

„ Ulick marquis of Clanricarde. 

1852. Charles Philip earl of Hardwicke. 

1853. Charles John earl Canning. 
1855. George duke of Argyll. 
1358. Charles lord Colchester. 
1859. James earl of Elgin. 

i860. Edward lord Stanley of Alderley. 
1866. James duke of Montrose (July). 
1868. Spencer marquis of Hartingtou (Dec). 
1871. Win. Monsell (Jan.). 

1873. Dr. Lyon Playfair(i8 Nov.). 

1874. Lord John Manners (21 Feb.). 

1883. Henry Fawcett (3 May) ; died 6 Nov. 1884. 

1884. Geo. Shaw-Lefevre (18 Nov.). 

1885. Lord John Manners (a^yTune). 

1886. George Grenfell Glyn, lord Wolverton (abou 

6 Feb.). 
,, Henry Cecil Raikes, 26 July I died, 24 Aug. 1891. 

1891. Sir James Fergusson, about 21 Sept. 

1892. Arnold Morley, iS Aug. 



POST-OFFICE ACT. 



776 



POTTERY AND PORCELAIN. 



CHIEF SECRETARIES. 

1797. Francis Freeling. 

1836. Win. L. Maberley. 

1854. Rowland Hill (sec. to postmaster-general, 30 Nov. 
1846); received national testimonial, 17 June, 
1846; resigned 29 Feb. 1864; made K.C.B. i860, 
with a grant of 2o,ooo2. and 2000J. pension ; died 
27 Aug. ; buried in Westminster Abbey, 4 Sept. 
1879 (see Rowland Hill Memorial). 

1864. John Tilley (March). 

1880. Sir Stevenson Arthur Blackwood. 

POST-OFFICE ACT, passed 14 June, 1875, 
consolidates previous acts (1840. et seg.), and 
enacts some new regulations. The Tost- office 
(Parcels) act was passed 18 Aug. 18S2. 

POST-OFFICE DIRECTORY for London, 
published by Kelly & Co., since 1800. County 
directories and trade now published. 

POST-OFFICE Money-Orders Acts, 
11 & 12 Vict. c. 88 (1848), 43 & 44 Yict. c. 33 (1880). 

POSTMAN AND TUBMAN, ancient offices 
in the court of exchequer held by barristers with 
certain privileges. 

POTASSIUM, a remarkable metal, discovered 
by Humphry Davy, who first succeeded in sepa- 
rating it from its oxide, potash, by means of a 
po werf ul voltaic battery, in th e laboratory of tiic Hoy al 
Institution, London, about 19 Oct. 1807 ; and also 
the metals Sodium from soda, Calcium from lime, 
&c. The alkalies and earths had been previously 
regarded as simple substances. Potassium ignites 
on contact with moisture. 

POTATOES, natives of Chili and Peru, gene- 
rally considered to have been brought to England 
from Santa Fe, in America, by sir John Hawkins, 
1565. Others ascribe their introduction to sir Francis 
Drake, in 1586; their general introduction, 1592. 
Their first culture in Ireland is referred to sir Walter 
Raleigh, who had large estates in that country, 
about Youghal, in the county of Cork. It is said 
that potatoes were not known in Flanders until 
1620. A fine kind of potato was first brought from 
America by Mr. Howard, who cultivated it at Car- 
dington, near Bedford, 1765 ; and its culture be- 
came general soon after. The failure of the potato 
crop in Ireland, several years, especially in 1846, 
caused famine, to which succeeded pestilent disease 
of which multitudes died ; among them many priests 
and physicians. Parliament voted ten millions 
sterling; and several countries of Europe, and the 
United States of America, forwarded provisions and 
other succours; see Ireland. In 1868 it was reported 
that in England and Wales 500,000 acres, and in 
Ireland 1,000,000 acres, were under cultivation for 
potatoes. Potato disease prevailed greatly in Eng- 
land, autumn of 1872. In consequence the value of 
potatoes imported in 1872 was 1,054,240/.; in 1871, 
only 225,732/. ; in 1877, 7,964,84.0 cwt., value, 
2,348,749/.; in 1883, 5,149,509 cwt., value 1,585,260/.; 
in 1887, 2,763,357 cwt. ; in i883, 2,383,807 cwt. ; 
in 1889, 1,864,426 cwt ; in 1890, 1,940,100 cwt. 
Temporary alarm respecting the American Colorado 
beetle or bug, autumn, 1876. Acres cultivated for 
potatoes in Great Britain in 1867, 492,217; 1S71, 
627,691; 1877, 512,471; 18S3, 543>4555 in 1887, 
559,652; in 1890,529,661. 
[Mr. W. Carruthers considers that the disease, did not 

appear in Britain before 1844; Mr. Thiselton-Byer 

thinks that it did.] 
International potato exhibition, Crystal Palace, 17-18 

Sept. 1879 ; another 7-8 Oct. 1885. 
Rain and want of sunshine greatly injured the crops in 

1879. 
Report of a select committee on the failure of the potato 

crop, Aug. 1880. 



7th potato show (the 1st, 1874) at the Crystal Palace, 
very good, 23 Sept. 1880 ; 8th exhibition, 20 Sept. 1882. 

Solanum maglia successfully cultivated in wet land by 
Mr. A. Sutton of Reading, 1884. 

Tercentenary of the introduction of the potato into 
England celebrated at Westminster ; exhibition and 
conference, about 500 varieties exhibited, 1-4 Dee. 1886. 

Failure of the potato crop in Cork, &c, see Ireland, 
1890. 

The bouillie Bordelaise treatment of the disease by dres- 
sings of salts of copper recommended by Dr. Girard 
(1890), was tried by Messrs. Sutton, of Reading, with 
doutful results, June, et sen. 1391. Favourable results 
reported by some persons. 

POTID.ZEA, a town in Macedonia, a tributary 
of Athens, against which it revolted 432 B.C.', but 
submitted in 429. It was taken from the Athe- 
nians after three years' siege, by Philip II. of Mace- 
don in 356 B.C. 

POTOMAC, see United States, Aug. 1861. 

POTOSI (Peru). Silver mines here were dis- 
covered by the Spaniards in 1545 ; they are in a 
mountain in the form of a sugar-loaf. 

POTSDAM (near Berlin), the Versailles of 
Prussia. It was made an arsenal in 1721. Here is 
situated the palace of Sans Souci (built, 1660-73), 
embellished by Frederick II., and occupied by Na- 
poleon I. in Oct. 1806; and the new palace, erected 
by Frederick the Great, 1763-9, was the residence 
of the emperor Frederick III., when prince 
Frederick "William of Prussia and his wife the 
princess royaJ of England, married 25 Jan. 1858. 
Population, 1890, 54,161. 

POTTERY AND PORCELAIN. The manu- 
facture of earthenware (the ceramic art) existed 
among the Jews as an honourable occupation (see 
1 Chron. iv. 23), and the power of the potter over 
the clay as a symbol of the power of God is de- 
scribed by Jeremiah, 605 B.C. (ch. xviii.) Earth- 
enware was made by the ancient Egyptians, Assy- 
rians, Greeks, Etruscans, and Bomans. 
The Majolica, Raffaelle, or Umbrian ware of the 15th 
century was probably introduced into Italy from 
the Moors from Majorca. Raffaelle and other 
artists made designs for this ware. 
Pottery manufactured at Beauvais, in France, in 

the 12th century. 
Enamelled pottery made at St. Cloud . . about 168S 
Luca della Robbia (born about 1410) applied tin 
enamel to terra-cotta. Fayencc ware was made 
in France by Bernard Palissy (died, 1589) and his 
family. 
Porcelain, formed of earth kaolin, was made in 
China in the 2nd century after Christ. Chinese 
porcelain is mentioned in histories of the 16th cen- 
tury, when it was introduced into England, and 
eagerly sought after. 
Porcelain made at Bow, near London, early in the 

iSth century, and at Chelsea, before . . . 169S 
Birch's "History of Ancient Pottery" (1858); Mar- 
ryat's "History of Pottery and Porcelain, Medi- 
aeval and Modern" (1857); and Brongniart's 
"Arts Ceramiques," are valuable works. 
The first European porcelain was made at Dresden 
by Bottcher ... ... about 1700 

[The manufacture was fostered by the king Augus- 
tus II.] 
The Capo di Monte factory at Naples established . 1736 
Thomas Frye painted porcelain, 1749 ; and Dr. Wall 

established the manufacture at Worcester . . 1750 
The St. Cloud China manufactory removed to 

Sevres 1736 

Josiah Wedgwood's patent ware was first made . 1702 
The Royal Porcelain manufactory, at Copenhagen, 
started in 1775, was soon after taken up by the 
State and carried on till 1867, when it reverted 
into private hands. In 1882 it was purchased by 
the Ahuninia company of Copenhagen. 
The British manufacture greatly improved by Her- 
bert Minton, who died 1858 



POTWALLOPEES. 



777 



PEAGUE. 



The duty on earthenware taken off . . . . i860 

Lord Dudley's collection of china sold for 40,856?. 

21 May, 1886 

Great improvements in form and colour in deco- 
rative stoneware, &c, were made in Messrs. 
Doulton's Lambeth pottery works, 1871, etseq., 
in connection with the Lambeth School of Art. 
Lambeth faience was introduced in 1S73. Sir 
Henry Doulton was knighted in . . . . 1887 

The potter's wheel has greatly superseded moulding 
as producing more original work . ... 1S88 

The sale of the collection of oriental porcelain, &c, 
of the late Mr. Wells, of Redleaf, realized 
i2,8nZ. 12s. 6d. . . . . 13, 14 May, 1890 

Great lock-out in the pottery district, Staffordshire, 
respecting wages, 5 May ; settled by compromise 

about 19 May, 1892 

POTWALLOPEES (or boilers). Before the 
passing of the reform act of 1832, persons who had 
boiled a pot for six months claimed ihe right to vote 
for the election of members of Parliament. 

POULTEY. An exhibition of poultry was held 
in London, Jan. 1853, when nearly IOOO cocks were 
exhibited ; and similar exhibitions have been held 
at the Crystal palace since. 

POULTEY COMPTEE (London) was one 
of the most noted of the old city prisons. The 
compter of Wood-street belonged to the sheriff of 
London, and was made a prison-house in I'W. 
This latter and Broad-street compter were re-built 
in 1667. The Giltspur-street prison, built to supply 
the place of the old city compters, was pulled down 
in 1855. The Poultry chapel was erected on the site 
of the Poultry compter, in 1819. — Leigh. 

POUND, from the Latin Pond us. The value 
of the Roman pondo is not precisely known, though 
some suppose it was equivalent to an Attic mina, or 
2,1. 4s. yd. The pound sterling was in Saxon times, 
about 671, a pound troy of silver, and a shilling was 
its twentieth part; consequently the latter was three 
times as large as it is at present. — Tcacham. Our 
avoirdupois pound weight came from the French, 
and contains sixteen ounces; it is in proportion 
to our troy weight as seventeen to fourteen ; see 
under Standard. 

POWDEEING THE HAIE, see Hair. 

POWEE-LOOMS, see Zooms, and Cotton. 

POYNINGS' LAW, named after sir Edward 
Foynings, lord deputy of Ireland at the time of its 
passing, at Drogheda, 13 Sept. 1494. By thislaw r all 
legislation in the Irish parliament was confined to 
matters first approved of by the king and the English 
council. The act was repealed, together with the 
English Declaratory act of the 6th of Geo. I. and 
other obnoxious Irish statutes, April, 1782. 

PEJ3MONSTEATENSIAN OEDEE, or 

WHITE CANONS, founded in 1120 by Norbert, a 
monk, at Pre Montre, near Laon. Its first house 
in England was founded by Peter de Gousla or 
Gousel, at Newsham, in Lincolnshire, 1143 — 
Tanner ; according to others in 1146. The order 
spread widely through England soon after. The 
house at Newsham was dedicated to St. Mary and 
St. Martial. — Lewis. 

PE^EMUNIEE, Law of. This law (which 

obtained its name from the first two words " Pree- 
moneri," or " Prconuniri facias," "Cause to be 
forewarned," which is applied to any offence in the 
way of contempt of the sovereign or his govern- 
ment) derived its origin from the aggressive power 
of the pope in England. The offence introduced a 
foreign power into the land, and created an 
impcrium in imperio. The first statute of Praemu- 



nire was enacted 35 Edward I. 1306. — Coke. The 
pope bestowed most of the bishoprics, abbeys, &c., 
before they were void, upon favourites, on pretence 
of providing the church with better qualified suc- 
cessors before the vacancies occurred. To put a 
stop to these encroachments, Edward III. enacted 
a statute in 1353. The statute commonly referred 
to as the statute of Praemunire is the 16th of 
Richard II. 1392. Several similar enactments 
followed. The assertion that parliament is indepen- 
dent of the sovereign was declared a praemunire, 1661 . 

PEJETOEIAN GUAEDS, instituted by the 
emperor Augustus (13 B.C.) ; their numbers en- 
larged by Tiberius, Vitellius, and then - successors. 
At first supporters of the imperial tyrants, they 
eventually became their masters, actually putting 
up the diadem for sale (as in March, 193 A.B., 
when it was bought by Didius Julianus). They 
committed many atrocities, and were finally dis- 
banded by Constanthie in 312. 

PE2ETOES, Roman magistrates, afterwards 
termed consuls {which sec), were elected at the 
establishment of the republic, 509 B.C. In 366 
the prcetor urbanus was appointed for the city, and 
the prcetor peregrinus for foreigners, 246 B.C. Two 
praetors were appointed for the provinces, 227, and 
two more, 197. Sylla, the dictator, added two, and 
Julius Ccesar increased the number to 10, which 
afterwards became 16. After this, their number 
fluctuated, being sometimes 18, 16, or 12 ; till, in 
the decline of the empire, their dignity decreased, 
and their numbers were reduced to three. 

PEAGA, a suburb of "Warsaw, where a bloody 
battle was fought, 4 Nov. 1794 ; 30,000 Poles were 
killed by the Russian general Suwarrow. Xear 
here, on 25 Feb. 1831, the Poles, commanded by 
Skrznecki, defeated the Russians, under general 
Giemsar, who lost 4000 killed and wounde 1, 6000 
prisoners, and 12 pieces of cannon. 

PEAGMATIC SANCTION, an ordinance 

relating to church and state affairs. The ordinances 

of the kings of France are thus called ; in one the 

rights of the Gallican church were asserted against 

the usurpation of the pope in the choice of bishops, 

by Charles VII. in 1438. The Pragmatic Sanction 

for settling the empire of Germany in the house of 

Austria, 1439. The emperor Charles VI. published 

the Pragmatic Sanction, whereby, in default of 

male issue, his daughters should succeed in prefer- 

I ence to the daughters of his brother Joseph I., 

19 April, 171 3 ; and he settled his dominions on 

I his daughter Maria Theresa, in conformity thereto, 

I 1723. She succeeded in Oct. 1740; but it gave rise 

I to a war, in which most of the powers of Europe 

I were engaged, and which lasted till 1748. 

PEAGUE, the capital of Bohemia {which sec). 

j The old city was founded about 759 ; the new city 

! rebuilt in 1348 by the emperor Chaiics IV., who 

made it his capital and erected a university. Prague 

has suffered much by war. Population, 18S0, 

162,323; 1890, 184,109. 

Victory of the Hussites under Ziska . 14 July, 1420 
Frederick, the king, totally defeated by the Aus- 

trians near Prague .... 8 Nov. 1620 

Prague taken by the Swedes in 1648, and by the 

French in 1741 ; they left it 1742 

Taken by the king of Prussia ; obliged to abandon it, 1744 
Great battle oj Pragite (the Austrian s defeated by 
prince Henry of Prussia, ami their whole camp 
taken ; their commander, general Braun, mor- 
tally wounded, and the Prussian marshal 

Schwerin killed) 6 May, 1757 

Insurrection in Prague ; soon suppressed . June, 1S4S 



PEAGUEEIE. 



778 



PEEEOGATIYE EOYAL. 



A treaty of peace between Austria and Prussia signed 
at Prague (by its articles Austria consented to 
tlie breaking up of the Germanic confederation, 
and to Prussia's annexing Hanover, Hesse Cassel, 
Nassau, and Frankfort ; and gave up Holstein, 
and her political influence in North Germany), 
and North Schleswig to Denmark if the people 
vote for it ; (the last not carried out) 23 Aug. 1866 ; 
abrogated . .... Feb. 1879 

Riots of Czech and German students ; Marshal 
Krausc appointed governor about . 10 July, 1881 

45 socialists sentenced to imprisonment . . Dec. 1882 

Destructive floods ; the ancient bridge over the 
Moldau greatly injured, 1 — 5 Sept., by the col- 
lapse of a wall of the bridge ; 40 labourers were 
cast into the river and 23 drowned . 13 Oct. 1890 

Bohemian Industrial exhibition opened, 15 May ; 
closed . 18 Oct. 1891 

Visit of the emperor, warmly received . 26 Sept. ,, 

Serious Czech rioting suppressed by the, police, 
after fighting 28 March, 1892 

PEAGUEEIE, WAR OF (so named from 
Prague, then celebrated for its civil disorders) ; 
the revolt of the dauphin, afterwards Louis XL, 
against his father Charles VII., aided by Alexander, 
the bastard of Bourbon, and other nobles. It was 
soon que. led ; Louis was exiled, and Alexander put 
to death by drowning, July, 1440. 

PEATEIAL INSUBBECTIOX at Paris. 

On 1, 2, 3 Prairial, year 3 (20, 21, 22 May, 1795), 
the faubourgs rose against the directory, and were 
quelled by the military. 

PEAISE - GOD - BAEEBONES' PAE- 
LIAMENT, see Barebones. 

PEASLLN" MUEDEE. The duchessc de 
Choiscul-Praslin was murdered by her husband, 
the due de Praslin. at his own house, in Paris, 17 
Aug. 1847. She was the only daughter of the 
celebrated marshal Sebastiani, the mother of nine 
children, and in her forty-first year. Circum- 
stances were so managed by him as to give it the 
appearance of being the act of another. During 
the arrangements lor the trial, the duke took 
poison. 

PEAYEE-BOOK, see Common Prayer. The 
Prayer-! o)k and llomily Society, London, was 
founded in 18 12. 

Praye:--book Revision Society, established 1854, for pro- 
moting a revision of the book of common prayer, and 
such liturgical reforms in the church of England as 
will strengthen its Protestant and scriptural character. 

PEAYEES. "Then began men to call upon 
the name of the Lord " {Gen. iv. 26), 3875 B.C. The 
mode of praying with the face to the east was 
instituted by pope lionil'ace II. a.d. 532. Prayers 
for the dead, first introduced into the Christian 
church about 190, arc advocated by some ministers 
of the English church. Prayers addressed to 
the Virgin Mary and to the saints are said to have 
been introduced by pope Gregory, 593. See 
Liturgies. 

PEEBENDAEY a clergyman attached to a 
cathedral or collegiate church, who receives an 
income termed prebenda for officiating at stated 
times. The office slightly differs from that of a 
canon. 

PEECEDENCE was established in very early- 
ages, and was amongst the laws of Justinian. In 
England the order of precedency was regulated 
chiefly by two statutes, 31 Hen. VIII. 1539, and 1 
Geo. I. 1714. 

PEECEPTOES, COLLEGE OF, Blooms- 
bury, London, established in 1846, and incorporated 
by royal charter 28 March, 1849, for promoting 



sound learning, especially among the middle classes, 
by the instruction of teachers, and by the exami- 
nation of pupils at stated times. 

New building in Bloomsbury Square opened by the prince 
of Wales, 30 March, 1887. 

PEEDESTINATION {Eplm. i.). The doc- 
trine concerning this is defined in the seventeenth 
article of the Church of England {Ephes. i. and 
Romans ix.). It was maintained by St. Augustin, 
and opposed by Pelagius, in the early part of the 
5th century. In later times it has been maintained 
by the Augustinians, Jansenists, the church of 
Scotland, and many dissenters (termed Calvinistic), 
and opposed by the Dominicans, Jesuits, and dis- 
senters (termed Armitiian), especially^ by the Wes- 
leyan methodists. 

PEEHISTOEIC AECH^EOLOGY began 
in Sweden, and first systematised by Mr. Nillson. 
Daniel "Wilson's " Archaeology and Pre-historic 
Annals of Scotland," published 1851. An inter- 
national congress for treating prehistoiical subjects 
met at Neuchatel in 1866, and at Paris in 1867. At 
the third meeting at Norwich, Aug. 1868, it assumed 
the name of " International Congress for Prehistoric 
Archaeology," and published its transactions in 1869. 
A meeting was held at Stockholm 7-14 Aug. 1874. 
See Barrows, 3fa»^ and Ancient Monuments. 
Sir John Lubbock divides prehistoric arclueology into 

four great epochs : 1. The Drift or Palaeolithic or old 

stone age ; 2. The Neolithic or polished stone age ; 3. 

The Bronze age ; 4. The Iron age, when bronze was 

superseded. — (1880.) 

PEE-EAPHAELITE SCHOOL, a name 
given about 1850, to J. E. Millais, Win. Holman 
Hunt, D. G. Rossetti, and other artists, who opposed 
the routine conventionality of academic teaching, 
and resolved to study nature as it appeared to 
them, and not as it appeared in the antique. Eor 
a short time they published " The Germ, or Art and 
Poetry," beginning in 1850. Their works have 
been much criticised, but their influence has been 
beneficial. Their principles are much advocated 
by the great art-critic, John Euskin. 

PEEEOGATIYE COUET, in which for- 
merly all wills were proved, and all administrations 
taken, which belonged to the archbishop of Canter- 
bury by his prerogative, a judge being appointed by 
him to decide disputes.* Appeals from this court, 
previously to the pope, were commanded to be 
made to the king in chancery, 1533 ; to the privy 
council in 1830-2. This court was abolished, and 
the Probate Court established in 1857. Sir John 
Dodson, the last judge, died in 1858. 

PEEEOGATIYE, EOYAL. In England 
the sovereign is the supreme magistrate, and it is a 
maxim that he can do no wrong. He is the head 
of the established church, of the army and navy, 
and the fountain of office, honour, and privilege, 
but is subject to the laws, unless exempted by 
name. The royal prerogatives were greatly exceeded 
by several despotic sovereigns, such as Elizabeth, 
James I., and Charles I. Elizabeth used the phrase 
" We, of our Royal prerogative, which we will net- 
have argued or brought in question" (1^91). 
James I. told his parliament "that as it was blas- 
phemy to question what the Almighty could do 
of His power, so it was sedition to inquire what a 



* The records date from 1383 ; but the testamentary 
.jurisdiction from that year to 1433 was exercised by the 
court of arches. Then abp. Stafford transferred it to a 
new court ; president, the commissary of the prerogative 
court of Canterbury. There was also a prerogative 
court of the archbishop of York. 



PBESBUBG. 



779 



PEESTON. 



king could do by virtue of his prerogative." 
These extreme doctrines were nullified by the 
revolution of 1688, and the exercise of the preroga- 
tive is now virtually subject to parliament ; see 
Lords. 

PBESBUBG, the ancient capital of Hungary, 
where the diets were held and the kings crowned. 
On 26 Dec. 1805, a treaty was signed between 
France and Austria, by which the ancient states of 
Venice were ceded to Italy; the principality of 
Eichstadt, part of the bishopric of Passau, the city 
of Augsburg, the Tyrol, all the possessions of 
Austria in Suabia, in Brisgau, and Ortenau, were 
transferred to the elector of Bavaria, and the duke 
of Wiirteniberg, who, as well as the duke of Baden, 
were then created kings by Napoleon. The inde- 
pendence of the Helvetic republic was also stipu- 
lated. A new iron and stone railway and passenger 
bridge over the Danube was inaugurated by the 
emperor, 30 Dec. 1890. Population, 1890, 52,444. 

PBESBYTEEIANS are so called from their 
maintaining that the government of the church 
appointed in the New Testament was by presby- 
teries, or association of ministers and ruling ciders, 
equal in power, office, and in order. " The elders 
((jrreek, presbyteros) I exhort, who am also an 
eldei (sympresbyteros)." 1 Peter v. 1. Presby- 
terianism was accepted by parliament in place of 
episcopacy in England in 1648, but set aside at the 
restoration in 1660. It became the established 
form of church government in Scotland in 1696. 
Its tenets were embodied in the formulary of faith 
said to have been composed by John Knox, in 1560, 
which was approved by the parliament, and ratified, 
1567, and finally settled by an act of the Scottish 
senate, 1696, afterwards secured by the treaty of 
union with England in 1 707. The first Presby- 
terian meeting-house in England was established 
at Wandsworth, Surrey, 20 Nov. 1572. 
A pan-presbyterian congress held in London. Repre- 
sentatives of about fifty bodies, British, Ame- 
rican, and foreign, agreed to form an "Alliance of 
Presbyterian churehes " . . . 19-22 July, 1875 
The presbyterian church of England re-constituted 
at Liverpool (in union with the United Presbyte- 
rian Church of Scotland) . . .13 June, 1876 
A pan-presbyterian congress, held at Edinburgh, 
began 3 July, 1877; at Philadelphia, U.S.A., 

23 Sept 1S80 
The delegates to the pan-presbyterian council 
assemble at Exeter Hall . . .4 July, 1888 

See Chwch of Scotland, Camerouians, Burghers, 
Relief, Glasites, Free Church, &c. 

PEESCOTT (Upper Canada). On 17 Nov. 
1838, the Canadian rebels were attacked by the 
llritish under major Young, and (on the 18th) by 
lieut. -colonel Dundas, who dispersed the insurgents, 
several of whom were killed, and many taken pri- 
soners, and the remainder surrendered. The troops 
also suffered considerably. 

PEESEEVED MEAT see Provisions. 

PBESIDENT, see Court of Session, Privy 
Council; United Stales, 1789; France, 1848,1871; 
Wrecks, 1841.— PRESIDENT OE THE COUNCIL, 
LORD, the fourth great officer of state, is appointed 
under the great seal, durante bcneplacito, and, by his 
office, is to attend the sovereign's royal person, and 
to manage the debates in council, to propose matters 
from the sovereign at the council-table, and to 
report to his majesty the resolutions taken there- 
upon . 

PEESS ASSOCIATION (a company "limi- 
ted") was established by the newspaper proprie- 
tors of Loudon and the provinces, at a meeting at 



Manchester, 29 June, 1868, to make arrangements 
to enable them to avail themselves of the increased 
facilities for the speed}' transmission of news 
afforded by the post office, in consequence of the 
purchase of the rights of all the telegraph com- 
panies, authorised by the Telegraph Act of 1868. 
The organisation of the association was completed' 
at a meeting in London, 3 March, 1869. The Pro- 
vincial Newspaper Society, out of which it sprang, 
was founded in 1836, and became the Newspaper 
Society in 1889. Since 1868 the number of good 
daily provincial newspapers, containing the latest 
news of the world, has very greatly increased. 

PEESS, Liberty oe the. The imprimatur 

"let it be printed" was much used on the title- 
pages of books printed in the sixteenth and seven- 
teenth centuries. The liberty of the press was 
severely restrained, and the number of master- 
printers in London and Westminster limited by the 
Star Chamber, 13 Charles L, July 1, 1637. John 
Milton published his noble work, " Areopagitica ; 
or, a Speech for the Liberty of Unlicensed! 
Printing," 1644. Sec Fourth Estate. 
"Disorders in printing" were repressed by the 

parliament in 1643 and 1649, and by Charles II. . 1662 
The censorship of the press (by a licence established 

in 1655 and 1693) abandoned 1695 

The toast, "The liberty of the press ; it is like the 
air we breathe — if we have it not we die," was 
first given at the Crown and Anchor tavern, at a 

Whig dinner 1795 

Presses licensed, and the printer's name required to 
be placed on both the first and last pages of a 

book July, 1799 

The severity of the restrictions on the French press 
relaxed by M. Persigny, minister of the interior, 

but soon restored Dec. i860 

The liberty of the press in the United States greatly 

checked during the civil war . . . 1861-1865 
Certain restrictions on printers in the United King- 
dom removed by act passed . . . July, 1869 
Bill greatly freeing the press in Prance introduced 

into the chamber .... 24 Jan. 1881 

Press (newspaper), a revolutionary journal, pub- 
lished in Dublin : commenced in Oct. 1797 ; 
Arthur O'Connor, Mr. Emmett, the barrister 
(whose brother was executed in 1803), and other 
conspicuous men, contributors to it ; it inflamed 
the public mind in Ireland on the eve of the 
rebellion in 1798. The paper was suppressed by 
a military force .... 6 March, 1798 

- PEESS-GANG for the royal navy was regu- 
lated by statute, 1378, and by 5 & 6 Will. IV. 1835; 
the compulsory service is limited to five years, see 
Impressment. 

PRESSING TO DEATH, see Mute. 

PEESTON (Lancashire). Near here Cromwell 
totalty defeated the royalists under sir Marmaduke 
Langdale, 17 Aug. 1648. Preston was taken in 
1715 by the Scotch insurgents, under Forster, who 
proclaimed king James VII. They were defeated 
in a battle on 12, 13 Nov. by generals Willes and 
Carpenter, who with the royal army invested 
Preston on all sides. The Scots laid down their 
arms, and their nobles and leaders were secured ; 
some were shot as deserters, and others sent to 
London pinioned and bound together, to intimidate 
their party.— The stoppage of the cotton manu- 
facture in 1861 and 1862, through the civil war in 
America, occasioned great suffering in Preston. See 
Population. 

" The Preston guild Merchant festival," said to have 
been instituted in Saxon times, recorded as be- 
ginning 1328, and to have been kept once in 20 
years regularly since 1562, was duly celebrated in 

Sept. 1862, and Sept. 1882 
A fine art and industrial exhibition here opened 

2i Sept. 1865 



PRESTON-PANS. 



780 



PRIMROSE LEAGUE. 



The new town hall opened, by the duke of Cambridge 

3 Oct. 1867 

Statue of the late earl of Derby publicly inaugurated 

3 June, 1873 

Preston strikes. — In 1853, a great number of strikes 
took place among the workmen in the north of 
England. Those at Preston struck for an increase 

J of 10 per cent, on their wages. On 15 Oct. the 
masters, in consequence, closed forty-nine mills, 
and 20,000 persons were thrown out of employ- 
ment, who were mostly maintained for a long 
time by subscriptions from their fellows. In the 
week ending 17 Dec. 14,972 were relieved, a* the 
cost of 2820Z. 8s. The committee of workmen 
addressed lord Palmerston, 15 Nov., who gave 
them his advice 24 Dec. 1853 

After many attempts at reconciliation, the strike 
closed for want of funds . . . 1 May, 1854 

Another strike was closed in May, 1869 

The executors of Mr. E. C. Harris, a solicitor, 
awarded 70,0002. for a free library, museum, <fcc. , 
Sept. 1879 ; of which the foundation was laid by 
the earl of Lathom .... 5 Sept. 18S2 

The foundation of the Lancashire county hall laid 
by the earl of Derby ... 14 Sept. ,, 

Mr. Rich. Newsham bequeaths his pictures and art 
treasures, worth about 70,000/. to Preston 

announced Dec. 1883 

PRESTON-PANS, near Edinburgh, the scene 
of a battle between the Young Pretender, prince 
Charles Stuart, and his Scotch adherents, and the 
royal army under sir John Cope, 21 Sept. 1745. 
The latter was defeated with the loss of 500 men, 
and fled. 

PRETENDERS. A name given to the son 
and grandsons of James II. of England. 

The Old Pretender, James Francis Edward 

Stuart, Chevalier de St. George, born 10 June, 

1688, was acknowledged by Louis XIV. as James 

III. of England, in 1701 

Proclaimed, and his standard set up, at Braemar 

and Castletown, in Scotland . . 3 Sept. 1715 
Landed at Peterhead, in Aberdeenshire, from 
France, to encourage the rebellion that the earl 
of Mar and his other adherents had prompted, 

25 Dec. „ 
This rebellion having been soon suppressed, the 
Pretender escaped to Montrose (from whence he 
proceeded to Gravelines) . ... 4 Feb. 1716 

Died at Rome 50 Dec. 1765 

The Young Pretender, Charles Edward, was 

born in 1720 

Landed in Scotland, and proclaimed his father king 

25 July, 1745 
Gained the battle of Preston-pans, 21 Sept. 1745, 

and of Falkirk 17 Jan. 1746 

Defeated at Culloden, and sought safety by flight, 

16 April, ,, 
He continued wandering among the wilds of Scot- 
land for nearly six months ; and as 30,000?. were 
offered for taking him, he was constantly pursued 
by the British troops, often hemmed round by 
his enemies, but still rescued by some lucky 
accident, and at length escaped from the isle of 
Uist to Morlaix in Sept. He died . 31 Jan. 1788 
His natural daughter assumed the title of duchess 

of Albany; died in 1789 

His brother, the cardinal York, calling himself 
Henry IX. of England, born March, 1725; died 

at Rome in Aug. 1807 

His alleged grandson, Charles Edward Stuart cohite 

d'Albanie, died 24 Dec. 1880 

See France, Louis XVII. ; and Impostors, 1606. 

PREVENTION OF CRIME ACTS, n 
Aug. 1871, 15 Aug. 1879, and 12 July, 1882. See 
Ireland, May, 1882, 1887 et acq. 

PREVENTIVE t MEDICINE. The dis- 
coveries of Pasteur, Koch, and others, relative to 
the propagation of disease by minute germs (see 
Germ Theory), led to the gradual formation of a 
British Institute of Preventive Medicine by a com- 
mittee of eminent physiologists and medical men. 



Sir Joseph lister was proposed as the first president, 
and Cambridge as the site of the Institute, Dec. 1890. 
PRICES, see Com, Bread, and Provisions. 
Mr. T. Tooke, in 1838, published a "History of 
Prices from 1793 to 1856." He was latterly aided 
by Mr. W. Newmarch. " History of Agriculture 
and Prices" (1259-1702). By Mr. J. E. T. Rogers; 
six volumes published 1866-87; he died 13 Oct. 1890. 

PRIDE'S PURGE. On the 6th Dec. 1648, 
colonel Pride, with two regiments, surrounded the 
house of parliament, and seizing in the passage 
forty-one members of the Presbyterian party, sent 
them to a low room, then called hell. Above 160 
other members were excluded, and none admitted 
but the most furious of the Independents. The 
privileged members were named the Rump parlia- 
ment, which was dismissed by Cromwell, 20 April, 
I653- 

PRIENE,one of the twelve cities of the Ionian 
league in Asia Minor. The temple of Minerva 
Polias, founded here by Alexander the Great, and 
the work of Pythios, was excavated by Mr. 11. P. 
Pullan, for the Dilettanti Society, in 1868-9. 

PRIEST (derived from prcsbyteros, elder), in 
the English church the minister who presides over 
the public w r orship. In Gen. xiv. 18, Melchizedek 
king of Salem is termed "priest of the most high 
God." (1913 B.C. ; see Hebrews vii.) The Greek 
hicreus, like the Jewish priest, had a sacrificial 
character, which idea of the priesthood is still 
maintained by the Romanists and those who favour 
their views. Among the Jews, the priests assumed 
their office at the age of thirty years. The dignity 
of high or chief priest was fixed in Aaron's family, 
1491 B.C. After the captivity of Babylon, the civil 
government and the crown were superadded to the 
high priesthood ; it was the peculiar privilege of 
the high priest, that he could be prosecuted in no 
court but that of the great Sanhedrim. The 
heathens had their arch-fiamen or high piiest, 
resembling the Christian archbishop. For " Priest 
in Absolution," see Soli/ Cross. 

PRIMER. A book so named from the Bomisli 
book of devotions, and formerly set forth or pub- 
lished by authority, as the first book children 
should publicly learn or read in schools, containing 
prayers and portions of the scripture. Primers were 
printed 1535, 1539- Hemy VIII. issued a prayer- 
book called a "primer" in 1545. The three were 
published by Dr. Burton in 1834. 

PRIMITIVE CULTURE, see Civilisation. 

PRIMOGENITURE, Right of. A usage 
brought down from the earliest times. The first- 
born in the patriarchal ages had a superiority over 
his brethren, and in the absence of his father was 
priest to the family. In some parts of England, 
by the ancient customs of gavel-kind and borough- 
English, primogeniture was superseded. It came 
in with the feudal law, 3 Will. I. 1068. The 
rights of primogeniture abolished in France, 1 790. 

PRIMROSE LEAGUE, formed in 1SS4 in 
memory of the late lord Beaconsfkld (with whom 
the primrose is said to have been a favourite flower) 
and in support of conservative principles, he died 
19 April, 1881, and the anniversary of that day is 
termed "Primrose Day," when the flower is gene- 
rally worn by his admirers. The marquis of 
Salisbury became grand master. 
The league, which began with under a thousand 
members, was declared to consist of 810,228 
knights, dames, and associates, with 1,992 
" habitations," on .... 20 May, 1389 



PEINCE OF THE PEACE. 



781 



PEINTING. 



The lengtCe issues great number of political leaflets 
and songs. " Habitations " have been established 
in Scotland and Ireland. 
Number of members reported, 1,002,097 . April, 1891 
Great meeting in Covent Garden theatre, the 
martinis of Salisbury in the chair . 6 May, 1892 

PEINCE OF THE PEACE, a title conferred 
on Manuel Godoy by Charles TV. of Spain, for 
concluding the Treaty of Basic. 

PEINCE EDWABD ISLAND (North 

America), was discovered by Cabot, in 1497 ; was 
finally taken from the French by the British, in 
1758 ;" united with Cape Breton as a colony in 1763 ; 
but separated in 1768. Population 1881, 108,894, 
1891, 109,088. Capital, Chaiiottetown. Lieut- 
governors: W. F. Bobinson, Aug. 1870; sir Bobert 
Hodgson, 1874; hon. Thomas Heath Haviland, 1879; 
hon. A. A. Macdonald, 1884; J. S. Carvell, 1889. 

PEINCE OF WALES'S ISLAND, see 
Benanrj. 

PEINCE EUPEET'S LAND, sec Rupert's 
Land, and Hudson's Bay. 

PEINCESS ALICE, an iron saloon steamer, 
belonging to the London steamboat company, while 
carrying, it is supposed, above 900 persons, princi- 
pally women and children, on their return from 
Sheerness, was immediately sunk by collision with 
the Bywell Castle, a large iron screw steamer, about 
7.40 p.m. on Tuesday, 3 Sept. 1878, in the Thames, | 
in (Jallion's reach, about a mile below Woolwich j 
arsenal. Alout 200 persons were saved, hut of I 
these about 16 died afterwards. About 640 bodies j 
were recovered and buried ; many at Woolwich. 
The Princess Alice was 251 tons gross ; 219ft. 4111. long; 
eoft. 2 in. broad; 8 ft. 4 in. deep. Engines, 140 horse 
power, by Caird, of Glasgow. Capt. Win. Grinstead 
(lost), with (it is said) 6 sailors, 2 engineers, 3 firemen, 
6 stewards, and 5 boys. 
The Bywell Castle, 1376 tons gross; 254ft. 3 in. long; 
32 ft. 1 in. broad ; 19 ft. 6 in. deep. Engines, 120 horse 
power. Owners, Hall Brothers, London. Captain 
Thomas Harrison. 
Mansion House Belief Fund opened, 5 Sept. The queen 
sent 105?. ; subscriptions came from royal family ; 
38,246/. 2.?. 6<1 received; final meeting, 30 Dec. 1878. 
Board of Trade Inquiry. — Result : Officers of Bywell 
Castle and Princess Alice not considered responsible for 
the accident, but some were censured for carelessness, 
28 Oct. The Princess Alice considered to be equal to her 
load; inquiry concluded, 31 Oct. Decision: "that 
the cause of the casualty was the breach of Rule 29 
of the Thames Conservancy Regulations, by the 
Princess Alice not porting her helm when she came 
end on to the Byu'cll Castle, a vessel coming in the 
opposite direction." Report dated 6 Nov. 1878. 
Coroner's Inquest. — Verdict : " Bywell Castle did not take 
necessary precautions in time, of easing, &c. ; Princess 
Alice contributed to the collision by not stopping her 
engines and going astern, -&c." ; 14 Nov. 1878. 
An action for damage against owners of Bywell Castle, in 
Admiralty division began 27 Nov. ; decision that both 
vessels were to blame, n Dec. 1878 ; decision on 
appeal that the Princess Alice was solely to blame, 15 
July, 1879. 

PEINCESS'S THEATEE, see under 

Theatres. 

PEINCETON, New Jersey, N. America. 
Here Washington defeated the British, 3 Jan. 1777. 

PEINTED GOODS, see Calico. 

PEINTEES' PENSION SOCIETY, (now 
termed "Printers' Corporation"), founded 1827; 
chartered, 1865; almshouses instituted, 1841 ; 
orphan schools have been set up. 

PEINTING. Block printing is said to have 
been invented by the Chinese about 593 a.t>., 
movable types made in the 10th century. The 



honour of first printing with single types in Europe 

has been appropriated to Mentz, Sti asburg, Haarlem, 

Venice, Koine, Florence, Basle, and Augsburg ; but 

the names of the three first only are entitled to 

attention ; see JPress. 

Adrian Junius awards the honour of the invention 
to Laurenzes John Koster, of Haarlem, " who^ 
printed with blocks, a book of images and letters, 
Speculum Huinance Salvationis, ami compounded 
an ink more viscous and tenacious than common 
ink, which blotted, about 1438." 

[The leaves of this book, being printed on one side 
only, were afterwards pasted together.] 

[In 1859, Mr. Samuel Leigh Sotheby issued an 
elaborate work compiled by his father and him- 
self, entitled " Principia Typographica," con- 
taining fac-similes, &c, of the block-books of the 
15th century; and Mr. J. Russell Smith published: 
a fac-simile of the Biblia Pauperum, a very early 
block-book.] 

John Fust established a printing-office at Mentz, 
and printed the Tractatus Petri Hispani . . 1442- 

John Gutenberg invented cut metal types, and 
used them in printing the earliest edition of the 
Latin bible (termed the Mazarin, from the dis- 
covery of a copy in the cardinal's library) at 



Mentz 



1450-55 



[At the sale of the Perkins library, 6 June, 1873, a * 
copy of this bible on vellum sold for 3400?. , one on 
paper sold for 2690?. ; a copy belonging to sir John 
Tliorold, of Syston-park, sold for" 3900?.. 13 Dee. 
1884 ; a copy belonging to the earl of Crawford 
sold for 2,650?., 15 June, 1887; lord Hopetoun's 
copy sold for 2,oooL, 25 Feb. 1889.] 

Book of Psalms, by Fust andSchosffer . 14 Aug. 1457 

Sir John Thorold's copy on vellum sold for 4950?. 
[formerly sold for 136?.] 19 Dec. 1884. 

The Durandi Rationale, first work printed with cast 
metal types I+59 , 

[Printing was introduced into Oxford, about this 
time. Collier. Denied by Dibdin.] 

A Livy printed. Du Fresnoy 146a 

The first Latin bible with a date completed at 
Mentz by Fust and Sehceffer 14 6 3 

Mentz taken and plundered, and the art of printing 
in the general ruin, is spread to other towns "'. * * 

The types were uniformly Gothic, or old German 
(whence our old English or Black Letter), until . 1465 

Greek characters (quotations only) first used, same 
year 

Cicero de Officiis ru-inted by Fust at Mentz . 

Roman characters, first at Rome . . ". i±6t 

A Chronicle, said to have been found in the arch- 
bishop of Canterbury's palace (the fact disputed), 
bearing the date "Oxford, anno 1468." 

Lactantius, by Sweynheym and Pannartz, near 
Rome, 1465 ; Livy by the same .... 1469, 

William Caxton, a mercer of London, set up the 
first press at Westminster 1470 

[To the west of the Sanctuary in Westminster 
Abbey, stood the Eleemosynary or Almonry, 
where the first printing press in England was 
erected in 1471, by William Caxton, encouraged 
by the learned Thomas Miling, then abbot.] 

He printed Willyam Caxton' s Secuyel of the Hysioryes 
of Troy, by Raoul le Feure. Phillips . . . 

His early pieces were, A Treatise on the Game of 
Chessc and Tully's Otfccs (see below). Dibdin . 1474 

JEsop's Fables, printed by Caxton, is supposed to be 
the first book with its leaves numbered . . 1484 

Aldus cast the Greek Alphabet, and a Greek book 
printed ap. Aldi 1476 

He introduces the Italics * * 

The Pentateuch, in Hebrew I .g 2 

German Bible at Nuremberg I4 s~ 

Homer, in folio, beautifully done at Florence, 
eclipsing all former printing, by Demetrius . '. 14S3 

Caxton prints the Boke of Eueydos . . . 1490 

Aldus Manutius begins printing at Venice . . . 1494 



Printing used in Scotland 



1507 



The first edition of the whole bible was, strictly 
speaking, the Complutensian Polyglot of cardinal 
Ximenes (see Polyglot) I5I7 

The Liturgy, the first book printed in Ireland, by 
Humphrey Powell 1550 

Printing in Irish characters introduced by Nicholas 
Walsh, chancellor of St. Patrick's . . . 1571 



PRINTING. 



782 



PRINTING. 



The first newspaper said to be printed in England 

(see Nevjspapers) 'S 88 

First patent granted for printing . . . .1591 
First printing press improved by William Blaeu, at 

Amsterdam . . . •■,■,;■ i6qi 
First printing in America, in New England, when 
the Freeman's Oath and an almanack were 
printed . . . • A • ■ . , • - ■ ■ T °39 
•" Bav Psalm-book" printed at Cambridge, Mass. . 1640 
First bible, printed in Ireland was at Belfast. 

Hardy's Tour . . ■ ■ • • ■ I7 ° 4 

First types cast in England by Caslon. Plulhps ■ 172° 
.Stereotype printing practised by William Ged, ot 

Edinburgh about 1730 

[Specimen at Royal Institution, London.] 
The present mode of stereotype invented by Mr. 

Tilloch aljout J 779 

[Stereotype printing was in use in Holland 111 the 

bust century. Phillips.'] 
Logographie printing in which words cast , i 11 one 
piece were employed: patented by H. Johnson 
and Mr. Walter of the Times; (soon disused) . 1783 
Machine-printing (which sec) first suggested by 

Nicholson . . • • • •■ ■ i I79 ° 

The Stanhope press invented about 1800 ; 111 general 

nse o r 

Albion press introduced . . ■ • - • - 1810 
The roller, which was a suggestion of Nicholson, 

introduced . . ■ '' 

Cowper's and Applegath's rollers . . . . 1817 
Columbian press of Clymer patented • • . • >> 
Printing for the blind (by raised characters) begins 1827 
Anastatic Printing, in which written or printed 
matter is transferred upon zinc plates, was inven- 
ted by Baldermus of Berlin about 1841, and made 
known in London ; lectured on by Faraday in 
!8d<; • and improved by Strickland and Delamotte 

in "' 1 ' V lS4S 

","A similar process was invented by Mr. Cocks of 

Falmouth in 1836.] 
Printing-types electro-faced with copper about 1850 

Engraved copper-plate electro-faced with iron and 

nickel . . • • • ■ ■ , ■ " l8 5 8 
Tupe-camposing Machines.— By James 1 ! oung s several 
' numbers of the "Family Herald "were set up, 
ben-inning 17 Dec. 1842 ; Hatterslcy's appeared at 
the Exhibition of 1862; Hart's was shown at the 
meeting of the British Association at Cambridge 

6 Oct. 1862 
W H Mitchel's composing machine was tried at 
Messrs. Spottiswoode's, 1861 ; these machines 
were said to be in use in America in . Jan. 1863 
Kastenbein's composing and distributing machines 
(in use at the Times office) shown at the Inter- 
national exhibition . . ■ • • • 1872 
The "Clowes" type-composing machine (Hookers 
patent) in which electro-magnets arc employed, 
was shown at the Caxton celebration exhibition, 
South Kensington . . ... July, 1877 
Ito 000 types per hour may be set up in page form.] 
Alexander Mackie's type-composing machine in use 
' at his office in Warrington, and at Messrs. Clay's, 
London, in 1871. It was said to be able to set up 
4 columns of the Times in an hour. 
j jjiotBue.— An American composingand distributing 
'machine, in which type matrices are employed 
instead of type. The manipulator brings letters, 
points and spaces together in one line of the 
■'alley this is passed into a casting-box, and a 
solid' line of type is produced in stereo metal ; 
this is repeated till the galley is full. The New 
York Herald has used about 40 machines. In 
July, 1889, it was freely shown in London, for 
the purpose of forming a company. _ 
Miss Emily Faithfull established the Victoria 
printing-office in Great Coram-street, London, in 
which female compositors are employed: the 
"Englishwoman's Journal" printed there Aug. 
1861 -appointed printer and publisher in ordinary 
to her Majesty . • • • • Ju , ne > l862 
Mr William Blades, learned printer, printed fac- 
s'imilies of several of Caxton's works, 1858, et seq. 
"Life of Caxton," 1861-3, and 1877; and other 
valuable works connected with printing; bom, 

!82 4 ; died 2 7 April, 1890 

Sec Printing Machine, Stereotype, and Nature Printing.] 



Titles of the earliest Books of Caxton and 
Wynkvn de Worde. 

The Game and Playe of the Chesse. Translated out 
of the Frenche and emprynted by me William Caxton. 
Fynysshid the last day of Marvhe the yer of our Lord Ood 
a thousand foure hondred and Ixxiiij. 

[A fac-simile of this book was printed by Mr. Vincent 
Figgins in 1859.] 

The Dictes and Wise Sayings of the Philosophers, 
is stated to be the first book printed by Caxton in 
England, 1477. (Fac-simile published by Elliot Stock, 
1877.) 

The Boke of Tulle of Olde Age Emprynted by me 
simple persone William Caxton into Englysshe as the 
playsir solace and reverence of men growing in to old age 
the xij day of August the yere of our Lord M. cccc. Ixxxj. 
Herbert. 

The Polycronycon conteyning the Berynges and Dedes 
of many Tymes in eyght Pokes. Imprinted by William 
Caxton after having someivhat clutunged the rude and olde 
Englysshe, that is to wete [to wit] certayu Words which 
in'these Dayes be neither vsyd nc imderstanden. Ended 
the second day of Juyll at Westmest/re the assy yerc of the 
Pegnc of Kynge Edward the fourth, and of the Jncarna- 
cion of oure Lord a Thousand four hondred four- Score 
and tweyne [1482]. Dibdin's Typ. Ant. 

The Cronicles of Englond Empnted by me Wyllyam 
Caxton thabbcy of Westmynstre by londonthe v day of 
Juyn the yere of thincamacion of our lord god 

M. CCCC. LXXX. 

Polycronycon. Ended the thyrtenth daye of Apryll the 
tenth yere of the reyne of hinge Harry the seuenth And 
of the Jncarnacyon of our lord mcccclxxxxv. Empryn- 
ted by Wynkyn The worde at Wesmestre. 
The Hylle of Perfection emprynted at the instance of 
the reverend relygyous fader Tho. Prior of the hous of 
St. Ann, the order of the charterouse Accomplysshe[dL] 
they fynysshe[d] att Westniynstcr the uiii day of Jancuer 
and ere of our lord Thousandc cccc. lxxxxvii. And in 
the xii yere of kynge Henry the vii by me wynkyn de 
worde. Ames, Herbert, Dibdin. 
The Descripcyon of Englonde Walys Scotland and 
Irlond speaking of the Noblesse and Worthyncsse of the 
same Fynysshed and emprynted in Flete strete in the syne 
of the Sonne by me Wynkyn de Worde the yere of our 
lord a m ceccc and ij. mensis Mayiis [mense Maiij. 
Dibdin's Typ. Ant. 
The Festyvall or Sermons on sondays and holidais taken 
out of the golden legend enprynted at london in Flete-strete 
at y" sygne of y Sonne by wynkyn de worde. In the 
yere of our Lord st.ccccc.vin. And ended the :d daye 
of Maye. Ames. 
The lord's prayer [As printed by Caxton in 1483. 1 
Father our that art in heavens, hallowed be thy name: 
thy kingdome come to us ; thy will be done in earth as is 
in heaven: our every day bread give us to day; ami 
forgive us oure trespasses, as we forgive them that trespass 
against us ; and lead us not in to temptation, but deliver 
us from all evil sin, amen. Lewis's Life of Caxton. 
A Placard. [As printed by William Caxton.] 7/ it 
plcse ony man spiritual or temperel to bye ony pies <f two 
or three comemoracios of Salisburi me* enprynted after 
the forme of this preset lettre whiche ben vel and truly 
correct, late him come to westmonester in to the almoncstye 
at the reed pale [red pale] and he shall have them good 
» there. Dibdin's Typ. Ant. 

Caxton Celebration of 400th anniversary of discovery 
of printing : First meeting at Westminster abbey ; dean 
Stanley in chair ; Messrs. Spottiswoode, Rivington, 
Clowes, and others present, 17 Feb. 1877. 
Exhibition (at South Kensington) of early printed books, 
bibles, and engravings ; printing, paper-making, ste- 
reotyping, electrotyping, in operation ; opened by Jlr. 
W. E. Gladstone, 30 June ; closed 1 Sept. 1877. 
1116?. profit given to the Printers' Pension Corporation, 

30 July, 1878. 
The catalogue contains valuable information. 
Printing-machines. — William Nicholson, editor of the 
Philosophical Journal, first projected (1700-1), but Mr. 
Kdnig first contrived and constructed a working 
printing machine, which began with producing the 
Times of 2S Nov. 1S14, a memorable day in the annals 
of typography. 

* Romish Service-books, used at Salisbury, by the 
devout called Pies (Pica, Latin), as is supposed from 
the different colour of the text and rubric. Our printing- 
type Pica is called Cicero by foreign printers.-— II heathy. 



PRIORIES. 



rS3 



PRISONS. 



In 1818, Mr. E. Cowper patented improvements. t 

Konig's machine printed 1800 an hour on one side ; 
Cowper's improvements increased this number to 
4200. This was raised to 15,000, by Mr. Applegath's 
machine, winch printed the Times. 

Hoe's American machine, introduced into London 1858, 
prints 20,000 an hour. 

Jflarinoni's machine at Paris said to print 36,000 an hour ; 
Dee. 1868. 

Walter press, invented for the rimes by J. C. Macdonald 
and Mr. Calverley, between 1862-9, Points about 17,000 
an hour perfected ; 1872. 

American Campbell press said to print 50,000 sheets per- 
fected in an hour, Feb. 1876. 

Ingram web rotary machine, invented by Mr. W. J. In- 
gram, M. P., for printing illustrated papers ; lirst used 
to print Illustrated London Xews, 4 Oct. 1877. 

Printing in Colours was first commenced by the 
employment of several blocks, to imitate the initial 
letters in MSS. (for instance, the Mentz Psalter of 
Fust, 1455, which has a letter in three colours). 
Imitations of chiaroscuro soon followed ("Repose in 
Egypt," engraving on wood after Louis Cranach, in 
1519, in Germany ; others by Ugo da Carpi, in Italy, 
1518). 

J. B. Jackson (1720-54) attempted, without success, to 
imitate water-colour drawings, and to print paper- 
hangings. 

About 1783, John Skippe, an amateur, printed some 
chiaroscuros. 

In 1S19-22, Mr. William Savage produced Lis remarkable 
work, "Hints on Colour Printing," illustrated by 
imitations of chiaroscuro, and of coloured drawings, 
giving details of the processes employed. 

In 1836. Mr. George Baxter produced beautiful specimens 
of Picture-Printing, and took out a patent, which 
expired in 1855. In some of the illustrations to the 
"Pictorial Album" (1S36), he employed twenty dif- 
ferent blocks. 

8t has been applied to Lithography (hence Chromo- 
lithography). 

In 1849, Mr. G. C. Leighton produced imitations of 
water-colour drawings, by means of modifications and 
improvements of Savage's processes. In 1S51 he com- 
menced colour-printing by machinery, and has since 
.availed himself of aqua-tinted plates, and also of elec- 
trotyped silver and copper surfaces to obtain purity of 
colour as well as durability. 

The large coloured prints of the Illustrated London News 
were lirst issued in Dec. 1S56. 

Mr. E. Meyerstein explained his process of printing 
many colours at one impression (stenochromy), So- 
ciety of Arts, 13 Dec. 1S76. 

Printing surfaces. Vulcanised india-rubber was first em- 
ployed fortius purpose by Mr. John Leighton, F.S.A., 
about 1862, and patented in the name of Alfred Leigh- 
ton, 1864. The application is much used for hand- 
stamps for books, &e. 

Printing Exhibition (of specimens, apparatus, mate- 
rials, stationery, and machinery), at Agricultural Hall, 
London, include 5-17 July, 1880 ; 14 July et seq. 1881 ; 
and 30 July et se /. 1883. 

International exhibition of printing at Stationers' hall, 
London, opened by the lord mayor, 14 Oct. 1889. 

PRIORIES, at first dependent on the great 
abbeys, are mentioned in 722 in England ; see 
Abbeys, and Monasteries. Alien priories were seized 
by the king (Edward I.) in 1285, and in succeed- 
ing reigns on the breaking out of war with France ; 
but were usually restored on the conclusion of 
peace. These priories were dissolved, and their 
estates vested in the crown, 3 Henry V. 1414. — 
My titer's Fcederti. 

PRISCILLIANISTS, disciples of Priscillian. 

•a Spanish bishop who propagated doctrines alleged 
to contain Gnosticism and Manicheism, 372. When 
condemned he appealed from the pope to the 
■emperor, but was beheaded at Treves, 385. 

t In 1817 was published Blumenbaeh's Physiology 
by Elliotson, the first book printed by machinery. The. 
machine employed was Kdnig's, one which printed both 
tKides in one operation at the rate of 900 sheets an hour 
•(1816). 



PRISONERS OF WAR, among the ancient 
nations, when spared, were usually enslaved. About 
the 13th century, civilized nations began t> ex- 
change their prisoners. 
The Spanish, French, and American prisoners of 

war in England were 12,000 in number, 30 Sept. 1779 
The number exchanged by cartel with Frame, from 

the commencement of the then war, was 44,000 

June, 17S1 
The English prisoners in France estimated at 6000, 

and the French in England 27,000 . . Sept. 1798 
The English in France amounted to 10,300, and the 

French, &c, iu England to 47,600, in . . . 1S11 
Great numbers made by the Germans in the war 1S70-1 

PRISONERS' COUNSEL ACT, 6 & 7 
"Will. IV. c. 114 (1836), allows counsel to persons 
tried for felony ; hitherto prohibited. 

PRISONS of England and "Wales. Annual 
cost: 1867-8,482,414/. ; 1869-70,501,348/.; 1880-1, 
421,686/.; 1881-2,375,548/.; 18S3-4, 334,674/.; 
1887-8, 340,483/. ; 1890-1, 326,551/. 
England and Wales; in prisons, March, 1882, 18,392; 1S83, 

16.913; in 18S7, 15,457; March, 1890, 14,558. 

PRISONS OF London, see Fleet, King's 
Bench, Xeicgate, Poultry, Glerkemvell. 

Horsemonger-lane. gaol was built in 1791 ; closed, 

1878 ; opened as a playground . . 5 May, 1S84 
The state of prisons greatly improved after the 

exertions of Howard.* Cold-Bath Fields prison 

was built on his suggestion, 1794 ; converted int 1 

offices for the parcels post .... 1SS7-91 
The atrocities of governor Aris in this prison were 

exposed in parliament . . . .12 July, 1S00 
Sheriffs' fund society for assisting discharged 

prisoners established by aldermen C. Smith and 

sir R. Phillipps 1S07 

Whitecross-street prison for debtors erected . 1S13-15 
Milbank prison (see Milbank) received convicts as a 

penitentiary 27 June, 1816 

Borough compter mean and confined till visited 

by a parliamentary committee in . . . . 1S17 
Savoy prison, for the confinement of deserters from 

the Guards, formerly situated in the Strand, was 

pulled down to make room for Waterloo-bridge . 1819 
New Bridewell prison was erected as a substitute 

for the City Bridewell, Blaekfriars, in . . 1S29 

Tothill Fields Bridewell, built in 161S, rebuilt . 1S36 
The old Marshalsea prison, Southwark, built in the 

13th century, taken down ^42 

Pentonville Model prison completed . . . ., 
Milbank penitentiary reported a failure ; changed 

to au ordinary prison ,5:^, 

Middlesex House of Detention, Clerkenwell, erected 

in 1S47 

City prison, Holloway, opened . . 6 Feb. 1S52 
Royal Discharged Prisoners' Aid society established 1858 
Act passed for abolishing Queen's Bench prison . 1S62 
Prison Ministers' act passed .... iS;.; 

Acts to consolidate and amend the law relating to 

prisons, passed . . .5 July, 1865 ; Aug. 1866 
Howard Association (whicli see) instituted . . 

A National Prison Association was organized in 

New York ^69 or 1S70 

Milbank made a military prison ....,, 
International prison congress met at the Middle 

Temple, London 3 j u i V) ^72 

Prison Discipline Society, by the philanthropic 

labours of sir T. F. Buxton, M.P., was instituted 

in 1815, and held its first public meeting in iS.-o. 

Its objects were the amelioration of gaols, flic 

classification and employment of die 'prisoners, 

and the prevention of crime. 
Whitecross-street prison ; ordered to be pulled down 

and materials sold .... n Oct. 1S70 

* John Howard was born 2 Sept. 1726; made sheriff 
Of Bedford, 1773; investigated into the state of English 
prisons, 1773-5; and gave evidence thereon before' the 
house of commons, which led to amen lments by law, 
1774 ; he visited prisons all over the continent, and died 
at Kherson, 20 Jan. 1790. Centenary celebrated 2> Jan. 
1890. 



PEIVATE BILLS. 



784 



PEOBATE COUET. 



A prisons bill brought forward, i June ; withdrawn 

31 July, 1876 

The Prison Acts, for England, Ireland, and Scot- 
land, passed 12 July and 14 Aug. 1877. They trans- 
fer management of prisons, after 1 April, 1878, . 

.- from local authorities to the home secretary ; 
provide for re-distribution and reduction of 
number of prisons, &c. 

Other gaols closed 1878 

An international Prison Congress met at Stockholm 

20-24 Aug. , , 

Prisoners' aid societies, prison charities act passed 

18 Aug. 1882 

Discharged prisoners' aid societies are now attached 
to all prisons. The " metropolitan" society was 
established 1864 

A receiving house for discharged prisoners was 
opened by gen. Booth at 30, Argyle-square, W.C. 

30 Jan. 1 89 1 

The committee appointed to inquire respecting 
prison rules, reported in favour of their continu- 
ance in regard to dress and hair-cutting, for 
sanitary, disciplinary and general reasons . June, 1889 

Int'irnational congress respecting prisons at St. 
Tetersburg, 550 delegates ; president, prince of 
Oldenburg .... 19 June, et seq. 1890 

fA continuation of the " Commission Peniten- 
tiaire Internationale," founded in 1872, which has 
met in London, Rome, and Stockholm.] 

PEIVATE BILLS, see Acts of Parliament. 

PBIVATEEB, a ship belonging to private 
individuals, sailing with a licence (termed a Letter 
of Marque), granted by a government in time of 
war, to seize and plunder the ships of the enemy. 
The practice, said to have been adopted by Ed- 
ward I. against the Portuguese in 1295, was gene- 
ra! during the war between Spain and the Nether- 
lands in the 17th century, and during the last 
French war. Privateering was abolished by the 
great sovereigns of Europe by treaty, 30 March, 
1856. The United States government refused to 
agree unless the right of blockade was also given up. 
The British government declined this, asserting 
" that the system of commercial blockade was 
essential to its naval supremacy." On 17 April, 
1861, Jefferson Davis, president of the southern 
confederacy, announced his intention of issuing 
letters of marque, and on the 19th president Lin- 
coln proclaimed that all southern privateers should 
he treated as pirates. This decree was not carried 
out: see United States. All the great powers for- 
b ide privateering during the American civil war 
{which see). By the treaty of "Washington priva- 
teering was prohibited. 

PBIVILEGED PLACES, see Asylums. 

PEIVY COUNCIL. A council said to have 
been instituted by Alfred, 895. The number of the 
council was about twelve when it discharged the 
functions of state, now confined to the members of 
the cabinet ; but it had become of unwieldy amount 
before 1679, in which year it was remodelled upon 
sir William Temple's plan, and reduced to thirty 
members: Anthony Ashley, earl of Shaftesbury, 
being president. The number is now unlimited. 
To attempt the life of a privy councillor in the 
execution of his office was made capital, occasioned 
by (juiscard's stabbing Mr. Harley while the latter 
was examining him on a charge of high treason, 9 
Anne, 1711. 
' The Proceedings and Ordinances of the Privy Council 

of England from 10 Richard II. to 33 Hen. VIII. , 

edited by sir H. Nicolas, 7 vols," were published by 

the record commissioners, 1834-7. 
The "Acts of the Privy Council," edited by Mr. J. R. 

Dasent, beginning with 1542, Vols. I.— IV., issued in 

1890 2. 
Judicial Committee of the Privy Council.— In lieu of 

the Court of Delegates, for appeals from the lord chan- 



cellors of Great Britain and of Ireland in cases of 
lunacy — from the Ecclesiastical and Admiralty Courts 
of England, and the Vice-Admiralty courts abroad — • 
from the Warden of the Stannaries, the courts of the 
Isle of Man, and other islands, and the Colonial courts, 
&c., — fixed by statute 3 & 4 Will. IV.. c. 41, 1833 ; 
amended by other acts in 1844, 1851, 1852. 

Judges. — The lord president, lord chancellor, master of 
the rolls, vice-chancellor, lords justices in appeal, lord 
chief justice of the queen's bench and common pleas, 
lord chief baron, judges of the courts of bankruptcy, 
probate, and admiralty, and others appointed by the 
queen. In consequence of the increase of business, 
and consequent delay, the queen was empowered to» 
appoint four new judicial members of the committee, 
by 34 & 35 Vict. c. 91 (21 Aug. 1871). The attorney- 
general, sir R. Collier, was made a judge of the Common 
Pleas, 7 Nov., and a member of the judicial committee 
22 Nov. 1871. 

These proceedings were considered contrary to the spirit 
of the act by several judges and the legal profession 
generally. A vote of censure on the Gladstone ministry 
was negatived in the house of lords (89-87), 15 Feb. ; 
in the commons (268-241), 19 Feb. 1872. 

Other changes were made by an act passed in 1876. 

PEIVY SEAL, THE Lord, the fifth great 
officer of state, has the custody of the privy seal, 
which he must not put to any grant, without good 
warrant under the king's signet. This seal is used 
by the king to all charters, grants, and pardons, 
signed by him before they come to the great seal. 
Richard Fox, bishop of Winchester, held this office 
in the reign of Henry VIII. previously to 1523^ 
when Cuthbert Tunstall, bishop of London, was- 
appointed. The privy seal has been on some 
occasions in commission. — Beatson. See under 
Liverpool, Canning, Wellington, and succeeding- 
Administrations. Present lord, George Henry 
Cadogan earl Cadogan appointed 26 July, 1886. 

PRIZE-FIGHTING, see Boxing. 

PEIZE MONEY, arising from captures made- 
from the enemy, was decreed by government to be- 
divided into eight equal parts, and distributed by 
order of ranks, 17 April, 1793. The distribution of 
army prize-money is regulated by an act passed in 
1832. Naval prize-money is nowregulated by royal 
proclamation; the last, 19 May, 1866. 

PEOBABILITY, Theory of (termed by 

Butler, "the guide of life" ; by Laplace, "good 
sense reduced to calculation"), was originated by 
Pascal, and taken up by Fermat, in their corre- 
spondence in 1654. 

Its object is "the determination of the number of ways 
in which an event may happen or fail, in order that 
we may judge whether the chances of its happening or 
failing are greater."— Jevons. 
It has been treated upon by the most eminent mathema- 
ticians, viz. , the Bernouillis, De Moivre, D'Alembert, 
Enter, Lagrange, Laplace, and Gjuetelet. 
Isaac Todhunter's copious "History of Probability,"' 
published 1S65. 

PEOBATE COUET, established in Aug. 1857 
by 20 &21 Vict. c. 77, which abolished all powers- 
exercised by the ecclesiastical courts in the granting 
of probates of wills, &c. ; see Prerogative Court. 
The first judge appointed, 5 Jan. 1858, was sir 
Cresswell Cresswell, who took his seat on 12 Jan.. 
On his death, sir James P. "Wilde (aft. lord Pen- 
zance) was appointed judge, 28 Aug. 1863 ; see Su- 
preme Court. The president of the probate, divorce,, 
and admiralty division, sir James Hannen (1872), 
succeeded by sir Charles P. Butt, Jan. 1891 (died 
2; May, 1892) ; sir Francis Henry Jeune; 30 May, 
1892. By the Judicature Act of 1873, tnc probate,, 
divorce, and admiralty courts were constituted the 
5th division of the Supreme Court. A probate and 
matrimonial division of the high court of justice of 



PEOCEDUEE EULES. 



785 



PROTECTIONISTS. 



Ireland was established by Judicature act, 1877; 
present judge, Robert Richard Warren (1889). Pro- 
bate is the exhibiting and proving a will before the 
proper authority. The probate registry is now at 
Somerset House (1889). 
Probate duties transferred to relieve local taxation by 

Local Government Act, 1888— amount received 1887-8, 

4,596,620?. 

PEOCEDUEE EULES, see under Parlia- 
ment 1882 and 1888, 189O. 

PEOCESSIONS ACT, 13 Vict. c. 2, passed 
12 March, 1S50, prohibited party processions, with 
banners, &c. It was repealed in 1872. Processions 
of workmen and others, for demonstrations in Hyde 
Park, prohibited in the great thoroughfares of 
London, by the police, 31 May, 1S90. 

PEOCLAMATIONS, Eoyal, " have only 
a binding force when grounded upon and to enforce 
the laws of the realm." — Coke. Henry VIII., in 
1539, declared that they were as valid as acts of 
parliament. This was annulled, 1547. 

The lord lieutenant of Ireland has power by procla- 
mation to place districts under the provisions of the 
Criminal Law Procedure Acts, 1881 and 1887, which 
districts are then said to be proclaimed. 

PEOCONSUL, a Roman consul, whose tenure 
of office was extended beyond his legal term. Q. 
Publilius was the first proconsul appointed during 
the war with Parthenope, 327 ji.e. The name was 
afterwards given to governors of provinces. 

PEOCTOE (from procurator), an office in 
ecclesiastical courts, corresponding to, that of an 
attorney or solicitor in courts of common law. It 
was abolished by the Judicature act, 1873. The 
persons chosen to represent the clergy in convoca- 
tion are termed proctors. The university proctors 
enforce discipline. 

PEOFILES. The first profile taken, as recorded, 
was that of Antigonus, who, having but one eye, his 
likeness was so taken, 330 B.C. — Ashe. " Until the 
end of the 3rd century, I have not seen a Roman 
emperor with a full face ; they were always painted 
or appeared in profile, which gives us the View of a 
head in a very majestic manner." — Addison. 

PEOGEESISTAS, a political party in Spain, 
headed by Espartero, duke of Victory, and latterly 
by general Prim. Since 1865 they adopted a policy 
of inaction in public affairs; by uniting with the 
unionists and republicans in Sept. 1868, the govern- 
ment were overthrown, see Spain. 
A pai-ty in Servia and also in Portugal are termed Pro- 
gressists, and in England a radical party is termed 
Progressives, 1888 et seq. 

"PEOGEESS AND POVEETY," see 

Zand Nationalization. 

PEOGEESSIONIST THEOEY supposes 
that the existing species of animals and plants were 
not originally created, but were gradually developed 
from one simple form ; see Species. 

■ PEOM1SSOEY NOTES were regulated and 
allowed to be made assignable in 1705. First taxed 
by a stamp in 1782 ; the tax was increased in 1804, 
and again in 1808, and subsequently; see Pills oj 
Exchange. 

" PEO NIHILO," a pamphlet, said to be by 
count Henry Arnim, attacking count Bismarck ; 
published Nov. 1875. He was prosecuted for it in 
1876 ; see Prussia. 

PEONUNCIAMENTO, a revolution (in 
Spain or South America) effected by a military 



leader; in France, termed a coup d'etat. See 
France and Spain. 

PEOPAGANDA FIDE, Congregatio 

DE (congregation for the propagation of the faith of 
the Romish church), was constituted at Rome by 
Gregory XV. in 1622 ; the college in 1627. 

PROPAGATION of the Gospel Society 

received its charter, 16 June, 1701. Its sphere is 
generally limited to the British colonies. General 
income in 1867, 114,1546/.; in 1879, 145,240/.; in 
1884, 109,572/. ; in 1891, 116,520/. 

PEOPEETY. The assessments on real 
property, under the property tax of 1815, were 
51,898,423/. ; of which Middlesex was 5,595,537/. ; 
Lancashire, 3,087,774/. ; and Yorkshire, 4,700,000/. ; 
Wales, 2,153,801/. Estimated wealth of the country 
(1878), 8,500,000,000/. See Income Tax, Capital. 

PEOPHESYING. About 1570 the puritanical 
part of the clergy, particularly at Northampton, 
held meetings (termed prophesyings) for prayer and 
exposition of the scriptures. These were forbidden 
by queen Elizabeth, 7 May, 1577, and immediately 
ceased. 

The Prophecy Investigation society, formed about 1840, 
held a special meeting at the Mansion-house, London, 
30 April, 1891. 

PEOPHETS, see under Jews. 

PEOPOETIONAL EEPEE- 
S E N T A T I O N. The scheme propounded by 
Mr. Thomas Hare in 1857, in a pamphlet on " Rep- 
resentation," and perfected in his "Treatise on the 
Election of Representatives," published in 1859, 
which was well received by Mr. J. Stuart Mill. 
A society to introduce this principle was formed in 
Feb. 1884. It included sir John Lubbock (presi- 
dent), Mr. Leonard H. Courtney, and many other 
M.P's. 

It proposed that "in all cases where au elector is 
entitled to one vote only, to enable the elector to 
nominate more than one* candidate to whom, under 
certain circumstances, that vote might be transferred 
in the manner indicated bj the elector." Negatived by 
the commons, 134—31, 3 March, 1885. 

PEOEOGATION op Parliament. By an 

act passed 12 Aug. 1867, her majesty was enabled 
to issue a proclamation for the prorogation of par- 
liament during the recess. 

PEOSECUTOE. By the Prosecution of Of- 
fences Act, 42 &43 Vict. c. 22 (3 July, 1879), the 
appointment of a director of public prosecutions 
with assistants was enacted, somewhat resembling 
officers in Scotland and Ireland. It came into ope- 
ration 1 Jan. 1880. John Blossett Maule, appointed 
director of public prosecutions, Dec. 1879; succeeded 
by sir Augustus Stephenson, 1884. 
A committee reported the plan to be a failure, and 

recommended changes, June ; act amended, 1884. 
A public prosecutor, "iirocureur du roi," in France, is 
mentioned in the 14th century ; replaced by "accusa- 
teur publique" (elected), 1791 ; by " commissaire na- 
tional," 1793; "procurer" restored by Napoleon I. 

PEOTECTION OF LIFE AND PEO- 
PEETY ACT (for part of Ireland), passed 16 
June, 1871 ; another, 3 March, 1881. See Ireland. 

PEOTECTIONISTS, that section of the con- 
servative party which opposed the repeal of the corn 
laws, and which separated from sir Robert Peel in 
1846. The name was derived from a " Society for 
the Protection of Agriculture," of which the duke 
of Richmond was chairman, and which had been 
established to counteract the efforts of the Anti-Corn 
Law League, 17 Feb. 1844. Lord George Bentinck 

3 E 



PROTECTORATES. 



786 



PROVISIONS. 



was the head of the party from 1846 till his death, 
21 Sept. 1848. The Derby administration not pro- 
posing the restoration of the corn-laws, the above 
society was dissolved, 7 Feb. 1853. — The protection 
of native manufactures has been maintained in the 
United States since 1868, and in France, Germany, 
Italy, and other countries. See France, March, 
1887. See United States, Oct. 1890. 
The revival of protection negatived by the liouse of 
commons without a division, 14 May, i386. The 
national association for the preservation of agriculture 
and other- industries held a meeting in London, S Dec. 
1887. 
See Fair Trade and Free Trade. 

PROTECTORATES in England. That 
of the earl of Pembroke, 19 Oct. 12 16, ended by his 
death, 1218. Of Humphry, duke of Gloucester, 
began 31 Aug. 1422; he was seized 11 Feb. 1447, 
and found dead a few days after. Of Richard, duke 
of Gloucester, began May, 1483, and ended by his 
assuming the royal dignity, 26 June the same year. 
Of Somerset began 28 Jan. 1547, and ended by his 
resignation in 1549. Of Oliver Cromwell began 16 
Dec. 1653, and ended by his death, 3 Sept. 1658. 
Of Richard Cromwell began 3 Sept. 1658, and ended 
by his resignation, 25 May, 1659 ; see England. 

PROTEIN, from the Greek (protcion, princi- 
pal) ; a chemical term introduced by Mulder about 
1844, for the basis of albumen, fibrin, and casein. 

PROTESTANT REFORMATION SO- 
CIETY, established 1820 ; it employs mission- 
aries and readers. 

PROTESTANTS. The emperor Charles V. 
called a diet at Spires in 1529, to request aid from 
the German princes against the Turks, and to devise 
means for allaying the religious disputes which 
then raged owing to Luther's opposition to the 
Roman catholic clergy. Against a decree of this 
diet, to support the doctrines of the church of Rome, 
six Lutheran princes, with the deputies of thirteen 
imperial towns, formally and solemnly protested, 19 
April, 1529. Hence the term protestants was given 
to the followers of Luther ; it afterwards included 
Calvinists, and other sects separated from the see of 
Rome. The six protesting princes were : John, 
elector of Saxony ; George, margrave of Branden- 
burg ; Ernest and Francis, tne dukes of Lunenburg; 
the landgrave of Hesse ; and the prince of Anhalt ; 
these were joined by the citizens of Strasburg, 
Nuremberg, Ulm, Constance, Heilbron, and seven 
other cities ; see Luther anism, Calvinism, Hugue- 
nots, Germany, Church of England, &c. 
Protestants persecuted in Scotland and Germany . 1546 
Edward VI. established Protestantism in England . 1548 
Mary re-establishes Romanism, and persecutes the 

Protestants : above 300 put to deatli . . 1553-8 
Ridley, bishop of London, and Latimer, bishop of 
Worcester, were burnt at Oxford, 16 Oct. 1555 ; 
and Cranmer, abp. of Canterbury . 21 March, 1556 
[During three years of Mary's reign, 277 persons were 
brought to the stake ; besides those punished by 
imprisonment, fines, and confiscations. Among 
those who suffered by fire were 5 bishops, 21 
clergymen, 8 lay gentlemen, 84 tradesmen, 100 
husbandmen, servants, and labourers, 55 women, 
and 4 children. The principal agents of the queen ' 
were the bishops Gardiner and Bonner.] 
Elizabeth restores Protestantism . . . . 1558 

Protestant settlements formed in Ulster, N. Ireland 

1608-11 
The Protestant union of princes in Germany, 4 May, 

1608; met last May, 1621 

Thirty years' war between Romanists and Protestants 

in Germany 1618-48 

Protestants persecuted at Thorn, in Poland . . 1724 
Protestant Association (see Gordon's " No-Popery" 
Mob) ■, 1780 



A society for planting communities of the poorer 
Protestants on tracts of land, particularly in the 
northern counties of Ireland, established in Dub- 
lin in Dec. 1829 

(London) Protestant Society, established 1827 ; Pro- 
testant Association, 1835 ; Protestant Alliance . 1849 

Protestant Conservative Society established 9 Dee. 1831 

Protestant Alliance formed at Armagh . 7 Nov. 1845 

Pan-protestant conference held at Worms (about 
1000 delegates) 3 1 Ma J% l86 9 

Meeting of a general synod of the Reformed Church 
of France (M. Guizot present), to propose return 
to early doctrine and discipline held at Paris, 
7 June ; the "liberal party" attack the doctrines 
of the authority of the Bible, the divinity and 
resurrection of Christ, &c. ; an orthodox confes- 
sion is carried amid strong opposition (61-45) 

20 June, 1872 

Protestant churchmen's alliance formed, see Church 
of England 25 Feb. 1S90 

Death of M. Edmond de Pressense, eminent free 
church pastor, at Paris, aged 67 . 8 April, 1891 

National Protestant congress meets at Brighton 

13 Oct. ,, 

PROTOPLASM, the material of the minute 
ultimate particles of all animal and vegetable tis- 
sues, formerly termed sarcode ; by Von Mohl, proto- 
plasm (1884), "the physical basis of life," by Huxley 
(1868). The protamcoba, the lowest form of life, i* 
a structureless mass of protoplasm ; the amoeba, a 
similar mass, contains a nucleus. Protoplasm is 
composed of carbonic acid, water, and ammonia. 

PROTYLE, see Elements. 

PROVENCE (the Roman Provincia), S. E. 
France, was made a kingdom by the emperor Lo- 
thaire for his son Charles. It afterwards became 
part of the kingdom of Aries as a feudal fief, and 
was re-united to the German empire in 1032 by 
Conrad II. On the fall of the Hohenstaufens it 
was acquired by Charles of Anjou, who married the 
heiress of the count in 1245, and became king of 
Naples, in 1268 ; and was held by his successors 
till its annexation to France by Charles VIII. in 
1487. 

PROVERBS. The book of Proverbs by Solo- 
mon is dated about 1000 B.C. The latter part was 
collected by order of Hezekiah, about 700 P...C. 
Ray's collection of English proverbs appeared in 
1672, and Bonn's general collection in 1857. Martin 
F. Tupper's "Proverbial Philosophy" first appeared 
in 1839. Alfred Henderson's "Latin Proverbs," 
1869. A society for the Revision of Proverbs 
existed in 1886. 

PROVIDENCE, capital of Rhode Island, U.S. 
{which see), 1636. Population, 1890, 132,146. 

PROVIDENT KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY 

established in 1872, to forward the post-office finan- 
cial schemes ; by establishing penny banks, sending 
out lecturers, and publishing papers for the promo- 
tion of thrift among the lower classes. It held its 
first annual meeting, 9 May, 1873, the earl of Derby 
in the chair. 

PROVISIONS OF OXFORD, see Oxford. 

PROVISIONS— Remarkable State- 
ments CONCERNING THEM. The high value 
of money at the time must be borne in mind. 
Sale of Food and Drugs act passed 11 Aug. 1875 (see 

Adulteration). 
Wheat for food for 100 men for one day worth only one 
shilling, and a sheep fourpenee, Henry I. about 1130. 
The price of wine raised to sixpence per quart for red, 
and eightpenee for white, that the sellers might be 
enabled to live by it, 2 John, 1200. — Burton's Annals. 
When wheat was at 6s. per quarter, the farthing loaf was 
to be equal in weight to twenty-four ounces (made of 
the whole grain), and to sixteen the white. When 
wheat was is. 6d. per quarter, the farthing white loaf 



PROVISOES. 



787 



PEUSSIA. 



was to weigh sixty-four ounces, and the whole grain 
(the same as standard now) ninety-six, by the first 
assize, 1202.- — Mat. Paris. 

A remarkable plenty in all Europe, 1280.— Dufresnoy. 

Wheat is. per quarter, 14 Edw. I., 1286.— Stow. 

The price of provisions fixed by the common council of 
London as follows : two pullets, three half-pence ; a 
partridge, or two woodcocks, three half-pence ; a fat 
lamb, sixpence from Christmas to Shrovetide, the rest 
of the year fourpence, 2q Edw. I., 1299.— Stow. 

Price of provisions fixed by parliament: at the rate of 
2I. 8s. of our money for a fat ox, if fed with corn, 3Z. 12s. ; 
a shorn sheep, 5s. ; two dozen of eggs, 3d ; other 
articles nearly the same as fixed by the common council 
above recited, 7 Edw. II., 1313.— ito/. Pari. 

Wine the best sold for 20s. per tun, 10 Rich. II., 1387. 

Wheat being at is. id the bushel m 1390, this was deemed 
so high a price that it is called a dearth of com by the 
historians of that era. 

Beef and pork settled at a halfpenny the pound, and veal 
three farthings, by act of parliament, 24 Hen. VIII., 
1533. — A nderso n. 

Document from a "Book of the Joint Diet, Dinner and 
Supper, and the charge thereof, for Cranmcr, Latimer, and 
Ridley," kept by the bailiffs of Oxford, while they were 
in their custody : — 

I Oct. 1554. DINNER. 

Bread and Ale . . . .£002 
Oysters - ...001 

Butter 002 

Eggs ... ...002 

Lyng .... .008 

A piece of fresh salmon - . . o 

Wine o 

Cheese and pears . . . . o 



o 10 
° 3 



The three dinners . 026 

Milk sold, three pints ale-measure for one halfpenny, 2 

Eliz. 1560. Stow's Chronicle. 
Liebig's discovery of his "Extractum Carnis," extract of 

meat, announced 1847. 
Since the autumn of 1865, meat, milk, and butter greatly 

increased in price owing to the cattle-plague, &c. 
The "Food Committee" of Society of Arts first met 21 

Dec. 1866. 
Meat very dear in England, 1868-73. Introduction of 

Australian preserved meat by Mr. John McCall in 1865 ; 

imported in 1866, 91 cwt. ; in 1871, 237,160 cwt. Meat 

imported herein 1863, 3283 cwt. ; in 1877, 599,181 cwt. 
Carcases frozen by Harrison's method ; cargo sent to 

England from Melbourne, Australia, 23 July ; arrived, 

18 Oct. ; proved a failure, 2 Nov. 1873. 
Good preserved American meat sold in London, 27 Dec. 

1875. Great influx of meat preserved by cold, 1877. 
Bell & Coleman's patent refrigerators reported successful 

in preserving meat, (fee, Aug. Sept. 1878. 
Meat to the amount of about 2,500,000?. imported 

annually, 1885. 
Fresh meat brought from Australia, Feb. 1880. 
5,000 frozen sheep arrived from New Zealand, 2% May, 

1882. • 
Mr. Coleman explained his process at the Royal Institu- 
tion, London, and showed that by these machines 

atmospheric air could be cooled down to 80° below 

zero Fahrenheit, whereby the vitality of microphytes 

was completely destroyed, 29 May, 1885. 
Refrigerator railway car conveyed fresh herrings from 

Wick to London, 15 Aug. 1883. 
io,oooZ. worth of fresh meat imported from Libau, Russia, 

during July, 1883. 
The Elderslic with 25,000 frozen sheep from New Zealand, 

arrives in London, Dec. 1884. 
Refrigerating barges for the distribution of imported 

frozen provisions, and constructed by the Pulsometer 

Engineering company, announced Jan. 1890. 
A new system of refrigeration by cold air, published by 

the British and Foreign Refrigerating company, 

London. The system is mechanical and single, Dec. 

1890. • 
For the price of Bread since 1735, see Bread. 
See Milk, Cattle. 

PROVISOES, Statutes of, beginning 25 

Edward III., 1 351-2, prohibited the pope from ap- 
pointing aliens and others to benefices before they 
were vacant 



PEOVVEDIMENTO SOCIETIES in 

Italy, formed to aid in acquiring Rome and Venice, 
elected Garibaldi as their chief, 10 March, 1862. 
They were tolerated by Eicasoli, and warned to be 
moderate by Kattazzi. 

PEOVOST, the chief municipal magistrate of 
a city or burgh in Scotland, corresponding to the 
English mayor. The provosts of Edinburgh, 
Glasgow, Aberdeen, Perth, and in 1892 Dundee, are 
styled " lord provosts." 

PEOXIES. Voting by proxy, an ancient privi- 
lege of the house of peers, was very frequently 
abused. _ In the reign of Charles II., when the duke 
of Buckingham sometimes brought 20 proxies in his 
pocket, it was ordered that no peer should bring 
more than two proxies. From 1830 to 1867, both 
inclusive, proxies were only called 73 times. In 
conformity with the recommendation of a committee, 
a new " standing order" was adopted, 31 Marc-]], 
1868, by which it was ordered "That the practice of 
calling for proxies on a division shall he discon- 
tinued." 

PEUD'HOMMES, Conseils de (from 

prudens homo,& prudent man), trade tribunals in 
France, composed of masters and workmen, were 
constituted to arbitrate on trade disputes in 1806. 
Similar bodies with this name existed as far back as 
1452 at Marseilles, and at Lyons in 1464. 

PEUSSIA. This country was anciently pos- 
sessed by the Venedi. They were conquered by the 
Borussi, who inhabited the Bipha:au mountains ; 
and from these the country was called Borussia. 
The Porussi afterwards intermixed with the fol- 
lowers of the Teutonic knights, and latterly with 
the Poles. The constitution, established 31 Jan. 
1850, was modified 30 April, 1851 ; 21 May, 5 June, 
1852 ; 7 and 24 May, 1853; 10 June, 1854; 30 May, 
1855 > and r 5 May, 1857. Population, withLauen- 
bu'rg (annexed 14 Aug. 1865), 19,304,843; with 
Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, and Frankfort, 
Dec. 1867, 24,039,543 ; 1875, 2 5>74 2 > 20 4 ! tSSo? 
27,279,111; 1885,^46,855,704; 1890, 29,959,388. 
1891-2, budget estimates, revenue, 79,580,650/. ; 
expenditure, 79,580,650/. President of the ministr>j t 
&c, prince Bismarck, Sept. 1862. See bclotc, 1890, 
1892. 

St. Adalbert arrives in Prussia to preach Chris- 
tianity, and is slain about 997 

Boleslas of Poland revenges his death by dreadful 

ravages 1018 

The Prussians resist the Poles, and renounce 

Christianity about 1061 

Berlin built by a colony from the Netherlands, in 

the reign of Albert the Bear 1163 

The Teutonic knights returning from the holy wars, 
undertake the conquest and conversion of Prus- 
sia 1225 

Thorn founded by them 1231 

Prussia subjugated by the Teutonic knights . . 1283; 
Konigsberg, lately built, made the capital . . 1286 
Largely re-peopled by German colonists i2-i3th 

century. 
Frederick IV. of Nuremberg (the founder of the 
reigning family) obtains by purchase from Sigis- 
mund, emperor of Germany, the margraviate of 

Brandenburg 141 5 

Casimir IV. of Poland assists the natives against 

the oppression of the Teutonic knights . . 1446 
Albert of Brandenburg, grand master of the Teutoni c 
order, seizes its territories, renounces the Roman 
catholic religion, embraces Lutheranism, and is 
acknowledged duke of East Prussia, to be held as 

a fief of Poland 1525 

Successful rebellion against the knights consum- 
mated by the treaty of Thorn .... 1466 
University of Konigsberg founded by duke Albert, 1544, 
John Sigismond created elector of Brandenburg and 

duke of Prussia i6o8> 

3 e 2 



PRUSSIA. 



PRUSSIA. 



The principality of Halberstadt and the bishopric 
of Mindeu transferred to the house of Branden- 
burg 1648 

Poland obliged to acknowledge Prussia as an inde- 
pendent state, under Frederick "William, sur- 

naraed the Great Elector 1657 

Order of Concord instituted by Christian Ernest, 
elector of Brandenburg and duke of Prussia, to 
commemorate the part he had taken in restoring 

X>eace to Europe 1660 

Frederick III. in an assembly of the states, puts a 
crown upon his own head and upon the head of 
his consort ; is proclaimed king of Prussia by the 
name of Frederick I., and institutes the Order of 

the Black Eagle 18 Jan. 1701 

Gueldres taken from the Dutch .... 1702 
Frederick I. seizes Neufchatel or Ncunburg, and 

purchases Tecklenburg 1707 

The principality of Meurs added to Prussia . . 1712 
Frederick II. the Great, king, who made the Prus- 
sian monarchy rank among the first powers of 

Europe 174° 

Breslau ceded to Prussia 1741 

Silesia, Glatz, &c, ceded 1742 

' 'Seven years' war" (see Battles) . . . 1756-63 
Frederick II. victor at Prague, 6 May ; defeated at 

Kolin, 18 June ; victor at Rosbach . 5 Nov. 1757 
Gen. Lacy, with an Austrian and Russian army, 
marches to Berlin ; the city is laid under contri- 
bution, &c. ; magazines destroyed . . Oct. 1760 
Peace of Hubertsburg (ends "seven years' war"); 

Silesia gained by Prussia . . . 15 Feb. 1763 
Prussia shares in the first partition of Poland . . 1772 
Frederick the Great dies ... 17 Aug. 1786 
Frederick William II. invades France . . . . 1792 
Joins the coalition against France . . . . 1793 
The Prussians seize Hanover . . 1801 and 1806 
Prussia joins the allies of England against France, 

6 Oct. „ 
Fatal battles of Jena and Auerstadt . . 14 Oct. „ 

[Nearly all the monarchy subdued.] 
Berlin decree promulgated ... 20 Nov. ,, 
Peace of Tilsit (which sec) .... 9 July, 1807 
Formation of the Tugendband (which see), a patriotic 
society (promoted by Von Stein) ....,, 

Convention of Berlin 5 Nov. 1808 

Schaunliorst secretly restores the army by the sys- 
tem of reserves ; forming a nation of soldiers 1809-13 
The people rise to expel the French from Germany 
at the king's appeal, and form the "landwehr" or 

militia 17 March, 1813 

Treaty of Paris 11 April, 1814 

The king visits England .... 6 June, „ 
Ministry of education established . . . . 1817 
Congress of Carlsbad . ' . . . 1 Aug. 1819 
Bliicher dies in Silesia, aged 77 . . 12 Sept. ,, 

fFrom this time Prussia pursued a peaceful and un- 
disturbed policy until 1848.] 
Government disputes with R. C. clergy begin, 
through ultramontanism of the Radziwill family 

since 1830 1840 

Serious attempt made on the life of the king, by an 
assassin named Tesch, who fired two shots at him 

26 July, 1S44 
Insurrection in Berlin . . . .18 March, 1848 
Berlin declared in a state of siege . . 12 Nov. ,, 
The constituent assembly meets in Brandenburg 

castle 29 Nov. „ 

This assembly dissolved ; the king issues a new 

constitution 5 Dec. „ 

The German National Assembly elect the king of 
Prussia "hereditary emperor of the Germans" 

28 March, 1849 
The king declines the imperial crown . 29 April, „ 
The kingdom put under martial law . . 10 May, ,', 
The Prussians enter Carlsruhe . . 23 June, ,, 
Armistice between Prussia and Denmark . 10 July' ,', 
Bavaria declared for an imperial constitution with 
the king of Prussia at its head . . 8 Sept. 
Treaty between Prussia and Austria . 30 Sept. " 
Austria protests against the alliance of Prussia with 
the minor states of Germany . . . 12 Nov. 
Prince Charles Anthony Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, 

minister, resigns 6 Dec. „ 

New constitution, 31 Jan. ; the king takes the oath 

required by it 6 Feb. 1850 

Hanover withdraws from the Prussian alliance, 

25 Feb. ,, 



Treaty signed at Munich between Austria, Bavaria, 
Saxony, and Wurtemberg to maintain the German 
union 27 Feb. 1850 

■Wurtemberg denounces the insidious ambition of 
the king of Prussia, and announces a league be- 
tween AVurtemberg, Bavaria, aud Saxony, under 
the sanction of Austria . . . 15 March, ,, 

Attempt to assassinate the king . . 22 May, „ 

Hesse-Darmstadt withdraws from the Prussian 
league 30 June, ,, 

Treaty of peace between Prussia and Denmark, 

2 July, ,, 

A congress of deputies from the states included in 
the Prussian Zollverein opened at Cassel 

12 July, ,, 

Prussia refuses to join the restricted diet of Frank- 
fort 25 Aug. ,„ 

The Prussian government addresses a despatch 
to the cabinet of Vienna, declaring its resolve 
to uphold the constitution in Hesse-Cassel, 

21 Sept. ,, 

Count Brandenburg, prime minister, dies, 6 Nov. , t 

Decree, calling out the whole Prussian army, 
223,000 infantry, 38,000 cavalry, and 29,000 artil- 
lery, with 10S0 field-pieces ... 7 Nov. ,, 

The Prussian troops in Hesse occupy the military 
road in that electorate .... 9 Nov. ,, 

The Prussian forces withdraw from the grand 
duchy of Baden 14 Nov. ,, 

General Radowitz, late foreign minister, visits 
queen Victoria at Windsor . . .26 Nov. ,, 

Convention of Olmutz for the pacification of Ger- 
many 29 Nov. ,. 

The Prussian troops commence their retreat from 
Hesse-Cassel 5 Dec. ,, 

Prince Schwartzenberg visits the king . 28 Dec. „ 

The king celebrates the 150th anniversary of the 
Prussian monarchy 18 Jan. 185s 

The king visits the czar of Russia . . 18 May, ,, 

Statue of Frederick the Great, by Rauch, inaugu- 
rated at Berlin 27 May, , 

The king and czar leave Warsaw for Olmutz to meet 
the emperor of Austria . . . . 31 May, ,, 

The king revives the council of state as it existed 
before the revolution of 1848 . . .12 Jan. 1852; 

A Prussian industrial exhibition opened at Berlin, 

28 May, „ 

Prussia repudiates a customs' union with Austria, 

7 June, ,, 

But agrees to a commercial treaty . . 19 Feb. 1853. 

Democratic plot at Berlin detected . . April, ,, 

Death of Radowitz . .... 25 Dec. ,, 

Vacillation of the government upon the Eastern 
question March and April, 1854 

Agrees to a protocol for preservation of the integrity 
of Turkey, which is signed at Vienna . 7 April, ,, 

Declares neutrality in the war 6 Sept. and Oct. ,, 

Excluded from the conferences at Vienna . Feb. 1855, 

Disputes with Switzerland (see Neufchatel) 

Nov. 1856, to May, 1857 

Alarming illness of the king, the prince of Prussia 
appointed regent 23 Oct. ,, 

Chevalier Bunsen ennobled . . . Jan. 1858 

Prince Frederick William of Prussia married to the 
princess royal of England . . . 25 Jan. „ 

Queen Victoria visits them at Potsdam . 10 Aug. ,,. 

Prince of Prussia permanent regent . . 7 Oct. , r 

Resignation of Manteuffel ministry ; succeeded by 
that of prince Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (liberal): 
the elections end in favour of the new government 

Nov. , r 

Prince Frederick William, son of the princess royal 
of England, born 27 Jan. 1859. 

Italian war — Prussia declares its neutrality, but 
arms to protect Germany . May and June, ,,. 

The regent announces that " the Prussian army 
will be in future the Prussian nation in arms," 

12 Jan. 1S60 

The regent and several German sovereigns meet 
the emperor of the French at Baden (see Baden), 

15-17 June, ,, 

Baron Bunsen dies (aged 70) ... 27 Nov. ,, 

Disclosures respecting the oppressive system of 
Prussian police ; Stieber, the director, prosecuted 
and censured, but. not punished . . Nov. „ 

Death of Frederick William IV. Accession of Wil- 
liam I. 2 Jan 186s 

Meeting of the chambers : on the motion for the 



PRUSSIA. 



789 



PRUSSIA. 



address, M. von Vincke carries an amendment in 
favour of Italian Unity and "a firm alliance with 
England " 6 Feb. 

On 12 Sept. i860, capt. Macdonald was committed 
to prison at Bonn, for resisting the railway autho- 
rities there ; the English residents appealed and 
were censured ; a correspondence ensued between 
the Pi'ussian government and the British foreign 
secretary ; and strong language was littered in 
the house of commons, 26 April, and in the Prus- 
sian chambers 6 May, 

The Macdonald affair settled by a firm yet concilia- 
tory despatch from the Baron von Schleinitz, 

May, 

Attempted assassination of the king by Becker, a 
JLeipsie student, 14 July ; who is sentenced to 20 
years' imprisonment .... 23 Sept. 

The king meets the emperor Napoleon at Compiegne 

6-8 Oct. 

The king and queen crowned at Konigsberg; he 
declares that he will reign by the "Grace of 
God" 18 Oct. 

Bill for making the ministry responsible, passed 

6 March, 

The chamber of representatives oppose the govern- 
ment in regard to the length of military service, 6 
March ; and resolve on discussing the items of 
the budget ; the ministry resigns ; the king will 
not accept the resignation, but dissolves the 
chambers - . ... n March, 

The ministry (liberal) resigns, and a reactionary 
cabinet formed under Van der Heydt, 18 March- 

12 April, 

Elections go against the government ; only one 
minister elected May, 

Parliament opens ; ministers appeal to the patriotism 
of the members 19 May, 

Severe discussion on military expenditure ; the 
chamber reduces the vote for the maintenance of 
the army from 200,000 to 135,000 men n-16 Sept. 

Van der Heydt resigns ; succeeded as premier 
by the count Bismarck Schonhausen, 23 Sept. ; 
who informs the chamber that the budget is 
deferred till 1863 ; the chamber protests against 
this as unconstitutional . . .30 Sept. 

The chamber of peers passes the budget without 
the amendments of the chamber of representa- 
tives ; which (by 237 against 2) resolves that the 
act is contrary to the letter and spirit of the con- 
stitution 11 Oct. 

The king closes the session (65th) saying, " The 
budget for the year 1862, as decreed by the cham- 
ber of representatives, having been rejected by 
the chamber of peers on the ground of in- 
sufficiency, the government is under the necessity 
of controlling the public affairs outside the con- 
stitution" 13 Oct. 

Agitation in favour of the constitution proceeding ; 
passive resistance adopted ; several liberal papers 
suppressed Nov. 

The chambers reassemble ; unconciliatory address 
from the king, 14 Jan. ; bold reply of the depu- 
ties ; adopted 23 Jan. 

They recommend neutrality in the Polish war 

28 Feb. 

Violent dissension between the deputies and the 
ministry May 

The chamber of deputies address the king on their 
relation with the ministry, and the state of the 
country, 22 May ; the king replies, that his minis- 
ters possess his confidence, and adjourns the 
session 27 May, 

The king resolves to govern without a parliament . 

The press severely restricted, 1 June : the crown 
prince in a speech disavows participation in the 
recent acts of the ministry, 5 June ; and censures 
them in a letter to the king, 6 July ; reconciled to 
the king 8 Sept. 

The liberal members feted in the provinces 

18, 19 July, 

The chamber of deputies dissolved, 2 Sept. ; a 
liberal majority re-elected .... Oct. 

A motion in favour of maintaining the rights of 
the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, carried 2 
Dec. ; but the chamber obstinately refused its 
assent to it or to defray the expenses of war, Dec. 

Chambers dissolved Jan. 

[For the events of the war, sec Denmark.] 



1862 



1863 



Preliminaries for peace with Denmark . 1 Aug. 18C4 

Peace with Denmark signed . . .30 Oct. ,, 

The opening of the chambers, 14 Jan. ; revival of 
the constitutional agitation for control over the 
army budget 16 Jan. 1865 

International exhibition at Cologne opened by the 
crown prince 2 June, „ 

The deputies having rejected the budget, the bills 
for reorganizing the army and increasing the fleet, 
and meeting the expense of the war with Denmark, 
the chamber is prorogued ; the government will 
rule without it 17 June, ,, 

The king at Carlsbad issues a despotic decree ap- 
propriating and disposing of the revenue, 5 July, ,, 

A political dinner of the liberal deputies prohibited 
at Cologne, and forcibly prevented at Oberlahn- 
stein, in Nassau .... 24 July, ,, 

Convention of Gastein (see Gastein), signed 14 Aug. ,, 

Navigation treaty with Great Britain concluded, 

16 Aug. ,, 

The king takes possession of Lauehburg, purchased 
from Austria with his own money . 15 Sept. ,, 

Bismarck visits the emperor Napoleon at Biarritz, 

Nov. ,, 

The chambers opened with a supercilious speech 
from M. Bismarck . . . .15 Jan. 1866 

The opposing chamber prorogued . 22 Feb. ,, 

Decree asserting Prussian jurisdiction overHolstein, 

11 March, ,, 

Prussian circular calling on German states to decide 
whether they will support Austria or Prussia 
(they profess neutrality) . . 24 March, ,, 

Prussia prepares for war ... 27 March, ,, 

Treaty between Prussia and Italy, said to have been 
concluded 27 March, „ 

The French government professes neutrality, April, ,, 

Austria demands the demobilisation of the Prussian 
army, 7 April ; Bismarck proposes a German 
parliament 9 April, „ 

Great meeting at Berlin in favour of peace, 15 April, ,, 

Blind's attempt to assassinate Bismarck fails, 

7 May, „ 

Recriminatory correspondence between Mensdortf 
(Austrian) and Bismarck, calling for disarmament, 

April, May, „ 

Alliance with Italy May, „ 

The Prussians enter Holstein ; Austrians retire, 

7 Ju»c, » 

Meeting of the Federal diet at Frankfort; the 
demobilisation of the Prussian army proposed by 
Austria ; voted for by Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, 
Hesse - Cassel, Nassau, and others ; Prussia 
declares the Germanic confederation to be dis- 
solved 14 June, „ 

Prince Alexander of Hesse appointed to command 
the Federal army June, „ 

The Prussians declare war against Hanover and 
Saxony 15 June, „ 

Justificatory manifestoes issued by Austria and 
Prussia 17 June, ,, 

Prussia declares war ; royal manifesto to the people 

18 June, ,, 

The Prussians occupy Hanover and Hesse-Cassel, 
Saxony and Nassau .... 16-20 June, ,, 

The Austrian northern army enters Silesia, 18 June ; 
joined by the Saxons about . . . 19 June, ,, 

Nearly all the northern states join Prussia about 

23 June, „ 

Prince Frederick Charles and the first army, and 
the army of the Elbe enter Bohemia, 23 June ; 
victorious in severe engagements at Liebenan, 
Tiiruau, and Podoll, 26 June ; Hiihnewasser, 27 
Juue ; Miinchengratz, 28 June ; Gitschin, 29 June, ,, 

The crown prince and the second army (of Silesia) 
enter Bohemia, 22 June ; repulsed at Trautenau, 
27 June ; victorious at Soor and Trautenau, 28 
June ; Koniginhof . . . .29 June, ,, 

The left column of the crown prince's army defeat 
the Austrians at Nachod, 27 June ; Skalicz, 28 
June : Sehweinschadel . . . 29 Juno ,, 

Fruitless victory of the Hanoverians at Langensalza, 
27June; they capitulate to the Prussians, 29 June, , 

Communications opened between the two armies, 

30 June, ,, 

The command assumed by the king . . 1 .Inly, ,, 

Battle of Koniggratz, or Sadowa ; total defeat of 
the Austrians under Benedek . . .3 July 



PEUSSIA. 



790 



PEUSSIA. 



Benedek superseded by tlie archduke Albreeht, 

8 July, 

Campaign of the army under Vogel von Falken- 
stein against the army of the confederation, 
under princes Charles of Bavaria and Alexander 
of Hesse ; Prussian victories at Wiesenthal and 
Dermbach, 4 July ; Hammelburg and Kissingen, 

10 July, 

Advance of the united armies under the king ; 
cavalry skirmish at Saar ; Austrians retire, 

10 July, 

Prince Frederick Charles enters Briinn, capital of 
Moravia 12 July, 

Campaign on the Maine: Prussian victories at 
Laufach, 13 July, and Aschatfenburg 14 July, 

The members of the German diet retire from Frank- 
fort to Augsburg 13 July, 

Austrians defeated at Tobitschau . . 15 July, 

Frankfort occupied by Falkenstein . .16 July, 

Severe fight at Blumenau stopped by the news of an 
armistice 22 July, 

Preliminaries of peace signed at Nikolsburg, 

26 July, 

The Prussians occupy Wiesbaden, 18 July ; vic- 
torious at Tauberbischofsheim, Hochhausen, Wer- 
bacli, 24 July ; Neubrimn, Helmstadt, Gerscheim, 
25 July ; "VViirzburg, 28 July ; armistice granted, 

30 July, 

The army reviewed by the king fifteen miles from 
Vienna, 31 July ; begin their return home, 

1 Aug. 

Franconia occupied by the Prussian army of reserve, 
under the grand duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 
23 July-i Aug. ; armistices granted 1-3 Aug. 

The diet at Augsburg recognised the dissolution of 
the Germanic confederation ... 4 Aug. 

Bohemia and Moravia cleared by . . 18 Aug. 

The treaty of peace signed at Prague . 23 Aug. 

Meeting of special committee of the chamber of de- 
puties ; cost of the war stated, 88,000,000 dollars, 

29 Aug. 

Peace with Wiirtemburg concluded, 13 Aug. ; with 
Baden, 17 Aug. ; with Bavaria, 22 Aug. ; with 
Hesse-Darmstadt (ceding Hesse-Cassel, Hesse- 
Homburg, <fec.) 3 Sept. 

Formation of the North German confederation (see 
Germany) Aug. 

Indemnity bill for the ministry passed . 8 Sept. 

Entry of the army into Berlin ; enthusiastic reception, 

20 Sept. 

Decree for the annexation of Hanover, Electoral 
Hesse, Nassau, and Frankfort . . 20 Sept. 

Possession taken of Hanover, 6 Oct. ; of Hesse, 

■ Nassau, and Frankfort .... 8 Oct. 
Treaty of peace with Saxony . . . 21 Oct. 
Electoral law for new German parliament promul- 
gated at Berlin 23 Oct. 

Prussian chambers reassemble . . .12 Nov. 
Schleswig and Holstein incorporated with Prussia 

■ by decree ; promulgated ... 24 Jan. 

Chambers closed 9 Feb. 

North German parliament meet at Berlin, 24 Feb. ; 

adopt a federal constitution ; closed . 17 April, 

Prussian chambers opened by the king 29 April, 

They accept the North German constitution (sacri- 
ficing Prussian civil rights to German unity), 

8 May, 

Luxembourg question settled by a conference at 
London (see Luxembourg) . . .7-11 May, 

The king visits Paris ; leaves it . . 14 June, 

The Prussian chambers approve North German 
constitution ; closed by the king. . 24 June, 

The new Prussian parliament opened by the king, 

15 Nov. 

Treaty with the United States respecting naturalisa- 
tion of aliens signed at Berlin . . .22 Feb. 

The parliament closed .... 29 Feb. 

Much of the king of Hanover's property seques- 
trated, on account of his maintaining a Hano- 
verian legion, &c March, 

Prince Napoleon Jerome visits Berlin ; left, March, 

North German parliament opened by the king, 

23 March, 

Count Bismarck defeated in the North German 
parliament; his bill withdrawn . . 22 April, 

Kb'ni.g Willwlm, a noble ironclad, originally con- 
structed for the sultan by Mr. E. Reed, the chief 



1867 



constructor of the British admiralty, bought by 
Prussia, launched at Blackwall . . 25 April, 

Customs' parliament at Berlin . 27 April-23 May, 

21 Hanoverians convicted of incipient treason 
against Prussia 20 May, 

Count von Bismarck's temporary retirement through 
ill-health June, 

North German parliament closed by the king, 

20 June, 

■Workmen's congress at Berlin, to promote centrali- 
sation 26-29 Sept. 

Prussian chamber opened with a pacific speech 
from the king 4 Nov. 

Opposition in the chambers ; violent speech of the 
minister, Leonhardt 1 Dec. 

Bismarck, recovered, returns to Berlin . 8 Dec. 

The property of the king of Hanover sequestrated 
for his opposition 15 Feb. 

The parliament closed .... 6 March, 

The Prussian army exercised in manoeuvring at 
Stettin, Konigsberg, &c. in presence of the king, 

Sept. 

The parliament meet, 6 Oct. ; rejects the proposal 
for disarmament 21 Oct. 

The crown prince visits Vienna . . .7 Oct. 

Prince Leopold, of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, con- 
sents to become candidate for the throne of Spain, 

about 5 July, 1870 

In consequence of the virulent opposition of the 
French government he, with the king's consent, 
relinquishes the candidature . .12 July, ,, 

The French government requiring guarantees from 
the king against the future, the king repulses 
and declines to receive the French minister, 
Benedetti, 13 July ; and issues a circular to his 
representatives at foreign courts . 15 July, ,, 

The emperor of the French declares for war, 

15 July, „ 

The North German parliament meet, and vote to 
support Prussia 19 July, ,» 

Proclamation of the king, granting "amnesty for 
political offences," and " accepting the battle for 
the defence of the fatherland," 31 July ; and to the 
army, undertaking the command of the whole 
army 3 Aug. ,„ 

For the events of the war see Franco-Prussian War. 

Order of the "Iron Cross" (distributed in the war 
of 18 13) revived ; given to the crown prince for 
his victory at Wissembourg on . . .4 Aug. 

Prussian bishops protest against infallibility of the 
pope end of Aug. 

Great rejoicing at Berlin, <fec, at the surrender of 
the emperor Napoleon ... 3 Sept. 

Munich, Stuttgardt, and other southern cities, de- 
mand union with North Germany . 6 Sept. 

M. Jacoby arrested at Konigsberg by Von Falcken- 
stein for speaking against the annexation of Alsace 
and Lorraine .... early in Sept. 

Restriction on democratic meetings rescinded by 
gen. Von Falckenstein .... 7 Oct. 

Herr Twesten, the liberal opponent of government 
in the chamber, dies . . . .14 Oct. 

Jacoby and other liberals released by royal decree 
(Jacoby died 7 March, 1877) . about 26 Oct. 

Election of new parliament, Nov. ; opened with 
speech promising internal reforms, 14 Dec. ; aris- 
tocratic address from the peers congratulating 
the king as nominated emperor (see Germany), 

21 Dec. ,, 

The king proclaimed emperor of Germany at Ver- 
sailles 18 Jan. 1871 

The Prussian parliament closed . . .17 Feb. ,, 

The emperor arrives at Berlin . . . 17 March, ,, 

The new imperial diet opened at Berlin 21 March, ,, 

Bismarck created a prince ... 22 March, ,, 

The czar arrives at Berlin . . . 8 June, ,, 

Triumphal entry of the German army into Berlin ; 
inauguration of the statue of Frederick William 
III 16 June, „ 

The bishop of Ermeland excommunicates Dr. Woll- 
ner for denying the pope's infallibility, 5 July ; 
similar acts disapproved by the government, 

July, „ 

The imperial prince and princess arrive in London, 

6 July, ,, 

Convocation of the evangelical church at Berlin, 

2 Aug. ,,. 

Meeting of the parliament . . . 27 Nov. ,, 



PRUSSIA. 



791 



PRUSSIA. 



Von Miihler, minister of public instruction, ultra- 
conservative, forced to resign . . .17 Jan. 1872 

Clerical interference with schools opposed in the 
parliament 8-10 Feb. „ 

Meeting of German princes at Berlin on the em- 
peror's birthday .... 22 March, „ 

The new "national conservative party" formed, 

about May, ,, 

Law for expulsion of the Jesuits, published 5 July, ,, 

Memorial to Von Stein, the statesman (see 1807), 
at Nassau, inaugurated . . . 9 July, ,, 

Government disputes with the R. C. clergy sup- 
porting papal infallibility ; the bishop of Ercne- 
land's salary ordered to be suspended, from 1 Oct. „ 

The government defeated in the house of peers on 
the district administrations bill (145 — 18) (the bill 
would deprive the peers of power in the provinces 
by granting representatives to the peasants in the 
local assemblies) 31 Oct. ,, 

The parliamentary session closed, 1 Nov. ; re- 
opened, government firm ... 12 Nov. ,, 

24 new peers created 2 Dec. „ 

The principle of the reform bill jiassed by the peers 
(114—87) 7 Dec. ,, 

Bismarck resigns the presidency ; continues the 
foreign department ; announced . . 18 Dec. ,, 

Count Roon to be chairman of the ministry Dec. ,, 

Great financial prosperity ; surplus revenue said to 
be 187,000,000 thalers (3s. each) . . . . ,, 

Declaration of the E. C. archbishops of Cologne 
and Posen against prox>osed legislation on church 
affairs Feb. 1873 

Subjection of the church to the state affirmed by 
the legislature '. . . . 12 March, ,, 

Laws introduced by M. Falk, minister of public 
worship, establishing aroyal tribunal of ecclesias- 
tical affairs, in opposition to the authority of the 
pope, 9 Jan. ; passed . . . .11 May, „ 

The emperor recognises the " old Catholic " bishop, 
Reinkens, about Aug. „ 

Letter from the pope to the emperor complaining of 
the ecclesiastical prosecutions, and asserting his 
authority over all baptized persons, 7 Aug. ; the 
emperor replies justifying them, and asserting 
that there is no mediator between God and man 
but Jesus Christ 3 Sept. ,, 

Parliament dissolved, 11 Oct. ; new parliament 
elected Nov. ,, 

The emperor visits Vienna . . . 17 Oct. ,, 

Archbishop Ledochowski of Posen fined for threat- 
ening to excommunicate a professor ; and arch- 
bishop Melchers fined for instituting priests with- 
out government permission . . . Oct. ,, 

The pope (by letter) encourages archbishop Ledo- 
chowski to resist 3 Nov. ,, 

Parliament opened : (votes for government, 432 ; 
opposition, 121) 12 Nov. ,, 

Government defeated in attempt to restrict the 
press ; the ultramontanes join the opposition 

3 Dec. „ 

A new oath of implicit obedience to the state pro- 
posed for the clergy ; the civil marriage bill passed 

Dec. „ 

Several bishops fined for disobedience to the law 

Dec. „ 

Archbishop Ledochowski imprisoned, 3 Feb. ; de- 
prived 15 April, 1874 

Serious illness of Bismarck, March ; recovering 

June, „ 

New ecclesiastical laws, restraining authority of 
bishops, with punishment for disobedience, pro- 
mulgated May, „ 

Van der Ileydt, statesman (see 1862) dies 14 June, ,, 

Martin, bishop of Paderborn lesists the ecclesias- 
tical laws to July, ,, 

Bismarck wounded by Kullmann, a fanatical cooper, 
near Kissingen 13 July, ,, 

Catholic associations in Berlin closed . 21 July, ,, 

Bishop of Paderborn, summoned to resign, refuses, 
7 Sept. ; sentenced to imprisonment for sedition 

21 Sept. „ 
Launch of the iron-clad Fried/rich der Grosse at Kiel, 

in the presence of the emperor . 20 Sept. ,, 

Arrest of count Harry Arnim and confinement in 
Berlin for refusing to give up documents sent to 
him as ambassador, 4 Oct. ; for illness released 
on bail, 28 Oct. ; again arrested . . 12 Nov. „ 
Kullmann sentenced to 14 years' imprisonment 30 Oct. „ 



Government defeated in parliament on a bank-note 
bill 16 Nov. 1874 

Ultramontanes attack Bismarck in parliament ; he 
replies 4 Dec. ,, 

Bismarck's proffered resignation not accepted 

17, 18 Dec. ,, 

Arnim's trial, 9 Dec. ; convicted of making away 
with ecclesio-political documents ; acquitted of 
other charges ; sentence, 3 months' imprisonment 

19 Dec. ,, 

Catholic bishops and priests imprisoned for infrac- 
tion of ecclesiastical laws . . . Jan. 1875 

Deprivation of the bishop of Paderborn 5 Jan. ,, 

Parliament opened 16 Jan. ,, 

Civil marriage adopted by the parliament 25 Jan. „ 

Encyclical of the pope to the bishops encouraging 
firmness, protested against by the R. C. deputies 
of parliament 5 Feb. ,, 

Exportation of horses prohibited . . 4 March, ,, 

Clerical control over parish funds taken away ; bill 
for depriving the R. C. clergy of state aid brought 
in 16 March, ,, 

Alarm of war with France arises . . April, ,, 

Prussian bishops at Fulda appeal to the emperor 
against ecclesiastical legislation, 2 April ; rebuked 
for not submitting to the law . . . 9 April, ,, 

Visit of the czar to Berlin ; war panic in Europe, 
10 — 13 May ; diplomatic intervention of Great 
Britain leads to assurances of peace about 24 May, ,, 

Bismarck abolishes the semi-oflicial press 

about 26 May, ,, 

King and queen of Sweden arrive at Berlin 28 May, „ 

George von Vincke, an eminent constitutional states- 
man, dies June, ,, 

Count Arnim's new trial, 15 June ; verdict, confirm- 
ing sentence 20 Oct. „ 

Partial submission of the bishops : announced 

Aug. ,, 

Launch of the Wilhchn, iron-clad . . 17 Sept. „ 

Fdrster, prince-bishop of Breslau, sentenced to de- 
privation 6 Oct. ,. 

The emperor warmly received by the king of Italy 
at Milan (prince Bismarck too ill to go) 18-23 Oct. ,, 

Statue of Von Stein (see 1807 above) inaugurated 
by the crown prince .... 26 Oct. ,, 

German parliament opened by the emperor ; firm 
and pacific speech read . . . . 27 Oct. „ 

Letter from count Arnim rebutting accusations in 
the rimes of 19 Nov - >> 

He is to be prosecuted for treason in a pamphlet 
entitled " Pro Nihilo," published at Zurich Nov. ,, 

Prussian diet opened 16 Jan. 1876 

Asserted deficiency in revenue of about 2,500,000?. 

about 25 Jan. ,, 

Archbishop Ledochowski released from prison (pro- 
ceeds to Rome) 3 Feb. ,, 

The empress visits England . . 3 May- June, ,, 

Parliament dissolved, 14 Oct. ; liberal majority in 
new parliament 27 Oct. ,, 

The emperor celebrates his 70th military anniversary, 
1 Jan. ; eightieth anniversary birthday 22 Jan. 1S77 

Chambers opened 12 Jan. „ 

Berlin Conference on Eastern question (emperor of 
Eussia, prince Gortsehakoff, and count Andrassy). 
See Berlin 11, 12 May, „ 

Prince Bismarck's resignation not accepted ; he 
retires temporarily for his health . . April, ,, 

Count Eulenburg's policy as minister of interior dis- 
l>leases prince Bismarck ; the count's resignation 
not accepted : he is granted six months' absence, 

Sept „ 

Parliament opened ; loan for military purposes pro- 
posed 21 Oct. ,, 

Resolutions against government defeated in parlia- 
ment through promised administrative changes, 

27 Oct. „ 
Prince Bismarck resumes his active duties as chief 
of ministry, 15 Feb. : in the German parliament, 
asserts strict neutrality and non-interference 
with Russia in the Eastern question . 19 Feb. 1878 
Ministerial crisis : resignation of Camphausen, 
finance minister .... 6 March, ,, 

Ministry unsettled May, , 

Hudel (called Lehman), a socialist, fires at the cm 

peror and misses, at Berlin . . . 11 May, ,, 
The emperor wounded by shots by Dr. Nobiling, 2 

June ; gradually recovered . . June— Sept. ,, 
Hbdel executed at Berlin . . . 16 Aug 



PEUSSIA. 



792 



PEUSSIA. 



Statue of Frederick- William III. unveiled by the 
emperor at Cologne . . . .26 Sept. 

Count Arnim publishes " Quid faciamus nos?" Jan. 

Marriage of princess Louise Margaret of Prussia to 
the duke of Connaught . . 13 March, 

The emperor's golden wadding kept . n June, 

New Parliament opened by the emperor (majority 
for Bismarck) 28 Oct. 

Letter from the pope to Melchers, abp. of Cologne, 
recommending submission of names of priests to 
the government, dated . . . -24 Feb. 

Ecclesiastical laws (Falk) amendment bill, pro- 
moted by prince Bismarck ; much discussed, 
May ; passed (maimed ; 206-202) . 28 June, 

Parliament opened 28 Oct. 

Discussion on the social movement against the Jews 
through jealousy ; no vote . . 20-22 Nov. 

Anti-Semitic league very active ; much opposed by 
the prince imperial and others . . . Jan. 

The minister of the interior, count Eulenburg, re- 
signs through offence of prince Bismarck, 

about 19 Feb. 

Prince William, grandson of the emperor and of 
queen Victoria., married to princess Augusta Vic- 
toria of Schleswig-Holstein . . 27 Feb. 

Death of count Arnim at Nice . . 19 May, 

Dr. Felix Korum nominated bishop of Treves, at 
Rome ; approved by Bismarck . 14 Aug. et seq. 

Revenue surplus announced . . .18 Jan. 

Bismarck's tobacco bill rejected by his economic 
council 21 March, 

Liberals rather weakened by elections about 29 Oct. 

Prospect of reconciliation with the Vatican ; amend- 
ments of the ecclesiastical laws of May, 1873, 
introduced 5 June, 

Bill passed ; diet closed ... 2 July, 

Revival of the Prussian Council of State, the crown 
prince president, royal family members 18 June, 

Parliament opened 15 Jan. 

Death of prince Frederick Charles, the "Red 
Prince " aged 57 . ... . 15 Jan. 

Prince Charles Anthony Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, 
dies aged 73 2 June, 

General Manteuffcl dies aged 76 . . 17 June, 

Prof. Graff acquitted of perjury, 9 days trial, 3 Oct. 

Twenty-fifth anniversary of the king's accession 
celebrated 3 Jan. 

Prince Bismarck puts forth his plan for Germanizing 
Posen by purchasing Polish estates to be settled 
by Germans ; 5,ooo,oooZ. to be raised for the 
purpose, Feb. ; finally passed . . 7 April, 

Bill for greatly amending the ecclesiastical laws 
(see May, 1873) passed by the upper house, 

13 April, 

Political meetings without permission prohibited 
by decree 14 May, 

Convention signed between Prussia and the Vatican 
about 1 1 Aug. 

The emperor's 90th birthday celebrated at Berlin, 

22 March, 

Prince Bismarck introduces Church and State Bill, 
softening Falck laws .... March, 

Death of emperor William I. ; succeeded by his 
son Frederick III 9 March, 

Amnesty for certain political offences proclaimed, 

31 March, 

Prince Bismarck opposes the project of a marriage 
between prince Alexander of Batteuberg and 
princess Victoria of Prussia ; favoured by the 
emperor and empress ; he withdraws his resigna- 
tion and the project deferred . early April, 

Marriage of prince Henry of Prussia and princess 
Irene of Hesse, grandchildren of queen Victoria 
of England 24 May, 

Parliamentary quinquennial bill promulgated, 

7 June, 

Death of emperor Frederick III ; succeeded by his 
son William II 15 June, 

Publication in the Deutsche Rundschau (Oct.) of 
alleged extracts from the diary of the emperor 
Frederick III., when crown prince asserting that, 
it washe who suggested the unity of Germanyand 
the empire, with other statements ; said.by prince, 
Bismarck at first to be apocryphal and after- 
wards to be notes falsified anil coloured ; the 
work ordered to be prosecuted for publishing 

state secrets Sept. 

[The books were found locked up in the house at 



1879 



San Remo where the crown prince resided : the 
diary contains details of the war with E'rance, 
1870-1 : it was stated that the books were 
given or shown by the prince to baron von 
Roggenbach, the Baden statesman.] 

Dr. Geficken arrested at Hamburg 29 Sept. 1888 

A part of the prince's diary published in the Kider 
Zeitunfj Sept. ,, 

The Klilnische Zeitung 16 Dee. accuses the British 
ambassador at St. Petersburg (sir Robert B. D. 
Morier) when charge d'affaires at Darmstadt, of 
giving information to marshal Bazaine of the 
movements of the Prussian army in 1870. Sir 
Robert writes to count Herbert Bismarck re- 
pelling the charge (and sends a letter from the 
marshal to himself to the same effect) 19 Dec. The 
count refuses 25 Dec. 1888. Sir Robert publishes 
the correspondence in the Times, 4 Jan.; much 
discussion ensues Jan. 1389 

Dr. Geffcken acquitted of criminal intents, 7 Jan. ,, 

Prince Bismarck publishes the indictment and 
evidence 16 Jan. ,, 

The king of Italy, his son, and signor Crispi at 
Berlin 21-26 May, ,, 

Death of the empress Augusta, 7 Jan. ; grand 
funeral n Jan. 1S90 

The emperor-king convokes the council of state 
respecting the working-classes, see Germany and 
Berlin, 4 Feb. ; delivers an address ; propositions 
considered 14-28 Feb. ,, 

Princ.3 Bismarck resigns the offices of premier and 
foreign minister, 18 March ; succeeded by gen.- 
George von Caprivi . . about 20 March, ,, 

Death of count Moltke. see Germany 24 April, 1891 

Much discussion on the primary education bill, 
which enacts, that in all schools some form of 
Christianity should be taught, to counteract 
socialism ; read first time ... 30 Jan. 1892 

Ministerial crisis in relation to the education bill ; 
count Caprivi resigns the premiership, but re- 
mains foreign minister and chancellor of the 
empire 22 March, „ 

Count Botho von Eulenburg becomes premier 

24 March, ,, 

The government withdraw the education bill, about 

28 March, ,, 

Certain privileges of the nobility abolished with 

compensation May, ,, 

(See Germany 1871 ct seq.) 

Margraves, Electors, Dukes, and Kings. 
margraves or electors of brandenburg. 
1 134. Albert I., the Bear, first elector of Brandenburg. 
1 1 70. Otho I. 
1 184. Otho II. 
1206. Albert II. 
1221. John I. and Otho III. 
1266. John II. 
1282. Otho IV. 
1309. Waldemar. 

1319. Henry I. the Young. 

1320. [Interregnum.] 
1323. Louis I. of Bavaria. 
1352. Louis II. the Roman. 
1365. Otho V. the Sluggard. 
1373. Wenceslas, of Luxemburg. 
1378. Sigismund, of Luxemburg. 
1388. Jossus, the Bearded. 
1411. Sigismund, again emperor. 

1415. Frederick I. of Nuremberg (of the house of Kohen- 

zollern). 
1440. Frederick II., surnamed Ironside. 
1470. Albert III. surnamed the German Achilles. 
1476. John III. his son ; as margrave ; styled the Cicero 

of Germany. 
14S6. John III. as elector. 
1499. Joachim I. son of John. 
1535. Joachim II. poisoned by a Jew. 
1571. John-George. 
1598. Joachim-Frederick. 
1608. John-Sigismund. 

DUKES OF TRUSSIA. 

1618. John-Sigismund. 

1619. George-William. 

1640. Frederick-William, his son, the " Great Elector. " 
16S8. Frederick III., son of the preceding ; crowned kino-, 
18 Jan. 1 701. 



PRUSSIC ACID. 



793 PUBLIC LOAN COMMISSIONERS. 



KIXGS OF PRUSSIA. 

1701. Frederick I. ; king ; died. 

1713. Frederick-William I., son of Frederick I. 

1740. Frederick II. (or Frederick III. ; styled the Great), 
son ; made Prussia a military power. 

1786. Frederick- William II., nephew of the preceding. 

1797. Frederick-William III. (he had to contend against 
the might of Napoleon, and after extraordinary 
vicissitudes, he aided England in his overthrow), 
died 7 June, 1840. 

1840. Frederick-William IV., son; born 15 Oct. 1795; 
died, 2 Jan. 1861. 

1861. William I., brother (born, 22 March, 1797) ; pro- 
claimed emperor of Germany at Versailles, iS Jan. 
1871) ; married princess Augusta of Saxe-Weimar, 
11 June, 1829 ; golden wedding kept, 11 June, 
1879 ; died 9 March, i883 ; she died 7 Jan. 1890. 

j888. Frederick III. (William) son, " the noble " ; born 
18 Oct. 1831 ; (married Victoria, princess-royal 
of England, 25 Jan. 1858;; died 15 June, 1888. 
,, William II., son ; born 27 Jan. 1859 (married 
princess Augusta Victoria of Seldeswig-Holstein, 
27 Feb. 1881). 
Heir: William; born 6 May, 1882. 

PRUSSIC ACID (hydrocyanic acid), acci- 
dentally discovered by Diesbach, a German chemist, 
in 1709, and first obtained in a separate state by 
Schcele about 1782. It is colourless, smells like 
poach flowers, freezes at 5 Fahrenheit, is very 
volatile, and turns vegetable blues into red. Simple 
■water distilled from the leaves of the lauro-cerasus 
first ascertained to be a most deadly poison by Dr. 
Madden of Dublin; see Blue. 

PRUTH, a river in Moldavia, the boundary of 
Turkey. Peter the great crossed the Pruth, was 
.surrounded by the Turks, and lost much by a con- 
vention, June, 1 71 1. The Itussians crossed it 2 
July, 1853, and war ensued. 

PRYTANIS, a magistrate of Corinth, annually 
•elected from 745 B.C. till the office was abolished by 
Cypselus, a despot, 655 B.C. 

PSALMS OF DAVID were collected by 
Solomon, IOOO B.C. ; others added, 580 and 515 B.C. 
The Church of England Old Version in metre by 
Sternhold and Hopkins was published in 1562 ; the 
New Version by Tate and Brady in 1698. 
The version of Francis Rous, provost of Eton, first pub- 
lished in 1641, was ordered to be used, by the parliament 
in 1646. It is the basis of the Scotch version, which 
appeared in 1650. The marquis of Lome published a 
version in 1877. Many other versions published. 

PSEUDONYM LIBRARY, a name given 
to a series of books by eminent writers in which the 
name of the publisher was substituted for that of 
the author. The publication began in 1891. 

PSEUDOSCOPE (from pscudos, false), a 
name given by professor Wheatstone (in 1852) to 
the stereoscope, when employed to prouuee ■' con- 
versions of relief," i.e., the reverse of the stereo- 
scope : a terrestrial globe appears like a hollow 
hemisphere. 

PSYCHIC FORCE, see Spirihialism. 

PSYCHOLOGY, the science of the soul and 
its phenomena, studied by Aristotle, Tlato, Des- 
cartes, Leibnitz, Locke, Hume, James Mill, J. S. 
Mill, Herbeit Spencer, sir Wm. Hamilton, Alex. 
Bain, and others. 

Psychological Society founded by sent. Cox, 1875-79. 
Professor Balfour Stewart, lord Rayleigh, and the 

bishops of Carlisle and Ripon were members, 1886. 

See Telepathy. 
Society for Psychological Research founded, 1882. 
International congress of Experimental Psychology, 

Paris, 1889; Loudon, 1 Aug. 1892. 
Prof. Wm. James' "Principles of Psychology," 1802. 

PSYCHROMETER (h-omps>,chros, cold), an 
apparatus for measuring the amount of elastic 



vapour in the atmosphere ; invented by Gay Lussae 
(1778-1850), and modified by Regnault (about 1848). 
An electric psychrometer was described by Edmond 
Becquerel, 4 Feb. 1867. 

PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM. Claudius Ptolemy 
of Pelusium, in Egypt (about A.r>. 140), supposed 
that the earth was fixed in the centre of the uni- 
verse, and that the sun, moon, and stars moved 
round once in twenty-four hours. The system (long 
the official doctrine of the church of Home) was uni- 
versally taught till that of Pythagoras (500 B.C.) 
was revived by Copernicus, a.d. 1530, and demon- 
strated by Kepler (1619) and Newton (1687). 

PUBLICANS, farmers of the state revenues 
of Home. Soon after the battle of Cannas they were 
so wealthy as to be able to advance large sums to 
the government, payable at the end of the war. No 
magistrate was permitted to be a publican. 

PUBLIC BATHS, &c, see Baths, Education. 

PUBLIC DEPARTMENTS, Royal Com- 
mission to inquire generally into their state was 
appointed about 13 Sept. 18S6. It consisted of sir 
M. "W. Ridley (chairman), lords Brownlow, Lingen, 
Rothschild, Messrs. Sclater Booth, H. Fowler, Ky- 
lands, sir E. Guinness, and others ; Mr. "Walpole 
(secretary); first report issued, Oct. 1887; second, 
Sept. 1888. Important changes recommended. 

PUBLIC ENTERTAINMENTS ACT, 

38 Vict. c. 21, passed 14 June 1875, amends the Act 
25 Geo. II. c. 36, 1752. 
PUBLIC GOOD, see Leagues. 

PUBLIC HEALTH ACTS. New act. con- 
solidating all the previous sanitary and nuisance 
acts, passed, 11 Aug. 1875; another act passed in 
1883. Amendment acts pa-sed in 1890, and 1892. 
The Public Health (London) act, passed 5 Aug 1891, 
made very important changes. It came into opera- 
tion 1 Jan. 1892 ; it repealed 16 acts entirely, and 
partially 19 more, and consclidated their best pro- 
visions. The Public Health acts, relating to Scot- 
land and Ireland, were amended in 1891. An act 
relating to supply of water passed 4 July, 1878. 
See Health, Sanitation. 

RATE OF DEATHS PER 1,000. 

England in 1660-79, 8° ; 1840-74, 22J. 

General death rate per 1,000 (published in the Registrar- 
General's weekly report)— 1889, April, 20-3 ; June, 
17-3 ; Sept. 17*9 ; Nov. 18-2 ; Dec. 21-9. 1890, 15 Jan. 
28-1 ; 15 Feb. 25-3 ; 15 March, 23-6 ; 12 April, co - 6 ; 

10 May, 19-2 ; 14 June, 17^2 ; 12 July, 177 ; 16 Aug. 
2i'o; 13 Sept. 18-6; 11 Oct. 19-8; 15 Nov. 21-1; 13 
Dec. (frost), 2T3 ; 20 Dec. 26-0; 27 Dec. 26-3. 1S91, 
3 Jan. 287; 17 Jan. 27-3; 24 Jan. 25 - i ; 31 Jan. 
(warmer). 22-3 ; 7 Feb. 19-8 ; 14 Feb. 19-9 ; 14 March, 
22 - i ; 11 Aprfl, 22 - 9 - , 2 May (influenza), 26 - S ; 16 May, 
30-1 ; 13 June, 23-8; n July, i6 - 8 ; 15 Aug. iS'S; 19 
Sept. 177 ; 17 Oct. i8 - 2 ; 14 Nov. 2C6 ; 12 Dec. 19-8. 
1892, 16 Jan. 33-0 (influenza); 23 Jan. 35 - 4 ; 13 Feb. 
23'i ; 12 March, 22-9 ; 16 April, 20^9 ; 14 May, 20*4 ; 

11 June, 17*9; 16 July, 17-9 ; 20 Aug. i8"o. 

11 June, 1892 — Birmingham, i9 - S ; Blackburn, 22^2; 
Bradford, 16-9 ; Brighton, iS'S ; Bristol, 17-0 ; Derby, 
12-5 ; Hull, 13-2 ; Leeds, 15-1 ; Leicester, 14-2 ; Liver- 
pool, 2i*4 ; London, i7 - s; Manchester, 237; Xew- 
castle-on-Tyne, 2o - 6 ; Norwich, 13-2 ; Nottingham, 
i2 - 8; Plymouth, 177; Portsmouth, 147; Sheffield, 
16-5. 
PUBLIC HOUSES, see Victuallers, and 

Sunday. 
PUBLIC LIBRARIES ACTS, passed 1855 

and 1871; amended in 1877, 1S87 and 18S9. A 

Public Works Loans act was passed 1890. 
PUBLIC LOAN COMMISSIONERS 

were constituted bv the act passed 13 Aug. 1875. 

Other acts passed 1879-83. 



PUBLIC MEETINGS. 



794 



PULLEY. 



PUBLIC MEETINGS, for political purposes, 
wore occasionally held in England in the latter part 
of the 17th century, but became very important in 
t v ;e reign of George III. The meetings in Devon- 
shire in 1763 to protest against the Cider Tax, were 
very effective, and set an example speedily followed, 
with, the warm approbation of Burke, Fox, and 
other statesmen. These meetings were prohibited 
hy the Gagging acts, which see, passed in 1795 ; see 
Sedition. In the reign of George IV., the right of 
public meetings was fully assured, and they were 
very effectual in relation to the passing the Reform 
acts, the Repeal of the Corn Laws, and other impor- 
tant measures. See Hyde Park. The place on 
which the speakers stand is termed a "platform," 
corresponding to the Roman rostrum, and the 
French tribune. "The Platform," by Mr. H. 
Jephson, was published in 1792. The term "plat- 
form " is also applied to a set of political or religious 
opinions held by a party ; such as the "platform of 
Geneva." Hooker. 

PUBLIC OFFICES SITE ACT (for the 
Admiralty and War) passed 24 July, 1882. 

PUBLIC PROSECUTOR, see Prosecutor. 

PUBLIC EECOBDS, see Records. 

PUBLIC SAFETY, Committee of, was 
established at Paris during the French Revolution 
on 6 April, 1 793, with absolute power, in conse- 
quence of the coalition against France. The severe 
government of this committee is termed the Reign 
of Terror, which ended with the execution of Robes- 
pierre and his associates, 28 July, 1794. A similar 
committee was established at Paris by the com- 
munists, March-May, 1871. 

PUBLIC SCHOOLS ACT, 1S68, amended 
by acts passed 1870 and 1872 ; see Education. 

PUBLIC STORES. The laws relating to 
their protection were consolidated and amended by 
an act passed 29 June, 1875. 

PUBLIC. WORKS ACT, passed 21 July, 
1863, to provide work for the unemployed persons 
in the manufacturing districts at the time of the 
cotton famine. Ii enabled corporate bodies to raise 
loans, and proved very successful. It was continued 
in 1864-75, I S86 and 1892. See under Local Loans. 

PUBLIC WOE SHIP REGULATION- 
ACT, 37 & 38 Vict. c. 85, principally for the re- 
pression of ritualism in the church of England, was 
introduced into the House of Lords by the archbishop 
of Canterbury, 21 .April, and after very much dis- 
cussion, rcctived the royal assent, 7 Aug. 1874. 
By it a new judge in the provincial courts of Canter- 
bury and York whs appointed : the first being 
lord Penzance ; the act came into operation 
_,. 1 July, 1875 

First cause, the parish of Folkestone v. rev. C. J. 
Ridsdale, the vicar, 4 Jan., 1876 ; tried at Lam- 
beth palace ; verdict, for plaintiffs . . 3 Fell. 1876 
Rev. Arthur Tooth of Hatcham, and rev. T. Pelham 
Dale of St. Vedast's, London ; monition to dis- 
continue practices .... 18 July, 
Kev. A. Tooth disregards monition ; justifies him- ' 
self and denies authority of court, 21 Dee. 1876 ; 
carries on ritualistic services up to 14 Jan. ; pro- 
nounced contumacious by lord Penzance in court 
of Arches, 13 Jan. ; imprisoned in Horselnonger- 
lane gaol from 22 Jan. to 17 Feb. The church was 
forcibly entered, and ho celebrated holy com- 
munion in the censured form . . M May, 1877 
Proceedings against him quashed by the Queen's 
Bench on appeal, because the trial did not take 
place in the diocese of Rochester . 19 Nov. 
Sentence upon Rev. T. P. Dale set aside through 
legal difficulty; he resumes service . 22 July, 
[Again convicted and admonished, 8 Feb. 1879.] 



The Queen's Bench division asseit the public wor- 
ship regulation court is a new court, and not a 
modification of the court of Arches . 19 Nov. 1077 

Rev. John Edwards of PresUmry suspended for six 
months, and Rev. A. H. Mackonochie warned, 

23 March, 1878 
j Rev. A. H. Mackonochie sentenced by court of 
Arches to three years' suspension from benefice 
and otfice, for disobedience to monition of the 
court 1 June, „ 

Enforcement of the sentence prohibited by the 
Queen's Bench 8 Aug. ,, 

Rev. J. Edwards' suspension also set aside . Aug. ,, 

Sentence of court of Arches against Mr.Mackonochie 
affirmed by court of Appeal, 28 June ; he is sen- 
tenced to 3 years' suspension from benefice (from 
23 Nov. 1879), he protests ... 15 Nov. 1879 

Mr. Sinclair, nominated to officiate, retires ; Mr. 
Mackonochie officiates as usual . . 23 Nov. „ 

Martin v. Mackonochie, new trial ; lord Penzance 
declines to decide, as the former sentence has not 
been carried out 5 June, 1880 

Rev. T. Pelham Dale is imprisoned in Holloway 
gaol for contempt of court . . .30 Oct. ,, 

Rev. Sidney F. Green, rector of Miles Platting, Man 
Chester, and Rev. Rd. Win. Enraght, of Bor- 
desley, Birmingham, convicted 20 Nov. ; Mr. 
Enraght imprisoned in Warwick gaol 27 Nov. „ 

Mr. Dale applies to Queen's Bench for release on 
ground of illegal proceedings ; his detention 
affirmed 6-13 Dec , t 

Mr. Dale on appeal to house of lords released till 11 
Jan. 1881 ; Mr. Enraght prefers to remain 

18 Dec. , t 

Mr. Dale (and consequently Mr. Enraght) dis- 
charged through technical irregularity respecting 
the writ by decision of Appeal court 15 Jan. i88t 

Rev. A. H. Mackonochie's appeal to the house of 
lords dismissed ; sentence of 1878 to take effect 

7 April, ,,, 

The judicial committee of privy council grant him 
a new trial, 3 Feb. ; remit to Lord Penzance to 
decree suitable punishment . . .22 Feb. 1882 

Rev. S. F. Green imprisoned in Lancaster Castle 
March 1881 ; released . . . .5 Nov. ,, 

Sir Percival Heywood, v. the bishop of Manchester, 
for refusing to institute Rev. Mr. Cowgill, curate 
of Rev. S. F. Green, as his successor, 10, 12 Dec. 
1883 ; Baron C. Pollock decides for the bishop 

21 Jan. 1884 

Mr. Mackonochie sentenced to deprivation by court 
of Arches, 21 July, 18S3. He resigns the benefice 
of St. Peter's, London Docks 31 Dee. 1883. 
Died, aged 62, by exposure to cold, having lost his 
way near Kinlochmore, Scotland about 15 Dec. T887 

Rev. James Bell Cox suspended for ritualistic 
practices after much litigation ; committed to 
Walton gaol, by error for contempt of court, 5 
May ; release ordered by writ of lutbeits corjms, 
20 May; this set aside on appeal, 22 Nov.; but 
affirmed by the house of lords . . 5 Aug. 1890 

A trial of the bishop of Lincoln, see under Canter- 
bury. 

PUBLISHERS' CIRCULAR, first issued 
twice a month, weekly since Dec. 1890; organised 
chiefly by Mr. William Longman (died 1877), 
greatly assisted by Mr. Sampson Low, who first 
published it, 2 Oct. 1837. 

In 1890 the London publishing firm of Messrs. Longman, 
which existed as Osinan and Longman in 1726, pur- 
chased the business of Messrs. Rivington, which was 
established by Mr. Charles Rivington in 1710. 

PUDDLING, making the walls of canals 
water-tight by means of clay, was largely adopted 
by Brindley in constructing the Bridgewater canals, 
1761 ct seq. ; see also under Lron Manufacture. 

PUEBLA, see Mexico, 1863. 

PUERTO, see Porto. 

PUGILISM, see Boxing. 

PULLEY, vice, and other mechanical instru- 
ments, are said to have been invented by Archytas 
of Tarcntum, about 400 B.C., or by Archimedes, 



PULLMAN CARS. 



795 



PURITANS. 



287-212. la a single movable pulley the power 
gained is doubled : in a continued combination the 
power is equal to the number of pulleys, less one, 
doubled. 

PULLMAN CARS, see under Railways. 

PULTOWA (Eussia), where Charles XII. of 
Sweden was entirely defeated by Peter the Great 
of Russia, 8 July, 1709. He tied to Bender, in 
Turkey. 

PULTUSK (Russia), where a battle was fought 
between the Saxons, under their king Augustus, and 
the Swedes, under Charles XII., in which the 
former were signally defeated, 1 May, 1703. Here 
also the French under Napoleon fought the Russian 
and Prussian armies : both sides claimed the victory, 
but it inclined in favour of the French, 26 Dec. 
1806. 

PUMPS. Ctesibius of Alexandria is said to 
have invented pumps (with other hydraulic instru- 
ments), about 224 B.C., although the invention is 
ascribed to Danaus, at Lindus, 1485 B.C. Pumps 
were in general use in England, A.u. 1425. An in- 
scription on the 'pump in front of the late Royal 
Exchange, London, stated that the well was sunk 
in 1282. The air-pump was invented by Otto 
Guericke in 1654, and improved by Boyle in 1657 ; 
see Air and Hells. 

PUNCH, the puppet show, borrowed from the 
Italian Pulichinello, is descended from a character 
well known in the theatres of ancient Rome. Fos- 
hroke. The satirical weekly publication, Fundi-, or 
the London Charivari, was es'ablishcd by Henry 
Mayhew, Mark Lemon, Douglas Jcrrold, Gilbert 
a' Beckett, and others : amongst its early contribu- 
te s were Win. M. Thackeray ; Prof. E. Forbes, and 
other eminent writers; first published 17 July, 1841. 
Mark Lemon, the first editor, died 23 May, 1870 ; 
2nd, Shirley Brooks, died 23 Feb. 1874; 3 ru \ Tom 
Taylor, died July, 1880; 4th, Francis Cowley Bur- 
nand. Richard Doyle, who designed the wrapper, 
and was a frequent contributor, died 11 Dec. 1883 ; 
John Leech died 1864, and was succeeded by Mr. du 
Maurier. Mr. Percival Leigh, an early and long- 
continued contributor to Punch, died 24 Oct. 18S9, 
aged 77. Charles S. Keene, artist, a contributor 
since 1850, died 4 Jan. 1891. An interesting jubilee 
number of Punch was published 17 July, 1891. See 
Caricatures and Charivari. 

PUNCTUATION. The Hebrew accents for 
punctuation are very ancient. The period (.) is the 
most ancient ; the colon (:) was introduced about 
1485 ; the comma (,) was first seen about 1521, and 
the semicolon (;) about 1570. In sir Philip Sid- 
ney's "Arcadia" (1587), they all appear, as well as 
the note of interrogation (?), asterisk (*), and 
parentheses ()• 

PUNIC WARS, see Carthage, 264-241; 218- 
201 ; 149-146 b.c. 

PUNISHMENTS, see Beheading, Blinding, 
Boiling, Death, Browning, Flogging, and Poison- 
ing. 

PUNJAUB (N. W. Hindostan) was traversed by 
Alexander the Great, 327 B.C. ; by Tamerlane, 
a.d. 1398 ; by Mahmoud of Ghizni, about 1000. It 
was an independent state under Runjeet Singh, 
1791-1839. Our wars with the Sikhs began here, 
14 Dec. 1845, and were closed on 29 March, 1849, 
when the Punjaub was annexed ; see India. The 
Punjaub has since greatly flourished, and on 1 Jan. 
I.S50, was made a distinct presidency (to include the 
Su'ilcj states and the Delhi territory) ; sec Durbar. 



The Sirhind canal (502 miles) opened by the vice- 
roy, marquis of Ripon, 24 Nov. 1882. Local self- 
government bill passed 10 Oct. 1883. Population in 
1881, 18,843,186; in 1891, 20,803,000. Capital 
Lahore! 

[Plmleep Singh (son of Runjeet Singh), born 
1838, received a pension of 40,000?. ; he resided 
m England till 1886 when he sailed for India ; 
in consequence of an indiscreet proclamation to 
the Sikhs he was stopped at Aden about 3 May, 
1886. After his release he wandered about 
Europe ; in May 1889 he married a European in 
Paris ; his manifesto to the Sikhs, inciting; 
them to rebellion, indignantly rejected with 
strong censure, Nov. 1889. After severe illness, 
he expresses deep regret for his conduct, 27 
July, and is pardoned by queen Victoria, 1 Aug. 
1890 ; received by her at Grasse, 31 March, 
1891.] 
Lieut.-governors : sir James Lyall, 1887 ; sir Dennis 
Fitzpatrick March, 1892- 

PUPPETS (Italian, puppi ; French, marion- 
nettes), of which the eyes, arms, &c, were moved by 
strings, were used by the ancients, and are men- 
tioned by Xenophon, Horace, and others.^ Skilful 
theatrical performances with puppets have been 
several times exhibited in London (at the Ade- 
laide gallery, 1852). A performance with pup- 
pets as large as life, began at St. James's-Lall,. 
July, 1872. M. Ch. JIagnin published a " Histoirc 
des Mario7i)iettes," 1852. 

PURCELL CLUB, formed Aug. 1836; dis- 
solved 1863. 

PURCELL SOCIETY, founded 21 Feb- 
1876, to publish and perform the works of Henry 
Purcell. 

PURCHASE OF LAND, see under Zand. 

PURCHASE SYSTEM in the army. The 
payment of a present or gratuity for a commission 
was prohibited by William III., 1693 ! hutin 1702pm - - 
chase was legally re-organised. In 1711 the sale of 
commissions was forbidden without the royal permis- 
sion ; in 1719-20 regulations were issued; and a 
fixed scale of prices was adopted in consequence of 
a commission in 1765. Large over-regulation pay- 
ments continued to be paid. Commissions of inquiry 
were held frequently since 1858; and in 1871 the 
system was abolished, with compensation, by royal 
warrant, 20 July, 1871, the bill for the purpose- 
having been rejected by the house of lords. For 
amounts paid, see under Army. 

PURGATIVES of the mild species (aperients), 
particularly cassia, manna, and senna, are ascribed 
to Actuarius, a Greek physician, 1245. 

PURGATORY, the_ middle place between 
heaven and hell, where, it is believed by the Roman 
catholics, the soul passes through the tire of purifi- 
cation before it enters the kingdom of God. The 
doctrine was known about 250 ; was introduced into 
the Roman church in the 5th century, and made a 
religious dogma by Gregory I., 590-604. It was 
first set forth by a council at Florence, 1439 ; en- 
forced by the council of Trent, Dec. 1563 ; see In- 
dulgences. 

PURIFICATION, after childbirth, was or- 
dained by the Jewish law, 1490 B.C. {Lev. xii.) ; see 
Churching. The feast of the purification was insti- 
tuted, 542, in honour of the Virgin Mary's going to 
the temple. {Luke ii.) Pope Scrgius I. ordered 
the procession with wax tapers, whence Candlemas- 
day. 

PURITANS, the name first given, it is said, 
about 1564, to persons who aimed at greater purity 



PUELEY. 796 



PYX. 



of doctrine, holiness of living, and stricter discipline 
than others. They withdrew from the established 
church, professing to follow the word of God alone, 
and maintaining that the church retained many 
human inventions and popish superstitions; see 
Cathari, Nonconformists, and Presbyter ianism. 

PUELEY, see Diversions. 

PUEPLE, a mixed tinge of scarlet and blue, 
discovered at Tyre. It is said that Hercules Tyrius 
having observed his dog's lips to be stained, after 
eating a shell-fish named murex or purpura, was 
thereby led to invent the dye. Purple was anciently 
used by the princes and great men for their gar- 
ments^ It was restricted to the emperor by 
Justinian I. 532, and porphyrogenitus attached to 
the names of some emperors signifies "born to the 
purple." 

PURVEYANCE, an ancient prerogative of 
the sovereigns of England of purchasing provisions, 
&c, without the consent of the owners, led to much 
■oppression. It was regulated by Magna Charta, 
121 15, and other statutes, and was only surrendered 
by Charles II. in 1660, for a compensation. 

PUSEYISM, a name attached to the views of 
certain clergymen and lay members of the church 
"f England, who proposed to restore the practice of 
the church of England to what they believed to 
he required by the language of her Liturgy and 
Eubrics, but which were considered by their oppo- 
nents to be of a llomish tendency. The term was 
derived from the name of the professor of Hebrew 
at Oxford, Dr. Edwd. Pusey. The heads of houses of 
the university of Oxford passed resolutions censuring 
Dr. Pusey's attempts to renew practices which are 
now obsolete, 15 March, 1841 ; and his celebrated 
sermon was condemned by the same body, 30 May, 
1843; he died 16 Sept. 1882 ; see Tractarians, and 
Mitualism. 

PUTNEY, anciently Putilei and Putenheath, 
N.E. Surrey, on the Thames, opposite Fulham. A 
Kiew granite bridge, founded by the prince of Wales 
(to replace the wooden one completed in 1729), 12 
July, 1884. Opened by the prince, 29 May, 1886. 

PYDNA (Macedon), where Perseus, the last 
king of Macedon, was defeated and m;ide prisoner 
by the llomans, commanded by JEmiiius Taulus, 22 
June, 168 B.C. 

PYEAMLDS OF EGYPT, about 75 in number, 
of various sizes, constructed for the preservation of 
mummies of the kings and their families. 
The Stepped Pyramid of Sakkara is conjecturally 
assigned to Ouenephes of the first dynasty, see Egypt. 
Three 'great pyramids are situated near Gizeh on the 
W. bank of the Nile. The first or greatest, is said to 
have been erected as the tomb of Choofoo, fourth dy- 
nasty, the Cheops of Herodotus, dated by Brugsch, 
3733-3666 B.C. Its height is said to have been origin- 
ally 481 feet, and its base 774 square feet. The 
second pyramid is ascribed to Chafra, or Chepliren, 
3666-3633 b.c. The third pyramid is said to have 
been built by Menkaura or Myeerinus, 3633 B.C. 
The pyramids have been visited and described by Bel- 
zoni, 1815 ; Vyse, 1836 ; C. Piazzi Smith, and others, 
see Etjt/pt Exploration, Finxd. 
Some of the eleven pyramids at Sakkara have been ex- 
plored by M. Maspero, 1880 et seq. 
At the battles of the Pyramids, Napoleon Bonaparte de- 
feated the Mamelukes, and thereby conquered Lower 
Egypt, 13 and 21 July, 1798. 

PYEENEES. After the battle of Vittoria 
(fought 2 1 June, 18 13), Napoleon sent Soult to super- 
sede Jourdan, with instructions to drive the allies 
across the Ebro; Soult retreated in to France with aloss 
of more than 20,000 men, having been defeated by 



Wellington in a series of engagements from 25 July 
to 2 Aug. One at the Pyrenees on 28 July. A 
railway through the Pyrenees (from Bilbao to 
Miranda) was opened 21 Aug. 1862. — The Peace 
of the Pyrenees was concluded between France 
and Spain, by cardinal Mazarin, for the French 
king, and don Louis de Haro, on the part of Spam, 
in the island of Pheasants, on the Bidassoa. By 
this treaty Spain yielded Koussillon, Artois, and her 
light to Alsace ; and France ceded her conquests in 
Catalonia, Italy, &c, and engaged not to assist 
Portugal, 7 Nov. 1659. 

PYEOLETEE, a mechanical and chemical 
apparatus for extinguishing fires, especially in ships, 
invented by Dr. Paton ; tried at Greenhithe, and 
reported successful, 1 June, 1S75. 

PYEOMETEE (fire-measurer), an apparatus 
employed to ascertain the temperature of furnaces, 
&c, where thermometers cannot be employed ; 
Muschenbroek's pyrometer (a metallic bar) was 
described by him in 1731. Improvements were 
made by Ellicott and others. Wedgwood employed 
clay cylinders, 1782-6. In 1830 professor Daniell 
received the Eumford medal for an excellent pyro- 
meter made in 1821. Mr. Ericsson's pyrometer 
appeared in the Great Exhibition of 185 1. {Enij. 
Cyc.) Mr. (aft. sir) C. W. Siemens employed electric 
resistance in his pyrometers, exhibited in 1871. 

PYEOPHONE (Greek, pur, tie; phone, voice), 
a musical instrument, invented by M. Frederic 
Kastner, of Paris. It consists of glass tubes of 
various lengths ; the tones being produced by 
what are termed " singing flames." It is based 
upon the "chemical harmonicon." Keys are 
attached for playing, as in the piano. The inven- 
tion was reported to the French Academy of 
Sciences, 17 March, 1873; exhibited at Vienna, 
same year ; and at the Society of Arts, 1 7 Feb. 
1875. M. Kastner died aged 31, 6 April, 1882. 

PYEOXYLIN, the chemical name of Gun 
Cotton {which see) . 
PYEEHONISM, see Sceptics. 

PYTHAGOREAN PHILOSOPHY. 

Pythagoras, of Samos, head of the Italic sect, 
flourished in the 6th century B.C. He is said to 
have taught the doctrine of metempsychosis, or 
transmigration of the soul from one body to another, 
forbidden his disciples to eat flesh and beans, in- 
vented the multiplication table, improved geometry, 
and taught the present system of astronomy. 

PYTHIAN GAMES, in honour of Apollo, 
near the temple of Delphi ; asserted to have been 
instituted by himself, in commemoration of his 
victory over the serpent, Python. Also said to have 
been established by Agamemnon; or Diomedes, or 
Amphictyon, or lastly, by the council of the 
Amphictyons, 1263 B.C. They lasted till 394. 

PYX, the casket in which Catholic priests keep 
the consecrated wafer. In the ancient chapel of the 
pyx, at Westminster abbey, are deposited the 
standard pieces of gold and silver, under the joint 
custody of the lords of the treasury and the comp- 
troller-general. The " trial of the pyx" signifies 
the verification by a jury of goldsmiths of the 
coins deposited in the pyx or chest by the master of 
the mint; this took place on 17 July, 1S61, at the 
exchequer office, Old Palace-yard, in the presence 
of twelve privy councillors, twelve goldsmiths, and 
others, and on 15 Feb. 1870. This trialis said to have 
been ordered in the reign of Henry II., 1154-89; 
King James was present at one in loll. The first 
annual trial of the pyx, appointed by the Coinage 
act of 1870, took place 18 July, 1871. 



Q. 



QUACKERY. 



QUAKERS. 



QUACKERY, or medical imposture, is very- 
ancient. Quack medicines were taxed in 1783 
et scq. An inquest was held en the body of a 
young lady, Miss Cashiu, whose physician, St. 
John Long, was afterwards tried for manslaughter, 
21 Aug. 1830 ; he was found guilty, and sentenced 
to_ pay a fine of 2C.0I., 30 Oct. following. He was 
tried for manslaughter in the case of Mrs. Catherine 
Lloyd, and acquitted, 19 Feb. 183 1. Dr. Vries, 
" the black doctor," a professed cancer-curer, at 
Tari-, was condemned to fifteen months' imprison- 
ment as an impostor in Jan. 1S60. 

QUADRAGESIMA SUNDAY, first Sun- 
day in Lent and 40th day before Good Friday; see 
Lent, and Quinquagesima. 

QUADRANT, a mathematical instrument in 
the form of a quarter of a circle. The solar quad- 
rant was introduced about 290 B.C. The Arabian 
astronomers under the caliphs, in 995, had a quad- 
rant of 21 feet 8 inches radius, and a sextant 59 feet 
9 inches radius. Davis's quadrant for measuring 
angles was produced about 1600; Hadley's quadrant 
about 1 73 1 ; see Navigation. 

QUADRILATERAL or Quadrangle, 

terms applied to four strong fortresses in N. Italy, 
long held by the Austrians, but surrendered to the 
Italians, Oct. 1866; — Peschiera, on an island in the 
Mincio ; Mantua on the Mincio ; Verona and Leg- 
nago, both on the Adige ; see Italy, Peschiera, &c. 

The Turkish Quadrilateral "was Slramla, Varna, Rustchuk, 
and Silistria, lost to the sultan by the treaty of Berlin, 
which established the autonomy of Bulgaria. 

QUADRILLE, a dance (originally quadrille 
de con t re clause, introduced into French ballets 
about 1745), i J1 its present form became popular in 
France about 1804. It was introduced into this 
country about 1808 (Miss Berry), and promoted 
by the duke of Devonshire and others, in 1813. 
liaikes. 

QUADRIVIUM, see Arts. 

QUADRUPLE ALLIANCE. That be- 
tween Great Britain, France, and the emperor 
(signed at London, 22 July, 1718), on the accession 
of the states of Holland, 8 Feb. 17 19, obtained its 
name. It guaranteed the succession of the reign- 
ing families of Great Britain and France, settled 
the partition of the Spanish monarchy, and led to 
war. 

^ QUADRUPLE TREATY, concluded in 
London 22 April, 1834, by the representatives of 
Great Britain, France, Spain, and Portugal, gua- 
ranteed the possession of her throne to Isabella II., 
the young queen of Spain. 

QUADRUPLEX TELEGRAPHY, see 

under Electricity. 

QUAESTORS (seekers) . Two qnmslores parri- 
tidii, public prosecutors, in cases of murder and 
other capital crimes, acted in Rome under the 
kings ; two quastores classici, who had the man- 
agement of the public treasure ; appointed about 
484 B.C. The number of qurestors was raised from 
time to time, as circumstances demanded. Ple- 



beians were first elected in 409 B.C. There were 
eight quaestors in 265. Sylla raised the number to- 
twenty ; Julius Cajsar to forty. 

QUAKERS or Society of Friends, origin- 
ally called Seekers, from their seeking the truth, 
and afterwards Friends (3 John, 14). Justice Ben- 
net, of Derby, gave the society the name of Quakers- 
in l650,_ because George Fox (the founder) admon- 
ished him and those present to quake at the word 
of the Lord. This sect was commenced in England 
about 1646, by George Fox (then aged 22), who- 
was joined by George Keith, William Penn, and 
Robert Barclay, of TJry, and others. Fox rejected 
all religious ordinances, explained away the com- 
mands relative to baptism, &c. ; discarded the- 
ordinary names of days and months, and used thee 
and thou for you, as more consonant with truth- 
He published a book of instructions for teachers and 
professors, and died 13 Jan. 1691. Sir H. Nicolas 
explains the Quaker calendar in his Chronology of 
History. The first meeting-house in London was- 
in "White Hart-court, Gracechurch-strcet. 
Their principles are contained in " Extracts of minutes " 
(from the beginning) published 1782: revised 1S02 
1S61, and 1883. 
The Quakers early suffered grievous persecutions. At- 
Boston, U.S., where the first Friends who arrived were- 
females, they (even females) were cruelly scourged and 
had their ears cut off; some put to death. 
In 1659 they stated in parliament that 2000 Friends had 
endured sufferings and imprisonment in Newgate : ami; 
164 Friends offered themselves at this time,1jy name 
to government, to be imprisoned in lieuo'fa'n equal 
number in danger (from confinement) of death i6sq 
Fifty-five (out of 120 sentenced) were transported to- 

America, by an order of council, 1664. 
The masters of vessels refusing to carry them for some- 
months, an embargo was laid on West India ships 
when a mercenary wretch was at length found for the- 
service. The Friends would not walk on board nor 
would the sailors hoist them into the vessel, and sol- 
diers from the Tower were employed. In 166= the 
vessel sailed ; but it was immediately captured by t lie 
Dutch, who liberated twenty-eight of the prisoners in, 
Holland, the rest having died of the plague. Few 
reached America. 
First meeting of Quakers in Ireland in Dublin in 
1658; and their first meeting-house there was 
opened in Eustace-street . . , _ 1602- 
The solemn affirmation of Quakers enacted to be 
taken in all cases in the courts below, wherein 
oaths are required from other subjects (see Affir- 
mation) x g g 

William Penn, with a company of Friend's, colon'- 

ised Philadelphia ' _ 1682- 

John Archdale, a Quaker, elected M.P. for Chipping 
Wycombe; refused to take the oaths, and his 
election was declared void . . . ifi 

Quakers emancipated their negro slaves . ' 1 Jan' t 7 ss 
A schism in the society was begun in America 
about 1827, by Elias Hicks publishing his opinions 
denying the divinity of Christ and his atonement 
and the authority of the Holy Scriptures. His 
numerous followers are styled Hicksite Friends 
Joseph Pease, a Quaker, was admitted to parliament 



15 Feb. 1833 



on his affirmation 

The Quakers had in England" 4 i 3 meeting-houses!., 
1800, and 372 in lS 

At an annual assembly it was agreed to recommend 
that mixed marriages should lie permitted, and 
that many of the peculiarities of the. see! in speech 
and costume should be no longer insisted on. 

2 Nov. tSs3- 



QUALIFICATION. 



793 



QUEEN. 



An act passed rendering valid Quaker marriages 
when only one of the persons is a Quaker. May, i860 

Tiie Quakers publish an address deprecating the 
continuance of the war .... Jan. 1871 

Said to be 14,441 Quakers in Great Britain, May, 
1877 ; about 14,700, May, 1880 ; 15,381 . May 1885 

QUALIFICATION for Office Aboli- 
tion ACT, passed May, 1866, rendered it unneces- 
sary to make and subscribe certain declarations. 

QUAE AN TINE: the custom observed at 
Venice as early as 1 127, whereby all merchants and 
others comiug from the Levant were obliged to 
remain in the house of St. Lazarus, or the Lazar- 
etto, forty days before they were admitted into the 
city. Various southern cities have now lazarettos ; 
that of Venice is built in the water. In the times 
of plague, England and all other nations oblige 
those that come from the infected places to perform 
quarantine with their ships, &c, a longer or shorter 
time, as may be judged most safe. Quarantine acts 
were passed in 1753 and in 1825. By order of coun- 
cil, 10 Nov. 1866, foreign cattle were made subject 
to quarantine. 

QUAETEE SESSIONS were established, 
55 Edw. III. 1350-1. The days of sitting were 
appointed, 2 Hen. V. 1413. In 1830 it was en- 
acted that quarter sessions of the peace should be 
held in the first week after II Oct., 28 Dec, 31 
March, and 24 June. Further regulated, 1S42, 1848, 
and 1858. 

QUAETEELY EE VIEW, the organ of the 
Tory party. The publication was proposed to Mr. 
■George Canning, and his support solicited by Mr. 
John Murray, the publisher, in a letter dated 25 
Sept. 1807, in opposition to the opinions of the 
Edinburgh Jtevieio. Mr. Murray was ably assisted 
by Walter Scott, Robert Southey, John Gibson 
Lockhart (editor 1825-53), J. W. Croker, aud other 
•eminent persons. The review first appeared in 
Feb. 1809, under the editorship of William Gilford, 
the celebrated translator of "Juvenal." He died 
31 Dec. 1826. 

QUASI MODO, a name given to Low Sunday 
{the first Sunday after Easter) from the commence- 
ment of a hymn sung on that day. 

QUATEENIONS, an important mathemati- 
cal method or calculus, invented by Sir Win. 
Rowan Hamilton, about 1843. 

It is based upon the separation of multiplication from 
addition, and its fundamental idea is mental trans- 
ference or motion by what he termed vectors. He 
attributed to addition motion from a point ; to mul- 
tiplication about a point. Four numbers are generally 
involved, hence the name quaternion. Hamilton's 
" Lectures on Quaternions," was published 1853: his 
"Elements," 1866. Other works by professors Kelland 
and Tait, published since. 

QUATEE-BEAS (Belgium). Here on 16 
June, 1815, two days before the battle of Waterloo, 
a battle was fought between the British and allied 
army under the duke of Brunswick, the prince of 
Orange, and sir Thomas Picton, and the French 
under marshal Ney. The British:" ought with re- 
markable intrepidity, notwithstanding their inferi- 
ority in number, and their fatigue through march- 
ing all the preceding night. The 42nd regiment 
(Royal Highlanders) suffered severely in pursuit of 
.a French division by cuirassiers posted in ambush 
behind growing corn. The duke of Brunswick was 
killed. 

QUEBEC a province of the dominion of 
<Canadd, formerly called Lowjr Canada, was 



settled by the French in the 16th and 17th cen- 
turies. Quebec the capital, was founded by th 1 11 
in 1608. Population of the province, iSSi, 
1,359,027; 1891, 1,489,062. Town, 1881^62,446; 
1 89 1, 63,090. 
Quebec reduced by the English, with all Canada, in 

1629, but restored 1632 

Besieged by the English, but without success . 1711 

Conquered by them after a battle memorable for the 
death of general Wolfe in the moment of victory, 
and of the French general Montcalm 13 Sept. 1759 
Besieged in vain by the American provincials, under 

general Montgomery, who was slain . 31 Dec. 1775 
Bishopric established . . . 1793 

Public and private stores and several wharfs de- 
stroyed by lire ; the loss estimated at upwards of 

260,000? Sept. 1815 

Awful fire, 1650 houses, the dwellings of 12,000 per- 
sons, burnt to the ground . . .28 May, 1845 
Another great tire, 1365 houses burnt . 28 June, ,, 
Fire at the theatre, 50 lives lost . . 12 Jan. 1846 
Quebec made the seat of government . 17 April, 1856 
Visited by the prince of Wales . . 18-23 Aug. i860 
Great fire in French quarter ; 2500 houses and 17 
churches destroyed, and nearly 20,000 persons 

made homeless 14 Oct. 1866 

Great tire ; 500 houses burnt ... 24 May, 1870 
Great fires at St. John's — commercial district ; 9 
churches and 7 hotels said to be destroyed. 

18 June, 1876 
Dissensions between the lieut. -governor Luc Letel- 

lier de St. Just and his ministers . . . . ,, 
600 small wooden houses destroyed by fire . June, 1881 
Parliament buildings burnt (incendiary) 19 April, 1883 
Dynamite explosions destroying new parliament 

buildings . . . , . . .11 Oct. 1884 
Destructive fire in the citadel ; the powder maga- 
zine saved ; about 30,000?. damage . 6-7 July, 1887 
A. Real Angers appointed lieut. -governor . . ,, 

Thunderstorm with great loss of life and property, 

16 Aug. 1888 
Fire in the suburb St. Sauveur ; above 700 houses 

destroyed; great distress . . 15-16 May, 1889 
Jesuits' Estate act passed, see Canada . Aug. , 
Landslip below the citadel, 7 dwellings fell, 19 

Sept. ; 30 bodies recovered, 36 missing 21 Sept. ,, 
The duke and duchess of Connaught received warmly 

10 June, 189c 
Visit of the Comte de Paris, banquet . 28 Oct. ,, 
At St. Joseph de Levis, a railway train, crossing 
the bridge, is thrown into the river, about 10 lives 

lost 18 Dec. ,, 

Destructive boiler explosion at Hare Point, about 

30 persons killed 12 Feb. 1891 

The Hon. Honore Mercier, premier of Quebec, and 
Mr. Joseph Adolphe Chapleau, secretary of state, 
charged with misappropriating public money in re- 
lation to the Chaleurs Bay railway, &c. ; the 
charge accepted by the Senate . . 14 Sept. ,, 
In consequence of the interim report of the Royal 
Commission of inquiry (three judges) appointed 
by lieut. -governor Real Angers (issued Nov.), lie 
dismisses the ministry . . . .16 Dec. ,, 
Mr. C. B. de Boucherville forms a ministry 21 Dec. „ 
Royal commission to inquire into the conduct of 
the ministry, 11 Jan. 1892 ; the report censures 
several persons and blames Mr. Mercier for negli- 
gence. ... .17 Feb. 1892 
Investigations respecting the Mercier ministry . ,, 

April, „ 
Xew parliament opened (conservatives 55, opposi- 
tion 17) 27 April, ,, 

Trial of Mr. Charles Langelier and Mr. Ernest Pa- 
caud for conspiracy and fraud ; judgment re- 
served 21 May, ,, 

Mr. Mercier and Mr. Pacaud committed for trial for 
conspiracy to defraud the province of money . ,, 

9 June, ,, 
(See Canada and Montreal.) 

QUEEN (Saxon, civen ; German, konigin). 
In 1554 an act was passed " declaring that the regall 
power of this realine is in the queues majestic 
[Mary] as fully and absolutely as ever it was in 
any of her moste noble progeiiilours kinges of this 
realme." The Hungarians culled a queeu-regnant 



QUEEN ANNE'S BOUNTY. 



799 



QUEENSLAND. 



king; see Hungary. John Knox's "Monstrous 
ltegiment of Women," published 1555, against 
Mary queen of Scots, greatly offended Elizabeth of 
England. 

QUEEN ANNE'S BOUNTY, established 
by her in Nov. 1703, being the first fruits with the 
tenths, to increase the incomes of the poorer clergy. 
There were 5597 clerical livings under 50^. per 
annum found by the commissioners under the act of 
Anne capable of augmentation. Chalmers. Act to 
consolidate the offices of first fruits, tenths, and 
queen Anne's Bounty, passed I Vict. 1838. Amount 
of the fund, 1S92, 388,946^. 

QUEEN ANNE'S FAETHINGS. . The 
popular stories of the great value of this coin are 
fabulous, although some few of particular dates 
have been purchased by persons at high prices. 
The current farthing, with the broad brim, when 
in fine preservation, is worth \l. The common 
patterns of 1 7 13 and 1714 are worth \l. The two 
patterns with Britannia under a canopy, and Peace 
on a car, r r k, are worth 2I. 2s. each. The 
pattern with Peace in a ear is more valuable and 
rare, and worth 5^. Finkerton (died 1826). 

QUEEN CAROLINE'S TRIAL, &c. 

Caroline Amelia Elizabeth, second daughter of 
Charles William Ferdinand, duke of Brunswick, 
bom 17 May, 1768; married to George, prince of 

Wales 8 April, 1795 

Their daughter, princess Charlotte, born 7 Jan. 1796 
The "Delicate Investigation" (which sec) 22 May, 1806 
Charges against her again disproved . . . 1813 
The princess embarks for the continent . Aug. 18 14 
Becomes queen, 20 Jan. ; arrives in England, 

6 June, 1S20 
A secret committee in the house of lords, appointed 
Co examine papers on charges of incontinence, 

8 June, ,, 
Bill of pains and penalties introduced by lord 

Liverpool 5 July, ,, 

The queen removes to Brandenburg-house 3 Aug. ,, 
.Receives an address from the married ladies of the 

metropolis (and many others afterwards) 16 Aug. ,, 
Her trial commences .... 19 Aug. „ 

Last debate on the bill of pains and penalties, when 
the report was approved by 108 against 99 ; the 
numerical majority of nine being produced by the 
votes of the ministers themselves. Lord Liver- 
pool moves that the bill be reconsidered that day 

siv months 10 Nov. 1820 

■Great public exultation ; illuminations for three 

nights in London . . . 10, n, 12 Nov. ,, 
The queen goes to St. Paul's in state . 29 Nov. ,, 
She protests against her exclusion from the corona- 
tion, 19 July ; taken ill at Drury-lane theatre, 30 
July ; dies at Hammersmith ... 7 Aug. 1821 
Her remains removed on their route to Brunswick ; 
an alarming riot occurs ; two persons were killed 
in an affray with the guards . . 14 Aug. ,, 

QUEEN CHARLOTTE Ship of War, 

•a first-rate ship of the line, of 1 10 guns, the flag- 
chip of lord Keith, then commanding in chief in 
the Mediterranean, was burnt by an accidental fire, 
•off the harbour of Leghorn, and more than 700 
British seamen out of a crew of 850 perished by fire 
or drowning, 17 March, 1800. 

QUEEN'S ADVOCATE, prosecutes or de- 
fends on the part of the crown in all cases in the 
■court of admiralty. Sir R. J. Phillimore, ap- 
pointed in 1862, was succeeded by sir Travers 
Twiss, Aug. 1867, who resigned in March, 1872 ; 
no successor appointed. 

QUEENS BENCH COURT and PRI- 
SON, sec King's Bench. 

QUEEN'S COLLEGES, see Cambridge and 
•Oxford. Queen's colleges, Ireland, from their un- 
•eectarian character termed the " Godless Colleges," 



were instituted in 1845, to afford education of the 
highest order to all religious denominations. They 
were placed at Belfast, "Cork, and Gal way; the last 
was opened on 30 Oct. 1849. —The " Queen's Uni- 
versity in Ireland," comprehending these colleges, 
was founded by patent, 15 Aug. 1850 ; the earl of 
Clarendon, lord lieutenant, the first chancellor. 
These were "condemned" by the Propaganda and 
the pope, and by a majority (a small one) of the 
Irish bishops hi a synol held at Thurles, in Sept. 
1850. A supplemental charter, granted in June, 
1866, created much dissension when acted upon in 
October following, and was suffered to expiie, 31 
Jan. 1868; see Colleges. 

A government commission of inquiry into the col- 
leges was appointed about . . . May, 1876 
Dissolution of the Queen's University enacted, ano- 
ther to be created, by 42 & 43 Vict. c. 65, passed 
15 Aug. 1879. 

QUEENSLAND, Moreton - bay, a Biitish 
colony, comprising the whole of the north-eastern 
portion of Australia ; was separated from New South 
Wales and made a distinct colony, in 1859, when 
Brisbane, the capital, founded by Oxley, 1823, was 
made a bishopric. Chinese immigrants are virtually 
excluded. 

Sir George Fergusson Bowen, the first governor, 
succeeded by Mr. Blackall, 1868 ; the marquis of 
Normanby, 1871 ; Mr. Wm. Wellington Cairns, 
1874 ; sir Arthur E. Kennedy, Jan. 1877; sir An- 
thony Musgrave, March, 1883 ; died 9 Oct. 1S88 ; sir 
Henry Arthur Blake Nov. (objected to by the 
colony) ; resigns about 27 Nov. ; sir Henry 
Wylie Norman appointed Nov. 1888 ; well 
received 1 May. ; opens the parliament with 
speech noticing the prosperity of the colony 

21 May, 1889 
Report of royal commission, 25 April, 1885 ; on 
recruiting in South Pacific Isles for labourers for 
sugar plantations in North Queensland, discloses 
much deceit aid cruelty, especially in the ship 
Hopeful, capt. Slnw, May; Neil McNeil, agent, 
and Williams, bDatswain, were convicted of 
murder (not executed) 1884; 404 islanders sent 
home, announced . . 6 June ; others in July, 1885 
North Queensland made a bishopric 187S ; agitation 

of North Queensland for separation July, ct set/. ,, 
Loan of 1,554,000/. authorised . . .15 Nov. 1889 
Mount Morgan, a grazing district of 640 acres, in 
central Queenslan 1, bought, by Donald Gordon 
for 5s. an acre, was sold by him to Messrs. Morgan 
for 1/. an acre : in 1882 they discovered gold, and 
formed a partnership with Messrs. Hall and others. 
The product of gold enormously increased, and 
in 1886, a new company was formed with a capital 
of 1,000,000/., which is said to have paid very 

large dividends. Nov. ., 

Disastrous floods, about 800 miles of land submerged 

through heavy rains . . announced 5 Jan. 1890 
The cabinet re-arranged ; hon. B. D. Morehead still 

premier announced 6 Jan. ,, 

Destructive cyclone ; Cardwell, a small town- 
ship, nearly destroyed . . about 31 March, „ 
Resignation of Mr. Morehead's ministry, 7 Aug. ; 

succeeded by Sir S. W. Griffith's . ' 8 Aug. ,, 
Labour disputes and riots in central Queensland, 

about 21 March ; suppressed . . 26 March, 1891 
The Shearers' Union, very active . . 1S90-1 

Strike of the shearers collapses reported 14 June, 1891 
Very large crop of wheat and wool reported 8 Dee. ,, 
Misunderstanding between sir Thomas M'llwraith 
and the Bank of England respecting a loan, Sept.- 
Dec, 1891 ; explanations given, March ; amicable 
settlement ... . . 3 May, 1892 

North and Central Queensland petition for separa- 
tion from tire colony ; the British government 

recommends delay May, , 

Revival of the employment of Kanaka labourers, 

under restrictions ; bill passed reported 6 May ,, 
The separation question deferred by government 

Aug. ., 
Population in 1859, about 23,450; in 1871, 125,146 ; 
in 1875, about 163,182; in 1884, 301,577; in 1891, 
393. 7'S. 



QUEENS OF ENGLAND. 



800 



QUIEINUS. 



Chief exports, wool, gold, copper, tallow, lire stock, 
cotton, and sugar ; value in 1871, 2,560,383?. ; 
1883, 5,276,608/.. Imports in 1887, 5,821,611/. ; 
exports, 6,453,945/. 

Revenue 1887, 3,032,463/. ; expenditure, 3,350,049/. 
i888-g,revenue, -s, 636,000/. ; expenditure 3,510,000/. 
1889-go, revenue, 3,260,308/.; expenditure, 
3,745,217/.; imports,5,o66,7oo/.; exports,8,554,5i2/. 

QUEENS OF ENGLAND, see under Eng- 
land. 
QUEEN'S THEATRE, see Opera House. 
QUEEN'S TITLE, see Royal Style. 

QUEENSTOWN (Upper Canada) . This town , 
on the river Niagara, was taken in the war with 
America by the troops of the United States, 13 Oct. 
18 1 2 ; but was retaken by the British forces, who 
defeated the Americans with considerable loss in 
killed, wounded, and prisoners, on the same- day. 
Queenstown suffered severely in this war. — The 
Cove of Cork was named Queenstown, 3 Aug. 1849., 
by the queen on her visit. 

QUEEN'S UNIVERSITY (see Queen's Col- 
leges) , was directed to be dissolved by 42 & 43 Vict. 
c. 65 (1879), and was dissolved by proclamation, 31 
Jan. 1882; see University of Ireland. 

QUEEN VICTORIA Steam Ship. 

Wrecked 15 Feb. 1853 ; see Wrecks. 

QUENTIN, ST. (N. France). The duke of 
Savoy, with the army of Philip II. of Spain, as- 
sisted by the English, defeated the French under 
the constable De Montmorency, at St. Quentin, 10 
Aug. 1557. In fulfilment of a vow made before 
the° engagement, the king built the monastery, 
palace, &c, the Escurial, considered by the Span- 
iards the eighth wonder of the world ; see Escurial. 
During the Franco-German war the army of the north, 
under Faidherbe, was defeated here by the Ger- 
mans after seven hours' fighting, on 19 Jan. 1871 ; 
total loss about 15,000 : the German loss about 
3100. 

QUERETARO (Mexico), was besieged and 
taken (through the treachery of Lopez) by the 
liberal general Escobedo, 15th May, 1867. The 
emperor Maximilian and his generals Miramon and 
Mejia, were taken prisoners, and, after trial were 
shot 19 June following. 

QUERN or HANDMILIi, is probably the im- 
plement spoken of in Isaiah xlvii. 2, about 712 B.C. 
So-called .Roman querns have been found in York- 
shire. 

QUESNOY (N. France), was taken by the 
Austrians, II Sept. 1793, but was recovered by the 
Fienc'n, 16 Aug. 1794- It surrendered to prince 
Frederick of the Netherlands, 29 June, 1815, after 
the bittle of Waterloo.— It was here that cannon 
were first used, and called bombards. He'nault. 

QUETTAH, see JBcloocJdslan. 

QUIBERON BAY (W. France). A British 
force landed here, Sept. 1746, but was repulsed. In 
the bay admiral Hawkc gained a complete victory 
over the French admiral Conflans, and thus defeated 
the projected invasion of Great Britain, 20 Nov. 
1759. Quiberon was taken by some French regi- 
ments in the pay of England, 3 July, 1795 ; but on 
21 July, through treachery, the French republicans, 
under 'lloche, retook it by surprise, and many emi- 
grants were executed. About 900 of the troops, 
and nearly 1500 royalist inhabitants who had joined 
tne regiments in the pay of Great Britain, effected 
their embarkation on board the ships. 



QUICKSILVER, in its liquid state, mercury. 
Its use in refining silver was discovered, 1540. 
There are mines of it in various parts, the chief of 
which are at Almaden, in Spain, and'atldria, in 
Illyria ; the latter, discovered by accident in 1497, 
for several years yielded 1200 tons. A mine was 
discovered at Ceylon in 1797; and at New Almaden 
and other places in California. Quicksilver was- 
congealed in winter at St. Petersburg, in 1759. It 
was congealed in England by a chemical process, 
without snow or ice, by Mr. AValker, in 1787. Cor- 
rosive sublimate, a deadly poison, is a combination- 
of mercury and chlorine ; see Calomel. 

QUICUNQUE VULT, see Athanasian. 
Creed. 

QUIETISM, the doctrine of Miguel Molmos* 
a Spaniard (1627-96), whose work, the "Spiritual 
Guide," published in 1675, w r as the foundation of a, 
sect in France. He held that religion consisted in 
an internal silent meditation on the merits of 
Christ and the mercies of God. Madamede la. 
Mothe-Guyon, a quietist, was imprisoned in the- 
Bastile for her visions and prophecies, but released 
through the interest of Fenelon, archbishop of 
Cambray, between whom and Bossuet, bishop of 
Meaux, arose a controversy, 1697. Quietism was- 
finally condemned by pope Innocent XII. in 1699. 

QUILLS are said to have been first used for 
pens in 553 ; some say not before 635. 

QUINCE, the Pyrus Cydom'a, brought to this 
country from Austria, before 1573. The Japan 
quince, or Pyrus Japonica, brought hither from 
Japan, 1796. 

QUINDECEMVIRI, fifteen men, chosen to 
keep the Sybilline books. The number, originally 
two (duumviri), about 520 B.C., was increased to 
ten in 365 B.C., and afterwards (probably by Sylla) 
to fifteen, about 82 B.C. Julius Caesar added one J 
but the precedent was not followed. 

QUININE or QuiNlA, an alkaloid (much 
used in medicine), discovered in 1820 by Pelletier 
and Caventou. It is a probable constituent of all 
genuine cinchona barks, especially of the 3'ellow 
bark; see Jesuits' Bark. Artificial quinine w r as 
prepared (synthetically) by Mr. W. L. Scott, in 
Oct. i36S- — Quinoidixe, see Fluorescence. John 
Eliot Howard, promoter of the cultivation of cin- 
chona in India, and author of " Quinologia " (1862) 
died 22 Nov. 1883. 

QUINQUAGESIMA SUNDAY. The ob- 
servation is said to have been appointed by Gregory 
the Great (pope, 590-604). The first Sunday in 
Lent having been termed Quadragesima, and the 
three weeks preceding having been appropriated to 
the gradual introduction of the Lent fast, the three 
Sundays of these weeks were called by names sig- 
nificant of their position in the calendar: and 
reckoning by decades (tenths), the Sunday pre- 
ceding Quadragesima received its present name, 
Quinquagesima, the s«cond Sexagesima, and the 
third Septuageslma. 

QUINTILIANS, heretics in the 2nd century, 
the disciples of Montanus, who took their name 
from Quintilia, a lad]' whom he had deceived by 
bis pretended sanctity, and whom they regarded as 
a prophetess. They made the eucharist of bread 
and cheese, and allowed women to be priests and 
bishops. Pardon. 

QUIRINUS, a Sabine god, whose name was 
given to Romulus after his death. L. Papirius 
Cursor, general in the Roman army, first erected a 



QUITO. 



801 



QUO WARRANTO ACT. 



sun-dial in the temple of Qnirinus, from which time 
the days began to be divided into hours, 293 B.C. 
Aspin. The sun-dial was sometimes called the 
Quirinus, from the original place in which it was 
set up. Ashe. The Sabines who became Eoman 
citizens were termed Quirites. 

QUITO (capital of the republic of Equator), 
founded in 1534, was the scene of the measure- 
ment of a degree of the meridian, by the French 
and Spanish mathematicians, 1736-42. Forty thou- 
sand persons perished by an earthquake which 
almost overwhelmed the city of Quito, 4 Feb. 1797. 
Since then violent shocks, but not so disastrous, 
occurred ; till one, on 22 March, 1859, when about 
5000 persons were killed; see Earthquakes and 
Equator. 

QUIXOTE, see Bon Quixote. 

QUOITS, a game said to have originated with 
the Greeks, and to have been first played at the 
Olympic games, by the Idsei Dactyli, fifty years 
after the deluge of Deucalion, 1453 b. c. 1'erseus, 
the grandson of Acrisius, by Danae, having inad- 
vertently slain his grandfather, when throwing a 
quoit, exchanged the kingdom of Argos, to which 



he was heir, for that of Tirynthus, and founded the 
kingdom of Mycenre, about 1313 B.C. 

QUOTATIONS. Athenseus's "Deijmosophistce 
or Banquet of the Learned" (compiled about 228), 
and Burton's "Anatomy of Melancholy" (1621), 
contain masses of extracts. Henry Ainsworth's 
" Communion of Saints" (died 1622), is a mosaic of 
Scripture quotations. 

Maedonnel's "Dictionary of Quotations," 1796; 
Moore's 1831 

Riley's "Dictionary of Latin Quotations," with, a 
Selection of Greek, published by H. Bohn . . 1856 

Collections of English Quotations are now numerous : 
Friswell's " Familiar Words," 2nd ed. . . 1866 
Bartlett's " Familiar Quotations " . . . 1869 
Adams' " Cyclopaedia of Poetical Quotations " . 1853 
Bohn's "Dictionary of Poetical Quotations " . . 1881 

QUO WARRANTO ACT, passed 1280. By 
it a writ may be directed to any person to inquire 
by what authority he holds any office or franchise. 
Charles II. directed a writ against the corporation of 
London in 1683, and the court of king's bench de- 
clared their charter forfeited. The decision was 
reversed in 1690. The proceedings have been regu- 
lated by various acts, 1710, 1792, 1837, 1843. 



3 F 



E. 



EABBITS. 



EADCLIFFE LIBBABY. 



EABBITS, see New South Wales, 1887. 

EABELAIS CLUB, to promote the study of 
Rabelais and the illustration of his works; 'lord 
Houghton, sir W. Frederick Pollock and his sons, 
Walter Besant, and others ; first meeting, Dec. 1879. 
Rabelais Gallery, Pall Mall Bast, opened to the 
press, 13 Oct. ; at the instance of the National 
Vigilance Association, four pictures were seized 
. as indecent by the police, 3 Nov. ; Mr. J. F. 
Sutton and Mr. H. Scarborough, the exhibitors, 
were prosecuted at Bow Street, 5 Nov. ; corn- 
mi ted for trial; 21 pictures ordered to be de- 
stroyed, 12 Nov. ; Messrs. Sutton & Scarborough 
convicted, 18 Dec. 1890 ; fined 25?. each ; the pic- 
tures ordered to be returned to France 18 April, 1891 

EABIES, see Hydrophobia. 

EACES, one of the ancient games of Greece. 
Horse-races were known in England in very 
early times. Fitz-Stephen, in the days of Henry 
II., mentions the delight taken by the citizens 
of London in the diversion. In James I.'s 
reign Croydon in the south, and Garterly in the 
north, were celebrated courses. Near York there 
were races, and the prize was a little golden bell, 
1607. Camden. In the end of Charles I.'s reign, 
races were performed at Hyde Park. Charles II. 
patronised them, and instead of bells, gave a silver 
bowl, or cup, value 100 guineas. William III. 
added to the plates (as did queen Anne) , and founded 
an academy for riding. 

The first racing calendar is said to have been pub- 
lished by John Cheney I727 

Act for suppressing races by ponies and weak 
horses, 19 Geo. 11 I73 n 

The most eminent races in England are those at 
Newmarket {which see), established by Charles IT. 
1667; and at Epsom, begun about 1711 ; by Mr. 
Parkhurst (annual since 1730, Allen's Surrey). 
[The earl of Derby began the Oaks, 1779; the 
Derby, 1780 (first won by Diomed)]. See Derby 
Day. 

At Ascot, begun by the duke of Cumberland, uncle 
to George III. ; mentioned 1727 

At Doncaster, by col. St. Leger(the St. Leger stakes 
were founded in 1776, and so named in 1777) . 1776 

At Goodwood, begun by the duke of Richmond, in 
his park l8o 2 

Lord Stamford, said to have engaged Jemmy Grim- 
shaw, a light-weight jockey, at a salary of 1000Z. 
a year March, 1865 

"Tattersall's," the "high-change of horse-flesh," 
was established by Richard Tattersall, near Hyde 
Park Corner (hence termed "the Corner") in 1766, 
for the sale of, horses. The lease of the ground 
having expired, the new premises at Brompton 
were erected and opened for business on 

v 10 April, 1865 

The Jockey Club, which now chiefly regulates races 
and the betting connected with them, was founded 
in 1750. Its gradually accumulating rules were 
modified in 1828 and revised in . . . ^57 

Alterations recommended by a committee appointed 
in April ; adopted by the club 16 July following . 1870 

Rules revised, Nov. 1876; reforms made . . 1880 

Resolved that a shorthand-writer be present at the 
meetings t 6 April, 1890 

John Scott, a most eminent trainer, died, aged 77, 

Oct. 1871 

Betting. Between 1858 and 1868, 7S,oooZ. and 
115,000?. have been won upon a single race. 
Betting is now much reprobated ; see Betting. 



Gate-meetings : Races held in fields by publicans 
and others ; Metropolitan Race-course Act (42 & 
43 Vict. c. 18), to check them, passed . 3 July, 1879 

Tom Chaloner, celebrated jockey, dies March, 1886 

Fred. Archer, very successful jockey, winner of 
2,746 races, aged 29, committed suicide with a 
revolver when in a state of high fever (left by will 
70,000?.) 8 Nov. ,, 

Charles Wood, jockey, v. Cox, for libel in Licensed 
Victuallers' Gazette, charging Wood with pulling 
the head of Success in two races ; nine days' 
trial in queen's bench division ; verdict for 
plaintiff damages one farthing and no costs 
allowed 29 June, 18.8S 

Sir George Chetwynd v. the earl of Durham, see 
Trials 29 June, 1880 

Suspected poisoning of the duke of Westminster's 
Orme, to prevent his running . . 28 April, 1892 

RACE-HORSES 

Flying Cliilders, bred in 1715 by the duke of Devon- 
shire, was allowed by sportsmen to have been the fleetest 
horse that ever ran at Newmarket, or that was ever bred 
in the world ; he ran four miles in six minutes and forty- 
eight seconds, or at the rate of 35^ miles an hour, carry- 
ing nine stone two pounds. "He died in 1741, aged 
26 years. 

Eclipse was the fleetest horse that ran in England since 
the time of Childers ; he was never beaten, and died in 
February, 1789, aged 25 years. His heart weighed 141b., 
winch accounted for his wonderful spirit and courage. 
Christie White's Hist, of the Turf. 
On the accession of queen Victoria, the royal stud 

was sold for 16,476?.. on . . . .25 Oct. 1837 
The comtede la Grange's stud (in consequence of the 

war) was sold for 23,730?. Gladiateur fetched 5800?. 1870 
Middle-park stud (property of Mr. Blenkiron, de- 
ceased) sold for 102,005 guineas ; Blair Athol, for 
i2,oooZ. (to the English Stud Company) ; 4 days' 

sale 26 July, 1872 

Lieut. Lubowitz, Hungarian, rode from Vienna to 
Paris, on his horse Caradoc, in 15 days, winning 

a wager, arriving 9 Nov. 1874 

Death of Comte Frederic Lagrange, eminent French 

studmaster 22 Nov. 1883 

Lord Falmouth's stud sold for 36,420 guineas ; (Har- 
vester 8,600 guineas ; Busybody 8,800 guineas) 
28 April ; and for 75,440 guineas . 30 June, 18S4 

BACK, an engine of torture, for extracting a 
confession from criminals, mentioned by Demos- 
thenes, de Corona, B.C. 330, and in later times an 
instrument of the Inquisition. Lord Coke states 
from tradition that the duke of Exeter, in the reign 
of Henry VI., erected a rack of torture (thence called 
the duke of Exeter's daughter, now seen in the 
Tower, 1447). In the case of Felton, who murdered 
the duke of Buckingham, the judges of England 
protested against the proposal of the privy council 
to put the assassin to the rack, as contrary to the 
laws, 1628 ; the use of the rack was abolished 1640. 
See Ravaillac and Torture. 

EADCLIFFE Library, Oxford, founded 

under the will of Dr. John Kadcliffe, an eminent 
physician. He died 1 Nov. 1714, leaving 40,000^. 
to the university of Oxford for the founding a 
library, the first stone of which was laid 17 May, 
1737, and the edifice was opened 13 April, 1749. — 
The Kadcliffe Observatory, Oxford, founded by 
the exertions of Dr. Hornsby, Savilian professor of 
astronomy, about 1771, was completed in 1794. The 
publication of the observations was commenced in 
1842, by Mr. Manuel J. Johnson, the director, ap- 
pointed in 1839. 



EADIATION. 



803 



EAILWAYS. 



EADIATION, see Seat. 

EADICALS or "Eadical Eeformers," 

persons who professed to aim. at procuring a thorough 
reformation in the government and policy of Eng- 
land, became prominent in 1816, when Hampden 
clubs were formed, of which sir Francis Burdett, 
lord Cochrane, major Cartwright, and William 
Cobbett were prominent members. Samuel Bam- 
ford's " Life of a Radical," published in 1842, gives 
much information ; he died 13 April, 1872. Many 
radicals were severely punished, 1817-20. Win. 
Harris's " History of the Radical Party," published 
early in 1885. — The "Radicals" in the United 
States were the party headed by Thaddeus Stevens, 
bitterly opposed to the policy of president Johnson, 
as too favourable to the subdued Southern States. 

The Radical Programme, advocated by the rt. hon. 
Joseph Chamberlain, widely circulated, first 
appeared July, 1885, in the Fortnightly Review; 
it included reform of the land laws, free education, 
increased local government, reform in taxation 
and finance, improvement of condition of agri- 
cultural labourers and of the poor, and religious 
equality and dis-establishment of national 
churches. Which tended to disorganise the 
liberal party. 

Mr. C. C. Greville (Journal, 25 Aug. 1837) describes 
"Tory Radicals." Some politicians were so 
termed in 1885 

The National Radical Union at its fourth anniver- 
sary at Birmingham, Mr. Chamberlain in the 
chair, changed its name to National Liberal 
Union 24 April, 1889 

EADICLE, see Compound. 

EADIOMETEE, &c. (termed a light-mill), a 
little instrument constructed by Mr. Wm. Crookes, 
F.R.S., 1873-6. Two little disk arms, mounted on a 
pivot and placed in an exhausted glass-bulb, revolve 
when placed in bright light. The motion was 
attributed to heat-absorption, 1877; see Light. 
Radiophone. By this apparatus professor Bell, at Phila- 
delphia, showed how a ray of strong light, acting on a 
selenium cell, conveyed sound 500 feet, Sept. 1884. 

EADSTADT, Austria. Here Moreau and the 
French defeated the Austrians, 5 July, 1796. 

EAFFAELLE WAEE, see Pottery. 

SAGGED SCHOOLS, free schools for out- 
cast destitute ragged children, set up in large towns. 
The instruction is based on the scriptures, and most 
of the teachers are unpaid. John Pounds, a cobbler, 
of Portsmouth, who died in 1839, opened a school of 
this kind ; and one was set up by Andrew Walker, 
in "Devil's Acre," Westminster, in 1839. Knight. 
They did not receive their name till 1844, when the 
" Ragged school union" was formed, principally by 
Mr. S. Starey and Mr. Wm. Locke (afterwards hon. 
secretary). The earl of Shaftesbury was chairman. 
In 1856 there were 150 Ragged school institutions. 
Sunday ragged schools reported in London in 
1867, 226; in 1878, 177; day schools, in 1867, 
204; in 1878,58; week evening schools, in 1867, 
207, in 1878, 147. Ragged school buildings were 
exempted from rates, 1869. The clay schools are 
being gradually superseded by those established by 
the London school board ; but the Sunday and 
night schools, mother's meetings, &c, are still 
maintained in very great efficiency (r886). The 
union has many affiliated institutions (1892). Dr. 
Guthrie, a founder of ragged schools in Edinburgh, 
&c., died 24 Feb. 1873. The earl of Shaftesbury 
presided at the 40th anniversary of the Ragged 
School Union, 12 May, 1884. See Shoe-Black. 

EAGMAN EOLL (said to derive its name 
from Ragimunde, a papal legate in Scotland) con- 



tains the records of the homage and fealty to 
Edward I., sworn to by the nobility and clergy of 
Scotland at Berwick in 1296. The original was 
given up to Robert Bruce, king of Scotland, in 1328, 
when his son David was contracted in marriage to 
the princess Joanna of England. 

EAGUSA, a city on the Adriatic, on the south 
confines of Dalmatia, was taken by the Venetians, 
1 171, but became an independent republic, 1358. 
Tt suffered much \>y an earthquake, 1667 ; was 
taken by the French in 1806, and given up to 
Austria in 18 14. 

EAID OF Euthven, see Ruthven. 

EAILWAY COMMISSIONEES; seeRail- 
ivays, 1873 and 1880. 

EAILWAYS. Short roads, in and about New- 
castle, laid down by Mr. Beaumont, so early as 
1602, are thus mentioned in 1676 : — "The manner 
of the carriage is by laying rails of timber from the 
colliery to the river, exactly straight and parallel ; 
and bulky carts are made with four rollers fitting 
those rails, whereby the carriage is so easy that one 
horse will draw down four or five chaldron of coals, 
and is an immense benefit to the coal merchants." 
Roger North. They were made of iron at White- 
haven, in 1738. See Gauges, Tramroads. For 
electric railways see Electricity. 

An iron railway laid down near Sheffield by John 
Curr (destroyed by the colliers) . . . . 1776 

The first considerable iron railway was laid down 
at Colebrook Dale 1786 

The first iron railway sanctioned lay parliament (ex- 
cept a few undertaken "by canal companies as 
small branches to mines) was the Surrey iron 
railway (by horses), from the Thames at Wands- 
worth to Croydon 1801 

Trevethick and Vivian obtained a patent for a high 
pressure locomotive engine 1802 

William Hedley of Wylam colliery made the first 
travelling engine (locomotive), or substitute for 
animal power in a colliery 1813 

The first locomotive constructed by George Stephen- 
son, travelled at the rate of 6 miles per hour . 1814 

The Rocket travelled at the rate of 25 and 35 miles 
per hour 1829 

(It obtained the prize of 500?. offered by the directors 
of the Liverpool and Manchester railway com- 
pany for the best locomotive, Oct. 1829.) 

The Firefly attained a speed of 20 miles per hour . 1834 

The North Star moved with a velocity of 37 miles 
per hour 1839 

At the present time locomotives have attained a 
speed of 70 miles per hour. 

Stockton and Darlington railway, constructed by 
Edw. Pease and George Stephenson, first opened 
for passengers (see 1875-1881, below) . 27 Sept. 1825 

The Liverpool and Manchester railway commenced 
in Oct. 1826, and opened (Wm. Huskisson, M.P., 
killed) 15 Sept. 1830 

Act for transmission of mails by railways . . . 1838 

Duty on Railways: — hi. a mile for 4 passengers 
(2 & 3 Will. IV. c. 120), 1832 ; 5 per. cent, on gross 
receipts (5 & 6 Vict. c. 59) 1842 

Railway clearing house established . . . . ,, 

The examination of railway schemes, before their 
introduction into parliament, by the Board of 
Trade, was ordered 1844 

7 & 8 Vict. c. 85, required companies to run cheap 
trains every day, and to permit erection of elec- 
tric telegraphs, and authorised government, after 
1 Jan. 1866, to buy existing railways with the 
permission of parliament ,, 

George Hudson, a draper, mayor of York in 1839, 
by his successful management as chairman of 
the Leeds and York railway and others, was styled 
the " railway king " ,, 

An act passed 10 Vict, for constituting commis- 
sioners of railways, who have since been incor- 
porated with the Board of Trade . . 28 Aug. 1846 

The Railway Mania and panic year, when 272 rail- 
way acts passed . . . . - , . „ 

3 F 2 



EAILWAYS. 



804 



EAILWAYS. 



Act for compensating families of persons killed by 

accidents (see Campbell's Act) .... 1846 
George Stephenson died ... 12 Aug. 1848 

Act for the better regulation of railways . . . 1854 
Bailway Benevolent'lnstitution, instituted May, 1858 
Act to enable railway companies to settle differences 

with other companies by arbitration . . . 1859 
Eailway Clauses Consolidation act passed . . . 1863 
Joint committee of both houses of parliament ap- 
pointed to report on railway schemes . 5 Feb. 1864 
Murder of Mr. Briggs in a railway carriage (see 
Trials 1864) 9 July „ 

(See Atmospheric and Street Railways.) 

Period of " contractors' lines " .... 1859-66 

London, Chatham, and Dover company suspend 
payment; directors censured for their policy . 1866 

Bailway Companies Securities act passed . Aug. ,, 

A Welsh railway train (about to start) seized for 
debt 27 Nov. ,, 

250 railway bills passed, 1865 ; only 98 ... 1867 

Strike of 350 men on London and Brighton line, 

25-27 March, „ 

Strike of 500 on North Eastern line, 11 April ; over- 
come by the company ... 25 April, „ 

Bailway commission report against the government 
buying the railways, &c. . . . May, „ 

Bailway acts amended by act passed . 20 Aug. „ 

A climbing locomotive, by means of central rails, 
ascended Mont Cenis in 1865. [The experiments 
were first tried on the High Peak railway, Sept. 
1863 and Feb. 1864.] The railway completed and 
traversed by a locomotive and two carriages, con- 
taining Mr. Fell, the inventor of the plan, and 
others ; an unexampled journey in regard to steep- 
ness of gradients and the elevation of the summit 
level, 6700 feet, 21 Aug. 1867. After successful 
trials in May, the railway was opened 15 June, 1868 

Lord Cairns (on appeal) decides that holders of de- 
bentures are responsible as qualified proprietors, 

28 Jan. „ 

Capt. Yolland, government inspector, reports that 
in his opinion electric communication between 
the passengers and the railway servants on trains 
stopping only at long intervals is necessary and 
practicable March, ,, 

Bailway Regulation acts passed . . . 1868, 1871 

Conference of railway shareholders at Manchester, 

14, 15 April, 1868 

Southern Railways Amalgamation bill ; opposed in 
the lords ; withdrawn .... June, „ 

Mont Cenis railway opened for traffic . 15 June, „ 

New act to amend the laws relating to railways, 
30 &, 31 Viet. e. 119 ; (it orders smoking compart- 
ments, and communication between passengers 
and railway servants in certain trains ; and pro- 
hibits trains for prize-fights, &c.) passed, 31 July, „ 

Midland railway station, St. Pancras (which see), 
opened 1 Oct. ,, 

New route to Liverpool (by a viaduct over the Mer- 
sey at Buncorn), opened . . . 1 April, 1869 

Pacific railway : from the Atlantic to the Pacific ; 
opened 12 May, „ 

"Abandonment of Railways act " passed n Aug. „ 

Railway Companies Powers act (1864) and Con- 
struction Facilities act (1864) amended by act 
passed 20 June, 1870 

"Bailway Association" established: (it consists of 
directors and representatives of shareholders, to 
watch legislation, &c.,) inaugural dinner, 21 July, „ 

Under the London, Dover, and Chatham railway 
act, the arbitrators, the marquis of Salisbury and 
lord Cairns, decide for the amalgamation of the 
general undertaking; extensions for award pub- 
lished Aug. 1871 

Rigi Mountain railway (up to 4000 feet above sea 
level), opened 23 May, „ 

Mansion-house station of the Metropolitan District 
railway inaugurated x July, ,, 

European and North American railway opened at 
Bangor, Maine tS Oct. „ 

Proposed amalgamation of the Midland and Glas- 
gow and South- Western . . . . . 

Amalgamation of the London and North-Western 
and the Lancashire and Yorkshire railways, voted 
by companies 20 Oct. ,, 

Forged telegram announcing proposed amalgama- 
tion of the Midland and Manchester, Sheffield, 



and Lincolnshire railways (led to purchase of 
shares, and affected the market), about 23 Nov. 1871 

George Hudson, the "railway king," died, aged 71, 

14 Dec. „ 

Strike of porters of London and North-Western 
company; settled . . . 26, 27 July, 1872 

Death of Thos. Brassey, who made 6600 miles of 
railways,whichcost78,ooo,oooL (able, honest, kind) ,, 

Parliamentary committee report in favour of rail- 
way amalgamation, pmblished . . . Aug. ,, 

First railway in Japan opened . . 12 June, „ 

One-rail railway laid down at Paris by M. Larmen- 
jat, reported successful for short distances Aug. ,, 

Amalgamations already accomplished: London and 
North-Western, 61 branch lines ; Great Northern, 
37 ; Great Eastern, 27 ; London and Brighton, 22 ; 
London and South- Western, 22 ; Midland, 17 . ,, 

Bailway proposed by M. de Lesseps from Orenburg 
to Peshawur (2500 miles), to connect by means of 
Bussian and East Indian railways Calais and 
Calcutta May, 1873 

Bill for amalgamation of London and North- Western 
and Lancashire and Yorkshire companies rejected 
by the commons committee . . .23 May, „ 

New Regulation of Bailways Act passed (commis- 
sioners to be appointed to carry out the Act of 
1854), 21 July; commissioners: sir Frederick 
Peel, Mr. Price, and Mr. Macnamara ; met first 
time it Nov. ,, 

First railway in Persia begun at Besht . 11 Sept. „ 

Railway accidents investigated by Capt. Tyler ; 1871, 
171 ; in 1872, 246 ; in the United Kingdom in 
1872, 541 railway servants killed, 499 injured. 

Circular from the Board of Trade, by Mr. Chichester 
Fortescue, to the railway companies respecting 
the increase of preventable accidents and un- 
punctuality 18 Nov. ,, 

The justificatory replies of sir Edward Watkin for 
the London and Brighton Co., and of B. Moon 
for the L. and N. W. Co. ; from other companies 

Dec. „ 

Ten railway servants convicted of robbing the lug- 
gage, severely sentenced . . . .19 Nov. ,, 

120 persons killed ; 48 without their own fault ; in 
six months 1873-4 

The Board of Trade's reply (by Mr. Malcolm) to 
the railway companies, published about 24 Feb. 1874 

The Pullman palace saloon cars (American) intro- 
duced on the Midland railway, 21 March ; opened 
to the public . . . . . . 1 June, ,., 

Commission to inquire into causes of railway acci- 
dents agreed to by government, 27 April ; nomi- 
nated (duke of Buckingham and others) 11 June, ,, 

Circular from sir C. Adderley, recommending punc- 
tuality and care, to avoid accidents . July, ,, 

Bailway Travellers' Protection Society organised ; 
duke of Manchester, president . . 23 July, „ 

Board of Trade Arbitration Act passed . 30 July, „ 

New standing orders respecting labourers' houses 
removed for making railways, passed 30 July, „ 

Statement of railway servants : that 632 were killed 
in 1872, and 773 killed in 1873 ; many injured ; 
[asserted to be less than the truth] . . Sept. „ 

Midland railway company announces change of 
fares : first-class to ihd. a mile ; second class 
abolished ; no return tickets at lower fares ; 
began 1 Jan. 1875 

Other companies announce reductions in fares Jan. ,, 

Persons employed on railways : England, 228,958 ; 
Scotland, 31,023 ; Ireland, 14,554 > total, 274,535 ; 
(L. & N. W. company, about 40,000) ; announced 

Jan. ,, 

House of lords on appeal decide that railway com- 
panies are responsible for negligence in conveying 
persons and goods, although they disclaim it on 
tickets 1 June, ,, 

Great trial of continuous railway brakes on Midland 
railway, near Lowdham ; Westinghouse auto- 
matic air pressure break considered the best June „' 

Extension of Metropolitan railway to Great Eastern 

opened, 10 July, „ 

Bailway jubilee at Darlington ; 50th anniversary of 
opening of the Stockton and Darlington railway ; 
statue of Joseph Pease unveiled . . 27 Sept. ,, 

Dr. Strousberg, " German railway king," tried for 
fraud, <fec, at Moscow j.876 

Metropolitan extension to Aldgate opened . 11 Nov. ,, 



. 



RAILWAYS. 



805 



RAILWAYS. 



Elevated street railways erected in New York, 

U.S. A 1877-8 

First railway in China, from Shanghae to Oussoon 
(11 miles), constructed by Europeans; at first 
opposed ; trial trip, 16 March ; publicly opened, 
30 June, 1876; much opposed; stopped; plant 

taken to Formosa 1877-8 

Folkestone and Dover tunnel injured by rains ; 

fallings in I2) I5 j an . 1877 

Fusion of South-eastern and London, Chatham, & 
Dover companies, voted by former . . 18 Jan. ,, 

Eailway accident commission report : recommend 
that the companies' responsibilities be not 
diminished, &c Feb. 

- Proposed fusion of the Great Northern and Great 
Eastern, fails June ; of the Manchester and Shef- 
field and Lincolnshire with the Great Northern 
and Midland, fails Nov. 

Many embarrassed subsidiary lines purchased by 
the French government (for about n,ooo,oooZ.) . 1878 

Great increase of 3i-d-elass passengers, receipts, 
about 7,000,000?. 1869; about 14, 000,000?. . . 1879 

Sudden strike of goods-guards on Midland railway 
through alteration of mode of payment, 3 Jan., 
foils about 20 Jan. ,, 

South-Eastern railway company v. Eailway Commis- 
sioners (who had given orders for enlarging station 
at Hastings, &c), Queen's Bench ; verdict restrict- 
ing powers of the commissioners (see above, 1873), 
two judges against one ... 13 Jan. 1880 

Enlarged dividends on the principal lines for half- 
year 1 Jan. to 30 June, ,, 

Expended on railways in the United Kingdom, about 
720,000,000?. (since 1829); gross annual receipts 
about 62,000,000?., net earnings about 30,000,000?. 
reported Aug. „ 

Packet of dynamite placed on rails between Bushey 
and Watford (L. <fc N. W. Eailway), night, 12-13 

Sept. ,, 

Board of Trade circular respecting precautions 
against accidents, &c. (accidents of 10, 11 Aug. 
attributed to neglect) . . . .20 Sept. ,, 

Eailway rates select committee meet . 10 March, 1881 

Siemens' & Halske's electrical railway at Berlin, 
i3^ miles an hour, tried 12 May ; opened to the 
public .... . X 6 May, „ 

Centenary of George Stephenson's birth celebrated 
at Newcastle, Chesterfield, the Crystal Palace, 
London, and throughout the counties of Durham 
and Northumberland . . . .9 June, ,, 

Murder of Mr. Fk. Isaac Gold in a carriage on 
London and Brighton railway . . 27 June, ,, 

[Percy Lefroy alias Mapleton arrested on suspicion, 
8 July; committed for trial, 21 July ; convicted, 
8 Nov. ; executed .... 29 Nov.] ,, 

Passenger duty received, 507,076?. for year 1872-3 ; 
736,369?. for year 1875-6; 728,718?. for 1876-7; 
741,919?. for 1877-S; 748,506?. for 1880-1 ; 798,364?. 
for 1881-2 

International congress for the unification of the 
rolling stock on the railways at Berne opened 

16 Oct. 1882 

The committee on railway and canal rates for the 
conveyance of persons, merchandise, <fec, defer 
their report, recommend re-appointment of the 
committee, and also the establishment of a tri- 
bunal to decide questions and enforce decisions ; 
revision of rates, &c, early Aug. 1881 ; issue 
report with few recommendations . 27 July, ,, 

A Pullman car burned near Hunslet, Dr. Arthur 
perishes 29 Oct. „ 

Eailway passengers' protection association estab- 
lished 

Caledonian railway strike, traffic partly suspended ; 
Glasgow, &c 15, 16, 17 Jan. 1883 

A compromise ; strike ends . . . 21 Jan. ,, 

Proposed reduction of duty on third class passengers 

April, „ 

Metropolitan railway carried 36,753,321 passengers 
in six months without accident . „ 

Association of railway shareholders established; 
meeting held in London . . . .8 Aug. ,, 

Existing: railway and canal, railway companies, 
railway shareholders, associations . . . ,, 

Another cheap trains act passed . . 20 Aug. ,, 

Northern Pacific railway (2,500 miles) opened 3 Sept. „ 

4,000?. awarded to Rev. Joseph Lloyd Brereton, and 
6,500?. to gen. Brereton for injuries caused by 



derangement of machinery, <fcc, 28 July, 1882 ; 

25, 26 Feb. 

Parks railway bill rejected by committee 20 May, 

Railway regulation bill making it a permanent 
court of record, enlarging powers, &c, read first 
time, 22 May; dropped . . . .10 July, 

M. Lartigue's balance railway, (single rail) re- 
ported successful in Normandy . . June, 

Eenewed agitation respecting brakes ; the board of 
trade's recommendations neglected 

Metropolitan Inner Circle completed ; opened 1 Oct. 

312,047 railway servants in England . . Oct. 

Communication of the Canadian Pacific railway 
(Halifax, Nova Scotia, to Port Moody, British 
Columbia) 18 May ; work completed . 7 Nov. 

Death of Dr E. H. Gilbert, inventor of the ele- 
vated rail system used in New York, very poor 

Aug. 

Eeceipts of twelve leading companies, about 
25,084,000?. ..... Jan-June, 

Win. H. Vanderbilt, "Eailway King, ' dies suddenly 
at New York, aged 64 . . . . 8 Dee. 

Lawrie v. L. & S. W. Eailway ; companies may 
increase their fares on days of extra traffic such 
as Ascot races n Dec. 

459 railway servants killed in 

International railway congress, Brussels, opens 8 
Aug. 1885 ; at Berne, July, 1886 ; and June, 

Mr. Mundella introduces bill for constituting a 
new court of record for railway affairs with great 
powers ; read first time n, 12 March ; second 
time 6 May, 1886 ; introduced (modified) into the 
lords by lord Stanley . . . .1 March, 

The South-Eastern railway company's present of 
1,000?. to the Imperial Institute March ; declared 
to be illegal 6 May, 

Midland Eailway ; strike of 2,713 drivers, firemen, 
&c. ; traffic continued 5 Aug. ; strike gradually 
fails Aug. -Sept. 

International railway congress at Rome opens 

17 Sept. 

Thirty-four principal railway lines of the United 
Kingdom ; net divisible profit for ordinary share- 
holders first six months, 1886 4,390,517?. ; 1887, 
5,357,891?. 

15th annual congress of Amalgamated society of 
Eailway Servants at Newcastle-ou-Tyne ; prudent 
discussion ; Midland strike censured 4-7 Oct. 

Trumpets employed for signalling near Glasgow, 
and introduced into the greater lines autumn, 

Leinwather, an Austrian, publishes his improve- 
ments in portable railways for military purposes 

Dee. 

A railway between Listowel and Ballybunion, 
county Kerry, on the Lartigue single-rail system 
opened 27 Feb. 

Eailway and Canal Traffic Bill passed 14 Aug. 

State purchase of the railways negatived by the 
commons without a division . . 4 May, 

L. & N. W. company run trains between London 
and Edinburgh and Glasgow in 9 hours from 
1 June ; in eight hours 6 Aug ; the Great Northern 
makes similar reductions . June and Aug. 

First railway constructed in Persia, from Teheran to 
Shah-Abdul-Azim, opened . . 25 June, 

Direct railway communication between Constanti- 
nople and Vienna completed . . . Aug. 

Central Asian railway from the Caspian to Samarcand 
opened May, 

Mr. Justice Wills appointed president of the railway 
commission Dec. 

First regular railway in China, 86 miles, opened Nov. 

The new railway and canal commission begins 1 Jan. 

Eailway up Mount Pilatus, Switzerland, inaugu- 
rated 4 June, 

Bill for the regulation of railways relating to the 
block system, brakes, &c, passed . . Aug. 

Great swing railway bridge, span 140 ft., over the 
Dee declared open by Mrs. Gladstone . 2 Aug. 

[It gives a direct route to the Manchester, Sheffield 
and Lincolnshire Railway into Wales, ami also to 
the Great Northern and Midland systems.] 

International railway Congress at Paris . 14 Sept. 

Deatli of sir Daniel Gooeh, aged 73, able chairman 
of the Great Western .... 15 Oct. 

Increased dividends through improvement in trade 

July-Dec. 

International railway conference at Rome 15 Jan. 



1890 



EAILWAYS. 



806 



EAILWAYS. 



City and South London Electric railway (see 
Tunnels) . . . 4 Nov. and 18 Dec. 1 

Underground Central London Electric Railway bill 
(from Uxbridge-road to the Bank), passed by the 
commons 

Lynton and Lynmouth cliff railway, steep ascent, 
worked by water, opened . . 7 April, 

Dispute between the South-Eastern and the London 
Chatham & Dover railway companies, on appeal 
decided by the house of lords in favour of the 
latter company 5 May, 

Board of Trade inquiry (by lord Balfour of Burleigh 
and Mr. Courtenay Boyle) as to the rates of 
charges for the carriage of goods, concluded 

Jan. -21 May 

Tables of maximum rates issued . . . July, 

Proposed establishment of the New Grand Junction 
company to unite the Manchester, Sheffield and 
Lincolnshire railway, with the Metropolitan and 
other railways, so as to form a new line to the 
north, Oct. 1890 ; bill rejected . . . . 1 

City and South London Electric railway formally 
opened by the prince of Wales, 4 Nov., to the 
public 18 Dec. 1 

First annual congress of railway employes of all 
grades opened at the Hope Town -hall, Bethnal- 
green-road 18 Nov. 

Strike of the men employed in the Caledonian, 
North British, Glasgow and S.W. railways, for 
a ten hours' day, &e. . 22 Dec. 1890-31 Jan. 1 

By thegreat exertions of Mr.Thompson, manager 
of the Caledonian railway, and Mr. Walker, 
manager of the Nortli British railway, the pas- 
senger traffic was continued with much difficulty, 
but the goods traffic almost suspended. About 
9,000 men were out at one time. Rioting at Mother- 
well, at the eviction of railway tenant strikers, 
was quelled by military and police, 5 Jan. et. seq. 
The strike ended by the submission of the men, 
North British, 29 Jan., Caledonian 31 Jan. 

Select committee of the commons on the working 
hours of railway servants, sir M. H. Beach chair- 
man, meets 10 March et seq. 

The Gliding railway, which is moved by hydraulic 
power over a thin layer of water was exhibited 
M. A. Barre, at the Crystal Palace . 26 March 

The nine Railway Rates and Charges bills passed . 

5 Aug. 

Brienzer Rothhornbahn railway on the Alps, the 
highest in Europe, opened . . early Nov. 

Receipts of 12 great companies, 33,028,558?. *. 

July-Dec. 

Mr. Christopher Anderson's (of Leeds) invention 
for carrying off smoke and foul air in underground 
railways by tubes, tried and reported successful 
at Neasden, near Willesden . . 26 March, 1 

Death of sir James Joseph Allport, the eminent 
railway manager, especially of the Midland, aged 
81 25 April, 

Great demonstration of railway servants in Hyde- 
park, for shorter hours and increased wages 

15 May, 

The broad gauge totally superseded, on the Great 
Western 20-23 Ma y, 

Sir James Brunlees, eminent railway engineer, 
dies, aged 76 ■ 2 June, 

Lancashire, Derbyshire, and East Coast (East and 
West) railway begun (incorporated 1891) 7 June, 

Railway traffic amendment act, passed 27 June, 

Central London railway act passed . 28 June, 

Manchester, Sheffield & Lincolnshire railway (with 
extension to London) ; third reading in the lords 
suspended by dissolution . . .28 June 

RAILWAYS OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 

Net 
Receipts. 

£11,009,519 

14.579.254 
18,602,582 
23,362,618 
28,016,272 
2 9.n5,35o 
29.731,430 
31,890,501 
32,255,000 
33,206.688 





Capital 


Miles 


Year. 


paid-up. 


opened. 


1851. 


£240,897 


6,890 


1854. 


286,068,794 


8,054 


i860. 


348,130,127 


10,433 


1865. 


455,478,143 


13,289 


1870. 


529,908,673 


15,537 


1875. 


630,223,494 


16,658 


1877. 


6 74,059,°48 


17,077 


1879. 


7!7. 003,469 


17,696 


1880. 


728,316,848 


17,933 


1881. 


745,528,162 


18,175 


1882. 


767,899,57° 


18,457 



Year. 



Capital 


Miles 


Net 


paid-up. 


opened. 


Receipts. 


£784,921,312 


18,681 


£33,693,708 


801,464,367 


18,864 


33,3 5,446 


815,858,055 


19,169 


32,767,817 


828,344,254 


19,332 


33,073,706 


845,971,654 


19,578 


33,880,110 


864,695,963 


19,812 


30,851,320 


876,595, 166 


29,976 


33,622,941 


897,472,026 


20,073 


36,760,146 



Working expenses: 1854,9,206,205?. ; 1861, 13,843,337?. ; 

1870, 21,715,525?. ; 1874, 32,612,712?. ; 1877, 

33,857,978?.; 1880,33,601,124?.; 1883, 37,368,562?.; 

1887, 37,063,266?. ; 1888, 37,063,266?. ; 1889, 

40,094,116?. ; 1890, 43,188,556?. 
Number of passengers : 1845, 33,791,253 ; 1854, 

111,206,707; i860, 163,483,572; 1865, 251,959,862; 

1870,331, 701, 801; 1874,478,316, 761; 1877, 549, 541, 325; 

1880,603,885,025; 1883,683,718,137; 1887,733,678,531 

(not season-ticket holders). 



Miles opened. 



England & 

Wales 1775 
Scotland 225 
Ireland . 31 



13,215 
2,964 
2,502 



13,825 
3,079 
2,674 



7820 11,622 12,547 
1626 ! 2,700! 2,864 
1423 I 2,1271 2,285 

For 1847-9, ^ was calculated that out of 4,782,188 
travellers by railway, one person was killed, from 
causes beyond his own control; for 1856-9, one 
in 8,708,411 ; 1866-8, one in 12,941,170. In 1878, 
one in 7,503,000. Passengers killed from causes 
beyond their control : in 1871, 12 ; 1862-72, 271 ; 
1872, 24 ; 1876, 811. 

United Kingdom. 

1874, 1424 killed — 211 passengers (not their fault, 

86) ; 788 servants, 425 trespassers ; 5041 injured. 

1876, 1286 killed— 138 (by own fault, 101) passen- 
gers ; 61 12 injured, 1883 passengers. 

1877, 1175 killed — 126 passengers; 3705 injured, 
1283 passengers. 

1878, 1112 killed ; 6507 injured by various causes. 

1879, 1032 killed; 160 passengers ; 3513 injured, 1307 
passengers. 

1882, 1,121 killed; 127 passengers; 4,601 injured, 
1,739 passengers; 1884, 11 35 killed; 4100 injured; 

1885, 957 killed, 3,467 injured ; 
3,539 injured. 

1887, 919 killed, 3,590 injured ; 
3,826 injured. 

1889. 1,076 killed ; 4,836 injured. 

1890. 1,076 killed; 4,721 injured. 

1891. 1,168 killed, 5,060 injured. 

Railway servants killed : annual average (1872-5) 
740; 1880, reduced to 483. 

Compensation paid for injuries by companies. 



14,119 
3,162 
2,792 



938 killed, 
3, 905 killed, 



Passengers 
Goods 



• £364,509 
231,707 



£247,032 
197,941 



£176,406 
169,633 



PRINCIPAL RAILWAYS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 

The railways are generally named after their termini. 
Railways. Date of Opening. 

Arbroath and Forfar .... 3 Jan. 1839 

Atmospheric Railway (which see) . . . . 1840 

Bangor and Carnarvon .... July, 1852 

Belfast and county of Down . . . April, 1850 

Birmingham and Derby . . . .12 Aug. 1839 

Birmingham and Gloucester . . 17 Dec. 1840 

Birmingham, Wolverhampton, and Stour Valley, 

July, 1852 

Brighton and Chichester .... 8 June, 1846 

Brighton and Hastings . . . 27 June, ,, 

Bristol and Exeter . . " . . . 1 May, 1844 

Bristol and Gloucester .... July, 1845 

Caledonian Feb. 1848 

Canterbury and Whitstable . . . May, 1830 

Charing Cross Railway, London, opened n Jan. 1864 

Cheltenham and Swindon . . .12 May, 1845 

Chester and Birkenhead . . . .22 Sept. 1840 

Chester and Crewe 1848 

City and South London, opened 4 Nov. and 18 Dec. 1890 

Cockermouth and Workington . . 28 April, 1847 

Colchester and Ipswich . . , .15 June, 1846 

Cork and Bandon 8 Dec. 1851 



EAILWAYS. 



807 



EAILWAYS. 



Railways. Date of Opening . 

Cornwall i May, 1859 

Coventry and Leamington .... 2 Dec. 1844 

Croydon and Epsom .... 17 May, 1847 

Devon and Somerset 7 Nov. 1873 

Dover and Deal, begun ... 29 June, 1878 

Dublin and Belfast Junction . . . June, 1852 

Dublin and Carlow 10 Aug. 1846 

Dublin and Drogheda . . . .26 May, 1844 

Dublin and Kingstown .... 17 Dec. 1834 

Dundee and Newtyle Dec. 1831 

Dundee and Perth 22 May, 1847 

Durham and Sunderland ... 28 June, 1839 

Eastern Counties 18 June, ,, 

Eastern Union (London and Colchester), 29 March, 1843 

East London . . ... 10 April, 1876 

Edinburgh and Berwick ... 18 June, 1846 

Edinburgh and Glasgow . . . . 8 Feb. 1842 

Ely and Peterborough .... Jan. 1847 

Exeter and Plymouth (part) ... 29 May, 1846 

Glasgow and Ayr 19 Sept. 1840 

Glasgow and Greenock . . . .24 March, 1841 

Glasgow, Garnkirk, and Coatbridge . . July, 1845 

Gloucester and Chepstow .... Sept. 185 1 

Grand Junction (Birmingham to Newton) . July, 1837 

Gravesend and Rochester ... 10 Feb. 1845 

Great Northern 1852 

Great Western to Maidenhead, 4 June, 1838 : to 

Bristol 30 June, 1841 

Hertford branch of Eastern Counties . 31 Oct. 1843 

Highland 186=; 



Inner Circle, London 
Ipswich and Bury St. Edmunds 
Isle of Man .... 
Kendal and Windermere . 
Lancaster and Carlisle . 
Lancaster and Preston 
Leeds and Bradford 
Leeds and Derby 
Liverpool and Birmingham . 
Liverpool and Manchester 
Liverpool and Preston . 
London and Birmingham . 
London and Blackwall . 
London and Brighton. 
London and Bristol 
London and Cambridge 
London, Chatham, and Dover 
London and Colchester 
London and Croydon . 
London and Dover 
London and Greenwich 
London and Richmond 
London and Southampton . 
London and Southend 
London and Warrington 



21 July, 1882-4 

24 Dec. 1846 

1 July, 1873 

. 21 April, 1847 

16 Dec. 1846 

. 30 June, 1840 

1 July, 1846 

July, 1840 

. 4 July, 1837 

. 15 Sept. 1830 

31 Oct. 1838 

. 17 Sept. ,, 

. 2 Aug. 1841 

. 21 Sept. ,, 

30 June, , , 

. 30 July, 1845 

29 Sept. i860 

29 March, 1843 

I June, 1839 
7 Feb. 1844 

26 Dec. 1838 
. 27 July, 1846 

II May, 1840 



June, 1856 
branch of the Great 

Northern Aug. 1850 

Lowestoft branch ; Norwich and Yarmouth . . 1847 

Lynn and Ely „ 

Manchester and Birmingham ... 10 Aug. 1842 

Manchester and Leeds 1 March, 1841 

Manchester and Sheffield ... 22 Dec. 1845 

Metropolitan, London ; act obtained, 1853 ; con- 



struction began, i860 ; opened 
Midland Counties 
Newcastle and Berwick 
Newcastle and Carlisle 
Newcastle and North Shields 
Newmarket and Cambridge 
Northampton and Peterborough 
North and South- Western Junction 
North British .... 

North Eastern July, 1854 

Norwich and Yarmouth . . . . 1 May, 1844 
Nottingham to Grantham .... July, 1850 
Nottingham and Lincoln .... 3 Aug. 1846 
Nottingham branch ; Rugby and Derby . 30 May, 1 
Oxford branch of London and Bristol 
Oxford, Worcester, and Wolverhampton 
Penzance to Camborne ... 
Rugby and Derby .... 

Rugby and Leamington Feb. 1851 

St. Andrew's July, 1852 

St. Helen's ; first act passed ..... 1830 
Salisbury branch of the London and Southampton. 1847 

Settle and Carlisle 1 May, 1876 

Southampton and Dorchester . . .1 June, ,, 
South Devon 1850 



10 Jan 1863 

30 June, 1840 

. July, 1847 

18 June, 1839 

18 June, ,, 

. Oct. 1851 

. 2 June; 1845 

. Dec. 1852 



12 June, 1844 
May, 1852 
. Jan. ,, 
July, 1840 



Railways. Date of Opening. 

South Eastern (London and Dover) . . 7 Feb. 1844 
South Eastern ; North Kent line .... 1849 
Stockton and Darlington . . . .27 Sept. 1825 

Trent Valley 26 June, 1847 

Ulster Aug. 1839 

West and East India Docks and Birmingham Junc- 
tion from the Blackwall railway to Camden Town, 

Aug. 1850 
Worcester and Droitwich .... Jan. 1852 
York and Darlington (N. Eastern) . . 4 Jan. 1841 
York and Newcastle ,, . . 17 June, 1847 

York and Normanton ,, . . .30 June, 1840 
York and Scarborough ,, . . . 7 July, 1845 
Yarmouth and Norwich 1 May, 1844 

Alleged Extent or Railways (in miles), 1890-1 :— 
Austrian dominions, 16,712 ; Belgium, 2,830; Denmark, 
1,247; France, 33,547 kilometres; Germany, 27,000; 
Great Britain and Ireland, 20,073 ; Greece, 374 ; Hol- 
land, 1,705; India, 16,996; Italy, 13,163 kilometres; 
Norway, 971 ; Portugal, 1,334 ! Russia, 16,759; Prussia, 
18,058; Spain (1889), 6,043; Sweden, 1,980; Turkey, 
1,512 ; United States of America, 171,000(1892). 

MEMORABLE RAILWAY ACCIDENTS.* 

Very many (ivhere only 2 persons killed) are not noted ; 
in nearly all cases a large number were injured. 

W. Huskisson, M.P., killed at the opening of the 
Liverpool and Manchester railway . 15 Sept. 1830 

Great Corby (Newcastle and Carlisle) ; train runs 
offline; 3 killed 3 Dec. 1830 

Brentwood (Eastern Counties) : carriages over- 
turned ; 3 killed 21 Aug. 1840 

Cuckfield (London and Brighton) : engine runs off 
line ; 4 killed 2 Oct. 1841 

Sonninghill cutting, near Reading : engine forced 
off line ; 8 killed .... 24 Dec. ,, 

Versailles : carriages take fire, passengers locked in; 
52 or 53 lives lost, including admiral D'Urville, 

8 May, 1842 

Masborough (Midland Counties) : collision ; Mr. 
Boteler and others killed, many injured, 20 Oct. 1845 

Stratford (Eastern Counties) : collision through great 
carelessness ; Mr. Hind killed, many mutilated, 

18 July, 1846 

Pevensey (Brighton and Hastings) : collision ; 40 
injured 24 Aug. ,, 

Clifton (Manchester and Bolton) : express runs off 
line ; 2 killed, many injured . . 15 Dec. ,, 

Chester (Chester and Shrewsbury) : train runs 
off bridge ; 4 killed ; greater number injured, 

18 May, 1847 

Wolverton (North Western) : collision ; 7 killed, 
many injured 5 June, ,, 

Shrivenham (Great Western) : collision ; 7 killed, 
many injured 10 May, 1848 

Carlisle (Caledonian) : axletree of carriage breaks ; 
5 killed 10 Feb. 1849 

Frodsham Tunnel (Chester and Warrington Junc- 
tion) : collision ; 6 killed . . .30 April, 1851 

Newmarket Hill (Lewes and Brighton) : train runs 
off line ; 4 killed 6 June, ,, 

Bicester (Oxfordshire) : collision ; 6 killed, 6 Sept. „ 

Burnley (Great Northern) : collision ; 4 killed, 

12 July, 1852 

Dixonfold (Great Northern) : engine wheels broke ; 
7 killed 4 March, 1853 

Near Straffan (Great Southern and Western, Ire- 
land) : collision; 13 killed . . . 5 Oct. ,, 

Near Harling, Norfolk (Eastern Counties) : colli- 
sion ; 6 killed 12 Jan. 1854 

Croydon (Brighton and Dover) : collision ; 3 killed, 

24 Aug. ,, 

Burlington, between New York and Philadelphia : 
21 killed 29 Aug. ,, 

Reading (Gt. Western): collision ; 5 killed, 12 Sept. 1855 

Near Paris : collision; 9 killed . . 9 Oct. ,, 

Between Thoret and Moret : collision ; 16 killed 

23 Oct. „ 

Campbell (N. Pennsylvania) : collision ; above 100 
killed 17 July, 1856 

Dunkett (Waterford and Kilkenny) : collision ; 7 
killed 19 Nov. „ 

* On Dec. 27, 1864, the queen wrote to the directors of 
the railway companies of London, requesting them " to 
be as careful of other passengers as of herself." 



RAILWAYS. 



808 



RAILWAYS. 



Kirby (Liverpool and Blackpool) : collision ; 200 
injured ; none killed ... 27 June, 

Lewisliam (North Kent): collision ; nkilled, 28 June, 

Between Pyle and Port Talbot : collision ; 4 killed 

14 Oct. 

Attleborough, Warwickshire (North Western) : 
train thrown off the line through a cow crossing 
the rails ; 3 killed .... 10 May, 

Near Mons, Belgium : coke waggon on the rails ; 
21 killed June, 

Chilham (South Eastern) : either too great speed or 
"broken axletree ; 3 killed ... 30 June, 

Near Round Oak Station (Oxford and Wolver- 
hampton) — excursion train : collision ; 14 killed, 

23 Aug. 

Tottenham (Eastern Counties) : engine wheel 
breaks ; 6 killed 20 Feb. 

Helmshore (Lancashire and Yorkshire) — excursion 
train : collision ; n killed ... 4 Sept. 

Atherstone (North Western) : collision of mail and 
cattle trains ; n killed ... 16 Nov. 

Near Wimbledon : Dr. Baly killed . . 28 Jan. 

Railway tunnel falls in near Haddon Hall, Derby- 
shire ; 5 men killed 2 July, 

Clayton Tunnel (London and Brighton) : collision ; 
23 killed, 176 injured .... 25 Aug. 

Kentish Town (Hampstead Junction) : 16 killed, 
320 injured 2 Sept. 

Market Harborough : collision ; 1 killed and 50 
injured 28 Aug. 

Near Winchburgh (Edinburgh and Glasgow) : colli- 
sion ; 15 killed, 100 wounded . . 13 Oct. 

Near Streatham (London and Brighton) : explosion 
of boiler through attempting too great speed ; 4 
killed ; above 30 injured ... 30 May, 

Near Lynn (Lynn and Hunstanton): carriages upset 
through bullock on the line ; 5 killed 3 Aug. 

Egham (South Western) : collision ; 5 killed, above 
20 injured 7 June, 

Canada : train ran off a bridge at St. Hilaire in 
crossing ; about 83 killed, 200 wounded, 

29 June 

Blackheath Tunnel : fast train ran into a ballast 
train ; 6 killed . . . . .16 Dec. 

Near Rednal (on a branch of Great Western) : train 
ran off insecure rails ; 13 killed, about 40 injured, 

7 June, 

Near Staplehurst (South Eastern) : train ran off in- 
secure rails, &c. ; 10 killed and about 50 injured, 

9 June, 

Near Colney Hatch (Gt. Northern) : collision with 
coal trucks : above 50 persons injured . 30 Aug. 

Pall of a bridge at Sutton (S. coast line): 6 men killed, 

28 April, 

Near Caterham junction (London and Brighton) : 3 
killed, 12 injured .... 30 April, 

In Welwyn Tunnel (Great Northern) : a steam tube 
burst ; collision of three goods trains ; and a great 
fire ; 2 lives lost . . . . 9, 10 June, 

Near Royston (Great Northern) : train ran off line ; 
3 lives lost 2 July, 

Brynkir station (Carnarvonshire) : points said to 
have been tampered with ; train ran off line ; 6 
persons killed 6 Sept. 

20 miles from Carlisle (Lancaster and Carlisle) : an 
axle of carriage of goods train broke ; collision 
with another goods train ; fire, and explosion of 
S tons of gunpowder ; 2 killed . . 25 Feb. 

Between Bhosawul and Khundwah (Great Indian 
Peninsular) : train precipitated into a chasm 
made in an embankment by a river torrent ; many 
lives lost 26 June, 

Walton Junction, Warrington (London and North 
Western) : collision with coal train ; error of 
pointsman ; 8 lives lost . . .29 June, 

At Brayhead, near Enniscorthy (Dublin, AVicklow, 
and Wexford) : went off the line into a gorge ; 2 
killed, many injured .... 9 Aug. 

Between New Mills and Peak Forest : 2 collisions''; 
5 lives lost 9 Sept. 

French Great Northern, about 14 miles from Paris : 
several killed, many wounded . . 27 Oct. 

Lake Shore railway, New York : embankment fell ; 
41 persons burnt to death ... 18 Dec. 

Carr's Rock, on river Delaware ; Erie railway : 
carriages precipitated down an embankment; 
26 persons killed, 52 very seriously injured, 

14 April, 



1857 



Abergele, N. Wales (London and North-Western) : 
collision between Irish mail train and luggage 
train ; barrels of petroleum ignited ; 33 persons 
burnt to death (see Abergele) . . 20 Aug. 1868 

Near Birdingbury station (Rugby and Leamington):, 
carriages went over Draycot embankment ; 2 
persons killed 1 Oct. ,. 

Near Bull's Pill, S. Wales (Great Western) : mail 
train ran into a cattle train ; 1 person and much 
cattle killed 6 Nov. ,, 

Near Copenhagen tunnel, Holloway (Great North- 
ern) : coal train ran off the line ; 2 killed, 18 Jan. 1869 

Near Khandalla, Bombay (Great Indian Peninsular) 
train ran off the line ; about 18 killed 26 Jan. .. 

Arch fell in at Bethnal Green (Great Eastern) : 
coal train passing ; 5 killed . . 25 Feb. , , 

Newcross (London and Brighton) : collision ; 2 
killed, many injured ; loss to the company by 
compensation, about 70, oool. . . 23 June, ,, 

Near Barnet (Great Northern): collision; 1 man 
burnt to death 16 Aug. „ 

Long Eaton Junction (Midland) : collision ; 7 killed 

9 Oct. 

Near Welwyn (Great Northern) : collision; 3 killed 

24 Oct. „ 

Eureka, St. Louis, Missouri ; collision ; 19 killed, 

12 May, 1870 

Near Newark (Great Northern) : collision ; a 
waggon of a goods train, through the breaking of 
an old axle, went off the rails and met an excur- 
sion train ; 19 deaths ; 1.30 a.m. . 21 June, ,, 

Near Carlisle : collision; skilled . 10 July, „ 

Tamworth (London and North Western) : Irish 
mail (late), sent into a siding ; broke down a 
buttress and ran into the river Anker (error of a 
pointsman); 3 deaths . . 4.7 A.M. 14 Sept. .,, 

Plessis near Tours : collision ; between two trains ; 
several killed .... 4 a.m. 20 Sept. ,, 

Harrow (London and North-Western) : collision 
with coal waggons ; 7 killed . . .26 Nov. , , 

Brockley Whins (North Eastern) : collision through 
mistake of Hedley, a pointsman ; skilled 6 Dec. ,, 

Barnsley (Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincolnshire 
railway) : collision ; goods trucks broke loose ; 
14 killed, many injured .... 12 Dec. ,, 

Bell-bar, near Hatfield (Great Northern) : tire of 
wheel broke ; break and carriages overturned ; 8 
killed 26 Dec. ,, 

Between Bandoz and St. Nizaire : explosion of gun 
powder in casks ; 60 killed . . . 25 Feb. 1871 

Revere (Boston and Portland, U.S.): collision; 
above 20 killed 26 Aug. ,, 

Near Champigny (Lyons Company) : a spring 
broke ; n killed . . . . 16 Sept. „ 

Ferry-hill (North British) : collision ; 2 killed?. 

16 Oct. „ 

Antibes railway between Nice and Cannes : train 
thrown into the river Brague : 12 said to be killed 

24 Jan. 1872 

Belleville (Grand Trunk of Canada) : engine broke 
off the line ; many burnt, scalded, &c. ; about 
30 killed 22 June, ,, 

Connellsville (Baltimore and Pittsburg) : collision ; 
many hurt, 3 killed .... 22 June, ,, 

Juvisy (Orleans railway) : express ran into luggage 
train ; boiler exploded ; 5 burnt to death (includ- 
ing mother of the duchess of Malakoff) 26 June, ,, 

Rose-hill junction (Newcastle and Carlisle) : colli- 
sion ; 4 killed 5 July, ,, 

Red-hill junction (Great Western and L. &N.W.), 
near Hertford ; 2 killed ... 29 July, ,, 

Clifton junction (Lancashire and Yorkshire): col- 
lision ; 4 killed 3 Aug. ,, 

Kirtlebridge, Dumfries (Caledonian) : collision ; 
express train late ; error of pointsman ; 12 killed, 

2 Oct. „ 

Kelvedon, near Chelmsford (Great Eastern) : loco- 
motive driven off the line by a raised rail ; 1 
killed, many hurt .... 17 Oct. ,, 

Near Woodhouse junction (Manchester, Sheffield, 
and Lincolnshire) : collision ; two killed, 18 Oct. ,, 

Corry, Pennsylvania, U.S. : train broke through a 
bridge ; about 20 killed ... 24 Dec. , , 

Near Pesth : train run off line ; 21 killed, 

about 7 May, 1873 

Near Shrewsbury (Great AVestern and London & 
N. W. Junction) : axle of engine broke ; car- 
riages driven off the line ; 4 killed . . 8 May, ,. 



EAILWAYS. 



809 



EAILWAYS. 



Near Higham, Derbyshire (Midland); engine-tire 
broke; train ran off the line; 2 killed 21 June, 

Wigan (London and North Western) : carriages 
thrown off the line ; sir John Anson and others 
(13 persons) killed .... 23 Aug. 

Keti'ord Junction (Great Northern, Manchester, and 
Sheffield) : collision ; 3 killed . -23 Aug. 

Near Hartlepool (North Eastern) : train thrown off 
the line ; 3 killed 2 Sept. 

Peamarsh crossing, near Guildford (Southwestern) : 

. collision with a bullock ; train thrown off the 

line ; 3 killed . . . . . 9 Sept. 

Barkston Junction, near Grantham (Great North- 
ern) : 2 killed 10 Jan. 

Near Manuel and Bo'ness Junction, between Edin- 
burgh and Glasgow (North British) : collision of 
London express with mineral train ; 16 killed 

27 Jan. 

Euxton Junction, between Preston and Wigan ; col- 
lision through fog and too great speed ; 2 killed 

20 Feb. 

Merthyr-Tydvil (Great Western) : coupling broke, 
causing collision ; about 40 seriously injured ; 

I death 18 May, 

Bargoed (Rhymney railway) : collision ; train ran 

away through brakes not acting ; 2 killed ; much 

damage 12 Aug. 

Thorpe, near Norwich (East Norfolk) : collision ; 
two trains met (mistake of Cooper and Bobson, 
telegraph clerks, committed for trial for man- 
slaughter) ; 26 deaths ; about 50 injured ; 8.30 p. m. 

10 Sept. 
[Cost the company above 13,000?., Cooper sen- 
tenced to 8 months' imprisonment, 7 April, 1875.] 
Shipton, near Oxford (Great Western) ; tire of car- 
riage-wheel broke ; train driven over an embank- 
ment ; 34 deaths ensued, about 70 injured 

24 Dec. 
[Verdict of inqxiiry, accidental deaths ; 16 March, 

1875-] 

Bothbury, near Morpeth (North Eastern) : train 
ran off embankment ; 4 killed . . 3 July, 

ELildwick, near Skipton, Yorkshire (Midland): 
Scotch express ran into an excursion train ; 
7 deaths, 11.30 p.m ... 28 Aug. 

Between Mutford and Somerleyton ; train ran off 
the line ; 3 killed .... 1 Jan. 

Near Odessa : train ran over embankment ; about 
68 killed 8 Jan. 

Abbot's Bipton (Great Northern), near Hunting- 
don ; 2 collisions; first, Scotch express with coal 
train ; and second, with Leeds express from Lon- 
don, whereby 14 deaths ; including Mr. Thos. 
Mure, Scotch advocate, a son of Mr. Noble, the 
sculptor ; a son of Mr. Dion Boucicault, dramatist ; 
brother and 2 nieces of Dr. Burdon Sanderson ; 
during a snow storm .... 21 Jan. 
[Coroner's inquest : verdict, virtually accidental 
deaths ; directors censured for not having a sepa- 
rate line for mineral traffic, 3 Feb. 1876.] 

Near Long Ash ton (on Great Western), " Flying 
Dutchman " express : about 57 miles an hour ; 
driver and stoker killed ; defective condition of 
permanent way 27 July, 

Between Badstock and Wellow ; about 4 miles from 
Bath (Somerset and Dorset), single line ; collision 
between excursion trains ; 14 killed ; about 

II p.m .7 Aug. 

[Inquest : verdict, manslaughter against James 

Sleep, station-master, 12 Sept. 1876.] 

Waiiibrechie, near Lille (French great northern) : 
collision with a conveyance on level crossing, 6 
killed 5 Nov. 

Alisey siding, near Hitchin (Great Northern) : col- 
lision of Manchester express with goods train, 5 

killed 23 Dec. 

[Verdict of inquest : neglect of Thos. Pepper, 
the driver (killed), in not observing the signal, 

r 5 Jan. 1877.] 

Near Ashtabula, U.S., Pacific express from New 
York : a bridge over a creek broke down during 
a snow storm, above 100 perished by drowning, 
burning, &c 29 Dec. 

Near Morpeth (North Eastern) : Scotch express 
went off the line; 5 lulled . early 25 March, 

Near Billing, Northamptonshire (London and North 
Western) : collision, 2 deaths . . 18 Oct. 



1S73 



1874 



1875 



Buckstone Junction, near Grantham (Gt. Northern): 
express ran off the rails ; 2 killed . 7 Dec. 

Holcombe, near Leeds (Midland): collision of trains ; 
2 killed 24 Dec. 

Chester : 2 carriages went off rails ; 1 death ; above 
30 hurt 8 July, 

Newcross : collision between carriages of Brighton 
and S. Eastern Cos. : several injured, 7.45 p.m. 
(Bank Holiday) 5 Aug. 

Sittingbourne (London, Chatham, & Dover): cheap 
fast train, bringing home holyday-makers ; run 
into luggage trucks ; mistake of pointsman ; 

midday 31 Aug. 

[Jacob Moden and Charles Clarke, committed 
for trial for manslaughter, 3 Sept. 1878.] 

Curragheen, near Cork : engine uncoupled ; ran off 
line ; 3 killed and many injured . 8 Sept. 

Near Pontypridd junction (Rhondda branch of Taff 
Vale line) ; collision through error of signals ; 
13 killed ; about 40 hurt ... 19 Oct. 

Talybont (Brecon and Merthyr) ; engines uncon- 
trolled ; ran down steep descent ; 4 killed ; great 
destruction of property .... 2 Dec. 

Bloomfield, near Tipton, Staffordshire (London and 
North Western) ; collisions ; about 30 severely 
injured 31 May, 

Near Manniugtree (Great Eastern) ; train ran off 
line ; 1 killed ; several injured . . 8 Dec. 

Tay bridge, Dundee ; bridge and train blown into 
the river ; about 74 lives lost . . 28 Dec. 

Brickfield siding, Burscough junction (Lancashire 
and Yorkshire) ; collision ; through error of 
signalman ; 8 deaths . .... 15 Jan. 

Argenteuil, near Paris ; collision ; 7 killed 4 Feb. 

Lofthouse, near Wakefield (Great Northern) ; train 
runs off line ; 2 deaths ... 20 March, 

A bridge fell near Hereford (Midland) ; 1 death 

18 June, 

Marshall Meadows, 2 or 3 miles N. of Berwick 
(North British); "Flying Scotchman" engine 
ran off the line ; carriages precipitated down em- 
bankment ; guard, driver, and fireman killed ; 
much damage to carriages ; few passengers ; (al- 
leged cause, loose rails), about 11 a.m. 10 Aug. 

Near Wennington Junction, 12 miles N. of Lan- 
caster (Midland) ; train went off the rails ; 8 
deaths 11 Aug. 

Near Manchester (Midland) ; train went off rails ; 
17 injured 2 Sept. 

Near Nine Elms station, Vauxhall (South Western) ; 
collision of train with a left engine ; 5 killed ; 20 
injured 11 Sept. 

Kibworth : Leicestershire (Midland) ; Scotch ex- 
press ; driver by mistake reversed the engine ; 
collision with advancing train ; several severely 
injured 9 Oct. 

Leeds (Midland) ; collision ; 2 deaths ; many in- 
jured 21 Dec. 

Dalston Junction (North London) ; collision ; 
through error in signalling ; 2 deaths ensued ; 
about 30 hurt 26 Feb. 

Mexico ; Morelos railway ; through fall of bridge 
near Cuartla ; train precipitated into river San 
Antonio ; about 200 lives lost ; night of 24 June 

Blackburn (Lancashire and Yorkshire); collision; 
S deaths ; about 40 injured . . 8 Aug. 

Bow Station (Great Eastern) ; collision ; 2 killed 

3 Sept. 

Charenton (Lyons Railway) ; collision ; about 20 
killed 5 Sept. 

Desford, near Leicester (Midland); collision; 5 
killed, 22 Oct. ; (Butler, pointsman, arrested for 
manslaughter) 6 Nov. 

Tayport, File (North British) ; collision with goods 
train ; 4 deaths . . . . 25 Nov. 

Highbury Tunnel, near Canonbury (North London) ; 
collision of 3 trains; 5 deaths . . 10 Dee. 

Slough (Great Western) ; express runs into a goods 
train ; 12 killed 24 Dec. 

Between Middlesbrough and Stockton; explosion 
of locomotive ; 4 deaths .... 26 Dec. 

Hudson river railway, near New York ; collision 
and lire ; 8 or 9 killed, including senator Wagner 
burned to death 13 Jan. 

Hornsey (Great Northern) ; collision ; fog; 2 deaths 

25 Jan. 

Near Old Ford Station ; collision of train with broken 
up coal trucks ; 6 deaths . . . .28 Jan. 



1877 



EAILWAYS. 



810 



EAILWAYS. 



Near Cork ; collision ; about 40 injured . 9 July, 1882 
Between Tcherny and Bastigeur (Moscow Kursk- 
line) ; 8 carrriages run oft' the rails ; about 178 

killed 13 July, • ,, 

Streatham Fen (Great Eastern) : destruction of the 
express train, &c, by being thrown off the line 

28 July, „ 
Hugstetten, between Freiburg and Colmar, Baden ; 
excursion train ran off the line ; about 70 

killed 3 Sept. ,, 

Crewe (London and North Western) ; collision ; 

many injured 30 Sept. „ 

Bromley (London, Chatham and Dover) ; fall of a 

bridge ; 7 killed 24 Nov. ,, 

Near Auchterless (Macduff and Turiff section of 
Great North of Scotland) ; train wrecked by fall 
of a bridge ; about 5 killed . . . 27 Nov. , 
Vriog, near Barmouth (Cambrian) ; cliff gave way, 

part of train falls over ; 2 killed . . 1 Jan. 188; 
Near the Eglinton Street Station, Glasgow; col- 
lision ; 4 killed .... 19 March, „ 
Near Lockerbie (Caledonian) ; collisions ; 8 deaths, 

11.30 p.m. 14 May, ,, 

Watford (London and North Western) ; express runs 

into empty carriages ; 1 death . . 31 Oct. „ 

Near Toronto, Canada (Grand Trunk) ; collision ; 

about 31 killed 2 Jan. 188. 

Stepney ; collision ; about 30 persons injured 

22 March, „ 
Between Breamore and Downton (South Western) ; 
coupling broke, train falls over embankment ; 
5 killed and 41 injured . . . .3 June, ,, 
Near Sevenoaks Station (South Eastern); collision ; 

of goods trains ; 2 killed . . . .7 June, ,, 
Bullhouse Bridge, near Penistone (Manchester, 
Sheffield, and Lincolnshire) ; express, 55 miles an 
hour ; crank-axle of locomotive engine broke, 
train wrecked over an embankment; sharp 
curve ; 24 deaths, afternoon . . .16 July, ,, 
Near Penistone ; coal waggon, by breaking of an 
axle, thrown into the way of an excursion train ; 
4 deaths, many injured . . . .1 Jan. 188 
Earl's Court, Kensington (District), collision ; one 

killed 23 Aug. ,, 

Whitland and Cardigan Railway, train went off the 

line through fast driving, 3 lives lost 25 Aug. „ 
Finsbury Park station, collision of Great Northern 
and North London trains through fog ; many 
injured ; 1 death (March) ... 11 Feb. i8£ 
Roccabrunna, between Monte Carlo and Mentone 
(Riviera) collision ; about 8 killed ; many injured 

10 March, ,, 
Portadown (Great Northern of Ireland), 4 killed 

30 June, ,, 
Collision near Niagara Falls ; 18 killed 14 Sept. ,, 
Near Woodstock, Vermont, U.S. (Vermont Central) 
Boston and Montreal express ; carriages fall over 
a bridge over the White River (frozen) and catch 
fire ; about 45 lives lost ... 4 Feb. i8i 
Near Boston (Boston and Providence) U.S. ; train 

broke through bridge ; 32 killed . 14 March, ,, 
Ibrox station (Glasgow and Paisley joint line), 4 

surfacemen killed by an accident . 22 March, , 
Collision at St. Thomas's, Ontario ; ignition and 
explosion of petroleum, 14 killed and about 100 

injured 16 July, , 

East of Chatsworth, Illinois ; excursion to Niagara ; 
train overthrown by a burning bridge ; 83 killed 
and many died afterwards . . . 11 Aug. , 
Hexthorpe, near Doncaster ; a Manchester and 
Sheffield train runs into a Midland excursion train 
during collection of tickets ; 25 deaths 16 Sept ; 
Samuel Taylor (driver) and Robert Davis (fireman) 
committed' for manslaughter 23 Sept. ; acquitted ; 
the directors and other officials censured 15 Nov. , 
Hyde ; (Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire) ; 
collision with a goods train ; 4 women killed, 

midnight 14-15 July, 18 

Hampton Wick (London and South Western), 
collision with a light engine, 4 persons killed near 
midnight, officers censured for recklessness 

6 Aug. | 
Velars, between Blaisy and Lyons, train went off 
the rails, 9 persons killed, early . 5 Sept. 
Lehigh Valley Railway, collision between excursion 
trains above Pennhaven ; about 61 persons killed 
10 Oct. ; another collision on the same railway, 
14 persons killed 16 Oct. 



Landslip between Salandra and Grassam, Italy ; 
destruction of an excursion train, about 22 persons 

killed 20 Oct. 1888 

Near Borki Station in S. Russia, the engine of the 
imperial train (with the czar) ran off the line with 
four carriages (weak rails) ; 21 persons killed ; 
the czar slightly injured . . . .29 Oct. ,, 
By the falling in of Abergwynfi tunnel of the 
Rhondda and Swansea Bay railway, 7 persons, 
were killed . . " . . . . 22 Jan. 188c 
Near Grbnendal, Brussels ; train crushed by col- 
lision with a bridge, about 12 lives lost 3 Feb. ,, 
Near St. George, Ontario, Canada, by collapse of a 

bridge, 11 persons killed . . . .27 Feb. „ 
Penistone station (Manchester, Sheffield and Lin- 
colnshire), excursion train ran off the line, 1 life 

lost . 30 March, ,, 

Near Hamilton, Ontario (Grand Trunk), excursion 
train from Chicago to New York ; carriages run 
off the line and burnt ; 17 killed . 28 April, ,, 
Killooney near Armagh (Gt. Northern of Ireland), 
collision between Sunday School excursion trains; 
about 80 deaths ; 400 injured (officials charged with 
culpable negligence) . . . .12 June, ,, 
Near Bucharest ; collision of passenger and luggage 

trains, about 15 deaths .... 8 July, ,, 
NearWildpark Station, between Stuttgart and Bob- 
lingen, train went down embankment ; 7 killed . 

1 Oct. „ 
Longsight, near Manchester (London & North- 
western), collision of passenger and goods train, 6 

deaths 4 Oct. ,, 

Stirling, California, collision between Burlington 
and Union Pacific trains, about 30 deaths . 

16 Oct. „ 
At Jams Run, West Virginia, train upset by spread- 
ing rails ; 10 killed '28 Dec. ,, 

Near Cincinnati, U.S.A., collision of express train 

to New York ; 6 persons killed . .17 Jan. 189 
Near Salem, U.S.A., train runs offline ; 6 killed . ,, 

27 Jan. ,, 
At Burninouth, near Berwick (North British), colli- 
sion ; 3 deaths 25 Jan. „ 

Carlisle station (London & North Western), Scotch 
express ran into engine approaching (attributed 
to failure of vacuum or pneumatic brake through 
cold), 4 persons killed, 3 a.m. . . 4 March, ,, 
Near Hamburg, U.S.A., Lake Shore railway, colli- 
sion ; 6 killed 5 March ,, 

Quincey, near Boston, U.S.A., engine and cars left 

the rails ; about 20 deaths . . . 20 Aug. ,, 
At Schuylkill valley, near Reading, U.S. A.,'collision 

of coal and goods trains ; 23 deaths . 20 Sept. ,, 
At Norton Fitzwarren, near Taunton (Great 
Western), collision of special express train from 
Plymouth and a shunted goods train ; 10 passen- 
gers (from the Cape) killed ; George Rice, signal- 
man, through forgetfulness had declared the line 
clear, about 1.30 a.m. 11 Nov. ; acquitted of 

manslaughter 22 Nov. ,, 

Edinburgh, Georgia station (Suburban railway), 
collision of passenger and goods trains, through 
neglect of signalman ; many persons injured . 

11 Nov. „ 
Primrose-hill tunnel (London & North-Western), 
collision of passenger and goods trains ; guard 

killed 13 Nov. ,, 

At Topsin, near Salonica, train runs off the line; 

about 40 retired soldiers killed . . 14 Nov. ,. 
Wreay, 5 miles S. of Carlisle (London and North- 
Western), express goods train ; axle of a wagon 
broke, 20 wagons thrown over the embankment 

25 feet high, 2 a.m 3 April, 18 

Norwood Junction (London & Brighton), express 
train wrecked by the collapse of Portland bridge, 
through defect in the ironwork ; about 10 a.m. ; 

6 persons injured 1 May, , 

Moenchenstein, near Bale, Switzerland, excursion 
train ; by the collapse of a bridge several carriages 
thrown into the river Birse ; about 70 persons 

perish 14 June , 

Ravenna, Ohio, collision between heavy freight 
train and the Erie express for New York, above 
25 persons perish . . " . .3 July, , 
Charleston, W. Virginia, collapse of a trestle bridge, 
part of a train falls over, 13 persons killed . 

4 July , 



EAINBOW. 



811 



EAPHOE. 



St. Mande, near Paris, collision of a goods and an 
excursion train ; about 44 killed . 27 July, 1891 

Near Port Byron, New York ; collision ; 11 persons 
killed 6 Aug. „ 

Ponty-pridd (Taff Vale) collision ; 15 persons in- 
jured 15 Aug. ,, 

At a junction between Miinchenbuchsee and Zolli- 
kofen, near Berne ; collision ; about 14 deaths . 

17 Aug. ,, 

Trestle bridge over the Catawba river, N. Carolina, 
train plunged into the river ; above 20 deaths . 

26 Aug. ,, 

Near Burgos, Old Castile, collision of express and 
mixed trains ; 25 deaths (including Mr. Maurice 
Long, British vice-consul at Malaga, and Mr. Win. 
Cotton) 24 Sept. ,, 

Kohlfurt (between Breslau and Berlin) ; collision ; 
5 deaths, midnight 19 Oct. ,, 

Near Nagpur, Bombay ; train went off the line 
through wheel breaking ; n British soldiers and 
5 others killed $ Nov. ,, 

Near Domnino station on the Kosloff, &c, rail- 
way, Central Russia ; train ran off the line on a 
bridge, 31 persons killed ... 2^ Nov. ,, 

About 70 miles from Lahore, the N. W. railway of 
India ; collision ; about 30 persons killed . 

about 8 Dec. ,, 

At Barnby (Great Eastern) collision of Lowestoft 
and Beccles trains ; 3 persons killed . 24 Dec. „ 

Near Hastings, New York Central ; collision of 
Buffalo and Niagara Falls, and St. Louis express 
trains; 10 persons killed . . . . 24 Dec. ,, 

Near Medill, Missouri ; train falls in the river 
through breaking down of the bridge ; 7 per- 
sons killed 4 May, 1892 

On the Cottonbelt, Arkansas, U.S.A., collision, 7 
persons killed . .... 20 May, , , 

Birmingham, collision between the L. & N. W. 
express train and a Midland train entering the 
station at the same time and partly on the same 
line ; 2 deaths, many injured 27 May, [T. E. Fear, 
the Midland] driver, charged with man- 
slaughter] . . . . - . .8 June, , , 

NearSouth Carrollton, Kentucky, collision, 4 deaths 

5 June, ,, 

Esholt junction near Leeds (Midland) collision ; 4 
deaths 9 June, ,, 

Bishopsgate-station (Great Eastern) ; collision of 
workmen's trains from Walthamstow and Enfield, 
containing 1,800 persons ; 4 deaths, about 40 in- 
jured ; between 6 and 7 a.m., 14 June ; signal- 
men censured by the coroner . . . 17 June ,, 

Harrisburg, U.S.A., collision ; 10 deaths . 25 June ,, 

EAINBOW. Its theory was developed by 
Kepler in 161 1, and by Rene Descartes in 1629; 
see Spectrum. 

EAIN-FALL. Mr. G. J. Symons printed a 
table of rain-fall in Britain for 140 years, 1726-1865, 
in the Reports of the British Association in 1866 ; 
and another table in 1883 for the years 1866— 1880. 
The wettest year was 1852, being 38 percent, above 
the average ; but 1872 was 58 per cent. He began 
to publish his "Annual Kainfall in the British 
Isles " in 1866. In 1867 he published, " Bain : 
How, When, Where, Why, it is Measured." It con- 
tains an attempt at a rainfall table of the world. 
Rainfall observers in Britain for the tables, 168 in i860 ; 

about 2,000 in 1888. 
Deficient rainfall in 1887 ; average yearly fall at Bolton, 

Lancashire, for 56 years 47^7 in. ; in 1887, 27^92 in. 
August 1891, the wettest in Britain for many years. 
Experiments for the artificial production of rain 
by means of explosives at El Paso in Texas . 

18, 19 Sept. 1 89 1 
Melbourne, " the rain-maker," contracts to water 

N.-W. Kansas in June- Aug. 1892 . . Oct. ,, 
Rain-making experiments made in Madras presi- 
dency Nov. ,, 

EALEIGH'S CONSPIEACY, termed the 

Main Plot {which see) . 

EAMADAN, the Mahometan month of fasting, 
in 1889 began 2 May. It is followed by the 
festival of Bairam {which see). 



EAMBOUILLET, a royal chateau, about 25 
miles from Paris. Here Francis I. died 31 March, 
1547 ; and here Charles X. abdicated, 2 Aug. 1830. 
After being owned by the count of Thoulouse and the 
due de Penthievre, it was bought by Louis XVI. 1 778- 

EAMILLIES (Belgium), the site of a brilliant 
victory gained by the English under the duke of 
Marlborough and the allies over the French com- 
manded by the elector of Bavaria and the marshal 
de Villeroy, on "Whitsunday, 23 May (o.s. 12), 1706. 
The French were soon seized with a panic, and a 
general rout ensued : about 4000 of the allied army 
were slain in the engagement. This accelerated 
the fall of Louvain, Brussels, &c. 

EAMSGATE, Kent, a fishing village in the 
17th century, became important through commerce 
after 1689. The erection of the pier began in 1750 ; 
the harbour was formed by George Smeaton, 1780- 
95, and the lighthouse erected soon after. Popula- 
tion, 1881, 22,683 ; iSgij 24,676. 

BANEEAGH (near Chelsea), a public garden 
for concerts and dancing, occupying the grounds of 
Eanelagh House (built by Jones, earl of Banelagh, 
about 1691), was opened with a breakfast, 5 April, 
1742. The music for the orchestra was frequently 
composed by Dr. Arne. The gardens were closed, 
and the buildings taken down, in 1804. 

BANGES ACT, 1891. See under Commons. 

BANGOON, maritime capital of the Burmese 
empire, built by Alompra, 1753, was taken by sir 
A. Campbell on 11 May, 1824. In Dec. 1826, it 
was ceded to the Burmese on condition of the pay- 
ment of a sum of money, the reception of a British 
resident at Ava, and freedom of commerce. Oppres- 
sion of the British merchants led to the second 
Burmese war, 1852. Bangoon was taken by storm 
by general Godwin, 14 April, and annexed to the 
British dominions in December. An English 
bishopric founded, 1877. Destructive fire for two 
days about 18 April, 1884. Foundation stone of 
Cathedral laid by lord DufFerin, viceroy, 24 Feb. 
1886. Prince Albert Victor of Wales hospitably re- 
ceived, 20 Dec. 1889. See Burmah. 

BANSOME'S AETIFICIAL STONE, the 
invention of Mr. Fred. Ransome, 1848, is made by 
dissolving common flint (silica) in heated caustic 
alkali, adding fine sand. The mixture is pressed 
into moulds and heated to redness. 

EANTEES, a sect which arose in 1645, similar 
to the Seekers, now termed Quakers. The name 
is now applied to the Primitive Methodists, separated 
from the main body in 1810 ; see Wesleyans. 

EAPE was punished with death by the Jews, 
Romans, and Goths ; by mutilation and loss of 
eyes in William I.'s reign. This was mitigated by 
the statute of Westminster 1, 3 Edw. I. 1274. 
Made felony by stat. Westminster 2, T2 Edw. III. 
1338 ; and without benefit of clergy, 18 Eliz. 1575. 
Rape made punishable by transportation in 1841 ; 
by penal servitude for life, or a less period, 1861. 

EAPHIA, a port of Palestine. Here Antiochus 
III. of Syria was defeated by Ptolemy Philopater, 
king of Egypt, 217 r.c. 

EAPHOE, a bishopric in N. Ireland. St. 
Columb-kille, a man of great virtue and learning, 
and of royal blood, founded a monastery in this 
place, and it was afterwards enlarged by other holy 
men : but it is the received opinion that St. Eunan 
erected the church into a cathedral, and was the 
first bishop of the see in the 8th century. Raphoe 
was united to the bishopric of Derry by act, 3 <fc 4 
Will. IV. 1833 ; see Bishops. 



BAPPAHANNOCK. 



812 



EEBECCA EIOTS. 



BAPPAHANNOCK, see Chancdlorsville, and 

Trials, 1865. 

BASPBEBEY, not named among the fruits 
early introduced into this country from the conti- 
nent. The Virginian raspberry (Rubus occiden- 
tal-is) before 1696, and the flowering raspberry 
(Btibus odoratus), about 1700, came from North 
America. 

EASTADT, Baden. Here the preliminaries of 
a peace were signed, 6 March, 17 14, by marshal 
Villars on the part of the French king, and by 
prince Eugene on the part of the emperor; the 
German frontier was restored to the terms of the 
peace of Eyswick.— The CONGRESS of BAS- 
TADT, to treat of a general peace with the 
Germanic powers, was commenced 9 Dec. 1797 ; 
and negotiations were carried on throughout 1798. 
The atrocious massacre of the French plenipoten- 
tiaries at Eastadt by the Austrian regiment of 
Szeltzler took place 28 April, 1799. 

BATCLIFFE HIGHWAY (now St. George's 
street), East London. Mr. Marr, a shopkeeper here, 
with his wife, child, and boy, Avere brutally mur- 
dered in a few minutes, 7 Dec. 181 r. In the 
same neighbourhood, on ri Dec, Mr. and Mrs. 
Williamson, then - child, and servant, were also 
murdered. A man, named "Williams, arrested on 
suspicion, committed suicide, 15 Dec. 

BATHMINES (near Dublin) . Colonel Jones, 
governor of Dublin castle, made a sally out, routed 
tbe marquis of Ormond at Bathmines, killed 4000 
men, and took 2517 prisoners, with their cannon, 
baggage, and ammunition, 2 Aug. 1649. 

EATING ACT, 37 & 38 Vict. c. 54, passed 
7 Aug. 1874 ' abolishes exemptions from the poor 
law act, 43rd of Elizabeth ; and provides for the 
rating of woods, mines, rights of fowling, fishing, &c. 

EATIONALISM, the doctrine of those who 
reject a divine revelation and admit no other means 
of acquiring knowledge but experience and reason. 
The leading writers are Eeimarus of Hamburg (died 
1768), Paulus of Heidelberg, Eichhorn, Eeinhard, 
and Strauss. W. Lecky's " History of nationalism 
in Europe" appeared, July, 1865; and Dr. J. 
Hurst's, April, 1867. 

BATISBON (in Bavaria), was made a free 
imperial city about 1200. Several diets have been 
held here. A peace was concluded here between 
France and the emperor of Germany, by which was 
terminated the war for the Mantuan succession, 
signed 13 Oct. 1630. In later times, it was at 
Batisbon, in a diet held there, that the German 
princes seceded from the Germanic empire, and 
placed themselves under the protection of the 
emperor Napoleon of France, 1 Aug. 1806. Eatis- 
bon was made an archbishopric in 1806 ; secularised 
in 1810 ; was ceded to Bavaria in 1815 ; became 
again an archbishopric in 1817. Population 1S90, 
37,567- 

BATTENING (from ratten, provincial for rat), 
the _ removing and hiding workmen's tools as a 
punishment for nonpayment to trades unions, or 
opposition to them. Much "rattening" was dis- 
closed at the commission of inquiry at Sheffield in 
June 1867 ; and at Manchester Sept. following,- ; see 
Sheffield. 

EAUCOUX (Belgium). Here marshal Saxe 
and the French army totally defeated the allies 
under prince Charles of Lorraine, 11 Oct. 1746. 

EAVAILLAC'S MUEDEE of Henry IV. of 
France, 14 May, 1610. The execution of the assassin 



on 27 May was accompanied by most elaborate 
tortures. 

BAVENNA (on the Adriatic), a city of the 
Papal states, founded by Greek colonists, fell under 
the Eoman power about 234 B.C. It was favoured 
and embellished by the emperors, and Honorius 
made it the capital of the Empire of the West about 
a.d. 404. In 568 it became the capital of an 
exarchate. It was subdued by the Lombards in 
752, and their king, Astolphus, in 754 surrendered 
it to Pepin, king of France, who gave it to the pope 
Stephen, and thus laid the foundation of the tem- 
poral power of the holy see. On the nth of April, 
15 12, a battle was fought between the French, 
under Gaston de Foix (duke of Nemours and 
nephew of Louis XII.), and the Spanish and Papal 
armies. De Foix perished in the moment of his 
victory, and his death closed the good fortune of the 
French in Italy. Eavenna became part of the king- 
dom, of Italy in i860. 

Many of the Accoltellatcri, a secret society of as- 
sassins (said to have been formerly followers of 
Garibaldi), .who long kept the city in terror, 
arrested, Sept. — Oct. ; condemned to life im- 
prisonment 12 Dec. 1874 

BE, ISLE OF (W. coast of France, near Eochelle). 
Oyster beds planted here in 1862 have flourished. 
See liochelle. 

BEADEES, a new order of ministrants in the 
church of England, received the assent of the 
archbishops and bishops in July, 1866. They were 
not to be ordained or addressed as reverend. 

BEADING (Berkshire) . Here Alfred defeated 
the Danes, 871. The abbey was founded in 1121 
by Henry I. The last abbot was hanged in 1539 
for denying the king's supremacy. The palace 
prison was erected 1850. New town hall, free 
library, &c. opened 31 May, 1882. Population, 1881, 
48,769 ; 1891, 60,054. 

EEAL ACTIONS Limitation Act, passed 

1874, comes into operation 1 Jan. 1879. 
BEALISTS, see Nominalists. 

EEAL PBESENCE, see Transubstantia- 

tion. 

EEAPING-MACHINES. One was invented 
in this country early in the present century, but 
failed from its intricacies. At the meeting of the 
British Association at Dundee, Sept. 1867, the rev. 
Patrick Bell stated that he invented a reaping- 
machine in 1826, which was used in 1827 ; the 
principle being that on which the best American 
machines are now constructed. On 15 Jan. 1868, 
he was presented with a valuable testimonial, and 
1000^. in money. McCormick's American machine 
was invented about 1831, and perfected in 1846; he 
received a gold medalfrom the jurors of the Exhibi- 
tion of 1851 ; and also at the Eoyal Agricultural 
Society's competition at Bristol, 6 Aug. 1878. The 
sheaves are bound by these reaping machines. 
About 200 patented ; few good. Hussey's machine, 
also American, exhibited in 1851, was highly 
commended. 
John Ridley, the inventor of the reaping machine 

largely used in Australia, died 28 Nov. 1887. 

EEASON was decreed to be worshipped as 
a goddess by the French republicans, 10 Nov. 
1793, and was personified by an actress. — Thomas 
Paine's " Age of Reason" was published in 1794-5 ; 
Immanuel Kant's " Critique of Pure Eeason," 
(" Kritik der reinen Vernunft "), 1781. 

EEBECCA EIOTS, see Wales, 1843, 1878. 



REBELLIONS. 



813 



RECORDS, PUBLIC. 



REBELLIONS or Insurrections in 

BRITISH HISTORY. Details of many are given 
in separate articles. See Conspiracies. 

Against William the conqueror, in favour of Edgar 

Atlieling, aided by the Scots and Danes, 1069. 
By Odo of Bayenx and others, against William II. in 

favour of his brother Robert, 10S8 ; suppressed, 1090. 
In favour of the empress Maude, 11 39. Ended, 11 53. 
The rebellion of prince Richard against his father Henry 

II. 11S9. 
Of the Barons, April, 1215. Compromised by the grant 

of Magna Charta, 15 June following. 
Of the Barons, 1261-67. 
Of the lords spiritual and temporal against Edward II. 

on account of his favourites, the Gavestons, 1312. 

Again, on account of the Spencers, 1321. 
Of Walter the Tyler, of Deptford, vulgarly called Wat 

Tyler, occasioned by the brutal rudeness of a poll-tax 

collector to his daughter. He killed the collector in 

his rage, and raised a party to oppose the tax itself, 

1381 ; see Tyler. 
Ill Ireland, when Roger, earl of March, the viceroy and 

heir presumptive to the crown, was slain, 1398. 
Of Henry, duke of Lancaster, who caused Richard II. to 

be deposed, 1399. 
Against king Henry IV. by a number of confederated 

lords, 1402-3. 
Against Henry V. by earl of Cambridge and other lords, 

1415- 

Of Jack Cade, against Henry VI. 1450 ; see Cade's Insur- 
rection. 

In favour of the house of York, 1452, which ended in the 
imprisonment of Henry VI. and seating Edward IV. of 
York on the throne, 1461. 

Under Warwick and Clarence, 1470, which ended with 
the expulsion of Edward IV. and the restoration of 
Henry VI. the same year. 

Under Edward IV. 1471, which ended with the -death of 
Henry VI. 

Of the earl of Richmond, against Richard III. 1485, which 
ended with the death of Richard. 

Under Lambert Simnel, i486, who pretended to be 
Richard III. 's nephew, Edward Plantagenet, earl of 
Warwick ; his army was defeated, leaders slain, and he 
was discovered to be a baker's son ; he was pardoned, 
and employed by the king as a menial. 

Under Perkin Warbeck, 1492 ; defeated ; executed 1499. 

Under Thomas Flammock and Michael Joseph, in Corn- 
wall, against taxes levied to pay the Scottish war ex- 
penses. They marched towards London, and lord 
Audley took the command at Wells. They were de- 
feated at Blackheath, 22 June, and the three leaders 
were executed, 28 June, 1497. 

The "Pilgrimage of Grace" against Henry VIII. 1536-7. 

Of the English in the West, to restore the ancient liturgy, 
&e., 1549 ; suppressed same year. 

In Norfolk, headed by Ket, the tanner, but soon sup- 
pressed, Aug. 1549. 

In favour of lady Jane Grey, against queen Mary. Lady 
Jane was proclaimed queen of England on the death of 
Edward VI. 10 July, 1553 ; but she resigned the crown 
to Mary a few days afterwards : she was beheaded for 
high treason, in the Tower, 12 Feb. 1554, aged 17. 

Of sir Thomas Wyatt, son of the poet, and others, against 
queen Mary's marriage with Philip of Spain, &c. , fails ; 
he is beheaded n April, 1554. 

Of the Roman catholic earls of Northumberland and 
Westmoreland against queen Elizabeth, Nov. and Dec. 
1567. The former fled to Scotland, but was given, up 
by the regent Morton and executed. 

Of the Irish under the earl of Tyrone, 1599, suppressed 
in 1601. 

Under the earl of Essex, against queen Elizabeth, 1600 ; 
it ended in his death, 1601. 

Of the Irish under Roger More, sir Phelim O'Neil, &c, 
against the English in Ireland, 1641-5. 

The "Great Rebellion," 1641-60. 

Rebellion of the Scots Covenanters, 1666 ; soon put 
down. 

Under the duke of Monmouth, 1685 ; executed 15 July. 

Of the Scots in favour of the Old Pretender, 1715 ; quelled 
in 1716. 

Of the. Scots under the Young Pretender, 1745 ; suppressed 
in 1746 ; lords Lovat, Balmerino, and Kilmarnock be- 
headed. 

Of the Americans on account of taxation, 1774. This 
rebellion led to the loss of our chief North American 



colonies, and the independence of the United States, 
1782. 

In Ireland, called the Great Rebellion, when great num- 
bers took up arms, commenced 24 May, 1798 ; sup- 
pressed next year. 

Again in Ireland, under Robert Emmett, a gifted enthu- 
siast, 23 July, 1S03, when lord Kihvarden was killed 
with several others by the insurgents. 

Canadian Insurrection (which see), Dec. 1837 to Nov. 1838. 

Of Chartists at Newport (ivhich see), 4 Nov. 1839. 

Smith O'Brien's silly Irish rebellion ; terminated in the 
defeat and dispersion of a multitude of his deluded 
followers by sub-inspector Trant and about sixty police 
constables, on Boulagh common, Ballingary, co. Tip- 
perary, 29 July, 1848 ; see Ireland. 

Sepoy mutiny in India (see India), 1857-8. 

Of Fenians in Ireland ; see Fenians and Ireland, 1865-7. 
See Chili. 

RECEIPTS FOR MONEY were first taxed by 
a stamp duty in 1783. The act was amended in 
1784, 1791 et seq., and receipts were taxed by a 
duty varying according to the amount of the money 
received, in all transactions. Stamps required on 
bills of exchange, notes, and receipts in Ireland, by 
stat. 35 Geo. III. 1795 ; see Bills of Exchange. 
The uniform stamp of one penny on receipts, for all 
sums above 2L, was enacted by 16 & 17 Vict. c. 59 
(4 Aug. 1853) ; see Stamps. Penny postage-stamps 
used for receipts after 1 June, 1881. 

RECIDIVISTS, the French term for habitual 
criminals. The proposal of the French govern- 
ment to transmit many of these to New Caledonia, 
with partial freedom, was opposed in France as 
dangerous to liberty, and very warmly protested 
against by our Australian colonies, especially 
Queensland and New South "Wales, fearing their 
intrusion as dangerous to public security, 1883-4. 

French legislation resumed; bill passed 12 May; 
came into operation . . . . 1 Dec, 1885 

RECIPROCITY ASSOCIATION, founded 
at Manchester Sept. 1869, in consequence of the 
restrictions on the importation of British manu- 
factures into their territories imposed by foreign 
governments. 
Reciprocity, a form of protection, was advocated by lord 

Bateman and others in 1878-9. His resolution was 

negatived by the lords, 29 April, 1879. 

RECIPROCITY TREATY between Great 
Britain and the United States, regulating the rela- 
tion between the latter and Canada, in regard to 
trade, fisheries, &c, negotiated by lord Elgin, and 
ratified 2 Aug. 1854. Its abrogation, proposed by the 
United States government in 1864, was effected 17 
March, 1866. Its renewal was desired in the states 
in 1867. See Canada and United States, 1891. 

RECITATIVE, a species of singing differing 
but little from ordinary speaking, and used for nar- 
ratives in operas, is said to have been first employed 
at Rome by Emilio del Cavalierc, who disputed the 
claim of Rinuccini to the introduction of the opera, 
1600 ; see Opera. 

RECORD, Evangelical, or Low Church, weekly 
newspaper, established 1828. 

RECORDER, the principal judicial officer of 
great corporations. The first recorder of London 
was Jeffrey de Norton, alderman, 1298 ; right hon. 
Russell Gurney, Q.C., recorder, Dec. 1856— Jan. 
1878. Sir Thomas Chambers, Feb. 1878', died 24 
Dec. 1891, succeeded by sir Charles Hall, 8 Feb. 1892. 
The salary, originally 10^. per annum, is now3000/. 

RECORDS, Public, in England, began 

to be regularly preserved in 1 100, by order of Henry 
I. The repositories which possessed materials the 
most ancient and interesting to the historian were, 



EECEEATION. 



814 



EEFOEM IN PAELIAMENT. 



the Chapter-house of Westminster Abbey, the Tower 
of London, the Rolls Chapel, and the Queen's Re- 
membrancer's offices of the exchequer. The early 
records of Scotland, going from London, were lost 
by shipwreck in 1298. In Ireland, the council- 
chamber and most of the records were burned, 1 7 1 1 . 
Public records Act, 2 Vict. c. 94 (to Aug. 1838). — 
A new Record Office has been erected on the Rolls 
estate, between Chancery and Fetter lanes, to which 
the records have been gradually removed. The 
Record Commissioners commenced their publica- 
tions in 1802. Mr. F. Thomas's valuable "Hand- 
books to the Public Records," was published in 1853 ; 
Mr. Ewald's " Our Public Records," in 1873. Acts 
relating to the Public Records of Ireland, passed 
1867 and 1875. 

EECEEATION, see Playground. 
The Recreative Evening Schools Association for boys who 

have left school, founded, under royal patronage, 1886. 

EECEEATIVE BELIGIONISTS, a name 
given to an association of gentlemen for diffusing a 
knowledge of natural religion by the aid of science, 
formed in Dec. 1866. In Jan. 1867 lectures were 
given on Sunday evenings at St. Martin's Hall, 
London, by professor Huxley, Dr. W. B. Carpenter, 
and others, sacred music being performed at intervals 
during the evening. This was decided not to be an 
infraction of the Sunday act, 21 Geo. III. c. 49, in 
the trial, Baxter v. Baxter Langley, 19 Nov. 1868. 
See Sunday Lecture Society. 

BECEUITINGr, see Army, 31 Oct. 1866. 
Recruits: 1878, 28,325; 1879, 25,662; 1880, 
25,622; 1881,26,258; 1882,23,802; 1883,33,096 
(new regulations); 1884, 35,653; 1885, 39,97!; 
1886,39,409; 1887, 31,225; 1888, 25,153; 1890-1, 
(for the regular army), 32,923. 

EECUSANTS, persons who refuse_ to attend 
church, 1 Eliz. c. 2, 1559 ; dissenters relieved from 
this act, 1689; it was repealed, 1844. 

EED AN, a field fortification, consisting of two 
faces meeting in a salient angle directed towards 
the enemy; see Russo- Turkish War, 1855. 

EED CEAG, deposits of fossil remains on the 
coast of Essex and Suffolk, so designated by Edward 
Charlesworth about 1835. They are much used in 
the manure manufacture. 

EED CEOSS on a white ground, the flag of 
the Geneva Convention {which see). Third inter- 
national convention at Geneva, 1 Sept. 1884. The 
Russian Red Cross Society, with others, was very 
active during the Servian war, July-Aug. 1876. 
The order of the Royal Red Cross for ladies who 
have acted as nurses in war, &c, and others, in- 
stituted by queen Victoria, 23 April, 1883. The 
princess of Wales and other ladies nominated, 25 
May, 1883 ; conferred on Mrs. Grimwood for her 
services in the retreat of the troops from Manipur 
{which see), June, 1891. 

EEDE LECTUEE, Cambridge ; sir Robert 
Rede, chief justice of common pleas, in 1524 en- 
dowed some lectureships. In 18^9 these were 
replaced by an annual lecture : which has been 
given bj' professors Owen, Phillips, Ansted, Tyndall, 
and other eminent persons. 

EEDEMPTOBISTS, see Liguorians. 

BEDHILL, see Reformatory Schools. 

EEDISTEIBUTION OF SEATS ACT, 
eec Reform, 1885. 

BEDOWA, a Bohemian dance in 3-4 time, in- 
troduced in 1846 or 1847, at Paris, and soon after in 
London. 



EED EIVEE SETTLEMENTS, a name 
given to part of the Hudson bay settlements. 

EED SEA, the Mare Erythraeum of the " 
ancients, between Arabia and Africa, crossed by the 
Phoenicians and others in commerce, and by the 
Israelites in their escape from Egypt, 1491 B.C. In 
1826 Ehrenberg discovered that the colour was due 
to marine plants, the Trichodesmium ErythrcRum ; 
see Suez and Soudan. — Red Sea Littoral, Suahin, 
&c, governor-general, col. Holled Smith, appointed 
1888, resigned June, 1892. 

EEFEEENDUM, the name given to an 
article in the Swiss constitution of 29 May, 1874, 
by which certain laws passed by the Cantonal and 
Federal legislations might be referred to the people 
at large by plebiscite. 

EEFLECTOES, see Burning-glass. 

EEFOEM ASSOCIATION, instituted at 
Westminster to protect electors, 20 May, 1835. 
National Reform Union: at the annual meeting at Man- 
chester it was said to have 411 affiliated societies, 
22 May, 1889. 

EEFOEM BANQUETS, see France, 1847. 

EEFOEM CLUB, established in 1836, to 
succeed the Westminster Club, 1834-6. The 
building in Pall Mall, designed by sir Charles 
Barry, was completed in 1841. 
Jubilee ball; the prince of Wales and son, and above 

2,000 persons of all parties present, 15 June, 1887. 

EEFOEM m Parliament. Mr. Pitt's mo- 
tion for a reform in parliament was lost by a majority 
of 20, 7 May, 1782; of 144, 7 May, 1783 ; and of 74, 
18 April, 1785 ; see Radicals. The measure of reform 
by earl Grey's administration was proposed in the 
house of commons by lord John Russell, 1 March, 183 1. 

bill of 1831. 

First division ; second reading : for it, 302 ; against it, 
301 ; 22 March. 

On motion for a committee, general Gascojaie moved an 
amendment, "that the number of representatives for 
England and Wales ought not to be diminished. ' ' Amend- 
ment carried 011 a division, 299 to 291 ; 19 April. 

The bill abandoned, and parliament dissolved, 23 April. 

A new parliament assembled, 14 June. Bill again intro- 
duced, 24 June. 

Division on second reading : for it, 367 ; against it, 231 — 
majority, 136 ; 7 July. 

Division on third reading of the bill : for it, 345 ; against 
it, 236 — majority, 109 ; 22 Sept. 

In the Lords : — first division, on second reading ; lord 
Wharncliffe moved, " that the bill be read that day six 
months." For the amendment, 199 ; against it, 158 — 
majority, forty-one ; 8 Oct. [Parliament prorogued, 
20 Oct. 1831.] 

act of 1832.* 

Read in the Commons a, first time without a division, 12 
Dec. 1831. Second reading ; division, viz. : for the bill, 
324 ; against it, 162 — majority, 162 ; 17 Dec. 1831. Third 
reading ; division, viz. : for the bill, 355 ; against it, 
239 — majority for it, 116; 23 March, 1832. 

In the Lords : — read a, first time on motion of earl Grey, 
27 March. Second reading : for the bill, 184 ; against 
it, 175 — majority, nine ; 14 April. In the committee 
lord Lyndhurst moved, " that the question of enfran- 
chisement should precede that of disfranchisement." 
The division was 151 and 116 — majorit3 r against minis- 
ters, thirty-five, 7 May. 

Resignation of ministers, 9 May; great public excitement 
ensued, and they were induced to resume office on the 
king granting them full power to secure majorities by 
the creation of new peers. 

*By this "Act to amend the Representation of the 
People in England and Wales " (2 & 3 Will. IV. c. 45), 56 
boroughs in England were disfranchised (schedule A.), 30 
were reduced to one member only (B.) ; 22 new boroughs 
were created to send two members (C), and 20 to send 
one member (D.) and other important changes made. 



EEFOEM IN PAELIAMENT. 



815 



EEFOEMATION. 



In the Lords, the bill was carried through the committee, 
30 May ; read a third time : 106 against 22 — majority, 
eighty-four ; 4 June. Received the royal assent, 7 
June, 1832. 

The royal assent given to the Scotch reform bill, 17 July ; 
and to the Irish one, 7 Aug. 1832. 

ABORTIVE REFORM BILLS. 

Lord John Russell introduced a new reform bill, 13 Feb. 
1854, which was withdrawn, 11 April, 1854, in conse- 
quence of the war with Russia. 

On 28 Feb. 1859, M r - Disraeli brought in a reform bill, 
which was rejected by the commons on 31 March, by a 
majority of 39. This led to a dissolution of parlia- 
ment, and eventually to a change of ministry. 

The new government (lords Palmei'ston and J. Russell) 
brought forward a new bill, 1 March, i860; but with- 
drew it, 11 June. No reform bill was brought forward 
by the government, 1 861-5; see Commons. 

The discussion respecting parliamentary reform was re- 
vived in the autumns of 1864 and 1865. 

Mr. Baines' reform bill was rejected by the commons, 8 
May, 1865. 

Mr. Gladstone introduced a. franchise bill, 12 March, 1866 ; 
after much discussion, it was read a second time, 28 
April. A re-distribution of seats bill was introduced, 
and incorporated with the franchise bill, 7 May ; an 
amendment (on a clause, substituting " rateable " for 
" clear yearly value ") was passed, in opposition to the 
government, 19 June ; which led to the resignation of 
the government, 26 June ; and the withdrawal of the 
bill (see Adullam), 19 July, 1866. 

Numerous great reform meetings : London, Hyde-park 
(riotous), 23, 24 July ; Agricultural Hall, 30 July ; and 
Guildhall, 8 Aug. ; Manchester, 24 Sept. ; Leeds, 8 
Oct. ; Glasgow, 16 Oct. ; Edinburgh, 17 Nov. ; Con- 
ference at Manchester, ig Nov. 1866. 

Reform demonstration of trades-unions in London ; pro- 
cession of about 25,000 ; great order observed, 3 Dec. , 
1866. 

Procession of about 18,000 men to Agricultural Hall, 
Islington: good order kept ; 11 Feb. 1867. 

Mr. Disraeli announced his plan of proceeding with re- 
form by 13 resolutions, n Feb. ; these withdrawn, 26 
Feb. 1867. 

"Ten Minutes' bill" introduced and withdrawn, 25 Feb. 
1867. 

[It comprised a 61. franchise for boroughs, and 20I. for 
counties. Said by sir John Pakington to have been 
agreed to in the last ten minutes of a cabinet council.] 

New bill (with household suffrage) introduced 18 March ; 
read second time, 27 March, 1867. 

The "Tea-room meeting" of liberals (Messrs. Owen Stan- 
ley, Dillwyn, Grant Duff, and others), who agree to 
support the bill in opposition to Mr. Gladstone's reso- 
lution, which is withdrawn, and the bill goes into 
committee, 8 April ; Mr. Gladstone's amendment re- 
jected by 22 (for 288, against 310), 12 April, 1867. 

Peaceable reform meetings at Birmingham, 22 April ; 
Hyde Park, 6 May ; National Reform Union ' (first 
meeting), 15 May, 1867. 

acts of 1867-8. 
The new Reform bill passed by the commons, 15-16 July ; 
by the lords (with amendments, when lord Derby said, 
that it was "a great experiment," and "a leap in the 
dark ") 6 Aug. ; received the royal assent, 15 Aug. 
1867.* 

* This act is divided into three parts : — 

I. Franchises. Boroughs : All householders rated for 
relief of the poor ; lodgers, resident for twelve months, 
and paying 10?. a year. Counties : Persons of property of 
the clear annual value of 5?. ; and occupiers of lands or 
tenements paying izl. a year. At a contested election for 
any county or borough represented by three members,no 
person to vote for more than 2 candidates ; in London, 
to vote for 3 only. 

Disfranchised: Totnes ; Reigate ; jGrcat Yarmouth; 
Lancaster. 

II. Distribution of Seats : Boroughs with less than 
10,000 population, to return one member only (38 in 
Schedule A.). Manchester, Liverpool, Birmingham, and 
Leeds, to have 3 members instead of 2. 

Chelsea (with Fulham, Hammersmith, and Kensington) 
made a borough : Merthyr Tvdvil, and Salford, to return 
two members ; Tower Hamlets divided into two boroughs 
— Hackney, and Tower Hamlets. (Other new boroughs 



Scotch reform bill introduced by lord advocate, 17 Feb ■ 
passed 13 July, 1868. 

Irish bill introduced by the earl of Mayo, 19 March ; 
passed 13 July, 1868. 

The Reform league was dissolved 13 March, i860 ■ re- 
vived, Oct. 1876. 

Bill for extending household suffrage to counties brought 
in annually by Mr. G. O. Trevelyan, see Household. 
Suffrage. 

acts of 1884-5. 

New bill for Representation of the People of the United 
Kingdom extending household and lodger suffrage to 
comities uniform with boroughs, adding about 2,000,000 
voters introduced by Mr. Gladstone, the premier, 28 
Feb., read first time 3 March ; lord John Manners' 
amendment, declining to pass the bill without know- 
ledge of re-distribution of seats, 24 March; negatived, 
(340-210), bill read second time, 7-8 April ; third time, 
27 June. Lords, first time, 27 June : rejected by earl 
Cairns's amendment (conservatives led by Marquis of 
Salisbury), (205-146), 8-9 July ; earl of Wemyss's com- 
promise rejected (182-132); earl Cadogan's amendment, 
(adjournment, instead of prorogation of parliament till 
the autumn), adopted 17 July. Commons, bill read 
first time, 24 Oct.; second time, (372-232) 7-8 Nov*. ; 
third time, 11 Nov. Lords bill road first time, 14 Ni > v. ; 
second time, 18 Nov. ; (compromise with the govern- 
ment) ; third time, 5 Dec. ; passed 6 Dec. 1884. 

Redistribution of Seats Act ; commons, read first time, 
1 Dec. ; second time, 4 Dec. 1884 ; third time (116-33), 
11-12 May, 1885. Lords, read first time, 12 May; second 
time, 15 May ; third time, 12 June ; Royal assent, 25 
June, 1885. 

Redistribution of Seats Act.— Boroughs to cease as such 
(having less than 15,000 inhabitants) : England, 80 ; 
Scotland, 2 ; Ireland, 22. To be included in their 
counties: Berwick, Lichfield, Carrickfergus, and Drog- 
heda. Disfranchised for corruption : Macclesfield, Sand- 
wich. To lose one member (having less than 50,000 in- 
habitants) : England, 34; Ireland, 3. To have addi- 
tional members (with more than 50,000 inhabitants) ; 
England, 12 ; Scotland, 3 ; Ireland, 2. New boroughs: 
England, 43. 160 seats obtained by disfranchisement 
to be divided among counties and boroughs now under- 
represented. Certain boroughs and counties return- 
ing more than one member, formed into new sub- 
divisions, returning one member. London only to have 
two members. Total number of members to be raised 
from 652 to 670 ; England to have 6 more, Scotland 12 
more. 

Mr. Stansfeld's resolution advocating the principle of 
"one man, one vote," negatived in the commons 
(291 — 189), 3 March, 1891. 

EEFOEMATION, THE. Efforts for Hie 
reformation of the church may be traced to the 
reign of Charlemagne, when Paulinus, bishop of 
Aquileia, emploj'ed his voice and pen to accomplish 
it. The principal reformers were AVickliffe, Huss, 
Jerome of Prague, Savonarola, Erasmus, Luther, 
Zuinglius, Tyndal, Calvin, Melanchthon, Cranmer, 
Latimer, Knox, and Browne. Luther thus charac- 
terised himself and his fellow reformers : " Ees non 
Verba — Luther." "Verba non Ees — Erasmus." 
" Ees et Verba — Melanchthon." "Nee Verba nee 
Ees — Carlstadt .;" see Wichliffites, Protestants, Cal- 
vinists, Lutherans, Prcsbi/tcrianism, &c. The eras 
of the reformation are as follows : — 
In France (Albigcnses), said to have been a surviving 

gnostic sect, not Christian reformers . about 1177 

In England (Wickliffe) 1360 

In Bohemia (Huns) 1405 

In Italy (Jerome Savonarola) 1498 

In France (by Farel) before 1512 

In Germany (Luther) 1517 

In Switzerland (Zuinglius) 1519 

In Denmark (Andreas Bodenstein) .... 1521 

in Schedule B.) University of Loudon to return one 
member. 

III. Supplementary Provisions : Registration, &c. 
Boundary Commissioners (which sec). Parliament not to 
be dissolved on any future demise of the crown. Mem- 
bers holding offices of profit from the crown not to vacate 
their seats on acceptance of another office. 



BEFOBMATOBY SCHOOLS. 



816 



BEGGIO. 



In Prussia 1527 

In France (Calvin) ; see Huguenots . . . . 1529 

Protestants first so called , 

In Sweden (Petri) 1530 

In England (Henry VIII.) 1534 

I11 Ireland (Archbishop George Browne) . . . 1535 
In England, completed (Cranmer, Bucer, Fagius, 
<fec), 1547; annulled by Mary, 1553; restored by 

Elizabeth 1558 

In Scotland (Knox), established 1560 

In the Netherlands, established .... 1562 

BEFOBMATOBY SCHOOLS, for juvenile 
delinquents.* The Reformatory School at Mettray, 
near Tours in France, was founded in 1839 by 
M. de Metz, formerly a councillor of Paris, warmly 
seconded by the vicomte de Courcelles, who gave 
the estate on which the establishment is placed. 
The one at Kedhill, Surrey, is situated on land 
purchased in 1849 by the Philanthropic Society, 
and under the direction of the rev. Sydney Turner. 
The first stone of the building was laid 30 April, 
1849, by the prince consort. The inmates of these 
establishments are instructed in farm labour, and 
divided into so-called families. In 1854 the Juvenile 
Offenders act was passed. In 1851 and 1853 great 
meetings were held on this subject ; and in Aug. 
1856, the first grand conference of the National 
Reformatory Union was held. See Industrial 
Schools. 

North-West London Preventive and Reformatory 
Institution in the New-road, established : all kinds 

of trades taught 1852 

Reformatory and Refuge Union founded . . 1856 

Acts for establishing reformatory schools passed, 

1857, 1858, 1866, 1868 ; amended .... 1872 
Fifty-one reformatory schools in England (and nine 
in Ireland), 1863 ; 53 reformatory schools (with 
4,674 boys; 1165 girls), 1872; Reformatory 
schools in England and Wales, 1889-90, 46 ; in- 
dustrial schools, 1889, 134 ; 1890, 141. 
An international exhibition of the works of these 
schools at the Agricultural Hali, Islington, near 
London, opened by the prince of Wales . . . 1865 
Mr. T. Barwick Lloyd Baker, an eminent promoter of 
the reformatory system, died Dec. 1886. 

"BEFOBMED CHUBCH" (Calvinistic), 
established in Holland and in some parts of Ger- 
many. For the Reformed Presbyterian Church in 
Scotland, see Cameronians, note. 

BEFOBMED EPISCOPAL CHUBCH, 

founded in the United States of North America in 

1873 ; in this country a secession from the Free 

Church of England in 1877. 

Dr. Cummins, assistant bishop of Kentucky, after re- 
vising the prayer-book, consecrated C. E. Cheney as 
bishop, 14 Dec. 1873 ; others since consecrated and 
churches formed. 

EEFEACTION, see Light. 

EEFBESHMENT HOUSES for the sale 
of wine, &c, are licensed in pursuance of an act 
passed in i860, amended in 1861 : a new act passed 
in 1864, 1865. See Licences. 

EEFEIGEBATOES, sec Provisions. 

EEFUGE FOB THE DESTITUTE (cri- 
minal young females), Dalston, London, E. ; 
instituted 1805, incorporated 1838. 

EEFUGEES' BENEVOLENT FUND, 

instituted in consequence of the Franco-German 
war, at a great meeting held at the Mansion-house, 
London, 21 Oct. 1870. It afforded temporary relief 
to many sufferers. 

* It was calculated (about 1S56) that there were in 
London 30,000, and in England 100,000 youths under 
17 leading a vagabond life, and that out of 15,000 of those 
who were committed for trial nearly half were in custody 
for the first time. 



BEFUGES, see Poor, 1864. Refuges for Desti- 
tute boys and girls, established in Great Queen - 
street in 1852. See Chichester. 

BEGALIA, see Crown. 

BEGATTA. A public boat race, introduced 
into this country from Venice in 1775 : and in that 
year one took place on the Thames. 

BEGELATION. See Ice. 

BEGENCY BILLS. One was passed 1751. 
One was proposed to parliament in consequence of 
the mental illness of George III., and debated 10 
Dec. 1788. It was relinquished on his majesty's 
recovery, 26 Feb. 1789. The return of the malady 
led to the prince of Wales (afterwards George IV.) 
being sworn in before the privy council as regent of 
the kingdom, 5 Feb. 181 1. The Regency Bill pro- 
viding for the administration of the government, 
should the crown descend to the princess Victoria 
while under eighteen years of age, passed 1 "Will. 
IV., 2g Dec. 1830. A Regency Bill appointing 
prince Albert regent in the event of the demise of 
the queen, should her next lineal successor be under 
age ; passed 4 Aug. 1840. 

BEGENTS, see Protectorates. 

BEGENT'S CANAL, "begun at Paddington, 
where it joins a cut to the Grand Junction, passes 
under Maida-hill, continues its course by the Re- 
gent' s -park to Islington, where another subterranean 
excavation, about three-quarters of a mile in length, 
was formed for its passage. It then proceeds by 
Hoxton, Hackney, Mile-end, to Limehouse, where 
it joins the Thames. The whole length of -it is 
nine miles; it comprises twelve locks and thirty- 
seven bridges. Begun, 1812 ; opened 1 Aug. 1820. 
Great explosion of gunpowder (which see), 2 Oct. 
1874. New bridge, near Gloucester gate, Regent's 
park, opened by the duke of Cambridge, 3 Aug. 1878. 
Regent's Canal and City Railway Co. act passed, 
1882. 

BEGENT'S PABK, originally part of the 
grounds belonging to a palace of queen Elizabeth, 
near to the north end of Tottenham court-road, 
pulled down in 1791. Since 1600, the property was 
let to various persons, but the leases having expired 
it reverted to the crown ; and in 1814 great im- 
provements were commenced under the direction of 
Mr. Nash. The park consists of about 450 acres ; 
within it are the gardens of the Zoological Society 
and the Royal Botanical Society. During a frost 
on 15 Jan. 1867, the rotten ice of one of the lakes 
gave way, and about 200 persons were immersed, of 
whom above 40 perished. Addition of 20 acres 
made to the public park, 1883. 

Joseph Rumbold was murdered near York Gate, 24 May. 
Eight youths, George Gallesly, 17, William Elvis, 16, 
Francis Cole, 18, Peter Lee, 17, William Joseph Graefe, 
17, William Henshaw, 16, Charles Henry Govier, 16, 
and Michael Duling, 15, all described as labourers, 
were charged with the wilful murder, 1 Aug. ; Gallesly 
was convicted ; the rest acquitted of murder, 2 Aug. ; 
they pleaded guilty to minor changes, and were sen- 
tenced to various terms of penal servitude, 4 Aug. 
The evidence disclosed the existence of local bands of 
young roughs carrying on internecine warfare. Joseph 
Rumbold was not the intended victim ; Gallesly 
reprieved, Aug. 1888. 

BEGENT STBEET, London, "W. ; designed 
and executed by John Nash ; authorised by act, 53 
George III. 1813. The colonnades of the quadrant 
were removed in 1848. 

BEGGIO, see Mhcgium. 



BEGICIDES. 



817 



EEIGNS OF SOVEREIGNS. 



EEGICIDES, in English history, are the com- 
missioners appointed to try king Charles I., 150 in 
number; of whom 70 acted, and 59 signed the 
death-warrant, Jan. 1649. Of these last, 29 were 
tried, and 10 executed : Harrison, 13 Oct. ; Cook 
and Peters, 16 Oct. ; Scott, Scroop, Clement, and 
Jones, 17 Oct. ; Axtelland Hacker, 19 Oct. 1660. 
They asserted themselves to be martyrs. Others 
were imprisoned. See -Assassinations. 

Foreign Regicides. 
James I. of Scotland, by nobles . . 20 Feb. 1437 
James III. ,, „ . . 11 June, 1488 

Henry III. of France, by Clement, 1 Aug. ; d. 2 Aug. 1589 
Henry IV. ,, by Ravaillac . . 14 May, 1610 

Gustavus III. of Sweden, by Ankarstrom, 16 March ; 

d. 29 March, 1792 
Louis XVI. ,, by convention . 21 Jan. 1793 

Paul of Russia, by nobles . . .24 March, 1801 

EEGIMENTAL EXCHANGE ACT, 

passed 28 May, 1875. 

EEGIMENTS OF Infantry were formed in 
France about 1588 ; see Infantry. The following 
are the approximate dates of the establishment of 
several British regiments : — 

CAVALRY. 

Oxford Blues are erroneously said to have been 
formed in the reign of Henry VIII. ; they derive 
their name from their colonel, the earl of Oxford, 
in 1661 

Three Indian regiments (19th, 20th, and 21st) added 

Aug. 1861 

The Dragoon Guards, the Scots Greys, and the 
Royal Irish were formed about . . . 1683-6 

Several regiments of Light Dragoons were armed 
with lances and termed Lancers . . Sept. 1816 

infantry (see Guards). 
1st Royal or Royal Scots regiment, 1633 ; the old title 

resumed Dec. 1871 

Coldstream Guards, established by Monk, in . 1660 

3rd Buffs, represent London train bands and have 

special privileges ,, 

2nd Queen's Royal 1661 

4th King's Own 1685 

5th Northumberland Fusiliers . . . ,, 

26th Cameronian 1689 

100th Canadian 1858 

101st to 109th (Indian) added . . . Aug. 1861 
The Highland regiments are the 42nd, 71st, 72nd, 

78th, 79th, 92nd, and 93rd. See Army Organization. 

EEGISTEES. The registering of deeds and 
conveyances disposing of real estates was ap- 
pointed to be effected in Yorkshire and in Middlesex, 
2 Anne, 1703, et seq. Greater security was thus 
given to purchasers and mortgagees; and the value 
of estates increased in those counties. Wills have 
been for a series of years kept and registered, in 
London, at Doctors' Commons; see Wills. The 
registering of shipping in the Thames was com- 
menced, 1786; and throughout England, 1787; and 
several acts and amendments of acts have since 
followed for keeping and improving registers. 
The duties and payments of the Lord Clerk Register 

of Scotland and his deputy were regulated by 42 

6 43 Vict. c. 44 1879 

EEGISTEES, PAROCHIAL, were established 
by Cromwell, lord Essex, by which the dates of 
births, marriages, and burials, became ascertain- 
able, Sept. 1538. This measure was opposed 
by the people, who feared some new taxation. A 
stamp-tax was laid on registers in 1784. Laws for 
their better regulation were enacted in 1813 et seq. 
The great Registration act (introduced by lord John 
Russell), 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 86, passed 17 Aug. 1836, 
see Bills of Mortality, &c. 
A new registration act for births and deaths, passed 

7 Aug. 1874, came into operation . .iJan. 1875 



Births and Deaths Registration act for Ireland 
passed 2 Aug. 1880 

Major George Graham, the first registrar-general 
(1838), was succeeded by sir Brydges Powell 
Henniker, appointed .... Jan. ,, 

EEGISTEATION of Voters was enacted 

by the Reform act, passed 7 June, 1832, and by 
acts passed in 1868 and 1885; see Revising 
Barristers. 

New Parliamentary and Municipal Registration act 
passed 22 July, 1878 

EEGIUM DONUM (Royal gift), an allowance 
from the sovereign for the maintenance of the Pres- 
byterian ministers in Ireland, commenced by 
Charles II. in 1672, and revived by William III. in 
1690, was commuted by the Irish Presbyterian 
Church act passed June, 187 1. The allowance to 
certain protestant dissenting ministers in Ireland 
was given up by them in 1857, in deference to the 
wishes of English dissenters. 

EEGULATION OF PUBLIC WOE- 
SHIP, see Public Worship. 

EEGULATION of the Forces Act passed 
17 Aug. 1871. See Army. 

EEICHENBACH (Prussia). Here Duroc 
was killed during the conflicts between the French 
and the allies, 22 May, 1813 ; see Bautzen. Here 
was signed a subsidy treaty between Russia, Prussia, 
and England, whereby the last engaged to provide 
means for carrying on the war against Napoleon I. 
on certain conditions, 14, 15 June, 1813. Austria 
joined the alliance soon after. 

EEICHSEATH, the representative council of 
the empire of Austria, reconstituted by decree 5 
March; met on 31 May, i860. In May, 1861, the 
upper house consisted of 17 spiritual, 55 hereditary, 
and 39 peers. The lower house consisted of 136 
elected deputies. No representatives came from 
Hungary, Transylvania, Venetia, the Banat, Sla- 
vonia, Croatia, and Istria. The Reichsrath was 
abolished by a rescript, 21 Sept. 1865, with the 
view of restoring autonomy to Hungary and other 
provinces. It again met 20 May, 1867. The 
Reichstag of Germany, the imperial parliament or 
diet, first met at Berlin, 21 Mar. 1871. 

EEIGATE (Surrey), sent two members to 
parliament in the reign of Edward I. ; lost one by 
the Reform Act of 1832, and was wholly disfran- 
chised for corruption by that of 1867. Population, 
1881,18,662; 1891,22,646. 

EEIGN OF TEEEOE. Maximilien Robes- 
pierre headed the populace in the Champ de Mars, 
in Paris, demanding the dethronement of the king, 
17 July, 1 791. He was triumphant in 1793, and 
numbers of eminent men and citizens were sacrificed 
during his sanguinary administration. Billaud 
Varennes denounced the tyranny of Robespierre in 
the tribune, 27 July, 1794. The next day he 
suffered death, with many of his companions; 
see France. This has been termed the Med Terror. 
The reaction after the restoration of the Bourbons, 
1815, disgraced by many atrocious acts of wanton 
cruelty, has been termed the White Terror. The 
Jesuits were then conspicuous in the destruction 
of their adversaries. 

EEIGNS OF SOVEEEIGNS. The average 
duration, according to Newton, is 19 years each; 
according to Hales 22^ years ; that of the sovereigns 
of England being 23 1 years, and that of the popes,. 
7^ years. Pius IX. was the first pope who reigned 
above 25 years, 1846-78. 



EELICS. 



818 



REPORTING. 



RELICS, the trade in these became general in 
the 7th century, fragments of bones, &c. being 
brought from Jerusalem. The sale of relics was 
prohibited by pope Innocent III. 1 198, without 
effect. 

EELIEF CHURCH, a secession from the 
church of Scotland, founded by Thomas Gillespie, 
who was deposed from his ministry for opposing the 
doctrine of passive obedience to the law of the 
church of Scotland respecting the settlement of 
ministers, 23 May, 1752. The church was consti- 
tuted as the "presbytery of relief," 22 Oct. 1761. 
The Eelief and Secession churches were united as 
the United Presbyterian Church, 13 May, 1847. 

EELIEF OF DISTRESS (Ireland) 
ACT, 43 & 44 Vict. c. 14, passed 2 Aug. 1880. See 
Ireland, Pec. 1890. 

RELIGION (from religo, I bind again, in the 
sense of a vow or oath) comprehends a belief in the 
being and perfections of God, and obedience to his 
commandments. The Jewish religion is set forth in 
the Old, and the Christian religion in the New, Testa- 
ment. Departure from these scriptures has been 
the origin of' all corrupt forms of religion, as foretold 
in them. Buddhism differs from this. See Maho- 
metanism, and other religions and sects under their 
names. The population of the globe with reference 
to religious worship, is given by Balbi (who assumed 
the total population to be 1,050,000,000), and 
Dieterici (who assumed it to be 1,288,000,000), as 
follows : 

Balbi (1836). Dieterici (1859) 
Jews ...... 4,500,000 5,000,000 

Christians .... 225,000,000 335,000,000 

Roman Catholics . . . 160,000,000 170,000,000 
Mahometans .... 155,000,000 160,000,000 

Idolaters, <&c. not professing the 
Jewish, Christian, or Mahome- 
tan worship .... 665,500,000 800,000,000 

Estimate in 1869 : 1,375,000,000. 

Roman Catholics 195,460,200 

Protestants 100,385,000 

Eastern church 81,478,000 

Buddhists 360,000,000 

Other Asiatic religions .... 260,000,000 

Pagans 200,000,000 

Mahometans 165,000,000 

Jews ........ 7,000,000 

In Europe (estimated) 1869 (Almanack cle Gotha.) 

Roman Catholics 144,000,000 

Protestants 68,500,000 

Greek Church 68,000,000 

Jews . 4,400,000 

Mahometans 6,642,000 

RELIGION" OF HUMANITY, see Posi- 
tive Philosophy and Secularism. 

RELIGIOUS TRACT SOCIETY, founded 
1799; receipts (1887), including sales, &c, 203,446^. 

REMISSION OF PENALTIES ACT, 

see Sunday. 

REMONSTRANCE, The Grand, drawn 

up by the house of commons, and presented to king 
Charles I., I Dec. 1641. It consisted of 206 articles, 
dwelt bitterly on all the king's illegal and oppres- 
sive acts, and was printed by order of the house. 

REMONSTRANTS, see Arminians. 

RENAISSANCE, aterm applied to the revival 
of the classic style of art in the 15th and 16th cen- 
turies, under the patronage of tbe Medici and 
others ; see Painters, and Sculptors. 



RENDSBURG (Holstein), was taken by the 
imperialists in 1627 ; by the Swedes in 1643 ; and by 
the Prussians and confederate troops in 1848. The 
first diet of Schleswig and Holstein met here 3 
April, 1848. It was re-occupied by the Danes in 
1852, and taken by the Prussians after a serious 
conflict, 21 July, 1864. 

EENNES (capital of Brittany, N. W. France). 
Here was established by Henry II., in 1553, the 
parliament so celebrated for its independence, 
especially in its struggle with the court, 1788-89. 
On 20 May, 1788, it declared infamous every one 
who should take part in the cour pleniere then pro- 
posed, but afterwards suppressed. 

EENTS said to have been first made payable in 
money, instead of in kind, about 1 135. Numerous 
statutes have been enacted in various reigns to 
define the relations and regulate the dealings 
between landlord and tenant. 8 & 9 Vict. c. 106 
(1845) regulates leases. By the act 8 Anne, 1709, 
no goods are removable from tenements under an 
execution until the rent shall have been paid to the 
landlord by the sheriff, 1 709. The rental of England, 
including land, houses, and mines, was 6,000,000^. 
about the year 1600, and twelve years' purchase the 
value of land. About 1690, the rental amounted to 
14,000,000^., and the land was worth eighteen 
years' purchase. Pavenant on the Revenues, The 
rental of the United Kingdom has been estimated 
in the present century at 127,000,000^.; Great anti- 
rent agitation in Ireland, 1879, et seq. ; see Land 
and Ireland, &c. 

EEPEAL of the Union, Ireland. An 

Irish association was formed with this object under 
the auspices of Mr. O'Connell, in 1829. See Some 
Rule and Ireland. 

A proclamation of the lord lieutenant prohibited the 
meetings of a society " leagued for the purpose of 
procuring a repeal of the union, under the name 
of the Irish Society for Legal and Legislative 
Relief, or the Anti-Union Society " . 18 Oct. 1830 

The commons, by a majority of 484, reject Mr. 
O'Connell's motion for repeal . 27 April, 1834 

A new association in 1841, 1842, and 1843 became 
more violent. Assemblies of the lower classes 
of the people were held in the last-named year, 
in various parts of Ireland, some of them 
amounting to 1 50, 000 persons, and called ' ' monster 
meetings." 

A great meeting at Trim, 16 March ; other meetings 
were held at Mullingar, Cork, and Longford, 
on 14, 21, and 28 May, respectively ; atDrogheda, 
Kilkenny, Mallow, and Dundalk, on 5, 8, 11, and 
29 June ; at Donnybrook and Baltinglass, 3 and 
20 July ; at Tara, 15 Aug. ; at Loughrea, Clifton, 
and Lismore, 10, 17, and 24 Sept. ; and at 
Mullaghmast 1 Oct. 1843 

A meeting to be held at Clontarf, on 8 Oct. was 
prevented by government ; and Mr. O'Connell and 
his chief associates were brought to trial for 
political conspiracy, 15 Jan. 1844 : bsA convicted 
12 Feb. ; but the sentence was reversed by the 
house of lords, 4 Sept. ; see Trials. 

The association for the repeal of the union con- 
tinued for some time under the direction of Mr. 
John O'Connell, but was little regarded. 

The total "repeal rent" is said to have amounted 
to 134,379?. 

A fruitless attempt was made in Dublin to revive 
repeal agitation 4 Dec. i860 

EEPLENISHEE, see Electricity {FrhctionaT) . 

REPORTING. The publication of the debate 
in parliament is forbidden as a breach of privilege 
but was virtually conceded, after a severe struggle, 



REPRESENTATION. 



819 



RETREAT. 



in 1 77 1.* Reporters' galleries were erected in the 
houses of parliament after the fire of 1834. To the 
unfettered liberty of reporting we doubtless owe 
much of our freedom and good government; see 
under Law. By the verdict for the defendant in 
the case of Wason v. The Times (for libel) reports 
of parliamentary debates were decided to be privi- 
leged, Nov. 1868. For the attempted exclusion of 
reporters, see Parliament, 1875. A commons com- 
mittee on reporting recommend continuance of 
Hansard's debates with improvement, May, 1879- 

The publication of Hansard's parliamentary debates 
began 1803 and closed in 1888 ; the publication 
of tlie debates was taken up by Messrs. Macrae, 
Curtice & Co., Feb. 1889 ; and continued by the 
Hansard Publishing Union, limited, 1889; the 
Union ordered to be wound up, 13 May. See 
Trials, 1892. 

Mr. Thomas Curson Hansard, formerly editor of 
the "debates," aged 78, dies . . 12 Nov. 1891 

Government contract with Reuter's Telegram com- 
pany for printing and publishing reports of par- 
liamentary debates, <fec, 21 Dec. 1891 ; published 

26 Feb. 1892 

REPRESENTATION of the People 

ACT FOE ENGLAND, passed 15 Aug. 1867 ; for 

Ireland and Scotland, 13 July, 1868 ; a new act 

passed, 6 Dec. 1884. See Reform. 

The Representative, a daily Tory paper, was started 
by Mr. John Murray, the bookseller, in opposition 
to the Times, in 1826. Although he was assisted 
by Mr. Benjamin Disraeli and other eminent per- 
sons, the project was unsuccessful ; the first 
number appeared 25 Jan., the last . 29 July, 1826 

" REPTILE BUREAUCRACY," term ap- 
plied in Germany to certain journalists writing for 
government pay, 1871, et seq. 

REPUBLICANS, see Democrats. The name 
adopted by the Northern party in the United States, 
N.A., opposed to the democrats in the South. Sir 
Charles Dilke, M.P. professed himself a republican 
at public meetings and was much applauded, Nov. 
1 87 1; but at some places his appearance led to riotous 
proceedings. His motion for returns respecting the 
expenditure of the civil list by the queen was nega- 
tived in the house of commons (2 — 276), 19 March, 
1872. A national republican conference of delegates 
was held at Sheffield, 1 Dec. 1872, when a national 
flag was adopted. 

REPUBLICS, see Athens, Home, Genoa, 
Venice, France (1792, 1848, 1870), Spain (1873), 
Brazil (1889), and America. 

REQUESTS, COURTS of; see Conscience. 

REQUIEM, a solemn mass, sung for the 
dead, so called from the introit " Requiem 
iEteniam," &c. Palestrina's Requiem was printed 
at Rome, 1591 ; Vittoria's at Madrid, 1605 ; Mo- 
zart's last work was a requiem, 1791. 

REREDOS, the screen or decorated portion of 

the wall behind the altar in a church. 

A highly sculptured reredos, designed by sir G. G. 
Scott, was erected in Exeter cathedral, by sub- 
scription 1873 

* Very inaccurate reports of parliamentary debates 
were inserted in the Gentleman's Magazine and other 
periodicals in the middle of the last century. Miller, 
printer of the London Evening Mail, was arrested in the 
city of London, by order of the house of commons, for 
publishing the debates, but was discharged by the lord 
mayor, who for doing this was sent to the Tower, where 
lie remained until the end of the session. No opposition 
was made to the publication of the debates in the next 
session, 1777. 



Prebendary Philpotts, the chancellor, and others 
who objected, brought their objections before the 
bishop's visitation court, on 7 Jan. ; it was decided 
that the bishop had jurisdiction in the matter, 
and he ordered the reredos to be removed, 15 
April, 1874. Dean Boyd appealed to the court of 
arches, and sir R. Phillimore reversed the pre- 
vious decision 6 Aug. 1874 

Prebendary Philpotts appealed to the judicial com- 
mittee of the privy council, who decided that the 
reredos should remain ... 24 Feb. 1875 

The magnificent reredos set up in St. Paul's 
Cathedral, London, was protested against as 
idolatrous by some of the London clergy, April, 
1888. An action against the dean having been 
stopped by the bishop, the queen's bench divi- 
sion ordered the bishop to withdraw his veto 
upon the prosecution, 1 June, 1889. After further 
litigation, the house of lords sustained the 
bishop's veto 20 July 1891 

RESERVE FORCES. In the summer of 1859, 
acts were passed to provide for the establishment 
of a military reserve force of men Avho have been in 
her majesty's service (not to exceed 20,000), and a 
volunteer reserve force of seamen not to exceed 
30,000. These acts were consolidated and amended 
in 1867 and 1882. The reserve forces called out by 
proclamation, on account of possible war with Russia, 
2 April, 1878. About 35,000 good soldiers appeared, 
and were commended. They were disbanded 31 
Aug. 1878. Again called out on account of war in 
Egypt, 25 July, 1882, and prospect of war with 
Russia, 27 March, 1885. Average of army reserve: 
1888, 55,068 ; 1890, 56,082. 

RESOLUTE, ship, see Franklin Search, 
1854. 

RESONATOR, a small apparatus, placed in 
the mouth to strengthen and increase the volume of 
the voice in singing, invented by signor Alberto 
Bach, who exhibited its effects at the Royal 
Academy of Music, 29 June, 1880. 

RESPIRATORS, see Charcoal and Fireman. 

RESTITUTION BILL, of Mr. Jesse Col- 
lings, proposes the surrender of lands illegally 
taken from commons, to be given to small culti- 
vators, to become peasant proprietors, Jan. 1885. 

RESTORATION, The, of king Charles II. 
to the crown of England, after an interregnum of 
eleven years and four months, between 30 Jan. 1649, 
when Charles I. was beheaded, and 29 May, 1660, 
when Charles II. entered London amidst the accla- 
mations of the people. The annual form of prayer, 
with thanksgiving, then appointed, was ordered 
to be disused by 22 Vict. c. 2, 25 March, 1849. 
See France, 1814, 1815. 

RETREAT of the Ten Thousand 

GREEKS, who had joined the army of the younger 
Cyrus in his revolt against his brother, Artaxerxes 
Mnemon. The Greeks were victors, but Cyrus was 
defeated and slain at the battle of Cunaxa, 401 B.C. 
Artaxerxes having enticed the Gi - eck leaders into 
his power and killed them, Xenophon was called to 
the command of his countrymen. Under continual 
alarms from sudden attacks, he led them across 
rapid rivers, through vast deserts, over the tops of 
mi 'intains, till he reached the sea. The Greeks re- 
turned home after a march of 1 155 parasangs or 
leagues (3465 miles), which was performed in 215 
days, after the absence of fifteen months. TMs 
retreat has been immortalised by the account given 
by its conductor, in his "Anabasis Cyri" (Expedi- 
tion of Cyrus). 

3 g 2 



EEUNION. 



820 



EEVIEWS. 








Gross 




Gross 


Expenditure, 




Revenue. 


exclusive of 
Fortifications. 


1859, 31 March, gross 


£65,477,284 


£64,663,883 


i860. 


72,089,669 


69,502,289 


1863 .... 


70,603,561 


69,302,008 


1864 .... 


70,208,964 


67,056,286 


!86 S .... 


7°.3i3>437 


66,462,207 


1866 .... 


67,812,292 


f'S^'i^Sl 


1867 .... 


69,434,568 


66,780,396 


1868 .... 


69,600,219 


71,236,242 


1869 .... 


72,591,991 


72,069,961 


1870 .... 


75,454,252 


68,864,752 


1871 .... 


69,945,220 


69,548,539 


1872 .... 


74,708,314 


71,490,020 


1873 .... 


76,608,770 


70,714,448 


1874. 


77»335.657 


76,466,510 


1875 .... 


75,434.252 


74,328,040 


1876. 


77,131,693 


76,621,773 


1877 . 


78,565,036 


78,125,227 


1878 .... 


79,763,298 


82,403,495 


1879 .... 


83,115,972 


85,407,789 


1880. 


81,265,055 


84.105,754 


1881 .... 


84,041,288 


83,107,924 


1882. 


85,822,282 


85,472,556 


1883 .... 


89,004,456 


88,906,278 


1884. 


87,205,184 


86,999,564 


1885 .... 


88,043,660 


89,092,883 


Vote of Credit, 27 






April, 1885 . . 




11,000,000 


1886 s 


89,581,301 


92,223,844 


1887 .... 


90,772,758 


89,996,752 


18S8 .... 


89,802,254 


87,423,645 


1889 .... 


88,472,812 


87,683,830 


1890 .... 


89,304,316 


86,083,314 


1891 .... 


89,489,112 


87,732,855 


1892 .... 


90,995,000 


89,928,000 


1893 . . . 


90,477,000 
(estimated.) 


90,253,000 



EEUNION, see Order. 

EEUSS-GEEIZ and EETJSS-SCHLEIZ, 

two principalities in central Germany, with a united 
population of 166,502 in 1885 ; in 1890, 182,565. 
The reigning family sprang from Ekbert, count of 
Osterode, in the 10th century. The princely dignity 
was conferred by the emperor Sigismond in 1426. 

1859. Henry XXII. , prince of Reuss-Greiz, 8 Nov. ; bom 
28 March, 1846. 

EEVELATION, see Apocalypse. 

EEVENUE and Expenditure of Eng- 
land. The revenue collectedforthecivillist,audfor 
all the other charges of government, as well ordinary 
as extraordinary, was 1,200,000?. per annum, in 
1660, the first after the restoration of Charles II. In 
1690 it was raised to 6,000,000?., every branch of the 
revenue being anticipated ; this was the origin of 
the funds and the national debt, 2 "William and 
Mary. Salmon. The revenue laws were amended 
in 1861. Previously to 1854 there had been an 
average surplus of 2,500,000?. since 1849. In con- 
sequence of the Russian war the deficiency in 1854 
was 3,209,059?.; in 1855, 21,141,183?.; in 1856, 
10,104,412?. In 1857 there vt&sa, surplus of $6, 097 1. ; 
in 1858, of 1,127,657?.; in 1859, a deficiency of 
2,019,584?. 

PUBLIC REVENUE. 

William I. estimated £400,000 

William Rufus 350,000 

Henry 1 300,000 

Stephen 250,000 

Henry II . . . 200,000 

Richard 1 150,000 

John 100,000 

Henry III 80,000 

Edward I. 150,000 

Edward II 100,000 

Edward III 154,000 

Richard II 130,000 

Henry IV. 100,000 

Henry V 76,643 

Henry VI 64,976 

Edward IV * * * 

Edward V 100,000 

Richard III 130,000 

Henry VII 400,000 

Henry VIII . 800,000 

Edward VI 400,000 

Mary 450,000 

Elizabeth . . . 500,000 

James I. 600,000 

Charles I. 895,819 

Commonwealth . 1,517,247 

Charles II 1,400,000 

James II 2,001,855 

William III 3,895,205 

Anne (at the Union) 5,691,803 

George 1 6,762,643 

George II 8,522,540 

George III., 1788 15,572,971 

,, 1800, about ... . 38,000,000 
United Kingdom, 1820 .... 65,599,570 

George IV. , 1825 62,871,300 

William IV., 1830 SSHS 1 ^ 1 ? 

„, J ... 1835 50,494,732 

Victoria, 1845, net 53.060,354 

,, 1850 52,810,680 

l8 53 54,430,344 





Revenue. 


Expenditure. 


1855, net . 

1856 .... 

1857- 

1858 .... 


£63,364,605 
68,008,623 
66,056,055 
61,812,525 


£65,692,962 

88,428,345 
75,588,667 
68,128,859 



* Revised in relation to army, navy, and India. 

The weekly instead of the quarterly publication of the 
public revenue and expenditure was begun by Mr. Robert 
Lowe, the chancellor of the exchequer, 16 Feb. 1870. 

By an act passed 31 July, 1868, revenue officers are per- 
mitted to vote for the election of members of parliament. 

Above 100 statutes relating to inland revenue fell into 
disuse 1 Jan. 1871. 

The revenue friendly societies, and national debt act, 
45 & 46 Vict., c. 72, passed 18 Aug. 1882. New revenue 
act passed, 1884. 

EEVEEEND, an honorary appellation given 
to the clergy, since the middle of the 17th century. 

In Tamworth parish register the minister is first 
styled "reverend," in 1657, occasionally after- 
wards ; but regularly so after 1727. It first ap- 
pears in the registry of All Hallows, Barking . 1732 

The prefix on a family tombstone was refused 
to Mr. Keet, a Wesleyan preacher, by the bishop 
of Lincoln, but given by the archbishop of Can- 
terbury ... 1874 

On trial, Mr. Walter G. F. Phillimore, the chancellor 
of Lincoln, decided against Mr. Keet, who gave 
notice of appeal, 3 June. Sir R. Phillimore gave 
a similar decision in the court of arches, 31 July, 1875 

On appeal to the privy council these decisions were 
reversed. It was decided that there is no law or 
usage restricting the epithet to ministers of the 
Church of England ; it is merely laudatory. 

21 Jan. 1876 

EEVIEWS. The Journal des Scavans, pub- 
lished on 5 Jan. 1665, by Denis de Salo, under the 
name of Hedouville, was the parent of critical 
journals. It was soon imitated throughout Europe, 
and was itself translated into various languages. It 
is still published. George III. spoke of this publi- 
cation to Dr. Johnson, in the private interview with 
which he was honoured by his majesty, in the 
library of the queen's house, in Feb. 1767. Boswell. 
The Bibliotheque Anglaise came out in 1716-27. 



EEVISEES. 



821 



RHETORIC. 



For Military Reviews, see Aldershot, Army and 
Volunteers. For Naval Reviews, see Navy. 



Monthly Review 

Critical 

Anti-Jacobin . 

Edinburgh . 

Quarterly 

Eclectic 

North American 

Retrospective . 

Westminster . 

Athenaeum . . 

Dublin 

North British 

British Quarterly 

National 



1749 
1756 



1813 
1815 



1844 
1855 



Saturday . 
Fortnightly . 
Contemporary . 
Academy 
Church Quarterly 
Nineteenth Century 
National Keview . 1883 
Law Quarterly . . 1885 
English Historical Re- 
view. . . . 1886 
Universal Review 1888-90 
" New Review " . . i88g 
Paternoster Review 
Albemarle Review 



1855 
1865 



1875 
1877 



1890 



REVISERS, see under Bible. 

REVISING- BARRISTERS' COURTS, to 

examine the lists of voters for members of parlia- 
ment, were instituted by the Reform Act of 1832. 

REVISION, see under Bible. Advocates of 
the revision of the French constitution, chiefly 
Bonapartists or Jeroinists, termed Revisionists, 
Feb. 1884. 

REVIVALS on the subject of religion arose in 
the United States in 1857. In the autumn of 1859, 
they began in Scotland, the north of Ireland (par- 
ticularly Belfast), and England. Many meetings 
were held for prayers and preaching throughout the 
week, as well as on Sundays. The " twelve clays' 
wission," a series of revival services, took place in 
many London churches during advent, 1869. 

Mr. Moody, preacher, and Mr. Sankey, singer, Ame- 
rican Revivalists, visited many towns in the United 
Kingdom, 1874-5. Their meetings in London began 
at the Agricultural Hall, 9 March, about 15,000 pre- 
sent; at the Queen's theatre, Haymarket, 12 April- 
31 May ; farewell meeting, 12 July, 1875. Moody and 
Sankey again in London, 6 Oct. 1881 ; 3 Nov. 1883- 
23 June 1884. See Salvation Army. 

REVOLUTIONARY CALENDAR, see 

French Revolution, and Calendar. 

REVOLUTIONARY TRIBUNAL, esta- 
blished at Paris, Aug. 1792. 

Up to 27 July, 1794, when Robespierre was deposed, it 
had put to death 2774 persons, including queen Marie 
Antoinette, the princess Elizabeth, and a large number 
of nobility and gentry, male and female. The oldest 
victim was counsellor Dupin, aged 97 ; the youngest, 
Charles Dubost, aged 14. From 27 July to 15 Dec. 
1794, only Robespierre and his accomplices (about 
100) suffered by it. 

REVOLUTIONS :— 

The Assyrian empire destroyed, and that of the 
Medes and Persians founded by Cyrus the Great, 

536 



The Macedonian empire founded on the destruction 
of the Persian, by the defeat of Darius Codoma- 

nus, by Alexander the Great 331 

The Roman empire established on the ruins of the 

republic by J ulius Osesar 47 

The empire of the Western Franks begun under 

Charlemagne a.d. 800 

In Portugal 1640 

In England 1649 and 1688 

In Russia 1730 and 1762 

In North America 1775 

In Venice 1797 

In Sweden 1772 and 1809 

In Holland, 1795 ; counter-revolution . . . 1813 
In Poland .... 1704, 1795, and 1S30 

In the Netherlands ,, 

In Brunswick ,, 

In Brazil 1831 

In Hungary 1848 

In Rome 1798 and 1848 

In France . . 1789, 1830, 1848, 1851, 1870, and 1871 

In Italy 1859 and i860 

In United States 1860-5 



In Danubiau principalities 1866 

In Papal States, suppressed .... Oct. 1867 

In Spain Sept. 1868 and Dec. 1874 

In Brazil 15 Nov. 1889 

In Chili Jan. — Sept. 1891 

[See the countries respectively.] 
Among the results of the Revolution of 1688 in Great 
Britain, were the toleration act, the establishment of 
the presbyterian kirk of Scotland, the power of grant- 
ing supplies limited to the house of commons, the 
purification of the administration of justice, and un- 
licensed printing. 

REVOLVERS, see Pistols. 

REVUE DES DEUX MONDES,. the 

French literary and historical periodical published 
on the 1st and 15th of each month, first appeared in 
1831. It includes among its contributors the most 
eminent writers in France. 

REYNARD THE FOX, "Reineke 
FuCHS,'' a satirical epic in low German, in which 
beasts are actors and speakers, was first printed as 
Reineke Vos, at Lubeck in 1498, and professes to be 
written by Hinreck van Alkmer. It has been fre- 
quently translated. Goethe's version in High (or 
literary) German hexameters appeared in 1794. 
Jacob Grimm has shown that the subject-matter of 
this " Thier-sage" or "beast-fable" is very ancient, 
many incidents being found in Pilpay and other 
oriental writers. The early French had a " Roman 
de Renart," and " Renart le Nouvel." A poem, 
entitled " der Reinaert," in Flemish, was known in 
the nth century; Caxton's translation in English 
prose was printed 1481; a poetic English translation 
of Goethe's version, by T. J. Arnold, appeared in 
1855- 

REZONVILLE, Battle of, 18 Aug. 1870, 
see Aletz. 

RHiETIA (or R^ETIA), an ancient Alpine 
country, comprising the modern Grisons, Tyrol, 
and part of Lombardy, inhabited by a wild rapa- 
cious people, after a long struggle was conquered 
by Drusus and Tiberius, B.C. 15. 

RHE, Isle OF, see Re and Rochelle. 

RHEA, see China Grass. 

RHEGIUM (now Reggio), S. Italy, a Greek 
colony, flourished in the 5th century, B.C. It was 
held by the Campanian legion, 281-271, afterwards 
severely punished for its rebellion. Reggio was 
taken by Garibaldi, Aug. i860. 

RHEIMS (N. France). The principal church 
here, built before 406, rebuilt in the 12th century, 
is now very beautiful. The corpse of St. Remy, the 
archbishop, is preserved behind the high altar, in a 
magnificent shrine. The kings of France were 
crowned at Rheims ; probably because Clovis, the 
founder of the French monarchy, when converted 
from paganism, was baptized in the cathedral in 
496. Several ecclesiastical councils have been held 
here. The city was taken and retaken several 
times in the last months of the French war, 1814. 
University founded by cardinal Lorraine, 1547, 
suppressed about 1790. Strike of the workmen of 
Mr. Jonathan tiolden, mill owner, a great benefactor 
to the town, May, 1890. Population, 1891, 104,186. 

RHEOMETER, see under Electricity. 

RHETORIC. Rhetorical points and accents 
were invented by Aristophanes of Byzantium, 200 
B.C. Rhetoric was first taught in Latin at Rome by 
Photius Gallus, about 87 b.c He taught Cicero, 
who said " We are first to consider what is to be 



RHINE. 



822 



RICHMOND. 



said ; secondly, how ; thirdly, in what words ; and 
lastly, how it is to he ornamented." A regius pro- 
fessor of rhetoric was appointed in Edinburgh, 
20 April, 1762, when Dr. Blair became first pro- 
fessor. 

RHINE (Latin, Rlienus ; German, Rhein ; 
French, Rhin), a river, about 760 miles long, rising 
in Switzerland, receiving the Moselle, Main,Meuse, 
Neckar, and other rivers, terminating in many 
arms in Holland, and falling into the German 
ocean. On its banks are Constance, Basel, Stras- 
bourg, Spires, Mannheim, Cologne, Dusseldorf, 
Utrecht, and Leyden. The possession of the banks 
of the Rhine has been the cause of many wars, and 
it has been crossed by the French above twenty 
times in a century. In the beginning of the revo- 
lutionary war, Custine invaded Germany by crossing 
it in 1792; and at the close of the war iu 1815, 
France retained the left bank, but lost it at the close 
of the Franco-Prussian war, 1 870-1 (which see). 
A navigation treaty with other powers was signed by 
France, 17 Oct. 1868. A central committee for the 
navigation exists, formed by members for Alsace, 
Lorraine, Baden, Bavaria, Hesse, Holland, and 
Prussia. Very great damage (about 4,000,000^.) 
and loss of life, caused by the rising of the river 
through excessive rain, end of November and De- 
cember, 1882 ; relieved by government grants. 
Becker's German song " They shall not have it, the free 
German Rhine ; " and Alfred de Musset's reply, in 
French, "We have had it, your German Rhine," ap- 
peared in 1841. Max Schneckenburger, author of "The 
"Watch on the Rhine," died 1851. All were popular 
during the war, 1870-71. 

RHODE ISLAND (N. America), settled by 
Roger Williams about 1636, was taken in the war 
of independence by the British, 8 Dec. 1776; but 
was evacuated by them, 25 Oct. 1779. Capitals, 
Providence and Newport. Population in 1880, 
276,531; 1890,345,506; see United States. 

RHODES, an island on the coast of Asia 
Minor, is said to have been peopled from Crete, as 
early as 916 B.C. The Rhodians were great navi- 
gators, and institutors of a maritime code after- 
wards adopted by the Romans. The city was built 
about 408 and nourished 300-200 B.C. ; see Colossus. 
Rhodes, long an ally of the Romans, was taken by 
the emperor Vespasian, a.d. 71. It was held by the 
Knights Hospitallers from 1309 to 1522, when it 
was conquered by the Turks, who still retain it. 
The knights retired to Malta {which see). Rhodes 
suffered severely by an earthquake on 22 April, 
1863. 

RHODIUM, a rare metal, discovered in pla- 
tinum ore, by Dr. Wollaston in 1804. It has been 
used for the points of metallic pens. 

RHODOPE MOUNTAINS (Turkish, Des- 

poto Dagh), a plateau in Roumelia. 

In these about 150,000 Mahometans took refuge 
during the Russo-Turkish war, on the approach of 
the Russians in Dec. 1877, and Jan. 1878 ; and re- 
sisted the invaders. The Russians were accused 
of killing and outraging thousands of men, women, 
and children. A European commission of inquiry ; 
met 21 July ; closed, 26 Aug. ; confirmed the' 
statements, but issued no united report; some 
members seceded _ jg-g 

The insurgents asserted that they were not resisting 
the sultan himself, but maladministration. They 
are governed by an English chief, col. St. Clair, 
who receives the taxes, &c, and is styled "com- 
mander-in-chief of the national army of the 
Rhodope" Sept. „ 

About 40,000 destitute ; reported . . 18 Jan. 1870 

The insurrection gradually subsided. 



RHUBARB. This plant was first cultivated 
for its stalks to be used as food by Mr. Myall, of 
Deptford, about 1820, and soon after came into 
general use. 

RHUDDLAN, statute of, see Wales, 1283. 

RIALTO, BRIDGE OP THE, at Venice (men- 
tioned by Shakspeare in his " Merchant of Venice"), 
built about 1590, consists of a marble arch across 
the Grand Canal, 90 feet wide and 24 feet high. 

RIBBONISM, a term given to the principles 
of a secret society in Ireland, organised about 1820, 
to retaliate on landlords any injuries done to their 
tenants. To the ribbonmen are attributed many 
of the agrarian murders, 1858-71-79. An act was 
passed to repress them, 16 June, 1871. 

RICE, the Oryza sativa of botanists, in the 
husk termed paddy ; largely grown in intertro- 
pical regions, occupying the same place as wheat 
in the warmer parts of Europe. It was conveyed 
to South Carolina near the end of the 17th century, 
and its cultivation greatly increased. 
The duty on foreign, rice, 15s., on colonial rice, is. per 
cwt., was reduced by sir Robert Peel in 1842 to 6s. 3d. 
and 6£,d. respectively. Further reductions were made 
in 1846, and in i860 the duty was totally abolished. 
Imported into Britain : 1846, 770,604 cwt.; 1856, 3,724,695 
cwt. ; 1866, 2,309,494 cwt. ; 1856, 3,700,124 cwt. ; 1866, 
2,276,792 cwt. : 1877, 6,6i7,739cwt. ; 1879, 6,857,330 cwt. > 
1881, 8,500,062 cwt. ; 1883, 7,747,725 cwt. ; 1885, 
5,588,650 cwt. ; 1887, 5,019,512 cwt. ; 1889, 6,585,779 
cwt. ; 1890, 5.957;555 cwt. 

RICHMOND (Surrey), anciently called Sheen, 
which in the Saxon tongue signifies resplendent. 
Here stood a palace in which Edward I. and II. 
resided, and Edward III. died, 1377. Here also 
died Anne, queen of Richard II., 1394. The palace 
was repaired by Henry V., who founded three re- 
ligious houses near it. In 1497 it was destroyed by 
fire; but Henry VII. rebuilt it, and commanded 
that the village should be called Richmond, he 
having borne the title of earl of Richmond (York- 
shire) before he obtained the crown : and here he 
died in 1509. Queen Elizabeth was a prisoner in 
this palace for a short time during the reign of her 
sister. When she became queen it was one of her 
favourite places of residence ; and here she died 
24 March, 1603. It was afterwards the residence of 
Henry, prince of Wales. The beautiful park and 
gardens were enclosed by Charles I. The obser- 
vatory was built by sir W. Chambers in 1769. In 
Richmond, Thomson "sang the Seasons and their 
change;" and died 27 Aug. 1748. 
The Star and Garter tavern burnt ; W. Lever, the 

manager, perished .... 12 Jan. 1870 
Mrs. Julia Martha Thomas was murdered at Rich- 
mond, her body cut up, put in bags and cast into 
river Thames, by Katherine Webster, aged 30, 
about 2 March ; John Church, a publican, arrested 
on suspicion, discharged 17 April ; Webster com- 
mitted for trial, 16 May ; convicted, 8 July ; con- 
fessed ; executed at Wandsworth . 29 July, 1879 

Richmond incorporated 1890 

Municipal buildings : foundation-stone laid by the 

mayor, sir J. Whittaker Ellis, M.P. . 31 Oct. 1S91 
Population, 1881, 19,066 ; 1891, 22,684. 

RICHMOND (Virginia, U.S.) became the 
capital of the southern confederate states. The 
congress adjourned from Montgomery, Alabama, to 
Richmond, where it met 20 July, 1861. After a 
siege of 1452 days and many desperate battles, Rich- 
mond was evacuated by the confederates, 2,3 April, 
1865; see United States. By the fall of the flooring 
in the state capital building, about 60 persons were 
killed. 27 April, 1870. A statue of " Stonewall " 
Jackson (subscribed for by Englishmen) , was un- 



EIDING. 



823 



EIOTS. 



veiled here in presence of his wife aud child, 26 
Oct. 1875. A statue of gen. Eobt. Lee at -Richmond, 
was unveiled 29 May, 1890. Population 1880, 
63,600; 1890, 81,388. 

ELDING, see Races. 

Leon, a Mexican, rode 100 miles, consecutively, 
in 4 hours 57 minutes, using 6 " Mustang horses," 
15 July, 1876 ; 505 miles in 49 h. 51^ min. 

S-10 Feb. 1877 

EIFLE COEPS, see Volunteers, aud Fire- 
arms. Rifle Brigade formed, 1800. International 
rifle meeting, Washington, began, 26 Sept. 1876. 
Another at Creedmoor, near New York, began 14 
Sept. ; the British victors, 1882. For Rifle Ranges, 
see Commons. 

EIGHTS, Bell OF. To the Petition of 
Rights, preferred 17 March, 1627-8, Charles I. 
answered, " I will that right be done according to 
the laws and customs of the realm." Both houses 
addressed the king for a fuller answer to their 
petition of rights, whereupon he gave them an 
answer less evasive, " Soit droit fait comme il est 
desire," 7 June, 1628. The petition thus became a 
statute 13 Car. 1. c. I. An important declaration 
was made by the lords and commons of England to 
the prince and princess of Orange on 13 Feb. 1689, 
in an act " declaring the rights and liberties of the 
subject, and settling the succession of the crown." 
The Bill of Rights, virtually the same as the de- 
clai - ation, was passed by parliament. It totally 
abolished the dispensing power of the crown, Oct. 
1689. See Claim of Right. 

EIG-VEDA. See Yedas. 

EIMNIK (near Martinesti, Wallachia). Here 
the Austrians and Russians under prince Coburg 
and gen. Suwarrow, gained a great victory over the 
Turks, 22 Sept. 1789. 

EINDEEPEST, German for cattle plague 
{which see). 

EING DES NIBELUNGEN, see Nihe- 
lange Not. 

BINGS anciently had a seal or signet engraved 
on them, to seal writings, and they are so used to 
this day. In Genesis xli. 42, it is said that Pharaoh 
gave Joseph his ring. Rings are now put upon 
women's fourth finger at marriage; but the Jews 
used them at the espousal or contract before mar- 
riage. Wedding-rings are to be of standard gold by 
statute, 1855. 

EINK (from the Gaelic rian, or Saxon hrinc, a 
course) , a term used in the Scotch game, " curling." 
The Belgravia skating rink, London, S.W., was 

opened to the public .... 2 Aug. 1875 
Others since at Brighton and other places. Skates 
with rollers (said to have been introduced in a 
scene of Meyerbeer s "Prophete," at Paris, 16 
April, 1849), are used. Mr. Plimpton, an Ame- 
rican, patented roller-skates in 1865 ; his right 
was affirmed on a trial for infringement. 28 Jan. 1876 
See Glaciarium. 

EIO DE JANEIEO (S. America), discovered 
by JDe Sousa, 1 Jan. 1531 ; see Brazil, 1889. In 
1807 it was made capital of the empire of Brazil. 
Population of the city, 1885,357,332; 1890, 500,000. 

EIOTS. The riotous assembling of twelve or 
more persons, and their not dispersing upon pro- 
clamation, was first made high treason by a statute 
enacted 2 & 3 Edw. VI. 1548-9. The present Riot 
Act was passed I Geo. I. 17 14. 

Riots against Jews in London 1189 

Some riotous citizens of London demolished the 



convent belonging to Westminster abbey ; the 
ringleader was hanged, and the rest had their 
hands and feet cut off, 6 Hen. Ill 

Goldsmiths' and Tailors' companies fought in the 
streets of London ; several killed ; the sheriffs 
quelled it ; and thirteen hanged .... 

A riot at Norwich ; the rioters burnt the cathedral 
and monastery ; the king went thither, and saw 
the ringleaders executed 

Riot of Evil May-day (which see) .... 

Dr. Lamb killed by the mob . . . June, 

A riot on pretence of pulling down houses of ill- 
fame ; several of the ringleaders hanged . . . 

Another, at Guildhall, at the election of sheriffs ; 
several considerable persons, who seized the lord 
mayor, were concerned 

At Edinburgh and Dumfries, on accoimt of the 
Union 

In London, on account of Dr. Henry Sacheverel, for 
preaching two sermons (one 5 Nov. 1709), voted 
by the house of commons to be scandalous and 
seditious ; several dissenting meeting-houses were 
broken open and destroyed . . . Feb. 

Riot of the Whig and Tory mobs, called Ormond 
and Newcastle mobs . . . -29 May, 

The Mug-hoitse riot, in Salisbury-court, between the 
Whigs and Tories ; the riot quelled by the guards ; 
five rioters hanged .... 24 July, 

Of the Spitalfields weavers, on account of employing 
workmen come over from Ireland ; quelled by the 
military, but many lives lost .... 

Porteous riot at Edinburgh (see Porteous) 7 Sept. 

The nailers in Worcestershire march to Birming- 
ham, and make terms with iron merchants there 

Of the Spitalfield weavers ; the duke of Bedford 
narrowly escaped death ; lives lost . . May, 

A mob in St. George's-fields, to see Mr. Wilkes in 
the King's Bench prison ; the military aid indis- 
creetly called for by the justices of the peace, and 
several innocent persons, particularly young Allen, 
fired upon, and killed .... 10 May, 

Gordon's " No Popery " riots . 10 May, 2-9 June, 

At Birmingham, on account of commemorating the 
Freneh revolution, when several houses were 
destroyed 14 July, 

In various parts of Scotland, on account of the 
militia act, when several were killed . Aug. 

At Maidstone, at the trial of Arthur O'Connor and 
others, 22 May, 1798 ; the earl of Thanet, Mr. 
Ferguson, and others, were active in endeavouring 
to rescue O'Connor, for which they were tried and 
convicted 25 April, 

At Liverpool, occasioned by a quarrel between a 
party of dragoons and a press-gang . 27 June, 

O. P. riot (which see) at Co vent-garden . . Sept. 

In Piccadilly, in consequence of the house of com- 
mons committing sir Francis Burdett to the 
Tower 6 April, 

Machinery destroyed by rioters at Nottingham from 
Nov. 1 81 1 to Jan. 

In various parts of the north of England, by the 
Luddites, during 181 1 and 

At Sheffield, during which 800 muskets belonging 
to the local militia were destroyed . 14 April, 

At the Theatre Royal, Dublin, on account of the 
celebrated Dog of Moiitargis, several nights, Dec. 

Alarming riots at Westminster, on account of Corn 
bill ; lasted several days . . . March, 

At the depot at Dartmoor, in quelling which seven 
American prisoners of war were killed, and thirty- 
five wounded April, 

Popular meetings at Spa-fields, when the shops of 
the gunsmiths were attacked for arms. Mr. Piatt 
shot in that of Mr. Beekwith, on Snow-hill (Wat- 
son tried for high treason, but acquitted, June, 
1817) ........ 2 Dec. 

In St. James's park, on the prince-regent going to 
the house of lords ; it was said that an air-gun 
was fired at him 28 Jan. 

At Manchester, at a popular meeting . 3 March, 

Affray at Manchester, called the " Field of Peterloo" 
(see Manchester reform meeting) . . 16 Aug. 

At the Theatre Royal, Dublin, of several nights' 
duration 

Riot at Paisley and Glasgow ; many houses plun- 
dered 16 Sept. 

At Edinburgh, on the acquittal of queen Caroline, 

19 Nov 



1271 
1517 
1628 



16S2 
1707 

1710 

1715 

1716 

1736 

1737 
1765 

1768 
1780 

1791 
1797 



1812 
1S14 
1S15 



RIOTS. 



824 



EIPON. 



In London, at the funeral of the queen 14 Aug. 1821 

At Knightsbridge, between the military and the 
populace, on the funeral of Honey and Francis, 
(killed 14 Aug.) 26 Aug. „ 

At the theatre in Dublin ; the riot called the " Bottle 
conspiracy," against the marquis Wellesley, lord- 
lieutenant 14 Dec. 1822 

Riot at Ballybay ; Lawless arrested . . 9 Oct. 1828 

Riot at Limerick ; the provision-warehouses plun- 
dered and mischief done ... 15 June, 1830 

Fatal affrays at Castlepollard, 23 May ; and Newtown- 
barry (which see) 18 June, 1831 

Alarming riots at Mertlryr-Tydvil among the iron- 
workers ; several fired upon by the military, killed 
and wounded 3 June, ,, 

Riot at the Forest of Dean (see Dean) . 8 June, ,, 

Nottingham castle burnt by rioters . . 10 Oct. ,, 

Reform riots at Bristol (see Bristol) . . 29 Oct. ,, 

Affray at Castleshock, county Kilkenny, when a 
number of police, attacked by the populace, were, 
with their commander, Mr. Gibins, killed, 

14 Dec. ,, 

Riot at Boughton, near Canterbury, produced by 
persons called Thomites, headed by a fanatic, 
Thorn, or Courtenay, who, with others, was killed 
(see Thomites) 28-31 May, 1838 

Great riots throughout the country, occasioned by 
the chartists (which see); Llanidloes, Montgomery- 
shire, 30 April, suppressed by military, 4 May ; 
a proclamation 12 Dec. ,, 

Riots in Birmingham ; much mischief . July, 1839 

Chartist riot at Newport (which see) . 4 Nov. ,, 

Meditated chartist outbreak at Sheffield, with most 
destructive objects, providentially discovered, 
and many persons arrested . . . n Jan. 1840 

Rebecca riots against turnpikes in Wales . . . 1843 

Chartist demonstration (see Cluirtists) 10 April, 1848 

Fatal affray at Dolly's Brae, near Castlewellan, in 
Ireland, between the Orangemen and the Roman 
catholics ; several of the latter lost their lives, 
and some of their houses were ransaeked and 
burnt 12 July, 1849 

Serious riots at Yarmouth, through a dispute be- 
tween the shipowners and the seamen 23 Feb. 1851 

Riots occasioned by a procession of Orangemen at 
Liverpool, and several lives lost . . 14 July, ,, 

Riot at Stockport, Cheshire ; two catholic chapels 
destroyed and houses burnt . . 29 June, 1852 

Fierce religious riots at Belfast, in Ireland, occur, 

14 July, ,, 

Fatal election riot at Six-mile-bridge, in the county 
of Clare, in Ireland ; five persons shot dead by 
the military 22 July, ,, 

Riots at Wigan, among the coal-miners, suppressed 
by the military without loss of life . 28 Oct. 1853 

Bread riots at Liverpool .... 19 Feb. 1855 

Riots at Hyde-park, about Sunday bill, July, 1855 ; 
about dearness of bread . . 14, 21, 28 Oct. ., 

Riots at Belfast through the open-air preaching of 
the rev. Hugh Hanna . . .6, 13, 20 Sept. 1857 

Religious riots at St. George's-in-the-East, London, 
on Sundays in ... Sept. and Nov. 1859 

Break-out of the convicts at Chatham, suppressed 
by the military . ... n Feb. 1861 

Violent riots at Belfast begin, through an Orange 
demonstration I7 Sept. 1862 

Fierce rioting (caused by the Irish against the 
favourers of Garibaldi) at Hyde-park, London, 28 
Sept. and 5 Oct. ; and at Birkenhead, Cheshire, 

8 and 15 Oct. 1862 

Rioting at Staleybridge (on account of the mode of 
relief to the unemployed cotton-workers), princi- 
pally Irish ; put down by the military, 21 March, 1863 

Fierce conflicts between Romanists and' Protestants 
at Belfast ; 9 persons killed, and about 150 injured 

io-27 Aug. 1864 

Reform riots in Hyde-park, London ; much damage, 
and many hurt 23) 24 July' 1866 

Anti-popery riots at Birmingham, through the lec- 
turing of Murphy : much damage done to houses, 

17, 18 June, 1867 

Col. Kelly and Dcasy committed for trial as Fenians ; 

rescued from the prisoners' van ; Brett, a police 

sergeant, shot dead . . . . 2 s Sept. 

At Wigan ; colliers on strike . . end of April, 1S68 

Fierce riots against a colliery manager at Mold, 

Flintshire, put down by the military ; 4 deaths, 

2 June, 1869 



Violent rioting at a colliery at Thorncliffe, near 
Sheffield ; quelled by intervention of lord Wharn- 
cliffe and others 21 Jan. 1870 

Rioting at Armathwaite, near Carlisle, between 
English and Irish navvies . . 15, 16 Oct. ,, 

Violent riots at Belfast ... 19, 20 Aug. 1872 

Riots at Northampton, because Mr. C. Bradlaugh was 
not elected M. P. ; suppressed by military 6 Oct. 1874 

At Blackburn, Burnley, Accrington, Preston, and 
other places, through cotton strike and lock-out ; 
several mills and houses destroyed ; riots quelled 
by the military . . . . 14, 15 May, 1878 

At Camborne, Cornwall, against the Irish ; a 
Romanist church destroyed . . 17-18 April, 1882 

At Wrexham, of coal miners . . . 19 April, „ 

Westminster colliery .... 19 April, ,, 

In Skye, cottars against rent about 19 April-Sept. ,, 

At Tredegar, Monmouthshire, Salvationists at- 
tacked by Irish roughs, retaliate with great 
violence ; Irish quarter sacked, 8, 9 July ; 1 
Irishman died ; 600 destitute Irish landed at 
Queenstown, 14 July ; 6 rioters sentenced to 
3 months' imprisonment ... 2 Aug. „ 

In Dublin, through resignation of police, suppressed 
by the military 1 Sept. ,, 

At Kidderminster 4-8 April, 1884 

Peaceable mass meeting of the unemployed in 
Trafalgar-square, joined by the social democrats 
with red flag led by Hyndman, Burns, and 
Champion, who, unchecked for about two hours 
(4 to 6 p.m.), from Pall Mall to Oxford-street and 
neighbourhood, smash windows, ransack shops, 
attack and rob private carriages : finally dis- 
persed : police organisation inefficient (except by 
superintendent Cuthbert) ; estimated damage 
n,oooL, 8 Feb. ; other meetings; rioting checked 
9, 10 Feb. ; rioters sentenced to various terms 
of imprisonment March, 1886 

Riots at Leicester occasioned by a strike ; de- 
struction of factories, &c. ; partially checked by 
the police, n, 12 Feb. ; rioting continued 

13-16 Feb. ,, 

Riots Damages Act passed ., 

Destructive riot of coal-miners at Plas-Power 
colliery near Wrexham . . , . 30 Sept. „ 

Violent riots of Lanarkshire miners at Hamilton, 
Airdrie, &c. ; 74 men arrested . 8-10 Feb. 1887 

Riot at Lillie Bridge, West Brompton ; structures 
destroyed and burnt by a crowd (about 5,000) 
disappointed at the non-performance of a race 
and their money not returned . . 19 Sept. ,, 

Riotous assemblage of the unemployed in Trafalgar- 
square dispersed 17 Oct. ; meeting at Hyde Park 
dispersed by the police after severe conflict, 
18 Oct. ; again dispersed 19 Oct. ; meeting in 
Trafalgar-square, about 2,000 went to Westminster 
Abbey ; disorderly, 23 Oct. ; quiet meetings 24-27 
Oct. and since ; arrests for seditious language, &c, 
4-8 Nov. ; meetings in Trafalgar-square prohibited, 
8 and 18 Nov. ; processions of disorderly mob 
dispersed, and meetings in Trafalgar-square 
prevented by mounted and foot police aided by 
the 1st life guards ; several severe conflicts with 
men using iron bars and knives ; many seriously 
injured, chiefly police; Mr. Cuninghame Graham, 
M.P., a magistrate, and Mr. John Burns and 
many others arrested ; moderate conduct of the 
police ; sir C. Warren's arrangements thoroughly 
successful, Sunday, 13 Nov. ; many sentenced to 
penal servitude 14 Nov. ,, 

Funeral procession of Alfred Linnell, a law writer, 
accidentally killed in a crowd in Northumberland- 
avenue on Sunday, 20 Nov., from Soho to Bow 
cemetery : Messrs. Cuninghame Graham, M.P., 
Win. Morris the poet, and others present ; order 
was only maintained by a large body of police 

18 Dec. 1887 

Much rioting connected with strikes . . . 1890-92 

See Strikes, 1881 ; Ireland ; Crofters, 1887-8 ; Belfast, 
Southampton, and Cardiff. 

BJPON (Yorkshire), an ancient town. About 
661 an abbey cell was built here by Eata. Ripon 
was made a bishopric by archbishop Wilfred, in 
690, but did not endure so. It suffered much by 
the ravages of the Danes, the Normans (1069), anil 
the Scots (13 19 and 1323). The present see was 



RITCHIE'S ACT. 



825 



ROCHDALE. 



erected 5 Oct. 1836, out of the archdeaconry of York 
in the West Riding. Income 4,200^. The cathedral 
was restored by sir G. G. Scott : the choir was re- 
opened 27 Jan. 1869. The thousandth anniversary 
of its incorporation was celebrated 25-27 Aug. 1886. 
Population, 1881,7,390; 1891,7,512. 



1836. Charles Thos. Longley, trans, to Durham, 1856. 
1856. Robert Bickersteth, died 15 April, 1884. 
1884. Win. Boyd Carpenter, May. 

RITCHIE'S ACT, see under Local Govern- 
ment. 

RITUALISTS, a name given in 1866 to a 
party in the church of England, formerly termed 
Puseyites, for endeavouring to give a more im- 
posing character to public worship, by the use of 
coloured vestments, lighted caudles, incense, &c., 
professing to go back to the practices of the church 
in the time of Edward VI. An exhibition of these 
things was held during the church congress at York 
in Oct. 1866, but was not officially connected with 
it. The practices of the ritualists (said by Mr. 
Disraeli to be symbolical of doctrines they were 
botind to renounce), were censured in several 
episcopal charges in Dec. 1866; in two reports 
of the ritualistic commission, 19 Aug. 1867, and 
April, 1868, and by the judicial committee of 
the privy council on appeal, 23 Dec. 1868. See 
Church of England and Trials, 1867-9. At a gene- 
ral convocation of the American episcopal church at 
Philadelphia, 27, 28 Oct. 1868, after a warm dis- 
cussion on ritualism, the discussion was adjourned. 
It was renewed at the convocation 10 Oct. 1874, 
and the ritualists were decidedly beaten by the 
evangelical party, a stringent canon on ceremonies 
being passed 27 Oct. The " Public Worship Regu- 
lation Act" was passed 7 Aug. 1874, f° r the re- 
pression of ritualism in England. See Public 
Worship. 

RIVERS COMMISSIONS, first appointed, 
1865, Messrs. R. Rawlinson, J. T. Harrison, and 
Professor Way ; second, 1868 ; sir Wm. Denison, 
Mr. J. Chalmers Morton, and Professor Frankland. 

Published six blue books 1874 

Association for preserving the rivers of Scotland, 

formed Jan. 1875 

The Pollution of Rivers Act passed . .15 Aug. 1876 

RIVOLI (near Verona, N. Italy). Near here 
the Austrians defeated the French, 17 Nov. 1796; 
and were defeated by Bonaparte 14, 15 Jan. 1797. 
Massena was made duke of Rivoli for his share in 
the actions. 

ROAD CLUB, established in the autumn of 
1874 ™ London, by gentlemen interested in the 
revival of coaching. 

ROAD MURDER. On the night of 29-30 
June, i860, Francis Savile Kent, four years old, 
was murdered, and his body hid in a garden 
water-closet at Road. His sister Constance Kent 
(aged sixteen), and the nurse Elizabeth Gough 
(the first suspected), were discharged for want 
of evidence. The coroner was severely blamed 
for charging the jury improperly, but the court of 
queen's bench, in Jan. 1861, refused to issue a writ 
for a new inquiry. Constance Kent, on 25 April, 
1865, before sir Thomas Henry at Bow-street, and 
at her trial at Salisbury, on 21 July following, con- 
fessed herself to be guilty of the murder. Her 
punishment was commuted to penal servitude for 
life. Let out on ticket-of-leave, 18 July, 1885. 
Road is near Frome, Somerset. 

ROADS, see Roman Roads. The first general 



repair of the highways of this country was directed 
about 1285. Acts were passed for the purpose in 
1524 and 1555, followed by others in Elizabeth's 
and succeeding reigns. Roads through the High- 
lands of Scotland were begun by general Wade in 
1726. Loudon M Adam's roads were introduced 
about 1818. Wooden pavements were tried with 
partial success in the streets of London : at White- 
hall in 1839, and in other streets in 1840 ; asphalte 
pavement soon after. An act " for the better man- 
agement of the highways" was passed in 1862 
after much opposition; another, 16 Aug. 1878; 
also regulated the use of locomotives on roads. 
Steam road-rollers were tried in 1867; used in 
London 18 March, 1868: see Macadamising, Tolls, 
and Wooden Pavements. 

ROAD STEAMERS. Mr. R. W. Thomson, 
of Edinburgh, in 1868, by adding india-rubber to 
the tires of the wheels of locomotives is considered 
to have solved the question of steam traction on 
common roads. Road steamers have been success- 
fully employed in Edinburgh andLeith for drawing 
heavy waggons up inclined planes, and are adapt- 
able to any draught work. They were tried at 
Woolwich, I Oct. 1870, and reported successful by 
eminent authorities ; and tbeirapplicationto plough- 
ing by lord Dunmore was exhibited 1 Feb. 1871. 

ROANOAKE, an island off N. Carolina, U.S., 
discovered by sir Walter Raleigh, 1584, and settled 
by him, 1585, without success. Other settlers also 
failed. 

ROASTING ALIVE. An early instance is 
that of Bocchoris, king of Egypt, by order of Saba- 
con of Ethiopia, 737 B.C. Lenglet. Sir John Old- 
castle, lord Cobham, was thus put to death in 1418, 
and Michael Servetus for heresy at Geneva, 27 Oct. 
1553 ; see Burning Alive, and Martyrs. 

ROBBERS were punished with death by 
Edmund I.'s laws, which directed that the eldest 
-robber should be hanged. Remarkable robbers in 
England were Robin Hood, 1 189 (see Robin Hood), 
and Claud Du Val, "executed at Tyburn," says an 
historian quaintly, "to the great grief of the 
women," Jan. 1670. In Ireland, the famous Mac- 
Cabe was hanged at Naas, 19 Aug. 1691. Gallop- 
ing Hogan, the rapparee, flourished at this period. 
Freney, the celebrated highwayman, surrendered 
himself, 10 May, 1749. The accomplished Barring- 
ton was transported, 22 Sept. 1790. See Trials. 

ROBIN HOOD, captain of a band of robbers, 
in Sherwood forest, Nottinghamshire ; traditionally 
reported to have been the earl of Huntingdon, dis- 
graced and banished the court by Richard 1. at his 
accession (1189). Robin Hood and Little John and 
their band are said to have continued their depre- 
dations till 1247, when Robin died. Stow. Lord 
Tennyson's drama, "The Foresters; Robin Hood 
and Maid Marian," first represented at New York 
on account of the American copyright law, end of 
March, 1892. 

" ROBINSON CRUSOE," by Daniel De 
Foe; the first part appeared in 1719. See Juan 
Fernandez. Three old ladies, Mary Ann, Jane 
Amelia, and Sarah Frances De Foe, lineally de- 
scended from De Foe, pensioned by the queen, 
May, 1877. 

ROBURITE, a new German explosive invented 
by Dr. Carl Roth, reported 1888. 

ROCHDALE, Lancashire. A charter was 
obtained for a market by Edmuud de Lacy, 1241, 



EOCHEFOET. 



826 



EOHILCUND. 



and the grammar school was founded 1564. Koch- 
dale canal was opened 1804. The new town was 
commenced in 1865. Eocbdale first sent a member 
to parliament in 1832. The woollen manufacture 
was carried on in the 16th century. The first 
cotton mill was erected in 170=;. Population, 1881, 
68,866; 1891, 71,458. 

EOCHEFOET (W. France), a seaport on the 
Charente. The port was made by Louis XIV. in 
1666. In Aix-roads or Basque-roads, near iioche- 
fort, capt. lord Cochrane attacked the French fleet 
and destroyed four ships, 11-12 April, 1809. Near 
Eochefort, the emperor Napoleon surrendered him- 
self to capt. Maitland of the Bellerophon, 15 July, 
1815. 

EOCHELLE (W. France), a seaport on the 
Atlantic, belonging to the English for some time, 
but finally surrendered to the French leader, i)u 
Guesclin, in 1372. As a stronghold of the Calvinist 
party, it was vainly besieged by the duke of Anjou 
in 1573 j an d was taken after a siege of thirteen 
months by cardinal .Richelieu in 1628. The duke 
of Buckingham was sent with a fleet and army to 
relieve it; but the citizens declined to admit him. 
He attacked the isle of She, near Eochelle, and 
failed, 22 July, 1627. He was repulsed 8 Nov. fol- 
lowing. A conspiracy here in 1822 caused loss of 
life to sergeant Bories and others. 
The new harbour opened by president Carnot 

19 Aug. 1890 

EOCHESTEE, in Kent, the Eoman Duro- 
brivce. The bishopric, founded by Augustin, 604, 
is the next in age to Canterbury. The first cathe- 
dral was erected by Ethelbert, king of Kent. St. 
Justus was bishop in 604. Alterations were made 
in the diocese in 1845. Eochester is valued in the 
king's books at 358^. 3s. 2\d. per annum. Present 
income 3,000^. The cathedral re-opened after 
repairs of the choir, n June, 1875. The old castle 
and grounds were purchased for the public by the 
Corporation, 1883. The " ten churches fund," 
begun by the bishop, 1884. Population, 1881, 
21,307 ; 1891, 26,309. 

RECENT BISHOPS. 

1793. Samuel Horseley, trans, to St. Asaph's, 1802. 

1802. Thomas Dampier, translated to Ely, 1808. 

1809. Walter King, died 22 Feb. 1827. 

1827. Hugh Percy, translated to Carlisle, 27 Oct. 

1827. George Murray, died 16 Feb. i860. 

i860. Joseph Cotton Wigram, died 6 April, 1867. 

1867. Thos. Legh Claughton, translated to St. Albans. 

1877. Anthony Wilson Thorold, consecrated, 25 July ; 

translated to Winchester, 1890. 
1890. Randall Thomas Davidson, D.D., Nov. 

EOCKETS, destructive war implements, were 
invented by sir William Congreve about 1803. The 
carcase-rockets were first used at Boulogne, 8 Oet.< 
1806, when they set the town on fire, their powers 
being previously demonstrated in the presence of 
Mr. Pitt and several of the cabinet ministers, 1806. 
Improved rockets were made by Hales in 1846. 
Boxer's life-saving rope-carrying rocket, for com- 
municating with stranded vessels, described in 1878. 
See Wrecks, March, 1892. 

EOCKINGHAM ADMINISTRATIONS. 

Ihe first succeeded the administration of Mr. Geo, 
Grenville ; the second succeeded that of lord North. 

FIRST ADMINISTRATION, 13 July, 1765 to 30 July, 1766. 

Charles, marquis of Rockingham,*7i?-s« lord of the trea- 
sury. 

* Charles Watson Wentworth, marquis of Rockingham, 
was born 13 May, 1730 ; succeeded his father as marquis, 
1750. He died without issue, 1 July, 1732 ; and his 
estates passed to his nephew, earl Fitzwilliam. 



William Dowdeswell, chancellor of the exchequer. 

Earl of Winchilsea and Nottingham, lord president. 

Duke of Newcastle, privy seal. 

Earl of Northington, lord, chancellor. 

Duke of Portland, lord chamberlain. 

Duke of Rutland, master of the horse. 

Lord Talbot, lord steward. 

Henry Seymour Conway and the duke of Grafton, secre- 
taries of state. 

Lord Egmont, admiralty. 

Marquis of Granby, ordnoAice. 

Viscount Barrington, secretary-at-ivar. 

Viscount Howe, treasurer of the navy. 

Charles Townshend, paymaster of the forces. 

Earl of Dartmouth, first lord of trade. 

Lords Bessborough and Grantham, lord John Cavendish, 
Thomas Townshend, &c. 

See Chatham administration. 

second administration, March to i July, 1782, when the 

marquis died. 
Marquis of Rockingham, first lord of the treasury. 
Lord John Cavendish; chancellor of the exchequer. 
Lord Camden, president of the council. 
Duke of Grafton, privy seal. 
Lord Thurlow, lord choAicellor. 

William, earl of Shelburne and Charles James Fox, secre- 
taries of state. 
Augustus viscount Keppel, first lord of the admiralty. 
Duke of Richmond, master-general of the ordnance. 
Thomas Townshend, secretary -at-war. 
Isaac Barre, Edmund Burke, John Dunning, <fcc. 

EOCEOY (N. France). Here, 19 May, 1643, 
the Spaniards were totally defeated by the French, 
commanded by the great Conde. 

EODNEY'S VICTOEIES. Admiral Eodney 
fought, near Cape St. Vincent, the Spanish admiral, 
Don Langara, whom he defeated and made prisoner, 
capturing six of his ships, one of which blew up, 
16, 17 Jan. 1780. On 12 April, 1782, he encountered 
the French fleet in the West Indies, commanded by 
the count de Grasse, took five ships of the line, and 
sent the French admiral prisoner to England : 
Rodney was raised to the peerage, June, 1782. 

EOGATION WEEK. Eogation Sunday, the 
Sunday before Ascension-day, received its title from 
the Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday following it, 
called Eogation days, derived from the Latin rogare, 
to beseech. Extraordinary prayers and supplica- 
tions for these three days are said to have been 
appointed in the third century, as a preparation for 
the devout observance of our Saviour's ascension on 
the next day succeeding to them, denominated 
Holy Thursday or Ascension-day. The whole week 
in which these days happen is styled Eogation 
week ; and in some parts it is still known by the 
other names of Crop week, Grass week, and Pro- 
cession week. The perambulations of parishes have 
usually been made in this week. 

EOHAN, an illustrious family, descended from 
the ancient sovereigns of Brittany. Henri de 
Eohan, son-in-law of the great Sully, after the 
death of Henry IV. (14 May, 1610), became head of 
the Protestant party, and sustained three wars 
against Louis XIII. He eventually entered the 
service of the duke of Saxe- Weimar, and died of 
wounds received in battle in 1638. Of this family 
was the cardinal de Eohan ; see Diamond Neck- 
lace, 

EOHILCUND, a tract of country, N.E.India, 
was conquered by the Bohillas, an Afghan tribe, 
who settled here about 1747. After aiding the 
sovereign of Oude to overcome the Mahrattas, they 
were treated with much treachery by him, and 
neaidy exterminated. Rohilcund was ceded to the 
British in 1801. After the great mutiny, Eohilcund 
was tranquillised in July, 1858. 



ROLLER SKATES. 



827 



EOMAN CATHOLICS. 



ROLLER SKATES, see Rink. 

ROLLING-MILLS, in the metal manufac- 
tories, were in use here in the 17th century, and in 
1 784 Mr. Cort patented his improvements. 

ROLLS, see Master of the Rolls, and Records. 

ROLLS' CHAPEL (London), founded by 
Henry III., about 1233, for receiving Jewish rabbis 
converted to Christianity. On the banishment of 
the Jews in 1290 the buildings now called the Eolls, 
and the chapel, were annexed by patent to the 
office of the keeper or master of the rolls of chan- 
cery, from which circumstance they took their 
name. A number of public records from the time 
of Richard III., kept in presses in this chapel, have 
been removed to the Record Office {which see) . The 
Rolls chapel was pulled down in July, 1892. 

ROLT'S ACT, 25 & 26 Vict. c. 42 (1862), 

relates to the Chancery Court. 

ROMAGNA, a province of the papal states, 
comprised in the legations of Bologna, Ferrara, 
Fori! and Ravenna. It was conquered by the Lom- 
bards ; but taken from them by Pepin, and given to 
the pope, 753. Csesar Borgia held it as a duchy in 
1501, but lost it in 1503. In 1859 the Romagna 
threw off the temporal authority of the pope, and 
declared itself subject to the king of Sardinia, who 
accepted it in March, i860. It now forms part of 
the province of Emilia, in the new kingdom of Italy. 
Population, 1890, 1,218,392. See Rome. 

ROMAINVILLE and Belleville, heights 

near Paris, where Joseph Bonaparte, Mortier, and 
Mannont were defeated by the allies after a 
vigorous resistance, 30 March, 18 14. The next day 
Paris capitulated. 

ROMAN CATHOLICS, Romanists and 
Papists. Their religion was the established one 
in Britain till the Reformation. Since then many 
laws were made against them, which have been re- 
pealed ; see Rome, Religion, Leagues, Maynooth. 
Among other disabilities, Roman Catholics were 
excluded from corporate offices, 1667 ; from parlia- 
ment, 1691 ; forbidden to many protestants, 1708; 
to possess arms, 1695, &c. The church of the Ora- 
tory opened at South Kensington, 25 April, 1884. 
Roman Catholic Church in England and Wales, 1878 ; 
H. E. Manning, archbishop of Westminster, metro- 
politan, 1865 ; cardinal, 1875. 12 bishops 
(Beverley, Birmingham, Clifton, Hexham, Liver- 
pool, Newport, Northampton, Nottingham, 
Plymouth, Salford, Shrewsbury, Southward). 
Scotland, hierarchy revived, 4 March, 1878. 
Ireland, 4 archbishops (metropolitan, Paul 
Cullen, archbishop of Armagh, 1850 ; of Dublin, 
1852) ; 24 bishops. England, 17 bishops, 2,380 
priests; Scotland, 6 bishops, 341 priests (1888). 
Roman Catholics in Great Britain and Ireland, 
5,640,891 ; in Europe, 146,335,603 ; Asia, 9,234,000; 
Africa, 2,656,000; America, 51,033,790; Australia 
and Polynesia, 672,000 ; in the world, estimated 

nearly 210,000,000 1891 

Bishop Fisher, sir Thomas More, and others, exe- 
cuted for denying the king's supremacy . . . 1535 
Catholics absolved from their allegiance to the king 

by Paul III. 1535 ; by Pius V 1570 

They rebel in 1549 and 1569 

The Gunpowder Plot (whicli sec) 1605 

They suffer by Oates's fictitious popish plot . . 1678 
They are excluded from the throne . . . . 1689 
They suffer by the Gordon riots . . June, 1780 

Various disabilities removed in . . 1780 and 1791 
Mr. Pitt proposes measures for their relief, which 

he gives up 1801-4 

Roman Catholic Association organised in Ireland, 
with the object of removing the political and civil 
disabilities of Roman catholics, "Catholic 
rents " subscribed 1823 et seq. 



Bills in their favour frequently brought in without 
effect from 1813 to 182S 

An act of parliament passed for the suppression of 
the Catholic Association (it had voted its own 
dissolution, 12 Feb.) .... 5 March, 1829 

The duke of Wellington and sir Robert Peel carry 
the Catholic emancipation bill (10 Geo. IV. c. 7) 
in the commons, 30 March ; in the lords, 10 April; 
received the royal assent . . . 13 April, ,, 

The duke of Norfolk and lords Dormer and Clifford, 
the first Roman catholic peers, take their seats, 

28 April, ., 

The first English R. C. member returned, the earl 
of Surrey, for Horsham .... 4 May, ,, 

Mr. O'Connell elected for Clare, 1828, takes his seat 
(first Roman catholic M. P. since T689) . Aug. ,, 

Mr. Alexander Raphael, the first Roman catholic 
sheriff of London .... 28 Sept. 1834 

Sir Michael O'Loghlen, thefirst Roman catholic judge 
(as Master of the Rolls in Ireland),appointed, 30 Oct. 1836 

St. George's cathedral, Southwark, erected by A. 
W. Pugin ; founded 1840 

Tablet newspaper established „ 

Mr. O'Connell elected first Roman catholic lord 
mayor of Dublin 1841 

" Catholic Poor School Committee " established . 1847 

The "Papal Aggression" {which see); cardinal 
Nicholas Wiseman appointed archbishop of West- 
minster 3° Se Pt- 1850 

Roman catholic university, Dublin, originated 5 May, 1851 

Universe newspaper established .... i860 

Agitation in favour of the pope .... 1860-2 

Missionary college founded at Drumcondra, Ire- 
land - . .20 July, 1862 

Roman catholic chaplains permitted for gaols, by 
Prison Ministers act July, 1863 

Serjeant Wm. Shee made a justice of the Queen's 
Bench, the first Roman catholic judge since the 
Reformation [died 19 Feb. 1868] . . 15 Dec. „ 

Death of cardinal Wiseman, aged 63 ; 7th English 
cardinal since the Reformation . . 15 Feb. 1865 

Henry Manning (formerly an archdeacon in the Eng- 
lish church) consecrated archbishop of West- 
minster 8 June, ,, 

Conference of Roman catholic bishops at Dublin ; 
publish resolutions declining state help (in accor- 
dance with the papal injunctions, 1801 and 1805), 
and condemning mixed education and secret 
societies 17 Oct. 1867 

In Great Britain 1639 Roman catholic priests ; 1283 
chapels and churches ; 227 convents for women 
(principally educational) ; 21 colleges and large 
schools Dec. „ 

A proposal of the Derby government to endow a 
catholic university for Ireland, Oct. 1867, failed 
through the catholic bishops claiming the entire 
practical control .... 31 March, 1868 

Mr. Justice Thomas (aft. lord) O'Hagan, appointed 
lord chancellor of Ireland, is the first Roman 
catholic who has held that office since the revolu- 
tion of 1688-9 Dec. ,, 

Catholic truth society by Dr. Vaughan, established 

about ,, 

Catholic union of Great Britain, president the duke 
of Norfolk, constituted 1871 

A Roman catholic made M.A. at Oxford, after the 
abolition of the test .... 22 June, ,, 

The catholics opposing the dogma of papal infalli- 
bility term themselves " old catholics " {which see) ,, 

The Ecclesiastical Titles act (see Papal Aggression) 
repealed 24 July, ,, 

Pastoral issued by the R. C. bishops in Ireland 
claiming endowment for colleges, &c. under their 
sole control Oct. ,, 

" Catholic Education Crisis Fund " established . ,, 

Two R. C. bishops consecrated at Salford 28 Oct. 1872 

" Catholic Union," Dublin, re-organised to obtain 
education under ecclesiastical control, about 

4 Dec. 1873 

A catholic union in Dublin formed ... ,, 

Roman Catholic university senate meet . 21 May, 1874 

Archbishop Manning made a cardinal . . . 1S75 

Catholic Congress at Venice met . . 12 June, ,, 

The marquis of Ripon becomes a Roman Catholic 

7 Sept. ,, 

Roman Catholic university college, Kensington ; 
monsignor Capel, principal ; opened . 15 Oct. ,, 

Several English clergymen secede to Rome . Oct. ,, 



ROMAN LAW. 



828 



EOME. 



New Catholic club opened in London by the duke 
of Norfolk, lords Denbigh and Petre, and others 

27 Nov. 1875 

Mr. Gladstone's pamphlet, " The Vatican Decrees " 
occasions declarations respecting papal infalli- 
bility, from abp. Manning, monsig. Capel, the 
Catholic Union and others for it ; from lords Acton, 
Camoys, and sir George Bowyer, against it, Nov. ,, 

E. C. hierarchy re-established in Scotland, by pope 
Leo XIII 4 March, 1878 

For the dissension between Church and State re- 
specting the doctrine of papal infallibility, see 
Prussia and Germany. 

Church in low state in Germany, 3 dioceses (of 12) 
occupied: 200 parishes without priests; 1500 
priests expelled, reported . . . April, 1879 

Lord Petre, a R. C. priest, takes his seat in the house 
of lords 3 Nov. 1884 

Catholic congresses : Madrid, president, archbishop 
of Saragossa, 25 April et seq. ; at Vienna, the high 
clergy and nobility present, 29 April, 1889 ; Ma- 
lines 8 Sept. 1891 

Centenary of the establishment of the first R. C. 
diocese in the United States celebrated at Balti- 
more, 10 Nov. et seq. ; cardinal Gibbons dedicates 
the new Catholic university at Washington 

13 Nov. 1889 

Rev. J. H. Newman, Anglican, professed Romanism, 
Oct. 1845 ; made cardinal, 12 May, 1879 ; died, 
aged 89 n Aug. 1890 

New Spanish church, Manchester-square, London, 
W., opened 29 Sept. ,, 

Mr. Gladstone's bill to enable a Roman Catholic to 
be lord chancellor of England or lord lieutenant 
of Ireland, rejected by the commons (256—223) 

4 Feb. 1 89 1 

Death of cardinal Manning, aged 83, 14 Jan. ; 
solemn funeral .service at the Brompton oratory ; 
buried at the R. C. cemetery at Kensal Green 

21 Jan. 1892 

Dr. Herbert Vaughan, bishop of Salford, appointed 
archbishop of Westminster by the pope ; con- 
firmed, 3 April ; enthroned ... 8 May, „ 

ROMAN LAW, see Codes; Roman Litera- 
ture, see Latin. 

ROMAN ROADS in ENGLAND. Our 

historians maintain, but are mistaken, that there 
were but four of these roads. Camden. " The 
Romans," says Isidore, "made roads almost all 
over the world, to have their marches in a straight 
line, and to employ the people ;" and criminals were 
frequently condemned to work at such roads, as we 
learn from Suetonius, in his life of Caligula. They 
were commenced and completed at various periods, 
between the 2nd and 4th centuries, and the Roman 
soldiery were employed in making them, that inac- 
tivity might not give them an opportunity to raise 
disturbances. Bede. 

1st, Watling-street, so named from Vitellianus, who is 

supposed to have directed it, the Britons calling him 

in their language Guetalin (from Kent to Cardigan 

Bay). 

2nd, Iknield, or Ikenild-street, from its beginning 

among the Iceni (from St. David's to Tynemouth). 
3rd, Fosse, or Fosse Way, probably from its having 
been defended by a fosse on both sides (from Cornwall 
to Lincoln). 
4th, Ermin-street, from Irmunsul, a German word, 
meaning Mercury, whom our German ancestors wor- 
shipped under that name (from St. David's to South- 
ampton). 

ROMAN WALLS- One was erected by 
Agncola (79 to 85) to defend Britain from the in- 
cursions of the Picts and Scots ; the first wall ex- 
tended from the Tyne to the Sol way frith (80 miles) ; 
the second from the frith of Forth, near Edinburgh' 
to the frith of Clyde, near Dumbarton (36 miles)! 
The former was renewed and strengthened by the 
emperor Adrian (121), and by Septimus Severus 
(208). It commenced at Bowness, near Carlisle, 
and ended at Wallsend near Newcastle. It had 
battlements and towers to contain soldiers. The 



more northern wall was renewed by Lollius Urbicus, 
in the reign of Antoninus Pius, about 140. Many 
remains of these walls still exist, particularly of the 
southern one; Dr. J. C. Bruce' s '■'•Roman Wall," 
published 1853-1868. 

ROMANCE, originally a composition in the 
Romance or Provencal idiom. The term in the 
middle ages was extended to narrative poetry in 
general. Heliodorus, a bishop of Tricca, in Thessaly, 
about 398, was the author of JEthiopica (relating to 
the loves of 1'heagenes and Charicleia), the first work 
in this species of writing. The first part of the 
"Roman de la Rose" was written by Guillaume de 
Lories (1226-70) ; the second, a separate poem, by 
Jean de Meung (1285-1314), the Decameron of Boc- 
caccio was published, 1358; Don Quixote, by Cer- 
vantes, 1605; GilBlas, by Le Sage, 1715. Dunlop's 
" History of Fiction," published 1814. See English 
Authors ; "Reynard the Fox." 

ROME. The foundation of the city, by 
Romulus, was laid on the 20th April,* according to 
Varro, in the year 3961 of the Julian period (753 
years before the birth of Christ, and in the fourth 
year of the sixth Olympiad. Other dates given : 
Cato, 751; Polybius, 750; Fabius Pictor, 747; 
Cincius, 728 B.C.). The Romans conquered nearly 
the whole of the then known world. In the time 
of Julius Caesar, the empire was bounded by the 
Euphrates, Taurus, and Armenia on the east ; by 
Ethiopia on the south; by the Danube on the 
north ; and by the Atlantic on the west. Numerous 
ecclesiastical councils have been held at Rome, from 
197 to 1869-70. Population, 1872, about 240,000 ; 
1877, 250,000; 1881, 300,467; 1890, 423,217. 
Chielly through the exertions of Mr. John Henry 
Parker of Oxford, the Roman exploration fund was 
established, for the preservation of ancient archi- 
tectural remains. His "Archaeology of Rome" (with 
many photographs) published, 1874-8. Professor 
J. H. Middleton's works on "Ancient Rome," pub- 
lished 1885, 1888, and 1892. The Italian govern- 
ment votes 1200I. a year for a similar purpose. 
The early history of Rome is legendary, and the 
dates purely conjectural. It has been greatly eluci- 
dated by the researches of B. Or. Niebuhr, whose 
Roman history was published 181 1, and 1827-30. 
Foundation of the city by Romulus . . . b. c. 753 
The Romans seize on the Sabine women at a public 

spectacle, and detain them for wives . . . 750 
Rome taken by the Sabines ; the Sabines incor- 
porated with the Romans as one nation . . 747 
Romulus said to have been murdered by senators . 716 
Numa Pompilius elected king, 715 ; institutes the 

priesthood, the augurs and vestals . . . 710 
The Romans and the Albans contesting for supe- 
riority, agreed to choose three champions on 
each part to decide it. The three Horatii, Roman 
knights, overcame the three Curiatli, Albans, and 

united Alba to Rome about 667 

War with the Fidenates ; the city of Alba destroyed 665 
Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber, built . about 627 

The capitol founded 615 

The first census of the Roman state taken . . . 566 
Political institutions of Servius Tullius . . . 550 
Tarquinius II. and his family expelled for tyranny 
and licentiousness, royalty abolished : the Patri- 
cians establish an aristocratical commonwealth . 509 

* In its original state, Rome was but a small castle on 
the summit of mount Palatine ; and the founder, to give 
his followers the appearance of a nation or a barbarian 
horde, was obliged to erect a standard as a common 
asylum for criminals, debtors, or murderers, who fled 
from their native country to avoid the punishment which 
attended them. From such an assemblage a numerous 
body was soon collected, and before the death of the 
founder, the Romans had covered with their habitations 
the Palatine, Capitoline, Aventine, and Esquiline hills, 
with Mounts Coelius and Quirinalis. 



EOME. 



829 



EOME. 



Junius Brutus and Tarquinius Collatinus first B.C. 
praetors or consuls ; first alliance of the Romans 

with Carthage 509 

The capitol dedicated to Jupiter Capitolinus . . 507 

First dictator Titus Lartius 501 

The Latins and the Tarquins declare war against 

the republic, 501 ; defeated at lake Regillus . 496 
Secession of the Plebeians to the sacred mount ; 

establishment of tribunes of the Plebeians . . 494 
First agrarian law passed by Spurius Cassius ; he 

is put to death by Patricians .... 486-5 
Wars with the iEquians and Yolscians ; exploits 
and exile of Coriolanus ; he besieges Rome, but 
retires at the intercession of his mother and wife 

about 491 
Victory of Cincinnatus over the iEquians by strata- 
gem, liberating the Roman army . . . 458 
Destructive pestilences . . 472, 466, 463 and 451 
Wars with Veii and the Etruscans, indecisive, 475, 
465 ; slaughter of the patriotic Fabii (which 

see) 477 

The Aventine mount allotted solely to the 

plebeians 456 

The appointment and fall of the Decemvirs (which 
see), 451 — 448. The Decemvirs were tried, Appius 
Claudius and Spurius Oppius died in prison, 

others were banished 448 

The Canuleian law passed, permitting marriages be- 
tween Patricians and Plebeians . . . . 445 

Military tribunes first created 444 

Office of censor instituted 443 

The Veientes defeated, and their king Tolumnius 

slain 437 

Great defeat of the Sabines 447 

Spurius Mcelius, a benefactor during famine, ju- 
dicially murdered by the patricians . . . 436 

War with the Etruscans 434 

JEqui and Volsci defeated by Tubertus, dictator . 428 

Two more quajstors appointed 421 

Another dreadful famine at Rome . . . . 411 
Three qusestors are chosen from the Plebeians for 

the first time 409 

Veii taken by Camillus after ten years' siege . . 396 

Banishment of Camillus 391 

Great victory of the Gauls near the Allia, 16 July ; 
they sack Rome, which is deserted, but are re- 
pulsed in an attack on the Capitol, which they 
blockade ; they accept a heavy ransom, and 

retire 390 

Proposed removal of the state, to Veii, rejected . 389 
[Rome gradually rebuilt amid great distress and 

wars with neighbouring states.] 
M. Manlius, liberal to poor debtors, is executed as 

a traitor 384 

Passing of the Licinian laws (which see) ; by 
them, one consul is to be a plebeian (much re- 
sisted) 365 

Marcus Curtius leaps into the gulf which had opened 

in the forum 362 

The Gauls defeated in Italy 360 

Treaty with Carthage to repress Greek piracy . . 348 
War with the Etruscans, ended by a truce ', war 

with the Latins ; league renewed . . . 365-342 
First Samnite war, indecisive . . . . 343-340 
Mutiny in the army in Campania, and rise of the 
commons in Rome ; peace restored by conces- 
sions and the general abolition of the debts 
caused by the Gaulish invasion .... 341 
The Publilian law passed, equalising the plebeians 

with the patricians in political rights . . . 339 
The second Samnite war, a severe struggle, 326, ct 
seq. ; the Roman army, entrapped in the Cordine 
Forks (which see), 321 ; victories of L. Papirius 
Cursor ; the Samnites and their allies compelled 

to submit 304 

War with Etruria, 311 ; victories of Q. Fabius 
Maximus at the Yadimonian lake, &c. ; the 
Etrurians and Umbrians submit .... 309 
Appius Claudius Csecus, Censor, favours the lower 
classes ; with the public money makes the road 
from Rome to Capua, termed the " Appian way," 
and erects the first aqueduct .... 312-308 
Conquest of the TEquians, Marsians, &c. . . 304-302 

Third Samnite war '300 

Coalition of the Samnites, Etruscans, and Gauls 
(not continuous) against Rome ; nire campaigns, 
with many conflicts and alternate invasions ; 
great Roman victory at Sentinum (which see), 



295 ; the Samnites subdued after desperate B.C. 
struggles, 294-291 ; their general, C. Pontius, 

put to death at Rome 2 ao 

Conquest of the Sabines by M. Curius Dentatus '. ,, 
Great distress of the Plebeians, through war, pesti- 
lence and famine 300, et sen. 

Secession of the people to the Janiculum ; tlie 

Hortensian laws (which see) passed . . . 286 
Census: 262,322 Roman citizens .... 293 

Seven new temples erected, with statues by Greek 
artists ........ 302-292 

The Etruscans defeated at the Vadimonian lake . 283 

The Tarentines form a coalition against Rome, and 

invite Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, to join them, 281 ; 

he defeats the Romans at Pandos'ia, 280 ; and at 

Asculum, 279 ; defeated by them at Beneventum 275 

Subjugation of Tarentum, Samnium, Bruttium and 

their allies, 272-265 ; Rome supreme in Italy . 265 
First Punic war (see Carthage) . . . 264-241 

First Roman fleet built 260 

Temple of Janus closed 235 

Corsica and Sardinia annexed .... 238 ct seq. 

Invasion of the Gauls ; beaten by the consuls . . 225 

Second Punic war, 218-201 ; Rome saved by the 

adhesion of 18 colonies, by the free-will offerings 

of gold, silver and money by the senate and 

people, and by the defeat of Hasdrubal at the 

Metaurus (see Carthage) 207 

Syracuse taken by Marcellus 212 

The Macedonian wars with Philip begin, 213 and 

200 ; his defeat at Cynoscephalse . . . . 197 
Death of Scipio Africanus the elder .... 185 
Third Macedonian war begins 171 ; Perseus beaten 

at Pydna ; Macedon annexed 16S 

First public library erected at Rome . . . 167 
Philosophers and rhetoricians banished from 

Rome i(5j 

Third Punic war begins i 49 

Corinth and Carthage destroyed by the Romans (see 

Corinth and Carthage) 146 

Celtiberian and Numantine war in Spain . . 153-133 
Attalus III. of Pergamos bequeaths his kingdom 

and riches to the Romans 133 

The Servile war in Sicily .... . 132 

Two Plebeian consuls chosen „ 

Agrarian disturbances : Gracchus slain . . . 121 

The Jugurthine war 112-106 

The Mithridatic war (v>hich see) .... 108-63 
The Ambrones defeated by Marius .... ioz 

The Social war 90-88 

Rome besieged by four armies (viz. : those of 

Marius, Cinna, Carbo, and Sertorius) and taken 87 

Sylla defeats Marius : becomes dictator ; sanguinary 

proscriptions, 82 : abdicates 79- 

Bithynia bequeathed to the Romans by king Nico- 

medes 74 

Revolt of Spartacus and the slaves . . . .73-71 

Syria conquered by Pompey 65 

The Catiline conspiracy suppressed by Cicero . . 63 
The first triumvirate : Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus 60 
Caesar's campaigns in Gaul, 58 ; in Britain . • • 55 
Crassus killed by the Parthians . . . -53 
Gaul conquered and made a province . . . . 51 
War between Csesar and Pompey .... 50 
Pompey defeated at Pharsalia (which sec) . . . 48 
Csesar defeats Pharnaces at Zela ; and writes home 

"Veni, vidi, vici " 47 

Cato kills himself at Utiea ; Csesar dictator for ten 

years 4 6 

Csesar killed in the senate-house . . 15 March, 44 
Second triumvirate : Octavius, Antony, and Lepidus 43 
Cicero killed, proscribed by Antony . . . ,, 

Battle of Philippi ; Brutus and Cassius defeated . 42 
Lepidus ejected from the triumvirate, 36 ; war be- 
tween Octavius and Antony, 32 ; Antony defeated 

totally at Actium 2 Sept. 31 

Octavius emperor, as Augustus Cccsar ... 27 
The empire now at peace with all the world ; the 
temple of Janus shut ; Jesus Christ born. (See 

Jews) 4 April, 5 

Varus defeated by Hermann and the Germans a.d. 9 

Ovid banished to Tomi 

Death of Ovid and Livy 18 

Tiberius retires to Caprea ; tyranny of Sejanus . 26 
A census being taken by Claudius, the emperor and 
censor, the inhabitants of Rome are stated to 
amount to 6,944,000.— [It is now considered that 



ROME. 



830 



EOME. 



the population of Rome within the walls was a. v. 

under a million.] 48 

Caractaeus brought in chains to Rome ... 50 

St. Paul arrives in bonds at Rome . . . . 62 
Nero burns Rome to the ground, and charges the 

crime upon the Christians 64 

Seneca, Lucan, &c. , put to death .... 65 

Peter and Paul said to be put to death . . . 67 

Jerusalem levelled to the ground by Titus 8 Sept. 70 

Coliseum founded by Vespasian 75 

The Dacian war begins (continues 15 years) . . 86 
Pliny, junior, proconsul in Bithynia, sends Trajan 

his celebrated account of the Christians . . . 102 
Trajan's expedition into the East against the Par- 
tisans, &e. ; subdues Dacia 106 

Trajan's column erected at Rome 114 

Adrian resides in Britain, and builds the wall . . 121 

The capitol destroyed by lightning . . . . 188 
Byzantium taken ; its walls razed . . . .196 

The Goths are paid tribute 222 

[The Goths, Vandals, Alani, Suevi, and other 
Northern nations attack the empire.] 

Pompey's amphitheatre burnt 248 

Invasion of the Goths 250 

Pestilence throughout the empire .... 252 
Great victory over the Goths obtained by Clau- 
dius II. ; 300,000 slain 269 

Dacia relinquished to the Goths . . . .270 

Palmyra conquered, and Longinus put to death . 273 

The era of Martyrs, or of Diocletian . ... 284 

The Pranks settle in Gaul. Freret .... 287 

Constantius dies at York 306 

Four emperors reign at one time .... 308 
Constantine the Great, it is said, in consequence of 
a vision, places the cross on his banners, and 

begins to favour the Christians . . . . 312 
Constantine defeats Licinius, at Chrysopolis, and 

reigns alone 18 Sept. 323 

He tolerates the Christian faith ,, 

Puts his son Crispus to death 324 

Constantine convokes the first general council of 

Christians at Nice 325 

The seat of empire removed from Rome to Byzan- 
tium, 321 ; dedicated by Constantine . . . 330 
Constantine orders the heathen temples to be 

destroyed , 

Revolt of 300,000 Sarmatian slaves suppressed . 334 

Death of Constantine, soon after being baptized . 337 

The army under Julian proclaims him emperor . 360 
Julian, who had been educated for the priesthood, 
and had frequently officiated, abjures Christianity, 
and re-opens the heathen temples, becoming the 

pagan pontiff . ... 361 
Julian killed in battle in Persia ; Christianity 

restored by Jovian 363 

The empire divided into Eastern and Western by 
Valentinian and Valens, brothers : the former has 

the Western portion, or Rome 364 

(See Western and Eastern Empires ; and Italy.) 

Rome placed under the exarchate of Ravenna . 404 

Taken by Alaric 24 Aug. 410 

Taken and pillaged by Genseric . . 15 July, 455 

Odoacer takes Rome, and becomes king of Italy . 476 

Rome recovered for Justinian by Belisarius . . 536 
Retaken by Totila the Goth, 546 ; recovered by 

Belisarius, 547 : seized by Totila .... 540 
Recovered by Narses, and annexed to the eastern 

empire ; and the senate abolished . . . . 553 

Rome at her lowest state .... about 600 

Rome independent under the popes . . about 72S 
Pepin of France compels Astolphus, king of the 
Lombards, to cede Ravenna and other places to 

the Holy Church 755 

Confirmed and added to by Charlemagne . . 774 
Charlemagne crowned emperor of the West by the 

pope at Rome 25 Dec. 800 

Rome taken by Arnulf and the Germans . . . 896 

Otho I. crowned at Rome .... 2 Feb. 962 
The emperor Henry IV. takes Rome . March, 1084 
Arnold of Brescia, endeavouring to reform church 
and state and to establish a senate, is put to 

death as a heretic 11 55 

The pope removes to Avignon 1309 

Nicola di Rienzi, tribune of the people, establishes 
a republic, 20 May; is compelled to abdicate, 

15 Dec. 1347 
Returns ;made senator, 1 Aug.; assassinated, 8 Oct. 1354 
Papal court returns to Rome 1377 



Rise of the families, Colonna, Orsini, &c. about 1377 
Julius II. conquers the Romagna, Bologna, and 

Perugia 1503-13 

The city greatly embellished by pope Leo X. 1513-21 

It is captured by the constable de Bourbon, who is 

slain 6 May, 1527 

Ferrara annexed 1597 

St. Peter's dedicated .... 18 Nov. 1626 
Expulsion of the Jesuits .... 16 Aug. 1773 
Harassed by the French, German, and Spanish 
factions . from the 16th to the 18th century. 
The French invasion ; the Legations incorporated 

with the Cisalpine republic 1796 

The French proclaim the Roman republic, 20 March, 1798 
Recovered for the pope by the Neapolitans, Nov. 1799 
Retaken by the French, 1800 ; restored to Pius VII. 

July, 1 801 
Annexed by Napoleon to the kingdom of Italy, and 

declared second city of the empire . May, 1808 
Restored to the pope, who returns . 23 Jan. 1814 

He re-establishes the Inquisition and the Jesuits, 

7 Aug. „ 
The papal government endeavour to annul all inno- 
vations, and thus provoke much opposition ; the 
Carbonari increase in numbers . . .1815-17 

Political assassinations in the Romagna . . .1817 
The " Young Italy " party established by Joseph 
Mazzini ; temporary insurrections at Bologna 

suppressed by Austrian aid 1831 

Election of Pius IX. . . . .16 June, 1846 

He proclaims an amnesty ; and authorises a national 

guard and municipal institutions . . . . 1847 
The Romans desire to join the king of Sardinia 
against the Austrians ; the pope hesitates ; the 
Antonelli ministry retires ; and the Mamiani 

ministry is formed 1848 

Count Rossi, minister of justice of the pontifical 
government, assassinated on the staircase of the 
Chamber of Deputies at Rome . . 15 Nov. ,, 

Insurrection at Rome, the populace demand a 
democratic ministry and the proclamation of 
Italian nationality ; the pope (Pius IX.) hesi- 
tates, the Romans surround the palace, and a 
conflict ensues. The pope accepts a popular 
ministry (Cardinal Palma, the pope's secretary, 
shot in this conflict) .... 16 Nov. ,, 
A free constitution published . . 20 Nov. ,, 
The pope escapes in disguise from Rome to Gaeta, 

24 Nov. ,, 
M. de Corcelles leaves Paris for Rome, a French 
armed expedition to Civita Veechia having 
preceded him, to afford protection to the pope, 

27 Nov. ,, 
Protest of the pope against the acts of the provi- 
sional government .... 28 Nov. ,, 
A constituent assembly meets at Rome . 5 Feb. 1849 
The Roman National Assembly divests the pope 
of all temporal power, and adopts the republican 
form of government .... 8 Feb. ,, 
Mazzini, Armellini, and Safli appointed triumvirs 

Feb. „ 
The pope appeals to the Catholic powers, 

18 Feb. ,, 
Civita Veechia occupied by the French force under 

Marshal Oudinot .... 26 April, „ 
A French force repulsed with loss . . 30 April, ,, 
Engagement between the Romans and Neapolitans ; 

the former capture 60 prisoners and 400 muskets, 

5 May, „ 
The assembly refuses to receive the French as allies, 

19 May, ,, 
The French under marshal Oudinot commence an 

attack on Rome 3 June, ,, 

After a brave resistance, the Romans capitulate to 

the French army 30 June, ,, 

The Roman assembly dissolved . . . 4 July, ,, 
An officer from Oudinot's camp arrives at Gaeta, to 
present the pope with the keys of the two gates 
of Rome by which the French army had entered 

the city 4 July, ,, 

The re-establishment of the pope's authority pro- 
claimed at Rome .... 15 July, „ 
Oudinot issues a general order stating that the 
pope (or his representative) now re-possesses 
the administration of affairs, but that public 
security in the pontifical dominions still remains 
under the special guarantee of the French army, 

3 Aug. „ 



EOME. 



831 



EOME. 



The pope arrives at Portici on a visit to the king of 
Naples 4 Sept. 1849 

He arrives at Rome ; cardinal Antonelli becomes 
foreign minister April, 1850 

He issues the bull establishing a Roman catholic 
hierarchy in England (see Papal Aggression), 

24 Sept. , , 

Important concordat with Austria . 18 Aug. 1855 

The pope visits his dominions . . May-Sept. 1857 

Insunection in the Romagna, at Bologna, and Ferrara 

June, 1859 

The pope appeals to Europe for help against Sardinia 

12 July, ,, 

The Legations form a defensive alliance with 
Tuscany, Parma, and Modena . . 20 Aug. ,, 

The queen of Spain engages to send troops to 
Rome, if the French retire . . 26 Aug. , , 

The assembly at Bologna vote annexation to Pied- 
mont, 7 Sept. ; the king engages to support their 
cause before the great powers, 15 Sept. ; the pope 
annuls the acts of the assembly at Bologna ; and 
announces the punishment due to those who 
attack the holy see, 26 Sept. ; and dismisses the 
Sardinian charge d'affaires at Rome . 1 Oct. ,, 

The Romagna, Modena, and Parma formed into a 
province, to be called iEmilia . . 24 Dec. ,, 

The Sardinian government annul the Tuscan and 
Lombard concordats . . 27 Jan. , 20 March, i36o 

Riots at Rome suppressed by the police with great 
cruelty 19 March, „ 

The pope excommunicates all concerned in the 
rebellion in his states ... 26 March, ,, 

General Lamoriciere takes command of the papal 
army, March ; which is re-organised, and in- 
creased by volunteers from Ireland, &c. . May, ,. 

Tuscan volunteers enter the papal states and are 
repulsed 19 Mav . »• 

Irish volunteers are severely treated for insubor- 
dination ; many dismissed . . . July, ,, 

The papal army estimated at 20,000 . . Aug. ,, 

Insurrection in the Marches, 8 Sept. ; Fossembrcne 
subdued by the papal troops ; the people appeal 
to the Sardinian government, whose troops, 
under Cialdini and Fanti, enter the Papal States, 

11 Sept. ,, 

Fanti takes Pesaro, 12 Sept. ; and Perugia, in- 
cluding general Schmidt and 1600 prisoners, 

14 Sept. ,, 

Ancona besieged by sea and land . . 17 Sept. „ 

Severe allocution of the pope against France and 
Sardinia ; he appeals to Europe for help, 28 Sept. ,, 

Cialdini defeats Lamoriciere at Castel-Fidardo, 
18 Sept. ; and takes Ancona . . 29 Sept. ,, 

Additional French troops sent to Rome . Oct. ,, 

The Marches vote for annexation to Sardinia, Nov. ,, 

Subscriptions raised for the pope in various coun- 
tries ; the formal collection forbidden in France 
and Belgium ; permitted in England ^ . Nov. i860 

Monastic establishments suppressed in the Lega- 
tions ; the monks pensioned; educational institu- 
tions founded Dec. ,, 

The French emperor advises the pope to give up his . 
revolted provinces .... 21 Dec. ,, 

Publication of Rome et Us Eveques, 6 Jan. ; and of 
La France, Rome et Vltalie, 15 Feb. ; great excite- 
ment, and strong advocacy of the pope's temporal 
government (attacked by prince Napoleon) in the 
French chambers .... March, 1861 

Cavour claims Rome as capital of Italy, 27 March, ,, 

Petition to the emperor Napoleon to withdraw 
French troops from Rome ... 10 May, ,, 

The emperor of France declines a union with 
Austria and Spain for the maintenance of the 
pope's temporal power .... June, ,, 

Grand ceremony at the canonization of 27 Japanese 

martyrs (see Canonization) . . . 8 June, ,, 
The pope declares a severe allocution against the 

Italians 9 June, ,, 

Garibaldi calls for volunteers, taking as his watch- 
word, " Rome or death ! " . . . 19 July, 1862 
Railway between Rome and Naples completed ; its 

opening opposed by the papal government, Nov. ,, 
Earl Russell's offer to the pope of a residence at 

Malta, 25 Oct. ; declined . . .11 Nov. ,, 
Antonelli's resignation of his office not accepted, 

S March, 1863 
Convention between France and Italy : French 
troops to quit Rome within two years, 15 Sept. 1864 



Encyclical letter of the pope, publishing a "sylla- 
bus," censuring 80 errors in religion, philosophy, 
and politics ; (caused much dissatisfaction, and 
was forbidden to be read in churches in France 
and other countries) .... 8 Dec. 1864 
Jews persecuted at Rome .... Dec. ,, 
Fruitless negotiations between the pope and the 
king of Italy (by Yegezzi) ; mutual concessions 
proposed . . . .21 April to 23 June, 1865 
Pope's severe allocution against secret societies 

(Freemasons, Fenians, &c.) . . 25 Sept. ,, 
Merode, the papal minister of war, dismissed, 20 Oct. ,, 
A part of the French troops leave the papal dominions 

Nov. ,, 
Rupture with Russia . . Dec. 1865 — Jan. 1866 
A Franco-pontifical legion (1200 men) formed at 

Antibes, arrives ; blessed by the pope, 24 Sept. ,, 
Pope's severe allocution against Italy and Russia, 

29 Oct. ,, 
The pope invites all catholic bishops to meet at 
Rome to celebrate the 18th centenary of the 
martyrdom of Peter and Paul . . 8 Dec. ,, 
The pope's blessing given to French troops, 6 Dec, 
who all quit Rome .... 2-12 Dee. ,, 

Rome tranquil 13 Dec. ,, 

Law prohibiting protestant worship except at 

embassies in Rome enforced . . 31 Dee. ,, 
Negotiation with Italy fruitless ; the Italian coun- 
cillor, Tonello, quits Rome . . . April, 1867 
599 bishops and thousands of priests present at the 
pope's allocution, 26 June ; and canonization of 

25 martyrs 29 June, ,, 

The pope receives an album and address from 100 

cities of Italy 8 July, ,, 

Cholera in Rome ; death of cardinal Altieri, while 

assisting the afflicted . . . n Aug. ,, 

The pope's allocution censures the sacrilegious 
audacity of the Sub-alpine kingdom, in confisca- 
ting ecclesiastical property . . .20 Sept. ,, 
Garibaldi arrested at Shialunga, near the Roman 

frontier 23 Sept. ,, 

Irruption of Garibaldians in Viterbo — conflicts with 
various results ; reported appeal of Antouelli for 
help from the great powers . . . Oct. ,, 

Zouave barracks at Rome blown up, many killed, 

22 Oct. ,, 
Attempt at insurrection in Rome suppressed, 22 
Oct. ; state of siege proclaimed ; Garibaldi within 
20 miles of Rome, 24 Oct. ; takes Monte Rotondo 

26 Oct. „ 
French brigades enter Rome . . .30 Oct. ,, 
Italian troops cross the frontier, 30 Oct. ; occupy 

several posts 1 Nov. ,, 

Garibaldians defeated by the papal and French 

troops at Mentana (wh ieh sec) . . . 3 Nov. ,, 
Italian troops retire from the papal states Nov. ,, ' 
The Roman committee of insurrection issue a narra- 
tive, and state that their watchword is "Try 
again and do better " .... Dec. ,, 
The papal army increased to about 15,000 . Dec. „ 
The pope's short allocution (thanking and blessing 

the French government) ... 19 Dec. ,, 
Nine cardinals made ; Lucien Bonaparte one 

13 March, 1868 
Sudden death of cardinal Andrea . . 15 May, ,, 
The pope, in his allocution, censures the Austrian 

new civil marriage law ... 22 June, ,, 
Arrangement respecting the papal debt made with 

Italy 30 July, ,, 

Encyclical letter of the pope, summoning an oecu- 
menical council at Rome on 8 Dec. 1869, and in- 
viting ministers of the Greek and other 'churches 

13 Sept. ,, 
The patriarch of the Greek church declined to attend 

about 3 Oct 

Monti and Tognetti (for complicity in the explosion 

of the Zouave barracks, 22 Oct. 1867), executed 

24 Nov. ,, 
The pope celebrates a jubilee . . n April, 1869 
In his allocution he deplores the opposition to the 

church in Austria and Spain . . 25 June, ,, 
He declares, in a letter to archbishop Manning, 
that no discussions on disputed points can take 

place at the council 4 Sept. ,, 

The council opened, see Council XXI. . 8 Dec. 
An exhibition of objects of Christian art opened by 

the pope 7 Feb. 1870 

British and American bishops protest against dis- 



SOME. 



832 



EOME. 



cussing the dogma of papal infallibility in the 
council, ii April; the discussion begins 14 May, iE 

Count Arnim, on behalf of the North German con- 
federation, protests against the dogma . May, , 

Papal infallibility adopted by the council and pro- 
mulgated (533 for ; 2 against ; many retire) ; the 
council adjourns to 11 Nov. . . 18 July, , 

Rome completely evacuated by French troops in 
consequence of the war ; 8 mortars and 15,000 
shells said to be ceded to the pope, 8 Aug. ; the 
troops sent from Civita Vecchia . .21 Aug. , 

Conciliatory letter from Victor Emmanuel to the pope 

8 Sept. . 

Agitation in the papal provinces ; the Italian 
troops invited to enter . . about 10 Sept. , 

The pope refuses terms offered him by the king of 
Italy (sovereignty of the Leonine city and reten- 
tion of his income) .... 11 Sept. , 

Skirmish with papal Zouaves ; several killed 

14 Sept. 

The Italians occupy Civita Vecchia without resist- 
ance about 15 Sept. . 

Gen. Cadorna crosses the Tiber at Casale ; sends 
flags of truce to gen. Kanzler, commander of the 
Zouaves, who refuses to surrender ; baron Arnim 
in vain negotiates between them . 17 Sept. 

Letter from the pope to gen. Kanzler directing that 
a merely formal defence be made at Rome, and 
that bloodshed be avoided . . 19 Sept. 

After a brief resistance from the foreign papal 
troops, stopped by order of the pope, the Italian 
troops under Cadorna make a breach and enter 
Rome amid enthusiastic acclamations of the 
people 20 Sept. 

[Reported Italian loss, about 22 killed, 117 
wounded ; papal troops, 55 killed and wounded.] 

Cardinal Antonelli issues a diplomatic protest 
against the Italian occupation of Rome 21 Sept. 

The papal troops surrender arms ; about 8500 
foreigners march out with honours of war ; they 
insult the Italians ; the native troops retained, 

22 Sept. 

About 10,000 persons assemble in the Coliseum, 
choose 44 names for a provisional government 
(giunta) 22 Sept. 

Protest of the pope 26 Sept. 

Castle of St. Angelo occupied by Italian troops at 

the pope's request .... 28 Sept. 

Circular letter from the pope to the cardinals 

complaining of the invasion and of his loss of 

liberty, and interference with his private post bag 

29 Sept. 
A giunta of 14 (the duke Gaetani chief) selected from 

the 44 names chosen ; approved by Cadorna 

30 Sept. 
General Masi in command of Rome and the pro- 
vinces ; S.P.Q.R appears on the proclamations 

30 Sept. 

Plebiscite : out of 167,548 votes, 133,681 for union 
with the kingdom of Italy ; 1507 against ; the 
remainder did not vote . . . .2 Oct. 

Cardinal Antonelli issues a protest ; published 

4 Oct. 

The pope said to have accepted 50,000 crowns (his 
monthly civil list) from the Italian government 

4 Oct. 

The result of the plebiscite sent to the king, 8 Oct. , 
Rome and its provinces incorporated with the 
kingdom by royal decree ... 9 Oct. 

General La Marmora enters Rome as viceroy ; 
he proclaims that the pope shall be guaranteed 
in his sovereign powers as head of the churcl 

11 Oct. 

The Roman provinces united into one by decree 

19 Oct. 

The pope issues an encyclical letter adjourning the 
meeting of the council ... 20 Oct. 

Antonelli protests against the occupation of the 
Quirinal by the king . . . .10 Nov. 

Bill introduced into the Italian parliament respect- 
ing the transfer of the seat of government to 
Rome in about six months, and the preservation 
of the spiritual and temporal sovereignty of the 
p p e about 12 Dec. 

Inundation of the Tiber ; great suffering of the 
people, 27, 28 Dec. ; the king gives 200,000 lire ; 
visits Rome suddenly, the city illuminated 

4 a.m. 31 Dec. 



Law guaranteeing to the pope full xiersonal liberty 
and honours, a revenue of 3,225,000 livres &c, 
13 May ; rejected by the pope in his allocution 

15 May, 1871 
2624th anniversary of the city kept ; the pope cele- 
brates a jubilee on the 25th anniversary of his 

election 16 June, ,, 

The Italian government remove to Rome, 2, 3 July, „ 
Allocution of the pope, appointing some Italian 

bishops ; still rejecting guarantees . 27 Oct. ,, . 
Grand reception of the king . . 21 Nov. ,, 

He opens the parliament, saying, "The work to 
which we have consecrated our life is completed " 

27 Nov. ,, 
The pope receives an address from nobles and others 

27 Nov. ,, 
Commission appointed to dredge the bed of the 

Tiber to recover antiquities . . . Dee. ,, 
Easter solemnities not performed by the pope 

31 March, 1872 
The pope delivers an allocution complaining of per- 
secution of the church in Italy, Germany, and 

Spain 23 Dec. „ 

American Protestant church dedicated to St. Paul ; 

founded 25 Jan. 1873 

First Anglican church within the walls opened 

25 Oct. 1874 
Assassination of Raffaele Sonzogno, a republican 
printer and manager of "II Capitale," 6 Feb. ; 
trial of Pio Frezza, the murderer caught in the 
act with liUciani, Armati, and others, as incitors 
to the crime ; convicted "with extenuating cir- 
cumstances ; " penal servitude for life . 13 Nov. 1875 
Re-interment on the Janiculum hill of remains of 
Angelo Brunetti (termed Cieeruaechio) and other 
unarmed Italian patriots (shot by the Austrians 

10 Aug. 1849) 12 Oct. 1879 

International exhibition of fine art, opened 21 Jan. 1883 
The German crown prince arrives at Rome, 17 Dec. ; 

visits the pope 18 Dec. „ 

2,637th anniversary of the foundation of Rome 

21 April, 1884 
First Italian " Derby day " . . . 24 April, „ 
A sale of part of the Castellani collection, 21 days, 

about 48,000?. realized .... April, „ 
Dispute ; a cardinal stopped from visiting a cholera 

hospital without quarantine . . . Oct. ,, 
Discoveries about the Temple of Vesta in the 

Forum by Prof. H. Jordan, announced April, 1885 
Death of prince Torlonia, a great benefactor, 

aged 86, 7 Feb. 1886 
Statue of Giordano Bruno, philosopher (burnt as a 

heretic at Venice, 17 Feb. 1600); unveiled, 9 June, 1889 
Sig. Aurelio Saffi, one of the triumvirs of Feb. 1849, 

dies at Forli, aged 71 . . . 10 April, 1890 
Great explosion of the powder magazine at Fort 
Monteverde, 4 persons killed and about 150 
wounded ; the Vatican and several churches 
injured, and much property destroyed ; the 
place visited by the king to relieve the sufferers 

23 April, 1801 
" Labour day," rioting suppressed with bloodshed ; 

4 persons killed, many wounded. . 1 May, ,, 
Popular demonstration against foreign pilgrims for 
supposed insults to the memory of king Victor 
Emanuel ; 3 pilgrims arrested . . 2-4 Oct. ,, 
See Fopes, Pius IX. et seq., and Italy. 



KINGS OF ROME. 

X. (Dates conjectural.) 

735. Romulus ; murdered by the senators. 

[Titus Tatius, king of the Sabines, had removed to 

Rome in 747, and ruled jointly with Romulus 

six years.] 
716. [Interregnum.] 
715. Numa Pompilius, son-in-law of Tatius the Sabine, 

elected ; died at the age of 82. 
673. Tullus Hostilius ; murdered by his successor, by 

whom his palace was set on fire ; his family 

perished in the flames. 
640. Aneus Martius, grandson of Numa. 
616. Tarquinius Priscus ; son of Demaratus, a Corinthian 

emigrant, chosen king. 
578. Servius Tullius, a manumitted slave ; married the 

king's daughter ; and succeeded by the united 

suffrages of the army and the people. 



EOME. 



833 



EOOF. 



534. Tarquinius Superbus, grandson of Tarquinius Pris- 
eus ; assassinates bis father-in-law, and usurps 
the throne. 

510. [The rape of Lucretia, by Sextus, son of Tarquin, 
and consequent insurrection, leads to the aboli- 
tion of royalty and the establishment of the 
consulate.] 



510-82. First period. From the expulsion of Tarquin to 
the dictatorship of Sylla. 
2-27. Second period. From Sylla to Augustus. 
48. Caius Julius Caesar ; perpetual dictator ; assassi- 
nated, 15 March, 44 B.C. 
31. Octavianus Caesar. 



27. 

A.D. 
14. 

37- 
41. 

54- 
68. 
6 9 . 



117. 
138. 
161. 



Augustus Imperatok, died 19 Aug. a.d. 14. 

Tiberius (Claudius Nero). 

Caius Caligula : murdered by a tribune. 

Claudius I. (Tiberius Drusus) : poisoned by his wife 

Agrippina, to make way for 
Claudius Nero ; deposed ; kills himself, 68. 
Servius Sulpicius Galba ; slain by the praetorians. 
M. Salvius Otho ; stabbed himself. 
Aulus Vitellius ; deposed by Vespasian, and put to 

death. 
Titus Flavius Vespasian. 
Titus (Vespasian), his son. 
Titus Flavius Domitian, brother of Titus ; last of 

the twelve Caesars ; assassinated. 
Cocceius Nerva. 
Trajan M. Ulpius (Crinitus). 
Adrian or Hadrian (Publius iElius). 
Antoninus Titus, surnamed Pius. 
Marcus Aurelius (a philosopher) and Lucius Verus, 

his son-in-law ; tlie latter died in 169. 
180. Commodus (L. Aurelius Antoninus), son of Marcus 

Aurelius ; poisoned by his favourite mistress, 

Martia. 
193. Publius -Helvius-Pertinax ; put to death by the prae- 
torian band. 
[Four emperors now start up : Didianus Julianus, 

at Rome ; Pescennius Niger, in Syria ; Lucius 

Septimius Severus, in Pannonia; and Clodius 

Albinus, in Britain.] 
,, Lucius Septimius Severus ; died at York in Britain, 

in 211 ; succeeded by his sons, 
211. M. Aurelius Caracalla and Septimius Geta. Geta 

murdered by Caracalla, 212 ; who is slain by his 

successor 

217. M. Opilius Macrinus, prefect of the guards ; be- 

headed in a mutiny. 

218. Heliogabalus (M. Aurelius Antoninus), a youth ; put 

to death for his enormities. 
222. Alexander Severus ; assassinated by some soldiers 

corrupted by Maximums. 
235. Caius Julius Verus Maximums ; assassinated in his 

tent before the walls of Aquileia. 

237. M. Antonius Gordianus, and his son ; the latter 

having been killed in a battle with the par- 
tisans of Maximums, the father strangled him- 
self in a fit of despair, at Carthage, in his 80th 
year. 

238. Balbiims and Pupienus ; put to death. 

,, Gordian III., grandson of the elder Gordian, in his 

16th year ; assassinated by the guards, at the 

instigation of his successor. 
244. Philip the Arabian ; assassinated by his own soldiers ; 

his son Philip was murdered at the same time, in 

his mother's arms. 
249. Metius Decius ; he perished with his two sons, 

and their army, in an engagement with the 

Goths. 
251. Gallus Hostilius, and his son Volusianus ; both slain 

by the soldiery. 
253. iEmilianus ; put to death after a reign of only four 

months. 
,, Valerianus, and his son Gallicnus ; the first was 

taken prisoner by Sapor, king of Persia, and 

flayed alive. 
260. Gallienus reigned alone. 

[About this time thirty pretenders to imperial power 

arise in different parts of the empire ; of these 

Cyriades is the first, but he is slain.] 



= 75- 
276. 



284. 
286. 
3°5- 

306. 



Claudius II. (Gallienus having been assassinated by 
the officers of the guard) succeeds ; dies of the 
plague. 

Quintillus, his brother, elected at Rome by the senate 
and troops ; Aurelian by the army in Illyrieum. 
Quintillus, despairing of success against his 
rival, who was marching against him, opened his 
veins and bled himself to death. 

Aurelianus ; assassinated by his soldiers on his 
march against Persia, in Jan. 275. 

[Interregnum of about nine months. ] 

Tacitus, elected 25 Oct. ; died at Tarsus in Cilicia, 
13 April, 276. 

Floriauus, his brother ; his title not recognised by 
the senate. 

M. Aurelius Probus ; assassinated by his troops at 
Sirmium. 

M. Aurelius Cams ; killed at Ctesiphon by light- 
ning ; succeeded by his sons 

Carinus and Numerianus ; both assassinated, after 
transient reigns. 

Diocletian ; who associated as his colleague in the 
government, 

Maximianus Hercules ; the two emperors resign in 
favour of 

Constantius I. Chlorus and Galerius Maximianus; 
the first died at York, in Britain, in 306, and the 
troops saluted as emperor his son, 

Constantine, afterwards styled the Great ; whilst 
at Rome the piraetorian band proclaimed 

Maxentius, son of Maximianus Hercules. Besides 
these were 

Maximianus Hercules, who endeavoured to recover 
his abdicated power. 

Flavius Valerius Severus, murdered by the last- 
named pretender ; and 

Flavius Valerianus Licinius, the brother in-law of 
Constantine. 

[Of these, Maximianus Hercules was strangled in 
Gaul,in 310; Galerius Maximianus died wretchedly 
in 311 ; Maxentius was drowned in the Tiber in 
312; and Licinius was put to death by order of 
Constantine in 324.] 

Constantine the Great now reigned alone ; died on 
Whitsunday, 22 May, 337. 

^Sons of Constantine ; divided 
the empire between them ; the 
first was slain in 340, and the 
second murdered in 350, when 
the third became sole em- 
peror. 

Julian, the Apostate, so called for abjuring Chris- 
tianity, having been educated for the priesthood ; 
mortally wounded in a battle with the Persians, 

363- 
Jovian ; reigned eight months ; found dead in his 

bed, supposed to have died from the fumes of 

charcoal. 
Valentinian and Valens. 
Valens with Gratian and Valentinian II. 
Theodosius I., &c. 
Theodosius alone. 
The Roman empire divided ; see Eastern Empire, 

Western Empire, Popes, and Italy. 

EOMILLY'S ACT, Sir Samuel, 52 Geo. 

III. c. IOI (1812) relates to charities. 

EONCESVALLES (in the Pyrenees), where, 
it is said, Charlenmgne's paladin, Roland, or 
Orlando, was surprised, defeated and slain by the 
Gascons, 778. On 25 July, 1813, marshal Soult 
was defeated here by tlie British entering France. 

EONDO- A short piece of music having one 
prominent subject to which returns are made, many 
composed by Beethoven, Chopin, and others. 

EOOF. The largest in the world was said to be 
that over a riding-school at Moscow, erected in 
1791, being 235 feet in span. The roof of the 
London station of the Midland railway, in Kuston- 
road, London, N.W., is 240 feet wide, 6oofee1 long, 
12c; feet high. The extent of ground coveied is 
about 165,000 square feet. 

3 H 



C Constantine II. 

-j Constans. 

( Constantius II. 



360. 



ROPE-MAKING MACHINE. 



834 



KOSICETJCIANS. 



ROPE-MAKING MACHINE. One was 
patented by Richard March in 1784, and by Edmd. 
Cartwright, in 1 792. Many improvements have been 
made since. 

RORKE'S DRIFT, boundary of British terri- 
tory of Natal, in South Africa and Zululand. 
Behind extemporised trenches a handful of British 
soldiers here successfuUy resisted a large Zulu 
army, and probably saved the colony, 22 Jan. 1879. 
See Zululand. 

ROSAMOND'S BOWER. Rosamond was 
daughter of lord Clifford, and mistress of Henry II. 
about 1 154. A conspiracy against her was formed by 
the queen, prince Henry, and the Icing's other sons. 
Henry kept her in a labyrinth at Woodstock, where 
his queen, Eleanor, it is said, discovered her apart- 
ments by the clue of a silk thread, and poisoned her. 
She was buried at Godstow church, from whence 
Hugh, bishop of Lincoln, had her ashes removed, 
1191. 

ROSARY, see Beads. 
In a brief of pope Pius IX., 30 Sept. 1852, it was asserted 
that 40 repetitions in a rosary of 40 beads of " Sweet 
Heart of Mary, be my salvation ! " will obtain a large 
number of days of indulgence for souls in purgatory 
(23,300 days calculated). 

ROSAS (N. E. Spain), Bay of, where a brilliant 
naval action was fought by the boats of the Tiff re, 
Cumberland, Yolontaire, Apollo, Topaze, Philomel, 
Scout, and Tuscan, led by lieut. John Tailour (of 
the Tiff re), which ended in the capture or destruc- 
tion of eleven armed -vessels in the bay, 1 Nov. 
1809 ; for which purpose lord Collingwood had 
organised the expedition commanded by capt. Hallo- 
well. Rosas was gallantly defended by lord Coch- 
rane, 27 Nov. ; but surrendered, 4 Dec. 1809. 

ROSBACH (Rosebecque), Flanders. Here 
Charles VI. of France beat the Flemings, who had 
revolted against their count, 27 Nov. 1382. — At 
Rosbach, in Prussia, a great battle was fought 
between the Prussians, commanded by Frederick 
the Great, and the combined army of French and 
Austrians, in which the latter were defeated with 
severe loss, 5 Nov. 1757. 

" ROSCIUS, INFANT," ¥m. Henry West 
Betty, born 13 Sept. 1791. After acting at Belfast, 
16 Aug. 1803, and at other places, with much ap- 
plause, he appeared at Covent-garden, 1 Dec. 1803, 
as Selim, in " Barbarossa," and is said to have 
gained in his first season, 17,210^. 
After several years' retirement, lie re-appeared, but 

soon after left the stage, not being successful. 

He retired on the fortune he had amassed, and 

died Aug. 1874 

His portrait may be seen at the Garriek club. 

ROSE, see under Flowers. The rose, a symbol 
of silence, gave rise to the phrase sub rosii, " under 
the rose ; ' ' said, by Italian writers, to have risen 
from the circumstance of the pope's presenting 
consecrated roses, which were placed over the con- 
fessionals at Rome, to denote secrecy, 1526. The 
pope sent a golden rose to the queen of Spain, which 
was given to her with much solemnity, 8 Feb. 1868. 
A "national rose society" opened its first annual 
(-how, St. James's hall, 4 July, 1877. 
The League of the JRosc, under the patronage of the 
Comtesse de Paris, formed to promote the restoration 
of the monarchy in France, autumn 188S. 

ROSE'S ACT, 33 Geo. III. c. 54 (1793) brought 
b ■uefit societies under the control of government. 

ROSES, WARS OF TIIE, between the Lan- 
castrians (who chose the red rose as their emblem) 



and the Yorkists (who chose the white rose), 1455-. 

1485. It is stated that in the "Wars of the Rose 

there perished 12 princes of the blood, 200 nobles, 

and 100,000 gentry and common people. The union 

of the roses was effected in the marriage of Henry VII. 

with the princess Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV. 

i486. 

Richard II., who succeeded his grandfather Edward 
III. in 1377, was deposed and succeeded in 1399 
by his cousin Henry IV. (son of John of Gaunt, 
duke of Lancaster, the fourth son of Edward IH.), 
in prejudice to the right of Roger Mortimer 
(grandson of Lionel, duke of Clarence, Edward's 
third son), who was declared presumptive heir to 
the throne in 1385 

Roger's grandson, Richard duke of York, first 
openly claimed the crown in 1449 

Attempts at compromise failed, and the war began 



1455 



The Lancastrians were defeated at St. Alban's ; the 
protector Somerset was slain ; a trace was made, 
and Richard was declared successor to Henry VI. 

23 May,- ,, 

The war was renewed, and the Yorkists defeated the 
Lancastrians at Bloreheath . . 23 Sept. 14S9 

The Yorkists eventually dispersed, and the duke 
was attainted. 

He defeated his opponents at Northampton, took 
Henry prisoner, and was declared heir to the 
crown ; but fell into an ambuscade near "Wake- 
field, and was put to death ... 31 Dec. 1460 

His son (Edward) continued the struggle ; was in- 
stalled as king 4 March, 1461 

Defeated the Lancastrians at Towton . 29 March, „ 

Was deposed by Warwick, who restored Henry VI. 

Sept. 147c 

Edward defeated the Lancastrians at Barnet, 14 
April, and finally at Tewkesbury . . 4 May, 1471 

The struggle ended with the defeat and death of 
Richard III. at Bosworth ... 22 Aug. 1485 

ROSETTA (in Egypt), taken by the French in 
1798 ; and by the British and Turks, 19 April, 1801. 
The Turks repulsed the British here, 22 April, 1807. 
Near Rosetta was fought the battle of the Nile, 
I Aug. 1798; see Nile. Mehemet Ali rendered great 
service to his country by constructing a caDal 
between Rosetta and Alexandria. 
The Rosetta Stone, discovered by the French in 1799, was 
brought from Rosetta in a French vessel, from whence 
it was taken by Mr. Wm. R. Hamilton, who deposited 
it in the British Museum. In 1841, Mr. Letronne pub- 
lished the text and a translation of the Greek inscrip- 
tion. It is a piece of black basalt, about 3 feet long 
and 2^ feet wide, with an inscription in three languages, 
viz., hieroglyphics, modified hieroglyphics (demotic or 
enchorial), and Greek, setting forth the praises of 
Ptolemy Epiplianes (about 196 b.c.). It was studied 
by Dr. T. Young and especially by J. F. Champollion, 
whose works were published 1814-1845. Champollion's 
method was adopted by Rosellini, and extended by 
Lepsius, Bunsen, Birch, Brugsch, and others. Cham- 
pollion discovered that the hieroglyphs represented 
sounds by an initial letter, and after studying the 
"Ritual of the dead," published a grammar and dic- 
tionary. 

ROSICRUCIANS,. a sect of mystical philo- 
sophers who appeared in Germany in the 14th 
century. It is asserted that their founder was a 
noble German monk named Christian Bosencreutz, 
born 1378, who travelled in Arabia, Egypt, Africa, 
and Spain; returned to Germany and founded the 
fraternity of the Rosy Cross, and died aged 102. 
The Fama F rater nitidis and the Confessio Rosece 
Crucis, 1615, the latter attributed to Johann Valen- 
tin Andreas and others, arc important works. 
They swore fidelity, promised secrecy, and wrote 
hieroglyphieally, and affirmed that the ancient 
philosophers of Egypt, the Chaldeans, Magi of 
Persia, and Gynmosophists of the Indies, taught 
the same doctrine. 

Mr. Arthur E. Waite's elaborate work " The Real History 
of the Rosicrucians " published in 1887. 



EOSS. 



835 



KOIJMANIA. 



EOSS, Cork (S. Ireland) j a bishopric founded, 
is supposed, by St. Fachnan, in the beginning of 
the 6th century. It was united to Cork in 1340 , 
and Cloyne to both, by the Irish Church Temporali- 
ties act (1833) ; see Bishops ; Xew Boss. 

EOSTEUM (plural rostra), a beak, the name 
given to the prows of ships, which were affixed to 
i he front of the platform (hence termed rostra), 
erected between the comitium aud the forum iu 
Rome, whence the tribunes addressed the people. 
The custom is said to have begun with the ships of 
Antium, taken during the L ttin war, which ended 
33 B - c - 

EOTA CLUB, a society who met at Miles's 
Coffee-house in New Palace-yard, "Westminster, 
during the administration of Oliver Cromwell ; 
their plan was that all the great officers of state 
should be chosen by ballot: and that a certain 
number of members of parliament should be changed 
annually by rotation, from whence they took their 
title. Sir William Petty Avas one of the members 
in 1659. Biog. Brit. 

EOTHESAT, capital of the Isle of Bute. The 
ruined castle, founded about 1098, was repaired by 
the marquis of Bute, 1871-77". After 1393, the 
eldest son of the Scottish sovereign was styled duke 
of Rothesay. The Glenburn hydropathic "establish- 
ment destroyed by fire, estimated loss, 45,000?., 10 
July, 1891. Population, iS3l, 8,329; 1891, 9,034. 

EOTHESAY CASTLE, see Wrecks, 1831. 

EOTHSCHILD FAMILY. Meyer Am- 
schel, or Anselm, was born at .No. 148, Judengas.se 
(Jew-lane), Frankfort, in 1743. In 1772 he began 
business as a money-lender and dealer in old coins, 
in the same house, over which he placed the sign 
of the red shield (in German, Both Schild). Hav- 
ing had dealing's with the landgrave of Hesse, that 
prince entrusted him with his treasure (said to have 
been 250,000/.) in 1806, when the French held hits 
country. With this sum as capital, Anselm traded 
and made a large fortune, and restored the 250,000/. 
to the landgrave in 1815. At his death his sons 
continued the business as partners. His son, Na- 
than, began at Manchester in 1798, removed to 
London in 1803 ; and died immensely rich, 28 July, 
1836. The baron, James, head of the family, died 
at Paris, 15 Nov. r868. 

Sir Nathaniel de Rothschild, son of Lionel, created a 
peer; takes his seat, 9 July, 1S85. 

Hannah, daughter and heiress of the late baron Ainschel 
de Rothschild, married to the earl of Rosebery, 1878, 
a, great benefactress, dies, aged 39, 19 Nov. 1890. 

EOTTEEDAM, the second city in Holland. 
Its importance dates from the 13th century. The 
commerce of Antwerp was transferred to it in 1509- 
In 1572, Rotterdam was taken by the Spaniards by 
stratagem, and cruelly treated. It suffered much 
from the French revolutionary wars, and from in- 
undations in 1775 and 1825. Desiderius Erasmus 
was born here in 1467. The museum and picture- 
gallery of Rotterdam were destroyed at the fire of 
the Schieland palace, 16 Feb. 1864. Strike of dock 
labourers about 27 Sept. -14 Oct. 1889. Population, 
1887,193,658; 1890,209,136. 

EO UEjNT (N. France), an archbishopric, 260, be- 
came the capital of Normandy in the 10th century. 
It was held by the English kings till 1204 ; and was 
retaken by Henry V., 19 Jan. 1419. Joan of Arc, 
the Maid of Orleans, was burnt here, 30 May, 1431. 
It was taken by Charles VII. of France in 1449; 
and by the dulce of Guise from the Huguenots, Oct. 
1562 and 1591. Rouen, after slight conilicts, 4, 5 



Dee. 1870, surrendered to general Von Gol 
6 Dec. It was ordered to pay a contribution of 
17,000,000 francs. Population, 1886, 107,163; 1891, 
109,541. 

The theatre, destroyed by fire ; many persons in- 
jured, and 13 killed .... 25 April, 1S76 

" EOTJGH TEEEOE," a term given in 1874 
to the prevalence of brutal assaults on women, 
children, and unprotected persons among the lower 
classes, especially in Lancashire and other manu- 
facturing districts, for the repression of which the 
law appeared to be inadequate. 

EOUMANIA, a kingdom, the name assumed 

by the Hanubian principalities {which sec) on 23 

Dec. i36i, when their union was proclaimed at 

Bucharest and Jassy. Population in 1888, 5,376,006. 

M. Catargi, the president of the council of minis- 
ters, assassinated as he was leaving the chamber 
of deputies 20 June, 1862 

The united chambers of the two principalities meet 
at Bucharest 5 Feb. ,, 

Coup d'etat of prince Couza against the aristocrats ; 
a plebiscite for a new constitution, 2 May ; which 
is adopted 28 May, 1864 

Law passed enabling peasants to hold land Aug. ,, 

Revolt at Bucharest suppressed, 15 Aug. ; amnesty, 

11 Sept., 1865 

Revolution at Bucharest ; forced abdication of 
prince Couza ; and provisional government esta- 
blished 22 Feb., 1866 

The offered crown declined by the count of Flan- 
ders, Feb. ; prince Charles of Hohenzollern-Sig- 
maringen elected hospodar by plebiscite, 20 
April ; enthusiastically received at Bucharest, 
22 May ; sworn to observe the constitution 

12 July, ,, 

Recognised hereditary hospodar by the sultan, and 
received at Constantinople . . 24 Oct. ,, 

Roumania unsettled ; " nationality " projects, Nov. 1867 

The legislature proposes to repudiate the just claims 
of the German shareholders in the Roumanian 
railways ; the prince assents reluctantly ; Bis- . 
march appeals to the Porte, which declines to 
interfere July- Aug. 1S71 

Peace between the prince and chambers . Nov. ,, 

Austria, Germany, and Russia inform Turkey that 
they claim the right to conclude separate treaties 
with Roumania ; the sultan objects . Oct. 1874 

Convention with Russia, giving permission to cross 
Roumania, signed 16 April ; Russians enter Mol- 
davia 24 April, 1877 

The Senate vote a declaration of independence and 
war with Turkey .... 21 May, ,, 

The Roumanians actively engaged before Plevna. 
See Russo-Tv/rkisTi War, 1877. 

Roumania declared independent by treaties of San 
Stefano (3 March) and of Berlin (losing the part 
of Bessarabia acquired in 1S56, in exchange for 
the Dobrudseha) .... 13 July, 1878 

Independence recognised by England, France, and 
Germany . . . • . . . 20 Feb. 1SS0 

The prince and princess crowned king and queen, 

23 May, 1881 

Temporary rupture with Austria respecting the 
Danube, about 1-27 Dee. 

Roumanian troops enter Silistria and seize terril ory, 

3 Sept. 1885 

Rioton i n"' tmg af Bueharesi suppressed with 1 >ss 
of life, 25-27 .March ; M. Bratiano resigns (I welve 
years minister) . . . about 27 March, 

M. Bosetti forms a ministry . . 3 April, 

Insurrection in the country (owns and agricultural 
districts; increase reported ; military called out ; 
Bucharest threatened ; revolt said to lie 1 n- 
couraged by Russian emissaries 16 April; de- 
crease, 24 April; the elections support the 
government, Oct. ; assembly u ts . 13 Nov. 

M. Catargi, minister, 12 April, resigns; succeeded 
bygeuMano 16 Nov. 1^89 

Proposed impeachment of M. Jean Bratiano, re- 
jected by the chamber (86V-67) . . 12 Feb. iF?o 

Resignation of gen. Manos ministry . 27 Feb. i£c 1 

Gen. Floresco forms a cabinet m . 5 March, ,', 

3 11 2 



ROUMELIA. 



836 



ROYAL ACADEMY. 



Prince Ferdinand, heir presumptive, said to be 
engaged to Mile. Vacaresco, maid-of-honour ; 
public disapproval . . . June, et seq. 1891 

Mile. Helene Vacaresco leaves the queen at Venice 

2 Sept. „ 

The king visits the German emperor at Potsdam 

28 Oct. „ 

New ministry formed by M. Catargi . . 9 Dec. ,, 

Vote of want of confidence in the ministry carried 
(78—74) 21 Dec. ,, 

The senate and chamber dissolved . 23 Dec. „ 

Coalition of parties ; M. Catargi's ministry recon- 
structed about 30 Dec. ,, 

The government supported by a majority in the 
elections Feb. 1892 

Prince Ferdinand betrothed to the princess Marie 
of Edinburgh, 2 June ; received in London, 21 
June ; the king invited by queen Victoria, arrives 
with his brother, 27 June ; at Windsor, 29 June ; 
made K.G., 30 June ; leaves England . 4 July, „ 

PRINCES AND KING OF ROUMANIA. 

1859. Alexander Couza ; abdicated 1866. 

1866. Charles I. (of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen) ; born 
20 April, 1839 ; elected 20 April, 1866 ; mar- 
ried Elizabeth, daughter of prince Hermann 
von Wied, 15 Nov. 1869 ; [scholar, poetess, 
popularly named Carmen Sylva, and "Mother 
of her people," visited Wales, at the Eisteddfod, 
Sept., received by queen Victoria, 2-4 Oct. ; 
left England, 7 Oct. 1890], nominated kino 26 
March, 1881, and crowned with the queen, 23 
May, 1881. 

Heir, Prince Ferdinand (of Hohenzollern), nephew; born 
24 Aug. 1865 : declared heir, 18 March, 1889 ; betrothed 
to princess Marie of Edinburgh, 2 June, 1892. 

KOUMELIA or ROMANIA (Turkey), part of 

Thrace (wh ich see) . The Rounielian railway opened 

17 June, 1873. Population, 1880, 815,946; 1888, 

960,901. 

By the treaty of Berlin, the province of Eastern 
Roumelia (termed South Bulgaria in 1886) was 
constituted, to be partly autonomous, with a 
Christian governor, nominated by the sultan 

13 July, 1878 

Sir H. D. Wolff appointed H.M.'s European com- 
missioner for organisation of the province, 

10 Aug. ,, 

Russian prince Dondoukoff Khorsakoff rules here 

July-Nov. 1878 

Scheme for government of the province approved 
by the sultan and the allied commissioners Nov. ,, 

Russian evacuation begins ... 5 May, 1879 

Aleko Pasha (prince Alexander Vogorides, a Bul- 
garian) installed as governor at Philippopolis 

30 May, ,, 

Much political disorganisation reported Sept. ,, 

Tranquillitj 7 restored Dec. ,, 

Great prosperity reported .... Sept. 1883 

M. Chrestovitch (Gavril Pasha) appointed governor- 
general by the Porte, about . . .10 May, 1884 

Bloodless revolution at Philippopolis ; re-union 
with Bulgaria proclaimed 18 Sept. ; prince 
Alexander at Philippopolis ; all Bulgaria and 
Roumelia arming .... Sept.-Oct. 1885 

About 75,000 Roumelians armed, . . Nov. ,, 

(see Turkey and Bulgaria for the war.) 

Turkish delegates sent to Philippopolis . 2 Dec. ,, 

Prince Alexander appointed governor for five years, 
(see Bulgaria) 5 April, 1886 

State of siege at Philippopolis on account of 
brigandage and Russian agency . . 4 Nov. ,, 

Diplomatic rupture with Greece respecting the 
nationality of a person who died at Bucharest, 

13 Nov. 1887 

A band of about 150 Montenegrins invading 
Bourgas repulsed with loss ... 4 Jan. 1888 

Amnesty granted to the insurgent peasantry, 

15 Jan. 1889 

First Bulgarian exhibition opened at Philippo- 
polis by prince Ferdinand . , .27 Aug. 1892 

ROUND- A sp?cies of musical canon in regular 
rhythm. Ancient rounds for six voices were com- 



posed in Italy, and introduced into England by the 
earl of Essex, about 15 10. The first printed col- 
lection appeared in 1609. Warren's collection pub- 
lished 1763-94. Round, Catch, and Canon club 
founded in 1843. 

ROUND-HEADS. In the civil war which 
began in 1642, the adherents of Charles I. were 
called Cavaliers, and the friends of the parliament 
Round-heads. The term, it is said, arose from those 
persons who had a round bowl or dish put upon 
their heads, and their hair cut to the edge of the 
bowl ; see Cavaliers. 

ROUND TABLE, see under Garter and 
Liberals, 1887. 

ROUND WAY DOWN (near Devizes, Wilt- 
shire) . Here the royalists defeated the parliamen- 
tarians with great slaughter, 13 July, 1643. 

ROVEREDO (Austrian Tyrol) was held by 
the Venetians from 1416 till 1609, Avhen it was ac- 
quired by Austria. It was taken by Bonaparte and 
the French, 4 Sept. 1796, after a brilliant victory. 

ROWING, see Boat Ltaces, Doggett, and Uni- 
versity. 
On 16 Oct. 1873, Mr. Reginald Herbert undertook to row 

on the Thames, from Maidenhead to Westminster 

bridge (47 miles 3 furlongs), in twelve hours, for 1000Z. 

He did it in ioh. 2m. 19 sec. 

ROWLAND HILL MEMORIAL FUND. 

See Mansion House. Mr. W. D. Keyworth was 
chosen to make a bust of sir .Rowland Hill for 
Westminster abbey, March, t88i. A benevolent 
fund for the widows and orphans of postmen 
established 1882. A statue of him at the Royal 
Exchange uncovered by the prince of Wales, 17 
June, 1882. 

ROXBURGHE CLUB was instituted in 
1812 by earl Spencer, for the republication of rare 
books, or unpublished MSS., in memory of John 
duke of Eoxburghe. 

ROYAL Agricultural, Astronomical, 
Geographical, Horticultural, &c.; see 

under Agriculture, Astronomy, Geography, Horti- 
culture, Niger, &c. 

ROYAL ACADEMY. A society of artists 
met in St. Peter's-court, St. Martin's-lane, about 
1739, which Hogarth established as the society ot 
Incorporated Artists, who held their first exhibition 
at the Society of Arts, Adelphi, 21 April, 1760. 
From this sprang the Royal Academy, in con- 
sequence of a dispute between the directors and the 
fellows. On 10 Dec. 1768, the institution of the 
present Royal Academy was completed under the 
patronage of George III. ; and sir Joshua Reynolds, 
knighted on the occasion, was appointed its first 
president. Leigh. The first exhibition of the 
academicians (at Pall-Mall) was on 26 April, 1769, 
when 136 works appeared. In 1771 the king 
granted them apartments in old Somerset-house, 
and afterwards, in 1780, in new Somerset-house, 
where they remained till 1838, when they removed 
to the National Galler y. Among the professors have 
been Johnson, Gibbon, Goldsmith, Macaulay, and 
Hallam. Turner, the painter, gave funds to the 
academjr for the award of a medal triennially for 
landscape-painting, which was awarded to Mr. N. 
0. Lupton in 1857. A commission of inquiry into 
the affairs of the academy, appointed in 1862, re- 
commended various changes in July, 1863, which 
were carried into effect. The hundredth anniversary 
of the foundation of the academy was celebrated 



EOYAL ACADEMY. 



837 



EOYAL INSTITUTION. 



10 Dec. 1868. The Royal Academy held its first 
exhibition in the new building, 3 May, 1869. The 
annual exhibition of pictures by the old masters, 
with some British, began 3 Jan. 1870. The money 
received has been devoted to the establishment of 
a professorship of chemistry and a laboratory, &c. 
In 1874 the exhibition included many of Landseer's 
pictures. 

Sir Francis Chantrey, sculptor, died 25 Nov. 1841. At 
the death of his wife Jan. 1875, in conformity with 
his will, about 3000L a year accrued to the Academy 
for the purchase of works of art for the nation, and 
other purposes. 
The court of appeal upholds Mr. justice North's decision 
that the works of sculpture purchased must be 
finished in marble or bronze, and not models, 
4 June, 1889. 
The gallery containing the sculptures of John Gibson, 

bequeathed by him, was opened free, 27 Nov. 1876. 
The number of the works of art exhibited in 1789 was 
about 620, in 1889, 2196, including sculptures. 



1768. 
1792. 



1820. 
1830. 
1850. 



PRESIDENTS. 

Sir Joshua Reynolds. 

Benjamin West. 

James Wyatt. 

Benjamin West. 

Sir Thomas Lawrence. 

Sir Martin A. Shee. 

Sir Charles Eastlake, died 23 Dec. 1S65. 

Sir Edwin Landseer elected ; declines, 24 Jan. 

Sir Francis Grant, Feb. 1 ; died 5 Oct. 1878. 

Sir Frederick Leighton, 13 Nov. 



EOYAL ACADEMY of MUSIC was es- 
tablished in 1822, mainly by the exertions of lord 
Burghersh (afterwards earl of Westmorland, who 
died 16 Oct. 1859), and was incorporated by charter 
23 June, 1830. The first concert took place 8 
l)ec. 1828. Its reconstruction was proposed in 1866, 
and since effected. Sir George Macfarren prin- 
cipal, 1876; died, 31 Oct. 1887; succeeded by Dr. 
A. C. Mackenzie, Feb. 1888. 
The academy unites with the Royal College of 

Music in regard to local examinations, announced 

13 Nov. 1889 
First meeting for the purpose at Marlborough- 

house 29 July, 1890 

EOYAL ADELAIDE, see Wrecks, 1850. 

EOYAL ASSENT. If the king assent to a 
public bill, the clerk of the parliament declares in 
Norman French, li Le roy le veult," the king wills 
it so to be. If the king refuses his assent, it is in the 
gentle language of "Ze roy s'avisera," the king 
will consider it. Sale. By the statute ^ Hen. 
VIII., 1 541, the king may give his assent by letters- 
patent. Blackstone' s Com. 

EOYAL BOUNTY, a fund from which sums 
are granted to female relatives of officers killed or 
mortally wounded during service. 

EOYAL CHAETEE, see Wrecks, 1859. 

EOYAL COLLEGE, see Music, 1878, and 
Science and Art, 1890. EOYAL ENGLISH 
OPERA HOUSE, see under Theatres. 

EOYAL EXCHANGE (Cambium Regis), 
London. The foundation of the original edifice was 
laid by sir Thomas Gresham, 7 June, 1566, on the 
site of the ancient Tun prison. Queen Elizabeth 
opened it on 23 Jan. 1571, and her herald named it 
the lioyal Exchange. Ificme. It was totally de- 
stroyed by the great fire, Sept. 1666. Charles II. 
laid' the foundation-stone of the next edifice, 23 Oct. 
1667, which was completed by Mr. Hawkcsniore, a 
pupil of sir Christopher Wren, in about three 
years; it was repaired and beautified in 1769. This 
also was burnt, 10 Jan. 1838. The new Royal Ex- 



change, erected under the direction of Mr. Tite, was 
opened by the queen, 28 Oct. 1844. — The Royal 
Exchange, Dublin, commenced 1769, opened 1779. 

EOYAL GEOEGE, a man-of-war of 108 
guns, lost off Spithead. While keeled over to repair 
a pipe, a sudden gust of wind washed the sea into 
her ports, and she went down. The rear-admiral 
Keinpenfeldt, the crew, many marines, women, and 
Jews, in all about 600 persons, were drowned, 29 
Aug. 1782. By the use of the diving-bell, the ship, 
embedded in the deep, was surveyed in May, 1817 
et seq. Tortious of the vessel and its cargo werq 
brought up in 1839-42, under the superintendence 
of sir Charles Pasley, when gunpowder was ignited 
by the agency of electricity. 

EOYAL GEANTS to members of the royal 

family -. — 

The queen on July 2 applied to parliament for a 
grant to prince Albert Victor of Wales for his 
maintenance, and for one to the princess Louise 
of Wales on her proposed marriage with the earl 
of Fife, a select committee was appointed con- 
sisting of 23 members (including Mr. Goschen, 
Mr. W. H. Smith, lord Hartington, Mr. J. Cham- 
berlain, Mr. jGladstone, Mr. John Morley, Mr. 
Labouchere, Mr. Burt, Dr. Cameron, Mr. Parnell, 
and Mr. Sexton), 8 July, the committee first met 

10 July, 1889 

After several meetings at which there was much 
discussion on various propositions, a report was 
submitted to the house of commons, who even- 
tually resolved, after several amendments had 
been rejected, that 36,000^., out of the consoli- 
dated fund should be paid annually (through 
trustees) to the prince of Wales for the support 
and maintenance of his family, the same to con- 
tinue till six months after the queen's decease, 
29 July, 1889. An act of parliament to this 
effect was passed . . . . 12 Aug. ,, 

EOYAL HUMANE SOCIETY (London), 
see Humane Society. 

EOYAL INSTITUTION of Great 

BRITAIN, the earliest of the kind in London, was 
founded 9 March, 1799, by count Rumford, sir 
Joseph Banks, earls Spencer and Morton, and several 
other noblemen and gentlemen. It received the 
immediate patronage of George III., and was in- 
corporated 13 Jan. 1800, by royal charter, as " The 
Royal Institution of Great Britain, for the diffusing 
knowledge, and facilitating the general introduc- 
tion of useful mechanical inventions and improve- 
ments, and for teaching, by courses of philosophical 
lectures and experiments, the application of science 
to the common purposes of life." It was enlarged 
and extended by an act of parliament in 1810; the 
original plan, as drawn up by count Rumford, in 
1799, having been considerably modified. The mem- 
bers are elected hy ballot, and pay ten guineas on 
admission, and five guineas annually, or a com- 
position of sixty guineas. " The Royal Institution, 
its Founder, and its first Professors," by Dr. Bence 
Jones, hon. sec, published 1871. 
The House (in Albemarle-street, Piccadilly) was pur- 
chased in June, 1799, and the present front was added 
by subscription in 1838. The Lecture theatre was 
erected in 1803, under the superintendence of Mr. T. 
Webster. 
The Laboratory established in 1800 ; was rebuilt, with 

the modern improvements, 1872. 
The Libkary was commenced in 1S03, by the munificent 
subscriptions of the proprietors of the institution. 
It now OS89) comprises about 50,000 volumes. Clas- 
sified catalogues (by W. Harris) wove published in 
1809 and 1821; new ones(byB. Vincent)in i857and 1882. 
The Museum contains original philosophical apparatus 
of Young, Cavendish, Davy, Faraday, and Do la Rue. 
The first Lecture was delivered 4 March, 1801, by Dr 



EOYAL INSTITUTION. 



EOYAL SOCIETY. 



Garnett, he being the first professor of natural philo- 
sophy and chemistry. 

In Aug. he was succeeded by Dr. Thomas Young, so cele- 
brated for his researches in optics, resulting in the 
discovery of the interference of light, and the estab- 
lishment of the theory of undulation. His " Lectures 
on Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts," first 
published in 1807, are still considered a text-book of 
physical science. His works on antiquarian literature 
(hieroglyphic inscriptions, &c.) are highly esteemed. 

In Feb. 1801, Mr. (afterwards sir Humphry) Davy was 
engaged as assistant lecturer and director of the labo- 
ratory, and on 31 May, 1802, he was appointed pro- 
fessor of chemistry. His lectures were eminently 
successful, and his discoveries in chemistry and elec- 
tricity have immortalised his name, and conferred 
honour on the institution. By him the alkaline metals 
potassium and sodium, were discovered in 1807 ; the 
nature of chlorine was determined in 1810, and the 
safety-lamp invented in 1815. 

William Thomas Brande succeeded sir Humphry Davy as 
professor of chemistry in 1813, and held that office till 
his resignation in- 1852, since which time, till his death 
(Feb. 1S66), he was hon. professor. From 1S16 to 1850 
he delivered, in the laboratory of this institution, his 
celebrated chemical lectures to students. 

lu 1813 Michael Faraday (born 22 Sept. 1791), on the 
recommendation of sir H. Davy, was engaged as as- 
sistant in the laboratory, and in 1825 as its director ; 
in 1827 he became one of the permanent lecturers of 
the institution. In 1820 he commenced those researches 
in electricity and magnetism which form an era in tli3 
history of science. In 1823-4 lie discovered the con-, 
densability of chlorine and other gases; in 1831 he 
obtained electricity from the magnet ; in 1845 he ex- 
hibited the two-fold magnetism of matter, compre- 
hending all known substances, the magnetism of gases, 
flame, &c. ; in 1850 he published his researches on 
atmospheric magnetism : died, 25 Aug. 1867. 

Jjhil Tyndall, F.B.S., professor of natural philosophy, 
July, 1853, hon. professor, 9 May, 1887, is eminent for 
his researches on magnetism, heat, glaciers, &c. 

L.ord Rayleigh, F.B.S., professor of natural philosophy, 
q May, 1887 ; is eminent for his researches on sound, 
light, &c. 

l'.dward Frankland, F. B. S. , professor of chemistry 1863-8, 
is eminent for his discoveries in organic chemistry. 

In 1804, sir J. St. Aubyn and other gentlemen proposed 
to form a school of mines at this institution ; but the 
plan, although warmly supported by the members, was 
withdrawn for want of encouragement by the govern- 
ment and by mining proprietors. 

The weekly evening meetings, on the Fridays, from 
January to June, as now arranged, commenced in 
1826. Discourses (of which abstracts are printed) are 
given at these meetings by the professors of the insti- 
tution, and other eminent scientific men. 

Endowments. In 1833, John Fuller, esq., of Rosehill, 

- endowed two professorships, of chemistry and physio- 
logy ; the former bestowed on Mr. Faraday for life ; 
succeeded by Dr. Wm. Odling, 1868-73 ; by Dr. John 
Hall Gladstone, 1874 ; by James Dewar, 1877. The 
latter on Dr. Eogetfor three years, to be filled up after- 
wards by triennial election. — The Fullerian professors 
of physiology have been P. M. Boget, B. E. Grant T 
B. Jones, W. B. Carpenter, W. W. Gull, T. W. Jones, 
T. H. Huxley (twice), B. Owen, J. Marshall, Michael 
Foster, Wm. Rutherford, Alfred II. Garrod, and E. A. 
Schafei (1878-81), J. G. McKendrick, 1S81-4; A. Gamgee, 
1884; G. J. Romanes, 1888, Victor Horsley, 1S91.— In 
1828, Mrs. Acton gave 1000Z. to be invested for paying 
every seven years 100 guineas for the best essay on the 
beneficence of the Almighty, as illustrative of a de- 
partment of science ; which have been awarded — in 
1844 to Mr. G. Fownes; in 1S51 to Mr. T. Wharton 
Jones ; in 185s no award was made ; in 1865 to Mr. 
George Warington ; in 1S72 to Rev. George Henslow 
and B. Thompson Lowne ; in 1879, to Mr. G. S. Boulger ; 
in 1886, to Prof. (aft. sir) G. G. Stokes, Pres. B.S. 

The "Fund for the Promotion of Experimental Be- 
search" was founded on 6 July ,1863, by sir Henry 
Holland, Professor Faraday, sir R. I. Murchisoii, Dr. 
Bence Jones, and others. 
The first officers were sir Joseph Banks, president, till the 
charter was granted, afterwards the earl of Winchilsea ; 
Mr. (afterwards sir Thomas) Bernard, treasurer; rev.' 
Dr, Samuel Glasse, secretary. — Algernon duke of 
Northumberland, E.G., elected president, 1S42; suc- 



ceeded by sir Henry Holland, in 1S65 (died 27 Oct. 
l8 73) i by Algernon George, duke of Northumberland 
E.G., 1873. W. Pole, esq., treasurer, elected 1849 ; suc- 
ceeded by Wm. Spottiswoode, esq., in 1865 ; by George 
Busk, esq., 1873; by sir Henry Pollock, esq., 1886; by 
sir James Crichton Browne, 1889. The rev. John 
Barlow, secretary, elected 1842 ; succeeded by Henry 
Bence Jones, M.D., i860; by Wm. Spottiswoode, 
l8 73 ; by Warren de la Bue, 1879 ; by sir Wm. Bow- 
man, Bart., 1882; by sir Frederick Bramwell, Bart., 
1885. Librarians: Vim. Harris, 1803-23; S. Weller 
Singer, 1826-35: Win. Mason, 1835-48; Benjamin Vin- 
cent, 1849-89 (hon. librarian, 1889); Henry Young, 1889. 
21 eminent foreign scientific men were elected honorary 
members, 4 May, 1S91, in relation to the Faraday 
centenary, which see. 

EOYAL MAEEIAGE ACT, &c, see Mar- 
riage Act ; Royal Military and Naval Asylums ; 
Navy, and Prerogative. 

EOYAL NAVAL COLLEGE, see Naval. 

EOYAL SOCIETY (London). In 1645 
several learned men met in London to discuss philo- 
sophical questions and report experiments ; the 
Novum Organon of Bacon, published in 1620, hav- 
ing given great impulse to such pursuits. Some of 
them (Drs. Wilkins, "Wallis, &c.), about 1648-9, 
removed to Oxford, and with Dr. (afterwards bishop) 
Seth Ward, the hon. Robert Boyle. Dr. (afterwards 
sir) W. Petty, and several doctors of divinity and 
ph}'sic, frequently assembled in the apartments of 
Dr. Wilkins, in Wadham college, Oxford. They 
formed what has been called the Philosophical 
Society of Oxford, which only lasted till 1690. The 
members were, about 1658, called to various parts 
of the kingdom, on account of their respective pro- 
fessions ; and the majority coming to London, con- 
stantly attended the lectures at Gresham college, 
and met occasionally till the death of Oliver Crom- 
well, 3 Sept. 1658 ; see Societies. 

The society was organised in 1660, and constituted by 
Charles II. a body politic and corporate, by the appella 
tion of " The President, Council, and Fellowship of the 
Boyal Society of London, for improving Natural Enow- 
ledge," 22 April, 1662. 

Evelyn records the first anniversary meeting, St. An- 
drew's-day, 30 Nov. 1663. 

The Philosophical Transactions begin 6 March, 1664-5. 

In 1668 Newton invented his reflecting telescope (now in 
the possession of the society), and on 28 April, 1686, 
presented to the society the MS. of his Principia, 
which the council ordered to be printed. This was 
done under the superintendence and at the expense of 
Halley the astronomer, at that time clerk to the 
society. 

The society met for some years at Gresham College, and 
afterwards at Arundel House (1606), where it came 
into possession of a valuable library, presented by Mr. 
Howard, grandson of its collector, the earl of Arundel. 
After various changes the fellows returned to Gresham 
College, where they remained till their removal to 
Crane-court, in a house purchased by themselves, 
8 Nov. 1710. 

The Bakerian lecture was established by Henry Baker, 
1774- 

The first Copley medal was awarded to Stephen Gray in 
1731 ; the royal medal to John Dalton, 1826 ; the Rum- 
ford medal (instituted in 1797) to count Rumford him- 
self in 1800. 

The society remove to apartments granted them in Somer- 
set-house, 1780; to apartments in Burlington-house, 
Piccadilly, 1857. 

Parliament votes annually 4000?. to the Boyal Society 
for scientific purposes. 

Regulations made by which only fifteen fellows are to be 
annually elected, who pay ten pounds on admission, and 
fourpounds annually, ora composition of sixty pounds, 
March, 1S47. In consequence, the number of fellows 
was reduced from 839 in 1847, to 626 in 1866 ; to 567 in 
1875 ; to 552 in 1S77 ; to 523 in 1888. 
The. entrance fee abolished, and the annual payment re- 
duced to 3/., announced, Nov. 1878. 



EOYAL SOCIETY. 



839 



RUNES. 



The "Royal Society Scientific Fund" was founded in 
imitation of the "Literary Fund" in 1859 ; see Scien- 
tific Fund. 
The Davy Medal (which see) first awarded, Nov. 1877 
The Darwin medal (see Development) first awarded, 1S90. 

PRESIDENTS. 

1660. Sir Robert Moray. | 1772. Sir John Pringle. 
Lord Brouncker. 



!66 3 . 

1677. Sir Joseph Williamson 

1 680. Sir Christopher Wren. 

1682. Sir John Hoskyns. 

1683. Sir Cyril Wyche. 

1684. Samuel Pepys, author 

of Diary. 
1686. John, earl of Carbery. 

1689. Thomas, earl of Pem- 

broke. 

1690. Sir Robert Southwell. 
1695. Chas. Montague (afts. 

earl of Halifax). 
1698. John, lord Somers. 
Sir Isaac Newton 
(M.P. for Cam- 
bridge University, 
1688-1705). 
Sir Hans Sloane. 
Martin Folkes. 
George, earl of Mac- 
clesfield. 
1764. James, earl of Morton, 
1768. James Burrow. 

,, James West. 
1772. James Burrow. 



J7°3- 



1727. 
1741. 

'752' 



1778. Sir Joseph Banks. 

1820. Dr. W. H. Wollaston. 
,, Sir Humphry Davy. 

1827. Davies Gilbert. 

1830. Duke of Sussex. 

1838. Marquis of North- 
ampton. 

1848. Earl of Rosse. 

1854. Lord Wrottesley. 

1858. Sir Benj. C. Brodie. 

1861. Maj.-gen. sir Edward 
Sabine. 

1871. Sir G. B. Airy. 

1873. Dr., afterwards sir, 
Joseph Dalton 
Hooker. 

1878. Wm. Spottiswoode, 
died 27 June, 1883. 

1883. T. H. Huxley, 5 July. 

1885. Sir George G. Stokes, 
30 Nov. (M.P., 
18S7), Bart., 1889. 

1890. Sir William Thomson, 
1 Dec. (created 
Baron Kelvin, Feb. 
1892.) 



EOYAL SOCIETY of Edinburgh, incor- 
porated 29 March, 1783, arose out of the Philoso- 
phical Society of Edinburgh, founded in 1739. It 
received a second charter in 1811. 

EOYAL SOCIETY of Literature was 

founded under the auspices of king George IV. in 
1823, and chartered 13 Sept. 1826. 

EOYAL STYLE, Sec, see Style, Royal, and 
Titles. 

EOYAL UNIVEESITY of Ireland, see 

University. 

EUBICON, a small river flowing into the 
Adriatic sea, separated Cisalpine Gaul from Italy 
proper. Roman generals were forbidden to pass 
this river at the head of an army. Julius Crcsar 
did so, Jan. 49 B.C., and thereby began a revolt and 
deadly civil war. 

EUBLDIUM, an alkaline metal, discovered by 
Bunsen by means of the spectrum analysis, and 
made known in 1861. 

EUBEICS, directions in church offices, often 
printed in red. New ones for the English service 
agreed to by convocation, 4 July, 1879. 

EUBY MINES OF Burmaii, Tavernier 
(middle of the 17th century) describes it as a place 
where rubies and other precious stones are largely 
obtained, iu a country difficult of access. Similar 
accounts were given by Father Giuseppe d'Amato, 
about 1830. The largest stones were royal property. 
Mr. Biedemcyer had charge of these and other 
mines in 1868. Ecvcnue about 1855, from 12,500/. 
to 15,000/. per annum. These mines are now 
British property (sec under Burmah, 1885), and 
for the use of them a revenue is paid by the Shan 
tribes, 1887. An agreement respecting them 
made between the Indian Government and Messrs. 
Strceter & Co. of London, announced May, 1887; 
suspended July, 1887. "Working licences issued to 
persons on the spot, 1887. Lease for seven years 
to the Strceter Syndicate sinned at the India office, 
22 Feb. 18S9; formation of a company headed by 
Messrs. Rothschild, March et seq., 1889. Visit of 
sir Lepel Uriffin to the mines, satisfactory to the 
company, reported March, 1S90. 



EUEFLES became fashionable about 1520; 
and went out about 1790. 
EUGBY SCHOOL (Warwickshire), was 

founded in 1567 by Lawrence Sheriff, a London 
tradesman ; its arrangements were affected by the 
Public Schools act 1868. Dr. Thomas Arnold, the 
historian, entered on the duties of head-master he.' 
in August, 1828, and under him the school greatly- 
prospered. He died 12 June, 1842. Ilis successors 
were Drs. Tait, Goulbourn, Temple, and Hayman. 
See Nexv Rugby. 

Dr. H. Hayman was opposed by the masters of the 
school, and after much dissension and discussion, was 
dismissed by the trustees, Dec. 1873, and Dr. Jex 
Blake elected in his room, Feb. 1874. Succeeded by 
Rev. J. Percival, Nov. 1886. Vice-Chancellor Malius 
decided against Dr. Hayman in his attempt to set 
aside his dismissal, but expressed his own opinion 011 
"the grievous hardship of Dr. Hayman's case," 21 
March, 1874. 
Mr. Disraeli, the premier, presented Dr. Hayman to 

the living of Aldingham, Lancashire, April, 1874. 
Population of Rugby in 1881, 0,891 ; 1891, 11,262. 

BUGEN, an island in the Baltic, has frequently 
changed masters, having been held by the Danes, 
Swedes, and Erench. It was transferred to Prussia 
in 1815. 

EUHMKOEFF'S INDUCTION COIL, 

see Induction. 

"EULE, BEITANNIA." Nearly all the 
words are by James Thomson ; the music, ascribed 
to Dr. Arne, is said by Schoelcher (in his life of 
Handel) to have been taken from an air in Handel's 
" Occasional Oratorio " composed 1746, but the song 
and music were really printed in Dr. Arne' s masque 
of "Alfred," 1740. Grove. 

EULE-OF-THE-EOAD, see Seas. 

EULING MACHINES, used for ruling 
paper with faint lines, for merchants' account- 
books, &c. They were invented by an ingenious 
Dutchman, resident in London, in 1782, and were 
subsequently greatly improved by Woodmason, 
Payne, Brown, and others. They were improved 
in Scotland in 1803. An invention has lately ren- 
dered account-books perfect by the numbering of 
the pages with types, instead of the numbers being 
written by a pen, so that a page cannot be torn out 
from them without being discovered. The late Herr 
F. A. Nobert devised a ruling machine in 1845 for 
the production of microscopical test plates, durras- 
tion gratings, and micrometers, specimens of which 
were exhibited in 185 1. The test plates contain 
bands of lines in a graduated scries of fineness from 
TomT *° 20000 °f a Paris line. 

EUM (French rhum), ardent spirit distilled 
from sugar lees and molasses, deriving its peculiar 
flavour from a volatile oil. Rum is principally 
made in the West Indies. The duty (since 1858) on 
colonial rum imported into the United Kingdom is 
8s. 2cl. per gallon. The duty on rum to be employed 
as methylated spirits was reduced in 1863. 

Imported. Gallons. 

1881 . . 4,816,887 

1882 . . . 7,305,671 

1883 . . 5,979,490 

1884 . . . 7.376,47^ 

1885 . . 6,877,581 

1886 . . . 5, 100,010 

1887 . . 6,362,070 
1890 . . . 6,237,77 1 

EUMFOED MEDAL, see Royal Society. 
EUMP PAELIAMENT, sec Pride's Purge. 
EUNES. Alphabetic characters, probably of 
rhtenician origin, but popularly ascribed to the god 



Imported. 


Gallons. 


1848 


6,858,981 


1851 . 


• 4.745.244 


1857 


• 6,5x5,683 


1863 . 


• 7- I 94,738 


1871 


7,526,890 


1S77 . 


• 7.9 2 °. I 50 


1879 


6,946,657 


1880 . 


. 6,107,661 



BUNNY-MEDE. 



840 



KUSSIA. 



Odin, cut or scratched on stone monuments, wea- 
pons, ornaments, implements, &c, which have been 
hypothetically dated from iooo B.C. to iooo a.d. ; 
principally found in Scandinavia and England, and 
sometimes in Western Europe. Professor George 
Stephens, of Copenhagen, in his " Old Northern 
Eunic Monuments in Scandinavia and England " 
(1866-84), nas given the results of forty years' 
studies. 

EUNNY-MEDE (council-mead), near Egham, 
Surrey. Here king John granted Magna Charta, 
15 June, 1215. 

EUPEBT'S LAND (N. America), or Bed 
Biver Settlement, formerly the territories of the 
Hudson's bay company, was made a bishopric in 
1849. See Hudson's Bay, Canada, and Manitoba. 

EITPTUEE SOCIETY, London, established 
1804; see Truss. 

EUEAL CONFEBENCES. A meeling in 
London of delegates from rural districts, organised 
in connection with the National Liberal Federation, 
claiming reform, 10 Dec. 1891. Mr. AY. E. Glad- 
stone addressed the conference, II Dec. 1891. 
A congress of labourers, &c, organized by the 
Eastern Counties Conservative Associations, was 
held at Ely. The Rt. Hon. Henry Chaplin, 

present 29 Jan. 1892 

Rural Labourers' League : Mr. Jesse Collings, 
president ; 3rd annual meeting, at Westminster ; 
the duke of Devonshire and Mr. Joseph Chamber- 
lain, present . . • . . . 17 Feb. ,, 
Rural conference at Leicester . . .2 April, ,, 

BUSKIN MUSEUM, see Sheffield, 1881-90. 
Buskin society of London, formed for the promotion 
of Mr. Ruskin's opinions in relation to art, in- 
augurated at the London Institution . 21 March, 1890 

EUSSELL ADMINISTBATIONS,* see 

Balmerston Administration, &c. 

first administration (formed on the resignation of sir 
Robert Peel), July, 1846. 

First lord of the treasury, lord John Russell. 

Lord chancellor, lord Cottenham (succeeded by lord 
Truro). 

Lord president of the council, marquis of Lansdowne. 

Privy seal, earl of Minto. 

Chancellor of the exchequer, Mr. (aft. sir Charles) Wood. 

Foreign, home, and colonial secretaries, viscount Pal- 
merston, sir George Grey, and earl Grey. 

Boards of control and trade, sir John Hobhouse (aft. lord 
Broughton), and earl of Clarendon (succeeded by Mr. 
Labouchere). 

Admiralty, the earl of Auckland (succeeded by sir 
Francis Thornhill Baring). 

Ditchy of Lancaster, lord Campbell (succeeded by the earl 
of Carlisle, late viscount Morpeth). 

Secretary at war, Mr. Fox Maule. 

Postmaster, marquis of Clanricarde. 

Paymaster-general, T. B. Macaulay. 

Lord John Russell and his colleagues resigned their 
offices, 21 Feb. 1851 ; but were induced (after the 
failure of lord Stanley's party to form an adminis- 
tration) to return to power, 3 March following. 

* Lord John Russell, third son of John, duke of 
Bedford, was born 19 Aug. 1792; M.P. for Tavistock, 
1813 ; for London, 1841-61 ; was paymaster of the forces, 
1830-34 ; secretary for home department, 1835-9 : f° r the 
colonies, 1839-41 ; first minister, July 1846 to March 
1852 ; secretary for foreign affairs, Dec. 1852 to Feb. 
1853; president of the council, June 1854 to Feb. 1855; 
secretary for the colonies, March to Nov. 1855 ; secretary 
for foreign affairs, June 1859 to Oct- 1865, when he suc- 
ceeded lord Palmerston as premier ; created a peer, as 
earl Russell, 30 July, 1861. His motion for reform in 
parliament was negatived in 1822 ; adopted 1 March, 
1831 ; he introduced the registration bill and a new 
marriage bill in 1836 ; introduced and withdrew a reform 
lull, i860; died, 28 May, 1878. 



second administration (or continuation of his first)» 
March, 1851. 

First lord of the treasury, lord John Russell. 

President of the council, marquis of Lansdowne. 

Lord privy seal, earl of Minto. 

Chancellor of the exchequer, sir Charles Wood. 

Home, foreign, and colonial secretaries, sir George Grey, 
viscount Palmerston (succeeded by earl Granville, 22 
Dec), and earl Grey. 

Lord chancellor, lord Truro. 

First lord of the admiralty, sir Francis T. Baring. 

Board of control, lord Broughton. 

Board of trade, Mr. Labouchere. 

Secretary at war, Mr. Fox Maule (aft. lord Panmure, and 
earl of Dalhousie). 

Postmaster-general, marquis of Clanricarde. 

Paymaster-general, earl Granville. 

Lord Seymour, earl of Carlisle, <fec. 

This ministry resigned 21 Feb. 1852 ; see Derby Adminis- 
tration. 

third administration. (On the decease of lord Pal- 
merston, 18 Oct. 1865, earl Russell received Her 
Majesty's commands to reconstruct the adminis- 
tration.) 

First lord of the treasury, John, earl Russell. 

Lord chancellor, Robert, lord Cranworth. 

Postmaster-general, John, lord Stanley of Alderley. 

President of the poor-law board, Chas. Pelham Villiers. 

Lord president of the council, George, earl Granville. 

Jiord privy seed, George, duke of Argyll. 

Chancellor of the exchequer, Wm. E. Gladstone. 

Secretaries— foreign affairs, George, earl of Clarendon ; 
colonies, Edward Cardwell ; home, sir George Grey ; 
war, George, earl de Grey and Ripon, succeeded by 
Spencer, marquis of Hartington, Feb. 1866 ; India, sir 
Charles Wood, resigned (created viscount Halifax); 
succeeded by earl De Grey, Feb. 1866. 

First lord of the admiralty, Edward, duke of Somerset. 

President of the board of trade, Thos. Milner Gibson. 

Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, George J. Gbschen. 

Secretary for Ireland, Chichester Fortescue. 

This ministry resigned, 26 June, 1866, in consequence of 
a minority on 19 June (see under Beform, and Derby 
Administrations). 

EUSSELL INSTITUTION (Great Coram- 
street, London), was founded in 1808 by sir Samuel 
Eomilly, Erancis Horner, Dr. Mason Good, Henry 
Hallam, sir James Scarlett (aft. lord Abinger), and 
others. The building comprises a library, news 
room, billiard room, &c. 

EUSSELL . TEI AL. William, lord Eussell'a 
trial for complicity in the Eye-house plot was 
marked by a most touching scene. When he re- 
quested to have some one near him to take notes to 
help bis memory, he was answered, that any of 
his attendants might assist him ; upon which he 
said, " My wife is here, and will do it for me." 
He was beheaded in Lincoln' s-Inn-Fields, 21 July, 
1683. Lady Eussell survived him forty years, 
dying 29 Sept. 1 723, in her eighty-seventh year, 
His attainder was reversed, 1 Will. III. 1689. 

EUSSIA, the eastern part of ancient Sarmatia. 
The name is generally derived from the Eoxolani, 
a Slavonic tribe. Euric, a Varangian chief, 
appears to have been the first to establish a govern- 
ment, 862. His descendants ruled amid many 
vicissitudes till 1598. The progress of the Eussian 
power under Peter the Great and Catherine II. is 
unequalled for rapidity in the history of the world. 
The established religion of Eussia is the Greek 
church, with toleration of other sects, even Mahome- 
tans. By an imperial ukase, in 1802, six universi- 
ties were established, viz., at St. Petersburg, 
Moscow, Wilna, Dorpat (in Livonia), Charcov, and 
Kasan ; but literature made little progress till the 
present centuiy, the native publications being 
very few, and the best books being translations. 
The Eussian language, though not devoid of 



RUSSIA. 



841 



EUSSIA. 



elegance, is, to a foreigner, of very difficult pro- 
nunciation : the number of letters and diphthongs is 
forty-two. The population of the empire in 1867, 
82,159,630; in 1872, about 85,685,9.15; in 1877 
(estimated), 86,952,347; in 1885, 108,843,192. By 
the first itussian budget (1862), the estimated 
revenue was 34, 500,000^. ; expenditure, 37,850,000^. 
Besides about 560 cathedrals, about 35,000 churches 
(Greek church, which see). 

Russia invaded by the Huns . . . a.d. 376 
Ruric the Norman or Varangian, arrives at Novgorod 
(or New City), and becomes grand duke [anni- 
versary kept 20 Sept. 1862] 862 

Oleg successfully invades the Greek empire . . 907 
Baptism of Olga, widow of duke Igor, at Con- 
stantinople, about 955 

Vladimir the Great marries Anne, sister of the 

emperor Basil II., and is baptized . . - 988 
The Golden Horde of Tartars conquer a large part 

of Russia about 1223 

The grand duke Jurie killed in battle . . ' . 1237 
Alexander Newski defeats the invading Danes . 1241 
The Tartars establish the empire of the khan of 

Kaptschak, and exercise great influence in Russia 1242 
He is made grand duke of Russia by the Tartars . 1252 

Moscow made the capital 1300 

Tartar war, ^80 ; Moscow burnt 1383 

Tamerlane invades Russia, but retires . . . 1395 
Accession of Ivan III. the Great— able and despotic, 

founds the present monarchy 1462 

Ivan introduces fire-arms and cannon into Russia . 1475 
Great invasion of the Tartars ; consternation of 

Ivan 1479 

His general Svenigorod annihilates their power . 1481 

War with Poland 1506-23 

The English "Russian company" established . 1553 

Richard Chancellor sent to open the trade . . 1554 

Discovery of Siberia ,, 

The royal body-guard (the Strelitz) established . 1568 
Ivan solicits the hand of queen Elizabeth of 

England 1579 

Murder of Feodor I. , last of the race of Ruric, which 

had governed Russia for 700 years . . . . 1598 
The imposition of Demetrius (see Impostors). — 

Matins of Moscow . . . .29 May, 1606 

Michael Fedorovitz, of the house of Romanoff, 

ascends the throne 1613 

Finland ceded to Sweden 1617 

Russian victories in Poland 1654 

Subjugation of the Cossacks 1671 

Reign of Ivan and Peter I. or the Great . . . 1682 

Peter sole sovereign 1689 

He visits Holland and England, and works in the 

dockyard at Deptford 1697 

Recalled by a conspiracy of the Strelitz, which he 
cruelly revenges ; 2000 tortured and slain ; he be- 
heads many with his own hand .... 1698 
The Russians begin their new year from 1 Jan. (but 

retain the old style) 1700 

War with Sweden ; Peter totally defeated by Charles 

XII. at Narva 30 Nov. „ 

Peter founds St. Petersburg as a new capital, 27 May, 1703 

The Strelitz abolished 1704 

Charles XII. totally defeated by Peter at Pultowa, 

and flees to Turkey 8 July, 1709 

14,000 Swedish prisoners sent to Siberia ,, 

War with Turkey : Peter and his army cross the 

Pruth, and are surrounded by the Turks ; they 

escape by the energy of the empress Catherine, 

who obtains a truce .... June, 1711 

Esthonia, Livonia, and a large part of Finland 

added to the empire 1715 

Peter visits Germany, Holland, and France . . ,, 

The Jesuits expelled 1718 

Conspiracy and mysterious death of prince Alexis 

7 Jlll >', >j 
Peter II. (last of the Romanoffs) deposed, and the 

crown given to Anne of Courland . . . 1730 

Elizabeth, daughter of Peter I., reigns, in prejudice 

of Ivan VI. , an infant, who is imprisoned for life 1741 
refer III. dethroned and murdered, succeeded by 

Catherine his wife 1762 

Ivan VI., the rightful heir, till now immured, put 

to death i7 6 4 

Treaty of KutschOUC Kainardji ; independence of 
the Crimea and freedom of Black sea . July, 1774 



Rebellion of the Cossacks, 1774 ; suppressed . . 1775 
Successful invasions of the Crimea . . . 1769-84 
Dismemberment of Poland ; commenced by Cathe- 
rine (see Poland), 1772 ; completed . . . 1795 
Catherine gives her subjects a new code of laws ; 
abolishes torture in punishing criminals ; and 

dies J796 

Unsuccessful war with Persia „ 

Russian treaty with Austria and England . . 1798 
Suwarrow, with an army joins the Austrians, and 

checks the French in Italy 1799 

Mental derangement of Paul, 1800; murdered, 

24 March, 1801 
Alexander I. makes peace with England . May, , , 
He joins the coalition against France . 11 April, 1805 
Allies defeated at Austerlitz . . . 2 Dec. ,, 

Treaty of Tilsit with France ... 7 July, 1807 
Russians defeated by the Turks, near Silistria, 

26 Sept. 1809 

War with France June, 1812 

The Russians defeated at Smolensko, 17 Aug. ; and 

at the Borodino 7 Sept. ,, 

Moscow burnt by the Russians, 14 Sept. ; retreat of 

the French begins 15 Oct. ,, 

Alexander present at the battle of Leipsic, Oct. 1813; 

entered Paris March, 1814 

He visits England June, ,, 

Forms the Holy Alliance 1815 

The grand duke Constantine renounces the right of 

succession 26 Jan. 1822- 

Death of Alexander, 1 Dec. ; Pestal's conspiracy 
against Nicholas I. ; insurrection of troops at 
Moscow ; suppressed . . . 26-29 Dec. 1825 
Nicholas crowned at Moscow . . .3 Sept. 1826- 

War against Persia 28 Sept. ,, 

Nicholas visits England ; invested with the order of 

the Garter . . . . ' . • 9 Jul 3'. lS2 7 
Peace between Russia and Persia . . 22 Feb. 182S 
War between Russia and the Ottoman Porte declared 
(see Turkey and Battles) . . . 26 April, ,, 

Peace of Adrianople 14 Sept. 1829 

The war for the independence of Poland against 

Russia (see Poland) .... 29 Nov. 1830 
Failure of the expedition against Khiva . Jan. 1840 

Treaty of London (see Syria) . . 15 July, ,, 
The emperor Nicholas arrives in London . 1 June, 1844 
The grand duke Constantine arrives at Portsmouth 

in the Ingermanland, of 74 guns . 9 June, 1846 

[For the participation of Russia in the Hungarian 

war of 1848-9, see Hungary.] 
Russia demands the expulsion of the Hungarian 
and Polish refugees from Turkey (see Turkey) 

5 Nov. 1849 
They are sent to Konieh, in Asia Minor . Jan. 1850 
Conspiracy against the emperor detected 6 Jan. ,, 
Harbour of Sebastopol completed . . Feb. ,, 
The emperor decrees seven men in each thousand 
of the population of Western Russia to be enrolled 
in the army, giving a total increase of 180,000 

soldiers Aug. „ 

St. Petersburg and Moscow railway begun . . 1851 

The czar visits Vienna .... 8 May, 1852 
Concentrates forces on frontiers of Turkey . Feb. 1853 
Origin of the Russo-Turkish war (which see, and 

Holy Places) March, ,, 

Conference between the emperors of Russia and 

Austria at Olmutz . . . .24 Sept. ,, 

And king of Prussia at Warsaw . . . 2 Oct. ,, 
Interview of Mr. J. Sturge aud other quakers with 

the czar to obtain peace .... Feb. 1854 
The northern provinces put iu a state of siege, 

S March, ,, 
The czar issues a manifesto to his subjects ; he will 
combat only for the faith and Christianity, 

23 April, ,, 
Death of the czar Nicholas, and accession of Alex- 
ander II. ; no change of policy . . 2 .March, 1855 
Most extensive levy ordered by the czar (at 

Nicolaieff) 3 Nov. „ 

He visits his army at Sebastopol . . 10 Nov. ,, 
Death of prince Ivan Paskiewitsch, aged 74 1 Feb. 1856 
Treaty of peace at Paris . . . 30 March, ,, 
Alexander Gortschakoll" foreign minister and chan- 
cellor 29 April, ,, 

Amnesty granted to the Poles, 27 May : live poli- 
tical offenders, &c. ; Alexander II. crowned at 
Moscow 7 Sept. 



KUSSIA. 



842 



KUSSIA. 



Manifesto on account of the English and French 
interference in the affairs of Naples . 2 Sept. 1856 

St. Petersburg and Warsaw railway begun by go- 
vernment, 1851 ; ceded to Great Russian railway 
company (about 335 miles, the half completed) . ,, 

Grand duke Constantine visits France and England, 

.April, 1857 

The czar meets the emperor Napoleon at Stutgardt, 
25 Sept. ; and the emperor of Austria at Weimar, 

1 Oct „ 

Partial emancipation of the serfs on the imperial 
domains . . . . . . .2 July, 1858 

A Russian naval station established at Villa Franca, 
on the Mediterranean, creates some political ex- 
citement Aug. ,, 

New commercial treaty with Great Britain 12 Jan. 1859 

Russia reproves the warlike movements of the Ger- 
man confederation duringthe Italian war, 27 May, ,, 

The czar protests against the recognition of the 
sovereignty of peoples 13 Feb. 1S60 

Fruitless meetings of the emperors of Russia and 
Austria and the regent of Prussia at Warsaw 

20-25 Oct. ,, 

Treaty with China for enlargement of commerce 

1 Jan. 1S61 

Decree for the total emancipation of the serfs 
(23,000,000) throughout the. empire in two years 

- (19 Feb.) ........ 3 March, „ 

Demonstrations and repression in Poland (which sec) 

Feb. -April, „ 
Disturbances in South Russia, caused by an im- 
postor asserting himself to be a descendant of 

- Peter III. ; many peasants shot or flogged 

May and June, ,, 
Inundations at Kiev, Moscow; 615 houses under 

water May, „ 

Death of prince Michael Gortschakoff, governor of 
Poland ... . . . 14 May, „ 

Student riots at the university of St. Petersburg, 

which is closed, 6-9 Oct. .; reopened . 24 Oct. ,, 
The nobles sign a petition for a political constitution 

Nov. ,, 
Increased privileges granted to the Jews . 26 Jan. 1862 
Death of Nesselrode, the chancellor of the empire, 

20 March, ,, 
Alarming increase of fires at St. Petersburg and 
Moscow ; the government suppresses various edu- 
. cational institutions .... June, ,, 

Russia recognises the kingdom of Italy 10 July, „ 
1000th anniversary of the foundation of the Rus- 
sian monarchy at Novgorod, celebrated 20 Sept. ,, 
Re-organisation of the departments of justice de- 
■ creed ; juries to be enrployed in trials, &c. 14 Oct. ,, 
Trade tax bill introduced, admitting foreigners to 
]nerchants'"guilds, &c. . . . 26 Nov. ,, 

Insurrection in Poland . . . 22-24 J an - 1863 

[For events, see Poland.] 
Termination of serfdom . . . 3 March, ,, 

Provincial institutions established throughout 

Russia 13 Jan. 1864 

Great victory over the Oubykhs in the Caucasus, 31 

March ; emigration of the Caucasian tribes into 

Turkey, April ; submission of the A'ibgas ; the 

war declared to be at an end ... 2 June, „ 

The cesarevitch betrothed to the princess Dagmar 

of Denmark ..... 28 Sept- ,, 

Serfdom abolished in the Trans-Caucasian provinces : 

new judicial system promulgated . . Dec. ,, 
The Russian nobles request the emperor to esta- 
blish two houses of representatives [declined] 

24 Jan. 1865 
New province, " Turkestan," in central Asia, created 

14 Feb. „ 
The cesarevitch Nicholas dies at Nice . 24 April, ,, 
Industrial exhibition at Moscow closes . 16 July, ,, 
Censorship of the press relaxed ; law begins, 13 Sept. ,, 
Rupture with the pope, on account of Russian 

severity to Polish clergy . . Jan. and Feb. 1866 
Assembly of the nobility ; short, stormy session 

March, ,, 
Inauguration of. trial by jury in Russia . 8 Aug. „ 
Karakozow attempts to assassinate the czar, 16 
April ; after long investigation into the origin of 
the plot, he is executed ... 15 Sept. ,, 
War with Bokhara ; conflicts with varying results ; 

Russians advance in May, ct seq. ; ended . Nov. ,, 
Marriage of prince Alexander, heir to the crown, to 
princess Dagmar of Denmark . • . • 9 Nov. ,, 



Emancipation of many state serfs in Poland, n Nov. 1866 
Three decrees for abolishing the remains of Polish 

nationality 1 Jan. 1S67 

Congress of Slavonian deputies at Moscow 5 May, ,, 
Russian America sold to the United States for 
7,000,000 dollars, by treaty, 13 March; ratified 

iS May, ,, 
Amnesty in favour of the Poles . . 29 May, ,, 
The czar visits Paris (which see) . . . June, ,, 
Escapes assassination by Berezowski, a Pole, 

6 June, ,, 
Decree for the use of the Russian language in the 

Baltic provinces 7 July, ,, 

A Romanist college to replace the authority of the 

pope, established at St. Petersburg . 2 Aug. ,, 
The separate interior government in Poland sup- 
pressed 29 Feb. 1868 

Samarcand taken by Kaufmann . . 26 May, ,, 
Amnesty for political offences granted . 6 June, ,, 
Polish language interdicted in public places in 

Poland July, ,, 

The Government Messenger, official journal, published 

at St. Petersburg 13 Jan. 1869 

Socialist secret conspiracy among the students, 
headed by Sergius Netschajew, detected ; the in- 
former assassinated Jan. 1870 

Burlingame, Chinese envoy, arrives . 2 Feb. ,, 
Dies at St. Petersburg . . . .22 Feb. ,, 

Russia neutral in the Franco-Prussian war July, ,, 
Said to be arming, 20 Sept. ; contradicted 27 Sept. ,, 
Fruitless visit of M. Thiers at St. Petersburg on 

behalf of the French government . 27 Sept. ,, 
Diplomatic circular of prince Gortschakoff, foreign 
minister, repudiating the clauses of the treaty of 
30 March, 1856, respecting the Black Sea, 31 Oct. ; 
received by earl Granville, 9 Nov. , who replies, 
maintaining the force of the treaty . 10 Nov. ,, 
Vigorous protest of British and Austrian govern- 
ments 16 Nov. ,, 

Decree for forming military reserves, about 16 Nov. ,, 
Conciliatory despatch from prince Gortschakoff to 
earl Granville, agreeing to a conference for revi- 
sion of the treaty of 1856 . . . 20 Nov. ,, 
Prussian government expresses surprise at Gortscha- 
koff s circular, and proposes a conference 

about 26 Nov. ,, 
Firm courteous despatch from earl Granville, con- 
senting to a conference which shall "assemble 
without any foregone conclusion " . 28 Nov. ,, 
The other powers agree to a conference 7 Dec. ,, 
Re-organisation of the army ordered . . Jan. 1871 
The conference meets in London . .17 Jan. ,, 
The Black Sea clauses abrogated (see Black Sea), by 

treaty, signed 13 March, ,, 

Schamyl, the Circassian chief, dies about April, ,, 
The grand duke Wladimir visits England . June, ,, 
Military exercises, sham battles round St. Peters- 
burg, 30,000 engaged ; emperor present, 

15-23 Aug. „ 
Trial of persons implicated in a socialist conspiracy 
(at St. Petersburg) ; many condemned to impri- 
sonment . Sept. ,, 

Electric telegraph between St. Petersburg and Naga- 
saki, Japan, completed .... Nov. ,, 

200th anniversary of the birth of Peter the Great, 
30 May, 1672 (o.s.), solemnly observed by the court 
and nation . . . . . .11 June, 1S72 

Peter the Great ironclad (incomplete) launched at 

St. Petersburg Aug. ,, 

Great Russian Encyclopaedia undertaken by prof. 

Beresina autumn ,, 

Reconnoitring expedition to Khiva ; defeat of gen. 

Markosoff announced .... Dec. ,, 
Diplomatic visit of count Schouvaloff to London 
respecting this ; presented to the queen ; Russian 
concessions reported satisfactory . 13 Jan, 1S73 
Expeditions against Khiva start . . March, ,, 
The emperor of Germany warmly received at St. 

Petersburg 27 April, ,, 

The Shah of Persia visits St. Petersburg 22-31 May, ,, 
Khiva surrenders, 10 June ; a rebellion suppressed, ■ 

July, „ 

Jumuden Turcomans defeated at Tsehandyr 

25* 27 July, ,, 
New treaty with Bokhara, published . . Dec. ,, 
Marriage of the grand duchess Marie with the duke of 

Edinburgh 23 Jan. 1874 

Visit of the emperor of Austria at St. Petersburg, 



KUSSIA. 843 



RUSSIA. 



13 Feb. ; the czar in proposing his he.ilth, says, 
"111 the friendship which binds us and also tlie 
emperor William and the queen Victoria, I see a 
most sure guarantee of peace" . . 15 Feb. 1874 
The czar visits England . . . 13-21 May, ,, 
Count Sehouvaloff succeeds Bruunow as ambas- 
. sador in London .... autumn, ,, 
New law for organization of the army . . Sept. ., 
Son born to the duke of Edinburgh and grand- 
duchess Marie 15 Oct. ,, 

Visit of the empress and the cesaievitch to England 

15 Oct.-24 Nov. ,, 
Mitrophania, mother abbess, of Serpouehow, Mos- 
. cow, prosecuted for fabricating commercial bills ; 
convicted, and sentenced to 14 years' exile, Nov. ,, 
International telegraphic conference at St. Peters- 
burg; 1 — 19 July, 1375 

Expedition (with scientific men) to Krasnovodsk, 

Central Asia, spoken of ... . Aug. ,, 
War with Khokand (wJiich see) . 4 Sept. — Oct. ,, 
Commercial panic through failure of Dr. Strousberg, 
a German railway speculator, at Moscow, Prague, 

and Berlin Nov. ,, 

At a dinner of " Knights of St. George," the czar 
declares that the three emperors are united to 

maintain peace 8 Dec. „ 

Baltic provinces (formerly a provincial federation 
with a governor), incorporated with the empire 
under the ministry of the interior, on the death 
of the governor Bagration . . . 29 Jan. 1376 
Khokand, formally annexed (as Ferghana) 29 Feb. ,, 
Prosecution of-a sect "White Doves" (Skoptzi) 

April, ,, 
Warlike enthusiasm : . Russian volunteers in the 

Servian army July-Sept. ,, 

Depression through Servian defeats . . Oct. ,, 
Pacific declaration of the czar to lord Aug. Loftus 

2 Nov. ,, 

The czar, in an address at Moscow, says that if suf- 

licient guarantees are not given by Turkey, he 

will act independently ... 10 Nov. ,, 

Dr. Strousberg and others tried for fraud, &c, Nov. ; 

he- is sentenced to banishment from Russia 

14 Nov. ,, 
Enthusiasm for Bulgarians ; partial mobilisation of 

the army ordered . . . about 14 Nov. ,, 
Internal loan of 10 million roubles . 19 Nov. ,, 
Great enthusiasm for Bulgarians ; war declared, and 

begun 24 April, 1S77 

See Turkey ; and Russd-Turhish War, 1877. 
The czar warmly received at Moscow, 4 May ; and 

St. Petersburg 7 May, ,, 

Great trial of Nihilists for revolutionary propa- 

gandism, begun about .... 31 Oct. ,, 
Russian loan of 15,000,000?. at 5 per cent, announced 

12 Nov. ,, 
The czar at St. Petersburg ; celebrates centenary 

anniversary of birth of Alexander I. 23 Dec. ,, 

Ill-feeling against Bulgarians . . . Dec. ,, 
Nihilist trial ended ; about 160 sentenced to hard 

labour ; about 90 acquitted, . about 9 Feb. 1878 
Treaty of peace with Turkey signed at San Stefano ; 

Europe dissatisfied .... 3 March, ,, 
Vera Zasulitch (or Sassulitch), a young woman, who 
acknowledged firing at gen. Trepotf, prefect of St. 
Petersburg (5 Feb.), for severity to prisoners, ac- 
quitted by jury 12 April, ,, 

Beported spread of Nihilism in Kieff, Moscow, &c. 

April, „ 
Public depression : feeling against Bulgarians ; de- 
sire to get quit of the Eastern question 

May- June, ,, 
Conference at Berlin (whicli scr) meets 13" June; 

treaty signed 13 July, ,, 

Cen. Kaufmaim's advance on the Oxus to occupy 

Balkh ; reported Aug. ,, 

Nihilists tried and condemned at Odessa ; riots 

ensued 5 Aug. ,, 

General disaffection to the government ; general De 
Mesentzoff, chief of police, assassinated in the 
street in St. Petersburg . . . 16 Aug. ,, 
New 5 per cent, loan (300,000,000 roubles) issued on 

bonds 2 g, 30, 31 Aug. ,, 

Ukase decreeing state offences to be punished by 

military law .... end of Aug. ,, 

Gen. Drentelen made chief of police . . 6 Oct. ,, 
Students at a college in St. Petersburg present an 
address to the cesarevitch complaining of griev- 



ances, 11 Dec; they are attacked and punished 
by the police and cossacks, 12 Dec; they issue an 

address soon after Dec. 

Prince Demetrius Krapotkine, governor, assassi- 
nated while returning from a ball at Kharkoff, 

21 or 22 l-'eli. 

Attempted assassination of Drentelen, 25 March ; and 

of the czar by Alexander Solovieff, a schoolmaster, 

■with a revolver 14 April, 

The poll tax abolished by ukase . . . April, 
Riots at Rostoff on the Don suppressed by military, 

14 April, 
Ukase establishing martial law in the provinces of 
St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kieff, Odessa, and War- 
saw, dated 17 April, 

"Land and Liberty," a Nihilist newspaper, freely 

..yet surreptitiously circulated . . . April'. 

Solovieff condemned, 7 June ; executed . 9 June 

Discontent at the small results of the war . July, 

Trials, convictions, and executions of Nihilists at 

Kieff and Odessa .... May-Aug. 

Gen. Lazareff, commander of expedition against the 

Tekke Turkomans, dies at Tehat about 13 Aug. 

Gen. Lomakine succeeds in command ; severe battle 

at Geok Tepe .or Dengli Tepe ; Russians said to 

. be victorious, yet retreat with heavy loss 

28 Aug. (O.S.), 9 Sept. 
Tergukasoff succeeds Lomakine in command, 25 Sept. 
Leon Mirsky condemned to death for attempted 
assassination of gen. Drentelen, chief of police 

27, 28 Nov. 
Count Sehouvaloff, ambassador at London, resigns, 

27 Nov. 
Attempted assassination of the czar, by undermin- 
ing railway train near Moscow ; none hurt ; bag- 
gage carriages destroyed . . . 1 Dec. 
The newspaper Gofos suspended for 6 months, 4 Dec. 
Proclamation of the executive revolutionary com- 
mittee justifying the attempted assassination on 

1 Dec 4 Dec. 

Plot to blow up the Winter Palace, St. Petersburg, 

discovered 12 Dec. 

"Will of the People" revolutionary paper freely 

circulated Nov. Dec. 

Explosion in a guard-room filled with dynamite and 
gun-cotton under the dining-room of the Winter 
Palace, St. Petersburg ; the czar and family escape 
through, being a little late for dinner ; 11 soldiers 
killed ; 47 wounded; between 6.0 and 7.0 I'.'m., 

17 Feb. 

Hartmann, owner of a house near the explosion, 

arrested at Paris .... about 20 Feb. 

Panic at St. Petersburg ; ukase issued ; appointing 

supreme executive commission, gen. Loris Meli- 

koff, president, with extensive powers ; virtual 

dictator 24 Feb. 

Extradition of Hartmann requested by Russia ; 

declined March, 

Twenty-fifth anniversary of the czar's accession cele- 
brated at St. Petersburg ... 2 March, 
Hippolyte Molodzoff (Mladetsky, or Wladitsky, or 
Mlodecki), a converted Jew, fires at gen. Loris 
Melikoff, 4 March ; hanged . . .5 March, 
Hartmann expelled from France ; goes to England ; 
Prince Orlotf, ambassador, quits France, 

about 6 March, 
Nihilist trials at St. Petersburg : sentences In death 
and imprisonment (Dr. Weimar and others) ; com- 
muted May, 

Death of the empress after a long illness, 3 June, 
21 extreme Nihilists convicted at Kieff (capital sen- 
tences remitted) . . . . about 7 Aug. 
Ukase of 24 Feb. superseded ; Melikoff, who had 
governed well, appointed minister of the interior, 
with charge of the police . . . 18 Aug. 
Count Loris Melikoff's scheme for administrative 
reform sanctioned by the czar ; announced 3 Oct.; 
put into action . . . . 2; < let. > ' , 
" liussia," new national daily paper, published Oct 
Great Nihilist trial at St. Petersburg for assassina- 
tions, explosion at Winter Palace. \c ; sentences, 
Kviatofski and 4 others condemned to death: 
8 men and 3 women to imprisonment . to Nov. 
Mlat ■.-! 1 11 I I'll, ssu ;koll It nig :1 n V\ 

Gen. Skobeleff's expedition into Central Asia, 

s 1 Dec. 
Severe conflicts with the Tekke Turkomans, 14 Jan. 1 
Geok Tepe besieged ; taken . . . 24 Jan. 



EUSSIA. 



BUSSIA. 



Assassination of the czar Alexander II. "by explosion 
of a "bomb ; assassin himself killed ; Risakoff 
seized ..... 2 p.m. 13 March, ] 

A mine for explosion discovered in the middle of St. 
Petersburg .... about 15 March, 

Circular of the new czar Alexander III. to foreign 
powers ; he will aim at moral and material de- 
velopment of Russia, and a pacific foreign policy 

16 March, 

Manifesto from the Nihilist executive committee to 
the czar offering peace, if an amnesty with a legis- 
lative assembly to be elected by universal suffrage, 
free press, &c, be granted . . 22 March, 

Sophie Peroffskaja, and other Nihilists, arrested 

23 March, 

The czar's magnificent funeral at St. Petersburg ; 
the prince and princess of Wales present, 27 March, 

A representative council for St. Petersburg elected 
about 31 March, 

Trial of Risakoff, Sophie Peroffskaja, Jelaboff, Jessie 
or Hessie Heljmann, Kibaichick, and Michailoff 
(four men and two women), all condemned to 
death 8, 9 April, 

The Tekkes submit ; maraudings cease ; object of 
Skobeleff's expedition accomplished ; announced 

9 April, 

Risakoff and others hanged ; Heljmann {enceinte) 
reprieved 15 April, 

Treaty of peace with China announced . April, 

Nihilist manifesto styling the assassins " martyrs," 
&e. 16 April, 

Changes in ministerial offices ; tendency to reduce 
autocracy of the czar announced . about 4 May, 

Ukase supplementary to that of 19 Feb. 1861, for 
emancipating serfs, remitting payments to many 
peasant proprietors ; announced . early May, 

Reactionary proclamations in favour of autocracy 
(29 April), 11 May ; resignation of count Loris 
Melikoff and other liberal ministers soon after, 

about 13 May, 

General Ignatieff, chief minister, issues manifesto, 
declaring for suppression of rebellion, and promis- 
ing reforms ; manifesto from Nihilists offering 
peace if reforms be granted . . 23 May, 

The czar, closely guarded, living in close seclusion ; 
continued policy of repression . . . June, 

The czar well received at Moscow, <fcc. , 30 July ; 
the czar meets the emperor of Germany at Dantzic 
3 Sept. ; stringent decree respecting public order 

21 Sept. 

Treaty with Persia signed . . .22 Dec. 

Nihilist trials at St. Petersburg; 10 sentenced to 
death, 28 Feb. ; commuted to penal servitude 
(except Suchanoff, to be shot) . . March, 

Gen. Strelnikoff, public prosecutor, assassinated at 
Odessa by two students, 30 March ; executed 

3 April, 

Retirement of the chancellor and foreign minister, 
Gortschakoff (his policy war-like); succeeded by 
his assistant De Giers . . about 9 April, 

Mine discovered under Moscow cathedral ; 80 work- 
men arrested .... about 15 April, 

General Kaufmann died, aged 64 . .16 May, 

Decree for the gradual abolition of the poll tax 
(imposed by Peter the Great) . beginning June, 

Ignatieff resigns ; succeeded by count Tolstoi 
about 12 June, 

Death of general Scobeleff, the hero of Plevna, aged 

39 7 July. 

General Tchernaieff appointed to command in Cen- 
tral Asia 

Successful exhibition of Russian arts and manu- 
factures summer, 

Revival of the Russian navy determined on . 

Tranquillity restored ; great festivities through the 
visit of the duke and duchess of Edinburgh 

Jan.— Feb. 

Death of prince Gortschakoff, aged 85 n March, 

Arrest of 200 persons at St. Petersburg 

about 20 March, 

Trial of Nihilists at St. Petersburg: some sentenced 
to death (remitted), others to imprisonment 

19 April, 

The emperor and empress crowned with great cere- 
mony at Moscow 27 May, 

Patriotic and pacific manifesto, and amnesty, 27 
May ; and popular festival . . 2 June, 



Poll tax abolished for the poorest, reduced for 
others (1 Jan. 1884) on . . . .8 June, 1 

The czar and the kings of Denmark and Greece 
breakfast with Mr. Gladstone on board the Pem- 
broke Castle, Copenhagen ... 18 Sept. 

Reported discovery of a great conspiracy at St. 
Petersburg ; many arrests . . about 27 Sept. 

Government projects for re-modelling the com- 
munes published Oct. 

Grand funeral of Tourgenieff at St. Petersburg 9 Oct. 

Foundation of memorial church at the place where 
Alexander II. was assassinated at St. Petersburg 
laid by the czar 16 Oct. 

63 Nihilists sentenced to Siberia . . 19 Oct. 

Lieut. Sudeikin, chief of secret police, and his 
nephew, M. Sadovsky, assassinated at St. Peters- 
burg ; attributed to Nihilists aided by Jablonsky, 
a subordinate, whose life he had saved 

night of 28-29 Dec. 

37 students at Moscow arrested announced 9 Jan. : 

Loyal address of the nobles to the czar, advocating 
union of nobles and peasantry . . .25 Jan. 

Surrender of Merv to Russia, effected by general 
Komaroff .... announced 14 Feb. 

Proposals for state loan not taken up, Nov. 1883 ; 
another loan at 6 per cent, offered in open market 
about 3 Dec. 1883 ; taken up . . April, 

Convention with Persia for cession of Sarakhs 
(threatening to Afghanistan) reported 6 May, 

The majority of the cesarevitch (aged 16) declared 

18 May, 

Death of general Todleben, born 1818 . 1 July, 

Alleged dynamite conspiracy against the czar at 
Warsaw 8 Sept. 

Maria Wassilieona Kaliouchnaia, at Odessa, sen- 
tenced to 20 years' hard labour for attempt to 
shoot colonel Katensky . . . about 11 Sept. 

The czar meets the emperois of Germany and 
Austria at Skiernievice, near Warsaw 15,16 Sept. 

The letters of "Stepniak" and others expose the 
cruel, dishonest, and unscrupulous conduct of 
government officials in prohibiting the diffusion 
of knowledge and literature ; proposed united op- 
position of the nobility and peasantry Sept.-Oct. 

The circulation of many religious books prohibited 

14 Nihilists (including officers and 3 women, one, 
Mary F. Figner) convicted by secret court martial ; 
8 sentenced to death at St. Petersburg, 11 Oct. ; 
two men executed 18 Oct. 

The Nihilist journal, Narodnaia Volia, reappears 

about 27 Oct. 

Sir Robert Morier, British ambassador at St. Peters- 
burg 

Great discontent among workmen and peasantry Jan. 

Mission of M. Lessar, engineer-diplomatist to London 
respecting central Asian boundaries . Feb. 

Ship canal from St. Petersburg to Cronstadt com- 
pleted, Feb. ; opened . . . .27 May, 

Russians advance to about 90 miles from Herat, 
and hold Zulfikar pass .... Feb. 

Three courses before them : to retire ; to remain 
and negotiate ; to make war . . .1 March, 

Arrangement that no further advance on the 
"debated or debatable ground" be made by 
Russians or Afghans (since termed a " solemn 
covenant") .... 16 or 17 March, 

Gen. Komaroff attacks the Afghans at Aktapa, on 
the river Kushk, alleging provocation ; hundreds 
of Afghans killed, others perish from exposure, 
and the rest retire from their camp ; 53 Russians 
killed and wounded, 30 March ; his statements 
controverted by sir Peter Lmnsden, 14 April, 

British government announce agreement to arbitra- 
tion (by Denmark) .... 4 May el seq. 

The Russian general Komaroff, near the Kushk and 
Murghab rivers, commands the Afghans to 
retire ; on their refusal, attacks them at Ak- 
tapa (or Aktepe or Pul-i-khusti), near Penjdeh ; 
defeats them with much slaughter, and captures 
artillery and stores ; many Afghans perish in the 
retreat through exposure, 30 March ; sir Peter 
Lumsden reports the attack on the Afghans to 
have been unprovoked . . about 21 April 

The British government prepares for war with 
great energy ; strongly supported by the colonies 
and Indian princes. 

British government statement : new agreement 
with Russia ; arbitration respecting fight on 



RUSSIA. 



S45 



RUSSIA. 



March 30 accepted 4 May ; Denmark accepts 
work of arbitration .... May, 1885 

Agreement on delimitation settled by earl Gran- 
ville and earl of Kimberley, with MM. de Staal 
and Lessar ; approval reported . 30 May, ,, 

Cordial meeting of the czar and the emperor of 
Austria at Kremsier in Moravia . 25, 26 Aug. ,, 

The Afghan boundary question settled 10 Sept. ,, 

Discovery of plot against the czar ; arrest of 
military officers and others . . . April, 1886 

Tchcsme ironclad launched by the czar at 
Sebastopol (other vessels constructing) 18 May, „ 

Russia violates treaty of Berlin by declaring 
Batoum not to be a free port . . July, „ 

Honours and income of the younger members of 
the imperial family much diminished, announced 

July, n 

Eussian interference in Bulgaria (which see) 

Sept-Dec. ,, 
Plot against the czar ; students with dynamite 
and other explosives, detected 13 March ; 200 

arrested March, 1S87 

Three plotters executed 31 March ; seven political 
offenders sentenced to death, the rest to various 
terms of imprisonment, 1 May ; more arrests 
about 18 May ; five executed . . 16 May, „ 
Prince Nicholas, the cesarevitch, made chief 
Ataman (Hetman) of all the Cossacks at Novo- 

Tcherkask 18 May, „ 

N. Katkoff, journalist and politician, editor of the 
Moscow Gazette, Russophile, died, aged about 69, 

1 Aug. ,, 
Statement in the Cologne Gazette of the existence of 
forged letters purporting to come from prince 
Bismarck (see Germany) .... Nov. ,, 
Baron Hirsch's present of 2,000,000?. for the 
establishment of primary Jewish schools in 
Russia, accepted by the czar ; the money to be 
paid into the bank of England, trustees, barons 
Rothschild and Henry de Worms, announced 
Nov. ; said to be premature . . . Dee. ,, 
Movement of troops on the Galician border causes 

excitement in Berlin and Vienna . Nov. -Dec. ,, 
The Involute Eusse, a government organ, declares 
that Russia desires peace but is prepared for war, 

15 Dec. ,, 
The stringent restrictions on the studies of the 
universities lead to much insubordination among 
the students, and severe punishment ; the 
universities of Moscow, St. Petersburg, Odessa, 
and many other academical institutions closed ; 
nearly all the undergraduate class in a state of 

rebellion Nov.-Dec. ,, 

Lord Randolph Churchill visits Russia ; received 

by the czar 26 Dec. ,, 

Reported conspiracy ; many arrests about 9 Jan. 188: 
Reported surplus in the budget, yet a loan asked 

for ; unsuccessful at Paris and Berlin . Jan. ,, 
Moscow and other universities re-opened . Feb. ,, 
For prince Ferdinand's position (see Bulgaria) 

Feb. -March, ,, 
The highest courts of law decide against the claim 
of prince Hohenlohe to inherit the vast Wittgen- 
stein estates in Lithuania, as a foreigner (in 
accordance with the Ukase, 14 March, 1887), 

March, ,, 
Attempted assassination of the czar by lieut. 

Timofeieff (mad ?) May, „ 

Visit of the emperor of Germany to the czar at 

Peterhof. 19-23 July. >> 

Ninth centenary of the introduction of Christianity 

celebrated at Kieff .... 27 July, „ 
Central Asian (or Transcaspian) railway opened ; 

promoted by general Anhenkoff . . May, ,, 
Near Borki station in S. Russia, the engine of the 
imperial train (with the czar) ran off the line with 
four carriages (weak rails); 21 persons killed, 
the czar slightly injured ... 29 Oct. ,, 
Agreement for 20,000,000?. loan signed at St. Peters- 
burg, 18 Nov. ; chiefly taken up by the French 

Dec. „ 
Th i grand council disapproves of the administrative 
changes proposed by count Tolstoi substituting 
centralization for local self-government which, 
however, are approved by the czar (1 ); the 
Zemstvo, established about 1864, being virtually 
abolished, Feb. 18 



Loau of 700,000,000 francs concluded with the 
Rothschilds and other bankers for the conversion 
of five per cent loans into four per cent . Feb. 188 

Captain Atchinoff, with a company of S. Cossacks 
(145 men with muskets and guns, also priests, 
women and children), evading French and 
Italian cruisers, landed at Tadjourah, in the bay 
of Obock, near the French settlement, on the 
Red Sea, on 18 Jan., professing to combine 
missionary and commercial enterprise in Abys- 
sinia. He took possession of a fort at Sagallo, and 
hoisted the Russian flag. After useless negotia- 
tion, theFrenchadmiralOlry on iSFeb. bombarded 
the fort, killing 6 Russians ; the party then sur- 
rendered and were eventually conveyed to Russia. 
The French government virtually apologised for 
the precipitate conduct of the admiral Feb. ,. 

Alleged discovery of a dynamite conspiracy, 
especially in the south, originating in Zurich 
(discredited) March, ,. 

Death of count Tolstoi, minister of the interior, 

7 May. . 
Second four per cent loan announced, completing 

the financial scheme .... 13 May, , 
The czarewitch, aged 21, appointed to military and 

political office 18 May, , 

Marriage of the archduke Paul and the princess 

Alexandra of Greece . . . .16 June, [", 
M. Dournovo, minister of the interior, continues 

count Tolstoi's reactionary policy . July, Aug. , 
Marriage of the grand duke Peta with princess 

Militza, of Montenegro ... 7 Aug. , 
The czar visits Berlin . . . 11-13 Oct. . 

Great epidemic of influenza among all classes in 

St. Petersburg, spread . . . Nov., Dec. , 
Capt. Solotouchine, chief of the Moscow secret 
police, assassinated by a female Nihilist, who 

commits suicide n Jan. iS 

Ukase for a conversion loan of 90,000,000 roubles, 

taken up, especially in France . . Feb. . 
Count Tolstoi's administrative changes carried 
into effect, together with increased Russilication 
of the German provinces and Finland . Feb. 
The czar threatened (by letter, signed Maria 
Tshebrikova, a popular writer on education, &c), 
for continuing to supxiress liberty, 5 March ; she 
is arrested, about 10 March ; transported to the 

Caucasus April, 

Strong demonstrations of the students of Moscow, 
St. Petersburg, Kieff, Charkoff, and other uni- 
versities and schools, demanding changes ; many 
arrests and police supervision, about Feb., 

March, 
The czar releases about 60 imprisoned soldiers. 
The man chosen to assassinate the czar by lot, 
commits suicide, leaving a letter incriminating 
associates ; many arrests, reported . 31 March, 
Inquiry by special commission ; some students ex- 
pelled and others set at liberty, at St. Peters- 
burg, &c, ; order restored . . 7 April, 
Great fires in the Ural district, iron works at 
Ufaleisk and Newjansk, about 1,000 houses 
destroyed; about 40 persons perish, about 

10 June, 

Revival of severe edict against the Jews (which see) 

reported July, 

The czar and the German emperor inert at Nava ; 

military manoeuvres . . 17 Aug., et seq. 

A monster literary protest against the persecution 

of the Jews in preparation, headed by count 

Leon Tolstoi; publication forbidden by the 

government Nov. 

Decree, for the revision of all foreign titles of 

nobility about 15 Dec. 

Gregory Petrovitch Danilesky, historian and 

novelist, dies 24 Pee. 

Trial of 47 Nihilists . . . about 11 Jan. 
Coal-mine explosion near Jusoveja, about .) 1 men 

killed 17, 1 8 Jan. 

Arrest of Dedajeff, charged with the murdtr of 
col. Sudeikin in 1883 (see above), and other 
Nihilists, at Kostroma . . . end ol Feb. 
New law for the legitimatising of bastards promul- 
gated April, 

Rescript from the czar, placing thi n > Siberian 

railway under the direction of the cesarevitch 

ah hi .'4 May, 



RUSSIA. 



846 



RUSSIA. 



Cloudburst at Ekaterinoslav, great destruction of 
life and property ... .6 July, 

Count Tolstoi's administrative changes relative to 
the peasantry effected at St. Petersburg and 
other provinces July, 

A French naval squadron, under admiral Gervais, 
warmly received at Cronstadt, 23 July; the czar 
visits the fleet, 25 July ; which leaves . 4 Aug. 

Failure of crops ; exportation of grain (especially 
rye) forbidden (from 27 Aug.) ; relief works 
ordered and grants of money . about 11 Aug. 

The cesarevitch returns to Moscow after a tour 

16 Aug. 
|He visited Vienna, 6 Nov. ; at Athens, 12 
Nov. ; at Cairo, 23 Nov. ; at Bombay, 23 Dec. 
1890 ; received by the viceroy at Calcutta, 26-2S 
Jan. 1891 ; at Madras, 6 Feb. ; Ceylon, 13 Feb. ; 
Bankok, Siam, 26 March; travels in China, 
Japan, April, May ; at Otsu, in Japan, he is 
wounded by a fanatical officer in a theatre, n 
May, 1891 ; traverses Siberia, June, July, 1891.] 

Great distress through famine in certain districts 
of the Volga and other places, about 2 Sept. et seq. 

New 3 per cent, loan for 500,000,000 francs (for 
railways) negotiated in Paris, about 17 Sept. ; 
opposed in Berlin, about 2S Sept. ; taken up well 

Oct. 

Ivan Alexandrovitch Gontcharoff, popular novelist, 
aged 80, dies 27 Sept. 

In order to relieve famine, the czar forbids all state 
balls and festivities ; great economy adopted by 
all classes Oct. 

Disputes with Great Britain respecting the Pamir 
ridge (which see) Aug. 

The famine very severe in the central and eastern 



provinces 



Oct. 



Discovery of a political conspiracy at Moscow, 60 
persons arrested, reported ... 12 Nov. 

Decree issued prohibiting the exportation of wheat 
and all its products .... 22 Nov. 

Tour of M. de Giers in Italy, France, and Germany 

Sept. — Nov. 

The cesarevitch appointed president of a committee 
to deal with the effects or the famine by means 
of private charity, the ministry, the holy synod, 
and others, 5 Dec. ; public relief works estab- 
lished Dec - 

The grand duke Constantine (brother of the czar, 
Alexander II.), learned, able and liberal, some- 
time viceroy of Poland, removed on suspicion 
of favouring the Poles, 1886 ; dies, aged 64 

24 Jan. : 

Count Tolstoi (the novelist), active reliever of the 
distressed people . . . early March, 

Stoppage of the (baron) Giinzburg bank of St. 
Petersburg and Paris, 15 March, et scq. ; liquida- 
tion arranged, reported . 21 March, ei seq. 

Russian Jewish emigrants prohibited from entering 
Germany . . ■ • • ■ 25 March, 

Large supplies of Amcucan wheat, flour and pro- 
visions, transmitted for the relief of the famine 
by the citizens of Philadelphia, in the Indiana; 
from Minnesota, in the Missouri, arrive atLibau, 
Courland, March, April; transmitted to the 
distressed districts . . . .4 A P ril > 

Society of Friends famine fund : 3S,9 8 9 f - received 
up to . • • ■ ■ • • iMay 

Meeting of the czar and German emperor at Kiel 

7 June, 

About 125,370,500 roubles expended in relief of the 
sufferers by famine, Dec. 1891-May, 1892 ; re- 
ported . .... • • • .*3. j ™e. 

Removal of the restrictions on the exportation of 
grain, except rye, 21 June ; of rye . 23 Aug. 
See article Cholera in the Addenda. 

Sovereigns oe Russia. 



879. 
9*3- 
945- 
955- 
973- 
980. 
1015. 



DUKES OF KIOW Or KIEF. 

1 Rnric. 
Oleg. 
Igor I. 

Olga, widow ; regent. 

Swiatoslaw I. —victorious. 

Jaropalk I. 

Vladimir, Wladimir, the Great. 

Swiatopalk. 



',{ 



1018. Jaraslaw, or Jaroslaf I. 

1054. Isiaslaw I. 

1073 Swiatoslaw II. 

1078. Wsewolod I. 

1093. Swiatopalk II. 

1 1 13. Vladimir II. 

1 1 25. Mitislaw. 

1 1 32. Jaropalk II. 

1 138. j Wiatsclielaw. 

1 139. t Wsewolod II. 

1 146. I Isiaslaw II. and Igor II. 
1153. 1 Rostislaw. 

1149. Jurie or George I. ; the city of Moscow was built 
by this duke. 

GRAND-DUKES AT WLADIMIR. 

Andrew I. until 11 75 ; first grand-duke. 
Michael I. 
Wsewolod III. 

( Jurie or George II. 
18. ( Constantine. 

Jaraslaw II. ; succeeded by his son, 
Alexander-Nevski or Newski, the Saint. 
Jaraslaw III. 
Vasali or Basil I. 
Dmitri or Demetrius I. 
Andrew II. 
Daniel- Alexandrovitz. 
Jurie or George III. ; deposed. 
Michael III, 
Vasali or Basil II. 
Jurie or George III : restored. 
Alexander II. 

[The dates are doubtful, owing to the difficulty 
that occurs at every step in early Russian 
annals.] 

GRAND-DUKES OF MOSCOW. 

Ivan or John I. 

Simeon, the proud. 

Ivan or John II. 

Demetrius II. prince of Susdal. 

Demetrius III. Donskoi. 

Vasali or Basil III. Temnoi. 

Vasali or Basil IV. 

CZARS OF MUSCOVY. 

Ivan (Basilovitz) or John III. : took the title of 

czar, 1482. 
Vasali or Basil V. obtained the title of emperor 

from Maximilian I. 
Ivan IV. the terrible ; a tyrant. 
Feodor or Theodor I. ; and his son, Demetrius,. 

murdered by his successor 
Boris-Godonof, who usurped the throne. 
Feodor II. , murdered. 
Demetrius, the Impostor, a young Polish monk ' r 

pretended to be the murdered prince Demetrius ; 

put to death. 
Vasali-Chouiski, or Zouinski. 
Ladislaus of Poland ; retired 1613. 
Michael-Feodorovitz, of the house of Romanoff, 

descended from the czar Ivan-Basilovitz. 
Alexis, son ; styled the father of his country. 
Feodor or Theodor II. 
J Ivan V. and 
\ Peter I. brothers of the preceding. 

EMPERORS AND EMPRESSES. 

Peter I. the Great, alone ; took the title of emperor 
22 Oct. 1721 ; founded St. Petersburg. 

Catherine I. his widow ; at first the wife of a. 
Swedish dragoon, said to have been killed on the 
day of marriage. 

Peter II. son of Alexis-Petrovitz, and grandson of 
Peter the Great : deposed. 

Anne, duchess of Courland, daughter of the czar 
Ivan. 

Ivan VI. an infant, grand-nephew to Peter the 
Great ; immured in a dungeon for 18 years ; mur- 
dered in 1764. 

Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great, reigned 
during Ivan's captivity. 

Peter III. son of Anne and of Charles-Frederick, 
duke of Holstein-Gottorp : deposed, and died 
soon after, supposed to have been murdered. 



1157. 
1175 
1177. 
1213. 
1217- 
1238. 
1245. 
1263. 
1270. 
1275. 
1281. 
1294. 
1303- 
i3°5- 
1320. 
i3 2 5- 
1327- 



1328. 
1340. 
I3S3- 
1359- 
1362. 
1389. 
1425. 



1533- 
15S4. 



1605. 
1606. 



1610. 
1613. 



1645. 
1676, 



I725- 

1727. 
1730. 
1740. 

1741. 
1762. 



RUSSIA COMPANY. 



847 



RUSSO-TURKISII WAR. 



1762. Catherine II. his consort : a great sovereign ; ex- 
tended the Russian territories on all sides ; died 
17 Nov. 1796. 

1796. Paul, her son, murdered, 24 March, 1801. 

1801. Alexander I., son (who, after many adverse battles, 
and a forced alliance with France, at length 
aided in the overthrow of Napoleon Bonaparte), 
died 1 Dec. 1825. 

1825. Nicholas I. brother ; died 2 March, 1855. 

1855. Alexander II. son, born 29 April 1818 ; married 28 
April, 1841, Mary princess of Hesse (she died 
3 June, 1880) ; said to have married (morganatic), 
princess Dolgorouki, 19 (31) July ; marriage 
announced, Oct. 1880 ; assassinated at St. 
Petersburg, 2 p.m., 13 March, 1881. 

i83i. Alexander HI., born 10 March, 1845 ; married Mary 
(formerly Dagmar), princess of Denmark, 9 Nov. 
1866. 
Heir : Nicholas, son, born 18 May, 1868. 

RUSSIA COMPANY, sec Eussla, 1553-4. 
See America. 

RUSSO-TURKISH WAR.* The Russian 

and French governments having each taken a side 
in the dispute between the Greek and Latin 
Churches as to the exclusive possession of the 
Holy Places {which see) in Palestine, the Porte 
advised the formation of a mixed commission, 
which decided in favour of the Greeks, and a 
firman was promulgated accordingly, 9 March, 
1853 : to this decision the French acceded, although 
dissatisfied. 
The Russians make further claims, and prince Men- 

schikoff (who arrived at Constantinople 28 Feb. 

1853), by various notes (between 22 March and 

18 May), demands that a convention should be 
signed by the sultan granting to the czar such a 
protectorate over the Greek Christians in Turkey, 
as the sultan considered inimical to his own 
authority . . . .22 March-18 May, 1853 

Menscliikoffs ultimatum rejected; he quits Con- 
stantinople 21 May, ,, 

The sultan issues a hatti-scherif confirming all 
the rights and privileges of the Greek Christians, 
and appeals to his allies .... 6 June, ,, 

The English and French fleets anchor in Besika Bay 

13 June, ,, 

The Russians, under gen. Luders, cross the Pruth 
and enter Moldavia 2 July, ,, 

Circular of count Nesselrodein justification, 2 July ; 
lord Clarendon's reply . . . .16 July, ,, 

The conference of representatives of England, 
France, Austria, and Prussia meet at Vienna, 
agree to a note, 31 July; accepted by the czar, 
10 Aug. ; the sultan requires modifications, 

19 Aug. ; which the czar rejects. . .7 Sept. 1853 
Two English and two French ships enter the Darda- 
nelles 14 Sept. ,, 

The sultan (with consent of a great national council) 
declares war against Russia . . .5 Oct. ,, 

The Turkish fortress at Issaktocha fires 011 a Russian 
flotilla (the first act of war) . . . 23 Oct. ,, 



* In 1844, when the czar was in England, he conversed 
with the duke of Wellington and lord Aberdeen (whom 
he find known many years) respecting the dissolution of 
the Turkish empire ; and on his return he embodied his 
views in a memorandum drawn up by count Nesselrode, 
which was transmitted to London, but kept secret till 
Mai'Ch, 1854. In January and February of that year the 
czar had several conversations on the subject with the 
British envoy at St. Petersburg, sir G. IT. Seymour, in 
our of which (Jan. 14) he compared Turkey to a "sick 
man" in a state of decrepitude, on the point of death, 
and made proposals to the British government as to the 
disposal of his property. He stated frankly that he 
would not permit the British to establish themselves at 
Constantinople; but said in another conversation, lie 
would not object to their possessing Egypt. The pur- 
port of these conversations was conveyed in despatches 
to lord John Russell, who replied that the British govern- 
ment declined to make any provision for the contingency 
of the fall of Turkey. The czar made similar proposals 
to the French government with the same result. 



The Turks cross the Danube at Wi Idin and occupy 
Kalafat 28 (Jet, -3 Nov. 

Russia declares war against Turkey . . 1 Nov. 

English and French fleets enter Bosphorus 2 Nov. 

Russians defeated at Olteuitza . . .4 Nov. 

Turks (in Asia) defeated at Bayandur, Atskur, and 
Achaltzik 14, 18, 26 Nov. 

Turkish fleet destroyed at Sinope . . 30 Nov. 

Collective note from the four powers requiring to 
know on what terms the Porte will negotiate for 
peace 5 Dec. 

Contests at Kalafat . . 31 Dec. 1853-9 J fln - 

At the request of the Porte (5 Dec), the allied fleets 
enter the Black Sea 4 Jan. 

Russians defeated at Citate ... 6 Jan. 

Reply of the Porte to the note of Dec. 5, containing 
four points as bases of negotiation: viz., 1. The 
promptest possible evacuation of the principali- 
ties. 2. Revision of the treaties. 3. Maintenance 
of religious privileges to the communities of all 
confessions. 4. A definitive settlement of the 
convention respecting the Holy Places (dated 
31 Dec), — approved by the four powers 13 Jan. 

Vienna conferences close ... 16 Jan. 

Kalafat invested by the Russians . 28-31 Jan. 

Proposal in a letter from the emperor of the French 
to the czar (29 Jan.) declined . . .9 Feb. 

Turkish flotilla at Rustchuk destroyed by the 
Russians under Schilders . . .15 Feb. 

Ultimatum of England and France sent to St. 
Petersburg 27 Feb. 

The czar " did not judge it suitable to give an 
answer " 19 March, 

Baltic fleet sails, under sir C. Napier . 11 March, 

Treaty between England, France, and Turkey, 

12 March, 

Russians under Gortschakoff pass the Danube and 
occupy the Dobr.udseha ; severe conflicts; the 
Turks retire . . . . 23, 24 March, 

France and England declare war against Russia, 

27, 28 March, 

Rupture between Turkey and Greece 28 March, 

Gen. Canrobert and French troops arrive at Galli- 
poli, soon after followed by the English, 

31 March, 

Russians defeated by the Turks at Karalcai 30 May, 

English vessel Furious, with a flag of truce, fired on 
at Odessa 8 April, 

Four powers sign a protocol at Vienna guaranteeing 
the integrity of Turkey and civil and religious 
rights of her Christian subjects . . 10 April, 

Russians defeated at Kostelli by Mustaplia Pacha, 

10 April, 

Offensive and defensive alliance between England 
and France 10 April, 

Treaty between Austria and Prussia . . 20 April, 

Bombardment of Odessa by allied fleet 22 April, 

Russians, under gen. Schilders, assault Kalafat ; 
repulsed ; the blockade raised . 19-21 April, 

The Tiger steamer run aground near Odessa, cap- 
tured by the Russians .... 12 May, 

Russians defeated at Turtukai . . 13 May, 

Siege of Silistria begun .... 17 May, 

Allied armies disembark at Varna . 29 May, 

Mouths of the Danube blockaded by allied fleets, 

1 June. 

Russians repulsed at Silistria; Paskiewitsch and 
many officers wounded .... 5 June, 

Turks defeated at Ozurgheti (in Asia) . 16 June 

Severe conflict before Silistria; the siege raised, 

18-26 June, 

Batteries at the Sulina mouths destroyed by capt. 
Parker 26, 27 June, 

Captain Parker killed .... 8 July, 

Russians defeated at Ginrgevo . . . 7 July, 

10,000 French troops embark at Boulogne for the 
Baltic 15 July, 

Turks defeated at Bayazid in Armenia, 29, 30 July ; 
and near Ears 

Surrender of Bomarsund . . . 16 Aug. 

[In July and August the allied armies and fleets in 
the east suffered severely from cholera. | 

The Russians defeated by SChomy] in Georgia, 

about \ i': 

They evacuate the principalities . Aug...,. Si pt. 

By Virtue of a treaty with Turkey (June 14) the 
Austrians, under count Coronini, enter Bucharest, 

6 Sept. 



1853 



BUSSO-TUBKISH WAE. 



EUSSO-TUEKISH WAE. 



Allies sail from Varna, 3 Sept. and land at Old Fort, 
near Eupatoria* . . . . 14 Sept. 

Skirmish at the Bulganac . . . .19 Sept. 
Battle of the Alma (see Alma) . . 20 Sept. 
Russians sink part of their fleet at Sebastopol. 

23 Sept. 
Allies occupy Balaklava . . . .26 Sept. 
Death of marshal St. Arnaud . . 29 S . 
General Canrobert, his successor . . 24 Nov. 
Siege of Sebastopol commenced— grand attack 
(without success) .... 17 Oct. 

Battle of Balaklava- charge of the light cavalry, 

with severe loss 25 Oct. 

Sortie from Sebastopol repulsed by generals Evans 
and Bosquet . . . . . . 26 Oct. 

Russian attack at Inkerman ; defeated . 5 Nov. 
Miss Nightingale and nurses arrive at Scutari, 

6 Nov. 

Great tempest in the Black Sea, loss of the Prince 

and store vessels .... 14-16 Nov. 

Treaty of alliance between England, France, Austria, 
and Prussia— a commission to meet at Vienna ; 

signed 2 Dec. 

Russian sortie 2 ° vee. 

Omar Pacha arrives in the Crimea (followed by the 

Turkish army from Varna) ... 5 Jal1 - 

Sardinia joins England and France . 26 Jan. 

Great sufferings in the camp from cold and sickness, 

Jan. & Feb. 
Russians defeated by the Turks at Eupatoria, 

17 Feb. 
Death of emperor Nicholas; accession of Alex- 
ander II. (no change of policy) . . 2 March, 
Sortie from the Malakhoff tower . . 22 March, 
Capture of Russian rifle-pits . . .19 4:P rd > 
Arrival of Sardinian contingent . . -8 May, 
Resignation of gen. Canrobert, succeeded by gen. 

Pelissier l6 ?J ay ' 

Desperate night combats . . • 22-24 May, 
Expedition into the sea of Azoff (under sir E. Lyons 
and sir G. Brown); destruction of Kertch and 
large amount of stores . . 24 May-3 June, 
Taganrog bombarded . . ■ ■ 3 June, 

Massacre of an English boat's crew with flag of truce 

atHango 5 June, 

Russians evacuate Anapa . . 5 June, 

The White Works and Mamelon Vert taken, 

6, 7 June, 
Unsuccessful attack on the Malakhoff tower and 

Rec i an iS June, 

Death of lard Raglan ; succeeded by general Simpson, 

28 June, 
Russians invest Ears in Armenia, defended by gen. 

Williams J 5 Jul y> 

Bombardment of Sweaborg ... 9 Aug. 

Defeat of the Russians at the Tchernaya 16 Aug. 

Ambuscade on the glacis of the Malakhoff taken ; 

Russian sortie repulsed . . ■ 18 Aug. 

The French take the Malakhoff (u-luchsce) by assault ; 

the English assault the Redan without success ; 

the Russians retire from Sebastopol to the Nortn 

Forts and the allies enter the city ; the Russians 

destroy or sink the remainder of their fleet, 

8 Sept. &c. 

Tanan and Fanagoria captured . .24 Sept. 

The Russians assaulting Ears are defeated with 

great loss . • ■ , • . ■ n • 2 9 SeP*: 

Russian cavalry defeated (50 killed, 105 prisoners) 

at Eoughil, near Eupatoria, by the French, 

29 Sept. 

Einburn taken •.■•••■ I7 Q 2°+ 

Russians blow up Oczakoff . . • . 18 OCT. 
Lar^e stores of corn destroyed near Gheisk, in the 

sea of Azoff . . - ■ ■ ■ 4 Nov. 
Defeat of the Russians, and passage of the Ingoui 

by the Turks under Omar Pacha . . 6 Nov. 
The czar visits his army near Sebastopol 10 Nov. 
Sir Wm Codrington takes the command in room of 

gen. Simpson . . • ■ . -. ■ "4 Nov. 
Explosion of 100,000 lb. of powder in the French 

sieee-train at Inkerman, with great loss of life, 

° 15 Nov. 

Sweden joins the allies by a treaty . 21 Nov. 

Capitulation of Ears to gen. Mouravieff, after a 

4llant defence by gen. Williams . . 26 tvov. 



854 



1S55 



* 40,000 men, a large number of horses, and a powerful 
artillery, were landed in one day. . 



Death of admiral Bruat . . . . 27 Nov. 1855 
Russian attack on the French posts at Ba'idar re- 
pulsed 8 Dec. ,, 

Proposals of peace from Austria, with the consent 

of the allies, sent to St. Petersburg . 12 Dec. ,, 
Centre dock at Sebastopol blown up by the English, 

2 Jan. 1856 
Council of war at Paris .... 11 Jan. ,, 
Protocol signed accepting the Austrian propositions 

as a basis of negotiation for peace . . 1 Feb. ,, 
Destruction of Sebastopol docks . . 1 Feb. ,, 
Report of Sir John M'Neill and col. Tulloeh on 
state of the army before Sebastopol, published 

5 Feb. „ 
Peace conferences open at Paris, an armistice till 

31 March agreed 011 ... 25 Feb. ,, 

Suspension of hostilities .... 29 Feb. ,, 
Treaty of peace concluded at Paris . 30 March, ,, 
Proclamation of peace in the Crimea, 2 April ; in 

London 29 April, ,, 

The Crimea evacuated .... 9 July,* ,, 

EUSSO-TUEKISH WAE, 1877. For the 
insurrections, Servian Avar, and the negotiations, 
see Turkey. 

The czar addresses the army near Kischeneff, saying 
that " he has done everything in his power to avoid 
war, and patience is exhausted ; " the Russian 
embassy quits Constantinople . . 23 April 1877 

War declared ; the czar's manifesto says that he 
is compelled, by the haughty obstinacy of the 
Porte, to proceed to more decisive acts ; a justifi- 
catory circular to foreign poweis sent out by prince 
Gortschakoff ; the Russians enter the Turkish do- 
minions in Roumania and Armenia . 24 April, ,, 

The saltan's circular protests against the war, and 
refers to his reforms and the treaty of Paris 

25 April, ,, 
[Russian generals-in-chief in Bulgaria, grand duke 

Nicholas ; in Armenia, grand duke Michael ; 
Turkish generals : Abdul-Kerim in Europe ; 
Mukhtar Pasha, in Asia Minor.] 
Russians defeated at Tchuruk Sou, near Batoum 

26 April, ,, 
The Russians, under the grand duke Michael and 

Loris Melikoff, advance into Armenia, defeat 
Turks and occupy Bayazid (deserted) 29, 30 April, , , 

The Turks stop the passage of the Danube, and 
blockade the Black Sea ... 3 May, ,, 

The earl of Derby replies to the Russian circular ; 
he refers to the treaty of 1856 as broken ; does not 
consider that the war will benefit the Christians, 
and asserts that Russia has separated herself from 
European concert ; the British government gives 
neither concurrence nor approval to the war 

1 May, „ 

Ealafat occupied by Roumanians . . 3 May, ,, 

Russians defeated in attacking Batoum . 4 May, ,, 

The Lufti-Djelil, Turkish monitor, with 300 men, 
blown up near Ibraila, or Braila, on the Danube 
(said to be by Russian shells) . . 11 May, , 

Much artillery firing down the river . .May, ,, 

Sulchum Khaieh, Russian fortress in the Caucasus, 
captured by Turks .... 14 May, ,, 

Ardahan, near Ears, Armenia, stormed by Melikoff 

17 May, ,, 

Insurrection in the Caucasus supported by the 
sultan 18 May, et seq. ,, 

Explosion of Turkish monitor Dar-Matoin, by 
lieuts. T. Daubassoff and Sheshlakoff, with tor- 
pedoes 26 May. ,, 

Neutrality of the Suez Canal assured : correspond- 
ence May- June, ,, 

Ears invested by Russians ... 3 June, „ 

* The English lost : killed in action and died of wounds 
about 3500 ; died of cholera, 4244 ; of other diseases 
nearly 16,000; total loss nearly 24,000 (including 270 
officers) ; 2873 were disabled. The war added to the , 
national debt 41,041,000?. The French lost about 63,500 
men ; the Russians about half a million. The army 
suffered greatly by sickness ; see Scutari, Times, and 
Nightingale. The remains of the British soldiers and 
sailors were removed from Beicos to the Scutari Crimean 
Memorial cemetery with military honours, for which the 
queen returns thanks to the sultan, Feb. 1892. 



KUSSO-TUllKISH WAK. 



849 



RUSSO-TUItKISH WAR. 



The czar arrives at Plojesto (Ployesto) in Roumania 

6 June 1877 
Turks defeated at Taliir, or Taghir, Armenia 16 June „ 
Turks victors at Zewin D002, Eshek-Khalian, Deli- 

baba, and other places ; Russians retreating 

20 June, „ 
Turks successful in Montenegro ; country reported 

subdued 12-20 June, ,, 

Russians cross Lower Danube by bridges at Galatz 
and Braila ; 6 hours' conflict ensues ; Turks re- 
tire, 22 June ; Russians occupy Matchin, 23 June, 
and Hirsova . . . . 25, 26 June, ,, 

The grand duke Nicholas crosses the Danube at 
Simnitza by 20S pontoons, and enters Bulgaria ; 
the Turks retire after severe conflicts ; 289 Rus- 
sians said to be killed . . .27 June, ,, 
The czar in his proclamation to Bulgarians en- 
courages Christians and warns Mahometans 

28 June, „ 
The Simnitza bridge destroyed by a storm or by 

Turks about 30 June, ,, 

The British fleet arrives at Besika bay . 3 July, ,, 
Biela, Bulgaria, taken by Russians about 5 July, ,, 
Plevna, Bulgaria, occupied by Russians 6 July, „ 
Tirnova, ancient capital of Bulgaria, captured by 

Russians under gen. Gourko . . 6, 7 July, „ 
Bayazid re-occupied by Turks . . .12 July, ,, 
Russians compelled to retire from Kars by Mukh- 

tar Pasha 13 July, ,, 

The invasion of Armenia considered a failure July, ,, 
Gourko crosses the Balkans and enters Roumelia, 

13 July ; (this movement censured), several skir- 
mishes 14, 15, 20 July, ,, 

Nicopolis (Nikopol) surrenders (after severe con- 
flicts, 12-14 July) i capture of 2 pashas, 6000 men, 
2 monitors, and 40 guns . . 15, 16 July, „ 

The Turkish commander Abdul-Kerim replaced by 
Mehemet Ali (Jules Detroit, of French extrac- 
tion) ; Russians retreating . . . July, ,, 

Suleiman Pasha brought from Montenegro to the 
Schipka Passes .... about 21 July, ,, 

Aziz Pasha (able and popular) killed in a rash 
conflict at Esirje, near Rasgrad . 26 or 28 July, „ 

Russians severely defeated ; Plevna retaken by 
Osman Pasha, 19, 20 July ; Russians again de- 
feated . . . . . . 30, 31 July, „ 

Hostilities revive in Montenegro ; the Turkish 
fortress Niksich besieged .... July, ,, 

The Roumanian army joins the Russians 9 Aug. „ 

Severe conflicts between Russians and Suleiman 
Pasha ; the Turks eventually victors : Eski 
Saghra and Yeni Sagra, July ; Kezanlik and 
Kalofer, 30 July, ct seq. „ 

Russians under Gourko expelled from Roumelia ; 
retreat to Schipka passes . . about 11 Aug. „ 

Russians in the Schipka Passes relieved byRadetzky 

21 Aug. ,, 

Russians defeated at Kara Silar, near Osman Bazar, 

14 Aug. ; in the valley of the Lorn, by Mehemet 
Ali about 22-24 Aug, „ 

Russians defeated by Mukhtar Pasha at Kurukdara, 
or Kizil Tepe, between Kars and Alexandropol 

24, 25 Aug. ,, 

Desperate fruitless attempts of Suleiman Pasha to 
gain the Schipka Pass held by Gourko and 
Radetzky ; great slaughter . . 20-27 Aug. „ 

Severe twelve hours' battle in valley of the Lorn, 
near Szedina ; Karahassankoi taken and re-taken 
six; times; Russians (under the Czarewitch) retire 
in good order 30 Aug. „ 

Prince Charles with Roumanians crosses the 
Danube about 31 Aug. „ 

Farther successes of Mehemet Ali on the Lorn at 
Katzelevo, Ablava, &c. . . . 4-6 Sept. ,, 

Lovatz or Lufteha (important) captured by Prince 
Imeritinsky and Russians after a sharp conflict 

3 Sept. „ 

Niksich (left by Turks) captured by Montenegrinea 

7 Sept. ,, 
Sanguinary conflicts at Plevna, greatly strengthened 

by Osman Pasha ; artillery duel . 7-10 Sept. ,, 
Fierce assault by Russians and Roumanians; they 
gain the strong Gravitza redoubt (with others, 
which are re-taken) ; the czar present ; Russian 
hiss about 20,000 .... ii, 12 Sept. ,, 
Fori st. Nicholas in Schipka Pass taken by Sulei- 
man Pasha and quickly lost; much bloodshed 

17 Sept. „ 



Mehemet Ali repulsed in his attack on positions at 
Tchercovna, fifteen miles from Biela . 21 Sept. 1S77 

Siege of Plevna; Chetket Pasha enters with re- 
inforcements after several skirmishes 22 Sept. ,, 

Montenegriue successes continued . . Sept. ,, 

Battles of the Yagni ; severe conflicts ; Russians 
repulsed near Ardahan, Asia about 27, 30 Sept. ,, 

Russian losses, killed, wounded, and missing, 
47,400 reported ... up to 20 Sept. ,, 

Mehemet Ali retires to Kara Loin about 25 Sept. ,, 

Gen. Todleben made chief of staff before Plevna 

28 Sept. ,, 

Mehemet AH rejdaced by Suleiman Pasha ; Raouf 
Pasha sent to Schipka . . . . 2, 3 Oct. „ 

Battles near Kars; army of grandduke Michael 
attacks Turks under Mukhtar Pasha ; severely 
defeated 2-4 Oct. ,, 

Turkish monitor in the Danube exploded by 
torpedoes 8 Oct. ,, 

Relief and supplies received by Turks at Plevna 

about 9 Oct. ,, 

Battle of Alad.ja Dagh before Kars ; Russians, under 
grand duke Michael, and generals Loris Melikoff, 
Lazareff, and Hermann, totally defeat Ahmed 
Mukhtar, taking 10,000 prisoners . 14, 15 Oct. ,, 

Gravitza battery, near Plevna, captured by Rou- 
manians, is quickly re-taken . . 19-20 Oct. ,, 

Suleiman and his army said to be retreating from 
Kadikoi to Rasgrad .... 22 Oct. ,, 

Battle at Gornij Dubnik, near Plevna ; Russians 
under Gourko said to be victorious ; losses about 
equal (2,500) 24 Oct. ,, 

Russians said to be defeated near Kara Ourgan, 
Armenia 24 Oct. ,, 

Battle of Sofia Road, near Plevna ; Turkish position 
at Teliche captured . . . .28 Oct. . „ 

Mukhtar Pasha defeated by Heimann and Tergu- 
kasoff at Deve-Boyun, Armenia, after nine hours' 
conflict 4 Nov. ,, 

Russians severely defeated at Azizi, before Erzc- 
roum, by Mukhtar Pasha ... 9 Nov. „ 

Change in Turkish generals : Suleiman ordered to 
command the army of Roumelia, replaced by 
Azli Pasha ; Mehemet Ali organises army to re- 
lieve Plevna .... early in Nov. ,, 

Russian attack on Plevna repulsed . 12 Nov. ,, 

Turks thrice repulsed near Plevna . 15 Nov. „ 

Kars taken by storm ; the Russians climbed steep 
rocks ; fierce conflict from 8 p.m. to 8 a.m. ; 300 
guns and 10,000 prisoners taken ; about 5000 
Turks killed and wounded ; Russian loss about 
2,500; the grand-duke Michael present 17-18 Nov. ,, 

Russians said to be severely repulsed at Orchanie, 

16 Nov. ,, 

Plevna said to be thoroughly invested (30 miles 
round, with 120,000 men) . . . Nov. ,, 

Osman Pasha, invited to surrender at Plevna, re- 
fuses about 16 Nov. ,, 

Rahova on the Danube taken by Roumanians, 

21 Nov. ,, 

Entrepol (fortified) near Plevna taken by Russians, 

24 Nov. ,, 

Indecisive fighting in the valley of the Lorn between 
the czarewitch and Mehemet Ali ; Russians said 
to be defeated 30 Nov. ,, 

Turks capture Elena with guns and prisoners, after 
sharp conflict 4 Dec. ,, 

Skirmishing on the Loin . . .4-6 Dec. ,, 

Osman Pasha endeavours to break out of Plevna, 
about 7 p.m. 9 Dec. ; six hours' fierce conflict ; 
surrounded ; unconditional surrender ; said to be 
30,000 prisoners, 128 officers, 100 guns ; great 
slaughter on both sides . . . 10 Dec. ,, 

The Servians declare war against Turkey, 12 Dec. ; 
cross the frontier and capture villages 15 Dec. et seq. „ 

Turkish circular note to the great powers, request- 
ing mediation, 12 Dec. ; merely acknowledged, 
action declined .... about 12 Dec. ,, 

Montenegrinea successful .... Dec. ,, 

Suleiman made general of the army of Roumelia ; 
and Todleben of that of Rustchuk, about 19 Dec. „ 

Suleiman retires on the quadrilateral ; visits Con- 
stantinople ; armies concentrating near Adria- 
nople about 20 Dec. „ 

Servians said to have taken Ak Palanka alter 3 
hours' fight 24 Oec. ,, 

Erzeroum, Armenia, nearly invested ; brave resist- 
ance by Mukhtar Pasha . . about 24 Dee. ,, 

3 I 



RUSSO-TURKISH WAR. 



850 



RYSWICK. 



Many Turkish wounded prisoners perish from cold 
during removal Dec. 

Turkish steamer with 875 men, said to be captured 
in Black Sea .... about 25 Dec. 

Alleged Russian losses, 80,435 men ; Turkish much 
more, and 80,000 prisoners . . . Dec. 

Mukhtar Pasha recalled to Constantinople, about 

29 Dec. 

The sultan requests mediation of England ; the 
British government only convey to Russia the 
sultan's desire to make peace ; Russia declines 
mediation ..... 26 — 31 Dec. 

Servians advancing successfully . end of Dec. 

Gourko crosses the Balkans and advances on 
Sofia ; Turks defeated in an engagement, about 

31 Dec. 

Col. Baker gallantly protects the retreating Turkish 
army, defeating the Russians. . . .1 Jan. 

Sofia taken by Russians after an engagement, 3 Jan. 

Russians said to be defeated near Erzeroum, about 

5 Jan. 

Servians defeated ; Kurschumli reoccupied by 
Turks . - 6, 7 Jan. 

Gen. Radetzky crosses the Balkans; the Trojan 
pass taken about 9 Jan. ; the Turkish army 
(about 32,000) and cannon taken by Skobeleff and 
Radetzky, after conflicts, 8, 9, 10 Jan. (see Senova); 
Gourko advances towards Adrianople . 11 Jan. 

Nisch taken by the Servians ; Antivari by the Mon- 
tenegrines about 10 Jan. 

Russians advance successfully ; Turkish euvoys 
proceed to treat for peace . about 16-18 Jan. 

Gourko advances toward Philippopolis ; totally 
defeats Suleiman Pasha, who retreats to the sea, 
losing many prisoners and much cannon, 

16, 17 Jan. 

Adrianople abandoned ; occupied by Russians, 

19, 20 Jan. 

Suleiman with remains of his army at Karala on 
the jEgean transporting his troops, about 21 Jan. 

Servians occupy nearly all Old Servia . 29 Jan. 

Russian attack on Batoum defeated . . 30 Jan. 

After much delay, an armistice signed at Adrianople, 

31 Jan. 

Russian losses announced 89,879 men . Feb. 

Continued advance of Russians towards Constanti- 
nople ; great panic ; flight of many Turks ; many 
deaths and great sufferings . . Jan., Feb. 

Part of Britisli fleet ordered to Constantinople to 
protect British life and property, 8 Feb. ; enters 
Dardanelles without permission of the Porte, 

13 Feb. 

Erzeroum evacuated by Turks . 17-21 Feb. 

Rustchuk occupied by Russians . . 20 Feb. 

Treaty of peace signed at San Stefano (see Stefano), 
3 March ; ratified at St. Petersburg . 17 March, 

The war lasted 322 days, 12 April, 1877, to 3 March, 

Long negotiation respecting a European congress, 

March-May, 

Grand duke Nicholas in Roumelia replaced by gen. 
Todleben, who assumes command . 30 April, 



1877 



Conference at Berlin, meets 13 June ; treaty signed 
(see Berlin), 13 July ; ratified . . 3 Aug. 1878 

Grand review of about 80,000 Russians near Con- 
stantinople 17 Aug. ,, 

40,000 Russians have sailed for home . 12 Sept. „ 

Definitive treaty of peace with Turkey signed at 
Constantinople 8 Feb. 1879 

Estimated cost of the war to Russia, 120,000,000?. 

RUSTCHUK, Turkish town on the Danube, 
one of the " quadrilateral" fortresses lost to Turkey 
with Bulgaria by treaty of Berlin, 13 July, 1878. 

RUTHENIUM, a rare metal, discovered in 
an ore of platinum by M. Claus, in 1845. 

RUTHERFURD'S ACT, Lord (13 & 14 
Vict. c. 36), for simplifying law proceedings in 
Scotland, passed 1 850. 

RUTHVEN, RAID OF, a term applied to the 
seizure of the person of James YI. of Scotland by 
William Ruthven, earl of Gowrie, and other nobles, 
in 1582, to compel the king to dismiss his favourites, 
Arran and Lennox. Ostensibly for this, Gowrie 
was judicially put to death by his two opponents in 
1584. 

RUTLAND, Statute of, 10 or 12 Edw. I. 

1282 or 1284. 

RYE-HOUSE PLOT, a plot (some think 
pretended) to secure the succession of the duke of 
Monmouth to the throne in preference to the duke 
of York (afterwards James II.), a Roman catholic. 
Some of the conspirators are said to have projected 
the assassination of the king, Charles II., and his 
brother. This design is said to have been frus- 
trated by the king's house at Newmarket acciden- 
tally taking fire, which hastened the ro)'al party 
away eight days before the plot was to take effect, 
22 March, 1683 ; see Newmarket. The plot was 
discovered 12 June following. Lord William 
Russell on 2 1 July, and Algernon Sidney on 7 Dec. 
following, suffered death for being concerned in this 
conspiracy. The name was derived from the con- 
spirators' place of meeting, the Rye-house at Brox- 
bourne, Hertfordshire. 

RYSWICK (Holland), where the celebrated 
peace was concluded between England, Eranee, 
Spain, and Holland, signed, by their representa- 
tives, 20 Sept., and by the emperor of Germany, 30 
Oct. 1697. 



s. 



SAALFIELD. 



SACRAMENT. 



SAALFIELD (Saxony, N. Germany). Here 
the Prussians, under prince Louis of Prussia, were 
defeated and their leader slain by the French under 
Lannes, 10 Oct. 1806. 

SAARBRUCK, the Roman Augusti Muri or 
Sara pons, an open town on the left bank of the 
Saar, in Rhenish Prussia, founded in the tenth 
century, long subject to the bishops of Metz, after- 
wards ruled by counts (about 1237), and by the 
house of Nassau about 1380. It was captured by 
the French and retaken by the Germans 1676, 
reunited to France 1794-1814, and ceded to Prussia, 
1815. On 2 Aug. 1870, it was bombarded by the 
French under Frossard (between 1 1 and 1 in the 
daytime), and the Prussians in small force were 
dislodged, and the town occupied by the French 
general Bataille. The mitrailleuses were said to be 
very effective. The emperor Napoleon, who was 
present with his son, said in a telegram to the 
empress, " Louis has gone through his baptism of 
fire. He has not been in the least startled. "We 
stood in the foremost rank, and the rifle balls were 
dropping at our feet, and Louis picked up one that 
fell near him. His bearing was such as to draw 
tears from the soldiers' eyes." On the 6 Aug. the 
Prussian generals Goeben and Von Steinmetz, with 
the first army, recaptured Saarbruck, after a 
sanguinary conflict at the village of Spicheren. 
The heights taken by the French on the 2nd are in 
Germany, those taken by the Germans on the 6th 
are in France, and both battles were fought between 
Saarbruck and the town of Forbaeh, which was 
captured and has given a name to the second con- 
flict. The loss was great on both sides. The 
French general Franqois was killed, and the 2nd 
corps under Frossard nearly destroyed. The French 
retreated to Metz. They were greatly superior in 
numbers at the beginning of the fight, but were 
badly commanded. 

SABBATARIANS. Traces exist of Sabba- 
tarii, or Sabbathaires, among the sects of the iGth 
century on the continent. Upon the publication of 
the "Rook of Sports" in 1618, a violent contro- 
versy arose among English divines on two points : 
first, whether the Sabbath of the fourth command- 
ment was in force among Christians ; and 
secondly, whether, and on what ground, the first day 
of the week was entitled to be distinguished and 
observed as " the Sabbath." In 1628, Theophilus 
Rraboume, a clergyman, published the first work 
in favour of the Seventh-day or Saturday, as the 
true Christian Sabbath. He and several others 
suffered great persecution for this opinion ; but 
after the restoration there were three or four con- 
gregations observing the last day of the week for 
public worship in London, and seven or eight in 
the country parts of England. In 185 1 there were 
three Sabbatarian or Seventh-day Baptist congre- 
gations in England ; but in America (especially 
in the New England states) they are more nume- 
rous. — Joseph Davis suffered imprisonment in 1670. 
He and his son bequeathed property to maintain 
the sect ; and litigation respecting its disposal wa3 
eettled by vice-chancellor Stuart in conformity with 
fieir intentions in June, 1870. Very few Sabba- 
tarians then remained. 



SABBATH: ordained by God. Gen. ii. ; 
Exod. xx. 8; Isaiah lviii. 13. Jews observe the 
seventh day in commemoration of the creation of 
the world, and of their redemption from the bondage 
of the Egyptians ; Christians observe the first day 
of the week in commemoration of the resurrection 
of Christ from the dead, and the redemption of 
man ; see Sunday. 

SABBATH SCHOOLS, see Sunday Schools. 

SABBATICAL YEAR : a Jewish institution, 
1491 n.c. Exodus xxiii. During every seventh 
year the very ground had rest, and was not tilled ; 
and every forty-ninth year all debts were forgiven, 
slaves set at liberty, and estates, &c, that were 
before sold or mortgaged, returned to their original 
families, &c. 

SABELLIANISM, from Sabcllius (of Ptole- 
mais in Egypt), who flourished in the 3rd century, 
and who taught that there was but one- person in 
the Godhead, the other persons of the Trinity being 
but different names of the same person. This 
doctrine was condemned at a council at Rome, 260. 

SABINES, an ancient people of central 
Italy, from whom the Romans, under Romulus, 
took away their daughters by force, having 
invited them to some public sports or shows 
on purpose. When the Sabines determined to 
revenge this affront, the women became mediators 
to their fathers in behalf of then- husbands, the 
Romans, and a lasting peace was made between 
them, 750 B.C. The Sabines, who had supported the 
Samnites in their war with Kerne, were thoroughly 
defeated by M. Curius Dentutus, and their lands 
annexed 290 B.C., and eventually the Sabines were 
combined with the Roman people. One of the 
ecclesiastical provinces is still called Terra Sabina ; 
chief town, Magliano. 

SACCHARINE, see Benzoic. 

SACCHAROMETER, an instrument for de- 
termining the amount of sugar in solutions. 
Soleil, an optician, of Paris, in 1847 made use of 
rotary polarised light for this purpose in a saceharo- 
nieter, since improved by Duboscq. 

SACHEVEREL RIOTS, see Riots, 17 10. 

SACKVILLE INCIDENT, see United 

States, Oct. 1888. 

SACRAMENT (from sacramentum, an oath, 

obligation, also mystery). The Christian sacra- 
ments are baptism and the Lord's Supper. The 
council of Trent, in 1547, affirmed the doctrine of 
the schoolmen that there are seven sacraments : 
baptism, the Lord's Supper, confirmation, penance, 
holy orders, matrimony, and extreme unction. The 
name was given to the Lord's Supper by the Latin 
fathers. The wine was restricted to the clergy about 
the beginning of the I2th century. Communion in 
one kind only was authoritatively sanctioned by the 
council of Constance, 15 June, 1415. Henry VI I. 
of Germany was poisoned by a priest by the conse- 
crated wafer, 24 Aug. 1313. The sacramental wine 
was poisoned by the gravedigger of the church at 
Zurich, by which sacrilegious deed a number of 

3 1 2 



SACRAMENTO. 



852 



SAGE. 



persons lost their lives, 4 Sept. 1776. In 1614 
members of both houses of parliament were ordered 
to take the sacrament, as a guard against the intro- 
duction of Roman Catholics. In 1673 the test act 
was passed ; repealed in 1828 ; see Transubstantia- 
tion. 

" Society of the Blessed Sacrament " (English church- 
men), London, founded, i860; "Confraternity of the 
Blessed Sacrament," founded 1862 ;'the two united, 1867. 
Sacramentarians, followers of Zwingli (1487-1531), 
who differed from the Komanists and Lutherans ill 
regard to the sacrament. 

SACEAMENTO, ST., a Portuguese settle- 
ment in S. America, claimed by Spain in 1680, but 
relinquished in 1713 ; several times seized ; ceded in 
1777 ; acquired by Brazil in 1825. 

SACEED BAND, see Thebes. 

SACEED BOOKS of the East. The 

publication of translations of the sacred books of the 
religion of the Brahmans, Buddhists, and Moham- 
medans, and of the followers of Khung-fu-tze and 
Lao-tze, edited by professor Max Miiller, began in 
1879. Thirty volumes have been published, 1889. 

SACEED HAEMONIC SOCIETY, see 

Mime. 

SACEED HEAET of Jesus ; a form of 
devotion said to have been instituted in England in 
the seventeenth century, and much promoted by 
Marguerite Marie Alacoque, an enthusiastic French 
nun, who asserted that Christ had appeared to her, 
and taken out her heart, placed it in his own, glow- 
ing in flame, and then returned it. She died in 1690. 
Her book " Devotion an Cceur de Jesus," published 
in 1698, much advocated by father Joseph Gallifet 
about 1726 ; and introduced into France, by 

request 1765 

A pilgrimage from England, specially blessed by 
the pope, and headed by the duke of Norfolk, 
went to the shrine of Marguerite, at Paray-le- 
Monial, and returned . . .1-6 Sept. 1873 

The R.C. diocese of Salford dedicated to the Sacred 
Heart, 4 Sept. 1873 : and a church at Mont- 
martre, near Paris, founded for the same purpose, 

16 June, 1875 
The pope dedicated the universal church to " the 
Sacred Heart" 15 June, „ 

SACEED WARS— I. Declared by the Am- 
phictyons against Cirrha, near Delphi, for robbery 
and outrage to the visitors to the oracle, 595 b.c. 
Cirrha was razed to the ground, 586. — II. Between 
the Phocians and Delphians for the possession of 
the temple at Delphi, 448, 447.— III. The Phocians, 
on being fined for cultivating the sacred lands, 
seized the temple, 357. They were conquered by 
Philip of Macedon, and their cities depopulated, 
346. See Crusades. 

SACEIFICE was offered to God by Abel, 3875 
B.C. Sacrifices to the gods Avere introduced, into 
Greece by Phoroneus, king of Argos, 1773 b.c. 
Human sacrifices seem to have originated with the 
Chaldeans, from whom the custom passed into other 
Eastern nations. All sacrifices to the true God were 
to cease with the sacrifice of Christ, 33 a.d. Heb. 
x. 12-14. Pagan sacrifices were forbidden by the 
emperor Constantius II. 341. 

SACEILEGE. In 1835, the punishment (for- 
merly death) was made transportation for life. By 
23 & 24 Vict. c. 96, s. 50 (1861), breaking into a 
place of worship and stealing therefrom was made 
punishable with penal servitude for life. 

SACEIPOETUS (Lathing Italy). Here 
Sylla defeated the younger Marius and Papirius 
Carbo with great slaughter, B.C. 82, and became 
dictator, 81. 



SADDLES. In the earlier ages the Romans 
used neither saddles nor .stirrups. Saddles -were in 
use in the 3rd century, and are mentioned as made 
of leather in 304, and were known in Eugland about 
600. Side-saddles for ladies were introduced by 
Anne, queen of Richard II. in 1388. Stow. 

SADDTJCEES, a Jewish sect, said to have 
been founded by Sadoc, a scholar of Antigonus, 
about 200 B.C., who, misinterpreting his master's 
doctrine, taught that there was neither heaven nor 
hell, angel nor spirit ; that the soul was mortal, and 
that there was no resurrection of the body from the 
dead. The Sadducees rejected the oral law, main- 
tained by the Pharisees. See Matt. xxii. 23 ; Acts 
xxiii. 8. 

SADLEE'S WELLS (N. London), so called 
after Mr. Sadler, who built an orchestra to entertain 
the invalids who used the waters medicinally, 1683. 
In time the orchestra was enclosed, and the build- 
ing became a place for dramatic performances. 
The theatre was opened in 1765. Eighteen 
persons were trampled to death at this theatre, 
on a false alarm of fire, 18 Oct. 1807 ; see under 
Theatres. The theatre put up to auction and not 
sold, 31 Aug. 1875 '■> and 3° July, 1878. 

SADOWA, see Koniggriitz. 

SAEES. A National Safe Company, London, 
opened vaults for storage of valuables, 1876. 

SAFETY LAMP. One was invented in 1815 
by sir Humphry Davy, to prevent accidents which 
happen in coal and other mines. The safety-lamp 
is founded on the principle that flame, in passing 
through iron- wire meshes, loses so much of its heat 
as to be incapable of igniting inflammable gases. 
The father of all safety-lamps was Dr. Reid Clanny,, 
of Sunderland, whose invention and improvements 
are authenticated in the Transactions of the Society 
of Arts for 1817 . The " Georcly," constructed by 
George Stephenson, the engineer, in 1815, is said 
to be the safest. A miner's electric light, "by MM. 
Dumas and Benoit, was exhibited in Paris on 8 
Sept. 1862. On 14 Aug. 1867, safety-lamps were 
rigidly tested by several mining engineers, and; 
serious doubts thrown upon their complete efficac)'. 
Col. Shakespear's safety lamp (light extinguished 
by opening) exhibited at Royal Institution, &c, 
May, 1879. Messrs. Fleuss and Foster's new safety 
mining lamp approved, Jan. 1884. 
Mr. J. Wilson-Swan's electric safety lamp, weighing 6\ lt> 
exhibited at Aberdeen meeting of British Association 
Sept. 1885. 
Mr. Charles D. Aria's safety lamp reported successful ; 
the supply of mineral oil is isolated from the burner, 
i88q. 
The Thornbury miners' lamp tried at Aldwarke Main, 
Collieries by Mr. C. E. Rhodes, and subjected to* 
experiments by prof. Dewar and sir Frederick Abel, 
who declare that this lamp fulfils the conditions re- 
quired by the royal commission in 1886. Paraffin and 
other mineral oils may be used in this lamp, reported 
Nov. 1889. 

SAEFEON {saffran, French; sqfrano, Italian), 
the flower of crocus, was first brought to England in 
the reign of Edward III. by a pilgrim, about 1339, 
probably from Arabia, as the word is from the- 
Arabic saphar. Miller. It was cultivated in Eng- 
land in 1582. 

SAGE (Saugc, French ; Salvia, Latin), a whole- 
some herb. Mortimer. The Mexican sage, Salvia 
mexicana, was brought from Mexico, 1724. The 
blue African sage, Salvia africana, and the golden 
African sage, Salvia aurea, were brought to Eng- 
land from the Cape of Good Hope in 1731. 



SAGUNTUM. 



853 SALISBURY ADMINISTRATIONS. 



SAGUNTUM, or ZacYjSTTHUS, now Mur- 
viedro, in Valentia, E. Spain, renowned for the 
dreadful siege it sustained, 219 B.C. The citizens, 
after performing incredible acts of valour for eight 
months, chose to be buried in the ruins of their city 
rather than surrender to Hannibal. They burnt 
themselves, with their houses, and the conqueror 
became master of a pile of ashes, 218 B.C. 

SAHARA, a great sandy desert, North Africa, 
south of Barbary States. A project for making an 
inland sea here was entertained in 1883, and the 
construction of a railway was proposed in Algeria, 
Oct. 1890. A large natural reservoir of water at 
El Golea in the desert, was discovered early 1891. 

SAIGON, French colony in Cochin China, 
founded in i860, after a defeat of the Chinese, 17 
Feb. 1859. 

SAILORS' HOME, in Well-street, London 
Docks, established by Mr. George Green, 1 830 ; 
opened, 1835; enlarged, 1865. In one year it 
admitted 5444 boarders, who, besides home, had 
evening instruction, the use of a savings' bank, &c. 
The establishment is self-supporting, aided by 
subscriptions. Similar institutions have since been 
established. Sailors' orphan girls' school and 
home, Hampstead, established 1829. Sailors' and 
Firemen's Union, see Shipping. 

SAINT. For names with this prefix, see the 
names themselves throughout the book. See Acta 
Sanctorum. 

SAKYA MUNI, see Buddhism. 

SALADO, a river, S. Spain; see Tar if a. 

SALADS, are stated to have been in use in 
the middle ages ; lettuces are said to have been 
introduced into England from the Low Countries, 
1520-47. 

SALAMANCA (W. Spain), taken from the 
Saracens 861. The university was founded 1240, 
and the cathedral built 15 13. Near here the British 
and allies, commanded by lord Wellington, totally 
defeated the French army under marshal Mamiont, 
22 July, 1812. The loss of the victors was most 
severe, amounting in killed, wounded, and missing, 
to nearly 6000 men. Marmont left in the victor's 
hands 7141 prisoners, 11 pieces of cannon, 6 stands 
of colours, and 2 eagles. This victory was followed 
by the capture of Madrid. Population, 1887,22,199. 

SALAMIS (near Athens). In a great sea-fight 
here, 20 Oct. 480 B.C., Thcmistocles, the Greek com- 
mander, with only 310 sail, defeated the fleet of 
Xerxes, king of Persia; which consisted of 2000 
Bail. — Near Salamis, in Cyprus, the Greeks defeated 
the Persian fleet, 449 B.C.; and Demetrius Polior- 
cetes defeated the fleet of Ptolemy and his allies, 

306 B.C. 

SAL A SSI, a turbulent Alpine tribe, were 
thoroughly subdued by Terentius Varro, 25 B.C., 
and a Roman colony established in their territories j 
(now Aosta) . 

SALDANHA BAY, S. Atlantic Ocean; north- \ 
Wind of the Cape of Good Hope. Here on 17 Aug. ; 
1796, a Dutch squadron, under admiral Lucas, was ( 
captured \>y vice-admiral sir George Keith Elphin- 
stone, without resistance ; sir George was created t 
lord Keith. 

SALE OF FOOD AND DRUGS ACT, 
passed II Aug. 1875; repeals all adulteration acts, j 
and makes new arrangements. 



. SALENCKEMEN on the Danube. Here a 
victory was gained by the imperialists, under prince 
Louis of Baden, over the Turks, commanded by the 
grand vizier Mustapha Kiuprigli, 19 Aug. 1691. 

SALERNO (Salernum, S. Italy), an ancient 
Roman colon y. Its university, with a celebrated 
school of medicine, reputed to be the oldest in 
Europe, was founded by Robert Guiscard the Nor- 
man, who seized Salerno in 1077. Salerno suffered 
much in the wars of the middle ages. 

SALFORD, near Manchester. Population, 
1881,176,235; 1891,198,136. 
An mcendiary.explosion at the barracks caused one 

death ; Fenians suspected . . .14 Jan. i£Si 

SALIQUE or »Salic Law, by which females 
are excluded from inheriting the crown of France, 
is said to have been instituted by Pharamond, 424, 
and ratified in a council of state by Clovis I., the 
real founder of the French monarchy, in 511. 
Henault. This law, introduced into Spain by the 
Bourbons 1700, was formally abolished by decree 
29 March, 1830 ; and on the death of Ferdinand VII. 
his daughter succeeded as Isabella II. , 29 Sept. 1833 ; 
see Spain. By this law also Hanover was separated 
from England, when queen Victoria ascended the 
English throne, 1837. 

SALISBURY (Wilts), founded in the begin- 
ning of the 13th century, on the removal of the 
cathedral hither from Old Sarum. National councils 
or parliaments were repeatedly held at Salisbury, 
particularly in 1296, by Edward I. ; in 1328, by 
Edward III. ; and in 1384. Henry Stafford, duke of 
Buckingham, was executed here by order of Richard 
III., in 1483. — On Salisbury Plain is Stone- 
henge (ichich see). This plain was estimated at 
500,000 acres. On it w r ere so many cross roads, and 
so few houses to take directions from, that Thomas, 
earl of Pembroke, planted a tree at each milestone 
from Salisbury to Shaftesbury, for the traveller's 
guide. The autumn military manoeuvres took place 
on Salisbury Plain, Aug., Sept. 1872; see under 
Army. — The first seat of the Bishopric was at 
Sherborne, St. Aldhelm being prelate, 705. Her- 
man removed the seat to Old Sarum. about 1072; 
and the see was removed to Salisbury by a papal 
bull, in 1217. It has yielded to the church of Rome 
one saint and two cardinals. The building of the 
cathedral commenced 28 April, 1220, and was com- 
pleted in 1258. This edifice is reckoned one of our 
finest ecclesiastical erections. Its spire, the loftiest 
in the kingdom, was considered in danger in April, 
1864, and subscriptions were begun for its im- 
mediate repair. The choir was re-opened, after 
restoration by sir G. G. Scott, I Nov. 1876. The 
bishopric is valued in the king's books at 1367/. 
iis.&d. Present income 5000'. Population, 180I, 
14,792 ; 1891, 15,980. 

EECENT BISHOPS. 

1797. John Fisher, died 2 July, 1825. 

1825. Thomas Burgess, died io Feb. 1837. 

1837. Edmund Denison; died 6 March, 1S54. 

1854. Walter Kerr Hamilton, died 1869. 

1869. George Moberly, elected 9 Sept., died 6 July, 1SS5. 

1885. John Wordsworth, Aug. 

SALISBURY ADMINISTRATIONS.— 

Mr. Gladstone resigned in consequence of a defeat 
in the house of commons on the Budget Bill (j(>4 — 
252), 8-9 June, and was succeeded by the marquis 
of Salisbury, whose ministry received the seals, 24 
June, 1885. 

Prime Minister and Foreign Secretary — Robert Arthur 
Talbot Gascoigne-Cecil, marquis of Salisbury.* 

* He was born 3 Feb. 1830; lord Cranborne, on the 

death of his brother, 1865 ; BUCCOeded his father as mar- 



SALISBUEY ADMINISTRATIONS. 854 



SALT.' 



First lord of the treasury — Sir Stafford Northcote (earl of 

Iddesleigh). 
Lord chancellor— Sir Hardinge Giffard (lord Halsbury). 
Lord president of the council — Gathorne Gathorne-Hardy, 

viscount Cranbrook. 
Lord privy seal— Dudley Francis Stuart Ryder, earl of 

Harrowby. 
Secretaries : home— Sir Richard Assheton Cross. 

the colonies — Col. Frederick Arthur Stanley. 
India — Lord Randolph Henry Spencer- 
Churchill. 
war— William Henry Smith; G. Gathorne 
Hardy, viscount Cranbrook, about 23 Jan. 
1886. 
Scotland— Charles Henry, duke of Richmond, 
about 14 Aug. 1885. 
First lord of the admiralty — Lord George Francis 

Hamilton. 
Chancellor of the exchequer— Sir Michael Edward Hicks- 
Beach. 
Lord lieutenant of Ireland— Henry H. M. Herbert, earl of 

Carnarvon; resigned Jan. 1886. 
Lord Chancellor of Ireland — Edward Gibson (lord Ash- 
bourne). 
President of board of trade— Charles Henry Gordon- 
Lennox, duke of Richmond ; Edw. Stanhope, about 17 
Aug. 1885. 
Postmaster-general — Lord John Manners. 
Vice-president of the council — Edward Stanhope. 

The above form the cabinet. 
Chancellor of duchy of Lancaster — Henry Chaplin. 
President of local government board — Arthur J. Balfour. 
Chief secretary for Ireland — Sir William Hart-Dyke, 

resigned ; W. H. Smith, about 23 Jan. 1886. 
First commissioner of works — David Robert Plunket. 
Attorney-general — Sir B. E. Webster. 
Solicitor-general— -John E. Gorst. 

liesigncd 27 Jan., in consequence of Mr. Jesse Collings' 
amendment on the address being carried (329-250) 
26-27 J an - rtSS- 

Second Administration (26 July, 1886) — 
Prime minister and foreign secretary (Jan. 1887) — Robert 
Arthur Talbot Gascoigne-Cecil, marquis of Salisbury. 
First lord of the treasury and leader of the commons — -Win. 
Henry Smith, 3 Jan. 1887 ; died 6 Oct. 1891. Arthur 
J. Balfour, 9 Nov. 1891. 
Lord chancellor — Hardinge Stanley Giffard, lord- Halsbury. 
Lord president of the council — Gathorne Gathorne-Hardy, 

viscount Cranbrook. 
Chancellor of the exchequer — Lord Randolph Henry 
Spencer Churchill ; resigned 22 Dec. 1886 ; t George 
Joachim Goschen, 3 Jan. 1887. 
Secretaries: home — Henry Matthews (R.C.). 

foreign — Stafford Henry Northcote, earl of 
Iddesleigh (died 12 Jan. 1887) ; marquis of 
Salisbury, Jan. 1887. 
the colonies — Edward Stanhope ; sir Henry 
Thurstan Holland, ; baron Knutsford, Feb. 
1888 (Jan. 1887). 
India — Sir Richard Cross (viscount Cross). 
war — William Henry Smith ; Edward Stan- 
hope, 6 Jan. 1887. 
First lord of the admiralty — Lord George Francis Hamilton. 
Lord chancellor of Ireland — Edward Gibson, lord Ash- 
bourne. 
Chief secretary for Ireland — Sir Michael Edward Hicks- 
Beach ; resigns, but remains in the cabinet (retires Jan. 
1 888); succeeded by Arthur J. Balfour, 5 March, 1887. 
Wm. L. Jackson, 9 Nov. 1891. 
Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster — Lord John Manners, 

duke of Rutland, 4 March, 1888. 
President of the board of trade— -Sir Frederick Stanley 
(lord Stanley of Preston); succeeded by sir M. E 
Hicks-Beach, 15 Feb. 1888. 
President of the board of agriculture, Henry Chaplin, 5 
Sept. 1889. 

The above form the Cabinet. 
Lord privy seal — George Henry Cadogan (earl Cadogan). 



qnis in 1868 ; M.P. for Stamford, 1853-68 ; secretary for 
India, July, 1866, to March, 1867 ; and Feb. 1874 to 
April, 1878 : for foreign affairs, April, 1878, to May, 
1880 ; special ambassador to Constantinople, Nov. 1876 ; 
chancellor of the University of Oxford, i86q. Manifesto 
respecting the election issued, Times, 28 June, 1892. 

t The marquis of Hartington and the liberal unionists 
declined to form part of a coalition ministry, 30 Dec. 1886. 



Lord lieutenant of Ireland — Charles Stewart Vane 
Tempest Stewart, marquis of Londonderry : succeeded 
by Laurence Dundas, earl of Zetland, 30 May, 1389. 

Secretary for Scotland — Arthur J. Balfour; succeeded by 
Schomberg Henry Kerr, marquis of Lothian, 8 March, 
1887. 

President of local government board — C. T. Ritchie. 

Postmaster-general — Henry Cecil Raikes, died 24 Aug. 
T891 ; sir James Fergusson, about 21 Sept. 1891. 

First commissioner of works — David Robert Plunket. 

Attorney-general — Sir Richard Everard Webster, Q.C. 

Solicitor -general — Sir Edward Clarke, Q.C. 

Mesigned 12 Aug., in consequence of want of confidence; 
voted by the commons, Mr. Asquith's amendment 
(350-310), 11 Aug. 1892. For chief measures, see Educa~ 
lion , Ireland, Local Govern/men t, Navy, and National Debt. 

SALISBURY'S ACT, see Artisans. 
SALLEE, a port of Morocco, long a haunt for 
pirates, destroyed by the British in 1632, and about 
300 captives released. 

SALLENTINI, allies of the Samnites, the 
only Italian tribe not subject to Kome, were over- 
come in war in 267 and 266 B.C., and Brundisium, 
their port, taken. 

SALMON FISHEEIES. The laws relating 
to them were consolidated and amended in i86r, 
and the report of a commission of inquiry (in- 
cluding sir Wm. Jardine) was published, in Feb. 
1862. An act restricting the capture of salmon at 
certain times, passed in 1863, was amended in 1869- 
1870, and 1873. During the "salmon fence," 
14 Sept. to 1 Feb., it is unlawful to catch fish of 
the salmon kind. A salmon-fishery congress opened 
at South Kensington, 7 June, 1867. Salmon eggs 
sent to New Zealand, Jan. 1878. 
Salmon Ova, packed in boxes with moss, charcoal, 
and ice, to retard development — a plan suggested 
and proved practicable by Mr. E. H. Moscrop in 
1863 — adopted successfully by Mr. J. A. Youl, 
who sent ova to Australia in the " Norfolk," . 1864 
Salmon disease, in rivers, announced, 1879 ; commis- 
sion of inquiry appointed, Mr. F. Buckland and 

others Jan. i83o 

Very great increase in the number of salmon caught, 1883 
SALONICA, see Thcssalonica. 
SALT (chloride of sodium, a compound of the 
gas chlorine and the metal sodium) is procured from 
the rocks in the earth, from salt-springs, and from 
sea-water. The famous salt-mines of Wielitzka, 
near Cracow in Poland, have been worked 600 
years. The salt-works in Cheshire, called the 
wiCHES (Nantwich, North wich, and Middlewich), 
were of great importance in the time of the Saxon 
heptarchy. The salt-mines of Staffordshire were 
discovered about 1670. Salt duties were first ex- 
acted in 1702; they were renewed in 1732; re- 
duced in 1823 ; and in that year were ordered to 
cease in 1825. During the French war the duty 
reached to 30/. per ton. For the salt-tax in France 
see Gabelle. The government salt monopoly in India 
was abolished in May, 1863, by sir C. Trevelyan. 
Since 1797 salt has been largely employed in the 
manufacture of chloride of lime or bleaching 
powder (by ob tabling its chlorine), and soap (by 
obtaining its soda). On this are based the chemical 
works of Cheshire, Lancashire, and other places. 
See under Alkalies. 

Much distress in the salt districts of Cheshire through 
the subsidence of land, 1887-8. The proprietors of 
the Cheshire salt mines combined to form a " trust " or 
syndicate in the autumn of 1888 ; central office, 
Northwich ; the trade being nearly ruined by great 
competition, first meeting 27 Sept. 1888. 
Great advance in the price of salt Oct. 1888. 
A "salt museum" presented to the town of Northwich 

by Mr. Brunner, M.P., March, 1889. 
Salt exported from the United Kingdom: 1876, 865,804 
tons ; 1880, 1,051,240 tons ; 1885, 921,869 tons ; 1890, 
726,021 tons. 



SALTAIEE. 



8-55 



"SALVATION ARMY." 



SALTAIEE, see Alpaca. 

SALT LAKE, see Mormon ites. 

SALT-PETEE (from sal petrce, salt of the 
rock), or Nitre, is a compound of nitric acid and 
potash (nitrogen, oxygen, and potassium), and 
hence is called nitrate of potash. It is the explo- 
sive ingredient in gunpowder, many detonating 
powders, and Lucifer matches. Boyle in the 17th 
century demonstrated that salt-petre was composed 
of aqua fortis (nitric acid) and potash; the dis- 
coveries of Lavoisier (1777) and Davy (1807) showed 
its real composition . Its manufacture in England 
began about 1625. During the French revolu- 
tionary war, the manufacture was greatly increased 
by the researches of Berthollct. 

SALUTE AT SEA. It is a received maxim at 
sea, that he who returns the salute always tires 
fewer guns than he receives, -which is done even 
between the ships of princes of equal dignity ; but 
the Swedes and Danes return the compliment with- 
out regarding how many guns are fired to them. 
The English claim the right of being saluted first 
in all places, as sovereigns of the seas; the Vene- 
tians claimed this honour within their gulf, &c. 
The admiralty issued a code of rules for salutes, 
Dec. 1876. See Flag, and Naval Salute. 

SALVADOR, SAN, one of the Bahamas, and 
the first point of land discovered in the West Indies 
or America by Columbus. It was previously called 
Guanahani, or Cat's Isle, and Columbus (in ac- 
knowledgment to God for his deliverance) named it 
San Salvador when he first saw it, 11 Oct. 1492. 
The capital, San Salvador, was destroyed by an 
earthquake, 16 April 1854, and is now abandoned. 

SALVADOE, SAN, one of the republics of 
Central America, with a constitution established 
24 Jan. 1859. Capital, Libertade. General Barrios 
elected president I Feb. i860, was compelled to flee 
in Oct. 1863 ; when Francis Duerias became provi- 
sional president ; his formal election took place April, 
1865. The ex-president, Gerard Barrios, was sur- 
rendered by Nicaragua, tried and shot, Aug. 1865. A 
reattempted revolution failed; Zaldivarfled; general 
Gonzales president, 1 Feb. 1872 ; K. Zaldivar, May, 
1876; Gen. Menendez, June, 1885; re-elected 
1 March 1887 for four years. Population, 
1886, 651,130. The capital, San Salvador, was 
nearly destroyed by an earthquake, 19 March, 1873, 
about 50 persons perished. The convulsion began 
5 March and thus gave timely warning. A rebellion 
suppressed, 6 — 10 Sept. 1887. 
General Rivas and an insurgent army defeated by 
government troops, announced . . 31 Dec. 1889 

Insurrection ended Jan. 1890 

Gen. Menendes dies suddenly, 22 June ; revolution, 
sen. Carlos Ezeta becomes provisional president, 

25 June ,, 
Guatemala ami Honduras declare war against pre- 
sident Ezeta, several sanguinary battles ; in- 
vading troops defeated, July ; Guatemala in- 
vaded, July ; gen. Rivas revolts against president 
E/.eta, and is, aftera severe engagement, defeated 
by gen. A. Ezeta, captured, and publicly shot, 

1 Aug. ,, 
Gen. Ezeta re-elected president . about 13 Sept. ,, 
Peace with Guatemala signed, announced | 17 Nov. ,, 
Gen. Ezeta continued as president for four years, 

1 March, 1891 
Rebellion in the island of Amapala suppressed, 

and the leader, gen. Bardales, killed . 6 May, ,, 
Violent earthquake, great destruction of life and 

property 9 Sept. ,, 

About 40 persons killed in the capital ; Comasagua 
nearly destroyed ; shocks still continue 13 Sept. ,, 

"SALVATION ARMY," a name assumed 
by a body of persons terming themselves tho 



"Christian Mission" (formed by the combination 
of seveial revival societies in 1865, for the evan- 
gelization of the very lowest classes. Mr. "William 
Booth was nominated "general" of the army. 
Deeds constituting Mr. Booth general superin- 
tendent of the affairs of the " Cbristian Mission" 
with plenary powers, and trustee of its property and 
income, and" also with power to name his successor, 
were enrolled in Chancery, Aug. 1878. 

A gieat "Hosanna" meeting to celebrate the formation 
of the 104th corps at Northampton, was held at the 
headquarters (with prayers, addresses, and singing), 
272, Whitechapel-road, 30 June, 1879. 

Gen. Booth set forth his principles in the Contem- 
porary Review for August, 1882 ; he upholds the 
gospel, opposes sectarianism, and requires from 
his soldiers implicit obedience, aiming at the re- 
formation of drunkards and other reprobates.* 

The Eagle Tavern and Grecian Theatre, City Road, 
London, purchased; occupied, early 12 Aug.; de- 
voted, 14 Sept. 1882 ;■ conditions of sale not kept, 
ordered to quit 6 July, 1883 

Indian contingent (major Tucker and others), land 
at Bombay ; fined ; imprisoned on non-payment, 

28 Sept. „ 

Their "invasion" opposed by the authorities in 
Switzerland, Jan. et seq. ; severely opposed, June; 
Miss Booth imprisoned at Neufehatel, Sept.; ac- 
quitted, 1 Oct.; expelled . . .11 Oct. „ 

Great fighting between Salvation and Skeleton 
armies at Gravesend [and other places] 15 Oct. „ 

"553 army brigades in the United Kingdom; 182 
abroad."— (Vert. Booth .... April, 1884 

West-end centre building founded . . 14 June, ,, 

Severe rioting at Worthing ; the army attacked by 
the Skeleton army, 18-20 Aug.; a man wounded 
by a revolver fired by Mr. G. Head, 7 Sept.; 
rioting at Brighton .... 7 Sept. ,, 

International congress in London 28 May-4 June, 1886 

General Booth appeals to the army for a subscrip- 
tion of 5,000/ 20 Aug. ,, 

Another appeal Dec. 1887 

He reports "advance of the army " throughout the 
world with varying success, opposition and in- 
difference ; about 100,000/. received in . . . 1887 

Celebration of the 23rd anniversary of the organiza- 
tion of the army at the Alexandra Palace 9 July, 1888 

Severe decree against the army in Berne, 2 Sept. ; 
unconstitutional peisecution, Aug. -Sept. 1884, 
continued 1888-9 

The offices in Queen Victoria Street, London, 
partly burnt ...... 3 Dec. 1889 

17th anniversary kept at the Alexandra Palace, 
3 July, 1882 ; '25th at Crystal Palace . . . 1890 

Death of Mrs. Catherine Booth, aged 6t . 4 Oct. ,, 

Great funeral demonstration at Olympia, 13 Oct. ; 
Abnev Park 14 Oct. ,, 

Gen. Booth publishes his book " In Darkest 
England, and the Way Out," to renovate the 
very lowest classes ("the submerged tenth"); 
he proposes the formation of city, farm, and over 
the sea colonies (cost about 1,000,000/.) . Oct. ,, 

Great meetings of the army at Exeter Hall, 43, 171/. 
contributed . ... . • i7> l8 Js *" v - >■ 

Above 106,000/. subscribed or promised . Dec. „ 

Great progress of the army in India and tin 1 colo- 
nies reported 13 Nov. ,, 

Force of the army : 0,416 officers, 1,375 corps at 
home, and 1,499 in the colonies, capital, 750,000/., 
reported Dec. ,, 

General Booth visits Copenhagen, Hamburg, Ber- 
lin, and other places to inspect his army, Feb. ; 
S. Africa, the East, and Australia, Aug. ct so/. 
1891 ; his welcome home, 12 days' festivities, 

12 Feb. et seq. 1892 

Mrs. David Bell, of Glasgow, bequeaths about 
58,193/. and a hall in Dollar to gen. Booth in 
support of his work, announced . . 8 May, 1891 

Gen. Booth urgently appeals for funds, 

about 11 May, 1892 

* The army has officers of various grades; head- 
quarters, 101, Queen Victoria Street, London ; publish- 
ing offices, <vc, Paternoster Square ; official gazette, the 
War Cry, price Jd., in various languages, of which 
millions are sold. The propngandism is very vigorous. 



SALZBACH. 



853 



SANDEMANIANS. 



SALZBACH (Baden) . Here the French gene- 
ral Turenne was killed, at the commencement of a 
battle, 27 July, 1675. 

SALZBUBG, an ancient city of Germany, was 
annexed to Austria, 1805; to Bavaria, 1809; to 
Austria again 18 15. It was the birthplace of 
Mozart, 1756. The meetings of the emperors of 
Austria and France here, 18 Aug. 1867, and the 
emperors of Austria and Germany, 6 Sept. 1871, 
which caused some anxiety, were reported to be in 
favour of peace. Population, 1890; province, 
173,510; city, 27,741. 

SAMAJ, or SOMAJ, see Deism. 

SAMANIDE DYNASTY, began with Ismail 
Samaui, who overcame the army of the Safferides, 
and established himself in the government of 
Persia, 902 ; his descendants ruled till 999. 

SAMABCAND (in Tartary) was conquered by 
the Mahometans, 707 ; by Genghis Khan, 1220, and 
by Timur, or Tamerlane, who ruled here in great 
splendour. Samarcand was occupied by the Rus- 
sians under Kaufinairn 26 May, 1868, after a con- 
flict on the previous day. The garrison left, resisted 
a fierce siege till relieved by Kaufniann, 13-20 June, 
186S. J ' J 

SAMABITANS. Samaria was built by Omri, 
925 B.C. ; and became the capital of the kingdom 
of Israel. On the breaking up of that kingdom 
(721 B.C.), the conqueror Shalmaneser placed natives 
of other countries at Samaria. The descendants of 
these mixed races were abominable to the Jews, and 
much more so in consequence of the rival temple 
built on Mount Gerizim by Sanballat the Samaritan, 
332 B.C., which was destroyed by John Hyrcanus, 
130 B.C. ; see John iv. & viii. 48, and Luke x. 33. 
The Samaritan Pentateuch (of uncertain origin) 
was published in his Polyglot by Morinus, 1632. 

The Samaritan Free hospital, Marylebone ; memorial 
stone laid by the prince of Wales, 24 July, 1889. 

SAMNITES, a warlike people of S. central 
Italy, who strenuously resisted the Koman power, 
and were not subjugated till after three sangui- 
nary wars, from 343 to 290 B.C. They afterwards 
joined Pyrrhus, Hannibal, and other enemies of 
Home, without benefit to themselves. Their brave 
leader, Caius Pontius, who spared the Romans at 
Caudium, 320, having been taken prisoner, was 
basely put to death, 292. They did not acquire 
the right of citizenship till 88 B.C. See Caudine 
Forks and Rome. 

SAMOAN ISLES (or Navigators), (nine in- 
habited), near the Fiji islands; christianized by 
rev. John Williams, 1830. King Malietoa suc- 
ceeded, 8 Nov. 1880. The isles have a political con- 
stitution ; their parliament voted annexation to 
New Zealand, March, 1885. Population about 
35,000. 

King Malietoa deposed for alleged robbery and 
insult by Germans, and replaced by Tamatese, 
the British and French consuls protest, announced 

8 Sept. 1887 
Insurrection against Tamatese, headed by Mataafa 

Oct. 1S8S 
Victory of Mataafa, after a fierce battle 29 Nov. „ 
A party of Germans land, attacked by Mataafa's 

forces ; 16 killed and the rest rescued 18 Dec. ,, 
Difficulties regarding Samoa have arisen between 
the German, British, and United States govern- 
ments Jan. 1889 

The Germans declare war against Mataafa ; 31 Jan. ,, 
Prince Bismarck yields to United States claims 

Feb. „ 
Cessation of hostilities reported . 5 March, ,, 

By a great storm three German and three American 
war vessels were driven ashore at Apia on the 



island of Upola and destroyed ; about 50 
Americans and 96 Germans drowned ; H.M.S. 
Calliope escaped by steaming out 15, 16 March, 1889 
[Capt. Kane of the Calliope was thanked by the 
admiralty for his skill and seamanship.] 

Conference on Samoan affairs at Berlin; plenipoten- 
tiaries : England, sir Edward Malet ; Germany, 
count H. Bismarck ; United States, Mr. John 
Kasson ; first met 29 April ; closing conference, 
agreement signed subject to legislative ratification 

14 June, ,, 

The convention declares the Samoan Isles to be 
independent neutral territory ; the three powers 
to have equal rights ; Malietoa recognized as 
king ; a supreme court created, with other pro- 
visions. 

Mataafa supports Malietoa, who is warmly received, 
on his return to Apia, 11 Aug. ; he resigns king- 
ship to Mataafa ,, 

Mataafa elected king, and Malietoa vice-king, an- 
nounced 14 Oct. ,, 

Malietoa re-instated as king, with the assent of 
foreign powers 10 Dec. ,, 

Death of Tamasese, reported. . . 28 April, 1891 

The powers promise the king needed help . Aug. 1892 

SAMOS, an island on the W. coast of Asia 
Minor. Colonised by Ionians about 1043 B.C. The 
city was founded about 986. Polycrates, ruler of 
Samos (532-22 B.C.), was one of the most able, 
fortunate, and treacherous of the Greek tyrants, 
and possessed a powerful fleet. He patronised 
Pythagoras (born here) and Anacreon. Samos was 
taken by the Athenians. 440 ; and, with Greece, 
became subject to Rome, 146. It was taken by the 
Venetians, a.d. 1125, who here made velvet (samet), 
and became subject to the Turks, about 1459. Popu- 
lation, 1891, 44,953. 

It was made a principality by sultan Mahmoud in 1832. 
Prince Constantine Adossides, born 23 Feb., 1822 ; 

appointed 4 March, 1879. Alexander Karatheodory, 

born 20 July, 1833, appointed 1885. 

SAMPFOBD COITBTENAY (Devon). 
Here John, lord Russell, defeated the Cornish and 
Devonshire catholic rebels, the middle of Aug. 1549. 

SAN- For names with this prefix, see the 
names themselves throughout the book. 

SANCTION, sec Pragmatic. 

SANCTUABIES, see Asylums. Privileged 
places for the safety of offenders are said to have 
been granted by king Lucius to churches and their 
precincts. St. John's of Beverley was thus pri- 
vileged in the time of the Saxons. St. liurian's, 
in Cornwall, was privileged by Athelstan, 935 ; 
Westminster, by Edward the Confessor; St. Mar- 
tin's-le-Grand, 1529. Being much abused, the pri- 
vilege of sanctuary w r as limited \>y the pope in 1503 
(at the request of Henry VII.), and much reduced 
in 1540. In Loudon, persons were secure from 
arrest in certain localities : these were the Minories, 
Salisbury - court, AVhitefriars, Fulwood's- rents, 
Mitre-court, Baldwin's-gardens, the Savoy, Clink, 
Deadman's-place, Montague-close, and the Mint. 
This security was abolished 1697, but lasted in some 
degree till the reign of George II. (1727). 

SANDALS, sec Shoes. 

SAND-BLAST. Gen. B. C. Tilghman, of 
Philadelphia, has invented a method of cutting stone 
or hard metal by a jet of quartz sand impelled by 
compressed air or steam. A hole of 1 7 inch diameter 
and 1 h inch deep was bored through a block of 
corundum, nearly as hard as diamond, in 25 
minutes. The inven/ion was submitted to the Frank- 
lin Institute, Philadelphia, 15 Feb. 1871. It may 
be employed in the arts, for etching, &c. ; for this 
purpose a company was at work, 1874. 

SANDEMANIANS, see Glasiles. 



SANDHURST. 



857 



SANITATION. 



SANDHURST, Royal Military 

■COLLEGE, founded, first at High Wycombe, in 
1799; removed to Great Marlow in 1802. and to 
Sandhurst in 1812. It consists of the staff college 
and cadets' college. Competitive examination for 
■entrance into the latter began in Feb. 1858. A wing 
•of the college was destroyed by fire, 21 Jan. 1868. 

SANDRINGHAM HOUSE, N. E. Norfolk, 
■was purchased by the prince of Wales, 1861, re- 
built ; occupied, 1871 ; much injured by fire, 1 Nov. 
1891. Here the duke of Clarence and Avondale 
•died, 14 Jan. 1892. 

SANDWICH (Portits Rntitpcnsis, Kent). It 
suffered by Danish invaders in 851, 993, and 1014, 
but was rebuilt by Canute, and became prosperous ; 
it became chief of the cinque ports about 1066. It 
contributed 22 ships and 504 mariners to Edward 
III.'s French expedition. It was taken and plun- 
dered by the French under Breze in Aug. 1457. 
Flemish silk and woollen manufactories were set- 
tled here by Elizabeth in 1561. Disfranchised 
1885. Population, 1881, 2,846; 1891, 2,796. 

SANDWICH ISLANDS or Hawaii Ar- 
chipelago, a group in the Pacific Ocean, discovered 
by captain Cook in 1778. In Owlujhcc or Hawaii, one 
of these islands, he fell a victim to the sudden re- 
sentment of the natives, 14 Feb. 1779. The king 
and queen visited London in 1824, and died there 
in July. These people have made great progress in 
civilisation, and embraced Christianity before any 
missionaries were settled among them. Population 
in 1884, 80,578; 1890, 89,990. Numbers of native 
population said to be stationar}'. King Kamehameha 
IV. married Miss Emma Hooker, 1856. She came 
to England in 1865 ; landing at Southampton, 13 
July, and visited our queen, 9 Sept. An English 
bishopric was established at Honolulu in 1861, 
for which Dr. Thomas Staley was consecrated, J 8 
Aug. 1862. 

The king died ; Kameliameba V. king . Nov. 1863 
The duke of Edinburgh warmly received at Hono- 
lulu 21 July, 1869 

Bishop Staley resigns, Aug. 1870; bishop Alfred 

Willis consecrated 2 Feb. 1872 

Kamehameha V. died, unmarried . 11 Dec. ,, 

Win. C. Lunalilo crowned, 8 Jan. 1873 ; died, 3 Feb. 1874 
Reciprocity treaty concluded between Hawaii and 

the United States 1875 

David Kalakaua (born 16 Nov. 1836), elected king, 
in opposition to queen Einnia 12 Feb. ; visits the 
president at Washington 12 Dec. 1876; visits 
Europe ; at Rome, 1 July ; received by the queen 
at Windsor, 12 July, 1881 ; crowned . 12 Feb. 1883 
Queen Kapioiani arrives at Liverpool to be present 
at the royal jubilee service 2 June ; arrives in 

London 8 June, 1887 

Revolution against a corrupt ministry 25 June ; 
the ministry deposed 30 June ; the king powerless 
appeals to the foreign representatives, who 
recommend the formation of a new constitution ; 
the king signs a new constitution 7 July ; new 
ministry formed .... 10 July, ,, 

Mr. Wilcox, a government military pupil, with 100 
men, attempts the seizure of the palace at Hono- 
lulu, 30 July ; lighting ensues, 6 rebels killed ; 
Wilcox surrenders .... 31 July, 1889 
Death of the king David Kahikaua at San Fran- 
cisco, 20 Jan. ; succeeded by his sister, Lilino- 
kalani (who visited England in 1887), proclaimed 

29 Jan. 1891 
Political troubles : the late king's ministers refuse 
to resign, Feb. ; opposition to the queen ; Ameri- 
can intervention against Civil war about 4 March, ,, 
The ministry resigns ; new one formed, 26 Feb. ; 

princess Kaiulani declared heirappai'ent, 9 March, ,, 
The queen nominates her privy council of 40 mem- 
bers, including her husband, Mr. John Owen 
Dominis, reported c8 March; Mr. Dominis died, 

27 Aug. ,, 



Mr. Robert Wilcox heads a native party against 

the government, desiring a republic . Dec. 1891 
Conspiracyof Wilcox and others suppressed, 20 May, 1892 
SANGIR ISLANDS, a group lying between 
the Philippines and Celebes, subject to the Dutch. 
Great Sangir has suffered much by volcanic erup- 
tions. By one in 1856 about 2,000 persons perished, 
and by others, 7 June ct .scq. 1892, it was said that 
nearly all the population, about 1 2,000, was destroyed. 
SANHEDRIM. An ancient Jewish council 
of the highest jurisdiction, of seventy, or, as some 
say, seventy-three members, usually considered to 
be that established by Moses, Num. xi. 16, — 1490 
B.C. It was yet in being at the time of Jesus 
Christ, John xviii. 31. A Jewish Sanhedrim was 
summoned by the emperor Napoleon I., 23 July, 
1806. A meeting of Jewish deputies was held 18 
Sept , and the Sanhedrim assembled, 9 March, [807. 
SANITARY INSTITUTE of Great 
BRITAIN, founded 13 July, 1876; president, the 
duke of Northumberland. Congress at Leamington, 
1 Oct. 1877; at Stafford, 2 Oct. 1878; at Croy- 
don, 21 Oct. 1879; at Exeter, 1880; opened a School 
of Hygiene in London Nov. 1879. Congress at 
Newcastle, 1882; at Glasgow, 27 Sept. 1883: at 
Dublin, 30 Sept. 1884 ; at Leicester, 22 Sept. 1885 ; 
York, 21 Sept. 1886: Bolton, 20 Sept. 1887; 
Worcester, 24 Sept. 1889 ; Brighton, 24 Aug. 1890 ; 
Portsmouth, 12 Sept. 1892; incorporated Aug. 1888. 
See under Sanitation. 

SANITATION, the preservation of health. 
Strict cleanliness is enjoined in the law of Moses, 1490 
b.c. Great attention hasbeen paid to the public health 
in France since 1802. Tardieu published his " Dic- 
tionnaire de Hygiene," 1852-54. Sanitary com- 
missions were appointed in i83Sand 1844. To Dr. 
Southwood Smith is mainly attributable the honour 
of commencing the agitation on the subject of public 
health in England about 1832 ; his " Philosophy of 
Health" having excited much attention. Since 
1838 he has published numerous sanitary reports, 
having been much employed by the government. 
Professors of hygiene are now appointed. See 
Health, Public Health, and Hygiene (Congresses). 
Investigations of the Poor Law Commissioners and con- 
sequent disclosures and the reports of the registrar- 
general lead to legislation, 1834 et seq. 
Nuisances Removal act passed (repealed) . 1845-1860 
Baths and Washhouses act .... 1846-1S47 
Public Health act (subsequent Supplemental acts). 

See Health, Board of 1S48 

Common Lodging Houses act . . . 1851-1853 
Labouring Classes Lodging Houses act . . . 1851 
Smoke Nuisance Abatement act .... 1853 

Diseases Prevention act 1855 

Public Health act passed „ 

Metropolitan Interments acts . . . 1S50-1855 
International sanitary conferences at Paris, 1851 ; 

at Constantinople 1S60 

Labouring Classes Dwelling-house act passed, March, 1S66 
New Sanitary act (stringent) passed Aug. 1866 ; 

amended 1S6S, 

Public Health act passed . . . 10 Aug. 
National health society founded .... 
International sanitary congress at Vienna, closed 

1 Aug. 
Public Health act for Ireland passed . 7 Aug. 
Sanitary Laws Amendment act passed . 7 Aug. 

New Consolidated Public Health act passed . 
An international exhibition of objects relating to 
public health and safety was opened by the king 
Of Belgium at Brussels, 26 June ; a congress net 

27 Sept. 
See Hygiene. 
Parkes "museum of hygiene," instituted 1S76, at 
University college, London ; incorporated and 
removed to Margaret-street, Cavendish-square, 
1882; opened by the duke of Albany .-6 May, 1883 ; 
incorporated with the Sanitary institute of Great 
Britain Aug, 



1870 
1872 
1873 

1874 



1S75 



1S76 



SANITAS. 



853 



SARAGOSSA. 



Sanitary Assurance Association, formed by sir Jo- 
seph Fayrer, Drs. Andrew Clark, Oorfield, Tyn- 
dall, and others ; constituted . . .14 Dec. 1880 

London Sanitary Protection Association, founded by 
sir Wm. W. Gull, professor Huxley, and others . 1881 

International sanitary exhibition, royal Albert hall, 

16 July — 13 Aug. ,, 

National health society's exhibition opened 2 June, 1883 

International health exhibition, 1884; proposals 
adopted, Nov. 1883 ; opened by the duke of Cam- 
bridge, 8 May ; closed, 30 Oct. ; conferences held 
about 12 June ; the juries inaugurated by the 
prince of Wales, 17 June; admitted, 4,153,390; 
medals awarded (242 gold, 5096 silver, and others), 
27 Oct. 1884; estimated surplus, 19,000?. . Feb. 1885 

International sanitary conferences at Washington, 
1881 ; at Rome . 1S85 

.Stated result of fifty years' sanitation saving of 
about 5or>,ooo lives ; death rate reduced from 
above 22 to 19 per thousand . . . Nov. 1886 

The College of State Medicine for the training of 
persons officially employed in matters relating to 
public health inaugurated ; address by Mr. 
Brudenell Carter 2 May 1888 

Congress of Hygiene met at Paris . . . 4 Aug. 18S9 

Sir Edwin Chad wick, a great promoter of sanitation, 
died, aged 90 5 July, 1890 

International sanitary conference at Venice, 5 Jan. 
et seq. ; convention respecting quarantine, &c, 
signed by some of the delegates . . 30 Jan. 1892 

Sanitary conference at Paris . . about 24 May, „ 

SANITAS (health), a new antiseptic and dis- 
infectant, invented by Mr. C. T. Kingzett, about 

1875- 

Having discovered that the salubrity of the air surround- 
ing certain trees, such as the Eucalyptus globulus and 
pines, is due to their volatile oils producing peroxide 
of hydrogen and camphoric acid, he devised a method 
for procuring these re-agents by the decomposition of 
common turpentine, and in 1877 they were manufac- 
tured and sold as " Sanitas." 

SAN JUAN ISLAND, see Juan. 

SAN SALVADOE, see Salvador. 

SANSCULOTTES, a term of reproach applied 
to the leaders of the French republicans about 1790, 
on account of their negligence in dress, and after- 
wards assumed by them with pride. The comple- 
mentary days of their new calendar were named by 
the Mountain party Sansculottides. 

SANSKRIT, the language of the Brahmans of 
India, spoken at the time of Solomon, has been 
much studied of late years. Sir Wm. Jones, who 
published a translation of the poem Sakuntala, in 
1783, discovered that a complete literature had been 
preserved in India, comprising sacred books (the 
Vedas), history and philosophy, lyric and dramatic 
poetry. Texts and translations of many works have 
been published by the aid of the East India Com- 
pany, the Oriental Translation Fund, and private 
liberality. The professorship of Sanskrit at Ox- 
ford was founded by colonel Boden. The first pro- 
fessor, H. H. Wilson, appointed in 1832, translated 
part of the Rig-veda Sanhita, the sacred hymns of 
the Brahmins, and several poems, &c. Professor 
Monier Williams (elected i860) published an Eng- 
lish and Sanskrit dictionary, 1851. Professor Max 
Mi'tller published his history of Sanskrit Literature 
in 1859, and has edited the original text of the 
Vedas. Philologists have discovered an intimate 
connection between the Sanskrit, Persian, Greek, 
Latin, Teutonic, Slavonian, Celtic, and Scandi- 
navian languages. 

SAN STEFANO, see Stefano. 

SANTA CEUZ (Teneriffe, Canary Isles). Here 
admiral Blake, by daring bravery, entirely destroyed 
sixteen Spanish ships, secured with great nautical 
skill, and protected by the castle and forts on the 
shore, 20 April, 1657. Clarendon. In an unsuc- 



cessful attack made upon Santa Cruz by Nelson, 
several officers and 141 men were killed, and the 
admiral lost his right arm, 24 July, 1797.* See- 
under Virgin Isles. 

SANTA FE DE BOGOTA, see New Gra- 
nada. 

SANTA HERMANDAD, see Sermandad. 

SANTIAGO DE COMPOSTELLA(N.W. 

Spain), was sacked by the Moors in 995, and held by 
them till it was taken by Ferdinand III. in 1235. 
The order of Santiago, or St. James, was founded 
about 1 1 70 to protect pilgrims to the shrine of St. 
James the Greater (Acts, xii. 2), said to be buried in 
the cathedral. The town was taken by the French in 
1809, and held till 1814. — Santiago, the capital of 
Chili, S. America, founded by Yaldivia in 1541, has 
suffered much by earthquakes, especially in 1822 
and 1829. Population, 1885, 189,332. 
At a festival in honour of the Virgin Mary, 8 Dec. 1863, 
when the church of the Campania, brilliantly illumi- 
nated, was crowded, the combustible ornaments took 
fire, and above 2,000 persons, principally women, 
perished. On 20 Dec. the government ordered the 
church to be razed to the ground. See Chili, 1891. 

SAPPERS AND MINERS, a name given in 
1812 to the non-commissioned officers and privates 
of the corps of Royal Engineers. Brande. 

SAPPHIC VERSE, invented by Sappho, the 
lyric poetess of Mitylene. She was equally cele- 
brated for her poetry, beauty, and a hopeless passion 
for Phaon, a youth of her native country, on which 
last account it is said she threw herself into the sea 
from Mount Leucas, and was drowned, about 590 
B.C. The Lesbians, after her death, paid her divine 
honours, and called her the tenth muse. Some 
consider the story fabulous. 

SAPPHIRE, a precious stone of an azure 
colour, and transparent ; in hardness it exceeds the 
ruby, and is next to the diamond. One was placed 
in the Jewish high priest's breast-plate, 1 49 1. 
Thamas Kouli Khan is said to have possessed a 
sapphire valued at 300,000/., 1733. Artificial sap- 
phires were made in 1857 by M. Gaudin. Equal parts 
of alum and sulphate of potash were heated in a 
crucible. 

SARABAND. A stately dance invented by 
Sarabanda, a dancer of Seville, in the 16th century. 

SARACENS, a name of doubtful origin, popu- 
larly applied in the middle ages and since to the 
Arabs, Moors, and other Mahometans who conquered 
the East, Spain, Sicily, and parts of Africa, and re- 
sisted the Crusaders. See Mahometanism. 

SARAGOSSA (N.E. Spain), anciently Csesarea 
Augusta, founded 27 B.C., was taken by the Goths-, 
470 ; by the Arabs, 712 ; by Alfonso of Spain, 1 1 18. 
Here Philip V. was defeated by the archduke 
Charles, 20 Aug. 1710. On 17 Dec. 1778, 400 of the 
inhabitants perished in a fire at the theatre. Sara- 
gossa, after successfully resisting the French in 
1808, was taken by them after a most heroic defence 
by general Palafox, 20 Feb. 1809. The inhabitants, 

* Captain Fremantle, the friend of Nelson, and his com- 
panion in most of his brilliant achievements, was also 
wounded in the arm immediately before Nelson had re- 
ceived his wound in the same limb. The following note, 
addressed to the lady of Captain Fremantle (who was on 
board with her husband at the time he wrote), has been 
preserved , as being the first letter written by the hero with 
his left hand: — " My dear Mrs. Fremantle, — Tell me 
how Tom is, I hope he has saved his arm. Mine is off; 
but thank God ! I am as well as I hope he is. Ever yours, 
"Horatio Nelson." 



SAEAH SANDS. 



859 



SAEMATIA. 



of both sexes, resisted until worn out by fighting, 
famine, and pestilence. Population, 1887, 92,407. 

SAEAH SANDS, see Wrecks, 1857. 

SAEAKHS, see Russia, 1884. 

SAEATOGA (New York State, N. America). 
Here general Burgoyne, commander of a body of the 
British army, after a severe engagement with the 
Americans at Gernianstown, in which he was vic- 
torious, 3, 4 Oct., being surrounded, surrendered all 
his army (5791 men) to the American general Gates, 
17 Oct" 1777. This was the greatest check the 
British suffered in the war. 

SAEAWAK, see Borneo. 

SAEDINIA, an island in the Mediterranean, 
successively possessed by the Phoenicians, Greeks, 
Carthaginians (about 500 B.C.), Romans (238), 
Vandals (a.d. 456), Saracens (720-40), Genoese 
(1022), Pisans (1165), Aragoncse (1352), and 
Spaniards. From settlers belonging to these 
various nations the present inhabitants derive their 
origin. Victor Amadeus, duke of Savoy, acquired 
Sardinia in 1720, with the title of king ; see Saroi/. 
Population of the Sardinian dominions in 1858, 
5,194,807; of Sardinia alone, 1887, 723,833. The 
king of Sardinia was recognised as king of Italy by 
his parliament in Feb. 1861 ; see Italy. 
Conquered by the English naval forces, under sir 

J dim Leake and gen. Stanhope . . . . 1708 

Ceded to the emperor Charles VI 1714 

Recovered by the Spaniards . . 22 Aug. 1717 
Ce led to the duke of Savoy with the title of king, 

as an equivalent for Sicily 

Victor Amadeus abdicates in favour of his son . . 
Attempting to recover his throne, lie is taken, and 

1 lias in prison mf 

The court kept at Turin, till Piedmont is overrun 

by the French 

Charles Emmanuel resigns to his brother, duke of 

Aosta 4 June, 1802 

Piedmont annexed to Italy ... 26 May, 1805 

The king resides in Sardinia .... 1798-1814 
Piedmont restored to its sovereign, with Genoa 

added Dec. ,, 

King Charles-Albert promulgates a new code . . 1837 
Cavour establishes the newspaper "II Risorgi- 

niento "(" the Revival") 1847 

Tiie king grants a constitution, and openly espouses 

the cause of Italian regeneration against Austria, 

23 March, 1848 
Defeats the Austrians atGoito; and takes Peschiera 

30 May, ,, 
Incorporation of Lombardy with Sardinia 28 June, 

and Venice 4 July, ,, 

Sardinian army defeated by Radetzky . 26 July, ,, 
Sardinians at Milan capitulate to Radetzky 5 Aug. ,, 

Armistice signed 9 Aug. ,, 

Hostilities resumed 12 March, 1849 

Radetzky defeats a division of the Sardinians, and 

occupies Mortara .... 21 March, ,, 
Complete defeat of the Sardinians by the Austrians 

at Novara 23 March, ,, 

Charles-Albert abdicates in favour of his son, 

Victor-Emmanuel .... 23 March, ,, 
The Austrians occupy Novara, &c. . . 25 March, ,, 
Another armistice .... 26 March, ,, 
Death of Charles-Albert, at Oporto . 28 July, ,, 
Treaty of Milan between Austria and Sardinia, 

.signed 6 Aug. ,, 

Adoption of the Siccardi law, which abolishes 

ecclesiastical jurisdictions . . . 9 April, 1850 
Arrest of the bishop of Turin . . . 4 May, ,, 
He is released from the citadel . . 2 June, ,, 
Cavour minister of foreign affairs .... 1851 
Pill for suppression of convents and support of 

clergy by the state passed , . . 2 March, 1855 
Convention with England and France signed; a 

c.ontingentof 15,000 troops to be supplied against 

Russia 10 April, ,, 

1 d.ooo troops under general La Marmora arrive in 

the Crimea 8 Mar. 



1720 
1730 



1732 



■ 1792 



Who distinguish themselves in the battle of the 
Tchernaya 16 Aug. 1855 

The king visits London, &c. . . 30 Nov. &e. ,, 

Important note on Italy from count Cavour to 
England 16 April, 1856 

Rupture with Austria ; subsequent war (see A ustria, 
1857, et seq.) 

Cavour declares in favour of free trade . June, 1857 

Prince Napoleon Jerome marries princess Clotilde 
(see Italy) 30 Jan. 1859 

Preliminaries of peace signed at Villa Franca, n 
July ; count Cavour resigns, 13 July ; Rattazzi 
administration formed . . . .19 July, „ 

The emperor Napoleon's letter to Victor-Emmanuel 
advocating the formation of an Italian confedera- 
tion : the latter declares it to be impracticable, 
and maintains his engagements with the Italians, 

20 Oct. ,, 
Treaty of peace signed at Zurich . . Nov. ,, 
Garibaldi retires into private life . . 17 Nov. ,, 
Count Cavour returns to office . . . 16 Jan. i86» 
The Sardinian government refers the question of 

annexation of Tuscany, &c, to the vote of the 

people 29 Feb. ,, 

Annexation of Savoy and Nice proposed by the 

French government ; the Sardinian government 

refer it to the vote of the people . . 25 Feb. ,, 
Annexation to Sardinia voted almost unanimously 

by xEmilia, 14 March ; by Tuscany, 16 March ; 

accepted by Victor-Emmanuel . 18-20 March, , r 
Treaty ceding Savoy and Nice to France, signed 

24 March, ,, 
Prussia protests against the Italian annexations 

27 March, ,, 
New Sardinian parliament opens . . 2 April, ,, 
Annexation to France almost unanimously voted 

for by Nice, 15 April ; by Savoy . 22 April, ,, 
The government professes disapproval of Garibaldi's 

expedition to Sicily (which see) . . r8 May, ,, 
The chambers ratify treaty of cession of Savoy and 

Nice 29 May, ,, 

The Sardinian troops enter the papal territories 

(sec Italy, and Home) . . . . 11 Sept. ,, 
Victor-Emmanuel enters the kingdom of Naples 

15 Oct. ,, 
Naples and Sicily vote for annexation to Sardinia 

21 Oct. „ 
Railway from Sassari to the sea opened 9 April, 1872 
Great storm ; at Quarto, 200 houses, and at Quar- 

tuccie, 3 houses fell, about 15 people killed; at 

Pizzi, 10 houses destroyed ... 7 Oct. 18S9) 
A destructive hurricane, four bridges and many 

buildings destroyed, 12 persons killed, reported, 

7 Dec. 1890 
[For the disputes, and war with Austria, and the 

events of 1859-61, see Austria, France, Itovie, 

Sicily, and Naples.] 
[For later history see Italy.'] 

kings or Sardinia. See Savoy. 
1720. Vietor-Amadeus I. king (as duke II.) ; resigned, in 

1730, in favour of his son ; died in 1732. 
Charles-Emmanuel I. (III. of Savoy), son. 
Vietor-Amadeus II., sou. 
Charles-Emmanuel II., sou ; resigned his crown 

in favour of his brother. 
Victor-Emmanuel I., brother; 4 June. 
[Sardinia merged in the kingdom of Italy, of which 

the emperor Napoleon was crowned king, 26 

May, 1805.] 
Victor-Emmanuel restored ; resigned in March, 

1821 ; and died in 1824. 
Charles-Felix. 
Charles- Albert ; abdicated in favour of his son, 25 

March, 1849. Died at Oporto, 28 July, 1849. 
Victor-Emmanuel II., son; born 14 March, 1820; 

died, 9 Jan. 1878. 
Humbert, king of Italy ; born, 14 March 1844. 

See Italy, end. 

SAEDIS, see under Seven Churches. 

SAEMATIA, the ancient name for the country 
in Asia and Europe between the Caspian Sea and 
the Vistula, including Russia and Poland. The 
SarmattB or Sauromatse troubled the early Roman 
empire by incursions. After subduing the Scythians. 



1730. 

1773- 
1796. 



1821. 
1831. 



1849, 



SAENO. 



860 



SAVINGS' BANKS. 



they were subjugated by the Goths, in the 3rd and 
4th centuries. 'I hey joined the Huns and other 
barbarians in invading Western Europe in the 5th 
■century. 

SAENO (S.Italy). Near this river, Teias, king 
of the Goths, Avas defeated and slain by Justinian's 
general Narses, March, 553. 

SAEUM, OLD (Wiltshire), an ancient British 
town, the origin of Salisbury {which see). Although 
completely decayed, it returned two members to 
parliament till 1832. 

SASSANLDES, descendants of Artaxerxes or 
Ardishir, whose father, Babek, was the son of 
Sassan. He revolted against Artabanus^ the king 
•of Parthia ; defeated him on the plain of Hormuz, 
226 ; and re-established the Persian monarchy. This 
dynasty was expelled by the Mahometans, 652 ; 



SATAN, see Devil Worship. 

SATELLITES, see Planets, Jupiter, Mars, 
■Saturn. 

_ SATIEE. About a century after the introduc- 
tion of comedy, satire made its appearance at Pome 
in the writings of Lucilius, called the inventor of it, 
116 B.C. Livy. The Satires of Horace (35 b.c), 
Juvenal (about a.d 100), and Persius (about a.d. 
■60), are the most celebrated in ancient times, and 
those of Churchill (1761) and Pope (1729), m 
modern times. Butler's "Hudibias," satirizing 
the presbyterians, first appeared in 1663. Satire 
Menippee, a celebrated satirical pamphlet, partly 
m verse and partly in prose, attacking the policy of 
the court of Spain and the league, written in the 
style of the biting satires of the" cynic philosopher 
Memppus. The first part, " Catholieon d'Espagne," 
by Leroy, appeared in 1593 ; the second, "Abrege 
des Etats de la Ligue," by Gillot, Pithou, Papin, 
and Passerat, appeared in 1594. Bouillet. 

SATEAPIES, divisions of the Persian empire, 
formed by Darius Hystaspes about 516 B.C. 

SATTAEA (W. India) was long a flourishing 
state, founded by Sevajee about 1646; subjugated 
fcy_ the Mahrattas about 1749; conquered by the 
British, 1818 ; ruled by a rajah under the protection 
of the company. The last rajah died without issue 
in 1848 ; when the country was annexed. 

SATURDAY (the last, or seventh dav of the 
week ; the Jewish Sabbath; see Sabbath), "it was 
so called from an idol worshipped on tins day by 
the Saxons, and according to Yerstegan, was named 
by them Saterne's day. Pardon. It is more 
probably from Saturn, dies Saturni. Saturday 
Mcview, an independent literary weekly journal, 
was first published, 3 Nov. 1855. See Hospital. 

SATUEN, the planet, ascertained to be about 
990 millions of miles distant from the sun, and its 
diameter to be about 77,230 miles. One of the 
eight satellites was discovered by Huvghens (25 
March, 1655) J four by Cassini (1672-84) ; two by 
sir William Herschel (1789), and one by Bond and 
Lassells (1848) . The ring was observed' by Galileo, 
about 1610; its annular form determined' by Huy- 
ghens, about 1655 ; and discovered to be two-fold 
by Messrs. Ball, 13 Oct. 1665; an inner ring was 
detected in 1850 by Dawes in England (29 Nov.), 
and by Bond in America. 

SATUEN ALIA, festivals in honour of Saturn, 
father of the gods, were instituted long before the 
foundation of Rome, in commemoration of the 
freedom and equality which prevailed on the earth 
in his golden reign. Some, however, suppose that 
the Saturnalia were first observed at Pome in the 



reign of Tullus Hostilius (673-640 B.C.), after a 
victory obtained over the Sabines: whilst others 
suppose that Janus first instituted them in gratitude 
to Saturn, from whom he had learned agriculture. 
Others assert that they were first celebrated after a 
victory obtained over the Latins by the dictator 
Posthumius, when he dedicated a temp'e to Saturn, 
497 B.C. During these festivals no business was 
allowed, amusements were encouraged, and dis- 
tinctions ceased. Lenglet. 

SAVAGE CLUB, instituted by various 
literary men, in 1857, facetiously terming them- 
selves "savages," on account of their freedom from 
conventionalism. On some occasions they gave a 
war-whoop. Sala. Mr. W. E. Gladstone was pre- 
sent at the 22nd anniversary, 14 June, 1879, and 
the prince of Wales has been a visitor (1882). 

SAVANDEOOG (Mysore, S. India), a strong 
fortress, was captured by the British without loss, 
21 Dec. 1791. 

SAVINGS' BANKS. The first of these was 
instituted at Berne, in Switzerland, in 1787, by the 
name of caisse de domestiques, being intended for 
servants only ; another was set up in Basel, in 1792, 
open to all depositors. The rev. Joseph Smith, of 
Wendover, began a Benevolent Institution in 1799; 
and in 1803 -4, a " charitable bank" was instituted 
at Tottenham by Miss Priseilla Wakefield. The rev. 
Henry Duncan established a parish bank at Ruthwel I 
in 1810. One was opened in Edinburgh in 1814. 
The benefit clubs, among artisans, having accumu- 
lated stocks of money for their progressive purposes, 
a plan was adopted to identify these funds with the 
public debt of the country, and an extra rate of 
interest was held out as an inducement ; hence were 
formed savings' banks to receive small sums, re- 
turnable with interest on demand. 
Et. hon. Geo. Rose developed the system, and brought it 

under parliamentary control, 1S16. 
In 1S40 tliere were 550 banks ; 766,354 depositors ; amount, 

22,060,904?. 
Acts to consolidate and amend previous laws relating to 
savings' banks were passed in 1828 and 1847 ; extended 
to Scotland in 1835 ; again consolidated and amended 
in 1863, 1880 and 1887. 
On 20 Nov. 1851, the number of savings' banks in Great 
Britain and Ireland was 574, besides above 20,000 
friendly societies and charitable institutions. The 
depositors (in the banks) were 1,092,581, while the 
societies embraced a vast but unknown number of 
persons : the amount of deposits was 32,893,511?. 
Amount of computed capital of savings' banks in the 
United Kingdom : — 1853, 33,362,260?. ; 1S60, 41,258,368?. ; 
1870, 37,958,549?. — 1871, England, 31,413,002?. ; Wales, 
1,066,543?. ; Scotland, 4,119,735?. ; Ireland, 2,220,383?. ; 
total, 38,819,663?. In 1877, England, 34,750,747?.; 
Wales, 1,189,254?. ; Scotland, 6,026,802?. ; Ireland, 
2,271,883?.; total, 44,238,686?, In 1883, England, 
34,441,787?.; Wales, 1,103,201?.; Scotland, 7,359,586?.; 
Ireland, 2,082,549?. ; total, 44,987,123?. In 1887, Eng- 
land, 35, 595,889/.; Wales, 915, 171?.; Scotland, 8^88,354?.; 
Ireland, 2,062,808?. ; total, 47,262,222?. In 1890, Eng- 
land, 31,232,451?.. ; Wales, 852,455?. ; Scotland, 
9,533,971?.; Ireland, 2,011,675?. ; total, 43,650,552?. 

1877. Received by Trustees. Paid. 

England . . .^6,590,428 . . .^7»°3 1 . 2 33 

Wales . . . . 178,260 . . 224,434 

Scotland . . • 2,090,480 . . . 1,927,283 

Ireland . ... 504,463 • • 472,185 

9.363*631 9>655.i35 



1887. 
England . 
Wales 
Scotland 
Ireland 



leceived by Trustees. 

. £6,871,807 . 
. . 122,814 

• 2.472.59° • 
• • 409.350 


Paid. 

• £7,756,255 

183,641 

• 2,340,033 

428,673 



9,876,561 



10,708,602 



SAVOXA. 



861 SAXE-COBURG AND GOTIIA. 



England . 
Wales 
Scotland 
Ireland 



Received hy Trustees. 
. £6,234,996 . 
. . 124,055 

. 2,824,391 . 
. . 380,965 



Paid. 

£8,607,201 

165,502 

2,870,407 

483,290 



For Post-Office Savings' Battles, established in 1861, see 

under Post Office. 
Savings' Banks Investment acts, passed March, 1866, 

and Aug. 1869. 
449 old Savings' Banks in the United Kingdom, 1,506,714 

accounts, deposits, 43,797,805?., 1880. 
New Savings' Bank Act, 43 cfc 44 Vict. c. 36, passed, 1880, 

came into effect, interest to depositors reduced to 

■2.1. 15s. per cent. 1 Nov. 1880. 
409 savings banks in the United Kingdom, 1884. 380 in 

1888. 
A new Savings Banks act was brought in and withdrawn 

in 1390; passed, 3 July, 1891. 

CLASSIFICATION OF THE FIRST 20,000 DEPOSITORS. 

Domestic servants . 7245 

Persons in trade, mechanics, &c 7473 

Labourers and porters 672 

Miners 1454 

Friendly and charitable societies . . . . 58 

Persons not classed, viz., widows, teachers, sailors, 

&e 3098 

See Cardiff. 

iSAVONA (a manufacturing town, N. Italy, 
long held by the Genoese) was captured by the king 
of Sardinia in 1746; by the French in 1809, and 
annexed ; restored to Sardinia at the peace. Pope 
Pius VII. was kept here by Napoleon I., 1809-12. 
Soap is said to have been invented here, and hence 
its French name savon. 

SAVOY, the ancient Sapaudia or Sdbaudia, 
formerly a province in N. Italy, east of Piedmont. 
It became a Roman province about 1 18 B.C. The 
Alemanni seized it in a.d. 395, and the Franks in 
490. It shared the revolutions of Switzerland till 
about 1048, when Conrad, emperor of Germany, 
gave it to Humbert, with the title of count. Count 
Thomas acquired Piedmont in the 13th century. 
Amadeus, count of Savoy, having entered his 
dominions, solicited Sigismund to erect them into 
a duchy, which he did at Canibray, 19 Feb. 1416. 
Victor-Amadeus, duke of Savoy, obtained the 
kingdom of Sicily from Spain, by a treaty, in 1713, 
but afterwards exchanged it with the emperor 
for the island of Sardinia, with the title of king, 
1720. The French subdued Savoy in 1792, and 
made it a department of France, under the name of 
Mont Blanc, in 1800. It was restored to the king 
of Sardinia in 1814; but with Nice annexed to 
France in i860, in accordance with a vote by uni- 
versal suffrage, 23 April, i860. Savoy was visited 
by the emperor and empress of the French in 
August, i860. The annexation Avas censured in 
England. 

DUKES OF SAVOY. 

1391. Count Amadeus VIII. is made duke in 1416 ; he was 
named pope, as Felix V. He abdicated as duke 
of Savoy, 1439 : renounced the tiara, 1449 ; died 
in 1451. 

1439. Louis. 

1465. Amadeus IX. 

1472. Pliilibert I. 

1482. Charles I. 

1489. Charles II 

1496. Philip II. 

1497. Philibert II. 
1504. Charles III. 

1553. Emmanuel-Philibcrt. 

1580. Charles-Emmanuel I. 

1630. Victor-Amadeus I. 

1637. Francis-Hyacinthe. 

1638. Charles-Emmanuel II. 

1675. Victor-Amadeus II. became king of Sicily, 1713 
exchanged for Sardinia {which see) in 1720. 



SAVOY PALACE (London), was built by 
Peter of Savoy, uncle of Eleanor, queen of Henry 
III., in 1245, on land granted to him. He gave it 
to the fraternity of Mountjoy (Monte Jo vis), from 
whom it was purchased by queen Eleanor for her 
son Edmund. Here resided John, lung of France, 
when a prisoner, 1357 ct seq. The Savoy was burnt 
by Wat Tyler and his followers, 1381. It was- 
restored as an hospital of St. John the Baptist by 
Henry VII. about 1505. The fruitless Confeuknce 
of bishops and eminent puritans for the revision of 
the liturgy was held at the Savoy, April-July, 1661. 
The hospital was dissolved in 1 702, and the" build- 
ings (then used as a military prison) removed for 
Waterloo-bridge and its approaches, 1817-19. The 
ancient Chapel (which once possessed the privilege of 
sanctuary), after several restorations, was destroyed 
by fire, 7 July, 1864, and was rebuilt at the queen's 
expense, and re-opened 26 Nov. 1865. The privi- 
lege of sanctuary, much abused, was abolished by 
parliament, 1697. The rev. Henry White, 30 years- 
chaplain, died 7 Oct. 1890. 

Savoy Theatre, erected for Mr D'Oyly Carte by Mr. C. 
J. Phipps, opened 10 Oct. 1881 ; lit by Swan's incan- 
descent electric light successfully (1194 lamps) ; 1000th 
performance of "Patience," by Sir A. Sullivan, libretto- 
by W. G. Gilbert, 28 Deo. 1881. See Operas. 
A list of the operas produced by sir A. Sullivan and Mr. 
W. G. Gilbert is given in the article Operas. The <!on- 
doliers, 7 Dee. 1889-20 June, 1891 ; The JS T avtch Girl, 
30 June, 1891-16 Jan. 1892 ; The Vicar 0/ Bray (re- 
vived), 28 Jan. -18 June, 1892. 
The Savoy Hotel on the Thames Embankment opened 
by a company, 6 Aug. 1889 ; the directors include the- 
earl of Lathom, Mr. R. D'Oyly Carte, and sir Arthur 
Sullivan. 

SAW. Invented by Dasdalus. Pliny. Invented 
by Talus. Apollodorus. Talus, it is said, having 
found the jaw-bone of a snake, employed it to cut 
through a piece of wood, and then formed an instru- 
ment of iron like it. Saw-mills were erected in 
Madeira in 1420 ; at Breslau in 1427. Norway had 
the first saw-mill in 1530. The bishop of Ely, 
ambassador from Mary of England to the court of 
Rome, describes a saw-mill there, 1555. The 
attempts to introduce saw-mills in England were 
violently opposed, and one erected by a "Dutchman 
in 1663 was forced to be abandoned. Saw-mills- 
were erected near London about 1770. The 
excellent saw-machinery in Woolwich dockyard is 
based upon the invention of the elder Brunei, 
1806-13. The circular saw was introduced into- 
England about 1 790. The saw-gin for separating 
cotton wool from the pod, invented by Eli Whitney, 
an American, in 1793, led to the immense growth of 
cotton in the southern states of the Union. Powis 
and James's band-saw was patented in 1858. 

SAXE-ALTENBUEG (formerly Hildburg- 
hausen), a duchy in central Germany. The dukes 
are descended from Ernest the Pious, duke of 
Saxony. Erncst,the first duke, died in 1715. The 
duke, Ernest, bom 16 Sept. 1826 ; succeeded 
his father, George, 3 Aug. 1053 ; he entered into- 
alliance with Prussia, 18 Aug. 1866. Heir, brother, 
Maurice, born 24 Oct. 1829. See page XII. 

SAXE-COBURG AND GOTHA (central 
Germany), capitals Gotlia and Coburg. The reigning 
family is descended from John Ernest (son of Ernest 
the Pious, duke of Saxony), who died in 1729. 

DUKES. 

1826. Ernest I. duke of Saxe-Saalfcld-Onburg : born, 2 
Jan. 1784; married Louisa, heiress of Augustus, 
duke of Saxe-Gotha, and became by c.mvintioii 
duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 12 Nov. 1826 ; died, 
29 Jan. 1844. 



SAXE-MEININGEN. 



862 



SCARLET FEVEE. 



[His brother, Leopold, married the princess Char- 
lotte of England, 2 May, 1816 ; became king of 
the Belgians, 12 July, 1831 ; and Ferdinand, the 
son of his brother Ferdinand, married Maria da 
Gloria, queen of Portugal, 9 April, 1836.] 
1844. Ernest II. son (brother of Albert, prince consort of 
Great Britain) ; born 21 June, 1818 ; married 
Alexandrina, duchess of Baden, 3 May, 1842 ; no 
issue. He entered into alliance with Prussia, 18 
Aug. 1866. Published Memoirs, 3 vols. 1887-9. 

Heir (presumptive) : Prince Alfred of England, 
duke of Edinburgh ; born, 6 Aug. 1844 (in whose 
favour the prince of Wales resigned his rights, 
19 April, 1863.) 

SAXE-MEININGEN (a duchy in central 
Germany). The dukes are descended from 
.Ernest the Pious, duke of Saxony. The first duke, 
Bernard (1680), died in 1706. Bernard (duke, 24 
Dec. 1803, died 3 Dec. 1882), abdicated in 
favour of his son George II., 20 Sept. 1866, who 
professed his adhesion to the Prussian policy; he was 
horn, 2 April, 1826. Heir, his son, Bernard, horn 
1 April, 1851. By a fire at Meiningen, about 3000 
persons became houseless, 6 Sept. 1874. 

SAXE-WEIMAE- EISENACH (central 
Germany). The grand-dukes are descended from 
John Frederic, the Protestant elector of Saxony, 
who was deprived by the emperor in 1548 ; see 
■Saxony. The houses of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Saxe- 
Gotha, Hilburghausen, and Saxe-Meiningen also 
sprang from him. They are all termed the senior 
or Ernestine branch of the old family. — Saxe- 
■Weimar became a grand duchy in 1815. The dukes 
have greatly favoured literature and their capital 
Weimar has been called the Athens of Germany. 

GRAND-DUKES. 

1815. Charles Augustus. 

1828. Charles Frederic ; died, 8 July, 1853. 

-1853. Charles Alexander; born, 24 June, 1818. He 

entered into alliance with Prussia, 18 Aug. 

1866. 
Heir: Charles Augustus : born, 31 July, 1844. 

SAXONY, a kingdom in N. Germany. The 
Saxons were a fierce warlike race, the terror of the 
inhabitants of the later western empire, frequently 
attacked France, and conquered Britain (which see). 
After a long series of sanguinary conflicts they were 
•completely subdued by Charlemagne, who instituted 
many fiefs and bishoprics in their country. Witi- 
kind, their great leader, who claimed descent from 
"Woden, professed Christianity about 785. From 
Iiim descended the first and the present ruling family 
■of "Wettin (the houses of Supplinburg, Guelf, and 
Ascania intervened from 1106 to 1421). Saxony 
became a duchy, 880 ; an electorate, 1180; and a 
(kingdom, 1806. It was the seat of war, 1813; the 
king being on the side of Napoleon. In the conflict 
of 1866 the king took the side of Austria, and the 
army fought in the battle of Kcmiggratz, 3 July. 
The Prussians entered Saxony 18 June. Peace 
"between Prussia and Saxony was signed 21 Oct. 
(subjecting the Saxon army to Prussia), and the 
king returned to Dresden, 3 Nov. Constitution of 
4 Sept. 1831 ; modified, 1849, 1851,1860, 1861, 1868, 
and 1874. Population, 1861, 2,225,240; 1871, 
2,556,244; 1880,2,972,805; 1885,3,182,003; 1890, 

■Oc.tocente.nary of the house of Wettin was celebrated at 
Dresden with great magnificence 15-19 June, 1889 ; the 
many branches of the royal family and its connections 
were represented ; the emperor William II., prince 
Alfred of Edinburgh for England, and princes repre- 
senting Portugal and Belgium, and deputations from 
Austria and Bussia were, present. The festivities 
included church services, military equestrian per- 
formances, historical pageants and a procession of 
12,000 costumed characters. The people presented 



about 150,000?. to the king, for the restoration of his 
palace. 



1423' 
1428. 

1464. 
i486. 
I525- 

1532. 



ELECTORS. 

Frederic I., first elector of the house of Misnia. 
Frederic II. 
[His sons Ernest and Albert divide the states. ] 



Ernest. 1464. Albert. 

Frederick III. 1500. George. 

John. 1539- Henry. 

1541. Maurice. 

John Frederic ; deprived by the emperor Charles 
V. ; succeeded by 
1548. Maurice (of the Albertine line). 
1553. Augustus. 
1586. Christian I. 
1591. Christian II. 
1611. John George I. 
1656. John George II. 
1680. John George III. 
1 69 1. John George IV. 

1694. Frederic Augustus I., king of Poland, 1697. 
1733. Frederic Augustus II., king of Poland. 
1763. Frederic Augustus III. becomes king, 1806. 

KINGS. 

1806. Frederic Augustus I. ; increased his territories by 

alliance witli France, 1806-9 ; suffered by peace 

of 1814. 
1827. Anthony Clement. 
1836. Frederic Augustus II., nephew (regent, 1830) ; died 

9 Aug. 1854. 
1854. John, brother (born 12 Dec. 1801) ; celebrated his 

golden wedding (50 years), 10 Nov. 1872; died, 

29 Oct. 1873. 
1873. Albert ; born, 23 April, 1828 ; married, 18 June, 

1853, Caroline of Wasa. 
Heir : George, brother : born 8 Aug. 1832. 

SCANDALUM MAGNATUM, a special 
statute relating to any wrong, by words or in 
writing, done to high personages of the land, such 
as peers, judges, ministers of the crown, officers in 
the state, and other great public functionaries, by 
the circulation of the scandalous statements, false 
news, or horrible messages, by which any debate 
or discord between them and the commons, or any 
scandal to their persons, might arise. Chambers. 
This law was first enacted 2 Rich. II. 1378. 

SCANDINAVIA, the ancient name of Sweden, 
Norway, and great part of Denmark (which see). 
whence proceeded the Northmen or Normans, who 
conquered Normandy (about 900), and eventually 
England (1066). They were also called Sea-kings, 
or Vikings. They settled Iceland and Greenland, 
and, it is thought, visited the northern regions of 
America, about the 9th century. A " National 
Scandinavian Society " has been formed at Stock- 
holm; see Sweden, Dec. 1864. 

SCAEBOEOUGH, Yorkshire (anciently 
Skardeburge), was ravaged by the Danes 1066. 
Incorporated by Henry II., 11*81. The town was 
made a bonding port in 1841. A new drive and 
promenade, a great engineering work, costing 
50,000^., opened by the duke of Clarence and the 
archbishop of York, 27 June, 1890. Population, 
1881,30,504; 1891,33,776. 

SCAELET, or kermes d}-e, was known in the 
East in the earliest ages; cochineal dye, 1518. 
Kepler, a Fleming, established the first dye-house 
for scarlet in England, at Bow, 1643. 1' ne art of 
dyeing red was improved by Brewer, 1667. BceJc- 
mann. 

SCAELET FEVEE, was very prevalent in 
the metropolis from August, 1887, to Feb. 1888. 
Patients admitted into the hospitals, April, 1887 — 
March, 1888, 7614. Arrangements for the crisis 
were made by the Metropolitan Asylums Board. 
Increase of fever in the metropolis ; scarlet fever, 



SCEPTICS. 



863 



SCIENTIFIC APPARATUS. 






1.426, 8 Aug.; decreasing Dec. 1890; outbreak of 
lever, June, 1892; 3,006 cases in hospitals, 27 June; 
-^,428 (3,022 scarlet fever), 20 Aug. ; 3,671 (3277 scarlet 
fever), 6 Sept. ; 3,833 (3407 scarlet fever), 23 Sept. 

SCEPTICS, the sect of philosophers founded 
by Pyrvho, about 334 B.C. He gave ten reasons for 
continual suspense of judgment; he doubted of 
everything, never made any conclusions, and when 
he had carefully examined the subject, and inves- 
tigated all its parts, he concluded by still doubting 
of its evidence. He advocated apathy and un- 
changeable repose. These doctrines were held by 
13a vie (died 1706). 

SCEPTEE, an emblem of royalty mentioned in 
the Bible {Gen. xlix. ro, Psalm xlv. 6, Esther 
iv. 11, etc.), and in Homer. The sceptre, origi- 
nally a staff, was gradually ornamented till it 
assumed its present form. 

SCHAFFHATJSEN (N. Switzerland), a fish- 
ing village in the 8th century, became an imperial 
city in the 13th; was subjected to Austria, 1330; 
independent, 1415 ; became a Swiss canton, 1501. 
Population, 1888; canton, 37,783 ; city, 12,315. 

SCHAUMBTJRG LIPPE (Germany), was 
formed into a county by Adolphus, of Sondersleben, 
1033. In 1640, on the death of count Otho IV., 
his mother, Elizabeth, transferred the domains to 
Philip of Lippe, from whom descended the reigning 
prince (the title assumed in 1807). Adolphus, born 
1 Aug. 1817, succeeded his father, 21 Nov. i860. 
Heir, son, George, born 10 Oct. 1846. Population 
ofthe principality, 1882,35,753; 1885,37,204; 1890, 
39,163- 

SCHELDT TOLLS were imposed by the 
treaty of Munster (or Westphalia), 1648. The tolls 
were abolished for a compensation, 1867. The house 
of commons voted 175,650^. for the British portion, 
on 9 March, 1864. The Scheldt was declared free 
on 3 Aug. with much rejoicing at Antwerp and 
Brussels. 

SCHIEHALLIEN, a mountain in Perthshire, 

where Dr. Neville Maskelyne, the astronomer- 
royal, made his observations with a plumb-line, 
24 Oct. 1774, from which Hutton calculated that 
the density of the earth is five times greater than 
water. 

SCHIPKA PASSES, on the Balkans, Tur- 
key. Through these the Bussian general Gourlto 
entered Boumelia. After his retreat, they were 
fortified, and desperately, but on the whole unsuc- 
cessfully, assailed by the Turks under Suleiman 
Pasha, with great slaughter on both sides, 20-27 
Aug. He took and lost fort St. Nicholas, 17 Sept. 
1877. The ltussians re-entered Roumelia, Jan. 
1878. 

SCHISM, see Heresy, and Popes. 

SCHISM ACT, 13 Anne, c. 7, introduced by 
lord Bolingbroke, 1713 ; repealed by 5 Geo. I. c. 4, 
in 1 719. By it teachers were required to declare 
their conformity to the established church. 

SCHLESWIG, see Holstein, Denmark, and 
Gastrin. 
SCHOOL BOARD, see Education. 

SCHOOLMEN or Scholastic Philoso- 
phy, began in the schools founded by Charlemagne, 
■800-14; all( l prevailed in Europe from the 9th to 
the 15th centuries ; see Doctors. 

SCHOOLS. Charity schools were introduced 
into London to prevent the seduction of the infant 
poor into lloman catholic seminaries, 3 James II. 



1687. Rapin. Charter schools were instituted in 
Ireland, 1733. Scully. In England there were, in 
1847, 13,642 schools (exclusively of Sunday schools) 
for the education of the poor ; and the number of 
children was 998,431. The parochial and endowed 
schools of Scotland were (exclusively of Sunday 
schools) 4836; and the number of children, 181,467. 
The schools in "Wales were 841, and the number of 
children, 38,164; in Ireland, 13,327 schools, and 
774,000 children. In 185 1 there were 2310 schools 
in connection with the Education Committee 
actually inspected in England and Scotland. They 
included: 1713 church of England schools in 
England and Wales; 282 protestant dissenting 
schools in England and Wales; 98 Boman catholic 
schools in Great Britain ; and 2 1 7 presby terian 
schools in Scotland, whereof 91 were of the free 
church : the whole affording accommodation for 
299,425 scholars; see Education, Design, Ascham,&.c. 
For Schoolboy Strikes, see Strikes, Oct. 1889. 

SCHOOL SHIPS, see Chichester. Com- 
■wall, off Purfleet, established 1859, accommodates 
between 250 and 300 vagrants (1878). 

SCHWARZBURG (the seat of two princi- 
palities, N. Germany). Gunther, count of Schwarz- 
burg, whose family dates from the 12th century, was 
elected emperor of Germany in 1349. From the 
two sons of count Gunther, who died 1552, sprang 
the present rulers. 

SCHWARZBURC.-RUDOLSTADT 

(a principality, 1697). 
1807. Albert (28 June), born 30 April, 179S ; died 26 Nov. 

1869. 
1869. George (born 23 Nov. 1838), 26 Nov. ; died 19 Jan. 

1890. 
1890. Gonthier, brother (born, 21 Aug. 1852). 

SCHWARZBURG-SONDERSHAUSEN 

(a principality, 1710). 
1835. Gunther (19 Aug.), born 24 Sept. 1S01 ; abdicated. 
1880. Charles, sou (born 7 Aug. 1830), 17 July. 

SCHWEIDNITZ, Prussia, often besieged and 
taken in the thirty years' and seven years' wars. 
Near it Frederick II. defeated the Austrians under 
marshal Daun, 16 May, 1762. 

SCHWEIZ, a Swiss canton, which with Uri 
and Unterwalden renounced subjection to Austria, 
7 Nov. 1307. The name Switzerland, for all the 
country, dates from about 1440. 

SCIENCE, see Education, Chemistry, and 

other branches. 

Science and Art Department began as the Normal School 
of Design, 1 Jan. 1837, with a grant of 1,500/. See 
under Design. The grant in 1885-6 was 391,573?. ; 
1888-9, 445!3°3^'» 1891-2; estimate 530.9S6/. 

100,000/. voted for the purchase of a site for new build- 
ing, 25 Feb. 1890. 

The Normal School of Science and Royal School of 
Mines, were directed to be called the Royal College of 
Science, London, Oct 1890. 

Miss Marshall, of Warwick gardens, Kensington, be- 
queaths to the department 1,000/. for a scholarship 
and scientific books and instruments, announced 
5 May, 1891. 

The 36th report states that in 188S the departim ill sup. 
ported 1,952 schools, and 6,579 classes were examined 
in elementary science, with 112,80s pupils ; the South 
Kensington museum is in the charge of the depart- 
ment. 

. SCIENTIFIC APPARATUS. The Interna- 
tional Loan Exhibition, at South Kensington, con- 
sisting of about 17,000 objects, many of great 
historical interest, from all countries except Ame- 
rica, was opened (by the queen,) 1} May. and 
closed 30 Dec. 1876. Conferences wereheld. i(j May 
— 2 June, and many free lectures given by eminent 
persons. Reopened 30 June, 1877. 



SCIENTIFIC ASSOCIATION". 



861 



SCOTLAND. 



SCIENTIFIC ASSOCIATION,. for pro- 
motion of research ; proposed at the meeting of the 
American Association at Philadelphia, Sept. 1884. 
Mrs. Elizabeth Thompson promised liberal support. 

SCIENTIFIC FRONTIER (in reference to 
Afghanistan), a term used by Lord Beaeonsfield, 9 
Nov. 1878. 

SCIENTIFIC INDUSTRY, Society foe 
Promoting, established at Manchester, in 1873. 
It proposed setting up a library and museum, the 
delivery of lectures, and the publication of reports. 

SCIENTIFIC EELIEF FUND. In 1859, 
several fellows of the ltoyal Society (Messrs. 
Gassiot, Wheatstone, Miller, Tyndall, and others) 
commenced the collection of subscriptions with the 
view of establishing a permanent fund to be ex- 
pended in aiding necessitous men of science and 
their families, in imitation of the "Literary Fund." 
In the spring of i860, 3365^ had been subscribed ; 
in Jan. 1865, 5320^. ; in 1867, 60K2I. ; in 1877, 
6428/. ; and many cases had been relieved. 

SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES' HOUSE 
COMPANY proposed March, 1873. 

SCIENTIFIC SURVEYING EXPEDI- 
TION, see Deep Sea. 

SCILLY ISLES (the Cassiterides or Tin- 
islands) . They held commerce with the Phoenicians ; 
and are mentioned by Strabo. They were con- 
quered by Athelstan, 936 ; and given to the monks. 
They were granted by Elizabeth to the Godolphin 
family, by whom they were fortified; the works 
were strengthened in 1649 by the royalists, from 
whom they were taken by Blake, 1651. Mr. Augus- 
tus Smith, the owner, and termed the king of these 
isles, after a long paternal rule, died in Aug. 1872. 
Mr. Dorrien Smith was the proprietor in 1892. The 
appointment of a county council for 1 April, 1891, 
was ordered by the local government board, June, 
1890. Population, 1891, 2,044. 

A British squadron under sir Cloudesley Shovel were 
wrecked here, when returning from an expedition 
against Toulon ; he mistook rocks for land, and struck 
upon them. His ship, the Association, in which were 
persons of rank, and 800 brave men, went instant!}' to 
the bottom. The Eagle, captain Hancock, and the 
I'omney and Firebrand, were also lost ; the rest of the 
fleet escaped, 22 Oct. 1707. Sir Cloudesley's body was 
conveyed to London, and buried in Westminster abbey, 
where a monument was erected to his memory. 

SCINDE, see Sinde. 

SCIO MASSACRE, 11 April, 1822, see Chios. 

SCLAVONIA, see Slavonia, 

SCONE (near Perth). The Scotch coronation 
chair was brought from Scone to Westminster abbey 
by Edward I. in 1296. Here Charles II. was 
crowned, I Jan. 1651. 

SCOPTZI, see White Doves. 

SCORE, MUSICAL, was Avritten by the monk 
Hucbald, who wrote "Enchiridion Musicae ; " he 
died 930. Specimens written in the 13th century 
exist in the British Museum. 

SCOTTISH - IRISH CONVENTION, 

see United States, May, 1889. 

SCOTISTS. Those Avho adopted the doctrines 
of John Duns Scotus (who died 8 Nov. 1308) 
on divine grace, freewill, the origin of the moral 
law, the Conception of the A r irgin Mary, &c, 
strongly opposed by the Thomists, disciples of St, 
Thomas Aquinas, who died 7 March, 1274. 



SCOTLAND, see Caledonia. At the death of 
queen Elizabeth, 24 March, 1C03, James VI. of 
Scotland, as the most immediate heir, was called to 
the throne of England, and proclaimed king of Great 
l 'ritain, 24 Oct. 1604. Each country had a separate 

arliament till 1707, when the kingdoms were 

mited ; see England and Population. 

Camelon, capital of the Picts, taken by Kenneth II. and 
every living creature put to the sword or destroyed, 843 

The Norwegians occupy Caithness 9th century. 

Scotland ravaged by Athelstan 933 

The feudal system established by Malcolm II. . . 1004. 

Invaded by Canute 1031 

Divided into baronies 1032 

The Danes driven out of Scotland .... 1040 

Duncan I. is murdered by his kinsman Macbeth, by 
whom the crown is seized ,, 

Malcolm III., aided by Edward the Confessor, de- 
feats the usurper at Dunsinane, 1054 ; Macbeth 
killed by Macduff 1056 or 1057 

The Saxon-English language introduced into Scot- 
land by fugitives from England escaping from the 
Normans 1080 

Siege of Alnwick : Malcolm III. killed . . . 1093 

Reign of David I., a legislator .... 1124-53, 

Scotland invaded by Haeho, king of Norway, with 160 
ships and 20,000 men ; the invaders are defeated by 
Alexander III., who now recovers the Western Isles 1263 

Death of Margaret of Norway, heiress to the throne, 

7 Oct. 1290 

John Balliol and Robert Bruce contend for the 
throne, 1291 ; Edward I. of England, as umpire, 
decides in favour of John .... Nov. 1292 

John Balliol, king of Scotland, appears to a sum- 
mons, and defends his own cause in Westminster 
hall against the earl of Fife 1293 

Edward, wishing to annex Scotland to England, 
dethrones John, ravages the country, destroys 
the muniments of Scottish history, and seizes the 
prophetic stone (see Coronation) .... 1296 

William Wallace defeats the English at Canibus 
Kenneth, and expels them, 1297 ; is defeated at 
Falkirk, 22 July, 1298 ; taken by the English, and 
executed at Smithfield . . . -23 Aug. 1305 

Robert Bruce, crowned, 1306 ; he defeats the Eng- 
lish, 1307 ; and takes Inverness, 1313; defeats the 
Englisn at Bannoekburn ... 24 June, 1314 

Edward Balliol gains the throne for a little time 
by his victory at Dupplin, 11 Aug. 1332 ; and 
by the victory at Halidon-hill . . 19 July, 1333 

David II. taken prisoner at the battle of Durham 
(and detained in captivity 11 years) . . . . 1346 

Battle of Chevy Chase, between Hotspur Percy and 
earl Douglas (see Olterburn) ... 10 Aug. 1388 

Murder of duke of Rothesay, heir of Robert III., by 
starvation 3 April, 1401 

The Scots defeated at Homildon-hill . 14 Sept. 1402 

James I. captured by the English near Flamborough 
head on his passage to France . . 30 March, 1406 

St. Andrews university founded by bishop William 
Turnbull 1451 

University of Aberdeen founded 1494 

James IV. invades England, slain at Flodden Field, 
and his army cut to pieces ... 9 Sept. 1513 

James V. banishes the Douglases . . . . 1528; 

He establishes the court of session .... 1532 

Order of St. Andrew, or the Thistle, is revived . 1540 

Mary, the queen of Scots, born 7 Dec. ; succeeds 
her father, James V., who dies . . 14 Dec. ,, 

The regent, cardinal Beaton, persecutes the re- 
formers, 1539, 1546 ; he is assassinated at St. 
Andrews 29 May, 1546 

The Scots defeated at Pinkie . . 10 Sept. 1547 

Mary marries the dauphin of France . April, 1558 

The parliament abolishes the jurisdiction of the 
pope in Scotland .... 24 Aug. 1560 

Francis II. dies, leaving Mary a widow . Dec. „ 

The Reformation in Scotland, by John Knox, and 
others, during the minority of Mary, between 1550& „ 

Mary, after an absence of thirteen years, arrives at 
Leith from France .... 21 Aug. 1561 

Upon an inquisition, which was officially taken, by 
order of queen Elizabeth, only 58 Scotsmen were 
found in London. Stow. ...... 1562 

Mary marries her cousin, Henry Stuart, lord Darn- 
ley 29 July, 1565 



SCOTLAND. 



865 



SCOTLAND. 



David Rizzio, her confidential secretary, murdered 
by Darnley in her presence . . 9 March, 1566 

Lord Darnley blown up by gunpowder, in his house 
(Mary accused of conniving at his death), 10 Feb. 1567 

James Hepburn, earl of Bothwell, carries off the 
queen, who marries nim . . . 15 May, ,, 

Mary made prisoner at Carberry hill by her nobles, 

15 June, „ 
Resigns her crown to her infant son James VI. ; 

the earl of Murray appointed regent . 22 July, ,, 
Mary escapes from prison, and collects a large 
army, which is defeated by the regent Murray, at 
the battle of Langside, 13 May ; enters England, 

16 May, 1568 
The regent Murray murdered ... 23 Jau. 1570 
The earl of Lennox appointed regent . 12 July, „ 
The earl of Lennox murdered, 4 Sept. ; the earl of 

Mar chosen regent Sept. 1571 

Death of the reformer John Knox . 24 Nov. 1572 

[His funeral in Edinburgh is attended by most of 
the nobility, and by the regent Morton, who ex- 
claims, " There lies he who never feared the face 
of man ! "] 
The university of Edinburgh founded . . . . 1582 
The Raid of Ruthven (see Rutliven) . . . ,, 

Mary having taken refuge in England, 16 May, 1568, 
is after a long captivity, beheaded at Fotheringay 
castle (see Fotheringay) .... 8 Feb. 1587 
Gowrie's conspiracy fails 5 Aug. 1600 

Union of the crown of Scotland with that of Eng- 
land by the accession of James VI. . 24 March, 1603 
James proclaimed "king of Great Britain, France, 

and Ireland " 24 Oct. 1604 

Charles I. attempts in vain to introduce the Eng- 
lish liturgy ; tumult at Edinburgh . 23 July, 1637 
Solemn league and covenant subscribed 1 March, 1638 

A Scotch army enters England 1640 

Charles joins the Scotch army, 1646 ; betrayed into 

the hands of the Euglish parliament . 30 Jan. 1647 
Marquis of Montrose defeated at Philiphaugh, 13 

Sept. 1645 ; executed at Edinburgh . 21 May, 1650 
Charles II. crowned at Scone, 1 Jan. ; defeated at 

Worcester 22 Aug. 1651 

Scotland united to the English commonwealth by 

Oliver Cromwell Sept. ,, 

Charles II. revives episcopacy in Scotland . . 1661 

Argyll beheaded 27 May, ,, 

Scottish hospital, London, incorporated . . . 1665 
The Covenanters defeated on the Portland hills . 1666 
Abp. Sharpe murdered near St. Andrews, by John 

Balfour of Burley and others . . 3 May, 1679 
The Covenanters defeat Claverhouse at Drumclog 

1 June ; are routed at Bothwell bridge 22 June, „ 
Richard Cameron's declaration for religious liberty 

22 June, 1680 
Resolution of a convention in favour of William III. ; 

re-establishment of presbytery . . 14 March, 1689 
The " claim of right " accepted by William and 

Mary 11 May, „ 

Insurrection of Claverhouse : killed at Killiecrankie, 

27 Jul)', >» 
Massacre of the Macdonalds at Glencoe 13 Feb. 1692 

Parish schools established by the parliament. . 1697 
Legislative union of Scotland with England 1 May, 1707 
Insurrection under the earl of Mar in favour of the 

son of James II. (see Pretender) .... 1715 
The rebels defeated at Preston, 12 Nov. ; and at 

Dumblane (or Sheriffmuir) . . .13 Nov. „ 
Captain Porteous killed by a mob in Edinburgh (see 

Porteous) 7 Sept. 1736 

Prince Charles Edward proclaimed at Perth, 4 
Sept. ; at Edinburgh, 16 Sept. ; with the High- 
landers defeats sir John Cope at Prcstonpans, 21 
Sept. ; takes Carlisle, 15 Nov. : arrives at Man- 
chester, 28 Nov. ; at Derby, 4 Dec. ; retreats to 

Glasgow 25 Dec. 1745 

Defeats general Hawley at Falkirk, 17 Jan. ; is 

totally defeated at Culloden . . 16 April, 1746 
The Highland dress prohibited by parliament, 12 Aug. ,, 
Lords Kilmarnock and Balmerino executed for high 

treason on Tower-hill .... 18 Aug. ., 
Simon Fraser, lord Lovat, aged 80, executed 9 April 1747 
Heritable jurisdictions abolished by parliament 
Thomson, the poet, dies .... 27 Aug 1748 
The Old Pretender, "Chevalier de St. George," dies 

at Rome 30 Dee. 176 s 

Prince Charles Edward Louis Casimir, the Young 
Pretender, dies at Rome . . . .31 Jan. 1788 I 



Death of Robert Burns . . . .21 July, 1796 
Scott's " Lay of the Last Minstrel " published . 1806 

Cardinal Henry duke of York (last of the Stuarts) 

ilies 31 Aug. 1807 

The Court of Session is formed into two divisions . „ 
Royal Caledonian asylum, London, founded . .1813 

Scott's " Waverley " published 1814 

The establishment of a jury court under a lord 

chief commissioner 1815 

Visit of George IV. to Scotland . . . Aug. 1822 

Sir Walter Scott dies 21 Sept. 1832 

Seven ministers of the presbytery of Strathbogieare 
deposed by the General Assembly of the Church of 
Scotland for obeying the civil in preference to the 
ecclesiastical law. (Their deposition was formally 
protested against by the minority of ministers and 
elders, headed by Dr. Cook) . . . 28 May, 1841 
The General Assembly condemn patronage as a 
grievance to the cause of true religion that ought 

to be abolished 23 May, 1842 

Visit of the queen, prince Albert, and the court ; 

she landed at Granton pier . . . 1-13 Sept. ,, 
Secession of the non-intrusion ministers of the 
church of Scotland (about 400) at the General As- 
sembly (see Free Church) ... 18 May, 1843 

Death of Jeffrey 26 Jan. 1850 

National Association for vindication of Scottish 

rights formed Nov. 1853 

Act for better government of the universities passed 

Aug. 1858 
Salmon Fisheries act passed . . . July, 1864 
The queen's visit to the borders, Kelso, Melrose, &c. 

21-24 Aug. 1867 
Scotch reform bill introduced into the commons, 

17 Feb., passed 13 July, 1868 

Procedure in court of session and justiciary and 

other courts amended July, ,, 

Scotch Reform act passed . . . .13 July, ,, 
Land Registers and Titles to Land act passed July, ,, 
Commission appointed to inquire into the adminis- 
tration of justice Oct. ,, 

Municipal elections amendment act passed, 9 Aug. 1870 
Act to unite counties for sheriffs' duties passed 

9 Aug. ,, 
Robert Chambers, author and publisher, died aged 69 

17 March, 1871 
Scott centenary celebrated in Edinburgh, <fec. (Scott 

born 15 Aug. T771) 9 Aug. ,, 

Scotch Education Act passed . . 10 Aug. 1872 
Return of owners of land and heritages, 1872-3 (a 
kind of Domesday book), published by govern- 
ment April, 1S74 

Patronage in the established church (see 1S42) 

abolished by act passed . . . 7 Aug. ,, 
Scottish Church Disestablishment Association : first 

annual meeting . ... 8 March, 1875 

Visit of the queen to Edinburgh ; the Scottish 
national monument, by J. Steell, to prince Albert, 

unveiled by her 17 Aug. 1876 

Romanist hierarchy revived by the pope ; arch- 
bishopric of Glasgow, bishopric of Dunkeld, &c. 
4 March ; the Scotch protestant bishops protest 

against this 13 April, 1S78 

Public Parks Act passed . . . 18 March, ,, 
Marriage Notice Act passed ... 8 Aug. ,, 

Education Act amended, by act . . 16 Aug. ,, 
Visit of Mr. Gladstone to Mid-Lothian, Edinburgh, 

Glasgow, &c, many speeches . 24 — 29 Nov. 1879 
About 40,000 Scottish volunteers reviewed in the 

Queen's Park, Edinburgh, by the queen 25 Aug. 1881 
Agitation respecting rents in Aberdeen, Banff, &c. 

Sept. -Oct. ,, 
Farmers' alliance founded at Aberdeen by delegates 

IVi 11 11 above 4000 farmers . . . 1 Dee. ,, 
Movement for home rule (which sec) begun 4 April, 1882 
Old Scottish regimental colours deposited in St. 
Giles's cathedral, Edinburgh, by the duke of 

Cambridge 13 Nov. 1883 

Death of Walter, duke of Buccleuch, aged 78 ; mu- 
nificent patron of public works, agriculture, 
science, literature, and art . . 15 April, 1884 
Agitation for the dis-establishmcnt of the church 

(see Church of Scotland) . . . autumn, 1885 
Secretary for Scotland Act passed . 14 Aug. ,, 

Charles Henry, duke of Richmond, appointed 
secretary Aug. 1885; succeeded by G. O. Trevclyau 
about 6 Feb. ; by Arthur J. Balfour 26 July, 

3 K 



SCOTLAND. 



866 



SCOTLAND. 



1886; by Scliomberg H., marquis of Lothian 

8 March. 1887 
Local government bill for Scotland introduced by 

J. P. B. Kobertson, 8 April ; passed . 26 Aug. 1889 
Scotch universities bill, giving more freedom to 

teaching and increasing state grant to 42,000?. a 

year, passed 30 Aug. 

New national portrait gallery for Scotland in Edin- „ 

burgh, opened by the marquis of Lothian 15 July, ,, 
The new universities commision and the special 

commission on the Western Highlands and 

islands, meet in Edinburgh . . . Jan. 1890 
Great railway strike, see Railways, 22 Dec. 1890 — 

31 Jan. 1891 
Death of lord justice-general John Inglis, eminent 

lawyer, aged about 81, 20 Aug. ; succeeded by 

rt. hon. James P. B. Robertson about . 17 Sept. „ 
Destructive plague of field-mice, or voles, in some 

agricultural districts, reported . April — June, 1892 
Education and Local Taxation Relief act passed 

27 June, ,, 
Sir George Trevelyan, secretary for Scotland, 1 8 Aug. , , 
See Edinburgh. 

KINGS OF SCOTLAND. 

BEFORE CHRIST. 

[The early accounts of the kings are in a great measure 
fabulous. The series of kings is carried as far back as 
Alexander the Great.] 
330. Fergus I. : ruled 25 years ; lost in the Irish Sea. 

[Fergus, a brave prince, came from Ireland with an army 
of Scots, and was chosen king. Having defeated the 
Britons and slain their king Coilus, the kingdom of the 
Scots was entailed upon his posterity for ever. He 
went to Ireland, and, having settled his affairs there, 
was drowned on his return, launching from the shore, 
near the harbour, called Carrick-Fergxis to this day, 
3699 a.m. Anderson.] 

AFTER CHRIST. 

357. Eugenius I., son of Fincormachus ; slain in battle 
by Maximus, the Roman general, and the Picts. 
*** With this battle ended the kingdom of the Scots, 
after having existed from the coronation of 
Fergus I. , a period of 706 years ; the royal family 
fled to Denmark. Boece ; Buchanan. 
[Interregnum of 27 years.] 

404. Fergus II. (I.) great grandson of Eugenius, and 
40th king ; slain in battle with the Romans. 

420. Eugenius II. or Evenus : reigned 31 years. 

451. Dongardus or Domangard, brother : defeated and 
drowned. 

457. Constantine I. , brother : assassinated. 

479. Congallus I. nephew; just and prudent. 

501. Goranus, brother ; murdered. Boece. Died while 
Donald of Athol was conspiring to take his life. 

535. Eugenius III. nephew; "none excelled him in 
justice." 

558. Congallus II. brother. 

569. Kinnatellus, brother ; resigned for 

570. Aidanus or Aldan, son of Goranus. 

605. Kenneth, sou of Congallus II. 

606. Eugenius IV. son of Aidanus. 

621. Ferchard or Ferquhard I. son ; confined for mis- 
deeds to his palace, where he laid violent hands 
upon himself. Scott. 

632. Donald IV. brother ; drowned in Loch Tay. 

646. Ferchard II. son of Ferchard I. ; " most execrable. " 

664. Malduinus, son of Donald IV. ; strangled by his wife 
for his supposed infidelity, for which crime she 
was immediately afterwards burnt. 

684. Eugenius V. brother. 

688. Eugenius VI. son of Ferchard II. 

698. Amberkeletus, nephew ; fell by an arrow from an 

unknown hand. 

699. Eugenius VII. brother; some ruffians designing 

the king's murder, entered his chamber, and, he 

being absent, stabbed his queen, Spontana, to 

death. Scott. 
715. Mordachus, son of Amberkeletus. 
730. Etfinus, son of Eugenius VII. 
761. Eugenius VIII. son of Mordachus ; sensual and 

tyrannous ; put to death by his nobles. 
764. Fergus III. son of Etfinus ; killed by his jealous 

queen, who afterwards stabbed herself to escapie 

a death of torture. 
767. Solvathius, son of Eugenius VIII. 



787. Aehaius : just and wise. 

819. Congallus III. ; a peaceful reign. 

824. Dongal or Dougal, son of Solvathius ; drowned. 

831. Alpine, son of Aehaius ; beheaded by the Piets. 

834. Kenneth II. son ; sumamed Mac Alpine ; defeated 

the Picts, slew their king, and united them and 

the Scots under one sceptre, and became the first 

sole monarch of all Scotland, 843. 
854. Donald V. brother : dethroned ; committed suicide. 
858. Constantine II. son of Kenneth II. : taken in battle 

by the. Danes and beheaded. 
874. Eth' or Ethus, surnamed Lightfoot ; died of grief in 

prison ; confined for sensuality and crime. 
876. Gregory the Great ; brave and just. 
893. Donald VI. son of Constantine II. ; excellent. 
904. Constantine III. son of Ethus ; became a monk, and 

resigned in favour of 
944. Malcolm I. son of Donald VI. ; murdered. 
953. Indulfus or Gondulph ; killed by the Danes in an 

ambuscade. 
961. Duff or Duffus, son of Malcolm ; murdered by 

Donald, the governor of Forres castle. 
965. Cullen or Culenus, son of Indulfus ; avenged the 

murder of his predecessor ; assassinated 
970. Kenneth III. brother of Duffus ; murdered by 

Fenella, the lady of Fettercairn. 

994. Constantine IV. son of Cullen : slain. 

995. Kenneth IV. or Grimus, the Grim, son of Duffus ; 

routed and slain in battle by Malcolm, the 
rightful heir to the crown, who succeeded. 

1003. -Malcolm II. son of Kenneth III. ; assassinated on 
his way to Glamis ; the assassins in their flight 
crossing a frozen lake were drowned. 

1033. Duncan I. grandson ; assassinated by his cousin. 

1039. Macbeth, usurper; slain by Macduff, the thane of Fife. 

*** Historians so differ up to this reign, in the number 
of the kings, the dates of succession, and the 
circumstances narrated, that no account can be 
taken as precisely accurate. 

1057. Malcolm III. (Canmore), eon of Duncan; killed 
while besieging Alnwick castle. 

1093. Donald VII. (Donald Bane), brother; usurper; fled 

to the Hebrides. 

1094. Duncan II. natural son of Malcolm ; murdered. 
,, Donald VII. again ; deposed. 

1098. Edgar, son of Malcolm (Henry I. of England 
married his sister Maud). 

1 107. Alexander I. the Fierce, brother. 

1 124. David I. brother; married Matilda, daughter of 
Waltheof, earl of Northumberland. 

1153. Malcolm IV. grandson. 

1165. William the Lion ; brother. 

1214. Alexander II. son; married Joan, daughter of John, 
king of England. 

1249. Alexander III. married Margaret, daughter of 
Henry III. of England ; dislocated his neck, when 
hunting near Kinghorn. 

1285. Margaret, the "Maiden of Norway," grand-daughter 
of Alexander, "recognised by the states of Scot- 
land, though a female, an infant, and a foreigner ; " 
died on her passage to Scotland. 

A competition for the vacant throne ; Edward I. of Eng- 
land decides in favour of 

1292. John Balliol, who afterwards surrendered his 
crown, and died in exile. 
[Interregnum.] 

1 306. Robert (Bruce) I. a great prince. 

1329. David (Bruce) II. son; Edward Balliol disputed 
the throne with him. 

1332. David II. again ; a prisoner in England, 1346-57 
(Edward Balliol king, 1332-4.) 

1371. Robert (Stuart) II. nephew; died 19 April. 

1390. Robert (John Stuart) III. son ; died 4 April. 

1406. James I. second son; imprisoned 18 years in Eng- 
land ; set at liberty in 1424 ; conspired against, 
and murdered at Perth, 21 Feb. 

1437. James II. son ; killed at the siege of Roxburgh 
castle by a cannon bursting, 3 Aug. 

1460. James HI. son ; killed in a revolt of his subjects at 
Bannockburn-field, n June. 

1488. James IV. son ; married Margaret Tudor, daughter 
of Henry VII. of England ; killed at the battle of 
Flodden, 9 Sept. 

1513. James V. son ; succeeded when little more than a 
year old ; a sovereign possessing many virtues ; 
died 14 Dec. 

1542. Mary, daughter; born, 7 Dec. 1542 succeeded 
14 Dec. ; see Annals, above. 



SCOTT CENTENARY. 



867 



SCULPTURE. 



1567. James VI. son ; succeeded to the throne ot England, 
and the kingdoms were united, 1603. 
See England. 

SCOTT CENTENARY, celebrated in London 
and throughout Scotland, 9 Aug. 1S71. Sir Walter 
Scott was bom 15 Aug. 1771. 

SCOTTISH CORPORATION (charitable), 
established 1665. The old hall, Crane-court, Fleet- 
street, built by Wren, burnt 14 Nov. 1877 ; new hall 
inaugurated 21 July, 1880. 

SCOURERS, see Mohocks. 

SCOURING of the White Horse, see 

Ash dozen. 

SCREW, was known to the Greeks. The 
pumping-screw of Archimedes, or screw-cylinder 
for raising water, invented about 236 B.C., is still 
in use. It is stated that with the assistance of the 
screw, one man can press down or raise up as much 
as 150 men can do without it. — The Screw-Pro- 
peller consists of two or more twisted blades, 
like the vanes of a windmill, set on an axis, run- 
ning parallel with the keel of a vessel, and revolving 
beneath the water at the stem. It is driven by 
a steam-engine. The principle was shown by 
Hooke in 1681, and since by Du Quet, Bemouilli, 
and others. Patents for propellers were taken out 
by Joseph Bramah in 1784; by Wm. Lyttelton in 
1794; and by Edward Shorter in 1799. But these 
led to no useful result. In 1836 patents were ob- 
tained by Francis Pettit Smith (knighted July, 
187 1 ; died, 12 Feb. 1874) and captain John Erics- 
son (died, aged 86, March, 1889) ; and to them the 
successful application of the screw-propeller must 
be attributed. The first vessels with the screw were 
the Archimedes, built on the Thames in 1838 by 
II. Wimshurst, and the Rattler, built in the United 
States (1844), and tried in England in 1845. 
Double screw-propellers are now employed. A new 
form of screw-propeller invented by col. W. H. 
Mallory, of IT. S. A. army, was tried on the Thames 
and reported successful, Aug. 1878. 

SCRIBLERUS CLUB, a literary club, 
founded by Swift in 1 7 14, included amongst its 
members, Bolingbroke, Pope, Gay, and Arbuthnot. 

SCRIPTURE KNOWLEDGE INSTI- 
TUTION, Bristol, was founded by George Muller, 
a Prussian (bom in 1805). He came to Bristol as a 
minister of the "Brethren" in 1832, and on 5 March, 
1834, founded this institution, the objects of which 
are: I. Assistance of schools giving instruction on 
scriptural principles; 2. Circulation of the scrip- 
tures; 3. Assistance to missions ; 4. Circulation of 
tracts ; 5. Provision for destitute orphans, see 
Orphan-houses. Without application, Mr. Muller, 
since he began, up to 1868, had received by volun- 
tary contribution, 430,000?. 

SCROFULA, see Kimfs-evil. 

SCRUTIN (French for ballot). In scrutin de 
liste the voter writes on his paper as many names 
as there are persons to be elected, for instance for 
the whole department. In scrutin cV ' arrondissement, 
the members are elected separately. The adoption 
of one of these modes was much discussed in France 
in 187?. The conservatives prefer the latter, the 
radicals the former. See France, Nov. 1875. The 
scrutin de liste was adopted in the elections of 
1848, 1849, 1871, and 1875. 

II. B.irdoux's lull for adopting the scrutin dellste (warmly 
advocated by M. Gambetta), was passed by the cham- 
ber of deputies (243-235), 18 May, i£3i ; rejected by 
the senate (148-114), 9 June, 1881 ; again rejected, Jan. 
1882. 



M. Welbeck Rousseau's bill for the scrutin de liste passed 
by the deputies (412-99), 24 March, finally passed, 8 
June, 1885. 

The bill for the restoration of the scrvimd'arrondUsement 

passed by the chamber 11 Feb. and senate 1? Feb. 
1889. 
The scrutin de liste was adopted by the Italian chamber, 
14 Feb. 1882. 

SCULLABOGUE, see Massacres, 1798. 

SCULPTURE is said to have begun with the 
Egyptians. Bezaleel and Aholiab built the taber- 
nacle in the wilderness, and made all the vessels and 
ornaments, 1491 B.C., and then- skill is recorded as 
the gift of God. Exod. xxxi. 3. Dipcenus and 
Scyllls, statuaries at Crete, established a school at 
Sicyon. Pliny speaks of them as being the first 
who sculptured marble and polished it ; all statues 
before their time being of wood, 568 B.C. Alex- 
ander gave Lysippus the sole right of making his 
statues, 326 b.c. He left no less than 600 pieces, 
some of which were so highly valued in the age of 
Augustus, that they sold for their weight in gold. 
Sculpture did not flourish among the Romans, and 
in the middle ages with some fine exceptions, was 
generally degraded. With the revival of painting, 
it revived also ; and Donato di Bardi, bom at Flo- 
rence, a.d. 1383, was the earliest professor among 
the modems. An institute of sculptors was estab- 
lished in 1861. See Royal Academy and Statues. 

EMINENT SCULPTORS. 

Pheidou flourished b.c. 869 

Myron 4 8o 

Phidias (the greatest) 442 

Praxiteles 363 

Lysippus 32S 

Chares 288 

Michael Angelo Buonarotti . . .a.d. 1474-1564 

Benvenuto Cellini 1500- 15 70 

Giovanni L. Bernini 1598-1680 

Cams Gabriel Cibber 1630-1700 

Francis Bird 1667-1731 

John Henry Danneker 1758-1741 

Louis Roubiliac (statue of sir I. Newton) . died 1762 

Peter Scheemakers 1691-1769 

John M. Rysbrack 1693-1770 

John Bacon 1740-1799 

Thomas Banks 1735-1805 

Joseph Nollekens 1737-1S23 

Antonio Canova 1757-1822 

John Flaxman 1754-1826 

J. C. F. Rossi 1762-1839 

Peter Turnerelli 1774-1S39 

William Pitti 1790-1840 

Francis Chantrey 1781-1841 

Albert Thorwaldsen 1770-1S44 

Sir Richard Westmacott 1775-1S56 

Christian Raueh 1777-1S57 

Thos. Campbell 1790-1858 

M. Cortes Wyatt . 1777-1S62 

John E. Jones 1806-1862 

John Thomas 1813-1862 

Wm. Behnes 1790- 1864 

C. Kiss 1802-1S65 

John Gibson 17C1-1S66 

Edw. Hodges Baily 178V1S67 

Richd. Westmacott 1799-1872 

Hiram Powers 1805 1S73 

John Henry Foley 1818-1874 

Alfred Geo. Stevens 1817-1S75 

Matthew Noble 1820-1S76 

Thos. Woolner 1825 

Sir Joseph Edgar Boehni 1834-1S90 

Mary Thornycroft 1S14 

Hamo Thornycroft 1S52 

Alfred Gilbert 1852 

John Mossman 1816-1S90 

William Thecd 1804-1891 

Sir John Steel 1807-1891 

Prince Victor of Hohcnlohc (formerly count 
Gleichcn) 1S33-1891 

3 K 2 



SCUTAGE. 



868 



SEBASTIAN, ST. 



SCUTAGE or EsciTAGE. The service of the 
shield (scutum) is either uncertain or certain. 
Kscuage uncertain is where the tenant by Ms tenure 
is bound to follow his lord ; and is called Castleward, 
where the tenant is bound to defend a castle. 
Escuage certain is where the tenant is set at a 
certain sum of money to be paid in lieu of such un- 
certain services. The first tax levied in England to 
pay an army, 5 Hen. II. 1159. Cowel. 

SCUTARI, Asiatic Turkey, opposite Constanti- 
nople, of which it is a suburb. It was anciently 
called Chrysopolis, golden city, in consequence, it 
is said, of the Persians having established a treasury 
here when they attempted the conquest of Greece. 
Near here Constantine finally defeated Licinius, 323. 
The hospital was occupied by the sick and wounded 
of the Anglo-French army, in 1854-5, whose suffer- 
ings were much alleviated by the kind exertions of 
Miss Florence Nightingale and a band of nurses 
under her, aided by a large fund of money (15,000?.) 
subscribed by the public and placed in the care of 
the proprietors of the Times newspaper ; see Times. 
Explosion of powder magazine by lightning, about 
150 killed, 8 June, 1883. 

SCYTHIA, situate in the most northern parts 
of Europe and Asia. The boundaries were unknown 
to the ancients. The Scythians made several irrup- 
tions upon the more southern provinces of Asia, 
especially 624 B.C., when they remained in posses- 
sion of Asia Minor for twenty-eight years, and at 
different periods extended their conquests in Europe, 
penetrating as far as Egypt ; see Tartary. 

SEA. Lieut. Maury first published his " Physi- 
cal Geography of the Sea" in 1854, and other im- 
portant works since ; he died Feb. 1873 ; see Deep 
Sea. 

SEA BIRDS' PRESERVATION" ACT, 

passed 24 June, 1869. 

SEA FIGHTS see Naval Battles. 

SEA FISHERIES, see Fisheries, and 
Behring Straits. 

SEAL FISHERY ACT, passed 14 June, 1875. 

SEALS or SIGNETS. Engraved gems were used 
as such by the Egyptians, Jews, Assyrians, and 
Greeks; see Exod. xxviii. 14. Ahab's seal was 
used by Jezebel, 899 B.C. (1 Flings xxi. 8.) The 
Komans in the time of the Tarquins (about 600 B.C.) 
had gemmed rings. They sealed rooms, granaries, 
bags of money, &c. The German emperor, Frederick 
I. (a.d. 1152) had seals of gold, silver, and tin. Im- 
pressions of the seals of Saxon kings are extant ; 
and the English great seal is attributed to Edward 
the Confessor (1041-66). "A seal with armorial 
bearings before the nth century, is certainly false." 
Fosbroke. The most ancient English seal with arms 
on it is said to be that of Eichard I. or John. White 
and coloured waxes were used. Our present sealing- 
wax, containing shellac, did not come into general 
use in Germany and England until about 1556. 
Red wafers for seals came into use about 1624 ; but 
were not used for public seals till the 18th century. 
A seal acquired by the British Museum made of 
black hematite, thought to be Hittite, found at 
Yuzgat in Asia Minor, announced Nov. 1886. 
iSeal Society, for publication of fac-similes of an- 
cient seals, was established in 1883. — For Sealed 
Letters, see Great Seal and Lettres de Cachet. 

SEAMEN". In consequence of the great loss of 
life by wrecks of merchant vessels, attributed to bad 
ships and overloading, a commission of inquiry was 
agreed to by parliament on the motion of Mr. S. 



Plimsoll (who published "Our Seamen: an Ap- 
peal"), 4 March, 1873. The duke of Edinburgh 
was on the commission; the duke of Somerset, 
chairman. Mr. Plimsoll has been censured for 
exaggeration. 

The report issued in September tended to justify the 
public apprehensions, but suggested no remedy. The 
report presented to parliament, 2 July, 1874, con- 
demned the present insurance system, and recom- 
mended increased responsibility of owners and others, 
and strengthening the powers of the Board of Trade for 
investigation. 
The Merchant Shipping Survey Bill was rejected 

(173 — 170) 24 June, 1874 

After much excitement, an Act was passed to give 
further powers to the Board of Trade to stop un- 

seaworthy ships 13 Aug. 1875 

Another Merchant Shipping Act (which see) passed 

15 Aug. 1876 
Strong circular issued by the Board of Trade (Mr. 
Chamberlain) ; deaths of the employed in ships 
asserted to be 1 in 60 ; in coal mines 1 in 315 ; 
present system stated to be ineffectual . Jan. 1S84 
First annual congress of the National Seamen's and 
Firemen's union held at Cardiff (Mr. Plimsoll 

present) 8 Oct. 1889 

See Shipping. 
Seamen's hospital society, see Dreadnought. 

SEAS, Sovereignty of the. The claim 

of England to rule the British seas is of very ancient 
date. Arthur is said to have assumed it, and Alfred 
afterwards supported this claim. It was maintained 
by Selden, and measures were taken by government 
in consequence, 8 Chas. I. 1633. The Dutch, after 
the death of Charles I., made some attempts to 
obtain it, but were roughly treated by Blake and 
other admirals. Russia and other powers of the 
north armed to avoid search, 1780; again, 1800; 
see Armed Neutrality and Flag. The international 
rule of the road at sea was settled in 1862?; (new 
rules were issued in 1879 and 19 Aug. 1884), yet near 
Great Britain alone there have been 13,000 collisions 
in six years. Mr. Vm. Stirling Lacon proposed to 
reduce the rules from 749 words to 144, for sim- 
plicity and security. His form had been nine times 
before parliament, 1873. Revised rules issued by 
the admiralty in a " Fleet Circular," Nov. 1885. 
The British Board of Trade appointed a committee, 
consisting of admirals N. Bowden Smith, sir 
Robert Molyneux, sir George S. Nares, and 
others, to consider measures for the prevention 
of collisions at sea ; first meeting . 1 Aug. 1800 

SEASONS. The four natural divisions of the 
year. 

In the north temperate regions in 1884 the spring 
quarter began 20 March, 5 a.m., the summer, 21 June, 
1 a.m., the autumn, 22 Sept. 3 p.m., the winter, 21 Dee 
10 a.m. See Lapland seasons under Year. 

James Thomson's "Seasons" published: "Winter, 1 
1726; "Summer," 1727; "Spring," 1728; "Autumn," 1730. 

Haydn's "Seasons" first performed, 1801. 

SEATS BILL, see under Reform, 
SEBASTIAN, ST. (N. Spain), was taken by 
the French, under the duke of Berwick, in 1719. 
It was besieged by the British and allied army under 
"Wellington. After a most heavy bombardment, by 
which the whole town was laid nearly in ruins, it 
was stormed by general Graham (afterwards lord 
Lynedoch), and taken 31 Aug. 1813. — On 5 May, 
1836, the fortified works, through the centre of 
which ran the high road to Hemani, were carried 
by the English auxiliary legion under general 
Evans, after very hard fighting. The British naval 
squadron, off St. Sebastian, under lord John Hay, 
lent very opportune aid to the victors in this con- 
test. — A vigorous assault was made on the lines of 
general De Lacy Evans, at St. Sebastian, by the 
Oarlists, 1 Oct. 1836. Both parties fought with 



SEBASTOPOL. 



869 



SEDAN. 



bravery. The Carlists were repulsed, after suffer- 
ing severely. The loss of the Anglo-Spanish force 
was 376 men and 37 officers, killed and wounded, 
General De Lacy Evans was slightly wounded. See 
under Leagues. The queen regent of Spain meets 
queen Victoria here, 27 March, 1889. Population, 
1887, 29,047. 

SEBASTOPOL or Sevastopol, a town and 

once a naval arsenal, at S.W. point of the Crimea, 
formerly the little village of Aktiar. The buildings 
were commenced in 1784, by Catherine II. after the 
conquest of the country. The town is built in the 
shape of an amphitheatre on the rise of a large hill 
flattened on its summit, according to a plan laid 
down before 1 794, which has been since adhered to. 
The fortifications and harbour were constructed by 
an English engineer, colonel Upton, and his sons, 
since 1830. The population in 1834 was 15,000. 
This place underwent eleven months' siege, by the 
English and French in 1854 and 1855. Immediately 
after the battle of the Alma, 20 Sept. 1854, the allied 
army marched to Sebastopol, and took up its position 
on the plateau between it and Balaklava, and the 
grand attack and bombardment commenced 17 Oct. 
1854, without success.* After many sanguinary 
encounters by day and night, and repeated bombard- 
ments, a grand assault was made on 8 Sept. 1855, 
upon the Malakhoff tower and the Redans, the most 
important fortifications to the south of tbe town. 
The French succeeded in capturing and retaining 
the Malakhoff. The attacks of the English on the 
great Redan and of the French upon the little Redan 
were successful, but the assailants were compelled 
to retire after a desperate struggle with great loss of 
life. The French lost 1646 killed, of whom 5 were 
generals, 24 superior and 116 inferior officers, 45CO 
wounded, and 1400 missing. The English lost 385 
hilled (29 being commissioned and 42 non-commis- 
sioned officers), 1886 wounded, and 176 missing. 
In the night the Russians abandoned the southern 
and principal part of the town and fortifications, 
after destroying as much as possible, and crossed 
to the northern forts. They also sank or burnt the 
remainder of their fleet. The allies found a very 
great amount of stores when they entered the place, 
9 Sept. The works were utterly destroyed in April, 
1856, and the town was restored to the Russians in 
July; gen. Todleben, the able defender, died 1 
Jul}', 1884, and was buried here; his monument 
uncovered 28 June, 1890. See Russo- Turkish War. 
l'opulation of Sebastopol, 1885, 33,803. 

SECEDERS; SECESSION CHURCH, 
see Burghers. 

SECONDARY OF Loxdox, an ancient 
office, resembling that of under-sheriff in counties. 
The place was purchaseable till early in the present 
century, when it was bought up by the corporation. 

SECRET SOCIETIES, Assassins, Fenians, 
Ribbomsm, VcJtiuic Tribunal, Rosierucians, Illu- 
minati, Carbonari, Mary-Aime, Nihilists. 

* In consequence of the sufferings and disasters of the 
army in the winter of 1854-5, the Sebastopol Inquiry 
Committee was appointed, and the Aberdeen administra- 
tion resigned, Feb. 1855. l'he committee sat from 
1 March to 15 May, lord Aberdeen being the last person 
examined. Its report was presented 18 June. Mr. Roe- 
buck, the chairman, moved on 17 July that the house 
should pass a vote of severe reprehension "n every mem 
ber of the Aberdeen administration. On 19 July his 
motion was lost by a majority of 107 against it. In 1855 
the government sent sir. John M'Neill and col. Tullueh 
to inquire into the stair, of tin- armies in the Crimea. 
Their report was presented to parliament in Feb. 1856. 
A commission was appointed to consider the statements 
in the report (which wire very unfavourable to many 
officers), but the substance of the report was unshaken. 



SECRETARIES OF State. The earliest 
authentic record of a secretary of state is in the 
reign of Henry III., when John Maunsell is de- 
scribed as " Secretarim Koster," 1253. Rymer. 
Towards the close of Henry VIII. 's reign, two 
secretaries were appointed ; and upon the union 
with Scotland, Anne added a third as secretary for 
Scotch affairs; this appointment was afterwards laid 
aside ; but in the reign of George III. the number 
was again increased to three, one for the American 
department. In 1782 this last was abolished by act 
of Parliament ; and the secretaries were appointed 
for home, foreign, and colonial affairs. "When there 
were but two secretaries, one held the portefeuille 
of the Northern department, comprising the Low 
Countries, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Poland, 
Russia, &c. ; the other, of the Southern department, 
including France, Switzerland, Italy, Spam, Portu- 
gal, and Turkey ; the affairs of Ireland belonging to 
the elder secretary; both secretaries then equally 
directed the home affairs. Beatson. There are now 
six secretaries — home, foreign, colonial, war, (in 
1858) India, and(in 1885) Scotland, all in the cabinet 
Secretary of State for Scotland act passed 14 Aug. 
1885, amended 1887, explained 1889. See Adminis- 
trations, and separate articles. 
The Institute of Secretaries was started at a meeting 
in London, 4 July, 1890, to collect information 
respecting the position, duties, and responsi- 
bilities of secretaries to be applied for their 
benefit. First dinner ... 24 June, 1892 
SECTS, RELIGIOUS, see under Worship, 
and their respective titles. 

SECULAR GAMES (Ludi Sceculares), very 
ancient Roman games, celebrated on important 
occasions. Horace wrote his " Carmen Saeculare " 
for their celebration in the reign of the emperor 
Augustus (17). They took place again in the reign 
of Claudius (47), of Lomitian (88), and for the last 
time, of Philip (248), believed to be 2000 years after 
the foundation of the city. 

SECULARISM, a name given to the prin- 
ciples advocated by G. J. and Austin Holyoake, 
about 1846, and since by Mr. Bradlaugh. 
Its central idea is free, not lawless thought, and it con- 
siders scepticism to he scrutiny. It advocates liberty 
of action without injury to others. It is not against 
Christianity, but independent of it. Its standard is 
utilitarian ; it is the religion of the present life only ; 
teaching men to seek morality in nature, and happi- 
ness in duty. Mr. Austin Holyoake and other secu- 
larists repudiated atheism ; Mr. Bradlaugh and others 
profess it. 

SECURITY fiiom Violence Act, passed 

in 1863, appointed whipping as part of the punish- 
ment for attempts at garottiug. 

SEDAN, an ancient fortified city iu the valley 
of the Meuse, N.E. of France, the seat of a princi- 
pality long held by Uie dukes of Bouillon. On 6 
July, 1641, a victory was gained at La Marfee, near 
Sedan, by the count of Soissons and the troops of 
Bouillon and other French princes, over the royal 
army supporting Richelieu ; but the count was slain 
on 23 June, 1642. The duke was arrested in the 
midst of his army, and was made to cede Sedan tc 
the crown. The protestant university was abolished 
after the revocation of the edict of Nantes, 22 Oct. 
1685. Around this place a series of desperate con- 
flicts on 29, 30, and 31 Aug. between the French 
army of the north, under marshal MacMahon (about 
150,000 men), and the greater part of the three 
German armies under the king and crown-prince of 
Prussia and the crown-prince of Saxony (about 
250,000 men) was brought to a close on 1 Sept. 1870. 
The battle began with attacks on the French right and 

left about 5 a.m., and was very severe at 2 p.m. At + 



SEDAN CHAIES. 



870 



SELEUCIDES. 



p.m. tlie Germans remained masters of the field, and 
the crown-prince of Prussia announced a complete 
victory, the chief part of the French army retreating 
into Sedan. 

The emperor Napoleon was present during the battle, 
and, it is said, stood at Iges, near Sedan, exposed for 
four hours to the German grenades. The impossibility 
of further resistance was then evident. The Germans 
had contracted their circle close round Sedan ; their for- 
midable artillery held all the heights, from which they 
could at pleasure wholly destroy the town and the 
army, and only 2000 men were in a condition to 
respond to their commander's call, and to make a 
supreme effort to break through the enemy with the 
emperor and escape to Montmedy. 

At first general de Wimpffen (called to the command 
when MaeMahon was wounded) indignantly rejected 
the terms offered by the victor, and the emperor had 
a fruitless interview with count Bismarck to endeavour 
to mitigate them. 

On 2 Sept. the emperor wrote in autograph to the king of 
Prussia, " Hon frere, n'ayant pu mourir a la tete de 
mes troupes, je depose mon epee au pied de votre 
inajeste. Napoleon." A capitulation of Sedan and 
the whole army therein was signed by generals Von 
Holtke and De 'Wimpffen at the chateau of Bellevue, 
near Frenois, at 11.30 a.m., and at 2 p.m. an interview 
took place between the king and the emperor, who 
was downcast but dignified. 

The conflict was principally carried on by the artillery, 
in which (according to the emperor) the Germans had 
the advantage, not only in number (600 to 500), but 
also in weight, range, and precision. The carnage was 
awful, and the field the next clay was a mass of shat- 
tered bones, torn flesh, and coloured rags. 

About 25,000 French prisoners were taken in the battle, 
and 83,000 surrendered the next day, together with 
70 mitrailleuses, 400 field-pieces, and 150 fortress guns. 
About 14,000 French wounded were found lying in 
the neighbourhood, and about 3000 escaped into 
Belgium and laid down their arms. The great army 
of the north had ceased to exist. Among the killed 
was lieut.-eol. . Pemberton, a correspondent of the 
Times, who had approached too near the conflict. 

The French emperor and his suite arrived at WUhelms- 
hohe, a castle near Cassel appointed for his residence, 
(formerly inhabited by his uncle Jerome, when king 
of Westphalia), in the evening of 5 Sept. 

On 1 Sept. the village of Bazeilles was stormed by the 
Bavarians and burnt, it was said, because the inhabi- 
tants fired on the ambulances ; many women and 
children perished. The French denied the provocation. 
The place had been previously twice bombarded and 
stormed by the maddened combatants. 

In a letter dated 12 Hay, 1872, the emperor Napoleon 
took upon himself the whole responsibility of the 
surrender of Sedan. 

SEDAN CHAIES (so called from Sedan), 
were first seen in England in 1581. One used in 
the reign of James I., by the duke of Buckingham, 
caused great indignation, and the people exclaimed 
that he was employing his fellow-creatures to do 
the service of beasts. Sedan chairs came into 
London in 1634, Avhen sir Francis Duncomb ob- 
tained the sole privilege to use, let, and hire a 
number of such covered chairs for fourteen years. 
They came into very general use in 1649. 

SEDANGS, a tribe dwelling on the borders of 
Annam. M. de Mayrena, an ex-officer of the 
French navy, having made himself their king, came 
to Paris. He was set aside, and the Sedangs were 
brought under French protection by the French 
resident-general in Indo-China ; reported Oct. 1889. 

SEDGMOOB (Somersetshire), where the duke 
of Monmouth (natural son of Charles II. by Lucy 
Walters), who had risen in rebellion on the acces- 
sion of James II., was completely defeated by the 
l-oyal army, 6 July, 168$. The duke was made a 
prisoner in the disguise of a peasant, at the 
bottom of a ditch, overcome with hunger and 
fatigue. He was tried and beheaded on 15 July 
following. 



SEDITION". Sedition acts were passed in the 
reign of George III. The proclamation against 
seditious writings was published May, 1792. The 
celebrated Sedition bill passed Dec. 1795. Sedi- 
tious societies were suppressed by act, June, 1797- 
The Seditious Meetings and Assemblies' bill passed 
31 March, 1817. In Ireland, during the Roman 
Catholic and Repeal agitation, acts or proclamations 
against sedition and seditious meetings were pub- 
lished from time to time until 1848. 

SEEDS. An act was passed to prevent the 
adulteration of seeds (a common practice), II Aug. 
1869 ; amended in 1878. 

SEEKEES, see Quakers. 

SEGEDIN, or SZEGEDIN, Hungary. Here 
was concluded a treaty between Ladislaus IV. and 
Amurath II., 12 July, 1444. It was treacherously 
annulled at the instigation of cardinal Julian, who 
withLadislaus perished in the fatal battle of Vama, 
10 Nov. 1444. See Varna. 

SEICENTO, see under Italian. 

SEIDLICE (Poland) , where a battle was fought 
10 April, 1831, between the Poles and Russians. 
The Poles obtained the victory after a bloody con- 
flict, taking 4000 prisoners and several pieces of 
cannon ; but this success was soon followed by fatal 
reverses. 

SEISMOMETEE (from seismos, Greek for 
earthquake), an apparatus for measuring the vio- 
lence of the shocks. One is described \>y Sir. Robert 
Mallet in his work on earthquakes, published iu 
1858. Many described by Prof. J. A. Ewing, 1880-8. 

SELA, see Fetra. 

SELBOBNE SOCIETY, for the preserva- 
tion of birds, plants, and pleasant places, originated 
in the Selborne league (afterwards society) formed 
by Mr. and Mrs. G. A. Musgrave in Nov. 1885. It 
has included the plumage league since Jan. 1886, 
(see under Birds). 

SELDEN SOCIETY, founded 29 Jan. 1887, 
for the study of English legal history, and pub- 
lication of ancient MSS. and books, by lords 
justice Fry, Coleridge, and Lindley, and other 
eminent lawyers. John Selden, legal antiquary, 
born 16 Dec. 1^84, died 30 Nov. 1654. 

' SELECT-MEN", the earliest officers of the 
townships formed by the first colonists of New 
England about 1635. 

SELECTION, Natural, see Species. 

SELENIUM, a grayish-white elementary sub- 
stance (chemically resembling sulphur), discovered 
in the stone riolite by Berzelius, in 181 7. 

The variation in its resistance to the electric current 
when subjected to light was observed by Mr. 
Willoughby Smith in 1873, and utilised in the photo- 
phone (which see). Dr. C. Wm. Siemens constructed a 
"selenium eye." 

SELEUCIA (Syria), made the capital of the 
Syrian monarchy by its builder, Seleucus Nicator, 
312 B.C. On the fall of the Seleucidse, it became a 
republic, 65 B.C. It was taken by Trajan, a.d. 
116; several times given up and retaken; subju- 
gated by the Saracens, and united with Ctesiphon, 
636. 

SELEUCIDES, Era OF THE, dates from 
the reign of Seleucus Nicator. It was used in Syria 
for many years, and frequently by the Jews until 
the 15th century, and by some Arabians. Opinions 
vary as to its commencement. To reduce it to our 



SELF-DENYING OEDINANCE. 871 



SEPHAEDIaL 



era (supposing it to begin I Sept. 312 B.C.), sub- 
tract 311 years 4 months. 

SELF-DENYING OEDINANCE, which 
ordained that no member of parliament should hold 
any civil or military office or command conferred by 
either or both of the houses, or by authority derived 
from them, after much discussion, was passed 3 
April, 1645, by the influence of Cromwell, who thus 
removed the earl of Essex and other Presbyterians 
out of his way. A somewhat similar ordinance was 
adopted by the parliament at Melbourne in Aus- 
tralia, in 1858. The name was given to an arrange- 
ment made respecting British naval promotions and 
retirements in 1870. 

SELLASIA (Laconia). Here the Spartans 
under Cleomenes were defeated by Antigonus Doson 
and the Achseans, 221 B.C. 

SELSEY, see Chichester. 

SEMAPHOEE, see Telegraphs. 

HEMATOLOGY (Greek sema, a sign), the 
science of signs, a term proposed by B. H. Smart, 
who died 1872. 

SEMINAEA (Naples). Near here Gonsalvo 
de Cordova, the great captain, was defeated by 
the French, in 1495; but defeated them, 21 April, 
I503- 

SEMINCAS, see Simancas. 

SEMPACH (Switzerland). Here the Swiss 
gained a great victory over Leopold, duke of 
Austria, 9 July, 1386, under Arnold von Winckel- 
ried ; the duke and Arnold were slain, and the 
liberty of Switzerland was established. The day 
is still commemorated. Especially on 5 July, 1886. 

SEMPEE EADEM ("Always the same"), 
one of the mottoes of queen Elizabeth, was adopted 
by queen Mary and queen Anne, 13 Dec. 1702. 

SEMPEEINGHAM, see Gilbertines. 

SENATE {Senatus). In the ancient republics 
the government was divided between the senatus 
(from senis, old ; in Greek, gerousia, from germ, 
old), an assembly of elders, and the popular 
assembly {comitia, Latin; ecclcsia, Greek), the 
king being merely the executive. The Roman 
senate, said to have originally been composed of 
100 members, was raised to 300 by Tarquinius 
I'riscus ; to about 600 by Sylla, about 81 B.C. ; and 
to 900 by Julius Caesar. It was reformed and 
reduced to 600 by Augustus ; and gradually lost its 
power and dignity under the emperors. The mere 
form existed in the reign of Justinian. A second 
senate, formed at Constantinople by Constantine, 
retained its office till the 9th century. S.P.Q.R. on 
the Roman standard stood for "Senatus Popnlusque 
llomanus," "the Roman senate and people." A 
senatus consultum was a law enacted by the senate. 
The French senate was created by the constitution of the 
year 8, promulgated 24 Dec. 1799, to watch over the 
administration of the laws. The number of senators 
was raised gradually from 60 to 137. The senate was 
replaced by the chamber of peers in 1814 ; re-estab- 
lished by Napoleon III. 14 Jan. 1852 ; and abolished, 
sSept. 1870. Its re-establishment was proposed in 1873. 
Establishment of a senate of 300 voted ; 225 to be elected 
for 9 years by the departments ; 75 (for life) by national 
assembly, 22 Feb. 1875. 
The 75 elected, 9-21 Dec, 1875. 

The congress of 13 Aug. 1884, ordered the gradual abo- 
lition of life senators as vacancies occurred ; new 
senators were to be elected for 9 years by the depart- 
ments ; enacted, 5 Nov. ; bill passed by the deputies 
and senate, 4-9 Dec. 1884. See France. 



SENEFFE (Belgium). Near here was fought 
a severe but indecisive battle between the Dntcb, 
under the prince of Orange (afterwards our William 
III.), and the French, led by the great Conde, 11 
Aug. 1674. 

SENEGAL, French colonies on the river of 

that name in Senegambia, "W. Africa, settled about 

1626; several times taken by the British, but 

recovered by the French, to whom they were Anally 

restored in 18 14. 

The French opposed by two powerful chiefs, Samori 
and Ahmadoo, sultan of Toucouleurs ; Samori, 
defeated by the French, makes a treaty . . 1885 

Very great loss of life and property by unexampled 
floods ; towns and villages wholly submerged 

Aug., Sept. 1890 

French war with the natives, 1890 ; the chief Ah- 
madoo's army defeated in sharp battles ; the 
French, under col. Archinard, enter Nioro, 1 Jan. 1891 

Ahmadoo again defeated by col. Archinard ; many 
prisoners taken ; Ahmadoo fled ; Nioro restored 
to the chiefs, reported ... 18 Jan. ,, 

The rebel tribes defeated, near Dienia ; 600 rebels 
killed, 24 Feb. Dienia and Kinian taken by 
col. Archinard, reported . . . March, „ 

War with Samori renewed ; he retires to his 
southern territories, after much carnage and 
desolation April — June, „ 

Intestine wars between the native chiefs, Ahmet- 
Saloum and Amar-Saloum, Ahmet-Saloum victor, 

reported Aug. , , 

Expedition of colonel Humbert against Samori in 
French Soudan, 1 Jan., whom he defeats, 
9, 11 Jan., and takes two strongholds, 25 Jan. ; 
fresh conflicts ; capt. Menard killed, reported 
6 April ; colonel Humbert victorious, 14 March ; 
the French repulsed by Samadou, reported 

7 May, 1892 

SENESCHAL, a high officer of the French 
royal household. In the reign of Philip I. 1059, 
the office was esteemed the highest place of trust. 

SENLAC, see Hastings. 

SENONES (see Gauls), defeated by Camillus, 
367 b.c. They defeated Metellus the consul at 
Arretium, 284, but were almost exterminated by 
Dolabella, 283. They invaded Greece in 279; were 
defeated by Antigonus Gonatas, 278 ; and sued for 
peace. 

SENOVA, near Schipka, in the Balkans. 
Here Suleiman Pasha and the Turks were defeated 
by the Russian general Skobeleff, 9 Jan. 1878. 
This victory virtually closed the war, and opened 
the road to Adrianople. About 26,000 Turks and 
283 officers were made prisoners, with 40 Krupp 
guns. About 8000 Turks and 2000 Russians were 
killed or wounded. 

SENTINTJM (central Italy). The site of a 
great victory of the Romans under Fabius Maxim US, 
over the Samnites and Gauls, whose general, Gellius 
Egnatius, was slain, 295 B.C. P. Dccius the other 
consul, devoted himself to death during the conflict. 

SEPAEATISTS, a term applied to the Irish 
National Party, headed by Mr. Parncll, about 
1883. In 1884 it vehemently attacked carl Spenser 
and the Irish executive. — The name is also assumed 
by a small Christian sect in Dublin, and some 
other places ; originated by John Walker, a clas- 
sical scholar, somewhat resembling the Glasitcs 
(Prov. xviii. 1) ; he died 25 Oct. 1833, aged 66. 

SEPHAEDIM, the name given to the descen- 
dants of the highly civilised Jews of Spain and 
Portugal, who tied from the persecutions of the 
Inquisition, 1492-1505. The Jews interpret Sepha- 
rad, in Obadiak 20, as Spain. 



SEPOYS. 



872 



SERVANTS. 



SEPOYS (a corruption of sipdhi, Persian, a 
soldier), the term applied to the native troops in the 
British Service in India. The Turkish cavalry is 
named Spahis, a name also given to native cavalry 
in Algeria in the French service in 1834. Under able 
generals they greatly aided in establishing British 
rule in India. For their mutinies, see Vellore, 
1806; Madras, 1809; and India, 1857. 

SEPTEMBER, the seventh Eoman month 
reckoned from March (from Septimus, seventh). It 
became the ninth month when January and 
February were added to the year by Numa ; 731 
B.C. The Eoman senate would have given this 
month the name of Tiberius, but the emperor 
opposed it ; the emperor Domitian gave it his own 
name Germanicus ; the senate under Antoninus Pius 
gave it that of Antoninus ; Commodus gave it his 
surname, Herculeus ; and the emperor Tacitus his 
own name, Tacitus. — "September 4 government," 
see France, Sept. 1870. 

SEPTEMBRIZERS. In the French revolu- 
tion a dreadful massacre took place in Paris, 2-5 
Sept. 1792. The prisons were broken open, and the 
prisoners butchered, among them an ex-bishop, and 
nearly 100 non-juring priests. Some accounts 
state the number of persons slain at 1200, others at 
4000. The agents in this slaughter were named 
Septembrizers. 

SEPTENNALISTS, the party in France who 
support the septennate or seven years' government 
of marshal MacMahon, enacted by the assembly, 
19, 20 Nov. 1873. See France, 1874. 

Septennate, in the German constitution, is the stipula- 
tion that every German fit for the duty is liable to 
serve for seven years in the Imperial army 4 May, 
1871. 

SEPTENNIAL PARLIAMENTS. Ed- 
ward I. held but one parliament every two years. 
In the 4th Edward III. it was enacted, "that a 
parliament should be holden every year once." 
This continued to be the statute-law till 16th 
Charles I. 1641, when an act was passed for holding 
parliaments once in three years at least ; repealed 
in 1664. The Triennial act was re-enacted in 1694. 
Triennial parliaments thence continued till the 
2 Geo. I. 1716, when, in consequence of the allega- 
tion that "a popish faction were designing to renew 
the rebellion in this kingdom, and the report of an 
invasion from abroad," it was enacted that "the 
then parliament should continue for seven years." 
This Septennial act, entitled " an act for enlarging 
the continuance of parliaments" (1715 in the 
statutes, 4to, given as 1 Geo. I. stat. 2, c. 38), was 
passed 7 May, 1716; see Parliaments. Several 
unsuccessful motions have been made for its repeal ; 
one in May, 1837; again 24 Feb. 1880, and 8 
April, 1892 (188-142). 

SEPTIMANIA, a Eoman province, S. France ; 

see Languedoc. 

SEPTUAGESIMA SUNDAY; see Quad- 
ragesima Sunday, and Week. Septuagesima is the 
season between Epiphany and Lent. 

SEPTTJAGINT VERSION of the Bible, 

made from Hebrew into Greek, 277 n.c. Seventy- 
two translators were shut up in thirty-six cells ; 
each pair translated the whole ; and on subsequent 
comparison the thirty-six copies did not vary by a 
word or letter. Justin Martyr. St. Jerome affirms 
that they translated only the Pentateuch ; others 
say they translated the whole. Ftolemy Philadel- 
phus gave the Jews about a million sterling for a 
copy of the Old Testament, and seventy translators 



half a million more for the translation. Josephns. 
Finished in seventy-two days. Hewlett. The above 
statements are merely traditional ; see Bible, anJ 
Alexandrian Codex. 

SEQUESTRATION of Benefices Act passed 
13 July, 1871. 

SERAING, Belgium, on the Meuse, near 
Liege, formerly the site of a palace of the prince 
bishops of Liege ; now containing great iron works, 
established in 1817, by John Cockerill, an English- 
man. His father, who had works at Liege, died 
in 18 1 3. Nearly the whole town has been built 
by Cockerill. 

SERAJEVO, capital of Bosnia and Herzego- 
vina, with about 50,000 inhabitants, was founded 
in 1465, by two nobles. It was taken by Mathias, 
king of Hungary, in 1480, and by prince Eugene, of 
Savoy, in 1698. In pursuance of the treaty of 
Berlin, 13 July, 1878, the Austrians entered Sera- 
jevo, after a sharp conflict with the Bosnians, and 
bombardment of the city, 19 Aug. 1878. By a fire 
8, 9 Aug. 1879 above 20,000 persons were rendered 
homeless. 

SERAPHINE, a free-reed musical instrument, 
a precursor of Debaine's harmonium, brought out 
by John Green in London, 1833. 

SERAPIS, TEMPLE OE (near Naples), was 
exhumed in 1750. The remains of his temple at 
Memphis, termed Serapeum, were discovered by 
Mariette, 1850 et seq. 

SERASKIER, the Turkish minister of war. 

SERFS, see Slavery (note), and Russia, 1861, 
1863. - 

SERINGAPATAM (S. India), the capital of 
Ilyder Ali, sovereign of Mysore (which see). The 
battle of Seringapatam, called also the battle of 
Arikera, in which the British defeated Tippoo Sahib, 
was fought 15 May, 1 79 1. The redoubts were 
stormed, and Tippoo was reduced by lord Corn- 
wallis, 6 Feb. 1792. After this capture, prelimin- 
aries of peace Avere signed, and Tippoo agreed to 
cede one half of Mysore, and to pay 33,000,000 of 
rupees (about 3,300,000/. sterling) to England, and 
to give up to lord Cornwallis his two eldest sons as 
hostages. — In a new war the Madras army, under 
general Harris, arrived before Seringapatam, 5 
April, 1799; it was joined by the Bombay army 14 
April ; and the place was stormed and carried by 
major-general Baird, 4 May, same year. In this 
engagement Tippoo was killed. See Mysore. 

SERJEANTS-AT-LAW are pleaders from 
among whom the judges are ordinarily chosen, and 
who are called Serjeants of the coif. The judges 
call them brothers ; see Coif. Their exclusive rights 
of addressing court of common pleas suspended, 
1834; restored, 1840; abolished, 1846. By the 
Supreme Court of Judicature Act, judges on their 
appointment need not be made Serjeants, 1873. See 
Inns of Court. 

SERPENT, an ancient wind instrument, 
parent of the Cornet family. A " contra serpent" 
was shown in the Exhibition, 1851, made by Jor- 
dan, of Liverpool. The " serpentcleid " was pro- 
duced by Beacham in Jullien's orchestra about 1840. 
For H.M. cruiser Serpent, see JS^ary, 18S7 and 1890, 
and Mansion House Fund. 

SERPENTINE, see Hyde Park. 

SERVANTS. An act levying a duty on male 
servants was passed in 1777, which was augmented 



SERVIA. 



873 



SERVIA. 






in 1781, et seq. A tax on female servants, imposed 
in 1785, was repealed in 1792. The tax on servants 
yielded in 1830 about 250,000/. per annum; in 1840 
the revenue from it had fallen to 201,482/. ; in 1850 
it produced about the same sum. The licence duty 
for male servants is now 15s. each. It produced iu 
the year 1876-7, 167,004/. ; 1877-8, 154,641/. ; 
1878-9, 146,061/. ; 1883-4, 139,631/. ; 1887-8, 
136,287/. The law respecting- servants was amended 
by the Master and Servants' act passed in 1867. 

SERVIA, an independent kingdom, south of 
Hungary. The Servians or Serbs are of Slavonic 
origin. They embraced Christianity about 640. 
The emperor Manuel subjugated them in 1150; 
but they recovered their independence in 1 180. 
Population in 1854, 985,000 ; 1873, r >338'5°5 i 
1890, 2,162,759. Belgrade is the capital (whiefi see). 
Old Servia is still subject to Turkey. 

Stephen Nemanya, a Servian chief, founds the 
Racian dynasty, under whom the country pro- 
gressed 1159, etscq. 

Stephen Dusliau subdues Bulgaria, &c., and aims 

at resisting the Turks 1336-56 

The Servians, weakened by dissensions, defeated 

by the Turks 1371 

The sultan Amurath I. defeated the combined 
Christian army of Servians, Hungarians, Alba- 
nians, &e., and was himself killed by a wounded 
Servian soldier in the plain of Cossova, or Kos- 

sova 15 June, 1389 

Servia, subdued by the sultan Mahomet II., is 
rigorously ruled, 1459, et seq. ; ceded to Austria, 
1718 ; regained by Turkey . 1739 

The Servians aid Austria by free companies . 1788-90 
Again rebel, and capture Belgrade . • 1806 

Kara George, chosen leader, 1801 ; aided by the 

Russians, establishes a government . . 1807-n 
The Turks break a treaty, and Kara George flees . 1814 
Their governor Milosch rebels . . . March, 1815 
Kara George returning, is executed . . . . 1816 
Alexander Milosch I. Obrenovitch recognised as 

hereditary prince by the sultan . . 15 Aug. 1829 
Milosch becoming despotic, made to abdicate, and 

a new constitution established . 13 June, 1839 
His son and successor Milan soon dies, whose bro- 
ther Michael also retires ; Alexander, son of Kara 
George, chosen prince . . . -14 Sept. 1842 
Alexander becoming unpopular, made to abdicate 
by the national party ; Alexander Milosch re- 
elected prince 23 Dec. 1858 

Plot against Milosch frustrated, n July; the 

Servian assembly meets . . . 13 July, i860 

Milosch dies ; succeeded by his son Michael Obre- 
novitch (born 4 Sept. 1825) . . 26 Sept. ,, 
Rising movement to render Servia independent of 

Turkey March, 1861 

Disputes between the Servians and the Turkish 
garrison at Belgrade, which lead to bloodshed : 
the city bombarded, 15 June ; submits 17 June ; 
the Turkish pacha dismissed , . 19 June, 1862 

A conference of the representatives of the great 
powers at Constantinople, Aug. ; the Porte agrees 
to liberal concessions to the Servians, which their 

prince accepts 7 Oct. ,, 

Servians demand withdrawal of Turkish garrisons 

from Belgrade and other fortresses . 5 Oct. 1866 
Which are evacuated, March ; prince Michael, at 

Constantinople, thanks the sultan 30 March, 1867 

Prince Michael assassinated in Belgrade 10 June, 1868 
Milan IV. grand-nephew of prince Michael, chosen 
his successor, 22 June ; 14 of the murderers were 

executed 28 July, ,, 

Constitution affirming the hereditary rights of the 

Obrenovitch family 1869 

Prince Karageorgevitch accused of complicity with 
minder; imprisoned at Pesth, Jan. ; acquitted, 

May, 1S71 
The regents surrender the government to prince 

Milan at Belgrade .... 22 Aug. 1872 
Excitement through insurrection in Herzegovina, 
new ministry hostile to Turkey, formed, about 
31 Aug.; resign; annonuced, 4 Oct.; peace 
ministry formed 9 Oct. 1875 



Ristitch, premier, opposed to Turkey . . July, 1876 

See Turkey, for the war declared . . 1 July, „ 
Milan proclaimed king by Tchernayeff and the army 
at Deligrad ; not approved ... 16 Sept. 
Peace with Turkey ratified . . 4 March, 1877 

[Servian losses in the war, about 8000 killed, 20,000 

wounded.] 
Servians again declare war and enter Turkey (see 

Russo-Turkish war) ... 14, 15 Dec. , 
Sultan deposes prince Milan . . 22 Dee. ,\ 
Servia declared independent, with new frontiers, 
by treaty of San Stefano, 3 March, and of Ber- 
lin 13 July, 1878 

Execution of Markovitch and other rioters 

end of May, „ 
Proclamation of peace and national independence 

at Belgrade 22 Au^. 

The ministry re-modelled by Ristitch, about 15 Oct. " 
Resignation of Ristitch (virtual dictator) announced 

25 Oct. 1880 
Milan proclaimed king by the Assembly 

about 6 March, 1S82 
[Married Natalie Keschko(born 1859), 17 Oct. 1875.] 
Escaped assassination by mad. Markovitch 23 Oct. ,, 
Resignation of the Pirochanitz ministry, 27 Sept. ; 

succeeded by Nicolas Christitch . . 3 Oct. 1883 
New military organization leads to insurrection in 
S.E. Servia ; soon suppressed . announced 

5-10 Nov. ,, 
Insurgents defeated . . . about 10 Nov. ,, 
18 members of the Radical committee arrested Nov. „ 
General tranquillity reported . . . 13 Nov. ,, 
18 rebel leaders executed, about 19 Nov. ; many 

others reprieved ..... Dec. „ 
Rebels enter Bulgaria ; disputes with that country 

ensue ; prospect of war .... June, 1884 
M. Garachanine, premier .... 23 Oct. ,, 
Dispute settled by arrangement . about 10 Nov. ,, 
Political dissensions : Panslavist agitation by M. 

Ristitch Sept. 1885 

Military movements consequent upon the coup 

d'itat in Roumelia Oct. ,, 

Declaration of war against Bulgaria (wliich see) 

13 Nov. ., 
Invasion : success followed by disastrous retreat 

14-24 Nov. ,, 
Royal decree calling out the army . ix Feb. 1886 
Peace between Servia and Bulgaria signed at 
Bucharest 3 March ; ratified by the sultan 

13 March, ,, 
M. Ristitch fails to form a new ministry 

about 3 April, „ 
M. Garachanine resigns ; succeeded by M. Ristitch 
(pro-Russian) about 13 June, 1887 ; by colonel 

Gruies T Jan. i883 

Strong independent speech of the king 13 Dec. 1887 

New ministry under M. Nicolas Christitch 

26-27 April, 1888 
The king demands a divorce from the queen for 
disagreements ; he favours Austria, she Russia ; 
she refused the deed of terms offered ; she gi\ es 
up the crown prince and goes to Paris 18 July, ,, 
Queen Natalie protests agai nst the divorce 20 Aug. & 
30 Oct. ; the divorce decreed by the metropolitan 
Theodosius, abp. of Belgrade (authority question- 
able) Oct, ,, 

A royal commission recommends universal suffrage, 
all electors eligible to the Skuptsehina, indepen- 
dence of the church, all religions free and pro- 
tected, liberty of the press, &c . . 24 Oct. ,, 
The king proclaims coming constitutional changes 

26 Oct. ,, 
Elections of the chambers annulled by the king as 

not free 2 S Nov. ,, 

New elections give majority to the radicals, headed 
by M. Ristitch, against the progressists under W. 
Christitch, the minister . ". . 16 Dec. ,, 
Tlir Skuptsehina opened .... 30 Deo. ,, 
The king informs a deputation desiring changes in 
tin' proposed constitution thai the deputies must 
accept it unaltered; otherwise he will sei if 
aside and rule absolutely . . . 1 Jan. 1889 

The new constitution passed (494-73) 2 Jan. ; the 

ses -i"ii closed 3 Jan. ,, 

An amnesty proclaimed for political offences ' Jan. ,, 
The Christitch ministry resigns; but continues 
after others fail .... 8 Jan. etseq. ,, 



SERVILE WARS. 



874 



SEVEN CHURCHES. 



The formation of a radical ministry stopped by the 
king on suspicion of conspiracy . 13 Feb. 

Abdication of the king; his son Alexander pro- 
claimed ; liberal regency-M. Ristitch, gen. Boli- 
markovitch, and gen. Protitch ; radical cabinet 
headed by M. Taushanovitch . . 6 March, 

The Servians celebrate with mourning the quin- 
centenary of the battle of Cossova . 27 June, 

The king founds a monument in memory of the 
slain. The king was anointed by the metro- 
politan Michael in the church of JZitcha, near 
Kraljevo 2 July, 

Queen Natalie arrives at Belgrade, 29 Sept. ; inter- 
view with her son .... 13 Oct. 

Elections : a great radical majority, 1 Oct. ; new 
parliament meets . . ' . . I3 Oct. 

Ministerial crisis averted by arrangement between 
radicals and liberals March, 

M. Patchitch, Kussophil radical leader, president 
of the Skuptschina .... 20 March, 

Ministry re-constructed ; gen. Gruitch premier, 

28 March, 

The Servian vice-consul at Pristina, M. Marin- 
kovite, assassinated, 1 July. The arrested assas- 
sins confess and are tried ; the excessive de- 
mands of the Servian government refused by 
Turkey ; the affair arranged . about 28 July, 

Elections : radicals 113, liberals 18, progressists 2 

27 Sept. 

Queen Natalie agitates to annul her isolation from 
her son ; her memorandum (22 Nov.) to the 
parliament dismissed ... 8 Dec. et seq. 

Gen. Sava Gruitch's cabinet resigns, 29 Jan. , but 
remains, 1 Feb. ; again resigns . . 20 Feb. 

M. Ristitch writes to the queen, opposing her 
efforts to obtain political power ; increasing agi- 
tation against her ... 9 Feb. et seq. 

M. Patchitch forms a radical ministry . 23 Feb. 

King Milan agrees to live out of Servia, till his 
son's majority, on receipt of a sum of money and 
a pension, about 14 April ; he arrives at Vienna 

19 April, 

Queen Natalie requested by the government to 
leave the country, refuses about 10 May : at- 
tempted expulsion stopped by students and 
people ; 2 persons killed and several wounded by 
the troops, 18 May. The queen forcibly con- 
veyed to Seriilin in Hungary, early . 19 May, 

The king starts for St. Petersburg, 22 July ; at 
Moscow, 29 July ; St. Petersburg, 4 Aug. ; at 
Vienna, 10 Aug. ; received by the emperor at 
Ischl, 11, 12 Aug. ; returns to Belgrade . 15 Sept. 

King Milan resigns definitely all his military and 
political rights, reported ... 18 Nov. 

The ministry resigns, 3 March ; re-constituted under 
M. Patchitch 2 April, 



1891 



1892 



HEREDITARY PRINCES. 

1829. Milosch (Obrenovitch) I., recognised by Turkey, 
15 Aug. 1833 ; abdicates 13 June, 1839. 

1S39. Michael II., son ; dies 1840. 

1840. Michael III., brother ; abdicates 1842. 

1842. Alexander (Kara-Georgevitch), son of Kara George ; 
chosen, 14 Sept. ; deposed 23 Dec. 1858 ; died 3 
May, 18S5. 

1858. Milosch (Obrenovitch), re-elected, 23 Dec; dies, 
i860. 

i860. Michael III., son ; succeeds, 26 Sept. ; assassinated, 
10 June, 1868. 

1868. Milan (Obrenovitch) IV., grand-nephew, born, 22 
Aug. 1854 ; married to Natalie Keschko, 17 Oct. 
1875 ; again proclaimed, 2 July, 186S ; he abdi- 
cated 6 March, 1889. 

1889. Alexander, son, born 14 Aug. 1876. 

SERVILE WARS insurrections of slaves 
against their masters. Two were quelled in Sicily, 
after much slaughter, 132, 99 B.C.; see Spartans. 

SESSION COURTS in England were ap- 
pointed to be held quarterly in 1413, and the times 
for holding them regulated in 1831 ; see Quarter 
Sessions, and Court of Session. The kirk session in 
Scotland consists of the minister and elders of each 
parish. They superintend religious Avorship and 
discipline, dispense money collected for the poor, &e. 



SESTUS, on the Thracian Chersonesus; see 
Hellespont. Near Sestus was the western end of 
Xerxes' bridge, across the Hellespont, 480 B.C. 
Sestus was retaken from the Persians by the Athe- 
nians, 478, and held by them till 404, giving them 
the command of the trade of the Euxine. 

SETTLED ESTATES ACT- 40 & 41 Vict. 

c. 18, consolidates and amends the law relating to 

their leases, - sales, &c. (passed 28 June, 1877). 

Other acts passed, 1882, 1884 and 1890. 

In conformity with these acts, the earl of Radnor 
was authorised to sell pictures which were heir- 
looms for the National gallery, in 1890, which 
see. An appeal was disallowed by the court, 
7 Aug. 1890. — The marquis of Ailesbury, on 
appeal, was authorised to sell the mortgaged 
family mansion, Savernake hall and estate 12 Dec. 
1891 ; affirmed by the house of lords . 9 Aug. 1892 

SETTLEMENT, ACT OF, for securing the 
succession to the British throne, to the exclusion, 
of Roman catholics, was passed in 1689. This name 
is also given to the statute by which the crown, 
after the death of William III. and queen Anne, 
without issue, was limited to Sophia, electress of 
Hanover, grand-daughter of James I., and her heirs 
being protestants, 1702. The Irish act of settle- 
ment, passed in 1662, was repealed in 1689; see 
Hanover. 

SETTLEMENT, Law of, of the poor, the 
subject of many statutes since 1535, was somewhat 
changed by the poor law act of 1834. 

SEVEN BISHOPS, see Bishops, 1688. 

SEVEN BROTHERS, martyrs at Eome, 
under Antoninus ; their feast is kept 10 July. 

SEVEN CHURCHES of ASIA, to the. 
angels (ministers) of which the apostle John was 
commanded to write the epistles contained in the 
2nd and 3rd chapters of his Eevelation, viz., Ephesus, 
Smyrna, Pergamos, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, 
and Laodicea, 96. 

1. Ephesus (which see). Paul founded the church here, 
57. In 59, he was in great danger from a tumult created 
oy Demetrius ; to the elders of this church he delivered 
his warning address, 60 (Acts xix. xx.). Ephesus was 
in a ruinous state even in the time of Justinian (527), 
and still remains so. 

2. Smyrna. An ancient Greek city, claiming to be the 
birth-place of Homer ; was destroyed by the Lydians ; 
about 627 B.C. rebuilt by Antigonus and Lysimachus. 
Its first bishop, Polycarp, was martyred here about 
169. It has been frequently captured. It was sacked 
by Tamerlane in 1402 ; and finally taken by the Turks, 
1424. It is now the chief city of Asia Minor, and the 
seat of the Levant trade. Earthquake, above 2000 
perish, 12 May, 1875. Great fire ; about 700 houses 
destroyed, 18 July, 1882. Population, 1885, 186,510. 

3. Pergamos. Capital of the kingdom of the same name, 
founded by Philetferus, whom Lysimachus, one of 
Alexander's generals, had made governor, 283 B.C. He 
was succeeded by Eumenes I., 263 ; Attains (who took 
the title of king), 241 ; Eumenes II. (who collected a 
great library), 197; Attalus II., 159; Attalus III., 138. 
He bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans, 133. It 
revolted, was subdued, and made the Roman province, 
Asia. Pergamos is still an important place, called 
Bergamo. Parchment is said to have been invented 
here. The explorations of the ancient citadel, insti- 
tuted by the German government in 1878, resulted in 
the discovery of Greek marble statuary, which has 
been deposited in the museum at Berlin. 

4. Thyatira. Now a mean town of 2000 houses, called 
Ak-hissar, "White Castle." 

5. Sardis. Formerly the capital of Lydia, the kingdom 
of Croesus (560 b. c. ) ; taken by Cyrus, 548 ; burnt by th c 
Greeks, 499 ; it flourished under the Roman empire ; 
was taken by the Turks; and destroyed by Tamerlane 
about 1462 ; it is now a miserable village, named Sart. 

6. Philadelphia was built by Attalus (III.) Philadelphia, 



SEVEN DAYS' WAE. 



875 SHAFTESBUEY MEMORIALS. 



king of Pergamos (159-138 b. c.) ; was taken by Bajazet I. , 
A.D. 1390. It is now called Allah Shehr, "The eity of 
God," and is a miserable town of 3000 houses. 
7. Laodicea. In Phrygia, near Lydia ; has suffered much 
from earthquakes. It is now a deserted place, called 
Eske-hissar, "The old castle." 

SEVEN DAYS' WAE, see Army, 1871. 

SEVEN SAGES, see Greece, 590 b.c. 

SEVEN-SHILLING PIECES in gold were 
authorised to be issued 29 Nov. 1797. 

SEVEN SLEEPEES. According to an early 
legend seven youths, in 251, commanded to worship 
a statue set up in Ephesus by the emperor Decius, 
refused, and tied to a cavern in the mountain, where 
they were enclosed, and slept, according to Durandus, 
for 300 years. Other writers give shorter periods, 
and various accounts of the incidents which accom- 
panied the awakening. A festival in their honour 
is kept by the Roman church on 27 July. 

SEVEN WEEKS' WAE, see Prussia, 1866. 

SEVEN WONDEES, see Wonders. 

SEVEN YEAES' WAE, the conflict main- 
tained by Frederick II. of Prussia against Austria, 
Russia, and France, from 1756 to 1763 ; see Battles. 
He gained Silesia ; see Hubertsburg . 

SEVENTH-DAY BAPTISTS, see article 
Sabbatarians, Adventisls, &c. 

SEVEEN, see under Tunnels. 

SEVEENDEOOG, see Savandroog. 

SEVEEUS'S WALL, see Roman Walls. 

SEVILLE (S.W. Spain), the Hispalis of the 
Phoenicians, and the Julia of the Romans, was the 
capital until Philip II. finally established his court 
at Madrid, 1563. It opened its gates to the Saracens 
in 712, and was taken from them by the Christians in 
1247, after an obstinate siege. The peace of Seville 
between England, France, and Spain, and also a 
defensive alliance to which Holland acceded, signed 
9 Nov. 1729. In the peninsular war, Seville sur- 
rendered to the French, 1 Feb. 1810 ; and was taken 
by assault by the British and Spaniards, after the 
battle of Salamanca, 27 Aug. 1812. It was besieged 
but not taken by Espartero, July, 1843. Visit of 
Prince of Wales, 20 April, 1876. The ancient 
cathedral was much renovated, 1889-90. Popula- 
tion, 1887, 143,182. 

SEVEES, see Pottery. 

SEWEES, see Cloaca Maxima. An act was 
passed in 1847 enforcing the conveyance of the 
sewage of houses in London into the public sewers. 
The commissioners of sewers in London were super- 
seded by the metropolitan commissioners of sewers, 
nominated by the government. They abolished the 
large brick sewers, introducing pipe drains, and 
turned the contents of 30,000 cesspools into the river 
Thames. The necessity for purifying the defiled 
river led to the construction of a new system of 
drainage, under the superintendence of the Metro- 
politan Board of Works {which see). The main 
drainage (the plan of Mr. J. W. Bazalgette) con- 
sists of the Northern High-level, Middle-level, and 
Low-level, and Southern High-level and Low- 
level. On 14 March, 1865, the works were said to 
be completed, except the low-level sewer on the 
north side, which was waiting for the completion 
of the Thames embankment, &c. On 4 April, 1865, 
the prince of Wales started the engines which com- 
menced lifting the waters of the southern outfall, at 



Crossness Poiut, near Erith.* The main drainage 
works of the metropolis (82 miles), were finally 
completed Aug. 1875. The sewage is carried 14 
miles down the river. Total cost, 4,500,000^ See 
Carbolic Acid. 

Royal commission on the Metropolitan Sewage discharge 
(lord Bramwell, sir John Coode, prof. A. W. William- 
son and others), appointed 22 June, 1882 ; reports on 
the great contamination of the Thames at the outfalls, 
and need of change ; approves of the combination of 
chemical precipitation with filtration through earth, 
June and Dec. 1884. 
Mr. Win. Webster's method of decomposing London 
sewage by electricity set up at Crossness ; reported 
successful on inspection, March, 1889. 
Mr. H. Wollheim's process, the "Amines" (or 
ammonia compounds), reported successful; ex- 
hibited at Wimbledon Sewage farm, Aug. ; 
before the lord mayor and others . 18 Sept. 1889 

SEWING-MACHINE. It is said that 
Thomas Saint patented one for boots and shoes in 
1790. Similar inventions are ascribed to Duncan 
(1804) ; Adams and Dodge (American, 1818) ; 
Thimonnier (French, 1834); and Walter Himt 
(1834). The first really practical sewing-machine 
was the invention of Elias Howe, an American 
mechanic, of Cambridge, in Massachusetts, about 
1841, who died at Brooklyn, 2 Oct. 1867, aged 47. 
It is now known under an improved form as 
Thomas's shuttle machine, by whom it was intro- 
duced into England in 1846. Many improvements 
have been since made and new machines invented. 

SEXAGESIMA SUNDAY, see Quadra- 
gesima Sunday, and Week. 

SEXTANT, an instrument used like a quadrant, 
containing sixty degrees, or the sixth part of a 
circle, invented by Tycho Brahe, at Augsburg, in 
1550. The Arabian astronomers are said to have 
had a sextant of fifty-nine feet nine inches radius, 
about 995. 

SEYCHELLES ISLES. (Indian Ocean), 
settled by the French about 1 768 ; captured by the 
British, 1794; ceded to them, 1815. 

SFAXEES, see Tunis. 

SHADOWING, a term applied in Ireland to 

the practice of the police, closely following persons 
suspected of boycotting, or intimidating persons 
opposed to the National League, 1889-91. 

SHAFTESBUEY S ACT,. Lord, 18 & 19 
Vict. c. 86 (1855), relates to religious worship. 

SHAFTESBUEY MEMOEIALS, relating 
to the earl of Shaftesbury, celebrated for his life- 
long exertions to ameliorate the condition of the 
working classes, the poor and destitute, women and 
children. He died I Oct. 1885, aged 84. A large 
sum was subscribed for two statues and a national 
convalescent home, Oct. 1885. A statue uncovered 
in Westminster Abbey by the baroness Burdett- 
Coutts, I Oct. 1888. A memorial fountain by Alfred 
Gilbert is to be set up in Piccadilly circus (Aug., 
1892). ■ 

* The utilization of disinfected sewage as manure is now 
much advocated. Great success is said 1o have been 
attained at Edinburgh, Carlisle, Croydon, and other 
places. Much hot controversy has arisen respect ing 1 his 
disposal of the London sewage. On 15 Nov. 1864, the 
Metropolitan board accepted a contract for its disposal 
from Messrs. Hope and Napier. Sewage 1 tilisation acts 
were passed in 1865 and 1867, and the Metropolitan 
Sewage and Essex Reclamation acts were passed in June, 
1865. The sewage farm, near Barking, Essex, was re- 
ported to be nourishing in 186! ■ od : rass and emu 
crops raised. 



SHAFTESBURY PAEK ESTATE. 876 



SHEEP. 



SHAFTESBURY PARK ESTATE, near 

"Wandsworth, London, S.W., a model village, and 
termed " a workman's city ; " built here for clerks, 
artizans, and labourers, by a company, was opened 
by the earl of Shaftesbury, 3 Nov. 1873, and 18 
July, 1874. 

SHAKERS, an English sect, now chiefly found 
in America, arose in the time of Charles!., and 
derived its name from their voluntary convulsion. 
It existed for a short time onty, but was revived by 
James Wardley in 1747, and still more by Ann Lee 
(or Standless), expelled quakers, about 1757. The 
sect emigrated to America, May, 1772, and settled 
near _ Albany, New York, 1774. They denounce 
marriage as sinful, regard celibacy as holy, oppose 
war, disown baptism and the Lord's Supper, and 
use dancing as part of their worship. Marsden. 
One of their elders, Fred. W. Evans, lectured in 
London, Aug. 1871. 

Above a hundred of them settled in the New Forest, 
near Lymington, Hampshire, on property obtained for 
them by a Miss Wood ; not paying the interest of 
a mortgage they were ejected in severe weather, and 
suffered much ; end of Dec. 1874. They are called 
Girlingites, from Mrs. Girling, a leader among them, 
who died 18 Sept. 1886. The community then 
gradually dispersed. 
Goods seized for debt, about 27 July ; expelled, 22 Aug. ; 
permitted to remain in the neighbourhood, Oct. 1878. 
Miss Wood was confined as a lunatic, 27 Feb. 1875. 
■20 men and 40 women half-starved in the New Forest ; 
will not work for hire, Jan. 1884. 

SHAKSPEARE'S PLAYS. WilliamShak- 

speare was born at Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwick- 
shire, (23) April, 1564, and died 23 April, 1616. [An 
act to incorporate the Trustees and Guardians of 
Shakspeare's birthplace was passed 26 March, 1891.] 
The first collected edition of his works is dated 1623 
[a facsimile of this edition was published, 1862-5] ; 
the second, 1632;* the third, 1664; the fourth, 
[685 ; all in folio. Critical editions of the text, 
edited by Alexander Dyce, were published in 1857 
and 1864-6 ; Boydell's edition, with numerous 
plates, was published in nine vols., folio, in 1802. 
Ayscough's Index to Shakspeare was published in 
1790; Twiss's Index, in 1805, and Mrs. Cowden 
Clarke's Concordance, 1847 ; " Key to Shakspeare," 
1879 > Shakspeare-Lexicon, by Alexander Schmidt, 
I874-5- 

Shakspeare's first plays were probably produced about 
1590, and soon after represented, himself frequently 
taking a part at the "Theatre," or the "Curtain," 
near Shoreditch, E. London, and after 1594, at the 
new " Globe" theatre, Bankside, Southwark, of which 
Shakspeare himself was part proprietor. It was of a 
horse-shoe form, partly covered with thatch. After it 
was licensed, the thatch took fire, through the negligent 
discharge of a piece of ordnance, and the whole build- 
ing was consumed, 29 June, 1613. The house was 
crowded to excess, to witness the play of Henry VIII. , 
but the audience escaped unhurt. 
Shakspeare's Jubilee, projected by David Garrick, 
was celebrated at Stratford-upon-Avon, 6-8 Sept. 1769. 
A similar festival was kept 23 April, 1836. The tercen- 
tenary of Shakspeare's birth was celebrated, with 
many festivities, at Stratford-upon-Avon, 23-29 April, 
1864. 
Shakspeare's House. In 1847, a number of persons of 

* In 1849, Mr. J. P. Collier, editor of an edition of 
Shakspeare, purchased a copy of the second folio, on 
which was written in pencil, a number of corrections, 
supposed to have been made soon after the time of pub- 
lication. At first he thought little of these marks ; but 
in 1853 he was induced to publish " Notes and Emenda- 
tions " derived from this volume. Much controversy 
ensued as to the authenticity of these corrections ; and 
in 1859 it was generally agreed that they were of modern 
date, and consequently of little value. Mr. Collier died 
aged 94, 17 Sept. 1883. 



distinction interested themselves for the preservation 
of the house in which Shakspeare was born, then 
actually put up for sale : they held a meeting at the 
Thatchecl-House tavern, London, 26 Aug. in that year, 
and took measures for promoting a subscription set on 
foot by the Shakspearian Club at Stratford-upon-Avon ; 
and a committee was appointed to carry out their 
object. In the eud Shakspeare's house was sold at 
the Auction Mart in the city of London, where it was 
" knocked down " to the United Committee of London 
and Stratford for the large sum of 3000Z. 16 Sept. 1847. 
In 1856, a learned oriental scholar, John Shakspeare 
(no relation of the poet), gave 2500?. to purchase the 
adjoining house, that it might be pulled down, in 
order to ensure the poet's house from the risk of 
fire. 

Shakspeare Fund, established in Oct. 1861, to pur- 
chase Shakspeare's garden, birth-place estate, and to 
erect and endow a public library and museum at 
Stratford-upon-Avon. The catalogue of the library and 
museum was published, Feb. 1868. 

Shakspeare Memorial Association established 1875 ; 
eleventh annual meeting at Stratford-upon-Avon 28 
April, t8S6. A monument surmounted by a statue of 
Shakspeare, including statues of Shakspearian charac- 
ters, executed by lord Ronald Gower, presented by him 
to the association, set up at Stratford-upon-Avon, 
unveiled by lady Hodgson (the mayoress) 10 Oct. 1888. 

Bronze statue of Shakspeare (presented by Mr. William 
Knighton) erected in the boulevard Haussmann, 
Paris, unveiled 14 Oct. 1888. 

The lion. Ignatius Donnelly, an American, reports his 
discovery of a cryptogram of Francis Bacon in the 
text of one of the plays in the folio of 1623, and 
thereon asserts his belief that Bacon was the author 
of the Shakspeare plays, autumn 1887. His book 
entitled "The Great Cryptogram: Francis Bacon's 
cipher in the so-called Shakspeare Plays " was 
published in 1888. 

The Shakspeare Library, at Birmingham, was founded 
in 1864, and formally opened, 23 April, 1868 ; burnt 11 
Jan. 1879. 

Shakspeare Forgeries, see Ireland. 

Shakspeare Gallery, see Boydell. 

Shakspeare Memorial Theatre, Stratford (capable of 
holding 800) ; foundation laid by lord Leigh, 23 April, 
1877 ; opened with ceremonies, 23 April 1879. 

Shakspeare Society, issued 20 volumes, 1841-53. 

New Shakspeare Society issues works, 1874, et SC Q- 

Shakspearian Show at the Royal Albert Hall, 30 May, 
1884. 

Halliwell-Phillipps " Shakspearean Rarities " (por- 
traits, personal relics, books, &e.), offered for sale, 
Jan. 1890. 

SHAMROCK. It is said that the shamrock 
used by the Irish was adopted by Patrick 
M' Alpine, since called St. Patrick, as a simile of the 
Trinity, about 432. 

SHANGHAI, or SHANGHAE (China), 
captured by the British, 19 June, 1842 ; by the Tae- 
ping rebels, 7 Sept. 1853 ; retaken by the imperial- 
ists, 1855. The rebels were defeated near Shanghai 
by the English and French, allies of the emperor, 1 
March, 1862. Population, 1890, about 380,000; see 
China. 
Visit of the duke and duchess of Connaught ; he 

unveils a statue of sir H. Parkes, . 9 April, 1890 

SHARPSBURG (Maryland), see Antietam. 

SHAWLS, of oriental origin, were introduced 
into Paris after the return of Napoleon Bonaparte 
from Egypt, 1801. The manufacture was intro- 
duced by Barrow and Watson, in 1784, at Norwich. 
It began at Paisley and Edinburgh about 1805. 
Ure. 

SHEEP were exported from England to Spam, 
and, the breed being thereby improved, produced 
the fine Spanish wool, which proved detrimental to 
our woollen manufacture, 1467. Anderson. Their 
exportation was prohibited on pain of fine and im • 
prisonment, 1522. The number of sheep in the 
United Kingdom has been variously stated — by some 



SHEEPSHANKS' DONATIONS. 



877 



SHERIFF. 



at 43,000,000, by others at 49,000,000, and by more 
at 00,000,000, in 1840. In 1851 there were imported 
into England 201,859 sheep and lambs; in 1858, 
184,482; in 1864,496,243. See under Cattle. In Aug. 
and Sept. 1862, many sheep in Wiltshire died of 
smallpox ; and on Sept. II, government declared for 
enforcing the act for the prevention of contagion. 
The evil soon abated. In April, 1866, the disease 
reappeared and the regulations were re-issued. 
Mortality amongst sheep through flukes, &c., April, 1880 
In 1865, 914,170 sheep and lambs were imported ; 

in 1868, 341,155 ; in 1871, 916,799 ; 1874, 758,915 ; 

1875, 985,652 ; 1876, 1,041,329 ; 1877, 874,055 ; 1878, 

892,125 ; 1879, 944,888 : 

935,144 ; 1882, 1,124,391 



750,880 ; 1007, 97 i j4°4i 
677.958; 1890, 358,458. 
Britain, see under Cottle. 



1S80, 941,121 , 1881, 
1883, 1,116,115 ; 1885, 
1888, 956,210 ; 1889, 
For number in Great 



SHEEPSHANKS* DONATIONS. On 2 

Feb. 1857, Mr. John Sheepshanks, by a deed of gift, 
presented to the nation his valuable collection of 
paintings and drawings, valued at 6o,000£. In ac- 
cordance with the donor's directions, the pictures 
were placed in the South Kensington Museum. The 
collection is rich in the works of Mulready, Land- 
seer, and Leslie. He died 5 Oct. 1863. — On 2 Dec. 
1858, the trustees of his brother, the late rev. 
Richard Sheepshanks, presented 10,000^. stock to 
Trinity college, Cambridge, for the promotion of 
the study of astronomy, meteorology, and mag- 
netism. 

SHEEENESS (N. Kent), a royal dockyard, 
planned by Charles II. in 1663, was taken by 
the Dutch, under De lluyter, 9 June, 1667. Im- 
proved since 1815 ; new fortifications still in pro- 
gress. Population, 1881, 14,286; 1891, 13,281. 
The old dock church burned ; 3 persons killed, 

26 Nov. 1881 

SHEFFIELD, on the river Sheaf, "West 
Riding, Yorkshire ; renowned for cutlery, plated 
goods, &c. Sheffield thwytles are mentioned by 
Chaucer, in the time of Edward III. Sheffield in 
the time of the Conqueror was obtained by Roger de 
Buisli, and has since been held by the Lovetots, 
Nevils, Talbots, and Howards. See Population. 
St. Peter's church built temp. Henry I. 
Hospital and almshouses erected by the earl of 

Malmesbury 1616 

Cutlers' company incorporated .... 1624 
The castle (built in the 13th century) was taken by 
the parliamentarians in 1644, and demolished . 1648 

Cutlers' hall built 1726 

Plate assay office established 1773 

Made a borough by the Reform act .... 1832 

Wesley college opened 1838 

Sheffield and Manchester railway opened . . 1845 
Athenreum and Mechanics' Institution opened . . 1849 
John A. Roebuck (grandson of Dr. Roebuck of 

Sheffield), M. P. for Sheffield . . May, 1849-68 
Embankment of the Bradlield water reservoir broke 
down, and flooded Sheffield and the country 12 or 
14 miles round ; about 250 lives were lost ; many 
buildings and much property destroyed ; esti- 
mated loss, 327,000/. . . . 11 March, 1864 
52,751?. collected for the sufferers by . 29 April, ,, 
The Surrey music hall burnt . . 25 March, 1865 
House of Feamehough, a non-unionist saw-grinder, 
blown up, attributed to unionists (no deaths), 

8 Oct. 1866 
Great excitement ; meetings held ; subscriptions 
made ; a Sheffield manufacturers' protection 
society formed ; and rewards offered, 12 Oct, &C. 1866 
A commission (headed by Mr. Overend) to enquire 

into trade outrages met . . 3 June-8 July, 1867 
[Several murders and outrages (including the above) 
confessed to by Crookes, Hallam, and others, 
instigated and paid by Wm, Broadhcad, secretary 
to the saw-grinders' union ; indemnity granted.] 



A meeting of workmen expresses abhorrence, 8 July, 1867 
Mr. Roebuck loses his election (through opposing 

rattening) Nov. 1868 

Great loss of life and property by storm of wind 

16 Dee. 1873 
Mr. Roebuck re-elected M.P. . . . Feb. 1874 
Five board schools opened by the abp. of York, 

Mr. Roebuck, Mr. Forster, and others, 18 Aug. ,, 
Prince and princess of Wales open Firth park, the 
gift of Mark Filth, the mayor; most enthusiasti- 
cally received 16 Aug. 1875 

Public museum and hall opened . . 6 Sept. ,, 
Eighteenth Church Congress held here, 1-4 Oct. 1878 
Great distress through stoppage of work, winter, 1878-9 
Institution for the blind, endowed by Mr. Daniel 

Holy ; opened 24 Sept. 1879 

Firth College, built by Mr. Mark Firth, for 20,000?. ; 
endowed by the town ; inaugurated by prince 

Leopold 20 Oct. „ 

Death of Mr. Roebuck, M.P. for Sheffield, 30 Nov. „ 

Buskin Museum of Art, &c. founded by Mr. John 

Ruskin, by gifts of historical sculpture, paintings, 

books, &c, 1881 ; lent to the corporation for 20 

years ; removed from Walkley to Meersbrook hall ; 

re-opened April, 1890 

New corn exchange, built by the duke of Norfolk, 

cost 55,000?., opened .... 13 Dec. ,, 
Ruskin Society formed .... Feb. 1882 

Great conservative demonstration (marquis of Salis- 
bury and others) .... 22 July, 1884 
Returns five M.P's. by act passed . 25 June, 1885 
Technical school opened . . . . 1 Feb. i386 
Explosion at Don steel works, Brightside, while 

casting a gun ; 9 killed ... 6 Sept. 1887 
Severe epidemic of small pox March 1887, -April, 1888 
The 266th annual Cutlers' feast . . 5 Sept. 1889 
New municipal buildings founded . . 9 Oct. 1891 

SHELBURNE ADMINISTRATION, 

formed at the death of the marquis of Rockingham, 

July, 1782; terminated April, 1783; the " Coali- 
tion" administration followed. 

The earl of Shelbume* (afterwards marquis of Lans- 
downe), first lord of the treasury. 

William Pitt, chancellor of the exchequer. 

Lord (afterwards earl) Camden, president of the council. 

Duke of Grafton, privy seal. 

Thomas, lord Grantham, and Thomas Townshend (after- 
wards lord Sydney), secretaries. 

Viscount Keppel, admiralty. 

Duke of Richmond, ordnance. 

Lord Thurlow, lord chancellor. 

Henry Dundas, Isaac Barre, sir George Yonge, &c. 

SHELLEY SOCIETY, founded by Dr. F. 
J. Furnivall, and Messrs. H. Sweet, W. M. Rossetti, 
Todhunter, and others, 1885. In July, 1892, it was 
proposed by lord Tennyson and others, to celebrate 
the centenary of the birth of Shelley, by establish- 
ing a library and museum at Horsham, Sussex, 
near which place he was bom. A mural tablet 
commemorating his birth, 4 Aug., 1792, and 
his death, 8 July, 1822, was set up publicly in the 
parish church 4 Aug., 1892. 

SHELLS, see Bombs. 

SHERIFF, or shire-reeve, governor of a shire 
or county. London had its sheriffs prior to 
"William I.'s reign; but some say that sheriffs were 
first nominated for every county in England by 
William in 1079. According to' other historians, 
Henry Comhill and Richard Rcyncre were the first 
sheriffs of London, 1 Rich. I., 1189. The nomina- 
tion of sheriffs, according to the present mode, took 
place in 1461. Stow. Anciently sheriffs were 
hereditary in Scotland, and in some English coun- 
ties, as Westmoreland. The sheriffs of Dublin (first 
called bailiffs) were appointed in 1308, and obtained 
the name of sheriff by an incorporation of Edward 
VI. 1548. Thirty-five sheriffs were fined, and 

• William Petty, earl of Shelbume, born 1737 ; secre- 
tary of state under lord Chatham, July, 1766; premier, 
1782-3 ; created first marquis of Lansdowne, 1784 ; died, 
7 May, 1805. 



SHERIFFMUIR. 



878 



SHIPPING. 



eleven excused in one year, rather than serve the 
office for London, 1 734 ; see Bailiffs. The high 
sheriffs of the counties of England and Wales, ex- 
cept Middlesex and Lancaster, are nominated on the 
morrow of St. Martin, Nov. 12. This somewhat 
vice-regal office, of Saxon origin, has gradually 
lost much of its importance. 
The sheriffs' act passed 1887 

SHERIFFMUIR, see Dumblane. 

SHERIFF'S FUND, see Prisons. 

SHETLAND ISLES, see Orkneys. 

SHIBBOLETH, the word by which the fol- 
lowers of Jephthah tested their opponents the 
Ephraimites, on passing the Jordan, about 1 143 
B.C. Judges xii. The term is now applied to any 
party watchword or dogma. 

SHIITES, the Mahometan sect predominating 
in Persia ; see Mahometanism. 

SHILLING. The value of the ancient Saxon 
coin of this name was fivepence, but it was reduced 
to fourpence about a century before the conquest. 
After the conquest the French solidus of twelve 
pence, in use among the Normans, was called 
shilling. The true English shilling was first corned, 
some say, in small numbers, by Henry VII., 1504. 
Ending. A peculiar shilling, value nine pence, but 
to be current at twelve, was struck in Ireland, 
1560 ; and a large but very base coinage in England 
for the service of Ireland, 1598. Milled shillings 
were coined 13 Chas. II. 1662 ; see Coins. 

SHILOH, see Pittsburg. 

SHIP -BUILDING, &c, according to the 
Greek legends, began with the Egyptians, and 
ancient drawings of their rude vessels are extant. 
The Greeks, Phoenecians, and Carthaginians were 
skilful shipbuilders, and Solomon's "navy of ships " 
(1 Kings ix. 26), was doubtless! constructed by 
Tyrians, 992 B.C. The ships of Tarshish (probably 
in Spain), are mentioned in Psalm xlviii. 7, 
Isaiah ii. 16, &c. The Romans built their first 
fleet of boats, by copying a Carthaginian vessel 
wrecked on their coast, 260 B.C. The dangers of 
navigation are described in Psalm cvii. 23-30, and 
Acts xxvii. Strong vessels were constructed by 
the Norsemen for invasion and piracy in the 5th 
century, a.d. et seq., and by the Venetians and other 
Italians, for commerce and war in the Middle Ages. 
The first double-decked ship built in England was of 
IOOO tons burthen, by order of Henry VII., was 
called the Great Harry, and cost 14,000/. Stow. 
Port-holes and other improvements were invented 
by Descharges, a French builder at Brest, in the 
reign of Louis XII., about 1500. Ship-building 
was treated as a science by Hoste, 1696. Iron and 
steel are now greatly used in ship-building. 

A prehistoric ship cut out of solid oak, 48 feet 
long, 4 feet 4 inches wide, and 2 feet deep, was 
found by the Brigg gas company while excavating 
near the river Ancholme in Lincolnshire, April, 
1885. Mr. Justice Chitty decided 6 July, 1886, 
that the ship was the property of the owner of 
the land, Mr. Elwes. 

The France, a great sailing ship, was built on the 
Clyde by Messrs. Henderson for a Bordeaux firm ; 
five masts, 360 feet long, 48 feet wide, bowsprit 
50 feet long ; carrying power over 6,000 tons 

Sept. 1890 

Ships, originally made of wood, and latterly of 
iron, are now frequently made of steel. 

See Navy, Steam, Carraeh, &c. 



SHIPKA, see Schipka. 

SHIP-MONEY was first levied about 1007, to 
form a navy to oppose the Danes. This impost, 
levied by Charles I. in 1634-6, was much opposed, 
and led to the revolution. He assessed London in 
seven ships, of 4000 tons, and 1560 men; York- 
shire in two ships, of 600 tons or 12,000/.; Bristol 
in one ship of 100 tons ; Lancashire in one ship, of 
400 tons. Among others, John Hampden refused 
to pay the tax ; he was tried in the Exchequer in 

1636. The judges declared the tax legal, 12 June, 

1637. Ship-money was included in the grievances 
complained of in 1641. The five judges, who had 
given an opinion in its favour, were imprisoned. 
Hampden received a wound in a skirmish with 
prince Rupert, at Chalgrove, 18 June, and died 
24 June, 1643. 

SHIPPING, British. Shipping was first 

registered in the river Thames in 1786; and 
throughout the empire in 1787. In the middle of 
the 18th century, the shipping of England was but 
half-a-million of tons — less than London now. In 
1830, the number of ships in the British empire 
was 22,785. The merchant shipping act of 1854 
was amended in 1867 ; see Merchant Shipping 
Act, Navy, and Navigation Acts. 

Shipwrights' Company International Exhibition, 
opened at Fishmongers' Hall, London, by the 
duke of Edinburgh .... 2 May, 1882 

Cluimber of Shipping of the United Kingdom was 
established in 1878, mainly by H. J. Atkinson, 
M.P., the first president. Meetings are held for 
discussing matters relative to shipping and to dis- 
seminate information. It holds annual meetings ; 
1878, Hull ; 1879, Liverpool ; 1880, London ; 
1881, Cardiff; 1882, London; 1883, Sunderland; 
1884, London ; 1885, Belfast ; 1886, London ; 
1887, Newcastle-on-Tyne ; London : 1888, 1889, 
1890(13 Feb.), 1891 (20 Feb.), 1892 (10 Feb.). The 
chamber has an office in London. 

The National Seamen's and Firemen's Union estab- 
lished 1889 

Federation of shipowners of the United Kingdom, 
established to resist strikes and maintain free 
labour, Sept. ; joined by the London Association 
of shipowners, Nov. 1890 ; and by those of Liver- 
pool Feb. 1S91 

Boycotting of free labour in the docks of London 
stopped by the Shipping Federation, Dee. 1890 — 

Feb. „ 

Cardiff : strike of the shipping trades ; conflicts 
between the Shipping Federation and the Sea- 
men's Union ; the latter defeated, Feb. ; rioters 
punished ; strike ends ... 14 March, 1831 

The crisis on the Thames ends ; work resumed 

March, ,, 

The Shipping Federation proposes a scheme for the 
insurance of the lives of its sailors and firemen 
against death by accident, about 14 April ; the 
scheme adopted, May, 1891 ; carried into effect 

1 Jan. 1892 

NUMBER OF VESSELS REGISTERED IN THE BRITISH 
EMPIRE ON JAN. I, 1840. 

Country. Vessels. Tonnage. Seamen. 

England .... 15,830 1,983,522 114,593 

Scotland . . . . 3,318 378,194 25,909 

Ireland .... 1,889 169,289 11,288 
Guernsey, Jersey, and 

Man . . . . 633 39.630 4,473 

British Plantations . 6,075 497>798 35,020 



Total 



27>74S 



191, 2S3 



The following are the numbers of the Registered 
Sailing and Steam Vessels (exclusive of River 
Steamers) of the United Kingdom, engaged in the 
home and foreign trade : — 



SHIP-RAILWAY. 



879 



SHREWSBURY. 



1849. 


1 

1861. 


1871. 


1877. 


i f 
1887. 




Vessels* 


Tonnage. 


Vessels t 


Tonnage. ! 


Vessels t 


Tonnage. 


Vessels § Tonnage. 


i 

Vessels|| Tonnage. 

12,694 3,"4,43° 
5,029 | 4,009,324 


Sailing . 
Steamers. 

Total . 


17,807 
414 


2,988,021 
108,321 


19,288 
997 


3,918,511 
441,184 


19,650 
2,557 


4.343,558 
1,290,003 


17,101 
3,218 


4,138,149 

!, 977,489 


18,221 


3,096,342 


20,285 


4.359. 6 95 


22,207 


5.633.5 61 


20,319 


6,115,638 


i7,7 2 3 7.123,754 



1890: Sailing vessels, 11,570; Steamers, 5,855; men employed, 236,108. 



SHIP-RAILWAY, see Railways, Oct. 1889. 

SHIPWRECKS, see Wrecks. 

SHIRES, see Counties and under Horse. 

SHIRTS are said to have been first generally 
worn in the west of Europe earl y in the 8th century. 
Du Fresnoy. Woollen shirts were commonly worn 
in England until about 1253, when linen, but of a 
coarse kind (fine coming at this period from abroad), 
was first manufactured in England by Flemish 
artisans. Stow. 

SHODDY, a kind of soft woollen goods, manu- 
factured from old woollen rags, or the refuse, to 
which new wool is added, is stated to have been first 
manufactured about 1813, at Batley, near Dews- 
bur y, Yorkshire. 

SHOEBLACK SOCIETY Brigades (Blue, 
Red, and Yellow) were established at various times, 
especially in 1851, by the Ragged School Union 
{which see), founded 1844. In 1855, 108 boys had 
cleaned 544,800 pahs of boots and shoes, and thus 
earned 2270/. ; of which 1235/. had been paid to the 
boys, 519^. to their bank, and 516/. to the society. 
The brigades earned 4548/. in 1859; 11,031/. in 
1871; 10,936/. (in nine districts) in 1886. There 
were eleven shoeblack societies in the metropolis in 
1888. 

SHOEBURYNESS (Essex). Some ground 
here, purchased in 1842 and 1855, by an act of par- 
liament in 1862 was set apart as "ranges for the use 
and practice of artillery," and a school for gunnery 
was established; see Cannon, note. Experiments 
with Mr. Whitworth's projectiles on 12 Nov. 1862, 
showed their great improvement in form and mate- 
rial. Shells were sent through 5! inch plate and 
the wood-work behind it. It was objected, that 
they might not do this with ships in motion. The 
National Volunteer Artillery Association began 
their annual meetings here in July, 1865. 
During shell experiments with a new sensitive fuse, col. 

Francis Lyon (the inventor), col. Fox-Strangways, 

capt. Francis M. Goold- Adams, and four others were 

killed, 26 Feb. 1885. 

SHOES, among the Jews were made of leather, 
linen, rush, or wood. Moons were worn as orna- 
ments in their shoes by Jewish women. Isaiah iii. 
18. Pythagoras would have his disciples wear shoes 
made of the bark of trees ; probably that they might 
not wear what were made of the skins of animals, as 
they refrained from the use of everything that had 
life. The Romans wore an ivory crescent on their 
shoes; and Caligula enriched his with precious 
stones. In England, about 1462, the people wore 
the beaks or points of their shoes so long that they 
encumbered themselves in walking, and were forced 



to tie them up to their knees; the fine gentlemen 
fastened theirs with chains of silver or silver gilt, 
and others with laces. This was prohibited, on the 
forfeiture of 20s. and on pain of being cursed by the 
clergy, 7 Edw. IV. 1467 ; see Dress. Shoes, as at 
present worn, were introduced about 1633. The 
buckle was not used till 1668. Stoiv ; Mortimer. 
The buckle-makers petitioned against the use of 
shoe-strings in 1 791. A strike of London shoe- 
makers respecting wages, April, 1884. 

SHOOTING STARS, see under Meteors. 

SHOP HOURS' REGULATION ACT 

(Sir John Lubbock's), for the protection of young 
persons, passed, 1886. The Shop Hours' bill passed 
1892. 

SHOP-TAX enacted in 1785; caused so great 
a commotion, particularly in Loudon, that it was 
deemed expedient to repeal it in 1789. The statute 
whereby shoplifting was made a felony, without 
benefit of clergy, was passed 10 & 1 1 Will III. 1699. 
This statute has been some time repealed. 

SHORE, JANE, the mistress of Edward IV. 
and afterwards of lord Hastings. She did public 
penance in 1483, and was afterwards confined in 
Ludgate; but upon the petition of Thomas Hyniore, 
who agreed to marry her, king Richard III., in 
1484, restored her to liberty: and sir Thomas More 
mentions having seen her. Harleian MSS. 

SHORT-HAND, see Stenography. 

' ' SHORT - LIVED " ADMINISTRA- 
TION— that of William Pulteney, earl of Bath, 
lord Carlisle, lord Winchilsea, and lord Granville, 
existed from 10 Feb. to 12 Feb. 1746. 

SHOT. In early times various missiles were 
shot from cannon. Bolts are mentioned in 1413 ; 
and in 1418 Henry V. ordered Iris clerk of the ord- 
nance to get 7000 stone shot made at the quarries at 
Maidstone. Since then chain, grape, and canister 
shot have been invented, as well as shells , all of 
which are described in Scoffern's work on " Pro- 
jectile Weapons of War, and Explosive Compounds," 
1858; see Bombs and Cannon. For Palliser's chilled 
shot, see Cannon. 

SHREWSBURY ADMINISTRATION. 

Charles, duke of Shrewsbury, was made lord trea- 
surer, 29 July, 1 7 14, two days before the death of 
queen Anne. His patent was revoked soon after the 
accession of George I., 29 Oct. following, when the 
carl of Halifax became first lord of the treasury ; see 
Halifax. The office of lord treasurer has been exe- 
cuted by commissioners ever since. 

SHREWSBURY (Shropshire), arose after the 
ruin of the Roman town Uriconium (see TFroxcter), 



* Men employed— sailing vessels, 144,165 ; steamers, 8,446; total, 152,611. 

u >> )> 11 I 44>949; ji 27,008; ,, 171,957. 

>> i! i) >. 141.035; „ 58,703; 11 I99.738. 

§ >> >> .. .. I2 3.563; .» 72.999'. .. 196,562. 

II » >> u J. 81,442 ; ,, 121,101 ; ,, 202,543. 



SHEOPSHIEE. 



880 



SICILY. 



and became one of the chief cities of the kingdom, 
having a mint till the reign of Henry III. Here 
Eichard II. held a paiiiament in 1397. — On 23 July, 
1403, was fought a sanguinary ia^fe at Hateley field, 
near Shrewsbury, between the army of Henry IV. 
and that of the nobles, led by Percy (surnamed 
Hotspur), son of the earl of Northumberland, who 
had conspired to dethrone Henry. Henry was seen 
in the thickest of the fight, with his son, afterwards 
Henry V. The death of Hotspur by an unknown 
hand gave the victory to the king. Hume. — Shrews- 
bury grammar school was founded by Edward VI. 
in 1551, endowed by Elizabeth, and opened 1562. 
Its arrangements were modified by the public school 
act, 1868. Population in 1881,26,481; 1891,26,962. 

SHEOPSHIEE ; by battles in this county the 
Britons were completely subjugated, and Caractacus, 
the king of the Silures, became, through the 
treachery of the queen of the Brigantes, a prisoner 
to the Komans, about 50. 

SHEOVE TUESDAY, the day before Ash- 
Wednesday, the first day of the Lent Fast; see 
Carnival. 

SIAM, a kingdom in India, bordering on 
the Burmese empire. Siam was governed by 
two kings, one inferior, till Jan. 1887, when 
the second king being dead, the dignity was 
abolished. Siam was re-discovered by the 
Portuguese in 1511, and a trade established, in 
which the Dutch joined about 1604. A Biitish 
ship arrived about 1613. In 1683, a Cephalonian 
Greek, Constantine Phaulcon, became foreign min- 
ister of Siam, and opened a communication with 
France ; Louis XIV. sent an embassj - in 1685 with 
a view of converting the king, without effect. After 
several ineffectual attempts, sir John Bowring suc- 
ceeded in obtaining a treaty of friendship and com- 
merce between England and Siam, which was 
signed 30 April, 1855, and ratified 5 April, 1856. 
Two ambassadors from Siam arrived in Oct. 1857, 
and had an audience with the queen ; they brought 
with them magnificent presents, which they de- 
livered crawling, on 16 Nov. Tbey visited Paris 
in June, 1861 . By a treaty with France, the French 
protectorate over Cambodia was recognised ; signed 
15 July, ratified 24 Oct. 1867. The king Khoula- 
lonkorn, born 21 Sept. 1853, nas reigned since 
1 Oct. 1868; the king was entertained at Calcutta, 
7-12 Jan. 1872; a political constitution was decreed, 
8 May, 1874. Queen Victoria receives the order of 
the White Elephant from the Siamese minister at 
Windsor, 2 July, 1880. Population of Siam (1891) 
about 9,000,000. 
King : Khoulalonkorn (born 21 Sept. 1853) : succeeded 

his father Mongkout, 1 Oct. 1868. 
Various changes and political reforms were begun by the 
king, 16 Nov. 1873. On 9 Oct., 1874, he invited astro- 
nomers to Bangkok to view the eclipse of 5 April, 1875. 
Death of the able ex-regent Somdetch Chau, 19 Jan. 

1883. 
Telegraphic communication with France opened, 14 July, 

1883. 
Gradual abolition of slavery nearly completed Aug. 1886. 
Rebellion in N. Siam, headed by Phya Phraph Song 

Kuam, Sept. 1889 ; revived, May, 1890. 
British boundary commission : complications, 1889-90. 
The king and queen visit the Strait Settlements, May, 

June, 1890. 
The king turns the first sod for the Bangkok-Pankam 
railway (other railways promoted), announced 16 July, 
1891. 
Prince Damrong, half-brother of the king, minister of 
education (on a mission), arrives at Paris, 27 Aug. ; 
travels in Great Britain ; received by the queen at 
Balmoral, 24 Sept. ; arrives at Berlin, 6 Nov. ; 
received by the Czar at Livadia, 15 Nov., ; by the 
sultan at Constantinople, 19 Nov. ; at Athens by the 



king, 28 Nov. ; at Rome by the king, 3 Dee. ; by the 
khedive at Cairo, 24 Dec. 1891 ; at Bombay, 11 Jan. ; 
at Rangoon, 12 March, 1392. 
Siamese Twins. Two persons born about 1811, enjoy- 
ing all the faculties and powers usually possessed by 
separate and distinct individuals, although united to- 
gether by a short cartilaginous band at the pit of the 
stomach. They were named Chang and Eng, and were 
first discovered on the banks of the Siam river by an 
American, Mr. Robert Hunter, by whom they were 
taken to New York, where they were exhibited. Cap- 
tain Coffin brought them to England. After having 
been exhibited for several years in Britain, they went 
to America, where they settled on a farm, and mar- 
ried two sisters. In 1865 they were in North Carolina 
in declining health. Their exhibition in London 
began again 8 Feb. 1869. Their death in America, 
within two hours of each other, took place 16, 17 Jan. 
1874. 

SIBEEIA (N.Asia). In 1580 the conquest was 
begun by the Cossacks under JermakTimofejew. In 
1 7 10 Peter the Great began to send prisoners thither. 
An insurrection broke out among th e Poles in Siberia 
in June, 1866, and was soon suppressed. Univer- 
sity founded, 1886. Population in 1885, 4,313,680. 
Since 1863 efforts have been made to open up a sea route 
to central Siberia, especially by capt. Wiggins and his 
friends, 1874, et seq. In 1890 two vessels from London 
reached Karaoul on the Yenessei, stayed there 19 days, 
and returned in October. 
The construction of a railway to Siberia, in ten years, 

was authorised, Feb. 1890. 
A party of about 30 political exiles, including women 
and children, at Yakutsk, N.E. Siberia, were sus- 
pected of mutiny, very severely treated, and some 
persons were killed, 4 April. The exiles were tried by 
court-martial in May, and all were convicted, 18 June. 
Three men were hanged, 20 Aug. 1889. The story 
printed in the Times, 26 Dec. 1889, was at first contra- 
dicted and afterwards said to be exaggerated, March, 
1890. 

SIBYLS, Sibyllae, women believed to be in- 
spired, who flourished in different parts of the 
world. Plato speaks of one, others of two, Pliny 
of three, iElian of four, and Varro of ten. An Ery- 
threan sibyl is said to have offered to Tarquin II. 
nine books containing the Eoman destinies, de- 
manding for them 300 pieces of gold. He denied 
her ; whereupon the sibyl threw three of them into 
the fire, and asked the same price for the other 
six, which being still denied, she burnt three more, 
and again demanded the same sum for those that 
remained , when Tarquin conferring with the pon- 
tiffs was advised to buy them. Two magistrates 
were created to consult them on all occasions, 531 
B.C. ; see Quindecemvirs. 

SICILIAN VESPEES, the term given to the 
massacre of the French (who had conquered Sicily, 
1266), commenced at Palermo, 30 March, 1282. 
On Easter Monday conspirators assembled at Palermo ; 
and while the French were engaged in festivities, a 
Sicilian bride passed by with her train. One Drochet, 
a Frenchman, used her rudely, under pretence of 
searching for arms. A young Sicilian stabbed him 
with his own sword ; and a tumult ensuing, 200 French 
were instantly murdered. The populace ran through 
the city, crying out, " Let the French die !" and, with- 
out distinction of rank, age, or sex, slaughtered all of 
that nation they could find, to the number of about 
8000. Even the churches proved no sanctuary, and 
the massacre became general throughout the island. 

SICILY (anciently Trinacria, three-cornered). 
The early inhabitants were the Sicani, or Siculi, a 
people of Spain, andEtruscans, who came from Italy. 
The Phoenicians and Greeks settled some colonies 
here (735-582) ; see Syracuse. In modern times 
its government has frequently been united with 
and separated from that of Naples (ivhich see) ; the 
two now form part of the kingdom of Italy. Popu- 



SICILY. 881 



SICILY. 



lution of Sicily in 1856,2,231,020; 1871, 2,565,323; 
1875, 2,698,672 ; 1887, S*^ 2 , 108 ; l8 9°> 3, 28 5>47 2 - 
Naxos built, by the Greeks from Euboea, about . B.C. 735 
Syracuse founded by Arcliias from Corinth . . 734 
Leontini and other cities founded. . . 730 et seq. 
Agrigentum founded by a Dorian colony, 579 ; ruled 

by Phalaris (see Brazen Bull), about . . .563 
Gelon, tyrant of Gela, becomes supreme at Syra- 
cuse; the Carthaginians enter Sicily to found 
colonies, but are severely defeated by Gelon, at 

Himera 4 8 ° 

Gelon succeeded by his brother Hiero . . . 478 
Syracuse becomes predominant in Sicily . . 453 

Great Athenian expedition under Nicias, 315 ; de- 
feated by the aid of Gylippus, the Lacedemonian 413 
An excellent code of laws established by Diodes . 412 
Dionysius the elder, able and ambitious, becomes 
captain-general at Syracuse, 406 ; subdues the 
aristocracy, becomes tyrant, and gradually 
supreme in Sicily, 405 ; makes successful war 
with the Italian Greeks ; declares war against 

Carthage 397 

Syracuse closely besieged by the Carthaginians ; 
their army is crippled by a pestilence ; their 
fleet destroyed by Dionysius , a treaty made . 395 
War renewed, 393 ; peace made .... 392 
Dionysius plants colonies in Italy, 387 ; dies ._ . 367 
His dissolute son, Dionysius II., succeeds him, 
367 ; receives Plato and other philosophers ; he 
is dethroned by Dion, his banished relative, who 

becomes ruler 356 

Dion rules severely and becomes unpopular ; is 

assassinated by Calippus 353 

Dionysius II. (tyrant at Socri 10 years) recovers 
his authority at Syracuse, 346 ; rules till his ex- 
pulsion by Timoleon with a small Corinthian 
army, and retires to Corinth .... 343 

Timoleon restores the republic, deposes the other 
Sicilian tyrants, and becomes supreme, 3436*865. ; 
totally defeats the Carthaginians at the Crimis- 
sus, 339 ; rules Sicily till his death . . . . 337 
Agathocles overthrows the republic with bloodshed, 
and becomes "autocrat," and afterwards king, 
317 ; defeated by the Carthaginians at the Himera, 
310 ; he invades Africa, gains victories over the 
Carthaginians, but is compelled to return to 

Sicily by revolts, 307 ; dies 289 

Political dissensions ; Pyrrhus, king of Epirns, 
enters Sicily, and defeats the Carthaginians, 278 ; 

retires 276 

Hiero II. made king of Syracuse, 270 ; makes war 

with the Romans, is defeated, and makes peace . 263 
The first Punic war begins, see Cartilage . . . 264 

Hiero II. dies 216 

Hieronymus, his grandson succeeds, 216 ; renounces 

the alliance with Rome ; and is assassinated . 214 
The Roman consul, Marcellus, invades Sicily, and 
besieges Syracuse, which is vigorously defended 
by the aid of Archimedes, 214 ; it is taken, when 

Archimedes is slain 212 

Sicily becomes a Roman province . . . . 210 
The Servile wars ; much slaughter . . 135, 134, 132 
Tyrannical government of Verres (for which he was 

accused by Cicero) 73-71 

Sicily held by Sextus Pompeius, son of the great 
Pompey, 42 ; defeated ; expelled, 36 ; killed . 35 

Invaded by the Vandals, a.d. 440; by the Goths, 
493 ; taken for the Greek emperors by Belisarius, 1 

a.d. 536 

Conquered by the Saracens and held . . . 832-78 

Greatly recovered by the Greek emperor by the aid 
of Normans 1038 

The Greeks and Arabs driven out by a Norman 
prince, Roger I., son of Tancred, 1058 ; who takes 
the title of count of Sicily .... 1061-1090 

Roger II., son of the above-named, unites Sicily 
with Naples, and is crowned king of the Two 
Sicilies 1131 

Charles of Anjou, brother of St. Louis, king of 
France, conquers Naples and Sicily, deposes the 
Norman princes, and makes himself king . . 1266 

The French massacred (see Sicilian Vesper*) . . 1282 

Sicily seized by a fleet sent by the kings of Aragon ; 
Naples remains to the house of Anjou . . . ,, 

Alphonso, king of Aragon, takes possession of 
Naples 1435 



The kingdom of Naples and Sicily united to the 
Spanish monarchy under Ferdinand the Catholic 1501 

Victor, duke of Savoy, by the treaty of Utrecht, 
made king of Sicily 1713 

Which he gives up to the emperor Charles VI., and 
becomes king of Sardinia 1720 

Charles, son of the king of Spain, becomes king of 
the Two Sicilies 1735 

The throne of Spain becoming vacant, Charles, who 
is heir, vacates the throne of the Two Sicilies, in 
favour of his third son Ferdinand, agreeably to 
treaty 1759 

Dreadful earthquake at Messina, in Sicily, which 
destroys 40,000 persons 1783 

The French conquer Naples {which see); Ferdinand 
IV. retires to Sicily 1806 

Political disturbances 1810 

New constitution granted, under British auspices . 1812 

The French expelled ; kingdom of Two Sicilies re- 
established ; Ferdinand returns to Naples ; abol- 
ishes the constitution 1815 

Revolution at Palermo suppressed .... 1820 

The great towns in Sicily rise and demand the con- 
stitution ; a provisional government proclaimed 

12 Jan. 1848 

The king nominates his brother, the count of Aquila, 
viceroy, 17 Jan.; promises a new constitution 

29 Jan. ,, 

The Sicilian parliament decrees the exclusion of the 
Bourbon family, 13 April; and invites the duke 
of Genoa to the throne . . . 11 Jul}', ,, 

Messina bombarded and taken by the Neapolitans 

7 Sept. ,, 

Catania taken by assault, 6 April; Syracuse sur- 
renders 23 April ; and Palermo . . 15 May, 1849 

Insurrections suppressed at Palermo, Messina, and 
Catania, 4 April et seq. ; the rebels retire into the 
interior . . . . 21 April et seq. i860 

Garibaldi and his followers (2200 men) embark at 
Genoa, 5 May; and land at Marsala, n May; he 
abandons his ships ; and assumes the dictatorship 
in the name of the king of Sardinia 14 May, ,, 

He defeats the royal troops at Calataflmi, 15 May; 
storms Palermo, 27 May ; which is bombarded by 
the royal fleet, 28 May ; an armistice agreed to 

31 May, „ 

A provisional government formed at Palermo, 
3 June ; which is evacuated by the Neapolitans 

6 June, ,, 

Garibaldi defeats the Neapolitans at Melazzo, 

20, 21 July, ,, 

Convention signed, by which the Neapolitans agree 
to evacuate Sicily (retaining the citadel of Mes- 
sina) 3° July. )» 

New Sicilian constitution proclaimed . 3 Aug. ,, 

Garibaldi embarks for Calabria (see Naples) 

19 Aug. „ 

Professor Saffi (late of Oxford), a short time dic- 
tator Sept. „ 

The Sicilians by universal suffrage vote for annexa- 
tion to Sardinia (432,054 against 667) 21 Oct. ,, 

Victor-Emmanuel visits Sicily . . .1 Dec. ,, 

Citadel of Messina blockaded, 28 Feb. ; surrenders 
to general Cialdini ... 13 March, 1861 

King Victor-Emmanuel warmlyreceived at Messina 

May, 1862 

Imprudent speeches of Garibaldi at Marsala, 19 
July ; he*enters Catania, and establishes a pro- 
visional government, 19 Aug.; embarks for Italy 

24 Aug. „ 

Sicily placed under blockade; removed in Sept.; 
tranquil Oct. ,, 

Insurrection in Palermo, attributed to the priests 
and brigands, 16 Sept. ; suppressed with blood- 
shed by Italian troops . . . 21-26 Sept. 1866 

Revival of brigandage and murder . . Aug. 1872, 

Martial law established in some places . Sept. 1874 

Aliano, a brigand, tried at Potenza, for numerous 
murders, and other crimes . . . . Nov. ,, 

Capraro, great brigand, killed during capture 

about 2 Oct. 1875 

Mr. Forester Rose carried off by brigands, 3 Nov. ; 
ransomed for about 4000/. . . . Nov. 1876 

Leone and other brigands surrounded and shot 

1 June, 1877 

Five chief brigands surrender ; abatement of 
brigandage announced . . . about 6 Nov. ,, 

3 L 



SICK CHILDEEN. 



SIEGES. 



Successful visit of the king and queen ; arrive at 

Palermo 4 Jan. 1880 

Explosion in sulphur mine at Gessolungo, near 

Caltanissetta, about 30 killed . . 12 Nov. 1881 
Violent cyclone in Catania,about 27 killed; 200,000^. 

damage 7 Oct. 1884 

Grand banquet to sig. Crispi, Italian premier, at 

Palermo 14 Oct. 1889 

Opening of the Italian National Exhibition at 

Palermo (which see) .... 15 Nov. 1891 

SICK CHILDEEN, Hospital pop, Great 

Ormond- street, London; established 1851. The 
princess of Wales laid the foundation of new build- 
ings, 11 July, 1872. A branch has been set up at 
Highgate. 

"SICK MAN," an epithet applied to Turkey, 
by the czar Nicholas, 14 Jan. 1854; see Jiusso- 
Turkish War, note. 

SICYON, an ancient Grecian kingdom in the 
Peloponnesus, founded, it is said, about 2080 B.C. 
Its people took part in the wars in Greece, usually 
supporting Sparta. In 252 it became a republic 
and joined the Achsean league formed by Aratus. It 
•was the country of the sculptors Polycletes (436) 
' and Lysippus (328 B.C.). 

SIDEEOSTAT (from sidus, Latin for a star), 



an apparatus constructed by M. Leon Foucault, 
shortly before his death, 11 Feb 1868, for observing 
the light of the stars in precisely the same way in 
which the light of the sun may be studied in the 
camera obscura. It consists of a mirror moved by 
clockwork, and a fixed objective glass for concen- 
trating the rays into a focus. 

SIDON or ZlDON (Syria), a city of Phoenicia, 
to the north of Tyre. It was conquered by Cyrus 
about 537 B.C. ; and surrendered to Alexander, 332 
B.C. ; see Phoenicia. The town was taken from the 
pacha of Egypt by the troops of the sultan and of 
his allies, assisted by some ships of the British 
squadron, under commodore Charles Napier, 27 Sept. 
1840 ; see Syria, and Turkey. 

SIEGES. Azoth, which was besieged by Psam - 
metichus the Powerful, held out for nineteen years. 
Usher. It held out for twenty-nine years. Hero- 
dotus. This was the longest siege recorded in the 
annals of antiquity. The siege of Troy was the 
most celebrated, and occupied ten j'ears, 1 184 B.C. 
Other ancient sieges: Tyre, 572,332; Syracuse, 
396,212; Saguntum, 219; Jerusalem, 590; a.d. 70. 
The following are the most memorable sieges since 
the 12th century ; for details of many of them see 
separate articles. 



Acre, 1192, 1799, 1832, 1840. 
Algesiras, 1341. 

Algiers, 1681 (Bomb vessels first used 
by a French engineer named Rcnau); 

1816. 
Alkmaer, 1573. 
Almeida, 27 Aug. 1810. 
Amiens, 1597. 
Ancona, 1174, 1799, i860. 
Antwerp, 1576, 1583, 1585, 1746, 1832. 
Arras, 1640. 
Azoff, 1736. 

Badajoz, n March, 1811 ; 6 April, 1812. 
Bagdad, 1258. 
Barcelona, 1697, 1714. 
Belgrade, 1439, 1456, 1521, 1688, 1717, 

1739, 1789. 
Belle-Isle, 1761. 

Bergen-op-Zoom, 1622, 1747, 1814. 
Berwick, 1333, 1481. 
Bethune, 17 10. 
Bilbao by Carlists, 1874. 
Bois-le-Duc, 1603, 1794. 
Bologna, 1512, 1796, 1799. 
Bommel : the invention of the covered 

way, 1794. 
Bonn, 1672, 1689, 1703. 
Bouchain, 171 1. 
Boulogne, 1544. 
Breda, 1625. 

Brescia, 1238, 1512, 1849. 
Breslau, 1807. 
Brisac, 1638, 1704. 
Brussels, 1695, 1746. 
Bomarsund, 1854. 
Buda, 1 54 1, 2 Sept. 1686. 
Burgos, 1812, 1813- 
Cadiz, 1812. 
Calais 1347 (British historians affirm 

that cannon were used at Cressy, 

1346, and here in 1347. First u,sed 

here in 1388. Rymer's Fced.), 1558, 

1596. 
Calvi, 1794. 
Candia : the largest cannon then known, 

in Europe, used here by the Turks, 

1667. 
Carthagena, 1706-7, 1740, 1873-4. 
Chalus, 1199. 
Charleroi, 1693. 
Charleston, U.S., 1864-5. 
Chartres, 1568. 
Cherbourg, 1758. 
Ciudad Rodrigo, 1810, 1S12. 
Colchester, 1648. 



Oomorn, 1849. 

Compiegne (Joan of Arc), 1430. 

Conde, 1676, 1793, 1794- 

Coni, 1691, 1744. 

Constantinople, 1453. 

Copenhagen, 1658, 1801, 1807. 

Corfu, 1716. 

Courtray, 1646. 

Cracow, 1702. 

Cremona, 1702. 

Dautzic, 1734, 1793, 1807, 1813, 1814. 

Delhi, 1857 

Douay, 1710. 

Dresden, 1756, 1813. 

Drogheda, 1649. 

Dublin, 1500. 

Dunkirk, 1646, 1793 

Famagosta, 1571. 

Flushing, 15 Aug. 1809. 

Frederickshald : Charles XII. killed, 

1718. 
Gaeta, 1435, 1734, 1860-1. 
Genoa, 1747, 1800. 
Gerona, 1809. 
Ghent, 1708. 
Gibraltar, 1779, 1782-3. 
Gliitz, 1742, 1807. 
Gottingen, 1760. 
Graves, 1674. 
Grenada, 1491, 1492. 
Groningen, 1594. 
Haerleni, 1572, 1573. 
Harfleur, 1415. 
Heidelberg, 1688. 
Herat, 1838. 
Humaita, 1868. 
Ismail, 1790. 
Kars, 1855- 
Khartoum, 1884. 
Kehl, 1733, 1796. 
Landau, 1702 et seq., 1792. 
Landrecy, 1712, 1794. 
Laon, 988, 991. 
Leipsic, 1757 et seq., 1813. 
Leith, 1560. 

Lerida, 1647, 1707, 1810. 
Leyden, 1574. 
Liege, 1408, 1688, 1702. 
Lille, 1 70S, 1792. 
Limerick, 1651, 1691. 
Londonderry, 1689. 
Louisbourg, 1758. 
Lucknow, 1857. 
Luxemburg, 1795. 
Lyons, 1793. 



Maestricht, 1579, 1673; Vauban first 
came into notice; 1676, 1748. 

Magdala, 1868. 

Magdeburg, 1631, 1806. 

Malaga, 1487. 

Malta, 1565, 1798, 1800. 

Mantua, 1797, 1799. 

Marseilles, 1524. 

Menin, 1706. 

Mentz, 1689, 1793. 

Messina, 1282, 1719, 1848, 1861. 

Metz, 1552-3, 1870. 

Mons, 1691, 1709, 1792. 

Montargis, 1426. 

Montauban, 1621. 

Montevideo, Jan. 1807. 

Mothe: the French, taught by a Mr. 
Midler, first practised the art of 
throwing shells, 1634. 

Namur, 1692, 1746, 1794. 

Naples, 1435, 1504,' 1557, 1792, 1799, 
1806. 

Newark, 1644-5. 

New Orleans, 1814. 

Nice, 1706. 

Novogorod, 1478. 

Nieuport, 1600. 

Olivenza, 1801, 1S11. 

Olmutz, 1758. 

Orleans, 1428, 1563. 

Ostend, 1601, 1798. 

Oudenarde, 1706. 

Padua, 1509. 

Pampeluna, 1813. 

Paris, 1420, 1594, 1S70, 1871. 

Parma, 1248. 

Pavia, 1524, 1655. 

Perpignan, 1542, 1642. 

Phalsbourg, T814, 1815, 1870. 

Philipsburg, 1644, 1676, 1688, first ex- 
periment of firing artillery a ricochet, 

i734» i799- 
Plevna, 1877. 
Pondicherry, 1748, 1793. 
Prague, 1741-1744. 
Quebec, 1759-60. 
Quesnoy, 1793-1794. 
Rheims, 1359. 
Rhodes, 1521. 
Richmond, U.S., 1864-5. 
Riga, 1700, 1710. 
Rochelle, 1573, 1628. 
Rome, 1527, 1798, 1849. 
Romorantin ; artillery first used in 

sieges (Voltaire), 1356. 



SIENA. 



883 



SILESIA. 



Rouen, 1419, 1449, 1591. 

Roxburgh, 1460. 

St. Sebastian, 1813. 

Saragossa, 1710, 1808, 1809 ; the two 
last dreadful. 

Sebastopol, 1854-5. 

Schweidnitz : first experiment to reduce 
a fortress by springing globes of com- 
pression, 1 757-1 762. 

Scio (see Greece), 1822. 

Seringapatam, 1799. 

Seville, 1247-8. 

Silistria, 1854. 

Smolensko, 1632, 1812. 

Soissons, 1870. 

St. Quentin, 1557. 

Stralsund : the method of throwing red- 



hot balls first practised with certainty, 

1715- 
Strasfourg, 1870. 
Tarragona, 181 1. 
Temeswar, 1716. 
Therouenne, 1513. 
Thiouville, 1792. 
Thorn, 1703. 
Tortosa, 1811. 
Toulon, 1707, 1793. 
Toulouse, 1217. 
Tournay, 1340, 1513, 1583, 1667, 1700 

(this was the best defence ever drawn 

from counter mines), 1792. 
Treves, 1635, 1673, 1765. 
Tunis, 1270, 1535. 
Turin, 1640, 1706. 



Valencia, 1705, 1707, 1712. 

Valenciennes, 1677, 1793, 1794. 

Vanues, 1342. 

Venice, 1879. 

Venloo, 1702. 

Verdun, 1792. 

Vieksbuxg, U.S., 1863. 

Vienna, 1529, 1683. 

Wakefield, 1460. 

Warsaw, 1831. 

Xativa, 1246. 

Xeres, 1262. 

York, 1644. 

Ypres, 1648. 

Zurich, 1544. 

Zutphen, 15S6. 



SIENA (the ancient Sena Julia), Italy, in the 
middle ages a powerful republic rivalling Florence 
and Pisa ; see Tuscany. It was incorporated with 
France, 1808-14. Population, 1881, 23,445. 

The Sienese thoroughly defeated the Florentines at 
Montaperto in 1260; placed themselves under the 
duke of Milan, 1399 ; were ruled by Pandolfo Petrueci, 
1487-1512 ; submitted to the emperor Charles V. 1524 ; 
■rebelled, called in the French, 1555 ; were defeated 
and given up to Cosimo de Medici, 1557 ; who annexed 
Siena to Tuscany. 

SIERRA LEONE (W. Africa), discovered by 
the Portuguese navigator, P. de Cintra, in 1462. 
An attempt to form a settlement here made by the 
British government by sending out from London 
about 400 freed negroes and 60 whites, Dec. 1786, 
failed ; a second attempt by the Sierra Leone Com- 
pany in 1791, was not much more successful, and in 
1807 the settlement was given up to the crown. 
Capital, Freetown. The settlement was attacked 
by the French, Sept. 1794; by the natives, Feb. 
1802. Sir Charles Macarthy, governor of the 
colony, was defeated and killed by the Ashantee 
chief, 21 Jan. 1824. — 16 & 17 Vict. c. 16, relates to 
the government, (fee, of this colony. It was made 
a bishopric in 1852 ; see Ashantees and West 
Africa. Population in 1891, 74,835. 

Robarrie, the stronghold of the insurgent Yonnie 
tribe, captured by sir Francis De Winton, 21 Nov. 1887 

The king was captured and the rebellion suppressed 

Nov-Dee. , , 

The Gambia territory isolated and made an inde- 
pendent colony 22 Dec. 1888 

Largoh, capital of the chief Mackiah captured by 
the British under governor Hay ; 700 prisoners 
liberated ; announced ... 14 Feb. 1889 

In accordance with an agreement with the French 
government, 10 Aug. I889, a commission was ap- 
pointed for the delimitation of the British and 
French possessions in West Africa . . Oct. 1890 

The commissioners meet .... Dec. 1891 

Governors : sir James Shaw Hay, 1888 ; sir Francis 
Fleming 1892 

British expedition sent to punish aggressions in 
May, 1891 ; fighting at Tambi ; the British re- 
treat ; Tambi taken and destroyed . 7 April, ,, 

SIGNALS are alluded to by Polybius. Eliza- 
beth had instructions drawn up for the admiral 
and general of the expedition to Cadiz, to be an- 
nounced to the fleet in a certain latitude ; this is 
said to have been the first set of signals given to 
the commanders of tbe English fleet. A system 
for the navy was invented by the duke of York, 
afterwards James II. 1665. Guthrie; see 1'oij- 
signals. 
Block system of signalling on railways, introduced 1853 

SIGNBOARDS were used by the Greeks and 
Romans. A "History of Signboards," by Jacob 
Larwood and John Ilotten, was published in 1866. 

SIGNETS, see Seals. 



SIGN MANUAL, ROYAL, a stamp, imitat- 
ing the royal signature, employed when the sove- 
reign was so ill as to be unable to write : in tne 
case of Henry VIII. 1547 ; James I. 1625 ; and 
George IV., 29 May, 1830. Rosse. 

SIKHS, originally a Hindu religious sect (about 
1500) a people of N. India, invaded the Mogul 
empire, 1703-8; see Punjab, and India, 1849. 

SIKKIM, a small Himalayan State, joining 

Tibet, allied to the Indian government since 1814. 

By a treaty in 1 861 free trade and passage through 

the country were secured. 

The erection of a fort by the Rajah under the 
influence of Tibetans in contravention of the 
treaty, led to a military demonstration ; 1,000 
troops sent ostensibly to repair the road to 
Tibet, Jan. ; the rajah proving contumacious, 
the viceroy intervened ineffectually, March ; 
about 2,000 men concentrated at Pedong, March ; 
Lingtu fort quickly captured ; flight of the 
Tibetans, 20 March ; destruction of the fort 
ordered 21 March ; slight skirmishes with the 
Tibetans, 24 killed, May ; col. Graham defeats 
the attacking Tibetans, who are said to have 
lost 200 men 23 May, 18S8 

Troops ordered to return to Darjeeling 17 June, ,, 

Return to Sikkim on appearance of Tibetan 
aggression July, ,, 

The Tibetans defeated at Jelapla pass ; about 400 
killed and wounded, 25 Sept. ; col. Graham's 
advance suspended and the expedition recalled, 

Sept. ,, 

A Chinese amban, or resident, at Lhassa, arrives 
with a large following at Calcutta, n March. A 
treaty signed at Calcutta, 17 March, 1890 ; Sik- 
kim is to be treated as a British feudatory state. 

The rajah goes secretly to Tibet ; arrested in 
Nepaul, April ; lives in retirement . . . 1S92 

SILCHESTER, Hants. Here are the remains 
of the Roman town Calleva (built on the site of the 
British Caer Segeint or Segont) ; including walls of 
excellent masonry, a basilica and forum, private 
dwellings, &c. Many discoveries have been made 
during excavations made by the rev. Mr. Joyce, 
under the patronage of the duke of "Wellington, 
since 1863. Coins of Claudius I. and later emperors 
have been found. 

A systematic investigation of these remains was 
begun, 23 June, 1890, under the superintendence 
of Mr. G. E. Fox and other fellows of the Society 
of Antiquaries, London. 
Mr. Laurence Gomme, Mr. Hilton Price, gen. Pitt- 
Rivers, and Mr. St. John Hope co-operate in the 

work Sept. 1890 

Many vases, tools and implements discovered; 
these remains constitute a veritable British and 

Roman Pompeii ,, 

Exhibition of relics, models, &c. . . . Jan. 1891 
The work was recommenced . . . April, 1892 
The remains of a presumed Romano-British church, 
probable date 4th century, discovered in . June, ,, 

SILESIA, formerly a province of Poland, was 
invaded by John of Bohemia, 1325, and ceded to 

3 l 2 



SILICON. 



SILVEE. 



him, 1355- It was taken by the king of Hungary, 
1478, and added to the Austrian dominion, 1526. It 
was conquered and lost several times during the 
Seven years' war by Frederick of Prussia, but was 
retained by him at the peace in 1763. The emperor 
William was most enthusiastically received during 
his visit, Sept. 1875. 

Strike of about 3,000 miners in the Strau district ; 
order kept by the military . . 24 Sept. 1890 

SILICON or SlLICITJM (from silex, flint), a 
non-metallic element, nest to oxygen the most 
abundant substance in the earth, as it enters into 
the constitution of many earths, metallic oxides, 
and a great number of minerals. The mode of pro- 
curing pure silicon was discovered by Berzelius in 
1823. Gmelin. See Water-glass, and Hansome's 
Stone. 

SILISTMA, a strong military town in Bul- 
garia, European Turkey. It was taken by the 
Russians, 30 June, 1829, and held some years by 
them as a pledge for the payment of a large sum by 
the Porte ; but was eventually returned. In 1854 
it was again besieged by the Russians, 30,000 strong, 
under prince Paskiewitch, and many assaults were 
made. The Russian general was compelled to re- 
tire in consequence of a dangerous contusion. On 
2 June, Mussa Pacha, the brave and skilful com- 
mander of the garrison, was killed. On 9 June, 
the Russians stormed two forts, which were retaken. 
A grand assault took place on 13 June, under prince 
Gortschakoff and general Schilders, which was 
vigorously repelled. On the 15th, the garrison as- 
sumed the offensive, crossed the river, defeated the 
Russians, and destroyed the siege works. The siege 
was thus raised, and the Russians commenced their 
retreat as Omar Pacha was drawing near. The gar- 
rison was ably assisted by two British officers, 
capt. Butler andlieut. Nasmyth, the former of whom, 
after being wounded, died of exhaustion. They 
were highly praised by Omar Pacha and lord Har- 
dinge, and lieutenant Nasmyth was made a major. 
Population, 1888, 11,414. 

SILK. "Wrought silk was brought from Persia 
to Greece, 325 B.C. Known at Rome in Tiberius's 
time, when a law passed in the senate prohibiting 
the use of plate of massive gold, and also forbidding 
men to debase themselves by wearing silk, fit only 
for women. Heliogabalus first wore a garment of 
silk, a.d. 220. Silk was at first of the same value 
with gold, weight lor weight, and was thought to 
grow in the same manner as cotton on trees. Silk- 
worms were brought from India to Europe in the 
6th century. Charlemagne sent Ofl'a, king of 
Mercia, a present of two silken vests, 780. The 
manufacture was encouraged by Roger, king of 
Sicily, at Palermo, 1146, when the Sicilians not 
only bred the silk- worms, but spun and wove the 
silk. The manufacture spread into Italy and Spain, 
and also into the south of France, a little before 
the reign of Francis I. about 1510; and Henry IV. 
propagated mulberry-trees and silk-worms through- 
out the kingdom, about 1600. In England, silk 
mantles were worn by some noblemen's ladies at a 
ball at Kenilworth castle, 1286. Silk was worn by 
the English clergy in 1534. Manufactured in Eng- 
land in 1604 ; and broad silk wove from raw silk 
in 1620. Brought to perfection by the French 
refugees in London at Spitalfields, 1688. A silk- 
throwing mill was made in England, and fixed up 
at Derby, by sir Thomas Lombe, merchant of 
London, modelled from the original mill then in 
the king of Sardinia's dominions, about 17 14. He 
obtained a patent in 1718, and died 3 Jan. 1739. 



Six new species of silk- worm were rearing in France, 

1861* 

The Silk association of Great Britain and Ireland begun, 
1886-7 : fi fs t exhibition St. James's square, London, 
S. W. (opened by the duchess of Teck), 6-21 May, 1890. 

Silkwokm Disease. In 1853 the annual produce of 
sericulture in South France was estimated at about 
4,680,000?. Soon after a disease broke out in the 
worms, which reduced the value of the silk crop to 
about one-third that amount. In 1858 a commission 
was appointed to inquire into the nature of the disease, 
then termed pebrine; and M. Quatrefages, in 1869, 
proved that it is hereditary, contagious, and infectious. 
M. Filippi discovered in the blood of the deceased 
worms a multitude of cylindrical corpuscles, since 
named panhistophyton, which Pasteur, who took up 
the study in 1865, has demonstrated to be parasitica], 
and the cause of the disease. He has since devised a 
way by which, it is hoped, the organic germs may be 
got rid of, and the disease extirpated. 

SILOTVOE, a new explosive invented by M. 
Rouckteshell, who asked 50,000^. for the patent, 
1887. 

SILTTEES, a British tribe, occupying the 
counties of Monmouth and Hereford, was subdued 
by the Roman general Ostorius Scapula, 50 ; see 
/Shropshire. From this tribe is derived the geolo- 
gical term " Silurian strata," among the lowest of 
the paleozoic or primary series, from their occur- 
rence in the above-mentioned counties. Murchison' s 
" Siluria " was published 1849. 

SILVEE, exists in most parts of the world, and 
is found mixed with other ores in various mines in 
Great Britain. The silver mines of South America 
are far the richest. A mine was discovered in the 
district of La Paz in 1660, which was so rich that 
the silver of it was often cut out with a chisel. In 
1749, one mass of silver weighing 370 lbs. was sent 
to Spain. From a mine in Norway, a piece of silver 
was dug, and sent to the Royal Museum at Copen- 
hagen, weighing 560 lbs., and worth i68o£. In 
England silver-plate and vessels were first used by 
Wilfrid, a Northumbrian bishop, a lofty and am- 
bitious man, 709. Tyrrell. Silver knives, spoons, 
and cups, were great luxuries in 1300 ; see Mirrors. 
The act of 18 16 restricted the use of silver as legal 
tender to 40s. In 1855, 561,906 oz., in 1857, 
532,866 oz., in 1865, 724,856 oz., in 1870, 784,562 
oz. ; in 1876, 483,422 oz. ; in 1882, 372,544 oz. ; 
in 1887, 320,345 oz. ; in 1888, 321,425 oz. ; in 
1889, 306,149 oz. ; in 1890, 291,724 oz.. were ob- 
tained from mines in Britain. Pattinson's process 
for obtaining silver from lead ore was introduced in 
1829. See Bullion, Coins, Goldsmiths, Mirrors, 
Plate, India, 1876, United States, 1878, 1890-2. 
Fall in price of silver through introduction of gold 
coinage in Germany, and increased produce from 
South American mines .... spring, 1876 
The report of a commission on the subject was 

issued in July, ,, 

Another commission appointed, see under Currency, 

7 Sept. 1886 
Pure silver: United States, N. A., 1,000; England, 

925, alloy 75 ; Europe, 900, 100 alloy ; reported . 1890 
Average price in London, 1845-9, 59^- anc ^ a fraction 
per oz. ; 1850-72, 6id. ; 1871, 6o T \d. ; 1875, 56Jd ; 
1880, 52}.d. ; 1883, 5o T B s tf. ; price 49|rf. 7 May, 1885 ; 
1886, 46^. ; 1887, 44f&; 1888, 43rsrf.; 1889, Jan- 
March, 42j 9 s ci ; 7 May, 42^. ; 22 July, 4?Tc,d. ; 
13 Sept., 42 T %(7. ; 1890: 9 Jan., 4451?. ; 3 April, 
43|c?. ; 3 July, 47id. ; 4 Sept., 54§<i. ; 1891 : 1 Jan., 
48Jrf. ; 2 April, 44ft?-. ; 11 July, 45§d. ; 3 Sept., 
45tV c ?- ! 1892 : 7 Jan., 43M : 1 April, 39J ; 1 July, 
403^. ; 4 Aug., 39c?. ; 2 Sept., 3&§d. 



* In 1858, M. Guerin-Meneville introduced into France 
a Chinese worm termed the Cynthia Bovibyx, which feeds 
on the Ailanthus glandulosa, a hardy tree of the oak kind. 
The cynthia yields a silk-like substance termed Ailantine. 
It was brought to Turin by Fantoni in 1856. 



SILVEE BOOK. 



SIX CLEEKS- 



SILVEE BOOK (Codex Argenteus), see under 
Bible. 

SIMANCAS (Castile, Spain). Near it Rami- 
rez II. of Leon, and Fernando of Castile, gained a 
great victory over Abderahman, the Moorish king of 
Cordova, 6 Aug. 939. 

SIMLA CASE, see India, 1866. 

SIMNEL CONSPIRACY, see Rebellions, 
i486. 

SIMONASAKI, see Japan, 1864. 

SIMONIANS, a sect named after the founder, 
Simon Magus, the first heretic, about 41. A sect of 
social reformers called St. Simostians, after their 
founder, Claude H. comte de St. Simon (born 1760), 
sprang up in France in 1819, and attracted consider- 
able attention; the doctrines were advocated in 
England, particularly by Dr. Prati, who lectured 
upon them in London, 24 Jan. 1834. St. Simon 
died in 182 c;, and his follower, Pere Enfantin, died 
1 Sept. 1864. 

SIMONY (trading in church offices), derives its 
name from Simon desiring to purchase the gift of 
the Holy Spirit (Acts viii. 18, 19). It is forbidden 
in England by the canon law, and by statute 
31 Eliz. c. 6, "for the avoiding of simony and cor- 
ruption in presentations, collations, and donations 
of and to benefices," &c, 1588-9 ; and by statute of 
12 Anne 2, stat. 12 (1713). The rev. James John 
Merest was convicted of simony, 26-29 Nov. 1869, 
and deprived. 

The bishop of Peterborough (Dr. Magee), moved for 
a committee on the laws relating to simony ; ap- 
pointed 21 April, 1874 

SIMPLON, a mountain road, leading from 
Switzerland into Italy, constructed by Napoleon in 
1801-7. It winds up passes, crosses cataracts, and 
passes by galleries through solid rock, and has eight 
principal bridges. The number of workmen em- 
ployed at one time varied from 30,000 to 40,000. 

SINAI, MOUNT. Here the ten command- 
ments were promulgated, 1491 B.C. Exod. xx. 
Af ter much investigation and discussion by many 
persons, Dr. Beke stated that he had discovered the 
true Sinai, Feb. 1874. 

SINALUNGA or AsiNALTTNGA (near Siena, 
Italy). Here Garibaldi, when about to enter the 
papal territory, was seized and conveyed to Ales- 
sandria, 23 Sept. 1867 ; see Italy. 

SINDE (N. W. India), was traversed by the 
Greeks under Alexander, about 326 B.C. ; conquered 
by the Persian Mahometans in the 8th century a.d. ; 
tributary to the Ghaznevide dynasty in the nth 
century; conquered by Nadir Shah, 1739; reverted 
to the empire of Delhi after his death, 1747 ; after 
various changes of rulers, Sinde was conquered by 
the English, and annexed, March, 1843. 

SINGAPOEE, see Straits Settlements. 

SINGING, see Music, and Hymns. 

SINKAT, see under Soudan, 1884. 

SINKING FUND. First projected by sir 
Robert Walpole to redeem the debt to the bank of 
England; act passed in 171O. The act establishing 
the sinking fund of Mr. Pitt, devised by Dr. Price, 
was passed in March, 1786. A then estimated sur- 
plus of 900,000^. in the revenue was augmented by 
new taxes to make up the sum of 1,000,000/. which 
was to be invariably applied to the reduction of the 



national debt. The fallacy of the scheme was 
shown by Dr. Hamilton in 1813. In July, 1828, 
the sinking fund was limited to one-fourth of the 
actual surplus of revenue. 

A new sinking fund was established by Act passed 
2 Aug. 1875. The annual charge of the national debt 
of the year ending 31 March, 1877 to be 27,700,000?. ; 
subsequent years to be 28,000,000?. 

SINOPE, an important Greek colony on the 
Euxine, after resisting several attacks was con- 
quered by Mithridates IV., king of Pontus, and 
made his capital. It was the birth-place of 
Diogenes, the cynic philosopher. On 30 Nov. 1853, 
a Turkish fleet of seven frigates, three corvettes, 
and two smaller vessels, was attacked by a Russian 
fleet of six sail of the line, two sailing vessels, and 
three steamers, under admiral Nachimoff, and 
totally destroyed, except one vessel, which con- 
veyed the tidings to Constantinople. Four thou- 
sand lives were lost by fire or drowning, and Osman 
Pacha, the Turkish admiral, died at Sebastopol of 
his wounds. In consequence of this act (considered 
treacherous) the Anglo-French fleet entered the 
Black Sea, 3 Jan. 1854. 

SION COLLEGE Am) Hospital, situated 

on the site of a nunnery, which, having fallen to 
decay, was purchased by William Elsynge, a citizen 
and mercer, and converted into a college and hos- 
pital, called from his name Elsynge Spital. In 
1340 he changed it to an Austin priory, which was 
afterwards granted by Henry VIII. to sir John 
Williams, master of the jewel-office, who, with sir 
Roland Hay ward, inhabited it till its destruction 
by fire. In 1623, Dr. Thomas White having be- 
queathed 3000/. towards purchasing and building a 
college and alms-house on the ancient site, his 
executors erected the present college. It is held by 
two charters of incorporation, 6 Chas. I. 1630 and 16 
Chas. II. 1664. It contains a valuable library (easily 
accessible to the public), and an almshouse for ten 
men and ten women. New buildings erected on 
the Thames Embankment ; memorial stone laid 21 
April, 1885 ; opened by the prince of Wales, 15 
Dec. 1886. 

SIEENE, an instrument for determining the 
velocity of aerial vibrations corresponding to the 
different pitches of musical sounds, was invented 
by baron Cagniard de la Tour of Paris hi 18 19. 
The principle was shown in an apparatus exhibited 
by Robert Hooke before the Royal Society, 27 July, 
1681. 

SISTEEHOODS in the English church were 
begun by Lydia Priscilki Sellou about 1846, in 
Devonshire ; she died, Nov. 1876. 

SISTEES OF "CHARITY, an order for the 
service of the sick poor, was founded by Vincent de 
Paul, in 1634. Their establishment in London 
began in 1834. 

SIX ACTS, a term given to certain acts, also 
named " Gagging Acts," 60 Geo. III. & I Geo. IV. 
<,c. 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 9, passed in 1819-1820 to suppress 
seditious meetings and publications. 

SIX AETICLES, see Articles. 

SIX CLEEKS, officers of the court of chan- 
cery, who were anciently clerici or clergy. They 
were to conform to the laws of celibacy, and forfeit 
their places if they married; but when the consti- 
tution of the court began to alter, a law was made 
to permit them to marry; statute 24 <fc 25 Ben. 
VIII. 1 S33- The six clerks continued for many 
years officers of the chancery court, and held their 
olfiics in Chancery-lane, London, where proceed- 



SIXTEEN. 



SLAVEEY. 



"34 
1180 

iSSS 



1662 
1772 



ings by bill and answer were transacted and filed, 
and certain patents issued. Law Diet. The six 
clerks were discontinued by 5 & 6 Vict. c. 103, 1841. 

SIXTEEN {seize), a large French political 
club, in the reigns of Henry III. and IV., sixteen 
members of which took charge of the sixteen 
quarters of Paris. They at first supported the 
catholic league, and attempted to overthrow Henry 
III. in 1587, but vacillating in their policy, and 
committing many crimes, their power was annihi- 
lated by Mayenne in 1591, and several of them 
were executed. 

SKALITZ (Bohemia), was stormed by the 
Prussian general Steinmetz, 28 June, 1866; whereby 
the junction of the divisions of the Prussians was 
greatly facilitated, 

SKATING (with blunt skates) is said to have 
been practised in prehistoric times by northern 
nations. See Rinks. 

Mentioned by the Danish historian Saxo Gramma- 

ticus about 

William Fitz Stephens speaks of it in London, about 

Figures of skates in Olaus Magnus's history, printed 

Blade-skates, probably introduced from Holland, 

about 1660, were seen in St. James's-park by 

Evelyn and Pepys 1 Dec. 

Robert Jones's "Art of Skating," published . 
London Skating club, 1830 ; Oxford club . . 1838 
Severe frost, much skating .... Jan. 1880 
International skating contest at Vienna . Jan. 1882 

SKIEENIEVICE, Poland; see Russia, 15, 16 

Sept. 1884. 

SKINS- The raw skins of cattle were usually 
suspended on stakes and made use of instead of 
kettles to boil meat, in the north of England and 
in Scotland, 1 Edw. III. 1327. Leland. 

SKUPTSCHINA, the Servian legislative 
assembly. 

SKYE, ISLE OF, N.W. Scotland. See Crofters. 

SLADE PEOFESSOESHIP of Fine 
ART, Cambridge, established in pursuance of the 
will of Felix Slade, 24 June, 1869, sir Matthew 
Digby Wyatt, the first professor, 1869-73 '■> Sidney 
Colvin, 1873-1885; Mr. J. H. Middleton, 1886. 

STANDEE of Women, act passed 5 Aug. 1891. 
SLANG, see Dictionaries. 

SLATE. Fifteen persons were killed by the fall 
of a mass of rock and rubble at the Delaboll slate 
quarries, Cornwall, 21 April, 1869. 
Great strike at lord Penrhyn's slate quarries 

Bethesda, Wales, in Sept.-Oct. ; end . . Nov. 1874 

SLAUGHTEE HOUSES ACT for the 

metropolis, passed 7 Aug. 1874. 

SLAVEEY. The traffic in men came from 
Chaldeea into Egypt, Arabia, and all over the East. 
In Greece, in the time of Homer, all prisoners of 
war were treated as slaves. The Lacedamionian 
youths, trained up in the practice of deceiving and 
butchermg slaves, were from time to time let loose 
upon them to show their proficiency ; and once, for 
amusement only, murdered, it is said, 3000 in one 
night, see Helots. Alexander, when he razed Thebes 
sold the whole people for slaves, 335 b.c. There 
were 400,000 slaves in Attica, 317 b.c. In Eome 
slaves were often chained to the gate of a great 
man's house, to give admittance to the guests in- 
vited to the feast. By one of the laws of the XII. 
Tables, creditors could seize their insolvent debtors, 
and keep them in their houses, till by their services 
or labour they had discharged the sum they owed. 



C. Pollio threw such slaves as gave him the slightest 
offence into his fish-ponds, to fatten his lampreys, 
42 B.C. Caecilius Isidorus left to his heir 41 16 
slaves, 12 B.C. The first Janissaries were Christian 
slaves, 1329. 
Slavery abolished in the French colonies by the 

agency of M. Sehoslcher ..... 1848 
Serfdom was abolished by Frederick I. of Prussia 
in 1702 ; by Christian VII. of Denmark in 1766 ; 
by Joseph II. emperor of Germany, in his heredi- 
tary states in 1781 ; by Nicholas I. of Russia in 
the imperial domains in 1842 ; and by his suc- 
cessor, Alexander II. throughout his empire, 
3 March, 1861. 
Slavery ceased in the Dutch "West Indies on 1 July, 

1863. 
Slavery abolished in Porto Rico . 23 March, 1873 
Immediate suppression of slavery in the colonies 

of St. Thomas, &c. by Portugal, announced, Feb. 1876 
Gradual emancipation in Cuba ; bill passed in 
Sp mish senate, 24 Dec. 1879 ; by deputies, 21 Jan. 
promulgated, 18 Feb. 1880 ; total abolition by 

decree 6 Oct. 1886 

Slavery to be abolished in Egypt . end of July, 1881 
Abolition of slavery in Brazil (which see) . . 1867-8S 
Slavery abolished in Zanzibar (which sec), Oct. 1889 

and Aug. 1890 
Anti-slavery Conference at Brussels: meeting of 
foreign plenipotentiaries and delegates from 17 
states, 18 Nov. 1889. Conferences : 19 Nov.-Dec. 
1889 ; 27 Jam-28 May, 1890. Regulations for the 
suppression of the slave trade, and rules relating 
to the traffic in spirit agreed to. After much 
negotiation, the general act was ratified by all 
the powers for immediate effect . 2 April, 1892 

SLAVEEY IN ENGLAND- Laws respecting 
the sale of slaves were made by Alfred. The English 
peasantry were commonly sold for slaves in Saxon 
and Norman times ; children were sold in Bristol 
market like cattle for exportation. Many were sent 
to Ireland and to Scotland. Under the Normans 
the vassals (termed villeins, of and pertaining to 
the vill) were devisable as chattels during the 
feudal times. 

Severe statutes were passed in the reign of Richard 
II., 1377 and 1385; the rebellion of Wat Tyler, 
1381, arose partly out of the evils of serfdom. 
A statute was enacted by Edward VI. that a runa- 
way, or any one who lived idly for three days, 
should be brought before two justices of the 
peace, and marked V with a hot iron on the 
breast, and adjudged the slave of him who bought 
him for two years. He was to take the slave and 
give him bread, water, or small drink, and refuse 
meat, and cause him to work by beating, chain- 
ing, or otherwise ; and, if within that space, he 
absented himself fourteen days, was to be marked 
on the forehead or cheek, by a hot iron, with an 
S, and be his master's slave for ever; second de- 
sertion was made felony. It was lawful to put 
a ring of iron round his neck, arm, or leg. A 
child might be put apprentice, and, on running 
away, become a slave to his master . . . . 1547 
Queen Elizabeth ordered her bondsmen in the 

western counties to be made free at easy rates . 1574 
Serfdom was finally extinguished in 1660, when 
tenures in capite, knights' service, &c, were 
abolished. 
A slave named Somerset, brought to England, 
was, because of his ill state, turned adrift by 
his master. By the charity of Mr. Granville 
Sharp he was restored to health, when his mas- 
ter again claimed him. A suit was the con- 
sequence, which established, by decision of the 
Court of King's Bench, in favour of Somerset, 
that slavery coidd not exist in Great Britain 

22 June, 1772 
Act for the abolition of slavery throughout the 
British colonies, and for the promotion of in- 
dustry among the manumitted slaves, and for 
compensation to the persons hitherto entitled to 
the services of such slaves by the grant from 
parliament of 20,000,000^ sterling, passed 

28 Aug. 1833 



SLAVERY. 



887 



SLAVE TEADE. 



Slavery terminated in the British possessions ; 
770,280 slaves became free . . . 1 Aug. 1834 

Slavery was abolished in the East Indies 1 Aug. 1838 

British and Foreign anti-slavery society established, 1839 

In 1853 John Anderson, a runaway slave, killed 
Septimus Digges, a planter of Missouri, who at- 
tempted to arrest him, and escaped to Canada. 
The American government claimed him as a mur- 
derer. The Canadian judges deciding that the 
law required his surrender, Mr. Edwin James, 
Q.C. (15 Jan.), obtained a writ of habeas corpus 
for his appearance before the court of queen's 
bench. Anderson was discharged on technical 
grounds 16 Feb. 1861 

Circular from the Admiralty concerning the sur- 
rendering fugitive slaves on board British ships 
to their owners, dated 31 July ; much censured 
by the public, Sept., Oct. ; withdrawn Nov. 1875 

A revised circular issued near end of Dec, 1875 ; 
met with much adverse criticism . . Jan. 1876 

Government commission appointed (the duke of 
Somerset, chief justice Cockburn, sir Henry S. 
Maine, and others), Feb. ; report unfavourable to 
the circulars ; published . . .13 June, „ 

New admiralty instructions : fugitive slaves to be 
received and not given up ; action left to captain's 
discretion ; breach of international faith and 
comity to be avoided ; issued . . 10 Aug. „ 

Jubilee meeting to celebrate the abolition of slavery 
in the British colonies at Guildhall, London, the 
prince of Wales in the chair . . 1 Aug. 1884 

SLAVERY in United States. . Before the 

war of independence all the states contained slaves. 
In 1783 the statement in the Massachusetts Bill of 
Rights, "All men are born free and equal," was 
declared in the supreme court at Boston to bar 
slave-holding in that state. Slaves in the United 
States in 1790, 697,897; in 1810, 1,191,364; in 
1820, 2,009,031; in 1850, 3,204,313; in i860, 
4,002,996. In 1870, 4,889, 193, free coloured persons. 

Congress passes unanimously the celebrated ordin-- 
anee "for the government of the territory to the 
N. W. of the Ohio," which contained an "unaltera- 
ble" article, forbidding slavery or involuntary servi- 
tude in the said state, 13 July, 1787; after 1800, 
several of the states prayed, without effect, to 
be relieved from this prohibition. 

Louisiana purchased, which was considered by 
many as fatal to the constitution .... 1803 

The enormous increase in the growth of cotton in 
the southern states (see Cotton) led to a corre- 
sponding increase in the demand for slave labour. 
The Missouri Compromise (drawn up by Henry 
Clay, by which slavery was permitted in that 
state, but was prohibited in all that part of it to 
the north of 36° 30' N. lat.), carried . Feb. 1820 

Contest between the slave-holders aud their oppo- 
nents at the annexation of Texas ; a similar 
division to that of Missouri obtained 25 Dec. 1845 

Another compromise effected ; California admitted 
as a free state : but the Fugitive Slave act passed 
{which see) . ...... 1850 

The Missouri compromise was abrogated by the 
admission of Nebraska and Kansas as slave- 
holding states ; civil war ensued (see Kansas) . 1854 

Dred Soot's case (see United States) .... 1857 

John Brown's attempt to create a slave rebellion in 
Virginia failed (see United States) . . Nov. 1859 

Abraham Lincoln, the anti - slavery candidate, 
elected president of the United States 4 Nov. i860 

Secession of South Carolina (see United States), Dec. ,, 

Slavery abolished in the district of Colombia 

16 April, 1S62 

President Lincoln proclaims the abolition of 
slavery in the southern states, if they have not 
returned to the union on 1 Jan. 1863 22 Sept. ,, 

The total abolition of slavery in the United States 
officially announced .... 18 Dec. ,, 

Mr. William Lloyd Garrison, a fervent champion for 
emancipation, entertained at St. James's-liall, 
London (he started the Liberator in 1831, and 
had suffered much for his zeal) . . 29 June, 1867 

A negro judge present in a court at New Orleans, 

18 Sept. „ 



Negro equality with the whites completely recog- 
nised Feb. 1S70 

See United States, 1860-5. 

SLAVE TRADE. The slave trade from Con- 
gou and Angola was begun by the Portuguese in 
1481. The commerce in man lias brutalised a tract 
fifteen degrees on each side of the equator, and forty- 
degrees wide, or of 4,000,000 of square miles; and 
men and women have been bred for sale to the 
Christian nations during the last 250 years, and 
war carried on to make prisoners for the Christian 
market. The Abbe Raynal computed (1777) that, at 
the time of his writing, 9,000,000 of slaves had been 
consumed by the Europeans. The slave-trade is 
now approaching extinction. 

In 1768 the slaves taken from Africa amounted to 
104,100. In 1786 the annual number was about 100,000. 

In 1807 it was shown by documents, produced by govern- 
ment, that since 1792 upwards of 3,500,000 Africa us 
had been torn from their country, and had either per- 
ished on the passage or been sold in the West Indies. 

Slave Trade of England : begun by sir John Hawkins. 
His first expedition, with the object of procuring 
negroes on the coast of Africa, and conveying them 
for sale at the West Indies, took place in Oct. 1562 ; 
see Guinea, and Assiento. 

England employed 130 ships and carried off 42,000 slaves, 
1786. 

Thos. Clarkson, at a spot in Wadesmill, Hertford, de- 
votes his life to the abolition of the slave-trade, June, 
17S5. 

The "Society for the Suppression of the Slave Trade," 
founded by Clarkson, Wilberforce, and Dillwyn, 1787. 

Slave-trade question debated in parliament, 1787. 

The debate for its abolition ; two days, April, 1791. 

Mr. Wilberforce's motion lost by a majority of 88 to 8?, 
3 April, 1798. 

The question introduced under the auspices of Lord 
Grenville and Mr. Fox, then ministers, 31 March, 1806. 

The trade abolished by parliament, 25 March, 1807. 

Thomas Clarkson, died, aged 85, Sept. 1846. 

An obelisk as a memorial of Thos. Clarkson, erected by 
Mr. Arthur Giles Puller, at Wadesmill, inaugurated o 
Oct. 1879. 

A statue unveiled at Wisbeaeh, Cambridge, n Nov. 1881. 

Foreign countries : the trade was abolished by Austria 
in 1782 ; by the French convention in 1794 ; by the 
United States in 1808. 

The allies at Vienna declared against it, Feb. 1815. 

Napoleon, in the hundred days, abolished the trade, 29 
March, 1815. 

Treaty for its repression with Spain, 1817 ; with the 
Netherlands, May, 1818 ; with Brazil, Nov. 1826 ; pro- 
hibition, 1831 ; not effected till 1852. 

Its revival was proposed in the congress of the United 
States of America, 14 Dec. 1856, and negatived by 1S3 
votes to 58. 

In June, 1857, the French government gave permission to 
M. Regis to convey free negroes from Africa to Qua la- 
loupe and Martiuido, French colonies. 

This having led to abuses and consequent troubles (see 
Charles et Georges), was eventually given up in Jan. 
1859. 

It is said that about 40,000 slaves were landed at Cuba in 
i860. 

A treaty between Great Britain and the United States for 
the abolition of the slave trade, was signed 7 April ; 
ratified 20 May. 1862. 

The Spanish government denounce the slave trade as 
piracy, Nov. 1865. 

Sir Samuel Baker headed an expedition to put down 
slave-trading on the Nile (see Egypt), Jan. 1870 ; reported 
to be partially successful, 30 June, 1873. He pub- 
lished " Ismailia," a history of the expedition, 1874. 
He estimates that at least 50,000 arc captured aud 
sold as slaves, Nov. 1874. 

A species of slave trade has lately risen in tin 1 Ninth 
Seas; the natives being enticed on board certain 
British vessels and shipped to Queensland, Australia, 
and ths l'i.]i isles th: sutj: -t wis brought Defers pi r- 
liament (see Melanesia), 1S71-2. 

The ship Carl (owner, Dr. .lames F. Murray; master, 
Joseph Armstrong) lefi Melbourne for South Sen isles ; 
it anchored oil' Malokolo, Solomon's and Bougainville 



SLAVONIA. 



SMALLPOX. 



isles and kidnapped many natives as labourers for the 
Fiji isles ; while about 20 miles from land, the prisoners 
rose and attempted to set fire to the ship ; were fired 
on ; about 50 killed and 20 wounded were cast into the 
sea. At Melbourne Murray gave evidence, and Arm- 
strong was committed for trial, 16 Aug. ; the master 
and mate sentenced to death, Nov. 1872. 

Sir Bartle Frere went to Zanzibar on a mission to suppress 
the East African slave trade ; see Zanzibar, 1872-3. 

An act of parliament for consolidating with amendments 
the acts for carrying into effect treaties for the more 
effectual suppression of the slave trade (36 & 37 Viet. 
c. 88), was passed, 5 Aug. 1873. 

Several African kings and chiefs, at Cape Coast Castle, 
agreed to give up slave trade, at an interview with 
governor Strahan, 3 Nov. 1874. 

The slave-trade on the Gold Coast abolished, by procla- 
mation of governor Strahan, 17 Dec. 1874. 

Convention with Egypt forbidding the traffic, 4 Aug. 
1877 ; col. Gordon's efforts in the Soudan reported suc- 
cessful, 1879. 

Slave trade prohibited at West African conference, 7 Jan. 
1885. 

Slave trade in East Africa checked by British cruisers, 
1886. 

United action of England and Germany and other 
powers to check the maritime slave-trade and importa- 
tion of arms on the east coast of Africa, which is to 
be blockaded for that purpose from Suakin to 
Zanzibar, Oct.-Nov. ; proclamation of the commence- 
ment of the blockade, 2 Dec. 1888. See Zanzibar. 

Mr. Sydney Buxton's resolution for urgent suppression 
of the slave trade passed in the house of commons, 
26 March, 1889. 

Slave trade reported nearly extinct in Egypt, and few 
slaves there, May, 1889. 

Law for the repression of the slave trade published in 
Turkey, 30 Dec. 1889. 

Dealing in slaves prohibited in Zanzibar, 1 Aug. 1890. 

SLAVONIA or SCLAVONIA, a province of 
Austria, derives its name from the Slaves, a Sarma- 
tian people who replaced the Avars in Pannonia 
early in the 9th century. In 864 Cyril and Metho- 
dius, Greek missionaries, preached here, and adapted 
the Greek alphabet to the Slavonian language ; the 
letters of which have since been a little altered. 
The country, after having been held at times by the 
Greeks, Turks, and Hungarians, and the cause of 
sanguinary conflicts, was ceded finally to Hungary 
in 1699, at the peace of Carlo witz. Deputies from 
the Slavonian provinces of Austria were entertained 
at Moscow and St. Petersburg, May, 1867. The 
Croatian-Slavonian diet, at Agram, was dissolved, 
May, 1867. It protested against incorporation with 
Hungary. The Slavonian family of languages in- 
cludes Eussian, Polish, Servian, Bohemian, Bul- 
garian, Wendic, Slovak, and Polabic. For the war, 
see Turkey, 1875-6. 

Estimated number of Slavs in Europe in 1875 : 90,365,633 ; 
Russians and Ruthenians, 66,129,590; Serbo-Croats, 
5,940,539; Bulgarians, 5,123,952; Slovenes, 1,260,000; 
Slovaks,2,223,83o; Czechs, 4,815,154 ; Poles, 9,492,162. 
Lord Ilchester's bequest to promote the study of Slavo- 
nian literature at Oxford; lectures first given, May, 
1876. 
Agitation against the Germans in Slavonic provinces of 
Austria, Aug. Sept. 1883. 

SLEEP, see Seven Sleepers. M. Chauffat, 
awoke after a nineteen days' sleep at the Alexandra 
Palace, 28 Nov. 1888; many similar cases are 
reported. Johann Latus, at Myslowitz, in Silesia, 
is said to have slept four-and-a-half months, being 
kept alive by imbibing milk, reported 31 Jan. ; he 
awoke about 9 Feb., 1892. The case was ascribed 
to catalepsy. 

SLESWIG, see Holstein. 
SLIDING-SCALE, see Com Laws. 

SLING. In Judges xx. 16, is mentioned the 
skill of the Bcnjamite slingers (about 1406 B.C.), 
and with a sling David slew Goliath 1063 b.c. (i 



Sam. xvii.) The natives of the Balearic isles 
(Majorca, Minorca, and Ivii^a) were celebrated 
slingers, and served as mercenaries in the Cartha- 
ginian and Roman armies. Slings are said to have 
been used by the Huguenots at the siege of San- 
cerre, in 1672, to economise their powder. 

SLOANE'S MUSEUM, see British Museum. 

SLOUGH, near Eton, Bucks, Mrs. Ann Reville, 
a butcher's wife, w r as barbarously murdered early 
in evening, 11 April, 1881. Alfred Payne, a lad, 
was tried and acquitted, same month. 

SLOYD ASSOCIATION of Great 
Britain and Ireland, its object to promote 

the training of the eye and hand; first meeting 
held in London, the earl of Heath in the chair, 
5 Dec. 1888. The "Sloyd" system is reported 
successful in Scandinavia. 

SLUYS (Holland), near which Edward III. 
gained a signal naval victory over the French. The 
English had the wind of the enemy, and the sun at 
their backs, and began this sanguinary action. Two 
hundred and thirty French ships were taken ; thou- 
sands of Frenchmen were killed, with two of their 
admirals ; the loss of the English was inconsider- 
able : 24 June, 1340. 

SMALCALD (Hesse), TREATY OF, entered 
into between the elector of Brandenburg and the 
other princes of Germany in favour of Protestantism, 
31 Dec. 1530; see Protestants. The emperor, ap- 
prehensive that the kings of France and England 
would join this league, signed the treaty of Passau, 
31 July, 1532, allowing liberty of conscience. 

SMALLPOX, variola (diminutive of varus, a 
pimple), a highly contagious disease, supposed (0 
have been introduced into Europe from the East by 
the Saracens. Bhazes, an Arabian, described it 
accurately, about 900. From Europe it was carried 
to America, soon after its disco very, and raged there 
with great severity, destroying the Indians by thou- 
sands. In 1694, queen Mary of England died of 
smallpox, as did in 1711 and 1712 the emperor of 
Germany, the dauphin and dauphiness of France and 
then- son, in 1730 the emperor of Bussia, in 1741 
the queen of Sweden, and in 1774 Louis XV. of 
France. It is stated that in the middle of the last 
century two millions perished by it in Bussia. In 
London in 1723 one out of fourteen deaths was 
caused by small pox, and in France in 1754 the rate 
was one in ten. For the attempts to alleviate this 
scourge, see Inoculation, introduced into England 
in 1722, and Vaccination, announced by Dr. Jenner 
in 1790. Smallpox Hospital, established 1746. 
Smallpox raged in parts of London, and 
thousands died, 1870- 1 ; a temporary hospital was 
established at Hampstead {tuhich see). The Anti- 
Vaccination society has been active, and many 
parents have been fined for opposing the vaccina- 
tion of their children, 1870-6. In Sept. and Oct. 
1862, a great many sheep died of smallpox in the 
"West of England, till successful preventive measures 
were resorted to. Many cases in London, 1876-8 ; 
deaths principally of unvaccinated persons. 
Smallpox prevalent in London, 88 deaths 1 — 7 May; 103 

deaths 15 — 21 May; diminishing July, 1881. 
Deaths, June, 1880 — June, 1881, 1532 deaths, 637 not 
vaccinated ; in N.E. London, May, deaths, about 36 a 
week, June, 1884 ; deaths decreasing reported, 24 
July ; reappears, but subsides, Dec. 1884. 
Severe epidemic of smallpox at Sheffield and neighbour- 
hood, March, 1887 ; still prevalent, Jan. 1888 ; dis- 
appearing, April, 1888. 

See Vaccination. 



SMALL TENEMENTS ACTS. 



889 



SNEEZING. 



SMALL TENEMENTS ACTS (59 Geo. III. 
c. 12, 1819) ; 1850 (13 & 14 Vict. c. 99), provided 
for owners paying' rates of nouses instead of the oc- 
cupiers. This was annulled by the new Reform 
act, 30 & 31 Vict. c. 102, s. 7 (1867). 

SMECTYMNUUS, the initials of certain non- 
conformist writers against episcopacy in the seven- 
teenth century: Stephen Marshall, Edmund Cala- 
my, Thomas Young, Matthew Newcomen, William 
Spurstow. They were answered by bishop Hall in 
his " Divine Right of Episcopacy," 1640. 

SMITH'S CHAEITY (foe poor kin). 

Alderman Henry Smith, by will dated 26 April, 
1647, left IOOO/. for relief of captives held by 
Turkish pirates, and iooctf. for his poor kinsmen. 
The former object having become obsolete, an act was 
passed in 1772 to divert all the property to the poor 
kinsmen. In 1868 these were 412 in number. The 
value of the property is now 17,000?. a year (1889). 
The master of the rolls decided in Dec. 1877, 
that the funds should be applied to general chari- 
table purposes. On appeal, the decision was in favour 
of the "poor Smiths," 12 Feb. 1878. 

SMITHFIELD, WEST, in the heart of 
London, was once a favourite walk of the London 
citizens, outside the city walls. Sir W. "Wallace 
was executed here, 23 Aug. 1305. On 15 June, 
1381, Wat Tyler was met by Richard II. at this 
place, and was stabbed by Walworth the mayor. 
Many tournaments were also held here. In the 
reign of Mary (1553-8), many persons perished by 
fire ; and Bartholomew Leggatt, an Arian, was 
burnt here, 18 March, 1612. — Bartholomew fail- was 
held here till 1853.— This place is mentioned as the 
site of a cattle market as far back as 1150. The 
space devoted to this purpose was enlarged from 
about three acres to four and a half, and in 1834 to 
six and a quarter. The ancient regulations were 
called the "statutes of Smithfield." In one day 
there were sometimes assembled 4000 beasts and 
30,000 sheep. The annual amount of the sales was 
about 7,000,000^. 

Sold here 226,132 beasts, 1,593,270 sheep andlambs, 
26,356 calves, 33,531 pigs. (About 160 sales- 
men) 1846 

The contracted space of the market, the slaughter- 
ing places adjoining, and many other nuisances, 
gave ground to much dissatisfaction, and after 
investigation, an act was passed appointing 
metropolitan market commissioners with powers 
to provide a new market, slaughtering places, &c. ; 
and to close the market at Smithfield . 1 Aug. 1851 
Smithfield was used as a cattle market for the last 
time on n June ; and the new market in Copen- 
hagen-fields was opened on 13 June (see Metro- 
politan Market) 1855 

A dead-meat and poultry market ordered to be 
erected in Smithfield, and Newgate market to 

cease . . . 1861 

A tender for its erection, from designs by Horace 
Jones, accepted from Messrs. Browne and Robin- 
son for 134,460? Nov. 1866 

The market inaugurated by the lord mayor Law- 
rence, 24 Nov. ; opened to the public . 1 Dec. 1868 
New poultry market, inaugurated by lord mayor 
Cotton ....... 30 Nov. 1875 

New central fruit and vegetable market determined 
on . . . . ' . ' . . 14 July, 1879 

A new poultry and provision market was opened in 
Farringdon road by lord mayor Isaacs, n Dec. 
1889 ; the new fruit and vegetable market opened 
by lord mayor Evans . . . 13 June, 1892 
The Smithfield Club, to promote improvements in Hie 
breed of cattle, was established 17 Dec. 1798 ; first pre- 
sident, Francis, duke of Bedford ; first secretary, 
Arthur Young. The members established an annual 
cattle show, held first in Dolphin-yard. Smithfield, Dec. 
1799 ; next in Barbican, 1805 ; in Goswell-street, 1806 ; 
removed to Baker-street, 1839 ; and to the new Agri- 
cultural hall, Liverpool-road, Islington, 1862. 



The show, suspended in Dec. 1866, on account of the 
cattle plague, was partially resumed Dec. 1S67 ; wholly, 
Dec. 1868. 

Three of the highest prizes were awarded to the queen ; 
110,000 visitors, 10-14 Oec. 1883. 

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, "for the 
increase and diffusion of knowledge among men," 
a handsome building at Washington, U.S., was 
founded in 1846, by means of a legacy of above 
100,000^. bequeathed for the purpose to "the United 
States government by James Smithson, illegitimate 
son of sir Hugh Smith=on, who became duke of 
Northumberland in 1766. It publishes and freely 
distributes scientific memoirs and reports. The 
library was burnt on 25 Jan. 1865. Professor 
Joseph Henry, the first secretary, died, 13 May, 
1878 ; succeeded by Mr. Spencer F. Baird, died, 19 
Aug. 1887 ; succeeded by Professor S. P. Langley. 

SMOKE NUISANCE. An act was passed in 
1853 to abate this nuisance, proceeding from chim- 
ney shafts and steamers above London bridge. In 
1856 another act, obtained for its further application 
to steamers below London bridge, and to potteries 
and glass-houses previously exempted, came into 
operation, 1 Jan. 1858; enactments have been made 
for all the kingdom. 
Meeting at Mansion-house for the abatement of smoke in 

London, 7 Jan. 1881. 
An exhibition of appliances for this purpose in the 
Royal Albert Hall, opened 30 Nov. 1881 ; closed 14 
Feb. 1882 ; opened at Manchester, 17 March, 1882. 
National Smoke Abatement Institution founded, and Mr. 
R. E. W. Coles appointed smoke inspector, autumn, 
1882. 
Smoke abatement fund opened, 1883. 
The Thompson smoke consuming furnace tried success- 
fully on the Thames, 15 July, 1886. 
Messrs. Ashworth and Kneen patent a furnace which 
saves about 35 per cent, of coal and consumes smoke, 
autumn, 1887. 
A bill to abate the nuisance was rejected by the lords, 

2 March, 1891. 
A smokeless fuel, invented by Herr Koopmann, was ex- 
hibited before the prince of Wales and others at 
Messrs. Brewis' premises, King's cross, London, N., 
7 April, 1891. The fuel consists of coal-dust incor- 
porated with pitch and other mineral substances in 
small proportions. 

SMOLENSKO ( Russia) . The French in most 
sanguinary engagements here were three times re- 
pulsed, but ultimately succeeded in entering Smo- 
lensko, and found the city, which had been bom- 
barded, burning and partly in ruins, 16, 17 Aug. 
1812. Barclay de Tolly, the Russian commander- 
in-chief, incurred the displeasure of the emperor 
Alexander because he retreated after the battle, and 
Kutusoff succeeded to the command. 

SMUGGLEES- The customs duties, institu- 
ted to enable the king to afford protection to trade 
against pirates, afterwards became a branch of 
public revenue, and gave rise to much smuggling 
The Smugglers' act was passed in 1736, and its 
severity was mitigated in 178 1 and 1784. A re- 
vision of these statutes took place 1826 and 1835. 
Lieut, the lion. H. N. Shore's " Smuggling Days 
and Smuggling Ways," published 1892. 

SMYENA, see Seven Churches. 

SNEEZING. The custom of saying "God 
bless you" to the sneezer originated, according to 
Strada, among the ancients, who, through an 
opinion of the danger attending it, after sneezing 
made a short prayer to the -mis, as "Jupiter, help 
me." The custom is mentioned by Homer, the 
Jewish rabbis, and others, and is found among 
savages. Polydorc Vergil says it took its rise at 
the time of the plague, 558, when the infected fell 



SNIDEE GUN. 



890 



SOCIAL WAES. 



down dead sneezing, though seemingly in good 
health. 

SNIDEE GUN, see under Firearms. 

SNUFF-TAKING took its rise in England 
from the captures made of vast quantities of snuff 
by sir George Kooke's expedition to Vigo in 1702, 
and the practice soon became general. In 1839 
there were imported 1,622,493 lbs. of snuff, of which 
196,305 lbs. were entered for home consumption ; 
the duty was 88,263/. ; see Tobacco. In 1853, 
2,573,925 lbs. of snuff and cigars, in 1861, 2,110,430 
lbs. ; in 1871, 3,852,236 lbs. ; 1877, 3,762,831 lbs.; 
1883, 3,121,174 lbs.; 1887, 3,595,071 lbs. were im- 
ported. 

SOANE MUSEUM, &c. No. 13, Lincoln' s-inn- 
fields, was gradually formed by sir J ohn Soane, the 
architect, who died in 1837, after making arrange- 
ments for its being open to the public by an act 
passed in 1833. It contains Egyptian and other 
antiquities, valuable paintings, rare books, &c. 
150/. are distributed annually to distressed archi- 
tects or their widows and children. 
One of two sealed closets in the museum was 

opened 29 Nov. 1886 ; chiefly private legal 

documents discovered. 

SOAP is a salt, a compound of a fatty acid with 
an alkali, soda or potash. The Hebrew borith, 
translated soap, is merely a general term for 
cleansing substances. Job ix. 30 ; Jer. ii. 22. 
Pliny declares soap to be an invention of the Gauls, 
though he prefers the German to the Gallic soap. 
Nausicaa and her attendants, Homer tells us, 
washed clothes by treading upon them with their 
feet in pits of water. Odyssey, book vi. The 
Eomans used fuller's earth. Savon, the French 
word for soap, is ascribed to its having been manu- 
factured at Savona, near Genoa. The manufacture 
of soap began in London in 1524, before which 
time it was supplied by Bristol at one penny per 
pound. The duty upon soap, imposed in 1711, 
after several reductions from 3d. per pound, was 
totally repealed in 1853. It then produced, accord- 
ing to the chancellor of the exchequer, Mr. Glad- 
stone, about 1,126,000/. annually. Exported from 
the United Kingdom : 1876, 254,853 cwts. ; 1880, 
391,808 cwts.; 1885, 402,112 cwts.; 1890,496,930 
cwts. 

SOBEAON (N.W. India). The British army, 

35,000 strong, under sir Hugh (afterwards viscount) 
Gough, attacked the Sikh force on the Sutlej, 10 
.Feb. 1846. The enemy Avas dislodged after a 
dreadful contest, and all their batteries taken ; and 
inattempting the passage of the river by a floating 
bridge in their rear, the weight of the masses that 
crowded upon it caused it to break down, and 
thousands of Sikhs were lolled, wounded, or 
drowned. The British loss was 2338 men. 

_ SOCIALISM, which proposes the re-organisa- 
tion of society for the benefit of the community at 
the expense of the individual, was warmly ad- 
vocated in London, 24 Jan. 1834, by Bobert Owen. 
He had, beginning at New Lanark, in Scotland, 
about 1 801, established a settlement at New Har- 
mony in America in 1824. He died 17 Nov. 1858, 
aged 90. The French socialists, termed Communists, 
became a powerful political body in that country, 
were implicated in the revolution of 1848, and 
made an insurrection at Paris, 187 1. See France, 
Germany, 1878 et seq., Positive Philosophy, and 
Working-men (who, in Great Britain, have received 
by legislation nearly all they require). 



The Rev. Charles Kingsley, Mr. Thomas Hughes, ■ 
and others, endeavoured to set up Christian 
Socialism, about 1855-60 

P. J. Proudhon, an eminent socialist, to whom is 
ascribed the saying " la propriete e'est le vol " ; died 

20 Jan. 1865 

Communist manifesto issued by Carl Marx, 1848 ; 
(he died 14 March, 1883). 

Social democratic party organised by Ferdinand 
Lassalle 1863 

International workmen's association formed . . 1864 

" Gotha programme " (exalting labour) . . . 1875 

A grand congress of socialists met at Ghent, Sept. 1877 

Socialism said to be increasing in Germany . ,, 

Stringent bill to repress it passed in the parliament ; 
socialists expelled from Germany by decree, Nov. 
many papers suppressed, Nov., Dec, 1878. Ex- 
pulsions renewed .... autumn, 1S80 
See Germany, 1890. 

Illegal meeting of socialists permitted in Dod- 
street, Limehouse, London . . 27 Sept. 1885 

Social democratic federation holds meetings which 
tend to riots, see Puots . . 8 and 21 Feb. 1886 

Peaceable meetings held in Trafalgar-square 29 Aug. 

and 21 Nov. „ 

Their proposal for a procession on 9 Nov. forbidden, 

Oct. „ 

About the end of 1886 they began "church parades" 
disturbing the service at several churches ; 
ineffectually at St. Paul's cathedral . 27 Feb. 1887 

The general council of the social democratic 
federation issues a manifesto exhorting to con- 
stant organized agitation for adequate relief 
works &c, to be provided by the government 
and local authorities ; see Hyde Park and Riots, 

13 Nov. ,, 

Mr. William Morris, poet, author of the " Earthly 
Paradise," Mr. H. M. Hyndman, Mr. H. H. 
Champion, and Mr. John Burns became leaders 
of the " socialist league " formed in 1886. 

A kind of state socialism instituted in Germany ; 
see under Working Men, 1889. 

The attempts of the federation to hold open-air 
meetings at Chelsea on Sunday evenings, pre- 
vented by the police, Oct., Dee. 1891, and . Jan. 1892 

.SOCIAL SCIENCE. The National Asso- 
ciation for the Promotion of Social Science origin- 
ated in a meeting at lord Brougham's in May, 1857. 
Its object was to promote improvements in the 
administration of law, in education, in public 
health, and in social economy. It held annual 
meetings, and published its proceedings. 

Mr. Wm. Ellis and Mr. John Stuart Mill began to 

promote the study about 1S23 

Birmingham, meeting opened ... 12 Oct. 1857 

Liverpool . . . '. . . . 11 Oct. 1858 

Bradford 10 Oct. 1859 

Glasgow 24 Sept. i860 

Dublin 14 Aug. 1861 

London 6 June, 1862 

Edinburgh 7 Oct. 1863 

York 22 Sept. 1S64 

Sheffield 4 Oct. 1865 

Manchester 2 Oct. 1866 

Belfast 18 Sept. 1867 

Birmingham 30 Sept. 1868 

Bristol 29 Sept. 1869 

Newcastle-on-Tyne 21 Sept. 1870 

Leeds 4 Oct. 1871 

Plymouth n Sept. .1872 

Norwich 1 Oct. 1873 

Glasgow 30 Sept. 1874 

Brighton 6 Oct. 1875 

Liverpool 11 Oct. 1876 

Aberdeen 19 Sept. 1877 

Cheltenham 23 Oct. 1878 

Manchester 1 Oct. 1879 

Edinburgh 5 Oct. 1880 

Dublin 3 Oct. 1S81 

Nottingham 20 Sept. 1882 

Huddersfield 3 Oct. 1883 

Birmingham (the last congress) . . . 17 Sept. 1884 

SOCIAL WAES, see Athens, and Marsi. 



SOCIETIES. 



891 



SOCIETIES. 



SOCIETIES and Institutions, LITE- 
RARY AND SCIENTIFIC, in Great Britain. 
Further details of many of these will be found 
under their respective heads. All in the list below 
are in London, except otherwise stated. An act 
was passed n Aug. 1854, "to afford facilities for 
the establishment of institutions for the promotion 
of literature and science," by grants of land, &c. ; 
and for their regulation. The Koyal and London 
Institutions were exempted from the operation of 
the act. 

The "Year-Book of Scientific aud Learned Societies 

first appeared in 1884 

Royal Society Charter 1662 

Christian Knowledge Society 1698 

Society of Antiquaries . . . (Charter 1751) 1717 

Society of Dilettanti 1734 

Society of Arts .... (Charter 1847) 1753 

Medical Society of London 1773 

Bath and West of England Society .... 1777 

Gaelic Society of London ,, 

Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society . . 1781 
Royal Society of Edinburgh . (Charter 1783) 1782 

Highland Society 1785 

Royal Irish Academy '. . . . Charter 1786 

Linnaean Society .... (Charter 1802) 1788 
Newcastle Literary and Philosophical Society . . 1793 
Royal Institution (Act of parliament, 1810) Charter 1800 

Glasgow Philosophical Society 1802 

Royal Horticultural Society . . (Charter 1809) 1804 
Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society 

(Charter 1834) 1805 

London Institution „ 

Geological Society .... (Charter 1826) 1807 

Russell Institution 1808 

Swedenborg Society 1810 

Liverpool Literary and Philosophical Society . . 1812 

Roxburghe Club „ 

Institution of Civil Engineers . (Charter 182S) 1818 
Leeds Literary and Philosophical Society . . „ 

Egyptian Society 1819 

Cambridge Philosophical Society . (Charter 1832) ,, 

Hunterian Society ,, 

Royal Astronomical Society . . (Charter 1831) 1820 

Medico-Botanical Society 1821 

Royal Scottish Society of Arts „ 

Hull Literary and Philosophical Society . . . 1822 
Yorkshire Philosophical Society ....,, 
Sheffield Literary and Philosophical Society . . ,, 
Royal Society of Literature . . (Charter 1826) 1823 
Royal Asiatic Society . . . (Charter 1824) ,, 

Bannatyne Club, Edinburgh 

Mechanics' Institution, London 

Athenaeum Club 

Western Literary Institution 

Eastern Literary Institution 

Zoological Society .... (Charter 1829) 

Incorporated Law Society . . (Charter 1831) 1827 

Society for Diffusion of Useful Knowledge . 

Ashmolean Society, Oxford .... 

Maitland Club, Glasgow .... 

Royal Geographical Society 

Royal United Service Institution (Charter 1 

Royal Dublin Society 

Harveian Society 

British Association 

Marylebone Literary Institution 
British Medical Association 

Entomological Society 

Statistical Society 

Westminster Literary Institution 

Surtees Society, Durham 

Royal Institute of British Architects (Charter 1837) 
Leicester Literary and Philosophical Society 
Abbotsford Club, Edinburgh . 
Numismatic Society .... 
Ornithological Society .... 

Electrical Society 

Etching Club 

English Historical Society . 

Royal Agricultural Society (Charter 1840) 

Camden Society 

Microscopical Society (Royal, 1866) 
Ecclesiological Society .... 
Spalding Club, Aberdeen 



1824 
1825 



26 



1828 



1830 
1831 



1833 
1834 



183s 

183S-7 

1836 

1837 
1837-8 



838-56 
1838 



Royal Botanical Society of London . . . . 1839 

Parker Society 1840-55 

Percy Society 1840-52 

Irish Archaeological Society, Dublin . . . . 1840 

London Library „ 

Shakespeare Society ,, 

Chemical Society 1341 

Pharmaceutical Society ,, 

Wodrow Society, Edinburgh .... 1841-7 

Philological Society 1842 

j-Elfric Society 1843-56 

Chetham Society, Manchester 1843 

Spottiswoode Society, Edinburgh ....,, 
British Archaeological Association . . . . ,, 

Royal Archaeological Institute 

Sydenham Society ,, 

Ethnological Society ,, 

Law Amendment Society ,, 

Handel Society 1844 

Syro-Egyptian Society , , 

Ray Society ,, 

Caxton Society 1844-54 

Celtic Society, Dublin 1845-53 

Pathological Society 1846 

Sussex Archaeological Society, Lewes . . . ,, 
Cambrian Archaeological Association . . . . ,, 

Cavendish Society ,, 

Hakluyt Society , 

Palaeoutographical Society 1847 

Institute of Mechanical Engineers (Birmingham) . ,, 

Institute of Actuaries 1848 

Arundel Society ,, 

(British, now Royal) Meteorological Society 

(Charter 1866) 1S50 

Epidemiological Society ,, 

North of England Institute of Mining Engineers, 

Newcastle 1851 

Photographic Society 1852 

Philobiblon Society 1853 

Juridical Society 1855 

Odontological Society 1856 

Genealogical Society 1857 

National Association for Social Science . . . ,, 

Horological Institute 1858 

Society for the Encouragement of Fine Arts . . ,, 
Institution of Naval Architects .... i860 

Clinical Society 1861 

Anthropological Society 1863 

Early English Text Society ; began to publish . 1864 

Victoria Institute 24 May, 1865 

London Mathematical Society ,, 

Aeronautical Society .... 12 Jan. 1866 

Dialectic Society . . * 1867 

Chaucer Society ,, 

Holbein Society 1S68 

Royal Historical Society ,, 

Colonial Institute (Royal Charter, 1882) . . . „ 

Iron and Steel Institute 1869 

Harleian Society . . . . , . . . ,, 

Amateur Mechanical Society ,, 

Christian Evidence Society 1871 

Biblical Archaeology Society ,, 

Anthropological Institute (which see) . . . . ,, 
Institution of Electrical Engineers Qatc Society of 

Telegraph Engineers) . . . . . . ,, 

Marine Engineers' Institution 1872 

Society for Organization of Academical Study . ,, 
London Anthropological Society (extinct) . 1873-5 

Palaeographical Society 1873 

English Dialectic Society .... ,, 

(New) Shakspeare Society 

Physical Society 1874 

Musical Association , 

Public Analysts ,, 

Psychological Society 1875 

Education Society ,, 

Royal Aquarium Society „ 

Mineralogical Society 1876 

Sanitary Institute of Great Britain , 

Philosophical Society (Birmingham) . . . . „ 

[library Association 1877 

Index Society ,, 

Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain . . . „ 

Zetetical Society 1878 

Polk-Lore Society „ 

Astrological Society ...... 1879 

Carlyle Society 

Hellenic Society , 



SOCIETY ISLANDS. 



SOLFERINO. 



Society for promoting Hellenic Studies . . . 1879 

Rabelais Club . . . . . . . . ... . . . ,, 

Willoughby Society ,, 

Institute of Bankers 

Balloon Society 1880 

Aristotelian Society . „ 

Wordsworth Society , , 

Topographical Society of London . . . . ,, 

Ascham Society ,, 

Chemical Industry Society 1881 

Browning Society ,, 

Society for Psychical Research .... 1882 

Wy cliff e Society . . . . . . . ,, 

Seal Society 1883 

Marine Biological Association 1884 

Society of Authors . „ 

Pipe Roll. Society „ 

Middlesex County Record Society . . . , , 

Society of Medallists 1885 

Bacon Society „ 

Selborne Society „ 

Shelley, Society . . . .. ., . . „ 

Goethe Society 1886 

Selden Society 1887 

Neurological Society ,, 

Anatomical Society , 

Gilbert Club 1889 

Ruskin. Society 1890 

British Artronomical Society ,, 

Japan Society 1892 

SOCIETY ISLANDS, Pacific Ocean, dis- 
covered by De Quiros in 1606; re-discovered by 
capt. Wallis, 1767, who gave Otaheite or Tahiti 
the name of King George's Island. Capt. Cook, 
who visited them in 1769 and 1777, named them 
Society Islands in honour of the Royal Society. 
See Otaheite. 

SOCINIANS, persons who accept the opinions 
of Faustus Socinus (died 1562), and his nephew 
Lselius (died 1604), Siennese noblemen. They held 
— 1. That the Eternal Father was the one only God, 
and that Jesus Christ was no otherwise God than 
by his superiority to all other creatures; 2. That 
Christ was not a mediator ; 3. That hell will endure 
for a time, after which the soul and body will be 
destroyed ; 4. That it is unlawful for princes to 
make war. Hook. The Socinians established a 
church at Rakow, in Poland, and made proselytes 
in Transylvania, 1563. They were expelled from 
Poland in 1658. The Rakovian catechism was 
published in 1574; see Unitarians. 

SOCOTBA (Dioscoridis insula), an island in 
the Indian ocean, belonging to the imam of Muscat, 
120 miles E. of cape Guardafui, Eastern Africa. 
In the' summer of 1878, it was said to have been 
given up to the British; formally annexed, Nov. 
1886. 

SODIUM, a remarkable metal, first obtained 
in 1807 by sir Humphry Davy, from soda (which 
was formerly confounded with potash, but proved 
to be a distinct substance by Duhamel in 1736). 
This metal, like potassium, was obtained by the 
agency of the electric battery. In consequence of 
Deville's improved processes, sodium manufac- 
tured by Bell Brothers, of Newcastle, at 10s. a pound 
(1868). It is an important agent in the modern 
production of aluminium. Common salt (chloride 
of sodium) is a compound of sodium and chlorine. 
Mr. H. Y. Casther's (of New York) new process for 
the enlarged production of sodium, and through 
sodium of aluminium and magnesium, announced 
in June, 1887. His works were set up at Oldbury, 
near Birmingham ; the price of sodium in 1889 was 
about 4s. 40!. a pound. See Alkalies and Alu- 
minium. 

SODOM AND GOMORRAH (Palestine), with 



their inhabitants, were destroyed by fire from 
heaven 1898 B.C., Gen. xix. 

SODOR, said to be derived from Sodor-eys, or 
south isles (the iEbrides or Hebrides) , in distinc- 
tion from Orkneys, the north isles. The southern 
or western isles were made an episcopal diocese by 
Magnus, king of Norway, 1098, and joined to the 
isle of Man about n 13. See Man. 

SOFIA, a manufacturing town in Bulgaria; 
founded by Justinian on the ruins of the ancient 
Sardica ; became the capital of the new principality. 
A palace and other buildings were erected, Aug. 
1 88 1. It contains 30 mosques and 10 churches. 
Destructive thunderstorm with loss of life, 31 May, 
1890 ; see Bulgaria. Population, 1890, 42,000. 

SOFFARIDES DYNASTY reigned in Per- 
sia, 872-902. 

SOFTAS, Mahometan students devoted to the 
Koran only. See Turkey, Maj r , 1876. 

SOHO BAZAAR AND THEATRE, see 

Bazaars and Theatres. 

SOISSONS (France), capital of the Gallic 

Suessiones, was subdued by Julius Caesar, 57 B.C. 
It was held by Syagrius, after his father JEgidius, 
till his defeat by Clovis, a.d. 486. Several councils 
have been held at Soissons (in 744, 1092, 1122). 
Its academy was established in 1674. During the 
Franco-Prussian war, Soissons, after three weeks' 
investment and four days' bombardment, surren- 
dered to the Germans under the grand-duke of 
Mecklenburg, 16 Oct. 1870. 99 officers, 4633 men, 
128 guns, &c, were said to be taken. The Germans 
thus obtained a second line of railway from Chalons 
to Paris. 

SOLAR SYSTEM, nearly as now accepted, 
is said to have been taught by Pythagoras of Samos, 
about 529 B.C. He placed the sun in the centre, 
and all the planets moving in elliptical orbits 
round it — a doctrine superseded by the Ptolemaic 
system (which see). The system of Pythagoras, 
revived by Copernicus (1543), is called the Coper- 
nican system. Its truth was demonstrated by sir 
Isaac Newton in 1687. See Planets. 

SOLDIERS' DAUGHTERS' HOME was 

established at Hampstead, near London, in Aug. 
1857, by the surplus of the money collected by the 
central association in aid of the wives and families 
of soldiers in active service during the Crimean war, 
and opened by the prince consort, 18 June, 1858. 
It has been much indebted to the exertions of major 
Powys. 

Soldiers' and Sailors' Families Association founded 1885 
In Nov. 1890 ct scq. it received subscriptions for the 
sufferers by the wreck of H.M.S. Serpent, see Navy 

Nov. 1890 

SOLEBAY or Southwold BAY (Suffolk), 
where a fierce naval battle was fought between the 
fleets of England and France on one side, and the 
Dutch oh the other, the former commanded by the 
duke of York, afterwards James II., 28 May, 1672. 
The English lost four ships, and the Dutch three ; 
but the enemy fled, and were pursued to their 
coasts. The earl of Sandwich was blown up, and 
thousands were killed and wounded. 

SOL-FA SYSTEM, see Music. 

SOLFERINO (in Lombardy), the site of the 
chief struggle on the great battle of 24 June, 1859, 
between the allied French and Sardinian army 
commanded by their respective sovereigns, and the 
Austrians under general Hess ; the emperor being 



SOLICITOE. 



893 



SOMNATH GATES. 



present. The Austrians, after their defeat at 
Magenta, gradually retreated across the Mincio, 
and took up a position in the celebrated quadrila- 
teral, and were expected there to await the attack. 
But the advance of Garibaldi on one side, and of 
prince Napoleon and the Tuscans on the other, in- 
duced them to recross the Mincio and take the 
offensive, on 23 June. The conflict began early on 
the 24th, and lasted fifteen hours. At first the 
Austrians had the advantage ; but the successful 
attack of the French on Cavriana and Solferino 
changed the fortune of the day, and the Austrians, 
after desperate encounters, were compelled to 
retreat. The French attribute the victory to the 
skill and bravery of their emperor and the generals 
MacMahon and Niel ; the Austrians, to the destruc- 
tion of their reserve by the rifled cannon of their 
adversaries. The Sardinians maintained a fearful 
contest of fifteen hours at San Martino, it is said 
against double their number. Loss of the Austrians, 
630 officers, and 19,311 soldiers; of the allies, 8 
generals, 936 officers, and 17,305 soldiers killed 
and wounded. This battle closed the war; pre- 
liminaries of peace being signed at Villa Franca, 
12 July. On 24 June, 1870, on the site of the 
battle, three ossuaries, containing the bones of 
thousands of the slain, were consecrated in the 
presence of representatives of Austria, France, and 
Italy. 

SOLICITOR, see Attorney. By the Supreme 
Judicature Act, attorneys in future are to be styled 
solicitors; an act for regulating their examination 
was passed, 23 July, 1877. 

SOLICITOR-GENERAL, the legal officer 
next in rank, and deputy to the attorney-general, 
vhoni he frequently succeeds. 

839. Sir Thomas Wilde (afterwards lord Truro), 5 Dec. 

841. Sir William Follctt (second time), 6 Sept. 

844. Sir Frederick Thesiger (since lord Chelmsford), 17 

April. 

845. Sir Fitzroy Kelly, 17 July. 

846. Sir John Jervis, 4 July. 

,, Sir David Dundas, 18 July. 

848. Sir John Romilly, April 4, aft. lord Romilly. 

850. Sir Alex. J. E. Cockburn, n July. 

851. Sir W. Page Wood, 28 March, aft. lord Hatherley. 

852. Sir Fitzroy Kelly, Feb. 

„ Sir Richard Bethell, Dec, aft. lord Westbury. 

856. Rt. Hon. James Stuart Wortley, Nov. 

857. Sir Henry Keating, May. 

858. Sir Hugh M. Cairns, 26 Feb., aft. earl Cairns. 

859. Sir Henry Keating, 18 June. 
„ Sir William Atherton, Dec. 

861. Sir Roundell Palmer, 27 June, aft. lord Selborne. 
863. Sir Robert Porrett Collier, 2 Oct. 

866. Sir William Bovill, 13 July. 

,, Sir John Burgess Karslake, 29 Nov. 

867. Sir Charles Jasper Selwyn, July. 

868. Sir Win. Baliol Brett, Feb. (made judge, Sept.) 
„ Sir Richard Baggallay, 14 Sept. 

,, Sir John Duke Coleridge, i2Dec, aft. Id. Coleridge. 
871. Sir George Jessel, Nov. 

873. Sir Henry James, 26 Sept. 

,, Sir Wm. Vernon Harcourt, Nov. 

874. Sir Richard Baggallay, Feb. 
,, Sir John Holker, 22 April. 

875. Sir Hardinge Stanley Giffarcl, 25 Nov., aft. lord 

Halsbury. 
880. Sir Farrer Herschell, 3 May, aft. lord Herschell. 

885. John E. Gorst, June. 

886. Sir Horace Davey, 15 Feb. 
„ Sir Edward Clarke, 26 July. 

1892. John Rigby, 18 Aug. 

SOLICITORS' ACT, passed 24 Dec. 1888. 

SOLICITORS' REMUNERATION ACT, 

44 & 45 Vict. c. 44; passed in 1881. 

SOLIFIDIANS (from solus, only, and fides, 
faith) a name given to the Antinomians {which 
see). 



SOLOMON'S TEMPLE, see Temple. 

SOLWAY MOSS (Cumberland, bordering on 
Scotland). On 13 Nov. 177 1, it swelled, owing to 
heavy rains. Upwai-ds of 400 acres rose to such a 
height above the level of the ground, that at last 
it rolled forward like a torrent above a mile, sweep- 
ing along with it houses, trees, &c. It covered 600 
acres at Netherby, and destroyed about 30 small 
villages. Near Solway Moss the Scots were defeated 
by the English, 25 Nov. 1542. 

SOMAJ, see Deism. 

SOMBRERO (West Indies). On this desert 
isle, Bobert Jeffery, a British man-of-war's man, 
was put ashore by his commander, the hon. captain 
W. Lake, for having tapped a barrel of beer when 
the ship was on short allowance. After sustaining 
life for eight days on a few limpets and rain-water, 
he was saved by an American vessel, 13 Dec. 1807 ; 
and returned to England. Sir Francis Burdett 
advocated his cause in parliament, and he received 
600/. as a compensation from captain Lake, who was 
tried by a court-martial, and dismissed the service, 
10 Feb. 1810. 

SOMERSET-HOUSE (London), formerly a 
palace, founded on the site of several churches 
and other buildings levelled in 1549, by the pro- 
tector Somerset, whose residence fell to the crown 
after his execution, 22 Jan. 1552. Here resided at 
times queen Elizabeth, Anne of Denmark, and 
Catherine, queen of Charles II. Old Somerset- 
house, a mixture of Grecian and Gothic, was de- 
molished in 1775, and the present edifice, from a 
design by sir VVilliam Chambers, was erected for 
public offices. The Boyal Academy of Arts first 
assembled in the apartments given to the members 
by the king, 17 Jan. 1771. The Koyal Society 
met here, 1780-1857 ; and apartments here were 
also held by the Society of Antiquaries and the 
Geological Society ; all three now at Burlington 
House. Large suites of government buildings were 
erected in 1774. The Navy-office, Pipe-office, 
Victualling and other offices, were removed here in 
1788, and various government departments since. 
The east wing forming the King's College (see 
King's College) was completed in 1833. By an act 
passed in 1854, the offices of the duchy of Cornwall 
were transferred to Pimlico. 

CHIEF OFFICES AT 

Probate and Divorce Divi- 
sion of high court of jus- 
tice and Registry Offices. 

Appeals Registry Office. 

Register of Births, Deaths, 
and Marriages. 

Exchequer and Audit De- 
partment. 

Property and Income Tax 
Offices. 



SOMERSET HOUSE. 

Stamp Offices, &c. 
Excise and Tax-Offices. 
Legacies and Succession 

Duty Offices. 
Inland Revenue Offices. 
Bank Returns Office. 
Laboratory Department. 
Solicitors' Offices. 
Coinpanies'Register Offices, 

&c, &c. 

SOMERSET THE BLACK, sec Slavery in 

England. 

SOMERS-TOWN, a populous district in St. 
Pancras parish, N. London : named after carl 
Somcrs, whose family acquired the property about 
1695. The building began about 1786; ami many 
French refugees settled in it. Much of the district 
has been occupied by the railway companies. 

SOMNATH GATES, the gates of an ancient 
Hindoo temple at Guzerat, which was destroyed by 
Mahmoud ot Ghuznee in 1025. The priests wished 
to preserve the idol ; but Mahmoud broke it to 
pieces and found it filled with diamonds, &0. He 
carried the gates to Ghuznee. When that city was 
taken by general Nott, 6 Sept. 1842, lord Ellen- 



SOMOEEOSTEO. 



894 



SOUDAN. 



borough ordered the gates to be restored after an 
exile of 800 years, and issued a proclamation much 
censured at the time. The gates are made of 
sandal wood, and are described and figured in the 
Archseologia of the Society of Antiquaries, vol. 

XXX. 

SOMOEEOSTEO, see Spain, 1874. 

SONATA (Italian, sound-piece), the highest 
form of instrumental music, consisting of three or 
four movements, intending to express diverse kinds 
of human feelings. 

It was developed from the suite, varied dance music 
(Tartini, 1624, aud others). The form fixed by Corelli 
(1653-1713), was adopted and modified by Scarlatti, the 
Bachs, Handel, Mozart, Haydn, and culminated in the 
master-pieces of Beethoven (1770-1827). Fine sonatas 
have been composed by Dussek, M. Clemcnti, Weber, 
Schubert, Mendelssohn, Schumann, Wm. Sterndale 
Bennett, Chopin, Liszt, and Rubenstein. 

SONDEEB UND, see Switzerland, 1846. 

SONNET, a poem in fourteen lines, with 
rhymes adjusted by rules, was invented, it is said, 
by Guido d'Arezzo, about 1024. The most cele- 
brated sonnets are those by Petrarch (about 1327), 
Shakspeare (1609), Milton (about 1650), and 
Wordsworth (1820). 

SONNITES, the orthodox Mahometans who 
now possess the Turkish empire ; see Maho- 
metanism. 

SONS OF THE CLEEGY, see Clergy. 
SONTAY, see Tonquin, Dec. 1883. 

SONTHALS, a tribe of Northern India, 
brought to Bengal about 1830, where they pros- 
pered, till, partly from the instigation of a fanatic, 
and partly from the exactions of money-lenders, 
they broke out into rebellion in July, 1855, and 
committed fearful outrages. They were quite sub- 
dued early in 1856, and many were removed to the 
newly- conquered province of Pegu. 

SOOLOO, see Sulu. 

SOPHIA, ST. (in Constantinople). The first 
church was dedicated to St. Sophia (holy wisdom) 
by Constantius II., 360 ; this having been destroyed, 
tbe second, the present edifice, was founded by 
Justinian, 531, and dedicated 537. Since tbe 
Mahometan conquest in 1453, it has been used as 
an imperial mosque. Its length is 269 feet, and its 
breadth 243 feet. Six of its pillars are of green 
jasper, from the temple of Diana, at Ephesus ; and 
of porphyry, from the temple of the Sun, at Rome. 
Four minarets were added by Selim II., who reigned 
in 1566. The interior of the dome is beautifully 
ornamented with mosaic work. 

SOPHIA, see Sofia. 

SOPHISTS, teachers of youth in Athens, who 
were censured by Socrates, and consequently were 
instrumental in causing his judicial murder, 399 
B.C. The controversy against them was carried on 
by Plato and Ids disciples. 

SOEBONNE, a society of ecclesiastics at 
Paris, founded by Robert de Sorbonne in 1252. 
The members lived in common, and devoted them- 
selves to study and gratuitous teaching. They 
soon attained a European reputation as a faculty of 
theology, their judgment being frequently appealed 
to, from the 14th to the 17th centuries. The influ- 
ence of the Sorbonne was declining when the society 
was broken up in 1789. The buildings are now 
devoted to education. The new Sorbonne Build- 
ings were opened on 5 Aug. 1889 ; this is the virtual 



reconstruction of the university of Paris. Gymnastic 
education introduced, 1892. 

SOECEEEES Aim Magicians. A law 

was enacted against then- seductions, 33 Hen. VIII. 
1541; and another statute equally severe was 
passed, 5 Eliz. 1563. The pretension to sorcery 
was made capital, 1 James I. 1603 ; see Witchcraft. 

SOEGHTJM, see under Sugar. 

SOUDAN or SoiJJAH, the title of the lieu- 
tenant-generals of the caliphs, which they bore in 
their provinces and armies. The officers afterwards 
made themselves sovereigns. Saladin, general of 
the forces of Noureddin, king of Damascus, was the 
first that took upon him this title in Egypt, 1165, 
after having killed the caliph Caym. 

SOUDAN or NlGRITIA, a region of Central 

Africa, partly subjected to the Khedive of Egypt 

since 1874, capital Khartoum. It was well governed, 

by col. Gordon, till 1879. See Egypt. 

Insurrection headed by Sheik Mahomed Ahmed of 
Dongola, declaring himself to be a prophet 
(Mahdi or Muhdi, foretold by Moslem prophets), 

July, 1881 

Defeated ; retires up the Blue Nile ; crosses White 
Nile with increased army . . . winter, ,, 

Defeats the Egyptians .... Nov. ,, 

Surrounds and massacres 6000 Egyptians under 
Yussuf Pasha, 14 June ; occupies Shala, July ; 
defeated at Bara, 19 Aug. ; at Duem, 28 Aug. ; 
repulsed at Obeid, 8, 14 Sept. ; defeats the 
Egyptians, 15 Sept.-24 Oct. ; rebels defeated at 
Bara, 4 Nov. ; Col. Stewart at Khartoum, 

16 Dec. 1882 

The Mahdi captures Bara and Obeid, 5 Jan. ; he is 
repulsed 23-26 Feb. 1883 

Col. Hicks pasha with an army starts for the Kor- 
dofan; arrives at Berber, 1 March ; totally defeats 
the Mahdi with great loss ; the enemy pursued 

29 April, ,, 

The Mahdi defeated at Khartoum about 14 May, ,, 

The Sennaar chiefs submit ; announced 25 June, ,, 

Hicks marches up the Nile, 9 Sept. ; arrives at 
Duem 20 Sept. ,, 

Surprise and defeat of Egyptian detachment at 
Tokar, near Suakin ; about 150 killed, including 
the brave and able British consul . . 6 Nov. ,, 

Battle of El-Obeid, or Kashgal ; col. Hicks decoyed 
into a defile ; about 11,000 men attacked by over- 
whelming multitudes, they form squares and 
resist till nearly all are killed, including col. 
Hicks, col. Farquhar, and other European 
officers, only two said to have escaped ; reported 
desertion of some of Hicks' troops ; the Mahdi 
gains cannon and much ammunition 3-5 Nov. ,, 

Egyptian force concentrated at Khartoum under 
col. Coetlogon Nov. ,, 

General rising throughout the country ; the British 
government sends gunboats to defend Suakin 
and Red Sea ports, about 23 Nov. ; attack on 
Suakin forts, 26 Nov. — t Dec. ; about 720 Egyp- 
tians surrounded and 682 killed (asserted) 2 Dec. ,, 

V. Baker pasha sent to Suakin with plenary powers 

about 18 Dec. ,, 

Khartoum garrison strengthened about 26 Dec. ,, 

Osman Digma, a ruined slave-dealer, commander 
for the Mahdi Dee. ., 

General (Chinese) Gordon sent to the Soudan (to 
report) 18 Jan., starts 19 Jan. ; appointed 
governor-general of the Soudan by the Khedive 

25 Jan. 1884 

Sinkat closely besieged . . Nov. 1883 — Jan. ,, 

Tokar besieged by rebels; surrenders, 21 Feb.; 
Baker pasha with 3500 men defeated near Tokar, 
loses about 2250 men (demoralised), with the 
remnant retreats to Trinkitat, 4 Feb. ; received 
by H.M.S. Ranger, 5, 6 Feb. ; reinforcements 
ordered to be sent to adm. Hewett at Suakin, 
6 Feb. ; Baker pasha recalled ; remains ; Suakin 
in state of siege ; adm. Hewett in full command, 
7-9 Feb. ; desperate sortie of the garrison, headed 
by Tewfik bey, from Sinkat, all killed ; women 
and children prisoners, town taken . 8 Feb. ,, 



SOUDAN. 



895 



SOUDAN. 



Reinforcements sent to Suakin . n, 12 Feb. 1 

General Gordon arrives at Berber, 11 Feb. ; enthu- 
siastically received as a deliverer at Khartoum ; 
proclaims the Mahdi sultan of Kordofan ; remis- 
sion of half the taxes, and non-interference 
with the slave trade, releases prisoners, remits 
debts 18 Feb. 

Restoration of the former sultanate of Darfour 
proposed; Kassala besieged by Osnian Digma Feb. 

The Black troops at Suakin mutiny and disperse ; 
announced 25 Feb. 

Battle of El-Teb, near where Baker pasha was 
defeated, 4 Feb. After fruitless attempt at 
negotiation, gen. Gerald Graham, with about 
4000 men (consisting of 10th and 19th Hussars, 
Gordon Highlanders, the Black Watch, Lanca- 
shire and Yorkshire battalions, and Marines), at 
11 a.m., advanced on the rebels, about 12,000, 
who, after a most desperate, heroic resistance, 
were totally defeated with the loss of about 2000 
men, at 2.30 p.m. ; the British loss was major 
M. M. Slade, lieuts. F. H. Probyn, F. A. Free- 
man, and Frank Koyds, and quartermaster James 
Wilkius and 24 men killed, and 142 wounded, 

29 Feb. 

Tokar surrendered, and the rebel garrison fled 

1 March, 

Osman Digma at Tamanieb ... 3 March, 

Several Arab sheikhs come into Suakin, 6, 7 March, 

Osman Digma disregards gen. Graham's proclama- 
tion, about 8 March. Osman Digma disdainfully 
rejects British proposals, and proclaims death to 
infidels about 10 March, 

Battle of Tamanieb. The British advance to capture 
Osman Digma's camp at Tamasi, near El-Teb, 7.20 
a.m. ; the British were massed in oblong squares, 
one square broken into by a violent onslaught of 
hidden Arabs, who creep under and capture the 
Gatling and other guns, desperate hand to hand 
conflict ; the British driven back ; no panic ; col. 
Wood with 700 cavab-y charges the Arabs in flank, 
and drives them back, the infantry rally and re- 
cover the guns, the other square perfectly success- 
ful; the camp taken, 12.30 p.m. The British loss, 
killed, capts. H. G. V. Ford, Walker, and Aitken ; 
lieuts. Moutresor, Almack, and Houston Stewart, 
and 86 men, in wounded, and 19 missing; 2000 
:if the enemy killed out of above 10,000. The 
Black Watch and Naval Brigade suffered much 

13 March, 

Osman Digma's camp with stores captured on 
4 Feb. ; burnt .... 14 March, 

Gordon defeats rebels and brings off garrison of 
Halfyeh .... about 15 March, 

Through cowardice and treachery Gordon's troops 
(1500) defeated by about 60 rebels with great 
slaughter 16 March, 

Reward of 5000 dollars offered for capture of 
Osman Digma, alive or dead, 15 March; counter- 
manded from home . . . .17 March, 

Troops march to Handoub wells . 18 March, 

Friendly sheikhs coming in . . . 20 March, 

Hassan and Said pashas, Turko-Egyptian generals, 
tried and shot 23 March, 

The Mahdi rejects Gordon's offers ; announced 

23 March, 

General Graham advances on Tamanieb ; slight 
skirmish ; the Arabs flee ; Osman Digma's vil- 
lages burnt 27 March, 

Three regiments -at Suakin, embark for home, &c. 

29 March, 
March to Berber reported safe . 29 March, 
Gordon contending with the rebels, with varying 

success ; Kassala closely besieged, announced 

30 March, 
Khartoum said to be closely invested ; the rebels 

frequently defeated .... April, 

General Gordon, col. Stewart, and Mr. Power, the 

Times correspondent, the only British there 

8 April, 

The Mahdi said to have been twice defeated by the 

- Jagalla tribes ; reported . . . 9 April, 

Egyptian troops arrive at Suakin . . 10 April, 

Adm. Hcwett's mission well received by lias Aloola 

about 13 April, 

The Marines depart . . . about 15 April, 

Shendy closely besieged ; 51 fugitives from it killed 

by Arabs ; announced . . . . 19 April, 



Berber said to be closely invested . 20 April, 

Reported evacuation of Berber; troops withdrawn 
to Korosko ; announced . . .26 April, 

The whole country in insurrection; Egyptian 
troops joining the' Mahdi . . . April, 

The government declining to send help, Gordon 
writes to sir Evelyn Baring, "I shall hold on 
here as long as I can, and if I can suppress the 
rebellion, I will do so. If I cannot, I shall 
retire to the equator." 

Col. Stewart and Mr. Power decide to remain with 
him May, 

Subscriptions proposed to support Gordon . May, 

Adm. Hewett well received by the king of Abys- 
sinia at Adowa ; treaty signed . about 26 May, 

Fruitless attacks on Suakin checked by Marines, 
27, 28, 31 May, 2, 4, 10 June, 

Gordon said to have been opposed by government 
in all his propositions . . . April, May, 

Highly successful sally from Khartoum ; major 
Chermside made governor of Suakin ; refugees 
from Korosko arrive at Assouan ; reported rise of 
another Mahdi 28 May, 

The Mudir of Dongola said to have defeated the 
rebels May, 

Advance of Egyptian troops . . . . May, 

Fall of Berber announced . . . .10 June, 

Assouan fortified . . . . June, 

Rebels defeated at Debbeh with great loss, 

29-30 J une, 

Advance of the Mahdi said to be checked by another 
Mahdi; announced 2 July, 

Assouan occupied by the British . 12 July, 

Additional troops sent to Alexandria from Malta, 

July, 

Gordon dominant and successful at Khartoum ; re- 
ported 22 July, 

Continued desertion of Egyptian troops, announced 
July ; Gordon reports Khartoum and Sennaar 
holding out 2 Aug. 

Mudir of Dongola said to have greatly helped Gor- 
don July, Aug. 

Gen. Gordon repulses severe attack. 10 Aug. ; de- 
feats rebels 12 Aug. 

Osman Digma, near Suakin, frequently defeated, 

Aug. 

Preparation for the expedition to relieve Khartoum, 
gen. Earle commander ; British troops arrive at 
Wady Haifa 23 Aug. et seq. 

The expedition to ascend the Nile in about 800 flat- 
bottomed boats, navigated by Canadian Indians 
(voyageurs) ; Sarras .... Sept. Oct 

Defeat of the Mahdi's troops by the Mudir of Don- 
gola at Ambikol 8 Sept. 

Gen. Earle to be at Wady Haifa ; col. Stewart and 
lord Airlie at Dongola ; col. Maurice at Assiout 

Sept 

Another defeat of Mahdi's troops reported 15 Sept. 

Telegrams from Gordon requiring assistance Sept. 

Friendly tribes defeat rebels, and relieve Suakin, 
about 17 Sept. 

Victories of Gordon on 24 July and 30 Aug., and 
raising of the siege of Khartoum reported, 

20 Sept. 

British army in Egypt, 13,559 . about 22 Sept. 

Lord John Hay arrives with the fleet at Alexandria, 

24 Sept. 

Several camel corps start from Woolwich for the 
Soudan about 25 Sept. 

Mr. Power's journal of the siege of Khartoum, from 
April to 31 July published in the Times, 29 Sept. 

Lord Wolseley arrives at Wady Haifa . 5 Oct. 

Shendy taken 6 Oct. 

Col. J. D. Stewart, with Mr. Power and M. Heroin, 
and about 40 men in a steamer, wrecked near 
Wady Qarna, fifth cataract ; land ; massacred by 
Arabs offering guidance ; announced about 6 Oct. 

Gordon defeats rebels and returns to Khartoum ; 
announced 1 Nov. 

I. oi-.l Wolseley arrives at Dongola . . 3 Nov. 

Attacks on Suakin repulsed . . 3,4 x0V. 

Gordon reports all well at Khartoum . 4 Nov. 

Rebels often repulsed Nov. 

Above 200 whalers on the Nile conveying troops, &c. 

15 Nov. 

Two steamers disabled by rebels near Khartoum ; 
announced . .... 18 Nov. 



1884 



SOUDAN. 



896 



SOUDAN. 



Lord Wolseley's proclamation to the soldiers and 
sailors issued i Dee. 

Two hours' attack of the rebels on Snakin without 
effect, 3 Dec. ; rebels defeated with loss 8 Dec. 

Lord Wolseley arrives at Korti . . 15 Dec. 

Successful sally of the garrison of Kassala, 26 Dec. 

Forward movement of the army . . 28 Dec. 

Bapid marches of gen. sir Herbert Stewart . Dec. 

Successful march in the desert . . . Jan. 

Gen. Earle proceeding up the Nile, and gen. Stewart 
crossing the desert with troops, towards Metam- 
meli Jan. 

Near Abu Klea wells, about 120 miles from Khar- 
toum, gen. Stewart, with 1500 men, defeats about 
10,000 Arabs, who retire after a fierce conflict 
■within the square, leaving about 800 dead. The 
British lose 9 officers (col. Fred. Gns. Burnaby, 
majors Atherton, Carmichael, and Gough, capts. 
Law and Darley, lieuts. Pigott, Delisle, and 
Wolfe), and 65 men killed, with 85 wounded 

17 Jan. 

Gen. Stewart, marching towards Metammeh, is 
severely wounded by hidden sharpshooters; 12 
killed, including correspondents of the Morning 
Post and Standard, Thos. St. Leger Herbert, and 
John A. Cameron; sir Charles Wilson takes com- 
mand .... . . 18 Jan. 

At Gubat, near Metammeh, fierce Arab onset on 
the British square is repulsed with very heavy 
loss . 19 Jan. 

Message from gen. Gordon received, dated 29 Dec. : 
"Khartoum is all right; could hold out for a 
year" about 19 Jan. 

Communications opened with Khartoum . 24 Jan. 

Gen. Earle with army marches to Handoub for 
Berber 24 Jan. 

Successful skirmishes of gen. Earle . . Jan. 

Gen. Stewart succeeded by sir Redvers Buller Jan. 

Surrender of Khartoum ; Gordon and his faithful 
followers killed .... early 26 Jan. 

Sir Charles Wilson sails up the Nile . 28 Jan. 

Reconnaissances of gen. Fremantle ; heavy Arab 
loss, about 30 Jan. ; Handoub captured and burnt 
by a party which is intercepted by Arabs, and 
lose 12 men 2 Feb. 

The Italian flag hoisted beside Egyptian at Masso- 
wah {which see) . . . 6 Feb. 

Sir Charles Wilson and party, within 800 yards of 
Khartoum, fired upon ; retreats ; his steamer is 
wrecked by treachery of Arab pilots ; lands on an 
island ; is rescued from peril by the daring cour- 
age of lord Charles Beresford in face of batteries; 
arrives at Korti 9 Feb. 

Victory at Kirbekan : the Arabs on a ridge, sur- 
rounded by gen. Earle's column (the Black 
Watch and Staffordshire regiments), many killed; 
gen. Earle and lieut.-cols. Eyre and Coveney, and 
nine others killed ; attack well planned and gal- 
lantly executed ; gen. Brackenbury takes the 
command 10 Feb. 

Gen. Buller retreats from Gubat to Abu- Klea wells, 

13-15 Feb. 

Death of sir H. Stewart at Gakdul . . 16 Feb. 

Railway between Suakin and Berber ordered to be 
constructed Feb. 

Near Abu Klea, Arabs demoralised by skilful feat of 
major Wardrop, who takes the heights after much 
skirmishing ; Arabs flee . . . 17 Feb. 

Sir Evelyn Wood arrives at Gakdul . .17 Feb. 

Gen. Gerald Graham, with Coldstream and Grena- 
dier Guards and others, start for the Soudan; fare- 
well given by the queen and prince of Wales, 

19-21 Feb. 

Osman Digma massing his forces near Suakin, 
about 21 Feb. 

Rebels' attack on Kassala garrison defeated with 
great loss ; announced ... 22 Feb. 

Gen. Brackenbury \s column reaches Gakdul, 26 Feb. 

Gen. Buller's column marches to Korti 1 March, 

Gen. Graham's staff and 15th Sikh regiment arrive 
at Suakin 4 March, 

Successful sally from Kassala announced 4 March, 

The queen's address of thanks read to the army at 
Korti by lord Wolseley ... 7 March, 

The 17th Bengal Infantry and the Royal Engineers 
balloon corps arrive at Suakin . 7 March, 

Arab raids on Suakin camp ; sentries killed 

11 March, 



The bulk of lord Wolseley's army at Korti, 

12 March, 
Gen. Graham arrives at Suakin with 5th Lancers, 

12, 13 March, 
The last of the desert troops arrive at Korti, 

16 March, 
Gen. Graham calls on Osman Digma to surrender, to 
avoid bloodshed . . . about 16 March, 
Battle of Hasheen : Graham, with part of his 
army, starts at daybreak ; several of Osman 
Digma's positions on the hills taken after con- 
flicts : about 21 British killed 20 March, 

Gen. McNeil's brigade unexpectedly attacked by 
about 4500 Arabs, about 6 miles from Suakin ; 
they are repulsed with heavy loss (about 1500), 
after a severe fight; British loss about 100 killed, 
including lieuts. Swinton, Seymour, and New- 
man, capt. Romilly and others 22 March, 

Manifesto of the Mahdi claiming the caliphate pub- 
lished March, 

Fever at Korti ; evacuated by the army, 

about 23 March, 

Arab attacks repulsed by the guards 24 March, 

Attacks on British convoy repulsed 24-26 March, 

The last Egyptian troops leave Suakin 26 March, 

Zebehr Pasha arrested at request of lord Wolseley, 
14 March ; sent to Gibraltar . . 29 March, 
[Released under conditions, 3 Aug. 1887.] 

New South Wales contingent arrives at Suakin 

29, 30 March, 

Graham advances ; finds Tamai deserted ; burns it 
and returns to Suakin . . . 2, 3 April, 

The railway to Berber constructing under military 
protection April, 

Handoub (deserted) occupied by the British 8 April, 

Successful raid of capt. Briggs, capturing prisoners, 
cattle, &c 15 April, 

Numerous night attacks .... April, 

Rebellion against the Mahdi ; his troops said to be 
defeated near Kordofan . . . April, 

Lord Wolseley arrives at Suakin . . 2 May, 

Takool burnt and cattle captured by gen. Graham ; 
organised force of Arabs dispersed 

midnight, 5-6 May, 

Proposed armed defence of line from Assouan 
to Wady Haifa announced . . 11 May, 

General Graham with British troops, and the 
Indian (part) and New South Wales contingents, 
quit Suakin .... 17 May et seq. 

Major-gen. sir G. Greaves assumes command at 
Suakin, 18 May; leaves . . . 15 June, 

Handoub evacuated by the British, 22 May ; occu- 
pied by the Arabs, many of whom join Osman 
Digma June, 

Dongola evacuated .... 15 June, 

Sir. F. Stephenson, commander-in-chief 6 July, 

Lord Wolseley arrives in London . 13 July, 

Repulse of attack on Kassala, about 3,000 of the 
rebels killed ; the garrison capture much cattle 
in a sortie 15, 16 June, 

Death of the Madhi by small pox, reported 
June 20, 21, or 22 ; said to be succeeded by his 
kinsman Khalifa Abdulla .... June, 

Olivier Pain sent by the Irish in Paris to join the 
Mahdi at El Obeid, July, 1884; reported death, 
time uncertain ; Selikovitch, an interpreter dis- 
missed by the British, asserts without any 
evidence that Pain was executed by order of col. 
Kitchener in April, 1885 ; no British inves- 
tigation ; much excitement in Paris caused by M. 
Rochefort, Aug. -Sept. 

Sennaar surprised and taken . . 16 Aug. 

Rebels defeated and stores captured near Suakin, 

19 Aug. 

Major Chermside sent to relieve Kassala . Aug. 

Khalifa Abdulla El Taashi reported successor of 
the Mahdi autumn, 

Successful skirmish of the hussars and Egyptians 
with Arabs near Giniss ; fighting on the Nile ; 
announced 3 Dec. 

Advance of rebels northward ; two battalions sent 
from Britain .... about 10 Dec. 

Attack of 3,000 Arabs on Mograkeh, near Kosheh ; 
repulsed 12 Dec. 

6,000 Arabs defeated at Giniss, near Kosheh, 3J 
hours' fight ; one officer (lieut. Soltau) killed ; 19 
Egyptians killed and wounded ; about 600 Arabs 
killed 30 Dec. 



SOUDAN. 



897 



SOUDAN. 



Attack on Suakin repulsed n Feb. 1886 

Osman Digmaand the rebels active, about 2 March, ,, 
Rebels defeated by friendly Arabs and the British, 

13 March, „ 
Sir C. Warren appointed governor at Suakin, about 
16 Jan. ; [made commissioner of police, London] ; 
gen. Dixon left in command . . March, ,, 
Country south of Wady Haifa abandoned by the 
Egyptians, announced .... April, „ 

General Watson nominated governor of the Red 

Sea territories about 14 April ; arrives 8 May, ,, 
British evacuation of Suakin completed 16 May, ,, 
Fighting near Sheik Barghut ; victory of friendly 
Arabs who take prisoners and recover captives, 

about 28 May, ,, 
Major Kitchener succeeds general Watson, Aug. ; 
arrives ....... 7 Sept. ,, 

By judicious advice of gen. Watson and col. 
Kitchener, the Arabs combine to overthrow 
Osmaii Digma ; after serious losses he quits his 
stronghold at Tamai, which, with all its military 
stores is captured, with much slaughter of his 

followers 7 Oct. ,, 

Emin Bey (Austrian physician), an associate of gen. 
Gordon, holds Wadelai as governor of Equatorial 
Africa since 1878, with black troops ; news 
brought by Dr. Junker .... Nov. ,, 
Retreat of the rebels on British advance, 3 Dec. ,, 
Expedition of Mr. Henry Morton Stanley on behalf 
of the Emin Pasha committee (which see), with a 
small armament with able volunteer officers, 
starts from London . . . .21 Jan. ''1887 
Messengers from the new Mahdi with arrogant 
message, received and dismissed by the khedive, 

19 April. ,, 
Col. Chermside, with the Egyptians, defeats the 
Dervishes at Sarras, near Wady Haifa, after 
stubborn resistance ; about 190 killed, 29 April, ,, 
Great defeat of the Dervishes announced about 

29 Aug. ,, 
Successful skirmish of col. Wodeliouse with the 

Dervishes 24 Oct. „ 

Arab attack on Wady Haifa repulsed, 25 Oct. ; 

reinforcements sent .... 27 Oct. ,, 
Expedition of the lion. Montague Kerr to Emin 
Pasha's station at Wadelai, starts . . Nov. ,, 
[He is struck down by fever ; returns to Europe ; 
dies in France, 23 April, 1888.] 
Osman Digma defeated with great loss by the 

friendly tribes 29 Dec. ,, 

Unsuccessful attacks on Suakin Dec. 1887.-3 Jan. 1888 

His camp at Handoub captured and his followers 

dispersed ; they return and retake the camp ; 

the friendly tribes forced to retreat, col. Kitchener 

and major Mc Mnrdo wounded . . 17 Jan. ,, 

Colonel Kitchener leaves for Cairo ; succeeded by 

col. Shakspear 19 Jan. ,, 

A band of Dervishes dispersed after tierce conflict 

near Suakin, col. Tapp killed . . 4 March, ,, 
Return of col. Kitchener to Suakin . 15 March, ,, 
Affairs quiet ; Osman Digma's followers dispersing 

April, ,, 
Col. Kitchener leaves for England . 26 May, ,, 
Defeat of the Dervishes near Wady Haifa about 

20 July, ,, 

* They embarked with a number of natives at Zanzi- 
bar for the west coast, 25 Feb., and sailed up the river 
Congo. After undergoing great dangers and much 
suffering through famine, disease and native opposition, 
Mr. Stanley fell in with Emin Pasha on lake Nyanza, 
29 April, 1888 ; and eventually, with him and the re- 
mains of his party, arrived at the German station Boga- 
moya, 5 Dec. 1889. Mr. Stanley and his officers arrived 
at Cairo, 14 Jan. 1890; at Rome, n April; at Brussels, 
19 April; in London, 26 April; dined with the queen, 
6 May; with his companions, lieut. Stairs, surgeon 
Thomas II. Parke, cant. Nelson, Mr. A. M. Jephson, 
and Mr. Bonny, received the gold medals of the Royal 
Geographical Society, from the prince of Wales, 5 May. 
Besides other honours Mr. Stanley was presented with 
the freedom of the city of London, 13 May ; of Edin- 
burgh, 11 June ; and of Glasgow, Dundee, Aberdeen, 
Neweastle-on-Tyne, and Manchester, in June. His 
book, entitled "In darkest Africa; or, the Quest, 
Rescue and Retreat of Emin, governor of Equatoria," 
was published, 28 June. He married Miss Dorotliy 
Teimant at Westminster Abbey, 12 July, 1890. 



The Dervishes severely defeated in an attack on 

Fort Khormoussa . . midnight, 27 Aug. iSi 
Attempted raid of Osmaii Digma checked 12 Sept. ,, 
Lt. col. Holled Smith succeeds col. Kitchener as 
governor-general and commandant at Suakin, 

13 Sept. ,, 
Continued investment of Suakin by Arabs (Der- 
vishes) witli guns, &c. ; severe night attacks ; 
reinforcements ordered . . 22 Sept., Oct. ,, 
German expedition for the relief of Emin Pasha 
organized ; supported by prince Hohcnlohe 
Langenburg and other nobles . . Sept. ,, 
A sharp attack on Suakin vigorously repulsed, 

30 Oct. „ 
General Grenfell with reinforcements arrives at 

Suakin 5 Nov. , 

Defeat of the nominal Mahdi by the sultan of 
Wadai's people ; gen. Grenfell reconnoitres ; 
the enemy very strong ; the Mahdi afterwards 
captures Wadai, and the sultan flees . Nov. , 
More British troops sent to Suakin . . Dec. , 
The enemy's redoubts stormed by the black 
brigade under gen. Grenfell ; great slaughter, 
slight British loss ; total flight of the enemy 
with loss of about 400 ; 7.30 a.m. . 20 Dec. , 
General Grenfell and part_of his army leave Suakin, 

4 Jan. iS 
Handoub abandoned and burnt . . 11 Feb. , 
Suakin declared open to commerce . . 20 Feb. , 
Dr. Carl Peters, with 100 soldiers, &c, starts to 

relieve Emin Pasha . . . .26 Feb. , 
The Dervishes repulsed with loss after their 
attack on Haliab, 19 April ; again repulsed, 
29, 30 April ; again repulsed, and an outpost 

captured 2 June, 

Colonel Wodeliouse, with three Egyptian black 
battalions, &c, defeats about 3,500 Dervishes at 
Arguin near Wady Haifa ; they lose about, 500 
killed, Egyptian loss about 70 killed and 

wounded 2 July, 

The Dervishes repulsed with the loss of about 

100 men, 4 July ; they break up their camp, 7 

July ; which is occupied by the British 8 July 

Reinforcements from Malta ; which is proclaimed 

to the natives by gen. Grenfell, 10 July 
Reinforcements sent from Malta to strengthen the 
garrison at Assouan .... July, 
Dervish deserters come in ; prisoners sent to Cairo ; 
their loss estimated to be since 1 July 2,500 killed 
and wounded .... about 14 July, 
Gen. sir F. W. Grenfell arrives at Col. Wodehouse's 
camp at Bellana ; the enemy hold a strong posi- 
tion at Khor ; their fighting force estimated at 

2,500 15 Jul>*i 

The R. Irish Rifles arrive at Assouan . 16 July, 
Gen. Grenfell summons Wad El N'juini to sur- 
render, all lives to be spared ; the messenger 

beaten 17 July, 

Wad-el-N'jumi calls on the Egyptians to surrender, 
and threatens them with the fate of gen. Gordon, 

reported 19 July, 

A large number of additional troops sent from Cairo 

20 July, 
British field force at Assouan commanded by 
major-gen. lion. R. H. de Montmorency, 23 July, 
Party of 300 Dervishes repulsed with loss ; re- 
ported 21 July, 

Frequent skirmishes ; many killed and prisoners 

25-31 July, 
Dervishes defeated with loss of 70 men by lieut. 

D'Aguilar at Anabi 31 July, 

Battle of Toski ; after seven hours' hard fighting 
about 3,000 Dervishes are defeated by gen. sir 
Francis Grenfell. Wad-el-N'jumi with his prin- 
cipal emirs, and about half his army arc killed, 
the other half are. either wounded or fugitives; 
the repeated desperate charges of the Dervishes 
are chiefly repulsed by the 20th Hussars and the 
Egyptian cavalry who pursue them till they are 
utterly routed and their arms and standards 
captured. (The commanders under gen. Grenfell 
were col. Kitchener mounted troops; col. Wode- 
liouse, infantry ; Bundle artillery, Irwin and 
Beech, English and Egyptian cavalry; Settle, 
sen. staff offiicer; the British loss 17 killed 
(1 English 16 Egyptians) ; wounded, 131 ; above 
1,000 Dervishes prisoners and wounded; parts 
of bhe Shropshire and Lancashire regiments and 

3 M 



SOULAGES COLLECTION. 



898 



SOUTHAMPTON. 



the Royal Irish Rifles were engaged 3 Aug ; gen. 
■ Grenfell arrives at Cairo . . . 17 Aug. 1889 

The Egyptian troops occupy Matuka ; the British 
ordered to return to Cairo ... 7 Aug. ,, 

Emin pasha, after a long illness, occasioned by a 
fall from a window at Bogamoya, 5 Dec, closely 
attended by Dr. Parke, arrives at Zanzibar, 2 
March ; accepts the offers of major Wissmann, 
enters the German service, and proceeds with a 
military expedition to Victoria Nyanza 

31 March et seq. 1890 
[For his connection with capt. Casati, see Italy, 
14 July, 1890.I 

Military movements of the Mahdi, reported, 8 May, ,, 

Famine and great distress in E. Soudan through 
drought, partly relieved by government and 
others Jan.— Aug. „ 

The Khalifa Abdulla reported supreme in the 
south July, ,, 

Osinan Digma's forces broken up by desertion, 
reported Oct. „ 

Emin Pasha, in good health at Tabora, Aug. ; his 
letter received at Brunswick, about 25 Nov. ; he 
establishes German stations on the shores of lake 
Victoria Nyanza, reported 7 Dec. ; recalled to the 
coast by major von Wissmann, the imperial com- 
missary, reported .... 19 Dee. ., 

A raid of the Dervishes on Suakin ; they are pur- 
sued and debated, 27 Jan. ; after a sharp engage- 
ment, the governor-general takes possession of 
Haudoub, 28 Jan. ; several Dervish leaders cap- 
tured, peace restored . . . about 4 Feb 1891 

Col. Holled Smith, governor-general of the Red Sea 
Littoral, conducts an expedition of 2,000 Soudanese 
and Egyptian troops, aided by friendly Arabs ; 
El Teb occupied and fortified . . 17 Feb. ,, 

Col. H. Smith, with brigade of Egyptian troops, 
advances at daybreak from El Teb against Tokar, 
strongly held by Osman Digma with 2,000 Der- 
vishes ; after a desperate fight of one and a half 
hours, Tokar is occupied ; all the principal emirs 
and about 700 Dervishes killed ; Osman Digma 
fled south with 30 horsemen. Our loss— capt, Hugh 
Lusada Barrow, of South Lancashire regiment, 
and 15 Egyptian soldiers killed ; the Egyptians 
fought bravely and steadily ; guns, ammunition 
and other stores captured. After the action, the 
troops advance 4 miles to Osman Digma's de- 
serted camp at Afafil, a large village, where 
about 100 Arabs surrender . . . 19 Feb. „ 

The Red Sea Littoral reported clear of rebels ; the 
sheikhs solicit and obtain pardon, general rejoic- 
ing, reported 2 o Feb 

Gen. Grenfell, col, Holled Smith, with the troops', ' 
&c, return to Suakin, 7 March; an amnesty 
proclaimed ; joyfully received by the sheikhs 

8 March, ,, 

Capt. Haekett Pain appointed governor of the 
Tokar sub-district . . . about 8 March, 

The country reported quiet and prosperous. 5 May, „ 

Defeat of the Dervishes by the Shilluks about the 
end of Nov. , reported . . . . 17 Dec. 

Father Ohrwa'.der and two R. C. sisters, long 
prisoners in the Mahdi's camp, Omdurman, Kar- 
toum, escape, 29 Nov., and arrive at Cairo 

Rupture between Khalifa Abdulla and two other ' 
chiefs, reported 2I j an l8g „ 

Incursion of about 100 Dervishes near Wady Haifa 
led by Osman Azrak . . about 12 May) ,, 

SOULAGES COLLECTION. About 1827, 
M. Soulages of Toulouse, collected 790 specimens 
of Italian art and workmanship, &c. These were 
bought for 11,000/. by 73 English gentlemen, with 
the view of first exhibiting them to the public, and 
afterwards selling them to the government (who 
gradually purchased them between 1858 and 1861;) 
They formed part of the " Art Treasures " exhibited 
at Manchester in 1857. 

SOUND, see Acoustics. 

SOUND DUTIES. Till the year i8c>> no 
merchant ship was allowed to pass 'the Sound (a 
narrow channel separating Zealand from Sweden) 



without clearing at Elsinore and paying toll. 
These duties had their origin in an agreement 
between the king of Denmark and the llanse towns 
(1348), by which the former undertook to maintain 
lighthouses, &c, along the Cattegat, and the latter 
to pay duty for the same. The first treaty with 
England in relation to this was in 1450; other 
countries followed. In 1855 the United States 
determined to pay the dues no more ; and in the 
same year the Danish government proposed that 
these dues should be capitalised ; which was 
eventually agreed to, the sum being 30,476,325 rix- 
dollars. In Aug. 1857, the British government 
paid 10,126,855 rix-dollars (1,125,206/.) to the Danes 
as their proportion. — The passage of the Sound was 
effected, in defiance of strong fortresses, by sir Hyde 
Parker and lord Nelson, 31 March, 1801 ; see 
Baltic Expedition. 

SOUNDINGS AT SEA. Captain Ross, of 
H.M.S. CEdipus, in 1840, took extraordinary 
soundings at sea. In the latitude 33 S. and longi- 
tude 9° W. about 300 miles from the Cape of Good 
Hope, 2266 fathoms were sounded ; the weight 
employed amounted to 450 lbs. On 13 July, 1857, 
lieut. Joseph Dayman, in the North Atlantic Ocean, 
lat. 51° 9' N., long. 40 2' W., in sounding, found 
a bottom at 2424 fathoms. The deepest sounding 
known (3875 faths.) was taken by the Challenger, 
capt. Nares, 24 March, 1873, in the North Atlantic, 
north of St. Thomas's. See Beep Sea Soundings. 

SOUTH AFEICAN ASSOCIATION, es- 
tablished July, 1881, to promote the commercial 
and social interests of the South African colonies. 

SOUTH AFEICA CONFEDERA- 
TION : to comprise the three British colonies — 
Cape Town, Natal, and West Griqua Land (1873) 
—and the two Dutch republics, Orange Biver free 
state, and the South Africa or Trans- Yaal republic 
(1852). The formation was proposed by the earl of 
Carnarvon, colonial secretary, in a despatch to sir 
Henry Barkly, governor of Cape Town, 4 May, 1875, 
and advocated by the historian, J. A. Eroude, on a 
visit. It was much opposed at the Cape. See 
Cape. A conference of delegates in London was 
opened, 5 Aug. 1876. 

The South Africa Act "for the union under one govern- 
ment of such of the South Africa colonies and states 
as may agree thereto," was passed 10 Aug. 1877. 

SOUTH AFEICAN EXHIBITION, 

International, proposed to be opened at 

Kimberley, in Griqualand West, Sept. 1892. Sir 
H. B. Loch, president, hon. Cecil Bhodes, vice- 
president. 

SOUTH AFEICA EEPUBLIC, name 
assumed by the Boers in the Transvaal (which 
see) in 1880-1, and adopted by treaty in Feb. 



SOUTH AMEEICA, see America. 

SOUTHAMPTON, a seaport (S. England), a 
county of itself, near the Boman Clausentum and 
the Saxon Hamtune. It frequently suffered by 
Danish incursions: Canute, when king, occasionally 
resided here. The charter was granted by Henry I. 
and confirmed by Bichard I. and John ; and the free 
grammar school was founded by Edward YI. On 
17 July, 1861, a monument to Dr. Isaac Watts, 
a native, was uncovered; and on 15 Oct. 1862, the 
Hartley institution was opened by lord Pal- 
merston. The prince of Wales laid the foundation 
of the parish church of St. Mary, built as a memo- 



SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 



899 



SOUTHPORT. 



rial of Samuel Wilberforce, bishop of Winchester, 
12 Aug. 1878; consecrated 19 June, 1879. The 
British Association met here 1846 and 1882. Popu- 
lation 1881, 60,051 ; 1891, 65,325. 

New deep-water dock inaugurated as the Empress 
dock, by the queen .... 26 July, 1890 

Great strike of dock labourers, seamen and firemen 
begun ; trade paralysed ; violent rioting ; conflict 
with the military, 8, 9 Sept. ; gun-boats sent for ; 
order restored, 10 Sept. The strike, not recog- 
nized by London union, fails, n Sept. ; work 
resumed, 17 Sept. The Union Steamship com- 
pany import 46 foreign seamen from Hamburg as 
a check to strikes .... 21 Sept. ,, 

SOUTH AUSTRALIA was visited by capt. 
Sturt in 1830, and explored shortly after by capt. 
Parker and Mr. Kent, the former of whom was 
killed by the natives. The boundaries of the pro- 
vince were fixed by 4 & 5 "Will. IV. c. 95 (1834) ; 
and it was occupied 26 Dec. 1836, by capt. Hind- 
marsh, the first governor. It was colonised accord- 
ing to Mr. E. Gibbon "Wakefield's scheme, which 
was carried out by the South Australian Colonisa- 
tion Association. The colony for several years 
underwent severe trials through the great influx 
of emigrants, land-jobbing, building speculations, 
&c, which produced almost universal bankruptcy 
in 1839. In five years after, the energy of the 
colonists had overcome their difficulties, and the 

frosperity of the colony appeared fully established. 
n 1842 the highly productive Eurra Burra copper 
mines were discovered, and large fortunes were 
suddenly realised; but in 185 1 the discovery of 
gold in New South "Wales and Victoria almost 
paralysed this province by chawing oft' a large 
part of the labouring population. Very little gold 
was found in South Australia ; but a reaction took 
place in favour of the copper mines and agricul- 
ture, &c. Before the discovery of gold, little 
trade existed between Adelaide (the capital of 
South Australia) and Melbourne ; but in 1852 
gold was transmitted from the latter to the former 
to the amount of 2,215,167^. principally for bread- 
stuffs, farm produce, &c. The bishopric of Ade- 
laide was founded in 1847. Discovery of allu- 
vial gold at Tatulpa, Waukaringa, Oct. ; favour- 
able report Dec. 18S6. Sir Dominic Daly, 
appointed governor in Nov. 1861, died 19 Feb. 
1868 ; succeeded by sir James Fergusson, Dec. 
1868; by Anthony Musgrave, Jan 1873; by "Wm. 
Wellington Cairns, Jan. 1877 ; Sir W. F. D. Jer- 
vois, June, 1877 ; sir W. Bobinson, Nov. 1882 ; 
the earl of Kintore, Dec. 1888. Population in 
1855,85,821; in 1865, 156,605; in 1871, 185,626; 
in 1877, 225,677; in 1882, 293,509; in 1891, 
315,048. 

fcsee Adelaide. 1887, revenue, 2,014,102?. ; expendi- 
ture, 2,145,133?. Imports, 1887, 5,096,293?. ; 
exports, 5,330,780?. 1890, revenue, 2,557,772?. ; 
expenditure, 2,579,258?. 1890, imports, 8,262,673?.; 
exports, 8,827,378?. 
Resignation of the ministry ; new one formed by 

the hon. J. A. Cockburn . . 24, 25 June, 1889 
He resigns ; succeeded by hon. T. Playford, re- 
ported 18 Aug. 1890 

The earl of Kintore and party cross the continent 
from Port Darwin to Adelaide (sec Australia) 

9 April-23 May, 189J 
Resignation of Mr. Playford, 17 June; Mr. Holder 
forms a ministry .... 20 June, 1892 

SOUTHCOTT, JOANNA, a fanatic, born 
in 1750, came from Exeter to London, where her 
followers at one period amounted to many thou- 
sands, the low and ignorant being her principal 
dupes. In 1792 she announced herself as the 
woman spoken of in Revelation, chap. xii. ; and 
a disease favoured the delusion that she would be 



the mother of the promised Shiloh. She died 27 
Dec. 1814. In 1851 there existed in England f. iur 
congregations, professing to expect her return. 
Her successor, Mrs. Peacock, died March, 1875, 
aged 103G'). 

SOUTH-EASTERN RAILWAY, from 
London to Folkestone, opened, 28 June, 1843; to 
Dover, 7 Feb. 1844. 

SOUTHERN CONFEDERATE STATES, 

see Confederates. 

SOUTHERN CONTINENT. Tho Southern 
Ocean was first traversed by Magellan in 1520 ; 
and explored by Wallis and Carteret in 1766; unci 
by Cook in 1773 and 1774. Of the southern con- 
tinent little more is known than that it is ice- 
bound, and contains active volcanoes. It was dis- 
covered in the first instance by capt. John Biseoe, 
on 27 Feb. 1831, in lat. 65 57' S., long. 47 20'E., 
extending east and west 200 miles, — this he mimed 
Enderby Land, after the gentleman who had 
equipped him for the voyage. Capt. Biseoe also 
discovered Graham's Land on 15 Feb. 1832, 
situated in lat. 67 1' S., long. 71 48' W. The 
Messrs. Enderby equipped three other expeditions 
in search of the southern continent, the last (in 
connection with some other gentlemen) in 1838, 
when capt. Balleny had command, who, on 9 Feb. 
1839, discovered the Balleny Islands, in lat. 6}" 
S., long. 165° E., and in March, 1839, Sahrina 
Land, in lat. 65° 10' S., long. n8°30' E. In 1840, 
a French expedition, under the command of admiral 
D'Urville, and an American expedition, under the 
command of commodore Wilkes, greatly added to 
our knowledge in respect to the existence of a 
southern continent, and this was again increased 
by the expedition which sailed from England in 
1839, under the command of capt. sir James 
Clark Boss, who discovered Victoria Land in 1 84 1, 
and subsequently penetrated as far south as 
78 11'. Antarctic expedition proposed oy the Ar- 
gentine republic and the Genoese, Sept. 1881 ; the 
objects collected to be divided. Italian expedition 
under lieut. Booe, 1881-2. 

New South Polar expedition proposed by the 
Antarctic Exploration committee at Melbourne, 
supported by the governor and others . Aug. 1S90 
The sum required for the expedition is 15,000 . 
Sir Thomas Elder subscribed 5,000?. , other per- 
sons 5,000?. ; appeal for the other 5,000?. 
See Antarctic Pole. 

SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM, 
near Brompton old church (containing the pic- 
tures presented by Mr. Vernon, Mr. Sheepshanks, 
Mrs. Ellison, and those bequeathed by Turner, 
the great painter, as well as specimens of sculpture 
and art, educational collections, products of the 
animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms, &c.),was 
opened on 22 June, 1857. A special exhibition of 
works of art, of immense value, lent for the occasion, 
was opened here in the summer of 1862, and closed 
in November. In July, 1873, a testimonial to Mr. 
(aft. sir) Henry Cole, C.B., was proposed for his 
exertions in organizing this museum, and in pro- 
moting its objects. 

Mr. John Forster, biographer of Dickens, be- 
queathed his library of books, MSS., paintings, 
and drawings to this museum. He died 1 Feb. . 1876 
Scientific Apparatus Loan Exhibition (which see) 

opened 13 May, closed .... 30 Dee. ,, 
Mr. John Jones' bequeaths a collection of works of 
art, &c. ; estimated value, 500,000?. announced, 

Jan. 18S2 

SOUTHPORT, Lancashire, a watering place, 
founded in 1792 on a sandy waste, has rapidly pro- 

3 M 2 



SOUTH-SEA BUBBLE. 



900 



SPAIN. 



greased, now possessing an esplanade 3 miles long, 
and many fine buildings. It was made a municipal 
borough in 1867, and received the British Associa- 
tion 19 Sept. 1883. Population, 1851, 4,765 ; 1871, 
18,085 ; 1891, 43,026. 

SOUTH-SEA BUBBLE commenced with 
the establishment of the South-sea company in 
1 7 10, which was at first unwisely and afterwards 
dishonestly managed. It exploded in 1720, ruining 
thousands of families; and the directors' estates, 
to the value of 2,014,000/., were seized in 1721 and 
sold. Mr. Knight, the cashier, absconded with 
100,000/. ; but he compounded the fraud for 
10,000/. and returned to England in 1743. Almost 
all the wealthy persons in the kingdom had become 
speculators ; the artifices of the directors having 
raised the shares, originally 100/., to the price of 
1000/. A parliamentary inquiry toojr_ place in 
Nov. 1720, and Aislabie, chancellor of the exche- 
quer, and several members of parliament were 
expelled the house in 172 1 ; see Law's Bubble. 

SOUTHWARK (S. London), was governed by 
its own bailiffs till 1327. The city, however, found 
great inconvenience from the number of malefac- 
tors who escaped thither, in order to be out of the 
reach and cognizance of the city magistrates ; and 
a grant was made of Southwark to the city of 
London by the crown, for a small annuity. In 
Edward VI. 's reign it was formed into a cityward, 
and was named Bridge Ward Without, 1550. — 
Southwark bridge was designed by John Bennie, 
and built by a company, 1815-19, at an expense 
of 800,000/. It consists of three great cast-iron 
arches, resting on massive stone piers and abut- 
ments ; the distance between the abutments is 708 
feet; the centre arch is 240 feet span, the two 
others 210 feet each; and the total weight of iron 
5308 tons. The bridge was freed from toll on 8 
Nov. 1864, the company receiving a compensation 
from the city. An act for the payment of divi- 
dends to shareholders was passed in 1872. — South- 
wark park was opened, 19 June, 1869. By the 
Seats Act (1885), Southwark sends three mem- 
bers to parliament. 
City and South London Electric Railway (see 

Tunnels) opened . . 4 Nov. and 18 Dec. 1890 
The priory church of St. Marie Overie, dating from 
the 13th century, was leased from the crown to 
the united parishes of St. Margaret and St. Mary 
Magdalene, and became the parish church as St. 
Saviours in 1540. Since then many changes have 
heen made ; Mr. G. Gwilt repaired' the tower, the 
lady chapel, and the choir, 1818 et seq. The roof 
of the nave was removed in 1831, and in 1839 re- 
placed by lath and plaster. The prince of Wales 
laid the memorial stone of a new nave, 24 July, 
1890, about 31.000L subscribed for the work up to 

17 Feb. „ 
The prince and princess of Wales visit the Evelina 
hospital ; he lays the foundation stone of the 
new buildings of the R. S. London Ophthalmic 
Hospital 24 July, „ 

SOUTHWELL, Nottinghamshire, an ancient 
Saxon town, where a church was founded by Pau- 
linus, archbishop of York, 627; made collegiate 
before the conquest, refounded by Henry VIII., 
and made a bishopric by Henry VIII., 1541 ; dis- 
solved by Edward VI. Collegiate church restored 
by Elizabeth, 1586. Near here Charles I. surren- 
dered himself to the Scotch army in 1646. The 
Bishoprics act, authorising the establishment of a 
see at Southwell, was passed, 16 Aug. 1878. Con- 
stituted (to consist of the counties of Derby and 
Nottingham), 2 Feb. 1884. The restored minster 
re-opened as cathedral, 2 Feb. 1888. 

FIRST BISHOP. 

Guorge Ridding, consecrated 1 May, 1884. 



SOUTHWOLD, seeSolebatj. 

SOVEREIGN, an ancient and modern British 
gold coin. In 1489 22J pieces, in value 20s., " to 
be called the sovereign," were ordered to be coined 
out of a pound of gold. Muding. In 1542 sove- 
reigns were coined in value 20s., which afterwards, 
in 1550 and 1552 (4 & 6 Ed. VI.), passed for 24s. 
and 30*. "Sovereigns" of the new coinage were 
directed to pass for 20s. 1 July, and half-sovereigns 
for 10s. 10 Oct. 181 7; see Coin, and Gold. By the 
Coinage act, 1870, the weight of the sovereign is 
fixed at 123-27447 grains troy; specific gravity, 
17-57; (916-67, gold being 1000) ; half-sovereigns, 
61-63723 grains. The dragon sovereigns were re- 
issued in 1871. 

SPA-FIELDS (N. London). Here about 
30,000 persons assembled to vote an address from 
the distressed manufacturers to the prince regent, 
15 Nov. 1816. A second meeting, 2 Dec. following, 
terminated in an alarming riot ; the shops of 
several gunsmiths were attacked for arms by the 
rioters ; and in the shop of Mr. Beckwith, on Snow- 
hill, Mr. Piatt was wounded, and much injury was 
done before the tumult was suppressed. For this 
riot, Cashman, a seaman, was hanged, 12 March, 
181 7. Watson, the ringleader, escaped to America. 
Spafidds Chapel, a dome building, originally a place 
of entertainment named the- Pantheon, erected, 
1770, was after several changes purchased by the 
countess of Huntingdon and used as a place of 
worship for her " connection," (see iVhitefieldites). 
This chapel was pulled down in 1887 

SPAHIS, see Se^ioys. 

SPAIN (the ancient Iberia and Hispania), the 
S. W. peninsula of Europe. The Phoenicians and 
Carthaginians successively planted colonies on the 
coasts which were all conquered by the Eoman's,, 
206 B.C. Population of Spain in 1857, 15,464,078 ; 
of the colonies, 6,333,887 ; 1883, total 25,022,880; 
in 1887, 17,564,588. Bevenue : 1822, about 
6,000,000/.; 1856, 12,722,200/.; 1871, about 
26,000,000/.; 1883-4, 32,095,075/.; 1891,32,222,055/.; 
expenditure, 32,456,530/. 
The Carthaginians, enriched by the mines of Spain b.c 

(480 b.c. et seq.) form settlements .... 360 
New Carthage (Carthagena) founded by Hasdrubal 242 
Hamilcar extends their dominions in Spain . 238-233 
At his death, Hannibal, his son, takes the com- 
mand, 221 ; prepares for war, 220 ; takes Sagim- 

tum, 219 ; crosses the Alps, and enters Italy . 218 
The Romans carry the war into Spain ; two Scipios 

defeated and slain by Hasdrubal . . . . 212 
Pub. Cornelius Scipio Africanus takes New Carthage, 

210 or 209 ; drives the Carthaginians out of Spain 207 
Celtiberian and Numantine war . . . 153-133. 

Yiriatlms, general of the Celtiberians and Lusi- 

tanians, subdued all West Spain, 145 ; makes 

peace with the consul Fabius Servilianus, 142 ; 

assassinated by order of the Romans . . . 140 
Insurrection of Sertorius, 78 ; subdued by Pompej', 

and assassinated 72 

Julius Caesar quells an insurrection in Spain . . 67 

Pompey governs Spain 60-50 

Revolt through the rapacity of Crassus . . 48-47 

Era of Spain : conquest by Augustus begun, 1 Jan. 3S 
The Vandals, Alani, and Suevi wrest Spain from 

the Romans a.d. 409. 

Adolphus founds the kingdom of the Visigoths . . 414. 
The Vandals pass over to Africa .... 429. 
Theodoric I. vanquishes the Suevi . . . . 452 
Assassinated by his brother Euric, who becomes 

master of all Spain 466 

Recared I. expels the Franks 5S7 

He abjures Arianism, and rules ably . . till 601 
Wamba's wise administration ; he prepared a fleet 

for defence against the Saracens . . 672-677 
The Arabs invited into Spain against king Roderic. 709. 
His defeat and death at Xeres 711 



SPAIN. 



901 



SPAIN. 



Establishment of the Saracens at Cordova . . 711 

Victorious progress of Musa and Tarik . . 712-13 
Emirs rule at Cordova ; Pelayo, of Gothic blood, 

rules in Asturias and Leon 718 

The Saracens defeated at Tours by Charles Mattel, 

732 or 733 
Abderahman the first king at Cordova . . . 755 

Invasion of Charlemagne 777~7S 

Sancho Ifiigo, count of Navarre, ifcc. . . . 873 
Saneho of Navarre becomes king of Castile . . 1026 
The kingdom of Aragon commenced under Rami- 
rez 1 1035 

Leon and Asturias united to Castile . . . . 1037 
Portugal taken from the Saracens by Henry of 

Besaneon (see Portugal) 1095 

The Saracens, beset on all sides by the Christians, 
call in the aid of the Moors from Africa, who seize 
the dominions they came to protect, and subdue 

the Saracens 1091 et seq. 

Exploits of the Cid Rodrigo ; dies . . about 1099 
Dynasty of the Almoravides at Cordova . 1094-1144 
The Moors defeated in several battles by Alfonso of 

Leon 1 144 

Dynasty of the Almohades at Cordova . 1144-1225 
Cordova, Toledo, Seville, &c. , taken by Ferdinand 

of Castile and Leon 1233-48 

The kingdom of Granada begun by the Moors, last 

refuge from the power of the Christians . . . 1238 
The crown of Navarre passes to the royal family of 

France 1274 

200,000 Moors arrive to assist the king of Granada . 1327 
They are defeated at Tarifa by Alfonso XL of Cas- 
tile with great slaughter 1340 

Reign of Pedro the Cruel 1350 

His alliance with Edward the. Black Prince . . 1363 
Defeated at Montiel and treacherously slain . . 1369 
Ferdinand II. of Aragon marries Isabella of Castile, 
18 Oct. 1469 ; and nearly the whole Christian 
dominions of Spain are united in one monarchy . 1479 
Establishment of the Inquisition . . . 1480-4 

Persecution of the Jews 1492-8 

Granada taken after a two years' siege ; and the 
power of the Moors is finally extirpated by Ferdi- 
nand 1492 

Jews expelled ,, 

Columbus is sent from Spain to explore the western 

ocean 17 April, ,, 

Mahometans persecuted and expelled . . 1499- 1502 

Death of Columbus 20 May, 1506 

Ferdinand conquers great part of Navarre . . 1512 
Accession of the house of Austria to the throne of 

Spain ; Charles I. of Spain 1516 

Able administration of Ximenes ; ungratefully 

used, 1516; his death 1517 

Charles elected emperor of Germany . . . . 1519 

Insurrection in Castile 1520-21 

Philip of Spain marries Mary of England 25 July, 1554 
Charles abdicates and retires from the world . 1556 

War with France ; victory at St. Quentin 10 Aug. 1557 
Philip II. commences his bloody persecution of the 

protestants 1561 

The Escurial begun building 1563 

Revolt of the Moriscoes, 1567 ; suppressed . . . 1570 
Naval victory of Lepanto over the Turks 7 Oct. 1571 
Portugal united to Spain by conquest . . . 15S0 

The Spanish Armada destroyed ; see Armada. . 1588 
Philip III. banishes the Moors (900,000) . 159S-1610 
Ministry of the duke of Lerma . . . . 1598-1613 

Ministry of Olivarez 1621-43 

Philip IV. loses Portugal 1640 

Death of Charles II., last of the house of Austria; 
accession of Philip V. of the house of Bourbon . 1700 

War of the Succession 1702-13 

Gibraltar taken by the English 1704 

Siege of Barcelona 171 3 

Able government of cardinal Alberoni ; he re-estab- 
lished the authority of the king, reformed many 
abuses ; and raised Spain to the rank of a first 
power, 1715-20 ; ordered to quit Spain . . . 1720 
paries, son of Philip V., conquers Naples . . 1735 
paries III. king of the Two Sicilies, succeeds to 

Jie crown of Spain 1759 

w r with England, 1762-3 ; and .... 1796 
^ '.tie of Cape St. Vincent . . . 14 Feb. 1797 

a iiish treasure-ships, valued at 3,000,000 dollars, 
^'^izedbv the English .... Oct, 1804 

_, s £.e ofTrafalgar (see Trafalgar) . . 21 (Jet. 1805 
liattl fGodov .prince of the peace . . . . 1806 
Sway 



The French enter Spain ; a Spanish army sent to 

the Baltic . . . 
Conspiracy of the prince of Asturias against his 

father 25 July, 

Treaty of Fontainebleau .... 27 Oct. 

The French take Madrid . . . March, 

The prince of peace dismissed . . 18 March, 

Abdication of Charles IV. in favour of Ferdinand, 

ig March ; and at Bayonne, in favour of his 

"friend and ally" Napoleon, when Ferdinand 

relinquished the crown . . . 1 May, 

Revolution : the French massacred at Ma hid, 

2 .May, 
The province of Asturias rises en masse . 3 May, 
Napoleon assembles the notables at Bayonne 

25 May, 
Joseph Bonaparte enters Madrid as king of Spain, 

12 July ; retires 29 July, 

Battle of Vimiera ; French defeated . 21 Aug. 
Supreme Junta installed .... Sept. 
Madrid taken by the French, and Joseph restored 

2 Dec. 

Napoleon enters Madrid . . . .4 Dec. 

The royal family of Spain imprisoned in the palace 

of Chambery in Savoy .... 5 Dec. 

The French defeated at Corunua, 16 Jan. ; take 

Ferrol, 27 Jan. ; Saragossa, 21 Feb. ; Oporto, 

29 Feb. ; Cordova and Seville, Nov. ; Gerona, 

12 Dec. 
Ney takes Ciudad Rodrigo ... 10 July, 
The Spanish cortes meet . . . .24 Sept. 
Wellington defeats Masseua at Fuentes de Onoro, 

5 May, 

Soult defeated at Albuera ... 16 May, 

Constitution of the cortes (democratic) . 8 May, 

Wellington takes Ciudad Rodrigo, 19 Jan. ; storms 

Badajoz, 6 April ; defeats Marmont at Salamanca, 

22 July, 
He occupies Madrid, and totally defeats the French 
at Vittoria, 21 June ; defeats Soult in the Pyre- 
nees, 28 July ; takes St. Sebastian, 31 Aug. ; anil 

enters France 8 Oct. 

Ferdinand VII. restored (constitution set aside), 

14 May, 
Slave trade abolished for a compensation 
Insurrection at Valencia repressed . . . . 
Spanish revolution begun by Riego . . Jan. 

Ferdinand swears to the constitution of the cortes, 

8 March, 
The cortes remove the king to Seville, and thence 

to Cadiz March, 

The French enter Spain, 7 April ; and invest Cadiz, 

25 June, 
Battle of the Trocadero .... 31 Aug. 
Despotism resumed ; the cortes dissolved ; execu- 
tions of liberals Oct. 

Riego put to death 7 Nov. 

The French evacuate Cadiz ... 21 Sept. 
Cadiz made a free port .... 24 I'd 1. 
Salique law abolished, 29 March ; Carlist and 

Christina parties formed 

Queen of Spain appointed regent during the king's 
indisposition ; change in the ministry, 25 Oct. 
Don Carlos declares himself legitimate successor to 
the king . . . . . -29 April, 
Death of Ferdinand VII. ; his queen assumes the. 
title of governing queen until Isabella II., her 
infant daughter, attains her majority 29 Sept. 
Constitution termed "Estatuto Real" granted by 
advice of Martinez de la Rosa ..... 
The royalist volunteers disarmed with some blood- 
shed at Madrid 27 Oct. 

Queen Christina marries Ferdinand MuJloz (after- 
wards duke of Rianzares) . . . 2S Hcc. 
The quadruple treaty establishes the right of 
Isabella to the throne .... 22 April. 
Don Carlos suddenly appears in Spain. 10 July, 
The peers vote his exclusion . 30 Aug. 
Mendizabal, prime minister ; Mina and Espai'toro 
commanded the royalists ; the rebel leader. 
Zumalacarregui, killed near Bilbao . June, 
Sir De Lacy Evans and others raise a British legion 

for the queen of Spain 

They defeat the Carlists at st. Sebastian 1 Oct 
Espartero gains the' battle of Bilbao . 25 Dec. 
General Kvans takes Iran ... 17 .May, 

Constituent cortes proclaimed 

Dissolution of the monasteries .... 



1S07 



1808 



1808 



1809 
1S10 



1811 

1812 



1H13 

1814 
1817 
1819 

1820 



1S23 



1828 
1829 

1S30 

1S32 

1S33 



1S34 



*S35 

»8 3 6 
1837 



SPAIN. 



902 



SPAIN". 



The Carlists under Maroto desert Don Carlos and 
conclude a treaty of peace with Bspartero. at 
Vergara 31 Aug. 1839 

Don Carlos seeks refuge in France . 13 Sept. ,, 

Surrender of Morello . . . .28 May, 1840 

Cabrera, the Carlist general, unable to maintain the 
war, enters France . . . , .7 July, „ 

The British auxiliaries evacuate St. Sebastian and 
Passages 25 Aug. „ 

Revolutionary movement at Madrid : the authorities 
triumphant . . . . . .1 Sept. 1840 

Dismissal of the ministry, and dissolution of the 
cortes ....... 9 Sept. „ 

Espartero, minister, makes his triumphal entry into 
Madrid 3 Oct. „ 

The queen regent appoints anew ministry, who are 
nominated by Espartero, 5 Oct. ; she abdicates 
and leaves the kingdom ; visits France and Sicily ; 
returns to France .... 12 Oct. ,, 

Espartero, duke of Victory, expels the papal nuncio 

29 Dec. „ 

The Spanish cortes declare Espartero regent during 
the queen's minority ... 12 April, 1841 

Queen Christina's protest . . . -19 July, ,, 

Insurrection in favour of Christina commenced at 
Pampeluna by general O'Donnell and Concha, 

2 Oct. „ 

Don Diego Leon attacks the palace at Madrid ; his 
followers repulsed, and numbers slain by the 
queen's guards, 7 Oct. ; he is shot at Madrid, 

15 Oct. ,, 

Zurbano captures Bilbao . . . 21 Oct. ,, 

Jftodil, constitutional general, enters Vittoria, 21 Oct. ,, 

Montes de Oca shot .... 21 Oct. „ 

General O'Donnell takes refuge in the French terri- 
tory 21 Oct. „ 

Espartero decrees the suspension of queen Chris- 
tina's pension 26 Oct. „ 

Fueros of the Basque provinces abolished 29 Oct. ,, 

Borio and Gobernado, implicated in the Christina 
plot, put to death at Madrid . . 9 Nov. ,, 

Espartero enters Madrid ... 23 Nov. ,, 

General pardon of all persons not yet tried, con- 
cerned in the events of October . . 13 Dec. ,, 

The effective strength of the army fixed at 130,000 
men 28 June, 1842 

An insurrection at Barcelona ; the national guard 
joins the populace, 13 Nov. ; battle in the streets 
between the national guard and the troops : the 
latter lose 500 in killed and wounded, and retreat 
to the citadel . . . . . 15 Nov. ,, 

Barcelona blockaded, 26 Nov. ; Espartero arrives 
before it, 29 Nov. ; its bombardment and surren- 
der 3, 4 Bee. ,, 

The disturbances at Malaga ... 25 May, 1843 

The revolutionary junta is re-established at Barce- 
lona u June, „ 

[Corunna, Seville, Burgos, Santiago, and numerous 
other towns, shortly afterwards "pronounce" 
against the regent Espartero.] 

Arrival of general Narvaezat Madrid, which surren- 
ders 15 July, „ 

Espartero bombards Seville . . .21 July, ,, 

The siege is raised 27 July, ,, 

[The revolution is completely successful, and Espar- 
tero flees to Cadiz, and embarks on board her 
Majesty's ship Malabar.] 

The new government deprives Espartero of his 
titles and rank, 16 Aug. ; he arrives in London, 

23 Aug. „ 

Reaction suppressed at Madrid . . . Aug. ,, 

Isabella II. 13 years old, is declared by the cortes to 
lie of age ; Narvaez (friend of the queen-mother), 
lieutenant-general .... 8 Nov. 

The queen-mother returns to Spain . ' 23 March, 1844 

Zurbauo's insurrection, 12 Nov. 1844 : l' e is shot, 

21 Jan. 1845 

Don Carlos relinquishes his right to the crown in 
favour of his son .... 18 May 

Reactionary constitution 

England removed from "favoured nation" clause 
(treaty of Utrecht, 17x3) 

Narvaez and his ministry resign, 12 Feb. ; return 
to i>ower, 17 March ; again resign . 28 March, 1846 

Escape of Don Carlos from France . . 14 Sept. ,, 

Marriage of the queen to her cousin, Don Francisco 
d'Assiz, duke of Cadiz, and marriage also of the 
infanta Louisa to the due de Montpensier, 10 Oct. „ 



[The Spanish marriages disturb the friendly rela- 
tions of the French and English governments.] 

Amnesty granted to political offenders . 18 Oct. 1846 

Two shots fired at the queen by an assassin, La Riva, 

4 May, 1847 

He suffers " death by the cord " . .23 June, ,, 

Espartero restored . . . » .3 Sept. ,, 

Sir Henry Lytton Bulwer, British envoy, ordered 
to quit Spain in 48 hours ... 17 May, 1848 

Narvaez dismissed and recalled .... 1849. 

Diplomatic relations with England restored, 

18 April, 1850. 

The queen of Spain delivered of a male child, which 
lives but ten minutes ... 12 July, „ 

The American expeditions under Lopez against 
Cuba (see Cuba, and the United States) . 1850, 1853 

Resignation of Narvaez .... 10 Jan. 

The infante don Henrique permitted to return to 
Spain 2 Feb. 

Madrid-Aranjuez railway opened . . 9 Feb. 

Law respecting the public debt (which has since 
excluded Spain from the European money-mar- 
kets) 1 Aug. 

Death of Godoy, prince of the peace . . 4 Oct. 

The queen pardons the prisoners taken in the 
attempt upon Cuba . . . . 11 Dec. 

Her majesty gives birth to a princess . 20 Dec. 

Attempt made on the life of the queen ; she is 
slightly wounded by the dagger of Merino, a 
Franciscan 2 Feb. 1852 

Gen. Castanos, duke of Baylen, renowned in the 
French war, dies, aged 95 . . . 23 Sept. ,, 

Narvaez exiled to Vienna .... Jan. 1853 

Ministerial changes — Lersundi forms a cabinet, 
11 April ; resigns : Sartorius's cabinet . Sept. ,, 

Birth and death of a princess ... 5 Jan. 1854 

General O'Donnell, Concha, and others banished, 

17 Jan. „ 

Disturbances at Saragossa, &c. . . . Feb. ,, 

Don Francisco (father of the king consort), marries 
an " unfortunate " woman . . . March, , y 

Militaryinsurrection, under O'Donnell, near Madrid, 

28 June, ,, 

The movement headed by Espartero : Barcelona 
and Madrid pronounce against the government ; 
barricades in Madrid . . . 1-17 July, ,,. 

Triumph of the insurrection : resignation of the 
ministry ; the queen sends for Espartero, 19 July, „ 

Peace restored : the degraded generals reinstated, 
&c. ; Espartero forms an administration, 31 July, , r 

The queen mother impeached ; she quits Spain 

28 Aug. , r 

Ministerial crisis ; Espartero resigns, but resumes 
office 21-30 Nov. „ 

New constitution of the cortes . . 13 Jan. 1855 

The cortes vote that all power proceeds from the 
people ; they permit liberty of belief, but not of 
worship Feb. ,, 

Don Carlos dies 10 March, ,, 

Insurrection of Valencia . . . .6 April, 1856" 

Resignation of Espartero ; new cabinet formed, 
headed by marshal O'Donnell ; insurrection in 
Madrid, 14 July ; O'Donnell and the government 
troops subdue the insurgents ; the national 
guard suppressed .... 15-16 July, „ 

Insurrection at Barcelona and Saragossa quelled by 
O'Donnell, as dictator . . . 15-23 July, , T 

O'Donnell compelled to resign ; Narvaez becomes 
minister 12 Oct. ,, 

Amnesty granted to political offenders . 19 Oct. „ 

Espartero resigns as senator ... 1 Feb. 1857 

InsuiTection in Andalusia ; quickly suppressed ; 
cruel military executions : 98 insurgents shot (24 
at Seville) .... June and July, „ 

Ministerial changes : Armero minister . 26 Oct. ,, 

Birth of the prince royal . . . 28 Nov. „ 

Isturitz, minister, 14 Jan. ; O'Donnell, minister, 

1 July, „ 

Cessation of state of siege at Barcelona, &c. 20 Sept. 1858 

Joint French and Spanish expedition against Cochin 
China announced 1 Dec. ,, 

War with Morocco {lohich see) . . Nov. -Dec. 1859, 

An association for reforming the tariff, &c. formed . ,, 

O'Donnell commands the army in Africa ; indecisive 
conflicts reported ; battle at Castillejos ; a Spanish 
" Balaklava " charge .... 1 Jan. i860 

The Moors defeated near Tetuan, which surrenders 

4 Feb. „ 



SPAIN. 



903 



SPAIN. 



An ineffectual truce .... 16-23 Feb. i860 
The Moors defeated at Guad-el-ras . 23 March, ,, 
Treaty of peace signed ; 400,000,000 reals to be 
paid by Moors, and Tetuan to be held till paid 

26 Mar. ,, 
General Ortega, governor of the Balearic Isles, lands 

nearTortosa, in Valencia, with 3000 men, and pro- 
claims the comte de Montemolin king, as Charles 
VI. ; his troops resist, and he is compelled to flee, 
with the comte and others, 3 April ; Ortega shot 

19 April, i860 
The comte de Montemolin and his brother Ferdi- 
nand arrested at Tortosa, 21 April ; renounce their 
claim to the throne . . . .23 April, ,, 
An amnesty proclaimed . . . .2 May, „ 
Their brother Juan asserts his right, 5 June ; and 
the}', when at Cologne, annul their renunciation, 

28 June, ,, 
The emperor Napoleon's proposal to admit Spain as 
a first-class power is opposed by England, and 

given up Aug. ,, 

The comte de Montemolin and his wife die at Trieste 

14 Jan. 1861 
The annexation of St. Domingo to Spain ratified ; 

slavery not to be re-established . . 19 May, ,, 
Insurrection at Loja suppressed . . . July, ,, 
The cpieen said to be governed by the nun Patrocvnio 

Dec. ,, 
Intervention in Mexico (see Mexico) . 8 Dec. ,, 
Much church property in course of sale . April, 1862 
Jose Alhama and Manuel Matamoras, protestant 
propagandists, sentenced to 10 years' imprison- 
ment 14 Oct. ,, 

Don Juan de Bourbon renounces his right to the 

throne 8 Jan. 1863 

Resignation of the premier, marshal O'DonneU, 26 

Feb. ; marquis de Miraflores minister 4 March, ,, 
Insurrection in St. Domingo ; war ensues (see Do- 
mingo) 1 Sept. ,, 

Empress of France visits the queen . . Oct. ,, 
Rupture with Peru (which see) . . . April, 1864 
General Prim exiled for conspiracy . . 13 Aug. „ 
Arrazola ministry, Jan. ; Mon forms a ministry, i 
March ; resigns, 13 Sept. ; Narvaez forms a cabinet 

Sept. ,, 
Queen Christina returns to Spain . . 26 Sept. ,, 
English government recognises the insurrection at 
St. Domingo ; Narvaez advises abandonment of 
the contest ; the queen refuses ; the ministry re- 
sign ; but resume oftiee . . . 14-18 Dec. ,, 
Peace with Peru, which has to pay a heavy indemnity 

27 Jan. 186 = 
The queen orders the sale of crown lands, giving up 

three-fourths to the nation . . 20 Feb. ,, 

Student riots at Madrid ; several persons killed, 

10 April, ,, 
[Bravo Murillo accused of cruelty on this occasion.] 
Decree relinquishing St. Domingo . . 5 May, ,, 
Suppression of a conspiracy at Valencia to re-unite 

Spain and Portugal .... 10 June, ,, 

Resignation of Narvaez, 19 June ; O'DonneU forms 

a liberal cabinet 22 June, „ 

Kingdom of Italy recognised by Spain 26 June, ,, 

Father Claret dismissed from court . . 20 July, „ 
Dispute with Chili ; M. Tavira's settlement (20 

May) disavowed by the government . 25 July, ,, 
Emperor Napoleon visits the queen at St. Sebas- 
tian, 9 Sept. : she visits him at Biarritz, n Sept. ,, 
Disturbances at Saragossa suppressed . 3 Oct. ,, 
Admiral Pareja, at Valparaiso, insults the Chilian 
government, 18 Sept. ; which declares war, 25 
Sept. ; Pareja declares a blockade . . Oct. ,, 
The Chilian captain Williams captures the Spanish 
vessel CovadongafPaxeja. commits suicide) 26 Nov. ,, 

Intervention fruitless Dec. ,, 

Claret returns to court . . . . 25 Dec. ,, 

New cortes elected ; the great Progresista party 
still abstains from action in public affairs ; queen 

opens cortes 27 Dec. ,, 

Military insurrection at Aran.juez, headed by gen. 
Prim, 3 Jan. ; martial law in Madrid, 4 Jan. ; 
Concha and Zabala march against rebels, 4 Jan. ; 
&e. ; riots at Barcelona, 9, 10 Jan. ; state of siege 
in New Castile, Catalonia, and Aragon 6-12 Jan. 1866 
Prim enters Portugal and lays down arms ; the in- 
surrection ends 20 Jan. ,, 

Queen Victoria,, British sloop, seized by a guarda- 
costa • .... 15 Jan. ,, 



Admiral Mendez bombards Valparaiso, destroying 
much property, 31 March ; he is repulsed at Callao 

with loss 2 May, 1866 

The queen declares the campaign in the Pacific ended, 

15 June, ,, 
Great military revolt in favour of Prim at Madrid ; 
about 1200 men, headed by non-commissioned 
officers, with cannon, quelled summarily by mar- 
shals O'DonneU and Narvaez, with much blood- 
shed ; 200 prisoners shot, 22 June ; 21 sergeants 

shot . 26 June, ,, 

Military revolts at Barcelona and at various other 

places 23 -June, „ 

Resignation of O'DonneU as minister, succeeded by 
Narvaez and Bravo, who adopt severe measures 

against the liberals July, ,, 

The queen said to be subject to the influence of 
the " bleeding nun," Patrocinio, and the priests, 

July, „ 
Freedom of the press abolished, and writers trans- 
ported to the colonies; a '/reign of terror," 

Aug. -Sept. ,, 
British screw steamer Tornado, com. E. Collier, 
seized by Spaniards (charged with aiding Chili), 
and carried to Cadiz .... 21-22 Aug. ,, 
33 persons condemned to death, many of whom had 

fled 23 Sept. ,, 

Re-establishment of tranquillity declared at Madrid 

3 Oct. „ 
Public instruction placed under the clergy Oct. ,, 
Reform of the municipal institutions decreed on 

account of revolutionary proceedings . .Oct. ,, 
Crew of Tornado detained as prisoners, 31 Oct. 

the case referred to law .... Nov. ,, 
King and queen visit Lisbon . . . 11 Dec. ,, 
Taxes for 1867 received in advance . . Dec. ,, 
The queen dismissed the cortes (and imprisoned 
many eminent deputies for petitioning against it) 

30 Dec. ,, 
O'DonneU and his colleagues residing in Paris Jan. 1867 
Decision in Tornado case — the ship a prize and the 
crew prisoners of war, 18 Dec. 1866 ; lord Stanley 
protests against the proceedings . . 8 Feb. ,, 
Decree for making secret publication of journals 

and pamphlets penal .... 16 Fell. ,, 
The Tonutdo prisoners released . . . Feb. ,, 
State of siege raised .... 7 March, ,, 

Queen Victoria sloop declared by Spain to have 
been wrongfully seized and reparation tobe made, 

21 April, ,, 
Amnesty to revolters of June 1866 . 25 April, ,, 

Son of duchess of Montpensier born . 1 May, ,, 
Attempted insurrection in different parts (attributed 
to Prim) failed through want of organisation, 

about 15 Aug. ,, 
Insurrectionary movements reported in Catalonia 

and Aragon .... July, Aug. ,, 

State of siege proclaimed .... 17 Aug. „ 
Insurrection suppressed ; amnesty . . Sept. ,, 
Death of marshal O'DonneU, duke' of Tetuan 5 Nov. „ 

Martial law annulled 16 Nov. ,, 

Parliament opened by the queen in person 27 Dec. ,, 
An armament bill adopted by the chamber of de- 
puties .22 Jan. iBGS 

Proposed settlement with national creditors at 20 

per cent, of the debt .... Jan. ,, 
General amnesty proclaimed ... 23 Jan. „ 
Death of marshal Narvaez, duke of Valencia (aged 67) 

23 April, „ 
New ministry formed by Gonzalez Bravo Murillo, 

24 April, ,, 
Marriage of princess Isabella, the queen's eldest 

daughter, to the count of Girgenti, brother of ex- 
king of Naples 13 May, ,, 

Law enacted abolishing normal schools and subject- 
ing education to the priests . . 2 June, ,, 

Ministerial changes 16 June. „ 

Duke and duchess of Montpensier arrested and 
exiled 6 July, ,, 

Marshal Serrano, general Dolce, and others exiled 

about 10 July, ,, 

Insurrection begins in the licet. iS Sept. : joined by 
the garrison and city of Cadiz, tg Sept. ; accepted 
by -nearly all Spain .... 19-30 Sept. ,, 

Prim arrives at Cadiz, 17 Sept. ; announces a provi- 
sional government .... 10 Sept, ,, 

The ministers resign, 19, 20 Sept. ; Jose Concha be- 



SPAIN. 



904 



SPAIN. 



comes president of the council, 22 Sept. ; Bravo 

Murillo and his colleagues flee to Bayonne 23 Sept. 

[Royalist leaders: Jose Concha, marquis de Havana, 

Manuel Concha, marquis de Duero, at Madrid ; 

the marquis de Pezuela at Barcelona ; Eusebio 

de Calonge in the north ; Pavia y Lacy, marquis 

de Novaliches in Andalusia.] 

Novaliches, the royalist general, defeated at Alcolea 

by Serrano, 27 Sept. ; surrenders . 28 Sept. 

The queen flies to Bayonne and thence to Pan, and 

protests 29, 30 Sept. 

The deposition of the queen declared at Madrid, 

29 Sept. 
A national guard organised . . .30 Sept. 
Don Juan, son of Don Carlos, renounces his heredi- 
tary rights in favour of his son, Carlos, 3 Oct. 
Serrano enters Madrid, 3 Oct. ; Serrano, Prim, 
and Olozaga constitute a provisional government 

5 Oct. 
Prim enthusiastically received at Madrid 7 Oct. 
The education law of 2 June annulled ; the Jesuits 
and other religious orders suppressed ; the laws 
expelling the Jews abrogated ; freedom of reli- 
gious worship decreed . about 12, 13 Oct. 
All the local juntas dissolved by manifesto of the 
provisional government ... 20 Oct. 
The provisional government recognised by the 
United States, 13 Oct. ; by England, France, and 
Prussia, 25 Oct. ; by Austria, Sweden, and Belgium 
about 31 Oct. 
Manifesto of the government declaring for universal 
suffrage, and free press and education 26 Oct. 
Prim created a marshal . . about 6 Nov. 
The queen arrives at Paris ... 6 Nov. 
The joint electoral committee at Madrid declare in 
favour of a limited monarchy . . 14 Nov. 
Decree for formation of a citizen force of the Volun- 
teers of Freedom j8 Nov. 

Loan of 20,000,000?. proposed by Figueroa, minister 
of finance ; 4,000,000?. said to be undertaken by 
Rothschilds ; about 2,000,000 subscribed in 

Spain about 25 Nov. 

Insurrection against the provisional government 
breaks out at Cadiz, 5 Dec. ; murderous conflicts, 
6 Dec. ; the city invested ; surrenders ; entry of 
general Caballero de Roda, general of the army of 

Andalusia I2 Dec. 

Peaceful elections for constituent cortes, 19, 20 Dec. 

Manifesto of the due de Montpensier, justifying his 

recent entry into Spain . . dated 19 Dec. 

Violent insurrection at Malaga suppressed with 

much slaughter 3I Dec. 

Election of members for the cortes . 17 Jan. 

The Spanish envoy at Rome not received 23 Jan. 
Gutierez de Castro, civil governor of Burgos, mur- 
dered in the presence of priests while taking an 
inventory of the artistic treasures of the cathedral 

24 Jan. 
Insurrection in Cuba increasing . . Feb. 

Meeting of the cortes, n Feb. ; Rivero elected 

president I3 Feb. 

The provisional government resign ; Serrano re- 
appointed head of the government with same 

ministry 25 . 2 6 Feb. 

Riots at Xeres on account of conscription, 16 March, 
Spanish Protestant religious service at Madrid 

28 March, 
Insurrection in Cuba fomented by Americans April, 
61st anniversary of the Madrid revolution and mas- 
sacre of the French (1808) . . .2 May, 
The cortes vote for a monarchy (214 to 71), 21 Ma\% 
The new constitution promulgated . 6 June', 
Marshal Serrano elected regent by the cortes 15 

June : sworn l8 Ju „ e> 

Is ew ministry under Prim . . about iS June 
Carlist risings in La Mancha and at Ciudad Real' 

suppressed July-Aug. 

United States' overtures respecting Cuba 'indig- 
nantly rejected .... about 18 Sept. 
Candidature ofthe duke of Genoa discussed Sept. Oct. 
Republican risings at Tarragona, Barcelona,' and 
other places, suppressed with bloodshed, Sept, ; 
republicans defeated near Reus, 4 Oct. ; Sara^-ossa 
. cannonaded, 8 Oct. ; Valencia surrendered, 16 
Oct.; tranquillity generally restored . 20 Oct* 
Warm discussions respecting the election of a kin"" 
. Topcte, minister of marine, resigns . 2 Nov.' 
General Dulce dies 23 Nov. 



1869 



Powerful republican speech of Castelar in the cortes 
about 18 Dec. 

Resignation of Prim and the ministry on the Italian 
government opposing the nomination of the duke 
of Genoa as king of Spain ... 4 Jan. 

Prim resumes office with Topete and Rivero 10 Jan. 

Majority in the assembly for Prim against the com- 
bined unionists and liberals . . 3 April, 

Conscription riots at Barcelona ; soon suppressed 

7, 8 April, 

The due de Montpensier, after great provocation, 
kills don Enrique de Bourbon, brother of the ex- 
king, in a duel, 12 March ; tried, condemned, and 
fined 12 April, 

The offered crown declined by Espartero . May, 

Bill for gradual abolition of slavery in the colonies 
presented to the cortes ... 28 May, 

Two Englishmen of Gibraltar seized by brigands ; 
ransomed for 5200?. ; brigands afterwards attacked 
by the Spanish civil guard ; several of them killed, 
and part of the ransom recovered . . June, 

Rojo Arias carries a resolution requiring an abso- 
lute majority in the cortes for any proposed sove- 
reign (179 out of 356) ; this excludes all present 
candidates June, 

Isabella II. abdicates in favour of her son Alfonso, 

25 June, 

Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern Sigmaringen nomi- 
nated king, accepted by the regent and ministry, 
6 July ; this justified by the government in a cir- 
cular, 7 July ; on the strong opposition of France 
he resigns 12 July, 

Neutrality in the war announced . . 27 July, 

Renewed agitation for a republic about 9 Aug. 

Amnesty for all political offences since 29 Sept, 1868, 
published 10 Aug. 

Irruption of Carlists into Navarre, 27 Aug. ; defeated 

28 Aug. 

The Basque provinces put into a state of siege, 

28 Aug. 

The French republic warmly recognised . Sept. 

Ministerial crisis 15 Sept. 

Claret, the ex-queen's confessor, dies . . 4 Oct. 

Amadeus, duke of Aosta(born 30 May, 1845), accepts 
the candidature for the crown . . 20 Oct. 

Elected by the cortes by 191 votes : (63 for a repub- 
lic ; 27 for the due de Montpensier) . 16 Nov. 

Proclaimed king 17 Nov. 

The ex-queen, on behalf of her son Alfonso, protests 
against the election ... . . 21 Nov. 

The duke accepts the crown from a deputation of 
the cortes at Florence, and says " that his honesty 
should rise above the struggle of parties, and that 
he had no other object than the peace and pros- 
perity of the nation" .... 4 Dec. 

Stormy session in the cortes respecting arrange- 
ments for the new king, 19 Dec. ; Rivero, the pre- 
sident, resigns 25 Dec. 

Prim fired at and wounded in his carriage by six 
men, who escaped ; great indignation at Madrid, 
27 Dec. ; Topete rejoins the ministry ; vote of con- 
fidence in it 28 Dec. 

Prim dies in the evening (aged 56) ; the king received 
by Topete at Cartagena . . . " 30 Dec. 

Funeral of Prim 31 Dec. 

The king enters Madrid, visits the body of Prim, 
and takes the oath .... 2 Jan. 

New ministry under Serrano ... 5 Jan. 

Warm reception of the: queen at Madrid 19 March, 

New cortes opened ; the king's speech much ap- 
plauded 3 April, 

Del Castillo and other Alfonsists recognise the 
king April, 

Olozaga elected president of the cortes 4 April, 

The Tornado difficulty settled (Aug. Nov. 1866) 
compensation to be paid by the Spanish govern- 
ment May, 

Ministerial crisis through financial affairs ; settled 
by the king June, 

Marshal Serrano fails in forming a cabinet, 23 July ; 
a ministry formed by Zorrilla . . 24 July, 

The king visits the provinces ; warmly received, 
1 Sept. et seq. ; welcomed by Espartero at Logrofio, 

30 Sept, 

Cortes opened, 1 Oct, ; Sagasta elected president in 
opposition to Rivero (123-113), 3 Oct, ; the Zorrilla 
ministry resigns, 4 Oct. ; Malcampo forms a 
ministry 5 Oct. 



iS£9 
1S70 

1870 



SPAIN. 905 



SPAIN. 



Republican meeting at Madrid ; strong resolutions 
passed 15 Oct. 1871 

Defeat of the ministry in the cortes; dissolution, 

24, 25 Nov. „ 

Arigulo, the finance minister, proposes to tax the 
foreign national creditors 18 per cent. 27 Nov. ,, 

Suicide of the count of Girgenti . . 27 Nov. ,, 

Ministry formed under Sagasta . . 21 Dec. ,, 

Bfspartero, duke of Victory, made prince of Vergara, 

Jan. 1872 

Kesignation of Sagasta and the ministry for a 
trifling defeat ; refused by the king, dissolution 
of the cortes; much excitement; troops under 
arms 25, 26 Jan. ,, 

Ministry reconstituted by Sagasta and Topete, 

20 Feb. „ 

Union of the opposition against the ministry, who 
determine to support the throne, about 8 March, ,, 

Elections ; majority of about 100 for ministers ; 
Madrid elects for the opposition . 4-6 April, ,, 

Insurrection of Carlists incited by priests in 
Navarre, Leon, &c. ; manifesto of don Carlos, 
duke of Madrid ; Diaz de Eada, his general 

about 20 April, ,, 

The new cortes opened ; the king says, " I will never 
impose myself on the Spanish people, but neither 
will I allow myself to be accused of deserting the 
'post which I occupy by their will " . 24 April, ,, 

Navarre, <fcc, in state of siege . . 23 April, ,, 

Marshal Serrano enters Navarre with an army; 
don Carlos, calling himself Carlos VII., crosses 
the frontiers near Vera, and takes the command, 
Rada retiring, 2 May; totally defeated at Oro- 
quieta (which sec) 4 May, ,, 

The Carlists surrender by hundreds, or disperse, 

8, 9, 20, 21 May, ,, 

Reported small defeats at Ouate, <fce. . 13, 20 May, ,, 

Resignation of the Sagasta ministry . . 22 May, „ 

Band of Carlists defeated near Gerona, about 22 May, ,, 

New ministry (supported by Serrano), adm. Topete 
president 25 May, ,, 

Serrano offers amnesty to Carlists who surrender, 
25 May; it is accepted, 27 May; he is censured, 
but exonerated by the cortes, 8 June ; he assumes 
the presidency of the ministry . . 4 June, ,, 

Caiiism increases ; the ministry propose martial 
law; the king opposes it; the ministry resign, 

12 June, ,, 

Ruiz Zorrilla (who had just retired from political 
life) becomes president of a new ministry, 14 June, ,, 

Letter of the due de Montpensier advocating the 
rightsof prince Alfonso, 17 April ; published, June, „ 

Dissolution of the cortes ... 20 June, ,, 

Don Carlos calls on Catalonia, Arragon, and Valen- 
cia, to rise, promising to restore their ancient 
liberties 16 July, ,, - 

Attempted assassination of the king and queen by 
about 15 men ; one assassin killed, two taken ; a 
little after midnight of . . . 18-19 July, ,, 

The king's popular visit to the provinces, travelling 
nearly 2000 miles . . .26 July-24 Aug. ,, 

Elections for the cortes; highly favourable to the 
Zorrilla ministry . . . .25 Aug. et scq. ,, 

The cortes opened by the king with a line speech, 

15 Sept. ,, 

Republican rising at Fcrrol; red flag displayed; 
1500 men under Montqjo and Bozas, n Oct. ; 
town captured by the captain-general of Galicia, 

13 Oct. „ 

The insurgents disperse or surrender; about 500 
prisoners 17 Oct. ,, 

Impeachment of the Sagasta ministry for financial 
corruption proposed in the cortes ; much agitation, 

end of Oct. ,, 

The country disturbed by Carlists and republicans, 

Nov. -Dec. „ 

Gen. Hidalgo appointed to a military command ; 
'the artillery officers resigned : punished . Nov. ,, 

Outbreak in Madrid suppressed . . 11 Dec. „ 

Changes in the ministry announced . 20 Dec. ,, 

Bill for abolition of slavery in Porto Rico, for com- 
pensation, brought into congress . 24 Dec. ,, 

Carlist bands defeated and several generals killed, 

Jan. 1873 

King Amadeus' message to the cortes, announcing 
his abdication ; he states that he sees Spain in a 
continual struggle, the era of peace more distant ; 
lie sought for remedies within the law, ami did 



not find them ; his efforts were sterile. The two 
chambers combine as the sovereign cortes of 
Spain, and vote for a republic (126-32) . 11 Feb. I 

Reported success of the Carlists ; agitation for the 
due de Montpensier among the Orlcanists in 
France 12 Feb. 

New ministry under Figueras . . 12 Feb. 

King Amadeus arrives at Lisbon . . 13 Feb. 

Irruption of Carlists ; they hold part of Catalonia ; 
demonstrations in favour of a federal republic, 

22, 23 Feb. 

Ministry reconstituted ; Figueras chief, 24, 25 Fell. 

Powerful circnlarto European powers from Castelar, 
foreign minister 27 Feb. 

Appointment of a permanent committee of the 
cortes 22 March, 

Great dissensions between the radicals and repub- 
licans; fighting with Carlists in the provinces, 
early in March, 

Slavery in Porto Rico abolished . . 23 March, 

Proclamation of the government calling for volun- 
teers against the Carlists . . . 25 March, 

Mutinous spirit in the army . . . April, 

The Carlists beaten in several encounters; don 
Alfonso de Bourbon re-enters France 23 April, 

The old "monarchical volunteers" take possession 
of the bull-ring at Madrid ; are disarmed and dis- 
persed by the government troops ; the " perma- 
nent committee" dissolved by the government, 
which assumes supreme power . . 26 April, 

Serrano and Sagasta have left Spain . 29 April, 

More defeats of the Carlists; Madrid tranquil, 
29, 30 April-4 May, 

Elections for the cortes commence ; monarchists 
abstain from voting . . . .10 May, 

Mr. Bradlaugh, the English republican, entertained 
at Madrid 24 May, 

More Carlist defeats reported ; their alleged cruelties 
denied by the Carlist committee . May, June, 

The Intransigentes or Irreconeilables (extreme re- 
publicans) very powerful . . . June, 

The new cortes opened ; a speech by Figueras, 

1 June. 

The federal republic voted by the cortes (210-2) and 
proclaimed, 8 June ; Pi y Margall, president of a 
new ministry, rejected ; Figueras and his ministry 
resume office 9 June. 

Carlists besieging Irun .... 7 June, 

Ministerial crisis renewed, 10 June; Pi y Margall 
becomes minister; Figueras quits Spain, n June, 

Carlists defeat Castaiion near Murieta . 26 June, 

Cadiz, Seville, Malaga, and Valencia very insub- 
ordinate 29 June, 

The Intransigentes withdraw from the cortes, 1 July, 

Defeat and death of Calvinety by Carlists ; insur- 
rection at Alcoy, promoted by Internationalists; 
the mayor and others killed, announced, n Julj 

Don Carlos (as Carlos VII.) enters Spain, " to save 
the country " 13 July, 

Desperate fighting at Igualada, Catalonia 

17, iS July, 

Four prevailing parties : — 1. The government, hi^hh 
democratic; 2. The Intransigentes, or irreconeil- 
ables : extremely democratic ; 3. The Interna- 
tional, or communists ; 4. The legitimists, 
Carlists. 

Murcia and Valencia proclaim themselves federal 
cantons iS July, 

Pi y Margall compelled to resign ; Salmeron forms 
a ministry opposed to the Intransigentes, 18 July, 

Igualada taken by the Carlists under Don Alfonso, 

19 July, 

The government determine to put down insurrec- 
tion ....... 24 July, 

Don Carlos enters Biscay . . . 31 July, 

Carlists hold chief of N. Spain . . Aug. 

Insurgents repulsed in their attack on Almeria ; 
beaten in tights at Seville, 28-30 July ; gen. Pavia 
warmly received 31 July, 

Cadiz surrenders to him .... 4 Aug. 

Troops attack Valencia, 26 July ; it surrenders, 

8 Aug. 

New constitution printed, 27 July; discussed, Aug. 

[118 Articles ; includes separation of church and 
state; free religious worship ; nobility abolished : 
15 states in and near peninsula : 2 in the Antilles ; 
cortes (senate and congress) to have legislative 
power; one deputy to 50,000 souls; cortes to be 



SPAIN. 

renewed in 2 years ; members to be paid ; execu- 
tive : president and ministry ; president elected 
for 4 years.] 
Eombardment of Malaga stopped by the British 
and German admirals . . . . 1 Aug. 

Alleged Carlist victories at Elgueta, &c. 5-10 Aug. 

Reported total defeat of the insurgents at Chin- 
chilla, while inarching on Madrid . . 10 Aug. 
Cartagena, held by Intransigentes, besieged, 22 Aug. 
The Deerhuund, English yacht, conveying stores to 
Carlists, seized by the Spaniards, 11J miles off 
Biarritz ; crew imprisoned, and captain sent to 
_. F errol 13 Aug. 

Capt.'H erner, of German ship, Friedrich Karl, cap- 
tures Aimanza and Vittoria, Spanish ironclads, 
held by rebels, gives them up to adin. Yelverton, 
who prepares for action against Intransigentes, 
claiming them, and sends them to Gibraltar un- 
molested r Sept. 

Carlists aeteat republicans at Arrichulegui, near 
Benteria, many killed . . . . 21 Aug. 

They take Estella after a conflict at Dicastillo, 

25 Aug. 

Castelar elected president of the cortes . 26 Aug. 

The ministry propose abolition of capital punish- 
ment in the army, defeated in the cortes ; resign 
. S Sept. 

Castelar heads a ministry ; proposes calling out 
150,000 men, to end the war . . 7, 8 Sept. 

Cm-lists successful ; yet do not advance . 5-8 Sept. 

Salmeron elected president of the cortes 9 Sept. 

Castelar made virtually dictator . . 15 Sept. 

Ferdinand Mufloz, duke of Rianzares, husband of 
queen Christina, dies at Havre . . 12 Sept. 

The Deerhound and crew given up ; announced 

about 18 Sept. 

Reported victories of Loma over Carlists 18 Sept. 

Speech of Castelar, the cortes to be closed 2 Jan. 
1874 18 Sept. 

Carlist attack on Tolosa repulsed by Loma, 19 Sept. 

The cortes prorogued . . . .21 Sept. 

The Carlist Merendon killed andhis band dispersed 
about 26 Sept. 

The Vittoria and Aimanza given up to the Spanish 
government 26 Sept. 

Carlists in Navarre defeated by Moriones, 27 Sept. 

The Intransigentes' ironclads, Mendez Nunez and 
Numancia, bombarding Alicante, repulsed 

28 Sept. 

Combination of parties to support Castelar, 

about 6 Oct. 

Battle at Manem, near Puenta de la Reyna, in 
Navarre, between republicans, under Moriones, 
and Carlists, under Olio ; both claim a victory ; 
advantage with Carlists ... 6 Oct. 

Carlists said to be repulsed at La Junquera, in 
Catalonia about 8 Oct. 

Battle of Escombrera bay ; the Intransigentes' ships 
attempt to break blockade of Cartagena ; repulsed 
by admiral Lobo 11 Oct. 

Many Carlists escape into France . about Oct. 

Lobo declines to fight, and retires, pursued by the 
Intransigentes, 13 Oct. ; justifies himself at 
Madrid 22 Oct. 

Collision of the Intransigentes' vessels Nttmancia 
and Fernando del Catolico, the latter sunk and 
66 drowned 18 Oct. 

Unsuccessful sortie at Cartagena . . 21 Oct. 

Tristany, with 2,500 Carlists, defeated by Salamanca 

_ , 25 Oct. 

Death of Rios Rosas, statesman . . 3 Nov. 

The Murillo (see Wrecks, 1873), captured; con- 
demned to be sold by the British court of ad- 
miralty N 0V . 

Indecisive conflicts at Monte JurreandMonjardin, 
victories claimed by Carlists . . 7, 8, 9 Nov. 

Cartagena bombarded . . .26 Nov. et sen. 

Reported victory of Moriones near Tolosa, 7 Dec! 

Lopez Dominguez becomes commander before 
Cartagena 13 Bee. 

Tetuan, insurgent vessel, at Cartagena, blew u" 
(? purposely) 30 Dec. 

ProHiinciamento :— Meeting of the cortes; speech 
of Castelar ; vote of confidence in him lost by 20 ; 
lie resigns ; Salmeron attempts to form a ministry, 
2-3 Jan. ; Pavia, captain general of Madrid, 
forcibly dissolves the cortes . . . ' 3 Jan. 1 

Marshal Serrano made president of a new ministry! 



906 



SPAIN. 



including Topete ; the national guard of Madrid 

disarming 4 Jan. 1874 

Insurrection at Saragossa; suppressed with blood- 
shed 4 Jan. ,, 

The new government issue a moderate manifesto, 

9, 10 Jan. ,, 
Cartagena captured by Lopez Dominguez, 12 Jan. „ 
Insurrection at Barcelona quelled . 12, 13 Jan. „ 

Numancia ironclad, with Intransigentes leaders and 
convicts, escapes ; they land at Mers el Kebir, 
near Oran, on the African coast ; are interned 
by the French 12 Jan. „ 

Blockade of the coast of Spain announced 31 Jan. ,, 

The Carlists besiege Bilbao. Moriones defeated at 
Somorrostro 25 Feb. 

Marshal Serrano resigns presidency of the ministry, 
and becomes chief of the executive, succeeded 
by Zabala ; Serrano proceeds to Bilbao, 

28 Feb. etseq. ,, 

Serrano assumes command . . about 8 March, ,, 

The blockade of the coast (31 Jan.) raised 2 March, „ 

Asserted victory of the Carlists at San Felice, 
Burgos 15 March, „ 

Three days' conflict at Somorrostro, near Bilbao ; 
the Carlists defeated, but retain their positions 
(about 2000 killed and wounded on both sides) 

25, 26, 27 March, „ 

Armistice for three days ... 28 March, „ 

General Manuel da Concha, joins Serrano at 
Santander .... about 8 April, „ 

Great national effort to relieve Bilbao ; union of 
parties ; hostilities resumed . . 20 April, „ 

After several days' conflict, Carlists retreat ; marshal 
Concha enters Bilbao, which is much injured by 
long bombardment .... 2 May, „ 

A battle at Prats de Llusanes, indecisive 6 May, „ 

New ministry formed under Zabala . . 13 May, ,, 

Carlists repulsed in severe attack at Ramales, 

about 20 May, ,, 

Carlists defeated at Gondesa . about 6 June, ,, 

Republicans repulsed before Estella . 25-27 June, „ 

Concha- killed (succeeded by Zabala) . 27 June, „ 

Carlists accused of butchering prisoners, June and 

Jul>% „ 

Alleged Carlist victories at Pefia Mura (or Plata), 
ntar Abarzuza .... 25-27 June, „ 

Schmidt, a German correspondent, shot as a spy by 
Carlists about 28 June, „ 

German intervention for killing of captain Schmidt 
by Carlists . . . . . . July, ,, 

Carlists hold Navarre, Guipuscoa, Biscay, and 
Alara July, » 

The Carlists capture Cuenca (about 80 miles from 
Madrid) . .' 13 July, ,, 

Don Carlos's manifesto promising constitutional 
government 16 July, „ 

Massacre of 86 republican prisoners by Carlists 
under Saballo at Valfogona . . 17 Jul y, ,, 

All Spain placed under martial law ; levy of 125,000 
men about 18 July, , s 

Government circular to foreign courts respecting 
Carlist atrocities 29 July, ,, 

The government appeals to the French government 
respecting French assistance to Carlists ; justifi- 
catory reply 3 Aug. „ 

The British Mediterranean squadron under admiral 
Drummond sails from Malta for Barcelona, 4 Aug. „ 

Don Carlos appeals to the chief powers not to inter- 
vene ; justifies Dorregaray's severities, and the 
execution of Schmidt .... 6 Aug. ,, 

Moriones' alleged defeat of Mendiri and Carlists at 
Oteiza 12 Aug. ,, 

Duty of 5t7. a ton on imported iron granted to 
Bilbao for repairs .... 13 Aug. ,, 

Serrano's government recognised by Great Britain, 
Germany, France, and other powers (not by 
Russia) .... about 14 Aug. ,, 

Letter of sympathy and encouragement from the 
comte de Chambord to don Carlos . Aug. ,, 

185 prisoners of war at Olot said to be shot by 
Carlists Aug. „ 

Puycerda vigorously besieged by Carlists, 

Aug.-Sept. ,, 

Zabala resigns ; ministry formed under Sagasta, 

4 Sept. „ 

Carlists fire on German gunboats Nautilus and 
Albatross near San Sebastian; the Germans fire 
shells into the town . . . about 5 Sept. ,, 



SPAIN. 

Lopez Dominguez said to hare defeated Carlists five 
times, and relieved Puyeerda . about 6 Sejit. 

Carlists fire on German and Austrian ambassadors 
on the road to Madrid . . . . C Sept. 

Carlists defeated by Lopez Pinto near Mora, about 
9 Sept.; by Moriones at Barasoam near Tafalla, 
about 25 Sept. 

The ruthless Carlist general Dorregaray retires to 
Bayonne ; said to have beeu superseded by Men- 
dir'i Oct. 

Pavia superseded by Jovellar in Valencia, 

early in Oct. 

Note sent to French government complaining of 
neglect respecting the Carlists on the frontiers, 
early in Oct. 

Carlists said to have been defeated at Fortuna, in 
Murcia, 11 Oct.; and at Villa Fortuna, 30 Oct. 

Carlists begin to bombard Irun, 4 Nov.; repulsed, 

10 Nov. 

Serrano commander of the army in the north, Nov. 

Prince Alfonso issues a manifesto in reply to 
address, declaring himself tobe "a true Spaniard, 
catholic, and liberal " . . . . 1 Dec. 

The army at Murviedro pronounces in favour of 
Alfonso ; he is proclaimed king by gen. Martinez 
Campos, 29 Bee. ; recognised by the other armies 
and the nav.y, 30 Dec; proclaimed by gen. Primo 
da Rivera at Madrid ; Antonio Canovas del Cas- 
tillo head of a royal ministry . . 31 Dec. 

The president marshal Serrano withdraws to France, 

1 Jan. 

Proclamation of Carlos against Alfonso . 6 Jan. 

Alfonso XII. recognised throughout Spain ; well 
received at Barcelona, 9 Jan. ; enters Madrid, 

14 Jan. 

Orders of knighthood re-established ; payments to 
clergy to be renewed Jan. 

Increased barbarities of the Carlists reported, Jan. 

Alfonso reviews 30,000 troops near Tafalla, 22 Jan.; 
issues proclamation to northern provinces, pro- 
mising amnesty, and respect to local rights,22 Jan. 

Serrano returns to Madrid .... Feb. 

Carlists surprise and defeat royalists at Lucar, 

3 Feb. 

Carlists retreat from Pampeluna ; entered by the 
king, 6 Feb. ; he exchanges decorations with 
Espartero at Logroilo ... .9 Feb. 

Designation of generals Moriones, Loma, and 
Blanco ; Concha sent for from Cuba . . Feb. 

Serrano received by the king . . .8 March, 

Cabrera, an old Carlist general (see 1840; publishes 
an address, declaring for Alfonso XII., 11 March, 

Several professors seized and exiled for liberal 
opinions March, April, 

Eight prisoners shot by Carlist general Mendiri, in 
reprisal 7 April, 

Papal nuncio received by the king . . 3 May, 

Aguirre, Carlist general, joins the royalists, 

about 9 May, 

Jovellar, commander of royal army, about 7 June, 

Martinez Campos said to have taken fortress of 
Miraveti 24 June, 

Vigorous action of the government troops ; Carlists 
expelled from Castile ; stringent measures or- 
dered against those who favour them . July, 

Carlists defeated by Qucsada and others 31 July, 

Strong citadel at Urgel surrendered by Carlists to 
Campos, after a gallant defence ; the bishop and 
the brave general Lizarraga captured, 26 Aug. 

New conscription ordered, 12 Aug; reported suc- 
cessful Sept. 

Designation of "conciliation ministry," n Sept; 
liberal cabinet headed by gen. Jovellar, 12 Sept. 

The papal nuncio issues a circular against toleration, 
about 13 Sept. 

Dorregaray said to be nominated to the chief com- 
mand ; declaration from don Carlos stating that 
his mission is " to quell the revolution, and that 
it will die" Sept. 

Bombardment of San Sebastian, 28 Sept.-2 Oct. ; 
resumed, n Oct. 

The government declare the civil war at an end, 
ami purpose summoning the cortes to assist the 
king in re-organising the country, early in Oct. 

Reported defection of Mendiri from the Carlists, 
and trial of Dorregaray and Caballi for miscon- 
duct ; and Carlist successes . . . Oct. 



907 



1874 



'875 



SPAIN. 

Reported interference of United States respecting 
Cuba Oct.. Nov. 1873 

Alleged victories of Quesada, near Pennacerada, 

4, 5. Nov. „ 

Correspondence of ministry with the pope respect- 
ing ecclesiastical affairs .... Nov. ,, 

Letter from Don Carlos to the king proposing a 
truce, and offering help if war occurs with the 
United States (not answered) . . 9 Nov. ,, 

Formation of a new constitutional party under 
Sagasta Nov. ,, 

New proclamation of don Carlos to encourage his 
supporters 23 Nov. ,, 

Serrano and Sagasta greet the king on his birthday, 

28 Nov. ,, 

Ministry reconstructed under Canovas del Castillo, 

27 Nov. ,, 

Cortes elected, 364 nominal ministerialists out of 406, 

Jan. 1876 

Cortes opened by the king ... 15 Feb. ,, 

Carlists defeated at Estella, Vera, and Tolosa, by 
Quesada and Moriones .... Feb. ,, 

The king assumes command ; Estella surrenders to 
Primo da Rivera : severe loss . . 18 Feb. ,, 

Reported letter from the pope recommending Carlos 
to retire from the contest ... 22 Feb. ,, 

Many Carlists submit or flee into France, 24-26 Feb. ,, 

Don Carlos with general Lizarraga and five batta- 
lions surrender to the governor of Bayonne, at 
St. Jean Pied de Port, 27 Feb. ; he lands with 
some officers at Folkestone, and proceeds to 
London 4 March, „ 

Triumphal entry of Alfonso XII. into Madrid, 

20 March, ,, 

Draft of new constitution submitted to the cortes, 

28 March, ,,. 

The pope opposes moderate religious toleration in 
Art. 11 of the constitution . . . April, , r 

The Jews (expelled in 1492) petition for re-admission 

April, , r 

The prince of Wales at Madrid by invitation, 

25-30 April, , r 

Outbreaks in the Basque provinces reported ; mar- 
tial law about 27 May, ,, 

Long debate in the cortes ; confidence in ministry 
voted (211-26) ; the constitution passed; cortes 
adjourns about 21 July, „ 

Queen Isabella received by the king at Santander ; 
declares that " her share in public affairs is at an 
end " 31 July, ,, 

Repression of public worship of protestants by 
authority Sept. ,, 

Ex-queen Isabella quietly received at Madrid, 1 3 Oct . , , 

Alleged federalist conspiracy of Ruiz Zorrilla and 
Salmeron ; about 1 =o arrests . . . 23 Oct. ,, 

State of siege in Old Castile raised . . 1 Feb. 1877 

Treaty favoured nation clause in regard to England 
abrogated 

Royal progress in the provinces ; the king well re- 
ceived March, „ 

General amnesty to Carlists and others surrender- 
ing April, ,, 

Meeting of the new cortes ; cheerful royal speech, 

25 April, ,, 

The cortes suddenly closed . . . 11 July, ,, 

New tariff passed; customs duties raised in respect 
to Great Britain, France, and United States, 

17 July, ,, 

The ex-queen, after visiting her son, disapproves 
of his proposed marriage, and associates with don 
Carlos in Paris, who is privately forbidden to 
remain, and goes to England ; she is forbidden to 
return to Spain ; her pension stopped, end of Dec. ,, 

The king married to his cousin Mercedes, daughter 
of the due de Montpensier . . . 23 Jan. 1878 

End of the insurrection in Cuba announced, 21 Feb. ,, 

Death of queen Mercedes, deeply lamented, 26 June, ,, 

Budget receipts, 30,025,208?., expendit. 30,127,114?. 
announced Aug. ,, 

Death of the queen dowager Christina . 21 Aug. „ 

The king fired at (not injured) by Juan Oliva Mon- 
casi, a member of the international Society, aged 
23 25 <»ct. „ 

Moncasi executed 4 Jan. 187^ 

Espartero, duquc de Victoria, dies . . 8 Jan. ,, 

Castillo ministry (1874) resigns ; marshal Campos 
forms a ministry 3 March, ,, 

The cortes dissolved, 16 March ; to meet, ' 1 June, ,, 



SPAIN. 



908 



SPAIN. 



Heavy rains, 14 Oct. ; consequent disastrous inun- 
dations in the provinces of Malaga, Almeria, 
Granada, Seville, and especially in Murcia and 
Alicante ; about 1000 persons perish ; about 
10,000 houseless .... 15-17 Oct. : 

fresh storms and inundations ; 21 persons drowned 
at Vera, in Almeria . . . . 29, 30 Oct. 

The king married to the archduchess Maria Chris- 
tina of Austria 29 Nov. 

Vines attacked by phylloxera in Malaga, &c. Nov. 

.Resignation of the Campos ministry ; Canovas del 
Castillo forms a cabinet ... .9 Dec. ' 

Attempted assassination of the king and queen by 
Francisco Otero y Gonzalez by shooting, 30 Dee. 

Promulgation of law for gradually abolishing 
slavery in Cuba . . . . . 18 Feb. 

Manifesto from 279 senators and deputies claiming 
liberty of religion, the press, &c, and education, 
universal suffrage, &c. ... 6 April, 

Otero executed 14 April, 

Resignation of ministry ; Sagasta forms a ministry 
(liberal), 8 Feb. ; the chambers adjourned, 9 Feb. 

Calderon centenary, Madrid, begins . 23 May, 

Conference of advanced radicals at Biarritz to or- 
ganize the party 13 June, 

Permission said to be given to about 60,000 Rus- 
sian Jews to come to Spain . . . June, 

Don Carlos expelled from France for expressing sym- 
pathy with legitimists (goes to London) 17 July, 

Elections ; majority for the ministry . . Aug. 

The cortes opened by the king . . 20 Sept. 

Consolidation of the National debt (60,000,000?.) 
proposed, Sept. ; law published . 10 Dec. 

The kinginvested with the order of theGarter,7 Oct. 

The kings of Spain and Portugal open a new rail- 
way between Madrid and Lisbon . . 8 Oct. 

Great agitation against the free trade policy of the 
minister Camacho, in Catalonia, <fcc. (see Bar- 
celona) 

Treaty with France passed by the cortes (237-65), 

22 April, 

•Continued disputes with England respecting tariff, 

Aug. et seq. 

■"Dynastic Left," a new party formed by marshal 
Serrano and others, constituted (dividing the 
liberals) 27 Oct. 

Gen. Maceo and Ave Cuban insurgent leaders sur- 
rendered at Gibraltar to the Spaniards (they had 
escaped from Cadiz, 20 Aug.) ; they petition 
■queen Victoria to ask for their release ; applica- 
tion made for inquiry ; gen. Baylies, colonial 
secretary at Gibraltar, and Mr. Blair, the chief 
inspector of police, dismissed for exceeding their 
authority, announced .... 4 Dec. 

The "Dynastic Left" in cortes pronounce in favour 
of advanced liberalism . . . 15 Dec. 

Majority for government in elections for councils 
general 17 Dec. 

Resignation of the ministry . . .6 Jan. 

New cabinet formed by Sagasta . . 8 Jan. 

Socialist and anarchist disturbances in Seville, &c. 

Feb. 

A secret society, entitled the " Black Hand (Mano 
Negra)," reported; airests, 28 Feb.; total sup- 
pression reported .... 4 March, 

Release of two Cuban refugees ; Maceo retained, 

March, 

The king and queen of Portugal at Madrid, 22 May, 

Temporary republican military insurrection at 
Badajoz, said to lie planned by Ruiz Zorrilla, 
on the approach of troops ; mutineers enter Por- 
tugal, and are disarmed . . 4, 5, 6 Aug. 
Brief military outbreaks near Logrofio and at Bar- 
' celona, 8 Aug. ; Seo-de-Urgel . . .9 Aug. 

Spain reported tranquil ... 13 Aug. 

The king's military tour, Valencia, Barcelona, Sara- 
gossa, &c. well received . . 17 Aug. et seq. 

He visits Vienna, 10 Sept. ; Berlin, Homberg, and 
Brussels 27 Sept. 

The king honourably received by president Grevy, 
but hissed and reviled by the Paris mob (on 
Account of his having been made a colonel of 
Uhlans by the emperor William); behaved with 
dignity and courage . . 29, 30 Sept. 1 Oct. 
Resignation of Sagasta ami his ministry ; succeeded 
by Posada Herrera and others . 11-13OCL 

The crown prince of Germany arrives at Madrid, 

23 Nov. 



Amnesty granted to insurgent soldiers announced, 

27 Nov. 

Treaty for new commercial tariff signed . 1 Dec. 

The king opens the cortes, with speech promising 
important reforms .... 15 Dec. 

Treaty with England condemned by the council of 
state ; freetraders indignant . . . Jan. 

Government defeated in the cortes (221-126) 17 Jan. 

Ministry resigned ; Canovas del Castillo (conser- 
vative) forms a ministry . . . 18 Jan. 

Dissolution of the cortes . . . 31 March, 

Suspected military insurrection ; about 25 persons 
arrested, about 17 March ; 7 of 15 condemned ; 
Black Hand conspirators garrotted at Xeres, 14 
June; Commander Fernandez and lieut. Telles 
shot as rebels . . . . . 28 June, 

Fall of the Alcudia railway bridge near Badajoz, 
great loss of life (said to be 90) ; believed to be 
due to criminal work of republicans . 26 April, 

New cortes (three-fourths conservative) meets, 20 
May ; business begun ... 10 June, 

Sir Robert Morier, British envoy, 1881 ; succeeded 
by sir Francis Clare Ford . . . . 

Last section of the Great Asturian railway opened 
by the king 15 ^ u g- 

Indiscreet speech of Sen. Pidal Y. Mon, minister 
of instruction, causes revival of agitation in 
favour of the Pope ; resented by Italy ; apology 
made Aug. Sept. 

Speech of professor Moraytor against clericals ; 
university students at Madrid forbidden to attend 
his lectures by Sen. Pidal, resist : conflict with 
the police ; many wounded, 20 Nov. ; professors 
and students expelled from the university ; many 
liberal newspapers suspended; otheruniversities 
agitated Nov. 

Passive resistance of the students . 1 Dec. et seq; 

Much sufferings by Earthquakes, which see, 

25-31 Dec. 

National subscription proclaimed by the king, 

3 Jan. 

The king- visits the afflicted districts, 11-23 Jan. ; 
liberal subscriptions in London . n Jan. 

Protocol restoring Great Britain to position of 
most "favoured nation" in regard to commerce 
(lost since 1845); wine duties modified; signed 
at Madrid, 21 Dec. 1884 ; gazetted . 6 Feb. 

Commercial treaty with England ratified by the 
deputies, 11 March ; by the senate, 28 March ; 
by the king 1 April, 

Failure of the negotiations for the treaty announce! I , 

18 May, 

Break out of cholera in Valencia (see Cholera), May, 

The ministers resign on account of the kings 
intention to visit Valencia ; he gives in ; they 
resume office . . . . 20, 21 June, 

Riots at Madrid through the Germans occupying 
Yap, a Caroline isle ; the German • legation 
attacked, 4, 5 Sept. ; quiet restored 6 Sept ; 
Spanish note of apology sent to Berlin about 26 
Sept. ; mediation of the pope accepted (see 
Caroline Islands) . . . about 26 Sept. 

British legation insulted by claim of taxes, 
about 29, 30 Sept. 

Attempted military insurrection at Cartagena, 
1 Nov. ; suppressed . . about 4, 5 Nov. 

Death of king Alfonso XII., 25 Nov, ; resignation 
of Canovas del Castillo ; ministry formed by 
senor Sagasta .... 26, 27 Nov. 

Death of marshal Serrano ... 26 Nov. 

Amnesty granted to press and political offenders, 

10 Dec. 

Manifesto of the Spanish bishops to their dioceses, 
declaring the distinction to be observed between 
religion and politics, and the submission of the 
church to any lawful form of government, 
monarchical or republican ... 6 Jan. 

50 soldiers at Cartagena mutiny ; most escape 
to a ship, 10, n Jan. ; general Fajardo wounded ; 
dies 27 Jan. ; ringleader of mutiny shot, 3 March, 

Suspected intrigue of Zorilla and his followers, 

Jan. 

The duke of Seville sentenced to eight years' 
imprisonment, &c, for insulting, &o., the queen 
regent. about 27 Feb. 

Assassination of the bishop of Madrid (see Madrid), 

19 April, 

The commercial treaty with England (till 1892) 



1884 



1SS5 



SPAIN. 

again accepted by the cortes, May ; ratified, 
24 July; royal assent, 29 July; comes into 
operation 15 Aug. 

Destructive cyclone at Madrid (which see), 12 May, 

Don Carlos protests against recognition of Alphonso 
XIII. ...... 20 May, 

Revolt of 300 of Madrid garrison under brigadier 
Villacainpa ; unsupported, quickly suppressed ; 
three officers killed, 19 Sept. ; capital punish- 
ment of insurgents commuted . . Oct. 

Republican manifesto of the duke of Seville issued 
at Tarbes about 30 Sept. 

Changes in M. Sagasta's cabinet . . 10 Oct. 

Solemn commemoration of the death of king 
Alphonso XII 25, 26 Nov. 

Attempted assassination by a Frenchman of 
marshal Bazaine .... 18 April, 

The regent queen Christina visits the N. provinces ; 
well received Aug. 

The Philippine exhibition at Madrid ; the queen 
distributes the prizes .... 17 Oct. 

Opening of the cortes ; the infant king enthroned ; 
speech of the queen regent ; the country 
prosperous and quiet . . . . 1 Dec. 

Sir Francis Clare Ford, British envoy, &c, nomi- 
nated ambassador ; received by the queen 
regent ....... 21 Jan. 

Rioting at the Rio Tinto mines suppressed with 
bloodshed 4, S Feb. 

Trial by .jury introduced by the senate . 27 Feb. 

Ruiz Korrilla's revolutionary manifesto issued, 
demanding a plebiscite for the form of national 
government 4 March, 

Resignation of the ministry . . 13 June, 

Senor Sagasta forms a new ministry . 14 June, 

Republican outbreak at Saragossa against con- 
servatives ; senor Canovas del Castillo attacked, 
20 Oct. ; outbreak at Seville, 7 Nov. ; outbreak 
at Madrid 11 Nov. 

Resignation of the ministry, 9 Dec. ; reconstituted 
by senor Sagasta 10 Dec. 

Amnesty to political offenders and mutinous 
soldiers decreed 23 Jan. 

The queen regent meets queen Victoria at San 
Sebastian 27 March, 

Long debate in the chamber, victory of ministers 
(227-65) 22 May, 

Trial by jury first put in force (at Madrid), 29 May, 

Parliamentary deadlock, the session closed by 
the queen regent 2 June, 

Powerful speech by senor Sagasta to his supporters, 
12 June ; the cortes reopened . . 14 June, 

Victory of senor Sagasta over senor Canovas del 
Castillo and the combined conservatives and 
dissentient liberals, reported . . 14 July, 

Dispute with Morocco (which see) settled 29 Sept. 

The cortes opened 29 Oct. 

Death of sen. Julian Gayarre, a popular tenor 
singer 2 Jan. 

Resignation of the ministry, 3 Jan. ; Senor Sagasta 
forms a slightly modified cabinet . 20 Jan. 

Illness of the king, 4 Jan.; serious, 9 Jan. ; con- 
valescent. - 16 Jan. 

Death of the due dc Montpensier, 4 Feb. ; buried 
in the Escurial 7 Feb. 

The duke of Seville, who had escaped from prison 
(sec above, 1886), pardoned by the queen regent, 

27 Feb. 

Strike of about 40,000 workmen in Barcelona and 
other parts of Catalonia, chiefly for reduction of 
tii it'labour 30 March, 

Barcelona placed under martial law ; the anarchists 
ami soeialists opposed by the people, 1 May et 
seq. ; tranquillity restored . . 5 May fl s«/. 

i: isignation of the Sagasta ministry . . 3 July, 

Sen. Canovas de Castillo forms a coalition ministry, 

5 July et seq. 

Strikes of workmen in Catalonia . 15 July et seq. 

Infanta Marie Teresa, first class belted cruiser 
launched at Bilbao by the queen regent 30 Aug. 

Choleraic disease in Valencia and other places, 
a bout 2,840 deaths . . . May— Sept. 

The Cortes dissolved 30 Dec. 

Death of sen. Alonzo Martinez, eminent statesman, 

14 Jan. 

Patrocinio, the "bleeding nun," who had been 
banished and returned 1875, lived in retirement, 
and died, aged 91 28 Jan. 



909 



SPAIN. 



Conservative majority at the general election— of 
the deputies 1 Feb., of the senate . . 15 Feb. 

The Cortes opened by the queen regent 2 March, 

Republican disturbances at Corunna, supported by 
the corporation ; its powers suspended, 8 Sept. ; 
affair settled 16 Sept. 

Violent storms, causing great floods, especially in 
the province of Toledo ; all the towns and villages 
on the banks of the Ainarguillo, especially Con- 
suegra, 30 miles S.E. of Toledo, inundated; 
deaths estimated at 2,000, n, 12 Sept. et seq. 
The queen regent sends immediate relief, and 
orders a national subscription . 13 Sept. et seq. 

Destructive storm at Valencia ; inundations at 
Almeria with loss of life ; grape harvest destroyed, 

15 Sept. 

Consuegra nearly destroyed, above 1,781 deaths ; 
the minister of public works visits the place ; 
large subscriptions for relief, 16 Sept. ; railway 
and telegraphic communications greatly sus- 
pended ; the staple crops in many places almost 
annihilated n Sept. et seq. 

Spanish inundation fund started in London 

about 14 Sept. 

Above 100,000 persons homeless through floods of 
the Amarguillo, Tagus, Guadalquivir, and other 
rivers ; palaces and country houses open to re- 
ceive sufferers, reported . . .18 Sept. 
See Railway accidents, 24 Sept. 1891 

Reported government financial difficulties ; the 
queen attends a meeting of the cabinet, 

about 14 Nov. 

Resignation of the ministry, 21 Nov. ; reconsti- 
tuted by sen. Canovas del Castillo . 22 Nov. 

Decree for new loan of 250,000,000 pesetas, at 4 per 
cent., 18 Dec. ; opened ... 28 Dec. 

Anarchist attack on Xeres suppressed with blood- 
shed, 9 Jan. ; 4 rioters sentenced to death, others 
to imprisonment, 4 Feb. ; executed . 10 Feb. 

Sir Henry Drummond Wolff succeeds sir Francis 
Clare Ford as British ambassador about 15 Jan. 

Rupture with France through the new commercial 
tariff 1 Feb. 

Anarchist disturbances at Barcelona ; evidence of 
plots at other places ; the military employed, 
about 10 Feb. ; 7 anarchists arrested at Reus, 
Catalonia 30 March, 

Alleged discovery of a plot to blow up the chamber 
of deputies, the palace, and other places ; Jean 
Marie Delboche, a Frenchman, and Manuel 
Ferriera, a Portuguese, arrested with documents, 
4 April ; 13 anarchists arrested at their club, 5 
April. Philip Munoz, an anarchist chief ar- 
rested, 10 April ; released . . 24 April, 

Explosions or attempts at Barcelona and other 
places, arrests made . . .16 April et seq. 

A commercial modus Vivendi with France signed 
by the queen 28 May, 



Sovereigns of Spain. 



411. 
415. 



451. 
452- 
466. 
483- 
506. 
511. 
53i- 
543- 
549- 
5.54- 
5 fi 7- 
568. 

586. 
601. 
603. 
610. 
612. 
621. 

631. 



GOTHIC SOVEREIGNS. 

Ataulfo ; murdered by his soldiers. 

Sigerico ; reigned a few days only. 

Valia, or Wallia. 

Theodoric I. ; killed in a battle, which he gained, 

against Attila. 
Thorismund, or Torrismund ; assassinated. 
Theodoric II. ; assassinated by 
Eurie, the first monarch of all Spain. 
AlaricII. ; killed in battle. 
Gesalric ; his bastard son. 
Amalric, or Amalaric : legitimate son of Alaric. 
Theudis, or Theodat ; assassinated by a madman. 
Theudisela, or Theodisele ; murdered. 
Agila ; taken prisoner, and put to death. 
Atanagildo. 
Liuva, or Levua I. 
Leuvigildo; assoeiated on the throne with Liuva. 

in 568 ; and sole king in 572. 
Recaredo I. 

Liuva II. ; assassinated. 
Vitericus; also murdered. 
Gundeniar. 

Sisibut, or Sisebuth, or Sisebert. 
Recaredo II. 
Suintila ; dethroned. 
Sisenando. 



SPAIN. 



910 SPAIN. 



636. Chintella. 

640. Tulga, or Tulca. 

642. Cindasuinto ; died in 652. 

649. Recesuinto ; associated ; in 653 became sole king. 

672. Vamba, or Wamba ; dethroned, and died in a 
monastery. 

680. Ervigius, or Ervigio. 

6S7. Egica, or Egiza. 

698. Vitiza, or Witiza, associated ; in 701 sole king. 

711. Eodrigo, or Roderic ; slain in battle. 
J Six independent Suevic kings reigned 409-469 ; and 
Two Vandalic kings : Gnnderie 409-425 ; his successor 
Genseric with his whole nation passed over to Africa.] 

Mahometan Spain. 

CORDOVA. 

'Emirs. The first, Abdelasis: the last, Yussuf-el-Tehri : 

A.D. 714-755. 

Kings. The first, Abderahman I. ; the last, Abu All; 
755-1238. 

GRANADA. 

Kings. The first, Mohammed I.; the last, Abdalla; 

1238-1492. 

Christian Spain. 

kings of asturias and leon. 

778. Pelagius, or Pelayo; overthrew the Moors, and 

checked their conquests. 
737. Favila; killed in hunting. 
739. Alfonso the Catholic. 
757. Froila; murdered his brother Samaran, in revenge 

for which he was murdered by his brother, and 

successor, 
768. Aurelius or Aurelio. 
774. Mauregato, the Usurper. 
788. Veremundo (Bermuda) I. 
791. Alfonso II., the Chaste. 
S42. Ramiro I. : he put 70,000 Saracens to the sword in 

one battle. Rabbe. 
•S50. Ordoiio II. 
866. Alfonso III., surnamed the Great; relinquished his 

crown to his son, 
910. Garcias. 
914. Ordoiio II. 
923. Froila II. 

925. Alfonso IV., the Monk; abdicated. 
930. Ramiro II., killed in battle. 
950. Ordoiio III. 

955. Ordono IV. 

956. Sancho I. , the Fat ; poisoned with an apple. 
967. Ramiro III. 

983. Veremundo II. (Bermuda), the Gouty. 
999. Alfonso V. ; killed in a siege. 
2027. Veremundo III. (Bermuda); killed. 

KINGS OF NAVARRE. 

Sancho Ifiigo. Count. 

Garcia I. , king. 

Sancho Garcias ; a renowned warrior. 

Garcias II., surnamed the Trembler. 

Sancho II., surnamed the Great (king of Castile 

through his wife). 
Garcias III. 
Sancho III. 

Sancho IV. , Ramirez, king of Aragon. 
Peter of Aragon. 
Alfonso I. , of Aragon. 
Garcias IV. , Ramirez. 
Sancho V. , surnamed the Wise. 
Sancho VI. , surnamed the Infirm. 
Theobald I. , count of Champagne. 
Theobald II. 
Henry Crassus. 

Joanna; married to Philip the Fair of France, 1285. 
Louis Rutin of France. 
John ; lived but a few days. 
Philip V. , the Long, of France. 
Charles I., the IV. of France. 
Joanna II., and Philip, count d'Evreux. 
Joanna alone. 
Charles II., or the Bad. 
Charles III., or the Noble. 
Blanche and her husband John II., afterwards king 

of Aragon. 
Eleanor. 

Francis Phoebus de Foix. 
Catherine and John d'Albret. 
Navarre conquered by Ferdinand the Catholic, and 

united with Castile. 



873- 
885. 
9°5- 
924. 
970. 

1035. 
1054. 
1076. 
1094. 
3104. 
i'34- 
1 1 50. 
1194. 
1234. 
1253- 
1270. 
1274. 
I3°5- 
1316. 

J322. 
J 328. 
1343- 
J349- 
1387. 
I42S- 

1479. 

1483. 

J5I2- 



1035- 
1065. 

1072. 
1 109. 
1 126. 
"57- 



1214. 
1217. 



1295. 
1312. 
i35°- 



1369. 

1379' 
1390. 
1406. 
1454 
M74 



KINGS OF LEON AND CASTILE. 

Ferdinand the Great. 

Sancho II., the Strong, son of Ferdinand ; Alfonso 
in Leon and Asturias, and Garcias in Galicia. 

Alfonso VI., the Valiant, king of Leon 

Uraca and Alfonso VII. 

Alfonso VII., Raymond. 

Sancho III. , surnamed the Beloved. 

Alfonso VIII., the Noble. 

[Leon is separated from Castile under Ferdi- 
nand II., 1157-88.] 

Alfonso IX., of Leon. 

Henry I. 

Ferdinand III., the Saint and the Holy. By him 
Leon and Castile were permanently united. 

Alfonso X., the Wise (the Alphonsine Tables were 
drawn up under his direction). 

Sancho IV. , the Great and the Brave. ' 

Ferdinand IV. 

Alfonso XL 

Peter the Cruel : deposed ; reinstated by Edward 
the Black Prince of England; slain by his 
natural brother and successor, 

Henry II. , the Gracious ; poisoned by a monk. 

John I. : lie united Biscay to Castile. 

Henry III., the Sickly. 

John II. , son of Henry. 

Henry IV. , the Impotent. 

Isabella, sister (had married Ferdinand of Aragon, 
18 Oct. 1469). 

1504. Joanna (daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella), and 
Philip I. of Austria. On her mother's death 
Joanna succeeded, jointly with her husband 
Philip ; but Philip dying in 1506, and Joanna 
becoming imbecile, her father Ferdinand con- 
tinued the reign ; and thus perpetuated the 
union of Castile with Aragon. 

KINGS OF ARAGON. 

1035. Ramiro I. 

1065. Sancho Ramirez (IV. of Navarre). 

1094. Peter of Navarre. 

1 104. Alfonso I., the Warrior, king of Navarre. 

1 134. Ramiro II. , the Monk. 

1 1 37. Petronilla, and Raymond, count of Barcelona. 

1 163. Alfonso II. 

1 196. Peter II. 

1213. James I. ; succeeded by his son, 

1276. Peter III. ; conquered Sicily (which sec) in 12S2. 

1285. Alfonso III., the Beneficent. 

1291. James II., surnamed the Just. 

1327. Alfonso IV. 

1336. Peter IV., the Ceremonious. 

1387. John I. 

1395. Martin. 

1410. [Interregnum.] 

14 1 2. Ferdinand the Just, king of Sicily. 

1416. Alfonso V., the Wise. 

145S. John II., king of Navarre, brother of Alfonso ; died 
1479. 

1479. Ferdinand II., the Catholic, the next heir; by 
marriage with Isabella of Castile (styled the 
Catholic kings), the kingdoms were united. 

SPAIN. 

1512. Ferdinand V. (of Castile), the Catholic ; having 
conquered Granada and Navarre, became king 
of all Spain. 

1516. Charles I., grandson, son of Joanna of Castile and 
Philip of Austria (emperor of Germany, as Charles 
V., in 1 5 19); resigned both crowns, and retired 
to a monastery. 

1556. Philip II., son, king of Naples and Sicily; a merci- 
less bigot ; married Mary, queen-regnant of 
England ; died covered with ulcers. 

1598. Philip III., son, drove the Moors from Granada 
and the adjacent provinces. 

1621. Philip IV, son : wars with the Dutch and French ; 
lost Portugal in 1640. 

1665. Charles II., son; last of the Austrian line; nomi- 
nated, by will, as his successor 

1700. Philip V., duke of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV. 
of France: hence arose the "war of the Succes- 
sion," terminated by the treaty of Utrecht in 
1713; resigned. 

1724. Louis I., son ; reigned only a few months. 
,, Philip V. again. 

1746. Ferdinand VI., the Wise, son ; liberal and beneficent. 



SPALATO. 



911 



SPARTA. 



1759. Charles III. , brother, king of the Two Sicilies, which 
he gave to his third son, Ferdinand. 

1788. Charles IV., son ; the influence of Godoy, prince of 
the Peace, reached to almost royal authority in 
this reign; Charles abdicated in favour of his 
son in 1808, and died in 1819. 

1808. Ferdinand VII., whom Napoleon of France also 
forced to resign. 
„ Joseph Bonaparte, brother of Napoleon ; forced to 
abdicate. 

1813. Ferdinand VII. restored ; married Maria Christina 
of Naples, 11 Dec. 1829; died 29 Sept. 1833; 
succeeded by 

1833. Isabella II., daughter (born, 10 Oct. 1830) ; declared 
of age, 8 Nov. 1843 ; married her cousin, Don 
Francis d'Assisi, 10 Oct. 1846 ; deposed 30 Sept. 
1868 : separated from her husband, March, 
1870; and abdicated, 25 June, 1870, in favour of 
her son, Alfonso, prince of Asturias (born, 
2S Nov. 1857). Visits queen Victoria at Windsor, 
20 May ; leaves England 29 May, 1890. 

1S70. Amndco I. (duke of Aosta, son of Victor-Emanuel IT. 
king of Italy); born, 30 May, 1845; married 
Maria Victoria of Pozzo della Cisterna, 30 May, 
1867 ; accepted the crown offered him by the 
cortes, 4 Dec. 1870; abdicated 11 Feb. 1873; 
died 18 Jan. 1890. 

Republic founded, n Feb. 1873. Very unsettled, 
1873-4- 

KINGS. 

1874. Alfonso XII. son of Isabella II. (born 28 Nov. 
1857); proclaimed 30 Dec. 1874; married 1st, 
his cousin Mercedes, daughter of the due de 
Montpensier (born 24 June, i860), 23 Jan. 1878 ; 
she died 26 June, 1878 ; 2nd, archduchess Maria 
Christina of Austria (born 21 July, 1858), 29 
Nov. 1S79. He died 25 Nov. 1885. 

1885. Maria Mercedes Isabella, born n Sept. 18S0 ; re- 

placed by her brothel". 

1886. Alphonso (Leon &c.) XIII., born 17 May. 

CARI.IST LEGITIMIST PRETENDERS. 

(See above 1833 et seq.) 
Carlos V., brother of Ferdinand VII., born 29 March, 

1788 ; died, 10 March, 1855. 
Carlos VI., his son (conde de Montemolin), died 14 Jan. 

1861. 
Carlos VII. (son of don Juan, brother of Carlos VI., 

who renounced his right, 8 Jan. 1863) ; bom, 

30 March, 1848 ; see above 1873-6. 

SPALATO (Dalmatia), the ancient Spalatuni, 
and Salona. At his palace here, Diocletian spent Lis 
last nine years, and died July, 313. It. Adam pub- 
lished the "Antiquities of Diocletian's Palace," 

1764. 

SPANISH AMERICA, ARMADA, &c, 

see America, Armada, and Eras. 

SPANISH EXHIBITION of Arts and In- 
dustries, Earl's Court, West Brompton, London, W., 
chairman, the duke of AVellington, a grandee of 
Spain. 
The exhibition, although unfinished, was informally 

opened with a fine display of pictures, 1 June, 1S89 
In July, 1889, it included representations of the 
Alhambra, Madrid market-place, cosmorama of a 
journey through Spain, a Spanish band and 
strolling players, &c, closed . . 31 Oct. 1889 

SPANISH. GRANDEES, the higher 

nobility, at one time almost equal to the kings of 
Castile and Aragon, and often setting their autho- 
rity at defiance, were restrained on the union of the 
crowns by the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella 
in 1474, who compelled several to relinquish the 
royal fortresses and domains which they held. 
Charles V. reduced the grandees to sixteen families 
(Mcdina-Sidonia, Albuquerque, &c), dividing them 
into three classes. 

SPANISH LANGUAGE (Lengua Castel- 
lana), is a dialect of Latin largely intermingled 



with Arabic, which was the legal language till the 
14th century. Spanish did not become general fill 
the 16th century. 



EMINENT SPANISH AITIIORS. 



Born 


Died 


iS°3 


1536 


1496 


1543 


1520 


1562 


r 474 


1566 


'533 


'595 


'547 


1616 


1536 


1623 


1565 


1625 


1561 


1627 




'634 


1568 


'635 


1570 


1647 


1.S8.S 


1648 


1601 


1682 


1610 


1686 


1 701 


1765 


1750 


1798 


1760 


1828 


1809 


1837 


1796 


1S73 


i8!S 




1830 





Garcilasso de la Vega . 

Boscan 

Jorge de Montemayor ... 
Las Casas 

Ercilla 

Cervantes (author of Don Quixote) . 

Mariana 

Herrera 

Gongora 

Alarcon y Mendoza 

Lope de Vega .... 

Quevedo ... 

Gabriel Tellez 

Calderon 

Solis ... 

Feyjos 

Yriarte 

Leandro F. Moratin . . . 
Jose de Larra .... 
Manuel Breton de los Herreros 

Jose Zorilla 

Antonio Canovas del Castillo . 

SPANISH REFORMED CHURCH, con- 
stituted at Gibraltar, 25 April, 1868. By permission 
of general Prim its missionaries entered Spain soon 
after the revolution, in Sept. following. 

SPANISH SUCCESSION and MAR- 
RIAGES, see Spam, 1700, and 10 Oct. 1846. 

SPARTA, the capital of Laconia (Greek, 
Laconica), or Larediemon, the most considerable 
republic of the Peloponnesus, and the rival of 
Athens. Though without walls, it resisted the 
attacks of its enemies by the valour of its citizens 
for eight centuries. Lclex is supposed to have 
been the first king. From Laccdamion the fourth 
king, and his wife Sparta, who are also spoken of 
as the founders of the city, it obtained names. 
The Lacedaemonians were a nation of soldiers, 
and cultivated neither the arts, sciences, commerce, 
nor agriculture. The early history is traditional. ' 
Sparta founded. Pausanias. . . . e c 1400 
Tyndarus marries Leda : Helen born . . 1-S8 

Helen stolen by Theseus, king of Athens, but re- 

covered by her brothers I22 8 

The princes of Greece demand Helen in marriage'; 

she makes choice of Menelaus of Mycenaj . ° .' 1216 
Paris, son of Priam, king of Troy, carries off Helen 1204 

The Trojan war x * 

After a war often years, and a disastrous voyage of 

nearly eight, Menelaus and Helen return to" Sparta 1176 
The kingdom seized by the Heracluhe . . .not 
Establishment of two kings, Eurysthenes and 

Prooles, by their father Aristodemus . . . I10o 
Rule of Lycurgus, who establishes the senate, ami 

enacts a code of laws. EuseUus. (Mythical) SS4-S,o 
Charilaus declares war against Polymncstor, kin" 

of Arcadia ■■..... ° 
Alcamenes, known by his apophthegms, make's war 

upon the Messenians .... 
Nicander succeeds his father, Charilaus; war with 

the Argives 

Theopompus introduces the Ephori, about ' . ! 
War declared against the Messeni ins, and Amphia 

taken 

The progeny of the Partheniai, the sons of Virgins ! 

Battle of Ithome ; Messenians beaten . 

Ithome taken; the Messenians become vassals to 

Sparta, and the war of nineteen years ends . 
Conspiracy of the Parthenke with the Helots to 

take Sparta 

Tlie Partheniaj colonise Tarentum . . . ) 
The Messenians revolt, and league with Elis, Argos] 

and Arcadia, against the Lacedaemonians, [this 

war lasted fourteen years.] ..... 
f'aniian festivals instituted 



848 

S13 



743 
733 



707 
706 



C75 



SPARTACUS'S INSURRECTION. 912 



SPECIAL CONSTABLES. 



The Messenian's settle in Sicily 669 

War with the Argives, and celebrated battle be- 
tween 300 select heroes of each nation . . . 547 

"War with Athens 505 

The Spartans resist the king of Persia . . . 491 

The states of Greece unite against the Persians . 482 
Leonida s, at the head of 300 Spartans, withstands 
the Persian arms at the defile of Thermopylae (see 

Thermopylae) 480 

Persians defeated by Pausanias, king of Sparta, at 

Platsea 479 

He is put to death for treason ; the Grecian armies 

choose an Athenian general 472 

An earthquake at Sparta destroys 30,000 persons ; 

rebellion of the Helots 466 

Sparta .joins Macedon against Athens . . . . 454 

Beginning of the Peloponnesus war . . . 431 

Plataea taken by the Spartans 428 

The Spartans, under Agis, enter Attica, and lay 

■waste the country 426 

Agis (king 427) gains a great victory over the Argives 

and the Mantinaeans 418 

The Lacedaemonian fleet, under Mindarus, defeated 

at Oyzicum, and Mindarus slain . . . . 410 
The Spartans, defeated by land and at sea, sue for 

peace, which is denied by the Athenians . . 409 

Reign of Pausanias 408 

The Athenians defeated at iEgospotami by Lysander 405 

Athens taken by him ; end of Peloponnesian war . 404 

Agesilaus (king 398) enters Lydia . . . . 396 
The Athenians, Thebans, Argives, and Corinthians 
enter into a league against the Spartans, which 

begins the Corinthian war 395 

Agesilaus defeats the allies at Coronea . . . 394 
The Lacedaemonian fleet, under Lysander, defeated 
by Conon, the Athenian commander, near Cnidos; 

Lysander killed in an engagement . „ 

Peace of Antaleidas 387 

The Thebans drive the Spartans from Cadmea . 378 
The Spartans lose the dominion of the seas ; their 

fleet totally destroyed by Timotheus . . . 376 
The Spartans defeated at Leuctra . . . . 371 
Epamiuondas, heading 50,000 Thebans, appears be- 
fore Sparta 369 

Battle of Mantinea ; the Thebans victors 27 June, 362 

Philip of Macedon- overcomes Sparta . . . . 344 

Pyrrhus defeated before Sparta .... 294 

Agis IV. endeavours to revive laws of Lycurgus . 244 

Leonidas II. vacates the throne, and flies . . . 243 

Recalled : becomes sole sovereign ; Agis killed . 241 

Reign of Cleomenes III. the son of Leonidas . . 236 

He re-establishes most of the laws of Lycurgus . 225 

Antigonus defeats Cleomenes, and enters Sparta . 222 

Cleomenes retires to Egypt „ 

The Spartans murder the Ephori . . . . 221 
Machanidas ascends the throne, and abolishes the 

Ephori 210 

He is defeated and slain by Philopcemen, praetor of 

the Achaean league 207 

Cruel government of Nabis ,, 

The Romans besiege Sparta ; Nabis sues for peace 197 

The iEtolians seize Sparta : Nabis assassinated . 192 

The laws of Lycurgus abolished .... 188 
Sparta, under the protection or rather subjugation 

of Rome, retains its authority for a short time . 147 

Taken by Alarie a.d. 396 

Taken by Mahomet II 1460 

Burnt by Sigismund Malatesta .... 1463 
Rebuilt at Misitra ; it is now called Sparta, and is 

part of the kingdom of Greece. 
Ancient buildings discovered here during excava- 
tions by Dr. Waldstein . . . March, 1892 

SPARTACUS'S INSURRECTION .(or 
Servile War). Spartacus was a noble Thracian, 
who served in an auxiliary corps of the Roman 
army. Having deserted and been apprehended, he 
was "red need to slavery and made a gladiator. With 
some companions he made his escape, collected a 
body of slaves and gladiators, 73 B.C. ; ravaged 
southern Italy ; and defeated the Roman forces 
under the consuls sent against him. Knowing the 
impossibility of successfully resisting the republic, 
he endeavoured to conduct his forces into Sicily, 
but was defeated and slain by Crassus, 71 15. c. 



"SPASMODIC SCHOOL" of poetry, a 
name sarcastically given to Alex. Smith, Sydney 
Dobell (died in Aug. 1874), Gerald Massey, and 
others (precursors of Morris, Algernon Swinburne, 
and Eossetti, sarcastically termed the " fleshly 
school"), ridiculed by professor Aytovm in his- 
" Firmilian," published 1854. 

SPEAKERS of the House op Commons. 

Peter de Montford, afterwards killed at the battle 
of Evesham, was the first speaker, 45 lien. III., 
1260 ; Sir Thos. Hungerford is said to have 
been the first named " Speaker," 1372 ; but 
sir Peter de la Mare is supposed to have been the 
first regular speaker, 50 £dw. III., 1376. The 
king refused his assent to the choice of sir 
Edward Seymour, as speaker, 6 March, 1678 ; and 
serjeant William Gregory w r as chosen in his room. 
Sir John Trevor was expelled the chair and the 
house for taking a gratuity after the act for the 
benefit of orphans had passed, 12 March, 1694-5 > a 
deputy speaker was appointed Aug. 1853. 

RECENT SPEAKERS. 

1789. Henry Addington (aft. viscount Sidmouth), 5 June 

1801. Sir John Mitford (aft. baron Redesdale), 15 Feb. 

1802. Charles Abbot (aft. lord Colchester), 10 Feb. 
1817. Charles Manners Sutton (afterwards viscount Can- 
terbury), 2 June. 

1835. James Abercromby (afterwards baron Dunferm- 
line), 19 Feb. 
1839. Charles Shaw Lefevre (afterwards viscount Evers- 

ley), 27 May. 
1857. John Evelyn Denison, 30 April (afterwards viscount 

Ossington). 
1872. Sir Henry Wm.Bouverie Brand (afterwards viscount 

Hampden), 9 Feb. -25 Feb. 1884. 
1884. Arthur Wellesley Peel, 26 Feb. ; re-elected, 1892. 
The Speaker, a weekly liberal (Gladstonian) newspaper, 
edited by Mr. T. Wemyss Reid, first appeared, 4 Jan. 
1890. 

SPEAKER'S COMMENTARY, a name 

given to an edition of the Bible with a revised text 
and a commentary by several bishops and other 
theologians edited by F. C. Cook. The under- 
taking originated, it is said, chiefly with Mr. John 
Evelyn Denison, speaker of the house of commons, 
with the view of opposing the interpretations of Dr. 
Colenso, and was announced in Nov. 1863. The 
publication, begun in 1871, was completed in 1881- 
The Apocrypha published in 1888. 

SPEAKING-TRUMPET, used by ships at 
sea. One is said to have been used by Alexander, 
335 B.C. One was constructed from Kircher's de- 
scription by Saland, 1652 ; philosophically explained 
and brought into notice by Morland, 1670. 

SPECIAL COMMISSION ACT, passed 13 
Aug. 1888. A commission constituted to try 
certain charges and allegations against certain 
members of parliament. See Parnellites and 
Ireland, 1888. 

SPECIAL CONSTABLES are sworn in for 
the preservation of the public peace when disturb- 
ances are feared. The laws relative to their ap- 
pointment were amended in 1831 and 1835. Louis 
Napoleon, afterwards emperor, aided as a special con- 
stable in London, 10 April, 1848 ; see Chartists, and 
London, Dec. 1867. Instructions for their organisa- 
tion were issued, 13 Jan. 1868. On 28 Jan. 52,974 
in the metropolis, and 113,674 in the United King- 
dom, had been sworn in. Their services were not 
required, and they w r ere honourably dismissed by ais 
order issued 31 March, 1868. 
Special constables were sworn in in relation to the 

disturbances in Trafalgar Square (see Riots) 17 Nov. 

ct seq. ; 1,500 held Trafalgar Square, Sunday, 20 Nov. 

1887 ; served till 18 Jan. 1S88, and thanked.' 



SPECIES. 



913 



SPINNING. 



SPECIES. - Much controversy among natural - 
ists arose in consequence of the publication, in 1859, 
of Mr. Charles Darwin's " Origin of Species," in 
which he suggests that all the various species of 
animals were not created at one time, but have 
been gradually developed by what he terms ' ' natural 
selection," and the struggle for life in which the 
strong overcome the weak. 

' This preservation of favourable individual differences 
and variations, and the destruction of those which are 
injurious, I have called natural selection, or the sur- 
vival of the fittest." — Darwin. 

The idea was put forth by Lamarck in his "Philosophic 
Zooloaique," 1809. Similar views appear in the 
" Vestiges of Creation," 1844. Mr. Darwin says, that 
he infers " from analogy that probably all the 
organic beings which have ever lived on the earth 
have descended from some one primordial form, into 
which life was first breathed hy the Creator." See 
Development and Evolution. 

Charles Darwin was born 12 Feb. 1809 ; and died 19 
April, 1882. 

Statue of Darwin by J. E. Boelim, paid for by universal 
subscription, received at the British Museum of 
Natural History by the prince of Wales, and uncovered 
by professor Huxley, 9 June, 1885. 

His Life and Letters edited by his son Francis Darwin, 
published Nov. 1887. 

Professor G. J. Romanes' elaborate work, "Darwin and 
after Darwin," was published in 1892. 

SPECIFIC GEAVITIES. See under 

Weights. 

SPECTACLES, unknown to the ancients, are 
generally supposed to have been invented by Alex- 
ander de Spina, a monk of Florence, in Italy, about 
1285. According to Dr. Plott, they were invented 
by Boger Bacon, about 1280. Manni attributes 
them to Salvino, who died 13 1 7. On his tomb at 
Florence is the inscription, " Qui giace Salvino 
degli Armati, inventore degli occhiali : Dio gli per- 
doni le peccata" (" Here lies Salvino degli Armati, 
inventor of spectacles : May God pardon his sins"). 

SPECTATOE. The first number of this peri- 
odical appeared on 1 March, 171 1; the last was 
No. 635, 20 Dec. 1714. The papers by Addison have 
one of the letters c l 1 at the end. The most of 
the other papers are by sir Eichard Steele, a few by 
Hughes, Budgell, Eusden, Miss Shephard, and 
others. — The Spectator newspaper (philosophical, 
whig), begun 5 July, 1828. 

SPECTEUM, the term given to the image of 
the sun or any other luminous body formed on a 
wall or screen, by a beam of light received through 
a small hole or slit, and refracted by a prism. The 
colours thus produced are red, orange, yellow, green, 
blue, indigo, and violet. The phenomena were first 
explained by Newton, whose "Optics" was pub- 
lished in 1704. Several of these colours are con- 
sidered to be compounds of three primary ones : by 
.Mayer (1775), red, yellow, and blue ;— by Dr. Thos. ! 
Young (1801), red, green, and violet; — by Prof, j 
Clerk Maxwell (i860), red, green, and blue. As 
the colour of a flame varies according to the sub- 
stance producing it or introduced into it, so the 
spectrum varies. This led to the invention of a 
method of chemical analysis by professors Bunsen 
and Kirchhoff (i860), by which they discovered 
two new metals, and drew conclusions as to 
the nature of the atmosphere of the sun and stars, 
and of the light of the nebula;, by comparing the 
spectrum with that produced by flames into which 
iron, sodium, and other substances have been intro- 
duced. For the invisible rays of the spectrum, see 
Calorcscencc, Fluorescence, and Bolometer. 
Fraunhofer's Lines. In 1802 Dr. Wollaston observed 

several dark lines in the solar spectrum ; in 1815 Joseph 



Fraunhofer not only observed them, bui constructed a 
map of them, giving 590 lines or dark bands. By the 

researches of Brewster and others the number observed 
is now above 2000. 

Mr. Fox Talbot observed the orange line of strontium in 
the spectrum in 1826; and sir David Brewster ob- 
served other lines, 1S33-42-3. In 1862-3 Mr. William 
Huggins analysed the light of the fixed stars and of 
the nebulse ; and in 1865 Dr. Bence Jones, by means of 
spectrum analyses, detected the presence of minute 
quantities of metals in the living body, introduced only 
a few minutes previously. 

A spectroscopic society iu Italy published a journal early 
in 1872. 

H. Schellen's " Spectralanalyse " published 1870; new 
edition 1883. 

SirH. Roscoe's "Spectrum Analysis" published 1867-85. 

Lecoq de Boisbaudran's " Spectres Lumineux" . 1874 

Oxygen detected in the solar spectrum by Mr. 
Draper ^77 

The experiments of professor Dewar and others have 
shown that the spectra of various gases are affected by 
temperature and pressure 1888-9. 

SPECULATIVE SOCIETY, Edinburgh 
(which had included among its members David 
Hume), celebrated its hundredth anniversary on 
14 Oct. 1863 ; see Fhilosophij . 

" SPELLING-BEES," meetings to test the 
proficiency in correct spelling ; introduced into 
London from the United States of America ; the 
first at Hollo way, London, N., in the autumn of 
1875. Geographical, musical, and other bees 
followed, and all soon ceased. 

SPELLING EEFOEM. A resolution in 
favour of it was adopted by the London School Board, 
in 1877 ; a conference and public meeting were held 
at the Society of Arts, 29 May, 1877. 
A Spelling Reform Association formed ; Dr. Temple, 
bishop of Exeter, Robert Lowe, E. B. Tylor, and 
Max Midler were among the members, 1879 ; 
another association formed in the United States ; 
professor F. A. March, president, . . . iS3 7 

Mr. T. B. Sprague's article on a Marriage and Mor- 
tality Table, in the Journal of the Institute of 
Actuaries, is printed according to phonetic spelling 

July, 1879 
SPHEEES.. The celestial and terrestrial 
spheres and sun-dials are said to have been in- 
vented by Anaximander, 552 B.C. ; and the armil- 
lary sphere by Eratosthenes, about 225 B.C. The 
planetarium was constructed by Archimedes before 
212 B.C. Pythagoras maintained that the motions 
of the twelve spheres must produce delightful 
sounds, inaudible to mortals, which he called the 
music of the spheres. 

SPHYGMOGEAPH (from the Greek, sphyg- 
mos, a pulsation), an instrument for investigating 
disease, by showing the state of the pulse, invented 
by M. E. J. Marey, of Faris, and described by him 
in 1863. 

SPICES. Imported into Great Britain: cinna- 
mon and other spices, exclusive of pepper ; 184O, 
1,910,584 lbs. ; 1856, 4.154,167 lbs. ; 1807, 
I2",83i,953 lbs.; 1877, 17,186,572 lbs.; 1879, 
19,340,817 lbs.; 1883, 24, ^44>.S()5 lbs.; 1887, 
23>7»3>96o lbs. ; 1890, 23,508,4^3 Lbs. 

SPICHEEEN, sec Saarbruck. 

SPINET, a clavichord or keyed instrument, 
used, in the 17th century, a modification of the 
virginals, which sec. Bull, Gibbous, Purcell, and 
especially Uomcnico Scarlatti composed for this 
instrument. 

SPINNING was ascribed by the ancients to 
Minerva, the goddess id' wisdom. Areas, king of 
Arcadia, taught his subjerts the ail abuit 1500 H.c. 
Tradition reports that Lucretia with her maids was 

3 N 



SPIRES. 



914 SPONTANEOUS GENERATION. 



found spinning, when her husband Collatinus paid 
a visit to her from the camp, that the wife of Tar- 
quin was an excellent spinner, and that a garment 
made by her, worn by Servius Tullius, was pre- 
served m the temple of Fortune. Till 1767, the 
spinning of cotton was performed by the hand 
spinning-wheel, when Hargreaves, an ingenious 
mechanic, near Blackburn, made a spinning jenny, 
with eight spindles, and also erected the first card- 
ing machine, with cylinders. Arkwright's machine 
for spinning by water was an extension of the prin- 
ciple of Hargreaves ; but he also applied a large 
and small roller to expand the thread, for which he 
took out a patent in 1769. At first he worked his 
machinery by horses ; but in 177 1 he built a mill 
on the stream of the Derwent, at Cromford. In 
1774-9, Crompton invented the mule {which see). 

SPIRES (in Bavaria). The emperors held 
many diets at Spires since 1 309, and it was the seat 
of the imperial chamber till 1689, when the city 
was burned by the French, and not rebuilt till after 
the peace of Byswick, in 1697. The diet to con- 
demn the reformers was held at Spires, called there 
by the emperor Charles V. 1529 ; see Protestants. 

SPIRIT-LEVEL. The invention is ascribed 
to J. Melchisedec Thevenot, who died 1692. 

SPIRIT-MOTOR, Mr. Yarrow explained to 
the Institute of Naval Architects his method of em- 
ploying vaporised spirit instead of steam in the 
propulsion of steam launches thus dispensing with 
the use of a boiler, &c, March, 1888. Petroleum 
is used as fuel. 

SPIRITS, see Distillation. In all nations 

spirituous liquors have been considered as a proper 

subject of heavy taxation for the support of the 

state ; see Alcohol, Brandy, Bum, Methylated 

Spirits, &c. 

In 1840 England made about ten millions of gallons of 
spirits, Scotland about seven millions of gallons, and 
Ireland about nine millions of gallons. 

In 1851 the number of gallons on which duty was paid 
for home consumption was 23,976,596. The total 
amount paid was 6,017,2182., of which 3,758,186?. were 
paid by England, 1,252,297?. by Scotland, and 1,006,735?. 
by Ireland. 

The total duty on home consumption paid in 1853 was 
6,760,422?. 

In 1858, 9,195,154?. were paid as duty on 27,370,934 
gallons. 

In 1855, methylated spirits of wine, for use in the arts and 
sciences, were made duty free. 

In 1859, 2 7>657,72i gallons of spirits were distilled in the 
United Kingdom. The uniform duty of 8s. per gallon 
was paid on 24,254,403 gallons for home consumption, 
producing 9,701,764?. In the year 1865-6 the tax pro- 
duced about 13,955,000?., being the largest sum then ever 
raised by indirect taxation. In 1871-2, 16,798,344?. 
(customs and excise) ; in 1875-6, 21,295,663? ; in 1877-8, 
20,675,928?. ; in 1883-4, 18,435,957?. > m 1887-8, 
1 7>3 I2 !55°^ 1 m 1888-9, 17,175,797?. ; in 1889-90, 
18,531,277?. ; in 1890-1, 19,263,541?. 

In 1861 an act was passed repealing wholly or in part 
26 previous acts, and embodying all regulations for the 
guidance of manufacturers and dealers in spirits. 

In 1870, about 89,000,000?. spent in spirits; 58,000,000?. 
by working classes. 

Proof spirits distilled in the United Kingdom in 1873, 
36,479,648 gallons (England, 9,531,058 ; Scotland, 
16,421,701; Ireland, 10,526,889); in 1874, 35,352,232 
gallons ; duty paid, 10s. a gallon. 

Exported from the United Kingdom : 1876, 1,308,456 
gallons; 1880, 2,060,193; 1885, 2,760,041; 1889, 
3,431,320; 1890, 3,658,658. 

Additional duty of 6c?. per gallon on spirits imposed, 17 
April, 1890. 

SPIRITS ACT (43 & 44 Vict. c. 24), passed 
26 Aug. 1880, consolidated and amended the law 
relating to the manufacture and sale of spirits. 



SPIRITUALISM or SPIRIT-RAPPING. 

Spiritual manifestations (so called) began, it is said, 
in America about 1848, and attracted attention in 
this country about 1851, in the shape of rapping, 
table-turning, &c. Many inquisitive or credulous 
persons visited Mr. Daniel Dunglas Hume or Home 
and Mr. Forster, noted "spiritual mediums." Mr. 
Home, secretary of the Spiritual Athenaeum, Sloane- 
street, Chelsea, published, in 1863, "Incidents of 
my Life," in which he states that the only benefit 
he derived from the "gift" was the convincing 
many unbelievers of the certaintj- of a life to come ; 
the Trials, April, May, 1868. The "Spiritual 
Magazine" began Jan. i860; the "Spiritualist," 
9 Nov. 1869. The London Dialectical society pub- 
lished a report on spiritualism in Nov. 1871. Mr. 
AY. Crookes, in 1871, investigated the phenomena, 
and ascribed them to "psychic force" ("Quarterly 
Journal of Science," July and Oct. 1871). Miss 
Kate Fox, said to be the earliest American medium 
(about 1852) was married to Mr. H. D. Jencken, in 
London, Dec. 1872. 
The impostures of the Davenport brothers exposed in 

1865. 
In 1874 Messrs. Maskelyne and Cooke, and Dr. Lynn, 
exhibited tricks by which they said they demonstrated 
the imposture of spiritualism. 
Spiritualism discussed by a section of the British Asso- 
ciation at Glasgow (supported by Messrs. Wm. Crookes, 
A. Russel Wallace, and other eminent men), without 
result, 12 Sept. 1876. 
20 spiritualist journals publishing, 1876. 
Dr. Henry Slade, a medium, and Geoffrey Simmons, his 
assistant, charged at Bow-street by prof. E. Kay Lan- 
kester and others, with "unlawfully using certain 
subtle and crafty means and devices to deceive"; 
dealt with under Vagrant Act ; 2, 10, 20 Oct. ; Sim- 
mons discharged, Slade sentenced to 3 months' im- 
prisonment with hard labour, 31 Oct. 1876; appeal 
to sessions ; sentence quashed for a technical error, 
29 Jan. 1877. 
Win. Lawrence sentenced to 3 months' imprisonment for 
receiving money as a "medium," 16 Jan. 1877. 
See Trials, 1881. 

SPITALFIELDS (East London), so named 
from the priory of St. Mary Spittle, dissolved 1534. 
Here the French protestant refugees settled and 
established the silk manufacture in 1685. In con- 
sequence of commercial changes the weavers en- 
dured much distress about 1829. 

SPITHEAD, a roadstead near the Spit, a sand- 
bank between Portsmouth and the Isle of Wight. 
See Naval Reviews, under Navy of England. 

SPITZBERGrEN, an archipelago in the 
Arctic ocean, discovered in 1553 by sir Hugh AYil- 
loughby, who called it Greenland, supposing it to 
be a part of the western continent. In 1595 it was 
visited by Barents and Cornelius, two Dutchmen, 
who pretended to be the original discoverers, and 
called it Spitzbergen, or sharp mountains, from the 
many sharp pointed and rocky mountains with 
which it abounds ; see Bhipps. 
A scientific expedition to Spitzbergen organized by 
Herr Stanglin of Stuttgart, left Bremen about 29 
July ; returned 26 Aug. 189T 

SPITZCAP, see Majuba. 

SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION of the 

human body, declared by most chemists to be im- 
possible, although many cases have been recorded. 
The case of the countess of Gorlitz, 1847, disproved 
by confession of her murderer, March, 1850. 

SPONTANEOUS GENERATION. The 

origin of the germs of infusorial animalcules deve- 
loped during putrefaction, &c, has been warmly 
debated by naturalists. Spallanzani (about 1766), 
and especially M. Pasteur and others assert that these 



SPORTING NEWSPAPERS. 



915 



STAMP-DUTIES. 



germs are really endowed with organic life existing in 
the atmosphere. Needham (about 1747), and espe- 
cially M. Pouchet and his friends in our day, assert 
that these germs are spontaneously formed out of 
organic molecules. — Pouchet's "Heterogenic" ap- 
peared in 1859. Bastian's "Beginnings of Life," 
1872. The researches of professor Tyndall, supporting 
Pasteur, and opposing Bastian, were published 
1876-8. 

"Spontaneous generation" (also termed generatio cequi- 

1 voca and epigenesis), lias been still further disproved 

by the laborious microscopic investigations of the Rev. 

W. H. Dallinger, 1875-S. He found germs to stand a 

much greater heat than perfect organisms. 

. SPORTING NEWSPAPERS : Bell's Life 
in London, began 1820 ; Sporting Life, 16 March, 
18159 ; Sporting Gazette, 1862 ; Sporting Times, 
1865 ; Sportsman, Aug. 1865 ; The Field, 1853 ; 
Illustrated Sporting and Dramatic News, 1874 ; 
Keferee, 1877. 

SPORTS. The first " Book of Sports," under 
the title of " The King's Majestie's Declaration to 
his Subjects concerning Lawful Sports to be used" 
on Sundays after evening prayers, was published by 
king James I., 24 May, 1618. The second "Book 
of Sports,' ' with a ratification by his majesty Charles 
I., is dated 18 Oct. 1633. On the publication of the 
first "Book of Sports," there arose a long and 
violent controversy among English divines on certain 
points ; see Sabbatarians, Sunday, &c. — The book 
was ordered to be burnt by the hangman, and the 
sports were suppressed by the parliament. The 
sportsman's annual exhibition, at the Agricultural 
Hall, London, began in 1882. 

SPOTTSYLVANIA (Virginia), see United 
States, May, 1864. 

SPRINGFIELD (Missouri), near which was 
fought the desperate battle of Wilson's Creek, in 
which the federals had the advantage over the con- 
federates, but lost their brave general, Nathaniel 
Lyon, 10 Aug. i86r. 

SPURS. Anciently the difference between the 
knight and esquire was, that the knight wore gilt 
spurs (eques auratics), and the esquire silver ones. 
Two sorts of spurs seem to have been in use at the 
time of the Conquest, one called a pryck, having 
only a single point, the other a number of points of 
considerable size. Spurs nearly of the present kind 
eame into use about 1400 ; see Plating. 

SPURS, BATTLE OF. Henry VIII. of Eng- 
land, the emperor Maximilian, and the Swiss, in 
1513, entered into an offensive alliance against 
France. Henry VIII. landed at Calais in the 
month of July, and soon formed an army of 30,000 
men. He was joined by the emperor with a good 
corps of horse and some foot, the emperor as a mer- 
cenary to the king of England, who allowed him a 
hundred ducats a day for his table ! They invested 
Teroiienne with an army of 50,000 men ; and the 
due de Longueville, marching to its relief, was 
signally defeated on the 16th of August, at Guine- 
gate. This battle was called the battle of Spurs, 
because the French used their spurs more than they 
did their swords. The English king laid siege to 
Tournay, which submitted in a few days. Henault. 
See Courtrai, for another "battle of spurs." 

S. S., sec Collar. 

STABAT MATER, a Latin hymn, by Jaco- 
pone, 14th century, sung during Passion week in 
Catholic churches. Rossini's music to this hymn 
(1842) is often performed. 



STADE DUES. At a castle near the town of 
Stade, in Hanover, certain dues on goods were 
charged by the Hanoverian government. The 
British government settled these dues in 1844. 
They were resisted by the Americans in 1855, 
and were abolished in June, 1861. Great Britain 
paid i6o,OOo£. as her share of the compensation 
(3,000,000?.). 

STADTHOLDER, see Holland. 

.STAFF COLLEGE (Sandhurst), for pro- 
viding an education to qualify military officers for 
the duties of the staff. The foundation stone was 
laid by the duke of Cambridge on 14 Dec. 1859. 

STAFFORD, Staffordshire, a Saxon town. A 
castle was erected here by Ethelfleda, countess of 
Mercia, 913. A charter was granted by king John, 
1207, and the grammar-school was rebuilt and en- 
dowed by Edward VI., 1550. Population, 1881, 
19,977 ; 1891, 20,270. 

STAGE COACHES, so called from the stages 
or inns at which the coaches stopped to refresh 
and change horses. Bailey. The stage-coach duty 
act passed in 1785. These coaches were made sub- 
ject to salutary provisions for the safety of passen- 
gers, in 1810; to mileage duties, 1815. The acts 
were consolidated in 1832, and amended in 1833 and 
1842. See Mail Coaches, &c. 

STAGYRITE, properly Stagirite, see Aris- 
totelian. 

STAMFORD BRIDGE (York). In 1066 
Tostig, brother of Harold II., rebelled against his 
brother, and joined the invading army of Harold 
Hardrada, king of Norway. They defeated the 
northern earls and took York, but were defeated at 
Stamford-bridge by Harold, 25 Sept., and were both 
slain. The loss by this victory no doubt led to his 
defeat at Hastings, 14 Oct. following. The claim of 
Mr. "William Grey for the earldom of Stamford, 
was granted by the house of Lords, 3 May, 1892. 

STAMP-DUTIES. By 22 & 23 Charles II 
(1670-1) duties were imposed on certain legal docu- 
ments. In 1694 a duty was imposed upon paper, 
vellum, and parchment. The stamp-duty on news- 
papers was commenced in 1711, and every year 
added to the list of articles upon which stamp-duty 
was made payable. 
Stamp act, which led to the American war, passed 

22 March, 1765 ; repealed in 1766 

Stamp duties in Ireland commenced . . . . 1774 
Stamps on notes and bills of exchange in . . 1782 

The stamp-duties produced in England, in 1800, a 

revenue of 3,126,535?. 
Many alterations made in 1853 and 1857. I' 1 June, 
1855, the stamp-duty on newspapers as such was 
totally abolished ; the stamp on them being hence- 
forth for postal purposes. 
In July and Aug. 1854, 19, 115,000 newspaper stamps 
were issued ; in the same months, 1855, only 
6,870,000. 
Drafts on bankers to he stamped . . . . 1858 

Additional stamp duties were enacted in i860 (on 
leases, bills of exchange, dock warrants, extracts 
from registers of births, &c.) ; in 1861 (on leases, 
licences to house-agents, <fec.). 
Stamp-duties reduced in 1864, 1865. 
All fees payable in the superior courts of law, after 
31 Dec. 1865, are to be collected by stamps, by an 
act passed in June, 1865. Also in Public Record 

office 1868 

144,623,014 inland revenue penny stamps sold, be- 
sides other stamps 1869 

By the Stamp acts, 10 Aug. 1870, newspaper stamps 

were abolished after . . . . 1 Oct. 1870 
New stamp duties imposed ; eame into effect 1 Jan., \%t\ 
id. receipt and postage stamps used for each other 

after 1 June, ^8^». 

3k? 



STAND AED. 



916 



STAECH. 



Stamp-duties imposed on foreign or colonial share 

certificates, bonds, &c. by Customs Act, 1888. 
A new consolidating act relating to stamps passed, 

21 July 18 



AMOUNT OP STAMP DUTIES RECEIVED IN THE 
UNITED KINGDOM. 
. £6,726,817 



£12,348,175 
. 11,691,025 
. 11,681,431 



1845 . . . 7,7io,oS3 

1850 . . . 6,558,332 

1855 . . 6,805,605 

i860 (to 31 Mar.) 8,040,091 1886 . . . 11,600,614 

1865 . . . 9,542,645 1887 . . . 11,780,333 

1870 . . . 9,288,553 1888 . . . 13,056,950 

1876 . . 11,023,374 1889 . . . 12,270,000 

1880 . . . 11,306,914 1890 . . . 13,060,000 

i83i . . 11,933,114 1891 . . . 13,460,000 
* Fee and patent stamps now omitted. 

STAND AED for gold and silver in England 
fixed by law, 1300. Standard gold is 22 parts out 
■of 24 of pure gold, the other two parts or carats 
being silver or copper. The standard of silver is 
II oz. 2 dwts. of fine silver alloyed with 18 dwts. of 
copper, or 37 parts out of 40 pure silver, and three 
parts copper. In 1300 these 12 oz. of silver were 
coined into 20 shillings ; in 1412 they were coined 
into 30 shillings; and in 1527 into 45 shillings. In 
1545 Henry VIII. coined oz. of silver and 6 oz. of 
alloy into 48 shillings ; and the next year he coined 
4 oz. of silver and 8 oz. of alloy into the same sum. 
Elizabeth, in 1560, restored the old standard in 
60 shillings; and in 1601 in 62 shillings. The 
average proportions of silver to gold at the royal 
mint are 153 to 1. The standard of plate and silver 
manufactures was affirmed, 6 Geo. I. 1719 et seq.; 
see Gold, Goldsmiths, Silver, Coinage, and Currency. 

STAND AED, BATTLE OF THE, see North- 
allerton. 

STANDAED MEASUEES. In the reign 
of Edgar a law was made to prevent frauds arising 
from the diversity of measures, and for the esta- 
blishment of a legal standard measure to be used 
in every part of his dominions. The standard 
vessels made by order of the king were deposited in 
the city of Winchester, and hence originated the 
well-known term of " Winchester measure" of the 
time of Henry VII. (1487). The bushel so made 
is still preserved in the museum of that city. 
Henry I. also, to prevent frauds in the measure- 
ment of cloth, ordered a standard yard of the length 
of his own arm to be made and deposited at Win- 
chester, with the standard measures of king Edgar. 
The Guildhall contains the standard measures of 
succeeding sovereigns. Camden. — The standard 
weights and measures were settled by parliament 
in 1824. The pound troy was to be 5760 grains, 
and the pound avoirdupois 7000 grains. The 
"Standard yard of 1760," in the custody of the 
cleric of the house of commons, was declared to be 
the Imperial Standard yard and the unit of mea- 
sures of extension. This standard having been 
destroyed by the fire in 1834, a new commission 
was appointed to reconstruct it, and researches for 
this purpose, in conformity with the act, which 
directed the comparison of the standard with a 
pendulum vibrating seconds of time in the latitude 
of London, were begun by Francis Baily (died in 
1844), continued by the rev. R. Sheepshanks till 
his death m 1855, and completed by G. B. Airy, 
astronomer royal. In 1855 was passed " an act for 
legalising and preserving the lost standards of 
weights and measures." The parliamentary copies 
of the standard pound and yard are deposited at 
the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. The standard 
weights and measures act was passed Aug. 1866. 
The Standard Commission published reports, 1866 
■ft seq. 



The old standard yard and other measures and weights, 
supposed to have been burnt at the fire of the parlia- 
ment houses in 1834, were discovered by Mr. Bull's 
agents in the Journal Office, where they had been 
deposited and left unnoticed, July, 1891. The rud 
standards of the reign of Henry VII. and Elizabeth 
are still in existence. 

"STANDAED," conservative newspaper; 
begun, morning, 1827; evening, 29 June, 1857. 

STAND AEDS, see Banners, Flags, &c. The 
practice in the army of using a cross on standards 
and shields is due to the asserted miraculous appear- 
ance of a cross to Constantine, previously to his 
battle with Maxentius ; Eusebius says that he re- 
ceived this statement from the emperor himself, 
312. The standard was named Labarum. For 
the celebrated French standard, see Auriflamme. — 
Standard of Mahomet ; on this ensign no infidel 
dared look. Christians have been massacred by the 
Turkish populace for looking on it. — The British 
Imperial Standard was first hoisted on the Tower 
of London, and on Bedford Tower, Dublin, and 
displayed by the Foot Guards, on the union of the 
kingdoms, 1 Jan. 1801. 

STANFOED COUET, Worcestershire, the 
ancient mansion of sir Francis Winnington, burnt 
5-7 Deo. 1882 ; valuable portraits, books, MSS. 
&c, destroyed. 

STANHOPE ADMINISTEATION was 

formed by James (afterwards earl) Stanhope and 
the earl of Sunderlaud, 15 April, 1717. Stanhope 
was premier and chancellor of the exchequer; lord 
(afterwards earl) Cowper, lord chancellor; earl of 
Sunderland and Joseph Addison, secretaries of 
state, &c. In March, 17 18, Addison resigned, and 
the earl of Sunderland became premier. 

STANHOPE DEMONSTEATOE, see 

Logic. 

STANLEY, and Apkioan Exhibition. 

Patrons, queen Victoria and the king of the Bel- 
gians; Mr. Joseph Thomson, the traveller, chief 
superintendent, opened at Victoria Gallery, Regent 
street, 24 March ; closed 8 Nov. 1890. 
The exhibition included pictures and portraits, African 
weapons, historical maps, and many interesting ob- 
jects collected by Livingstone, Grant, Speke, John- 
stone, and other travellers. 
Stanley Fund. Mr. Stanley's wish that the surplus 
of the receipts from the exhibition should form a fund 
for placing a steamer on the lake Victoria Nyanza 
(17 May), agreed to at a meeting at the Mansion 
house, 5 June ; 50Z. given by the q een, 16 July ; 
2,300?. received Oct. 1890. 

STANNAEY COUETS of Devon and Corn- 
wall for the administration of justice among the 
tin miners, whose privileges were confirmed by 
33 Edw. I. 1305. They were regulated by parlia- 
ment in 1641, and at many times since. A " Stan- 
neries act" was passed in 1869; another act in 1887. 

STAPLE (literally that which is fixed). The 
chief English staple commodities which were traded 
in by privileged merchants, and on which customs 
were levied, were avooI, skins, leather tin, lead 
and sometimes cloth, butter, and cheese ; certain 
towns were appointed for the collection of the 
duties ; statutes relating to the staple were passed 
by Edward III., Richard II., and Henry VI. 
Edward III. 's "ordinacio stapularum " (ordinance 
of the staple) was enacted in 1353. 

STAECH is a sediment produced at the bottom 
of vessels wherein wheat has been steeped in water : 
it is soft and friable, easily broken into powder, 
and is used to stiffen and "clear linen, with blue; 
its powder is employed to powder the hair. The art 



STAE-CHAMBEE. 



917 



STATUES. 



of starching linen was brought into England by Mrs. 
Dinghein, a Flemish woman, r Mary, 1553. Stotv. 
Patents for obtaining starch from other substances 
have been taken out : from potatoes by Samuel 
Newton and others in 1707 ; from the horse-chest- 
nut by Win. Murray in 1796; from rice by Thomas 
Wickhani in 1823 ; from various matters by Orlando 
Jones in 1839-40. 
STAE-CHAMBEE, Court of. So called 

haply from its roof being garnished with stars. Coke. 
This court of justice was called Star-Chamber, not 
from the stars on its roof (which were obliterated 
even before the reign of queen Elizabeth), but from 
the Starra, or Jewish covenants, deposited there by 
order of Richard I. No star was allowed to be 
valid except found in those repositories, and here 
they remained till- the banishment of the Jews by 
Edward I. ■ The court was instituted or revived, 
3 Hen. VII. i486, -for trials by a committee of the 
privy council, which was in violation of Magna 
Charta ; as it dealt with civil and criminal causes 
unfettered by the rules of law. In Charles I.'s 
reign it exercised its power upon several bold inno- 
vators, who gloried in their sufferings, and con- 
tributed to render government odious and con- 
temptible. It was abolished in 1640. There were 
in this court from 26 to 42 judges, the lord chan- 
cellor having the casting voice. The judicial com- 
mittee of the privy council is the Star-chamber 
l'evived under another name. 

STAE OF -INDIA, a new order of knight- 
hood for India, instituted by letters patent 23 Feb., 
gazetted 25 June, 1861, and enlarged in 1866. It 
comprised the sovereign, the grand master, 25 
knights (Europeans and natives), and extra or 
honorary knights, such as the prince consort, the 
prince of Wales, &c. The queen invested several 
knights on 1 Nov. 1861. The prince of Wales held 
a grand chapter at Calcutta, 1 Jan. 1876. 

STAES, THE FIXED. They were classed 
into constellations {which see), it is supposed, 
about 1200 B.C. Hicetas, of Syracuse, taught 
that the sun and the stars were motionless, 
and that the earth moved round them, about 
344 B.C. (this is mentioned by Cicero, and per- 
haps gave the first hint of this system to Coper- 
nicus). Job, Hesiod, and Homer mention several 
of the constellations. The Royal Library at Paris 
contains a Chinese chart of the heavens, made 
about 600 B.C., in which 1460 stars are correctly 
inserted. The aberration of the stars was discovered 
by Dr. Bradley, 1727; see Astronomy, and Solar 
System. Maps of the stars were published by the 
Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge in 
1839, and a set of Celestial Maps, issued under the 
superintendence of the Royal Prussian Academy, 
was completed in 1859. See Photometer. 
A list of about 200 stars, which vary in their bright- 
ness and sometimes disappear, has been published 
by Mr. G. F. Chambers in his " Handbook on 
Astronomy," 1889-90. A variable star, named 
a Ceti, or Mira Ceti, observed by David Fabricius 
in Aug. 1596, disappeared in Oct. following. It 
was observed again in 1603 and 1638, and since. 
Bessel discovered the annual parallax of star 
61 Cygni (hence he calculated its distance from 
the earth to be about 60 billions of miles) 12 Feb. 1841 
Struve made it 40 billions [supported by Briinnow 

and R. 8. Ball] 1853 

The calculations of T. Henderson (at the Cape) 1832 
supported byD. Gill and others showed that pro- 
bably a Centauri, is the star nearest to the earth 1883-4 
A new star in Auriga in the Milky Way was dis- 
covered at Greenwich, by telescope, 1 Feb. 1892. 
It had been photographed by prof. Pickering, 1, 
10, 20 Dec. 1891. It has been named Nova Auriga-. 
Its brilliancy diminished, May ; revived Aug. 1892 



STAEVATION : Deaths attributed to it in 
the metropolitan districts, 1873, 107; 1875, 46; 
1879, 80; 1888, 29. In London, 1889, 27. In 
England and Wales : 1887, 250 ; 1888, 237. See 
Abstinence. 

STATE MEDICINE, see under Sanitation, 
2 May, 1888. 

STATE PAPEE OFFICE was founded in 
1578, now merged into the Public Record Office. 
In 1856 the British government began the publica- 
tion of Calendars of State Papers, invaluable to 
future historians. 

STATES-GENEEAL of FEANCE. An 

ancient assembly of France, first met, it is said, in 
1302 to consider the exactions of the pope. Pre- 
vious to the Revolution, it had not met since 1614. 
The states consisted of three orders, the clergy, 
nobility, and commons. They were convened by 
Louis XVI., and assembled at Versailles, 5 May, 
1789 (308 ecclesiastics, 285 nobles, and 621 deputies 
or tiers e'tat, third estate). A contest arose whether 
the three orders should make three distinct houses, 
or but one assembly. The commons insisted upon 
the latter, and assuming the title of the National 
Assembly, declared that they were competent to 
proceed to business, without the concurrence of the 
two other orders, if they refused to join them. 
The nobility and clergy found it expedient to con- 
cede the point, and they all met in one hall ; see 
National Assembly.- Centenary, see France, 5 
May, 1889. 

STATES OF THE CHUECH, see Tope, and 
Rome. 

STATIONEES. Books and papers were 
formerly sold only at stalls ; hence the dealers were 
called stationers. The company of stationers of 
London is of great antiquity, and existed long 
before printing was invented, yet it was not in- 
corporated until 3 Philip & Mary, 1557. Their old 
dwelling was in Paternoster-row. 

STATISTICS, the science of the state, political 
knowledge, is said to have been founded by sir 
Wm. Petty, who died in 1687. The term is said to 
have been invented by professor Achemvall of 
Gottingen in 1749. The first statistical society in 
England was formed at Manchester in 1833 ; the 
Royal Statistical Society of London, which pub- 
lishes a quarterly journal, was established 15 March, 
1834, for the purpose of procuring, arranging, and 
publishing " facts calculated to illustrate the condi- 
tion and prospects of society." Jubilee kept, 22, 
23, 24 June, 1885 ; incorporated, 1887. Similar 
societies have been established on the continent. 
International Statistical Institute constituted in 
1885, met at Rome, 12-16 April, 1887. International 
Statistical Congresses are now held occasionally. 
The 1st at Brussels, cliicfly through the agency of 
M. Quetelet, in 1853; 2nd at Paris, 1855; 3rd at 
Vienna, 1857 ; 4th at London, under the presidency 
of the prince consort, 16-21 July, i860; 5th at 
Berlin ; 6th at Florence ; 7th at the Hague ; 
8th at St. Petersburg, was opened 22 Aug. 1872 ; 
9th at Pesth, 31 Aug. 1876 and since; one at 
Vienna 28 Sept. 1891. The eminent statistician. 
Dr. Wm. Farr, died 14 April, 1883. Statistical 
Abstracts have been published annually by the 
government for many years. Mr. M. G. Mulhall 8 
" Dictionary of Statistics" published 1891. 

STATUES, see Sculpture, &c. Two statues of 
Barneses II. and one of his queen (aboul 13:2 B.C.), 
10 feet high, discovered at Aboukir by Danmos 
Pasha, Oct. 1891. Phidias, whose statue of 



STATUES. 



918 



STEAM ENGINE. 



Jupiter passed for one of the wonders of the world, 
was the greatest statuary among the ancients, 
440 B.C. He had previously made a statue of 
Minerva at the request of Pericles, which was 
placed in the Parthenon. It was made of ivory 
and gold, and measured 39 feet in height. Acilius 
raised a golden statue to his father, the first that 
appeared in Italy. Lysippus invented the art of 
taking likenesses in plaster moulds, from which he 
afterwards cast models in wax, 326 B.C. Michael 
Angelo was the greatest artist among the modems. 
The first equestrian statue erected in Great Britain 
was that of Charles I. in 1678.* By 17 & 18 Vict. 
c. 10 (10 July, 1854), public statues were placed 
under the control and protection of the Board of 
Works. The following are the chief public statues 
in London: — 

Achilles, Hyde-park, in honour of the duke of Wel- 
lington, by the ladies of Great Britain 18 June, 1822 
Albert, prince consort, Royal Exchange, 1850 ; Hor- 
ticultural Society gardens, 1863; Hofborn circus, 1873 
Anne, queen, St. Paul's Churchyard, 1712 ; replaced, 1886 

Barry, sir Charles, Westminster 1865 

Bedford, duke of, Russell-square .... 1809 
Bentinck, lord George, Cavendish-square . after 1848 
Burns t, Thames embankment . . 26 July, 1884 
Byron, lord, Hamilton-place, Hyde-park, 24 May, 1880 
Canning, Geo., New Palace-yard, Westminster . . 1832 
Carlyle, Thos., embankment, Chelsea . Oct. 1882 
Cartwright, major, Burton-crescent . . . .1831 

Charles I. , Charing-cross 1678 

Charles II., Soho-squaie t *** 

Clyde, lord, Waterloo-place 1868 

Cobden, Richard, Camden-town . . June, 1868 
Cumberland, duke of, Cavendish-square . . . 1770 
Derby, Edward, earl of, Parliament-square . . 1874 
Disraeli, Benj., lord Beaconsfield, Parliament- 
square 19 April, 1883 

Elizabeth, queen, St. Dunstan's, Fleet-street . . 1586 
Faraday, Michael, Royal Institution . ... 1876 
Forster,',W. E. , Victoria embankment . 1 Aug. 1890 
Fox, Charles James, Bloomsbury-square . . . 1816 
Franklin, sir John, Waterloo-place , . . . 1866 

George I. , Grosvenor-square 1726 

George III. , Somerset-house 1788 

George III. , Cockspur-street 1836 

Gordon, gen. C. G., Trafalgar-square . 25 Sept. 1888 
Havelock, sir Henry, Trafalgar-square . . . 1861 
Herbert, lord, Pall Mall .... 3 June, 1867 
Hill, Rowland, Royal Exchange .... 1882 
Howard, John ; first erected in St. Paul's . . . 1796 

James II., Whitehall 1687 

Jenner, Edward, Trafalgar-square, 1858 ; removed 

to Kensington-gardens 1864 

Lawrence, lord, Waterloo-place (a new statue since) 

April, 1885 
Macgregor, sir James, Chelsea hospital . . . 1868 
Mill, John Stuart, Thames Embankment, 26 Jan. 1872 
Myddelton, sir Hugh, Islingcon-green . . . . 1862 
Napier, gen. sir Chas. J., Trafalgar-square . . 1856 
Napier of Magdala, lord, Waterloo-place, uncovered 

8 July, 1 89 1 
Nelson, lord, Trafalgar-square, by E. H. Baily [the 
lions at the base, designed by sir E. Landseer, 

were uncovered 31 Jan. 1867] 1843 

Outram, sir James, Thames embankment 17 Aug. 1871 
Palmerston, viscount, Parliament-street . 29 Jan. 1876 
Peabody, George, Royal Exchange .... 1869 
Peel, sir Robert, Cheapside, 1855 ; near Westminster 
abbey, 1868 ; Parliament-square . . ... 1877 

Pitt, William, Hanover-square 1831 

Prince of Wales, Temple-bar site 1880 



* This statue is of brass, cast by Le Sueur, in 1633, 
at the expense of the Howard-Arundel family. During 
the civil war, the parliament sold it to John River, a 
brazier, in Holborn, with strict orders to break it to 
pieces ; but he concealed it underground till the Restora- 
tion, when it was erected, in 1678, on a pedestal executed 
by Grinling Gibbons. The first equestrian statue of 
bronze, founded at one cast, was that of Louis XIV. of 
France, 1699 ; it was elevated about 1724. 

t By sir John Steell, the gift of Mr. John Gordon 
Crawford 



Queen Victoria, Royal Exchange, 1845 ; Temple-bar 

site 1880 

Raikes, Robert, Thames embankment . 3 July, ,, 
Richard Cosur de Lion, near Westminster abbey . i860 
Shakespeare, &c, Leicester-square .... 1874 
Stephenson, Robert, Euston-road, near L. & N. W. 

station 1871 

Tyndale, Wm., Thames embankment . . . 1884 

Wellington, duke of, Royal Exchange . . . 1844 
Wellington, duke of, arch, Hyde-park-corner, 1846 ; 
equestrian statue, height 27 feet, weight 40 tons, 
chiefly gun metal (cannon taken by the duke) 
designed by Matthew Cotes Wyatt, set up 1 Oct. 
1846; taken down, 24 Jan., 1883; set up at 

Aldershot camp 1848 

Wellington, duke of, new equestrian statue with 
figures of four Waterloo soldiers at the base, by 
sir J. E. Boehm, facing Hyde Park Corner, set up 
13 Nov. ; unveiled by the prince of Wales 21 Dec. 1888 
AVilliam III. , St. James's-square .... 1717 
William IV., King William-street . . . . 1845 
York, duke of, Waterloo-place 1834 

STATUTES, see Acts of Parliament, Clarendon, 
Merton, &c. Statute Law Bevision acts were passed 
in 1863-1892. The subject was referred to a joint 
committee of both houses, 14 March, 1892. Statute 
Law Bevision and Civil Procedure act, 44 & 45 Vict, 
c. 59, passed 27 Aug. 1881. "Statutes: Revised 
Edition: (1325-1878)," in 18 volumes, published 
1870-85. The number of volumes since greatly re- 
duced. Select commons' committee on the subject,, 
met 17 July, 1891. 

STATUTORY DECLARATIONS. Bys& 
6 "Will. IV. c. 62 (1835), persons objecting to oaths are- 
permitted to make declarations before magistrates, 

judges, &c; commencing: "I , do solemnly 

and sincerely declare that" — an indulgence some- 
times abused. 

Mr. Alexander Chaffers having made a declaration 
against the character of Lady Twiss, wife of sir 
Travers Twiss, was prosecuted for libel. She with- 
drew during the examination, and the prosecution 
ceased : but Chaffers was severely censured by the 
magistrate, and by the attorney -general in parlia- 
ment March, 1872- 

STEAM CARRIAGE (for ordinary roads), 
invented by the earl of Caithness, was said to be 
successful in i860. It travels over rough roads at 
the rate of 8 miles an hour, at a cost of less than \d, 
per mile. His lordship made a journey of 140 miles 
in two days ; see Road Steamers. 

STEAM ENGINE* and NAVIGATION. 

Hero of Alexandria, in his " Pneumatics," describes 
various methods of employing steam as a power ; 
and to him is ascribed the JEolopile, which, although 
a toy, possesses the properties of the steam-engine : 
he flourished about 284-241 B.C. Boger Bacon ap- 
pears to have foreseen the application of steam- 
power ; see Railivays, Locomotives, Poad Steamers, 
See. 

Solomon de Caus, a French protestant, publishes a 
work which Arago on insufficientgrounds considers 
to have contained the germs of the steam-engine . 1615 
The marquis of Worcester describes his steam-engine 
in his " Century of Inventions " . . . . 1663 

Papin's digester invented 1681-2 

Captain Savery's engine constructed for raising 

water 1698 

Papin's engine exhibited to the Royal Society about 1699 
[He is said to have made a steamboat which was 

destroyed by boatmen of the Weser. ] 
Thomas Newcomen, of Dartmouth, is stated to have 
constructed "the first self-acting steam-engine ; " 
(used for nearly a century without alteration or 

amendment) 1712 

[He died in London while endeavouring to obtain 
a patent, 1729.] 

* " The best known mechanical arrangement for con- 
verting heat into work." A. Sigg, 1878. 



STEAM ENGINE. 



919 



STEAM ENGINE. 



First idea of steam navigation, set forth in a patent 
obtained by Jonathan Hulls 1736 

Watt's invention of performing condensation in a 
separate vessel from the cylinder .... 1765 

His first patent, 1769 ; his engines erected in manu- 
factories, and his patent renewed by parliament . 1775 

Thomas Paine proposes steam navigation in America 1778 

Engines made to give a rotary motion . . . . ,, 

Watt's expansion engine ,, 

Double-action engines proposed by Dr. Falck on 
Newcomen's principle 1779 

Watt's double engine and his first patent for it . 1781 

Hornblower's double-cylinder engine . . . . ,, 

Claude ■ comte de Jouffroy constructed an engine 
which propelled a boat (pyroscaphe) on the Saone. 1783 

Win. Patrick Miller patented paddle-wheels . . 1787 

[He and Mr. Symington are said to have constructed 
a small steamboat which travelled at about 4 miles 
an hour soon after.] 

W. Symington made a passage on the Forth and 
Clyde canal 1790 

First steam-engine erected in Dublin by Henry 
Jackson 1791 

First experiment with steam navigation on the 
Thames 1801 

Trevethick's high-pressure engine . . . . ,, 

Woolfs double -cylinder expansion engine con- 
structed 1804 

Manufactories warmed by steam 1806 

Fulton's steamboat Clermont on the Seine, 9 Aug. 
1803 ; at New York, 1806 ; started a steamboat 
on the river Hudson, America 1807 

Steam power to convey coals on a railway employed 
by Blenkinsop 1811 

Comet, built by Henry Bell, sailed on the Clyde 
[John Bobertson, who made the engine, died 
20 Nov. 1868, aged 86] . . . 18 Jan. 1812 

[The Comet sailed from Glasgow to Greenock three 
times a week ; fares, 3s. and 4s. ; speed, -]\ miles 
an hour.] 

Steam applied to printing in the Times office (see 
Printing machines) 1814 

There were five steam-vessels in Scotland (Pari. Re- 
turns) „ 

First steam- vessel on the Thames, brought by Mr. 
Dodd from Glasgow 181 5 

First steamer built in England (Pari. Returns) . . ,, 

Rising Sun, a steamer built by lord Cochrane, 
crossed the Atlantic i3i8 

The Savannah, aided by steam, of 350 tons, came 
from New York to Liverpool in 26 days 15 July, 1819 

First steamer in Ireland 1820 

Steamboats established between Dover and Calais 
and London and Leith 1821 

Steam-gun, invented by Perkins .... 1824 

Steam-jet applied by George Stephenson, 1814 ; by 
Timothy Hackworth, about 1825 

Captain Johnson obtained 10,000?. for making the 
first steam voyage to India, in the Enterprise, 
which sailed from Falmouth . . 16 Aug. ,, 

The locomotive steam-carriages on railways at Liver- 
pool Oct. 1829 

The railway opened (see Liverpool) .... 1830 

The Royal William, steamship, built at Quebec by 
Mr. James Grondie in 1830-1, said to have crossed 
the Atlantic in 21 days 1833 

Capt. Ericsson's screw steamer, " Francis Bogden," 
speed 10 miles an hour, constructed : see Screw- 
Propeller 1837 

The Sirius sailed from Queenstown 4 April ; 
arrived at New York ... 21 April, 1838 

The Great Western sails from Bristol to New York, 
being her first voyage . . . 8-23 April, ,, 

War-steamers built in England ,, 

War-steamers built at Birkenhead, named the Ne- 
mesis and Phlegethon, carrying each two thirty-two 
pounders, sent by government to China . . 1840 

Hall's method of economising fuel introduced about ,, 

The first Cunard steamer, the Britannia, sailed * 

4 July, ,, 
[Sir Sam. Cunard died 28 April, 1865, aged 78.] 

* Since then many great steamers have been wrecked 
or burnt : viz., Governor Fenner, 19 Feb., 1841 ; Presi- 
dent, March, 1841 ; Ocean Monarch, Aug. 1848 ; St. 
George, 24 Dec. 1852 ; George Canning, 1 Jan. 1855 ; 
Pacific, 1856 ; Austria, 13 Sept., 1858 ; Indian, 21 Nov., 
1859; Hungarian, Feb., i860; Anglo-Saxon, 27 April, 



The Peninsular Company was formed in 1837 ; be- 
came the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Naviga- 
tion Company in ... . . 1840 
[They possessed 53 steamers and a fleet of tugs, 
Dec. 1866.] 
The Great Britain sailed from the Mersey 26 July, 1845 
[She arrived at New York 10 Aug. During her 
second voyage, she ran aground in Duudrum 
bay, Ireland, 22 Sept. 1846. Her passengers 
were landed ; and she was extricated with 
little injury, after long-continued and strenu- 
ous efforts, by I. Brunei, jun. and Bremner, 
27 Aug. 1847.] 

The Collins steamers began 1850 

In/man Company : began by Wm. Inman, first vessel 
City of Glasgow, 1850 ; the company became the 
Liverpool, New York, and Philadelphia company, 
1857 • (-'My °f Richmond, sailed from Liverpool 
6 p.m. 15 July, arrived at New York 12.30 p.m. 

24 July, 1875. (Apparent time 7 days, 19 hours, 45 
minutes; average 365 miles a day, isknotsanhour.) 

The Pacific crosses the Atlantic in 9 days, 19 hours, 

25 minutes, arriving at Holyhead . 20 May, 1851 
Manchester Steam- Users Association established about 1855 
Steam packets leave Galway for America . . . 1853 
The merits of an attacking vessel termed a steam- 
ram, advocated by sir G. Sartorius, discussed 1859-60 

Giffard's valuable steam-injector invented about 1859 

An iron-plated frigate, La Gloire, completed in 
France (see Navy, French) i860 

The Warrior, an iron-plated vessel, launched 29 Dec. ,, 

The Far East, a vessel with two screws, launched at 
MUlwall 31 Oct. 1863 

A cigar ship, a steam yacht, designed by Mr. Winan, 
built by Hepworth, launched on the Thames 

19 Feb. 1866 

Trial trip of the Nautilus, with a hydraulic propeller 
worked by steam, Ruthven's patent ; no paddle or 
screw required 24 March, ,, 

Successful trial trip of the Water-witch, a govern- 
ment hydraulic propeller iron-clad gun-vessel 
(Ruthven's patent), on the Thames . 19 Oct. ,, 

Mr. Ruthven patented his system in 1849, an d exhibited 
his machinery at the International Exhibition in 1851. 
His object is to increase speed and save fuel. In the 
Water-witch a steam-engine gives the power of absorb- 
ing and expelling the water, and no screw or paddle is 
required. The water-wheel is 14^ feet in diameter. 

Trial trip of H.M. gun-boat Thistle; explosion of 
boiler, 8 killed 3 Nov. 1869 

Channel Steamers : " Twin-ship " Castalia, steamer (two 
hulls, separated by 26 feet), 290 feet long ; invented by 
capt. W. T. Dicey, for the English Channel steam com- 
pany, to prevent sea-sickness when crossing the 
Channel ; (really a single ship, with the middle part of 
her bottom raised out of the water throughout her 
whole length) ; launched, 2 June ; tried in calm wea- 
ther ; reported successful but slow, 2 Aug, 1875 ; suc- 
cessful, June, 1876 ; sold Nov. 1876. 

Bessemer, saloon steamer, designed by Mr. Bessemer and 
E. J. Reed ; built by the Earles company ; launched 
at Hull, 24 Sept. 1874; first voyage from Hull to 
Gravesend, 5 March, 1875 ; sailed to Calais, 10 April, 1875. 
[Success doubtful, 1876.] Modified by Mr. E. J. Reed ; 
trial near Hull, reported successful, 26 March, 1877. 

Express, twin steamer ; built by A. Leslie, of Newcastle : 
sailed from the Tyne'to Coquet Island, 22J miles, 
in ih. 22m., reported satisfactory, 13 March, 1878. 

Folkestone, twin steamer, launched at Hull, 23 March, 187S. 

Pizarro, steamer (the first built of Siemens-Martin steel ; 
340 feet long by 40 feet broad, 3400 tons, launched at 
Napier's yard, Govan, near Glasgow, 5 Aug. 1879. 

Livadia, a turhot-shaped steam yacht (broad and flat), 
built by Elder & Co. of Glasgow for the czar of Russia, 
launched on the Clyde, 7 July, 1880. 

Faraday, steam-ship (for laying electric cables, 
360 feet long, 52 feet wide, 36 feet deep, 5000 tons 
register ; to carry 6000 tons dead weight) ; next 
in size to Great Eastern ; built for Messrs. 
Siemens by Messrs. Mitchell, at Newcastle ; 
launched (much employed, 1881 el scq.), 17 Feb. 
1874 ; she laid cables from Nova Scotia to New 
York Dec. i83.> 

Orient, steamer, built by Elders of Glasgow, for 

1863; City of Boston, Feb., 1870; Germania, 21 Dee. 
1872; Atlantic, April, 1873; VilU de Havre, 22 No\.. 
1873 ; Cashmere, 5 July, 1S77 ; Elen, 15 July, 1877, &c. 



STEAM .ENGINE. 



920 



STEAM-PLOUGHS. 



Australian traffic ; length, 460 feet ; breadth, 
46 feet ; depth, 37^ feet ; sailed from Greenock 
to West India Dock, London . . 10-12 Sept. 1S79 

Servia, Cunard royal mail steamer, 530 feet long, 
52 feet broad, 44 feet depth ; gross tonnage, 8500 
tons ; s decks and promenade ; next in size to 
Great Eastern ; launched in the Clyde, 1 March, 1881 

Servia, sailed from America to Liverpool (by long 
route) in 7 days, 8 hours, 15 min. quickest 
passage hitherto made ... 26 Jan. 1882 

City of Rome, mail steamer, length 586 feet, breadth 
52 feet, left the Clyde ... 28 Sept. 1881 

Alaska, Guion mail steamer crossed the Atlantic, 
6 days, 22 hours ... 31 May-6 June, 1882 

The Guion steamer Arizona, left Queenstown at 
2.10 p.m. Sept. 11, and reached Sandy Hook at 
6.20 p.m. on the 18O1, which, including the dif- 
ference in time, 4 hours, 22 min., makes the 
passage 7 days, 8 hours, 12 min. On the return 
passage she made the voyage in 7 days, 7 hours, 
48 min. 

The Guion steamer Alaslca arrived at Sandy Hook on 
Sunday, in 7 days, 17 min. . . 31 July, „ 

Black Star Line of steamers between Grimsby and 
America 11882 

Victoria, steamer (jubilee of the P. and O. company), 
built by Messrs. Caird & Co. ; length 465 feet, 
breadth 52 feet, depth 37 feet; sailed from 
Greenock to Southampton ... 16 July, 1887 

Mr. Thomas Lishman's steam generator said to 
economize fuel without producing smoke, em- 
ployed at Elswick Works, Newcastle, and other 
places 

Arcadia (P. and O. steamer), arrived at Albert 
Docks 3:8 May, 1888 

Etruria, Cunard line, sailed from Roches Point, Cork, 
to New York in 6 days, 1 hr., 47 minutes 2 June, „ 

Parisian, boat of the Allan line, said to have 
crossed the Atlantic from land to land in 4 days, 
17 hours and 10 minutes .... Aug. 

City of New York, length 560 feet, breadth 63} feet, 
first voyage across Atlantic . . .1 Am;. ,, 

Said to have crossed from New York to Queenstown 
in 5 days, 23 hours, and 14 minutes . 17-23 Sept. 1890 
See Navy, and Shipping. 

LARGE STEAM VESSELS OF ENGLAND. 

Long. Broad. 

Great Western 236 feet 35 feet 

Duke of Wellington . . . . 240 feet 60 feet 

British Queen 275 feet 61 feet 

Great Britain 322 feet 51 feet 

Himalaya 370 feet 43 feet 

Persia 3 qo feet 45 feet 

Servia S3 o f ee t 52 feet 

Great Eastern, for a short time 

(1857-8) called Leviathan . . 692 feet 83 feet 

Horse Power: — Paddles, 1000 ; screw, 1600 : 

Weight of ship, 12,000 tons ; ordinary light 

draught, 12,000 tons ; said to have cost 732,000? 

She was designed by Mr. I. K. Brunei [who died 15 Sept'. 

1859], and built by Messrs. Scott Russell and Co., at 

Millwall ; launching lasted from 3 Nov. 1857, to 31 Jan 

185S. 

The capital subscribed having been all expended, a new 

company was formed to fit her for sea. 
On 7 Sept. 1859, sne left her moorings at Deptford for 
Portland-roads. On the voyage an explosion took place 
(off Hastings), through some neglect in regard to the 
casing of one of the funnels, when ten firemen were 
killed and many persons seriously injured. After re- 
pairs she sailed to Holyhead, arriving there 10 Oct • 
she endured the storm of 25-26 Oct. well ; and pro- 
ceeded to Southampton for the winter, 4 Nov. 
She was fitted up to convey 5000 persons from London 
to Australia, a distance of 22,500 miles, with accom- 
modation for 800 1st class passengers, 2000 2nd class, and 
1200 3rd class. Her able captain (Harrison) 'was 
drowned in the Solent 22 Jan. i860, deeply regretted 
She sailed for New York 17 June, under command of 
captain Vine Hall, and arrived there 28 June. After 
being exhibited she left New York 16 Aug. and returned 
to England 26 Aug. 
Owing to a lawsuit in April, the ship came into the hands 
of sheriff's officers ; but was released and sailed for New 
York on 1 May, 1861. On 12 Sept. she suffered much 
loss through a violent gale. 
In 1862 she performed several voyages to and from New 



York ; but in Aug. ran on a rock near Long Island and 
injured her bottom. 

She was repaired and arrived at Liverpool 17 Jan. 1863, 
and sailed to New York (16-27 May). 

She was bought by Glass, Elliot, and Co. in March or 
April, 1864, and was chartered to convey the Atlantic 
telegraph cable ; sailed from Sheerness 15 July : and 
returned 19 Aug. 1865 ; see under Electric Telegraph. 

She sailed for New York, prepared for 2000 passengers, 

26 March, and returned with 191. She was seized by 
the seamen, claiming their wages, May, 1867 ; and the 
case was carried into Chancery in July. 

At the meeting of the shareholders 10 Feb. 1868, no divi- 
dend was declared. 

She conveyed the French Atlantic telegraph cable, 
successfully laid Oct. 1869 

Arrived at Bombay with Bombay and Suez cable, 

27 Feb. ; returned to Sheerness . . June, 1870 
Sailed with the fourth Atlantic telegraph cable 

8 June ; which was completely laid . 3 July, 1873 
Sailed with the fifth Atlantic telegraph cable : 

laid Aug., Sept. 1874 

Put up for sale at 30,000?. ; not bought 19 Oct. 1881 

[John Scott Russell died, aged 74] . 8 June, 1882 
Proposed to be employed as a coal hulk in Gibraltar 

Bay April, 1884 

Sold by auction to Mr. Frederick de Mattos for 

26,200?. for the London traders (limited) 28 Oct. 1S85 
The ship reported in good condition . 20 April, 1886 

Sold to Mr. Worsley for 26,000? ,, 

In the Mersey .... 12 May-12 Oct. ,, 
Largely visited ; drink licence refused . April, 1887 
Sold to Mr. Craik for 21,000?. . . 20 Oct. ,, 

In the Clyde, sold to Messrs. Henry Bath, metal 

brokers, for 16,500?. .... Dec. ,, 

Messrs. Henry Bath and Sons cause the vessel to 

be moved to the Mersey, where she is beached 

25 Aug. 1888 
Total receipts of the sale at Liverpool 58,000?. 

24 Nov. ,, 

STEAM GUN ; suggested by Wm. Murdoch, 
1803. One patented by Messrs. Perkins, in 1824, 
was ineffectual. 
In Oct. 1870, Mr. H. Bessemer proposed the application 

of steam power to artillery. 

STEAM HAMMEE, invented by Mr. James 
Nasmyth in 1838, and patented by him 18 June, 
1842. Its main feature is the absolutely direct 
manner by which the elastic power of steam is 
employed to lift up and let fall the mass of iron 
constituting the hammer, which is attached direct 
to the end of a piston-rod passing through the 
bottom of an inverted steam cylinder placed imme- 
diately over the anvil. 

In 1842, Mr. Nasmyth applied his steam-hammer to 
driving piles, which has importantly assisted in the 
execution of great public works. Owing to its vast 
range of power, forged iron-work can now by its means 
be executed on a scale, and for a variety of purposes, 
with an ease and perfection not previously possible. 
Parts of gigantic marine steam-engines, anchors, and 
Armstrong guns, as well as the most minute details of 
machinery, as in Enfield rifles, are executed by the 
steam-hammer. 
A steam-hammer, said to be the then largest in the 
world, completed at Woolwich : the falling portion 
weighs 40 tons, and when used with top steam (51 tons) 
has the force of 91 tons, April, 1874. One at Schneider's 
works, Creuzot, France ; weight between 75 and 80 tons, 
Dec. 1877. 
Mr. Nasmyth, aged 81, died 7 May, 1890. His Auto- 
biography, edited by Dr. S. Smiles, was published in 
1S83. 

STEAM-MAN. A figure constructed to drag 
a phaeton received this name in New York in 
March, 1868. 

STEAM NAVIGATION, see under Steam. 

STEAM-PLOUGHS were patented by G. 
Callaway and E. A. Purkes, 1849 ; H. Cowing, 
1850; and others. John Fowler's of 1854 is much 
approved. 



STEAM-EAM. 



921 



STEPHEN'S CHAPEL, ST. 



STEAM-EAM (to be used in naval warfare), 
was invented by Mr. James Nasmyth in 1836, and 
communicated to the Admiralty in 1845. Steam- 
rams built bj Mr. James Laird of Birkenhead for 
the Confederates in N. America, were stopped and 
eventually bought by the British government, 1864. 

STEAM-WHISTLES and STEAM- 
TRUMPETS, used in factories to summon or dismiss 
workmen, prohibited by an act passed Aug. 1872. 

STEAEINE (from stear, suet), that part of 
oils and fats which is solid at common temperature. 
The nature of these substances was first made 
known by Chevreul, in 1823, who showed that they 
were compounds of peculiar acids, with a base 
termed glycerine; of these compounds the chief are 
stearine, margarine, and elaine ; see Candles. 

STEEL, metal, a compound of iron and carbon, 
exists in nature, and has been fabricated from the 
earliest times. It was certainly used by the Egyp- 
tians, Assyrians, and Greeks. It now largely 
replaces cast iron in ship building, &c. 
Reaumur discovered the direct process of making 
steel by immersing malleable iron in a bath of 

cast iron 1722 

A manufactory for cast steel is said to have been 
set up by Benjamin Huntsman at Handsworth, 

near Sheffield 1740 

The manufacture of shear steel began in Sheffield, 

about 1800 
German steel was made at Newcastle previously by 

Mr. Crawley. 
The inventions of Mushat (1800), Lucas (1S04), and 
Heath (1839), were important steps in this manu- 
facture ; see Engraving. 
Reipe patented his " puddled steel " . . . 1850 
Mr. H. Bessemer made steel by passing cold air 
through liquid iron, 1856. By this method 20 tons 
of crude iron have been converted into east steel 
in 23 minutes.* 
Tungsten steel was made in Germany, 1859 ; and M. 
Fremy made steel by bringing red-hot iron in con- 
tact with carbonate of ammonia .... 1861 
M. Alfred Krupp exhibited an ingot of steel weigh- 
ing 4500 lbs. in 1851, and one weighing 20 tons in 1862 
[about 15,000 men are employed at his works at 
Essen, 1887] 
The subject much investigated by M. Caron, 1861-5 ; 
much attention was excited by cutlery made from 
a metallic sand, brought from Taranaki or New 

Plymouth, in New Zealand i860 

A steel bridge, in connection with the exhibition, 

constructed at Paris by M. Joret .... 1866 
Mr. John Heaton published his process . . 1867-8 
Dr. Siemens, by means of his " regenerative gas 
furnaces," produced excellent steel, cheaply, in 

large masses 1876, el seq. 

Cutlers' Company, London, opened an exhibition, 

1 May, 1879 
Messrs. Bolckow, Vaughan & Co. of Middlesbrough, 
by Thomas and Gilchrist's process, convert Cleve- 
land iron ore into Bessemer steel, by lining the 
furnace with radial bricks of magnesian limestone 
and adding cold basic material, phosphorus being 

thereby removed ,, 

The process reported successful . . . Oct. 1880 
Mr. J. S. Jeans published his important work, 
" Steel : its History, Manufacture, Properties, 

and Uses" Feb. ,, 

The Garfield, a steel sailing ship, 2,220 tons, 292 ft. 
length, 24 ft. 9 in. depth, 41ft. breadth, launched 

at Belfast 7 Jan. 1882 

Umbria, Canard liner, above 8,000 tons, 520 ft. long, 
57 ft. 3 in. broad, 41 ft. deep, launched on the 

Clyde Sept. 1884 

Mr. B. H. Thwaite, of Liverpool, and Mr. A. 
Stewart, of Bradford, introduce an improved 
"rapid" process for the manufacture of steel, 

announced Oct. 1887 
See under Steam. 

* For this invention he had received by royalties 
1,057,748/. lip to 1879; also many foreign honours; 
knighted June, 1879. 



STEEL PENS- "Iron pens" are mentioned 
by Chamberlayne in 1685. Steel pens, made long 
before, began to come into use about 1820, when the 
first gross of three-slit pens was sold wholesale for 
7 1. 4s. In 1830 the price was 8s., and in 1832, 6s. 
A better pen is now sold for 6d. a gross. Birming- 
ham in 1858 produced about 1000 million pens per 
annum. Women and children are principally em- 
ployed in the manufacture. Perry, Mitchell, and 
Gillott are eminent makers. Joseph Gillott, origin- 
allj T a mechanic, made a large fortune by steel-pen 
making. He died 5 Jan. 1872, aged 72. 

STEEL- YAED. An ancient instrument, the 
same that is translated balance in the Pentateuch. 
The Statcra Romana, or Roman steel-yard, is men- 
tioned, in 315 B.C. — The Steel-yaud or Still- 
yard Company, London merchants, who had the 
steel-yard in Thames-street assigned to them by 
Henry III., about 1232, were Flemings and Ger- 
mans, and the only exporters, for many years after, 
of the staple commodities of England. Anderson. 
The company lost its privileges, finally, in 1578 ; 
and the merchants were expelled from England in 
1597- 

STEENKIEK, see Enghien. 

STEFANO, SAN, a small village on the sea 
of Marmora, S.W. of Constantinople ; here the 
grand duke Nicholas established his head quarters, 
24 Eeb. ; and here was signed a treaty of peace 
with Turkey, 3 March, 1878, much modified by 
the treaty of Berlin, signed 13 July, following. 
The Russians quitted San Stefano, 22 Sept. 1878. 

It established independence of Montenegro, Servia, and 
Roumania ; constituted Bulgaria a tributary princi- 
pality ; required a heavy indemnity from Turkey for 
Russia, who was to gain a port on the Black Sea and 
Kars ; to exchange the Dobrudscha for Bessarabia ; to 
obtain rights for Christians ; to open the Bosphoms 
and Dardanelles in peace and war ; &c. 

STELLA-LAND, see Trans-vaal and Bech- 
uana-land. 

STENOCHEOMT, see Printing in Colours. 

STENOGEAPHY (from stenos, narrow), the 
art of short-hand, said to have been practised by 
the ancients. Its improvement is attributed to the 
poet Ennius, to Tyro, Cicero's freedman, and still 
more to Seneca. The Ars Scribendi Charactcris, 
written about 1412, is the oldest system extant. 
Dr. Timothy Bright' s " Characterie, or the Arte of 
Shorte, Swifte, and Secrete Writing," published in 
1588, is the first English work on short-hand. 
Peter Bales, the famous penman, published on 
stenography in 1590; and John Willis published 
his "Stenographic" in 1602. There are now 
numerous systems : John Byrom's (1767), T. Gur- 




(1881) ; J. M. Sloan's (1882). Sec Phonography. 

The Shorthand Society met . . . 1 Nov. 1S81 

Sig. A. Michela's stenographic machine for the 
graphic representation of phonetic sounds (about 
200 words per minute) ; like a harmonium with a 
key-hoard, exhibited at the Turin exhibition of 
1884, successfully adopted by the Italian Senate. 

International Shorthand Congress a1 the Geological 
Museum, London, S.W. (482 systems noticed) 
26 Sept.-i Oct. 1887; others since ; Paris, 1S89; 
Munich, 1890 ; Berlin . • ■ 3oSept. 1891 

STEPHEN'S CHAPEL, ST. (Westminster}, 
built by kins Stephen, about 1135. It was rebuilt 
by Edward III. in 1347; aml b l lmu m:ldc a col_ 



STEPNEY. 



922 



STIRRUPS. 



legiate church, to which a clean and twelve secular 
priests were appointed. Soon after its surrender to 
Edward VI., about 1548, it was applied to the use of 
Parliament ; see Parliament. It was destroyed by 
fire, 16 Oct. 1834. The Society of Antiquaries pub- 
lished memorials of it about 1810; and Mr. Mac- 
kenzie's work appeared in 1844. The restoration of 
the beautiful crypt was complete in Jan. 1870. 

.STEPNEY, a parish, E. London, the Steben- 
hide_ of Domesday book. Edward I. summoned a 
parliament here, 1299. Stepney suffered severely 
by the plague, 1625 and 1665. Stepney-green was 
restored and opened as a park by the Metropolitan 
Board of "Works, Aug. 1872. Population, 1881, 
58,543 ; 1891, 57,599- 

STEREOCHROMY, a mode of painting in 
which water-glass (an alkaline solution of flint, 
silex) serves as the connecting medium between the 
colour and the substratum. Its invention is ascribed 
to Von Fuchs, who died at Munich on 5 March, 
1856. Fine specimens of this art by Kaulbach and 
Echter exist in the Museum at Berlin, and also at 
Munich. 

STEREOMETER, by which is compassed the 
art of taking the contents of vessels of liquids by 
gauging, invented about 1350. Anderson. M. Say's 
stereometer, for determining the specific gravity of 
liquids, porous bodies, and powders as well as solids, 
was described in 1797. 

STEREOSCOPE (from stereos, solid, and 
shopein, to see), an optical instrument for repre- 
senting in apparent relief natural objects, &c., by 
uniting into one image two plane representations 
of these objects as seen by each eye separately. The 
first stereoscope by reflection was constructed and 
exhibited by professor Charles Wheatstone in 1838, 
who had announced its principle in 1833. Since 
1854 stereoscopes have been greatly improved. 

STEREOTYPE, a cast from a page of mov- 
able printing-types, so named by the Parisian 
printer, Didot, 1798. It is said that stereotyping 
was known in 1711. It was practised by fm. Ged 
of Edinburgh, about 1730. Some of Ged's plates 
are at the Koyal Institution, London. A Mr. James 
attempted to introduce Ged's process in London, 
but failed, about 1735.* Nichols. Stereotype print- 
ing was in use in Holland, in the last century ; and 
a quarto Bible and a Dutch folio Bible were printed 
there. Phillips. It was i-evived in London by 
Wilson in 1804. Since 1850 the durability of stereo- 
types has been greatly increased by electrotyping 
them with copper or silver. Stereotyping used for 
printing the Times, 1856, et seq. 
In the library of the Royal Institution is an edition of 
Sallust, with this imprint: "Edinburgi, Gulielmus 
Ged, ami faber Eclinensis, non typis mobilibus, ut 
vulgo fieri solet, seel tabellis seu laminis fusis, excude- 
bat. 1744." (Printed at Edinburgh by William Ged of 
Edinburgh, goldsmith, not with moveable types, as is 
commonly done, but with cast tablets or plates.) 

STERLING (money). Ducange says (1733), 
" Esterlingus, sterlingus, are English words re- 
lating to money, and hence familiar to other 
nations, and applied to the weight, quality, and 
kind of money." " Denarius Anglise, qui vocatur 
sterlingus," stat. Edw. I. (The penny of England, 
which is called sterling.) Camden derives the word 
from easterling or esterling, observing that the 
money brought from Germany, in the reign of 
Richard I., was the most esteemed on account of 
its purity, being called in old deeds u nummieaster- 

* It was hotly opposed by the journeymen printers. 



ling." Others derive the word from the Easterlings, 
the first moneyers in England. 

STETHOSCOPE. In 1816 Laennec, of Paris, 
by rolling a quire of paper into a kind of cylinder, 
and applying one end to the patient's chest and the 
other to his own ear, perceived the action of the 
heart in a much more distinct manner than by the 
immediate application of the ear. This led to his 
inventing the stethoscope, or "breast-explorer," 
the principle of which, now termed "auscultation," 
was known by Hippocrates (357 B.C.), and by 
Robert Hooke, 1681. 

STETTIN (Pomerania), an ancient city, for- 
merly held by the Sidini and Venedes, was taken 
by Boleslas of Poland in 1 121. After being con- 
quered by the Swedes, Russians, and French, it was 
awarded to Prussia in 1814. Population, 1890, 
116,239. 
Visited by emperor William during military manoeuvres, 

12 Sept. 1887. 

STEWARD of England, Lord High. 

The first grand officer of the crown. This office 
was established prior to the reign of Edward the 
Confessor, and was formerly annexed to the lord- 
ship of Hinckley, Leicestershire, belonging to the 
family of Montfort, earls of Leicester, who were, in 
right thereof, lord high stewards of England ; but 
Simon de Montfort, the last earl of this family, 
having raised a rebellion against his sovereign, 
Henry III., was attainted, and his estate forfeited 
to the king, who abolished the office, 1265. It is 
now revived only pro hue vice, at a coronation, or 
the trial of a peer. The first afterwards appointed 
was Thomas, second son of Henry IV. The first for 
the trial of a peer was Edward, earl of Devon, on 
the arraignment of the earl of Huntingdon, in 1400. 
The last was lord Denman at the trial of the earl of 
Cardigan, 16 Feb. 1841. The duke of Hamilton 
was lord high steward at the coronations of 
William IV. 1831, and Victoria, 1838. 

STEWARD of the Household, Lord 
(an ancient office), has the sole direction of the 
king's house below-stairs ; he has no formal grant 
of his office, but receives his charge from the 
sovereign in person, who, delivering to him a white 
wand, the symbol of his office, says, " Seneschal, 
tenez le baton de notre maison." This officer has 
been called lord steward since 1540 ; previously to 
the 31st of Henry VIII. he was styled grand master 
of the household. His function as a judge was 
abolished in 1849. 

STEWART, see Stuart. 

STICKLESTADT (Norway) . Here Olaf II. , 
aided by the Swedes, was defeated in his endeavours 
to recover his kingdom from Canute, king of Den- 
mark, and slain, 29 July, 1030. He was after- 
wards sainted, on account of his zeal for Christianity. 

STIPENDIARY MAGISTRATES, see 

Magistrates. 

STIRLING (S. Scotland). The strong castle 
was taken by Edward I. of England, 1304. Here 
James II. stabbed the earl of Douglas, 13 Feb. 1452, 
and here James VI. was crowned, 24 July, 1567. 
Stirling surrendered to Monk, 14 Aug. 1651. The 
statue of king Robert Bruce unveiled, 24 Nov. 1877. 
A gigantic bronze statue of sir William Wallace unveiled 

at the National Wallace Monument 25 June, 1887. 
Population, 1881, 16,013 ; 1891, 16,895. 

STIRRUPS were unknown to the ancients. 
Gracchus fitted the highways with stones to enable 



STOCKACH. 



923 



STOCKS. 



the horsemen to mount. Warriors had projections 
on their spears for the same purpose. Stirrups 
were used in the 5th century, but were not common 
even in the 12th. 

STOCKACH, a town in Baden, near which 
the Austrians, under the archduke Charles, de- 
feated the French, 25 March, 1799; and Moreau 
defeated Kray, 3 May, 1800. 

STOCKHOLM, capital of Sweden (built on 
Jiolmen, or islands), was fortified by Berger Jarl 
about 1254. Here the Swedish nobility were mas- 
sacred by Christian II. in 1520 ; see Sweden. 
Population, 1887, 227,964; 1890, 246,154, 
Peace of Stockholm, between the king of Great 
Britain and the queen of Sweden, by which the 
former acquired the duchies of Bremen and Ver- 
den as elector of Brunswick . . .20 Nov. 1719 
Treaty of Stockholm, between Sweden and Kussia, 
in favour of the duke of Holstein-Gottorp, 

24 March, 1724 
Another between England and Sweden . 3 March, 1813 
Aud one between England, France, and Sweden, 

21 Nov. 1855 

STOCKINGS of silk are said to have been first 
worn by Henry II. of France, 1547. In 1560 queen 
Elizabeth was presented with a pair of knit black 
silk stockings, by her silk-woman, Mrs. Montague, 
and she never wore cloth ones any more. Howell. 
He adds, " Henry VIII. wore ordinary cloth hose, 
except there came from Spain, by great chance, a 
pair of silk stockings ; for Spain very early abounded 
with silk." Edward VI. was presented with a pair 
of Spanish silk stockings by his merchant, sir 
Thomas Gresham ; and the present was then much 
taken notice of. Idem. Others relate that William 
Eider, a London apprentice, seeing at the house of 
an Italian merchant a pair of knit worsted stockings 
from Mantua, made a pair like them, the first made 
in England, which he presented to the earl of Pem- 
broke, 1564. Stoiv. The art of weaving stockings 
in a frame was invented in England by the rev. 
Mr. Lee, of Cambridge, in 1589, twenty-five years 
after he had leamt to knit them with wires or 
needles. Cotton stockings were first made in 1 730 ; 
see Cotton. Digitated stockings (like gloves), in- 
troduced 1882. 

STOCKPOET (in Cheshire) has become emi- 
nent on account of the cotton trade. Heaton 
Norris, in Lancashire, is united to it by a bridge 
over the river. Here the Manchester blanketeers 
were dispersed, 11 March, 1817; and here was a 
serious religious riot, when two Bonian catholic 
chapels were destroyed, and the houses of many 
Roman catholics gutted, and their furniture and 
other contents smashed or burnt, 29 June, 1852. 

STOCKS, in which drunkards were placed. 
The last in London was removed from St. Clement 
Danes, Strand, 4 Aug. 1826. 

STOCKS. The public funding system originated 
in Venice, about 1173, and was introduced into 
Florence in 1340. The English funding system 
may be said to nave had its rise in 1690. See Panics. 

The Forged Transfer of Stock Act was passed 

5 Aug. 1891 
"Bulls" are persons who buy stock and thus cause 

the market to rise ; "Dears" those who sell and cause 

it to fall. 
Act to prevent stoch-juhbing passed March, 1734 ; 

repealed i860 

Stockbrokers' rents to the city of London abolished 

1884 ; came into effect .... Sept. 1886 
The foundation of the Stock Exchange, in Capel- 

court, the resilience of the lord mayor, sir Win, 

Capel, in 1504, was laid on 18 May, 1801. It was 

stated on the first stone that the public debt was 



then 552,730,924?. Members, 1864, about 1100; 
above 2000 in . . . . . . . . 187S 

The memorable Stock Exchange hoax, for which ad- 
miral lord Cochrane (afterwards lord Duudonald), 
Johnstone, and others, were convicted, 22 Feb. 
1814. Lord Cochrane was in consequence expelled 
the house of commons. His innocence was after- 
wards proved, and he was restored to his rank by 
king William IV., and to the honours belonging 
to it by queen Victoria. 
Stock-exchange coffee-house destroyed by fire, nFeb. 1816 
Royal Commission (lord Penzance, justice Black- 
burn, Mr. Spencer Walpole, and others) to ex- 
amine into the constitution and management of 
the London stock exchange, agreed to, 20 March, 
1877 ; report issued ; the majority recommend 
incorporation and other changes ; signed 31 July, 1878 
The number of stock-holders in 1840 amounted to 

337,48i. 
Three per cent, annuities created .... 1726 

Three per cent, consols created 1731 

Three per cent, reduced 1746 

Three per cent annuities, payable at the South Sea- 
house 1751 

Three-and-a-half per cent, annuities created . . 1758 

Long annuities 1761 

Four per cent consols 1762 

Five per cent, annuities . . . 1797 and 1802 
Five per cents, reduced to four .... 1822 
Old four per cents, reduced to three-and-a-half in 1824 
Further reductions made in 1825, 1830, 1834, 1841, 
and 1844; the maximum being now three per cent. 
Further reductions proposed by Mr. Gbsohen (2$ to 
2i in 15 years under specified conditions) 9 March ; 
new threes all converted or paid off 6 April, i8S3 

Messrs. Thomas and Co., bankrupts, for a large 

amount, suspected frauds . . .31 Jan. 1834 
Three per cents, convertible into 2J, and 2J per 

cent, by Act of 2 Sept., 1884. 
The local loans stock exchangeable for the three 
per cents, consols created by the National Debt 
and Local Loans Act passed . . . 12 July, 1887 

By a return of the average price of the public funds 
by the Commissioners for the reduction of the 
national debt, it appears that Consols (i. e., consoli- 
dated annuities, paying 3 per cent, per annum) 
averaged in the year — 



1749 


. £100 





1815 


£58 13 9 


1780 


. . . 63 


13 6 


1820 


68 12 


1785 


6S 


6 6 


1825 


. 90 8 


1790 


. . 71 


2 6 


1S30 


89 15 7 


179s 


74 


8 6 


1840 


. 89 17 6 


1798 


• • 59 


10 


1845 


93 2 6 


1800 


66 


3 3 


1848 


. 86 15 


1805 


. . . 58 


14 


1850 


96 10 


1810 


. . 67 


16 3 


i852(Dec. ioi?.ios.)99 12 6 


The 


wice of £100 stock v: 


iried 


Lll 


1853, 


from £101 to 


£90! 


1882, 


average iooJ June iooj 


1854, 


„ 96 ,, 


85? 


1883, 


„ ioiyst ;, 100J 


1855, 


,, 93! >, 


86 1 


1884, 


highest 102J ; lowest, 


1856, 


., 96J ,, 


87S 


3 1 


Dec. 98 J-;;. 


1857. 


95i „ 


86J 


1S85, 


average . . 99J 


1858, 


98t „ 


94 


1886, 


„ ioot;i3May, 


1859, 


97s ., 


89, 


(hi 


ghest price recorded) 


1861, 


,, 94i ,, 


89I 


10- 


i- 


1862, 


94i >• 


9°» 


i88 7 ; 


average . . . 101 -J 


1863, 


94 >> 


90 




NYw Consols (:'D 


1864, 


„ 91? >> 


87* 


1888, 


9 June . . 99! 


1865, 


8 7 3 „ 


S6V 




Average - 


1866, 


average 88 June 86} 


1889, 


2 Jan. 99'-; ; 28 June 


1867, 


93 » 


94* 


981 




1868, 


>, 934 1 


94§ 




Average 98. 


1869, 


., 92J > 


925 


1S90, 


2 Jan. . . 07I 
5 Feb. . . . 97J 


1870, 


n 9 2 » , 


92! 


„ 


1871, 


92f , 
,. 92i , 


92 


,, 


6 March . . 97^ 


1872, 


925 


,, 


10 April . . 98 


1873, 


.. 9zi . 


') '! 


,, 


2 May . . 98 


1874, 


,, 92^ , 


928 


,, 


5 June . . . 97.J 


1875. 


» 93* . 


93, 


,, 


3 July . . 963 


1876, 


.. 95 


94l 


,, 


7 Aug. . . . 96 


1S77, 


953 . 


94* 


,, 


4 Sept . . 95S 
a Oct . . . 94I 
fi Nov. . . 943 


1878, 


95,: ; , 

>> 97* , 


955 


,, 


1879, 


97l 


,1 


1880, 


98J , 


98* 


„ 


. (Baring 


1881, 


i) 100 > 


100J 




difficulty) . 93; 



STOICS. 




9 


q6 


i8qi 


1 Oct. 


• 94J 


7S* 


,, 


5 Nov. . 


• 94* 


97s 


„ 


3 Dec. 


• 95 , 


Q6 


1892 


7 Jan. . 


■ 95s 


96* 


,, 


4 Feb. 


• 955 


QS# 


,, 


3 Marcli 


• 95l 


945 


,, 


1 April 


. 96* 


Qb 


,, 


S May . 


• 97s- 


Q6 


,, 


2 June 


. 96* 


95 


,i 


1 July, 4 Aug. 


• 97 



924 



STOEMS. 



1090 


4 Dec. 


i8qi 


2 Jan. . 




5 Feb. 


,, 


5 Marcli 


,, 


2 April 


,, 


7 May . 


,, 


4 June 


„ 


2 July . 


,, 


6 Aug. 


„ 


3 Sept, . 



"During the greatest crisis ever developed in the 
history of the world the funds remain day after day 
without a fractional movement." Times, 11 Oct. 1870. 

Purchase of stock for 10I. legalised, 1880. 

H. C. Burdett's "Official Intelligence of British, 
American, and Foreign Securities," published under the 
sanction of the Stock Exchange Committee,. 1882 et seq. 

STOICS, disciples of Zeno, the philosopher 
(about 29b B.C.) ; obtained the name because they 
listened to his instructions in a porch (Greek, stoa) 
at Athens. Zeno taught, that man's supreme hap- 
piness consisted in living agreeably to nature and 
reason, and that God was the soul of the world. 
Stanley. 

STOKE, EAST (near Newark, Nottingham- 
shire). Near here, on 16 June, 1487, the adherents 
of Lambert Simnel, who personated Edward, earl 
of Warwick, and claimed the crown, were defeated 
by Henry VII. John de la Pole, the earl of 
Lincoln, and most of the leaders, were slain. 
Simnel was afterwards employed in the king's 
household. 

STONE. Stone buildings erected in England by 
Benedict Biscop about 670. A stone bridge built at 
Bow, in the nth or 12th centuries, is accounted the 
first ; but a bridge exists at Crowland, which is said 
to have been built in 860 ; see Bridges. The first 
stone building in Ireland was probably a round 
tower ; see Building. Stone china-ware was made 
by Wedgwood in 1762. Artificial stone for statues 
was manufactured by a Neapolitan, and introduced 
into England, 1776. Stone paper was made in 
1776; see Ransomets Artificial Stone, and Lit hotomy. 
For stone implements, see Flints, and Piano-forte. 
An orchestra composed of wind instruments made of 
terra-cotta appeared in London in 1874. 

STONEHENGE (on Salisbury Plain, Wilt- 
shire) is said to have been erected on the counsel of 
Merlin, by Aurelius Ambrosius, in memory of 460 
Britons, who were murdered by Hengist the Saxon 
about 450. Geoffrey of Monmouth. Erected as a 
sepulchral monument of Ambrosius, 500. Polydore 
Vergil. An ancient temple of the Britons, in which 
the Druids officiated. Dr. StuJceley. The Britons 
are said to have held annual meetings at Abury and 
Stonehenge, when laws were made and justice 
administered. The cursus near Stonehenge was 
discovered by Dr. Stukeley, 6 Aug. 1723. The 
origin aud object of these remains are still very 
obscure. See AV. M. Flinders Petrie's " Stone- 
henge : Plans, Description, and Theories." 1880. 
The thorough preservation of Stonehenge strongly 

advocated Aug. 1886. 

STONEWALL BEIGADE, see United 
States, 1862, note. 

STOEM-WAENINGS, see under Meteor- 
ology. 

STOEMS, sec Meteorology, Cyclones, and 
Waterspouts. The following are recorded : — 
In London a storm raged which destroyed 1500 houses, 

944- 
In several parts of England, the sky being very dark, 

the wind coming from the S.W. ; many churches were 
. destroyed ; and in London 500 houses fell, 5 Oct. 1091. 



On the coast of Calais, when Hugh de Beauvais and 

several thousand foreigners, on their voyage to assist 

king John against the barons, perished, 1215- Holiu- 

shed. 

It thundered 15 days successively, with tempests of rain 

and wind, 1233. 
Storm with violent lightnings ; one flash passed through 
a chamber where Edward I. and his queen were con- 
versing, did them no damage, but killed two of their 
attendants, 1285. Hoveden. 
Violent storm of hail near Chartres, in France, which 
fell on the army of Edward III. then on its march. 
The hail was so large that the army and horses suffered 
very much, and Edward was obliged to conclude a 
peace, 1339. Matt. Paris. 
When Richard II. 's queen came from Bohemia, on her 
setting foot on shore an awful storm arose, and her 
ship and a number of others were dashed to pieces in 
the harbour, Jan. 1382. Holinshed. 
Richard's second queen also brought a storm with her to 
the English coasts, in which the king's baggage was 
lost, and many ships cast away, 1396. Holinshed. 
Hurricane, throughout Europe, which did very con- 
siderable damage, on 3 Sept. 1658, the day that 
Cromwell died. Mortimer. 
Storm on east coast of England : 200 colliers and coasters 

lost, with most of their crews, 1696. 
The " Great Storm," one of the most terrible that ever 
raged in England. The devastation on land was im- 
mense ; and in the harbours and on the coasts the loss 
in shipping and in lives was still greater, 26-27 Nov. 
1703. The loss sustained in London alone was calcu- 
lated at 2,ooo,oooL sterling. The number of persons 
drowned in the floods of the Severn and Thames, and 
lost on the coast of Holland, and in ships blown from 
their anchors and never heard of afterwards, is thought 
to have been 8000. Twelve men-of-war, with more than 
1800 men on board, were lost within sight of their 
own shore. Trees were torn up by the roots, 17,000 
of them in Kent alone. The Eddystone light-house 
was destroyed, and in it the ingenious contriver of it, 
Winstanley, and the persons who were with him. The 
Bishop of Bath and Wells and his lady were killed in 
bed in their palace in Somersetshire. Multitudes of 
cattle were also lost : in one level 15,000 sheep 
were drowned. 
Snow-storm in Sweden, when 7000 Swedes, it is said, 
perished upon the mountains, in their march to attack 
Drontheim, 1719. 
One in India, when many hundreds of vessels were cast 
away, a fleet of Indiamen greatly damaged, and some 
ships lost, and 30,000 persons perished, 11 Oct. 1737. 
Dreadful hurricane at the Havannah : many public 
edifices and 4048 houses were destroyed, and 1000 
inhabitants perished, 25 Oct. 1768. 
Awful storm in the north of England, in which many 
vessels were destroyed, and four Dublin packets 
foundered, 29 Oct. 1775. 
One at Surat, in the East Indies ; destroyed 7000 of the 

inhabitants, 22 April, 1782. 
One hundred and thirty-one villages and farms laid waste 

in France, 1785. 
One general throughout Great Britain : several hundred 

sail of shipping destroyed or damaged, 6 Oct. 1794. 
One which did vast damage in London, and throughout 

almost the whole of England, 8 Nov. 1800. 
A tremendous storm throughout Great Britain and 
Ireland, by which immense damage was done, and 
many ships wrecked, 16-17 Dec, 1814. 
An awful gale, by which a great number of vessels were 
lost, and much damage was done to the shipping in 
general on the English coast, 31 Aug. 1816. 
Dreadful hurricane, ravaged the- Leeward Islands, from 
the 20th to the 22nd Sept. 1819. At the island of 
St. Thomas alone, 104 vessels were lost. 
Great storm along the coast from Durham to Cornwall ; 

many vessels lost, Nov. 1821. 
In Ireland, particularly in the vicinity of Dublin, many 
houses were thrown down, and vast numbers unroofed, 
12 Dec. 1822. 
Awful storm on the coast of England : many vessels lost, 
and 13 driven ashore and wrecked in Plymouth alone, 
12-13 J an . 182S. 
At Gibraltar, where more than 100 vessels were de- 
stroyed, 18 Feb. 1828. 
Dreadful storm at the Cape of Good Hope, where 

immense property was lost, 16 July, 1831. 
A hurricane visited London and its neighbourhood, 



STOKMS. 



92.5 



STOEMS. 



■which did great damage to the buildings, but without 

the destruction of human life, though many serious 

accidents occurred, 28 Oct. 1838. 
Awful hurricane on west coast of England, and in 

Ireland. The storm raged through Cheshire, Stafford- 
shire, and Warwickshire ; 20 persons were killed in 

Liverpool, by the falling of buildings, and 100 were 

drowned in the neighbourhood ; the coasts and har- 
bours were covered with wrecks, the value of two of 

the vessels lost being nearly half-a-million sterling. 

In Limerick, Galway, Athlone, and other places, more 

than 200 houses were blown down, and as many more 

were burnt, the winds spreading the fires. Dublin 

suffered dreadfully ; London and its neighbourhood 

scarcely sustained any damage, 6-7 Jan. 1839. 
[The winter of 1852-3 (Dec. and Jan.) was oneof storms, 

many of which were very destructive.] 
Great storm in the Black Sea, 13-16 Nov. 1854, causing 

much loss of life, shipping, and stores sent for the 

allied armies in the Crimea. 
Great storm on N. coast of Europe, &c, 31 Dec. 1854. 
Great storm on N.E. coast of Scotland ; 42 fishermen 

lost, 23 Nov. 1857. 
Dreadful storm on the night 25-26 Oct. ; the Royal 

Charter totally lost, and many other vessels ; another 

storm, 31 Oct. and 1 Nov. 1859. 
Great storm in the channel, causing much loss of life 

and property, 1 Jan. i860. 
Dreadful gales, doing much mischief, 26, 27, 28 Feb. ; 

28 May ; and 2 June, i860. 
Great storm ; part of the Crystal Palace blown down ; 

Chichester cathedral steeple fell, 20-21 Feb. 1861. 
Great storm on British coasts, 143 wrecks, 28 May, 1861. 
Storm on the north-east ; 50 wrecks, 13-14 Nov. 1861. 
At Market Laverton, &c. ; much damage to crops by 

hail, 2 Sept. 1862. 
Storm on British coasts ; many wrecks, 19, 20 Oct. 1862. 
There were severe gales, doing much damage, and loss of 

life, 19 Jan. <fcc. 1863 ; and 14 Jan. <fec. 1865 (see under 

Wrecks). 
Dreadful hurricane in the Indian Ocean, &c. (see 

Calcutta), 5 Oct. 1864. 
Hurricane at Lisbon, causes much damage, worst for 

many years, 13 Dec. 1864. 
Severe gales ; many vessels and lives lost (see Wrecks), 

6-1 1 Jan. 1866; 2-4 Dec. 1867; 22 Jan. and 31 Jan. and 

1 Feb. 1868: 11-12 Sept. 1869. 
Severe storm ; much damage ; barometer very low, 

24 Jan. 1872. 
After several days' intense heat, violent storms, and 

deluges of rain in midland and southern counties ; 

several persons killed, 24-26 June, 1872. 
Very stormy in July and August, 1872. 
Violent gale ; much destruction (wind, greatest velocity 

57 miles an hour), 8 Dec. 1872. 
Awful storms in Scotland, and N. England ; loss of life, 

and much damage, 22, 23 July ; in Lancashire and 

Yorkshire, 16 Dec. 1873. 
Awful storm, N. E. London ; several persons killed ; 

churches and buildings fired ; railways flooded, 11 

July, 1874. 
Violent gales, with destruction of life and property, 21 

Oct. ; Nov. 29 ; 7, 8, 10, 11 Dec. 1874. 
Much destruction by typhoon at Macao, Hong Kong, &c, 

22 Sept. 1874. 
Severe snowstorms in Scotland, several lives lost, 1, 3 

Jan. 1875. 
Destructive storms at Buda-Pesth, about 200 killed, 

26 June, 1875. 
On coast of Texas : Galveston, and other places much 

injured ; villages washed away by the sea; great loss 

of life, 15-18 Sept. 1875. 
Severe snowstorm, south England ; destruction of life 

and property ; telegraph wires broken, 12 March, 1875. 
Severe storms ; great loss of shipping, 11-13 Nov. ; 2, 3, 

and 22-24 L> cc - '876, and 2 Jan. 1877. 
Most violent gale ; great destruction of property on land 

and shipping throughout England, with loss of life, 

14, 15 Oct. 1877. 
Again ; much damage on S.E. coast, &c, 24, 25 Nov. 

1877. 
Storm and heavy rain in London; inundations, 10, 11 

April, 1878. 
Many thunderstorms, destroying life and property in 

England, Aim. 1878. 
At Kew and neighbourhood, 2, 3 Aug. ; in Cheshire and 

Wales, 16, 17 Aug. 1879. 



% lolent gale ; Tay bridge {which see) blown down, 28 Dec 

1879. 
Destructive tornadoes, <fcc., western states North Ame- 
rica; great loss of life and property, about 18 April 

1880. * 

Many thunderstorms in England, Julv, 1880. 
Severe storms in England, with much" destruction by in- 
undations, 27, 28 Oct. 1880. 
Severe snowstorm, or blizzard ; railways and other traffic 

largely stopped ; great loss of life at sea, 17-21 Jan. 1881 
Violent hurricane in England: great destruction of life 

and property : houses thrown down or unroofed ; lar<*e 

trees torn up by the roots ; telegraph wires and poles 

blown down; about 130 wrecks (105 British), &c. 14- 

19 Oct. 1881. 
Many wrecks on south and west coasts of England with 

much loss of life, 19-20 Oct. 1881. 
Great destruction of life and property by gales 26 27 

Nov. 1881. ' ' 

Lighthouse, Calf Rock, in Bantry Bay destroyed, 27 Nov. 

1881. 
Six men left on the rock got off, 9 Dec. 1881. 
By a typhoon in Haifong, &c, China, about 300,000 per- 
sons perished, 8 Oct. 1881. 
Destructive gales in England, &e. ; many wrecks and less 

of life by sea and land, 17-21 Dec. 1881. 
Severe gale ; much destruction in England and Scotland, 

6 Jan. ; another, 29 April, 1882. 
Tornado in Iowa, .fee., Grinnell and other towns nearly 

destroyed ; great loss of life, about 16 June, etseq., 18S2. 
Violent gales with damage, 22, 23 Aug.; 24 Oct. 1S82 ; 26, 

27, 28 Jan., 10 Feb., 6 March, 1883. 
Tornadoes in southern states, U.S.A., about 150 killed, 

April, 1883. 
Violent gale in British channel, &c.; many wrecks, 1-2 

Sept. 1883. 
Destructive gale on the Scotch and Irish coasts, 26 Sept. 

1883. 
Another with great loss of life and damage in London 

and other parts of Britain, morning, 12 Dec. 1883. 
Violent S.W. gales; destruction of" life and property: 

23-24 Jan. 1884 ; very severe ; many disasters, 26, 27 

Jan. 1884. 
Tornadoes in southern states, U.S.A. ; about 600 killed 

about 18 Feb. 1884. 
Storm in Catania, Sicily (see Sicily), 7 Oct. 1884. 
Destructive snowstorms in Piedmont (see Italy), 16 Jan. 

et seq. 1885. 
Heavy storms on the Labrador coast, about 80 craft 

wrecked and about 300 lives lost 12-15 Oct. 1885. 
Storm off Colon, Panama, 15 vessels wrecked, 50 lives 

lost 2 Dec. 1885. 
Heavy snowstorm, N.E. England, &c. ; locomotion 

stopped 1, 2, 3 March, 1886. 
Destructive hurricane at Madrid, 32 lives lost, 320 

wounded 12 May, 1886. 
Destructive tornadoes in S. Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, 

&c, U.S.A. 12-15 May, 1S86. 
Violent storm N.E. France, much damage at Rheims, 

Nancy, &c. 10 Aug. 1886. 
Hurricane at St. Vincent; great loss of life and 

property 16 Aug. 1886. 
Violent gale in Texas, &c, causing inundation, above 250 

persons drowned, 12 Oct. 18S6. 
Severe gale ; very destructive on sea and land (see 

Wreclx) 15-16 net. 1886. 
Destructive gale and storm, especially in S. & W. 

England ; many wrecks and hiss of life 8, 9 Dec. 1886 

(see under Lift bo it). 
Destructive snowstorm, specially E. and S. England; 

many wrecks ; telegraphic and railway communications 

stopped ; trees blown down, &c, 26-27 Dec. 1886. 
Destructive hurricane at Bordeaux and 8. Prance with 

los - of life 16 Aug. 1887. 

Violenl thunderstorm in London with destruction of 
property, several persons lulled, about 5.30 p.m.; 
lasted about 4 hours 17 Aug. ; many storms thro 
out the country. 1; Air:. 1 ' 7. 1887. 

\Y. gale ; destruction of life and property in France, the 
channel, and s. England 30 Oct. , another gale on the 

W. coast, destruction at Holyhead, Liver] 1 and in 

the Bristol channel 31 Oct. 1 Nov. : another gale on 
the S.E. coast, s Nov. 1SS7. 

Snowstorm (blizzard) in N.W. "!' United states; about. 
235 persons perish and much cattle n-13 Jan. ; 
.' 1 her iii New Jforlt 6 Jan, 1 388. 

Cycl in Illinois. I .s.A. ; n it destruction of life and 

property ig Fi b. 1S88. 



STOEMS. 



926 



STORTHING. 



Violent gale ; several wrecks and loss of life, 9-1 1 March, 

1888. 
A destructive blizzard from the N.W. desolated the 

eastern coast of United States ; communication 

between New York, Philadelphia and Boston sus- 
pended ; many wrecks ; great loss of life (about 400) 

and property ; food at famine prices n-13 March, 

1888. 
Town of Ninneseah in Kansas destroyed by a gale 27 

March, 1888. 
Great storm and a tidal wave, much destruction, near 

Wellington, New Zealand 28 March, 1888. 
Destructive hurricane in Dacca, N.E. India ; about 69 

persons killed 7 April, 1888. 
Great storm in Ontario and Quebec, many persons killed 

by lightning and fright, estimated loss in Quebec, 

1,500,000 dollars 16 Aug. 1888. 
Destructive cyclone in the West Indies (Cuba, &c), 4 

Sept. 1888. 
Destructive gale ; Scotland, N. England and Ireland ; 

many shipwrecks ; Forth bridge damaged, 15-16 

Nov. 1888. 
Severe storm on the N. American E. coast ; more than 

50 vessels wrecked and about 45 lives lost 25 Nov. 

1888. 
Tornado in eastern states U.S., especially in Pennsyl- 
vania ; great destruction and loss of life in about 200 

miles, especially at Pittsburg (14 killed) and at 

Beading (24 killed), through collapse of a silk-mill ; 

suspension-bridge, Niagara, wrecked 9 Jan. 1889. 
Destructive gales over Britain ; wrecks and loss of life 

2, 3, 8 Feb. 1889. 
Violent hurricane in the Pacific (see Samoan Isles) 15, 16 

March, 1889. 
Destructive storm on the east coast of the United States 

10 May, 1889. 
Great storm in South Germany, especially in Austria, 

Bohemia, &c, great loss of life and property, 17 

May ; in Switzerland 3-4 June, 1889. 
Destructive storm, Flintshire, Cheshire and Lancashire ; 

heavy rain and large hail causing floods, crops much 

injured, buildings struck and fired 2 June, 1889. 
Great storms over the United Kingdom ; wrecks with 

loss of life, 21 Aug. and 5-7 Oct. 1889. 
Easterly gales on the Atlantic coast ; wrecks with loss 

of life off Long Island, New Jersey, &c, 11-12 Sept. 

1889. 
sg vessels wrecked in Delaware Bay, about 31 lives lost, 

13 Sept. 1889. 
Great storm in Sardinia (which see), 7 Oct. 1S89. 
Destructive storm on the coast of Carolina, 26, 27 Oct. 

1889. 
Destructive storms in the Western States, U.S.A., 12 

Jan. ; in Canada, 14 Jan. 1890. 
Destructive gale with loss of life in the Atlantic and on 

British coast, especially S. and S.W., high tides and 

floods, 17-27 Jan. 1890. 
Destructive storm on the continent from Paris to Vienna, 

23, 24 Jan. 1890. 
[68 British wrecks and 67 lives lost in Jan. 1890.] 
Tornadoes in the Ohio valley, from Cincinnati to Cairo ; 

very great destruction at Louisville, where about 93 

persons perish ; many places in Illinois, Missouri and 

Indiana, suffer greatly ; total loss of life about 175, 

27 March, 1890. 
Cyclone in Texas, much destruction, 15 persons killed, 

4 May, 1890. 
Tornado in Lee county, Illinois, 15 deaths, 20 June, 

1890. 
Great cyclone at Muscat, causing floods, about 700 per- 
sons said to have perished, reported 9 July, 1890. 
Terrible cyclone in Minnesota (which see), July, 1890. 
Destructive cyclone at Sloiiim, Russia, 19 lives lost, 20 

July, 1890. 
Cyclone in south Lawrence, Merrimac valley, Massa- 
chusetts, 100 buildings destroyed, 9 deaths, 26 July, 

1890. 
Destructive storms in Austria, France, Switzerland and 

in the United States, August, 1890. 
Violent gale over Great Britain and Ireland, great 

destruction of life and property, especially at sea ; 

114 lives saved by lifeboats ; viscount Cantelupe 

drowned and his yacht wrecked in Belfast Lough, 7 

Nov. 1890. 
Violent N.W. gale in the channel, several wrecks on the 

S. coast, 23 Nov. 1890. 
Violent gales throughout Europe (see l7iundations), 23- 

25 Nov. 1890. 



Gale in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 40 vessels said to be 
wrecked, reported 3 Dec. ; much destruction of ship- 
ping and buildings, Newfoundland, reported 8 Dec. 
1890. 

Violent storms in the N. Atlantic, above 60 vessels lost, 
reported, 24 Dec. 1890. 

Violent blizzard in Nebraska, South Dakota, &c, U.S.A., 
many perished, 7 Feb. et seq. 1891. 

Destructive cyclone over the Fiji and Navigation Isles, 
great loss of life and shipping, 12, 13 Feb. 1891. 

Another blizzard in Minnesota, Iowa, Illinois and Wis- 
consin, 8, 9 March, 1891. 

Great snow storm, or blizzard, throughout England, 
especially in the south and west ; railway traffic, post 
and telegraph greatly impeded, in some places 
totally stopped ; many wrecks and loss of life in the 
channel ; hurricanes near Dover and Plymouth ; 
wrecks of fishing boats at Hastings and other places. 
The Victoria (capt. Shirley) had a long dangerous pas- 
sages from Dover to Calais. Great Western and 
South- Western railways disorganized ; 14 ships lost ; 
about 60 lives lost, 9-13 March, 1891. 

Destructive cyclone in S. Dakota, 2 June, 1891. 

By a cyclone, the village of Ponikwa in Galicia de- 
stroyed and about 30 persons killed, 10 June, 1891. 

Destructive storm in Iowa, Minnesota, and other states, 
about 24 June, 1891. 

Destructive storm and cloud-burst in the Rhine pro- 
vinces, 26 June ; and over a large part of Germany, 
chiefly in the Crefeld district and in Brunswick, 1 
July ; Salzburg, 9 July, 1891. 

Destructive storm at Baton Rouge, Louisiana, with loss 
of life, 6 July, 1891. 

Violent hurricane and rain in lower Austria, Moravia, 
and Upper Hungary ; the season's vintage destroyed, 
5 Aug. 1891. 

Cloud-burst at Kollmann, between Botzen and Brixen 
(Tyrol), the lowlands flooded, about 60 deaths, 18 
Aug. 1 89 1. 

Destructive storms and floods in Great Britain, espe- 
cially on the N.W. coast, 24-26 Aug. 1891. 

Destructive storm off Nova Scotia, about 20 vessels 
wrecked, with loss of life, about 9 Sept. 1891. 

Great storm throughout S. Spain (which sec), n-13 Sept. 
1891. 

Violent storms with loss of life in midland and northern 
English counties, and parts of Scotland, 20, 21 Sept. 
1891. 

Violent cyclone over the British Isles ; much destruc- 
tion of houses, shipping, trees, &c. ; moderate loss of 
life, 13-15 Oct. 1891. 

Severe storm on the S. and W. coasts of England, and in 
Spain and S. France, 22-24 Oct. 1891. 

Destructive cyclone in the bay of Bengal, <fec., with loss 
of life (see Andaman Islands and Wrecks), 2 Nov. 1891. 

Destructive gale in England, especially on the S. and W. 
coasts ; many wrecks, with loss of life, off Sandgate, 
Dover, Folkestone, St. Leonards, Brighton, &c. ; 
telegraphic communication greatly suspended 10 
(night), 11 Nov. 1891. 

Great damage by the gale at Boulogne, Paris, Havre, 
Roubaix, Rouen, Bilbao, Madrid, and other places, 
11 Nov. et seq. 1891. 

Violent gale at Liverpool and on the Irish coasts, with 
loss of life, 11 Nov. 1891. 

Violent gales in the channel, causing wrecks and loss of 
life, 7-11 Dec. 1891. 

Violent gales, causing wrecks and loss of life in the 
English Channel and France, 8, 9 Dec, over N.W. 
Europe and the British Isles, 10-13 Dec. 1891. 

Violent blizzard in Omaha and other N.W. states, U. S. A. 
26 Dec. 1891. 

Destructive cyclone in Georgia, 6 Jan. 1892. 

Disastrous blizzard in Wisconsin, Minnesota, and North 
Dakota, 9, 10 March, 1892. 

Destructive tornado in the N.W. states, U.S.A., above 
30 persons killed, 31 March. 1892. 

Disastrous hurricane in Mauritius (which see), 29 April, 
1892. 

Destructive storms in Minnesota, &c, and in Canada, 
with great loss of life, 15, 16, June, 1892. 

See United States and Pennsylvania, 1889. 

STORTHING, the Norwegian parliament, 
said to have been, first held at Bergen by Haco "V. 
in 1223. 



STOVES. 



927 



STEATHCLUYD. 



STOVES. The ancients used stoves which 
concealed the fire, as the German stoves yet do. 
They lighted the fire also in a large tube in the 
middle of the room, the roof being open. Apart- 
ments were warmed by portable braziers. Stoves 
on this old principle, improved, continue in use in 
many houses and public establishments in England, 
and generally on the continent. Dr. Franklin and 
count Eumford (who invented a stove) pointed out 
the waste of fuel in our open fires ; and Dr. Neil 
Amott patented his " improvements in the produc- 
tion and agency of heat," 14 Nov. 182 1. Dr. C. 
William Siemens described his smokeless stove in 
'■'■Nature'" for 11 Nov. 1880. See Chimneys, and 
Cottager' s Stove. 
Mr. T. Pridgin Teale publishes his inventions, in which 

he revives the principles of count Rumford with 

additions, 1885-6. 

STOWMAEKET EXPLOSION, see Gun- 
Cotton, 187 1. 

STEAIGHT-OUT DEMOCEATS, a party 
which advocated limiting the powers of a govern- 
ment to police purposes arose in the United States 
of America in 1872, and nominated Charles O'Connor 
for the presidency. A state convention was con- 
voked to meet at Harrisburg, 16 Oct. 1872. 

STEAITS SETTLEMENTS, including 
Malacca, Penang or Prince of Wales island, and 
Singapore, secured to Great Britain in 1824, were 
made a separate dependency in 1853, and placed 
under the governor-general of India. They were 
separated from India, and constituted an indepen- 
dent settlement by an act passed 10 Aug. 1866, 
which took effect April, 1867. Governor, sir Harry 
St. George Ord, 1867 ; sir Andrew Clarke, 1873 ; 
sir William F. D. Jervois, Oct. 1875 ; sir W. C. F. 
Eobinson, 1877 ! & 1 Frederick A. Weld, 1880 ; sir 
Cecil Clementi-Smith, Aug. 1887. Population, 
1891, 506,577. 

Singapore, the capital, founded by sir T. Stamford 
Raffles in 1819, who compiled the constitution, 
laws, &c. 
Traders complained to Sir H. Ord, governor, who 

said they must submit to their risks . . . 1872 
Sir Andrew Clarke made a treaty establishing Ab- 
dullah as sultan in place of Ismail, and a 
British resident as his adviser, with plenary 

powers at Perak Jan. 1874 

Mr. J. W. Birch, the resident, issues a proclama- 
tion, 1 Nov. ; is suddenly attacked and killed, 

2 Nov. 1875 

The Malays rise, and besiege the residency, which 

is relieved by Capt. Innes, 6 Nov. He is killed in 

attacking a stockade . . . .15 Nov. ,, 

The Malays thoroughly defeated by troops from 

Hong Kong and Calcutta, under Gen. Colborne, 

7 and 22 Dec. ,, 
Kinti taken ; Ismail retreats . . . 17 Dec. ,, 
British power supreme at Perak . . .27 Dec. ,, 
Major Hawkins killed in an ambuscade ; the village 

burnt 4 Jan. 1876 

Ismail surrenders, about 21 March; Birch's assassin 

hanged 20 May, ,, 

Great prosperity of the settlement reported, Aug. 1884 
Secret societies successfully suppressed by the 

governor, reported .... June, 1890 

Five prosperous protected states on the Malay 

peninsula are subject to the governor . . . 1891 
The neighbouring state of Pahang was much dis- 
turbed by turbulent miners and others in Dec. 
1891 at seq. Order only restored by the help of 
the British .... Dec. 1891— July 1892 
Substitution of the British rale for that of the 
sultan proposed July, ,, 

STEALSUND(Pomerania), a strongly fortified 
Hanse-town, built about 1230. It resisted a fierce 
siege by Wallenstein in 1628; was taken by Frede- 
rick William, of Brandenburg, in 1678; restored to 



the Swedes, 1679 ; re-captured by the Prussians and 
their allies, Dec. 1 7 15. It surrendered to the French 
under Brune, 20 Aug. 1807 > was awarded to Prussia, 
1815. 

STEAND (London). Houses were first built 
upon the Strand about 1353, at which period it was 
the court end of the town, or formed the communi- 
cation between the two cities of London aud West- 
minster, being then open to the Thames and to the 
fields. Somerset and other palaces were erected 
1547-1605.— Stow. The Strand bridge was com- 
menced 11 Oct. 181 1 ; see Waterloo bridge. The 
Strand improvements were commenced in 1829. 
Strand returns one M.P. by act passed in 1885. 
Strand improvements bill proposed by the " London 

county council," much opposed Dec. 1889 and Jan. 

1890; the bill brought in, but withdrawn, 15 Aug. 

1890. 

STEANGEES in house of commons ; see Par- 
liament, Hay, 1875. 

STEASBUEG, the Roman Argcntoratum, the 
capital of Alsace. Here Julian defeated the Ale- 
manni, 357, who captured it, 455. It was annexed 
to Germany, 870. Louis XIV. seized it 28 Sept. 
1681, and retained it by the treaty of Kyswick, 1697. 
The citadel and fortifications, which he constructed, 
have been so much augmented that Strasburg may 
be considered one of the strongest places in Europe. 
It was confirmed to France by the peace of Ryswiek 
in 1697, but captured by the Germans, 28 Sept. 1870, 
and retained at the peace, May, 187 1. The cathe- 
dral, an epitome of Gothic art, was founded by 
Clovis, and reconstructed by Pepin and Charle- 
magne. After destruction by lightning, 1007, it was 
principally rebuilt by Erwin de Steinbach and his 
son in the 14th century. The lofty tower was com- 
pleted in 1439. The celebrated astronomical clock, 
after a long stoppage, was repaired by M. Schwii- 
gue, and inaugurated 1 Jan. 1843. Population, 
1890, 123,499. 

An attempt at insurrection in the city was made by 
prince Louis Napoleon (afterwards president of 
the French republic, and emperor), aided by two 
officers and some privates . . 30 Oct. 1836 

It was instantly suppressed by their arrest, and the 
prince was slopped off to America by the French 
government. 
Strasburg invested by the Germans, principally from 

Baden, during the Franco-Prussian war 10 Aug. 1870 
Gen. von Werder assumed the command of the be- 
siegers, and the bombardment began 14 Aug., 
and a vigorous sally was repulsed . 16 Aug. ,, 
Gen. Uhrich, the commander, declared that he 
would not surrender except upon a heap of 
ashes; but after a heroic resistance, and when a 
breach had been made and an assault was im- 
pending, notice was given, and the place surren- 
dered at 2 a.m.; at 8 a.m. 17,150 men and 400 
officers laid down their arms . . 27 Sept. ,, 
The German loss was said to be 906 men, of whom 

43 were officers 28 Sept. „ 

The Germans entered Strasburg on the anniversary 
of its surrender to the French in 1681 by a sur- 
prise 30 Sept. ,, 

Uhrich received the grand cross of the legion of 

honour Oct ,, 

The invaluable library was destroyed and the cathe- 
dral much injured. About 400 houses were de- 
stroyed, and 8000 persons rendered homeless. 
Visit of the emperor of Germany well received ; 

but " France is still there " . . . 19 Sept, 1879 
William II. very well received . . 20 Aug. 1S89 

STEATFOED - UPON - AVON ( Warwick- 
shire), sec Shakspeare. 

STEATHCLUYD, a kingdom formed by the 
Britons, who retired northward after the Saxon eon- 
quest, about 560. It extended from the Clyde to 



STKATHCLYDE CASE. 



928 



STEIKES. 



Cumberland. The Britons in it submitted to Ed- 
ward the Elder, in 924. 
STEATHCLYDE CASE, see Wrecks, 1876. 

STBATHFIELD-SAYE, in Hampshire, in 
which is situate the estate bought of lord Rivers 
by the nation for 263,000?., and presented to the 
duke of Wellington, 1817. An act to provide a 
suitable residence for his grace and Ms heirs was 
passed II July, 18 15. 

STEATHMOEE ESTATES. Miss Bowes' 
of Durham, the then richest heiress in Europe' 
whose fortune was 1,040,000?., with vast additions 
on her mother's death, and immense estates on the 
demise of her uncle, married the earl of Strathmore, 
25 Feb. 1766. Having, after the earl's death, mar- 
ried Mr. Stoney, she was forcibly carried off by him 
and other armed men, 10 Nov. 1786. She was 
brought up to the King's Bench by habeas corpus 
and released, and he committed to prison, 23 Nov. 
The lady recovered her estates, which she had as- 
signed to her husband under the influence of terror, 
in May, 1788. 

STBATTON-HILL, Battle of, in Corn- 
wall, 16 May, 1643, between the royal army under 
sir Ralph Hopton, and the forces of the parliament 
under the earl of Stamford. The victory was gained 
over the parliamentarians, who lost numbers in 
killed and wounded. 

STEAWBEEEY, see Fruits. 

STEAWBEEEY-HILL, Surrey, the Gothic 
villa of Horace Walpole, constructed 1750, at Twick- 
enham, near London. In April and May, 1842, his 
collection of pictures and articles of taste and 
virtu were sold by auction for 29,615?. 8s. gd. 
The villa was enlarged by Mr. Chichester For- 
tescue, created lord Carlingford, and the countess of 
"Waldegrave, daughter of John Braham, the singer. 
She died 5 July, 1879. The place bought by baron 
H. de Stern, July, 1883. 

STEEET MUSIC. An act was passed in 
1864 for the better regulation of street music in the 
metropolitan police districts. 

STEEET BAIL-WAYS, see Tramways, 

STEELITZ, the imperial guard of Russia, 
established by Ivan IV. about 1568. Becoming fre- 
quently seditious, it was suppressed by Peter the 
Great ; great numbers were put to death, many by 
the czar's own hand, 1698-1704. 

STEIKES, see under Agriculture, Preston, 
London, 1859-61 ; Newcastle, Trials, Aug. 1867 ; 
Railways, Shipping and Goal, Cotton, Bristol, and 
other seaports and towns. 
Strikes in 1888, 504 (249 reported successful, 332 settled 

by conciliation). In 1889, 1,145 ; iu 1890, 1,028; in 

1891, 875; in 1892, Jan. 63, Feb. 48, March 39, April 

65, May 93, June 59, July 35. 
The tailors of London struck for increase of wages ; 

they yield April, 1834 

The strike of the calico printers of Glasgow . . „ 
Staffordshire potters' strike; obtained an advance 

after much loss . . Nov. 1834-March, 183s 

The strike of the amalgamated engineers took place 1852 
Strike of the London cabmen . . 27-30 July, 1853 

Builders' strike Aug. -Oct. 1859 

A strike among the silk-workers at Coventry came 

to an end 3° Aug. i860 

An unsuccessful attempt to get up a strike in the 

building trade began . . . -23 March, 1861 
A strike of the puddlers in the iron trade occurred 

in the spring of (see Iron, and Railways) . . 1S65 
Strike of London west-end tailors (about 2000), 

lasted . .22 April-Oct. 1867 



Great strike of colliers near St. Helens, April, 1867 ; 
about 40,000 men on strike . . . April, 186S 

Colliery strike at Thorncliffe, near Sheffield ; dread- 
ful riots and devastation . . . 21 Jan. 1870 

Strike of 10,000 miners at Le Creuzot, Burgundy, 
the property of M. Schneider ; soon over Jan. 1871 

Engineers' strike at Newcastle (see Newcastle) 

May-Oct. „ 

Strike of builders employed by Messrs. Brass and 
Jackson &, Shaw, for a 9 hours' day, at 9c?. an 
hour, 1 June ; after negotiation led to a look-out 
by the masters, beginning . . 19 June, 1S72 

The lock-out of the masons ceased, the carpenters 
going on, q July ; arrangements were made, and 
strike ceased about 27 Aug. „ 

Strike of London journeymen bakers, 23 Sept. -9 Oct. „ 

Strike of firewood cutters .... Sept. „ 

Lock-out of miners in Wales for their excessive 
demands ...... Oct. ,, 

Strike of London gas-stokers (see Gas) . 2 Dec. ,, 

Strike of about 60,000 colliers in S. Wales, refusing 
to submit to 10 per cent, reduction in wages, 
1 Jan. Strike ended . . about 25 March, 1873 

Powerful speech of earl Fitzwilliam to his colliers 
of Low Stubbin after a strike . . 5 June, , 

Strike of about 50,000 miners, South Wales, 2 Jan. ; 
led to a lock-out, 1 Feb. ; given up ; gradual re- 
turn of men to work end of . . . May, 

Strike of Warwickshire miners . . May-Aug. „ 

Strikes at Oldham and Dundee . July-August „ 

Strike of earl Fitzwilliam's colliers on account of 
the compulsory use of safety lamps ; he closes 
his mines and rejects their submission . Dec. „ 

Erith, strike of workmen of Eastons and Anderson, 
engineers, in opposition to piece-work, 18 Dec. ; 
supported by amalgamated engineers, Dec, 1875 ; 
on trial for conspiracy, the men plead guilty ; no 
sentence passed 14 July, 1876 

Strike of 1600 miners against 15 per cent, reduction 
of wages, Bolton . 24 Aug. ,, 

" Operative Spinners' Association " of N. and N.E. 
Lancashire propose to set aside the " standard 
list of prices " after 1 Nov. The masters there- 
upon announced a lock-out of about 80,000 men 
(after 23 Nov.), 26 Oct. The association submits 

18 Nov. „ 

Strike of Doulton's bricklayers respecting employ- 
ment of others on terra-cotta work (settled) Oct. ,, 

Great strike and lock-out of about 10,000 ship- 
wrights, &c, on the Clyde, May ; closed, Oct. ; 
the arbitrator, lord Moncrieff, decided against 
the men Nov. 1877 

Northumberland miners (about 12,000), began, 29 
May ; over about .... 12 June, „ 

Great railway strike, see United States . July, „ 

Bolton cotton workers' strike, about 1 Sept. ; closed 
by agreement . „ 

Railway strike on Great Southern and Western line, 
Ireland, about .... 14-22 Sept. ,, 

181 strikes, result mostly against workmen . . ,, 

Lock-out of about 8000 miners in Northumberland, 
about 15 Dec. 1877 ; closed . . . Feb. 1878 

Strike of masons of London (employed on the law 

. courts, &c), demanding increased pay and less 
working hours, 31 July ; some firms yield, about 
20 Sept. ; Germans and others engaged, Oct. — 
Dee. 1877. Strike ends (cost about 60,000?.) 

14 March, „ 

Strike and lock-out of cotton spinners in N. and 
N.E. Lancashire (about 120,000 men); masters 
required reduction of 10 per cent, on wages ; be- 
gan about 18 April ; ended by the men submit- 
ting to arrangements . . about 17 June, ,, 

Partial strike and lock-out of labourers in Kent and 
Sussex Oct. Dec. ,, 

Cotton strike at Oldham, at reduction of wages 5 
per cent., 25 Nov. ; submission . . 28 Dec. „ 

277 strikes in the year 

Midland railway ; sudden strike of goods guards 

3-20 Jan. 1879 

London engineers, 18 firms, against reduction of 
wages, begau about 7 Feb. ; closed . 4 Oct. ,, 

Durham coal miners, against reduction of wages, 
began 5 April ; stoppage of Cleveland and other 
iron works ; about 70,000 men unemployed, April ; 
settled by arbitration . . about 16 May, ,, 

Bristol builders' 2 months' strike ends . 30 July, „ 

Strike of cotton-workers at Blackburn, 15 May et seq. „ 



STRIKES. 



929 



STRONTIUM. 



Strike of Lancashire miners ; about 40,000 out, 12 
Jan. ; rioting with loss of life near Bolton, 25-28 
Jan. ; strike reported over . . 21 Feb. 

Strike in the potteries, 70 firms and 30,000 men, be- 
gun about 25 Nov. 

The men agree to arbitration ... 6 Dec. 

Ironworkers' strike at Hox>ton and Darlington, 

2 Feb.-o June, 

Strike of Staffordshire colliers, about 8000, 12 May, 
ends about 3 Sept. 

Great strike of South Staffordshire ironworkers at 
reduction of wages .... about 5 July, 

Many submit, about 17 July ; strike closed, 24 July, 

Cotton weavers on strike, opposition to the reduction 
of wages, in the N.W. districts, about 18,500, 18 
Dec.1883; men yield under conditions, about 8 Feb. 

Strike in the cotton trade ; mass meeting at Burn- 
ley reject the masters' terms . .16 July, 

Determined to maintain the strike against reduction 
of wages 24 July, 

End of Bavnsley coal miners' long strike 23 Dec. 

Strike of about 2000 miners ill west Cumberland, 

16 March, 

Strike of about half the colliers in S. and W. York- 
shire 1 April-May, 

Chorley, Lancashire, about 3,000 cotton weavers 

16 July, 
Cotton weavers on strike at Oldham (25,000 out) 

against 10 per cent, reduction, 20 July, et seq. ; 

. compromise 5 per cent, accepted for three months 

about 16 Oct. 

Strike of 4,700 men at Elswick Iron Works, New- 
castle ; ascribed to two managers, 2 Sept. ; closed 

17 Sept. 
Close of engineers' strike (2-J years) at Sunderland ; 

cost above 200,000?. .... Nov. 

Strike of shipwrights in the Tyne and Wear about 
6 Jan. -24 Feb. 

Increase of strikes in France, Belgium, Germany, 
and United States .... March, 

Shropshire ironworks strike (twenty weeks) ends ; 
masters yield 14 July, 

Northumberland miners' strike about 30 Jan ; terms 
arranged at a conference, and work resumed, 
twelve weeks .... 23-28 May, 

Strike (wrought nail trade) in South Staffordshire 
of about 15,000 operatives . . 12 Sept. 

Strike of engineers at Bolton respecting wages, 
overtime, &c. 14 May ; intimidation and boy- 
cotting of men at work ; strike closes by con- 
ciliation 27 Oct. 

Shoemakers' strike at Northampton ; about 20,000 
out 3 Dec. ; closed by arbitration, about 24 Dec. 

Strike of engineers at Blackburn, 21 weeks, closed 
by compromise .... 12 March, 

Strike of match-girls at Bryant and May's factory 
(see Luclfers) 5 July, 

Colliery strikes begin 22 Oct. ; about 30,000 miners 
on strike in S. W. Yorkshire and the Midland 
counties 24 Oct. ; the colliers' demands, 10 per 
cent, increase generally, acceded to, the owners 
gradually yield .... 27-31 Oct. 

Strike of coal miners in Westphalia (i/7< ich see) May, 

Strikes in Silesia, Bohemia and Belgium, May, June, 

Temporary strikes of seamen and firemen in the 
steamers in the ports of Glasgow (ended 27 June), 
Leith. Aberdeen (ended), and Dundee for an 
advance of wages, end of May ; gradually col- 
lapsing, end of June, et seq.; Liverpool May-July, 

Strike of the dock labourers of the port of London, 
demanding not less than 4 hours' engagement, 
pay to be raised from yl. to 6cl. per hour, and 
redress of other grievances, 15 Aug. ; they are 
joined by stevedores, lightermen, and nearly 
every class of riverside workers ; about 25,000 
men out, 22 Aug. ; negotiations of the London 
ami India docks committee (for tin; directors, 
Mr. C. M. Norwood, Mr. H. Morgan, sec.) ; with 
the dock labourers' strikes committee (leaders, 
Messrs. John Burns, Benjamin Tillett, sec, 
Henry Champion, and Tom Mann), demands re- 
fused, 27 Aug. ; 80,000 said to be out, 30 Aug. ; 
dock directors reject the compromise proposed 
by shipowners and others, 31 Aug. Close of the 
strike; greatly due to the intervention of the 
lord mayor Whitehead, cardinal Manning, (In' 
bishop of London, sir John Lubbock, Mr. Syd- 
ney, and others : terms of agreement, pay for 



IS«2 

1883 



ordinary work raised from 41?. to 6d. per hour, 
8d. per hour overtime, contract work to i" 
changed to piece work, with other concessions, 
to begin on 4 Nov., 14 Sept. ; work at the docks 

resumed 16 Sept. 1889 

[During the strike there were many processions 
of labourers and sympathisers through the 
streets. Great meetings woe held in Hyde 
park on Sundays 25 Aug., 1, 8, 15 Sept. There 
was much picketing; the extreme distress in 
the east end was relieved by liberal public sub- 
scriptions, and the Australian colonies gave 
about 31,000?. ; received in December from 
Melbourne, 3,792?. ; from Sydney 720?., Dec. 
1889.] 

Great strike of Jewish tailors and other operatives 
in East London, 3 Sept., about 10,000 out ; they 
demand an increase of pay, and reduction of time 
and labour to 12 hours daily ; settled by com- 
promise 2 Oct. „ 

Ridiculous strike of schoolboys for shorter hours 

., and fewer lessons, in Hawick, Dundee, Aber- 
deen, Glasgow, Greenock, Edinburgh, Cardiff, 
Liverpool, Leeds, Northampton, parts of London 
and Brighton, and other places . . . (Jet. ,, 

Strike of Messrs. Silvers' india-rubber works at 
Silvertown Nov.-Dec. ,, 

Many strikes and much agitation in London, and 
throughout the country . . Sept.-Dec. ,, 

Strike of about 1,000 of the stokers and others em- 
ployed by the South Metropolitan gas company, 
against " the bonus " system successfully resisted 
by Mr. G. Livesey, the secretary, 12 Dec. 1889 ; 
the strike ends 5 Feb. 1890 

Strike of about 11,000 bootmakers, E. London, 

29 March-29 April, „ 

Strike of Kentish bargemen and lock out of brick- 
makers, early March' ; closed . about 28 April, ,, 

Strike of Thames shipjoiners . 1 March-3 May, ,, 

Strike at Cardiff of the servants of the Taff Vale, 
Rhymney and Barry railways dockers and others, 
respecting time-working; the merchants and 
other employers, support the railway companies, 
7 Aug. ; traffic suspended, 8 Aug. ; great meet- 
ing, sir E. Read, M.P., president; no result, 9 
Aug. ; about 50,000 men out, 10 Aug. ; com- 
promise effected, the strike ends . 15 A.ug. ,, 

Strikes in Australia (see Melbourne and Sydney), 

Aug. et seq. ,, 

Strike at Manningham Mills, see Bradford, 1891. 

Great strike of colliers in Durham, on account of 
the eviction of miners at Silksworth, lord Lon- 
donderry's colliery, 20 Feb. et seq. ; strike ends, 

20 March, 1891 

Five weeks' great strike of cotton-spinners at 
Huddersfield, closed ... 20 March, ,, 

Close of the strike of the Scotch furnace men (21 
works) 5 March, ,, 

Strike in the building trades in London, leading 
firms; mass meeting in Hyde park, 3 May; re- 
ferred to arbitration, 20 Oct. ; award given (no 
increase of pay), about 19 Nov. ; work resumed, 

Nov, ,, 

Strikes in Belgium, France, Austria, Westphalia, 
Great Britain April, May, „ 

Many strikes in London and-the provinces, 

May et seq. „ 

End of 11 weeks' strike at Messrs. Wostinholm, 
cutlers, Sheffield .... 27 June, ,, 

Strike of tailorsat Southport, Liverpool, July ; the 
delegates of (lie Master Tailors' Association of 
the Fiule.l Kingdom at Liverpool, order a 
general lock-out throughout tic United King- 
dom unless the strikers return to work before 
the 29th, 22 July : settlement . about 29 July, „ 

End of the strike at Brooks' cotton mill, Olitll 
(25 weeks) ....'. 12 Aug. ,, 

Strike of Durham coal-miners, see under Con!, 

11 March, 1892 

End of three months' strike of seamen and Bremen 
at Sunderland 13 June, ,, 

KTROME CASE, see Trials, 1883. 

STRONTIUM. The native carbonate of 
strontia was discovered at Strontium in Argyle- 
shire, in 1 787. Sir Humphry Davy first obtained 
from it the metal strontium in 1808. 

?, o 



STRYCHNIA. 



930 



SUEZ CANAL. 



STRYCHNIA, a poisonous vegetable alkaloid, 
discovered in 1818 by Pelletier and Caventou in tbe 
seeds of the strychnos ignatia and nux vomica, and 
also in the upas poison. Half a grain blown into 
the throat of a rabbit occasions death in four 
minutes ; its operation is accompanied by lock-jaw. 
Much attention was given to strychnia in 1856, 
during the trial of William Palmer, who was exe- 
cuted for the murder of Cook, 14 June, 1856. 

STUART (properly Stewakt), House or, 

see under Scotland, England ; and Pretenders. 

A collection of portraits and relics of the lioxise of 
Stuart ras exhibited in the New Gallery, Regent 
Street, autumn, 1888. The surplus receipts amount- 
ing to about i,8oo£. were judiciously distributed. 

STUCCO WORK was known to the ancients, 
and was much prized by them, particularly by the 
Romans, who excelled in it.- — Lenglet. It was re- 
vived by D'TJdine, about 1550 ; and in Italy, France, 
and England in the 18th century. 

STUD Company, to improve the breed of British 
horses, held its first annual meeting, 20 Sept. 1873. 

STUHM (W. Prussia). Here Gustavus Adol- 
phus of Sweden defeated the Poles, 1628. 

STUNDISTS, a puritan sect in south Eussia, 
said to be descendants of Russian soldiers converted 
from the Greek church by German missionaries ; 
some were cruelly persecuted by the bigoted pea- 
santry of Vossnessensk in Kherson in 1879; thirteen 
of the ringleaders were tried for the crime, 8 Nov. 
1879. Strong repressive measures against the sect, 
with persecution, were taken by the government, 
autumn, 189 1 et seq. 

STURGES BOURNE'S ACT, 58 Geo. III. 
c. 69 (18 1 8), relates to parish vestries. 

STUTTGART (Wtirtemburg), first mentioned 
in 1229, was made his residence by count Eberhard, 
1320; enlarged by TJlric, 1436; and made capital of 
the state, 1482. It has been greatly adorned during 
the last and present centuries. International rifle 
meeting here, 1 Aug. 1875. Population, 1885, 
125,901 ; 1890, 139,659. 

STYLE, see New Style. 

STYLE ROYAL, see England, King, Majesty, 
and Titles. The styles of the English sovereigns 
are given in the later editions of Nicolas' s " Chron- 
ology of History." The Royal Style and Titles Act, 
giving power to add to the" queen's titles "empress 
of India," after much opposition in the commons, 
received royal assent 27 April ; proclamation issued 
28 April ; announced in India, by the viceroy, 19 
Aug. 1876. 

STYLITES, see Monachism. 

STYRIA (Austria), part of the ancient Noricum 
and Pannonia, was held successively by the Romans, 
Ostrogoths, and Avars. It was conquered by Charle- 
magne, and divided among his followers, styled 
counts, among whom the count of Styria, about 
876, was the most powerful. The count became 
margrave about 1030 ; and Ottocar VI., in 1180, was 
made duke. At his death, 1 192, Styria was annexed 
to the duchy of Austria. In 1246 it was acquired 
by Bela IV. of Hungary ; in 1253, by Ottocar II. of 
Bohemia ; after whose defeat and death, at March- 
feld, in 1278, it reverted to Rudolph of Austria, and 
was annexed to his possessions. Population 1890 
1,282,708. 

SUAKIN, a seaport town of the Red Sea on 
an island off its "W. coast. See Soudan, 1883, et seq. 



Under the rule of colonel Kitchener and lieut. 
Gordon, R.E., Suakin has become a nearly impreg- 
nable fortress and commerce has revived, 1888. 

SUBMARINE BOAT, see under Boats. 

SUBMARINE LAMP, one invented by 
Siebe and Gorman, has been in use since 1850, 
especially at Cherbourg. Heinke and Davis's lamp 
was exhibited, 1871. 

SUBMARINE TELEGRAPH, see Tele- 
graph (under Electricity). 

SUBSCRIPTION ACT, see Clerical Sub- 
scription Act. 

SUBSIDIES to the kings of England were- 
formerly granted in kind, particularly in wool ; 
30,000 sacks were voted to Edward III. on account 
of the war with France, 1340. — Anderson. Subsi- 
dies were raised upon the people of England by 
James I. 1624 ; but they were included in a bill for 
the redress of grievances, 1639. Four subsidies (the? 
last) were granted to Charles II. in 1663.* 

SUBWAY, see Tunnels. 

SUCCESSION ACTS, see Settlement. 

SUCCESSION, War oe (1702-1713), distin- 
guished by the achievements of the duke of Marl- 
borough and the earl of Peterborough, and their 
unprofitable results, arose on the question whether 
an Austrian prince or a French prince should suc- 
ceed to the throne of Spain. The British court 
opposed Louis, and Marlborough was victorious; but 
the allies withdrew one after another, and the French 
prince succeeded ; see Spain, and Utrecht. 

SUCCESSION DUTY ACT (16 & 17 Vict, 
c. 51), after much discussion, was passed 4 Aug.. 
1 8 S3- By this act the legacy duty was extended to- 
real estate, and was made payable on succession to 
both landed and personal property. Received year 
1887-8,830,503/.; 1889, 906,469/.; 1890,1,065,170/.;. 
1891, 1,209,227/. Additional duties imposed by 
customs, ifec., acts of 1888 and 1889. 

SUDBURY, in Suffolk, chartered by queen, 
Mary, 1554, was disfranchised for bribery in 1844. 

SUEVI, a warlike Gothic tribe, which, with the- 
Alani and the Visigoths, entered Spain about 408, 
were overcome by the latter, and absorbed into their 
kingdom about 584. 

SUEZ CANAL. The caliph Omar about 640 
opposed cutting the isthmus. A plan for a canal 
between the head of the Red Sea and the bay of 
Pelusium was brought forward by 51. Ferdinand de 
Lesseps in 1852. He undertook to cut a canal 
through 90 miles of sand, to run out moles into the- 
Mediterranean ; to deepen the shallow waters ; to 
create ports to receive the ships from India and 
Australia, and to adapt the canal to irrigation. The 
consent of the Egyptian, Turkish, Russian, French, 
and Austrian governments was gradually obtained, 
but not that of the British. A company was formed 
for the purpose, and the work commenced in 1858 
by Mr. Daniel Lange (knighted 1870). The cost 
was estimated at 8,000,000/. Engineer, M. L. 
Monteit. 

Mc Delacour, a French engineer, after viewing the 
works which were " employing 25,000 men in the 
desert," expressed his conviction that they would 
be completed in four or five years . . 7 Nov. 1862 

* England granted subsidies to foreign powers in seve- 
ral wars, particularly in the war against the revolutionists 
in France, and against Bonaparte. 



SUEZ CANAL. 



)31 



SUGAR. 



The waters of the Mediterranean admitted into a 
narrow channel communicating with Lake Tim- 
sah Dec. 1862 

The new town Timsali named Ismaila 4 March, 1863 

The works visited by the Sultan and by Mr. Hawk- 
shaw ,, 

The company compelled by the Egyptian govern- 
ment to give up employment of compulsory 
labour ; litigation ensued .... Aug. ,, 

M. de Lesseps reported that a vessel containing 30 
persons had been tugged along the canal the 
whole distance between the two seas . Feb. 1865 

Delegates from the British chambers of commerce 
visited the works, and reported that the success 
of the scheme was only an affair of time and 
money 17 April, „ 

The flood gates of the smaller Suez canal were 
opened, the fresh water of the Nile admitted ; a 
coal vessel passed from the Mediterranean to the 
Red Sea 15 Aug. ,, 

The Primo, 80 tons burden, passed through the 
canal from the Mediterranean into the Red Sea, 

17 Feb. 1867 

A loan raised in France ,, 

French and English vessels enter the canal Nov. 1868 

Mr. John Fowler, the engineer, reported the canal 
as suitable for steamers and mail traffic, but not 
for vessels requiring tugs . . . .5 Feb. 1869 

Water of the Mediterranean admitted to the salt 
lakes 18 March, „ 

The works visited by the prince and princess of 
Wales 23 March, ,, 

The canal successfully opened in the presence of the 
emperor of Austria, the empress of the French, 
the viceroy of Egypt, and others . . 17 Nov. ,, 

M. de Lesseps etitertained in London . 4 July, 1870 

Traffic in 1870-1 doubled 1872-3 

Charges upon vessels passing through the canal in- 
creased 50 per cent. ; the British appeal for a 
national conference April, 1873 

International conference on Suez dues met at Con- 
stantinople ; 21 sittings ; report dated 18 Dec. 
Proposals of the sultan accepted by European 
powers Dec. ,, 

M. de Lesseps protests ; the lords of the admiralty 
informed (by D. A. Lange) that the canal will be 
closed unless the old dues are paid, 22 April ; he 
gives way about .... 26 April, 1874 

Col. Stokes, after a survey, reported to the earl of 
Derby that the canal generally was in a satisfac- 
tory state 20 April, ,, 

British government authorise Messrs. Rothschild to 
buy for 4,080,000?. the Khedive's shares (176,602 
shares of 20?., out of 400,000) in the canal ; (5 per 
cent, to be paid till 1 July, 1894, after which divi- 
dends will be received) .... Nov. 1875 

M. de Lesseps in a circular says he regards "as a 
fortunate circumstance the powerful union be- 
tween English and French capitalists for the 
purely industrial and necessarily peaceful work- 
ing of the universal maritime canal." . 29 Nov. ,, 

The subject discussed in the commons, 14 Feb. ; 
money (4,080,000?.) voted, 21 Feb.; act passed 

15 Aug. 1876 

Neutrality of the canal claimed by Great Britain 

May, June, 1877 

Freedom of the canal secured by settlement of 
Egypt 1882-3 

Receipts about 5,000,000 francs, 1870; 60,523,815 
francs i832 

Second canal determined on by British shipowners ; 
syndicate appointed .... 10 May, 1883 

Arrangements made by the government for the con- 
struction of the canal and advancement of capital, 
to be virtually under control of De Lesseps' cmii- 
pany, announced, 11 July : great dissatisfaction 
and opposition in England, 12 July ; the proposed 
convention withdrawn by the government, 

23 July, ,, 

Sir Stafford Northcote's resolution against De Les- 
seps' monopoly negatived (284-185) 31 July, „ 
De Lesseps visits London ; agrees with the steam 
shipowners to enlarge tin 1 present canal, or 
create a new one, giving additional power and 
influence in the direction of the company, and to 

reduce dues, &c 30 Nov. „ 

The agreement approved by the British government, 



25 Feb.; the shareholders at Paris protest aj 

it, but ratify it (2608-556) . . . 29 May, 1SS3 

International commission sits at Paris ; English and 
French schemes discussed, April — May, 1SS5 ; 
parts of these schemes incorporated in treaty, 
May, 1885 ; last sitting .... 13 June, 1886 

The widening of the present canal decided (in, after 
investigation by commission, Dec. 1884 ; plans 
adopted by the commission 9 Feb. 1835; arrange- 
ments with the Egyptian government completed 

27 Dec. ,, 

Convention signed at Paris for England and France 
neutralising the canaland placing it under a joint 
commission ...... 24 Oct. 1837 

Adhesion of the other powers announced July ; 
ratified by the sultan 25 Oct. ; by the powers 

29 Oct. and 22 Dec. 1888 

Traffic passed through canal : 



Year. 


No. of 
Ships. 


Gross Tonnage. 


Gross Receipts. 


1870 


486 


435,9" 


£255,488 


1871 


765 


761,467 


464,091 


1872 


1,082 


1,439,169 


758,659 


1873 


I.I73 


2,085,073 


971,882 


1874 


1,264 


2,423,672 


1,029,492 


1875 


*,494 


2,940,709 


1,204,387 


1876 


i,4S7 


3,072,107 


1,229,157 


1877 


1,663 


3,418,950 


1,337,617 


1878 


i,593 


3,291,535 


1,272,435 


1879 


i,477 


3,236,942 


1,214,443 


Total I 
10 years. ) 


12,454 


23,105,535 


£9>737,65i 


1880 


2,026 


4,344,519 


£1,672,836 


1881 


2,727 


5,794,401 


2,187,047 


1882 


3,198 


7,122,125 


2,536,343 


1883 


3,307 


8,051,307 


2,645,506 


1884 


3,284 


8,319,967 


2,480,000 


1885 


3,624 


8,985,411 


2,601,998 


i336 


3,100 * 


8,183,313 


2,241,095 


i38 7 


3^37 


8,430,043 


2,314,494 


1888 


3,444 


9,437,957 


2,680,000 


1890 


3,389 


9,749,129 


2,679,340 



SUFFRAGAN BISHOPS. Power to ap- 
point them was given by parliament in 1534 to 
Henry VIII. as head of the church; see JJLs/top.i 
and Supremacy. 

SUGAR* {Saccharum officinarum) is supposed 
to have been known to the ancient Jews. Found in 
the East Indies by Nearchus, admiral of Alexander, 
325 B.C. — Strabo. An oriental nation in alliance 
with Pompcy used the juice of the cane as a common 
beverage. — Lucan. It was prescribed as a medicine 
by Galen, 2nd century. Brought into Europe from 
Asia, A. n. 625; — in large quantities, 1 150. Attempted 
to be cultivated in Italy; not succeeding, flic Portu- 
guese and Spaniards carried it to America about 
1510. 
The sugar-cane transported from Syria to Cyprus 

about 1148 ; from Madeira about 1420 ; and to the 

West Indies about 1506 

It is not known at what date sugar was introduced 

* Sugar, long considered a neutral substance, wil 
congeners, has ofdate years become the head of a nume- 
rous family, viz. : Cane-sugar (sucrose, from the sugar- 
cane ; boiled with dilute acids it becomes gl >. l-'i uit- 
sugar (from many recenl fruits); Grape-sugar (■ 

from dried fruits and altered starch): sugar "I milk ; 

Melitose (from eucalyptus, by Berthelot in 1856); s 
(from the berries of the mountain ash, by Pelou 1 
(from muscular tissue. Scherer) ; dulcost (by Lament); 
mannite (from manna, obtained from the fraxinus ornus, 
a kind of ash) ; qiiercite (from acorns); to these have been 
added mycose, by M. Mitseherlich, and mdeestos* ami 
reliulosc, by M. Berthelot. 

3 2 



SUICIDE. 



932 



SUICIDE. 



into England, "but it seems to have been prior to 
the reign of Henry VIII. Mr. Whittaker, in the 
History of Whalley, p. 109, quotes an instance in 1497 

A manuscript letter from sir Edward Wotton to 
lord Cobham, dated Calais, advertises him that 
sir Edward had taken up for his lordship twenty- 
five sugar-loaves at six shillings a loaf, "whiche 
is eighte pence a pounde " . . . 6 March, 1546 

Sugar first taxed (by James II.) 1685 

Duties on free and slave-grown sugars equalized, 

Aug. 1846 

Duties reduced and regulated .... Sept. 1848 

Duty increased (war) 1855 

Reduced, 1857, 1864 ; modified, 1867 ; greatly re- 
duced, 1 Aug. 1870 ; further reduced, May, 1873 ; 
abolished from 1 May, 1874 

Sugar industries committee recommend a protective 
duty on the import of sugar from certain coun- 
tries Aug. 1880 

Sugar-refining was made known to Europeans by a 
Venetian, 1503, and was first practised in England 
in 1659, though some say we had the art a few 
years earlier. The invaluable vacuum-pan was 
invented by Howard, 1812. Dr. Scoffern's pro- 
cesses were patented in 1848-50, but not adopted 
in Britain. 

Sugar manufactured from sorghum in United States 
Dec. 1882 ; success reported . . March, 1888 

Manufacturers and colonies protest strongly against 
French and German bounties on beet sugar 1882-9 

International Conference on Sugar Bounties, repre- 
sentatives from Germany, France, Austria and 
others, not United States ; first meeting, baron 
H. de Worms chosen president 24 Nov. ; a pro- 
tocol with a convention signed condemning 
bounties and recommending legislation for their 
abolition ig Dec. 1887 

The mission of baron de Worms to various courts 
reported successful Feb. 1888 

Final meeting, another protocol with convention 
signed 12 May, ,, 

Finally signed for Great Britain, Germany, Austria- 
Hungary, Italy, Russia, Spain, Belgium, and the 
Netherlands , declined at present by France, 
Denmark and Sweden ... 30 Aug. „ 

International commission to examine the laws to 
enforce, the convention meet . . 1 May, 1889 

Report adopted and signed at the 12th meeting ; 
to be referred to the respective legislatures 

1 June, ,, 

Bill for the adoption of the convention brought into 
the commons May ; deferred by the government 

17 June, „ 

A secret process of refining sugar by electricity said 
to have been invented by prof. Henry C. Friend 
of New York announced 1885. He succeeded in 
organizing the New York Electric Sugar Refining 
company to carry out the invention ; the scheme 
collapsed and occasioned much loss in America 
and England by credulous persons, the whole 
affair being an imposture 1888 

It caused a temporary panic in Liverpool Jan. ; 
Mrs. Friend, then a widow, and her daughter 
were arrested in Michigan . . . Feb. 1889 

William E. Howard, one of the company, was 
sentenced to imprisonment for "grand larceny " 

21 June, ,, 
For Saccharine, see Benzole. 

Raw Sugar imported into United Kingdom. — 1833, 
7,284,290 cwts. ; i860, 8,817,277 cwts. ; 1865, 
10,250,524 cwts. ; 1871, 12,126,508 cwts. ; 1875, 
16,264,711 cwts.; 1877, 16,620,944 cwts. ; in 1879, 
17.734,223 cwts.; in 1883, 20,366,627 cwts; in 
1887, 18,010,366 cwts. ; in 1890, 15,717,476 cwts. 

Refined Sugar exported from the United King- 
dom : 1876, 1,192,277 cwts. ; 1880, 965,446 cwts. ; 
1885, 994,353 cwts. ; 1890, 709,416 cwts. 
See Beet-root. 

SUICTDE (from sui, self; ccedere, to kill), the 
slayer of himself. The first instances recorded in 
Jewish history are those of Samson, about 1120, 
and Saul, 1055 15-C ' ^ ne Greek and Roman philoso- 
phers deemed it a crime, and burned the offending 
hand apart from the rest of the body. In the reign 
of Tarquin I., the Roman soldiers, thinking them- 



selves disgraced by being ordered to make common 
sewers, destroyed themselves, 606 B.C. Cato com- 
mitted suicide, 46 B.C.* In the Roman catholic 
church, in the 6th century it was ordained that no 
commemoration should be made in the Eucharist 
for such as committed self-murder. This ecclesias- 
tical law continued till the Reformation, when it 
was admitted into the statute law of England by the 
authority of parliament, with the confiscation of 
land and goods. Till 1823 the body of the suicide 
was directed to be buried in a cross-road, and a 
stake to be driven through it. A new act, suppres- 
sing the barbarous customs, was passed in 1882. It 
is now usually buried in consecrated ground With- 
out a religious ceremony. Thomas Cooper, the 
eminent Chartist, author of " The Purgatory of 
Suicides,'' an epic poem, published in 1845, died, 
aged 87, 15 July, 1892. Dr. Henry Morselli pub- 
lished "Suicides: an Essay," 1881. There were 
7,572 suicides in France in 1887. 

MEMORABLE RECENT CASES OF SUICIDE. 

Gen. Pichegru 7 April, 1804 

Miss Champante 15 Aug. ,, 

Sellis, valet of the duke of Cumberland . 31 May, 1810 
Abraham Goldsmid, an eminent merchant . . . „ 
Williams, supposed murderer of the Marr family 

and others 15 Dec. 181 1 

Lord French 9 Dec. 1814 

Marshal Berthier 1 June, 1815 

Samuel Whitbread, esq 6 July, ,, 

Sir Richard Croft 13 Feb. ,, 

Sir Samuel Romilly 2 Nov. 1818 

Christophe, king of Hayti ... 8 Oct. 1820 

Adm. sir George Campbell . . . .23 June, 1821 

Marquis of Londonderry .... 12 Aug. 1822 

Hon. colonel Stanhope . . . .26 Jan. 1825 
Mr. Montgomery in Newgate (see Prussic Acid), 

4 July, 1828 

Miss Charlotte Both 3 Jan. 1830 

Lord Greaves 7 Feb. ,, 

Colonel Brereton 13 Jan. 1832 

Major Thompson 13 June, ., 

Mr. Simpson, the traveller ... 24 July, 1840 

Lord James Beresford . . . .27 April, 1841 
Gen. sir Rufane Shaw Donkin . . .1 May, ,, 

The earl of Munster 20 March, 1842 

Lord Congleton 8 June, ,, 

Laman Blanchard 15 Feb. 1845 

Colonel J. Gurwood, editor of "Wellington's De- 
spatches " 25 Dec. ,, 

Rear-admiral Collard . . . .18 March, 1846 
Haydon, the eminent painter . . 22 June, „ 

Count Bresson 2 Nov. 1847 

Colonel King, in India . . . .12 July, 1850 
Walter Watts, lessee of Olympic theatre, 13 July, „ 

Rev. Dr. Rice 20 Jan. 1853 

Lieut. -col. Layard 27 Dec. „ 

Rev. T. Robinson (threw himself off Shakspere's 

Cliff, Dover) 16 Aug. 1854 

Dr. Franks, late editor of the Allgemeine Zeitung, 

after killing his son 3 Nov. 1855 

John Sadleir, M.P. (in 1852, a lord of the treasury'), 

by prussic acid ; on Hampstead Heath. (He was 

found to have been guilty of enormous frauds upon 

the Tipperary bank", <fee.) ... 16 Feb. 1856 

A. Smart, a watchmaker, threw himself from the 

whispering-gallery in St. Paul's . 14 March, ,, 
Charles Russell, esq., late chairman of Great 

Western Railway 15 May, „ 

Hugh Miller, geologist, author of The Old Red Sand- 
stone (insane, through overwork) . . 23 Dec. ,, 

* Three instances of self-destruction by fire : the philo- 
sopher Empedocles threw himself into the crater of Mount 
Etna ; a Frenchman threw himself, in 1820, into the 
crater of Vesuvius ; and an Englishman, who jumped 
into the furnace of a forge about the year 181 1. Plutarch 
relates that an unaccountable passion for suicide seized 
the Milesian virgins, from which they could not be pre- 
vented by the tears and prayers of their friends ; but a 
decree being issued that the body of every young maid 
who did self-murder should be drawn naked through the 
streets, a stop was soon put to the extraordinary frenzy. 



SUICIDE. 



933 



SULTAN. 



Major-gen. Stalker, C.B., of Indian army (14 March), 
and commodore Ethersey, of the Indian navy. 
(Both through physical and mental depression 
while on the expedition against Persia : see 

Bushire) 17 March, 1857 

Major Warburton, M.P. for Harwich, brother of 

Eliot, lost in the Amazon ... 23 Oct. ,, 
Henry M. Witt, a promising young chemist, at the 

Government School of Mines . . .19 June, 1858 
Dr. Sadleir, Senior Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin, 

July, „ 
Rev. G. Martin, chancellor of the diocese of Exeter, 

27 Aug. i860 
Lord Forth, son of earl of Perth . . . 8 Oct. 1861 
Win. G. Prescott, banker . . . .29 April, 1865 
Admiral Robert Fitz-Roy (see Neiu Zealand, and 

Meteorology) 30 April, ,, 

Col. Hobbs (connected with the suppression of 

Jamaica outbreak) on his way to England, 9 May, 1867 
G. W. Green, merchant, jumped off Clifton Suspen- 
sion bridge 11 May, ,, 

Dr. A. W. Warder, murderer of Ins wife, at Brighton, 

12 July, „ 
Thos. Lee, threw himself from the north tower of 

the Crystal palace 18 Feb. 1868 

Theodore, emperor of Abyssinia . . 13 April, ,, 
Mr. Stephenson, bettor on races ; the " leviathan 

book-maker " 9 Feb. 1869 

G. H. Townsend, historical scholar . . 25 Feb. ,, 

Lord Cloncurry 3 April, ,, 

Sir Robert H. J. Harvey, Norwich banker, 15 July ; 

died 19 July, 1870 

M. Prevost-Paradol, the accomplished French 
minister at Washington, formerly a correspondent 

for the Times 19 July, ,, 

Mr. Robert K. Bowley, 15 years manager of the 

Crystal palace company ... 25 Aug. „ 
Dr. Augustus Matthiessen, eminent chemist, pro- 
fessor at St. Bartholomew's hospital . 6 Oct. ,, 

Lord Walsingham 31 Jan. 1871 

Sir James Shaw Willes, justice of common pleas 

(overwrought mind) .... 2 Oct. 1872 

Earl Delawarr (insane) .... 22 April, 1873 
Rev. Arthur Holmes, dean of Clare College, Cam- 
bridge, a great scholar ; (overwrought mind) 

17 April, 1875 
George Lord Lyttelton, eminent scholar ; tempo- 
rary insanity ; 18 April ; died . . 19 April, 1876 
Abdul Aziz, sultan of Turkey, deposed 29 May ; said 
to have committed suicide (see Turkey, 1881), 

4 June, „ 
Dr. Sam. Butcher.bishop of Meath ; insane, 29 July, ,, 
Harriet Mary, dowager countess Howe ; insane 

through grief 29 Jan. 1877 

Raphael Brandon, architect . . .8 Oct. ,, 
J. W. Stevens, insane ; threw himself from whisper- 
ing gallery, St. Paul's ... 10 Jan. „ 
E. M. Ward, genre painter ;. insane . . 15 Jan. 1879 
Isaac Fletcher, M.P., F.R.S. . . .3 April, ,, 
Rev. W. Gunson, able tutor of Christ's College, 

Cambridge (insane) .... 30 Sept. 1881 
Carl Engel (musical archaeologist) . . 18 Nov. 1882 
Dr. William Whitfield Edwards, surgeon at Houns- 

low 27 Dec. ,, 

Count Wimpffen, Austrian ambassador at Paris, 

30 Dec. „ 
Morris Simeon Oppenheim, barrister . . 3 Jan. 1883 
Joseph Dimsdale, Gutter Lane, E.C. . 13 Jan. ,, 
Sir John Savage, formerly mayor of Belfast, 

15 June, ,, 
Rev. Alexr. Taylor, preacher of Gray's Inn n April, 1884 
II. T. Edwards, dean of Bangor . . 24 May, „ 
The eighth earl of Shaftesbury (insane) in a cab in 

Regent-street 13 April, 1886 

Fred Archer, celebrated jockey (insane) 8 Nov. ,, 
Louis II. king of Bavaria ". . . 13 June, ,, 
Nagayori Asana, Japanese prince, law student 

(melancholia) at south Kensington . 24 Dec. ,, 
John K. Cross, formerly M.P. and under secretary 

for India (1883-5) .... 20 March, 1887 
Dr. Ridley of Tullamorc gaol (see under Ireland,) 

20 July, 1888 
Archduke Rodolph, crown prince of Austria, 

30 Jan. 1889 
Richard Pigott (see Ireland) . . 1 March, ,, 
M. Dcnfert-Rochereau, manager of the Comptoir 

d'Escompte (sen Frniier) . . . 5 March, ,, 

Sir Wm. Tindal Robertson M.P. . 6 Oct, „ 



Sir Thos. Sidgreaves .... 23 Dec. 
Professor Lant Carpenter (insane) . . 23 Dec. 
The duke of Bedford (insane) . . 14 Jan. 

Charles Verrall Willett, M.D. (insane) . 6 March, 
Lord James E. Sholto Douglas (insane) 5 .May, 

Sen. Jose M. Balmaceda, president of Chili 19 Sept. 
Georges E. J. M. Boulanger (see France) 30 Sept. 
Dr. Philip H. Carpenter, at Eton College 21 Oct, 
Arthur Goring Thomas, musical composer (insane), 

20 March, 
Mr. J. H. Ferris, deputy-coroner of Cornwall, 

through grief 26 March, 

M. Henri Dupeyrier, African explorer . April, 
M. Anatole de la Forge, French author . 6 June, 

INQUESTS ON SUICIDES IN ENGLAND AND WALES. 

Males. 



18S9 
1800 
1891 



1802 



1856 
1853 



1865 
1866 
1867 
1868 
1869 
1870 



1874 
1875 
1876 
1877 
1878 
1879 



919 
909 



961 



1028 
973 
985 
113S 
1165 
"35 
i°73 
1057 
1099 
1106 
1170 
1270 

1253 
1279 
1461 

145° 

1440 
1388 
*437 
1537 
iS°4 
1663 
1672 
1720 
1603 
1610 



Females. 
395 
366 
396 
363 
346 
337 
359 
369 
387 
37i 
408 

397 
382 

39 1 
39S 
382 

383 
407 

443 
383 
43° 
480 
480 
478 
502 

5°7 
482 
484 
559 
555 
577 
535 
544 



Total. 

1314 

1275 

1357 
1324 
1284 
1335 
J 337 
1397 
1360 
1356 
1546 
1562 
1517 
1464 
1455 
1481 

*549 
1577 
1713 
1636 
1709 
1941 
1930 
1918 
1890 
1944 
2019 
1988 
2222 
2227 
2297 



SUITORS' FUND (in the court of chancery) 
in 1862 amounted to 1,290,000^. As this money has 
no specific owner, a proposal was made by govern- 
ment to apply it to the building of new law-courts, 
payment of all legal claims being guaranteed, which 
was directed by the "Courts of Laws Fees" act, 
passed 20 Aug. 1867. 

SULPHUR has been known from the earliest 
times. Basil Valentine mentions its production 
from green vitriol. Sulphuric acid (vitriol), pro- 
duced by him from burning sulphur, was introduced 
into England about 1720. Sulphur has been the 
object of research of many eminent chemists during 
the present century, and many discoveries have 
been made, such as its allotropic condition, &c. It 
is the inflammable constituent in gunpowder, and a 
deleterious ingredient in coal gas. The sulphur 
mines of Sicily have been wrought since the 16th 
century, but the exportation was inconsiderable till 
about '1820 ; in 1838 the trade increased so much 
that Great Britain alone imported 38,654 tons. In 
that year the Neapolitan government was induced 
to grant a monopoly of the trade to a French 
company; but a firm remonstrance from the British 
government led to a discontinuance of this impolitic 
restriction in 1841, which, however, gave a great and 
lasting impetus to the British sulphur manufacture. 

SULTAN", or ruler, a Turkish title, from the 
Arabic, given to Mahometan rulers and especially 
to the grand signior or emperor of Turkey. 
For the wreck of II. M.S. Sultan (see Navy of 

En ilo.nd) .... ... i33g 



SULTT. 



934 



SUNDAY. 



SULU, Sooloo or Soluk Archipelago, a group of 
above 60 islands in the Malay Archipelago. The 
Spanish under colonel Arolas, the governor, defeated 
the rebels at Maiburg, and burnt the town, an- 
nounced I May, 1887. 

SUMATRA, an island in the Indian ocean, 
called Java Minor by Marco Polo, and visited by 
Nicolo di Conti prior to 1449. Mainly on account 
of the pepper trade, the Dutch formed a settlement 
at Padang about 1649, an( i the British at Bencoolen 
about 1685. The Dutch possessions with Java were 
acquired by the British in 181 1 ; but were restored 
in 1816. In 1824 the Dutch acquired all the British 
settlements in Sumatra, in exchange for Malacca 
and some possessions in India. Restrictions on 
their progress in Sumatra were removed by treaty 
Feb. 1872. Severe fighting between the Dutch and 
the Achinese natives with varying results, mostly in 
favour of the Dutch, April 1873 to J 879- Dutch 
successful in war, peace announced, Aug. 1879. 
New -war ; great victory of the Dutch, 13 Sept. 
1882. Sumatra suffered much by the volcanic 
eruptions and earthquakes of 26-27 -A- u o- J 883. See 
Java. 

SUMMARY JURISDICTION Act, 42 & 
43 Vict. c. 49, 11 Aug. 1879. ^ amends the law 
respecting the jurisdiction of magistrates, in regard 
to fines, imprisonments, &c. It came into operation 
1 Jan. 1880. Amended 1881 and 1884. 

SUMPTUARY LAWS restrain excess in 
dress, furniture, eating, &c. The laws of Lycurgus 
were severe against luxury, probably 9th century B.C. 
Those of Zaleucus ordained that no sober woman 
should go attended by more than one maid in the 
street, or wear gold or embroidered apparel, 450 B.C. 
— Diog. Laert. The Lex Orchia among the Romans 
(181 B.C.) limited the guests at feasts, and the 
number and quality of the dishes at an entertain- 
ment; and it also enforced that during supper, 
which was the chief meal among the Romans, 
fie doors of every house should be left open. The 
English sumptuary laws, chiefly of the reigns of 
Edward III. and Henry VIII., were repealed in 
1856; see Dress. 

SUN.* Pythagoras taught that the sun was one 
of the twelve spheres, about 529 B.C. The relative 
distances of the sun and moon were first calculated 
geometrically by Aristarchus, who also maintained the 
stability of the sun, about 280 b. c Numerous theories 
were ventured during fifteen centuries, and astronomy 
lay neglected till about a.d. 1200, when it was 
brought into Europe by the Moors of Barbary and 
Spain. The Copernican system was made known in 
1530; see Copernican. System, and Solar System. 
Galileo and Newton maintained that the sun was an 
igneous globe. The transit of Mercury was observed 
by Gassendi. For recent discoveries, see Eclipses, 
Spectrum, and Venus. 



* The estimated diameter is 840,000 miles, and the dis- 
tance from the earth, till lately given as 95,000,000 miles 
nas been recently corrected to 94,000,000, by the result of 
the experiments and calculations of MM Pizeau and 
Foucault (1864). "The error corrected corresponds to 
the apparent breadth of a human hair at io S feet or of a 
sovereign 8 miles off."— Herschel. Distance computed 
by sir G. B. Airy from results of the observation of tran- 
sit of Venus ( 9 Dee. 1874), 93,321,000 miles, Oct. 1877 • 
92,600,000, June, 187S. From the transit of 188" by 
professor Harkuess(an American), 92,385,000 miles, Octo- 
ber, 18S8. The sun is now described as consisting of a 
solid or liquid nucleus, surrounded by a luminous en- 
velope (photosphere) over which is a dense atmosphere 
containing the vapours of various metals and other ele- 
ments ; see Spectrum. 



By the observations of Dr. Halley on the spot which 
darkened the sun's disc in July and August, 1676, 
he established the certainty of its motion round 
its own axis. 

Parallax of the sun, Dr. Halley 1702 

Solar spots were observed by Fabrieius and Harriot 
in 1610. A macula three times the size of the earth 
passed the sun's centre, 21 April, 1766, and fre- 
quently since. 

Dr. Wilson observed the motion of a spot . . 1769 

Herschel measured two spots, whose length together 
exceeded 50,000 miles .... 19 April, 1779 

Many sun spots observed .... early 1892 

Schwabe discovered that a cycle of changes (from 
maximum to minimum and minimum to maxi- 
mum) in the number of spots occurs in 11 years, 
confirmed by Wolf and others . . . 1826-51 

Mr. Warren de la Rue took two photographs at the 
time of total obscuration . . .18 July, i860 

Mr. James Nasmyth discovers the lenticular-shaped 
objects 011 the sun (termed by him " willow- 
leaves," by Stone "rice-grains ") . . 28 Aug. „ 

Red flames, or protuberances, during an eclipse of 
the sun, observed by capt. Stannyaii, 1706 ; by 
Halley, 1715 ; by F. Baily (hence termed "Baily's 
beads,") 1842. 

Determined by M. Janssen to be due to the accu- 
mulated hydrogen of the photosphere, at the solar 
eclipse (see Eclipses) .... 18 Aug. 1868 

Mouchot constructed a solar boiler for distillation, 
&c Oct. i860 

Mr. Ericsson proposed condensation of the sun's 
rays and their employment as a motive power, 

Oct. 1868 

The observations of the eclipse of 22 Dec. 1870 and 
12 Dec. 1871 led to the opinion that an unknown 
substance (represented in the spectrum by line 
1474) existed in the sun. 

" Solar physics " especially studied by Messrs. War- 
ren de la Rue, Balfour Stewart, <fec. . . 1865-6 

Apparatus for cooking by the condensed solar rays 
in the Paris exhibition 1878 

Solar eclipse well observed in the United States ; 
the corona much brighter than in 1871 ; 29, 30 July, „ 

M. Mouchot at Algiers, by a mirror, collected solar 
rays, and boiled water, drove an engine, &c, 
March, 1880 ; see under Heat. 

Intensely red sunsets and after-glow, and very red 
sun-rises, seen in England and other parts of the 
globe, Nov. and Dec. 1883 ; attributed by Dr. 
Meldrum, Dr. Norman Lockyer and others, to 
the volcanic dust projected by the eruptions of 
Rrakatoa (see Java, Aug. 1883), Dec. 1883 ; other 
causes, such as cosmic dust, were suggested. 
Similar sunsets in the autumn . 1884 and 1885 

Interesting photographs of the sun's corona exhi- 
bited by Dr. Huggius at the Royal Institution^ 

20 Feb. 18S5 

Eclipse of 19 Aug. 1887 not well observed through 
unfavourable weather, except at Moscow and 
other places in Russia and Germany. 

SUNCION, Treaty OF, between general 
Urquiza, director of the Argentine confederation, 
and G. A. Lopez, president of the republic of Para- 
guay, recognising the independence of Paraguay, 14. 
July, 1852. 

SUNDA ISLES, include Java and Sumatra 

(which see) . 

_ SUNDAY was the day on which, anciently, 
divine adoration was paid to the Sun. Among 
Christians it is commonly called Dies Dominica, or 
Lord's day, on account of our Saviour's appearance 
on that clay, after his resurrection. The first civil 
law that was issued for the observance of this day, 
combined it with that of the seventh-day Sabbath 
and other festivals (Easebius, Life of Constantine), 
and it .was followed by several imperial edicts, in 
favour of this day, which are extant in the body of 
Roman law, the earliest being that of Constantine 
the Great, dated 7 March, 321. See Sabbath, Sab- 
batarians, Sports, Book of &c. — For Sunday 
Letter, see Dominical Letter. 



SUNDAY LECTUEE SOCIETY. 935 



SUPREME COUET. 



The council of Orleans prohibited country labour . 538 

The Sabbath-day was ordained to be kept holy in 
England, from Saturday at three in the afternoon 
to Monday at break-of-day, 4th Canon, Edgar . 960 

Act of parliament, levying one shilling on every 
person absent from church on Sundays, 3 James I. 1606 

James I. authorised certain sports after divine ser- 
vice on Sundays (see Sports) 1618 

Act restraining amusements, 1 Charles I. . . 1625 

Act restraining the performance of servile works, 
and the sale of goods except milk at certain hours 
and meat in public-houses, and works of necessity 
and charity, on forfeiture of five shillings, 29 
Charles II 1676 

The Sunday act (of bishop Porteus) 21 Geo, III. 
c. 49, passed 1781 

Lord Robert Grosvenor (aft. lord Ebury), in- 
troduced a bill to suppress Sunday trading. (It 
met with much opposition and was withdrawn), 

April-July, 1855 

The Jews released from the compulsory observance 
of Sunday began 28 May, 1871 

Sunday act (1676) amended . . -17 Aug. „ 

Opening of public museums and galleries on Sun- 
day often proposed in parliament ; negatived 
(271-68), 19 May, 1874 ; (229-87) . 8 June, 1877 

"Sunday Society" established 6 Aug. 1875, "to 
maintain and enhance the value and importance 
of the English Sunday." Annual meeting; Dr. 
A. P. Stanley, the dean of Westminster, pro- 
fessors Tyndall and Huxley, &c, present 12 May, ,, 

The Brighton Aquarium Company fined for opening 
on Sunday, 27 April ; much agitation ; petitions 
to government for and against, May ; an act was 
passed to enable the Home Secretary to remit 
the penalties, 13 Aug., 1875; the company again 
fined 28 April, ,, 

Grosvenor gallery and other collections opened on 
Sundays, summer 1878 

Act for closing public-houses in Ireland on Sun- 
days, passed 16 Aug. „ 

Free libraries opened on Sundays at Manchester 
and other places Sept. ,, 

Proposed opening of museums and galleries in Lon- 
don, negatived in the lords (67-59), 5 May, 1879 ; 
(34-41), 22 Feb. 1880 ; (91-67) 8 May, 1883 ; 
assented to (76-62) . . . .19 March, 1886 

Opening of Guildhall library on Sundays, negatived 
by the common council . . . .16 Oct. 1879 

"Welsh Sunday Closing Act passed . . . .1881 

Alexandra Palace religious services on Sundays for 
a time Sept. -Oct. „ 

Jubilee memorial to the queen signed by 1,132,608 
women of England, requesting the prohibition of 
the sale of intoxicating liquors on Sundays, 

given in 30 Dec. 1887 

Protest of the bishops in convocation against 
increasing desecration of the Lord's day by the 

upper classes 2 March, 1888 

Closing of public houses in England on Sunday 
frequently negatived ; Sunday closing bill read 
second time in the commons . . 27 March, 1889 
Sunday Rest League formed at Paris . . . ,, 

SUNDAY LECTUEE SOCIETYwas 

founded 25 Nov. 1869. It began its proceedings by 
a lecture delivered by Dr. W. B. Carpenter at St. 
George's -hall, Regent - street, 16 Jan. 1870. Its 
success was reported at the first annual meeting, 
7 July, 1870. See Recreative Religionists. 

SUNDAY NEWSPAPERS, see Newspapers. 

SUNDAY SCHOOLS. Cardinal Sr. Charles 
Borromeo introduced Sunday instruction of children 
at Milan, about 1580; in the next century his example 
was followed in England by the rev. Joseph Allcine; 
by rev. David Blair, at Brechin, about 1760 ; by the 
rev. Theophilus Lindsey, at Catterick, Yorkshire, 
about 1763; and more especially organised by 
Robert llaikes, an eminent printer of Gloucester, 
conjointly with rev. Thos. Stock, 1780. Ludweeli 
Hacker set up a Sabbath school at Ephrata, Penn- 
sylvania, between 1740 and 1747. 
Sunday-school buildings exempted from rates . 1869 

Church of England Sunday-school Institute . . 1843 



Sunday-school union was founded in 1802; it sup- 
ported 4204 schools, 1878 ; 6,162 schools in . . 1892 

Monument in memory of twelve originators of Sun- 
day-schools, Essex-street, Strand (names in- 
scribed, 1st., cardinal Borromeo, Milan, 1580; 
last, rev. Thomas Stock and Robert Raikes, 
Gloucester, 1780) ; inaugurated by Henry Richard, 
M.P., the Italian ambassador, and others 26 June, 1880 

National centenary celebration of the establishment 
of Sunday-schools, in London, <fec, promoted by 
the royal family, archbishop of Canterbury, the 
lord mayor, and others . 27 June — 3 July, ,, 

Grand reception of scholars at Lambeth palace-gar- 
dens by the archbishop ; prince and princess of 

Wales, cfec, present 3 July, ,, 

See Education, and Sabbath Schools. 

SUNDEELAND, seaport, N.E. Durham, 
anciently South Wearino', made a borough by Re- 
form Bill, 1832. Returns two members (1885). 
The magnificent bridge over the "Wear, designed 
by Wilson, 236 feet in span, was built 1 793-6. 
Population, 1881, 1 16,542 -,"1891, 130,921. 
On 16 June, 1883, 186 children were crushed to death 
against a doorway whilst rushing down from a gallery 
in Victoria Hall to obtain toys given away by Fay, a 
conjuror, at the close of his performances. 
Great distress of the unemployed, Sept. et seq. 1884. 
See Strikes, 1892. 

SUNDEELAND ADMINISTEATION, 

formed in 1718, arose out of a modification of the 

Stanhope ministry. After various changes, it was 

broken up in 1 721. 

Charles, earl of Sunderland, first lord of the treasury. 

Earl Cowper, lord chancellor. 

Earl Stanhope and Mr. Craggs, secretaries. 

Mr. Aislabie, chancellor of the exchequer, <fcc. 

SUNDEELAND LIBEAEY, see under 
Libraries. 

SUN DIALS, see Dials. 

SUNNITES, or SONNITES (ivhich see). 

SUNSHINE EECOEDEE, a sphere of 
glass so disposed as to char a marked piece of paper, 
by concentrating the sun's rays. The instrument 
(invented by Mr. J. F. Campbell in 1857), in its 
present form was devised by prof. G. G. Stokes, 
and made by Mr. R. J. Lecky (1880). A more deli- 
cate form of instrument for recording photometri- 
cally the duration and intensity of sunshine has 
been invented by Mr. J. B. Jordan, 1884 ; much 
improved, April, 1888. 

SUPEEANNUATION ACTS for the Civil 
Service were passed in April, 1859, Aug. 1866, Juno, 
1892. 

SUPPEE, see Lord's Supper. 

SUPEEMACY over the church was claimed 
by pope Gclasius I. as bishop of Rome, 494. On 
ic Jan. 1535, Henry VIII. by virtue of the act 26 
Hen. VIII. c. 1, formally assumed the style of "on 
earth supreme head of the church of England," 
which was retained by Edward VI., Mary I. (for a 
time), but was refused by Elizabeth, and has never 
been revived by succeeding sovereigns. The 
bishop of Rochester (Fisher) and the ex-lord 
chancellor (sir Thomas More) and many others 
were beheaded for denying the king's supre- 
macy in 1535; and in 1578, John Nelson, a priest, 
and Thomas Sherwood, a young layman, were 
executed at Tyburn for the same offence. The " acl 
of Supremacy," repealed by 1 & 2 Phil, and Mary, 
c. 8 (1554), was re-enacted 1 Eliz. e. 1 (i550)- 

SUPEEME COUET OF JUDICATURE 

was constituted by the Judicature Act 36 & 3; 

I Vict. c. 66, passed 5 Aug. 1873, to come into opera- 

I tion I Nov. 1874. In 1874 this was deferred to 



SUPEEME COUET. 



936 



SURINAM. 



I Nov. 1875. The " Council of Judges " appointed 

by this act met to consider questions relating to the 

reform of the law, 18 Jan. 1892. See under Judges. 

The existing courts were to be united into One 
Supreme Court, divided into the High Court of 
Justice and the Court of Appeal. The High Court 
to consist of the lord chancellor, the two lord chief 
justices, the vice-chancellors, and the other 
judges: (hereafter the court to consist of 21 judges.) 

Five divisions : 1. Chancery, 2. Queen's Bench, 3. 
Common Pleas, 4. Exchequer, and 5. Probate, 
Divorce, and Admiralty ; subject to alteration. 

The Court of Appeal to consist of five ex-officio 
judges (viz. , lord chancellor, two lord chief jus- 
tices, lord chief baron, master of the rolls), and 
such others as may be appointed (§§ 20, 21, 22). 

Appeals to the house of lords or the judicial com- 
mittee of the privy council to be discontinued. 

Law and equity to be concurrently administered ; 
law terms abolished ; and sittings in vacation pro- 
vided for. See under Terms. 

The act passed n Aug., 1S7S, suspended §§ 20, 21, 
and 55, converted the proposed court of appeal 
into an intermediate court till 1 Nov., 1876. (See 
below). 

The Supreme Court of Judicature (comprising the 
High Court of Justice, Chancery division, Queen's 
Bench, Common Pleas, and Exchequer subdivi- 
sions, Probate, Divorce, and Admiralty division 
(all which see) began .... 2 Nov. 1875 

After one term, it was said in the Times, " Its opera- 
tion has tended to economise judicial power and 
to prevent delay of justice " . . 29 Nov. „ 

By the Appellate Jurisdiction Act (1876) the house 
of lords retains its powers as a court of ultimate 
appeal ; the court to consist of the lord chancel- 
lor, two lords of appeal (to be created peers for 
life, with 6000J. salary) and any peers who are or 
have been lawyers. Act to come into opera- 
tion 1 Nov. 1876 

The court may sit during prorogation of parliament. 
The statute relating to the judicial committee of 
the privy council and to the intermediate court 
of appeal is amended ,, 

By this act also the Queen's Bench, Common Pleas, 
and Exchequer divisions of the Supreme Court 
are converted into 15 courts of first instance or 
primary courts. 

Additional judge for chancery division appointed. 

Style of ordinary judges :— of the court of appeal to 
be, "lord justices of the appeal;" other judges, 
"justices of the high court;" by act passed 

24 April, 1877 

An amendment act (42 <& 43 Vict. c. 78), relating to 
offices, fees, <fcc, passed ... 15 Aug. 1879 

At a meeting of the judges it was resolved to recom- 
mend the abolition of the exchequer and common 
pleas, and their consolidation into one, termed the 
"queen's bench division," under the lord chief 
justice of England, 30 Nov. ; order in council 

16 Dec. 1880 

Carried into effect ; old divisions at an end ; judi- 
cature act carried out for the first time 7 March, 1881 

Further changes made by the act 44 & 45 Vict. sec. 
68, passed 27 Aug. 1881, by it the master of the 
rolls was made a judge of appeal only, and the 
chief justice of England was endowed with the 
powers of the chief justice of common pleas and 
the chief baron of the exchequer. 

New code of rules of procedure issued about 9 
July ; came into force 24 Oct. 18S3. See Circuits. 
Amendment act passed (combining other acts), 14 
Aug. 1884; other acts passed 14 Aug. 1890, 11 

May, and 5 Aug. 1891 

SUPEEME COUET OF JUDICA- 
TURE FOE IEELAND constituted by act 
passed 14 Aug. 1877. Amended by an act passed 
23 May, 1887, by which the titles of chief baron of 
the exchequer and chief justice of the common 
pleas are to be abolished at the next vacancies. 
Court of Appeal : ex-officio members, lord chancellor, 
lord chief justice of Ireland, master of the rolls, lord 
chief justice of common pleas, and lord chief baron of 
exchequer. Ordinary m.embcrs, two lords justices of 
appeal. 



High Court of Justice : Chancery division, lord chan- 
cellor, master of the rolls, vice-chancellor, and two 
land judges. 

Queen's Bench division : lord chief justice, and three 
judges. 

Common Pleas division : lord chief justice, and two 
judges. 

Exchequer division : lord chief baron, and two judges. 

Probate and Matrimonial division : one judge. 
See under Chancery and the other divisions. 

SURAT (E. Indies). Before the English East 
India company obtained possession of Bombay, the 
presidency of their affairs on the coast of Malabar 
was at Surat; and they had a factory here estab- 
lished under captain Best in 161 1. The Great 
Mogul had here an officer who was styled his ad- 
miral. An attack of the Mahratta chief Sivajee, 
on the British factory, was defeated by sir George 
Oxenden, 1664. The English were again attacked 
in 1670 and 1702, and often subsequently. The 
East India company, in 1759, fitted out an arma- 
ment, which dispossessed the admiral of the castle ; 
and, soon after, the possession of this castle was 
confirmed to them by the court of Delhi. Surat 
was vested in the British in 1800 and 1803. A 
fourth part of Surat was destroyed by fire 6, 7 
April, 1889. 

SURGEONS. Barbers and surgeons were united 
in one company in 1540 ; but it was enacted that " no 
person using any shaving or barbery in London shall 
occupy any surgery, letting of blood, or other matter 
excepting only the drawing of teeth." In 1745 
the surgeons and barbers of London were made dis- 
tinct corporations. The college of surgeons obtained 
charters in 1745, 1800, and 1843 (when it was styled 
the " Boyal College of Surgeons of England"), 1852, 
and 1859. Since that period, various legislative and 
other important regulations have been adopted to 
promote then- utility and respectability ; and no per- 
son is legally entitled to practise as a surgeon in the 
cities of London and Westminster, or within seven 
miles of the form er, who has not been examined at this 
college. The college in Lincoln' s-inn-fields was 
re-modelled in 1836, and the interior completed in 
1837. The premises were enlarged in 1852-3. The 
museum began with the Hunterian collection, 1800; 
and the library was founded in 1801. Mrs. Mary 
Emily Dowson, the first lady surgeon duly qualified 
to act, was invested with the letters testimonial of 
the Irish college of surgeons, June, 1886. See Ana- 
tomy, Physic, and Medical Council. 
Koyal college of surgeons, Dublin, incorporated 

17S6 ; Edinburgh 1803 

SUEGEEY. It was not until the age of Hip- 
pocrates that diseases were made a separate study 
from philosophy, &c, about 410 B.C. Hippocrates 
mentions the ambe, the ancient instrument with 
which they reduced dislocated bones. Celsus flour- 
ished about a.d. 17; Galen, 170; Aetius, TOO; 
Paulus JEgineta, in 640. The Arabians revived 
surgery about 900; and in the 16th century a new 
era in the science began ; between these periods 
surgery was confined to ignorant priests and bar- 
bers. Anatomy was cultivated under Vesalius, the 
father of modern surgery, in 1538. Surgeons and 
doctors were exempted from bearing arms or serving 
on juries, 15 13, at which period there were only 
thirteen in London; see Physic. 

SURGICAL AID SOCIETY, founded 
1862 ; supplies the poor with instruments, water- 
beds, &c. 

SUEINAM (Dutch Guiana), discovered by 
Columbus, 1498. The factories established by the 
English in 1640 were occupied by the Portuguese, 



SURNAMES. 



937 



SWANSEA. 



1643; by the Dutch, 1654; taken by the British, 
1799, 1804; and restored to the Dutch, 1802, 1814. 

SURNAMES were introduced into England by 

the Normans, and were adopted by the nobility 
about 1 100. The old Normans used Fite, which 
signifies son, as Fitz-herbert. The Irish used 0, 
for grandson, O'Neal, O'Donnell. The Scottish 
Highlanders used Mac, as Macdonald, son of Donald. 
The "Welsh used Ap, as Ap Rhys, the son of Rhys ; 
Ap Richard. The prefix Ap eventually was combined 
with the name of the father, hence Prys, Pritchard, 
&c. The northern nations added the word son to the 
father's name, as "Williamson. Many of the most 
common surnames, such as Johnson, Wilson, Dyson, 
Nicholson, &c, were taken by Brabanters and other 
Flemings, who were naturalised in the reign of 
Henry VI., 1435. M. A. Lower's " Dictionary of 
English Surnames" was published in i860. 

SURPLICES were first worn by the Jewish 
priests, and are said to have been first used in 
churches in the fourth century, and encouraged by 
pope Adrian, 786. " Every minister saying public 
prayers shall wear a comely surplice with sleeves," 
Canon 58. The garb prescribed by stat. 2 Edw. "VI. 
1547 ; again 1 Eliz. 1558 ; and 13 & 14 Chas. II. 
1662 ; see Ritualism. 

SURREY CHAPEL, Blackfriars-road, was 
built for Calvinistic dissenters in 1783; the rev. 
Rowland Hill, their minister, who died in 1833, 
was buried in a vault here. The congregation 
under the rev. Newman Hall removed to Christ 
Church, in "Westminster-road, July, 1876. See 
Lincoln Toiver. 

SURREY HOUSE MUSEUM, Forest 
Hill, containing the collections of Mr. F. Horniman, 
cost about 100,000^., presented by him to the public, 
was opened by sir Morell Mackenzie, 24 Dec. 1890. 

SURREY ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS 

(near London) were established in 1831, by Mr. 
Edward Cross, who brought hither the menagerie 
formerly at Exeter change. Various picture models 
have been exhibited here since 1837, viz., Vesuvius, 
Iceland, &c, accompanied by fireworks. In 1856, 
a company which had taken the gardens, erected a 
large yet elegant building for concerts ; the archi- 
tect being Mr. Horace Jones. On 19 Oct. 1856, 
when the hall contained about 9000 persons, attend- 
ing to hear the rev. C. H. Spurgeon, seven were 
killed and thirty seriously injured, by a false alarm 
of fire. It was burnt II June, 1861 ; see Fires. 
In 1862 the hall was temporarily taken for the re- 
ception of the patients of St. Thomas's hospital. 

SURTEES SOCIETY for publishing MSS. 
relating to the northern counties, established 1834 ; 
84 volumes have been published, 1889. 

SURVEY ACT, passed 12 May, 1870. See 
Ordnance Survey. 

SURVEYORS, INSTITUTION OF, Lon- 
don, founded in 1868, to promote the "knowledgi 
which constitutes the profession of a surveyor." 
Incorporated as " The Surveyors' Institution " in 
1881. The number of members, 1,200 in 1886. 

SUSA, or SnusnAN, capital of Susiana, a pro- 
vince of Persia, was taken by Alexander the Great. 
331 B.C. 

SUSPENDING POWER, see Dispensing 
Power. 

SUSPENSION BRIDGES are ancient in 
China. The Hungerford (or Charing-cross) suspen- 
sion bridge, opened May 1, 1845, was removed to 



Clifton and opened there, 8 Dec. 1864. Parliament 
empowered the commissioners of woods to erect 
(among other improvements there) a suspension 
bridge at Battersea, Sept. 1846 ; and many bridges 
of similar construction have been erected in various- 
parts of the kingdom. Lambeth and Westminster 
suspension bridge was opened 10 Nov. 1862 ; sec 
Menai Strait, Hungerford, Clifton, &c. 

SUSPENSORY BILL, the name given to 
"a bill to prevent for a limited time [to I Aug, 
1869] new appointments in the church of Ireland ; 
and to restrain, for the same period, in certain 
respects, the proceedings of the Ecclesiastical Com- 
missioners for Ireland." This bill was introduced 
into the commons by Mr. Gladstone, 14 May, and 
passed through committee, 5 June ; rejected by the 
lords (192 to 97), 30 June, 3 a.m., 1868. 

SUSSEX, see Britain. 

SUTLEJ, a river in N.W. India, the ancient! 
Hyphasis or Hypana, on the banks of which were- 
fought the desperate battles of Aliwal, 28 Jan., and 
Sobraon, 10 Feb. 1846 {which sec). 

SUTTEE, the burning of widows. This cus- 
tom began in India from one of the wives of 
" Bramah, the Son of God," sacrificing herself at 
his death, that she might attend him in heaven. 
Seventeen widows have burnt themselves on the 
funeral pile of a rajah ; and in Bengal alone, 70a 
have thus perished in a year. The English govern- 
ment, after long discouraging suttees, by the agency 
of lord William Bentinck, formally abolished them, 
7 Dec. 1829; but they have since occasionally taken 
place. The wife of the son of the rajah of Beygoon- 
thus perished, June, 1864, and several wives of sir 
Jung Bahadoor, minister of Nepaul, I March, 1877, 
Suttees still occur ; one, voluntary, at Poona, Nov. 
1890. 

About 20,000,000 women in enforced widowhood ; 
much profligacy, 1885. Legislative interference 
with the Hindoo marriage laws declared by lord 
Dufferin, viceroy, to be ineffectual and un- 
necessary ; moral influence progressing (see 
Brahmo Somaj, under Deism) announced Oct. 1886 

SUWANOW, or (SUWOROFF), a group of 
small uninhabited isles in the Pacific, about 450 
miles NNW. of the Samoan isles, annexed by 
Great Britain, 1889. 

SWABIA, a province in S. Germany; was con- 
quered by Clovis, and incorporated into the king- 
dom of the Franks, 496. After various changes of 
rulers, it was made a duchy by the emperor Conrad 
L, in 912, for Erchanger; according to some, in 
916, for Burckhardt. The duchy became hereditary 
in the house of Hohcnstaufcn in 1080. Duke 
Frederick III. became emperor of Rome, com- 
monly styled of Germany, as Frederick I. (usu- 
ally styled Barbarossa, " red beard), in 1 1 5 2 . 
Conradin his descendant, was defeated at the 
battle of Tagliacozzo (which sec), in 1268, and 
beheaded shortly after. The breaking up of the 
duchy gave rise to many of the small German 
states; part of Swabia is included in Wurtemberg 
and Switzerland. Swabia was made a circle of the 
empire in 13S7 and 1500. A league, composed of 
Swabian cities and states, about [254, was the germ 
of the great Swabian league, formed for the preser- 
vation of the peace of Germany, under the auspices 
of the emperor Frederick, in 1488. 

SWAN RIVER SETTLEMENT, see 
Western Australia. 

SWANSEA, Glamorganshire, an ancient 
Welsh town ; seat of the copper trade since 1719. 



SWAT. 



938 



SWEDEN. 



New dock opened by the prince of Wales, 18 Oct. 
1881. Population, 1881, 76,430; 1891, 90,423. 
The British Association met here Aug. 1848, and Aug., 

Sept. 1880. 
Lewis L. Dillwyn, 37 years M.P. for Swansea, died 

suddenly, 19 June, 1892. 

SWAT, or SVAT, a river, N.W. India. The 
Akhond, Abdul Ghafur, originally an austere Ma- 
hometan fanatic, about 1822, gradually obtained 
temporal power over the tribes in the hills near 
Afghanistan, dying in high reputation, about 1878. 

SWAZILAND, South Africa, a tract of about 

8,000 square miles, nearly surrounded by the 

Transvaal territory; population, about 60,000 

natives and 600 whites, 1889. 

Great disorders through the weakness of the king, 
Umbandeni ; influenced successively by opposing 
white factions, English and Boers ; the king dies, 

_,'.... 6 Oct. 1889 

To settle the government of the country, sir Francis 
de Winton was appointed British commissioner, 
sailed 8 Oct. ; at Pretoria, about 12 Nov. ; Boer 
commissioners were appointed . about 21 Oct. „ 

Boon, eldest son of Umbandeni, elected king ; 
Mr. Shepstone appointed to take charge of Euro- 
pean affairs about 23 Oct. „ 

Sir Francis de Winton and the Transvaal commis- 
sioners meet 100 head-men of the Swazis ; results : 
the independence of the nation to be preserved ; 
the accession of the king recognized ; the queen- 
mother to be regent during his minority ; Mr. 
Shepstone to be adviser ; the commissioners to 
govern the whites during their stay, to be suc- 
ceeded by 3 delegates ; a legal tribunal to be 
appointed to enquire respecting concessions of 
land to the whites . . . n Dec. 

The queen-regent (by Mr. Shepstone) proclaims 
submission to the commissioners, about 16 Dec. ; 
the commissioners appoint 3 delegates (British, 
Boer, and Swazi) to help the queen, pending the 
decision of the British and Transvaal govern- 
ments, and leave Dec. 

At a conference with president Kriiger at Blignauts 
Pont, it was agreed to defer the settlement for 
four months I2 March, 1890 

Independence of the Swazis re-affirmed by a con- 
vention ; a joint administration over the white 
settlers to be established with other conditions ; 
signed by president Kriiger ; reported 4 Aug. ; 
^ ratified by the volksraad. ... 8 Aug. ,, 

Col. Martin, British commissioner, introduced to 
Queen Victoria x July, ^92 

SWEABORG, a strong fortress in Finland, the 
Gibraltar of the north, 31 miles south of Helsing- 
fors; it is situated on seven rocky islands; the 
fortifications were commenced by the Swedes in 1748, 
and completed after Finland was united to Russia 
m 1809. On 6 Aug. 1855, the English and French 
fleet anchored oft' Sweaborg, and bombarded it by 
mortar and gun-boats from the 9th to the nth, 
causing the destruction of nearly all the principal 
buildings, including the dockyard and arsenal. Few 
casualties and no loss of life ensued in the allied 
squadron, but this success was not followed up. 

SWEABING on the Gospels, first used 

about 528, and introduced in judicial proceedings 
about 600.— Rapin. Profane Swearing made 
punishable by fine ; a labourer or servant forfeiting 
is., others 2s. for the first offence; for the second 
offence, 4.S. ; the third offence, 6s. ; 6 Will. Ill 
1695 ; see Oaths. 

SWEATING SICKNESS, see Plague. 
Sweating System, a term applied, especially in 
the east end of London, to the practice carried 
on by large tradesmen of entrusting orders to 
middlemen termed "sweaters," who employ 
men, women, and children (principally foreigners) 
to make up clothes, boots, and furniture in their 
own houses at excessively low wages with many 



evil consequences. Lord Dunravens motion for 
a select committee of inquiry was carried in the 
lords, 28 Feb. ; archbishop of Canterbury, earl of 
Derby, and others appointed 9 March, 1888. 
Painfully distressing evidence was obtained. 
The origin of the evil is attributed to the great 
competition in producing extreme cheapness. 
The new and foreign workmen are termed 
"greeners." It is stated that about 5s. are 
sometimes paid for a week of days of 14 hours, 
May. The sufferings of the Cradley Heath chain- 
makers, nailmakers, and others, were disclosed 
to the committee .... March, 1889 
Anti-sweating league formed in London. 1 Oct. ,, 
The fifth and final report recommends that where 
legislation cannot intervene capitalists should 
enquire into the way in which their work is 
carried on, with the view of improvement 5 May, 1S90 
Blue Book published .... 19 May ,, 

SWEDEN (N. Europe). The ancient inhabi- 
tants were the Fins, now the modern inhabitants of 
Finland, who retired to their present territory on 
the appearance of the Scandinavians or Goths, who 
have ever since been masters of Sweden ; see 
Scandinavia, and Norioay, 1891. The internal 
state of this kingdom is little known previous 
to the nth century. By the union of Calmar 
in 1397, Sweden became a province of Denmark, 
and was not wholly rescued from this sub- 
jection till 152 1, when Gustavus Vasa recovered 
the kingdom from the Danish yoke. He became 
king in 1523, and his descendants ruled till 
1809. The government of Sweden is a limited 
monarchy. The diet consists of four orders, the 
nobles, the clergy, the peasants, and the burghers, 
and meet every three years. The king is, as in 
Britain, the head of the executive. There are two 
universities, Upsal and Lund; and Sweden can 
boast, among its great men, Linnasus, Celsius, 
Scheele, Bergman, Berzelius, Thorwaldsen, and 
Andersen. Population (31 Dec. 1887) of Sweden, 
4,734,901; of Norway (1875), 1,806,900. Sweden, 
1890,4,784,675. Norway, 1891, 1,988,997. Sweden, 
1890-91, 4,911,894?.; Norway, 1891-2, estimated 
revenue, 2,733,333?. ; expenditure, 2,738,889?. 

Odin said to arrive in the north, and died . B.C. 

His son Skiold reigns 40 

The Skioldungs reign till Olaf the infant is baptized, 
and introduces Christianity among his people, 

about a. d. 1000 
Waldeinar I. of Denmark subdues Rugen, and de- 
stroys the pagan temples 1168 

Stockholm founded 1260 

Magnus Ladultes establishes a regular form of 

government 1279 

The crown of Sweden, which had been hereditary, 
is made elective ; and Steenchel Magnus, sur- 
named Snuek, or the foolish, king of Norway, is 

elected 1319 

Waldemar lays Gothland waste .... 1361 

Albert of Mecklenburg reigns 1363 

Treaty or union of Calmar (which see), by which 
Sweden is united to Denmark and Norway, under 

Margaret 1 397 

University of Upsal founded 1476 

Christian II. of Denmark, " the Nero of the North," 

massacres the Swedish nobility .... 1520 
The Swedes delivered from the Danish yoke "by the 

valour of Gustavus Vasa 1521 

Gustavus Vasa raised to the throne .... 1523 
He introduces Lutheranism and religious liberty . 1527 

Makes the crown hereditary 1544 

Gustavus Adolphus heads the protestant cause in 

Germany 1628 

He takes Magdeburg and Munich, 1630 ; slain at 

Lutzeu 16 Nov. 1632 

Rugeu ceded to Sweden by Denmark . . . 1648 
Abdication of Christina . . . 16 June, 1654 

Charles X. overruns Poland 1655 

Arts and sciences begin to flourish . . . . 1660 

University of Lund founded 1666 

Charles XII. "the Madman of the North," begins 



SWEDEN. 



939 



SWEDEN. 



his reign ; he makes himself absolute ; abolishes 
the senate, 1699 ; and defeats the Russians at 
Narva ....... 30 Nov. 1700 

Battle of Pultowa, where Charles is defeated by the 

czar of Russia (see Pultowa) . . . 8 July, 1709 
He escapes to Bender, where, after three years' pro- 
tection, he is made a prisoner by the Turks . _ . 171 3 
He is restored ; and after ruinous wars, and fighting 
numerous battles, is killed at the siege of Frede- 

rickshald 11 Dec. 1718 

Queen Ulrica abolishes despotism . . . .1719 
Bremen and Verden ceded to Hanover . . Nov. ,, 
Royal Academy founded by Linnaaus . . -1741 
Conspiracy of counts of Brahe and Home, who are 

beheaded 1756 

The Hats and Caps (French and Russian parties), 
1738-57 : put down by Gustavus HI. . . . 1770 

Despotism re-established 1772 

Order of the Sword instituted ,, 

Assassination of Gustavus III. by count Anker- 

stroin, at a ball, 16 March ; he expired 29 March, 1792 
The regicide was scourged with whips of iron 
thongs three successive days ; his right hand 
was cut off, then his head, and his body impaled, 

18 May, ,, 
Gustavus IV. dethroned and the government as- 
sumed by his uncle the duke of Sudermania 
(Charles XIII.) .... 13 March, 1809 

Representative constitution established . 7 June, „ 
Sweden cedes Finland to Russia . . 17 Sept. ,, 
Marshal Bernadotte, the prince of Ponte Corvo (one 
of Bonaparte's generals), chosen the crown prince 
of Sweden ...... 21 Aug. 1810 

Gustavus IV. arrived in London . . .12 Nov. ,, 
Swedish Pomerauia seized by Napoleon . 9 Jan. 1812 j 
Alliance with England . . . 12 July, ,, 

Sweden joins the grand alliance against Napoleon, 

13 March, 1S13 j 
Norway is ceded to Sweden by the treaty of Kiel, 

14 Jan. ; carried into effect . . . Nov. 1814 

Bernadotte king, as Charles John XIV. . 5 Feb. 1818 

Canals and roads constructed 1822 

Treaty of navigation between Great Britain and 

Sweden 19 May, 1826 

Death of Charles John ; his son Oscar I. king, 8 Mar. 1844 
Alliance with England and France . 21 Nov. 1855 

Banishment decreed against catholic converts from 

Lutheranism Oct. 1857 

Demonstration in favour of Italy . . 17 Dec. 1859 

Increased religious toleration . . . May, i860 

The king visits England and France . . Aug. 1861 
He is warmly received in Denmark . 17 July, 1862 
Treaty of commerce with Italy, signed . 14 June, ,, 
Demonstration in favour of Poland . . April, 1863 
Inauguration of free trade .... 1 Jan. 1864 
Sweden protests against the occupation of Sleswig 

by the allies 22 Jan. ,, 

Excitement throughout the country ; March : pre- 
paration for war ; (no result) . . . April, ,, 
Foundation of a " National Scandinavian Society" 
at Stockholm to obtain by legal means a confede- 
ration of the three kingdoms for military and 
foreign affairs, reserving independent interior ad- 
ministration Dec. ,, 

New constitution passed by the chambers, 4-8 Dec. ,, 
Commercial treaty with Fiance approved . Feb. 1866 
Severe famine in North Sweden . . Oct. -Dec. 1867 
Resignation of ministers, 9 April ; new ministry 

under M. Wachtmeister ... 4 June, 1868 
Irineess Louisa was married to Frederic, crown- 
prince of Sweden .... 28 July, 1869 
Neutrality in the Franco-Prussian war was pro- 
claimed 4 Aug. 1870 

The queen dies 13 March, 1S71 

Prince Oscar visits England ; lays foundation of a 

Scandinavian church at Rotherhithe 27 July, ,, 
Re-organization of the army proposed, Aug. ; nega- 
tived Oct. ,, 

Death of king Charles XV. . . . 18 Sept. 1872 

The diet opened by king Oscar II. . 20 Jan. 1873 

The king and queen crowned . . . 12 May, ,, 
Ministry under baron de Geer . . n May, 1875 
The king and queen visit Copenhagen and Berlin ; 

warmly received .... 26-28 May, ,, 
Ministry under Dr. Porssell . . . 19 April, 1880 
The king with the queen at Bournemouth for his 
health May, i83i 



Ministry of count Posse defeated on the army bill, 

resigns 25 May, 1883 

M. Thyselius appointed premier . . 13 June, ,, 
The crown prince made viceroy of Norway 

19 March, 1884. 
M. O. R. Themptander appointed premier 16 May, ,, 
The king visits Britain, July, Aug. 1884 ; at Con- 
stantinople 9 April, 1885 

New ministry formed under baron Bildt, 6 Feb. 1888 
Prince Oscar married to Miss Munck at Bourne- 
mouth, England ; his mother present 15 March, ,, 
The king visits England . . . early June, ,, 
Norway agitates for autonomy in foreign affairs ; 
opposed by Sweden Feb. 1892 

kings of sv,'edets (previously Kings of Upsal). 

1001. Olaf Sehotkonung, or Olif Schcetkonung the Infant. 
is styled king, 1015. 

1026. Edmund Colbrenner. 

iosi. Edmund Slemme. 

1056. Stenkill. 

1066. Halstan. 

1090. Ingo I. the Good. 

1112. Philip. 

1 1 18. Ingo II. 

1 1 29. Swerker or Suercher I. 

H55. St. Eric IX. 

1 161. Charles VII. ; made prisoner by his successor. 

1 167. Canute, son of Eric I. 

1 199. Swerker or Suercher II. ; killed in battle. 

1210. Eric X. 

1216. John I. 

1222. Erie XI. the Stammerer. 

1250. Birger Jarl, regent. 
,, Waldemar I. 

1275. Magnus I. Ladultes. 

1290. Birger II. 

1319. Magnus II. Smtek ; dethroned. 

1350. Eric XII. 

1359. Magnus restored ; deposed 1363. 

1363. Albert of Mecklenburg : his tyranny causes a re- 
volt of his subjects, who invite Margaret of Den- 
mark to the tlu'one. 

1389. Margaret, queen of Sweden and Norn-ay now also 
of Denmark, and Eric XIII. 

1397. [Union of Calmar, by which the three kingdoms 
are united under one sovereign. ] 

1412. Eric XIII. governs alone ; deposed. 

1440. Christopher III. 

1448. Charles VIII. Canuteson, king of Sweden ouTy. 

1471. [Interregnum.] Sten Sture, Protector. 

1483. John II. (I. of Denmark). 

1502. [Interregnum.] 

1503. Swante Sture, Protector. 
1512. Sten Sture, Protector. 

1520. Christiern, or Christian II., of Denmark, styled 
the "Nero ©f the North ;" deposed for his cruel- 
ties. 

1523. Gustavus I. Vasa ; by whose valour the Swedes are 
delivered from the Danish yoke. 

1560. Eric XIV., son ; dethroned and slain by 

1569. John III., brother. 

1592. SigisnumdIII., king of Poland, son; disputes for 
the succession continued the whole of this 
reign. 

1604. Charles IX. brother of John III. 

1611. Gustavus II. Adolphus, the Great, son ; fell at the 
battle of Lutzen, 16 Nov. 1632. 

1632. [Interregnum.] 

1633. Christina, daughter of Gustavus. Resigned the 

crown to her cousin, 16 June, 1654; died at 

Rome in 1689. 
1654. Charles X. Gustavus, son of John Casimir, COUllI 

palatine of the Rhine 
1660. Charles XI. , son ; thearts and sciences flourished in 

this reign. 
1697. Charles XII., son ; styled the " Alexander, "and the 

"Madman of the North ;" killed at Fredericks- 

hald, 11 Dec. 1718. 
1718. Ulrica Eleanora, sister, and her consort, Fr - 

rick I. landgrave of Hesse Cassel. Ulrica rcl.n- 

quishes the crown, and in 
1741. Frederick reigned alone. 
1751. Adolphus Frederick of Holsteir* < cended 

from the family of Vasa. 
1771. Gustavus ill. Adolphus, son ; assassinated by 

count Ankerstroin at a masked ball, 16 March; 

died 29 March, 1792. 



SWEDENB OEGI ANS . 



940 



SWITZEBLAND. 



1792. Gustavus IV. Adolphus, son ; dethroned, and the 
government assumed by his uncle, the duke of 
Sudermania. 

1809. Charles XIII. duke of Sudermania. 

[Treaty of Kiel (1814) by which Norway falls under 
the sovereignty of Sweden.] 

1818. Charles (John) XIV. Bernadotte, the French prince 
of Ponte Corvo ; died 8 March, 1844. 

1844. Oscar I., son ; born 4 July, 1799 ; died 8 July, 1859. 

1859. Charles XV., son ; born 3 May, 1826 ; died 18 Sept. 
1872 ; a poet ; brieve and impulsive ; much be- 
loved. 

1872. Oscar II., brother; born 21 Jan. 1829; married 
princess Sophia of Nassau, 6 June, 1857. 
Heir : Gustavus, son, born 16 June, 1858 ; married 
to Victoria of Baden, 20 Sept. 1881. 

SWEDENB OEGI ANS, or New Jerusalem 
Church, are those who adopt the theological teach- 
ings of Emanuel Swedenborg (born at Stockholm, 
29 Jan. 1688 ; died in London, 29 March, 1772). 
He claimed to have had his spiritual sight opened, and 
to have been introduced into heaven and hell by the 
Lord that he might disclose their true nature and the 
science of correspondences by which the internal sense 
of Scripture, which is the Word as it exists in the 
heavens, may be known to men : this he did in the 
Arcana Ccelestia and other works. 
His disciples first meet as an organized body in London 

in 1788. 
There were 70 churches in Great Britain in 1879. 
Their belief is that the sole deity is centred in Jesus 
Christ, in whom is a trinity of essentials ; that salva- 
tion is effected by faith and works combined ; that as 
man's soul is a spiritual body he will never resume the 
material body ; that the Last Judgment was effected 
in the spiritual world during Swedenborg's lifetime ; 
and that the Lord's Second Coming has taken place 
through the revelation of a new system of truth from 
the inner sense of Scripture. 
The Swedenborg Society instituted, 1810. 
The Missionary and Tract Society of the New Church, 

1821. 
Centenary of the establishment of the New Jerusalem 
church celebrated in London, 13 Aug. 1883. 

SWEET-BAY, Laurus nobilis, was brought to 
these realms from Italy before 1548. Laurus inclica, 
or Royal Bay, was brought from Madeira in 1665. 
The Sweet-Fern bush, Comptonia asplenifolia, came 
from America, 1714. Laurus aggregata, or the 
Glaucous Laurel, came from China in 1806. 

SWIMMING- Leander is said to have swum 
across the Hellespont, between Sestos and Abydos, 
about one mile ; and Lord Byron, and lieut. Eken- 
head did the same, 3 May, 1810. On 24 Aug., 1872, 
Mr. Johnson, styled the "hero of London- bridge," 
and swimming champion of the world, attempted to 
swim from Lover to Calais, but was prevented by 
cold. He was said to have swum seven miles in 
about sixty-five minutes. 

Public swimming bath on the Thames opened, 

6 July, 7875 

Capt. Matt. Webb swam from Blackwall to Graves- 
end, 20 miles, in 4 hours 53 minutes, 3 July ; and 
from Dover to Calais(22^ miles) in 23:! hours, 24-25, 
Aug. 1875 ; drowned while attempting to cross 
the rapids of Niagara . . . 24Ju.lv, 1882 

Agnes Beckwith, aged 14, swam from London 
bridge to Greenwich, 5 miles, in ill. 8min.i Sept. 1875 

Emily Parker, aged rs, swam from London bridge 
to Blackwall, 7 miles, in 1 h. 35 min. . 4 Sept. ,, 

Mr. Cavill swam from Dover to Calais in 12 hours 

20, 21 Aug. 1877 

Miss Beckwith said to have swum 30 continuous 
hours 7, 8 May, 1880 

Taylor wins the amateur swimming championship 
of Great Britain at Birmingham . 19 Aug. 18S2 

Davis Dalton, an American aged 3S, swam on his 
back across the Channel, accompanied by a life- 
boat from Boulogne to Folkestone 17-18 Aug. 1890 

Boy/on' s apparatus, see under Life Boat. 



SWING. Between 1830 and 1833 many hay- 
stacks and barns were fired in the rural districts of 
England, and attributed to an imaginary person 
named " Swing." Many persons were caught and 
punished. The probable cause was disputes between 
the farmers and their deluded labourers. 

SWISS GUABDS, Royal, in France, formed 
in 1616 ; massacred while defending the Tuileries, 
10 Aug. 1792; re-organised Sept. 1815 ; defeated 
during the insurrection, 28 July, 1830 ; dismissed 
by Charles X. Aug. 1830. 

S WITHIN' S DAY, ST., 15 July. St. S within 
lived in the 9th century; and, having been the 
preceptor to king Ethelwulf, was made bishop of 
Winchester in 852, and died 2 July, 862. The 
tradition states that it rained forty days in conse- 
quence of the proposed removal of his remains from 
the churchyard to the cathedral. 

SWITZEBLAND was in ancient times in- 
habited by the Helvetii, which see. The country 
was colonised by the Romans after Caesar's victory 
over the Helvetii in their invasion of Gaul, 58 b.c , 
and the people were gradually combined with the 
Eomans, and partook of the fortunes of their empire. 
The canton Schwt itz has given name to the whole 
confederacy. — The present national council is 
elected every third year, at the rate of one mem- 
ber for 2000 persons. The president of the con- 
federation is elected annually. The revised federal 
constitution was voted 19 April, 1874. — Population, 
Lee. i860, 2,507,170; 1870, 2,669,147; 1880, 
2,846,102; June 1888, 2,917,754. Revenue, 1890, 
2,704,850/. ; expenditure, 2,667,535/. 

" The Swiss Confederation," by sir F. O. Adams 
and C. D. Cunningham ; published by Mac- 
millan & Co 1889 

SWISS CONFEDERATION OF 1815. 



Uri, 1307 \ first con- 

Sehweitz > federa- 

Unterwalden ) tion. 

Zurich 

Berne 

Lucerne 

Solotlmrn 

Basle 

Grisons 

Aargau 

Thurgau 



Schaffhausen 

Appenzell 

St. Gall 

Glaris 

Zug 

Freiburg 

Tessins 

Pays de Vaud 

Valais 

Neufchatel 

Geneva 



Helvetia ravaged by the Huns 

Becomes subject to Germany 

Friburg built by Berthold IV 

Berne built 

Tyranny of Gesler, heroism of William Tell, and re- 
volt (demonstrated to be mythical), dated . 

Confederation against Austria ; declaration of Swiss 
independence 4 Nov. 

The men of Uri, Unterwalden, and Schwytz made 
a solemn defensive league and covenant for ever 
against the Austrians ; this is regarded as the 
foundation of the Swiss Confederation, 1 Aug. 
1291 ; said to have been confirmed by the leaders, 
Werner Stauffacher (of Schwytz), Walter Fiirst 
(Uri), and Arnold von Melchthal (Unterwalden), 
determined to free their country from a foreign 
j'oke 17 Nov. 

A malignant fever carries off, in the canton of Basle, 
1100 persons 

Form of government made perpetual . . . . 

Leopold of Austria defeated at Morgarten, 15 Nov. 

Lucerne joins the confederacy 

The canton of Zurich joins and becomes head of the 
league ......... 

Berne, Glaris, and Zug join 

8 cantons form a perpetual league . . . . 

Leopold II. of Austria defeated and slain at Sempach, 

9 July, 

The Austrians defeated at Nafels, 9 April, 1388 : 
make i>eace 



9C9 
1032 
1179 
1191 

1306 

1307 



1314 
1315 



1350 
1351 

1386 
1389 



SWITZERLAND. 



941 



SWITZERLAND. 



The Grisons league (see Caddee) .... 1400 

Second league of the Grisons 1424 

The third league of the Grisons .... 1436 

Battle of St. Jacobs on the Birs, near Basle (1600 
Swiss resist 30,000 French, and are all killed, the 
enemy losing 10,000) .... 26 Aug. 1444 

The Swiss defeat Charles the Bold at Granson, 5 

March ; and at Morat . . . .22 June, 1476 
And aid the duke of Lorraine at Nancj% where 

Charles is slain 5 Jan. 1477 

Swiss soldiers first enter into the pay of France, 

under Louis XI 1480 

Fribourg and Soleure join ; confederation formed . 1481 
Maximilian I. emperor, acknowledges Swiss inde- 
pendence 1499 

Schaffhausen and Basle join the union . . . 1501 
The Swiss invade Milan and defeat the French at 

Novara 6 June, 1513 

Defeated by them at Marignano . 13, 14 Sept. 1515 
The Swiss confederacy acknowledged by France and 

other powers 1516 

The Reformation begins at Basle ; the bishop com- 
pelled to retire 1519 

The Reformation adopted by some cantons ; battle 
of Cappel, Zwingli killed and reformers defeated, 

12 Oct. 1531 
The Grison leagues join the Swiss confederacy as 
allies ......... 1544 

Appenzel joins the other Cantons . . . . 1597 

Charles Emanuel of Savoy attempts Geneva by sur- 
prise, scales the walls, and penetrates the town, 

but in the end is defeated 1602 

[This circumstance gave rise to an annual festival 

commemorative of their escape from tyranny.] 
Independence of Switzerland recognised by the 

treaty of Westphalia (see Westpludia) . . . 1648 
Peace of Aargau, end of religious war . .Aug. 1712 
[From this period until the French revolution the 
cantons enjoyed tranquillity, disturbed only by 
the changes arising out of their various constitu- 
tions.] 

Alliance with France 25 May, 1777 

Strife in Geneva, between the aristocratic and demo- 
cratic parties ; France interferes . . . . 1781 
1000 fugitive Genevese seek an asylum in Ireland 

(see Geneva) 1782 

Swiss guards ordered to quit France . . . . 1792 
Helvetic confederation dissolved ; its subjugation 

by France 1798 

Helvetian republic formed , 

Switzerland the seat of war .... 1799-1S02 
The number of cantons increased to 19 ; the federal 
government restored ; and a landamman appointed 

by France 12 May, ,, 

Uri, Schweitz, and Uuderwald separate from the 

republic 13 July, ,, 

Switzerland joins France with 6000 men 24 Aug. 1811 
The allies entered Switzerland in the spring of . 1814 
The number of cantons increased to 22, and the in- 
dependence and neutrality of Switzerland 
secured by the treaty of Vienna . . . .1815 
Revision of the constitution of the cantons . . 1S39 
Law to make education independent of the clergy . 1830 
leads to dissensions between the catholics and 

protestants 1840-4 

Dispute about the convents of Aargau, 1844 ; to put 
education into the hands of the Jesuits, <fec. ; op- 
position of the protestant cantons . . . . 1846 
Lucerne, Uri, Schweitz, Unterwalden, Freiburg, 
Zug, and Valais (Roman catholic cantons), form a 
separate league (Sonderbuud) to support educa- 
tion by the Jesuits, &c „ 

Insurrection at Geneva against Jesuit teaching ; a 
temporary provisional government established, 

7 Oct. ,, 
The diet declares the Sonderbund illegal, and dis- 
solves it, 20 July ; the seven cantons protest, 22 
July ; the diet orders the expulsion of the Jesuits, 
3 Sept. ; communal assemblies held to resist it, 
26 Sept.; 3, 10 Oct. ; appeal to arms 21 Oct. 1847 

The diet prepares to repress the Sonderbund, 4 
JNov. ; Friburg surrenders, 14 Nov.; civil war; 
the Sonderbund defeated by gen. II. Dufour, near 
Lucerne, 23 Nov. ; end of the Sonderbund ; it sub- 
mits to the expulsion of the Jesuits, and the secu- 
larisation of monastic property . . 29 Nov. ,, 
New federal constitution . . . .12 Sept. 1848 
Dispute about Neufchatcl (which see) . . . . 1857 



Declaration of neutrality in the coming Italian war, 

14 March, 1859 

Mutiny and punishment of the Swiss mercenary 
troops at Naples ; the confederation forbid foreign 
enlistment July and Aug. ,, 

Swiss government protests against the annexation 
of Savoy to France . . . . 15 March, 1S60 

150 Swiss attempt to enter Savoy ; stopped by 
Genevese government ... 30 March, ,, 

M. Thorel, a Swiss, obtains a prize at the national 
shooting match at Wimbledon . . July, ,, 

The government forbid the Swiss to enlist in foreign 
service without permission . . .30 July, ,, 

Proposed European congress to preserve Swiss 
neutrality, put off July, „ 

Glarus destroyed by fire ... 3 May, 1861 

French troops occupy Vallee des Dappes, 28 Oct. ; 
the Swiss announce the violation of their territory, 

5 Nov. ,, 

Treaty of France settles the question of the Vallee 
des Dappes by mutual cession of territory ; no 
military works to be constructed on territory 
ceded ; signed 8 Dec. 1S62 

Serious election riots at Geneva, with bloodshed, 
22 Aug. ; federal troops arrive . . 23 Aug. 1864 

Federal troops quit Geneva . . . 11 Jan. 1865 

International Social Science Congress meets at 
Berne 28 Aug. ,, 

Revision of the constitution ; deliberations begin 

23 Oct. „ 

Nearly all the revised articles of the federal consti- 
tution rejected by the vote of the Swiss burgesses 

14 Jan. 1866 

J. J. Stehlen elected president . . 1 July, 1867 

Workmen's international congress at Lausanne, 

2-7 Sept. ,, 

Meeting of the federal assembly . 6-25 July, 1S68 

Queen Victoria visits Lucerne . . Aug. Sept. „ 

International peace and liberty congress, at Geneva, 
9-12 Sept. 1867 ; at Berne, 22-26 Sept. . . . ,, 

Neutrality in the Franco-Prussian War proclaimed, 

July, „ 

New constitution adopted by Zurich . 18 April, 1869 

The French army under Clinchant (84,000), crosses 
the frontiers and is disarmed . . .1 Feb. 1871 

The French soldiers interned at Zurich, and oppose 
German demonstrations . . 9-12 Mar. ,, 

Extraordinary session of the federal assembly to 
revise the constitution ... 6 Nov. ,, 

Plebiscite respecting a new constitution, re-organ- 
izing the army, and promoting uniform educa- 
tion, <fec. rejected by majority of 4967 out of 
509,921 ...... 12 May, 1872 

M. Favre engaged to construct a tunnel through St. 
Gothard in 8 years, for 2.ooo,ooo(. . . 8 Aug. „ 

The papal nuncio, Mermillod, expelled . 16 Jan. 1S73 

Revised federal constitution vottd (321,870 for, 
177,800 against) 19 April, 1S74 

Swiss national catholic church constitute/ 1 June, ., 

19 Catholic priests deprived for refusal to take 
constitutional oath .... .5 Sept. ,, 

International postal congress at Berne, 15 Sept. ; 
protocol signed (see postal convention) 9 Oct. ,, 

Civil marriage law and registration adopted by uni- 
versal suffrage (212,854 — 204,700) . . 23 May, 1875 

President of the national council for three years, 
J. Philippin, elected' .... 6 June, 1S77 

Continued deficit in revenue, announced 16 March, 1S78 

Death of James Fazy, eminent statesman, 6 Nov. ,, 

National voting for St. Gothard, railway and tunnel 
(161,000 majority) 19 Jan. 1S79 

Suicide of Herr Anderwert, the president elect, 

27 Dec. 18S0 

Opening of St. Gothard railway from Milan to 
Lucerne 20, 21 May, 1882 

Invasion of the salvation army (which sec), autumn, 
1 884, much resisted at Berne, Geneva, &c, Jan. et seq. 1S83 

The watch-tool making village, Vallorbcs, almost 
destroyed by lire . . . . 7 April, ,, 

National exhibition at Zurich . 1 May — 27 Dec. ,, 

M. Schenck elected president . . . Dec. 1884 

Village Of Mulligan, Aargau, destroyed by (i re, 23A pill, 1885 
Fifth centenary of t lie battle of Scmpach (9 July, 

1386) celebrated 5 July, 1886 

Grand funeral of Mr. Hertenstein, the president al 
Berne, who died alter a surgical operation, 30 
Nov.; vice-president Bernard Hammer elected 
president 13 Dec. 1C88 



SWOEDS. 



942 



SYNDICATE. 



The German government protests against the 
expulsion of its police officer, Wohlgemuth, 
from Switzerland, May ; the great powers pro- 
test against the asylum given to political 
criminals ; the Swiss propose new legal measures, 
June ; the Swiss government repels the charge, 
but prepares legal measures for redress, June, 1889 

The Swiss government in a reply note to Berlin, 
stands firm 14 July, ,, 

Loan for 25,000,000 francs, to supply new arms for 
the Federal troops, subscribed for by Berne 
alone reported 23 July, ,, 

M. Ruchonnet elected President for 1890 

about 10 Dec. ,, 

Destructive storms in the poorest districts, much 
distress 18-23 Aug. 1890 

Insurrection at Ticino, which see . 12-14 Sept. ,, 

Railway Accident near Bale ; by the collapse of a 
bridge several carriages of an excursion train 
were thrown into the river Birse. Above 70 
persons perish 14 June, 1891 

600th anniversary of the foundation of the Swiss 
Confederation celebrated in the province of 
Schwytz 1-2 Aug. „ 

Meiringen, canton of Berne, totally burnt; 2 deaths, 
about 2,000 persons homeless . . 25 Oct. ,, 

President, A. A. Lachenal . . . 1 June, ,, 

Bill for giving effect to the popular vote of July, 
affirming the right of the people to take the 
initiative in constitutional reforms, considered 
by the national council ... 7 Dec. ,, 

Dr. E. Welti, president of the confederation, 
resigns in consequence of a plebiscite on 6 Dec, 
refusing to purchase the Swiss railways 

reported 8 Dec. „ 

M. Walter Hauser, president . . .1 Jan. 1892 

The commercial treaties with Germany and Austria- 
Hungary adopted by the states council 28 Jan. ,, 

SWORDS- The Roman swords were from 20 
to 30 inches long. The broadsword and scimitar are 
of modern adoption. Damascus steel swords were 
most prized; the next the sword of Ferrara steel. 
The Scotch Highlanders, from the artificer Andrea 
di Ferrara, called their swords Andrew Ferraras. 
The large sword shown at Dumbarton castle as 
Wallace's is asserted to be one of Edward IVth's. 
The broadsword was forbidden to be worn in Edin- 
burgh in 1724. 

SYBAEIS, a Greek colony in S. Italy, founded 
about 720 B.C.; destroyed by the Crotonians about 
5 10 B. c. The people were greatly addicted to luxury; 
hence the term Sybarite. 

Archaeological investigations disclosed evidences 
of the existence of a great city and civilization 
anterior to the Greek invasion .... 1888 

SYCAMORE, or SYCOMORE TREE, 

In Mrs. Jameson's "Memoirs of Female Sove- 
reigns" we are told that Mary queen of Scots 
brought over from France a little sycamore tree, 
which she planted in the garden at Holyrood, and 
that from this have sprung all the beautiful groves 
of sycamore now to be seen in Scotland. 

SYDNEY, capital of New South Wales; 
founded by governor Phillip, on a cove on Port 
Jackson, 26 Jan. 1788, as a British settlement for 
the colony of convicts originally intended for Botany 
bay. It was named after lord Sydney, secretary 
for the colonies. Population 1891, 386,400. See 
Australia, New South Wales, Convicts. 
A legislative council first held . . 13 July, 1829 
Sydney erected into a bishopric (afterwards an arch- 
bishopric) 1836 

Lit with gas, the first place so lit in Australia, May, 1841 
ishop of Australia made bishop of Sydney and 

metropolitan 1S47 

University founded 1852 

Roman Catholic cathedral burnt, and valuable pro- 
perty destroyed .... 29 June, 1865 
Visited by the duke of,Ediuburgh . , Feb. 1868 



At Port Jackson he narrowly escaped assassination ; 
O'Farrell, a Fenian, who shot him in the back on 
12 March, was convicted on 31 March, and executed 

21 April, 1S68 

The duke sailed for England 4 April, and arrived 

26 June, ,, 

New cathedral consecrated . . .30 Nov. ,, 

Foundation of capt. Cook's monument laid by the 
duke of Edinburgh .... 28 March, 1869 

A conference of delegates from the Australian 
colonies met here for customs, postal and railway • 
purposes, without effect .... Jan. 1S73 

Exhibitions opened here, April, 1873, and 11 April, 1874 

Captain Cook's statue uncovered . . 2 Feb. 1878 

International exhibition opened by the governor, 
lord A. Loftus 17 Sept. 1879 

Direct railway to Melbourne completed . June, 1883 

Canon Barry consecrated bishop of Sydney and 
metropolitan 1 Jan. 1884 ; resigns, . . ' Dec. 1888 

Meetings of loyalists opposing the home rule 
delegates (Mr. Dillon, sir Thomas Esmonde, and 
Mr. Deasy, M.P.'s) May 18^9 

Death at Sydney of Mr. J. B. Watson (aged 64) 
termed the Australian " Quartz Reef King," said 
to have left to his family about 30,000,000?. the 
results of gold digging at Bendigo, Victoria, and 
other places and of railway and other specula- 
tions . • about 12 July, ,, 

Rev. canon William Saumarez Smith, D.D. , an- 
nounced as the new bishop and metropolitan of 
Australia, 9 Aug. 1889, elected 21 March 

arrived 30 Sept. i£go 

Strike of men connected with shi pping, about 
5,000 ; reported 20 Aug. ; rioting in Newcastle 
checked by military .... 27 Aug. ,, 

Conference of Australian employers, 9 Sept. ; 
labour conference . . . 11-24 Sept. ,, 

Great fire in Pitt-street and other streets ; esti- 
mated damage 750,000? 1 Oct. „ 

Departure of lord Carrington ; grand demonstra- 
tion in his honour . . . . 1 Nov. ,, 

The strike practically closed . . .5 Nov. ,, 

Reception. of the earl of Jersey . . 15 Jan. 1891 

Meeting of the National Australasian Federation 
Convention, see Australasia . , 2 March, ,, 

Strike of 5,000 miners of Broken Hill against con- 
tract labour 4 July, 1892 

SYLLABUS OF ERRORS in modem times. 
80 paragraphs divided into 10 chapters, issued by 
pope Pius IX., with an encyclical letter, 8 Dec. 
1864. It condemned heresy, modem philosophj', 
and liberalism in politics ; was forbidden to be read 
in French churches, and was generally opposed, but 
was adopted by the council at Home 1870. 

SYMPHONIES. Short pieces of instru- 
mental music between songs in operas ; early in the 
17th century. These were gradually developed by 
the great masters, such as Lulli, into independent 
pieces ; of these the symphonies of Corelli, Handel, 
Mozart, Haydn, and Beethoven are eminent 
examples. 

SYMPHONION, an improved form of the 
musical box capable of performing many more 
tunes, invented by Mr. Ellis Parr, 1887. 

SYMPIESOMETER, a species of barometer 
invented by Adie of Edinburgh in 1819. 

SYNAGOGUE (literally an assembly), a con- 
gregation of the Jews, and the place where such 
assembly is held for religious purposes. When 
these meetings were first held is uncertain ; some 
refer them to the times after the Babylonish cap- 
tivity. In Jerusalem were 480 synagogues. In 
1 85 1 there were in London 10 synagogues, in 
England and Wales, 53. A magnificent synagogue 
was consecrated at Berlin, 5 Sept. 1866; see Jews. 

SYNDICATE, originally a body of syndics, 
officers of a government or any ruling body ; the 
term is now frequently used as synonymous with a 
company or body of trustees, 1888. See Trusts. 



SYNOD. 



943 



SYRIA. 



SYNOD. The first general synods were called 
by emperors, and afterwards by Christian princes ; 
but the pope ultimately usurped this power, one of 
his legates usually presiding ; see Councils. The 
first national synod held in England was at Hert- 
ford, 673 ; the last was held by cardinal Pole in 
1555. Made unlawful to hold synods but \>y royal 
authority, 2^ Henry VIII. 1533; see Dort, and 
Thurles. 

SYNONYM, a word having the same or 
nearly the same meaning as another, as valour, 
courage. Books of Greek and Latin synonyms were 
early compiled. G. Crabbe's dictionary appeared, 
1816; Dr. P. M. Roget's excellent "Thesaurus of 
English Words and Phrases," 1852. 

SYPHILIS, a disease said to have been intro- 
duced into Europe at the siege of Naples, 1495 ; but 
was probably known to the ancients. 

SYEACITSE, S. E. Sicily, founded by Archias, 
734 B.C. The city gradually included five towns, 
Ortygia (an island, containing the citadel, or 
acropolis), Achradina, Tyche, Neapolis, andEpipolae. 
The ancient history is given in the article Sicily. 

Syracuse taken by the Saracens and ransomed 669 ; 

burnt by them 878 

Retaken by count Roger, the Norman . . . 10S8 
Destroyed by earthquakes in 1542, Jan. 1693 ; and 

nearly destroyed 6 Aug. 1757 

In the insurrection, Syracuse surrendered to the 

Neapolitan trooi>s 8 April, 1849 

SYREN, see Sirenc. 

SYRIA, a country of ~W. Asia. The capital was 
originally Damascus ; but after the battle of Ipsus, 
Seleucus founded Antioch. 

Alliance of David king of Israel and Hiram king of 
Syria ........ B.C. 1049 

Syria conquered by David 1040 

Liberated by Rezin 980 

Benhadad, king of Syria, makes war on the Jews . 898 

Benhadad II. reigns about 830 

Syria subjugated by Tiglath-pileser, king of Assyria 740 

Syria conquered by Cyrus 537 

And by Alexander 333 

Seleucus Nicator enters Babylon 312 

./Era of the Seleucidae (which see) . . . . ' ,, 
Great battle of Ipsus ; death of Antigonus, defeated 
by Ptolemy, Seleucus, and Lysimachus . . . 301 

The city of Antioch founded 299 

Antiochus, son of Seleucus, falling in love with his 
father's queen, Stratonice, he pines away nearly 
to death ; but the secret being discovered, she is 
divorced by the father, and married by the son . 297 
Battle of Cyropedium ; Lysimachus slain by Seleu- 
cus 281 

Seleucus foully assassinated by Ceraunus ; Anti- 
ochus I. king 280 

Antiochus I. (Soter, or Saviour,) defeats the Gauls . 275 
Antiochus II. surnamed by the Milesians Theos 

(God) king ■ . . 261 

Poisoned by Laodice 246 

Seleucus II. (king, 246) makes a treaty of alliance 

with Smyrna and Magnesia 243 

Seleucus III. Ceravmus (or Thunder), king . . 226 
Antiochus III. the Great (king, 223), conquers Pales- 
tine, but is totally defeated at Raphia . .217 
Again conquers Palestine, 198; but gives it to 

Ptolemy 193 

Enters Greece, 192 ; defeated by the Romans at 

Thermopylae, 191 ; and at Magnesia . . 190 

Makes peace with the Romans, giving up to them 

Asia Minor 188 

Seleucus Philopator, king 187 

Antiochus IV. king, who assumes the title of Theos- 

Epiphanes, or the illustrious God . . . . 175 
He sends Apollonius into Judea ; Jerusalem is 
taken ; the temple pillaged ; 40,000 inhabitants 
destroyed, and 40,000 more sold as slaves . . 168 
Antiochus V. Eupator (king, 164), murdered by De- 
metrius Soter, who seizes the throne . , 



Demetrius is defeated and slain by his successor 
Alexander Bala, 150; who is also defeated and 
slain by Demetrius Nicator .... B.C. 146 
Antiochus VI. Sidetes (son of Demetrius Soter) 
rules during the captivity of his brother Deme- 
trius Nicator (after slaying the usurper Trypho) . 137 
Antiochus grants peace to the Jews, and placates 
the Romans, 133; invades Parthia, 129; and is 

defeated and slain 128 

Demetrius Nicator restored ,, 

Cleopatra, the queen, murders her son Seleucus with 

her own hand 124 

Her son Antiochus VII. Grypus (king, 125), whom 
she attempts to poison ; but he compels his 
mother to swallow the deadly draught herself . 123. 
Reign of Antiochus VIII. Cyzicenus at Damascus, 

and of Grypus at Antioch m 

Seleucus, king 95 

Antiochus IX. Ensebes, king 94 

Dethroned by Philip 85 

Tigranes, king of Armenia, acquires Syria . . 83 
Antiochus X. Asiaticus, solicits the aid of the 

Romans 75 

Defeat of Tigranes by Lucullus, 69 ; he submits to 
Pompey, who enters Syria, and dethrones Anti- 
ochus Asiaticus 63 

Syria made a Roman province 63. 

Syria invaded by the Parthians . . . a.d. 162- 

By the Persians 256 

Violent earthquakes 341 

Invaded by the Saracens, 497, 502, 529 ; by the Per- 
sians 607 

Conquered by the Saracens 638 

Conquest of Syria by the Fatimite caliphs . . . 970 
Revolt of the emirs of Damascus .... 1067 

The emirs of Aleppo revolt 1068 

The crusades commence (see Crusades) . . . 1095 
Desolated by the Crusades (which see) . 1096-1272 

Noureddin conquers Syria 11C& 

Saladin dethrones the Fatimite dynasty . . . 1171 

The Tartars overrun all Syria 1259 

The sultans of Egypt expel the Crusaders . . . 1291 

Syria overrun by Tamerlane 1400 

Syria and Egypt conquered by the Turks . . 1516-17 
Syria continued in possession of the Turks till the 
invasion by the French, 1799; Bonaparte overruns 
the country, Gaza and Jaffa taken March, 1799 

Siege of Acre begun by the ^French, 16 March; 

raised 20 May, ,, 

Bonaparte returns to France from Egypt 23 Aug. ,, 
Egypt and Syria evacuated by the French army, 

10 Sept. 1801 
Mehemet Ali attacks and captures Acre, and over- 
runs the whole of Syria . . . . 1S31 
Ibrahim Pacha, his son, defeats the army of the 

grand signior at Konieh ... 21 Dec. 1832 
Numerous battles and conflicts follow with various 
success ; the European powers intervene, and 

peace is made 6 May, 1833 

The war renewed, May; Ibrahim defeats the Turks 

at Nezib 24 June, 1839 

The Turkish fleet deserts to Mehemet Ali, and ar- 
rives at Alexandria .... 14 July, ,. 
The five powers unite to support the Porte July, ,, 
Death of lady Hester Stanhope . . 23 June, 1840 
Treaty of London (not signed by offended France), 

15 July, ,, 
Capture of Sidon (see Sirfon) . . . 27 Sept. ,, 
Fall of Beyrout (see Bcyrovt) . . . 10 Oct. ,. 
Fall of Acre (see Acre) .... 3 Nov. .. 
Long negotiations ; the sultan grants hereditary 

rights to Mehemet, who gives up Syria . Jan. 1841 
The Druses said to have destroyed 151 Christian 
villages and killed 1000 persons (see Drusrs), 

29 May tii 1 July, i860 
The Mahometans massacre Christians at Damascus; 
about 3300 slain ; many saved by Abd-el-Kader, 

9 July, &c. ,, 
The English and French government intervene; a 
convention signed at Taris; 12,000 men tobeseni 

by France 3 Aug. ,, 

Vigour of Fuad Pacha ; he punishes the Mahome- 
tans implicated in the massacres at Damascus 
very severely ; 167 of all ranks, including the 
governor, executed . . . 20 Aug., ct seq. 
4000 French soldiers, under general Hautpoul, land 
at Beyrout 22 Aug. 



SYEIA. 



944 



SZEGEDIN. 



Lord Dufferin, tlie British commissioner in Syria, 
arrives at Damascus . . . , 6 Sept. 

The French and Turks advance against Lebanon ; 
14 emirs surrendered ... . .Oct. 

Pacification of the country effected . Nov. 

"The French occupation ceases . . 5 June, 

Prince of "Wales visits Syria . . . April, 

Insurrection of Joseph Karam, Maronite, in Le- 
banon; suppressed .... March, 

Another suppressed ; Karam flies to Algeria, 

31 Jan. 

Midhat Pasha appointed governor-general to in- 
augurate reforms, Nov. 1878 ; experiences great 
difficulty, Oct.; resigns, hut continues, 

Oct. 1 879- June, 



1S67 



Hamed Pasha, governor of Smyrna, and Midhat 
Pasha change places Aug. 1080 

Midhat Pasha, charged with complicity in the 
murder of the sultan Abdul Aziz, surrenders 
(see Turkey, 1881) . • • about 17 May, 1881 

SYSTON, see under Libraries. 

SZEGEDIN (Hungary), on the Theiss at its 
junction with the Maros, the seat of revolutionary 
government, 1849. Kebuilt under superintendence 
of Ludwig Tisza. Grand festival, the emperor 
present, 16 Oct. 1883. See Inundations, 1879 and 
1887. 



T. 



TABERNACLE. 



TAMMANY FRAUDS. 



TABERNACLE, the Holy Place of the Israel- 
ites, till the erection of Solomon's temple, was con- 
structed by Divine direction, 1491 B.C. The taber- 
nacle set' up at Shiloh by Joshua, 1444 B.C. was 
replaced by the temple erected by Solomon, 1004 
B.C. The chapel erected for George Whitefield in 
Moorfields in 1741, being of a temporary nature, 
received the name of Tabernacle, which was after- 
wards given to their chapels by the Calvinistic 
Methodists. Whitefield' s Tabernacle in Totten- 
ham-court-road was erected in 1756, and enlarged 
in 1760. His lease expired in 1828; the chapel was 
opened by the Independents in 1830, and taken down 
in 1890. A large metropolitan tabernacle, erected 
for the ministrations of Mr. C. H. Spurgeon, a 
Baptist, near the " Elephant and Castle," Kenning- 
ton-road, Surrey, was opened on 31 March, 1861. 

TABINET, see Poplin. 

TABLES, see Decemvirs. 

TABLET, Roman Catholic weekly paper, esta- 
blished 1840. 

TABLE TURNING. This delusion, which 
came from America, and was popular in 1853, was 
attributed by Faraday and others to involuntary 
mechanical action. See Spirit-Mapping. 

TABOR, in Bohemia, was founded by Ziska in 
1420, and became a chief seat of the Hussites; see 
Hussites. 

TADMOR, see Palmyra. 

TAEPINGS, see China, 1851, note. 

TAFFETY, an early species of silken manu- 
facture, more prized formerly than now, woven 
very smooth and glossy. It was worn by our 
elder queens, and was first made in England by 
John Tyce, of Shoreditch, London, 41 Eliz. 1598. 
— Stow's Chron. 

TAGLIACOZZO, in the Abruzzi mountains, 
S. Italy, where, on 23 Aug. 1268, Charles of Anjou, 
the usurping king of Naples, defeated and made 
prisoner the rightful monarch, young Conradin 
(the last of the Hohenstaufens, and grandson of the 
emperor Frederick II.), who had been invited into 
Italy by the Ghibelline or Imperial party; their 
opponents, the Guelfs, or papal party, supporting 
Charles. Conradin was beheaded, 29 Oct. fol- 
lowing. 

TAGLIAMENTO, a river in Lombardy, N. 
Italy, near which the Austrians, under the arch- 
duke Charles, were defeated by Bonaparte, 16 
March, 1797. 

TAHERITES, a dynasty of Fersia, 813-872. 
TAHITI- The French abbreviated name for 
Otaheite ; see Otaheite. 

TAILLEBOURG (W. France). Near here 
Henry III. of England was defeated and nearly 
captured by Louis IX. of France, 20 July, 1242. 

TAKU FORTS, China, taken by the allies, 
21 Aug. i860. 

TALAVERA de la Reyxa (central Spain), 
was taken from the Mahometans by Ordoiio, Icing 
of Leon, 913. Here a battle was fought 27, 28 
July, 1809, between the united British and Spanish 
armies under sir Arthur Welleslcy, and the French 



army commanded by marshals Victor and Sebas- 
tiani. After a conflict on the 27th, both armies 
remained on the field during the night, and the 
French at break of day renewed the attack, and 
were again repulsed by the British with great 
slaughter. At noon Victor charged the whole 
British line, was repulsed at all points, and retreated 
with a heavy loss. As Soult, Ney, and Mortier 
were in the rear, the British retired after the 
victory. 

TALBOTYPE, see Photography. 

"TALISMAN " affair, see Peru, 1874-6. 

TALKING-MACHINE, see Automatons. 

TALLY OFFICE in the Exchequer took its 
name from the French word tattler, to cut. A tally 
is a piece of wood written upon both sides, contain- 
ing an acquittance for money received ; which, 
being cloven asunder by an officer of the exchequer, 
one part, called the stock, was delivered to the 
person who paid, or lent, monev to the government ; 
and the other part, called the counter-stock, or 
counter-foil, remained in the office, to be kept till 
called for, and joined with the stock. This manner 
of striking tallies is very ancient. — Beatson. The 
practice was ordered to be discontinued in 1782. 
See Fjxchequer. On 16 Oct. 1834, the houses of 
parliament were burnt down by too many of these 
tallies being used in heating the stoves in the house 
of lords. 

TALMUD (from lamad, to teach), the compen- 
dium of ancient Jewish oral or unwritten law, as 
distinguished from the Pentateuch, or written law ; 
its origin is coeval with the return from the Baby- 
lonish captivity, 536 B.C. Its compilation in 
Hebrew was begun by the Scribes, and by their 
successors the work was carried on till 220 B.C. It 
is composed in prose and poetry, and contains two 
elements, legal and legendary. The morality 
resembles that of the New Testament, and the 
philosophy is rather Platonic than Aristotelian. 
The Mischna, comprising the work of the rabbis, termed 
Thanaim, was compiled by Jehuda Hanassi, in the 
middle of the second century, a.d., and forms the 
Jerusalem Talmud, written at Tiberias, in Palestine, 
about 230. The Babylonian Talmud contains also the 
Gemera or Ghemara, the work of the rabbis termed 
Amorai'm, criticisms and comments on the Mischna. 
The part named Ihdacha, is dogmatic, legal, and 
doctrinal ; the Agaba, is illustrative, narrative, and 
legendary. 
After being almost universally condemned, and the MSS. 
often burnt, the defence of the Talmud was undertaken 
by the German reformer Reuchlin, in the 16th century, 
and between 1520 and 1523, the " Talmud Babyloni- 
cum," in 12 vols, fob, and the "Talmud Hierosolyta- 
mun," in one vol. fol., were printed at Venice. A 
discourse on the Talmud was given at the Royal Insti- 
tution, 15 May, 1868, by Mr. Emanuel Deutsch, whose 
article in the "Quarterly Review," Oct. 1867, had 
attracted much attention. 
Vol. 1. of the first English translation of the Jerusalem 
Talmud by Dr. Moise Schwab, appeared in 1SS5 : lie 
had published part of a French translation. 

TAMANIEB, or TAMASI, battle of, 13 
March, 1884 ; see Soudan. 

TAMATAVE, sec Madagascar, 1883. 

TAMMANY FRAUDS, see New York, 1871. 

3 p 



TANAGEA. 



946 



TAEIEA. 



TANAGEA (Bceotia). Here the Spartans 
defeated the Athenians 457 B.C., but were defeated 
by them in 456 and in 426, when Agis II. headed 
the Spartans and Nicias the Athenians. 

TANCEED'S CHAEITIES. Valuable ex- 
hibitions for students at Cambridge are maintained 
by Christopher Tancred's endowment, 1721; esta- 
blished by chanceiy, 1757. 

TANDY AEEEST.. James Napper Tandy 
proposed a plan of reform in 1791. In the French 
expedition against Ireland he acted as a general, 
Aug. 1798. After its failure he fled to Hamburg, 
and was there delivered up to the English, 24 Nov.; 
for which Bonaparte declared war upon Hamburg, 
15 Oct. 1799. Tandy was liberated after the peace 
of Amiens in 1802. 

TANGIEE (Morocco, N. W. Africa), besieged 
by prince Ferdinand of Portugal, who was beaten 
and taken prisoner, 1437. It was conquered by 
Alfonso V. of Portugal in 1471, and given as a dower 
to princess Catherine, on her marriage with Charles 
II. of England, 1662 ; who, in 1683, caused the 
works to be blown up, and the place abandoned. 
Tangiers afterwards became a piratical station. See 
Morocco. 

TANISTEY (in Ireland), the equal division of 
lands, after the decease of the owner, amongst his 
sons, legitimate or illegitimate. If one of the sons 
dive], his son did not inherit, but a new division was 
made by the tanist or chief. Abolished 1604. 
Duvies. 

TANJOEE (W. India). About 1678, Vencajee, 
a Mahratta chief, brother of tbe great Sevajee, 
made himself rajah. In 1749 a British expedition 
endeavoured to restore a deposed rajah without 
success ; the reigning prince bought them off by the 
cession of territories. Much intervention ensued. 
In 1799 the company obtained possession of the 
country, engaging to support the rajah with nominal 
authority, The last is said to have died in 1855. 

TANNENBEEG (E. Prussia). Here Ladis- 
laus V. Jagellon of Poland defeated the Teutonic 
knights with great slaughter, the grand master being 
among the slain, 15 July, 1410. The order never 
recovered from this calamity. 

TANNING leather with the bark of trees was 
early practised. Great improvements have been 
recently made in tanning by means of chemical 
knowledge. 

TANTALUM, a rare metal, discovered in an 
American mineral by Hatchett, in 1801, and named 
by him columbiu.ni ; and in a Swedish mineral by 
Ekeberg, who gave it its present name. Wollaston 
pointed out the identitjr of the two metals in 1809 ; 
and Berzelius prepared pure metallic tantalum in 
1824. In 1840 Hose discovered that tantalum was 
really a mixture of three metals, which he named 
tantalum, niobium, and pelopium. — Gmelin. 

TANZIMAT, see Turkey, 1839-44. 

TAOISM, oue of the three religions of China. 
The name is derived from the Tao, or " Way," a 
treatise written by Li Urh, a contemporary of Con- 
fucius in the sixth century B.C. The ""Way" is 
the quiet, passionless discharge of all our duties, 
" Heaven" not being a ruler, but a pattern. Taoism 
was modified by the introduction of Buddhism. 

TAPESTEY. An art of weaving borrowed 
from the Saracens, and hence its original workers in 
France were called Sarazinois. The invention of 
tapestry hangings belongs [the date is not men- 



tioned] to the Netherlands. — Guicciardini. Manu- 
factured in France under Henry IV. by artists 
invited from Flanders, 1606. The art was brought 
into England by William Sheldon; and the first 
manufactory of it was established at Mortlake by 
sir Francis Crane, 17 James I. 1619. — Salmon. 
Under Louis XIV. the art of tapestry was much 
improved in France ; see Gobelin Tapestry. V ery 
early instances of making tapestry are mentioned by 
the ancient poets, and also in Scripture ; so that the 
Saracens' manufacture is a revival of the art. For 
the tapestry said to have been wrought by Matilda, 
queen of England, see Bayeux Tapestry. 
Tapestry manufactory established at Windsor lay Mr. H. 
Henry, supported by the royal family, and others ; ex- 
hibition opened in the town-hall, 6 December, 1878 ; 
works said to be closed, June, 1892. 
Manufacture revived by Messrs. Trollope of London, 

1882-3 

TAPIE, the American water-hog, a pachyder- 
matous animal. The first born in England at Zoo- 
logical Gardens, London, 12 Feb. 1882. 

TAE- The chemist Becher first proposed to make 
tar from pit-coal ; the earl of Dundonald's patent 
was granted 1781. The mineral tar was discovered 
at Coalbrookdale, Shropshire, 1779; and in Scot- 
land, Oct. 1792. Tar-water was first recommended 
for its medicinal virtues by the good Dr. Berkeley, 
bishop of Cloyne, about 1744. From benzole, dis- 
covered in coal-tar, many brilliant dyes are now 
produced; see Benzole. 

TAEA, a hill in Meath, Ireland, where the early 
kings of Ireland were inaugurated. Near here, on 
26 May, 1798, the royalist troops, 400 strong, 
defeated the insurgent Irish (4000 men), 500 killed. 
On 15 Aug. 1843, Daniel O'Connell held a monster 
meeting here (250,000 persons said to have been 
assembled) . 

TAEBES (S. France, near the Pyrenees), 
capital of Bigorre, the property of the English kings 
in the middle ages. The French, under Soult, 
were forced from their position at Tarbes, with con- 
siderable loss, by the British army commanded by 
Wellington, 20 March, 1814. See Toulouse. 

TAEENTUM (now Taranto, S. Italy), was 
founded by the Greek Phalantus, B.C. 708. The 
people of Tarentum, assisted by Pyrrhus, king of 
Epirus, supported a war which had been undertaken 
B.C. 281 by the llomans, to avenge. the insults the 
Tarentines had offered to their ships when near 
their harbours ; it was terminated after ten years ; 
300,000 prisoners were taken, and Tarentum became 
subject to Borne. Except the citadel, Tarentum 
was captured by Hannibal, 212, but recovered by 
Fabius, 209 B.C. Tarentum has shared in the 
revolutions of Southern Italy, ancl only ruins 
remain. 

TAEGUMS or Explanations, names given 

to certain ancient Chaldee paraphrases of the Old 
Testament. The most remarkable are those df 
Onkelos, Jonathan-ben-Uzziel, and Joseph the Blind. 
The Targum of Onkelos is referred by some writers 
to the first century a.d. 

TAEIFA (S. Spain), the ancient Joza and Julia 
Traducta, where M.uza landed when invading Spain, 
712. It was taken from the Moors by Sancho IV. 
of Castile, 1291 or 1292 ; and was relieved, when 
besieged by them, after a great victory over the 
kings of Morocco and Granada, by Alfonso XL of 
Castile *and Alfonso IV. of Portugal, 28 or 30 Oct. 
1340. The conflict is called the battle of Salado, 
having been fought on the banks of that river. 
Tarifa was taken by the French in 1823. 



TARIFF. 



917 



TAY BRIDGE. 



TAEIFF (said to have been derived from 
Tarifa, where duties were formerly collected), a 
book of duties charged on goods exported or imported. 
Our tariff in 1840 comprised 1042 articles; the 
number was reduced (by sir Eobert Peel) in 1845 
and 1847. It comprised 439 articles in 1857 ; this 
number was greatly reduced in i860. For Mr. 
McKinley's tariff bill, see United States, Oct. 1890. 

International office for the publications of all 
customs tariffs, in the five principal European 
languages at Brussels, begins the work of transla- 
tion, &e 1 April, 1891 

What is called "the war of tariffs," very injurious 
to free trade, began in . . . Oct. 1890 

TARPELAJST ROCK (Rome), owed its name 
to the tradition that Tarpeia, daughter of Tarpeiu-, 
the keeper of the Roman citadel, was here crushed to 
death by the shields cast on her by the Sabines, 
whom she treacherously admitted, having bargained 
for the gift of what they wore on their left arms, 
meaning then- bracelets ; about 750 B.C. 

TARRAGONA (N.E. Spain), occupied as a 
naval station by the British before then- capture of 
Gibraltar in 1704. It was stormed and sacked by 
the French under Suchet, 29 Jan. 1811, and the 
inhabitants put to the sword. Population, 1887, 
27,225. 

TARTAN or Highland Plaid, the dress of 

the Scottish Highlanders, said to have been derived 
from the ancient Gauls, or Celtag, the Galli non 
braccati. 

TARTARIC ACID is said to have been the 
first discovery of the eminent chemist, Scheele, 
who procured it in a separate state by boiling tar 
with lime, and in decomposing the tartrate of lime 
thus formed by means of sulphuric acid, about 1 770. 
In 1859 baron Liebig formed tartaric acid from 
other sources. 

TARTARY (Asia). The Tatars, or Tartars, or 
Mongols, or Moguls, were known in antiquity as 
Scythians. During the decline of the Roman 
empire, these tribes began to seek more fertile 
regions ; and the first who reached the frontier of 
Italy were the Huns, the ancestors of the modern 
Mongols. The first acknowledged sovereign of this 
vast country was the famous Genghis Khan. His 
empire, by the conquest of China, Persia, and all 
central Asia (1206-27), became one of the most 
formidable ever established ; but it was split into 
parts in a few reigns. Timur, or Tamerlane, again 
conquered Persia, broke the power of the Turks in 
Asia Minor (1370-1400), and founded the Mogul 
dynasty in India, which began with Baber in 1525, 
and formed the most splendid court in Asia till the 
close of the 1 8th century; see Golden Horde. The 
Calmucks, a branch of the Tartars, expelled from 
(Jhina, settled on the banks of the Volga in 1672, 
but returned in 1771, and thousands perished on the 
journey. 

TASIMETER, see Micro-tasimeter. 

TASMANIA, the name now given to the 
British settlement in Van Diemcn's Land {which 
see). 

TATTERS ALL'S, see Laces. 

TAUNTON (Somerset), was taken by Perkin 
Warbeck, Sept. 1497 ; and here lie was surrendered 
to Henry VII. 5 Oct. following. The duke of 
Monmouth was proclaimed king at Taunton, 20 
June, 1685 ; and it was the scene of the " bloody 
assize" held by Jeffreys upon the rebels in August. 
Population, 1881, 16,614; 1891, 18,026. 



TAVERNS may be traced to the 13th century. 
"In the raigne of king Edward the Third, only 
three taverns were allowed in London : one iii 
Chepe, one in Walbrok, and the other in Lombard- 
street." — Spelman. The Boar's Head, in East- 
cheap, existed in the reign of Henry IV., and was 
the rendezvous of prince Henry and his dissolute 
companions. Shakspeare mentions it as the resi- 
dence of Mrs. Quickly, and the scene of Falstaffs 
merriment. — Shakspeare, " Henry IV." The White 
Hart, Bishopsgatc, established in 1480, was rebuilt 
in 1829. Taverns were licensed in 1752. 
Taverns were restricted by 7 Edward VI. 1552-3, to 40 in 
London, 8 in York, 4 in Norwich, 3 in Westminster, 6 
in Bristol, 3 in Lincoln, 4 in Hull, 3 in Shrewsbury, 4 
in Exeter, 3 in Salisbury, 4 in Gloucester, 4 in Chester, 

3 in Hereford, 3 in Worcester, 3 in Southampton, 4 in 
Canterbury, 3 in Ipswich, 3 in Winchester, 3 in Oxford, 

4 in Cambridge, 3 in Colchester, 4 in Newcastle-upon- 
Tyne. 

TAXES were levied by Solon, the Athenian legis- 
lator, about 594 B.C. The first class of citizens paid 
an Attic talent of silver, about 55?. of our money. 
Darius, the son of Hystaspes, levied a land -tax by 
assessment, which was deemed so odious that his 
subjects styled him, by way of derision, Darius the 
Trader, 480 B.C. — I)' Eon. Taxes in specie were 
first introduced into England by William I., 1067, 
and he raised them arbitrarily ; yet subsidies iu 
kind, as in wool, leather, and other products of the 
country, continued till the accession of Richard II., 
1377- — Camden; see Revenue and Income Tax. 
" Taxes ox Knowledge " (see Advertisement 
Duty, Newspaper Stamp, and Paper Duty) . For his 
exertions in repealing these, a testimonial was pre- 
sented to Air. T. Milner Gibson in 1861. The as- 
sessed taxes now include land tax, house duty, and 
property and income tax. The Taxes Management 
Act, 43 & 44 Vict. c. 19, passed 6 Aug. 1880 (see 
below). Mr. Stephen Lowell's " History of Taxa- 
tion and Taxes in England," published in 1884. 
Receipts from general taxation, 1887-8, 75,660,0:0/. 

Assessed Taxes. Land Tux. 

1800 . . . £3,468,131 1800 . . . £1,307,941 

1805 . . . 4,508,752 1805 . . . 1,596,481 

1810 . . . 6,233,161 1810 . . . 1,418,337 

1815 . . . 6,524,766 j 1815 . . . 1,084,251 

1820 . . . 6,311,346 1S20 . . . 1,192,257 

1825 . . . 5,176,722 1825 . . . 1,288,393 

1830 . . . 5,013,405 1830 . . . 1,189,214 

1835 • • • 3.733.997 183s • ■ • 1.203.579 
1840 . . . 3,866,467 1840 . . . 1,298,622 

Assessed Taxes. — Gross Amount. 

1851 (to Jan. 5) £4,365,0.33 

1S55 (year ending March 31) 3,160,641 

i860 ,, ,, ..... 3,232,000 

1865 ,, ,, 3,292,000 

1866 ,, ,, 3,350,000 

1S67 ,, ,, . ' . . . . . 3,468,000 

1868 ,, ,, 3,509,000 

1869 ,, ,,...... 3,494,000 

1870 ,, ,, ..... 4.500,000 

1871 ( Land tax - and house duty only, ) 2,725,000 

1872 j. see Licences. j 2,330,000 
1873 2,337,000 

1874 ........ 2,324,000 

1875 . . . . . . . . . 2 440,000 

1876 . 2,496,000 

1877 2,532,000 

1878 2,670,000 

1879 . 2,720,000 

18S0 2,6/0,000 

1883 2,843,154 

1884 2,899,223 

1886 ......... 2,890,000 

1888 2,970,000 

See House Duly and Land Tax. 

TAY BRIDGE at Dundee, above two miles 

across the Tay ; act passed 1870, work begun June, 

3 r 2 



TCHERNAYA. 



948 



TECHNICAL EDUCATION. 



187 1 ; Mr. De Bergue, first contractor, died, suc- 
ceeded by Messrs. Hopkins, Gilke & Co., of Middles- 
brough. Engineer, sir Thomas Bouch. It was 
much injured by a gale, 4 Feb. 1877 ; completed, 
30 Aug. ; tried, 25 Sept. 1877 ; opened, 31 May, 
1878. Length, 10,612 feet ; it consisted of 85 
spans, some above 90 feet above water level ; cost 
said to be 350,000'. Above 20 lives lost during its 
construction. 

The bridge was partly destroyed by a gale, while a 

N. British mail-train was passing over it ; a gap 

of about 3,000 feet was made ; between 75 and 90 

persons perished ; about 7. 15 p.m. Sunday, 28 Dec. 1879 

46 bodies were recovered ' . . up to 27 April, 1880 

Liberal collections were made for sufferers by the 

loss of relatives. 
After the Board of Trade inquiry, Mr. H. C. Rothery, 
ill the report, stated "that the bridge had been 
badly designed, badly constructed, and badly 

maintained" 3 July, ,, 

Sir Thomas Bouch died . ... 30 Oct. 1880 

Mr. Barlow's iilans for a new bridge approved, May, 1881 
Plans for new bridge approved . . . Jan. 1882 

Fourteen piers erected Dec. 1885 

Opened for public traffic . . . .20 June, 1887 

TCHERNAYA, a river in the Crimea. On 
16 Aug. 1855, the lines of the allied army at this 
place were attacked by 50,000 Russians under prince 
Gortschakoff, who was repulsed with the loss of 
3 329 slain, 1658 wounded, and 600 prisoners. The 
brunt of the attack was borne by two French 
regiments under general D'Herbillon. The loss of 
the allies was about 1200 ; 200 of these were from 
the Sardinian contingent, which behaved with great 
gallantry, under the command of general La Mar- 
mora. The Russian general Bead, and the Sardinian 
general Montevecchio, were killed. The object of 
the attack was the relief of Sebastopol, then closely 
besieged by the English and French. 

TEA was brought to Europe by the Dutch, 1610. 

It is mentioned as having been used in England on 

very rare occasions prior to 1657, and sold for 61. 

and even wl. the pound. Price of inferior kinds, 

1801, 4s. 2hd. the pound; in 1871, is. lod. For 

Theine, see Gafeine. 

Samuel Pepys records his first " cup of tea," 

25 Sept. 1660 

A duty of 8c?. was charged upon every gallon of tea 
made for sale (12 Ch. II. c. 13) . . . . „ 

The East India Company first import it . . 1669 

Brought into England in 1666, by lord Ossory and 
lord Arlington, from Holland : and being admired 
by persons of rank, it was imported from thence, 
and generally sold for 60 shillings per pound, till 
our East India Company took up the trade. — 
Anderson. 

Green tea began to be used i 7 i 5 

Price of black tea per lb. 13s. to 20s. ; of green, 12s. 
to 30s 1728 

The duty imposed on tea in America, 1767: this tax 
occasioned the destruction of 17 chests at New 
York, and 340 at Boston, Dec. 1773, and ulti- 
mately led to the American war (see Boston). 

The tea-plant brought to England . . about 1768 

Tea-dealers obliged to have sign-boards fixed up, 
announcing their sale of tea . . . Aug. 1779 

Commutation act for reducing the duty on tea from 
50 to 12J per cent. ; taxing windows in lieu, June, 1784 

■' Millions of pounds' weight of sloe, liquorice, and 
ash-tree leaves, are every year mixed with Chinese 
teas in England."— Report of the House of Commons, 1818 

"The consumption of the whole civilised world, 
exclusively of England, is about 22,000,000 of 
pounds, while the annual consumption in Great 
Britain is 30,000,000." — Evidence in House of 
Commons . . ^30 

Tlte first tea-sale in London on the abolition of the 
exclusive privilege of the East India Company 
took place iu Mincing-lane . ■ . .19 Aug. 1834 

New duties were charged, 1796 ; the duty was 96 and 
100 per cent., made 2S. id. per pound . ... 1836 



The duty derived from the import of tea in 1850 
amounted to 5,471,461?. ; and the amount was 

5,902,433? in 1852 

Various changes made in 1854, 1855 . . and 1856 
Duty of is. 5c?. per pound begun . . April, 1857 
Duty upon tea gradually reduced from 2s. 2^d. to 
is. per pound; reduced to 6c?. per pound, 1 June, 1865 

Licences to sell tea abolished 1869 

Tea duty 6c?., continued 1871 

Produced, 3,709,450?. year 1875-6 ; 4,002,210?. 

1877-8:4,268,734?. 1883-4:4,613.311?. . . 1887-8 
The duty reduced to 4c?. per pound . 17 April, 1890 

TEA IMPORTED INTO ENGLAND. 



1726 . 




lb 700,000 


1870 




. lb 141,020,767 


1766 




7,000,000 


1871 . 




. 169,898,303 


1792 . 




. 13,185,000 


1872 




. 184,927,128 


1800 




• 23,723,000 


1873- 




. 163,765,269 


1805 . 




• 24,133,000 


1874 




. 162,782,810 


1810 




. 25,414,000 


1875- 




• 197,505.316 


1815 . 




. 26,368,000 


1876 




• • 185,536,371 


1820 




. 25,662,474 


1877: 




• 187,515,284 


1825 . 




. 24,803,668 


1878 




. . 204,872,899 


1830 




• 3o.544.404 


1879. 




. 184,076,472 


1835 ■ 




• 44.360,550 


1880 




. 206,971,570 


1840 




. 38,068,555 


1881 




. 209,801,522 


1845 . 




• 44,193,433 


1882 




. . 210,663,133 


1850 govt. 


retns. 50,512,384 


1883 




. 222,262,431 


1856. 




86,200,414 


1884 




• • 213,877,759 


1858 . 




• 75.432,535 


1885. 




. 212,143,820 


1861 . 




• 96,577,383 


1886 




. 230,669,292 


1864 . 




■ 124.359,243 


1887. 




. 221,841,490 


1866. 




. 139,610,044 


1888 




. 222,758,296 


1867. 




. 128,028,726 


1889 . 




. 222,147,661 


1868 . 




• 154,845.863 


1890 




• • 223,494,511 


1869 . 




. 139,223,298 








The importation of tea grown in 


India has very 


greatly 


inci 


eased. 






A consignment of tea from the Gallebodde Estate, 


Ceylon 


was 


sold in London at 


the 


rate of 87s. 


per pound, 


13 Jan. ; re-sold for 


1 1 os 


per pound, 


to the 


United Kingdom Tea 


3ompany, Jan. ; 


some tea, Ceylon, sold for 10?. 12s. 6c? 


per pound, 


10 March ; 


17?. per pound, 5 May ; 


25?. 10s. per 


pound 










7 May, 1891 



TEACHERS, National Union op Ele- 
mentary, established about 1869, held their 23rd 
annual conference, April 1892. The Teachers' 
Association held their 3rd annual conference at 
University College, London, 9 Jan. 1878. The 
Teachers' Guild held its first public meeting, Mr. 
Mundella in the chair, 23 Jan. 1884. Conferences 
occasionally held; one at Manchester, 9-1 1 Sept. 
1891. 

TEACHING, see Apostles and University. 

"TEARLESS VICTORY," was won by 
ArchidamusIIL, king of Sparta, over the Arcadians 
and Argives, without losing a man, 367 B.C. 

TEA-ROOM MEETING of members of the 
house of commons, 8 April, 1867. See Reform, 1867. 

TEB, Battle of, 29 Feb. 1884. See Soudan. 

TECHNICAL EDUCATION, defined as 
" science and art applied to industry." Polytechnic 
schools in Darmstadt established 1830 ; in Hanover 
1835 ; the trade association of the grand duchy of 
Hesse, 1836 ; Berlin working mens' union, 1843 ; 
'Wurtemburg workmen's school, 1848 ; Society for 
promoting the interests of the working classes at 
Amsterdam, 1854. The first real practical technical 
school in England was formed in the Chester 
Diocesan Training College, by the rev. Arthur 
Bigg, principal, 1839-69. 

Conference of masters of city companies at the 
Mansion-house to promote technical education 

5 Nov. 1869 
National university for industrial and technical 

training, proposed Oct. 1870 

City and Guilds of London Institute for the ad- 
vancement of technical education formally con- 



TE DEUM. 



949 



TELEPATHY. 



stituted, ii Nov. 1878 ; foundation laid by prince 
Leopold 10 May, 1881 

Central Institution of City and Guilds Institute, 
South Kensington ; foundation laid liy the prince 
of Wales 18 July, „ 

A royal commission (Mr. B. Samuelson, prof. H. E. 
Koscoe (since knighted) and others) to inquire as 
to technical instruction in foreign countries Aug. ,, 

Technical college, Pinsbury, opened . 19 Feb. 1883 

Technical schools (Scotland) act passed . . . 1887 

National association for the promotion of technical 
education formed, lord Hartington (since Duke 
of Devonshire), president . . . 1 July, ,, 

Royal commission on technical instruction ap- 
pointed (Mr. Bernhard Samuelson, prof. H. E. 
Koscoe, and four others), to inquire abroad and 
at home, 5 Aug. 1881 ; reports (reassuring as to 
English work), about 17 Feb. 1882, and 16 May, 1884 

Technical instruction bill introduced in Parlia- 
ment; dropped 10 July, 1888 

Great meeting at the Mansion House to promote 
technical education in the metropolis, 27 March, 1889 

The technical instruction act, authorising local 
authorities to supply aid for the purpose, passed 
30 Aug. 1889 ; another act passed 26 March, 1891. 
See Polytechnic Institution and Whitworth. 

TE DEUM, a song of praise used by the Romish 
and English churches, beginning " Te Deum Lau- 
damus — "We praise thee, OGod," supposed to be the 
composition of Augustin and Ambrose, about 390. 
The original music is very ancient. 

TEETOTALEE, a term applied to an ab- 
stainer from all fermented liquors, originated with 
Richard Turner, an artisan of Preston, who, con- 
tending for the principle at a temperance meeting 
about Sept. 1833, asserted " that nothing but te-te- 
total will do." The word was immediately adopted. 
He died 27 Oct. 1846. These facts are taken from 
the " Staunch Teetotaler," edited by Joseph Live- 
sey, of Preston (an originator of the movement in 
1832, he died, aged 90, 2 Sept. 1884), Jan. 1867. 
See Encratites, Good Templars, Temperance, and 
United Kingdom. 

TEFLIS, see Tiflis. 

TEGYEA, Bceotia. Here Pelopidas defeated 
the Spartans, 375 B.C. 

TEHEEAN became capital of Persia about 1795. 
Estimated population, 210,000. 

TELEGEAPHS (from the Greek, tele, afar, 
and (/rap ho, I write). JEschylus, in his Agamemnon 
(B.C. 500), describes the communication of intel- 
ligence by burning torches as signals. Polybius, 
the Greek historian (who died about 122 B.C.), calls 
the different instruments used by the ancients for 
communicating information, pi/rsice, because the 
signals were always made by fire. In 1663, a plan 
was suggested by the marquis of "Worcester, and a 
telegraph was suggested by Dr. Hooke, 1684. M. 
Amontons is also said to have been the inventor of 
telegraphs about this period. James II., while duke 
of York, originated a set of navy signals, which 
were systematised by Kempenfeldt in 1780; and a 
dictionary was compiled by sir Home Popham. 
M. Chappe then invented the telegraph first used 
by the French in 1792, and two were erected over 
the Admiralty-office, London, 1796. The sema- 
phore was erected there 1816. The naval signals 
by telegraph enabled 400 previously concerted sen- 
tences to be transmitted from snip to ship, by 
varying the combinations of two revolving crosses. 
Baron Router's telegraph agency founded at Aix la 
Chapelle, 1 85 1. Acts relating to telegraphs were 
passed in 1863 and 1866. The telegraph act, passed 
31 July, 1868, enabled the postmaster-general to 
purchase existing electric telegraphs (not less than 



I*, for a telegram, 20 words). Mr. Scudamore was 
appointed director, Jan. 1872. The principle of a 
6d. telegram adopted by the commons, 29 March, 
1883, and enacted to come into operation 1 Oct. 
1883, deferred; bill introduced by Mr. Shaw- 
Lefevre 30 March ; act passed 14 Aug. ; came into 
operation 1 Oct. 1885. Another telegraph act 
passed 28 June, 1892. Great destruction of tele- 
graph posts and wires by gale and snowstoi m ; 
London streets blocked by fallen wires 26-27 ^>ec. 
1886. The Society of Telegraph Engineers founded 
1871; held first general meeting, 28 Feb. 1872, 
Chas. Wm. Siemens, president; incorporated 188?. 
Present title " Institution of Electrical Engineers"" 
(1889). See Electric Telegraph, under Electricity, 
and Telegraphs, under Post Office, 1869, et seq. 
The Telecjrap hie Journal began 15 Nov. 1873. 

International Telegraph Conferences (commercial), 
have been held at Brussels, 1858 ; Paris, March, 
1865 ; Vienna, 1868 ; Rome, 1871-2 ; St. Peters- 
burg, 1 June, 1875 ; London, 18 June, 1879 ; 
Paris, 16 Oct. 1882 ; Berlin, 10 Aug.-i7 Sept. 
1885 ; Paris (114 delegates representing 38 states, 
and 23 great companies) . 15 May-21 June, 1S90 

TELEKOlTPHONON, or speaking tele- 
graph, consisted of piping of gutta percha, 
caoutchouc, glass, or earthenware, with a terminal 
mouthpiece of ivory, bone, wood, or metal. It was 
used for dockyards and lai-ge establishments. It 
was described by Mr. Francis Whishaw at the 
meeting of the British Association at Swansea, 
August, 1848. 

TEL-EL-KEBIE, Egypt, the site of the en- 
trenched camp of the rebel general, Arabi Pasha, 
his force being about 17,500 regular infantry, 2,500 
cavalry, 6000 Bedouins and other irregulars, and 70 
guns; captured by the British 13 Sept. 1882. 
Sir Garnet Wolseley broke up his camp at Ismailia on the 
night of 12 Sept. and began his advance at 1.30 a.m., 
his force being about 11,000 infantry, 2000 cavalry, and 
40 guns ; the troops marched rapidly in the dark, each 
regiment endeavouring to be first. At daybreak they 
arrived at the camp. The surprised Egyptians filled 
the trenches and fought well under cover ; but when 
the British scaled the parapets, they at first resisted 
bravely, but afterwards fled, being hotly pursued by 
the British cavalry, leaving all their guns, ammimi- 
uition, &c. in the hands of the victors. Thousands 
were killed or made prisoners. Arabi Pasha fled to- 
wards Cairo. Among our killed were majors Colville, 
Underwood, and Somervell, and lieut. McNeill. The 
British general's masterly plans of the campaign were 
thus successfully carried out by his efficient staff and 
gallant army, which included many young soldiers. 
The Irish and Highland regiments and the Guards 
being specially distinguished. Arabi Pasha's army 
was completely broken up, and the British entered 
Cairo the next day, 14 Sept. British killed about 52, 
and 380 wounded ; Egyptian killed and wounded about 
1500. The Highlanders bore the brunt of the action. 

TELEMETEE, &C, an instrument for deter- 
mining the distance between a gun and the object 
fired at. Lieut, von Ehrenbcrg and major Mon- 
taudon, in Baden, constructed a telemeter the size 
of a watch, by which the distance is determined and 
shown on a dial by the action of sound, 1S78-85. 
Teletopometer, another apparatus for ascertaining 
the distance from point to point, invented by Dr. 
Luigi Cerebotani, was announced in Sept. 1885 ; 
two telescopes are employed. 

TELEPATHY, "the supersensory transference 

of thoughts and feelings from one mine! to another'' : 

the principal subject of " Phantasms of the Living," 
edited by Messrs. Edmund (Junicy, Frederic Myers, 
and Frank Podmorc, and issued by the society for 
psychical research about 30 Oct. 18S6. 



TELEPHONE. 



950 



TELESCOPES. 



TELEPHONE (from Greek, tele, afax, pJione, 
voice, sound), a mime now given to apparatus for 
transmitting articulate and musical sounds, by 
means of wire, vibrating rods, threads, or magneto- 
electricity. See Electrophone, in article Electricity, 
Phonograph, Microphone, Phonopore. 

Robert Hooke conveyed sounds to a distance by dis- 
tended wire 1667 

Wheatstone conveyed the sounds of a musical-box 
from a cellar to upper rooms by means of a deal 
rod (termed "Enchanted Lyre") . . . 1821 

Page produced galvanic musical tones by magnetis- 
ing and demagnetising an iron bar . . . . 1837 
The principle advanced by De la Rive . . . 1843 
Professor Pepper lectured on Wheatstone's tele- 
phone before the queen at the Polytechnic, 10 May 1S55 
Philip Reis exhibited a partially articulate electric 

telephone at Frankfort . . . .25 April 1861 
Cromwell Varley produced a musical one, 1870 ; 
played on at the Queen's theatre, Long Acre 

12 Feb. 1S77 
Elisha Gray improved Reis's telephone, and is said 

to have anticipated prof. Bell's discovery . . 1873 
Professor A. Graham Bell's articulating telephone 
produced : (he employs a thin disk of iron vibrat- 
ing in front of a permanent magnet, surrounded 
by a coil of insulated copper wire ; the sound 
or voice causes the vibration of the disk, thereby 
generating a current of electricity which, sent 
round a similar coil on a distant magnet, sets 
vibrating another disk, and thus the sound is re- 
produced ; sound is converted into electricity 
and electricity reconverted into sound ;) experi- 
ments at Boston and Salem, United States (18 
miles apart) ; speech, music, singing, laughing, 
&c, distinctly heard .... 12 Feb. 1877 
This telephone exhibited by Mr. W. H. Preece before 
the British Association, Plymouth, 23 Aug. 1877 ; 
before the queen at Osborne, Isle of Wight 

14, 15 Jan. 1878 
Debates in the House of Commons, reported by it 

for Daily Neius (unsuccessful) . . 22 Jan. „ 
Telephone company established . . summer ,, 
Edison's carbon "loud speaking" telephone ; con- 
versation heard "between London and Norwich ; 
115 miles of wire .... n Nov. ,, 
Mr. Frederick Allen Gower improves Bell's tele- 
phone ; shown at Royal Institution, London 

20, 21 March, 1879 
Telephone Exchange (Edison's system), Lombard- 
street ; ten offices connected ; private conversa- 
tion between two persons in either a loud or low 
tone carried on ; successfully tried . 6 Sept. ,, 
The Bell and Edison companies become the United 

Telephone Company ; announced . 26 July, 1880 
The telephone tried by lord Elphinstone in his 

coalmines near Carberry, Scotland . Sept. „ 
Telephone communication established between 
Liverpool and Manchester ; exchange of mes- 
sages between the mayors ... 9 Nov. ,, 
20,000 Gower-Bell telephones said to have been 

ordered by the post office . . . Dee. „ 
The attorney-general applies for injunction against 
the Telephone o impany and the Edison telephone 
company ; case deferred ; the companies directed 
to keep accounts, 20 Jan. 1880 ; decision that 
the Telephone company is an infraction of the 
electric telegraph monopoly bought by the act of 
1868, 20 Dec. 1880 ; legal arrangements with the 

company n April, 1881 

The postmaster-general now grants licences . ,, 

Professor Dolbear of Tuft's college, Massachusetts 
announced a new system, with improved tele- 
phone receiver (an articulating air condenser), 
different to Bell's and Edison's . . . Aug. ,, 
Opera at Royal Comedy theatre, Panton street, 
London, heard at Bristol hotel, Burlington 

Gardens 21 Dec. ,, 

National Telephone company 2nd annual meeting, 
report gross revenue 30 June, 1881, 15,050?. ; 
30 June, 1882, 26,996?. ; dividend 6 per cent. 

announced Aug. 1882 

Telephonic communications between Brighton and 

London established 21 Dec. „ 

The system largely developed in Europe and 
America in . . 



United Telephone company v. Harrison, Cox, 
Walker <fe Co., for infringements of patents 
(Gordon, Bell and Edison) ; verdict for plaintiffs 
on appeal 6 Feb. 1883 

Distinct communication between New York and 
Chicago 1000 miles (by steel wire coated with 
copper) reported 24 March, ,, 

Sermons at churches and chapels transmitted at 
Bradford " Aug. ,, 

The Post office makes large concessions to the 
companies Sept. 1884 

Successful experiments between Uxbridge and 
Liverpool (200 miles) .... 9 July, 1885 

Simple mechanical telephone of Messrs. A. A. 
Knudson and T. G. Ellsworth of New York 
announced Aug. ,, 

Telephonic communication between Brussels and 
Paris opened by means of Dr. Cornelius Herz's 
micro-telephone 2 Feb. 1887 

A telephone palace at Stockholm with excellent 
arrangements Feb. ,, 

Communication by telephone between Paris and 
Marseilles opened .... 6 Aug. 1888 

Proposed ainalgamation of the United Telephone 
Company' with other companies opposed by the 
postmaster-general in regard to their licences 
from government June, 1889 

The Pulsion telephone, in which sounds are com- 
municated by an ordinary wire, without elec- 
tricity, invented by Mr. Lemuel Mellett, 
successfully used on railways in America, 1888 ; 
tried with good results on the Midland railway 
near London Dec. 18S9 

Mr. Edison, said to have invented a process of 
combining jmotography with the telephone, Feb. 1890 

Telephonic communications open between London, 
Birmingham and Liverpool, 11 July; Manchester 

30 Sept. ,, 

The telephone almost universally adopted . 1890-2 

Telephone communication between London and 
Paris, proposed by the French, and assented to 
by the English Government; the necessary works 
were completed by the construction of the first 
sub-marine telephonic cables, and their submerg- 
ing by the Monarch, 14 March ; officially tested 
by the engineers, 17 March ; the first communi- 
cations were from the prince of Wales and presi- 
dent Carnot exchanging congratulations ; others 
followed between Mr. Raikes, the postmaster- 
general, and M. Roche, French minister of com- 
merce, and other officials, 18 March ; opened to 
the public (day and night) . . 1 April, 1891 

Telephonic communication from London to Mar- 
seilles and Brussels, completed 19 April, 1891 ; 
between Dublin and Belfast, opened . 5 April, 1892 

Treasury minute to promote the development of 
the telephone system in the United Kingdom, 
by promoting the co-operation of the post-office 
and the telephone companies, &c. . 23 May, 

The government authorised to raise 1,000,000?. to 
purchase the trunk lines of the telephone com- 
panies, by act passed .... June, ,, 

TELEPHOTOGRAPHY, a process for 
transmitting to a distance images of objects by the 
agency of electricity and selenium, was invented by 
Mr. Shelford.Bidwell, early in 188 1. 

TELEEADIPHONE, an arrangemeut of 
apparatus in which M. Mercadier has adapted prof. 
Graham Bell's photophone to telegraphy, announced 
Jan. 1882. 

TELESCOPES. Their principle was de- 
scribed by Roger Bacon about 1250, and Leonard 
Digges (who died about 1573) is said to have 
arranged glasses so that he could see very distant 
objects. 

Telescopes constructed by John Lipperhey and 
Zaeharias Jansen, spectacle-makers of Middle- 
burg, and James Metius of Alkmaer . . about 1608 
Galileo (from a description of the above) constructed 
telescopes (May, 1609), gradually increasing in 
power, till he discovered Jupiter's satellites, &c, 

Jan. 1610 
The telescope explained by Kepler . . . .1611 



TELL, WILLIAM. 



951 



TEMPLARS. 



Huyghens greatly improved the telescope ; dis- 
covered the ring and satellites of Saturn, &e. 1655-6 

Telescopes improved by Gregory, about . . . 1663 

Reflecting telescope invented by Newton . 1668 

Achromatic telescopes made by Chester More Hall, 
about 1723 ; re-invented by John Dollond . . 1758 

Sir Wm. Herschel (originally an organist at Bath) 
greatly improves telescopes, and discovers the 
X>lanet Uranus (which see), 21 March, 1781, and a 
volcanic mountain in the moon, in 1783 ; he com- 
pletes his forty-feet focal length telescope in 
1789, and he discovers two other volcanic moun- 
tains ; he lays before the Royal Society a cata- 
logue of 5000 nebula? and clusters of stars . . 1802 

A telescope made in London for the observatory of 
Madrid, which cost 11,000?., in 1802 

Telescopes improved by Guinand and Fraunhofer, 

1805-14 

The great telescope taken down, and one of twenty- 
feet focal length erected by sir John Herschel 
(who afterwards took it to the Cajie of Good 
Hope, and made with it his observations) . . 1822 

The earl of Rosse erected at Parsonstown, in Ire- 
land, a telescope (at a cost exceeding 20,000?.) 
6 feet in diameter, and 54 feet in length; it is 
moved with ease "1823-45 

Mr. Lassell constructed a telescope by which he 
discovered the satellite of Neptune, 1846 ; and the 
eight satellites of Saturn 1848 

One of gigantic size, 85 feet in length (very imper- 
fect), completed at AVandsworth by the rev. John 
Craig 1852 

Magnificent ecpiatorial telescopes set up at the 
national observatories at Greenwich and Paris . i860 

M. Foucault exhibits at Paris a reflecting telescope, 
the mirror 31 A- inches in diameter ; the focal 
length 17! feet 1862 

Mr. R. S. Newall's telescope (with object glass 25 
inches diameter ; tube nearly 30 feet), set up at 
Gateshead by Cookes of York 1870 

One at United States Observatory, 'Washington ; 
object-glass, 26 inches diameter, 33 feet length. 

Mr. A. Ainslie Common's reflecting telescope ; spe- 
culum 37J inches diameter ; length, 20 feet ; said 
to be the most powerful in r existence ; Eal- 
ing, Middlesex ; completed . . . Sept. 1879 

The largest refracting telescope yet made ; by 
Howard Grubb at Dublin (for Vienna) ; approved 
by the commissioners . . .16 March, 1S81 

A very large refracting telescope by Messrs. Clark 
of America was set up in the observatory at 
Mount Hamilton, California, named after Mr. 
Lick (who left money for its foundation) . .1888 

TELL, "WILLIAM. The popular stories re- 
specting him were demonstrated to be mythical by 
Professor Kopp of Lucerne, 1872. 

TELLERS, see under Exchequer. 

TELLURIUM, a rare metal, in its natural 
state containing small quantities of iron and gold, 
was discovered by Mailer of Reichenstein, in 1782, 
and named by Klaproth. 

TELODYNAMIC TRANSMITTER, in- 
vented by M. Him, is an arrangement of water- 
wheels, endless wires, and pulleys, for conveying 
and using the power of water-falls at a distance, 
and has been much used since 1 850. The apparatus 
was shown at Paris in 1862. 

TELPHERAGE, an application of electrical 
motion, invented by professor Fleeming Jenkin, 
aided by professors Ayrton and Perry, for conveying 
heavy goods, 2d. a ton per mile, 4 miles an hour, 
shown at Millwall, 1884. 

A Telpherage company was formed. A Telpher line 
at the estate dl' lord Hampden at Glynde near 
Lewes, opened 17 Nov. 1885 

TEMESWAR (Hungary), capital of the Banat, 
often besieged by the Turks. On 10 Aug. 1849, 
Haynau totally defeated the Hungarians besieging 
this town, and virtually ended the war. 



TEMNOGRAPH, an instrument designed to 
plot to any accurate scale a section of the ground 
over which it travels. It works by ft-ietional 
motion governed by two pendulous weights. In- 
vented by A. M. Kymer-Jones in 1879. 

TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES originated 
with Mr.. Calhoun, who, while he was secretary of 
war in America, in order to counteract the habitual 
use of ardent spirits among the people, prohibited 
them altogether in the United States' army, 1818. 
See Teetotaler, and Permissive Bill. 

The first public temperance society in America was 
projected in 1825, and formed . . 13 Feb. 1826 

Many temperance societies immediately afterwards 
formed in America, England, and Scotland. 

British and foreign temperance society formed, 

29 June, 1831 

The " Rechabites " (see Jer. xxxv.) began . ' about 1838 

In Ireland, the rev. Dr. Edgar, of Belfast, published 
upon temperance in 1S29-31 ; and Father Theobald 
Mathew, a Roman catholic clergyman, affirmed 
that he had made more than a million of converts 
to temperance 1841 

Father Mathew arrived in America in July, 1849 ; 
was not so successful there ; he died, aged 66, 8 Dec. 
1856 ; centenary of his birth celebrated 

10 Oct. et seq. 1890 

In England, the National temperance society, 
formed 1843 

London temperance league 185 1 

The United Kingdom alliance for the legislative 
suppression of the sale of intoxicating licpiors, 

1 June, 1853 

The National Temperance league, formed . . 1856 

Mr. J. B. Gough lectures in London, &c. . . ,, 

United Kingdom Band of Hope Union formed, 1855 ; 
11,400 societies with 1,414,900 members . . 1888 

The National union for suppression of intemperance 
by means of "few houses, shorter hours, and 
better provisions," established end of . . . 1871 

Church of England temperance society inaugurated 
by the archbishop of Canterbury and others at 
Lambeth 18 Feb. 1S73 

A Temperance hospital, where no alcoholic drinks 
are to be given for disease, was opened . 6 Oct. ,, 

British Women's temperance association inaugu- 
rated at Neweast!e-on-Tyne . . . April 1876 

Mr. J. B. Gough lectures in London, 

Sept. 1878 ; Oct. 1879 

London Temperance Hospital, Hampstead-road, 
London, building (21,000?. out of 30,000?. sub- 
scribed) Sept. „ 

International exhibition of objects connected with 
temperance opened at the Agricultural hall, Is- 
lington 2= Aug. 1881 

The Green and Blue Ribbon Armies of persons advo- 
cating temperance were prominent in . . . 1802 

A Yellow Army of moderate drinkers proposed (gen. 
Hicks) about Sept, „ 

National Temperance Jubilee at the Crystal Palace; 
above 50,000 present .... 5 Sept. „ 

International temperance conferences : Brussels, 
1880 ; London 1882 ; Antwerp .... 1S85 

Mr. J. B. Gough dies in Philadelphia, aged 69, 

about 17 Feb. 1S86 

British and colonial congress in London, bishop 
of London president . . . 14-16 July, ,, 

"National Prohibition Party," Mr. Alex. Gus- 
tafson, in the Christian Commonwealth, strongly 
urges the total abolition of alcohol . April, 1887 

TEMPERED GLASS, see Glass. 

TEMPLARS. The military order of " soldiers 
of the Temple," to protect pilgrims, was founded 
about 1 1 18 by Baldwin II., king of Jerusalem, 
confirmed by pope Honorius II., 1128. The Tem- 
plars were numerous in several countries, and came 
to England before 1 185. Their wealth having ex- 
cited the cupidity of tlie French kings, the order 
was suppressed by the council of Vienne, and part 
of its revenues was bestowed upon other orders about 
I 1312. Numbers of the order were tried, condemned 



TEMPLE. 



952 



TEEMS. 



and burned alive or hanged in 1308-10, and it 
suffered much persecution throughout Europe; 68 
knights were burnt at Paris, 1310. Pope Clement 
V. abolished the order, April, 1312. The grand 
master Molay was burnt alive at Paris, 18 March, 
1314. Their property in England was given to the 
Hospitallers, and the'head of the order in England 
died in the Tower. See Good Templars. 

TEMPLE (London), the dwelling of the 
Knights Templars, consecrated by Heraclius, patri- 
arch of Jerusalem, 1185, at the suppression of the 
order, was purchased by the professors of the 
common law, and converted into inns, 131 1, after- 
wards called the Inner and Middle Temple. Essex 
house, also a part of the house of the Templars, 
was called the Outer Temple, because it was 
situated without Temple-bar. 

The Temple hall was built in 1572 

St. Mary's, or the Temple Church, situated in the 
Inner Temple, is a Gothic stone building, erected 
by the Templars in 1240, and is remarkable for its 
circular vestibule, and for the tombs of the 
crusaders, who were buried here. The church 
was recased with stone by Mr. Smirke in . . 1828 

The Middle Temple new library was opened by the 
prince of Wales, 31 Oct. 1861 ; he becomes trea- 
surer of the Middle Temple . . . Nov. 1886 

New Inner Temple hall opened by princess Louise, 

14 May, 1870 

Anniversary of consecration, celebrated by Mr. E. 
J. Hopkins 10 Feb. 1885 

Temple bar, erected outside the gates ; ordered to 
be rebuilt 27 June, 1669 ; erected by sir C. Wren ; 
completed March 1672-3; cost 1397/.. io«. ; room 
above contained books of Child and Co. for 200 
years ; reported dangerous March, 1868 ; began 
to sink 30 July ; shored up 1868 

Its removal voted by the common council, 27 Sept. 
1876 ; the removal began 2 Jan., 1878 ; last stones 
removed 13 June, 1879 

The stones, &c, given to sir H. B. Meux to be 
erected at Theobald's Park, near Cheshunt, June, 
1887; the bar set up Nov. 1888 

The memorial to mark the site (including statues 
of the queen and prince of Wales) ; cost about 
11,550?. ; inaugurated by prince Leopold, 8 Nov. 1880 

" Temple" at Paris, formerly an asylum for debtors, 
and a prison during the republic, was made the 
site of a market in 1809, and rebuilt in 1864. 

The " City Temple," a dissenters' chapel (minister, 
Dr. Parker), Holborn Viaduct, was opened, 19 May, 1874 

TEMPLES- The Egyptians were the first 
who erected temples to the gods. — Herodotus. The 
first erected in Greece is ascribed to Deucalion. 
— Apollonius. 

The temple of Jerusalem built by Solomon, 1012B.C. 
consecrated 1004 ; pillaged by Shishak, 971 ; repaired 
by Joasli, 856 ; profaned by Ahaz, 740 ; restored by 
Hezekiah, 726 ; pillaged and fired by Nebuchadnezzar, 
588, 587; rebuilt, 536; pillaged by Antiochus, 170; 
rebuilt by Herod, 18 ; destroyed by Titus, a.d. 70. 
The temple of Apollo, at Delphi, first a cottage with 
boughs, built of stone by Trophonius, about 1200 B.C. ; 
burnt by the Pisistratidas, 548 ; a new temple raised by 
the family of the AlcniEeonidEe, about 513. 
Temple of Diana at Ephesus, built seven times ; planned 
by Ctesiphon, 544 b.c. ; fired by Eratostratus or 
Herostratus, to perpetuate his name, 356 b.c. ; to re- 
build it employed 220 years ; destroyed by the Goths 

A.D. 260. 

The temple of Piety was built by Acilius, on the spot 
where once a woman had fed with her milk her aged 
father, whom the senate had imprisoned, and excluded 
from all aliments. — Vol. Max. 

Temple of Theseus, built 480 b.c, is at this day the most 
perfect ancient edifice in the world. 

Most of the heathen temples were destroyed throughout 
the Roman empire byConstantine the Great and Theo- 
dosius, 331-392, See separate articles. 

. TENANT, see Rent. Bills to amend the posi- 
tion of Irish tenants in relation to their landlords 



were brought into parliament by Mr. Sharman 
Crawford, 1835, su ' Joseph Napier, 1852, Mr. Card- 
well, i860, Mr. Chichester Fortescue, 1866, Lord 
Naas, 1867. The Irish land bill settling the ques- 
tion passed 8 July, 1870. See Ulster. 
The Tenants' Defence Association, was formed in con- 
sequence of a declaration by Mr. Parnell, and his 
party, at a meeting in the house of commons, that a 
new league was necessary to defend the Irish tenant 
farmers against their landlords, 14 July, 1889. The 
tenants were invited to contribute to the fund, and 
preliminary meetings were held. The association was 
inaugurated at Thurles, Tipperary, by Mr. Sexton, 
Mr. Redmond, and other M.P.'s. 600 delegates being 
present, 28 Oct. 1889. 40,000?. had been subscribed 
up to 30 Jan. 1890. In April, 1891, the scheme was 
reported unsuccessful. 

TENASSEBIM (N.E. India), ceded by Bur- 
mah to the British, 24 Feb. 1826. 

TENEEIFFE (Canaries, N.W. coast of Africa). 
The peak of Tenerifl'e, 12, 198 feet above the level of 
the sea, was ascended in 1856 by professor C. Piazzi 
Smyth for astronomical observations. An earth- 
quake in this island destroyed several towns and 
many thousands of people in 1704. See Santa Cruz. 
The governor, col. Pedro Bastanica was hanged for 
murder of his mother-in-law, 28 Oct. 1890. 

TEN MINUTES' BILL, see Reform. 

TENNESSEE, a southern state of North 
America, was settled about 1760, and admitted into 
the union 1 June, 1796. An ordinance of secession 
from the union was passed— it is asserted illegally 
—on 6 May, 1861. On 23 Feb. 1862, the federal 
general Nelson entered Nashville, and in March, 
Andrew Johnson (afterwards the president of the 
United' States) was made military governor over a 
large part of Tennessee. In Sept. 1863, Bosencrans 
expelled the confederate government. The repre- 
sentatives of Tennessee were re-admitted to the 
congress, July, 1866. Population, 1880, 1,542,359 ; 
1890, 1,767,518; capital, Nashville. 
Riots at Knoxville, through the employment of con- 
victs in the mines ; about 500 liberated by the mob, 
30 Oct. et seq. ; recaptured, 4 Nov. 1S91. 
See United States, 1892. 

TENNIS- This game, brought from France, 
became fashionable in England in the reign of 
Charles II. 1660-85 ; see Jeu de Fanme. "Lawn 
Tennis" became fashionable in 1877, replacing 
croquet. Julian Marshall's "Annals of Tennis" 
published June, 1878. 
A National Lawn Tennis Association started Jan. 1888 

TEN TABLES, see Decemvirs. 

TENTERDEN'S ACT, Lord, 2 & 3 Will. IV. 
c. 7 X > for shortening the time of prescription in 
certain cases (such as rights cf way, and use of 
light), passed 1 Aug. 1832. 

TEN THOUSAND, see Retreat. 

TENTHS, see Tithes. 

TENUEES, the mode in which land is held. 
Military tenures in England were abolished in 
1660, Lyttelton's book on Tenures is dated 1481. 

TEEBIUM, a metal sometimes found with 
yttrium {which see). 

TEECEIEA, see Azores. 

TEEMS of Law and Vacations. They 

were instituted in England from the Norman usage, 
the long vacation being suited to the time of the 
vintage in France, 14 Will. I. 1079. — Glanvitte de 
Leg. Ai/r/lic. They were gradually formed. — Spel- 
man. The terms were fixed by statute II Geo. IV. 



TERNOVA. 



953 



THAMES. 



and i Will. IV. 22 July, 1830: Hilary Term to 
begin n Jan. and end 31 Jan.; Easter, 15 April, 
to end 8 May; Trinity, 22 May, to end 12 June ; 
Michaelmas, 2 Nov. to end 25 Nov. This act was 
amended 1 Will. IV. 15 Nov. 1830. New law terms 
(now sittings) were appointed under the Supreme 
Court of Judicature Act, passed 5 Aug. 1873. 
Michaelmas sittings : 2 Nov. to 21 Dec. 
Hilary ; n Jan. to Wednesday in Passion week. 
Easter : Thursday in Easter week to Friday before Whit- 

Sunday. 
Trinity: Tuesday after Whit-Sunday to 8 Aug. 
The new legal vacations ordered to be as follows : — 
Christmas: 24 Dec. to 6 Jan. Easter: Good Friday 
to Easter-Tuesday. Wli itsv/n : Saturday before Whit- 
Sunday to Whit-Tuesday. Long vacation : 10 Aug. to 
24 Oct. 

TERNOVA, see Tirnova. 

TERRITORIAL WATERS JURISDIC- 
TION ACT, passed, 16 Aug. 1878. It regulates 
the law relating to the trial of offences committed 
on the sea within a certain distance of the coasts of 
her majesty's dominions. 

TERROR, seeHeiynof. 

TEST ACT, directing all officers, civil and mili- 
tary, under government, to receive the sacrament 
according to the forms of the church of England, 
and to take the oaths against transubstantiation, 
&c. ; enacted 29 March, 1673. The Test and Cor- 
poration acts were repealed, 9 May, 1828. See 
University Tests. 

TESTAMENT, see Bibles, and Wills. 

TESTER, testone, a silver coin struck in France 
by Louis XII. 15 13 ; and also in Scotland in the 
time of Francis II. and of Mary, queen of Scots, 
1559. It was so called from the head of the king, 
stamped upon it. In England the tester was of izd. 
value in the reign of Henry VIII., afterwards of 
6d. (still called a tester) . 

TESTRI (N. France). Pepin d'Heristal, in- 
vited by malcontents, here defeated and captured 
Thierry III., king of Austrasia, and established 
ldmself as duke, 687. 

TETTENHALL (Staffordshire). It was pro- 
bably at this place, then named Teotenheal, that 
the Danes were defeated by the Saxon king, Edward 
the Elder, 6 Aug. 910. 

TETUAN (Morocco) was entered by the Span- 
iards 6 Feb. i860, after gaining a decisive victory 
on 4 Feb. The general O'Donnell, was made a 
grandee of the first class. 

TEUTOBERG FOREST (theTeutobergiensis 
saltus, Tacitus), probably situate between Detmold 
and Paderborn, where Hermann, or Arminius, and 
the Germans defeated the Romans under Varus, 
with very great slaughter, A.D. 9. Varus and many 
of his officers preferred suicide to captivity. This 
defeat was regarded at Rome as a national calamity, 
and Augustus, in agony, cried, " Varus, give me 
my legions!" 

TEUTONES, a people of Germany, who with 
the Cimbri made incursions upon Gaul, and cut to 
pieces two Roman armies, 113 and 105 B.C. They 
were at last defeated by the consul Marius at Aix, 
and a great number made prisoners, 102 B.C. (see 
Cimbri), with whom authors commonly join the 
Tcutones. The appellation came to be applied to 
the German nation in general (hence Deutsche). 

' TEUTONIC ORDER, military blights estab- 
lished in the Holy Land about II91, through the 

humanity of the Germans (Tcutones) to the sick 



and wounded of the Christian army in the Holy 
Land, under Guy of Lusignan, before Acre. The 
order w r as confirmed by a bull of pope Coeles- 
tine III. On their return to Germany, the knights 
were invited to subdue and christianise the country 
now called Prussia and its neighbourhood, which 
they gradually accomplished. Their territories were 
invaded, and their army was defeated, with great 
slaughter, near Tannenherg, in East Prussia, by 
Jagellon, duke of Lithuania, 15 July, 1410, when the 
grand master and many of the knights were slain. 
A large part of their possessions was incorporated 
into Poland in 1466, and into Brandenburg about 
1521. In 1525, the grand master was made a 
prince of the empire, and the order much weakened. 
Its remaining possessions were seized by Napoleon I. 
in 1809. See Prussia, &c. 

TEWKESBURY (Gloucestershire), where Ed- 
ward IV. gained a decisive victory over the Lan- 
castrian's, 4 May, 147 1. Queen Margaret, the consort 
of Henry VI. , was taken prisoner and her son killed. 
The queen was conveyed to the Tower of London, 
where king Henry expired soon after this fatal engage- 
ment; being, as is generally supposed, murdered 
by the duke of Gloucester, afterwards Richard III. 
The queen was ransomed in 1475 by the French 
king, Louis XL, for 50,000 crowns. Population, 
1881, 5,100 ; 1891, 5,269. 

The abbey, founded by Robert Fitz-Hamon, cousin of 
William I., completed and consecrated 1123 ; grandly 
altered, 14th century ; a monastery destroyed by 
Henry VIII. ; the abbey spared ; restored by G. G. 
Scott, 1877-9. 

TEXAS (N. America) was settled by the French, 
1687, who were expelled soon after. It revolted 
from Mexico in 1835 ; was helped by the Americans 
in 1836. Its independence was acknowledged in 
1840. Its proposed annexation led to war between 
Mexico and the United States. It was admitted 
into the Union by the latter in 1845 ; seceded from 
it in 1 86 1 ; submitted in 1865 ; re-admitted to state 
rights, March, 1870. The coast was desolated by a 
great storm, 15-18 Sept. 1875. Population 1880, 
1,591,749; 1890, 2,235,523; capital, Austin. See 
Storms. 
Great fire at Galveston, above 700 residences burnt, 

loss about 8oo,oooZ 13 Nov. 1SS5 

About 1 ,000 Mexicans entered Rio Grande and caused 

disturbances, soon quelled, . . . Sept. iSSS 
Diplomatic correspondence respecting the conduct 
of Mr. Lyall, British consul at Galveston, in re- 
lation to an Englishman convicted of burglary ; 
he defends himself Dee. 1S90 

TEXEL (at the mouth of the Zuyder Zee, Hol- 
land). Its vicinity has been the scene of memorable 
naval engagements. An engagement between 
the English under Blake, Dean, and Monk, and 
the Dutch under Van Tromp and Do Punter, in 
which the latter were worsted and admiral Van 
Tromp was killed, 31 July, 1653. Again, in the 
mouth of the Texcl a sharp indecisive action took 
place between the allied English and French fleets 
under prince Rupert and comte d'Estrees, and the 
Dutch fleet under Do Ruyter, 11 Aug. 1673. 'J-' 10 
Dutch fleet was vanquished by admiral Duncan 
on ir Oct. 1797; see Camperdown. The Dutch fleet 
of 12 ships of war and thirteen Indiamen surren- 
dered to admiral Mitchell, who, entering the Texcl, 
possessed himself of them without tiring a shot, 30 
Aug. 1799. 

THALLIUM, a metal, occurring in the sulphu- 
ric acid manufacture, discovered by Mr.Wm.Crookes, 
by means of the spectrum analysis, March, iS6i. 

THAMES (London), the Roman Tamesis or 
Tamesa, Saxon Temesc, Temesa, rises in four 



THAMES. 



954 



THANKSGIVINGS. 



springs, at Ullen farm, near Coates, Gloucestershire. 
The head of the river in "Wiltshire is about 170 
miles from London bridge, and its Avhole course 
from source to mouth about 220 miles. See London, 
London-bridge, and Frosts. 

The river rose so high at Westminster that the 
lawyers were brought out of the hall in boats . . 1235 

It rose to a great height, 1736, 1747, 1762 . . 1791 

The conservation of the Thames was given to the 
mayors of London 1489 

The Thames was made navigable to Oxford . . 1624 

It ebbed and flowed twice in three hours, 1658 ; 
again, three times in four hours, 22 March, 1682 ; 
again, twice in three hours ... 24 Nov. 1777 

An act of parliament gave the conservation of the 
Thames to the corporation of London ; twelve 
conservators were to be appointed — three by the 
government 1857 

In consecpienee of the great contamination of the 
Thames by the influx of the sewage of London, 
and the bad odours emanating from it in the 
summer of 1858, an act was passed empowering 
the Metropolitan Board of Works {which see) to 
undertake its purification by constructing new 
drainage 1858 

The Thames Angling Preservation Society (estab- 
lished about 1838) is revived in .... 1863 

Mr. Leach, engineer of the conservators, reported 
that "the river is dreadfully mismanaged from its 
source to its mouth " . . . .23 July, „ 

The Thames navigation acts, appointing five more 
conservators, &c, and prohibiting pollution by 
sewage, &c. , passed .... Aug. 1866 

The powers of the act extended up to Staines . . 1867 

New bye-laws to protect the fish in the Upper 
Thames passed by the conservators . 14 June, 1869 

Highest tide known for many years ; river over- 
flowed from Gravesend to its tidal limit ; great 
damage and distress in Blackfriars and Lambeth ; 
Woolwich arsenal flooded and suffered ; river 
said to have risen above 29 feet . 15 Nov., 1875 

The lord mayor and others (with carriages and 
horses) cross by ferry from Rotherhithe to Wap- 
ping i Nov. „ 

Thames SteamFerry ; first pile of a landing-place at 
Wapping struck by Lord Mayor Stone, n Oct., 
1875 ; first steam ferry boat, Jessie May, 
launched 26 Feb. 1876 

In consequence of the wreck of the saloon steamer 
Princess Alice, by collision with the Bywell Castle, 
3 Sept., a committee appointed by the Board of 
Trade to inquire into matters connected with 
safety of navigation, &c, in the river . Sept. 1878 

Thames traffic committee of the Board of Trade 
appointed 1879 

Floods on the south side, through heavy rains and 
high tides, 2, 3, Jan. 1877 ; during severe frost, 

18, 19 Jan. 1881 

Very high tide, 19 Feb. ; another, very destructive, 
Charing Cross pier carried away . . 28 Oct. 1882 

Appointment of committee to inquire into the acts 
for preserving the Thames for recreation agreed 
to ...... . 11 March, 1884 

Thames Preservation Act passed . . 14 Aug. 1885 

Greenwich great steam-ferry formally opened 13 
Feb. 1888 ; one between North and South Wool- 
wich' (free) formally opened by lord Bosebery 

23 March, 1889 

Thames Tunnel. One proposed, 1799 ; shaft 
sunk, 1804. The'present one proposed by I. K. 
Brunei to form a communication between 
Rotherhithe and Wapping, 1823. The bill re- 
ceived the royal assent ... 24 June, 1824 

The shaft was begun, and the first brick laid by Mr. 
Smith, 2 March ; the excavation commenced, 1 
April ; the first horizontal excavation in Dec. 1825 

At a distance of 544 feet from the shaft, the first 
irruption took place . . . .18 May, 1827 

The second irruption, by which six workmen 
perished 12 Jan. 1828 

The tunnel was opened throughout for foot-passen- 
gers, 25 March, 1843. [The length of the tunnel 
is 1300 feet ; its width is 35 feet ; height, 20 feet ; 
clear width of each archway, including foot-path, 
about 14 feet ; thickness of earth between the 
crown of the tunnel and the bed of the river, about 
15 feet.] 



The Thames Tunnel Company was dissolved in . 1866 
The tunnel, transferred to the East London railway 

company, was closed . . . .21 July, ,, 
The Tower subway, an iron tube tunnel beneath the 
Thames, constructed by Messrs. Barlow, was 
begun 16 Feb. 1869, and privately opened, April, 

1870. It was said to have cost only i6,oool. 

A tubular Thames tunnel, chiefly for workmen, be- 
tween North and South Woolwich, begun 23 Aug. , 1876 

Thames Embankment : recommended by sir 
Christopher Wren, 1666, and by Win. Paterson, 
founder of the bank of England, about 1694. The 
corporation embanked a mile in 1767. It was 
further recommended by Gwynne, 1767 ; by sir 
Frederick Eden, 1798 ; by sir Frederick Trench, 
1824; by James Walker; by the duke of New- 
castle, 1844 : ancL by John Martin the painter, 
1856. In i860, the Metropolitan Board of Works 
recommended that the north bank of the Thames 
should be embanked, whereby the bed of the 
river would be improved; a low-level sewer 
could be easily constructed beneath a broad 
roadway ; docks to be constructed within the 
embankment wall ; the expense to be defrayed by 
the city duties on coal, and by means provided by 
government. The principle of this recommenda- 
tion was approved by parliament, and a committee 
was appointed, which sat for the first time, 

30 April, 1861 

An act for " embanking the North side of the 
Thames from Westminster bridge to Blackfriars 
bridge, and for making new streets in and near 
thereto," passed 7 Aug. ; the work begun in Nov. 1862 

First stone of the northern (Victoria) embank- 
ment (designed by Mr. Joseph W. Bazalgette) 
laid by Mr. Thwaites near Whitehall stairs, 
20 July, 1864 ; the footway opened to the public, 
30 July, 1868 ; the roadway opened by the prince - 
of Wales 13 July, 1870 

The proposal to build public offices upon the re- 
claimed land negatived by the house of commons, 

July, „ 

" Cleopatra's Needle " (see Obelisk), set up on the 
embankment 12 Sept. 1878 

Mr. J. W. Bazalgette presented a report, with a 
plan for embanking the South side of the Thames, 
6 Nov. 1862 ; act for carrying it out passed, 

28 July, 1863 

Southern (Albert) Embankment. First stone laid by 
Mr. (aft. sir Wm.) Tite, 28 July, 1866 ; partially 
opened 24 Nov. 1869 

Thames Mystery. See London, 1873. 

Chelsea (Victoria) Embankment. Authorised by 
parliament, 13 July, 1868; commenced 5 Aug. , 

1871, opened by the duke of Edinburgh 9 May, 1874 
Kingston, Kew, Hampton Court, and other bridges 

freed from the toll by acts passed 1869 and 1874, 

1870-1878 
Avenue theatre opened ... 11 March, 1882 
The Thames at Windsor and other places frozen, 

end of Dec. 1890 
Steamboat service stopped, about 26 Dec. 1S90 ; 

resumed about 30 Jan. 1891 

The Thames, from Westminster to London Bridge, 

nearly closed by ice 6 Jan. ,, 

Thames Embankment tramways act passed, 

27 June, 1892 

THANE, a Saxon title of nobility, abolished in 
England at the conquest, upon the introduction 
of the feudal system, and in Scotland by king Mal- 
colm III., when the title of earl was adopted, 1057. 

THANET (Kent) was the first permanent 

settlement of the Saxons, about 449. The Danes 

held a part of it, 853-865, and ravaged it 980, 988 
et seq. 

THANKSGIVINGS, special national, were 
offered up at St. Paul's cathedral for the defeat of 
Spanish Armada, queen Elizabeth present, 8 Sept. 
and 24th Nov. 1588; for Marlborough's victories, 
12 Nov. 1702, and 7 Sept. 1704; for George III.'s 
recovery from illness, 23 April, 1789; for Duncan's 
and other naval victories, 19 Dec. 1797; and for 
the recovery of the prince of Wales, 27 Feb. 1872. 



THAPSUS. 



955 



THEATRES. 



THAPSUS (N. Africa). Near here Julius 
Cassar totally defeated the army of the party which 
supported the policy of Pompey, Feb. 46 B.C. The 
suicide of Cato followed soon after. 

THEATINES, a religious order, the first who 
assumed the title of regular clerks, founded by 
Caraffa, bishop of Theate, or Chieti, in. Naples 
(afterwards pope Paul IV.), 1524, to repress heresy. 
They first established themselves in France, ac- 
cording to Henault, in Paris, 1644. TheTheatines 
vainly endeavoured to revive among the clergy the 
poverty of the apostles. 

THEATRES. That of Bacchus, at Athens, 
built by Philos, 420 B.C., is said to have been the 
first erected. Marcellus' theatre at Kome was 
begun by Caesar, and dedicated by Augustus, 12 
B.C. Theatres were erected in most cities of Italy. 
Most of the inhabitants of Pompeii were assembled 
at a theatre on the night of 24 Aug. 79, when an 
eruption of Vesuvius covered the city. Scenes were 
introduced into theatres, painted by Balthazar 
Sienna, a.d. 1533. See Drama, Plays, &c. 

THEATRES IN ENGLAND. The first royal 
licence for a theatre in England was in 1574, to 
master Burbage and four others, servants of the 
earl of Leicester, to act plays at the Globe, Bank- 
side. It is stated the first play-house in London 
was erected at Shoreditch, and called the "Theatre " 
in 1576, and that the Curtain near it, was erected 
in 1577. The Blackfriars was built in 1596. The 
other London theatres in Elizabeth's reign were 
AVhitefriars, Rose, Hope, Swan, Bed Bull, Cockpit 
or Phoenix, and several othei-s. Shakespeare and 
his fellow actors erected the Globe theatre on Bank- 
side, about 1594. The prices of admission are said 
to have been — gallery, 2d. ; lords' rooms, is. ; see 
Drama, Drury Lane, and other theatres. The 
theatres were closed by parliament, 1642-60. 
The first play-bill was dated 8 April, 1663, and 
issued from Drury-laue ; it runs thus: "By his 
Majestie his company of Comedians at the New 
Theatre in Drury-lane, will be acted a comedy 
called the Humovrous Lievtenant." After detailing 
the characters, it concludes thus : " The play will 
begin at three o'clock exactly " . . 8 April, 1663 
Lincoln's-inn theatre (the duke's theatre) opened by 
sir Wm. Davenant's patent, 25 April, 1662 ; 

rebuilt 1695 

Acts for licensing plays and play-houses (placing 
them under the lord chamberlain) 10 Geo. II. 



c. 28 



Act for regulating theatres (6 & 7 Vict. c. 68). 

22 Aug. 
See Independent Theatre, 1891-2. 
See Trials, 1843. 

Marionettes or Puppets produced at the Adelaide 
Gallery 

Several of the theatres first opened on Sunday 
evenings for religious worship, and filled . Jan. 

Lord Chamberlain warned managers against inde- 
cent dances and scanty dresses 28 Jan. 1869 and 

21 Dec. 

Introduction of the queue, as at French theatres, 
by Mr. D'Oyly Carte, at the Savoy . 29 Dec. 

The employment of children under ten years <>f 

age forbidden in theatres by the Home Secretary 

about s Dec. 

Theatres in Great Britain, 166 ; in London, 33, 
summer of 

In London, Jan. 1876, 45 ; Jan. 1885, 43 ; Dec. 1891, 

Actors' Association (protective) initiated at Man- 
chester, constituted at the Lyceum, London, 

16 March, 

Parliamentary committee on theatres and music- 
halls appointed, March ; recommend in their 
report that the lord chamberlain's control be 
continued 2 June, 



1843 



1852 
i860 

1874 
1882 

18S6 
1868 



1891 



DRURY LANE. 

Killigrew's patent 25 April, 1662 

Opened 8 April, 1663 

Nell Gwynn performed 1666 

Theatre burnt down with 60 houses . . Jan. 1672 
Rebuilt by sir C. Wren, and opened 26 March, 1674 

Cibber, 'Wilkes, Booth 1712 

Garriek's debut here 1742 

Garrick and Lacy's tenure (revival of Shakspeare) . 1747 
Theatrical fund founded by Mr. Garrick, 1766 ; in- 
corporated 1775 

Interior rebuilt by Adams ; opened . 23 Sept. 

Garriek's farewell 10 June, 177& 

Sheridan's management ,, 

Mrs. Siddons' debut as a star . . .10 Oct. 1782 
Mr. Kemble's debut as Hamlet . . .30 Sept. 1783. 
The theatre rebuilt on a large scale, and re-opened, 

12 March, 1794 
Charles Kemble's first appearance (as Malcolm in 

Macbeth) 21 April, ,, 

Dowton's first appearance (as Sheva in the Jev:), 

11 Oct. 1796 
Hatfield fired at George III. . . . 11 May, 1800 

The theatre burnt 24 Feb. 1809 

Rebuilt by Wyatt, and re-opened with a prologue 

by lord Byron . . ... 10 Oct. 1812 

Edmund Kean's appearance (as Shylocl) 26 Jan. 1814 

Mr. Elliston, lessee 3 Oct. 18 19 

Madame Vestris's first appearance . 19 Feb. 1820 
Real water introduced in the Cataract of the Ganges, 

27 Oct. 1823 

Mr. Price, lessee July, 1826 

Ellen Tree's appearance (as Violante) . 23 Sept. ,, 
Charles Kean's appearance (as Xorval) . 1 Oct. 1827 
Mrs. Nisbet's first appearance (as the Widow CheerliJ) 

9 Oct. 1829 
Mr. Alexander Lee's and captain Polhill's manage- 
ment 1830 

Mr. Alfred Bunn, lessee 1831 

Mr. Forrest's first appearance (as Spartaciis), 

17 Oct. 1836 

Mr. Hammond's management 1839 

German operas commenced here . . 15 March, 1841 

Mr. Macready's management ,, 

Mr. Bunn, again lessee 1843 

Miss Clara Webster burnt on the stage, 14 Dec. ; 

and died 16 Dec. 1844 

Mr. Anderson's management 1849 

Mr. Macready's farewell ... 26 Feb. 1851 

Mr. Bunn, lessee and manager 1852 

Mr. E. T. Smith 1853-9 

English opera (Mr. Harrison and Miss Pyne) . . 1858 
Italian opera, part of . . ... . • 1859-78 

Opened by Mr. E. T. Smith . . . . 15 Oct. i860 

Suddenly closed 20 April, 1861 

Mr. G. V. Brooke appears (as Othello) . 27 Oct. ,, 
[Drowned in the London: see Wrecks, 11 Jan. 1866.] 

Mr. Falconer Dec. 1862-1865 

Messrs. Falconer and Chatterton, managers, Jan. 1866 
Re-opened with Halliday's King of Scots, 26 Sept ,, 
Re-opened with Antony and Cleopatra . 20 Sept. 1S73 
Babe's posthumous Talisman produced 11 June, 1874 
Balfe's statue uncovered . . . .25 Sept. 1874 
Salvini as Othello 1 April ; as Hamlet . 31 May, 1875 
Wagner's Lohengrin .... 12 June, ,, 

Boucicaulfs new drama the Shaughraun produced 

4 Sept. ,, 
Manager and lessee, F. B. Chatterton . . . 1876-78 
Re-opened with Richard III. . . 23 Sept. 1876 

Mr. Wills's Charles II 24 Sept. 1877 

Theatre suddenly closed ; strike of actors, &c. 

4 Feb. 1S79 
Saxe-Meiningen Court Company (Germans), Julius 

Cassar 30 May et scq. 1881 

Mad. Ristori as Lady Macbeth . . . July, 1882 
Mr., afterwards sir, Augustus Harris, lessee and 

manager Sept. 1879-92 

Carl Rosa's Opera Company . . . part of 1883-5 
Re-opens the House (Le Nozze de Figaro) 31 May, 1886 
Re-i>pnis wiih the TheSpanish Armada by Messrs. 

H. Hamilton and A. Harris . . 22 Sept. 18S8 

The Royal Oak performed . 23 Sept.— 30 Nov. 1889 
Jack and the Beanstalk . . . 26 Dec. et seq. ,, 
Carl Rosa company, Mr. Henry I'.nnv, dnvetm-, 

Gounod's Romeo and Juliet, &c. 5 April — to May, 1890 
Mr. Cowen's new opera Thorgrim 22 April et seq. ,, 

House closed 7 June, ,, 

Re-opened ; A Million of Money . 6 Sept. ct seq. ,, 



THEATEES. 



956 



THEATEES. 



26 Dec. 1890—4 April, 

11 April — 23 May, 

. 26 May et seq. 

23 June — 4 Aug. 



Beauty and the Beast 

Never too Late to Mend 

Boucicault's Formosa 

Drink 

House closed. 

A Sailor's Knot, new drama by Henry Pettitt, 

5 Sept.— 5 Dec. 
Special English opera performances on Saturdays, 
26 Sept. — 17 Oct. 
Humpty-Dumpty . . 26 Dec. 1891 — 9 April, 1892 
Overflow from Covent Garden, foreign operas, 
occasionally . . 13 June — 29 July, ,, 

COVENT GARDEN. 

The theatre opened by Rich ... 7 Dec. 1732 
Beef-steak Society, founded by Rich and Lambert . 1735 
Theatrical fund instituted 1760 ; incorporated . 1764 

Mr. Harris's tenure 1767 

Lewis's first appearance (as Belcour) . 15 Sept. 1773 
Miss Reay killed by Mr. Hackman, coming from 

the house 7 April, 1779 

Jack Johnstone's first appearance in Irish characters 

3 Oct. 1783 
Munden's appearance .... 2 Dec. 1790 
Fawcett's first appearance (as Caleb) . 21 Sept. 1791 
G. P. Cooke's appearance (as Richard III.), 31 Oct. 1800 
Braham's appearance .... 9 Dec. 1801 

Mr. Kemble's management 1802 

Appearance of Master Betty, the Infant Roscius, 

1 Dec. 1804 
Lewis's last appearance (as the Copper Captain), 

28 May, 180S 

Theatre burnt down 20 Sept. „ 

Rebuilt by R. Smirke, R.A., and re-opened with 

Macbeth ,18 Sept. 1809 

The O. P. Riot (which see) . 18 Sept. to 10 Dec. ,, 

Horses first introduced ; in Bluebeard . 18 Feb. 1811 
The farewell benefit of Mrs. Siddons (immense house) 

29 June, 1812 
Mrs. Siddons performed once afterwards, in June, 

1819, for Mr. and Mrs. C. Kemble's benefit. 
Miss Stephens' first appearance (as Mandane), 

7 Sept. 1813 
Miss Foote's appearance here (as Amanthis), 

26 May, 1814 
Miss O'Neill's appearance (as Juliet) . 6 Oct. „ 
Miss Kelly fired at by George Barnet, in the house, 

7 Feb. 1816 
Mr. Macready's first appearance (as Orestes), 

16 Sept. „ 
Mr. J. P. Kemble's farewell (as Coriolanus), 

23 June, 1817 

Henry Harris's management 1818 

Charles Kemble's management .... 1823 

Miss Fanny Kemble's appearance (as Juliet), 5 Oct. 1829 
Mr. Fawcett's farewell .... 21 May, 1830 

Charles Young's farewell . . . .30 May, 1832 

Mr. Macready's management 1837 

Madame Vestris's management .... 1839 
Miss Adelaide Kemble's appearance (as Norma), 

2 Nov. 1841 
Charles Kemble again .... 10 Sept. 1842 
Mr. Laurent's management . . . .26 Dec. 1844 
Opened by F. Gye for Italian opera . 6 April, 1847 
Destroyed by fire (during a bal masque, conducted 

by Anderson the Wizard) ... 5 March, 1856 
New theatre (by Barry) opened by Mr. F. Gye (Les 

Huguenots) 15 May, 1858 

English opera (Miss Pyne and Mr. Harrison), Oct. 1859 
All principal actors perform parts of plays for the 

benefit of the Dramatic College . 29 March, i860 
Balfe's L'ianca brought out ... 6 Dec. ,, 
Italian opera (Mr. Gye) .... April, 1861 

Last appearance of Grisi .... 3 Aug. ,, 
English opera (Pyne and Harrison) . . 31 Oct. ,, 
Italian opera (Mr. Gye) .... April, 1862 
English opera (Pyne and Harrison) . 25 Aug. ,, 

Italian opera (Mr. Gye) .... 7 April, 1S63 

Gounod's Faust July, ,, 

English opera (Pyne and Harrison . . 12 Oct. ,, 
Italian opera (Mr. Gye) .... April, 1864 
English opera, &c. (Opera Company, Limited), 

17 Oct. 1864 
Italian opera (Mr. Gye) ... 28 April, 1865 
Becomes the property of a company, Mr. Gye, 

manager Aug. ,, 

Reopened (Mr. Gye) April, 1866 ; 2 April, 1867 ; 

31 March, 1868 



Opened by Mr. Mapleson's company . 24 Oct. 1868 
Opera season (Gye and Mapleson) . 29 May, 1869 

Mr. Dion Boucicault lessee and manager 29 Aug. 1872 

Italian opera 1873-8 

Mr. F. Gye, many years lessee, died through acci- 
dent with gun 5 Dec. 1878 

A. & S. Gatti, managers .... Dec. ,, 

Mr. Lionel Gye, lessee 1878-81 

" Royal English opera" under Mr. T. H. Friend; 

short season 7 Jan. 1884 

Sig. Salvini's company, Othello, &c. . 28 Feb. ,, 

Grand International cirque . . 26 Dec. et seq. „ 
William Holland, lessee and manager . . . 1884-5 
Mr. Mapleson, with Italian opera June and July, 1885 
Grand demonstration to Madame Adelina Patti 

25 July, ,, 
Revival of Italian opera, signor Bevignani, con- 
ductor 25 May, 1886 

Italian opera, opened under Mr. Mapleson (Verdi's 

Traviata performed) ... 12 March, 1887 

Donizetti's La Favorita performed . 24 May, ,, 
Donizetti's Lucrczia Borgia performed 14 May ; 

successful season ; closed . . 21 July 1888 

Italian opera season, Mr. A. Harris, director, 

20 May-27 July, 1889 
Promenade concerts, Mr. F. Thomas Sept. — Nov. ,, 
Cinderella and grand circus . 26 Dec. et seq. ,, 
Italian opera, Guonod's laust, &c. 

19 May— 28 July, 1890 
Promenade concerts (Mr. F. Thomas), 

9 Aug. — 4 Oct. ,., 
Italian opera (Sig. Lago) . . 18 Oct. — 29 Nov. ,, 
Million of Money . . 15 Dec. 1890 — 17 Jan. 1891 

Carnival Balls . . . 3, 17 Feb ; 4, 8 March, ,, 
Lent oratorios, Elijah, &c. . 14 Feb.— 7 March, ,, 
Italian opera (Mr. , afterwards sir, A. Harris), Orfeo, 

&c. . . . " . 6 April — 27 July, , , 
Promenade concerts . . . 12 Sept.— 10 Oct. -,, 
Opera season : Romio et, Juliette, &c. 20 Oct. — 20 Nov. ,, 
Carnival Balls, 30 Dec. 1891 ; 13 Jan., 10 Feb., 1 

March, 23 March, 20 April, 1892. 
Italian Opera . - . . . . 16 May, 1892 
Cavalleria Rusticana, by Mascagni, and other pieces, 

16 May, ,, 
German opera, &c. ... 8 June — 28 July, ,, 

HER MAJESTY'S THEATRE, OR ITALIAN OPERA-HOUSE. 

Opera-house opened. Pennant. (See Opera-house). 1705 
Madame Rachel's appearance . . 10 May, 1841 

Mr. Lumley's management . 1842 

Jenny Lind's first appearance . . .4 May, 1847 
Association formed for conducting financial affairs 

of the house 1S52 

Jullien's concerts Oct. 1857 

Festive performances on the marriage of the prin- 
cess royal Jan. 1859 

Macfarren's Robin Hood brought out . . 11 Oct. i860 

[Not opened in 1861.] 
Italian opera (Mr. Mapleson) .... 1862-67 
Burnt down ; great loss . . . .6 Dec. 1867 
Rebuilt — its affairs in Chancery .... 1872 

Sold for 31,000! 20 May, 1874 

[Lease to earl Dudley, till 1891.] 
Opened for Italian opera by Mr. Mapleson 1877 et seq. 
Carl Rosa's company, Wagner's operas, &c.,part of 1879-80 
Carl Rosa, Wagner's Lohengrin . 14 Jan. et seq. 1882 

Sig. Rossi as Lear 10 June, ,, 

Opened by M. Carillon (Cargill) ; Gounod's Faust ; 
performance stopped by strike of unpaid com- 
pany, carpenters, &c. , riot . . 6 March, 18S6 
Mr. Mayer, lessee ; appearance of madame Sarah 
Bernhardt in Fedora, &c. . 26 April, et seq. ,, 

French opera 22 Nov. ,, 

Promenade concerts inaugurated by colonel Maple- 
son 20 Aug. ; by Mr. Van Biene . . 12 Nov. 1887 
Italian opera season begins (under Mr. Mapleson) 

1 June, 1889 

The establishment of a company "Her Majesty's 

Theatre (limited)," with a capital of 40,000?. to 

restore the theatre to its original position, 

proposed by lord Hay, Mr. Henry J. Leslie, and 

others June, ,, 

Promenade concerts . . . 17 Aug. — Oct. 1889 
Opera company (lessees), Cinderella 26 Dec. et seq. ,, 
The house suddenly closed ; the company bank- 
rupt 29 Jan. 1890 

French plays. Gynmase company, including S. 



THEATEES. 



957 



THEATEES. 



Bernhardt, 2-16 June. Mr. M. L. Mayer, mana- 
ger .......... 1890 

House closed, 12 July, 1890; pulled down . . 1892 

HAYMARKET. 

Built 1702 

Opened by French comedians ... 29 Dec. 1720 

Fielding's Mogul company 1 734-5 

A French company prohibited from acting by the 

audience 1738 

Mr. Foote's patent 1747 

The Bottle-conjuror's dupery (see Bottle Conjuror), 

16 Jan. 1748 

The theatre rebuilt 1767 

Mr. Column's tenure 1 Jan. 1777 

Miss Farren's appearance here (afterwards countess 

of Derby) „ 

Royal visit — great crowd — 16 persons killed and 

many wounded 3 Feb. 1794 

Mr. Elliston's debut here . . . 24 June, 1796 
First appearance of Mr. Mathews (as Lingo) 16 May, 1803 

Mr. Morris's management 1805 

Appearance of Mr. Liston (as Sheep/ace) . 8 June, „ 

The tailors' riot 15 Aug. ,, 

Appearance of Mr. Young (as Hamlet) . 22 June, 1807 
Of Miss F. Kelly (as Floretta) . . 12 June, 1810 
Present theatre rebuilt by Nash; opened 4 July, 1821 
Miss Paton's (Mrs. Wood) appearance (as Susannah), 

3 Aug. 1822 
Mr. Webster's management ... 12 June, 1837 
Mr. Charles Kean's appearance here . . . 1839 

Mr. Webster's management (16 years) terminated 

with his farewell appearance . . 14 March, 1853 
First appearance of Our American Cousin(sa.id to be 
by Tom Taylor, and to have been acted 800 times 
in America), Mr. Sothern, Lord Du ndrea ry (played 

496 nights) 11 Nov. 1861 

Mr. Buckstone's management .... 1853-76 

Mr. John S. Clarke 1878 

F.e-opened ; pit removed, and other changes ; tem- 
porary riot 31 Jan. 1880 

Mr. <fc Mrs. Bancroft 1879-85 

Grand closing performance . . .20 July, 1885 
Opened by Messrs. Russell and Bashford 26 Sept. ,, 
Interior re-constructed and re-opened by Mr. Beer- 

bohm Tree, lessee .... Sept. 1887-9 
A Man's Shadow (from the French), by Mr. R. 

Buchanan . . 12 Sept. 1889 — 29 March, 1890 
The Village Priest, by Mr. S. Grundy, 3 April — 12 

July; 6 Oct- 6 Nov. „ 
Beau Austin, by W. E. Henley and R. L. Steven- 
son 3 Nov. el seq. ,, 

Called Back, by Hugh Conway and Comyn Carr, 10 
Nov., and other pieces on different days, Nov., 

Dec. 1890 — Jan. 1891 
The Dancing Girl . . -15 Jan. — 27 June, ,, 
House closed, 27 June ; re-opened with The Dancing 

Girl 5 Oct. 1891— 15 Jan. 1892 

Mr. Beerbohm Tree, lessee and manager . Jan. ,, 
Hamlet, with Peril occasionally in the afternoon, 

21 Jan. — 27 May, ,, 
Peril, with Hamlet occasionally in the afternoon, 

28 May — 5 July, ,, 
Hamlet, season terminates . . . . 6 July, „ 



LYCECM, FORMERLY ENGLISH OPERA-HOUSE. 

Built by Dr. Arnold 

Winsor experiments with gas-lighting . 

Opened as the Lyceum in 

Appearance of Mr. Wrench (as Belcour) . 7 Oct. 
Re-opened with an address by Miss Kelly 15 June, 
House destroyed by lire . . . . 16 Feb. 
Rebuilt, and re-opened . .... 14 July, 
Equestrian performances . . . .16 Jan. 
Airs. Keeley's management . . . S April, 
Madame VestriS and Mr. C. Mathews' management, 

Oct. 18 
Retirement of Mr. C. Mathews . . . March, 
Appearance of Madame Ristori . . .June, 
Taken by Mr. Gye for Italian opera for forty nights, 

14 April, 
Opened for English opera by Miss Louisa Pyne ami 

Mr. Harrison 21 Sipl. 

Balfe's opera, Rose of Castile, produced . . Oct. 
Mr. G. Webster and Mr. Falconer, July, 1858 ; closed, 

April, 
Opened by Madame Celeste Nov. 1859, and Oct. 



794-5 
803-4 



1816 
1830 
1834 
1844 



♦7-56 
185s 
1856 

i3 5 7 



1859 

1S60 



The "Savage Club" perform before the queen and 

prince 7 March, i860 

Italian opera 8 June, 1861 

Mr. Falconer, manager (English comedy) 19 Aug. ,, 
Peep o'Day brought out .... 9 Nov. ' 

Mr. Fechter 10 Jan. et seq. 1863 

Japanese troupe Spring, 1868 

Lord Lytton's Rightful Heir brought out 3 Oct. 
Mr. H. Irving as Hamlet (long run) . . 31 Oct. 1874 
„ Macbeth ... 25 Sept. 1875 

,, Othello .... 14 Feb. 1876 

Tennyson's Queen Mary performed 19 April, „ 

Mr. H. L. Bateiuan, lessee and manager . . 1873-6 
Mrs. Bateman, ditto . . . 1876-8 

Mr. H. Irving, lessee and manager . Sept. et seq. 1878 
Re-opens with Hamlet .... 30 Dec. ,, 
Mr. Chippendale's benefit (68 years on the stage), 

24 Feb. 1879 
Much Ado about Nothing; grand scenery . n Oct. 1882 
Miss M. Anderson and American actors . 1 Sept. 1883 
Faust, adapted by W. G. Wills, 19 Dec. 1885 ; 250th 

performance 22 Nov. 1886 

Miss Mary Anderson, autumn season . 10 Sept. 1887 
Revival of Macbeth with new rendering by Mr. 

Irving and Miss E. Terry . . .29 Dec. 1888 
His company performs the Bells before the queen 

at Sandringham 26 April, 1889 

Mr. Mayer with Italian opera and French plays : 

Verdi's Otello, 5 July-27 July ; Madame Sarah 

Bernhardt in Lena 9 July, ,, 

The Dead Heart revived .... 9 May, 1890 

The Bells, Louis XI., Olivia . . . May, ,, 
Mr. Augustin Daly's company, from New York, 

10 June — 16 Aug. ,, 
Ravenswood, by Herman Merivale . 20 Sept. et seq. ,, 
Much Ailo About Nothing, Charles L, Corsican 

Brothers, and other pieces . 5 Jan. — 25 March, 1891 
Mr. Augustin Daly's company . 9 Sept. — 13 Nov. ,, 
King Henry VIII., with Richelieu occasionally in 

the afternoon or evening . . 5 Jan. — 30 July, 1892 

ADELPHI THEATRE. 

Formerly called the Sans Pareil, opened under the 

management of Mr. and Miss Scott . .27 Nov. 1806 
Under Rodwell and Jones, who gave it the present 

name 1820-21 

Terry and Yates ^25 

Messrs. Mathews and Yates' management join 

(Mathctvs at Home) 1828 

New front 11840 

Madame Celeste's management . . 30 Sept. 1S44 

Rebuilt and opened, with improved arrangements, 

27 Dec. 1858 
Colleen Bawn represented . . . 10 Sept. i860 

[Immense run ; above 360 nights.] 
Miss Bateman appears as Leah, 1 Oct. 1863, to 

11 June, 1864 
Messrs. F. B. Chatterton and Mr. B. Webster, 

lessees 1844-73 

Messrs. Gatti, lessees and managers . . 1873-92 
London Day by Day, by G. R. Sims and Mr. Pettit, 

14 Sept. et seq. 1889 
Green Bushes revived . . . ig April et seq. 1890 
The Bride of Love, by R. Buchanan . May et seq. „ 
The Englich Rose, by G. R. Sims ami R. Buchanan, 

2 Aug. 1890—2 May, 1891 
The Streets of London, by D. Boucicault 7 May et seq. „ 
The Trumpet Call, by G. R. Sims and R. Buchanan, 

1 Aug. 1891— 21 April, 1892 
The White Rose, by G. R. Sims and R. Buchanan, 

2:5 April — 10 June, ,, 
Lights of Home, by same authors . 30 July et seq. ,, 

ST. James's, late prince's. 
This theatre was built by and opened under the 

management of Mr. Braham . . . 14 Dec. 1835 
German operas performed here under the manage- 
ment of Mr. Bunn 1840 

Mr. Mitchell's tenure ; performance of French plays, 

22 Jan. 1S44 

German plays 1852 

Airs. Seymour's tenure . . . .22 Oct. 1S54-5 

French plays 1857 

Neapolitan buffo-opera Nov. 

Italian plays 1858 

French operas Jan. 1859 

French plays May, ,, 



THEATRES. 



958 



THEATEES. 



English comedy, under Mr. P. Cliatterton, manager, 

Oct. 1859 

French plays 28 May, i860 

English plays ". 12 Aug. ,, 

Mr. Wigan, manager 1860-2 

French plays .... May, 1868, April, 1869 

French plays 1871-3 

The Iron Master 17 April, 1884 

Messrs. Hare & Kendal, lessees and managers . .1885 

Mr. Rutland Barrington 1888 

Mrs. Langtry March, 1890 

AsYouLilcelt April, ,, 

Msther Sandraz, by Sydney Grundy . 3 May ct seq. „ 
House closed, 7 June ; re-opened (Mr. Bouchier, 

manager), Your Wife .... 26 Jun3, ,, 
Mr. Mayer, French plays . . 27 Oct. et seq. „ 
Mr. G. Alexander (from the Avenue) lessee and 

manager 15 Ma y> » 

Sunlight and Shadow, 100th time . . 31 Jan. 1891 

The Idler 26 Feb.— 17 July, ,, 

Moliere, new piece ..... 17 July, ,, 
House closed. 

The Idler (Moliere sometimes) . 30 Sept.— 4 Nov. „ 
Lord Anerley, by Mark Quinton and Henry Hamil- 
ton 7 Nov.— 23 Dee. ,, 

Forgiveness, by J. C. Carr . 30 Dec. 1891— 10 Feb. 1892 
Lady Windermere's Fan, by Oscar Wilde, 

20 Feb. — 29 July, ,, 



princess's theatre, oxford street. 
First opened for concerts .... Sept. 
Sold for 16,400? 9 Sept. 



Opened for plays by Mr. J. Maddox 

Mr. Bartley's farewell here 

Mr. Charles Kean's management, 



1850: 



26 Dec. 

18 Dec. 

closed, 

29 Aug. 

29 Sept. 

23 Jujy, 

20 March, 



1842 



1862 
>3-66 
72-78 
1875 



Mr. A. Harris's management ; opened 
.Zouave Crimean company . 
Mr. Fechter appears (as Hamlet) 

Mr. Harris, lessee *■ 

Mr. Lindus, manager .... 20 Oct. 
Mr. G. Vining, lessee and manager . . May, 18 

Mr. F. B. Cliatterton, lessee 18 

Carl Rosa's Opera company 

Mr. "Walter Gooch, lessee and manager . . 18 
Closed for rebuilding, 19 May; rebuilt; opened (1st 
appearance of Edwin Booth) . . .6 Nov. 
G. R. Sims' Lights 0' London . . . Sept. 
Mr. Wilson Barrett, lessee and manager . . Aug. 1883 
Claudian, by Herman and Wills . . 6 Dec. „ 
Miss G. Hawthorne, lessee . . . Jan. 1888-9 
Mr. Wilson Barrett closes his season, going to 

America for a year .... 18 May, 1889 

Sole lessee, Miss Grace Hawthorne ; manager, Mr. 

W. W. Kelly 1889 

Gold Craze 30 Nov.— 14 Dec. „ 

Theodora, by Sardou .... 5 May, 1890 
Mrs. Langtry, sole lessee and manageress . Nov. ,. 
Anthony and Cleopatra . 18 Nov. 1890— Feb. 1891 
Lady Barter, by Mr. Coghlan . 28 Feb.— 20 March, ,, 

Linda Grey 8 April, „ 

House closed 17 April, „ 

Manager, Mr. Sidney Herberte-Basing ; Fate and 

Fortune .... 27 July— 28 Aug. „ 
Revival of Arrah-na-Pogue . 29 Aug.— 7 Nov. ., 
After Dark, by D. Boucicault . 9 Nov.— 19 Dec. „ 
Alone in London . . 21 Dec. 1891— 16 Jan. 1892 
The Swiss Express (previously matinee), 

18 Jan. — 3 Feb. ,, 
The Great-Metropolis . . 11 Feb.— 9 April, „ 
The Life we Live . . . . 16 April et seq. „ 
Stratlilogan, new piece . . . 9 June et seq. „ 
House to let, advertised . . . .22 June, „ 
Royal Divorce, altered by Miss Grace Hawthorne 

25 July et seq „ 

OLYMPIC, NOW NEW OLYMPIC. 

Erected by the late Mr. Astley, and opened with 

horsemanship . . . • • 18 Sept. 1806 

Here the celebrated Elliston (1813), and afterwards 
Madame Vestris, had managements ; the latter 

until t8 39 

Mr. George Wild's tenure 1840 

Miss Davenport's tenure .... 11 Nov. 1844 

Mr. Watts's management 1848 

The theatre destroyed by fire . . 29 March, 1849 



Rebuilt and opened — Mr. Watts resumes his man- 
agement 26 Dec. 1849 

Mr. William Farren's management .... 1850 
Lessee and manager, Mr. A. Wigan . 17 Oct. 1853-7 
Messrs. Robson and Embden's management, 

Aug. 1857-62 
Mr. Horace Wigan, manager .... 1S64-68 

Lessee, Mr. B. Webster - 1868 

Lessee and manager, Miss Ada Cavendish . . 1873 
Mr. Wills's Buckingham produced . . . Dec. 1875 

Mr. Henry Neville 1873-78 

Mrs. A. Conover, lessee . ... 1885 

Mr. J. Pitt-Hardacre 1889 

Opened by Mr. Wilson Barrett; The People's Idol, 
and other pieces, by Mr. Barrett and Mr. V. 

Wednell 4 Dec. ct seq. 1890 - 

Lights 0' London 9 Feb. 1891 

Hamlet 13-18 April, ,, 

The Acrobat, or Belphegor . . . 21 April, ,, 
House closed, 9 May ; re-opened by Mr. Charles 

Wilmot; manager, Mr. W. W. Kelly . . . ,, 
Theodora, by Sardou 1 Aug.— 8 Sept. ., 

A Royal Divorce, by W. G. Wills 10 Sept. — 19 Dec. ,, 
Oliver Twist . . . . . 21 Dec. et seq. ,, 
East Lynne .... 2 Feb.— 5 March, 1892 
The Black Flag .... 7 March et seq. „ 
Called Back .... 22 March— 2 April, ,, 
Theodora revived .... 4 April et seq. ,, 
Lessee and manager, Mr. Edmund Tearle ; Julius 
Cesser, Richard III., Virginias, Othello, 

16 April— 28 May, ,, 

Savoy Theatre, see under Savoy. Opened 10 Oct. 1S81. 

STRAND THEATRE. 

First opened — Mr. Rayncr and Mrs. Waylett . . 1S31 
Mr. William Farren's management . . . . 1849 
Lessee, Mr. F. Allcroft ; manager, Mr. T. Payne . 1855 

Lessee, Miss Swanborough 1858-61 

Mr. Swanborough, sen Dec. 1862 

Mrs. Swanborough, 1865-88 ; she died (aged 84) 

6 Jan. 1889 
Rebuilt ; re-opened . . . .18 Nov. 1882 

Mr. J. S. Clarke, lessee Jan. 1888 

Re-opens , Mr. C. Wyndham and Mr. Win. Duke, 

managers 6 Feb. 1889 

Mr. Arthur Rousbey's opera company perform 

Figaro 14 March, ,, 

Lessee, J. S. Clarke Sept. ,, 

Mr. Willie Edouin 13 March, 1890 

Our Flats, 645th and last performance . 3 Jan. 1S91 
Private Inquiry, by F. C. Burnand 7 Jan. — 13 Feb. ,, 
Turned Up . . .14 Feb.— 18 April, ,, 

Our Daughters . . . .22 April — 9 May, ,, 
A Night's Frolic .... 1 June et seq. ,, 

Katti 27 Jun ■, ,, 

The Late Lamented . . . 1 Aug. 1891 — 8 Jan. 1892 
The New Wing, by H. A. Kennedy 9 Jan. — 9 April, ,, 
Niobe (All Smiles), a mythological comedy, by H. 

and E. Paul ton .... 11 April et seq. ,, 

ROYAL ENGLISH OPERA HOUSE. 

Erected for Mr. SD'Oyly Carte by Mr. T. E. Col- 
cutt in Cambridge Circus, Shaftesbury Avenue, a 
magnificent fireproof building to accommodate 
2,000 persons, opened with Ivanlwe, music by sir 
Arthur Sullivan, libretto by Mr. Julian Sturgis, 

31 Jan. — 31 July, 1S91 

House closed 31 July, ,, 

The Basoche, composer M. Andre Messager ; libret- . 
tist, M. Albert Carre ; Ivanhoe (on some inter- 
vening days), 3-28 Nov. 1891 ; 5 Dec. 1891 — 

16 Jan. 1892 
House closed. 

Madame Sarah Bernhardt ; Sardou' s Cleopatra, &c. 

28 May— 23 July, ,, 

ASTLEY'S AMPHITHEATRE. 

Built by Philip Astley, and opened .... 1773 
Destroyed by fire, with numerous adjacent houses, 

17 Sept. 1794 

Rebuilt 1795 

Burnt again, with forty houses . . 1 Sept. 1803 

Duerow's management 1825 

Again destroyed by fire .... 8 June, 1841 

Rebuilt and re-opened by Mr. Batty . 17 April, 1S43 
Lessee and manager, Mr. AV. Cooke . . . 1855-60 



THEATRES. 



9.59 



THEATRES. 



Mr. W. Cooke's farewell benefit . . .30 Jan. 1S60 
A man killed by a lion .... Jan. 1861 

Opened by Mr. Batty 6 Dec. ,, 

Opened by Mr. Boueicault, as the Theatre Royal, 

Westminster 26 Dec. 1862 

Horsemanship and opera (under Mr. E. T. Smith), 

June, 1S65 
Sold by auction 1S68 

SURREY THEATRE (FORMERLY CIRCUS). 

[Originally devoted to equestrian exercises, under 

Mr. Hughes] 4 Nov. 1782 

Opened for performances ... 4 Nov. 1783 

Destroyed by Are 12 Aug. 1805 

Mr. Eliiston's management 1809 

Mr. Elliston again 4 June, 1827 

Mr. Davidge's tenure 1833 

Mr. Shepherd and Mr. Anderson, managers, 

12 Sept. 1863-5 
Destioyed by fire, 31 Jan. ; rebuilt and opened, 

26 Dec. 1865 
Used for melodramas, pantomimes, &c. at low prices 1889 



VICTORIA (FORMERLY COBURG). 

[The erection was commenced under the patronage 
of the late princess Charlotte and the prince Leo- 
pold of Saxe-Coburg] 1816 

The house was opened iSiS 

Messrs. Egerton and Abbott had the management in 1833 

Mr. Osbaldiston's tenure 1840 

Alarm of fire, sixteen persons killed . 27 Dec. 1858 
Now Victoria Hall, used for popular lectures, 

concerts, &c. 1889 

Sadler's wells. 

Opened as an orchestra 1683 

Present house opened 1765 

Eighteen persons trampled to deatli on a false 

alarm of fire 15 Oct. 1807 

Management of Mrs. Warner and Mr. Phelps, 

20 May, 1844-59 
Management of Mr. Josephs . . . 25 March, 1861 
Re-opened by Mr. Phelps .... 7 Sept. ,, 
Lessee, Miss C. Lucette ... 27 Sept. 1S62 

Miss Marriott, manager . 5 Sept. 1863 — 20 May, 1864 

31iss C. Lucette, for opera 1865 

Miss Marriott, legitimate drama (with intervals) 1865-8 
Miss Hazlewood, Miss Marriott, and others . 1868-73 
Opened by Mrs. Bateman as New Sadler's Wells, 

9 Oct. 1879 
Mrs. Bateman dies (Miss I. Bateman succeeds), 

r3 Jan. 1881 
Opened by Miss Roze de Vane . . 12 April, 1884 
Closed and re-opened occasionally . . . 1887-92 



other theatres. 
Queen's Theatre, Tottenham-court-road . . . 1828 
Garrick Theatre, Goodman's-fields .... 1830 

City Theatre, Norton-Folgate 1837 

Miss Kelly's Theatre (since named Soho and New 

Royalty) 1840 

Marylebone, opened 1842 

Standard Theatre, built 1854 ; burnt, 21 Oct. 1866 ; 

rebuilt 1868 

Pavilion Theatre burnt .... 23 Feb. 1856 
Alhambra, Leicester-square, opened, 1858; burnt, 

7 Dec. 1882 ; and re-opeued ... 3 Dec. 18S3 

New Royalty (Soho) 31 Aug. 1863 

Holborn Theatre (afterwards called the Mirror, and 

the Duke's), opened, 16 Oct. 1866; burnt, 4 July, 18S0 
Roval Amphitheatre (for horses, &c), Holborn, 

opened 25 May, 1867 

New Bast London, opened ... 12 Oct. ,, 
" New Queen's Theatre," formerly St. Martin's hall, 

opened by Alfred Wigan . . . .24 Oct. ,, 
St. George's Opera-house, Langham-place, opened 

by Mr. German Reed .... 18 Dec. ,, 
The Globe, Strand, opened . . . 28 Nov. 1868 
The Gaiety, Strand, opened . . . 21 Dec. 
Charing Cross, opened . . . .19 June, 1869 
Vaudeville, opened .... 16 April, 1870 

Opera Comique, 299, Strand, opened (for Molle. 

De.jazet) 29 Oct. ,, 

Court Theatre, Chelsea, opened . . 25 Jan. 1871 



Royal Alexandra Theatre, Park-street, Camden- 

town, opened, 31 May, 1873 ; burnt . 10 Sept. iS:i 
Criterion, Regent's Circus, Piccadilly, opened by 

Spiers andPond, 21 March, 1874; closed, Feb. 

1883; re-opened 4 Oct. 1C34 

National Opera House (which see), founded 7 Sept. 

ami 16 Dec. 1875 
Charing Cross re-opened as the " Folly " . 16 Oct. 1876 
"Imperial theatre," at Westminster Aquarium . 1878 
Holborn theatre reopened as the " Royal Connaught 

theatre " 1 Nov. 1879 

Savoy Theatre opened (which sec) . . 10 Oct. 1881 
Toole's Theatre, formerly the Folly, opened in . 1882 
Avenue Theatre, Thames Embankment, opened, 

11 March, 1882 
Prince's Theatre, Coventry Street (Mr. Bruce), 

opened 18 Jan. 1883 

New Alhambra Theatre opened . . 3 Dec. ,, 
Empire Theatre, formerly Pandora, opened 14 April, 1884 
Mr. Terry's new theatre, Strand, opened 17 Oct. 1887 
Grand Theatre, Islington, opened 4 Aug. 1883 ; 

burnt 29 Dec. 1887 ; rebuilt 18S8 

New Court Theatre opened . . .24 Sept. 1888 
Shaftesbury Theatre, London, opened . 20 Oct. 1S88 
Lyric Theatre, London . . . .17 Dec. ,, 
Garrick Theatre, Charing-cross Road, opened by 

Mr. Hare 24 April, 1889 

Trafalgar Theatre, St. Martin's-lane, opened 10 Sept. 1892 

DUBLIN THEATRES. 

Werburg-street, commenced 1635 

Orange-street, now Smpck-alley .... 1662 

Aungier-street (Victor) 1723 

Ditto, management of Mr. Hitchcock . . . 1733 

Crow-street Music-hall - . . 1731 

Rainsford-street Theatre 1732 

Smock-alley Theatre, rebuilt 1735 

Fishamble-street Music-hall 1741 

Capel-street Theatre 1745 

Crow-street, Theatre Royal 1758 

Peter-street, Theatre Royal 1789 

Hawkin's-street, Theatre Royal .... 1821 

Destroyed by fire 9 Feb. 1880 

Queen's Theatre, Brunswick-street .... 1844 

EDINBURGH THEATRES. 

Theatre of Music 1672 

Allan Ramsay's 1736 

The Caledonian Theatre 1822 

Adelphi Theatre burnt down . . 24 May, 1S53 

Royal Theatre burnt down (several lives lost), 

13 Jan. 1865, again 6 Feb. 1875 



FIRST OR LAST APPEARANCES. 

Quin's first appearance 

Maeklin at Lincoln's-inn-fields 

Garrick's at Goodman's-fields, as Richard HI., 

19 Oct, 
Miss Farren (afterwards countess of Derby) first ap- 
pears at Liverpool . . . . " . . . 
Garrick's last appearance . . . .10 June, 
Mrs. Robinson, Perdita: her last appearance, 14 Doc 
Braham's first appearance at the Royalty, 20 April, 
Madame Storace ; her first appearance in London, 

24 Nov. 

Incledon's first appearance 

Miss Mellon, her first appearance as Lydia Languish, 

31 Jan. 
Master Betty (Infant Roscius) debut in London, en- 
thusiastically received . . . . 1 !><■,'. 
Liston's first appearance in London . 1 June, 
Miss F. M. Kelly's first appearance .... 
Romeo Coates appears as Lothario . to April, 

.Airs. Jordan's last appearance, as Lady Teazle, 

1 June, 
Miss O'Neill, as Juliet .... 6 Oct. 
Mr. Macready's first appearance at Bath, as /; 

29 Dec. 
Booth's first appearance .... 12 Feb. 

w. Farren's first appearance 

Munden's last appearance .... May, 
Fanny Kemble's first appearance . . 5 Oct. 
Edmund Kcau's last appearance, a.s 01 

25 March, 
Liston's last appearance . . . 31 May, 

Adelaide Kemble's first appearance . . 2 Nov. 



1716 
I 7 2 5 

1741 

r 773 

1776 
1779 
17S7 

17S9 

1790 



1807 
iSir 

1814 



1S17 
1818 
1824 
1829 

1S33 



THEATRES. 



960 



THEBES. 



Jenny Land's first appearance . . 4 May, 1847 

Mrs. Glover's farewell . . . .12 July, 1850 

Mr. Bartley's farewell .... 18 Dec. 1852 

Mr. W. Farren's farewell 1855 

Clara Novello's farewell .... 21 Nov. i860 
Adelina Patti's first appearance at Covent Garden, 

14 May, 1861 

Miss Bateman appears as Leah . . . 1 Oct. 1863 

Her farewell at H.M.'s theatre . . . 22 Dec. 1865 
Madlle. Nillson's first appearance at H.M.'s theatre 

as VioUtta . . . . . .8 June, 1867 

Miss Kate Terry's last appearance (Juliet at the New 

Adelphi) 31 Aug. ,, 

Madlle. Kellogg's debut at Drury-lane . 2 Nov. ,, 

Mr. Bandmann's debut .... 17 Feb. 1868 
Mr. Paul Bedford's farewell at New Queen's theatre, 

16 May, ,, 

Madlle. Marimon's debut, as Amino, . . 6 May, 1871 
Mario's farewell in La Favorita at Italian opera, 

19 July, ,, 

. Miss Isabella Bateman's debut . . . 12 Sept. „ 
Mr. and Mrs. Alfred Wigan's last appearance (at 

Drury Lane) 6 July, 1872 

Mr. H. Irving first appears as Hamlet, 31 Oct. 1874, 

200th performance 29 June 1875 

Our Boys by H. J. Byron, 1st time 16 Jan. 1875 

(at the Vaudeville); 1350th, 1 April; and last 

18 April, 1879 

Mr. Byron's The Girls, 1st performance 19 April, ,, 
Mr. Sims Beeves' farewell at the B. Albert Hall, 

11 May, 1891 

MEMOEAND.A. 

David Garrick died 1779 

Charles Macklin died 1797 

Mr. Palmer died on the stage at Liverpool, 2 Aug. 1798 

Bannister retired from the stage 1815 

John P. Kemble died 1823 

Talma died in Paris 1826 

Weber came to London Feb. ,, 

The Brunswick theatre fell, owing to the weight of 

a newly-ereeted roof, and numbers of persons 

were wounded and some killed . . 29 Feb. 1828 

Sarah Siddons died 1831 

Edmund Kean died 1833 

Charles Mathews died . . . .28 June, 1835 
Madame Malibran died at Manchester . 23 Sept. 1836 

Paganini died 27 May, 1840 

Power lost in the President steamer, about 13 March, 1841 
Elton lost in the Pegasus ... 18 July, 1843 
Theatres' Registry Act passed -. . . 22 Aug. ,, 
Madlle. Mars died at Paris ... 23 March, 1847 
Madame Catalini died at Paris . . .13 June, 1849 
W. C. Macready retired ... 26 April, 1851 

Alexander Lee died 9 Oct. „ 

Mrs. Warner died 5 Sept. 1854 

Charles Kemble died .... 12 Nov. ,, 
John Braham died .... 17 Feb. 1856 

Madame Vestris died .... 8 Aug. ,, 

Madlle. Rachel died 4 Jan. 1858 

Mrs. Nisbet (lady Boothby) died . . 16 Jan. ,, 
Louis Lablache (buffo singer) died . . 23 Jan. ,, 
John Pritt Harley died .... 22 Aug. ,, 
Flexmore, celebrated clown, died . . 20 Aug. i860 

Mrs. Yates died 30 Oct. ,, 

Alfred Bunn died 20 Dec. ,, 

William Farren died 25 Sept. 1861 

Mr. Vandenhoff died 4 Oct. ,, 

M. Tree (Mrs. Bradshaw) died .... Feb. 1862 
Subscription testimonial (value 2000?.) i>resented to 

C. J. Kean : Mr. Gladstone in the chair, 22 March, 1862 
Sheridan Knowles died .... 30 Nov. ,, 
Mrs. Wood (Miss Paton) died . . .21 July, 1864 
Mr. F. Robson died .... n Aug. ,, 
Madame Pasta died, aged 66 . .1 April, 1865 

Charles J. Kean died .... 23 Jan. 1868 

Robert Keeley died, aged 74 . .3 Feb. 1869 

Madame Grisi died .... 25 Nov. ,, 

Wm. Brough, burlesque-writer, died, aged 44, i3Mar. 1870 

Paul Bedford died 11 Jan. 1871 

T. W. Robertson, dramatist, died . . .3 Feb. ,, 
Lady Wrixon Becher (Miss O'Neill, Juliet), died 

29 Oct. 1872 
William C. Macready died ... 27 April, 1873 
Wm. Hy. West Betty (the Infant Kosciu-s) died, 

aged 82 Aug. 1874 

Charles James Mathews died . . 24 June, 1878 



Alfred Wigan died 29 Nov. 1878 

Frederick Gye, died (accidentally shot), nearly 30 

years lessee and manager of Royal Italian Opera, 

Covent Garden 5 Dec. „ 

Wm. H. Seholield Payne, "King of Pantomime" 

(aged 70), died 18 Dec. ,, 

Mrs. Wybrow Rousby died . . .19 April, 1879 
J. B. Buckstone died .... 31 Oct. ,, 
Mrs. Charles Kean (Miss Ellen Tree), died 20 Aug. 1880 
Countess of Essex, formerly Miss Stephens, died, 

22 Feb. 1882 
Benjamin Nottingham Webster died . 8 July, ,, 
Miss Francis M. Kelly, aged 92, died . . 6 Dec. ,, 
Grand dinner to Mr. H. Irving . . .4 July, 1883 
Miss Mary Anderson's debut . . . 1 Sept. ,, 
Sig. Giuseppe Mario, aged 75, died . .11 Dec. ,, 
H. J. Byron, author, died ... 11 April, 1884 
Mr. Frederick Balsir Chatterton, lessee of Drury 

Lane, &c. died 18 Feb. 1886 

Jenny land (Madame Lind Goldschmidt) died, aged 

67 2 Nov. 1887 

Mrs. Swanborough died .... 6 Jan. 1889 
Mrs. Dallas, known as Miss Glyn, died, aged 66 

18 May, ,, 
James Albery, dramatist, died . about 16 Aug. „ 
H. B. Farnie, dramatist, died . . 22 Sept. ,, 
Frederick Ernes Clay, operatic composer, died, ^ ! 

about 24 Nov. ,, 
Westland Marston, dramatist, died . . 6 Jan. 1890 
John Barnett, operatic composer, died, aged 87, 

17 April, ,, 
Dion Boucicault, dramatist, died . . 18 Sept. „ 
Wm. Gorman Wills, dramatist, died, announced, 

15 Dec. 1891 
Maddison Morton, drama tisi, author of " Box and 

Cox," <&c, died 19 Dec. ,, 

THEATEICAL FUNDS. The Theatrical 
fund of Covent Garden was established in 1760, 
incorporated 1774; that of Drury Lane by Garrick 
1766; incorporated 1775. They grant pensions to 
members and their families. The General Thea- 
trical fund was established in 1839, incorporated 
1853- 
The Tliecdrieal Mission and Institute for the benefit of 

theatrical employed, started in 1876. The princess 

Christian inaugurated for them "Macready" house, 

Covent Garden 30 Nov. 1887. 

THEATROPHONE, a form of the telephone 
specially adapted for hearing theatrical perform- 
ances at a distance. The apparatus of the " com- 
pagnie du theatrophone " of Paris was exhibited at 
the Savoy Hotel, and by its means the performance 
of the "Nautch Girl" at the Savoy theatre was 
said to be well heard, 11 Dec. 1891. 

THEBAN LEGION, according to tradition, 
was composed of Christians, and submitted to martyr- 
dom rather than attack their brethren during the 
persecution of the emperor Maximin, or sacrifice 
to the gods, about A.D. 286. Their leader Maurice 
was canonised. 

THEBES or LlTXOR, in Upper Egypt, called 
also Diospolis, as being sacred to Jupiter. Homer. 
Its foundation is mythically attributed to Osiris. It 
is said to have been the magnificent capital of 
Egypt about 1600 B.C., having a circuit of about 14 
geographical miles. It was then the chief seat of 
the worship of Amnion, or Ammun, the Zeus Amnion 
of the Greeks, and the Jupiter Ammon of the 
Eomans, and hence was called No Ammon by the 
Hebrews. Thebes was ruined by Cambyses, king 
of Persia, 525 B.C., and by the foundation of 
Alexandria, 332 B.C.; it rebelled and was taken by 
Ptolemy Lathyrus, 86 B.C., and few traces of it 
were seen in the age of Juvenal ; see Mcmnoncium. 
After centuries of neglect, its wonderful ruins have 
been greatly visited since the exploitations of Bel- 
zoni, 1817. — Thebes, N. Greece (the capital is 



THEFT. 



961 



THEEMOPYLiE. 



mythically said to have been founded by Cadmus.) 
The legendary history of CEdipus and his family, cele- 
brated by the Greek tragic poets, belongs to Thebes. 
It became a republic about 1 120 B.C., and flourished 
under Epaminondas 378-362 B.C. The " sacred 
band" formed by him, 377 B.C., was revived in 1877. 
Thebes' seven gates are mentioned by Homer. See 
Boeotia and Greece. 

THEFT was punished by heavy fines among 
the Jews ; by death at Athens, by the laws of Draco ; 
see Draco. The Anglo-Saxons nominally punished 
theft with death, if above I2d. value ; but the 
criminal could redeem his life by a ransom. In the 
9th of Henry I. this power of redemption was 
taken away, 1108. The punishment of theft was 
very severe in England, till mitigated by Peel's 
acts 9 & 10 Geo. IV. 1829. The laws respecting 
theft were consolidated in 1862. 

THEINE, see Cafeine. 

THEISTS (Theos, God), a name given to deists 
about 1660. — Dean Martin. See Deism, Unitarians, 
and Voysey. 

THELLUSSON' S WILL, a most singular 
document. Mr. Peter Isaac Thellusson, a Gene- 
vese and an affluent merchant of London, left 
100,000^. to his widow and children ; and the re- 
mainder of his property, more than 600,000/., he 
left to trustees, to accumulate during the lives of 
his three sons, and the lives of their sons ; then 
the estates, directed to be purchased with the pro- 
duce of the accumulated fund, were to be conveyed 
to the eldest lineal male descendant of his three 
sons, with the benefit of survivorship. Should no 
heir then exist, the whole was to be applied, by 
the agency of the sinking fund, to the discharge of 
the national debt. It is said that Mr. Thellusson 
held much property in trust, and that he desired a 
sufficient interval of time to elapse for the appear- 
ance of just claimants. He died 21 July, 1797. 
His will incurred much public censure, and was 
contested by the heirs-at-law, but finally estab- 
lished by a decision of the house of lords, 25 June, 
1805. The last surviving grandson died in Feb. 
1856. A dispute then arose whether the eldest male 
descendant or the male descendant of the eldest 
son should inherit the property. The question was 
decided on appeal by the house of lords (9 June, 
1859), in favour of the latter, lord Rendlesham 
and Charles S. Thellusson confirming the decision 
of the Master of the Rolls in 1858. In consequence 
of the legal expenses the property is said not to ex- 
ceed greatly its value in the testator's lifetime. On 
28 July, 1800, the Thellusson act was passed, re- 
straining testators from devising their property for 
purposes of accumulation for longer than 21 years 
after death ; any other direction to be void. 

THEOCEACY, government by God, existed 
among the Israelites till Saul was made king, about 
1095 B.C. (Sam. viii. 7 ) 

THEODOLITE, an instrument for measuring 
horizontal angles, used in surveying, consists of a 
telescope and a divided circle. It was probably 
first constructed in the 17th century. Jesse Rams- 
den, in 1787, completed the great theodolite em- 
ployed in the trigonometrical survey of England and 
Wales by general Roy. 

THEODOSIAN CODE, see Codes. 

"THEOLOGIA GEEMANICA," or 

" Tcutsche Theologey " (printed 1528; Latin and 
French editions, 1558), a German mystical work, 
written about the 14th century. In it the "good 
man," disgusted with the corruptions in church 
and state, is led to seek for God in the temple of 



the heart. Luther is said to have placed the work 
next to the Bible and St. Augustin. 

THEOLOGY (from the Greek Theos, God), 
the science which treats of the nature and attributes 
of God, of his relations to man, and of the manner 
in which they may be discovered. It is generally 
divided into two heads. 1. Inspired, including the 
Holy Scriptures, their interpretation, &c. 2. 
Natural; which lord Bacon calls the first part of 
philosophy. — Butler's "Analogy of Religion" 
(1736) and Paley's "Natural Theology" (1802) 
are eminent books on the latter subject. — Abelard 
(died 1 142) wrote "Theologia Christiania." The 
" Summa Totius Theologise" by Thomas Aquinas 
(born about 1224), a standard Roman catholic work, 
was printed with commentaries, &c, in 1596. 

THEOPHILANTHEOPISTS (lovers of God 
and man), a sect formed in France in 1796; and 
headed by one of the five directors, Lepaux, in 
1797 ; was dissolved in 1802. 

THEOSOPHISTS, followers of Paracelsus in 

the 1 6th century. 

The Theosophical Society was founded in America by 
Madame Blavatsky, aided by colonel Oleott, about 
1875-6. Aims at universal brotherhood and the study 
of Eastern philosophy. It has a station in London, 
and many branches in India and other parts. Mrs. 
Anna Kingsford, M.D., president, in 1883, died 22 Feb- 
1888. 

Mrs. Besant's lecture on Theosophy and Occultism at 
St. James's hall, London, 9 Oct. 1891, related especially 
to " Esoteric Buddhism " as described by Mr. Sinnett. 

THEEMIDOE EEVOLTJTION. On the 

9th Thermidor of the 2nd year (27 July, 1794), 
the Convention deposed Robespierre, and on the 
next day he and twenty-two of his partisans were 
executed. 

THEEMO-ELECTEICITY and Thermo- 
pile, see under Electricity, and Heat. 

THEEMOMETEE. Freezing point: Fah. 

32°; R. 0° ; ft 0°. Boiling point: Fah. 212°, JR. 

8o°, C. 100°. 

Invented by Galileo, before 1597. Libri. 

Invented by Drebbel of Alcmaer, 1609. Boerhaave. 

Invented by Paulo Sarpi, 1609. Fulgentio. 

Invented by Sanctorio in 1610. Borelli. 

Fahrenheit's thermometer invented about 1726; Reau 
mur's and Celsius's (the latter now termed centigrade) 
soon after. [Fahrenheit's scale is usually employed in 
England, and Reaumur's and' the centigrade on the 
continent.] 

The mode of construction by substituting quicksilver for 
spirits was invented some years subsequently. Halley 
proposed it in 1697. 

Mr. L. M. Casella issued a minimum thermometer in 
Sept. 1861. It registers degrees of cold by means of 
mercury. 

Negretti and Zambra's registering minimum thermo- 
meters, adapted for deep sea purposes, made known 
early in 1874. 

_ THEEMOPHONE, in which sonorous vibra- 
tions are produced by the expansion of heated bo- 
dies connected with an electro-magnet. The appa- 
ratus was constructed by Theodor Wiesendanger, 
and described by him in October, 1878. 

THEEMOPYLiE (Doris, N. Greece) . Leoni- 
das, at the head of 300 Spartans and 700 Thes- 
pians, at the defile of Thermopylae, withstood the 
whole force of the Persians during three days, 7, 
8, 9 Aug. 480 B.C., when Ephialtes, a Traclunian, 
perfidiously leading the enemy by a secret path 
up the mountains, brought them to the rear of the 
Greeks, who, thus placed bet ween two assailants, 
perished gloriously on heaps of their slaughtered 
foes. One Greek only returned home, and he was 

3 o. 



THEEMUM. 



962 



THIONVILLE. 



received with reproaches for having fled.* Here 
Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, was defeated 
by the Romans, 191 B.C. 

THEEMUM, Thermits, or Therma 

(Greece), a strong city, the Acropolis of iEtolia, N. 
Greece, was captured and ravaged by Philip V. 
of Macedon, 218 and 206 B.C., on account of its 
favouring the Romans. 

THESAUEUS (treasury), a title given in the' 
17th and 18th centuries to large collections of small 
works on history and archaeology. The most cele- 
brated are — 

" Thesaurus Antiquitatum Grsecorum," lay J. Grono- 

vius. 13 vol. fol 1697-1702 

" Thesaurus Autiquitatum Ronianoruni," by J. G. 

Greevius. 12 vol. fol 1694 

" Thesaurus Antiquitatum et Historicum Italise, 

Sieilise," &c. , by G. Greevius and P. Burmannus. 

45 vol. fol. 1725 

" Thesaurus Antiquitatum Sacrarum," by B. Ugo- 

linus. 34 vol. fol . 1744-69 

THESPLE, a city of Bceotia, N. Greece. 700 
of its citizens perished with Leonidas at Thermo- 
pylae, Aug. 480 B.C. It suffered through the jealousy 
of the Thebans, who destroyed its walls in 372 B.C. 

THESSALONICA (now Salonica), a city in 
Macedonia, N. Greece, originally Therme, but re- 
built by Cassander, and said to have been named 
after his wife, Thessalonica, daughter of Philip, 
after 315 B.C. Here Paul preached, 53 ; and to the 
church here he addressed two epistles in 54. In 
consequence of seditions, a frightful massacre of 
the inhabitants took place in 390, by order of the 
emperor Theodosius. Thessalonica partook of the 
changes of the Eastern empire. Thessalonica was 
taken, by the Saracens, with great slaughter, 30 
July, 904; by the Normans of Sicily, 15 Aug. 1 185; 
and after various changes was taken from the 
Venetians by the Turks under Amurath, 1430. 
Population, 1885, 159,000. 

A young Bulgarian Christian girl, said to be an unwilling 
convert to Mahometanisrn, was rescued from the Turks 
and taken to the American consul's, 5 May ; riots en- 
sued on 6 May ; the German and French consuls, 
Abbott and Moulin, were murdered ; the Western 
powers intervened ; reparation was ordered by the 
Sultan ; several murderers were executed 16 May ; 
other persons were imprisoned ; and 40,000?. said to be 
paid to the families of the victims, Aug. 1876. 
Destructive fire ; 10,000 persons homeless ; the mosque 
and church, &c, destroyed ; estimated loss, 800,000?., 
4 Sept., see Mansion House Fund, 1890. 

THESSALY (N. Greece), the seat of many of 
the adventures described by the poets. The lirst 
king of whom we have any certain knowledge was 
Hellen, son of Deucalion, from whom his subjects 
were called Hellenists, a name afterwards extended 
to all Greeks. From Thessaly came the Achaeans, 
the iEtolians, the Dorians, the Hellenes, &c. The 
two most remarkable events in the early history 
of this country are the deluge of Deucalion, 1548 B.a, 
and the expedition of the Argonauts, 1263 B.C. ; 
see them severally. Thessaly long aimed at neu- 
trality in Grecian affairs, but became involved 
through its rulers, the tyrants of Pherae ; — Lyco- 
phron, about 404 B.C. ; his son Jason, 374, assassi- 
nated 370; Alexander, the most eminent, defied 
Athens and Thebes; assassinated 359. Philip of 
Macedon, after a defeat (353 B.C.), gamed a victory 
over the tyrants, 352 ; and subjugated the country 
Avholly, 343. The Romans gave a nominal freedom 

* The distich, in the Greek Anthology, by Simonides 
their contemporary, is thus translated by Bowles : — 
" Go, tell the Spartans, thou that passest by, 
That here, obedient to their laws, we lie." 



to Thessaly after their victory at Cynoscephalae, 
197. It is now included in the kingdom of Greece 
by the treaty of 24 May, signed 2 July, and occu- 
pied Aug. — Sept. 1881. Railway from Volo to 
Larissa opened by the king, 4 May, 1884. See 
Inundations, 1883. 

THETFOED (Norfolk), said to have been the 
Roman Sitomagus, and an important Saxon town, 
was a bishopric from 1075 to 109 1, when the see 
was removed to Norwich. It was made a suffragan 
bishopric by H enry VIII. ; the power given him 1 534. 
Population, 1881,4,032; 1891,4,247. 

THIBET or Tibet (central Asia), is said to 
have been a kingdom 313 B.C., conquered by 
Genghis Khan 1206, and gradually subdued by and 
annexed to China, 1255- 1720. Buddhism became 
the dominant religion about 905 ; and the Lamas 
have absolute power in religious and temporal 
affairs. Thibet was visited by Marco Polo, 
1278 ; by Jesuits about 1661-2 ; Bogle and 
Hamilton, 1774; and Thomas Manning, 1810. 
An astronomical survey was carried on surrep- 
titiously by two pundits of semi-Thibet origin, 
under the superintendence of capt. Montgomerie, 
1865-7. War with Nepaul, May; peace, June, 
1884. Hon. Colman Macaulay's expedition to 
Lachen vallej', to promote commerce ; well received, 
announced 30 Nov. 1884. 

A mission to Tibet, including Mr. Macaulay with scien- 
tific assistance, organised in India ; scheme suspended 
July, 1886. See Sikkim. 
The progress of the Russian exploring expedition under 

colonel Pevtsoff reported, summer 1890. 
Much geographical knowledge has been obtained, and 
maps constructed. The Chinese oppose the expedi- 
tion. 
M. Gabriel Bonvalot, prince Henry of Orleans, and 
father Dedeken, gave an illustrated account of their 
recent exploration of Thibet, &c, to the French 
Geographical society, at Paris, 31 Jan. 1891. 
"Across Thibet," by M. Bonvalot, was published in 

1891. 
Capt. Bower, Dr. Thorold and party cross Thibet, June, 
1891, and arrive at Simla, April, 1892. 

THIEVES' ISLAND, see Ladrones. 

THIEVES' SYNOD, at Ephesus, 349 or 449, 
where the doctrines of Eutyches respecting Christ's 
incarnation were approved, received the name 
because his opponents were silenced or excluded. 

THIMBLES are said to have been found at 

Herculaneum, and long ago used by the Chinese. 
The bi-centenary of their invention in Europe by 
Nicolas van Benschoten was celebrated at Amster- 
dam, Dec. 1884. The art of making them was 
brought to England by John Lofting, a mechanic, 
from Holland, who set up a workshop at Islington, 
near London, and practised the manufacture in 
various metals with profit and success, about 1695. 
A Thimble League patronised by the queen 1886 ; the 
object being to provide employment for distressed 
needlewomen ; there was a sale of the work at lady 
Winchilsea's house, 23, Ennismore Gardens, 24-25 Oct. 
1888. 

THIONVILLE, the ancient Theodonis villa, 
a fortified city on the Moselle, N. E. France. It 
was the occasional residence of Charlemagne and 
his successors, and on the extinction of his race it 
was successively held by private lords, the counts 
of Luxemburg, the dukes of Burgundy, the house 
of Austria, and the kings of Spain. It was taken 
by the duke of Guise, 23 June, 1558, after an 
obstinate defence, and returned to Philip II. bj- the 
peace of Chateau Cambresis. It successfully resisted 
the marquis de Feuquieres in 1637, but was taken 
after four months' siege by the due d'Enghien, 10 



THIRTY-NINE ARTICLES. 



933: 



THRACE. 



Aug. 1643, and remained with France. It success - 
fulh' resisted the Austrians in 1 792, and the Prussians 
in 1814. It was invested by the Germans in Aug. 
1870, and after bombardment, being in flames, 
surrendered 24 Nov. following. 

THIRTY-NINE ARTICLES, see Articles. 

THIRTY TYRANTS, a term applied to the 
governors of Athens, in 404 B.C., who were ex- 
pelled by Thrasybulus, 403 ; and also to the 
numerous aspirants to the imperial throne of Home 
during the reigns of Gallienus and Aurelian, a.d. 
259-274. 

THIRTY YEARS' WAR, in Germany, 
between the catholics and protestants. It began 
in Bohemia in 1618, and ended with the peace of 
"Westphalia in 1648. It is renowned for the 
victories of "Wallenstein and Gustavus Adolphus 
•of Sweden, and for its history by Schiller, published 
1790-93. See Battles, 1618-48. 

THISTLE,* Order of the, Scotland, 

founded by James V. 1 540. It consisted originally 
of himself, as sovereign, and twelve knights, in 
imitation of Christ and his twelve apostles. In 
1542, James died, and the order was discontinued, 
•about the time of the Reformation. The order was 
■renewed by James VII. of Scotland and II. of Eng- 
land, by making eight knights, 29 May, 1687 ; 
increased to twelve by queen Anne in 1703 ; to 
■sixteen by George IV. in 1827. The original knights 
■of 1687 were 
•George, duke of Gordon. 
•John, marquis of Athol. 
James, earl of Arran, afterwards duke of Hamilton ; 

killed in a duel, 1712. 
Alexander, earl of Moray. 
James, earl of Perth ; attainted. 
Kenneth, earl of Seaforth ; attainted. 
•George, earl of Dumbarton. 
John, earl of Melfort ; attainted. 

THISTLE WOOD'S CONSPIRACY, see 

'Cato- street Conspiracy . 

THOMAS'S HOSPITAL, ST. (Southwark), 
was founded as an almshouse by Richard, prior of 
Bermondsey, in 1213, and surrendered to Henry 
VIII. in 1538. In 1551 the mayor and citizens of 
London, having purchased of Edward VI. the 
■manor of Southwark, including this hospital, 
•repaired and enlarged it, and admitted into it 260 
poor, sick, and helpless objects; upon which the 
king, in 1553, incorporated it, together with Beth- 
lehem, St. Bartholomew's, &c. It was rebuilt in 
1693. In 1862, the site was sold to the South- 
■eastern railway company, and the patients were 
removed to the Surrey music hall. The foundation 
stone of the new hospital, erected at Stangate, near 
the Surrey side of Westminster-bridge, was laid by 
the queen, 13 May, 1868; and the new hospital 
was opened by her majesty, 21 June, 1871. 
The appointment of a paid resident treasurer, instead of 

an honorary one, and other changes recommended by 

committees, were negatived by the general committee, 

Nov. 1877. 
Establishment of wards for paying-patients, settled 

20 Nov. 1878 

* Some Scottish historians make the origin of this 
•order very ancient. The abbot Justinian says it was 
instituted by Achaius I. of Scotland, 809, when that 
monarch made an alliance with Charlemagne, and then 
took for his device the thistle. It is stated that tin' king 
Hungus, the Pict, had a dream, in which Si. Andrew 
made a midnight visit, and promised him a sure victory 
over his foes, the Northumbrians ; and that the next, 
day St. Andrew's Cross (x) appeared in the air, and the 
Northumbrians were, defeated. On this story, it is 
said, Achaius framed the order more than 700 years be- 
fore James V. 



THOMAS, ST., see Virgin Isles. 

THOMISTS, see Scotists. 

. THOMITES or TOMITES, a body of enthu- 
siasts who assembled at Boughton, near Canter- 
bury. An insane Cornish publican named John 
Nicholls, called Thom, or Tom, assumed the name 
of sir W. Courtenay, knight of Malta and king of 
Jerusalem, came into Kent, was an unsuccessful can- 
didate for parliament, and incited the rabble against 
the Poor Law act. On 31 May, 1838, a farmer of 
the neighbourhood, whose servant had joined the 
crowd which attended Thorn, sent a constable to 
fetch him back ; but on his arrival on the ground 
he was shot dead by Thom. The military were then 
called out, and lieut. Bennett proceeded to take the 
murderer into custody ; but Thom advanced, and, 
firing a pistol, killed the lieutenant on the spot. 
One of the soldiers fired at Thom, and laid him dead 
by. the side of lieut. Bennett. The people then 
attacked the military, who were compeUed to fire, 
and eight more persons were killed before the mob 
dispersed. 

THORACIC DUCT, discovered first in a 
horse, by Eustachius, about 1563 ; in the human 
body, by 01. Rudbec, a Swedish anatomist. Thomas 
Barthohne, of Copenhagen, and Dr. Joliffe, of 
England, also discovered it about 1654. See 
Lacteals. 

THORINUM, a very rare metal (a heavy gray 
powder), discovered by Berzelius in 1828. 

THORN (on the Vistula, Poland) was founded 
by the Teutonic Knights in 123 1. Here they 
acknowledged themselves to be vassals of Poland in 
1466. Thom was taken by Charles XII. of Sweden 
in 1703. Many protestants were slain here (after a 
religious riot) at the instigation of the Jesuits, 7 
Dec. 1724. Thorn was acquired by the Prussians in 
1793; taken by the French in 1806; restored to 
Prussia at the peace in 1815. Population, 1890, 
27,007. 

THOROUGH. The name given by Thos. 
\Ventworth, earl of Strafford, to his unsuccessful 
scheme for making Charles I. an absolute monarch. 
He was attainted and beheaded, 12 May, 1641. 
THORPE, see Railway Accidents, 1874. 
THOUGHT READING. In 1881 Mr. \V. 
Irving Bishop professed to be able to read a person's 
thoughts by touching some part of the skin. On 
June 1 1 in the presence of Mr. G. J. Romanes, pro- 
fessor E. Ray Lankester, Mr. F. Galton, and others ; 
he was successful with some persons, and failed 
with others {Xatitre, No. 608). 

In 1883 he was challenged by Mr. Labouehere, M.P., to 
operate under certain conditions, at St. James's Hall 
on 12 June, but virtually declined the tests. Other 
experiments by Mr. Bishop, 3, 4 June, 1884 ; success 
doubted. 
Mr. Bishop sentenced to pay 10,000/. damages to Mr. 
Maskelyne for libel in Truth (23 July, 1884), 15 Jan.; 
appeal disallowed, 28 Jan. ; damages reduced to 500?., 
2 July, 1885. He died of catalepsy at New York, 13 
May, 1889. 
Experiments by Mr. Stuart Cumberland reported success- 
ful on the prince of Wales and others, 19 July, 1884. 

THRACE (now Eoumelia, in Turkey) derived 
its name from Tlirax, the son of Mars. — Aspin. The 
Thracians were a warlike people, and therefore 
Mars was said to have been born and to have had 
his residence among them. — Euripides. See 
Odrysee. 
Byzantium, the capital, founded by the Megarians, 

about b.0. 675 
Invasion of Darius I. 513; Thrace subdued by 

Megabazus 508 

3 <a 2 



THRASHING-MACHINES. 



961 



THTJEOT'S INVASION. 



Xerxes marches against Greece through Thrace, and 

retreats 480 

Other Greek colonies established . . . 450-400 

Wars between Macedon and the Odrysse (which see) 

429-343 
Philip II. acquires Amphipolis, 358 ; and gradually 

all the Greek colonies .... 357-341 

Death of Alexander ; Thrace allotted to Lysima- 

chus, 323 ; who builds Lysimachia . . . 309 
Lysimachus defeated and slain by Seleucus at Coru- 

pedion 281 

Thrace overrun by the Gauls 279 

Lysimachia and the chief towns seized by the fleet 

of Ptolemy Euergetes 247 

Recovered by Philip V. of Macedon . . 205-200 

Lost by him to the Romans - . . . . . 196 
Seized by Antiochus III. of Syria, who is defeated 

at Magnesia, 190 ; and surrenders Thrace . . 188 
Perseus defeated in his attempt to regain Thrace, 

171-168 
The Thracian kings rule nominally under the Romans 

148 et seq. 
Rebellion of Vologaesus quelled .... 14 
Rhoemetalces II. last king . . . . A.D. 38 
Thrace made a Roman province, about ... 47 

Invaded by the Goths . ' 255 

Settled by Sarmatians ■ 334-376 

Ravaged by Alaric, 395 ; by Attila .... 447 
Conquered by the Turks, who made Adrianople 

their capital 1341-53 

Constantinople captured by Mahomet II. , 29 May, 1453 

THRASHING-MACHINES. The flail was 
the only instrument formerly in use for thrashing 
corn. The Eomans used a machine called the 
trihilum, a sledge loaded with stones or iron, 
drawn over the corn-sheaves by horses. The first 
machine attempted in modern times was invented 
by Michael Menzies, at Edinburgh, about 1732 ; 
Andrew Meikle invented a machine in 1776. Many 
improvements have been since made, and steam 
is employed. An act for the prevention of accidents 
by these machines was passed in 1879. 

THEASYMENE or TRASIMENE (more 
correctly Trasimenus), a lake (N. Italy). A 
most bloody engagement took place near the 
Trasimene lake between the Carthaginians under 
Hannibal and the Romans under Flaminius, 217 
B.C. No less than 15,000 Eomans were left dead 
on the field of battle, and 10,000 taken prisoners ; 
or, according to Livy, 6000 ; or Polybius, 15,000. 
The loss of Hannibal was about 1500 men. About 
10,000 Eomans made their escape, all covered with 
wounds. Flaminius was killed during the fight. 
— Livy; Polybius. On the same day, an earthquake 
occurred, which desolated several cities in Italy. 

THEEATENING LETTEES. Sending 
letters, whether anonymously written, or with a 
fictitious name, demanding money, or threatening 
to kill a person, or fire his house, was made punish- 
able as a felony, without benefit of clergy, by the 
Black Act, in 1722. Persons extorting money by 
threatening to accuse others of such offences as are 
subjected to death, or other infamous punishments, 
were to be adjudged imprisonment, whipping, or 
transportation, by 30 Geo. II., 1756, and other acts ; 
the latest 24 & 25 Vict. cc. 96, 97 (1861). 

THEEE DENOMINATIONS, see Denomi- 
nations. 

THEEE CHOIES (Gloucester, Worcester, 
and Hereford). Festivals held in 1724, if not 
earlier, at Gloucester, for the performance of cathe- 
dral music on a grand scale for charitable purposes 
still continued. 

THEEE F.'S, see ¥. 

THEEE ACEES AND A COW, see Land, 

188;. 



THEIFT, see under National. 

THEOAT AND EAE DISEASES, a 

hospital for them opened near Gray's-inn-road, 
March, 1874 ; foundation of a new building laid by 
madame Adelina Patti, marchesa de Caux, 16 Sept. 
1875- 

THUGS, organised secret fanatical murderers 
in India, who considered their victims to be sacri- 
fices to their goddess Kali or Bhowain. The English 
commenced suppressing them about 1810, but did 
not succeed till about 1830, when a plan for the pur- 
pose was adopted by lord Wm. Bentinck. 

THUMB-SCEEW, an instrument used in the 
first stages of torture by the Spanish inquisition.. 
In Great Britain, rev. Wm. Carstares, a presbyterian- 
minister, was the last who suffered by it, before 
the Scotch privy council, to make him divulge 
secrets entrusted to him, which he firmly resisted- 
After the revolution in 1688, the thumb-screw was; 
presented to him by the council. King William 
expressed a desire to see it, and tried it on, bidding 
the doctor to turn the screw ; but, at the third turn,, 
he cried out "Hold — hold! doctor: another turn 
would make me confess anything." 

THTJNDEEEE, see Navy of England, 1872,. 
1876, 1879. 

THUNDEEING LEGION. During a con- 
test with the invading Marcomanni, the prayers of 
some Christians in a Eoman legion are said ta 
have been followed by a storm of thunder, light- 
ning, and rain, which tended greatly to discomfit 
the enemy; and hence the legion received the 
name, 174. 

THUEII or Thurium, a Greek city, S. Italy, 
founded after the fall of Sybaris, about 443 B.C. 
It suffered from the incursions of the Lucanians, by 
whom the Thurians were severely defeated, 390 
B.C. It became eventually a dependent ally of 
Eome ; was ravaged by the troops of Hannibal, 
204 ; was established as a colony by the Eomans, 
194; and was captured by Spartacus in the Ser- 
vile war, who levied upon it heavy contributions, 
72. 

THTJEINGIA, an early Gothic kingdom in 
central Germany, was overrun by Attila and the 
Huns, 451 ; the last king, Hermanfried, was 
defeated and slain by Thierry, king of the Franks, 
who annexed it to Ms dominions, 530. It formed) 
two duchies, 630-717, and 849-919 ; a margraviate, 
960-1090; landgraviate and countj', 1 130-1247; 
and was, after various changes and many conflicts, 
absorbed into Saxony in the 15th century. In 1815 
it was surrendered to Prussia. 

THUELES (S. Ireland). Here was held a 
synod of the Eoman catholic archbishops, bishops, 
inferior clergy, and religious orders, under the 
direction cf archbishop Cullen the Eoman catholic 
primate, 22 Aug. 1850. It condemned the Queen's 
Colleges, and recommended the foundation of a 
Eoman catholic university, 10 Sept. following. The 
acts were forwarded to Eome for approval of the 
pope, Pius IX., and published, 1 Jan. 1852. 

THUEOT'S INVASION. Thurot, an Irish 
commodore in the French service, became a terror 
to all the merchant-ships of this kingdom. He had 
the command of a small armament, and landed 
1000 men at Carrickfergus in Ireland, and plun- 
dered the town. He reached the Isle of Man, and 
was overtaken by captain Elliot, with three frigates, 
who engaged his little squadron, which was taken, 
and the commodore killed, 28 Feb. 1760. Thurot' s 



THURSDAY. 



£65 



TILES. 



strue name was O'Farrell. His grandfather had 
followed the fortunes of James II. ; but his mother 
being of a family of some dignity in France, he 
assumed her name. — Bums. 

THURSDAY, the fifth day of the week, named 
from Thor, the most valiant son of Odin, a deified 
hero worshipped by the northern nations, particu- 
larly by the Scandinavians and Celts. His autho- 
rity was said to extend over the winds, seasons, 
•thunder and lightning, &c. Thursday is in Latin 
dies Jo vis, or Jupiter's day. 

THYATIRA (Asia Minor), the place assigned 
for the battle at which the rebel Procopius was 
defeated by the army of the emperor Valens, 366. 
■See Seven Churches. 

THYMBRA (Asia Minor). Here Cyrus the 
Great defeated the confederate army aiding Croesus, 
■and obtained supremacy in Asia, B.C. 548. 

TIARA, head ornament of the ancient Persians. 
The name is given to the triple crown of the pope 
(anciently called regnum), indicative of his civil 
rank, as the ke3 r s are of his ecclesiastical jurisdic- 
tion. The right to wear a crown is said to have 
been granted to the bishops of Home by Constantine 
the (ireat, and by Clovis, founder of the French 
monarchy. Their ancient tiara was a high round 
«ap. Pope Damasus II. first caused himself to be 
•crowned with a tiara, 1048. " Boniface VIII. 
encompassed the tiara with a crown; Benedict 
XII. added a second; and John XXIII. a third." 
— Bees. 

TIBER, (central Italy), the river on whose 
hanks Home was built. In the nourishing times of 
the city the navigation of the river was enormous. 
Livy states that the Tiber was frozen over, 398 
B.C. A commission was appointed to dredge the 
bed of the river near Rome. Dec. 1871. Garibaldi's 
.scheme for improving the river, making a new port, 
&c.,laid befure the Italian parliament, 25 May, 1875; 
works beguu, March, 1877. 

TIBERIAS, a city in Palestine, built by 
Herod Antipas, and named after the emperor 
Tiberius, 39. Near it Guy de Lusignau, king of 
Jerusalem, and the crusaders, were defeated by 
Saladin, 3, 4 July, 1187; and Jerusalem fell into 
his hands. 

TIBET, see Thibet. 

TIBUR (now Tivoli), a Latin town more ancient 
than Rome, and frequently at war with it. The 
Tiburtines were defeated 335 B.C., and the subjec- 
tion of all Latium followed ; for which Furius 
Camillus obtained a triumph and an equestrian 
statue in the forum. 

TICHBORNE CASE, see Trials, 1871-4. 
Dr. Kenealy, the claimant's counsel, elected M.P. 
for Stoke, moves for a royal commission to inquire 
into the trial ; rejected, 433 to 3 (Dr. Kenealy, Mr. 
Whalley, and the 0' Gorman) ; 26 April, 1875. 
•See Englishman. 

TICINO or TESSIN, a Swiss canton south of 
the Alps, conquered by the Swiss early in the 16th 
century; made a separate canton in 18 15. It 
suffered by internal disputes 1839 and 1841. Popu- 
lation, 1888, 126,751. 

Insurrection in Bellinzona and Lugano, the con- 
servative ultramontane government overthrown 
by the liberals, ami a provisional government 
formed. M. Rossi, director of the interior, found 

killed. Revision of the constitution demanded, 

11 Sept. Intervention of federal troops. The 
insurrection suppressed ; the provisional govern- 
ment superseded by a federal commission, 

12-14 Sept. 1890 



Change in the constitution voted by the people, 5 
Oct. ; the conservative government reinstated, 

14 Oct. 1390 

Angelo Castioni, accused of the murder of council- 
lor Rossi, arrested in London, 3 Oct. ; extradition 
demanded by Switzerland, not granted by the 
queen's bench division . . . .11 Nov. „ 

Reconciliation of the parties effected . 26 Nov. ,, 

Revised ultramontane constitution accepted liy 
popular vote 8 March, 1891 

Trial of the revolters of 1890, 30 June ; acquitted, 

14 July, ,, 

TICINUS, a river, N. Italy. Here Hannibal 
defeated the Romans, 218 B.C. 

TICKETS OF LEAVE, see Transportation, 
and Crime. 

TICONDEROGA (N. America). The French 
fortress here was unsuccessfully besieged by Aber- 
cromby in July, 1758; taken 26 July, 1759. The 
Americans took it 10 May, 1775, but retired 
July, 1777. The British retired from it shortly 
after. 

TIDES. Homer is the earliest profane author 
who speaks of the tides. Posidonius of Apamea 
accounted for the tides from the motion of the 
moon, about 79 B.C. ; and Caesar speaks of them in 
his fourth book of the Gallic war. The theory of 
the tides was first satisfactorily explained by Kepler, 
1598; but the honour of a complete explanation of 
them was reserved for sir Isaac Newton, about 
1683 ; see Thames. Sir Win. Thomson, at the Royal 
Institution, 9 April, 1875, described a valuable 
tide-calculating machine. 

TIEN-TSIN, see China, June, 1858-Jan. 1861, 
and 1870. 

TIERRA DEL FUEGO, see under Missions. 

Tierra del Fuego (The Land of Fire) — A group of five 
large islands, and many smaller ones, the extreme 
S.W. of South America, misnamed by Magellan from 
the fires seen on the coast 1520. Recent discoveries 
have shown that the country is not so inhospitable and 
the natives not so degraded as was formerly supposed. 

TIERS-ETAT, see States- General. 

TIFLIS (Asiatic Russia), built about 469 by 
Vakhtang ; became the capital of Georgia. It was 
taken by Genghis Khan in the 12th century ; by 
Mustapha Pacha, 1576; by the Persians, 1796; and 
by the Russians, 1801, who have made it the capital 
of their Trans-Caucasian possessions. Population 
in 1885, 89,551. 

By the fall of a temporary bridge over the river 
Kura, during a religious ceremony, a number of 
persons were drowned or crushed to death, 

18 Jan. 1892 
Collision of two petroleum trains on the Trans- 
caucasiau railway ; 6 men burnt to death, 

21 Jan. ,, 

TIGRANO-CERTA, capital of Armenia, 
built by Tigraries the Great, and taken by Lucullus 
and the Romans, after a great victory, B.C. 69. 

TIGRIS, a river forming the eastern boundary 
of Mesopotamia, celebrated for the cities founded 
on its banks: Nineveh, Seleucia, Ctesiphon, and 
Iiugdad. It was explored by an English steamer 
in 1838. Colonel Chesney, in 1850, published an 
account of his survey in 1836-7. 

TILBURY (Essex). The cam]) formed lure 
ill 1588 to resist the Spanish invasion was visited 
by queen Elizabeth. See Docks, 1886. 

TILES are said to have been lirst made iii 
England about 1246. They were taxed in 1784. 
The number of tiles taxed in England in 1820 \va s 



TILSIT. 



966 



TIMES NEWSPAPEE. 



81,924,626 ; and in 1830, 97,318,264. The tax was 
repealed in 1833. 

TILSIT (,on the Niemen), on -which river, on a 
raft, the emperors of France and Eussia met, 25 June, 
1807. By a treaty concluded between France and 
Eussia, signed 7 July, Napoleon restored to the 
Prussian monarch one-half of his territories, and 
Eussia recognised the Confederation of the Ehine, 
and the elevation of Napoleon's three brothers, 
Joseph, Louis, and Jerome, to the thrones of Naples, 
Holland, and Westphalia. 

TILTS, see Tournaments. 

TIMBEE- The annual demand of timber for 
the royal navy, in war, was 60,000 loads, 01-40,000 
full-grown trees, a ton each, of which 35 will stand 
on an acre ; in peace, 32,000 tons, or 48,000 loads. 
A 74 gun ship consumed 3000 loads, or 2000 
tons of trees, the produce of 57 acres in a century. 
— Allnutt. Iron is now largely used in pre- 
ference to timber. In 1843 we imported 1,317,645 
loads of timber (cut and uncut) ; in 1857, 2,495,964 
loads; in 1866, 3,638,344 loads ; in 1871, 4,497,136 
loads; in 1875,5,092,394 loads; in 1877, 6,788,789 
loads ; in 1883, 6,609,942 loads ; in 1887, 5,653,791 
loads. In 1866, we imported 53,458 tons of 
mahogany; in 1871, 29,256 tons; in 1875,80,705 
tons; in 1877, 53,600 tons; in 1883, 50,158 tons ; 
in 1887, 37,650 tons. The duties on timber were 
modified in 1851. 

TIMBEE BENDING. Apparatus was in- 
vented for this purpose by Mr. T. Blanchard, of 
Boston, U.S., for which a medal was awarded at 
the Paris Exhibition of 1855. A company was 
formed for its application in this country in 1856. 

TIMBUCTOO (N. Africa), a city built by 
Mansa Suleiman, a Mahometan, about 12 14, 
and frequently subjugated by the sovereigns of 
Morocco. Since 1727 it has been partially inde- 
pendent. 

TIME. See Hour, Day, Month, Year, Geodesy, 
Dials, Clocks and Watches. 

TIMES NEWSPAPEE. On 1 Jan. 1785, 
Mr. John Walter published the first number of the 
Daily Universal Register, price 2\d., printed on the 
logographic system (invented by Henry Johnson, a 
compositor), in which types containing syllables 
and words were employed instead of single letters. 

On 1 Jan. 1788, the paper was named the Times. 

In 1803, when Mr. John Walter gave up the paper to his 
son John, the circulation was about 1000 ; that of the 
Morning Post being 4500. 

Mr. John Walter (1) died 16 Nov. 1812. 

Dr. Stoddart (satirised as Dr. Slop by Moore the poet) 
became editor in 1812, but five years after retired and 
set up in opposition the New Times, an unprofitable 
speculation. Thomas Barnes became next editor. He 
died 7 May, 1841, and was succeeded by his assistant 
John Thaddeus Delane (son of W. F. A. Delane, 
financial manager) who retired in 1877, and died 22 
Nov. 1879. 

On 28 Nov. 1814, the Times was first printed by steam 
power (the invention of F. K6nig), 1200 per hour, 
afterwards increased to 2000 and 4000. 

It is asserted that the Times was termed the "Thunderer " 
in consequence of an article by Edward Sterling in 
which are the words, " We thundered forth articles 
on reform, &e." when Barnes was editor. 

On 19 Jan. 1829, the first double number appeared. 

In July, 1834, an attack of Mr. O'C.onnell in the house of 
commons on the correctness of the reports of the 
debates in the Times was signally defeated. 

Shortly after began the convenient summary of the de- 
bates, written in the first instance by* Mr. Horace 
Twiss. 

In 1841 the Times was instrumental in detecting and expos- 
ing a scheme organised by Allan George Bogle and 



others, to defraud by forgery all the influential bankers 
of Europe. This brought on the proprietors an action for 
libel (in the case Bogle v. Lawson). The jury found the 
charge to be true,giving a verdict of onefavthing damages, 
but the judges refused costs. Subscriptions were set on. 
foot at the Mansion-house and in all parts of Europe to- 
reimburse the proprietors for the immense outlay in 
defending the action. This they firmly declined ; and 
the money was exjjended in establishing Times Sclwlar- 
ships at Oxford and Cambridge, and atChrist's Hospital, 
and other schools ; a marble tablet also, commemorating 
the event, was set up in the Royal Exchange and at the 
Times office. These were the greatest honours ever- 
conceded to a newspaper. 

In Oct. 1845, the Times express was for the first time 
conveyed to India overland, by the agency of lieut. 
Waghom. 

Of the number of the Times containing the life of the 
duke of Wellington for 19 Nov. 1852, 70,000 were sold — 
the ordinary number being then 36,000 ; the circula- 
tion is stated to vary from 50,000 to 60,000 (1868). 

The Ti7H.es (a slip) announcing permission to relax re- 
striction of issue of bank-notes, published 24 Oct. 
1847. 

Mr. John Walter (2) died 28 July, 1847 ; Mr. Joha 
Walter (3) born in 1818. 

In 1854, the proprietors sent Mr. W. H. Russell as their 
special correspondent to the seat of war in the Crimea ; 
in 1857 to India. 

Times Fund.— On the 12th of Oct. 1854, sir Robert Peel 
originated by a letter in the Times a subscription for 
the sick and" wounded in the Crimean war, and in less 
than a fortnight 15,000?. were sent to the Times office 
to be thus appropriated. Mr. MacDonald was sent out 
by the proprietors as special commissioner to adminis- 
ter the fund, from which large quantities of food and 
clothing were supplied to the sutt'erers, with inestimable 
advantage ; see Scutari, and Nightingale. 

In Dec. 1858, the Ti??tes drew attention to the state of the 
houseless poor of London ; and iu a few days 8000L 
were subscribed for their relief. 

In 1851, 13,000,000 copies were sold ; in 1857, 16,100,000; 
in 1859, 16,900,000 ; in i860, 16,670,000. 

The Times of 21 June, 1861, contained 4076 advertise- 
ments (about 1810 it contained 150 advertisements). 

Stereotypes from papier-mache moulds introduced, 
1856 ; much improved i860. 

The "Walter press "invented by John Cameron Mac- 
Donald (aft. Manager) & Joseph Calverley, prints about 
15,000 an hour, perfected, 1862-71. 

A list of the contents, inserted over the first leader, ap- 
peared first, 3 Feb. 1869. 

3^ pages tables of metropolitan charities appeared 
11 Feb. 1869. 

Special train for conveying the Times, North-Western 
Railway, began to run, 4.55 a.m., 16 Feb. 1875. 

Annual summaries, 1S51-75, reprinted, price is. (type 
set-up by composing-machines). 

12,000 perfect sheets per hour xuinted by " Waltey 
Press," Jan. 1876. 

Weekly issue, price 2d., began, 5 Jan. 1877. 

The Rapieff electric lamp adopted in the machine-room, 
Nov. 1878. 

Mr. Palmer's "Index to the Times" begun 1867; now 
printing for Tt7;ies from 1838 and continuing 1892. 

Summary of the Times published daily, |d. about 26 
July, 1883 ; stopped, Oct. 1884. 

Death of Thomas Chenery, six years editor, long cor- 
respondent, 11 Feb.; succeeded by G. E. Buckle, Feb. 
1884. 

The Times consisted of 24 pages 21, 26 Jane, 1861 ; 14 
June, 1884 ; 5 times in 1886 ; 3 times in 1887 ; 6 times 

I -in 1888 ; 11, 18, 25 May, 1, 22, 29 June, 1889 ; 3, 10, 17 
May, 7, 14 June, 1890 ; 30 May, 6, 13, 20, 27 June, 
1891 ; 7, 14, 21, 28 May, 4, 11, 18, 25 June, 2 July, 1S92. 

Death of Chas. Ross, aged 84, 63 years a parliamentary 
reporter and 30 years a chief, 6 Dec. 1884. 

Edwin Murray (watch dealer) v. Times, libel case, farthing; 
'damages, 26-27 Oct. 1886. 

Articles " Parnellism and Crime," published 7, 10, 14 
March ; article on Mr. Dillon, 2 May, declared by the 
commons not to be a breach of privilege, 4-6 May, 1887. 

Centenary of the publication of the Times; special 
leader 2 Jan. 1888. 

O'Donnell v. Walter and another (see under ParndlUes)'; 
verdict for the defendant 2-5 July, 1888. 

No. 31,725 (5 April, 1886) published as a book at Leipsic 
with German notes by Dr. F. Landmaun, Oct. 1888; 



TIN". 



967 



TITLES ROYAL. 



the number for 14 Nov. 1888, published as a book at 
Paris, with French notes by M. M. A. & G. Blwall, 
Dec. 1889. 

For the trial by the special commission see under 
Pamellites. 

"Rev. lord Sidney G. Osborne (S.G.O.), long a philan- 
thropic writer to the Times, dies 9 May, 1889. 

Death of Mr. J. C. Macdonald, aged 67, successively 
reporter, writer, and manager (see above, 1854 et seq.% 
10 Dec. 1889. 

Walter v. Steinkoppf, see Trials, 2 June, 1892. 

TIN- The Phoenicians traded with England for 
more than 1100 years before the Christian era. 
Under the Saxons, our tin mines appear to have 
been neglected ; but under the Normans, they pro- 
duced considerable revenues to the earls of Corn- 
wall, particularly to Richard, brother of Henry III. 
A charter and various immunities were granted 
by Edmund, earl Richard's brother, who framed the 
Stannary Laws (which see), laying a duty on the 
tin. Edward III. confirmed the tinners in their 
privileges, and erected Cornwall into a dukedom, 
with which he invested his son, Edward the Black 
Prince, 1337. Since that time the heirs-apparent 
to the crown of England, if eldest sons, have en- 
joyed it successively. Tin mines were discovered 
in Germany, which lessened the value of those in 
England, till then the only tin mines in Europe, 
1240. — Anderson. Discovered in Barbary, 1640; 
in India, 1740; in New Spain, 1782. In 1857, 
9783 tons; in i860, 10,462 tons; in 1864, 10,108 
tons; in 1865, 10,039 tons; in 1870, 10,200 tons 
in 1874, 9942 tons ; in 1876, 8500 tons ; in 1879, 
9532 tons; 1882, 9158 tons; in 1884, 9,574 tons ; 
in 1887, 9,282 tons; in 1888, 9,241, in 1889, 8,912, 
in 1890, 9,602 tons of metallic tin were procured 
from British mines. Of tin plates we exported 
in value, in 1847, 484,184/. ; in 1854, 1,075,531/. ; hi 
i860, 1,500,812/.; in 1864, 1,263,246/.; in 1866, 
1,896,192/.; in 1871,2,900,625/.; in 1873, 3,953,042/ ; 
in 1877, 3,033,126/.; in 1879, 3,507,977/.; in 1883, 
4,705,403/.; in 1887,4,792,854/.; in 1888,5,546,228/.; 
in 1889, 6,030,005/. ; in 1890, 6,361,477/. 
The great tin-plate manufacture in S. Wales suffered 

greatly by the operation of the McKinley tariff, 1 July 

et seq. 1891. 

TINCHEBEAY (N. W. France), where a 
battle was fought between Henry I. of England 
and his brother Robert duke of Normandy. Eng- 
land and Normandy were reunited under Henry, 
at the decease of William Rufus, who had already 
possessed himself of Normandy bj r a m< rtgage from 
his brother Robert, at Ms setting out for Pales- 
tine. Robert, on his return, recovered Normandy 
by an accommodation with Henry ; but having 
afterwards quarrelled, Robert was defeated in the 
battle of Tinchebray, 28 Sept. 1106, and Normandy 
was annexed to the crown of England. — Henault. 

TIPPERARY, S. Ireland, made a county by 
king John, 1210. 

The shopkeepers of the town of Tipperary, tenants 
of Mr. Smith Barry, accepted the plan of cam- 
paign, paid no rent, and were evicted. New Tip- 
perwry, built to receive them, was inaugurated 
by Mr. W. O'Brien, M. P., and others 12 April, 1890 

Some of the tenants make terms and return to 
their homes .... Dec, 1890, Jan. 1891 

Failure of New Tipperary, the property put up for 
sale, June ; buildings pulled down . . Aug. 1S92 

Mr. Smith Barry warmly received by his tenants, 

16 Sept. ,, 

TIPPERMUIR (near Perth). Here the mar- 
quis of Montrose defeated the covenanters under 
lord Klcho, I Sept. 1644. 

TIRNOVA on the Jantra a tributary of the 

Danube, capital of the ancient kingdom of Bulgaria. 



It was occupied without resistance by general 
Gourko, 6, 7 July, 1877, and made the Russian 
head-quarters. 

TIRYNS, an ancient city of Greece, S.E. of 
Argos, with massive cyclopoean remains. Excava- 
tions of Dr. Schliemauu in 1884 led to the discovery 
of what he termed " the Prehistoric Palace of the 
kings of Tiryns." His book on Tiryns was 
published in 1886. As Byzantine remains are also 
found some of his conclusions are disputed by 
eminent antiquaries. 

TITANIUM, a rare metal, discovered by Gregor 
in meuaccanite, a Cornish mineral, in 1 79 1, and in 
1794 by Klaproth. 

TITHES or TENTHS, were commanded to be 
given to the tribe of Levi, 1490 B.C. (Lev. xxvii. 
30) . Abraham returning from Ms victory over the 
kings (Gen. xiv.), gave tithes of the spoil to 
MelcMsedek, king of Salem, priest of the most 
high God (1913 B.C.) For the first 800 years of 
the CMisiian church they were given purely as 
alms, and were voluntary. — Wickliffe. " I will 
not put the title of the clergy to tithes upon any 
divine right, though such a right certainly com- 
menced, and 1 believe as certainly ceased, with the 
Jewish theocracy." — Bluckstonc. They were estab- 
lished M France by Charlemagne, about 800, and 
abolished 1789. Tenths were confirmed hi the 
Lateran councils, 1215.— Rainailda. The payment 
of tithes appears to have been claimed by Augustin, 
the first archbishop of Canterbury, and to have been 
allowed by Ethelbert, king of Kent, under the term 
"God's fee," about 600. 
The first mention of them in any English written law 

is a constitutional decree made in a synod strongly 

enjoining tithes, 7S6. 
Offa, king of Mercia, gave unto the church the tithes of 

all his kingdom, to expiate the death of Ethelbert, 

king of the East Angles, whom he had caused to be 

basely murdered, 794. 
Tithes were first granted to the English clergy in a gene- 
ral assembly held by Ethelwold, 844. Henry. 
In England, in 1545, tithes were fixed at the rate of 2s. gd. 

in the pound on rent ; since then, many acts have 

been passed respecting them. 
The Tithe Commutation act, passed 13 Aug. 1836. It 

was amended in 1837, 1840, 1846, i860, and 1878. 
A rector is entitled to all the tithes ; a vicar to a small 

part only, frequently to none. 
Several acts relating to tithes in Ireland have been passed 

in 1832-47, altering and improving the tithe system. 
Tithe redemption trust appointed, 1846. 
Agitation against " extraordinary tithes," n Aug. et scq. 

1881. 
An Anti-Extraordinary Association existed in 1882. 
Extraordinary Tithe Redemption Act passed 1SS6. 
Riotous opposition to tithes in Wales, Aug. ; anti-tithe 

league formed Sept. 1886 ; riots (see [Vales) 1887. 
Tithe Bill brought in ; dropped Aug. 1887. 
Much agitation against tithes in Wales, 1889. A tithes 

recovery bill withdrawn, 16 Aug. 1880 
Royal commission on Tithe Redemption nominated: 

lord Basing and others, 30 Jan ; met 6 March et scq. 

1891. 
An act for the recovery of tithe rent charge in England 

and Wales passed, 26 March, 1891. The liability for 

the payment of tithes is transferred from the tenant 

to t In' landowner. 

TITHING. The number or company of tm 
men with their families knit together in a society, 
all of them being bound to the king for the peace- 
able and good behaviour of each of their society; 
of these com panics there was one chief person, who, 
from Ms office, was called (toothiiigman) tithing- 
man ; but now he is nothing but a constable, 
formerly called the headborough. Cniccl. 

TITLES ROYAL. Henry IV. had the title 
of "Grace" and "My liege," 1399. Henry VI., 



TITLES TO LAND. 



968 



TOLENTINO. 



"Excellent Grace," 14.22. Edward IV., "Most 
High and Mighty Prince," 1461. Henry VII., 
" Highness," 1485 ; Henry VIII. the same title, 
and sometimes " Grace," 1509 et seq. Francis I. of 
France addressed Henry as " Your Majesty" at their 
interview in 1520 ; see Field of the Cloth of Gold. 
Henry VIII. was the first and last king who was 
styled " Dread Sovereign." James I. coupled to 
" Majesty " the present " Sacred," or "Most Ex- 
cellent Majesty." "Majesty" was the style of 
the emperors of Germany ; the first king to whom 
it was given was Louis XL of France, about 1463. 

TITLES TO LAND CONSOLIDATION 

ACT (Scotland), passed 31 July, 1868, and amended 
in 1869. 

TIVOLI, see Tibur. 

TOBACCO,* Nicotiana tabacum, received its 
name from Tabacco, a province of Yucatan, New 
Spain ; some say from the island of Tobago, one oi 
the Caribbees ; others from Tobasco, in the Gulf ol 
Florida. It is said to have been first observed at St. 
Domingo, in Cuba, 1492 ; and to have been used 
freely by the Spaniards in Yucatan in 1520. 
Tobacco was either first brought to England in 
1565, by sir John Hawkins; or by sir Walter 
llaleigh and sir Francis Drake, in 1586. It was 
manufactured only for exportation for some years. 
Stoiv's Clvron. The Pied Bull inn, at Islington, is 
said to have been the first house in England where 
tobacco was smoked. In 1584 a proclamation was 
issued against it. James I. published " A Counter- 
hlaste against Tobacco," and the star-chamber 
ordered the duties to be 6s. lod. per pound, 1614. 
Its cultivation was prohibited in England by 
Charles II., 1684. Act laying a duty on the im- 
portation was passed 1684. The cultivation was 
allowed in Ireland, 1779. The tax was increased 
and put under the excise, 1789. Anderson; Ashe, 
Various statutes have passed relative to tobacco. 
Act to revive the act prohibiting the culture of 
tobacco in Ireland passed 2 Will. IV., Aug. 1831. 
Act directing that tobacco grown in Ireland be pur- 
chased in order to its being destroyed, 24 March, 
1832. The quantity consumed in England in 1791 
was nine millions and a half of pounds, and in 1829 
about fifteen millions of pounds. We imported in 
1850, 35,166,358 lbs., and 1,557,558 lbs. manufac- 
tured (cigars and snuff) ; in 1855, 36,820,846 lbs., 
and 2,651,544 lbs. manufactured; in 1860,48,936, 
4.71 lbs., and 2,110,430 lbs. manufactured; in 1864, 
61,042,667 lbs., and 6,578,707 lbs., manufactured; 
in 1866, 54,374,800 lbs., and 3,171,906 lbs. manu- 
factured; in 1871, 73,042,305 lbs., and 3,852,236 
manufactured; in 1876, 76,814,974 lbs., and 
3,818,682 lbs. manufactured; in 1879,38,861, 220lbs., 
and 3,591,558 lbs. manufactured; in 1883, 56,475,199 
lbs., and 3,121,174 lbs. manufactured; in 1887, 
72,178,994 lbs. and 3,595,071 manufactured; in 
1890, 65,729,970 lbs.; and 3,678,846 lbs. manu- 
factured. The tobacco duties were modified in 1863 ; 
raised April, 1878. 2d. a lb. extra duty on cigars 
added, April, 1879. Net customs duties paid for 
tobacco and snuff in the year 1875-6, 7,744,977/.; 
1877-8, 8,006,836/. ; 1883-4, 8,991,205/. ; 1886-7, 
9,367,186/.; 1887-8,8,713,944/; 1888-9,8,858,781/.; 
1889-90, 9,061,984/. ; 1890-91, 9,533,888/. 

Permission to grow tobacco in England with conditions 
granted by the Board of Trade, April, 1886. 

Tobacco successfully cultivated by Messrs. James 
Carter and Co., near Bromley, Essex, Sept. 1886 ; and 
by others in 1887. 

* British Anti-Tobacco Crusade, originated by the late 
Thos. Reynolds in 1853. 60,000 of its publications had 
been circulated gratuitously in 1S76. 



Duty per lb on unmanufactured tobacco reduced from 
3s. 6d. to 3s. 2d. ; cigars 5s. ; snuff 3s. gd. or 4s. 6d. 
1887. 

TOBAGO (West Indies), discovered by Colum- 
bus in 1498; settled by the Dutch 1642. Taken by 
the English, 1672, retaken, 1674. In 1748, it was 
declared a neutral island ; but in 1763 it was ceded 
to the English. Tobago was taken by the French 
under De Crasse in 1781, and confirmed to them 
in 1783. Again taken by the English, 14 April, 
1793, but restored at the peace of Amiens, 6 Oct. 
1802. The island was once more taken by the 
British under general Grinfield, 1 July, 1803, and 
was confirmed to them by the peace of Paris, in 
[814. Population in 1887, 19,937. Tobago is one 
of the Windward isles, which see. Tobago was 
united with Trinidad by parliament in 1887. 
Population of Tobago, 1891, 18,353. 

TOBITSCHATJ (Moravia). In a sharp action 
here, on 15 July, 1866, the Austrians were defeated 
by the army of the crown prince of Prussia with 
the loss of 500 killedand wounded and 500 prisoners, 
and seventeen guns. 

TOISON D'OB or Golden Fleece (which 

see) . 

TOKAB, in the S >udan. Here Osman Digma's 
forces were defeated by col. Holled Smith, 19 Feb. 
1891 ; see under Soudan. 

TOKAY, a town in Upper Hungary, celebrated 
for its wines, made here by dressers, brought from 
Italy by Bela IV., king, 1235-70. The wine is 
principally used by sovereigns, and 50 bottles were 
presented to queen Victoria at her jubilee, 1887. 
The town, with its six churches and public buildings, 

was destroyed by fire, 26 Aug. 1890. About 4,000 

persons rendered homeless. 

TOKENS, BANK, silver pieces issued by the 
Bank of England, of the value of 5s., 1 Jan. 1798. 
The Spanish dollar had a small profile of George III. 
stamped on the neck of the Spanish king. They 
were raised to the value of 5.*. 6d. 14 Nov. 1811. 
Bank tokens were also current in Ireland, where 
those issued by the bank passed for 6s. and lesser 
sums until 1817. They were called in on the revi- 
sion of the coinage. Tradesmen were permitted to 
issue tokens as small coins from 1648 till 16 Aug. 
1672, when their circulation was prohibited by royal 
proclamation. These tokens are figured and de- 
scribed in a work by Wm. Boyne, 1858. 

TOKIO, the name given to Jedo, the capital cf 
Japan, about 1869. Great fire ; 5,000 houses de- 
stroyed, and 45 persons perish, 10 April, 1892. See 
Jedo. Population, 1887, 1,552,457. 

TOLBIAC (now Zulpich), near the Rhine, 
where Clovis totally defeated the Allemanni, 496. 

TOLEDO, the ancient Toletum (Central Spain), 
made capital of the Visigothic kingdom by Athana- 
gild, 554 ; taken by the Saracens, 712. 'loledo was 
taken after the war begun 1081, by Alfonso I. of 
Castile, 25 May, 1085. In 1088 the archbishop was 
made primate of Spain. The university was founded 
in 1499. Toledo sword-blades have been famed 
since the 15th century. Population, 1887. 20,837. 
The alcazar, ancient Moorish palace, used by the 

emperor Charles V., destroyed by tire, 9-10 Jan. 1887. 

TOLENTINO (Italy, formerly in the Papal 
states), where a treaty was made between the pope 
and the French, 19 Feb. 1797. Here Joachim Murat, 
having resumed arms against the allies, was de- 
feated by the Austrians, 3 May, 1815, taken pri- 
soner, and shot. 



TOLEKATION ACT. 



969 



TONQUIN. 



TOLERATION ACT, passed in 1689, to re- 
lieve Protestant dissenters from the church of Eng- 
land. Their liberties were, however, greatly en- 
dangered in the latter days of queen Anne, who 
died on the day that the Schism bill was to become 
a law, 1 Aug. 17 14. 

The toleration granted was somewhat limited. It 
exempted persons who took the new oath of allegiance 
and supremacy, and made also a declaration against 
popery, from the penalties incurred by absenting 
themselves from church and holding unlawful conven- 
ticles ; and it allowed the quakers to substitute an 
affirmation for an oath, but did not relax the provi- 
sions of the Test act (which see). The party spirit of 
the times checked the king in his liberal measures. 

TOLLS were first paid by vessels passing the 
Stade on the Elbe, 1109. They were first demanded 
by the Danes of vessels passing the Sound, 1341 ; see 
titadc, and Sound. Tollbars in England originated 
in 1267, on the grant of a penny for every waggon 
that passed through a certain manor ; and the 
first regular toll was collected a few years after for 
mending the road in London between St. Giles's 
and Temple-bar. Gathered for repairing the high- 
ways of Holborn-inn-lane and Martin' s-h:ne (now 
Aldersgate-street), 1346. Toll-gate or turnpikes 
were set up in 1663. In 1827, 27 turnpikes near 
London were removed by parliament ; 81 turnpikes 
and toll-bars ceased on the north of London on 
I July, 1864; and 61 on the south side, ceased on 
31 Oct. 1865; and many others on the Essex and 
Middlesex roads ceased on 31 Oct. 1866; the re- 
mainder on the north of London ceased 1 July, 1872. 
The tolls on the Commercial roads, London, E., 
were abolished 5 Aug. 1871. The tolls on Waterloo 
and other metropolitan bridges abolished, 1 878-9. 
The high road from Brighton to London free from 
toll, 31 Oct. 1881. See Wales, 1843 and 1889. 

TOLOSA- On the plain named las Navas de 
Tolosa, near the Sierra Morena, S. Spain, Alfonso, 
king of Castile, aided by the kings of Arragon and 
Navarre, gained a great victory over the Moors, 
16 July, 12 12. This conflict is sometimes termed 
the battle of Muradal. 

TONGA ISLES, Pacific Ocean. The king, 
George I., concluded a treaty with Germany, 1 
Nov. 1876; with Great Britain, 29 Nov. 1879. 

TONIC SOL FA SYSTEM. See Music. 

TONK, Rajpootana, India. The nawab and his 
minister, for a massacre of Hindoo chiefs, 1 Aug. 1867, 
were deposed by the British. In 1872 he demanded 
investigation, and Ms ca^e came before parliament 
without any issue. 

TONNAGE. The Tonnage Act of 1694 esta- 
blished the Bank of England {which sec). See 
Tunnage. 

TONOMETER, a delicate apparatus (consist- 
ing of 52 forks) for tuning musical instruments, by 
marking the number of vibrations, was invented by 
H. Soheibler of Crefeld, and described in his " Ton- 
messer," 1834. It received little notice till M. 
Kcenig removed some of the difficulties opposed to 
its successful use, and exhibited it at the Inter- 
national Exhibition of 1862. 

TONQUIN, S.E. Asia, the delta of the river 
Songkoi, a province of Annum, subject to China. 
Here a French missionary bishop, Melchior, was 
murdered with great barbarity 27 July, 1858: the 
abbe Neron was also murdered, 3 Nov. 18O0; see 
Annam. 

Successful attack and death of lieut. Gamier . . 1873 
Naomdink captured by the French announced, 

11 April, 1G33 



Lin-Yang- Fu declares war against French aggres- 
sors, 8 May ; a new expedition voted for 15 May, 1883 

Commander K. T. Riviere (French), and 32 others 
besieged by the Black Flags* at Hanoi ; capture* I 
and killed in a sortie .... 20 May, ,, 

[He was buried at the Madeleine, Paris, 30 Jan. 1885.] 

Gen. Bouetarrives 7 June; fortifies Hanoi 16 June, ,, 

China firmly opposed to French aggression ; Tu 
Due, emperor of Annam, opposed to the French. ,, 

Successful French sortie from Nam Din ; much 
slaughter 19 July, „ 

Proclamation of capt. Morel Beanlieu offering pro- 
tection to the people, deserted by Annam, an- 
nounced 20 July, ,, 

The Black Flags severely defeated . 7 Aug. ,, 

French advance, under gen. Bouet, checked at 
Cachao 15 Aug. ,, 

Bombardment and capture of the Hue forts, great 
slaughter of natives .... 18-20 Aug. ,, 

Armistice granted, submission of the Annamite 
government ; treaty signed, recognising French 
protectorate, ceding province of Bin Huaui, &c. 

25 Aug. „ 

The Black Flags defeated at Phokhai by gen. Bouet 
with great loss, the French suffer severely 1-2 Sept. „ 

Negotiations of Jules Ferry and Mandarin Tseng re- 
specting the protectorate of Tonquin . Sept. „ 

Disbandment of the Annamite troops yellow flags 
opposed to the French . . about 15 Sept. ,, 

Gen. Bouet replaced by adm. Courbet as commander 
of the French forces . . announced 20 Sept. ,, 

Admiral Courbet begins actual occupation of 
Tonquin about 3 Nov. „ 

Ninh-Birih and Kuang Yen occupied by the French 
without resistance . . . announced 4 Nov. „ 

The Black Flags repulsed in a violent attack on the 
French gun-boat Carabine and on Haidzuong, 

17 Nov. ,, 

The Yellow book on Tonquin, published . 5 Dec. „ 

The French take forts on the Red river opposite 
Sontay about 16 Dec. ,, 

Sontay captured, the Black Flags retire, alleged 
French loss, about 77 killed, 231 wounded 

16, 17 Dec. ,, 

Sontay fortified and left .... Dec. ,, 

The unarmed native Tonquinese suffer on all sides 
by the war Aug. -Dec. „ 

Namdinh attacked by pirates, houses burnt, people 
killed 1,2 Jan. 1884 

Arrival of Chinese troops to defend Hainan against 
the French about 20 Jan. ,, 

Gen. Millot (successor in command to adm. Courbet) 
captures Bacninh, after hard lighting Chinese 
flee, 25 French killed ... 12 March, ,, 

Gen. Briere de LTsle captures citadel of Thai- 
Nguyen 22 March, ,, 

Rainy season .... March— Oct. ,, 

Honghoa fired by the Chinese and quitted 

about 9 April, ,, 

Treatv signed by capt. Fournier and Li-hung- 
Chang at Tientsin ; French protectorate of Ton- 
quin and Annam recognised . . 11 .May, „ 

The Chinese garrison of Langson resist capt Du- 
genne anda French column (700), (unauthorised), 
advancing to occupy it; 10 killed; a violation 
of the treaty of 11 May . . . 23 June, ,, 

The French appeal to lvkin for indemnity : tic 
Chinese deny the ratification of the treaty about 
1 July ; but order the evacuation of Langson and 
other places, announced . . . 18 July, ,, 

den. .Millot resigns, succeeded by gen. Briere de 
1'Isle 3° Au «- .. 

Fighting resumed Oct. ,, 

( Ihinese regulars, attacks, repulsed with great loss ; 
French sutler little (at Kep) ; gen. Negrier in 
command 6-8 Oct. ,, 

Victory of col. Donnier, .great Chinese loss ; 20 
French killed . . . . 10, 11 Oct. „ 

Chinese hold .strong camps with reinforcements; 



* The Black Flags originated with Li-Hung-Chang, 

an able leader of the Canton rebels, who about [863 witli 
his followers took refuge in Tonquin, where he was at 

tirst tolerated by the emperor of Annam, but afterwards, 
being strengthened by many adherents, established an 

independent despotic government. He strenuously op 
posed the French. 



TONSURE. 



970 



TOEPEDO SHELLS. 



their attacks repulsed at Tuguen Quari-hung with 

great loss 13 Oct. 1884 

Fighting : the Black Flag defeated about 20 Nov. „ 
Chinese pirates said to toe severely defeated, an- 
nounced Dec. ,, 

Gen. Negrier defeats 12,000 Chinese E. of Chu, 

announced 6 Jan. 1885 

Dong Song camp captured by the French after 

severe conflict 5 Feb. „ 

Several forts captured . . . 10-25 J an - » 
Severe conflict with about 10,000 Chinese, who are 
compelled to retreat 12 Feb.; the French flag 
placed on the captured citadel of Langson 13 Feb. „ 
Mutiny on the Bayard on account of deficient 
rations, &c; 12 sailors shot ; announced 

end of Jan. ,, 
39 French killed and many wounded 9-12 Feb. ,, 

Chinese 18 days' siege of Thuyen-Quan raised after 

18 desperate assaults ... 2 March, ,, 
The Chinese defeated by col. Duchesne, 4-7 March, ,, 
French attack Dong-dang, successful 22 March, ,, 
Heavy Chinese attack on French positions ; gen. 
Negrier wounded, compelled to retreat ; Lang- 
son evacuated 28 March, ,, 

Preliminaries of peace signed at Pekin ; Tonquin 

to be abandoned by the Chinese, &c. . 5 April, ,, 
Luh Vinh Phuoc, chief of the Black Flags, re- 
warded for his services by the Chinese govern- 
ment April, ,, 

The Chinese troops retiring . . . May, ,, 

Reported massacre of christians . . Aug. ,, 
The Black Flag Bands very troublesome Oct. ; 

defeated by Negrier .... Dec. ,, 
Beported massacre of 700 christians ; and destruc- 
tion of 30 villages Aug. 1886 

Renewed warfare ; French successes . Nov. ., 
M. Paul Bert, French resident, appointed 21 Jan. ; 

dies 11 Nov. 1886 ; succeeded by M. Bibourd Jan. 1887 
Much fighting ; insurgents defeated by the French 

Jan. ,, 
Col. Bosc captured Muong losing 9 men 19 April, 1888 
Establishment of the civil native guard for sup- 
pression of piracy, and other organizations 

reported Sept. „ 

Renewed fighting by pirates ; defeated by gen. 

Borgnis des Bordes with French loss 17 Jan. 1889 
Surrender of Doivan, chief of the Bac Ninh pirates ; 

country reported quieter . . .16 March, ,, 
French success against the pirates March, April, 1890 
Pirates defeated in several engagements, followed 

by executions, 21 April — 28 July ; again 15 Dec. 1891 
Sharp fighting witli the pirates, who are dispersed 
with heavy loss, reported, 2 July ; 3 French 
officers and 10 men killed in a sharp conflict, 

9 July, 1892 

TONSURE, the clerical crown, adopted, it is 
said, in imitation of St. Peter, or of Christ's crown 
of thorns, was disapproved of in the fourth century 
as pertaining only to penitents, and not made 
essential till the end of the fifth or beginning of the 
sixth century. 

TONTINES, loans given for life annuities with 
benefit of survivorship, invented by Laurence Tonti, 
a Neapolitan. They were first set on foot at Paris 
to reconcile the people to cardinal Mazarin's 
government, by amusing them with the hope of 
becoming suddenly rich, 1653. Voltaire. Tonti died 
in the Bastile after seven years' imprisonment. A 
Mr. Jennings was an original subscriber for a 100/. 
share in a tontine company; and being the last 
survivor of the shareholders, his share produced 
him 3000/. per annum. He died aged 103 years, 
19 June, 1798, worth 2,115,2447.; see Alexandra 
Park. 

By the termination of a tontine begun by M. Lafarges 
in 1791 to diminish the national debt the F'reuch 
government received 1,218,000 francs Dec. 1888. 

TOPLITZ (Bohemia). Here were signed, in 
1813, two treaties — one between Austria, Russia, 
and Prussia, 9 Sept. ; and one between Great Britain 
and Austria, 3 Oct. 



TOPOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY of Lon- 
don was founded 1879 ; inaugurated at the Man- 
sion-house, 28 Oct. 1880. 

TORBANEHILL MINERAL. Mr. Gil- 
lespie, of Torbanehill, granted a lease of all the 
coal in the estate to Messrs. Russell. In the course 
of working, the lessees extracted a combustible 
mineral of considerable value as a source of coal- 
gas, and realised a large profit in the sale of it as. 
gas-coal. The lessor then denied that the mineral 
was coal, and disputed the right of the lessees to 
work it. At the trial in 1853 there was a great 
array of scientific men and practical gas engineers, 
and the evidence was most conflicting. One side 
maintained the mineral to be coal, the other that 
it was a bituminous schist. The judge set aside the 
scientific evidence, and the jury pronounced it to 
be coal. The authorities in Prussia have since 
pronounced it not to be coal. Percy. 

TORDESILLAS (near Vail adolid). Here was 
signed, 7 June, 1494, a treaty modifying the 
boundary line which pcpe Alexander VI. had as- 
signed, in May, 1493, in his division of the new 
world between Spain and Portugal. 

TORGAU (Saxony, N. Germany), the site of a 
battle between Frederick II. of Prussia and the 
Austrians, in which the former obtained a signal 
victory; the Austrian general, count Daun, being 
wounded, 3 Nov. 1760. He had, in 1757, obtained 
a great victory over the Prussian king. Torgau 
was taken by the allies in 18 14 ; and given to 
Prussia, 181 5. 

TORIES, a term given to a political party 
about 1678 ; see Whig. Dr. Johnson defines a Tory 
as one who adheres to the ancient constitution of 
the state, and the apostolical hierarchy of the 
Church of England. The Tories long maintained 
the doctrines of "divine hereditary indefeasible 
right, lineal succession, passive obedience, prero- 
gative," &c. Bolingbrohe ; sea Conservatives. For 
the chief Tory administrations, see Pitt, Perccval } 
Liverpool, Wellington, Peel, Perby, and P/israeli. 
For Tory Democracy see Fourth Party. 

TORNADOS. See Storms. 

TORONTO, the capital of Canada West, 

now Ontario, founded in 1794 as York; it received 

its present name in 1834. It was made a bishopric 

in 1839. Population 1886, 118,403; 1891,181,220. 

Opera-house burnt, 8 Feb. 1883. 

Industrial exhibition opened by marquis of Lome, 12 
Sept. 1883 ; another opened by lord Lansdowne, 6 
Sept. 1887. 

Dynamite cartridges found under the parliament-house; 
much excitement, 30 April, 1884. 

The university, with its hall, library, and museum, 
destroyed by fire, 14 Feb. ; a committee was 
formed in London, including the marquis of 
Salisbury, the archbishop of Canterbury, repre- 
sentatives of the universities, the lord mayor, 
and other eminent persons, to restore the 
library, March ; an appeal was liberally re- 
sponded to, the queen being among the con- 
tiibutors; donations were received from other 
countries .... reported 15 May, 1890 

The duke and duchess of Connaught warmly re- 
ceived at Toronto .... 29 May, ,, 

TORPEDO SHELLS, a name given to ex- 
plosives placed under ships, an invention ascribed 
to David Bushnell, an American, in 1777- Efts: at- 
tempt to destroy H.M.S. Cerberus failed. The 
action of Fulton's torpedoes was successful in 
Britain 1 805 ; but their use was declined by the 
government. Torpedo sbells ignited by electricity 
were successfully employed in the war in the 



TOKQUAY. 



971 



TOUEAINE. 



United States, 1861-5. On 4 Oct. 1865, Messrs. 
M'Kay & Beardslee tried them at Chatham before 
the duke of Somerset and others. An old vessel, 
the Terpsichore, was speedily sunk. Torpedoes, 
made by professor (aft. sir Frederick) Abel, of Wool- 
wich, were tried in May, 1866. A torpedo invented 
by Mr. Wightman and an Austrian, tried and re- 
ported successful at Sheerness; an old hulk was sunk, 
8 Oct. 1870. Torpedoes to be ignited from a dis- 
tance by an electric battery are now made at 
Woolwich. A Turkish monitor in the Danube was 
blown up by a torpedo (see Susso- Turkish war, II.), 
26 May, 1877. Whitehead's fish torpedoes, pro- 
jected by compi-essed air from a boat ; very destruc- 
tive if skilfully directed ; described Nov. 1884. 
The new torpedo boat Peacemaker invented by prof. 

J. H. L. Tuck announced . . . Aug. 1886 
Nordenfelt's submarine torpedo boat tried in South- 
ampton Water (see under Boats) . 19, 20 Dec. 1887 
Several severe accidents with torpedo boats July, 1888 
Mr. A. Lege's torpedo, based upon the principle of 
a flying kite, announced . . 16 March, 1889 

See under Cannon 1889. 
The powerful Brennan Torpedo, with the Watkin 
position finder, successfully tried at Cliff End 
Port, on the western side of the Solent . 5 July, 1890 
The controllable torpedo of Mr. Scott Sims and 
Mr. Edison tried at Portsmouth and reported 
successful 3, 15 Feb. 1892 

TORQUAY, a seaport in Devonshire. The 
pier harbour was made in 1803-7, and enlarged in 
1870. Torre Abbey was founded in 1196. The 
prince of Orange landed at T»rbay, 5 Nov. 1688. 
Population, 1881, 24,767 ; 1891, 25,534. 
In Kent's Hole, a cavern near Torquay, the rev. Mr. 
MeEnery discovered a quantity of bones of extinct 
and recent animals, 1825-9. The investigations were 
continued by Mr. Godwin- Austen, 1840 ; by the Tor- 
quay Natural History Society, and by a committee 
of the British Association, 1S65, by whom the results 
were published. Mr. William Pengelly, of Torquay, 
was actively engaged in the researches. 
The princess Louise laid the memorial stone of the new 

pier and harbour works, 6 May, 1890. 
Charter granted to Torquay, Aug. 1892. 

TOEEES STEAIT, dividing Australia from 
Papua or New Guinea, was discovered by Torres, 
a Spaniard, in June, 1606. 

TOEEES VEDEAS (a city of Portugal). 
Near here Wellington, retreating from the French, 
took up a strong position, called the Lines of 'Torres 
Vedras, 10 Oct. 1810. 

TOETOLA, see Virgin Isles. 

TOETUEE was only permitted by the Romans 
in the examination of slaves. It was applied to 
heretics by the Roman catholic clergy, and was 
used in England so late as 1640 (when Archer, 
who took part in an attack on Laud's palace, was 
racked), and in Scotland until 1690. The trial by 
torture was abolished in Portugal, 1776 ; in France, 
by Louis XVI., in 1789; and in Sweden by Gus- 
tavus III., 1786. General Picton was convicted of 
allowing Louisa Calderon to be tortured in Trini- 
dad, in accordance with the old law of the island, 
at his trials, 21 Feb. 1806, and 11 June, 1808. 

TOSKI, battle of, see Soudan, 3 Aug. 1889. 

TOTAL ABSTINENCE, see Teetotaller. 

TOTNES (Devon): thought to be the Roman 

Ad Durium Ainnem. It was held by Judhael de 
Totneis, who built the castle about 1085. It was 
disfranchised for gross corruption and briber)-, by 
the Reform act, 15 Aug. 1867. 

TOUGHENED GLASS, see Glass. 

TOUL, the Roman Tulli Leucorum, a fortified 
town on the Moselle, N. E. France, one of the most 



ancient in the empire. The city and diocese ac- 
quired great privileges from Charles the Simple, 
925, when it was united with the German empire. 
It was reunited with France, 1552. The fortifica- 
tions, begun in 1238, were rebuilt and enlarged in, 
1700, according to the plans of Vauban. After a 
vigorous resistance to the Germans, commencing 
14 Aug. 1870, Toul surrendered with its garrison of 
3000 men, 23 Sept., when the town was burning in, 
twenty- three places. The Germans thus acquired 
an uninterrupted railway communication to Paris. 

TOULON, the ancient Telo Martius (S. Fiance) , 
an important military port. It was taken by the 
constable of Bourbon, 1524, and by the emperor 
Charles V. in 1536. In 1707 it was bombarded by 
the allies, both b}' laud and sea, by which almost 
the whole town was reduced to a heap of ruins, and 
several ships burned; but the allies were at last 
obliged to raise the siege. It surrendered 27 Aug. 
1793, to the British admiral, lord Hood, who took 
possession both of the town and slapping, in the 
name of Louis XVII., under a stipulation to assist 
in restoring the French constitution of 1789. A 
conflict took place between the English and French 
forces, when the latter were repulsed, 15 Nov. 1793. 
Toulon was retaken by Bonaparte, 19 Dec, when 
great cruelties were exercised towards such of the 
inhabitants as were supposed to be favourable to 
the British. — A naval battle oft' this port was fought 
II Feb. 1744, between the English under Mathews 
and Lestock, against the fleets of France and Spain: 
in this engagement the brave captain Corncwall 
fell. The victory was lost by a misunderstanding 
between the English admirals. Mathews was after- 
wards dismissed for misconduct. See Cholera, 1884. 
Visit of Queen Victoria . . . 13 April, 1892 

TOULOUSE, the ancient TOLOSA (S. France), 
founded about 615 B.C.; was the capital of the 
Visigothic kings in a.d. 419 ; and was taken by 
Clovis in 508. The dukes of Aquitaine reigned 
here, 631-761. A university was established here, 
1229, and a parliament, 1302. The inquisition was 
established here to extirpate heretics, 1229. The 
troubadours, or rhetoricians of Toulouse, had their 
origin about 850, and consisted of a fraternity of 
poets, whose art was extended throughout Europe, 
and gave rise to the Italian and French poetry; 
see Troubadours. The allied British and Spanish 
army entered this city on 12 April, immediately 
after the Battle of Toulouse, fought between 
the British Peninsular army under lord Welling- 
ton, and the French led by marshal Soult, 10 April, 
1814. The French were forced to retreat, after 
twelve hours' fighting. Neither of the com- 
manders knew that Napoleon bad abdicated the 
throne of France. Population, 1886, 147,617; 
1891, 148,220. 

TOULOUSE. The county was created out, of 
the kingdom of Aquitaine by t harlemagne, in 77S. 
It enjoyed great prosperity till the dreadful war of 
the Albigenses {which see), when the count Ray- 
mond VI. was expelled, and Simon de Montfort 
became count. At bis death, in 1218, Raymond VII. 

obtained bis inheritance. Mis daughter Jane and 
her husband, Alphonse (brother of Louis IX. of 
France), dying without issue, the county of Toulouse 
was united to the French monarclly in 1271. A 
large pint of Toulouse destroyed by an inundation 
of the Uaronne ; St. Cyprien like a Bepulchre; 23 
June, 1875. 

TOUEAINE, the garden of France, was con- 
quered by the Visigoths aboul 480. It was ceded 

to Geoffrey count of Anjou, 1044, and thus became 



TOURNAMENTS. 



972 



TOWTON. 



the property of the Plantagenet kings of England. 
It was seized by Philip Augustus in 1203, and was 
made a duchy by John, 1360. It was finally united 
to the crown on the death of the duke of Aniou, 
I584. 

TOURNAMENTS, or JoxiSTS, were martial 
sports of the ancient cavaliers. Tournament is 
derived from the French word tonrner, " to turn 
round." Tournaments were frequent about 890; 
•and were regulated by the emperor Henry I., about 
919. Tournaments were introduced into England 
early in the 12th century ; prohibited by Henry II., 
but revived by Richard I., his son. Solemn tourna- 
ments were held by Edward III., 2s Sept. 1329, in 
London ; and 19 Jan. 1344, at Wmdsor ; and by 
Richard II. in Smithfield, London, 10 Oct. 1319 ; 
and also by Henry VIII., in May 1513. The 
Lateran council published an article against their 
^continuance in 1136. Henry II. of France, in a 
tilt with the comte de Montgomerie, had his eye 
struck out, an accident which caused the king's 
death in a few days, 29 June, 1559. Tournaments 
were then abolished in France. — A magnificent 
feast and tournament, under the auspices of Archi- 
bald, earl of Eglintoun, took place at Eglintoun 
castle, 29 Aug. 1839, and the following week : 
many of the visitors (among whom was the late 
emperor of the French) assumed the characters of 
ancient knights, lady Seymour, aft. duchess of 
"Somerset, being the " Queen of Beauty." She died 
14 Dec. 1884. Among the festivities at the marriage 
of prince Humbert, at Turin, was a tournament, 
24 April, 1868. Tournaments held at the Agricul- 
tural hall, London, N. (for benefit of soldiers' 
widows, &c), 21 June et seq. 1880 ; 11 June, 1887 ; 
id June, 1888; 20 June, 1889; 18 June, 1890 ; 26 
May, 1891 ; 17 May, 1892. (Amount received by 
the chanties 1880-8 about 21,000^.) jn Oct. 1883, 
these tournaments were organized as "Royal 
Military Tournaments" for development of skill in 
arms in the army. Tournaments on Woolwich 
common, directed by col. Curzon, 21-23 ^ u o- 1889. 

TOURNAY (S. Belgium) was very flourishing 
till it was ravaged by the barbarians in the 5th 
•century. It has sustained many sieges. Taken by 
the allies in 1709, and ceded to the house of Austria 
by the treaty of Utrecht; but the Dutch were 
allowed to place a garrison in it, as one of the 
harrier towns. It was taken by the French under 
general La Bourdonnaye, 8 Nov. 1792. Several 
'battles were fought near Tournay in May, 1793, 
and May, 1794. Population, 1890, 35,403. 

TOURNIQUET (from tourner, to turn), an 
instrument for stopping the flow of blood into a 
limb, by tightening the bandage employed in ampu- 
tations, is said to have been invented by Morel li at 
the siege of Besancon, 1674. J. L. Petit, in France, 
invented the screw tourniquet in 1718. 

TOURS, an ancient city, central France, near 
which Charles Martel gained a great victory over 
the Saracens, and saved Europe, 10 Oct. 732, and 
from which he acquired the name of Martel, signi- 
fying hammer. This conflict is also called' the battle 
■of Poitiers. When Paris was invested by the Ger- 
mans, M. Cremieux and several of the members of 
the French government of defence went to Tours, 
together with the representatives of foreign pftwers, 
18 Sept., 1870. On 9 Oct. these were joined by 
Gambetta, minister of the interior, afterwards of 
war (who escaped from Paris by a balloon, 7 Oct.). 
In consequence of the defeat of the army of the 
Loire near Orleans, the government removed to 
Bordeaux, 11 Dec. 



TOWERS. That of Babel, the first of which we 
read, built in the plains of Shinar {Gen. xi.) 2247 
B.C. ; see Babel. Ihe Tower of the Winds at 
Athens, built 550 B.C. The Tower of Pharos (see 
Pharos), 280 B.C. The round towers in Ireland 
w r ere the only structures of stone found at the 
arrival of the English, 1169, except some buildings 
in the maritime towns founded by the Danes. 
These towers are tall hollow pillars, nearly cylin- 
drical, but narrowing towards the top, pierced with 
lateral holes to admit the light, and covered with 
conical roofs. Fifty-six of them still remain, from 
50 to 130 feet high ; see Pisa. 

TOWER OF LONDON. The tradition that 
Julius Caesar founded a citadel here (about 54 B.C.) 
is veiy doubtful. A royal palace, consisting of no 
more than what is now called the White Tower, 
which appears to have been first marked out by 
William the Conqueror, 1076, was commenced in 
1078, and completed by his son, William Rufus, 
who, in 1098, surrounded it with walls and a broad 
deep ditch. Several succeeding princes made addi- 
tions to it, and king Edward III. built the church. 
In 1638, the old White Tower was rebuilt; and 
under king Charles II., it was thoroughly repaired, 
1680-5, an d a great number of additional build- 
ings made to it. Here are the Armoury, Jewel- 
office, and various other divisions and buildings of 
peculiar interest. Here took place many executions 
of illustrious persons, and many murders (king 
Henry VI., 147 1 ; king Edward V. and his brother, 
1485; sir Thomas Overbury, 1613). The armoury 
and 280,000 stand of arms, &c., were destroyed by 
fire, 30 Oct. 1841. The "New Buildings" in the 
Tower were completed in 1850. See Blood ; for 
Toicer-Sabicays, see Thames. The more recent 
constables of the Tower have been the duke of Wel- 
lington, lord Combermere, and sir John Burgoyne. 
Sir George Pollock, constable Oct. 1871, died 6 
Oct. 1872 ; sir Wm. Gomm, 31 Oct. 1872, died 15 
March, 1875; su ' Charles Yorke, April, 1875, died 
20 Nov. 1880; sir W. Fenwick Williams, April, 
1881 ; gen. sir R. J. Dacres, Aug. 1881. died 6 Dec. 
1886 ; lord Napier of Magdala, Dec. 18S6, died 14 
Jan. 1890; gen. sir Daniel Lysons, 3 March, 1890. 
The menagerie, long here, was removed to the Zoological 

Gardens, 1831 ; the state papers were removed to the 

Record Office, 1857. 
Opened free to the public (Mondays and Saturdays') from 

3 April, 1875. 
Lanthorne Tower rebuilt and other restorations, 1884-5. 
The White Tower and other parts greatly damaged by an 

explosion of dynamite ; about 16 visitors seriously 

hurt, about 2 p.m. 24 Jan. John Gilbert Cunningham 

and Harry Burton apprehended, 24 Jan. ; committed 

for trial, 27 March, 1885. See Trials. 
Tower Bridge act passed, 14 Aug. 1885 ; foundation of 

the bridge laid by the prince of Wales, 21 June, 1886. 

TOWN HOLDINGS in Great Britain and 
Ireland. A commit' ee appointed in 1886-9 (Mr. 
Lewis Fry, sir H. James, sir Wm. Marriott and 
other.--), to enquire into terms of occupation, faci- 
lities for purchase by tenants, rating, improvements, 
&c. The report issued 13 Julj r , 1889, was stated to 
be a compromise. 

Report of the committee, dealing with questions 
relating to local taxation, the liability of ground 
rents, &c, published ... 20 May, 1892 

TOWNLEY MARBLES, in the British 
Museum, were purchased in 1805 and 1814. 

TOWTON (Yorkshire), where a sanguinary 
battle was fought, 29 March, 1461, between the 
houses of York (Edward IV.) and Lancaster (Henry 
VI.), to the latter of whom it was fatal, and on 
whose side more than 37,000 fell. Edward issued 



TOXOPHILITES. 



973 



TRAFALGAR. 



orders to give no quarter, arid the most merciless 
slaughter ensued. Henry and his queen, Margaret, 
fled to Scotland; and Edward IV. was settled on 
the throne. 

TOXOPHILITES (from toxon, a bow, and 
philos, a lover), a society established by sir Aston 
Lever in 1781. The Toxophilites formed a division 
of the Artillery Company about 1784-1803. In 1834 
they took grounds in the inner circle of Regent' s- 
park, and built the archery lodge. They possess a 
very curious piece of plate, given by Catherine, queen 
of Charles II., to be shot for by the Finsbury archers, 
of whom the Toxophilites are the representatives. 

TOYNBEE HALL, see under University 
Teaching. 

TRACT SOCIETIES. The Society for Pro- 
moting Christian Knowledge was founded in 1698 ; 
the Religious Tract Society, London, in 1799; and 
other similar societies since. 

TRACT ARIANISM, a term applied to certain 
opinions on church matters propounded in the 
" Tracts for the Times," of which ninety numbers 
were published, 1833-41. The principal writers 
were the revs. Dr. E. Pusey, J. H. Newman, 
J. Keble, J. Fronde, and I. VVilliams — all of the 
university of Oxford; see Puseyism. The tracts 
(specially No. 90, ascribed to rev. J. H. Newman) 
were condemned by the authorities at Oxford, 15 
March, 1841. 

TRACTION-ENGINES were used on com- 
mon roads in London in i860, but afterwards re- 
stricted. In Aug. 1862 one of Bray's traction- 
engines conveved through the city a mass of iron 
which would have required 29 horses ; see Road- 
steamers, and Railways. 

TRADE OF GREAT BRITAIN, see Ex- 
ports and Imports. In 1861 the value of the two 
amounted to 377,01 7, 522/. ; in 1871 to 614,590,180^.; 
in 1875 to 655,551,900/. ; in 1877, to 646,705,702/. ; 
in 1879, 611,775,239/.; in 1881, 694,105,264/.; in 
1883, 732,328,649/.; 1884, 685,986,152/.; 1885, 
642,442,263/. ; 1886, 618,822,935/. ; 1887, 
643,490,449/. ; 1888, 686,213,284/. ; 1889, 
743,230,274/.; 1890,748,944,115/. Bee Commerce. 
Trade with the United States doubled in value in ten 

years. 1877, 77,805,000^. ; 1878, 89,070,000?. 
Royal commission for enquiry into causes of depression 
of trade, 31 Aug. 1885. Earls of Iddesleigli and 
Dunraven, Mr. G. Sclater Booth, prof. Bonamy 
Price, and twenty others. First meeting 7 Oct. 
1885 ; final report issued Feb. 1887. The majority 
refer to over-production, rise in value of gold, and in 
regard to agriculture, fall of prices, as probable causes ; 
improved condition of the working classes noted, Jan. 
1887. 

TRADE AND PLANTATIONS, Board 
OF. Cromwell seems to have given the first notions 
of a board of trade: in 1655 he appointed his soil 
Richard, with many lords of his council, judges, 
and gentlemen, and about twenty merchants of 
London, York, Newcastle, Yarmouth, Dover, &c, 
to meet and consider by what means the trade and 
navigation of the republic might be best promoted. 
Thomas's Notes of the Rolls. Charles II., on his 
restoration, established a council of trade for keep- 
ing a control over the whole commerce of the 
nation, 1660; he afterwards instituted a board of 
trade and plantations which was remodelled by 
William III. This board was abolished in 1782"; 
and a new council for the affairs of trade on its 
present plan was appointed, 2 Sept. 1 786. 
The parliamentary recommendation in 1880 In appoint a 

" minister of trade and commerce," was dropped by 

Mr. Gladstone in March, 1881. 



Board of trade journal of tariffs &c. published is Sept 

1886. 

TRADE CONGRESSES, see Working men. 

TRADE MARKS REGISTRATION 
ACT, passed 13 Aug. 1875. Th c registration office, 
Quality-court, Chancery-lane (Mr. H. Reader Lack 
registrar), was opened 1 Jan. 1876; a similar act 
passed in the United States, 1881. See Merchandise 
Marks Act. 

TRADES' MUSEUMS. The formation of 
one was undertaken in 1853, jointly by the com- 
missioners of the Great Exhibition of 1851, and the 
Society of Arts. The animal department was opened 
17 May, 1855, when a paper on the mutual rela- 
tions of trade and manufactures was read by pro- 
fessor E. Solly. The contents of this museum were 
removed to the South Kensington Museum, which 
was opened 24 June, 1857. The French " Con- 
servatoire des Arts et Metiers," was established 
1795- 

TRADES' UNIONS. The steam engine 
makers' society, Manchester, established in 1824 
By 6 Geo. IV. e. 129 (1825), the combination laws 
were repealed, and other provisions made. As trades-' 
unions formed for maintaining the rate of wa^es &c. 
are not recognised by law, a commission (including 
lord Elcho, Thomas Hughes, and others, with sir 
Wm. Erie as chairman) was appointed to inquire into 
their constitution, 14 Feb. 1867, and an act to 
facilitate their proceedings was passed 5 April fol- 
lowing. Their reports were issued during the year, 
disclosing the existence of murderous practices 
with great intimidation ; see Sheffield, and Man- 
chester. An act to protect union 'funds from em- 
bezzlement was passed in 1869. A trade union act 
passed 29 June, 1871, amended by act passed 30 
June, 1876. To counteract the influence of trades' 
unions, the National Federation of Employers was 
formed Dec. 1873; see Employers, and Worhina 
men. 

io-j trades unions in England in 1885. 
Trades Union Congress opened at Liverpool, 18 Jan 
1875, 1876 ; at Leicester, 17 Sept. 1877 ; at Bristol' 
9 Sept. 1878 ; at Edinburgh, 15 Sept. 1879 ; Dublin'" 
13 Sept. 1880; London, 12 Sept. 1881 ; Manchester 18 
Sept. 1882 ; Nottingham [134 unions, 552,091 mem- 
bers], 10 Sept. 1883 ; Aberdeen, 8 Sept, 18S4 • South- 
port, 7 Sept. 1885; Hull, 6 Sept. 1886; Swansea 
5 Sept. 1887 ; Bradford, 3 Sept. 1888 ; Dundee, 2 
Sept. 1889; Liverpool, 1 Sept. 1890: Xewcastle-on- 
Tyne, 7 Sept. 1891 ; Glasgow, 5 Sept. 1892. 

TRAFALGAR (Cape S. Spain), off which a 
great naval victory was gained by the British, under 
Nelson, over the combined fleets of France and 
Spain, commanded by admiral Villeneuve and two 
Spanish admirals, 21 Oct. 1805. The enemy's force 
was eighteen French and fifteen Spanish vessels 
all of the line: that of the British, twenty-seven 
ships. After a protracted fight, Villeneuve "and the 
other admirals were taken, and nineteen of their 
ships captured, sunk, or destroyed. Nelson was 
killed, and admiral Collingwood succeeded to the 
command. Nelson's ship was the Victory ; and bis 
last signal was, "England expects every man will 

do his duty;" see Nelson. Trafalgar-square, 

London, begun 1829; completed 1845. A.I passed 
in 1844, declaring that the square is Crown pro- 
perty, the charge of it pi iced in the hands of the 
Commissioners of Woods and Forests and under 
police regulations. In [851, the charge «as trans- 
ferred tn the Commissioners of Works. The riirhl 
of preventing public meetings in the square by the- 
executive affirmed by the Commons (316 224) 2 
March, 1888. Grand Hotel opened by Lord Mayor" 
29 May, 1880. See Riots. J J ' 



TRAFFIC. 



974 



TRANSPORTATION. 



TRAFFIC in the metropolis is now regulated 
bj the Metropolitan Streets act, passed 20 Aug. 
1867. 

TRAGEDY, see Drama. 

TRAINING SCHOOLS, begun by the Na- 
tional Society, 1811. One was founded at Battersea in 
1840, by sir J. Kay Shuttleworth, and Mr. E. C. 
Tufnell ; the latter, who was then in the Poor Law 
Commission, devoting a year's salary towards the 
expenses. Mr. Mann stated, in 1855, that there 
were about forty of these schools in different parts 
of the country. 
Maria Grey training college, established 1878 ; extension 

fund started, 1891. 
Fiusbury training college established about 1883. 

TRAINING SHIPS, see Marine Society 
and Chichester. 

TRAJAN'S COLUMN (hi Kome), erected 
5:14, by the Eoman senate and people, to com- 
memorate his victories, and executed by Apollo- 
•dorus. It was built in the square called the Forum 
Trajanum ; it is of the Tuscan order, and from 
its base, exclusive of the statue and pedestal, is 
127^ feet high. 

TRAM-ROADS. The name is probably de- 
rived from being made of trams or bars of wood ; the 
statement that it was derived from Mr. Benjamin 
Outram (the father of sir James Outram, the Indian 
general), who improved the colliery railroads about 

1800, is very doubtful. The iron tram-road from 
Croydon to Wandsworth was completed on 24 July, 

1801. Street railways or tramways for omnibuses 
drawn by horses, previously established by Mr. Train 
in New York, were opened by him at Birkenhead, 
Cheshire, 30 Aug. i860, and at Bayswater, London, 
23 March, 1861. (See Ireland, 1868.) A street rail- 
way bill was rejected by the house of commons in 
April, 1 861. Several of these railways existed for a 
time in various parts of the metropolis in 1861, but 
were all taken up in 1862. An act to facilitate the 
•construction of tramways passed 9 Aug. 1870. Tram- 
ways from Brixton to Kennington, and from White- 
•chapel to Bow, were opened 9 May, 1870 ; and 
•others since. Their introduction into the city was 
much recommended but opposed, March- May, 
1873. Dividend of the North Metropolitan tram- 
ways company, 8 per cent. Aug. 1876. The use of 
steam locomotives proposed : approved in Paris, 
July, 1876. 

Elevated street railways erected in New York, 1877-8. 

233 miles of tramways constructed in England and Wales, 
1870-80. 

Steam cable tramway on Highgate Hill, N. London (the 
first in Europe), opened 29 May, 1884. 

Steam employed by the North London Tramways Com- 
pany, 1 April, 1885. See under Air. 

S80 miles of tramways in the United Kingdom in 1887. 
904 miles in 1888 ; 949 miles in 1889 ; neb receipts, 
713, 543Z., 1889. 948 miles; 811, 943Z. net receipts in 
1890. 

An international tramway congress opened at Brussels, 
5 Sept. 1888. 

Mr. Lineff's mode of traction on tramways by magneto- 
electricity was tried at Chiswick, 25 June, 1890. His 
patent has been purchased by a syndicate. 

Overhead electric tramway opened at Leeds, 29 Oct. 
1891. 

TRANQUEBAR (East Indies), the Danish 
settlement here, founded in 1618, was purchased by 
the English in 1845. 

TRANSCASPIAN RAILWAY, see under 
Railways, 1888. 

TRANSFIGURATION. The change of 
Christ's appearance on Mount Tabor, in the pre- 



sence of Peter, James, and John, a.d. 32 {Matt. 
xvii.). The feast of the Transfiguration, kept on 
6 Aug., was instituted in the East before 700, and 
seems to have been observed in the West as early as 
450. Pope Calixtus III. in 1456 issued a bull 
making it a " feast of obligation " to be generally 
observed in honour of the defeat of the Turks at 
Belgrade in that year. 

TRANSFORMATION PRINTS. A 

method of printing one picture over another, the 
former being easily effaced, patented by Mr. 
Andrew Beid of Newcastle-on-Tyne, and others, 
1885. 

TRANSFUSION OF BLOOD, see Blood. 

TRANSIT, see Mercury and Venus. 

TRANSLATION TO HEAVEN. The trans- 
lation of Enoch to heaven at the age of 365 years, 
3017 B.C. The prophet Elijah was translated to 
heaven in a chariot of fire, 896 B.C. — The possibility 
of translation to the abode of eternal life has been 
maintained by some extravagant enthusiasts. The 
Irish house of commons expelled Mr. Asgill from 
his seat, for his book asserting the possibility of 
translation to the other world without death, 1703. 

TRANSPADANE REPUBLIC, comprising 

Lombardy and part of the Venetian territories, was 
established by Bonaparte after his victory at Lodi, 
10 May, 1796. With the Cispadane republic, it 
merged into the Cisalpine republic, Oct. 1797. 

TRANSPORTATION, see Banishment. 
Judges were given the power of sentencing offenders 
to transportation " into any of his majesty's domi- 
nions in North America," by 18 Charles II. c. 3 
(1666), and by 4 Geo. I. c. 11 (1718). Transporta- 
tion ceased in 1775, but was revived in 1786. The 
reception of convicts was successfully refused by the 
Cape of Good Hope (in 1849) and by the Australian 
colonies (1864). Transportation, even to West 
Australia, where labour is wanted, ceased after a 
few years, through the fierce opposition of the 
eastern colonies. In consequence of the difficulty 
then experienced in transporting felons, 16 & 17 
Vict. c. 99 was passed to provide other punishment, 
namely, penal servitude, empowering her majesty 
to grant pardon to offenders under certain condi- 
tions, and licences to others to be at large : such 
licences being liable to be revoked if necessary ; 
and many have been. These licences are termed 
"tickets of leave." The S3'stem is said to have 
originated in Australia under the superintendence 
of captain Maconochie. It was much assailed 
in Oct. and Nov. 1862, on account of violent crimes 
being traced to ticket-of-leavers ; and was modified 
by the Penal Servitude Act, 1864; and the Pre- 
vention of Crimes Acts, 1871 and 1879. It is now 
considered successful. See Crime. 

John Eyre, esq. , a man of fortune, was sentenced to 
transportation for stealing a few quires of paper. 
— Phillips 1 Nov. 1 771 

The Rev. Dr. Hall oran, tutor to the earl of Chester- 
field, was transported for forging a frank (iod. 
postage) 9 Sept. 1818 

The first transportation of felons to Botany Bay was 
in May, 1787 ; where governor Phillip arrived 
with about 800 on 20 Jan. 1788 ; convicts were 
afterwards sent to Van Diemen's Land, Norfolk 
Island, &c. 

Returning from transportation was punishable with 
death until 5 Will. IV. c. 67, Aug. 1834, when an 
act was passed making the offence punishable by 
transportation for life. 

A shipment of convicts to West Australia (which 
had already received 10,000) in 1867. 



TRANSITBSTANTTATION. 



975 



TRANSVAAL EEPUBLIC. 



TEANSUBSTANTIATIOiSr, the doctrine of 
the " real presence." That the bread and wine in 
the Eucharist are changed into the very flesh and 
blood of Christ by the consecration, was broached in 
the da3 r s of Gregory III. (731), and accepted by 
Amalarius and Radbertus (about 830), but rejected 
by Rabanus Maurus, Johannes Scotus Erigena, 
Berengarius, "Wieliffe, and others. In the Lateran 
council, held at Rome by Innocent III., the word 
" Transubstantiation " was used to express this 
doctrine, which was decreed to be incontrovertible ; 
and all who opposed it were condemned as heretics. 
This was confirmed by the council of Trent, 18 Jan. 
1562. John Huss, Jerome of Prague, and other 
martyrs of the reformation, suffered for denying 
this dogma, which is renounced by the church of 
England (28th article), and by all protestant dis- 
senters. The declaration against transubstantia- 
tion, invocation of the saints, and the sacrifice of 
the mass, on taking any civil office, was abolished 
by an act passed 25 July, 1867 ; see Sacrament. 
Luther maintained the doctrine of con-substantiation, 
viz., that after consecration the body and blood of 
Christ are substantially present in the bread and wine. 
He was opposed by Bucer, Carlstadt, Zwingle, and 
others (termed saeramentarians), who asserted that the 
Lord's supper is only a commemorative rite. 

TRANSVAAL REPUBLIC, named South 
Africa Republic in 1883, founded bj Dutch Boers 
(farmers) in 1848, after several years' severe con- 
flict with the natives. Its independence was de- 
clared 17 Jan. 1852, S. J. P. Kriiger elected presi- 
dent 7 May, 1853 ; and its constitution proclaimed 
13 Feb. 1858 ; capital Pretoria. President for four 
years, T. F. Burgers, 27 May, 1872. Population 
about 38,000 Boers, 5000 English settlers, 770,000 
blacks (1881). Total population in 1886, 370,848; 
in 1890, 119,128. 

War with the Kaffirs begun ; Cetywayo, king; Seco- 
coeni (Siekakuni), an eminent chief . July, 1876 
Republican government blamed ; its troops defeated ; 

Sir Theophilus Shepstone sent to mediate Sept. ,, 
Dutch boers assisted by the Amazwasies, a warlike 

tribe, who check Kaffirs . . . Sept. ,, 

Severe dispatch of the earl of Carnarvon, censuring 

Burgers for aggression on Kaffirs . . Oct. ,, 
Secoeceni threatening Leydenburg . . Nov. „ 
Sehliekman, the Dutch general, killed in an attack 

17 Nov. ,, 
Sir T. Shepstone well received ; a desire expressed 

for federation, Feb. ; opposition to it March, 1877 
Anarchy in the Transvaal ; annexation of the 
Transvaal(for protection) to the British dominions 
proclaimed by sir T. Shepstone, 12 April ; he is 
sworn in as administrator . . 30 May, ,, 
Conflict with Secocoeni (disapproved) ; some volun- 
teers killed 17 June, 1878 

Sir Win. Owen Lanyon made governor of the 

Transvaal March, 1879 

Great opposition to the British rule ; appeased 

after much discussion ... 12 April, ,, 
SirG.Wolseleyappointedgoveriiorof Natal, &c, May ,, 
War with Seeoeomi continues . Aug. ct scq. ,, 

His stronghold captured by col. Baker Russell 
(under sir Garnet Wolseley), with British and 

native troops 28 Nov. ,, 

Secocoeni surrenders .... 2 Dec. ,, 

The Transvaal declared a crown colony Dec. ,, 

'The Boers meet and claim independence ; Bok, 
Kriiger, and Preforms arrested for signing a 
document issued by the Boer committee 

Dec. 1879, and Jan. 1880 
'The Boers seize Heidelberg, 16 Dec. ; establish the 
South Africa republic, Paul Kriiger president 

17 Dec. ,, 
A party of Boers stop at Bronker's Spruit about 250 
British troops of the 94th regiment, who resist ; 
some killed or wounded ; others disarmed and 

dismissed 20 Dec. „ 

Potchefstrom seized by Boers, who retire when 
the place is shelled; col. Bellairs besieged in it 

27 Dec. ct seq. „ 



Capt. J. M. Elliot said to be treacherously killed 
while fording the Vaal ... 29 Dec. 

The South Africa Republic proclaimed by a trium- 
virate ; Kriiger, Joubert, and Pretorius 30 Dee. 

Troops sent from Britain, (fee., Dee., 1880, and Jan. 

Sir George P. Colley (appointed governor of Natal 
1880) takes command in the war . . Jan. 

Gen. Colley's attack on Laing's Nek, a pass, re- 
pulsed with heavy loss ; col. Bonar Millet Deane, 
majors Ruscombe Poole and Win. Hunt Hin- 
geston killed 2 8 Jan. 

Severe conflict on the Ingogo river ; the British 12 
hours under fire ; repulsed with heavy loss, 

8 Feb. 

Sir Evelyn Wood arrives with reinforcements and 
joins gen. Colley 17 Feb. 

The Orange Free State proclaim neutrality and 
mediation . . . . about 22 Feb. 

Gen. Colley marches in the night to Majuba hill 
(which see) ; defeated and killed after a desperate 
conflict 26-27 Feb. 

Gen. sir F. Roberts sent to Africa . . 28 Feb. 

Armistice proposed by the Boers ; accepted for 6-14 
March ; armistice extended, 14 March ; Boers 
agree to British terms, 21, 22 March ; peace pro- 
claimed ; the Boers disperse ; gen. Roberts recalled 

24 March, 

Potchefstrom surrenders with honours of war, 21 
March ; given up as occupied by mistake April, 

Vote of censure on the Government policy in the 
commons negatived (314-205) . 25, 26 July, 

Commissioners to carry out treaty of peace ap- 
pointed 5 April, agree to convention ceding virtu- 
ally all the territory to "The Transvaal State" 
on 8 August, subject to suzerainty of the Queen, 
and a British resident ; with "debt of about 
420, 867Z. , &c. ; independence of the Swazies 
guaranteed ; signed by Royal commissioners and 
Martin W. Pretorius and Peter J. Joubert, 
(Stephen J. P. Kriiger not present), 3 Aug. ; 
effected s Aug. 

Meeting of the Volksraad, 2 1 Sept. ; treaty confirmed , 

25 Oct. 

Mr. G. Hudson appointed first British resident, 

Nov. 

Departure of the British troops . about 28 Dec. 

Fighting with the natives .... Feb. 

Secocoeni killed by a rival chief . . . Aug. 

War with the insubordinate chief Mapoch . Oct. 

Renewed troubles with the natives . Sept. -Oct. 

Fighting with the natives, who are repulsed, under 
their chief Mapoch . . . 16-17 Nov. 

Again defeated Jan. 

Combination of chiefs against the Boers announced, 

March, 

Negotiations for peace begun by Mapoch announced, 

5 April, 

Paul Kriiger, president . 9 May, 1883, and 8 May, 

Peace concluded July, 

Transvaal deputies, Paul Kriiger and others re- 
ceived by lord Derby . . . . 7 Nov, 

Definite proposals submitted to the government 
22 Dec. ; amended boundary lines accepted 
2 Feb. : convention signed, the republic to be 
styled the "South Africa Republic" undfer 
British suzerainty .... 27 Feb 

The convention adopted by the Transvaal assembly 

S Aug. 

The filibustering settlers of Goshen and Slelhi-lnnd, 
break the convention ; seize and annex Montsioa's 
lands in Bechuanalaml ; sanctioned by a p ro . 
clamation ; withdrawn on remonstrance, 

Sept.', Oct. 

Sir H. Robinson's ultimatum from Cape Town 
requiring protection of the frontiers . about 

14 Oct. 

Short war with the natives, refusing to pay taxes ; 
Mamusa taken; battle . . . , 2 Dec! 

Johannesburg founded through the development 
of gold mining ; inhabitants chiefly Knglish 

Defensive treaty with the Orange Pree 

about 1 ; March, 

A great commercial development of commerce 
since the discovery of goldflelds, rapid growth 
of Johannesburg . . . reported Sept. 

Famine in Johannesburg, relieved by government. 

about 23 Oct! 



1882 



1885 
1887 



TRANSYLVANIA. 



976 



TREASURER. 



Visit of president Kriiger to Johannesburg, resisted 

by a violent crowd .... 4 March, 1890 
He signs the agreement for Swaziland, about 4 Aug. „ 
Gen. Joubert entertained in London . Dec. ,, 

Heavy rains and destructive floods ; Johannesburg 

suffers greatly, .... middle Jan. 1891 
About 100 Boers prevented by the police from 
crossing the Limpopo . . about 2 July, „ 

TRANSYLVANIA, an Austrian province, 
was part of the ancient Dacia (which see). In 
1526, John Zapoly rendered himself independent of 
the emperor Ferdinand I. by the aid of the .Turks. 
His successors ruled with much difficulty till Jan. 
1699, when the emperor Leopold I., by the treaty 
of Carlowitz, finally incorporated Transylvania 
into the Austrian dominions. The Transylvanian 
deputies did not take their seat in the Austrian 
parliament till 20 Oct. 1863. A decree for the 
convocation of the Transylvanian diet was issued 
12 Sept. 1865. The inhabitants are about 1,100,000 
ignorant Koumans, 1,500,000 Saxon colonists, and 
550,000 Magyars, the last being the ruling class. 
The union of Transylvania with Hungary in 1848, 
which has caused much discontent, was ratified by 
the Transylvanian diet, 25 Dec. 1866. 
Serious agrarian riots at Foeldvar suppressed with 

bloodshed, 27 June, 1888. 

PRINCES OF TRANSYLVANIA. 

1526. John Zapoly. 

1540. John Sigismund. 

1571. Stephen Zapoly I. Bathori. 

1576. Christopher Bathori. 

1581. Sigismund Bathori. 

1602. Emperor Rodolph. 

' 1605. Stephen II. Bottskai. 

1607. Sigismund Ragotzski. 

1608. Gabriel I. Bathori. 

1613. Gabriel II. (Bethlem Gabor). 
1631. George I. Ragotzski. 
1648. George II. Ragotzski. 
1660. John Kemin. 
1662. Michael I. Abaffi. 
1690-99. Michael II. Abaffi. 

TRAPPISTS- The first abbey of La Trappe 
in Normandy was founded, in 1140, by Ilotrou, 
comte de Perche. The present order of Trappists 
owes its origin to the learned Jean le Bouthillier 
de la Ranee (editor of Anacreon when aged 14), 
who renounced the world, and sold all his property, 
giving the proceeds to the abbey of La Trappe, to 
which he retired in 1662, to live there in great 
austerity. After several efforts he succeeded in 
reforming the monks, and in establishing a new 
rule, which commands silence, prayer, reading, and 
manual labour, and which forbids study, wine, fish, 
&c. Ranee was born in 1620, and died in 1700. 
The Trappists' new building was consecrated in 
Aug. 1833. 

A number of these monks, driven from France in the 
revolution of 1790, were received by Mr. Weld, of Lul- 
worth, Dorsetshire, who gave them some land to culti- 
vate and a habitation, where they remained till 1815. 
This order was charged with rebellion and conspiracy 
in France, and sixty-four English and Irish Trappists 
were shipped by the French government at Paimbceuf, 
19 Nov., and were landed from the Hebe, French 
frigate, at Cork, 30 Nov. 1831. They established them- 
selves at Mount Melleray, county of Waterford. 

TRASIMENE, see Thrasymene. 

TRAUTENAU (Bohemia). On 27 June, 1866, 
the first corps of the army of the crown-prince of 
Prussia seized Trautenau, but was defeated and 
repulsed by the Austrians under Gablenz ; on the 
28th, the 'Prussians defeated the Austrians with 
great loss. 

TRAVELLERS' CLUB (Pall-mall), estab- 
lished in 1815. A member must have "travelled 



out of the British islands to a distance of at least 
500 miles from Loudon, in a direct line." 

TRAVELLING in England. In 1707 it 
took in summer one day, in winter nearly two days, 
to travel from London to Oxford (55 miles) . In 
181 7 the journey was accomplished in six or seven 
hours. By the Great Western Railway express (63 
miles) it is done in 1 j hour. In 1828, a gentleman 
travelled from Newcastle to London (273 miles) 
inside the best coach in 35 hours, at an expense of 
61. 15s. 3d. or 6d. per mile (including dinner, &c.). 
In 1857, the charge of the Great Northern railway 
(275! miles) first-class express (6 hours) was 
50s. gd. 

TRAWLING. Deep-sea fishing with a boat 
(sometimes driven by steam) having a very large 
net attached to it, and thereby catching the fish 
which mostly live at the bottom of the sea ; princi- 
pally practised on the N.E. coast of Britain. 
Commissions reported in 1864 and since, that trawling 
was not injurious to the supply of fish as suggested ; 
but another commission, with scientific advice, re- 
ported in Feb. 1885, that there was some ground for 
the fishermen's complaints. 

TREAD-MILL, an invention of the Chinese, 
to raise w r ater for the irrigation of the fields. The 
complicated tread-mill introduced into the prisons 
of Great Britain is the invention of Mr. (afterwards 
sir William) Cubitt, of Ipswich. It w r as erected at 
Brixton gaol, 181 7, and soon afterwards in other 
large prisons. 

TREASON, see High Treason. Petty 
TREASON (a term abolished in 1828, defined by 
the statute c.f 25 Edw. III. 1352) was a wife's mur- 
der of her husband ; a servant s murder of his mas- 
ter; and an ecclesiastical person's murder of his 
prelate or other superior. 

TREASON-FELONY. By the Crown and 
Government Security Act, n Vict. c. 12 (1848), 
certain treasons heretofore punishable with death 
w r ere mitigated to felonies, and subjected to trans- 
portation or imprisonment. The Fenians in Ire- 
land were tried under this act ; see Trials* 
1865. 

TREASURER of England, Lord High, 

the third great officer of the crown, a lord by virtue 
of his office, having the custody of the king's trea- 
sure, governing the upper court of exchequer, and 
formerly sitting judicially among the barons. The 
first lord high treasurer in England was Odo, earl 
of Kent, in the reign of William I. This great 
trust is now confided to a commission, and is vested 
in five persons, called "lords commissioners for 
executing the office of lord high treasurer," and of 
these the chancellor of the exchequer is usually 
one ; the first lord being usually the premier ; see 
Administrations, for a succession of these officers. 
Sir Stafford Northcote (aft. Earl of Iddesleigh) was 
first lord of the treasury and not premier, 24 June, 
1885, as was Mr. W. H*. Smith, 26 July, 1886 ; see 
Salisbury Administrations. A third lord of the 
treasury (Mr. Stansfeld) was appointed, Dec. 1868, 
succeeded by Mr. W. H. Gladstone, Dec. 1869. 

The first of this rank in Ireland was John de St. John, 
Henry III. 1217; the last, William, duke of Devon- 
shire, 1766; vice-treasurers were appointed till 1789; 
then commissioners till 1816, when the revenues of 
Great Britain and Ireland were united. 

The first lord high treasurer of Scotland was sir Walter 
Ogilvie, appointed by James I. in 1420 ; the last, in 
1641, John, earl of Traquair, afterwards commissioners 
were appointed. 



TEEASUEER. 



977 



TREATIES. 



TEEASUEEE OF THE Chamber, for- 
merly an officer of great consideration, and always 
a member of the privy council. He discharged the 
ibills of all the king's tradesmen, and had his office 
in Cleveland-row, in the vicinity of the royal 
palace. His duties were transferred and the office 
suppressed at the same time with the offices of 
master of the great wardrobe and cofferer of the 
household in 1782. Beatson. 

TEEATIES. A formal and written treaty 



made in England with any foreign nation was 
entered into at Kingston * between Henry III. 
and the dauphin of France (then in England and 
leagued with the barons), 11 Sept. 12 17. The first 
commercial treaty was with Guy, earl of Flanders, 
2 Edw. 1274 : the second with Portugal and Spain, 
1308. Anderson. The chief treaties of the nation? 
of Europe will be found described in their respec- 
tive places : the following forms an index ; see 
Coalitions, Commerce, Leagues, &c. Hertslet's 
" Commercial Treaties," 16 vol. 1820-85. 



Abo, peace . . 7 Aug. 1743 
Adriauople, peace . 14 Sept. 1829 
Aix-la-Chapelle . 2 May, 1668 
Aix-la-Chapelle, peace . . 1748 
Akermann, peace . 4 Sept. 1826 
Allahabad (Baliar, &c, ceded to 

E. I. Company) . . . 1765 
Alt Radstadt, peace 24 Sept. 1706 
America, peace . . 3 Sept. 1783 
Amieus, peace . 25 liar. 1802 

Ancon (Chili and Peru) 20 Oct. 1883 
Anglo-French, etc. agreements, 

which see 1890 

Anglo-Spanish convention, 

29 July, 1886 
Anglo-Turkish convention, 

4 June, 1878 
Antwerp, truce . . 4 April, 1609 
Armed Neutrality, convention, 

16 Dee. 1800 
Arras . . . 22 Sept. 1435 
Arras ...... 1482 

Augsburg, league of . . 1686 
Austria with England, conven- 
tion ; the latter agrees to 
accept 2,500,000?. as a compo- 
sition for claims on Austria, 
amounting to 30,000,000?. ster- 
ling 1824 

Baden, peace . . Sept. 1714 

Bagnalo (Venice, Naples, &c.) . 1484 
Balta Liinan . . 1838 and 1849 
Barcelona (France and Spain) . 1493 
Barrier treaty . . 15 Nov. 1715 
Barwalde (France and Sweden) . 1631 
Basel, peace (France and Spain) 

22 July, 1795 
Bassein (Great Britain and Mah- 

rattas) 1802 

Bayonne ... 5 May, 1808 
Belgrade, peace . 18 Sept. 1739 
Berlin, peace . . 28 June, 1742 
Berlin, decree . 29 Nov. 1806 

Berlin convention . 5 Nov. 1808 
Berlin, peace (Prussia & Saxony) 

21 Oct. 1866 
Berlin treaty (Russia, Turkey, 

&c) . . . 13 July, 1878 
Beyara ... 31 Aug. 1839 
Breda, peace . . 25 July, 1667 
Bretigny, peace . 8 May, 1360 

Bucharest, 2S May, 1812 ;(Serv'ia 

and Bulgaria) . . 3 March, 1886 
Cambray, league . 10 Dee. 1508 
'Cambray, peace . . 5 Aug. 1529 
Cainpo Formio . 17 Oct. 1797 

Canton . . . .29 Aug. 1842 
Capua, convention . 20 May, 1815 
Carlowitz, peace . 26 Jan. 1699 
Carlsbad, congress of 1 Aug. 1819 
Ch&teau-Cambresis, peace. . 1559 
Chaum'ont . . . 1 Mar. 1814 
Chefoo, convention 17 Sept. 1876 
Chunar, [ndia . . . . 1781 
Cintra, convention . 22 Aug. 1808 
ClosttTscveii, convi'iitiiniS Sept. 1757 
Coalition, first, against France 

26 June, 1792 
Coalition, 'Second . 22 June, 1799 
Coalition, third . s Sept. 1805 

Coalition, fourth . 6 Oct. 1806 
Coalition, fifth . 9 April, 1809 
Coalition, sixth . . 1 March, 1813 



Commerce (Great Britain and 

Turkey) . . 16 Nov. 1839 
Commerce (Great Britain and 

the Two Sicilies) 25 June, 1845 
Concordat, with France, 15 July, 1801 

Oonflans 1465 

Constantinople, peace, 16 April, 1712 
Constantinople . 8 July, 1833 

Constantinople . . 8 May, 1854 
Constantinople (Russia and Tur- 
key, definitive) . . 8 Feb. 1879 
Constantinople (settling boun- 
daries of Greece) 

24 May and 2 July, 1881 
Copenhagen, peace 27 May, 1660 

Copenhagen (composition for 
Sound dues) . 14 March, 1857 

Crecy 1544 

Dover ..... 1670 
Dresden, peace . 25 Dec. 1745 
Egypt, viceroy and admiral Cod- 

rington, convention 6 Aug. 1828 
Eliot convention . April, 1835 
England, convention with Aus- 
tria, Russia, Prussia, and Tur- 
key, for settlement of the East 

15 July, 1810 
England and United States, 

convention . . 13 Nov. 1826 
Evora Monte . . 26 May, 1834 
Family Compact . . 15 Aug. 1761 
Fommanah (Ashantee war) 

13 Feb. 1874 
Fontainebleau, peace 2 Sept. 1679 
Fontainebleau . . 8 Nov. 1785 
Fontainebleau, concordat 25 Jan. 1813 
France and England, convention 
respecting the slave trade 

29 May, 1845 
France and Italy, convention 
respecting the occupation of 
Rome . . -15 Sept. 1864 
Frankfort (peace between Ger- 
many and France) 10 May, 1871 
French commercial treaty, 

23 Jan. i860 
Friedwald . . .5 Oct. 1551 
Fuessen, peace . . 23 April, 1745 
Gandamak (with Afghanistan), 

26 May, 1879 
Gastein convention 14 Aug. 1865 

Ghent, pacification . 8 Nov. 1576 
Ghent, peace (America) 24 Dec. 18 14 
Golden Bull .... 1356 
Grand alliance . 12 May, 1689 
Hague . . .21 May, 1659 
Hague ... 7 May, 1669 

Halle 1610 

Hamburg, peace . . 2 May, 1762 
Hanover . . . 3 Sept. 17-5 
Hanover and England 22 July, 1834 
Holy affiance . . 26 Sept. 1S15 
Hubertsburg, peace 15 Feb. 1763 
Hue (France and Aiinatii) 

25 Aug. 1883 
" interim " . . -15 -May, 1548 
[talo-Abyssinian . . < >ct. 1 1 
Japan and Great Britain 26 Aug. 4858 
Jaj 's 1 reaty . . tg Nov. 1 794 
Kaynardji, or Koutschouc Kaj - 

nardji . . .21 July, 1774 
Kiel ... 14 Jan. 1814 
Laybach, congress . 6 May, 1S21 



League, holy 

Leipsic, alliance . . April, 

Leoben, peace . . . . 

Lisbon, peace . ■ ' 13 Feb. 

London (settlement of Greece) 
6 July, 

London (separating Belgium 
from Holland) . 15 Nov. 

London (convention respecting 
Belgium) . . 19 April, 

London (Turkey and Egypt) 

15 July, 

London (succession to crown of 
Denmark) .... 

London (neutrality of Luxem- 
burg settled) . 11 May, 

Liibeck, peace . . 22 May, 

Luneville, peace . . 9 Feb. 

Madrid, concord 

Methuen treaty . . . . 

Milan decree . . 17 Dec. 

Milan (Austria and Sardinia) 

6 Aug. 

Minister, peace . 24 Oct. 

Nankin, peace . 29 Aug. 

Nantes, edict . . 13 April, 

Naumberg 

Nice 



Nimeguen, peace 
Noyon 
Nuremberg 
Nystadt . 
Oliva, peace . 
Paris, peace (Paris) 
Paris . • . 

Paris . 



10 Aug. 
16 Aug. 

2 Aug. 

30 Aug. 

3 May, 
10 Feb. 

20 June, 
15 May. 



Paris, peace (Sweden) 6 Jan. 
Paris ... 11 April, 
Paris . . . .10 June, 
Paris .... April, 
Paris (settlement of Neufehatel 
affair) . . . 26 May, 
Partition, first . n Oct. 

Partition, second 
Passarowitz, peace . 13 .Alar. 
Passau . . .12 Aug. 
Pekin, peace, 24 Aug. i860 ; 

. 5 April, 

Persia, peace . . 3 Match, 
Petersburg, St., peace 5 May, 
Petersburg, St. . 5 Aug. 
Petersburg, St. . . 8 Apru, 

IYlrisw.il. 1. i vention S .July, 

Pilnitz, convention . 20 July, 
Poland, partition . 25 Nov. 

Prag t ic s.i mi ion . 

Pragmatic sanction 17 April, 

Prague, peace . . 30 May. 
Prague (peace between Austria 
and Prussia) . 23 Aug. 
Presburg, peace . . 26 lie.-. 
Pretoria (see Fran -runt) -. Aug. 

Public g 1, league for the 

Pyrenees, peace . . 7 Nov. 
Quadruple alliance . \n 

Radstadt, peace . 6 March, 
Radstadt, congress . 9 I >ec. 

Ratisbon, peace . 1 ; 1 let. 

Ratisbon . . 1 Aug. 

Reicheubach, t treaties . June, 
Religion, peace of 
Rhine, confederation . 1 Aug. 
I Ryswick, peace . 

3 R 



1576 

1631 

1797 
1668 

1829 

1831 
1839 

1840 

1852 
867 

629 

801 
526 
703 
807 



554 
518 
678 
5i6 
532 
721 
660 
763 
784 
796 
810 
814 
817 
856 

8.57 
698 
700 
718 
552 



857 
762 
772 
80s 

8.3 
791 

795 
438 
713 
635 

866 
805 
S81 
i' 1 
659 
718 
7*4 
797 
630 
806 
813 
555 
806 
697 





TEEBIA. 


978 






TRIALS. 




St. Cloud, convention 3 July, 


1815 


Toplitz 


9 Sept. 


1813 


Vienna (Austria & Great Britain, 




St. Germains, peace 




1570 


Triple alliance 


. 28 Jan. 


1668 


commercial) . .16 Dec. 


1865 


St. Germain-en-Laye 


peace 




Triple alliance . 


4 Jan. 


1717 


Vienna (peace between Austria 






20 June, 


1679 


Triple alliance. (Austria, Ger- 




and Italy) . . 3 Oct. 


1866 


St. Ildefonzo, alliance 19 Aug. 


1796 


many, and Italy), 


13 March, 




Villa Franca (prelim.) 12 July, 


18591 


San Stefano (peace between Rus- 




1887 


28 June, 


1891 


Vossem, peace . .16 Jan. 


1673. 


sia & Turkey), see 


Berlin 




Troppeau, congress 


. 20 Oct. 


1820 


Warsaw, alliance . 31 March, 


1683 




3 March, 


1878 


Troyes 


21 May, 


1420 


Warsaw . . . .24 Feb. 


1768; 


Siorod, peace 




1613 


Turin (cession of Savoy and 




Washington, reciprocity treaty 




Sistowa, peace . 


. 4 Aug. 


1791 


Nice) . 


24 March, 


i860 


between Great Britain and the 




Smalcald, league . 


31 Dec. 


1529 


Turkmauchay, peace 


22 Feb. 


1828 


United States, respecting New- 




Spain, pacification 


. 22 April, 


1834 


Ulm, peace 


3 July, 


1620 


foundland fishery, commerce, 




Spain, convention, 


satisfying 




Unkiarskelessi 


. 8 July, 


1833 


&c. ... 2 July, 


1854 


British claims . 


. 26 June, 


1828 


Utrecht, union 


22 Jau. 


J 579 


Washington (settling Alabama 




Stettin, peace 


13 Dec. 


1570 


Utrecht, peace 


11 April, 


1713 


claims, &c.) . 8 May, 


1871 


Stockholm, peace 


. 20 Nov. 


1 719 


Valencay . 


8 Dec. 


1813 


Washington (Fishery dispute), 




Stockholm 


24 March, 


1724 


Verona, congress. 


. 25 Aug. 


1822 


15 Feb. 


1888 


Stockholm . 


. 3 March, 


1813 


Versailles, peace 


20 Jan. 


1783 


Westminster, peace . 19 Feb. 


1674 


Stockholm, treaty 


of (Sweden 




Vienna 


30 April, 


i7 2 5 


Westminster (with Holland) 


1716 


and allies) 


. 21 Nov. 


1856 


Vienna, alliance 


16 March, 


I73i 


Westphalia, peace . 24 Oct. 


1648. 


Suncion . 


15 July, 


1852 


Vienna peace 


. 18 Nov. 


1738 


Wilna, treaty of . . . 


15611 


Temeswar, truce 


7 Sept. 


1664 


Vienna, peace . 


14 Oct. 


1809 


Wurms, edict of 


1521 


Teschen, peace 


12 May, 


1779 


Vienna, convention 


28 Sept. 


1814 


Wurtzburg league . . . . 


1610 


Teusin, peace 


. 18 May, 


*S95 


Vienna, 25 March ; 3 


May; 




Zurich, convention- . 20 May, 


1815 


Tien-Tsin, China, peace 26 June, 






9 June, 


1815 


Zurich (Austria, France, and 




1858; . . 


11 May, 


1884 


Vienna (Austria and 


Prussia), 




Sardinia) . . 10 Nov. 


1859, 


Tilsit, peace 


. 7 July, 


1807 


commercial 


. 19 Feb. 


1853 






Tolentino 


. 19 Feb. 


1793 


Vienna 


30 Oct. 


1864 







TREBIA, now Trebbia, a river in North Italy, 
near which Hannibal defeated the Roman consul 
Sempronius, 218 B.C. ; and Suvarrow, after a 
struggle, defeated the French marshal Macdonald 
and compelled him to retreat, 17-19 June, 1799. 

TREBIZOND, a port of Asia Minor in the 
Black Sea, was colonised by the Greeks, and became 
subject to the kings of Pontus. It enjoyed self- 
government under the Soman empire, and when 
the Latins took Constantinople in 1204, it became 
the seat of an empire which endured till 1461, 
when it was conquered by the Turks under Ma- 
homet I. Population in 1885, 45,000. 



1204. 


Alexis I. Comnenus. 


1332. 


Manuel IT. 


1222. 


Andronicus I. 




Basil. 


1235- 


John I. 


1340. 


Irene. 


I238. 


Manuel I., great cap- 


1341. 


Anna. 




tain. 


I 343- 


John III. 


I263. 


Andronicus II. 


1344- 


Michael. 


I266. 


George. 


1349- 


Alexis III. 


1280. 


John II. 


1390. 


Manuel III. 


I285. 


Theodora. 


1417. 


Alexis IV. 


,, 


John II. 


1446. 


John IV. (Calo-Jo 


I297. 


Alexis II. 




annes). 


133°- 


Andronicus III. 


1458- 


61. David. 



TRECENTO, see Italian. 

TREES in London. Many were planted by 
John Evelyn in the Mall, St. James's, &c. He re- 
commended this in his " Fumifugium," published 
1661. The planting of rows of trees in suburban 
roads began in 1875. 

Trees of Liberty were planted in Paris and other parts 
of France during the revolutionary eras, 1790 and 
1848. These trees were cut down in Paris in' Jan. 
1850, when riots ensued, put down by the military. 

The celebrated tree Fcvricr, planted "in 1789 near the 
National Library, Paris, was felled early in 1884. 

TRENT (the ancient Tridentum), in the Tyrol, 
belongs to Austria. The council held here is 
reckoned in the Eoman catholic church as the 18th 
general council. Its decisions have been implicitly 
received as the standard of faith, morals, and disci- 
pline in that church. It first sat 13 Dec. 1545, 
and continued (with interruptions) under pope 
Paul III., Julius III., and Pius IV. to 4 Dec. 1563 ; 
its last sitting (the 25th). A jubilee in relation to 
this council was celebrated in June, 1863. Trent was 
several times taken during the French war. Popu- 
lation, 1890, 21,653. 



At this council was decreed, with anathemas : th& 
canon of scripture (including the apocrypha), and the; 
church its sole interpreter ; the traditions to be equal 
with scripture ; the seven sacraments (baptism, con- 
firmation, the Lord's supper, penance, extreme unction, 
orders, and matrimony) ; transubstantiation ; purgatory - 
indulgences ; celibacy of the clergy ; auricular confes- 
sion, &c. 

TRENT STEAMER, see United States, Not.- 
Dec. 1861. 

TREVECCA, see Cheshunt. 

TREVES, or TRIER, the Eoman Treviri, ir* 
Rhenish Prussia, Avas a prosperous city of the Gauls 
12 B.C. The emperor Gallienus held his court here 
A.D. 255. The church of St. Simeon dates from the 
4th century. Treves was made an electorate in the 
14th century, and became subject to the archbishop 
1111585. Councils held here, 385-1423. The arch- 
bishopric is said to have been founded before the 
7th century and to be the oldest in Germany, 
After various changes, Treves was acquired by 
Prussia, June 18 15. In 1844 much excitement was 
occasioned by miracles said to have been wrought 
by a " Holy Coat " in the cathedral. The coat was- 
exhibited to thousands, Aug., Sept. 1891. Popula- 
tion, 1890, 36,162. 

" TRIA JUNCTA IN UNO" (three joined 
in one), the motto of the knights of the military 
order of the Bath, signifying "faith, hope, and 
charity ;" see Bath. 

TRIAL AT BAR, signifies by the whole court 
or a plurality of judges. This plan was adopted at 
Bristol after the riots in 1832 ; also at O'Connell's 
trial, 1844 i anu arranged for the trial of the 
claimant of the Tichborne estates for perjury, m 
April, 1873. See Juries. 

TRIALS. Regulations for conducting trials 
were made by Lothaire and Edric, kings of Kent, 
about 673 to 680. Alfred the Great is said to have 
begun trial by jury ; but there is good evidence of 
such trials before his time. Arrangements were 
made for more speedy trials by " the "Winter As- 
sizes Act,'' 1876. See Appeal. 

REMARKABLE TRIALS. 

King Charles I. : 20 Jan. ; condemned . 27 Jan. 1649 
Oates's Popish Plot: Edward Coleman, convicted, 

27 Nov. ; Wm. Ireland and other priests 17 Dec. 1678 
Bobt. Green and others, 10 Feb. ; Thos. Whit- 
bread and other Jesuits, 13 June ; Richard 
Langhome, counsellor, 14 June ; convicted . . 1679 



TEIALS. 

Sir George Wakeman, the queen's physician ; ac- 

fr> quitted *"*. . . , . . 13 July, 1679 

Viscount Stafford : convicted . 30 Nov. -7 Dec. 1681 

Bye House Plot : convicted ; William lord Russell, 
13 July; Algernon Sidney ... 21 Nov. 1683 

The Seven Bishops ; acquitted . . 29 June, 1688 

Captain Porteous, for murder, seePorteo«s,22 June, 1736 

Jenny Diver, for felony, executed . 18 March, 1740 

William Duell, executed for murder at Tyburn, but 
who came to life when about undergoing dissec- 
tion at Surgeons' Hall ... 24 Nov. ,, 

Lords Kilmarnock and Balmerino for high treason 

28 July, 1746 

Mary Hamilton, for marrying with her own sex, 14 
wives 7 Oct. ,, 

Lord Lovatt, 80 years of age, for high treason ; 
beheaded 9 March, 1747 

Freney, the celebrated Irish robber, who surren- 
dered himself 9 July, 1749 

Amy Hutchinson, burnt at Ely, for the murder of 
her husband 5 Nov. 1750 

Miss Blandy, the murder of her father (hanged) 

3 March, 1752 

Ann Williams, for the murder of her husband, 
burnt alive 11 April, 1753 

Eugene Aram, for murder at York ; executed 

13 Aug. 1759 

Earl Ferrers, for the murder of his steward ; exe- 
cuted 16 April, 1760 

Mr. MacNaughten, at Strabane, for the murder of 
Miss Knox 8 Dec. 1761 

Ann Bedingfield, for the murder of her husband; 
burnt alive 6 April, 1763 

Mr. Wilkes, alderman of London, for an obscene 
poem (" Essay on Woman ") . . 21 Feb. 1764 

Murderers of captain Glas, his wife, daughter, 
mate, and passengers, on board the ship Earl of 
Sandwich, at sea .... 3 March, 1766 

Elizabeth Brownrigg, for the murder of one of her 
female apprentices ; hanged . . 12 Sept. 1767 

Lord Baltimore, the libertine, and his female accom- 
plices, for rape .... 28 March, 1768 

Great cause between the families of Hamilton and 
Douglas 27 Feb. 1769 

Great Valencia cause in the house of peers, in Ireland 

18 March, 1772 

Cause of Somerset the slave (see Slavery) 22 June ,, 

Elizabeth Herring, for the murder of her husband ; 
hanged, and afterwards burnt at Tyburn 13 Sept. 1773 

Messrs. Perreau brothers, bankers, forgery ; hanged 

17 Jan. 1776 

Duchess of Kingston, for marrying two husbands ; 
guilty (see Kingston) . . . .15 April, ,, 

Dr. Dodd, for forging a bond of 4200?. in the name 
of the earl of Chesterfield, 22 Feb. (see Forgery ;) 
executed 27 June, 1777 

Admiral Keppel, by court-martial ; honourably ac- 
quitted 11 Feb. 1779 

Mr. Hackman, for the murder of Miss Reay, when 
coming out of the theatre-royal, Covent-garden 

16 April, ,, 

Lord George Gordon, on a charge of high treason ; 
acquitted 5 Feb. 1781 

Mr. Woodfall, the celebrated printer, for a libel on 
lord Loughborough, afterwards lord chancellor 

10 Nov. 1786 

Lord George Gordon, for a libel on the queen of 
France ; guilty 28 Jan. 1788 

Mr. Warren Hastings : a trial which lasted seven 
years and three months (see Hastings, Trial of), 
commenced 13 Feb. ,, 

The printer of the Times newspaper, for libels on 
the prince of Wales, and dukes of York and Cla- 
rence ; fined 200?. and imprisoned one year, 3 Feb. 1790 

Renwiek Williams, called the Monster, for stabbing 
women in London 8 July, ,, 

Barrington, the pickpocket, most extraordinary 
adept ; transported . . . .22 Sept. ,, 

Thomas Paine, political writer and deist, fur libels 
in the Bights of Man; guilty . . . 18 Dec. 1792 

Louis XVI. of France (see France) . . . 1792-3 

Archibald Bamilton Rowan, for libel; imprisoned 
and fined 29 Jan. 1794 

Mr. Purefoy, for the murder of colonel Roper in a 
duel : acquitted 14 Aug. „ 

Mr. Robert Watt and Downie, at Edinburgh, for 
treason 3 Sept. 



979 



TEIALS. 



Messrs. Hardy, Home Tooke, Thelwall, and Joyce, 
for high treason ; acquitted . . 29 Oct. 1794 

Earl of Abingdon, for his libel on Mr. Serman ; 
guilty 6 Dec. ,, 

Major Semple, alias Lisle, for felony . 18 Feb. 179; 

Redhead Yorke, at York, libel . . .27 Nov. ,, ' 

Lord Westmeath v. Bradshaw, for crim. con. ; dam- 
ages, 10,000? 4 March, 1796 

Lord Valentia v. Mr. Gawler, for adultery, damages, ,. 
2000? 16 June, ,, 

Daniel Isaac Eaton, for libels on kingly government ; 
guilty 8 July, „ 

Sir Godfrey Webster v. lord Holland, for adultery ; 
damages, 6000I 27 Feb. 1797 

Parker, the mutineer at the Nore, called admiral 
Parker (see Mutinies) . . . 27 June, ,, 

Boddington v. Boddington, for crim. con. ; damages, 
10,000?. ....... 5 Sept. ,, 

William Orr at Carrickfergus, for high treason ; 
executed 12 Oct. ,, 

Mrs. Phepoe, alias Benson, murderess . 9 Dec. ,, 

The murderers of col. St. George and Mr. Uniacke, 
at Cork 15 April, 1798 

Arthur O'Conner and O'Coigley, at Maidstone, for 
treason; latter hanged .... 21 May, ,, 

Sir Edward Crosbie and others for high treason ; 
hanged 1 June, ,, 

Beauchamp Bagenal Harvey, at Wexford, for high 
treason 21 June, ,, 

Two Messrs. Sheares, at Dublin, for high treason ; 
executed 12 July, „ 

Theobald Woulffe Tone, by court-martial (he com- 
mitted suicide, died on the 19th) . 10 Nov. ,, 

Sir Harry Brown Hayes, for carrying off Miss Pike 
of Cork 13 April, 1800 

Hatfield, for shooting at George HI. ; see Hatfield 

26 June, ,, 

Mr. Tighe of Westmeath v. Jones, for crim. con. ; 
damages, 10,000? 2 Dec. ,, 

Mutineers at Bantry Bay, hanged ; see Bantry Bay 

8 Jan. 1802 

Governor Wall, for cruelty and murder, twenty years 
before (tried under 33 Hen. VIII. c. 23) (see Goree) 

20 Jan. , , 

Crawley, for the murder of two females in Peter's- 
row, Dublin 6 March, ,, 

Colonel Despard and his associates, for high treason ; 
hanged on the top of Horsemonger-lane gaol (see 
Despard) .7 Feb. 1803 

M. Peltier, for libel on Bonaparte, first consul of 
France, in VAmbigue : guilty . . 21 Feb. ,, 

Robert Aslett, cashier at the bank of England, for 
embezzlement and frauds ; the loss to the bank, 
320,000?. ; found not guilty, on account of the in- 
validity of the bills .... 18 July, ,, 

Robert Emmett, at Dublin, for high treason ; exe- 
cuted next day 19 Sept. ,, 

Keenan, one of the murderers of lord Kilwarden ; 
hanged 2 Oct. ,, 

Mr. Smith for the murder of the supposed Hammer- 
smith Ghost 13 Jan. 1S04 

Lockhart and Laudon Gordon for carrying off Mrs. 
Lee 6 March. 

Rev. C. Massy v. marquis of Headfort, for crim. 
con. ; damages, 10,000?. ... 27 July, „ 

William Cooper, the Hackney Monster, for offences 
against females 17 April, 1805 

General Pieton, for applying the torture to Louisa 
Calderon, to extort confession, at Trinidad, tried 
(under 42 Geo. III. e. 85) in the court of King's 
Bench ; guilty [new trial, same verdict, 11 June, 
1808] 24 Feb. 1806 

Mr. Patch, for the murder of his partner, Mr. 
Bligh 6 April, „ 

Lord .Melville, impeached by the house of com- 
mons ; acquitted .... 12 June, ,, 

Hamilton Rowan, in Dublin: pleaded the King's 
pardon 1 July, ,, 

The Warrington gang, for unnatural offences : 
executed S3 Aug. 

Palm, the bookseller, by a French military com- 
mission at Brennau .... 26 Aug. ,, 

Judge Johnson, lev a libel on the earl of Bard 
wicke ; guilty 23 Nov. ,, 

Lord Cloncurryy. Sir John B. Piers, for 1 
damages, 20.000? ig Feb. 1807 

Holloway and Haggerty, the murderers of Mr. 

3 R 2 



TEIALS. 



980 



TEIALS. 



Steele ; thirty persons were crushed to death at 
their execution, at the Old Bailey . 20 Feb. 1807 

Sir Home Popham, by court-martial ; repri- 
manded- 7 March, „ 

Knight v. Dr. Wolcot, alias Peter Pindar, for crim. 
con 27 June, ,, 

Lieut. Berry, of H.M.S. Hazard; for an unnatural 
offence ....... 2 Oct. „ 

Lord Elgin v. Ferguson, for crim. con. ; damages, 
io,oooi. ...... 22 Dec. ,. 

Simmons, the murderer of the Boreham family, at 
Hoddesdon 4 March, 1808 

Sir Arthur Paget, for crim. con. with Lady Bor- 
rington 14 July, ,. 

Major Campbell, for killing Captain Boyd in a duel ; 
hanged . . . . . . 4 Aug. ,, 

Peter Finnerty and others, for a libel on the duke 
of York 9 Nov. „ 

The duke of York, by inquiry in the house of 
commons, on charges preferred against him by 
colonel "VVardle, from 26 Jan. to 20 March . . 1809 

Wellesley v. Lord Paget, for crim. con. ; damages, 
20,000? 12 May, „ 

The king v. Valentine Jones, for breach of duty as 
commissary-general .... 26 May, „ 

Wright v. colonel Wardle, for Mrs. Mary Ann 
Clarke's furniture . . . . 1 June, „ 

The earl of Leicester v. Morning Herald, for a libel; 
damages 1000Z 29 June, „ 

"William Cobbett, for a libel on the German legion ; 
convicted 9 July, ,, 

Hon. captain Lake, for putting Robert Jeffery, a 
British seaman, on shore at Sombrero ; dismissed 
the service (see Sombrero) ... 10 Feb. 1810 

Mr. Perry for libels in the Morning Chronicle ; ac- 
- quitted 24 Feb. „ 

The Vere-street gang, for unnatural offences; 
guilty 20 Sept. , , 

Peter Finnerty, for a libel on lord Castlereagh ; 

31 Jan. 1811 

The king v. Messrs. John and Leigh Hunt, for 
libels ; guilty 22 Feb. ,, 

Ensign Hepburn, and White the drummer ; both 
were executed 7 March, ,, 

Walter Cox, in Dublin, for libels ; he stood in the 
pillory 12 March, ,, 

The king v. W. Cobbett, for libels ; convicted 

15 June, ,, 

Lord Louth, in Dublin ; sentenced to imprison- 
ment and fine, for oppressive conduct as a ma- 
gistrate .19 June, ,, 

The Berkeley cause, before the house of peers, 
concluded 28 June, ,, 

Dr. Sheridan, physician, on a charge of sedition ; 
acquitted 21 Nov. ,, 

Gale Jones, for seditious and blasphemous libels ; 
convicted 26 Nov. ,, 

William Cundell and John Smith, for high treason 
(see High Treason) .... 6 Feb. 1812 

Daniel Isaac Eaton, on a charge of blasphemy ; 
convicted . . . . . . 6 March, ,, 

Bellingham, for the murder of Mr. Perceval, prime 
minister 15 May, ,, 

The king v. Mr. Lovell, of the Statesman, for 
libel ; guilty . . . . 19 Nov. , 

Messrs. John and Leigh Hunt, for libels in the 
Examiner; convicted .... 9 Dec. ,, 

Marquis of Sligo, for concealing a sea-deserter 

16 Dec. ,, 

The murderers of Mr. Horsfall ; at York ; exe- 
cuted 7 Jan. 1813 

Mr. Hugh Fitzpatrick, for publishing Scully's His- 
tory of the Penal Laws .... 6 Feb. ,, 

The divorce cause against the duke of Hamilton 
for. adultery 11 April, ,, 

Mr. John Magee, in Dublin, for libels in the Even- 
ing Post; guilty '26 July, „ 

Nicholson, the murderer of Mr. and Mrs. Bonar ; 
hanged 21 Aug. ,, 

Tuite, murder of Mr. Goulding ; executed 7 Oct. „ 

The celebrated Mary Ann Clark, for a libel on the 
right lion. Win. Vesey Fitzgerald, afterwards lord 
Fitzgerald 7 Feb. 1814 

Lord Cochrane, Cochrane Johnstone, Berenger, 
Butt, and others, lor frauds in the public funds, 
22 Feb. ; convicted (see Sturls) . 8, 9 June, ,, 

Admiral Bradley, at Winchester, for frauds in ship 
letters 18 Aug. „ 



Colonel Quentin, of the 10th Hussars, by court- 
martial 1 Nov. 1814 

Sir John Henry Mildmay, bart., for crim. con. 
with the countess of Rosebery ; damages, 
i5,oooZ 5 Dec - 11 

George Barnett, for shooting at Miss Kelly, of 
Covent Garden theatre ... 8 April, 1816 

Captain Hutchinson, sir Robert Wilson, and Mr. 
Bruce, in Paris, for aiding the escape of count 
Lavalette (see Lavalette) ... 24 April, ,, 

" Captain Grant," the famous Irish robber at Mary- 
borough 16 Aug. „ 

Vaughan, a police officer, Mackay, and Browne, for 
conspiracy to induce men to commit felonies to 
obtain the reward ; convicted . . 21 Aug. ,, 

Colonel Stanhope, by court-martial, at Cambray, 
in France 23 Sept. „ 

Cashman, a seaman, for the Spaflelds riots and 
outrages on Snowhill ; convicted and hanged (see 
Spafields) 20 Jan. 18 17 

Count Maubreuil, at Paris, for robbing the queen 
of Westphalia 2 May, ,, 

Mr. R. J. Butt, for a libel on lord chief-justice 
Ellenborough 23 May, „ 

Mr. Wooler, for libels on the government and 
ministers 6 June, „ 

Thistlewood, Dr. Watson, Hooper, and others, for 
treason 9 June, ,, 

The murderers of the Lynch family at Wildgoose-' 
lodge, Ireland 19 July, ,, 

Mr. Roger O'Connor, on a charge of robbing the 
mail ; acquitted 5 Aug. ,, 

Brandreth, Turner, and others, at Derby, for high 
treason 15 Oct. „ 

Hone, the bookseller, for parodies ; three trials 
before Lord Ellenborough : extemporaneous and 
successful defence ... 18, 19, 20 Dec. ,, 

Mr. Dick, for abduction and rape of Miss Crockatt 

21 March. 1818 

Appeal of murder case ; Ashford, the brother of Mary 
Ashford, against Abraham Thornton, accused 
of her murder (see Appeal) and acquitted 16 April, ,, 

Rev. Dr. O'Halloran, for forging a frank (see Trans- 
portation) . . ... . . 9 Sept. , , 

Robert Johnston, at Edinburgh ; his dreadful exe- 
cution 30 Dec. ,, 

Sir Manasseh Lopez, for bribery at Grampound 
(see Bribery) 18 March, 1819 

Mosely, Woolfe, and other merchants, for conspiracy 
and fraud 20 April, ,, 

Carlile, for the publication of Paine's Age of 
Reason, &c. . . . . . . 15 Oct. ,, 

John Scanlan, at Limerick, for murder of Ellen 
Hanly 14 March, 1820 

Sir Francis Burdett, at Leicester, for a seditious 
libel 23 March, ,, 

Henry Hunt, and others, for their conduct at the 
Manchester meeting ; convicted (see Manchester 
Reform Meeting) .... 27 March, ,, 

Sir Charles Wolseley and rev. Mr. Harrison, for 
sedition ; guilty .... 10 April, ,, 

Thistlewood, Ings, Brunt, Davidson, and Tidd, for 
conspiracy to murder the king's ministers ; com- 
menced (see Cato-street) ... 17 April, ,, 

Louvel, in France, for the murder of the duke de 
Berri 7 June, 

Lord Glerawley v. John Burn, for crim. con. 

18 June, ,, 

Major Cartwright and others at Warwick, for sedi- 
tion 3 Aug. ,, 

"Little Waddington," for a seditious libel; ac- 
quitted 19 Sept. ,, 

Lieutenant-colonel French, 6th dragoon guards, by 
court-martial 19 Sept. „ 

Caroline, queen of England, before the house of 
lords, for adultery, commenced 16 Aug. ; it ter- 
minated (see Queen Caroline's Trial) . 10 Nov. ,, 

The female murderers of Miss Thompson, in 
Dublin: hanged 1 May, 1821 

David Haggart, an extraordinary robber, and a man 
of singularly eventful life, at Edinburgh, for the 
murder of a turnkey .... 9 June, ,, 

Samuel D. Hayward, the favourite man of fashion, 
for burglary 8 Oct. „ 

The murderers of Mrs. Torrance, in Ireland, con- 
victed and hanged . . . . 17 Dec. ,, 

Cussen, Leahy, and others, for the abduction of 
Miss Gould. 29 July, 1822 



TEIALS. 



9S1 



TRIALS. 



Barthelerai, in Paris, for the abduction of Elizabeth 

Florence 23 Sept. 1822 

Cuthbert v. Browne, singular action for deceit 

28 Jan. 1823 
The famous " Bottle Conspirators," in Ireland, by 

ex-officio 23 Feb. ,, 

The extraordinary "earl of Portsmouth's case" 

commenced 18 March, ,, 

Probert, Hunt, and Thurtell, murderers of Mr. 
Weare ; Probert turned king's evidence ; after- 
wards hanged for horse-stealing (see Executions) 

5 Jan. 1824 

Mr. Henry Fauntleroy, banker of London, for for- 
gery ; hanged . . . . ». 30 Oct. ,, 

Foote v. Hayne, for breach of promise of mar- 
riage ; damages, 3000Z. ... 22 Dec. 

Mr. Henry Savary, a banker's son at Bristol, for 
forgery 4 April, 1825 

O'Keefe and Bourke, murderers of the Franks 
family . 18 Aug. „ 

The case of Mr. Wellesley Pole, and the Misses 
Long; commenced .... 9 Nov. ,, 

Captain Bligh v. the lion. Win. Wellesley Pole, for 
adultery 25 Nov. ,, 

Fisher v. Stockdale, for libel in Harriette Wilson 

20 March, 1826 

Edward Gibbon Wakefield, and others, for abduc- 
tion of Miss Turner ... 24 March, 1827 

Rev. Robert Taylor for blasphemy ; found guilty 

24 Oct. ,, 

Richard Gillan, for the murder of Maria Bagster, 
at Taunton 8 April, 1828 

Mr. Montgomery, for forgery ; he committed suicide 
in prison on the morning appointed for his exe- 
cution 4 July, ,, 

Brinklett, for the death of lord Mount Sandford 
by a kick ... . . 16 July, 

William Corder, for murder of Maria Marten ; exe- 
cuted ... . 6 Aug. ,, 

Joseph Hunton, a quaker merchant, for forgery ; 
hanged 28 Oct. ,, 

Burke, at Edinburgh, for the Burking murders ; 
Hare, his accomplice, became approver (see 
Burking) 24 Dec. ,, 

The king v. Buxton, and others, for fraudulent 
marriage 21 March, 1829 

Jonathan Martin, for setting fire to York minster 

31 March, ,, 

Stewart and his wife, noted murderers, at Glasgow ; 
hanged 14 July, ,, 

Reinbauer, the Bavarian priest, for murders of 
women . 4 Aug. , , 

Captain Dickenson, by court-martial, at Ports- 
mouth ; acquitted .... 26 Aug. ,, 

Mr. Alexander, editor of the Morning Journal, for 
libels on the duke of Wellington; convicted 10 Feb. 1830 

Clune, &c, at Eimis, lor cutting out the tongues of 
the Doyles 4 March, ,, 

Mr. Comyn, for burning his house in the county of 
Clare; hanged 6 March, ,, 

Mr. Lambrecht, for murder of Mr. Clayton in a 
duel 2 April, „ 

Captain Moir, for murder of William Malcolm ; 
hanged 30 July, „ 

Captains Smith and Markham, for killing Mr. 
O'Grady in a duel .... 24 Aug. ,, 

Captain Helsham, for murder of lieut. Crowther in 
a duel 8 Oct. ,, 

Mr. St. John Long, for manslaughter of Miss 
Cashin (see Quacks) .... 30 Oct. „ 

Polignac, Peyronnet, and others, ministers of 
France (see France) .... 21 Dec. ,, 

Carlile, for a seditious libel, inciting to a riot ; 
guilty 10 Jan. 1831 

Mr. D. O'Connell, for breach of proclamation; 
pleaded guilty 12 Pel 1. ,, 

St. John Long, for manslaughter of Mrs. Lloyd (see 
Quacks) 19 Feb. ,, 

Major Dundas, for the seduction of Miss Adams; 
damages, 3000/.. ..... 26 May, ,, 

Rev Robert Taylor (who obtained the revolting 
distinction of " the Devil's Chaplain"), for reviling 
the Redeemer : convicted . . . 6 July, ,, 

Mr. Cobbett, for a seditious libel ; tin' jury could 
notagree 7 .July, ,, 

Mr. and .Mrs. Deacle v. Mr. Bingham Baring, M.P. 

14 July, „ 

John Any Bird Bell, 14 years of age, for the murder 



of Richard Taylor, aged 13; hanged at Maidstone 

1 Aug. 

The great cause, earl of Kingston v. lord Lorton ; 
commenced g Nov. 

Bishop and Williams, for murder of the Italian boy 
(see Burking) 3 Dec. 

Earl of Mar, in Scotland, for shooting at Mr. 
Oldham 17 Dec. 

Elizabeth Cooke, for murder of Mrs. Walsh, by 
"Burking" 6 Jan. 

Colonel Brereton, by court-martial, at Bristol (see 
Bristol) g Jan. 

The murderers of Mr. Blood, of Applevale, county 
of Clare . . ' . . . . 28 Feb. 

William Duggan, at Cork, for murder of his wife 
and others 26 March, 

Mr. Hodgson (son of the celebrated Miss Aston) v. 
Greene 26 July, 

Mayor of Bristol, for neglect of duty in the 
Bristol riots 26 Oct. 

Rev. Mr. Irving, by the Scots church, for heresy 

13 March, 

Lord Teynham, and Dolan, a tailor, for swindling ; 
guilty 10 May, 

Attorney-general v. Shore (lady Hewley's charity, 
which is taken from the Unitarians) . 23 Dec. 

Captain Wathen, 15th hussars, by court-martial, at 
Cork ; honourably acquitted ; his colonel, lord 
Brudenell, cashiered .... Jan. 

Proprietors of the True Sun, for libels; guilty, 6 Feb. 

Mary Ann Burdock, the celebrated murderess, 
at Bristol 10 April, 

Sir John de Beauvoir, for perjury ; acquitted, 29 May, 

Fieschi, at Paris, for attempting the life of the 
king, Louis Philippe, by exploding an infernal 
machine (see Fieschi) .... 30 Jan. 

Hon. G. C. Norton v. lord Melbourne, in court of 
Common Pleas, for crim. con. with the hon. Mrs. 
Norton ; verdict for defendant . . 22 June, 

Lord de Roos v. dimming, for defamation, charg- 
ing lord de Roos with cheating at cards ; verdict 
in favour of Mr. Cumming ... 10 Feb. 

James Greenacre and Sarah Gale, for the murder of 
Hannah Browne ; Greenacre convicted and 
hanged ; Gale transported . . 10 April, 

Bolam, for murder of Mr. Millie ; verdict, man- 
slaughter 30 July, 

Rev. Mr. Stephens, at Chester, for inflammatory 
language 15 Aug. 

John Frost, an ex-magistrate, and others, for high 
treason ; guilty: sentence commuted to transpor- 
tation (see Newport) .... 31 Dec. 

Benjamin Courvoisier, for murder of lord William 
Russell ; hanged .... 18-20 June, 

Gould, for murder of Mr. Templeman ; transported 

22 June, 

Edward Oxford, attempted the life of the queen ; 
adjudged insane, and confined in Bethlehem (see 
Oxford) 9, 10 July, 

Madame Lefarge, in France, for the murder of her 
husband ; guilty ... .2 Sept. 

Prince Louis Napoleon, for his descent upon Prance 
(see Fro nee) 6 Oct. 

Captain J. W. Reynolds, nth huss.'irs. by court- 
martial; guilty : the sentence excited great popu- 
lar displeasure against his colonel, lord Cardigan 

20 Oct. 

Lord Cardigan before the house of peers, capitally 
charged for wounding captain Harvey Tucket in 

a duel ; acquitted .... 16 Feb. 

The Wallaces, brothers, merchants, for having wil- 
fully caused the destruction of the ship Dryad at 
sea, to defraud the underwriters; transported 

1 March, 

Josiah Mister, for attempting the life of Mr. 
Mackreth ; guilty .... 23 March, 

Bartholomew Murray, at Chester, for the murder of 
Mrs. Cook 5 April, 

Earl of Waldegrave and captain Duff, tor an aj gi 1 
vated ass;mlt on a police eoustable ; guilty : judg- 
ment, six months' imprisonment, and lines of 
200/.. and 20?. 3 May, 

Madame Lefarge again, for robbery of diamonds 

7 A.UK. 
The great case, Allen Bogle V. Mr. Lawson, pub- 
lisher of the Times newspaper, for an alleged 
libel, in stating the plaintitfto be connected with 

numerous bank forgers throughout Europe in 



1834 



1836 



1S37 



1S41 



TEIALS. 



982 



TEIALS. 



their schemes to defraud Messrs. Glyn and Com- 
pany, bankers of London, by means of fictitious 
letters of credit : damages, one farthing. This 
exposure, so honourable to the Times, led to the 
Times Testimonial . . . . 16 Aug. 

Mr. MacLeod, at Utica, America, for taking part 
in the destruction of the Caroline, commenced : 
acquitted after a trial that lasted eight day?, 4 Oct. 

Robert Blakesley, for murder of Mr. Burdon, of 
Eastcheap ; hanged . - . . . 28 Oct. 

Mr. Beaumont Smith, for forgery of Exchequer 
bills to an immense amount ; he pleaded guilty, 
and was sentenced to transportation for life 4 Dec. 

Sophia Darbon v. Rosser ; breach of promise of 
marriage ; damages, 1600J. ... 8 Dec. 

Mr. John Levick and Antonio Mattei, principal and 
second in the duel in which lieut. Adams was 
killed at Malta : both acquitted . 10 March, 

Vivier, courier of the Morning Herald, at Boulogne, 
for conveying the Indian mail through France, 
for that journal, contrary to the French regula- 
tions 13 April, 

Daniel Good, for murder of Jane Jones ; the Roe- 
hampton murder ; found guilty, and sentenced to 
be hanged 13 May, 

John Francis, for attempting to assassinate the 
queen (see Francis) .... 17 June, 

Thomas Cooper, for the murder of Daly, the police- 
man ; hanged 4 July, 

Nicholas Suisse, valet of the late marquis of Hert- 
ford, at the prosecution of that nobleman's exe- 
cutors, charged with enormous frauds ; acquitted 

6 July, 

M'Gill and others, for abduction of Miss Crellin ; 
guilty 8 Aug. 

Nicholas Suisse again, upon like charges, and again 
acquitted 24 Aug. 

Bean, for pointing a pistol at the queen : 18 months' 
imprisonment ..... 25 Aug. 

The rioters in the provinces, under a special com- 
mission, at Stafford 1 Oct. 

The Cheshire rioters, under a special commission, 
before lord Abinger .... 6 Oct. 

The Lancashire rioters, also under a special com- 
mission 10 Oct. 

Alice Lowe, at the prosecution of lord Frankfort ; 
acquitted 31 Oct. 

Mr: Howard, attorney, v. sir William Gosset, ser- 
jeant-at-arms 5 Dec. 

Mr. Egan, in Dublin, for the robbery of a bank 
parcel ; acquitted . . . . 17 Jan. 

Rev. W. Bailey, LL.D., for forgery; guilty : trans- 
portation for life 1 Feb. 

Mac Naughten, for the murder of Mr. Drummond, 
secretary to sir Robert Peel : acquitted on the 
ground of insanity .... 4 March, 

The Rebeccaites, at Cardiff, under a special com- 
mission 27 Oct. 

Samuel Sidney Smith, for forgery ; sentenced to 
transportation for life ... 29 Nov. 

Edward Dwyer, for the murder of his child at 
Southwark ; guilty . . . . 1 Dec. 

Mr. Holt, of the Age ; libel on the duke of Bruns- 
wick ; guilty 29 Jan. 

Lieut. Grant, second to lieut. Munro, in his duel 
with col. Fawcett ; acquitted . . 14 Feb. 

Fraser v. Bagley, for crim. con. ; verdict for the de- 
fendant 19 Feb. 

Lord William Paget v. earl of Cardigan, for crim. 
con. ; verdict for defendant . . 26 Feb. 

Mary Furley, for the murder of her child in an 
agony of despair .... 16 April, 

The will-forgers, William Henry Barber (since de- 
clared innocent), Joshua Fletcher, Georgiana 
Dorey, William Saunders, and Susannah his wife : 
all found guilty, 15 April : sentenced 22 April, 

[In 1848 Mr. Barber returned to England with a 
free pardon, and an acknowledgment of his inno- 
cence by his prosecutors : he was re-admitted to 
practise as an attorney ; and on the 3rd of 
August, 1859, ill conformity with the recom- 
mendation of a select committee of the house of 
commons, the sum of 5000J. was voted him "as 
a national acknowledgment of the wrong he had 
suffered from an erroneous prosecution."] 

Crouch, for the murder of his wife ; found guilty, 
8 May ; hanged 27 May, 

Messrs. O'Connell, sen., O'Connell, jun., Steele, 



1843 



Ray, Barrett, Grey, Duffy, and rev. Thomas 
Tierney, at Dublin, for political conspiracy : the 
trial commenced 15 Jan., and lasted twenty-four 
days : all the traversers were found guilty, 12 Feb. 
Proceedings on motions for a new trial, &c, ex- 
tended the case into Easter term ; and sentence 
was pronounced upon all but the clergyman, on 
whom judgment was remitted . . 30 May, 1844 

Augustus Dalmas, for the murder of Sarah Mac- 
farlane ; guilty 14 June, ,, 

Wm. Burton Newenham, for the abduction of Miss 
Wortham ; guilty . . . . 17 June, ,, 

Bellamy, for the murder of his wife by prussic 
acid; acquitted 21 Aug. ,, 

John Tawell, for murder of Sarah Hart ; hanged 

13, 14 March, 1845 

Thomas Henry Hocker, for murder of James De- 
larue 11 April, ,, 

Joseph Connor, for murder of Mary Brothers, 16 May, , , 

The Spanish pirates, for murder of ten Englishmen 
at sea ....... 26 July, ,, 

Rev. Dr. Wetherall, for crim. con. with Mrs. Cooke, 
his own daughter . . . . 16 Aug. ,, 

Captain Johnson, of the ship Tory, for the murder 
of several of his crew .... 5 Feb. 1846 

Miss M. A. Smith v. earl Ferrers ; breach of pro- 
mise of marriage 18 Feb. ,, 

Lieut. Hawkey, for the murder of Mr. Seton, in a 
duel ; acquitted . . . . . 16 July, ,, 

Richard Dunn, for perjury and attempted fraud on 
Miss A. Burdett Coutts . . . 27 Feb. 1847 

Mitchell, the Irish confederate ; transported for 14 
years (see Ireland) .... 26 May, 1848 

Wm. Smith O'Brien, Meagher, and other confede- 
rates, sentenced to death ; the sentence after- 
wards commuted to transportation (pardoned in 
1856) 9 Oct. „ 

Bloomfield Rush, for murder of Messrs. Jermy, at 
Norwich ; hanged .... 29 March, 1849 

Gorham v. the bishop of Exeter; ecclesiastical 
case ; judgment given in the court of Arches 
against the plaintiff .... 2 Aug. „ 

[The bishop had refused to^institute the rev. Mr. 
Gorham into the living of Brampton-Speke, in 
Devonshire, alleging want of orthodoxy in the 
plaintiff, who denied that spiritual regeneration 
was conferred by baptism ; the court held that 
the charge against the plaintiff of holding false 
doctrine was proved, and that the bishop was 
justified in his refusal. Mr. Gorham appealed to 
the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, 
which pronounced its opinion (8 March, 1850) 
that " the doctrine held by Mr. Gorham was not 
contrary or repugnant to the declared doctrine of 
the church of England, and that Mr. Gorham 
ought not, by reason of the doctrine held by him, 
to have been refused admission to the vicarage of 
Brampton-Speke." This decision led to subse- 
quent proceedings in the three courts of law, suc- 
cessively, for a rule to show cause why a prohi- 
bition should not issue, directed to the judge of 
the Arches court, and to the archbishop of Can- 
terbury, against giving effect to the judgment of 
her majesty in council. The rule was refused in 
each court, and in the end Mr. Gorham was insti- 
tuted into the vicarage in question, 7 Aug. 1850.] 

Manning and his wife, for murder of O'Connor ; 
guilty : death 27 Oct. „ 

Walter Watts, lessee of the Olympic theatre, for 
forgery, &c 10 May, 1850 

Robert Pate, a retired lieutenant, for an assault on 
the queen n July, „ 

The Sloanes, man and wife, for starving their ser- 
vant, Jane Wilbred .... 5 Feb. 1851 

The Board of Customs v. the London Dock Com- 
pany, on a charge of defrauding the revenue of 
duties ; a trial of 11 days ended in a virtual ac- 
quittal 18 Feb. „ 

Sarah Chesham, for murder of husband, by poison ; 
she had murdered several of her children and 
others by the same means ; hanged . 6 March, ,, 

Thomas Drory, for the murder of Jael Denny: 
hanged 7 March, „ 

Doyle v. Wright, concerning the personal custody 
of Miss Augusta Talbot, a Roman catholic ward, 
of chancery, before the lord chancellor : pro- 
tracted case 22 March, „ 



TEIALS. 983 



TRIALS. 



The murderers of the rev. George Edward Holiest, 

of Frimley, Surrey ; guilty . . 31 March, 1851 
Achilli v. Newman, for libel ; tried before lord 
chief justice Campbell in the Queen's Bench : 
verdict for the plaintiff, Nov. 1851 ; . 31 Jan. 1852 
Miller v. aid. Salomons, M.P., for voting as a mem- 
ber without having taken the required oath ; ver- 
dict against the defendant . . 19 April, „ 
The case " Bishop of London v. the rev. Mr. Glad- 
stone :" judgment of the Arches court against 

the defendant 10 June, ,, 

Lord Frankfort, for scandalous and defamatory 

libels ; guilty 3 Dec. ,, 

Richard Bourke Kirwan, for the murder of his wife ; 

guilty 10 Dec. „ 

Eliot Bower, for murder of Mr. Saville Morton, at 

Paris ; acquitted 28 Dec. „ 

Henry Horler, for murder of his wife ; hanged at 

the Old Bailey 15 Jan. 1853 

James Barbour, for murder of Robinson ; hanged 

at York 15 Jan. ,, 

George Sparkes and James Hitchcock, for the mur- 
der of William Blackmore at Exeter ; guilty 

19 March, ,, 
Five Frenchmen (principal and seconds) for the 
murder of a sixth Frenchman in a duel at Egham ; 
verdict, manslaughter ... 21 March, ,, 
Moore and Walsh, for the murder of John Black- 
burn, at Stafford ; hanged . . 21 March, ,, 
Saunders, for murder of Mr. Toler ; hanged at 

Chelmsford 30 March, ,, 

The Stackpole family, four in number ; two of them 
females, and wives to the others, for the murder 
of their relative, also a Stackpole ; hanged at 

Ennis 28 April, ,, 

Case of Holy Cross Hospital, Winchester, decided 

against rev. earl of Guildford . 1 Aug. ,, 

Smyth v. Smyth, ended in the plaintiff being com- 
mitted on a charge of forging the will on which 
he grounded his claim . . 8, 9, 10 Aug. ,, 
The Braintree case respecting liability to church- 
rates, decided by the house of lords, against the 

rate 12 Aug. ,, 

Case of Lumley v. Gye, respecting Madlle. Wagner ; 

decided 22 Feb. 1854 

Mr. Jeremiah Smith, mayor of Rye, convicted of 

perjury 2 March, ,, 

Duchess of Manchester's will case . . April, ,, 
Mr. Garden, for abduction of Miss E. Arbuthnot, 
and assault upon John Sniithwick ; convicted 

28, 29 July, ,, 
Mary Anne Brough, for murdering her six children; 

not guilty (insanity) .... 9 Aug. ,, 
Case of Pierce Somerset Butler v. viscount Mount- 
garret ; verdict for plaintiff, who thus came into 
a peerage, defendant being proved illegitimate 

Aug. „ 
Courts-martial on lieuts. Perry and Greer; sen- 
tences reversed by lord Hardinge 29 July-Aug. ,, 
Courts-martial on sir E. Belcher, captain McClure, 
&C, for abandoning their ships in the Arctic 

regions ; acquitted Oct. ,, 

Emanuel Barthelemy, for murder of Charles Col- 
lard and Mr. Moore (executed) . . 4 Jan. 1855 
Handcock v. Delaeour, otherwise De Burgh (cruelty 
to Mrs. Handcock, and charges against lord 

Clanricarde) ; compromised ,, 

Earl of Sefton v. Hopwood (will set aside) 

3-10 April, ,, 
Luigi Baranelli, for murder of Joseph Latham (or 

Lambert); (executed 30 April) . 12 April, ,, 

Charles King, a great thief-trainer ; transported 

13 April, ,, 
Wm. Austin (governor), for cruelties in Birming- 
ham gaol ; acquitted .... 3 Aug. ,, 
Sir John Dean Paul, William Strahan, and Robert 
M. Bates, bankers, for disposing of their cus- 
tomers' securities (to the amount of 113,625!.): 

convicted 27 Oct. ,, 

Joseph Wooler, on charge of poisoning his wife; 

acquitted 7 Nov. ,, 

Westerton v. Liddell (on decorations, &c, in 
church in Knightsbridge ; decision against them) 

5 !>'•• „ 
[Decided again by privy council, partly for both 
parties ; each to pay his own costs, 21 March, 
1857-] 



Celestina Sommers, for murder of her child ; 

convicted (but reprieved) . . . 6 March, 1856 
Wm. Palmer, for murder of J. P. Cook by poison 

14-27 May, „ 
[He was executed at Stafford on 14 June, in the pre- 
sence of 50,000 persons. If he had been ac- 
quitted, he would have been tried for the murder 
of his wife and brother. ] 
Wm. Dove, for murder of his wife (executed 9 Aug.) 

iq July, ,, 

Ditcher v. archdeacon Denison, respecting the doc- 
trine of the eucharist ; defendant deprived, ami 
appeal disallowed [verdict set aside by privy 
council] 22 Oct. ,, 

W. S. Hardwicke and H. Attwell ; convicted of 
forgery 31 Oct. ,, 

Wm. Robson, for frauds of Crystal Palace Com- 
pany (to the amount of about 28,000!.) ; trans- 
ported for twenty years . . . 1 Nov. ,, 

Earl of Lucan v. Daily News, for libel ; verdict for 
defendant 3 Dec. „ 

Pearce, Burgess, and Tester; see Gold Robbery, 

14 Jan. 1857 

Leopold Redpath, for forgeries (to the amount of 
150,000!.) upon Great Northern Railway Com- 
pany : transported for life ■ . . 16 Jan. „ 

Jem Saward, a barrister (called the Penman), Wm. 
Anderson, and others, convicted of extensive 
forgery of bankers' cheques . . 5 March, ,, 

Miss Madeline Smith, on charge of poisoning 
Emile L'Angelier, at Glasgow ; not proven 

30 June-9 July, ,, 

Thos. Fuller Bacon, for poisoning his mother, con- 
victed 25 July, ,, 

[He was acquitted on a charge of murdering two 
children, 13, 14 May, same year. His wife con- 
fessed the murder, but appeared to be insane.] 

James Spollen, on charge of murder of Mr. Little, 
near Dublin ; acquitted . . . 7-1 1 Aug. ,, 

W. Attwell and others, convicted of stealing the 
countess of Ellesmere's jewels (value 15,000!.) 
from the top of a cab .... 15 Dec. , , 

Strevens v. Campion, for slander, in charging the 
plaintiff with complicity in the murder of his 
aunt, Mrs. Kelly ; damages 6>l. . . 31 Dec. ,, 

The directors of the British Bank, Humphry Brown, 
Edw. Esdaile, H. D. Macleod, alderman R. H. 
Kennedy, W. D. Owen, James Stapleton, and 
Hugh Innes Cameron,for fraud (see under Banks) ; 
convicted 13-27 Feb. 185S 

Rev. S. Smith and his wife, for murderous assault 
on John Leech ; convicted . . 6-7 April, ,, 

Edw. Auchmuty Glover, M.P., for false declaration 
of qualification of M.P 9 April, ,, 

Simon Bernard, as accessory to the conspiracy 
against the life of the emperor Napoleon ; acquitted 

12-17 April, „ 

The earldom of Shrewsbury case ; earl Talbot's claim 
allowed 1 June, ,, 

James Seal, for the murder of Sarah Guppy ; con- 
victed (and executed) . . . .23 July, ,, 

The Berkeley peerage case, see Berkeley 23 July, ,, 

Patience Swynfen v. F. H. Swynfen ; a will case; 
the will affirmed 27 July, ,, 

[The plaintiff was Patience Swynfen, widow of Henry 
John Swynfen, son of the testator, Samuel Swyn- 
fen. Her husband died 15 June, 1854, and his 
father on 16 July, following, having made a will 
19 days before his death, devising the Swynfen 
estate (worth about 60,000!.) to his son's wife, 
but leaving a large amount of personal estate un- 
disposed of. The defendant, F. 11. Swynfen, son 
of the testator's eldest half-brother, claimed the 
estate as heir-at-law on the ground of t lie testator's 
insanity. The issue was brought to trial in March, 
1856; but proceedings were stayed by Mrs. Swyn- 
fen's counsel, sir F. Thesiger, entering into an 
agreement with the opposite counsel, sir Alex- 
ander Cockburn, without her consent, and in de- 
fiance of her instructions. Alter various pro- 
(•ecilings, tin 1 court of chancery ordered a new 
trial. She gained her cause, mainly through the 
energy of her counsel. Mr. Chas. R. Kennedy, to 
whom she had promised to pay 20,000!. for his 
extraordinary services. Mrs. Swynfen, however, 
married a Mr. Broun, and repudiated Mr. Ken- 
nedy's claim. The latter, in an action against 
her," obtained a verdict in his favour on 29 March, 



TEIALS. 



984 



TEIALS. 



1862, which was. on appeal, finally reversed in 
Feb. 1864. Mrs. Swynfen was non-suited in an 
action brought against her counsel (afterwards 
lord Chelmsford and lord chancellor), in Jul}', 
1859, an(1 June, i860.] 

Lemon Oliver, a stockbroker, convicted of exten- 
sive frauds 10 Nov. 

Marchmont v. Marchmont ; a disgraceful divorce 
case, begun 30 Nov. 

W. H. Guernsey, for stealing Ionian despatches 
from the Colonial Office ; acquitted . 15 Dee. 

Evans v. Evans and Rose, divorce case . Dec. 

Lieut. -col. Dickson v. earl of Wilton, for libel ; ver- 
dict for the plaintiff .... 14 Feb. 

Black v. Elliott, 850 sheep poisoned by a sheep- 
wash sold by defendant ; damages 1400L 23 Feb. 

Wagner, Bateman, and others, a gang of bank 
forgers ; convicted 13 May, 

Earl of Shrewsbury v. Hope Scott, and others ; the 
earl gains the Shrewsbury estates . 3 June, 

Thellusson will case decided (see Thellusson) 9 June, 

T. R. Marshall, E. A. Mortimer, and H. S. Eicke, 
convicted of illegal sale of army commissions, 

29 June, 

Thomas Smethurst, a surgeon, for the murder by 
poison of Isabella Bankes, whom he had married 
during his wife's lifetime ; convicted 15-19 Aug. 

[He was reprieved on the ground of insufficient evi- 
dence ; but was tried and found guilty of bigamy, 
16 Nov. 1859. On 11 Nov. 1862, he proved Miss 
Bankes's will, and obtained her property.] 

Oakley v. the Moulvie Ooddeen, "ambassador of 
the king of Oude." Verdict for the defendant, 
who seems to have fallen among bill-sharpers, 

17 Dec. 

David Hughes, an attorney, convicted of gross 
frauds upon his clients .... Jan. 

George Pullinger, cashier of the Union Bank of 
London, sentenced to 20 years' imprisoment for 
fraud, see Banks, foot-note . . 15 May, 

Eugenia Plummer, aged n years, convicted of per- 
jury against rev. Mr. Hatch . . .14 May, 

Mr. W. H. Leatham, M.P., convicted of bribery at 
Wakefield 19 July, 

Thomas Hopley, a schoolmaster, convicted of man- 
slaughter of Reginald Cancellor, by flogging, 

23 July, 

Nottidge v. Prince (see Agapemone) . 25 July, 

Rev. J. Bonwell, of Stepney, degraded for immorality, 

29 Aug. 

James Mullens, convicted for the murder of Mrs. 
Elmsley ; by endeavouring to inculpate one Ems, 
he led to his own conviction . . 25 Oct. 

Miss Shedden- v. Patrick. (The plaintiff ably 
pleaded her own cause when the case was opened ; 
her object, to prove the legitimacy of her father, 
was not attained) . . . .9 Nov. et seq. 

Hooper v. Ward ; disgraceful profligacy of a magis- 
trate; verdict for plaintiff . . . 19, 20 Dec. 

Constance Kent inquiry ; trial refused, see Road 
Murder Jan. 

Thelwall v. hon. Major Yelverton. The plaintiff 
sued for expenses incurred by defendant's wife ; 
the major denied the validity of his marriage 
with Miss Longworth, having since married the 
widow of professor Edward Forbes, the eminent 
naturalist. The court in Dublin supported the 
first marriage . . .21 Feb. to 4 March, 

[Miss Longworth endeavoured to establish her. 
marriage. On appeal, the Scotch court annulled 
the marriage, July, 1862, and this judgment was 
affirmed by the house of lords, 28 July, 1864, and 
again finally, 30 July, 1S67. An attempt to set 
aside the judgment of the house of lords rejected 
by the court of session, 29 Oct. 1868.] 

Brook v. Brook; see Marriage with Wife's Sister. 
The house of lords on appeal decided against the 
validity of such marriages, even when celebrated 
in a foreign country ... 18 March, 

Reade v. Lacy ; the dramatising a novel restrained, 

17 April, 
Beamish v. Beamish ; the lords on appeal decide 
that a clergyman cannot perform the ceremony of 
marriage for himself . . . .22 April, 
Emperor of Austria v. Day; verdict for plaintiff. 
The defendant had printed 100 millions florin 
notes on the bank of Hungary, for Louis 
Kossuth. The notes were ordered to be destroyed 



^59 



within one month, 6 May judgment affirmed 

12 June, 

Cardross case. John MacMillan, a free-church 
minister, was expelled for drunkenness and mis- 
conduct, May, 1858. The Glasgow synod and 
the general assembly of the free church affirmed 
the sentence. He appealed to the court of 
session, which set aside the decree (which in- 
volved temporalities), asserting that the assembly 
had only spiritual authority . . . July, 

W. B. Turnbull v. Bird, secretary of protestant 
alliance ; libel ; verdict for defendant 8-10 July, 

J. C. Charlesworth, M.P., convicted of bribery at 
the Wakefield election . . . .20 July, 

Baron de Viclil ; convicted of wounding his son ; the 
latter refused to give evidence against his father, 

23 Aug. 

Vincent Collucci : convicted of obtaining money on 
false pretences, from Miss F. Johnstone 23 Oct. 

John Curran, a Dublin cabman ; convicted of a 
violent assault on Miss Jolly, who heroically de- 
fended herself 25-30 Oct. 

Patrick McCaffery; shot col. Crofton and capt. 
Hanham, at Preston ; convicted . . 13 Dec. 

Inquiry into sanity of Wm. Fred. Wyndham (on 
behalf of his relatives), with a view of annulling 
an injudicious marriage; trial lasted 34 days : 140 
witnesses examined ; verdict sane mind (see 
Lunacy) . . .16 Dec. 1861, and 30 Jan. 

[Each party adjudged to pay its own costs, March, 
1862.] 

Capt. Robertson, by court-martial ; convicted of 
submitting to ungentlemanly conduct from his 
brother officers : — 30 days' inquiry : ended, 

24 March, 

[The court was much blamed by the public and the 
sentence was annulled.] 

Mrs. A. C. Vyse for poisoning her two children ; 
acquitted as insane .... 9 July, 

Roupell v. Waite; during the trial, W. Roupell, 
M.P. , a witness, confessed himself guilty of 
forging a will, and other frauds . iS, 19 Aug. 

Jessie McLachlan; convicted for the murder of 
Jessie Macpherson, at Glasgow ; she confessed to 
being accessory after the murder, which she im- 
puted to Mr. Fleming, a gentleman 80 or 90 years 

old 17-20 Sept. 

[She was respited 27 Oct. 1862.] 

Wm. Roupell, M.P., for forgery; convicted on his 
own confession (released Sept. 1876) . 24 Sept. 

Catherine Wilson, convicted of poisoning Mrs. 
Soames in 1856 25-27 Sept. 

27 indictments and 24 convictions for savage per- 
sonal outrages in the streets of the metropolis 
during the month Nov. 

Wm. Digby Seymour, M.P. , v. Butterworth; libel; 
verdict for plaintiff, damages 40s. . . 3 Dec. 

Hall v. Semple; verdict for plaintiff, who had been 
consigned to a lunatic asylum through his wife's 
getting the defendant to sign a certificate of lunacy 
with culpable negligence ; damages 150 J. 10 Dec. 

George Buncher, Wm. Burnett, Riehd. Brewer, and 
James Griffiths, for forging bank-notes, printed 
on paper stolen from the paper-mill at Laver- 
stoke; convicted 7-12 Jan. 

Clare v. The Queen ; petition of right for infringe- 
ment of a patent ; verdict for defendant 2-6 Feb. 

Rev. John Campbell v. Spottiswoode (as printer of 
ulihel m Saturday Review): verdict for plaintiff, 

27 Feb. 

Queen on appeal of earl of Cardigan v. col. Calthorpe 
for libel, charging the earl with deserting his 
men at Balaclava, 25 Oct. 1855 ; verdict for de- 
fendant (who, however, admitted his error), 

9, 10 June, 

Attorney-general v. Sillim and others, for having 
built the Alexandra for the Confederates, against 
the Enlistment act; verdict for defendants, 

25 June, 

[Decision finally affirmed on appeal to the house of 
lords, 6 April, 1864.] 

Col. Lothian Dickson v. viscount Combermere, earl 
of Wilton, and gen. Peel, for conspiracy to expel 
him from the army; verdict for defendants, 

27 June, et seq. 

Morrison (Zadkiel) v. sir Edward Belcher; libel; 
verdict, 20s. damages .... 29 June, 



1S63 



TEIALS. 



985 



TEIALS. 



Richard Roupell v. Haws : arising out of Roupell 
forgeries; no verdict . . . 16-24 July, z ^3 

Woolley v. Pole, for San Fire Office; verdict for 
plaintiff, awarding him his claim for 29,000?. for 
his insurance of (Jampden-house ; burnt 23 March, 
1862 29 Aug. „ 

George Victor Townley, for murder of Miss Good- 
man, through jealousy ; convicted . . 12 Dec. „ 

[He escaped execution through a certificate of in- 
sanity, too hastily signed : and committed suicide 
in prison, 12 Feb. 1865.] 

Lieut. -col. Crawley, by court-martial at Aldershot, 
for alleged oppression and cruelty to sergeant- 
major John Lilley, in consequence of a court- 
martial at Mhow, in India ; honourably acquitted, 

17 N0V.-23 Dec. „ 

Franz Miiller, for murder of Mr. Briggs in a railway 
carriage, 9 July ; convicted . . 27-29 Oct. 1864 

Gedney v. Smith, a supposititious child detected 
and deprived of much property . . 10 Nov. ,, 

E. K. Kohl, for murder of Theodore Fuhrkop; con- 
victed 11, 12 Jan. 1865 

Queen v. Win. Rumble, for infringement of Foreign 
Enlistment act, in equipping the Rappahannock 
for the Confederate government ; acquitted, 

4 Feb. ,, 

"Woodgate v. Ridout (for Morning Post), for libel 
respecting the great will case of the earl of Bg- 
mont v. Darell ; verdict for plaintiff, 1000?. , 10 Feb. ,, 

Bishop Colenso's appeal to privy council against 
decision of bishop of Capetown, deposing him, 
which is annulled .... 21 March, ,, 

Roberts, Jeft'ery, Casely, and others, for jewel rob- 
beries in London ; convicted . . 13 April, ,, 

J. W. Terry and Thos. Burch, for misdemeanor 
in connection with the Unity Bank; acquitted, 

April, ,, 

Edw. 'Wm. Pritchard, M.D., for murder of his wife 
and her mother, by poisoning; guilty 3-7 July, ,, 

Charlotte Winsor, a child-murderer, convicted on 
the evidence of an accomplice . . July, ,, 

[On account of legal irregularities in her trial, her 
execution was long deferred, and her sentence was 
.commuted to life-imprisonment, 23 May, 1866.] 

Constance Kent tried (see Road Murder) 21 July, ,, 

Trials of Fenians for treason-felony ; Thos. Clarke 
Luby, convicted and sentenced to 20 years' penal 
servitude, 28 Nov.-i Dee. ; O'Leary and others 
convicted ; O'Donovan Rossa (previously con- 
victed) sentenced to imprisonment for life, 13 Dec. ; 
others convicted at Cork .... Dec. „ 

Stephen Forwood (or Ernest Southey), for murder 
of his wife and children : guilty . 20-21 Dec. ,, 

Other Fenians convicted at Dublin (see Fenians), 

Jan. 1866 

Breadalbane peerage : succession decided in favour 
of Campbell of Glenfalloch. . . 26 Jan. ,, 

Ryves and Ryves v. the attorney-general ; an en- 
deavour to prove the marriage of king George III. 
with Hannah Wilmot, and that of his brother 
Henry, duke of Cumberland, with Olive Wilmot; 
the jury decided that the claim was not made out, 
and' that Olive Serres, the alleged mother of Mrs. 
Ryves, was not the legitimate daughter of the 
duke of Cumberland, and that the 82 documents 
brought in evidence were forged (Mrs. Ryves died 
7 Dec. 1871) 13 June, „ 

Banda and Kirwee prize case (Indian mutiny); 
court of admiralty decide that 700,000?. are to be 
divided between the soldiers commanded by 
generals Whitelocke, Rose, Roberts, and others, 

30 June, „ 

Bishop Colenso v. Gladstone and others, trustees of 
colonial bishopric fund (fur withholding his 
stipend); vewlict for plaintiff, with costs 6 Nov. ,, 

Hunter v. Sharpe (Pall Mall Gazette), for libel 
(charging him with quackery); one farthing 
damages gained by plaintiff . . 1 Dec. ,, 

James F. Wilkinson, manager of joint stock discount 

company, convicted of fraud . getseq.J&n. 1867 
[Liberated with free pardon, after investigation, 

July, 1868] 
Bryants. Foot; decision against prescriptive right 

of a rector to claim a marriage-fee . 23 Jan. ,, 

C. W. Lee Webb, Lionel Holdsworth, and others, 

convicted of fraud (scuttling a ship, and claiming 

insurance) ...... 4 Feb. ,, 



C. Anderson, a Swede ; convicted of murdering a 
mulatto, from superstition . . 12 April. 

Breadalbane peerage ; Wm. J. Campbell declared 
heir, on appeal to house of lords . 16 July, 

Smith v. Tebbitt and others ; a will ease, disposing 
of upwards of 400,000'. ; verdict for defendants, 
annulling the will of Ann Thwaites, who is de- 
clared of unsound mind, after a long trial, in 
April and May; judgment given . 6 Aug. 

Oakes v. Turquand, and others ; appeal case, house 
of lords; decision affirming liability of share- 
holders of the company of Overend, Gurney, and 
Co. (limited) 15 Aug. 

Geo. Druitt, M. Lawrence, and John Anderson, 
leaders of the operative tailors' association, con- 
victed of a misdemeanor (organising the system 
of "picketing," or watching men on strike ; and 
intimidating non-unionists ; which began 24 
April, 1867) 21 Aug. 

13 tailors convicted of " picketing" . 22 Aug. 

Fenian trials at Manchester, Allen, &c. (see 
Fenians) 30 Oct-12 Nov. 

Frederick Baker convicted of brutal murder of a 
child 6 Dec. 

Mr. Rigby Wason v. Walter (for publication of an 
alleged libel in the Times ; viz. , a correct report 
of a debate in the house of lords, <fec.) ; verdict 
for defendant, settling that such a report is 
privileged 18-20 Dec. 

[Verdict affirmed again, 25 Nov. 1868. Mr. Wa- 
son died July, 1875.] 

Martin v. Mackonoehie (for ritualistic practices) ; 
before dean of arches, 4 Dec. 1867, and 14 days ; 
recommenced; closed . . . 18 Jan. 

Flamank v. Simpson ; similar case ; begun 5 Feb. ; 
verdict condemning elevation of sacrament, use 
of incense, and mixture of water with the wine in 
the communion service . . 28 March, 

Crossley v. Elsworthy for fraudulent misrepresen- 
tation ; verdict for plaintiff, damages 35,000?. 

18 Feb. 

Trial of Fenians for Clerkenwell outrage (see 
Fenians), begun 20 April ; all acquitted except 
Michael Barrett .... 20-27 April, 

Richard Burke (alias Geo. Berry, &c), Theobald 
Casey, and Henry Shaw (alias Mullady), Fenians, 
for treason felony, at Old Bailey ; Burke and 
Shaw convicted, Casey acquitted 28-30 April, 

Mornington v. Wellesley, and Wellesley r. Morning- 
ton, a 29 years' suit in chancery, decided (costs 
above 30,000?.) ; 22,000?. awarded to the countess 
of Mornington 7 May, 

Lyon v. Home (the spiritual medium). The plain- 
tiff, a widow, sought to recover 60,000?. stock, 
given to Home at the alleged command of her 
deceased husband's spirit, between Oct. 1866 and 
Feb. 1867; suit instituted 15 June, 1867; trial, 
21 April to 1 May, 1868; verdict given for 
plaintiff, by the vice-chancellor, sir G. M. Giffard, 

22 May, 
[The judge, in concluding, said, regarding 
spiritualism, that "the system, as presented 
by the evidence, is mischievous nonsense ; 
well calculated on the one hand to delude 
the vain, the weak, the foolish, and the 
superstitious ; and on the other to assist the 
projects of the needy, and the adventurer."] 

Esmonde will case, Dublin ; Lady Esmonde 

bequeathed property to support protestantism in 

Ireland, by endowing a college, &e. : will disputed 

by her family ; no verdic.1 by jury 3-13 June, 

[New trial; will affirmed, Aug. 1S69.] 

Thomas Edgeley, convicted of fraud against Leeds 
Banking Company . . . n-i^June. 

Risk Allah v. Whitehurst (for Daily Telegraph): 
libel case; damages for plaintiff, 960?., 19 June, 

Attorney-general v. Dakin : appeal case; decision 
that privilege of exemption from execution of 

legal process does nut extend to li.unpton Court 
palace . . . . . . 20 J une, 

Madame Sarah Rachel Leverson convicted of con- 
spiracy 25 Sept 

[Writ of error : new trial refused, 11 May, 1869.] 

Chornford v. Lingo: female suffrage declared illegal 

7.; Nov. 

Baxter v. Langley; Sunday evening lectures 
declared not illegal .... 19 Nov, 



1867 



TEIALS. 



986 



TRIALS. 



Martin v. Mackonochie : see Church of England, 

23 Dec. 18 
Phillips v. Eyre : verdict for defendant ; see 

Jamaica 20 Jan. 18 

Saurin v. Star and another (convent ease ; a sister 
sued her mother superior, for ill-usage and ex- 
pulsion); verdict for plaintiff, damages 500J. 

3-26 Feb. , 
[Case compromised, April, 1870.] 

James Thos. Gambier, admiralty clerk, and Wm. 
Bumble, engineer, convicted of fraud and seeking 
bribes from contractors . . .9 April, , 

•Cooper v. Gordon : verdict for plaintiff ; the vice- 
chancellor decides that the majority of a congre- 
gation of dissenters may dismiss their minister 
for any cause 28 May, , 

Major Frederick Beswick, constable of Birkenhead, 
convicted of forgery . . . .10 June, , 

Farrer (president of the Amalgamated Carpenters' 
Society) v. Close (the secretary), for misappro- 
priation of money. In 1867 the justices dismissed 
the charge because the society had illegal rules. 
At the trial at the Queen's bench the court was 
equally divided, and no verdict given . 3 July, , 

STanny F. M. Oliver convicted of murder of her 
husband 20 July, , 

Lyons v. Rev. N. Thomas and others, for abduction 
of Esther Lyons, a Jewish girl, a proselyte ; 
damages 50? 31 July, , 

Frederick Hinson convicted of murder of his para- 
mour, Maria Death, and Wm. Douglas Boyd 

24 Nov. , 
Stev. James John Merest, convicted of simony ; 

deprived 26-29 Nov. , 

Martin v. Mackonochie : before judicial committee 
of privy council , defendant censured for evading 
verdict, and condemned in costs . . 4 Dec. , 

Mrs. Kelly v. Rev. J. Kelly ; judicial separation for 
ill usage (not violence) decreed . . 7 Dec. , 

Messrs. Gurney and others, for conspiring to de- 
fraud ; acquitted .... 13-23 Dec. , 

Smith v. Earl Brownlow : after long litigation de- 
cision against the enclosure of the common at 
Berkhampstead by lord of the manor 14 Jan. 18 

James Clifford, a retired artilleryman, convicted of 
" sweating" sovereigns by the voltaic battery, 

1 Feb. ,. 

Jacob Spinass, a Swiss, convicted of murder of 
Cecilia Aldridge, an unfortunate . . 3 March, , 

Dr. Kinglake convicted of bribery on behalf of his 
brother at Bridgewater . . .26 March, ,. 

Wicklow peerage case : claim for an infant declared 
to be unfounded by House of Lords (remarkable 
evidence) 31 March, ,, 

Demetrius Pappa, a bank manager, sentenced to 
S years' penal servitude for embezzlement, 6 May, ,. 

Sir Charles Mordaunt v. lady Mordaunt, and others, 
for divorce: preliminary trial of her sanity (de- 
clared insane on 30 April, 1869), 16-25 Feb. 1870; 
appeal, 27 April, 1870; judgment affirmed 2 June, ,. 

Bishop Goss (R.C.) v. Hill and Whittaker: will 
case; Mr. Moreton's will, bequeathing the chief 
of his property to the bishop, set aside 16 June, „ 

Phillips v. Eyre, for imprisonment during Jamaica 
rebellion ; verdict for defendant . . 23 June, ,, 

Chelsea Murders : Walter Miller convicted of murder 
of Rev. Elias Huelin and Anne Boss, his house- 
keeper (8 or 9 May, 1870) . . .13, 14 July, ,, 

Michael Davitt and John Wilson, treason felony ; 
see Fenians 18 July, ,. 

John Jones or Owen, convicted of murder of Ema- 
nuel Marshall and family (7 persons, early 22 May, 
1870), at Denham, near Uxbridge . 22 July, , 

Shepherd v. Bennett (Arches) ; decision that defen- 
dant had retracted heresy; appeal to privy council, 

23 July, , 

Margaret Waters convicted of murder of John 
Cowen, infant; her sister and accomplice, Sarah 
Ellis, was convicted of fraud, 22 Sept. (baby 
farming case ; see Infanticide) . 21-23 Sept. , 

Bev. C. Voysey v. Noble: appeal to privy council 
judicial committee against condemnation for 
heresy 10 Nov. , 

Ebdy v. McGowan : verdict against an architect for 
refusing to give up the plans of a building he was 
aboiit to erect 16 Nov. , 

Catcli v. Sliaen: for libel on master of Lambeth 



workhouse; verdict for plaintiff, 600I. damages; 
execution stayed .... 15 Dec. 1870 

Diamond Robbery : London and Ryder's man made 
insensible and robbed of diamonds, 12 Jan.; Mar- 
tha Torpey acquitted, 1 March ; , James Torpey 
pleaded guilty (sentenced to 8 years' penal servi- 
tude) 1 May, 1871 

E. Boulton, L. C. Hurt, F. W. Park, and others 
(frequently dressed as women) tried for a conspi- 
racy; acquitted . . . : 9-15 May, ,, 

Tichborne v. Lushington : the plaintiff declared 
himself to be sir Roger Charles Tichborne, sup- 
posed to have been lost at sea; and claimed the 
baronetcy and estates, worth about 24,000^. 
a year. 

Roger Charles Tichborne, son of sir James, born . 1829 

Educated in France till . . . . about 1843 

Entered the army 1849 

Proposed marriage to his cousin Kate Doughty; 
declined Jan. 1852 

Sailed from Havre for Valparaiso (March), and ar- 
rived there 19 June, 1853 

Sailed from Rio Janeiro in the Bella, which foun- 
dered at sea 20 April, 1854 

[A Chancery suit was instituted, and his death legally 
proved.] 

His mother advertised for her son . 19 May, 1865 

The claimant (found by Gibbes and Cubitt in Aus- 
tralia) asserted that he and eight of the crew were 
saved from the wreck of the Bella; that he went 
to Australia, and lived there, roughly, 13 years 
under the name of Castro; married as Castro, 
Jan.; as Tichborne 3 July, 1866 

He set up his claim ; and was accepted by the dow- 
ager lady Tichborne as her son at Paris . Jan. 1867 

[No others of the family accepted him ; but sir 
Clifford Constable and some brother officers did.]* 

His claim was resisted on behalf of sir Henry (a 
minor), son of sir Alfred Tichborne; and after 
chancery proceedings (begun March, 1867) a trial 
began in the court of common pleas before chief 
justice Bovill 11 May, 1871 

The claimant was examined 22 days ; the trial ad- • 
journed on 40th day, 7 July; resumed, 7 Nov.; 
case for claimant closed ... 21 Dec. „ 

Trial resumed, 15 Jan.; the attorney-general, sir J. 
D. Coleridge, spoke 26 days ; on 4 March the 
jury expressed themselves satisfied that the claim- 
ant was not sir Roger ; on the 103rd day he was 
declared nonsuited . . . . .6 March, 1872 

The law proceedings are said to have cost the estate , 
nearly 92,0002. 

He was lodged in Newgate to be tried for perjury, 
7 March; indicted as Thos. Castro, otherwise 
Arthur Orton, for perjury and forgery 9 April, ,, 

The court of queen's bench decide that he may be 
admitted to bail, 23 April; released . 26 April, ,, 

The trial of the claimant for perjury and forgery 
begun before chief justice Cockburn, and justices 
Mellor and Lush at bar 23 April ; case for the 
prosecution closed, 10 July : resumed (for defence) 

21 July, ,, 

Lady Doughty, mother of sir Henry Tichborne, dies 

13 Dec. ,, 

[Up to 27 June (47th day of the trial), out of 150 
witnesses above 100 had sworn that the claimant 
was not Tichborne ; and about 40 that he was 
Arthur Orton.] 

The claimant forbidden to attend public meetings, 

19 Sept. 1873 

Case for the defence closed on 124th day, 27 Oct., 
adjourned from 31 Oct. to 17 Nov., then to 
27 Nov. ; rebutting evidence heard, 27, 28 Nov. „ 

Dr. Kenealy's summing-up, f 2 Dec-14 Jan. 1874 ; 
Mr. Hawkins's reply ... 15 Jan. -28 Jan. 1874 

[Mr. Whalley, M.P., fined for contempt of court, 
250Z., 23 Jan.] 

The chief-justice's summing-up, 29 Jan. -28 Feb. „ 

Verdict : that the claimant did falsely swear, — that 
he was Roger Charles Tichborne, that he se- 
duced Catherine N. E. Doughty in 1851, and that 



* Mr. Guildford Onslow, who spent about 15,000?., iu 
supporting the claimant, died 20 Aug. 1882. 
t See Englishman. 



TEIALS. 



987 



TRIALS. 



he was not Arthur Orton ; * sentence, 14 years' 
imprisonment with hard labour . . 28 Feb. 1874 
[Longest trial known in England.] 
New trial refused by the judges . . 29 April, ,, 
On appeal, sentence affirmed by the house of lords, 
10, 11 March, 1881; released on ticket of leave 

20 Oct. 1884 
Eltham Murder: E. W. Pook for murder of Jane 

Maria Clousen ; acquitted . . 12-15 July, ^l 1 

Hannah Newington, or Flora Davey; convicted of 
manslaughter of Frederick Moon; she was his 
mistress, and excited by insult . . 15 July, „ 

Capt. H. Hamilton Beamish and others tried for 
stranding the Agincourt (see Navy), 26 July ; re- 
primanded by the court ... 8 Aug. ,, 

Robert Kelly : for murder of Talbot (a police-con- 
stable and informer against Fenians) on night of 
12 July; acquitted (extraordinary verdict) 

30 Oct.-io Nov. ,, 

Peek v. Gurney and others (Overendand Co.) plain- 
tiffs claim for loss incurred through misrepresen- 
tations in the company's prospectus ; disallowed 
by master of rolls on account of his neglecting to 
verify the prospectus and his too late claim; 
costs refused to defendants . . .6 Nov. ,, 

Mr.Pigott condemned to imprisonment for illegal 
comments on a trial, in the Irishman . 13 Nov. ,, 

Kev. John Selby Watson, eminent scholar, killed 
his wife in a fit of passion, 8 Oct. ; convicted and 
imprisoned for life .... 10-12 Jan. 1872 

Christiana Edmunds ; convicted of poisoning at 
Brighton ; she purchased chocolate creams, and 
returned poisoned ones to the confectioner, and 
thus caused death to one child and nearly killed 
other persons ; reprieved as insane 15,16 Jan. ,, 

The Queen v. the Lords of the Treasury : for not 
repaying expenses for prosecutions to the county 
of Lancaster; mandamus refused . . 29 Jan. ,, 

Park-lane Murder: Margaret Dixblancs, a Belgian 
emigrant, murdered her mistress, madanie Riel, 
on Sunday, 7 April; escaped; taken at Paris; 
confessed to killing her mistress in a quarrel; 
convicted, but recommended to mercy, 11-14 
June ; sentence commuted to penal servitude for 
life 21 June, ,, 

Ellen Kettel : charged with poisoning her husband's 
first wife in order to marry him ; acquitted, 

24, 25 Oct. ,, 

Chelsea Tragedy: Hermann Nagel and Paul May, 
young Prussians, came to London to avoid con- 
scription ; their money being spent, they agreed 
to commit suicide; after wounding May, Nagel 
shot himself dead, 21 Aug.; May recovered, and 
was indicted for murder, tried, and acquitted, 

21 Nov. ,, 
[He was convicted and punished for forgery at 

Berlin, Feb. 1873.] 

Baker v. Loader : widow, to whom 107,000?. had 
been bequeathed; in ten years is reduced to 
poverty by imposition; she sues the widow of 
her friend Loader and solicitors; verdict of vice- 
chancellor Malins, ordering deeds to Loader to 
be cancelled; the solicitor to pay his own costs, 

20 Nov. ,, 

Mr. Hepworth Dixon v. Smith (Pall-Mall Gazette), 
for libel ; damages, one farthing . 26-29 Nov. .. 

Mr. Guildford Onslow and Mr. G. H. Whalley, 
M.P.'s, fined for contempt of court in speeches 
respecting the Tichboriie case, 20 Jan. ; Mr. 
Skipworth, barrister, for same offence, condemned 
to three months' imprisonment and fined; the 
claimant made to give securities for xoool., fur a 
similar offence . . . . 29 Jan. 1873 

Parke v. Harvey Lewis, sir Joseph McKenna, and 
others: for misuse of a company's funds while 
directors; jodays'trial; verdictforplaintiff^oJan. ,, 

Omagh Murder: (of Mr. Glass, 29 June, 1871); 
sub-inspector Montgomery tried ; 12 days; strong 
evidence; jury not agreed . . . 19 March, ,, 

Broughton v. Knight: will of Mr. Knight set aside 
on account of unsound mind . 31 March, ,, 

Andrews v. Salt: decision by lord-chancellor that a 
child shall be educated as a protestant by grand- 
mother, not by Roman catholic uncle; confirmed 
on appeal 6 May, ,, 

* Charles Orton declared the claimant to be his 
brother Arthur, at the Globe office, 10 March, 1874. 



Rev. O'Keeffe v. Cardinal Cullen (for libel, and 
virtually suspending him from his office) ; consi- 
deration of demurrer; judges (at Dublin) divided 
in opinions ; three decide that the papal ordi- 
nance on which the cardinal relied was prohi- 
bited by the statutes of Elizabeth ; demurrer set 
aside, 7 May; the trial begun 12 May; verdict for 
plaintiff; the jury gave one farthing damages, 

27 May, 

[Mr. O'Keeffe submitted to the cardinal, May, 1876.] 
Sub-inspector Montgomery, at his third trial for 
the brutal murder of Mr. Glass, at Newton- 
Stewart, Ireland, on 8 June, 1871 ; convicted and 
confessed, 28 July [executed, Aug. 26] 

Great jewellery frauds ; Michael and Rebecca 
Goldsmid convicted . . . .8 July, 

Farrell v. Gordons ; much property left to R. C. 
Church ; will affirmed .... 9 July, 

Todd v. Lyne (father Ignatius) ; son of the plaintiff 
rescued from convent (where he had taken vows) 
by chancery 25 July, 

Bank Forgery : Austin Biron Bidwell, George Mac- 
donnell, George Bidwell, and Edwin Noyes, 
Americans, forged bills for discounting at the 
Bank of England, West-Branch, and obtained 
102,217?. ; detected through not dating one bill; 
convicted ; penal servitude for life [their plot to 
escape by bribing the warders failed] 18-26 Aug. 

Rev. John Berrington (after 30 years' swindling) 
sentenced to 15 years' penal servitude 22 Aug. 

Cheltenham Chronicle fined 150?. for commenting on 
trial of the Tichborne claimant . . 23 Sept. 

Marshal Bazaine ; see France ... 6 Oct. 

Gilbert v. Enoch (for Pall Mall Gazette) for libel in 
critique on " The Wicked World," a play ; verdict 
for defendant (both regarded harmless) 27 Nov. 

Capt. Charles S. Maunsell sentenced to a month's 
imprisonment with hard labour for assaulting 
the duke of Cambridge on 6 Jan. . 4 Feb. 

Miss Fairland gave her fortune to St. Mary's Domi- 
nican convent, Belfast ; her trustees oppose the 
transfer ; the master of the rolls affirms the gift, 

24 Feb. 

Dr. Hayman v. the governing body of Rugby 
school ; judgment for the defendants . 21 March, 

JeanLuie (Lindgren) and "capt." Brown convicted 
of perjury in the Tichborne case (7 years and 
5 years' penal servitude) . . . 9, 10 April, 

Mordaunt case (see 1870), divorce court ; 3 judges 
hold that insanity is no bar to suit for divorce ; 
2 judges hold that it is .... 15 May, 

Callan, M.P., v. O'Reilly Dease ; for libel (termed 
" wilful and malicious " by ch. -just. Whiteside), 
Dublin ; damages one farthing . 2 July, 

E. Welby Pugin, convicted of libel against J. R. 
Herbert, R.A., 23 Sept. ; not sentenced, 24 Sept., 

Epping forest case ; decision against the enclosures 
of the lords of the manors as illegal ; see Commons, 

10 Nov. 

Frederick v. Attorney-General : col. Charles Edward 
Frederick declared' heir to baronetcy ; the validity 
of the marriage of his grandi>arents affirmed in 
divorce court 18 Dec. 

Rubery v. baron Albert Grant and M. B. Sampson 
(long city editor of the IVmcs) for libel ; the article 
in Times, 18, 20 Nov. and 20 Dec. 1872, charged 
Rubery with connection with a fraud in a certain 
diamond mine in Colorado ; 10 days' trial ; Grant 
cleared ; Sampson fined 500/. . . .18 Jan. 

[By these articles the public were protected from a 
bad scheme.] 

Alleged False Prospechts Case : (Canadian Oil-Works 
Corporation), Charlton v. sir John Hay, Mr. East- 
wick, and others grossly deceived ; 17 days' trial ; 
jury divided ; discharged ; no verdict 24 Feb. 

[Oil-wells in Ontario, Canada, property of Prince's 
company got up to buy them, by Longbottom ; 
scheme not accepted in the city; taken up at 
west-end: sir John Hay, Mr. M'Cullagh Torrens, 
Mr. Eastwick, and others induced to become 
directors ; wells bought; company collapsed.] 

Philpotts r. Boyd: see Rere&os : settled by judicial 
committeeofprivycounr.il . . . 24 Feb. 

Mordaunt v. Mordaunt and viscount Cole, (see 
above, May, 1874); divorce granted 11 March, 

Terry r. Brighton Aquarium Company, for opening 
on Sundays ; verdict ; penalty 200?., (see Sunday), 

27 April, 



1S74 



1875 



TEIALS. 



TRIALS. 



Jackson v. Grand Junction Canal Company, (see 
Gunpowder Explosion, 2 Oct. 1874) ; company ad- 
judged responsible for damages . 14 May, 

Keith Johnston v. Proprietors of Athencenm, for 
libel in criticism of an atlas ; Edinburgh ; 
damages, 1275L : 24 March, new trial ; damages 
reduced to 100J 16 June, 

John Neave, Arthur Keen (or Murrell) and Annie 
Bolwell, convicted of coining and uttering false 
coin at railway stations . . . 12, 13 July, 

Jenkins v. Rev. Flavel Cook (for excluding him 
from the communion for heresy (denying per- 
sonality of Satan and eternal punishment) ; ver- 
dict for defendant in Court of Arches) . 16 July, 

Col. Valentine Baker sentenced to tine of 500Z., and 
12 months' imprisonment for indecently assaulting 
Miss Dickenson in a railway carriage 2 Aug. 

Mrs. Gladstone v. capt. Gladstone (long case con- 
cluded) ; divorce granted . . . .6 Aug. 

Win. Thompson Hunt convicted of manslaughter 
for administering strychnia to Mrs. Hudson (who 
died) and others, as a remedy for intoxication ; 
5 years' penal servitude . . . .25 Sept. 

Wm. Talley, a solicitor, for dissuading a person 
bound over to prosecute from fulfilling his en- 
gagement ; sentence 1 year's imprisonment 

25 Sept. 

Sugden and others v. St. Leonards, will case (lord 
St. Leonards' will missing ; many codicils left) ; 
verdict for plaintiffs, affirming the lost will on 
his daughter's, Miss Sugden's, recollection of its 

provisions 17-26 Nov. 

[Verdict affirmed on appeal, 14 March, 1876.] 

Whitechapel Murder (which see). 

Henry Wainwright for murder of Harriet Lane, and 
his brother Thomas as accessory before and after 
the fact ; before chief justice Coekburn (nine 
days) ; Henry sentenced to death ; Thomas, as 
accessory after fact, to 7 years' penal servitude 
22 Nov. -1 Dec. 

Smith v. Union Bank of London (see Drafts) ; ver- 
dict for defendants . . . , 29 Nov. 

Rev. H. Keet v. Rev. G. E. Smith (see Reverend) ; 

• appeal to privy council ; verdict for the plaintiff 

21 Jan. 

Persons representing the parish of Folkestone v. 
Rev. C. J. Ridsdale, vicar (for ritualistic prac- 
tices) ; verdict for plaintiffs ; the vicar to be ad- 
monished and pay costs . . . 3 Feb. 

Jenkins v. Rev. F. S. Cook, appeal from the dean of 
Arches to the privy council judicial committee ; 
verdict for plaintiff; (Rev. F. Cook resigned) 

16 Feb. 

Eupion Gas Company (1874) < Queen v. Aspinall and 
others, directors, for fraud ; long trial ; verdict, 
Aspinall- and another convicted of improperly 
obtaining settlement of quotation on Stock Ex- 
change ; acquitted of charge of fraud . 17 Feb. 

[The lord chief justice declared the company to be 
"a fiction and a sham from beginning to end ; " 
sentence, Joseph Aspinall and Charles Knocker, 
12 months' imprisonment, John Saunders Muir 
and William Whyte, 2 months' imprisonment, 1 
July, 1876.] 

W.K. Vance and Ellen Snce, conspiracy to murder 
(ostensibly herself) ; singular case ; sentenced to 
imprisonment .... .1 June, 

Robert Buchanan, the poet, v. P. A. Taylor, M. P. , 
proprietor of Examiner, libels in papers 27 Nov. 
and 1 Dec. (letter said to be by Mr. A. Swinburne, 
the poet) ; damages, 150?. 1 July, 

Twycross (representing many others) v. baron 
Albert Grant and others, to recover money paid 
for shares in Lisbon tramway company, promoted 
by defendant and others ; long trial ; able speech 
of Grant ; verdict, 700L damages . 13 July, 
[Judgment affirmed on appeal, 2 June, 1877.]' 

Buckhurst peerage, claimed by earl Delawarr and by 
his brother, Mortimer Sackville West ; house of 
lords decide in favour of the earl . 18 July, 

Blackburn Murder ; Wm. Fish convicted of murder 
and violation of Emily Mary Holland, aged 7 (28 
March); pleaded temporary insanity . 28 July, 

Richard Banner Oakley, manager of Co-operative 
Credit Bank, convicted of obtaining money by 
false pretences ; much credulity in victims ; 5 
years' penal servitude .... 9-12 Aug. 

Will Frauds : Charles Howard (count von Howard, 



1875 



&c), sentenced to 5 years' penal servitude for ob- 
taining 380?. from John Harvey, for a pretended 
will, (other cases) .... 26 Oct. 

Frederick Henry Vane v. sir Henry Ralph Va.ne 
(his nephew) ; verdict for defendant, maintain- 
ing his father's legitimacy ; chancery division 

25 Nov. 

Lewis v. Higgins, for alleged slander in speech as 
counsel ; verdict for defendant, affirming privi- 
lege of counsel . . . . . 4 Dec. 

Coe (stage manager, Haymarket, dismissed as ac- 
cused of receiving payments from actors engaged) 
v. Sothern and Buckstone ; verdict for plaintiff ; 
damages, 1035! i3"Dec. 

Lord Longford v. Wellington Purdon ; will giving 
property to the plaintiff's young son set aside ; 
the testator, Cooke, having been underthe undue 
influence of Rev. Wm. Lyster (plaintiff not 
blamed) ; 25 days' trial .... Feb. 

Lynall Thomas v. the Queen (petition of right) ; 
for patent of cannon, <fcc. ; verdict for plaintiff, 
with damages .... io March, 

Great Turf Frauds : forgery of cheques for io,oooi., 
&c. ; about 13,000?. obtained ; five sentenced to 
penal servitude ; Henry Benson, 15 years ; Wm. 
and Fred. Kerr and Chas. Bate, 10 years ; Ed- 
win Murray, accessory, 18 months 12 — 23 April, 

Cresswell and others v. Walrond ; will of Bethell 
Walrond set aside by arrangement (he had be- 
queathed his property to strangers and dogs, had 
been cruel to his children, decorated his bed 
with skulls and hearse plumes, &c.) 13 June, 

Queen v. Charles Bradlaugh and Annie Besant, for 
publication of "Fruits of Philosophy," by Dr. 
Knowlton, which' they defended, on grounds of 
humanity, in long speeches ; verdict, the book 
calculated to deprave, but not intended, 18 — 21 
June ; sentence (through the defendants not sub- 
mitting to the court), 6 mouths' imprisonment, 
■200I. fine for both, 28 Jane ; appeal, on ground 
of legal informality, disallowed by queen's bench 

16 Nov. 

Nathaniel Drnseovitch, John Meiklejolm, andWm. 
Palmer, police inspectors, and Edward Froggatt, 
solicitor, charged with conspiracy to defeat the 
ends of justice in respect to turf frauds (see above, 
12 — 23 April); examination began, 12 July; 
Froggatt committed, 6 Sept. ; chief inspector 
Clarke arrested, 8 Sept.; 28 days' examination ; 
committed, 22 Sept. ; trial began, 24 Oct. ; all 
convicted except Clarke ; sentence, 2 years' im- 
prisonment with hard labour . . 20 Nov. 

Wm. Swindlehurst, secretary, and Dr. John Baxter 
Langley, director of Artisans' Dwelling Com- 
pany, and Edward Saffery, convicted of defraud- 
ing shareholders of about 24,312;.; officers sen- 
tenced to 18 months', Saffery 12 months' impri- 
sonment 23 —26 Oct. 

Thos. Hyslop (aged 19) and John Denham (aged 18) 
convicted of high way robbery at Blaekheath 23 Oct. 

Penge Case : Louis A. E. Staunton, Patrick L. 
Staunton his brother, and Eliz. Ann, his wife, 
and her sister, Alice Rhodes, mistress of Louis ; 
tried for murder by starvation of Harriet, wife of 
Louis (a woman of weak intellect, married for 
her property, and soon deserted), 19 Sept. ; all 
convicted, 26 Sept.; respited, 13 Oct.; Alice 
Rhodes pardoned ; the others sentenced to penal 
servitude for life ; announced . . 30 Oct. 

Coote (solicitor) v. Kenealy ; for payments ; ver- 
dict for plaintiff ..... 14 Nov. 

Forged Leases: Frederick Dimsdale, solicitor, Chas. 
Burrell Moore, clerk, and others ; forged leases, 
and borrowed money on them (above 300,000/.); 
many lenders did not appear ; pleaded guilty ; 
sentence, Dimsdale, penal servitude for life ; 
Moore, 7 years ; others less . \6, 17 Jan. 

Rev. H. J. Dodwell fired at the master of the. rolls, 
sir George Jessel, 22 Feb.; acquitted as insane 

15 March, 

Madame Rachel (Levison, or Leverson), convicted 
of misdemeanour; obtained money and jewels 
from Mrs. Pearce, for "beautifying;" 5 years' 
penal servitude . . . 10, 11 April, 

Eugene Marie Chantrelle, Frenchman, convicted of 
murder of wife, at Edinburgh ; much cruelty 
disclosed 10 May, 

Will case, Dublin ; Christopher Neville Bagot, 



1876 



1877 



TEIALS. 

made a fortune in Australia ; made will, disin- 
heriting his son as illegitimate ; died, 23 May, 
1877 ; trial, 23 days ; painful disclosures ; the 
will set aside (se- below, 1879) . . 20 May, 18; 

Harrington v. Victoria Graving Dock Company ; 
he claimed remainder of commission for obtain- 
ing an order from Great Eastern railway com- 
pany ; nonsuited ; such commissions declared 
illegal by queen's bench ... 4 June, ,. 

Jas. T. Northcott, Geo. Thompson, Thos. G. Wood 
(of the Albion Life Insurance company) ; sen- 
tenced to 5 years' penal servitude for conspiracy, 
and obtaining money on false pretences ; subor- 
dinates sentenced to less imprisonment 8 June, ,, 

Charles Marvin, copying-clerk of foreign office, ex- 
amined for copy of an Anglo-Russian agreement 
published in Globe, 14 June, 27 June ; discharged 

16 July, „ 

Taylor v. Gwyn ; claim for Jermy estates (see 
jenny murders by Rush, Trials, 1849) ; claim 
denied ; trial set aside by statute of limitations 

5 Aug. ,, 

In re Agar Ellis ; the husband's promise before 
marriage that his children should be brought up 
Romanists, permitted to be withdrawn by chan- 
cery 6 Aug. „ 

The Board of "Works v. rev. F. G. Lee, of All Saints, 
Lambeth ; queen's bench division decide that the 
incumbent of a church is not its owner, and 
therefore not responsible for keeping it in repair, 

11 Nov. ,, 

Annie Louisa lady Gooch (with Ann Walker) ; she 
tried to pass a child as her own and her husband's, 
committed for trial 30 Nov., indictment ignored, 

11 Dec. ,, 

Paul and others v. Summerhayes ; appeal ; sentence 
against plaintiffs affirmed (foxhunters may not 
trespass), queen's bench . . . .16 Nov. ,, 

Queen v. Bandmann (for assault on Mrs. Rousby), 
not guilty . . . 19-20 Nov. ,, 

Henry Sturt Marshall, asst. sec. of curates' augmen- 
tation fund, convicted of embezzling about 7,000^. ; 
confessed 24 Oct. , 

Whistler v. Ruskin, for libellous criticism in "Fors 
Clavigera," one farthing damages . 25, 26 Nov. , 

Hill and others v. managers of Metropolitan Asylums 
District 11 (days), verdict, that Hampstead small- 
pox hospital was a nuisance (verdict affirmed on 
appeal, 28 Jan. 1879) . .- .29 Nov. ,. 

Mr. Wybrow Robertson (manager of Westminster 
Aquarium) v. Labouchere, for libel in Truth, 
27 Nov., verdict for defendant . . 20 Dec. ,, 

Muir and others ; court of session, decides that trus- 
tees who have invested in the "City of Glasgow 
bank," are responsible [affirmed on appeal to house 
of lords, 7 April, 1879] . . . 20 Dec. , 

Stephen Gambrill for murder of Mr. Arthur Gillow 
(on 5 Dec. when defending agricultural ma- 
chinery), at Wednesborough, near Sandwich, Kent, 
convicted 14-15 Jan. i£ 

Long firm forgeries, Kettle and others convicted, 
sentenced to various terms of imprisonment, 

16-17 Jan. , 

City of Glasgow Bank directors and managers (see 
under Banks, note) convicted . 20 Jan. -1 Feb. , 

Charles Peace (or John Ward), committed many 
burglaries in skilful manner, convicted of at- 
tempting life of policeman, 19 Nov. ; convicted of 
murder of Arthur Dyson, at Bannercross near 
Sheffield, 29 Nov. 1876 . . . .4 Feb. , 

[He jumped from a moving railway train near Shef- 
field, and was nearly killed, 22 Jail. ; confessed to 
murders, &c. ; exonerated William Habron, con- 
victed as an accomplice in a murder (therefore 
released, 18 March); executed at Leeds, 25 Feb.] , 

Dr. .Julius r. Bishop of Oxford (for noi prosecuting 
rev. T. T. Carter of C'lewer for ritualistic prac- 
tices), queen's bench, (verdicl lor plaintiff, set 
aside on appeal, jo May, Mr. Carter resigned ?.\ 

March, 1880) ..'... 8 March, , 

Kentish /'"»•» murder, Thomas ferryman convicted 
of murder of his mother . . 2 April, , 

Queen v. Booker & Wyman (for libel in Truth, 
against Mr. Lambri), verdict against Wyman ; long 
trial 30 April, , 

Duke of Norfolk v. Arhuthnot, claiming ownership 



989 



TEIALS. 



of Fitz-alan chapel in Arundel church, verdict for 
plaintiff, common pleas ... 17 May, 1879 
[Decision affirmed on appeal, 7 June, 1880.] 

Bagot will case, appeal, new trial ordered 5 June, ,, 
Shepherd v. Francis (for libel in a review in the 

" Athenseum "), damages, 1 50I. . . 16 June, ,, 
The Queen v. sir Charles Reed ; the queen's bench 
decide that the metropolitan school board have 
power to borrow money . . -27 June, ,, 
Sturla v. Freccia : Antonio Mangini, born 1735, con- 
sul here about 1771, died 1803 ; his daughter 
married Aquila Brown, 1792 ; after 8 years 
contest established her disputed legitimacy, 
1811 : died intestate in London, aged 93, 1871, her 
property, after a trial, awarded to the Freccia 
family, 1876. the claim of Madame Sturla set 
aside by vice-chancellor . . .24 June. ,, 

Richmond murder ,Katherine Webster, convicted of 
murder of Mrs. Julia Martha Thomas (see Rich- 
mond) 8 July, ,, 

Edmund Galley convicted of murder, by error, 
and transported ; declared innocent by the house 
of commons 25 July, ,, 

Euston-square mystery, Hannah Dobbs, for murder 
of Matilda Hacker, acquitted . . 23 July, ,, 

The mutilated remains of Matilda Hacker, eccentric, 
about 50 years old, were found in a coal-cellar, 
No. 4, Euston-square. Hannah Dobbs was maid- 
servant there. She published her autobiography 
in which she attacked her former master, Sewerin 
Bastendorff, who, after bringing an action for 
libel, was convicted of perjury . . Dec. ,, 

(He was awarded by consent 500J. damages for the 
libel), 27 Jan. 1881 

Rev. Christopher Newman Hall v. Mrs. Hall, and 
Mr. Richardson, long trial, divorce granted, 8 Aug. ,, 

Jonathan Gaydon (or Geyden), for murder of Miss 
Mary White at Chingford, 21 June, 1857, confessed, 
retracted, convicted (reprieved) . . 24 Oct. ,, 

Adolphus Rosenberg, for libel against Mrs. Langtry 
and Mrs. West, in Town Talk, convicted, 18 
months' imprisonment . . .25, 27, Oct. ,, 

Tranmere baby-farming ccrse(near Birkenhead), John 
and Catherine Barns, convicted of manslaughter ; 
(they received illegitimate infants with premiums 
of3o?.,&c.) 28, 29 Oct. 1879 

Dr. Arthur H. Nowell v. George Williams (for plac- 
ing him in a lunatic asylum), verdict for the de- 
fendant, medical men censured bythejury, 13 Nov. ,, 

Phillips, surgeon, v. S. W. railway company, for 
injury, awarded 7000L by justice Field; new 
trial, awarded i6,oooZ. by lord ch. justice Cole- 
ridge, common pleas, new trial refused 6 Dec. 

Smee^. Smee and corporation of Brighton, will set 
aside, Brighton loses a free library bequeathed, 

5 Dec. „ 

Hilliard v. Rose & Todd, will affirmed, singular case, 

12 Dec. ,, 

Edward Froggatt (see above, 20 Nov. 1877), sen- 
tenced to 7 years' penal servitude for fraudulent 
conversion of trust property (8000?.) . 17 Dec. ,, 

James Lewis Paine and Fanny Matthews, for mur- 
der of Miss Annie Maclean, aged 34, daughter of 
col. Maclean, C.B., a deformed lady of property, 
by starving, administering spirits, and ill-usage, 
committed 15 Dec; Fanny .Matthews acquitted 
16 Feb. Paine sentenced to penal servitude for 
life . . . . . . 24 Feb. 1SS0 

Railway commissioners, powers limited (see Rail- 
ways, 1880) 13 .Ian. ,, 

Martin v. Mackonochie, new action for deprivation, 
first movement, see Public Worship . 17 Jan. ,, 

Alexander Schosser attempted to kill priests in the 
Italian chapel, Hatton-garden, to Jan., tried, scu- 
tei .1 io imprisonment for life . 10, 11 Peh. ., 

Win. Henry Waller, forger by chemicals, &c, sen- 
tenced to 20 years' penal servitude . 23 March, ,, 

Dr. Caleb Charles whitefoord sentenced to 2 
months' imprisonment and line of 50/. for forging 
letter to stop execution of Charles Shurety, 

24 March, 

Great West of England bank directors (.lei,, me 
Murchand others), for publishing false balance- 
sheets, acquitted . . . 28 April — 5 May, ,, 

Lambri <■. Labouchere, for libel in Frui . verdici 
for defendant 15 May, ,, 

Tiehbornt case, writ of error before court of appeal, 
granted 1 3 Jan., sentence affirmed . 24, 25 June, ,, 



TRIALS. 



990 



TRIALS. 



Northern Counties Insurance Company, James E. 
Crabtree, manager, Geo. Edw. Nesbitt, ac- 
countant, and four directors, sentenced to impri- 
sonment for making and circulating false accounts, 

22 July, i 

Pleasanee Louisa Ingle, nurse at Guy's hospital, 
convicted of manslaughter (she putting Louisa 
Morgan, a patient, into" a cold bath and leaving 
her), 3 months' imprisonment . . g Aug. 

Henry Perry, for robbing Clarence Lewis in a Ken- 
sington railway carriage, and attempting to throw 
him out of the carriage, &c. ; whipping and 20 
years' penal servitude . . . 15 Sept. 

Thomas Wheeler for murder of Edward Anstee at 
Marshall's Wick farm, near St. Alban's, 22 Aug. 
convicted 6, 8 Nov. 

Sergeant Wm. Marshman (by court-martial), for 
alleged fraudulent marking at the volunteer rifle 
meetings at Wimbledon, 1S78, 1879, 1880, ac- 
quitted . 13 Aug. — 16 Sept. 

George Pavey convicted of murder of Ada Shepherd, 
aged ten (Acton murder), and Wm. Herbert, con- 
victed of murder of Jane Messenger in Finsbury 
park 24 Nov. 

Mr. P. Callan, M.P., convicted of libel against Mr. 
A. M. Sullivan, M.P. (fine 50I.) . . 30 Nov. 

Debenham & Preebody v. Mellon, appeal, house of 
lords decide that a husband is not responsible 
for wife's debts if he allow her sufficient means, 

27 Nov. 

Attorney-general v. Edison Telephone company, 29 
Nov. etseq., verdict against company, establish- 
ing monopoly bought by Government 20 Dec. 

Trial of Charles Stewart Parnell, Thomas Sexton, 
Timothy Daniel Sullivan, John Dillon, Joseph 
Gillis Biggar, all M.P.'s, Thomas Brennan, Pat- 
rick Egan and Michael O'Sullivan, secretary, 
treasurer, and assist, secretary of the land league, 
Michael Boyton, Patrick Joseph Gordon, Matthew 
Harris, John W. Mally, John W. Walsh, and 
P. J. Sheridan, indicted for conspiracy to prevent 
tenants paying rent, <fec. Queen's Bench, Dublin ; 
lord chief justice May retires, as having been 
alleged to have given an opinion on the case 
previously ; trial began 28 Dec. 1880, jury dis- 

„ agreeing were discharged . . -25 Jan. 

Jones and others (trustees) v. rev. John Turner 
Stannard, nonconformist minister, and others, to 
dismiss him for doctrine contrary to trust deed ; 
verdict for plaintiffs, chancery division 1 Feb. 

Mary Annie Wilmot, nurse, attempt to poison Mrs. 
Booth (whose son and daughter had died under 
doubtful circumstances), at Sheffield, strong 
case, acquitted 16 Feb. 

Hampstead small-pox hospital case (see above, 
1878-9), on appeal, to the house of lords, preced- 
ing judgments reversed . . .7 March, 

Dysart peerage legitimacy case, Wm. John Manners 
claims by an English marriage of lord Hunting- 
tower, Albert Edwin Tollemache by a Scotch mar- 
riage, -which is declared not proved, house of 
lords (painful details) ... 7 March, 

Clarke v. Bradlaugh, suit for penalty of 500L for 
sitting and voting as M.P. without taking the 
oath, on July 2, 1880; verdict for plaintiff ; ap- 
peal, sentence confirmed* . . 30, 31 March, 

Edward Levi Lawson v. Labouchere, M.P. for libels 
in Truth, seven days' trial, jury disagree, no 
verdict 28 March, 

Spiritualist case, Susan Wills Fletcher (wife of a 
spiritualist doctor in America, who was concerned 
in the case), convicted of obtaining by false pre- 
tences about io,oooi. (in jewellery, &c), of Mrs. 
Hart-Davies, long trial, twelve months' imprison- 
ment with hard labour . . .12 April, 

Johann Most, convicted of libel against Alexander 
II. of Bussia, and incitement to murder in the 
Freiheit for 19 March, 25 May; sentence 
affirmed on appeal, 18 June ; 16 months' impri- 
sonment with hard labovu- . . 29 June, 

Saunders v. Richardson, 5 judges decide that pa- 
rents must either pay board-school fees for child 



* Verdict affirmed (see Barratry), 22 July ; Bradlaugh 
appeals, 12 — 14 Nov. ; new trial granted, 2', 3 Dec. 1881 ; 
appeal allowed by lords justices, 22— 24 Feb. ; sentence 
confirmed, 30 March, 1882 ; sentence reversed by the 
lords, 9 April, 1883. 



beforehand or apply for pecuniary help ; coming 
without fee considered non-attendance 27 June, 18S 

Bend Or libel, Barrow v. "Morning Post," for accu- 
sation of doctoring the horse, verdict for plain- 
tiff, damages 1750? 27, 28 June, ,, 

Big Ben libel, Stainbank (for Mears) v. sir E. C. 
Beckett, 27 June, verdict for plaintiff, 200I. da- 
mages 5 July, „ 

Percy Lefroy alias Mapleton committed for trial 
for murder of Mr. Fk. I. Gold on the London and 
Brighton railway (27 June), 21 July ; convicted, 8 
Nov.; confessed; executed-. . . 29 Nov. ,, 

Notting Hill Fire, William Nash and Maria Wright, 
for murder of Elizabeth Jane Clark and others by 
fire, 30 May; he sentenced to death (reprieved), 
she acquitted 3, 4 Aug. „ 

Ledru Rolin Reynolds, adventurer, with many 
aliases, convicted of remarkable frauds connected 
with the silver mine company, two years' penal 
servitude 15 Sept ,, 

Mabel Wilberforce, an adventuress, convicted of 
gross perjury in action against Mr. Philip ; nine 
months' penal servitude . . . 24 Oct. ,, 

Kate Dover, for murder of Chas. Skinner, artist, 
at Sheffield, convicted of manslaughter . 7 Feb. 18S 

Dr. G. H. Lamson, for murder of Percy M. John 
(see Wimbledon) ; convicted, 8 — 14 March ; exe- 
cuted 28 April , t 

Roderick Maclean, for shooting at the queen, ac- 
quitted as insane .... 19 April, „ 

Esther Pay, for murder of Georgiana Moore (see 
Pimlico), acquitted . . . 27 — 29 April, ,, 

Albert Young, for threatening to shoot at the 
queen, 10 years' penal servitude . 26 May, , y 

Mr. Thomas Scrutton v. Miss Helen Taylor, a libel 
concerning St. Paul's industrial school ; damages 
zoool. . . . . . . .30 June, ,, 

Sir Henry Tyler, M.P., v. Wm. Jas. Ramsey, Geo. 
Wm. Foote, and Edwd. Wm. Whittle, also Chas. 
Bradlaugh, for blasphemous libel in the Free- 
thinker (lord mayor, 1 1 July), committed for trial, 

21 July, ,, 

Next of Kin Fraud, J. E. Rogers, A. Mc.Kenzie, J. 
H. . Shakspear, and W. Evans sentenced to im- 
prisonment 21 July, „ 

Thomas Walsh, for treason-felony (see Fenians), 7 
years' penal servitude . . . 7 — 9 Aug. ,, 

John Saunders, desperate ruffian, convicted of bur- 
glary and attempt to murder at Stamford-hill ; 
penal servitude for life ... 19 Oct. ,, 

Charles Soutar, for stealing the body of the earl of 
Crawford ; Edinburgh ; 5 years' penal servitude, 

23, 24 Oct. „ 

Wm. Meager Bartlet, a manager of mines, con- 
victed of murder of illegitimate child, Exeter, 

27 Oct. „ 

Charles Brookshaw, for threatening to kill the 
prince of Wales, 10 years' penal servitude, 

21 Nov. ,, 
St. Luke's Mystery, Franz Felix Stum, convicted of 

forgery of signature of Urban Napoleon Stanger, 
baker, who had disappeared ; 10 years' penal 
servitude n Dec. ,, 

Plumstead Murder, Louisa Jane Taylor, convicted 
of poisoning Mary Ann Tregillis, aged 81, 15 Dec. „ 

Maxwell Heron, commander of H.M.S. Clyde, at 
Aberdeen sentenced by court-martial to dismissal 
for embezzlement and misconduct . 21 Dec. „ 

Richard Claude Belt (sculptor) v. Charles Lawes 
(sculptor), for libel in Vanity Fair, 20 Aug. 1881, 
et seq. ; (charges of fraudulent imposture, &c.,) 
before Baron Huddleston, Exchequer division, 
21 June, et seq., 14 Nov., et seq. ; verdict on 43rd 
day for plaintiff, damages 5000Z. . 28 Dec. , : 

Goodacre v. Watson, to restrain deposition of pes- 
tilential refuse on building ground, as a nuisance 
at Fulham ; injunction granted with costs, 

22 Feb. 18; 
Bethell v. Sir Percy Shelley, for infringement of 

the Theatre act, verdict for defendant, is. damages 

23 Feb. ,, 
G. W. Foote, editor, W. J. Ramsey, printer, and 

H. A. Kemp, publisher, sentenced to imprison- 
ment for blasphemous libels in the Freethinker, 

5 Mar. „ 
Clarke v. Bradlaugh, verdict for defendant on ap- 
peal to lords (see above, March, 1881) 9 April, „ 



TEIALS. 

C. Bradlaugh, for blasphemy in the Freethinker, 
10 April, acquitted . . . .14 April, : 

Bradlaugh v. Newdegate, for supporting an action 
by a common informer, verdict for plaintiff with 
costs 23 April, 

Phoenix park murders (sec under Ireland) . April, 

May, 

Belt v. Lawes : appeal for new trial, 24 May — 9 June, 

Dynamite Plot (see Birmingham, England, and 
London, 1883), Thomas Gallagher, Henry Wilson, 
John Curtin, and Alfred Whitehead, for treason- 
felony, sentenced to .penal servitude for life ; 
William Ansburgh and Bernard Gallagher, ac- 
quitted 11 — 14 June, 

Strome Ferry Case, Ten men were sentenced to 
four months' imprisonment for violently stopping 
the transmission of fish by Highland railway on 
Sunday, 3 June 23 July, 

Dynamite conspiracy, Timothy Featherstone, and 
three other Fenians, convicted at Liverpool, 

7—9 Aug. 

Wm. Gouldstone convicted of murder of his five 
children at Walthamstow (on 8 Aug.), 14 Sept. ; 
respited as insane .... 3 Oct. 

Bournemouth case. Mrs. Miller, the Joy breach of 
promise ; conflicting evidence ; damages for 
plaintiff, 2350Z 15 Nov. 

French Date Coffee Co., Bel lairs v. Haymen and 
others, promoters ; misleading prospectus, ver- 
dict for plaintiff 22 Nov. 

London and River Plate Bank robbery, George Warden 
pleads guilty to robbery of securities (about 
116,000?.), 26 Nov., and John Davis Watters con- 
victed of receiving the same ; both sentenced to 
12 years' penal servitude . . -27 Nov. 

Dobbs v. Grand Junction water works co. ; on ap- 
peal the house of lords decides that houses are to 
be rated for water on the rated, not the gross 
value 30 Nov. 

Patrick O'Donnell, convicted of murder of James 
Carey, the informer (see Ireland), 30 Nov., 

1 Dec. 

Priestman v. Thomas: Whalley will case; incredi- 
ble incidents ; verdict for plaintiff; a forged will ; 
fraudulent compromise, proposed by defendant ; 
15 days' trial 4 Dec. 

Central News v. Judy, for libel respecting telegrams, 
verdict for defendant . . . .13 Dec. 

Belt v. Lawes, again ; the judges decide for a new 
trial unless Mr. Belt accepts 500^. instead of 
5,oooL ; Belt accepts, defendant objects, 21 Dec. 

Wm. Wolff and Edwd. Bondurand, for plot to blow 
up German embassy, arrested in Westminster, 
22 Nov. 1883 ; jury disagree, 14 — 19 Jan. ; 
prisoners discharged . . . .28 Jan. : 

Bradlaugh v. Gosset ; verdict for defendant (see 
Parliament) 9 Feb. 

Attorney-general v. Birkbeck, for contravention of 
the Bank act of 1844 ; verdict for the crown, 

9 Feb. 

Liverpool poisoning case, Catherine Flanagan and 
Margaret Higgins, convicted of the murder of 
Thomas Higgins ; other charges, 16 Feb. ; exe- 
cuted 3 March, 

Belt v. Lawes, appeal before Master of the Rolls 
and others, 3 March, sentence of the other court 
affirmed with costs ... 17 March, 

London Financial Association v. Kelk and others ; 
case dismissed (see Alexandra park) 8 March, 

Earl v. countess of Euston, divorce sought on 
ground that she had a husband living when she 
married ; as it was proved that this man had a 
wife living when he married her, and that thus 
she was free, divorce was refused . 4 April, 

Parks-place Club declared by the Queen's Bench to 
be a gaming-house ; Mr. Jenks, the proprietor 
and others fined .... 24 June, 

Mrs. Weldon v. Dr. Semple, for signing certificate 
of lunacy ; ten days ; verdict for plaintiff, 1000/. 
damages 28 July, 

Daley and Egan, Aug. 1884 (see Dynamite) . May, 

Thomas Henry Orrock, convicted of murder of po- 
liceman Cole (on 1 Dec. 1882) ; remarkable evi- 
dence 19, 20 Sept. 

Ticliliorne Claimant (see above, 1871 — 4) released on 
ticket-of-leave 20 Oct. 

Mignonette Case (see Wrecks) . . 6 Nov 



991 



TEIALS. 



Miss Finney v. viscount Garmoyle ; breach of pro- 
mise of marriage ; a verdict by consent for io,oooL 

20 Nov. 

Defence society for innocent prisoners; Morley 
Jervis sentenced to 2 years' penal servitude, 
Vernon Garland 15 months' and Charles Kemp 
• 9 months', for fraud ... 21 Nov. 

Adams v. Hon. B. Coleridge, for libel in a letter to 
Miss M. Coleridge ; verdict of jury for plaintiff, 
3,ooo£. ; verdict by judge Manisty for defendant, 
the letter being privileged . . 21, 22 Nov. 

Whalley Will Case (see Dee. 1883), Charles Thomas 
and Thomas William Nash, convicted of forgery, 
15 years' penal servitude, Edward Gunnell ac- 
quitted . , . . . 24 Nov.— 2 Dec. 

Mrs. Weldon v. Dr. Forbes Winslow, for treating 

her asa lunatic, 500I. awarded to plaintiff, 4th trial, 

25 — 29 Nov. 

Eliz. Gibbons, for murder of husband ; she asserted 
his suicide, 18-19 Dec..; life imprisonment,3i Dec. 

Mr. Edmund Yates sentenced to 4 months' im- 
prisonment, for libel against the earl of Lonsdale 
(in The World), July, 1883- April, 1884; appeal dis- 
allowed 16 Jan. 

Mr. Irving Bishop fined, io,oooZ. for libel (reduced 
to 500L on appeal) (see Thought Reading) 15 Jan. 

John Lee, footman, convicted of murder of Miss 
Emma A. W. Keyse, his mistress (at Babbicombe, 
near Torquay, 15 Nov.), 2-4 Feb. ; when about to 
be hanged at Exeter, the drop failed three times, 
and Lee was removed and reprieved . 23 Feb. 

The earl of Durham's petition for annulling his mar- 
riage, on account of his wife's alleged insanity 
at the time of their union dismissed with costs 
by sir James Hannen, after 8 days' trial, 

10 March, 

Mrs. Georgina Weldon sentenced to 6 months' im- 
prisonment for libel on M. Jules Prudence Ri- 
viere 30 March, 

James Lee, convicted of murder of Inspector Sim- 
mons at Romford (25 Jan.) . . 28 April 

John Gilbert Cunningham and Harry Burton con- 
victed of treason-felony (see under Tower), and 
for complicity with criminal explosions (25 Feb. 
et seq.) ; sentenced to penal servitude for life, 

11-18 May, 

Weldon v. Gounod for libel ; io,oooL awarded 7 May, 

Eugene Loraine, engraver, an accomplished 
swindler, and chief of a seminary of crime, 
convicted of attempted fraud by forgery, 

22 May, 

Benj. Wai'burton's will ; Warburton v. Childs, 
Hobson & Moss ; testator declared insane and 
intestate ; legacies lost by Royal Society and 
others ; seven days' trial ... 23 June, 

Mrs. Lotinga v. Commercial Union Insurance Co. 
Policy of her husband Isaac for 2,oooL estab- 
lished ; conflicting evidence respecting his death 
and temperance (14 days' trial) . . 2 July, 

James Malcolm (otherwise capt. Macdonald) for 
bigamy (gross case), Emma Dash, at Brighton, 4 
April ; doubtful identity ; jury disagree 25 Sept. ; 
second trial, 16 Oct.; convicted, seven years' 
penal servitude 24 Oct. 

W. T. Stead, editor of Pall Mall Gazette, (2) 
Sampson Jacques (assistant) (3), Bramwell Booth, 
of Salvation Army, (4) Rebecca Jarrett, and (5) 
Louise Mourey, connection with abduction of 
Eliza Armstrong, under 16, and indecent assault: 
(1) three months' imprisonment, (2) one month, 
(3) acquitted, (4) six months', (5), six months' 
with hard labour . . . 23 Oct.-io Nov. 

Mrs. Weldon r. sir Henry De Bathe fur slander, 
19 Nov. ; 1,000?. damages awarded . 23 Nov. 

Anthony Benjamin Rudge, James Baker, and 
John Martin convicted for burglary at Xetherby 
Hall, Cumberland, 28 Oct., and murder of police 
constable Byrnes at Plumpton, 29 Oct. (captured 
by railway servants) . . . 18-20 Jan. 1 

JohnMagee, photographer, sentenced toseven years' 
penal servitude for threatening the prince of 
Wales 15 Jan. 

Richard Belt, sculptor, sentenced to twelve 
months' imprisonment with hard labour for 
fraudulent sale of jewellery i" sir Win. Abdj ; 
his brother Walter acquitted . . 15 March, 

John Burns, limn Byde Champion, Henry 
Mayers llyndiiian, and John Edward Williams 



TEIALS. 



992 



TEIALS. 



for seditious words ; acquitted but censured, 

6-10 April, 18 

Mrs. Adelaide Bartlett tried for the murder of her 
husband by chloroform ; (Rev. George Dyson 
charged as an accessory before the fact discharged, 
12 April ); Mrs. Bartlett acquitted 12-17 April, > 

Dr. Lyell, for heirs-at-law, v. Kennedy, agent for 
Anne Duncan, intestate ; long litigation re- 
specting property ; verdict for plaintiff, 22 June, , 

Crawford v. Crawford ; divorce of Mrs. Crawford, 
decreed, 12 Feb. ; confirmed ; serious charges 
against sir Charles Dilke, denied by him but 
accepted by jury .... 23 July, , 

Diamond robbery with violence to Mr. Julius 
Tabak, the owner, 25 March ; conviction and 
sentences : Adolphe Weiner, instigator, seven 
years' penal servitude ; James Palmer, perpe- 
trator ten years'"; accomplices, Leon Weiner, 
Daniel Jacoby, and Samuel Scandland, each five 

years, 1-4 Nov. , 

[Principal witness, Toussaint or Denuncis, who 
was sentenced to 15 years' penal servitude in 
June for his joint action with Palmer, who 
escaped when Toussaint was taken.] 

Mary Lena Sebright (formerly Scott) v. Arthur 
Sebright ; a merely formal marriage contract 
entered into by the terrorised plaintiff annulled, 

16 Nov. , 

Adams v. lord Coleridge and his son, the lion. B. 
Coleridge, for libel in letters sent to an arbitrator 
(lord Monkswell), wrongly delivered ; verdict 
for defendants with costs . . 17-25 Nov. ,. 

Lord and lady Colin Campbell divorce, double 
suit (previous judicial separation ; numerous 
charges on both sides not proved) ; suits for 
divorce dismissed ... 27 N0V.-20 Dec. , 

Miss Allcard v. Miss Skinner (superior of the 
"Sisters of the Poor", an Anglican convent, 
Kev. Henry Nihill, director), to recover property 
given as under undue influence ; verdict for 
defendant, 31 Jan. ; appeal rejected . 9 July, 18: 

Thomas William Carroll convicted for atromous 
murder of Lydia Green, at 8, Baches - street, 
Hoxton, 5 Feb. ... 30 March-2 April, ,. 

Mr. Dillon and other M.P's. for conspiracy ; jury 
disagree (see Ireland) . . . i4 _2 4 Feb- >. 

Col. Sandoval sentenced to one month's imprison- 
ment and fined 500Z. for fitting out vessel 
against Venezuela .... 21 March, , 

Mr- James Davis, proprietor of the Bat, convicted 
for libel against Mr. Robert Peck ; three months' 
imprisonment, and fine of 500?. . 30 March, ,, 

Mr. Edward St. John Brenon v. Messrs. Kidgway, 
publishers of the "Black Pamphlet" (relating 
to Irish republican brotherhood &c.) ; 500Z. 
awarded as damages .... 3 May, ,. 

Professor Caird v. Syme (a bookseller) ; after 
differing decisions of the courts, the house of 
lords, on appeal, decides against the publication 
of university lectures without the consent of the 
lecturers 13 June, ,, 

Beyfus v. Jonas and others, charge of fraudulent 
conspiracy ; thirteen days' trial ; verdict for 
plaintiff, 40s. damages 5 July, .1 

Samuel Taylor, driver, and Robert Davis, fireman, 
tried for manslaughter (see Railway Accidents, 
Doncaster) 14 Oct. „ 

Police constable Endacott acquitted of perjury 
(see under Police) ... 31 Oct.-i Nov. „ 

Joyce (the marquis's agent) v. the marquis of 
Clanricarde, for libel in a letter ; verdict for 
plaintiff ; damages 2,500?. . . 6, 7 Dec. ,, 

Long firm fraud ; thirteen men convicted ; sentenced 
to various terms of imprisonment . 21 Dec. ,, 

Cuninghame Graham, M.P., and John Burns 
tried for assaulting police, &c, on 13 Nov. 1887 
(see Riots) ; convicted of taking part in an 
unlawful assembly ; six weeks' imprisonment 
without hard labour . . . 16-18 Jan. i8i 

Dynamite conspiracy (see under Dynamite), Thomas 
Callan and Michael Harkins sentenced to fifteen 
years' penal servitude .... 3 Feb. „ 

Slater v. Slater ; a chancery forgery case ; the 
court defrauded of about 4,000?., the property of 
Miss Rose Maud Maxwell, by the forgeries of 
William Bowdeu, a solicitor's clerk : the money 
ordered to be paid to her by the court of 
chancery ; Bowden in Nebraska ; John Francis 



Lidiard, a solicitor, his friend, ordered to repay 

the money to the court ... 4 Feb. 1888 

Marquis of Abergavenny v. bishop of Llandaff, 
after much litigation, verdict for the bishop who 
had refused to induct the Rev.- Robert W. Gosse 
into a living, being ignorant of the Welsh 
language 22 Feb. ,, 

Major Borrowes fined 400?. and costs for assaulting 
his brother-in-law, lord Howard de Walden, 

10 March, ,, 

Major Templer honourably acquitted of charge of 
divulging secret information concerning military 
ballooning, &c. ..... g April. „ 

Mr. Samuel Peters t>. Mr. C. Bradlaugh, M.P., for libel 
respecting cheques given him by lord Salisbury 
and others for the relief of the unemployed ; 
300?. awarded to the plaintiff . . 18 April, ,, 

Warne & Co. v. Seebohm (see Copyright), 10 May, ,, 

Hutt and another v. The governors of Haileybury 
college (see under Haileybury) . . 19 June, ,, 

Wood v. Cox (see under Races) . . 29 June, „ 

O'JJonnell v. Walter and another (for libel in the 
Times) ; verdict for the defendants (see under 
Parnellites) 2-5 July, ,, 

Trials respecting electric light patents (see under 
Electricity) 1886-8 

George and Kelynge Greenway, bankers, of 
Warwick and Leamington, sentenced to imprison- 
ment, &c, for frauds. . . . 31 July, 1888 

Trial of Regent's Park murderer (see Regent's Park), 

July, ,, 
R. P. B. Frost and his presumed wife, Annie 
Frost (clever and fascinating), who as Mrs Gordon 
Bailie and other names, had carried on a long 
series of frauds at home and abroad by means of 
fictitious cheques, convicted of cheating trades- 
men of goods and money ; he sentenced to eigh- 
teen months' imprisonment, with hard labour, she 
to five years' penal servitude . . .24 Oct. ,, 
Anthony Isidor Glika sentenced to ten years' penal 
servitude for defrauding his employers, Messrs. 
Vagliano Bros., and the Bank of England, of 
71,500?., 27 June, -7 July ; in a subsequent trial 
trial the Queen's Bench Division adjudged the 
bank to bear the loss . " . . . 2 Nov. ,, 
[Sentence confirmed by court of appeal, 21 May, 
1889 ; reversed by the House of Lords, 5 March 

!8 9 i.] 

Mrs. Weldon v. M. Riviere and others ; verdict for 
defendants 15 Nov. ,, 

Charles Richardson and Edgell, who had' con- 
fessed to burglary at Edliugham vicarage, near 
Alnwick, on 7 Feb. 1879 ; sentenced to five years' 

penal servitude 24 Nov. ,, 

[Michael Brannagham and Peter Murphy, who 
had been wrongfully convicted for this crime, 
and attempt to murder, had been sentenced to 
rienal servitude for life, April, 1879 ; each 
received 800Z. as compensation, Dec. 1888 ; the 
police were acquittecl of perjury, and doubts 
were thrown on the confession of Richardson 
and Edgell, Feb. 1889.] 

Lyster, Burdett, and Clarke convicted of burglary 
and attempt to murder Mr. George Atkin at 
Muswell Hill ; sentenced to penal servitude for 
life 7 March, ,, 

Mrs. Sophia Irwin v. Pall Mall Gazette for libel ; 
damages awarded, 1,000?. ... 4 April, 1889 

Sir George Chetwynd v. the earl of Durham, for 
libels relating to racing transactions, the damages 
claimed, 20,000?. After some litigation and 
much discussion, the case was referred to the 
arbitration of the stewards of the jockey 
club, Mr. Jas. Lowther, M.P., the earl of March, 
and prince Soltikoff ; they awarded sir George 
Chetwynd \d. damages, each person to pay his 

own costs 29 June, ,, 

[Sir George Chetwynd, who was exonerated from 
the graver, but censured for the lighter charges, 
quitted the club, 5 July, 1S89.] 

W. O'Brien, M.P., v. the marquis of Salisbury for 
libel in a speech at Watford, 10 March ; charging 
him with inciting to crime in a speech at 
Ballyneale near Clonmel, 30 Sept. 1888 ; damages 
claimed, 10,000?.; trial at Manchester; verdict 
for defendant . . . . . .20 July, ,, 

[New trial refused by the queen's bench, 21 Dec. 
1889 ; appeal disallowed, 8 May, 1890.] 



TEIALS. 



993 



TRIALS. 



Mrs. Florence Elizabeth Maybriek charged with 
.poisoning her husband, James Maybriek, at 
Aigburth, by arsenic, tried at Liverpool by Mr. 
justice Stephen ; convicted 21 July-7 Aug. ; 
sentence of death commuted to penal servitude 
for life 22 Aug. 

Rweedore trials, see Ireland . . . Oct. 

John Watson Laurie (at Edinburgh) convicted of 
the murder of Edwin Robert Rose, his fellow 
traveller, in the Island of Arran (on 15 July), 
8, 9 Nov. 1889 ; respited as of unsound mind, 
28 Nov. ; sentenced to penal servitude for life 

about 1 Dec. 

itev. Percy G. Benson, vicar of Hoo, Kent, sus- 
pended from duty for one year for excluding 
Mrs. Swayne from the communion, for schism, 
25 Oct. ; directed by the bishop of Rochester to 
receive her, yields 29 Nov. 

Mr. Herbert J. Gladstone v. Colonel George B. 
Malleson, for libel in Allahabad Morning Post, 
damages awarded 1,000?. ... 16 Jan. : 

Mr. Ernest Parke, sentenced to one year's imprison- 
ment for libel against the earl of Euston in the 
North London Press . . . .16 Jan. 

Trial of the bishop of Lincoln, see under Canter- 
bury 4 Feb. 

<Crewe murder ; Richard and George Davies, youths, 
aged 19 and 16, convicted of the murder of their 
father, Richard Davies, a clothier, on 25 Jan. 
while riding home in a pony chaise, 20, 21 
March ; Richard executed, George reprieved 
(penal servitude for life) ... 8 April, 

Miss Florence Jennie Day !'. Mr. Morris Roberts, 
for breacli of promise of marriage, Birmingham ; 
damages awarded, 2,500?. . . 26 March, 

Miss Emily Mary Hairs v. sir George Elliot, M.P. 
(aged 75), for breach of promise of marriage ; 
damages claimed 5,000?. ; jury disagree, 18 April, 

Lord Dunlo (son ol the earl of Clancarty) v. lady 
Punlo and Mr. T. E. Wertheimer, six days' trial ; 
divorce refused 30 July, 

Miss Gladys Knowles v. Mr. Leslie Duncan, pro- 
prietor and editor of the Matrimonial News, for 
breach of promise of marriage ; damages awarded, 
10,000?. ...... 11, 12 Aug. 

Heginald John Birchall convicted of the murder of 
Mr. F. J. Benwell, see Canada, 29 Sept. ; exe- 
cuted 14 Nov. 

Capt. O'Shea's suit against his wife, Mrs. C. 
O'Shea, and Mr. C. S. Parnell, M.P. ; divorce 
•granted 15-17 Nov. 

Catherine Theresa Riordan sentenced to six years' 
penal servitude for attempting to kill Dr. James 
Frank Bright, master of University College, 
■Oxford (6 Nov.) . - . . . .15 Nov. 

Mr. R. Buchanan v. Mrs. Langtry, respecting a non- 
accepted play ; damages awarded, 150?. 21 Nov. 

.Mary Eleanor Wheeler (otherwise Pearcey) con- 
victed of the murder of Mrs. Phoebe Hogg and 

infant 1-3 Dec. 

[Mrs. Wheeler had been connected with her 
victim's husband, Frank S. Hogg, before their 
marriage ; she invited Mrs. Hogg to her rooms 
•at No. 2, Priory-street, Kentish-town, and there 
murdered her; she then in a perambulator con- 
veyed (lie body of the mother to near Crossfield- 
road, Hampstead, and that of the child to a field 
near Finchley-road, 24 Oct. 1890; her motive ap- 
pears td have been. jealousy, executed 23 Dec. 1890.] 

Bellamy v. Wells, proprietor of the Pelican Club, 
Gerrard-street, Soho, to restrain a nuisance by 
noise caused by boxing matches, concerts, &c. ; 
justice Romer, in the chancery division, forbids 
the assembling of crowds and calling cabs be- 
tween midnight and 7 a.m. . . . 6 Dec. 

Thomas Macdonald, convicted on his own confes- 
sion of the murder of Miss Elizabeth Ann Holt, 
at Belmont, near Bolton . . . i2Dec. 

Mr. Harry II. Marks (editor of the Financial News) 
V. Mr. George Washington Butterheld, for libel 
respecting gold mines ; verdict, not guilty ; 
libel proved, but publication justified 8-17 Dec. 

Wnbir Alfred [Iargan, tried for murder, convicted 
of manslaughter, for killing two roughs in King 
land, London, N.E., in alleged self-defence 
sentenced by Mr. justice Charles to 20 years 
penal servitude, 8 Sept.; commuted to 12 months' 

17 Dec. 



Charles Lyddon, acquitted of the murder of his 
half brother, William Reeks-Lyddon, of Faver- 
sham, who had been much ill-used 18-21 March, 

Clitheroe case (see under Wives) 

Baccarat ease ; sir William Gordon-Cumming v. 
Mr. and Mis. Lycett Green and others, for 
slander, charging him with cheating in the game 
of baccarat, in the house of Mr. Arthur Wilson, 
Tranby Croft, near Doncaster, Sept. 1890 ; counsel 
for plaintilf, sir Edward Clarke ; sol. gen. for the 
defendants, sir Charles Russell, and others ; 
queen's bench division, lord Coleridge ; evidence 
was given by the prince of Wales ; verdict for 
the defendants .... 1-9 June, 
Coombs v. Barber and others, in relation to the 
Great Eastern Steamship company ; queen's 
bench division ; the case stopped ; Mr. Barber 
exculpated from criminal charges . 26 June, 
The Cathcart case ; after 17 days' investigation, 
Mrs. Cathcart is declared to be of sound mind 
by Mr. Bulwer, a master in lunacy, and a special 
jury, and ordered to be released from custody 

23 July, 
Berkeley Peerage case, ivhich see ; decision 31 July, 
Mr. Francis Du Bedat, president of the Dublin 
Stock Exchange, pleads guilty to charges of 
fraud relating to bankruptcy and breaches of 
trust ; sentence, one year's imprisonment with 
hard labour, and seven years' penal servitude 

20 Oct. 
The rev. James C. Clutterbuck, D.C.L., an in- 
spector of workhouse schools, convicted of ob- 
taining money on false pretences, on his own 
ci mfession ; sentenced to 4 years' penal servitude ; 

Wells 21 Nov. 

The petition of Mabel Edith, countess Russell, to 
the divorce court, for judicial separation from 
earl Russell, on account of cruelty, dismissed 

with costs 1-4 Dec. 

Pinnock v. Chapman &; Hall, for libel in " West 
African Stories," by major A. B. Ellis ; 200?. 
damages awarded .... 7-9 Dec. 
Miss Ethel Florence Elliot (afterwards Mrs. Os- 
borne) v. major and Mrs. Hargreaves, for slander 
in charging her with stealing jewels while their 
guest at Torquay, 9-18 Feb. ; verdict by consent 
for the defendants . . . 15-22 Dec. 
[It was proved that Miss Elliot sold the jewels 
to Messrs. Spinks, in Gracechurch street, for 
550?.., 19 Feb. ; that she cashed the cheque at 
the bank of Messrs. Glyn, Mills & Co., receiv- 
ing gold, 23 Feb. ; that through Messrs. Benja- 
min, of Conduit street, W., she changed gold 
for bank notes, at the National and provincial 
bank, in St. James's square, early in March ; 
and that she endorsed one of these notes for 
50?., and paid it to Messrs. Maple, which note 
was passed into the Bank of England. Infor- 
mation was given to the judge, Mr. Justice 
Denman, and the trial was suspended, 19 Dec. 
It was admitted by all the parties concerned 
that capt. Osborne, the plaintiff's husband, 
had acted throughout as an honourable and 
chivalrous gentleman. Mrs. Osborne, at her 
trial for larceny and perjury, was sentenced to 
months' imprisonment, with some hard la- 
bour, 9 March ; released in the summer, [892. 
The jewels were sold by auction tor major 1 lar- 
greaves for 1,076?., 29 March, 1892.] 
Mr. Alexander Jacob, a jeweller of Simla, charged 
at Calcutta by the Nizam of Hyderabad of cri- 
minally misappropriating 23 lakhs of rupees 
(above 100,0000) deposited by his highness as 
earnest money for the purchase of the gem known 
as the "imperial diamond," after a long trial, 

was acquitted 22 Dec. 

Nettlefold (limited), Birmingham screw-makers v, 
Reynolds, an American agent, for alleged in- 
fringement of patent ; 14 days' trial ; veroicl for 
defendant with costs .... 22 Jan. 
Mr. GeorgeVW. Hastings, M.P., misappropriating 
to himself, a trustee, about 20,000?., the property 
of the children of major John Brown, pleaded 
guilty ; sentenced to 5 years' penal servitude, 

1 1 March, 
Maitland Francis Morland, .1 law tutor at Cam- 
bridge, not connected with the university, 
charged with sending threatening letters lo 

3 s 



1892 



TRIBUNES. 



994 



TRINIDAD. 



extort money, pleaded guilty ; sentenced to 10 
years' penal servitude . . . n March, 1892 

Miss Mary E. T. Knox v. canon Hayman, D.D., and 
co-directors of the Canadian Pacific Colonization 
corporation ; verdict for plaintiff ; to be repaid 
258?., the amount claimed . . . 25 March, „ 

Concha, pauper, v. Concha and wife ; a series of 
intricate suits respecting property, which com- 
menced in 1858, closed by the house of lords 
varying the decision of the court of appeal, 

28 March, ,, 

Frederick Charles, Victor Cailes, John Westley, 
William Ditchfield, Joseph Thomas Deakin, and 
Jean Battolla, anarchists, tried for unlawfully 
possessing explosive substances (with evil inten- 
tions) at Walsall, 1 Nov. 1891—7 Jan. ; Charles, 
Battolla, and Cailes, at Stafford, sentenced to 

10 years' penal servitude, Deakin to 5 years' 
penal serviiude, Westley and Ditchfield acquitted, 

30 March — 4 April, ,, 
Hansard Publishing Union, sir Henry and Mr. 
Joseph M. Isaacs, Mr. Charles Dollman, Mr. 
Horatio Bottomley, directors, charged with de- 
frauding the company and applicants for shares ; 

11 days' examination ; committed for trial, 

6 April, ,, 
Mr. Lane Fox v. ■ Kensington Electric Lighting 
company for infringement of patent ; verdict for 
defendants with costs . . -30 March, „ 
Mrs. Montagu sentenced at Dublin to one year's 
imprisonment for cruel manslaughter of her 
daughter, aged 3 years ... 4 April. ,, 
David John Nicoll, journalist, sentenced to 18 
months' imprisonment, with hard labour, for 
inciting persons to murder Mr. H. Matthews, the 
home secretary, and others, by writing in the 
Commonweal, condemning the punishment of the 
Walsall anarchists (Jan.) ... 6 May, „ 
Walter (the Times) v. Steinkoppf (the St. James's 
Gazette), to restrain the copying of articles ; ver- 
dict for plaintiff with some of the costs, 

13, 17 May ; 2 June, ,, 
Buckley v. Edwards, see under Judges . 21 May, ,, 
Mr. Henry de Vere Vane's claim to the ancient 
barony of Barnard in Durham, vacant by the 
death of the duke of Cleveland, granted by the 

house of lords 30 May, ,, 

Mrs. Carlill v. the Carbolic Smoke Ball company, 
claiming 100I., which the company had engaged 
to give to any person who had tried the smoke 
ball as a preventive of influenza without suc- 
cess (by advertisement, 13 Nov. 1891) ; verdict 

for plaintiff 4 July, ,, 

Mr. Bottems, contractor v. corporation of York ; 
the court of appeal decides (against the plaintiff) 
that the terms of a ruinous contract must be 

fulfilled 16 July, „ 

See Executions. 

TRIBUNES of the People {TribuniPlebis), 
magistrates of Home, first chosen from among the 
commons to represent them, 494 B.C., when the 
people, after a quarrel with the senators, had retired 
to Mons Sacer. The first two tribunes were C. 
Licinius and L. Albums; but their number was 
soon after raised to five, and 37 years after to ten, 
which number remained fixed. The office was 
annual, and as the first had been created on the 4th 
of the ides of December, that day was chosen for 
the election. In a.d. 1347, Nicolo di Eienzi 
assumed absolute power in Rome as tribune of the 
people, and reformed many abuses ; but committing 
extravagances, he lost his popularity and was com- 
pelled to abdicate. He returned to Rome and was 
assassinated, 8 Sept. 1354. 

TRICHURIASIS, a fatal disease, occasioned 
hy eating raw or underdone pork containing a 
minute worm named Trichina spiralis. Professor 
Owen discovered these worms in cysts, in human 
muscle, in 1832. The trichinae are thoroughly 
destroyed by proper cooking. The disease excited 
much attention in 1865, and was the subject of a 
lecture by Dr. Thudichum at the Society of Arts on 
18 April,' 1866. 



TRICOLOR FLAG (red, white, and blue, 
white representing the ancient monarchy ; red and 
blue, Paris) invented by La Payette, adopted by 
Prance, 1789. 

TRICOTEUSES (knitters), a name given ta 
a number of Prench republican females, who zeal- 
ously attended political meetings and executions irs 
1792, knitting at intervals. 

TRIDENTINE, see Trent, and Catechism. 

TRIENNIAL PARLIAMENTS- On 15 
Feb. 1641, an act was passed providing for the meet- 
ing of a parliament at least once in three years. 
This law was broken by the Long Parliament, and 
was repealed in 1664. Another triennial bill, passed 
in 1694, was repealed by the Septennial act, 1716 - f 
see Parliaments, and Septennial Parliaments. 

TRIESTE, an Austrian port on the Adriatic, 
declared a free port by the emperor Charles VI., 
1719, confirmed by Maria Theresa in 1750. It was 
held by the Prench in 1797 and 1805. Since the 
establishment of the overland mail to India, it has- 
risen to great commercial importance. After 
various changes of rulers it was restored to Austria 
U11814; see Lloyd's, note. The emperor and em- 
press were warmly received here mid. Sept. 1882, 
Population of city and territory in 1890, 157,466. 
Cordial reception of the duke of Edinburgh and 
the Mediterranean fleet ... 15 Sept. 1887 

TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY, see 

Ordnance. 

TRIMMER, a term applied to George Savile, 
earl of Halifax, and others who held similar 
political opinions, midway between those of the 
extreme Whigs and Tories, about the latter part of 
the 17th century. He assumed the title as an 
honour, asserting that it could be rightly given to> 
the British constitution and church. Macaulay 
says that Halifax was a trimmer on principle, and 
not a renegade. He died in 1695. See Opportunists. 

TRINACRIA, a name of Sicily. The title 
"King of Trinacria," was temporarily assumed by 
Frederick II. (1302), and Frederick III. (1373). 

TRINCOMALEE (Ceylon), was taken from 
the Dutch, by the English, in 1782 ; it was retaken 
by the French the same year ; but was restored to 
the Dutch by the peace of 1783. It surrendered to 
the British, under colonel Stewart, 26 Aug. 1795, 
and was confirmed to England by the peace of 
Amiens, in 1802 ; see Ceylon. Of a series of actions 
off Trmcomalee between sir Edward Hughes and 
the Prench admiral Suffren, one was fought i8> 
Feb. 1782, the enemy having eleven ships to nine ; 
on 12 April following, they had eighteen ships to 
eleven, and on 6 July, same year, they had fifteen 
ships to twelve. In all these conflicts the French 
were defeated. 

TRINIDAD, an island in the "West Indies-, 
discovered by Columbus in 1498, was taken from the 
Spaniards by sir Walter Raleigh in 1595; by .the 
French from the English in , 1676. Taken by the 
British, with four ships of the line, and a military 
force under command of sir Ralph Abercromby, to 
whom the island capitulated, 18 Feb. 1797; they 
captured tw r o, and burnt three Spanish ships of war 
in the harbour. This possession was confirmed to 
England by the peace of Amiens in 1802. The in- 
surrection of the negroes occurred 4^ Jan. 1832. 
Population in 1861, 84,438; in 1881, 153,128; 
in 1891, 196,172. Governor, Hon. Arthur H. 
Gordon, 1866; James R. Longden, 1870; sir H. T. 
Irving, 1874; sir Sandford Preeling, 1880; sir Win. 
Robinson, Aug. 1885 ; sir Frederick Napier Broome, 



TRINITY. 



995 



TRIUMVIRATES. 



July, 1891. Trinidad united with Tobago by 

parliament in 18S7. 

Port of Spain nearly destroyed by fire 28 Jan. et seq. 1884 

The Indian coolies at San Fernando forbidden to 
go in festival procession to cast their taboots 
(small shrines) on the last day of Mohurram, dis- 
obey, and are fired upon by the police and 
soldiers ; 12 killed, and many wounded 30 Oct. „ 

This course was justified, after due investigation, 
by sir Henry Norman, governor of Jamaica ; blue 
book published .... 14 April, 1885 

TRINITY and Trinitarians. Theopbilus, 
bishop of Antioch, who flourished in the 2nd cen- 
tury, was the first who used the term Trinity, to 
express the three sacred persons in the Godhead. 
His "Defence of Christianity" was edited by 
Gesner, at Zurich, in 1546. Tratkins. An order of 
the Trinity, termed Mathurins, was founded about 
1 198 by John de Matha and Felix de Valois. _ See 
Crutched Friars. The Trinity fraternity, origin- 
ally of fifteen persons, was instituted at Kome by 
St. Philip Neri, in 1548. The act to exempt from 
penalties persons denying the doctrine of the Trinity 
(such as Unitarians and Swedenborgians) passed in 
1813. Trinitarian Bible Society founded, 1831. 

TRINITY COLLEGES, see Cambridge, 
Oxford, Dublin, Glenahnond, &c. Trinity College, 
Dublin, called the University : grant of the 
Augustine monastery of All Saints within the 
suburbs for erecting this college, conferred by queen 
Elizabeth, 1591. First stone laid by Thomas Smith, 
mayor of Dublin, 1 Jan. 1593. New charter, 1637. 
Made a barrack for soldiers, 1689. Bums. The 
principal or west front erected, 1759- Library 
erected, 1732. This college grants degrees upon 
examination without residence. The Koman 
Catholics desire exemption from mixed education 
and special privileges. Great changes were pro- 
posed by the Irish University bill, which was 
brought into parliament Feb. 1873, but withdrawn. 
Eeligious tests were abolished in the same year. 
A proposal to establish a Roman catholic college 

within the university was negatived by the 

senate (74-7) 18 May, 1874 

The church choral society incorporated as Trinity 

College, London .... ... 1875 

TRINITY HOUSE, London, founded by 

sir Thomas Spert, 1512, as an "association for 
piloting ships," was incorporated in 1 5 14, and re- 
incorporated in 1604, 1660, and 1685. The present 
Trinity House was erected in 1795. By their charter 
the brethren of the Trinity House have the power 
of examining, licensing, and regulating pilots, and 
of erecting beacons and lighthouses, and of placing 
buoys in the channels and rivers. Spert, the first 
master, died 8 Sept. 1541.— Trinity Houses, 
originally guilds or fraternities, founded at Dept- 
ford, Hull, and Newcastle, were incorporated by 
Henry YUL, 1536-41. 

RECENT MASTERS. 

William Pitt 1790 

Pari Spencer 1806 

Duke of Portland 1807 

Earl Camden 1809 

Earl of Liverpool 1815 

Marquis Camden 1828 

Duke of Clarence 1829 

Marquis Camden 183 1 

Duke of Wellington 1836 

The Prince Consort 1852 

Viscount Palmerston .... 16 June, 1862 
Luke of Edinburgh .... 15 March, 1866 

TRINITY SUNDAY, the Sunday following 
"Whitsunday. The festival of the Holy Trinity was 
instituted "by pope Gregory IV. in 828, on his 
ascending the papal chair, and is observed by the 



Latin and protestant churches on the Sunday next 
following Pentecost or Whitsuntide, of which, 
originally, it was merely an octave. The observance 
of the festival was first enjoined in the council of 
Aries, 1260. It was appointed to be held on the 
present day by pope John XXI. in 1334. 

TRINOBANTES, a British tribe which occu- 
pied Middlesex and Essex, and joined in opposing 
the invasion of Julius Ca3sar, 54 B.C. , but soon 
submitted. They joined Boadicea and were defeated 
by Suetonius PauLinus near London, a.d. 61. 

TRIPARTITE TREATY, name given to 
treaty of Paris, 1856. 

TRIPLE ALLIANCE was ratified between 
the States-General and England against France, for 
the protection of the Spanish Netherlands ; Sweden 
afterwards joining the league, it was known as the 
Triple Alliance, 23 Jan. 1668. — Another Triple 
Alliance was that between England, Holland, and 
France against Spain, Jan. 1717. — Another between 
Great Britain, Russia, and Austria, 28 Sept. 1795. 
Another between Germany, Austria, and Italy, said 
to have been proposed June, 1882, and adopted 
1883, and signed 13 March, 1887 : to expire 1892 ; 
renewed for six years, 28 June, 1891. The alliance 
was strengthened by commercial treaties, ratified 
Dec. 1891. 

TRIPOLI (three cities). I., in Syria, com- 
prised three quarters built by the Tyrians, Sidonians, 
and Arabians; was taken by the Crusaders 1 109, 
and made a county for Raymond of Toulouse. It 
was conquered by the Egyptians in 1832 ; restored 
to the Porte 1835 ; surrendered to the British 1841. 
II., a Turkish province, N. Africa, comprised the 
cities Sabrata, ffia (the present Tripoli, the capital), 
and Leptis (the ancient Tripolitana), after having 
been held by Greeks, Romans, Vandals, and Sara- 
cens, was conquered and annexed by the Turks 
1551. Hamet Bey, pacha in 1741, made himself 
independent, and the government remained in his 
family till 1835, when Tripoli was restored to nomi- 
nal subjugation to the sultan. Population (1884) 
about 1,000,000. Panic through fear of insurrec- 
tion about 20 July, 1882. In conflicts with the 
troops, about 160 natives were killed, reported 19 
Dec. 1891. 

TRIPOLITZA (Greece), was stormed by the 
Greeks, who committed dreadful cruelties, 5 Oct. 
1821 ; retaken by the Egyptians, 30 June, 1825 ; 
given up to the Greeks, 1828. 

TRIREMES, galleys with three banks of oars, 
are said to have been invented by the Corinthians, 
784 or 700 B.C. 

TRISTAN D'ACUNHA, a small island in 
the S. Atlantic, inhabited by about 80 persons. 
Before the opening of the Suez Canal, the island 
prospered, through the visits of ships, now very 
rare ; tbe duke of Edinburgh was there in 1867, and 
showed great kindness to the people. 

TRIUMPHS were granted by the Roman senate 
to generals of armies after they had won great vic- 
tories. They were received into the city with great 
magnificence and public acclamations. There were 
tlio great, called the Triumph; and the less, the 
Ovation; see Ovation. 

TRIUMVIRATES, Roman. In Go n.c, 
Julius Csesar, Pompey, and Crassus formed a coali- 
tion to rule the state. This lasted ton years, and 
the civil war ensued. The second triumvirate, 43 
B.C., was formed by Octavius Csesar, Mark Antony, 
and Lepidus, through whom the Romans totally lost 

3 s 2 



TEIVIUM. 



996 



TEUEO. 



their liberty. Lepidus was expelled in 36 ; Antony 
was subdued in 31, and Octavius made himself 
absolute ; see Borne. In Feb. 1849, a triumvirate 
was appointed at Bome, consisting of Joseph Maz- 
zini, Armellini, and Saffi, which resigned on 1 July, 
1849, when the city was taken by the French. 

TEIVIUM, see Arts. 

TEOCADEEO, Paris, a mount on the right 
bank of the Seine, so named in memory of a fort 
near Cadiz, captured by the French while sup- 
pressing the insurrection in 1823. On this ground 
was erected the palace of the " Trocadero," in con- 
nection with the international exhibition of 1878 ; 
see Paris. 

TEOPPATJ, CONGRESS OP, in Austrian 
Silesia. The emperors Francis of Austria and 
Alexander of Bussia met at Troppau, 20 Oct. 1820. 
The congress between them and the king of 
Prussia, against Naples, took place 10 Nov. ; and 
the conference was transferred to Laybach, as nearer 
to Ital3 T , 17 Dec. 1820; see Laybach. 

TEOUBADOUES and Trotjveres (from 
troubar, trouver, to find or invent), the poets of the 
middle ages (from the nth to the 15th century). 
The former flourished in the south of France and 
north of Spain, and used the Langue d'oc (that is, 
oc for oui, yes) ; the latter flourished in the north of 
France, and used the Langue d'oil (that is, oil for 
oui). The Troubadours produced romances, but 
excelled chiefly in lyric poetry ; the Trouveres ex- 
celled in romances, several of which are extant ; as, 
the Brut d'Angleterre, and the Ron, by Wace; the 
" Eomance of the Eose," by Guillaume de Lorris 
and Jean de Meung. The Troubadours were usually 
accompanied by Jongleurs, who sang then- masters' 
verses, with the accompaniment of the guitar. 
Histories of these French poets, and specimens of 
their works, have been published in France. These 
poets, although frequently very licentious, tended 
to promote civilisation during those warlike times. 

TEOY (or Troja), the common name of ILIUM, 
capital of the Troas, Asia Minor ; see Homer. Its 
history mythical. 

Teucer succeeds his father I5 o 2 

Dardanus succeeds ; builds Dardania . . . 1480 

Reign of Eriehthonius I4+9 

Reign of Tros ; from whom the people are called 

Trojans, and the city Troas 1374 

Ilus, his son, reigns ; the city called Ilium . . . 1314 

Reign of Laomedon I2 6o 

Arrival of Hercules in Phrygia. Hesione delivered 

from the sea monster. Blair ; Usher . . . 1225 
War of Hercules and Laomedon .... 1224 

Reign of Priam or Podaroes 

Rape of Helen, by Alexander Paris, son of Priam, 
20 years before the sacking of Troy. Homer's 

Iliad, book xxiv. I20 4 

Commencement of the invasion of the Greeks to 

recover Helen Ilg3 

Troy taken and burnt in the night of tile nth of J 
June, i.e., 23rd of the month Thargelion. Parian 
Marbles. 408 years before the first Olympiad. 
Apolloilorus, Hales, and Clinton, 1183 ; others . . 1184 
Mr. W. E. Gladstone dates the war . . 1^16-1307 
iEneas arrives in Italy. Lenglet. . . .. ^33 

LSome time after the destruction of Troy, a new 
city was built with the same name, about thirty 
stadia distant from the old site. It was favoured 
by Alexander the Great in his Asiatic expedition 
but never rose to much importance, an. I in the 
age of Strabo was nearly in ruins. Priestley. ] 
Dr. II. Schliemann, during his excavations at Hissar- 
lik in the Troad, discovered the remains of a very 
ancient city with temples, which he named 

"Novum Ilium" a.d. 1872-3 

He published 'Troy and its Remains (trans by Ur P 
Smith) ! 1875 



His Trojan antiquities arranged at South Kensing- 
ton Museum, for exhibition . . . Dec. 1877 

Dr. Schliemann resumes excavations at Hissarlik ; 
discovers Trojan houses and many antiquities, a 
dagger, earrings, bracelets, ' idols, shells, &c, 

30 Sept. -1 Dec. 1878 

Again with professor Virchow and M. Burnouf, 1 
March ; makes fresh discoveries described in letter 
5 June, 1879 ; desists investigation ; published 
his book Ilios, 1880, and Troja .... 1883 
See Mycence, 26 Dec. 1890. 

TEOY WEIGHT. The Eomans introduced 
their ounce, our avoirdupois ounce, into Britain. 
The present ounce was brought from Grand Cairo 
into Europe, about the time of the Crusades, 1095, 
and was first adopted at Troyes, a city of France, 
whence the name. It is used to weigh gold, silver, 
and precious stones. The Troy weight, Scots, was 
established by James VI. (our James I.) in 1618 ; 
see Standard. 

TEOYES (Central France), where a treaty was 
concluded between England, France, and Burgundy, 
whereby it was stipulated that Henry V. should 
marry Catherine, daughter of Charles VI., be ap- 
pointed regent of France, and, after the death of 
Charles, should inherit the crown, 21 May, 1420. 
Troyes was taken by the allied armies, 7 Feb. ; re- 
taken by Napoleon, 23 Feb. ; and again taken by 
the allies, 4 March, 18 14. 

TEUCE OF GOD {Br era or Treuga Dei), a 
term given to a cessation of the private feuds and 
conflicts so general during the middle ages all over 
Europe, said to have been strongly advocated by the 
bishop of Aquitaine, in 1032. The clergy strenu- 
ously exerted their influence for the purpose. A 
synod at Eoussillon, 1027, decreed that none should 
attack his enemy between Saturday evening (at 
nones) and Monday morning (at the hour of prime). 
Similar regulations were adopted in England, 1042 
(sometimes Friday and Wednesday being chosen for 
the time). The truce of God was confirmed by 
many councils of the church, especially the Lateran 
Council, in 1179. 

TEITCK SYSTEM of paying workmen's 
wages in goods (sold at " tommy shops") instead 
of money, was prohibited by parliament in 1831. 
By the Truck act a commission to inquire into its 
alleged prevalence was appointed ; act passed 10 
Aug. 1870; amended 1887. 

TEUMPET. Some of the Greek historians 
ascribe the invention of the trumpet to the Tyr- 
rhenians, and others to the Egyptians. It was in 
use in the time of Homer. First torches, then 
shells of fish, sounded like trumpets, were the 
signals in primitive wars. Batter. The Jewish 
feast of trumpets was appointed 1490 B.C. (Lev. 
xxiii. 24). Otfa, king of Mercia, is said to have 
had trumpets sounded before him when travelling, 
about a.d. 790. The speaking trumpet is said to 
have been used by Alexander the Great in 335 B.C. ; 
improved by Kirc'her in a.d. 1652 ; by Salland, 1654 ; 
and philosophically explained by Morland, 1671. 
Trumpet blasts employed for railway signalling in 

Scotland . 1887 

TEUMPET-FLOWEE, Bignonia radicans, 
was brought hither from North America, about 
1640. The Trumpet Honeysuckle, Lonicera semper- 
virens, came from North America in 1656. The 
Bignonia cavensis was brought to England from the 
Cape in 1823. The Large - flowered Trumpet- 
flower, or Bignonia grandiflora, was brought from 
China in 1800. 

TEUEO, W. Cornwall. The town was founded 
by Eichard de Lucy, chief justice of England in 



TRUSS. 



997 



TUBULAR BRIDGES. 



the 1 2th century, and chartered by Keginald, earl 
of Cornwall, illegitimate son of Henry I. An act 
to provide for the foundation of a bishopric of Truro 
passed n Aug 1 . 1876, and money sufficient for its 
endowment having been subscribed, the see was 
constituted by order in council, 9 Dec. same year. 
Act amended in 1887. Truro was made a city, Aug. 
1877 i absorbed into the county, 1885. Population, 
1881, 10,619; I §9 1 ) II ) I 3 I - 
Foundation of new cathedral (St. Mary's) laid by 
the prince of Wales, 20 May, 1880 ; it includes 
part of the old parish church ; the eastern part 
erected, consecrated and opened for public 
worship in the presence of the prince of Wales 
and the archbishop of Canterbury, 3 Nov. 1887 ; 
architect, Mr. Pearson ; the first cathedral erected 
since St. Paul's, London. 

See Mansion, House Fund. 

Bisnors. 

1877. Edward White Benson, consecrated, 25 April ; 

trans, to Canterbury, Dec. 1882. 
1883. George Howard Wilkinson, consecrated 25 April ; 

resigned 1891. 
1891. John Gott, D.D., June. 

TRUSS. A transverse spring-truss for ruptures 
was patented by Robert Brand in 1771, and by 
many other persons since. The National Truss 
Society to assist indigent persons, was established 
in 1786 ; and many similar societies since. 

TRUSTEES, see Fraudulent. 

Trustees' act passed, 1888, and Trust Funds' act . 1889 
The Trustees' Appointment act (1850 to 1899), 

25 July, 1890 
The Trustees' and Executors' Association initiated, 

Aug. 1 89 1 

TRUSTS and COMBINES. Terms applied in 
the United States to the union of manufacturers 
and traders as corporate bodies for the purpose of 
creating and maintaining strict monopolies and 
thereby controlling the output and the prices of 
goods of all kinds and the wages of workmen, a 
S3 r stem injurious to all classes of society. 
In the autumn of 1888, legislation for the re- 
pression of the evil was urgently demanded. 
There is a petroleum trust, a cotton trust, a 
steel rail trust &c. (see Corner). The proprietors 
of the salt mines in Cheshire combined to form a 
"trust" in the autumn of 1888. Similar trusts 
have been projected and opposed. 

TSAR, see Czar. 

TUAM (W. Ireland). St. Jarlath, the son ot 
Loga, who lived about 501, is looked upon as the 
first founder of the cathedral of Tuam, though the 
abbey is said to have been founded in 487. The 
church was anciently called Tuaim-da-Gualand. 
In 1 151, Kdan O'Hoisin was the first archbishop, at 
least the first who received the pall, for some of his 
predecessors are sometimes called bishops of Con- 
naught, and sometimes archbishops, by Irish his- 
torians. The see of Mayo was annexed to Tuam in 
1559. Tuam is valued in the king's books, by an 
extent returned anno 28 Fliz., at 50^. sterling per 
annum. Beatson. It ceased to be archiepiscopal, 
conformably with the statute 3 & 4 Will. IV., 1833; 
and is now a bishopric only, to which Killala and 
Achonry, a joint see, has been added ; see Arch- 
bishops. New protestant cathedral of St. Mary, 
consecrated by the bishop, the Hon. Dr. Charles 
15. Bernard, 9 Oct. 1878. 

TUBERCULOSIS, a disease caused by the 
development of tubercles, small masses of diseased 
matter in the lungs (phthisis or consumption), in 
the face and other parts (lupus). 

Br. Robert Koch, of Berlin, announced, in 1882, 
that in: had discovered a minute organism, 



named baccillus tuberculosis, to whose action 
he attributed the diseases. In the autumn 
of 1890, he reported his invention of a lymph 
(see below, 15 Jan. 1S91), by the injection of 
which into the system, as in vaccination, he 
hoped to cure the diseases. In Berlin he made 
many experiments on tuberculosed guinea-pigs 
and human beings, with some success in respect 
to lupus, but not to phthisis. Dr. Koch was 
much honoured by the emperor, and was aided 
by the state. Dr. Koch's full account of his 
method was published in the British Medical 
Journal, London, 15 Nov., and other papers. 
Medical men flocked to Berlin from all parts of 
the world, to obtain the lymph. Exaggerated 
cases of successful application were published, 
and it soon appeared that time was required to 
test the efficacy of the remedy. Much discus- 
sion ensued. Dr. Koch, on 15 Jan. 1891, published 
the statement that his lymph, named tubercu- 
line, was a glycerine extract from the pure culti- 
vation of the tubercle bacilli. Boyal commis- 
sion on tuberculosis (Dr. Koch's method, &c), 
actively inquiring at home and abroad Dec. 1890 et seq. 

Professor Badenheuer, of Cologne, asserted that 
out of 100 surgical cases no perfect cure had 
been effected by the lymph . . end of Jan. 1891 

Prof. Virchow, Berlin, in regard to 21 cases of in- 
jection of the lymph, reported unfavourable re- 
sults Jan. ,, 

Drs. Bertin, Picq, and Bernheim proposed the cure 
of tuberculosis by the transfusion of goat's blood, 

Jan., Feb. ,, 

Dr. Lannelongue at Paris, proposed a new remedy, 
which he explained and illustrated to the mem- 
bers of the second congress for the study of 
tuberculosis 27 July, ,, 

Dr. Koch appointed director of the Institute for 
Infectious Diseases at Berlin . . July, ,, 

He acknowledges the failure of his remedy, and 
proposes an improvement by the addition of 

alcohol 22 Oct. ,, 

See Ozone, 1891. 

TUBINGEN SCHOOL of rationalistic 
criticism was founded by professor F. C. Baur about 
1835. 

TUBMAN, see Postman. 

TUBULAR BRIDGES. The Britannia Tu- 
bular Suspension Bridge, then the most wonderful 
enterprise in engineering in the world, was con- 
structed, 1846-50 (Mr. K. Stephenson and Mr, Fair- 
bairn, engineers), about a mile southward of the 
Menai Strait Suspension Bridge.* 
On the Britannia rock, near the centre of the Menai 
Strait, the surface of which is about ten feet 
above low water level, is built a tower two hun- 
dred feet above high water (commenced building, 
May, 1846), and on which rest two lines of tubes 
or hollow girders strong enough to bear their 
weight and laden trains in addition, the ends 
resting on the abutments on each shore ; each 
tube being more than a quarter of a mile in 
length. The height of .the tube within is thirty 
feet at the Britannia tower, diminishing t<> 
twenty-three feet at the abutments. The lifting 
of these tubes to their places was a most 
gigantic operation, successfully performed, 

27 June, 1849 
The first locomotive passed through . March, 1850 
The Conway tubular bridge, a miniature copy of 

■ * The Britannia tubular bridge was intended to supply 
the place of one of the finest bridges in the kingdom; 
and the railway, of which (lie tubular bridge tonus a 
part, is in like manner a substitute tor one of the (inesl 

mail-coach roads ever constructed. The road from 
London to Holyhead has been long regarded as the 
highway from the British metropolis to Dublin ; and the 
laic Mr. Telford was applied to by the government t<> 
perfect this route by I lie London and Holyhead mail- 
coach road, which lie did \>\ erecting a beautiful suspen- 
sion bridge over the river Conwaj and over the Menai 
Strati ; commenced in July, iSiS. and finished in July, 
1825. 



TUDELA. 



998 



TUNIS. 



the Britannia (principal engineers, Mr. Robt. 
Stephenson and Mr. Fairbairn) erected . . 1846-8 
At Chepstow, a railway tubular bridge . . . 1852 
A bridge or viaduct on tne tubular principle (called 
the Albert viaduct) over the river Tamar at Ply- 
mouth, opened by the prince consort . 2 May, 1859 
See Victoria Railway Bridge and Tay Bridge. 

TUDELA (N. Spain). Near here marshal 
Lannes totally defeated the Spaniards, 23 Nov. 
1808 ; see Ebro. 

TUDOE SOVEREIGNS ; see England, 1485- 
1603. 

Tudor Exhibition, New Gallery, Regent street ; 
patron, the queen ; committee, the prince of 
Wales, and other eminent persons. The collec- 
tion included portraits and miniatures by Hol- 
bein and others, armour and weapons, personal 
relics, plate, bibles, prayerbooks, Shakespeare's 
and other books. Opened 1 Jan. 1890, and con- 
tinued several months. A similar exhibition 
was opened at the British Museum about 22 Jan. 1890 

TUESDAY, in Latin Dies Martis, the day of 
Mars, the third day of the week, so called from 
Tuisto, Tiiv, or Tuesco, a Saxon deity, worshipped 
on this day. Tuisto is mentioned by Tacitus ; see 
Week Days. 

TUGENDBUND ("league of Virtue"), 
formed in Prussia soon after the peace of Tilsit, 
June, 1807, ostensibly for relieving the sufferers by 
the late wars, and for the revival of morality and 
patriotism. Its head-quarters were at Konigsberg. 
It excited the jealousy of Napoleon, who demanded 
its suppression in 1809. It was dissolved at the 
peace in 1815. 

TUILEEIES (Paris), the imperial palace of 
Prance, commenced by Catherine de Medicis, after 
the plans of Philibert del'Orme, 1564; continued 
by Henry IV. ; and finished by Louis XIV. This 
palace was stormed by the mob, 10 Aug. 1792; 
and ransacked in the revolutions of July, 1830, and 
Feb. 1848. Louis Napoleon made it his residence 
in 1 85 1, and greatly renovated it. The restoration 
of the Tuileries (much injured by fire by the com- 
munists, May 187 1) was determined on, Oct. 1872 ; 
not proceeded with. The ruins were sold for 
32,200^. to M. Picard, 4 Dec. 1882. 

TULCHAN BISHOPS; a mere nominal 
episcopacy set up in Scotland by the regent Morton, 
who, with other nobles, absorbed the larger por- 
tion of the revenue, 1572-3. Tulehan was a stuffed 
calf's skin set before a cow to facilitate milking. 

TULIPS, indigenous in the east of Europe, came 
to England from Vienna about 1578. It is recorded 
in the register of Alkmaer in Holland, that in 1639, 
120 tulips, with the onsets, sold for 90,000 florins : 
and that one, called the Viceroy, sold for 4203 
guilders! The States stopped this ruinous traffic. 
The tulip tree, Liriodmclrontulipifera, was brought 
to England from America, about 1663. 

TUNBRIDGE WELLS (Kent). The springs 
were discovered, it is stated, by Dudley, lord North, 
who, when very ill, was restored to health by the 
use of the waters, 1606. The wells were visited by 
the queens of Charles I. and II., and by queen 
Anne, and soon became fashionable. Population, 
1881,24,119; 1891,27,895. 
The town was incorporated by royal charter 

early in . ^89 

TUNGSTEN (also called wolfram and schee- 
lium), a hard whitish brittle metal. From tungstate 
of lead, Scheele in 1781 obtained tungstic acid, 
whence the brothers De Luyart in 1786 obtained 
the metal. In 1859 it was employed in making a 
new kind of steel.' 



TUNIS (N. Africa) stands nearly on the site of 
Carthage. Tunis was besieged by Louis IX., of 
France, who died near it 25 Aug. 1270. It remained 
under African kings till taken by Barbarossa, for 
Solyman the Magnificent, 1531. Barbarossa was 
expelled by the emperor Charles V., when 10,000 
Christian slaves were set at liberty, June, 1535- 
The country was recovered by the Turks under 
Selim II. 1575. The bey of Tunis was first appointed 
in 1574; Tunis was reduced by admiral Blake, on the 
bey refusing to deliver up the British captives, 
1655. The Hussein dynasty was founded 1705. In 
July, 1856, the bey agreed to make constitutional 
reforms. He died 22 Sept. 1859 ; and his brother 
and successor Mohamed-es-Sadok took the oath of 
fidelity to the constitution. He died, and was suc- 
ceeded by his brother Sidi Ali, 28 Oct. 1882. Tunis 
is now under French protection. 
Insurrection, 18 April ; ships of war sent to protect 

Europeans May, 1864 

Tunis decreed to be an integral part of the Turkish 

empire 25 Oct. 1871 

A dispute with France settled by submission of the 

bey Jan. 1879 

The bey, embarrassed by debt (s,ooo,oooL), places his 

finances in hands of an international commission 1880 
Disputes between France and Italy respecting rail- 
way concessions Aug. ,, 

Dispute between a British subject here and a French 
company respecting purchase of the Enfida estate, 
decision left to the legal tribunals . . Feb. 1881 
Dispute with France ; predatory incursions of the 
Kroumirs, nomadic shepherd tribes, on Algerian 
territory, March : the bey appeals to Turkey, 1 1 
April ; and the Great Powers, 27 April : military 
expedition sent from France ; lands in Tabarka, 
bombards fortress, and occupies Bizerta, 30 April, ,, 
The Kroumirs said to be enclosed by the French ; 

the bey's army retreats . . . early May, „ 
Alleged battle with the Kroumirs . about 2 May, ,, 
The French approach Tunis, alleging the object to 
be to restrain warlike tribes and protect their 

frontier 11 May, „ 

Treaty with France signed ; it assures to France the 
right to occupy the positions which the French 
military authorities might deem necessary for the 
maintenance of order and the security of the fron- 
tier and the coast, and to send a resident minister 
to the capital. The French government guaran- 
tees to the bey the security of his person, his 
states, and his dynasty, and the maintenance of 
existing treaties with the European powers ; while 
the bey undertakes not to conclude any interna- 
tional convention without a previous understand- 
ing with the French government, and to prevent 
the introduction of arms into Algeria through 
Tunis. The financial system of the regency to be 
regulated by France in concert with the bey, 

12 May, „ 
Reported conflict between the French under gen. 
Breart and the Arabs ; the French enter Mater, 

18 May, ,, 
The Sultan of Turkey protests againstthe treaty, May, ,, 
M. Seguin, a news correspondent, murdered at Beja 
- by a fanatic (who is executed) . . 28 May, ,, 
M. Brangard, inspector of telegraphs, and assistants, 

murdered by Arabs, near Oran . about 5 June, ,, 
M. Roustan, the consul, appointed French resident 
minister (said to be virtual ruler, replacing bey), 
French army returning home . . June, ,, 
Mustapha Ben Ismail, the bey's chief minister, re- 
ceived by president Grevy, at Paris . 21 June, „ 
Insurrection at Sfax, revolt of great chief Ali Ben 

Khalifa, announced .... 30 June, ,, 
Europeans attacked, nearly all flee to ships, alleged 

massacres 31 July, „ 

Sfax bombarded by the French, 5 July, et seq. ; 

captured after severe conflict . . 16 July, ,, 
Arabs revolting ; anarchy reported . 20 July, ,, 
Enrida case; decision against the English, Mr. 

Levy Aug. ,, 

Collapse of bey's authority . . about 15 Aug. ,, 
Asserted conflict at Hammamet, the French re- 
pulsed about 3 1 Aug. ; the French retreating about 

8 Sept. ,, 



TUNNAGE. 



999 



TURIN. 



Arrival of 2,000 French troops at Goletta 9 Sept. 1881 
(General Saisattier with troops at Zaghouan sur- 
rounded by Arabs .... about 13 Sept. ,, 
58,000 men sent to Tunis announced . 26 Sept. ,, 

Alleged defeat of the bey's troops under Ali Bey ; 

4 hours' conflict .... about 25 Sept. ,, 
Ali Bey's army surrounded . about 4 Oct. etseq. ,, 
Union of the French and Ali Bey's army, about 

8 Oct. „ 
Tunis occupied by the French . . .10 Oct. ,, 
Gen. Sabattier defeats the Arabs ; six hours' con- 
flict ; 800 killed, French loss slight . . 13 Oct. ,, 
Continued fighting .... about 22 Oct. „ 
The French under Gen. Etienne enter Kairwan, 

without resistance 26 Oct. „ 

The French treaty with the bey (11 May) confirmed 

by the chambers 9 Nov. ,, 

Alleged defeat of Arabs, near Gerid, by Gen. 

Logerot about 16 Nov. ,, 

Gen. Saussier reports his capture of a large rebel 

convoy about 17 Nov. „ 

The insurrection virtually suppressed ; army of 

occupation to be 20,000 . announced 29 Nov. ,, 
M. Levy (see Aug. 1 881) expelled . about 14 Dec. ,, 
M. Roustan in Paris ; M. H. Rochfort acquitted of 

bitter libel against M. Roustan . . 15 Dec. ,, 
M. Roustan returns . . . about 29 Dee. ,, 

Transferred to Washington . . about 23 Feb. 1882 
Victory of insurgents . . . about 1 April, ,, 
Enflda case amicably settled . . . May, ,, 
Treaty with France (taking over debt about 

5,000,000?.) draft July, ,, 

Renewed Arab incursions . . about 3 Oct. ,, 

French courts of law established ; foreign consular 

jurisdictions abolished (capitulations) 1 Jan. 1884 

French residents, 1891, about 10,000. 

TUNNAGrE AND POUNDAGE were ancient 
■duties levied on every tun of wine and pound of 
•other goods, imported or exported, and were the 
•origin of our "customs." They commenced in 
England about 1346, and were granted to the kings 
for life, beginning with Edward IV. Charles I. 
gave great offence by levying them on his own 
authority, 1628. They were granted to Charles II. 
for his lifetime, 24 June, 1660. By the act 27 
Geo. III. c. 13, these and other duties were repealed, 
1787, and a new arrangement of excise and customs 
was introduced. 

TUNNELS, for drainage, are ancient. The 
earliest tunnel for internal navigation was executed 
fey M. Riguet, in the reign of Louis XIV., at Bezieres 
in France. The first in England was by Mr. 
Brin dley, on the duke of Bridgewater's canal, 
near Manchester, about 1766. Project of the 
Gravescnd tunnel, 1800— the report upon it, 1801. 
The Thames Tunnel was projected by Mr. Brunei 
in 1823, and opened for foot passengers, 25 March, 
1843 ; see Thames Tunnel. Innumerable tunnels 
have been made for railways. The railway tunnel 
at Liverpool was completed in the middle of 1829, 
lit up with gas, and exhibited once a week. On the 
London and Birmingham railway there are eight 
tunnels (the Primrose-hill, Watford, Kilsby, &c), 
their total length being 7336 yards. Smiles. It 
was computed by Mr. Fowler, that there were 80 
miles of tunnels in the United Kingdom in 1S65, 
which cost about 6,500,000/., at the average of 45/. 
a yard; see Alps [Mont Cenis, etc.] and Thames. 

Tunnel between Dover and Calais, suggested by M. 
Mathieu about 1802 

Tunnel for a railway beneath the channel from 
Dover to Calais, proposed by Messrs. J. K. Bate- 
man and J. Revy .... 30 Aug. 1869 

M. Thome de Gamond, after many years' study, ex- 
hibited his plans in Paris, 1867; his scheme re- 
vived in France, July, 1871 and Nov. 1873 ; a 
convention in its favour was signed for France 

by M. Michel Chevalier, .tan., 1S75 I engii rs, 

sir John Hawkshaw and M. LavaUy : monopoly 
for 30 years granted; chairman for English com- 



pany, lord Richard Grosvenor ; plan of boring 
through 20 miles chalk by Mr. D. Brunton. 

M. ThonnS de Gamond died .... Feb., 1876 

Boring at Sangatte, near Calais, begun 25 Feb. ; 200 
feet deep 3 June, ,, 

Memorandum of basis of proposed treaty between 
England and France issued . . . Aug. ,, 

Other plans have been proposed by G. Remington, 
P. J. Bishop, A. Austin, &c. 

The French government's concession for prelimi- 
nary works granted in 1875, renewed for 3 years 

from 2 Aug. 1880 

Experimental boring going on, April, 1881 ; 800 
metres from the coast .... May, 1883 

Meeting of Channel Tunnel Company 2 Feb. ; of 
submarine Continental railway company 3 Feb. 1882 

Channel Tunnel near Dover ; about 1 mile exca- 
vated ; visited by Mr. Gladstone and others 

11 March, ,, 

The Channel Tunnel disapproved of by sir G. 
Wolseley, and other officers, British and foreign 

March, at seq. ,, 

The works stopped by government about 1 May ; 
by order of Mr. Justice Kay . . . 6 July, ,, 

Two channel tunnel bills discharged in the commons 

16 Aug. ,, 

Report of a commission on the channel tunnel (sir 
A. Alison, chairman) unfavourable on political 
grounds issued 11 Oct. ,, 

The question referred to a committee of lords and 
commons 4, 6 April, which meets 24 April ; decide 
against the tunnel (6-4) . . about 10 July, 1883 

The company resolutely determine to wait 17 Aug. ,, 

Bill rejected by the commons (222-84) J 4 May, 1884; 
(281-99) 12 May, 1885 

Boring of the channel tunnel still continued, 2 Feb. 1887 

The channel tunnel bill again rejected by the 
commons (153-107) .... 3 Aug. ,, 

Sir E. Watkin's bill for experimental works 
opposed by the government and rejected in the 
commons (307-165), 27 June, 1888 ; again rejected. 
(234-153) 5 June, 1890 

Mersey tunnel, between Liverpool and Birkenhead, 
one mile long, projected i860, execution fre- 
quently suspended, boring renewed by the energy 
of major Samuel Isaac, 1880, boring completed 
under his superintendence, 17 Jan. 1884 (he died, 
22 Nov. 1886) ; tunnel opened, 13 Feb. 1S85 ; first 
passenger train run through, 22 Dec. 1S85 ; 
formally opened by the prince of Wales, 20 Jan. 1886 

The Severn tunnel near Bristol, constructed by W. 
C. Richardson, for the Gt. Western company's 
railway begun, March, 1873 ; official train passed 
through, 5 Sept. 1885 ; opened for traffic, 1 Sept., 
for passengers 1 Dec. ,, 

" Joseph II. mining adit," Schemnitz, begun 1782, 
after many delays, finished, 16,538 metres long, 

5 Sept. 1S78 

Arlberg tunnel, Austria, 10,270 metres long ; begun 
June, 1880; completed, and train passed through, 

13 Nov. 1883 

Two tunnels for the City and South London Elec- 
tric Railway, from the Monument to Stockwell, 
completed, March ; the railway opened by the 
prince of Wales, 4 Nov. ; to the public 18' Dec. 1890 

The construction of a tunnel under the Irish Chan- 
nel recommended by sir Roper Lethbridgc at the 
Society of Arts .' . . . . n Feb. 1891 

TUKAN, see Turkestan. 

TURCKHEIM, see Tiirkheim. 

TURIN, the ancient Augusta Taurinorum in 
Piedmont, capital of the Sardinian .States, and of 
the kingdom of Italy, till 1864, when it was super- 
seded by Florence. Its importance dates from the 
permanent union of Savoy and Piedmont in 1416. 
The French besieged this city ; but prince Eugene 
defeated their army, and compelled them to raise 
the siege, 7 Sept. 1706. In [798, the French 
republican arm} - took possession of Turin, seized all 
the Strong places and arsenals of Piedmont, and 

obliged the king and his family to remove to the 

island of Sardinia. In 1 7')'), the French were 
driven out by the Austrians and Russians; but the 



TURKESTAN. 



1000 



TURKEY. 



city and all Piedmont surrendered to the French, 
June 1800. In May 1814, it was restored to the 
king of Sardinia; see Italy, 1864. Here prince Hum- 
bert was married to his cousin Margherita amidst 
great rejoicing, 22 April, 1868. The monument to 
Cavour was inaugurated, 8 Nov. 1873. An exhibition 
opened by the king, 25 April, 1880. See Treaties, 
and Italy, 1884. Population, 1890, 320,808. 

TURKESTAN, called by the Persians Turan, 
Independent Tartary, the original country of the 
Turks, in Central Asia, was reached by Alexander, 
331 B.C. The Eussians are gradually encror.ching 
on this country ; on 14 Feb. 1865, a new province, 
Turkestan, was created by decree, and gen. Kauff- 
mann made governor, 26 July, 1867; died 16 May, 
1882. The rule of the czar accepted by the chief 
tribes at Merv, {which see), announced 8 Feb. 1884. 

TURKEY. The Turks were originally a 
tribe of Tartars; but, by incorporation with the 
peoples they have conquered, have becomea-mixed 
race. About 760, they obtained possession of a 
part of Armenia, called from them Turcomania. 
They gradually extended their power ; but in the 
13th century, being harassed by other Tartar tribes, 
they returned to Asia Minor. The Turkish empire 
till 1878 comprehended the almost independent 
principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, Servia, 
and Montenegro, the hereditary vice-royalty of 
Egypt, and Tunis. The Turkish quadrilateral for- 
tresses were Shumla, Varna, Silistria, and Bust- 
chuck. The population of the empire was estimated 
in 1887 at 32,978,100. (Immediate Possessions, 
21, 633, OOO, tributariesand protect orates, 1 1, 345, 100); 
in Europe, 8,987,000; Asia, 16,174,100; Africa, 
7,817,000. By the treaty of Berlin (13 July, 1878) 
Turkey is said to have 

Square Inhabi- Moham- 
Miles. tants. medans. 
Ceded to Bouinania . . 5,93s 246,000 142,000 
., Servia . . . 4,326 264,000 75,000 
,, Montenegro . . 1,549 40,000 9,000 
,, Austria . . . 15 2,000 — 

,, Greece (?) . . . 5,300 750,000 40,000 
To be occupied and adminis- 
tered by Austria . . 28,125 1,061,000 513,000 
Formed into the Principality 

of Bulgaria . ... 24,404 1,773,000 681,500 
Included in Eastern Bou- 

melia. .... 13,646 746,000 265,000 

If we exclude the provinces " indefinitely " to be 
occupied by Austria, Bulgaria, and Eastern Boume- 
lia, there remain to Turkey in Europe only 74>79° 
square miles, with 4,779,000 inhabitants, of whom 
2,521,500 are Mohammedans. In Armenia Eussia 
takes 10,000 square miles, with about 350,000 in- 
habitants. Cyprus, entrusted to the keeping of 
England, has an area of 3,584 square miles, and 
186,173 inhabitants in 1881. Thessaly ceded to 
Greece by convention, 24 May; treaty signed, 
2 July, 1 88 1. 
Alp Arslan and the Turks conquer Armenia and 

Georgia 1065-8 

Asia Minor conquered, 1074-84 ; Jerusalem taken . 1076 
Soliman Shah drowned in the Euphrates, while on 
the march ; his son Ertoghul, granted territories 

near Angora, dies 1288 

Othman, his son, emir of the sultan of Iconium, 
founded the Ottoman empire at Prusa, Bithynia, 

by policy and conquest, in 1299 

Organisation of Janissaries by Orcan about . . 1330 
Nic«a conquered, 1330 ; and the Morea . . . 1346 
The Turks enter Thrace, and take Adrianople . 1361 
Amurath I. remodels the Janissaries . . . . 1362 
Bajazet I. overruns provinces of the Eastern empire 

1389 et seq. 
He defeats Sigismund of Hungary at Nioopolis 

28 Sept. 1396 



He besieges Constantinople ; but is interrupted by 
the approach of Tamerlane (or Timour), by whom 
he is defeated and made prisoner, at An cyra, 28 July, 1402 

Macedonia annexed i43P- 

Ladislas of Hungary defeated and slain at Varna 

by Amurath 10 Nov. 1444; 

Amurath defeats John Huniades at Kossova Oct. 1448 
The Turks, invading Hungary, repelled by Huni- 
ades I 4S° 

Constantinople taken by the Turks under Mahomet 
II., which ends the Eastern Boman empire, 

29 May, 1453 
Belgrade relieved by Huniades' victory over the 

Turks July, 1456 

Greece subjected to the Turks (see Greece) . 1458-60. 
The Turks take Otranto, diffusing terror through- 
out Europe 1480 

Selim I. raised to the throne by the Janissaries ; 

murders his father, brothers, &c 1512 

He takes the islands of the Archipelago . . . 151-4 

He overruns Syria iSiS 

Gains Egypt by defeat of Mamelukes . . Aug. 1516 
Solyman takes Belgrade, Aug. 1521 ; and Bhodes, 

Dec. 1532 
Defeats Hungarians at Mohatz . . 29 Aug. 15Z6 

Repulsed before Vienna Oct. 1529 

Peace with Austria 1533, 

Cyprus taken from the Venetians . . Aug. 157.1 
Great battle of Lepanto (which see) . . 7 Oct. ,, 
Treaty of commerce with England . . . . 157,9 
Turks driven out of Persia by Shah Abbas . . 1585 

Great fire in Constantinople 1606 

War with the Cossacks, who take Azof . . . 1637 
The Turks defeat the Persians and. take the city of 

Bagdad 1638 

Candia (Crete) taken from Venice, after a 25 years' 

siege . . 1669 

Vienna besieged by Mahomet IV. but relieved by 

John of Poland 12 Sept. 16&3 

Peace of Carlovitz 26 Jan. 1699 

Mustapha II. deposed by Janissaries . . . . 1703 
The Morea retaken by the Turks .... 1715 
The Turks defeated at Peterwardein . . . . 1716 
They lose Belgrade ; and their power declines . 1717 

Peace of Eri van (with Persia) 1732 

Belgrade taken from Austria; and Bussia relin- 
quishes Azof I 739 

The Turks defeated at Kars 1745 

Insurrection of Wahabees 174a 

Great sea-fight in the channel of Seio ; the Russian 

fleet defeats the Turkish 1770 

The Crimea ceded to Russia .... Jan. 1784 
Disastrous war with Russia and Austria, the Turks 
lose more than 200,000 men . . . 1787-91 

Cession of Oczacow 1791 

War with the French, who invade Egypt . . . 1798 
Insurrection of Mamelukes at Cairo .... 1S03 
War against Russia and England . . 7 Jan. 180? 
Passage and repassage of the Dardanelles effected 
by the British fleet, but with great loss ; seeDar- 

danelles 19 Feb. , r 

Murder of Hali Aga 25 May, „. 

The Janissaries massacre the newly disciplined 

troops i8o3 

The Russians defeated at Silistria .... 180a; 

Treaty of Bucharest (which see) . . 28 May, 1S12 

A caravan, consisting of 2000 souls, returning from 
Mecca, destroyed by a pestilential wind in the 
deserts of Arabia ; 20 saved . . 9 Aug. ,, 

Subjugation of the AValiabees (which see) . 181S-29. 
Ali Pacha of Janina, in Greece, declares himself 
independent ........ 1820 

Insurrection in Moldavia and Wallachia, 6 March, 182s 
Persecution of Christians, 6 March ; the Greek 
patriarch put to death at Constantinople, 

23 April, ,, 
[For the events in connection with the independ- 
ence of Greece, see Greece.] 
Horrible massacre at Seio (see Chios) . 23 April, 1822 
Sea-fight near Mitylene ; Turks defeated . 6 Oct. 1824, 
New Mahometan army organised . . 29 May, 1826 
Insurrection of the Janissaries at Constantinople ; 

they are suppressed and massacred, 14-16 June, ,, 
6000 houses burnt at Constantinople. . 30 Aug. ,, 
Battle of Navarino ; the Turkish fleet destroyed 
by the fleets of England, France, and Bussia (see 
Navarino) 20 Oct. 1823 



TUEKEY. 



1001 



TUEKEY. 



Banishment of 132 French, 120 English, and 85 
Russian settlers from the empire . 5 Jan'. 1828 

War with Russia 26 April, ,, 

The czar Nicholas takes the field . . 20 May, ,, 
Capitulation of Brahilow .... 19 June, ,, 
Surrender of Anapa .... 23 June, ,, 
Eminences of Shumla taken by Russians, 20 July, ,, 
The czar arrives before Varna . . 5 Aug. ,, 

Battle of Aklialzic 24 Aug. ,, 

Fortress of Bajazet taken ... 9 Sept. ,, 
The sultan proceeds to the camp with the sacred 

standard 26 Sept. ,, 

Dardanelles blockaded 1 Oct. ,, 

Surrender of Varna 11 Oct. ,, 

Russians retreat from Shumla . . 16 Oct. ,, 

Surrender of the castle of the Morea to the French, 

30 Oct. ,, 
Siege of Silistria raised by Russians . 10 Not. ,, 
Victory of the Russians at Kuleftscha, near Shumla 

11 June, 1829 
Battle near Erzeroum .... 2 July, ,, 
Adriauople is entered by the Russians, 20 Aug. ; 

armistice agreed on . . -29 Aug. ,, 

Treaty of peace at Adrianople . . 14 Sept. ,, 
Fire at Constantinople ; extinguished by the men 

of H.M.S. Blonde .... 22 Jan. 1830 

The porte acknowledges the independence of Greece 

25 April, ,, 
Treaty with America .... 7 May, „ 
Great fire at Pera ; British embassy destroyed, 

2 Aug. 1831 
New military " order of glory " (Nischan) founded 

19- Aug. ,, 
St. Jean d'Acre taken by Ibrahim Pacha, son of 

Mehemet Ali 2 July, 1832 

He defeats the army of the sultan at Konieh, 

21 Dec. „ 
Ibrahim Pacha marches within eighty leagues of 
Constantinople, and the sultan asks the aid of 
Russia ....... Jan. 1833 

The Russians enter Constantinople . 3 April, ,, 
Treaty with Russia, offensive and defensive, 

8 July, „ 
Office of grand vizier abolished . . 30 March, 1838 
Treaty of commerce with England, concluded by 

lord Ponsonby, ratified ... 16 Aug. ,, 
[For the events of 1839 and 1840 in relation to 

Syria ; see Syria.] 
Haiti Sherif promulgated decreeing many reforms, 
termed the Tanzimat (regulations) 3 Nov. 1839 ; 
again, at Rhodes 6 Jan. 1840; again 1844. 
Christians admitted to office in Turkey . June, 1849 
The Turkish government refuses to surrender the 
Hungarian and Polish refugees on the joint de- 
mand of Russia and Austria . . 16 Sept. ,, 
[The porte (countenanced by England) firmly resists 

this demand.] 
Russia suspends .intercourse with the Porte, 

12 Nov. ,, 
The British fleet, under sir W. Parker, anchors in 

Besika bay 13 Nov. „ 

Diplomatic relations between Russia and the porte 
resumed, 31 Dec. ; the latter sending the refugees 

to Konieh Jan. 1850 

Turkish Croatia in a state of rebellion . . Jan. 1851 
Treaty with France respecting the Holy Places 

(which see) 13 Feb. 1852 

Imperial order of Medjidie founded . . Aug. ,, 
Prince Menschikoff repairs to Constantinople as 
Russian negotiator, 28 Feb. ; lus peremptory 

demands rejected 19 April, 1853 

Reschid Pacha becomes foreign minister; the 
ultimatum being rejected, Meuschikolf quits 

Constantinople 21 May, ,, 

Hatti-slieriff issued, confirming the rights of the 

Greek Christians 6 June, ,, 

Russian manifesto against Turkey . . 26 June, ,, 
Russian army crosses the 1'ruth . . 2 July, ,, 

Grand national council — war to be declared if the 

principalities are not evacuated . . 26 Sept. ,, 
War declared against Russia . . .5 Oct. ,, 

[See Russo-Turkish War.] 
Commencement of national debt (see Tjoans, 1854) . 1854 
Insurrection in Epirus and Albania, favoured by 
the Greek government at Athens— Hellenic em- 
pire proclaimed 27 Jan. „ 

Volunteers from Athens join it . . 14 March, ,, 
Rupture between Greece and Turkey 28 March, „ 



[Several conflicts ensue with varied success.] 
Osman Pacha storms Peta, the central point of the 

insurrection 25 April, 1854 

English and French governments, after many 
remonstrances, send troops, which arrive at the 
Pirreus ; the king of Greece submits, and pro- 
mises strict neutrality : the Greek volunteers 
are recalled .... 25 and 26 May, ,, 
Abdi Pacha and Fuad Effendi take the intrenched 
camp at Kolampaka, and the insurrection shortly 

after ceases 18 June, , T 

Reschid Pacha, having retired (3 June), resumes 

his office 1 July, ,, 

Convention between Turkey and Austria 14 June, ,,. 
The Russians retire from the principalities, which 
are thereupon occupied by the Austrians, Sept. ,, 

Turkish loans Aug. 185s 

[See Loans 1854-5] 
Firman authorising free exercise of religion 18 Feb. 185.6 
Peace with Russia by treaty of Paris . 30 March, ,, 
Great Britain, France, and Austria guarantee integ- 
rity of Turkish empire . . . 15 April, ,, 
Austrians quit the principalities . . March, 1857 
Misunderstanding among the allied powers re- 
specting Moldavian elections, which are annulled, 

July, „ 
Death of Reschid Pacha .... 7 Jan. 185)8 
Massacre of Christians at Jedda (which see), 

15 June, ,, 
Lord Stratford de Redeliffe, many years English 
ambassador at Constantinople, returned to Eng- 
land, Jan. ; he is succeeded by sir H. Lytton 
Bulwer; accredited .... 12 July, „ 
Indecisive conflicts in Montenegro between the 

natives and the Turks .... July, , T 
Turkish financial reforms begun . . Aug. ,, 

The first Turkish railway opened (from Aidan to 

Smyrna) 19 Sept. ,,. 

Base coinage called in ; a fictitious Turkish coinage 

begun at Birmingham suppressed . • Oct. ,, 
The allied powers determine the Montenegrine 
boundaries ... ... 8 Nov. ,, 

Prince Alexander Cousa elected hospodar of both 

Moldavia and Wallachia . . 5 and 7 Feb. 1859 
[The porte at first objects, but afterwards accedes 

to the double election.] 
Electric telegraph completed between Aden and 

Suez May, ,„ 

Great fire at Constantinople ; 1000 houses destroyed 

10-14 Sept. ,, 
Conspiracy against the sultan, 17 Sept.; his brother 
implicated ; several condemned to die ; reprieved, 

Sept. and Oct. „ 
Great agitation for financial reform . . Oct. „ 
Alleged ill treatment of Christians in Turkey ; pro- 
posed intervention of the great powers, 5 May ; 
the Turkish government promises investigation 
and redress, 30 May ; all the powers satisfied 

except Russia June, i860 

War between the Druses and Maronites in Lebanon ; 

massacres (see Druses) .... June, ,, 
Massacre of Christians at Damascus (see Damascus, 

and Syria) 9-1 1 July, ,, 

Convention on behalf of the Great Powers at Paris ; 
armed intervention of the French agreed to, 

2 Aug. ,, 
Inundations at Galatz ; loss about 175,000?. 

24 Feb. i86j 
Christians revolt in the Herzegovina, aided by the 

Montenegrins March, ,, 

Great need of financial reform : the British am- 
bassador, sir H. Lytton Bulwer, proposes a 

scheme April, ,, 

Discussion respecting the French occupation of 

Syria; it ceases 5 June, ,, 

Death of the sultan, Abdul-Medjid ; accession of 

Abdul-Aziz, his brother . . . 25 June, ,, 
Economical reforms begun; Fuad Pacha made 

president of the council .... July, , r 
The late sultan's jewels sold in London . Aug. ,, 
imperial order of knighthood (< ismaneh) to include 

civil as well as military persons, founded, Sept. ,, 
imperial guard reorganised . . . Oct. 
Fuad Pacha made grand vizier . . 22 Nov. ,, 
Hi' puis forth a budget ; treaties hi' commerce with 

Sweden, Spain, &c. .... March, iS6a 

A Turkish loan (8,000,000/.) taken up in London, 

May, „ 



TUEKEY. 



1002 



TUEKEY. 



Secularisation of the property of the mosques, 
(value about 3,000,000!) said to be determined, on, 

Oct. 1S62 
insurgents in the Herzegovina submit ; peace made 

with Montenegro .... 23 Sept. ,, 
Dispute with Servia (which see) settled . 7 Oct. ,, 
.Ministerial crisis through the sultan's attempt at 
reaction; Fuad Pacha and others resign, but 

resume office 7 Jan. 1863 

A new bank established .... 28 Jan. ,, 
Fuad Pacha becomes seraskier . . 12 Feb. ,, 

The sultan visits Egypt . . . 7-17 April, ,, 
Fuad Pacha made grand vizier . . 1 June, ,, 
Exhibition of the produce of the empire opened in 

March ; closed 26 July, ,, 

<Great immigration of the Caucasian tribes April' 1864 
Financial reforms ; conversion and verification of 

the Turkish debt . Aug. 1865 

Cholera rages at Constantinople, nearly 50,000 
deaths, Aug. ; cholera subsides, Sept. ; great fire 
there, about 2500 buildings (mosques, dwellings, 

&c.) destroyed 6 Sept. 1865 

Fuad Pacha proposes confiscation of the property 
of the mosques : opposition of the Sheikh-ul-Islam 

21 Sept. „ 
Lord Lyons, ambassador at Constantinople . Oct. ,, 
Kevolt of the Maronites under Joseph Karam, 

30 Dec. ,, 
The grand vizier, Fuad Pacha, superseded by 

Mehemet Buehdi .... 5 June, 1866 

Revolution in Bucharest (see Danubian, princi- 
palities). 
Insurrection in Candia (which see) . . Aug. ., 
International conference respecting cholera at Con- 
stantinople . . . . 13 Feb. -26 Sept. ,, 
European Turkey very unsettled . . Jan. 1867 
Maronite revolt, under Joseph Karam, suppressed ; 

his flight, Jan. ; Turks leave . . 28 March, ,, 
Ministerial changes : Ali Pacha becomes grand- 
vizier ; Fuad Pacha, foreign minister 11 Feb. ,, 
The recommendation of the European powers to 
the sultan to give up Candia finally declined 

31 Mar. ,, 
Omar Pacha, commander-in-chief of the Turkish 

army April, „ 

Destruction of the dockyards in the Golden Horn by 
fire 2 April, ,, 

The sultan, with his son and nephew, visits Paris, 
1-12 July; arrives at Buckingham Palace, 
London, 12 July; entertained by the queen at 
Windsor, 13 July; by the lord mayor, 18 July; 
at a ball at New India House, 19 July; gives 
2500Z. to the poor of London, 22 July ; sails from 
Dover, 23 July ; at Vienna, 27 July-i Aug. ; re- 
turns to Constantinople . . . 7 Aug. 

The Sultan declines the proposition of Russia, for 
the suspension of hostilities in Crete, and an in- 
ternational commission ... 4 Sept. 

Ministerial crisis; Fuad Pacha resigns, but re- 
sumes his office Jan. 1868 

Meeting of the new council of state (including 
Jews and Christians), with legislative, but not 
executive, functions .... 18 May, 

Arrival of prince Napoleon Jerome at Constanti- 
nople 26 June, „ 

Arrests on account of a supposed plot against the 
sultan 3 o Sept. „ 

Dispute with Greece for intervention in the Cretan 
insurrection ; see Oreece .... Dee 

Fuad Pacha dies Feb! i860 

The prince and princess of Wales's visit April, „ 

Memorial of the porte to the European powers de- 
siring the abolition of the consular jurisdictions 
termed "capitulations" . . . June 

The khedive or viceroy of Egj^pt censured for 
assuming sovereign powers encroaching on those 
of the sultan A U<T 

System of compulsory education promulgated, Oct " 

Arrival of the empress of the French at Constanti- ' 
no l lle 15 Oct. „ 

Inauguration of the Suez canal . . 17 Nov. 

The khedive submits to the sultan . . Dec.' " 

Modification of the "capitulations" . April, 1870 

Great fire at Pera ; British embassy and about 7900 
houses destroyed ; great loss of life . 5 June, 

Another fire at Constantinople : about 1500 houses 
bui'ut 11 July, „ 



Change in the cabinet ; Mustapha Fazyl, finance 

minister 14 Aug. 1870 

Reported treaty between Turkey and Greece to re- 
sist European aggression in the East . 21 Oct. „ 
Russia repudiates the treaty of Paris, 1856, 31 Oct. ,, 
A note delivered to the porte (see Russia), 15 Nov. „ 
The sultan agrees to. a conference on the Black Sea 

question alone about 3 Dec. ,, 

Mustapha Fazyl, replaced by Mehemet Ruchdi 

about 15 Jan. 1871 
The Black Sea question settled by the conference 

at London (see Russia) . . . 13 March, ,, 
Omar Pacha, general, dies ... 18 April, ,, 
Insurrection in Yemen, subdued . . May, ,, 
Great fires at Constantinople . . 7 June, „ 

Aali Pacha, grand vizier, an able statesman, dies 

6 Sept. „ 
Mahmoud Pacha, grand vizier . . . Sept. „ 
Tunis made an integral part of the empire, by de- 
cree ....... 23 Oct. ,, 

Political reforms inaugurated by the new ministry 

Nov. 1871 
Important speech of the sultan to his council re- 
specting the finances .... 16 May, 1872 

Mahmoud Pacha, grand vizier, having made 
enemies through dismissing foreign employes, &c, 
is dismissed and replaced by Miclhat Pacha, 

about 30 July, „ 
Midhat Pacha, who favoured Austria, dismissed ; 

replaced by Mehemet Ruchdi . . . 19 Oct. ,, 
Essad Pacha, grand vizier, 15 Feb.; Mehemet 

Ruchdi again April, 1873 

The Roumelian railway connecting Constantinople, 

Adrianople, &c, opened ... 17 June, ,, 
The sultan's jewels, &e. (valued at 8,ooo,oooL) ex- 
hibited at Vienna Aug. ,, 

The shah of Persia arrives at Constantinople 

19 Aug. ,, 
Inability to raise a loan : the sultan gives up a large 

sum; great financial reforms proposed . Oct. ,, 
Turkish aggressions on South Arabia checked by 

Great Britain Nov. „ 

Great improvements in the army ; formation of re- 
serves ........... 

Hussein Avni, pacha ; made grand vizier . Feb. 1874 
Improved financial arrangements reported April, ,, 
The sultan ill ; he recognises his nephew Murad 

as successor about 5 Oct. ,, 

Austria, Germany, and Russia inform Turkey that 
they consider they have the right to conclude 
separate treaties with Roumania . . 20 Oct. „ 
Mesondive or Mesoucliye, Turkish ironclad, launched 

at Blackwall 28 Oct. „ 

Turkish debt 3,000,000/.. in 1854 ; 180,000,000?. . „ 
Budget : estimated receipts, 21,711,764?. ; expendi- 
ture, 26,299,178?. June, 1875 

Insurrection in Herzegovina (■which see) ; great ex- 
citement in Bosnia, Servia, and Montenegro 

July- Aug. ,, 
Mahmoud Pacha made grand vizier, with a strong 

ministry, about 25 Aug. ,, 

Decree (in consequence of the deficit of 5,000,000?. 
in the budget) that for 5 years half the interest on 
the debt be paid in cash and half in 5 per cent. 

bonds 6 Oct. ,, 

Circular note remitting taxes and promising eco- 
nomical and commercial reform, 7 Oct. ; another 
stating object of the government to stop onerous 
loans, develop the resources of the empire, &c, 

20 Oct. „ 
Remonstrances of British and Russian ambassadors 
with the government respecting expenditure and 
treatment of Christian subjects . Sept. -Nov. „ 
Raschid Pasha new foreign minister . . Nov. ,, 
Midhat Pasha, reformer, resigns . . 4 Dec. „ 
Firman issued ; ordering great reforms, equality 

of rights to Christians, &c. . . . Dec. „ 
Note of Andrassy, Austrian minister, respecting 
reforms, 30 Dec. ; adopted by Germany and Russia, 
Jan.; by Great Britain, 18 Jan. ; transmitted 
to the porte, about 7 Feb., agreed to . 10 Feb. 1876 
Payment of April dividends deferred to July 

April 11 ,, 
Insurrection in Bulgaria, promoted by foreign 
agitators, 1, 2 May ; quickly suppressed by troops 
sent 7 May ; about 65 villages burnt by the Bashi- 
bazouks, and other Turkish troops ; several towns 
destroyed; about 15,000 persons killed ; atrocious 



TUEKEY. 



1003 



TUEKEY. 



cruelties to women and children ; a few Turks 
killed by Bulgarians in self-defence (report by 
Mr. Schuyler, see belovj) .... May, 1876 
Riots at Constantinople ; the softas, fanatical stu- 
dents, and others, demand reforms ; their cry, 
"Turkey for the Turks;" ministerial changes; 
Mahmoud Pacha, the grand vizier, replaced by 
Mehemet Ruchdi ; Europeans much alarmed 

10 May et seq. ,, 
British fleet arrives in Besika Bay . . 26 May, ,, 
Meeting at Berlin of ministers of Austria, Germany, 
and Russia ; they agree to a note to Turkey, re- 
quiring an armistice of two months, and other 
measures, n, 12 May; the note accepted by 
France and Italy, not by Great Britain, 19 May ; 
not presented through the revolution . 30 May, ,, 

The grand vizier Mehemet Ruchdi, Hussein Avni, 
and Midhat Pacha, request the sultan to give up 
some of his treasure to save the nation from 
ruin ; he refuses and is deposed, 29 May ; his 
nephew proclaimed as Murad V. ; joyfully ac- 
cepted by the people, and recognised by the 
western powers . . 30 May, et seq. , , 

Manifesto recognising the danger of the empire 
through misgovermnent, and promising amend- 
ment 2 June, „ 

Abdul-Aziz recognises Murad ; said to have com- 
mitted suicide by cutting arteries in the arm ; 
said to be insane ; (decided, by trial, to have been 
murdered ; .see below, June, 1881) . 4 June, ,, 

Assassination of Hussein Avni, the war minister, 
Raschid Pacha, the foreign minister, and others, 
by Hassan, a disgraced Circassian officer, 15 June, 
who is hanged 17 June, „ 

Declaration of war by Servia, 1 July ; by Monte- 
negro 2 July, ,, 

Tchernayeff and Servians enter Turkey ; battle at 
Saitschar or Zaicar ; Turks said to have the advan- 
tage .3 July, ,, 

Severe conflict of Turks with Servians at Yavor, 
near Novi Bazar, 6 July ; with Montenegrins at 
Nevesinje 27 July, ,, 

League in aid of Turkish Christians formed in Lon- 
don 27 July, ,, 

Mukhtar Pacha defeated by prince Nikita at Urba 
or Urbitza in Herzegovina . . 28 July, ,, 

Issue of paper money announced . . 28 July, ,, 

Several clays' conflict ; the Turks enter Servia, and 
capture Gurgosavatz ; Servians retreat 7 Aug. ,, 

Turkish barbarities in Bulgaria reported by Daily 
News' correspondent, substantiated by report of 
Mr. Schuyler, the American commissioner from 
Constantinople, dated . . . .10 Aug. ,, 

Asserted victory of prince Nikita at Medun, near 
Kutchi, about 14 Aug. „ 

Advance of the Turks under Abdul-Kerim Pacha 
upon Alexinatz ; severe fighting, 9 Aug. 

19-30 Aug, 

Servia invites the mediation of the guaranteeing 
powers, about 24 Aug. „ 

Murad V. deposed on account of bad health ; his 
brother Abdul-Hamid II. proclaimed 31 Aug. ,, 

The great powers propose an immediate armistice, 
the restoration of the status quo ante helium, pay- 
ment of an indemnity by Servia, &c. ; memoran- 
dum presented 3, 4 Sept. ,, 

Servians said to be severely beaten before Alexinatz 
1, 2 Sept. ; continued indecisive fighting . . ,, 

Armistice till 25 Sept. agreed to about . 17 Sept. ,, 

Prince Milan proclaimed king by the army at Deli- 
grad ; disapproved .... 16 Sept. ,, 

Report of Mr. Baring, the British commissioner in 
Bulgaria, published . . . .19 Sept. ,, 

[It establishes the facts "that a ferocious Mussul- 
man soldiery, in revenge for a feeble and abortive 
insurrection, were let loose on the inhabitants of a 
large province; that the population were bar- 
barously massacred, men, women, and children 
included ; and that during the storm of savage 
fury crimes of all descriptions and outrages un- 
mentionable were perpetrated on the inhabi- 
tants." — Times.] 

Firm incisive despatch from Lord Derby to Sir H. 
Elliot, referring to Mr. Baring's report, proposing 
longer armistice, &c 21 Sept. ,, 

The porte receives the propositions of the six great 
. powers 26 Sept. „ 



Lord Derby informs the deputation from the city 
of London that, in regard to the Eastern question, 
the government is labouring for local self-govern- 
ment for the Turkish provinces in Europe, equal 
treatment of Mahometans and Christians, better 
administration for both, security for life and pro- 
perty, and effectual guarantees against repetition 
of outrages 27 Sept. 

Servia rejects the renewal of the armistice ; Tcher- 
nayeff 'and army dominant; fighting renewed, 

26, 27 Sept. 

Servian attacks on the Turks near Alexinatz severely 
repulsed 28, 29 Sept. 

In reply to the great powers the porte declines an 
armistice, opposes administrative autonomy to 
the provinces as impracticable, proposes a senate, 
and guarantees incisive reforms . . 2 Oct. 

Mukhtar Pacha said to defeat Montenegrines. 7 Oct. 

Montenegrine victory at Danilograd . 13 Oct. 

Turkey's proposal of an armistice for 6 months, 
10 Oct. ; declined by Russia, who proposes 4 to 
6 weeks, longer being injurious to commerce, 
&c 14 Oct. 

Continued fighting, generally unfavourable to Ser- 
vians 15-19 Oct. 

Alexinatz bombarded .... 16-19 Oct. 

Medun surrenders to Montenegrines . 20 Oct. 

Krevet taken by Turks . . . . 21 Oct. 

Result of fighting very favourable to Turks 19-24 ct. 

Alleged conspiracy at Constantinople against the 
reform ministry ; many arrests . about 23 Oct. 

Important Turkish successes iu the valley of the 
Morava 19-24 Oct. 

Servians and Russians defeated ; armies under 
Tchernayeff and Horvaritch divided, 19-24 Oct. ; 
Djunis taken by Turks ; Deligrad untenable ; 
severe Russian loss . . . .29 Oct. 

Neutral despatch of lord Derby . dated 30 Oct. 

Alexinatz captured by Turks ; Russian ultimatum 
given, demanding 6 weeks' armistice within 48 
hours dated 31 Oct. 

Armistice for two months signed . . 1 Nov. 

Deligrad captured by Turks, now virtually masters 
of Servia 1 Nov. 

Pacific declaration of the czar to lord Aug. Loftus, 

2 Nov. 

Deligrad evacuated by Turks ; farewell address of 
Tchernayeff to officers, exhorting to constancy, 

4 Nov. 

Czar's speech at Moscow ; he will act independently 
if guarantees are not obtained . . 10 Nov. 

Marquis of Salisbury appointed special ambassador 
for conference at Constantinople ; he arrives at 
Paris, 18 Nov. ; Berlin, 20 Nov. ; Vienna, 24 Nov.; 
Rome, 29 Nov. ; Constantinople . . 5 Dec. 

Alleged abortive conspiracy to restore Murad, about 

8 Dec. 

Preliminary meetings of conference of representa- 
tives of six great powers begin (Great Britain, 
Russia, Austria, Germany, France, and Italy), 

12 Dec. 

Ruchdi Pacha, grand vizier, replaced by Midhat 
Pacha, a reformer ... .19 Dec. 

Armistice extended to Feb. 1877 . . Dec. 

New political constitution proclaimed : (chief 
provisions : indivisibility of the empire ; the sultan 
supreme; individual-liberty; freedom of all creeds, 
•of the press, and of education ; equal legal taxa- 
tion ; a senate and two chambers ; general elec- 
tions by ballot every fourth year ; irremovable 
judges, &c.) 23 Dec. 

Opening of the conference ... 23 Dec. 

Financial decree of 6 Oct. 1875, abrogated, 27 Dec. 

Armistice extended to 1 March . . 28 Dec. 

The great national council of Turkey rejects the 
propositions of the conference, 18 Jan.; it closes, 
20 Jan. ; chief ambassadors leave soon after 

22 Jan. 

Negotiations for peace opened with Servia and Mon- 
tenegro about 26 Jan. 

Midhat Pacha, the grand vizier, dismissed and 
banished ; succeeded by Edhem Pacha (educated 
at Paris) ; reforms to go on . . . 5 Feb. 

Gortschakoff's circular to great powers, inquiring 
what they intend to do, signed 19 Jan. ; pub- 
lished about 7 Feb. 

Protocols of the conference published in Times, &c. 

early in Feb. 



1S77 



TUEZEY. 



1004 



TUKKEY. 



In Turkey " there is no aristocracy, no governing 
class ; no organised democracy ; no representa- 
tive government," (marquis of Salisbury) 20 Feb. 

Peace with Servia signed . . .1 March, 

First Turkish parliament opened : 30 senators, 90 
deputies ; speech from the sultan read, 19 March, 

Gen. Ignatieff visits Berlin, Paris, London, Vienna, 
&c March, 

Protocol signed for six powers : principles — to wait 
for Turkish reforms and watch ; conditional dis- 
armament in Russia and Turkey (voidable under 
certain conditions) . . . . 31 March, 

Protocol rejected by Turkey, 12 April ; justificatory 
circular sent to the powers ; Mr. Layard sent as 
temporary ambassador to Turkey . . April, 

Insurrection of Mirdites or Miridites, April ; armis- 
tice with Montenegro not renewed . 13 April, 

Arrival of Mr. Layard as ambassador, at Constanti- 
nople ; he affirms the neutrality of Great Britain, 
about 24 April, 

War declared by Russia (see Russo-TurJcish war, 
1877) 2 4 April, 

Riotous manifestation by the softas, soon subsides, 

24 May, 

A jihad or holy war against Russia propounded by 
the sheikh-ul-islam . . . about 28 May, 

Suleiman Pacha successful in Montenegro ; relieves 
Nicksies, besieged ... . May, et seq. 

Miridite h aders captured .... June, 

The parliament closed without a speech . 28 June, 

Safvet Pacha, foreign minister, replaced by Aarifi 
Pacha about 18 July, 

Other ministerial changes .... July, 

Protests against alleged Russian atrocities, July, 

—Aug. 

Bosnian revolt reported to be ended . Aug. 

Proclamation for increase of army by 150,000 — 
Christians and others to serve , . .26 Nov. 

Reported intrigues at Constantinople by peace and 
war parties Nov. 

The sultan issues a rather vague proclamation of 
amnesty to Bulgaria . . about 27 Nov. 

Surrender of Plevna, 10 Dec. ; circular note to the 
great powers requesting mediation . . 12 Bee. 

Parliament opened ; the sultan's speech censures 
the war, and praises his generals and soldiers, 

13 Bee. 

The ministry censured, resigns ; still holds office ; 
Suleiman dismissed ; crisis at Constantinople, 

5, 6, 7 Jan. 

Hamed Pacha, grand vizier . . . 11 Jan. 

New ministry under Ahmed Nefik ; grand viziership 
abolished 4, 5 Feb. 

British fleet enter the Bardanelles without permis- 
sion of the sultan .... 13 Feb. 

The parliament dissolved by the sultan . 14 Feb. 

Insurrection in Crete, Thessaly, Epirus, &c. (see 
Greece) Feb., March, 

Treaty of peace with Russia signed at San Stefano 
(see Stejano), 3 March ; ratified at St. Petersburg, 

17 March, 

Osman Pacha honourably received by the sultan, 

24 March, 

Grand-duke Nicholas and the sultan exchange visits 
at Constantinople . . . .26 March, 

Ahmed Nefik replaced by Sadyk as prime minister, 
about 18 April, 

Insurrection near Rhodope, in Roumelia, against 
Russians going on ; see Ehodope . . April, 

Insurrection (said doubtfully to be in favour of the 
ex-sultan Murad) in Constantinople, suppressed ; 
Ali Suavi, a softa and fanatical reformer, with 
others, killed 20 May, 

Public offices, &c, at Constantinople destroyed by 
fire ; attributed to incendiaries . 22 May, 

Office of grand vizier revived for Mehemet Ruehdi, 
May ; soon replaced by Safvet . . 29 May, 

Secret agreement between the marquis of Salisbury 
and count Scliouvaloff, Russian ambassador, 

30 May, 

Secret British convention with Turkey (defensive 
alliance) : if by the treaty of Berlin, Russia ac- 
quires Kars, Ardahan, or Batoum, Great Britain 
is to join the sultan in arms in defending his 
dominions, he engaging to reform his government ; 
Cyprus to be held by Great Britain till Russia 
returns its acquisitions . . . 4 June, 

Cyprus ceded to Great Britain . . 3 July, 



1877 



Berlin conference meets, 13 June ; treaty, signed 
(see Berlin) 13 July, 

A conspiracy against the sultan suppressed, about 

10 July, 

A ministerial crisis ends ; the vizier Safvet Pacha's 
policy approved by the sultan, who gives him a 
present ; ratification of the treaty of Berlin an- 
nounced 4 Aug. 

Trial of Suleiman Pacha for misconduct during the 
war begun ...... Aug. 

The Turks said to be grossly ill-treated in Bulgaria, 
and other surrendered places . . . Aug. 

Safvet Pacha's circular to foreign powers refusing 
to recognise Greek proposal for annexation of 
Candia, Thessaly, &c 8 Aug. 

Murder of Mehemet Ali Pacha at Ipek, near Scutari, 
by Albanian rioters .... 6 Sept. 

Alleged conspiracies on behalf of the ex-sultan 
Murad ; instigated by the ulemas, about 10 Sept. 

Albanian leader with 40,000 men said to be ruling 
from Janina to Montenegro . . . 12 Sept. 

German circular to the powers on Turkish delays 
in carrying out the Berlin treaty . middle Sept. 

The sultan accepts the reforms proposed by the 
British government ; announced . 24 Oct. 

Insurrectionary movements in Macedonia Oct. 

Midhat Pacha appointed governor-general of Syria, 
to inaugurate reforms . . about 11 Nov. 

Suleiman Pacha sentenced to degradation and im- 
prisonment, 2 Dec. ; absolved the sultan 4 Dec. 

New ministry ; Kheredine Pacha (grand vizier) ; 
Caratheodori, and others ... 4 Dec. 

Macedonian insurrection ended . . .3 Jan. 

Definitive treaty of peace with Russia, signed 

8 Feb. 

British fleet leaves the sea of Marmora March, 

Definitive treaty with Austria, published 26 May, 

Mahmoud Nedem, old statesman, returns to Con- 
stantinople on invitation ... 30 June, 

Kheredine, Caratheodori, and others compelled to 
resign through opposition of the assembly of 
Ulemas (their policy said to be against the 
Khoran) ; succeeded by Aarifi Pacha 

28, 29 July, 

The Russians evacuate Turkey . July, Aug. 

New ministry under Said Pacha . . 18, 19 Oct. 

Pressure for reforms put upon the government by 
the British ; admiral Hornby and the fleet enter 
Turkish waters ; quit . . early in Nov. 

Baker Pacha appointed inspector-general of gen- 
darmerie in Asia Minor . announced 18 Nov. 

Great financial depression . . Nov. Bee. 

Official relations with Great Britain temporarily 
suspended on account of the Imprisonment of Dr. 
Koller, a German missionary, and Ahmed Tewfik, 
who assisted him in translations 31 Dec. 

Successful intervention of sir A. H. Layard 

1-10 Jan. 

Note of Savas Pacha to the Powers acknowledging 
corruptions in judicial affairs and promising effi- 
cient reforms (in Times) ... 30 Jan. 

Col. and Mrs. Synge (distributors of relief to Mus- 
sulmans) captured by Greek brigands, near Salo- 
nica, about 19 Feb. ; released for io,ooo£. 

about 24 March, 

Mr. Goschen sent as temporary ambassador ; 
arrives at Constantinople . . . 28 May, 

New ministry under Kadri Pacha about 8 June, 

Identic note from European powers, 11 June; 
given in ...... 12 June, 

Osman Pacha, war minister, dismissed 

about 10 July, 

Naval demonstration by the European powers at 
Dulcigno, suggested by earl Granville Jnly, 

Collective note of the Berlin conference presented 

15 July, 

Madame Skobeleff, mother of the Russian general, 
robbed and murdered near Philippopolis by 
Ouzalis, a Russian . . . . 18 July, 

Midhat Pacha, governor of Syria, and Hamed 
Pacha of Smyrna exchange offices . . Aug. 

Collective note from the powers urging cession of 
Dulcigno, <fec, to Montenegro, and proposing to 
aid the prince in taking possession . 3 Aug. 

The ministry modified under Said Pacha, premier 

12 Sept. 

A final note from the powers respecting cession of 
Dulcigno to Montenegro, delivered 15 Sept. 



1879 



TURKEY. 



1005 



TURKEY. 



Admiral Beauchamp Seymour, commander of com- 
bined fleet at Ragusa, sent to make a demonstra- 
tion near Dulcigno . . ... 20 Sept. 
The sultan refuses to surrender Dulcigno ; the 
French decline to partake in attack on the town, 
about 27 Sept. 
Note from the sultan limiting his concessions and 
resisting coercion ; presented . . 3 Oct. 
Immediate cession of Dulcigno ordered by the 
sultan, about 23 Oct. ; effected . . 26 Nov. 
The combined fleet disperses ... 4 Dec. 
Note from the sultan to the powers respecting the 

Greeks arming 14 Dec. 

Circular from the powers recommending arbitra- 
tion, 24 Dec. 1880 ; declined by Turkey and 

Greece early in Jan 

Circular from Turkey proposing conference at Con- 
stantinople &c. . . . about 15 Jan. 
Notes from the powers presented . .21 Feb. 
Conference at Constantinople ; agreement between 
Turkey and the powers ; proposals referred to 

Athens 30 March, 

Mr. Henry Suter, engaged in mines, seized by 
brigands at Cassandra, in Salonica, about 8 April, 
Rebellion in Albania (which see) suppressed May, 
Midhat Pacha's palace surrounded by soldiers ; he 
escapes and appeals to the powers . 17 May, 
The sultan jsrotests against French invasion of 

Tunis (which sec) May, 

Midhat surrenders, claiming a fair trial 

about 17 May, 
Turkey protests against the Tunis treaty of 12 May 

May, 
Mr. Suter's release for 15,000?. ransom announced 

23 May, 

Convention between Turkey and Greece arranged at 

Constantinople settling frontiers ; Thessaly ceded 

by Turkey 24 May, 

Mr. Goschen leaves Constantinople ; his mission 
successful ; succeeded by lord Dufferiu, 26 May ; 
who arrives at Constantinople, . 15 June, 
Trial of Midhat Pacha and others for murder of the 
late sultan Abdul-Aziz ; convicted ; Mustapha 
Fahri Bey and Had. j Mehmed actual assassins ; 
others, Mahmoud and Nouzi Pachas, the sultan's 
brothers-in-law, Midhat Pacha, and others ac- 
complices 27, 28 June, 

Sentence ; death to all except two subordinates to 

imprisonment 29 June, 

Turco-Greek convention ceding Thessaly to Greece, 

signed at Constantinople ... 2 July, 

The trial of Midhat and others said to be a mockery ; 

punishment commuted to exile on intercession 

of the British Government ; announced 31 July, 

The captors of Mr. Suter taken in Greece, about 

15 Aug. 
Turkish mission at Cairo .... 7-18 Oct. 
Continued negotiations at Constantinople respect- 
ing national debt .... Oct. et seq. 
The German vessel Vulcan laden with dynamite 
(said to belong to Russia) cargo unshipped near 

Constantinople about 8 Oct. 

Decree signed for a satisfactory settlement of the 

national debt 28 Dec. 

Capt. Selby, R.N. , wounded by Albanians at Artaki, 

announced 16 Feb. ; died ... 20 Feb. : 

Mehemet Ruchdi Pasha dies . . .26 March, 

Russian-war indemnity convention ratified 6 May, 

The minister Said Pasha dismissed, succeeded by 

Abdurrahman Pasha, about 2 May ; who resigns 

7 July. 

Said Pasha reinstated . . . about 8 July, 

Sultan protests against bombardment of forts at 
Alexandria (see Egypt) . . about n July, 

Protracting negotiations respecting a military con- 
vention ; agreed to 29 Aug. 

Alleged conspiracy of Fuad Pasha and others to 
dethrone the sultan . . . about 28 Nov. 

Sai I Pasha dismissed ; Circassian guard dismissed 

29 Nov. 

Frontier disputes with Montenegro . . Nov. 

Said Pasha restored with honours, made grand 
Vizier 3 Dec. Fuad Pasha restored to favour 

7 Dec. 

Excitement of the sultan through dread of assas- 
sination about 13 Dec. 

Fight among the sultan's body guard, (Albanians 
ami Negroes) about 30 killed or wounded 17 Jan. 1 



Turkish note to the powers against British Egypt- 

tian circular about 23 Jan. 

Difficulties with the Greek church respecting poli- 
tical reforms ; resignation of the (Ecumenical 
Patriarch Yoachim 1L. ; not accepted ; concilia- 
tion proposed . . . .29 Dec. -3 Jan. 

Resignation maintained . . . .9 Jan. 

Amicable settlement of dispute, announced April, 

The Imperial prince and princess of Austria hospi- 
tably entertained by the sultan . . April, 

Death of Midhat Pasha, great statesman and re- 
former in exile, aged 62 ... May, 

Circular to the six great powers announcing the 
stoppage of the post offices in Constantinople, 
20 July, resisted ; the Turkish arrangements fail, 
and are withdrawn Aug. 

Sir Edward Thornton appointed to succeed lord 
Dufferin Sept. 

Greek patriarch elected . . . . 13 Oct. 

Mutiny of troops at Monastir, for want of pay and 
clothing ; settled by concession . about 21 Nov. 

Petitions to the sultan from Macedonia, respecting 
Turkish atrocities signed . . . .12 Oct. 

Hassan Fehmy Pasha sent to London to confer on 
the Egyptian question; his proposals not re- 
ceived, end of Jan. 

Turkey protests against Italian occupation of Mas- 
sowah on the Red Sea . . about 23 Feb. 

New tariff with England signed . . 9 July, 

Sir H. D. Wolff arrives at Constantinople on a 
mission respecting Egypt, 22 Aug. ; wellreceived 
by the Sultan 29 Aug. 

Revolution in Roumelia (which see), 18 Sept ; 
firm Turkish note to the powers about 22 Sept. 

Said Pasha, grand vizier, and other ministers 
dismissed ; succeeded by Kiamil Pasha, 24 Sept. 

Conference of ambassadors, 4 Oct. ; the ambassadors 
present a collective note condemning the revolu- 
tion in Roumelia as breaking the treaty of Berlin, 

14 Oct. 

Decree for Turkish commission to go with sir 
H. D. Wolff to Cairo, about 12 Oct. ; convention 
signed 24 Oct. 

Turkey asks assistance of the powers to settle the 
Roumelian affair ig Oct. 

Conference of ambassadors at Constantinople, 
5 Nov. ; collective declaration for maintenance 
of status quo ante, about 7 Nov. ; division of 
opinion as to enforcement . . . n Nov. 

Rustem Pasha succeeds Musurus Pasha (1856-85) 
as ambassador in London . . . Nov. 

The Sultan ratifies the treaty between Bulgaria 
and Servia 13 March, 

Sir Edward Thornton, British ambassador, received 
by the Sultan n March, 

Hobart Pasha, Turkish admiral, dies, aged 64, 

19 June, 

Sir William White appointed British ambassador, 
Oct. ; received 2 Nov. 

Four English gentlemen captured near Smyrna by 
brigands who demand 3,000?. ransom, 24 Sept. ; 
released by payment of a ransom of 750?. 26 *<-},\ . 

Reported deficit of i,ooo,oooL in the budgel ; 
increase of brigandage .... Nov. 

After the celebration of the feast of Mevlud, the 
Sultan delivers an. optimist speech to the 
officials on the state of the empire . 27 Nov. 

Direct railway communication between London 
and Constantinople via Dover and Calais in j 
hours ; first train from Vienna . 12-14 Aug. 

The government contracts a loan for 1,350,000?. 
from the "German " bank ; consequent ."rupture 
with the Ottoman bank, its usual financial agent, 

Oct. 

80,000 men of the reserve called out . . Aug. 

The ottoman bank, sir Edgar Vincent, director, 
lends the sultan 150,000?., reported . 28 Oct. 

Trial ofMoussa Hey, see Armenia 2; Nov. et seq. 

The German emperor and empress warmly received 
l>y the sultan at Constantinople, z Nov. ; a 
review, <Sic 3-6 Nov. 

Five new war vessels launched at Constantinople, 

30 Jan. 

New 5 percent, conversion loan al 03, successfully 
effected by the grand vizier, aided by sir Edgar 
Vincent ; agreement signed . . 30 April, 

The Russian government demands payment Of the 



18S5 



1SC6 



1S87 



iSSS 



TURKEY. 



1006 



TURRET SHIPS. 



arrears of the Eusso-Turkish war indemnity, 

about 15 May, 1890 

Troubles in Old Servia by bands of Arnauts ; severe 
fight, with much slaughter . . . June, ,, 

Turkey defers payment of indemnity till Nov., 
Kussia demands immediate payment ; note sent, 

about 18 June, ,, 

British cotton and woollen yarn-spinning factory 
opened at Constantinople .... 22 June, ,, 

For Armenian troubles see Armenia, 1889-90. 

The government frigate Ertogrul founders on the 
S. coast of Japan, during a gale ; out of 653, 584 
persons perish, including vice-admiral Osman 
Pasha 18 Sept. „ 

Sir "Edgar Vincent thanked by the leading mer- 
chants of Constantinople, for his services to 
them 12 Jan. 1891 

Arnaut revolt in Old Servia; the government 
buildings in Drenitza burnt, reported, 

about 4 Feb. ,, 

Death of Musurus pasha, diplomatist, aged 84 ; 33 
years ambassador in London . . 12 Feb. ,, 

The Arnauts again attack the Christians in Old 
Servia, who bravely resist, but are defeated with 
loss about 14 May, „ 

Eailway train at Tcherkesskeni, near Constanti- 
nople, attacked by brigands ; two persons killed ; 
five carried off for ransom, 1 June ; active mea- 
sures taken by the porte, June ; captives liberated, 

4-8 June, „ 

M. Eugene de Raymond, sub-manager of a vineyard 
company captured by brigands at Ormoudja, 7 
Aug. ; ransomed by the sultan . . 12 Aug. ,, 

Dismissal of Kiamil pasha, president of ministry 
or grand vizier (appointed 1890) by the sultan, 
3 Sept. 1891 ; succeeded by Djevad pasha. 

Sir William A. White, the able British ambassador, 
dies at Berlin, while on a visit, 28 Dec. 1891 ; 
succeeded by the right lion, sir Francis Clare 
Ford about 8 Jan. 1892 

Payment of the war indemnity resumed, reported, 

27 Jan. ,, 

Sir Francis Clare Ford arrives at Constantinople, 
26 Feb. ; received by the sultan . 8 March, „ 
See Candia, Egypt, Greece, Montenegro, and Servia. 

TURKISH SULTANS. 

1299. Othman, Osman, or Ottoman, founded the empire, 

retained the title emir, but ruled despotically. 
1326. Orchan, son, took the title " sultan." 
1360. Amurath (or Murad), I. ; stabbed by a soldier, of 

which wound he died. 
1389. Bajazet I., Ilderim, son; defeated by Tamerlane, 

and died imprisoned. 
1403. Solyman, son : dethroned by his brother. 
1410. Musa-Chelebi : strangled. 
1413. Mahomet I., son of Bajazet. 
1421. Amurath II. , son. 

1451. Mahomet II., son : took Constantinople, 1453. 
1481. Bajazet II., son. 
1512. Selim I., son. 

1520. Solyman I. or II., the Magnificent, son. 
1566. Selim II., son. 
1574. Amurath III. , son : killed his five brothers ; their 

mother, in grief, stabbed herself. 
1595. Mahomet III., son: strangled all his brothers, 

and drowned his father's wives. 
1603. Alimed (or Achmet) I., son. 

1617. Mustapha I., brother : deposed by the Janissaries 

and imprisoned. 

1618. Osman II., nephew ; strangled by Janissaries. 

1622. Mustapha I. again : again deposed, sent to the 

Seven Towers, and strangled. 

1623. Amurath IV. , brother of Osman II. 

1640. Ibrahim, brother : strangled by the Janissaries. 

1648. Mahomet IV, son : deposed by 

1687. Solyman II. or III., brother. 

1691. Ahmed (or Achmet) II., son of Ibrahim, nephew. 

1695. Mustapha II., eldest son of Mahomet IV. : de- 
posed. 

1703. Ahmed (or Achmet) III., brother: deposed, and 
died in prison in 1736. 

1730. Mahmud I. (or Mahomet V.), son of Mustapha II. 

1754. Osman III., brother. 

1757. Mustapha III., brother. 

1774. Abdul-Ahmed or Hamid I. (or Achmet IV.) 
brother. 



1789. Selim III., son of Mustapha III. ; deposed by the 
Janissaries. 

1807. Mustapha IV., son of Abdul- Ahmed; deposed, 

and, with the late sultan Selim, murdered. 

1808. Mahmud II., or Mahomet VI., brother. 

1839. Abdul-Medjid (son), 2 July (born 23 April, 1823) ; 

died 25 June, 1861. 
1861. Abdul-Aziz, brother, born 9 Feb. 1830, deposed 29 

May ; alleged suicide 4 June, 1876 (see 1881). 
1876, Amurath V. (Murad) son of Abdul-Medjid, born 
21 Sept. 1840 ; proclaimed 30 May ; deposed for 
bad health, 31 Aug. 
„ Abdul-Hamid II., brother, 31 Aug. born 21 Sept., 
1842. 
[" He is not a tyrant ; he is not dissolute ; he is 
not a bigot or corrupt." — Lord Beaconsfield, 27 
July, 1878.] 
Son: Mehemed Selim, born n Jan. 1870. 

TURKEY TRADE, commenced in the year 
1550. The Turkey or Levant Company of London 
was instituted by charter of Elizabeth, in 1579. 

TURKEYS and Guinea Fowls, first 

brought to England about 1523, and to France in 
1570. Turkeys are nathses of America, and were 
consequently unknown to the ancients. 

TURKHEIM (E. France). Here the elector 
of Brandenburg and the Imperialists were defeated 
by the French under Turenne, 5 Jan. 1675. 

TURKISH BATHS, see Baths. 

. TURKISH COMPASSIONATE FUND, 

instituted by the Daily Telegraph, and supported 
by lady Burdett-Coutts, the abp. of Canterbury, and 
others, to relieve sufferers by the war, Aug. 1877. 

TURKOMANS, see White Sheep, and Tur- 
kestan. 

TURNER'S ACT, 13 & 14 Vict. c. 35 (1850), 

relates to the court of chancery. 

TURNER'S LEGACIES. Joseph M. W. 
Turner, a great landscape painter, was born in April, 
1775, and died 19 Dec. 1851. He bequeathed to the 
nation all the pictures and drawings collected by 
him and deposited at his residence, 47, Queen Anne- 
street, London, on condition that a suitable gallery 
should be erected for them within ten years ; and 
directed his funded property to be expended in 
founding an asylum at Twickenham for decayed 
artists. The will was disputed by his relatives, but 
a compromise was made. The oil-paintings (100 in 
number) and the drawings (1400) were obtained by 
the nation, and the engravings and some other pro- 
perty were transferred to the next of kin. The 
drawings were cleaned and mounted under the 
careful superintendence of Mr. Buskin, and the 
pictures were sent to Marlborough-house for ex- 
hibition. In 1861, many of the pictures were re- 
moved from the South Kensington Museum to the 
National Gallery, others in 1869. The sketches, 
plates, &c, of Turner's Liber Studiorum, were 
sold for about 20,000^. 28 March, 1873. 

TURNING, see Lathe. In our dockyards, 
blocks and other materials for our ships of war are 
now produced by an almost instantaneous process, 
from rough pieces of oak, by the machinery of Mr. 
(afterwards sir Mark Isambard) Brunei (died 1849) ; 
see Blocks. 

TURNPIKES, see Tolls. 

TURPENTINE TREE, Pistacia TereMnthus, 
came from Barbary, before 1656. Spirits of turpen- 
tine were first applied, with success, to the rot in 
sheep ; one-third of the spirit diluted with two-thirds 
water, 1772. 

TURRET SHIPS, see Navy of England. 



TUSCAN OEDEE. 



1007 



TYLEE'S INSUEEECTION. 



TUSCAN OEDEE of Architecture, a 

debased Doric, used in Tuscany for buildings in 
which strength is chiefly required. JFotton. 

TUSCANY, formerly a grand duchy in Central 

Italy, the northern part of the ancient Etruria 

(which see) . It formed part of the Lombard king- 

dom, after the conquest of which by Charlemagne, 

774, it was made a marquisate for Boniface about 

820. His descendant, the great countess Matilda, 

bequeathed the southern part of her domains to the 

pope (1115). In the northern part (then called 

Tuscia), the cities, Florence, Pisa, Sienna, Lucca, &c, 

gradually became flourishing republics. Florence 

became the chief under the government of the 

Medici family ; see Florence. The duchy in that 

family began in 1531 ; and the grand-duchy in 

1569. After the extinction of the Medicis in 1737, 

Tuscany was given by the treaty of Vienna (1738) 

to Francis, duke of Lorraine (married to Maria 

Theresa of Austria in 1736), who had ceded his 

hereditary estates to France. Population in 1882, 

2,226,265, Population, 1890, 2,274,191. 

The French enter Florence . . 28 March, 1799 

The grand-duke is dispossessed, and his dominions 

given to Louis duke of Parma (of the royal house 

of Spain), with the title of king of Etruria . 1801 

Tuscany incorporated with the French empire . 1807 

The grand-duchy given to Eliza, sister of Xapoleon 1808 

Ferdinand III. restored 1814 

Lucca united to Tuscany 1847 

Leopold II. grants a free constitution . 15 Feb. 1848 
Insurrection at Florence ; republic proclaimed ; the 

grand-duke flies 11 Feb. 1849 

He is restored by the Austrians . . July, 1850 
Rigorous imprisonment of the Madiai, husband 
and wife, converts to protestantism, for reading 

the Bible May, 1852 

The earls of Shaftesbury and Roden and others in 

vain intercede for them at Florence . Oct. ,, 
They are released after the intervention of the 

British government .... March, 1853 
[An annuity was provided for them by subscription.] 
The Tuscan army demand alliance with the Sar- 
dinians ; the grand-duke refuses, and departs to 
Bologna ; the king of Sardinia is proclaimed dic- 
tator, and a provisional government formed 

27 April, 1859 
The king assumes the command of the army, but 

declines the dictatorship ... 30 April, „ 
The Sardinian commissary Buoncompagni invested 

with the powers of government . n May, „ 
Prince Napoleon arrives at Leghorn, addresses the 

Tuscans, and erects his standard . 23 May, „ 
The grand-duke Leopold II. abdicates in favour 

of his son Ferdinand ... 21 July, ,, 
Tuscan constituent assembly meets . n Aug. „ 
It declares against the house of Lorraine, and 

votes for annexation to Sardinia . . Sept. ,, 
Prince Eugene of Savoy-Carignan elected governor- 
general of central Italy ; he declines : but recom- 
mends Buoncompagni, Nov. ; who is accepted by 

the Tuscans 8 Dec. „ 

Annexation to Sardinia voted by universal suffrage, 

11, 12 March; decreed . . . 22 March, i860 
Prince Eugene appointed governor . 26 March, ,, 
Florence made the capital of Italy, by decree pub- 
lished ....... 11 Dec. 1864 

(See Italy, and Florence.) 

SOVEREIGNS OF TUSCANY. 

DUKES. 

1531. Alexander I. 
1537. Cosmo I. 

GRAND-DUKES. 

1569. Cosmo I., Medici. 

1574. Francis I. 

1587. Ferdinand I. 

1608. Cosmo II. 

1621. Ferdinand II. 

1670. Cosmo III. (visited England, and wrote an ac- 
count of his travels). 

1723, John Gaston (last of the Medici). 

1737. Francis II. (duke of Lorraine), became emperor of 
Germany in 1745. 



1765. Leopold I. (emperor in 1790). 
1790. Ferdinand III. (second son of Leopold I ) • ex- 
pelled by the French in 1800. 

KINGS OF ETRURIA. 

1801. Louis I., duke of Parma. 
1803. Louis II. 

GRAND-DUCHESS. 

1808-14. Eliza Bonaparte (married to Bacciochi, made- 
prince of Lucca). 

GRAND-DUKES. 

1814. Ferdinand III. restored. 

1824. Leopold II., 18 June (born 3 Oct. 1797; abdicated,. 
21 July, 1859), 'lied 29 Jan. 1870. 

1859. Ferdinand IV., 21 July (born 10 June, 1835); pro- 
tested against the annexation of his grand 5 
duchy, 26 March, i860; died 29 July, 1891. 
Son : Leopold Ferdinand, born 2 Dee. 1868. 

TUSCULUM (now Frascati), a city of Latiura 
(b. Italy). The Tusculans supported Tarquinius- 
buperbus against the Romans, by whom they were 
totally defeated, 498 B.C. The Tusculans, on ac- 
count of their friendship with Rome, suffered much 
from the other Latins, who took their city, 374, but 
were severely chastised for it. Here Cicero during- 
his retirement wrote his "Tusculanas Disputationes,'^ 
about 46 B.C. 

TWELFTH-DAY, the feast of the Epiphany, 
or manifestation of Christ to the Gentiles, 6 Jan. = 
see Epiphany. 

TWELVE TABLES, see Decemviri. 

TWINS, joined together, have been bom fre- 
quently, but seldom lived long. Helen-Judith, 
joined Hungarian twins, were bora in 1715, and 
died in 1723. Millie-Christine, negro twins, born 
m North Carolina in 1851, were wholly distinct in 
the upper part of the body, but one in the lower 
part of the spinal column and pelvis ; the four legs, 
obeying nerves from a common centre. They san*- 
and danced well, and were named the " Two-headed. 
Nightingale." The will, understanding, and con- 
science were distinct. Exhibited in London IT 
Feb. 1885. See Siamese Twins. 

TWIN-SHIP, see under Steam. 

"TWOPENNY TEASH," a term given to 
W. Cobbett's Weekly Political Register, after 2 Not. 

1816, when he reduced the price from 12k/. to 2d. 
the sale greatly increased. 

TYBURN (W. London), at the west end of 
Oxford-road (now street), the chief place in London 
for the execution of malefactors till 1783. Pennant 
(who died 1798) remembered Oxford-street as "a 
deep, hollow road, and full of sloughs, with here and 
there a ragged house, the lurking-place of cut- 
throats." 

In conformity with an act passed in 1697, a so-called 
" Tyburn ticket " was given to the prosecutor of a cri- 
minal executed at Tyburn. The ticket gave exemption 
from serving on juries and parochial offices. The ac 
was repealed in 1818. 

"TYBUBNIA" (aN.W. suburb of London),. 
was built between 1839 and 1850, on the green 
fields and nursery grounds in Paddington belonging; 
to the see of London. 

TYLEE'S INSUEEECTION, in opposition 
to the poll-tax imposed on all persons above 15,. 
q Nov. 1380. One of the collectors, acting with in- 
decent rudeness to "Wat Tyler's daughter, was struck 
dead by the father, June, 1381. His neighbours- 
took arms, and in a short time almost the whole of 
the population of the southern and eastern 1 ounties 
rose, extorting freedom from their Lords, and plun- 
dering. On 12 June, 1381, they gathered upon 
Blackheath to the number of 100,000 men, and on 



TYNDALE MEMORIAL. 



1003 



TYEEHENL 



14 June murdered Simon of Sudbury, archbishop of 
Canterbury, and sir Eobert H ales, the royal trea- 
surer. The king, Eichard II., invited Tyler to a 
parley, which took place on the 15th at Smithfield, 
■where the latter addressed the king in a menacing 
manner, now and again lifting up his sword. On 
this the mayor, Walworth, stunned Tyler with a 
blow of his mace, and one of the king's knights 
named Cavendish, dispatched him. Eichard tem- 
porised with the multitude by promising a charter, 
and thus led them out of the city, when sir E. 
Knollys and a band of knights attacked and dis- 
persed them with much slaughter. The insurrection 
in Norfolk and Suffolk was subdued by the bishop 
of Norwich, and 1500 of the rebels were executed. 

TYNDALE MEMOEIAL. A statue of 
William Tyndale, protestant martyr, translator of 
the new testament, published 1525, was set up on 
the Thames Embankment in 1883. Sculptor, Mr. 
J. E. Boehm. 

TYNEMOUTH, Northumberland. Here are 
remains of a monastery built by king Edwin, 625 ; 
destroyed by the Danes ; rebuilt by king Egfrid, 
671-85; often ravaged by Danes, 795-993; re- 
founded and made a castle, by Eob. de Mowbray, 
1090; plundered by Scots, 13 16 and 1389; fortified 
for Charles I., 1642; taken by Scots, 1644; finally 
ruined, 1665; and made a depot, 1783. The cha- 
pel has been restored. Tynemouth was made a 
borough, returning one member to parliament, 
1832. An aquarium, winter-garden, &c, was 
©pened, 27 Aug. 1878. Eopulation, 1881,44,118; 
1891, 46,267. 

TYPE-COMPOSING MACHINES, see 

under Printing, 1842-72. 

TYPE-FOUNDING, see under Printing, 
1452, 1720. 

TYPE-WEITEES- M. Foucault sent to the 
Paris exhibition of 1855, a writing-machine for the 
blind ; and several were invented by Wheatstone. 
After successive improvements, Messrs. Eemington, 
in America, in 1873, contracted to construct 25,000. 
The speed is said to have been raised to seventy- 
five words a minute. 

The action of the type-writer somewhat resembles that 
of a pianoforte. Pressure upon a key marked with a 
letter raises a hammer with a type-cut letter, which 
presses upon paper ; provision is made for inking the 
type, shifting, &c. 
The Hall type- writer exhibited in London, 1883. 
Mr. E. Peacock's new compact and expeditious type 

writer exhibited in April, 1885. 
T. G. and H. Daw's type-writer for reporters com- 
mended May, 1885. 
Hammond type- writer 1886. 

The "Simplex" type-writer (cost about io.s. 6d.) intro- 
duced into London by a company April, 1887. 
A speed contest with the Remington type-writer at St. 
James's Hall ; several prizes awarded by the proprie- 
tors Messrs. Wyckott'& Co. Jan. 1889. 
The Bar-lock type-writer exhibited by Messrs. Richard- 
son & Co., in London, 14 Dec. et seq., 1889. 



TYEANT. In early Greek history, the term 
was applied to any man who governed with irre- 
sponsible power. Solon objected to the term, and 
chose the name Archon (ruler), 594 B.C. The 
earliest tyrants were those at Sicyon, beginning 
with Cleisthenes, in the 7th century B.C. Tyranny 
declined in Greece about 490 B.C., and revived after 
the close of the Peloponnesian war, 404 B.C.; see 
Thirty Tyrants. 

TYEE (Phoenicia), a great city, said to have 
been first built by Agenor. Another city was built 
1257 (about 2267, Hales) B.C. It was besieged by 
the Assyrians, who retired from before it, after a 
siege of upwards of five years, 713 B.C. Taken by 
Nebuchadnezzar, 572 B.C., and the city demolished, 
when the Tyrians removed to an opposite island, 
and built a new and magnificent city. It was taken 
by Alexander ■with much difficulty, after a siege of 
seven months, Jul) r , 332 B.C. He joined the island 
to the continent by a mole. Strabo. Tyre was 
captured by the Crusaders, 7 July, 1124; by the 
French, 3 April, 1799; and by the allied fleet, 
during the war against Mehemet Ali, 1841. 

TYEE, ERA OF, began on 19 Oct. 125 B.C., 
with the month of Hyperberetseus. The months 
were the same as those used in the Grecian era, 
and the year is similar to the Julian year. To 
reduce this era to ours, subtract 124; and if the 
given year be less than 125, deduct it from 125, and 
the remainder will be the year before Christ. 

TYEOL, the eastern part of ancient Ehastia, 
now a province of the Austrian empire, was ceded to 
the house of Hapsburg in 1363 by Margaret, the 
heiress of the last count. It became an appanage 
of the younger (or Tyrol) branch of the imperial 
house, which came to the throne in the person of 
Maximilian IE, in 1618. The French conquered 
the Tyrol in 1805, and united it to Bavaria ; but in 
1809 an insurrection broke out, headed by Andrew 
Hofer, an innkeeper, who drove the Bavarians out 
of the Tyrol, thoroughly defeated some French de- 
tachments, but laid down his arms at the treaty of 
Vienna. He was subsequently accused of corre- 
sponding with the Austrians, captured and sent to 
Mantua, and there shot by order of the French 
government, 20 Feb. 1810. The Austrian emperor 
ennobled his family in 1819, and erected his statue 
in Innsbruck in 1834. The Tyrolese riflemen were 
very effective in the Italian war in 1859. The 
Arlberg tunnel railway from Innsbruck to Bregenz 
inaugurated by the emperor 20 Sept. 1884. Popu- 
lation in 1890, 812,696. 

TYEONE (near Ulster, N. Ireland), formerly 
the territories of the O'Neills, and the seat of the 
insurrection in 1641. 

TYEEHENI, included the ancient Etruscans, 
and other tribes, said to have come from Lydia, Asia 
Minor. 



u. 



UBIQUITARIANS. 



ULTRAMONTANISTS. 



UBIQUITARIANS or Ubiquarians, . a 
small German sect, originated by John Brentius 
about 1560, who asserted that the body of Christ 
was present everywhere (ubique). 

UGANDA. A kingdom in Equatorial Africa, 
near the head of tbe Nile ; capital, Meugo. 

Missionaries sent out by the Church Missionary- 
society July, 1877 

French R. C. missionaries arrive 1879 

The king Mtesa, friendly to Grant, Stanley, and 

other travellers and missionaries, dies . 10 Oct. 1884 
His son M'wanga, jealous and suspicious, kills 
bishop Hannington, for advancing by a new 

route about 29 Oct. 1885 

Persecutions well endured ; native Christians killed, 

June et seq. 1886 
Eevolution with bloodshed, Sept. 1888 ; M'wanga 
deposed and replaced by his brother Kawewa 
(Oct.), whose attempts to revive his father's 
policy are frustrated by the Arab slave-dealers ; 
much persecution ensues ; the Europeans flee and 
their settlements are destroyed Nov. 1888. King 
Kawewa resists the Arabs, and is expelled, they 
set up his brother Kalema ; civil war . Nov. 1888 
M'wanga defeated in an attempt to recover his 
crown ; Kalema burns his own relatives, reported, 

2 Sept. 1889 
M'wanga severely defeats the Arabs, 4 Oct. ; takes 
Rubaga, 5 Oct., and re-establishes his power ; 
Kalema a fugitive .... 11 Oct. ,, 
M'wanga professes himself a Christian, and ap- 
points Catholic officials, reported . 5 March, 1890 
He places Uganda under the influence of the 
British East African company, by treaty with 
Mr. Jackson, reported . . . .30 April, ,, 
M'wanga driven from the capital by Kalema ; re- 
tires with the missionaries to Sesse island, re- 
ported 9 May, ,, 

Final defeat of Arabs by M'wanga, who regains all 

his kingdom, reported ... 15 June, ,, 
Uganda placed within the sphere of British in- 
fluence by the Anglo-German treaty . 1 July, ,, 
Capt. F. D. Lugard and capt. W. H. Williams lent 
by the British war-office to assist the company ; 

they arrive 31 Dec. ,, 

They strenuously endeavour to maintain peace 
between the French Catholics and British Pro- 
testant missionaries and their converts ; they 
hold Kampala, a fortified station near Mengo, 
having been reinforced by Selim bey, with a part 
of the Soudanese garrison, formerly under Eniiu 
Pasha at Wadelai ; capt. Bugard constructs and 
garrisons several forts in the country Jan. et seq. 1891 
Revival of religious feuds and outrages ; a Pro- 
testant murdered in the street, 20 Jan. ; capt. 
Lugard demands redress, the king refuses it, and 
threatens him and his party ; fruitless negotia- 
tions ; other murders of Protestants ; the Catho- 
lics arm and attack Kampala, and are repulsed 
with severe loss by capt. Williams, who is com- 
pelled to use Maxim guns, 24 Jan. ; the Catholic 
houses wrecked; bishop Uirth and the priests 
taken to Kampala, 24 Jan. ; the king, with 300 
of the Catholic party, flees to the isle of Bureu- 
guge, where he is joined by the bishop; the isle 
is token by capt. Williams, with bloodshed ; the 
king and bishop flee to Sesse . . -3° Jan. 1892 
[Reported in capt. Lugard's letter of 11 Feb., 
received 15 July.]. 
Letters received from bishop Hirth by the French 
government, accusing the British of outrages, 
and claiming compensation; on appeal, the 
British government promises investigation, 

June, July, ,, 



The king rejoins the Protestants; order restored at 
Mengo, about 30 March ; the company predomi- 
nant, reported 27 July, 1892 

UHLANS, the German lancers, very effective 
in the war in 1870. 

UKRAINE (Polish for a frontier), a vast 
fertile plain in Russia, ceded to the Cossacks by 
Poland in 1672, and obtained by Russia in 1682. 
The country was divided, Poland having the west 
side of the Dnieper, and Russia the east. The 
whole country was assigned to Russia by the treaty 
of partition in 1795. 

ULM, in Wiirtemberg, S. Germany, where a 
peace was signed, 3 July, 1620, by which Frede- 
rick V. lost Bohemia (having been driven from it 
previously). Ulm was taken by the French in 
1796. After a battle between the French and 
Austrians, in which the latter, under general Mack, 
were defeated with dreadful loss by marshal Ney, 
Ulm surrendered with 28,000 men, the iiower of the 
Austrian army, 17-20 Oct. 1805. The cathedral was 
built 1377-1494; the spire, 530 feet high, said to be 
the loftiest in the world, was completed 31 May, 
1890, with great rejoicings. Population, 1890, 
36,201. 
ULPHILAS'S BIBLE, see under Bible. 
ULSTER, the N. division of Ireland. After 
the death of Strong-bow, 11 76, John de Courcy was 
made earl of Ulster; Hugh de Lacy was earl, 1243 ; 
and Walter de Burgh, 1264; whose descendant, 
Elizabeth, married Lionel, son of Edward III., 
1352. He thus became earl of Ulster. In 161 1, 
the British colonisation of the forfeited lands 
(termed the Ulster settlements or plantations) 
began, much land being granted to the corpora- 
tion of London ; see Irish Society. The consequent 
rebellion of the Irish chieftains, Roger More, Phelim 
O'Neale, McGuire, earl of Inniskillen, and others, 
broke out on 23 Oct. 1641 (see Ireland).— Ulster 
King of Arms appointed for Ireland, I553-— By the 
ancient "Ulster tenant-right," the outgoing tenant 
of a farm received from his successor a sum of money 
for the privilege of occupancy. A modified form 
of this right was adopted in the Irish land act, 
passed 8 July, 1870. 

The Ulster Convention, proposed 8 April, met a1 
Belfast 17 June, 1892, in a large pavilion erected for 
the purpose. 12,000 delegates of various classes and 
opinions, from all parts of the province, with many 
other persons, were present, the duke of Abercorn 
being in the chair. The proceedings, which were of a 
grave, earnest character, began with a prayer and the 
singing of part of Psalm XLVI. Five resolutions for 
firmly maintaining the Union of Great Britain and 
Ireland in opposition to the scheme for Home Rule 
were passed unanimously. 
Ulster Convention League formed (2,000?. subscribed), 
2 Aug. 1892. 

ULTRAMONTANISTS (from ultra monies, 
beyond the mountains), a term originally applied in 
France to those who upheld the extreme authority 
of the pope in opposition to the freedom of the 
Gallican church, which had been secured by various 
hulls, and especially by the concordat of 15 July, 
1801. Ultramontanists now are those who main- 
tain the official infallibility of the bishop of Rome. 

3 T 



ULUNDI. 



1010 



UNION OF ENGLAND. 



ULUNDI, Zululand, South Africa. On 4 July, 
1879, the Zulus, commanded by their king, Cety- 
wayo, who had refused the conditions of peace, were 
totally defeated near here by lord Chelmsford, after 
a severe conflict. Capt. Wyatt-Edgell, 17 Lancers, 
and 9 men were killed, and about 53 wounded. The 
British were attacked in the open country by the 
Zulus, who enveloped our hollow square and charged 
on all sides up to within 60 yards, when they broke 
and fled under the heavy fire. They were pursued 
and routed by cavalry. About 23,000 Zulus engaged, 
1,500 killed. The British showed much firmness 
and the Zulus displayed great courage. The royal 
kraal at Ulundi and other military kraals were burnt. 

UMBRELLA, described in early dictionaries 
as "a portable pent-house to carry in a person's 
hand to screen him from violent rain or heat." 
Umbrellas appear in the carvings at Persepolis. 
Niebuhr saw a gi*eat Arabian prince returning from 
a mosque, he and each of his family having a large 
umbrella carried by his side. Old chinaware shows 
the Chinese shaded by umbrellas. Tt is said that 
the first person who generally used an umbrella in 
the streets of London was the benevolent Jonas 
Hanway, who died in 1786. 

John Macdonald, a footman, who wrote his own life, in- 
forms us that he had "a fine silk umbrella, which he 
brought from Spain ; but he could not with any comfort 
to himself use it, the people calling out, ' Frenchman ! 
why don't you get a coach ? ' " The hackney-coachmen 
and chairmen were clamorous against their rival. The 
footman says he " persisted for three months, till they 
took no farther notice of this novelty. Foreigners 
began to use theirs ; and then the English." 1778. 
Mr. Samuel Fox, inventor of the hollow-steel paragon 
frame, strong, light, and elastic, having made a great 
fortune, especially at Lille in France, died 25 Feb. 1887. 
In 1885 Mr. Gladstone's political programme was termed 
his umbrella, by lord Rosebery. 

UNCLAIMED MONEY, &c, a pamphlet 
with this title, by Mr. Edward Preston, was pub- 
lished in 1883, describes six classes and recommends 
legislation to facilitate publication for the benefit 
of claimants. 
1. — Dividends on government, East India and Colonial 

stocks (government stocks 4 Jan. 1887, 537,815?.). 
2. — Dividends of companies, surplus assets in bank- 
ruptcy, &c. 
3. — Army and navy prize-money. 
4. — Funds in chancery (28 Feb. 1886, 77,677,581?.). 
5. — Intestates' estates in the United Kingdom, India, 

and the colonies. 
6. — Deposits in banks (including plate, jewellery, &c.). 
Mr. Sidney H. Preston published similar returns in the 
Times, 22 Aug. 1890. 

"UNCLE TOM'S CABIN," a story by 
Mrs. H. Beecher-Stowe, published in portions in a 
newspaper in 1850; complete in March, 1852; set- 
ting forth the evils of negro slavery. The sale was 
enormous, and the translations numerous, and it 
greatly contributed to emancipation. The Bev. 
Josiah Uenson, the original "Uncle Tom," was 
received by the queen at Buckingham palace, 
2 March, 1877, and was much benefited by his visit 
to Britain ; he died May, 1883, aged 93. 

UNCTION, EXTREME, see Anointing. 

UNDULATORY THEORY of Light, 

supposes a progressive wave-like motion between 
the eye and the luminous body seen. It is said to 
have been suggested by Francisco Grirnaldi about 
1665, and was propounded by Bobert Hooke and 
Huyghens, about 1672 ; opposed by Newton ; but 
confirmed by Thomas Young by experiments in 
1801, and is now generally adopted. "Die Wellen- 
lehre auf Experimente gegriindet," by Ernst and 
Wilhelm Weber, published in 1825 ; see Emission, 
and Light. 



UNEMPLOYED, see under Riots, 1886-7, 

and Mansion House Funds, 1886. 

A plan for providing work proposed by the bishops of 
London, Rochester and Bedford, cardinal Manning, Mr. 
Spurgeon and Mr. Reaney Nov. 1886. A conference 
of poor-law guardians at Exeter Hall declare that 
there is no exceptional distress in the country 8 Dec. 
1886. 

Disorderly demonstrations of so-called unemployed in 
London early Oct. 1887 ; conference at Memorial Hall, 
lord Herschel in the chair 5 Dec. 1887. 

Deputation (not unanimous) to lord Salisbury recom- 
mending public works, inquiry, and registration, 
state-aided emigration and repression of alien pauper 
immigrants 1 Feb. 1888. 

Lord mayor de Keyser, aided by the earl of Meath and 
rev. Harry Jones, puts forth a scheme for employ 
ment of the London poor in making open spaces 
gardens and recreation grounds with due stipulations 
(20,000?. wanted) Times 22 Dec. 1887. 

The Gardens and Pleasure Grounds Fund started (see 
under Mansion House) about 24 Dec. 1887. 

The scheme in action reported partially successful Aug. 
1888. 

Meeting of the unemployed at Tower hill, led by Mr. 
Power (after an attempt at the Royal Exchange), 4 
Oct. 1890. 

Attempt in St. Paul's Churchyard, Power arrested, 11 
Oct. 1890. 

Meetings at Tower hill renewed, 8 April, 1892. 

UNIFORMITARIANS, see Continuity. 

UNIFORMITY ACTS. That of 2 & 3 Ed- 
ward VI., 15 Jan. 1549, ordained that the order of 
divine worship, drawn up by Cranmer and others, 
" with the aid of the Holy Ghost," should be the 
only one used after 20 May. The penalties for 
refusing to use it were fine and imprisonment. 
This act was confirmed in 1552; repealed by Mary, 
1554; and re-enacted by Elizabeth in 1559. The 
act of Uniformity, 14 Charles II. c. 4, was passed in 
1662. It enjoined uniformity in matters of religion, 
and obliged all clergy to subscribe to the thirty- 
nine articles, and use the same form of worship, 
and same book of common prayer. Its enforcement 
on 24 Aug. 1662, termed Black Bartholomew's day, 
caused, it is said, upwards of 2000 ministers to quit 
the church of England. This day was commemo- 
rated by dissenters in 1862. The Act of Uniformity 
Amendment act, whereby shortened services were 
authorised, and other changes made, was passed 18 
July, 1872. The Uniformity of Process act, which 
made many law changes, was passed 23 May, 1832. 

UNIFORMS. Military uniforms were first 
used in Erance, "in a regular manner " by 
Louis XIV. about 1668. In England the uniform 
was soon afterwards adopted in the military service, 
but with little analogy to the modern dress. See 
under Navy. 

UNIGENITUS, see Bull. 
UNINFLAMMABLE SALTS- At the 

British Association, 15 Sept. 1859, MM. Vcrsmann 
and Oppenheim announced their discovery that 
fabrics steeped in solutions of tungstate of soda, or 
sulphate or phosphate of ammonia, burn without 
flame. 

UNION CHAPEL, see under Islington. 

UNION OF CALMAR, 1397; of Utrecht, 1579- 

UNION of England and Scotland by 

the accession of James VI. of Scotland as James 1. 
of England, 24 March, 1603. The legislative union 
of the two kingdoms (as Great Britain) was at- 
tempted, but failed in 1604 and 1670 ; in the reign 
of Anne, commissioners were appointed, the articles 
discussed, and, notwithstanding a great opposition 
made by the Tories, every article in the union was 
approved by a great majority, first in the house of 



UNION OF GEEAT BRITAIN. 1011 



UNITED SERVICE. 



commons, and afterwards by the peers, 22 July, 
1706 ; was ratified by the Scottish parliament, 16 
Jan. 1707, and became law, 1 May, same year. 

UNION of Great Britain and Ireland 

■effected, 2 July, 1800. 

Proposed in the Irish parliament . . 22 Jan. 1799 

Rejected by the commons of Ireland, the votes 
being 105 for, to 106 against the union, 24 Jan. ,, 

Passed 7 June, 1800 

The English house of commons on the same question 
divided, 140, 141, and 149 for the union ; against 
it, 15, 25, and 28 respectively . . . ,, 

Lord Castlereagh detailed his plan of the union, in 
the Irish house of lords, founded on the resolu- 
tions of the British parliament thereon 5 Feb. 1800 

Votes of the commons agreeing to it, 161 against 
115, T 7 Eeb. ; and again, 152 against 108 21 Feb. ,, 

The houses of lords and commons wait on the lord 
lieutenant with the articles of union, 27 March, ,, 

The act passed in the Irish parliament, 13 June, and 
in the British parliament ... 2 July, ,, 

The imperial united standard first displayed at 
the tower of London, and upon Bedford Tower, 
Dublin Castle, on the act of legislative union be- 
coming an operative law . 1 Jan. i8ot 

5?or attempts to dissolve this union, see Repeal, 
Ireland 1886 

National Union Club, Albemarle Street, London, 
established 18 Jan. 1887 

UNION JACK. The original flag of England 
was the banner of St. George, i.e., white with a red 
>cross, which, 12 April, 1606 (three years after 
James I. ascended the throne) was incorporated with 
the banner of Scotland, i.e., blue with a white 
■diagonal cross. This combination obtained the name 
■of " Union Jack," in allusion to the union with 
Scotland, and the word Jack is considered a corrup- 
tion of the word Jacobus, Jacques, or James. This 
arrangement continued until the union with Ire- 
land, 1 Jan. 1801, when the banner of St. Patrick, 
i.e., white with a diagonal red cross, was amalga- 
mated with it, and forms the present Union flag. 

UNION CHAEGEABILITY ACT, pro- 
viding for the better distribution of the charge for 
relieving the poor in unions, was passed in June, 
18615. One object of the act is the improvement of 
the dwellings of agricultural labourers. 

UNION BELIEF ACT, passed in 1862, con- 
tinued in 1863, to enable boards of guardians of 
■certain unions to obtain temporary aid to meet the 
extraordinary expenditure for relief occasioned by 
the distress in the cotton manufacturing districts. 

UNION REPEAL ASSOCIATION, Ire- 
land, see Repeal of the Union. 

UNIONIST LIBERALS, opposed to Mr. 
Gladstone, see Liberals, 1886, et seq. 
Irish Unionist Alliance formed in Dublin . April, 1891 
Liberal Unionist Association, 3rd anuual meeting 

of the council at Westminster . . 16 Feb. 1892 

UNIONISTS. A Spanish political party, long 
headed by marshal Serrano. In 1869 they advocated 
the election of the due de Montpensier as king. See 
Progresistas and Spain. 

UNIONS, see Poor, and Trades. 

UNION GENERALE, see France, Dec. 1882. 

UNIT, a gold coin, value 20s. , issued by James I. 
in 1604. 

UNITARIANS, termed Socinians fromLoclius 
Socinus, who founded a sect in Italy about 1546. 
They profess to believe in and worship one only 
self-existent God, in opposition to those who wor- 
ship the Trinity in unity. They consider Christ to 
have been a mere man ; and do not admit the need 
of an atonement or of the complete inspiration of the 



Scriptures. Michael Servetus printed a tract in dis- 
paragement of the doctrine of the Trinity. In 1553, 
proceeding to Naples through Geneva, Calvin in- 
duced the magistrates to arrest him on a charge of 
blasphemy and heresy. Servetus, refusing to re- 
tract his opinions, was condemned to the flames, 
which sentence was carried into execution, 27 May, 
1553. Servetus is numbered among those anato- 
mists who made the nearest approach to the doctrine 
of the circulation of the blood, before Harvey estab- 
lished that doctrine. Matthew Hamont was burnt 
at Norwich for asserting Christ not to be the Son 
of God, I June, 1579. The Unitarians were nume- 
rous in Transylvania in the 17th century ; they 
came to England about 1700, and many of the 
original English presbyterian churches became 
Unitarians about 1730. They were not included in 
the Toleration act till 1813. There were 229 con- 
gregations in England in 1851. Their tenets re- 
semble those of the Arians and Socinians (which see). 
The Unitarian marriage bill was passed, June, 1827. 
la Dec. 1833, by a decision of the vice-chancellors 
the Unitarians (as such) lost the possession of lady 
Hewley's charity; the decision was affirmed on ap- 
peal in 1842. British and Foreign Unitarian 
Association founded, to promote Unitarianism, 
1825; meeting in London, 64th anniversary kept 
in London, 12 June, 1889. There were 320 Unitarian 
churches in the United Kingdom in Feb. 1884. 

UNITED BRETHREN, e ee Moravians. 

UNITED EMPIRE TRADE LEAGUE, 

formed for the advancement of British Industry 
throughout the world, by abandoning free trade 
doctrines, and substituting a differential tariff for 
colonial produce. This scheme which was originated 
by Mr. Hofrneyr, was opposed by sir Thomas Farrer 
and others in London, March 1891. First annual 
report by col. Howard Vincent. There are 5,120 
members April, 1892. 

UNITED IRISHMEN, a political society 
founded in 1791, was at first loyal, but afterwards 
met secretly, to establish a republic, became active 
in 1795. Theobald Wolf Tone, the founder, was 
captured by sir John "Warren in the Hoche, one of 
six frigates destined to support the rebellion, in Oct. 
1798. He anticipated his punishment by suicide in 
prison Nov. 1798. 
United Ireland newspaper first published July i88r. 

See under Ireland. 

UNITED KINGDOM. England and Wales 
were united in 1283 ; Scotland to both in 1707 ; and 
the British realm was named the United Kingdom 
on the union of Ireland, 1 Jan. 1801 ; see Union 
and article Population— The United Kingdom 
Alliance, for the total suppression of liquor traffic, 
was founded, 1 June, 1853. See Permissive Bill. 
The subscribed manifesto of this alliance occupied 
a page of the Times, 11 Dec. 1871. United 
Kingdom Beneficent Association, founded 1863, 
grants annuities to poor persons of a better class. 

UNITED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, 

in Scotland, was formed 13 May, 1847, see 
Burghers, and Relief Church. 

UNITED PROVINCES (Holland, Zealand, 
Utrecht, Friesland, Groningen, Ovcryssell, and 
Guelderland), the deputies of which mot at Utrecht, 
23 Jan. 1579, and signed a treaty l'nr their mutual 
defence ; sec Holland. 

UNITED SERVICE INSTITUTION, 

ROYAL, Whitehall, London, was established in 
183 1. its museum contains many remarkable 

3 t 2 



UNITED STATES. 



1012 



UNITED STATES. 



military and naval relics. The lectures given are 
reported in its journal, which first appeared in 1857. 
The Institution first met in the Whitehall Chapel 
Koyal, which see 7 March, 189 1. 

The United Service Gazette first published 9 Feb. 1833. 

UNITED STATES of AMERICA were 
so styled by the congress of the revolted British 
provinces, 9 Sept. 1776. Their flag was declared 
to be thirteen stripes, alternately red and white 
and thirteen stars in a blue field, corresponding with 
the then number of states of the union, 20 June, 
1777. There are now 44 states. The government 
of the United States is a pure democracy. Each 
of the states has a separate and independent legis- 
lature for the administration of its local affairs, but 
all are ruled in matters of imperial policy by two 
houses of legislature, the senate, elected for six 
years, and the house of representatives (356 
members in 1891) elected for two years, to which 
delegates are sent from the different members of the 
confederacy. The president of the United States is 
elected every fourth year by the free voice of the 
people. He and his ministers have no seat in the 
legislative assemblies. His veto may be nullified 
by the vote of two-thirds of the house. The election 
of Abraham Lincoln as president on 4 Nov. i860, 
was followed by the secession of eleven slaveholding 
states, and led to the great civil war, 1861-5 ; see 
Confederates, and below. 

The thirteen states of the union at the declaration of 
independence in 1776; the italics indicate the then 
slaveholding states ; those with a * prefixed seceded 
from the federal government in i860 and 1861, and 
were subdued in 186=;. 



New Hampshire. 
Massachusetts. 
Kliode Island. 
Connecticut. 



New York. 
New Jersey. 
Pennsylvania. 
Delaware. 



Maryland. *South Carolina. 

^'Virginia, j ^Georgia. 

*North Carolina. | See separate articles. 

The following have been added : — 

Vermont (from New York) i7or 

^Tennessee (from North Carolina) . . . . 1796 

Kentucky (from Virginia) 1792-: 

Columbia district (under the immediate government 
of congress) contains Washington, the seat of 

government 1790-r 

Ohio (created) 1802.- 

^'Louisiana (bought from France in 1803) . . . 1812 

Indiana (created) 1816 

* Mississippi (from Georgia) 1817- 

Illinois (created) 1818 

* Alabama (from Georgia) ...... 1819 

Maine (from Massachusetts) 1820- 

Missouri (from Louisiana 1821 

*Arlcansas 183& 

Michigan 1837 

^Florida (ceded by Spain, 1820) ; made a state . 1845 

*Texas ,, 

Iowa 1846' 

Wisconsin 1848 

California 1850 

New Mexico (territory) 1850 

Minnesota (territory, 1849) > state . . . . 1857- 
Oregon (territory, 1850); state .... 1859 

Kansas (territory, 1854) ; state 1861: 

Utah (territory) 1850 

Washington (territory 1853) ; state . . . . 1889 
Nevada (territory, 1S61) ; state .... 1864 

Colorado (territory 1861) ; state 1876' 

Dakota (territory 1861) ; north and south state . 1889 

Arizona (territory) 1863: 

Idaho (territory 1863) ; state 1890- 

West Virginia (from Virginia) ; sta'e . . . . 1863. 
Montana (territory 1864) ; state .... 1889 

Nebraska (territory 1854) ; state 1867 

Wyoming (territory 1868) ; state .... 1890 

Alaska (territory) 1868. 

Electoral College in 1872, 366 members ; 40 for New- 
England, 95 for the southern States, 12 for the Pacific 
States, 84 for the middle States, and 135 for the-, 
western States. 



1776 
1800 
1810 



1,191,364 
2,009,050 



Total. 
2,614,300 
5.3°9,756 
7,239,903 
12,858,670 



Population. See Slavery in America. 

Slaves. Total. 

1840 • 17,069,453 

l8 5° • • 3,204,313 . 23,191,876 

1860 • • 3>952,8oi . 31,445,980 



Slaves. Total. 

no slaves . 38,558,371. 
... 5°>497>°57 
. 62,622,250. 



The Census of 1880 thus classifies the population : Males, 
25,518,820 ; females. 24,636,963. Native born, 43,475,840 ; 
foreign born, 6,679,043. Whites, 43,402,970 ; coloured, 
6,580,793. The remaining 339,098 are composed of 
Indians not in tribal relations and under Government 
care, Chinese, and other Asiatics. The Chinese are esti- 
mated at 105,613. 

The senate is composed of 2 members for each state, 
elected for 6 years. The representatives in congress 
were formerly elected for 2 years in the ratio of 1 in 
93,423 persons (five slaves were counted as three per- 
sons); but this system ended with the abolition of 
slavery. In 1872 the number of representatives was 
raised from 233 to 283, to commence 3 March, 1873. 



evenue. — 








Dollars. 


Total receipts, 


year 


ending 30 June, 1855, 


65,003,930 


ditto 




ditto 


1859. 


53,405,071 


ditto 




ditto 


1863, 


8S8,o82,i28 


ditto 




ditto 


1866, 


1,273,960,215 


ditto 




ditto 


1875, 


284,020,771 


ditto 




ditto 


1877, 


269,000,586 


ditto 




ditto 


1880, 


333,526,610 


ditto 




ditto 


1884, 


348,519,869 


ditto 




ditto 


1888, 


379,266,072 


ditto 




ditto 


1889, 


388,591,675 


ditto 




ditto 


1891, 


392,612,447 


xpenditurt — 










Year ending 30 


June 


, 1855 . 




56,365,393 


ditto 




1859 . 




66,346,226 


ditto 




1863 




714,709,996 


ditto 




1 866 




1,141,072,666 


ditto 




1875 • 




274,623,392 


ditto 




1877 . 




238,660,008 



Year ending 30 June, 1880 
ditto 1884 

ditto 1888 

ditto 1889 

ditto 1 891 

Public Debt- 



267,642,957 
244,126,244 
267,924,801 
300,064,795 
355,37 2 ,684 



June, 1867, 2,515,615,936 dollars. 
June, 1871, 2,292,030,835 dollars. 
June, 1875, 2,237,813,048 dollars. 
June, 1876, 2,176,947,758 dollars. 
June, 1880, 2,120,415,370 dollars. 
June, 1884, 1,830,528,923 dollars. 
Dec. 1888, 1,690,975,251 dollars. 
June, 1891, 1,610,620,103 dollars. 



ear ending 
30 June. 
1872 

1875 

1877 
1880 


VALUE OF IMPORTS. 


EXPORTS. 


£114,502,161 
106,600,905 . 
90,261,510 . 
133,59 >66o . 


£112,361,676 
109,013,805. 
117,933,898 
164,789,270 


1884 
1888 
1891 


133,539,538 • 

■ $723,957,H4 • 

844,916,196 . 


144,992,970 

$683,862,104 

872,270,283 



Army. — That which achieved independence was dis- 
banded at the end of the war. In 1789, a war depart- 
ment was established, and in 1790 the army consisted 1 
of 1216 men for the Indian frontier. In 1808, the 
militia was newly equipped. When war with Great 
Britain was declared on iS June, 1812, 35,000 men were 
voted ; and this army was disbanded at the peace in 
1815. Armies were voted for the wars in 1833 and 
1835, afterwards disbanded. 



UNITED STATES 



1013 



UNITED STATES. 



In 1855, Army, 11,658. Militia, 1,873,558. Fleet, 72 

vessels (2290 guns). 
In i860, the United States Militia were 3,070,987. Fleet, 

92 vessels (of all kinds); in Oct. 1862, 256 vessels of war. 
Federal Army, 29 July, 1861, estimated at 660,971. In 
Dee. 1862. nearly 1,000,000 men. In April, 1865, about 
1,500,000, at the end of the war, when the reduction 
"began at once. Number of soldiers in 1867, 54,890; in 
July, 1871, 32,135; 1875, 27,525 men; in 1883, 25,478 
men ; in 1888, 26,270 men ; in 1891, 26,073 men. 
Fleet, ill July, 1867, 261 vessels of all kinds, 2218 guns ; 
Jan. 1871, 179 vessels, 1440 guns ; 1875, 155 vessels, 1203 
guns; 1S84, 92 vessels ; 1888, 66 vessels; 1891,69 vessels. 
In 1890 and 1891, the congress authorised the construc- 
tion ol three battleships, two protected cruisers, and 
one torpedo cruiser, and one torpedo boat. The Texas 
battleship was launched, 28 June, 1892. 
Railways, miles : 1839, 23 ; 1861, 31,286 ; 1873, 73,533 ; 

in 1S84, 121,532 ; in 1888, 150,710; in 1891, 171,000. 
Act of the British parliament, imposing new heavy 

duties on imports .... 11 March, 1764 
Obnoxious stamp-act passed . . 22 March, 1765 
First American congress held at New York, June; 

the stamp-act resisted .... 1 Nov. ,, 
Stamp-act repealed .... 18 March, 1766 
British act, levying duties on tea, paper, painted 

glass, <fcc 14 June, 1767 

Gen. Gage sent to Boston .... Oct. 1768 

840 chests of tea destroyed by the populace at 

Boston, and 17 chests at New York . 18 Dec. 1773 

Boston port bill (port rights annulled) 25 March, 1774 
Deputies from the states meet at Philadelphia, 

5 Sept. ; Declaration of Rights issued 4 Nov. ,, 

First action between the British and Americans, at 

Lexington ; British retreat . . . 19 April, 177.5 
Act of perpetual union between the states 20 May, ,, 
George Washington appointed commander-in-chief, 
May; battle of Bunker's-hill, the Americans 
retire after a severe conflict . . 17 June, ,, 
America declared "free, sovereign, and inde- 
pendent " 4 July, 1776 

General Howe takes Long Island, 27 Aug. ; new 
York, 15 Sept. ; victor at White Plains, 20 Oct. ; 

takes Rhode Island 8 Dec. ,, 

The Hessians surrender to Washington 25 Dec. ,, 

La Fayette and other French officers join the 

Americans 1777 

Washington defeated at Brandy wine . 11 Sept. ,, 
Lord Cornwallis takes Philadelphia . . Sept. ,, 
Burgoyue victor at Germantown, 3, 4, Oct. ; sur- 
rounded; capitulates at Saratoga . . 17 Oct. ,, 
A federal government adopted by congress 15 Nov. ,, 
The states recognised by France . . 16 Dec. ,, 

Alliance with France 6 Feb. 1778 

The king's troops quit Philadelphia . . June, ,, 
Americans defeated at Brier's Creek . 3 March, 1779 
Charleston surrenders to the British. . 13 May, 1780 
Cornwallis defeats Gates at Camden . 16 Aug. ,, 

Major Andre hanged as a spy ... 2 Oct. ,, 
Andre (born 175 1) was an adjutant-general in the 
British army, and was taken in disguise on his 
return from a secret expedition to the traitorous 
American general Arnold, 23 Sept. 1780. He was 
sentenced to execution as a spy by a court of 
general Washington's officers at Tappan, New 
York, and suffered death, 2 Oct. following. His 
remains were removed to England in a sarco- 
phagus, 10 Aug. 1821, and interred in Westminster 
abbey. Impartial judges justify the severity of 
this punishment.] 
American Academy of Arts and Sciences at Boston 

founded ,, 

The federal government accepted by all the states, 

1 March; congress assembles . . 2 March, 1781 
Cornwallis defeats Green at Guildford, 15 March ; 

Arnold defeats the Americans at Eutaw 8 Sept. ,, 
Surrender of lord Cornwallis and his whole army of 
7000 men to generals Washington and Rocham- 

beau, at Yorktown 19 Oct. ,, 

Arrival of sir Guy Carleton to treat for peace, 5 May ; 
provisional articles signed at Paris by commis- 
sioners 30 Nov. 1782 

Definitive treaty of peace signed at Paris, 3 Sept. 

1783; ratified by congress . . . 4 Jan. 1784 
Samuel Seabury consecrated bishop of the episcopal 

church in America at Aberdeen . . 14 Nov. ,, 
John Adams, first Am erica 11 ambassador's first in- 
terview with the king of England . . 1 June, 1785 



The cotton plant introduced into Georgia . . 1786 
New constitution signed by a convention of states, 

17 Sept. 1787 

The same ratified 23 May, 1788 

The quakers of Philadelphia emancipate their slaves, 

1 Jan. ,, 
New government organised, 4 March ; George Wash- 
ington, 1st president, 6 April ; present depart- 
ments of state established . . . 27 July, 1789 

An act protecting native industry passed . . ,, 
Death of Benjamin Franklin . . . 17 April, 1790 
Bank instituted ; capital, 10,000,000 dollars, 7 June, 1791 
City of Washington chosen the capital of the states, 

8 July, 1792 
Eli Whitney's invention of the cotton-gin gives an 
immense impetus to the growth of American 

cotton 1793 

Re-election of general Washington as president, 

4 March, 1793 ; resigns . . . 17 Sept. 1796 
John Adams, 2nd president . . . 4 March, 1797 
Washington dies ; universal sorrow . 14 Dec. 1799 
The seat of government removed to Washington . 1800 
Thomas Jefferson, 3rd president . . .4 March, 1801 
Louisiana purchased from the French . 30 April, 1803 
Discussion between England and America respect- 
ing the rights of neutrals 1807 

American ports closed to the British, July ; trade 

suspended 9 Dec. 1807 

Importation of slaves abolished . . .1 Jan. i8c8 
James Madison, <\th president . . 4 March, 1809 

"War with Great Britain (New England States 

opposed to it, threatened to secede) . 18 June, 1812 
Action between the American ship Constitution, and 
the British frigate Guerriere, an unequal contest, 

19 Aug. ,, 

Fort Detroit taken 21 Aug. ,, 

The British sloop Frolic taken by the American 
sloop Wasp, 18 Oct. ; the privateer Defiance also 

captured by the Wasp , 

The ship United States of 54 guns, great calibre 
(commodore Decatur), captures the British frigate 
Macedonia . . . . . . 25 Oct. ,, 

Battles of Frenchtown (which see) . . 12-24 Jan. 1813 
The Hornet captures the British sloop of war Peacock 

25 Feb. ,, 
Fort Erie and Fort George abandoned by the British, 

27 May, ,, 
The American frigate Chesapeake captured by the 

Shannon frigate, captain Broke . . 1 June, „ 
At Burlington Heights, Americans defeated, 

6 June, ,, 
H.M. sloop Pelican takes the sloop Argus 14 Aug. ,, 
Buffalo town burnt by the British . . Dec. ,, 
American frigate Essex taken by the Phoibe and 

Cherub 29 March, 1814 

The British defeat the Americans in a severe conflict, 

2 July, ,, 
[Several engagements with various success followed.] 
The British, under Ross, defeat the Americans at 

Bladeusburg ; the city of Washington taken and 
public edifices burnt .... 24 Aug. ,, 

The British sloop of war A von sunk by the American 

sloop Wasp 8 Sept. ,, 

The British squadron on Lake Champlain captured, 

11 Sept. ,, 
Attack on Baltimore by the British; general Ross 

killed . . . .' . . - 12 Sept. ,, 
Treaty of peace with Great Britain, signed at Ghent, 

24 Dee. ,, 
The British repulsed at New Orleans . 8 Jan. 1815 
The British ship Endymion captures the President, 

15 Jan. „ 
The Ghent treaty ratified .... 17 Feb. ,, 
James Monroe, 5th president . . . 4 March, 1817 
Treaty with Canada respecting fisheries . . . 1818 
Centre foundation of the capitol of Washington laid, 

24 Aug. „ 
The "Missouri Compromise" of Henry Clay, re- 
garding slavery, passed .... Feb. 1820 
Spain cedes Florida to the American States 24 <><•!. ,, 
The States acknowledge the independence of South 

America 8 March, 1822 

Treaty with Columbia .... 3 Oct. 1824 
John Quincey Adams, 6th president . 4 March, 1825 
Death of the two ex-presidents, Adams and Jeffer- 
son, on the 50th anniversary of the independence 
of the American States . . . . 4 July, 1826 



UNITED STATES. 



1014 



UNITED STATES. 



Convention with Great Britain concerning indemni- 
ties for war 1812-14 13 Nov. 1826 

American Tariff Bill imposing heavy duties on 
British goods, termed the ' ' tariff of abominations " 

13 May, 1828 
General Jackson, yth president . . .4 March, 1829 
Treaty between the United States and the Ottoman 

Porte 7 May, 1830 

Ports re-opened to British commerce . 5 Oct. ,, 
Pirst railway made . . . . . . ,, 

New tariff laws 14 July, 1832 

Commercial panic ,, 

Great fire at New York, 674 houses and many public 
edifices burnt ; loss estimated at 20,000,000 dol- 
lars 16 Dec. 1835 

National debt paid off 1836 

Martin Van Buren, 8th president . . 4 March, 1837 
In the Canadian insurrection, many Americans 

assist the insurgents . . . Oct. to Dec. „ 

The American steamboat Caroline is attacked and 
burnt by the British, near Schlosser, to the east 
of the Niagara, on the territory of the United 

States 29 Dec. „ 

Proclamation of the president against American 

citizens aiding the Canadians ... 5 Jan. 1838 
The Great Western steam-ship first sails from Bristol 

to New York 8-15 April, „ 

American banks suspend cash payments . Oct. 1839 

Alex. MacLeod, charged with aiding in the de- 
struction of the Caroline; true bill found against 
him for murder and arson . . . . 6 Feb. 1841 
The United States Lank again suspends payment, 

7 Feb. „ 
Gen. W. H. Harrison, gth president . . 4 March, ,, 

Died 4 April, ,, 

Mr. Fox, British minister, demands the release of 

Mr. MacLeod 12 March, ,, 

John Tyler, 10th president .... April, ,, 
The case of MacLeod removed to supreme court at 

New York 6 May, „ 

A party of British volunteers from Canada carry off 

col. Grogan 9 Sept. „ 

Designation of all the United States ministers, with 

the exception of Mr. Webster . . . n Sept. „ 
President's proclamation against lawless attempts of 
American citizens to invade British possessions, 
and to suppress secret lodges, clubs, and associa- 
tions 25 Sept. „ 

Grogan restored to the Americans . . 4 Occ. ,, 
Trial of MacLeod at Utica, 4 Oct. ; acquitted, 12 Oct. „ 
Colossal statue of Washington placed in the capitol 

at Washington 1 Dec. „ 

Affair of the Creole ; dispute with England Dec. „ 
[This American vessel was on her voyage_to New 
Orleans with a cargo of slaves : they mutinied, v 
murdered the owner, wounded the captain, and 
compelled the crew to take the ship to Nassau, 
New Providence, where the governor, considering 
them passengers, allowed them, against the pro- 
test of the American consul, to go at liberty. ] 
Announcement of lord Ashburton's mission to the 

United States 1 Jan. 1842 

Arrest of Hogan, implicated in the Caroline affair, 

2 Feb. ,, 
Lord Ashlrarton arrives at New York . 1 April, ,, 
Washington treaty, defining the boundaries between 
the United States and the British American pos- 
sessions, and for suppressing the slave trade, and 
giving up fugitive criminals ; signed at AVashing- 
ton, by lord Ashburton and Mr. Webster, 9 Aug. „ 
The tariff bill is passed ' . . ... 30 Aug. 
Lord Ashburton leaves the United States . 5 Sept! " 
Death of Dr. Channing .... 2 Oct. 

James Knox Polk, nth president . . 4 March, 1845 

War declared against the United States by Mexico,' 
on account of the proposed annexation of Texas, 

4 June, „ 
[Several actions are fought between the belligerents, 

adverse to Mexico.] 
Besolution of the senate and house of representa- 
tives for terminating the joint occupancy of 

Oregon 20 April, 1846 

Annexation of New Mexico to the United States, 

after a protracted war . . . .23 Aug. 

Mexicans defeated by Taylor at Falo Alto, 8, 9 May, ,',' 

Treaty fixing the north-west boundary of the U.S. 

at the 49th parallel of latitude, and giving the 



British possession of Vancouver's island, the free 
navigation of the Columbia river, &c, signed 

12 June, 1846 

Treaty with Columbia guaranteeing neutrality of 
the isthmus of Panama ,, 

The Mexicans defeated by general Taylor, at Bueno 
Vista 22, 23 Feb. 1847 

Vera Cruz taken by storm, 29 March ; the Mexicans 
everywhere worsted. Great battle of Sierra Gorda ; 
the Mexicans signally defeated by general Scott, 

18 April, ,, 

Treaty between Mexico and the United States, rati- 
fied 19 May, 184a 

Gen. Zachary Taylor, 12th president . 4 March, 1849 

Biot at the theatre, New York, occasioned by the 
dispute between Mr. Forrest and Mr. Macready, 

10 May, ,, 

Proclamation of the president against the maraud- 
ing expedition to Cuba . . . .11 Aug. ;> 

[Lopez, a Spanish adventurer, landed 600 men at 
Cuba ; after a short but obstinate struggle they 
took the town of Cardenas ; and soon after had a 
land engagement with some Spanish soldiers, in 
which many of them were killed or taken pri- 
soners ; the others embarked with Lopez in the 
Creole steamer, and thus escaped from a Spanish 
war steamer, the Pizarro, May, 1850.] 

The French ambassador dismissed from Washington, 

14 Sept. ,, 

Treaty with England for a transit way across Pana- 
ma (see Bulwer), 19 April ; ratified . 4 July, 1850 

President Zachary Taylor dies ; death of M. Cal- 
houn 31 March, ,, 

Millard Fill in ore, 13th president. . . March, , y 

California admitted a state . . . 15 Aug. ,, 

Fugitive slave bill passed .... Aug. ,, 

President Fillmore issues a second proclamation 
against the promoters of a second expedition to 
Cuba, and the ship Cleopatra, freighted with 
military stores destined for that island, is seized, 

25 April, 1853 

Census of the United States taken, the population 
ascertained to amount to 23,347,884, in the whole 
union 16 June, ,, 

Henry Clay, American statesman, dies . 29 June, „ 

Failure of the second expedition against Cuba by 
Lopez and his followers ; they are all defeated and 
taken : 51 are shot by the Cuban authorities, 
Lopez is garotted, and the rest are sent prisoners 
to Spain, where, after some negotiation, they are 
mercifully set at liberty (see Cuba) Aug.-Sept. ,„ 

J. F. Cooper, American novelist dies . 14 Sept. „ 

The president issues a proclamation against the 
sympathisers with the revolutionary movement 
in Mexico . . . . . .22 Oct. ,, 

Part of the capitol of Washington, and the whole of 
the library of the United States congress, de- 
stroyed by fire 24 Dec. „. 

M. Kossuth the Hungarian chief, arrives at Wash- 
ington, on the invitation of the United States 
legislature 30 Dec. ,, 

Publication of "Uncle Tom's Cabin," by Mrs. 
Stowe 20 March, 1852 

The dispute with England relating to the Fisheries 
occurs about this time ; Mr Webster's note upon 
the subject ...... 14 July, ,, 

Lone Star Society (see Lone Star). . . Aug. , r 

The United States Ship Crescent City boarded at 
Havannah, and not allowed to land her mails or 
passengers 3 Oct. ,, 

Death of the eminent statesman Daniel Webster in 
his 70th year 24 Oct. „ 

Expedition to Japan ,, 

Address to the women of America on slavery, 
adopted by the duchess of Sutherland and other 
ladies (signed afterwards by 576,000 English- 
women) 26 Nov. ,, 

Gen. Franklin Pierce, 14th president . 4 March, 1853 

Affair of Koszta at Smyrna (see Koszta) 21 June, ,, 

Crystal palace opens at New York . .14 July, ,, 

Duel between M. Soule (American minister at 
Madrid) and M. Turgot ... 18 Dec. „ 

Great fire at New York— Great RepxMic clipper de- 
stroyed 26 Dec. „ 

Astor Library, New York, opened . . 9 Jan. 1854 
William Walker proclaims the republic of Sonora 
divided into two states— Sonora and Lower Cali- 
fornia 18 Jan. ,, 



UNITED STATES. 



1015 



UNITED STATES. 



American steamer Black Warrior seized at Cuba. 

28 Feb. 
The Spanish government remitted the flue, but con- 
sidered the seizure legal .... April, 
Commercial treaty concluded between Japan and 
United States by commodore Perry (sent there 

for the purpose) 23 March, 

Reciprocity treaty between Great Britain and 

United States (respecting Newfoundland fishery, 

international trade, &c.) concluded . 7 June 

Captain Hollins in American sloop Cyanc, bombards 

San Juan de Nicaragua . . . 13 July, 

Negotiation for the annexation of the Sandwich 

Islands Oct. 

Dreadful election riots in Kansas, March and April, 
Indian war : they are defeated . 25, 29 April, 
Dispute with British government on enlistment (see 

Foreign Legion) July 

Gen. Harney gains a victory over the Sioux Indians, 

3 Sept. 
Senator Charles Sumner savagely assaulted by 
senator Preston Brooks in the senate-house for 
speaking against slavery ... 2 May, 
Mr. Crampton, British envoy, dismissed, 28 May, 
John C. Fremont nominated the "Republican" can- 
didate for the presidency . . .17 June, 
Battle in Kansas ; the slavers (under Capt. Reid) 
defeat Brown and the abolitionists . 30 Aug. 
James Buchanan, elected 15th president . 4 Nov. 
The Resolute presented to queen Victoria (see Frank- 
lin) 12 Dec. 

Lord Napier appointed British envoy to United 
States (16 Jan.) ; warmly received 18 March, 

Central American question settled . . March, 
Judgment given in the " Dred Scott" case in the 
supreme court. (He was claimed as a slave in a 
free state : 2 judges declared for his freedom, 5 
against it, which causes great dissatisfaction 
throughout the free states) . . . March, 
Disorganised state of Utah ; troops march to sup- 
port new governor . . . May and June, 
Riots in Washington against Irish electors ; and in 
New York on account of changes in the police 

arrangements June, 

Insurrection in Kansas quelled . . July, 

Commercial panic in New York . . . Aug. 
Outrage at Staaten Island ; quarantine house burnt, 

V Sept. 
The import duties of the protective tariffs reduced 

from 23 to 15 per cent 

Dispute respecting right of search, settled May, 

Tranquility restored in Utah . . . June, 

Great rejoicing at the completion of the Atlantic 

telegraph (see Electric Telegraph) . . Aug. 

A massacre of emigrants at Mountain Meadows, 

Utah (Mormons suspected) . . .18 Sept. 

Lieut. Moffat seizes the American slave ship Echo 

and takes her to Charleston . . . Sept. 

Death of W. H. Prescott, the historian . 28 Jan. 

Daniel Sickles, a government official, killed Philip 

Barton Key, for adultery with his wife ; acquitted 

of murder . • 26 Feb. 

The American commodore Tatnall assists the Eng- 
lish at the Chinese engagement on the rivei-Peiho, 
saying, " Blood is thicker than water," 25 June, 
Gen. Ward, the United States envoy, goes to Pekin, 
but does not see the emperor . . . July, 
Gen. Harney sends troops to San Juan Island, near 
Vancouver's Island, " to protect the American 
settlers;" moderation of the British, who have a 
naval force at hand ; governor Douglas also sends 

troops 27 July, 

Insurrection at Harper's Ferry . . .16 Oct. 
[John Brown, called captain Brown and old Brown, 
was a prominent leader in the violent conflicts in 
Kansas, during the agitation respecting the ques- 
tion of its becoming a slave state. He was a 
monomaniac on the slavery question, and con- 
tended that all means for annihilating slavery were 
justifiable. He gathered together a band of despe- 
rate characters, who so much annoyed Missouri 
and other slave states, that a reward was offered 
for his head. He had arranged for the successful 
issue of the insurrection above mentioned, so far 
as to devise a provisional government and a new 
constitution. On 16 Oct. he and his band, aided 
by a mob, seized the arsenal at Harper's Ferry, a 
town on the borders oi Virginia and Maryland, 



1855 



1856 



1857 



stopped the railway trains, and cut the telegraph 
wires ; a conflict with the military ensued, when 
many of the insurgents were killed. Temporary 
panic in southern states.] 

Gen. Harney superseded by Gen. Scott at San Juan, 
who makes conciliatory overtures ; accepted by 
governor Douglas Nov. 

Death of Washington Irving . . .28 Nov. 

John Brown captured and tried ; executed 2 Dec. 

Great agitation in the congress, Nov. 1859 ; no 
speaker elected till 1 Feb. 

President Buchanan protests against a proposed in- 
quiry into his acts .... 28 March, 

Companions of John Brown executed . March, 

The national republican convention meet at 
Chicago ; Abraham Lincoln chosen as candidate 
for the presidency . . . . 16 May, 

Japanese embassy received by the president at 
Washington 17 May, 

Fresh disputes at San Juan, through gen. Harney, 
who is recalled May, 

William Goodrich (Peter Parley) dies . May, 

The national democratic convention meet at Balti- 
more ; a large number of delegates secede ; the 
remainder nominate Stephen Douglas as presi- 
dent ; the seceders nominate John Breckinridge, 

18 June, 

The Great Eastern arrives at New York 23 June, 

The prince of Wales arrives at Detroit in the United 
States, 20 Sept. ; visits Washington, 3 Oct. ; 
Philadelphia, 9 Oct. : New York, 11 Oct. ; Bos- 
ton, 17 Oct ; embarks at Portland . 20 Oct. 

Abraham Lincoln, the republican candidate, elected 
16th president (see Southern Confederacy), 6 Nov. 

[303 electors are appointed to vote for a president , 
152 to be a majority. The numbers were, for A. 
Lincoln, 180 ; John C. Breckinridge, 72 ; John 
Bell, 39; Stephen A. Douglas, 12.] 

Intense excitement at Charleston, South Carolina, 
and in other southern states . . . Nov. 

South Carolina secedes from the union . 20 Dec. 

Major Anderson, of United States army, occupies 
Fort Sumter in Carolina . . . .26 Dec. 

Delegates from South Carolina not received by the 
president 30 Dec. 

Vacillating policy of president Buchanan ; the secre- 
taries Cass, Cobb, Floyd, and Thompson resign, 
Dec. 1860-Jan. 

New York and other northern states protest against 
the secession ; a general fast proclaimed ; observed 
on 4 Jan. 

Vicksburg, Mississippi, fortified . . .12 Jan. 

Kansas admitted a state .... 21 Jan. 

Secession (by convention) of Mississippi, 8 Jan. ; 
Alabama, Florida, n Jan. ; Georgia, 19 Jan. ; 
Louisiana, 26 Jan. Texas (by legislature), 

1 Feb. 

Jefferson Davis, elected by the six seceding states, 
8 Feb. ; is inaugurated president of the "southern 
confederacy," at Montgomery, Alabama, 18 Feb. 

New (Morrill) tariff bill passed (nearly prohibits 
commerce with England) . . .2 March, 

President Davis prepares for war (100,000 men to 
be raised) March, 

Abm. Lincoln, inaugurated president at Washing- 
ton, says, "the central idea of secession is the 
essence of anarchy " .... 4 March, 

Southern commissioners not received by the presi- 
dent at Washington .... 12 March, 

Gen. Winfield Scott, in a letter to president Lin- 
coln, sets before him four courses: either, I., to 
surrender to slavery half the territory acquired or 
to be acquired ; 11., to blockade all revolted ports; 
III., to say to seceding states, " Wayward sisters, 
go in peace ! " or IV., to conquer the south, which 
would require 300,000 men and afterwards a resi- 
dent army [the letter became public Oct. 1862] 

March, 
(Statement denied in 1S74.) 
Great excitement at the operation of the new 
Morrill tariff, which begins . . .1 April, 

The war begins : Major Anderson refuses to surren- 
der Port Sumter, Charleston, when summoned, n 
April; it is taken by the secessionists, alter a 
bloodless conflict '. . . . 13 April, 

President Lincoln summons the congress to meet 

on 4 July; issues a proclamation, calling on the 



1859 



UNITED STATES. 



1016 



UNITED STATES. 



states to furnish a contingent of 75,000 men, &c. 

15 April, ] 

Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, and 
other states zealously respond, with vigorous 
preparations for war ; Kentucky, North Carolina, 
Virginia, Tennessee, and Missouri, decidedly re- 
fuse, asserting the proposed coercion to be wicked, 
illegal, and unconstitutional . . April, 

The mob in Baltimore, Maryland, attack some 
Massachusetts regiments on their way to Wash- 
ington ; several persons killed in the conflict, 

19 April, 

President Davis issues letters of marque, 17 April ; 
president Lincoln proclaims the blockade of the 
ports of seceding states . . .19 April, 

U.S. Arsenal at Harper's Perry, Virginia, tired by 
command, and 15,000 stand of arms destroyed, 
18 April; 9 ships of war and naval stores in the 
navy yard, Norfolk, Va. , burnt to prevent them 
falling into the hands of the southern confede- 
rates, who occupy the place . . 21 April, 

Virginia (except West Virginia) secedes by ordi- 
nance (the 8th state) . ■ . . 25 April, 

Lincoln calls for 42,034 volunteers for three years, 
3 May, and informs foreign powers of his inten- 
tion to maintain the union by war . 4 May, 

The confederates under Beauregard and Johnston, 
in Virginia, threaten Washington, defended by 
the federals under generals Winfield Scott and 
George McClellan May, 

The British queen commands her subjects to be 
neutral in the ensuing war . . .13 May, 

The federals enter Virginia ; Beauregard calls on 
the Virginians to rise and expel them 1 June, 

Formal secession of Arkansas, 6 May ; North Caro- 
lina, 20 May; Tennessee (9 th, 10th, and nth), 

8 June, 

Several British vessels seized while endeavouring to 
break the blockade ; the southern privateer 
Savannah captured .... June, 

Neutrality announced by the French emperor 10 Jun e, 

Fast-day in confederate states . . 13 June, 

Missouri. — Gen. Lyon raises a federal army, and 
defeats the state troops, 17 June ; the federals 
successful at Carthage, 5 July ; Fremont takes 
command in West Missouri, 26 July ; federals 
victorious at Athens, 5 Aug. ; at Wilson's Creek 
(gen. Lyon killed), 10 Aug. ; Fremont proclaims 
martial law, and freedom to slaves or rebels, 31 
Aug. ; Lexington surrenders to confederates, 20 
Sept. ; Fremont blamed, retires ; succeeded by 
Hunter 2 Nov. 

Virginia. —Federals defeated at Big Bethell, 10 
June ; occupy Harper's Ferry, evacuated by the 
confederates, 16 June ; col. Pegrim and 600 con- 
federates surrender at Beverley . 13 July, 

[Very many skirmishes, with various results.] 

McClellan defeats confederates at Rich Mountain, 
n July; Paterson permits the junction of the 
confederates under Johnston and Beauregard 
near Manassas, 15 July ; who are repulsed at 
Blackburn's Ford, near Centreville . 18 July, 

Battle of Bull Run {which see) or Manassas, Vir- 
ginia; the federals, seized with panic, flee in 
utter disorder 21 July, 

Meeting of U. S. Congress, 4 July ; a loan of 250 
million dollars authorised . . .17 July, 

Meeting of confederate congress at Richmond, 
Virginia 20 July, 

Passport system introduced into the northern 
states, and the liberty of the press greatly re- 
stricted Auc. 

The charges in the Morrill tariff greatly raised'; 
the confederates prohibit exportation of cotton 
except by southern ports . . . Aug. 

Battle of Springfield or Wilson's Creek; confede- 
rates defeated 10 Au<t. 

McClellan assumes command of the army of the 
Potomac . . 20 Aug. 

Federal gen. Butler takes Fort Hatteras, N. Carolina 
(700 prisoners and 1000 stand of arms), 29 Aug. 

Fast-day in federal states ... 26 Sept. 

Garibaldi declines command in the federal army, 

Sept. 

Battle of Ball's Bluff; federals defeated and gen. 
Baker killed, near Leesburg, Virginia ; hundreds 
drowned 21 Oct. 



The federals and confederates enter Kentucky ; 
the governor protests; many skirmishes, Sept. -Dec. : 

Resignation of lieut.-gen. Scott, 31 Oct. ; George 
Mc.Clellf.n made commander-in-chief of the 
federal army t Nov. 

Thr> federal general Sherman takes Port Royal forts, 
S. Carolina 7, 8 Nov. 

Capt. Wilkes, of federal war steamer San Jacinto, 
boards the Royal British mail packet Trent, 
and carries off Messrs. Mason and Slidell, con- 
federate commissioners, and their secretaries, 8 
Nov., and conveys them to Boston . 19 Nov. 

Great rejoicings in the northern states at the 
capture of Mason and Slidell . . . Nov. 

McClellan reviews 70,000 men . . .20 Nov. 

Capt. Pegram, of confederate steamer Nashville, 
burns the federal ship Harvey Birch, 19 Nov. , and 
brings the crew on to Southampton . 21 Nov. 

A secession ordinance passed by a party in Mis- 
souri, 2 Nov. ; the same in Kentucky . 30 Nov. 

Dissensions increase between the republicans (abo- 
litionists) and the democrats in New York, &c. 

Nov. 

Jefferson Davis elected president of confederate 
states for six years .... 30 Nov. 

President Lincoln states that the federal armies 
comprise 660,971 men . . . .2 Dec. 

Meeting of congress, which votes thanks to capt. 
Wilkes, 2 Dec. ; the foreign envoys at Washington 
protest against his act .... 3 Dee. 

The federals commence sinking hulks filled with 
stones to block up Charleston harbour (S. Caro- 
lina) [much indignation in England] 21 Dec. 

Banks at New York, &c, suspend cash payments, 

30 Dec. 

A firm despatch from the British government 
arrives, 18 Dec. 1861 ; Mason, &c, surrendered, 
sail for Europe 1 Jan. : 

Phelps' fruitless expedition to Ship Island, Missis- 
sippi Sound . . . .3 Dec. 1861-Jan. 

Confederate general Zollicoffer defeated by Thomas 
and slain at Mill Springs or Somerset, Kentucky, 

19 Jan. 

'Tennessee. — The federals (Grant) take Fort Henry, 
6 Feb. ; Fort Donnelson, with 15,000 prisoners, 
16 Feb. ; and Nashville ... 23 Feb. 

Confederates defeated at Pea Ridge, Arkansas, 
6, 7, 8 March, 

Confederate iron-plated ship Merrimac destroys 
federal vessels Cumberland and Congress in Hamp- 
ton roads, 8 March ; is repulsed by federal iron- 
clad floating battery Monitor . . 9 March, 

McClellan and his army (100,000) cross the Potomac 
and find the confederate camp at Bull Run 
evacuated 10 March, 

McClellan resigns general command, and assumes 
that of the army of the Potomac only ; Fremont 
that of the Mountain department ; and Halleck 
that of the Mississippi . . . n March, 

Burnside's expedition sails, 11 Jan. ; takes Roanoke, 
N. Carolina, 7, 8 Feb. ; Newbern . 14 March, 

Capt. Wilson (British) boldly rescues his vessel, 
Emily St. Pierre, a merchantman, from the federals 

21 March, 

[She was sailing from Calcutta to New Brunswick, 
and while attempting to inquire whether a block- 
ade existed, was captured off Charleston bar by a 
federal ship of war. Her captain, and his cook 
and steward, were permitted to remain on board 
on her voyage to Philadelphia. On 21 March, 
Wilson with his two associates succeeded, by 
stratagem and courage, in recovering the com- 
mand of the vessel, overcoming two U.S. officers 
and 13 sailors, and brought her into Liverpool. 
The owners of the ship gave him 2000 guineas, 
and the Liveipool merchants presented him with 
a magnificent testimonial of their admiration of 
his gallantry. The British government refused 
to restore the vessel when claimed by the 
Americans.] 

Confederates defeated at Winchester 23 March, 

General Burnside occupies Beaufort and Fort Macon 

1 April, 

Slavery abolished in district of Columbia, 4 April, 

McCleilan advances into Virginia, with the view of 
taking Richmond ; he besieges Yorktown, held 
by 30,000 confederates ... 5 April, 



UNITED STATES. 



1017 



UNITED STATES. 



Correspondents of English newspapers excluded 
from federal array 5 April, 18 

Great battles of Shiloh or Pittsburg Landing, near 
Corinth, Tennessee ; confederates victorious, but 
lose their able gen. Albert Johnston; they retire 

6, 7 April, , 

Treaty between Great Britain and the United 
States for the suppression of the slave trade, 

7 April, , 

Federals take Fort Pulaska on the Savannah, n 
April ; and New Orleans . . 25-28 April, , 

Yorktown evacuated by confederates . 3 May, . 

The Seward-Lyous treaty between Great Britain 
and the United States, for suppression of the 
slave trade, signed 7 April ; ratified . 20 May, , 

Confederates repulsed at Williamsburg, 5 May ; their 
naval depot at Norfolk, Virginia, surrenders, 10 
May ; they burn the Merrimac . . 11 May, . 

Commodore Farragut with a flotilla ascends the 
Mississippi May, , 

Little Rock, Arkansas, taken by federals . May, . 

Stonewall Jackson defeats Banks at Winchester, 

18 May, , 

McClellan takes Hanover court-house . 27 May, 

Skirmishes in Virginia ; success varying . May, , 

Severe battles of Fair Oaks, before Richmond 
(indecisive) . . . .31 May, 1 June, . 

Beauregard and the confederates retreat from 
Corinth, Tennessee, 30 May ; pursued byHalleek 
and the federals June, , 

Memphis, on the Mississippi, taken . 6 June, , 

Federals defeated near Charleston . . 16 June, , 

Federal forces under Fremont, Banks, and 
McDowell, placed under Pope ; Fremont resigns, 

27 June, , 

Federals suffer through several severe engagements 
in Virginia 25-30 June, , 

General Butler excites great indignation by his 
military rigour at New Orleans May and June, , 

Seven days' conflict on the Chickahominy before 
Richmond ; the confederate gen. Lee compels 
McClellan to abandon the siege and retreat 17 
miles, taking up a position at Harrison's Land- 
ing, on James's river . . 25 June-i July, 

The tariff still further raised .... July, 

Many conflicts in Kentucky, Missouri, and Ten- 
nessee, through confederate guerilla parties. 

June and July, 

Lincoln visits and encourages the army of McClellan, 
and calls for 300,000 volunteers . . July, 

Lincoln's assent to a bill confiscating the property 
and emancipating the slaves of all rebels in arms 
after 60 days 17 July, 

Halleck supersedes McClellan as commander-in-chief 

26 July, 

Slow volunteering ; many emigrations to Canada 
and Europe ; habeas corpus suspended ; the pre- 
sident ordains a draft if the volunteers are not 
ready by 15 Aug July, 

Public debt of United States estimated at 
1,222,000,000 dollars . . . . 1 July, 

Pope takes command in Virginia . . 14 July, 

Lincoln's proclamation of confiscation of property 
of rebels 26 July, 

Fierce attack of Breckenridge (confederates) on 
Baton Rouge ; the federals soon after retire, 5 Aug. 

Pope's troops ravage Virginia ; Banks, his subordi- 
nate, defeated at Cedar Mountain by gen. Thos. 
" Stonewall " Jackson . . . .9 Aug. 

[According to some accounts he obtained the name 
by premising Beauregard, at the battle of Bull 
Run, that his brigade should stand like a " stone 
wall ; " others say that Beauregard gave the name 
himself.] 

McClellan retreats from Harrison's Landing (said 
to have lost 70,000 men, killed, wounded, prison- 
ers, and deserters) .... 16 Aug. 

The federals surprised, and Pope loses his baggage, 

25 Aug. 
Jackson turns the flank of Pope's army, and attacks 
him at Grovcton, 29 Aug. ; and when reinforced 
by Lee, defeats him and McDowell ;it Bull Run, 
30 Aug. ; Pope retreats to Centreville 1 Sept. 
The remains of Pope's armj Bee behind the lines 
of Washington, 2 Sept ; he is removed to tin' 
north-west to act against tin' Indian insurrection 

3 Sept. 



McDowell superseded ; charged with treachery, he 
claims a trial Sept. 1 

McClellan appointed commander-in-chief, saves 
Washington, and marches against the confede- 
rates under Lee, who have crossed the Potomac 
and entered Maryland . . . 5, 6 Sept. 

Severe conflicts at South Mountain Gap (or Middle- 
town), 14-16 Sept. ; confederates, after a great 
fight near Antietam Creek and Sharpsburg road, 
retreat 17 Sept. 

Harper's Ferry surrendered to Jackson, 15 Sept. ; 
he crosses Potomac and joins Lee's army 17 Sept. 

Federal cause declining in the- west ; they lose 
Lexington, Aug. ; and Munsfordville 17 Sept. 

Thanksgiving-day in southern states, 18 Sept. 

Rosen craus defeats the confederates at Iuka 19 Sept. 

Confederates re-enter Virginia laden with stores 

22 Sept. 

Lincoln proclaims freedom to the slaves in the con- 
federate states, on 1 Jan. 1S63, if the states have 
not returned to the union . . 22 Sept. 

Secret convention of 16 governors of states at 
Altoona, Pennsylvania, approve Lincoln's policy 

24 Sept. 

Draught of 40,000 men ordered in New York state 
by 12 Oct Sept. 

Lincoln suspends habeas corpus' writ, and authorises 
severe measures agaiiistdisloyalpersonS25-27Sept. 

Desperate but indecisive conflicts near Corinth. 
Tennessee, 3-5 Oct. ; and at Perrysville, Kentucky 

8, 9 Oct. 

Confederate gen. Stuart crosses Upper Potomac, 
and enters Pennsylvania ; enters Chambersburg 
and other places, carrying off horses, ammunition, 
<fec. ; rides round the federal army, and returns to 
his camp 10, 13 Oct. 

Gold at 29 premium at New Tork . . Oct. 

Great democratic meeting at New York, condemning 
the president's policy . . . .12 Oct. 

At New Orleans Butler compels all persons who 
refuse to take the oath of allegiance to send in 
their names and register their property to the 
provost marshal .... 12 Oct. 

McClellau's head-quarters at Harper's Ferry 17 Oct. 

Raid of confederate gen. Morgan in Kentucky ; he 
carries off 80 federal waggons of ammunition, &c 

iS Oct. 

Ten confederate prisoners at Palmyra shot by order 
of gen. McNeil in consequence of the disappear- 
ance of Abraham Allsman . .18 Oct. 

Rosen crans supersedes Buell in the west 30 Oct. 

Elections for next congress ; great majority for the 
democratic (opposition) candidates in New York 
and several other states . . . .4 Nov. 

McClellan, while advancing towards Richmond, 
is superseded by gen. Burnside, 5 Nov., who 
advances towards Richmond . . 7 Nov. 

M. Drouyn de Lhuys, on behalf of the French 
government, proposes joint mediation in the 
American conflict to Great Britain and Russia, 
30 Oct. ; declined by Gortschakoff, 8 Nov. ; by 
earl Russell 13 Nov. 

The confederate steamer Alabama, capt. Semmes, 
captures many U.S. vessels, and excites much 
alarm at New York . . . Oct. -Dec. 

President Davis threatens reprisals if general 
McNeil is not surrendered (see 18 Oct.) 17 Nov. 

Burnside summons Fredericksburg to surrender; 
confederate gen. Lee with about 80,000 men near 

22 Nov. 

100,000 federal soldiers on the sick list . Nov. 

Great honour shown to .McClellan; he is proposed 
as the next president .... Nov. 

The federal government orders release of disaffected 
persons in prisons . . . .25 Nov. 

Annual session of U.S. congress; the president 
recommends compensated emancipation of all 
slaves in t lie loyal states before the year 1 900 1 Dec. 

Battle of Fredericksburg {which see); Burnside 
crosses the Rappahannock, 10 Doc. ; bombards 
FredericksDurg, 11 Dee.; a series of desperate 
attacks on the confederates; Burnside totally 
defeated, 13 Dec. ; recrosses the river 13 Dec. 

Engagements in Tennessee with varying results. Pee. 
Discovery of frauds in the U.S. urmy financial 
accounts; public dissatisfaction with the govern- 
ment ; secretaries Chase and Seward resign, but 
resume office Dec. 



UNITED STATES. 



1018 



UNITED STATES. 



Homestead and Pre-emption act (relating to settle- 
ment of free land) passed 

Battles near Murfreesboro', or Stone River, between 
Rosenerans and the federals and Braxton Bragg 
and the confederates : begin 29 Dec. ; severe but 
indecisive, 31 Dec. ; battle continued, 1 Jan. ; 
Bragg defeated, retreats ... 2 Jan. 

['• There have been about 2000 battles and skirmishes 
since the commencement of the war. " — American 
Almanack.'] 

President Lincoln proclaims the freedom of slaves 
in the rebel states, except in parts held by the 
U. S. army 2 Jan. 

Burnside superseded by Joseph Hooker in com- 
mand of army of the Potomac . . 26 Jan. 

The French government's offer of mediation, 9 Jan. 
declined 6 Feb. 

The George Griswold, a vessel containing provisions 
and other relief for the distressed cotton workers 
in Lancashire, arrives ... 9 Feb. 

A conscription bill (for men between 18 and 45) 
passed 25 Feb. 

The congress authorises the suspension of the 
habeas corpus act, 3 March ; and establishes a 
National Academy of Sciences at Washington 

4 March, 

Confederate loan for 3,000,000?. well taken up in 
Europe March, 

Charleston, South Carolina, attacked by monitors 
and gunboats ; the Keokuk, a monitor, sunk 

7 April, 

Battle of Chancellorsville {which see) ; the federals 
under Hooker cross the Rappahannock, 28 April ; 
defeated (gen. Stonewall Jackson is mortally 
wounded), 2-4 May ; Hooker recrosses the Rappa- 
hannock 5 May, 

Stonewall Jackson dies ... 10 May, 

Grant's successful campaign in Tennessee ; he defeats 
the confederates under Joseph Johnston at 
Jackson, 14 May ; and under Pemberton at 
Champion Hills, 16 May ; and invests Vicksburg, 
Mississippi, which is strongly fortified, 18 May, 
a dreadful assault on it repelled . . 22 May, 

Great peace meeting at Norfolk . 5 June, 

Confederate invasion under Lee ; invade Maryland 

and Pennsylvania, and take various towns 

14 June, el seq. 

The federal gen. Hooker superseded by George 
H. Meade 27 June, 

Meade advances against Lee ; great battle of 

' Gettysburg, indecisive ; but the confederates 

evacuate Pennsylvania and Maryland 1-3 July, 

Vicksburg bombarded, 3 July ; surrendered by 
Pemberton to Grant and Porter . 4 July, 

Port Hudson, a confederate fortress on the 
Mississippi, surrenders ... 8 July, 

Fierce riots at New York against the conscription ; 
many negroes murdered, and much property 
destroyed 13-16 July, 

The Sioux defeated, 7 Aug. ; gen. Pope reports that 
the Indian war is ended .... Aug. 

New York rioters tried and convicted, 12 Aug. ; 
conscription going on peaceably . .21 Aug. 

Siege of Charleston ; defended by Beauregard - 
attacks with varied, success, July ; Fort Sumter 
bombarded and destroyed (and so-called Greek 
fire employed) ; attacks on the ruins repulsed 

21, 22 Aug. 

Knoxville occupied by Burnside . . 10 Sept. 

A Russian squadron warmly received at New York 
Sept. and Oct. 

Battles of Chickamauga, Tennessee ; Rosenerans 
defeated by Bragg . . . . 19, 20 Sept. 

Mason, the confederate commissioner in England, 
protests against the mode of his reception, and 
quits 22 Sept. 

Confederates defeated at Blue-Springs, Tennessee 

10 Oct. 

Lincoln calls for 300,000 volunteers . 17 Oct. 

Rosenerans' command of the. federal army in Tennes- 
see superseded by Grant, and Thomas, and 
Sherman 19 Oct. 

The steam rams FA. Tnusson and El Monassir, built 
by Mr. Laird at Birkenhead, and suspected to be 
for the confederates, are placed under charge of a 
government vessel in the Mersey . 31 Oct. 

British consuls dismissed from southern states Oct. 



1862 



1863 



Meade captures a part of Lee's army on the N. side 
of the Rappahannock . . . .7 Nov. 3 

The chief justices Lowrie, Woodward, and Thomp- 
son declare that the Conscription act is uncon- 
stitutional 12 Nov. 

Longstreet defeats Burnside, and compels him to 
retire into Knoxville . . . 14-17 Nov. 

Sherman and Thomas defeat Bragg at Chattanooga 

23, 24 Nov. 

Longstreet's attack on Knoxville, defended by 

Burnside, fails, and he retreats into Virginia 

29 Nov. and 1 Dec. 

The confederate general Bragg superseded by 
Hardee 2 Dec. 

Lincoln's message to congress warlike ; he proffers 
amnesty to all except heads of governments, &c, 
4 Dec. ; Davis's message, firm, but acknow- 
ledging reverses 7 Dec. 

Gen. Joseph Johnston takes command of the con- 
federate army in Georgia ... 27 Dec. 

President Lincoln orders a draft of 500,000 men in 
3 years 1 Feb. 

Federal expedition into Florida.; defeated at 
Olustee 20 Feb. 

Failure of attack of Kilpatrick and Dahlgren on 
Richmond .... 27 Feb. -4 March, 

Ulysses Grant made commander-in-chief, succeeding 
Halleck - 12 March, 

Confederate raids into the Western states March, 

Sherman's expedition against Mobile, 2 March, 
defeated by Kirby-Smith ... 5 April, 

James E. Stuart, the celebrated confederate cavalry 
officer, killed 11 May, 

Campaign in Virginia ; the army of the Potomac 
crosses the Rapidan ; advance of Lee (now sup- 
ported by Longstreet), 2 May ; severe battle in the 
"Wilderness" (near Chancellorsville), indecisive, 
5, 6 May; battle of Spottsylvania ; the federals 
remain on the field ; much carnage 10-12 May, 

Sherman (in Georgia) beats the confederates at 
Resacca, 14 May, and at Dallas . 28 May, 

Fugitive slave act repealed by the house of represen- 
tatives ' 13 June, 

After a succession of attacks on both sides, Grant 
compels Lee to retire gradually, and by a flank 
movement marches to the other side of Richmond, 
and faces Petersburg, 15 June ; where, having 
taken the first intrenehments after desperate 
assaults, he is repulsed with considerable loss 

18 June, 

The confederate steamer Alabama (capt. Semmes) 
attacked and sunk by the U. S. corvette Kearsage 
(capt. Winslow) near Cherbourg, France, 19 June, 

Mr. Chase, secretary to the U.S. treasury, resigns; 
succeeded by Mr. Fessenden . . July, 

Part of Lee's army invades Maryland, 1 July ; 
defeats Wallace near Monocracy river, 9 July ; 
threatens Baltimore and Washington, and retreats 

12, 13 July, 

Sherman's 3 battles at Atlanta (Georgia), 20, 22 July ; 
victory remains with the federals . 28 July, 

Confederates again invade Maryland and Pennsyl- 
vania, and destroy Chambersburg . 30 July, 

Grant orders the explosion of a mine at Petersburg, 
whereby 250 confederates are killed ; but the 
assault following is repulsed with great slaughter 

30 July, 

The Tallahassee confederate steamer(built in London) 
destroys many U.S. merchantmen July, Aug. 

Severe conflicts in the Shenandoah valley : the 
federals victors Aug. 

The confederate flotilla near Mobile destroyed by 
Farragut, 5 Aug. ; Fort Gaines taken 8 Aug. 

McClellan nominated for the. presidency by the 
" Democratic" Chicago convention 1 Sept. 

Sherman occupies Atlanta ; the confederate general 
Hood retires 1 Sept. 

Sherman orders the depopulation of Atlanta, 

7 Sept. 

McClellan declares for maintaining the union ; the 
democratic party divided . . 13 Sept. 

Sheridan (federal) defeats Early at Winchester, in 
the Shenandoah valley, but with very great loss 

19 Sept. 

Longstreet replaces Early in the command of the 
confederates Oct. 

Longstreet defeats the federals at Cedar Creek ; 



UNITED STATES 



1019 



UNITED STATES. 



Sheridan arrives, rallies his troops, and defeats 
the confederates . . . . 19 Oct. 

St. Alban's Maid. — Between 20 :and 30 armed men 
enter St. Alban's, Vermont ; rob the bank and 
carry off horses and stores ; fire on and kill 
several persons, and flee to Canada, 19 Oct. ; 
where 13 of them are arrested . . 21 Oct. 

Lincoln re-elected president ; McClellan resigns his 
command in U.S. army ... 8 Nov. 

Sherman destroys Atlanta and begins his march 
through Georgia to Savannah . .13 Nov. 

Hood's attack on Thomas (federal), at Franklin, 
repulsed with severe loss . . -30 Nov. 

Lincoln's message to congress considered "bold" 

6 Dec. 

The St. Alban's raiders discharged by Judge 
Coursol ; general Dix issues an intemperate order 
for reprisals (disannulled by the president) 

14 Dec. 

Hood defeated by Thomas (federal) near Nashville 

14-16 Dec. 

Sherman storms fort M'Allister, 13 Dec. ; enters 
Savannah 21 Dec. 

Wilmington bombarded ; the attack of general 
Butler and admiral Porter repulsed 24, 25 Dec. 

The St. Alban's raiders recaptured and committed 
for trial 27 Dec. et seq. 

The federal congress abolishes slavery in the United 
States 1 Feb. 

Fruitless meeting of president Lincoln and secretary 
Seward with the confederate secretary Stephens, 
and 2 commissioners to treat for peace at Fort 
Monroe 2, 3 Feb. 

The Canadian government surrenders Burley, a 
raider, to the federals ; . . 3 Feb. 

Lee takes the general command of the confederate 
armies ; he recommends enlistment of negroes 

18 Feb. 

Wilmington captured by Schofield ; Charleston 
evacuated by the confederates ; retreat of Beaure- 
gard 22 Feb. 

The confederate congress decree the arming of the 
slaves 22 Feb. 

Abraham Lincobi and Andrew Johnson inaugurated 
as president and vice-president . . 4 March, 

A new stringent tariff comes into operation, 

1 April, 
Three clays' sanguinary conflict at Five Forks, be- 
gan 31 March; Sheridan turns Lee's front, and 
totally defeats him, 1 April ; Lee retreats, 

2 April, 
Richmond and Petersburg evacuated by the con- 
federates and occupied by Grant . 2, 3 April, 

Sheridan overtakes and defeats Lee at Sailor's 
Creek, 6 April ; Lee surrenders with the army of 
Northern Virginia to Grant, at Appomatox court- 
house 9 April, 

Mobile evacuated by the confederates 12 April, 

The Union flag replaced at Fort Sumter, Charleston, 

14 April, 
President Lincoln shot at Ford's Theatre, 

Washington, about n o'clock, p.m., 14 April, 
by Wilkes Booth, who escapes ; Mr. Seward, the 
foreign secretary, and his son, wounded in his 
own house by an assassin about the same time ; 
Lincoln dies at 7.30 a.m., 15 April; Andrew 
Johnson, vice-president, sxvom in as i-jth president, 

15 April, 
The convention between Sherman and Johnston 

(favourable to confederates), 17 April, disavowed 
by the government, 21 April ; Johnston surren- 
ders on same terms as Lee . . 26 April, 

Wilkes Booth shot, and his accomplice Han-old 
captured, in a farmhouse . . 26 April, 

The confederate general Dick Taylor (near Mobile) 
surrenders 4 May, 

President Jefferson Davis captured at Irwinsville, 
Georgia; imprisoned .... 10 May, 

The confederate general Kirby Smith, in Texas, 
surrenders ; end of the war . . 26 May, 

President Johnson proclaims the opening of the 
southern ports, 22 May; and an amnesty with 
certain exemptions . . . . 29 May 

Solemn fast observed for death of president Lincoln, 

1 June, 

The armies on both sides rapidly disbanding; fierce 
riots at New York between whites and negroes, 

June, 



1S64 



1865 



[Registered loss of the Federals 359,496 ; of which 

officers 9,584.] 

Galveston, Texas, the last seaport held by the 

south, surrendered by Kirby-Smith . 5 June, 

The British and French governments rescind their 

recognition of the confederates as belligerents, 

2, 6 June, 
President Johnson, uniting with the democrats, 
and acting leniently towards the south ; reorgan- 
isation of the state governments . . June, 
Close of the long trial of the assassination conspira- 
tors, 29 June; execution of Payne, Atzerott, 
Harrold or Herold, and Mrs. Suratt 7 July, 

The president declines recognition of the emperor 

of Mexico 18 July, 

All southern prisoners of war to be released on 
parole on taking oath of allegiance . 29 July, 
Federal debt declared 2,757,253,275 dollars, 

31 July, 

The confederate privateer Shenandoah (captain 

Waddell) captures and destroys many federal 

vessels (about 30) Aug. 

Pacific policy of president Johnson; he declares 
himself opposed to centralisation and in favour 
of state rights ; and is bitterly opposed by the 

radicals Sept. 

Correspondence between earl Russell and Mr. 
Adams (U.S. minister, London) respecting the 
Alabama, confederate privateer; proposal of a 
commission to whom claims for reparation shall 
be referred .... 7 April-18 Sept. 
Alex. Stephens and other southern officials par- 
doned 11 Oct. 

Great meeting of Fenians at Philadelphia ; the Irish 

republic proclaimed . . . 16-24 Oct. 

Much public discussion respecting equal negro 

suffrage July-Oct. 

The national debt stated to be 6oo,ooo,ooo7. Oct. 
General Robert Lee becomes president of Wash- 
ington College, Virginia ... 2 Oct. 
Several southern states pass ordinances annulling 
secession, abolishing slavery, and renouncing 
confederate debt .... Sept. Oct. Nov. 
National thanksgiving for the peace . 2 Nov. 
Captain Waddell arrives at Liverpool, 6 Nov. ; sur- 
renders the Shenandoah to the British govern- 
ment, stating that he had not heard of the end of 
the war till 2 Aug. ; he and his crew paroled, 
8 Nov. ; the vessel given up to the American 

consul 9 Nov. 

Capt. Wirz, after long military trial, executed for 
cruelty to the federal prisoners at Andersonsville, 

10 Nov. 
A negro convention at Charleston, appeals for jus- 
tice and generosity . . . -25 Nov. 
Ex-president Buchanan publishes his justification, 

Nov. 
Habeas corpus act restored in N. states 1 Dec. 

Close of correspondence between the British and 
U.S. governments respecting depredations of 
Alabama, Shenandoah, &c. The earl of Clarendon 
maintains that " no armed vessel departed during 
the war from a British port, to cruise against the 
commerce of the United States " . . 2 Dec. 
Congress and government protest against the French 
intervention in Mexico, Nov. ; . 6, 16 Dec. 
Opening of 39th congress; president Johnson's 
message conciliatory and linn (herequires from 
the southern states — repeal of their act of seces- 
sion, abolition of slavery, and repudiation of 
confederate, debt) ... .4 Dee. 

The radical party, opposed to the president, and to 
clemency to the south, predominate in the con- 
gress, and move violent resolutions against resto- 
ration of southern states to the union . Dec. 
Estimated federal debt, 600,000,0001. ; revenue, 
80,000,000?. ...... Dec. 

85 members for the southern states excluded from 
congress; the conservative party support the 
president in his endeavours to reconstruct the 
union; the radicals violently oppose his policy, 
requiring the south to undergo previously a 
severe probation; the president has restored 
state government to all the southern states ex- 
cept Texas anil Florida ... 2 Dec. 
Thi', radicals demand lor the negroes, personal, 
civil, and political rights, equal to those of the 



UNITED STATES. 



1020 



UNITED STATES. 



whites; the president proposes gradual enfran- 
chisement, in separate states . . Feb. iE 

The president vetoes the Freedmen's Bureau bill, 
.21 Feb.; and the bill for the civil rights of the 
blacks 27 March, , 

'The president fiercely opposed by the radicals ; the 
conservatives and democrats unite to support 
him March, , 

He proclaims the rebellion at an end . 3 April, , 

The Civil Rights bill passed in spite of the veto, 

9 April, , 

The veto on the admission of Colorado as a state, 
15 May; set aside . . ' . . . May, , 

Fenian raids in Canada . . 31 May-7 June, , 

The radical reconstruction clause termed the " con- 
stitutional amendment" (granting negro suffrage 
to be enforced by the different states ; the whites 
and the blacks to be equal in the sight of the 
law, &c), passed by the senate . 13 June, ,. 

Death of general Winfield Scott, aged 80, 29 May ; 
and of Lewis Cass, aged 83 . . . 17 June, ,, 

Continued dissension between the president and 
the congress July, ,, 

The representatives of Tennessee re-admitted to 
the congress (10 states still excluded) . July, ,, 

The Atlantic telegraph completed (see Electric 
"Telegraph) 27 July, „ 

The congress adjourns .... 28 July, ,. 

Great meeting at Philadelphia of the National 
Union Convention, consisting of delegates (the 
.moderate men of all the parties, in every state, 
north and south, now termed the conservative 
party), whose object is to establish the national 
union, restore the south to its rights, and vindi- 
cate the president's policy . . 14 Aug. ,, 
Tour of the president ; he visits Philadelphia, New 
York, Chicago, <fcc. ; he is very enthusiastically 
received ; and speaks warmly, and often injudi- 
ciously .... 28 Aug.-i8 Sept. „ 

Elections for congress go in favour of the republi- 
cans Oct. ,, 

JThey demand that three-fifths of the blacks in the 
■south shall be entitled to vote ; that where negro 
•suffrage is not established, only whites shall 
count ; and that all persons who have taken any 
part in the rebellion shall be disqualified to 
vote.] 

Death of Martin Van Buren, ex-president Oct. ,. 

Trial of Jefferson Davis deferred till spring Oct. ,. 

Elections in all the states except Delaware and 
Maryland in favour of the radicals (about 2,200,000 
to 1,800,000) ; two coloured deputies elected in 
Massachusetts Oct.-Nov. ,. 

Government policy declared to be "dead " Nov. ,'. 

Meeting of congress; president's message; he de- 
clares that he adheres to his policy . 3 Dec. ,, 

Bills to provide territorial governments in southern 
states ; and restriction of president's appointing 
powers proposed 3 Dec. ,. 

The president charged with being " silent and mo- 
tionless ;" congress absorbs all the power Dee. ,. 

A bill admitting negroes to the suffrage in district 
of Columbia passed .... 13 Dec. , 

Veto of president set aside .... Jan. 18 

Supreme court decides that congress has not power 
to appoint military tribunals . . . Jan. , 

Impeachment of president by a judicial committee 
agreed to 7 Jan. ,, 

Division among the radicals ; Stevens successfully 
opposed by Ashley .... 29 Jan. , 

Debt of the United States reported 2,543,000,000 
dollars z Feb. , 

Nebraska admitted as the 37th state, over presi- 
dent's veto 9 Feb. 

Bill for establishing military government in the 
southern states, divided into five districts, dis- 
cussed I3 - IS Feb. , 

Modified and passed, 20 Feb. ; vetoed by the presi- 
dent 28 Feb. , 

Mr. Peabody gives 1,000,000 dollars to promote 
education in the south .... Feb. , 

40th congress opened .... 4 March, , 

Supplementary reconstruction bill for the south 
passed 20 March, , 

Tenure of Office act passed . . . March, , 

Russian America purchased for 7,000,000 dollars ; 
treaty ratified by the senate . . .9 April, , 



"Protection" rife: taxation on British manufac- 
tures 80 per cent. ; much smuggling ; public debt 
not diminishing; many strikes amongst opera- 
tives April, 

Jefferson Davis released on bail, 13 May; pro- 
ceeded to New York, and thence to Canada, 

20 May, 

Supplementary reconstruction bill adopted over 
the president's veto . . . .15 July, 

Long trial of John H. Suratt, for complicity in 
assassination of president Lincoln; jury not 
agreed on verdict (discharged, 6 Nov. 1868), 

10 Aug. 

Insubordination of gen. Sheridan, favoured by 
Edw. Stanton, secretary of war, who refuses to 
resign at the requisition of the president, 5 Aug.; 
suspended; succeeded by gen. Grant 12 Aug. 

General amnesty proclaimed by the president, 

9 Sept. 

Removal of gen. Sheridan from the government of 
Louisiana, and of Sickles from N. Carolina, for 
insubordination to the president Aug. -Sept. 

National cemetery at Antietam (which see) dedi- 
cated in presence of the president . 17 Sept. 

Sir Fred. Bruce, British ambassador, died at Boston, 

9 Sept. 

Russian America ceded . . . .8 Oct. 

Jefferson Davis's trial adjourned . . 26 Nov. 

Elections in the south give supremacy to the ne- 
groes; in the north, great majorities for the 
democrats Oct.-Nov. 

President's message, maintaining his principles on 
reconstruction 3 Dec. 

Revenue of the states fallen off; public debt about 
520,000,000^. ...... Dec. 

Proposed impeachment of the president negatived 
in congress (108 to 57) . . . .8 Dec. 

Treaty for purchase of Danish West Indies (St. 
Thomas and St. John), for 7,500,000 dollars, 
signed Dec. 

Great general storm of snow and sleet; many 
perish ; many wrecks . . .11-15 Dec. 

President Johnson censured ; and gen. Sheridan 
thanked by house of representatives (see Aug. 
1867) 4 Jan. 

General Grant replaced by Stanton (by the senate), 

14, 15 Jan. 

The house of representatives declare that there is 
no valid government in the south ; and transfer 
the jurisdiction from president Johnson to Grant, 
as general of the army . . . 21 Jan. 

Great commercial depression ; Mr. "Wells, the revenue 
commissioner, recommends " peace, retrench- 
ment, and reform" .... Jan. 

The inland cotton tax repealed . about 1 Feb. 

Edward Thornton, new British ambassador, and 
Charles Dickens received by the president 7 Feb. 

Angry correspondence between the president and 
gen. Grant .... 28 Jan. -14 Feb. 

President Johnson orders dismissal of Stanton, 
and appoints gen. Thomas secretary of war, 21 
Feb.: declared illegal by the senate . 22 Feb. 

The impeachment of the president voted by house 
of representatives (126 to 47), 24 Feb.; reported 
at the bar of the senate by Thaddeus Stevens and 
Bingham 25 Feb. 

Nine articles of impeachment (for issuing order for 
removal of E. M. Stanton from war-office, and 
following proceedings) adopted by representa- 
tives (127 to 47) 2 March, 

Bill of impeachment of Johnson sent up to the 
senate by the house of representatives, 4 March, 

Judicious speech of lord Stanley in the British 
house of commons on the Alabama claims, 

6 March, 

Trial of president Johnson comes before the senate, 

23 March, 

Impeachment opened by gen. Butler 30 March, 

Mr. Dickens sails from New York, after most affec- 
tionate parting 22 April, 

National republican convention at Chicago ; an- 
nounce their "platform"; approving the con- 
gress reconstruction policy; severely condemning 
president Johnson ; denouncing repudiation of 
the debt; declaring for protection of naturalised 
citizens, &c, 20 May; and proposing general 
Ulysses Grant as the next president, and Mr. 
Colfax as vice-president ... 21 May, 



1867 



UNITED STATES. 



1021 



UNITED STATES. 



The senate reject the nth article of the impeach- 
ment 16 May, 

Reject 2nd and 3rd articles ; and adjourn sine die; 
intense excitement among republicans, 26 May, 

Mr. Stanton resigns, 27 May ; succeeded by gen. 
Schofield 30 May, 

Death of the ex-president James Buchanan, 1 June, 

Chinese embassy received by the president, 5 June, 

Bill for re-admitting North and South Carolina, 
Georgia, Louisiana, Florida, and Alabama, to 
representation in congress, passed by the senate, 

11 June, 

Mr. Reverdy Johnson nominated ambassador to 
Great Britain 12 June, 

Arkansas re-admitted over the president's veto, 

20 June, 

The democratic convention nominate Horatio Sey- 
mour for president, and Francis P. Blair for vice- 
president 4 — 7 July, 

General amnesty (with exceptions) issued 4 July, 

Wyoming territory organised ... 22 July, 

Act for protection of naturalised citizens abroad 
passed 27 July, 

Thaddeus Stevens dies .... 12 Aug. 

Total debt declared, 2,641,002,572 dollars . 1 Nov. 

General Ulysses Grant, elected 18th president 3 Nor. 

General Sheridan's victory over insurgent Indians ; 
a village burnt 27 Nov. 

Any repudiation of debt renounced by the house of 
representatives (154 to 6) . .14 -Dec. 

General pardon issued . . . .25 Dec. 

Cornell university {which see) founded 

Convention respecting Alabama claims signed by 
lord Clarendon and Mr. Reverdy Johnson, 14 Jan. 

Prosecution of Jefferson Davis dropped ; a nolle 
prosequi entered 6 Feb. 

Indian war reported over .... Feb. 

Alabama treaty rejected by committee of senate, 

18 Feb. 

Suffrage bill, abolishing all distinctions of race, 
colour, and property, passed . . 21 Feb. 

General Schenk's bill, declaring that all national 
obligations shall be paid in coin, passed 3 March, 

Adjournment of 40th congress ; meeting of 41st 
congress ; gen. Grant assumes office . 4 March, 

Schenk's bill for cash payments passed by senate, 

15 March, 

Convention respecting Alabama claim rejected by 
the senate 13 April, 

John Lothrop Motley appointed minister at London, 

April, 

Naturalisation treaty with Great Britain ratified by 
senate 15 April", 

Great peace jubilee held at Boston ; colossal con- 
cert (10,371 voices, 1094 instruments, with anvils, 
bells, &c.) began . . . . 15 June, 

"Wm. Pitt Fessenden, financier, died . 8 Sept. 

Steam-boat, Stonewall, burnt on the Mississippi ; 
about 200 persons perish . . -27 Oct. 

Free-trade agitation prevalent . . Oct. — Dec. 

A dm. Charles Stewart, " old iron-side," aged 92, died 

6 Nov. 

Correspondence respecting Alabama claims, &c, 
between lord Clarendon and Mr. Hamilton Fish 
(June— Oct. 1869), published . . . Dec. 

Renewal of the reciprocity treaty with Canada re- 
jected by congress .... 13 Dec. 

U. S. corvette Uneida sunk by collision with British 
P. & O. steamer Bombay; 112 lives lost, 24 Jan. 

[Capt. Eyre, of the Bombay, severely censured for 
not waiting to give succour. ] 

Darien canal scheme approved by congress, Jan. ; 
treaty signed 26 Jan. 

Virginia (15 Jan.) and Mississippi re-admitted to 
congress 3 Feb. 

Prince Arthur presented to president Grant, 24 
Jan. ; attended Mr. Peabody's funeral . 8 Feb. 

Bill for purchase of St. Thomas's isle rejected by 
senate 23 March, 

Texas (15 Mar.) and Georgia re-admitted to congress, 

20 April, 

By amendments of the constitution, negroes ad- 
mitted to equal rights with whites . April, 

The tariff bill opposed by freetraders . . May, 

Non-recognition of Cuba affirmed . . June, 

Lincoln state (out of New Mexico) constituted, 

June, 



1870 



Strong opposition to Chinese immigration ; citizen- 
ship refused by the senate . . . 4 July, 1870 
Admiral J. A. Dahlgren died . . 12 or 13 July, ,, 
Session of congress closed . . . 15 July, ,, 

J. L. Motley, minister to Great Britain, recalled', 

July, ,,. 

New tariff bill passed (new rates take effect, 1 Jan. 
1871) , T 

Admiral David Farragut died, aged 70 . 14 Aug. ,,. 

Strict neutrality in the Franco-Prussian war pro- 
claimed Aug. 

Senator Oliver P. Morton accepts the embassy to 
Great Britain 23 Sept. 

Great loss of life and property through floods in 
Virginia and Maryland, end of . Sept. -2 Oct. ,,. 

Total public debt, the principal and interest, 
2,346,913,652 dollars T Oct. „ 

Great reduction of the heavy internal taxation 
begins T Oct. ,, 

Movement against the Mormons on account of their 
polygamy x Oct. „ 

Meeting of the southern convention at Cincinnati 
for political and commercial affairs . 4 Oct. 

General Robert Lee dies, aged 62 . . 12 Oct. 

President Grant issues a proclamation against ' 
Fenianism, and attacks on Cuba . . 13 Oct. 

Mr. Morton declines the embassy to Britain for 
party reasons .... about 25 Oct. ,„ 

The republican majority in the congress greatly 
reduced by the "fall" election (the first in which 
all races are duly represented) . . Nov. 

Gen. Cox, secretary of interior, dismissed ; quarrel 
between him and the president . . Nov. 

Total debt, 2,334,308,494 dollars . . 1 Dec. '', 

Annual message of the president : he regrets 
failure of proposal for annexing St. Domingo; 
and of the non-settlement of the Alabama claims ; 
and complains of Canadian aggression . 5 Dec' 

Population: 33,581,680 whites ; 4,879,323 coloured; 
Indians, 25,733; Chinese, 63,196 ; Japanese, 55; 
total, 38,549,987 Bee. „ 

Mr. Motley terms his recall "an outrage" 7 Dec. 

Gen. Robert Scheuck appointed minister in Lon- 
don ; accepts 21 Dec. 

New tariff in operation 1 Jan! 1871 

George Ticknor, historian, dies . . .26 Jan! 

Statue of Abraham Lincoln in the capitol at Wash- 
ington, unveiled 25 Jan. 

42nd congress meets (senate, 47 republicans ; 15 
democrats) March 

Proclamation against the Ku Klux in N. Carolina' ' 
. . 5 March, ,„ 

Commission to settle disputes with Great Britain 
respecting the Alabama, &c, fishery question, and 
the San Juan affair: for the British, the earl de 
Grey (since marquis of Ripon), sir Stafford North- 
cote, and others ; for the Americans, secretary 
Fish, gen. Schenck, and others; announced 10 
Feb. ; meet at Washington, 27 Feb. ; sign treaty, 
agreeing to arbitration at Geneva, &c. (see Ala- 
bama, and San Juan), 8 May ; ratified, 26 May, 

General Schenck warmly received at Liverpool, 

3 June, 

An American fleet, accompanied by English and 
French and German ships, arrives at Corea t.i 
conclude a treaty for protection of mariners ; on 
attempting to explore the island the Europeans 
are assailed from masked batteries; the Corean 
forts are then attacked and destroyed ; and nego- 
tiations renewed > June 

Formation of the " new departure " democrat party ' 
advocating perfect freedom of all males irrespec- 
tive of race and colour, full political restoration 
of the southern states, and free trade ; about July 

Chicago destroyed by are; great exertions to re'- ' 
lieve the sufferers ; see Chicago; about 2000 lives 
lost by tires in N. W. forests . . . 8-n Oct 

Col. Hodge, paymaster of the regular army, conl ' 
fesses great defalcations since 10 Sept. 1864; con- 
demned to long imprisonment . . . Nov 

Europeanand North American railway opened at 
Bangor, Maine, by lord Lisgar and gen. Grant. 

Dispute between the U.S. foreign minister, llaniil- ' 
ton Fish, and the Russian envoy Katakazy (for 
undue interference); Katakazy dismissed 'Nov. 

Grand duke Alexis of Russia warmly received at ' 
New York. • 18 Nov. .. 



UNITED STATES. 



1022 



UNITED STATES. 



Congress opened ; president in his message refers to 

peace abroad and prosperity at home . 4 Dec. 1871 
Formal meeting of the Alabama arbitration commis- 
sion at Geneva (adjourned to 15 June) . 18 Dec. „ 

Gen. Halleck died Jan. 1872 

General amnesty bill passed . . .16 Jan. ,, 

American case under the treaty of Washington ; 
claims indirect damages by Alabama and other 
vessels ; much excitement in England . Jan. ,, 

Despatch from the British minister sent 2 Feb. ; 
reply received (not divulged to parliament), 14 
March ; further correspondence (see Alabama), 

March, April, ,, 

^Formation of Yellowstone National Park (which see) 
authorised by congress .... March, ,, 

Horace Greeley, editor of the New York Tribune, 
nominated president by many republicans, 

4 May, „ 

New tariff, reduced duties to begin from 1 Aug. ; 
passed 4 June, „ 

-General Grant nominated for re-election as president 
by the republicans at Pennsylvania . 6 June, ,, 

■Continued negotiations respecting the Alabama 
affair, May ; nothing settled ; congress adjourns 
to December 10 June, „ 

Dispute with Spain respecting unjust imprison- 
ment of Dr. Howard, an American citizen, in 
Cuba since 13 Dec. 1870 ; settled ; Dr. Howard 
released . June, „ 

{Formation of straight-out democrat party, about 

June, ,, 

Great international musical peace jubilee at Boston, 

17 June — 4 July, ,, 

Coalition between the democrats and the liberal 
republicans at Baltimore to support Greeley, 

10 July, ,, 

Trial of Edward S. Stokes for murder of James 
Pisk of the Erie Ring (see New York, 1872), 

iS Juty. » 

(United States squadron at Southampton, England, 
visited by the prince of Wales . . 13 Aug. ,, 

Judge Barnard convicted of corruption, and removed 
from office and disqualified . . .19 Aug. ,, 

The "straight-out democrats" nominate Charles 
O'Connor for president .... Sept. ,, 

Announcement of the award of the Geneva arbitra- 
tion on the Alabama, &c. (about 3,229,166?.) Sept. ,, 

Wm, Henry Seward, statesman, died . 10 Oct. „ 

The emperor of Germany, arbitrator in the San 
Juan difficulty, awards the island to the United 
States . . . 23 Oct. ,, 

Total debt of the States, 2,276,828,101 dollars, 1 Nov. ,, 

Gen. Grant re-elected president (by 300 electoral 
votes ; 68 for Greeley) .... 5 Nov. , , 

Death of Horace Greeley, aged 61 . 29 Nov. ,, 

•Sergeant William Bates walked from Gretna Green 
to London, carrying the American flag ; warmly 
received everywhere (the feat originated in a 
wager) ; arrived 29 Nov. ; rode through London to 
Guildhall. ....... 30 Nov. ,, 

<5en. Grant in his message says that the results of 
the arbitration leave Great Britain and the United 
States without a shadow upon their friendly rela- 
tions . . , 2 Dec. ,, 

Modoc Indians," near Oregon, defeat troops sent to 
expel them 17 Jan. 1873 

Visit of professor Tyndall ; he lectures in Boston, 
Philadelphia, Washington, New York, <fec. , 

Sept. 1872— Feb. „ 

Vice-president Colfax accused of perjury Feb. „ 

Civil war in Louisiana, fighting at New Orleans, 

Feb. „ 

The congress opened, great Credit Mobilier scandal, 
members accused of bribery . . March, ,, 

Death of chief justice Chase . . . . 7 May, ,, 

General Canby and others massacred (see Modocs), 
11 April; capt. Jack and others captured; end 
of the war 1 June ,, 

Hiram Powers, sculptor of "the Greek Slave," 
died at Florence 27 June, „ 

Steamer Wawasscl takes fire on the Potomac ; about 
70 perish 8 Aug. ,, 

Cash payments (in silver) resumed . . 28 Oct. „ 

Great excitement through the execution of Ameri- 
cans taken in the Virginius (see Cuba) , Nov. ,, 

Public debt (less money in treasury) 2,141,833,476 
dollars (about 4s. gold' per dollar) . 1 Nov. ,, 

President Grant's message : (calm) . , 2 Dec. „ 



Great deficiency in the revenue (about 17,000,000?.) 

announced Dec. 1873 

Alex. H. Stephens, the great confederate leader, re- 
turns to political life and the legislature Dec. ,, 
Women's whisky-war in S. Ohio : endeavour to sup- 
press the liquor traffic by prayers, singing, &c. , 
opposite the shops, Feb. : in New York 27 Feb. 1874 
Ex-president Fillmore died ... 8 March, „ 
Charles Sumner, senator, died . . n March, „ 

Women's whisky-war resisted ; subsides March, 

April, „ 
President Grant's veto of the currency bill for creat- 
ing inconvertible paper money, advocated by the 

Butler party 22 April, ,, 

Total debt, 2,285,786,818-89 dollars . 1 Aug. „• 

Fierce white and black riots at Austin, Mississippi, 
quelled by the military (after loss of 15 lives) 

12 Aug. „ 
Great excitement respecting the Beecher-Tilton 
scandal ; the rev. H. Beecher, a great preacher, 
accused of adultery with Mrs. Tilton, July ; ac- 
quitted by a committee of his church . 27 Aug. ,, 
Pennsylvania Republican Convention choose go- 
vernor John F. Hartranft for next president 

Aug. ,, 
Insurrection of negroes at Trenton, Tennessee ; sup- 
pressed ; leaders hanged .... Aug. ,, 
Centenary of the meeting of delegates at Philadel- 
phia celebrated Sept. „ 

Insurrection of whites at New Orleans against R. 
D. Kellogg, the governor of Louisiana, whom 
they depose, 15 Sept. ; they submit to the presi- 
dent ; and Kellogg is restored . .18 Sept. ,, 
Great fire at Fall River cotton mills, Mass. , about 

60 lives lost 19 Sept. ,, 

Reported massacre of whites by Indians in N.W. 

provinces Oct. „ 

The Republic, new government paper, started 4 Oct. ,, 
Lincoln monument, Springfield, Illinois, inaugu- 
rated 15 Oct. „ 

Triennial convention of the episcopal church ; canon 

passed against ritualism ... 27 Oct. ,, 
Majority for democratic party in elections for con- 
gress reported 4 Nov. ,, 

President Grant's message, moderate' . 7 Dec. ,, 
The senate passes a bill for the resumption of cash 

payment, 1 Jan., 1879 .... Dec. „ 
Disturbances in New Orleans : government troops 
eject conservative members from the legislative 
assembly as unduly elected ... 4 Jan. 1875 
New York, Boston, a.nd other cities protest ; the 

president's excuse in his message . . Jan. ,, 
Senate rejects new reciprocity treaty with Canada 

4 Feb. „ 
Colorado and New Mexico to be made states Feb. ,, 
Civil rights (of negroes) bill passed . . Feb. ,, 

The 44th congress comes into office, 4 March ; (to 

meet on 6 Dec.) ,, 

Centenary of battle of Lexington celebrated 

19 April, ,, 
Centenary of battle of Bunker's hill celebrated 

June, ,, 
Trial of Tilton v. Beecher ends : jury disagreeing, 

discharged . . ... 2 July, ,, 

Andrew Johnson, ex-president, dies . 31 July, „ 
Democratic conventions of New York declare in 
favour of hard money and resumption of cash 

payments 16 Sept. ,, 

John McCloskey, R. C. archbishop of New York, 
made the first North American cardinal, received 
in his church at Rome .... 30 Sept. ,, 
President Grant, in addressing the Tennessee army 
in Iowa, protests against Roman catholic aggres- 
sion 30 Sept. ,, 

Democratic inflationists defeated at elections for 

governor in Ohio and Iowa . about 12 Oct. ,, 
Virginia city destroyed by fire (see Nevada) 26 Oct. ,, 
State official elections give large majority for repub- 
licans about 2 Nov. p „ 

President Grant's message ; alludes to attacks on 
and defends unsectarian education ; notices un- 
satisfactory state of Cuba, and hints at ultimate 

intervention 7 Dec. ,, 

Centennial year begun with great demonstrations 

at Philadelphia, &c 1 Jan. 1S76 

General Babcock, secretary to president, acquitted 
of complicity in " Whisky frauds ; " (resigned) 

24 Feb. „ 



UNITED STATES. 



1023 



UNITED STATES. 



Mr. Belknap, secretary at war, accused of selling 
official places ; resigns ; impeached by congress 

2 March, 1876 

General Schenck, minister in London, charged with 
complicity in " Emma Mine frauds ; " resigns and 
proceeds to America ; R. H. Dana, appointed in 
his room (opposed) ; John Walsh appointed next; 
John Walsh comes . . . March, et seq. „ 

Salary of next president proposed to be reduced 

from 50,000 to 25,000 dollars . . March, „ 
Increased opposition to Chinese immigration, March, ,, 

Dana's appointment as minister to Britain rejected 
by the senate .... about 5 April, ,, 

Lincoln monument, Washington ; (erected by co- 
loured people) ; unveiled . . .14 April, ,, 

Other scandals in government offices reported April, ,, 

The president vetoes the bill for reduction of presi- 
dent's salary 19 April, ,, 

Issue of silver coin for small notes . . . May, ,, 

Dispute with Great Britain respecting the extradi- 
tion of Winslow, an American forger March-May, ,, 

Mr. Pierrepoint, attorney-general, nominated minis- 
ter for London 5 May, ,, 

International exhibition opened (see Philadelphia) 

10 May, ,, 

Political conferences at Philadelphia urge reforms 

May, ,, 

Governor Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, nominated 
president, and Wm. A. Wheeler vice-pi - esident, by 
the republican convention, Cincinnati x6 June, „ 

The arrangements for surrendering fugitive crimi- 
nals in the treaty of 1842 nullified by the release 
of Winslow and Brent (see Extradition) . June, ,, 

General Custer and his army attack the Sioux In- 
dians, fall into an ambuscade, and are nearly all 
killed 25 June, ,, 

Mr. Tilden nominated president by the democratic 
convention, St. Louis ... 29 June, ,, 

Centenary of the foundation of the republic 4 July, ,, 

Massacre of negro militiamen by whites at Ham- 
burg, S. Carolina, 9 July ; 53 whites indicted for 
murder Aug. ,, 

Mr. Belknap's case in the senate : 35 vote him 
guilty of official corruption ; 25 not ; acquittal 

1 Aug. „ 

Death of gen. Braxton Bragg . . . Sept. ,, 

The president's proclamation against unlawful com- 
binations (of whites) in S. Carolina . 17 Oct. „ 

He declines to receive a centennial address from 
Irish home-rulers Oct. ,, 

Election of electors for the president . 7 Nov. ,, 

International Exhibition at Philadelphia closed 

10 Nov. „ 

President Grant's message ; he declares the elec- 
toral system to have failed ... 5 Dec. ,, 

Election for president by delegates ; Mr. Tilden, 
184 ; Mr. Hayes, 185 ; (some votes challenged) 

6 Dec. „ 

End of dispute with the British Government an- 
nounced (see Extradition) .... Dec. ,, 

Electoral tribunal (to settle the election for presi- 
dent) chosen in congress . . .30 Jan. 1877 

President in his message urges a speedy return to 
cash payments 3 Feb. ,, 

Mr. R. B. Hayes' election confirmed ; Mr. Wm. A. 
Wheeler, vice-president, 2 March ; sworn, 4 March ; 
inaugurated ; in his message he professes impar- 
tial devotion to the public good, 5 March ; and 
forms an impartial ministry . . . March, ,, 

Gen. Grant visits Britain. . . 28 May et seq. ,, 

" Molly Maguire," murderous terrorist rioters in 
Peunsylvanian coal-fields ; subdued ; several 
executed June, ,, 

Strike of railway servants on Baltimore and Ohio 
railway through reduced pay; violent riots in 
West Virginia ; reign of terror ; successful resis- 
tance to the military ; many killed and wounded 
at Pittsburg; held by rioters; sheriff killed ; 
cannon used 16-22 July, 

Strike extending to New York railways (not in New 
England) 24 July, 

Mob (many foreign communists) beaten by military 
at Chicago (15 killed, about 100 wounded), 26 July, 

Gen. Sheridan sent to Pittsburg, 22 July ; damage 
about 8,000,000?. ; tranquillity restored about 

4 Aug. 

Death of Brigliam Young ... 29 Aug. 



General movement for the rights of labour during 
the year. ^77 

President Hayes warmly received in the south, Sept. ,, 

Formation of a Cuban league on behalf of insur- 
gents, announced Sept. „ 

Opposition to the president in Ohio, and other 
states; in elections .... Oct. ,, 

The new congress opened (democratic majority in 
the house of representatives ; gaining in the 
senate) ; Sam. J. Randall, democrat, re-elected 
speaker 15 Oct. „ 

Many suspicious failures of commercial companies 
and others Sept., Oct. ,, 

Reduction of the federal army from 25,000 to 20,000 
voted by congress, refused by senate Oct., Nov. ,, 

Anti-resumption bill passed by house of represen- 
tatives 23 Nov. „ 

President Hayes' message ; recommends resumption 
of cash payments on r Jan. 1879 ; pacification of 
the south ; good treatment of the negroes, 3 Dec. ,, 

The government defeated in the senate by Conkling 
and party ; opposing civil service reform, cash 
payments, &c 12 Dec. „ 

Bland's " silver bill," making silver the standard 
instead of gold; (injurious to fundholders, &c.,) 
passed by senate, veto of the president, (specie 
payments in silver to be resumed 1 Jan. 1879 ;) 
dollar 412^ grains said to be 8 percent, less value 
than gold 16 Feb. 1878 

Committee appointed to investigate charges of cor- 
ruption against boards returning delegates to 
elect the president June, ,, 

Gen. Butler secedes from the republicans, and 
joins a new "National party" connected with 
Kearney, a violent agitator from California ; 
(they are popularly termed "Greenbackers," as 
contending for soft money, and opposing return to 
cash payments) .... Aug. et seq. „ 

Desire expressed for a new reciprocity treaty with 
Canada Aug. ,, 

American association meet at St. Louis . 21 Aug. ,, 

Many deaths by yellow fever in southern states 

Aug., Sept., Oct. „ 

Autumn elections (mostly on 5 Nov.) . . . ,. 

46th congress elected ; 149 democrats, 130 repub- 
licans, 10 greenbackers .... Nov. , 

President's address to congress expresses gratitude 
" for countless blessings " . . .. 2 Dec. „ 

Gold at par (1st time since 1862) . . iS Dec. „ 

Resumption of cash payments ; no great demand 

2 Jan. 1879 

Death of Caleb Ciishing, U.S. minister at Madrid ; 
aged about 79 n Jan. „ 

Meeting of 46th congress . . . 4 March, ,, 

Great emigration of negroes from the southern to 
the western states . . . March, April, ,, 

30,000,000?. 5 per cents converted into 4 per cents 
at par April, ,, 

Mr. John Walsh, minister in London, resigns, July ; 
leaves England [succeeded by James Russell 
Lowell the poet] 19 Aug. 

" Knights of Labour," a secret society for protec- 
tion and advancement of workmen, active in the 
middle states .... . . 

Largest grain crops for many years . autumn, „ 

Public debt, 2,027,202,452-dollars . . 1 Oct. ,, 

Elections specially favour republicans . . Oct. ,, 

Much distress of freed negroes in Kansas, &c. 1 Jan 18S0 

The republican convention at Chicago choose gen. 
Garfield and Mr. Arthur as president and vice- 
president, 9 June ; the democratic convention at 
Cincinnati choose gen. Winfield Scott Hancock 
and Wm. H. English ... 24 June, „ 

Gen. Garfield sets forth his proposed policy in a 
letter ; says, " We legislate for the people of the 
United States, not for the whole worli 1 ; " proposes 
a check for Chinese immigration, <fcc. . 12 July, ,, 

97,000 office holders said to be liable to change Aug. ., 

Public debt reduced to 1,915,594,813 dollars 1 Oct. ,, 

Gen. Garfield elected president; Mr. Chester A. 

Arthur vice-president (313-156) . . 2 Nov. „ 

Treaty with China 17 Nov. ., 

Dispute between the president and senator Conk- 
ling respecting appointment of collector of cus 
toms at New York ; Conkling resigns . May, iSSr 
Assassination of president Garfield hy Charles 
Jules Guiteau, a lawyer of Chicago, at railway 



UNITED STATES. 



1024 



UNITED STATES. 



station, Washington ; two pistol shots ; ball enters 
the body 2 July, : 

Destructive forest iires in Michigan ; about 500 
persons perish ; 10,000 homeless . . 5 Sept. 

General Garfield, after much suffering, died 19 Sept. 

Queen Victoria's message to Mrs. Garfield : " Words 
cannot express the deep sympathy I feel with 
you at this terrible moment. May God support 
and comfort you, as He alone can " . 20 Sept. 

After lying in state at Washington the general is 
buried at Cleveland, in Ohio . . 23 Sept. 

Court mourning in Great Britain . 21—28 Sept. 

334,000 dollars collected for Mrs. Garfield up to 

30 Sept. 

Centenary of the capture of Yorktown celebrated 
(English flag saluted) . . 16 Sept. et seq. 

Mr. Blaine's letter to the European powers asserting 
the treaty respecting neutrality at Panama in 
1846 to be sufficient, and protesting against then- 
interference 25 Oct. 

The lion. Sackville West, the new British minister, 
warmly received at Washington . . 4 Nov. 

Guiteau's trial begins .... 14 Nov. 

Meeting of Congress 5 -Dec. 

Mr. Frelinghuysen succeeds Mr. Blaine as foreign 
minister 12 Dec. 

Guiteau in the prison van shot at by Wm. Jones ; 
his head grazed, 19 Nov. 1881 ; verdict, guilty 

25 Jan. : 

Chinese immigration suspended for 20 years ; bill 
passed by senate about 10 March; vetoed by 
representatives, March ; by the president about 

4 April, 

Bill abolishing polygamy passed . 23 March, 

Great floods in the west (see Mississippi) March, 

United States constitution translated into Chinese 
by Tsai Sih Yung, completed . .... 

Representatives pass immigration bill excluding 
Chinese i'or ten years .... 17 April, 

Great strike of iron-workers (about 150,000) in 
Pennsylvania begun 1 June ; going on 13 July, 

Meetin CT of masters at Pittsburg to organise resist- 
ance 7 J™e, 

Guiteau executed 3° June, 

The Chinese exclusion act .comes into operation 

4 Aug. 

Act imposing a tax of 2s. per head (opposed by 
o-overnment) comes into operation . . Aug. 

One of only two copies of a life of general Garfield 
presented to queen Victoria ; the other to Mrs. 
Garfield . . • ■ . • • • ■ ■ 

End of the iron-workers strike . about 12 Sept. 

Robert E. Lee steamer burned on the Mississippi ; 
about 20 deaths . . ■ • • 29 Sept. 

Elections greatly in favour of the Democrats 

7 Nov. 

Death of Thurlow Weed, politician and journalist, 
aged about 85 . . . • • 22 Nov. 

Meeting of Congress ; president s address ; com- 
ments on financial prosperity ; recommends re- 
duction of taxation and tariif . . 4 Dec. 

Civil service reform bill adopted by the senate 

27 Dec. 

Immigration, 1881, about 719,000 ; 735,000 in 

Presidential succession bill passed . . 9 Jan. 

National debt, net, 1,607,543,676 dollars 1 Jan. 

The marquis of Lome visits Washington . 26 Jan. 

Reduction in internal revenue and revision of the 

tariff by the senate and congress . . 3 March, 

Last sitting of the congress ... 4 March, 

Great East River bridge, connecting New York and 
Brooklyn, opened 24 May, 

Great strike of telegraph clerks in various states 
July, ends about 15 Aug. 

Visit of chief justice Coleridge ; very warmly re- 
ceived Sept.— Oct 

Gen. Sheridan succeeds gen. Sherman in command 
of the United States army ... 31 Oct. 

Autumn elections ; favour republicans . Nov. 

The new congress meets .... 3 Dec. 

Death of Wendell Phillips, energetic abolitionist, 
ar , e( i ?2 4 Fe,) - 

Excitement concerning the wreck of the Daniel 
Steinmann (see Wrecks) ; investigation 8 April 

Financial embarrassment of gen. Grant through 
endeavouring to support his sou [relieved by 
government, 1885] . . • • • May, 

Mr. James G. Blaine and gen. Logan nominated 



republican candidates for the presidency and 
vice-presidency at Chicago, 6 June ; great dis- 
satisfaction thereat June, : 

Meetings at New York, and other cities, about 

21 June, 

Colossal statue of Liberty, by Bartholdi, the gift of 
the French to the United States, delivered at 
Paris by M. Jules Ferry, 4 July [received at New 
York, 19 June, 1885]. 

Mr. Grover Cleveland, governor of New York, and 
Mr. Thomas A. Hendricks, nominated democrat 
candidates for the presidency and vice-presidency 
at Chicago 11, 12 July, 

Gen. Butler offers himself as people's candidate 

19 Aug. 

Great strike of miners in Hocking valley, Ohio, on 
account of foreigners ; rioting . 1 Sept. et seq. 

Governor Cleveland, president, and Mr. Hendricks, 
vice-president, elected (defeat of the republicans) 

4 Nov. 

Roman Catholic plenary council at Baltimore 
(about 70 archbishops and bishops) opened 9 Nov. 

Cattle-men's convention at St. Louis (see under 
Cattle) 18 — 22 Nov. 

About 56,000,000 acres appropriated by the Home- 
stead act of 1862, up to 1880 ; announced Jan. : 

Public indignation at the criminal explosions in 
London ; stringent dynamite bill introduced in 
the senate by government . . .26 Jan. 

Public debt, 1,409,128,325 dollars, announced 

2 Feb. 

The Chinese expelled from California ; indemnity 
to be claimed by their government ; announced 

Feb. 

Memorial obelisk of George Washington, 555 feet 
high, at Washington, inaugurated . 21 Feb. 

President Cleveland installed amid great acclama- 
tions 4 March, 

A new ministry ; secretary of state, Thomas F. 
Bayard 4 March, 

Mr. Edward J. Phelps appointed U.S. minister in 
London, March; arrives at Southampton 16 May, 

Currency crisis ; the banks oppose the Bland Act, 
and the compulsory coinage of silver . July, 

Death of gen. Grant, 23 July ; he lies in state at 
New York, 5, 6, 7 Aug. ; funeral procession 6 
miles long includes the family, president Cleve- 
land, government officials, gen. Hancock, and 
others of U.S. army ; gen. Jolmson (confederate), 
soldiers, marines, &c. ; about 400 carriages ; starts 
at 9 a.m. ; arrival at the temporary tomb in 
Riverside Park on the Hudson 5 p.m. 8 Aug. 

Murderous attacks on the Chinese workmen at 
Rock Springs in Wyoming territory 29 Aug. ; 
quelled by government . . about 3 Sept. 

Violent action against Chinese capitalists and work- 
men in Washington territory ; proclamation for 
its suppression by the president . 9 Nov. 

Death of gen. G. B. McClellan, com. -in-chief Nov. 
1861, aged 59 28 Oct. 

Death of T. A. Hendricks, vice-president U.S., 
aged 66 25 Nov. 

Gen. Sherman elected vice-president . 7 Dec. 

Wm. H. Vanderbilt, aged 64, "railway king," dies 
suddenly at New York ; said to be worth about 
50 million pounds 8 Dec. 

Meeting of congress .... 8 Dec. 

Much money subscribed for promoting Irish Home 
Rule 18 

Great ovation of Jefferson Davis through the 
Southern States April, 

German socialist agitation, eight hours' movement ; 
riots at Chicago ; dynamite employed ; mob dis- 
persed by police after fighting, 4 May ; riots at 
Milwaukee 5 May; 10 killed, 115 wounded; 25 
arrests, about 6 May ; Herr Most (anarchist) 
arrested at New York, 12 May ; convicted of in- 
citing to riot, May ; sentenced to fine and im- 
prisonment 2 June, 

Gradual cessation of strikes in different states 

about 24 May, 

Chinese Indemnity Bill passed . . June, 

Large subscriptions to the Parnellite fund for 
elections, &c June, et seq. 

The president promotes civil service reform ; 
political action of officials checked . July, 

Election tour of Mr. James G. Blaine in Pennsyl- 
vania, &c; strongly advocating Protection 16 Oct. 



UNITED STATES. 



1025 



UNITED STATES. 



Bartholin Statue of Liberty, 150 feet liigh, set up at 
the harbour of New York, 305 feet above the sea 
level, on Bedloe Island, publicly dedicated by the 

president 28 Oct. 1886 

Alien's Landlord's Bill (almost limiting holding of 
land and mines in "territories" to citizens) 

passed 2 Aug. ,, 

Ex-president Arthur dies . . . .18 Nov. „ 

Great increase of speculation in railway stocks and 
trade Nov-Dec. ,, 

Mr. Henry George (see under Land) propagates his 
doctrines of Land Nationalisation ; much opposed 

1886-7 

Edmunds' Canadian Fisheries Bill passed senate 
(46-1) 24 Jan. 1887 

Fisheries Retaliation Bill passed . . 3 March, „ 

American Exhibition (ichich see) opened in London 

9 May, „ 

Seven socialists sentenced to death for murders 
during riots at Chicago, May, 20 Aug. 1886 ; 
ordered for execution .... 14 Sept. ,, 

Centenary of the adoption of the Federal con- 
stitution celebrated at Philadelphia ; five miles 
procession illustrating the progress of trade and 
industry ; fall of a great stand, many spectators 
injured, 15 Sept. ; review of the army by the 
president, &c 17 Sept. ,, 

After great efforts for remission of sentence four of 
the Chicago anarchists executed (two sentenced 
to life imprisonment, one committed suicide) 

it Nov. ,, 

Mr. Barnum's menagerie at Bridgport, Connecticut, 
burnt (see Menagerie) .... 10 Nov. ,, 

Mr. J. Chamberlain warmly received at New York ; 
grand dinner at the chamber of commerce, 15 Nov. ,, 

President Cleveland's message strongly urges fiscal 
reform, large reduction of protective duties and 
other taxation ; surplus income 1886-7 above 
11,000,000?. (annually increasing) 6 Dec; approved 
by the Democrats, opposed by the Republicans, Dec. , , 

Naturalization of British emigrants increasing ; 
strongly advocated by the British American 
newspaper to neutralize Irish influence (see 
George, St.) autumn ,, 

The Knights of Labour order strikes of colliers and 
railway men ; total on strike about 50,000, end 
of Dec. ; end of railway strike repoi-ted 28 Dec. ,, 

Snowstorm in the N.W. states ; about 235 persons 
perish and many cattle . . . 11-13 Jan. i88i 

Reform club at New York to support tariff reform ; 
first banquet 21 Jan. „ 

Treaty respecting fisheries signed at Washington 
(see Fisheries) 15 Feb. ,, 

Destructive blizzard (see Storms) . 11-13 March, ,, 

Deadlock in the House of Representatives on the 
Direct Tax Bill ; ended ... 13 April, „ 

Mr. James G. Blaine announces positively his re- 
tirement from his candidature for the presidency 

17 May, „ 

Mr. Cleveland nominated by acclamation for re- 
election as president by the Democratic conven- 
tion at St. Louis, 6 June ; gen. Benjamin Harrison 
(born 20 Aug. 1833) nominated candidate by the 
Republican convention at Chicago . 25 June, ,, 

Lock-out of about 100,000 ironworkers near New 
York 30 June, ,, 

President Cleveland at New York declares vigor- 
ously for reduced import duties and fiscal reform 

5 J"iy, ,, 

American Tariff Bill passed lower House 21 July, ,, 

Death of gen. Philip Henry Sheridan, commander- 
in-chief of the army, aged 57, 5 Aug. ; succeeded 
by gen. John M. Schofield . . . 14 Aug. ,, 

Treaty with China to prohibit Chinese immigvat inn 
for 20 years 14 March ; bill passed . 20 Aug. ,, 

The senate refuses to ratify the fisheries treaty 

21 Aug. ,, 

The president in a message censures this, but 
declares for a policy of retaliation against Canada 

23 Aug. ,, 

Retaliation Bill passed by the House . 8 !S<]>1 . ,, 

Agitation against "Trusts and Combines" (which 
see) autumn, ,, 

Chinese Exclusion Bill approved by president 
Cleveland Oct. „ 

Chinese Exclusion Act vigorously carried out a1 
Ban Francisco and at other places middle Oct. ,, 

Lord Sackville, British minister at Washington, 



dismissed by president Cleveland for conver- 
sations with a reporter, and for writing a private 
"reply to an alleged " naturalised Englishman in 
California respecting the presidential election 30 
Oct. ; lord Sackville admitted indiscretion but - 
repudiated other charges . . .26 Oct. li 
Gen. Benjamin Harrison elected president, Mr. 
Levi P. Morton, vice-president ; great defeat of 
the Democrats (233-168) ... 5 Nov. 

Resolution introduced into the House proposing 
negotiations for the annexation of Canada 13 Dec. 

Tlie American Commonwealth, by professor James 

Bryce, M.P., an elaborate work published . 
Destructive tornado in the Eastern states (see 
Storms) 9 Jan. 1! 

Bill introduced in the House for stringent repres- 
sion of immigration, especially labourers and 
criminals ig Jan. 

New Tariff Bill passed by the senate . 22 Jan. 

The Anglo-American Extradition Treaty rejected 
by the senate (38-15) . . . .1 Feb. 

The senate and house pass the Nicaragua Canal 
Bill 7 Feb. 

Explosion at Park Central Hotel in Hartford, U.S. ; 
about 40 persons killed . . . .18 Feb. 

Gen. Harrison assumes office ; his cabinet formed ; 
Mr. Blaine, secretary of state . . 4 March, 

Demonstrations and subscriptions in honour of Mr. 
Parnell at Philadelphia and other places (see 
Ireland) March, 

Storm at Samoa ; three American war-vessels with 
loss of 4 officers and 46 men (see, Samoa) 16 March, 

Oklahoma (irhich see) reserved lands (virgin soil) 
near Kansas, Arkansas, and Texas proclaimed 
open to settlers ; thousands of farmers and others 
with their goods, cattle, &c. , migrate thither ; 
riotous proceedings with bloodshed precede and 
attend the entering .... 22 April, 

Sir Julian Pauncefote becomes British minister at 
Washington, Feb. ; arrives . . 23 April, 

Guthrie and two other towns founded 23 April, 

Order maintained by the military and lynch law 
24 April et seq. 

Many unsuccessful settlers return, reported April, 

Celebration at New York of the centenary of gen. 

Washington's inauguration as first president 

29 April-i May, 

Naval procession ; 300 vessels sail round the har- 
bour 29 April ; military procession (65,000 men) 
30 April , civic and industrial procession 1 May, 

A convention met at Columbia, Tennessee, and 
organized an American-Scottish-Irish Association 
to perpetuate race memories and history 8 Slay, 

Cyclone from Maryland to Connecticut, much 
damage 10 May, 

Mr. Robert T. Lincoln, son of Abraham, appointed 
minister to Great Britain, March ; arrives in 
London 22 May, 

Dr. Patrick Henry Cronin, Irish dynamite nation- 
alist (expelled from the Clan-na-Gael, and de- 
nounced as a spy by Alex. Sullivan and the 
leaders, termed the " Triangle," and condemned 
to death by them for accusing them of embezzling 
funds allotted for dynamiting in England, Feb.) 
4 May ; found murdered at Lake View, Chicago 
22 May ; several men arrested . 29 May et seq. 

The coroner's jury declare the murder to be the 
result of a conspiracy of which Alexander Sulli- 
van, P. O'Sullivan, Daniel Coughlin and Frank 
Woodruff (connected with the Clan-na-Gael) 
were the principals. Alex. Sullivan and others 
arrested 12 June ; Alexander Sullivan released 
on high bail 15 . 1 mie, 

Martin Burke arrested at Winnipeg, Canada, 
indicted about 20 June. The grand jury at 
Chicago after 16 days' investigation, presents an 
indictment against Martin Burke, John F. Beggs, 
Daniel Coughlin, Patrick O'Sullivan, Frank 
Woodruff, Patrick Cooney, and John Kunz, with 
others unknown, ofconspiracy and of f he murder 
of Patrick Henry Cronin . . . 29.111111', 
[The conspiracy is said to have originated in camp 
20 of the Clan-na-Gael. | 

About 6,000 persons perish by bhe overflow of the 
dam of a lake in Conemaugli valley (see I', nnsul- 
vania) . . . , . . . 31 May, 

Destructive Hoods in the eastern states ; s persons 
drowned at Harper's Ferry, Virginia, and 13 

3 V 



UNITED STATES. 



1026 



UNITED STATES. 



at Corning, New York ; estimated loss at 
Washington, 1,000,000 dollars ; floods subsiding 

end of May, and 1, 2 June, 1889 

Message of sympathy from queen Victoria to the 
president 8 June, „ 

Visit of American, civil, mechanical, mining and 
electrical engineers ; well received in London, &c. ; 

early June, ,, 

Death of Simon Cameron, aged go, war secretary 
during the civil war .... 26 June, ,, 

Great public meeting at Chicago impeaching the 
Clan-na-Gael as "an association of assassins," 
» " existing under the protection of the United 
States, usurping the highest acts of government, 
in that it decrees death, exacts fealty, and levies 
war." 2 July, ,, 

A meeting of Irish- Americans at Chicago propose the 
formation of an "Irish-American Republican As- 
sociation," to be settled in Lower California 5 July, ,, 

Inundation in Mohawk Valley, New York ; 14 
persons drowned at Johnstown . . 9 July, ,, 

Martin Burke (otherwise Frank Williams) at 
Winnepeg ordered for extradition 10 July ; given 
up 3 Aug. „ 

The British sealer, Black Diamond, seized by the 
U. S. revenue cutter Iiush (captain Shepard), in 
Behring sea (see Behring Straits) . 30 July, ,, 

Reception at Liverpool of 50 representatives of 
American industries (on a tour of trade observa- 
tion in Europe) 1 Aug. ,, 

The national monument at New Plymouth, Mas- 
sachusetts, commemorating the landing of the 
" Pilgrim Fathers " (ivhich see) dedicated 1 Aug. ,, 

The Sioux and the Chippewa Indians sell a large 
part of their reservations, which are to be opened 
for settlement Aug. ,, 

David Terry, formerly a judge, shot dead at La- 
thorp, California, by Marshal Nagle, for striking 
judge Field in revenge ... 14 Aug. „ 
[Nagle was exonerated, 17 Sept.] 

Destructive storm on the east coast (see Storms), 

11, 13 Sept. ,, 

Pan-Anglican Congress (which see), meeting of dele- 
gates at Washington .... 30 Sept. „ 

Maritime conference (which see) at Washington, 

16 Oct. „ 

Fine evolutionary fleet (4 vessels) sails from New 
York for the Mediterranean under rear-admiral 
Walker 10 Nov. ,, 

President Harrison's message, moderate and pacific, 

3 Dec. ,, 

Death of Mr. Jefferson Davis, aged 81, late presi- 
dent of the Confederate States, 6 Dec. ; solemnly 
buried at New Orleans ... n Dec. ,, 

The new Anglo- American extradition treaty ratified 
by the senate 18 Feb. 1890 

Mr. Blaine and sir J. Pauncefote agree to refer the 
Behring sea affair to arbitration, reported, 

25 Feb. ,, 

Inundations in the west through excessive rains, 
destructive snowstorms on the east coast, 

end of Feb. ,, 

A national convention of the delegates of the 
coloured citizens of the U. S., at Washington, 
issues an address 7 Feb. ,, 

Cronin trials. The case called on 26 Aug. 1889 ; 
1, 11S talesmen were examined before a jury of 12 
could be obtained (a plot to corrupt the jury 
having been discovered, 4 persons pleaded guilty, 
one convicted, Feb. 1890) ... 23 Oct. 1889 

The trial began at Chicago before judge M'Connell : 
Mr. Longenecker, state attorney, counsel for the 
prosecution, Mr. Forrest for the defence, 24 Oct. ; 
the jury acquitted John F. Beggs ; found Daniel 
Cougldin, Patrick O'Sullivan, and Martin Burke 
guilty of murder, and sentenced them to im- 
prisonment for life ; John Kunze, as accessory, 
to 3 years' imprisonment . • . 16 Dec. „ 
[Frank Woodruff discharged, April, 1890.] 

A new trial granted to John Kunze, the other 
sentences confirmed .... 14 Jan. 1890 

"World's Fair " ordered to be in 1893 . March. ,, 

Bills introduced for greatly raising the minimum 
of the coinage of silver, fixed by the Bland act of 
1878 ; bills dropped through disagreement, re- 
ported 19 April, ,, 

The World's Fair bill passed ; signed by the presi- 
dent • " s . • 2 . 25 April, ,, 



Congress votes 150,000 dollars for relief of sufferers 
by the Mississippi floods ; sent to the president, 

23 April, : 

Naval Supply bill passed by the senate ; three 
battleships to be built . . . .27 May, 

The president proclaims the Behring sea closed to 
unlicensed seal-fishing . . -25 March. 

The president approves of the new silver bill passed 
to enlarge the currency ... 14 July, 

John C. Fremont, scientist, explorer, statesman, 
&c, dies, aged 77 . . . - . 13 July, 

The British sealing schooners, George R. White and 
Ariel, seized in Behring seas reported . 31 July, 

Silver purchase circular issued by the secretary of 
the treasury, offering to sell silver bullion in lots, 
not under 10,000 ozs., to mints, on and after 13 
Aug 1 Aug. 

Strikes of workmen, railway men, &(?:, in New 
York, Chicago, &c Aug. 

Labour day, orderly demonstration in New York, 
Chicago, and other cities . . .1 Sept. 

Mr. McKinley's tariff bill, highly protectionist, to 
encourage home manufactures, after long discus- 
sion and opposition from the democrats, passed 
by the congress, 30 Sept. ; approved by the pre- 
sident, 1 Oct. ; comes into operation . 6 Oct. 
[The bill greatly affected Great Britain, Canada. 
France, Austria, and other states ; the act in- 
cludes a policy of retaliation and reciprocity.] 

The count of Paris arrives at New York, 3 Oct. ; 
at Philadelphia, 6 Oct. ; at Washinston, 7 Oct. ; 
Richmond, 9 Oct. ; New York, 17 Oct. ; leaves 
for Canada 21 Oct. 

Elections for the 52nd congress ; great majority for 
the democrats" .... 4 Nov. et seq. 

For Indian rising, see Indians . Nov. et seq. 

The president's message to congress, defending the 
McKinley tariff, &c 1 Dec. 

Convention at Ocala, Florida, to organize a new 
political party to be named the National Union 
party, to include the Farmers' Alliance, the 
Knights of Labour and similar bodies, early Dec. 

A free- silver coinage bill hastily passed by the 
senate ....... 15 Jan. 

Great distress in the west attributed to the McKin- 
ley act Jan. 

Death of George Bancroft, historian and diplo- 
matist, aged go 17 Jan. 

Destructive snowstorm on the Atlantic coast, 
starting from Alabama (see Neio Yor k) 24, 25 Jan. 

Death of admiral David Dixon Porter, eminent com- 
mander in the civil war, aged 76 . 13 Feb. 

Gen. Wm. Tecumseh Sherman, commander-in-chief 
(1869-84) dies, aged nearly 71, 14 Feb. ; funeral 
ceremony at New York ; present, president 
Harrison and state officials, chief army officers 
with about 10,000 troops, 19 Feb. ; burial at St. 
Louis, Missouri . . . . ■ . 21 Feb. 

Mr. Charles Foster appointed secretary of the 
treasury 21 Feb. 

The senate's free coinage bill defeated by the house, 
22 Feb. ; end of the great speculation in Wall- 
street, New York, termed the "silver pool," or 
syndicate 24 Feb. 

Gen. Joseph Johnston, confederate, aged 87, dies, 

21 March, 

President Harrison's tour to the Pacific coast ; 
visiting the S. and W. states . April, May, 

The Farmers' Alliance form a "third party" to 
oppose the republicans and democrats, 

end of May, 

Mr. John Bardsley, city treasurer of Philadelphia, 
sentenced to 15 years' solitary confinement, and 
heavy fine, for defalcations . . 2 July, 

Threatened revolt of the Indians (which see), 

12 July, 

James Russell Lowell, statesman and popular 
writer, dies, aged 72 . . . . 12 Aug. 

Dispute with Chili (which see) . . . Oct. 

Fight between supporters of the Earmers' Alliance 
and their opponents, 5 deaths at Bucksport, 
Arkansas 28 Oct. 

Destructive storm over the city of Washington, 
and a waterspout, much damage done at Balti- 
more, and along the coast ... 23 Nov. 

Meeting of the 52nd congress ; republican majority 
reduced ; president Harrison's message . 9 Dec. 



UNITED STATES. 



1027 



TTNTVEKSITIES. 



A new "reciprocity " party formed, headed by Mr. 

Blaine, about 80,000 members . . 9 Jan. 

The arbitration treaty respecting the Behring seas 

signed at Washington, (see Behring Straits) 29 Feb. 

Death of Walter Whitman, national poet, author of 

" Leaves of Grass," aged 72 . . 26 March, 

Destructive tornado in the N.W. states ; about 30 

persons killed 3 April, 

The difficulty with the Italian government closed 

(see New Orleans) .... 14 April, 

Above 450,000,000 of silver dollars in the treasury 

vaults, reported .... 25 April, 

'The corner stone of general Grant's monument in 

Biverside-park, New York, laid by president 

Harrision 27 April, 

'The invitation to an international conference on the 
silver question, accepted by Great Britain and 
other powers .... May, June, 
'The National Bi-metallic League formed in Wash- 
ington May, 

Resignation of Mr. Blaine as secretary, 4 June ; 
succeeded by Mr. John W. Foster . 29 June, 
President Harrison nominated for re-election by 
the republican convention at Minneapolis, Mr. 
Whitelaw Reid as vice-president . . 10 June, 
Mr. Grover Cleveland (president 1885) nominated 
for election as president at Chicago, Mr. Adlai 
E. Stevenson as vice-president . 23 June, 
The Texas, battleship, launched at Norfolk, Vir- 
ginia 28 June, 

The "Prohibition" (temperance) Convention at 
Cincinnati nominates gen. John Bidwell for 

president 1 July, 

'.Senator W. M. Stewart's Free Silver bill passed the 
senate, 1 July ; rejected by the house . 13 July, 
The "People's Party" convention at Omaha, 
nominates gen. James B. Weavei for president, 
and gen. J. G. Field for vice-president . 5 July, 
(Great heat throughout the greater part of the 
United States, about 23 July ; many deaths ; 
99°-io2°, 28 July ; the hottest day for 21 years, 
29 July ; traffic impeded by death of horses, 29 
July ; 107 , 223 deaths at New York, 29 July ; 90 
deaths, 30 July ; 296 deaths, 31 July ; cooler, 

31 July, 
'The congress adjourns till Dec. 1892 . 6 Aug. 
'The Marbleheeul, warship, launched at Boston 

1 1 Aug. 
sGreat strike on several railways in New York State, 
13 Aug. ; severe conflicts between strikers and 
non-strikers ; about 150 cars burnt, 14, 15 Aug. ; 
the Buffalo railway guarded by troops ; traffic 
suspended ; troops massed ; more strikes, with 
conflicts like civil war, 17 Aug. et seq. ; traffic 
resumed under military protection, 18, 19 Aug. ; 
end of strike reported . . . . 24 Aug. 
Rising of miners in Tracy City, Tennessee, against 
the employment of convicts in state labour, 
13 Aug. ; convicts attacked and expelled and 
their stockades demolished ; fighting between 
the convict guard and the strikers ; the strikers 
victors at Coal Creek ; much slaughter ; progress 
of troops on the line temporarily stopped ; the 
miners surrender to gen. Carries after severe 
fighting ; order restored at Coal Creek 

18, 19 Aug. 
Western Reserve, steamer, wrecked on Lake Supe- 
rior ; 26 lives lost .... 30 Aug. 
Hattie, U.S. fishing schooner, seized by the Cana- 
dian cruiser Curlew, while unlawfully fishing in 
the Bay of Fundy . . . reported 6 Sept. 
Death of John Greenleaf Whittier, eminent poet, 
and opponent of slavery, aged 84 . .7 Sept. 
Cholera panic on Long Island, New York ; the 
landing on Fire Island of passengers from foreign 



Aberdeen founded 
Abo, Finland 
Adelaide, Australia . 
Andrews, St. , Scotland . 
Angers, chiefly law 
Anjou, 1349; enlarged . 
Athens 

Barcelona, revived. 
Basle, Switzerland 

Berlin 1810 

Berne 1834 

Besangon, Burgundy . . . 1676 



1494 
1640 
1876 
1411 
1364 



1460 



Bologna, Italy 

Bonn 

Bordeaux 



Bourges 146. 

Breslau 

Bruges, French Flanders . . 

Brussels 

Caen, Normandy, 1436; revived . 
Cambridge, 12II1 century. 
Cambridge, New England, pro- 
jected . 
Christiania 181 1 



vessels violently resisted by au armed mob, 
causing much distress ; the landing only effected 
by governor Flower and the military, 11-13 Sept. 1892 

PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

1789 & 1793. General George Washington, elected first 

president. 6 April. 
1797. John Adams. 4 March. 
1801 & 1805. Thomas Jefferson. 4 March. 
1809 & 1813. James Madison. 4 March. 
1817 & 1821. James Monroe. 4 March. 
1825. John Quincy Adams. 4 March. 
1829 & 1833. General Andrew Jackson. 4 March. 
1837. Martin Van Buren. 4 March. 
1841. General William Henry Harrison. 4 March. Died 

4 April, succeeded by 
1841. John Tyler (formerly vice-president). 
1845. James Knox Polk. 4 March. 

1849. General Zachary Taylor. 4 March. Died 9 July, 

1850, succeeded by the vice-president, 

1850. Millard Fillmore. 

1853. General Franklin Pierce. 4 March. 
1857. James Buchanan. 4 March. 

1861 &, 1865. Abraham Lincoln. 4 March. Shot 14 April; 
died 15 April, 1865; succeeded by vice-president, 
1865. Andrew Johnson. 15 April. 
1869 & 1873. Ulysses S. Grant. 4 March. 
1877. Rutherford Birchard Hayes. 4 March. 
1881. Gen. James Abram Garfield. 4 March. 

,, Gen. Chester A. Arthur. 19 Sept. 
1885. Grover Cleveland. 4 March. 

1889. Gen. Benjamin Harrison. 4 March (grandson of 
the president of 1841). 

UNIVEESALISTS, who believe in the final 
salvation of all men. This doctrine, declared in the 
Talmud, and ascribed to Origen, about 230, was 
advocated by other early fathers, but opposed by 
St. Augustin, about 420 ; and condemned by the 5th 
general council at Constantinople, May, June, 553. 
It was received by the Unitarians in the 17th cen- 
tury, and avowed by numerous clergymen of the 
church of England. James Kelly, who published 
his " Union" in 1760, founded the sect of Univer- 
salists in Britain ; and John Murray, in America, 
about 1770. The sect barely exists in Britain, but 
flourishes in America. 

UNIVEESAL EEVIEW, edited by Mr. 
Harry Quilter, devoted to fine art, literature, &c, 
first published 15 May, 1888. Publication ceased 
Dec. 1890. 

UNIVEESAL SUFFEAGE (Plebiscitum), 
one of the six points of the charter (see Chartists), 
was adopted by the French in their constitution of 
1 791 ; and used in the election of their president in 

1851. and of their emperor in 1852 ; and by the 
Italian States in voting for annexation to Sardinia 
in i860, 1861, 1866, and 1870. 

UNIVEESAL TIME, see under Bay. 

UNIVEESITIES. The most ancient in 
Europe are said to be those of Bologna, Oxford, 
Cambridge, Paris, and Salamanca. In old Aberdeen 
was a monastery, in which youths were;instructcd in 
theology, the canon law, and the school philosophy, 
at least' 200 years before the university and King's 
College were founded ; see Degrees. The following 
dates arc generally given, many traditional : 

. 1116 Cologne, in Germany, refounded 1385 

1784, 1818 Compostella, Spain . . . 1517 

Coimbra, Portugal . . . . 1279 

Copenhagen .... 1476 

1702 Cordova, Spain . . . . 968 

1665 Corfu 1823 

1834 Cracow, Poland, 700; revived . 1364 

1S03 Dijon, France 1722 

Dillingen, Swabia . . . 1565 

I )oli.', Burgundy . . . . I42 2 

1630 Dorpat 1633 



• I47 2 



Douay, French Flanders 

3 U 2 



UNIVEESITIES. 



1028 



URANIUM. 



London University (which see) . 

Louvaine, Flanders, 926; en- 
larged 

Lyons, France . . 830, 

Madrid . •_ . 

Mantua 

Marlmrg . . • 

Mechlin, Flanders . . . 

Melbourne, Victoria . 

Mentz 

Milan 

Montpellier . _ . 

Moscow, 1754; again . . . 

Munich 

Munster 

Nancy 

Nantes 

Naples 

Orange 

Orleans, France . 

Oxford (see Oxford) . . . 

Paderbor.i . . . . 

Padua, Italy . . . . 

Palenza, 1209; removed to Sala- 
manca 

Palermo 

Paris, 792 ; renovated . 

Parma . . . . . . . 

Pau 

Pavia, 1360; enlarged . . . 

Perpignan 

Perugia, Italy . . . . 

Petersburg, St., 1747; again 

Pisa, 1343; enlarged . 

Poitiers 

Prague 



Dresden, Saxony . . . 1694 
Dublin (see Trinity College) . .1591 
Dublin College (catholic) . . 1851 

Durham 1831 

Edinburgh, founded by James VI. 1581 
Erfurt, Thuringia; enlarged . 1390 

Erlangen 1743 

Evora, Portugal . . . . 1533 
Florence, Italy, enlarged. . . 1439 
Frankfort-on-the-Oder . . . 1506 

Franeker 1585 

Fribourg, Germany . . . 1460 

Geneva 1368 

Ghent 1816 

Glasgow 1450 

Gottingen 1735 

Granada, Spain .- ■. . . 1537 

Gripswald 1547 

Groningen, Friesland . . . 1614 
Halle, Saxony . . . . 1694 

Harvard, U.S 1C38 

Heidelberg 1386 

Helmstadt 1575 

Ingolstadt, Bavaria . . . 1593 

Irish new 1879 

Jena, or Sala, Thuringia . . 1547 
Kiel, Holstein .... 1665 
King's College, London (wliich 

see) . . . . . . 1829 

■ Konigsberg, Prussia . . . 1544 
Leipsic, Saxony . . . . 1409 

Leyden, Holland . . . 157s 
Liege .... . . 1816 

Lima, in Peru .... 1614 

Lisbon, 1290; removed to Coim- 

bra 1391 

UNIVEESITIES OF OXFOED AND 
CAMBBIDGE. .Royal commission appointed to 
inquire into their income and property, in 1872 ; 
reported in Oct. 1874, that the united income for 
1871, was 754,405/. 5*. ihd.; see Cambridge and 
Oxford. The Universities Act passed, 10 Aug. 
1877, appoints commissioners with power to make 
statutes and other provisions. 

UNIVEESITY BOAT-EACE. The contest 
between the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, 
at first near Oxford, afterwards on the river Thames, 
began 10 June, 1829, and has been annual since 
1856. In 1864, after 20 contests, the opposing 
parties were equal; but on 8 April, 1865, 24 March, 
1866, 13 April, 1867, 4 April, 1868, and 17 March, 
1869, Oxford won; the last time being the 9th in. 
succession. Cambridge won, 6 April, 1870, 1 April, 
1871, 23 March, 1872, 29 March, 1873, and 28 March, 
1874. Oxford won, March 20, 1875; Cambridge 
won, 8 April, 1876. Dead heat ; neither won, 24 
March, 1877 ; Oxford won, 13 April, 1878 ; Cam- 
bridge won, 5 April, 1879 ; Oxford won on Monday, 
22 March, 1880; Friday, 8 April, 1881 ; Saturday, 1 
April, 1882; and Thursday, 15 March, 1883; Cam- 
bridge, Monday, 7 April, 1884 ; Oxford, Saturday, 
28 March, 1885 ; Cambridge, Saturday, 3 April, 
1886; 26 March, 1887 ; 24 March, 1888; 30 March, 
1889. (E. T. Campbell killed at Cambridge, 24 
Feb. 1888) ; Oxford, 26 March, 1890, 21 March, 
1891, 9 March, 1892. In the international boat-race 
between the universities of Oxford and Harvard, 
Massachusetts, U.S., Oxford won, 27 Aug. 1869. 
The Oxford crew rowed from Dover to Calais in 4J 

hours 25 July, 1885 

UNIVEESITY COLLEGE (London), see 
London University, and Oxford. 

UNIVEESITY EDUCATION (Ireland) 
Act, 42 & 43 Vict. c. 85, passed 15 Aug. 1879. It 
provides for the dissolution of the " Queen's Univer- 
sity,'" and the foundation of the " Royal University 
of Ireland" the charter of which was signed by the 
queen, 19 April, 1880. 



1S26 

1426 
1300 
1836 
1625 
1527 
1440 
1855 
1477 
1565 



1826 
1492 



1224 
1365 
1305 
879 
i59 2 
1228 

1249 
1447 
1200 
1482 
1722 
1599 
1349 
1307 
1819 
1552 
1431 



Queen's University (Ireland) . . 1850. 
Rheims, 1 145; enlarged . . 1548 

Rome 1245; 

Rostock, Mecklenburg . . 1419 

Salamanca 1239* 

Salerno J233 

Salzburg 1623-, 

Saragossa, Aragon . . . 1474 

Seville i5°4! 

Sienna 1380 

Siguenza, Spain . ... 1517 
Sorbonne, France . . . 1253 

Strasbourg 1538:' 

Stutirardt 1775 

Sydney, N. S. W. . . . 1852 

Toledo, Spain 1499' 

Toulouse 1229 

Treves, Germany . . . . 1473 
Tubingen, Wiirtemberg . , 1477" 

Turin 1405 

Upsal, Sweden .... 147& 
Utrecht, Holland . . . . 1634 
Valence, Dauphine . . . 1454- 

Valeucia 1209 

Valladolid .... 1346 

Venice 1592' 

Victoria, N. England . . . 1880 

Vienna 1363 

Wales 1883.- 

Wittenburg 1502 

Wurtzburg H ? 

Wilna 1803 

Zurich 1832. 



UNIVEESITY ELECTIONS, see Dodson's. 

Act. 

UNIVEESITY TEACHING, Society for 
its Extension formed in London about 1875, and 
supported by Cambridge, Oxford, and London uni- 
versities ; great meeting for its support at the 
Mansion-house, 19 Feb. 1879. Courses of lectures, 
given in various parts of London, Oct. 1879. 

Proposed establishment of a settlement in east 
London, by university men of Oxford and Cam- 
bridge, to improve social intellectual condition 
May, 1884 ; at Toynbee Hall, Whitechapel, volun- 
teer lectures on science, art, &c. given ; also 
instruction in music, athletic sports &c. ; and a 
social club formed. 

Oxford House, at Betlmal Green ; a kind of club for 
social intellectual improvement, and for the ex- 
tension of university teaching, opened by the 
archbishop of Canterbury . . . 18 Feb. 188S" 

The new buildings, founded 30 Nov. 1891, were 
opened by the duke of Connaught . 23 June, 1892: 

UNIVEESITY TESTS (Keligious). A bill 
for their abolition was rejected by the lords, 19 July, 
1869, and 14 July, 1870; passed, and received royal 
assent, 16 June, 187 1. A similar act for Trinity 
College, Dublin, was passed in May, 1873. In> 
April, 1878, on trial it was affirmed, that an endow- 
ment with a religious test at Hertford college, 
Oxford, was valid. 

UNKNOWN TONGUES, see I> 
note. 

UNLEAENED PAELIAMENT, see Par- 
liament, 1404. 

UNSEAWOETHY SHIPS COMMIS- 
SION, see Seamen and Merchant Shipping Act. 

UPSAL (Sweden). The Swedish rulers were 
kings of Upsal till 1001. The university was 
founded in 1476, by Sten Sture, the "protector," 
and opened 21 Sept. 1477. Celebration of founda- 
tion of university, Sept. 1877. 

UEANIUM, a brittle grey metal discovered by 
Klaproth in 1 789, in the mineral pitch-blende. It 



UKANUS. 



1029 



UTICA. 



"has lately been employed in the manufacture of 
glass for certain philosophical purposes. 
The discovery of a new lode in the Union mine, 
Grainpound Road, Cornwall, Sept. 1889, and 
improvements in treating the ore, have greatly 
•cheapened the metal .... Feb. 1890 

URANUS, a planet with eight satellites, was dis- 
covered by William Herschel, 13 March, 1781, first 
called Georgium Sidus, after George III.; next 
Herschel; and, finally, Uranus. It is about twice 
.as distant from the sun as the planet Saturn. The 
anniversary of its first revolution (in 84 years 
7 days) since its discovery, was celebrated on 
20 March, 1865. Its perturbations led to the dis- 
covery of Neptune, in 1846. Uranus has 8 satel- 
lites ; 6 discovered by Herschel, 2 in 1787, 2 in 
1790, 2 in 1794; and '1 by Lassell, and 1 by Struve, 
in 1847. 

URBANISTS, see Clementines, and Glare. 

URBINO1 the ancient Urbinum Hortense, 
central Italy, capital of a duchy created for 
Malatesta, 1474. It was treacherously seized by 
Csesar Borgia, 1502 ; captured by Julius II., 1503 ; 
.and given to Borgia, 1504; given to Lorenzo de' 
Medici by Leo X. 1516; after many vicissitudes re- 
covered by the duke Francesco, 1522; on the duke's 
resignation annexed to the papal states, 1631 ; an- 
nexed to Italy, i860. 

URGENCY, see Parliament, 1881. 

UMCONIUM, see Wroxeter. 

URIM AND THUMMIM, Light and 
PERFECTION {Exodus xxviii. 30), words con- 
nected with the breastplate worn by the high priest 
when he enteredinto the holy place, with the view 
•of obtaining an answer from God (1490 B.C.). 

URSULINE NUNS (so called from St- 
Ursula), founded originally by St. Angela- of 
Brescia), about 1537. Several communities existed 
'In England; and some still exist in Ireland. 

URUGUAY, Banda Oriental, a republic 

in South America, formerly part of the vice-royalty 
•of Buenos Ayres ; declared its independence, 25 Aug. 
1825; recognised 4 Oct. 1828; constitution pro- 
claimed 18 July. 1S30. Capital, Montevideo. 
Population in 1886 (estimated) 632,250. 
The president of the executive, G. A. Pereyra, 

elected in 1856 ; succeeded by B. P. Berro . . i860 
Civil war broke out in consequence of the invasion 
of the ex-president, general Venancio Flores, 

26 June, 1863 
'The vice-president Aguirre became president, 

1 March, 1864 
He refused to modify his ministry according to the 
desire of general Flores, who marched towards 

the capital June, ,, 

Flores became provisional president. . Feb. 1865 

F. A. Vidal elected president . . 1 March, 1866 
During an Insurrection of the Blanco party (headed 
by Berro), at Montevideo, general Flores was 
•assassinated; the troops remained faithful; in- 
surrection soon suppressed, and Berro shot, 

19 Feb. 1SG8 
Gen. Lorenzo Battle elected president . 1 March, ,, 
Blanco insurrection repressed, July, 1871; ended, 

Jan. 1872 
Revolution at Montevideo ; Ellazio's government 
overthrown; Pedro Varela provisional president, 

about 15 Jan. 1875 

Col. L. Latorre president . . .11 March, 1876 
Br. F. A. Vidal, president, died, 17 March 1880 ; 

gen. Maximo Santas, president . 1 March, 1882 
Insurrection by general Arredondo, 29 March ; 

reported defeat of government troops, 30 March, 1886 
Flight of general Arredondo to Brazil, March-April, „ 
Insurgents completely defeated . . 2 April, ,, 



Resignation of general Santas, 18 Nov. ; general 
Maximo Tajes as president . . . 18 Nov. 1886 

Dr. Herrera Y Obes . . . . 1 March, 1890 

State financial difficulties ; run on the banks for 
gold ; paper currency authorised, not accepted, 

8-19 July, ,, 

Conversion of the state debt and reduction of 
interest proposed by the government, accepted 
by the creditors in London . . .31 Aug. 1891 

Attempted revolution at Montevideo by the Blanco 
party suppressed with bloodshed ; martial law 
set up 11 Oct. ,, 

USEFUL KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY, 

see Diffusion. 

USES, Statute of, 27 Hen. VLTI. c. 10 

(1535-6) ; see Charitable Uses. 

USHANT, an island near Brest, N."W. France, 

near which two naval battles were fought between 

the British and French fleets. 

(1.) On 27 July, 1778, after an indecisive action of three 
hours, the French, under cover of the night, withdrew 
into the harbour of Brest. Admiral Keppel com- 
manded the English fleet ; the count d'Orvilliers the 
French. The failure of a complete victory was attri- 
buted to admiral sir Hugh Palliser's non-compliance 
with the admiral's signals. Palliser preferred articles 
of accusation against his commander, who was tried 
and acquitted, and the charge against him declared to 
be " malicious and ill-founded." 

(2.) Lord Howe with 25 ships signally defeated the 
French fleet (26 ships, under Villaret-Joyeuse), taking 
six ships of the line, and sinking one (the Vengeur*), 
1 June, 1794. While the two fleets were engaged in 
this action, a large fleet of merchantmen, on the 
safety of which the French nation depended for its 
means of prosecuting the war, got safely into Brest 
harbour, which gave occasion to the enemy to claim 
the laurels of the day, notwithstanding their loss in 
ships, and in killed and wounded, which was very 
great. The day was long termed in England the 
"glorious first of June." 

USURY from a stranger was permitted to the 
Jews, but forbidden from their brethren, 1491 B.C. 
{Exod. xxii. 25., Eeut. xxiii. 13.) This law was 
enforced by Nehemiah, 445 B.C. (Neh. v.) Usury 
was prohibited by the English parliament, 1341. 
Until the 15th century, no Christians were allowed 
to receive interest of money, and Jews were the 
only usurers, and therefore often banished and per- 
secuted; see Jeivs. By the 37th of Henry VIII. 
the rate of interest was fixed at 10 per cent., 1545. 
This statute was repealed by Edward VI., but re- 
enacted 13 Eliz. 1570. For later legislation, see 
Interest. 

UTAH, a western territory of North America, 
was organised 9 Sept. 1850; the capital. Salt Lake 
Cit} T , became the chief seat of the Mormonites 
{which see). Population in 1880, 143,963; 1890, 
207,905; Salt Lake city, 1890,44,843. 

UTICA (N. Africa), an ancient Tyrian colony, 
an ally of Carthage, named in the treat}- with the 
Romans 348 B.C. Here Cato the younger, after the 
defeat of the partisans of Pompey at Thapsus, com- 
mitted suicide, 46 B.C. Utica nourished greatly 
after the fall of Carthage, and was made a Roman 
city by Augustus mi account of its favouring Julius 
Csesar. It suffered by the invasion of the Vandals, 
439 ; and of the Saracens, about 700. 

Various French histories, on the authority of the 
French demagogue Barrere, state that the English had 
36 ships of the" line, and the French only 26, and that 
the crew ni' the Vengew sang the Marseillaist while the 
ship sank, displaying the tricolor Bag. All this was 
denied in 1802, ami disproved by rear-admiral Griffith in 
Nov. iS;3. The Vengmr surrendered to the British, 

who excited themselves to Save the dew. The French 

statement was accepted by Alison, andat first byCarlyle, 
but afterwards contradicted by both. 



UTILITAEIANISM. 



1030 



UXBELDGE. 



UTILITAEIANISM, termed the "greatest 
happiness principle," the philosophy -which pro- 
poses the attainment of the greatest happiness of 
the greatest number ; a doctrine ascribed to Priestley 
by Bentham. The doctrine is found in the writ- 
ings of Locke, Hartley, Hume, and Paley; but 
was chiefly propounded by Jeremy Bentham in his 
"Introduction to the Principles of Morals and 
Legislation," 1780-89, by John Stuart Mill, who 
died 9 May, 1873, an< l by sir Edwin Chadwick, 
who died 5 July, 1890. Mill founded a small 
"utilitarian society," in 1822. He took the name 
from an expression in Gait's "Annals of the Parish." 

UTOPIA, the name given by sir Thomas More 
to an imaginary isle, representing the "best state 
of a public weale," described in a book written in 
Latin, published 1548. The work is considered to 
be an ironical satire on the state of Europe at the 
time, Utopia signifying " Nowhere." An English 
translation was published in 1551. For the loss of 
the Utopia, emigrant steamer, see Wrecks, 17 
March, 1891. 

UTEAQUISTS, see Calixtins. 

UTEECHT (the Roman Trajectum adShenum) 
became the seat of an independent bishopric about I 



691;. The last prelate, Henry of Bavaria;, weary off 
his turbulent subjects, sold his temporal govern- 
ment to the emperor Charles V. in 1528. The- 
union of the Seven United Provinces began here 
(see United Provinces) ; signed 23 Jan. 1579 ; 300th 
anniversary celebrated 23 Jan. 1879. The treaty of 
Utrecht, which terminated the wars of queen Anne, 
was signed by the ministers of Great Britain and 
France, and all the other allies, except the ministers. 
of the empire, 11 April, 1713. This treaty secured 
the Protestant succession in England, the separation 
of the French and Spanish crowns, the destruction off 
the works of Dunkirk, the enlargement of the 
British colonies and plantations in America, and a 
full satisfaction for the claims of the allies. Utrecht 
surrendered to the Prussians, 9 May, 1787; was 
acquired by the French, 18 Jan. 1795, and restored- 
at the peace, 1814. Population, 1887, 81,398 ; 1890, 
86,n6. 

UXBEIDGE (W. Middlesex). On 30 Jan.. 
1645, commissioners met here to discuss terms off 
peace between Charles I. and the parliament ; they 
separated without effect, 22 Feb. The latter re- 
quired absolute control of the army and navy, the- 
abolition of the episcopacy, liturgy, &c, Ux bridge 
murder, see Trials, Dec. 1884. 



V. 



VACATIONS. 



VALENTINE'S DAY. 



VACATIONS, see Terms. 
VACCINATION (from Variola Vaccina, the 
cow-pox), discovered by Dr. Edward Jenner. He 
"was born in 1/49, aiw educated for the medical 
profession, partially under John Hunter. Having 
heard that milkmaids who had had the cow-pox 
never took the small-pox, he, about 1780, conceived 
the idea of vaccination. He made the first experi- 
ment by transferring to a healthy child on 14 May, 
1 796, the pus from the pustule of a milkmaid who 
had caught the cow-pox from the cows. He an- 
nounced his success in a memoir published 1798, 
and vaccination, begun 21 Jan. 1799, soon became 
general, after much opposition. For this Dr. Jenner 
received io,OOOl. from parliament, 2 June, 1802, and 
20,000^. in 1807. The first national institution for 
vaccination, the Royal Jennerian Institution, was 
founded 19 Jan. 1803. The emperor Napoleon 
valued Dr. Jenner so highly, that he liberated Dr. 
Wickham, when a prisoner of war, at Jenner's re- 
quest, and subsequently whole families of English, 
making it a point to refuse him nothing that he 
asked. Vaccination, although much opposed, was 
practised throughout all Europe previously to 1816. 
Dr. Jenner died suddenly, 26 Jan. 1823. 
Royal Jennerian and London Vaccine Institution, 

founded 1802 

The Vaccination act, 3 <fe 4 Vict, passed . 23 July, 1840 
Mr. John Badcoek, of Brighton, began to inoculate 
cows with small-pox to produce new lymph for 

vaccination about ,, 

An important blue-book, entitled " Papers on the 
History and Practice of Vaccination," edited by 
Mr. John Simon, was published by the board of 

health in 1857 

A statue, subscribed for by all nations, was erected 

to Jenner's memory in Trafalgar-square 30 April, 1858 
It was removed to Kensington in .... 1862 
Vaccination was made compulsory in England in 

1853, and in Ireland and Scotland . . . . 1863 
A statue was erected by the French at Boulogne, 

and inaugurated 11 Sept. 1865 

These laws were consolidated and amended by 
30 & 31 Vict. c. 84, 12 Aug. 1867 (see Small-pox 
and Inoculation), and amended in. . . . 1871 
Much opposition to vaccination ; an anti-vaccina- 
tion society formed, 1870-71 ; a parliamentary 
commission appointed . . . 13 Feb. ,, 

A government bill respecting punishment for com- 
pulsory vaccination dropped . . . Aug. 1880 
Vaccination direct from the cow or calf advocated 

and practised in Brussels, &c. . . 1879 et seq. 
Successful vaccination of 68,900 sheep by M. Pas- 
teur of Paris .... up to 1 Oct. 1881 
The Grocer's company of London offer prize of 
1000Z. for a plan for propagating vaccine conta- 
gium apart from the animal body . 30 May, 1883 
Great anti-vaccination demonstration at Leicester 

(many persons had been fined) . . 23 March, 1885 
Loudon society for abolition of compulsory vaccina- 
tion, held 7th annual meeting . . n May, 1887 
Estimated : 750,000 infants vaccinated annually ; 

50 die of disease in consequence ; stated Oct. ,, 
Royal commission of inquiry appointed 29 May, 1889 
Interim report issued May, 1892 

VACUUM, is produced by reducing the pres- 
sure of the atmosphere, whereby its power of ab- 
sorbing moisture is greatly increased, this power 
has been utilised by M. Emil Passburg, of Breslau, 
in his drying apparatus which has been success- 
fully employed for drying grains by Messrs. 
Guinness, of Dublin since the spring of 1888. 



VADIMONIS LACUS, theVadimonian lake, 
Umbria, central Italy, near which the Etruscans 
were totally defeated in two severe engagements by 
the Roman consuls : r, by Fabius Maximus, 309 B.C. ; 
2, by Cornelius Dolabella, 283. 

VAGRANTS. By law, after being whipped, a 
vagrant was to take an oath to return to the place 
where he was born, or had last dwelt for three 
years, 1530. A vagrant a second time convicted 
was to lose the upper part of the gristle of his right 
ear, 1535 ; a third time convicted, death. A vaga- 
bond to be branded with a V, and be a slave for 
two years, 1547. If he absconded and was caught, 
he was to be branded with S, and be a slave 
for life. Vagrants were punished by whipping, 
gaoling, boring the ears, and death for a second 
offence, 1572. The milder statutes were those of 
17 Geo. II.; 32, 35, and 59 Geo. III. The present 
Vagrant Act (5 Geo. IV. c. 83) was passed in 1824. 
There were about 33,000 tramps in England and 
Wales in 1865. For vagrants in London, see under 
Foor. 

VALDENSES, see Waldenses. 

VALENCAY, a chateau near Chateauroux, 
central France, where Napoleon I. imprisoned 
Ferdinand of Spain from 1808 to 1813. His king- 
dom was restored to Ferdinand by a treaty signed 
8 Dec. 1813. 

VALENCIA (E. Spain), the Valentia Edeta- 
norum of the Romans, became the capital of a 
Moorish kingdom, 1000 ; annexed to Aragon 1238. 
Its university, founded, it is said, in the 13th 
century, was revived in the 15th. Valencia was 
taken by the earl of Peterborough in 1705, but 
submitted to the Bourbons after the unfortunate 
battle of Almanza, in 1 707. It resisted the attempts 
made on it by marshal Moncey, but was talc en from 
the Spaniards with a garrison of more than 16,000 
men, and immense stores, by the French under 
Suchet, 9 Jan. 1812. Population of the city, 1887, 
170,763. 

VALENCIENNES (N. France). This city 
(the Roman Valentiame), after many changes, was 
taken by Louis XIV. in 1677, and annexed 1678. 
It was besieged from 23 May to 28 July, 1793, when 
the French garrison surrendered to the allies under 
the duke of York. It was retaken, together with 
Conde, by the French, 27-30 Aug. 1794 ; on capitu- 
lation, the garrison and 1 100 emigrants were made 
prisoners, with immense stores. 

VALENTIA, a Roman province, including the 
country between the walls of Severus and Adrian, 
was reconquered from the Picts and Scots by Theo- 
dosius, and named after Valentinian I. the reigning 
emperor, 368. 

VALENTINE'S DAY (14 Feb.). Valentine 
is said to have been a bishop, who suffered martyr- 
dom under Claudius II. at Rome ; others say under 
Aurelian, in 271. 618,000 letters passed through 
the post-office on 14^ Feb. 1856. ^30,300 was the 
estimated number ot valentines delivered in 1864; 
in 1870, 1, S45i7S5- T" c origin of the ancient 
custom of "choosing a valentine" has been much 
controverted ; see Post. 



VALENTINIANS. 



1032 



VARANGIANS. 



VALENTINIANS, followers of Valentine, a 
priest, who, on being disappointed of a bishopric, 
forsook the Christian faith, declaring there were 
thirty gods and goddesses, fifteen of each sex, which 
he called Clones, or Ages. He taught in the 2nd 
century, and published a gospel and psalms : his 
followers added other errors, 

VALLADOLID (Spain), the Roman Pintia 
and the Moorish Belad Walid : was recovered for 
the Christians by Ordono II., the first king of Leon, 
914-23. It became capital of Castile in the 15th 
century. It was taken by the French Jan. 1808 ; 
and captured by the English, 4 June, 1813. Here 
died Christopher Columbus, 20 May, 1506.' Popula- 
tion, 1887, 62,012. 

.VALLOMBROSA (Central Italy). A Bene- 
dictine abbey was founded here by John Gualbert, 
about 1038. The monks were termed Vallam- 
brosians. 

VALMY (N.E. France). Here the French, 
commanded by Kellennann, defeated the Prussians, 
commanded by the duke of Brunswick, 20 Sept. 
1792. The victory was of immense moral advan- 
tage to the republicans ; and Kellermann was made 
duke of Valmy in 1808. 

VALOIS, a county (N. France) given by 
Philip III. to his younger son Charles, whose son 
Philip became king as Philip IV. hi 1328; see 
France. 

VALOR ECCLESIASTICUS, a report of 
the annual value of church property, made by order 
in 1534. wa s published by the Record Commission 
in 1810-34 

VALPARAISO, principal port of Chili, South 
America, was bombarded by the Spanish admiral 
Mendez Nunez, on 31 March, 1866, when much 
property was destroyed. It suffered by earthquakes 
m 1822, 1829, and 1851. Population, 1885, 104,9152 
See Chili, 1891. 

VALTELLINE (N. Italy), a district, near the 
Rhaetian Alps, seized by the Grison league, 1512, 
and ceded to it, 1530. At the instigation of Spain, 
the catholics rose and massacred the protestants, 
19-21 July, 1620. After much contention between 
the French and Austrians, the neutrality of the 
Valtelline was assured in 1639. It was annexed to 
the Cisalpine republic in 1797; to Italy, 1807; to 
Austria, 1814; to Italy, i860. 

VALUATION OF PROPERTY ACT, 
to provide for the uniform assessment of rateable 
property in the metropolis, was passed 9 Aug. 1869. 

VALVASOR (or "Vavasor"). Camden 
holds that the " Vavasor" was next below a baron. 
Du Cange maintains that there were two sorts of 
vavasors : the greater, who held of the king, such 
as barons and counts ; and the lesser, called " val- 
vasini," who held of the former, such as vassals 
holding land under a nobleman himself a vassal 
Valvasors are mentioned in the Domesday book, 10S6. 
.VANADIUM (from Vanadis, the Scandina- 
vian Venus), metal discovered by Sefstrom, in 18^0 
combined with iron ore. A similar metal, dis- 
covered m lead ore by Del Rio in 1801, and named 
Mrythronium, was proved by "Wohler to be Vana- 
dium. Vanadium was discovered in the copper- 
bearing beds in Cheshire, in 1865, by Mr. (aft. Sir) 
H. E. Roscoe, by whom its peculiarities were further 
studied, and published in 1867-8. It is useful in 
photography and dyeing. 

VANCOUVER'S ISLAND, North Pacific 
ocean, near the mam land. Settlements were made 
here by the English in 1781, which were seized by 



the Spaniards in 1789, but restored. By a treaty 
between the British government and that of the 
United States in 1846, this island was secured to 
the former It has become of much greater im- 
portance since the discovery of gold in the neigh- 
bouring main land in 1858, and the consequent 
establishment of the colony of British Columbia 
(which see) . Victoria^ the capital, wasfoundedin 1857. 
The island was united with British Columbia by 
act passed in Aug. 1866; and on 24 May, 1868, 
Victoria was declared the capital. Lord Dufferin, 
governor-general of Canada, was warmly received 
here, 15 Aug. 1876. See Juan, San. Chinese 
immigrants are virtually excluded by a poll-tax, 
1878. 
Vancouver nearly destroyed by fire, about 15 June ; 

again 6 July, 1886 

Wellington colliery explosion ; 76 lives lost, Jan. 1888 

VANCOUVER'S VOYAGE. Captain Van- 
couver served as a midshipman under captain Cook, 
and was appointed to command during a voyage 
of discovery, to ascertain the existence of any 
navigable communication between the North Pacific 
and North Atlantic oceans. He sailed 7 Jan. 1791, 
and returned 24 Sept. 1795. He compiled an ac- 
count of this voyage of survey of the north-west 
coast of America, and died in 1798. 

VANDALS, a Germanic race, attacked the 
Roman empire in the 3rd century, and began to 
ravage Germany and Gaul, 406-14 ; then kingdom 
in Spain was founded in 411 ; under Genseric they 
invaded and conquered the Roman territories in 
Africa, 429, and took Carthage, Oct. 439. They 
were subdued by Belisarius in 534. They were 
driven out by the Saracen Moors. The dukes of 
Mecklenburg style themselves princes of the 
Vandals. 

VANDAL KINGS IN AFRICA. 

429. Genseric (see Meckleti- 496. Thrasimund. 

burg). 523. Hilderic. 

477. Hunneric, his son. 531. Gelimer. 
484. Gundamund. 

. VAN DIEMEN'S LAND (called Tasmania 
since 1853), was discovered by Abel Jansen Tasman, 
24 Nov. 1642, and named after the governor of the 
Dutch East Indies. 

Population, 1857, 81,492 ; 1865, 95,201 (only four 
remained of the aborigines) ; 1870, 99,328 ; 1880, 
114,762; 1891, 146,667. Revenue, 1887-8, 
594,976!. ; expenditure, 668, 759!. ; imports, 1887, 
1,449,371?. ; exports, 1,596,817?. 1890: Revenue, 
753)3°5 Z - ; expenditure, 718,604?. Imports, 
1,897,512?. ; exports, 1,486,992?. 
Visited by Purneaux, 1773; Cook . . . . 1777 
Proved to be an island by Flinders, who explored 

Bass's Straits 1799 

Taken possession of by lieut. Bower . . . . 1803 
Arrival of col. Collins, the first governor, with con- 
victs ; Hobart Town founded .... 1804 
Bishopric of Tasmania established . . . . 1842 

Transportation abolished 1853 

Col. Tlios. Gore Brown, governor . . . . 1862 
Visited by the duke of Edinburgh . . 7-18 Jan. 1868 
Charles Ducane, governor .... Aug. 1868 
Fred. Aloysius Weld, governor .... 1874 

Gen. sir John Henry Lefroy, governor . 21 Aug 1880 
Sir George C. Stratum, governor . . Dec. 1881 
Discovery of gold at Mount Lyell . . July, 1886 
Sir Robert G. Hamilton, governor . . Nov. ,, 
Silver-field discovered in the Zeehan country about 
1885 or 1886; about 200 mining companies es- 
tablished ; the town Zeehan established ; about 
6,000 people settled in the district . . 1889-91 
The Tasmanian exhibition, Lanneeston ; the fine 
arts section opened by sir Robert Hamilton, 25 
Nov. 1891 ; exhibition closed . . 22 March, 1892 

VANGUARD, see Wrecks, 1875. 

VARANGIANS, or VARAGIANS, a 

name given to northern pirates, who invaded 



VAEENNES. 



1033 



YEII. 



Flanders, about 813 ; France, about 840; Italy, 
852. Their leader, Euric, invited by the Novgo- 
rodians to help them, founded the Eussian mon- 
archy, 862. 

VABENNES, a town in N.E. France, is cele- 
brated for the arrest of Louis XVI., his queen, 
sister, and two children. They fled from the 
Tuileries on 21 June, 1791 ; were taken here the 
nest day, and conducted back to Paris, mainly 
through Drouet, the postmaster, who, at an inter- 
mediate town, recognised the king. 

VARNA, a fortified seaport in Bulgaria, for- 
merly European Turkey. A great battle was fought 
near this place, 10 Nov. 1444, between the Turks 
under Amurath II. and the Hungarians under their 
king Ladislaus and John Hunniades. The latter 
were defeated with great slaughter : the king was 
killed, and Hunniades made prisoner, who had 
opposed the Christians breaking the truce for ten 
years, recently made at Szegedin. The emperor 
Nicholas of Russia arrived before Varna, the head- 
quarters of his army, then besieging the place, 
5 Aug. 1828. The Turkish garrison made a vigorous 
attack on the besiegers, 7 Aug.; and another^ on 
the 2 1st, but were repulsed. Varna surrendered, 
after a sanguinary conflict, to the Russian anus, 
II Oct. 1828. It was restored at the peace in 1829; 
its fortifications were dismantled, but have since 
been restored. The allied armies disembarked at 
Varna, 29 May, 1854, and sailed for the Crimea, 
3 Sept. They suffered severely from cholera. In 
conformity with the treaty of Berlin, Varna was 
evacuated by the Turks, and occupied by Bussians, 
autumn, 1878. Population, 1888, 25,256. 

VASSALAGE, see Feudal Laivs, and Slavery. 

VASSAE COLLEGE (on the east bank of 
the Hudson, United States), for the higher education 
of women, was founded by Matthew Vassar in 1861. 

VASSY (N.E. France). The massacre of the 
protestants at tins place by the duke of Guise on 
I March, 1562, led to desolating civil wars. 

VATICAN (Rome), the ancient Mons Vati- 
canus, a hill of Rome. The commencement of the 
palace is ascribed to Constantine, Liberius, and 
Symmaehus, and also to pope Eugenius III., 
1 146. It became the residence of the pope at 
his return from Avignon, 1377- The palace is 
said to contain 7000 rooms, rich in works of art, 
ancient and modern. The library, founded by pope 
Nicholas V., 1448, is exceedingly rich in printed 
books and MSS. — Tistolesi's description of the 
Vatican, with numerous plates, was published 
1829-38. — The phrase "Thunders of the Vatican" 
■was first used by Voltaire, 1748. — The ancient 
Vatican Codex of the Old and New Testament in 
Greek was published at Rome in 1857. For 
" Vatican Decrees," see Councils. See Observatories. 

VAUD, a Swiss canton, after having been suc- 
cessfully held by the Franks, the kings of Burgundy, 
emperors of Germany, dukes of Zahringen, and 
dukes of Savoy, was conquered by the Bernese, Jan. 
1536, and annexed, 1554. Vaud, made independent 
in 1798, joined the confederation in I S 1 5 . A new 
constitution was obtained in 1830, after agitation. 

VATTDOIS, see Waldenses. 

VAUXHALL BEIDGE, constructed of iron 
under the direction of Mr. Walker, at an expense of 
150,000/. (to be defrayed by a toll). The first stone 
•was laid May, l8ll, by prince Cliarles, eldest son 
of the duke of Brunswick ; and the bridge was 
opened on 4 June, 1816 ; freed from toll, 24 May, 
i§79- 



VAUXHALL GAEDENS (London), were 
so denominated from the manor of Vauxhall, Falkes- 
hall, Fox-hall, or Faukeshall, said to have been the 
property of Fulke de Breaute about 1282. The 
premises were the property of Jane Vaux in 161 5, 
and the mansion-house was then called Stockden's. 
From her it passed through various hands, till it 
became the property of Mr. Tyers in 1732. _ The 
New Spring Gardens at Vauxhall are mentioned 
by John Evelyn in his diary 2 July, 1661, Tepys 
29 May, 1662/Wycherley 1672, and in the Spectator 
171 1, as a place of great resort. The gardens were 
opened for a "ridotto al fresco" 7 June, 1732, by 
Jonathan Tyers. The greatest season was in 1823, 
when 133,279 persons visited the gardens, and the 
receipts were 29,590/. The number on the then 
supposed last night, 5 Sept. 1839, was 1089 persons. 
Vauxhall was sold by auction, 9 Sept. 1841, for 
20,200/., and again 26 Aug. 1859. The last per- 
formances at Vauxhall took place on 25 July, 1859. 
The ground has been sold for building purposes. 
Six persons killed and many injured by fall of stack 
of wood at Buckley's saw-mills, 25 Feb. 1880. 
Vauxhall park (formerly the lawn, &c, including 
the residence of Mr. H. Fawcett, M.P., pur- 
chased for 45,000?.) opened by the prince of 
"Wales 7 Jul j', 1890 

VAVASOE, see Yahasor. 

VEDAS, the sacred books of the Hindoos, in 
Sanskrit, were probably written about IOOO B.C. 
Veda means knowledge. These books comprise 
hymns, prayers, and liturgical formula?. The edition 
by professor Max Miiller, printed under the patron- 
age of the East India Company, appeared in 1849- 
74. Four volumes of a translation by H. H. 
Wilson appeared in 1850-67. 
Vol. V. & VI., edited "by professor Cowell & W. F. 

Webster, completing the work, appeared in 1889. 
In 1887 the Maharajah of Vizianagram proposed to bear 

the expense of a new edition of the text, edited by 

professor Max Miiller. Two vols, of this edition, 

printed at Oxford, appeared in 1890. 

VEGETABLES for the table were brought 
from Flanders about 1520 ; see Gardening. 

VEGETAEIAN SOCIETY, founded 1847, 
whose members restrict themselves to a vegetable 
diet, held their fifteenth anniversary in London, 4 
Sept. 1862. 
Meetings held at Manchester, 14 Oct. 1874, and other 

places since. 
" Fraternia," a settlement of vegetarians, existed in 

California in 1880. International Congress in London, 

11 Sept. 1890. 

VEHMIC TEIBUNALS : Vekmgerichte, 
Fehmgerichte, or Femgerichte, secret tribunals estab- 
lished in Westphalia to' maintain religion and the 
public peace, had their origin in the time of Charle- 
magne, and rose to importance in 1182, when 
Westphalia became subject to the archbishop of 
Cologne. Persons of the most exalted rank were 
subjected to their decisions, being frequently seized, 
tried, and executed. The emperors endeavoured to 
suppress them, but did not succeed till the 16th 
century. Their last court, it is said, was held in 
1568. Sir W. Scott has described them in "Anne 
u[ (ieiersteiu." A remnant of these tribunals was 
abolished by Jerome Bonaparte, king of Westphalia, 
in 1811. 

VEIL an independent Etruscan city near Rome. 
There were frequent wars between Veii and Rome, 
fur above three centuries; see Fabii. Veii was 
taken by the dictator Camillus, it is .-aid, alter a 
siege of ten years, 396 B.C. When Rome was des- 
troyed by the Gauls in 390, the Romans, who had 



VELLOEE. 



1034 



VENEZUELA. 



fled to Veii, desired to remain there, and make it 
their capital, but were dissuaded from it by the 
entreaties of Camillus, and Veii was abandoned. It 
was restored by the Emperor Augustus, but had 
fallen into decay, at the time of Hadrian. 

VELLOEE (S.E. India) became the residence 
of the family of the dethroned sultan of Mysore, and 
was strongly garrisoned by English troops, 1799. 
The revolt of the sepoys, in which the family of the 
late Tippoo took an active part, took place 10 July, 
1806. The insurgents were subdued by colonel Gil- 
lespie, and mostly put to the sword; about 800 
sepoys were killed. 

VELOCIPEDES. A machine of this kind was 
invented by Blanchard the aeronaut, and described 
in the Journal de Paris, 27 July, 1779; and one 
was invented by Nicephore Niepce in 1818. The 
" dandy -horse " or " Draisena, a machine called a 
velocipede," was patented for the Baron von Drais, 
in Paris and London in 1818, and described in 
"Ackermann's Bepository," Feb. 1819. These 
machines came again into use in 1861 ; and since 
1867 have been very common under various forms, 
termed bicycles and tricycles ; the chief inventor of 
which, James Starley, an ingenious mechanic of 
Albourne, Sussex, was buried at Coventry, June, 
1881. The popular " Otto " bicycle, first patented 
in 1881, much improved since. Velocipede races 
took place at the Crystal Palace, 26 May, 1869, and 
frequently since. Mr. John Mayall and two friends 
travelled to Brighton on velocipedes, 17 Feb. 1869. 

Mr. Stanton went from London to Bath, 106 miles, 
on a bicycle, in 8 h. 28 min. . . 17 Aug. 1874 

Similar feats since performed. Ordinary speed 
with bicycles 8 (now 10) miles an hour ; with tri- 
cycles 10 miles may be attained. — Field. Oct. „ 

A gentleman said to have travelled 1000 miles in 
Ireland and Wales ; expenses 25L . „ 

Bicycle clubs formed in London, &c 1875 

Above 1500 velocipedes at a meeting at Hampton 
Court 26 May, 1877 

Middlesex magistrates decide that a bicycle is a 
carriage, and fine a rider for damage . 31 July, 1878 

John Rankin went from Kilmarnock to London 
and back to Glasgow, with stoppages (112 miles 
one day) .... 23 July-10 Aug. „ 

The Bicycle Union, the National Cyclists' Union, 

!~ and the Cyclists' Touring club founded . . ,, 

Six days' contest, Agricultural Hall, London, Mr. 
George Waller won prize-belt (100L) and 105Z., 
rode 1172 miles, 28 April — 3 May. Mr. Waller 
again won, rode 1404 miles (6 days of 18 hours), 

1 — 6 Sept. 1879 

Ivan Zmertych, Hungarian, travelled on his veloci- 
pede from Ostend to Pesth (about 1200 miles), 

10 — 30 June, 1880 

Mr. Alfred Nixon, hon. sec. London tricycle club, 
on ' Premier ' tricycle from John o' Groat's to 
Land's End in 13 days, 23 hours, 55 minutes, 
16-30 Aug. 1882 ; Mr. E. Oxborrow did the 
reverse in a week, 1-8 June, 1885 ; Mr. H. R. 
Goodwin, on a bicycle, did the double journey, 

1-16 Juue, 1885 

F. J. Lees, of Sheffield, covers 20 miles within an 
hour with a bicycle . . . .18 Aug. 1883 

Switzerland crossed by bicycles and tricycles 

Aug. — Sept. ,, 

17th annual exhibition of bicycles, &c, at the 
Floral Hall, Covent Garden . . .4 Feb. 1884 

Mr. Alfred Nixon went from London to Edinburgh 
on a tricycle in three days . .28 — 31 Aug. ,, 

Crypto-dynamic gearing invented by Mr. W. T. 
Shaw 1885 

Annual congress of cyclists held at Colchester, 

2 June, 1886 

The cycling championship of Europe gained by 
Mr. E. Hall of Gainsborough at Berlin, 

16 Aug. ,, 

Mr. Thomas Stevens, on a bicycle, travelled 11,700 
miles through America, across Europe to Asia, 

April, 1884, -Jan. 1887 



Messrs. Wilkins' bicycle for travelling rough roads 
and up hills exhibited at Hanwell, Middlesex, 

8 Sept. 1887 

The Rev. Hugh Callan, of St. Andrews, Glasgow, 
travelled to Jerusalem, through Euroxse and Asia 
Minor, and back on a bicycle . . autumn, 188S 

The use of bicycles, &c. , regulated by local govern- 
ment act of 1888, part I., sect. 84. 

The 13th annual show of the Stanley Cycle Club 
(at the Crystal Palace), 1,500 cycles exhibited, 

about 25 Jan. 1890 

1,036 cyclists observed on the Brighton Road, 

Good Friday, April, 1892 

Under the heading, " tyranny of the road," a great 
many letters complaining of the danger caused 
by the excessive speed of cyclists, appeared in 
the Times April — July, ,, 

Speed and length of rides much increased . 1889-92 

VELVET. The manufacture, long confined to 
Genoa, Lucca, and other places in Italy, was carried 
to France, and thence to England, about 1685. 
Velvet is mentioned by Joinville in 1272 ; and our 
king Bichard II., in his will, directed Ms body to be 
clothed "in velveto," 1399. Jerome Lanyer in 
London patented his " velvet paper " in 1634. 

VENAISSIN COMTAT, or Comtat (S. 
France) , after various changes, was ceded to pope 
Gregory X. 1274; and retained by his successors 
till 1 791, when, with Avignon, it was re-united to 
France. 

VENDEE, see La Vendee. 

VENDEMIAIEE, 12, 13, 14 (3, 4, 5 Oct.), 
1795, Barras and Napoleon Bonaparte suppress a 
royalist revolt against the convention. 

VENDOME COLUMN (132 feet 2 inches 
high),, erected in the Place Vendome, Paris, by 
Napoleon I. in 1806, to commemorate his successful 
campaign in Germany in 1805. On its side were 
bas-reliefs by Launay. It was pulled down by the 
communists "in the name of international frater- 
nity," 16 May, 1871 ; restored by the national 
assembly, 31 Aug. 1874 ; statue of Napoleon I. on 
the top, replaced 28 Dec. 1875. 

VENETI, maritime Gauls inhabiting Armorica, 

N.W. France. They rose against the Bomans 57 
B.C., and were quelled by Julius Caesar, who defeated 
their fleet, 56, and cruelly exterminated an active 
commercial race. 

VENETIA, see Venice. 

VENEZUELA, the seat of a South American 
republic. "When the Spaniards landed here in 1499, 
they observed some huts built upon piles, in an 
Indian village named Cora, in order to raise them 
above the stagnated water that covered the plain ; 
and this induced them to give it the name of Vene- 
zuela, or Little Venice. This state in July, 1814, 
declared in congressional assembly the sovereignty 
of its people, which was recognised in 18 18. It 
formed part of the republic of Columbia till it 
separated from the federal union, Nov. 1829. The 
population in 1881, 2,075,245 ; in 1891, 2,323,527 ; 
capital, Caracas. 

Its independence was recognized by Spain . . 1845 
General D. T. Monagas was elected president . . 1855 
A new constitution promulgated . . . Dec. 1858 
Revolution ; Jose Castro became president, March, 

1858 ; compelled to resign in Aug. 1859 ; and 

Dr. Pedro Gual assumed the government . Aug. 1859 
General Jose Paez elected president . . 8 Sept. 180s 
He resigned ; and Juan E. Falcon succeeded, 

17 June, 1863 
General Febres Cordero protested, and set up a 

rival government at Porto-Cabello . . Oct. ,, 
Marshal J. C. Falcon proclaimed president, 

18 March, 1865 



VENGEUE STOEY. 



1035 



VENICE. 



A revolution in Caracas ; president Falcon fled, 

22 — 26 June, 1865 

The president Monagas dies, 18 Nov. , and Pulgar 
becomes provisional president . . . Dec. ,, 

Caracas captured by general Guzman Blanco, after 
three days' conflict . .27 April, 1870 

He is made president, virtually dictator 13 July, ,, 

A rebel general, Salazar, tried and shot about i7JVIay, 1872 

Blanco re-elected president . . .20 Feb. 1873 

Severity towards the church for opposition to civil 
marriages ; bishop of Merida expelled . Jul}', 1874 

Renunciation of papal authority announced Sept. 1876 

Gen. F. L. Alcantara president, elected . 27 Feb. 1877 

Gen. A. Guzman Blanco, president, elected . . 1879 

Dispute respecting territories containing gold 
mines ; diplomatic relations broken off with 
Great Britain Feb. 1888 

Dr. J. Pablo Rojas Paul, president, elected 

29 June, ,, 

The dictatorship of Don G. Blanco (envoy at 
Paris) set aside by the congress, about 10 June, 1889 

Senor Palazio elected president, 20 Feb. 1890 ; in- 
surrection against him as a dictator, headed by 
gen. Crespo, with about 8,000 men, March ; 
guerilla warfare in the provinces, reports un- 
certain, April, 1892 ; the government troops 
massed at Valencia and Puerto Cabello 22 April, 1892 

Junction of gen. Crespo's forces with those of gen. 
Mora 27 Aprd, 

The government general, Juan Quevedo, killed by 
the people at Los Teques . . .18 April, 

Valencia besieged by the insurgents ; sorties de- 
feated about 6 May, 

Outbreaks in Caracas against the president, about 
12 May ; his troops join the insurgents in Bolivia, 
after several conflicts .... May, 

Gen. Crespo's army increased by desertions from 
the president's army, near Caracas, reported, 

12 June, 

Several conflicts ; president Palacio resigns, ami 
leaves the country ; sen. Villegas provisional 
president, reported .... 19 June, 

Geu. Crespo defeats the government troops and 
advances towards Caracas, reported . 11-14 Aug. 
(See Columbia; Trials 21 March 1887.) 

"VENGEUE STOEY," see Ushant, note. 

VENT, VIDI, VICT— " I came, I saw, I con- 
quered ;" see Zela. 

VENICE (K. Italy). The province of Venetia, 
held by the Veneti, of uncertain origin, was invaded 
by the Gauls about 350 B.C. The Veneti made an 
alliance with the Romans, 215 B.C., who founded 
Aquileia, 181, and gradually acquired the whole 
country. Under the empire, Venetia included 
Padua, Verona, and other important places. Popu- 
lation of the city of Venice in 1857, 118,173; i n 
1881, 129,445; i Q 1890, 158,019; of the province 
Venetia, 1890, 2,985,036. New line of steamers for 
the east started from Venice by the Peninsular and 
Oriental Company, July, 1872. 

Venice, founded by families from Aquileia and 

Padua fleeing from Attila . . . about a. d. 452 
First doge (or duke) chosen, Anafesto Paululio . . 697 

Bishopric founded 733 

The doge Orso slain ; an annual magistrate (maestro 

dfmiliti, master of the militia) appointed . . 737 
Diodato, son of Orso, made doge . . . -742 
Two doges reign : Maurizio Galbaio, and his son 

Giovanni 777 

The Rialto made the seat of government . .811 

Venice becomes independent of the eastern empire, 
and acquires the maritime cities of Dalmatia and 

Istria . 997 

Its navy and commerce increase . . . iooc-noo 
The Venetians aid at the capture of Tyre and ac- 
quire the third part, 1124; and ravage the Greek 

archipelago 1125 

Bank of Venice established 1157 

Ceremony of wedding the Adriatic instituted, about 11 77 
Zara captured by the Venetians . . 24 Nov. 1202 
The Venetians aid tlie crusaders with men, horses, 
and ships 1202 



Crete purchased 1204; 

Venice helps in the Latin conquest of Constanti- 
nople, and obtains power in the East . . 1204-5; 

The four bronze horses by Lysippus, brought from 
Constantinople, ijlaced at St. Mark's by the doge 
Pietro Ziani, who died 1229. 

The Venetians defeat the Genoese near Negropont, 1263. 

War with Genoa i 20 ^ 

The Venetian fleet severely defeated by the Genoese 
in the Adriatic, 8 Sept. 1298 ; peace between 
them 1299. 

Louis of Hungary defeated at Zara . . 1 July, 1346 

Severe contest with Genoa .... 1350-81 

The doge Marino Faliero, to avenge an insult, con- 
spires against the republic ; beheaded 17 April 1355, 

The Venetians lose Istria and Dalmatia . . . 1358. 

War with the Genoese, who defeat the Venetians at 
Pola, and advance against Venice, which is vigor- 
ously defended 1377 

The Genoese fleet is captured at Chiozza . . . 1380. 

And peace concluded 1381 

Venice flourishes under Antonio Vernieri . 1382-1400 

War with Padua ; conquest of Padua and Verona . 1404. 

War against Milan ; conquest of Brescia 1425 ; of 
Bergamo i4 2 & 

The city surfers from the plague .... 1447 

War against Milan, 1430 ; conquest of Ravenna . . 1454, 

War with the Turks ; Venice loses many of its 
eastern possessions 1461-77 

The Venetians take Athens, 1466 ; and Cyprus . . 1475 

Venice excommunicated, 1483 ; joins league against 
Naples, 1493 ; helps to overcome Charles VIII. of 
France 149s 

Injured by the discovery of America (1492), and the 
passage to the Indies I 497 

The Venetians nearly ruined by the league of Cain- 
bray formed against them 1508- 

They assist in defeating the Turks at Lepanto, 7 Oct. 1571 

The Turks retake Cyprus ,, 

Destructive fire at Venice *577 

The Rialto bridge and the Piazza di San Marco 
erected about 159a- 

Paul V.'s interdict on Venice (1606) contemptuously 
disregarded 1607 

Naval victories over the Turks ; at Scio, 1651 ; and 
in the Dardanelles 1655 

The Turks take Candia, after 24 years' siege . . 1669. 

Venice recovers part of the Morea, 1683-99 • loses it, 

1715-39 

Venice occupied by Bonaparte, who, by the treaty 
of Campo Formio, gives part of its territory to 
Austria, and annexes the rest to the Cisalpine re- 
public 1797 

The whole of Venice annexed to the kingdom of 
Italy by the treaty of Presburg . . 26 Dec. 1805 

All Venice transferred to the empire of Austria . 181 4 

Venice declared a free port . . . .24 Jan. 1830. 

Insurrection begins 22 March, 1848 ; the city, de- 
fended by Daniel Manin, surrenders to the Aus- 
trians after a long siege ... 22 Aug. 1849. 

[During the Italian war in 1859, the country was 
much disorganised, and many persons emigrated 
in 1860-1.] 

Venetian deputies will not attend the Austrian par- 
liament at Vienna May, 1861 

Venetia surrendered to France for Italy (by the 
treaty of Vienna, signed' 3 Oct.), and transferred 
to Italy 17 Oct. 1866. 

Plebiscitum : 651,758 votes for annexation to Italy ; 
69 against 22 Oct. ,, 

Result reported by Venetian deputies, and the iron 
crown given to the king at Turin . 4 Nov. ,, 

He enters Venice 7 Nov. ,, 

Master-piece of Titian ("Death of Peter Martyr") 
destroyed at the burning of a chapel . 15 Aug. 1867 

The remains of Daniel Manin (brought from Paris) 
buried in St. Mark's .... 33 March, 186& 

His statue unveiled . . . .22 March, 1875. 

The emperor of Austria and king of li:ily at Venice 

5-7 April, „ 

The bronze equestrian statue of Vict or Emmanuel 11. 
by Ferrari unveiled in the presence of the king and 
queen of Italy ; great festivities . . 1 May, 1887 

Art exhibition opened by the king . 2 May, ,, 

The restoration of the palace of the Doges wis com- 
pleted, and the building exposed I" view in Nov. 1889 

Launch of the ironclad Sicilia, the royal family 
present 6 July, 1891 



VENLOO. 



1036 



VERONA. 



¥ 



^Representations of Venice at the Olympia, London 
(which see), opened 26 Dec. 1891 

.[Venice has had 122 doges ; Anafesto, 697, to JLuigi 
Manin, 1797.] / 

VENLOO (Holland), surrendered to the allies, 
•under Marlborough, 23 Sept. 1702 ; and to the 
French, under Pichegru, 26 Oct. 1794. 

VENNER'S INSURRECTION, see Ana- 
■baptists, 1661. 

VENTILATORS were invented by the rev. 
Dr. Hales, and described -to the Eoyal Society of 
London, May, 1741 ; and the ventilator for the use 
of ships was announced by Mr. Triewald, in Novem- 
ber, same year. The marquis of Chabannes' plan 
for warming and ventilating theatres and houses for 
.■audiences was applied to those of London about 

1819. The systems of Dr. Eeid (about 1834) and 
■others followed, with much controversy. Dr. 
Arnott's work on this subject was published'in 1838. 
A commission on warming and ventilation issued a 
oreport in 1859. 

JSTew air machine in the house of commons started 

S June, 1874 

Mr. Tobin's plan, a horizontal tube from without 
communicating with vertical tube inside ; suc- 
cessful at Leeds ; described (in Times,) 12 April, 1875 

HVIr. D. G. Hoey's system was exhibited at Messrs. 
Barclay's bank, Lombard-street, London, and 
reported successful Jan. 1891 

VENTRILOQUISM (speakingfrom the belly) , 
is evidently described in Isaiah xxix. 4 (about 712 
B.C.). Among eminent ventriloquists were baron 
Mengen and M. Saint Gille, about 1772 (whose ex- 
)eriments were examined by a commission of the 
T rench Academy) ; Thomas King (about 1 716) ; 
Charles Mathews (1824) ; and M. Alexandre 
.(1822), 

VENUS, the Roman goddess of love and beauty 
<the Greek Aphrodite). The transit of the planet 
Venus over the sun was predicted by Kepler, but 
not observed. The first transit observed, was by 
the rev. Jeremiah Horrox, or Horrocks, and his 
friend, Wm. Crabtree, on 24 Nov. 1639, as pre- 
dicted by Horrox in 1633. The astronomer-royal 
Maskelyne observed her transit at St. Helena, 
•6 June, 1 761. Capt. Cook made his first voyage 
in the Endeavour, to Otaheite, to observe a transit 
of Venus, 3 June, 1769; see Cook's Voyages. The 
diurnal rotation of Venus was discovered by Cassini 
in 1667. See Sun, note. Statues : Venus 
tie Medicis, found near Tivoli and removed to 
France, 1680; the Venus found at INlilo or Melos, 

1820, placed in the Louvre, Paris, 1834. 
-Halley suggested the observation of the transit as 

a. means of estimating the distance of the earth 
from the sun, and devised a method for this pur- 
ple 1716 

Another method was invented by Delisle about . 1743 
Both plans were used in ... Dec. 1874 

Expeditions for the accurate observation of the 
phenomena, on 8 Dec. astronomical day ; ordi- 
nary day, 9 Dec. 1874, were sent to different parts 
of the globe by all the great powers, and favour- 
able results have been reported . . . 1875-6 
The transit, on 6 Dec. 1882, was observed at Bath, 
Penzance, Cork, Cape Town, Washington, Mel- 
bourne, and many other places. The next transits 
will take place 8 June, 2004, and 6 June, 2012. 

VERA CRUZ (Mexico), built about. 1600; was 
taken by the Americans in 1847, and by the allies 
•on 17 Dec. 1861, during the intervention ; retaken 
by the liberals, under Juarez, 27 June, 1867. 

VERCELLI, the ancient Vercellse, Piedmont, 
near which Marius defeated the Cimbri, 101 B.C. It 
was the seat of a republic in the 13th and 14th cen- 



turies. It was taken by the Spaniards, 1630; 
French, 1704; and allies, 1706; and afterwards 
partook of the fortunes of Piedmont. 

VERDEN (Hanover). Here Charlemagne 
massacred about 4500 Saxons, who had rebelled and 
relapsed into idolatry, 782. 

VERDUN (the ancient Verodunum), a first- 
class fortress on the Meuse, N.E. France, made a 
magazine for his legions by Julius Cassar. It was 
acquired by the Franks in the sixth century, and 
formed part of the dominions of Lothaire by the 
treaty of Verdun, 843, when the empire was divided 
between the sons of Louis I. It was taken and 
annexed to the empire by Otho I. about 939. It 
surrendered to France in 1552 ; and was formally 
ceded in 1648. It was taken and held by the Prus- 
sians 43 days, Sept. — Oct. 1792. Gen. Beaurepaire, 
the commandant, committed suicide before the sur- 
render, and 14 ladies were executed on 28 May, 
1794, for going to the king of Prussia to solicit his 
clemency for the town. Verdun surrendered to the 
Germans 8 Nov. 1870, after a brave defence; two 
vigorous sallies being made 28 Oct. Above 4000 
men were captured, with a large number of arms 
and ammunition. It was the last place held by 
the Germans; and was given up 15, 16 Sept. 1873, 
and the troops retired. 

VERGARA, N. SPAIN. Here the Carlist 
general, Maroto, made a treaty, termed " The paci- 
fication of Vergara," with Espartero, 31 Aug. 1839. 
The monument to celebrate it was destroyed by the 
Carlists in Aug. 1873. 

VERMANDOIS (N. France), a county given 
by Charlemagne to his second son Pepin, whose 
family held it till the nth century; in 1156 it 
came, by marriage, to the counts of Flanders ; and 
in 1 185 it was seized by Philip II., and incorporated 
with the monarchy in 12 15. 

VERMONT, a northern state in North America, 
was settled by the French, 1724-31 ; and ceded to 
Great Britain in 1763. It was freed from the autho- 
rity of New York, and admitted as a state of the 
union in 1791. Population 1880, 332,286; 1890," 
332,422 ; capital, Montpelier. 

VERNEUIL (N.W. France), the site of a 
battle fought 17 Aug, 1424, between the Burgundians 
and English under the regent duke of Bedford, and 
the French, assisted by the Scots, commanded by 
the count de Narbonne, the earls of Douglas and 
Buchan, &c. The French at first were successful ; 
but some Lombard auxiliaries, who had taken the 
English camp, commenced pillaging. Two thousand 
English archers came then fresh to the attack ; and 
the French and Scots' were totally defeated, and 
their leaders killed. 

VERNON GALLERY. _ The inadequate 
manner in which modern British art was repre- 
sented in the National Gallery was somewhat 
remedied in 1847 by the munificent present to the 
nation, by Mr. Bobert Vernon, of a collection of 157 
pictures, all but two being by first-rate British 
artists. They were first exhibited at Mr. Vernon's 
house in Pall-mall, next in the vaults beneath the 
National Gallery, afterwards at Marlborough House, 
and are now at the South Kensington Museum. In 
1857, Mr. John Sheepshanks followed Mr. Vernon's 
example ; see Sheepshanks' Donations. 

VERONA (N. Italy) was founded by the Gauls 
or Etruscaus; see Campus Saudius. The amphi- 
theatre was built by Titus, a.d. 82. Verona has 
been the site of many contiicts. It was taken by 



VEESAILLES. 



1037 



VESUVIUS. 



Constantine3i2 ; and on 27 Sept. 489 Theodoric de- 
feated Odoacer, king of Italy. Verona was taken 
by Charlemagne 774. About 1260 Mastino della 
Scala was elected podesta, and his descendants (the 
Scaligeri) ruled, till subdued by the Visconti, dukes 
of Milan, 1387. Verona was conquered by the 
Venetians 1405, and held by them with some inter- 
missions till its capture by the French general Mas- 
sena, 3 June, 1796. Near to it Charles Albert of 
Sardinia defeated the Austrians 6 May, 1848. 
Verona is one of the four strong Austrian fortresses 
termed the Quadrangle, or Quadrilateral {which see), 
and here the emperor Francis Joseph, on 12 July, 
1859, in an order of the day, announced to his army 
that he must yield to circumstances unfavourable to 
his policy, and thanked his people and army for 
their support. It was surrendered to the Italian 
government, 16 Oct. 1866; and the king was re- 
ceived by 70,000 persons in the amphitheatre, 18 
Nov. 1866. Above 50,000 coins of Gallienus and 
other emperors, chiefly bronze, discovered near 
Verona, Jan. 1877. Population, 1881, 60,768. 

VEESAILLES (near Paris) was a small vil- 
lage, in a forest thirty miles in circuit ; where Louis 
XIII. built a hunting-seat about 1632. Louis XIV. 
between 1661 and 1687 enlarged it into a magnificent 
palace, which became the usual residence of the 
kings of France. By the treaty between Great 
Britain and the revolted colonies of British North 
America, signed at Paris, the latter power was ad- 
mitted to be a sovereign and independent state, 3 
Sept. 1783. On the same day a treaty was signed 
at Versailles between Great Britain, France, and 
Spain, by which Pondicherry and Carical, with other 
possessions in Bengal, were restored to France, and 
Trincomalee restored to the Dutch. Here was held 
the military festival of the royal guards 1 Oct. 
1789, which was followed (on the 5th and 6th) by 
the attack of the mob, who massacred the guards 
and brought the king back to Paris. Versailles 
became the residence of Louis-Philippe in 1830. 
The historical gallery was opened in 1837. Ver- 
sailles, with the troops there, surrendered to the 
Germans 19 Sept. 1870, and the crown prince of 
Prussia entered the next day ; and on 26 Sept. he 
awarded the iron cross to above 30 soldiers at the 
foot of the statue of Louis XIV. The palace was 
converted into an hospital. The royal head-quarters 
were removed here from Ferrieres 5 Oct. After the 
peace, Versailles became the seat of the French 
government (see France) March, 1871. Eemoved 
to Paris 27 Nov. 1879. The congress for the revi- 
sion of the constitution met here 4 — 13 Aug. 1884. 
See France, 1889. 

VERSE, see Poetry, Hexameter, Elegy, Iambic, 
&c. Surrey's translation of part of Virgil's JEneid 
into blank verse is the first English composition of 
the kind, omitting tragedy, extant in the English 
language (published in 1547). The verse previously 
used in our grave compositions was the stanza of 
eight lines, the Ottawa rima (as adopted with the 
addition of one line by Spenser in his Faery 
Qiicene), who probably borrowed it from Ariosto and 
Tasso. Boccaccio introduced it into Italy in his 
Teseide, having copied it from the old French chan- 
sons. Trissino is said to have been the first intro- 
ducer of blank verse among the modems, about 
1508. Vossius. 

VEEULAM, see Alton's, St. 

VEEVINS (N. France). Here was concluded 
the peace between Philip II. of Spain and Henry 
IV. of France, with mutual concessions, 2 May, 
1598. 



VESEEONCE (S.E. France), near Vienne. 
Here Gondemar, king of the Burgundians, defeated. 
and killed Clodomir, king of Orleans, and revenged 
the murder of his brother Sigismond and his family, 
524. This conflict is called also the battle of 
Voiron. 

VESPEES, see Sicilian Vespers. In the house 
of the French ambassador at Blackfriars, in Lon- 
don, a Jesuit was preaching to upwards of three' 
hundred persons in an upper room, the floor of which 
gave way with the weight, when the whole congre- 
gation was precipitated to the street, and tin- 
preacher and more than a hundred of his auditory, 
chiefly persons of rank, were killed. This catas- 
trophe, termed the Fatal Vespers, occurred 26 Oct, 
1623. Stow. 

VESTA. The planet Vesta (the ninth) was dis- 
covered by Dr. Olbers, of Bremen, on 29 March, 
1807. She appears like a star of the sixth magni- 
tude. 

VESTALS, virgin priestesses, took care of the 
perpetual fire consecrated to Vesta. The mother of 
Romulus was a vestal. Nunia is said to have ap- 
pointed four, 710 B.C., and Tarquin added two, 
Minutia was buried alive for breaking her virgin 
vow, 337 B.C.; Sextilia, 273 B.C.; and Cornelia 
Maximiliana, a.d. 92. It is said that only eighteen, 
vestals had beeu condemned since the time of Numa. 
The order was abolished by Theodosius, 389. 

"VESTIGES of the Natural History 

OF CREATION," a work which upholds the doctrine 
of progressive development as a hypothetic history 
of organic creation, ascribed to Robert Chambers, 
and other persons, first appeared in 1844, and occa- 
sioned much controversy. See Origin of Species. 

VESUVIUS, MOTTCTT, S. Italy. Near it, the 
Latin confederacy were totally defeated by the 
Romans, whose general, P. DeciusMus, had devoted 
himself to death, 340 B.C. By an eruption of Mount 
Vesuvius, the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneuni 
{which see) were overwhelmed 24 Aug. 79 a.d., and 
more than 200,000 persons perished, among them 
Pliny the naturalist. Numerous other disastrous 
eruptions have occurred. Torre del Greco, with 
4000 persons, was destroyed, 17 Dec. 1631. There 
was a dreadful eruption took place suddenly, 24 
Nov. 1759, and another 8 Aug. 1767. The violent 
burst in 1767 was the 34th from the time of Titus. 
One in June, 1 794, was most destructive : the lava 
flowed over 5000 acres of rich 'vineyards and culti- 
vated land, and Torre del Greco was a second time 
burned ; the top of the mountain fell in, and the 
crater is now nearly two miles in circumference. 
A great eruption in Oct. 1822, and others in Miv, 
1855, May and June, 1858, caused great destruction. 
A series of violent eruptions causing much damage- 
occurred in Dec. 1861, and in Feb. 1865. Torre 
del Greco was again destroyed in Dec. 1861. 
Another eruption began 12 Nov. 1867, and con- 
tinued increasing in grandeur and danger, March, 
1868. The phenomena were observed by professors 
Tyndall and Miller, sir John Lubbock^ and other 
scientific men, in April, 1868. A great eruption 
began 8 Oct. 1868, and continued, causing much 
destruction, 19, 20 Nov. A severe eruption began 
23 April and ended about 3 May, 1872; above 60 
lives were lost. The mountain was disturbed in 
1876; and another eruption began about 20 Sept. 
1878 ; lava was spouted to the height of 300 foot ; 
an eruption began ir June, 1879; an intermittent 
eruption 2 May, 1885. A new crater formed 8 
June; continued flowing of lava, n June; ceases 
16 June, renewed ; a Brazilian tourist fell into the 



VETEBLNABY COLLEGES. 



1038 



VICTOEIA. 



crater, July, 1891. Increasing eruptions, 9 June 
et seq.; active, 13 Sept. 1892. Professor John 
Phillips' "Vesuvius" was published 1869. 

YETEBINABY COLLEGES. The Eoyal 
College of Veterinary Surgeons, at Bed Lion Square 
London, which alone grants diplomas, was char- 
tered in 1844. The Veterinary Surgeons act, 44 
& 45 Vict. sec. 62 ; passed 27 Aug. 1881, deals only 
with this college. The Royal Veterinary College 
at Camden Town, London, N.W., was founded in 
1791. Centenary festival, the duke of Cambridge 
in the ehair, the prince of Wales present, 19 Oct. 
1891- There are veterinary colleges in Edinburgh 
•and. Glasgow. 

VICE, an instrument of which Archytas of 
Tarentum, disciple of Pythagoras, is said to have 
Ibeen the inventor, along with the pulley and other 
implements, 420 B.C. Society for the Suppression 
of Vice, established 1802. 

VICE-ADMIKALTYCOTJKTS ACT, 1863, 
was extended and amended in 1867. 

VICE-CHANCELLOB of ENGLAND, 

an equity judge, appointed by parliament, first took 
his seat 5 May, 1813. A new court was erected for 
him about 1816 contiguous to Lincoln' s-inn-hall. 
Two additional vice-chancellors were appointed 
under act 5 Vict. c. 5, 5 Oct. 1 841. The office of vice- 
chancellor of England ceased in August, 1850, and 
a third vice-chancellor was appointed in 1851, when 
two more equity judges, styled lords justices, were 



VICE-CHANCELLORS OF ENGLAND. 

3813. Sir Thomas Plumer, 13 April. 

z8i8. Sir John Leach, 13 Jam 

3827. Sir Anthony Hart, 4 May. 

2827-50. Sir Lancelot Shadwell, 1 Nov. the last. 



=852. 
S853. 



2871. 
3866. 



e8 7 3 



VICE-CHANCELLORS. 

Sir John Stuart, sat last, 27 March, 1871. 

Sir "Wm. Page Wood, made a justice of appeal, 

1868 ; lord chancellor, Dec. 1868. 
Sir Geo. Markham Giflard, died 1870. 
Sir "Wm. M. James, Jan. ; made a lord justice of 

appeal, June, 1870. 
Sir John Wickens, April ; died, 23 Oct. 1873. 
Sir Riehard Malms, resigned 1881; died 15 Jan.1882. 
Sir James Bacon, the last 1 } 

of the vice-chancellors, nQW included m the 

resigned 10 Nov. 1886. V chancery div j s ion. 
Sir Charles Hall, Nov. ; J 

died 12 Dec. 1883. ) 



VICENZA (the ancient Vicentia, N. Italy) was 
the seat of a republic in the 12th century. It 
greatly suffered by the ravages of Alaric, 401, and 
Attila, 452. Having joined the Lombard league, it 
was sacked by Frederic II. 1236. After many 
changes it was subjected to Venice, and with it fell 
under the French domination, 1796 ; and was given 
to Austria in 1814. Having revolted, it was re- 
taken by Radetzky, 11 June, 1848. It was annexed 
to the kingdom of Italy, Oct. 1866. 

VICE-PBESLDENT of the Board of 
TRADE. This office was abolished in 1867, and a 
secretary with a seat in parliament substituted. 

"VTCKSBUBG, see United States, 1863. 

YICTOBIA, formerly PORT PHILLIP, 

'(Australia), situated between New South "Wales and 
South Australia. In 1798, Bass, in his whale-boat 
expedition, visited Western Port, one of its harbours ; 
and in 1802 Flinders sailed into Port Phillip Bay. 
Population of the colony in 1836, 224 ; in 1841, 

11,738; in 1846, 32.879 : in l8 5i. 77.345 ; 31 Dec. 

1852, about 200,000; in March 1857 there were 



258,116 males and 145,403 females ; in all 403,519. 
In 1859, in all 517,366 ; in 1861, 540,322 ; Dec. 
1865, 626,639 ; in 1871, 729,654 ; 1877, 849,021 ; 
in 1881, 858,582 ; 1891, 1,140,411. 1886-7, re- 
venue, 6,733,867?. ; expenditure, 6,665,863?. ^ e_ 
venue, 1888-9,8,674,000;.; expenditure, 8, 172,000?.; 
imports, 18,530,5752. ; exports, 11,795,321?. 
1889-90, revenue, 8,519,159?. ; expenditure, 
9,811,251?. ; imports, 22,954,015?. ; exports, 
13,266,222?. 
Colonel Collins lands with a party of convicts with 
the intention of founding a settlement at Port 
Phillip, but afterwards removed to Van Diemen's 

Land 1804 

Messrs. Hume and Hovell, two stock-owners from 
New South Wales, explore part of the country, 
but do not discover its great advantages . . 1824 
Mr. Edward Henty (of a Sussex family), comes 
from Tasmania with cattle, sheep, shepherds, &c, 
and settles in Portland Bay ; his brothers, 
Stephen George and John, follow soon . . 1832 

Mr. John Batman enters between the heads of 
Port Phillip, and purchases a large tract of land 
from the aborigines for a few gewgaws and 
blankets : he shortly after, with fifteen associates 
from Hobarton, took possession of 600,000 acres 
in the present Geelong country . . May, 1835 
The Launceston associates and Mr. John Paseoe 
Falkner ascend the Tarra-Tarra (or everflowing) 
river, and encamp on the site of Melbourne . ,, 
The colonists (450 in number) possess 140,000 
sheep, 2500 cattle, and 150 horses ; sir R. Bourke, 
governor of New South Wales, visits the colony, 
determines the sites of towns, and causes the 
land to be surveyed and resold, setting aside 
many contending claims ; he appoints captain 
Lonsdale chief-magistrate (see Melbourne) . . 1837 

The colony named Victoria 1839 

Mr. C. J. Latrobe appointed lieutenant-governor 

under sir G. Gipps ,, 

Its prosperity brings great numbers to it, and in- 
duces much speculation and consequent em- 
barrassment and insolvency .... 1841-2 
The province declared independent of New South 
Wales ; a reward of 200?. offered for the discovery 
of gold in Victoria, which was soon after found, 
near Melbourne, and was profitably worked Aug. 1851 
7000 persons were at Ballarat, Oct. ; 10,000 round 

Mount Alexander Nov. ,, 

From 30 Sept. to 31 Dec. 1851, 30,311 ounces of 
gold were obtained from Ballarat ; and from 29 
Oct. to 31 Dec. 94,524 ounces from Mount 
Alexander — total 124,835 ounces 
The production was still very great .... 1859 
Immense immigration to Melbourne (see Melbourne) 1852 
Sir Charles Hotham, governor . . . June, 1854 
A representative constitution granted . . . 1855 

Sir Henry Barkly appointed governor . . . 1856 
The parliament was opened ... 26 Nov. 1857 
Four administrations had been formed in . 1857-1860 
Exhibition of the products of the colony opened by 

the governor 1 Oct. 1861 

Sir Charles Darling appointed governor, May : 

arrives 10 Sept. 1863 

Great opposition to reception of convicts in any 
part of Australia ; a ship containing them sent 

back Oct. 1864 

Important land act passed . . 22 March. 1865 

The assembly passes the new government tariff, 
Jan., which is rejected by the legislative council; 
the governor raises money for the public service 

irregularly July, ,, 

The crisis still continues ; appeal to the queen pro- 
posed Oct. ,, 

Parliament prorogued .... Dec. ,, 

Sir Charles Darling recalled ... 26 Feb. 1866 
Ministerial difficulties : Mr. M'Culloch becomes 

premier April, ,, 

The assembly votes 20,000?. to lady Darling ; sir 

Charles departs May, ,, 

New governor, sir John H. T. Manners Sutton, 

(viscount Canterbury in 1869) arrived 13 Aug. „ 
Intercolonial Exhibition opened . . 25 Oct. ,, 
Vote of 20,000?. to lady Darling rejected by legisla- 
tive council 20 Aug. 1867 

Ministerial crisis ; dispute continues between the 

assembly and the council . . . Oct. ,, 
Duke of Edinburgh arrives ; great rejoicings 23 Nov. ,, 



VICTOEIA. 



1039 



VICTOEIA NYANZA. 



An address presented to him by Mr. Edward 

Henty, the first settler, and others . . . 1867 
Parliament dissolved .... 30 Dee. „ 
New parliament ; ministry resigned because the 
governor objected to insertion of the Darling 
grant in the appropriation bill . 12 March, 1868 
First woollen and paper manufactories established 

May, ,, 
The M'Culloch ministry arrange the Darling affair 

July, „ 
The M'Pherson ministry announced . . Oct. 1869 
Mr. M'Culloch forms a ministry including Mr. 

M'Pherson, April ; is knighted . . May, 1870 
Mr. M'Culloch resigns ... 14 June, ,, 

The federation of the Australian colonies, proposed 
by Mr. Gavan Duffy in 1857, revived by him and 
discussed in the legislative assembly . June, ,, 
Industrial Museum at Melbourne, opened 8 Sept. ,, 

Mr. Duffy minister July, 1871 

He resigns on a vote against him . . 29 May, 1872 
Mr. Francis forms a ministry . . . June, ,, 
Payment (300?. a year) to M. P.'s begins . . „ 
Sir George Ferguson Bowen succeeds viscount Can- 
terbury Feb. 1873 

Ministerial crisis : Mr. Kerford premier ; Mr. Ser- 
vice's budget; expenditure, 4,500,000?. ; deficit, 
about 340,000?. ; he proposes a moderate free- 
trade policy ; reduction of taxation and a loan ; 
rejected by the parliament ; Mr. Kerford resigns, 
as sir Win. Stowell, the acting governor, would 

not dissolve Aug. 1875 

Mr. Graham Berry, premier ; would continue pro- 
tection and tax the richer colonists heavily (a 
financial coup d'etat) ; defeated ; resigns Oct. ,, 
Sir James M'Culloch forms a coalition ministry, 
Oct. ; proposing tax on income, land, and 

realised property Nov. „ 

Passes his income-tax bill with a majority of 3 

announced June, 1876 
Dispute of government with Messrs. Stevensons, 
respecting their alleged undervaluing goods for 
payment of duties ; their letters opened 

March- June, „ 
Elections ; triumph of protectionists ; sir James 
M'Culloch resigns ; Mr. Berry again premier, 
May ; a land-tax enacted .... Oct. 1877 
Legislative council rejects Mr. Berry's appropria- 
tions, defence, and exhibition bills, end of Oct. ,, 
County court and other judges dismissed by the 
couneil ; sir G. Bowen, the governor, supports 

the niinistry Jan. 1878 

The lower house overrules the council ; orders 
public creditors to be paid on its sole vote, about 

13 Feb. „ 
Berry ministry and the lower house predominant 

March- Aug. ,, 
The marquis of Normanby appointed governor, Feb. 1879 
Mr. Berry's fruitless visit to England . . Feb. ,, 
He introduces a reform bill, Sept. ; which is with- 
drawn Dec. ,, 

Parliament dissolved about 9 Feb.; elections give 
majority against Mr. Berry, 28 Feb. ; his cabinet 
resign, 2 March ; new ministry under Mr. James 

Service 3 March, 1880 

Mr. Service's reform bill rejected, 24 June ; dissolu- 
tion of the assembly, 29 June ; the ministry re- 
signs 14 July, „ 

Mr. Berry forms a cabinet . . .28 July, „ 
Ned Kelly and some of his gang of bush-rangers 
after committing many murders and robberies 
(since autumn of 1878) captiu-ed and sent to 

Melbourne 27, 28 June, ,, 

International exhibition at Melbourne, open 1 Oct. „ 

Kelly hanged 11 Nov. „ 

Vote of confidence in Mr. Berry in parliament lost ; 

sir Brien O'Loghlen forms a niinistry . July, 1881 
The marquis of Normanby resigns, March ; sir 

Henry Brougham Loch succeeds . . April, 18S4 
Mr. Service, premier, promotes a confederation bill 

about 30 June ,, 
Chinese immigrants are now virtually excluded. 1885 
Prosperity budgets; surplus 392,000?., 22 July, 

1885 ; 837,415? 24 July, 1888 

New ministry under lion. Duncan Gillies, formed 

18 Feb. 1886 
Naval defence act passed with royal assent, 

24, 25 Nov. 1887 



Prevalence of strikes among workmen and oppo- 
sition to Chinese immigration . . autumn, 1888 

Parliament opened by Mr. W. C. F. Robinson, 
acting governor. 

(Continued three years prosperity reported), 4 June, 1889 

The earl of Hopetoun appointed governor aboui 

22 July, „ 

The government submits to the protectionists ; 
the import duties increased, and new ones im- 
posed about 13 Sept. ,, 

The irrigation works of Messrs. Chaffey, Bros., an 
American firm on the Murray river, reported suc- 
cessful ; sir Henry Parkes protests, claiming 
both sides of the river for New South Wales, 

about 13 Sept. ,, 

Large subscriptions for the dock labourers of 
London subscribed, 22,000?. up to . . Oct. „ 

The new tariff bill passed by the council, under 
protest about 31 Oct. „ 

The protectionist budget passed . . 5 Nov. ,, 

Departure of sir Henry B. Loch, much honoured 
(diamond tiara presented to lady Loch by the 
ladies of Victoria) .... 15 Nov. ,, 

Arrival of the earl and countess of Hopetoun, 

28 Nov. „ 

Irrigation conference at Melbourne (25 trusts estab- 
lished, 280,000?. advanced by the state), 

25 March et seq. 1890 

Mr. D. Gillies' prosperous budget . . 1 Aug. ,, 

His ministry defeated by a majority of 20, 30 Oct. ; 
Mr. James Munro foims a niinistry . 4 Nov. ,, 

Failure of the British Bank of Australia at Mel- 
bourne (established April, 1888), reported lia- 
bilities, 640,440?. .... 14 Sept. 1891 

The loan bill for 6,000,000?. passed . . 30 Oct. ,, 

Brief monetary crisis at Melbourne . early Dec. ,, 

Resignation of Mr. James Munro ; new ministry ; 

. lion. William Shiels, premier . . 3 Feb. 1892 

Distress through want of work ; relief works 
ordered 4 Feb. „ 

Parliament dissolved, 7 April ; new parliament 
supports the ministry ; the labour party de- 
feated, 20 April et seq. : parliament opened, 

11 May, ,, 
VICTORIA, on Vancouver's island, founded 

1857 ; declared capital of British Columbia, which 

see. 
VICTORIA, see Hong Kong, Vancouver's 

Island, Docks, Thames 1870, Wrecks 1852, British 

Columbia. 
VICTORIA, a British colony in Anibas bay, on 

the West African coast, originally a Baptist mis- 
sionary settlement, annexed 19 July, 1884. 

Ceremoniously transferred to Germany by consul 
Hewett and annexed to Cameroons 28 March, 1887 

VICTORIA CROSS, a new order of merit, 
instituted to reward the gallantry of persons of all 
ranks in the' army and navy, 5 Feb. 1856. It is a 
Maltese cross made of Russian cannon from Sebas- 
topol. The queen conferred the honour on 62 
persons (of both services) on Friday, 26 June, 1857; 
and on many of the Indian army, 2 Aug. 1858. 
Victoria and Albert Order of Knighthood for ladies, 
India, instituted 10 Feb. 1862. 

VICTORIA EMBANKMENT, &c, see 

under Thames. 

VICTORIA INSTITUTE, or Philosophi- 
cal Society of Great Britain, established 

22 June, 1865; its primary object being the attempt 
to reconcile apparent discrepancies between Chris- 
tianity and science. 

VICTORIA NYANZA, a lake in E. Central 
Africa, 300 miles long, 90 miles broad, discovered 
by capt. John H. Speke in 1858, and explored by 
him and capt. J. A. Grant in 1862 ; circumnavigated 
by Mr. H. M. Stanley in 1875. Col. J. H. Speke 
was accidentally killed by his own sun, 15 Sept. 
1864. Col. J. A. Grant died ri Feb. 1892. 
Albert Nyaxza, 140 miles long, and 40 miles broad, 

situated So miles N.W. of Victoria Nyanza. It was 



VICTOEIA PAEK. 



1040 



VIENNA. 



discovered by capts. Speke and Grant, 1862, and 
visited by Mr. (afterwards sir) Samuel White Baker in 
1864 (see Nile and Africa). 
Albert Edward Nyanza was discovered by Mi. H. M. 
Stanley in 1887, and named in 1889. These lakes are 
' considered to be reservoirs from which the Nile flows. 

VICTOEIA PAEK (E. London), was origi- 
nated by an act passed in 184 1, which enabled her 
majesty's commissioners of woods and forests to 
purchase certain lands for a royal park, with the 
sum of 72,000;. raised by the same act, by the sale 
of York-house to the duke of Sutherland. The 
act described the land to be so purchased, contain- 
ing 290 acres, situate in the parishes of St. John, 
Hackney; St. Matthew, Bethnal-green ; and St. 
Mary, Stratford-le-bow. The park was completed 
and opened to the public in 1845. Lady (then Miss) 
Burdett-Coutts presented a handsome drinking 
fountain, and was present at its inauguration, 28 
June, 1862. The park was visited by the queen, 
2 April, 1873 5 and ™ memol 7 0I ner reception, she 
presented a clock and peal of bells to St. Mark's 
church; recognition service, 21 May, 1874. See 

VICTOEIA EAILWAY BRIDGE (tubu- 
lar), over the St. Lawrence, Montreal, erected by 
Mr. James Hodges, under the superintendence of 
Mr Robert Stephenson and Mr. A. M. Ross, 
engineers, was begun 24 May, 1854, and formally 
opened by the prince of Wales, 25 Aug. i860. It 
forms part of the Grand Trunk railway, which con- 
nects Canada and the seaboard states of North 
America. The length is about sixty yards less than 
two English miles, and about 7 J times longer than 
Waterloo bridge, and ten times longer than new 
Chelsea bridge ; the height sixty feet between the 
summer level of the river and the under surface of 
the central tube. It is supported by 24 piers. The 
cost was 1,700,000/. On 5 Jan. 1855, while con- 
structing, the bridge was much injured by floating 
ice, but the stonework remained firm. 

VICTOEIA EEGTA, the magnificent water- 
lily brought to this country from Guiana by sir 
Robert Schomburgk, in 1838, and named after the 
queen. Fine specimens are at the Botanic Gardens 
at Kew, Regent's Park, &c. It was grown in the 
open air in 1855, by Messrs. Weeks, of Chelsea. 

VICTOEIA STEAMEE ; sunk ; see Wrecks, 
24 May, 1881. 
VICTORIAN EXHIBITION, illustrating 

the reign of queen Victoria from 1837 to 1887, was 
opened in the New Gallery, Regent street, 2 Dec. 
1891, and closed 2 April, 1892. The queen was 
patron, and the prince of Wales was active in the 
management. It succeeded the Tudor, Stuart, and 
Guelph exhibitions, which see. 

The Victorian exhibition illustrated events in the life of 

the royal family, and the progress of the nation in 

politics, philanthropy, literature, science, art, and 

manufactures, by means of portraits, pictures, statues, 

relics, books, models, costumes, &c. 

VICTOEIA UNIVERSITY constituted; is 

to consist of Owen's college, Manchester, and others ; 

the charter was granted in April ; the first council 

met, 14 July, 1880. 

VICTOEY, Man-of-War, of ioo guns, the 
finest first-rate ship in the navy of England, was 
lost in a violent tempest near the race of Alderney, 
and its admiral, sir John Balchcn, and 100 gentle- 
men's sons, and the whole crew, consisting of 1000 
men, perished, 8 October, 1744.— The Victory, the 
flag-ship of Nelson, at the "battle of Trafalgar, 21 
Oct. 1805, is kept in fine preservation at Ports- 
mouth. 



VICTUALLEES, an ancient trade in Eng- 
land. The Vintners' company of London was 
founded 1437 ; their hall rebuilt in 1823. 

None shall sell less than one full quart of the best 
beer or ale for id. and two quarts of the smaller 
sort for id. . . 1603 

The power of licensing public-houses was granted 

to sir Giles Mompesson and sir Francis Mitchel . 1621 
The number in England then was about 13,000 . ,, 
In Great Britain about 76,000 public-houses . . 1790 
England, 59,335 ; Scotland, 15,081 ; Ireland, 

14,080 ; total, 88,496 in 1850 

In England and Wales, 23,028 in . . . . 1889 
Public-houses allowed to be opened on Sundays 

from 1 o'clock till 3, and from 5 till iip.m . 1828 
The prescribed time enlarged . ' . . . . 185s 
127,352 licences were issued for the sale of beer, 
cider, and perry in the United Kingdom, produc- 
ing a revenue of 304,688?. ; and -93,936 licences 
for the sale of spirits : revenue 560,557?. . . 1858 
Licensed Victuallers' School established . . . 1803 
Licensed Victuallers' Asylum established 22 Feb. 1827 
Licensed Victuallers in the United Kingdom 

99.46S 187 2 

Between 100,000,000?. and 150,000,000?. said to be 
invested in the liquor trade. The licensed vic- 
tuallers actively opposed Mr. Bruce's licensing 
bill, which was withdrawn . . summer of 1871 
New licensing act, regulating hours of opening and 
shutting, &c, passed and came into execution 

10 Aug. 1872 
[It caused much irritation, and was said to have conduced 

to the fall of the Gladstone ministry, 1874.] 
Public-houses in Ireland closed on Sundays, by act 

passed 16 Aug. 1878 

Payment for licenses raised . . . June, 1880 

VICTUALLING OFFICE (London), for 
managing the victualling of the royal navy, was 
instituted Dec. 1663. The number of commis- 
sioners was five, afterwards seven, and then reduced 
to six. The various departments on Tower-hill, St, 
Katherine's, and Rotherhithe, were removed to 
Deptford in Aug. 1785, and the office to Somerset- 
house, 1783. In 1832 the office of commissioners 
was abolished, and the victualling-office made one 
of five departments under the lords of the ad- 
miralty. 

VIENNA (the Roman Tindobona), was capital 
of the margraviate of Austria, 984 ; virtual capital 
of the German empire, 1273 ; since 1806, capital of 
the Austrian dominions only. Population in 1857, 
476,222; 1872, 901,000; 1880, 1,103,857; 1890, 
1,364,548 ; see Austria. 

Vienna made an imperial city 1156 

Walled and enlarged with the ransom paid for 

Richard I. of England, 40,000? 1194 

Besieged by the Turks under Solyman the Magnifi- 
cent, with an army of 300,000 men ; but he was 
forced to raise the siege with the loss of 70,000 of 

his best troops 1525* 

Besieged by the Turks July, 1683 

The siege raised by John Sobieski, king of Poland, 

who defeats the Turkish army of 100,000, 12 Sept. ,, 
Vienna taken by the French under prince Murat, 
14 Nov. 1805, evacuated ... 12 Jan. 1806 

Captured by Napoleon 1 13 May, 1S09 

Restored on the conclusion of peace . 14 Oct. ,, 
Congress of sovereigns at Vienna . . Nov. 1S14 
Imperial Academy of Sciences founded . . . 1846 
The revolt in Hungary induces an insurrection in 
Vienna ...... 13 March, 1848 

The emperor retires, 17 May ; returns . Aug. ,, 
A second insurrection : Count Latour, the war 
minister, is murdered .... 6 Oct. „ 

The emperor again takes flight . . .7 Oct. ,, 
Vienna is bombarded by Windischgratz and 

Jellachich, 28 Oct. ; its capitulation . 30 Oct. ,, 
Conferences respecting the Russo-Turkish war held 
at Vienna* 1853-5 

* A conference of the four great powers, England, 
France, Austria, and Prussia, was held 24 July, when a 



VIENNA. 



1041 



VIENNE. 



The fortifications demolished, and the city enlarged 
and beautified 1857-8 

"The imperial parliament (Reichsrath) assembles 
here 31 May, i860 

The Prussians encamp near Vienna ; state of siege 
proclaimed July, 1866 

Visited by the sultan .... 27 July, 1867 

New palace of the fine arts founded by the emperor 

about 18 Sept. 1868 

'The great international exhibition opened by the 
emperor ; the prince of Wales and many digni- 
taries present 1 May, 1873 

■.{The enormous building with annexes was designed 
by Mr. Scott Russell, most ably supported by the 
Austrian engineers ; the grand central rotunda, 
312 feet in diameter, with lofty dome, is an 
•exaggerated Pantheon, suspended on iron girders 
in place of masonry, and dwarfs St. Peter's at 
Rome. ] 

•Great financial failures ; affect all Europe, 9 May, „ 

Visit of the czar, 1-7 June ; of the shah of Persia, 

30 July, „ 

Prizes to exhibitors presented by the archduke 
Albert 18 Aug. ,, 

Visit of Victor Emmanuel, king of Italy, 17-22 
Sept. ; of the emperor of Germany . 17-23 Oct. ,, 

Waterworks inaugurated by the emperor 24 Oct. ,, 

The exhibition closed .... 2 Nov. ,, 

New bed of the Danube inaugurated . 30 May, 1876 

•Johann Zich throws a stone at Russian ambassador 

19 Jan. 1882 

International art exhibition opened . 1 April, „ 

The Ring theatre destroyed by fire, caused by the 
fall of a large spirit lamp, 447 persons 
perished out of about 2000, 8 Dec. 1881 ; [accusa- 
tions of culpable negligence] ; imprisonment 
decreed 16 May, „ 

Tfciot of shoemakers and others suppressed by mili- 
tary 7—8 Nov. ,, 

international exhibition of graphic art, &c. 

15 Sept.— 1 Nov. 1883 

Electric exhibition . . .16 Aug. — 3 Nov. „ 

Bi-centenary of the siege raised by John Sobieski, 
king of Poland, celebrated . . . 12 Sept. ,, 

The imperial parliament meets in its new grand 
house early in Dec. ,, 

Much disaffection, see Austria . . . Jan. 1884 

Awful storm ; destruction of life and property 

10 Dec. ,, 

-Joseph Pircher, a gilder, secretly climbs up the 
steeple of St. Stephen's cathedral and places a 
banner on the cross (432 German feet high) and 
descends safely . . . . 17, 18 Aug. 1886 

Anarchist conspiracy to burn Vienna on the nights 
of 3, 4 Oct. ; detected ; premises in the suburbs 
fired, 27 Sept. ; 17 men arrested and houses 
searched, bombs, &c. discovered and police 
disguises ; announced .... 10 Oct. „ 

'Great international hygienic congress opened by 
, crown prince Rudolph ... 26 Sept. ,, 

International art exhibition opened . 3 March, 1888 

Grand monument of the empress queen Maria 
Theresa inaugurated in the presence of the 
emperor and empress ... 13 May, ,, 

.note was agreed on and transmitted for acceptance to St. 
Petersburg and Constantinople, 31 July. This note was 
.accepted by the czar, 10 Aug., but the sultan required 
modifications, which were rejected by Russia, 7 Sept. 
The sultan's note (31 Dec.) contained four points : — 
t. The promptest possible evacuation of the princi- 
palities. 2. Revision of the treaties. 3. Maintenance 
•of religious privileges to the communities of all con- 
fessions. 4. A definite settlement of the convention re- 
.specting the holy places. It was approved by the four 
powers, and the conferences closed on 16 Jan. 1854. — A 
new conference of plenipotentiaries, from Great Britain 
'(lord John Russell), France (M. Dronyn de l'Huys), 
Austria (count Buol), Turkey (Arif Effendi), and Russia 
(count Gortsehakoff), took place, March, 1854. Two 
points, the protectorate of the principalities and the free 
navigation of the Danube, were agreed to ; but the pro- 
posals of the powers as to the reduction of the Russian 
power in the Black Sea were rejected by the czar, and the 
■conference closed, 5 June, 1854. The E11.14li.sl1 and French 
envoys' assent to the Austrian propositions was not ap- 
proved of by their governments, and they both resigned 
their official positions. 



National industrial exhibition opened in honour of 
the 40th year of the emperor's reign, 14 May ; 
closed 31 Oct. 1888 

Grand funeral of Beethoven on the removal of his 
remains from Wahring cemetery to the central 
cemetery at Simmerung ... 22 June, ,, 

Goldsmith's exhibition opened . . 22 April, 1889 

Strike of tram-car men, anti-semitic rioting sup- 
pressed by the military ; close of strike, 

20-24 April, „ 

The grand Natural History museum opened by the 
emperor 10 Aug. „ 

Strike of about 15,000 masons for increased pay,* 

31 March, 1890 

General agitation, with intimidation, of workmen, 

April, ,, 

Riots suppressed by military . 8 April et seq. ,, 

The great enlargement of the city by the incorpora- 
tion of the suburbs ordered, Dec. 1890, com- 
pleted Dec. 1891 

Frank Schneider and Rosalie his wife, sentenced to 
death for the cruel murder of several servant 
maids, whom they decoyed into a wood near 
Vienna June et seq., 16-29 Jan. ; he is executed 
(she is imprisoned for life) . . 17 March, 1892 

International musical and dramatic exhibition, 
president, arch-duke Charles Louis, opened by 
the emperor 7 May, ,, 

Visit of prince Bismarck, 19-23 June ; marriage of 
his son Herbert 21 June, „ 

TREATIES OF VIENNA. 

i. The treaty between the emperor of Germany and the 
king of Spain, by which they confirmed to each 
other such parts of the Spanish dominions as they 
were respectively possessed of ; and by a private treaty 
the emperor engaged to employ a force to procure the 
restoration of Gibraltar to Spain, and to use means 
for placing the Pretender on the throne of Great 
Britain. Spain guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction. 
30 April, 1725. 

2. Treaty of alliance between the emperor of Germany, 
Charles VI., George II., king of Great Britain, and 
the states of Holland, by which the Pragmatic Sanc- 
tion was guaranteed, and the disputes as to the 
Spanish succession terminated. (Spain acceded to 
the treaty on the 22nd of July.) Signed 16 March, 
1731- 

3. Treaty of peace between the emperor Charles VI. of 
Germany and the king of France, Louis XV. , by which 
the latter power agreed to guarantee the Pragmatic 
Sanction, and Lorraine was ceded to France. Signed 
18 Nov. 1738 ; see Pragmatic Sanction. 

4. Treaty between Napoleon I. of France and Francis 
(II. of Germany) I. of Austria, by which Austria ceded 
to France the Tyrol. Dalmatia, and other territories, 
which were shortly afterwards declared to be united 
to France under the title of the Illyrian Provinces, and 
engaged to adhere to the prohibitory system adopted 
towards England by France and Russia. 14 Oct. 
1809. 

5. Treaty between Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and 
Prussia, confirming the principles on which they had 
acted by the treaty of Chaumont, 1 Mar. 1814. Signed 
25 March, 1815. 

6. Treaty between the king of the Netherlands on the 
one part, and Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and 
Prussia on the other, agreeing to the enlargement of 
the Dutch territories, and vesting the sovereignty in 
the house of Orange. 31 May, 1815. 

7. Treaty by which Denmark ceded Swedish Pomerania 
and Rugen to Prussia, in exchange for Lauenburg. 
4 June, 1815. 

8. Commercial treaty for twelve years between Austria 
and Prussia. Signed at Vienna, 19 Feb. 1853. 

9. Treaty for the maintenance of Turkey, by the repre- 
sentatives of Great Britain, France, Austria, and 
Russia. Signed 9 April, 1854. 

10. Treaty between Austria and Prussia and Denmark, 
by which Denmark reded the duchies. 30 Oct, 1S64. 

11. Treaty of peace between Austria and Italy ; Yenetia 
given up to Italy. 3 Oct. 1866. 

VIENNE, the ancient Vienna Allobrogum 
(S.E. France). Here the emperor Valentinian II. 
was put to death by Arbogastes, 15 May, 302, and a 
short reaction in favour of paganism followed. 

3 x 



VIGILANCE ASSOCIATION. 



1042 



VINE. 



Vienne was capital of the kingdom of Burgundy in 
432 and 879, and sometimes gave its name to the 
kingdom. A general council was held here in 
131 1. Vienne was annexed to the French monarchy, 
1448. 

VIGILANCE ASSOCIATION, see under 
National. 

VIGILANCE Murder Association, see 

Ireland, 1883. 

VIGO (N. W. Spain) was attacked and burned 
hy the English, under Drake and Norris in 1589. 
Sir George Rooke, with the combined English and 
Dutch fleets, attacked the French fleet and the 
Spanish galleons in the port of Vigo, when several 
men-of-war and galleons were taken, and many 
destroyed, and abundance of plate and other 
valuable effects fell into the hands of the conquerors, 
12 Oct. 1702. Vigo was taken by lord Cobham 
in 1 7 19, but relinquished after raising contribu- 
tions. It was again taken by the British, 27 March, 
1809. 

VIKINGS. Scandinavian chiefs, Swedes, 
Danes, and Norsemen, who in the 4th century 
migrated — eastward, to the countries beyond the 
Baltic ; westward and southward, chiefly to the 
British isles. 

Mr. Paul B. Du Chaillu, in his "Viking Age," 
describes the Vikings as the ancestors of "the 
English-speaking-Nations "... Oct. 1889 

VILLA FEANCA. Near here, and Llerena, 
Spain, the British cavalry, under sir Stapleton 
Cotton, defeated the French cavalry under marshal 

Soult, 11 April, 1812. — Villa Franca, a small 

port on the Mediterranean, near Genoa, was bought 
for a steam-packet station by a Russian company, 
about Aug. 1858, which caused some political 
excitement. — At VlLLA FRANCA, in Lombardy, 
the emperors of France and Austria met, on 1 1 July, 
1859 (after the battle of Solferino), and on 12 July 
signed the preliminaries of peace, the basis of the 
treaty of Zurich (which see) . 

VILLA VICIOSA. 1. in Portugal. Here 
the Portuguese, under the French general Schom- 
berg, defeated the Spaniards, 1665. 2. in Castile, 
Spain. Here the struggle for the Spanish crown 
was decided in favour of Philip V. by Vendome's 
"victory over Staremberg and the Austrians, 10 Dec. 
1710. 

VILLAIN, or Villein, see Slavery in 
England. 

VILLE DE HAVEE, French Atlantic mail 
steamer, 5,100 tons, sailed from New York for 
Havre, 15 Nov. 1873 ; was run into by a Glasgow 
clipper, Lochearn, about 2 a.m.. 22 Nov., and sank 
in twelve minutes ; 226 out of 313 persons perished. 
The crew of the Lochearn rescued 87, who were 
conveyed to Cardiff by the American vessel Tri- 
Mountain, capt. Urquhart, arriving there 1 Dec. 1873 
The Lochearn, beginning to sink, 28 Nov., was aban- 
doned by her crew, who were rescued by the 
British Queen, and brought to Plymouth 7 Dec. ,, 
On judicial examination,"the Lochearn was exone- 
rated in England, but censured in Prance Jan. 1874 

VILLETA (Paraguay, South America). Here 
Lopez and the Paraguayans were totally defeated 
by the Brazilians and their allies, 11 Dec. 1868. 
Lopez and 200 men fled ; 3000 prisoners were made ; 
and. the war was considered to be ended. 

VIMIEEA (in Portugal), where the British 
and Spanish forces, under sir Arthur Wellesley, 
defeated the French, under marshal Junot, duke of 



Abrantes, 21 Aug. 1808. The attack, made with 
great bravery, was gallantly repulsed ; it was 
repeated by Kellermann at the head of the French 
reserve, which was also repulsed. The French, 
charged with the bayonet, withdrew on all points- 
in confusion, leaving many prisoners. 

VINCENNES, a strong castle near Paris; » 
residence of the French kings from the 12th to the 
14th centuries. Henry V. of England died at the 
Bois de Vincennes, 31 Aug. 1422. At the fosse of 
the castle, Louis due d' Enghien was shot by order 
of Napoleon, after a hasty trial, early on the morn- 
ing of 22 March, 1804. 

VINCENT, Cape St. (S. W. Portugal). 

See Cape St. Vincent, and Rodney's Victories. 

VINCENT, ST. (West Indies), long a neutral 
island ; but at the peace of 1763, the French agreed 
that the right to it should be vested in the English. 
The latter soon after engaged in a war against the 
Caribs, on the windward side of the island, who- 
were obliged to consent to a peace, by which they 
ceded a large tract of land to the British crown. In 
1779 the Caribs greatly contributed to the reduction: 
of this island by the French, who, however, restored 
it in 1783. In 1795 the French landed some- 
troops, and again instigated the Caribs to an insur- 
rection, which was not subdued for several months. 
The great eruption of the Souffriere mountain, after 
the lapse of nearly a century, occurred in 1812. 
Population in 1861, 31,755; in 1881, 40,548; itt 
1891, 41,054 ; see Windward Isles. 
Great destruction of life and property by a 
hurricane 16 Aug. 1886: 

VINCENT DE PAUL, ST., Charitable 

SOCIETY, founded in 1833, in France, by twelve 
young men. It extends its extremely beneficial 
operations into Biitain. Its power excited the 
jealousy of the French government, which sup- 
pressed its central committee of Paris, in Oct. 1861. 
St. Vincent de Paul was born, 1576; established' 
the congregation of Lazarists, or Vincentines, 1625; 
Sisters of Charity, 1634 ; a foundling hospital, 1648,. 
He died 1660. 

VINCY, N. France. Here Charles Martel 
defeated the Neustrians, 21 May, 717, and acquired! 
their country. 

VINE. The vine was planted by Noah, 2347- 
B.c. Gen. ix. 20. A colony of vine-dressers from 
Phocea, in Ionia, settled at Marseilles, and in- 
structed the South Gauls in tillage, vine-dressing,. 
and commerce, about 600 B.C. Some think that 
vines are aborigines of Languedoc, Provence, and 
Sicily, and that they grew spontaneously on the 
Mediterranean shores of Italy, France, and Spain. 
The vine was carried into Champagne, and part of 
Germany, by the emperor Probus, about a.d. 279. 
The vine and sugar-cane were planted in Madeira 
in 1420. In the gardens of Hampton-court palace 
is an old and celebrated vine, said to surpass any 
known vine in Europe ; see Grapes, and Wine. 
The Tokay vines were planted in 1350. 
Vine Disease. In the spring of 1845, Mr. E. Tucker, of 
Margate, observed a fungus (since named Oiclium 
Tuckeri) on grapes in the hot-houses of Mr. Slater, of 
Margate. It is a whitish mildew, and totally destroys 
the fruit. 
The spores of this o'i&iwm were found in the vineries at 
Versailles in 1847. The disease soon reached the trel- 
lised vines, and in 1850 many lost all their produce. 
In 1852, it spread over France, Italy, Spain, Syria, and 
in Zante and Cephalonia attacked the currants, reduc- 
ing the crop to one-twelfth of the usual amount. 
Through its ravages, the wine manufacture in Madeira 
ceased for several years. 



VINEGAR. 



1043 



VISIGOTHS. 



Many attempts have been made to arrest the progress of 
this disease, but without much effect. Sulphur dust is 
the most efficacious remedy. 

The disease had much abated in France, Portugal, and 
Madeira, in 1863. In 1862 Californian vines were 
introduced into the two latter. 

New malady (microscopic insect, phylloxera vastatrix). 
in S. France, observed 1865 

Remedy, sulphuret of carbon, recommended by 
M. Dumas Aug. 1873 

Not successful ; great destruction ; 12,000?. offered 
for a remedy July, 1876 

Phylloxera prevalent in Malaga and France; reported 
July, Aug. 1878 ; Portugal, Italy, Spain ; Sept.- 
Nov. 1879 ; appears in Victoria, Australia, Nov. 1880 

Phylloxera congress at Bordeaux . 10 — 15 Oct. 1881 

The phylloxera is said to be exterminated in Swit- 
zerland by fire Nov. 1882 

Phylloxera ravaging vines on the Douro ; conse- 
quent emigrations to Brazil ... 7 Feb. 1884 

Disappearance of the phylloxera in W. France 
through the experimental researches of M. Pas- 
teur : prosperous vintages reported . . 1883-91 

VINEGAR. The ancients had several kinds, 
which they used for drink. The Roman soldiers 
were accustomed to take it in their marches. The 
Bible represents Boaz, a rich citizen of Bethlehem, 
as providing vinegar for his reapers (1312 B.C.), a 
custom still prevalent in Spam and Italy. 

VINEGAR-HILL (near Enniscorthy, in 
"Wexford, S. E. Ireland). Here the Irish rebels, 
headed by father John, a priest, encamped and com- 
mitted many outrages on the surrounding country. 
They were gradually surrounded by the British 
troops, commanded by Lake, 21 June, 1798, and 
after a fierce struggle, with much slaughter, totally 
dispersed. 

VINTNERS, see Victuallers. 

VIOL AND VIOLIN. The lyre of the Greeks 
became our harp, and the viol of the middle ages 
became the violin. The violin is mentioned as early 
as 1200, in the legendary life of St. Christopher. It 
was introduced into England, some say, by Charles 
II. Straduarius (or Stradivarius) of Cremona, was 
a renowned violin-maker (1700 to 1722). The 
eminent violinist Paganini visited England, 1831 ; 
died at Nice, 27 May, 1840. 

VIRGINALS; an early keyed instrument of 
the kind termed clavichords ; used in the 16th and 
17th centuries; played on by queen Elizabeth and 
Mary queen of Scots. According to Johnson, it 
owed its name to young women being the usual 
.performers. Tallis, Morley, Purcell, Gihbons, and 
Bull composed for this instrument. 

VIRGINIA, see Home, 449 b.c. 

VIRGINIA, the first British settlement in 
North America, was discovered by John Cabot in 
1497, and was taken possession of for Raleigh, and 
named after the virgin-queen Elizabeth, 13 July, 
1584. Vain attempts were made to settle it in 1585. 
Two expeditions were formed by patent in 1606, and 
others in 1610. In 1626 it reverted to the crown ; 
and a more permanent colony was established soon 
afterwards. George Washington was delegate for 
Virginia in the congress of 1774. Eastern Virginia 
seceded from the Union, 25 April, 1861, but "Western 
Virginia declared for the Union, 13 Feb. and elected 
a governor, 20 Feb. 1861 ; became a state 1863. 
Virginia was a chief seat of the war. The state was 
readmitted to the congress, Jan. -Feb. 1870; see 
United Slates, and Richmond. Population in 1880, 
1,512,565; 1890, 1,655,980; capital, Richmond. 
Western Virginia, population, 1880, 618,457 ; 1890, 
762,794; capital, Wheeling. 

VIRGINIA CITY, see Nevada. 



VIRGIN ISLANDS (West Indies), an eastern 
group discovered by Columbus, (1494) : Virgin 
Gorda, Tortola, Anegada, &c, and the Danish Isles, 
St. Thomas, Santa Cruz, and St. John. Population 
of the British possessions in 1891, was 4,639. See 
Leeivard Isles. 
Tortola settled by Dutch buccaneers about 1648 ; 

expelled by the English (who have held it since) 1666 
St. Thomas settled by Danes 1672, and St. John 
a few years after; held by the British 1801-2 ; 
1807-15 ; proposed sale to the United States for 
1,500,500?. to be made a "territory." Danish 
proclamation, 25 Oct. 1867 ; purchase declined 
by U. S. senate ... 23 March, May, 1870 
By a dreadful hurricane off St. Thomas, the Royal 
Mail steamers Rhone and Wye were entirely 
wrecked ; the Conway and Derwent, and above 50 
other vessels, driven ashore ; about 1000 persons 
said to have perished . . . .29 Oct. 1867 
Much suffering was occasioned in Tortola ; houses 
blown down or unroofed, <fec. (a report reached 
London that the isle was submerged). 
Earthquake at St. Thomas's and other isles ; much 

damage ; few lives lost .... Nov. , , 
Santa Cruz. A negro insurrection, in which M. Fon- 
taine, a planter, was killed ; Fredrikstadt and 36 
out of 50 sugar plantations were burnt, and about 
3000 whites rendered homeless. During the sup- 
pression by col. Garde, the governor, about 200 
negroes were killed . . . .1-5 Oct. 1878 

VIRGINIUS, American blockade-runner, see 
Cuba, 1873. 

VIRGIN MARY. The Assumption of the 
Virgin is a festival in the Greek and Latin churches, 
in honour of the miraculous ascent of Mary into 
heaven, according to their belief, 15 Aug. a.d. 45. 
The Presentation of the Virgin is a feast celebrated 
21 Nov., said to have been instituted among the 
Greeks in the nth century ; its institution in the 
West is ascribed to pope Gregory XL 1372 ; see 
Annunciation, and Conception, Immaculate. 

VIRTUE, League OF, see Tugcndbund. 

VISCONTI, the name of a noble Italian 
family, which ruled in Milan from about 1277 to 
1447 ; the heiress of the family was married to 
Francesco Sforza, who became duke 1450. 

VISCOUNT (Vice Conies), anciently the name 
of the deputy of an earl. The first viscount in 
England created by patent was John, lord Beaumont, 
whom Henry VI. created viscount Beaumont, giving 
him precedence above all barons, 10 Feb. 1440. 
Ashmole. This title is of older date in Ireland and 
France. John Barry, lord Barry, was made vis- 
count Buttevant,' in Ireland, 9 Rich. II. 1385. 
Beatson. 

VISIBLE SPEECH, a term applied by Mr. 
Alex. Melville Bell to his "Universal Self-Inter- 
preting Physiological Alphabet," comprising thirty 
symbols representing the conformations of the 
mouth when uttering sounds. He stated that about 
fifty differeut types would be required to print all 
known languages with these symbols. He ex- 
pounded his system to the Society of Arts, London, 
14 March, 1866; and published a book in 1867. 

VISIGOTHS, separated from the Ostrogoths 
about 330 ; see Goths. The emperor Valcns, about 
369, admitted them into the Roman territories upon 
the condition of their serving when wanted in the 
Roman armies; and Thcodosius the Greal permitted 
them to form distinct corps commanded by theirown 
officers. In 400, under Alaric, they invaded Italy, 
and in 410 took Rome. They founded their king- 
dom of Toulouse, 414; conquered the Alani, ami 
extended their rule in(<> Spain, 41 1 ; expelled the 
Romans in 468; and finally were themselves con- 

3x2 



VISITATIONS. 



1044 



VOLSCI. 



quered by the Saracens under Muza, in 711, when 
their last king, Roderic, was defeated and slain ; see 
Spain for a list of the Visigothic kings. Their rule 
in France ended with their defeat by Clovis at 
Vougle, in 507. 

VISITATIONS, see Heralds. 

VITAL FORCE, defined by Humboldt " as an 
unknown cause preventing the elements from obey- 
ing their primitive affinities." This theory is now 
opposed by many physiologists, and animal motion 
is attributed to muscular and nervous irritability, 
illustrated by the researches of Galvani, Humboldt, 
sir Charles Bell, Marshall Hall, and others. The 
subject has been much discussed recently by Huxley 
and other eminent physiologists. 

VITI ISLES, see Fiji. 

VITTOEIA (N. Spain), the site of a victory 
obtained by Wellington over the French army com- 
manded by Joseph Bonaparte, king of Spain, and 
marshal Jourdan, 21 June, 1813. The hostile armies 
were nearly equal, from 70,000 to 75,000 each. 
After a long and fearful battle, the French were 
driven, towards evening, through the town of Vit- 
toria, and in then- retreat were thrown into irre- 
trievable confusion. The British loss was 22 officers 
and 479 men killed; 167 officers and 2640 men 
wounded. Marshal Jourdan lost 151 pieces of can- 
non, 451 waggons of ammunition, all his baggage, 
provisions, cattle, and treasure, with his baton as a 
marshal of France. Continuing the pursuit on the 
25th, "Wellington took Jourdan' s only remaining 
gun. Population, 1887, 27,660. 

VIVARIUM, see Aquavivarium. 

VIVISECTION- Physiological experiments 
upon living animals having much increased, the 
societies for the prevention of cruelty to animals in 
Dresden and Paris in 1859 requested the opinion of 
a committee of eminent scientific men on the merits 
of the knowledge thus acquired. Their judgment 
was not unanimous. The London society took up 
the question in i860 ; and printed a pamphlet by 
Mr. G. Macilwain against vivisection. In Aug. 
1862 an international conference to discuss the 
question was held at the Crystal Palace, Sydenham. 
The subject was discussed in 1866, and a prize 
awarded by the London society. Sir Charles Bell's 
opinion of vivisection was, that it either obscured 
the subject it was meant to illustrate, or misled men 
into practical errors of the most serious character. 
Opposition to vivisection continued, 1892. 
Discussion revived in consequence of the prosecu- 
tion of Dr. Schiff in Florence, who justified vivi- 
section when chloroform or any other anaesthetic 

is used , . . 1873-6 

Kival societies : 1. Society for the abolition of 
vivisection, 1875 ; 2. International Association for 
total suppression of vivisection .... 1876 
Commission (viscount Cardwell, professor Huxley 
and others) to inquire into the practice, appointed 
23 June, 1875 ; report signed, 8 Jan. ; published, 
March, 1876; a bill to regulate vivisection (cruelty 
to animals act) brought into parliament ; strongly 
opposed by the medical profession in general, 
June, July ; passed, 15 Aug. 1876. Vivisectors 
are to have a licence or certificate. 
Resolution in favour of vivisection passed by the 

International Medical Congress, London 9 Aug. 1881 
The prosecution of prof. Ferrier (who had experi- 
mented on the brains of monkeys under anaes- 
thetics) and others failed . . . . ' Nov. ,, 
Dr. Koch, of Berlin, demonstrates that tubercular 
disease can be propagated by organisms termed 

bacilli 1882 

Mr. R. T. Reid's bill to prohibit vivisection, talked 

out 4 April, 1883 

Report for 1883 : Great Britain, 44 licences ; 535 



experiments ; Ireland, 8 licences : 34 experiments ; 
anaesthetics employed when required. 
441 experiments in Great Britain in ... 1884 

Report for 1886 and 1887 : Great Britain 64 
licences. In 1888 55 licences and 1,069 experi- 
ments. 
Instructed by Dr. Ferrier's vivisection experiments, 
Dr. Hughes Bennett localized in a man's brain a 
tumour, which was removed by Mr. Godlee 

25 Nov. 1884 

VIZIANAGRAM, a town in Madras presi- 
dency, formerly a kingdom, among the last bul- 
warks against the Mahomedan invasion, and a 
refuge for Hindoo learning. The sovereigns date 
from the 14th century. See Vedas. 

VIZIER, GRAND, an officer of the Ottoman 
Porte, said to have been first appointed by Amu- 
rath I., about 1386. The office was abolished in 
1838 ; but since been frequently revived and sup- 
pressed ; see Turkey. 

VLADIMIR (central Eussia), a city founded in 
the 1 2th century, and the capital of a grand duchy 
from 1 157 to about 1328. 

VOCALION, a new musical instrument in 
which tones are produced from strings made to 
vibrate by currents of air, the joint invention of Mr. 
James Baillie Hamilton and Mr. John Farmer 
assisted by Mr. Hermann Smith, described and 
illustrated by Mr. Hamilton at the Royal Institu- 
tion, 21 May, 1875, an( l tried successfully at 
Harrow, 23 March, 1882, and soon after at West- 
minster Abbey ; and at other places. 

VOIRON, see Veseronce. 

VOLAPIIK (from ' world ' and ' speak ') , univer- 
sal commercial language invented by M. Schleyer, 
who taught it in Paris in Feb. 1886. The Philological 
Society of London advocated its use in diplomacy 
and science, in 1887. The roots chiefly borrowed 
from Romanic, Germanic, and especially English 
languages shortened. There is a Volapiik Academy 
at Munich, and about 500,000 people are using or 
learning it. 
Mr. C. E. Sprague's handbook of Volapiik 

published Jan. 1888 

Volapiik reported successful and spreading in 

Europe and America ,, 

Mr. P. Hoinix publishes his "Anglo Franca " in 

opposition to Volapiik . . . March, 1889 

VOLCANOES. In different parts of the earth 
there are above 200 volcanoes which have been 
active in modern times ; see Etna, Vesuvius, New 
Zealand, Owhyhee, and Iceland. In Mexico, a plain 
was filled up into a mountain more than a thousand 
feet in height by the burning lava from a volcano, 
in 1759. A volcano in the isle of Ferro broke out 
13 Sept. 1777, which threw out an immense quantity 
of red water, that discoloured the sea for several 
leagues. A new volcano appeared in one of the 
Azore islands, 1 May, 1808. 

VOLHYNIA, a Polish province, annexed to 
Russia 1793. 

VOLSCI, an ancient Latin people, frequently at 
war with the Romans. From their capital, Corioli, 
Caius Martius (who defeated them about 490 B.C.) 
derived his name Coriolanus. The story of his 
banishment by his ungrateful countrymen ; of his 
revenge on them by bringing the Volsci to the gates 
of Rome, yet afterwards sparing the city at the 
entreaties of his mother, Volumnia (487 B.C.), is 
considered by many as a poetical legend. The 
Volsci and their allies were totally defeated at 
Sutrium by the consul Valerius Corvus (346), and 
incorporated with the Roman people about 338. 



VOLSINIL 



1045 



VOLUNTEEKS. 



VOLSINII, the inhabitants of an Etrurian city, 
who, after a sharp contest, were completely over- 
come by the Roman consul Titus Coruncanius, 

280 B.C. 

VOLTAIC PILE or Battery, was con- 
structed by Galvani ; see Galvanism in article 
Electricity. The principle was discovered by Ales- 
sandro Volta, of Como (bom 1745), for thirty years 
professor of natural philosophy at Pavia, and an- 
nounced by him to the Royal Society of London in 
1793. The battery was first set up in 1800. Volta 
was made an Italian count and senator by Napoleon 
Bonaparte, and was otherwise greatly honoured. 
"While young he invented the electrophorus, electric 
pistol, and hydrogen lamp. He died in 1826, aged 
81. The form of the Voltaic battery has been greatly 
improved by the researches of modern philosophers. 
The nitric acid battery of sir W. R. Grove was 
constructed in 1839 ; Alfred Smee's battery in 1840; 
the carbon battery of professor Robert Bunsen in 
1842. The first is very much used in this country ; 
that of Bunsen dn the continent, see Copper-Zinc 
Couple. 

VOLTURNO, a river in S. Italy, near Capua, 
near to which Garibaldi and his followers held a 
strong position. This was furiously assailed by the 
royal troops on 1 Oct. i860, who were finally re- 
pulsed after a desperate struggle, the fiercest in 
which Garibaldi had yet been engaged. He was 
aided greatly by a band of Piedmontese from 
Naples. On 2 Oct. general Bixio completed the 
victory by capturing 2500 fresh Neapolitan troops 
and dispersing others. 

VOLUNTARY CONTRIBUTIONS. Pub- 
lie contributions for the support of the British 
government against the policy and designs of 
France amounted to two millions and a half ster- 
ling in 1798. About 200,000(?. were transmitted to 
England from India in 1799. Sir Robert Peel, of 
Bury, among other contributions of equal amount, 
subscribed 10,000/. Annual Register; see Pa- 
triotic Fund. In 1862 nearly a million pounds were 
subscribed in the British empire for the relief of the 
Lancashire cotton spinners ; see Cotton and Mansion 
House, where voluntary contributions for beneficent 
purposes are continually received. 

VOLUNTEERS were enrolled in England for 
the American war, 1778, and especially in conse- 
quence of the threatened invasion of revolutionary 
France, 1793-4. Besides our large army, and 
85,000 men voted for the sea, we subsidised 40,000 
Germans, raised our militia to 100,000 men, and 
armed the citizens as volunteers; the yeomanry 
formed cavalry regiments. Between 1798 and 1804, 
when this force was of greatest amount, it num- 
bered 410,000, of which 70,000 were Irish ; + Yeo- 
manry in 1884, 11,400. On 26 Oct. 1803, king 



* The first regiment of Irish volunteers was formed 
at Dublin, under command of the duke of Leinster, 12 
Oct. 1779. They armed generally to the amount of 
20,000 men, and received the unanimous thanks of the 
houses of lords and commons in Ireland, for their 
patriotism and spirit, for coming forward and defending 
their country. At the period when the force appeared, 
Irish affairs bore a serious aspect ; manufactures had 
decreased, and foreign trade had been hurt by a pro- 
hibition of the expoi-t of salted provisions and butter. 
No notice of the complaints of the people had been taken 
in the English parliament, when, owing to the alarm of 
an invasion, ministers allowed the nation to arm, and an 
immense force was soon raised. The Irish took this 
occasion to demand a free trade, and government saw 
there was no trifling with a country with anus in its 
hands. The Irish parliament unanimously addressed the 
king for a free trade, and it was granted 1779. 



George III. reviewed in Hyde Park 12,401 London 
volunteers, and on 28 Oct. 14,676 more. The Eng- 
lish volunteers were, according to official accounts, 
341,600 on 1 Jan. 1804; see Naval Volunteers. In 
May, 1859, in consequence of the prevalence of the 
fear of a French invasion, the formation of volun- 
teer corps of riflemen commenced under the auspices 
of the government, and by the end of the year 
many thousands were enrolled in all parts of the 
kingdom. The volunteers were said to be " a force 
potentially the strongest defence of England," 19 
April, 1870 ; see Artillery Association, and Naval 
Artillery Volunteer Force. 

Yeomanry were enrolled by lord Chatham in 1761. 
The present 49 regiments of cavalry (about 300 

each), cost 80,000?. 1870 

The number of yeomanry - 1876, 12,093 ; 1880, 
11,598; 1885, it, 590; 1890, 10,697. 

[The first Middlesex volunteers were formed in 
1803 as the duke of Cumberland's sharpshooters. 
They retained their organisation as a rifle club, 
when other volunteers were disbanded. In 1835 
they were permitted by the duchess of Kent to 
take the name of the Royal Victoria Rifle Club.] 

Circular letter from col. Jonathan Peel, proposing 
organization of National Volunteer Association for 
promoting the practice of Rifle-shooting, 12 May, 
1859. It was established in London, under the 
patronage of the queen and prince consort, Mr. 
Sidney (afterwards lord) Herbert, secretary at 
war, president, and the earl of Derby, earl Spencer, 
lord Elcho, and other noblemen vice-presidents. 
(Annual subscription one guinea, or a composition 
for life of ten guineas) . . . 16 Nov. 1859 

2500 volunteer officers presented to the queen; a 
dinner followed, with the duke of Cambridge in 
the chair; and a ball .... 7 March, i860 

The queen reviews about 18,450 volunteers in 
Hyde-park 23 June, ,, 

[Mr. Tower, of "Weaklhall, Essex, aged 80, was pre- 
sent as a private ; he had been present as an 
officer in a volunteer review in 1803.] 

First meeting of the National Association for rifle- 
shooting held at Wimbledon. The queen fired the 
first shot, a "centre" ; captain Edw. Ros? (North 
York) obtained the queen's prize of 250I. and the 
gold medal and badge of the association 2-7 July, i860 
[M. Thorel, a Swiss, obtained a prize. J 

Successful sham-fight at Bromley, Kent 14 July, ,, 

Above 20,000 volunteers reviewed by the queen at 
Edinburgh 7 Aug. ,, 

Above 10,000 Lancashire volunteers reviewed by 
the earl of Derby at Knowsley . . 1 Sept. „ 

Lord Herbert stated that the association had a 
capital of 3000Z. and an annual income of 1500Z., 

16 Feb. 1861 

Volunteers in Britain estimated at about 160,000, 

May, „ 

Second meeting at Wimbledon ; Mr. Jopling (S. 
Middlesex) gains the queen's prize and the asso- 
ciation medal 4-10 July, „ 

Review of 11,504 volunteers at Wimbledon, 13 July: 
of 9000 at Warwick .... 24 July, ,, 

Registered number of volunteers, 162,681 1 April, 1862 

20,000 volunteers reviewed by lord Clyde at 
Brighton 21 April, 1862 

Third meeting at Wimbledon ; Mr. Pixley (S. Vic- 
toria) gains the queen's prize, <fec. 1-14 July, ' 

A commission recommends that an annual grant of 
either 20s. , 30s. , or 34s. , be given to each volun- 
teer according to circumstances . . Oct. , 

Fourth meeting at Wimbledon, 7 July, &c. : queen's 
prize, <fcc., won by sergeant Roberts (12th Shrop- 
shire) 14 July, 1863 

An act to amend and consolidate the acts relating 
to the volunteer force of Great Britain was passed, 

21 July, ., 
[Annual grant of 30s. to each volunteer autho- 
rised.) 

22,000 volunteers reviewed by the prince of Wales 
in Hyde-nark (great improvement noticed). 

28 May, i£64 

Fifth meeting at Wimbledon, n July. &c; the 
queen's prize, &c, won by private .John Wyatt 
(London rifle brigade) ... 23 July, „ 



VOLUNTEERS. 



1046 



VOLUNTEERS. 



Volunteers estimated at 165,000 in 1864. 

Sixth meeting at Wimbledon, began 11 July; the 
queen's prize was won by private Sharman (4th 
West York), 18 July; the meeting ended with a 
review by the duke of Cambridge . 22 July, 1865 

Seoenth meeting at Wimbledon, began 9 July; 
queen's prize won by Angus Cameron (6th Inver- 
ness), 17 July; the value of about 7000?. distri- 
buted in prizes; and review by duke of Cam- 
bridge 21 July, 1866 

The volunteers reviewed by the prince of Wales at 
Brighton, 2 April; at York, n Aug.; by duke of 
Cambridge at Hyde-park ... 23 June, ,, 

Estimate of volunteers : 135,000 infantry, 27,000 
artillery, and 4000 engineers. — Times . 9 Oct. „ 

About 1 100 volunteers visit Brussels, headed by col. 
Loyd Lindsay : warmly received ; first prize 
gained by Curtis, of the nth Sussex rifles, 

11-22 Oct. ,, 

Parliamentary vote for volunteers, 361,009?. 

6 June, 1867 

Metropolitan and Berkshire volunteers reviewed in 
Windsor Great Park . . . .10 June, ,, 

Eighth meeting at Wimbledon, began 8 July ; Bel- 
gian Garde civique and volunteers (above 2000) 
received by prince of Wales, 13 July; resignation 
of lord Elcho, chairman of the council ; succeeded 
by earl Spencer, 18 July ; grand review by prince 
of Wales, the sultan, cfcc. ; the queen's prize given 
to sergeant Lane (Bristol) by the princess of Teck, 

20 July, ,, 

Grand review in New Sefton park, Liverpool, 5 Oct. „ 

About 28,000 volunteers reviewed by the queen at 
Windsor 20 June, 1868 

Eeview of regulars and volunteers at Edinburgh, 

4 July, „ 

Ninth meeting at Wimbledon, 13 July; the queen's 
prize gained by lieut. Carslake (5th Somerset), 

25 July, ,, 

Lord Elcho re-elected chairman of the council (earl 
Spencer resigned) ..... Feb. 1869 

Memorial to government respecting the capitation 
grant ; signed by noblemen and gentlemen, 

19 Feb. ,, 

Volunteers reported to number 170,000 . . . ,, 

Beview of volunteers of southern and western 
counties at Portsmouth . . 26 April, ,, 

Tenth meeting at Wimbledon 3 July ; queen's prize 
gained by corporal Angus Cameron (6th Inver- 
ness), 2nd time, 13 July; grand review 24 July, 1869 

Volunteers' act, 1863, amended . . 9 Aug. ,, 

'"Army Service. Corps" to be composed of volun- 
teers; established^ by royal warrant 12 Nov. ,, 

Eleventh meeting at Wimbledon, n July; queen's 
prize won by corporal Humphries (6th Surrey), 

ig July, 1870 

Letter from the lord mayor recommending the en- 
largement of the volunteer system, and its greater 
efficiency . . . . - . .22 Sept. „ 

Establishment of an extensive rifle range, drill 
ground, armoury, &c, for the London volunteers 
resolved on 3 Oct. ,, 

Distribution of breech-loaders commenced Nov. ,, 

The volunteers recognised as part of the national 
army 1871 

Lord Elcho (chairman) resigned ; succeeded by the 
earl of Ducie June, ,, 

Twelfth meeting at Wimbledon, 8 July; queen's 
prize won by ensign A. P. Humphry, undergra- 
duate (Cambridge university), aged 19 18 July, 1871 

Vote for volunteer force, 1872-3, 473,200?. 24 June, 1872 

Thirteenth meeting at Wimbledon, 8 July; queen's 
prize won by colour-sergeant Michie (London 
Scottish) 16 July, „ 

The Elcho shield, the International trophy, and the 
Irish International trophy (all won by the Eng- 
lish) placed in the custody of the lord mayor, 

27 July, ,, 

Some volunteers visit Ghent . . 14-21 Sept. 

Fourteenth meeting at Wimbledon, 7 July ; queen's 
prize won by sergeant Robert Mcnzies (1st Edin- 
burgh) I5 July, 1S73 

Volunteers visit Havre ; shoot for prizes ; 50 obtain 
prizes, end of May ; given . . 29 June, 1874 

Fifteenth meeting at Wimbledon, 6 July ; queen's 
prize won by private W. C. Atkinson (1st Durham) 

14 July, ,, 

An "efficient volunteer" defined by order in 



council (substitute for schemes of 27 July, 1863, 
and 15 Oct. 1872) Aug. 1874 

Resignation of earl of Ducie as chairman . April, 1875 

Sixteenth meeting at Wimbledon, 12 July ; queen's 
prize won by capt. George Pearse (15th Devon) 

20 July, ,, 

175,387 enrolled volunteers 1874 ; 181,080, . . ,, 

30,000 volunteers reviewed by the prince of Wales 
in Hyde Park (" complete success." — Times.) 

1 July, 1876 

Seventeenth meeting at Wimbledon, 10-22 July ; 
queen's prize won by sergeant Pullman, 2nd 
(South) Middlesex .... 18 July, „ 

185,501 enrolled volunteers ,, 

Eighteenth meeting at Wimbledon, 9-21 July ; 
queen's prize won by private George Jamieson 
(a Scot), of 15th Lancashire corps (Liverpool) 

17 July, 1877 

Nineteenth meeting at Wimbledon, 8-20 July ; 
queen's prize won by private Peter Ray (a Scot), 
nth Stirling 16 July, 1878 

203,213 enrolled volunteers . . . Nov. ,, 

Twentieth meeting at Wimbledon, 14-26 July ; 
queen's prize won by corporal George Taylor, 
47th Lancashire 22 July, 1879 

International trophy won by England . 19 July, ,, 

Standard of efficiency : 69 per cent. 1863 ; 85 per 
cent. 1868 ; 96 per cent. . . . . . 1880 

Earl Stanhope elected chairman in room of earl 
Wharncliffe May, ,, 

Twenty-first meeting at Wimbledon, 12 — 24 July; 
Queen's prize won by Alexander Ferguson, private 
1st Argyll 21 July, ,, 

East York volunteer artillery corps resign on ac- 
count of dismissal of col. Humphrey (through 
continued personal disagreements), 16 June ; 
resignations said to be illegal . . 29 June, „ 

Sergeant Wm. Marshman, tried by court-martial for 
alleged fraudulent marking at the rifle meetings, 
1878, 1879, 1880, acquitted . 13 Aug. — 16 Sept. „ 

Earl Stanhope, chairman, succeeded by earl Brown- 
low 4 May, 1881 

Above 52,000 volunteers reviewed by the queen at 
Windsor, 9 July. ["A magnificent success ; the 
crowning achievement of the volunteer move- 
ment." — Times, n July] „ 

About 40,000 Scotch volunteers reviewed by the 
queen, in Queen's-park, Edinburgh . .25 Aug. „ 

Twenty-second meeting at Wimbledon, 11-23 July: 
queen's prize won by private Thomas Beck, 3rd 
Devon 19 July, „ 

Twenty-third meeting at Wimbledon, 10 — 22 July ; 
queen's prize won by sergeant Lawrence, 1st 
Dumbarton 18 July, 1882 

Enrolled volunteers, 207,336 . . .1 Nov. ,, 

Twenty-Jonrth meeting at Wimbledon, 9 — 21 July ; 
queen's prize won by sergeant Mackay, 1st 
Sutherland ..... 17 July, 1883 

International rifle match between British and 
Americans : won by British . . 21 July, ,, 

Twenty-fifth meeting at Wimbledon, 14 — 26 July ; 
queen's prize won by private Gallant, 8th Mid- 
dlesex 22 July, 1884 

Volunteers exercised in camping out ; sham conflicts 
in Berkshire and other counties . . Aug. ,, 

Volunteers Forces' Benevolent Association, inau- 
gurated 6 July, 1885 

Twenty-sixth meeting at Wimbledon, 13 — 25 July; 
queen's prize won by sergeant Bulmer, 2nd Lin- 
coln 21 July, ,, 

Twenty-seventh meeting at Wimbledon, 12-24 July ; 
queen's prize won by private Jackson, of 1st 
V. B. Lincoln (one of three ties) . 21 July, 1886 

Enrolled volunteers, 224,012, Nov. 1885 ; 226,752 

Nov. ,, 

28,000 volunteers reviewed by the queen at Bucking- 
ham palace ; inarch past in i\ hours . 2 July, 1887 

Twenty-eighth meeting at Wimbledon, 11-23 July! 
queen's prize won by lieut. R. 0. Warren, 1st 
Middlesex, (Victoria) rifles, Middlesex 19 July, ,, 

Lord Wantage elected chairman, 1887 ; active in 
search of a site in place of Wimbledon . . . 188S 

Order issued for the formation of 95,000 volunteers 
into 19 brigades for immediate mobilisation for 
home defence 3 July, „ 

Twenty-ninth meeting at Wimbledon, 9-21 July ; 
queen's prize won by private Fulton, 13th 
Middlesex (queen's Westminsters) rifles, 17 July, „ 



VOLUNTEERS. 



1047 



YULGATE. 



Brookwood to be called Bisley common, chosen for 
1890 28 Feb. 

Estimated grant for 220,000 men, 742,700?. April, 

Thirtieth meeting at Wimbledon . . 8-20 July, 

Queen's prize won by sergeant Eeid (1st Lanark 
Engineers) 16 July, 

Patriotic volunteer fund started by lord mayor 
Whitehead in the spring ; he appeals for sub- 
scriptions for the full equipment of a citizen 
.army, equal to that of the regulars. The prince of 
Wales 105L, 1 June ; the queen 200L 2 July ; many 
others ; about 42,000?. subscribed . 20 Nov. 

Enrolled volunteers, 224,021 . . . 1 Nov. 

Oapt. St. John Mildmay, secretary since i860, re- 
signs, 6 Sept. ; succeeded by Mr. A. P. Humphry, 

Nov. 

"The council determines to appeal to the public for 
funds, and to obtain a charter of incorporation, 
11 Feb. ; this was granted and signed by the 
queen . .... 25 Nov. 

Parliament votes 100,000?. for volunteer equipment, 

17 April, 

Thirty-first meeting (the first at Bisley common), 
12-26 July ; the camp opened, the prince and 
princess of Wales and the duke of Cambridge 
present ; the princess fired the first shot, a 
"bull's eye" 12 July, 

•Queen's prize won by sergeant Bates (1st Warwick), 

22 July, 

Meeting very successful 

[The Rifle Association includes 76 county asso- 
ciations in Great Britain, 4 in Ireland, and 64 
in India and the colonies.] 

Enrolled volunteers, 221,048 ... 31 Oct. 

Keview of about 25,000 volunteers at Wimbledon 
by the German emperor . . . n July, : 

Thirty-second meeting (the second at Bisley com- 
mon) 13-24 July, 

Queen's prize w x on by private D. Dear (Queen's 
Edinburgh) 21 July, 

Thirty-third meeting (the third at Bisley common), 
n-23 July ; Queen's prize won by major Pollock 
(3rd Renfrew) 23 July, 

""The Volunteer Officers' Decoration" (an oak 
wreath in silver tied with gold, having in the 
centre the royal cipher and crown in gold) for 
commissioned officers who have served 20 years, 
instituted by the queen ... 25 July, 

About 13,000 volunteers engaged in the army 
manoeuvres Aug. 



EASTER MONDAY REVIEWS AND SHAM FIGHTS. 

Brighton . . 21 April, 1862, and 5 April, 1863 

Guildford 28 March, 1864 

Brighton . . 17 April, 1865 ; and 2 April, 1866 

Dover 22 April, 1867 

Portsmouth (the most successful hitherto, 29,490 

volunteers present) . . . 13 April, 1868 

Dover (bad weather) .... 29 March, 1869 

Brighton, 18 April, 1870; (considered a failure) 

10 April, 1871 

Mock battle between sir Arthur Hors- 

ford (12,180 men, 22 guns) and gen. Lysons (11,082 

men, 20 guns) 1 April, 1872 

Small reviews at Wimbledon and other places, 
14 April, 1873 ; 6 April, 1874 ; 29 March, 1S75 ; 
atTring, &c, 17 April, 1876 ; at Dunstable, &c. , 2 
April, 1877; at Staines, &c. , 22 April, 1878; at 
Dover, Reigate, Wimbledon, &c, 14 April, 1879 ; 
Brighton, battle, successful ; 29 March, 1S80 ; 
18 April, 1881 ; Portsmouth, 20,000 ("Genuine 
success," Times), 10 April, 1882 ; Brighton (evolu- 
tions very successful), 26 March, 1883 ; Dover, 
Portsmouth, &C, (i2-)i4 April, 1884; Brighton 
and Dover, 6 April, 1885 ; at Dover, Portsmouth, 
Colchester &c, 26 April, 1886; successful mili- 
tary operations at Dover, Eastbourne, and 
Aldershot, 11 April, 1887 ; campaign operations 
and battles, invasions, &c. at Portsmouth, 
Dover, Eastbourne &c, 30, 31 March; battles: 
invaders successful at Portsmouth . 2 April, 1888 
Meetings fur brigade drill, &c, Eastbourne, Ports- 
mouth, Dover, Brighton, and other places, 
22 April, 1889; Folkestone, Eastbourne, Ports- 
mouth, &c, 7 April, 1890. Portsmouth, hover, 
Brighton, <fcc, 30 March, 1891. At Dover, battle 



of St. Margaret's ; invaders under col. J. C. 
Russel, defenders under col. J. B. Sterling. At 
Chatham, battle of the Bells ; invaders under 
lieut. gen. Goodenough, defenders under major- 
gen. Dawson Scott .... 18 April, 1892- 

Elcho Challenge Shield, shot for by teams, 
and kept by the winning nation : 

Won by England: 1862, 1863, 1865, 1867, 1868, 1870, 
1871. 1872, 1876, 1881 (July 22), 1882 (July 20), 
1885 (July 23), 1887 (July 21), 1891 (July 23). 

Scotland: 1864, 1866, 1869, 1874, 1879 (July 24). 

Ireland : 1873, 1875, 1877, 1878, 1880 (July 22), 
1883 (July 19), 1884 (July 24), 1886 (July 22), 1888 
(July 19), 1889 (July 18), 1890 (24 July), 1892, (23 
July). 

Volunteer Medical Staff Corps established, announced 

23 March, 1885 

VOSSEM, PEACE OF, between the elector of 
Brandenburg and Louis XIV. of France ; the latter 
engaged not to assist the Dutch against the elector ; 
signed 6 June, 1673. 

VOTING PAPEES. See Dodson's Act. The 

proposal to use them was negatived in the debates 
on reform in 1867; adopted by the ballot act in 1873. 
See Ballot. 

VOUGLE or VOTJILLE, S.W. France (near 
Poitiers), where Alaric II., king of the Visigoths, 
was defeated and slain by Clovis, king of France, 
507, who subdued the whole country from the Loire 
to the Pyrenees. A peace followed between the 
Franks and Visigoths, who had been settled above 
one hundred years in that part of Gaul called 
Septimania. Clovis soon afterwards made Paris 
his capital. 

VOYAGES. It is mythically stated that by 
order of Pharaoh-Necho, of Egypt, some Phoenician 
pilots sailed from Egypt down the Arabian Gulf, 
round what is now called the Cape of Good Hope, 
entered the Mediterranean by the Straits of Gib- 
raltar, coasted along the north of Africa, and at 
length arrived in Egypt, after a navigation of 
about three years, 604 B.C. Herodotus. The first 
voyage round the world was made by a ship, part 
of a Spanish squadron which had been under the 
command of Magellan (who was killed at the 
Philippine Islands in a skirmish) in 1519-20 ; 
see Circumnavigators, North-West Passage, and 
Periplus. 

VOYSEY ESTABLISHMENT FUND. 

The Rev. Charles Voysey having been deprived for 
heresy (see Church of England, 187 1), began a series 
of services at St. George's hall, Langham-place, 1 Oct. 
1871. The fund for their maintenance was supported 
by Bp. Hinds of Norwich (retired), Sir John Bow- 
ring, and other eminent liberals. He termed his 
congregation a "Theistic Church." 

VULCAN, see Planets. The Greek god He- 
phaistos answered to the Roman Vulcan. 

VULCANITE (vulcanised india-rubber), also 
termed Ebonite. 

VULGATE (from vulgatus, published), a remi 
applied to the Latin version of the Scriptures 
which is authorised by the council of Trent (1546), 
and which is attributed to St. Jerome, about 384. 
The older version, called the Italic, is said to have 
been made in the beginning of the 2nd century. A 
critical edition was printed by order of pope SixtusV. 
in 1590, which, being considered inaccurate, was 
superseded by the edition of pope Clement VIII. in 
1592. The earliest printed vulgate is without date, 
by Grutenburg and Fust, probably about 1455, tho, 
first dated (Fust and Schooner) is 1462. 



w. 



WACHT. 



WAHABEES. 



WACHT DES DEUTSCHEN VATEE- 
LAND ("Watch of the German Fatherland"). 
German national hymn, by Eeichardt, first per- 
formed 2 Aug. 1825. Very popular during the war 
1870-71. 

WADHAM COLLEGE (Oxford). Founded 
by Nicholas Wadham, and Dorothy, his wife, in 
1613. In this college, in the chambers of Dr. Wil- 
kins (over the gateway), the founders of the Eoyal 
Society frequently met prior to 1658. 

WAGEB OF BATTLE, see Appeal. 

WAGES m ENGLAND. The wages of 
sundry workmen were first fixed by act of parlia- 
ment 25 Edw. III. 1350. Haymakers had but one 
penny a day. Master carpenters, masons, tilers, 
and other coyerers of houses, had not more than 3^. 
per day (about gd. of our money) ; and their ser- 
vants, i\d. Viner's Statutes.* 

By the 23 Henry VI. the wages of a bailiff of hus- 
bandry was 23s. 4& per annum, and clothing of 
the price of 5s. with meat and drink ; chief hind, 
carter, or shepherd, 20s. , clothing, 4s. ; common 
servant of husbandry, 15s. , clothing, 40^. ; woman- 
servant, ios., clothing, 4s 1444 

By the u Henry VII., a like rate of wages with a 
little advance: as, for instance, a free mason, 
master carpenter, rough mason, bricklayer, mas- 
ter tiler, plumber, glazier, carver or joiner, was 
allowed from Easter to Michaelmas to take 6d. a 
day without meat and drink; or, with meat and 
drink, ^d. ; from Michaelmas to Easter, to abate 



id. A master having under him six men was 
allowed a id. a day extra . . ■ ■ ■ ■ I4 95 
Agricultural labourers per week : "Warwickshire, 
3s. 6d. and 4s. ; Devonshire, 5s. ; Suflolk, 5s. ana 
6s. ; wool-weavers, about 3s. and 4s. (Macanlay) 

about 1085, 

In 1866 the annual amount of wages paid in the 
United Kingdom was estimated by Mr. Gladstone 
at 250,000,000?. ; by Mr. Bass at 350,000,000?. ; and 
by professor Leone Levi at 418,300,000!., earned 
by 10,697,000 workers, ages 20 to 60. 

In 1872-8 many trades struck for increase of wages,, 
and frequently were successful; in 1877-9, unsuc- 
cessful . 

In 1878 professor Levi estimated that 503,000,000?. 
were earned (by men, 390,000,000?. ; by women.. 
113,000,000?.); after deducting for holidays, &c, 
422,700,000?. 

He says, that "In no other country are wages more- 
liberal, but in no other country are they more 
wastefully used." See Strikes. 

Payment of wages in public-houses prohibited by 
act passed in . . .,;„:.. . . . 1883 

Classified census of wages paid in the United King- 
dom in 1885, published by the Board of Trade at 
various times ; part iv. in 1892. 



1824 
1837 



1872 



LABOURERS WAGES 

PER WEEK. 

S. d. 

• 7 7 • 
.80. 
.06. 



WAGES OF HARVEST-MEN IN ENGLAND AT DIFFERENT PERIODS. 



Year. 


s. d. 


Year. 


s. d. 


Year. 


In 1350 


. per diem 1 


In 1 716 


per diem 9 


In 1800 


1460 . 


,, 02 


1740 . 


,, 10 


1811 . 


1568 . 


04 


1760 


,, 10 


1850 . 


1632 . 


6 


1788 . 


» 14 


1857 ■ 


1688 


08 


1794 


1 6 


Since then incr 



PER QUARTER. 

s. d. 

62 o 

• 55 10 

• 53 3 
. 48 2 

• 57 1 

s. d.. 

. per diem 2 o 

„ 2 ih 

3° 

50 



WAGGONS were rare in the last century. 
They, with carts, &c, not excepting those used in 
agriculture, were taxed in 1783. The carriers' 
waggons are now nearly superseded by the rail- 
ways. 

WAGHOENS NEW OVEELAND 

EOUTE TO INDIA. Lieut. Waghorn devoted 
a large portion of his life to connect India with 
England. On 31 Oct. 1845, he arrived in London, 
by a new route, with the Bombay mail of the 1st of 
that month. His despatches reached Suez on the 
19th, and Alexandria on the 20th, whence he pro- 
ceeded by steamboat to a place twelve miles nearer 
London than Trieste. He hurried through Austria, 
Baden, Bavaria, Prussia, and Belgium, and reached 
London at half-past four on the morning of the 
first-mentioned day. The authorities of the differ- 
ent countries through which he passed eagerly 
facilitated his movements. The ordinary express, 
viu Marseilles, reached London 2 Nov. following. 
Mr. Waghorn subsequently addressed a letter to 
the Times newspaper, in which he stated that in a 
couple of years he would bring the Bombay mail to 
London in 21 days. He died 8 Jan. 1850. On 
3 Feb. 1884, at a meeting at the Mansion -house, 

* Mr. J. E. Thorold Rogers, "Six Centuries of Work 
and Wages," published in 1884. 



London, it was determined to erect a national 

monument to his mem or . 

The Overland Mail, which had left Bombay on 1 Dec. 
1845, arrived early on the 30th in London, by way of 
Marseilles and Paris. The speedy arrival was owing 
to the great exertions made by the French government 
to show that the route through Fiance was shorter 
and better. 

WAGNEEISM, see under Music. 

WAGE AM, a village near Vienna, where 
Napoleon I. totally defeated the archduke Charles, 
5, 6 July, 1809. The slaughter on both sides was 
dreadful ; 20,000 Austrians were taken by the 
French, and the defeated army retired to Moravia. 
An armistice was signed on the 12th; and on 24 
Oct., by a treaty of peace, Austria ceded all her 
sea-coast to France; the kingdoms of Saxony and 
Bavaria were enlarged at her expense ; part of 
Poland in Galicia was ceded to Russia ; and Joseph 
Bonaparte was recognised as king of Spain. 

WAHABEES or WAHABITES, a warlike 
Mahometan reforming sect, considering themselves 
the only true followers of the prophet, established 
themselves in Arabia about 1750, under the rule of 
Abd-el-Wahab, who died 1787. His grandson, 
Saoud, in 1801, defeated an expedition headed by 
the caliph of Bagdad. In 1803 this sect seized 



WAHLSTATT. 



1049 



WALES. 



Mecca and Medina, and continued their conquests, 
although their chief was assassinated in the midst 
of his victories. His son, Abdallah, long resisted 
Mahommed Ali, pacha of Egypt, but in 1818 was 
defeated and taken prisoner by Ibrahim Pacha, who 
sent him to Constantinople, where he was put to 
death. The sect, now nourishing, is well described 
by Mr. W. Giftbrd Palgrave, in his "Journey and 
.Residence in Arabia in 1862-3," published in 
1865. It is influential in India, and is suspected 
of a tendency to insurrection. 

WAHLSTATT, see Katzbach. 

WAIFS and STEAYS (children). Church 
of England Central Society for providing Homes 
for Waifs and Strays, founded 1882. The society 
was very active itr 1892, being supported by the 
bishops and clergy. 

WAITS, the night minstrels who perform shortly 
before Christmas. The name was given to the 
musicians attached to the king's court. We find 
that a company of waits was established at Exeter 
in 1400 to " pipe the watch." The waits in London 
and Westminster were long officially recognised by 
the corporation. 

WAKEFIELD (W. Yorkshire), an ancient 
town. Near it a battle was fought between the ad- 
herents of Margaret, the queen of Henry VI., and 
the duke of York, in which the latter was slam, and 
3000 Yorkists fell upon the field, 31 Dec. 1460. The 
earl of W ar wick supported the cause of the duke's 
son, the earl of March, afterwards Edward IV., 
and the civil war was continued. An art and indus- 
trial exhibition was opened at Wakefield, 30 Aug. 
1865. The Bishoprics act, authorising the establish- 
ment of a see at Wakefield, was passed 16 Aug. 1878. 
The required funds subscribed Jan. 1888. Popula- 
tion, 188 1, 30,854 ; 1891,33,146. 
Bishopric founded by the queen, 17 May, 1888; the 
Rev. W. W. How (suffragan bishop of Bedford) 
appointed first bishop .... Feb. 1888 

WAKES, the ancient parish festivals on the saint' s 
day to commemorate the dedication of the church ; 
regulated in 1536, but gradually became obsolete. 

WALBEOOK CHUECH (London), a master- 
piece of sir Christopher Wren, completed in 1679. 
There was a church here in 1 135, and a new church 
was erected in 1429. 

WALCHEEEN (an island at the mouth of the 
Scheldt, Holland). The unfortunate expedition of 
the British to this isle in 1809 consisted of 35 ships 
of the line, and 200 smaller vessels, principally 
transports, and 40,000 land forces, the latter under 
the command of the earl of Chatham, and the fleet 
under sir Richard Strachan. For a long time the 
destination of the expedition remained secret ; but 
before 28 July, 1809, when it set sail, the French 
journals had announced that Walcheren was the 
point of attack. Flushing was invested in August; 
a dreadful bombardment followed, and the place was 
taken 15 Aug. ; but no suggestion on the part of the 
naval commander, nor urging on the part of the 
officers, could induce the carl to A'igorous action, 
until the period of probable success was gone, and 
necessity obliged him to return with as many of the 
troops as disease and an unhealthy climate had 
spared. The place was evacuated, 23 Dec. 1809. The 
house of commons instituted an inquiry, and lord 
Chatham resigned his post of master-general of the 
ordnance, to prevent greater disgrace ; but the 
policy of ministers in planning the expedition was, 
nevertheless, approved. The following epigram, of 



which various readings exist, appeared at the 
time : — 

"Lord Chatham [or the warrior earl] with [his] sabre 
drawn, 

Stood waiting for sir Richard Strachan ; 

Sir Richard, longing [or eager] to be at 'em, 

Stood waiting for the earl of Chatham." 

WALDECK ANT, PYEMONT, united Ger- 
man principalities, established in 1682. The late- 
reigning family claim descent from the Saxon hero, 
Witikind, who flourished about 772. Prince George 
Victor, bom 14 Jan. 1831, succeeded Ms father, 
George, 15 May, 1845. Heir: Frederic, son, born 
20 Jan. 1865. On 22 Oct. 1867, the states ap- 
proved a treaty of annexation, and the adminis- 
tration was transferred to Prussia, 1 Jan. 1868. 

WALDENSES (also called Valdenses, Vallen- 
ses, and Vaudois), a sect inhabiting the Cottian 
Alps, derives its name, according to some authors,, 
from Peter de Waldo, of Lyons (1 1 70) . They had a. 
translation of the Bible. The Waldenses settled in 
the valleys of Piedmont about 1375, but were fre- 
quently dreadfully persecuted, especially in the 17th 
century, when Charles I. of England interceded for 
them (1627-9) and Oliver Cromwell by threats. 
(1655-6) obtained them some degree of toleration. 
All the Waldensian Barbes or pastors, save two, 
died in the great plague of 1630. Gilles and Gros 
went to Geneva and Lausanne for Swiss Calvinist 
ministers to fill the vacancies. The new ministers- 
were no sooner inducted than thty deposed the 
surviving Barbes and abolished all the distinctive 
teaching and usages of the community, substituting- 
the Genevese model. They were permitted to have 
a church at Turin, Dec. 1853. In March, 1868, it 
was stated that there were in Italy 28 ordained. 
Waldensian ministers, and 30 other teachers. 

WALES,' Cambria, Cymru, the land of the 
Cymry, called by the Romans Britannia Secunda. 
Welsh and Wales are corruptions of Teutonic 
epithets applied to foreigners, especially Gauls, 
After the Roman emperor Honorius gave up Britain, 
Vortigem was elected king of South Britain. He 
invited over the Saxons to defend his country 
against the Picts and Scots ; but the Saxons per- 
fidiously sent for reinforcements, consisting of 
Saxons, Danes, and Angles, by which they made 
themselves masters of South Britain. Many of the 
Britons retired to Wales, and defended themselves 
against the Saxons, in their inaccessible mountains, 
about 447. In this state Wales remained uncon- 
quered till Henry II. subdued South Wales in 1157 ; 
and in 1282 Edward I. entirely reduced the whole 
country, an end being put to its independence by the 
death "of Llewelyn, the last prince* In 1284 the 
queen gave birth to a son at Caernarvon, whom Ed- 
ward styled prince of Wales, now title of the heir to- 
the crown of Great Britain. Wales was united and 
incorporated with England by act of parliament, 
1536 ; see Britain, Bards and Population: 1891, 
1,518,914. 
Ostorius Scapula, proprietor of Britain, defeats the 

Cymry a.d. 50 

The supreme authority in Britannia Secunda in- 
trusted to Suetonius Paulinas, who caused deso- 
lating wars 58-61 

* The statute of Wales, enacted at Rhuddlan, 10 March, 
1284 (or March, 1283), alleges that— " Divine Providence 
hasnow removed Till obstacles, and transferred wholly 
and entirely to the king's dominion the land of Wales and 
its inhabitants, heretofore subject unto him in feudal 
right," The ancient laws were to be preserved in civil 
causes; lint the law of inheritance was 1,1 l.e changed, 
and the English criminal law to be put in force. Annals 
of England. 



WALES. 



1050 



WALES. 



"Conquests by Julius Frontinus 70 

The Silures totally defeated . ,, 
The Roman, Julius Agricola, commands in Britain . 78 
Bran ab Llyr, the Blessed, dies about . . . . 80 
The Druidieal class gradually dissolved by the influ- 
ence of Christianity in 300-400 

The Britons defeat the Saxons .... 447-448 

Vortigern kiag 448 

The renowned Arthur elected king . . about 500 

Defeats Saxons about 527 

•Cadwallawn, king of Gwynedd, defeated and slain 

by the Saxons at Denisburn . . . about 634 
Dyvnwal Moelmud, said to have come from Armo- 
rica, and to have established his authority west 
of the Tamar and Severn as king of the Cymry 

about 640 

Keign of Roderic the Great 844 

33e unites the petty states into one principality; 

his death 877 

Division of Wales — into north, south, and central 

(or Powys-land) . . , ,, 

The Welsh princes submit to Alfred . . . 885 

The Danes land in Anglesey 900 

laws enacted by Howel Da, prince of all Wales, 

about 920 

Athelstan subdues the Welsh 933 

■Civil wars at his death about 948 

■Great battle between the sons of Howel Da and 
the sons of Idwal Voel ; the latter victorious . 954 

Edgar invades Wales about 973 

Devastations committed by Edwin, the son of 

Eineon 980 

Danes invade Wales ; lay Anglesey waste, &c. 

980-1000 
The country reduced by Aedan, prince of North 

Wales 1000 

Aedan, the usurper, slain in battle by Llewelyn . 1015 
Part of Wales laid waste by the forces of Harold . 1063 
William I. claims feudal authority over Wales . . 1070 
Rbys ab Owain kills king Bleddyn, 1073 ; defeated 

and slain 1077 

■Ravaging invasion of Hugh, earl of Chester . 1079-80 
Invasion of the Irish and Scots .... 1080 

William I. invades Wales 1081 

Battle of Lleehryd 1087 

i[In this conflict the sons of Bleddyn ab Cynvyn 
were slain by Rhys ab Tewdwr, the reigning 
prince.] 
Rhys ab Tewdwr slain ; S. Wales conquered by the 

English 1090 

invasion of the English under William II. . 1005-7 
The settlement in Wales of a colony of Flemings . 1106 
Violent seizure of Nest, wife of Gerald de Windsor, 

by Owain, son of Cadwgan ab Bleddyn . . . 1108 
Cardigan conquered by Strongbow .... 1109 

Cadwgan assassinated 1112 

druffydd ab Rhys lays claim to the sovereignty . 1113 
Another body of Flemings settle in Pembrokeshire ,, 
|The posterity of these settlers are still distinguished 
from the ancient British population by their lan- 
guage, manners, and customs.] 
Civil war in South Wales and Powysland leads to 
the subjugation of the country by the English ; 
Henry I. erects castles in Wales. . . 1114 et seq. 
■Owain killed in battle with Gerald de Windsor . 1116 
Revolt of Owen Gwynedd on the death of Hen. I. ; 

part of South Wales laid waste . . . -1135 
The English defeated in several battles . . . 1136 
Strongbow, earl of Pembroke, invested with the 

powers of a count palatine in Pembroke . .1138 
Henry II. invades Wales, receives a stout resistance 

from Owen Gwynedd, but subdues S. Wales . . 1157 
Confederacy of the princes of Wales for the recovery 

of their independence H64 

iPrince Madoc said to have emigrated to America 1169 
(Southey's epic "Madoc "is based on the tradi- 
tion.) 

Anglesey devastated II?3 

The crusades preached in Wales by Baldwin, arch- 
bishop of Canterbury . . ... . _ jjgg 

The earl of Chester's inroad into North Wales . . 1210 
King John invades Wales, laying waste a great part 
of the principalities ; exacts tribute and alle- 
giance I2II 

The pope incites the Welsh to resist John . . 1212 

Revolt of the Flemings I22 o 

Xjlewelyn, prince of North Wales, commits great 
ravages ; overcomes Henry III 1228 



The earl of Pembroke and othernobles join Llewelyn 

against Henry III., 1233 ; a truce . . . . 1234 
Prince David ravages the marches, &c. . . . 1244 

Invasion of Henry III 1245 

Anglesey cruelly devastated by the English Sept. „ 
Llewelyn ap Griffith, the last prince . . . 1246 
Welsh princes combine against the English . . 1256 
Great invasion of the English ; threatened extermi- 
nation of the Welsh, compelled to retreat with 
loss ..... ... 1257 

Welsh offers of peace refused .... 1257-62 

Llewelyn's incursions into English territory. . 1263 
Reported conference between him and Simon de 

Montfort against the Plantagenets . . . 1265 
Llewelyn does homage to Henry III. for a treaty 

Sept. 1267 
Edward I. summons Llewelyn to Westminster ; 
on his refusal to come, deposes him, 1276 ; and 

invades Wales June, 1277 

Llewelyn submits and obtains good terms 10 Nov. ,, 
He marries Eleanor de Montfort . . 13 Oct. „ 
The sons of Gruffydd treacherously drowned in the 
river Dee, by the earl Warrenne and Roger 
Mortimer ; great insurrection .... 1281 
Hawarden castle taken by surprise by Llewelyn and 
his brother David, 21 March ; they destroy Flint 
and Rhuddlan castles. Fruitless negotiations 

Nov. 1282 
Battle between Llewelyn and the English near Aber 
Edw : Llewelyn slain, after the battle, by Adam 

Frankton 11 Dec. ,, 

Prince David surrenders, and is executed . . 1283 

Wales finally subdued by Edward I ,, 

The first English prince of Wales, son of Edward, 
born at Caernarvon castle (see Princes of Wales, 

p. 1051) 25 April, 1284 

Statute of Wales (see p. 1049) enacted . 19 March, ,, 
Many insurrections suppressed and the leaders 

executed . 1287-1320 

Great rebellion of Owain Glyndwr, or Owen 
Glendower (descendant of the last prince, 

Llewelyn), commences 1400 

Radnor and other places taken by Owain Glyndwr 1401 
Allies with the Scots and the Percies : besieges 

Caernarvon 1402 

And seizes Harlech castle 1404 

Makes a treaty with France . . to May, „ 

Harlech castle retaken by the English forces . . 1407 
Loses his allies by their defeat at Bramham moor 

19 Feb. 1408 
Ravages the English territories .... 1409 
Refuses to ask for terms or submit ; dies 21 Sept. 1415 

His son submits 24 Feb. -1416 

Margaret of Anjou, queen of Henry VI., takes 

refuge in Harlech castle 1459 

Town of Denbigh burnt 1460 

The earl of Richmond, afterwards Henry VII., lands 

in Pembroke, and is aided by the Welsh Aug. 1485 
Palatine jurisdictions in Wales abolished by Henry 

VIII 1535 

Monmouth made an English county; counties of 

Brecknock, Denbigh, and Radnor formed . . ,, 
Act for " laws and justice to be administered in 
Wales in same form as in England," 27 Henry 

VIII „ 

Wales incorporated into England by parliament . 1536 

Divided into twelve counties 1543 

Dr. Ferrar, bishop of St. David's, burnt at the stake 

for heresy 30 March, 1555 

Lewis Owain, a baron of the exchequer, attacked 

and murdered while on his assize tour . . . „ 
The bible and prayer-book ordered to be translated 
into Welsh, and divine service to be performed in 

that language 1562 

Welsh bible printed 1588 

First congregation of dissenters assembled in Wales ; 

Vavasour Powel apprehended while preaching . 1620 
Beaumaris castle garrisoned for king Charles I. . 1642 
Powys castle taken by sir Thos. Myddelton Oct. 1644 
Dr. Laud, formerly bishop of St. David's, beheaded 

on Tower hill 10 Jan. 1645 

Surrender of Hawarden castle to the parliament 

general Mytton ,, 

Charles I. takes refuge in Denbigh „ 

Rhuddlan castle surrenders ,, 

Harlech castle surrenders to Cromwell's army under 
Mytton 1647 



"WALES. 



1051 



WALES. 



Battle of St. Fagan's ; the "Welsh defeated by col. 
Horton, Cromwell's lieutenant . . 8 May, 1648 

Beaumaris castle surrenders to Cromwell . „ 

Pembroke castle taken ; Colonel Poyer shot, 25 Apr.* 1649 

The lords marchers court suppressed . . . 1688 

" Charitable society of Ancient Britons " and Welsh 
charity schools, established (now at Ashford) . 171 5 

Cymmrodorioil Society (for charitable purposes), 
established 1751-81 

The French land in Pembrokeshire, and are made 
prisoners Feb. 1797 

Rebecca or "Becea" riots broke out against toll- 
gates, Feb. ; an old woman, a toll-keeper, was 
murdered, 10 Sept. ; many persons were tried and 
punished Oct. 1843 

Cambrian Archajological Association founded . 1846 

Subscriptions begun for a university in Wales Dec. 1863 

A national unsectarian University college at 
Aberystwyth opened . . . . 9 Oct. 1872 

Great strike of colliers in S. Wales, 1 Jan. ; ends 
about 27 March, 1873 

Cymmrodorion society, to promote literature and 
art, re-established 1877 

Great distress in South Wales through decay of 
coal trade by strikes and commercial depression 1877-8 

" Rebecca " riots ; people of Rhayader on the Wye 
capture fish out of season illegally ; and resist the 
water bailiffs .... Dec. 1878-Jan. 1879 

Welsh Sunday closing act 1881 

A Cambrian academy of arts settled to be esta- 
blished at Llandudno .... Jan. 1882 

A university college of South Wales and Monmouth- 
shire established at Cardiff ; professors appointed 
6 Sept. ; opened 4 Oct. 1883 

North Wales university college, Bangor, opened, 

18 Aug. 1884 

The college at Aberystwith burnt ; prof. Mac- 
pherson and three others perish ; damage about 
50,000^ night, 8, 9 July, 1885 

Proposed disestablishment of the church negatived 
in the commons (241-229) . . 9 March, 1886 

Anti-tithe league formed ; intimidation of payers, 

Aug. -Sept. ,, 

Tithe riots at Mochdre, Clwyd ; many injured ; 
suppressed by military and police . 16 June, 1887 

Three weeks Are on Ruabon and Berwyn mountains ; 
extinguished after much destruction of life and 
game 25 July, ,, 

Inauguration of the national council of Wales at 
Aberystwith ; disestablishment and disendow- 
ment of the church, home rule &c. advocated, 
Stuart Rendel, M.P. president, 7 Oct. 1887 ; 
annual meeting at Newtown . . 8 Oct. ,, 

Formation of a Welsh land league advocated in 
America ; this league issues a manifesto 24 Dec. „ 

A Welsh clergy defence association formed about 

Nov. „ 

Marquis of Abergavenny v. bishop of Llandaff; 
after much litigation, verdict for the bishop who 
had refused to induct the rev. Robert W. Gosse 
into a living, being ignorant of the Welsh 
language 22 Feb. 1888 

Death of Henry Richard " M.P. for Wales," ardent 
nonconformist and peace advocate . 20 Aug. „ 

1,000 miles of road freed from toll in S. Wales by 
local government act .... 2 April, 1889 

Mr. Dillwyn's motion for disestablishment of the 
church in Wales, rejected by the commons 
(284-231) 14 May, ,, 



* At the commencement of the civil war, Pembroke 
■castle was the only Welsh fortress in the possession of 
the parliament, and it was entrusted to the command of 
col. Laugharne. In 1648, he, and colonels Powel and 
Poyer, embraced the cause of the king, and made 
Pembroke their head-quarters ; after the defeat at 
St. Fagan's, they retired to the castle, followed by an 
army led by Cromwell. They capitulated, after having 
endured great sufferings from want of water. Laugharne, 
Powel, and Poyer were tried by a court-martial, ami 
condemned to death ; but Cromwell having been induced 
to spare the lives of two of them, it was ordered that 
they should draw lots for the favour, and three papers 
were folded up, on two of which were written tlie words, 
"Life given by God;" the third was left blank. The 
latter was drawn by Colonel Poyer, Who was shot in 
London accordingly on the above-mentioned day, after 
long imprisonment. Penna/iit. 



The Welsh Intermediate Education act passed, 

12 Aug. 

Visit of the queen ; arrives at Llanderfell, Merio- 
nethshire (resides at Pale, seat of Mr. Henry 
Robertson), 23 Aug. ; went to Bala, 23 Aug. ; to 
Wrexham, 24 Aug. ; leaves Llangollen . 27 Aug. 

•Welsh Dialect society, prince Louis Lucien Bona- 
parte, president, established, reported . April, 

Great strike of railway servants at Cardiff (see 
Strikes) 7-15 Aug. 

Tithes collected by the help of the military . Aug. 

The duke of Clarence visits South Wales, 

15-18 Sept. 

Dr. Edward Thomas, of Manchester, bequeaths 
39,500^ to University College of North Wales, 
announced Oct. 

Mr. David Evans, the first Welsh lord mayor of 
London in the century ... 9 Nov. 

Proposed dis-establishment of the church in Wales 
negatived by the commons (235 — 203), 20 Feb. 
1891 ; again negatived (267 — 220) . . 23 Feb. 



877. 
943 



985 
992. 
998 
1015 
1023 
1039. 
1067 

i°73 
1079, 
H37 



1194. 
1240. 
1246. 



1301. 

1343 
1376. 
'399- 
H54' 

1471, 

1483, 



SOVEREIGNS OF WALES. 

Cadwallawn, king of Gwynedd. 

Cadwaladr, his son. 

Idwal, son. 

Rhodri, or Roderic ; heroic defender. 

Cynan and Howel, sons ; incessant war. 

Mervyn ; son-in-law, and Essyllt (wife). 

Roderic the Great, son. 

CES OF GWYNEDD OR NORTH WALES AND FREQUENTLY 
OF ALL WALES. 

Anarawd, son of Roderic. 

Idwal Voel. 

Howel Da the Good, prince of all Wales. 

Iefan and Iago ; sons of Idwal. 

Howel ap Iefan, the Bad. 

Cadwallon, brother. 

Meredith ap Owen ap Howel Da. 

Idwal ap Meyric ap Idwal Voel : able, brave. 

Aedan, a usurper. 

Llewelyn ap Sitsyllt, good sovereign. 

Iago ap Idwal ap Meyric. 

Griffith ap Llewelyn ap Sitsyllt ; killed. 

Bleddyn. 

Trahaern ap Caradoc. 

Griffith ap Cynan ; able ; warlike ; generous. 

Owain Gwynedd ; energetic, successful warrior. 

Howel, son. 

David ap Owain Gwynedd, brother ; married sister 

of Henry II. 
Llewelyn, the Great. 
David ap Llewelyn. 
Llewelyn ap Griffith, last prince of the blood ; slain 

after battle, n Dec, 1282. 

ENGLISH PRINCES OF WALES.* 

Edward Plantagenet (afterwards king Edward II. ) 
son of Edward I., born in Caernarvon Castle on 
the 25th April, 1284. It is asserted that imme- 
diately after his birth he was presented by his 
father to the Welsh chieftains as their future 
sovereign, the king holding up the royal infant 
in his arms, and saying, in the Welsh language, 
" Eich Dyil," literally in English, "This is your 
man," but signifying, "This is your countryman 
and king." See, however, " Ich Diem." 

Edward of Carnarvon made prince of Wales and 
earl of Chester. 

Edward the Black Prince. 

Richard, his son (afterwards Richard II.). 

Henry (afterwards Henry V.). sou of Henry IV. 

Edward, son of Henry VI. ; slain at Tewkesbury, 
4 May, 1471. 

Edward (aft. Edward V.), son of Edward IV. 

Edward, son of Richard III. ; died in 1484. 

Arthur, son of Henry VII. ; died in 1502. 



* Wales, Princess of. This title was held, some 
authors say, (lining the. early period i'l' her life, bj the 
princess Mary of England, eldest daughter of Henry \ Ml.. 

:iie I afterwards queen Mary 1. She was created, they state, 

by her father princess of Wall's, in order to conciliate the 
Welsh people and keep alive the name, and was the only 
princess of Wales ill her own right. ; a rank she enjoyed 
until the birth of a son to Henry, who was afterwards 
Edward VI.. born in 1537. This is denied by Banks. 



WALES. 



1052 



WALES. 



1503. Henry, his brother (afterwards Henry VIII.). 

Edward, his son (afterwards Edward VI.) was duke 
of Cornwall, and not prince of Wales. 
1610. Henry Frederic, son of James I. ; died 6 Nov. 1612. 
1616. Charles, his brother (afterwards Charles I.). 

Charles, his son (afterwards Charles II.), never 
created prince of Wales. 
1714. George Augustus (afterwards George II.). 
1729. Frederic Lewis, his son ; died 20 March, 1751. 
1751. George, his son (afterwards George III.). 
1 762. George, his son (afterwards George IV.): bom 12 Aug. 
1841. Albert-Edward, son of queen Victoria : born 9 Nov. 

Baptized, king of Prussia a sponsor, 15 Jan. 1842. 

Travelled on the continent, and studied at Oxford 
and Edinburgh, in 1859. 

Visited Canada, with the dignity of a viceroy, and 
the United States, i860. 

Entered the university of Cambridge in Jan. : 
attended the camp at the Curragh, Kildare, July 
to Sept. ; opened New Middle Temple Library, 
31 Oct. 1861. 

Ordered to be prayed for as Albert-Edward, 
8 Jan. ; visited the continent, Syria, and Egypt, 
March-June; Germany and Italy, Aug-Dec. 1862. 

Admitted to the house of peers, 5 Feb. ; a privy 
councillor, 8 Dec. 1863. 

Married to princess Alexandra of Denmark, 10 
March, 1863. 

Visited Denmark and Sweden, Sept. -Oct. 1864 ; 
Russia, Nov. -Dec. 1866. 

Visited International Exhibition, Paris, May, 1867. 

Visited Ireland ; arrived at Dublin, 15 April, 1868. 

Installed knight of St. Fatrick, 18 April, 1868. 

Opened Leeds Fine Arts Exhibition, 19 May, 1868. 

With the Princess at Glasgow, laid foundation of 
new university, 8 Oct. 1868. 

Sailed for the continent, 17 Nov. ; called at Paris ; 
arrived at Copenhagen, 29 Nov. ; visited Berlin, 
Vienna, and arrived at Cairo, 3 Feb. 1869. 

Examined the Suez canal, Feb. ; arrived at Constan- 
tinople, 1 April; at Sebastopol, 13-17 April; at 
Athens, 19-24 April; landed at Dover, 13 May, 
1869. 

Inaugurated Victoria Embankment (Thames) 13 
July, 1870. 

Opened Workmen's International Exhibition, 
Islington, 16 July, 1870. 

Attacked with typhoid fever, about 19 Nov. ; greatest 
danger, 6-13 Dec. ; amendment began i4Dec.,i87i. 

Went to St. Paul's with the queen for thanksgiving, 
27 Feb.; sailed for the continent, 11 March; 
visited the Pope, 27 March ; opened new grammar 
school at Yarmouth, 6 June ; the Bethnal Green 
Museum, 24 June, 1872. 

At the opening of the great exhibition at Vienna, 
1 May, 1873. 

At the duke of Edinburgh's wedding at St. Peters- 
burg, 23 Jan. ; visit to France : entertained by 
the due de Rochefoucauld Bisaccia, due d'Au- 
male, and others,about 17 Oct. ; at Birmingham, 
3 Nov. 1874. 

Installed grand master of the freemasons of Eng- 
land, 28 April, 1875. 

ii2,oooZ. voted for his visit to India [more than 
sufficient] July, 1875. 

Sailed from Dover, 11 Oct. ; warmly received at 
Athens, 18 Oct. ; at Cairo, invested Mohammed 
Tewfik, the son of the Khedive, with the Star of 
India, 25 Oct. 1875. 

Arrived at Bombay, 8 Nov. ; Poonah 13 Nov. ; 
Goa, 27 Nov. ; Colombo, Ceylon, 1 Dec. ; Madras, 
13 Dec. ; Calcutta, 23 Dec. 1875. 

At Benares, 5 Jan. ; Lueknow, 6 Jan. ; Delhi, M 
Jan. ; Lahore, 18 Jan. ; Jummoo, Cashmere' 2c 
Jan. ; Agra, 25 Jan. ; Gwalior, 31 Jan. ; in Ne- 
paul, 12 Feb. ; at Allahabad, 7 March ; sailed 
from Bombay, 1 3 March ; arrived in Malta, 6 April; 
Gibraltar, 15 April; Seville, 21 April; Madrid, 25 
April ; Lisbon, 1 May ; London, with about 500 
animals for the Zoological gardens, 11 May; 
banquet at Mansion house, 19 May ; reviewed 
30,000 volunteers in Hyde Park, 1 July. 1876. 

President of the British commissioners at the 
Paris exhibition, 1878. 

Presided at National Water Supply conference, 
21 May; laid foundation of St. Mary's, Wilberforce 
memorial church, Southampton, 12 Aug. 1878. 

Laid foundation of new hospital, Norwich, 27 June; 



opened new dock at Great Grimsby, 22 July, 
1879. 
Laid foundation of new cathedral at Truro, 20 
April ; opened new dock at Holyhead, 17 June, 
1880. 
Laid foundation of central Institution of City and 
Guilds of London Institute, South Kensington, 
18 July, 1881. 
Opens the Royal College of Music, 7 May, 1883. 
Opens the International Fishery Exhibition, 12 

May ; closes it 31 Oct. 1883. 
Inaugurated the juries at the Health Exhibition, 

17 June, 1884. 
Visits Newcastle and opens Armstrong park, mu- 
seum, &c, 20, 21 Aug. 1884. 
Visit to Dublin (enthusiastically received), 8 April ; 
Cork, 15 April ; Killarney, 16 April ; Limerick 
(warmly received), 20 April ; from Dublin to Bel- 
fast (warm reception), 23 April ; Londonderry, 
25 April ; sailed from Larne, 27 April, 1885. 
Opens art gallery, &c, at Birmingham, 27, 28 Nov. 

1885. 
Formally opens the Mersey tunnel, 20 Jan. 1886. 
Kept his silver wedding, 10 March, 1888. 
Opens the international exhibition at Glasgow, 

8 May, 1888. 
Founds a technical school at Blackburn, 9 May, 

1888. 
Visits Austria and Hungary, Sept. ; Roumania, &c. 

4 Oct. ; returns to London, 22 Oct. 1888. 
•' Speeches and Addresses," 1863-1888 ; published 

12 Jan. 1889. 
Uncovers several Jubilee statues of the queen, &c. 

(See Jubilee), 1887-9. 
Visits the universal exhibition at Paris, June, 

1889. 
Acts for the queen at the royal agricultural show 

(see Windsor), 24-29 June, 1889. 
Receives and attends the Shah of Persia, 1 July, 

et seq. 
Annual payment of 36,000^ to the prince as a 
provision to his family, voted by the commons 
' 29 July, 1889. Act passed (see Royal Grants), 

12 Aug. 1889. 
The prince and princess at the marriage of the 

duke of Sparta, 27 Oct. 1889. 
Visits the Khedive at Cairo, 1 Nov. et seq. 1889. 
Lays foundation stone of the new municipal 
buildings, &c, of St. Martin's, Westminster, 18. 
March, 1890. 
Visit to Berlin with prince George, 21-28 March, 

1890. 
Unveils statue of the duke of Albany at Cannes, 

6 April, 1890. 
Visits Southwark (which see), 24 July, 1890. 
Opens new town hall at Portsmouth, 9 Aug. 1890. 
Opens the City and S. London Electric Railway, 

4 Nov. 1890. 
Many similar acts noticed under their respective 
headings, 1891. 
Issue : Albert-Victor, born 8 Jan. 1864 ; went to sea 
with prince George in H.M.S. Bacchante, 
visited West Indies, &c, 1879-82 ; their diaries- 
published, 1885 ; he receives the freedom of 
London, 29 June, 1885 ; opens the new Alexan- 
dra docks at Belfast, 20 May, 1SS9 ; successful 
tour in India (which see), 9 Nov. 1889 — 28 
March, 1890 ; visits Egypt, 7-12 April ; ill 
London, 2 May ; created duke of Clarence 
and Avondale, &c, 23 May, 1890; engaged to 
princess Victoria Mary of Teck, announced, 
5 Dec. 1891 ; died at Sandringham, 14 Jan. 
1892 ; military funeral at Windsor, 20 Jan. 
The prince and princess of Wales, in a tele- 
gram, express their deep gratitude for the 
universal sympathy throughout the empire, 
20 Jan. 1892. (See England, 26 Jan. 1892.) 
George-Frederick, born 3 June, 1865 ; created 
duke of York, earl of Inverness, and baron 
Killarney, 24 May, 1892. 
Louise Victoria, born 20 Feb. 1867. (Married to 
Alexander William George, duke of Fife, 27 
July, 1889.) Issue : Alexandra born 17 May, 
1891. 
Alexandra, born 6 July, 1868. 
Maud, born 26 Nov. 1869. 
Alexander John, born 7 April, died 8 April, 1871, 



WALHALLA. 



1053 



WAK. 



WALHALLA or Valhalla (the Hall of 

Glory), a temple near Eatisbon, erected by Louis, 
king of Bavaria, to receive the statues and 
memorials of the great men of Germany, com- 
menced 18 Oct. 1830, and inaugurated 18 Oct. 1842. 
The name is derived from the fabled meeting-place 
of Scandinavian heroes after death. 

WALKERITES, see Separatists. 

.WALKING, see Pedestrianism. 

WALKING-STICKS, a term satirically ap- 
plied to candidates for the house of commons nomi- 
nated by political associations, and subject to them 
in their parliamentary votes, 1878. 

WALLACE MONUMENT, at Abbey Craig, 
near Stirling, was inaugurated 27 Aug. 1869, and 
soon after given into the charge of the magistrates 
of Stirling. It cost about 13,000^. The telescope 
there was presented by the Scotch inhabitants of 
Ipswich, 24 June, 1865. 

WALLACHIA, see Danubian Principalities. 
On 23 Dec. 1861, the union of Wallachia and 
Moldavia, under the name of Koumania, was pro- 
claimed at Jassy and Bucharest. 

WALLER'S PLOT. Edmund Waller, the 
poet, and others, conspired to disarm the London 
militia and let in the royalists, May, 1643. The 
plan was detected and punished, June-July, 1643. 
Waller betrayed his confederates, and was suffered 
to emigrate. 

WALLIS'S VOYAGE. Captain Wallis 
sailed from England on his voyage round the world, 
26July, 1766; andretumed to England, i9May,i768. 

WALLOON- This name was given to those 
inhabitants of the low countries who retained the 
ancient German language, and to those who adopted 
the Walloon language (based on the Gaulish), 
which though surviving as a patois, has been sup- 
planted in France by the modern French. The 
language of the Walloon protestant refugees in 1556 
■was French. 

A church was given to Walloon refugees by queen Elizabeth 
at Sandwich, and they still have one at Canterbury. 

The frontier line of Flemish and German towns may be 
traced from the north through Gravelines to Luxem- 
burg ; that of the Walloon towns from Calais to Metz. 

WALLS, see Roman Walls, China. 

WALNUT-TREE has long existed in Eng- 
land.* The black walnut-tree (juglans nigra} was 
brought to this country from North America before 
1629. 

WALPOLE'S ADMINISTRATIONS. 

* Near Welwyn, in Hertfordshire, there was the largest 
walnut-tree on record ; it was felled in 1627, and from it 
were cut nineteen loads of planks ; and as much was 
sold to a gunsmith in London as cost 10?. carriage ; 
besides which there were thirty loads of roots and 
branches. When standing it covered 76 poles of ground ; 
a space equal to 2299 square yards, statute measure. 



Mr. "VValpole (afterwards sir Robert, and earl of 
Oxford) was born in 1676 ; became secretary-at-war 
in 1 708 ; was expelled the house of commons on a 
charge of misappropriating the public money, 1711 ; 
committed to the Tower, 17 Jan. 1712; became 
first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the 
exchequer in Oct. 1715. He resigned, on a disunion 
of the cabinet, in 1717, bringing in the sinking 
fund bill on the day of Ms resignation. On the 
earl of Sunderland retiring in 1721, he resumed his 
office, and held it till Feb. 1742. He died 18 
March, 1745. 

SECOND WALPOLE ADMINISTRATION (APRIL, 1721). 

Sir Kobert Walpole, first lord of the treasury. 

Thomas, lord Parker, created earl of Macclesfield, lord 
chancellor. 

Henry, lord Carleton (succeeded by William, duke of 
Devonshire), lord president. 

Evelyn, duke of Kingston (succeeded by lord Trevor), 
■privy seal. 

James, earl of Berkeley, first lord of the admiralty. 

Charles (viscount Townshend), and John, lord Carteret 
(the latter succeeded by the duke of Newcastle), secre- 
taries of state. 

Duke of Marlborough (succeeded by the earl of Cadogan), 
ordnance. 

George Treby (succeeded by Henry Pelham), secretary-at- 
war. 

Viscount Torrington, <fec. 

WALRUS- One placed in the Zoological Gar- 
dens in 1853 lived a few days only; another was 
placed there in the autumn of 1867, and died 25 
Dec. 

WALTZ, the popular German national dance, 
was introduced into England by baron Neuman and 
others in 1813. Raikes. 

WANDEWASH (S. India). Here the French, 
under Lally, were severely defeated by colonel Eyre 
Coote, 22 Jan. 1760. 

WANDSWORTH, Surrey. Here was organised 
a "presbytery," 20 Nov. 1572. In Garratt-lane, 
near this place, a mock election of a mayor of 
Garratt was formerly held, after every general elec- 
tion of parliament, to which Foote's dramatic piece, 
The Mayor of Garratt (1763), gave no small cele- 
brity. The iron bridge here was opened 26 Sept. 
1873. Population, 1 88 1, 210,434; 1891, 307,389. 

Wandsworth returns one M.P. by act passed 25 June, 

1885. 

WAR, called by Erasmus "the malady of 
princes." Osymandyas of Egypt, the first warlike 
king, passed into Asia, and conquered Bactria, 
2100 b.c. Usher. He is supposed by some to be 
the Osiris of the priests. It is computed that, up to 
the present time, no less than 6,860,000,000 of men 
have perished on the field of battle ; see Battles ; 
Secretaries; Neutral Powers. An international 
conference on " usages of war" began at Brussels, 
27 July, 1874, am l closed without important results. 
See Brussels Conference. In 1880, about 4,000,000 
men in arms, annual cost, 500,000,0001?. 



FOREIGN WARS OF ENOLaXI) SINCE THE CONQUEST. 



War 


with 




Peace. 


War with 




l'l'inr. 


War with 




Pi ace 


Scotland 




. 1068 . 


. 1092 


France 


. 1422 . 


■ H7I 


Spain . 


. I5 88 . 


. 1604 


France 




. 1116 


. 1118 


Scotland . 


. 1480 


. . i486 


Spain 


. 1624 


. 1629 


Scotland . 




. 1138 . 


• "39 


Prance 


. 1492 . 


• 1492 


France 


. 1627 . 


. 1629 


France 




. 1161 


. . 1186 


France 


• 1512 


• I5M 


Holland . 


■ 1651 


• l( >54 


France . 




. 1194 . 


• "95 


France 


• 1522 . 


• 1527 


Spain . 


■ 1655 . 


. 1660 


France 




. 1201 


. 1216 


Scotland . 


• 1522 


■ 1542 


France 


. 1666 . 


. 1668 


France . 




. 1224 . 


■ i 2 34 


Scotlaud 


• 1542 • 


• 1546 


Denmark 


. 1666 . 


. 1668 


France 




■ 1294 


■ 1299 


Seo1 land . 


■ '547 


• I550 


Holland . 


. 1666 


. 1668 


Scotland . 




. 1296 . 


• 1323 


Prance 


• 1549 • 


• I550 


Algiers 


. Il'.ni) . 


. 1671 


Scotland 




- 1327 


. . 1328 


France 


• 1557 


• 1559 


Holland . 


. 1672 


■ 1674 


Franco 




■ 1339 • 


. 1360 


Scotland 


■ 1557 ■ 


• 1560 


Prance 


. 1689 . 


• x ^97 


Franco 




. 1368 


. . 1420 


France 


1562 


• 1564 


Peace of Ity 


swick, 20 Se; 


>t. 1697 



WAE AFFAIRS. 



1054 



WARTBURG. 



War of the Succession, commenced 4 May, 1702. Peace 

of Utrecht, 13 March, 1713. 
War with Spain, 16 Dec. 1718. Peace concluded, 1721. 
War ; Spanish War, 23 Oct. 1739. Peace of Aix-la-Cha- 

pelle, 30 April, 1748. 
War with France, 31 March, 1744. Closed aiso on 30 

April, 1748. 
War; the Seven Years' War, 9 June, 1756. Peace of Paris, 

10 Feb. 1763. 
War with Spain, 4 Jan. 1762. General peace, 10 Feb. 1763. 
War with the United States of North America, 14 July, 

1774. Peace of Paris, 30 Nov. 1782. 
War with France, 6 Feb. 1778. Peace of Paris, 20 Jan. 

1783- 
War with Spain, 17 April, 1780. Closed same time, 20 

Jan. 1783. 
War with Holland, 21 Dec. 1780. Peace signed, 2 Sept. 

1783- 
War of the Revolution, 1 Feb. 1793. Peace of Amiens, 27 

March, 1802. 
War against Bonaparte, 29 April, 1803. Finally closed, 

18 June, 1815. 
War with America, 18 June, 1812. Peace of Ghent, 24 

Dec. 1814. 
War with Russia, 27 March, 1854. Peace of Paris, 31 

March, 1856. 
For the wars with India, China, Persia. Abyssinia, 

Ashantee. Afghanistan, Zululand, and Burmah, see 

those countries respectively. 

"WAE AFFAIRS- On account of the war with 
Kussia, the duke of Newcastle, previously colonial 
secretary, was appointed a secretary for war affairs, 
and a cabinet minister, 9 June, 1854; see Secre- 
taries. "War Office act, passed 20 June, 1870, ap- 
points a financial secretary (who may sit in parlia- 
ment) and other officers. An act for the protection 
of war department stores was passed in 1867. By 
the warrant abolishing purchase in the army, in 

1871, Mr. Cardwell became virtually uncontrolled 
minister of war. For War Office Charge, see 
under Army and Admiralty . 

New war offices erected by virtue of the Public 
Offices site act, passed . . . .24 July, 1882 

War Exhibition of trophies, &c, from Egypt, 
opened at Knightsbridge ... 14 Feb. 1883 

Important changes in the war office announced ; 
increased responsibilities of heads of depart- 
ments, &c. ...... Feb. 1888 

"WAR, GAME OF (German, Kriegsjnel), based 
on the game of chess, was described in a pamphlet 
in 1780, and rules for it laid down by Domanen- 
rathe von Keisswitz about 1820, and published by 
his son in 1824-8. Capt. (now sir) Evelyn Baring 
published a translation of works on the subject in 

1872. A society (including von Moltke) was formed 
at Magdeburg to study it. Prince Arthur (now duke 
of Connaught) lectured on this game at Dover, 13 
March, 1872. 

"WARBECK'S INSURRECTION. Perkin 
Warbeck, the son of a Florentine Jew, to whom 
Edward IV. had stood godfather, was persuaded by 
Margaret, duchess of Burgundy, sister to Richard III . , 
to personate her nephew Bichard, Edward Ws 
brother, which he did first in Ireland, where he 
landed, 1492. The imposture was discovered by 
Henry VII. 1493. Some writers consider that "War- 
beck was not an impostor. 
Warbeck attempted to land in Kent, with 600 men, 169 

were taken prisoners, and executed, July, 1495. 
Recommended by the king of France to James. IV. of 

Scotland, who gave him his kinswoman, lord Huntley's 

daughter, in marriage, when he assumed the title of 

Richard IV. James IV. invaded England in his favour, 

1496. 
Left Scotland, and went to Bodmin, in Cornwall, where 

3000 joined him, Sept. 1497. 
On the approach of Henry took sanctuary at Beaulieu ; 

surrendered ; taken to London, Oct. 1497. 
Said to have been set in the stocks at Westminster and 

Cheapside, and sent to the Tower, June, 1499. 



Accused of plotting with the earl of Warwick to escape 
out of the Tower, by murdering the lieutenant, Aug. ; 
the plot failed, and he was hanged at Tyburn, 23 Nov. ; 
the earl beheaded, 28 Nov. 1499. 

WARBURG (N. Germany). Here the French 
were defeated by the duke of Brunswick and the 
allies, 31 July, 1760. 

WARDIAN CASES- In 1829, Mr. N. B. 
Ward, from observing a small fern and grass grow- 
ing in a closed glass bottle, in which he bad placed 
a chrysalis covered with moist earth, was led to con- 
struct his well-known closely glazed cases, which 
afford to plants light, heat, and moisture, and ex- 
clude deleterious gases, smoke, &c. They are par- 
ticularly adapted for ferns. In 1833 they were first 
employed for the transmission of plants to Sydney, 
&c, with great success, and professor Faraday 
lectured on the subject in 1838. 

"WARDMOTES, meetings of the citizens of 
London in their wards, where they elect annually 
their common councilmen. The practice is said to 
have begun in 1386. They had previously assembled 
in Guildhall ; see Plough Monday. 

WARRANTS, GENERAL, do not specify 
the name of the accused. They were declared to be 
illegal by lord chief justice Pratt, 6 Dec. 1763, in 
relation to the seizure and committal of Mr. Wilkes 
for a libel on the king ; see North Briton. 

"WARRIOR, see under Navy of England, i860. 

WARSAW, the metropolis of Poland. The diet 

was transferred to this city from Cracow in 1566, and 

it became the seat of government in 1689. Popula- 
tion in 1890, 443,426. 

The Poles defeated in three days' battle by the' 
Swedes 28-30 July, 1656 

Alliance of Warsaw, between Austria and Po- 
land, against Turkey, in pursuance of which, John 
Sobieski assisted in raising the siege of Vienna 
(September following), signed . . 31 March, 1683 

Warsaw surrenders to Charles XII 1703 

Treaty of Warsaw, between Russia and Poland, 

24 Feb. 1768 

The Russian garrison here expelled with the loss of 
2000 killed and 500 wounded, and 36 pieces of 
cannon 17 April, 1794 

The Poles defeated by the Russians at Maciejovice, 

4 Oct. „ 

The king of Prussia besieges Warsaw, July ; com- 
pelled to raise the siege, Sept. ; it is taken by the 
Russians with great slaughter, especially of the 
armed citizens 9 Nov. ,, 

Warsaw constituted a duchy, and annexed to the 
house of Saxony Aug. 1807 

The duchy overrun by the Russians ; Warsaw made 
the residence of a Russian viceroy . . . 1813 

The last Polish revolution commences at Warsaw, 

29 Nov. 1830 

Battle of Grochow, near Warsaw, in which the Rus- 
sians were defeated, and forced to retreat with the 
loss of 7000 men 25 Feb. 1833 

Battle of Warsaw, when, after two days' hard 
righting, the city capitulated, and was taken pos- 
session of by the Russians ; and great part of the 
Polish army retired towards Ploek and Modlin, 

6-8 Sept. „ 

The czar meets the emperor of Austria and the 
regent of Prussia ; no result . . 20-25 Oct. 1860- 

Panic in a church ; great loss of life . 25 Dec. 1881 

Alexander III. visits Warsaw ; great precautions, 

8 Sept. 18S4 

Suspected conspiracy, arrest of 30 students and a 
novelist named Smolnicky . about 30 Dec. 1891 
(See Poland, 1861-5.) 

WARTBURG, a castle in Saxony (N. Ger- 
many) , where Luther was conveyed for safety after 
the diet of Worms, April, 1521, and where he trans- 
lated the Bible into German. 



WARWICK CASTLE. 



1055 



WATER. 



WARWICK CASTLE (Warwickshire), the 
seat of the Beauchamps, Nevilles, Plantagenets, 
Dudleys, Eiches, and Grevilles, successively, and 
frequently besieged ; suffered much by fire, 3 Dec. 
187 1 ; some of the more ancient part was destroyed. 
The town, incorporated in 1553, was nearly destroyed 
by fire in 1694. The show of the Agricultural 
society here, was opened by the prince of Wales and 
the duke of York, 20 June, 1892. Population, 1881, 
11,800; 1891, 11,905. 

WASH-HOUSES, see Baths. 

. WASHING MACHINES. Several have been 
invented by Americans. At an hotel in New York 
hundreds of garments are washed in a few minutes 
by steam, and dried by a centrifugal machine 
(1862). The ingenious machines of Messrs. Horns- 
by, of Norwich, appeared in the great exhibition 
of London, 1862. 

WASHINGTON. A northern state of the 
American Union, first settled in 1845, organized as 
a Territory in 1853, as a State 1889 i population in 
1880, 75,1 16 j 1890, 349,390. Capital Olympia. 
The flourishing town of Seattle was nearly de- 
stroyed by fire about 6 June, 1889 ; estimated 
loss about $15,000,000 ; few lives lost. 
Ellensburg, a small town also nearly destroyed by 
fire, 4 July, 1889 ; estimated loss, .$2,000,000 ; also 
Spokane Falls, loss about $10,000,000, about 4 Aug. 1889 
Coal mine explosion near Koslyn, 43 deaths, 

10 May, 1892 

WASHINGTON (in Columbia district, partly 
in Virginia and partly in Maryland, on the bank of 
the Potomac, N.E. Virginia), the capital of the 
United States, founded in 1791, and made the seat 
of government in 1800. The capital was founded in 
1793. Population, 1880, 147,293 ; 1890, 230,392. 
The house of representatives opened . . 30 May, 1808 
"Washington was taken by the British forces under 

general Ross, after his victory at Bladensburg; 

its superb structures and national library burnt, 

24 Aug. 1814 
General Ross killed by some American riflemen, in 

a desperate engagement at Baltimore 12 Sept. ,, 

Naval observatory founded 1842 

Smithsonian institute (which see) founded . . . 1846 
Part of the capitol and the whole of the library of 

the United States congress destroyed by fire, 

24 Dec. 1851 
The prince of Wales entertained by the president 

here Oct. i860 

Washington fortified in . . . . April, 1861 

President Lincoln shot by Booth in Ford's theatre, 

14 April ; died 15 April, 1865 

Memorial obelisk to George Washington, 555 feet 

high, inaugurated 21 Feb. 1885 

National theatre burnt down . . .27 Feb ,, 
Fire at the house of the lion. Benjamin Tracy, sec- 
retary of the navy ; he escapes, but his wife, 

daughter, and a servant perish . . 3 Feb. 1890 
See United States. 

IMPORTANT TREATIES OF WASHINGTON. 

Fixing N.W. boundary of British America and 
United States, &c 12 June, 1846 

' ' Reciprocity " treaty regulating trade with Canada, 

7 June, 1854 

Referring the Alabama claims and the San Juan 
boundary question to arbitration ; settling dis- 
putes respecting fisheries (see Alabama and Juaii); 
and laying down three rules ; asserting that it is 
the duty of a neutral state, which desires to re- 
main at peace with belligerents, and to enjoy the 
rights of neutrality, to abstain from taking any 
part in the war by affording military aid to one 
or both of the belligerents ; and to take care 1 hat 
no acts which would constitute such co-operatioi 1 
in the war be committed by any one within its 
territory 8 May, 1871 

WASIUM (named from the royal house of 

"Wasa or Vasa),a supposed new metal, discovered by 



F. Bahr, of Stockholm, in 1862. In Nov. 1863 Nickles- 
declared it to be a compound of didymium, yttrium, 
and terbium. 

WASTE LANDS- The inclosure of waste 
lands and commons, in order to promote agriculture,, 
first began in England about the year 1547, and gave- 
rise to Kef s rebellion, 1549. Inclosures were again; 
promoted by the authority of parliament, 1785. The- 
waste lands in England were estimated in 1 794 to* 
amount to 14 millions of acres, of which there were- 
taken into cultivation, 2,837,476 acres before June r 
1801. lu 1841, there were about 6,700,000 acres of 
waste land, of which more than half was thought to- 
be capable of improvement ; see Agriculture. 

WATCH OF LONDON, at night, appointed! 
1253, proclaimed the hour with a bell before the in- 
troduction of public clocks. Hardic. The old watch 
was discontinued, and a new police (on duty day 
and night) commenced, 29 Sept. 1829 ; see Police. 

WATCHES are said to have been first invented 
at Nuremberg, 1477, although it is affirmed that. 
Eobert, king of Scotland, had a watch about 1310. 

Watches first used in astronomical observations by 
Purbaeh 1500 

Authors assert that the emperor Charles V. was 
the first who had anything that might be called a 
watch, though some call it a small table-clock . 1530 

Watches first brought to England from Germany in 1577 

A watch which belonged to queen Elizabeth is pre- 
served in the library of the Royal Institution. 
London. 

Spring pocket-watches (watches properly so-called) 
have had their invention ascribed to Dr. Hooke 
by the English, and to M. Huyghens by the Dutch. 
Dr. Derham, in hia Artificial Clockmaker, says that 
Dr. Hooke was the inventor ; and he appears cer- 
tainly to have produced what is called the pendulum 
watch about 1658 ; manifest, among other evi- 
dences, from an inscription on one of the double- 
balance watches presented to Charles II., "Rob. 
Hooke, inven. 1658 ; T. Tompion, fecit, 1675." 

Repeating watches invented by Barlowe . . . 1675 

Harrison's first time-piece produced (see Harrison), 1733-. 

Watches and clocks were taxed in . . . . 1797 

The tax was repealed in 1798. See Clocks. 

Arrangements made at Kew observatory for testing 
high class watches, and granting graduated cer- 
tificates ; fees, il. is., ios. 6cl., &c. ; announced 

April, 1S84. 

WATER. Thales of Miletus, founder of the 

Ionic sect, considered water to be the original 

principle of everything, about 594 B.C. Stanley* 

Cavendish and Watt demonstrated that water is 
composed of 8 parts of oxygen and 1 part of hy- 
drogen 1781-4. 

Water was decomposed into oxygen and hydrogen 
gases by Lavoisier, 1783 ; by the voltaic battery 
by Nicholson and Carlisle, 1S00 ; by the heat of 
the oxy-liydrogen flame by W. R. Grove . . 1846 

In freezing, water contracts till it is reduced to 42° 
or 40° Fahr. ; it then begins to expand till it be- 
comes ice at 32°. 

Water was first conveyed to London by leaden pipes, 
21 Henry HI. 1237. Stow. It took nearly fifty 
years to complete it ; the whole being finished, 
and Cheapside conduit erected, only in . . . 1285 

The New River water brought to London from 
Chadwell and Amwell in Hertfordshire, at an im- 
mense expense, by sir Hugh Myddelton, in . 1609-13. 

The city was supplied with its water by convey- 
ances of wooden pipes iii the streets ,-iud suull 
leaden ones to the houses, and the New River 

Company was incorporated, 1620. So late as qi n 

Anne's time there were water-earners at Aldgate- 
pump. 

The water-works at Chelsea completed, and the 
company incorporated 172:1 

London-bridge ancient water-works destroyed bj 
lire ........ 29 Oct, 1779 

An net to supply the inetrc>|n>Iis with water, 15 & 16 
Vict. e. S4, was passed, 1 July, 1852. This act was 



WATER-BED, CLOCKS. 



1056 



WATERLOO. 



amended by an act passed 21 Aug. 1871. The 

• •companies were bound to provide a constant 
supply when required ; the owner or occupier of 
the house to provide the prescribed fittings. 

([The supply is now considered to be much improved 
in quality and quantity.] 

A company was formed to carry out Dr. Normandy's 
patent for converting salt water into fresh, in 

Jan. 1857 

Messrs. Pamphlett & Ferguson's process for pro- 
ducing fresh from salt water was exhibited at 
Messrs. George Wailes & Co., Euston road, Lon- 
don, and considered successful . . 15 Oct. 1889 

•Commissioners for metropolitan water supply ap- 
pointed, 27 April, 1867 ; report signed 9 June, 1869 

London supplied by nine companies : the New River 
(the best), East London, Chelsea, Grand Junction, 
1 Southwark and Vauxhall, Kent, West Middlesex, 
Lambeth, and South Essex ; who deliver about 
108,000,000 gallons daily, 1867 ; about 116,250,000 
gallons 1877 

New schemes for supplying London with water, 
1867 :— 

1. Mt. Bateman ; from the sources of the Severn. 
■2. Messrs. Hemans and Hassard ; from the Cum- 
berland lakes. 
3 Mr. Telford Macneill ; Thames water filtered 
through Bagshot sand. 

4. Mr. Bailey Denton ; storage reservoirs near the 

sources of the Thames. 

5. Mr. Remington; from the Derbyshire and 

Staffordshire hills. 

The water from the first two sources analysed and 
highly approved by professors Frankland and 
Odling April, 1868 

Water from the chalk districts softened by Homer- 
sham's process strongly recommended, Jan. 1871 

Aug. 1878 

•Conference on the national water supply a.t So- 
ciety of Arts (suggested by the prince of Wales, 
president) 21, 22 May, „ 

Letter from the prince of Wales to the earl of 
Beaconsfield suggesting the appointment of a 
commission on water supply, dated . 24 March, 1879 

National Water Supply Exhibition, Alexandra Pa- 
lace ; opened 14 Aug. „ 

Government proposal to buy companies' works for 
34,398, yool. (New River company, 9,146,000?. ), 
dropped April, 1880 

Annual revenue, according to Mr. E. J. Smith's cal- 
culations, above 1,500,000? 1881 

Atkins' process for softening hard water an improve- 
ment upon Clarks' process, announced July, 1882 

Water companies (regulation of powers) act, passed 1887 

The purchase of the companies' works recom- 
mended by the London County Council, 1890, 
and by a committee of the London corporation ; 
report published 17 Oct. 1890 

At a conference of representatives of the district 
boards of London, it was resolved to support sir 
Algernon Borthwick's bill, which proposes to 
confer upon an elected Water Trust the exclusive 
powers of supplying water within the metropoli- 
tan area, with an equalization of charges, &c. , 

27 Feb. 1891 

Hybrid committee in the commons on the London 
Water Commission appointed : sir M. White 
Ridley, sir H. E. Roscoe, sir A. Borthwick, and 
six others 20 March, ,, 

Report disapproving of the two bills before parlia- 
ment, and requiring further information 14 July, ,, 

Royal commission on the metropolitan water 
supply appointed : lord Balfour of Burleigh, sir 
G. Barclay Bruce, prof. James Dewar, sir A. 
Geikie, Dr. Wm. Ogle, and others (frequent meet- 
ings up to July), reported . . 14 March, 1892 

Mr. Francis Gaskell, secretary, appointed, 

22 March, ,, 

London Water act x>assed ... 27 June, ,, 

See Artesian Wells and London Water. 

"WATER-BED, CLOCKS, see Beds, Clocks. 

WATER-COLOUR PAINTING was gra- 
dually raised from the hard dry style of the last 
century to its present brilliancy, by the efforts of 
Nicholson, Copley Fielding, Sandby, Varley, the 



great Turner, Pyne, Cattermole, Prout, &c, within 
the present century. The Water-Colour Society's 
exhibition which began in 1805, was made Koyal in 
1881, the diplomas were to be signed by the queen 
after Nov. 1882. The Institute of Painters in Water 
Colours,established about 1 83 1 (made Eoyal in 1883), 
open new galleries in Piccadilly, and propose to give 
free instruction, 27 April, 1883. 
Dr. John Percy's unique historical collection of 
water-colour drawings was sold for 8,230?., re- 
ported 26 April, 1890 

WATERFORD (S. Ireland), built about 879, 
was totally destroyed by fire in 981 . Eebuilt and con- 
siderably enlarged by Strongbow in 1171, and still 
further in the reign of Henry VII., who granted 
considerable privileges to the citizens. Kichard II. 
landed and was crowned here in 1399 ; in 1690, 
James II. embarked from hence for France, after 
the battle of the Boyne ; and William III. resided 
here twice, and confirmed its privileges. Memorable 
storm here, 18 April, 1792. The cathedral of Water- 
ford, dedicated to the blessed Trinity, was first 
built by the Ostmen, and by Malchus, the first 
bishop of Waterford, after his return from England 
from his consecration, 1096. This see was united 
with that of Lismore in 1363. It was valued in 
the king's books, by an extent returned 29 Henry 
VIII., at 72^. 8s. id. Irish per annum. By stat. 
3 & 4 Will. IV., c. 37 (the Irish Church Tempo- 
ralities act), the see of Waterford and Lismore was 
united with the see of Cashel and Emly, 14 Aug. 
1833. The interior of the cathedral, organ, &c., 
were destroyed by fire, 25 Oct. 1815. Population, 
1891, 21,693. 
Waterford returns three M.P's. by act passed 

25 June, 1885 

WATER GAS, see Gas-lights. 

WATER-GLASS, a name given to a liquid 
mixture of sand (silex) and one of the alkalies 
(potash or soda) . Glauber {Be Lithiase) mentions 
a similar mixture in 1644. Dr. Von Fuchs, the 
modern inventor, gave an account of his process in 
1825 ; and Mr. Frederick Kansome, of Ipswich, 
ignorant of Von Fuchs' s discovery, patented a mode 
of preparing water-glass in 1845, which he has since 
greatly improved upon. In 1857, M. Kuhlmann, of 
Lille, published a pamphlet setting forth the 
advantageous employment of water-glass in harden- 
ing porous stone and in stereochromy {which see). 
It has been applied to the exterior of many buildings 
in France and England. The memoirs of Von 
Fuchs and Kuhlmann were translated and printed 
in England, in 1859, by direction of the prince 
consort. 

WATERING STREETS. Mr. Cooper's plan 
for using solutions of chloride of lime or of sodium 
(which dry slowly and attract moisture and ammonia 
and other gases, and combine them with the material 
of the road) was partially used in the parish of St. 
Mary-le-bone in 1868, and also in Liverpool, Boston, 
and other towns. The plan was ordered to be tried 
in Westminster in July, 1870. 

WATERLOO, in Belgium, the site of the 
great battle, on Sunday, 18 June, 1815, between the 
French army, of 71,947 men and 246 guns, under 
Napoleon, and the allies, commanded by the duke 
of Wellington ; the latter, with 67,661 men and 
156 guns, resisted the various attacks of the enemy 
from about ten in the morning until five in the 
afternoon. About that time, 16,000 Prussians 
reached the field of battle ; and by seven, the force 
under Blucher amounted to above 50,000 men, with 
104 guns. AVellington then moved forward his 



WATERLOO BRIDGE. 



1057 



WAX. 



whole army. A total rout ensued, and the carnage 
was immense. Of the British (23,991), 93 officers 
and 1916 men were killed and missing, and 363 
officers and 4560 men wounded — total, 6932 ; and 
"the total loss of the allied army amounted to 4206 
ikilled, 14,539 wounded, and 4231 missing, making 
.22,976 hors de combat. Napoleon, quitting the wreck 
of his army, returned to Paris ; and, finding it 
impossible to raise another, abdicated. P. Nicolas. 
-Napoleon attributed his defeat to the failures of marshal 

Grouchy, Wellington said unjustly. 
Proposed monument over the British officers and men 

who died of their wounds, 7 Jan. 1888. 
.By the side of the chapel of Waterloo, which was un- 
injured by shot or shell on 18 June, 1815, Marlborough 
cut off a large division of the French forces, 17 Aug. 
1705. The conquerors on the same field are the only 
British commanders whose career brought them to 
dukedoms. 
'The Waterloo monument over the remains of the 
officers and men who fell in the campaign of 
1815, in a cemetery at Brussels, erected by queen 
Victoria, was unveiled by the duke of Cambridge, 

26 Aug. 1890 
«Gen. George Whichcote, born 21 Dec, 1794, who 
fought in the Spanish campaigns and at Water- 
loo, died 26 Aug. 1891 

WATERLOO BRIDGE, London. Abridge 
over this part of the Thames was repeatedly sug- 
gested during the last century, but no actual pre- 
parations to carry it into effect were made till 1806, 
when Mr. G. Dodd procured an act of parliament, 
and gave the present site, plan, and dimensions of 
:the bridge ; but, in consequence of some disagree- 
ment with the committee, he was superseded by 
Mr. John Eennie, who completed this noble struc- 
ture. It was commenced 11 Oct. 181 1, and opened 
18 June, 1817, on the anniversary of the battle of 
"Waterloo, when the prince regent, the duke of 
Wellington, and other distinguished personages, 
were present. Its length within the abutments is 
1242 feet; its width within the balustrades is 42 
feet ; and the span of each arch, of which there are 
nine, is 120 feet. Bought for 475,000/. by metro- 
politan board of works ; opened toll free, 5 Oct. 1878 ; 
lit by electric light from 10 Oct. 1879. 

On Oct. 9, 1857, two youths, named Kilsby, found on 
one of the abutments of the bridge a carpet bag, con- 
taining human bones and flesh, which had been cut up, 
salted, and boiled, and some foreign clothes. No clue 
could be found respecting these remains, which were 
interred in Woking cemetery. 

WATERLOO CUP, see Dogs, 187 1. 

WATERLOW PARK, S. Hampstead or 
Highgate, was presented to the metropolis with 
6,000/. to the London county council, by sir S}'dney 
H. Waterlow, 12 Nov. 1889. The park was opened 
to the public by sir John Lubbock, chairman of the 
■council, 17 Oct. 1891. 

WATER-MILLS, used for grinding corn, are 
said to have been invented by Belisarius, the general 
of Justinian, while besieged in Rome by the Goths, 
555. The ancients parched their corn, and pourjded 
it in mortal's. Afterwards mills were invented, 
which were turned by men and beasts with great 
labour ; yet Pliny mentions wheels turned by water. 
See Tclo-dynamic transmitter. 

WATERSPOUT. Two waterspouts fell on the 
Glatz mountains in Germany, and caused dreadful 
devastation to Hautenbach and many other villages; 
many persons perished, 13 July, 1827. A water- 
spout at Glantiesk, near Killarney, in Ireland, 
passed over a farm of Mr. John Macarthy, destroy- 
ing farm-houses and other buildings ; seventeen 
persons perished, 4 Aug. 183 1. The estimated 
length of one seen near Calcutta, 27 Sept. 1855, was 



IOOO feet. It lasted ten minutes, and was absorbed 
upwards. One seen on 24 Sept. 1856, burst into 
heavy rain. The town of Miskolcz, Hungary, 
destroyed by a waterspout ; great loss of life and 
property, 30 Aug. 1878. 61 persons said to have 
been killed by a waterspout in Algeria, Oct. 1881. 
A waterspout at Arequipa, Peru, caused immense 
damage, several persons drowned, 14 Feb. ; one at 
Pachuca, Mexico, 30 deaths, 27 Sept. 1884 ; another 
near Lagos, very destructive, 6 or 7 June, 1885. 
Destructive waterspout at Swansea 4 Sept. 1886 ; 
another on Batcombe hills, Dorsetshire, greatly 
damaged the villages of Chatnole, Ceme, and 
Mintem, 7 June, 1889. 

WATER TOFANA, see Poisoning. 

WATLLNG-STREET, see Roman Roads. 

WATTIGNIES (N. Prance). Here Jourdan 
and the French republicans defeated the Austrians 
under the prince of Coburg, and raised the seige of 
Maubeuge, 14-16 Oct. 1793. 

WAT TYLER'S INSURRECTION, see 

Tyler. 

WAVE PRINCIPLE (in accordance with 
which the curves of the hull of a ship should be 
adapted to the curves of a wave of the sea) formed 
the subject of experiments begun by Mr. John Scott 
Russell in 1832, with the view of increasing the 
speed of ships. Colonel Beaufoy is said to have 
spent 30,000/. in researches upon this matter. It 
was also taken up by the British Association, who 
have published reports of the investigations. The 
principle has been adopted by naval architects ; see 
Undulatory Theory, and Yacht. 

WAVERLEY NOVELS- The publication 
of the series began with " Waverley ; or, 'Tis Sixty 
Years since," in 1814, and closed with " Tales of 
my Landlord," fourth series, in 1831. The author- 
ship was acknowledged by sir Walter Scott, at a 
dinner, 23 Feb. 1827. The original MSS. of several 
of Scott's poems and novels were sold by auction by 
Christie and Manson for 1255 guineas, 6 July, 1867. 

WAWZ or WAVER (Poland). The Poles 
under Skrzynecki attacked the Russians at Wawz, 
and after two days' hard fighting, all the Russian 
positions were carried by storm, and they retreated 
with the loss of 12,000 men and 2000 prisoners, 
31 March, 1831. The loss of the Poles was small, 
but their triumph was soon followed by defeat and 
ruin. 

WAX came into use for candles in the 12th 
century; and wax candles were esteemed a luxury 
in 1300, being but little used. In China, candles of 
vegetable wax have been in use for centuries ; see 
Candleberry. The wax tree, Ligustrum lucidum, 
was brought from China before 1794. — Sealing- 
Wax was not brought into use in England until 
about 1556. Its use has been much superseded by 
the introduction of adhesive envelopes, about 1844. 
Waxwork. — Exhibition of models in wax were popular 
in the 17th and 18th centuries. The collection of wax 
figures exhibited by Mrs. Salmon at Aldgate, early in 
the last century, were removed to Fleet-street, and 
shown there till 1812, when they were sold, it is said, 
for 50?. Madame Tussaud, a skilful modeller, exhi- 
bited her remarkable collection of models and casts of 
eminent persons with costumes and other interesting 
relics in the boulevard du Temple, Paris, 1785. In 1802 
she exhibited her collection at the Lyceum, Strand, 
London, and afterwards at other places. The interest 
of tlir exhibition has been energetically sustained for 
many years at Baker-street, London, \V.,and latterly at 
Marylebone-road, by madame Tussaud and her family ; 
she died 15 April, 1850, aged 90. Early in 1889 the 

3 T 



WE. 



1058 



WEIGHTS and MEASURES. 



collection was purchased by a company, Mr. John 
Tussaud being engaged as manager. 
Mr. Louis Tussaud opened a new exhibition of wax- 
works at 207, Regent-street, 24 Dec. 1890 ; it was 
destroyed by Are, 20 Jnne, 1891, estimated loss, 
io,ooo£. 

WE- Sovereigns generally use we for I, which 
style began with king John, 1199. Coke. The 
German emperors and French kings used the plural 
about 1200. 

WEALD of Kent and Sussex, the site of 
Tery large, ancient forests ; St. Leonard's still 
remaining ; near which, in the Wealden formation, 
Dr. G. A. Mantell discovered the remains of huge 
extinct animals, 1825 et seq. Mr. E. Furley 
published an exhaustive "History of the Weald of 
Kent," 1871-4. 

WEATHEE, see Meteorology. 

WEAVING appears to have been practised in 
China more than a thousand years before it was 
known in Europe or Asia. The Egyptians ascribed 
the art to Isis ; the Greeks to Minerva ; and the 
Peruvians to the wife of Manco Capac. Our 
Saviour's vest, or coat, had not any seam, being 
woven from the top throughout, in one whole piece. 
The print of a frame for weaving such a vest may 
be seen in Calmet's Dictionary, under the word 
Vestments. Two weavers from Brabant settled at 
York, where they manufactured woollens, which, 
says king Edward, " may prove of great benefit to 
us and our subjects" (1331). Flemish dyers, cloth 
drapers, linen-makers, silk-throwsters, &c, settled 
at Canterbury, Norwich, Colchester, Southampton, 
and other places, on account of the duke of Alva's 
persecution, 1567 ; see Loom, and Electric Loom. 

WEDDINGS. Silver weddings are celebrated 
after a union of 25 years ; golden weddings after a 
union of 50 years ; and diamond weddings after a 
union of 60 years, some apply it to 75 years. John, 
king of Saxony, celebrated his golden wedding, 10 
Nov. 1872. 

WEDDING-EINGS were used by the 
ancients, and put upon the wedding finger, from a 
supposed connection with a vein there with the 
heart. According to Pliny they were made of iron ; 
in the time of Tertullian of gold. Wedding-rings 
are to be of standard gold, by statute, 1855; see 
Adriatic. 

WEDGE-LIKE Characters, see Cunei- 
form. 

WEDGWOOD WAEE, pottery and porce- 
lain produced by Mr. Josiah Wedgwood, of Stafford- 
shire, in 1762. His potteries, termed Etruria, were 
founded in 1 77 1 . Previously to 1 763, much earthen- 
ware was imported from France and Holland. 

WEDNESDAY, the fourth day of the week, 
so called from the Saxon idol Woden or Odin, 
worshipped on this day. Woden was the reputed 
author of magic and the inventor of all the arts, 
and was thought to answer to the Mercury of the 
Greeks and Romans. 

WEEDON INQUIEY (Northamptonshire). 
Commissioners were appointed to inquire into the 
accounts of Mr. Elliot, superintendent of the great 
military clothing establishment at this place, in 
July, 1858, and commenced sitting in September. 
Many of the statements were afterwards disputed, 
and caused much dissatisfaction. 

WEEK, the space of seven days, supposed to be 
first used among the Jews, who observed the 
sabbath every seventh day. They had three sorts of 



weeks — the common one of seven days ; the second 
of years, seven years ; the third of seven times 
seven years, at the end of which was the jubilee. 
All the present English names are derived from; 
the Saxon : — 

Latin. French. 

Dies Solis, Day of the Sun, Dimanche. 

Dies Lunse, Day of the Moon, Lundi. 

Dies Martis, Day of Mars, Mardi. 

Dies Mereurii, Day of Mercury, MercredL 

Dies Jovis, Day of Jupiter, Jeudi. 

Dies Veneris,. Day of Venus, Vendredi. 

Dies Saturni, ' Day of Saturn, Samedi. 

English. Saxon. German*. 

Sunday, Sun's day, Sonntag. 

Monday, Moon's day, Montag. 

Tuesday, Tiw's day, Dienstag. 

"Wednesday, Woden's day, Mittwoche. 

Thursday, Thor's day, Donnerstag. 

Friday, Friga's day, Freitag. 

Saturday, Saterne's day, Samstag, or Sonrs- 

abend. 

WEEKLY DISPATCH, liberal weekly 
Sunday paper, established 1801. 

WEIGHTS AND MEASUEES. These and 

the stamping of gold and silver money, are attributed 

to Pheidon, tyrant of Argos, 895 B.C. ; see A.run— 

delian Marbles. Weights were originally taken 

from grains of wheat, the lowest being still called a 

grain. Chalmers. See Crith. 

Much information is given by Mr. H. W. Chisholia 
in his work "On the Seience of Weighing and' 
Measuring." 1877. 

The Jews ascribed weights and measures to Cain ; 
the Egyptians to Theuth, or Thoth ; the Greeks, 
to Hermes (the Roman Mercury). 

The basis of ancient measures was the natural pro- 
portions of the human body ; the digit, or breadth, 
of the middle part of the first joint of the fore- 
finger, being the lowest unit of the scale. 

The Egyptian cubit (six palms), under the Pha- 
raohs, was about 18.24 English inches ; the cubit 
of Ptolemy about 21.87 inches; he determined 
the length of a stadium, and of a degree. 

The sacred cubit of the Jews (Newton), 24.7 inches. 

Assyrian weights are described by Mr. Layard in 
his "Nineveh." 

The standard measure was originally kept at Win- 
chester by the law of king Edgar .... 972- 

Standards of weights and measures were provided 
for the whole kingdom of England by the sheriffs 
of London, 9 Rich. I. 1197 

A public weighing-machine was set up in London, 
and all commodities ordered to be weighed by the 
city-officer, called the weigh-master, who was to 
do justice between buyer and seller, stat. 3 Edw. 
II. (Stotv) 1309; 

Edward HI. ordered that there should be "one 
weight, measure, and yard," throughout the king- 
dom 1353 

First statute, directing the use of avoirdupois 
weight, of 24 Hen. VIII. 1532 

Weights and measures ordered to be examined by 
the justices at quarter-sessions, 35 Geo. III. . . 1795 

Again regulated 1800 

Statute for establishing a uniformity of weights and 
measures, 1824, took effect throughout the United 
Kingdom 1 Jan. 1826 

New acts relating thereto passed in 1834, 1835, 1855, 
and in 1859 

16 <fc 17 Vict. e. 29, regulates the weights to be used 
in the sale of bullion, and adopts the use of the 
Troy ounce 1S53 

A commission (consisting of Mr. G. B. Airy, gen. 
E. Sabine, lord Rosse, Mr. T. Graham and others), 
appointed to examine the standards . 9 May, 1867/ 

3rd report of the Standards commission states that 
errors exist in official standards, dated 24 July, 186S 

A new Weights and Measures act passed to enforce 
uniformity in all markets in the United Kingdom, 
and abolish local measures, 8 Aug. 1878 ; this 
act was combined with another passed 26 July, 1889 

Specific gravities (unit, pure water) : iridium, 22.38 ; 
platinum, 21.45 ; osmium, 21.4 ; gold, 19.32 ; lead, 



WEIMAE. 



1059 WELLINGTON'S VICTORIES- 



ii. 35; silver, 10.51; copper, 8.94; iron, 7.87; 
tin, 7.29; zinc, 7.19 ; iodine, 4.95 ; carbon, 3.52 ; 
aluminium, 2.56; sulphur, 2; sodium, 0.97; 
lithium, 0.59 ; oxygen, 0.001431 ; nitrogen, 
0.001257; hydrogen, 0.0000896, Dr. 0. J. Broch . 1878 
(See Standard; and Metrical System.) 

"WEIMAR, capital of the grand-duchy of Saxe 
Weimar (which see) . 

WEINSBERG, see Guelphs. 

WEISSENBURG, see Wissembourg. 

WELLINGTON, a town in New Zealand, 
North Island, settled in 1840, made a bishopric in 

1858, became a seat of government, 24 Dec. 1864. 
Population in 1891, 33,224. 

WELLINGTON ADMINISTRATION, 

succeeded that of viscount Goderich, Jan. 1828. The 

duke resigned 16 Nov. 1830. 

Duke of Wellington, first lord of the treasury. 

Lord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor. 

Henry Goulburn, chancellor of the exchequer. 

Earl Bathurst, president of the council. 

Lord Ellenborough, privy seal. 

Mr. (afterwards sir) Robert Peel, earl Dudley, and Mr. 

Wm. Huskisson, home, foreign, and colonial secretaries. 
Viscount Melville, board of control. 
Mr. Charles Grant, board of trade. 
Lord Palmerston, secretary-at-war. 
J. C. Hemes, master of the mint. 
Earl of Aberdeen, duchy of Lancaster. 
Mr. Huskisson, earl Dudley, viscount Palmerston, and 

Mr. Grant quitted the ministry, and various changes 

followed in May and June same year. 
The earl of Aberdeen and sir George Murray became, 

respectively, foreign and colonial secretaries. 
Sir Henry Hardinge, secretary-at-war. 
Mr. Vesey Fitzgerald (afterwards lord Fitzgerald), India 

board. 
Lord Lowther, first commissioner of land revenues, &,c, 

May and June, 1828. 
Mr. Arbuthnot, Mr. Vesey Fitzgerald, <fcc. 

WELLINGTON COLLEGE (Sandhurst), 
was erected by subscription in memory of the great 
duke of Wellington, for the support and education 
of orphan sons of commissioned officers. The first 
stone was laid by the queen on 2 June, 1856 ; and 
the building was opened by her majesty on 29 Jan. 

1859. Out of the 159,000^. subscribed, 55,000^. were 
expended on the building, and the rest invested for 
the maintenance of the institution. 

A controversy respecting its management ; certain 
charges explained or rebutted . . Aug. -Oct. 1878 

Proposal for royal commission of inquiry nega- 
tived in the commons . . . . 1 April, 1879 

Commission appointed ; lord Penzance, bishop of 
Exeter, Mr. R. Lowe (since lord Sherbrooke), col. 
Chesney, &c, June, 1879 ; report recommending 
greater economy and improvement of income, 

Aug. 1880 

Much illness among the boys, 3 deaths ; investiga- 
tion of the premises made dnring 1891 ; the 
scholars were temporarily transferred to Malvern, 

early in 1892 

WELLINGTONIA GIGANTE A (sequoia), 
the largest tree in the world, a native of California, 
was discovered by W. Whitehead, June, 1850 ; a 
specimen first gathered by Mr. W. Lobb in 1853, 
and described by Dr. John Lindley. When full 
grown it is about 450 feet high, and 1 16 feet in 
circumference. The prince consort (5 June, 1861) 
and the queen (24 July, 1861) planted Welling- 
tonias at the new gardens of the Itoyal Horti- 
cultural Society. The trees did not live ; the 
gardens were given up in 1887. 

WELLINGTON'S VICTORIES, &c. For 

details see separate articles. 
Arthur Wellesley was born, according to some 
authorities, in March or April (baptised 30 April); 

incorrectly said by others , , 1 May, 1769 



Appointed to command in the Mahratta war in 
India, takes Poonah and Ahmednuggur, 12 Aug. ; 
gains his first victory at Assaye, 23 Sept. ; defeats 
Scindiah at Argaum, Nov. ; and at Gawalghur 

13 Dec. 1803 

Becomes secretary for Ireland 1807 

Takes the command in Portugal, defeats Junot at 
Vimeira 21 Aug. 1808 

Defeats Victor at Talavera, 28 July; created 
viscount Wellington .... 4 Sept. 1809 

Repulses Massena at Busaco, 27 Sept. ; and occupies 
the lines at Torres Vedras . . .10 Oct. 1810 

Defeats Massena at Fuentes de Onoro, 5 May ; takes 
Almeida '10 May, i8ji 

Passes the Douro and defeats Soult . 12 May, 1812 

Storms Ciudad Rodrigo, 19 Jan. ; and Badajos, 
6 April ; defeats Marmont at Salamanca, 22 
July ; enters Madrid . . . .12 Aug. 

Defeats Joseph Bonaparte and Jourdan at Vittoria, 
21 June ; storms St. Sebastian, 31 Aug. ; enters 
France 8 Oct. 1813 

Defeats Soult at Orthez, 27 Feb. ; and at Toulouse 

10 April, 1814 

Created duke of Wellington, with an annuity of 
13,000?. and a grant of 300,000^. . . May, ,, 

First appeared in the house of lords ; his patents 
of creation as baron, earl, marquis, and duke being 
read at the same time ... 28 June, „ 

Commands the army in the Netherlands ; repulses 
an attack of Ney at Quatre Bras, 16 June : defeats 
Napoleon at Waterloo, 18 June ; invests Paris 

3 July, 1815 

Commands the army of occupation in France 

July, 1815, till Nov. 1818 

His assassination attempted by Cantillon, who 
escapes - 10 Feb. 1818 

Appointed master-general of the ordnance . . 1819 

The Wellington shield and supporting columns 
designed by Stothard, commemorating all the 
above-mentioned victories, presented to the duke 
by the merchants and bankers of London. (It 
was manufactured by Green and Ward, and cost 
n,oooZ.) 16 Feb. 1822- 

The duke appointed commander-in-chief, 22 Jan. ; 
resigns 30 April, 1827 

Becomes first minister .... 8 Jan. 1828 

Aids in carrying the Catholic Emancipation bill 

April, 1829 

Asserts that no reform in parliament is needed, 2 
Nov. ; resigns 16 Nov. 1830 

Transacts all the business of the country, after the 
resignation of lord Melbourne, till the arrival of 
sir R. Peel from Italy, Nov. ; and becomes foreign 
secretary under sir R. Peel, Dec. 1834 ; resigns 

April, 1835 

Again commander-in-chief ... 15 Aug. 1842 

Dies at Walmer castle* .... 14 Sept. 1852 

Removed to Chelsea hospital, where he lay in state 

10 Nov. 

Removed to the Horse Guards . . 17 Nov. ,, 

Public funeral at St. Paul's cathedral . iS Nov. ,, 

A multitude of all ranks, estimated at a million and a 
half of persons, were congregated in the line of route, 
a distance of three miles, to witness and share in the 
imposing spectacle. 

The military consisted of the household regiments of 
horse and foot guards, the 2nd battalion of the rifles, a 
battalion of the Royal Marines, the 53rd regiment, the 
17th Lancers, and the 1 Sth Light Dragoons, the regi- 
ment of Scots Greys; a body of Chelsea pensioners, and 
men of different arms of the Indian army. 

The body was placed upon a sumptuous funeral car, 
drawn by twelve horses richly caparisoned, and the 
coffin was thus seen by the whole of the crowd. 

The procession moved about seven o'clock, and it was 
three o'clock before the body was lowered into the 
vault beside the remains of Nelson, under the do) 
St. Paul's cathedral. 

Memorial by Marochetti creeled by the present duke, his 
son, and tenants at Strathfleldsaj e, July, 1866. 
See Statues. 

WELLINGTON Monument, in St. Paul's. 
A number of models exhibited in Westminster hall ; none 
chosen, 1857. 

* His favourite old horse, Copenhagen, (born 1808, at 
Waterloo), died 1836. 

3 y 2 



WELLS. 



1060 WEST AFRICAN SETTLEMENTS. 



The execution of the monument entrusted to Mr. Alfred 
Stevens, sculptor, and Mr. Penrose, architect. The 
stone sarcophagus was completed in 1858. 
In Aug. 1870, above 17,000?. had been expended, and it 
was stated that 15,000?. more were required. Parlia- 
ment had granted 20,000?. Fresh arrangements were 
made with Mr. Stevens. He died 1 May, 1875. Mo- 
nument reported complete, 1 Feb. ; uncovered, 20 
April, 1878. 
The removal of the monument to a different part of the 
cathedral, and the addition of the equestrian statue 
modelled by Mr. Stevens, proposed in April ; work 
proceeding, Sept. 1892. 

WELLS were dug by Abraham, 1892 B.C., and 
Isaac, 1804 {Gen. xxi. 30, and xxvi. 19). Danaus 
is said to hare introduced well-digging into Greece 
from Egypt. Norton's " tube-well," patented Oct. 
1867, is said to be the invention of Hiram J. 
Messenger, Stephen Brewer, and Byron Mudge, 
Americans of the state of New York. The appa- 
ratus consists of an iron tube perforated with holes 
at the lower end, and shod with a steel point, which 
readily enters the hardest soil when forcibly driven. 
It was used with great advantage during the civil 
war 1 86 1 -4; by the British in their campaign in 
Abyssinia in 1867-8 ; and by the Eussians in Khiva, 

1873- 

Messrs. Meux, brewers, New Oxford-street, London, 

boring, found water beneath the greensand, about 

1000 feet deep, April, 1877. 

WELLS (Somerset). The cathedral church 
was built by Ina, king of the West Saxons, 704, and 
by him dedicated to St. Andrew. Other West 
Saxon kings endowed it, and it was erected into a 
bishopric in 909, during the reign of Edward the 
Elder. The present church was begun by Robert, 
1 8th bishop of this see, and completed by his imme- 
diate successor. The first bishop was jEthelm or 
Adelmus (afterwards bishop of Canterbury). The 
see was united with Bath {which see) in 1088. 
Population, 1881, 4,634 ; 1891, 4,822. 

WELSH CHARITY SCHOOLS; esta- 
blished in Gray's-inn-road, London, 1715 ; removed 
to Ashford, near Staines, Middlesex, 1852. Welsh 
National Council, see Wales, Oct. 1887. 

WENDS, a branch of the Slavonic family which 
spread over Germany in the 6th century, and settled 
especially in the north-eastern parts. 

WESLEYAN METHODISTS, a sect 

founded by John Wesley (born 1703, died 1791) 
and his brother Charles, who in 1727 with a few 
other students formed themselves into a small society 
for the purpose of mutual edification by religious 
exercises. From their strictness of life they were called 
Methodists, in 1729. John Wesley went to Georgia 
in America, in 1735, with a view of converting the 
Indians. On his return to England, in 1738, he 
commenced itinerant preaching, and gathered many 
followers. On finding many churches shut against 
him, he built spacious meeting-houses in London, 
Bristol, and other places. The W esleyan Methodist 
society, as such, began in 1 739. For some time he was 
united with George Whiteti eld; but differing with 
him respecting the doctrine of election, they sepa- 
rated in 1 741; see Whitefield. Wesley was almost 
continually engaged in travelling through the 
United Kingdom. His two leading doctrines were 
the instantancousness of conversion, and Christian 
perfection, or deliverance from all sin. His society 
was well organised, and he preserved his influence 
over it to the last. " His genius for government 
was not inferior to that of Bichelieu." Macaulay, 
The deed of declaration, establishing the conference, 
is dated 28 Feb. 1784. In 185 1 there were 428 
circuits in Great Britain, with between 13,000 and 



14,000 local or lay preachers, and about 920 itine- 
rant preachers, and 6579 chapels. 

The Conference, the highest Wesleyan court, till 
lately, composed of 100 ministers, who meet 
annually. It was instituted by John Wesley in . 1784 

At the centenary of the existence of Methodism 
216,000?. were collected, to be expended on the 
objects of the society 1839 

An oecumenical conference to be held in the autumn 
of 1881, settled 31 July, 1880 

138th annual conference opened . . 19 July, 1881 

Out of the original connection have seceded :— 

Chapels in 1851 

New Connection (in 1796) 301 

Primitive Methodists (1810) 2871 

Bible Christians, or Bryanites (from Win. O'Bryan) 
(1815) 403 

Wesleyan Methodist Association (1834) . . . 329 

Wesleyan Methodist Reformers (1849) • ■ • 2O0 ° 

The last arose out of the publication of " Fly 
Sheets," advocating reform in the body (1844-8). 
The suspected authors and their friends were ex- 
pelled. By these disruptions the main body is 
thought to have lost 100,000 members. — This 
sect in America numbered about a million in 
1844, when a division took place on the slavery 
question. 

The United Methodist Free Churches, an amalgamation 
of the Protestant Methodist (1828), Wesleyan 
Methodist Association (1834) and the Wesleyan 
Reform Association (1849) effected in . . . 1857 

Wesleyan Methodist church members in Great Bri- 
tain in 1868, 342,380; in 1872, 346,580; in 1876, 
37 2 >S38 ! 1878, 380,867 (1412 ministers) ; 1885, 
413,163 ; March, 1889, 421,784; 1892, 424,959. 

Letter from Dr. Pusey requesting aid in opposing 
Coleridge's bill for admitting dissenters to the 
universities, read at the conference, but not 
received . . 13 Aug. 1868 

The establishment of a high school for Wesleyans 
at Cambridge (to prepare for the university) pro- 
posed -. May 1872 

The chapel in the City-road, London, founded by 
John Wesley, 1 April, 1777, was nearly destroyed 
by fire 7 Dec. 1879 

Oecumenical Methodist conference (at City-road 
Chapel, London), of 400 delegates, ministers and 
laymen from all parts of the world (representing 
nearly 4,000,000) . . . .6 Sept. et seq. 1881 

Centenary of the death of the celebrated John 
Wesley ; his statue by Mr. Adams Acton, in 
front of the City-road chapel, unveiled by the 
Rev. D. Moulton .... 2 March, 1891 

Conference at Newcastle-on-Tyne . . 21 July 1885 

,, ,, Camborne, Cornwall . 24 July 1888 

„ Sheffield (146th) . . 23 July 1889 

,, ,, Bristol July, 1890 

„ ,, Nottingham (148th) . 21 July, 1891 

,, ,, Bradford (149th) '. . ' 1 Aug. 1892 

Oecumenical conference at Washington, U. S. N. A., 

7 Oct. 1 89 1 

The chapel in the City-road, London, re-opened 
after repairs and changes . . . 5 Nov. ,, 

WESSEX, see Britain. 

WEST AFRICAN SETTLEMENTS- 

Sierra Leone, Gambia, &c. Governor, sir Arthur 
E.Kennedy, 1867; sir Garnet Wolseley, Aug. 1873; 
Cornelius H. Kortright, 1875 ; Dr. Samuel Bowe, 
1876; capt. Arthur E. Havelock, 1881 ; sir 
Samuel Rowe, 1884, died 1888. See Ashantees. 
Turbulent chiefs subdued .... June, 1883 
International conference at Berlin, on West 
African affairs. * Freedom of trade on the Congo ; 
Rights of States occupying open territory ; pro- 
posed by Germany, accepted by France, England, 
Portugal, Spain, Holland, Belgium, the United 

States, and Turkey 8 Oct. 1884 

Conference opened, prince Bismarck president. 

15 Nov. „ 
The conference declares free trade in the Congo 
valley and affirms British protectorate over the 
Niger, and recognises the International African 
Association Dec. ,, 

* Mr. H. Stanley, at Berlin. 



WESTEEN AUSTEALIA. 



1061 



WESTEEN ISLES. 



Prohibits slave trade 7 Jan. 1885 

Approves rules for future annexations on the coast 

1 Feb. „ 
Result of the conference embodied in a general act 

signed 26 Feb. „ 

International limitations on the lower Congo, settled 

is Feb. „ 

WESTEEN AUSTEALIA, formerly Swan 

ELVER SETTLEMENT, which was projected by 
colonel Peel in 1828. Regulations issued from the 
colonial office, and Captain Stirling, appointed 
lieutenant-governor, Jan. 17, 1829, arrived at the 
appointed site in August following. The three 
towns of Perth, Freemantle, and Guildford were 
founded same year. In March, 1830, fifty ships, 
with 2000 emigrants, with property amounting to 
1,000,000/., had arrived before hardly any dwellings 
had been erected or land surveyed. The more 
energetic settlers left for home, or the neighbouring 
colonies, and the colony languished for twenty years 
for want of suitable inhabitants — the first settlers, 
from their previous habits and rank in life, proving 
unfit for the rough work of colonisation. In 1848, 
the colonists requested that convicts might be sent 
out to them, and in 1849 a band arrived, who were 
kindly received and well treated. The best results 
ensued. By 1853, 2000 had arrived, and the in- 
habitants of Perth had requested that 1000 should 
be sent out annually. The reception of convicts is 
to cease in after-years, in consequence of the ener- 
getic opposition of the other Australian colonies 
(1865). — The settlement of King George's Sound 
was founded in 1826 by the government of New 
South Wales. It was used as a military station for 
four years. In 1 830, the home government ordered 
the settlement to be transferred to Swan River. 
Since the establishment of steam communication, 
the little town of Albany here, employed as a coal- 
ing station, has become a thriving sea-port. It 
possesses an excellent harbour, used by whalers. A 
journal called the Freemantle Gazette was published 
here in March, 1831. Bishopric of Perth founded 
1857. Population of Western Australia in 1859, 
14,837; Jan. 1862, 15,555; Dec - 1883,31,233; April, 
1891,49,782 ; 1887, revenue, 377,903/.; expenditure, 
456,897/.; imports, 832,213/. ; exports, 604,656/. ; 
1890, revenue, 414,314/.; expenditure, 401,737/.; 
imports, 874,447/.; exports, 671,813/. Governor 
John Stephen Hampton, appointed 1861 ; sir Ben- 
jamin C. C. Pine, May, 1868; Frederick A. Weld, 
1869; Wm. C. F. Robinson, 1874; major-gen. sir 
Harry St. George Ord, 1877; sir W. F. Robinson, 
1880 ; sir Frederick Napier Broome, 1882 ; sir 
William C. F. Robinson, Aug. 1889. 

New gold field at Perth discovered, May ; gold dis- 
covered in n.w. Australia ...(?) May, 1886 

The egislative council petition for responsible 
self-government instead of being a crown colony, 
autumn, 1887 ; a bill granting this was passed by 
the house of lords, 16 July, withdrawn in the 
commons, Aug. 1889; re-introduced and received 
the royal assent, 25 July ; proclaimed at Perth, 
with great rejoicings .... 22 Oct. 1890 

The hon. John Forrest forms the first ministry, 28 
Dec. ; the first parliament meets . 20 Jan. 1891 

WESTEEN CHUECH (called also the 
Latin or Roman) broke off communion with the 
Greek or Eastern Church, 653 ; see Greek Church. 
Its history is mainly comprised in that of the popes 
and of the European kingdoms; see Popes. This 
church was disturbed by the Arian heresy about 
345 and 500 ; by Pelagianism, about 409 ; by the 
introduction of image-worship about 600; by the 
injunction of the celibacy of the clergy and the rise 
of the monastic orders about 649 ; by the contests 
between the emperors and the popes respecting 



ecclesiastical investitures between 1073 and 1 173; 
by the rise and progress of the Reformation in the 
15th and 16th centuries; by the contests between 
the Jesuits and Jansenists in the 17th and 18th 
centuries ; and by the progress of modern philosophy 
and rationalism, and by ultramontanism, in the 
19th ; see Roman Catholics. 

WESTEEN EMPIEE. The Roman empire 
was divided into Eastern and Western by l)io- 
cletian in 296; but was reunited under Constans 
in 340. It was again divided into Eastern and 
Western by Valentinian and Valens, the former 
having the Western portion or Rome, 364; see 
Eastern Empire, Italy, and Home. 

EMPERORS. 

364. Valentinian, son of Gratian, takes the Western, and 

his brother Valens the Eastern empire. 

367. Gratian, a youth, son of Valentinian, made a col- 
league in the government by his father. 

375. Valentinian II., another son, also very young, is, on 
the death of his father, associated with Gratian, 
who is assassinated by his general, Andragathius, 
in 383. Valentinian murdered by one of his officers, 
Arbogastes, in 392. 

392. Eugenius, a usurper, assumes the imperial dignity ; 
he and Arbogastes are defeated by 

394. Theodosius the Great, who becomes sole emperor. 
[Andragathius threw himself into the sea, and Arbo- 
gastes died by his own hand.] 

395. Hunorius, son of Theodosius, reigns, on his father's 

death, in the West, and his brother Arcadius in 
the East. Honorius dies in 423. 

423. Usurpation of John, the Notary, defeated and slain 
near Ravenna. 

425. Valentinian III. , son of the empress Flacidia, daugh- 
ter of Theodosius the Great : murdered at the in- 
stance of his successor 

455. Maximus : he marries Eudoxia, widow of Valen- 
tinian, who, to avenge the death of her first 
husband and the guilt of her second, invites the 
African Vandals into Italy, and Rome is sacked. 
Maximus stoned to death. 

455. Marcus Mascilius Avitus ; forced to resign, and dies 
in his flight towards the Alps. 

457. Julius Valerius Majorianus ; murdered at the instance 
of his minister, Ricimer, who raises 

461. Libius Severus to the throne, but holds the supreme 
power; Severus poisoned by Ricimer. 

465. [Interregnum. Ricimer retains the authority, with- 
out assuming the title of emperor.] 

467. Anthemius, chosen by the joint suffrages of the 
senate and army ; murdered by Ricimer, who dies 
soon after. 

472. Flavius-Anicius Olybrius : slain by the Goths soon 

after his accession. 

473. Glycerius: forced to abdicate by his successor, 

474. Julius Nepos : deposed by his general, Orestes, and. 

retires to Salonaj. 

475. Romulus (called Augustulus, or Little Augustus), 

sou of Orestes. Orestes is slain, and the emperor 
deposed by 

476. Odoacer, king of the Heruli : takes Rome, assumes 

the style of king of Italy, and completes the fall of 
the Western empire. 

See Italy, Rome, and Germany. 

WEST HAM, S.W. Essex, (called London 
over the border) parish containing Plaistow, Strat- 
ford, &c, the population in 1841, 12,738; owing to 
the large increase of factories and other works rose 
to 99,142 in 1871, and 200,752 in 1881 ; 1891, 

365. '3°- 

West Hani returns two M.P.'s by the act of 1885 ; and 
was incorporated by royal charter, July, 1886. West 
Ham is outside of the jurisdiction of the metropolitan 
board of works. The dreadful sanitary condition Of 
1855 gradually improved by the action of a new local 
board, now succeeded by a municipal corporation. 
Rateable value 79,000/. in 1856; nearly 700,000/. in 1886. 

WESTEEN ISLES of Scotland.. Royal 

commission to inquire into extreme destitution ap- 
pointed 20 March, 1883 (lord Napier and Ettrick, 



WESTERN TERRITORIES. 



1062 



WESTMINSTER BISHOPRIC. 



Mr. Donald Cameron, M.P., and others). See 
Mansion Mouse. 

WESTERN TERRITORIES, British 
America, contain four districts, Assiniboia, Saskat- 
chewan, Alberta, and Athabasca, formed by the Do- 
minion government in 1882. They were part of the 
HudsonBay territories till 1870, when they were an- 
nexed to Canada. Population in 1891, about 67,554. 
Capital, Begina. Lieut. -gov., Joseph Boyal (1891). 

WEST INDIES, islands discovered by Colum- 
bus, St. Salvador being the first land he made in 
the New World, and first seen by him in the night 
between the nth and 12th Oct. 1492. The largest 
are Cuba, Hayti (or St. Domingo), Jamaica, Porto 
Bico, Trinidad, and Guadaloupe; see the Islands 
respectively. 

A royal commission to inquire into their condition ap- 
pointed in 1882, reported on their great need of im- 
portant judicial and fiscal reforms April, 1884 : De- 
pressed condition through increased use of beet sugar ; 
inadmissible remedies proposed by deputation to 
lord Derby, 28 Aug. 1884. 

WEST INDIAN SETTLEMENTS, see 

Jamaica. 

WESTMINSTER, so called on account of its 
western situation with regard to St. Paul's cathe- 
dral, or from there being formerly a monastery 
named East Minster, on the hill now called Great 
Tower-hill. This city joins London at Temple-bar. 
Formerly Westminster was called Thorney, or 
Thomey Island: and in ancient times Canute had 
a palace here, burnt in 1263. Westminster and 
London were one miie asunder in 1603, when the 
houses were thatched, and there were mud walls in 
the Strand. It is said that the great number of 
Scotsmen who came over after the accession of 
James I. occasioned the building of Westminster, and 
united it with London. Howel's Londinopolis. 
See Parliament, 1834-52, 1884. By the Seats act 
of 1885, Westminster returns one M.P. Population, 
Westminster (borough), 1881, 46,549; 1891, 37,295. 
Strand, 1881, 32,587; 1891, 25,107. St. Georges, 
Hanover sq., 1881, 149,748; 1891, 134,122. See 
under Roman Catholics. 
Earl Grosvenor created marquis of Westminster, 

1831 ; the marquis created duke . . . . 1874 
Westminster industrial exhibition, opened 24 May, 

closed 9 Aug. 1879 

Baroness Burdett-Coutts lays foundation of New 

Town Hall, near Victoria Street, 29 March, 1882 ; 

opened 19 July, 1883 

The prince of Wales lays the foundation stone of 

St. Martin's municipal buildings, &c, 18 March, 

1890 ; which are opened by Mr. A. J. Balfour, 

16 July, 1891 

WESTMINSTER ABBEY. Christopher 
Wren, in his survey of the present edifice, found 
nothing to countenance the belief that it was erected 
on the ruins of a pagan temple. The erection of 
the first abbey in the 7th century is ascribed to St. 
Sebert, king of Essex. 

The church becoming ruinous, splendidly rebuilt by 
Edward the Confessor (1055-65) and filled with 
monks from Exeter (Pope Nicholas II. constituted 
it the place for the inauguration of the kings of 
England) ; dedicated .... 28 Deo. 1065 

Re-built in a magnificent style by Henry III. 1220-69 

In the reigns of Edward II., Edward III., and 
Richard II. the great cloisters, abbot's house, and. 
principal monastic buildings, erected . . 1300-1400 
The western parts of the nave and aisles rebuilt 

between 1340 and 1483 

The west front and the great window built by 
Richard HI. and Henry VII. ; the latter com- 
menced the chapel which bears his name ; the first 
stone laid 24 Jan. 1502-3 



The abbey dissolved and made a bishopric . . 1540 
Made a collegiate church by Elizabeth . . . 1560 
Made a barrack for soldiers (Mercurius Busticus), 

July, 1643 
The great west window and the western towers re- 
built in the reigns of George I. and II. . . 1714-60 
The choir injured by fire . . . .9 July, 1803 
Mr. Wyatt commenced restoring the dilapidated 

parts at an expense of 42, 000Z. in .... 1809 
A fire, without any serious injury . 27 April, 1829 
The evening services for the working classes, when 
a sermon was preached by the dean, Dr. Trench, 

commenced on 3 Jan. 1858 

The 800th anniversary of the foundation celebrated, 

28 Dec. 1865 
joool. voted by parliament to restore the chapter- 
house (G. Gilbert Scott employed), 1 May, 1866 ; 

re-opened 29 April, 1872 

Lectures in the Abbey on foreign missions : pro- 
fessor Max Miiller, a layman, 3 Dec. 1873 ; prin- 
cipal Caird of Scotch church, 30 Nov. 1874 ; rev. 
Robert Moffat, father-iu-law of Livingstone 

30 Nov. 1875 
Sir Charles Lyell, sir Wm. Sterndale Bennett, and 
bishop Connop Thirlwall, buried in the Abbey, 
1875 ; G. E. Street, 29 Dec. 1881 ; C. R. Darwin, 

26 April, 1882 

Robert Browning 30 Dec. i88q 

Repairs connected with the principal entrance after 
designs by Gilbert Scott, completed at a cost of 

about 2o,oooZ Nov. 1881 

New Abbey gardens opened . . .12 April, 1882 
New organ set up ..... May, 1884 

Thanksgiving jubilee services for the queen ( see 

Jubilee) 21, 22 June, 1887 

Proposed transfer of the charge of restoring and 
maintaining the abbey to the ecclesiastical com- 
missioners who are to advance io,oooJ. March; 
legalised by act passed ... 28 June, 1888 
Royal commission appointed to inquire in regard 
to the facilities for the interment of illustrious 
persons : the dean Bradley, sir F. Leighton, Mr. 
Alfred Waterhouse, and others, 29 April ; report 

indecisive June, 1891 

Restoration of the exterior of the north transept, as 

designed by sir Gilbert Scott, completed June, 1890 
Special service on the death of sir John Macdonald, 
premier of Canada . . . .12 June, 1891 

WESTMINSTER AQUARIUM, see 

Aquarium. 

WESTMINSTER BISHOPRICS and 

DEANERY. At the dissolution of monasteries, 
Westminster abbey was valued at 3977^ per annum ; 
king Henry VIII. in 1539 erected it into a deanery; 
and in 1540 into a bishopric, and appointed Thomas 
Thirlby prelate. He was translated to Norwich in 
1550, and with him ended the bishopric of West- 
minster; Middlesex, his diocese, being restored to 
London. The dean presided until the accession of 
Mary, who restored the abbot. Elizabeth displaced 
the abbot, and erected the abbey into a collegiate 
church of a dean and twelve prebendaries, as it 
still continues. On the revival of the order of the 
Bath, in 1725, the dean of Westminster w r as ap- 
pointed dean of that order, which honour has been 
continued. Dr. Nicholas Wiseman was created arch- 
bishop of Westminster by the pope Pius IX. 30 Sept. 
18 50; see Papal Aggression. Dr. Wiseman died 8 
Feb. 1865; Henry Manning was consecrated his 
successor 8 June, following ; he died 14 Jan. 1892, 
and was succeeded by Dr. Herbert Vaughan about 
30 March; enthroned 8 May; invested with the 
pallium, the first since 1556, 16 Aug., 1892. See 
Roman Catholics. 

RECENT DEANS. 

1793. Samuel Horsley ; bishop of St. Asaph, 1802. 
1802. William Vincent ; died 21 Dec. 1815. 
1815. John Ireland ; died 21 Sept. 1842. 
1842. Thomas Turton; bishop of Ely, 1845. 

1845. Samuel Wilberforce ; bishop of Oxford, 1846. 

1846. William Buckland ; died 14 Aug. 1856. 

1856. Richard C. Trench; abp. of Dublin, 1 Jan. 1864. 



WESTMINSTER BRIDGES. 



1063 



WHALE-FISHERY. 



C864. Arthur Penrhyn Stanley ; died 18 July, 1881. 
1881. George Granville Bradley ; 14 Sept. 

WESTMINSTER BRIDGES. The hand- 
some old bridge was begun (after a design of M. 
Labelye), 13 Sept. 1738, the first stone laid 29 Jan. 
1738-9; opened for passengers 18 Nov. 1750; cost 
426,65^. It was built of Portland stone, and crossed 
the river where the breadth is 1223 feet. 
Owing to the sinking of several of its piers, most 
of the balustrades on both sides were removed, to 
relieve the structure of its weight. 
By 16 <fe 17 Vict. c. 46 the estates of its commis- 
sioners were transferred to her majesty's commis- 
sioners of works, who were empowered to remove 
the then existing bridge, and build a new 
bridge (near the old one) . . . .4 Aug. 1853 
The contract required the completion of the works 

by 1 June, 1857 

The works were suspended for a time, in conse- 
quence of the failure of Messrs. Mare the contrac- 
tors. The government eventually undertook the 
building, which they entrusted to Mr. Thomas 
Page, the engineer. One half of the new bridge 
was opened for use early in i860; the whole on 

24 May, 1862 

WESTMINSTER Confession of Faith 

AND CATECHISMS were drawn up by the "Assem- 
bly of Divines" (partly consisting of laymen), who 
sat by authority of parliament in Henry VII. 's 
•chapel, Westminster, from 1643 to 1647. These 
have ever since been the doctrinal standards of 
Scotch Presbyterians. 

WESTMINSTER HALL (London), first 
ibuilt by William Rufus in 1097, for a banqueting- 
hall; and here in 1099, on his return from Nor- 
mandy, "he kept his feast of Whitsuntide very 
royally." The hall became ruinous before the 
a-eign of Richard II., who repaired it in 1397, raised 
the walls, altered the windows, and added a new 
roof, as well as a stately porch and other buildings. 
In 1236 Henry III. on New-year's day caused 6000 
poor persons to be entertained in this hall, and in 
the other rooms of his palace, as a celebration of 
queen Eleanor's coronation; and here Richard II. 
held his Christmas festival in 1397, when the num- 
ber of the guests each day the feast lasted was 
JO,000. Stow. The courts of law were established 
here by king John. Idem. Westminster hail was 
stated to be the largest room in Europe unsupported 
by pillars (except a hall of justice at Padua) ; it is 
270 feet in length, 74 feet broad. The hall under- 
went a general repair in 1802. Concurrently with 
the erection of the palace of Westminster, many 
improvements and alterations have lately been 
made in this magnificent hall. The Volunteer 
Rifle corps were drilled in the hall in the winter of 
1859, and since. The courts of law removed to the 
new buildings in the Strand Jan. 1883. Restora- 
tions proposed by Mr. J. L. Pearson, R.A., July, 
1884. The roof and windows greatly damaged by 
an explosion of dynamite (?) about 2 p.m. 24 Jan. 
1885. 

WESTMINSTER HOSPITAL, founded, 
1719; chartered, 1836. 

-WESTMINSTER PALACE, see under 
Palace of Westminster, and Parliament. 

WESTMINSTER REVIEW, liberal in reli- 
gion and politics, first appeared, 1824, as the organ 
of the philosophic radicals, termed the Westminster 
school, friends of Jeremy Bentham. Sec Utili- 
tarian is in. 

WESTMINSTER SCHOOL or St. Peter's 
College, was founded by queen Elizabeth in 1560, 
for the education of forty boys, denominated the 
Queen's scholars, who are prepared for the univer- 



sity. It is situated within the abbej enclosure. 

Besides the scholars on the foundation, many of the 

nobility and gentry send their sons to Westminster 

for instruction. A proposal in i860 to remove the 

school was disapproved of in 1861. 

Westminster Schools, United, comprise Emanuel and 

St. Margaret's hospitals, and rev. James Palmer's and 

Emery Hill's school charities, which were abolished 

by the endowed school commissioners 27 June, 1873. 

New schools are to be erected. 

WESTMINSTER, Statutes of, are 3 and 

13 Edward I., 1275-90 ; see Acts of Parliament. 

WESTMORELAND. This county and Cum- 
berland were granted as a fief to Malcolm of Scot- 
land by Edward the Elder in 945 ; but resumed by 
Henry III. in 1237. Neville, earl of Westmore- 
land, revolted against Elizabeth in 1569, and was 
attainted in 1570. 

WESTPHALIA (Germany). This duchy be- 
longed in former times to the dukes of Saxony, and 
afterwards became subject to the archbishop of 
Cologne. On the secularisation in 1802, it was 
made over to Hesse Darmstadt ; and in 1814 was 
ceded for an equivalent to Prussia. The kingdom 
of Westphalia, one of the temporary kingdoms of 
Bonaparte, composed of conquests from Prussia, 
Hesse-Cassel, Hanover, and the smaller states to 
the west of the Elbe, was created by decree 18 Aug. 

1806, and Jerome Bonaparte appointed king, 1 Dec. 

1807. _ Hanover was annexed to it, 1 March, 1810. 
The kingdom was abolished in 1813, and the coun- 
tries were restored to their former rulers. 
Through strike of the coal miners for increased pay 

and shorter hours of labour, Herr Krupp, of Essen, 
had to stop his iron and steel works at several places 
for want of coal about 4 May. A conflict took place 
near Gladbeck between the troops and miners, and 
three miners were killed, 7 May ; the owners stand firm ; 
about 39,000 men on strike, 8 May ; nearly 100,000 
strikers out, 13 May ; the government intervenes to 
effect a compromise, about 13 May ; the emperor 
receives three delegates from miners, 14 May, and 
advises both parties to come to a compromise, about 
15, 16 May ; strike spreading to Silesia &c, 15 May ; 
strikers in Westphalia about 110,000, in Silesia 10,000, 
16 May — 20 May ; 40 members of the striking com- 
mittee arrested 26 May ; strike ends by a com- 
promise, 31 May, 1889. Fresh demands of the miners 
(increase of 50 per cent, of wages, shorter hours, &c), 
rejected by the masters, 23 Jan. 1890. 

Explosion at the Hibernia pit, near Gilsenkirchen, 
about 44 deaths, reported ... 25 Jan. 1891 

Great strike of coal miners near Essen, about 15,000 
men out, 19 April; close of strike, reported, 

3 May, „ 

WESTPHALIA or Munster, Peace of ; 

the treaties signed at Osnaburg 6 Aug., and at 
Minister 24 Oct. 1648, between France, the emperor, 
and Sweden ; Spam continuing the war against 
France. By this peace (ending the thirty years' 
war) the principle of a balance of power in Europe 
was first recognised ; Alsace given to France, and 
part of Pomerania and some other districts to 
Sweden ; the Lower Palatinate restored to the 
elector palatine ; the religious and political rights 
of the German states established ; and the inde- 
pendence of the Swiss Confederation recognised by 
Germany. 

WEST SAXONS, see Wessex, in Britain. 

WEYMOUTH, Dorsetshire, was given by 
Henry I. to St. Swithin's, Winchester. Taken 
from Charles I., by the parliamentarians, 1644; 
visited and brought inlo note by George III., 1789. 
First Dorset industrial exhibition was opened here, 
25 July, 1878. 

WHALE-FISHERY, it is said, was first 
carried on by the Norwegians in the ninth century. 



WHARNCLIFFE MEETINGS. 



1064 



WHISKY. 



lenglet. Whales were killed at Newfoundland and 
Iceland, for their oil only, 1578; the use of their 
fins and bones was not yet known, consequently (a 
writer adds") no stays were worn by the ladies. The 
English whale-fishing commenced at Spitzbergen m 
1598; but the Dutch had been previously fishing 
there. The fishery was much promoted by an act of 
parliament passed in 1749. From 1800 to 2000 
whales have been killed annually on the coast of 
Greenland, &c. The quantity of whale-oil imported 
in 1814 was 33,567 tuns ; in 1826, when gas-light 
became general, 25,000 tuns; in 1840, about 22,000 
tuns; in 1850, 21.360 tuns; in 1861, 19,176 tuns; 
in 1864, 14,701 tuns; in 1867, 15,945 tuns ! m l8 7 x » 
24,679 tuns: in i872 18.719 tuns: in 1878, 20,656 
tuns; in 1883, 17,156 tuns; in 1887, 17,698 tuns; 
in 1890, 20,307 tuns, A living whale from Labrador, 
9 feet 6 inches long, placed in the Westminster 
aquarium, 26 Sept., died 29 Sept. 1877. White 
whale (Beluga), arrived 28 May ; died in latter part 
of June. 159 bottlenosed whales captured at Barns, 
Tankerness, near Kirkwall, 20 Nov. 1889. 

WHARNCLIFFE MEETINGS of public 

companies (held to give enlarged powers under 
certain prescribed conditions) are so called because 
the standing orders of the house of lords, under 
which they are held, were introduced by lord 
Wharnclift'e, about 1846. 

WHEAT- The Chinese ascribe to their empe- 
ror, Ching-Noung, who succeeded Fohi, the art of 
husbandry, and method of making bread from 
wheat, about 2000 years before the Christian era. 
Wheat was introduced into Britain in the 6th cen- 
tury, by Coll ap Coll Frewi. Roberts. The first 
wheat imported into England of which we have a 
note was in 1347. Various statutes have regulated 
the sales of wheat, and restrained its importation, 
in order to encourage its being raised at home. 
In 1862 attention was drawn to the probable 
utility of considering the pedigree of wheat. In 
1871 it was estimated that 3,571,894 acres in the 
United Kingdom were devoted to wheat; in 1876, 
3,124,342. See Bread, and Corn Laivs. Greatest 
producers (in order), United States, Bussia, France, 
Great Britain, &c. The wheat crop fur Great 
Britain is said to have yielded 71,939,647 bushels in 





IMPORTED INTO 


THE 


UNITED KINGDOM. 




Wheat. 






Flour. 




1854, 2,656,455 q 


rs. 




6,329,038 nuts. 




1861, 29,955,532 


, 




6,152,938 „ 




1862, 41,033,503 


, 




7,207,113 ,, 




1864, 23,196,714 civts. 




4,512,391 „ 




1866, 23,156,329 






4,972,280 „ 




1868, 32,639,768 






3,093,022 ,, 




1871, 39,389,803 






3.977.933 » 




1872, 42,127,726 


,, 




4,388,136 „ 




1874, 41,527,638 


„ 




6,236,044 ,, 




1877, 54,269,800 


„ 




7.377.303 ,, 




1878, 49,906,484 


,, 




7,828,079 ,, 




1879, 59,59!. 795 


,, 




10,728,252 ,, 




1880, 55,261,924 


,, 




10,558,312 ,, 




1881, 57,H7,933 


,, 




11,357,381 ,, 




1882, 64,240,749 


,, 




13.057,403 ,» 




1883, 64,138,631 


,, 




16,329,312 ,, 




1884, 47,306,156 


,, 




15,095. 3 CI >, 




1885, 61,498,864 


„ 




15,832,843 „ 




1886, 47,435,806 


„ 




14,689,560 ,, 




1887, 55,802,518 


„ 




18,063,234 ,, 




1888, 57,261,363 


,, 




16,910,442 ,, 




1889, 58,551,887 


,, 




14,672,082 ,, 




1890, 60,474,180 


» 




I 5,773,33° ,, 


VALUE OF WHEAT IMPORTED INTO THE UNITED KINGDOM. 


1854 


. . £11,693, 


737 


1858 


• ■ 9.050,467 


1855 


9,679,578 


1859 


8,713,532 


T856 


12,716, 


349 


i860 


• • 16,554.083 


1857 


9.563. 


099 


1861 


19,051,464 



J 863 



1870 



1873 
1874 
1875 



1877 



1881 



. £23,203,800 
12,015,006 

10,674,654 
9,775,616 

12,983,090 

24,985,096 

22,069,353 

• 19.515,758 

16,264,027 

. 23,318,883 

26,169,185 
28,538,746 
25,236,932 
, . 27,510,469 
23,178,011 

Average Annual Price per Quarter in England and Wales. 



£33,885,437 
27,433.444- 
31,468,171 
30,621,711 
3i,53i,535 
34,259,126- 
31,454,481 
19,901,794- 
24,085,913. 
17,909,630 
2i,337,9iS- 
21,995,974 
22,510,502. 
23,583,844 



1805 
1810 
1815 
1820 
1825 



s. d. 
119 6 

89 9 
106 5 

7 



1830 66 4 
1835 39 4 



1850 
1855 



1865 



d. 
40 3 
74 
53 
41 
49 IJ 
64 5 
63 9 
48 2 
46 10 
56 " 



1873 
1874 
1875 
1876 
1877 
1878 
1879 



d. 

57 o 

58 8 

55 8 

45 2 

46 2 

56 9 
46 5 

43 IO 

44 4 

45 4 



d. 

45 r 
4i 7 
35 ® 
S 2 10 

31 c. 

32 6 

31 io> 
29 9> 

32 2 



i»45 50 10 

WHEEL, Breaking on the. A barbarous 
mode of death, of great antiquity, ordered by 
Francis I. for robbers, about 1535 ; see Ravaillac. 

WHEEL-WORK, see Spinning, Zooms, Auto- 
maton. 

WHIGS. In the reign of Charles II. the name 
Whig was a term of reproach given by the court 
party to their antagonists for holding the principles 
of the "whigs," or fanatical covenanters in Scot- 
land ; and in return the name Tory was given to> 
the court party, comparing them to the Tories, or 
popish robbers in Ireland. Baker. The distinction 
arose out of the discovery of the Meal-tub plot 
(which see) in 1678. Upon bringing up the meal 
plot before parliament, two parties were formed : 
the ones who doubted the plot styled those who 
believed in it Whigs ; these styled their adversaries 
Tories. In time these names, given as marks of 
opprobrium, became honoured distinctions. Hume. 
The Whigs brought about the revolution of 1688-9, 
and established the protestant succession. They 
were chiefly instrumental in obtaining the abolition 
of the slave trade and slavery, the repeal of the 
Test and Corporation act. Catholic emancipation, 
parliamentary and municipal reform, the repeal of 
the corn laws, and similar measures. The Whig 
Club was established by Charles James Fox ; one of 
its original members was the great Francis, duke of 
Bedford, who died in 1802. See Liberals. For the 
principal Whig ministries, see Halifax, Walpole, 
Rockingham, Grenville, Grey, Melbourne, Russell, 
Palmerston, and Gladstone. 

WHIP, the popular title of the patronage secre- 
tary of the treasury, whose duty it is to collect mem- 
bers to make a house on important occasions, &c. Sir 
Wm. Hayter, the liberal "whip," 1850-8, received 
a testimonial for his energetic services, early in 1861 . 
The right hon. Wm. P. Adam, an able whip, died 
governor of Madras, 24 May, 1881. It is the duty 
of both conservative and liberal whips to promote 
the interest of their party in every conceivable 
way. 

The management of the house of commons by bribery is 
said to have begun with Clifford of the "Cabal " minis- 
try, and continued by Whigs and Tories. Mr. Roberts 
(under Henry Pelham), is said to have paid members 
sums of i,oooL, 500L, &c, to each at the close of a 
session for their support. Wraxall. 

WHISKY, the spirit distilled from malt and 
other com in Scotland and Ireland, of which about 



WHIST. 



1065 



WHITEHALL. 



eight millions of gallons have been distilled 
annually in the former, and upwards of nine mil- 
lions of gallons in the latter. The duty upon this 
article once produced annually about three millions. 
The distillation of whisky is referred to the 16th 
century ; but some authors state it to have been 
earlier; see Distillation. In 1855 the duties on 
spirits distilled in Scotland and Ireland were 
equalised with those distilled in England. Women's 
Whisky War, see United States, 1874. 

WHIST, a game at cards, became general at the 
end of the 17th century. 
Edmund Hoyle, who published his " Short 

Treatise" about 1742, died in 1769, aged 97; 

lord Peterborough introduced short whist early 

in the present century ; the laws were revised in 1864 

" Whist," a poem 1791 

Laws by "Cavendish," compiled . . . about 1861 
James Clay, M.P., an eminent player, died 26 Sept. 1871 

WHITBY, N.R. Yorkshire. The monastery 
here, under St. Hilda, founded by king Oswy, 657, 
destroyed by the Danes 876, was restored by \V llliun 
de Percy about 1100. The Cholmleys established 
alum works here in 1615. Whitby was made a 
borough in 1832, and absorbed into the county in 
1885. Population, 1881, 14,086; 1891, 13,274. 

WHITEBAIT DINNER, when the cabinet 
ministers met at the end of each session, is 
said to have begun at the end of the last 
century, through sir Kobert Preston and Mr. 
George Kose inviting Mr. Pitt and his colleagues 
to dine at Dagenham, and afterwards at Green- 
wich. Another account dates its origin in 1 72 1. The 
annual whitebait dinner, stopped by the Gladstone 
ministry, was revived by the Disraeli ministry, 
I Aug. 1874, and continued by the Gladstone, I 
Sept. 1880. No dinner, 1884. The whitebait 
(clupea alba) is a subject of controversy. Albert 
Giinther, of the British Museum, in his Catalogue 
of Fishes, says the whitebait is " a purely nominal 
species," and that all the examples which he has 
examined were young herrings (1868). 

At the inquiry in June, 1878, James Henry Cannon, 
fisherman, claimed the discovery of the fish for his 
grandfather, Richard, who named it 1780. It was 
mentioned in a letter in the life of lord Malmesbury, 
2 July, 1763. 

WHITEBOYS, a body of ruffians in Ireland, 
so called on account of then- wearing linen frocks 
over their coats. They committed dreadful outrages 
in 1 761, but were suppressed by a military force, 
and their ringleaders executed in 1762. They rose 
and were again suppressed in 1786-7. The insurrec- 
tion act was passed on their account in 1822. 

WHITECHAPEL, a parish in East London, 
was part of Stepney till 1329. The church, built 
in 1673, was replaced by one consecrated 2 Feb. 
1877, which was burnt 26 Aug. 1880. Population, 
1881,71,363; 1891,74,462. 
New Loan Art exhibition opened . . 4 April, 1882 

WHITECHAPEL MURDERS, &c. Henry 

"Wainwright, abrushmaker, murdered Harriet Lane, 

his mistress, on his premises, 215, Whitechapel-road, 

and buried the body, Sept. 1874- 

While conveying the mutilated remains to be con- 
cealed in his cellars in Southwark, Wainwright 
and Alice Day were apprehended, through the 
courage and activity of Alfred Philip Stokes, ii 
Sept. Day was discharged ; Henry and his 
brother Thomas were committed for trial 13 Oct. 1875 

Nine days' trial before chief .justice Cockbum ; 
Henry convicted of murder ; Thomas as accessory 



after the fact (seven years' penal servitude), 22 
Nov.-i Dec. ; Henry executed . . 21 Dec. 1875 

1232/. subscribed for Henry's family. 

30J. awarded to Stokes. 

Much excitement was caused by the murder and 
brutal mutilation of unfortunate women at differ- 
ent times — Smith, 3 April ; Martha Turner, 7 Aug. ; 
Nichols, 31 Aug. ; Chapman, 7, 8 Sept. Coroners 
return open verdict. The evidence showed the 
murderer possessed surgical knowledge, his. 
object being to get possession of certain organs. 
Two more women murdered in a similar manner 
near Commercial Road and Aldgate ; E. Watts 
or Stride and C. Conway or Eddowes between 1 
and 2 a.m. 30 Sept. The lord mayor offers 500Z. 
reward in relation to the murder near Aldgate ; 
Mary Jane Kelly's body found dreadfully muti- 
lated in 26, Dorset Street, Spitalfields 9 Nov. 188S 

Rose Milett or Davis (?) strangled at Poplar 28 Dec. ,, 

Alice McKenzie found with throat cut, &c, in 
Castle Alley, Whitechapel . . 17 July, 1889 

The mutilated trunk of a woman discovered under 
a railway arch in Ruehin-street . . 10 Sept. „ 

Frances Coles found murdered in an archway, 
Orman-street, Whitechapel-road . 13 Feb. 1891 

James Thomas Sadler arrested, 16 Feb. ; dis- 
charged 3 March, ,, 

WHITE CROSS ARMY, the shorter title of 
the Church of England Purity Society, established 
by Miss Ellice Hopkins, supported by the bishops of 
Durham and Lichfield and other prelates, highly 
successful at Oxford, Edinburgh, Liverpool, and 
other places, 1884. 

WHITE DOVES, a South Russian religioua 
sect, said to be wealthy and superstitious, strongly 
advocating celibacy : under a chief named Kou- 
drine. Members were tried for moral offences about 
April, 1876. 

WHITEFIELDITES. George Whitefield, 
the founder of the " Calvinistic 3Iet/iodists," bom 
1 7 14, was the son of an innkeeper at Gloucester, 
where he received his first education. He was ad- 
mitted a senator at Oxford in 1732, became a com- 
panion of the Wesleys there, and aided them in 
establishing Methodism. He parted from them in 
1741, on account of their rejection of the doctrine 
of election. He was the most eloquent preacher of 
his day. His first sermon was preached in 1736, and 
he commenced field preaching in 1739. He is said 
to have delivered 18,000 sermons during his career 
of 34 years. He visited America in 1737, 1739, and 
1744. His followers are termed "the countess of 
Huntingdon's connexion," from his having become 
her chaplain in 1748, and from her energetic support 
of the sect, by establishing a college at Trevecca, 
1767. See Spafields. There were 109 chapels of this 
connexion in 185 1 ; but many of his followers have 
joined the Independents. He died 30 Sept. 1770* 
and the countess died 17 June 1 791 ; see Tabernacle. 

WHITE FLAG, sec Flag. 
WHITE FRIARS, see Carmelites and Sanc- 
tuaries. 

WHITEHALL (London), built by Hubert de 
Burgh, earl of Kent, before the middle of the 13th 
century. It afterwards devolved, by bequest, to the 
Black Friars of Holborn, who sold it to the arch- 
bishop of York, whence it received the name of 
York-place, and continued to be the town residence 
of the archbishops till taken by Henry MIL from 
cardinal Wolsey, in 1530. At this period it became 
the residence of the court. Queen Elizabeth, who 
died at Richmond in 1603, was brought from thence 
to Whitehall, by water, in a grand procession. It 
was on this occasion, Camden informs us, that the 
following quaint panegyric on her majesty was 
written : 



WHITE HATS. 



1066 



WICKLIFFITES. 



"" The queen was brought by water to Whitehall, 
At every stroke the oars did tears let fall. 
More clung about the barge : fish under water 
"Wept out their eyes of pearl, and swam blind after. 
I think the bargemen might, with easier thighs, 
Have rowed her thither in her people's eyes ; 
For howsoe'er thus much my thoughts have scann'd, 
She had come by water, had she come by land." 

Whitehall was partly burnt 9-10 April, 1691 ; 
totally destroyed by fire, 4 Jan. 1697-8, except the 
banqueting-house, which had been added to the 
palace of Whitehall by James I., according to a 
design of Inigo Jones, in 1619. In the front of 
"Whitehall Charles I. was beheaded 30 Jan. 1649. 
George L converted the hall into a chapel 1723-4. 
The exterior of this edifice underwent repair be- 
tween 1829 and 1833. The chapel was ordered to 
be permanently closed, 28 Oct. 1890; lent during 
the queen's reign, to the Royal United Service 
Institution, from 1 Jan. 1891 ; first meeting held, 
7 March, 1891. 

WHITE HATS, a party in the Low Countries 
formed about 1377, against Louis, count of Flanders. 
'The struggle lasted till 1384, when it was settled by 
Philip,, duke of Burgundy. 

WHITE HOODS, see Catechumens. 
WHITE HOESE, see Ashdoivn. 

WHITE HOUSE (Washington), built of free- 
stone, the residence of the president, gives name to 
the United States government, as St. James's palace 
.does to that of Great Britain. 

WHITE LEAD, see Lead. 

WHITE LEAGUE, formed in Louisiana and 
•other southern states of North America, to resist the 
.aggressions of the emancipated negroes and their 
friends, termed" carpet-baggers." SeeiVew Orleans, 
1874. 

WHITE PASHA, see Soudan, July, 1888. 

WHITE PLAINS (N. America), where a 
'battle was fought 28 Oct. 1776, between the revolted 
Americans and the British forces under sir William 
Howe. It terminated in the defeat of the Americans, 
who suffered considerable loss in killed, wounded, 
and prisoners. 

WHITE EOSE, Ordeb OF THE, includes' 
anen and women of many shades of opinion, agree- 
ing on one point, that all authority comes from 
above, utterly independent of the will of the people. 
'They regard the revolution of 1688 as a national 
•crime, and Jacobitism as true loyalty. The order 
•has no religious test, its sole object being to main- 
tain the doctrine cf the divine right of kings, and 
revive public interest in the sufferings of the house 
•of Stuart. (Feb. 1888.) 

WHITE SHEEP, a name given to the Turco- 
mans who conquered Persia about 1468, and perse- 
cuted the Shiites, but were expelled by Ismail, who 
founded the Soplii dynasty in I "501. 

WHITE TOWEE, the keep or citadel in the 
'Tower of London, a large, square, irregular building, 
erected in 1070 by abbot Gundulph, afterwards 
bishop of Rochester. It measures 116 feet by 96, 
and is 92 feet in height : the walls, which are 1 1 
feet thick, having a winding staircase continued 
along two of the sides, like that in Lover Castle. It 
contains an extensive armoury. Within this tower 
is the ancient chapel of St. John, originally used by 
the English monarchs. The turret at the N.E. 
angle, the highest of the four by which the White 
Tower is surmounted, was used for astronomical 
purposes by Flamsteed previously to the erection of 
the royal observatory at Greenwich. 



WHITSUNTIDE, a festival appointed to com- 
memorate the descent of the Holy Ghost upon the 
apostles : the newly-baptized persons, or catechu- 
mens, are said to have worn white garments on 
Whitsunday. This feast is movable, being always 
exactly seven weeks after Easter. Rogation week 
(which see) is the week before Whitsunday. Whit- 
sunday 1892, 5 June; 1893, 21 May; 1894, 13 May ; 
1895, 2 J une ; 1896, 24 May. 

Whitsunday, a Scotch quarter-day, is always on. 
15 May, as settled by an act of 1693, but local usage 
varies. 

WHITTINGTON'S CHAEITIES. Sir 

Richard Whittington, a citizen and mercer of Lon- 
don, served the office of lord mayor three times, the 
last in 1419. Many false stories are connected with 
his name, and his munificent charities are little 
known. He founded his college, dedicated to the 
Holy Ghost and the Virgin Mary, in 1424 ; and his 
almshouses in 1429 ; the latter, originally built in 
London, now stand on Highgate-hill (built i8o8)near 
the supposed site of the supposed famous stone which 
commemorated the legend of his return to London, 
after leaving it in despair. 

WHITWOETH FOUNDATIONS. Mr. 

(aftd. sir) Joseph Whitworth, the eminent engi- 
neer (born 21 Dec. 1803; died 22 Jan. 1887) 
in a letter to the first lord of the treasury, dated 18 
March, 1868, offered to found 30 scholarships of the 
annual value of 100I. each, to be applied for the 
further instruction of young men, natives of the 
United Kingdom, selected by open competition for 
their intelligence and proficiency in the theory and 
practice of mechanics and its cognate sciences, with 
a view to the promotion of engineering and mechani- 
cal industry in this country ; and he expressed hopes 
that means might be found for bringing science and 
industry into closer relation with each other than 
at present obtains here. This offer was accepted by 
the lords of the committee of the privy council, 28 
March, 1868. In 1875, sir Joseph assigned an estate 
to support these scholarships. For the results of sir 
Joseph Whitworth's will, see Manchester, 1888-90. 

WHO ? WHO ? ADMINISTEATION, 

Derby's, earl of, Feb. 1852 (which see). 

"WHOLE DUTY OF Man;" (the author- 
ship doubtfully attributed to abps. Sancroft, 
Frewen, and Sterne ; to bishops Fell and Chapel ; 
to Dorothy, lady Packington, and others ;) first 
published," 1659. Loivndes. It is attributed by 
some to John Ischam. 

WICKLIFFITES, the followers of John 
Wicklitte (born 1324), a professor of divinity in the 
university of Oxford and rector of Lutterworth in 
Leicestershire. He was a forerunner of the reforma- 
tion of the English Church from popery, being 
among the first who opposed the authority of the 
pope, transubstantiation, the celibacy of the clergy, 
&c. Wicklifl'e, protected by John of Gaunt, Ed- 
ward's son and Richard's uncle, was virulently 
persecuted by the church, and only saved from mar- 
tyrdom by a paralytic attack, which caused his 
death, 31 Dec. 1384, in his 60th year. The Council 
of Constance, in 1414, decreed his bones to be disin- 
terred and burnt, which was done by the bishop of 
Lincoln, and his dust was cast into the river Swift, 
1415. Wicklift'e's English version of the Bible 
was commenced in 1380 ; a noble edition of it was 
printed at Oxford in 1850. Wy cliff 'Society ; founded 
in 1882 to publish his works. Quin-centenarv of 
his death celebrated in London, &c., 21 May, 1884. 
See Lollards. 



WIDOWS. 



1067 



WILLS. 



WIDOWS. The Jewish law required a man's 
brother to marry his widow if without children (1490 
B.C.). For the burning of widows in India, see Sut- 
tee. Among the numerous associations in London 
for the relief of widows are, one for the widows of 
musicians, instituted in 1738; for widows of naval 
men, founded in 1 739 : for widows of medical men, 
1788 : a law society, for widows of professional gen- 
tlemen, 1817; and a society for artists' widows, 1827. 
■ — Widowers were taxed in England as follows : a 
duke, 12I. 10s. ; lower peers, smaller sums; a com- 
mon person, is. ; 7 Will. III. 1695. 

WIEN, see Vienna. 

WIFE, see Wives. 

WIG, see Peruke. 

WIGrAN (Lancashire) . The king's troops, com- 
manded by the earl of Derby, were defeated and 
driven out of the town in 1643 by the parliamentary 
forces under sir John Smeaton. The earl was again 
defeated by colonel Ashton, who razed the fortifica- 
tions of Wigan to the ground, same year ; and once 
more by a greatly superior force commanded by 
colonel Lilbume, 1 651. In this last engagement, 
sir Thomas Tildesley, an ardent royalist, was slain ; 
a pillar was erected to his memory in 1679. The 
colliers in the neighbourhood struck, and acting 
riotously 17, 18 April, 1868, were quelled by the 
military. Arrangements were soon after made with 
the employers. The prince and princess of Wales 
at then- visit, 4 June, 1873, opened a new hospital, 
&c, and received a hearty welcome. See Railway 
Accidents, 2 Aug. 1873. Population, 1881, 48,194 ; 
1891, 55,013. 

WIGHT, ISLE OF, the Eoman Vecta or Victis, 
was conquered by Vespasian in the reign of Clau- 
dius. It was conquered by the Saxons under Cerdic 
about 530; by the Danes, 787, and in 1001, when 
they held it for several years. It was invaded by 
the French, July, 1377, and has several times 
suffered from invasion by them. In 1442, 
Henry VI. alienated the Isle to Henry de 
Beauchamp, first premier earl of England and 
then duke of Warwick, and afterwards crowned him 
king of the Isle of Wight, with his own hands ; but 
dying without heirs male, his regal title died with 
him, and the lordship of the isle returned to the 
crown. Charles I., after his flight from Hampton- 
court, was a prisoner in Carisbrook castle, in 1647. 
In the time of Charles II. timber was very plentiful. 
In this isle is the queen's marine residence, 
Osbome-house. 
Prince Henry of Battenberg appointed governor Jan. 

1889, officially received 29 July. 

WILD BIRDS' PROTECTION ACTS, 

passed 10 Aug. 1872, 24 July, 1876, and 7 Sept. 
1880. 

WILDERNESS BATTLES, see United 
States, May, 1864. 

WILHELMSHAFEN, at Hippens, bay of 
Jahde, Oldenburg, the first German military port, 
was inaugurated by William, king of Prussia, 
17 June, 1869. Since 1871 it has become the 
Chatham of Germany. By explosion of a gun on 
the Mars, 8 men killed and 20 injured, 27 April, 
1881. 

WILKES'S NUMBER, 45, see North Briton, 
and also Warrants, General. 

WILLIAMS' LIBRARY, see Libraries. 

WILLIS'S ROOMS, see AlmacVs. 

WILLOW-LEAYES, see Sun. 



WILLS and Testaments are of very high 

antiquity, see Genesis xlviii. The private will of 
Sennacherib, king of Assyria, 680 B.C., found at 
Nineveh, is translated in Records of the Past, 
Vol. I. Solon introduced them at Athens, 578 
B.C. There are regulations respecting wills in 
the Koran. Trebatius Testa the civilian, intro- 
duced codicils to wills at Pome, 31 B.C. The 
power of bequeathing lands by the last will and 
testament of the owner was confirmed to English 
subjects I Henry I. 1100; but with great restric- 
tions and limitations respecting the feudal system, 
which were taken off by the statute of 32 Hen. VIII. 
1541. Blackstone's Commentaries. The first will 
of a sovereign on record is stated (but in error) to 
be that of Richard II. 1399 ; Edward the Confessor 
made a will, 1066. Various laws have regulated 
the wills and testaments of British subjects. All 
previous statutes were repealed by the " Wills Act," 
7 Will. IV. & 1 Vict. c. 26, 1837, and the laws 
with relation to wills amended.* The present 
Probate Court (which see) was established in 
1857. An office for the reception of the wills of 
living persons was opened in Jan. 1861. See Tltel- 
lussoii's Will. In 1869 twenty probates of wOls or 
letters of administration were stamped for personal 
property, each exceeding a quarter of a million ; 
one had a stamp of 2l,OOo£. The Wills Office, re- 
moved from Doctors' Commons to Somerset House, 
was opened 24 Oct. 1874. 

The will of Peter the Great, described in the " Memoires 
de la Chevaliere d'Eon," as a " plan for compassing 
European supremacy," left for his successors, and de- 
posited in the archives of the palace of Peterhoff near 
St. Petersburg. It advocated "approach as near as 
possible to Constantinople, and towards the Indies : 
wars with Turkey and Persia ; possession of the shores 
of the Black Sea, and the Baltic ; " &c. The existence 
of the will (denied by the czars), was first announced 
by M. Lesur in his " Progres de la Puissance Russe," 
published at Paris in 1812. In 1863, Dr. Berkholz of 
Biga asserted that the will was a forgery, probably 
dictated by Napoleon I. Mr. W. J. Thorns, the anti- 
quary, and others, contend for the genuineness of the 
will, June, 1878. 

EXTRACTS FROM THE LAST WILL OF NAPOLEON I., 
EMPEROR OF FRANCE, t 

[He died 5 May, 1821, eleven days after he had signed 
these documents. The original in French occupies 
about twenty-six pages in Peignot's " Testarnens Ee- 
marquables," 1829.] 

"This day, 24 April, 1821, at Longwood, in the island 
of St. Helena. This is my testament, or act of my last 

will: 

" I leave to the comte de Montholon 2,000.000 francs 
as a proof of my satisfaction for the attentions he has' 
paid to me for these six years, and to indemnify him for 
the losses which my residence in St. Helena has occa- 
sioned him. I leave to the comte Bertrand 500,000 
francs. I leave to Marchand, my first valet-de-ehambre, 
400,000 francs ; the services he has performed for me are 
those of a friend. I desire that he may marry a widow, 
sister, or daughter of an officer or soldier of my old 
guard. To St. Denis, 100,000 francs. To Novarre, 100.000 
francs. To Pijeron, 100,000 francs. To Arehambaud, 
50,000 francs. To Cuvier, 50,000 francs. To Chaudelle, 
idem. 

* By this act the testator must be above 21, not a 
lunatic or idiot, not deaf and dumb, not drunk at the 

lii if signing, not an outlawed or unpardoned felon. 

All kinds "i' properly may in' devised. The will must be 
written legibly and intelligibly, ami signed by the 
testator, or by his direction, in the presence of two or 
more witnesses, who also must sign. A married woman 
may bequeath only her pin money or separate mainten- 
ance, without the consent of her husband. 

t These documents, dated from 15-24 April, deposited 
since i;;.m in England, have been given 1 1 1 • to the autho- 
rities at Paris, at the request 01 the French Govern- 
ment. 



WILLS. 



1068 



WILMOT'S ACT. 



"To the Abbe Vignali, 100,000 francs. I desire that 
he may build his house near Ponte Novo de Rossino. To 
the cointe Las Casas, 100,000 francs. To comte Lava- 
lette, 100,000 francs. To the surgeon-in-chief, Larrey, 
100,000 francs. He is the most virtuous man I havij 
known. To general Brayer, 100,000 francs. 

" To general Lefevre Desnouettes, 100,000 francs. To 
general Drouet, 100,000 francs. To general Cambronne, 
100,000 francs. To the children of general Muton Du- 
vernais, 100,000 francs. To the children of the brave 
Labedoyere, 100,000 francs. To the children, of general 
Girard, killed at Ligny, 100,000 francs. To the children 
of general Chartrand, 100,000 francs. To the children of 
the virtuous general Travost, 100,000 francs. To general 
Lallemand, the elder, 100,000 francs. To general (Jlausel, 
100,000 francs. To Costa Bastilica, also 100,000 francs. 
To the baron de Menevalle, 100,000 francs. To Arnault, 
author of Marius, 100,000 francs. 

"To colonel Marbot, 100,000 francs : I request him to 
continue to write for the defence and glory of the French 
armies, and to confound the calumniators and the apos- 
tates. To the baron Bignon, 100,000 francs : I request 
him to write the history of French Diplomacy from 1792 
to 18 1 5. To Poggi de Talaro, 100,000 francs. To the 
surgeon Emmery, 100,000. 

" These sums shall be taken from the six millions 
which I deposited on leaving Paris in 1815, and from the 
interest at the rate of 5 percent, since July, 1815; the 
account of which shall be adjusted with the bankers by 
the counts Montholon and Bertrand and by Marchand. 

" These legacies, in case of death, shall be paid to the 
widows and children, and in their default, shall revert to 
the capital. I institute the counts Montholon, Ber- 
trand, and Marchand my testamentary executors. This 
present testament, written entirely by my own hand, is 
signed and sealed with my arms. 

"NAPOLEON. 

" 24 April, 1821, Longwood. " 

The following are part of the eight Codicils to the pre- 
ceding will of the emperor : — 

"On the liquidation of my civil list of Italy — such as 
money, jewels, plate, linen, coffers, caskets of which the 
viceroy is the depository, and which belong to me, I dis- 
pose of two millions, which I leave to my most faithful 
servants. I hope that without their showing any cause, 
my son Eugene Napoleon will discharge them faithfully. 
He cannot forget the forty millions which I have given 
him in Italy, or by the right (parage) of his mother's 
inheritance. 

"From the funds remitted in gold to the empress 
Maria Louisa, my very dear and well-beloved spouse, at 
Orleans, in 1814, there remain due to me two millions, 
which I dispose of by the present codicil, in order to 
recompense my most faithful servants, whom I beside 
recommend to the protection of my dear Maria Louisa. 
I leave 200,000 francs to count Montholon, 100,000 francs 
of which he shall pay into the chest of the treasurer (Las 
Casas) for the same purpose as the above, to be employed 
according to my dispositions in legacies of conscience. 

" 10,000 francs to the sub-officer Cantillon (died July, 
1869), who has undergone a prosecution, being accused 
of a desire to assassinate lord Wellington, of which he 
has been declared innocent. Cantillon had as much right 
to assassinate that oligarch, as the latter had to send me 
to perish on the rock of St. Helena," &c. &c. &c. 

LETTER TO M. LAFITTE. 

" Monsieur Lafitte, — I remitted to you in 1815, at 
the moment of my departure from Paris, a sum of nearly 
six millions, for which you gave me a double receipt. I 
have cancelled one of these receipts, and I have charged 
comte. de Montholon to present to you the other receipt, 
in order that you may, after my death, deliver to him the 
said sum with interest at the rate of five per cent., from 
the 1st of July, 1815, deducting the payments with which 
you have been charged in virtue of my order. I have 
also remitted to you a box containing my medallion. I 
beg you will deliver it to comte Montholon. 

" This letter having no other object, I pray God, Mon- 
sieur Lafitte, that He may have you in His holy and 
worthy keeping. 

"NAPOLEON. 

"Longwood, in the island of St. Helena, 25 April, 
1821." 

The following Will of Napoleon III. was published 
in the Times, 30 April, 1873: — 



"April 24, 1865. 
"This is my will. I commend my son and my wife to 
the high constituted authorities of the state (aux grands 
corps de l'Etat), to the people, and the army. The em- 
press Eugenie possesses all the qualities requisite for 
conducting the regency well, and my son displays a dis- 
position and judgment which will render him worthy of 
his high destinies. Let him never forget the motto of the 
head of our family, ' Everything for the French people.' 
Let him fix in his mind the writings of the prisoner 
of St. Helena; let him study the emperor's deeds and 
correspondence ; finally, let him remember, when circum- 
stances so permit, that the cause of the peoples is the 
cause of France. Power is a heavy burden, because one 
cannot always do all the good one could wish, and be- 
cause your contemporaries seldom render you justice, so 
that, in order to fulfil one's mission, one must have faith 
in, and consciousness of, one's duty. It is necessary to 
consider that from heaven on high those whom you have 
loved regard and protect you ; it is the soul of my illus- 
trious uncle that has always inspired and sustained me. 
The like will apply to my son, for he will always be 
worthy of his name. I leave to the empress Eugenie all 
my private property. It is my desire that on the ma- 
jority of my son she shall inhabit the Elysee and Biar- 
ritz. I trust that my memory will be dear to her, and 
that after my death she will forget the griefs I may have 
caused her. With regard to my son, let him keep as a 
talisman the seal I used to wear attached to my watch, 
and which comes from my mother; let him carefully 
preserve everything that comes to me from the em- 
peror, my uncle, and let him be convinced that my heart 
and my soul remain with him. I make no mention of my 
faithful servants. I am convinced that the empress and 
my son will never abandon them. I shall die in the 
Catholic, Apostolic, and Roman religion, which my son 
will always honour by his piety. Done, written, and signed 
with my hand at the palace of the Tuileries, the 24th of 
April, 1865. (Signed)- "NAPOLEON." 

The Will of Prince Louis Napoleon, was written 
with his own hand, and signed 26 Feb. 1879, the night 
before Jie sailed for South Africa (where he was killed 
while on a reconnoitring party, 1 June, 1879). He states 
that he dies in the Catholic religion ; expresses his love 
for his country, his mother the empress, and his friends ; 
and his gratitude to the queen and royal family of Eng- 
land, and to the English people for their cordial hospi- 
tality. He constitutes his mother sole legatee ; bequeaths 
legacies and memorials to prince J. N. Murat, M. F. 
Pietri, baron Corvisart, M. Rouher, and others ; and 
assigns to Victor, the eldest son of prince Napoleon. 
Jerome, the task of continuing the work of Napoleon I. 
and Napoleon III. Executors, MM. Rouher and Pietri. 

WILLUGHBY SOCIETY, devoted to the 
study of birds ; founded in 1879 ; was named after 
Francis Willughby (1635-72), who wrote Omi- 
t/wloffia, published 1676. 

WILMINGTON (N. Carolina, U.S.) was held 
by the confederates ; resisted severe attacks of the 
federals in Dec. 1864. Fort Fisher was taken by 
assault on 15 Jan., and Wilmington was evacuated 
by the confederates, 22 Feb. 1865. 

WILMINGTON ADMINISTRATION, 

succeeded that of sir ltobert Walpole, Feb. 1742. 

Earl of Wilmington, first lord of the treasury. 

Lord Hardwicke, lord chancellor. 

Earl of Harrington, president of the council. 

Earl Gower, lord privy seal. 

Mr. Sandys, chancellor of the exchequer. 

Lord Carteret and the duke of Newcastle, secretaries of 
state. 

Earl of Winchilsea, first lord of the admiralty. 

Duke of Argyll, commander of the forces and master-general 
of the ordnance. 

Mr. Henry Pelham, paymaster of the forces. 

With several of the household lords. 

[On lord Wilmington's death, 26 July, 1743, Mr. Pel- 
ham became prime minister; and in Nov. 1744, he 
formed the " Broad - bottom " administration; see 
Pelham. ] 

WILMOT'S ACT (Sir E.), 3 & 4 Vict. c. 77 
(1840) relates to schools. 



WIMBLEDON. 



1069 



WINDSOR. 



WIMBLEDON, ancient village 8 miles S.W. 

of London. See Volunteers, 1860-89. Population, 

1881,15,950; 1891, 25,758. 

Percy Malcolm John, Student at Blenheim house, 
died suddenly at his school at Wimbledon, 3 Dee. 
1881 ; his brother-in-law Dr. George Henry Lam- 
son suspected of poisoning him, with aconitine, 
2 Dec. ; was convicted of the murder, 14 March, 
confessed his guilt 27 April, and was executed 

28 April, 1882 

WINCHESTER (Hampshire), a most ancient 
city, whose erection may reasonably be ascribed to 
the Celtic Britons, with the fabulous date 392 B.C. 
It was made the capital of the West Saxon king- 
dom under Cerdic, about 520 ; and of England by 
Egbert, 827; it became the residence of Alfred, 
879-991. In the reign of William I. London be- 
gan to rival it ; and the destruction of religious 
houses by Henry VIII. almost ruined it. Several 
kings resided at Winchester, and many parliaments 
were held there. Memorials of its ancient superi- 
ority exist in the national denomination of measures 
of quantity, as Winchester ell, Winchester bushel, 
&c, the use of which has but recently been replaced 
by imperial measures. The cathedral church was 
first founded and endowed by Cynegils, or Kene- 
gilsus, the first Christian king of the West Saxons. 
Becoming ruinous, the present fabric was began 
by bishop Walkelyn, the 34th bishop, 1073. The 
church was first dedicated to St. Amphibalus, then 
to St. Peter, and afterwards to St. Swithin, once 
bishop here. Dedicated to the Holy Trinity by Henry 
VIII. St. Birinus was the first bishop of the West 
Saxons, his seat Dorchester, 636 ; Wina, in 660, 
was the first bishop of Winchester. The see is 
valued in the king's books at 2793^. 4s. 2d. annually. 
Present income, 6,500/. Population, 1881, 17,780; 
1891, 19,073. 
Taken by the Danes, 871-3; ravaged by Sweyn . 1013 

William Rufus buried here 1100 

Hospital of Holy Cross, founded by bishop Henry 

de Blois 1132 

"Almshouse of Noble Poverty," engrafted on the 

Holy Cross by cardinal Beaufort, revived in 1883. 
Winchester school, founded by bishop William of 

Wykeham 1382-7 ; the 500th anniversary of the 

laying of the first stone of New College, 26 March, 

1387, celebrated 26 March, 1887. 
Winchester several times taken and re-taken, 1641-3 ; 

taken by Cromwell and the castle dismantled . 1645 
Charles II. began a palace here by Wren . . . 1683 
Charitable Society of Natives founded . . . 1609 

Winchester Cross restored 1866 

New Guildhall opened by lord-chancellor Selborne, 

11 May, 1873 
700th anniversary of the incorporation of the city, 

celebrated 3, 4 July, 1884 

recent bishops. (Prelates of the Order of 
the Garter.) 

1781. Brownlow North, died 12 July, 1820. 

1820. George Pretyman Tomline, died 1827. 

1827. Charles Richard Sumner, resigned 1869 ; died, 15 
Aug. 1874. 

T869. Samuel Wilberforce, elected Nov. ; killed, through 
the fall of his horse, 19 July, 1873. 

1873. Edward Harold Browne, translated from Ely, Aug. 
1873 ; resigned, 1890 ; died, 17 Dec. 1891. 

1891. Anthony Wilson Thorold, translated from Ro- 
chester, Jan. 

WINCHESTER SCHOOL, the oldest of our 
great schools, " Seinte Marie College of Wyn- 
chestre," the charter of which is dated Oct. 1382, 
was founded in 1387 by William (Long) of Wyke- 
ham, bishop of Winchester, who had established a 
school here in 1373. The ancient statutes were 
revised in 1855 ; and still further altered by the 
Public Schools act of 1868. In Nov.-Dec. i872there 
was much published correspondence respecting the 
tunding — the excessive punishment of the boys by 



boy prefects. In May, 1892, it was arranged that 
the quincentenary of the school should be celebrated 
in July, 1893. 

WINDING-UP ACTS (to facilitate the 
winding up the affairs of joint -stock companies 
which are unable to meet their engagements) were 
passed in 1848, 1849, 1857, and 1862. 

WINDMILLS are of great antiquity, and 
stated to be of Roman or Saracen invention. They 
are said to have been originally introduced into 
Europe by the knights of St. John, who took the 
hint from what they had seen in the crusades. 
Baker. Windmills were first known in Spain, 
France, and Germany, in 1299. Anderson. Wind 
saw-mills were invented by a Dutchman, in 1633, 
when one was erected near the Strand, in London. 

WINDOWS. There were glass windows in 
Pompeii, a.d. 79, as is evident from its ruins. It 
is certain that windows of some kind were glazed 
so early as the 3rd century, if not before, though 
the fashion was not introduced until it was done by 
Benedict Biscop, about 674. Windows of glass 
were used in private houses, but the glass was im- 
ported 1177. Anderson. In England, in 1851, 
about 6000 houses had fifty windows and upwards in 
each ; about 275,000 had ten windows and up- 
wards ; and 725,000 had seven windows, or less 
than seven. 
Window-tax first enacted in order to defray the 

expense of and deficiency in the re-coinage ol silver 1695 
The tax increased, 5 Feb. 1746-7; again in 1778; 

and again on the commutation-tax for tea 1 Oct. 1784 
The tax again increased in . 1797, 1802, and 1808 

Reduced 1823 

The revenue derived from windows was in 1840 

about a million and a quarter sterling; and in 

1850 (to April 5), 1,832,6842. 
The tax repealed by act 14 &; 15 Vict. c. 36 (which 

act imposed a duty upon inhabited houses in lieu 

thereof) 24 July, 1851 

WINDSOR (Berkshire). The Castle, a resi- 
dence of the British sovereigns, begun by William 
the Conqueror, and enlarged by Henry I. about 
1 1 10. Edward III., who was born here, 13 Nov. 
1312, caused the old building, with the exception of 
three towers at the west end, to be taken down, and 
re-erected the whole castle, under the direction of 
William of Wykeham, 1356, and built St. George's 
chapel. He assessed every county in England to 
send him workmen. James I. of Scotland was im- 
prisoned here, 1406-23. Several additions were 
made by Henry VIII. Elizabeth made the grand 
north terrace ; and Charles II. repaired and beauti- 
fied it, 1676-80. Population, New Windsor, 1881, 
12,273; 1891, 12,327. 

The chapel repaired and opened . . . Oct. 1790 
The castle repaired and enlarged, 1824-8 ; George 

IV took possession 8 Dec. 1828 

Royal stables built 1839 

A serious fire in the prince of Wales's tower, owing 

to some defect in the heating apparatus, 

19 March, 1S53 
Our sovereigns have here entertained many royal 

personages, as the emperor and empress of the 

French, in April, 1855 

Here died the prince consort . -14 Dec. 1861 

The Albert memorial chapel, on the site of Wolsey 

chapel, was opened . . . .30 Nov. 1875 
Windsor Forest, situated to the south and west of 

the town of Windsor, was formerly 120 miles in 

circumference; in 1607, it was 77^ miles round, 

but it has since been reduced in its bounds to 

about 56 miles. It was surveyed in 1789, and found 

to contain 59,600 acres. 
Virginia Water and the plantations about it were 

taken out of the forest. 
The marshes were drained and the trees planted for 

William, duke of Cumberland, about 1746; and 



WINDSOR KNIGHTS. 



1070 



WISSEMBOURG. 



much was done by George IV. , who often resided 
at the lodge. 

On the south side is Windsor Great Park ; it con- 
tains about 3800 acres. 

The Little Park, on the north and east sides of the 
castle, contains about 500 acres. The gardens are 
elegant, and have been considerably improved by 
the addition of the house and gardens of the duke 
of St. Albans, purchased by the crown. 

Cumberland Lodge partially destroyed by fire ; pic- 
tures burnt 14 Nov. 

Albert Institute, Windsor, opened by the prince of 
Wales 10 Jan. 

About 52,000 volunteers reviewed by the queen, 

9 July, 

Jubilee fetes and illuminations ; the queen uncovers 
a statue of herself near the castle ; torchlight 
procession of the Eton boys . . 22 June, 

The queen being here her 70th birthday is kept with 
great enthusiasm .... 24 May, 

Boyal Agricultural Society to meet here ; the queen 
president 

The Royal Agricultural Society held its jubilee 
show, the greatest one of the kind in the century 
in Windsor Great Park . . 24-29 June, 

The prince of Wales acted on behalf of the queen, 
who was president for the year ; her majesty 
visited the show . . . . 27, 28 June, 

The weather was very fine during the week, and the 
show was reported to be a great success. 

Mr. Jacob Wilson, the hon. director of the show, 

knighted 30 June, 

[A fund was started at the Mansion House, 
London, in aid of the expenses 24 June; 5,516?. 
had been received up to 1 Aug., 1889.] 

The royal pavilion with its decorations was pre- 
sented to the queen by Mr. Charlton Humphreys 
and Messrs. Shoolbred and accepted about 29 June, 

The bronze equestrian statue of the prince Consort 
(see under Jubilee) in the great park uncovered 
by the queen 12 May, 

Sir A. Sullivan's opera, "The Gondoliers," per- 
formed before the queen and court, by Mr. R. 
D'Oyly Carte's Savoy company . 6 March, 

Visit of the German emperor and empress 4 July, 

Silver wedding of the prince and princess Christian, 
5 July ; marriage of their daughter, princess 
Louise, to prince Aribert of Anhalt, 6 July ; 
state banquet in St. George's hall . 7 July, 

Military funeral of the duke of Clarence and Avon- 
dale 20 Jan. 

The marquis of Lome appointed constable of 
Windsor castle 22 Jan. ,, 

WINDSOR KNIGHTS, see Poor Knights. 

WINDWARD ISLES (West Indies)-Bar- 
■ badoes, St. Vincent, Grenada, Trinidad, Tobago, and 
St. Lucia, {which see). Governor, Eawson W. 
Rawson, 1868 ; J. Pope Hennessy, Feb. 1875 ; capt. 
Strahan, Nov. 1876 ; sir Henrv Bulwer, April, 1880 ; 
William Robinson, 1881 ; Walter J. Sendall, May, 
1885 ; hon. sir Walter Hely Hutchinson, Sept. 1889. 

WINE. " Noah planted a vineyard, and drank 
of the -wine," 2347 b.c. {Gen., ix. 20); see Vine. 
Ching-Noung, emperor of China, is said to have 
made rice wine, 1998 B.C. Christ changed water 
into wine at the marriage of Cana in Galilee, a.d. 
30. John ii. 3-10. 

Wine sold in England by apothecaries as a cordial 
in 1300, and so continued for some time after, 
although there is mention of " wine for the king" 
so early as John. 
The price regulated by statute, 5 Richard II. . . 1381 
The price was twelve shillings the pipe in . 1400 

A hundred and fifty butts and pipes condemned, 
for being adulterated, to be staved and emptied 
into the channels of the streets, by Rainwell 
mayor of London. Stoic's Chron. ' I427 

An act for licensing sellers of wine in England 

_ passed 25 April, 1661 

By the Methuen treaty, Portuguese wines were 
highly favoured, and French wines discouraged by 

heavy duties " I?03 

Wine duties to be 2s. gd. per gallon on Cape wine, 
and 5s. 6<?. on all other wines 18 31 



1892 





Gallons. 


1800 . 


■ 3.3°7>46o 


1815 


. . 4,306,528 


1830 . 


• 6,879,558 


1839 


. . 9,909,056 


184s . 


• 8,469,776 


1850 


• • 9.3°4>3i2 


1854 . 


. 10,875,855 


1857 ■ 


■ • 10,336,485 


1859 . 


• 8,195,513 


1861 


• • 11,052,436 


1864 . 


• 15,451.593 


1868 


. . 16,953,429 


1869 . 


• 17,184,330 


1870 


• ■ 17,774,782 


1871 . 


. 18,224,900 



In year ending 31 March, 1856, the customs duties 
on wines produced 1,856, 120?.; in 1858, 1,733,729?.; 
1867,1,391,192?.; 1876,1,755,710?.; 1884,1,268,842?.; 
1888, 1,085,046?.; 1890, 1,302,160?.; 1891,1, 318, 006Z. 

By the French treaty of commerce, i860, the duty 
on wines was reduced from 5s. gd. to 2s. 6d. and 
is. according to the alcoholic strength . Jan. i860 

Licences granted to refreshment houses by an aet 
passed in „ 

The Oporto Wine Company (a monopoly), estab- 
lished in 1756, and abolished 1865 

Commission on the wine duties appointed by the 
commons April, 1879 

The ancient duties on wine paid to the corporation 
on its entering the port of London 4s. g|d. per 

. tun of 252 gallons amounted to 8,488?. net, in 1885 

The abolition of these dues was discussed in 1889 ; 
the city dues on coal were abolished by parliament 

8 July, 1889 

Additional import duties on wine imposed by 
customs 1888 

The ad valorem duty of 2s. 6d. and is. per gallon on 
sparkling wines, altered to 2s. all round 14 April, 1892: 

WINE IMPOETED INTO UNITED KINGDOM. 

Gallons. 

1875 . . . 18,429,305 

1876 . . . 19,950,723 

1879 . . . 15,162,857 

1880 . . . 17,385,496- 

1881 . . . 16,297,033 

1882 . . . 15,715,813 

1883 . . . . 15,559,795 

1884 . . . 15,106,271 

1885 . . . 14,629,739 

1886 . . . 14,552,864 

1887 . . . 15,383,641 

1888 . . . 14,745,161 

1889 . . . 15,900,749 

1890 . . . 16,194,107 

WINNIPEG, capital of the province of Mani- 
toba, Canada, has recently risen to great impor- 
tance. The population, which was 215 in 1870, 
had risen to 20,238 in 1891, 25,642. A period 
of depression from 1882 to 1884 has been followed 
by great prosperity, especially since the suppression 
of Riel's rebellion in 1885. See Canada. 

WINTER. Recent mild winters, 1862, 1868, 
1873, 1876, 1881. See Frosts. 

WINTER ASSIZES ACT, 39-4° Vict. c. 57, 
(11 Aug. 1876), gives power, by order in council, 
to unite counties for the purpose of. winter assizes, 
for more speedy trials of prisoners. 

WIRE. The invention of drawing wire is 
ascribed to Rodolph of Nuremberg, about 1410. 
Mills for this purpose were first set up at Nurem- 
berg in 1563. The first wire-mill in England was 
erected at Mortlake in 1663. Mortimer. 

WIRTEMBERG, see Wiirtemberg. 

WISCONSIN, a N.W. state of N. America, 
was organised as a territory in 1836; and received 
into the union, 29 May, 1848. Population in 1880, 
1,315,497 ; 1890, 1,686,880. Capital, Madison. 

WISSEMBOURG, or Weissenbitrg, N.E. 
France, in the department of the Lower Rhine, 
situate on the right bank of the river Lauter, the 
boundaiy of France and the Palatinate. It was- 
formerly an imperial city of Alsace, and was seized 
by Louis XIV. in 1673, and annexed to France by 
the treaty of Ryswick, 1697. The "lines" of Wis- 
sembourg, erected by Villars 1705, were taken by 
the Austrians and retaken by the French, 1793, 
after Hoche's victory at Geisberg. On 4 Aug. 
1870, the crown - prince of Prussia crossed the 
Lauter and gained a brilliant but bloody victory 
over the French (a part of MacMahon's division), 
storming the lines, and the Geisberg. General Abel 



WITCHCRAFT. 



1071 



WIVES. 



Douay was mortally wounded, and about 800 pri- 
soners were made. The killed and wounded on 
both sides appear to have been nearly equal. The 
German army, composed of Prussians, Bavarians, 
and Wiirtembergers, were, it is said, about 40,000, 
against about 10, OOO French, who fought with des- 
perate bravery. 

WITCHCRAFT. The Jewish law {Exodus 
xxii. 18), 1491 B.C., decreed, " Thou shalt not 
sutler a witch to live." Saul, after banishing or 
condemning witchcraft, consulted the witch of 
Endor, 1 056 B.C. (1 Sam. xxviii.) Reginald Scots' 
" Discoverie of Witchcraft" (against its existence) 
published 1584. Reprinted, 1886. Bishop Hutch- 
inson's historical "Essay on Witchcraft" was pub- 
lished in 1 718. Pope Innocent VIII. issued a bull 
against witchcraft in 1484. Thousands of innocent 
persons were burnt, and others killed by the tests 
applied. 

Many Templars burnt at Paris for witchcraft, <fcc., 1309. 
Joan of Arc burnt at Rouen as a witch, 30 May, 1431. 
About five hundred witches burnt in Geneva, in three 

months, 15 15. 
Many burnt in the diocese of Como in a year, about 

1524- 

A great number in France, about 1520, when one sorcerer 

confessed to having 1200 associates. 
Nine hundred burnt in Lorraine, 1580-1595. 
One hundred and fifty-seven burnt at Wurtzburg, old 

and young, learned and ignorant, between 1627 and 1629. 
Grandier, the parish priest at Loudon, burnt on a charge 

of having bewitched a whole convent of nuns, 1634. 
In Bretague, twenty poor women put to death as witches, 

1654. 
Disturbances commenced on charges of witchcraft in 

America, at Massachusetts, 1648-9 ; and persecutions 

raged dreadfully in Pennsylvania in 1683. 
At Salem, in New England, nineteen persons hanged (by 

the Puritans) for witchcraft, eight more condemned; 

fifty confessed themselves to be witches and were 

pardoned, 1692. 
Maria Renata burnt at Wurtzburg in 1749. 
At Kalisk, in Poland, nine old women charged with 

having bewitched and rendered unfruitful the lands 

belonging to that palatinate, were burnt 17 Jan. 1775. 
Five women condemned to death by the Brahmins, at 

Patna, for sorcery, and executed, 15 Dec. 1802. 

WITCHCRAFT IN ENGLAND. 

A statute enacted declaring all witchcraft and sor- 
cery to be felony without benefit of clergy. 33 Hen. 
VIII. 1541. Again, 5 Eliz. 1562, and 1 James I. 1603. 

The 73rd canon of the church prohibits the clergy from 
casting out devils, 1603. 

Barrington estimates the judicial murders for witchcraft 
in England in 200 years at 30,000. 

Matthew Hopkins, the " witch-finder," causes the judicial 
murder of about 100 persons in Essex, Norfolk, and 
Suffolk, 1645-7. 

Sir Matthew Hale burnt two persons for witchcraft in 
1664. 

Seventeen or eighteen persons burnt at St. Osyths, in 
Essex, about 1676. 

Two pretended witches were executed at Northampton 
in 1705, and five others seven years afterwards. 

In 1716, Mrs. Hicks, and her daughter, aged nine, were 
hanged at Huntingdon. 

Northamptonshire and Huntingdon preserved the super- 
stition about witchcraft later than other counties. 

In Scotland, thousands of persons were burnt in the 
period of about a hundred years. Among the victims 
were persons of the highest rank, while all orders in 
the state concurred. James I. even caused a whole 
assize to be prosecuted for an acquittal. The king 
published his Dwmonologie in Edinburgh, 1597. The 
last sufferer in Scotland was at Dornoch in 1722. 

The burs against witchcraft had lain dormant for many 
years, when an ignorant person attempting to revive 
them (by finding a bill against a poor old woman in 
Surrey for the practice of 'witchcraft), they were repealed, 
10 Geo. II. 1736. 

Credulity in witchcraft still abounds in the conntn dis- 
tricts of England. On 4 Sept. 1863, a poor old para- 
lysed Frenchman died in consequence of having been 



ducked as a wizard at Castle Hedingham, Essex, and! 
similar cases have since occurred. 
Ann Turner, old ; killed as a witch by a half-insane inani 
at Long Compton, Warwickshire, 17 Sept. 1875. 

WITENA-MOT or Witena-gemot, the- 
assembling of the wise men, the great council of the- 
Anglo-Saxons. A witena-mot was called in "Win- 
chester by Egbert, 800, and in London, 833, to> 
consult on the proper means to repel the Danes - 
see Parliament. 

WITEPSK (in Russia), where a battle was. 
fought between the French under marshal Victor, 
duke of Belluno, and the Russians commanded by 
general Wittgenstein. The French were defeated 
after a desperate engagement, with the loss of about 
3000 men on both sides, 14 Nov. 1812. 

WITNESSES. Two or more witnesses were- 
required by the law of Moses, 145 1 B.C. (Deut.. 
xvii. 6), and by the early Christian Church in cases- 
of discipline (2 Cor. xiii. 1), a.d. 60. The evidence 
of two witnesses required to attaint for high treason, 
25 Edw. III. 1352. In civil actions between party 
and party, if a man be subpoenaed as a witness on a 
trial, he must appear in court on pain of 100^. to be 
forfeited to the long, and 10/., together with the 
damages equivalent to the loss sustained by the 
want of his evidence to the party aggrieved. Lord 
Ellenborough ruled that no witness is obliged to- 
answer questions which may tend to degrade him- 
self, 10 Dec. 1802. New act relating to the exam- 
ination of witnesses passed 13 Geo. III. 1773, 
Act to enable coui-ts of law to order the examination 
of witnesses upon interrogations and otherwise, 
I Will. IV. 30 March, 1831. The Witnesses Protec- 
tion act (see under Parliament, April, 1892), passed 
28 June, 1892. 

WITU, or Titu. See Zanzibar, 1890. 

WIVES, see Marriage. By the Divorce ancif 
Matrimonial Causes Act, passed in 1857, the con- 
dition of married women has been much benefited .. 
When ill-used they can obtain a divorce or judicial 
separation ; and while in the latter state any 
property they may acquire is secured to them per- 
sonally, as if unmarried. By another act passed in 
1857, they are enabled to dispose of reversionary 
interests in personal property or estates. An act 
to amend the law relating to the property of married 
women was passed 9 Aug. 1870. By it the separate- 
earnings of a wife were secured to her own use, as- 
well as personal and freehold property bequeathed 
to her. She may maintain an action at law, and 
acquires other rights. The husband is declared not 
liable for debts contracted by his wife prior to> 
marriage, and she may be sued for them. This act 
was amended in 1874. Husband and wife may be 
jointly sued for her debts before marriage. By the 
Matrimonial Causes Act, 1878, a magistrate can 
grant judicial separation, with maintenance, to a 
wife suffering from her husband's ill-usage. 
House of lords decide that the husband is not re- 
sponsible tor his wile's debts if lie allofl sufficient 
for dress, &c. Debenham v. Mellon . 27 Nov. 1880 
Married Women's Property Act, 45 & 46 Vict, 
c. 75, passed 18 Aug. 1882, making thcii powers 
almost equal to those of single women, and in- 
creasing their responsibilities in regard to debt, 

<fec, came into effect 1 Jan. 1885 

Provision made for deserted wives made by Act 

passed in 1886 

Olitheroe ease.— Miss Emily Hall (born i860) was 
married to Mr. E. Haughton Jackson at Black- 
burn, 5 Nov. 1887. They never lived together; 
she returned to her friends, and he soon after 
went to New Zealand, l le rei timed to England, 
17 July, 18S8. After some correspondence ami 



WIVES' POISON. 



1072 



WOMEN. 



one interview (16 Jan. 1889) she steadily refused 
to live with him. Some litigation ensued, and a 
decree against her was obtained, 30 July, 1889. 
On 8 March, 1891, Mr. Jackson and others seized 
her when coming from church at Clitheroe, and 
■carried her off to his house at Blackburn, where 
she was closely confined in charge of a nurse. 
By means of a writ of habeas corpus, she was 
brought before the court of appeal, who decided 
that a husband has no legal power to detain his 
-wife against her will, 19 March. Mrs. Jackson 
then returned to her friends. 

WIVES' POISON or Water Tofana, see 



WIZAKD: Wizard of the North, a 

name given to sir "Walter Scott, ou account of his 
romances ; also to Mr. Anderson, the conjurer, 
who died 3 Feb. 1874, see Covent Garden. 
Robert - Houdin's Confidences cl'un Prestidigitateur 

published in 1859. 
Herr Hermann, an eminent rich beneficent conjurer 

or prestidigitateur, died at Carlsbad aged 71, June, 

1887. See Automaton Figures. 
The feats of Maskelyne and Cooke in recent years are 

well known. 

WOERTH STJR Satjer, a town in the depai t- 
snent of the Lower Rhine, N.E. France. After 
storming Wissenibourg (which see) on 4 Aug. 1870, 
the crown-prince of Prussia, with the 3rd army 
(about 150,000) marched rapidly forward and 
surprised part of the French army under Marshal 
MacMahon, including the corps of Canrobert and 
part of that of Failly (about 47,000), and defeated it 
in a long, desperate, and sanguinary engagement 
near this place 6 Aug. The battle lasted from 9 a.m. 
till 4 p.m. The chief struggles occurred in the 
country round Keichshoffen and in the village of 
Froesehweiller ; the French are said to have charged 
the German line eleven times, each time breaking 
it, but always finding a fresh mass behind. The 
ridge on which Woerth stands was not captured 
until the French were taken in flank by the 
Bavarians and Wihtembergers. Nearly all Mac- 
Mahon' s staff were killed, and the marshal himself, 
unhorsed, fell fainting into a ditch, from which he 
was rescued by a soldier. He then, on foot, directed 
the retreat towards Saverne, to cover the passes of 
the Vosges. The victory is attributed to the very 
great numerical superiority of the Germans as well 
as to their excellent strategy. The French loss has 
been estimated at 5000 killed and wounded, and 
5000 prisoners, 2 eagles, 6 mitrailleuses, 35 can- 
non, and much baggage. The Germans are stated 
to have had above 8000 men put hors de combat. 
It was admitted that MacMahon had acted as an 
able and brave commander, 

WOLVERHAMPTON (Staffordshire), an old 
town formerly named Hamton ; owes its present 
name to the foundation of a college here by 
Wulfrana, sister of king Edgar, and widow of 
Aldhelm, duke of Northampton, 996. The queen 
was present at the inauguration of the prince con- 
sort's statue here, 30 Nov. 1866, and the church 
congress was opened here 1 Oct. 1867. Wolver- 
hampton is eminent for its manufactures in metal. 
Statue of hon. C. P. Villiers (its M.P., 1835-92) 
was uncovered, 6 June, 1879; he voted personally, 
when aged 90, for confidence in the Salisbury 
ministry, n Aug. 1892. Population, 1881, IK, 766: 
1891,82,680. 
Wolverhampton returns three M.P.'s by act passed 25 

June, 1885. 

WOLVES were once very numerous in England. 
Their heads were demanded as a tribute, particu- 
larly 300 yearly from Wales, by king Edgar, 961, 
by which step they were falsely said to be totally 



destroyed. Carte. Edward I. issued his mandate 
for the destruction of wolves in several counties of 
England, 1289. Ireland was infested by wolves for 
many centuries after their extirpation in England; 
for there are accounts of some being found there so 
late as 1710, when the last presentment for killing 
wolves was made in the county of Cork. Wolves 
still infest France, in which kingdom 8384 wolves 
and cubs were killed in 1828-9. They were trouble- 
some in the Vosges, Oct. 1875. 701 wolves killed 
in France in 1887 ; 404 killed in 1891. 

WOMEN. The employment of women is regu- 
lated by the Factory and Workshop Regulation Acts 

(which see) . 

(See Degrees, Female Medical School, Jubilee, Marriage, 
and Wives.) 

Mary Wollstonecraft's Vindication of the Rights of 
Women, published 1791 

Great advances in the legal rights, position, and 
employment of women 1837-89 

Women's hospitals founded : Soho .... 1842 

J. S. Mill's Subjection of Women, published . . 1869 

Female medical society and obstetrical college 
founded about 1864 

Female suffrage for members of parliament was pro- 
posed by J. S. Mill, and negatived by 196 against 
73 20 May, 1867 

Lily Maxwell, a shopkeeper at Manchester, voted 
for Jacob Bright 26 Nov. ,, 

First annual meeting of the Manchester national 
society for women's suffrage . . 30 Oct. 1868 

Female suffrage decided to be illegal, by the court 
of common pleas .... 7, g Nov. ,, 

Women's Club and Institute, Newman-street, 
London, W. opened .... Jan. 1869 

Women's Disabilities removal bill rejected by the 
commons (220 to 94) 12 May, 1870 ; (222-143) * 
May, 1872 ; (223-155) 30 April, 1873 ; withdrawn, 
1874-; (187-152) 7 April, 1875 ; (239-152) 26 April, 
1876; hustled out, 6 June, 1877; (219-140) 
19 June, 1878 ; (217-103) 7 March, 1879 ; (130-114) 

6 July, 1883 

Miss Garrett and Miss Davies elected members of 
the metropolitan school-board . . 29 Nov. 1873 

Medical school for women opened (see Physic) Oct. 1874 

Working womens' college (see under Working-men), 

12 Oct. ,, 

Women's Protective and Provident League founded 
by Mrs. Paterson and others, Great Queen Street, 
(out of this has arisen several independent trades 
unions, book-binders, upholsterers, &c.) . . ,, 

Miss Merington elected guardian of the poor for 
Kensington (the first case in London) . April, 1876 

Women's Whisky War, see United States, 1874. 

Women permitted to be registered under " Medical 
Act," by 39 & 40 Vict. c. 41 . . .11 Aug. ,, 

Women's Education Union, president, the princess 
Louise, founded at the Society of Arts, in 1871, 
to promote the better education of women ; said 
to be languishing in .... Oct. 1877 

University of London : senate vote for granting 
degrees to women, 28 Feb. : convocation vote 
against it, 8 May, and July 1877 ; vote for a sup- 
plemental charter granting it (242-132), 15 Jan. ; 
charter granted 28 March, 1878 

Great meeting for female suffrage ; St. James's Hall, 

6 May, 1880 

Women excluded from government employment 
in the United Staces, by order . about 27 Dec. 1881 

Women to be admitted to examinations for honours 
at Oxford ; by statute . . . .29 April, 1884 

Female householders' suffrage (widows and spins- 
ters), proposed by Mr. Woodall in the commons, 
10 June ; negatived (271-135) 12-13 June; in con- 
sequence Miss H. M tiller refuses to pay queen's 
taxes, and her goods are distrained . 2 July, „ 

Women's suffrage bill ; lords read 1st time, 3 July ; 
negatived 10 July, 1884 ; again 28 July, 1885 ; 
read second time commons 18-19 Feb. ; blocked 
March ; negatived by the lords 16 March, 1886 ; 
again 13 Sept. 1887; 13 April, 1888 ; and 18 March, 
1889 ; again 1891 and 1892 

Female suffrage granted in Madras presidency 

announced 28 Sept. 1885 



WONDEES. 



1073 



WOOL-COMBERS. 



Enactments for the protection of women and girls 
formed part of the Criminal Law Amendment 
Act passed I4 Aug. 1885 

Women's Suffrage Society annual meeting July, 1886 

Many women's liberal associations (Unionist and 
Gladstonian) formed 1886-89 

Miss A. P Ramsay and Miss B. M. Hervey, obtain 
high university honours (see Cambridge), 18 June, 
1887 ; and Miss G. P. Fawcett . . 7 June, 1890 

International "council of women," advocating 
women's rights met at Washington, U.S. 25 
March, 1888 ; a similar congress met at Paris 

25 June, 1889 

Women s hospital with female practitioners begun 
n Marylebone 1871 ; the new building in Euston 
Road founded by the princess of Wales 7 May, ,, 

Mrs. Scharlieb made M.D. . . . 16 May, ,, 

Two ladies elected for the London County Council ; 
this declared illegal, a bill to legalise it rejected 
by the lords, 20 May, 1889, and 9 June, 1890 ; by 
the commons 26 May, 1891 

Women's trades association, proposed by the bishop 
of Bedford and others at a meeting held in the 
Assembly-hall in the Mile-End-road . 8 Oct. 1889 

Another meeting at Piccadilly ... 10 Feb. 1890 

Women in New Zealand authorized to serve in 
parliament and vote at elections ; bill passed, 4 
Sept. ; rejected by the legislative council, 

10 Sept. 1891 

Slander of Women Act passed . . 5 Aug. ,, 

Discrimination of sex in elections abolished by act 
passed in New York .... 15 April, 1892 

Sir Albert Rollit's bill for the extension of the par- 
liamentary franchise to women, rejected by the 
commons (175 — 152) .... 27 April, „ 

WONDEES of the World, i. The pyra- 
mids of Egypt. 2. The mausoleum or tomb built for 
Mausolus, king of Caria, by Artemisia, his queen. 
3. The temple of Diana, at Ephesus. 4. The walls 
and hanging gardens of the city of Babylon. 5. 
The vast brazen image of the suri at Rhodes, called 
the Colossus. 6. The ivory and gold statue of 
Jupiter Olympus. 7. The pharos or watch-tower, 
built by Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt; 
see separate articles. 

WOOD-CUTS, see Engraving on Wood. 

WOODITE, a combination of india-rubber, 
cork, and other substances for the coating of life- 
boats and other vessels to defend hem against 
collision and attacks of guns, &c; invented by 
Mrs. A. M. "Wood, recommended by sir E. J. Reed, 
July, 1886. 

WOODS, FORESTS, &c, see Forests. The 
board of woods, forests, and land revenues was con- 
stituted in 1810. The oversight of works and 
public buildings was added to its duties in 1832, but 
transferred to a separate board of commissioners in 
185 1. In 1874 the annual revenue of the crown 
woods and forests was 487,695/. ; 1882-3, 380,000/. , 
1886, 492,624/. 

WOOD'S HALF-PENCE, for circulation in 
Ireland and America, were coined by virtue of a 
patent, passed 1722. Against them, Dr. Jonathan 
Swift, by his letters signed M. B. Drapier pub- 
ished about 1723, raised such a spirit of opposition 
that the patent was withdrawn. Wood received a 
compensation, but was virtually banished the king- 
dom. The half-pence were assayed in England by 
sir Isaac Newton, and proved to be genuine, in 1724 

WOODHALL SPA, Lincolnshire, celebrated 
for mineral waters, especially containing iodine. 
On 22 May, 1888, Mr. E. Stanhope, M.P., sir 
Richard Webster, M.P., and others, inspected the 
pump-room, baths, hotel, and other buddings re- 
cently erected to promote the use of the waters by 
all classes of invalids. A hospital was opened 29 
May, 1890. 



WOOD PAVEMENT was laid down a 
Whitehall in 1839; and in Oxford-street, the 
Strand, and other streets. The principal part was 
soon taken up. In Nov. 1872, the improved wood 
pavement company put forth a prospectus ; and 
in May, 1876, wood had been largely laid down, 
and was said to be the best pavement in London. 

Oxford-street was paved by Henson's street paving 
company, with a compound of wood, asphalt, felt, and 
Portland cement in 1876 ; with wood, 1878. Bond-street 
and many other streets paved with wood, 1879-81. 

WOODSTOCK (Oxfordshire). In Wocd- 
stock, now Blenheim-park, originally stood a 
royal palace, in which king Ethelred held a par- 
liament, and Alfred the Great translated Boetkius 
de Consolatione Philosophies, 888. Henry I. beau- 
tified the palace; and here resided Ilosamond, 
mistress of Henry II. 1 154. In it were born 
Edmund, second son of Edward I., 1301, and 
Edward, eldest son of Edward III., 1330 ; and here 
the princess Elizabeth was confined by her sister 
Mary, 1554. A splendid mansion, built at the 
expense of the nation, for the duke of Marlborough, 
was erected here to commemorate his victory at 
Blenheim in 1704. At that time every trace of the 
ancient edifice was removed, and two elms were 
planted on its site ; see Blenheim. Scott's romance, 
" Woodstock," was published, June, 1826. Mar- 
shall's " History of Woodstock," 1873. 

WOOL. From the earliest times to the reign 
of queen Elizabeth the wool of Great Britain was 
not only superior to that of Spain, but accounted 
the finest in the universe ; and even iu the times 
of the Bomans a manufacture of woollen cloths was 
established at Winchester for the use of the em- 
perors. Anderson. In later times wool was manu- 
factured in England, and is mentioned 1 185, but 
not in any quantity until 1331, when the weaving 
of it was introduced by John Kempe and other arti- 
zans from Flanders. This was the real origin of 
our now unrivalled manufacture, 6 Edw. III. 133 1. 
Rgmer' s Feeder a. 
Duties on exported wool were levied by Edw. I. . 1275 

The exportation prohibited 1337 

Staples of wool established in Ireland, at Dublin. 

Waterford, Cork, and Drogheda, 18 Edw. III. . . 1343 
Sheep were first permitted to be sent to Spain, 

which has since injured our manufacture. Stow. 1467 
First legislative prohibition of the export of wool 

from Ireland 1521 

The exportation of English wool, and the importa- 
tion of Irish wool into England, prohibited . 169 
The export forbidden by act passed . . . . 1718- 
Bill to prevent the running of wool from Ireland to 

France 1738 

The duty on wool imported from Ireland taken off 1739 

Woolcombers' act, 35 Geo. Ill 1794 

The non-exportation law was repealed, 5 Geo. IV. . 1824 
In 1851 we imported 83,311,975 tb. of wool and 
alpaca ; in 1856, 116,211,392 tb. ; in 1859, 
133,284,634 th. ; in 1861, 147,172,841 tb. ; in 1864, 
206,473,645 tb. ; in 1866, 239,358,689 lb.; in 1871, 
323,036,299 lb. ; in 1875, 365,065.578 lb. ; in 1877, 
409,949,198 ft).; in 1879, 417,110,099 th.; in 1881, 
450,141,735 lb.; in 1883, 495,946,779ft; in 1887, 
577,924,661 tb. ; in 1S88, 639,267,975 th.; in 18S9, 
700,903,057 tb. ; in 1890, 633,028, 131 tb. 
We imported from Australasia, in 184:-. 12,97^,856 tb. ; 
in 1856, 56,052,139 tb. ; in 1861, 68,506,222 lb. ; in 
1866, 113,773,694 11). ; in 1871, 182,710,5671b. ; in 
1875, 238,631,824 lb. ; in 1877, 281,247,190 tb. ; in 
1879, 287,831,804 lb.; in 1881,329,665,855 tb.; in 
1883, 351,685,606 tb. ; in 1887, 383,506,395 lb. ; in 
1888, 427,974,038 tb. ; in 1889, 431,303,391 lb. in 
1890, 418,771,604 lb. 

WOOL-COMBEES in several parts of Eng- 
land have a procession on 3 Feb., in commemoration 
of bishop Blaise, who is reported to bave discovered 

3 z 



WOOLLEN CLOTH. 



1074 



WORKING MEN. 



their art. He is said to have visited England, and 
to have landed at St. Blazy, in Corn-wall. He was 
bishop of Sebaste, in Armenia, and is said to have 
suffered martyrdom in the Diocletian persecution, 
289. 

WOOLLEN CLOTH. Woollen cloths were 
made an article of commerce in the time of Julius 
Caesar, and are familiarly alluded to by him ; see 
Weaving. 

The Jews were forbidden to wear garments of 
woollen and linen together .... B.C. 1451 

70 families of cloth-workers (from the Netherlands) 
settled in England by Edward III. Ryrner. a.d. 1331 

Worsted manufacture in Norfolk . . . . 1340 

A kind of blankets were first made in England. 
(Camden) about ,, 

Woollens made at Kendal 1390 

No cloth but of Wales or Ireland to be imported 
into England 1463 

Medleys, or mixed broad-cloth, first made . . . 1614 

Manufacture of fine cloth began at Sedan, in France, 
under the patronage of Cardinal Mazarine . . 1646 

Broadcloth first dressed and dyed in England, by 
Brewer, from the Low Countries . . . . 1667 

British and Irish woollens prohibited in France . 1677 

All persons obliged to be buried in woollens, and 
the persons directing the burial otherwise to for- 
feit 5!. , 29 Charles II 1678 

The manufacture of cloth greatly improved in Eng- 
land by Flemish settlers 1688 

Injudiciously restrained in Ireland, n Will. III. . 1698 

The exportation from Ireland wholly prohibited, 
except to certain ports of England . . 1701 

English manufacture encouraged by 10 Anne, 1712, 
and 2 Geo. 1 1715 

Greater in Yorkshire in 1785 than in all England at 
the revolution. Chalmers. 

Value of woollen manufactures of all kinds exported 
in 1847, 6,896,038?. ; in 1854, 9,120,759!. ; in 1861, 
11,118,692!. ; in 1864, 18,569,089!. ; in 1871, 
27,182,385?. ; in 1875, 21,659,325!. ; in 1877, 
i 7.343.203'm in 1879, 15,861,166!.; in 1881, 
18,128,756!.; in 1883, 18,315,575!.; in 1887, 
20,594,962!. ; in 1888, 19,992,672!. : in 1889, 
21,324,892?. ; in 1890, 20,418,482!. 
International Woollen Exhibition at the Crystal 
Palace, Sydenham, opened by the duke of Con- 
naught 2 June, 1881 

Association for the encouragement of British 
woollen manufactures founded by the countess 
of Bective and about 200 other ladies 

Dr. Jager's "Sanitary Woollen System of Cloth- 
ing " was published in 1887 

WOOLSACK, the seat of the lord high chan- 
cellor of England in the house of lords, so called 
from its being a large square bag of wool, without 
back or arms, covered with red cloth. Wool was 
the staple commodity of England in the reign of 
Edward III., when the woolsack first came into use. 

WOOLWICH (Kent), the most ancient mili- 
tary and naval arsenal in England. Its royal 
dockyard, where men-of-war were built in tbe 
reign of Henry VIII., was closed, 1 Oct. 1869. Here 
Harry Grace de Dieu was built, 1512 ; and here 
she was burnt in 1552. The royal arsenal was 
formed about 1720, on the site of a rabbit-warren ; 
it contains vast magazines of great guns, mortars, 
bombs, powder, and other warlike stores; a foundry, 
with many furnaces, for casting ordnance; and a 
great laboratory, where fireworks, cartridges, gren- 
ades, &c, are made for the public service. The 
Royal Military Academy was erected in the royal 
arsenal, but the institution was not completely 
formed until 19 Geo. II. 1745. Woolwich returns 
one M.P., by act of 1885. Population, 1881, 80,845 ; 
1891, 107,324. 
The arsenal, storehouses, &c, burnt (loss of 200,000!.) 

20 May, 1802 
Another great fire .... 30 June, 1805 

Fatal explosion of gunpowder . . 20 Jan. 1813 



The hemp-store burnt down . . .8 July, 1813 
Another explosion by gunpowder . . 16 June, 1814 
The Royal Military Academy nearly destroyed by 

fire ; loss about 100,000!. 1 Feb. 1873 

Visited by the shah of Persia . . 21 June, ,, 
Subway beneath the Thames between North and 

South Woolwich, begun ... 23 Aug. 1876 

Explosion in the rocket factory ; the town bom- 
barded, with little damage ; the armoury burnt, 
only two men killed in the factory, 10 a.m.24 Sept. 1883 
Construction of great free steam ferry authorized 

by the commons 1 May, 1885 

Free steam-ferry (between North and South Wool- 
wich) inaugurated in great state by lord Rosebery 

23 March, 1889 
(Woolwich Infant, see Cannon, 1872.) 

WORCESTER, successively an important 
British, Roman, and Saxon town, was burnt by 
the Danes (1041) for resisting the tribute called 
Danegelt. William I. built a castle, 1090. The 
city was frequently taken and retaken during the 
civil wars of the middle ages, and by Cromwell in 
1651. — The Bishopric was founded by Ethelred, 
king of the Mercians, 680, and taken from the see 
of Lichfield, of which it composed a part. The 
married priests of the cathedral were displaced, and 
monks settled in their stead, 964. The church was 
rebuilt by St. Wulstan, 25th bishop, 1030 ; the 
remains of his hospital are described by the rev. T. 
H. Marsh, in its " Annals," published in 1890. The 
see has yielded to the church of Rome four saints, 
and to the English nation five lord chancellors and 
three lord treasurers. It is valued in the king's 
books at 1049^. 16s. 3j<£. per annum. Present 
income, 5000/. Population, 1881, 38,270; 1891, 
42,905. 

The renovated cathedral opened . . 8 April, 1874 
Much excitement through the refusal of the dean 
and chapter to permit the cathedral to be used as 
a concert room for the three choirs festival 

Oct. -Nov. ,, 
The festival held as strictly religious services 

22, 23 Sept. 1875 

RECENT BISHOPS. 

1781. Richard Hurd, died 28 May, 1808. 

1808. Folliott H. Cornwall, died 5 Sept. 1831. 

1831. Robert James Carr, died 24 April, 1841. 

1841. Henry Pepys, died 13 Nov. i860. 

1861. Henry Philpott, resigned Aug. 1890, died 10 Jan., 

1892. 
1890. John James Stewart Perowne, D.D., Oct. 

WORCESTER, Battle of, 3 Sept. 1651, 

when the Scots army which came to England to 
reinstate Charles II. was defeated by Cromwell, 
who called it his croicning mercy. Charles with 
difficulty escaped to France. More than 2000 of the 
royalists were slain,- and of 8000 prisoners most 
were sold as slaves to the American colonists ; see 
Boscobel. 

WORDSWORTH SOCIETY, formed "as 
a bond of union among those who are in sympathy 
with the general teaching and spirit of Wordsworth ' ' 
and " to promote and extend the study of the poet's 
works," &c, was inaugurated at Grasmere, West- 
moreland, 30 Sept. 1880. First President, Dr. 
Charles Wordsworth, bishop of St. Andrews. The 
society dissolved 7 July, 1886. 

WORKHOUSES, see under Poor. 

WORKING MEN. Since the great Exhibi- 
tion of 1 85 1, much has been done to benefit the 
labouring classes by organisation. See Artisan. 
Working Men's Clubs considered to have begun with 
the Working Men's Mutual Improvement and 
Recreation Society, established in Lancaster by 
the instrumentality of the rev. H. Solly in . . i860 
The Westminster Working Men's Club, in Duck-lane, 
originated with Miss Adeline Cooper ; opened in 

Dee. „ 



WORKING MEN. 



1075 



WORKING MEN. 



The Working Men's Club and Institute Union for 
the promotion of clubs, institutes, and similar 
■societies for the instruction and recreation of the 
working classes, was mainly established by the 
strenuous exertions of the rev. Henry Solly, 
aided by lord Lyttleton, sir Harcourt Johnstone, 
sir Hugh Owen, lord Frederick Cavendish, and 
others ; the Union was constituted at a meeting, 
lord Brougham in the chair, 14 June, 1862. It 
has been eminently successful. 

The Working Men's Club and Lodging-house, Old 
Pye-street, Westminster, was opened 20 April, 1866 

Working Men's Colleges, &c. The first, established 
in Sheffield, by working-men. The second, in 
London, by the rev. professor Frederick D. 
Maurice, as principal, in Oct. 1854 (died 1 April, 
3872) ; a third in Cambridge ; and, in 1855, a 
fourth at Oxford ; all wholly for the working 
•classes, and undertaking to impart such know- 
ledge as each man feels he is most in want of. 
The colleges engage to find a teacher wherever 10 
•or 12 members agree to form a class, and also to 
.have lectures given. There were eleven classes 
■at the one in Bloomsbury, London, in 1856 ; Mr. 
Ruskin gave lessons in drawing. Some of these 
colleges have been found to be self-supporting. 

A Working Women' sCollege, begun at Queen's-square, 
Bloomsbury 1864 

'The two colleges amalgamated as the " New College 
for men and women," inaugural meeting 12 Oct. 1874 

Working Women's College, Fitzroy-street, inaugu- 
rated 16 Oct. „ 

Act to establish councils of conciliation, to adjust 
differences between masters and workmen, passed 

20 Aug. 1867 

The Arbitration (Masters and "Workmen) Act passed 

6 Aug. 1872 

Working Men's College, for South London, opened 
with a lecture by professor Huxley . 4 Jan. 1868 

Workmen's International Exhibition proposed by 
the duke of Argyll, lord Elcho, and others, 
March, 1868 ; meeting for arrangements, 10 Jan. 
11870, held in the Agricultural Hall, Islington (16 
•classes and a fine arts department) ; opened by 
the prince of Wales, 16 July ; closed by Mr. Glad- 
stone 3 1 Oct. l8 7° 

National trades societies congress meet at Man- 
chester, 1868 ; at Birmingham . . . Aug. 1869 

{Demonstration of working men in Hyde park 

■ against certain clauses relating to masters and 
servants in the Criminal Law Amendment Act, 

2 June, 1873 

International Working Men's Association (termed 
the International) owes its origin to some German 
■socialists in London, 1847, and was much pro- 
moted by the foreign visitors to the great exhibi- 
tion in 1862. It was definitely organised, 28 Sept. 
1864, George Odger first president. Its professed 
•object is the complete emancipation of labour 
from the tyranny of capitalists. It has held 
•congresses at Geneva, Sept. 1866 ; Lausanne, 
-Sept. 1867; Brussels, 6-13 Sept. 1868 ; Basel. 6-11 
Sept. 1869: Barcelona, June, 1870 ; at the Hague, 
•when great dissensions arose between the "autho- 
ritarians," who consider a government needful, 
and the "anarchists," who deny it. One party 
including the council seceded from the trade 
portion, and adjourned to New York, 3-10 Sept. 1872 

Four of its members were elected into the French 
national assembly Feb. 1871 

The association took part in the communist insur- 
rection at Paris Bee. ,, 

[It made a demonstration at New York . 18 Mar. 1872 
It is said to have about 2,500,000 members in all 
countries, and to be allied with several secret 
societies, such as Fenians, the Mary Anne, <&c. 

A proposal from Spain that European governments 
should combine for its suppression, 9 Feb., was 
declined by Great Britain, 8 March. It was pro- 
scribed in France by the national assembly, 

14 March, „ 

The British section met at McQueen's club-house, 
Parliament-street .... 21 July, ,, 

One party took the name of International Associa- 
tion, and held annual congresses : Geneva, Sept. 
1873; Brussels, 7 Sept. 1874; Berne, 1876; Ver- 
viers, 7 Sept. 1877. A congress of socialists met 
at Ghent (partly united the two divisions), Sept. 1878 



International congress Paris assembled 2-12 Sept. 

Report of an alliance between conservative peers 
and the working men for the improvement of the 
condition of the latter, about 15 Oct. ; explained 
by Mr. Scott Russell (Times, 14 Nov. 1871), who 
issued a programme .... Jan. 

Workmen's Peace Association held its first annual 
meeting in London . . . .20 Sept. 

A " Workman's city," Shaftesbury Park, Clapham, 
was inaugurated by the earl of Shaftesbury 

3 Nov. 
Annual trade congress at Sheffield . 12-17 Jan- 
Alex. Macdonald and Thos. Burt, working-men, 

elected M. P. 's for Stafford and Morpeth . Feb. 

Royal commission on labour laws appointed (chief 
justice Cockburn, lord Winmarleigh, Messrs. 
Roebuck, T. Hughes, Alex. Macdonald and 
others) . March, 

Dwellings of working classes protected from rail- 
way bills by new standing orders . 30 July, 

Employers and Workmen Act passed . 13 Aug. 

Annual trade congress at Glasgow . n-i6 0ct. 

Church of England JVorking Men's Society founded 
at St. Alban's, Holborn ... 5 Aug. 

Working-Lads' Institutes, London; meeting at the 
Mansion House to found them, 27 Oct. ; first in- 
stitute opened at Whitechapel . . 14 Nov 

Workmen's Social Education League, founded 
June, 1879 ; professor J. R. Seeley, president, 
announced 10 June, 

Employers' Liability Act (to compensate workmen 
for injuries) passed . . . . .7 Sept. 

International conference of workmen at Paris 
closes 29 Oct. 

International trades union congress at Paris ; main 
objects, shorter hours, safety and comfort ; 
British, most moderate 29 Oct. et seq. 1883 ; again 
23 Aug. 1886 ; London, (79 English and 44 foreign 
delegates) 6 Nov. 

Workmen, &c, of the United Kingdom, about 
9,000,000 ; average wages each 19^. per annum 
(1835); about 13,000,000, average wages each nearly 
42I. per annum (1885). B. Giffen . iq Jan. 

Working Men's Jubilee Festival held at the Crystal 
Palace 25 June, 

Accounts of a new International formed to replace 
the old one, which had gradually disappeared, 
were published in the autumn of 1888. It was 
stated to have branches in the United States, and 
in various cities in Europe. 

The German parliament, influenced by prince 
Bismarck, passed bills to compel the working 
classes, with the assistance of their employers 
and the state, to provide for sickness (1883), for 
accidents (1884), for old age and infirmity 24 May, 

International congress of workers, respecting acci- 
dents, etc., at Paris .... 14 July, 
[Second congress at Berne, 21 Sept. 1891.] 

The grand council of the National Federation of 
all Trades and Indxistries, recommends that a 
demonstration be made to promote improvement 
in the condition of working men on 1 May, to be 
termed "Labour day," 15 April. A moderate 
demonstration was made at the Victoria-embank- 
ment and Hyde-park ; a very large and orderly 
meeting was held at Hyde-park, Sunday 
(speakers, Messrs. M. Davitt, John Burns, Cun- 
inghame Graham, Mrs. Aveling, and others), 

4 May, 
The great May-day demonstration of the working 

classes throughout Europe in favour of an eight 
hours' labour day and other improvements in 
their condition, passed off with general tran- 
quHlity, adequate precautions having been taken 
at Paris, Vienna, Berlin, and other towns, 

, May, 

International congress of miners at Jolimont, Bel- 
gium (see Mineralogy) . ■ 20 May et beq. 

Formation of the " Factory, Operative, and General 
Labour union " projected by Messrs. John Burns 
and Tom Mann Aug. 

First congress of Bock, Wharf, and Riverside 
Labourers' union ... 30 Sept. — 4 Oct. 

"Labour day" generally peaceably observed 
throughout Europe, except in France and Home 
(which sec), 1 Mav ; meetings in Hyde-park 

{Which see) c-3 May 

3 z 2 



1872 
1871 

1873 

1874 



1875 
1876 

1879 



WOEKS. 



1076 



WEECKS. 



International Labour Congress at Brussels, 

16-22 Aug. 1891 
"Labour day" on the continent peaceably kept 
through precautionary measures (see Hyde-park), 

Sunday, 1 May, 1892 

See Co-operative Societies, Employers, and Trades- 
Unions. Berlin conference, 1890. 

"WOEKS and Public Buildings, see 
Woods. 
WOEKSHOPS, see Ateliers and Factories. 

WOEKSHOP EEGULATION ACT, sup- 
plement to Factory Acts, passed 21 Aug. 1867 ; 
amended, 1871. 

WOELD, see Creation, and Globe. World 
weekly newspaper began 8 July, 1874. The World's 
Columbian Exposition, see Chicago, 1890 et seq. 

WOEMS, a city on the Rhine, in Hesse-Darm- 
stadt. The Roman city, Borbetomagus, was 
plundered by the Alemanni, 354, and by Attila, 
451 ; rebuilt by Clovis I. about 475. Here Charle- 
magne resided in 806. Here was held the 
imperial diet before which Martin Luther was 
summoned, 4 April, 1521, and by which he was 
proscribed. Luther was met by 2000 persons on 
foot and on horseback, at the distance of a league 
from Worms. When Spalatin sent to warn him of 
bis danger, he answered, "If there were as many 
devils in Worms as there are tiles upon the roofs 
of its houses, I would go on." He appeared before 
the emperor, the archduke Ferdinand, six electors, 
twenty-four dukes, seven margraves, thirty bishops 
and prelates, and many princes, counts, lords, and 
ambassadors, 17 April, acknowledged his writings 
and opinions, and left Worms, in fact, a conqueror. 
Tet, to save his life, he had to remain in seclusion 
under the protection of the elector of Saxony for 
about a year. The edict putting him under the 
ban of the empire was issued 26 May, 1521. 
Worms was burnt, by order of Louis XIV., 1689, the 
cathedral excepted ; and was taken by the French, 
under Custine, 4 Oct. 1792. A memorial statue of 
Luther at Worms was uncovered, 25 June, 1868, 
in the presence of the king of Prussia and other 
sovereigns. Population, 1890, 25,504. 

WOESHIP. The first worship mentioned is 
that of Abel, 3872 B.C. (6r0w.1v.) "Men began 
to call on the name of the Lord," 3769 B.C. (Gen. 
iv.) The Jewish order of worship was set up by 
Moses, 1490 B.C. Solomon consecrated the temple, 
1004 B.C. To the corruptions of the simple worship 
of the patriarchs all the Egyptian and Greek idola- 
tries owed their origin. Athotes, son of Menes, 
king of Upper Egypt, is supposed to be the Copt 
of the Egyptians, and the Toth, or Hermes, of the 
Greeks, the Mercury of the Latins, and the Teutates 
of the Celts or Gauls, 21 12 B.C. Usher. 

WOESHIP IN ENGLAND. The Druids were 
the priests here, at the invasion of the Romans 
(55 B.C.), who eventually introduced Christianity, 
which was almost extirpated by the victorious 
Saxons (455), who were pagans. The Roman 
catholic form of Christianity was introduced by 
Augustine, 596, and continued till the Reformation 
(which see). See Hymns, Liturgies, Prayers, 
Public Worship, Ritualists. 

PLACES OF WORSHIP IN ENGLAND AND WALES 
IN 1851. 

Places of Worship. Sittings. 

Church of England .... 14,077 3.317,915 

Wesleyan Methodists . . . . 6,579 2,194*298 

Independents 3,244 i,o67,' 7 6o 

Baptists 2,789 752,343 

Roman Catholics .... 570 186,111 



Places of Worship. Sittings^ 

Society of Friends . . . . 371 91, 559 

Unitarians 229 68,554 

Scottish Presbyterians . . . 160 86,692 

Latter day Saints (Mormonites) . 222 30,783 

Brethren (Plymouth) . . . . 132 (?) 18,529. 

Jews 53 8,438: 

New Church (Swedenborgians) . . 50 12,107 

Moravians 32 9,3°5 

Catholic and Apostolic Church ) 

(Irvingites) . j 32 7 ' 437 

Greek Church 3 291 

Countess of Huntingdon's Con- ) 

° >• 100 35,210 

nexion J ^ 53»""- 

Welsh Calvinistic Methodists. . 828 198,242 

Various small bodies, some with- ) , 

out names . . . . | 54$ IO S'5S7 

June, 1884, total sittings in the metropolis (populations 

4,019,361), 1,388,792 ; Church of England, 677,645. 
See Wesleyan Methodists, note. 
116 sects having 20,330 places of worship, Oct. 1871. 
Certified Places of Worship, registered, 4 Nov. 1884, 23,341 J 

1 Nov. 1891, 27,253. 

WOESTED, spun wool, obtained its name from 
having been first spun at a town called Worsted, in 
Norfolk, in which the inventor lived, and where 
manufactures of worsted are still extensively carried 
on, 14 Edw. III. 1340. Anderson. " A worsted- 
stocking knave" is a term of reproach or contempt 
used by Shakspeare. 

WOETH, see Woerth. 

WOETHIES, NINE, a term long ago given, 
to the following eminent men: — 

Jews. Died. 

Joshua B.C. 1426 

David 1015 

Judas Maccabseus 161 

Heathens. 

Hector of Troy 1184 

Alexander the Great 323 

Julius Csesar ■ . 44 

Christians. 
King Arthur of Britain . . . . a.d. 532 

Charlemagne of France 8oo> 

Godfrey of Bouillon 1100 

In some lists, Gideon and Samson are given, instead 
of Hector and Arthur. In Shakspeare's Love's Labour's- 
Tjost, act v. sc. 2, Hercule^ and Pompey appear as 
worthies. 

WOTHLYTYPE, see under Photography. 

WOUNDED IN BATTLE, see Geneva 

Convention, and Aid to Sick and Wounded. 

WOUNDING. Malicious wounding of another 
was adjudged death by the English statutes. The 
Coventry Act was passed in 1671 ; see Coventry Act. 
By lord Ellenborough's Act, persons who stab or 
cut with intent to murder, maim, or disfigure 
another were declared guilty of felony without 
benefit of clergy. Those guilty of maliciously 
shooting at another in any dwelling-house or other 
place, are also punishable under the same statute 
in the same degree, 43 Geo. III. 1802. This offence 
is met by some later statutes, particularly the act 
for consolidating and amending the acts relating to 
offences against the person, 9 Geo. IV., June, 1828. 
This last act is extended to Ireland by 10 Geo. IV., 
1829. An act for the prevention of maliciously- 
shooting, stabbing, &c, in Scotland, 6 Geo. IV., 
1825; amended by 10 Geo. IV., 4 June, 1829, 
for the prevention and punishment of assaults on 
women and children. 

WRECKS. The loss of merchant and other 
ships by wreck upon lee-shores, coasts, and disasters 
in the open sea, was estimated at Lloyd's, in 1800, 
to be about an average of 365 ships a year. In 



WEECKS. 



1077 



WRECKS. 



1830, it appeared by Lloyd's Lists that 677 British 
vessels were totally lost, under various circum- 
stances, in that year. The lawa respecting wrecks 
were consolidated in 1846 and 1854. See Seamen 
{commission of inquiry) . 

Abstracts of the returns made to the Board of Trade of 
shipping casualties on or near the coast, &c, of the 
United Kingdom, and also of the casualties to British 
vessels elsewhere, and also to foreign vessels, pub- 
lished annually since 1855. 

"Wrecks on British coasts : July, 1887 — July 1888, 4,004 ; 
1888-9, 4> 2 7 2 i 1889-90, 4,344. 

Between 1861 and the 30th June, 1890, 4,742 British, 
colonial, and foreign vessels were wrecked on our 
coast, 21,426 lives lost. 

British vessels wrecked in 1848, were, sailing vessels, 
501 ; steamers, 13; tonnage, 96,920. 

In 1851, there were wrecked 611 vessels, of which number 
11 were steamers : the tonnage of the whole being 
111,976. 

The year 1852-3, particularly the winter months (Dec. 
and Jan.), was very remarkable for the number of 
dreadful shipwrecks and fires at sea : but a few of them 
are recorded. Wrecks in 25 years (1854-79), 49>3 2 2 ; 
lives lost, 18,319. 

Many vessels were lost in the great storms, 25, 26 Oct. 
1859 ; 28 May, 1861 ; 19, 20 Oct. 1861 ; and 13, 14 Nov. 
1862 : by a cyclone, India, 5 Oct. 1864 ; in the West 
Indies, Oct. 1867. 

See under Life Boat. 

British vessels (exclusive of the Royal Navy) 
totally lost at sea : 





Vessels. 


Lives 




Vessels. 


Lives 






lost. 






lost. 


1875. 


■ 657 . 


■ 1,694 


1883. 


• 793 • 


. 2,698 


1876 . 


. 661 . 


• i>97° 


1884 


. . 616 . 


• 1.644 


3877. 


• 677 • 


• i>73 2 


1885. 


• 557 • 


• I .43i 


1878 . 


• 637 . 


• i,3° 2 


1886 


. 644 . 


. 1,340 


T879 . 


. 621 . 


• I ,6s 2 


1887. 


• 5°° • 


. 1,888 


1880 . 


• 835 ■ 


• 2,075 


1888 


• 543 • 


• i,9 r 7 


IS8I . 


• 973 • 


• 3,165 


1889 . 


• 447 • 


• 1,045 


1882 . 


• 733 • 


• J^^ 









REMARKABLE CASES OF BRITISH VESSELS WRECKED 
OR BURNT. 

Mary Rose, 60 guns, going from Portsmouth to Spit- 
head, upset in a squall ; all on board perished, 

20 July, 1545 

Coronation, 90 guns, foundered off the Ramhead ; 
crew saved : Harwich, 70 guns, wrecked on 
Mount Edgcumbe ; crew perished . 1 Sept. 1691 

Royal Sovereign, 100 guns ; burnt in the Medway, 

29 Jan. 1696 

Stirling Castle, 70 guns ; Mary, 70 guns ; Northum- 
berland, 70 guns, lost on the Goodwin ; Vanguard. 
70 guns, sunk at Chatham ; York, 70 guns, lost 
near Harwich ; all lost but four men ; Resolution. 
60 guns, coast of Sussex ; Newcastle, 60 guns, at 
Spithead, 193 drowned ; Reserve, 60 guns, at Yar- 
mouth, 173 perished ; in the night of 26 Nov. 1703 

Association, 70 guns, and other vessels, lost with 
admiral sir C. Shovel, off the Scilly isles {which see) 

22 Oct. 1707 

Solebay, 32 guns, lost near Boston neck ; crew 
perished 25 Dec. 1709 

Edgar, 70 guns, blew up at Spithead ; all on board 
perished 15 Oct. 1711 

Wager : part of commodore Anson's South Sea 
expedition ; wrecked on desolate island, lat. 47° S. 

14 May 1 74 1 

Victory, 100 guns, near the isle of Alderney ; all 
perished 5 Oct. 1744 

Colchester, 50 guns, lost on Kentish Knock ; 50 men 
perished 21 Sept. ,, 

Namur, 74 guns, foundered near Fort St. David, 
East Indies; all perished except 26 persons; 
Pembroke, 60 guns, near Porto Novo ; 330 of her 
crew perished 13 April, 1749 

Prince George, 80 guns, burnt in lat. 48 N., 011 way 
to Gibraltar ; about 400 perished . 13 April, 1758 

Lichfield, 50 guns, lost on the coast of Barbary ; 130 
of the crew perished .... 29 Nov. „ 

Tilbury, 60 guns, lost off Louisbourg ; most of the 
crew perished 25 Sept. 1759 

Ramilics, 90 guns, lost on the Bolt-head; only 26 



persons saved ; Conqueror, lost on St. Nicholas's 
Island, Plymouth . . . . 15 Feb. 1760 

Ducd'Aquitaine, 64 guns, and Sunderland, 60 guns, 
lost off Pondicherry ; all perished . 1 Jan. 1761 

Raisonnable, 64 guns, lost at the attack of Marti- 
nique 3 Feb. 1762 

Repulse, 32 guns, foundered off Bermuda ; crew 
perished 1775 

Thunderer, 74 guns ; Stirling Castle, 64 ; Defiance, 
64 ; Phoenix, 44; La Blanche, 32; Laurel, 28; 
Shark, 28 ; Andromeda, 28 ; Deal Castle, 24 ; Pene- 
lope, 24 ; Scarborough, 20 ; Barbadoes, 14 ; Came- 
leon, 14 ; Endeavour, 14 ; and Victor, 10 guns : all 
lost in the same storm, in the West Indies, in 

Oct. 1780 

Gen. Barker, Indiaman, off Scheveling . 17 Feb. 1781 

Grosvenor, Indiaman, coast of Caffraria . 4 Aug. 1782 

Swan, sloop of war, off Waterford ; 130 drowned, 

4 Aug. ,, 
R oyal George ; above 600 perished . 29 Aug. ,, 
Centaur, 74 guns, foundered on her passage from 

Jamaica ; capt. Inglefield and 11 of the crew saved 

21 Sept. ,, 
Villa de Paris, of 104 guns, one of admiral Rodney's 

prizes ; the Glorieux, of 74 guns, lost in the West 

Indies 5 Oct. „ 

Superb, 74 guns, wrecked in Tellicherry roads, East 

Indies 5 Nov. 1783 

Cato, 50 guns, admiral sir Hyde Parker, on the 

Malabar coast ; crew perished ....,, 
Count Belgioioso, Indiaman, off Dublin Bay ; 147 

souls perished 13 March, ,, 

Menai, ferry-boat, in the Menai Strait 60 drowned, 

5 Dec. 1785 
Halsewell, E. Indiaman ; 386 persons perished, 

6 Jan. 1786 
Hartwell, Indiaman, with immense wealth onboard 

24 May, 1787 
Charlemont Packet, from Holyhead to Dublin ; 104 

drowned 22 Dec. 1790 

Pandora, frigate on a reef ; 100 perished . 28 Aug. 1791 
Union, packet of Dover, lost off the port of Calais ; 
a similar occurrence had not happened for 105 

years before 28 Jan. 1792 

Wi>iterton, E. Indiaman : many perished 20 Aug. ,, 
Pmpetucux, 74 guns, burnt at Portsmouth 24 Aug. „ 
Scorpion, 74 guns, burnt at Leghorn . 20 Nov. 1793 
Ardent, 64 guns, burnt off Corsica . . April, 1794 
Boyne, by fire, at Spithead (see Boyne) . 4 May, 1795 
Courageux, -ja, guns, capt. B. Hallowell, near Gib- 
raltar ; crew, except 124, perished . 18 Dec. 1796 
La Tribune, 36 guns, off Halifax ; 300 souls perished 

16 Nov. 1797 
Proserpine frigate ; in the Elbe ; 15 lost . 1 Feb. 1798 
Resistance, blown up in the straits of Banea, 

24 July, ,, 
Royal Charlotte, East Indiaman, blown upatCulpee, 

1 Aug. ,, 
H.M.S. Lutine, 32 guns, was wrecked off Vlieland, 
coast of Holland ; only one saved, who died be- 
fore reaching England * . . . 9-10 Oct. 1799 
Impregnable, 98 guns, wrecked between Langstone 

and Chichester 19 Oct. „ 

Nassau, 64 guns, on the Haak Bank ; 100 perished, 

25 Oct. „ 
Sceptre, 64 guns, wrecked in Table Bay, cape of Good 

Hope ; 291 of the crew perished . . 5 Nov. ,, 
Ethalion, frigate, 38 guns, on the Penmarks, 

24 Dec. „ 
Queen, transport, on Trefusis Point ; 369 souls 

perished 14 Jan. 1800 

Mastiff, gunbrig, on the Cockle Sands . 19 Jan. „ 
Repulse, 64 guns, off Ushant . . .10 March, ,, 

* La Lutine was a French ship captured by admiral 
Duncan. She contained much bullion and money, be- 
longing to merchants ; a great loss to the underwriters 
at Lloyd's. The Dutch government claimed the wreck, 
;ind granted one third of the salvage in 1801 to the 

bullion lishcrs. Alter much discussion, and occasional 

recoveries, the king of tin' Netherlands ceded to Great 

Britain (for Lloyd's) half the remainder of the wreck. A 
Dutch salvage company began operations in Aug. 1857. 
At the end of 1859, Lloyd's had received 22,162/. 6s. yd. 
Aboul 99, 893 J. recovered; about 1,175,000/. remaining. 
A chair and table at Lloyd's were made of the rudder 
recovered in 1859. Martin's History of Lloyd's 



WRECKS. 



1078 



WRECKS 



Queen Charlotte {which see), burnt ; 673 perish 

17 March 
Queen, W. Indiaman, by fire, off Brazil . 9 July, 
Brazen, sloop of war, off Newhaven ; all lost except 

one man 

Invincible, 74 guns, near Yarmouth ; capt. John 

Eennie, and the crew, except 126 souls, perished, 

16 March, 
Margate, Margate-hoy", near Reeulver ; 23 persons 

perished 10 Feb. 

Bangalore, E. Indiaman, Indian Sea . 12 April, 
Active, West Indiaman, in Margate Roads 10 Jan. 
Hindostan, East Indiaman, went to pieces on the 

Culvers n Jan. 

La Determinie, 24 guns, in Jersey Roads, many 

drowned .... .26 March, 

Resistance, 36 guns, off Cape St. Vincent . 31 May, 
Lady Hobart, packet, on an island of ice 

28 June, 
Seine, frigate, 44 guns, off Schelling . 31 July, 
Antelope, capt. Wilson, off Pelew Islands 9 Aug. 
Victory, Liverpool ship, at Liverpool ; 27 drowned, 

30 Sept. 

Circe, frigate, 32 guns, off Yarmouth . 16 Nov. 

Nautilus, E. Indiaman, on Ladrones . 18 Nov. 

Fanny, in Chinese Sea : 46 souls perish 29 Nov. 

Suffisante, sloop, 16 guns, off Cork . . 25 Dec. 

Apollo, frigate, on coast of Portugal . 1 April, 

Cumberland Packet, on Antigua coast . 4 Sept. 

Jtomney, 50 guns on Haak Bank, Texel 18 Nov. 

Venerable, 74 guns, at Torbay ; lost 8 men 24 Nov. 

Severn, on a rock, near Grouville . . 21 Deo. 

Boris, frigate, on the Diamond Rock, Quiberon Bay, 

12 Jan. 

Abergavenny, East Indiaman, on the Bill of Port- 
land ; more than 300 persons perished 6 Feb. 

Naias, transport, on Newfoundland coast 23 Oct. 

JEneas, transport, off Newfoundland ; 340 perished, 

23 Oct. 

Aurora, transport, on the Goodwin Sands; 300 
perished ... ... 21 Dec. 

King George, packet, from Park-gate to Dublin, lost 
on the Hoyle bank; 125 persons, passengers and 
crew drowned 21 Sept. 

Athenien, 64 guns, near Tunis ; 347 souls perished, 

27 Oct. 

Glasgow, packet, off Farm Island ; several drowned, 

17 Nov. 

Felix, 12 guns, near Santander; 79 souls lost 

22 Jan. 

Blenheim, 74 guns, admiral sir T. Troubridge, and 
Java, 23 guns, foundered near island of Rodriguez, 
East Indies 1 Feb. 

Ajax, 74 guns, by fire, off the island of Tenedos ; 
250 perished 14 Feb. 

Blanche, frigate, on the French coast; 45 men 
perished 4 March, 

Ganges, East Indiaman, off the Cape of Good Hope, 

29 May, 
Prince of Wales, Park-gate packet, and Rochdale, 

transport, on Dunleary point, near Dublin ; nearly 

300 souls perished .... 19 Nov. 
Boreas, man-of-war, upon the Hannois rock in the 

Channel 28 Nov. 

Anson, 44 guns, wrecked in Mount's Bay; 60 lives 

lost 29 Dec. 

Agatha, near Memel; lord Royston and others 

drowned 7 April, 

Astrea, frigate, on Anagada coast . . 23 May, 
Frith, passage-boat, in the Frith of Dornoch; 40 

persons drowned . . . . 13 Aug. 
Foxhound, 18 guns, foundered on passage from 

Halifax ; crew perished .... 31 Aug. 
Siruis, 36 guns, and Magicienne, 36 guns, wrecked 

when advancing to attack the French, off Isle of 

France 23 Au°\ 

Satellite, sloop of war, 16 guns, upset, and all on 

board perished I4 D ec 

Minotaur, of 74 guns, wrecked on the Haak Bank • 

360 persons perished .... 22 Dec' 

Pandora, sloop of war, off Jutland; 30 persons 

perished I3 Feb. 

Saldanha, frigate, on the Irish coast ; 300 persons 

perished 4 Dec. 

St. George, of 98, and Defence, of 74 guns, and the 

Hero, stranded on the coast of Jutland, adm. 

Reynolds and all the crews (about 2000 persons) 

perished, except 18 seamen . . .24 Dec. 



1801 
1802 
1803 



1805 



1807 



Manilla, frigate, on the Haak Sand; 12 persons 
perished 28 Jan. 

Atalante ; H.M. frigate off Nova Scotia . 10 Nov. 

British Queen, packet, from Ostend to Margate, 
wrecked on the Goodwin SansJs, aad all ©n board 
perished 17 Eec - 

Duchess of Wellington, at Calcutta, by fire 21 Jan. 

Seahorse, transport, near Tramore Bay ; 365 persons, 
chiefly soldiers of the 59th regiment, and most of 
the crew, drowned .... 30 Jan. 

Lord Melville and Boadicea, transports, with up- 
wards of 200 of the 82nd regiment, with wives and 
children, lost near Kinsale ; almost all perished, 

31 Jan. 

Harpooner, transport, near Newfoundland ; 200 per- 
sons drowned 10 Nov. 

William and Mary, packet, struck on the Willeys 
rocks, near the Holmes lighthouse, Bristol Chan- 
nel; nearly 60 persons perished . . 23 Oct. 

Queen Charlotte, East Indiaman, at Madras ; all on 
board perished 24 Oct. 

Ariel, in the Persian Gulf; 79 souls perished, 

18 March, 

BlendonHall, on Inaccessible Island, many perished, 

23 July, 

Earl of Moira, on the Burbo Bank, near Liverpool 
40 drowned 8 Aug. 

Juliana, East Indiaman, on the Kentish Knock ; 40 
drowned 26 Dec. 

Thames, Indiaman, off Beachey Head; several 
drowned 3 Feb. 

Drake, 10 guns, near Halifax; several drowned, 

20 June, 

Ellesmere, steamer; 11 persons lost . 14 Dec. 

Alert, Dublin and Liverpool packet; 70 souls 
perished 26 March, 

Robert, from Dublin to Liverpool ; 60 souls perished, 

16 May, 

Kent (which see) ; East Indiaman ; burnt . March 

Fanny, in Jersey Roads ; lord Harley and many 
drowned 1 Jan. 

Venus', packet, from Waterford to Dublin, near 
Gorey ; 9 persons drowned . . 19 March, 

Newry, from Newry to Quebec, with 360 passengers ; 
cast away near Bardsy, about 40 persons were 
drowned 16 April, 

Lady Sherbrooke, from Londonderry to Quebec ; lost 
near Cape Ray ; 273 souls perished ; 32 only were 
saved 19 Aug. 

Experiment, from Hull to Quebec; wrecked near 
Calais 15 April, 

Hibernia, burnt in W. long. 22°, S. lat. 4°; 150 per- 
sons (out of 232) perished . . . 15 Feb. 

Earl of Wemyss, near Wells, Norfolk : the cabin filled, 
and 11 ladies and children were drowned; all on 
deck escaped 13 July, 

Amphitrite, ship with female convicts to New South 
Wales; lost on Boulogne Sands; out of 131 per- 
sons, 3 only were saved. . . . . 30 Aug. 

United Kingdom, W. Indiaman, with rich cargo ; run 
down by the Queen of Scotland steamer off North- 
fleet, near Gravesend .... 15 Oct. 

Waterwitch, steamer, on the coast of Wexford; 4 
drowned 18 Dec. 

Lady Munro, from Calcutta to Sydney; of 90 
persons on board, not more than 20 were saved, 

9 Jan. 

Cameleon, cutter, run down off Dover by the Castor 
frigate; 13 persons drowned . . 27 Aug. 

Earl of Eldon ; East Indiaman ; burnt . 27 Sept. 

Killarney, steamer, off Cork ; 29 persons perished, 

26 Jan. 

Forfarshire, steamer, from Hull to Dundee ; 38 per- 
sons drowned. Owing to the courage of Grace 
Darling and her father, 15 persons were saved (see 
Forfarshire) 6 Sept. 

Protector, E. Indiaman, at Bengal; of 178 persons on 
board, 170 perished .... 21 Nov. 

Diligence, naval cutter, capt. sir J. Reid, hart., and 
56 souls perish in the Irish channel . 7 Jan. 

William Huskisson, steamer, between Dublin and 
Liverpool; 93 passengers saved by capt. Clegg, of 
the Huddersfield n Jan. 

Lord William Bentinck, off Bombay; 58 recruits, 
20 officers, and 7 passengers perished ; the Lord 
Castlereagh also wrecked, most of her crew and 
passengers lost 17 June, 

H.M.S. Fairy, captain Hewitt ; sailed from Harwich 



1B14 
1816 



1017 
181S 
1820 
1823 



1823: 

1825-, 
182a 

1830 
1833s 



WEECKS. 



1079 



WEECKS. 



on a surveying cruise, and was lost next day in a 
violent gale, off the coast of Norfolk . 13 Nov. 1840 

City of Bristol, steam packet, 35 perished 

18 Nov. „ 

Thames, steamer, captain Gray, from Dublin to 
Liverpool, wrecked off St. Ives ; the captain and 
55 persons perished .... 4 Jan. 1841 

Governor Fenner, from Liverpool for America ; run 
down off Holyhead by the Nottingham steamer out 
of Dublin; 122 persons perished . " 19 Feb. ,, 

Amelia, from London to Liverpool ; lost on the 
Heme Sand 26 Feb. „ 

President, steamer, from New York to Liverpool, 
with many passengers on board ; sailed on 1 1 
March, encountered a terrific storm two days 
afterwards, and has never since been heard of, 

13 March, ,, 

[In this vessel were, Mr. Tyrone Power, the come- 
dian ; a son of the duke of Richmond, &c] 

William Browne, by striking on the ice ; 16 passen- 
gers who had been received into the long boat 
were thrown overboard by the crew to lighten her 

19 April, ,, 

Isabella, from London to Quebec ; struck by an 
iceberg 9 May, ,, 

Solway, steamer, on her passage between Belfast 
and Port Carlisle ; crew saved . . 25 Aug. ,, 

Amanda, off Metis ; 29 passengers and 12 of the 
crew lost 26 Sept. ,, 

James Cooke, of Limerick, coming from Sligo to 
> Glasgow 21 Nov. ,, 

Abercrombie Robinson and Waterloo transports, in 
Table Bay, Cape of Good Hope : of 330 persons 
on board the latter vessel, 189, principally con- 
victs, perished 28 Aug. 1842 

Spitfire, war-steamer, off Jamaica . . 10 Sept. „ 

Reliance, East Indiaman, from China to London, off 
Merlemont, near Boulogne : of 116 persons on 
board, seven only were saved . . 13 Nov. .„ 

Hamilton, on the Gunfleet sands, near Harwich; 11 
of the crew perished .... 15 Nov. „ 

Conqueror, East Indiaman, homeward bound, near 
Boulogne ; crew and passengers lost . 13 Jan. 1843 

Jessie Logan, East Indiaman, on the Cornish coast ; 
many lives lost 16 Jan. ,, 

Solway, royal mail-steamer, near Corunna; 28 lives 
lost, and the mail .... 7 April, „ 

Catherine, trader, blown up off the Isle of Pines ; 
most of the crew were massacred by the natives, 
or afterwards drowned . . . 12 April, ,, 

Amelia Thompson, near Madras, part of crew saved 

23 May, ,, 

Albert, troop-ship, from Halifax, with the 64th 
regiment on board, which was miraculously saved 

13 July, „ 

Pegasus, steam-packet, from Leith ; off the Fern 
Islands ; of 59 persons (including Mr. Elton, the 
actor), 7 only were saved ... 19 July, ,, 

Phcenix, in a terrific snow-storm, off the coast of 
Newfoundland ; many lives were lost 26 Nov. ,, 

Elberfeldt, iron steam-ship, from Brielle 22 Feb. 1844 

Manchester, steamer, from Hull to Hamburg, off the 
Vogel Sands, near Cuxhaven about 30 lives lost, 

16 June. „ 

John Lloyd, by collision, in the Irish sea ; several 
lives lost 25 Sept. 1845 

Margaret, Hull and Hamburg steamer ; many lives 
lost . ...... 22 Oct. ,, 

Tweed, steamer ; off Yucatan . . 12 Feb. 1846 

Great Britain, iron steam-ship, grounded in Dun- 
drum bay (see Great Britain) . . .22 Sept. ,, 
[Recovered by Brunei, &c, 27 Aug. 1847.] 

Tweed, W. India mail-packet ; 72 souls perished, 

19 Feb. 1847 
Exmouth, emigrant-ship, from Londonderry to 

Quebec ; of 240 persons on board, nearly all were 

drowned 28 April, ,, 

Carrick, brig ; a gale in the St. Lawrence ; 170 

emigrants perished .... 19 .May, ,, 
Avenger, H.M. steam-frigate; off N. coast of 

Africa; officers and crew (nearly 200) lost 

20 Dee. ,, 
Ocean Monarch (»>7i ich see) . . . . 24 Aug. 1848 
Forth, steamer ; off Campeachy . . 13 Jan. 1849 
Caleb Grimshaw, emigrant-ship, fire; 400 persons 

miraculously escaped .... 12 Nov. ,, 
Royal Adelaide, steamer, wrecked on the Tongue 



Sands, off Margate, above 400 lives lost, 

30 March, 1850 
Orion, steam-ship, off Portparrick (see Orion), 

18 June, ,, 
Rosalind, from Quebec ; a number of the crew 

drowned 9 Sept. „ 

Edmund, emigrant-ship, with nearly 200 passengers 
from Limerick to New York (of whom more than 
one-half perished), wrecked off the Western coast 
of Ireland 12 Nov. ,, 

Amazon, W. India mail-steamer (see Amazon), 

4 Jan. 1852 

Birkenliead, troop-ship, iron paddle-wheeled, and 
of 556 horse-power, sailed from Queenstown, 7 
Jan. 1852, for the Cape, having on board detach- 
ments of the 12th Lancers, 2nd, 6th, 12th, 43rd, 
45th, and 60th Rifles, 73rd, 74th, and 91st regi- 
ments. It struck upon a pointed pinnacle rock 
off Simon's bay, South Africa, and of 638 persons 
only 184 were saved by the boats ; 454 of the crew 
and soldiers perished . . . .26 Feb. ,, 

Victoria, steam-packet, wrecked near Wings beacon 
off Gottenburg ; many lives lost . 8, 9 Nov. „ 

Lily, stranded and blown up by gunpowder, on the 
Calf-of-Man ; by which more than 30 persons 
lost their lives 24 Dee. ,, 

St. George, steam-ship, bound from Liverpool to 
New York, with 121 emigrant passengers (chiefly 
Irish), and a crew consisting of twenty-nine sea- 
men (the captain inclusive), was destroyed by fire 
at sea. The crew and seventy of the passengers 
were saved by the American ship Orlando, and 
conveyed to Havre, in France; 51 supposed to 
have perished 24 Dec. ,, 

Queen Victoria, steam-ship, bound from Liverpool, 
was wrecked off the Bailey lighthouse, near Dub- 
lin ; mistook her course in a snow-storm : 67 lost 
out of 120 15 Fen. 1853 

Independence, on the coast of Lower California, and 
which afterwards took fire : 140 persons were 
drowned or burnt to death, a few escaping, who 
underwent the most dreadful additional sufferings 
on a barren shore .... 16 Feb. ,, 

Duke of Sutherland, steamer, from London to Aber- 
deen ; struck on the pier at Aberdeen, and the 
captain (Edward Howling) and 16 (of the crew 
and passengers) perished . . .1 April, ,, 

Rebecca, on west coast of Van Diemen's Land, capt. 
Shephard and many lives lost . . 29 April, ,, 

William and Mary, an American emigrant ship, 
near the Bahamas. She struck on a sunken rock ; 
about 170 persons perished . . . 3 May, „ 

Aurora, of Hull ; sailed from New York, 26 April, 
and foundered ; about 25 lives lost . 20 May, ,, 

Boumeuf, Australian emigrant vessel ; struck on a 
reef near Torres Straits ; the captain (Bibby) and 
six lives lost 3 Aug. ,, 

Annie Jane, of Liverpool, an emigrant vessel, 
driven on shore on the Barra Islands, on west 
coast of Scotland ; about 348 lives lost 29 Sept. „ 

Harwood, brig, by collision with the Trident 
steamer, near the Mouse light near the Nore ; 
foundered; six of the crew perished . 5 Oct. „ 

Dalhousie, foundered off Beachey Head : the cap- 
tain (Butterworth), the passengers, and all the 
crew (excepting one), about 60 persons in all, 
perished ; the cargo was valued at above 100,000?. 

19 Oct. „ 

Marshall, screw-steamer, in the North Sea', ran 
into the barque IVoodhonse ; about 48 persons 
supposed to have perished . . 28 Nov. ,, 

Tayleur, emigrant ship, driven on the rocks off 
Lambay Island, north of Howth ; about 380 lives 
lost 20 Jan. 1854* 

Fa von rile, in the Channel, on her way from Bremen 
to Baltimore, came into violent contact with the 
American barque Hesper, off the Start, and imme- 
diately went down; 201 persons were drowned 

20 April, ,, 

Lady Nugent, troop-ship, sailed from Madras, 10 

May. 1S54; foundered in a hurricane; 350 rank 

anil file of the Madras light infantry, officers, and 

crew, in all 400 souls, perished . . May, ,, 

Forerunner, African mail-steamer, struck on a 

* Arctic, U.S. mail strainer, by collision in a fog with 
the l'i :tn, French steamer, oil' Newfoundland; above 300 
lives lost, 27 Sept. 1854. 



WEECKS. 



1080 



WRECKS. 



sunken rock off St. Lorenzo, Madeira, and went 
down directly afterwards, with the total loss of 
ship and mails, and 14 lives . . 25 Oct. 1854 

Nile, iron screw-steamer, struck on the Godevry 
rock, St. Ives' Bay, and all perished . 30 Nov. ,, 

City of Glasgow, a Glasgow steamer, with 480 persons 
on board, disappeared in ,, 

In the storm which raged in the Black Sea, 13-16 
Nov. 1854, eleven transports were wrecked and 
six disabled. The new steamship Prince was lost 
with 144 lives, and a cargo worth 500,000?. indis- 
pensable to the army in the Crimea. The loss 
of life in the other vessels is estimated at 340 . „ 

George Canning, Hamburg and New York packet, 
near the mouth of the Elbe : 96 lives lost, and 
Stately, English schooner, nearNeuwiek, in a great 
storm 1 Jan. 1855 

Mercury, screw-steamer, by collision with a French 
ship : passengers saved . . . 11 Jan. 

Janet Boyd, bark, in a storm off Margate Sands ; 28 
lives lost 20 Jan. 

Will 0' the Wisp, screw-steamer, on the Burn Rock, 
off Lambay ; 18 lives lost ... 9 Feb. 

Morna, steamer on rocks near the Isle of Man ; 21 
lives lost 25 Feb. 

John, emigrant vessel, on the Muncles rocks off 
Falmouth ; 200 lives lost . . . .1 May, 

Pacific, Collins steamer, left Liverpool for New 
York, with 186 persons on board ; never since 
heard of (supposed to have struck on an iceberg) 

23 Jan. 1851 
.Josephine Willis, packet-ship, lost by collision with 
the screw-steamer Mangerton, in the Channel ; 

about 70 lives lost 3 Feb. „ 

.John Rutledge, from Liverpool to New York, ran on 
an iceberg and was wrecked ; many lives lost 

20 Feb. ,, 
'. Many vessels and their crews totally lost 1-8 Jan. 1857' 

Violet, royal mail-steamer, lost on the Goodwin ; 
many persons perished ... 5 Jan. „ 

Tyne, royal-steamer, stranded on her way to South- 
ampton from the Brazils . . . 13 Jan. „ 

St. Andrew, screw-steamer, totally wrecked near 

Latakia ; loss about 145,000?. . , 29 Jan. 

■ Charlemagne, iron clipper, wrecked by the coast of 

Canton: passengers saved; loss, about 110,000?. 

20 March, ,, 

H.M.S. Raleigh, 50 guns, wrecked on south-east 
coast of Macao 14 April, 

Catherine Adamson, Australian vessel, wrecked 
25 miles from Sydney, 20 lives lost 

about 3 June, ,, 

Erin, P. & O. Co's steamer, wrecked on coast of 
Ceylon j unej it 

H.M.S. Transit, wrecked on a reef in the Straits of 
Banca 10 July, „ 

Dunbar, clipper wrecked on the rocks near Sydney : 
121 persons, and cargo valued at 22,000?., lost ; 
one person only saved, who was on the rocks 30 
hours 20 Aug. „ 

Sarah Sands, an iron screw-steamer, sailed from 
Portsmouth to Calcutta, in Aug. 1857 '• 3°° soldiers 
on board. On n Nov. the cargo (government 
stores) took fire. By the exertions of major Brett 
and captain Castle, the master of the vessel, who 
directed the soldiers and the crew, the flames 
were subdued, although a barrel of gunpowder 
.exploded during the conflagration. A new danger 
then arose— the prevalence of a strong gale • water 
was shipped heavily where the port quarter had 
been blown out. Nevertheless, after a fearful 
struggle, the vessel arrived at the Mauritius 21 
Nov., without losing a single life n- 2 i Nov 

Windsor, emigrant-ship, struck on a reef near the " 

Cape de Verde Islands ... j j) ec 

Ava, Indian mail-steamer, with ladies and others " 
from Lucknow on board, wrecked near Ceylon 

Eastern City, burnt about the equator on herNvayto * ' 
Melbourne ; by great exertions all on board were 



saved 



23, 24 Aug 



Austria, steam-emigrant ship, burnt in the middle 



A large American vessel, Northern Belle was 
wrecked near Broadstairs, The American government 
sent 21 silver medals and 2 7 ol. to be distributed among 
the heroic boatmen of the place, who saved the cre\v° 
5 6 Jan. 1857. 



of the Atlantic. Of 538 persons on board, only 
67 were saved. The disaster due to carelessness 

13 Sept. 1858 

St. Paul, captain Pennard, from Hong Kong to 
Sydney, with 327 Chinese emigrants, wrecked on 
the island of Rossel, 30 Sept. 1858. The captain 
and eight of the crew left the island in search of 
assistance, and were picked up by the Prince of 
Denmark schooner. The French steamer Styx was 
despatched to the island, and brought away one 
Chinese, 25 Jan. 1859. All the rest had been 
massacred and devoured by the natives . . ,, 

Czar, steamer, wrecked off the Lizard ; 14 lives lost 

23 Jan. 1859* 

Eastern Monarch, burnt at Spithead ; out of 500, 
eight lives lost. The vessel contained invalid 
soldiers from India, who, with the crew, behaved 
admirably 2 June, ,, 

Alma, steamer, grounded on a reef near Aden, Bed 
Sea, about 35 miles from Mocha ; all persons 
saved ; after 35 days' exposure to the sun, with- 
out water, they were rescued by H.M.S. Cyclops: 
sir John Bowring, who was on board, lost valua- 
ble papers 12 June, ,, 

Admelia, steamer, running between Melbourne and 
Adelaide, struck on a reef ; of about 72 persons, 
only 23 were saved; many perished through ex- 
posure to cold 6 Aug. „ 

Royal Charter, screw-steamer, captain Taylor, totally 
wrecked off Moelfra, on the Anglesea coast ; 446 
lives lost. The vessel contained gold amounting 
in value to between 700,000?. and 800,000?. ; much 
of this has been recovered night of 25-26 Oct. ,, 

Indian, mail-steamer, wrecked off the coast of 
Newfoundland ; out of 116, 27 lives lost 21 Nov. ,, 

Blervie Castle, sailed from London docks for 
Adelaide ; lost in the Channel and all on board, 
57 persons ; last seen on . . . 25 Dec. ,, 

Northerner, steamer, wrecked on a rock near Cape 
Mendorino, between San Francisco and Oregon ; 
38 lives lost 6 Jan. i860 

Endymion, sailing-vessel, burnt in the Mersey ; loss 
above 20,000?. ..... 31 Jan. ,, 

Dreadful gales; and many wrecks on the coast, t 

15-19 Feb. ,, 

Ondine, steamer; lost through collision with the 
Heroine, of Bideford, abreast of Beachey Head ; 
the captain and about 50 persons perished 19 Feb. „ 

Luna, American emigrant vessel, wrecked on rocks 
off Barfleur ; about 100 lives lost . 19 Feb. ,, 

Hungarian, new mail-steamer, wrecked off coast of 
Nova Scotia ; all on board (205) lost on the night of 

19-20 Feb. „ 

Nimrod, steamer, wrecked on rocks near St. David's 
Head ; 40 lives lost 28 Feb. „ 

Malabar, iron ship, on her way to China, with lord 
Elgin and baron Gros : wrecked off Point de Galle, 
Ceylon. The ambassadors displayed much heroism ; 
no lives lost. Of much specie sunk, a good deai 
was recovered ..... 72 May, ,, 
Lady Elgin, an American steamer, sunk through 
collision with schooner Augusta on lake Michigan ; 
of 385 persons on board, 287 were lost, including 
Mr. Herbert Ingram, M.P., founder of the "Illus- 
trated London News," and his son; morning of 

8 Sept. „ 

Arctic, Hull steamer, wrecked off Jutland; many 

persons saved by Mr. Earle, who lost his own life 

while endeavouring to save others . . 5 Oct. , , 

Connaught, steamer, burnt; crew saved through 

the gallantry of the crew of an American brig, 

7 Oct. ,, 
Juanita, wrecked through collision with an Ameri- 
can vessel, Joseph Fish, 13 lives lost . 15 March, 1861 
Canadian, steamer, struck on a field of ice in the 
straits of Belle-isle, and foundered in half an hour ; 
35 lives lost 4 June, ,, 



* Pomona, an American ship, captain Merrihew ; 419 
persons on board, from Liverpool to New York ; was 
wrecked on Blackwater Bank, through the master 
mistaking the Blackwater for the Tuskar light, only 24 
persons saved, night of 27-28 April, 1859. 

t American barque Lima, with emigrants, wrecked off 
Barfleur ; above 100 lives lost, 17 Feb. i860. Ou the 
same rock, on 25 Nov. 1120, was wrecked the Blanche 
Nef, containing the children of Henry I. and a large 
number of attendants ; in all 363 persons perished. 



WEECKS. 



1081 



WRECKS. 



H.M.8. Conqueror, stranded on Rum Cay, near 
Bahamas, and lost [the captain and master were 
censured for neglect of duty] . . 29 Dec. 1861 

Harmony, lost with all hands off Plymouth 27 Feb. 1862 

Ocean Monarch, 2195 tons, sailed from New York, 
5 March, laden with provisions ; foundered in a 
gale 9 March, „ 

Upwards of 60 merchantmen lost during gales in 

March, ,, 

Mars, Waterford steamer, struck on a rock near 
Milford haven ; about 50 lives lost . . April, ,, 

Bencoolen, East Indiaman, 1400 tons ; struck on 
sands near Bude haven, Cornwall ; about 26 lives 
lost 19 Oct. ,, 

Lotus, merchantman, off Chale Bay, in the great 
storm; crew all lost except two . . 19 Oct. ,, 

Many vessels lost during storm . . .19 Oct. „ 

Colombo, Bast India mail steamer, in thick weather, 
wrecked on Minicoy Island; 440 miles from Point 
de Galle, Ceylon; no lives lost (the crew and pas- 
sengers taken off by the Ottawa from Bombay, 
30 Nov.) 19 Nov. ,, 

Lifeguard, steamer, left Newcastle, with about 41 
passengers; never since heard of; supposed to 
nave foundered off Flamborough head 20 Dec. ,, 

Orpheus, H. M.S. steamer, new vessel, 1700 tons; 
commander Burnett ; wrecked on Manakau bar, 
W. coast New Zealand ; 70 persons saved ; about 
190 perished 7 Feb. 1S63 

Anglo-Saxon, mail steamer, captain Burgess, in 
dense fog, wrecked on reef off Cape Race, New- 
foundland ; about 237, out of 446, lives lost, 

27 April, „ 

All Serene, Australian ship; gale in the Pacific; 
above 30 lives lost (the survivors suffered much 
till they reached the Fiji isles in a punt) 21 Feb. 1864 

Many shipwrecks in consequence of the cyclone at 
Calcutta 5 Oct. ,, 

H.M.S. Racehorse, off Chefoo Cape, Chinese coast; 

99 lives lost 4 Nov. „ 

The Stanley, Friendship, &o. , in the gale off Tyne- 

mouth ; and the Dalhousie, screw steamer, mouth 
of the Tay ; same gale ; 34 lives lost 24 Nov. ,, 

H.M.S. Bombay, burnt off Flores Island, near 
Monte Fideo; 91 lives lost . . . 14 Dec. ,, 

Lelia, cutter, off Great Orme's Head, during a gale ; 
several lives lost ; 7 persons drowned by upsetting 
of the life-boat 14 Jan. 1865 

Eagle Speed, emigrant vessel, foundered near Cal- 
cutta; 265 coolies drowned; great cruelty and 
neglect imputed . ^ . . . 24 Aug. „ 

Duncan Dunbar, wrecked on a reef at Las Rooas, 
S. America ; no lives lost . . . 7 Oct. „ 

Samphire, mail-steamer; collision with an American 
barque; several lives lost . . . 13 Dec. „ 

Ibis, steamer, machinery damaged, off Ballycroneen 
bay ; 15 lives lost; sailed from Cork . . 18 Dec. „ 

London, steamer, on her way to Melbourne; foun- 
dered in Bay of Biscay; about 220 persons 
perished (including captain Martin, Dr. Woolley, 
principal of the university of Sydney, G. V. 
Brooke, the tragedian); about the same time the 

Amalia steamer went down with a cargo worth 
200,000?. ; no lives lost . . . .11 Jan. 1866 

Many wrecks and much loss of life during gales, 
especially off Torbay . . . . 6-11 Jan. ,, 

Spirit of the Ocean, steamer; wrecked on a rock 
near Dartmouth ; all lost except 4 . 23 March, „ 

General Grant, on voyage from Melbourne to London, 
wrecked off Auckland isles; only 13 out of about 

100 saved May, ,, 

Amazon, H.M. screw sloop, and screw steamer 

Osprey, sunk by collision near Plymouth ; several 

passengers and sailors drowned . 10 July, ,, 
Bruiser, steamer, sunk by collision with the Has- 

well, off Aldborough; about 15 lives lost 19 Aug. ,, 
Bhima, Indian steamer; foundered through collision 

with Nana, steamer, between Bombay and Suez; 

19 lives lost n Sept. ,, 

H.M.S. Berenice, burnt in Persian Gulf; none 

perished 13 Oct. ,, 

Ceres, near Canisoe, Ireland; about 36 lives lost 

[captain Pascoe censured for neglecting to sound] 

10 Nov. 
Many wrecks in the Channel . . .5,6 Jan. 1867 
James Crosjield, iron ship ; wrecked off Langness, [sle 

of Man ; all on board lost .... 5 Jan. ,, 
Singapore, Peninsular and Oriental steamer, struck 



on a sunken rock, and went down ; no lives lost, 

20 Aug. 1867 
Rhone and Wye, Royal Mail steamers, totally lost, 
and about 50 other vessels driven ashore ; great 
loss of life by a hurricane, off St. Thomas (see 
Virgin Islands) 29 Oct. ,, 

Hibernia, screw steamer ; the shaft of screw pro- 
peller broke, 600 miles off coast of Ireland ; many 
lives lost . . . . 24 or 25 Oct. or Nov. 1868 

Many wrecks on the Cornish coast during a gale, 

19-20 March, 1869 

Italian, merchant steamer, struck on a rock near 
Finisterre ; about 26 lives lost about 21 March. ,, 

Camatic, Peninsular and Oriental steamer, wrecked 
off Shadwan in the gulf of Suez ; about 25 lives lost, 

13 Sept. ,, 

Oneida, American vessel, run down by collision with 
P. & O. steamer Bombay off Yokohama ; about 115 
lives lost (captain of Bombay suspended for 6 
months) 24 Jan. 1870 

City of Boston, sailed from New York, long miss- 
ing; a board stating that she was sinking 
found in Cornwall .... n Feb. ,, 

Normandy, S. W. company's steamer, by collision 
with the steamer Mar y, off the Isle of Wight, sunk ; 
the captain, C. B. Harvey, and 33 others perish, 

17 March, „ 

H.M.S. Slaney, wrecked by a typhoon near Hong 
Kong ; about 42 lives lost . . . . 9 May, ,, 

H.M.S. Captain, iron-clad, sank in a squall off 
Finisterre (see Navy of England) . . 7 Sept. 

Cambria, iron screw-steamer, lost in a storm off 
Inishtrahul island, N.W. Ireland; about 170 lives 
lost 19 Oct. „ 

Queen of the Thames, magnificent vessel, Sailed from 
London to Sydney by the Cape in 58 days ; re- 
turning, was lost by striking on sands off Cape 
Agulhas, Africa; 4 lives and valuable cargo lost; 
the captain was censured ... 18 March. 1871 

Cornwall, wrecked by collision with the Himalaya 
steamer off Hartlepool . . . 19 March. ,, 

Megrera, government iron screw-steamer, sailed 
with about 400 on board for Australia, Feb. 1871; 
sprang a leak, 8 June; when it was discovered 
that her bottom was nearly worn away by corro- 
sion ; she was beached on St. Taul's Isle, in the 
Indian ocean, 16 June ; huts were erected, and the 
crew settled, and stores landed ; lieut. Jones was 
taken on board a Dutch vessel, 16 July; the 
Oberon brought provisions, 26 Aug. ; the crew was 
carried off during a storm, the stores being left 
behind, by the Malacca ... 3 Sept. „ 
[The vessel was reported unfit for service in 
1867; capt. Thrupp was tried and acquitted 
of blame, 17 Nov.; sir Spencer Robinson and 
various admiralty officials were censured by a 
government commission, 6 March, 1872.] 

Rangoon, Peninsular and Oriental steamer, valued 
at 78,000^., wrecked on Kadir rock, off Point de 
Galle; cargo lost; no lives lost . . 1 Nov. „ 

Norfolk Hero, fishing lugger, lost off Norfolk coast, 

2 Dec. ,, 

Delaware, large steamer; wrecked off Scilly rocks; 
only 2 out of 47 saved .... 20 Dec. ,, 

Severe gales; many wrecks, and lives lost. 

Kinsale, steamer, off Waterford ; Albion, schooner, 
otTLooe; Dee, schooner, <fec. . . 22-23 Nov. 1872 

Royal Adelaide, emigrant vessel; went ashore on 
Chesil beach, between Weymouth and Portland ; 
5 lost 25 Nov. ,, 

Germania, mail packet; wrecked off La Roehelle; 
about 24 perished .... 21 Dec. ,, 

Northfleet, vessel laden with railway iron for Van 
Diemen's Land, and railway navvies, run into by 
a foreign steamer (probably the Murillo,* a 
Spanish vessel) off Dungeness, about 10.30 p.m.; 
about 300 lost 22 Jan. 1873 

Clinriihiirtt, iron ship; sunk in the Channel, 15 miles 
from Orme's head, by collision with the Torch 
steamer; 24 lost . . . . 1 March, ,, 

Boync, barque; wrecked off Moliilo bay, Cornwall; 
about 20 lost 1 March, ,, 

Atlantic, steamer, of White Star company, struck 
on Meagher rock, west of Sambro; said to have 



* This vessel was captured near Dover, 22 Kept, and 
condemned by the couH of admiralty to be sold; (the 

officers severely censured) ; 4 Nov. 1873. 



WEECKS. 



1082 



WEECKS. 



fallen short of coals steaming for Halifax; 442 
(including capt. Williams) saved ; about 560 lost, 
1 April, 1873 ; many on the rigging perished 
through cold and want. The case was investi- 
gated, and the captain was suspended for two 
years 18 April, 1873 

Eden, ship, with 150 tons of gunpowder, sailing for 
Valparaiso ; set on fire by her mad captain, and 
blew up : (the crew in a boat were rescued by the 
Juanita) 7, 8 Nov. „ 

Nagpore, from Calcutta, took fire and ran into Kings- 
town harbour, doing much damage till it went to 
pieces ; the captain of the Echo and some sailors 
were drowned 9 Nov. ,, 

Lochearn lost, through collision with the Ville de 
Havre (which see), 22 Nov. ; quitted by her crew 

28 Nov. „ 

Ella, London and Hamburg steamer ; crew, 32 ; left 
Thames 14 Dec, supposed to have foundered in a 
gale 16 Dec. „ 

Queen Elizabeth, Glasgow steamer from India ; went 
ashore near Tarifa ; about 20 perished ; middle of 

March, 1874 

Tacna, steamer, from Valparaiso ; foundered ; about 
19 lost (see Chili) March, „ 

Liberia, British and African Steam-ship Co. ; 
wrecked by collision with Barton steamer, off 
Scilly isles ; probably all lost on boaxd both vessels 

about 13 April, ,, 

British Admiral, emigrant ship ; wrecked on King's 
island, Bass's strait ; about 80 out of 89 lost 

23 May, „ 

Milbanke, iron steamer ; laden with zinc from Car- 
thagena ; sunk through collision with Hankow 
steamer off Dungeness ; 14 perish ; 1.30 a.m. 

28 July, „ 

Calcutta, ship, from Shields to Aden ; took fire ; 
nearly all lost . . . . about n Sept. „ 

Malvern, barque, from Sunderland ; foundered off 
Singapore ; all hands lost ... 23 Sept. ,, 

Kingsbridge, iron ship, sunk off the Lizards, by col- 
lision with the Candahar, iron ship ; the master, 
his wife and daughter, and 8 of the crew perish 

14 Oct. ,, 

Maju, iron ship, of London ; new clipper ; wrecked 
off the Hebrides in a gale ; crew, about 24, lost 

20 Oct. „ 

Chusan, from Glasgow for Shanghai ; sunk in a gale 
off Ardrossan ; about 7 lost . . .20 Oct. 

Cutter of H.M.S. Aurora swamped in the Clyde; 
is lost ig Nov. „ 

La Plata, steamer (capt. Dudden), 1600 tons ; sailed 
from Gravesend with telegraph cable for Brazil, 
26 Nov. ; foundered in a gale in the Bay of Biscay ; 
17 escape out of 85 . . . .29 Nov. 

Cospatrick, emigrant vessel (capt. Emslie), on her 
way to Auckland, New Zealand ; took fire, mid- 
night, 17-18 Nov. ; only 5 or 6 (out of 476) escaped ; 
picked up, 27 Nov. ; arrived at St. Helena 

6 Dec. „ 

Japan, Pacific Mail steamer, from Yokohama ; took 
fire off Hong Kong ; many lost about 17 Dec. „ 

Delfine, steamer ; struck on sunken rock, west coast 
of Africa ; nearly all lost 

Scorpio, steamer, from Cardiff to Charente ; not 
heard of, 30 Dec 4 Dec. 

Cortes, of London, foundered in Bay of Biscay'; 
laden with coal for Aden ; capt. E. King ; about 

Ir 2 5 lost 16 Dec. „ 

Hong Kong, steamer ; wrecked on sunken rock near 
Aden ; about 12 lost .... 22 Feb. 1875* 

Stuart Hahnemann, sailed from Bombay, 4 April ; 
capsized ; about 40 drowned ; (some rescued by 
Blandina, Austrian barque, 27 April) . 14 April 

Cadiz, London steamer ; wrecked on Wizard Rock ' 
Brest ; about 62 lost 8 May' 

Vicksburg, steamer, left Quebec, 27 May ; struck on ' 
ice, 30 May ; sank, 1 June ; between 40 and 50 
l ^ 1 June, ,, 

btrathmore, emigrant vessel, wrecked in a fog near 
the Crozet isles, South Indian ocean, on way to 
New Zealand ; 45 out of 89 lost . . 1 July, 

Boyne, mail steamer, from Brazil ; ran on a rock ' 



* Schiller, Hamburg mail steamer ; wrecked in a fog, 
on rocks off the Scilly isles ; about 331 drowned, 7 May 
1875- 



during a fog, 15 miles off Ushant ; 2 lives lost 

13 Aug. 1875 

Mistletoe, Mr. Heywood's pleasure yacht ; sunk by 
collision with H.M.'s steamer, Alberta (the queen 
on board) ; in the Solent ; near Isle of Wight ; 
Miss Annie Peel and two others drowned 

18 Aug. „ 
[Coroner's inquest on Nathaniel Turner ; ver- 
dict, accidental death, with a note alleging 
error of navigating officers, 10 Sept ; another 
inquest, closed without verdict, 7 Dec. 1875 ; 
captain Welch, of the Alberta, was repri- 
manded ; 3000Z. paid to Mr. Heywood, and 
others compensated ; announced, April,i876.] 
See under Navy of England. 

H.M.S. Vanguard, double-screw iron-clad, 3774 
tons ; cost about 350,000?. (captain Dawkins) 
struck by ram of the Iron Duke during a fog off 
the coast of Wieklow ; crew (about 400) saved ; 
50 in. past noon 1 Sept. „ 

Pacific, steamer, from Victoria, British Columbia, to 
California ; foundered off Cape Flattery ; above 
150 lost about 4 Nov. „ 

Goliath, old man-of-war, fitted up as a training-ship 
for poor boys ; burnt through a lamp falling on 
the dirty floor of the lamp-room ; about a dozen 
lives lost out of about 500 ; the boys were highly 
commended for their courage and discipline under 
the command of captain Bourchier . 22 Dec. ,, 

Many wrecks autumn and winter, 1875. * 

Warspite, old training-ship of the Marine Society's 
boys, on the Thames between Woolwich and 
Charlton, burnt ; no loss of life ; good discipline 
shown 3 Jan. 1876 

Strathclyde, Glasgow steamer, sunk by collision with 
Hamburg ship Franconia, in Dover bay, in day- 
light; about 17 lost; (verdict of manslaughter 
against Kuhn, captain of Franconia t) . 17 Feb. „ 

Edith, steamer, sunk by collision with the Duchess 
of Sutherland (both owned by the London and 
North Western Railway Company) off St. John's 
Point, Ireland ; 2 lives lost. . . 8 Sept. „ 

Shannon, mail steamer ; struck on a shoal, 80 miles 
S.S.W. of Port Royal, Jamaica ; no lives lost, 

8 Sept. „ 

Western Empire, in Gulf of Mexico ; a leak sprung, 
13 Sept. ; vessel left (10 lost) . . 18 Sept. ,, 

Great Queensland, with impure patent gunpowder, 
and ordinary gunpowder ; 569 persons on board ; 
sailed for Melbourne, 5 Aug. ; supposed to have 
exploded (pieces of wreck found), near Finisterre 

after 12 Aug. ,, 
[Verdict of wreck commission against owners, 
21 July, 1877.] 

St. Lawrence, troop-ship, capt. Hyde ; ran aground 
in St. Helena's bay, Africa ; no loss of life 8 Nov. ,, 

Ambassador, steamer ; sunk by collision with an 
American ship, George Manson, returning from 
Calcutta; lat. 58° 6' N., Ion. 73 27' E. ; 23 lost 
(crew, 43) 25 Dec. ,, 

Cairo, iron ship ; bound for Australia ; carried 
much gunpowder ; (said to have been wrecked 
off Tristan or Gough island) ; disappeared about 
middle of Jan. 1877 

Cashmere, steamer (British India Steam Navigation 
company) ; wrecked off Guardaf ui ; 7 drowned 

12 July, „ 

Eten, steam ship (Euglish Pacific Steam Navigation 
company) ; wrecked about 70 miles N. of Valpa- 
raiso ; about 100 (of 160) lost ; many rescued by 
H.M.S. Amethyst .... 15 July, ,, 

Avalanche, emigrant iron vessel ; from London to 
New Zealand ; above 100 on board ; struck by 
Forest (of Windsor, Nova Scotia), 21 crew ; both 
sank ; about 12 lives saved; in channel, 15 miles 
S. by W. of Portland, 9.15 p.m. . 11 Sept. „ 

Many losses by severe gale . . 14, 15 Oct. „ 



* Deutschland, fine Atlantic steamer, from Bremen to 
New York, during a gale, went on sandbank, the Kentish 
Knock, at mouth of the Thames ; about 70 lost (many 
emigrants), 6 Dec. 1875. The Liverpool, tug steamer, 
saved a great many lives ; on investigation, it was shown 
that there had been no delay in helping, and no robbery, 
31 Dec. The captain censured for error in navigation, 
and want of judgment. 

t Verdict quashed on appeal ; 7 judges (against 6), 
decide against British jurisdiction, 13 Nov. 1876. 



WKECKS. 



1083 



WRECKS. 



Knapton Hall, steamer ; sank through collision with 
Lochfyne, to whose assistance she was coming ; 9 

perish 15 Oct. 1877 

Atacama, steamer ; wrecked 22 miles S. of Caldera, 

near Copiapo ; about 104 lost . end of Nov. „ 
European, Clyde steamer, from Algoa Bay ; wrecked 

off Ushant ; diamonds, &c, lost ; no lives 5 Dec. „ 
Mizpah, steamer ; sunk by collision with unknown 
vessel, 15 miles S. W. of Beachy Head ; above 6 

lost ; early 6 Dec. „ 

C. M. Palmer, steamer, of Newcastle ; lost by colli- 
sion with Ludworth steamer, near Harwich ; about 
14 lives lost ; fog, 10 a.m.. . . 17 Feb. 1878 

Eurydice, H.M.S., frigate ; training ship ; returning 
from Bermudas ; founders off Dunnose headland, 
near Ventnor, Isle of Wight ; through a squall ; 
capt. A. S. Hare, lieut. Tabor, and about 300 men 

perish 24 March, „ 

[Raised with much skill and labour, and taken 
into Portsmouth, Aug.] 
Childivall Hall, Hull steamer ; wrecked near Cape 

St. Vincent, Portugal ; about 14 lost 11 April,* ,, 
Princess Alice (which see), run into by the screw 
steamer, Bywell Castle, in the Thames, near Wool- 
wich, and sunk; between 600 and 700 lost; 

about 7.40 p.m 3 Sept. ,, 

Fanny, coastguard cruiser ; run down by National 
steamer Helvetia, off Tuskar, Irish channel ; 17 

lost 31 Oct. ,, 

Much damage and loss of life by gales "8-io Nov.t ,, 
Mesopotamia, steamer, run ashore at Peniche, coast 

of Portugal; 8 perished . . . 18 Dec. J ,, 
Ava, British India Navigation Steam Company 
steamer, sank by collision with sailing ship Brun- 
hilda, in the Bay of Bengal ; capt. Dickenson 
and about 70 perish ... 24 April, § 1879 
City of London, Aberdeen steamer ; run down and 
sunk by the Vesta,, in the Thames, near Barking 
Reach ; no lives lost .... 13 Aug. ,, 
Borussia, a Dominion steamer, left Liverpool 20 
Nov. ; sprang a leak in the Atlantic after leaving 
Corunna, 1 Dec. ; went down ; about 160 lost ; 
10 out of 184 saved by boats ... 2 Dec. „ 
Valentine foundered in a gale near Falmouth ; 

about 16 lost 8 Feb. 1880 

Many wrecks in the North Atlantic during terrific 

gale (see Atalanta) .... 12-16 Feb. „ 
Strathnairn, of Dundee : collision with Edith 

Hough, steamer, off Ushant ; all lost 13 Feb. ,, 
Hindoo, steamer, from New York ; loaded with 
grain, which shifted ; abandoned ; three officers 
lost and much cattle . . . .22 Feb. „ 
Vingorla, steamer ; sprang a leak 70 miles N. of 
Bombay ; captain and 65 persons perish : an- 
nounced 1 March, ,, 

Barita, British steamer, sunk in a fog by collision 
with an Australian mail steamer near Galatz ; 16 

perish .9 April, „ 

American, steamer (Union Steamship Company), 
capt. Maclean Wait, foundered off Cape Palmas ; 
all passengers and crew escaped in boats : (picked 
up by vessels, and carried to Madeira, St. Paul 
de Loanda, the Canaries, &c.) . . 23 April, „ 
Hydaspes, sailing ship ; sank by collision with Cen- 
turion, screw steamer, off Dungeness, in a fog; 
both blamed ; no lives lost . . 17 July,|| ,, 
James Harris, steamer, loaded with iron ; sunk by 
collision with the Andalusia, steamer, off the 
Feme isles 14 April,! 1881 

* The German ironclad, Grosser Kurfilrst, sunk by 
collision with Kbnig Wilhclm ; about 300 lost, 31 May, 
1878. 

t Pnmcrania, Hamburg-American mail steamer, sunk 
off Folkestone, by Mod Eilian, iron bark, of Carnarvon ; 
162 saved by boats ; about 48 missing ; a little after 
midnight, 25 Nov., 1878. 

J French steamer, Byzantin, sunk (losing above 200 
lives) by collision with English steamer, Rinaldo, in Dar- 
danelles, during a fearful gale, 18 Dec. 1878. 

§ Arrogante, French ironclad battery, sank off Ilireres 
isles : 47 drowned ; 19 March, 1879. 

|| Vera Cruz, U.S. steamer ; foundered through hurri- 
cane in N. Atlantic, 30 miles from shore ; 11 out of 82 
saved ; 4 Sept. 1880. 

IT Oncle Joseph, French steamer, sunk by collision with 
Ortigia, Italian steamer, oil' tpczzia ; about 50 out of 300 
saved; 24 Nov. 1880. 



H.M.S. Doterel destroyed by explosion in the 

Straits of Magellan (see Navy) . . 26 April, 1881 
Victoria, steamer, on the Thames, Canada ; over- 
loaded : upset; several hundreds drowned ; be- 
tween 600 and 700 on board . . 24 May, ,, 
Ten fishing boats sunk off the Shetland isles in a 

storm ; about 58 lives lost . . . 20 July, , r 
Teuton, Union Company's mail screw steamer, struck 
onarock near Cape Agulhas, Cape of Good Hope; 
and foundered a few hours after ; of above 200 
persons, not many saved; capt. E. Manning 
and most of the officers lost . . 30 Aug. , T 

[Inquiry : attributed to the captain's Imprudent 

navigation I9 Sept.] „. 

Govino, British steamer ; about 13 perished, 7 Oct. , r 
130 wrecks (105 British) with great loss of life and 

property by the gales . . . 10-15 Oct. „ 
Corsica, steamer ; stranded near mouth of the 

Tagus ; 21 deaths 11 Oct. ,„ 

[The captain exonerated, 8 Nov.] 
Cyprian, iron steamer, lost in Carnarvon bay; capt. 
Strachan and another drowned . . 14 Oct. ,, 

, Glasgow steamer, wrecked in the Irish sea ; 

many lost .... about 20-22 Oct. ,„ 
Clan Macduff, steamer, capt. Webster ; foundered 
off the Irish coast (over-loaded) 32 lives lost 
[captain censured] .... 21 Oct. ,, 

Albion, steamer, wrecked on the Atlantic coast of 

Columbia ; 32 lost 5 Nor. ,„ 

Crown, British steamer, stranded near Jutland ; 

7 drowned 15 Nov. ,, 

Solway, channel steamer, capt. W. Fry ; during ,-f 
storm off the Skerries ; greatly burned through 
ignition of naphtha oil flooding the decks 
through bursting of casks, abotit 14 burned, and 
5 drowned (the steamer got back to Kingston 
harbour) ; officers exonerated from blame 

16 Nov. ,, 
Culzean, iron steamer ; capt. Pirnie, while being 
towed to be repaired during a gale, stranded on 
rocks in the sound of Java; crew of 17 lost 

22 Nov. (> 
Many wrecks with loss of life and property during 

a gale 26-27 Nov. „ 

Kildare, barque, stranded off Aberdeen coast in 

gale Dec. ,, 

Helcnslea, barque, collision with Catalonia, Cunard 

steamer ; 9 of the crew lost . . 25 Dec. ,, 

Lanarkshire, screw steamer, stranded off Codling 

Bank, Wicklow ; some of the crew lost 15 Jan. 1882 
Bahama, steamer, foundered between Porto Rico 

and New York ; 20 lives lost . . .4 Feb. ,, 
Kosmos, steamer, sank oil Kilia ; captain and 20 of 

crew drowned Feb. ,, 

Livadia, steamer, from Shields, sunk off Yarmouth ; 

23 lives lost 28 Feb. ,„ 

Douro, royal mail steamer ; collision with Spanish 
steamer, Yurrac Bal, both sunk ; about 23 Eng- 
lish and 36 Spanish lost, about n p.m. (captain 
of Douro blamed) . . . . 1 April, , t 
Novara, ship; on voyage from Newcastle to San 

Francisco, burned ; 19 missing . . 13 April, ,, 
Alexandroonoe, Liverpool ship, wrecked orl Swan- 
age; crew all lost . . . early in May, , r 
Pera, iron steamer ; foundered 30 miles S.W. Cape 

Race ; about 10 men lost . . . 10 June, ,,. 
Escambia, British screw steamer, wrecked nt Es- 
cambia, near San Francisco ; crew (about 20) 
lost, announced .... 20 June, rr 

Alice, steam-tug, wrecked on Bondecao rocks, Nor- 
thumberland ; 16 lives lost . . 29 June, ,, 
Flcurcs Castle, steamer, run aground, near Cape 

Guardafui, N.E. Africa; several perished, 9 July, ,, 
Ethiopia, African mail steamer, run mi a reef 28 July, ,,. 
Armenian, Liverpool steamer, lust in the Baltic ; 

crew about 23 perish, announced . . 23 Aug. ,,. 
Panama, Glasgow iron ship, foundered off Yar- 
mouth ; about 20 perish, announced 9 Sept. ,,. 
Constantia and City of Antwerp, steamers, sunk by 
collision off the Eddvstone ; about 14 lives lost 

16 Oct, ,, 
Winton, lost off Ushant : 24 perish . 16 Nov. ,, 
Wearmouth, steamer, lost off Magdalen Island 

21 Nov. ,, 



* Asia, N.W. transit service steamer, foundered be- 
tween Ontario and Saule Sainte Marie; about 9S lost> 
14 Sept. 1882. 



WEECKS. 



1084 



WEECKS. 



Cambronne, steamer, sunk by collision with Marion, 

near Lundy 26 Nov. 

St. George, steamer ; lost off Portreath, Cornish 

coast ; 11 perish 29 Nov. 

■Cedar Grove, steamer, lost off Cape Canto, Nova 

Scotia ; 17 persons missing . about 30 Nov. 
Many wrecks, with loss ol life . . . Dec. 
Langrigg Hall, barque, wrecked off Wexford ; 

24 deaths 15 Dec. 

35 wrecks during a storm off Newfoundland 

about 19 Dec. 
British Empire, ship, burnt off Alleppo ; several 

persons perish 5 Jan. 

City of Brussels, sunk by collision with the Kirby 

Hall, in the Mersey ; 10 drowned . . 7 Jan.* 
Kenmure Castle, steamer, wrecked in Bay of Biscay ; 

30 drowned about 1 Feb. 

King Arthur, Hull steamer, sunk near the mouth 

of the Bosphorus ; 14 lost ... 22 Feb. 
Wrecks through gales in North sea, 382 lives lost, 

6 March, 
Navarre, Scotch steamer ; sunk near Christian sand ; 

about 45 lost 7 March, 

Dunstaffnage, Liverpool ship, wrecked off Aber- 
deen ; 23 perished .... 17 March, 
Wykeham, steamer, of Whitby, foundered near 

Lisbon ; 22 drowned ; sailed from Cardiff March, 
British Commerce, sunk by collision with County of 

Aberdeen, off Selsey Bill ; 25 perish . 24 April, 
Grappler burnt near Bute Inlet (Vancouver Island) 

about 70 perish .... about 3 May, 
H.M.S. Lively stranded on rocks off Stornoway 

7 June, 
[Commander Parr dismissed, 28 June.] 
Waitara, sunk by collision with Hurunui (New 

Zealand Steamship Co.,) off Beachy Head ; 25 

perish 22 June, 

Daphne, coasting steamer, heeled over, during 

launch in the Clyde ; about 124 drowned 3 July, 
79 wrecks on British coasts reported through 

violent gale . .... 1-2 Sept. 

Holyhead, L. & N. W. railway's cattle steamer and 

German barque, Alhambra, sailing vessel, sunk 

by collision between Dublin and Holyhead ; 

15 deaths ; midnight . . . .31 Oct. 
Iris, sunk off Cape Villano ; about 35 perish ; an- 
nounced .8 Nov. 

Auk, Liverpool steamer, at South Henden ; 22 lives 
lost u Dec. 

Simla, wrecked by collision with the City of Luck- 
now, both Glasgow Australian sailers, near the 
Needles, English channel; about 20 perish ; 3 p.m. 

25 Jan. 1! 

Very many wrecks .... 23-27 Jan. 

Nokomis, barque, struck on Black Rock, Antrim ; 

16 perish 26 Jan. 

Juno, iron ship, stranded in the Mersey by a gale ; 

the crew (30) perish . . . . 26, 27 Jan. 

State of Florida, Glasgow steamer, and Ponema, 
barque, sunk by collision in mid-ocean off Canada 
coast ; about 123 perish . . . 18 April,! 

Zaa*am(capt. Lothian), English steamer, and Gijon, 
Cuban steamer, sunk by collision in a fog off 
Cape Finisterre ; about 130 perish ; many picked 
up by Santo Domingo . . night, 21 July, 

Dione, steamer, sunk by collision with Camden, 
steamer, near Gravesend ; about 17 drowned ; 
soon after midnight . . . -2-3 Aug. 
{capt. of the Dione punished for reckless navi- 
gation, Aug.] 

Wasp, H.M. gun-boat (see under Navy). 

Little Beck, stranded near the mouth of the Maas ; 
14 drowned ,_ 26 Oct 

Indus, P & O. company's steamer wrecked on coast 
of Ceylon 8 Nov. 



* Civibria, Hamburg steamer, sunk by collision with 
English steamer, Sultan, off coast of Holland ; about 
454 perish, 19 Jan. 1883. 

t City of Columbus, U.S. passenger ship ; ran on reef 
coast of Massachusetts ; 29 lives saved ; about 97 perish: 
alleged negligence; 18 Jan. 1884. 

t Daniel Steinmann, White Cross steamer, struck on 
rock off Sanibro' Isle, Nova Scotia ; about 120 perish 
about 3 April, 1884. 

Senorine, French brig, wrecked off Great Bank, 
Newfoundland ; about 62 perish, 6 May, 1884. 



Durango, screw steamer, run down by Luke Bruce, 
iron barque, in the English channel ; 20 lives lost 

27 Nov. 1 

Pochard, steamer, foundered off Holyhead ; crew 
lost 7 Dec. 

Mignonette, yacht ; sailed from Southampton to 
Australia, 19 May ; foundered in a storm about 
1600 miles from the Cape ; 3 men and a boy 
escaped in a boat, without provisions, 5 July ; 
proposed killing of one by lot rejected by- 
Brooks, boy (Richard Parker) killed by captain, 
and eaten, 20th day, at seq. ; men picked up by 
German barque, Montezuma, 24th day, and 
carried to Falmouth ; capt. Thos. Dudley, and 
Edwin Stephens, mate, tried for murder at 
Exeter ; facts affirmed, 6 Nov. ; affirmed by lord 
chief justice and other judges in Queen's bench, 
4 Dec. ; sentence of death passed, 9 Dec. ; 
reprieved, 6 months' imprisonment without 
labour 13 Dec. , 

Admiral Moorsom, L. and N. W. R's steamer, sunk 
near Holyhead by collision with Santa Clara 
(American) ; capt. Weeks, and about 4 perish 

15 Jan. 1! 

Cheerful, Liverpool steamer, collision with H.M.S. 
Hecla in the Bristol channel, 13 lives lost in a 
fog, 4 a. m 21 July, 

Yarra Yarra, Liverpool barque, 27 lives lost, 
announced 11 Sept. 

Dolphin, steamer (Gen. Nav. St. Co.), sunk by 
collision with the Brenda, eight perish, 18 Sept. 

Merchantman, on Sand Heads ; about 70 lives lost, 

Sept. 

Albula, British ship, wrecked during typhoon off 
Loochoo islands, 10 perish ... 14 Oct. 

Algoma, Canadian steamer, foundered in lake 
Superior ; 45 lives lost .... 7 Kov. 

Corinth, Union line steamer, sunk by collision 
with H.M.S. Firebrand . . . March, 1 

Oregon, Cunard steamer, foundered (without loss of 
life), by collision with an unknown schooner 
near Long Island in America ; schooner sunk with 
all on board 14 March, 

Ly-ee-Moon, an iron steamer, Australasian steam 
navigation company, wrecked off Green Cape, 
between Melbourne and Sydney ; 76 persons 
drowned 30 March, 

Ferntower, British steamer, foundered near Saigon ; 
about 50 lives lost .... 26 Aug. 

Malleny, Liverpool iron steamer, foundered on the 
Tuskar reef, Bristol channel ; all hands lost in 
the gale (about 20) . . . . 15 Oct. 

Many vessels lost, many injured, and great loss of 
life during a severe gale . . 14-16 Oct. 

Teviotdale, steamer of Glasgow, lost on the Carmar- 
then coast; 18 lives lost . . . 15 Oct. 

Keilawarra and Helen Nicholl collision (42 lives 
lost) off the coast of Queensland ; announced 

9 Dec. 

Sultan, British ironclad, and Ville de Victoria, 
French steamer, collision in Lisbon harbour ; 
the latter vessel sunk ; 35 lives lost . 23 Dec. 

Kapunda, emigrant ship for Australia, said to have 
foundered by collision with Ada Melmore off 
Brazil ; about 298 perish, 3 a.m. 20 Jan. ; officers 
of the A da Melmore censured . . 29 March, ii 

Victoria, London & Brighton company's steamer, 
during fog struck on rock at Point D' Ailly ; no 
fog horn sounded, about 16 lives lost out of 
90 passengers through panic and recklessness ; 
the rest saved by skill and courage of the captain 
and officers 13 April, 

Tasmania, P. & O. steamer wrecked on Monachi 
rocks, Corsica ; 23 lives lost including captain 
Perrin 17 April, 

Volta, Eastern Telegraph company's steamer, 
wrecked off' Myconos, Greece ; 12 lives lost, 

18 April, 

Benton, steamer, of Singapore, foundered, with 
collision ; about 150 lives lost, announced 

28 April, 

Destruction of a Pearl fishing fleet, N. E. coast of 
Australia, with a loss of 550 lives, in a hurricane 
on 22 April ; reported ... 28 April, 

John Knox, British steamer, wrecked at St. John's ; 
27 lost 4 May, 

City of ^Montreal (cotton ship), Inman steamer, 



WEECKS. 



1085 



WEECKS. 



burnt 400 miles off Newfoundland on her way 
from New York to Liverpool . . 10 Aug. 1887 
Monarch, pleasure yacht, founders near Ilfracombe ; 

11 lives lost 26 Aug. ,, 

Falls of Bruar, of Glasgow, sunk off Yarmouth ; 

24 lives lost 2 Sept. ,, 

Lydia, British schooner, lost in a hurricane in 

the North Atlantic ; 15 lives lost . Sept* ,, 
Lanoma, iron barque, wrecked near Weymouth ; 

12 lives lost 8 March, 1888 

City of Corinth sunk by collision with Tasmania 

near Dungeness .... 9 March, ,, 

Smyrna, sailing vessel, loses 12 men by collision 

with the Moto, steamer, off Dorset coast, 

28 April, ,, 
Trevelyan, emigrant ship, sunk off Cape Agulhas, 

all on board lost ... .3 June, „ 

Star of Greece wrecked in Aldinga Bay, near 

Adelaide; 17 lives lost . . . i3July,t „ 
Earl of Wemyss and Ardencaple, Glasgow barques, 

collision, 16 lives lost .... 8 Sept. ,, 
Collision between La France (French) and Sud 

America (Italian) off the Canary Islands ; about 

87 lives lost 13 Sept. „ 

Collision between Glasgow steamer Neptune and 

Russian steamer Archangel at Christiania ; 18 

lives lost 19 Oct. ,, 

Nor, Norwegian barque, and Saxmundham, steamer 

from the Tyne ; collision ; 12 lives lost, 4 Nov. ,, 
Steamer Hartlepool wrecked on a rock at Naalevig ; 

17 lives lost 6 Dec.t ,, 

British steamer, The Priam, wrecked near Cape 

Finisterre ; about five lives lost . 12 Jan. 1889 

Nereid, steamer, of Newcastle, collision with the 

Scotch ship Killochan off Dungeness ; 23 lives 

lost 3 Feb. „ 

Collision of the Largo Bay with steamer Glencoe 

which founders off Beachy Head ; all hands lost, 

4 Feb. „ 
Wreck of the Grimsby fishing fleet ; 73 lives lost, 

9 Feb.§ „ 
German and American war vessels wrecked off 

Samoa (see Storms) . . . 16 March, || ,, 
Cotopaxi, Pacific steamer, struck on unknown reef, 

Smyth's channel, straits of Magellan, and 

foundered ; no lives lost . . . 15 April, ,, 
Altimore, British steamer, struck on rocks off 

Fiji islands ; about 12 persons drowned 

22 April, ,, 
The German Emperor, screw steamer, ran into the 

Beresford, anchored off Dover, in a fog, and sank ; 

nine missing 21 May, ,, 

Gettysburg, barque, of Aberdeen, wrecked on a coral 

reef off' Morant Cayes, 33 miles from Jamaica, 

with a crew of 16 hands, 30 March-i April ; 

by very great exertions, the captain and part of 

the crew succeeded in getting on the desolate 

isle, where they stayed, living on shell-fish, &c. 

On 22 April two men on a raft started for 

* W. A. Scholten, Dutch steamer, sunk by collision 
with Rosa Mary of Hartlepool, at anchor off Dover ; 
about 130 persons perish, many saved by the crew of 
the Ebro of Sunderland. 19 Nov. 1887. 

Alfred D. Snow, American vessel, wrecked off Water- 
ford ; 28 perish, 4 Jan. 1888. 

t Collision between Thingvalla and Geiser, German 
teamers, off Sable Island, N. Atlantic ; 105 lives in the 
Geiser, lost 14 Aug. 1888. 

I John Hanna, steamer, laden with cotton, burnt on 
the Mississippi ; about 20 persons perish, 24 Dec. 1888. 

§ The Comtcsse de Flandre cut in half by collision with 
the Princess Henrictte, both Belgian mail boats ; the 
captain and 14 others killed, prince Napoleon Bonaparte 
escapes; about 1-45 p.m. 20 March, 1889. 

|| Danmark, Danish emigrant vessel sank in the Atlantic 
about 800 miles from Newfoundland; captain Murrell 
of the Missouri, Atlantic transport line, and his crew, 
with great energy rescued all on board (735), 6 April, 
1889. 

[He landed part on the Azores and part ill Phila- 
delphia.] 

At the Mansion House, on 24 May, 1889, captain 
Murrell, in the presence of distinguished company, 
received from the lord mayor a silver salver with 
an inscription, and a purse of money (about ynl.) from 
the citizens of London ; the officers and crew also 
received testimonials. 



Jamaica and landed seven miles from Morant 
Bay, 24 April. On their reaching Kingston, 
H.M.S. Forward was sent off, and brought the 
captain and the rest of the crew to Kingston, 
27 April, whence they were conveyed to England' 
having lost seven of their number, where they 

T arrived l8 May, 1880 

Isaac Hoiiston, British schooner, foundered in a 
storm off Milwaukee ; 16 lives lost ; reported 

14 June 

The Papel steamer wrecked on Huamblin island, 
S. American coast ; n men drowned, reported, 

,-, 2 Aug. , „ 

Earnmore, Newcastle steamer, foundered in a 
cyclone off the Bahamas ; the crew entered two 
boats, the captain, with 18 men, not heard of 
since— the first mate and 6 men nearly starvin", 
were picked up and landed at Nassau, near 
Providence, 30 Sept 5 Sept. 

H.M.S. Lilly wrecked off Labrador coast (see Navy), ' 

16 Sept. ,, 

The Florence, screw steamer, foundered off Calf of 
Man, 10 lives lost. . . . about 17 Sept. 

Minnie Swift, a Nova Scotian sailing ship, sunk 
by collision with the Geographique, off St. Pierre, 
France, 15 persons drowned . . 20 Oct. 

Santiago, British screw steamer, on her way from 
New York to Hull, burnt; all hands saved by 
A. J. Fuller 2 g Nov. 

Cleddy, steamer, sank after collision with Isle of 
Cyprus, steamer, off St. Catherine's, about 13 
lives lost 20 Dec. 

Ovington, steamer, sunk by collision with Queen 
Victoria, near Greenock, six lives lost . 29 Dec. ,, 

Loch Moidart, British iron ship, run ashore at 
Callandzoog, near Dieppe ; 30 lives lost, reported, 

27 Jan. 1890 
[See Storms in Jan. 1890.] 

Highgate, steamer, and Sovereign, ship, both sunk 
by collision off Lundy Island, 12 lives lost 

19 Feb. ,,. 

Quetta, Queensland liner, struck on unknown rock, 
off cape York, Torres strait, and sank ; about 
133 lives lost out of 282 ; captain exonerated, 

28 Feb. ,, 
Virent, steamer, wrecked off Ferrol, 15 lives lost, 

about 22 March, ,, 

Ethel Gwendoline, steamer, foundered off Battray- 
head, Aberdeenshire ; 7 men drowned 21 March, ,, 

City of Paris, Inman Atlantic steamer, with above 
680 passengers and 370 crew, left New York, 19 
March, and was due at Queenstown, 26 March ; 
on 25 March, about 5.45 p.m., the starboard en- 
gine broke down ; the inflow of water stopped 
the other engine, and eventually the vessel was 
without machinery or sailing apparatus, a help- 
less log; a lifeboat was launched on 27 March, 
help arrived on 28 March, and without losing a 
single life, the vessel was towed into Queenstown 

29 Marcl , , T 

Dacca, British India company's steamer, foundered 
on a reef of rocks 400 miles from Suez ; passen- 
gers, mostly emigrants to Queensland, got on to 
the reef, the officers and crew remained on board, 
were saved by the Bosario steamer ; the Palam- 
cotta took those on the reef to Suez 

16 May et scq. ,, 
[The disaster attributed to the unskilful "naviga- 
tion of the chief officer, 30 June.] 

Gulf of Aden, steamer, foundered on the way from 
Liverpool to Valparaiso ; 73 lives lost . 12 May, ,, 

*Ethel, barque, bound for Brisbane, sunk in the 
Channel near Portland, by collision with the 
Umbilo, screw steamer ; 4 lives lost . 25 June, ,, 

The fishing fleets on the north and west coasts of 
Scotland suffered much by disasters; about 6n 
persons perished, reported . . . 28 June, ,, 

Egypt, Atlantic liner, of Liverpool, left New York 
10 July ; burnt at sea, 17, 18 July ; all hands (95) 

* Prima Frederik, Dutch mail steamer, outward bound 
for Java with troops and specie, sunk by collision with 

the Marpessa, British steamer, in a dense fog in llie 

Channel. Great order maintained on the Prims Frederik', 
only 7 Dutch soldiers perished, out of the 170 persons 
on board, 25 June ; the Marpessa, much injured, got to 
Falmouth, 27 June, 1890. 



WRECKS. 



1086 



WREXHAM. 



saved by the Gustav Oscar ; carried to Dover by 

the Manhattan 24 July, 

Halcyon, British steamer, sunk by collision with 
Rheubina, off coast of Spain ; 13 lives lost, re- 
ported * 11 Aug. 

The Portacnse, Liverpool steamer, founders during a 

cyclone, 250 miles from Barbadoes, the captain 

and most of the crew drowned . . 28 Aug. 

The Melmerby, Liverpool barque, wrecked off Roys 

Island ; 15 men in the long boat drowned 5 Oct.t 

H.M.S. Serpent, cruiser, wrecked off the coast of 

Corunna ; about 173 lives lost (see Navy) 11 Nov. 

Calypso, Bristol screw steamer, sunk by collision 

with the Pinzon, Spanish steamer, off Folkestone, 

24 Nov. 
Uppingham, Cardiff steamer, bound for China 
struck on a rock below Hartland Quay, Corn- 
wall ; about 7 men drowned . . 23 Nov. 
Westbourne, Hull steamer, wrecked off Theodosia, 
Black Sea ; 18 lives lost ... 24 Nov. 
Talookdar, British steel ship, sunk by collision 
with the Libussa, German ship, between the Cape 
de Verde and Cape Rocque ; 22 lives lost 13 Dec. 
■Shanghai, China Navigation Co.'s steamship (capt. 
Martin) near Ching Kiang, burnt ; nearly 300 
lives said to be lost .... 25 Dec. 
Sear, steamer, sunk by collision off St. Abb's Head, 

Firth of Forth ; 13 men drowned . 11 Jan. ] 
Chiswick, London steamer, struck on a reef off 
Scilly ; n out of 19 men drowned . . 5 Feb. 
The Queen, British barque, sunk by collision with 
the Ipsvjich, between Antwerp and Cardiff; the 
captain and 6 men drowned . 5 a.m. 21 Feb. 
Bay of Panama, steel ship, from Calcutta, for Dun- 
dee (about 27 lives lost) ; Marana, iron steamer 
(about 22 lives lost), and about 13 other vessels 
(about 40 persons drowned) all wrecked off the 
Falmouth coast, during the great snowstorm, 

g, 10 March, 
The Utopia, British steamer, capt. M'Keague, con- 
veying 830 Italian emigrants, with 50 crew, from 
Naples to New York, sunk during a gale by col- 
lision with H.M.S. ironclad Anson, at anchor in 
the Bay of Gibraltar ; about 538 passengers and 
■26 of the crew drowned. Heroic exertions were 
promptly made by the crews of all the ships in 
the harbour, to save life ; of these, two brave 
men of the Immortalite, James Croton and George 
Hales, were drowned, 7 p.m. 17 March ; above 
i,i5oZ. (Italian government, 200L) subscribed for 
the relief of the survivors . . . March, 
The marine court censures capt. M'Keague for 
grave error of judgment, . . 25 March, 
[The Utopia was raised under the direction of Mr. 
Armit, 8 July, 1891.] 
Strathairly, British steamer, wrecked off the coast 
of North Carolina ; 19 lives lost, reported, 

26 March, 
Chapman, missionary schooner, wrecked off the 
coast of Tahiti ; 16 persons drowned, reported, 

30 March, 
Glamorgan, steamer, sunk by collision with P. 
Calami, Dutch American steamer, in mid- 
channel, between Dover and Folkestone, 

15 April, 
.St. Catharis, steamer, wrecked off the Caroline 
Islands, reported ; 90 persons drowned . April, 
Lcstris and Mersey, two steamers, sunk by collision 
in the Mersey ; several lives lost . 23 May, 
Dunholme, steamer, of W. Hartlepool, sunk by 
collision with the Glasgow steamer Kinloch, near 
Dover ; 17 lives lost . . 2.30 a.m. 7 July, 
Gambler, screw-steamer, sunk by collision with 
the Easby in Port Phillip Bay, Melbourne ; 
about 21 lives lost .... 28 Aug. 
Dunmurry, British steamer, sunk during a hurri- 
cane, 250 miles from Halifax, Nova Scotia ; 8 
lives lost about 1 Sept. J 



* Ertogrul, Turkish government cruiser, and the 
Musasha Marv, Japanese mail steamer (crews lost), 
founder in Japanese waters during a heavy gale (see 
Turkey and Japan), 18 Sept. 1890. 

t Collision of the Spanish steamer Vlzcaya with the 
Cornelius Margraves, schooner, off New Jersey ; both 
vessels sunk ; the captain and about 60 persons of the 
Vlzcaya drowned, 30 Oct. 1890. 

t The Taormina, Italian mail steamer, sunk by colli- I 



Wol.vUtone, steamer, left Bristol for New York, 11 
Sept. ; disabled by a gale, crew takes to life 
boats, 22 Sept. ; 9 men rescued, the captain and 

11 men missing 15 Oct. 

30 vessels wrecked off the coast of Labrador, and 
about 50 lives lost during a gale, reported, 

23 Oct. 

Charlunod, barque, sunk by collision with the 

Boston, near the Eddystone lighthouse ; 15 lives 

lost 4 a.m. 26 Oct. 

Moselle, royal mail steamer, struck on a reef, 10 
miles from Colon ; totally wrecked, only the 

captain drowned 28 Oct. 

Parsie, schooner, coming from Funck island, 
wrecked on a reef ; 7 lives lost, reported 6 Nov. 
Enterprise, Indian marine steamer, founders off 
Port Blair, Andaman islands, during a cyclone ; 
about 70 lives lost, 6 saved ... 2 Nov. 
Benvenue, full-rigged ship, bound for Sydney, 
wrecked off Sandgate ; 27 persons suspended in 
the rigging for 16 hours, were saved with great 
difficulty by the Sandgate lifeboat, and taken to 
Folkestone ; capt. James Moddrel and 4 men 

drowned n Nov. „ 

Many wrecks during gales . . 10 Nov. et seq. ,, 
Enterkin, steel sailing ship sunk off Ramsgate, 
near Galloper sands, during a gale ; about 27 

lives lost 11 Dec. „ 

Abyssinia, Guion screw-steamer, burnt, 5 days out 
from New York ; the passengers and crew rescued 
by the Spree . . . . . 18 Dec. ,, 
Childwall, barque, sunk by collision with Noord- 
lani, steamer, off Flushing : 15 men drowned, 

2 Jan. 1892 
Namchoia, a British steamer, foundered off Cupchi 

Point, China ; about 509 lives lost about 14 Jan.* „ 
Forest Queen, steamer, sunk by collision with the 
Loughborough, steamer, near Flamborough Head; 
about 14 lives lost .... 24 Feb. „ 
County of Salop, steamer, stranded in Wideniouth 
Bay, Cornwall ; the 30 persons on board saved 
by the Bude Rocket Brigade . . 10 March, ,, 
Walmer Castle, Deal lugger, foundered near the 
Isle of Wight during a gale ; 7 men drowned, 

15 March, ,, 
Earl of Aberdeen, barque, wrecked on tire Pem- 
brokeshire coast ; 16 lives lost . . 15 May, ,, 
Petroled, British petroleum steamer, blown up in 

Blaye harbour, near Bordeaux ; 18 deaths, 14 June, „ 
City of Chicago, Inman Atlantic liner, run ashore 
near Old Head of Kinsale, during a fog ; pas- 
sengers, &c, landed, 1 July; totally wrecked, 7 
July ; Mr. Arthur Redford, the master's certifi- 
cate suspended for 9 mouths . . 21 July, ,, 
Peter Stuart, British ship, struck on a rock near 

Yarmouth, Nova Scotia ; 14 deaths . 4 July, „ 
Ajax, steamer, sunk by collision with Rundeberg, 

steamer ; 35 deaths .... 9 Aug. „ 
Thracia, barque, capsized near Port Erin, Isle of 

Man; 17 lives lost 14 Aug. ,, 

Anglia, Anchor Line steamer, capsized near the 
mouth of the Hoogly ; 12 lives lost . 24 Aug. ,, 
.WRECK COMMISSION, a new court esta- 
blished to inquire into the causes of shipwrecks ; 
first sat, 30 Oct. 1876, Mr. H. C. Rothery, presi- 
dent. 

WREXHAM, S. E. Denbighshire, the Saxon 
Wrightesham, given to earl Warren by Edward T. ; 
made a borough by the reform act, 1832. An ex- 
hibition of art treasures of North Wales, and the 
border counties, was opened here by the duke of 
Westminster, 22 July, 1876. Musical festival here 

sion with the Greek steamer Thessalia, off Cape Sunium ; 
about 60 lives lost, 2 a.m. 12 Sept. 1891. 

* Eider, German iron-screw steamer, six-masted (North 
German Lloyd's), from New York to Bremen, struck on 
rocks near the Isle of Wight during a fog, 31 Jan ; capt. 
Heineke, crew 166, and 227 passengers, together with the 
mails, bars of silver, and other parts of the cargo saved 
by the great exertions of the lifeboats, 1-3 Feb. ; the 
Eider lifted off the rocks about 7 March, and floated to 
Southampton, .29 March, 1892. 

The German emperor presented 200L to the Lifeboat 
Institution, and gold watches to some of the masters of 
lifeboats, April, 1852. 



WRITING. 



1087 



WYOMING. 



1883, et seq. Population, 1881, 10,978 ; 1891, 
12,552. 

WRITING- Pictures are considered to be the 
first essay towards writing. The most ancient re- 
mains of writing are upon hard substances, such as 
stones and metals, used by the ancients for edicts, 
and matters of public notoriety. Athotes, or 
Hermes, is said to have written a history of the 
Egyptians, and to have been the author of the 
hieroglyphics, 21 12 B.C. Usher. Writing is said to 
have been taught to the Latins by Europa, daughter 
of Agenor, king of Phoenicia, 1494 B.C. Thucydides. 
Cadmus, the founder of Cadmea, 1493 B.C., brought 
the Phoenician letters into Greece. Vossius. The 
commandments were written on two tables of stone, 
1491 B.C. Usher. The Greeks and Romans used 
wax table-books, and continued the use of them 
long after papyrus was known ; see Papyrus, 
Parchment, Paper. Thos. Astle's " History of 
Writing" was first published in 1784; Natalis de 
Wailly's " Elemens de Paleographie," 1838; see 
Diplomatics and Type- Writers.* 
The Palseographical Society was founded in 1873 ; Mr. 

Bireh, of the British Museum, president. 

WROXETER (in Shropshire), the Roman city 
Uriconium. Roman inscriptions, ruins, seals, and 
coins were found here in 1752. New discoveries 
having been made, a committee for further investi- 
gation met at Shrewsbury on 11 Nov. 1858. Exca- 
vations were commenced in Feb. 1859, which were 
continued till May. Large portions of the old town 
were discovered; also specimens of glass and pottery, 
personal ornaments and toys, household utensils and 
implements of trade, cinerary urns, and bones of 
man and of the smaller animals. A committee was 
formed in London in Aug. 1859, with the view of 
•continuing these investigations, which were re- 
sumed in 1861, through the liberality of the late 
Beriah Botfield, M.P. The investigations, stopped 
through want of funds, were resumed for a short 
time in 1867. Mr. Thomas Wi'ight published 
*' Uriconium " in 1872. 

WURSCHEN, see Bautzen. 

WUNTHO, see Burmah, 1891. 

WtJRTEMBERG, originally part of Swabia, 
was made a county for Ulric I., about 1265, and a 
duchy for Eberhard in 1494. The dukes were pro- 
testants until 1722, when the reigning prince became 
a Roman catholic. Wiirtemberg has been repeatedly 
traversed by arrnies, particularly since the great 
French revolution of 1793. Moreau made his cele- 
brated retreat, 23 Oct. 1796. The political consti- 
tution is dated 25 Sept. 1819. Wiirtemberg opposed 
Prussia in the war, June, 1866, but made peace, 
13 Aug. following ; in Oct. 1867, joined the Zoll- 
verein {which see), but sent a contingent to Prussia 
in the war, 1870. Population of Wiirtemberg in 
1871, 1,818,539; 1880, 1,971,118; 1885, 1,995,185; 
1890, 2,035,443. ' 

* " I would check the petty vanity of those who slight 
good penmanship, as below the notice of a scholar, by 
reminding them that Mr. Fox was distinguished by the 
clearness and firmness, Mr. Professor Porson by the cor- 
rectness and elegance, and sir William Jones by the ease 
find beauty of the characters they respectively employed." 
Dr. Parr. 



DUKES. 

1494. Eberhard I. 

1496. Eberhard II. 

1498. Ulric ; deprived of his states by the emperor 

Charles V. ; recovers them in 1534. 
1550. Christopher the Pacific. 
1568. Louis the Pious. 
1593. Frederic I. 
1608. John Frederic ; joined the protestants in the Thirty 

years' war. 
1628. Eberhard III. 
1674. William Louis. 
1677. Eberhard Louis ; served under William III. 

Ireland; and with the English armies on the 

continent. 
1733. Charles Alexander. 
1737. Charles Eugene. 

1793. Louis Eugene (joins in the war against France). 
1795. Frederic I., makes peace with France, 1796. 
1797. Frederic II. marries Charlotte, princess royal of 

England, 18 May; made elector of Germany, 

1803; acquired additional territories, and the 

title of king in 1805. 



1806. Frederic I. supplies a contingent to Napoleon's 
Bussian army ; yet joined the allies at Leipsic in 
1813. Died in 1816. 

1816. William I., 30 Oct. ; son ; born 27 Sept. 1781. He 
abolished serfdom in 1818 ; instituted represen- 
tative government in 1819; entered into a con- 
cordat with Rome in 1857 ; was the oldest living 
sovereign, 1862 ; died 25 June, 1864. 

1864. Charles I., son; born 6 March, 1823; married 
princess Olga of Russia, 13 July, 1846. No 
issue ; died 6 Oct. 1891. 

1891. William II., cousin ; born, 25 Feb. 1848; married, 
1. Marie, princess of Waldeck and Pyrmont, 15 
Feb. 1877; 2. Charlotte, princess of Schaumburg 
Lippe, 8 April, 1886; attempt on his life by 
Martin Miiller, lunatic anarchist, 20 Oct. 1889. 

WURZBURG (in Bavaria), was formerly a 
bishopric, and its sovereign one of the greatest 
ecclesiastic princes of the empire. It was given as 
a principality to the elector of Bavaria in 1803 ; and 
by the treaty of Prosburg, in 1805, was ceded to the 
archduke Ferdinand of Tuscany, whose electoral 
title was transferred from Salzburg to this place. In 
1814 this duchy was again transferred to Bavaria, 
in exchange for the Tyrol, and the archduke Ferdi- 
nand was reinstated in his Tuscan dominions. 
Ministers from the second-rate German states met 
at Wiirzburg to promote union amongst them, 21-27 
Nov. 1859. Near here the archduke Charles de- 
feated the French under Jourdan, 3 Sept. 1796; and 
the Prussians defeated the Bavarians, 28 July, 1866. 

WYATT'S INSURRECTION, see Rebel- 
lions, 1554. 

WYCLIFFITES, see Wickliffites. 

WYOMING, a western territory of the United 
States of America, constituted in 1868, admitted 
a state 1890. Capital, Cheyenne. Lynch Law has 
not long been superseded. Women have been 
enfranchised. It includes Yellowstone park (which 
see): The desolation of Wyoming, in Pennsylvania, 
by an incursion of Indians allied with the British, 
3 July, 1778, forms the subject of Campbell's poem, 
"Gertrude of Wyoming " published 1809. Wyo- 
ming abounds in iron, coal, natural soda, mineral 
oil, &c. Population 1880, 20,789; 1890, 60,705. 



X. 



XANTHIAN MAEBLES. 



XYLOTECHNOGEAPHICA. 



XANTHIAN MAEBLES, see British 



XANTHICA, a military festival observed by 
the Macedonians in the month called Xanthicus 
(our April), instituted about 392 B.C. 

XANTHTTS, Lycia, Asia Minor, was taken by 
Harpagus for Cyrus, about 546 B.C., when the in- 
habitants buried themselves in the ruins. It was 
besieged by the Romans under Brutus 42 B.C. After 
a great struggle the inhabitants set fire to their city, 
destroyed their wives and children, and perished. 
The conqueror wished to spare them, and offered 
rewards to his soldiers if they brought any of the 
Xanthians into his presence, but only 150 were 
saved. Plutarch. 

XENOPHON, see Retreat of the Greeks. 

XEEES DE LA ERONTERA (S.W. Spain), 
the Asta Regia of the Romans, and the seat of the 
wine-trade in Spain, of which the principal wine is 
that so well known in England as Sherry, an 
English corruption of Xeres. The British impor- 
tations of this wine in 1850 reached to 3,826,785 
gallons ; and in the year ending 5 Jan. 1852, to 
3,904,978 gallons. Xeres is a handsome and large 
town, of great antiquity. At the battle of Xeres, 
26 July, 711, Roderic, the last Gothic sovereign 
of Spain, was defeated and slain by the Saracens, 
commanded by Tarik and Muza. 



XEEXES' CAMPAIGN. Xerxes crossed the 
Hellespont by a bridge of boats, and entered Greece 
in the spring of 480 B.C., with an army which, 
together with the numerous retinue of servants, 
eunuchs, and women that attended it, amounted 
(according to some historians) to 5,283,220 souls. 
Herodotus states the armament to have consisted of 
3000 sail, conveying 1,700,000 foot, besides cavalry 
and the marines and attendants of the camp. This 
multitude was stopped at Thermopylae {which see) 
by the valour of 300 Spartans under Leonidas, 7-9 
Aug. 480 B.C. The fleet of Xerxes was defeated at 
Ai-temisium and Salamis, 20 Oct. 480 B.C. ; and he 
hastened back to Persia, leaving behind Mardonius, 
the best of his generals, who, with an army of 
300,000 men, was defeated and slain at Plataea, 22 
Sept. 479 B.C. Xerxes was assassinated by Arta- 
banus, 465 B.C. 

XIMENA (S. Spain), the site of a battle be- 
tween the Spanish army under the command of 
general Ballasteros, and the French corps com- 
manded by general Regnier, 10 Sept. 181 1. The 
Spaniards defeated their adversaries ; the loss wa3 
great on both sides. 

XYLOTECHNOGEAPHICA, a process for 
staining wood various colours, invented and patented 
by Mr. A. F. Brophy ; announced early in 1875. 



Y. 



YACHT. 

YACHT (from the Dutch jaght) ; a light vessel 
for pleasure or races. 

Yacht Races. — The America, an American yacht 
schooner, built on the wave principle, 171 tons ; 
at Cowes regatta, in a match round the Isle of 
Wight, open to all comers, came in first by 8 
miles, gaining the Royal Yacht's Squadron's In- " 
ternational queen's cup worth 100I. . 22 Aug. 1851 

Three American yachts, the Henrietta, Vesta, and 
Fleetwing, sailed from New York, 11 Dec. 1866, at 
1 p.m. The Henrietta arrived at Cowes at 5.40011 
25 Dec. , the quickest voyage ever made in a sail- 
ing vessel. Her rivals were only a few hours after 
her. 

In a contest off the Isle of Wight, between the 
American vessel Sappho and the English cutters 
Aline, Cambria, Oimara, and Condor, the Oiinara 
won 25 Aug. 1868 

In a triangular race between Sappho and Cambria, 
Sappho won, 10 May ; no race, 14 May ; won 

17 May, 1870 

In a yacht race off Staten island, New York, for the 
squadron or queen's cup, the Magic won, Cambria 
being the 8th in 16 Aug. ,, 

In a series of matches off Staten island between 
Mr. Ashbury's Livonia, and the vessels of the 
New York Club, she was beaten by the Columbia, 
16, 18 Oct ; by the Dauntless, 21 Oct. The two 
vessels were disabled by a gale in attempting the 
race 25 Oct. 1871 

In consequence of the collision of Mr. Heywood's 
yacht, Mistletoe, with her majesty's steam 
yacht, Alberta, 18 Aug. 1875 (see under Wrecks), 
a letter was written on behalf of the queen to the 
marquis of Exeter, commodore of the Royal 
Victoria Yacht Club, desiring yachts not to be* 
brought too near to her majesty's, whether from 
loyalty or curiosity Sept. 1875 

Yacht Racing Association formed as a court of 
appeal . 17 Nov. ,, 

Death of George Inman, of Lymington, head of 
the firm which built the Alarm, and many other 
swift sailing yachts .... 20 Oct. 1883 

Match between the British Genesta and the 
American Puritan ; the Puritan won by ij 
minutes 16 Sept 1885 

Genesta beat the Dauntless in a race, 26-28 Sept. 
1885 ; the Mayflower beat the Galatea, 11 Sept. 
1S86. 

Ocean yacht race from New York to Roche's Point, 
Queenstown, Ireland, between Coronet and Daunt- 
less (American), 12 March ; Coronet arrives at 
Roche's Point, 0^50 a.m. 28 March ; Dauntless 
arrives 6-45 p.m 28 March, 1887 

Jubilee yacht race ; twelve yachts start from 
Southend, 14 June ; the Genesta (sir Richard 
Sutton) arrives at Dover at 5 a.m. ; the Sleuth- 
hound 1 1 "45 p.m. 27 June ; first prize i,ooogs. 

Race between the Scotch yacht Thistle and 
American yacht Volunteer for American cup 
over the New York yacht club course ; Volunteer 
wins first race 27 Sept. ; second race 30 Sept. ,, 

Yacht chtbs: — Royal Yacht Squadron, Cowes, 
1812 ; Royal Albert, 1864 ; Alfred, 1864 ; Barrow, 
1871 ; Channel Islands, 1863 ; Cinque Ports, 1872 ; 
Clyde, 1856; Cork, 1720; Cornwall, 1871 ; 
Dartmouth, 1866 ; Dorset, 1875 ; R. Eastern, 
1835; R. Forth, 1868; R. Harwich, 1843; 
R. Highland, 1881 ; R. Irish, 1846; R. London 
(Arundel, 1838), 1849; R. Mersey, 1844; R. 
Northern, 1824 ; R. Portsmouth, 1880 ; R. 
St. George, 1838 ; R. Southampton, 1875 ; R. 
Southern, 1843 ; R. Thames, 1823 ; R. Tor bay, 
1875 ; R. Ulster, 1867 ; R. Victoria, 1844 ; R. 
Welsh, 1847 ; R. Western of England, 1827 ; 
R. Yorkshire, 1847 ; and a few others. 

YANKEE, from "Yengees," a corruption of 



YEAB. 

" English," the name originally given by the Mas- 
sachusetts Indians to the colonists : applied solely 
to the New Englanders by the British soldiers in the 
American war (1775-81) ; afterwards by foreigners 
to all natives of the United States ; and latterly by 
the confederates of the south to the federals of the 
north during the war 1861-64. 

YARD. The word is derived from the Saxon 
geard, or gyrd, a rod or shoot, or from gyrdan to 
enclose, being anciently the circumference of the 
body, until Henry I. decreed that it should be the 
length of his arm ; see Standard Measures. 

YARMOUTH, Great (Norfolk), was a royal 
demesne in the reign of William I., as appears from 
Domesday Book, 1086. It obtained a charter from 
John, and one from Henry III. In 1348, a plague 
here carried off 7000 persons ; and did much havoc 
again in 1579 and 1664. Population, 1881, 46,767; 
1891,49,318. . . 

Theatre built 1778 

Nelson's pillar, a fluted column 140 feet in height, 

erected 1817 

Suspension chain bridge over the Bure, built by Mr. 
R. Cory, at an expense of about 4000'. ; owing to 
the weight of a vast number of persons who 
assembled on it to witness an exhibition on the 
water, it suddenly gave way, and seventy-nine 
lives (mostly children) were lost . . 2 May, 1845 
Yarmouth disfranchised for bribery and corruption 

by the Reform Act Aug. 1867 

The prince of Wales opened a new grammar school, 

6 June, 1873 
Aquarium and winter garden opened . 5 Sept. 1876 
New municipal buildings opened by the prince of 

Wales 31 May, 1882 

Returns one M.P. by Act of 1885. 

YASHGAR, a country, Central Asia; Yakoob, 
its able despotic chief, was contending with China 
and Eussia, 1875. 

YEAR. The Egyptians, it is said, were the 

first who fixed the length of the year. 

The Roman year introduced by Romulus, 738 B.C. ; cor- 
rected by Numa, 713 b.c ; and again by Julius Caesar, 
45 B.C. (see Calendar). 

The solar or astronomical year was found to comprise 36 
days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 51 seconds, and 6 decimals, 
265 b. o. 

The lunar year (twelve lunar months, or 354 days, 8 
hours, 48 minutes) was in use amongst the Chaldeans, 
Persians, and Jews. Once in every three years was 
added another lunar month, so as to make the solar 
and the lunar year nearly agree. But though the 
months were lunar, the year was solar ; that is, the 
first month was of thirty days, and the second of 
twenty-nine, and so alternately : and the month added 
triennially was called Ve-Adar or the second Adar. 
The Jews afterwards followed the Roman manner of 
computation. 

The sidereal year, or return to the same star, is 365 days, 
6 hours, 9 minutes, n seconds. 

The Jews dated the beginning of the sacred year in 
March, and civil year in September ; the Athenians 
began the year in June ; the Macedonians on 24 Sept. ; 
the Christians of Egypt and Ethiopia on 29 or 30 Aug. ; 
and the Persians and Armenians on 1 1 Aug. Nearly 
all Christian nations now commence the year on 1 
January. 

In Prance, the Merovingian kings began the year with 
March ; the Carlovingians sometimes began the year 
with Christmas, 25 Dec. ; and sometimes with Easter, 
which, being a movable feast, led to much confusion. 

Charles IX. of Prance, in 1564, published an arret, the 
last article of which ordered the year for the time to 

4 A 



YEAR-BOOKS. 



1090 



YEW-TREE. 



some to be constantly and universally begun, and 
written on and from i January. 

The beginning of the year has been reckoned from the 
day celebrating the birth of Christ, 25 Dec. ; his cir- 
cumcision, 1 Jan. ; his conception, 25 March ; and his 
resurrection, Easter. 

The English began their year on the 25th of December, 
until the time of William the Conqueror. This prince 
having been crowned on 1 Jan. gave occasion to the 
English to begin their year at that time, to make it 
agree with the then most remarkable period of their 
history. Stoxv. Until the act for altering the style, 
in 1752 (see Style), when the year was ordered to 
begin on Jan. 1, it did not legally and generally 
commence in England until 25th March. In Scotland, 
at that period, the year began on the 1st of January. 
This difference caused great practical inconveniences ; 
and January, February, and part of March sometimes 
bore two dates, as we often find in old records, 1745- 
1746, or 1745-6, or 1745. Such a reckoning often led 
to chronological mistakes ; for instance, we popularly 
say the " revolution of 1688," as that event was com- 
pleted in February, 1688, according to the then mode 
of computation : but if the year were held to begin, as 
it does now, on the first of January, it would be the 
revolution of 1689. 

The year in the northern regions of Siberia and Lapland 
is described in the following calendar, given by a 
traveller : — "23 June, snow melts. 1 July, snow gone. 

9 July, fields quite green. 17 July, plants at full 
growth. 25 July, plants in flower. 2 Aug., fruits ripe. 

10 Aug., plants shed their seed. 18 Aug.. snow." 
The snow continues upon the ground from 18th Aug. 
of one year to 23rd June of the year following, being 
309 days out of 365 ; so that while the three seasons of 
spring, summer, and autumn are together only fifty-six 
days, or eight weeks, the winter is of forty -four weeks' 
duration in these countries. 

See New Style, Platonic Year, Sabbatical Year, Mahomet- 
anism, French Revolutionary Calendar. 

Year of our Lord ; see Anno Domini. 

Year of the Reign. From the time of William the 
Conqueror, 1066, the year of the sovereign's reign has 
been given to all public instruments. The king's 
patents, charters, proclamations, and all acts of parlia- 
ment have since then been generally so dated. The 
same manner of dating is used in most of the European 
states for all similar documents and records ; see List 
of Kings under England. 

Year and a Day. A space of time in law, and in many 
cases establishes and fixes a right ; as in an estray, on 
proclamation being made, if the owner does not claim 

1 it within the time, it is forfeited. The term arose in 
the Norman law, which enacted that a beast found on 
another's land, if unclaimed for a year and a day, be- 
longed to the lord of the soil. It is otherwise a legal 
space of time. 

YEAR-BOOKS contain reports in Norman- 
French of cases argued and decided in the courts 
of common law. The printed volumes extend from 
the beginning of the reign of Edward II. to nearly 
the end of the reign of Henry VIII., a period of 
about 220 years ; but in this series there are many 
omissions. These books are the first in the long 
line of legal reports in which England is so rich, 
and may be considered as, to a great extent, the 
foundation of our unwritten law, u Lex non scripta." 
In 1863 et seq. various year-books of Edward I. 
(1292-1304) edited by Mr. A. J. Horwood, for the 
series of the Chronicles and Memorials, were pub- 
lished at the expense of the British government. 

YEAST, a substance causing fermentation, was 
discovered by Cagniard de la Tour and Schwann, 
independently, in 1836, to be a vegetable cell or 
fungus. 

YELLOW FEVER, an American pestilence, 
made its appearance at Philadelphia, where it 
committed great ravages, 1699. It appeared in 
several islands of the West Indies in 1732, 1739, 
and 1745. It raged with unparalleled violence at 
Philadelphia in Oct. 1762 ; and most awfully at 
. New York in the beginning of Aug. 1791. This 
fever again spread great devastation at Philadelphia 



in July 1 793 ; carrying off several thousand persons. 
Hardie. It again appeared in Oct. 1797; and spread 
its ravages over the northern coast of America, 
Sept. 1798. It reappeared at Philadelphia in the 
summer of 1802 ; and broke out in Spain, in Sept. 
1803. The yellow fever was very violent at 
Gibraltar in 1804 and 1814; in the Mauritius, July 
1815 ; at Antigua, in Sept. 1816 ; and it raged with 
dreadful consequences at Cadiz, and the isle of St. 
Leon, in Sept. 1819. A malignant fever raged at 
Gibraltar in Sept. 1828, and did not terminate until 
the following year. Yellow fever raging in the 
southern of the United States, Sept. Oct. 1878 ; at 
Memphis, autumn, 1879; in Florida (specially in 
Jacksonville) and other southern states, autumn 
1888. Mr. R. A. Proctor, the astronomer, died of 
it at New York on his way from Florida to Eng- 
land, 12 Sept. 1888 ; the epidemic abating Oct. 
1888 ; 4,583 cases, and 396 deaths in Jacksonville to 
Nov. 17, 1888. 

YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK, 

about 3300 square miles, in territory of Wyoming. 

It includes Yellowstone lake, about 330 square miles, 
with numerous geysers, volcanic and other grand 
natural phenomena, rugged mountains, forests, mea- 
dows, rivers, and much beautiful scenery. Its forma- 
tion was authorised by congress in March, 1872. It 
was visited by president Arthur in 1883. 

YELVERTON CASE, see Trials, 1861. 

YEMEN, a province of Asiatic Turkey, on the 
Red Sea, the Arabia Felix of the Romans; ste 
Arabia. 

YENIKALE, see Azof. 

YEOMANRY, see under Volunteers. 

YEOMEN OF THE GUARD, a peculiar body 
of foot guards to the king's person, instituted at 
the coronation of Henry VII. 30 Oct. 1485, which 
originally consisted of fifty men under a captain. 
They were called beef-eaters, a corruption of buffv- 
tiers, being attendants on the king's buffet or 
sideboard ; see Battle-Axe. They were of a larger 
stature than other guards, being required to be 
over six feet in height, and were armed with 
arquebuses and other arms. The band was in- 
creased by Henry's successors to one hundred men, 
and seventy supernumeraries ; and when one of the 
hundred died, it was ordered that his place should 
be supplied out of the seventy. They were clad 
after the manner of king Henry VIII. Ashmole's 
Instit. This is said to have been the first perma- 
nent military band instituted in England. John 
earl of Oxford, was the first captain in i486. Beat- 
son's Pol. Index. 

YERMUK (Syria). Near here the emperor 
Heraclius was totally defeated by the Saracens, after a 
fierce engagement, Nov. 636. Damascus was taken, 
and his army expelled from Syria. 

YEW-TREE (Taxits). The origin of planting 
yew-trees in churchyards was (these latter being 
fenced) to secure the trees from cattle, and in this 
manner preserve them for the encouragement of 
archery. A general plantation of them for the use 
of archers was ordered by Richard III. 1483. Stow's 
Chron. Near Fountains Abbey, Yorkshire, were 
seven yew-trees, called the Seven Sisters, supposed 
to have been planted before 1088 ; the circum- 
ference of the largest thirty-four feet seven inches 
round the trunk. In 1851 a yew-tree was said to 
be growing in the churchyard of Gresford, North 
Wales, whose circumference was nine yards nine 
inches, being the largest and oldest yew-tree in the 
British dominions ; but tradition states that there 
are some yews in England older than the hitroduc- 



YEZIDIS. 



1091 



YOKK. 



tion of Christianity. The old yew-tree mentioned 
in the survey taken of Richmond palace in 1649, is 
said to be still existing. 

YEZIDIS, an eastern tribe, living near the 
Euphrates, visited by Mr. Layard in 1841 : see 
Devil Worship. 

YEZDEGIRD, or Persian Era, was 

formerly universally adopted in Persia, and is still 
used by the Parsees in India, and by the Arabs, in 
certain computations. This era began on the 26th 
June, 632, when Yezdegird was elected king of 
Persia. The year consisted of 365 days only, and 
therefore its commencement, like that of the old 
Egyptian and Armenian year, anticipated the Julian 
year by one day in every four years. This difference 
amounted to nearly 112 days in the year 1075, 
when it was reformed by Jelaledin, who ordered 
that in future the Persian year should receive an 
additional day whenever it should appear necessary 
to postpone the commencement of the following 
year, that it might occur on the day of the sun's 
passing the same degree of the ecliptic. 

YNGLINGS (youths, or off-shoots), descend- 
ants of the Scandinavian hero Odin, ruled Sweden 
till 830, when the last of the pontiff kings, Olaf 
Traetelia, being expelled, led to the foundation of 
the Norwegian monarchy. 

YOKE is spoken of as a type of servitude. The 
■ceremony of making prisoners pass under it was 
practised by the Samnites towards the Romans, 
321 B.C.; see Caudine Forks. This disgrace was 
afterwards inflicted by the Romans upon their van- 
■quished enemies. Dufresnoy. 

YOKOHAMA, see Japan. 

YORK (N. England), a town of the Brigantes, 
named Evrauc, settled by the Romans during the 
•second campaign of Agricola, about 79, and named 
Eboracum or Eburacum, and became the metropolis 
of the north. See Population. 

The emperor Severus died here . . 4 Feb. 211 
Here Constantius Chlorus died, and his son Con- 

stantine the Great was proclaimed emperor, 

25 July, 306 
Abbey of St. Mary's, founded by Seward the Dane 1050 
York burnt by the Danes, allies of Edgar Atheling, 

and all the Normans slain 1069 

The city and many churches destroyed by fire, 

3 June, 1 137 
Massacre and suicide of many Jews . . . 1190 
York received its charter from Richard II., and the 

mayor was made a lord 1389 

The Guildhall erected 1446 

Richard III. crowned again here . . 8 Sept. 1483 
At a parliament held here Charles I. professed his 

intention to govern legally . . 13 June, 1642 
York taken for the parliament, after the battle of 

Marston-moor 16 July, 1644 

Injured during the civil war by Fairfax . April, ,, 
The corporation built a mansion-house for the lord 

mayor 1728 

The castle was built by Richard III., 1484, and was 

rebuilt as a gaol 1741 

The York petition to parliament, to reduce the 

expenditure and redress grievances . . Dee. 1779 
Yorkshire Philosophical Society established . . 1822 
First meeting of the British Association held here 

27 Sept. 1831 
British Association (2nd time) .... 1844 

Population, 45,385 1861 

Fall of the iron bridge over the Ouse ; five persons 

killed 27 Sept. ,, 

Social Science Association met here . 22 Sept. 1864 
Fine Arts and Industrial Exhibition opened 

24 July, 1866 
Visit of prince and princess of Wales . 9-1 1 Aug. ,, 
Meeting of the Church Congress . . 9 Oct. ,, 
The provincial mayors gave a festival to the lord 

mayor of London, &c, at York . 25 Sept. 1873 



1879 
1881 



18S5 



Permanent Fine Art Exhibition opened by the 

archbishop 7 May, 

British Association jubilee meeting 31 Aug. -8 Sept. 
Royal Agricultural Society's annual meeting, 

16 July, 
Yorkshire Institute, memorial stone laid by the 

prince of Wales 18 July, 1883 ; opened by the 

marquis of Lome .... 10 June, 
Yorkshire college of science opened 26 Oct. 1874 5 

new building opened by the prince of Wales, 

15 July, ,, 
New Courts of Justice, memorial stone laid by the 

duke of Clarence .... 16 July, 1890 

DUKES. 

1385. Edmund Plantagenet (fifth son of king Edward 
III.); created duke, 6 Aug. ; died 1402. 

1406. Edward (his son), was degraded by Henry IV. in 
1399, but restored in 1414 ; killed at Agincourt, 
1415 ; succeeded by his nephew, 

1415. Richard (son of Richard, earl of Cambridge, who 
was beheaded for treason in 1415) ; became 
regent of France in 1435 ; quelled the rebellion 
in Ireland in 1449 ; claimed the throne, and was 
appointed protector in 1454 : his office was an- 
nulled, and he began the civil war in 1455, and 
was slain after his defeat at Wakefield in 1460. 

1460. Edward (his son) afterwards king Edward IV. 

1474. Richard (his second son), said to have been mur- 
dered in the Tower, 1483. 

1494. Henry Tudor, afterwards Henry VIII. 

1605. Charles Stuart, afterwards Charles I. 

DUKES OF YORK AND ALBANY. 

1643. James Stuart (his second son), afterwards 
James II. 

1716. Ernest (brother of George I.) ; died 1728. 

1760. Edward (brother of George III.) ; died 1767. 

1784. Frederic (son of George III.), born 16 Aug. 1763 
Marries princess Frederica of Prussia, 

29 Sept. 1 79 1 
Commands the British forces at Antwerp, 

S April, 1793 
Present at the siege of Valenciennes 23 May, ,, 
Defeated at Dunkirk ... 7 Sept. ,, 
At Bois-le-Due, 14 Sept. ; and at Boxtel, 

17 Sept. 1794 
Appointed commander-in-chief . . . 1798 
Defeated near Alkmaar, 19 Sept. and 6 Oct. 1799 
Accused by colonel Wardle of abuse of his 

patronage ; he resigns . . 27 Jan. 1809 

Becomes again commander-in-chief . . 1811 

Strongly opposes the catholic claims . . 1825 

Dies 5 Jan. 1827 

Prince George of Wales created duke of York, 

34 May, 1892 
See Albany. 

YORK, Archbishopric of. The most an- 
cient metropolitan see in England, being, it is 
said, so made by king Lucius about 180, when 
Christianity was first partly established in England. 
The bishop Eborius was present at the council of 
Aries, 314. The see was overturned by the Saxons, 
and was revived by pope Gregory on their con- 
version, and Paulinus is said to have been conse- 
crated archbishop, 21 July, 625. York and Dur- 
ham were long the only two sees in the north 
of England, until Henry I. erected a bishopric at 
Carlisle, and Henry VIII. another at Chester. 
York was the metropolitan see of the Scottish 
bishops ; but during the time of archbishop Nevil, 
1464, they withdrew their obedience, and had arch- 
bishops of their own. Much dispute arose between 
the two English metropolitans about precedency, as 
by pope Gregory's institutions it was thought he 
meant, that whichever of them was first confirmed, 
should be superior : appeal was made to the court 
of Rome by both parties, and it was determined in 
favour of Canterbury. The archbishop of York was 
allowed to style himself primate of England, while 
the archbishop of Canterbury styles himself primate 
of all England. The province of York now con- 
tains the dioceses of York, Carlisle, Chester, Duiv 

4 A % 



YOEK MINSTER. 



1092 



YYEES. 



ham, Sodor and Man, Manchester, and Ripor. 
{which see). York has yielded to the church of 
Rome eight saints and three cardinals, and to 
England twelve lord chancellors, two lord trea- 
surers, and two lord presidents of the north: It is 
rated in the king's books, 39 Henry VIII. 1546, at 
1609/. 19s. 2d. per annum. Beatson. Present in- 
come 10,000/. 

ARCHBISHOPS. 

1501. Thomas Savage, died, 3 Sept. 1507. 

1508. Christopher Bainbrigg, poisoned at Rome, 14 July, 

1514. 
1514. Thomas Wolsey, died, 29 Nov. 1530. 
1531. Edward Lee, died, 13 Sept. 1544. 
1545. Robert Holgate, deprived, 23 March, 1554. 
1555. Nicholas Heath, deprived. 
1561. Thomas Young, died, 26 June, 1568. 
1570. Edmund Grindal, translated to Canterbury, 10 Jan. 

1576- 
1577. Edwin Sands or Sandys, died, 10 July, 1588. 
1589. John Piers, died, 28 Sept. 1594. 
1595. Matthew Hutton, died, 16 Jan. 1606. 
1606. Tobias Matthew, died, 29 March, 1628. 
1628. George Mountaigne, died, 24 Oct. 1628. 

,, Samuel Harsnet, died, 25 May, 1631. 
1632. Richard Neyle, died, 31 Oct. 1640. 
1641. John Williams, died, 25 March, 1650. 

[See vacant ten years.] 
1660. Accepted Frewen, died, 28 March, 1664. 
1664. Richard Sterne, died, 18 June, 1683. 
1683. John Dolben, died, 11 April, 1686. 
[See vacant two years.] 
*688. Thomas Lamplugh, died, 5 May, 1691. 
1691. John Sharp, died, 2 Feb. 1714. 
1714. Sir William Dawes, died, 30 April, 1724. 
1724. Launcelot Blackburn, died, 23 March, 1743. 
1743. Thomas Herring, translated to Canterbury, Oct. 

J 747- 
1747. Matthew Hutton, translated to Canterbury, March, 

1757- 
1757. John Gilbert, died, 1761. 
1761. Robert Hay Drummond, died, 10 Dec. 1776. 
1777. William Markham, died, 3 Nov. 1807. 
1808. Edward Venables Vernon, died, 5 Nov. 1847. 
1847. Thomas Musgrave, died, 4 May, i860. 
i860. Charles T. Longley, translated to Canterbury (from 

Durham), 1862. 
1862. William Thomson, translated from Gloucester; 

died 25 Dec. 1890. 
1891. Wm. Connor Magee, translated from Peterborough, 

elected Feb., died 4 May, 1891. 
1891. William Dalrymple Maclagan, translated from 

Lichfield, May. 

YOEK MINSTER (dedicated to St. Peter). 
The first Christian church erected here, which 
appears to have been preceded by a Roman temple, 
was built by Edwin, king of Northumbria, of wood, 
about 625, and of stone about 635. It was damaged 
by fire in 741, and was rebuilt by archbishop 
Albert, about 780. It Avas again destroyed by fire 
in the year 1069, and rebuilt by archbishop 
Thomas, of Bayeux. It was once more burnt down 
in 1 137, with St. Mary's abbey, and 39 parish 
churches in York. Archbishop Roger built the 
choir, 1 154-81; Walter Gray added the south 
transept in 1227; John de Romayne, the treasurer 
of the cathedral, built the north transept in 1260. 
His son, archbishop Romanus, laid the foundation 
of the nave in 1291. In 1330, William de Melton 
built the two western towers, which were finished 
by John de Birmingham in 1342. Archbishop 
Thoresby, in 1361, began to rebuild the choir, in 
accordance with the magnificence of the nave, and 
he also rebuilt the lantern tower. The minster was 
set on fire by Jonathan Martin, a lunatic, and the 
roof of the choir and its internal fittings destroyed, 
2 Feb. 1829; the damage, estimated at 60,000/., 
was repaired in 1832 under sir Robert Smirke. An 
accidental fire broke out, and in one hour reduced 
tho belfry to a shell, destroyed the roof of the 
nave, and much damaged the edifice, 20 May, 



1840. This was restored by Sidney Smirke, at a 
cost of 23,000/., 1841. 

YOEK and Lancaster, Wars of, see 
Hoses. 

YOEK (Upper Canada), founded in 1794; since 
1834 named Toronto. In the war between America 
and Great Britain, the United States' forces made 
several attacks upon the province of Upper Canada, 
and succeeded in taking York, the seat of the 
government, 27 April, 1813; but it was soon after- 
wards again retaken by the British. 

YOEKSHIEE Exhibition of Arts and Manu- 
factures, opened at Leeds, by the duke of Edin- 
burgh, 13 May, 1875. The Yorkshire Registries 
Act passed 7 Aug. 1884. 

YOEK TOWN (Virginia, United States). 
Lord Corn wal lis had taken possession of York town 
in Aug. 1 781 ; but after sustaining a disastrous 
siege, he was obliged to surrender his army, con- 
sisting of about 7000 men, to the allied armies of 
France and America, under the command of general 
Washington and count Rochambeau, 19 Oct. 1781. 
This mischance was attributed to sir Henry 
Clinton, who had not given the garrison the 
necessary succour they expected; and it mainly 
led to the close of the war. The centenary was 
celebrated 16 Oct. 1881 et seq. On 19 Oct. the 
British flag was saluted generally. The town was 
strongly fortified by the confederates in the American 
civil war, but surrendered to M'Clellan, May, 1862. 

YOUNG ENGLAND, a name given to a 
number of young tory gentlemen earnestly opposed 
to the repeal of the corn laws and other liberal 
measures, and very desirous of reviving the old 
relations between the upper and lower classes 
mixing in rural sports, &c, yet preserving the due 
distinctions (1842-6). Lord John Manners (Duke 
of Rutland, 1888), and the hon. G. Smythe, were 
eminent leaders, and their ideas were favoured by 
Mr. Disraeli (lord Beaconsfield) in his novel "Con- 
ingsby," published 1844. 

YOUNG IEELAND, see Ireland, Young. 

YOUNG ITALY, see Italy, 1831. 

YOUNG MEN'S CHEISTIAN ASSO- 
CIATION, for improvement of young men by 
means of classes, meetings, &c, founded 1844. 
Exeter-hall, Strand, was bought for the associa- 
tion about July, 1880. Itmet there, 29 March, 1881. 
The Young Men's Christian Institute bought the 
Polytechnic Institute, about Dec. 1881. The 
Young Women's Christian As»ociation, founded 



YTTEIUM, a rare metal. The earth yttria 
was discovered by professor Gadolin in a mineral at 
Ytterby, in Sweden, 1794- The metal was first 
obtained by Wohler in 1828. It is of a dark grey 
colour, and brittle, 

YUCATAN, Mexico, discovered by Hernandez 
Cordova, 1517 ; conquered by Bernal Diaz, 1522; 
declared for independence, 1813. Its ancient cities 
are described in works by the American traveller 
Stephens, 1838 and 1842. 

YVEES (now Ivry, N. W. France), where a 
battle was fought, 14 March, 1590, between Henry 
IV. of France, aided by his chief nobility, and 
the generals of the catholic league, over whom the 
king obtained a complete victory. 



z. 



ZAGEAB. 



ZAMBESI. 



ZAGEAB (Hungary). Here Andrew III. de- 
feated the invader Charles Martel, to whom the 
pope had assigned his crown, 1292. 

ZAHEINGEN (Baden), the seat of dukes, 
ancestors of the grand duites of Baden, descended 
from Herman I., margrave, 1074 ; see Baden. 

ZAMA (near Carthage, N. Africa), the scene of 
the battle between the two greatest commanders in 
the world at the time, Hannibal and Scipio 
Africanus. The victory was won by Scipio, and 
was decisive of the fate of Carthage, 202. It led 
to an ignominious peace, which closed the second 
Punic war, 201 B.C The Romans lost about 2000 
killed and wounded, while the Carthaginians lost 
in killed and prisoners more than 40,000 ; some 
historians make the loss greater; 202 b.c. 

ZAMBESI, river of E. Africa, explored by 
Livingstone 1851-6, 1858-64. His book published, 
Nov. 1865. 

British Zambesi a. — A charter was granted to 
the British South Africa company 15 Oct., 
signed 29 Oct., 1889, to settle the immense area 
lying between Lower and Central Zambesi on the 
north, and the Transvaal border on the south. 
The company includes Mr. Cecil J. Rhodes, the 
African explorer, the dukes of Abercorn and 
Fife, earl Gifford, and other eminent persons. 
The Portuguese exploring expedition under lieut. 
Cordon ; he receives the allegiance of several 
tribes ; the limits of the districts sanctioned by 
royal decree, and the province named Zumbo, 

7 Nov. 1889 

The marquis of Salisbury protests against the as- 
sumption of Zumbo by the Portuguese, referring 
to the agreement of Great Britain -with Loben- 
gula, ruler of Mashona and Makalakaland, of 11 
Feb. 1888, and also to British agreements with 
other tribes (referred to by consul Johnston, 26 
Aug., and by consul Buchanan, 30 Sept. 1889), 
and to the results of British explorations, 

21 Nov. ,, 

Senhor de Barros Gomes, Portuguese foreign minis- 
ter, in his reply sustains the claims of Portugal, 
leased on discoveries and consequent effective 
occupation of the territories in question for 
centuries, relics of which still remain . 29 Nov. ,, 

Major Serpa Pinto, with about 4,000 men with can- 
non, forms a camp in the Makololo country, 
quarrels with the natives, conquers them, and 
calls on the British settlers to submit to Portu- ' 
gal, reported by bishop C. A. Smythies 5 Dec. ,, 

Lord Salisbury telegraphs to the Portuguese 
government in relation to major Serpa Pinto's 
action, that they should not permit any such 
attacks on British settlements, or on any other 
settlement under British protection or influence, 

17 Dec. ,, 

Sen. Barros Gomes, in his reply, justifies the 
actions of major Serpa Pinto, by referring to the 
disturbed state of the country . . 20 Dec. ,, 

Lord Salisbury, in a despatch, declines to recog- 
nise the claims of Portugal as antiquated, and 
unsupported by action in modern times 26 Dec. ,, 

A peremptory note sent by lord Salisbury, re- 
quiring immediate withdrawal of major Serpa 
Pinto, delivered 6 Jan. 1890 

Sen. Barros Gomes' reply being deemed unsatisfac- 
tory, lord Salisbury declares that his government 
will order that no acts of force be committed 
against any British settlements or others speci- 
lied by him, and requests that the matters in 



dispute be referred to a conference of the powers, 
in accordance with the treaty of Berlin 8 Jan. 

Lord Salisbury, by telegram, requires to know that 
explicit instructions have been sent from Mozam- 
bique for the immediate withdrawal of Portu- 
guese forces from the territories in question ; 
sen. Barros Gomes informs the British minister, 
Mr. Petre, that such instructions had been sent 
9 Jan. Lord Salisbury, having learned from 
consul Churchill at Mozambique, that majoi 
Serpa Pinto's forces still occupied his positions, 
and treated Nyassaland as a conquered country, 
directs Mr. Petre to require acceptance of the 
British demands before 10 p.m. h Jan. ; if not 
accepted he is to order H.M.S. Enchantress, at 
Vigo, to enter the Tagus, and to prepare for the 
withdrawal of the British legation from Lisbon, 

10 Jan. 

The council of state decide to yield under protest, 

reserving all Portuguese rights . . 12 Jan. 

[All the correspondence, from 16 Nov. 1889 to 13 

Jan. 1890, was published in the London Gazette, 

17 Jan. 1890.] 

The surveying expedition under Mr. Selous, on 
behalf of the British South Africa company, 
starts Feb. 

The Portuguese evacuate the disputed territory in 
the Shire district, reported . . 8 March, 

Telegraph lines rapidly constructed, reported, 

11 June, 

Expedition of the South Africa company into 
Mashonaland under lieut. -col. E. G. Pennefather, 
with other military men, July ; favourable pro- 
gress, Aug. ; arrives at its goal at mount Hamp- 
den, well received by the natives, reported, 12 
Sept. ; the force disbands to occupy the land 
granted them .... about 24 Oct. 

Part of the Manica country ceded to the company 
by the chief Umtasa, by treaty . 14 Sept. 

H.M.S. gunboats, the Herald and Musquito, enter 
the Zambesi, accompanied by other vessels with 
stores 8 Oct. 

H.M.S. Redbreast, man-of-war, leaves Zanzibar, 3 
Sept., amid many difficulties and some Portu- 
guese opposition, with other vessels, proceeds up 
the Zambesi, reaches Zumbo, and returns to 
Zanzibar 17 Oct. 

Mr. Colquhoun, the administrator of the company, 
assumes the government at Fort Salisbury, 

10 Oct. 

The Anglo-Portuguese agreement of 20 Aug. with- 
drawn, and a modus vivendi agreed on 14 Nov. 

Col. Paiva d'Andrade and the baron de Rezendi, 
with Gouveia, a half-breed native chief, and about 
300 followers, seize Umtasa's kraal at Massi 
Kesse, and replace the British by the Portuguese 
flag, 8 Nov. ; major Forbes, with the company's 
police, re-takes the kraal, restores the British 
flag, and temporarily imprisons the Portuguese 
officers ; Gouveia, with his men, flee . 15 Nov. 

The South Africa company ordered by the British 
government to withdraw from Manica, 

about 19 Dec. 

Gungunhama, nominal king of Manica, said to have 
replaced the Portuguese flag by the English, 
reported 31 Dec. 

Gold discovered in Mashonaland ; many claims 
for working and tracts assigned . Dec. et seq. 

Col. Paiva d'Andrade arrives in Lisbon, and com- 
plains of the conduct of major Forbes and others 
(in Nov.), and denies the truth of the company's 
statements respecting it . . 19 Jan. 

Mr. H. H. Johnston appointed British resident of 
the district N. of the company's territories, to be 
called " British Central Africa " . . March, 

The Countess of Carnarvon, steamer, conveying 
Messrs. Jameson, Doyle, Stevens, and Moodie to 



ZAMOEA. 



1094 



ZANZIBAE. 



Cape Town, to meet Mr. C. Rhodes, captured by 
a Portuguese customs' steamer on the river 
Limpopo, which was declared open by the chief, 
Gungunhama, free to British commerce, about 
8 March ; Gungunhama repudiates vassalage to 
Portugal 14 March, 1891 

Mr. Jameson and others at Delagoa Bay set free, 
17 March ; go to Cape Town . . March, „ 

The British steamer, Norseman, containing sir John 
Willoughby and party, with the imperial British 
mail for Mashonaland, stopped by the Portuguese 
at Port Beira, in the Pungwe river, although the 
prescribed duty of 3 per cent, on the stores had 
been offered, according to the modus vivendi ; the 
British flag replaced by the Portuguese. Two 
steam launches seized, and the crews imprisoned, 
reported by sir John at Delagoa bay, 20 April ; 
on the remonstrance of lord Salisbury the Portu- 
guese government declares the Pungwe river 
open to British subjects ; three of H.M.'s ships 
sent to the Pungwe, announced . 23 April, ,, 

Massi Kessi evacuated by the British by govern- 
ment orders, reported . . . .30 April, „ 

Gungunhama, king of Gazaland, sends an embassy 
to Queen Victoria, soliciting perpetual alliance, 

April, May, ,, 

Two envoys honourably received, May, June ; by 
the Queen at Windsor . . . .10 July, ,, 

Portuguese attack on the company's police post, 
W. of Massi Kesse, repulsed . . n May, ,, 

Mr. Cecil Rhodes, commissioner, arrives at Fort 
Salisbury 16 Oct. ,, 

First annual meeting of the British South Africa 
company, the duke of Abercorn in the chair ; 
report and balance-sheet accepted . 22 Dec. ,, 

The British parliament votes 2o,oooZ. for a survey 
for the construction of a railway from Mombasa 
to the Victoria Nyanza ... 10 March, 1892 

Agreement between Great Britain and Portugal 
respecting the navigation of the Zambesi, 

about 19 March, ,, 
ZAMOEA (Spain). Here Alphonso the Great 

defeated the Moors, in 901. 

Z ANTE . One of the Ionian Islands {which see) . 

ZANZALEENS. This sect rose in Syria, 
under Zanzalee, 535 ; he taught that water baptism 
was of no efficacy, and that it was necessary to be 
baptized by fire, with the application of a red-hot 
iron. The sect was at one time very numerous. 

ZANZIBAE or ZANGUEBAE, an island, 
east Africa, metropolis of the possessions of the 
Imaum of Muscat, and chief market for ivory, 
gum, coral, and cloves, and also for slaves. At the 
death of the Seyyid (or lord), miscalled "imaum" 
and " sultan," of Muscat, 1856, his dominions 
were divided between his sons ; see Muscat. Majid 
obtained Zanzibar, after a contest with his brother, 
Barghash Seyyid, who, however, succeeded at his 
death, 7 Oct. 1870. An expedition for the pur- 
pise of suppressing the slave trade was sent to 
Zanzibar, under the command of sir Bartle Prere, 
20 Nov. 1872, arrived about 12 Jan. 1873. After 
some delay and negotiation by Dr. Kirke, a treaty 
was signed, abolishing the trade, 5 June, 1873. The 
contract for the mail to Zanzibar was censured as 
too expensive in July, 1873, and altered. The 
Seyyid Barghash visited England in 1875, arrived 
9 June; received by the queen, 21 June; received 
freedom of London, 12 July ; sailed for France, 
15 July. He decreed confiscation of slaves brought 
to Zanzibar, 18 April, 1876. The sultan's offer to 
eoncede large territories on the mainland to sir "Win. 
Mackinnon, founder of the British East Africa Com- 
pany, not accepted by the British government, 1878. 
The* sultan made knight of St. Michael and St. 
George, 14 Sept. 1883. 

Treaty with Germany comes into force, 19 Aug. 
1886. The sultan's rights recognised by Anglo- 
German treaty ... 29 Oct. & 1 Nov. 1886 



Rupture with Portugal respecting non-cession of 
territories (see Mozambique) . Feb.-Mareh, 

Seyyid Barghash died ; succeeded by his brother 
Seyyid Khalifah .... 26 March, 

Dispute with Italy respecting cession of territories 
by the late sultan .... 6 June, 

Territories ceded to the British Bast Africa com- 
pany ; treaty signed .... 9 Oct. 

Lieut. Cooper captures a dhow but is killed : 
much regretted 17 Oct. 

The universities' mission warned to retire from the 
mainland of Africa by government on account of 
operations against slave traders by England and 
Germany . , Oct. 

The coast blockaded by Germany and England, 
2 Dec. ; the Germans make war on the chiefs 
who burn Bagamoyo and retire . . 7 Dec. 

The Arab slave dealers attack some German 
stations and carry off the freed slaves ; eight 
missionaries killed . . . . n-i^Jan. 

Mr. Brooks and 26 others, missionaries, murdered 
near Saadani 21 Jan. 

Meeting of the sultan's bodyguard stopped by the 
intervention of Mr. Portal and gen. Mathews, 

19, 20 July, 

The sultan signs a concession of territory to the 
British East Africa company (headquarters 
Mombasa) 1 Sept. 

The blockade on the coast abandoned after 1 Oct. 

Ordered that all native children born in Zanzibar 
aften Jan. 1890, to be free subjects of the sultan Oct. 

The marquis of Salisbury receives the two envoys 
from Zanzibar, 25 Oct. ; they are taken by Mr. 
Berkeley and capt. Gissing to AVindsor and other 
places, 26 Oct. ; received by the queen at Bal- 
moral 29 Oct. 

Mr. Gerald Portal, much respected by the sultan 
and Europeans, leaves Africa . . 14 Nov. 

Mr. Stanley and party arrive at Zanzibar . 6 Dec. 

The sultan receives grand cross of St. Michael and 
St. George, and grand cross Red Eagle. 16 Dec. 

The sultan surrenders all control over the British 
East Africa company's territory for an annual 
payment, reported .... 26 Dec. 

Twelve H.M.'s ships at Zanzibar . . 8 Jan. 

Expedition from Aden to Harrar under gen. Hogg, 
to chastise the Eesa tribe for a murderous raid 
on Bulhar, Somaliland, a place under British 
protection (17 Aug. 1889) on 11 Jan., reported 
successful, with some loss ... 16 Feb. 

Adm. Fremantle, with 11 men-of-war, at Mom- 
basa 31 Jan. 

Death of the sultan, Seyyid Khalifah, by apoplexy, 
succeeded by his brother, Seyyid Ali, 13 Feb. ; 
duly recognised 17 Feb. 

The protectorate of Zanzibar, Witu, &c, assumed 
by Great Britain with the consent of the sultan, 
in conformity with the Anglo-German conven- 
tion, announced .... 18 June, 

Adm. Fremantle with fleet'at Zanzibar ; the sultan 
received by the admiral on the Boadicea 25 July 

Decree of the sultan against slavery ; the sale, 
purchase, or exchange of slaves strictly pro- 
hibited ; slaves of persons dying without lawful 
heirs, declared free ; slaves not to be disposable 
by will, &c 1 Aug. 

Six houses of slave-brokers permanently closed, 

2 Aug. 

Herr Kiintzel and a party of Germans in Witu, or 
Vitu, disarmed by the sultan . . 14 Sept. 

Kuntzel's violent conduct leads to the massacre by 
the natives of all the party except Menschel, 

15 Sept. 

Redress demanded by the British and Germans ; 
the sultan of Witu refuses to surrender the 
criminals .*.... 23 Oct. 

An expedition under captain Curzen-Howe and 
commander M'Quhae; certain evacuated villages 
on the coast burnt ; adm. Fremantle at Kipini ; 
the admiral, with nearly 1,000 men, advances on 
Witu 25, 26 Oct. 

Witu captured and destroyed, the enemy disperse ; 
there were 13 British wounded; the success of 
the expedition was mainly attributed to capt. 
Curzon-Howe, the chief of the staff; between 80 
and 90 natives were killed ... 27 Oct. 

Col. C. B. Euan-Smith, consul-general, made 
K.C.B., announced .... 10 Nov. 



1889 



ZAEA. 



1095 



ZOOLOGY. 



The grand cross of the Star of India conferred on 

the sultan of Zanzibar, invested . 14 Nov. 1890 
Death of the deposed sultan of Witu, reported, 

14 Jan. 1 891 
Sir C. B. Euan-Smith makes terms with the Witu 
chiefs ; a younger brother of the late sultan 
elected successor, announced, 26 Jan. ; peace and 
amnesty proclaimed . . . about 29 Jan. „ 
Sir C. B. Euan-Smith leaves for Europe (succeeded 
by Mr. Gerald Portal, (K.C.M.G., 1892) consul- 

. general 6 March, „ 

The sultan opens the Cooper Royal Naval Institute, 

8 July, „ 
Tipoo Tib at Zanzibar, received by the sultan, 

20 July, „ 
Great increase of commerce under British pro- 
tectorate March— Sept. „ 

New government formed, gen. Mathews, president, 

20 Oct. „ 
Import duties, except on alcohol and dangerous 

objects, abolished .... 20 Dec. „ 
Zanzibar declared a free port . . . 1 Feb. 1892 

ZAEA, capital of Dalmatia, a Eoman colony 
tinder Augustus. It revolted from Venice and was 
recaptured, 18 Nov. 1202 ; unsuccessfully besieged 
by the Turks 1572, 1577 ; given up to Austria, 1791. 

ZE, ZOW, ZIEEES, .for ye, you, and yours. 
The letter a was retained in Scotland, and was 
commonly written for the letter y so late as the 
reigu of queen Mary, up to which period many 
books in the Scottish language were printed in 
Edinburgh with these words, 1543. 

ZEALAND, one of the 13 provinces which 
formed the League of Utrecht, 1579; see Holland, 
and New Zealand. 

ZELA, N.E. Asia Minor, where Julius Csesar 
defeated Pharnaces, king of Pontus, son of 
Mithridates. Csesar, in announcing his victory, 
sent his famous despatch to the senate of Eome, in 
these words : " Veni, vidi, vici," — " I came, I saw, 
I conquered" (perhaps the shortest despatch on 
record). This battle ended the war; Pharnaces 
escaped into Bosporus, where he was slain by his 
lieutenant, Asander ; Pontus was made a Itoman 
province, and Bosporus given to Mithridates of 
Pergamus, 47 B.C. 

ZELL (Hanover), see Denmark, 1772. 

ZEND-AVESTA, ancient sacred books of the 
Parsees; of which 3 out of 21 are extant. The 
age of these books is much disputed. Professor 
Max Miiller says that the MSS. had been preserved 
by the Parsee priests at Bombay, where a colony 
of fire-worshippers had fled in the 10th century. 
Anquetil Duperron's French translation, from a 
modern Persian version, was published in 1771 ; 
edition by Eugene Burnouf, 1829-43. 

ZENO or ZENON, see Stoics. 

ZENOBIA, Queen of the East, see Palmyra. 

ZENTA, in Hungary, the scene of a battle 
where the Germans, under prince Eugene, defeated 
the Turks, 11 Sept. 1697. This victory led to the 
peace of Carlowitz, ratified January, 1699. 

ZETETICAL SOCIETY, established in 
1S78, to afford opportunities for the unrestricted 
discussion of a variety of questions. 

ZETUNIUM. After defeating Samuel king of 
Bulgaria here, 29 July, 1014, the emperor Basil II. 
blinded his 15,000 prisoners, except one in a hun- 
dred, to whom he left one eye. The king died of 
grief. 

ZIDON, see Sidon. 



ZINC. The ore of zinc, calamine or spelter, 
known to the Greeks, who used it in the manufac- 
ture of brass. It is said to have been known in 
China also, and is noticed by European writers as 
early as 123 1 ; though the method of extracting it 
from the ore was unknown for nearly five hundred 
years after. The metal zinc is mentioned by 
Paracelsus (died 1541). A mine of zinc was dis- 
covered on lord Eibblesdale's estate, Craven, York- 
shire, in 1809. Zincography was introduced in 
London shortly after lithography became known in 
England, in 1 81 7; see Lithography. Zinc is much 
used in voltaic batteries; and its application in, 
manufactures has greatly increased of late years ; 
see Photozincography. 

ZINC OBTAINED IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. 

tons. value. 

l8 75- ■ ■ • 6,713 . . . 162,790/. 

l88 °- • • • 7. 162 • • . 123,544/. 

l88z - • • • 16,130 . . . 286,710/. 

l88 5- • • • 9.778 . . . 146,100/. 

1888. . . . 10,002 . . . 191,455/. 

l8 9°- • ■ • 8,582 . . . 203,358/. 

ZIECONIUM, the metallic base of the earth 
Zirconia, which was discovered by Klaproth in 
1789; from this Berzelius obtained the metal in 
1824. Zirconia is found in the sand of the rivers of 
Ceylon. The metal exists in the form of a black 
powder. 

ZIZYPHUS VTJLGAEIS. A shrub brought 
from the south of Europe about 1640. The 
Zizyphas Paliurus shrub (Christ's Thorn) was 
brought from Africa before 1596; see Flowers. 

ZODIAC. Its obliquity was discovered, its 
twelve signs named, and their situations assigned 
them by Anaximander, about 560 b.c. The Greeks 
and Arabians borrowed the zodiac from the Hindoos. 
Sir W. Jones. The zodiacal light was observed 
by Tycho Brahe, Descartes, and others, and named 
by Cassini, 1683. 

ZOLLVEEEIN {Customs' Union), the name 
given to the German commercial union, pro- 
jected by Prussia 1818, and gradually joined by 
nearly all the German states except Austria. On, 
19 Feb. 1853, an important treaty of commerce and 
navigation, between Austria and Prussia, to last 
from Jan. 1854 to Dec. 1865, was signed, to which 
the other states of the Zollverein gave in their ad- 
hesion on 5 April, 1853. In Nov. 1861, Prussia 
threatened to withdraw unless certain changes 
were made. By the treaty of 8 July, 1867, be- 
tween the North German confederation, and the 
southern states (Bavaria, "Wurtemberg, Baden, and 
Hesse), various changes were made, and by other 
treaties signed in Oct. these states agreed to send 
delegates to a customs parliament to be held at 
Berlin. A session of this parliament was opened 
by the king of Prussia, 27 April, and closed 23 May, 
1868. Federal chancellor, the count von Bismarck. 
Imports, 1882, valued at 158,235,000/.; exports, 
1882, 162,235,000/. 

ZOOLOGY (from zoon, Greek for animal) is 

the division of biology which treats of animals ; 

Aristotle (322-284 B.C.) the founder of the science. 

Systems of classification have been made by John 

Ray (1628-1705), Charles Linne (1707-78), G. 

Buffon (1707-88), and George Cuvier (1769-1832). 

Linnaeus divided the animal kingdom into six classes, 
—Mammalia, which includes all animals that suckle 
their young ; Aves, birds ; Amphibia, or amphibious 
animals ; Pisces, fishes ; Insecta, insects ; Vermes, 
worms ; 1741. 

Cuvier (died in Paris, 13 May, 1832), in his great work, 
Eegne Animal, published in 1816, distributed the 



ZOOPEAXISCOPE. 



1096 



ZULULAND. 



animals into four great divisions, the Vertebrata (back- 
boned); the Mollusca (soft-bodied); the Articulata 
(jointed) ; and the Radiate, (the organs disposed round 
a centre). 

In 1859, professor Owen made known a system of 
arranging the class Mammalia according to the nature 
of their brains. 

The Zoological Society of London (originally the 
Zoological Club) was founded in 1826 ; the society was 
mainly founded by sir Stamford Raffles, sir H. Davy, 
and its gardens in the Regent's Park were opened in 
April, 1827 ; the society was chartered 27 March, 
1829. 2072 animals in the gardens, 31 Dec. 1871 ; 
about 500 animals from India given by the prince of 
Wales, May, 1876. 

Dr. James Murie was appointed by the society to be 
their first "anatomical prosector," 3 May, 1865. 

New reptile house opened, 6 Aug. 1883. 1 Jan. 1892 : 

2,985 members ; total receipts, 24,054?. 

On the demolition of Exeter 'Change, in 1829, the 
menagerie of Mr. Cross was temporarily lodged in the 
King's Mews, whence it was removed to the Surrey 
Zoological Gardens, 1832. 

The Zoological Gardens of Dublin were opened, 1832. 

Zoological Station for study, open to the public, esta- 
blished at Naples by professor Anton Dohrn, opened 
1 Oct. 1873. 

Wombwell's (latterly Edmonds') great collection of 
trained animals sold, 29, 30 July, 1884. Bought by Mr. 
R. T. Barnum, Jan. 1S88. 

Mr. Charles Jamrach, who succeeded his father, an 
eminent importer of wild animals, which he supplied 
to the Zoological Society, and menageries, &c, died, 
6 Sept. 1891. 

See Aquarium, Hippopotamus, Giraffe, and Acclimatisa- 
tion, &c. 

ZOOPEAXISCOPE, optical apparatus in- 
vented by Mr. Eadweai-d J. Muybridge to exhibit 
photographs of moving animals, about 1881. 
The apparatus was successfuly employed at the Royal 
Institution (in the presence of the prince of Wales) 13 
March, 1882, and again in March and May, 1889; also 
at the Royal Society and other places in the same year. 
His great work on the subject was published in 1887-9. 

ZOENDOEFF, Prussia, where a battle was 
fought between the Prussian and Russian armies ; 
the former, commanded by the king of Prussia, 
obtained a victory over the forces of the czarina, 
whose loss amounted to 21,529 men, while that 
of the Prussians was about 11,000 : 25, 26 Aug. 
1758. 

ZOUAVES and Foot Chasseurs. When 

the French established a regency at Algiers, in 
1830, they hoped to find the employment of native 
troops advantageous, and selected the Zooaouas, a 
congregation of daring Arab tribes. In time, 
numbers of red republicans, and other enthusiastic 
Frenchmen, joined the regiments, adopting the 
costume, &c. : eventually the Africans disappeared 
from the ranks, and no more were added. Among 
their colonels were Lamoriciere and Cavaignac. 
The French Zouaves formed an important part of 
the army in the Crimean war, 1854-5.* 

ZUG, the smallest canton of Switzerland, joined 
the confederation, 1352, and the Sonderbund, 1846. 
Population, 1888, 23,029. 
Many persons killed by fall of about 27 houses into 

the lake of Geneva .... 5-7 July, 1887 

ZUIDEE ZEE, or South Sea, a gulf in 

the Netherlands, formerly a lake, united with the 
North Sea by inundations in the twelfth and 
thirteenth centuries. In 1875, the Dutch chamber 
voted 9,500,000/. to reclaim the submerged land by 

* The Zouave organization and drill wore introduced 
into the federal army in the great civil war in America, 
by Epliraiin E. Ellesworth, early in 1861. He was 
assassinated on 24 May same year, at Alexandria, just 
after taking down a secession Hag. 



drainage, and to erect a dyke, 26 feet high above 
the water, and 25 miles long; thus adding 759 
square miles to the country. The Dutch Texel 
fleet here surrendered to admiral Mitchell, 30 Aug. 
1799. 

ZUINGLIANS, or Zwinglians, the followers 
of the reformer, Uiric Zuingli, who at Zurich 
declaimed against the church of Rome, and effected 
the same separation for Switzerland from the papal 
dominion which Luther did for Saxony. He pro- 
cured two assemblies to be called ; by the first he 
was authorised to proceed, by the second, the 
ceremonies of the Romish church were abolished 
1519. Zuingli died in arms, being slain in a 
skirmish against Ms popish opponents, 11 Oct. 1531. 
The Zuinglians were also called Sacramentarians. 

ZULLICHAU (Prussia). Here the Russians, 
under Soltikow, severely defeated the Prussians 
under "Wedel, 23 July, 1759. 

ZULPICH, see Tolbiac. 

ZULU CELIBATE MILITAEY SYS- 
TEM, founded by Godongwana, confirmed by 
Chaka and Dingaan ; completed by Cety wayo. 

ZULULAND, South-east Africa; near the 
British colony, Natal, to which it has been annexed. 
In the last century, the Zulus were a peaceful 
pastoral people. 

Godongwana, a chief, (termed Dingiswayo, "the} 
Wanderer," from his early life,) began a military 
organisation by forming a celibate army ; killed 
in battle and succeeded by his vigorous and merci- 
less ally, Chaka, styled king, by whom Zulu 
supremacy was mainly established over the Fin- 
goes and other tribes about 1 812 

Chaka assassinated ; succeeded by his brother Din- 
gaan, crafty, treacherous, and cruel ; at first 
friendly with the British at Natal (which see) ; 
made treaty with capt. Allen Gardiner. 6 May, 1S35 

Massacres Retief, 70 Boers, and their servants 
(who had recovered his stolen cattle), 2 Feb., and 
about 600 afterwards ; defeats the British and 
Dutch in several encounters ; but is severely 
beaten by Andries Preterms . . . Dec. 1838 

Dingaan again defeated ; killed by one of his chiefs ; 
succeeded by his brother Umpanda, peaceful and 
crafty; who keeps peace with the Engl ish and 
Dutch 1840, ct seq. 

Cetywayo (pronounced Ketchwayo) his eldest son, 
kills his brothers ; succeeds at his father's death ; 
organizes still further his army, named by Frere 
"the celibate man-slaying war-machine" . Oct. 1872 

Recognized on behalf of the British by Mr. Shep- 
stone ; crowned 1 Sept. 1873 

Opposes missionaries ; organizes armed resistance 
to the British ; when remonstrated with for out- 
rages, defies them 1876 

Sir Bartle Frere, governor of the Cape, requests 
help from England ; 90th regiment and a buttery 
sent Jan. 1878 

Cetywayo refuses to give up leaders of a raid on 
British territory (in July) ; and tenders a line ; sir 
Bartle Frere, demands, as an ultimatum their 
surrender within 30 days . . . . Dec. ,, 

The time (extended) having elapsed, n Jan., the 
British, under lord Chelmsford, cross the Tugela 
and enter Zululand .... 12 Jan. 1879 

Col. Pearson defeats the Zulus and advances to 
Echowe (which he fortifies) . . .21 Jan. ,, 

British camp at Isandula or Isandlwana, about 10 
miles from Rorke's Drift (on the Tugela), sur- 
prised and attacked by about 15,000 Zulus ; 5 com- 
panies of the 24th regiment, and many natives 
killed ; with cols. Duniford and Pulleine, and 
other officers ; total loss about 837 ; 2000 Zulus 
said to have been killed ; (lieuts. Melville and 
Coghill perished while preserving the colours) 

22 Jan. ., 

Rorke's Drift severely attacked ; successfully de- 
fended by lieuts. Chard ami Broinhead 22 Jan. ,, 



ZULULAND. 



1097 



ZURICH. 



Zulus attack Inkanyana ; defeated by col. Evelyn 
Wood 24 Jan. 1879 

Reinforcements requested ; troops rapidly sent oft' 
from England .... 19 Feb. et saq. ,, 

Prince Louis Napoleon requesting to join the 
British, permitted to go as a guest ; sails 27 Feb. ,, 

Arrival of the Tamar with 800 men, &c, at Pieter- 
Maritzburg n March, ,, 

British convoy near Itombi river cut to pieces by 
Zulus ; waggons and stores captured ; capt. 
David Moriarty killed . . . .12 March ,, 

Cetywayo's brother Oham, with 600 men, joins the 
British ; announced . . . .18 March, „ 

Col. Evelyn Wood attacks the Zulus on the Zlobani 
mountains ; suffers much loss, 28 March ; gains 
victory at Kambula . . . .29 March, ,, 

British advance to relieve Echowe . 29 March, ,, 

Zulus defeated at Ginghilovo . . .2 April, ,, 

Col. Pearson marches out of Echowe . 2, 3 April, „ 

Sir Garnet Wolseley appointed commander-in-chief, 
governor of Natal, &c, sails for the Cape May, ,, 

British total loss ; 1186 killed ; 86 died of disease ; 
announced 27 May, ,, 

Cetywayo said to have suppressed an insurrection, 
and retired to his kraal (or village) at Ulundi, 

May, 

Reconnoitring party, under capt. J. Brenton 
Carey, on Imbabani, near the Mozani river, sur- 
prised ; prince Louis Napoleon (acting as com- 
mander) killed 1 June, „ 

Ultimatum sent to Cetywayo, requiring restitution 
of cannon, and total submission ; time expired, 

12 June, ,, 

Sir G. Wolseley arrives at the Cape . 23 June, ,, 

Stafford House South African aid committee formed, 

June, ,, 

Zulu raid on cattle ; which are recovered 25 June, ,, 

Sir Garnet Wolseley sworn in as high commissioner 
at Pietermaritzburg . . . 28 or 29 June, ,, 

Cetywayo totally defeated at Ulundi (ivMch see) ; 

4 Jul}', ,, 

Sir G. Wolseley receives chiefs . 12 July, et seq. „ 

Lord Chelmsford resigns . . . .15 July, ,, 

Sentence upon capt. Carey, respecting death of 
prince Napoleon, quashed . . .22 Aug. „ 

Pursuit of Cetywayo : captured by major Richard 
Marter . 28 Aug. „ 

Meeting of Sir G. Wolseley with Zulu chiefs ; settle- 
ment by treaty ; Zululand to be divided into 13 
independent districts ; John Dunn to be a chief ; 
lands reserved for the British ; British residents 
in each district (to be eyes and ears) ; celibate 
military system abolished ; no arms to be im- 
ported ; ancient laws and liberties retained ; 
[John Dunn, 20 years in Zululand ; conformed to 
Zulu ways] 1 Sept. „ 

Sir G. Wolseley's despatch, announcing end of the 
war, dated 3 Sept. „ 

Cetywayo arrives at Cape Town . . 15 Sept. ,, 

His petition to the Queen for restitution declined, 

about 11 July, 1881 

John Dunn energetically subdues a revolting chief 

about 30 July, ,, 

Cost of Zulu war, 4,922, 141Z. . . . . „ 

Sir Evelyn Wood visits Zululand and makes im- 
portant changes * Sept. ,, 

Reported fighting among the chiefs . . Nov. ,, 

The country reported quiet by John Dunn . Dec. ,, 

Cetywayo lands at Plymouth and proceeds to 
London 3 Aug. 188: 

Visited Mr. Gladstone 9 Aug. ; received by the 
Queen, 14 Aug. ; by the prince of Wales 16 Aug. ,, 

His restoration to part of his kingdom with restric- 
tions, proposed by the British government Aug. ; 
sails from Southampton .... 1 Sept. ,, 

Changes made in the territories previous to Cety- 
wayo's return, announced -. . .29 Dec. ,, 

Cetywayo's restoration accepted; proclaimed at 
Ulundi 29 Jan. 188; 

Struggle between Cetywayo and chiefs, announced 

25 April, ,, 

Cetywayo defeated by Oham and others with heavy 

loss, announced 16 May, ,, 

Mr. Fynn, British resident, resigns, announced 

June, ,, 

Cetywayo is attacked at Ulundi, by Usibepu, 20 
July ; and said to be killed . . 21 July, ,, 



Usibepu said to be all-powerful, Cetywayo a living 

fugitive, announced . . . .8 Aug. 1883 

Great battle ; Usibepu defeated by Cetywayo's 

supporters, announced . . .16 Aug. „ 

Cetywayo demands a British enquiry into his 

treatment, announced . . . .20 Aug. , , 
Cetywayo surrenders to Mr. Osborn, and is taken 

to Durban, about 15 Oct. ; at Ekowe . 5 Nov. „ 
Defeats of Usibepu by other chiefs . . Nov. ,, 

Flight, and recapjture of Cetywayo . 27, 28 Jan. 1884 
Zibedu defeats Usutus . . about 31 Jan. ,, 
Cetywayo dies of heart disease . . 8 Feb. ,, 

Much warfare March-May, ., 

Dinizulu, son of Cetywayo, crowned king by the 
Boers, in presence of 10,000 people ; grants an 
amnesty, and promises fidelity to the British 

21 May, ,, 
Usibepu, severely defeated by the Boers and 

Usutus, flies, announced . . .14 June, ,, 
A Boer republic established ; Joubert, president 

Aug. „ 
British flag hoisted at St. Lucia's bay . . Dee. ., 
Quietness in Zululand reported . . . Jan. 1886 
Proposed annexation of Zululand to Natal declined, 
Oct. ; British protectorate over the Zulu terri- 
tories planned by government . . Nov. ,, 
Agreement with the Boer republic announced, 

4 Nov. ., 
Annexation of Zululand as a British possession ; 
the governor to rule by proclamation, May ; 
proclaimed at Durban ... 21 June, 1887 
Troubles with Dinizulu announced 5 Nov. ; his 
uncle Undabuko and others submit to sir Arthur 
Havelock, announced 7 Nov. ; military prepara- 
tions ; Dinizulu submits, 13 Nov.; Usibepu 
reinstated in his lands . . . 15 Nov. ,, 
The chiefs attacked by the police and military 

for stealing cattle .... 2 June, 1888 
Zulu rebels under Ishingana defeated after a severe 

conflict 2 July, „ 

Rebellion of Dinizulu announced . . 11 July, ,, 
Somkeli, the rebel chief, surrenders ; announced 

1 Aug. ,, 
Dinizulu and about 1,000 rebels with cattle enters 
into the Transvaal territory, 10 Aug. ; revolt 
ended ; reported .... 29 Aug. ,, 
Dinizulu surrenders conditionally to the Transvaal 

government Sept. ,, 

Surrender of Undabuko, 19 Sept ; his trial began 

27 Sept. ,, 
Ishingana, rebel chief, surrenders . 12 Nov. ,, 
Trial of Undabuko and Somkeli for treason, began 

15 Nov. ., 
Dinizulu surrenders to the British . . Nov. .. 
Somhlolo sentenced to five years' hard labourer 

high treason 22 Nov. ,, 

Several chiefs convicted of high treason and 

sentenced to imprisonment for five years, 1 Dec. ,, 
Dinizulu sentenced to ten years', Undabuko to 15 
years', and Ishingana to 12 years' imprisonment, 
J 27 April, 18S9 

Douglas M'Kenzie, appointed bishop of Zululand 

in 1880, dies, announced ... 15 Jan. 1890 
Dinizutu, Undabuko, and others, transported to 
St. Helena ...... 7 Feb. „ 

General tranquility of the country, reported, 

2 April, ,, 

ZURICH was admitted a member and made 
head of the Swiss confederacy, 1351, and was the 
first town in Switzerland that separated from the 
church of Rome ; see Zuinglians. A grave-digger 
at Zurich poisoned the sacramental wine, by which 
8 persons lost their lives and many others were 
grievously injured, 4 Sept. 1776. The French, 
under Massena, after repelling an attack of the 
Austrians, retired from Zurich, 5 June, 1799. The 
Imperialists were defeated by Massena, the former 
losing 20,000 men in killed and wounded, 25, 
26 Sept. 1799; see Switzerland. A new democratic 
constitution was adopted, 18 April, 1869. Popula- 
tion, 1888 ; canton, 337,183 ; city, 90,088. 

On 24 June, 1859, the Austrians were defeated by the 
allied French and Sardinian army at Solferino. 



ZURICH. 



1093 



ZWITTATT. 



rreliminaries of peace were signed at Villa Franca by 
the emperors of Austria and France on 12 July 
following. 

A conference between the representatives of the powers 
concerned having been appointed, the first meeting 
took place at Zurich, on 8 Aug. 

After many delays a treaty was signed 10 Nov. Lom- 
bardy was ceded to Sardinia ; the formation of an 
Italian Confederation, under the presidency of the 
pope, was determined on, and the rights of the ex- 
sovereigns of Tuscany, Modena, and Parma were re- 
served. 

The formation of the kingdom of Italy in 1861 annulled 
the treaty of Zurich. 

Swiss National exhibition, 1 May — 27 Dec. 1883. 

The theatre destroyed by fire, no fatality ; attributed to 
an incendiary, 1 Jan. 1890. 



ZITTPHEN, in Holland. At a battle here 
22 Sept. 1586, between the Spaniards and the Dutch, 
the amiable sir Philip Sidney, author of "Arcadia," 
•was mortally wounded. He died 7 Oct. He was 
serving with the English auxiliaries, commanded 
by the earl of Leicester. 

ZTJYDEK ZEE, see Zuider Zee. 

ZTTYPER SLUYS (Holland). Here sir 
Ralph Abereromby defeated an attack of the French 
under Brune ; the latter suffered great loss, 9 Sept. 
1799. 

ZWITTATT, Moravia. Here the Prussians de- 
feated the Austrians and captured provisions, 
10 July, 1866. 



INDEX. 



The references are to articles in the body of the work ; the italics refer to articles in this Index. The year given is 
a.d. when B.C. is not mentioned ; two dates after the name, thus, 1508-82, signify the year of the person's birth 
and death ; 6., born ; d., died ; ft., flourished ; m., murdered ; k., killed. The year of the birth and death is 
given of many eminent persons who are not mentioned in the body of the work.] 

(Vincent's Dictionary of Biography was expressly compiled to give further details than tlwsc found in this Index.) 



Abbadies expl. Ethiopia, 1837-45 
Abbas, Persia 

Abbot, abp.; Canterbury, 1611 
Abbot, Charles; speaker, 1802 
Abbot & Moulin ; Thessalonica, 1876 
Abbott, E. ; concordance to Pope, 

1875 
Abd-el-Kader ; Algiers, 1835 
Abderahman I. — V., caliphs, 755- 

1023 
Abdul-Medjid, Turkey, 1839-61 
Abdul-Aziz, Turkey, 1839 
Abdul-Rahman (or Abdur-rahman) ; 

Afghanistan, 1863-81 
Abdul-Hamid ; Turkey, 1774, 1876 
Abdul-Kerim,Russo-TurkishWar,II. 

1877 
Abel, sir P. A., glyoxiline, 1866, gun 

cotton, explosives, Imperial Inst. 
Abel Oghlan, Dzoungeria, 1864 
Abelard, d. 1142; Abelard, theology 
Abercorn, Jas. marquis of, 1811- 

1885; Ireland, Id. lieut., i866;(duke) 

1874 
Abercromby, Jas., speaker, 1835 
Abercromby, sir R., 1738 - 1801 ; 

Trinidad, Alexandria 
Aberdeen, earl of, 1 784-1860; Aber- 
deen adm., note ; Gladstone Adm. 

1886 
Abernethy, J., surgeon, 1764-1831 
Abingdon, earl of; trials, 1794 
Abinger, Id., att.-geu., 1827; ex- 
chequer 
Abney, capt. ; photography, 1882 
Abou Saoud ; Egypt, 1872 
About, Edm. F. C, Nov. 1828-85 ! 

France, 1872 
Abrantes, duke of; see Junot 
Absalom, killed 1023 B.C. 
Abubeker; Ali, 632 
Acacius, Acacians, henoticon, 482 
Accum, F. ; adulterations, 1822 
Achilli n. Newman ; trials, 1852-3 
Achmet ; see Ahmed 
Acilius; statues, temples 
Ackermann, R. ; lithography, 1817 
Acland, Arthur, Gladstone adm. 

1892 
Acron; aeromatics, 473 B.C. 
Acton, Mrs., Royal Inst., 1838 
Actuarius ; purgatives, 1245 
Adair, serj.; Junius, 1769 
Adalbert, St.; Prussia, 997 
Adam; duels, 1779 
Adam, R. and bros., architects 

1728-92 
Adam, W. M. ; mensuration 
Adam, W. P. ; Madras, 1880, whip 

Gladstone adm., 1880 



Adams r. Coleridge, trials, 1886 

Adams, J. C, mathemat. 1819-92; 
Neptune, 1845. 

Adams ; J. (1797) and J. Q. (1825), 
United States (presidents) 

Adams v. Dundas; trials, 1831 

Adderley, Mr.; Birmingham, 1856 

Adderley, sir C. ; Disraeli adminis- 
tration. 1874 

Addington, H.,1757-1844; Addington. 

Addison, Joseph, 1672-1719, Spec- 
tator, 1711; Stanhope administra- 
tion, 1717; allegory, Clio, clubs 

Adelais ; Adelaide ; England, queens 
(Henry I., William IV.) 

Adeodatus; pope, 672 

Adolphus, Frederic ; Sweden, 1751 

Adrian, Rome; emperor, 117; edicts, 
persecutions; popes 

Aetius, Aetians 

iEgeus; Athens, 1283 B.C. 

iEgineta, Paulus ; surgery, 640 

iEgisthus; Mycense, 1201 b.c. 

jEmilianus; Rome, 146 B.C. 

iEneas; Italy, Alba, 1182 B.C. 

iEschines, Gk. orator, 389-314 B.C. 

jEschylus, Greek tragedy, 525-456 
B.C.; drama 

jEsop; fables (about 600 B.C.) 

Afranio, bassoon 

Africanus ; see Scipio 

Agamemnon; Mycenae, 1201 B.C. 

Agatliocles, d. 289 B.C.; Carthage, 
Sicily, Syracuse 

Age, proprietor of; trials, 1844 

Agesander ; Laocoon 

Agesilaus; Sparta, 398 B.C. 

Agis; Sparta, 427 B.C. 

Agnew, Mr. Vans ; India, 1848 

Agnodice ; midwifery 

Agricola; Britain, d. 93; Lancaster, 
Caledonia, Roman wall 

Agricola, John, d. 1566; Antino- 
mians 

Agrippa, d. 12 B.C.; Pantheon, 27B.C. 

Ahmed I.— III.; Turkey, 1603, et se^. 

Ahmed Vefik, Turkey, 1878 

Aholiab; sculpture 

Ainsworth, W. H., Nov. 1805-82 

Airy, Sir G. B., 1801-92; Greenwich, 
'835 : pendulum, standard, Royal 
Society, 1871 ; Albert medal, 1876 ; 
sun 

Aislabie, Mr.; Sunderland adminis- 
tration, 1718; South Sea 

Akbar, India; 1556 

Akenside, Mark, poet, 1721-70 

Alacocque, M. M. ; sacred heart 

Alamayou, Abyssinia, 1868 

Alarie. d. 410; Rome, France 



Albemarle, Geo. Monk, duke of, 

1608-70; administration, 1660 
Alberoni, card., 1664-1752; Spain, 

I 7 I S 
Albert ; Austria, Bohemia, Germany, 

Hungary 
Albert I., assassination, 1308 
Albert (prince consort), 1819 - 61 ; 
England, 1840; regency bill, duel- 
ling 
Albert Edward; England (royal 

family), Wales 
Albert Victor, prince, duke of Clar- 
ence and Avondale, 1864-92; Wales 
Albertus, Magnus ; automatons 
Alboin the Longobard, killed 573 
Albrecht; Austria, 1866; Custozza 
Albuquerque (viceroy), d. 1515; In- 
dia, 1503 
Alcantara, gen.; Venezuela, 1876 
Alcibiades, killed 404 b.c; Athens 
Alcippe; Areopagitai 
Alcock, Mr. ; duelling, 1807 : sir R., 

Japan 
Alcuin (theologian), about 725-804 
Aldebert; impostors, 743 
Aldhelme; Salisbury, 705; ballads 
Alectus; Britain, 294 
Aleko pasha, Roumelia 
Alenqon, due d'; Agincourt, 1415 
Alexander of Paris ; Alexandrine 
Alexander the Great, 356-323 b.c. ; 
Macedon, Egypt, Gordon, Tyre, 
Memphis 
Alexander Severus ; Rome, em., 222 
Alexander I., d. 1825; Russia, 1801; 

Austerlitz, 1805 ; Leipsic, 1813 
Alexander II., Russia, 1855, assassi- 
nations 
Alexander III. ; Russia, 1881 
Alexander ; Scotland (kings) ; Pope 
Alexander, sir W. ; Nova Scotia, 

1722 
Alexius, East (emperors), 1081-1203 
Allien, Victor, Ital. poet, 1 749-1803 
Alfred the Great, 849-901 ; Ashdown, 
England, councils, clocks, crown, 
militia 
Alfred, prince ; Godwin, 1053 
Alfred, duke of Edinburgh, b. 1844 ; 
aquarium, England (royal family), 
music, Plymouth. 
Alibaud ; France, 1836 
Alice, princess, 1843-78 ; England ; 

royal family ; Hesse ; diphtheria 
Ali Pacha ; Rosetta ; Turkey, 1820 ; 

Albania 
Alison, Arch., hist., 1792-1867 ; — 
sir A. (soldier), Ashautees, 1874 
Egypt, 1882 



1100 



INDEX. 



Allcard v. Skinner, trials, 1887 
Allen, R., post-office, 1720 
Allen and others ; Fenians, 1867 
Alleyne, Edwd., d. 1617 ; Dulwich 
Allibone, Dr., bibliography, 1859 
Almagro ; Abancay, 1537 
Almansour ; Bagdad, 762 
Almeida, L. ; Madagascar, 1506 
Alphonso ; Sicily, Spain, Portugal 

(kings) 
Alsop, Joseph ; trials, 1839 
Althorp, vise. ; Grey administration, 

1830 ; Melbourne, 1835 
Alumayu, Abyssinia, 1868-79 
Alva, duke of, 1508-82 ; Antwerp, 

Holland 
Alvanley, lord ; duel, 1835 
Alvinzi, marshal ; Areola, 1796 
Alyattes ; Lydia, 761 B.C. 
Alypius of Alexandria ; dwarfs 
Amadeus, Savoy ; annunciation 
Amadeus, duke of Aosta, h. 1845 ; 

king of Spain, 1870-3 
Amalric, pantheism 
Ambrose, St., d. 397; anthems, Te 

Deum, liturgies 
Ambrosius ; Stonehenge 
Amenophis ; Egypt, 1821 B.C. 
Americus Vespucius, 1451-1516; 

America, note 
Amherst, lord; China, 1816 ; India, 

1823 
Ammianus Marcellinus, Lat. hist., 

d. 390 
Amontons, W. ; 1663-1705, telegraphs 
Amos, prophesies about 787 B.C. 
Ampere, O. M., 1775-1836; electricity 

(galvanism and telegraph) 
Amulius ; Alba, 974 B.C. 
Amurath ; Turkey, Beyrout 
Amyntas : Macedon, 540 b. c. 
Anacharsis, 592 B.C. ; anchors, 

bellows 
Anacletus ; pope, 78 
Anaereon, Gr. poet, ft. abt. 557 B.C. 
Anastasius ; pope ; East ; emperors 
Anaxagoras, 480 B.C. 
Anaximander, 547 B.C. ; maps 
Anaximenes, 548 B.C. ; air 
Andersen, Hans C, Dan. novelist, 

1805-75 
Anderson, J. ; slavery (in United 

States), 1853 ; Wizard of the North, 

masquerade, 1856 
Anderson, Mrs. physic, 1865 
Anderssen, chess, 1851-70 
Anderwert, M. ; Switzerland, 1880 
Andrassy, count Julius, 1823-90 ; 

Hungary, 1867 
Andre, maj. ; United States, 1780 
Andrew ; Hungary, kings 
Andrews, H., d. 1820; almanacs 
Andrews v. Salt ; trials, 1873 
Andronicus, 240 B.C. ; drama 
Andronicus; Eastern empire, n 13, 

1328 
Angela, St. ; Ursuline nuns, 1537 
Angerstein, J., d. 1823 ; National 

Gallery 
Anglesey, Henry, marquis of, 1768- 

1854 ; Ireland (lord-lieutenant), 

1828, 1830 
Angus, earl of ; Linlithgow 
Anjou, Plantagenet, Jarnac, 1569 ; 

Naples, 1266 
Ankerstrdm (kills Gustavus III.), 

Sweden, 1792 
Anna, Santa ; Mexico, 1853-76 
Anne of Brittany, d. 1514 ; maids of 

honour 
Anne of Austria, d. 1666 ; iron mask 
Anne, queen, b. 1664 ; England, 1702- 

14 ; semper eadem 
Ansell, G. ; fire-damp, 1865 
Anselm, abp. ; Canterbury, 1093 
Anson, admiral; Acapulco, 1744; 

naval battles, 1747 
Anson, general ; India, 1857 



Anthony ; monachism, 4th century ; 

—arson, 1871 
Antigonus ; Ipsus, 301 B.C. ; profiles 
Antiochus I. — X., 280-65 B.C. ; Syria, 

Jews, 170 or 168 b.c. 
Antipater ; Cranon, 322 B.C. 
Antisthenes ; cynics, 396 B.C. 
Antonelli, card. 1806-76; Rome, 1848 
Antonelli case, Italy, 1877-8 
Antoninus Pius, Rome, emperors, 

138 ; Roman wall 
Antony, Mark, d. 30 ; Rome, 43 B.C.; 

Armenia, Philippi, 42 b.c. ; Aetium, 

31 B.C. 
Anviti, col., killed ; Parma, 1859 
Apelles, painter, 352-308 B.C. 
Apollodorus ; Trajan's pillar, 114 
Apollonius ; Syria, 168 B.C. 
Appian, hist., ft. about 147 
Appius Claudius ; Rome, 449 B.C. ; 

aqueducts, decemviri, Virginia 
Applegath ; printing machines 
Apries ; Egypt, 571 B.C. 
Apsley, Id. ; North adminis., 1770 
Apuleius, Latin novelist, d. 174 
Aquinas, Thos., theol., d. 1274 
Arabi Bey ; Egypt, 1881-2 
Arago, I). F., nat. phil., 1786-1853 
Aram, Eugene; trials, 1759 
Aratus ; Achaia, 245 b.c. 
Arbogastes ; Aquileia, 394 
Arcadius and Honorius ; eastern and 

western empire, 395 
Arch, J. ; agriculture, 1872 
Archdale, J., quaker, 1699 
Archelaus ; Cappadocia, 20 B.C. ; 

Macedon, 413 b.c. 
Archemorus ; NemEean games 
Archer, F. S. ; collodion, 1851 
Archidamus ; Sparta, 648 b.c. 
Archilochus, 708 b.c. ; Iambic verse 
Archimedes, 287-212 B.e. ; circle, 

cranes, mechanics, mensuration, 

organs, reflectors, screw, spheres 
Arch y tas ; math., about 400 B.C.; 

automaton, pulley 
Ardesoif, Mr. ; cockfighting, 1788 
Ardgillan, lord ; Disraeli adni., 1874 
Aretin, Gui ; musical notes, 1025 
Arfastus, chancellor, 1067 
Arfwedson, Mr. ; lithium, 18 17 
Argyll, duke of ; Dunblane, 1715 ; — 

Gladstone adm., 1868, 1880 
Ariarathes ; Cappadocia (kings) 
Axiobarzanes, 322 b.c. ; Cappadocia, 

93 B.C. 

Ariosto, L. Ital. poet, 1474-1533 
Aris, gov. ; prisons, 1800 
Aristarehus, 156 B.C. ; sun, globe 
Aristce.us ; conic sections, 330 B.C. 
Aristides the Just, d. 468 B.C. ; 

Athens 
Aristippus; Cyrenaic sect, 392 B.C. 
Aristocrates ; Arcadia, 715 b.c 
Aristodenras ; biarehy, 1102 B.C. 
Aristophanes, d. 380 B.C. ; comedy 
Aristotle, 384-322 B.C. ; Aristotelian 
philosophy, acoustics, botany, 
Macedon, mechanics, metaphysics, 
philosophy 
Arius, </. 336 ; Allans 
Arkwright, R., 1732-92 ; cotton, Man- 
chester, spinning 
Arles-Dufour ; see Ditfour 
Arlington, lord ; cabal, 1670 
Armati ; Rome, 1875 
Arminius, or Hermann ; Teutoburg, 9 
Arminius, J., d. 1609; Arminians, 

Dort 
Armitage, sir E. ; Manchester, 1876 
Armstrong, sir W. G. ; electricity, 

1840 ; cannon, 1859 
Al'ne, T., music composer, 1710-78; 

Rule Britannia 
Avnim, II.; Germany,Prussia,iS74-8i 
Arnold, gen. ; United States, 1780 
Arnold, Matthew, poet, 1S22-88 ; 
culture 



Arnold, Dr. Thos., hist., 1795-1842 
Arnott, Neil, 1788-1874 ; stove, 1821 

bed, 1830 ; ventilators 
Arrian, hist.,/?. 148 
Arsaces; Arsacidse, Parthia, 250 B.C. 
Arsenius, Arsenians, 1261 
Artabazus ; Pontus, 487 B.C. 
Artaxerxes ; Persia kings) 
Artemisia; mausoleum, 350 B.C. 
Artemon; battering-ram, 441 b.c 
Arthur, king ; Britain, 506 
Arthur, prince ; Connaught, 1874 
Artois, count d' ; duelling, 1778 
Arundel, abp. ; Canterbury, 1397-9 
Arundel, Henry, earl of; adminis- 
trations, 1547; Thos., Arundelian 
marbles 
Ascanius ; Alba, 1152 B.C. 
Ascham, Roger, 1515-1568; archery 
Asdrubal ; see Hasdrubal 
Aselli, G. ; lacteals (1622), lymphatics 
Ash, Dr. ; Birmingham, 1766 
Asgill, Mr. ; translation, 1703 
Ashbourne, Id. chancellor, (Ireland), 

1885-1886 
Ashburton, lord ; Ashb. treaty, 1842 
Ashe, gen. ; Briar's creek, 1779 
Ashford, Mary ; appeal, 1818 
Ashley, lord ; cabal, 1670 
Ashley, sir Arthur ; cabbages 
Ashton, colonel ; Wigan, 1643 
Aske; pilgrimage of grace, 1536 
Aslett, Rob. ; exchequer bills, 1803 
Aspden, J. ; Portland cement 
Aspinall ; trials, 1876 
Asquith, IL; Gladstone adm., 1892. 
Assheton, Wm. ; clergy charities 
Astley, lord ; Naseby, 1645 
Aston, sir A. ; Drogheda, 1649 
Astyages ; Media, 594 b. c. 
Athanasius, d. 373 ; Athan. creed 
Athelstan ; England (king), 924 ; 

mint, 928 
Athemcus, Greek, ft. 228, quotations 
Atherton. sir Wm., att. gen., 1861 
Athol, duke of; Man, sold by, 1765 
Athothes ; hieroglyphics, writing 
Atlay, bp., Hereford, 1868 
Atossa ; marriage by sale 
Attalus, d. 197 b.c. ; seven churches 

(Pergamus), parchment 
Atterbury, bp. F. ; banished, 1723 
Attila ; Hungary, Chalons, 451 
Attwood, B. ; hospitals 
Attwood, T. ; chartists, 1838 
Atwood, G., d. 1807 ; Atwood's ma- 
chine 
Atwcll, W. ; trials, 1857 
Auber, D., music composer, 1784-1871 
Auchmuty, sir Samuel ; Batavia, 

1811 ; Monte Video, 1807 
Auckland, Id. bp. ; Bath and Wells, 

1854 
Auckland, lord ; Grey administration, 

1830 ; India, 1835 
Audiffret, see D'Audiffret 
Audubon, J. J., 1780-1851 ; birds 
Auerbach, B., Ger. Nov., 1805-82 
Augereau, gen. ; Castiglione, 1796 
Augustenburg, duke of; Denmark, 

1863 
Augustin, St. (of Hippo), 354-430 
Augustin the monk, abp. Canterbury, 

602 ; Rochester 
Augustus (emperor); Rome, 27 B.C. ; 

praitorian guards ; calendar 
Aulus Gellius, Latin misc.,/. 169 
Aumale, due d' ; France, 1871-2 ; 

Orleans ; assassinations 
Aurelian ; Rome, emp. 270 : Ale- 

manni 
Aurelius ; Rome, emp. t6i 
Aurelle de Paladines, Franco-German 

war ; d. 1877 
Aurungzebe ; India, 1658 
Ausonius, Lat. poet, d. 394 (?) 
Austin ; see Augustin 
Austin, capt. ; Franklin 



Austin, W. ; trials, 1855 

Austria, John of; Lepanto, 1571 

Averroes, med. writer,;?. 1149-1198 

Avicenna, med. and phil., 980-1037 

Avisa ; queens (John) 

Ayeslia, Mahomet's widow ; camel, 

day of, 656 
Ayoob or. Ayoub Khan ; Afghanistan, 

Herat, and Candahar 
Ayrton, A. A. ; Gladstone adm., 1868 

— W. harmonica 
Azeglio, marchese d' ; Italian patriot, 

1800-66 
Azim ; Affghanistan, 1863 



B. 



Babbage, C, 1792-1871 ; calculating 

machine 
Babcock, general, United States, 1876 
Baber; India, 1525 
Babeuf, d. 1791 ; agrarian law 
Babrius ; fable 
Babyngton (which see), 1586 
Bach, A. ; resonator 
Bach, J. Sebastian ; passion music ; 

music, 1685-1750 
Bachelier, M. ; encaustic, 1749 
Bacciocchi, princes Piombino 
Baclinieier, A.; pasigraphy, 1871 
Back, G. ; north-w. passage, 1833 
Bacon, P., lord, 1561-1626; lawyers, 

aeronautics 
Bacon, sir Nicholas; keeper, Id., 

1558 ; baronet 
Bacon, John, sculptor, 1740-99 
Bacon, Roger, 1214-1292 ; astrology, 
camera lucida, loadstone, magic- 
lantern, magnet, optics, spectacles 
Bacon, T. P. ; trials, 1857 
Badcock, Mr, ; vaccination 
Baedeker, M. ; guide books 
Baez, B. ; Hayti, 1859-68 
Baffin, W. M.; Baffin's Bay, 1616 
Bagehot, Walter, essayist, 1826-77 
Baggallay, sir R. ; solicitor-general, 
1873 ; attorney-general, 1874 ; jus- 
tices, lords, 1875 
Bagnal, lieut. ; duel, 1812 
Bagot, bishop; Oxford, 1829 
Bagot will case, trials, 1878 
Bagration, pr.; Mohilows, 1812 
Bagster, Miss M. ; trials, 1828 ; E. lon- 
gevity, 1877 
Bailey, rev. W. ; trials, 1843 
Baillie, col.; Arcot, 1780 
Baillie, general; Alford, 1645 
Baillie, Joanna, poet, 1762-1851 
Bailly, M., philos., executed, 1793 
Bainbrigg, abp.; York, 1508 
Bain, A. : education society 
Bainbridge, W. ; flageolet 
Baines, sir Edward ; Leeds, 1890 
Baines, M. T.; Palmerston adm. 1855 
Baird, sir David ; Cape, 1806 ; Scringa- 

patam, 1799 
Bajazet; Turkey, 1389 
Baker, B. ; Forth bridge 
Baker, colonel; Bull's Bluff, 1861 
Baker, H. ; Bakerian lecture, 1765 
Baker, sir S. W.; Africa, 1864; Egypt, 
slave trade, 1869-74 ; col. V., 
trials, 1875 ; Russo-Turkish war 
II., 1878 ; Egypt, 1882 ; Soudan, 
1883-4 
Baker v. Loder ; trials, 1872 
Baker, gen. ; Char-asiab 
Baker pasha ; Turkey, 1879 ; Egypt, 

Soudan, 1883-4 
Balard, M. ; amylene, 1844 
Balchan, admiral; Aldemey, 1744 
Baldwin I. — V.; Jerusalem, 1100-85; 

East Flanders 
Baldwin, prof. ; balloons, 1887-8 
Bales, P. ; caligraphy 
Balfe, M. W., mus. comp., 1808-70 



INDEX. 

Balfour, A. J., 6. 1848; Salisbury 

adm., 1885, 1886, Glasgow 
Balfour, John; Scotland, 1679 
Ball, John ; Alps 

Ball, J. T. ; chancellor (Ireland), 1874 
Ballarat, Melbourne, 1854 
Ballard, John; Babyngton's con- 
spiracy, 1586 
Ballasteros, gen. ; Ximena, 181 1 
Balliol, Edw. ; Scotland, kings, 1329 
Balliol, John; Scotland, 1293; Ox- 
ford, Dunbar 
Balmaceda, Jose M. ; Chili, 1886-91 
Balmain, W. H. ; luminous paint 
Balmerino, lord ; rebellion, Scotland, 

1745; trials, 1746 
Baltimore, lord; America, 1632; 

trials, 1768 
Bancroft, abp. ; Canterbury, 1604 
Bancroft, G., Am. hist., 6. 1800 
Bancroft, Mr. and Mrs., theatres 

(Haymarket) 
Bandmann, M. ; trials, 1878 
Banks, sir J., 1743-1820; hort. soc, 

Royal Institution, 1799 
Bannerman, H. C; Gladstone adm., 

1880, 1886, 1892 
Bannister, Mr., actor; retired, 1815 
Bar, due de ; Agincourt, 1415 
Baradseus ; Eutychians, Jacobites 
Baranelli, L. ; trials, 1855 
Barante, A. G. de,Fr. hist., 1787-1866 
Barantz, north- west passage, 1594 
Barbarossa, Fred. I.; emp. Germany, 

1152-90 
Barbarossa, d. 1546; Tunis, Algiers 
Barbauld, Mrs. A. L., 1743-1825 
Barber, Fletcher, Saunders, and 

Dorey: trials, 1844, and note 
Barberini ; Portland vase 
Barbey, M.; France, 1883 
Barbou; printers, 1539-1813 
Barbour, J.; trials, 1853 
Barbour, John, Scot, poet, 1316-95 
Barclay, capt. ; pedestrianism, 1809 
Barclay, Perkins, <fe Co. ; porter 
Barclay, Rob., 1648-90; quakers 
Barhain, lord; admiralty, 1805 
Baring, Alex.; Peel administ. 1834; 

sir F. ; London Inst. 1805 ; Russell 

adm. 1846 
Baring, Mr. ; Egypt, 1879 
Barings (firm) ; London, 1890 
Baring, sir Evelyn ; India, 1880 ; 

Egypt, 1883 
Barker, J. T. ; Beaumont trust 
Barker, Robert; panorama, 1788 
Barkly, sir H. ; cape, 1870 
Barlaam; Barlaamites, 1337 
Barlow; clocks, 1676 
Barlow, rev. J.; Royal Institnt., 1842 
Barlow, sir G.; India (governors), 

1805 
Barlowe, William; compass, 1608 
Barnard, general; India, 1857; judge, 

United States, 1872 
Barnardo, Dr., Barnardo's homes, 

coffee-palaces 
Barnes, T., 1785-1841; Times 
Barnett, Geo. ; trials, 1816 
Barnum, P. T., 6. 1810 ; American 

showman, elephants, menagerie 
Baroux, M. ; scratin 
Barraud and Lund : clocks, 1878 
Barre, Isaac ; Rockingham adminis- 
tration, 1782 
Barrett ; Cumberland, naval battles, 

181 1 ; Fenians, 1868 
Barrie, capt. ; naval battles, 1811 
Barrington, bp. ; Durham, 1791 
Barrington, Mr.; duel, 1788 
Barrington ; trials, 1790 
Barrios, gen. R.; Guatemala, 1873; 

America, Central, 1885 
Barrot, Odilon, 1791-1873 ; France, 

1848 
BaiTow, Isaac, theol. and philos., 

1630-77 



1101 

Barry, sir Charles, architect, 1795- 
1860; parliament, note; Reform Club 
Barth, Dr.; Africa, 1849 
Barthelemy, E. ; trials, 1855 
Bartholdi, M., sculptor; United 

States, 1884 
Bartlet, W. M.; trials, 1882 
Barton, Bernard, poet, 1784-1849 
Barton, Dr. ; insurance, 1667 
Barton, Elizabeth; impostor, 1534. 
Baschi, Matt.; Capuchins, 1525 
Basil, St., d. 380; Basilians 
Basil ; East. emp. 867 ; Russia 
Basilowitz ; Russia, czars, 1462 
Bass, M. T., Derby 
Bastendorff ; trials, 1879 
Bastian, Dr., spontaneous generation 
Bateman, J. F. ; Glasgow, 1859 ; tun- 
nels, 1869; water, 1867 
Bates, M. van Buren ; giants. 1871 
Bates, W. ; United States, 1872 
Bath, earl of; Bath admin., 1746 
Bathou; Transylvania, 1851, efce. 
Bathurst, bp. ; Norwich, 1805 
Bathurst, earl ; Liverpool administra- 
tion, 1812 
Bathyllus ; pantomimes 
Batman, J.; Victoria, 7835 
Batthyany; Hungary, 1848 
Battus; Cyrene, 631 b.c. 
Baudin, M. Chas. ; France, 1851 
Baumbos, C. E. ; mutinies, 1876 
Baume, areometer, 1768 
Baumgarten; aesthetics, 1750 
Bavaria, elector of; Ramilies, 1706 
Baxter.sirD. 1793-1872; Dundee, 1863 
Baxter, miss M. A.; Dundee, 1882 
Baxter, G. ; printing in colours, 1836 
Baxter, Rd., theologian, 1615-91 
Baxter v. Langley ; trials, 1868 
Bayard, chevalier, killed, 1524 
Bayle, P., d. 1706; dictionary, 1697 
Bayley, lieut.; duel, 1818 
Baynard, Geoffrey; combat 
Bazaine, marshal, 1811-1888; Mexico, 
1863-6 ; Franco - Prussian war, 
1870-1 ; Metz ; France, 1873-4 » 
1883 
Bazalgette. J. W., 1819-91; sewers, 

Thames 
Beach, sir M. H., Disraeli adm. 1878 ; 

Salisbury adm., 1885, 1886 J 
Beaconsflekl ; see Disraeli 
Beadon, bishop ; Bath, 1802 
Beamish, capt. , trials, navy, 1871 
Bean aims at the queen : trials, 1842 
Beaton, card. ; assassinations, 1546 
Beattie, Jas. ; poet, 1735- 1803 
Beauclere, lord Charles, drowned 

while assisting at a wreck, 1861 
Beauehamp, Henry de ; Wight 
Beauchamp, John de ; barons 
Beaufort, cardinal, d. 1447 
Beauharnais, Eugene, 1781-1824 ; 
Italy, 1805 ; Mockern — Hortense, 
" Partant pour la Syrie" 
Beaulieu, general; Lodi, 1796 
Beaumont, col.; air, 1880 
Beaumont, sir G., painter, 1753-1827; 

National Gallery 
Beaumont, Mr. ; duel, 1821-1826 
Beaumont ; viscount, 1440 
Beau Nash ; Bath, ceremonies 
Beauregard. P. G., b. 1818; United 

States, 1861 
Beaurepaire, gen.; Verdun, 1794 
Beauvoir, sir J. de; trials, 1835 
Beers, Dr. ; la Crosse 
Beck, T. ; volunteers, 1881 
Beckett, T., m. 1170; Becket 
Beeket (Denison), sir E. (aft.) lord 
Grimthorpe ; bells, locks, trials, 
1881, Albans, St. 
Beekford, W. ; Fonthill abbey 
Beckwith, Agnes ; swimming, 1876 
Bedborough, A. ; aquarium, 1876 
Bede, Venerable, d. 735 
Bedford, duke of; duel, 1822 ; Ireland. 



1102 

lord-lieutenants, 1490-1757 ; France, 
1422; admiralty, 1744; nobility, 1470 

Bedinglield, Ann; trials, 1763 

Beeby, William ; longevity 

Beecher, rev. H. ; United States, 

J874-5 
Beeching, J.; lifeboat, 1851 
Beethoven, L., mus. comp.,1770-1827; 

sonata 
Begum charge ; Chunar, 1781 
Behem, Martin; Azores 
Behmeu ; see Bohme 
Behnes, Wm., sculpt., 1800-64 
Behring, d. 1741 ; Behring's straits 
Bela; Hungary, kings 
Belasyse, lord L. ; adm., 1687 
Belcher, sir E., 1799-1877 ; circum- 
navigation, 1836; Franklin 
Beleredi, count Rd., 6. 1823; Austria, 

1865 
Belisarius, d. 565 ; Africa, east emp. 
Belknap, gen. ; United States, 1876 
Bell, And., 1752-1832; Lancasterian 

schools 
Bell, sir C, 1774-1842; nerves 
Bell, Henry; steam, 1812 
Bell, John Any Bird, the boy ; 

trials, 1831. 
Bell, Mr. ; cattle, 1873 
Bell, A. Melville ; visible speech 
Bell, A. Graham ; telephone, 1877 ; 
photophone, graphophone, phono- 
graph 
Bell, rev. Patrick; reaping machine, 

1826 
Bellamont, lord; duel, 1773 
Bellamy ; trial, 1844 
Bellarmine, card., 1.1542-1621 
Bellingham, Perceval adm., 1812 
Bellingham, sir Daniel, (mayor of 

Dublin), 1665 
Bellini; Ital. music, 1802-35 
Bellot, lieut., d. 1853; Franklin 
Belochus; Assyria, 1446 B.C. 
Belt v. Lawes ; trials, 1881 et seq., 

1886 
Beltcheff, M. ; Bulgaria, 1891 
Belus; Assyria, 2245 B.C. 
Belzoni, J. B., traveller, d. 1823 
Bern, gen. Joseph, d. 1850; Hungary 
Benbow, adm.; naval battles, 1702 
Benedek, L., 1804-81 ; Kbniggratz 
Benedict, Benedictines; popes, 574- 

1758 
Benedict, sir Julius, mus. 1804-85 
Bennett, James ; Africa, 1872 
Bennett, sir John ; alderman, 1877 ; 

London, 1877 
Bennett, sir Wm. Sterndale ; mus., 

1816-75 
Benson and others ; trials, 1877 
Benson, bp. ; Truro, 1877 ; Canter- 
bury, 1883 
Bent, Theodore ; Mashona 
Bentham Jer. (1748-1832); savings' 
banks; deontology; panopticon ; 
utilitarianism 
Bentinck, lord Gr., 1802-1848; protec- 
tionists. 
Bentinck, G. A. F. C. ; judge advo- 
cate, 1875 
Bentinck, Id. W. ; Assam, India, 1827 ; 

Suttee 
Bentley, Rd., scholar, 1662-1742 
Beranger, J. P. de, poet, 1 780-1 857 
Berengaria, queen (of Richard I.), (7. 

1230 
Berengarius ; fete de Dieu 
Berenger, Butt, lord Cochrane, and 

others ; trials, 1814 
Beresford, lord; Albuera, 1811 
Beresford, lord J.; suicide, 1841 
Beresford, Wm.; Derby adm., 1852 
Beresford, lord C. ; Soudan, 1885 
Berg, gen.; Poland, 1863 
Bergeret, gen.; France, 1871 
Beriot, Ch. A. de ; was., 1802-70 
Berkeley; trials, 181 1, 1858 



INDEX. 

Berkeley, hon. C. ; duel, 1842 

Berkeley, G. ; Antigua, Leeward Isles, 
1874 

Berkeley, lord; admiralty, 1717 

Berkeley, lord; America, N., 1644; 
Brest, 1694 ; Carolina 

Berlioz, L. H., Fr. mus., 1803-69 

Bernadotte, 1764-1844; Dcnnewitz, 
Sweden (king) 

Bernard, Claude, Fr. physiologist, 
1813-78 

Bernard, St., 1091-1153 

Bernard, S. ; trial, 1858 

Bernard, sir Thomas ; British Inst,, 
1805 ; Royal Institution, 1799. 

Bernini, G. L., Ital. artist, 1598-1680 

Berri, duke and duchess of; France, 
1820 & 1833, assassinations 

Berrington, rev. J. ; trials, 1873 

Berry, lieut ; trials, 1807 

Berry, G. ; Victoria, 1875 

Berryer, P. A., Fr. advt., 1790-1868 

Berthelot, P. M., b. 1827; acetylene, 
defiant gas, 1862 

Berthier, gen. ; marshal, 1753-1815 

Berthollet, C. L., Fr. chemist, 1748- 
1822 ; chlorine 

Berthon, rev. E. L.; life-boat, 1882 

Bertie, lady G. C. ; lord great cham- 
berlain 

Berwick, duke of, d. 1734 ; Landen, 
Almanza, Newry 

Berzelius, Jas., 1779-1848 ; chemistry, 
silicium 

Besant, Mrs. A. ; trials, 1877 

Bessel, F. ; stars 

Bessemer, H. ; iron, steel, steam, 
steam-gun 

Bessus ; Persia, 331 B.C. 

Best, capt. ; duel, 1804 ; Surat, 161 1 

Beswick, F.; trials, 1869 

Bethell, bp. ; Gloucester, 1824 

Bethell, commander, marriage, 1888 

Bethell, sir R. , solicitor-gen., 1852, 
attorney-gen. , 1859 ( see Wesibury) 

Bethencourt ; Canaries, 1400 

Betty, master ; theatres, 1804 ; 
Roscius 

Beul^ ; France, 1874 

Beust, F. F. v., 1809-1886; Austria, 
1866 

Bevern, prince ; Breslau, 1757 

Bewick, T., 1753-1828 ; wood en- 
graving 

Bexley, Vansittart, lord ; Liverpool 
administration, 1812 

Beza, Theodore, theologian, 1519- 
1605 

Bialobrzeski, abp. ; Poland, 1861 

Bianconi, C, d. 1875 ; carriages 

Biekersteth, R., bp. ; Ripon, 1856 

Bickersteth, E. H., bp.; Exeter, 1885 

Biddulph, sir R.; Cyprus, 1881 

Bid wells and others ; trials, 1863 

Bidwell, S. ; telephotography 

Biela, W. von, comet, 1826 

Big Sam ; giants, 1809 

Bingley, lord ; Oxford adm. 1711 

Binney, rev. Thos., 1798-1874 

Birch, J. W. ; Straits. 1875 

Birch, S., 1813-85 ; biblical 

Birchall, J. R. ; Canada, 1890 

Bird, I. ; Japan 

Birde, W. ; canon 

Birkbeck, Dr. G., 1776-1841; mecha- 
nics' institutes 

Biscoe, capt. ; southern continent, 
1832 

Bishop ; burking, 1831 

Bishop, A. ; derrick, 1857 

Bishop, sir H. 1786-1855 ; music, 
ancient concerts ; home 

Bishop, Irving ; thought reading 

Bishop, J. F. ; Italy, 1862 

Bismarck, O. von, "b, 1813; Prussia, 
1862-76; France, 1870-3; Franco- 
Prussian War, Germany. 

Black, Dr. ; duel, 1835 



Black, Jos. ; chemist, 1728-99 ; mag- 
nesia, air, balloon 
Blackburn, abp. ; York, 1724 
Blackall, Mr. ; Queensland, 1868 
Blackstone, sir W, 1723-80 ; law 
Blackwood, S. A. ; post-office secre- 
tary 
Blades, Wm. ; printing 
Blaine, James ; Panama, United 

States, 1884-1892 
Blair, Hugh, 1717-1800 ; rhetoric, 
verse ; — John, chronologist, d. 1797 
Blake, adm. R., 1599-1657; Algiers, 
Dover straits, Portland isle, Santa 
Cruz 
Blakesley, Robt. ; trials, 1841 
Blanc, Louis, 1811-82; France, 1848 
Blanchard; balloon, 1784-1819 
Blan chard, Laman ; suicide, 1845 
Blanchard, T. ; timber bending, 1855 
Bland's Silver Bill, U. States, 1878 
Blandy, Miss ; trials, 1752 
Blanqui, France, 1872-79 
Bligh, captain ; bread fruit tree ; 

Adventure bay, Bounty mutiny 
Bligh, captain, v. Mr. Wellesley Pole ; 

trials, 1825 
Bligh, Mr. ; trials, 1806 
Blizard, sir W.; Hunterian soc. 
Blomfield, bp. ; Chester, 1824 ; 

London, 1828 
Blondin ; crystal palace, 1861 
Blood, col., d. 1680; Blood, crown 
Blood, Mr. ; trials, 1832 
Bloomer, Mrs. ; dress, 1849 
Bloomfield, R., poet, 1 766-1823 
Blucher, marshal, d. 1819 ; Jan- 

villiers, Ligny, Waterloo 
Blum, R., shot in 1848 
Blumenbach, J. F. ; physiol., 1752- 

1840 
Blundell, lieut. ; duel, 18 13 
Blunt, Wilfred ; Egypt, 1882-3 
Boabdil, Abencerrages 
Boadicea, d. 61 ; Britain, Iceni 
Boardman, captain; duel, 18 11 
Boccaccio, 1313-75; Decameron 
Boccold, John, anabaptists, 1534 
Boddington ; trials, 1797 
Boden, col; Sanscrit, 1832 
Bodley, T. ; Bodleian lib., 1602 
Boehm, J. E., Tyndale mem. 
Boerhaave, H., med. writ., 1668-1738 
Boethius, killed, 524 
Bcettcher (Bottcher) ; Dresden chin;* 

1700 
Bogle v. Lawson ; trials, 1841 
Bohme, or Behmen, J., mystic, i6is> 
Bohemia, king of, "Ieh Dien;" 

Crecy, 1346 
Boileau, Nic, Fr. poet, 1636-1711 
Bois de Chene, Mdlle. ; beards, 1834 
Bolam, Mr. ; trials, 1839 
Bolckow, H. W. ; Middlesborough 
Boldero, capt. ; duel, 1842 
Boleslas ; Poland (kings), 992 
Boleyn, Anne ; England (queen Hen. 

VIII.) 
Boleyn, earl of Wiltshire; adminis- 
trations, 1532 
Bolingbroke, lord ; Oxford adminis- 
tration, 1 711; deism; schism act, 

1713 
Bolivar, gen., 1 783-1830; Columbia 
Bolland, Acta Sanctorum, 1643 
Bonaparte family ; France 
Bonaparte, P.; France, 1870;— Napo- 
leon, Jerome ; France, 1859-72 
Bonar, Mr. and Mrs. ; trials, 1813 
Bouaventura, 1221-74 ; conclave 
Bonavisa, Anthony ; distaff, 1505 
Bond ; magnetism, 1668 
Bond, E. A. ; Brit. Museum, 1S78 
Bond, prof. ; photography, 1851 
Bonelli; electric loom, 1854 
Bonheur, Rosa, Fr. painter, b. 1822 
Bonneehose, Emile de, Fr. hist. 
1801-74 



INDEX. 



1103 



Bonner, bishop of London ; adminis- 
trations, 1554 
Bonnet, C, Fr. naturalist, 1720-93. 
Bonnet-Duverdier ; France, 1877 
Bonny castle, J., mathematician, d. 

1821 
Bonpland, A., naturalist, 1773-1858 
Bontou and others ; France, 1882 
Bonwell, rev. J. ; trials, i860 
Boole, G. ; logic 
Boon, colonel; America, 1754 
Boosey: copyright, 1854; Dunniow, 

1876 
Booth, B. ; book-keeping, 1789 
Booth, Wilkes, assassin ; U. States, 

1865 
Booth, Mr. ; theatres, 1817 
Booth, W. ; salvation army 
Bopp, F., Ger. linguist, 1781-1867 
Borde, Andrew ; Merry-andrew 
Borden, Gail ; milk, meat 
Borelli ; mechanics, 1679 
Borghese, H. ; diamond 
Borgia, Caesar, killed, 1507 
Boroimhe, Brian ; Ireland, 1014 
Borowlaski, ct. ; dwarf, 1739-1837 
Borrington, lady ; trials, 1808 
Borromeo, abp. Carlo, 1538-84 ; Milan, 

1576 
Borrowes, major; trials, 1888. 
Borton, sir A.; Malta, 1878 
Boscan, Span, poet, abt. 1496-1544 
Boscawen, adm., 1711-60 ; Lagos 
Bosquet, marshal, 1810-61 ; Inker- 

mann, 1854 
Bossuet, J., Fr. theol., 1627-1704 
Boswell, sir A. ; duel, 1822 
Boswell, James, 1740-95, "biography 
Bosworth, rev. Jos., Ang.-Sax. 

scholar, 1790-1876 
Bothwell, earl of ; Scotland, 1567 
Bottle conspirators ; trials, 1839 
Bouch, sir T. ; Forth ; Tay bridge 
Bouchet, Anthony ; illuminati 
Bouchier ; Canterbury, abp. 1454 
Bouffiers, Fr. marshal; 1644-1711 
Bougainville, d. 181 1 ; circumnavi- 
gation, New Hebrides 
Bouill6, marquis de ; Eustatia, 

1781 
Boulanger, gen. G., 1837-91 ; France, 

1886-91 
Boulby, Mr. ; China, i860 
Boulton, Mat., d. 1809 ; Birmingham 
Boulton and others, trials, 1871 
Boulton and Watt ; coinage, 1788 
Bourbaki, gen. ; Franco-Pruss. war, 

1870-1 
Bourbon family ; Bourbon, duke of ; 

duels, 1778 
Bourgeois, sir F. ; Dulwich, 1813 
Bourke, sir R. ; Victoria, Australia, 

1831 
Bourmont, marshal ; Algiers, 1830 
Bourne, Sturges ; Canning adminis- 
tration, 1827 
Bousfield, W. ; executions, 1856 
Bovill, sir W., 1814-73; com. pleas, 

1866 ; trials, 1871-72 
Bowdler, C. A. ; balloons, 1874 
Bowen, sir G. F. ; Queensland, 1859 > 

Victoria, 1873 
Bower, Mr. Elliott ; trials, 1852 
Bower, G.; gas light, 1884 
Bowes, Miss ; Strathmore, 1766 
Bowley, R. ; crystal palace, 1870 
Bowman, sir William ; Royal Insti- 
tution 
Bowring, sir John, scholar, &c, 

1792-1872 ; Canton, China, Siam 
Bowstead, bishop ; Lichfield, 1843 
Bowyer, bp. ; Ely, Chester, 1812 
Boxall, sir W. ; national gallery 
Boyd, captain ; duel, 1808 
Boyd, Hugh ; Junius 
Boydell, aid., d, 1804; British In- 
stitution 
Boyle, earl of Orrery ; orrery 



Boyle, Rob., 1626-91 ; phosphorus, 

Royal Society 
Boyle, Henry ; Godolphiu adminis- 
tration, 1702 
Boyton, capt., life-boat, &c, 1875 
Brabant, duke of; merchants, 1296 
Braddock, gen. ; Fort Duquesne 
Brabazon, lord, hospital Saturday, 

1874 ; playgrounds 
Bradbury, H. ; nature-printing, 

1855-6 
Bradlaugh, C. ; Northampton, 1874 ; 

trials, 1877, et seq. ; parliament, 

1880-4; oaths, 1880-9 
Bradley, admiral ; trials, 1814 
Bradley, G. G. ; Westminster (dean), 

1884 
Bradley, Jas., 1693-1762 ; aberration, 

astronomy, Greenwich 
Bradwardine, abp. ; Canterbury, 

1349 
Brady, capt. ; China, 1874 
Braganza, John of : Portugal, 1640 
Bragg, gen. ; United States, 1862-3-76 
Braham, John, singer, 1774-1856 ; 

theatres 
Brahe, Tyeho, 1546-1601 ; astronomy, 

globe 
Braid wood. Jas. ; fires, fc. 1861 
Bramah, J., 1749-1814; hydrostatics, 

plauing-machine, lock (addenda) 
Brain well, sir Frederick J.; Royal 

Institution 
Bramwell, baron George, judge, 

1808-92 
Brand, H. B., speaker, 1872-84 ; 

visct. Hampden, 1884 
Brande, W. T., chemist, 1788-1866 ; 

Royal and London Institutions 
Braniireth, the Luddite ; Derby 

trials, 1817 
Brandt, count ; Zell, 1772 
Brandt ; cobalt, phosphorus, 1667 
Brantome, P., historian, 1527-1614 
Brassey, lady, book (cheap); d. 1887 
Brassey, Thos. ; rail, eng., 1805-70 
Brasidas; killed, Amphipolis, 422 B.C. 
Braun, K. nephoscope, 1868 
Bravo case, Bravo, 1876 
Bray, Dr. ; Bray's associates 
Breadalbane peerage ; trials, 1866-7 
Breakspeare, Nicholas; pope, 1154 
Brederode, H. de ; gueux, 1566 
Bremer, sir Gordon ; China, 1840 
Bremer, Fred., novelist, 1802-65 
Brendon, St. ; Clonfert, 558 
Brenn, captain ; Hibernia, 1833 
Brennus ; Rome, 390 b.o. 
Brereton, col. ; Bristol, 1832 
Brereton cases ; railways, 1881-4 
Bressa, C. A. ; Bressa prize 
Bresson, count ; suicide, 1847 
Brett, J. W. ; submarine telegraph, 

1845 

Brett, sir W. B., solic. gen. 1868 ; 
master of rolls, 1883 

Brewster, sir David, nat. phil., 1781- 
1868 ; kaleidoscope, British asso- 
ciation ; lithoscope 

Bridges, Mr.; pceul. people 

Brie, Mr. ; duel, 1826 

Bridgeman, Laura, blind 

Bridgewater, earl ; admiralty, 1699 

Bridgewater, duke of, 1736-1803; 
Bridgewater Canal 

Bridport, lord ; L'Orient, 1795 

Brienne, M. de ; notables, 1788 

Bright, corpulency, 1809 

Blight, John, 1811-89 : England; 
Auti-corn-law league, Adullam, 
agitators, peace congress ; Glad- 
stone adm., 1868, 1880 

Bright, sir Charles T. ; electrician, 
1832-88 

Bright, T. ; shorthand 

Brindley, Jas., 1716-72; tunnels, 
Bridgewater canal, Barton 

Brinklett; trials, 1828 



Brinvilliers, madame de, executed, 

1676 ; poisoning 
Bristol, mayor of ; trials, 1832 
Bristol, John, earl of ; administ. 1621 
Brock, C. F., fireworks 
Brodie, sir B. C, surgeon, 1783-1862 ; 

— (son) chemist, b. 1817; graphite, 

1862 ; ozone 
Broglie, due de ; France, 1873, 1879 
Broke, captain; Chesapeake, 1813 
Brome, Adam de ; Oriel, 1337 
Bromley, sir Thomas-; administra- 
tions, 1579 
Brongniart, A., geol., 1770-1847 
Brooke, sir James, 1803-68 ; Borneo 
Brooks, prof.; oysters 
Brothers, R., d. 1824 
Brough, M. A. ; trials, 1854. 
Brougham, H., 1779-1868 ; chancellor, 

charities, impeachment, social 

science 
Broughton v. Knight, trials, 1873 
Broughton, lord, 1786-1869 ; Russell 

adm., 1846, 1851 
Brown, gen. ; Prague, 1751 
Brown, H., trials, 1858 
Brown, sir J. ; iron, 1867 
Brown, captain John ; United States, 

1859 
Brown, Mrs. ; fountain, 1875 
Brown, R., d. 1630; Brownists, 

independents 
Brown, Rob, botanist, 1773-1858 

Browniau 
Brown, W., 1783-1864 ; Liverpool, 1857 
Browne, American gen. ; Chippawa, 

1814 ; Fort Erie 
Browne, col. H., China, 1874 
Browne, George ; Dublin, 1554 
Browne, Hannah ; trials, 1837 
Browning, R., poet, 1812-89 
Browning ; Mrs. E., 1809-1861 
Brownrigg, Eliz. ; trials, 1767 
Brownrigg, gen. ; Candy, 1815 
Bruck, baron ; Lloyd's, note 
Bruce, David ; Scotland, king, 1328; 

Nevill's cross, 1346 
Bruce, Edward ; Dundalk, 131 8 
Bruce, H. A. ; Gladstone adm. 1868 
Bruce, Michael; Lavalette, 1816 
Bruce, Robert, d. 1329 ; Scotland, 

king, 1306 ; Bannoekburn, 1314 
Bruce, com. ; Lagos, China, 185 1 
Bruce, V. , traveller, 1730-94; Africa, 

Bruce, Nile, Palmyra 
Brucher, Antonio ; coinage, 1553 
Brudenell ; trials, 1834 
Brueys, admiral; Nile, 1798 
Brunck, anthology, 1772-6 
Brunei, I. K., 1769-18/19; blocks, 

steam, Thames tunnel 
Brunei, I. K., jun., 1806-59; steam 
Brunetti, prof. ; burning dead, 1874 
Bruno, d. hoi ; Benedictines, Char- 
treuse, Cologne, turnery 
Brunswick, duke of; Valmy, 1792; 

Quatre Bras, 1815 
Brunt, Davidson, Thistlewood, Ings, 

and Tidd ; Cato-street, 1820 
Brush, C. F. ; electric light, 1878-9 
Brutus, Lucius Junius; consuls, 

Rome, 508 
Brutus and Cassius ; Philippi, 42 B.C. 
Bryan (or Brian) Boroimhe ; harp, 

Clontarf, Ireland, 1014 
Bryant, Win. C, Am. poet, 1784-1878 
Bryce, James ; Ararat, United 

States, 1888 
Bubb ; opera-house, 1821 
Buceleuch, duke of ; Granton 
Buchan, captain ; N.-W. passage, 

1819-22 
Buchan, M. ; Buchanites, 1779 
Buchanan, J., 1791-1868 ; pres. U. 

States, 1856, 
Buchanan v. Taylor ; trials, 1876 
Buckhurst, Thomas, lord; adminis- 
trations, 1599 



1104 

Bueklrarst peerage ; trials, 1876 
Buckingham, Stafford, duke of; 

constable, 1521 
Buckingham, G. Villiers, duke of; 
administrations, 161 5, 1621; dress : 
killed, 1628 
Buckingham, duke of; cabal ministry, 
1670 ; Peel administrations, 1841 ; 
duel, 1822 ; — (&. 1823) ; Disraeli 
adm. , 1868 ; Madras, 1875 
Buckingham, marquis of; Ireland, 

lord lieutenant, 1787 
Buckinghamshire, earl of; Liverpool 

administration, 18 12 
Buckland, F. ; fisheries, 1863 
Buckland, rev. W. ; geologist, 1784- 

1856 
Buckle, H. T. ; historian, 1822-62 
Buckle, capt., Amoaful, 1874 
Bufalmaco ; caricatures, 1330 
Buffet ; France, 1873-6 
Buffon, G., 1707-88 ; geology, zoology, 

!749 
Bugeaud, marshal, 1784-1849 ; Mo- 
rocco, 1844 
Bulkeley, bishop ; Bangor, 1553 
Bull, J., " God save the King," 1606 
Bull, G., bishop, 1634-1710 
Bulwer, see Lytton, Id. 
Bulwer, sir H. E. ; Natal, 1875 
Bunbury, E. H. ; geography 
Bunning, J. B. ; coal-exchange, 1849 
Bunsen, baron C. J. ; Germ. hist. 

and phil., 1791-1860 
Bunsen, R. ; voltaic pile, 1842 ; spec- 
trum, i860 
Bunyan, J., 1628-88; Bedford, alle- 
gory, pilgrim's progress 
Buonarotti, Michael Angelo, 1474- 

1564 
Burbage, James ; plays, drama 
Burdett, sir F., 1770-1844; duel, 
1807 ; riots, trial, 1820. See Coutts 
Burdock, Mary Anne ; trials, 1835 
Burdon, Mr. : trials, 1841 
Burdwan, rajah of; Calcutta, 1878 
Burger, G. ; Germ, poet, 1748-94 
Burgers, T. F. ; Transvaal, 1872 
Burgess, bishop ; David's, St. 1825 ; 

Salisbury 
Burgh, Hubert de ; Whitehall 
Burgoyne, gen. ; Saratoga, 1777; sir 
J. F. 1782-1871 ; capt. H., Captain, 
1870 
Burke, Edmund, 1729-97 ; Rocking- 
ham administrations, 1782; Canada, 
Junius 
Burke, sir J. B., b. 1815; armorial 

bearings, heraldry 
Burke, R. ; Fenians, 1867-8 
Burke and Wills ; Australia, 1860-3 
Burleigh, lord ; administrations, 1558 
Burlington, Rd. earl of, 1695-1753 
Burmanu, P., thesaurus 
ISuru, H. & others, trials, 1886 
Burnaby, col. F. A. ; balloons, 1874 ; 

Kliiva ; Soudan, 1885 
Burnes, sir A., murdered ; India, 

1841 
Burnet, Dr. ; antediluvians 
Burnet, bp. Gilbert, 1643-1715 
Burnett, Mr., d. 1784; Burnett prizes 
Burns, R., Scot, poet, 1759-96 
Burnslde, gen. A. ; U. States, 1862 
Burr, colonel ; duel, 1804 
Burrows, gen. J. ; Afghanistan, 1880; 

Maiwand 
Burton, P. W. ; national gallery, 1874 
Burton, Robt. (Anat. of Melancholy), 

1576-1640 ; quotations 
Burton, Richd. F., sir, 1821-90; 

Arabian Nights ; Midian 
Bury, Richard de; libraries, 1341 
Bute, earl of, 1713-92 ; Bute adm. 
Butler, bp. S. ; Lichfield, 1840 
Butler, bp. J., 1692-1752 
Butler, captain; Silistria, 1854 
Butler, Sam. (Hudibraa), abt. 1612-80 



INDEX. 

Butler, gen. B. ; New Orleans, 1862 

Butt, Mr. ; trials, 1871 

Butt, I., 1873-79; Ireland, home-rule, 

1871-8 
Buttevant ; viscount, 1385 
Button, sir Thomas ; N.-W. passage, 

1612 
Buxton, Mr. ; trials, 1829 
Buxton, sir T. F., 1786-1845 ; prisons, 

1815 
Buxton, E. N., metropolitan school 

board, 1881 
Byng, adm. J., exec. 1757 ; Gibraltar, 

Byng, 1757 
Byrne, Miss ; riot, 1819 
Byron, comm. ; port Egmont, 1765 
Byron, George, lord, poet, 1788-1824 ; 

Greece, Missolonghi, swimming ; 

Byron national memorial, 1875 
Bysse, Dr. ; music (festivals) 



Cabot, Sebastian and John; Ame- 
rica, 1497 

Cabral, Alvarez de ; Brazil, 1500 

Cabrera, general ; Ramon, 1810-77 ; 
Spain, 1840 

Cade, Jack; Cade's insurrection, 

1450 
Cadell, Captain; Australia, 1867 
Cadmus, 1453 B.C.; alphabet, Boeotia 
Cadogan, earl; Salisbury adm., 1886 
Cadogan, captain; duels, 1809 
Cadwallader; Britain, 678 
Csecilius Isidorus ; slavery in Rome, 

12 B.C. 

Csedmon ; Anglo-Saxons, 680 
Csesar, Julius, 100-44 b.c; Rome, 
Britain, calendar, ides, Dover, 
Pharsalia, Rubicon, Zela 
Csesar, Octavius, 63 b.c. -14 a.d. ; 
Rome, Actium, massacres, tri- 
umvirate, Philippi, emperor 
Csesalpinus; blood, circulation, 1569 
Cagliostro, d. 1795; diamond neck- 
lace 
Cailletet, air, gases, 1877 ; hydrogen 
Caird, sir James, agriculturist, 1816- 

92 
Caird v. Syme ; trials, 1887 
Cairns, Hugh, earl, 1819-85, att.-gen. 

1866, lord chan. 1868-1874 
Cairns, W. W. ; Queensland, South 

Australia 
Cairoli ministry, Italy, 1878, 1879-81 
Caithness, earl of; steam-carriage, 

i860 
Calaphilus; wandering Jew 
Calas, J., judicially murdered, 1761 
Calder, sir Robt. ; naval batt., 1805 
Calderon, P., Span, dramatist, 1601-87 
Calderon, Peru, 1881 
Calepino; dictionaries, 1500 
Calhoun, Mr.; temperance soc., 1818 
Caligula; Rome, emperor, 37 
Calippus; Calippic period, 330 B.C. 
Calixtus, pope; Calixtins, 1656 
Callaghan, T. ; Falkland isles, 1876 
Callan ; trials, 1874, 1880 
Callcott, J. W. ; music. 1 766-1821, 

glee-club 
Callicrates ; calligraphy 
Callimachus; abacus, architecture, 

Corinthian, 540 B.C. 
Callinicus; Greek fire, wildfire 
Callisthenes ; Chaldean, Macedon, 

328 B.C. 
Calonne; notables, 1788 
Calthorpe, Id.; Birmingham, 1857 
Calverly ; pressing to death, 1605 
Calvert, F. Crace, d. 1873 ; carbolic 

acid 
Calvert and Co. ; porter, 1760 
Calvin, John, 1509-64; Calvinism 
Cambacerfes; directory, 1799 
Cambridge, dukes of; Cambridge 



Cambridge, George, duke of, 6. 1819; 

com. -in-chief, 1856; army, 1872 
Cambyses; Egypt, Persia, 525 B.C. 
Camden, lord; chancellor, Perceval 

adm., 1809; exchequer, Ireland 

(lord-lieut.) 
Camden, W., antiquary, 1551-1623 
Camelford, lord; duel, 1804 
Cameron, H. I.; trials, 1858 
Cameron, V. L. ; Africa, 1872 
Cameron, consul; Abyssinia, 1863 
Camillus, Rome; 391 B.C. 
Camoens, Port, poet, 1524-79 
Campbell, bishop ; Bangor, 1859 
Campbells; disciples of Christ, 1812 
Campbell, sir C. ; see Clyde 
Campbell, John, lord i78i(?)-i86i ; 

attorney - general, king's bench, 

chancellor, Palmerston 
Campbell, J. F., sunshine recorder 
Campbell, Rev. J. ; trials, 1863 ; 

Campbellites, 1831 
Campbell, major; duel, trials, 1808 
Campbell, capt.; marriages, forced. 

1690 
Campbell, Thos., poet, 1777-1844 
Camper, Peter, 1722-89; facial angle 
Campion ; trials, 1857 
Campos, M. Carthagena, 1873 ! Spain* 

1874, Cuba 
Canaris ; Greece, 1863-4-77 
Canaletti, Yen. painter, 1697-1768 
Canby, gen.; killed, Modoc, 1873 
Canning, George, 1770-1827; Can- 
ning, duel, 1809; grammarians, 

king's speech ; anti-jacobin 
Canning, viscount, 1812-62; India, 

1855 
Canova, A., sculptor, 1757-1822 
Canovas del Castillo, A. ; Spain, 

1874-6 
Cantillon ; wills (Napoleon's), 1821 
Canton, J., d. 1772; phosphorus, 

phosphorescence, magnetism 
Cantor, Theod. ; Cantor lectures, 

1853 

Canute; England, 1017; Alney 

Cape Town, Gray, bp. of; Africa, 
1866; Church of England 

Capel, H. ; admiralty, 1679 

Capet family; France, 987 

Capo d'Istria, count ; Greece, 1831 

Caprivi, G. von, count, b. 1831 ; Ger- 
many, 1890 

Car; augury 

Caraealla; Rome, emp. 211 ; Ale- 
manni 

Caracci, L., painter, 1555-1619; An., 
1568-1609 

Caraccioli, adm., executed, Naples, 
1799 

Caractacus; Britain, 50 

Caraffa, bishop; Theatines, 1524 

Carapanos, M.; Dodona 

Carausius; Britain, 281 

Cardan, J., 1501-76; algebra 

Carden, Mr.; trials, 1854 

Cardigan, lord; duel, 1840; trials, 
1841 and 1863; Balaklava, 1854 

Cardross case ; trials, 1861 

Cardwell, Edward, visct., b. 1813 ; 
Palmerston adm., 1855-59; Glad- 
stone adm. 1868 ; army, 1872 

Carey, bishop; St. Asaph, 1830 

Carey, James ; Ireland, 1883 

Carleton, sir Guy ; U. States, 1782 

Carlingford, lord ; Gladstone adm., 
1880 

Carlier, fire-annlhilator 

Carlile, R.; atheist; trials, 1819, 
1831 

Carlisle, earl of; Ireland, lord-lieu- 
tenant, 1859 

Carlos, don ; Spain, 1S33-73 

Carlyle, Thos., phil. and hist., 
1795-1881; Carlyle 

Carmarthen, marquis of; adminis- 
trations, 1689 



Carnarvon, earl of; Salisbury acini., 

1885; Disraeli admin., 1874 
Carnegie, Andrew ; Edinburgh, 1890 
Carnot, L., French mathematician, 

1753-1823 
Carnot, M. Sadi ; France, 1886 
Caroline; queen (George II.), parks 
Caroline; queen (George IV.), Bran- 
denburg-house, delicate investiga- 
tion 
Carpenter, W. B., physiologist, 

1813-85 ; deep sea 
Carpenter, W. Boyd ; bp. Bipon, 

1884 
Carpenter, gen.; Preston, 1715 
Carr, bishop; Worcester, 1831 
Carr, Howell ; national gallery, 1824 
Carrol, balloons, 1878 
Carre; congelation, i860 
Carstares, rev. W. ; thumbscrew 
Carte, D'Oyly ; Savoy 
Cartier; America, 1534 
Cartier, Bichard; alchemy, 1476 
Carteret; circumnavigator, 1766 
Carteret, lord; "Walpole adm., 1721 
Carthage, St.; Lismore, 636 
Cartwright, major; trials, 1820 
Carvilius, Spurius; divorces, 231 

B.C. 

Casati, G. ; Africa, 1891 
Casella, L. ; thermometer, 1861 
Cashin, Miss; quackery, 1830 
Cashman; Spafields, riots, 1816 
Casimir; Poland 

Cassagnac, P. de ; duels, France, 1877 
Cassander; Macedon, 316 b.o 
Cassivelaunus ; Britain, 54; chariots 
Cassini, 1625-1712; astronomy; Bo- 
logna, latitude, Saturn, 1655 
Cassius; Philippi, 42 B.C. 
Castanos ; Spain, 1852 
Castel, M.; Dartmouth, 1404 
Castelar; Spain, 1869-73. 
Castillo, Canovas del Spain, 1879 
Castlereagh, lord; union with Ire- 
land, 1800; Pitt admin., 1804; 
Liverpool admin., 1812 ; duel, 1809 ; 
suicide, 1822 
Castner, H. Y. ; Solium, Aluminium 
Catesby, Rob.; gunpowder, 1605 
Catch v. Shaen, trials, 1870 
Cathcart, Id.; Copenhagen, 1807 
Cathcart, general ; Kaffraria ; Inker- 

mann, 1854 
Cathcart, Mrs. ; trials, 1891 
Catherine ; England (queens, Hen. 

V., VIII, Charles II.) 
Catherine; Russia, 1725; Odessa; 

Sebastopol 
Cato (the censor) ; agriculture ; 149 
B.C. ;— (the tribune), kills himself, 
46 b. c. 
Catullus, poet, d. abt. 47 B.C. 
Catulus ; Cimbri, 101 B.C. 
Caulaineourt ; Chatillon, 1814. 
Caus, S. de ; steam-engine, 1615 
Cautley, sir P., 1802-71 ; Ganges, 

1854 
Cavagnari, L. ; Afghanistan, 1878-9 
Cavaignac, general ; France, 1848 
Cavalier, camisards 
Cavaliere, Emilio di; opera, recita- 
tive, 1600 
Cave, S.,judge-advocate,i874; Egypt, 

1875-6. 
Cavendish, circumnavigator, 1586 ; 

" Whist " 
Cavendish, H, 1731-1810 ; balloons, 
electricity, chemistry, nitrogen, 
hydrogen, water 
Cavendish, John de ; judges, 1382 
Cavendish, lord Frederick ; Glad- 
stone adm., 1880; murdered, Ire- 
land, 1882 
Cavendish, lord John ; Portland ad- 
ministration, 1783 
Cavendish, W. ; Devonshire, 1618 
Cavill, Mr. ; swimming 



INDEX. 

Cavour, Camille de, 1809-61 ; Sar- 
dinia, Austria, Italy 
Caxton, Wm., about 1412-91 ; print- 
ing 
Cayley, sir G. ; heat 
Caylus, count; encaustic painting, 

1765 
Cecil, Wm. ; administrations, 1572 
Cecrops ; Athens, 1556 B.C. 
Celeste, madame ; theatres, 1844 
Celestin ; popes, 1143 
Celman, Dr. : Argentine republic, 

1890 
Celsus ; midwifery, &c, 37 
Cerdic ; Britain (Wessex) 
Cerinthus ; apocalypse 
Cernuschi, H. ; bi-metallism 
Cervantes, M. S., 1547-1616 ; don 

Quixote 
Cespedes, C. M. de ; Cuba, 1868 
Cetywayo, (Zulu chief) ; Transvaal, 

Zululand, 1872-81, Ulundi 
Chabannes, ecorcheurs, 1438 
Chacornac ; planets, 1853 
Chad, St. ; baths, 667 
Chadwick, sir E., 1800-90; sanitation 
Chaffers, Alexander, statutory decla- 
ration 
Challoner, T. ; alum, 1608 
Chalmers, Dr. T., 1780-1847 
Chamberlain, Joseph, Gladstone adm. 
1880, 1886 ; bankrupts ; Merchant 
shipping Act ; fisheries, United 
States, 1887, radical programme 
Chamberlain, sir N. ; Afghanistan 

1878, Khyber 
Chambers, W. O., fish, 1884 
Chambers, bishop ;Peterborough,i54i 
Chambers ; encyclopaedia, 1728, 1859 ! 
Chambers' journal; — R., 1802-71; 
— W., 1800-83 ; Edinburgh, 1883 
Chambers, John Gray; Aberdeen, 

1890 
Chambers, sir T. ; recorder, 1878 
Chambers, sir William ; Somerset- 

house, 1775 
Chambord, comte de, 1820-83 ; France, 

1870-6 ; flag 
Chancellor, R. ; north-east passage 
Changarnier, general, 1793-1877 ; 

France, 1851, 1873 
Channing, W., 1780-1842 
Chantrelle, E. M. ; trials, 1878 
Chantrey, F, sculpt., 1782-1841 ; 

Royal Academy 
Chanzy, Fr. gen., 1823-83 ; Franco- 
Prussian war, 1870-1 ; Algiers, 1878 
Chaplin, H. ; Salisbury adm., 1885, 

1889, Agriculture 
Chapman, Mr. ; armada sermon 
Chappe, M. ; telegraphs, 1793 
Chappell, Thos ; James's, St. , Hall, 

1859 
Chard and Bromhead, lieuts. ; Zulu- 
laud, 1879 
Chares ; colossus, 288 B.C. 
Charlemagne, 742-814 ; academy, 
couriers, Avars, Bavaria, Chris- 
tianity, France, Germany, Navarre 
Charles Albert ; Sardinia, 1831 ; No- 

vara, 1849 
Charles ; England, France, Spain, 
Savoy, Germany, Sweden, Sicily, 
&c. 
Charles V. ; emperor, 1500-58; Spain, 

Austria, Germany, Spires 
Charles V. ; Bastile, 1369 
Charles VI. ; picquet, 1390 
Charles XII., 1682-1718; Sweden, 

Frederickshald 
Charles the Bald, Fontenaille 
Charles the Bold ; Burgundy, 1468, 

Nancy, Liege 
Charles, archduke, 1771-1847; As- 

perne, Eckmiihl, Essling 
Charles of Anjou ; Naples, 1266 
Charles of Lorraine; Lissa, 1757 
Charles of Hohenzollern, prince of 



1105 

Roumania, b. 1839 ; Danubian 
principalities ; Russo - Turkish 
war II. 1877 
Charles Stuart, prince ; pretender, 

Culloden, 1746 
Charlesworth, J. C. ; trials, 1861 ; — 
Charlesworth, Mr. and Mrs. ; con- 
valescent, 1866 
Charlotte, queen, England (Geo. III.) 
Charlotte, princess of Wales, 1796- 

1817 ; Claremont 
Charlton v. Hay and others ; trials, 

1875 
Charteris, col. ; trials, 1730 
Chasse, gen. ; Antwerp, 1832 
Chateaubriand, viscount, French 

writer, 1768-1848 
Chatham, earl of, 1708-78 ; Newcas- 
tle admin., 1757 ; Chatham admin., 
1766 ; Walcheren, 1809 
Chatterton, T., poet, 1752-70 
Chaucer, G., 1328-1400; Canterbury 

tales 
Chaves, marq. of; Portugal, 1826 
Chelmsford, Id. ; Derby adm., 1858 ; 

Zululand, 1879, Ulundi 
Clieltenham Chronicle ; trials, 1873 
Cherubini, music, comp., 1 760-1842 
Chesham, Sarah; trials, 1851 
Cheshire rioters ; trials, 1842 
Chesney, col. ; Assyria, 1835 ; Eu- 
phrates, 1850 
Chetwind, eapt. ; oil on waters 
Chetwynd, sir G. v. Durham ; trials, 

1889 
Chevallier, M. , 1806-79 '• Albert medal, 

1875, Liverpool, 1875 
Chevreul, E., chemist, &c.,i 786-1 889 ; 
candles, glycerine, Albert medal, 
1873 
Chicheley, archbishop ; Canterbury, 

1414-1443 
Childe, H. L. ; dissolving views 
Childeric ; France (kings) 
Childers, H. C, admiralty; Glad- 
stone adins., 1868, 1880, 1886 ; 
Greenwich schools. 1870 ; nat. debt 
Chillingworth, W., theol., 1602-44 
Ching Noung ; China, wine, 1998 

B.C. 

Chisholm, H. W. ; weights, 1877 
Chladni, E., 1756-1827; acoustics 
Choiseul, E., due de, 1719-85 
Cholmeley, sir R., Highgate 
Cholniondeley, gen. ; horseguards, 

1693 
Chopin, F., Hung, mus., 1810-49 
Chosroes I. ; Persia, 531 
Christian ; Denmark, Sweden, 1448 
Christian IV. ; Christiania, 1624 
Christian VII. ; Denmark, 1775. 

Oldenburg 
Christie, life-raft, fee., 1875 
Christie, W. H. ; Greenwich (astro- 
nomer royal) 
Christina ; Sweden, 1633 ; Spain, 

1833 
Christine, M., twins 
Christophe ; Hayti, 1811 
Christopher; Denmark (kings), 1252, 

1320 
Christopher, Robt. Adam ; Derby 

adm., 1852 
Chrysostom ; fathers, 354-407 
Chubb, Mr., locks (addenda) 
Church, dean, Church of England,. 

1881 
Churchill, C. ; satires, 1731-64 
Churchill, Id. R. ; fourth party, 18S0; 

Salisbury adm. 1885 
Cialdini, gen. ; Italy, i860 ; Castel 

Fidardo, Gaeta 
Cibber, C, 1671-1757; poet-laureate 
Cicero, 106-43 B - c - ! Athens, Rome, 

Catiline, Philippics 
Cid (Spanish hero), d. 1099 
Cimabue, painter, 1240-1300 
Cimarosa, musician, 1754-1801 

4 B 



1106 

Cimon ; Eurymedon, 466 B.C. 
Cincinnatus, dictator, 458 B.C. 
Cinna, consul, killed, 84 B.C. 
Claniiy, Dr. Reid ; safety lamp, 1817 
Clanricarde, marq. of; postmaster, 
1846 ; Russell administration, 
1851 ; Palmerston administration) 
1855 
Clapperton, Hugh, traveller, 1788- 
1827 

Clare, John, poet, 1793-1864 

Clare, earl of ; duel, 1820 

Clarence, duke of; Anjou, Claren- 
cieux ; rebellion, 1478 ; admiralty, 

. 1827 

Clarendon, earl of (Hyde), 1608-74 • 
administrations, 1660, 1685 ; — earl 
of, G. F. Villiers, 1800-70 ;— Ire- 
land, lord-lieut.; Aberdeen, Pal- 
merston 

Clark, sir James, phys., 1788-1870 

Clarke, Adam, theol., 1760-1832 ; — 
Sam., theol., 1675-1729 ; — Edw. D., 
traveller, 1768-1822 

Clarke, sir Andrew ; Straits, 1874 

Clarke, sir E. ; sol. gen., 1886 

Clarke, M. A. ; trials, 1814 

Clarke, gen. ; Cape, 1795 

Clarke, J. Algernon ; automaton 

Clarke, M. C, 6. 1809; Shakspeare, 
concordance, 1847 

Clarkson, Thos., 1760-1846 ; slave- 
trade, slavery 

Claude Lorraine, painter, 1600-82 

Claudian, Latin poet, d. about 408 ; 
archery 

Claudius; Rome, emperor, 41 ; II., 
Goths, 269 ; Naissus 

Claudius, App. ; decemviri, 451 B.C. 

Claughton,bp.; Rochester, Albans.St. 

Clausel, marshal ; Algiers, 1836 

Clausius, R. J., physicist, 1822-28 

Claussen, chev. ; flax, 1851 

Claverhouse ; Both well, 1679 

Clay, F., mus. comp., b. 1840 

Clay, Mr.; slavery, U. S., 1820; 
Liberia ; whist 

Clayton, Mr. ; duel, 1830 

Clayton, Dr. ; gas, 1739 

Cleaver, bishop ; Bangor, St. Asaph, 
1806-1815 

Cleisthenes ; ostracism, 510 B.C. 

Clemenceau, M., Fr. polit.; France, 
1882-4 

Clemens Romanus ; popes, 662 ; — 
Alexandrinus, d. abt. 213 

Clement ; popes, 91 ; IV. ; conclave, 
1268 ; — VII. ; pontiff, benefices, 
Clementines, 1378 ; — VIII. ; index ; 
— XIV. (Ganganelli), 1769 ; Jesuits 

Clement, Jacques; France, 1589; — 
Joseph ; planing machine, 1825; — 
Julian ; midwifery, 1663 

Clementi, M., music, d. 1832 ; sonata 

Cleombrotus ; Sparta, 380 B.C. 

Cleomenes ; Sparta, 520 b.c. 

Cleon, Athenian demagogue, killed 
422 B.C. ; Amphipolis 

Cleopatra : Egypt, 69-30 B.C. ; rose 

Cleveland, Grover, fc. 1837; president 
United States, 1884 

Clifford, C. ; life-boat, 1856 

Clifford, J. ; trials, 1870 

Clifford, lord ; Roman Catholics, 
1829 ; — sir Tho., cabal, 1670 

Clifford, W. K.,mathemat.; dynamics 

Clinton, H. Fynes, 1 781-1852 ; chro- 
nology 

Clinton, sir H. ; Yorktown, 1781 

Clinton, Geoffrey de ; Kenilworth, 
1120 

Clive, Robt., lord, 1725-74; Arcot, 
India, Plassey 

Cloncurry, lord, v. Piers ; trials, 1807 

Close, Mr. ; duels, 1836 

Clotaire ; France (kings), 558 

Clovis (Chlodowig, Ludwig, Ludo- 
vicus. Louis) ; France, 481 ; Nor- 



INDEX. 

mandy, Paris, Clovis, Salique, 
fleur-de-lis, Alemanni 
Cloots, Anacharsis, exec. 1794 
Clouet ; gas 
Clune, &c. ; trials, 1830 
Cluseret, gen. ; Lyons, 1870 ; France, 

1871 ; Fenians, 1872 
Clutterbuck, rev. J. ; 1891 
Clyde, lord, 1792-1863 ; India, 1857 
Clymer ; printing-press, 1814 
Cobbett, William, 1762-1835; trials, 

1809, 1811, 1831 
Cobden, R., 1804-65 ; anti-eorn-law 
league, free trade, French treaty, 
peace congress 
Cobham, Id. ; Lollards, 1418 
Coburg, prince of; Fleurus, 1794 (see 

Saxe-Coburcj) 
Cochrane, lord (afterwards Dun- 
donald), d. i860 ; Basque roads, 
stocks, trials, 1814 
Cockburn, sir A., 1802-80; solicitor- 
general, 1858 ; attorney-general, 
king's bench, ch. j., Alabama 
Cockerill, J. : Seraing 
Cocking, Mr. ; balloons, 1837 
Codrington, admiral sir E. ; Nava- 
rino, 1827 ; — sir W. J., 1804-84 ; 
Crimea 
Codrus ; Athens, 1092 B.C. 
Coe ; trials, 1876 
Coggia; comets, 1874 ; planets, 1868, 

1878 
Cohn, Dr. , germ theory 
Cohorn, B. van, military engineer, 

1641-1704 
Coke, sir Edw., 1550-1634 ; parlia- 
ments, 1592 
Colbert, J. B., 1619-83 ; tapestry 
Colborne, sir John ; Canada, 1838 
Colclough, Mr. ; duels, 1807 
Colcutt, T. E. ; imperial institute 
Cole andCox(police); parliament, 1885 
Coleman, St. ; Cloyne, 6th cent. 
Coleman, Mrs. ; actress, 1656 
Colenso, bp'., 1814-83 ; church of 
England, 1863 ; trials, 1866 ; Natal 
Coleridge, Samuel T., poet, &c, 

1772-1834; method 
Coleridge, sir J., solic.-gen. ; att.- 
gen., 1871, com. pleas, 1873; 
king's bench, 1880 
Coles, capt. Cowper, 1831-70 ; navy 

of England, 1855-70 ; Captain 
Colet, J. ; Paul's school, 15 12 
Coligni, admiral, killed, 1572 
Collard, dwarf, 1873 
Collard, rear-adml. ; suicide, 1846 
Colley, sir G. P. ; Transvaal, Natal, 

Majuba 
Collie, Alex. ; London, 1875 
Collier, J. P., 1789-1884; Shakspeare, 

1849 
Collier, Jeremy; eccles.-hist., 1650- 

1726 
Collier, sir R. P. ; att.-gen., 1868; 

baron Monkswell, 1885 
Collings, Jesse ; restitution bill 
Collingwood, lord, 1748-1810 ; Trafal- 
gar, 1805 ; naval battles, 1809 
Collins, govr. ; Hobart Town, 1804 
Collins, Wm. W., Nov. 1824-89 
Collinson, sirR., 1811-83 ; Franklin, 

1850 
Collucci, V. ; trials, 1861 
Colman, G., d. 1794 ;— G.,jun., 1762- 

1836; theatres, 1777 
Colonib, adm., fog 
Colonna family flourish, 1288-1555 
Colonna, V., poetess, 1490-1547 
Colpoys, admiral; mutinies, 1797 
Colt, colonel ; pistols, 1853 
Columba, St., 521-97, isles 
Coluiubanus, d. 614 or 615 
Columbiere ; armorial bearings, 1639 
Columbus, Chr., 1436 or 1442-1506 ; 
America, Bahama, Caraccas, 
Christopher's, Salvador, Domingo 



Columbus, Bartholomew ; maps, 1489 
Columella, medical writer, abt. 46 
Colville, sir C. ; Cambray, 1815 
Colvin, sir A.; India and Egypt, 

1883 
Colvin, prof. S. ; ancient buildings - 

Slade prof. 
Combe, G., 1788-1858 ; craniology 
Combermere, Id. ; Bhurtpore, 1826 
Comines, Ph. de, Fr. hist., 1445- 

Commerell, comm. ; Ashantees, 1873 
Commodus ; Rome, emperor, 180 
Comneni ; eastern emperors, 1057 ; 

Pontus, Trebizond, 1204 
Comte, A., 1 795-1857 ; calendar, posi- 
tive philosophy 
Comyn, Mr. ; trials, 1830 
Concha, gen. ; Spain, 1868, 1874, Es- 

tella 
Concle, Louis ; Jarnac, 1569 
Conflans ; Quiberon, 1759 
Confucius, 551 — 477 B.C. Confuci- 
anism ; China 
Congleton, lord ; suicide, 1842 
Congreve, R. ; positive phil. 
Congreve, W. , dramatist, 1670-1729 
Congreve, sir Wm., 1772-1828 ; fire- 
works, 1814 
Connaught, duke of ; Egypt, 1882 
Conolly, J., 1795-1866; lunatics, 

1839 
Conon ; Sparta, 394 b. c. ; Argmusse 
Conrad ; Germany, emperor, 911 
Conrad II. ; Germany, 1024 ; Bur- 
gundy 
Conradin ; Naples, Germany, 1268 
Constans ; Aquileia, 340 
Constantine ; Rome, emp., 323 ; 
Adrianople, aruspices, banner, 
Britain, Eastern empire, Rome, 
York, Scotland 
Constantine II. ; Aquileia, 340 
Constantine IV. ; monasteries 
Constantius ; Rome, emps. , 303 
Contarini (doges at Venice), 104 1- 

1694 
Conway, sir Edw. ; administrations, 
1621 : — general, Chatham adminis- 
tration, 1766 
Coode, sir John ; breakwater, 1890 
Cook, capt James, 1728-79 ; Austra- 
lia, Cook's voyages, Behring's- 
Straits, Botany Bay, Flattery Cape, 
New Hebrides, New Zealand, Nor- 
folk Island, Otaheite, Owhyhee, 
Port Jackson, Society isles 
Cook, Mrs., murdered ; trials, 1841 
Cook, J. P., murdered; trials, 1856 
Cooke, sir George ; Chatham 1766 
Cooke, E. W., R.A., b. 1810 
Cooke, Eliz. ; trials, 1832 
Cooke, Geo. Fred., actor, 1755-1812 
Cooke, W. F, electric teleg., 1837 
Cooper, Astley, surgeon, 1 768-1841 
Cooper, J. Fenimore, Am. novelist. 

1789-1851 
Cooper, Mr. ; slave trade, 1787 
Cooper, P., philan.; New York, 1883 
Cooper; trials, 1805, 1842 
Coote, sir Eyre ; India, Arcot, 1760: 

Carnatic, Cuddalore, Porto Novo 
Cope, sir John; Prestonpans, 1745 
Copernicus, Nic, 1473-1543; astro- 
nomy, attraction, solar system 
Copleston, bishop; Llandaff, 1827 
Copley, J., painter, 1738-1815 
Coram, capt. Thos., d. 1751; found- 
ling hospital, 1739 
Corday, Charlotte; France, 1793 
Corder, William; trials, 1828 
Cordova, general de ; Granada, 1492 
Corelli, A., musician, 1653-1713 
Corin ; libertines, 1525 
Coriolanus ; Rome, Volsci, 490 B. c. 
Cormac ; Cashel, 901 
Corneille, P., tragedy, 1606-84 
Cornelia, Maximiliana; vestals, 92 



Cornelius ; Spitzbergen, 1595 
Cornelius, P. von; Ger. paint., 1787- 

1867 
Cornell, E. ; Cornell univ., 1868 
Cornhill, Henry; sheriff, 1189 
Cornwall, bp. ; Worcester, 1808 
Cornwallis, abp.; Canterbury, 1768; 

Lichfield, 1781 
Cornwallis, marquis, 1738-1805; ad- 
miralty, India, America, Banga- 
lore, Ireland (lord-lieut.), Seringa- 
patam 
Cornwallis, E.; Halifax, N.S. 
Corcebus; Olympiads, 776 B.C. 
Correggio, A., painter, 1494-1534 
Corry; duel, 1800 
Corry, H. T. L., 1803-83; admiralty, 

1867 
Cort, H. ; iron, 1781 
Corte Real ; America, north-west 

passage, 1500 
C'ortez, P., 1485-1554; Mexico, 1521 
Coryate, Thomas ; forks, 1608 
Cosmo, I. ; Port Ferrajo, 1548 
Costa, M., 1810-84; musician. 
Coster, L. ; printing 
Cottenham, lord; chancellor, lord 

high, 1836 
Cottenot, planets, 1878 
Cottington, lord ; administrations, 

1635 
Cotton, R. ; Cottonian library, 1600 
Cotton, M. A.; poisoning, 1873 
Cotton, sir Stapleton; Villa Franca, 

1812 
Cotton, W. J. R. ; mayor, lord, 1875 
Coulomb, C, 1736-1806; electricity, 

1785 
Courbet ; China, 1884 ; Tonquin 
Courier, P. L. ; pamphlets 
Courtanvaux; ether, 1759 
Courteuay, abp. Canterbury, 1381 
Courtenay; Thomites, 1838 
Courtenay, sir Wm. ; Exeter, 1469 
Courtois, M. de; iodine, 1812 
Courvoisier; trials, 1840 
Cousin, V., Fr. philos., 1792-1867 
Coutts, baroness A. Burdett, b. 1814 ; 
trials, 1847; Columbia market, 1869; 
Chichester, 1874; Edinburgh, 1873; 
flower-girl brigade, 1880; children, 
1884; Baltimore 
Coventry, sir John; Coventry act, 

1670 
Coventry; administrations, 1628-1672 
Coverdale, Miles, 6. 1487; Bible, 

1535 
Cowan, Mr. ; Kookas, 1872 
Cowen, J., Newcastle, 1871 ; demo- 
cratic federals 
Cowles, E. ; aluminium 
Cowley, Abraham, poet, 1618-67 
Cowper, lord ; Burford, Halifax, 

1714 
Cowper, earl ; Gladstone adm., 1880 
Cowper, E. ; printing-machine, 1815 

— E. A.; electric telegraph, 1879 
Cowper, Wm., poet, 1731-1800 
Cox, Walter; trials, 1811 
Coxwell, Mr. ; balloons, 1862-73 
Coyle, Mr. Bernard; duel, 1802 
Crabbe, Geo., poet, 1754-1832 
Crabtree, W. ; Venus 
Craggs, Mr. ; Sunderland admin., 

1718 
Crampton, Mr.; United States, 1856 
Crane, sir Francis ; tapestry, 1619 
Cranbrook, lord ; Salisbury adm., 

1885, i386 
Cranfield, Lionel, lord; administra- 
tions, 1621 
Cranmer, archbp., 1489-1556; Can- 
terbury, administrations, 1529 ; 
homilies, martyrdom 
Cranworth, lord; chancellor, 1852 
Crassus, Marcus, slain; ovation, 53 

B.C. 

Craterus; Cranon, 322 



INDEX. 

Crawford, earl of ; Dunecht, trials, 

1882 
Crawford, divorce case ; trials, 1886 
Crawford, A. T. ; India, 1889 
Crawfurd, earl of; Brechin, 1452 
Crawley; trials, 1802-1863; steel 
Crellin, Miss ; trials, 1842 
Crespigny, Mr.; duel, 1828 
Cresswell, sir C, 1794-1863; probate, 

1857 
Cresswell v. Walrond ; trials, 1877 
Creswick, T.; paint., 1811-69 
Crewe, bp. ; Bambrough, 1778 
Crichton, Jas. (the admirable), m. 

about 1560-1583 
Crillon, due de; Gibraltar, 17S2 
Crispi, sig. ; Italy, 1887 
Cristofalli, pianoforte 
Cristovitch ; Roumelia, 1884 
Crockatt v. Dick; trials, 1818 
Crockett, Messrs. ; leather-cloth 
Croesus; Lj'dia, 560 B.C. 
Croft; impostors, 1553 
Croft, sir Richard; suicide, 1818 
Crofts, Mr.; dwarfs, 1653 
Croke, abp.; Ireland, 1881 
Crollius ; calomel, 1608 
Croly, Geo.; poet, 1780-1860 
Crompton, Sam., 1753-1827; cotton; 

mule, 1779 
Cromwell, Oliver, 1599-1658; admin- 
istrations, 1653 ; Amboyna, agita- 
tors, commonwealth, England, 
Drogheda, Dundalk, mace, Ire- 
land, Marston Moor, Naseby, Wor- 
cester, Manchester, 1875 
Cromwell, Richard ; administrations, 

1658; England 
Cromwell, T. , lord Essex; adminis- 
tration, 1532; registers 
Cronin, Dr. ; murder ; United States, 

1889 
Crookes, Wm.; thallium, 1861 ; spirit- 
ualism, radiometer, light, otheo- 
scope, elements 
Crosbie, sir Edward; trials, 1798 
Cross, E. ; Surrey Gardens, 1831 
Cross, sir R. A. , viscount ; Disraeli 
administration, 1874 ; Salisbury 
adm. 1885, 1886 
Crossley, F. ; Halifax, 1857 
Crouch; trials, 1844 
Crowse, E. ; needles 
Crowther, bishop ; Niger 
Crowther, lieut. ; duel, 1S29 
Crozier, capt. ; N.-W. passage, 1845 
Cruden, Alex.; concordance, 1737 
Cruikshank, G., 1792-1878; wood-en- 
graving 
Ctesias; hist., 398 b.c. 
Ctesibius, 140 B.C. ; clock, organ, 

pump 
Cubitt, Mr. ; treadmill, 1817 ; J., 

Blackfriars, 1867 
Cullen, Paul, cardinal ; 1803-78 
Cullen, W., physician, 1712-90 
Cumberland, duke of; Closterseven, 

Culloden, Fontenoy, 1745 
Cumberland, R. ; comedies, 1732- 

1811 
Cumberland, S. ; thought reading 
Cumming, lord de Roos v.; trials, 

1837 
Cumming, Gordon ; lion 
Cumming, rev. Dr. John, 1810-81 
Cummins, Dr. ; reformed eiriscopal 

church 
Cunard, Sam., 1787-1865; steam 
Curci, Father ; Italy, 1877 ; Jesuits 
Curio; amphitheatres, abt. 50 B.C. 
Curran, John Philpot, Irish orator, 

1750-1817; duel, 1790 
Currell, T. W. ; trials, 1887 
Cursor, Papirius; dials, 293 B.C. 
Curtius, prof. E. ; Olympieium, 1875 ; 

philology 
Curtius, Quintius; earthquakes, 364 

B.C. 



1107 

Cushing, C, United States, 1878 
Custer, gen. ; Indians, 1876 
Cuthbert, St., d. 686; Canterbury 
Cuthbert v. Browne ; trials, 1829 
Cuvier, G., naturalist, 1769-1832; 

zoology 
Cuyp, A., painter, 1606-67 
Cyprian, father, m. 258 
Cyriacus ; Abrahamites 
Cyril, father, d. 386 
Cyrus the Great, killed, 529 B.C. ; 

Bactriana, Cyprus, Jerusalem, 

Media, Persia 
Cyrus the younger; Cunaxa, 401 B.C. 
Czermak, Dr. ; laryngoscope, 1861 



D. 

Dacier, mad., 1 654-1 720; Delphin 

Dacre, lady Anne; Emmanuel hos- 
pital, 1594 

Dasdalus; labyrinth, axe, 1240 B.C.? 

Dagobert; Denis, St., 673 

Daguerre, M., 1789-1851 ; photo- 
graphy 

Dahl, professor ; dahlias 

Dale, Rev. T. P. ; public worship, 
1877-1881 

DAlembert, Fr. phil., 1717-83; acous- 
tics 

Dahlgren, J. A.; engin., 1809-70 

Dalhousie, marquis of; India (gov.- 
gen.), 1848; Gladstone adm., 1886. 

Dallinger, W. H. ; animalcules, spon- 
taneous generation 

Dalmas, A.; trials, 1844 

Dalling, H. Bulwer, Id.; 1805-72 

Dalmatia; see Soidt 

Dalrymple, sir Hew ; Cintra, 1808 

Dalton, John, chemist, 1766-1844 ; 
atomic theory, 1808 

Damasus, pope, 366; pontiff, crown, 
pope, tiara 

Damian, accordion 

Damien, father; leprosy 

Damiens, Damiens' attempt, 1757 

Dampier; circumnavigator, 1689 

Dampier, bishop; Ely, 1808 

Damremont, marshal; Algiers, Con 
stantia, 1837 

Dana, R. H. ; United States, 1876 

Danaus; Greece, 1485 B.C.? 

Danby, earl of ; administrations. 
1673; physic garden 

Dangerfield ; meal-tub plot, 1679 

Danican, chess, concerts 

Daniel prophesies, 606 B.C. 

Daniel, Sam. ; poet-laureate, 1619 

Danneker, J., sculptor, 1758-1841 

Dannenberg, gen.; Oltenitza, 1854 

Dante, Alighieri, Italian poet, 1265- 
1321 

Danton, G., exec. 1794; clubs, Fren. 

Darboy, abp. of Paris ; killed, France, 
1871- 

D'Arblay, mad. (Burney), novelist, 
1752-1840 

Darbon v. Rosser; trials, 1841 

D'Arcon, M. ; Gibraltar 

Dardanus, Ilium, 1480 b.c. 

Dargan, W, d. 1867; Ireland, Dublin 
exhibition, 1853 

Darius; Persia, 521 B.C.; Greece 

Darling, Grace ; Forfarshire, 1838 

Darling, sir C; Jamaica, 1857; Vic- 
toria, 1863 

Darmes; France, 1840 

Darnley, lord; Scotland, 1565 

Dartmouth, earl of; Oxford adminis- 
tration, 1711 ; Rockingham admin., 
1766 

Darwin, Charles R., naturalist, 1809- 
82 ; origin, species, development 

Darwin, Erasmus, naturalist, 1731- 
1802 ; lunar society 

Dashwood, sir Fr. ; Bute admin. , 
1762 

4 b 2 



1108 

D'Aubigne, Merle, ecclesiastical hist., 

i 794-1872 
Daubeny, C; 1795-1867; atomic the- 
ory, 1850 
D'Audiffret Pasquier ; France, 1875-6 
Dauglish, Dr.; "bread, 1856 
Daun, count, d. 1766, Hochkirehen, 

Torgau 
Davenant, William; drama, opera, 

1684 
Davenport, Miss; theatres, 1844 
Davey, sir H., sol. gen., 1886 
David; Jews, 1065 b.c. 
David, George; impostors, 1556 
David I.; Scotland, 1124; Carlisle 
David, J., painter, 1748-1825 
Davies, C. L. ; phonopore 
Davies ; trials, 1890 
Davila, E. C. , Italian historian, 1576- 

1631 
Davis, Jefferson, 1808-89; confede- 
rate states ; United States, 1861-86 
Davis, J. ; trials, 1887 
Davis, sir John F., diplomatist, 

1795-1890 ; China, 1844 
Davis; N.-W. passage, 1585; quad- 
rant, China 
Davis, N. ; Carthage, 1861, 1876 
Davitt, M., and Wilson ; trials, 1870 ; 
Fenian, 1870, 1881 ; Ireland, 1882 ; 
parliament, 1882 
Davoust, marshal ; Krasnoi, Mo- 

hilow, Jena, Eckmiihl, 1809 
Davy, sir Humphry, chemist, &c, 
1778-1829 ; Penzance, Royal Institu- 
tion, barium, electricity, calcium, 
magnesium, potassium, sodium, 
safety lamp, strontium 
Davys, bp. ; Peterborough, 1839 
Dawes, abp. ; York, 1714 
Dawkins, capt. ; navy of England, 

1875 
Dawkins, W. B. ; caves 
Dawson, lieut. ; Africa, 1872 
Dawson, J. W. ; Eozoon 
Day (Kossuth's notes case), trials, 

i860 
Day, Mr. ; Fairlop fair 
Daza, H., Bolivia, 1876 
Deacle v. B. Baring ; trials, 1831 
Deak, F. ; Hungary, 1865-75 
Deane, abp.; Canterbury, 1501 
Deane, adml. ; naval battles, 1653 
Debain ; harmonium 
De Balton; duels, 181 1 
De Blignieres, M. ; Egypt, 1879 
DeBrazza; France, 1882 ; Congo, 1883 
De Broglie, France, 1879 
De Burgh, Hubert ; Whitehall 
De Candolle, A., botanist, 1 778-1841 
Decazes, due ; France, 1873-6 
Decius Mus sacrifices himself, 295 B.C. 
De Courcy, baron; peers, 1181 
Dee, Dr. J., d. 1608; astrology 
Deeming, F. B. ; Melbourne, 1892 
Deerfoot, pedestrianism, 1861 
D'Etrees, see D'Estrees. 
De Fallieres, M. ; France, 1883 
De Foe, Daniel, 1663-1731; Robinson 

Crusoe, Juan, plague 
De Foix, Gaston; Ravenna, 1512 
De Gasparis, A.; planets, 1849 
De Genlis, mad., 1746-1830 
De Giers, chancellor, Russia, 18S2 
De Grasse, admiral; Chesapeake. 

naval battles, Tobago, 1781 
De Grey, earl; Ireland, lord lieu- 
tenant, 1427 
De Grey, Gladstone adm., 1868 
De Groof, V. ; balloons, 1874 
De Haven, lieut.; Franklin, 1850 
De Horsey, adm., Peru, 1877 
Delabeche, H., 1796-1S55; geology 
De la Clue, admiral; Lagos, 1759 
Delafontaine, M., decipium 
Delambre, J., Fr. mathemat., 1749- 

1822 
De la Rive ; Swiss nat. phil., c7. 1873 



INDEX. 

De la Roche, Paul, Fr. paint., 1797- 

1856 
De la RoneiereleNoury,adm.; France, 

1875 
De la Rue ; trials, 1845 
De la Rue, Warren, physicist, 1815 
-89 ; envelopes ; electric bat- 
tery ; photography, 1857; eclipse, 
i860 
De la Vigne, C. ; Parisienne 
De l'Epee, abbe, 1712-89; deaf 
De Lesseps, M.; Suez, 1857 
Delille, J., Fr. poet, 1738-1813 
Delisle ; Venus 

De Loundres, Henry ; Dublin, 1205 
De Meritens, electric light, 1879 
Demetrius; Athens, Macedon, im- 
postors, Poland 
Democritus, about 400 B.C. ; atoms 
De Moivre; annuities, 1724 
De Morgan, A., mathemat., 1806-71; 

almanacs, 1851 ; paradoxes, 1872 
Demosthenes, about 382-322 B.C. ; 

philippics 
Denayrouze, M. ; aerophore, 1875 
Denison, archdeacon; trials, 1856; 
auricular confession, 1873, Church 
of England, 1873 
Denison, bishop; Salisbury, 1801 
Denison, E. B. ; bells, 1856 
Denison, J. E. ; speaker, 1857 
Denman, lord, 1779-1854; att.-gen. , 

king's bench 
Denmark, prince George, admiralty, 

1702, queens (Anne) 
Denner, J., clarionet, about 1690 
Dennis, W. ; fire engine 
Denny, J. ; trials, 1851 
Depretis, A. ; Italy, 1876, 1884 
De Quincey, Thos., essayist, 1785- 

1859 

Derby, countess of; Lathom-house, 
1644 

Derby, earl of, races, 1779 

Derby, earl of, 1799-1869 ; Derby 
admin., 1852, 1858, 1866 

Derby, earl of; Man, Wigan, Derby 

Derby, earl of, 0. 1826, see Disraeli 
adm. (Stanley), 1868, 1874 ; Edin- 
burgh, 1874 ; Brussels conference, 
1874 ; Turkey, 1876 ; Berlin, 1876 ; 
Russo-Turkish war, II. 1877 ; Tur- 
key, 1876-7; Gladstone adm., 1880 

De Roos, lord, v. Cumming; trials, 

1S37 
De Rossi, catacombs 
De Ruyter, adml.; Sheerness, 1667; 

Chatham, Texel 
Dervish pasha, Albania, Dulcigno 
Derwentwater, earl of, executions, 

1 71 6; Greenwich 
Des Cartes, Rene, 1596-1650; carte- 
sian, rainbow 
Desmoulins, Camille, exec. 1794; 

clubs, 1782 
Desnoyers, L. ; charivari 
Dessaix, general ; Marengo, 1800 
Dessalines; Hayti, 1803 
De Stael, madame, 1766-1817 
D'Estaign, count; Bencoolen, 1760; 

Georgia 
D'Esterre, Mr.; duels, 1815 
D'Estrees, adml.; Texel, 1673 
Deucalion; deluge, 1503 b.c. 
De Veres, earls of Oxford; Id. gt. 

chamberlain, marquis, duke 
Devigne, Hen.; billiards, 1571 
Deville, H. St. C. ; aluminium, 1856; 

platinum, 1859 
Devon, W. R., earl of, 6. 1807; Dis- 
raeli, 1 868 
Devonshire, duke of; Devonshire ad- 
ministration, 1756 ; Cavendish col- 
lege 
Dewar, prof. J. ; gases ; Royal Insti- 
tution, 1877 ; elements, 1880-1 ; 
oxygen; cold ; alcohol 
De Wimpffen, gen. ; Sedan, 1870 



De Winter, adm. ; Camperdown, 179 
De Winton, sir F. ; Congo, 1884 

Africa (British E.), 1890 
De Witt; chain shot, 1666; (pen- 
sionary) murdered, 1672 ; Hague 
De Worms, baron ; sugar bounties 
Dhuleep Singh ; India, 1849 ; Punjab 
Diaz, R, discovers Cape of Good 

Hope, 1487 
Diaz, P. ; Mexico, 1867-84 
Di Bardi, Donato ; sculpture, 1383 
Dibdin, C, 1745-1814; ballads 
Dibutades ; models 
Dicey, W. T. ; steam, 1875 
Dick, Mr.; trials, 1818 
Dickens, Chas., novelist, 1812-70 
Dickinson, capt. ; trials, 1829 
Dickson, col. ; trials, 1859, 1863 
Diderot, D., philos., 1713-S4 
Didius Julianus ; Rome, emp. 193 
Dido; Carthage, 869 b.c. 
Didot, M. ; paper-making, stereotype 
Diebitsch, gen.; Balkan, 1829 
Diefenbach, L. ,1806-83 ; philology 
Diesbach; prussic acid, 1709 
Digby, E. ; gunpowder plot, 1605 
Digges, L. ; optics, 1671 
Dilke, C. W.; Athenseum 
Dilke, sir C, b. 1843 ; Gladstone 

adm. 1880 ; corporations 
Dilke, lady ; burning dead, 1874 
Dillon, Mr. Luke; trials, 1831 
Dillon, Mr., Ireland, 1880-1 
Dimsdale and others ; trials, 1878 
Diocletian; Rome, emp. 284; Dal- 

matia 
Diodati, J., theologian, 1576-1649 
Diodorus Siculus, 50B.C-13 a.d. ; Etna 
Diogenes, cynic, d. 323 B.C. 
Dionysius ; Portugal, anno doinini, 

catapultee 
Dionysius Halicarnassus, Gr. poet, 

fl. 30 B.C. 
Dionysius; Syracuse, 406 B.C. 
Diophantus; algebra, 370 
Dipcenus ; sculpture, marble 
Dircks, H.; ghosts, 1858 
Disraeli, I., 1767-1848 ; — Benjamin 

(earl of Beaconsfield, 1876), 1804-81 ; 

Derby admin. , 1852, 1858; Disraeli 

admin., 1868, 1874 > cottage ; 

people's tribute 
Ditmar, C. ; dualin, 1870 
Diver, Jenny; trials, 1740 
Dixblancs, M. ; trials, 1872 
Dixon, capt.; Apollo 
Dixon, Hepworth, 1821-79 ; Ebelians, 

mormonites ; — v. Smith {Pall Mall 

Gazette); trials, 1872 
Dixon, J. ; obelisks, (Cleopatra's 

needle), 1877-S 
Dixon, Mr. ; education, 1874, 1876 
Dobell, Sydney; poet, 1824-74 
Dobereiner, J. W, nat. phil., 1780- 

1849; diffusion, philos. lamp 
Dockwra, Mr.; penny post, 1683 
Dodd, Mr.; steamer, 1815 
Dodd, Dr.; trials (executed for for- 
gery), 1777; Magdalens, forgery 
Dodd, H. P. ; epigrams 
Doddridge, Philip, theol., 1702-51 
Dodsley, R. ; annual register, 1758 
Dodson, sir John ; admiralty court, 

1857; — J. G. ; Gladstoiuvadm. , 1880 
Dodwell, rev. H. J. ; trials, 1878 
Doggett, Thos.; Doggett prize, 1715 
Dolbear, prof.; telephotography 
Dolben, abp.; York, 1683 
Dolce, gen.; Spain, 1868-9 
Dolci, C., painter, 1616-86 
Dollinger, Dr. ; papal infallibility, 

old catholics, 1S71 
Dollond, John, 1706-61 ; achromatic 

telescopes, 1753 ; optics 
Domeniehmo, Z., painter, 15S1-164X 
Domingue, M. ; Hayti, 1874 
Dominguez, L. ; Carthagena, Spain, 

1873-4 



Dominic, St. ; Dominicans, 1215 
Domitian; Rome, emp. 81 
Donald of the Isles; Harlaw, 141 1 
Donaldson, W. J. ; balloons, 1875 
Donatus, grammarian, fl. 355 
Donders, phenophthalmoscope, 1870 
Donizetti, G.; music, 1798-1848 
Donkin, sir R. ; suicide, 1841 
Donne, W. B., examiner (of plays), 

1857 
Donovan; duels, 1779 
Dore, Gustave, artist, 1832-83 
Doria, And., Genoese adml.,1468-1560 
Dormer, lord; Roman Catholics, 

1829 
Dorregaray, gen. ; Spain, 1874-5 
Dorset, duke of; administrations, 
1689; Pelham administration, 1744 
D'Orvilliers ; Ushant, 1778 
Dost Mahomed ; Afghanistan, 1829-42 
Douay, gen. A. ; Wissembourg, 1870 
Douglas, earl of; Homildon, 1402 
Douglas, James; British Columbia, 

1858 
Douglas, Wm. ; Otterburn, 1388 
Douglass, sir John; delicate investi- 
gation, 1806 ; — sir James, Eddy- 
stone 
Doulton, strikes, 1876 
Douw, Gerard, Dutch paint., 1613-74 
Dove, H., b. 1803; dichroscope, i860 
Dove, W.; trials, 1856 
Dowdeswell, William; Rockingham 

administration, 1765 
Doyle, sir John; Portugal, 182S 
Doyle, J.; caricatures ; — R., 1826- 

83 ; Punch 
Doyle v. Wright; trials, 1851 
Draco, Athens, 621 B.C.; laws, Draco 
Drake, Francis, 1545-96; Armada, 
Cadiz, California, Chatham, circum- 
navigators, Drake's circumnaviga- 
tion, Deptford, New Albion 
Drayton, M., poet, 1563-1631 
Drebbel ; optics, 1621 ; microscope, 

thermometer 
Dred Scott case; slavery, U.S. 
Drentelen, Russia, 1878 
Dreyse, J. N., 1788-1867 ; needlegun 
Drouet; Varennes, 1791 
Druitt, G.; trials, 1867 
Drummond, abp.; York, 1761 
Dnvmmond, gen.; Chippawa, 1814 
Drummond, lieut.; lime-light, about 

1826 
Drummond, Mr., m.; trials, 1840 
Druscovitch, N. ; and others (police) ; 

trials, 1877 
Dryden, John, poet, 1631-1701 ; poet 

laureate 
Drysdale, Dr. ; animalcules 
Dubois, cardinal, 1656-1723 
Duboscq, M. ; electric lamp, 1855 
Du Breil de Rays ; Port Breton 
Dubritius, St. ; Caerleon, Llandaff, 612 
Duchesne, Pere, see Hebert 
Duchesne ; Belgium, 1875 
Duckworth, sir J. ; Dardanelles, 1807 
Duclerc, M.; France, 1882-3 
Ducrot, gen., France, 1878 ; Franco- 
German war, 1871 
Ducrow; theatres, Astley's, 1825 
Dudley, earl of Leicester; adminis- 
trations, 1558 
Dudley, lord; administrat., 1551 
Dudley, Mrs. L. Y.; Fenians, 1885 
Dudley, W., Birmingham, 1876 
Duell, William; trials, 1740 
Dufaure, J. A. S., France, 1876-9 ; 

1798-1881 
Dufay; electricity, 1733 
Duff, captain ; trials, 1841 
Dufferin, Id.; Gladstone adm., 1868, 
1880 ; Canada, 1872 ; Egypt, 1883 ; 
Turkey, 1881-4 ; India, gov. gen., 
1884 ; Italy, 1890 ; France, 1891 
Dufferin lady ; India, 1887'! 
Duffy, Ch. G. ; Ireland (Young) 



INDEX. 

Dufour- Aries, J. B.; France, 1870-2 
Dugdale, W., antiquary, 1605-86 
Duggan, Wm.; trials, 1832 
Du Guesclin, B.; Montiel, 1369 
Duilius defeats Carthaginians, 260 

B.C. 

Dulong, P. L., 1785-1838; acids 
Dumas, A. D., Fr. nov., 1803-70 
Dumas, J. B., Fr. chemist, 1800-84 ; 
Faraday medal, 1869; Albert medal, 
1877 
Dumouriez, gen., 1739-1823; Jem- 

mappes, 1792 
Dun, John ; bailiff 
Dunant, H., Geneva convention 
Duncan, H. ; savings-banks, 1810 
Duncan, Dr. ; ichnology, 1828 
Duncan; Burmah, 187*5 
Duncan I. ; Scotland, 1033 
Duncan, admiral lord ; Camperdown, 

1797 ; Texel 
Duncannon, viscount ; Melbourne ad- 
ministration, 1834-5 
Duneombe, F. ; sedan chairs, 1634 
Dundas, sir D. ; com. -in-chief, 1809 
Dundas, sir David ; solicitor-general, 

1846 
Dundas, Henry ; Pitt administration, 

1804 
Dundas, gen.; Kilcullen, 1798 
Dundas, lieut. -col.; Prescott, 1838 
Dundas, major; trials, 1831 
Dundas, sir R.; Baltic, 1855 
Dundee, vise; Killiecrankie, 1689 
Dundonald, earl, 1775-1S60 (see Coch- 
rane) 
Dunn, sir David, vice-adm., 1786-1859 
Dunn, John, Zululand, 1879 
Dunn, Richard ; trials, 1847 
Duns Scotus, d. 1308 ; burying alive, 

Scotists 
Dunstan, abp., d. 988; Canterbury, 

959; coronation 
Dupanloup, F. A. P., bishop of 

Orleans, 1802-78 
Dupetit-Thouars ; Otaheite, 1843 
Dupont, gen. ; Baylen, 1808 
Durandj'sir II.; India, 1871 
Durand, lieut. -col. ; India, 1891 
Durazzo, Charles of, m. 1386 ; Naples, 

kings, 1381 
Durer, A., 1471-1528; engraving 
Durham, Joseph, sculptor, 1813-77 
Durham, earl of, 1 792-1840; Grey 

admin., 1830; Canada, 1838 
Duroc, marshal ; Bautzen, 1813 
Duruof ; balloons, 1870-74 
Dutrochet, R.J. H., 1 776-1 847; en- 

dosmosis 
Du Val, Claude ; robbers, 1670 
Duvernois, C. ; France, 1874 
Dwyer; trials, 1843 
Dyce, Wm. ; painter, 1806-64 
Dyke sir, W. H. ; Salisbury adm. 

1885 
Dymocke family ; championship 
Dysart peerage, trials, 1881 



E. 



Eadbald ; convents, 630 
Eadmer, d. about 1124 
Earle, gen.; Soudan, 1885 
Eastlake, sir C, 1793-1865; Royal 

Academy ; National Gallery, 1850 ; 

— C. national gallery, 1878 
Eaton, Daniel; trials, 1796, 1812 
Ebdy v. McGowan ; trials, 1870 
Eckart ; mystic, 1251-1329 
Eddy, Mrs. ; mind cure 
Eden, bp. ; Man, 1847 
Edgar; England, kings, 958 
Edgar, rev. Mr.; temperance, 1829 
Edgeley, T. ; trials, 1868 
Edgeworth, Maria ; novels, 1767-1849 
Edinburgh, duke of, see Alfred, 

Eddystone 



1109 

Edison, T. E. ; electric pen, &c, 
microphone, micro-tasimeter,- pho- 
nograph, telephone 
Edmonds ; zoology 
Edmund; England, 940, 1016 
Edmunds, Christiana ; poisoning, 

trials, 1872 
Edmunds, Mr. ; patents 
Edward the Confessor; England, 

kings, 1042 ; Danegeld 
Edward I. ; England, kings, 1272 ; 

Lewes, Scotland, Wales 
Edward III.; England, kings, 1327, 

Cressy, Sluys, garter 
Edward IV.; England, kings, 1461 ; 

Barnet, Tewkesbury, Towton 
Edward VI.; England, kings, 1547; 

Christ's hospital 
Edward, Black Prince, 1330-76; duke, 

Cressy, Poitiers 
Edwardes, lieut.; India, 1848 
Edwards, rev. T. , public worship ; 
—Miss A. B., Nov., d. 1892; Egypt 
Exploration Fund 
Edwy ; England, 955 
Egan, Mr. ; trials, 1843 
Egan, Patrick ; Chili, 1891 
Egbert; England, kings, 828 
Egerton, sir Thomas ; chancellor, lord 

high, 1596 
Egerton, Mr. ; burnt, Dublin, 1880 
Egg, Aug., painter, 1816-63 
Eglinton, earl of; Ireland, lord-lieu- 
tenant, 1852; tournament 
Egmont, lord; administrations, 1763 
Egremont, earl of; Grenville adminis- 
tration, 1762 
Ehrenberg, C, naturalist, 1795-1876 
Eick, H. ; trials, 1859 
Eirinus, Dr., asphalt, 1712 
Ekenhead, lieut., swimming 
Elcho. Id. (aft. earl of Wemyss), 6. 
1818; Adullam, 1866; cabs, volun- 
teers ; liberty and reform, 1884 
Elder, John ; Glasgow, 1883 
Eldon, lord, 1751-1838; chancellor 

1801 
Eleanor; queens (Edward I., Hen. II. 

and III.) 
Elgin, Lord ; Elgin marbles ; d. 1841 ; 
—James, lord, 1811-63; Canada, 
1846; China, 1857; Japan, Palmer- 
ston, Lidia, 1861 ; govr.-gen., 1861 
Elgin, earl of ; Gladstone adm. 1886 
Elgin, lord, v. Ferguson ; trials, 1807 
Elijah prophesies about 910 B.C. 
Eliott, gen. ; Gibraltar, 1781 
Eliott, sir Gilbert; North adminis- 
tration, 1770 
Elisha prophesies, 896 b. c. 
Elizabeth, queen, 1533-1603; England, 
1558; goose, poor laws, Richmond, 
Whitehall 
Elizabeth ; England, queens (Edward 

IV. and Henry VII.) 
Elizabeth; France, trials, 1794 
Elkington ; gilding, electrotype 
Ellenborough, lord; att.-gen., 1801 ; 
king's bench, delicate investiga- 
tion; lord (son), 1 790-1872; Wel- 
lington admin., 1828; India, govr.- 
gen., 1842, 1858, note ; Derby adm., 
1858 
Ellesmere, lord ; administrations, 

1615; chancellors, Id., 1603 
Ellice, E. ; Melbourne administra- 
tion, 1834 
Elliot, captain ; China, 1840 
Elliotson, Dr. J., 1785-1868 
Ellis, Agar ; trials, 1878 
Ellis, sir H, lib. Brit. Mus., 1777-1869 
Ellis, A. J., 1844-90; pliilol.; musical 

pitch 
Ellis, Wellbore ; Grenville adminis- 
tration, 1770 
Elphinstone, lord ; electric light, 1879 
Elphinstone, admiral ; Cape of Good 
Hope, 1795; Saldanha 



1110 

Elsynge, Win. ; Sion college, 1340 
Elyot, sirT., "governour" 
Elzevir family, printers, 1583-1680 
Emerson, R.W. ; essayist,poe~t, 1803-82 
Emin Bey ; Soudan, 1886 
Emmet, Robert; rebellions, conspi- 
racies, trials, 1803 ; press 
Empedocles ; suicide 
Encke, J. F., 1791-1865; comets, 1818 
Enderby, Messrs. ; southern conti- 
nent, 1838 
Engels, prof. ; lithofracteur, 1869 
Enghien, due d', executed, 1804 
Ennius, 239-169 b.c. ; stenography 
Enraght, rev. R. ; public worship, 

1880 
-Eotvos, Joseph; Hung. nov. 1813-71 
Epaminondas, 371 B.C. ; Leuetra, 

Mantinea 
Epictetus, philosopher, fl. 118 
Epicurus, 342-270 B.c. ; atoms; phi- 
losophy 
Epiphanius, St. abstinence, heresy 
Erasistratus ; anatomy, ab. 30a B.C. 
Erasmus, D., 1467-1536; Greek lan- 
guage, Rotterdam 
Eratosthenes; degree, 250 b.c. ; ar- 

millary sphere 
Eratostratus (or Herostratus) fires 

Diana's temple, 356 b.c. 
Erechtheus; Athens, 1383 b.c. 
Eric; Denmark 

Erich thonius ; Troy, 1449 B.C., car 
Ericsson, capt. ; heat, 1853 
Erie, sir W. ; common pleas, 1859 
Ermeland, bp. of; Prussia, 1871 
Ernley, sir John; administrations, 

1685 
Erroll, earl of; constable of Scot- 
land, lord high 
Erskine, lord; chancellor, lord 

Grenville administration, 1806 
Erskine, gen. ; India, 1795 
Esdaile, E. ; trials, 1858 
Esmonde case ; trials, 1868 
Espartero, Marshal, Spain, 1841-75; 

Bilbao, 1836 ; d. 1879 
Esquirol, E. ; lunatics, 1810 
Essex, earl of ; administrations, 1532, 

1579 ; Newbury, 1643 
Este, sir Augustus d' ; marriage act, 
. royal, 1844 

Ethelbert, 560, Canterbury 
Etheldreda ; Ely, 673 
Ethelred, 979 ; coronation, Danegeld 
Ethersey, com. ; suicide, 1857 
Etty, W. painter, 1787-1849 
Euchidas ; pedestrianism 
Euclid ; geometry, 300 b. c. 
Eugene, prince, 1663-1736 ; Belgrade, 

Turin, Zenta 
Eugenie, empress ; France, 1853 ; 

Marseilles, 1882 
Eugenius ; popes, Aquileia 
Eulenburg, count, Prussia, 1873 
Eulenstein, Jew's harp 
Euler, L., 1707-83; acoustics 
Eumenes; parchment, 190 B.C. 
Eumolpus ; Eleusinian mysteries 
Eupion gas co. ; trials, 1876 
Euripides, 480-406 b.c ; tragedy 
Eurysthenes ; biarchy, 1102 B.C. 
Eurystheus; Mycente, 1289 B.C. 
Eusden, L. ; poet laureate, d. 1730 
Eusebius, of Ctesarea, ab. 275-340 
Eustachius ; thoracic duct, 1563 
Euston divorce case ; trials, 1884 
Euthalius ; accents, 458 
Eutyches, fl. 447 
Evandcr ; Circensian games 
Evans, general de Lacy ; British 
legion, 1835 ; Spain, 1835 ; Iran. 
Sebastian 
Evans; trials, 1858 
Evans, J. ; man, 1872 
Evans, M. (G. Eliot), novelist, 

1820-80 
Evans, W. E. ; harmonium, 1841 



INDEX. 

Evelyn, J., 1620-1706; horticulture, 

lime-tree, trees 
Examiner, the ; trials, 1812 
Exmouth, lord ; Algiers, 1816 
Eyre, E. J. ; Jamaica, 1864-7 
Eyre, John ; transportation, 1771 
Ezekiel prophesies about 595 b. c. 



F. 

Faber, F. ; oratorians, 1848 

Fabius, Quintus ; painting, 311 b.c. ; 

■ — Maximus; AUobroges, 121 B.C. 
Fabii, killed, Cremera, 477 b.c ; 

Fabii 
Fabre, M.; France, 1883 
Fahrenheit, G. D., 1686-1736; ther- 
mometer, about 1726 
Faidherbe, gen. ; Franco-Pruss. war, 

1871 ; St. Quentin, 1871 
Fairbairn, Mr. ; tubular bridge, 1849 
Fairfax, T. ; Naseby, 1645 
Fairland, Miss ; trials, 1874 
Falck, Dr. ; steam-engine, 1779 
Falconbridge ; London, 1453 
Falconer, H. ; geologist, d. 1865 
Falieri, Marini ; Venice, 1335 
Falk ; Prussia, 1873 ; Germany, 1879 
Falkland, visct. ; Newbury, 1643 
Falstaff, sir John ; taverns 
Fancourt, Samuel ; circulating li- 
braries, 1740 
Faraday, Michael, 1791-1867; Royal 
Institution, chemistry, electricity, 
gas, magnetism, magneto-electri- 
city, ice, Albert medal, Faraday 
Farewell, lieut., Natal, 1823 
Farmer and Wallace, electric light, 

1879 
Farquhar, Mr., buys Fonthill abbey. 

1822 
Farr, Dr. W., 1807-83 ; annuities, 

1864 ; statistics 
Farragut, D., 1861-79, admiral, 1866 : 

United States, 1864 
Farrar, F. A. ; trials, 1868 
Farrell v. Gordons ; trials, 1873 
Farren, Miss, actress, retires, 1797 
Farrer ; trials, 1859 
Fatima ; Mahometanism, note 
Faulkner, G. ; newspapers, 1728 
Fauntleroy, H. ; forgery, 1824 
Faure, Jules, electric battery, 1881 
Faust, John ; printing, 1442 
Faustin I. ; Hayti, 1849 
Faustulus ; Alba, 770 B.C. 
Faux, Guy ; gunpowder plot, 1605 
Favre, Jules ; France, 1870-2, d. 1880 
Fawcett, col. ; duel, 1843 
Fawcett, H., 1833-84 ; Gladstone 

adm., postmaster, 1880; parcel post 
Fazy, J. J. ; Switzerland, 1878 
Felix, popes, 269 et seq. 
Fellows, C. ; Lycia, 1840 
Felton assassinates Buckingham at 

Portsmouth, 1628 
Fenelon, abp., 1651-1715; Cambray 
Fenning, Eliza ; executions, 1815 
Fenwick, J. ; executions, 1697 
Feramoz ; Afghanistan, 1871 
Ferdinand ; Austria, Naples, Portu- 
gal, Sicily, Spain, Tuscany, Castile, 

Cordova, Bulgaria 
Ferdinand of Brunswick, Minden, 

1759 

Fergus ; Scotland, coronation 

Ferguson, J. ; planets, 1854 

Fergusson, sir J. ; Bombay, 1880 ; 
Salisbury 2nd adm. 

Fergusson, James, 1808-86 ; archi- 
tecture, 1874-76 

Format ; probability 

Ferrand ; France, 1874 

Ferre ; France, 1871 

Ferrers, earl ; trials, 1760 

Ferrier, Dr. J., 1811-82; vivisection 

Ferry, J. ; France, 1879-84 



Fessel ; gyroscope, 1852 
Festing, col. ; Ashantees, 1873 
Fichte, Germ, philos., J. G., 1762- 

1814 ; Im. H., son, 1797-1879 
Field, Cyrus, 1819-1892 ; electric tele- 
graph, 1868 
Field, Edward ; air, 1891 
Field, J., nocturne 
Fielding, H., novelist, 1707-54; 

magistrates 
Fieschi ; France, 1836 
Figueras ; Spain, 1873 
Figueroa ; Spain, 1868 
Fillmore, M. ; United States, presi- 
dent, 1850 ; d. 1874 
Finch, D. ; admiralty, 1680 
Finch, sir John ; chancellor, lord ; 
administrations, 1640 ; Heneage, 
chancellor, 1673 
Finiguerra ; engraving, 1460 
Finnerty, Peter; trials, 1808, 1811 
Finnis, T. ; lord mayor, 1856 
Finnis, col. ; India, 1857, ,l0 * e 
Firth, M., Sheffield, 1879 
Fish, W. ; trials, executions, 1876 
Fisher, bp. ; administrations, 1509 ; 

Salisbury ; executed, 1535 
Fisher; duels, 1806 
Fisk, James ; New York, 1871 
Fitzgerald, H. ; life-boat, 1856 
Fitzgerald, lord ; attainder, 1798 
Fitzgerald, lord, v. Mrs. Clarke ; 

trials, 1814 
Fitzgerald, lord ; Wellington adminis- 
tration, 1830 
Fitz-Osborn ; justiciars, 1067 
Fitzpatrick ; Grenville administra- 
tion, 1806 
Fitzpatrick, Hugh ; trials, 1813 
Fitz-Roy, R., 1805-65; circumnavi- 
gation, 1826 ; New Zealand, 1843 ; 
meteorology, 1857 
Fitz waiter, Robert de ; Dunmow, 



1806; Ireland (lord-lieut.); strikes, 
1875 
Flad, Mr. ; Abyssinia, 1866 
Flaminius ; Thrasymene, 217 B.C. 
Flamin, A. L. ; cryptography, 1875 
Flammock ; rebellions, 1497 
Flamsteed, J. ; Greenwich, 1745 
Flanagan, Cath.; poisoning, 1884 
Flavius ; Rome, emperors Vespasian, 

Titus, Domitian, 69-96 
Flaxman, J., sculptor, 1 754-1826 
Fleischer, E. ; hydrostatics 
Fleuss, diving, safety lamp 
Fletcher of Saltoun, fl. 1700 ; ballads 
Fletcher, will forger ; trials, 1844 
Fletcher, S. W., trials, 1881 
Flight and Robson ; apollonicon, 

1817 
Flinders, captain, explores New Hol- 
land, 1801 
Flood, Mr. ; absentees, 1773 
Floquet, M.; France, 1883 
Florence, Eliz. ; trials, 1822 
Flores, gen. ; Uruguay, 1863-8 
Floras, Rom. historian, fl. 106 
Flotow, F. F. A. von ; Ger. 11ms., 

1812-83 
Flourens, M. J. P., philos., 1794- 

1867 ; — Gustave ; France, 1870-1 
Fold ; China, 2240 b. c. 
Foix, Gaston de ; Ravenna, 15 12 
Folengio, Theo. ; macaroni 
Foley, J. H., sculp., 1818-1S86; Al- 
bert mem., Faraday mem. 
Folkestone, lord ; arts, soc. of, 1754 
Folkestone v. Ridsdale ; trials, 1876 
Follett, sir Wm. ; solicitor-gen., at- 
torney-gen., 1844 
Folliott, bp. ; Hereford, 1803 
Fonseca, Deodoro da Marshall 

Brazil, 1889 
Fontaine, M., electric light, 1877 
Fontana, Mars, 1636 



Foote, Sam., 1721-77; theatres 
Foote v. Hayne ; trials, 1824 
Forbes, lord ; horse guards, 1702 
Forbes, Edwd., naturalist, 1815-54 
Forbes, J. D., nat. philos., 1809-68 
Ford, sir H. C. ; Spain, 1888 
Forster, abp. ; Prussia, 1875 
Forster, Mr. ; Preston, 1715 
Forster, John ; South Kensington 

Museum, 1876 
Forster, M. ; planets, i860 
Forster, W. E.; 1818-86, ^Gladstone 
adm., 1868, 1880; imperial fed.; 
Ireland ; Education 
Forsyth, sir D., Burmah, 1875 
Forsythe, Rev. Mr. ; fire-arms, 1807 
Forteseue, lord ; Ireland, lord-lieu- 
tenant, 1839 
Forteseue, C. S. ; Gladstone, 1868 
Forwood, S. (Southey) ; executions, 

1866 
Foscaro, doge ; Venice, 1457 
Foster, John, essayist, 1770- 1843 
Fottrell, capt. ; duels, 181 7 
Foucault, J. B. L., 1819-68; pendu- 
lum, siderostat 
Fouehe, J., due d'Otranto, 1763-1820 
Fould, Achille, 1800-67; France, 

1S61 
Foulis, E. & A., printers, 1740-76 
Fourdrinier, M. ; paper, 1807 
Fourier, C, d. 1837; Fourierism 
Fourtou, M. de ; France, 1877 
Fowke, capt. ; exhibition, 1862 ; Al- 
bert hall 
Fowler, H. ; Gladstone adm., 1892 
Fowler, Mr. ; canoe, 1878 
Fox & Henderson ; crystal palace, 

1851 
Fox, bishop of Winchester ; adminis- 
trations, 1509; privy seal 
Fox, Samuel ; umbrella 
Fox, Charles James, 1749-1806 ; duel, 
1779 ; Portland admin., 1783; India 
bill, people 
Fox, S. ; music college, 1889 
Fox, George, 1624-90 ; quakers 
Fox, Henry ; Newcastle administra- 
tion, 1757 
Fox, sir Stephen ; Chelsea, 1628 
Fox, St. G. Lane ; electricity (lamp- 
lighting by), gas ■ 
Foxe, John, martyrologist, 1517-87 
Francia, Dr., 1755-1840; Paraguay 
Francis, St., 1182-1226 ; Cordeliers 
Francis I., emperor ; Germany, 1745 ; 

Austria, 1804 
Francis I. ; France, 1515 ; duelling, 
cloth of gold, Marignan, Pavia, 
Sicily 
Francis Joseph ; Austria, 1848 ; as- 
sassinations, Himgary, 1848 
Francis ; trials, 1842 
Francis, John, Athenseum (journal) 
Francis, sir Philip, 1740-1818 ; Ju- 
nius 
Francis de Sales, St., 1567- 1622, "De- 
vout Life " 
Francisco d' Assise ; Spain, 1846 
Francke, A. ; orphan houses, 1698 
Frankfort, lord, v. Alice Lowe ; trials, 

1842, 1852 
Frankland, Edw. ; amyl, ethyl, 

methyl, 1849 
Franklin, Benjamin, 1706-90; elec- 
tricity, 1752; lightning 
Franklin, sir John ; north-west pas- 
sage, 1825 ; Franklin 
Franks ; suicide, trials, 1825 
Eraser v. Bagley ; trials, 1844 
Frecinet, M. de ; France, 1885 
Frederick, trials, 1874 
Frederick, duke of York, 1762-1827; 

York 
Frederick II. ; Corte Nuova, 1237 
Frederick ; Germany, Prussia, Hesse, 
Nuremberg, Palatinate, Prague, 
Hochkirchen, Torgau 



INDEX. 

Frederick III. ; Germany, 1888 
Frederick-Augustus ; Poland, 1697 
Frederick-Charles, prince of Prussia, 

Franco-Pruss. war, 1870-1 ; Metz, 

1870 
Frederick-Lewis, prince ; Wales, 1729 
Frederick William, I. — IV. ; Prussia ; 

assassinations 
Freeling, S. ; Grenada, 1871 
Freeman, E. A. , historian, 1823-92; 

conquest, 1870-6 
Frelinghuysen, Mr.; United States, 

1881 
Fremantle, Rev. W. H. ; dissenters, 

1875 
Fremont, J. C, 1813-90; U. States, 

1856 
Fremy, M. ; steel, 1861 
French, col. ; trials, 1820 
Freney ; trials, 1749 
Frere, sir Bartle, 1815-84 ; slave 

trade, Zanzibar, 1872 ; cape, 1876 ; 

Kaffraria, 1878, celibacy, 
Frere-Orban; Belgium, 1868, 1878 
Frewen, abp. ; York, 1660 
Freycinet, M. de, France, 1879 
Frichot, ophicleide 
Frith, W. P., painter, t>. 1819 
Frivell, Wm. , post-office, 1631 
Frobisher, sir Martin, d. 1594; north- 
west passage, 1576 
Froggatt, E. ; trials, 1877-1879 
Froissart, historian, 1337-1410 
Frost, John, chartist ; Newport, 1839 
Frost, W. E. R. A., 1810-77 
Froude, J. A., historian, b. 1818 ; 

South African confederation, 1875 
Frumentius ; Abyssinia, 329 
Fuad Pasha, 1814-69 ; Damascus, 

Turkey, 1860-9 
Fuller, J. ; Royal Institution, 1833 
Fuller case ; India, 1876 
Fulton, R., 3765-1815 ; steam-engine, 

1803 
Furley, Mary ; trials, 1844 
Furneaux, capt. ; Adventure Bay, 

New Holland ; returns, 1774 
Furness, Mrs. H. ; concordance, 1876 
Fuseli, H., painter, 1741-1825 



G. 



Gabelentz, H. C. von der ; language, 

1874 
Gage, gen. ; America, 1775 
Gaine, W. ; parchment paper, 1857 
Gainsborough, Thomas, painter, 1727- 

88 
Galba ; Rome, emp. , 68 
Gale, balloons, gunpowder, 1865 
Gale, Sarah, and Greenacre ; trials, 

1857 , . 

Galen, 130-200 ; physic 

Galgacus, 84 ; Grampians 

Galileo di Galilei, 1564-1642 ; acous- 
tics, astronomy, falling bodies, 
harmonic curve, ice, inquisition, 
pendulum, planets, sun, tele- 
scopes 

Gall, J., 1758-1828; craniology 

Gallagher, J.; trials, 1883 

Galle, Dr. ; Neptune, 1846 

Gallien ; balloons, 1755 

Gallienus ; Rome, emp. 260 

Galton, F.; composite portraits, 1877 ; 
heredity 

Galvani, Louis, 1737-98 ; electricity, 
1 791 ; voltaic pile 

Galway, earl of ; Almanza, 1707 

Gama, Vasco de, d. 1525 

Gambetta, L. 1838-82; France, 1870-81; 
opportunists, scrutin 

Gambier, lord Basque Roads, 1809; 
Copenhagen 

Gambier and Rumble, trials, 1869 

Gambrill, trials, 1878 

Gamgee, A.; Roy. Inst. 1884 



1111 

Gamgee, J. ; glaciarium, 1876 
Gamond, Thome de ; tunnels, 1867 
Ganganelli; Clement XIV., popes, 

1769 
Gangeland ; apothecary 
Gardiner, A. ; Natal, 1835 
Gardiner, bp. ; administrations, 1529 
Gardiner, lieut. Alan ; missions, 1850 
Garfield, gen., J. A., United States, 

1 880 
Garibaldi, Joseph, 1807-82 ; Italy, 
1859-76 ; Soiferino, Sicily, Naples, 
Volturno ; Franco-Prussian war, 
1870 
Garnerin, M. ; balloons, 1802 
Garnet ; gunpowder plot, 1605 
Garnet, Dr. Thos. ; Royal Institu- 
tion, 1801 
Garrett- Anderson, Mrs. ; physic, 1865 
Garrick, David, 1716-79; theatres, 

Drury-lane, jubilees 
Garrison, W. L., 1804-79; slavery in 

United States, 1831 
Garrod, A. H. ; Royal Institution, 1875 
Garrow, Wm. ; att.-gen., 1813 
Garth, Dr. ; Kit-Cat club, 1703 
Gaskell, Mrs. E. C. novelist; 1811-65 
Gassendi, 1592-1655 ; atoms, sun, 

sound 
Gaston de Foix : Ravenna, 1512 
Gates, gen. ; Saratoga, 1777; Camden, 

1780 
Gauden, bp. ; eikon basilike, 1649 
Gauden, M. ; sapphire, 1857 
Gaunt, John of, 6. 1340 ; Ghent, 

roses, wars 
Gausius, 335 b. c. ; caustic 
Gavarni, French caric. 1801-66 
Gavestons, beheaded, 1312 ; rebellions 
Gay, John, 1688-1732 ; fables, operas 
Gay-Lussae, J., 1778-1850 ; balloons 
Gayer, J., lion-sermon 
Ged, William; stereotype, 1730 
Geffcken, Dr. ; Prussia, 1888 
Geffrard, gen. Fabre ; Hayti, 1858 
Gelasius I. ; popes 492 ; breviary, 

pall ; Candlemas 
Gellert, C. F., Germ, fabulist, 1715-69 
Gellius, Aulus, Latin miscellany, /. 

117-180 
Gelon : Syracuse, 485 B.C., Himera 
Genghis khan ; Tartary, 1206 ; Hun- 
gary ; India 
Genseric lands in Africa, 429 
GeofFroy, M. H.; asbestos 
George, David, d. 1536 ; family of love 
George, St. ; garter 
George I. — IV., England ; kings, 

assassinations 
George I. — V. ; Hanover (kings) ; as- 
sassinations 
George I. ; accession, 171 4 
George II. ; Dettingen, 1743 
George, H. ; land nationalization, 

United States, 1886-7 
George, king, Bonny 
Georgi ; dahlia, 1815 
Geramb, baron ; aliens, 1812 
Gerard, J. ; physic garden, 1567 
Gerbert, d. 1003 ; arithmetic 
Germaine, lord George Sackville ; 

Minden, 1759 
Germanus ; Sodor, 447 
Gerstenzweig, general ; Poland, m. 

1861 
Gervinus, G. G., Genu. hist. 1805-71 
Gesler ; Switzerland, 1306 
Geta ; Rome, emp. 211 
Gholam Hussein, Afghanistan, 1S78- 

81 ; India, 1881 
Gibbins, Mr., killed; riots, 1831 
Gibbon, Edward, historian, 1737-94 
Gibbons, Grinling, sculptor, 1 648-1721 
Gibbons, Orlando ; music, 1583-1625 
Gibbs, J., architect, 1674-1754 
Gibbs, sir V; attorney-gen., 1807; 

common pleas, 1814 
Gibbs, W. A. ; corn, 1868 ; hay, 1875 



1112 

Gibbs, W. ; Keble college, Christ's 

hospital, 1877 
Gibson, J., sculptor, 1 791-1866; Royal 

academy 
Gibson, T. ; concordance, 1535 
Gibson, T. M., 1807-84; Palmerston 

administration, 1859 
Giesmar, general ; Praga, 183 1 
Giffard, sir Hardinge S. ; solicitor- 
general, 1875 ; chancellor, Id., 

Halsbury, 1885 
Giffard, Paul ; cannon, 1890 
Gifford, lieut. ; Kildare, 1798 
Gifford, R. ; attorney-gen., 1819 
Gifford; steam-injector 
Gifford, Win., 1757-1826; Quarterly 

Rev., 1809 
Gilbert v. Enoch (Pall Mall Gaz.) 

trials, 1873 
Gilbert, archbp. ; York, 1757 
Gilbert, sir Humphry, 1539-84; 

Newfoundland 
Gilbert, Dr., 1540-1603; electricity, 

1600 ; magnetism 
Gilbert, gen. ; Ferozeshah, 1845 
Gilbert, G. ; executions, 1862 
Gilbert, W. G. ; operas 
Gilchrist, earl (of Angus), 1037 
Gilchrist, steel 
Gildas, historian, 516-570 
Gill, D. ; star 
Gillam, Rd. ; trials, 1828 
Gillespie, col. ; Vellore, 1806 
Gillespie, gen. ; Kalunga, duel, 1788 
Gillott, J. ; steel pens 
Gillray, J. 1785-1815 ; caricatures 
Ginckel, gen. ; Aughrim, 1691 
Gintl, Dr. ; electric telegraph (duplex) 

1853 
Gioberti, Italian writer, 1801-52 
Gioja, F. ; compass, 1302 
Giotto, painter, 1276-1336 
Giudetti, passion music 
Gladstone, rev. Mr. ; trials, 1852 
Gladstone, J. H. ; copper-zinc couple, 

1872 ; physical society, 1874 ; edu- 
cation society 
Gladstone v. Gladstone ; trials, 1875 
Gladstone, W. E. ; &. 1809, Gladstone 

adm. 186S, 1880, 1886, 1892 ; sus- 
pensory act ; England, 1877-8 ; 

Dublin, 1878 ; parliament, 1881 ; 

Kilmainham 
Glaisher, J. ; meteorology, 1850 ; 

balloons, 1862 
Glanville, R. de, eh. justice, 1180 
Glas, capt., murdered; trials, 1766 
Glas, John, 1698-1773 ; Glasites, 1727 
Gleichen, count ; England, 1877 
Glendower, Owen ; Wales, 1400 
Glenelg, lord (Charles Grant), d. 1866 ; 

Wellington adm., 1828 
Glerawley, lord, v. Burn ; trials, 1820 
Gloucester, duke of; marriage act, 

1772 
Glover, col. ; Ashantees, 1874 
Glover, E. A. ; trials, 1858 
Glover, sir H. ; Leeward Isles 
Gluck, C. ; music, 1714-87 
Gobelin, G. ; tapestry, Gobelins 
Goderich, lord, d. 1859 ; Goderieh 
Godfrey, M. ; bank of England, 1694 
Godfrey of Bouillon ; Jerusalem, 

1099 
Godolphin, earl; Godolphin adm. 

1684 
Godoy, M., prince of the peace; 

Spain, 1806 ; d. 1851 
Godwin, sir G. ; Pegu, 1852 
Godwin, Wm., 1756-1836; politics, 

novels 
Goethe, or Gothe ; German miscel. 

1749-1832 
Goffart, M.; ensilage 
Gog and Magog ; Guildhall 
Gold, F. I., 1881, railways, 1881, 

trials 
Goldoni, Ch., Ital. dramatist, 1707-93 



INDEX. 

Goldschmidt (Jenny Lind), b. 1821 ; 

Nightingale fund 
Goldschmidt, H., 1802-66 ; planets, 

1852 
Goldsmids ; trials, 1873 
Goldsmith, Oliver ; poet, miscel. 1728- 

74 
Goncourt, naturalism 
Gonsalvo de Cordova, gen., d. 1515 ; 

Garigliano 
Gonzales, F. 0., Spain, 1879, Mexico, 

1880. 
Gooeh, lady, trials, 1878 
Good, Daniel ; trials, 1842 
Goodenough, lieut. ; massacres, 1875 
Goodrich, bp. ; administrations, 

Goodwin, bp., H., Carlisle, 1870 

Goodyear, C. ; caoutchouc 

Gordian ; Rome, emperors 

Gordon, col.; duels, 1783 

Gordon, lord G., d. 1793; riots, libel, 
trials, 1781, 1788 

Gordon, gen. Charles George ; China, 
1863; Egypt, 1874; Abysinnia ; 
Basuto, Congo, Khartoum, Soudan, 
1883-4 ! Gordon memorial 

Gordon, sir A. H., 1833-85; Fiji, 1875; 
N. Zealand, 1880 

Gordons, L. and L. ; trials, 1804 

Gorgey, gen. ; Hungary, 1849 

Gorham v. bishop of Exeter ; trials, 
1849 

Gorst, E. G. ; Salisbury adm., 1885 

Gortschakoff, gen.; Kalafat, 1854; 
Silistria, Tehemaya 

Gortschakoff, prince A., statesman, 
1798-1883 ; Vienna conference, 
1853; Poland, 1861 ; Russo-Turkish 
war, II. 1877-8 ; Russia, 1856-83 

Goschen, J. G., b. 1831; Gladstone 
adm., t868 ; Egypt, 1876; Turkey, 
1880-1 ; parliament, 1883 ; Salis- 
bury adm., 1887 

Goss v, Whitlake, trials, 1870 

Gossett, sir W. ; trials, 1842 

Gosset, F. ; parliament, 1885 

Gosset, R. A. ; parliament, 1885 

Gough, sir Hugh, 1 772-1869 ; China, 
1841 ; India, 1846 ; Goojerat, So- 
braon, Ferozeshah 

Goulard ; France, 1874 

Goulburn, H. ; Wellington admin- 
istration, 1828 

Gould, J., 1804-81; birds, works on, 
1832-78 ; humming-birds, 1862 

Gould, Jay, New York, 1872 

Gould, Miss ; trials, 1822 

Gould, murderer; trials, 1840 

Gourko, gen. ; Russo-Turkish war, 
II. 1878 ; Schipka 

Gourlay, captain ; duels, 1824 

Gowcr, earl ; Wilmington adm., 1742; 
North adm., 1770 

Gower, F. A., telephone, balloons, 
1883 

Gower, J., poet ; d. 1402 

Gracchus, Tiberius, slain, 133; — 
Caius slain, 121 b.c. 

Grady, Mr. ; duel, 1827 

Grsebe and Liebermann, alizarine 

GrEevius, J. G. and G. ; thesaurus 

Grafton, duke of; Rockingham adm., 
1765: Grafton adm., 1767 

Graham, bp. ; Chester, 1848 

Graham of Claverhouse, 1650-89; 
Killiecrankie 

Graham, A. ; planets, 1848 

Graham, C. C. ; Grenada 

Graham, gen. ; Barossa, i8ti ; Se- 
bastian, Bergen-op-Zoom 

Graham, Mr. ; pendulum, 1715 ; 
magnetism, 1722 

Graham, H. C, and others; trials; 
1886 

Graham, Mr. ; duels, 1791 

Graham, gen. sir Gerald ; Egypt, 
1882 ; Soudan, 1884 



Graham, sir James, 1792-1861 ; Grey, 
Peel 

Graham, Thos., 1805-69; mint, dif- 
fusion, dialysis, atmolysis 

Grammont, due de, Dettingen, 1743 

Granard, Arthur, earl of; Kilmain- 
ham, 1675 

Granby, marquis of; Chatham ad- 
minis., 1766 

Grant, Alb. ; Leicester square, 1874 ; 
trials, 1875-6 ; painting, 1877 

Grant, capt. John ; cookery, 1857 ; 
cottager's stove 

Grant, sir Colquhoun ; duel, 1835 

Grant, lieut. C. J. W. ; Manipur 

Grant, sirF., i8oe-78;RoyalAcademy, 
1866-78 

Grant, G. B. ; calculating machine, 
1874 

Grant, lieut. ; trials, 1816, 1844 ; 
Central Africa, 1863 

Grant, see Glenelg 

Grant, gen. Ulysses, 1828-85 ; United 
States, 1863-73 : Pittsburg, 1862 

Grantham, Id. ; Shelburne adm. 1872 

Grantley, F. Norton, Id. ; attorney- 
gen., 1763 

Granville, earl, 1815-91 ; Russell, 
Palmerston admin., 1851 ; Glad- 
stone adm. 1868, 1880, 1886 

Gratian; canons, 1140 

Gratian, Rome, emp. 367-83 

Grattan, Henry, orator, 1750-1820; 
duelling, 1800, 1820 

Grattan, T. Colley, novelist, 1796- 
1864 

Grattoni, Alps (tunnel) 

Graves, adm. sir T., Basseterre, 1782 

Gray, bp. ; Bristol, 1827 ; see Cape- 
town 

Gray, Id. mayor, E. D.; Ireland, 1882 

Gray, E. ; telephone, 1873 

Gray, Thomas, poet, 1716-71 

Greathead, Mr. ; life-boats, 1789 

Greatrix, Val. ; impostors, 1666 

Greaves, lord ; suicide, 1830 

Grechi, prof. ; fire-detector 

Greeley, Horace, 1811-72; United 
States, 1872 

Greeley, lieut.; N. E. & W. pass., 
1S81-4 

Green, Charles, 1786-1870; balloons, 
1828 

Green, rev. S., public worship, 1880 

Green, J. R.; hist., 1837-83 

Green, J.; seraphiue 

Greenacre, J. ; trials, 1837 

Greene, general ; Camden, 1781 

Greenwell, canon ; Barrows, 1877 

Greenwood, T. ; file, i860 

Gregg, Dr. ; reformed episcopal 
church 

Gregoire, M. ; national convention, 
1792 

Gregory the Great ; chanting, 
Christianity 

Gregory I. — XVI. ; popes, 590 et seq. 

Gregory VII. ; Italy, 237 

Gregory XI. , pope ; pallium 

Gregory XIII. ; calendar, 1582 

Gregory Nazianzen, Greek father, 
326-390? 

Grenfell, gen. sir F. ; Soudan, 1888 

Grenville, George ; Newcastle ad- 
ministration, 1754 ; Grenville ad- 
ministration, 1763 

Grenville, F. ; British Museum, 1846 

Grenville, lord; Grenville admin., 
1806 ; delicate investigation 

Gresham, sir T., d. 1579 ; Gresham 

Grevy, Jules, 1807-91, France, 1871-8 

Grey, bp. ; Hereford, 1832 

Grey, earl, 1764-1845 ; Grey, reform 

Grey, Henry, earl ; Russell adminis- 
tration, 1835 

Grey, lady Jane, exec. 1554 ; Eng- 
land, queens 

Grey, lord ; Pomfret castle, 1483 



Grey, sir George; Eussell admin., 

1846; Palmerston admin., 1855 
Grey, sir G. ; Cape, 1856 
Grey, Stephen ; electricity, 1720 
Griesbach, J., critic, 1745-1812 
Griffith, sir B., Griffith's valuation 
Grimaldi, Joseph, clown ; retires, 

1828 
Grimm, Jacob, 1785-1863 ; Wilhelm, 
1786-1859 ; dictionary (German) ; 
Grimm's law 
Grimthorpe, lord ; see Beckett 
Grimwood, F., and Mrs. ; Manipur 
Grindall, abp. ; York, 1570; Canter- 
bury, liturgy 
Grinfield, general ; Demerara, 1803 ; 

Tobago 
Grinnell, Mr. ; Franklin expedition, 

1850 
Grinstead, Capt.; Princess Alice 
Grisi, madame, cl. 1869 
Grissell, C. E., parliament, 1879-80 
Grocyn, Wm. ; Greek, 1490 
Grogan, col., captured ; U. States, 

1841 
Gronovius, J., thesaurus, 1657-1702 
Gros, baron ; China, 1858 
Grote, G., historian, 1794-1861 
Grotius, H., 1583-1645; philosophy 
Grove, sir G.; crystal palace, 1874; 

music (diet.), 1878 
Grove, sir W. R., nat. phil. & judge, 
&. 181 1 ; voltaic battery, 1839; cor " 
relation, 1842 ; continuity, 1866 ; 
antagonism 
Groves, W., electric balance, 1879 
Growse, Elias ; needles 
Guelph ; Bavaria, Brunswick 
Guericke, Otto von, 1602-1686 ; air, 

electricity, 1647 ; Magdebui'g 
Guerin-Meneville, silk (ailantine), 

1858 
Guernsey, W. H. : trials, 1858 
Guesclin, B. du, d. 1380 
Guibert, abp.; France, 1876 
Guibord, J. ; Montreal, 1875 
Guicciardini, F, hist., 1482-1540 
Guido, Aretino, fl. 1030 
Guido, Reni, painter, 1575-1642 
Guilford, earl of; trials, 1853 
Guillemin, A. ; comets 
Guillermo ; Hayti, 1877 
Guinness, sir B., 1798-1S68; Patrick, 

St., 1863 
Guinness, sir E. (baron Iveagh); arti- 
sans' dwellings 
Guiscard ; Naples, 1059 ; conspira- 
cies, 1710 
Guise, dukes of ; Guise 
Guiteau, C. J., assassin, United 

States, 1881-2 
Guizot, F., 1787-1874; France, 1840- 

48-70 
Gunter, E. ; Gunter's chain, 1606 
Gurney, G. ; Bude light, 1841 
Gurney, Messrs. ; trials, 1869 
Gurney, Russell ; recorder, 1856-78 
Gurwood, colonel ; suicide, 1845 
Giissfeld, Dr. ; Africa, 1873 
Gustavus Adolphus, killed, Lutzen, 

1632 ; Sweden, Munich 
Gustavus Vasa ; Sweden, 1521 
Gustavus I. —IV. ; Sweden 
Gutenberg, J., cl. 1467; printing 
Guter, of Nuremberg ; air, 1659 
Gutierrez, T., Peru, 1872 
Guy Faux ; gunpowder plot, 1605 
Guy, Thos. ; Guy's hospital, 1721 
Guyton-Morveau ; balloons, 1784-04 
Guzman, Dominic de ; beads, 1202 
Gwynne, Nell ; bell-ringing, 1687 
Gyges ; Lydia, 718 B.C. 
Gylippus, 414 b.c. ; Syracuse 



INDEX. 



H. 

Habakkuk, prophet, ab. 326 B.C. 
Hachette, Jeanne de la; Beauvais, 

1472 
Hacker, L. ; Sunday schools, 1740 
Hacker, Matilda, trials, 1879 
Hackett", Wm. ; impostors, 1591 
Hackman, Mr. ; trials, 1770 
Haekworth, T. ; steam, 1825 
Haddington, earl of; Ireland (lord- 

lieut.), 1834 
Haden, Seymour ; burials, 1875 
Hadley ; quadrant, 1731 
Hadrian; Rome, emperor, 117 
Hasckel, prof. ; development 
Hsecker ; magnetism, .1851 
Hafiz, Persian poet, fl. 14th century 
Haggai prophesies about 630 B.C. 
Haggart, David ; trials, 1821 
Haggarty and Holloway ; trials, 1807 
Hahnemann, Sam., 1755-1843; 

homoeopathy 
Hakluyt, R. ; geog., 1553-1616 
Hakon ; Iceland 

Hale, sir Matthew, judge, 1609-76 
Hales, Stephen, philosopher, 1677- 

1761 
Halevy, J. E. F., mus. comp. 1799- 

1862 
Halifax, earl of ; Halifax administra- 
tion, 1714; trimmer; see Wood 
Hall, A. ; astronomy ; Mars, 1877 
Hall ; steam, 1840 

Hall, sir B. ; health, Palmerston ad- 
ministration, 1855 
Hall, John. ; lead 
Hall, sir C, vice-chancellor, 1873 
Hall, Marshall, physiol., 1790-1857 
Hall, Rev. Robert, 1764-1831 
Hall, Sam., d. 1862 ; lace 
Hall v. Semple ; trials, 1862 
Hallam, Henry, hist., 1778-1859 
Haller, A. von; physiol, 1708-77 
Halley, Edmund, astronomer ; Green- 
wich, 1719 ; Venus 
Halloran, Dr. , transported for forging 
a frank, 1818 [1886 

Halsbury, Id. ; Salisbury adm., 1885, 
Hamdi Pasha ; Turkey, 1878 
Hamel, J. ; Mont Blanc, 1820 
Hamilcar; Carthage, 237 b.c. 
Hamilton ; duels, 1748, 1804 
Hamilton and Douglas cause ; trials, 

1769 
Hamilton, bp. ; Salisbury, 1854 
Hamiltou, duke of; duelling, 1712 ; 

trials, 1813 
Hamilton, F. W., guards 
Hamilton, Id. George ; Salisbury 

adm., 1885, 1886 
Hamilton, James, marquis of; ad- 

ministrations, 1640 
Hamilton, J. ; court of honour 
Hamilton, J. B. ; vocation 
Hamilton, Mary ; trials, 1736 
Hamilton, sir W. ; Herculaneum 
Hamilton, W. R. ; Elgin marbles 
Hamilton, sir W. ; quaternions 
Hammond, Mr. ; ambassadors, 1791 
Hampden, Richard ; administrations, 

1690 
Hampden, John, killed, 1643 ; ship- 
money, Chalgrove 
Hanlan, E.; boat race, 1882 
Hancock, T. ; caoutchouc, 1843 
Handcock ; trials, 1855 
Handel, G. F, 1684-1759; Handel, 
opera, oratorios, Judas, Joshua, 
Messiah, Rule Britannia. 
Hannen, sir James (aft. lord); divorce 
ct., 1872 ; Parnellites, 1888 ; appeal 
Hannibal, Carthaginian, 247-183 B.C. ; 
Rome, Bernard, Saguntum, Spain, 
Cannse, Carthage, Zama 



1113 

Hans Sachs, 1494-1578 ; minne- 
singers 
Hansom, Joseph ; cabs 
Hanson, capt. ; duels, 1776 
Hanway, Jonas, d. 1786 ; marine 

society ; umbrella 
Harcourt, lady ; fete de vertu 
Harcourt, lord ; Oxford administra- 
tion, 1 71 1 
Harcourt, sirW. V., solicitor-general, 
1873 ; Gladstone admin. , 1880, 
1892 ; London Municipal Bill 
Hardicanute ; England, 1039 
Harding, prof. ; planets, 1804 
Hardinge, sir Henry (aft. lord), 1846 ; 

India 
Hardinge, Mr. ; journals, 1752 
Hardwicke, earl of; Pelham admin., 
1744; Derby admin., 1852 ; Ireland 
(lord-lieut.), 1801 
Hardy, Gathorne, vise. Cranbrook b. 
1S14 ; Disraeli administration, 186S 
and 1874 ; Salisbury adm., 1885 
Hare, R. ; blowpipe, 1802 
Hargan, W. A. ; trials, 1890 
Hargreaves, E. ; Australia, 1851 
Hargreaves, J. ; cotton, 1767 
Harley, Robert ; Godolphin adminis- 
tration, 1702 ; Harleian library, see 
Oxford 
Harley, R. W. ; Tobago, 1875 
Harmodius kills Hipparchus, 514 B.C. 
Harney, gen. ; United States, 1855 
Harold II. ; Hastings, 1066 
Haroun-al-Raschid, caliph, 765-809 
Harpur, W. ; Bedford, 1561 
Harrington, J. ; oceana, 1656; trials 

1878 
Harrington, earl of ; Pelliam admin- 
istration, 1744 
Harriot, T., algebra, 1631 
Harris, lord ; Bombay, 1889 
Harris, Mr. ; organs, 16S2 ; clocks, 

apples, fluxions, pendulum 
Harris, sir W. S., 1792-1S67; light- 
ning conductors, 1820-54 
Harrison, B. ; United States, 1888-92 
Harrison, F. ; positive phil. 
Harrison, gen. ; United States, presi- 
dent, 1841 
Harrison, J. ; pneumatic loom, 1864; 

Harrison, 1714 
Harrison, Mr.; congelation, 1857, 

2873 
Harrowby, earl of ; Pitt administra- 
tion, 1804 et seq. 
Harrowby, Dudley F., earl of; 

Salisbury adm., 1885 ' 
Harsnet, archbp. ; York, 1628 
Hai-tinger, Mr. ; duels, 1S20 
Hartington, marquis of; Gladstone 
administration, 1868, 1S80, & 1882 
Hartland, sir R. ; Madras, 1771 
Hartmann, Russia, 1880 
Harvey, B. Bagenal ; trials, 1798 
Harvey, Dr. William, 1578-1657 ; 
blood, anatomy, midwifery, gene- 
ration 
Harwood ; porter, 1730 
Hasokka, emperor's hymn, 1797 
Hasdrubal ; Carthage, Spain ; Me- 

taurus, 207 b.c. 
Hassall, A. H. ; food 
Hassan and Hussan, drama 
Hastings, marquis of; India, gov.- 

gen. 1813 
Hastings, Warren, 1733-1S18; India, 

1772 ; Chunar, Hastings 
Hatchell, Mr. ; duels, 1814 
Hatfield fires at George III. ; trials, 

1800 
Hatfield ; executions, 1803 
Hatherley, Id. chancellor, 1868 
Hatton, sir Christopher, d. 1591 • 
chancellor (lord high), master hi 
chancery 
Hausmann, 1809-91 ; Paris, France, 
1870 



1114 

Haliy, R., 1 743-1822; crystallography 
Hatty, V. ; "blind school, 1804 
Havelock, gen. ; India, 1857 ; Cawn- 

pore 
Hawke, adm. ; naval battles, 1747 
Hawkesbury, lord ; administrations, 

1807 ; Amiens 
Hawkey, lieut. ; duels, trials, 1846 
Hawkins, I. ; piano 
Hawkins, sir John, d. 1=595 ; Guinea, 
slave trade, 1562; potatoes, 
tobacco, Chatham 
Hawthorne, Nat., Amer. nov. 1804-64 
Hay, lord John ; British legion, 

1835 ; St. Sebastian's 
Haydn, Joseph [first compiler of this 

book], d. 1856 
Haydn, Joseph, mus. comp. ; 1732- 

1809 ; Creation, Emperor's hymn 
Haydon, Benj., painter, 1786-1846 
Hayes, Mr. ; duels, 1728, 1806; trials, 

1802 
Hayes, sir H. B. ; trials, 1800 
Hayes, B. B., ; United States, 1876 
Hayman, Dr. H. ; Rugby ; trial 

1874 
Haynau, gen ; Hungary, 1849 
Hayter, sir G. ; painter, 1792-1871 
Hayter, sir Wm. , whip 
Hay ward ; trials, 1821 
Haywood, W. ; Holborn, 1869 
H. B. ; caricatures 
Head, sir Francis ; Canada, 1836 
Headfort, marquis of ; trials, 1805 
Hearn, north-west passage, 1769 
Heath, archbp. ; York, 1555 
Heberden, Br. ; Humane Society, 

1774 
Hebert, J. E. (pere Duchesne), exe- 
cuted, 1794 
Hector of Troy, slain, 1183 b.c. 
Heenan, J. ; boxing, i860 
Hegel, G. , philosopher, 1770-1831 
Hehl ; animal magnetism, 1774 
Heine, H, German poet, 1799-1856 
Helena, St. ; cross, 328 ; Bethlehem 
Heliodorus, fl. 398 ; romances 
Heliogabalus ; Rome, emp. 218 ; 

silk 
Helmholtz, H., b. 1821 ; ophthalmo- 
scope, 1851; acoustics 
Heloise, d. 1164; Abelard 
Helps, sir Arthur, hist, and miscel., 

1811-75 
Helsham, capt ; duels, 1829 
Hemans, Felicia, poet, 1794-1835 
Hencke ; planets, 1845 
Henderson,sirE., police, — . A.; pro- 
verbs 
Henderson, T. ; stars 
Heneage, B. ; Gladstone adm., 188 
Hengist ; octarch, Salisbury 
Henley, lord; Grenville admin., 1763 
Henley, Jos. ; Derby adm., 1852 
Henley, orator, d. 1756 
Hennessy, sir J. P., 1832-91 ; Bahama, 
1874 ; Barbadoes, 1875-6, etc. ; 
Mauritius, 1882 
Hennis, Dr. ; duels, 1833 
Henrietta ; queens (Charles I.) 
Henry ; kings ; England, France, 

Germany, Spain 
Henry I. ; Tinchebray, 1106 
Henry V. ; Agincourt, 1415 ; Cher- 
bourg 
Henry VII. ; Bosworth, 1485 
Henry VIII.; England, 1509; age, 
defender, field, monasteries, spurs 
Henry II. , France ; tournaments, 1559 
Henry III., France ; assassinations 
Henry IV. ; France, 1589 ; Nantes, 

Ravaillae, Yvres, assassination 
Henry, Joseph, Am. nat. phil. 1797- 

187.8 
Henry, Paul and Prosper; planets, 

1872-8 
Henry the Lion ; Brunswick, 1139 
Henshaw, Mr. ; duels, 1820 



INDEX. 

Henty, Mr: ; Victoria, 1834 
Hepburn, ensign; trials, 181 1 
Heraclitus, philosopher, fl. 500 B.C. 
Heraclius ; cross, 615 
Herbert, adm. ; Bantry Bay, 1689 
Herbert, George, ch. poet, 1593- 

1633 
Herbert of Cherbury, lord, 1581- 

1648 ; deism 
Herbert, Sidney (aft. lord), 1810-61 ; 

Peel, Palmerston admins. 
Herbert, W., trials, 1880 
Hercules Tyrius ; purple 
Herder, J. G. von, philosopher, 1744- 

1803 
Herkomer, M.; art schosl, 1883 
Hermann (Arminius), Germany, 9 
Hero of Alexandria, _#. 284-221 b-c. 
Herod ; Jews, 42 b.c. 
Herodian, hist.,/?. 173 
Herodotus, b. 484 B.C. ; history 
Herophilus ; anatomy, 302 b.c. 
Herostratus fires the temple at 

Ephesus, 356 b.c. 
Hemes, J. C. ; Peel adm. 1834 
Herring, abp. ; Canterbury, 1747 
Herring, Mrs. ; trials, 1773 
Herrmann, R. ; ilmenium 
Herschell, Id.; sol. gen., 1880; 

chancellor, Id., 1886, 1892 
Herschel, J. F., 1792-1871 ; actino- 

meter, photography 
Herschel, W., 1738-1822; Saturn, 

astronomy, telescope, sun, Uranus, 

nebular hypothesis 
Hertford, earl of; administrations, 

1547; Pinkey 
Hertford, marquis of ; his executors 

v. Suisse, trials, 1842 
Hertz, James ; cheque bank, 1873 
Hervie, H. ; doctors' commons, 

1560 
Hesiod, Greek poet, fl. 850 b.c. 
Hess, gen. ; Solferino, 1859 
Hewett, adm., Sir Wm.; Congo, 1875 ; 

Egypt, 1882; Soudan, 1884 
Heytesbury, lord ; Ireland (lord 

lieut.), 1844 
Heywood, Mrs. ; Manchester, 1875 
Hey wood ; pub. worship reg. act, 

1883 
Hibbert, R, ; Hibbert fund 
Hicks ; life-boat, &c, 1874 
Hicks, col.; Soudan, 1883 
Hiero, Syracuse, 478-275 B.C. 
Hieronymus, see Jerome 
Hilary ; hymns, 431 
Hill, lord ; commander-in-chief, 1828 
Hill, rev. R., Surrey chapel 
Hill, Rowland, b. 1795-1879 ; post- 
office 
Hill, bp. R. ; Man 
Hillsborough, lord ; North adminis- 
tration, 1770 
Hilton, James ; chronogram 
Hind, J. R., b. 1823; planets, 1847 : 

comets 
Hindes, lieut. ; duel, 1817 
Hinds, bp. ; Norwich, 1849 
Hinrichs, professor ; atomic theory, 

1855 
Hipparchus, fl, 162 B.C. ; astronomy, 

Canary, constellation, degrees, 

latitude, longitude 
Hippias ; ostracism, 510 B.C. 
Hippocrates, d. 357 B.C. ; anatomy, 

surgery, loadstone 
Hirsch, baron ; Russia, 1887 ; Jews 
Hoadley, B., bp., d. 1761 ; Ban- 

gorian 
Hobart, lord ; Addington adm., 

1801 
Hobart, Pasha ; admiral, 1823-86 
Hobbema, painter, fl. 1681 
Hobbes, T., 1588-1679 ; academies 
Hobhouse, sir J. C. (aft. lord 
Broughton), 1869 ; Melbourne 
adm., 1834 



Hoche, gen. ; Dunkirk, 1793 
Hochstade, C. von, Cologne, 1248 
Hocker, murderer ; trials, 1845 
Hodel ; Germany, Prussia, 1878 
Hodgson, gen. ; Belleisle, 1761 
Hodgson v. Greene ; trials, 1832 
Hofer, Andrew ; Tyrol, 1809-10 
Hoffmann, A., Kladderadatseh 
Hofmann, Dr. A. W.,1818-92; chemis- 
try, ammonia, aniline, crith, Fara- 
day 
Hogarth, W., painter, 1697-1764 
Hogg, James, Sc. poet, 1772-1835 
Holbein, Hans, Ger. paint. 1498- 

1543 
Holcombe, lieut. ; India, 1875 
Holcroft, T., 1745-1809; melodrama, 

*793 

Holdernesse, earl of; Devonshire ad- 
ministration, 1756 

Holgate, abp. ; York, 1545 

Holinshed, Ralph ; d. about 1580 

Holkar ; India, 1804 

Holker, sir J. ; solicitor-gen., 1874 ; 
att.-gen., 1875 

Holland, lord; Melbourne adm., 1835 
et seq. ; trials, 1797 

Holland, sir H., 1788-1873 ; pres. 
Roy. Inst., 1865-73 

Holiest murderers ; trials, 1851 

Holloway, T. ; Holloway hospitals, 

1873 
Holmes, adm. ; Cape Coast, 1663 
Holt, sir John ; king's bench, 1689 
Holt ; trials, 1844 
Holtz ; electricity, 1865 
Holwell, Mr. ; suttees, 1743 
Holyoake ; secularism 
Home or Hume, D. ; spiritualism; 

trials, 1868 
Home, lieut. ; Delhi, 1857 
Homer, fl. 962 b. c (Clinton) ; poetry 
Hompesch, baron ; duels, 1806 
Hone, Wm., 1779-1842 ; trials, 1817; 

almanacs 
Honey and Francis ; riots, 1821 
Honorius ; West, empire, 395 
Hood, admiral ; Madeira, 1S07 ; 

Toulon 
Hood, Thomas, comic writer, 1798- 

1845 ; Tom, son, 1835-74 
Hook, Theodore, novelist, 1788-1841 
Hook, W. F. J. D., dean, hist., 1798- 

1875 
Hooke, Rob., 1635-1702; air, boiling, 
camera, clocks, geology, mechanics, 
microscope, telegraphs 
Hooker, Rich., theol., 1553-1600 
Hooker, W., botanist, 1785-1865 ; — J. 
D. (son), b. 1816 ; Kew, 1865 ;— Gen. 
R., United States, 1862-3 ; Fre- 
dericksburg 
Hopkins, miss Ellice ; white cross 

army 
Hopkins, Matthew ; witches, 1645 
Hopley, T. ; trials, i860 
Horace, 65-8 b.c, Latin poet ; Athens, 

satires 
Horler, H. ; trials, 1853 
Hormisdas ; Persia, 272 
Horn, count ; Nordlingen, 1634 
Home, G., bp. ; Norwich, 1790 
Home, rev. T. H., bibl. critic, 17S0- 

1862 
Home Tooke, John, d. 1812 ; Home 

Tooke, &c. 
Horner, Fr. ; bullion, 18 10 
Horniman, F.; Surrey Museum 
Hornor, Mr. ; Colosseum, 1824 
Hornsby, Dr. ; Radclifle, observa- 
tory, 1 771 ; — Messrs., washing-ma- 
chine, 1862 
Horrebow ; astronomy, 1659 
Horrocks or Horrox, Jer., d. 1641 

astronomy, Venus 
Horsfall, Mr. ; trials, 1813 
Horsfall, Messrs. ; cannon, 1856 
Horsley, bp. ; St. Asaph, 1802 



INDEX. 



111,5 



Horsman, Edwd., 1807-76 (sec. for 

Ireland, 1855-7) : Adullam, 1866 
Hosea prophesies about 785 B.C. 
Hoste, capt. Win. ; Lissa, 181 1 
Hotham, adm. ; naval battles, 1795 
Hotspur ; Otterburn, 1388 
Houblon, sir J. ; bank of England, 

1695 
Houdin, R. J. E., conjuror, 1815-71 
Houghton, John, executed, 1535 ; 

Charterhouse 
Houghton, lord ; ancient buildings 
Houghton, lord ; Gladstone adm. 1892 
Houston, Mr. ; Parnellites, 1888 
Howard, C. ; trials, 1876 
Howard, adm. sir Edward ; naval 

battles, 1513 
Howard, John, 1726-go; prisons; — 

potatoes 
Howard, Luke, d. 1864 ; clouds 
Howard, col. J. E.; quinine 
Howard of Effingham, lord ; armada, 

1588 
Howard v. Gossett ; trials, 1842 
Howards, ploughs 
Howe, sir William; Long Island, 

1776 
Howe, lord, 1784; Pitt, 1783 ; Brest, 

Ushant 
Howel Da ; Wales, 920 
Howitt, Win., author, 1795- 18 79 
Howley, Dr. , abp. ; Canterbury, 

1828 ; Lambeth 
Hoyle, W., drunkards 
Huber, P., 1750-1831 ; bees 
Hudson, sir James, 1810-1885 ; Italy, 

1863 
Hudson, Jeffrey, 1626 ; dwarf 
Hudson, H. ; Hudson's Bay 
Hugelmann, G. ; France, 1874 
Huggins, Win. ; spectrum ; sun (co- 
rona), astronomy 
Hughes, D. E. ; microphone 
Hughes, sir E. ; Trincomalee, 1782 
Hughes, J., bp., Asaph, 1870 
Hughes, Mr., audiometer 
Hughes, T. ; socialism, Ashdown, 

New Rugby 
Hugo, Victor, Fr. poet and novel., 

1802-85 ; France, 1876 ; literary 

congress 
Hugues, mad.; France, 1884 
Hullah, J., 1812-84; music, 1840 
Humbert I.; Italy, 1878; Naples, 

1884 
Humbert, gen. ; Killala, 1798 
Humboldt, A. de., Ger. phil., 1769- 

1859 ; Andes 
Humboldt, W. de, Ger. lit., 1767- 

1835 
Hume, David, hist., 1711-76; — Jos., 

politician, 1777-1855 ; see Home 
Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, d. 

at Bury, 1447 
Hungerford, sir T. ; speaker, 1377 
Hunniades, J. ; Hungary, 1442 ; 

Turkey, Varna 
Hunt, Geo Ward, 1825-77 ; Disraeli 

administrations, excheq., 1868; 

admiralty, 1874-7 
Hunt, Henry, reformer ; trials, 1820 ; 

Clerkenwell, Manchester 
Hunt, John and Leigh ; trials, 181 1- 

1812 ; James, d. 1869, anthro- 
pology. 
Hunt, Wm. Holman, painter, 0. 1827; 

pre-Raphaelite 
Hunt, W. T. ; trials, 1875 
Hunter, John, surgeon, 1728-93; — 

W., 1718-83 
Huntingdon, countess of, 1707-91 ; 

Cheshunt, Whitefieldites 
Huntingford, bp. ; Hereford, 1802 
Huntly, earl of ; Brechin, 1452 
Hunton, Jos., forgery; executions, 

1828 
Hurd, bishop ; Worcester, 1781 
Huskisson, Wm., 1770-1830; Wel- 



lington admin., 1828; Liverpool, 

1830 
Huss, John, burnt, 1415 ; Hussites 
Hutchinson, Amy ; trials, 1750 
Hutchinson, John, d. 1737 ; Hutch- 

insonians 
Hutchinson, major; Alexandria, i8or 
Hutchinson, J. H. ; Lavalette's 

escape, 1815 
Hutton, abp. ; Canterbury, 1757 
Hutton, W., d. 1815 ; geology 
Huxley, T. H., 0. 1825 ; abiogenesis, 

bathybius, Birmingham, 1874 ; 

germ, minimisers, oysters, Roy. 

Soc. pres. 1883 
Huyghens, d. 1695 ; astronomy, 

optics, pendulum 
Hyaeinthe (Loyson) father, France, 

1869 
Hyde, capt. ; Chili, 1874 
Hyde, sir Edward ; chancellor, lord 

high, 1660 
Hyde, Laurence ; administrations, 

1689 et seq. 
Hyder Ali, d. 1782 ; India, Arcot, 

Carnatie, Mysore 
Hyginus, pope, 139; martyr 
Hypatia, philosopher, m. 415 B.C. ; 

hydrometer 
Hyperides ; Cranon, 322 B.C. 
Hyrcanus, John, d. 106 B.C. ; Sa- 
maritans 
Hyslop and Denham ; trials, 1877 



Ibrahim Pacha, 1 789-1848; Antioch, 
Beyrout, Egypt, Greece, Syria, 
Turkey, Damascus, Wahabees 

Iglesias ; Mexico, 1876-7; Peru, 
1883-4 

Ignatief, M. ; Russia ; resigned, 1882 

Ignatius, St., mart., 115 ; liturgies, 
250 

Ilbert bill, 1883-4 

Ilchester, Id. ; Oxford univ. ; Sla- 
vonia, 1876 

Impey, major; duels, 1801 

Inaehus ; Argos, 1856 B.C. 

Incledon, C, d. 1826 

Inez de Castro ; Coimbra, 1355 

Ingham, sir J. T. ; magistrate, 1876 

Ingle, L., trials, 1880 

Inglefield, capt. ; Franklin, 1852 

Inglis, col. ; Albuera, 1811 

Ingram, Herbert, d. i860 ; Illust. 
London News, 1842 — W. J., print- 
ing machine, 1877 

Inman, W. ; steam, 1850 

Innocent I. — XII. ; popes, 402 et seq. 

Innocent III., pope, 1198; transub- 
stantiation 

Irenseus, martyr, 202 

Irving, E., 1792-1834 ; Irvingites, 
trial, 1832 ; unknown tongues 

Irving, H.; theatres (Lyceum), 1874 
ct seq. 

Irving, H. T. ; Antigua, 1873 ; Lee- 
ward Isles, 1873 

Irving, Washington, 1783-1859 

Isaac, major ; tunnel (Mersey) 

Isabella; salique law, Spain, 1833 

Isaiah prophesies about 760 B.C. 

Islip, abp. ; Canterbury, 1349 

Isocrates, Gr. orator, 436-338 B.C. 

Iturbide ; Mexico, 1821-1865 

Ivan ; Russia, 1462 ; czars 



Jabloehkoff ; electricity (electric. 

candles) 
Jablonsky ; assassin ; Russia, 1883 
Jack, capt. ; Modoc, 1873 
Jackson, bp. ; Oxford, 1812 ; Lin- 



coln, 1852; London, 1869-1885 ; 

auricular confession, 1873 
Jackson, gen. ; United States, 1829 
Jackson, C. T. ; ether, 1846 
Jackson, J. B. ; printing in colours, 

1720 
Jackson, Thos., "Stonewall," 1826- 

63 ; Manassas, United States, 1862 

Chancellorsville, Richmond, 1875 
Jackson, T. ; executions, 1861 
Jackson, Wm. L. ; Ireland, 1S92 ; 

Salisbury 2nd adm. 
Jacob, Mr. A. j trials, 1891 
Jacob, Dr. ; Christ's hospital, 1854 
Jacobi ; Baltic, note, electrotype 
Jacobs, S. ; abstinence 
Jacquard loom, 1806 
James ; England, Scotland, Spain 

(kings) ; assassinations 
James IV. ; Flodden, 1513 
James, sir H. , 1803-77; photozin- 
cography, i860 ; ordnance survey 
James, sir H. ; sol.-general, att.-gen., 

1873, 1880 
James, W. H., companies, 1876 
Jamieson, G. ; volunteers (18th 

meeting), 1877 
Jane, England, queens, 1554 ; Sicily 
Janisch, H. R. ; Helena, 1873 
Jansen, C, 1585-1638; Jansenism 
Janssen, M. ; eclipse, 1868 
Janvier de la Motte ; France, 1872 
Jardine, sir Wm., naturalist, 1800-74 
Jarnac ; Jarnac ; France, 1874-5 
Jason, argonautic exp., 1263 B.C. 
Jeans, J. S., steel 
Jebb, Joshua, prison reformer, 1793- 

1863 
Jeffcott, sir John W. ; duels, 1833 
Jefferson, Thos., 1743-1826 ; United 

States, president, 1801-8 
Jeffery, Robert ; Sombrero, 1807 
Jeffrey, Francis, critic, 1773-1850 
Jeffreys, George (afterwards lord) ; 

administrations, 1 685 ; king's bench , 

chancellor, lord high, bloody as- 
size ; d. 1689 
Jeffries, Dr. J., colour blindness 
Jejeebhoy ; Bombay, 1859 ; Parsees 
Jellachich ; Hungary, Vienna, 1848 
Jenkin, F., telpherage 
Jenkins v. Cook ; trials, 1875-6 
Jenkins, Henry ; longevity, d. 1670 
Jenkinson, bp. ; David's, St., 1825 
Jenks, games, 1884 
Jenner, E., 1749-1823 ; vaccination 
Jennings, Mr. ; tontines, 1798 
Jeremiah prophesies about 629 b. c 
Jerningham, Mrs. ; blue-stockings 

1760 
Jerome, St. , Latin father, 345-420 ; 

ascension, liturgies 
Jerome of Prague ; burnt, 1416 
Jerrold, Douglas, Nov. Dram., 180-- 

1857 ; W. B., 1826-84 
Jersey, countess of ; delicate investi- 
gation, 1806 
Jervis, sir John, 1734-1823 ; Cape St. 

Vincent; — solicitor-gen., at. -gen , 

common pleas, d. 1856 
Jervois, sir W. F. D. ; straits, and 

South Australia 
Jessel, sir Geo. 1824-83 ; master of 

rolls, 1873 
Jevons, W. Stanley ; polit. econ. &c. 

1835-82; abecedarium, 1874; method 
Joan of Arc, burnt, 1431 ; Joan. 
Joan ; queens (Henry IV.), Naples 
Joel prophesies about 800 B.C. 
Johanni ; Abyssinia, 1872 
John, St., d. 100 ; baptism, accusers, 

evangelists, gospels 
John I.— XXIII. ; popes, 523 et seq. 
John of Austria ; Lepanto, 1571 
John, king; Bohemia, Portugal, 

Spain, France, Poitiers 
John, king ; England (1199), charter 

of forests, magna charta, " We " 



1116 



INDEX. 



John of Leyden ; anabaptists, 1534 
John the Fearless ; Burgundy, 1404 
Johnson, A. ; boats 
Johnson, Andrew, 1809-75 ; United 

States, 1865-8 
Johnson, Sam., 1709-84 ; dictionary, 

literary club, 1764 
Johnson, capt. ; trials, 1846 
Johnson, judge ; trials, 1805 
Johnson, Mr. ; swimming 
Johnston, capt. ; steam, 1825 
Johnston, gen. ; Boss, N, 1798 
Johnston, Albt, 7c. Pittsburg, 1862; 

—Jos., U. S., 1863 
Johnston, Alex. K. , geographer, 1804- 

71, Africa, 1878 
Jghnston, H. H. ; Africa (Central) 
Johnston, Robert; trials. 1818 
Johnston, sir John ; marriages, forced, 

1690 
Johnston, W. ; orangemen, 1868 
Joinville, Jean de, French historian, 

1224-1318 
Joinville, prince de, 6. 1818 ; Ocean 

Monarch, 1848 
Jomini, baron H., strategist; 1779- 

1869 ; Brussels conf., 1874 
Jonah prophesies about 862 B.C. 
Jones, colonel ; Dungan, 1647 > Bath- 
mines 
Jones, H. Bence, 1813-73; Royal 

Institution, i860 ; fluorescence, 

spectrum 
Jones, Gale; trials, 1811 
Jones, sir Horace, 1819-1887 ; Billings- 
gate, foreign cattle market, guild- 
hall 
Jones, Inigo, architect, 1572-1652 
Jones, Jane ; trials, 1842 
Jones, J. S., Kensington Mus. 
Jones, J. ; trials, 1870 
Jones, J. W. ; Brit. Museum, 1866-78 
Jones, Mr. ; riots, 1819 
Jones, Owen, 1809-74, Alhambra, 

1842 ; James's-hall, St. 
Jones, T. ; book-keeping, 1821 
Jones, Mr. Todd ; duel, 1802 
Jones, sir Wm., 1746-94; Asiatic, 

chess, Menu, Sanskrit 
Jones v. Stannard, trials, 1881 
Jones, W. B. T., Davids, St., 1874 
Jonson, Ben, 1574-1637 ; poet-laur. 
Joquemin, M. ; picquet, 1390 
Jordan, J. B., barometer; sunshine 
Jordan, Mrs. , actress, d. 1816 
Jordan, B., gold 

Joseph ; Germany, Namur, Portugal 
Josephine, empress, 1763-1814 ; 

Prance, 1809 
Josephus, Jewish hist., 38-100 
Jotham ; fables, 1209 B.C. 
Joubert, gen. ; Novi, 1 799 ; Transvaal, 

1880 
Joule, J. P., 1818-89, heat 
Jourdan, marshal ; Cologne, Fleurus, 

Vittoria, 1813 
Jovellar ; Spain, 1874-5 
Jovian, Rome, emps., 363 
Joyce, family murdered, 1882 
Juarez, B. ; Mexico, 1858-72 ; d. 

1872 
Judas Maccabseus rides, 168-1 60 B.C. 
Judith ; Abyssinia, 960 
Jugurtha, d. 104 B.C. ; Numidia, 

Jugurthine war 
Julian ; Rome, emp. , 360 ; edicts, 

Paris 
Julianus Salvius ; edicts, 132 
Julius v. bishop of Oxford, trials, 

1879 
Julius Coesar ; see Cwsar, Julius 
Julius, Mr. ; duels, 1791 
Julius II. ; popes, 1503 ; Rome, 

Bologna, Laoeobn, Cambray 
Jullien, M., concerts 
Jung Bahadoor ; Nepaul, 1857-60 
Juuot, marshal, 1771-1813; Cintra, 

Vimiera, 1808 



Jussieu, A. L. de ; Fr. botanist, 1748- 

1836 
Justin, emp. ; Rome, 518 and 565 
Justin Martyr, 164 ; millennium 
Justin, St. ; Rochester, 604 
Justinian ; eastern empire, 527 
Juvenal, 59-128 ; satires 
Juvigny, flageolet 
Juxon, apb. ; administrations, 1640 ; 

Canterbury, 1660 



Kabba Rega ; Egypt, 1872 
Kalakaua, Sandwich Islands, 1874 
Kalkoff, N., journalist; Russia, 

1887 
Kalnoky, count G. ; Austria, 1881 
Kane, capt. ; Samoan isles 
Kane, Dr. ; Franklin, 1843 
Kant, Imman., 1724-1804; metaphy- 
sics 
Karaman, Joseph; Syria, 1866-7 
Karslake, sir J., 1821-81 ; att.-gen., 

1867-74 
Kaspary; humanitarians 
Kassa; Abyssinia, 1871 
Kastenbein ; printing, 1872 
Kastner, F. ; pyrophone 
Kauffman, harmonica 
Kaufmann, gen. ; Samarcand, 1868 ; 
Khiva, 1873 ; Kliokand, 1875 ; d. 
1882 
Kaunitz, prince W. A., Aust. states- 
man, 171 1-94 
Kaye, bishop ; Bristol, 1820 ; Lincoln 
Kean, Charles, 1811-68 ; theatres 
Kean, Edmund, actor, 1787-1833 
Keane, lord ; Ghiznee, 1839 
Kearney, D. ; California, 1878 
Keats, John ; poet, 1 796-1821 
Keble, rev. John ; poet, 1792-1866 ; 

Keble 
Keenan; trials, 1803 
Keet v. Smith ; reverend, trials, 1876 
Keith, George ; earl-marisehal of 

Scotland, Aberdeen, 1593 
Keith, George ; quakers, 1646 
Keith Johnston v. Athemeum; trials, 

1875 ; see Johnston 
Keller, Dr. ; lake dwellings, 1865 
Kellerman, gen. ; Valmy, 1792 
Kellet, capt. ; Franklin, 1848 
Kellogg ; United States, 1874 
Kelly ; trials, 1869, 1871 
Kelly, Miss ; theatres, trials, 1816 
Kelly, Ned, Victoria, 1880 
Kelly, sir Fitzroy, 1 796-1 880 ; sol.- 
general, att.-gen., ch. baron, 1866-80 
Kemble, Charles, actor, 1775-1854 
Kemble, Fanny, actress, b. 1811 
Kemble, John, actor, 1757-1823 
Kembles ; examiners (of plays) 
Kemp, abp. ; Canterbury, 1452 
Kempe, John ; wool, 1331 
Kempenfeldt, adm. ; Boyal George, 

1782 
Kempis, T. h, 1380-1471 ; imitation, 

theology 
Kenealy, Dr. ; Englishman ; trials, 

1874 
Kennedy, alderman ; trials, 1858 
Kennedy, Mr. ; Franklin, 1851-53 
Kennedy, C. R. ; trials, 1858 note 
Kennedy, sir A. E. ; Hong Kong, 

1872 
Kent, Constance, Boad murder 
Kent, Edw. duke of, 1 767-1820 
Kent, Odo, earl of; treasurer, 1066 
Kent, G. ; knives (cleaner), 1844 
Kentigern, St. ; abstinence, Glasgow, 

Asaph, 560-83 
Kenyon, lord ; attorney-general, 1782 ; 

king's bench 
Kepler, J., 1571-1630; optics, plane- 
tary motions, 1609 ; rainbow, tides, 
Venus 



Keppel, adm. ; Belleisle, Ushant, 
trials, 1799 ; coalition, naval battles 
Keppel, commodore ; China, 1857 
Keratry, gen. ; Franco-Pruss. war, 

1870 
Kerford, Mr., Victoria, 1875 
Kern ; davyum 
Keshub Sen, deism. 
Kettel, E. ; trials, 1872 
Kettle well, C. ; Bartholomew's, St., 

1881 
Keying ; China, 1842-58 
Killigrew, Thos. ; drama, 1662 
Kilmarnock, lord ; rebellions, trials, 

executions, 1746 
Kilwarby, abp. ; Canterbury, 1272 
Kilwarden, lord ; king's bench ; trials, 

1803 
Kimberley, earl of, see Wodelwnse ; 

Gladstone adm., 1868, 1880, 1886, 

1892 
King, Thos. ; ventriloquism, 1716 
King, Mr. Locke; administrations, 

1851 
King, Dr. ; Cesarean operation 
King, E., bp. ; Lincoln, 1885 
King, col. ; suicide, 1850 
King, C. ; trials, 1855 >" o ems » !86o 
Kinglake, Dr. ; trials, 1870 
Kinglake, A. W. ; hist., 1812-91 
Kingsford, A. ; hermetic soc. 
Kingsley, Rev. C. ; novels, &c, 1819- 

75 ; socialism ; — Henry, nov. 1830- 

76 
Kingston, duchess of ; trials, 1776 
Kingston, Evelyn, duke of ; Walpole, 

1 721 
Kingzett, C. T. ; sanitas 
Kinnaird, A. ; cabmen's rest, 1875 
Kintore, earl of; Australia, 1891 
Kirby and Wade, capts. shot, 1702 ; 

naval battles, note 
Kircher ; iEolianharp, 1653 ; philoso- 
pher's stone, trumpet 
Kirchkoff, G. B. (1824-1887); spec- 
trum 
Kirkman; pianoforte 
Kirwan, Richard B. ; trials, 1852 
Kiss, Karl, Ger. sculptor, 1802-65 
Kitchener ; Soudan, 1885 et seq. 
Klapka, general G., b. 1820 
Kleber, J. B., Fr. gen., 1754-1800; 

El Arisch 
Klein, E. ; histology, germ theory 
Kleist ; electricity, 1745 ; Leyden 
Klopstock, F. T., Germ, poet, 1724- 

1803 
Kluber ; cryptography 
Kmety, gen. (Ismail Pacha), d. 1865 ; 

Hungary, Kars 
Knatchbull, sir E. ; Peel administra- 
tions, 1S34-5 
Kneller, sir Godfrey, painter, 1648- 

1723 
Knight, Chas., 1791-1873 ; hist., (fee- 
diffusion soc, 1827 ; England 
Knight, G. ; magnetism, 1756 
Knight, Mr. ; north-west passage, 

1602; South Sea bubble, bribery ; 

free church 
Knight v. Wolcot ; trials, 1807 
Knowles, James ; Nineteenth Century 
Knowles, J. S., dramat., 1784-1862 - 
Knox, John, 1505-72 ; Presbyterians, 

congregation, queen, Scotland 
Knutsford, Id. (H. T. Holland); 

Salisbury adm., 1886 
Knutzen, Matthias ; atheism, 1674 
Koch, Dr. ; germ theory ; vivisection, 

tuberculosis 
Kock, Charles Paul de, Fr. novelist, 

1794-1S71 
Koffee Kalcalli ; Ashantees, 1874 
Kohl, F. ; execution, 1865 
Komaroff, gen. : Russia, 18S5 
Konig, F. ; printing machine, 1814 
Konig, M. ; phonoscope, tonometer, 



Koroer, Tli., Germ, poet, 1791-1813 
Kortright, C. ; Demerara 
Kosciusko; Poland, 1794 : Cracow 
Kossuth, L., b. 1 802 ; Hungary, 1849- 

68 ; United States, 1851 
Roster, Laurence ; printing, 1438 
Kotzebue; north-west passage, 1815 ; 

Aug. , dramatist ; assassinations 
Kouli Khan ; Moguls, India, Persia, 

1730 
Krapotkine, prince, Kussia, 1878 ; 

France, 1883 
Kreli ; Kaffraria, 1877 
Kruger, P., Transvaal, 1879-81 
Krupp, Alfred, .1810-1887; cannon, 

steel 
Kuenen, prof. ; Hibbert fund 
Kullmann ; attempt to kill Bismarck, 

Prussia, 1874 
Kunckel, J., 1630-1703 ; phosphorus, 

1670 
Kutusoff, gen. M., 1745-1813; Russia, 

Borodino, Smolensko, 1812 
Kyhl, P. ; nature-printing, 1833 



Laborde, A. de, "Partant pour la 

Syrie" 
Labouchere, Henry, lord Taunton ; 
Bussell administration, 1846 ; Pal- 
tnerston administration, 1855 
Labourdonnaye ; Tournay, 1792 
JLa Bruyere, French essays, 1639-96 
Laehaise, Pere, 1624-1709 ; cemetery 
Lacon, W. S. ; seas 
Lacordaire, Pere H. D., 1802-61 
Lactantius, d. abt. 325 ; fathers 
Ladislas ; Bohemia, Hungary 
Ladinirault ; France, 1873 
Laennec, R., physician, 1781-1826 
Lafarge, Madame ; trials, 1840 
Lafayette, marq. ; 1757-1834 
Lafitte, d. 1844 ; wills (Napoleon's) 
Lafurge ; Tontine 

La Fontaine, J., Fr. fabulist, 1621-95 
Lagava, <fec. ; execution, 1856 
Lagny, circle, 1719 
La Grange, J. L., 1736-1813; acous- 
tics, astronomy, 1780 
Laing, Sam., cryst. pal. 1852 ; India, 

1861-2 
Laird, Mr. ; Birkenhead, Alabama, 

navy, 1870 
Lake, gen. ; Bhurtpore, 1805 ; Delhi, 

Lincelles 
Lake, capt. ; Sombrero, 1807 
Lalande, J., astron., 1732-1807 
Lalanne ; abacus 

Lally, gen. Thos. de ; beheaded, 1766 
Lamarck, 1744-1829 ; species 
La Marmora, gen. A., 1804-78 ; Tcher- 

naya, 1855 ; Italy, 1862 
Lamartine, A. de, 1792-1869, miscel. 

writer ; France, 1848 
Lamb, C, 1775-1834 ; essays 
Lamb, Dr., killed, 1628 ; riots 
Lamballe, princesse de ; France, 

1792. 
Lamberg, ct. ; Austria, 1848 
Lambert, Mr., d. 1809'; corpulency 
Lambert (Latham), J. ; trials, 1855 
Lambrecht, Mr. ; duels, trials, 1830 
Lambton, Mr. ; duels, 1826 
Lamennais, Pere, F. R. de, 1782-1854 
Lamirande, M. ; extradition, 1866 
Lamm, earl ; bellite 
Lamorieiere, gen., 1806-65 ; France, 

1 85 1 ; Rome, i860' 
Lamplugh, archbp. ; York, 1688 
Lamson, Dr. G. H. ; trials, 1882 
Lancaster, capt. ; Bantam, 1603 
Lancaster, duke of; Lancaster 
Lancaster, Joseph, 1771-1838; Lan- 

casterian schools, education 
Lander, Richard, 1804-34; Africa 



INDEX. 

Lane, E. W., orientalist, 1801-76 
Landseer, sirE., painter, 1803-73 
Lanfranc, archbp. Canterbury, 1070 
Lanfrey, Pierre, Fr. hist. 1828-77 
Langalibalele ; Cape; Natal, 1873 
Langara, adm. ; naval battles, 1780 
Langdale, Id.; master of rolls, 1836 
Langdale, sir M. ; Naseby, 1645 
Lange, sir D. ; Suez, 1858 
Langewin, sir H. S. ; Canada, 1891 
Langham, abp.; Canterbury, 1366 
Langiewicz, M. ; Poland, 1863-5 
Langley, Dr. Baxter ; recreative reli- 
gionists ; artisans, trials, 1877 
Langley, prof. S. P. ; bolometer 
Langton, abp.; Canterbury, 1206 
Langworthy, E. R. ; Owens College, 

1874 
Lankester, E. Ray; spontaneous 

generation, 1876-7 ; spiritualism 
Lannes ; marshals, Asperne, 1809 
Lansdowne, marquis of, 1780-1863 ; 
see Petty, Shelburne; Goderich 
adm. 1827; Russelladm. 1846, 1851; 
Aberdeen adm. 1852; Palmerston 
adm. 1855, et seq.; Canada, 1883 
Lanyon, sir W. O., Transvaal, 1879 
Laomedon; Troy, 1260 B.C. 
Laplace, P. de; Fr. matheniat., 1749- 

1827 
Lartigue, M. ; railway (balance) 
Lasker ; Germany, 1884 
Lateau, L. ; abstinence 
Latham, R. G. ; philologist 1812-88 
Latham, J. ; birds 
Latimer, bp., burnt, 1555; pro- 

testants 
Latimer, viscount; administrations, 

1672-3 
Latorre, col. ; Uruguay, 1876 
Laud, William, abp., 1573-1645; Can- 
terbury, administrations 
Lauderdale, duke of; cabal, 1670 
Laura; Petrarch, 1327 
Laurent ; carbolic acid, 1846 
Lautrec, Fr. gen., d. 1528 
Lavalette's escape, 1815 
Lavater, J., 1741-1801; physiognomy 
Lavigerie, cardinal, France, 1890-2 
Lavoisier, A. , 1743-94; carbon, hydro- 
gen, nitric acid, phlogiston, water 
Law, bishop ; Chester, Bath, 1824 
Law's bubble, 1720 
Lawes, H., mus. comp., 1600-62 
Lawless, Mr.; riots, 1828 
Lawrence, gen. H., 1800-57; India, 1-857 
Lawrence, sir J., aft. Id., 1811-79; 

India, 1863 
Lawrence, sir T. , painter, 1769-1830 
Lawson, sir Wilfrid ; permissive bill 
Layard, sir A. Henry, b. 1817 ; Nine- 
veh, Gladstone, 1868 ; Turkey, 1877 
Layer's conspiracy, 1722; Layer 
Lazareff, Russia, 1879 
Lazzaretti, David ; Italy, 1878 
Leake, adm., d. 1720; admiralty, Gib- 
raltar, Mediterranean, Minorca 
Leatham, W. H. ; trials, 1861 
Le Blanc, Nicholas, 1753-1806 ; 

alkalies 
Le Clere; critics, 1696 
Lecky, R. J., sunshine recorder 
Lecomte, gen. ; France, 1871, 1876 
Lecoq de Boisbaudran ; gallium, 1875 
Ledochowski, abp. Prussia, 1873-6 
LedruRollin, A. A., 1808-74; France, 

1848, 1874 
Lee, Alexander; theatres, 1830 
Lee, Ann, shakers 
Lee, bp., J. D. ; massacres, 1858 ; 

Mormonites 
Lee Boo, prince; Pelew Islands, 1783 
Lee, C. C.; Leeward isles 
Lee, John ; trials, 1885 
Lee, abp.; York, 1544 
Lee, W. ; stocking-frame, 1589 
Lee, gen. Robt., 1808-70; United 
States, 1S62 



1117 

Leech, John, 1817-64; caricatures ; 

Punch 
Leeds, duke of; administrations, 1689 
Leeke, H. ; Bushire, 1856 
Leeuwenhoek, 1632-1723; animal- 
cules, polypus 
Lefevre, C. Shaw (Id. Eversley) ; 

speaker, 1839-57 
Lefevre, G. S.; Gladstone adm., 1880 
Lefroy, al. Mapleton, railways, 188 1 
Leggatt, B. ; burning, 1612 
Legge, bishop; Oxford, 1827 
Legge, H. B., Newcastle adm., 1754 
Le Gros, Raymond; Dublin, 1171 
Leibnitz, Gottfried, 1646-1716; mathe- 
matics, fluxions 
Leicester, earl of ; administrations, 

1558 ; national associations 
Leicester, earl of, v. Morning Herald ; 

trials, 1809 
Leighton, Fred. ; artist, b. 1830 ; 

Royal Academy 
Leighton, J. & A. ; Christmas cards ; 

printing surface, ballot 
Leighton, abp. Robt., 1613-84 
Leighton, G. C. ; printing in colours, 

1849 
Leitrim, earl of; murd., Ireland, 1878 
Le Jay; polyglot, 1628-45 
Lelewel; Poland, 1863 
Lely, sir P., painter, 1617-80 
Le Maire ; circumnavigator, 1615 
Lemoinne, J. ; France, 1873-6 
Lemon, Mark, humorist, 1809-70 ; 

Punch 
Lennox, col.; duels, 1789 
Lennox, lord H. ; Disraeli adm., 

1874-6 
Lenoir; gas, 1861 
Le Notre; James's-park, St., 1668 
Leo ; popes, 440 ; Eastern empire, 



Leo IV. ; Leonine city 
Leo X.; popes, 1513; indulgences 
Leo XIII., 6. 1810 ; pope, 1878 
Leon, Diego de; Spain, 1841 
Leon, Ponce de; America, 1512 
Leonarda of Pisa; algebra, 1202 
Leonardo da Vinci, painter, 1452-1519 
Leonidas ; Thermopylae, 480 b. c. 
Leopardi, Italian orat. 1 798-1837 
Leopold, Germany; Morgarten, 1315; 

Sempach, 1386; Belgium, 1830; 

Spain, France, 1870-84 
Leopold, prince, 1853-84 ; England, 

end. ; Albany, 1881 
L'Epee, abbe de, 1712-89, deaf 
Lepidus; triumvir, 43 B.C. 
Le Pique, M. : duels, 1808 
Lepsius, K. R., 1810-84 ; Egypt 
Lerdo de Tejado ; Mexico, 1872 
Lerothodi, Basuto 
Le Sage, French novelist, 1668-1747 
Leslie, C. R., painter, 1 794-1859 
Leslie, H., music 
Lesseps, M. ; Suez, 1852 ; Corinth, 

1 88 1 ; Panama 
Lessing, G. E., German philosopher, 

1729-81 
Lestock, admiral ; Toulon, 1744 
L'Estrange, sir R. ; newspapers, 1663 
Letheby, Henry, M.B., chemist, 

1816-76 
Lettsom, Dr. ; Humane soc, 1774 
Lever, sir Ashton ; museum 
Lever, C. J., Irish novelist, 1809-72 
Leverson, S. R. ; trials, 1868, 1878 
Leverrier, U., 1811-77 ; Neptune, 

1846 
Levy, Leoni ; statistical!, 1821-88 ; 



Levy, Mr. Lyon ; monument, 1810 
Lewes, Geo. Hen., philosopher, &c, 

1817-78 
Lewis, John Fred., R.A., 1805-76 
Lewis, Mr. ; theatres (Covent-garden), 

1773 



1118 



INDEX. 



Levis, sir G. Cornewall, 1806-63 ; 

Palmerston adm., 1855 
Lewis v. Higgins, trials, 1876 
Lewisham, vise. ; Addington adm., 

1801 
Leybourne, William de ; admiral, 1297 
Lhoste, M., 1886-7 
liiakut, Ali ; India, 1871-2 
Libanius, Gr. orator, 314-390 
Lick, Jas. ; observatories 
Lidderdale, Wm. ; London, 1890 
Liddon, H. P., canon, 1829-90 
Liddon, lieut. ; north-west passage, 

1819 
Lieber, T. ; Erastianism, 1523-84 
Liebig, J., 1803-73; acids, agricul- 
ture, chemistry, chloroform, 
chloral 
I.iebreich, O. ; chloral, 1869 
Light, F. ; Penang, 1786 
Lightfoot, Joseph B., 1828-89, Dur- 
ham, 1879 
Ligonier, lord; Bute, 1762 
Lilburne, col. ; \evellers, Wigan, 1651 
Lilly, Wm., 1602-81 ; astrology, 1647 
Lily, George, d. 1559; charts 
Lily, Wm., grammarian, d. 1523 
Lin ; China, 1840 
L : naere, Dr., d. 1524; gardening, 

lectures, physicians 
Lincoln, Abm., 1809-65; United 

States, 1860-5 
Lincoln, bp. of; Canterbury, 1890-2 
Lincoln, earl of ; administrations, 

*759 
Lincoln, B. T. ; United States, 1889 
Lind, Dr. ; anemometer, wind 
Lind, Jenny (Goldschmidt), 6. 1820- 

87 ; theatres 
Linfield, H. C. ; flying 
Lindley, John; bot., 1799-1865; 

horticulture 
Lindsay, earl of; Edgehill, 1642 
Lindsay, sir C. ; Grosvenor gallery 
Lindsay, sir John ; Madras, 1770 
Lingard, J., 1771-1851 ; historian 
Linlithgow, lord ; guards, 1660 
Linne, Linn, C. von, 1707-78; botany, 

Lhmsean, zoology 
Linnell, John ; jiainter, 1792-1882 
Linus, poet, fl. 1281 B.C. 
Liprandi ; Balaklava, Eupatoria, 1855 
Lisle, lord; administrations, 1544 
Lisle, sir G. ; Colchester, 1648 
Lisle, visct. ; Portsmouth, 1545 
Lister, J. ; germ theory 
Liston, J., actor, retires, 1838 
Liszt, F. ; music, 181 1-86 
Little John ; Bobin Hood 
Littleton, Mr. ; Melbourne adminis- 
tration, 1834 
Littre,M. O. E., 1801-81 ; dictionaries, 

positive philosophy 
Liverpool, earl of, 1770-1828 ; — Liver- 
pool adm., 1812 
Livingstone, D., 1813-77 ; Africa 

1856 ; Edinburgh, 1876 
Livius, Titus, Boman hist., d. 18 
Lizarraga, gen. ; Spain, 1875-6 
Llewelyn ; Wales, 1194 
Lloyd, bishop ; Oxford, 1827 
Lloyd, Catherine ; quackery, 1831 
Lloyd, Charles ; Junius, 1769 
Lloyd, W. ; Portland vase, 1845 
Lloyd, Clifford ; Egypt, 1884 
Loch, sir H. B. ; Victoria, 1884 ; 

Cape, 1889 
Locke, J., 1632-1704; physics, car- 
tesian, coin 
Locke, W. ; ragged schools, 1844 
Lockwood, P. E. ; beer 
Lockyer, major ; duel, 1817 
Lockyer, J. N. ; eclipse, 1866 ; Na- 
ture, 1869; elements, 1878; meteors, 
astronomy 
Lofting, John ; thimble, 1695 
Loftus, Id. A., New S. Wales, 1879 
Logeman ; magnetism, 1851 



Logier, J. B. ; chiroplast 

Lollard, Walter ; Lollards, 1315 ; 

burned, 1322 
Lomakine, gen. , Bussia, 1879 
Lombe, sir Thomas ; silk, 1714 
Lond, T. ; piano, 1802 
London dock company ; trials, 1851 
Londonderry, lord ; see Castlereagh ; 

suicide, 1822 
Londonderry, marquis of; Ireland, 

Id. lieut,, 1886 
Long, sir B. ; administrations, 1660 
Long, Misses Tilney ; trials, 1825 
Long, St. John ; quack, trials, 1830-1 
Longden, J. B. ; Denierara, 1874 
Longfellow, H.W. ; Am. poet, 1807-82 
Longford v. Purdon ; trials, 1877 
Longinus, Gr. philos., killed, 273 
Longley, abp. York, i860 ; Bipon 
Longman, W. ; Paul's, St., 1873 ; Pub- 
lishers' Circular 
Longstreet, gen. ; Chicamauga, 1863 ; 

U. States 
Lonnten, M. E. ; Finland 
Lonsdale, bishop ; Lichfield, 1843 
Lonsdale, earl of; duels, 1792; Derby 

administration, 1852 
Lopez ; Cuba, 1850 ; United States 
Lopez, gen. ; Paraguay ; Aquidaban, 

1870 
Lopez, sir Manasseh ; Grampound, 

trials, 1819 
Lorenz, J. F. ; cryptography, 1806 
L'Orme, Philibert de ; Tuileries, 1564 
Lome, marquis of, England, end. 

1870-1; psalms, 1877 ; Canada,i878 ; 

United States, 1882 
Lorraine,cardinal ; assassination, 1588 
Lorraine, Chas. of; Lissa, Mohatz, 

1687 
Lorraine, duke of; Crecy, 1346 
Lorraine, Claude, painter, 1600-82 
Losinga, H. ; Norwich, 1091 
Lothian, marquis of ; Salisbury adm. 

1887 
Loudon, C. J., 1783-1843; botany 
Lough, John G., sculptor, i8o4?-76 
Loughborough; att.-gen., coalition, 

1783 
Louis ; France, kings ; Spain, 1724 
Louis I. — IV. ; landgrave, Hesse 
Louis XI. ; " Christian ; " blood, 

posts, 1470 ; Provence 
Louis XII. ; tester, 1513 
Louis XIII. ; Louis d'or, 1640 
Louis XIV. ; Dieu-donne, Nantes, 

1685 
Louis XV. : France, 1757 ; Damiens 
Louis XVIII. ; Hartwell, 1807-14 ; 

France 
Louis, king ; Hungary, Buda, 1526 
Louis, prince of Conde ; Jarnac, 1569 
Louis Bonaparte ; Holland, 1806 
Louis Napoleon ; Bonaparte ; France, 

1848-70 ; see Napoleon III. 
Louis Napoleon, France, end ; Zulu- 
land, 1879 
Louis Philippe; France, 1830; assas- 
sinations 
Louisa Maria, infanta ; Spain, 1846 
Louise, queen ; Belgium, 1832 ; d. 

1850 
Louth, lord; trials, 181 1 
Loutherbourg, Mr. ; panorama 
Lovat, lord ; conspiracy, trials, 1747 
Lovell ; trials, 1812 
Lover, Sam., Irish nov., 1797-1868 
Lovett, W. ; chartists 
Lowe, Alice ; trials, 1842 
Lowe, B. , aft. viscount Sherbrooke, 

1811-92 ; Gladstone, 1868 ; London 

univ. 
Lowe, gen. Drury, 1882 
Lowell, J. Bussell, Amer. sat. poet, 

1819-91 
Lbwenthal, J. J. ; chess, 1876 
Lower, M. A., antiquary, 1813-76; 

names 



Lowther, vise. ; Wellington adm. . 

1828 
Loyd ; see Overstone. 
Loyola, Ignatius, 1491-1556; Jesuits, 

I 534 

Lubbock, sir J. W. , mathemat. , 1803- 
6; — sir John, b. 1834; ancient 
monuments, bank holidays, bees, 
proportional representation, bio- 
logy, pre-historic ; early closing 

Luby, Thos. ; Fenian, trials, 1865 

Lucan, earl of; trials, 1856 

Lucan, killed, 65 ; Borne, Cordova 

Lucas, Mr. ; steel, 1804 

Lueian, Gr. satirist, about 120-200 

Luciani ; Bome, 1875 

Lucilius ; satire, 116 B.C. 

Lucretia, d. 47 b.c. ; Bome, spinning 

Lucretius, Lat. pb.il. poet, d. 52 B.C. ; 
atoms 

Lugard, capt. F. D., Uganda, 1891 

Luie ; trials, 1874 

Lully; nitric acid, 1287; (music), 
1633-72 

Lumby ; Athanasian creed, confes- 
sions, 1874 

Lumley v. Gye ; trials, 1854 

Lumsden, sir P. ; Afghanistan, 1884 7 
Bussia, 1885 

Lunardi, M. ; balloons, 1784 

Lushington,.S. ; admiralty court, 1838. 

Lusk, A. ; mayor, Id. 1873 

Lutatius ; naval battles, 241 B.C. 

Luther, Martin, 1483-1546 ; Aiisu'- 
tins, Lutheranism, Dort, Protes- 
tantism, Augsburg, Calvinisls, 
Worms 

Luther, B. ; planets, 1852 

Luvini, G. dietheroscope, 1876 

Luxemburg, marshal; Enghien, 169c? 

Luxmoore, bishop ; Bristol, 1807 

Lycurgus ; Sparta, 881 B.C. 

Lyell, sir Charles, 1797-1875 ; geo- 
logy, man 

Lyell v. Kennedy ; trials, 1886 

Lyly, W. ; euphuism, 1581 

Lynall, Thomas ; trials, 1877 

Lynch, murder; trials, 1817 

Lyndhurst, lord, 1772-1863; chancel- 
lor ; Canning adm. 1827 ; Welling- 
ton adm. 1828 ; Peel adm., 1834, 
1841 

Lynedoch, lord ; Barrosa, 1811 ; Ber- 
gen-op-Zoom, St. Sebastian 

Lyon, capt. ; north-west passage r 
1 82 1 ; — general Nathaniel, Spring- 
field, 1861 

Lyon, col. F., killed ; Shoeburyness, 
1885 

Lyon, John ; Harrow school, 1571 

Lyons, lord ; Baris, 1887 

Lyons v. Thomas ; trials, 1869 

Lysander; Sparta, 405 B.C. 

Lysimachus ; Ipsus, 301 B.C. ; Corns 

Lysippus ; Lysistratus, sculpture, 
busts, 328 B.C. 

Lyttelton, lord; chancellor, Id., 1641 

Lyttelton, Geo., lord; dreams, 1779 

Lytton, E. Bulwer, Id., novelist ami 
poet, 1805-73 : guilds 

Lytton, B. B., lord, 1831-91 ; India 
1876 



M. 

Macadam, J. ; macadamising, 1819 

Macarthy, sir Charles ; Sierra Leone. 
Ashantees, 1824 

Macartney, earl; duel, 1786; China. 
1793 ; India 

Macaulay, T. B., Id., 1S00-1859 : Mel- 
bourne adm., 1837 

Macbeth ; Scotland, 1057 

McCabe, abp., Ireland, 1879-80 ; car- 
dinal, 1882 ; d. 1885 

MacCabe ; robbers, 1691 

McCarthy, Justin, home rule 



MeHale, abp., 1791-1881 
MacClellan, gen. George, B. 1826-85 ; 

United States, 1 861-4 
Macclesfield, earl of; chancellor, lord 

high, 1718 
MacCormack ; reaping machine, 1831 
Macdonald, marshal ; Parma, Trebia, 

1799 
Macdonald, Mr. ; Times, printing 
Macdonald, capt. ; Prussia, 1861 
Macdonald, sir J., 1815-91 ; Canada, 

1873 
Macdonalds massacred ; Glencoe,i6g2 
Macdonnel, quotations 
MacDowell, gen. J. ; Manassas, 1861 
Macduff, Mr. ; duel, 1790 
Maceo, gen. ; Spain, 1882 
Macfarlane, S. ; trials, 1844 
Macfarren, sir George, 1813-87; royal 

academy of music, oratorio, opera 
MacGrath ; dogs 
Macgregor, J. ; bank, British, 1849 > 

canoe, 1865 
Machiavelli, N., 1469-1527 
Machiewicz, abbe ; Poland, 1863 
Mack, gen. ; Ulm, 1805 
Mackay, gen. ; Killiecrankie, 1689 
Mackay and Vaughan ; trials, 1816 
Mackenzie, Alex. ; Canada, 1892 
Mackenzie, G. S. ; Africa (British E.) 

1890 
Mackenzie, Henry, novelist, 1745- 

1831 
Mackenzie, bp. C. F. ; Africa, i860 
Mackenzie, sir Morell ; Germany, 

1887-0. 
Mackenzie, Win. ; Africa (British E.), 

1888 
Mackie, A. ; printing, 1871 
Mackinnon, sir Wm. ; Zanzibar, 

Africa (British E.) 
Mackintosh, sir James, 1765-1872 
Macklin, C, actor, d. 1797 
Macklin ; Bible, books 
Mackonochie, rev. Mr. ; Church of 

England, 1867-76; trials, 1867; 

ritualists, public worship, holy 

cross 
MacLachlan, Jessie ; trials, 1862 
Maclagan, bp. ; Lichfield, 1878 
Maclagan, Dr. ; germ theory 
Maclean, B. ; trials 1882 
Macleod, H. D. ; trials, 1858 
Macleod, Mr. ; United States, 1841 
Macleod, Norman, D.D., 1812-72 
Macleod, Dr. ; glaciarium 
Maclise, D., painter, 1811-70 
M'Clure, capt. ; Franklin, 1850 ; 

north-west passage 
MacMahon, marshal, b. 1808 ; Magen- 
ta, 1859 ! Franco-Prussian, Sedan, 

France, 1873-8 
McMillan, J. ; trials, 1861 
MacNamara, capt. ; duels, 1803 
M'Culloch, J. R., polit. econ., 1789- 

1864 
McCulloch, sir Jas., Victoria, 1875-6 
M'Neill, sir J. ; Sebastopol, 1855 
McCarty, gen. ; Enniskillen, 1689 
McClintock, capt. ; Franklin, 1859 
McGill, Mr. ; trials, 1842 
McKendrick, J. G. ; Boy. Inst., 

1881-4 
McKenzie, Mr. ; duel, 1788 
McNaghten, sirW., killed, 1841 
McNaughten, Mr. ; trials, 1761, 1843 
McSwiney, Mr., Ireland, 1875 
Macready, W. ; actor, 1793-1873 
Macreath, Mr. ; trials, 1841 
Macrobius ; Lat. writer, d. 415 
Madan, bp. ; Peterborough, 1794 
Madiai, the ; Tuscany, 1852 
Madison, James ; United States, 

president, 1809 
Maecenas, d. 8 ; dedications, baths 
Ma;lzel, J. ; metronome, 1815 
Magee, J. ; trials, 1813 ; Guatemala, 

1874 



INDEX. 

Magee, W. C, bp. Peterborough, 

1868 
Magellan ; killed, 1521 ; circumnavi- 
gation, Philippine 
Magi ; fire worshippers, Epiphany 
Magnin, C. ; puppets, 1872 
Magnus ; king, Norway, Sweden 
Maguire, capt. ; Franklin, 1848 
Magus, Simon ; Simonians, heretics 
Mahdi ; Soudan 

Mahomet, 570-632 ; Hegira, 622 ; 
Mahometanism, Mecca, Medina, 
Beder, Turkey, Koran 
Mahomet II., d. 148 1 ; eastern empire, 
Turkey, Adrianople, Constantino- 
ple, Albania 
Mahony, F. (Prout), d. 1866 
MaYmonides (Maimoun), Moses, 

Jewish writer, d. 1208 
Maine, sir H. J. S. ; jurist, 1822-8S 
Maitland, capt. ; France, 1815 
Maitland, sir Fred. ; China, 1838 
Majendie, bishop ; Chester, 1800 
Major ; conchology, 1675 
Majorian, coronation 
Makart, J. ; painter, 1840-1884 ; 

Austria 
Makomo, Kaffraria, 1873 
Malachi prophesies about 397 b. c. 
Malcolm ; Scotland, kings, clanships, 

Alnwick, Dunsinane 
Malcolm, Jas. ; trials, 1885. 
Malebranche, N. ; philos., 1638-1715 
Malet, sir E. ; Egypt, 1881 ; Ger- 
many, 1884 
Malherbe ; Fr. poet, 1556-1628 
Malibran, madame ; music, 1808-36 
Mallet, B. ; earthquakes, seismo- 
meter, 1858 
Mallory, W. H. ; screw-propeller, 

1878 
Malmesbury, lord, b. 1807 ; Derby 
and Disraeli adms. 1852, 1858, 1874 
Malou ; Belgium, 1871 ; 1884 
Malpighi, M. ; anatomist, 1628-94 
Maltby, bishop ; Durham, 1836 
Malthus, T., 1 766-1834, polit. econ. 
Manasseh, Ben Israel ; Jews, 1657 
Manby, capt. ; life-preserver, 1809 
Mance, H. , heliography 
Manchester, bp. of, pub. worship 

reg. act, 1883 
Manchester, earl of; administrations, 

1620 
Manchester will ; trials, 1854 
MandeviHe, visct. ; administrations, 

1620 
Manes, killed, 274 ; Manicheans 
Manfred, killed, 1266 ; Naples 
Manlius ; Cimbri, 102 B.C., Rome 
Mann, Wm., air (compressing), 1829 
Manners, lord John, b. 1818; Derby 
adm., 1852, 1858, 1866; Disraeli 
administrations, 1868, 1874 ; Re- 
form, 1884 ; Salisbury adm., 1885, 
i836, (duke of Rutland, 1888) 
Manning, H., cardinal, 1809-92 ; 

archbishop, 1865 ; Westminster 
Mannings ; murderers, trials, 1849 
Manny, sir W. ; charter-house, 1371 
Mansel, bisliop ; Bristol, 1808 
Mansell, T. ; executions, 1857 
Mansfield, lord ; att.-gen. 1754 ; 

fictions in law, king's bench 
Mansfield, C.B. ; benzole, 1849 
Mantegazza, marchese, Italy, 1876 
Mantell, G. A., weald 
Manteuftel, gen., Franco-Pruss. war, 

1870-1 
Manuel ; Eastern empire, Trebizond 
Manutius, see Aldus 
Manzoni, A., Ital. nov., 1784-1873 
Mapleson, Mr., national opera house, 

1875 
Mar, earl of; Harlaw, 141 1; Dum- 

blain, 1715 
Mar, earl of ; trials, 1831 
Marat, stabbed; France, 1793 



1110 

Marbeck, J., concordance, 1550 :: 

chanting 
Marceau, gen., killed, Altenkirchen,. 

Marcel, S. ; communes, 1356 
Marcellus; Borne, 212 B.C. 
March, H. ; executions, 1877 
March, Roger, earl of; rebellions: 

1398 
March, R. ; rope-making, 1784 
Marehmont; trials, 1858 
Marcion ; Marcionites, 140 
Marcus Aurelius ; Rome, emp. 161 
Marcus Curtius ; Rome, 362 B.C. 
Mardonius ; Myeale, Plata;a, 497 b.c. 
Margaret ; England, queen of Ed- 
ward I. 
Margaret of Anjou, England (queen, 
of Henry VI.), d. 148 1 ; Tewkes- 
bury, Towton, Wakefield 
Margaret of Norway ; Calmar, 1393 
Margaret (governess of the Nether- 
lands, 1559) ; beards 
Margary, Mr., killed ; China, 1875-7 
Margraff; beet-root, 1747 
Maria da Gloria ; Portugal, 1826 
Maria Louisa, d. 1847 ; France, i8io„ 

first empire ; wills (Napoleon's) 
Maria Theresa ; Germany, 1711 
Marie Antoinette ; France, 1793 - 

diamond necklace 
Mariiio, Hayti, 1880 
Marius, d. 86 b.c. ; Ambrones, Cimbrf. 
Mario, G. ; Italian singer, 1808 (?) -8--\ 
Marius ; pianoforte 
Markham, abp. ; York, 1776 
Marks, I. ; execution, 1877 
Marlborough, earl of; administra- 
tions, 1628 
Marlborough, duchess of, Ireland. 

1880 
Marlborough, duke of, 1650-1722 r 
com. -in-chief, marshals, Blenheim ' r 
Douay, Liege, Lisle, Malplaquet r 
Oudenarde, Ramilies 
Marlborough, John, duke of, 6. 1822 ; 
Derby adm., 1867; Disraeli adm. r 
1868, 1878, gems 
Marlowe, Chr. ; dramatist, d. 1593 
Marmont, marshal ; Salamanca, 1812 
Marmontel, J. F., Fr. novel. 1723-99 
Marot, Clement; Fr. poet, 1495- 

1544 
Maroto, gen., Spain, Vergara, 1839 
Marsden, Wm. ; cancer hospital. 
Marsh, bp. ; Llandaflj 18 16 
Marsh, Catherine, convalescent insti- 
tution, 1866 
Marsh, professor ; Indians 
Marshal, T. R. ; trials, 1859 
Marshall, Mr. ; California, 1847 
Marshall, capt., naval battles, 1778 
Marshall, John, physiol., 1818-91 ; 

Royal Institution 
Martel, Charles ; France, 714 
Martel, France, 1879 
Marten, Maria ; trials, 1828 
Marth ; planets, 1854 
Martial ; epigrams, fl. 100 
Martin, John, painter, 1 790-1854 
Martin, Jon. ; York minster, 1829 
Martin, L. H. ; Fr. hist., 1810-1883 
Martin ; popes, 640 et seq. 
Martin, Rd. ; animals, 1822 
Martin, rev. G. ; suicide, i860 
Martin v. Mackonochie, Church of 

England, 1867-76 
Martin, sir Theodore, b. 1816 ; Albert 
Martineau, Harriet, hist, novelist, 

<fcc. , 1802-76 
Martyr, Peter, reformer, 1500-62 
Marvell, And. , d. 1678 ; ballot 
Marvin, C. ; trials, 1878 
Marx, C., socialists 
Mary I., 1516-58; England (queen), 

1553 ; Calais 
Mary II., 1662-94; England (queen'), 



1120 

Mary, queen of Scots, 1542-87; 
Scotland, Carlisle, Edinburgh, 
sycamore, Langside, Lochleven- 
castle, Fotheringay 

Maryborough, lord ; postmaster, 1835 

Masaniello ; Naples, 1647 

Maskelyne, J. N., automaton, 1875 

Maskelyne, N, astronomer,i732-i8n; 
Greenwich, 1765 ; almanacs, Schie- 
hallien, Venus 

Mason, Mr. ; U. States, 1861 

Mason and Hamlin ; American organ 

Mason, Josiah, orphan houses, Bir- 
mingham, 1869-75 

Massena; Zurich, 1799; Almeida, 
Busaco 

Massey v. Headfort ; trials, 1804 

Massey, W. ; India, 1865 

Massillon, J. B. ; Fr. preacher, 1663- 

J 74 2 „ 
Masupha, Basuto 

Mathew, Theobald, d. 1856; tem- 
perance 
Mathews, Chas. ; actor, 1776-1835 ; 

(son) C. J., 1803-78 
Mathias ; anabaptists, 1534 
Matilda; England (queen of, Wil- 
liam I.) ; Bayeux tapestry, 1066 
Matilda ; England (queen of Stephen) 
Matilda (empress) ; England, 1135 
Matilda; Denmark, 1772 ; Zell 
Matilda, countess ; Canossa, 1077 ; 

Italy 
Matthew, T., abp. ; York, 1606 
Matthews, adm. ; Toulon, 1744 
Matthews, H. ; Salisbury adm., 

1886 
Maud ; see Matilda 
Maule, Fox (lord Pan mure); Kussell 

administration, 1846 
Maule, J. B., prosecutor 
Maunsell, bookseller ; meal-tub plot, 

1679 
Maunsell, Capt. C. S. ; trials, 1874 
Maupertuis, P. L. de, 1698-1759 ; 

latitude 
Manrer, J. and G. (German enthu- 
siasts), killed ; Brazil, 1874 
Maurice, rev. F. D., 1805-72 ; broad 
church, working-men's college, 1854 
Maury, lieut. M., 1806-73 ; sea 
Mausolus, 377 b.c. ; mausoleum, 

wonders 
Maximilian ; emperors, Germany, 

1493 ; Mexico, 1864-67 
Maximin ; Rome, emp. 235 ; giants, 

persecutions 
May, G. A. C. ; king's (or queen's) 

bench, 1877 
May, S. E. ; parliament, 1886 
Maybrick, Mrs. ; trials, 1889 
Mayhew, H. (1812-1887); poor, 

i5S 1-2 
Mayne, sir Richd., 1796- 1868 ; police, 

1829 
Mayo, earl of, 6. 1822 ; Disraeli adm. 

1868 ; assassinated, 1872 ; India, 

Andaman 
Mazarin, cardinal ; France, 1643 ; 

tontines ; jirinting, 1450 
Mazzini, J., Ital. patriot, 1808-72; 

Rome, 1831 ; triumvirate, 1849 
Mazzuoli, F. ; engraving, 1532 
Mead,Dr. Rich. , 1673-1 754; inoculation 
Mead, Geo., gen., 1816-72 ; United 

States, 1863 
Meagher ; Ireland, 1848 
Mecklenburg, grand duke, Franco- 

Pruss. war, 1870-1 
Medail, M. ; Alps (tunnel), 1848 
Medici ; Medici family 
Medicis, Catherine de, d. 1589 ; Bar- 
tholomew, St. 
Medina-Sidonia, duke of ; armada 
Medon ; Athens, 1044 B.C. 
Mehemet Ali ; Egypt, Syria 
Mehemet Ali ; Russo-Turkish war, 

II., 1877 



INDEX. 

Mehemet Ruchdi, Turkey, 1371-2 
Meikle, A., threshing machine, 1776 
Melanchthon, Philip, 1497-1560 ; 
adiaphorists, Augsburg confession 
Melas, general ; Marengo, 1800 
Melbourne, viscount, 1779-1849 ; Mel- 
bourne ; trials, 1836 
Melikoff, L. Alad.ja Dagh; Russo- 
Turkish war, II., 1877 ; Russia, 
1880-1 
Mellon, Miss (afterwards duchess of 
St. Alban's), first appearance, 1795 
Melloni, M., 1798-1854; electricity 
Melville, lord ; impeachment, 1806 
Memnon said to invent alphabet, 

1822 B.C. 
Menabrea, count L. F. ; Italy, 1867 
Menander, d. 291 B.C. ; drama 
Mendelssohn, F. Bartholdy, 1809-47 
Mendiri ; Spain, 1874-5 
Mendizabal ; Spain, 1835 
Mendoza, Pedro de; Buenos Ayres, 

Menier ; balloons, 1874 
Menou, general ; Alexandria, 1800 
Menschikoff, prince ; holy places, 
1853 ; Russia, Alma, Russo-Turk- 
ish war 
Mercadier, M., teleradiophone 
Mercator, Ger., 1512-94 ; charts 
Mercedes (queen) ; Spain, 1878 
Mercier, C. H. ; hospital Saturday, 

1874 
Mercier, Honore; Quebec, 1891 
Merimee, Prosper, Fr. hist., 1803-70 
Meroveeus ; Merovingians,' France, 448 
Mesentzoff, gen. ; assassinated, 

Russia, 1878 
Mesmer, Frederic Ant.; mesmerism, 

1766 
Metastasio, Pet, It. poet, 1698-1782 
Metellus; Achaia, 147 B.C. 
Metius; telescopes, 1590-1609 
Meton ; golden number, 432 B.C. 
Metternich, prince, Aust. statesman, 

1773-1859 • 
Metz, M. de; reformatory, 1839 
Meux and Co. ; porter 
Meyer, H. dr. ; Kilima Njaro, 1889 
Meyer, H. von, archaeopteryx, 1861 
Meyer, Simon; Saturn, 1608-9-10 
Meyerbeer, J. M., Germ, mus., 1794- 

1864 
Meyerstein, E. ; printing (in colours), 

1876 
Mezentius ; indiction, 312 
Miall, E., 1809-81 ; nonconformists 
Micah, prophesies about 750 B.C. 
Michael Angelo Buonaroti, Ital. ar- 
tist, 1474-1564 
Michael; eastern empire, assassina- 
tions, Servia, 1860-8 
Michael, grand duke ; Russo-Turkish 

war, 1877 
Michaelis, J. W., bib. critic, 1717-91 
Miehaud, abbe ; old catholics, 1872 
Michel, Louise ; France, 1883 
Michelet, J., Fr. hist., b. 1798 
Middlesex, earl of; administrations, 

1621 
Middleton, Con.; (Cicero), 1683-1750 
Middleton, gen., Canada, 1885 
Middleton; N.W. passage, 1742 
Middleton (or Myddelton), sir Hugh, 

1565-1631 ; New River 
Middleton, John; giants, 1578 
Middleton, rev. T. ; Manchester, 1876 
Midhat Pasha, Turkey, 1878-81, Syria 
Miecislas; Poland, 962 
Mieroslawski, L.; Poland, 1863 
Mignet, Francois, Fr. hist., 1796- 

1884 
Miguel, dom, 1802-66; Portugal, 1824 
Milan ; Servia 

Mildmay, sir J. H. ; trials, 1814 
Mildmay, sir Walter; administra- 
tions, 1579 
Mill, Jas., hist, of Ind., 1773-1836 



Mill, John Stuart, 1806-1873, logic 
Millais, J. E., painter, &. 1829; pre- 

Raphaelites 
Miller, Hugh ; geology, suicide, 1856 
Miller v. Salomons ; trials, 1852 
Miller, W.; trials, 1870 
Millie, Mr.; trials, 1839 
Milman, H. H, 1791-1868; poet and 

hist. 
Milosch; Servia, 1815 
Miltiades; Marathon, 490 B.C. 
Milton, John, 1608-74; Paradise Lost, 

Cripplegate ; press, liberty of 
Mina, gen., d. 1836; Spain, 1835 
Minghetti ministry ; Italy, 1873-6 
Minos; Crete, 1015 B.C. 
Minto, earl of; India, gov. -gen., 1807 
Miramon, gen.; Mexico, 1859 exe- 
cuted, 1867 
Mires, M; Mexico, 1861 
Mirsky, L., Russia, 1879 
Mister, Josiah ; trials, 1841 
Mitchell, sir F. ; monopolies, victual- 
lers, 1 62 1 
Mitchell, D.; aquarium, 1853 
Mitchell, adm.; Bantry bay, 1801-2 
Mitchell, J. ; Ireland, 1848, 1874 
Mitchell, S. ; Glasgow, 1874 
Mitford, sir John ; att. -general, 1800 ; 
speaker, 1801 ; — W., hist, of Greece, 
1744-1827 
Mithridates the Great, 131-63 B.C. ; 
Pontus, comets, electuary, massa- 
cres, omens 
Mitre, gen. B.; Buenos Ayres, 1859-75 
Morfat, colonel; wrecks, 1857 
Moffat, Dr. C. ; ammoniaphone 
Moffat, Rev. R., 1790-1882 ; mission- 
ary; Africa 
Mohun, lord; duels, 1712 
Moir, capt.; trials, 1830 
Mbira, earl of; India, gov.-gen., 1813 
Moiroso, Basuto 
Mole, count, d. 1855 
Molesworth, sir William; Aberdeen 

adm., 1852 
Moliere, Fr. comic dram., 1622-73 

eomedie Frang. 
Molinos, 1627-96 ; quietists 
Molteno, Mr. ; Cape, 1875 
Moltke, Hellmuth, strategist, 1800- 
91 ; Franco-Prussian war ; Ger- 
many, 1890 
Molyneux, Mr.; absentee, 1738 
Mompesson, Giles ; monopolies, vic- 
tuallers, 1621 
Monasterio, mad. ; France, 1883 
Moncasi, J. O., Spain, 1878 
Monck, viset. C. S., 6. 1819; Canada, 

1861 
Moncrieff, capt.; cannon, 1868, 1872 
Monge, gas 
Monk, general ; administrations, 

1660; guards; d. 1670 
Monk, bishop ; Gloucester, 1830 
Monmouth, duke of, 1649-S5 ; Mon- 
mouth, Bothwell, Sedgemoor, iron 
mask 
Monro, James, ; police, 1888 
Monroe, Mr.; United States, presi- 
dent, 1817-21 
Monstrelet, E. de, French historian, 

d- 1453 
Montacute, marquis of; Man, 1314-43 
Montagu, lord ; administrations, 

1660-89 
Montagu, lady M. W. ; inoculation, 

1718 
Montague, Mrs., d. 1800; May-day 
Montaigne, M. de, Fr. essayist, 

I533-9 2 
Montalembert, comte de; 1810-70; 

France, 1858 
Montanus ; Montanists, polyglot, 1559 
Monteliore, sir Moses, 1784-1885 ; 

Jews, 1837 ; 1883-4 
Montemolin, comte de ; Spain, 1860-1 
Montero, pres. Peru, 1882 



INDEX. 



1121 



Montesquieu, C. de L., Fr. pliil., 

1689-1755 
Monteverde; opera, 1607 
Montfort, Amauri de ; Albigenses, 

1268 
Montfort, Simon de; barons' war, 
commons, Kenilworth, steward, 
lord high, speaker, Lewes; killed 
at Evesham, 1265 
Montgolfier, M. ; balloons, 1782 
Montgomerie, comte de ; tourna- 
ments, 1559 
Montgomery, Mr. ; suicide, duels, 

1803 ; trials, 1873 
Montholon, comte de; will (Napo- 
leon's), 1821 
Monti, Ital. poet, 1754-1828 
Montpensier; France, Spanish mar- 
riage, 1846; Spain, 1868-72 
Montrose, duke of; Pitt adm. 1804, 

Derby adm. , 1866 
Montrose, marquis of, executed, 1650 ; 
Corbiesdale, Scotland, Alford, 
Philiphaugh 
Montt, J. ; Chili, 1891 
Moody and Sankey ; revivals, 1875 
Moore, abp. ; Canterbury, 1783 
Moore; almanac, 1698-1713 
Moore, murdered ; trials, 18S3 
Moore, capt. ; Franklin, 1848 
Moore, Serjeant; leases, 1535 
Moore, Anne; abstinence, 1808 
Moore, Geo. ; mansion house fund, 

1871 
Moore, sir John, 7;. at Corunna, 1S09 
Moore, sir Jonas ; Greenwich 
Moore, Thos., poet, 1780-1852 
Morales, H. A., Bolivia, 1872 
Mordaunt, Charles, viscount; ad- 
ministrations, 1689 
Mordaunt divorce ; trials, 1S70, 1874-5 
More, sir Thomas, 1478 -1535; ad- 
ministrations, 1529 ; chancellor, 
supremacy ; Utopia 
More, Hannah, 1745-1833 
More, Roger; rebellion, 1651 
Moreau, general, 1763-1813 ; Ales- 
sandria, Augsburg, Wurtemberg, 
Dresden 
Morelli; tourniquet, 1674 
Moreton, John, earl of; Ireland, 1177 
Morgan ; buccaneer, 1668 
Morgan, colonel; Lincoln 
Morgan, confederate general ; U. 

States, 1862 
- Morgan, Pritchard ; gold, 1887 
Moriarty, bp. Ireland, 1877 
Morier, sir R. ; Prussia, 1888 
Moriones, gen. ; Spain, 1S73-5 
Morland, Sam., d. 1695 ; capstan, 

speaking-trumpet 
Morland, Geo., animal painter, 1763- 

1804 
Morley, Arnold; Gladstone adm., 

1892 
Morley, J., b. 1838 ; anti-aggressive ; 
Pall Mall; Gladstone adm., 1886, 
1892 
Morley, T.; music; d. 1604 
Morley, Id. ; Gladstone adm., 1886 
Morning Chronicle ; trials, 1810, 1830 ; 

France, 1862 
Morning Herald ; trials, i8oq 
Morning Post; libel, 1792 
Mornington, lord; India, 1798 
Morpeth, viscount (aft. earl of Car- 
lisle); Melbourne adm., 1835; Ire- 
land, lord-lieut. 
Morris, George; flowers, 1792 
Morris, Mr.; theatres, 1805 
Morrison, E. ; Australia, 1882-3 
Morse, S. F. B., Am. electrician, 

1791-1872 
Mortara, E. ; Jews, 1858 
Mortier, mar.; Romainville, 1814 
Mortimer, E. A.; trials, 1859 
Mortimer, earl of March; Berkeley, 
1327 



Morton, arch. ; Canterbury, i486 
Morton, earl of, regent of Scotland, 

1572 ; Tulchan bishops 
Morton, sir Albert ; administrations, 

1628 
Morton, Thomas; ether, 1846 
Morton; trials, 1852 
Moryson, Fynes; forks 
Moscrop, E. H., salmon ova 
Moseley, Wolf, &c. ; trials, 1819 
Moses, 1572-1451 B.C. 
Moshesh, cape of G. H., 1870 
Mosquera, gen. ; New Granada, i36i 
Moss, bishop ; Oxford, 1807 
Mosse, Dr.; lying-in hospital, 1745 
Mossol, M., plethysmography 
Most, J., trials, 1881 
Mothe-Guyon, madame de la ; quiet- 

ists, 1697 
Motley, J. L., Am. historian, 1814-77 
Mouchot, M., sun, 1880 
Moule, Rev. H. ; Kimmeridge 
Mountaigne, abp.; York, 1628 
Mount-Sandford, lord, killed ; trials, 

1828 
Mouravieff; Kars, 1855 
Mourzoufle; Constantinople, eastern 

empire, 1204 
Mozart, W. A.; music, 1756-91 
Mudie, C, 1818-90; circulating li- 
brary, 1842 
Muirhead, J. G.; trials, 1825 
Mukhtar Pasha, Turkey, 1876 ; Russo- 

Turkish war, II. 1877-S 
Mulgrave, earl ; Liverpool adm., 1812 ; 

Ireland, lord-lieut. 
Mullens, J.; trials, i860 
Midler, F.; execution, 1864 
Miiller, F. Max, &. 1823; Vedas, San- 
skrit, language, Hibbert fund 
Miiller, Geo. ; b. 1805 ; orphan houses ; 

scripture knowledge 
Mulot, M. ; Artesian well, 1841 
Mulready, Win.; painter, 1786-1863 
Mummius, L. ; Corinth, 146 B.C. ; 

painting 
Mundella, A. J. ; Gladstone adm., 

1886, 1892 
Mundy, R. M., Honduras, 1874 
Munich, marshal; Perekop, 1736 
Muiioz, duke ; Spain, 1833, 1873 
Munro, H. ; Buxar, 1764 
Munster, earl of; suicide, 1842 
Munzer, T. ; anabaptists, 1524-5, level- 
lers ; Frankenhausen 
Murat, Joachim, 1771-1815; Erfurt, 

Naples 
Muratori, L.; hist., 1672-1750 
Murchison, sir Roderick I., 1792- 

1871 ; geology, Brit. Assoc. 
Murdoch, Mr.; gas, 1792 
Murillo, Bravo, Spain, 1S65, 1868 
Murillo, B. S., Sp. painter, 1618-82 
Murray, R. ; post-office, 1681 
Murray, earl of; Scotland, 1567 
Murray, lady Aug. ; marriage act, 1793 
Murray, B. ; trials, 1841 
Murray, bishop; David's, St., 1800 
Murray, James, earl of, Scotland, 

1567 ; assassinations 
Murray, John ; lighthouse 
Murray, sir Geo. ; Peel adm., 1S34 
Murray, sir James ; Tarragona, 1813 
Murray, Dr. J. H. ; dictionaries. 
Murrell, capt. ; wrecks, 1889 
Musa; Spain, 712 
Musreus, fl. 1413 B.C. 
Musgrave, abp.; Hereford, 1837 
Musgrave, sir Richard ; duel, 1802 ; — 
sir A., Jamaica, 1876 ; Queensland, 
1883 
Mushat, Mr. ; steel, 1800 
Muswell Hill, burglary ; trials, 1889 
Muybridge, E. J. ; photography, 

1881 ; zoopraxiscope 
Myall, rhubarb 

Myddelton, sir Hugh, is65?-i63i; 
New River 



Mylne,R.; architeet,i734-i8n; Black- 
friars 
Myron, sculptor, fl. 480 B.C. 
Mytton, general; Wales, 1645 



N. 



Nabis; Sparta, 206 b.c. 

Nabonasser, fl. 747 b. c. ; astronomy 

Nachimoff, admiral ; Sinope, 1853 

Nadar; balloon, 1863 

Nadir Shah ; Persia, 1732 ; Delhi, 
Afghanistan, Cabul 

Nagel, H., trials, 1872 

Nahum prophesies about 713 B.C. 

Nana Sahib ; Cawnpore, India, 1857 

Nansen, Dr. ; Greenland 

Napier of Merchiston ; logarithms ; 
Napier's bones, 1614 

Napier, admiral sir C. ; Portugal, 
Sidon, cape St. Vincent, Baltic, 
1854 

Napier, gen. sir C. ; Meeanee, 1843 

Napier, lord ; China ; Edinburgh ; 
United States, 1856 

Napier, Mr. ; coin, 1844 

Napier, sir R., aft. lord (of Magdala), 
1810-90; Abyssinia, 1867 ; Arogee, 
Magdala, Gibraltar, 1876 

Napoleon, Jerome, 1784- 1860 ; son, 
1822-91, France, 1861-76 ; Bonaparte 

Napoleon I., 1 769-1 821, France, abat- 
toirs, Bonaparte, confederation, 
legion of honour, models, notables, 
Cairo, Egypt, Elba, Fontainebleau, 
Malta, Mamelukes, St. Helena, 
Simplon, vaccination ; his battles : 
Acre, Areola, Asperne, Auerstadt, 
Austerlitz, Bautzen, Borodino, 
Castiglione, Charleroi, Dresden, 
Eekmiihl, Essling, Eylau, Fried- 
land, Hanau, Italy, Jena, La 
Rothiere, Leipsic, Ligny, Lodi, 
Lutzen, Marengo, Montereau, 
National guard, Pultusk, St. 
Dizier, Simplon, Tilsit, Troyes, 
Vienna, Waterloo, Wurtzburg 

Napoleon II. , king of Rome ; France, 
p. 380 

Napoleon III., 1808-73: France, 
(sovereigns) ; Boulogne, Strasbnrg, 
Cherbourg, Italy, Magenta, Sol- 
ferino, Sedan, wills, assassinations 

Napoleon, imperial prince, 1856-79 ; 
Bonaparte ; France, 1873-6, Saar- 
brtick 

Nares, capt., deep sea, 1872 ; north- 
west passage, 1874-8 ; soundings 

Narses ; East, empire, 552 ; Goths, 
Italy, Rome 

Narvaez, gen. Ramon, 1800-1S68 ; 
Spain, 1846 

Nash, Beau, 1674-1761 ; Bath, cere- 
monies 

Nash, Mr. ; theatres, parks, 1818 

Nash., Jos., architect, 1812-78 

Nasmyth, J. ; steam-hammer, 1838 ; 
moon 

Nasmyth, lieut. ; Silistria, 1854 

Nasr-ed-Din ; Persia, 1848-73 

Naville, M. Egypt, expl. fund 

Nearchus ; sugar, 325 B.C. 

Neave and others, trials, 1875 

Nebuchadnezzar; Jews, 605 B.C., 
Tyre, Babylon 

Necho ; Egypt, 634 b.c. 

Neil, col. ; India, 1857 ; Allahabad, 
Benares 

Neild ; legacy to the queen, 1852 

Neilson, J., 1792-1865; blowing- 
machine, 1828 

Neison, Edm. ; moon, 1876 

Nelson, Horatio, admiral lord, 175S- 
1805 ; Nelson 

Nero ; Rome, emperor, 54 

Nessekode, comte de, Russian states- 
man, 1 780-1 862 

4 c 



1122 

Nettlefold, Mr. ; trials, 1892 
Newall, B. S. ; electric telegraph, 

1840 
Newcastle, marquis of; Marston- 

moor, 1644 
Newcastle, duke of: Pelham adm , 
1749 ; Newcastle adm., 1754 ; Aber- 
deen adm., 1852 
Newcomb, prof. S. ; photo-tacho- 
meter 
Newcomen, T., steam, 1712 
Newenham, W. B. ; trials, 1844 
Newington, H. (Flora Davey), trials, 

1871 
Newman, cardinal John Henry, 
1801-90; trials, 1852; Tractarians 
Newport, sir John ; exchequer, 1834 
Newsham, B. ; Preston, 1883 
Newton, sir C. T., mausoleum 
Newton, sir Isaac, 1642-1727 ; air, 
binomial, coin, diamond, astro- 
nomy, royal society, hydrostatics, 
gravitation, mechanics 
Ney, marshal, 1769-1815 ; Dennewitz, 

France, Quatre-Bras, Ulm, Ney 
Neyle, archbp. ; York, 1632 
Nez Perces, Indians 
Niccoli, Nicholas ; libraries, 1436^ 
Nicephori, emperors ; east, empire, 

802-963 
Nicephorus ; comets 
Nicholas I., Bussia, 1825-55 
Nicholas V. ; popes, 1447-55 ; St. 

Peter's, Borne 
Nicholas, grand duke, Busso-Turkish 

war II., 1877 
Nicholls, comm. navy, 1884 
Nichols, col. ; New York, 1664 
Nichols, H., Manchester, 1875 
Nicholson ; trials, 1813 
Niebuhr, B. H. ; hist., 1776-1831 
Niepce ; photography, 1814, veloci- 
pedes, 1818 
Niger, P. ; Borne, emp. ; killed, 

127 
Nightingale, F., 6. 1820 ; Scutari, 

Nightingale 
Nikita, Montenegro, i860 
Nillson, Mr. , prehistoric archeology 
Ninus ; Assyria, 2059 B.C. 
Nisbet, sir John ; advocates, 1685 
Nixon, Alf. ; velocipede, 1882 
Noad, H. M. ; electricity, 1855 
Noah, 2347 B.C. ; ark, Armenia 
Noailles, marshal ; Dettingen, 1743 
Nobel, Alf. ; nitro-glycerine, 1864, 
dynamite, 1868; blasting gelatine 
Nobel, L. & B. ; petroleum, 1875 
Nobert, F. A. ; ruling machine 
Nobiling, Dr. ; Germany, 1878 
Noble, Matt., sculptor, 1820-76 
Nordenskibld, professor, north-east, 

&c, 1872-3 
Norfolk, duke of; administrations, 
1540 ; people ; catholic union, 
1871 
Norman, sir H. ; Jamaica, 1883 
Norman, sir J. ; mayor, 1453 
Norman, Bobert ; magnet, 1576 
Norman, justice, murdered, India, 

1871 
Normanby and Buckingham, duke 

of; Godolphin adm., 1702 
Normanby, marquis of, b. 15 May, 
1797 ; (J.28 July, 1863 ; Ireland (lord- 
lieut.), 1835 ; Queensland, 1871 ; N. 
Zealand, 1874-8 ; Victoria, 1879 
Normandy, Dr.; filterers, water 
North, bishop ; Winchester, 1781 
North, lord ; North adm., 1770 
North, sir F. ; king's counsel, 1663 
North, miss M. ; Kew, 1882 
Northampton, Henry, earl of; ad- 
ministrations, 1609 
Northbrook, Id., India, 1872; earl of, 

admiralty, 1880, 1885 
Northcotc, sir Stafford, 1818-87 : 
Derby adm., ig66 ; Disraeli adm., 



INDEX. 

1868, 1874 ; parliament, 1881 ; Suez, 
1883 ; earl of Iddesleigh, Salisbury 
adm. 1885, 1886 

Northcott and others, trials, 1876 

Northinore, gas 

Northumberland, Algernon, duke of ; 
Derby administration, 1852 ; — 
Algernon George, Disraeli adminis- 
tration, 1878 ; Boyal Institution 

Northumberland, Dudley, duke of; 
administrations, 1551 

Northumberland, Hugh, duke of; 
Ireland (lord-lieut.), 1763 

Northumberland, earl of; coaches, 
Man 

Norton, sir Fletcher ; att.-gen., 1763 

Norton, Jeffrey de ; recorder, 1298 

Norton v. lord Melbourne ; trials, 1836 

Nostradamus ; almanacs, 1566 

Nott, gen. ; Ghiznee, 1842 

Nottingham, earl of; administra- 
tions, 1684 

Novaliches, marquis de, Spain, 1868, 
Alcolea, 1868 

Nubar Pacha, Cairo, Egypt, 1876-9 

Numa Pompilius ; Borne, kings, 715 
B.C. ; calendar 

Numitor, Alba, 795 B.C. 

Nunez, A. ; Paraguay, 1535 



O. 



Oakley, sir Charles ; Madras, 1792 

Oakley, B. B., trials, 1876 

Oates, T. ; Oates' plot, 1678 

Obadiah prophesies about 587 B.C. 

Obeid-ullah, Kurdistan 

O'Brien, king; Limerick, 1200 

O'Brien, W. ; Ireland, 1886 et seq. ; 
trials, 1889 

O'Brien, W. S. ; Ireland, 1846, 1848 

O'Brien, giants, 1785 

O'Connell, Mr. Daniel, 1775-1847 ; 
duels, 1815 ; agitators, emancipa- 
tion, repeal, trials (1831, 1844), 
Ireland ; Dublin, 1883 

O'Connell, Mr. Morgan ; duels, 1835 

O'Connor, Arthur; press, riots, 
trials, 1798 

O'Connor, Fergus, d. 1855 ; chartists 

O'Connor, Boger; trials, 1817 

Ochus ; Persia, 359 B.C. 

Octavius; Borne, 37 B.C. 

Odin; Sweden, 70B.C. 

Odo, earl of Kent ; treasurer 

Odo, abp. ; Canterbury, 941-58 

Odoacer ; Italy, 476, Heruli 

O'Donnell, marshal Leopold, 1808-67 ; 
Spain 1841 

O'Donnell, Mr. ; parliament, 1882 

O'Donnell v. Walter ; Parnellites, 
1888 

CEdipus ; Bosotia, 1266 B.C. 

Gmotrus ; Arcadia, Greece, 1710 B.C. 

Oersted, H. C, 1777-1851 ; elec- 
tricity, 1819 

Ofenheim (financier), Austria, 1875 

Ogle, George ; duel, 1802 

Oglethorpe, gen. ; Georgia, 1732 

O'Grady, Mr. ; duels, 1803 

Ogyges ; deluge, 1764 B.C. 

O'Hagan, lord chancellor (Ireland) 
1868 ; Boman catholics ; d. 1883 

O'Halloran, Dr. ; trials, 1818 

O'Keefe ; trials, 1825 

O'Keeffe v. Cullen, trials, 1873 

O'Kelly, Mr. ; parliament, 1883 

Oken, German union, 1822 

Okubo, Japan, 1878 

Olbers, M. ; planet, 1802 

Oldcastle, sir J. , burnt, 1418 ; Lollards 

O'Leary, pedestrianism, 1877 

Oliphant, sir Win. , advocate 

Olivarez governs Spain, 1621-43 

Oliver ; trials, 1858, 1869 

Ollendorff, H. G. (linguist); 1803-6 5 



Ollivant, bp. ; Llandaff, 1849 
Ollivier, E. ; France, 1870 
O'Loghlen, sir M. ; Boman catholics, 

1836 
Olozaga, Spain, 1871 
O'Mahony, Fenians, 1877 
Omar, caliph, 634 : Alexandria, Ali 
Omar Pacha ; Citate, Montenegro, 
Oltenitza, Ingour, Busso-Turkish 
war, 1855 
Ommaney, capt. ; Franklin, 1850 
O'Moore, Bory ; Carlow, 1577 
O'Neil, rebellion ; massacre, Black- 
water, 1598 
O'Neil, Miss (lady Becher), appears 

at Covent Garden, 1814 ; d. 1872 
Onslow, G. and Whalley, G. H. ; trials 

1872 
Onslow, sir B. ; Halifax adm., 1714 
Opie, John; painter, 1761-1807 
Oppian, poet,/?. 171 
Orange, William, prince of; Holland, 
Maestri cht, revolution, 1572 ; Eng- 
land, 1689 ; assassinations 
Orange, prince of; Quatre Bras, 1815 
Orbelliana ; Circassia, 1857 
Ord, sir H. St. G., West Australia, 

1877 
Orellana; Amazonia, 1540 
Orestes ; Mycenae, Sparta, n 75 B.C. 
Orfila, M. J. ; physician, 1787-1853 
Orford, earl of; admiralty, 1709 
Orloff, count; diamonds, 1772 
Ormerod, Miss, entomology 
Ormond, James, duke of; Ireland, 

lord-lieuts. , 1643 et seq. 
Ormond, earl of; combat, 1446 
Ormond, marquis of ; Bathmines, 

164Q 
Orr, Win. ; trials, 1797 
Orrery, earl of ; orrery 
Orrock ; trial, 1884 
Orsini, Felix, 1819-58 ; France, 1858 
Ortega, gen. ; Spain, i860 
Osborn, Sherard ; Franklin, 1854 
Osborne, Mrs. (Miss E. F. Elliot), 

trials, 1891 
Osborne, sir Thomas ; administra- 
tions, 1672 
Osborne, T., Ireland, young 
Oscar ; Sweden, 1844 
Osgodeby, Adam de ; master of the 

rolls, 1295 
Osman Digna ; Soudan 
Osman Pacha, Plevna, Busso-Turkish 

war II., 1877 
Ospina ; New Grenada, 1857 
Ossory, lord ; tea, 1666 
Osymandyas ; Egypt, 2100 B.C. ; ob- 
servatories, painting 
Othman ; Turkey, 1298 
Otho; Bome, emp., 69; Germany, 

936 ; Greece, 1832-62 
Otto, gas (engine) 
Otto, M. ; Amiens, 1802 
Ottocar ; Bohemia, 1197 
Oudinot, marshal ; Bome, 1849 
Oudry, cafeine 
Outram, sir James; 1803-63; Mo- 

hammerah, India, 1857 
Ouvry, F. ; antiquaries, 1876 
Overbury, sir T., poisoned, 1613 
Overdank ; assassin., Austria, 1881 
Overend, Gurney, & Co. ; trials, 1867 
Overstone, S., Jones Loyd, lord, 
financier, 1796-1883 ; metric sys- 
tem, 1855 
Ovid ; poet, d. 18 
Owden, J. S., mayor, 1877-8 
Owen, W. D. ; trials, 1858 
Owen, Bobert ; socialists, 1834 
Owen, Bichard, 6. 1804 ; odonto- 
logy, palseontology, zoology 
Owen, sir P. C. ; colonial exhibition 

1886 
Owens, J., Owens college 
Oxenden, sir George ; Surat, 1664 
Oxford, Edward ; trials, 1840 



Oxford, earl of; Godolphin adm., 

1702 ; Oxford adm. 
Oxford, John, earl of; yeomen, 

i486 
Oxley ; Brisbane, Queensland, 1823 



Paciolo ; algebra, 1494 

Paddon, lieut., takes Cerbere, 1800 

Paderborn, bp. of ; Prussia, 1874 

Page, Flood, crystal palace, 1874 

Page, telephone, 1837 

Paget, lord ; duels, trials, 1809 

Paget, lord Win, v. Cardigan ; trials, 

1844 
Paget, sir A. ; trials, 1808 
Paget, J. ; paradoxes 
Paget, sir William; administns., 

J S47 
Pain, O. ; Soudan, 1885. 
Paine, Thomas ; trials, 1792 
Pakington, sir John, b. 1799; Derby 

and Disraeli adm. 
Palafox, gen. ; Saragossa, 1809 
Palamedes ; alphabet, backgammon, 

battle, dice, chess, 680 b.c. 
Palestrina, 1529-94 ; music ; recpiiem 
Palisa, J. ; planets 
Palladio, A. ; architect, 1518-80 
Pallavicino, G., Italy, 1878 
Palles, Christ. ; exchequer (Ireland), 

1874 
Palliser, eapt., cannon, 1866 
Palliser, sir Hugh ; Ushant, 1778 
Palm, the bookseller ; trials, 1806 
Palm, cardinal, shot ; Rome, 1848 
Palmer, Edwin ; Egypt, 1889 
Palmer, J. ; mail coaches, 1784 
Palmer ; duels, 1815 ; trials, 1856 
Palmer, prof., and others murdered 

Egypt, 1882 ; Paul's, St. 
Palmer, Roundell ; see Selbome 
Palmer, S., Times (index) 
Palmerston, Henry, vise. ; 1784-1865 ; 

Palmerston, lady, d. 1869 
Panckoucke, C. J. ; Moniteur, 1789 
Panitza, major ; Bulgaria, 1890 
Panizzi, sir Antonio ; British Mu- 
seum, 1859 
Panmure, lord ; Russell adm., 1851 
Paoli, Pascal; Corsica, 1753 
Papachin, adm. ; flag, 168S 
Papin ; steam-engine, 1681 
Papineau ; Canada, 1837 
Papirius Cursor ; sun-dial, 293 b.c. 
Pappa, D. ; trials, 1870 
Paracelsus, 1493-1541 ; alchemy, phy- 
sic, theosophists 
Pardo, president, Peru, 1879 
Pareja, adm. ; Chili, 1865 
Parini, Guis., Ital. poet, 1729-99 
Paris, count of, b. 1838 ; Orleans 
Parke, Mungo, d. 1805 ; Africa 
Parke v. Lewis and others ; trials, 

1873 
Parker, Emily ; swimming, 1875 
Parker, adm. ; Copenhagen, 1801 
Parker, Dr. ; temple 
Parker, abp. Matthew ; Canterbury, 

1558 ; liturgy, Nag's Head 
Parker (mutineer) ; trials, 1797 
Parker, capt. ; Boulogne 
Parker, J. H, Rome 
Parker, sir Peter ; Bellair, 1814 
Parker, Thomas, lord; chancellor, 

lord, 1 718 
Parkes, sir Henry ; New South 

Wales, Australasia 
Parkes, sir H., 1828-85; consul; 

China, 1860-1883 
Parma, duke of ; Parma 
Parma, prince of; Antwerp, 1585 
Parmenio ; Macedonia, 329 B.C. 
Parnell, sir Henry ; Melbourne adm. 

X835 



INDEX. 

Parnell, C. S., 1846-91; Biggar, and 
others ; parliament (obstructives), 
1877-81 ; home rule, 1880 ; trials, 
1880-1 ; Ireland, 1883, et seq. ; Kil- 
mainham ; Home Rule ; Parnellites 
Parr, Thomas; 1483-1635? longevity 
Parrhasius; painting :jL 397 B.C. 
Parrot, Dr., Ararat 
Parry, bp. , church of England 
Parry, E. ; north- west passage, 1818 
Parsons, bp. ; Peterborough, 1813 
Parsons, P.M., brass, manganese, 

bronze 
Parsons family ; cock-lane ghost, im- 
postors, 1762 
Pascal, B. ; 1623-62 ; air, calculating 
machine, barometers, probability, 
hydrostatics 
Passaglia, father, 1814-87 ; Italy, 

1862. 
Passanante, G., Italy, 1878 
Paskiewitch ; Silistria, 1854 
Pasta, mad., vocalist, 1798-1865 
Pasteur, Dr. L. ; fermentation, 1861 ; 
germ theory ; hydrophobia ; vacci- 
nation 
Patch, Mr. ; trials, 1806 
Pate, lieut. ; trials, 1850 
Paterculus, Rom. hist., d. 31 
Paterson, W. ; bank, 1694 ; Darien 
Paton, Miss, at Haymarket, 1822 
Paton, Dr. ; pyroleter 
Patrick, St. , 373-433 ? ; Ardagh, 

Armagh, Dublin, isles, shamrock 
Patrocinio, nun ; Spain, 1861, 1866, 

1891 
Patten, col. John W., 6. 1802; Dis- 
raeli adm. 
Patteson, J. C, Melanesia, murdered, 

1871 
Paul, St., martyred, 65 
Paul, see Sarpi 
Paul I. ; Russia, 1796 
Paul II. ; popes, 1464 ; purple 
Paul, sir J., <fcc. ; trials, 1855 ; 

fraudulent trustees 
Paulinus ; bells, 400 
Paull, Mr. ; duels, 1807 
Paululio, Anafesto ; doge, 697 
Paulus jEmilius ; Canna;, 216 B.C. 
Paulus, Marcus ; compass, 1260 
Paulus ; Abrahamites 
Pauncefote ; United States, 1889 
Pausanias ; Sparta, 480 B.C. ; Plateea, 

Macedon, 336 B.C. 
Pausias of Sicyon, 360-330 b.c. ; 

painting 
Pavey, G., trials, 1880 
Pavia, gen. ; Spain, 1873-4 
Paxton, sir Joseph, 1803-65 ; exhibi- 
tion of 1851 ; crystal palace 
Payne, L., trials, 1879 
Payne, Mr. G. ; duels, 1810 
Payne, J. H. ; home ! 
Peabody, G., 1795-1869; Peabody 
Peace, C., trials, 1878 
Peace, the prince of the ; Spain, 1806 
Pearce, &c. ; gold robbery, 1857 
Pearson, col., Zululand, 1879 
Pease, W., Ben well 
Peaucillier ; motion 
Peckham, abp. ; Canterbury, 1279 
Pedro ; Portugal, Brazil, 1822 
Peek v. Gurney ; trials, 1871 
Pee), A. W. ; speakerH. O, 1884 
Peel, capt. sir P. ; India, 1858 
Peel, col. ; West Australia, 1828 
Peel, sir Robert ; cotton manuf. , 
1750-1830; — (son) statesman, 1788- 
1850 ; Peel adm. (see note), 1834- 
1841 ; acts of parliament, conserva- 
tive, com bill, duels, 1815 ; in- 
come-tax, tariff; — (grandson), b. 
1822 
Peele, James ; book-keeping, 1509 
Peixoto, Floriano ; Brazil, 1891 
Pelegrini, Dr. ; Argentine republic, 



1123 

Pelham, H. ; Wilmington adm., 1742 ; 

Pelham adm. , 1744 
Pelham, bp. ; Bristol, 1807; Norwich, 

1857 
Pelham, sir W. ; engineers, 1622 
Pelissier, due de Malakhoff; 1794- 

1864 ; Algiers, Dahra 
Pell, Mr. ; education, 1876 
Pelletier ; quinine, 1820 
Pellew, sir Ed. ; naval battles, 1795 
Pelouze, P. J., 1807-1S67 ; formic acid 
Peltier, M. ; libel, trials, 1803 
Peltzen, A. & L., murderers ; Bel- 
gium, 1882 
Pemberton, sir Francis ; king's bench, 

1681 
Pembroke, earl of; Godolphin adm. 
1702 ; lord - lieutenant, Lincoln, 
protectorates, Salisbury, admir- 
alty 
Pengelly, AV. ; man ; Torquay 
Penn, admiral ; Jamaica, 1655 
Penn, Wm., 1644-1718 ; Pennsylva- 
nia, Quaker 
Penny, captain ; Franklin, 1850 
Penzance, lord (Wilde); arches, 1876 ; 

public worship 
Pepe, gen. F. ; Naples, 1820 
Pepin ; France, 752 ; Ferara 
Pepper, prof., Polytechnic, telephone 
Pepys, bp. ; Worcester, 1841 ; Pepys 
Perceval, Spencer; Perceval 
Percy (Hotspur) ; Otterburn, 1388 
Percy, lord; Durham, 1346; Homildon 
Percy, John; metallurgist, 1817-89 
Perdiccas ; Macedon, 454 b.c. 
Perdita, Mrs. Robinson ; theatres, 

last app. , 1779 
Pereire, M. ; credit mobilier 
Pereyra ; Uruguay, 1856 
Pericles ; Athens, 469 b.c. 
Perier, C. ; France, 1874-6 
Perillus ; brazen bull, 570 B.C. 
Perkin Warbeck ; Warbeck, 1492 
Perkin, W. H. ; aniline, 1857 
Perkins ; engraving, copper-plate 

printing, 18 19 
Perreaus ; forgery, trials, 1776 
Perring, John ; mayor, 1803 
Perrotin ; planets 
Perry, Mr. ; trials, 1810 
Perry, lieut. ; trials, 1854 
Persano, adm. ; Lissa, Italy, 1S66-7 
Perseus: Pydna, 168 b.c 
Persigny, J. G., 1808-72; France, 

i860 
Persius, 34-62 ; satires 
Perugino, Paolo, 1446-1524 
Peter the Cruel ; Montiel, 1369 
Peter the Great ; 1672-1725 ; Russia, 
Deptford, Petersburg, Narva, Pul- 
towa, wills 
Peter the Hermit ; crusades, 1094 
Peters, C. H. F., 1813-90; planets, 

1862 et seq. ; astronomy 
Peters, Dr. C. ; Zanzibar, 1889 ; 

Africa (German E.), 1884 
Petion ; Port-au-Prince, 1806 
Peto, sirS. M., 1809-89; diorama, 1855 
Petrarch, 1304-74 ; Petrarch, sonnets, 

humanism 
Petre, sir Wm. ; administrations, 1547 
Petronius ; Ethiopia, 22 B.C. 
Petronius Arbiter, Lat. satirist, d. 66 
Pettigrew, T. ; epitaphs, 1857 
Petty, lord H. ; Grenville adm., 1807 
Petty, Wm. ; Royal Society, 1660 
Pezet, J. A. ; Peru, 1863-5 
Pluudrus writes fables, 8 
Phalaris, brazen bull, 599 B.C. 
Pharamond ; France, 418? 
Pharaohs ; Egypt, 1899 B.C. 
Pharnacus ; Pontus, Cappadocia, 744 

B.C. 

Phayre, col. ; India, 1874 
Pliayre, sir A. P. ; Mauritius, 1874 
Pheidon,^. 869 b.c. ; coinage, silver, 
scales, weights 

4 c 2 



1124 

Phelps, Mr. S., 1S04-78 ; theatres 

(Sadler'sWells), 1844, 1878 
Phepoe, Mrs. ; trials, 1797 
Phidias, fl. 43 B.C. ; statues 
Philidor, concerts, chess 
Philip ; France, Macedon, Spain, 

Hesse, Orleans, 1640 
Philip Neri, St. ; oratorios, 1550 
Philip the Good; Burgundy, Hol- 
land, 1419-67 
Philip the Great, killed 336 B.C. ; 
Macedon, JEtolia, Chseronfea, Lo- 
cri, Thessaly 
Philip II. ; Spain, 1556 
Philippa, England, queen (Ed- 
ward III.); Durham, 1346 
Philipps, T. ; Newport, 1839 
Phillimore, sir R. J., 1810-85 ; admi- 
ralty 
Phillip, gov. ; Australia, 1788 
Phillips, J. ; Brit. Assoc, 1831 ;— 

fire-annihilator, 1849 
Phillips, John, geologist ; Vesuvius, 

1869 
Phillips v. Eyre ; trials, 1869-70 
Phillips, Wendell ; United States, 

1884 
Philopcemen ; Achaia, 194 B.C. 
Philpott ; bp. ; Worcester, 1861 
Philpotts, H., bp. ; Exeter, 1830 
Philpotts v. Boyd ; reredos, 1875 
Phipps, capt. ; north-west passage, 

1773 
Phocas ; east. emp. , 602 
Phocion, killed 317 B.C. 
Phoroneus ; Argos (1807 B.C.), sacri- 
fice, laws 
Photiades, C. J. ; Samos 
Photius, Gallus ; rhetoric, 87 B.C. 
Piastus ; Poland, 842 
Piazzi, M. ; planet, 1801 
Picard, sir H. ; lord mayor, 1357 
Pichegru; Manheim ; suicide, 1804 
Pictet, B., air, gases, 1877, oxygen, 
hydrogen, distillation ; nav. archi- 
tecture 
Picton, gen. ; trials, 1806 ; Quatre- 

Bras, Waterloo, 1815 
Pierce ; United States, president, 

1853 
Pierola, N. de, Peru, 1876-82 
Pierre, adm. ; Madagascar, 1883 
Pierrepoint, Mr. ; United States, 1876 
Piers, abp. ; York, 1589 
Pigot, David Richard; exchequer, 

1846 
Pigot, Id. ; India, Pigot diamond, 

1802 
Pigot, major-gen. ; Malta, 1800 
Pigott, Mr. ; trials, 1871 
Pigott, R. ; Parnellites, 1889 
Pike, Miss ; Cork, trials, 1800 
Pilkington, bishop ; liturgy 
Pilpay ; Anvar, fables 
Pinchbeck, C. ; pinchbeck 
Pindar, abt., 522-439 B.C., Odes — 
Peter(Dr.Wolcot),i738-i8i9; trials, 
1807 
Pine, sir B. C. ; Natal, 1873 
Pinel, M. ; lunatics, 1792 
Pinto, Serpa; Zambesi, 1889 
Pinzon; America, S., 1500; Peru, 

1863 
Pisander naval battles, 394 b.c. 
Pisistrat Athens, 527 b.c 
Pitman, I. ; phonography, 1837 ; ste- 
nography 
Pitt ; diamond, 1720 
Pitt, Wm. ; see Chatham, earl of 
Pitt, Wm., 1759-1806; Pitt adm., 
1783; India company, E., reform, 
duels, 1798; income-tax 
Pius ; popes, 142 et seq. 
Pius IV. ; confession, 1504 
Pius VII. ; concordat, 1801 
Pius IX. 1792-1878 ; popes ; 1846-78 ; 

papal aggression, conception 
Pizarro; America, 1524 



INDEX. 

Blanche, J. R., 1796-1880; dress 
Plato, Gr. phil., 429-347 b.c ; acade- 
mics, anatomy, antipodes, names, 
Sicily 
Platts, John ; executions, 1847 
Plante, G., electric battery, i860 
Plautus, Lat., h. 184 b.c ; drama 
Playfair, Lyon ; Gladstone adm., 

1880 (baron, 1892) 
Plimpton ; rink, 1875 
Plimsoll, S.; parliament, seamen, 

1873 
Pliny the elder, 23-79 > pearls, Vesu- 
vius ; —the younger, d. 100 
Plowden, Mr. ; Abyssinia, 1849 
Plumer, sir Th. ; att.-gen., 1812 
Plummer, Eugenia ; trials, i860 
Plunket, lord ; chancellor, lord (Ire- 
land), 1830 
Plunket, D. R. ; Salisbury adm., 

1886 
Plutarch, fl. 80 ; biography 
Pocock, admiral ; Cuba, 1762 
Poerio, C. ; Naples, 1850-59-60 
Pogson, N. ; planets, 1856 
Poitevin, M. ; balloons, 1852-58 
Poitiers, Roger de ; Liverpool, 1089 
Pole, Wellesley; mint, trials, 1825 
Pole, abxx ; Canterbury, 1556 
Polignac, prince de ; France, 1830 
Polk, Jas. ; United States, president, 

1845 
Pollen, J. G. ; furniture, 1874 
Pollio, C. ; slavery, 42 b.c. 
Pollock, gen. G. ; Afghanistan, India, 

1842 ; tower 
Pollock, sir Frederick, 1783-1863 ; at- 
torney-general, exchequer, 1834- 

1844 
Polo, Marco, writes about 1298 
Polybius, 207-122 (?) b.c ; signals, 

telegraphs, Achaia, physic 
Polycarp martyred, 166 
Polydorus ; Laocoon 
Pomare ; Otaheite, 1799 
Pompey, killed 48 b.c; Rome, Spain, 

Pharsalia 
Pond, J. ; Greenwich, 1811 
Ponti, G. ; academies 
Pontius, C. ; Caudine forks, 321 B.C. 
Pook, E. ; trials, 1871 
Poole, bp. ; Japan, 1883 
Poole, A. ; auricular confession, 1858 
Poole, R. S. ; Egypt, expl. fund 
Pope, Alex., 1688-1744; Alexandrine 

verse, satire ; Homer, 1714 
Pope, gen. J. ; Manassas, United 

States, 1862 
Popham, sir Home ; Buenos Ayres, 

Cape, trials, 1807 
Popoff, adm. ; circular ironclads, 1875 
Popp, V., clocks, 1881 
Poppasa (wife of Nero) ; masks 
Porsenna ; labyrinth, 520 B.c 
Porson, prof, 1759-1808 ; writing 
Portal, Gerald ; Zanzibar 
Porter, sir Charles ; Limerick 
Porteus, bp. ; London, 1787 
Portland, duke of, Portland adm., 

1783 ; Ireland (lord - lieutenant), 

Junius 
Portman, sir Wm. ; king's bench, 

1554 
Portsmouth, earl of ; trials, 1823 
Porus, Hydaspes, 327 b.c. 
Posidonius, fl. 86 b.c ; atmosphere, 

moon, tides, air 
Potamon ; eclectics, about 1 
Potter, abp. ; Canterbury, 1737 
Potter, Edm. ; Manchester, 1883 
Pottinger, sir H. ; China, 1841 
Pouchet, M. ; spout, generation, 1859 
Pouillet, C. S. M., Fr. nat. phil., 

1791-1868 
Poussin, N. ; painters, 1594-1665 
Pouyer-Quertier ; France, 1871 
Powell, Langharne, and Poyer, colo- 
nels ; Wales, 1647 



Powell ; balloons, 1881-3 
Power, Mr. ; wrecks, 1841 
Power, Frank ; Soudan, 1884 
Powys, bishop ; Man, 1854 
Poyer, colonel ; Wales, 1647 
Poynter, E. J., R.A., b. 1836 
Prado, M. ; Peru, 1824-67 
Prado, murderer ; France, 1888 
Praslin murder, 1847 
Praxiteles, fl. 363 b.c ; mirrors 
Premislaus ; Poland, 1295 
Prendergast, gen. H. N. ; Burmah, 

1885 
Prescott, Wm., 1796-1859 
Preston, lord ; conspiracy, 1691 
Pretender, old, 1688-1765 ; young, 
1720-88 ; Pretender, Falkirk, Pres- 
tonpans, Culloden 
Preforms, Natal, 1838 ; Transvaal, 

1880 
Pretsch, P. ; photo-galvanography, 

'1854 
Prevost, sir George; Plattsburg, 1814 
Priam; Ilium, Troy, 1224 B.C. 
Price, Mr. ; duels, 1816 ; alchemy ; 

annuities 
Price, bp. ; B. Free church 
Price, adm. ; Petropaulovski, 1854 
Prichard, Dr., 1785-1848 ; ethnology 
Pride, col. ; Pride's purge, 1648 
Priessnitz, V. ; hydropathy, 1828 
Priestley, Joseph, 1733-1804 ; earth- 
quakes, eudiometer, lunar society, 
nitrous gas, oxygen, fluorine, colour 
blindness 
Prim, gen. Juan, 1814-70 ; Castel- 
le.ios, Guad-el-ras, i860 ; Spain, 
1S66-70 ; assassinations, 1870 
Prince, H. J. ; agapemone, 1845 
Prior, M., poet, 1 664-1 721 
Priscillian ; gnostics, 384 
Pritchard, Dr. E. W. ; trials, exe- 
cution, 1865 
Probert ; trials, 1824 
Pro bus ; Rome, emp. 276 ; massacre 
Procles ; biarch, 1102 B.C. 
Procopius ; Nacolea, 366 
Procopius, Lat. hist. 500-565 ; Hus- 
sites, 1431 
Procter, poets ; Bryan W. (Barry 
Cornwall), 1790-1874; Adelaide, 
daughter, 1835-64 
Propertius, Lat. poet, 26 b.c 
Proudhon, P., socialist, 1809-65 ; 

anarchy 
Prynne, W., legal antiquary, 1600-69 
Psalmanazar, G. ; Formosa, 1704 
Psammetichus, 650 B.C. ; Egypt, 

labyrinth, languages, sieges 
Pseusennes, 971 b.c ; Egypt 
Psycho ; automaton, 1875 
Ptolemy (astronomer), d. 161 
Ptolemy ; Egypt, Bible, Septuagint, 
Ipsus, pharos, arithmetic, acade- 
mies 
Ptolemy Epiphanes, 205 b.c; Egypt, 

Rosetta 
Puckering, sir John ; chancellor, lord 

high, 1592 
Pugin, A. W., 1811-52, decorat. art; 

E. W. ; trials, 1874 
Pullan, R. P., dilettanti, 1861-70; 

Priene 
Pullen, capt. ; Franklin, 1852 
Pullinger, G. ; banks, joint stock, 

i860 
Pulteney, Mr. ; Halifax adm., 1714 
Pulteney, sir James ; Ferrol, 1800 
Punshon, R. ; gunpowder, 1872 
Purcell, Henry; music, 1658-95 
Purehas, Sam. ; 1577-1628 
Purdon, col. ; Ashantees, 1826 
Purefoy; duels, 1788; trials, 1794 
Pusey, Dr. E., 1800-82; Puseyism ; 

Oxford univ. 
Pyat, F., France, 1880 
Pye, Henry J. ; poet-laureate, 1790 
Pye, J. ; engraver, d. 1874 



Pym, J. ; politician, d. 1643 
Pyrrho ; sceptics, 334 B.C. 
Pyrrhus ; Macedon,~287 B.C. ; Epirus, 
295-272 B.C. ; Tarentum, Asculuni, 

2 79 
Pythagoras, fl. 555 b.c. ; acoustics, 
astronomy, Copernicus, Egypt, the 
globe, harmonic strings, shoes, 
solar system, spheres 



Quaritck, B. ; books, 1S82 

Queen v. Lords of Treasury; trials, 

1872 
<Juekett, prof. ; histology, 1857 
Quentin, col. ; duels, 1815 ; trials, 

1814 
Quesnay, 6conomistes- 
Quevedo, Span, writer, 1580-1645 
Quinet, Edgar, Fr. philos., 1803-75 
Quintitia; Quintilians 
Quintiu; libertines, 525 
•Quinton, J. W. ; Manipur 
<Juintus Pabius, 291 B.C.; painting 
Quiros; New Hebrides, 1606 



B. 

Rabelais, F., satirist, 1483-1553 
Bachel, mademoiselle, d. 1858; — ma- 
dame; enamelling; trials, 1868, 1878 
Racine; J.; Fr. dramat., 1639-99 
Radeliffe, Dr. John ; Radclitfe library, 

1737 

Badetsky, marshal, 1766-1858; Aus- 
tria, Custozza, Novara, Italy 

Badetsky, gen., Busso-Turkish war 
II., 1878 

Badnor, earl of ; administrations, 1684 

Bae, Dr. ; Franklin, 1848 

Baffles, sir T. S. ; Java 

Baglan, lord; Busso-Turkish war, 

1857 
Ragotski ; Transylvania 
Raikes, Mr., 1781; Sunday-schools, 

education, infanticide 
Raikes, H. C. ; Salisbury adm., 1886 
Raleigh, sir "Walter, 1552-1618; dress, 
Pennsylvania, Trinidad, Virginia, 
England 
Ralston, W. C. ; California, 1875 
Rameses; Egypt, 1618 
Ramirez II.; Seinincas, 938 B.C. 
Ramsay, David; combat, 1631 
Ramsay, sir George; duels, 1790 
Ramsden, Jesse, 1735-1800; theodo- 
lite, 1787 
Ranee; trappist, 1662 
Randolph, T. ; post-office, 1581 
Randolph, bishop ; Bangor, London, 

1809 
Ranger, M. ; cotton (a speculator) ; 

1883 
Rankin, J., velocipedes, 1878 
Ransome ; Ransome, filterers, 

ploughs 
Raphael, 1483-1520; cartoons 
Raphael, Alex.; Roman catholics, 1834 
Rapieff, electric light, 1S78 
Rarey, J. S. ; horse, 1858 
Rassam, H. ; Abyssinia, 1864 ; 

Nineveh ; Brit. Mus. 
Rathbone, Win. ; Liverpool, 1S77 
Rattazzi, U., 1808-73; Italy, 1862 
Rauch, C. ; sculptor, 1777-1857 
Rauscher, card. ; Austria, d. 1875 
Ravaillae kills Henry IV., 1610 
Rawdon, lord; Camden, 1781 
Rawlinson, col. sir H, b. 1810; As- 
syria, Babylon, Behistiin, 1844 
Ray, John, naturalist, 1628-1705 
Ray, Peter ; volunteers (19th meet- 
ing), 1878 
Rayhere; Bartholomew's, 1100 



INDEX. 

Eayleigh, lords, 1879 

Raymond, lord; attorney - general, 

1725; king's bench 
Bayneckers, L. ; fuel 
Reade, Chas. ; Nov. 1814-84 
Reaumur, d. 1757; light, steel 
Reay, Miss, killed; trials, 1779 
Reay, lord; combat, 1631 
Reay, lord ; Bombay, 1884 ; London 

University 
Rebeccaites ; trials, 1843 
Redanies, D. ; execution, 1857 
Rede, sir E. ; Bede lecture 
Bedesdale, lord; att.-gen., 1800; 

parliament, 1886 
Bedpath, L. ; trials, 1857 
Bed wood, T. ; analysts, 1874 
Beece, B. ; bogs, 1849 ! congelation, 

1868 
Beed, Andrew, 1787-1862 ; orphan, 

idiots, incurables 
Beed, sir C. ; metropolitan school 

board, 1873-81 
Beed, sir E. J., navy, 1862-71 ; Chan- 
nel tunnel, 1890 
Beeves, Mr. John; levellers, 1792 
Begnier, gen. ; Kalitsch, Maida, 

Ximera, 181 1 
Regulus, 250 B.C.; Carthage 
Beich, F. , and Richter, T. ; indium, 

1863 
Beichardt, "Wacht 
Beiehenbach, C, 1788-1869; para- 

ffine, 1831; odyl 
Beichenstein; tellurium, 1782 
Reichstadt, duke de, 1811-32 , France 

(empire) 
Reid, gen.; India, 1857 
Reid, R. T. ; vivisection 
Reinbauer; trials, 1829 
Reinkens, Old Catholic bishop ; 

Prussia, 1873 
Reis, P. ; telephone, 1861 
Relly, Jas.; universalists, 1760 
Rembrandt, Paul; painter, 1608-69 
Bemigius de Feseamp ; Lincoln, 1086 
Remington, type-writers 
Bemusat, C. de; France, 1871-3 
Remy, St.; Rheims 
Renard, eapt. ; balloons, 1884 
Renata, Maria; witchcraft, 1749 
Renaudot, M. ; newspapers, 1631 
Rendel, J.; Holyhead, Portland 
Rennie, J. (1761-1S21), and sir J.; 

breakwater, 1812; Waterloo-bridge, 

London-bridge 
Bepton, Humphry, landscape gar- 
dener, 1752-1S18 
Beschid Pacha ; Turkey, 1853 
Reuchlin, J., reformer, d. 1522; Talmud 
Beuss; engraving 
Beuter, J. de; Persia, 1872 
Beville, Mrs., Slough 
Beynei'e, Richard; sheriff, 1189 
Beynolds, sir Joshua, 1723-92; royal 

academy, 1768 
Beynolds, abp. ; Canterbury, 1313 
Beynolds, capt. ; trials, 1840 
Beynolds, George; duels, 1788 
Beynolds, O. ; explosives 
Rhodes, Cecil ; Cape of Good Hope, 

1890 ; Zambesi 
Bhodes, R. G., audiphone 
Rhodes, W. B., free hospital, life-boat 
Biall, gen. ; Chippawa, 1814 
Bicard ; France, 1876 
Bicasoli, B., b. about 1803; Italy, 

1861-7 
Bice, Spring (lord Monteagle); ad- 
ministrations, 1834 
Bich, Richard, lord ; chancellor, lord, 

1547 

Richard I., England, 1189; Acre, 
Ascalon, Cceur de Lion, Dieu et 
111011 droit, laws, Oleron, naviga- 
tion laws 

Richard III., k. 1485; Bosworth 

Richard, H. ; AVales, 1888 



1125 

Bichards, Miss ; pedestrianism, 1874 
Richardson, B. W. ; hygeiopolis, 1876 
Richardson, sir John ; naturalist, 

1783-1865; Franklin 
Richardson, H. ; life-boat, 1852 
Richardson, Sam.; novels, 1689-1761 
Biehelieu, card., 1585-1642; France, 

1624 
Biehelieu, duke of ; Closterseven, 1757 
Richmond, duke of; Bockingham ad- 
ministration, 1782, &c. ; Ireland, 
duels : Derby and Disraeli admin- 
istrations ; Salisbury adm. 1885 
Richter, J. Paul, Ger. novel., 1763-1825 
Bidding, Geo., bp. ; Southwell 
Bidel, Stephen, 1189 ; chancellor, 

lord, Ireland 
Eider, William ; silk hose 
Bidgeway, C. de, abstinence 
Ridley, bp., burnt, 1555 
Ridsdale, Bev. C. J. ; public worship 

act, 1876 
Riego put to death ; Spain, 1823 
Biel, L. ; Hudson's bay ; Canada, Ad- 
denda 
Bienzi, N, m. 1354; tribune, Borne 
Bigg, rev. A., technical education 
Bigoni, M. ; canal boats 
Biguet, M.; tunnels 
Binuccuii, Oetavio, b. 1621 ; opera 
Ripon, earl of, 1782-1859; Goderich 
administration, 1827 ; — marquis 
of ; freemasonry ; Gladstone adm. 
1873, 1886, 1892 ; India, 1880 
Risakoif, Russia, 1881 
Risk Allah; trials, 1868 
Ristieh, Servia, 1880 
Ritchie, D. T. ; Salisbury adm., 

1886 ; local government 
Ritson, Joseph, critic, 1752-1803 
Bitter, Karl, geographer, 1779-1859 
Bitter, J. W., electricity, 1812 
Rivers, earl, m. 1483 ; Pomfret 
Rivers, Mr., Egypt, 1879 
Riviere, R. T. ; Tonquin, 1S83 
Rizzio, David, m. 1566 ; Scotland, 

France, Naples 
Robert, duke of Normandy ; Tiuche- 

bray, 1106; Scotland, 1306 
Robert II. ; pilgrimages, 1060 
Roberts, D., R.A., 1796-1864 
Roberts, J. J., Liberia 
Roberts, sir F., Afghanistan, 1878-80; 

Burmah 1886 ; Mazra 
Bobertson, capt.; trials, 1862 
Robertson, J. P. B. ; Scotland, 1889 
Robertson, T. W., dramatist, 1829-71 
Robertson, Dr. Win., hist., 1721-93 
Bobertson, W., trials, 1878 
Robespierre, F. M. ; reign of terror, 

France, 1793-4 
Robin Hood; robbers, archery, 1189 
Robinson; see Perdita 
Robinson, F. ; Goderich, note 
Bobinson, H. G. E., New Zealand, 

1878 ; Cape, 1880 
Robinson, James ; ether, 1848 
Bobinson, B., 1735-90; independents 
Bobinson, sir Thomas ; Newcastle 

administration, 1754 
Bobinson of York, murdered ; trials, 

1S53 
Bobinson, sir W. C. F.; Straits, 1877 
Eobiquet and Colin ; alizarine, 1831 
Robson, W.; trials, 1856 
Rochambeau; Yorktown, 1781 
Rochebouet, gen. ; Fiance, 1877 
Boehefort, H. ; France, 1870-81 ; 

Tunis, 1881 
Rochefoucauld, F. Do la, phil. 1630-80 
Rochester, earl of; administrations, 

1679 
Rochfort, A. H. ; cryptograph y, 1836 
Bock, Dan., 1779-1871; mass 
Bockingham, niarq. of; Bockingham 

administrations, 1765 
Roderick ; Spain, 709 ; Wales, 843 
Rodney, G.; Eustatia, 781 



1126 

Rodolph of Hapsbnrg ; Austria, 1278 
Rodolph of Nuremberg; wire, 1410; 

of Suabia, k. Fladenlieim, 1080 
Roe, Henry ; Dublin, 1878 

Boebling, Mr. & Mrs. ; New York, 

1883 
Roebuck, J.; duel, 1835; Sebastopol 

Rcemer, light, 1676 

Roger; Sicily, Naples, 1130 

Rogers and others ; trials, 1882 

Rogers, John, burnt, 1555 

Rogers, Sam., poet, 1763-1855 

Rogers, Messrs. ; gas lights 

Rogers, J. E. T. ; wages 

Roget, P. M., M.D., philologist, 1799- 
1869 

Roggewein, circumnavigator; Easter 
Island, 1722 

Rogier, Charles, d. 1885 ; Belgium, 
1857 

Rohan, card. ; diamond necklace, 
1786 

Roliin, Chas., Fr. hist., 1661-1741 

Rolt, sir J.; att.-gen., 1866; justice 
of appeal, 1867 

Romain, M. ; balloons, h. 1785 

Romilly, sir Samuel; criminal law, 
suicide, 18 18 

Romilly, sir J., aft. Id.; 1802-74; 
solicitor-gen., master of the rolls, 
1851 

Romney, Geo.; painter, 1734-1S02 

Romulus; Rome, 753 B.C.; calendar, 
Alba, arusjjices 

Romulus Augustulns; western em- 
pire, 475 

Ronalds, F, 1788-1873; electric tele- 
graph, 1823 

Ronge, J.; kinder-garten, 1851 

Rooke, sir George; Gibraltar, 1704; 
snuff, Alderney, Cadiz, Cape la 
Hogue, Cape St. Vincent, Vigo 

Roper, colonel; duels, 1788 

Rosa, Carl; opera, 1889 

Rosas; Buenos Ayres, 1852 

Roscoe, sir H. E., indigo ; technical 
education 

Roscoe, W., hist., 1753-1831 

Kose, German chem., Gustav, 1798- 
1873 ; Heinrich, 1795-1864 

Rose, sir Hugh; India, Calpee,i858 

Rosebery, earl of; Gladstone adm., 
1880, 1886, 1892 

Roseberry, countess of; trials, 1814 

Rosencrans, gen.; United S., 1862 

Ross, sir J.; Franklin, north-west 
passage, 1848 

Ross, colonel; duelling, 1817 ; British 
museum, 1876 

Ross, gen.; Baltimore, Washington, 
1814 

Rossa, O'Donovan ; Fenians, 1868-83 

Rosse, earl of, 1800-67; telescopes, 
1828 ; Royal Society, 1848 

Rossel, France, 1871 

Rosser, Mr. and Miss Darbon ; trials, 
1841 

Rossi, count, Rome, 1848; assassina- 
tions 

Rossini, G., mus. comp., 1792-1868 

Rostopchin; Moscow, 1812 

Rothery, H. C, Tay-bridge 

Rothsay; duke, Scotland, 1401 

Rothschild, Anselm (the first), d, 
1812 ; Rothschild, Evelina hosp. 

Rothschild; Jews, 1849; deaf and 
dumb, 1872 

Roubiliac; sculptor, 1695-1762 

Rouher, E., 1814-84 ; France, 1863-81 

Roupell, W., M.P.; trials, 1862 

Rous, F. ; psalms 

Rousseau, J. J., Fr. phil., 1712-1778 

Roustan, M., Tunis, 1881 

Routledge v. Lowe; copyright, 1868 

Rouvier, M. ; France, 1887 

Rowan, A. H. ; trials, 1794, 1805 

Rowe, Nicholas, 1673-1718 ; poet- 
laureate, d. 1715 



INDEX. 

Rowlandson, Thos., caricaturist, 1756- 

1827 
Rowley, admiral J.; Bourbon, 1810 
Rowsell, C. J. ;- graphoscope 
Roxana; Macedon, 311 B.C. 
Roxburgh, duke of, 1812 ; Boccaccio 
Rozier, M. ; balloons, 1783 
Rubens, P. P.; painter, 1577-1640 
Rubery v. Grant ; trial, 1875 
Ruchdi Pasha ; Turkey, 1866-71 et 

seq. 
Rudbeck, 01. ; thoracic duct 
Rudini, marquis, di ; Italy, 1891 
Rudolph; Austria, Germany 
Ruhmkorff, induction coil, 1851 
Rumford, Benjamin Thompson, 

count, 1752-1814 ; Royal Institu- 
tion 
Runge, cafeine (eng. caffeine) 
Runjeet Singh; Afghanistan, 1818; 

diamonds 
Rupert, prince, 1619-82; engraving, 

Birmingham, Edgehill, Marston- 

moor, Naseby, Newark 
Ruric ; Russia, 862 ; Varangians 
Rush, Bloomfield, murderer; trials, 

1849 
Rushworth, E. E. ; Jamaica, 1877 
Ruskin, John, art critic, b. 1819 ; 

Sheffield 
Russell, C. : suicide, 1856 
Russell, colonel ; guards, 1660 
Russell, adm. Edw. ; La Hogue, 

1692 
Russell, J. Scott, engineer, 1808-82; 

fires, steam-nav., Vienna, wave 
Russell, earl, case ; trials, 1891 
Russell, lord John, aft. earl, 1792- 

1878 ; Russell administration, note, 

Aberdeen ; Germany, 1874 ; papal 

aggression ; reform 
Russell, Odo, Id. Ampthill ; Ger- 
many, 1871-84 
Russell, sir C., att.-gen., 1886; 

Parnellites, 1888. 
Russell, lord W., trials, 1840 
Russell, bp. W. A. ; China, 1872 
Russell, W. H. ; Times, 1854, 1857, 

1861 
Rutherford, J. ; lectures 
Ruth ven, Mr. ; duels, 1836 
Rutland, duke of; Ireland (lord 

lieutenant), 1784 ; see Manners 
Ruyter, see De kuyier 
Ryder, bp. ; Gloucester, 1815 
Ryder, sir Dudley, king's bench, 

1754 
Rye, Miss ; emigration 
Rymer- Jones, A. M., temnograpli 
Ryves, Mrs. ; trials, 1866 



S. 



Sabatta, Levi, 1666 

Sabine, gen. sir Edw., 1788-1883 ; 

Royal Society, 1861 ; magnetism 
Sacheverel, Br. ; high church, 1709 
Sackville, lord George ; Minden, 1759 
Sadleir, J.; suicide, 1856; — Dr., 

1858 
Sadler, Mr. ; balloons, 1812 
Sadler, Mr. ; Sadler's Wells, 1863 
Sadler, sir Ralph; administrations, 

iS4° 
Sadyk ; Turkey, 1S78 
Safford, Mr. ; planets, 1862 
Safvet Pasha ; Turkey, 1877-8 
Sagarelli ; Apostolici, 300 
Sagasta, Spain, 1871-89 
Saget, gen. ; Hay ti, 1870 
St. Amaud, marshal ; Russo-Turkish 

war, Alma, 1854 
St. Charo ; concordance, 1247 
St. Clair, Bella ; pedestrianism, 1S76 
St. Cyr, marshal ; Dresden, 1813 
St. George, Mr. ; trials, 1798 



St. John, John de ; treasurer, 121 7 

St. John Long ; quack, 1830 

St. John, Henry, aft. lord Boling- 

broke ; Oxford adm., 171 1 
St. John, O. ; benevolences, 1615 
St. John, William; chancellor, lord 

high, 1547 
St. Leonards, lord, 1781-1875 ; chan- 
cellor, lord high, 1852 
St. Mars, M. de ; iron mask 
St. Ruth, general ; Aughrim, 1691 
St. Vincent, earl ; admiralty, 1801 ; 

Cape St. Vincent 
Sakya Muni, Buddhism 
Saladin, sultan, 1136-1193; Ascalon, 

Damascus, Egypt, Syria, Aleppo 
Salar Jung, Hyderabad 
Sale, lady ; Cabul, India, 1842 
Sale, sir Robert ; Moodkee, 1845 
Salgar, E., Colombia, 1871 
Salisbury, bishop of; assay 
Salisbury, countess of; garter 
Salisbury, Robert, earl of; adminis- 
trations, 1603 
Salisbury, earl of, 1604; coronets, 

Orleans 
Salisbury, Robert A. T. G. Cecil, 
marquis of; b. 1830; Derby ad- 
ministrations, 1852, 1858 ; Disraeli 
administration, 1874 ; Turkey, 
1877; Berlin conference ; conserva- 
tives, 1881 ; Salisbury adm., 1885, 
1886; Zambesi, 1889 
Salkeld ; Delhi, 1857 
Sallo, Denis de ; critics, reviews, 

1655 
Sallust, Lat. hist., d. 34 B.C. ; Mauri- 
tania, Catiline 
Salmasius ; anthology, 1606 
Salmeron ; Spain, 1873 
Salnave, gen. ; Hayti, 1865-70 
Salomons, D. ; Jews, 1835 ; mayor 
Salt, Titus; 1803-76; alpaca, 1852, 

Bradford 
Salvator Rosa ; painter, 1615-1673 
Salviati, Dr. ; mosaic, 1861 
Salvino degli Armato ; spectacles 
Salvius Julianus ; edicts, 132 
Sampson, II. ; advertisements, 1874 
Samuel rules Israel, 1140 b.c. 
Samuelson, sir B. ; technical educa- 
tion 
Sanballat ; Samaritan, 332 B.C. 
Sancho, king ; Portugal, Spain, 970 
Sancroft, abp., Canterbury, 1678; 

bishops, England 
Sandeman, col. sir R. G. ; Beloo- 

chistan 
Sandeman, R. ; Glasites 
Sanderson, Dr. J. B. ; Brown Institute 
Sanders, will-forger ; trials, 1844 
Sandilli ; Kaffraria, 1877-8 
Sandon, lord ; Disraeli admin., 1874, 
1878 ; elemen. education, 1876 ; see 
Harrowby 
Sandwich, earl of; administrations, 
1660 ; naval battles, Soiebay, Aix- 
la-Chapelle 
Sandys ; administrations, 1742, 1767 
Sandys, Edwin, abp. ; York, 1577 
Santa Anna ; Mexico, 1853-76 
Sapor ; Persia, 240 
Sappho writes 611 B.C. ; Sapphic 
Sardanapalus ; Assyria, 876 B.C. 
Sarmiento, col. D., Argentine confed., 

1868 
Sarpi, Paul, 1552-1623; thermome- 
ter, blood 
Sassoon, sir A., Bombay, 1879 
Sassulitch, V. ; Russia, 1878 
Saul, Jews, 1096 b.c. ; Ammonites 
Saumarez, sir James ; Algesiras, 1801 
Saunders ; trials, 1853 
Saunders, coin. ; Franklin, 1849 
Saunders, sir Charles ; Chatham 

administration, 1766 
Saussure, 1740-1799 ; hygrometer 
Saurip. v. Star; trials, 1S69 



Savage, John ; Babyngton's con- 
spiracy, 1586 
Savage, abp. ; York, 1501 
Savage, Kieh., poet, 1698?- 1743 
Savage, W. ; i>rinting in colours, 

1819-22 
Savary, trials, 1825 
Savary, capt. ; steam-engine, 1698 
Savas Pasha, Turkey, 1880-1 
Savonarola, Jerome"; burnt, 1498 
Saward, J. ; trials, 1857 
Sawtre, sir William; burning alive, 

1401 ; Lollards 
Sawyer ; arithmetic, 1878 
Saxe, count ; Fontenoy, 1745 ; Laf- 

feldt, 1747 
Say, Leon ; France, 1873-7 
Say, T. ; Colorado beetle 
Sayce, A. H. ; Accadians Assyria, 

1875 ; Babylonia 
Saye and Sele, lord ; administrations, 

1660 
Saye, lord, beheaded, 1450 ; Cade 
Sayers, T. ; boxing, i860 
Scanderbeg ; Albania, 1443 
Scanlan, Mr. ; trials, 1820 
Scarlatti, D. ; spinet 
Schamyl; Circassia, 1859 
Scheele, 1742-86; nitrogen, oxygen, 

prussic acid, tartaric acid, pho- 
tography, glycerine, chlorine 
Scheffer, Ary ; painter, 1795-1858 
Scheibler M. ; tonometer, 1834 
Scheiner, Chr. ; heliometer, 1625 
Schenck, gen. ; United States, 1870, 

1876 
Scheutz ; calculating machine, 1857 
Schiaparelli ; planets, 1861 ; comets, 

1866 
Schiff, Dr. ; vivisection 
Schilders, general ; Silistria, 1854 
Schiller, F., Ger. poet, 1 759-1 Sos 
Schimmelpenninck ; Holland, 1805 
Schlegel, W., German writer, 1767- 

1845 ; — F., 1772-1829 
Schleyer ; volapuk 
Schlickmann, gen. ; Transvaal, 1876 
Schliemann, Dr., 1822-90; Myceuse, 

Troy, 1872 
Schmidt ; organs, 1682 ; moon, 1874 ; 

— shot, Spain, 1874 
Sehceffer, Peter ; printing, 1452 
Schonbein, M. ; 1797-1868 ;gun cotton, 

1840 ; ozone, 1846 
Schomberg, capt. ; naval battles, 

1811 
Schomberg, duke of ; Boyne, Ireland, 

Londonderry, Carrickfergus, 1689 
Schomburgk, sir R. ; Victoria regia, 

1838 
Schopenhauer, A., pessimism 
Schreiber, Lady ; fans 
Schroter ; pianoforte, 1717 
Sehrotter ; phosphorus, 1845 
Schouten ; Cape Horn, 1616 
Schouvaloff, count, Russia, 1879 
Schubert, F. P. ; Ger. mus., 1797- 

1828 
Schumann, Robert ; Ger. mus., 1810- 

56 
Schwabe, sun 

Schwann ; cell theory, 1839 
Schwartz, C, missionary, a. 1798 
Schwartz, M. ; gunpowder, 1320 
Schwartzenberg, prince of ; Dresden, 

1813 
Schwatka, lieut., Franklin search, 

1879-81 
Schwerin, marshal ; Prague, 1757 
Scialoia, A. ; Naples. 1877 
Seipio Africanus : honour, Numantia, 

Rome, Zama, 202 B.C. 
Scindiah, Gwalior 
Scobelefif, gen. ; Russo - Turkish 

war, 1878 ; Russia, 1882 
Scott, sir G. Gilbert ; architect, 1811- 

1878 ; Alban's; Asaph's ; midland 
Scott, R. H. ; meteorology, 1865 



INDEX. 

Scott, gen. Winfleld, 1786-1866 ; 
Mexico, 1847 ; United States, 
1861-2 
Scott ; duelling, 1821, 1836 
Scott, Walter, 1771-1832 ; Waverley 
Scott, Dred ; United States, 1857 
Scott, Miss C. A., Girton college 
Scribe, E., dramatist, d. 1861 (at. 80) 
Scudamore, lord ; apples 
Seabury, Samuel ; bishoprics, 1784 
Seaforth, earl of ; thistle, 1687 
Seal, J. ; trials 1858 
Searle ; planets, 1858 
Sebacon; Egypt, 737 b.c. 
Sebastiani, marshal; Talavera, 1809 
Sebert ; Westminster Abbey 
Sebright marriage ; trials, 1886 
Secchi, Padre, A., nat. phil., 1818-78 
Seeker, abp. ; Canterbury, 1758 
Secocoeni ; Transvaal, 1876-82 
Sedgwick, Adam, d. 1873, geology 
Sefton v. Hopwood ; trials, 1855 
Sejanus, d. 31 

Selborne, chancellor, Id. (aft. earl), 
1872-4, appeal ; Gladstone adm., 
1880 
Selden, J., 1584-1654 ; seas, poet- 
laureate 
Seleucus Nicator; Seleucides, Syria, 

omens, Ipsus, 311 B.C. 
Selim ; Turkey, Syria, 1512 
Selkirk, Alexander ; Juan Fernandez, 

1705 
Sellis, the valet ; suicide, 1810 
Selmer, M. ; Norway, 1 881-4 
Selwyn, sir C. J., justice, Id., 1868 
Semiramis ; Assyria, eunuchs, 2007 

B.C. 

Semmes, capt., Alabama, 1862 

Semple ; trials, 1795, 1862 

Sen, Baboo, deism, 1869 

Senaputti ; Manipur 

Seneca, put to death, 65 ; Cordova 

Sennacherib; Assyria, 710 B.C. 

Sennef elder ; lithography, 1796 

Sergius ; popes, nativity, 690 ; puri- 
fication, Koran 

Serrano, marquis de, and duke de la 
Torre. Spain, 1868-75,1882; Alcolea, 
1868 ' 

Serrin ; electric lamp 

Serturner, morphia, 1803 

Servetus, Michael, burnt, 1553 ; 
Unitarians, Arians, blood 

Servius Tullius ; coins, census, 566 

B.C. 

Sesostris ; Egypt, 1618 B.C. 

Setalla ; burning glasses 

Severus ; Rome ; emp. 193 ; Britain, 

Roman walls, Memphis, 202 
Sextus Pompeius ; Mylse, 36 b. c. 
Seymour, sir Edw. ; speaker, 1678 
Seymour, sir M. ; China, 1856 
Seymour v. Butterworth ; trials, 

1862 
Seymour, Edward, duke of Somerset ; 

administrations, 1547 ; protectors, 

admiralty 
Seymour, lord ; duels, 1835 
Seymour, lady ; tournament, 1839 
Seymour, adm. sir H. (aft. lord Al- 

cester), Egypt, 1882 
Sforza, cardinal ; Naples, 1877 
Shadwell, Thomas ; poet-laureate, d. 

1692 
Shaftesbury, earl of; administrations, 

1672; (1801-1885) Chichester; cos- 

termongers, Shaftesbury estate 
Shakspeare, W., 1564-1616; Shak- 

speare, drama, mulberry-tree 
Shalinaneser; Assyria, 730 b.c. 
Shapira, M. ; bible, note 
Sharp, A.; circle (squared), 1717 
Sharp, archbp. ; Scotland, 1679 
Sharp, Granville; slavery, 1772 
Shaw, rev. Mr. ; Madagascar, 1883 
Shaw, sir James ; mayor, 1805 
Shaw, sir John ; Greenock 



1127 

Shaw, capt. ; fire brigade 

Shaw, W., home-rule, 1879 

Sheares, the Messrs.; trials, 1798 

Shedden v. Patrick; trials, i860 

Sheepshanks, R.; astronomy, stand- 
ard, 1855; Sheepshanks' donations, 
1857-8 

Sheil, R. L. ; mint, 1846 

Shelburne, earl of ; Shelburne ad- 
ministration, 1782; duel, 1780 

Sheldon, abp. ; Canterbury, 1663 

Sheldon, William ; tapestry 

Shelley, Percy B., poet, 1792-1822 

Shepherd v. Bennett ; trials, 1870 

Sheppard, Jack; execution, 1724 

Shepstone, sir T. ; Transvaal, 1876-7 

Shere Ali, Afghanistan, 1863, 1879; 
Candahar 

Shere Ali, kills Id. Mayo, 1872 ; An- 
daman, India 

Sheridan, gen. ; United States, 1833, 
1885, d. 1888 

Sheridan, Richard Brinsley, 1751- 
1816 ; Grenville administration, 
comedy, theatres 

Sheridan, Dr. ; trials, 1811 

Sherman, gen. Wm. T. ; d. 1891 ; 
United States, 1861 

Sherward, Wm. ; Norwich, 1869 

Shield, Mr. ; oil oil waters 

Shillibeer, G., 1807-66; omnibuses, 
1829 

Shipley ; arts, soc. of, 1754 

Shirley, bishop ; Man, 1846 

Short, bishop ; Man, St. Asaph, 
1841 

Shovel, sir Cloudesley; Stilly, 1707 

Shrapnel, bombs 

Shrewsbury peerage cases ; trials, 
1858, 1859 

Shrewsbury, duke of; administra- 
tions, 1714 

Shrewsbury, earl of ; Patay, 1429 ; 
Castillon, 1453 

Shuttleworth, sir U. K. ; Gladstone 
adm., 1886 

Sibour, abp. ; France, 1857 

Sicard, abbe ; deaf and dumb, 1742 

Siddons, Sarah, actress; retired, 
1819 

Sidmouth, Henry Addington, vis- 
count, d. 1844 ; Addington adm., 
1800 ; green bag, speaker 

Sidney, sir P., 1554-86; Algernon, 
1617-83 ; Rye house plot 

Siemens, sir C. Wm., 1822-83 > heat, 
pyrometer, 1871; Albert medal, 
1874; attraction, bathometer, elec- 
tric telegraph, heat, light, light- 
houses, 1878 

Siemens, F. ; glass, 1885 

Siemens, Werner, electricity, electric 
railway, 1881 

Sieyes, abbe ; directory, France, 1799 

Sigismond ; German}', Bohemia, 

■ Hungary.Nicopolis, Poland, Prussia 

Silius, Italicus, poet, about 25-99 

Sillim, Mr. ; trials, 1863 

Simeon the Stylite ; abstinence 

Simmonds ; flying, 1875 ; balloons, 
1883 

Simmons ; trials, 1808 

Simmons, sir J. L. ; Malta, 1884 

Simnel, Lambert; conspiracies, re- 
bellion, i486 ; Stoke 

Simon Magus ; Simonians, 41 

Simon, J. ; France, 1876-7 

Simonides ; letters, mnemonics, 477 

B.C. 

Simplicius, St. ; collar of SS. , 1407 
Simpson, Dr. ; chloroform, 1848 
Simpson, traveller ; suicide, 1840 
Sims, G. R. ; London, 1883 
Sindercomb ; conspiracy, 1756 
Singh, Runjoor ; Aliwai, 1846 
Sismondi, C, hist., 1773, 1842 
Sisyphus; Corinth, 1326 B.C. 
Sixtus : popes. 



1128 



INDEX. 



Sixtus V., pope ; interdict, 1588 
Skene, J. H. ; Hittites 
Skipwith, Mr. ; trials, 1872 
Skobeleff, gen., Russia, 1880, Senova 
Skrzyneeki, gen. ; Praga, Wawz, 1S31 
Slade, Dr. ; spiritualism, 1876-7 
Slade, P., Slade 

Slater ; forgery case ; trials, 1888 
Slidell, Mr. ; United States, 1861 
Sligo, marquis of; trials, 181 2 
Sloane, sir Hans, 1660-1752 ; apothe- 
cary, Jesuits' bark, British Mu- 
seum, Chelsea 
Sloanes ; trials, 1851 
Smart, A. ; suicide, 1856 
Smart, sir G. T., mus., 1776-1867 
Smart ; chimneys, 1805 
Smeaton, Mr. ; Eddystone, canal, 

1 759 
Smeaton, sir John ; Wigan, 1643 
Smethurst, T. ; trials, 1859 
Smee, trials, 1879 
Smirke, B. ; 1780-1867; post-office, 

1825 
Smirke, S. ; Bethlehem, British Mu- 
seum, d. 1877 
Smith, Adam, 1723-90 ; political 

economy, 1776 
Smith, Mr. Beaumont ; exchequer, 

trials, 1841 
Smith, Benjamin Leigh ; north- west 

passage, 1871-82 
Smith, capt. ; duel, trials, 1830 
Smith, sir C. Euan ; Zanzibar, Mo- 
rocco 
Smith, P. P. ; screw propeller, 

1836 
Smith, Geo. ; Assyria, 1866-75 ; Brit. 
Museum, 1873 ; forks ; Nineveh ; 
Hittites; d. 1876 
Smith, col. Holled ; Soudan, 1891 
Smith, sir J. E. ; botanist, 1759-1828 ; 
his widow, Pleasance, longevity, 
1877 
Smith, prof. W. Robertson, free 

church of Scotland 
Smith, J. ; bribery, trials. 1854 
Smith, Joseph ; savings bank 
Smith, Joseph ; Mormonites, 1823 
Smith, Madeleine ; trials, 1857 
Smith, Miss v. earl Ferrers ; trials, 

1846 
Smith, Dr. R. Angus; chemist, 1817- 

84 ; air, 1858 
Smith, Dr. Southwood, 1790-1861 ; 

sanitary legislation, 1832 
Smith, sir Sidney ; Acre, 1799 
Smith, rev. Sydney, 1769-1845 
Smith, rev. S. ; trials, 1858 
Smith, Sam. Sidney ; trials, 1843 
Smith, sir C. Eardley; evangelical 

alliance, 1845 
Smith, sir Harry; India, Aliwal, 

KafTraria, 1850 
Smith, Mr. Thomas ; customs 
Smith, Thomas ; lord mayor, 1809 
Smith, Win. ; geology, d. 1840 
Smith, W. H., 1825-91 ; admiralty, 

1877 ! Salisbury adm. 1885, 1886 
Smith v. earl Brownlow ; trials, 1869 
Smith, and Markham, captains; duels, 

trials, 1830 
Smithson, J. ; Smithsonian Institu- 
tion, 1846 
Smollett, Tobias, novelist, 1721-71 
Smyth (will case) ; trials, 1855 
Smyth, W. H, astron., 1788-1865 
Snellius ; optics, 1624 
Snider, Jacob, d. 1866 ; fire-arms 
Snorri, Sturleson ; Iceland, killed, 

1241 
Snow, Dr. ; amylene, 1856 
Soames ; cocoa-nut tree oil, 1829 
Soane, sir J., architect, 1753-1S37 
Sobieski, John ; Poland, Cossacks, 

Hungary, Vienna 
Snbolelf, gen., Bulgaria, 1883 
Sobrero, nitro-glycerinc, 1847 



Socinus, Lselius (d. 1562), and Faus- 
tus (d. 1604) ; anti-trinitarians, 
arians, unitarians 

Socrates, 468-399 B.C. ; Athens, philo- 
sophy 

Soleil, saccharimeter 

Solomon ; Jerusalem, 1004 b. c. 

Solon ; Athens, 594 B.C. ; laws, tax 

Solovieff, A., Russia, 1879 

Solyman ; Turkey, Belgrade, Vienna, 

1529 
Solyman II. ;_ Hungary, Buda, Mo- 

hatz, 1526 
Somers, lord ; administrations, 1690 ; 

corn 
Somers, sir George ; Bermudas, 1609 
Somerset the black declared free, 

1772 ; slavery in England 
Somerset, see Seymour; admiralty, 

1859 
Somerville, Mary, mathemat., <fcc. 

1780-1872 
Sonzogno, R. ; murdered, Rome, 1875 
Sophia, princess ; Hanover, 1659 
Sophia Dorothea, d. 1796 ; England 

(queens, Geo. I.) 
Sophocles, 495-405 b.c. ; tragedy, 

drama 
Sorel, Agnes ; jewellery, 1434 
Soro, Zuan ; cipher, 1516 
Sostratus ; pharos, 280 B.C. 
Soto, Ferdinand de ; Louisiana, 1541 
Soult, marshal, 1769-1851 ; Albuera, 

Oporto, Orthes, Pyrenees, Tarbes, 

Toulouse, Villa Franca, Douro 
Southey, Rob., 1774-1843 ; poet-lau- 
reate 
Southwell, W. ; piano, 1S07 
Soyer, A. (cook), d. 1858 
Spalding, Mr. ; diving-bell, 1783 
Sparks, George ; trials, 1853 
Speilman, sir John ; paper-making, 

Dartford, 1590 
Speke, capt., 1827-64 ; Africa, 1863-4; 

— B. ; London, 1868 
Spencer, D.; Coventry, 1883 
Spencer, earl; Grenville adm., 1806; 

Roxburghe club ; Gladstone adm., 

1868, 1880, 1886, 1892; Ireland, 

1868-73, 1882 
Spencer, Mr. ; electrotype, 1837 
Spener, Phil. J. ; theol'og. 1635-1705; 

pietists 
Spenser, E., 1553-98; allegory, 

faery queen, poet-laureate, verse 
Spert, sir Thos. ; Trinity-house, 1512 
Spina, Alexander de ; spectacles, 

1285 
Spinass, J. ; trials, 1870 
Spinoza, B. de, 1632-77 ; atheism 
Spohr, L., mus. comp., 1 783-1859 
Spollen, Jas. ; trials, 1857 
Spottiswoode, Win. 1825-83 ; optics, 

1871, British association, 1878, 

Royal institution, 1865, 1873 ; 

Royal society, 1878 
Sprengel, Dr. ; air-pump, note 
Sprigg, J. G. ; Cape, 1878 
Spurgeon, C. H., 1834-92; baptists, 

Surrey gardens, crystal palace, 

tabernacle 
Spurzheim, J. G. ; craniology, 1800 
Stackpole, capt. ; duel, 1814 
Staekpoles, trials ; 1853 
Stael, mad. de, novelist, d. 1817 
Stafford, abp. ; Canterbury, 1443 
Stafford, lord ; popish plot, 16S0 
Stafford, marquis of, d. 1803 ; Blooms- 
bury 
Stahl, G. E. ; chemist, 1660-1723 ; 

phlogiston 
Staines, sir William ; lord mayor, 1800 
Stair, earl of; Glencoe, 1692 ; Det- 

tingeu, 1743 
Staite ; electric light, 1848 
Stalker, gen. ; Bushire, suicide, 1857 
Stambouloff ; Bulgaria, 18S6 
Stanberry, John ; Eton, 1448 



Standen, T. ; pedestrianism, 181 1 
Stanhope, earl; Halifax adm., 1714 
Stanhope, Charles, earl, 1753-1S16 ; 
printing-press ; Philip Henry, earl 
(formerly lord Mahon, historian), 
1805-75 ; antiquaries 
Stanhope, col. ; trials, 1816 
Stanhope, hon. col. ; suicide, 1825 
Stanhope, lieut.-gen. ; Minorca, 1708 
Stanhope, Edward ; Salisbury adm. 

1885-6 
Stanislaus ; Poland, 1704 
Stanley, dean A. P., 1815-81 ; Sun- 
day, 1877 
Stanley, colonel F. A. ; Disraeli, 2nd 
adm., 1878 ; Salisbury adm., 1885, 
1886, (Id. Stanley of Preston) 
Canada, gov. -gen., 1888 
Stanley, bishop, Norwich, 1837 
Stanley, H. M. ; b. 1841 ; Africa, 
1872-82 ; Congo ; Soudan, 18&7 ; 
Nile 
Stanley, sir John ; Man, 1406 
Stanley, sir W. ; chamberlain; Bos- 
worth, 1485 
Stanley, lord ; see Derby 
Stanley, lord, of Alderley, b. 1802 ; 

Aberdeen, Palmerston adm. 
Stanley, Edw., lord, b. 1826 ; Derby, 
1866 ; Disraeli adm. 1868, see 
Derby 
Stansfield, James ; Gladstone adm. , 

1886 
Stanton, Mr. ; velocipede, 1874 
Stapleton, J. ; trials, 1858 
Stapleton, Walter, bp. ; Exeter, 1319 
Stark ; electric telegraph, 1858 
Statius, Lat. poet, fl. 79 
Staunton, L. & P., etc. ; trials, 1S77 
Staunton, Mr. ; China, 1840 
Stead, W. T. ; trials, 1885 
Stearns ; electric telegraph 
Steele, sir R., 1671-1729 ; Tatler, 

Spectator, clubs, Kit-Cat club 
Steele, Mr. ; murdered, trials, 1807 
Steell, sir J. ; Scotland, 1S76 
Steenchel, Magnus ; Sweden, 1314 
Stein, Germany, 1819 
Steinmetz ; chess, 1873, 1883 
Stenhouse, J. ; dyes, charcoal, 1853 
Stephen ; popes, England, Hungary, 

997 ; Poland 
Stephen, Leslie ; biography 
Stephens, G. ; Runes 
Stephens, Miss ; theatres, Covent- 

garden, 1813-1882 
Stephens, rev. Mr. ; trials, 1839 
Stephens, Robert ; Bible, 1551 
Stephenson, George, 1781-1848 ; rail- 
ways, Chatmoss ; steam, 1814 ; New- 
castle, 1881 
Stephenson, Robert, 1803-59 ; tubular 

bridges 
Stepniak ; Russia, 1884 
Sterne, Laurence, humorist, 1713-68 
Sternhold, T. , d. 1549; Psalms 
Stesichorus ; choruses, 556 B.C. 
Stevens, A. ; Wellington (monument), 

1858 
Stevenson, Messrs.; Grautou 
Stewart, col. ; Trincomalee, 1795 
Stewart, gen. ; Madras, 1783 
Stewart, sir D., Afghanistan, 1880 
Stewart, capt. ; Franklin, 1850 
Stewart, col.; Soudan, 1882 
Stewart, gen. II.; Soudan, 1S84-5 
Stewart, Dugald, phi!., 1753-1828 
Stewart, Duncan ; Ca;sarean 
Stewarts ; trials, 1829 
Stifelius ; algebra, 1544 
Stigand, abp. ; Canterbury, 1052 
Stillingfleet, B. ; blue-stocking 
Stirling, W. ; Glasgow, 1791 
Stirling, capt. "Atalanta" 
Stock, Thos. ; Sunday-schools 
Stockdale; trials, 1826 
Stoddart, Dr.; Times, 1812 
Stoecklin ; Boulogne, 1878 



INDEX. 



1129 



Stokes, E. S. ; New York, 1872 

Stokes, sir, G. G., sunshine recorder ; 
Royal society, 1885 

Stone, D. H. ; mayor, lord, 1874 

Stopford, adm. ; Acre, Sidon, 1840 

Storace, madame, d. 1814 

Storck; anabaptists, 1524; levellers 

Storks, sir H.; Ionian Isles, 1859 ; 
army, 1868 

Stormont, vise; Portland adm., 1783 

Strabo, geog., writes, 14 

Straelian, admiral sir Richard; Havre, 
Walcheren, 1809 

Straduarius; viol., 1700-22 

Strafford, lord, administrations, 1640; 
beheaded, 1641 

Strafford, earl; admiralty, 1712 

Strahan, sir G. C. ; Gold Coast, 1874 ; 
Windward isles, 1876 ; Grenada, 
1877 ; Van Diemen's land, 1881 

Strangford, lord; bribery, 1784 

Stratford, abp. ; Canterbury, 1333 

Stratford de Redeliffe, lord, diplo- 
matist, 1788-1880 

Strauch, capt. ; Congo 

Street, Geo. E., 1824-81; architect, law 
courts 

Strelnikoff, gen., assassinated ; Rus- 
sia, 1882 

Strickland, Hugh; uat. hist., 1811- 

53 
Stroh, A. ; acoustics 
Stromeyer; club-foot, 1831 
Strongbow; Ireland, n 76 
Strousberg, Dr. H. B. ; Russia, 1875- 

6 ; d. 1884 
Struensee, count; Zell, 1772 
Strutt, Edw. ; Aberdeen adm., 1852 
Struve, F., astron., 1793-1864 
Strzelecki, count ; Australia, 1838 ; 

d. 1873 
Stuart, Alexander; marquis 
Stuart, conf. gen. ; United States, 

1862 
Stuart, gen. ; Cuddalore, 1783 
Stuart, sir John; Maida, 1806 
Stukeley, Dr. ; earthquakes 
Stum, P.; trials, 1882 
Sturmius ; magnet 
Sturt, capt. ; South Australia, 1830 
Succoth (St. Patrick) preaches, 433 
Suchet, marshal; Valencia, 1812 
Sudbury, abp.; Canterbury, 1375 
Sudeikin, lieut., murdered ; Russia, 

1883 
Sue, Eug., Fr. novelist, 1804-57 
Suetonius, C. T., Lat. hist., 118 
Suetonius Paulinus ; Menai, 61 
Suffolk, Thomas, earl of; adminis- 
trations, 1540 
Suffrein, Thos.; Trincomalee, 1782 
Sugden, sir Edward (aft. lord St. 

Leonards); chancellor, lord, 1852 
Sugden ; trials, 1875 
Suisse, Nicholas; trials, 1842 
Suleiman Pasha, Russo-Turkish war 

II., 1877-8 ; Turkey, 1877 
Suleiman, Senova, Turkey, 1878 
Sullivan, sir A.; mus. com., b. 1842 ; 

operas, Savoy 
Sullivan, sir E. ; chancellor (Ireland) 

1883 
Sullivan, Mr.; Lima, 1857 
Sully, J. , pessimism 
Sulpicius, Servius ; civil law, codes, 

53 B.C. 
Sumner, archbp., J. B., 1780-1862 ; 

Chester, 1828; Canterbury, 1848 
Sumner, bishop, C. R., 1790-1874 ; 

Llandaff, 1826 ; Winchester, 1827 
Sumner, C. ; United States, 1856 
Sunderland, earl of ; administrations, 

1684 ; libraries 
Surajah Dowlah; Black-hole, India, 

Plassey, 1757 
Suit, Mrs. ; Paul's school 
Surrey, earl of; Flodden, 1513; Ro- 
man catholics, 1829 



Susarion and Dolon; comedy, 562 

B.C. 

Suso, H. ; mystic, 1300-65 
Sussex, Aug. Fred., duke of, 1773- 
1843; marriage, 1793; Royal So- 
ciety 
Suter, Mr., Turkey, 18S1 
Sutter, capt.; California, 1847 
Sutton; air-pipe, 1756 
Sutton, abp.; Canterbury, 1805 
Sutton, C. M. ; speaker, 1817 
Sutton, Thos.; charter-house, 1611 
Suwarrow, marshal, 1730-1800; Ales- 
sandria, Ismael, Novi, Parma, Po- 
land, Praga, Warsaw, Trebia, 1799 
Swan, Mr., M.P. ; bribery, 1819 
Swan, J. W, electric light, 1880 ; 

Savoy 
Swete, H. ; cottage hospitals 
Sweyn ; Denmark, 985 ; England 
Swift, Dean J., 1667-1745; Drapier, 

Seriblerus, Mars 
Swindlehurst, C. ; trials, 1877 
Swynfen ; trials, 1858 
Sydenham, Floyer, d. 1788; literary 

fund 
Sydenham, lord ; Melbourne adminis- 
tration, 1834 
Sydenham, Thos., physic, 1624-89 
Sydney, Henry, viscount; Ireland, 

lord-lieutenant, 1690 
Sydney, see Sidney 
Sykes and Rumbold, Messrs. ; bri- 
bery, 1776 
Sylla; Rome, Athens, 86 B.C. 
Sylvester, prof. J. J. ; motion 
Symington; steam-engine, 1789 
Symonds, rev. Symon ; Bray, 1533-58 
Symons, G. J.; rainfall 
Synge, Mr. and Mrs., Turkey, 1880 



Tabak ; diamond robbery, 1886 

Tainter, S., photophone 

Tacitus, M. C, Latin hist., about 
62-117; Rome, emp., 275 

Tait, bp. ; London, 1856; abp. Can- 
terbury, 1S68 

Talbot, Miss Augusta; trials, 1851 

Talbot, H. F.; photography, calo- 
type, &c, 1840 

Talfourd, sirT. N, poet, judge; 1795- 

1854 
Tallard, marshal; Blenheim, 1704 
Talley, Wm. ; trials, 1875 
Talleyrand, 1754-1838; Benevento 
Tallis, Thos., musician, d. 1585- 
Talma, Fr. actor, d. 1826 
Tamerlane, d. 1405 ; India, Damascus, 

Tamerlane 
Tancred, sir T. ; Forth bridge ; Asia 

Minor 
Tandemus ; Adamite 
Tankerville, Ford, earl of; adminis- 
trations, 1699 
Tanner, Dr., abstinence 
Tantia Topee ; India, 1857 
Tarquin; Rome, kings; Sibylline 

books 
Tarquinius Priscus ; Rome, kings, 

cloaca, 588 b.c. 
Tasman, Abel ; circumnavigator, 

Australia, 1642 ; New Zealand, 

Van Diemen's Land 
Tasso, Torquato ; It. poet, 1544-95 ; 

Jerusalem Delivered 
Tate, Henry ; National Gallery 
Tate, Nahum, d. 171 5 ; poet-laureate 
Tatian, about 170 ; aquarians, encra- 

tites 
Tattersall, R. ; races, 1766 
Tauler, J. ; mystic, 1290-1361 
Tavernier ; pearls, 1633 
Tawell, John ; trials, 1845 
Taylor, H.; trials, 1882 



Taylor, I.; alphabet 

Taylor, Mrs.; bells, 1882 

Taylor, bp. Jeremy, 1613-67 

Taylor, gen. Zachary ; presidents, 

United States, 1849 
Taylor, Messrs. ; oil-gas 
Taylor, Dr. Brook ; acoustics, 1714 
Taylor, rev. Robert ; atheism, trials, 

1S27, 1831 
Taylor, col. T. E. (after. Id. Ardgillau) 

Disraeli adm. 1874 
Taylor, rev. W. ; blind, bells, 1855-6 
Taylor, sir W. T. ; Andrew's, St., 

1883 
Tchemayeff ; Turkey, 1876 ; Russia, 

1882 
Teba, countess ; (empress) France, 

1853 

Teleki; Austria, i860; Hungary, 
1861 

Telesphorus ; pope, 127 . 

Telford, T. 1757-1834; chain-bridges, 
1819 

Tell, William ; Switzerland, 1307 

Tempel ; planets, 1861 

Temple, earl ; Newcastle adm., 1757 

Temple, sir R. ; India, 1869-72 ; 
Bengal, 1874 

Tempter, major ; trials, 1S8S 

Tenters, D. (two), 1582-1694 

Tenison, abp. ; Canterbury, 1694 

Tennant, Mr. ; bleaching, 1798 

Tennent, sir J. E. ; 1864-69 ; Ceylon 

Tenniel, John, b. 1S20 ; Punch 

Tennyson, Alfred, lord 1809-92 ; poet- 
laureate 

Tenterden, lord; king's bench, 1818 

Terence, 105-159 B.C. ; drama 

Terentius Varro ; Cannae, 216 B.C. 

Terry v. Brighton aquarium comp., 
trials, 1875 

Terry, Mr. ; boat (tricycle) 

Tertiillian writes 197 ; cross, Monta- 
nists 

Teucer; Trov, 1502 B.C. 

Tewfik, Egypt, 1879-92 

Texier, F. ; drowning 

Teynham, lord ; trials, 1833 

Thackeray, W. M., novelist, 1S11-63 

Tluikombau, Fiji, 1859-74 

Thales, Miletus; globe, 640 b.c 
Ionic sect, moon, water, world 

Thalestris ; queens 

Thanet, earl of ; riots, 1799 

Thebau ; Burmah, 1817-85 

Thecla ; Alexandrine codex 

Themistocles ; Marathon, Salamis, 
480 b. c. 

Theobald; civil law, 1138 

Theocritus ; verse, 265 b. c. 

Theodore ; Corsica, 1736 Samos, 
keys, lathe 

Theodore, emperor, 1818-68; Abys- 
sinia, 1S55-68 ; Magdala 

Theodoric ; Spain, Goths, 553 

Theodosius ; Eastern emp. , 379 ; 
Aquileia, Ostrogoths, massacre, 
paganism 

Theodosius, the younger ; academies, 
Bologna 

Theophilus ; Antioch, chronology 

Theophrastus, nat. ph., 370-287 b.c 

Theopompus ; Ephori, funeral ora- 
tions, Sparta, 353 B.C. 

Theseus; Athens, 1235 B.C. 

Thesiger, sir F. ; solicitor-general, 
1844; attorney-general, chanc, 
lord high, 1858 ; trials, 1850 ; d. 
1878 

Thesiger, gen. ; Kaffraria, 1878 

Thespis ; drama, 536 B.C. 

Thevenot, M. ; coffee, 1662 

Thierry ; Holland, 936 

Thiers, A., 1798-1877; France, 1836, 
1871-8 ; Bordeaux 

Thirleby; Westminster, 1541 

Thirlwall, bp., Connop, 1797-1S65 ; 
St. David's, 1840-74 



1130 



INDEX. 



Tliistlewood, A., Cato street consp. 
Thorn, James, sculptor, 1799-1850 
Thomas, 01. ; France, 1S71, 1876 
Thomas, col. ; duel, 1783 
Thomas & Gilchrist, steel 
Thomas, Mrs., Richmond 
Thome de Gammond, tunnels, 1867 
Thompson, E. ; life-raft, 1874 
Thompson, Eliz.; scientific assoc. 
Thompson, sir H. ; burning dead, 

1873 
Thompson, Miss ; trials, 1821 
Thompson, major ; suicide, 1832 
Thompson, William ; lord mayor, 

1828 
Thorns, W. J.; folk lore, longevity, 

notes and queries, wills 
Thomson or Thomas ; dynamite, 1873 
Thomson, sir C. Wyville, 1830-82 ; 

deep sea, 1868-76 
Thomson, Mr. Poulett ; Melbourne 

administration, 1835 ; calico 
Thomson, R., road steamers, 1868 
Thomson, Jas. (the "Seasons"), 

1700-48 ; Richmond, Rule Britannia 
Thomson, J. B.; bleaching 
Thomson, sir William (aft. baron 

Kelvin), 6. 1824 ; electricity, tides ; 

atoms 
Thomson, Joseph, Africa, 1880-2, 1891 
Thornton, Abraham ; appeal, 1817 
Thornton, sirE.; Turkey, 1884 
Thorpe, William de ; bribery, 1351 
Thorpe, John T. ; lord mayor, 1820 
Thorwaldsen, Alb., sculp., 1777-1844 
Thoth ; mythology, 152 B.C. 
Thouvenel, E. A, Fr. statesman, 

1818-66 
Thrasybulus ; Athens, 403 B.C. 
Thrupp, G. ; carriages, 1877 
Thucydides, Gr. hist., 470-404 B.C. 
Thuriow, lord ; chancellor, lord high, 

1778 : great seal 
Thurtell, J. ; executions, 1824 
Thwaites, sir John, 1815-70 ; metrop. 

board of works 
Thyra, Dannawerke 
Tiberius, 903 B.C. ; Capri, Rome, 

emp. 14 
Tiberius Gracchus ; agrarian law, 

132 B.C. 
Tibullus, Lat. poet, 50-18 B.C. 
Tiehborne, trials, 1871-3 
Ticknor, G., amer. hist. 1791-1861 
Tieck, L., Ger. poet, 1773-1853 
Tierney, George ; duel, 1798 ; Gode- 

rich 
Tighe, Mr. ; trials, 1800 
Tigranes ; Armenia, 93 B.C. ; Pontus 
Tilden, S. J. ; United States, 1876 
Tildesley, sir Thomas ; Wigan, 1651 
Tilghman, B. C. ; sand-blast, 1871 
Tilloch, Mr. ; stereotype 
Tillotson, abp. ; Canterbury, 1691 ; 

universalists 
Tilly ; Magdeburg, 1631 ; Palatinate, 

Lech 
Times newspax>er; Times, trials, 1790 
Timoleon ; Syracuse, 343 B.C. 
Timour ; see Tamerlane 
Tindal and C'overdale ; Bible, 1526 
Tippoo Sahib ; Arikera, Madras, 

Seringapatam, Mysore, 1792 
Tirard ; France, 1888 
Tissamiier and others ; balloons, 187=;; 
1883 /b ' 

Tisza ; Hungary, 1875-8 
Titian, painter, 1477-1576 
Titus, Rome, emp. 79 ; Jerusalem, 

Tyre, arches 
Todd v. Lyne ; trials, 1873 
Todhunter, I. ; math. 1820-84 ; pro- 
bability 
Todleben, gen., 1818-84; Sebastopol ; 

Plevna, 1877 ! Russo-Turkish war 
II, etc., 1877-8 
Tofts, Mary; impostor, 1726 
Toler, Mr. ; m., trials, 1853 



Tolly, Barclay de ; Smolensko, 1812 

Tolmidas ; Coronea, 447 B.C. 

Tomline, bp. ; Lincoln, Winchester, 
1820 

Tolstoi, count ; Russia, 1882 ; (mini- 
ster) Russia, 188S-9 

Tom Thumb ; dwarfs, 1846 

Tompion, Thos. ; clocks, 1695 

Tone, Theobald W. ;* trials, 1798 

Tonson, Jacob, bookseller, d. 1736 

Tonti, Laurence ; Tontines 

Tooke, J. Home, 1736-1812 ; "diver- 
sions of Purley," 1786 

Tooke, W. ; prices 

Tooth, rev. A. ; public worship, 1876 

Topete, adm., Spain, 1868-73 

Toro, M. M., Colombia, 1872 

Torpey, trials, 1870 

Torrence, Mrs. ; trials, 1821 

Torrens, lieut. ; duel, 1806 

Torres ; Australasia, 1606 

Torricelli; d. 1647; air, micro- 
scopes 

Torrington, Herbert, lord ; Walpole 
admin., 1727 

Toselli, diving, 1871 

Totila ; Italy, 541 

Tourgeniff, T. S., 1818-83 ; Rus - nov -> 
nihilists 

Toussaint, 1794 ; Hayti, St. Do- 
mingo 
Tower, Mr. ; volunteer, 1803, i860 
Townley, G. V. ; trials, 1863 
Townshend, lord ; duel, 1773 ; Ire- 
land 
Townshends ; Rockingham, Chat- 
ham, and Grafton admins., 1765-7 
Train, G. F. ; street railways, i860 ; 

Ireland, 1868 
Trajan; Rome, emp., 98; Trajan's 

pillar, Dacia 
Traugott, R. ; Poland, 1864 
Travers, Samuel ; poor knights of 

Windsor 
Treby, George ; Walpole, 1721 
Tresylian ; king's bench 
Trevelyan, sir C. ; Madras, 1859-60 
Trevelyan, sir, G. O. ; household suf- 
frage ; Gladstone adm., 1880, 1886 ; 
1892 ; Ireland, 1882 
Trevelyan, W. C. ; phonography 
Trevethick ; steam engine, 1802 
Trevor, sir John ; speaker, 1694 
Tribe, A. ; copper-zinc couple, 1872 
Tricoupis, M. ; Greece, 1878 
Troas ; Troy, 1374 B.C. 
Trochu, gen., France, 1870-1, defence 
Trollope, A.; nov., &c, 1815-82 
Trollope, Messrs.; tapestry 
Tropman, France, 1869 
Troubridge, sir T. ; wrecks, 1807 
" True Sun," prop, of; trials, 1834 
Truman, Hanbury, & Co. : porter, 1815 
Trumbull, Jonathan 
Truro, lord ; chancellor, lord, 1850 
Tseng, marquis, China, 1879-80 
Tucker, E. ; vine disease, 1845 
Tuckett, capt. Harvey ; duel, 1840 
Tufnell, E. C, training schools 
Tuite, murderer ; trials, 1813 
Tuke, W. ; lunatics, 1792 
Tull, William ; posting 
Tulloch, col. ; Sebastopol, 1855 
Tullus Hostilius ; Alba, saturnalia 
Tunstall, bp. ; administrations, 1529 ; 

arithmetic, privy seal 
Tupper, M. F., 1810-89; proverbs 
Turenne, marshal, 161 1-75 
Turner, Joseph Mallord William, 

1775-1851 
Turnerelli, T., people's tribute 
Turnbull, Dahomey, 1876 
Turn bull, W. B. ; trials, 186 1 
Turner, J. W. : painter, 1775-1851 
Turner, Miss ; trials, 1827 
Turner, Richard ; teetotaller, 1831 
Turner, rev. Sydney; 1814--Q; refor- 
matory schools, 184Q 



Turner; trials, 1817 

Tnrpin, or Tilpin, bp. ; writes, 818 

Turton, bishop ; Ely, 1S45 

Tussaud, Mad. ; waxwork 

Tusser ; agriculture, 1562 

Twycross v. Grant ; trials, 1876 

Tyce, John ; taffety, 1598 

Tycho Brahe, 1 546-1 601 ; astronomy, 
platonic year, globe 

Tyler, John ; United States presi- 
dent, 1841 

Tyler, Wat ; killed, 1381 

Tyndale, Wm. ; martyred, 1536 

Tyndall, J. ; Roy. Inst., 1853; mag- 
netism, Mont Blanc, 1857 ; calor- 
escence, sound, dust, Niagara, 
United States, 1872, spontaneous 
generation, germ theory 

Tyndarus ; Sparta, 1490 B.C. 

Tyrconnel, earl of; Ireland, 1687 

Tyrone ; rebellion, 1599 

Tysias, or Stesichorus ; choruses, 
epithalamium, 536 b.c. 



U. 



Uchatius, gen. von ; cannon, 1875 
Udine ; stucco-work, 1530 
Ufzul ; Afghanistan, 1863 
Ugolinus, B. ; thesaurus 
Ulfilas, bp. ; Bible, about 373 
Ulloa, Antonio ; platinum, 1741 
Ulpian (lawyer) ; slain, 228 
Ulysses ; Trojan war 
Union Bank ; trials, 1875 
Upton, colonel ; Sebastopol, 1830 
Urban ; popes, 223 
Urban II. ; communion, crusades, 

1094 
Urban VIII., pope, "Eminence, 

1630 
Urich, gen. ; Strasburg, 1870 
Ursula, St. ; Cologne, Ursulines, 

1537 
Uriarte, H. ; Paraguay, 1877 
Usher, abp. ; articles, 1614 
Usher, H. T. ; Labuan, 1875 



V. 



Valens ; eastern empire, western 

empire, 364 
Valentia, lord ; duel, 1798 ; trials, 

1796 _ 

Valentia cause ; trials, 1772 
Valentine, B. ; antimony, 1410 
Valentinian ; western empire, 364 
Valerian ; persecutions, 257 
Vallaret, Foulques de ; Malta, 1310 
Valliere, madame de la ; midwifery, 

1663 
Valverde, gen. ; Hayti, 185S 
Van Artevelde ; Ghent, 1379-83 
Vanbrugh, sir J. ; 1670-1726, Claren- 
don printing office, opera 
Van Buren M. (president); United 

States, 1837 
Vance & Snee ; trials, 1876 
Vancouver ; north-west passage, 

Vancouver, 1790 
Van de Weyer, M. ; Belgium, 1874 
Van der Hey den ; fire engines, 1663 
Van der Heydt ; Prussia, 1862, 1874 
Van der Weyde ; photography, 1876 
Vanderbilt, Mr. ; United States, 1885 
Vandersmissen, M. ; Belgium, 1886 
Vandyck, painter, 1599-1641 
Vane, sir Henry ; administrations, 

1640 
Vanes ; trials, 1876 
Van Eyck ; painting, 1366 
Van Horn ; buccaneer, 1603 



INDEX. 



1131 



Van Leyclen ; engraving on wood, 1497 
Van Marum ; electricity, 1785 
Van Mildert, bishop ; Llandaff, Dur- 
ham, 1826 
Van Praagh, W. ; deaf and dumb, 

1871 
Vansittart, Nicholas ; Liverpool 

aclm., 1812 
Van Tromp ; Holland, naval battles, 

Portland Isle, 1653 
Varley, C. F., 1828-83 ; electricity, 

telephone, 1870-7 
Varley, John ; water colour painter, 

1778-1842 
Varley, Cornelius ; nat. phil., 1781- 

1873 
Varole, M. ; optic nerves, 1538 
Varro; writes "de Re Rustica," 37 

b.c. ; grammarians, illuminated 

books 
Varus, Alfrenus ; civil law, 66 B. c. ; 

code, digest 
Vasali, or Basil ; Russia, 1270 
Vasco da Gama ; Cape, 1497 ; India 
Vattel, E. de, xmblicist, 1714-67 
Vauban, S., 1633-1707; fortifications, 

Cherbourg 
Vaughan, sir Thos. ; Pomfret, 1483 
Vaughan, Mackay, &c. ; trial, 1816 
Vauquelin ; chromium, glucinum, 

1798 
Vaux, Jane, Mrs. ; Vauxhall, 1615 
Vega, G. de, 1503-36 ; — Lope de, 

1 562- 1 635, poets 
Velasquez, painter, 1599-1660; Cuba, 

1511 
Venables, Wm. ; lord mayor, 1825 
Venner, T. ; anabaptists, 1661 
Venn, J., logic 
Vergara, gen. ; New Grenada 
Vergennes, M. de; notables, 1788 
Vermandois, count de ; iron mask 
Vermuj'den, Cornelius; levels, 1621 
Vernet, C. J., 1714-89; A. C. H., 

1758-1836; J. E. Horace, 1789-1863; 

painters 
Vernon, adm. ; grog, Portobello, 1739 
Vernon, abp. ; York, 1808 
Verres ; Sicily, 70 b. c. 
Verrocchio, Andrea; plaster, 1466 
Vesalius, 1514-64 ; anatomy, surgery, 

physic 
Vespasian; Rome, emp. 69; amphi- 
theatres, Coliseum, Rhodes 
Vespucius, Americus, 1498 ; America 
Veuillot ; France, 1883 
Victor Amadeus ; Sardinia, 1630 
Victor Emmanuel, 1820-78; Sardinia, 

1849 ; Italy, i860 
Victor, marshal ; Talavera, 1809 ; Bar- 

rosa, "Witepsk 
Victor; pope, 193 
Victoria, queen, 0. 1819; England, 

Scotland, Ireland, India 
Victory, Espartero, duke of; Spain, 

1840-72 
Vidil, baron de; trials, 1861 
Vieta, Francis; algebra, 1590 
Vigilius; pope, 537 
Villars, marshal; Malplaquet, 1709 
Villeneuve, adm. ; Trafalgar, 1805 
Villeroy, marshal; Brussels, 1695; 

Ramilies, 1706 
Villiers, sir George; administrations, 

1615 
Villiers, bp. ; Durham, i860 
Vincent de Paul, 1576-1660; sisters of 

charity 
Vincent, B., Royal Inst, library cata- 
logue, 1857 : bible index, 1848 
Vincent, C. W., electric light, 1879 
Vincent, sir Edgar ; Egypt, 1888 ; 

Turkey 
Vincent, H.; chartists 
Vincent, Howard ; police, 1884 
Vincent, Z. W. ; Csecilian society 
Vinoy, gen. ; France and Franeo- 

Pruss. war, 1870-71 ; d. 1883 



Virchow, prof. ; development, man ; 

Germany, 1891 
Virgil, Lat. poet, 70-19 B.C. 
Virginia; killed, 449 b.c. 
Vitalianus ; pope, 537 
Vitellius, Rome, emp., 69 
Vitruvius, abt. 27 a, a; ink 
Vivier; trials, 1842 
Volta, Alex.; 1745-1826; electricity, 

Volta 
Voltaire, F. M. A. de; 1694-1778 
Von Fuchs, Dr., d. 1856; water-glass, 

stereochromy 
Von der Tann, gen. ; Franco-Prussian 

war, 1870-1; Coulmiers, Orleans 
Von Gceben, gen. ; Saarbriick, Franco- 
Prussian war, 1870-1 
Von Groof ; flying, 1874 
Von Mohl ; protoplasm 
Von Moltke, gen.; Franco-Prussian 

war, Sedan, 1870 
Von Miihler, Prussia, 1872 
Von Stein, Prussia, 1807 
Von Swab ; blowpipe 
Von Vincke ; Prussia, 1874 
Vortigern; Wales, 447 
Voss, poet, 1751-1826 
Voysey, C. ; trials, 1870 ; Voysey 

establishment fund 
Vyse, Mrs. A.; trials, 1862 



W. 

Waddington ; trials, 1820 : France, 

1877-8-9 
Wade, Sir T., China, 1875 
Wager, C. ; admiralty, 1733 
Waghorn, lieut., 1800-50; Waghorn 
Wagner, R., 1813-83 ; music (of the 

future) 
Wainwright, Whitechapel ; trials, 

1875 
Waithman, Robert ; lord mayor, 1823 ; 

obelisk, bank 
Wake, abp.; Canterbury, 1715 
Wakefield, Eliz. ; savings banks, 1804 
Wakefield, Ed. Gibbon; marriages, 

South Australia, trials, 1827 
Wakley, T., Lancet, 1823 
Waldegrave, earl of; trials, 1841 
Waldegrave, bp. ; Carlisle, i860 
Waldemar; Denmark, 1157 
Walden, abp.; Canterbury, 1398 
Wales, George, prince of, v. Times; 

trials, 1790; regency 
Wales, Albert Edward, prince of; 

England ; Wales 
Walker, A. ; Liverpool, 1877 
Walker, Mr.; Vauxhall, congelation, 

ice, 1782 
Walker, George, Londonderry, Boyne, 

1689 
Walker, gen. ; filibusters, Nicaragua, 

1855, executed, i860 
Wall governor ; trials, 1802 ; Goree 
Wall, Mr. Baring ; trials, 1833 
Wall, Jas. ; copying-machine 
Wallace, A. R. ; development, 1S70 
Wallace, sir W. ; exec. 1305 ; Fal- 
kirk, Cambuskenneth, 1297 
Wallace, D. M. ; Molokani 
Wallace, sir Richard, philan., 1818- 

90 ; Bethnal Green 
Wallaces ; trials, 1841 
Wallenstein, Albert, general, 1583- 

1634 ; Mecklenburg 
Waller, G., velocipede 
Waller, sir W. ; Abingdon, 1644 
Wallis, circumnavigator ; Otaheite, 

Wallis, 1766 
Wallis, sir Provo W. P., 1791-1892, 

Chesaiieake 
Wallon ; France, 1875 
Walpole, Horace, 1717-97 ; letters 
Walpole, sir Robert, 1676-1745 ; Wal- 
pole, adm. ; sinking fund 



Walpole, Spencer-Horatio, 6. 1806; 

Derby adm., 1852-66 
Walsh, "abp. ; Parnellites, 1889 
Walsh, Mrs. ; murdered, trials, 1832 
Walsh, Nicholas ; printing, 1571 
Walsingham, lord ; att.-gen., 1766; 

farmers' union, 1874 
Walsingham, sir F. ; administra- 
tions, 1587 
Walter, E. ; commissionaires, 1859 
Walter, J., 1739-1812 ; Times, 1785 ; 

printing, 1872 
Waltheof ; beheading, 1076 
Walton, Brian, 1600-61 ; polyglot 
Walton, Izaac, 1593-1683 ; angling 
Walworth ; Blackheath, mace, 1381 
Warburton, Eliot (lost), Amazon, 

1852 
Ward, Mr. ; forgery, 1726 
Ward, E. M., R. A., d. 1879 
Ward, N. B. ; aquarium, Ward's 

cases, 1829 
Wardle, col. ; impeachment, Wardle 

v. duke of York ; trials, 1809 
Wardley, James ; shakers 
Warenne, earl of; Dunbar, 1296 
Warham, abp. ; Canterbury, 1503 ; 

administrations, 1509 
Warington, R. ; aquarium, 1850 
Warner, Mrs., d. 1854; theatre 
Warner, Messrs. ; bells, 1856 
Warren, admiral sir John Borlase ; 

naval battles, 179S 
Warren, sir Chas. ; Soudan, 1886 ; 

Bechuanaland ; police 
Warren, Sam., novelist, 1807-77 
Warrington gang ; trials, 1806 
Warsop, Geo. ; aero-steam engine, 

1869 
Warton, Thomas ; poet-laureate, 1785 
Warwick, earl of ; Barnet, St. Albans, 

Wakefield, 1460 
Warwick, John Dudley, earl of ; ad- 
ministrations, 1551 
Washington, George, 1732-99 ; United 

States, York Town, Virginia 
Wason, Rigby ; trial, 1867 
Waterhouse, Mr. ; Paul's school, St. 
Waterland, Dr. ; Athanasian Creed, 

J 7 2 3 

Waters, M. ; infanticide, trials, 1870 
Waterton, Chas. ; naturalist, 1782- 

1865 
Wathen, capt. ; trials, 1834 
Watson, admiral; India, 1756 
Watson, J. C. ; planets, 1862 
Watson, rev. J. S. ; trials, 1871 ; d. 

1884 
Watson, bishop ; Llandaff, 1782 ; 

phlogiston 
Watson, Thos., M.D., 1792-1882 
Watson, sir Wm. ; electricity, 1740 ; 

lightning conductor ; trials, 181 7 
Watt and Downie ; trials, 1794 
Watt, Jas., 1736-1819; lunar society, 

steam engine 
Watteau, Ant., French painter, 1684- 

1721 
Watts, H., 1815-84 ; chemistry 
Watts, Isaac, 1674-1748 ; hymns 
Watts ; theatres, trials, 1S50; suicide 
Watts, T. ; newspapers, 1766 
Weare, Mr. ; trials, 1824 
Weathershed, abp. ; Canterbury, 

1229 
Webb, capt. ; swimming, 1875 
Webbe, Sam., music, 1740-1817 
Weber, Carl von, 1 786-1826 ; music 
Weber, W. & E., physicists, undu- 

latory theory 
Webster, C, Richmond murder 
Webster, Daniel, d. 1852 ; United 

States 
Webster, Dr. ; trials, 1842 
Webster, sir Godfrey ; trials, 1797 
Webster, Mr.; aluminium 
Webster, sir R. E., att.-gen, 1885, 

1886 ; Parnellites, 1888 



1132 



INDEX. 



Webster, T. ; painter, 1800-86 
Wedgwood, Josiah, 1730-95 ; earthen- 
ware, Wedgwood (porcelain) 
Wedgwood, T. ; photography, 1802 
Weed, Thurlow; United States, d. 

1882 
Weekes, H., R.A., 1807-77 
Weld, Mr. ; trappists 
Weldon, Mrs.; trials, 1884-8 
Weldon, Walter ; alkalies, 1877 
Wellesley, sir A. ; see Wellington 
Wellesley, marquis; India, 1798 
Wellesley, Mr. Long ; duel, 1828 
Wellesley, Pole, v. Misses Long ; 

trials, 1825 
Wellesley v. Paget ; trials, 1809 ; v. 

Mornington, trials, 1868 
Wellington, duke of, 1769-1852 ; 
Wellington ; commander-in-chief, 
duelling, 1824 ; duels, 1829 ; trials, 
1830 
Wells, W. ; dew, 1814 
Wells, lord Lyon ;]Ireland (lord lieut. ), 

1438 
Weltmann, poisoning, 1859 
Wemyss, see Elcho 
Wenham ; heat 

Wensleydale, lord ; lords, note 
Werdermann, electric light, 1878 
Werner, A. G., 1750-1817; geology, 

1775 

Werner, eapt. ; Spain, 1873 
Weskett, John; commerce, chambers 

of, 1782 
Wesley, J., 1703-91 ; Wesleyans 
West, Benj., 1738-1820; Royal Acade- 
my, 1792 
Westbury, lord chancellor ; Palmers- 
ton adm., 1861 ; 1873-80 
Westerton v. Liddell ; trials, 1855 
Westmacott, sir R., sculpt., 1775- 

1856; R. 1799-1872 
Wcstmeath, lord ; trials, 1 796 
Westmoreland, earl of ; Ireland (lord- 

lieut.), 1790 
Weston, E. P.; pedestrianism, 1874-7 
Weston, Richard lord ; administra- 
tions, 1628 
Wetherell, sir Chas. ; attorney-gen., 

1826; Bristol 
Wetherell, rev. Mr. ; trials, 1845 
Weyland, Thomas de ; bribery, 1288 
Weymouth ; North- West passage, 

1602 
Weymouth, visct. ; Grafton adm. 1767 
Whalleywillcase; trials, 1883-4 
Wharncliffe, Id. ; Peel adm., 1834 
Wharton, Thomas, marquis of ; 

Halifax adm., 1714 
Wharton, Miss; marriages, i6yo 
Whately, abp. R., 1787-1863 ; logic, 

political economy, <fec. 
Wheatstone, sir C., 1802-75; cryp- 
tography ; stereoscope, electricity, 
1834 ; electric telegraph, and clock, 
microphone, telephone 
Wheeler, sir Hugh ; Cawnpore, 1857 
Wheeler, al. Pearcey, Mrs. ; trials, 

1890 
Whewell, Rev. W., philosopher, 1794- 

1866 ; international law 
Whistler v. Ruskiii, trials, 1S78 ; im- 
pressionists 
Winston, W., theol., d. 1752 
Whitaker ; almanack, 1874 
Whiibread, Samuel; suicide, 1S15 
White, H. K., poet, 1785-1806 
White, Thos. , Sion College, 1623 ; 

mayor, 1876 
White, sir W. ; Turkey, 1886 
Whiteneld, G, 1714-70; Whitefleld- 

ites, Wesleyans, 1741 
Whitehead, Jas. ; Id. mayor, 1888 ; 

volunteers, 1889 
Whitehead, W. d. 1785 ; poet laureate 
Whitelock, gen. ; Buenos Ayres, 1807 
Whitgift, abp. ; Canterbury, 1583 
Whitman, Walt, Am. poet'; 1819-92 



Whitney, Eli ; cotton, 1793 

Whittall ; coins, 1884 

Whittington ; lord mayor, 1465 ; 

Leadenhall 
Whittlesey, archbp. ; Canterbury, 

1268 
Whitworth, sir Joseph, 1803-87 ; 
cannon, plane, Shoeburyness, 1861; 
Whitworth 
Whitworth, earl; Ireland, 1813 
Whymper, E., Andes ; Matterhorn 
Whyte, mag. - gen. ; Demerara, 

1796 
Wickens, sir J. ; vice-chancellor, 

1871 
Wickham, William of, 1 324-1405 ; 

education, Oxford, Winchester 
Wickliffe (Wycliffe), John, 1324-87; 

Wickliffltes, Bible 
Wicklow peerage, trials, 1870 
Wieland, C. ; Germ, niiseel., 1733- 

1813 
Wigram, bp. ; Rochester, i860 
Wilberforce, bp. ; Oxford, 1846 
Wilberforce, W., 1759-1833 ; slave- 
trade ; — S. , Winchester, bp. 
Wilberforce, bp. E. R., Newcastle- 

on-Tyne, 1882 
Wild, Jonathan; executed, 1725 
Wilde, sir James, 6. 1816; probate 

court, 1863 ; see Penzance 
Wilfride, bp. ; Chichester, 673 
Wilkes, capt. ; circumnavigation, 

1838; United States, 1861 
Wilkes, John; North Briton, obe- 
lisk, warrants; duel, 1763; trials, 
1764 
Wilkie, sir D., painter, 1785-1841 
Wilkins, Dr.; Wadhani, 1613 
Wilkinson, Catherine ; baths, 1832 
Wilkinson, sir John Gardner, Egyp- 
tologist, 1797-1875 
Wilkinson, bp. G. H.; Truro, 1883 
Wilkinson, Is. ; air (compressing), 

1757 

William I., England, 1066; Battle- 
abbey, conquest, Domesday, castles 

William II. ; England, 1087 

William III.; England, 1689, revolu- 
tion. Boyne, Enghien, Je main- 
tiendrai, New Forest 

William IV.; England, kings, 1830; 
admiral 

William I.; emperor; Prussia, 1861 ; 
Germany, 1870-88 ; assassinations 

William II. ; Germany, 1888. 

William; Holland, Scotland 

Williams, prof.; Indian hist. 

Williams, Ann; trials, 1753 

Williams, David, d. 1816 ; literary 
fund 

Williams, Mr. ; Manchester, 1882 

Williams, John, dean ; adminis., 162 1 

Williams; see Burking 

Williams, Roger; America, 1635 

Williams, gen. W. F. ; Kars, 1855 

Williamson, sir Joseph; administra- 
tions, 1629 

Willoughby, sir Hugh ; north-east 
passage, 1553 

Willoughby de Eresby, lord; cham- 
berlain, lord great, 1626 

Willoughby, lieut. ; Delhi, 1857 

Wills, gen.; Preston, 1715 

Wilmot, lieut. E. ; Ashantees, 1S73 

Wilmot, M. A., trials, 1881 

Wilmington, earl of ; Wilmington 
adm., 1742 

Wilson, capt.; Pelew Islands, 1783 

Wilson, sir A.; Delhi, 1857 

Wilson, sir James Erasmus, 1809-84 ; 
Aberdeen ; obelisks (Cleopatra's 
needle), 1877-8 ; Egypt expl. fund 

Wilson, rev. Carlyle ; church army 

Wilson, G., colour blindness 

Wilson, H. H. ; Sanskrit professor, 
1832 

Wilson, sir C; Soudan, 1883 



Wilson, sir Daniel, antiquary, 1816-92 
Wilson, sir Robert; Lavalette, 1815 
Wilson, prof. John, 1785-1854 
Wilson, sir John M., Hampstead 
Wilson, Mrs. C. ; poisoning, trials, 

1862 
Wilson, capt. W. ; United States, 

1862, note 
Wilson, M. ; France, 1387-8. 
Wilson, Dr. ; sun 
Wilton, earl of; trials, 1859 
Wimshurst, James ; electricity, 1882 
Winchelsea, abp. ; Canterbury, 1293 
Winchester, gen.; Frenchtowii, 1813 
Winchester, Henry ; mayor, lord, 

l8 34 , . . 

Winchester, W., marquis of; adminis- 
trations, 1554 

Winchilsea, earl of; duel, 1829 

Winchilsea, earl of ; Wilmington 
adm., 1742; Bath adm., 1746 

Windebank, sir Francis ; administra- 
tions, 1635 

Windham, general; India, 1857 

Windham, W. F.; trials, 1861-2 

Windham, Wm.; Grenvilleadm., 1806 

Windisehgratz, prince; Vienna, 1848 

Winsor, Charlotte; trials, 1865 

Winstanley ; Eddystone, 1696 

Winslow, E. D. ; extradition, 1876 

Winslow, Dr F.; trials, 1884 

Winter, T. ; boxing 

Winwood, sir Ralph ; administra- 
tions, 1612 

Winzengerode, gen. ; Kalisch, 1813 

Wise, prof. ; balloons, 1873 

Wiseman, cardinal Nicholas, 1802-65; 
ecclesiastical titles, papal aggres- 
sion, Rome, Ireland, 1S58 

Wissman, capt. ; Zanzibar, 1889 ; 
Africa (German E.), 1889 

Withers, Dr. ; libel, 1789 

Witherings, Thomas; post-office, 1631 

Withering-ton, W., painter, 1786-1865 

Withing, Richard ; Glastonbury, 1539 

Witikind (Saxon chief), d. after 793 

Wittgenstein, gen. ; Polotsk, Witepsk, 
1812 

Witts, De ; massacred, 1672 

Wodehouse, lord ; Ireland (lord- 
lieut.), 1864 

Wodehouse, sir P. ; Bombay, 1872 

Wodehouse, col. ; Soudan, 1889 

Woden ; Wednesday 

Wohler, F., 1800-82 ; aluminium, 1827 

Wolcot, Dr., alias Peter Pindar; 
trials, 1807 

Wolf, F. A. ; Homer 

Wolfe, gen. ; Quebec, 1759 

Wolff, Dr. J. ; Bookhara, 1884 ; sir 
H. D., fourth party; Turkey, 
1885 ; Persia. 

Wolfius ; anemometer, 1709 

Wollaston, Wm. ; 1766-1828 ; cryo- 
phorus, camera, blow pipe, pal- 
ladium, rhodium, hypsometer 

Wolseley, sir Charles ; trials, 1820 

Wolseley, sir Garnet (aft. Id.) b. 1833; 
Hudson's Bay, 1870 ; Ashantee, 
1873 ; Amoafui, 1874 ; West Africa, 
1873 ; Cyprus, 1878; Natal; Zulu- 
land, 1879 ; Egypt, 1882 ; Tel-el- 
Kebir, 1882 ; Soudan, 1884 

Wolsey, cardinal, 1471-1530 ; adms., 
1514 ; Hampton, Whitehall, York 

Wolverton, Id. ; Gladstone adm., 
1886. 

Wombwell ; zoology 

Wood, sir Charles (aft. lord Halifax) ; 
Russell adm., 1846 ; Palmerston 
adm., 1855 

Wood,col. sirEvelvn, Zululand, 1S79; 
Egypt, 1882 

Wood v. Cox ; races, 1888. 

Wood, Matthew : mayors of London, 
1815 

Wood, sir W. P., justice, chancellor, 



INDEX. 



1133 



Wood ; Palmyra, 1751-53 
Woodford, bp. J. R. ; Ely, 1873 
Woodfall, Mr. ; trials, 1786 
Woodmason ; ruling machines 
Wooler, Mr: ; trials, 1817, 1855 
Woolley, Mr. ; trials, 1863 
Worburton ; trials, 1885. 
Worcester, marquis of; steam, tele- 
graph, 1663 
Worcester, Edward, earl of; adms., 

1621 
Wordsworth, Wm. ; 1770-1850 ; poet- 
laureate 
Wortley, col. H. Stuart; mansion- 
house fund, 1871 
Wotton, sir Edward ; sugar, 1546 
Wouvermanns, painters, 1620-83 
Wray, sir C. ; King's Bench, 1573 
Wrede, gen. ; Hanau, 1813 
Wren, sir Christopher, architect, 
1632-1723 ; Chelsea, engraving, 
Greenwich, monument, St. Paul's, 
Walbrook 
Wren, Matthew ; Royal Society 
Wrench, Mr. ; theatres, 1809 
Wright ; Mereator's charts, 1556 
Wright, sir Rob. ; King's Bench, 1687 
Wright and Doyle ; trials, 1851 
Wriothesley, lord ; administrations, 

1547 

Wurmser, gen. ; Castiglione, 1796 
Wurtz,prof. K. A., 1817-84; chemistry; 

Faraday medal, 1878 
Wyatt, sir Thos. ; rebellions, 1554 
Wybrow ; aquarium, 1876 
Wyld, J. ; globe, 1851 
Wynkyn de Worde ; angling, 1496 ; 

printing 
Wynn, W. ; Canning adm., 1827 
Wyon, W., medallist, 1795-1851 
Wyse, L. A. B. ; Panama 



Xavier, Francis ; 1506-52 ; Jesuits 

Xenophanes, d. 465 b.c. ; Eleaticsect, 
Pantheism 

Xenophon ; anatomy, couriers, cym- 
bals, retreat of the Greeks, 401 B.C. 

Xerxes ; Persia, 485 B.C. ; Mycale, 
Salamis 

Ximenes, card., 1437-1517; polyglot 



Yakoob, Afghanistan, 1867-79, Kash- 

gar 
Yale, Elisha ; auctions, 1700 
Yarrow, Mr. ; spirit motor 
Yates, E., nov. ; trials, 1884-5 
Yeh, commissioner ; China, 1857 
Yelverton, major ; trials, i860 
Yonge, sir Geo. ; Shelburne adm., 1783 
Yonge, miss C. ; names 
York, bishop ; Ely, 1781 
York, cardinal ; Scotland, 1807 
York, Fred., duke of, 1763-1827 

York 
York, James, duke of; Solebay, 1672 
Yorke, Charles, chancellor, lord high, 

1770 
Yorke, sir Philip; att.-gen. ; king's 

bench, 1733 
Yorke, Mr. Redhead ; trial, 1795 
Youl, J. A., salmon ova 
Young ; impostors, 1692 
Young, Brigham, 1801-77 ; Mormon- 

ites 
Young, major ; Prescott, 1838 
Young, Charles ; theatre, 1807 



Young, Edw., poet, 1684-1765 
Young, Thos., 1773-1829 ; Royal In- 
stitution, colour, spectrum 
Youngman, W. ; executions, i860 
Yule, sir H., 1820-89 ; orientalist 



Zabala ; Spain, 1874 

Zacharias ; pope, 741 

Zaleucus; sumptuary laws, 450 B.C. 

Zamoyski, count ; Poland, 1862 

Zankoff; Bulgaria 

Zasulitch, V. ; Russia, 1S78 

Zazel ; Aquarium 

Zechariah prophesies about 520 b.c. 

Zeno (stoic), fl. 299 b.c. ; eastern 
empire, 474 

Zenobia ; Palmyra, 263 

Zenon ; Armenia, 18 

Zephaniah prophesies abt. 630 B.C. 

Zephyrinus ; pope, 202 

Zetland, earl of; Salisbury adm., 
1886 ; Ireland, Id. lieut., 1889. 

Zeuxis, fl. 455-400 b.c. ; painting 

Zimmerman ; physiognomy, 1776 

Zinzendorf, 1700-60 ; Moravians 

Ziska; Bohemia, 1417 

Zoh ; eastern empire, 1034 

Zola, E. , naturalism 

Zollicoffer, gen. ; 0". States, 1861 

Zorilla, R.; Spain, 1872-3 

Zoroaster (supposed author of " Zen- 
davesta"); about 555 B.C., fire- 
worshippers 

Zosimus ; alchemy, 410 

Zukkertort, J. S., chess 

Zumalacarregui (Carlist) ; killed near 
Bilbao, 1835 

Zumpie, M. ; pianoforte, 1766 

Zurbano, gen. ; Spain, 1844 



ADDENDA. 



PAGE 

8. AFGHANISTAN. — The ameer's encroach- 
ments on the Hazaras (checked by the In- 
dian government) lead to frequent con- 
flicts, and insurrection of other tribes, May, 
June; the ameer unsuccessful. Rebels join 
the Hazara tribes .... July, 

The Indian government proposes to send to 
the ameer a deputation headed by lord 
Roberts : he approves, but defers receiving 
it, about 7 Aug. ; the ameer's army about 
40,000, reported .... Aug. 

The governor of Candahar and his troops re- 
pulsed by the Hazaras, reported . 22 Aug. 

The ameer's troops capture Kamsin from the 
rebels, reported 30 Aug. ; the war continues 
with varying results . . . Sept. 

19. AFRICA.— Capt. W. Grant Stairs, able com- 

panion of Mr. H. M. Stanley, commander of 
an expedition sent out by the Katanga com- 
pany with 380 natives, May, dies when re- 
turning to Zanzibar ; capt. Bodson, his 
colleague, dies in May ; conflicts with 
natives reported ; the marquis de Bonchamp 
and others return to France reporting great 
sufferings .... about 24 July, 

20. AFRICA, GERMAN EAST.— Emin pasha's 

geographical expedition starts from Kahura, 
22 March, with Dr. Stuhlmann; suffers by 
want of provisions, &c, Dec. 1891 ; expedition 
divides, Emin ill, left behind by Dr. Stuhl- 
mann, who goes to the German station on 
lake Victoria, 15 Feb., reported . May, 
An expedition defeated by the natives in Moshi 
territory, near Kilima Njaro, baron von 



Billow, lieut. Wolfram and 30 men killed, 
• 10 June et seq. , the station at Kilima Njaro 

abandoned, reported, 30 June ; re-occupied 
without fighting ... 29 July, 

Dr. Stuhlmann at Bagamoyo . . 1 Aug. 
20. AFRICA, BRITISH EAST. — Witu tran- 
quilized by Mr. Berkeley ; the ex-sultan 
submits, reported . . .10 June, 
The company's new courts of justice at Mom- 
basa opened by judge Cracknall . 10 June, 
Treaty of the company with the king of 
Uganda (which see) i£ 

49. ARABIA.— -Iman Ahmed Eddin, or Hamid- 
Eddin, killed ; the rebellion quelled, and 
the province Yemen pacified by the Turkish 
governor, reported .... 7 Sept. 
59. ARMY. — Manoeuvres (regulars and volunteers) 
- in Surrey, Hants, and Berks ; battles, &c, 
commanders, sir Evelyn Wood and others, 
18 July — 20 Aug. 
Mr. Henry Campbell-Bannerman appointed 
secretary for war . . . 18 Aug. 
87. BALLOONS.— Capt. Wm. Duncan Dale and 
3 others ascend in a balloon at the Crystal 
palace ; the balloon bursts ; capt. Dale killed 
by the fall, 29 June ; Mr. Cecil V. Shadbolt 
dies, 8 July ; William Dale (son) and Mr. 
John Macintosh much injured, recover, July, 
[Capt. Dale had made nearly 200 ascents.] 
113. BEHRING STRAITS.— Seven arbitrators ap- 
pointed to settle the dispute : British, lord 
Hannen and sir John Thompson ; American, 
Mr. justice Harlan and senator Morgan ; 



1892 



1134 



ADDENDA. 



French, baron Alphonse de Courcel ; Italian, 
marquis Yisconti Venosta ; one Swedish, 

July, Aug. 

The British steamer Coquittam, and 25 sealers 
belonging to Victoria, British Columbia, 
seized by the U. S. cutter, Comvin, 22 June ; 
the Canadian government protests . July 

The British schooner Winifred seized by the 
U. S. Rush 20 July, 

Several Victoria sealers seized by a Russian 
gunboat, as being in Russian waters ; the 
crews made to sign papers and dismissed, 
July ; Canadian government protests, 

Sept. -Oct. 

133. BOHEMIA. — Fire in the great silver mine, 

Birkenberg, near Przibram, about 319 

deaths 31 May, 

158. BULGARIA.— Trial of 18 persons connected 
with the conspiracy against prince Fer- 
dinand and the assassination of M. Beltcheff 
(27 March, 1891), 30 June — 18 July ; sen- 
tences, imprisonment : M. Petko Karaveloff, 
ex-premier and regent, five years ; Ghorghi 
Velikoff, 15 years ; three persons, 9 years ; 
one, s years ; one, three years ; one, sixteen 
months ; six acquitted ; Sweetoslaw Milaroff, 
Constantin Popoff, Toma Gheorghieff, and 
Alexander Karaguloff sentenced to death, 

18 July ; executed . . , 27 July, 
M. Stambouloff, invited by the sultan, warmly 

received at Constantinople . 12, 14 Aug. 

First Bulgarian exhibition opened at Philip- 

popolis by prince Ferdinand . 27 Aug. 

162. BURMAH.— Amnesty to the Tsawbwa of 

Wuntho and his followers ; he enters China 

about 15 May, 

Lieut. Nightingale repulses an attack on 
Lwekaw, in the S. Shan States . 25 June, 
184. CARDINALS.— Edward Henry Howard, an 
English cardinal, died, 16 Sept. 1892, aged 63. 
209. CHINA. — Bill for the stringent exclusion of 
Chinese immigrants from the United States, 
N. A., passed by the congress . early May, 

Renewed outrages on European missionaries, 
27 April, reported ... 14 June, 
211. CHOLERA, 1892. — The disease appeared in 
India in March ; about 6,000 deaths in Cabul 
and 2,000 deaths in Herat were reported ; 
and about 3,000 deaths in Cashmere up to 
3 June, 

Persia : Total deaths reported, 30,000, May- 
Sept, (deaths in Teheran rose from 20 to 800 
daily, 7-21 Aug., and gradually decreased). 

Russia: The disease appeared in the south 
and. thence traversed the empire, June. It 
was severe in Baku and neighbouring dis- 
tricts ; St. Petersburg, total deaths up to 
31 Aug., 550 ; decrease ; n deaths, 19 Sept. ; 
5 deaths ...... 8 Oct. 

All Russia : 1,302 deaths up to 25 July; 107,647 
deaths up to 22 Aug. (1,326 deaths 10 Sept.) 

France : Paris, choleraic disease, 305 deaths, 
June-s Sept. ; 6 deaths, 19 Sept. ; 6 deaths, 

8 Oct. 

Havre : 333 deaths, 30 July-6 Sept. ; 6 deaths, 

19 Sept. ; 1 death . . . .2 Oct. 
Hamburg State: 7,536 deaths, 21 Aug.-i Oct. ; 

83 deaths, 21 Aug. ; 200 deaths, 22 Aug. ; 67 
deaths, 19 Sept. ; 23 deaths, 26 Sept. ; 2 
deaths 8 Oct. 

Antwerp: 14 deaths up to 25 Aug. ; 47 deaths 
up to 19 Sept. 

Great Britain : a few isolated cases, chiefly 
foreigners, some fatal . . Aug. -Sept. 
228. COAL. — Accidents, 1892. Explosions, &c. 
Yniscelyn colliery in Ystradgynlais, Brecon, 
derangement of machinery, 7 deaths, 24 
Aug. Park Slip colliery, Aberkenfig-cefn, 
near Bridgend, S. Wales ; out of 151 persons, 
there were 112 deaths, 26 Aug. Mr. Asquith, 
the home secretary, visited the place, 

28 Aug. 

Agrappe colliery, Frameries, Belgium ; 25 
deaths 1 Sept. 

134. COLOUR. (Foot note.)— The Royal Society 

commission appointed in March to consider 



1892 



xEo-j 



PAGE 

colour blindness, reported in May, 1892 ; 
Holmgren's method of testing by the use of 
skeins of coloured wool was recommended. 
236 COMMERCE.— The proposal to establish " a 
chamber of arbitration," or "tribunal of 
commerce" at Guildhall, London, for the 
city, to decide on cases of arbitration, &c, 
was adopted, July ; its functions to com- 
mence Nov. 

242. CONGO.— The killing of M. de Poumayrac in 
debatable land causes a territory dispute 
between France and Belgium ; the Congo 
state declines responsibility ; arbitration pro- 
posed and deferred, July, Aug. ; the French 
demand indemnity and evacuatior. of the land, 
7 Aug. ; the death of M. Poumayrac and some 
of his party, attributed to indiscreet dealings 
with the natives .... Sept. 

Reported rising of the Arabs in the Upper 
Congo, and massacre of Europeans, anti- 
slavery agents, &c, including M. Hodister, 
an able officer of the Katanga company, 12 
Aug. ; fighting with slave-traders, conflicting 
reports, Aug. ; report of the massacre of M. 
Hodister confirmed . . .14 Sept. 

Major de Wagis, vice-governor, appointed 
governor .... about 26 Aug. 

254. COSTA RICA. — President Rodriguez declares 
himself dictator and arrests opponents 

13 Sept. 
270. DAHOMEY. —Col. Dodds, commander of the 
French expedition, arrives at Kotonou, 28 
May ; Whydah occupied by 4,000 French 
troops, 11 June ; the coast blockaded, 16 
June ; several villages bombarded, about 5 
July ; the coast bombarded, 9 Aug. et seq. 
Taku captured, 20 Aug. ; Katngu taken, 24 
Aug. ; reinforcements from France arrive, 
24 Aug. ; about 4,000 Dahomeyans defeated 
with heavy loss in an attack on col. Dodds' 
column at Dogba ; French loss slight ; com- 
mandant Faurax killed, 17 or 19. Sept. ; 
Dahomeyans again defeated . 4 Oct. 

298. DUBLIN. — New city market, shops, &c, de- 
stroyed by fire, very great loss, 27 Aug. ; 
public meeting to raise a fund for restora- 
tion ...... 29 Aug. 

307. EARTHQUAKES. —San Cristobal, Mexico, 
every building destroyed, thousands homeless, 
30 July, 

Shocks in W. and S. W. England, from Swan- 
sea to Cornwall and Ireland ; little damage ; 
boats injured by tidal wave . 17, 18 Aug. 
341. ENGLAND. — Dissolution of parliament, 28 
June ; general election : conservatives, 268 ; 
liberal unionists, 47 (315) ; liberals (Glad- 
stonians), 270 ; Parnellites, 9 ; anti-Parnell- 
ites, 72 ; labour members, 4 (355) ; total, 670 
23 July, 

Death of Robert Lowe, viscount Sherbrooke, 
statesman, aged 80 . . . 27 July, 

Visit of the German emperor . . 1-8 Aug. 

Meeting of parliament, 4 Aug. ; want of con- 
fidence in the Salisbury ministry voted 
(350 — 310), 11 Aug. ; the ministry resigns, 

13 Aug. 

Mr. Gladstone's ministry conatituted, 

18 Aug. et seq. 

Parliament prorogued till 4 Nov . 18 Aug. 

Death of Alfred, lord Tennyson, poet-laureate, 
6 Oct. ; aged 83. 
357. EXECUTIONS.— Henry Pickering, murder of 
wife ; Leeds .... 14 June, 

John Gurd, alias Louis Hamilton, murder of 
Henry Richards : Devizes . . 26 July, 

John G. Wenzel, murder of Joseph Joyce, a 
police officer ; and James Taylor, murder of 
wife ; Newgate .... 16 Aug. 

Patrick Gibbons, murder of mother; Liver- 
pool . . ... 17 Aug. 

EXPORTS.— 1891, 247,23^150^. 



1S92 



60. 
374- 



FIRES IN LONDON.— Mr. S. Burrows' danc- 
ing academy, Hargrave-park-road, Upper 
Holloway ; Win. Smart and Wm. Abernetliy, 
firemen, killed .... 10 June, 

Jewin-street and crescent, Aldersgate-street, 



ADDENDA. 



113.5 



premises belonging to the Goldsmiths' com- 
pany, tenanted by the London Printing and 
Publishing Alliance, and others . 29 Aug. 1 
407. FRANCE. — Tour of president Carnot ; present 
at the Nancy fetes . . . 5, 6 June, 1 
The due de la Rochefoucauld's declaration of 
submission to the pope in matters of the 
faith, but not in state affairs, signed by 40 
of the 70 royalist deputies . . 9 June, 
Ravachol, on his confession of robbing and 
murdering Jean Rivollier, an aged hermit 
at Varizelle, sentenced to death at Mont- 
brison, 23 June ; executed . 11 July, 
31. Godefroy Cavaignac, minister of marine, 
resigns (censured in relation to Dahomey) ; 
succeeded by M. Burdeau . . n July, 
M. Ressmann, new Italian ambassador, re- 
ceived by the president . . 11 July, 
Government protest against the presence of 
Protestant missionaries in Algeria, 

about 5 July, 
Decree signed for the Universal exhibition, 
5 May— 31 Oct. 1900 . . . 13 July, 

Naval manoeuvres near Brest, &c, 

24 July et seq. 
Faugoux and three other anarchists, sen- 
tenced to penal servitude (for 20, 10, 6, 5 
years) for stealing dynamite . 28 July, 
Disputes between the mining company at Car- 
maux, in the department of Tarn, and their 
workmen respecting the dismissal of M. 
Calvignac, a socialist workman and secre- 
tary of the miners' union, who had been 
elected mayor, and consequently neglected 
his work ; a general strike with much riot- 
ing ensues, Aug.-Sept. ; great meeting at 
Paris to support the strike 7 Sept. ; order 
maintained by the military . about 27 Sept. 
Centenary of the proclamation of the first re- 
public celebrated by the people at Paris, 
Lyons, and other cities . . 22 Sept. 
Death of Ernest Renan, scholar . 2 Oct. 
438. GERMANY. — The government warns its re- 
presentatives abroad against prince Bis- 
marck's strictures on its policy, May — July, ii 
Prince Bismarck visits Jena, makes defensive 
speeches . . . . 30, 31 July, 
The emperor visits England . 1-8 Aug. 
The armour-clad Hildebrand, and the iron-clad 
Worth, launched at Kiel . . 7 Aug. 
444. GLASS. — The manufacture of Venetian glass 
probably introduced from Constantinople 
and perfected in the 15th and following cen- 
turies. Venetian glass is now manufactured 
at Venice and in England (1892) by Dr. Sal- 
viati ; he presented a splendid glass vase to 
the queen on the anniversary of her corona- 
tion day, 28 June, 1892. See Mosaics. 
472. HEAT, see United States, July, 1892. A wave 
of intense heat passed over Europe, causing 
many deaths, 19-22 Aug. 1892. Tempera- 
ture in the shade, Paris, gC'^ 19 Aug. ; 
Trieste, no°, 21 Aug. ; Vienna, icv" 1 , 18 Aug. ; 
102°, 21 Aug. ; Berlin, 95°, 20 Aug. ; Madrid, 
106°, 17 Aug. ; Seville, 120°, 15 Aug. 
480. HOLLAND. — A section of the Merwede canal 
from Amsterdam to the north of the Leek, 
opened in presence of the queen and queen- 
regent 4 Aug. 1 

494. IDAHO. — Conflicts among the miners at 
Coeur d'Alene ; 4 non-union men killed, 
11 July; union men victors, state of re- 
bellion declared ; several soldiers and 
unionists killed ; martial law ; railway 
bridges blown up to stop troops coming, 
14, 15 July ; insurrection suppressed by 
president Harrison's proclamation, 

15-18 July, 1 
508. INDIA.— Petition of the Currency Association 
to parliament respecting the depreciation of 
the rupee largely signed at Calcutta, Bom- 
bay, Madras, <fcc. .... Aug. 1 
Earl of Kimberley appointed secretary for 

India 18 Aug. 

Expedition (5000 men) against the Black Moun- 
tain tribes organized under col. sir W. Lock- 
hart ... ... Sept. 



526. IRELAND.— Elections : Parnellites, 9; anti- 

Parnellites, 72 . . . . j u]yi l8g2 
Lord Houghton appointed . lord lieutenant, 
Mr. John Morley chief secretary . 18 Aug. 
Operation of the Crimes act in county Mayo ' 
and other formerly disturbed counties sus- 
pended, 12 Aug.; in all Ireland, and the 
National League declared legal . 13 Sept. 
Outrages by "moonlighters" near Macroom' ' 

Cork x g s e pt' 

Mr. John Morley, in a letter to Mr. Justin M'Carthv', " 

announces the coming appointment of "a 

commission to inquire into the position of 

evicted tenants .... 26 Sept. 

537. ITALY.— Ministerial victory in the chambers' 

(majority, 194) . . . . It June! l8 
I he king and queen received at Potsdam by 
the German emperor . . 20-24 June 
Death of general Cialdini, duke of Gaeta, emi- ' 
nent patriot and soldier, aged 81 . 8 Sept 

578. LIBERIA.— Martha Anna Ricks, a freed ' 

negress, aged 76, from Liberia, received by 
the queen at Windsor, 16 July ; the queen 
and Mrs. Ricks exchange portraits . Sept. 1802 

579. LIBRARIES. — The magnificent Althorp 

library, collected by George John, earl 
Spencer, was described and "illustrated by 
Dr. T. F. Dibdin in his " Bibliotheca Spen- 
cenana," 7 vols., published 1814-23. It 
was privately sold by the present earl to 
Mrs. Rylands, widow of John Rvlands, a 
cotton manufacturer, and added to a public 
library, founded by her in Manchester as a 
memorial of her husband ; announced, Auk. 1802 

587. LIVERPOOL.-Mr. W. B. Levy and Mr. G. 
J. Cohen, residuary legatees of Mr. David 
Lewis, merchant, in accordance with his 
wishes, present about 350,000?. to the work- 
ing-classes of Liverpool and Manchester ; 

announced, June, 1892 

596. LONDON UNIVERSITY— The establishment 
of a "Professoral university" for London 
was proposed in June, 1892, by sir H. E. 
Roscoe, professors Rucker, E. Ray Lan- 
caster, and others. 

617. MANSION-HOUSE FUNDS.— St. John's, New- 
foundland, fire, relief fund for the sufferers 
started 12 July; received up to 15 July, 
6,oooL (the queen 50?. the prince of Wales 
16I. 5s., city of London corporation 210Z., 
Goldsmith's company 500?., and other com- 
panies ; sir Donald A. Smith i,oool.); 
2i,oooZ., 20 Aug. ; 22,359;. . 27 Sept. 1892 

Park Slip colliery relief fund opened, 29 Aug. ; 
the queen, 100Z. ; the marquis of Bute, 500?. ; 
the lord mayor, D. Evans, 500?. ; received 
up to 14 Sept. 3,300?. . . . Sept. ,, 

65L MOROCCO.— Sir C. Euan Smith's negocia- 
tions for a commercial treaty fail; the 
mission withdraws to Tangier, 12 July et seq. 1892 
Rebellion of 1,200 Angherites, or Anjerites, 
headed by Hmam, a desperate fanatic 
(chiefly against the governor), near Tangier, 
about 27 July ; indecisive conflicts, July, 
Aug. ; negociations, 16, 17 Aug. ; the An- 
gherites defeated after severe fighting; 
they sue for peace, 4 Sept. ; a new governor 
appointed, reported 13 Sept. ; peace pro- 
claimed T g Sept. ,, 

672. NAVY OF ENGLAND.— St. George, first-class 

battleship, launched at Hull . 23 June, 1892 
Naval manoeuvres, 5-13 Aug. 19 battleships 
and 17 other vessels engaged. Red squadron : 
2 divisions under adm. H. Fairfax and rear- 
adm. R. O'B. Fitzroy ; Blue squadron under 
H. C. St. John. Manoeuvres in theSt. George's 
Channel and Irish Sea. The two Red divi- 
sions eventually unite and capture the Blue 
squadron, the proposed object . 11 Aug. ,, 
Barfleur, ironclad, launched at Chatham, 

10 Aug. ,, 
Royal Naixd Fund for the relief of widows and 
orphans was founded by means of the sur- 
plus from the Naval exhibition of 1891 
{which sec) . . . . . 29 June, „ 
The Leda and Alarm, gunboats, launched at 
Sheerness . . . I3 Sept. , 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
July, 1867, to July, 1877. 

BEING AN ALPHABETICAL RECORD OF IMPORTANT PACTS AND OCCURRENCES DURING THOSE 
YEARS ; INCLUDING ALSO TOPICS OMITTED IN FORMER EDITIONS. 



ABATTOIR. December 28, 1871, was opened at Deptford, a market and 
slaughter- house, where all foreign cattle for London consumption must 
be landed and slaughtered. Cost, more than £194,000. 

ABYSSINIA. Theodore, the native King of Abyssinia, having imprisoned 
several English subjects, an expedition under Sir Robert Napier invaded 
the country, and on April 13, 1868, stormed Magdala, the king's strong- 
hold, on which he killed himself. Cost of the war to England, £8 ,300,000. 
Napier was created Baron Napier of Magdala, with a pension of £2,000 
a year. King John, or Johanni, a successor of Theodore, has. since his 
death, maintained a defensive war against the Khedive of Egypt, whose 
troops entered Abyssinia, but were surprised and defeated with much 
slaughter, in 1874 or 1875. In 1870, however, John was totally defeated, 
and treated for peace ; was again defeated after breaking truce ; but the 
later results of the war have been indecisive. 

ACCAD. Accad or Akkad, and Sumer or Sumir, are the names given to 
two pre-historic countries, whose people, called Accadians and Sumerians, 
are supposed to have used two differing dialects found in the cuneiform 
inscriptions of Assyria. No dates are ascertained about them, but the 
former were in the southeast of Babylonia, while the Sumer were in the 
northeast. 

ACCIDENTS. (See also Collisions, Earthquakes, Exphsions, Fires, Floods, 
Railroad Accidents, S/iipwrecIcs, Storms ) From 1864 to 1874 inclusive, 
about 11,000 deaths by accident took place in England and Wales, a large 
proportion of them from coal-mine casualties. January 15, 1867, the ice 
broke uuder the skaters on the lake in the Regent's Park, London, letting 
several hundred persons into the water. Forty were drowned. July 31 , 1868, 
a false alarm of fire was raised in Lang's Victoria Music Hall, at Manches- 
ter. England, and in the panic rush to escape, between twenty and thirty 
were killed. July 27, 1869. Rev. J. M. Elliott, an Englishman, lost his 
foothold, and fell from near the summit of the Schreckhorn, in Switzer- 
land, a distance of 1,000 feet or more, and was killed. October 1, 1869, a 
firework dealer's shop, in Bayswater, London, blew up, killing seven out 
of thirteeu persons then asleep in the house August 2, 1870, on Mont 
Blanc, an English lady, Mrs. Marke, and her guide fell into a crevasse, 
and were killed. August 11, 1871, at Stowmarket, England, an explosion of 
gun-cotton stored there kill ed 24 and wounded 72 persons. December 30, 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 



1871, at Glasgow, a road locomotive, known as Yuille's Traction Engine, 
used to drag heavy machinery for shipping, exploded its boiler, killing five 
persons and wounding some 40 more, mostly children, who had gathered 
round it out of curiosity. 

ADMINISTRATIONS. England. (See pp. 71, 208-210.) Disraeli resigns, 
and Gladstone becomes premier, December 2, 1868 ; Robert Lowe, John 
Bright, G. J. Goschen, W. E. Forster, and others becoming members of 
the Government. This ministry carried the disestablishment of the 
Irish Church, in 1869, and the ballot in 1872. Mr. Gladstone, having 
lost his majority at the election of February, 1874, resigned, February 14, 
and Mr. Disraeli resumed the premiership, his cabinet consisting of the Ear] 
oi Derby, the Marquis of Salisbury, etc. 

ADMINISTRATIONS. United States. ^See pp. 70, 205.) 



Ulysses S. Grant, 
Schuyler Colfax, 
Hamilton Fish, 
Geo. S. Boutwell, 

A. E. Borie, 
Goo. M. Robeson, 
Gen. Schofleld, 
Gen. J. A. Rawlins, 
Gen. W. W. Belknap, 
James Harlan, 
Gen. J. D. Cox, 
Columbus Delano, 
J. A. J. Creswell, 
E. R. Hoar, 
A. T. Akerman, 
Gk H. Williams, 



Grant's First Administration. 
Illinois, March 4, 

Indiana, March 4, 

New York, March, 

Massachusetts, March, 



Pennsylvania, 
New Jersey, 

Illinois, 

Iowa, 

Iowa, 

Ohio, 

Ohio, 

Maryland, 

Massachusetts, 

Georgia, 

Oregon, 



March. 

June 25, 

March, 

March, 

Sept., 

March, 

June, 
March, 



1869 

1869 
1869 
1869 

1869 1 

1869 f 
1869 
1809 
1869 
1869) 

1870 > 
1870 \ 
1869 
1869 
1871 
1871 



President. 
Vice-President. 
Secretary of State. 
Secretary of the 
'Treasury. 

Secretaries of Navy. 



Secretaries of War. 

Secretaries of Inte- 
rior. 
Postmaster General. 

Attorneys-General. 



Ulysses S. Grant, 
Henry Wilson, 
Thos. W. Ferry, 

Hamilton Fish, 
Wm. A. Richardson, 
Benj. J. Bristow, 
Lot M. Morrill, 
Wm. W. Belknap, 
J. D. Cameron, 
Geo. M. Robeson, 
Columbus Delano, 
Zach. Chandler. 
Geo. H. Williams, 
Edwards Pierrepoint, 
Alphonso Taf t, 
John A. J. Creswell, 
Marshall Jewell, 
James N. Tyner, 



Rutherford B . Hayes, 
Wm. A. Wheeler, 
Wm. M. Evarts, 
John Sherman, 

Geo. W. McCrary, 
Richard W. Thompson, 
Carl Sctmrz, 
Charles Devens, 
David M. Key, 



Grant's Second Administration. 

Illinois, March 4, 1S73 

Massachusetts, March 4, 1873 

Michigan, 



New York, 

Massachusetts, 

Kentucky, 

Vermont, 

Iowa, 

Pennsylvania, 

New Jersey, 

Ohio, 

Michigan, 

Oregon, 

New York, 

Ohio, 

Maryland, 

Connecticut, 

Indiana, 

Hates' Administration. 



March 4, 1869 



President. 
Vice-President. 
President of Senate 

pro tern. 
Secretary of State. 

Secretaries of Tread 
ury. 

!• Secretaries of War. 

Secretary of Navy. 
(Secretaries of Inte 
( rior. 

> Attorneys- General. 

> Postmasters-General. 



Ohio, 

New York, 
New York, 
Ohio, 

Iowa, 

Indiana, 

Missouri, 

Massachusetts, 

Tennegsaa, 



March 4, 1877 
March 4. 1877 



President. 
Vice-President. 
Secretary of State. 
Secretary of Treas- 
ury. 
Secretary of War. 
Secretary of Navy. 
Secretary of Interior 
Attorney-Gene cat 
Postmaster-Qe: tral 



1867-77. 5 

AFGHANISTAN. (See p. 213. ) Runjeet Singh, a Sikh by race, and King 
of Lahore, conquered most of Afghanistan about 1818; Dost Mohammed 
became ruler of it, 1829 ; took Herat May 26, 1863 ; succeeded by his son, 
Shere Ali, June 9, 1863 ; who has had much trouble and warfare with 
divers of his fifteen brothers and his other relatives, and has only been 
maintained by English aid. 

AFRICA. (See pp. 72, 213.) Zambesi River explored by Livingstone, 1851-6 
and 1858-64 ; his book published November, 1865. Stanley, sent by 
Bennett of the New York Herald, reported having met Livingstone at 
Ujiji. November 10, 1871, and having remained with him until March 14, 
1872. Livingstone died at Itala, in Central Africa, May 1, 1873 ; his 
remains were brought to England and buried in Westminster Abbey, 
April 18, 1874; his last journals published December, 1874. Lieut. 
Cameron crossed Africa from Zanzibar westward to the Portuguese settle- 
ments on the west coast, arriving November 21, 1875. Stanley's second 
expedition for the New York Herald and London Telegraph, 1875-6. 

AGRICULTURE. (See pp. 73, 214.) Farm products of the United States, 
exclusive of live stock, year ending June 1, 1870, $2,445,000,000. A 
"Union" of English agricultural laborers to secure better wages and 
social amelioration generally, was established mainly by the efforts of 
Joseph Arch, himself formerly a laborer, at Leamington, Warwickshire, 
March 29, 1872, and has attained some influence. 

ALABAMA CLAIMS. The Alabama rebel armed steamer, Raphael Semmea 
commander, was built by Messrs. Laird, of Birkenhead, England, for the 
Rebel States of America, and launched May 15, 1862, and sailed July 28, 
1862, one day before the English government telegraphed to detain her. 
She was destroyed and sunk in a sea-fight off Cherbourg by the U. S 
steamer-of-war Kearsarge, Capt. Winslow, June 19, 1864, after having 
done immense damage to American commerce. During 1865 the United 
States and English governments discussed the question of English respon- 
sibility for this damage ; a convention was agreed upon on the subject 
November 10, 1868, which came to nothing ; another, signed by Lord 
Clarendon and Mr. Reverdy Johnson, January 14, 1869, was rejected by 
the United States Senate April 13, 1869 ; a joint convention on this and 
other matters signed a treaty at Washington, May 8, 1871, providing 
a mode of settlement by arbitration ; Arbitration Commission met 
formally at Geneva, December 18, 1871, and the American and British 
cases were presented December 20. Indirect claims and the whole 
attitude of the English Government caused much excitement in England ; 
indirect claims mutually resigned by supplementary treaty, appr ved by 
Senate May -5, 1872. The arbitration tribunal, composed of Count 
Frederic Sclopis, for Italy, President ; Baron Staempfli, for Switzer- 
land ; Viscount d'ltajuba, for Brazil ; Sir Alexander E. Cockburn, for 
England ; Mr. C. F. Adams, for the United States, met at Geneva and 
opened business June 15, 1872. After presentation of cases and argu- 
ment, the final meeting was held September 14, 1872, and damages 
awarded to the United States, unanimously for injuries by the Alabama, 
by four arbitrators for those by the Florida, and by three for those by 
the Shenandoah. Total of award, $15,000,000. The total of the United 
States claims, after dropping the indirect claims, was about three times 
as much. The English arbitrator, Sir A. E. Cockburn, refused to sign 
the j ldgment, mainly on the ground that the Florida and Shenandoah 



6 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 

claims were improperly allowed. A large proportion of this sum remained 
after all the awards of the Court of Claims established by the Unitec 
States to decide who should receive the money, which as yet (August, 
1877), remains in the U. S. Treasury. 

ALASKA. Bought from Russia by the United States by treaty of March 
13, 1867, for $7,200,000, which was paid August 1, 1868. Principal 
settlement, Sitka. The United States military occupation discontinued 
in 1877. 

ALSACE. Alsace (German, Blsass), was anciently part of Austrasia ; joined 
to the German empire in tenth century ; part recovered by France, 1648 ; 
the rest, 1697; conquered and occupied by the Germans, 1870-1 ; ceded 
by France to Germany by treaty of May 10, 1871 ; the law completing 
the annexation passed June 9, 1871. The people allowed to choose their 
nationality, and those preferring France to emigrate with their property 
before September 30, 1872. Many did so. Part of Lorraine (which see) 
including Metz and Thionville, was ceded and annexed with Alsace. 

ANILINE. Discovered by Unverdorben in 1826, in distilling indigo ; ob- 
tained from benzole by Bechamp, 1856; "mauve" applied in dyeing by 
W. A. Perkin, 1856 ; since used to produce red, blue, violet, and green 
colors. 

ANIMALS, CRUELTY TO. (See p. 76.) The establishment of societies for 
preventing cruelty to animals in England and Europe was followed by the 
organization of a similar one, chiefly by the efforts of Mr. Henry Bergh, in 
New York City, incorporated April 10, 1866, and of one in Boston, incor- 
porated March 23, 1868, which have been efficient. 

ARCH. The arch was long supposed a Roman invention ; but very ancient 
arches have been found in bridges in China, and in temples and other 
structures in Egypt and Assyria. Tbe arching in the Cloaca Maxima at 
Rome is thought the oldest in Europe, and dates to about 588 B c. ; and 
those found in the ruins of Assyrian cities are considered the oldest in the 
world. 

ARCHAEOLOGY. (See Curium; Mycenae; Olympia ; Pre-historia Man; 
Troy.) 

ARCH.330PTERYX. (" Primeval bird.") Fossil remains found at Sol- 
enhofen in Bavaria, in 1861, by H. Von Meyer and Dr. Haberlein. It had 
some reptilian traits in its structure- -teeth in its jaws, and a tail with 
feathers radiating from it. It was described by Owen in 1863. 

ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS. (See pp. 78, 229.) Captain C. F. Hall's first 
voyage of discovery was 1860-62 ; he ascertained that Frobisher's so- 
called strait is a bay, and gained experience of Eskimo life. His second 
voyage, in the Monticello, began June 30, 1864; results nob remarkable. 
His third, in the Polaris, began July 3, 1871, and he took his ship to 82° 
16' north latitude, the northernmost point so far. He died in the Arctic 
regions, November 8, 1871. Polaris wintered at northernmost point so 
far, 81° 38' ; set out to return under Budington, August 12, 1872; in a 
panic in the ice, October 15, Tyson and nineteen more were left on a floe, 
and were rescued April 30, 1873, after a remarkable drift. Tbe ship re- 
mained with the other fourteen persons a second winter ; they left in 
boats built from her materials, June 3, 1873, and were picked up by a 
whaler. The " first German expedition," under Capt. Karl Koldewey, of 
eleven men only, in the Germania, to the east coast of Greenland and 



18(37-77. 7 

Spitzbergen, set out September 80, 1868. The ' ' second German expedi- 
won," in the Germania^oA. Hansa, under Koldewey, sailed from Bremer- 
haven, June 15, 1869. Hansa was lost in the ice, crew escaping ; coal 
discovered in east Greenland ; Oermania wintered at Sabine Island ; 
sledge parties reached 77° 1' N. L. Expedition reached home September 
11, 1870. The "Austrian expedition" in the Teyetthoff, under Wey- 
precht and Payer, by way of the seas between Spitzbergen and No- 
vaia Zemlia (Nova Zembla), left Tromsoe in Norway, July 14, 1872 ; dis- 
covered Franz Josef Land, in 79 43' N., August 30, 1873 ; reached 79° 
58' N. ; left the Tegetthoff in the ice, May. 20, 1874, and escaped in boats, 
reaching Europe early in September, 1874. Captain (afterwards Sir George) 
Nares's expedition, in the Alert and Discovery, left Portsmouth, May 29, 

1875. September 1st, she reached 82° 24', and wintered in 82° 27' north, 
the furthest point reached by any ship. That winter was noted the 
severest cold ever known in Arctic regions, reaching to 73 -7 below 
zero ; a mean for seven days of 58 17 ; for thirteen days of 58"9 ; and 
for five days of 66 29 degrees below zero. Ascertained tbat there is no 
" open Polar sea." but instead, a " palseocrystic sea," or " sea of ancient 
ice," which is, it was found, almost impossible to traverse. Sledge parties 
explored the coast eastward and westward, and another reached the 
northernmost point yet attained by man, being 83° 20' 26", within 400 
miles of the North Pole. The expedition returned to England in October, 

1876. A sharp controversy followed as to the proper victualling of the 
expedition, and the responsibility for the severe attacks of scurvy which 
had been suffered by most of the party. 

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. (See p. 79.) Don Domingo F. Sarmiento was 
elected President for six years, October 12, 1868 ; Dr. Avellaneda was in- 
augurated for six years, October 12, 1874 ; an insurrection under Mitre at 
Buenos Ayres was ended by his submission, December 2, 1874 ; the Na- 
tional Bank stopped and the government suspended specie payments, 
May 16, 1876. 

ARMY, English. (Seep. 232.) In 1869, it was stated in the English 
Parliament that each regular soldier cost per year in Prussia, £33 ; in 
France, £37; in England, £100; being nearly $165, $185, and $500. By 
Order in Council, 1870, Queen Victoria surrendered the royal prerogative 
of governing the army, and the General-in-Chief, instead of continuing an 
agent of the crown, was formally declared subordinate to the Minister of 
War. November 1, 1871, the practice of buying and selling commissions 
in the British army was stopped by royal warrant, dated July 20, 1871. 
Appointment and promotion by examination, merit, and seniority were 
substituted. 
The English military force in 1876 was thus constituted : 

Arm} 7 in United Kingdom 36,275 

" inlndia :... 62,850 

Militia 274,175 

Yeoman cavalry 15,078 

Volunteers 168,750 

Enrolled pensioners and army reserve 31,000 

Total men 648,128 

The sum voted for military purposes for the year 1876-7, was £15,282,- 
000 ; that for 1855-6 (Russian war), £32,006,603 ; and that for 1815 (la»t 
year of wa- with Napoleon), £39,150,000. 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 



AEMY, European. Estimated total of European armies in 1863. 
lion men, one million horses, 11,000 cannon. European armies 
were nearly as follows : 

Wab 

FOOTING. 

838,700 

100,000 

48.936 

1,750,000 

2,800.000 

748,128 



Peace 
footing. 

Austro-Hungary 278,470 

Belgium 40,000 

Denmark ... 35,(557 

Prance 430,703 

Germany 419,738 

Great Britain 288,781 

Gieece (nominal). . . 14,061 

Italy 199,557 

Netherlands 97, 359 

Portugal 18,195 



750,000 
208,359 
68,450 



Peace 

FOOTING 

Russia 765,872 

Spain 151,668 

Sweden 132,775 

(Norway) 12,750 

Switzerland 

Turkey. 170,376 

Bonmanm 34,647 

Servia 4.000 



six mil' 

in 1876, 

Wab 

FOOTING. 

3,300,000 



Totals 3,094,609 




Peace footings not carried forward 345,891 



Total war armies of Europe more than 11,723,081 

AEMY, U. S. (See p. 79.) Expenses of the War Department for 



1872 $35,372,157.20 

1873 46,323,138.31 

1874 42,313,927.22 

1875 41,120,645.98 

1876.. 38,070,888.64 



1867 $95,224,415.63 

1868 123,246,648.62 

1869 78,501,990.61 

1870 57,655,675.40 

1871 35,799,991.82 

Regular army in 1877 about 25,000 men, and this total in process of re- 
duction. 

ARTILLERY. (See Ordnance.) 

ASHANTEE. The Ashantees defeated Sir Charles M'Carthy at Accra, 
January 21, 1824, and carried off his skull as a trophy. Col. Purdon 
totally defeated them August 7, 1826. War was begun against them 
again by the English in 1863, but suspended from sickness of troops. 
Expedition under Sir Garnet Wolseley sailed from England September 
12, 1873 ; English force, after a severe campaign, entered Coomassie, 
the Ashantee capital, February 4, 1874 ; the king, Koffee Kalcalli, re- 
fusing proposals, his palace and city burned February 6th ; a treaty, 
prohibiting human sacrifices, and providing for 50,000 ounces of gold 
indemnity to the English, signed February 13th. The expedition cost 
about £900,000. 

ASSASSINATIONS. June 6, 1867, one Berezowski, a Pole, fired two 
shots at the Czar of Russia, then in Paris, but missed. He was trans- 
ported for life. Michael Obrenovitch, Prince of Servia, was assassinated 
at Belgrade. June 10, 1868, as was believed in consequence of a con- 
spiracy to place Prince Karageorgewictz on the throne. March 12, 1868. 
in New South Wales, at a public picnic, one O'Farrell shot the Duke of 
Edinburgh in the back, intending to kill him. O'Farrell, who avowed 
himself a Fenian, was hanged. April 7, 1868, Hon. Thomas D'Arcy M'Gee 
was shot dead from behind at his own door, by one Whelan, a Fenian, in 
consequence of his opposition to the Fenians. December 28, 1870, 
Marshal Prim was shot by night in the streets of Madrid, the assassin 
escaping, and died in two days. September 20, 1871, at Calcutta, Mr. 
Justice Norman, acting Chief Justice, was murdered, being stabbed by 
a native. February 8, 1872, Lord Mayo, Governor-General of India, 
assassinated at Port Blair, on the Andaman Islands, by a Mol lammedan 
convict named Shere Ali. 

ASSYRIA. (See pp. 234-235.) The results of Mr. Layard's investigations 



1867-77. 9 

at Nineveh were published in his " Nineveh and its Remains," 1848, and 
in his "Discoveries," 1853. Botta's explorations at Khorsabad began 
1843; his " Monuments de Ninive " appeared 1849-50. Mr. George 
Smith's "Assyrian Discoveries" appeared' 1875, and his ''Ohaldean 
Account of Genesis" in 1876. Mr. Smith died at Aleppo, August 19, 
1876, while pushing further investigations. An Assyrian grammar (of 
the language of the cuneiform or arrow-headed inscriptions) was pub- 
lished by Mr. A. H. Sayce in 1875; an Assyrian dictionary by Norris, in 
1868 ; and eight volumes of (translated) Assyrian Teste, bv Birch, in 
1874-77. 

ASTRONOMY. (See pp. 81, 235.) The planet Neptune wa3 discovered 
September 23, 1846 ; the moon was photographed by Bond, 1851 ; spec- 
trum analysis first used in astronomy in 1861 ; Warren De la Rue's first 
large photograph of the moon was made in 1863. The transit of Venus 
of December 9 (astronomical day, December 8), 1874, was extensively 
observed at the expense of several governments, with good results. From 
April, 1868, to August 29, 1876, were discovered Nos. 98 to 167 of the 
asteroids. 

ATCHINESE WAR. Atchin or Acheen, a native state of Sumatra. The 
Dutch hostilities against it took place from April, 1873 to 1876, ending in 
victory by the Dutch. 

ATHANASIAN CREED. (Seep 236.) It is asserted in Lumby's "His- 
tory of the Creeds " (1874), that this creed was not composed by Athana- 
sius, but consists of two distinct parts ; was put into its present form 
between ad. 813 and 850, first imputed to Athanasiua by any respect- 
able authority 809, and accepted by the Greek Church about 1200. Much 
opposition to the use of this creed in England, and efforts to stop com- 
pulsory reading of it in public, 1870 to 1873. 

ATOMIC THEORY,, Dalton's system of atomic weights assumes hydrogen 
as 1 ; that of Berzelius assumes oxygen as 100, and is that used on the 
continent of Europe. 

ATOMS. The number of ultimate atoms in one drop of water has been 
recently computed by Sir William Thomson, at 100,000,000,000,000,000,- 
000.000,000, or one hundred trillions of quadrillions. 

AUSTRIA. (See pp. 82. 239.) Francis Joseph, October 20, 1860, issued a 
"•diploma," which gave legislative power to the assemblies of the provin- 
cial states, constituting Austria, and also to the Reichsrath or Council of 
the Empire. Hungary was granted self-government February 17, 1867. 
By decree of November 14, 1868, Austria assumed the official name o£ 
"The Austro-Hungarian Monarchy." The population of Austria, Decem- 
ber 31, 1869, was: 

Cis-Leithan provinces 20,394,980 

Trans-Leithan provinces 15,509,455 

35,904,435 
The Cis-Leithan provinces (viz., those reckoned on the hither side of 
the river Leithe), are : Galicia, Bohemia, Silesia, Moravia, the two 
Austrias (Upper and Lower), Styria, the Tyrol and Vorarlberg, Salzburg-, 
Carinthia, Carniola, Trieste and Istria, Dalmatia, the Bukovina. The 
Trans-Leithan are : Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia, Slavonia, and the 
city of Fiuice. The Reichsrath became a national representative assem- 
bly by reform bill of March 10, 1873. 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



B. 



BABISM. A Persian religious doctrine, first promulgated, 1843, at Shiraz, 
by Mirza Ali Mahornmed, who called himself the Bab (gate) of knowl- 
edge, gave a new exposition of the Koran, and claimed to be an incarna- 
tion of the Holy Spirit. The " Babis" were tolerated by Shah Mahorn- 
med, but were nearly all killed by his successor, the present Shah, in 
1848-9, the Bab bimself being exeouted, July 15, 1849. The sect is said 
to be now (1877) quite numerous again. 

BABY FARMING. September 23, 1870, in England, Margaret Waters was 
convicted of the wilful murder of a child entrusted to her. She had been 
in the baby farming busines3 four years, and confessed to having received 
some forty children. She was condemned to death, and hanged October 
11, after having confessed that five others of the children in her care had 
died. 

BALLOONS. (See pp. 83, 243. ) Used with a good deal of success during the 
siege of Paris by the Germans, September and October, 1870, for carrying 
mail matter out of the city, and for escapes by individuals. Up to April, 
1867, Mr. Coxwell is said to have made 550 successful ascents ; and Charles 
Green, who died March 27, 1870, aged 84, had made 600. In an ascent 
from near Paris, April 15, 1875', by Messrs. Tissandier, Croce, Spinelli, 
and Sivel, after having reached a height of 26,160 feet (nearly five miles), 
Croce threw out ballast and they ascended rapidly to an unknown height. 
But the latter two men died there of suffocation, and Tissandier only got 
down alive. Glaisher and Coxwell, at Wolverhampton, July 17, 1862, 
had ascended about 7 miles, but at 5f miles Glaisher became insensible, 
and Coxwell lost the use of his hands, and only escaped death by opening 
the valve with his teeth and thus bringing down the balloon. 

BALLOT. (Seep. 83.) Secret ballot was adopted in Victoria (Australia), 
1856; employed in electing school-board in nine districts in London, No- 
vember 29, 1870 ; recommended for general use in the Queen's speech, 
February 9, 1871, and bill for it passed the Commons and rejected in the 
Lords, 97 to 48, August 10, 1871. Bill providing for its use until Decem- 
ber 31, 1880, became a law July 13, 1872 ; Mr. H. B. Childers was chosen 
member of Parliament for Pontefract by ballot August 15, 1872, with no 
difficulty ; the method has worked well enough since. 

BAMPTON LECTURES. Delivered annually at Oxford, on theological 
subjects, and paid for by funds left for the purpose by Rev. John Bamp- 
ton, who died 1751. The first lecture was by Rev. Dr. Bandinel, in 1780. 

BANKRUPTCY. (See pp. 84, 245.) Bankrupt peers decided incompetent 
to sit in English House of Lords, February 10, 1871, and a law expressly 
so providing was passed July 13, 1871. In the United States and Canada 
there were failures and liabilities as follows : 

FAILUKES. LIABILITIES. 

Year ending June 30. 1876. 8,776 $233,632,516 

Year ending June 30, 1877. 9,241 182,308,435 

BATHOMETER, for deep-sea sounding without lead and line, invented and 
improved 1861-76, by Dr. C. W. Siemens. It operates by registering thf 
lessening of the earth's attraction of gravitation on the surface of the 
ocean from what it would be on solid ground, in consequence of the less 
density of water. 



1867-77. 



BATHYBIUS HAEGKELII, found at the bottom of the sea in recent deep- 
sea soundings, and so named by Huxley ; a gelatinous substance, supposed 
the lowest form of animal life. Since believed to have been proved a 
mineral. 

BATTLES. (See pp. 84, 248.) 



FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 



Saarbruck, French victorious, Aug. 2, 1870 
Wissembourg, Germans " Aug. 4, 1870 
Woerth, " " Aug. 6, 1870 

Saarbruck or Forbach, Germans, Aug. 6, 1870 
Courcelles or Pange, " Aug. 14, 1870 

Strasburg, Germans victorious, Aug. 16, 1870 
Vionville or Mars-la-Tour, Ger's, Aug. 16, 1870 
Gravelotte, Germans victorious, Aug. 18, 1870 
Beaumont, " " Aug. 30, 1870 

Carignan, " " Aug. 31, 1870 



Metz, Germans victorious, Aug. 31, 187$ 

SEDAN, " Aug. 31-Sep. 1, 1870 

Before Paris, " victorious, Sept. 30, 1870 
Thoury, French " Oct. 6, 1870 

St. Remy, Germans " Oct. 5, 1870 

Chateaudun, " " Oct 18, 1870 

Coulmiers,ne.ar Orleans, Frenclj.Nov. 9-10, 1870 
Before Orleans, Ger's victorious, Dec. 4, 187C 
St. Quentin, " " Jan. 19, 1871 

Paris (Trochu's sortie), Germans, Jan. 19. 1871 



OTHER 

Oroquieta, Spain, Carlists defeated, May 4, 1872 
Elmina, British defeat Ashantees, 

June 13, 1873 
Elqueta, Spain, Carlists claim victory, 

Aug. 5-6, 1873 
Mafieru, Spain, indecisive, Oct. 6, 1873 

Abrakampra, Ashantees defeated Nov.5-6,1873 



BATTLES. 

Abyssinians defeat Egyptians in Nov., 
Irun, Spain, Laserna defeats Carlists, 

Nov. 10, 
Sorota, Peru, Pierota and insurgents 

defeated Dec. 3, 

Tolosa, Spain, Carlists repulse Loma, 

Dec. 7-8, 
Khokand, Russians defeat Khan of 

Khiva Sep. 4-21, 

Assake, Russians defeat Khokand 

force Jan. 30, 

Servian-Turkish war begins July 1, 

Saitschar, Servians retreat . . . July 2-3, 
Urbitza, Montenegrins defeat Turks, 

July 28, 



1874 

1874 

1874 

1874 

1875 

1876 
1876 
1876 

1876 



Borborassie, " " Jan. 29, 1874 

Amoaful, " " Jan. 31, 1874 

Bocquah, " " Feb. 1, 1874 

Fommanah, " " Feb. 2, 1874 

Ordahsa, " " Feb. 4, 1874 

Bilbao, Spain, several days; Concha 
enters May 2, 1874 

Estella, Spain, Carlists retreat, but Con- 
cha killed June 25-27, 1874 

BAYREUTH. The Wagner Festival, or Blihnenfestspiel. The perform- 
ance of Wagner's " Ring des Mbelungen," took place here on August 13, 
14, 16. and 17, 1876. The four successive portions of the work are: 1. 
Das Rheingold ; 2. Die Walkiire; 3. Siegfried; 4. Gotterdammerung. 
Great difference of opinion as to the music by itself ; but the whole rep- 
resentation very magnificent. All deficiencies in receipts made up by the 
King of Bavaria. 

BBHISTUN. The trilingual inscriptions here were deciphered and trans- 
lated by Sir H. Rawlinson in 1844-6, the first great step being thus made 
towards interpreting the so-called cuneiform inscriptions. 

BELFORT. A strong fortified town in Alsace, invested by the Germans 
November 3, 1870 ; capitulated February 16, 1871 ; reserved to France at 
the cession of Alsace to Germany ; and the Germans left it in August, 1873. 

BESSEMER STEEL. (See Steel.) 

BIBLE. (See pp. 86, 257.) First meeting of the Convocation for Revising 
the English Bible, at Westminster, England, June 22, 1870. Among Bible 
Dictionaries should be mentioned McClintock and Strong's "Biblical and 
Theological Encyclopaedia." " The Codex Sinaiticus," a Greek MS. of the 
Bible, probably written in the fourth century, was found by Prof. Tis- 
chendorf at St. Catherine's monastery on Mt. Sinai in 1844 and 1859, and 
procured by him for the Czar of Russia, who caused it to be printed in 
1862. The first version of the Bible (the Syriac), is supposed to have 
been made in the first or second century ; the Old Latin, early in the 
second, and revised by Jerome in 384 ; Jerome's own version, the Vulgate, 
1* 



12 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 

completed 405. First printed edition (Mazarin or Mentz Bible), about 
1455 or 1456, without date ; and a copy of this, at the Perkins sale in Eng- 
land, June, 1873, brought about $16,000, the largest price ever paid for one 
printed book. 

BOKHARA. Ancient Sogdiana. Murder of the English envoys, Stoddart 
and Conolly, by the Khan, 1843. A war with Russia began 1866, the 
Khan repeatedly beaten, and peace made July 11, 1867. There was more 
fighting in 1868 ; the Russians entered Samarcand May 26th ; and in 
November, 1868, annexed it by treaty. A new treaty between Bokhara 
and Russia was published December, 1873. 

BLUE LAWS OF CONNECTICUT. First mentioned by Samuel Andrews 
Peters, a tory Episcopalian clergyman, of Hebron, Conn., in a " Histoiy of 
Connecticut," published at London, 1781. Peters built his story on the 
basis of the actual laws, but with great additions invented by him. The 
text-book on the subject, by J. H. Trumbull, Hartford, Conn., 1876. 

BOOKS, Book Trade. (See pp. 20, 208.) In Great Britain were pub- 
lished as follows : 

NEW BOOKS. NEW EDITIONS. 

1871 ....'. 3,547 1,288 

1872 3,419 1,100 

1874 3,351 961 

1875 3,573 1,331 

The number of publishers and booksellers in Germany is (in 1876), 3,473, in 
786 towns. In Leipzig, the emporium of the German book trade, there 
are 105 commission agents, who act for 4,202 booksellers, of whom 1,143 
are in Austria, France, Russia, Holland, England, and America. Number 
of books published in the United States, about 2,500 a year. 

BOSTON. (See pp. 88, 268.) Annexations to the city of Boston were : 
Roxbury, September 9, 1867 ; Dorchester, June 22, 1869 ; Charlestown, 
Brighton, and West Roxbury, October 7, 1873. Great peace jubilee, with 
over 10,000 voices, and 1,094 instruments, June 15, 1869. International 
peace jubilee, with chorus of about 20,000 voices, and orchestra of 1,000 
instruments, June 17 to July 4, 1872. Great fire, burning about eighty 
acres of buildings in the thickest business part of the city, November 9, 
10, 11, 1872; 959 houses, of which 125 dwellings, were destroyed, and 35 
persons killed. Boston Public Library has, in 1877, about 320,000 vol- 
umes ; has six branches, and two "delivery agencies," besides the central 
collection, and circulates free of all expense about 1,300,000 volumes a 
year ; staff, about 130 persons ; salaries, about $60,000 a year ; annual 
cost, about $130,000, of which all but about $6,000 is paid by the city 
of Boston by an annual appropriation, the rest coming from trust funds 
of about ,1105,000. 

BOSNIA, incorporated with Turkey, 1463. A rebellion broke out in 1849, 
was put down by Omar Pasha in 1851. In September, 1875, the Bosni- 
ans joined the Herzegovinian insurgents. Its area is 23,100 square miles ; 
population, 1,357,984, of which about one-third only is Mohammedan. 

BRAZIL. (See pp. 89. 272.) The war with Paraguay was ended by the 
defeat and killing of Lopez, the Paraguayan dictator, at Aquidaban, 
March 1, 1870 ; treaty of peace with Paraguay, June 20, 1870. Dom 
Pedro, the emperor, and his empress visit Europe June, 1871, and March, 
1872. Gradual slave emancipation bill passed by the Brazilian senate, 
September 27-28, 1872. Dom Pedro and the empress were present at the 



1867-77. i3 

opening of the Philadelphia Exhibition May 10, 1876, and afterwards 
travelled extensively in America and Europe. Population of Brazil, 1872 
(partly estimated), 9,448,233, besides about another million of savage 
natives. Number of slaves in May, 1874, 1,016,262. 

BRIGANDS. (See also Molly Maguires.) April 21, 1870, some English 
ladies and gentlemen, and an Italian, were taken near Athens by brigands, 
who demanded $125,000 ransom, which was ready ; but the Greek Gov- 
ernment, contrary to promise, sending troops against the robbers, the 
tourists were all murdered. In June, 1870, two Englishmen, of Gibral- 
tar, were seized by brigands, and made to pay £5,200 ransom, part of 
which was afterwards recovered, and some of the robbers killed, by the 
Spanish civic guard. The Mafia, an organized system of spying, murder, 
and brigandage g-ot into possession of almost unlimited power in Sicily 
about 1860, and has since remained so. 

BRIDGES. (See pp. 89, 274.) The proposed New York and Brooklyn 
suspension bridge is to be 5,862 feet long, with a central span of 1,600 
feet, at 185 feet above high-water mark. The Victoria railway bridge 
over the St. Lawrence, at Montreal, about two miles long, an iron tubular 
bridge, begun May 24, 1854, formally opened August 25, 1860, and cost 
£1,700,000. 

BURIAL. (See Cremation.) The " earth to earth" system of burial, ad- 
vocated by Mr. Seymour Haden, and wicker coffins, exhibited in 1875 at 
London. 

C. 

CANADA. (See pp. 91, 288.) The act creating "the Dominion of Can- 
ada " was passed March 29, 1867. The Dominion contains Ontario, or 
Upper Canada, Quebec, or Lower Canada, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, 
Manitoba, British Columbia, and Prince Edward Island, and provision is 
made for admitting Newfoundland. Lord Monck, first Governor-General, 
opened the first session of the Dominion Parliament, at the capital, 
Ottawa, Nov. 7, 1867. Population by census of 1871 : Ontario, 1,620,- 
851; Quebec, 1,191,516; Nova Scotia, 387,800; New Brunswick, 285,- 
594 ; Manitoba, 11,953 ; British Columbia. 10,586 ; Prince Edward Island, 
94,021 ; total, 3,602,321. 

CANALS. (See Suez Canal.) Recent surveys have shown that the ques- 
tion of a canal across the Isthmus of Darien, or that of Tehuantepec, is 
only one of cost, not of practicability. In April, 1870, a French company 
was empowered to cut a canal across the Isthmus of Corinth, to be done 
in six years. 

C ANDI A, the Ancient Cbete. (See pp. 289, 338.) Insurrections against 
Turkish oppression, 1841«; again, and quieted by conciliation, 1858. 
Christians persecuted, 1859 ; a general assembly rejects Turkish authori- 
ty and declares union with Greece, September 2, 1866; after obstinate 
contests the insurgents yield from exhaustion, and Turkish authority re 
established March 8, 1869. 

CANOPUS. An ancient city of Egypt, on the sea-coast, east of Alexan- 
dria. The " Decree of Canopus" was put forth B. c. 238, by Ptolemy 
Euergetes, to constitute his deceased daughter, Berenice, a goddess, and 
to establish an annual festival and a service of priests in her honor. A 
•copy of this, in hieroglyphics and Greek, was discovered at Tanis, 1866. 



14 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



CAPITAL PUNISHMENT. (See Death, Punishment of, pp. 108, 344.) Abol 
ished in Saxony, April 1. 1868; abolition of it refused in Belgium, Janu- 
ary 18, 1867 ; in English House of Commons, by 127 to 23, April 21, 
1868 ; by 118 to 58, July 29, 1869 ; by 167 to 54, July 24, 1872 ; refused 
by French Senate, June 21. 1876. It was prohibited in Michigan, 1846 ; 
Rhode Island, 1852 ; Wisconsin, 1853 ; Iowa, 1872 ; Maine, February 18. 
1876, and is practically disused in some other States. The effect of such 
disuse on crime is undetermined. In thirteen years next after the repeal 
of the law inflicting it in Michigan, there were 30 convictions for mur- 
der, and in the next fourteen years, with a population 50 per cent, greater, 
only 26. But in New York City, during 1871-6, only seven murderers were 
hanged, while there were 281 murders. And in 1871 there were no hang- 
ings, but in the next year the murders increased from 41 to 55, and when 
in 1873. two murderers were hanged, the murders decreased in like man- 
ner from 53 to 39. 

CATHOLICS. (See Concordat; Infallibility ; Old Catholics; Romanism; 
Vatican Council.) 

CENSUS. (See pp. 94, 299.) The English census, taken April 2, 1871, 
showed a population in the United Kingdom (England, Wales, Scotland, 
and Ireland), of 31,465,480. For Census of United States, 1870, see 
United States. 

CENTENNIAL. An immense number of Centennial celebrations took place 
in the United States during 1875 and 1876, beginning with that of June 
19, 1875, for the battle of Lexington. The Centennial International Ex- 
hibition at Philadelphia was opened by President Grant, May 10, 1876, 
and closed November 10. 

Of the growth of the United States in the first century, the following 
figures show a few illustrations : 

1776. 1876. 

Population 2,750,000 44,675,000 

Area square miles 800.000 3,603,844 

Annual manufactures $20,000,000 $4,200,000,000 

Banks 6,066 

Colleges 9 374 



PARITIES. 

as follows : 



(See pp. 95, 302.) George Peabody's public charities were 



$2,500,000 for the poor of London. 

$2,000,000 for education in the South- 
ern States. 

$.300,000 for museums at Yale and Har- 
vard Colleges. 

$50,000 for a free museum at Salem, 
Mass. 



$20,000 to Kenyon College. 

|250,000 to the State of Maryland. 

{500,000 for a free library and educa- 
tional institute at Danvers (afterwards 
named Peabody), Mass. 

£1.000.000 for the Peabody Institute, 
at Baltimore, Md. 



December 2, 1871, was opened at Dublin the Brown Institution, endowed 
by a bequest left for the purpose by a Mr. Brown, of Dublin, as a hospital 
for the study and treatment of the diseases of quadrupeds and birds useful 
to men. Mr. Vanderbilt had, during his life, endowed a college in Ten- 
nessee, with about $1,000,000, and supported the " Church of the Stran- 
gers," in New York. Daniel Drew, a leading New York stock operator, 
endowed (nominally) Drew Theological Seminary in New Jersey, but 
afterwards losing his money, the funds were never paid over. A. T. 
Stewart left at his death, unfinished, a great hotel for working- women i» 
New York, which was completed by his widow. 



1867-77. i5 

CHICAGO. (See p. 95.) Great Fire, October 8-11, 1871. About 250 
persons perished, about 98,500 were rendered destitute, and" the loss wu 
estimated at $290,000,000. Some 25,000 buildings were destroyed. 
Large contributions were made in American and English cities towards 
relieving the sufferers, and great energy was shown in rebuilding. 

CHILDREN. Under eight years old, forbidden to be employed in agricul- 
ture in England, by act of August 5, 1873. 

CHINA. (See pp. 95, 305.) Chinese embassy, with Anson Burlingame (of 
Massachusetts) at its head, received at Washington, June 5, 1868 ; at 
Paris, January 24, 1869 ; Mr. Burlingame died at St. Petersburg, Feb- 
ruary 22, 1870. Massacre of French priests and about fifty others by a 
mob at Tientsin, June 21, 1870; the leaders were executed October 26, 
1870. Emperor Tsai tien (altered to Kwang-Sii), son of Chun and nephew 
of Prince Kung, succeeds Toung-Chi, February 4, 1875. First railway in, 
eleven miles long, from Shanghae to Oussoon, publicly opened June 30, 
1876. Chinese emigration to America began in 1850 ; and there are now 
(1877) supposed to be nearly 50,000 Chinese in San Francisco, and from 
125,000 to 150,000 in California, mostly males. In California this emi- 
gration, and the Chinese, after coming, are chiefly controlled by the " Six 
Companies," which are a kind of corporations, and whose names are Sam 
Yup, Yung Wo, Kong Chow, Ning Yeung, Yan Wo, and Hop Wo. 

CHURCH OF IRELAND. (See p. 310.) Royal assent to Mr. Gladstone's 
bill disestablishing it, July 26, 1869, took effect January 1, 1871. 

CH CRCH-RATES. ( See p. 97. ) Compulsory church-rates in England were 
abolished by act of Parliament, introduced by Mr. Gladstone, and passed 
July 31, 1868. 

CIVIL SERVICE, English. August 31, 1870, went into operation an 
English Order in Council that all entrance appointments to civil service 
except the Foreign Office and posts requiring professional knowledge, 
should be filled by open competition. Persons in the English Civil Service 
(treasury, home, foreign, colonial, post, revenue, etc., officers), about 
17,000; cost of same yearly, estimated for 1877 at £13,309,100. 

CIVIL SERVICE REFORM, United States. Measure to secure, in- 
troduced into Congress by T. A. Jenckes, of Rhode Island, January 20, 
1867. Act for rules to be prescribed by the President for civil service 
examinations, passed March 3, 1871. Commissioners to prepare rules 
appointed by President, June 4th, met and G. W. Curtis chosen chairman, 
June 28, 1871. Rules prepared, but less was accomplished by them than 
was expected. In the summer of 1877, President Hayes ordered that all 
national office-holders should resign any situations thej^ might hold as party 
political managers, or else resign their offices, his purpose being l ' to take 
the office-holder out of politics." This order was promptly obeyed. 

CLOCKS AND WATCHES. (See pp. 97, 314, 646.) Imported into Great 
Britain in 1870, 258,628 clocks, 372,420 watches. The Boston Watch Com- 
pany, the first factory for making watches by machinery, was founded by 
Mr. Dennison in 1854 ; it failed 1856, and was bought by Mr. Bobbins, who 
changed the name to American Watch Company, often called the Waltham 
Watch Co. In 1876 there were eleven such watch factories. That at 
Waltham, with 900 workmen, turns out about 425 movements a day ; the 
next largest, at Elgin, 111., about 300 movements. The effect of the 
American watch business on the importation of Swiss watches i3 shown 



1 6 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 

as follows : Swiss watches imported into the United States in 187$, 
366,000; 1873, 204,000; 1874, 187,000; 1875, 134,000; 1876, 75,000. 

CLUBS. (See p. 97.) Recent London clubs were formed at following 
dates : Cobden Club (free trade), 1866 ; Scientific, Wanderers (travellers, 
Devonshire (Liberal political), Verulam (literary and scientific), 1874 • 
Byron, 1875 ; Hanover Square (new Liberal), 1876. 

COAL. (See pp. 98, 315.) Consumption of anthracite from the Pennsyl- 
vania coal fields began with 365 tons, in 1820, and was in 1875, 18,083,294 
tons. By periods of ten years the production was as follows, inclusively : 

1820-29 tons 359,190 11850-59 tons 68,333,469 

1830-39 " 5,210,685 1860-69 " 106,883,488 

1840-49. " 18,954,678 | 1870-75 " 105,627,240 

The anthracite east of the Mississippi is all in seven counties in Pennsyl- 
vania, viz : Schuylkill, Carbon, Luzerne, Columbia, Northumberland, 
Dauphin, and Lebanon, and mostly in the first thsee of these. Estimates 
of the time when these anthracite deposits will be exhausted vary from 
77 years to 650 years. Tons of coal raised in Great Britain and the 
United States in 1870 and 1874 : 

GEEAT BRITAIN. UNITED STATES. 

1870 113,000,000 32,000,000 

1874 125,000,000 50,000,000 

Area of all coal fields in the United States estimated at 196,000 square 
miles. Proportions of anthracite and bituminous coal mined in the 
United States in 1870 and 1875 : 

1870. 1875. 

Anthracite, tons. 13,985,960 20,654,509 

Bituminous, " 15,231,668 26.031.726 

COINAGE. (See pp. 99, 317.) Total coinage of United States \io and 
including 1876: 

In 1876. 

Gold $945,477,022.30 $38,178,962.50 

Silver 180,322,356.40 19,126,502.50 

Cents, etc 12.822,538.55 260.350.00 



Total $1,138,621,917.25 $57,565,815.00 

COLLEGES in United States in 1875, 355; schools of science (and 
collegiate departments), 75; theological schools (and departments), 123; 
law schools (and departments), 43 ; medical, dental, etc., schools (and 
departments), 106. 

COLOMBIA. (See p. 319.) General Salgar, President, 1871 ; M. M. Toro, 
April 1, 1872; S. Perez, April 1, 1874. Population in 1864, 2,794,473; 
in 1870, 2,910,329. 

COLONIES. (See pp. 99, 320.) Great Britain has sixty-nine colonies and 
foreign possessions, whose population was estimated in 1861 at 142,952,- 
243, all but about 7,500,000 being in the East Indies. Their revenue in 
1865 was about £51.497,000. and expenditures, £59.353,000. All slaves 
in all British colonies emancipated August 1, 1834. In recent times the 
English home policy towards the colonies has steadily become more com- 
plying and indulgent. The earliest acquired of the present colonies waa 
Newfoundland, about a.d. 1500 ; the latest, the Fiji Islands, October 25, 
1874. 

COLORADO proclaimed a State August 1, 1876. 



1867-77. i7 

COMETS. (See pp. 100,321.) 17,500,000 comets estimated to be in the 
solar system. More than 600 recorded as having been seen. Sohiaparelli 
of Milan has discovered that the August meteors move round the sun in 
an orbit almost identical with that of the second comet of 1862-6. The 
great comet of 1861 had a nucleus of about 400 miles diameter, a long, 
bushy tail, and moved about ten million miles a day. On June 30, 1861, 
it was suggested that the earth was in this tail, as there was seen a 
"phosphorescent auroral glare." 

COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF. General Sherman appointed, 1869. 

COMMERCE OF UNITED STATES. (See also Cotton, Failures, etc.) 

Exports. Imports. 

1869 $394,fi44,335 $414,256,243 

1870 392.771,178 452,875,665 

1871 460,331,614 572,509,314 

1872 444,177,568 626,595,077 

1873 522,479,317 692,136,210 

1874 633,339,368 567,406,342 

1875 658,691,291 553,906,153 

Of the years 1874 and 1875, nearly half this commerce was with Great 

Britain, viz. : 

Exports to O. B. Imports from (J. B. 

1874 $341.034,049 $180,042,8 3 

1875 366;799,869 157,047,827 

Chambers of Commerce now exist in the chief commercial cities of Chris- 
tendom. Twenty-seven of the English ones met for consultation, Febru- 
ary 21, 1865 ; the meeting became annual ; in 1873 (February 18th), 46 
met. 

COMMUNE OF PARIS. Proclaimed March 28, 1871 ; ended at the cap- 
ture of the city by the government forces, May 28th, following. 

CONCORDANCE. (See pp. 100, 324.) The first concordance to the Bible 
on which was based that of St. Caro, seems to have been made by An- 
thony of Padua. Cruden's (the best), first published in London, 1737. 
Mrs. Furness's Concordance to Shakespeare's poems, 1874. Todd's Verbal 
Index to Milton, 1809, and Cleaveland's Concordance to Milton. 1867. 
Brightwell's Concordance to Tennyson, 1869 ; Abbott's to Pope, 1875. 

CONCORDAT. (See p. 324.) The Concordat between Rome and Austria, 
August 18, 1855, gave the former much authority over the Austrian 
Church, and thus excited great dissatisfaction in Austria. In 1868 the 
Austrian and Hungarian legislatures practically abolished it, and it was 
formally declared suspended, July 30, 1870, in consequence of the procla- 
mation of papal infallibility. 

CONFESSION, Auricular. (See p. 325.) Introduced in England by the 
Puseyites, Tracfcarians, or Ritualists. Rev. A. Poole suspended for prac- 
ticing it, June, 1858 ; Rev. T. West tried to introduce it, causing much 
excitement, September, 1858; 483 Anglican clergymen petitioned convo- 
cation for its establishment, May, 1873, but the bishops were strongly 
opposed to it ; Archdeacon Denison's letter against all who oppose it, 
August 22, 1873. A secret book used by the English ritualists, with 
shameful questions to be put to married women and young persons, dis- 
covered June, 1877, and great indignation aroused. 

CONSTELLATIONS. (See p. 327.) Now reckoned as 29 northern, 45 
southern, 12 zodiacal. 



I<5 .THE WORLDS I-ROGKJES>. 

CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. (See pp. 102,328.) The 
dates and subjects of the fifteen amendments were as follows : 1. Pro- 
posed 1789, Freedom of religion, press, assembling, and petition. 2. 1789, 
Right to bear arms. 3. 1789, Quartering soldiers on people. 4. 1789, 
Searches and seizures of persons, houses, etc. 5. 1789, Indictment, mar- 
tial law, legal process, eminent domain. 6. 1789. Criminal prosecutions 
to be speedy; privileges of accused. 7. 1789, Jury trial for anything over 
$20, in common-law suits. 8. 1789, Bail, fines, cruel and unusual punish- 
ments. 9. 1789, Enumeration of rights in Constitution does not impair 
others. 10. 1789, State rights. 11. 1794, Judicial power of United 
States as against States. 12. 1803-5, Election of President. 13. Ratified 
December 18, 1865, abolishes slavery. 14. Ratified July 28, 1868, civil 
rights, representative basis, rebel disfranchisement, public and rebel debt. 
15. Ratified March 30, 1870, negro suffrage. 

CONTAGIOUS DISEASES ACT. Providing for periodical medical examina- 
tions of women's persons at military and naval stations, passed in English 
Parliament June, 1866. Great opposition has been made to it; a royal 
commission to inquire into it reported July, 1871. Alterations have been 
proposed, and repeal has been attempted, but failed by 126 to 308 June, 
1875, and 102 to 224, July, 1876. 

CONVENTS (for nuns ; " monasteries " are for monks). (Seep. 328.) In 
18S2 there were 16 convents in England ; in 1870, 233, besides 70 monas 
teries. A large Church of England convent opened at Bournemouth, 
October 3, 1875. 

CONVOCATION. The English Convocation consists of the upper house (of 
bishops), and the lower (of the inferior clergy). It formerly possessed 
power over various church matters, but was deprived of these by a statute 
of Henry VIII., and again in 1716, when it ceased meeting. Formal 
meetings of the Anglican clergy have been held since 1854, and attempts 
made in vain to regain power over church interests. In February, 1872, 
convocations were authorized to deliberate upon changes in the liturgy, 
and this was done in March following. 

CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES (for economical supply of goods to members) 
Rochdale Equitable Pioneers' Society began 1844. In 1862 there were 
332 in England; on December 31, 1866, 749. Annual congresses have 
been held, the seventh at London, March 29, 1875. Similar organizations 
in the United States have not been very successful. There were in 
Massachusetts in 1875, however, fifteen such, of which eight had a member- 
ship of 1,650, share capital $50,000, assets $100,000. and selling $500,000 
of goods yearly. These were at Fall River (organized 1866). Worcester 
(1867), New Bedford (1867), Lynn (1870), Wakefield (1866;, Holyoke 
(1873), Gardner (1874), Natick (1869 ?). On the continent of Europe such 
organizations are numerous and efficient. 

COPYRIGHT. (See pp. 102, 103, 330.) An international copyright bill 
brought into Congress, February 21,, 1868, but could not pass. English 
House of Lords decided in Routledge vs. Low, in favor of the copyright 
of a foreign author. The Copyright Association of England was founded 
by leading London booksellers, March 19, 1872. 

CORNELL UNIVERSITY. Founded by Ezra Cornell in 186b. 

CORONERS. (See p. 332.) In consequence of abuses and annoyances from 
the ignorance and incompetence of coroners, they >vere suppressed iD 



1867-77. i9 

Massachusetts by act of legislature, May 9, 1877, and "medical exami- 
ners" substituted, to be appointed by the Governor and Council, and to 
be "able and discreet men, learned in the science of medicine." 

OOTTON MANUFACTURE IN UNITED STATES : 





Zooms. 


In So2ith. 


Spindles. 


In South. 


Mills 


1870 


153,534 . 


5,852 . . 


. 7,114,000 . 


. . . 262,221 . 


Wi 


1874 


186,975 . 


... 10,945 .. 


. . 9,415,383 . 


. . . 487,629 . . 


.. 847 



Cotton mill first in India, built 1863 ; and the number had increased in 
1876 to reach a consumption of 3,000 bales cotton per week. Estimated 
consumption of cotton for manufacturing purposes in the world, for I860 
and 1876, in bales of 400 pounds : 

1860. 1876. Increase. 

Great Britain 2,817,080 3,187,000 370,000 

Continent of Europe 1,794,000 2,362,000 568,000 

United-States 1,088,000 1,441,000 353,000 

Bombay and rest of India 164,000 164,000 

This increase is about 13 per cent, for Great Britain, and 37£ per cent. 
for the other manufacturing countries. 

COUNCILS, CHURCH. (See p. 335: also Vatican Council.) 

CREDIT FONCIER. Name given to organizations for advancing money to 
real estate owners on the security of their estates. Such a plan was set 
in operation by Frederick the Great in Prussia in 1763. Companies for 
the purpose have existed in Hamburg (1782). Prussia (1787), Belgium, 
(1841), France (1852), England (1863), and elsewhere. 

CREDIT MOBILIER. (Seep. 104.) The original Credit Mobilier at Paris 
failed, and the capital was said to have "disappeared," October, 1867. 
The Pereires, and other directors held liable August 1, 1868. -i Credit 
Mobilier of America," incorporated in Pennsylvania March 15, 1865 ; as- 
sumed a contract to build 100 miles of the Union Pacific R. R. westward 
from the Missouri River, in which Hoxie had failed. Improper distribution 
of its stock to members of Congress in December, 1867 and afterwards, was 
charged, and an investigation by a committee of the House of Representa- 
tives took place in 1872-73. 

CREMATION advocated, instead of burial, by Sir Henry Thompson and 
others in England, 1873. Societies for it established in London, Vienna, 
and Berlin in 1874. The body of Sir C. Dilke's wife, burned at Dresden 
October 10, 1874 ; the ashes of the body and coffin together being about 
six pounds. Baron de Palm's remains burnt in like manner in America 
in 1876, and Dr. Winslow's in 1877. 

CRETE. Now Candia, which see. 

CRIME. (See pp. 105, 338; also Ticket of Leave.) International Congress 
for Prevention and Repression of Crime, met at London, July 3, 1872. In 
England a great decrease in crimes of violence in proportion to the p»pu- 
lation has been observed from 1861 to 1871. 

CRISPINS. (Bee Si. Crispin.) 

CROWN. (See p. 340.) The crown of England contains 1 large ruby, 1 
large sapphire, 16 sapphires, 11 emeralds, 4 rubies, 1,363 brilliants ^dia- 
monds), 1,273 rose-diamonds, 147 table diamonds, 4 drop-shaped pearls, 
273 pearls. 

CRUELTY TO ANIMALS. (See Animals.) 



20 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 

CRYOLITE. A fluoride of aluminium and sodium, found in quantities in 
Greenland, and used to manufacture metallic aluminium. 

CUBA. (See pp.106, 340.) Insurrection began soon after the Spanish revo- 
lution, September, 1868 ; checked, June, 1870 ; not suppressed, January, 
1872 ; still in full activity, August, 1877. 

CUMULATIVE VOTE. Under the English Reform Aft of 1867, cumulative 
voting, to allow " minority representation," was allowed in London, Glas- 
gow, Manchester, Liverpool, and Leeds, and in such counties as returned 
three members each. In the counties, and in some of these cities, the ■ 
result was to admit minority candidates. Used in electing members of the 
government of Harvard and Yale Colleges. 

CUNEIFORM LANGUAGES. (See Assyria.) 

CURIUM. General L. P. di Cesnola discovered in 1875, in the ruins of this 
very ancient city, in Cyprus, a treasure supposed to have been that of a 
temple, deposited in four subterranean rooms, and consisting of over 7,200 
ornaments, statues, and other articles of gold, silver, bronze, terra cotta, 
ivory, glass, etc., etc., which have been secured for the Metropolitan Art 
Museum in New York. 

CURRENCY, United States. National bank notes outstanding, De- 
cember 31, 1876, $319,860,304 ; greenbacks outstanding, same date, $366,- 
911,000. 

CYCLONE. A circular hurricane, common in the tropics. In a cyclone at 
Calcutta, October 5, 1864, about 100 ships lost, and 60,000 persons per- 
ished. One at Nassau, in the Bahamas, October 1 and 2, 1866, destroyed 
over 600 houses and other buildings, dismasted many ships, and killed 
from 60 to 70 persons. August 21, 1871, a oyclone devastated Antigua, 
St. Kitte, and other islands, inflicting enormous damages. In a flood and 
cyclone in the Backergunge district, in India, near the mouth of the Gan- 
ges, 5,000 persons are supposed to have perished, October 31, 1876. 

CYPRUS. (See Curium.) 

CZECHS. Name of the natives of Bohemia and Moravia. In Bohemia there 
is a violent opposition between the Czechs and Germans. 



D. 

DANUBIAN PRINCIPALITIES. (See Roumania.) 

DARIEN CANAL. (See Canals.) 

DARWINISM. A " development " theory was put forth by Wolff, 1759; 
and one by Lamarck, 1809, and one in the " Vestiges of Creation," 1844. 
Origin of mammals from an egg, not a hundredth part of an inch diameter, 
proved by von Baer. 1827. Mr. Darwin's doctrines are contained in his 
'■ Origin of Species," 1859, and " Descent of Man,". 1871. His follower. 
Haeckel, published a " History of Creation,' 1 1873, appeared in English, 
1875. Mr. A. R. Wallace's " Natural Selection" appeared 1870. 

DEACONESSES. Discontinued in the Western Church in the fifth and 
sixth centuries, and in the Eastern in the twelfth ; recently revived in 
Germany. Pastor Fliedner's Institution for training deaconesses at Kais- 
erswerth founded 1835. Advocated in England by the Bishop of Ely, 



1867-77. 



1853, and some appointed. Di;cesan Deaconess Institution at London, 
established 1861. In 1866 the Kaiserswerth Institution had connected 
with it 139 stations and 491 sisters or deaconesses. 
DEATHS, noticeable, 1867-1877, in alphabetical order of names: 



Agassiz. L., naturalist, Dec. 15. 1873. 
Afford, Rev. H., critic, poet, and divine, Jan. 

12, 1871. 
Alison, Sir A.., historian, May 23, 1867. 
imberley, Viscount, Jan. 10, 1876. 
Antonelli, Cardinal, priest and statesman, 

Nov. 6, 1876. 
Applegath A., inventor of printing machinery, 

counterfeit-proof bank notes, etc., Feb. 14, 

1871. 
Aspinwall, Col. Thomas, Aug. 11, 1878. 
Auber, D. P. E., composer, May 13, 1871. 
Aubigne, Merle d', clergyman and historian, 

Oct. 19, 1872. 
Austin, Mrs. Sarah, authoress, Aug. 8, 1867. 
Babbage, C, mathematician, Oct. 18, 1871. 
Baird. James, Scotch iron master, June 21, 

1876. 
Bailev, Theodorus, admiral, U. S. N., Feb. 10, 

1877. 
Bedfo/d, Paul, actor, Jan. 11, 1871. 
Bentlb/, E., publisher. Sept. 10, 1871. 
Berrye/, P. A., French advocate and orator, 

Nov. 29, 186S. 
Blair. F P., senior, editor and politician. Oct. 

18, 187ft. 
Blitz, Aircouio, "magician," Jan. 28, 1877. 
Brag^, B. L., rebel general, Sept. 27, 1876. 
Brewster, SirD., physicist, Feb. 10, 1868. 
Brongniart, A. T., scientist and author, Feb. 

20,' 1876. 
Brooke, Sir J., Bajah of Sarawak, June 11, 

1868. 
Brougham, Lord, advocate, orator, writer, phil- 
anthropist, May 7. 1S6S. 
Broughton, Lord (Sir J. C. Hobhouse), author 

and official, June 3, 1869. 
Brownlow, W. G., editor and politician, April 

29, 1877. 
Brownson, 0. A., writer and jeurnalist, April 

17, 1876. 
Buchanan, J., ex-President, June 1. 186S. 
Burgoyne, Sir John, soldier, Oct. 7, 1871. 
Burns, Jaboz, Methodist clergyman, Jan. 31, 

1876. 
Bushnell, Horace, clergyman and writer, Feb. 

17, 1876 



Derby, Earl of, statesman, Oct. 23, 1869. 

Dickens, Charles, novelist, June 9, 1870. 

Didot. A., publisher, Feb. 20, 1876. 

Dumas. Alexandre, novelist and dramatist, 
Dec. 5, 1870. 

Durbin, J. P., Methodist clergyman, Oct. 19, 
1876. 

Ellenborough, Earl of, statesman and admin- 
istrator,. Dec, 1871. 

Ellet, Mrs. Elizabeth F., authoress, 1S77. 

Emerson-Tennent, Sir J., author and official, 
March 6, 1869. 

Evans, Sir De Lacy, soldier, Jan. 9, 1870. 

Exeter, Bishop of (Henry Phillpotts), Sept. 8, 
1S69. 

Faraday, M., physicist, Aug. 25, 1867. 

Forrest, Edwin, actor, Dec. 12. 1872. 

Forster, John, author, Jan. 31, 1876. 

Freiligrath, F., poet, March 19, 1876. 

Galliera, Duke of, wealthy Italian nobleman, 
Nov. 24, 1876. 

G-ough, Lord, soldier, March 2, 1S69. 

Greenfield, Elizabeth T., the " black swan," 
colored singer, March 31, 1876. 

G-risi, Giulia, singer, Nov. 25, 1869. 

Grote G., historian of Greece, June 18, 1871. 

Guizot, F., statesman and historian, Sept. 12, 
1873. 

Hall, W. W., medical writer and editor, May 
10, 1876. 

Harper, Fletcher, last of four brothers, pub- 
Ushers, May 29, 1877. 

Hemmenway, A., merchant and capitalist, 
June 16, 1876. 

Herschel, Sir J. F. W., astronomer, May 11, 
1871. 

Howe, Dr. S. G., physician and philanthro- 
pist, Jan. 9, 1876. 

Hudson. George, the " Railway King," Dec. 
14, 1871. 

Johnson, Andrew, ex-President, January 10. 
1876. 

Johnson, Reverdv, lawyer and statesman, Feb. 

10, 1876. 
Johnston, Keith, geographer, July 9. 1871. 

Jones, Ernest, chartist, Jan. 26, 1869. 

Juarez, B., ex-president of Mexico, July 18, 
1872. 



Capponi, Marquis, author, Feb. 4, 1876. 

Cardigan, Lord, of Balaklava notoriety. March ' Kean, Charles, Jr.. actor, Jan. 22, 1868. 

28, 1868. ' Kerr, Michael C, politician, Aug. 19, K376, 

Chambers, Robert and William, publishers and Kock, Paul de, French novelist, Aug., 1871. 



authors, March 17 and 20, 1871. 
Clarendon, Earl of, diplomatist and statesman, 

June 27, 1870. 
Cousin, Victor, historian and philosopher, Jan. 

14. 1867. 
Cushman, Charlotte, actress, Feb. 18, 1876. 
Custer, Gen., July 2, 1876. 
Davies, C. mathematician, Sept. 17, 1876. 



Lahrbush, Frederick A., soldier, claiming ta 
be 111 years and 25 days old, April 3, 1877. 

Lamartine, A. de, poet, historian, and states- 
man, Feb. 28, 1S69. 

Landseer, Sir E., painter, Oct. 1, T873. 

Lane, E. W., Arabic scholar, Aug. 10, 1876. 

Lee, R. E., rebel general, Oct. 13, 1870. 

Lick, James, capitalist, Oct. 1, 1876. 



Davis, C. H., admiral U.S. Navy, Feb. 18, 1877. ] Lowenthal, J. J., chess-player, July 21, 1876 
Deak, Francis, Hungarian statesman, Jan. 29, Lytton, Lord, novelist, Jan. 18, 1873. 

1876. Lemaitre, F., actor, Jan. 27, If 76. 

De Morgan, A., mathematician, March 18, | Lemon, Mark, editor, May 23, 1870. 

1871. ' Maclise, Daniel, painter, Apr: 25, 1870 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 



Mansel, H. L., divine and metaphysician, July 
31,1871. 

Marochetti, Baron, sculptor, Dec. 29, 1867. 

Martiueau, Harriet, writer, June 27, 1876. 

Mayo, Lord. gov. gen. of India, assassinated, 
Feb. 8, 1872. 

Mayo, Dr. Thomas, physician and medical 
writer, Jan. 13, 1871. 

Maximilian I., Emperor of Mexico, June 19, 
1867. 

Maxwell, Lady (Mrs. Caroline Norton), June 
14, 1877. 

Mazzini, G., Italian, republican agitator and 
conspirator, March 10. 1872. 

Melvill, Rev. Henry, divine, Feb. 9, 1871. 

Michael III., Prince of Servia, assassinated 
June 10, 1868. 

Mil man, Dr. H. H., author and divine, Sept. 
27, 1868. 

Montalembert, Count de, author and states- 
man, March 13, 1870. 

Murchiscn, Sir R. I., geologist, Oct. 22, 1871. 

Napoleon III., ex-Emperor, Jan. 9. 1S73. 

Narvaez, Spanish soldier and ruler, April 23, 
1868. 

Neal, John, writer, June 20. 1876. 

Omar Pasha, soldier, April 18, 1871. 

Patteson, J. C. missionary, Bishop of Melan- 
esia, Sept. 20, 1871. 

Peabody. George, banker and public benefac- 
tor, Nov. 4, 1869. 

Perier, Casimir, French statesman, July 6, 
1876. 

Poggendorff, J. C, physicist, 1877. 

Pollock, Sir Frederick, judge, Aug. 23, 1870. 

Prevost-Paradol, M., author, July 19, 1870. 

Prim, J., Spanish soldier and statesman, as- 
sassinated Dec. 28, 1870. 

Pug'h, George E., lawyer and politician, July 
19, 1S76. 

Putnam, George P., publisher, Dec. 19, 1S72. 

Randall, H. S., agricultural and educational 
writer, Aug. 19, 1876. 

Rhett. R. B., politician. Sept. 14, 1876. 

DEVELOPMENT. (See Darwinism.) 

DIAMONDS. The Kohinoor, reduced by its first unskilful cutting from 
nearly 800 carats to 279 carats, was recut in 1852 down to 102£ carats. 
The " Star of the South," brought from Brazil 1855, weighed 2044- carats, 
of which half was lost in cutting. Diamonds were found in Cape Colony, 
South Africa, in March, 1867, and one, the " Star of South Africa," 
found in 1869, weighed 46^ carats, and was valued in June, 1870, at ' 
£25,000. Other diamond fields discovered near Vaal and Orange Rivers, 
September, 1870 ; a great rush of diggers. November, 1870. The value of 
141 diamonds found in Africa, 1869, was £7,405; of 5,661 in 1870, 
£124,910. Diamond drill for piercing stone, patented by Hermann in 
France, 1854 ; a subsequent improvement by setting the diamond in the 
rim of a tube to turn, and thus cut out a core, used in Mt. Cenis tunnel 
and at Hellgate mine. 

DISESTABLISHMENT. (See also Ghurch of Ireland.) A conference was 
held at Birmingham, October 1, 1872. to promote immediate action for 
the disestablishment of the English and Scotch national churches. 

DRAMA. January 28, 1869, the Lord Chamberlain of England sent an offi 



Robertson, T. W.. dramatist, Feb., 1871. 

Robinson, W. S., journalist, March 11, 1876. 

Rosas, Manuel, ex-dictator of Buenos Ayrea, 
March 14, 1877. 

Rosse, Earl of, astronomer, Oct. 31, 1867. 

Rossini, G. A., composer, Nov. 13. 1868. 

Rothschild, Sir Anthonv, capitalist, Jan. 4, 
1876. 

Ryves, Mrs., daughter of the self-styled " Prin- 
cess Olive, of Cumberland," Dec. 7, 1871. 

Sainte-Beuve, C. A. literary critic, Oct., 1869. 

Saldanha, field marshal, Poituguese, soldiel 
and statesman, Nov. 21, 1876. 

Salt Sir Titus, manufacturer, Dec. 29, 1876. 

Sand, George (Mme. Dudevant), June 8, 1876. 

Santa Anna, Antonio L., Mexican general and 
ruler, June 20, 1876. 

Schamyl, Circassian chief, April, 1871. 

Smart, Sir George, musician, Feb. 23, 1867. 

Smith, Alexander, poet, Jan. 5, 1867. 

Smith, F. 0. J., telegraph capitalist, Oct. 14, 
1876. 

Smith, Geo., Assyrian scholar, Sept. 5, 1876. 

Smith, Henry B., presbyterian clergyman, pro- 
fessor, editor, and author, Feb. 7, 1877. 

Smith, William, connoisseur and antiquary in 
engravings, Sept. 13. 1876. 

Smirke, SirR., architect, April 18, 1867. 

Stanfield, Clarkson, marine painter. May 18, 
1867. 

Stewart, A. T., merchant, April 10. 1876. 

Strangford, Viscount, diplomatist, Jan. 9, 1869. 

Strauss. F., theologian, Feb. 8. 1873. 

Sumner, C, statesman, March 11, 1S73. 

Thompson, Jeff., rebel general, Sept. 5, 1876. 

Tischendorf. C, biblical scholar, Dec. 7. 1873.4 

Vanderbilt, C railroad owner and capitalist, 
Jan. 4, 1877.' 

Whittingham, C, printer, April 21, 1876. 

Wilkes, Charles, admiral, U. S. N., Feb. 8, 
1S77. 

Wilson, Henry, vice-president. Jan. 20. 1S76. 

Winship, G. B., strong man, Sept. 12. 1S76. 

Wise, H. A., politician, Sept. 11, 1876. 



1867-77. 2 3 

cial warning to all the London managers against ' the impropriety of cob- 
turne of the ladies in the pantomimes, burlesques, etc.," usual on the stage. 
Dramatic College, for distressed actors and their children, founded at May- 
bury, near Woking, in England, June 1, 1860, and seven persons installed 
as beneficiaries, September 29. 1862. A somewhat similar institution was 
directed to be established by Edwin Forrest, the American actor, in his 
house at Philadelphia, but there appeared to be none to apply for the 
benefit of the asylum. 

DUALIN. (See Explosives. ) 

DUELS. March 12, 1870. the Duke de Montpensier challenged Don Enri- 
que de Bourbon, for personalities having reference to the throne of Spain, 
and at the third shot killed him. The Duke was tried by court-martial, 
and sentenced to one month's banishment from Madrid and $6,000 fine, 
to be paid to Don Enrique's family. Duels are still (1877) frequent in 
France, but have become rare in England and America. A clumsy and 
unsuccessful one took place in 1877, between J. G-. Bennett, the owner of 
the New York Herald, and one May, of New York ; neither was damaged, 
and Bennett went off to Europe, where he remained a number of months. 

DZOUNGARIA, or SOONGARIA. A country north of China, inhabited 
by about two million warlike and fanatical Mohammedans. They were 
tributary to China, rebelled 1864. making Abel Oghlan sultan. In conse- 
quence of their depredations Russia attacked them, April, 1871, the Sultan 
surrendered himself July 4, and the country was annexed to Russia. 



EARTH. The estimated average density, 5-ftj- that of water ; weight, 
6,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 tons. 

EARTHQUAKES. (See pp. 112, 358.) August 13-15, 1868, terrible earth- 
quakes totally destroyed Arica, Arequipa, Islay, Iquique, Pisco, and 
many other towns of Peru and Ecuador. Estimated lives lost, 20,000 ; 
estimated loss of property, £60,000,000, including many ships along the 
coast and at the Chincha Islands. It was believed that more than 300,000 
persons were deprived of shelter and food. An earthquake on the Sind 
frontier of India. December 14 and 15, 1872, killed about 500 persons. May 
16-18, 1875, one on the Colombia frontier, near Santander, is said to have 
killed 14,000. From 1783 to 1857, the kingdom of Naples lost, out of a 
population of about six million, over 1,000 persons a year, in all 110,000. 
About 255 earthquakes, all slight, are known to have occurred in the Brit- 
ish Islands. 

EAST INDIA COMPANY. Its government of India ceased October 1, 
1858. Finally abolished June 1, 1874. 

ECLIPSES. August 17 and 18, 1868, there was an eclipse of the sun, visi- 
ble in many parts of the East, and very important for study, because its 
obsciiration was for the longest period ever observed, reaching on the east 
coast of Bengal 5 minutes 49 seconds, and owing to the sun's great dis- 
tance and the moon's small distance from the earth, the obscuration was 
also very complete. Very important observations were made, especially 
spectroscopic ones, as to the material structure of the sun . August 7, 



24 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 

1869, solar eclipse generally observed in North America. There is a sort 
of series of about 70 eclipses that comes round once every 18 years 10^ 
days. Except on August 12, 1889, no total eclipse of the sun will be visi- 
ble in England for 250 years from July, 1871. 

ECUADOR. Presidents: G-en. Franco, August 21, 1859; Dr. G. G. 
Moreno, January, 1861 ; G. Carrion, August 4, 1865 ; resigns December, 
1867 ; Dr. X. Espinosa, September 13, 1867 ; Dr. G. G. Moreno, end of 
1872 ; assassinated August 6, 1872 ; X. Leon, Vice-President, September, 
1875. Population estimated at about 1,500,000. 

EDUCATION in U. S. (See pp. 113, 362. ) A Department of Education 
created by Act of Congress, approved March 2, 1 867 ; afterwards made 
a Bureau in the Department of the Interior. Commissioner, Henry 
Barnard; succeeded in 1870 by Gen. John Eaton. In 1870, in the 
United States, were persons over 10 years old unable to read, 4,528,084 ; 
unable to write, 5,658,144; school children, 7,209,038 ; schools, 141,629; 
teachers (127,713 female), 221,042; income of schools, $95,402,726, of 
which public money, $61,746,039. The census of 1870 showed that the 
wealth of the country was owned where the education was highest, and 
that poverty and illiteracy go together. Compulsory free schools, and 
disfranchisement of all who cannot read and write English, by Federal 
authority, recommended by President Grant in his message, December 5, 
1876. 

EDUCATION IN ENGLAND. (See p. 362 ) National Education Leagues 
(for compulsory education) first met October 12 and 13, 1869 ; Metropolitan 
School Board (for London), elected November 29, 1870, Miss Garrett, M.D., 
being chosen member by a large majority. Elementary Education Bill of 
Mr. W B. Forster became law August 9, 1870 ; amended 1872, 1873, 1876 ; 
Compulsory Attendance Bill of Mr. Dixon rejected, 320 to 16. July 1 , 
1874, and again, 281 to 260, April, 1876. Primary schools in Gre'.t 
Britain in 1855, 4,8<0 ; in 1860, 7,272 ; in 1870, 10,949 ; annual parlia- 
mentary grant for same, in 1870, about $4,500,000. 

EGYPT. (Seo pp 113,362.) See also Sues Canal. June 6. 1867. the 
Khedive (viceroy) of Egypt arrived in London : his visit lasted until the 
18th He made a second visit in 1869. landing June 22, and remaining 
eight days A controversy with the Sultan was adjusted December 18, 
1869 : a firman makes the Khedive practically independent June 8, 1873 ; 
but he must not coin money, make treaties, or build iron-clad ships. The 
succession of the Khedives is : Mehemet Ali Pacha, abdicated September, 
1843 ; dies August 2, 1849 ; Ibrahim, .his adopted son, September, 1848 ; 
dies November 9 or 10, 1848 ; Abbas, his son. succeeds ; dies July 14, 
1854 : Said, Abbas's brother, dies January 18, 1863 ; Ismail, Said's 
nephew, succeeds. Mr. Cave's reporc to English Government (April, 
1876), calls Ismail "intelligent, industrious, hospitable, and frugal." 
The principal points as to ancient Egyptian history settled thus far are : 
1. Hieroglyphics are partly pictorial (and of these some are special and 
some general or determinative) and partly alphabetic. 2. Menes was 
believed by the ancient Egyptians to be historical, the first known king of 
Egypt ; and there is more evidence for his existence than for that of 
King Arthur. 3. The great pyramid dates from the 4th dynasty, say 300 
or 400 years after Menes. 4. Manetho's dynasties were mostly consecu- 
tive, not contemporary. 5. Roving tribes from the East (the Hyksos) con- 
quered Lower Egypt and ruled in the Delta for centuries ; they were 



1867-77. 



25 



expelled by Aahmes, or Amasis I. Under the 18th dynasty, which began 
with this king, Egypt was greatest. Thotmes III. was the greatest of its 
kings. Ramses II., or Sesostris, of the 19th dynasty, was, however, as 
great. 6. Important synchronisms have been determined of the later 
period of Egyptian empire, with Syrian and Persian history. — (Bev. J. P. 
TJiompson. ) 
ELECTORAL COMMISSION. The votes of Florida, Louisana, and Ecuth 
Carolina in the Presidential election. of November, 1876, were disputed, 
and were finally referred for adjudication to an Electoral Commission by 
Act approved January 29, 1877. The commission consisted of Justices 
Clifford. Strong, Miller, Field, and Bradley, of the United States Supreme 
Court; United States Senators Edmunds, Morton, Frelinghuysen, Thur- 
man, Bayard ; United States Representatives Payne. Hunton, Abbott, 
Garfield, Hoar. The Commission began operations February 7, 1877; 
acted on the three votes above named, the critical questions being mostly 
determined by a vote of eight to seven, corresponding nearly with the 
known political opinions of the members of the commission, and the 
deciding vote being usually that of Justice Bradley. The result of the 
Commission was the crediting of the votes in question to Hayes and 
Wheeler, who were in consequence elected President and Vice-President 
of the United States by one electoral vote majority, viz. , by 185 votes to 
184. 



LEMENTARY 


SUBSTANCES 


i. The 


elementary substances now known 


are sixty-five 


in number, as 


follows 


; those after 


sulphur being in th* 


order of their 


discovery from 


antimony, 1490 down to 1877. 


Gold,' 


Platinum, 




Tungsten, 


Lithium, 


Silver, 


Nickel, 




Tellurium, 


Selenium, 


Mercury, 


Sodium, 




Uranium, 


Cadmium, 


Copper, 


Potassium, 




Zirconium, 


Bromine, 


Iron, 


Lime (calcium), 


Titanium, 


Thormum, 


Tin, 


Silex, 




Strontium, 


Vanadium, 


Lead, 


Alumina, 




Yttrium, 


Lanthanum, 


Carbon, 


Magnesia, 




Chromium, 


Bidymium, 


Sulphur, 


Hydrogen, 




Glucinum, 


Erbium, 


Antimony, 


Fluorine, 




Tantalum, 


Ruthenium, 


Bismuth, 


Nitrogen, 




Cerium, 


Niobium, 


Zinc, 


Chlorine, 




Palladium, 


Caesium, 


Phosphorus, 


Oxygen, 




Rhodium, 


Rubidium, 


Borax, 


Manganese, 




Iridium, 


Thallium, 


Arsenic, 


Barium, 




Osmium, 


Iufdium, 


Cobalt, 


Molybdenum, 


Iodine, 


Jargon mm, 






Gallium. 





ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. The electric telegraphs of the world are (in 
1877) 391,360 miles long. Of these, the United States contain 79,000 
miles; Great Britain and Ireland, 75,000; Russia, 31,459; France, 
28,784; Austro-Hungary, 28,148; Germany, only 19,152. 
•EMIGRATION and IMMIGRATION. Immigration into United States 
since 1861 (by Government fiscal years) : 

1867 293,601 

1868 889,145 

1869 3S5.287 

1870 356,303 

1S71 346.938 



1861 89,720 

1862 89,005 

1863 174.523 

1864 193,191 

1865 248,394 

1866 314,840 



1872 437,750 

18?3 422.546 

1S74 260,814 

1875 191,231 

1876 237,991 



Total in sixfceen years, 4.331,278. Whole emigration into United States 
to end of 1875, including the estimated total of 250,000 before 1320, 
9,526,966. For Chinese immigration to California, see China. 



20 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 





Emigration from Great Britain and Ireland for Ten Tears. 




To North Ameri- 
can Colonies. 


To United States. 


To Australia. 


Total. 


1866 


13,255 


161,000 


24,097 


204,882 


1867 


15,503 


159,275 


14,466 


195,953 


1868 


21,062 


155,532 


12,809 


196,325 


1869 


33,891 


203,001 


14,901 


258.027 


1870 


35,295 


196,075 


17,065 


256.940 


1871 


32,671 


198,843 


12 227 


252 435 


1872 


32,205 


233,747 


15,876 


295,213 


1873 


37,208 


233,073 


26,428 


310,612 


1874 


25.450 


148,161 


53,958 


241,014 


1875 


17,378 105,046 35,525 


173,809 



ENCUMBERED ESTATES ACT, to provide for disposal of encumbered 
real estate in Ireland, passed July, 1849 ; proceedings under it October, 
1849, to July, 1858: 2,380 estates sold, and brought £22,000,000. The 
Irish Land Bill, passed 1870, further recognized the Irish customs as to 
tenure of land, and gave the tenant a right in his improvements, and 
damages for being "wrongfully evicted. 

EOZOON CANADENSE. A foraminifer found by J. W. Dawson, of Mont- 
real, in the Laurentian limestone in 1858; asserted to be the earliest 
known form of animal life. 

EPHESUS. Mr. Wood's search for the ruins of the temple of Diana began 
1863 ; he ascertained the site 1870, and shipped 60 tons of marble to the 
British Museum in 1872. 

EUROPE. Population (census years 1860 to 1875 in different countries), 
265.374,470; an estimate for 1872, for all these countries, gives 301,700,- 
000. 

EVOLUTION theory ; includes the nebular theory, and the Darwinian theory 
of the descent of man and natural selection. 

EXECUTION. (See also Capital Punishment.) The execution of Michael 
Barrett, for being concerned in the plot to blow up Clerkenwell Prison, 
December 13, 1867, at Newgate, London, May 26, 1868, was the last 
public execution in England. On September 8th following, the first 
private execution took place, inside of Newgate, being that of ono 
Mackay, for murder. 

EXHIBITIONS, INTERNATIONAL. London (South Kensington), opened 
May 1, closed November 1, 1867; visitors, 6,117,450. Paris, opened April 
1, closed November 3, 1867. Vienna, opened May 1, closed November 2, 
1873. Philadelphia, opened May 10, closed November 10, 1876. The 
Philadelphia Exhibition (most single admissions, 274,919, on September 
28, 1876) compares with the other chief similar ones as follows : 



Place. 


Year. 


Days open. 


Admissions. 


Receipts. 




1851 
1862 

1855 
1867 
1873 
1876 


141 
172 
200 
217 
186 
159 


6,039,191 
6,211,103 

5,162,330 
8,805,969 
6,740,500 
9,789,392 


$2,530,500 

2,042; 650 

640,495 


Vienna 


2,103,675 
1,032,385 
3,813,749.75 



Exhibitors at Philadelphia, 30,864, from 50 countries ; whole outlay about 
$8,830,000. 



1867-77. 2 7 

EXPLOSIONS. (See Hellgate.) Explosion of steam on the ironclad Thun- 
derer, at Portsmouth, England, kills 77 persons. One Thomas, Thomas- 
sen, or Thomson, said also to be in fact named Alexander Keith, Jr., and 
a native of Halifax, N. S., sent a cask of dynamite to be shipped by the 
steamer Mosel, at Bremerhaven, and with it a clock-train set to run eight 
days and the"h explode the dynamite and destroy the ship, which would 
then be well out at sea. The machine, however, exploded on the dock 
December 11, 1875, killing over 80 persons and wounding about 200. 
Thomassen killed himself, after confessing that his object had been 
merely to obtain a small insurance. 

EXPLOSIVE BULLET TREATY, adopted in November 1868, at St. Peters- 
burg, by Bavaria, Belgium, Denmark, England, France, Greece, Holland, 
Italy, Persia, Portugal, Austria, Prussia, Russia, Sweden, Switzerland, 
Turkey, and Wiirtemberg, agreed not to use in any war amongst them- 
selves, by land or sea, any explosive missiles of any kind of less than 400 
grammes weight, viz. , about 13 oz. avoirdupois. 

EXPLOSIVES. Dynamite (or giant powder), looks like rather fine brown 
sugar, and is made of powdered silex, silicious ashes or infusorial earth, 
mixed with three times its weight of nitro-glycerine. Dualin, made 
known by Carl Ditniar, a Prussian, in 1870, consists of cellulose, nitro- 
Btarch, nitro-mannite, and nitro- cellulose ; and the dualin invented by 
Nobel is composed of ammonia and sawdust, treated with nitro-sulphuric 
acid. Nitro-glycerine, an amber-colored fluid, discovered by Sobrero, 
1847 ; made by gradually adding glycerine to a mixture of one part nitric 
and two parts sulphuric acid. It explodes with thirteen times the force 
of gunpowder, besides a great gain in its speed of action. Gun-cotton, 
invented by Schonbein, and made known 1846 ; it is made by steeping 
cotton in mixed nitric and sulphuric acids (equal parts). Lithofracteur is 
a modification of dynamite, invented by Engels, of Cologne, 1869. Gly- 
oxyline, invented by F. A. Abel, in England, in 1867, is a mixture of gun- 
cotton, saltpetre, nitro-glycerine, and pulp. It was superseded by com- 
pressed gun-cotton. 

EXTRADITION TREATY between England and the United States, negoti- 
ated 1842 ; abrogated May 2, 1876, in consequence of England's refusing, 
April 18, 1876, to surrender the forger Winslow, and of a disagreement 
about trying one Lawrence, delivered by England under the treaty, the Eng- 
lish position being that there were improper efforts to try him for offences 
other than that for which he was delivered ; while the United States 
claimed that England had wrongly applied a home English statute of 1870, 
defining extradition offences, to this treaty, which was international. An 
extradition treaty between the United States and Spain was proclaimed 
Feb. 21, 1877. 

EXPORTS and IMPORTS. (See pp.118, 373.) See Commerce. 



F. 

FAILURES (See Commercial Failures, W. P. , p. 100,) in the United State* 
for the ten years 1867-76, were as follows : 

9 





Average 


Whole Amount. 


Indebtedness. 


$86,218,000 


$36,134 


6y, 774,000 


24,452 


75,054,000 


26,814 


S8,242.000 


24,849 


S5,252,000 


...". 29,245 


121,056,000 


29,750 


228,499,000 


44,085 


135,239,000 


26,627 


201,060.353 


25,978 


191,117,786 


21,020 



2 8 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 



Number. 

1867 2,386 

1868 2,608 

1869 2,799 

1870 3,551 

1871 2,915 

1872 4,069 

1873 5,183 

1874. 5,830 

1875 7,740 

1876 9,092 

FAMINE. (See p. 375.) In Orissa, 750,000 persons perished of famine, 
1865-6; wry severe in Persia, 1871-2; in Bengal, from drought, 1874; 
in Asia Minor, 1874-5 ; in several parts of India, 1876-7. 

FENIANS. October 10, 1869, Edward Martin, a Fenian official, was buried 
in London, with a Fenian demonstration consisting of a funeral procession 
of various organized bodies, in all about 6,000 men. In 1870, Parliament 
amnestied the Fenian prisoners at Portland, but on condition of banish- 
ment for life from the United Kingdom. A Fenian force of some 2,000 
strong, under O'Neill, entered Canada from Vermont, May 25, 1870, but 
remained beyond the lines only ninety minutes, being repulsed and driven 
back by a few English and Canadian troops. Another company crossed 
the line at Malone, N. Y. , on the 27th, and were driven back in a similar 
manner. One Fenian killed at each place was the whole loss on both 
sides. July 13, 1871, Head Constable Talbot, of Dublin, who had been 
vigorous and successful in breaking up the plans of the Fenians, was 
assassinated by a pistol-shot, dying on the 16th. One Kelly, who was sup- 
posed to have shot him, was acquitted, to the great joy of the FeDians. 

FIJI ISLANDS. Ceded to England, September 30, 1873 ; Sir A. H. Cordon 
first Governor, 1875. 

FILIOQUE. A word adopted into the Western creeds, in the Council of 
Toledo, 589 ; rejected by the Eastern churches since 662. It implies that 
the Holy Ghost proceeds both from the Father " and from the Son." The 
old Catholic Conference, Bonn, August, 1875, debated its omission, but did 
not omit it. 

FIRES. (See pp. 120, 378.) December 6, 1867, Her Majesty's Theatre, Lon- 
don, was burned down. It was reckoned the best existing building of its 
class for hearing music in. June 5, 1870. a great fire in Pera, one of the 
suburbs of Constantinople, destroyed many houses, immense quantities of 
property of Armenian merchants, the English Embassy buildings, and (by 
estimate) 2,000 lives. January 12, 1870, the Star and Garter Hotel at 
Richmond, near London, for many years a favorite resort of pleasure- 
parties, was totally burnt ; the manager, Mr. Lever, being burnt also. 
May 24, 1870, at Quebec, a fire in the suburb of St. Roch destroyed 400 
houses, left 8,000 persons homeless, and consumed $1,000,000 worth of 
property. March 10, 1871, a fire at Holker Hall, Devonshire, a seat of 
the Duke of Devonshire, destroyed, among many other valuable and 
curious articles, seventy-two very fine paintings, by some of the best 
masters, ancient and modem. June 17, 1871, the steam in an immense 
boiler, some thirty feet long, in the Trinity Works in Sheffield, was found 
to continue to fill the boiler at night after the fires were withdrawn. On 
examination it was found that the boiler, which had been noticed to be 
sinking for some time, was kept hot by the slow burning of a seam of 



1867-77. 2 9 

shale and coal extending immediately under the building. The fire must 
have been long burning, perhaps for years, and was quietly at work under 
the street and under the houses opposite. It took a considerable time 
and a large force of men to put it out. December 3, 1871 , a fire at War- 
wick Castle consumed the whole of the east wing and the centre, the 
west wing being saved with great difficulty. Many valuable works and 
historic pictures and relics were destroyed. December 14, 1871, a fire 
at Rotherhithe, near London, in Bennett & Co. 's granaries, among the 
largest in England, destroyed to the value of £150,000. November 24, 
1876, fire at Tokio, Japan, destroys some 5,000 homes; about fifty per- 
sons killed; loss of property about $10,000,000. December 5, 1876, 
Brooklyn Theatre burned ; 315 lives lost. For Boston and Chicago fires, 
see Boston, Chicago. 

FLOGGING. Abolished in the English army (in time of peace) in the 
annual mutiny bills of 1868. The Act provides that ''no court-martial 
shall have power to sente ce any soldier or marine on shore to corporal 
punishment in time of peace." 

FLOODS. (See Inundations, pp. 132, 426.) Great floods in France in Sep- 
tember, 1866 ; in North of England, November 16 and 17, 1866 ; at Rome, 
December 28 and 29, 1870 ; in Northern Italy, October, 1872 ; at Toulouse, 
in France (1,000 lives lost), June 23, 1875 ; in midland and western coun- 
ties of England, July, October and November, 1875; in India, September 
22-24, 1875 ; in Holland and France, March, 1876. Reservoir at Mill 
River. Mass., burst, destroying several villages and about 150 lives, May 
16, 1874. A flood in the rivers of Western Pennsylvania, July, 1874, 
drowns about 220 persons. The Worcester, Mass.. reservoir burst March 
30, 1876, but having been expected, no lives were lost, though great 
damage was done. 

FLORENCE, or FIRENZE. (See p. 378.) People vote for annexation to 
Sardinia, March 11 and 12, 1860, and on April 7, the King enters Flor- 
ence : it is made the capital of Italy until Rome shall be acquired, De- 
cember 11, 1864, and the King and Court established there May 13. 1865. 
600th anniversary of Dante's birth celebrated May 14, 1865 ; first Italian 
parliament November 18, 1865 ; government removes to Rome, July, 1871. 
400th anniversary of Michael Angelo, September 12, 1875. 

FLUORESCENCE. The luminousness which takes place in uranium-glass, 
and in solutions of quinine, horse-chestnut bark, or stramonium datura, 
when the invisible chemical rays of the blue end of the solar spectrum are 
sent through them. Discovered and named by Stokes, 1852. 

FRANCE. (See, for events, etc., in the Chronological Tables, following the 
" Dictionary of Dates.") 

G. 

GAMING. Gaming-houses licensed in Paris until 1838. Betting-houses 
suppressed in London, 1830. Public gaming-tables suppressed at Wies- 
baden, Hamburg, and other European watering-places, leaving Monaco 
the only such place of resort, December 31, 1872. Pool-selling forbidden 
by law in New York, 1876. 

.GATLLNG GUN. Invented in America ; patents 1861-1865 ; exhibited at 
Paris 1867 ; rejected in England as inferior to a field-gun firing shrapnel ; 



30 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 

a similar machine, the mitrailleuse, tried at Vincennes, 1869, and used by 
the French in the war of 1870-1871. 

GENEVA. (See p. 388.) The ex-Duke of Brunswick dies here August 
18, 1873, and leaves all his property (over £764,000) to the city. 

GENEVA CONVENTION, on care of wounded, etc. , in war, of delegates 
from fourteen governments, met October 26, 1863 ; their code adopted by 
all civilized powers except the United States, August, 1864. The Inter- 
national or "'Red Cross" Society, established inconsequence, did much 
in relieving the sick and wounded in the Franco-Prussia war, 1870-1871, 
some 13,000 volunteers attending them at a time. 

GERMANY. (See pp. 124, 390.) The Germanic Confederation, succeeding 
Napoleon's " Confederation of the Rhine,'' was formed June 8, 1815 ; its 
first diet was at Frankfort, November 16, 1816 ; announced dissolved by 
Prussia, June 14, 1866, but continued ; was, however, given up by Austria 
at the peace of Nikolsburg, after Sadowa, July 26, and the last meeting 
of the diet, August 24, 1866. Instead was established the North German 
Confederation, without Austria and the other South German States, Au- 
gust 18, 1866. North German Parliament met at Berlin, February 24, 
1867 ; the confederation ceased on the re -establishment of the German 
Empire, January 1, 1871. Population of the Empire, December 1, 1875, 
42,726,844. 

GOLD. (See pp. 125.395.) Of 98,000,000 sovereigns coined in England 
from 1850 to 1869, 44,000,000 had in the latter year disappeared from 
circulation; and it was computed that in 1869 31| P er cent, of the sov- 
ereigns and 40 per cent, of the half-sovereigns circulating were of light 
weight. Estimated value of gold extant in the world, in 1848, about 
$2,800,000,000 ; in 1875, about $5,000,000,000. 

GOOD TEMPLARS. A secret society of total abstinents. The first Eng- 
lish lodge formed at Birmingham, May, 1868 ; in 1874 said to be 3,745 
lodges and 210,255 members in the United Kingdom. 

GOTHENBURG SYSTEM. Introduced with excellent results at Gothen- 
burg, Sweden, for controlling the use of intoxicating liquors. It consists 
of a monopoly of the sale by a company of reputable citizens, under care- 
ful restrictions, and without any gain beyond usual wages, to the sellers, 
who must live by their other business as victuallers, etc. 

GRANGERS. (See Patrons of Husbandry.) 

GREAT BRITAIN. (For principal occurrences, see in Chronological 
Tables, following the Dictionary of Dates. ) 

GREEK CHURCH. Patriarch of Constantinople declines the Pope's invita- 
tion to an oecumenical council, October, 1868. A Greek church at Liver- 
pool consecrated by an archbishop, January 16, 1870. 

GRETNA GREEN. Here Scotch marriages (an acknowledgment before 
witnesses was a valid marriage in Scotland) used to be celebrated for run- 
aways. An Act of Parliament in 1856, however, destroyed the business, 
by providing that one party to such marriage must have lived in Scotland 
twenty-one days. 

GUATEMALA. (See p. 126. ) Recent Presidents : Vincent Cerna, succeeded 
Carrera, May 3, 1865, to 1869; M. G. Granedos, December, 1872; R. Bar- 
nes, May 7, 1873. Population, about 1,180 000. 



1867-77. 3i 

GYPSIES. Esther Faa crowned Queen of the Gypsies at Blyth, in York- 
shire, November 18, I860. 



H. 

HAYTI, OR St. Domengo. (See pp. 127, 406.) Hayti and St. Domingo are 
used as names for the whole island. Hayti is the western or French 
part, and San Domingo (which see) the eastern or Spanish part. Gef- 
frard became President of Hayti, January 23, 1859 ; a military insurrection 
against him, under Salnave, broke out May, 1865 ; Geffrard beaten and 
banished. Salnave President, March 27, 1867 ; after one or two risings 
are put down, Salnave proclaims himself Emperor, August, 1868, but is 
defeated by insurgents, taken, tried, and shot, January 15, 1870. General 
Nissage Saget elected President, March 19, 1870 ; lives out his term. M. 
Domingue elected June 14, 1874; an insurrection expels him, April, 1876, 
and Boisrond Canal elected July, 1876. Population (estimated) 572,000. 

HEAT. Count Rumf ord, about the beginning of this century, asserted that 
heat consists in motion among the particles of matter. Tyndall's book 
on the same theme appeared February, 1863, and this is at present the 
received doctrine. 

HELLGATE. The reef at Hallett's Point, which was the principal obstruc- 
tion at Hellgate, in East River, near New York, was mined during seven 
years under the management of General Newton, of United States 
Engineers, by a system of galleries and pillars between, to an extent of 
4,857 feet of tunnelling and 2,568 feet of galleries, covering two and 
three-quarter acres of ground, leaving ten feet of rock above, supported 
by 173 piers of about ten feet diameter each, and the whole system 
radiating fanwise outward from the "entrance-shaft at the shore. All 
these pillars were then drilled and charged with a total number of 3,680 
charges of dynamite, vulcanite, or rend-rock powder, and the whole were 
connected with a battery on shore by wires, so as to insure simultaneous 
discharge. This took place on September 24, 1876. with complete suc- 
cess, the final connection which exploded the whole mass being made by 
the finger of General Newton's baby daughter pressing a battery-key. A 
smaller explosion was the blowing up of Blossom Rock, in the Golden 
Gate (San Francisco harbor), April 23, 1870, in which 43,000 pounds of 
gunpowder were used, packed in one large chamber in the rock. 

HEPTARCHY. Seven Saxon kingdoms in England, about a.d. 450-850, 
viz.: Kent; South Saxons (Sussex and Surrey); West Saxons (Berks, 
Hampshire, Wilts, Somerset, Dorset, Devon, part of Cornwall) ; East 
Saxons (Essex, Middlesex, part of Herts) ; Northumbria (Lancaster, York, 
Cumberland, Westmoreland, Durham, Northumberland) ; East Angles 
(Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridge, Ely) ; and Mercia (Gloucester, Hereford, 
Chester, Stafford, Worcester, Oxford, Salop, Warwick, Derby, Leicester, 
Bucks, Northampton, Notts, Lincoln, Bedford, Rutland, Huntingdon, 
part of Herts). 

HERAT. A strong city, called the key of Afghanistan, near the Persian 
frontier. The Persians failed to take it, 1838 ; took it, October 25, 1856 j 
contrary to the treaty of 1853 ; were forced to restore it by the English 
July 27, 1857. 



32 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 

HERZEGOVINA. An insurrection against the Turks broke out December, 
1861 ; subdued September, 1862. Another broke out July 1, 1875, and 
the country has been in an unsettled state ever since (1377), sympathizing 
with its neighbors Montenegro, Bosnia, and Servia. 

HIEROGLYPHICS. (See p. 409; see also Egypt.) The researches of 
Champollion and others, greatly assisted by the discovery of the Rosetta 
Stone (see p. 103), have now made the Egyptian hieroglyphic language a 
reasonably well understood one, with dictionaries and grammars. 

HOLLAND. (See p. 410.) William III. succeeded his father, William II., 
March 17, 1849. A Roman Catholic hierarchy re-introduced, 1853. 
Slavery abolished in Dutch West Indies (to take place July 1, 1863), 
August 6, 1862. Canals begun to connect Amsterdam and Rotterdam 
with the North Sea, 1865. Population (December 31, 1875), 3,809,527, of 
which over 1,200,000 is in cities having more than 20,000 inhabitants. 
The town population of Holland is proportionately larger than in anj 
other European country. 

HOME RULE (for Ireland). The Home Government Association, estab- 
lished at Dublin, 1870, with both Catholic and Protestant members ; Mr. 
Isaac Butt, a leader, elected to Parliament from Limerick. September 20, 
1871 ; agitation in and out of parliament from that time, without much 
result ; parliamentary " filibustering," with much inconvenience to busi- 
ness, carried on by Home Rule members, July, 1877. 

HORSE. (See p. 413.) Rarey's mode of training horses shown by him 
in England with great success, 1858-9-60. Horseflesh used as food in 
Paris, 1866, and since. Goodenough's American machine-made horse- 
shoes (patented I860), to put on cold, adopted by the London General 
Omnibus Co., 1870. A horse epidemic, called the epizootic, coming from 
Canada, caused much inconvenience in Northern States, October, 1872. 

HUNGARY. (See pp. 129, 414.) The Emperor and Empress of Austria were 
crowned king and queen of Hungary, at Pesth, June 8, 1867. The 
1 ' Act of Grace " issued on the occasion annulled all sentences and stopped 
all proceedings for political offences, restored forfeited estates, and al- 
lowed the banished to return. Croatia united with Hungary, May 27, 



HURRICANE. (See also Cyclone.) Oct. 29, 1867, a violent hurricane 
struck St. Thomas (W. I. ) and vicinity. At St. Thomas alone, some 80 
vessels were sunk or driven ashore, 100 lives lost on the island by fall of 
houses, etc., and several times as many on the shipping. March 11, 
1868, a hurricane at Mauritius drove ashore 20 ships, destroyed or un- 
roofed many buildings, destroyed immense quantities of growing sugar, 
cane and stored sugar, blew down a railroad bridge, etc. 

I. 

[CE-MACHINE. Machines for making ice act either : 1, by rapid evapora- 
tion, as in Carre's, Harrison's, Twining's, etc. , patents ; or 2, by lique- 
faction of a freezing mixture, as in the common way of making ice-cream 
with ice and salt ; or 3, by use of vacuum and absorption of heat in conse- 
quence from the article to be frozen. Several of these machines have 
been commercially successful. 



1867-77. 33 

ICELAND. (See p. 417.) A new constitution, granted and put in opera- 
tion at King Christian's visit, Aug. 1, 1874, when the 1000th anniversary 
of the settlement was celebrated at Reykjavik. Cleasby's Icelandic-Eng- 
lish dictionary, published 1869-74. A volcanic eruption March 29, 1875, 
devastated much pasture-land. 

IMPEACHMENT. The House of Representatives voted (126 to 41) to im- 
peach President Johnson, Feb. 24, 1868, of high crimes and misdemean- 
ors, in having violated the Tenure of Office Act, and in other doings. 
After trial before the Senate, he was on May 16th acquitted oh one ar- 
ticle (the 11th), only 35 Senators voting for conviction (one less than the 
two-thirds requisite), to 19 for acquittal. On the 26th he was acquitted 
on the remaining articles. 

INCOME TAX, United States. Expired by limitation, end of 1871. 
Receipts from it, 1867. $27,418,000 ; 1868, $23,390,000 ; 1869, $27,353,000; 
1870, $26,150,000 

INDIA. (See pp. 131, 421.) Order of the Star of India established June 25, 
1861. Growth of cotton greatly increased in consequence of American 
civil war stopping the supply, 1862. Government support of heathen 
religion stopped December, 1863. Indo-European telegraph opened, 
March 1, 1865. About 1.500,000 persons die of famine in Orissa, August 
to November, 1866. The Brahmo Somaj, a sect holding tenets much 
like the Unitarian, appear in 1869, and open a house of worship August 
24. Their leader, Keshub Chunder Sen, afterwards (1870) visits London, 
and preaches in a Unitarian chapel. Mr. Dall, a Unitarian missionary to 
India, joins the Brahmo Somaj. Much distress from famine in Bengal, 
spring of 1874, but only a few lives lost. Estimated expense of relief 
operations £6,500,000. Prince of Wales's visit ; he sails from England 
October 11, 1875, reaches Bombay, November 8 ; grand reception of Indian 
rulers, December 24 ; sails from Bombay to return, March 13, 1876. Queen 
Victoria proclaimed Empress of India in London, May 1, 1876 ; at Delhi, 
January 1. 1877. British India (immediate and feudatory states inclusive) 
contains about 1,500,000 square miles, and population (census 1871-2) 
about 240,000,000. 

INDIANS. (See pp. 131,422; also Modocs.) Gen. Custer ambushed, de- 
feated and killed, and his command of 17 officers and 315 rank and file 
utterly exterminated by the Indians under Sitting Bull, at Little Horn 
River, July 2, 1876. Hostilities continue against the Indians, who, under 
Sitting Bull, flee into British territory at end of campaign of 1876. In 
the summer of 1877 Joseph, an Idaho chief, and a small band commence 
hostilities in that State. 

INFALLIBILITY of the Pope alone, voted by the Vatican Council, July 18, 
1870. Dr. von Dollinger excommunicated for opposing it, April 18, 1871 ; 
and chosen rector of the University of Munich, July 29, 1871. The Bava- 
rian government protests against the doctrine, September 27, 1871 ; an 
'"Old Catholic" church opened at Munich, in September, 1871. 

INSOLVENCY. (See Bankruptcy. ) 

INSURANCE. First fire insurance company in United States, the Phila- 
delphia Contributionship, 1752. First state insurance department in 
Massachusetts, 1854 ; next in New York, 1860. Capital in fire insurance 



34 the world's progress. 

business in United States in 1860, $32,358,000; in 1806, $44,410,000 ; in 
1876, $55,883,000. Lost by the great fires of 1871 and 1872, over $15,- 
000,000. Comparison of the business in years 1865 and 1875 : 

1S65. 1875. 

Property insured $3,428,000,000 $6,273,000,000 

Premium receipts 29,529,000 64, 900, 000 

Losses paid over. 17, 2(i5.0UU 91,960,000 

Whole losses by fire in United States in 1875, $78,000,000, of which in 
sured, $39,000,000. 

INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT. (See Copyright.) 

INTERNATIONALISTS. An organization of a communist or socialist 
nature, first established by some German socialists in London, 1847 ; 
definitely organized at London, September 28, 1864, George Odger first 
president. Professes to operate for the emancipation of labor from the 
tyranny of capitalists. It has had congresses, sometimes ludicrously dis- 
orderly, at Geneva, September, 1866 ; Lausanne, September, 1867 ; Brus- 
sels, September, 1868; Basle, September, 1869; Barcelona, June, 1870; 
Hague, September, 1872. This last was particularly quarrelsome, and 
the political part seceded from the trade part, and adjourned to New 
York. At this time the society reported failing in England. Geneva 
meeting September, 1873, and at Brussels again, September, 1874. Has 
claimed the absurd number of 2,500,000 members, and to be affiliated 
with the Fenians and other secret societies. 

INTEREST. (See pp. 132, 426.) In England was 8 per cent, by law of 
1623 ;. 6 per cent., 1651 ; 5 per cent., 1713 ; and law totally repealed 1854, 
leaving interest a matter of agreement. 

INUNDATIONS. (See Floods.) 

IONIAN ISLANDS. (See pp. 133, 427.) Declare for annexation to Greece, 
in March, J 861, and April, 1862. England acquiescing, annexation takes 
place accordingly, May 28, 1864, and the British troops leave June 2. 
Population about 200,000. 

IRELAND. (Seep. 428; see also Church of Ireland; Encumbered Es- 
tates Act ; Fenians; Home Rule.) Queen Victoria visits Ireland, Au- 
gust, 1849 ; again, August, 1853. Agitation against national school 
system, 1859. Agricultural distress and agrarian murders, 1862 and 1863 ; 
emigration very extensive, 1860-1864. Prince and Princess of Wales 
visit Ireland, April, 1868. Agrarian murders, 1869 and 1870. 

IRON. (See pp. 133, 428. ) The iron and steel production of the United 
States for three years, 1874-5-6, was as follows : 

1874. 1875. 1876. 

Pig iron, tons (of 2,000 lbs.) 2.689,413 2,266,581 2,093,236 

All rolled iron, tons 1,839,560 1,890,379 1,921,730 

Rails, all kinds, tons 729,413 792,512 S79.629 

Rails, Bessemer steel, tons 144,944 290,863 412,461 

Gut nails and spikes (included in " rolled iron ") kegs 4,912,180 4,726,881 4, 157.81 4 

Iron produced in Great Britain in 1875, tons, 6,566,451. 

IKON SHIPBUILDING. (See also Navies.) This industry began in the 
United States in 1868, and up to 1877 have been built 251 iron vessels of 
a total capacity of 197,500 tons. Present annual value (1877) of iron 
vessels built in United States, from twelve to fifteen million dollars. Is 
/876 were built 25 vessels as follows : 



1867-77. 35 

Place. Number. Total Tonnage 

about. 

Buffalo 3 140 

Burlington, N. J 1 13 

Delaware (State) 9 8,298 

New Orleans 2 915 

Philadelphia 11 11,981 

Besides 9 other large vessels and a considerable number of smaller ones 
building. 
ITALY. (See pp. 133, 429.) September 23, 1867, G-aribaldi, persisting in hig 
march upon Rome, was arrested by the Italian authorities at Sinalunga, 
near Sienna, as he was about entering the Papal territory. He was im- 
prisoned in Alessandria, but afterwards sent to his island of Caprera and 
watched by ships of war. He escaped, however, resumed his enterprise, 
and was at Monte Rotondo, near Rome, in the end of October, and on the 
point of advancing, when (October 28) a French fleet reached Civita Vec- 
chia, and October 30, a French force occupied Rome., to prevent the pro- 
posed revolution. November 3, Garibaldi was decisively beaten at Mentana 
by the French, and he was again arrested and imprisoned. In September, 
1870, the Italian troops marched upon Rome, under Gen. Cadorna, and 
on the 20th, after four hours' cannonade, entered and occupied the city. 
October 2, a popular vote was held in the States of the Church, on the 
question of uniting them and Rome with Italy, and making Rome the 
capital. The vote was 133,681 affirmative, and,l,507 negative. Decem- 
ber 5, the Italian Parliament at Florence voted 192 to 18 to remove the 
capital to Rome. Victor Emanuel made a formal public entrance into 
Rome, December 31, 1870. 



JAMAICA. (See p. 431.) Negro rising, October 11, 1865, put down with 
much bloodshed and many punishments, by Gov. Eyre, October and No- 
vember, 1865. Gov. Eyre suspended ; a government commission reported, 
April 9, that great, wanton and unnecessary cruelty and violence had been 
used. Eyre was afterwards indicted in England, and sued for damages ; 
but the grand jury threw out the bills, and an act of indemnity gave him 
the suit. In 1873 the island was reported more prosperous. Population, 
1871, 506,154. 

JAPAN. (See pp. 134, 432.) Jeddo (now called Tokio) and other places 
opened to trade according to treaty, April 25, 1867 ; Osaka and Hiogo the 
same, January 1, 1868. Insurrection of the daimios, or provincial princes. 
1868, ending in their overthrow in 1869. This left the government sub- 
stantially an absolute monarchy under the Mikado, who, however, had 
first to overcome also the Tycoon, or spiritual sovereign. This was accom- 
plished December, 1869. An embassy of distinguished Japanese reached 
Washington March 4, and London, August 17, 1872. First railway in 
Japan opened October, 1872. New constitution, arranging a form of 
government somewhat like the imperial French Government, April 14, 
1875. The present Mikado, or Emperor, Moutsu or Mutsu Hito, born 
1852, succeeded his father, Komei Tenno, in 1867. Population in 1875 
(estimated), 32,794,897. 

JERUSALEM. (Seep. 433.) Population estimated (in 1877) as follows: 
Jews, 10,600; Christians, 5,300 ; Mohammedans, 5,000 ; total, 20,900. A 
Protestant bishopric was established here under protection of England and 
2* 



36 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 

Prussia, 1846 ; Wilson and Warren's excavations, ascertaining many points 
of interest about the ancient city, 1867-71. 

JESUITS. (See pp. 134, 433.) Expelled from Belgium, 1818; Russia, 
1820: Spain, 1820 and 1835; France, 1831 and 1845; Portugal, 1834; 
Sardinia and Austria, and some other States, 1848 ; Italy and Sicily, 1860 ; 
Empire of Germany, 1872 ; Italy again, 1873. In 1866 whole number 
of Jesuits reported to be 8,167, of which in France 2,422. 

JEWS. (See pp. 134, 434.) Oppressive Austrian laws against them annulled 
January, 1860; Hungary emancipates, 1867; Disraeli, a Jew, English 
premier, 1868; Jews admitted into Spain, 1868; Sir G. Jessel, a Jew, 
English solicitor -general, 1871 ; master of the rolls, 1873. Jews in 
Great Britain (estimated) in 1876, 51,520, and in London, 39,833. Jews 
in the world, 1869, estimated at 7,000,000. 

JUTE. Fibre from two plants cultivated in Bengal (viz. , chonch, or cor- 
chorus olitorius, and isbund, or C. capsularis). Used for mats, gunny- 
cloth, and other coarse textile fabrics. Imported into the United King- 
dom in 1871, 3,454,120 cwt. ; 1874, 4,270,164 cwt. ; in 1875, 3,416,617 
cwt. 

K. 

KARAITE JEWS. A kind of Protestant sect, who adhere to the Hebrew 
Scriptures alone, rejecting the Talmud and Rabbinical tradition. They 
are found mostly in Turkey, Poland, and the Crimea. 

KEET, Rev. Mr. (See Reverend.) 

KHEDIVE. (See Egypt.) The title is supposed to mean something more 
than vali or viceroy. It was given to the ruler of Egypt, May 14, 1867. 

KHIVA. The Czar Nicholas sent an expedition against it, which perished 
in the cold of the winter of 1840. Another, 1873, took Khiva after de- 
feating the Khan, who became subordinate to the Czar. The country has 
since been pretty much made a Russian province. 

KHOKAND entered by Russian troops, February, 1876, and the khanate 
annexed to Russia by the name of Ferghana. 

KINEMATICS. A recent subdivision of physical science, being the science 
of motion. Professor Reuleaux's Kinematics of- machinery, an important 
work on the application of this science, published in Germany ; a transla- 
tion appeared in London, 1876. 

KU-KLUX KLAN. A secret organization in the Southern States to oppose 
the ruling party, or Republicans, by threats and violence, particularly 
against such colored persons as should vote the Republican ticket. Their 
operations were very efficacious, 1868-1871, when, under the pressure of. 
legal and military measures, they disappeared, other forms of the same 
kind of activity being adopted. 

L. 

LABOR. (See Internationalists ; Strikes; Working mil.) 
LAMBESSA. An island on the coast of Algeria, used as a prison for some 
of the victims of Napoleon III., of December 2, 1851, and for other po- 
litical exiles. 



1867-77. 37 

LATIN UNION, to maintain a uniform coinage, 1865 to 1880, consists of 

France, Italy, Belgium, and Switzerland. 
LEONINE CITY. That part of Rome assigned to the Pope at tie entrance 

of the Italian troops, in Sept., 1870. It includes the castle of San Angelo, 

the hospital of San Spirito, the Vatican palace and gardens, and St. 

Peter's. 

LIBERIA. (See pp. 136,451.) Presidents: D. B. Warner, 1864; J. S. 
Payne, 1868; E. J. Roy, 1870 (deposed Oct., 1871); J. J. Roberts (the 
first President), 1872 and 1874; he died 187(5. Population about 720,000, 
of which about 19,000 are of American birth or descent. In July, 1877, 
it was reported that 30,000 negroes in South Carolina were enrolled to go 
to Liberia, in consequence of apprehensions from the white supremacy in 
that State. 

LIBRARIES. (See pp. 136, 451.) The great Report of the Education 
Bureau on Public Libraries in the United States for 1876, gives a list of 
3,469 public libraries in the United States having over 300 volumes (not 
including common or district school, parish, and Sunday-school libraries). 
In these were reported in all : 

Volumes 12,276,964 

In common school, etc., libraries, additional, more than 1.365.407 

Total volumes 13,642,371 

Add pamphlets, only part reported, up to about 1,500,000 

Of these, 1,510 libraries report 434,339 volumes annually added ; 742 re- 
port 8,879,869 volumes, annual use ; 1,722 report $6,105,501 permanent 
funds ; 830 report $1,398,756 total yearly income ; 769 report $562,407, 
annually spent for books, and 643 report $682,166 annually spent for 
salaries and incidentals. The Boston Free Public Library, the largest on 
the American continent, contained, July 1, 1877, about .333,000 volumes, 
besides about 150,000 pamphlets. 

LIFE-SAVING APPARATUS. Patent for life-boat to Wm. Lukin. 1785 ; 
H. Greathead, 1788, obtained reward of a South Shields committee for 
best life-boat ; also £1,200 from parliament. It first put to sea January 
30, 1790. Up to 1804, 31 life-boats built and 300 lives saved. Richard- 
son's tubular life-boat, Challenger, patented 1852, in England. English 
National Life-boat Institution, founded 1824 ; in 1876 had 2,541 life- 
boats in operation, and lives saved, 1824-1875, inclusive, 23,789. An 
American ' ' life-raft " of cylinders, filled with air and lashed together, 
navigated from New York to Southampton, June 4 to July 25, 1867. 
Manby's apparatus for throwing a shot from a mortar over vessels in dis- 
tress, and thus getting a line to them, put in use February, 1808 ; in 20 
years it saved 58 vessels and 410 persons. Boyton's life-preserving 
dress and signalling apparatus exhibited in America and Europe. 1874- 
1877 ; he crossed the English Channel in it in 23£ hours, May 28 and 29, 
1875. The United States Life-saving Service, as organized 1871, is in 11 
districts on the ocean and great lakes. It has 108 stations, with mortar, 
shot-line, life-car, and ample equipments, and 24 of them with a life- 
boat besides. There is a superintendent for each district, and a keepei 
and six surfmen for each station. In five years, ending June 30, 1876, 
there were on these coasts 273 wrecks ; property saved by the Life-sav- 
ing Service, $5,254,300; lives saved, 3,189; lost, 41. Ottinger's shot- 
line gun will carry 631 yards. 



38 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 

LIGHT. Velocity nearly 200,000 miles per second. Comes from the sun 
to the earth, therefore, in a little over eight minutes. The greatest prog- 
ress in the science of optics since Newton has been in this century, in- 
cluding the development of the undulatory theory, polarization, actinism 
or chemical action of light, spectroscopic investigations, etc. 

LOANS. (See pp. 137 - , 456.) French loan for Crimean war, for $150,000,- 
000, authorized by law, July 9, 1855 ; on the 30th, nearly five times the 
required amount had been taken in France, besides nearly the whole 
amount in foreign subscriptions. French loan of $100,000,000, for the 
Italian campaign of 1859, raised without difficulty ; for that of $400,000,- 
000, in 1871, for German indemnity, and for subsequent one of $600,000,- 
000, to close out the same and end the German occupation, twice the 
required amount was promptly subscribed within France. The success 
of these French loans arises from the small sums receivable, and the con- 
firmed habit of the people to hoard specie. 

LONDON. (See pp. 137, 458.) Estimated area in 1860, 121 square miles, or 
eleven miles square. Total population, 1871, 3,885,641 ; in 1877, probably 
considerably over 4,000,000. The first charter of London, given by William 
the Conqueror, is still preserved in the city archives. It is on a slip of parch- 
ment six inches long and one broad, beautifully written in Saxon, and is in 
English as follows: "William the King greeteth William the bishop and 
Godfrey the portreve and all the burgesses within London friendly. And I 
acquaint you that I will that ye be all there law-worthy as ye were in 
King Edward's days. And I will that every child be his father's heir 
after his father's days. And I will not suffer that any man do you any 
wrong. God preserve you." 

LONGEVITY. (See Old Age.) 

LORRAINE. Anciently, Lotharingia ; German, Lothringen. United to 
France, 1766 ; about one-fifth of it, including Metz and Thionville, an- 
nexed to Germany, along with Alsace, at end of Franco-Prussian war, 
February 26, 1871. 

LUXEMBURG. According to treaty at London, by the great powers, May 
1867, the Prussian garrison left the fortress. November, 1867 ; fortifica- 
tions dismantled. August, 1870, and transformed for civil purposes, 1874. 
The grand duchy was declared neutral by the treaty of 1867 ; its popula- 
tion, December 1, 1871, was 197,528; area, 1,592 square miles. 

M. 

MAFIA or MAFFIA. (See Brigands.) 

MAGDALA. A very strong Abyssinian mountain fastness, stormed by the 
British under Sir R. Napier (afterwards Lord Napier of Magdala), April 
13, 1868, when Theodore, the Abyssinian king, killed himself. The 
place was burned, April 17th. 

MAGNESIUM. The metal first obtained from magnesia, by Davy, 1808; 
produced in large quantities by Sonstadt, 1862-4. It burns easily, with 
a singularly brilliant flame, by which photographs can be taken, as was 
done in the interior of the Pyramids, 1875. 

MAN, Antiquity of. (See Pre-Mstoric Man.) 



18(37-77. 39 

MANITOBA. Rupert's Land made a province, and named Manitoba, 1870. 
One Kiel and others (Catholics) resisted annexation to the Dominion of 
Canada, in January, 1870; proclaimed the "Red River Republic," and 
murdered one Scott, who opposed them. On the appearance of a mili- 
tary force from Canada, however, in July, Riel yielded without resistance, 
and ran away. The annexation was accomplished, and A. G. Archibald, 
the first Lieutenant-Governor of Manitoba, arrived in September. An in- 
tended Fenian raid on this colony suppressed by United States troops, 
October, 1871. The Red River settlement is in the geographical centre of 
North America. 

MELANESIA. The South-west Pacific Islands. Their missionary bishop, 
Patteson, and his chaplain, Atkin, murdered by the natives at Santa 
Cruz, one of the Queen Charlotte group, September, 1871, as supposed in 
revenge for kidnapping, which the bishop had strenuously opposed. 

MENTANA. Garibaldi defeated, November 3, 1867. ♦ 

MERCURY. (See p. 477.) The new Almaden mine, in California, produced 
from July, 1850, to end of 1873, 351,897,055 pounds of quicksilver. From 
one to two pounds are lost for every ton of the ore that is worked with it. 

MERV. A miserable town in Turkistan, just north of the Persian frontier, 
of no importance except as a possible military station, on the line to India 
which might be followed by the Russians. 

METEOROLOGY. Meteorological Society established in England, 1850, 
chartered 1866. A department for this science, of the English Board of 
Trade, under Admiral Fitzroy, organized 1855 ; it has done much to- 
wards foretelling the weather for commercial and scientific purposes. 
The United States Signal Service department sent and received in the 
year 1873-4, 529,958 letters and documents ; issued of all its publica- 
tions 4,494,320 copies, of which 3,491,046 were " farmers' bulletins." It 
had in that year 108 stations and 247 observers. It has been from the 
beginning under the able management of General Albert J. Myer, who or- 
ganized it. 

METEORS. The dates of the usual annual meteoric displays are : January 
2d, July 29th, August 3d and 9th to 12th, November 8th to 14th, Decem- 
ber 11th. Meteors are now supposed to be small bodies revolving around 
the sun in space, and the displays of them to be in consequence of the 
earth's passing through a belt or group of them, when the swiftness of 
their motion through the earth's atmosphere inflames them. 

METRIC SYSTEM. Based on the metre, one ten-millionth of a quarter 
of the earth's circumference in latitude (3.2808 English feet). Unit of 
surface is the centiare or square metre. The are is 100 square metres. 
Unit of solidity is the stere, a cubic metre. Unit of capacity, the litre, a 
cubic decimetre. Unit of weight, the gramme, a cubic centimetre of dis- 
tilled water. Unit of money, the franc, weighing 5 grammes. Prefix to 
either of these (except franc) deoa- for ten times; hekato-, 100 times ; 
Mlo-, 1,000 times; myria-, 10,000 times. Also, deci- for one -tenth ; centi-, 
one-lOOth; milli- for one -1,000th. Adopted to more or less extent (be- 
sides being the only legal system in France) by convention, May 20, 1875, 
in the following countries : Austria, Germany, Russia, Italy, Spain, 
Portugal, Turkey, Switzerland, Belgium, Sweden, Denmark, United 
States of America, Argentine Republic, Brazil, Peru. 



40 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 

METROPOLITAN MUSEUM of ART, New York, chartered April, 1870, 
a site in the Central Park and $500,000 for a building granted by tha 
State, April, 1871. First collection (of paintings) opened in temporary 
gallery, February 20, 1872. Greatly enlarged by the antiquities collected 
by General di Cesnola at Curium and elsewhere in Cyprus. 1873-5. 

MBTZ. Surrendered, October 27, 1870, by iazaine with 3 marshals, 66 
generals, 6,000 officers, 173,000 men, 400 guns, 100 mitrailleuses, 53 
eagles. 

MEXICO. (See pp. 142, 479.) French evacuated Mexico. March, 1867. 
Juarez (a full-blooded Indian), president until his death, July 18, 1872 ; 
Lerdo de Tejada, president ; his government overthrown by Porfirio Diaz, 
November 16, 1876. 

MILK. Condensed milk process invented by Gail Borden, 1849, since which 
time a great business has grown up in it, both as supplied in bulk in cities 
and put up in sealed cans for voyages and store purposes. 

MINES, MINING. (See pp, 143, 481.) Value of minerals and metals mined 
in the United Kingdom in 1874, £67,834,313; in 1875, £67,487,688. 
Coal, iron and lead were the three greatest mining products, coal being 
over two-thirds of the whole in value, and iron almost three-fourths of 
the other third. Mining products of the United States in 1870, $152,- 
598,994, of which just about half were from Pennsylvania alone. 

MINORITY REPRESENTATION. (See Cumulative Vote.) 

MISSISSIPPI RIVER. (See pp.144, 482.) Improvements to make the 
South Pass of the river navigable and to keep it so, by Capt. Eads's plan 
of jetties carried out from the natural mouth of the pass so as to keep the 
mam river stream together and thus scour a passage out to deep water, 
were bpgun in 1875. In 1877 a twenty-foot channel is secured and main- 
tained by the river itself, where there was before only eight feet of water, 
and the jetty plan is considered successful. Humphreys' aod Abbott's 
elaborate and valuable hydrographic and hydraulic survey of the river, 
published 1861. 

MITRAILLEUSE. (See Qathng Gun.) 

MOABITF STONE. Discovery announced January, 1870, having a Phoe- 
nician or ancient Hebrew inscription, said to be by order of Mesha, King 
of Moab, referred to in 2 Kings, iii. , and to narrate his victories over Israel. 
Dr. Ginsburg has published an excellent monograph of it, second edition, 
1871. 

MODOCS defeated the United States troopK, January, 1873 ; murdered Gen. 
Canby and about forty more by treachery, April 11 ; after long and des- 
perate fighting in almost impregnable volcanic ''lava-beds," the remaining 
Modocs were captured,' and their chief, Captain Jack, was tried, and ex- 
ecuted October 3, 1873. 

MOLLY MAGUIRES. Said to be a branch of a secret society called the 
Ancient Order of Hibernians, but practically a murdering secret society 
among the miners of Eastern Pennsylvania. The name and the organiza- 
tion first came into notice about 1862, and for fourteen years they pur- 
sued a career of violence and murder in Carbon. Schuylkill, and the other 
neighboring mining counties. In December, 1862. they attacked Mr. 
G-oyne's mine in Cass township, stopped the works and beat those who 
opposed them ; June 14, 1862, they murdered F. W. S. Langdon, neai 



-LOOI-, I. 4I 

Audenreid, and in November, 1863, George K. Smith, in the Stone vicinity ; 
attacked Mr. Northall's house, February 11, 1867, in order to kill him, he, 
however, being away ; July 5, 1875, shot and killed policeman Yost, of 
Tamaqua ; September 1, 1875, murdered Sanger and Uren, two miners, 
at Raven Run ; Sep' ember 3, murdered John P. Jones at Lansford ; and 
there were many other cases of murder and violence, usually in the nature 
of revenge for some action about wages or employment of which the order 
chose to disapprove. By means of detectives, a number of them were, 
however, seized and tried, and June 21, 1877, ten of them were hanged. 

MONEY. (See p. 484. See also Coinage ; Currency ; Gold; Silver.) 

MONT CENIS TUNNEL. (See runnels.) 

MONTENEG-RO rebelled against the Turks early in 17th century ; inde- 
pendent ever since, though without the consent of Turkey, and in spite 
of repeated furious Turkish attacks. Several of these, however, would 
have overwhelmed the brave little principality, without the intervention 
of the great powers. Area, 1,770 square miles ; population in 1871, about 
195,600. 

MOODY AND SANKEY. (See Revivals.) 

MOORSOM' S METHOD of measuring the tonnage of merchant shipping 
was adopted in the English Merchant Shipping Act of 1854, and is the 
method used for ascertaining the tonnage on which dues are payable at 
the Suez Canal. 

MORMONS. (See pp. 145, 485.) One Lee, a Mormon bishop, tried and 
condemned to death in 1877, for having participated in the Mountain 
Meadows massacre, Sept. 18, 1858, of 136 emigrants, by order of the 
Mormon leaders. 

MOUNTAIN. Mount Everest, in the Himalayas, 29,002 feet high, is the 
highest mountain known in the world. 

MURDERS in England and Wales for ten years : 

1869 265 I 1872 257 

1870 222 I 1873 223 

1871 226 I 1874 223 

MUSIC. (See pp. 146, 487.) Musical pitch fixed in France, 1860, the mid- 
dle C to be 522 vibrations in a second. Various different pitches have 
since been adopted, and "concert pitch" is now (1877) not a settled 
thing. Tonic sol-fa system invented by Miss Glover ; improved about 
1847 by Curwen. For Wagner's Ring des Nibelungen, see Bayreuth. 

MYCEN^l. 1874 to 1876, Dr. Schliemann explored the site of the Acro- 
polis of ancient Mycente, discovering five tombs, which he believes those 
of Agamemnon, Eurymedon, Cassandra, and their followers. In these was 
a great collection of golden and other precious articles of ornament and 
use, extremely ancient, interesting, valuable, and archasologically impor- 
tant. They are deposited with the Greek authorities at Athens. 



N. 

NATIONAL DEBT op United States. (See pp. 147, 490.) Deducting 
cash in the Treasury, Dec. 1, 1876, was $2,089,336,099.42. Increase of 
the debt in the month preceding, $457,662.64. Decrease since June 30, 



1865 

1S66 


226 

272 


1867 


255 


1868 


261 



42 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



1876, $10,103,245.57. Decrease since 1866, $683,900,074.27. State and 
territorial debts, June, 1876, estimated at $350,000,000. 

NATIONAL DEBTS. (See pp. 147, 490.) An estimate in the Westminster 
Review, of the national debts of the world in 1875, was as follows (at 
$5.00 to the pound sterling) : 



Great Britain $3,875,000,000 

Europe 13,865,000,000 

America 3,870,000,000 

Asia 655,000,000 



Australasia . 
Africa 



200,000,000 
375,000,000 



Total $22,840,000,000 



European national debts are about as follows (at $5.00 to the pound 
sterling) : 



Austro-Hungary (1876) 

Belgium (January 1, 1876). . . . 

Denmark (March 31, 1875) 

Prance ( Januai-y 1, 1875) 

German Empire, none, or a tri- 
fling one. 

But Prussia (January 1, 1876). 
Bavaria (January 1, 1874). 
Wiirtemberg (May 10, 1874) 

Saxony (end of 1876) 

etc., etc. 

Great Britain (March 31. 1876) 



$1,709,634,530 

33,656,000 

51,620,005 

4,687,921,400 



829,852, 375 

156,688,045 

73,496,1120 

85,222,010 

3.884,852,720 



Greece (partly estimated, Jan., 

1, 1876) 106,800,515 

Italy (end of 1875, estimate) . . . 2,000,000,000 

Netherlands (beginning of 1875) 386.383,365 

Portugal (June 30, 1876) 395,308, 900 

Russia (estimate, Jan. 1, 1876).. 1,254,810,000 

Spain (estimate, end June, 1875) 2,650,000,000 

Sweden (January 1, 1876). . . . 38,929,680 

And Norway (end of 1875) 13,418.775 

Switzerland (beginning of 1876) 5,520.000 
Turkey ( June,1876 ; much more 

since) 927,000.000 



NATURAL SELECTION. (See Darwinism.) 

NATURALIZATION. (See pp. 147, 490.) In 1870 there were about 9,500 
Americans in England, and about 2,500,000 British subjects in the United 
States. Under English laws passed May 12, 1870, and July 25, 1872, the 
latter were empowered to renounce their allegiance ; and by the conven- 
tion of February 3, 1871, the nationality of British subjects was made 
dependent on choice, and not on birth. 

NAVIES. (See pp. 148, 495.) The English navy contains in all about 240 
vessels. Of iron-clad war-ships, there are, including those now (1877) 
building, about as follows in the world : 



Nation. 
England . . 
France . . . 
Russia. . . . 

Italy 

Turkey... 
Germany , 
Holland . . 



Ships. 
59 
53 
29 
16 
24 
13 
17 



Total tonnage. 
317,000 
184.000 

89,000 

89,000 

65,000 

61,000 

23,000 



Also, Austria, 14 ; Spain, 7 ; Denmark, 6 ; United States, 27 ; Sweden 
and Norway, 8; Portugal, 1; Greece, 2; Brazil, 17; Peru, 6; Chili, 2; 
Argentine Confederation, 2 ; Japan, 2. Whole number of iron-clad ships of 
war, 305 ; of these, England has 21 first-rates, thickest armor on any of 
them, 24 inches ; and France, 23 first-rates. The thickest armor used by 
any German ship is 10 inches; Russia and Turkey, 12 inches; Italy, 22 
inches (on the Duilio, launched May 8, 1876, and considered the most 
powerful war-ship ever built). The United States navy, besides 27 iron- 
clad ships, has 70 other steamers and 25 sail-vessels. 

NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS. Published by Sir William Herschel, 1811 la 
October, 1860, the " dumb-bell nebula" was reported by Lassell to show 
no signs of consisting of stars. In 1865, Huggins reported certain rebulas 
shown by the spectroscope to be entirely gaseous. 



1867-77. 43 

NEPTUNE (Pi,anet). First observed by Dr. Galle, at Berlin, September 33, 
1846, where Le Verrier told him to look for it, having calculated that the 
irregular motions of Uranus called for such a planet. Mr. J. C. Adams, 
of Cambridge, had made similar calculations about the same time. 

NETHERLANDS. (See Holland.) 

NEW CALEDONIA. Occupied by the French, September 20, 1853,, and 
since used by them as a penal colony. 

NEWSPAPERS. (See pp. 149, 500.) Newspapers in Great Britain, 1876, 
1,642. In the United States, 1875, 7.870 periodicals, of which 5,951 
weeklies. In British America, 1,478, being in America, north of Mexico, 
8,348 periodicals. Among the remarkable enterprises of newspaper con- 
cerns within the last few years, are: Stanley's expedition into Central 
Africa, for the New York Herald ; Mr. George Smith's explorations in 
Assyria, partly for the London Telegraph ; the destruction of the very 
powerful and wealthy criminal combination called the New York "Ring," 
in consequence of revelations in the New York Times by Sheriff O'Brien. 
Works od the English periodical press : Andrews' British Journalism, 1855, 
and Hunt's Fourth Estate, 1850 ; on that of America, Hudson's Journalism 
in the United States, 1873, which supersedes in most respects the infor- 
mation in Buckingham's and Thomas's works. 

NEW YORK CITY (See pp. 150,499.) Barnum's old museum burnt, July 
13, 1865 ; money panic in Wall Street, from the gold-buying operations of 
Fisk and Gould, September 22-26, 1869; revelations of the "Tweed 
Ring " corruptions in the city government. August and September, 1871 ; 
Fisk murdered by Stokes, January 7, 1872 ; the Ei\e railway administra- 
tion, controlled by Fisk and Gould, breaks down, March, 1872 ; trouble 
from epizootic, or horse disease, October, 1872 ; great panic in business 
throughout the country, begins with stoppage of Jay Cooke & Co., Sep- 
tember, 1873 ; Tweed convicted of embezzlement, and sentenced to 
twelve years' imprisonment, November 19, 1873 ; escapes, December, 
1873 ; damages of $6,537,000 awarded against him in civil suit, March 8, 
1876 ; arrested at Vigo, in Spain, September 8, 1876, and returned to 
jail. 

NEW ZEALAND. Discovered by Tasman, 1642 ; recognized as belonging 
to Great Britain, 1814 ; first English governor lands, January 29, 1829 ; 
colony and bishopric established 1841 ; towns founded : Auckland, 1840, 
Nelson and Turanaki, 1841, Otago, 1848, Canterbury, 1S50; native insur- 
rection from land troubles, March, 1860 ; suppressed, after much fighting 
and trouble, March, 1861 ; another native war, May, 1863, continued 
more or less until July. 1866. The New Zealand group is about 1,000 
miles long and 200 wide ; area of land, about 102,000 square miles ; white 
population, 1851, 26,707 ; December 31, 1876, about 375,856, besides 
about 45,470 natives or Maoris. 

NICSICS. A strong Turkish fortress standing at that narrow neck of land 
which joins the two main portions of Montenegro, and therefore an im- 
portant military position. 

NILE. (See p. 502.) From the time of Bruce's explorations in 1768 -70, no 
discovery of importance about the source of the Nile was made until 
Speke and Grant discovered the great lake Victoria Nyanza, 1863. Bakei 
discovers the Albert Nyarza, March 14, 1864. Livingston's letter from 



44 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 

Ujiji, dated November, 1871, to Mr. Bennett, says the Nile springs are 
about 600 miles south of the Victoria Nyanza. 

NITRO-GLYCERINE. Explosion of, June 30, 1869. Two cart-loads of 
nitro-glycerine exploded in the vale of Llanberris, on the road to a quarry 
there. Five persons were killed, they and the horses being so blown to 
pieces that only fragments were found, as a heart, a foot, a chin with the 
beard on it. Roofs, doors, and windows were destroyed everywhere for 
two miles around, and where each cart blew up was left a circular pit in 
the road, seven and a half feet across and seven feet deep. 

NORFOLK ISLAND. (See p. 503.) After the English penal colony was 
removed, the descendants of the mutineers of the Bounty (198 souls) 
were in June, 1856, carried from Pitcairn's Island and established here. 
In December, 1875, the new colony was prosperiug. 

NORWAY. (See Sweden.) 

O. 

OCEAN EXPLORATION. Deep-sea soundings and dredgings have been 
made by Sars, off the coast of Norway ; by Carpenter and Thompson, near 
the Faroe Islands, 1868-9 ; by Carpenter, in the Mediterranean, 1870. 
The voyage of the Challenger, for ocean exploration, was December 21, 
1872, to May 25, 1876; she sailed about 80,000 miles. These investiga- 
tions have greatly added to knowledge. Deepest soundings thus far, 
3,875 fathoms (4 miles, 710 yards), in the Atlantic north of St. Thomas, 
March 24, 187B. Living creatures have been found at the depth of three 
miles. 

OLD AGE. (See Longevity, pp. 137,458.) Sir G. C. Lewis. Prof. Owen, 
and W. J. Thorns (his "Human Longevity" published 1873,) have dis- 
proved many alleged cases of old age, and few of over 100 years can be 
believed in. A few recent ones are as follows : Anthony Beresford died 
in England, aged 101, March 3, 1874 — considered authentic; Count Wal- 
deck, traveller and artist, died aged 109, at Paris, April 29, 1875 ; Captain 
Frederic Lahrbush, soldier, died aged 111 years, (age disputed), April 3, 
1877, at New York. 

OLD CATHOLICS organized September, 1871, at Munich. Third annual 
synod at Bonn, in summer of 1876, 50,000 members and adherents were 
reported, but action on the question of clerical celibacy was declined. 
The movement grew out of opposition to the new dogma of papal infalli- 
bility ; but it does not now (1877) show signs of great success. 

OLYMPIA. Explorations at Elis, on the site of the Olympian games, planned 
by Curtius, begun by Hirschfeld and Bcittiger, October, 1875. The Ger- 
man Government pays expenses, and has casts of objects found, the orig- 
inals to be the property of the Greek Government. Many interesting 
discoveries of statues, parts of the pediments of the great temple of 
Jupiter Olympus, etc., have been made. 

ORDNANCE. (See Cannon, pp. 92, 290.) The Rodman gun, a smooth- 
bore, 20-inch calibre, weighing 58 tons, and throwing a 1,000-pound round 
shot, cast at Pittsburg^ 1864 ; a stream of cold water was kept running 
through the core during casting and cooling, so as to chill and harden the 
inside of the gun. Trials of Armstrong, Whitworth, and Horsfall guns 
at Shoeburyness, England, in 1862-3, against various targets representing 



1867-77. 45 

ironclad ships, up to an aggregate thickness of 15 inches (in three plates) 
of wrought iron. The Hercules target, 4 feet 2 inches thick, with 11^ 
inches of iron. Palliser's patent for chilled metal shot (cast in cold iron 
moulds), dated May 27, 1827. More experiments at Shoeburyness, 1867-8, 
where a 10-inch English gun is found better than Prussian and American 
guns, and a 23-ton gun, 12-inch bore, throwing Palliser shot, is resisted 
by a model fort defended by 15-inch iron plates. The "Woolwich In- 
fant," 35 tons, cast in 1870, 16 feet 3 inches long, to carry a 700-pound 
shot, with 120-pouud charge. In 1875-6 an 81-ton gun tried, with a 1,250- 
pound shot and 190-pound charge. The shot penetrated 50 feet of sand. 
A charge of 370 pounds afterwards used. The Uchatius guns of ' ' steel 
bronze," used in the Austrian army, first made at Vienna, 1875. Suc- 
cessful trials of 100-ton Armstrong gun, throwing a 2,000-pound shot, at 
Spezzia, in Italy. The gun is for the Italian iron-clad Duilio. Rifled 
guns first used for siege purposes, Sebastopol. 1854-5. The Armstrong 
breech-loading rifled gun first used in China campaign, 1860. The Ger- 
man army is now supplied with breech-loading artillery. 

ORIGIN op SPECIES. (See Darwinism.) Book by Darwin published 
November, 1869. 

OXFORD UNIVERSITY. Total income of the University, 21 colleges and 
5 halls, in 1871, £483,842, 16s. 6d. 

OXYGEN. The most abundant substance, being one-third of the earth, 
nine-tenths of the water, and one-fifth of the air. 

OZONE. (See p. 153.) In 1872 Brodie showed that Odling's suggestion 
was correct, viz. : that ozone is oxygen condensed into two-thirds the 
space it would naturally occupy. 



PACIFIC RAILWAY, 1,700 miles long, from Omaha to San Francisco, 
opened for traffic May 12, 1868. 

PALESTINE EXPLORATION. Fund established 1865 ; explorations under 
it began in 1866 ; a systematic trigonometrical survey begun December, 
1871 ; a similar fund established at New York, same year. 

PAMIR. A region sometimes called the roof of the world, being a very lofty 
water-shed in Central Asia, north of the Himalayas, at the west end of Lit- 
tle Thibet, and constituting a kind of focus from which diverge the chief 
Asiatic mountain ranges. It is the source of the Oxus and other rivers. 

PAN-ANGLICAN Conference of seventy-five bishops, English, Colonial, 
and American, met at Lambeth, September 24, 1S67, and issued an addresa 
and resolutions of a pretty general and safe character. Another is pro- 
posed for July, 1878. 

PANTECHNICON. A building in London used for storage. Burned Feb- 
ruary 13 and 14, 1874, when many valuable paintings and other costly 
articles were destroyed. 

PAPAL INFALLIBILITY. (See Infallibility.) 

PARAGUAY. (Seep. 155.) Francis S. Lopez succeeded his father as dic- 
tator, September, 1862. Brazil attacked Paraguay, December, 1864, it 
consequence of seizure of a Brazilian steamer, on November 11, 1864 ; de- 
feated Lopez in several battles, and he was killed at Aquidaban. March 1 



4C THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 

1870. Peace signed June 20, 1870. S. Jovellanos chosen president fol 
three years, December 12, 1871, and J. B. Gil for three years, November 
25, 1874. Population in 1857 returned at 1,337,439, and another return 
in 1873 indicated the devastation of the war by showing only 221,079 souls, 
of which men over 15 only 28,746, and women 106,254, the other 86,079 
being children. 

PASSION PLAY. A drama representing the passion of Christ, represented 
from time time at Oberammergau, in Bavaria ; said to have been so rep- 
resented there ever since 1633. 

PASSPORT SYSTEM. Introduced in the United States August 19, 1861, 
on account of the civil war. Abolished in Norway, 1809 ; Sweden, 1860; 
Italy, 1862; Portugal, 1863; in France, abolished as to British subjects. 
December 16, 1860 ; revived in the war, August 1, 1870 ; abolished again 
April 10, 1872. 

PATRONS OF HUSBANDRY. Popularly known as Grangers. A secret 
society in the United States professing to be for the promotion of agri- 
cultural interests. Said to have been- first organized by one Saunders, 
who established the national "grange" (or lodge) in December, 1867. 
Subordinate granges were established, 10 or 11, in 1868; 39 in 1869 ; 38 
in 1870 ; 125 in 1871 ; 1,105 in 1872 ; 8,400 in 1873 ; and for a year or 
two after this time the order had much political influence, and did some- 
thing to establish co-operative organizations for the supply of goods. Legis- 
lation in Iowa (1874) and elsewhere, at the requirement of the " Grangers," 
to fix transportation prices by railroad, has proved a mistake and a bad 
failure. 

PAUPERS. (See Poor Laws, p. 535.) Paupers and their cost in England 

and Wales for ten years (poor-rate only, and not including charity) : 

Paupers. Poor-rate. 

1866 916,152 £6,439,517 

1867 931,546 6.959,840 

1868 1,034,723 7,498,059 

1869 1,039,549 7,673.100 

1870 1,079.:-;91 7,644,307 

1871 1,071.926 7,886,724 

1872 977,664 8 007,403 

1873 890,372 7,692,169 

1874 829,281 7,664,957 

1875 815,587 

PAUPERS in United States, 1870, 116,102. 

PEABODY FUND. (See Charities.) 

PEABODY MEMORIAL. A statue of Mr. George Peabody was publicly 
inaugurated in London, July 23, 1869. 

PEACE JUBILEE (See Boston.) 

PEERAGE. In 37 years, 1832-69, an average of 2\ commoners a year were 
created peers in England. 

PERU. (See pp. 157, 523.) Presidents: CanBeco succeeds Pezet, Novem- 
ber, 1865. Prado subsequently appointed dictator, and February 15, 
1867, made president; resigns in consequence of an insurrection, and 
Gen. La Puerta succeeds him, January 18, 1868 ; Col. Balta next August 
1, 1868; Gutierrez dictator, July 22, 1872, but killed 26th; Pardo 
elected, August 2. and Prado succeeds him, August, 1876. The Peru- 
vian railways, in establishing which the American. Henry Meiggs, has been 



1867-77. 47 

prominent, at end of 1876 open for trade, or in course of completion, were 
22 lines, 2,030 miles in length. 

PESSIMISM. A gloomy system of philosophy and belief put forth by 
Arthur Schopenhauer in Germany, 1819 to 1851, and which has found some 
acceptance. Its most eminent expositor is Hartmann. 

PITCAIEN'S ISLAND. (See p. 528 ; also Norfolk Island.) 

PLANCHETTE. (See Spiritualism.) 

PLANETS. (See Astronomy.) 

POLAND. (Seep. 532.) The separate government of Poland abolished, 
and administrative union with Eussia perfected February 29, 1868. 
Polish language prohibited in public places, July, 1868 ; in courts of law 
and public offices, June, 1876. These measures followed a severe mili- 
tary repression of hopeless but determined military efforts against Russia, 
which had continued most of the time since 1830. 

POOR. (See Paupers.) 

POPULATION. (See pp. 161,537.) Total population of the world esti- 
mated at 1.377,000,000. Another estimate, by statistical authorities at 
Washington, 1874, made it 1,391,032,000. 

POSITIVISM. A philosophy put forth by Auguste Comte (born about 
1795, died 1852), which rejects metaphysics and claims to deal wholly 
with facts. Its chief historical principle is that there are three stages of 
human belief, the theological, the metaphysical, and the positive, the 
former two being erroneous, and the last the only valid one, at which 
Europe is just now arriving. 

POST-OFFICE; Postal Affairs. Book-post established in England, 
1855. Money-order office established 1792 ; little used until 1840, but 
very largely since. English electric telegraphs purchased by government 
and run as part of post-office system, 1869. Postal cards first issued 
October 1, 1870. Post-office savings-banks (Government responsible to 
depositors) established 1861 ; deposits in them, December 31, 1874, 
£23,157,469 18s. lOd. An International Postal Congress met at Bern, 
Switzerland, January 27, 1874. and signed a convention, October 9, for a 
universal international postage rate of 25 centimes, or 2-J pence, or 5 cents 
for each half-ounce letter rate ; 1 penny, or 2 cents, or 10 centimes for 
each newspaper rate, etc. In the United States Post-office Department : 
Postage stamps issued, year ending June 30, 1876, 700,089,437, worth 
$19,718,708.75; stamped envelopes (not official) issued, 147,021,500, 
worth $4,359,907.04; newspaper wrappers, 18,498,750, worth $273,723.- 
50; postal cards, 150,815,000, worth $1,580,150 ; official postage stamps, 
17,082.665, worth $663,831.50, and official stamped envelopes and wrap- 
pers, 15,690,155, worth $129,110.93. Total number'of these issues, 1,049,- 
797,507, worth $26,953,421.72. 

PRAYER-GAUGE DEBATE originated in a proposition by Sir Henry 
Thompson, July, 1872, that some certain hospital ward or wards should 
be chosen, special prayers offered for the patients in them, and the result, 
as compared with other wards, to show whether prayer is efficacious to 
heal the sick. There was a long and energetic debate in print on thia 
suggestion, 1872-3, but the experiment was not tried. 

PREHISTORIC MAN. Burnt bricks found in Egypt have been reckoned 
20,000 years old human bones found in Florida 30,000 years old. Recent 



4o THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 

discoveries of worked flints by Boucher de Perthes, near Abbeville, 1836, 
and similar ones and of various other articles in various parts of Europe, 
have led to the belief by many scientific men that human life has exetisd 
on the earth for many ages. The prehistoric period has been divided 
into the stone, iron, and bronze ages. See Lubbock's " Prehistoric 
Times" (1865), Dawkins's '' Cave- Hunting." Evans's "Ancient Stone Im- 
plements " (1872), etc. An International Congress of Prehistoric Archae- 
ology meets annually and publishes transactions. 

PRE-RAPHAELITES. A school of painters that arose in England about 
1850, including Millais, Hunt, Rossetti, etc. Their peculiarity was a 
purpose to pursue real art by representing;' nature as they saw it, instead 
of following the antique. With some extravagance, their influence on art 
has on the whole been good. 

PRINTING-PRESS. (See p. 164.) The Walter press, an English inven- 
tion, is said to print both sides of from 15,000 to 17,000 copies per hour 
of a newspaper. The Campbell press is said, however, to print 50,000 
such copies per hour. Copper-faced type introduced about 1850. Several 
machines for composing and distributing type invented, 1858-1875 ; some 
of them are in fact used for the more uniform kinds of work. A Caxton 
celebration, with exhibition of many rare and curious books, on fourth 
centennial of establishment of his press in England, at London. July, 
1877. 

PRUSSIA. (See pp. 165, 549.) North German Confederation (see Ger- 
many), formed August 1, 1866. King refuses to receive the French 
minister Benedetti in consequence of improper demands, July 13, 1870; 
French declaration of war delivered at Berlin, July 19 ; first hostilities 
at Niederbronn, July 26 ; first battle at Saarbriick, July 80 (for events of 
the war see Chronological Tables) ; capitulation of Napoleon and of McMa- 
hon's army at Sedan, September 2, 1870 ; surrender of Metz by Bazaine, 
October 27 ; Paris capitulates, January 28, 1871 ; treaty of peace signed, 
February 26 ; King of Prussia proclaimed Emperor, of Germany at Ver- 
sailles, January 18 ; imperial diet opened, Berlin, March 21, 1871. 
Prussian nationality and administration remain substantially intact, while 
it is a member of the new empire of Germany. 

PURCHAS CASE. February 23, 1871, the judgment of the English Privy 
Council was given on the charges of heresy against Mr. Purchas, the 
ritualist. He was found guilty of violating the ecclesiastical law " by 
wearing the chasuble, alb, and tunicle during the communion service ; 
by using wine mixed with water, and wafer-bread in the administration 
of the communion ; and by standing with his back to the people, between 
the communion-table and the congregation, during the consecration prayer. " 
He was held to pay costs. 

PUSEYISM. (See Ritualism ; also Tractarianism, p. 191.) 

Q. 

QUEENSLAND. Made a separate colony, 1859. Governor, 1876, Sir A. 
E. Kennedy. Includes the northeast part of Australia and adjacent 
islands. Capital, Brisbane. First settlement (by convicts sent out), 1825. 
Population of European descent, May 31, 1876, 173,180, besides natives, 
Chinese, and South Sea Islanders. Area about 678, 600 square miles, oi 
one-fifth as much as all Europe. 



1867-77. 49 



RADIOMETER. A delicate vane with four fans, each black on one side, 
hung in a vacuum, usually in an hermetically sealed glass globe. In- 
vented by Wm. Crookes, 1873-6. When light falls on it the vane turns, 
and this movement was at first supposed to demonstrate the mechanical 
action of light. Further investigation indicated, however, that the 
motion was caused by heat acting on the small portion of air left in the 
approximate vacuum. 

RAGGED SCHOOLS. (See p. 167.) Average attendance at 226 Ragged 
Schools in London, in 1867, 26,000. The buildings exempted from rates, 
1869. At present the London School Board Schools are gradually repla- 
cing these. 

RAILWAYS. August 21, 1867, a locomotive and two carriages passed over 
the whole length of the Mount Cenis Railway, 48 miles. This road 
crosses the mountain nearly in the track of the road built by Napoleon I. 

Railways in the world, end o/1876 : 

Africa miles, 1,451 I Europe miles, 88,745 

Asia , " 7,643 I North America " 79,519 

Australia " 1,752 I South America " 3,701 

Central Am. and W. Indies. -1 559 | 

Total 183,370 

Another authority makes this total 194.836. 

Of the North American total, the United States contains 74,658 (another 
authority says 77,470) miles, Canada 4,484, Mexico 377. About one- 
fourth the railroads built in the United States in 1876 were narrow-gauge. 
Steam on street railroads was successfully introduced in Philadelphia in 
the spring of 1877. Railways of upper Italy to be bought by the govern- 
ment ; bill passed, 344 to 35, June 27, 1876. First narrow-gauge railway 
built as a tram-way for horse-power, at Festiniog. in Wales, 1832 ; loco- 
motives used on it, 1863. 

RAILWAY ACCIDENTS. August 20, 1868, the Irish day mail express 
train ran into a freight train with petroleum near Abergele, in Wales, and 
the oil taking fire from the engines, thirty-three persons were burned 
alive in the cars, having (apparently! been smothered in the smoke, as not 
a scream nor a word was heard from one of them. June 21. 1870, by the 
collision of two trains on the Great Northern Railway, near Newark, Eng- 
land, in consequence of a defective axle, 18 persons were killed and 40 or 
50 more or less injured. December 29. 1876, disaster at Ashtabula, on 
the Lake Shore Railroad, Ohio, by breaking of a bridge; 60 persona 
burned or frozen, 60 or 70 others injured. In 1866-8, one traveller on 
railroads out of each 12,941,170 killed by accident not his own fault. 

RATTENING. Stealing and hiding a man's tools because he opposes 
trades-unions or does not pay dues to them. An English practice ; much 
of it proved before the Commission of Inquiry, Sheffield and Manchester, 
June and September, 1867. (See Sheffield.) 

RECONSTRUCTION. Immediately after the rebel surrender, 1865, the 
Southern States began to pass laws discriminating in social and political 
affairs against the negroes. In 1868 Arkansas was readmitted into the 
Uttion over President Johnson's veto, on condition that the State should 



50 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 

never deprive negroes of their right to vote. Another bill, passed in likt 
manner over the veto, readmitted North Carolina, South Carolina, 
Georgia, Louisiana, Florida, and Alabama, the provision being requisite 
in consequence of the discriminations aforesaid. July, 1868, President 
Johnson by proclamation pardoned all who had been in rebellion, except 
those actually under indictment for treason-felony. During President 
Grant's administration, the Republican State governments, in Louisiana 
and South Carolina especially, were supported by national troops. Presi- 
dent Hayes withdrew these, with the result that these States *t once 
passed under democratic administrations 

RED RIVER. (See Manitoba. ) 

RELIGIONS IN THE "WORLD. Estimating the population of the world 
at 1,377,000,000, the believers in its religions rank as follows in point of 
numbers : 1. Pagans ; 2. Christians ; 3. Mohammedans ; 4. Jews. Atheists 
not counted ; there are very few. The numbers of the above four classes 
are estimated as follows : 

:, viz. : 

Buddhists 455,000,000 

Others 425,600,000 880,600.000 



Christians, viz. : 

Roman Catholics 201,200,000 

Protestants 106,300,000 

Eastern Churches 81,900,000 389,4CO,000 



Mohammedans (some sav 165 millions) 100,0(> J,00(3 

Jews 7,000,000 

l,377,O0.),U00 

REPUBLICAN PAWfEft. The following table of the popular and electoral 
votes for Presiden£*¥/ill show the numerical history of the Republ: an 
party, 1856-1876 : 

Popular 

1856. Buchanan 1,838,169 

Fremont 1,341,264 

Fillmore 874,534 

I860. Lincoln 1,866,352 

Douglas 1.375,157 

Breckenridge 845,763 

Bell 589,5S1 

1864. Lincoln 2,216.067 

McClelJan 1, 80S, 725 

1868. Grant 3,015,071 

Seymour 2,709,613 



ectoral 

Vote. 

174 






Popular 
Vote. 


Electoral 
Vote. 
136 


114 

8 

180 

12 


Greeley 
fore th 

Hendric 

Brown 

Jenkins 


(died be- 
e electoral 

ks .. . 


3 

42 


72 






18 


39 






2 


212 






1 


21 
214 

71 


1376. Hayes 
Tilden 
Cooper 




4,033,295 
4,284,265 

. . . . 81,737 


185 
184 








9,522 






By this table the successive proportions between the Republican party 
and its chief adversary, neglecting third parties and odd numbers, are as 
follows : 1856, 13 to 18 ; 1860, 18 to 13 ; 1864, 22 to 18 ; 1868, 30 to 27 ; 
1872, 35 to 28 ; 1876, 40 to 42 (Hayes having come in by a minority pop- 
ular vote). 

BEPUDIATION. President Johnson, in his message of December 7, 1868, 
recommended a form of repudiation of the national debt, saying that 
" it would seem but just and equitable that the six per cent, interest now 
paid by the Government should be applied to the reduction of the princi- 
pal in semi-annual instalments." In reply, the House of Representative- 
voted by 154 to 6 that all forms of repudiation of the national debt were 



1867-77. 5 i 

odious to the American people, and that nothing less than was agreed 
would be offered to the national creditor. The States of Virginia , North 
Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisi- 
ana, Texas, Arkansas and Tennessee, do not pay the interest on their 
debts. Some of bhem, and Minnesota also, have repudiated more or less 
of the principal of the same. Counties and towns in Missouri and Illi- 
nois have also repudiated. The debt of North Carolina is (1877) about 
$39,000,000, and in a conference in that year between the creditors and 
the authorities of the State, the latter offered to fund $6,000,000 of the 
debt, at three and six per cent interest, to be in full. The creditors de- 
clined, but offered to accept half ; but nothing was done. The whole debt 
of South Carolina was, in 1873, stated at $25,770,611.44, and in this 
year a law was passed rejecting a part of this as illegal, and repudiating 
half of the rest by settling with the holders at 50 per cent. The payment, 
even at this rate, has not been made. Turkey repudiates all payments on 
account of public debt until times shall be better, July 9, 1876. Penn- 
sylvania, which used to be abused for repudiating, never did so, the only 
pretext being a delay upon certain payments, which were afterwards 
made in full. The United States has practically repudiated the French 
spoliation claims, having received, in 1803, the consideration paid by 
France for those claims, but having never paid the persons owning the 
claims. 

RESUMPTION. By Act of Congress, approved January 14, 1875, the 
Government of the United States is to resume specie payment January 
1, 1879. This purpose has been firmly adhered to notwithstanding vio- 
lent efforts in different parts of the country to rescind this action, which 
efforts are in more or less close connection with the attempt to keep up ox 
enlarge the quantity of paper money, and even to keep the same irre- 
deemable. 

REVENUE. Revenue and expenditure of the United States for ten years 
1867-76 (items of total revenue other than customs and internal revenue 
are not specified, though included in ''total.") 

Customs. Intern. Rev. Total. Expenditures. 

1867 |176,41T,810.S8 $266,007,537.43 f 462,846,679.92 $340. 729, 324.76 

1868 164.464.599.56 191,087.589.41.. 

1869 180,048,426.63 158,356. 460.86. . 

1870 194,538,374.44 184.899,756.49.. 

1871 206.270.408.05 143,098,153.63.. 

1872 216.370,286.77 130.642,177.72.. 

1873 188,089,522.70 113,729,314.14. . 

1874 163,103,833.69 102,409.784.90.. 

1875 157,167.722,35 110,007,493.58. 



376.434,453.82 370,339,133.8? 

357,188,255.64 321,190,597.75 

395,959.833.87 293,657,C05.7G 

374,431.104.94 283.160,393.51 

364,694,229.91 270,559.695,91 

322,177,673.78 285,239,325.34 

299,941,090.84 285,738,800.21 

284,020,771.41 272.693.573.84 



1876 148,071,984.61 116,700,732.03 283,758,493.36 258,459,797.10 

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE of Great Britain (United Kingdom), 
years 1868 to 1876, ending March 31 : 

Revenue. Expenditure. Revenue. Expenditure 

1*68 £69,600,218 £71,236,242 I 1873 £76,608,770 £70,714,448 

1869 72,591,991 74,971,816 1874 77.335,657 76,466,510 

1870 75,434.252 68,864,752 | 1875 74,921,873 74,328.040- 

1871 69,945,220 69,548,539 | 1876 77.131,693 76,621.778 

1872 74,70S,314 71,490,020 

REVEREND. The Bishop of Lincoln, 1874, refused to Rev. Mr. Keet, a 
Wesleyan clergyman, permission to put the title "Reverend " on the grave- 
stone of a dissenter. The Archbishop of Canterbury allowed it. On trial 
in the Ecclesiastical Courts, the Chancellor of Lincoln decided against Mr. 
3 



52 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 

Keet ; on appeal, Sir R. Phillimore, in the Court of Arches, July ill, 1875 
sustained the refusal ; but on appeal again, the Privy Council. January 2 1 , 
1 876, reversed both decisions, and gave judgment that the title is lauda- 
tory only, and that no law restricts it to ministers of the Church ol 
England. 

REVIVALS. Moody and Sankey's revival meetings in England, 1874-0 
In March, 1875, in London, present about 15,000 persons ; farewell meet 
ing, July 12, 1875. In New York city, February 7 to April 19, 1876 ; in 
Boston, March to June, 1877. Great results were asserted to have been 
obtained. 

RIOTS. (See pp. 170,565.) Riots in various English towns, by Roman- 
ists, against the lectures of one Murphy, 1867-1871 ; at White Haven, 
April 20, 1871, he was cruelly beaten. Riots by artisans out of work at 
Greenwich and Deptford, England, Jan. 24 and 25, 1867 ; in November 
following, in the west of England, from dearness of provisions ; Oct. 30, 
1868, at Blackburn, between Liberals and Tories ; June 2, 1869, a furious 
riotous attack by 2,000 Welsh on military and police in charge of some 
colliers convicted of assault ; mob only dispersed by being fired on, from 
which 4 were killed and 26 badly wounded. August 7, and September 8, 
187. , much rioting at Dublin, in connection with a meeting in Phoenix 
Park to ask for relief of Fenian prisoners. April 20, 1876, agrarian riots 
break out, lasting some weeks, among the negroes in Barbadoes Furious 
rioting by Romanists at Montreal, Sept. 1875, to prevent burial of one Gui- 
bord in a Romanist cemetery. The right to it being, however, proved at 
law, he was so buried under military protection, Nov. 16, 1873. 

RITUALISM. The Public Worship Regulation Act, for repressing ritualism 
in the Church of England, became a law August 7, 1874. to go into opera- 
tion July 1, 1875. The Ridsdale case was the first under the act, in 
which judgment was given in the ecclesiastical court against Rev. C. J. 
Ridsdale for ritualistic proceedings. In the cases of Rev. A. Tooth, and 
Rev. T. P. Dale, monitions issued to discontinue such practices. Rev. 
Arthur Tooth, vicar of St. James's at Hatcham, in England, was lawfully 
commanded to desist from processions, tolling the bell, singing certain 
music, and other ritualistic and unlawful practices. Disobeying, he was 
on Dec. 17, 1876, inhibited from performing divine service or otherwise 
officiating in the parish. Disobeying again, he was imprisoned. For a 
similar case before the act, see Purchas Case. 

ROMANISM. (See pp. 171, 566; see also Infallibility ; Old Catholics; 
Vatican Council.) The "emancipation" of the Romanists has steadily 
advanced in England during this century. Their priests might be chap- 
lains to gaols, by act July, 1863; Justice Shee, of the Queen's Bench, 
(Dec. 15, 1863) was the first Romanist judge in England since the Refor- 
mation. O'Hagan, Lord Chancellor of Ireland (Dec, 1868), was the first 
Komanist in that office since 1688 ; the first Romanist master of arts 
since the test acts were abolished, was made at Oxford, June 22, 187 1 ; 
Ecclesiastical Titles Act repealed July 24, 1871. Meanwhile Romanist 
bishops (at Dublin, Oct. 17, 1867) adhere to the policy of separate educa- 
tion under priests ; refuse a Romanist university to be endowed by the 
State, because they cannot have entire control, March, 1868, and October, 
1871. In Germany, the " Falk laws,'' to subject ecclesiastical affairs to 
a royal tribunal, passed May 11. 1873. and an obstinate though not noisy 
struggle between the German Empire and the Romanist hierarchy sets in. 



1867-77. 53 

which is still (1877) in full activity, the State having fined, imprisoned, 
and banished various prelates, and the Pope having cursed various offi- 
cials. In the United States there is a regular policy by the Romanists to 
obtain a share of public money for their sectarian schools, which has not 
thus far succeeded. For Romanist riots, see Riots. 

ROME. French enter, Oct. 30, 1867. They march out, August 21, 1870. 
Italian troops occupy, Sept. 20, 1870 ; united to kingdom of Italy along 
with Papal States, Oct. 9, 1870. and the Pope's authority restricted to 
the Leonine City (which see). The vote on union with Italy was as fol- 
lows : Out of 167,548 votes : for union, 133,681 ; against, 1,507 ; the rest 
did not vote. The Pope has hitherto (1877) wholly refused the restricted 
sovereignty and guaranties offered him. 

ROSICRUCIANS. There appears to have been a genuine society of this 
name in the thirteenth century, a religious organization of some kind. 
The Rosicrucians of the seventeenth century, however, were a hoax, im- 
agined by one Andrese or Andreas, who published a solemn pretended 
account of them, 1615. 

ROUMANIA. Union of Wallachia and Moldavia under this name acknowl- 
edged by Turkey, December, 1861 ; Alexander Couza, hospodar; he 
abdicates (by force) February 22, 1866; crown of Roumania declined by 
Prince of Flanders, February 8, and Prince Charles of Hohenzollern-Sig- 
maringen elected hospodar, April 20, and recognized hereditary hospodar 
by the Sultan. October 24, 1866. Declared independent of Turkey, and 
title <A king assumed by the hospodar during Russian invasion, summer 
of 1877. 

RUSSIA. (See pp. 173, 569.) Imperial serfs emancipated in part, July 
2, 1858. Decree for emancipation of all Russian serfs (twenty-three 
million) in two years, March 3, 1861. 1000th anniversary of foundation 
of Russian empire by Rurik, at Novgorod, celebrated September 20, 1862. 
Circassian war declared ended, June 2, 1864. War with Bokhara begun, 
1866. Samarcand taken, May 26, 1868. Circular of Prince Gortscha- 
koff, repudiating treaty clauses of 1856 as to the Black Sea, October 31, 
1870; clauses abrogated by London Conference, March 13, 1871. Com- 
mercial panic from failure of Strousberg, November, 1875. Prosecution 
of the sect of Skoptzi, April, 1876. Khokand annexed as Ferghana, Feb- 
ruary 29, 1876. Southern Russian army mobilized by decree of Novem- 
ber 15, 1876 ; war with Turkey, having been declared, the Russians enter 
Roumania ; cross the Danube, June 27, 1877 ; Gen. Gourkha, with a 
strong advanced guard, passes the Balkans, July 4. Result of the paral- 
lel Russian campaign in Armenia, however, up to August 1, 1877, only 
an advance to within a few marches of Erzeroum, a defeat by Mukhtar 
Pasha, and a retreat to Russian territory. 



BADOWA, or Koniggratz, in Bohemia. Decisive battle of the " Seven 
Weeks' War," or war of 1866, between Prussia and Austria, fought July 
3, 1866. About 400,000 men engaged; the Austrians lost 174 guns, 
40,000 killed and wounded, and 20,000 prisoners. The battle decided 
the war, gave Prussia the leadership in Germany, secured unity to the 
North German nations, gave Venetia to Italy, and led to the legislative 
independence of Hungary. 



54 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 

ST. CRISPIN, Knights of. This trade union of boot and shoe making 
operatives was first formed in Milwaukee, about 1870, and quickly spread 
into other States, having in 1873, in Massachusetts alone, 40,000 mem- 
bers. They have operated by strikes and the like means, with the general 
object of keeping up wages of operatives as against employers. 

SAN DOMINGO. (See p. 175.) Present name of the Spanish part of the 
island of San Domingo, or Hayti. For the French part, see Hayti. 
Dominican Republic proclaimed, February, 1844, after the deposition of 
President Boyer. Baez was President, 1849-1853 ; Santana, 1853-6 ; 
Baez again, 1856-8 ; Valverde, March, 1858-May, 1861 ; reunion with 
Spain decreed by the Queen, May 20, 1861 ; insurrection against Spain, 
August, 1861 ; insurgents generally defeated, but Spain renounces the 
colony, May 5, 1865; Oabral President, September, 1865; Baez, Novem- 
ber, 1865 ; Cabral again, June, 1867 ; San Domingo City nearly destroyed 
by a hurricane, October 30, 1867 ; Baez President again, March, 1868 ; 
G-anier d'Aton, October, 1873 ; Gonzalez ; Baez, December 10, 1876. 
Population estimated at about 250,000. 

SAN JUAN Arbitration between Great Britain and the United States, 
for ownership of the island, which commands the strait between British 
Columbia and the United States territory. Decided by the Emperor of 
Germany, October, 1872, in favor of the United States, and the British 
troops left accordingly, November 22 following. 

SAN SALVADOR. One of the Central American republics, independent 
since its federal union with Honduras and Nicaragua was dissolved, 1853. 
Government, nominally republican; but there is most frequently some 
revolution. Population, variously estimated at from about 430,000 to 
600.000, all Indian, or mixed, except about 10,000 whites. 

SARAWAK. A territory on the north-west coast of Borneo, about 300 
miles along the sea and reaching 100 miles inland, with about 300,000 
population. Was under government of Rajah Brooke, an Englishman, 

1841-1868. 

SAYINGS-BANKS. (See pp. 176, 575.) Deposits in savings-banks of Great 
Britain and Ireland, 1872, £40,088,348. For English postal savings, see 
Post- Office. In the savings-banks of New England, New York, New 
Jersey, and California together there were, in the year 1874-5. deposits 
amounting to $810,096, 745, of which the bankers of New York held over 
$303,000,000, and those of Massachusetts over $217,000,000. 

SCHELDT DUES abolished for a compensation, 1867, and the navigation 
of the river made free. 

SEAMEN. On Mr. S. Plimsoll's motion, a commission of inquiry to investi- 
gate the practice of employing unseaworthy ships, appointed March 4, 
1873; reported July 2, 1874; a merchant shipping survey bill rejected. 
June 24, 1874 ; great excitement in and out of Parliament on the subject ; 
an act finally passed empowering the Board of Trade to stop unseaworthy 
ships, August 13, 1875, and a merchant shipping act, August 15. 187'i. 

SECULARISM. A non- Christian, free-thinking system, " seeking morality 
in naUare, and happiness in duty," and claiming to be " not against Chris- 
tianity, but independent of it. 1 ' Advocated in England by Messrs. Hol- 
yoake about 1846 ; subsequently by Mr. Bradlaugh. A small number of 
secularists are to Ve found in the United States. 



186,7-77. 55 

SEDAN. An ancient city, reckoned a very strong fortress in old times, on 
the Meuse, in the north-east of France, and the seat of a little principal- 
ity held by the Dukes of Bouillon who were Princes of Sedan Ceded to 
the French crown, 1642. A Protestant university here abolished after re- 
vocation of the edict of Nantes, in 1685. Here was taken, destroyed, or 
surrendered, August 29th to September 2d, the whole of the French 
Army of the North, 150.000 strong, with Napoleon III. himself in com- 
mand. Men actually surrendered, 83,000, with 70 mitrailleuses, 400 field- 
pieces, and 150 fortress guns. 

SERVIA. (See p. 178.) Alexander Karageorgevitch (i. e., son of Black 
G-eorge), the hospodar, forced to abdicate, and Milosch Obrenovitch (re- 
elected) prince in his stead, December 23, 1858 ; succeeded by his son, 
Michael Obrenovitch, September 26, 1860; movement begins about this 
time for independence of Turkey ; disputes at Belgrade ; Turkish Pasha 
bombards the city, and is dismissed, 1862 ; on a conference of the powers, 
at Constantinople, the Porte makes concessions to Servia, October, 1862. 
On further demands by Servia, Turkish garrisons withdrawn ; Prince Mi- 
chael assassinated, June 20, 1868, and his nephew Milan Obrenovitch suc- 
ceeds; war against Turkey breaks out, July, 1876 ; complete subjection 
of Servia by Turks only averted by interference of the powers, November 
1, 1876. Area of Servia, about 16,000 square miles, and population, by 
census December 31, 1874, 1,352,523. 

SHEFFIELD, England. An abominable practice of persecution by " rat- 
tening." or stealing tools, and other outrages, and even, in several in- 
stances, by murder and attempts to murder, at (Sheffield and Manchester, 
all reduced to a system and paid for regularly, in order to punish oppo- 
nents of trade-unions, revealed before a parliamentary commission, June 
and July, 1867. The worst criminal was one William Broadhead, Secre- 
tary to the Saw-Grinders' Union, who planned these proceedings and paid 
for them. 

SHIPPING. (See also Navies.) Sail and steam vessels of Great Britain 
and Ireland, not including river steamers, in 1875 : 

Men 
Vessels. Tonnage. employed. 

Sail 17,221 4,044,504 126,240 

Steam 2,970 1,847,188 73,427 

20,191 5,891,692 199,667 

On June 30, 1875, the shipping of the United States were as follows : 

Vessels. Tonnage. 

Sail 17,226 2,257,154,23 

Steam 3,958 1,116,425,42 

Unrigged (barges, etc) 7,803 890,858,07 

Canal -boats, etc 2,936 331,445,74 



31,9213 4,595,883,46 

June, 1876, the total tonnage was 4,853,752. 

SHIPWRECKS. (See Wreaks.) 

SIAMESE TWINS. (See p. 181.) They were exhibited a second time in 
London, February, 1869. They died in January, 1874, one about two 
hours before the other. A post-mortem examination showed that there 
was an actual communication of their nervous and circulating systems 
through the band that connected them. 



56 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 

SILKWORM. (See p. 585.) In 1856 the French silk crop, which should 
have been worth about $25,000,000, was reduced to one-third that value 
by the destruction of the silk-worms, which were killed off by a sort of 
epizootic called pebrine, which turned out to be parasitic. Scientific in- 
vestigations by order of the government resulted in a method, devised by 
Pasteur, which has nearly destroyed the disease. 

SILVER. (See pp. 181,585. See Coinage ; Money.) Silver produced in 
the United States, 1848-1873, $156,050,000. In 1875, Nevada alone pro- 
duced $40,478,369 of the precious metals, of which nearly all was silver. 
In 1876 an important fall took place in the value of silver, since which 
time the question of the standard of money has been vigorously debated, 
with a tendency to make gold the only standard, thus leaving silver more 
a merchandise than a currency, except for small change. 

SINAI, MT. Ordnance survey by Wilson and Palmer, published 1872. 
SINAITIC MS. of the Bible, or Codex Sinaiticus. (See Bible.) 

SKOPTZI, or White Doves. A South Russian fanatical sect, who prac- 
tice emasculation as the Shakers do celibacy. 

SLAVERY. Abolished by the Dutch in their West India colonies, from 
July, 1863; slave trade, by the Seyyid (or ruler) of Zanzibar, by treaty 
with England, June 5, 1873 ; on the Gold Coast, by agreement with several 
chiefs, November 3, and proclamation made by Gov. Stiahan, December 
17, 1874; slavery, by the Sultan of Turkey, November 23, 1876. 

SLAVONIA, a province of Austria. The Slavonian family of languages in- 
cludes Bohemian, Bulgarian, Polabic, Polish, Russian, Servian, Slovak, 
and Wend. The Slavic races in Europe are estimated to number, in 1875, 
as follows: Russians and Ruthenians, 66,129,590; Serbo-Croats, 5,940.- 
539; Bulgarians, 5,123,952; Slovenes, 1,260,000; Slovaks, 2,223,830; 
Czechs (i. e., Bohemians), 4,815,154 ; Poles, 9,492,162 ; total, 90,365,633. 
A so-called "Pan-Slavist " movement has of late years been set on foot, 
with rather vague designs, and a congress of Slavonic deputies met at 
Moscow, 1867, but with no distinct results. 

SOCIAL SCIENCE, or Sociology, has become a distinct department of study 
within fifty years, and especially since 1857. Annual meetings of the 
English Social Science Association have been held, beginning with that at 
Birmingham. October, 1857, and an annual volume of its transactions 
has been published. The American Social Science Association, whose 
headquarters are at Boston, Mass. , has issued, besides a tract on emigra- 
tion and one on free libraries, annual numbers of its Journal, beginning 
with June, 18G9. It holds annual meetings, where papers are read and 
debate is had. 

SOONGARIA. (,See Dzoungaria.) 

SOUND DUTIES, levied by Denmark at Elsinore on all ships passing the 
Sound there, until 1855, when the United States decided to pay them no 
longer, and the Danish Government gave them up for a compensation. 

SPAIN. (See pp. 184, 591.) The Government, since 1867, has changed as 
follows : Queen Isabella leaves Spain, September 30, 1868 ; Provisional 
Republican government established; Marshal Serrano regent, 1869; 
Queen Isabella abdicates January 25, 1870 ; crown declined by Leopold 
of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, July 4; Prince Amadeo of Italy chosen 
king November 16, 1870; abdicating, a republican government restored. 



1867-77. 57 

1873 ; Marshal Serrano President, 1874 ; Alfonso XII., son of Queen Isa 
bella, king, 1875 ; the present constitution proclaimed June 30, 1876. 
An attempt by Don Carlos, calling- himself Carlos VII., to obtain the 
throne ; he enters Spain, May. 1 872, and maintains hostilities with more 
or less success against whomsoever it may concern until February, 1870, 
when, after many reverses, he leaves Spain and surrenders to the 
Governor of Bayonne, February 27, 1876. Don Carlos (born 1848), is son 
of Don Juan, who was brother of the Count of Montemolin, or Carlos VI. , 
who was son of Carlos V., the brother of Ferdinand VII. Carlos VI. 
renounced his rights in favor of Don Juan, and the present Don Carlos 
therefore claims under Carlos V. 

SPECIE PAYMENT. (See Resumption.) 

SPECTROSCOPE. First constructed and used by Kirchhoff and Bunsen, 
1861 ; since variously improved. Spectrum analysis, or the examination 
of light through the spectroscope, has resulted in many remarkable dis- 
coveries, particularly in astronomy, such as the determination of the' sub- 
stances composing the sun, some nebulas, fixed stars, comets, etc. ; and 
also in analytical chemistry, including the discovery of two new metals, 
caesium and rubidium. 

SPELLING REFORM. The Spelling Reform Association was organized in 
Philadelphia, August 17, 1876, for " the simplification of English ortho- 
graphy." President, F. A. March, Lafayette College, Easton. Pa ; Cor- 
responding Secretary, D. P. Lindsley, Fernwood, Pa. Efforts in the same 
direction have for some years been made in England. 

SPIRITUALISM, or SPIRITISM. The so-called "spiritual manifesta- 
tions" began at Rochester, New York, about 1848; about 1851 much 
attention was given in England to the raps, "table-turning," etc. Some 
time afterwards a little machine called " Planchette" was a leading 
topic of interest. Various sorts of u test-mediums " and "manifesta- 
tions" have appeared, and it is confessed, even by the most ardent 
spiritists, that a great share of the phenomena exhibited are fraudulent. 
The "Spiritual Magazine," London, began January, 1860; the " Spirit- 
ualist," November, 1869. Many very intelligent people believe in some 
of the "manifestations," but Spiritism has not thus far (1877) been 
demonstrated either good morally, or true scientifically. 

STADE DUES. Levied on the Elbe by Hanover, on all vessels passing 
Stade. Resisted by the United States, 1855 ; abolished. 1861, for a sum 
of £3,000,000. 

STANDARD GOLD AND SILVER. English standard gold is 22 parts (by 
weight) gold, and 2 parts either silver or copper ; standard silver, 37 of 
silver to 3 of copper. The old-established proportion of silver to gold 
was 15^- of silver equal to one of gold by weight. 

STE. L. Bessemer's process patented 1856. Tungsten steel made in 
Germany, 1859. Steel is very rapidly coming into use (1877) for railroad 
rails, cannon, and other purposes for which iron has heretofore served. 

STORM SIGNALS. {See Meteorology.) 
STORMS. (See Cyclones; Hurricanes.) 

STRASBURG. Invested by the Germans, August 10, 1870; surrendered 
by Gen. Uhrich with 17,500 men and 400 officers, September 27. The 



58 THE WORLT ''", PROGRESS. 

ancient and very valuable library was destroyed during the siege, and 
the cathedral much injured. 

STREET RAILWAYS, Steam on. (See Eaihoays.) 

STRIKES. (See page 186 ; see also St. Crispins.) In 1824, combinations by 
workmen against masters ceased to be criminal by English law, and the 
history of workingmen since that time has been increasingly a history 
of strikes, which have occurred in great numbers, especially in Great 
Britain and the United States. In March, 1867, the farm-laborers of 
Buckinghamshire struck for higher wages, and with some measure of 
success. Same month, the engine-drivers on the London and Brighton 
Railway struck for higher wages and some other concessions. Result, a 
compromise. April 10, the engine-drivers and others on the (English) 
Northeastern Railway struck in consequence of the refusal of indoor- 
work to some of tbem — in all, 1,100. The strike was defeated. April 
28j the London journeymen tailors struck for higher wages, but returned 
to work on the employers' terms after a number of months. In a crial 
arising from this strike the practice of ' ' picketing " or watching for, fol- 
lowing, and abusing non-union men was exposed. September, 1868, the 
London cab-drivers and owners struck work, because certain so-called 
"privileged" cabs only were allowed upon the premises of the railways. 
The strike failed. January, and again March, 1870, the workmen of Schnei- 
der's great iron and steel works, at Creuzot, in France, struck in conse- 
quence of a quarrel about a benefit fund and the dismissal of a troublesome 
workman. A military force put down the movement. In the same year, 
16,000 work-people struck at Mulhouse, and before the troops sent could 
restore quiet, a large factory was burnt. Other strikes had already 
taken place at Marseilles, Perpignan, and other places in the south ol 
France. December 8, 570 telegraph clerks of the Manchester, Dublin, 
Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Belfast, and some otber post-offices struck by 
arrangement, in consequence of the removal by government of certain 
clerks for joining a ' L protective association." The strikers were mostly 
reinstated after making written apologies and leaving the association. 
October 9, 1871, the monster strike of some 8,000 engineers and other 
workmen at Newcastle, England, having lasted since the end of May, 
ended by the reduction of working hours from ten to nine, the wages re- 
maining the same. The Newcastle strike of 1871 was of 9,050 engineers 
for nine hours instead of ten, at same wages. The trade-unions main- 
tained these 9,050 men for sixteen weeks, and did much to prevent 
others from taking their places. At one time during this year were on 
strike these engineers, the Newcastle police, the collies of Northumber 
land, Dean Forest, and Gloucestershire, the iron-work«rs of North Staf- 
fordshire, the dyers of Bradford, the quarrymen of Leeds, and the crate- 
makers of the potteries. The New York strike, m 1872, for the 
eight-hour working day, included 90,000 workmen. March 25, 1873, 
60,000 Welsh colliers struck against a 10 per cent, reduction in wages. 
Many strikes occurred in the United States about 1874, ap wages began 
to be lowered from the high standard maintained since the war. Apri, 
12, 1876, 20,000 miners struck in Yorkshire. At Fall River, Mass., the 
mill-hands were on strike for several months in the summer of 1876, but 
ultimately in part resumed work without obtaining their demands. 
February 12, 1877, the engineers of the Boston and Maine Railro<\d, be- 
longing to a general " Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers," presided 
over by one Arthur, an Englishman, struck without notice. They were 



1867-77. 59 

not taken back, and the road in a few days obtained other men. Report 
of the Massachusetts Railroad Commissioners on this strike, recommend- 
ing penal statutes against such action in future, was published February 
21, 1877. The success of the railroad, and some subsequent similar 
cases, pretty much broke the power of the "Brotherhood." Extensive 
series of riots and railroad and other strikes in the United States, begin- 
ning at Martinsburg. in West Virginia, on the Baltimore and Ohio Rail- 
road, July 16, 1877. The strikers were in many places joined by outlaws 
and criminals, who set fires, robbed, and committed violence of various 
kinds. State and National troops were called out in large numbers, and 
the trouble gradually ceased, but not without the destruction of vast 
amounts of property and great interruption of travel, transportation, and 
communication. It was reckoned that about 9,000 miles of railroad were 
blocked on this occasion, and no through line to the sea-coast within the 
United States was left open. Board of Arbitration for amicable settle- 
ment of questions between workingmen and employers, formed by Act 
of Parliament in Great Britain in 1866, after a great strike in that year, 
but its usefulness was only temporary. 

SUEZ CANAL. (See p. 186.) "Work commenced 1858. First ship goes 
through, February 17, 1867. Canal formally opened, November 17, 1868. 
£4,080,000 voted by the House of Commons, for the purchase by England 
of the canal shares belonging to the Khedive of Egypt; purchase an- 
nounced, November 26, 1875. 

SUICIDES. (See p. 602.) Inquests on suicides in England and Wales in 
ten years : 

1870 1,517 



1865 1,397 

1866 1,360 

1867 1,356 

1868 1,546 

1869 1,562 



1871 1,464 

1872 1,455 

1873 1,481 

1874 1,549 



SUN. (See p. 603.) Cycle of changes in number of sun's spots fixed at 
11 years by Schwabe and others, 1826-51. Red flames at edge of sun 
during an eclipse, shown to be burning hydrogen by Janssen, August 18, 
1868. Unknown substance believed to exist in the sun, corresponding to 
line 1474 of the spectrum, 1870-71. Substances already shown by the 
spectroscope to exist in the sun: Aluminium, barium, cadmium, calcium, 
cerium, chromium, cobalt, copper, hydrogen, iron, lead, magnesium, 
manganese, nickel, sodium, strontium, titanium, uranium, zinc — all fused 
into a liquid or even vaporous state. 

SUNDAY ; Sunday Laws. Scientific lectures with a bearing on natural 
religion were given in London in January, 1867, by Huxley, Carpenter, 
and others, with sacred music in the intermissions. On legal inquiry 
(case of Baxter v. Baxter Langley, Nov. 19, 1868), held that this was not an 
infraction of the Sunday Act of 21, George III. The Boston Publi* 
Library Reading-Room opened to the public on Sunday, after much op- 
position, February, 1873. 

SWEDEN and NORWAY. (See pp. 189, 604.) Religious toleration to 
some extent (previously a rigid and exclusive state Lutheranism pre- 
vailed), 1860. New constitution, December, 1864. Charles XV. dies 
Sept. 18, 1872. Oscar II., his brother, succeeds. Population of Sweden, 
Dec. 31, 1875, 4,383,291, and Norway 1,817,237. 

SWIMMING DRESS, Boyton's. (See Life-Saving.) 
3* 



6o THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 

SWITZERLAND. (See pp. 189, 606.) Mermillod, papal nuncio, expelled, 
January 16, 1873 Revised federal constitution adopted, April 19, 1874 
Swiss National Catholic Church ("Old Catholic") established June, 1874 
Civil marriage law adopted, May 23, 1875. Population, 1870, 2,669,147. 

SYLLABUS of errors in modern times, issued along with an encyclical let- 
ter by Pope Pius IX., December 8, 1864, condemned heresy, modern 
philosophy, political liberalism, etc. Adopted by the Vatican Council, 
1870. 

TALMUD. (See p. 609.) The Talmud has been translated into Arabic, 
and parts of it into Latin and into modern languages. Raphall and de 
Sola translated eighteen treatises of the Mishna or text into English, Lon- 
don, 1847. 

TAXES. (See pp. 189,610; also Revenue : National Debt ; etc.) National, 
State, and municipal taxes in United States, estimated in 1876 at $730,- 
000,000 a year, or about $19.00 for each soul. 

TEA. (See pp. 189, 610.) Importation into the United States, and value, 
1869-1876 : 

Lbs. Value. 

1869 39,141,755 $13,687,750 

1870 40,812,188 13,871,546 

1871 46,972,787 17,254,617 

1872 56,974,100 22,943,575 

1873 57,870,700 24,466,170 

1874 49,831,800 21,112,234 

1875 64,856,899 22,673,703 

1876 62,887,153 19,524,166 

Imported into England in 1875, 197,505,316 lbs. ; worth £13,766,961. 

TELEGRAPH. The English Government in 1869 bought out the English 
telegraph companies on the basis of paying twenty years' profits for the 
property. The companies claimed £7,035,977 ; on a valuation this sum 
was reduced to £5,715,047, of which the profit item was £5,220,109. 
£700,000 were also paid to railroad companies for telegraph rights, and 
some other items carried the whole government expenditure to about 
£6,750,000, or $33,750,000. The government estimate of returns was, 
annual revenue expected, £673,838; expenses, £359,484; net profit. 
£314,354 ; and deducting three and one-half or four per cent, interest on 
the government securities issued to buy with, there would remain a sur- 
plus of £77,000 or £44,000, as the case might be. The result, however, 
has been thus far (1877) a loss instead of a profit. February 16, 1871, at 
9.8 P.M., a telegram was received at London which was sent from Kur- 
rachee, in India, at 12.43 in the morning of the next day. 

TELEPHONE. Bell's, Gray's, and Edison's telephones were brought before 
the public in 1876 and 1877. One was invented by Philip Reiss, a Ger- 
man, about 1862. Bell's operates by means of talking and listening into 
a "funnel" or small drum-head (or an equivalent mechanism), which 
vibrates over an electro -magnet in an electric circuit. Gray's acts by the 
vibrations of tuning-forks. They are all contrivances to convey sound 
along an electric circuit. 

TELESCOPE. (See p. 611.) Lord Rosse's great telescope, Efty-two feet 
long, seven feet diameter, erected 1828-45, cost over £20,000. Newall'g 
telescope, with jbject-glass 25 inches aperture, set up at Gateshead, Eng- 
land, 1870. 



-180T— 7 7 . 6r 

TENURE of OFFICE ACT. Passed March 2, 1867, in order to limit tha 
power of President Johnson. It required the consent of the Senate to re- 
move as well as to appoint officials. 

THOMASSEN. (See Explosions ) 

TICHBORNE CASE. May 11, 1871, this case, in which the claimant of 
the Tichborne estate, calling himself Sir Roger Tichborne, was asserted 
by the defendants to be a butcher named Arthur Orton, came on for trial. 
After occupying 103 days (the Attorney-General, Sir J. D. Coleridge, 
spoke twenty-six days), claimant nonsuited, and held for perjury and 
forgery; trial began April 23, 1872; verdict of perjury, February 28, 
1874. Longest trial known in England ; sentence fourteen years at bard 
labor. 

TICKET op LEAVE. A permit granted to convicts supposed likely to 
behave well. 2,666 persons thus liberated in England in 1856. In 1861-3 
the system appeared a failure, these liberated convicts committing many 
crimes, and the device was practically discontinued by the Penal Servitude 
Act, 1864. 

TORPEDO. For submarine warfare, invented by David Bushnell, of Say- 
brook, Conn., and tried on British vessels unsuccessfully, except that it 
greatly frightened thom, 1777 ; much used in rebellion, 1861-5. Torpedc 
departments have, since the introduction of iron- clad war-ships, been in- 
troduced into all navy organizations. 

TRADES-UNIONS. (See Battening ; Strikes.) National Federation of 
Employers formed in England, to counteract Trades-Unions. Parliamen- 
tary report on persecutions by the Saw-Grinders' Union of Sheffield, and 
similar practices, dated August 21, 1867. Forty-five trades-unions in 
New York City in 1869 had 24.425 members ; in 1876 many of them had 
been discontinued, and the membership was less than 15,000. The whole 
number in the United States in 1872-3 was estimated at 1,500, of which 
eleven had a national organization, and ten an international one. The 
fifth annual Trades-Union Congress of Great Britain and Ireland, at 
Leeds, January 13, 1873, included representatives from ninety-nine socie- 
ties, one of which contained 140.000 members. 

TREASON-FELONY. Term applied in an English Act of 1848, to certain 
treasons mitigated to felonies, and made punishable by imprisonment or 
transportation. The Fenians were tried under this act in 1865. 

TRIALS. (See pp. 191, 623; also Ticliborne Case, ; Ritualism, and Fn-chas 
Case.) Saurin v. Starr, ' the convent case,' 1 by an ex-inmate of a U >man 
Catholic convent at Hull. England, against the Superior and others, for 
conspiracy, etc., occupied three weeks in trying, in the year 1889. The 
plaintiff recovered £500. July 15, was tried at Carmarthen. Wales, the 
" Welsh Fasting Girl Case." The girl's parmts, Evan and Hannah 
Jacobs, had made a show of their daughter, pretending that she had lived 
for months without food; and when some competent persons were sent 
from Gray's Hospital to watch the child, the parents let her die. They 
were convicted, and imprisoned at hard labor, the father for twelve, and 
the mother for six months. November 26, 1870, Rev. Mr. Mackonochie, 
a " ritualist," incumbent of St. Albans, Holborn, London, was suspended 
for three months from clerical duty, and sentenced to pay costs, for dis- 
obeying the monitions of the Privy Council about elevating the paten and 
prostrating himself before the consecrated elements. February, 1870, 



62 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 

the case of Lady Mordaunt, whose husband had sued for a divorce, r©> 
suited in a stay of proceedings on the ground of Lady Mordaunt's insanity. 
The Prince of Wales had been reported concerned in the scandal, but 
denied it on the witness-stand. November 10, 1871, there was a curioua 
libel suit at London. One John Hampden, who maintains that the earth 
is flat and not round, had bet £500 with a Mr. Wallace on this question, 
and the money had been paid to Mr. Wallace by the referee on deciding 
the bet, as agreed. Upon this Hampden began a system of sending 
about libellous postal cards, accusing the referee of fraud. On trial 
he made an ample apology, and was let off. February 11, 1871, judgment 
was given by the judicial committee of the Privy Council in the Voysey 
case, in which Rev. C. Voysey was prosecuted for heresy in maintaining 
and teaching various alleged infidel doctrines. The tribunal found that 
he contradicted and impugned the thirty -nine articles in respect to original 
sin, the incarnation, the atonement, the trinity, the authority of scripture, 
and other points, and sentenced him to deprivation and payment of costs. 
By final decisions in 1877, Mrs. Gaines, after forty years' litigation, 
obtains title to a great mass of real estate in New Orleans. 

TRICHINA. A minute worm living in the muscles of hogs and other 
animals ; transferred into those who eat the infected meat, and causes a 
disease, sometimes fatal, called trichiniasis. First found in human mus- 
cle by Owen, 1832. Thorough boiling kills them. Much attention to the 
subject, 18(55-6. 

TROY. Dr. Schliemann, 1872-3, discovered on the hill of Hissarlik re- 
mains of three different ancient cities, one over the other, and much an- 
cient treasure, part of which he called the " treasure of Priam." He be- 
lieved the site to be that of ancient Troy ; his book translated and pub- 
lished in English, 1875. 

TUNNEL. Mont Cenis tunnel, seven and one-half miles long ; began 
August 31, 1857; boring completed, December 25, 1870; cost about 
$13,000,000. A tunnel under the English Channel, from Dover to Ca- 
lais, proposed, August, 18(59, by Bateman and Revy ; plans by Thome de 
Gamond shown in Paris, 1867 : a convention in favor of it signed for 
France by M. Chevalier, January. 1875, and a thirty years' monopoly 
granted ; French and English companies formed ; experimental borings 
in the chalk at the sides of the channel indicate that the rock is such as 
to make the scheme practicable. Hoosac Tunnel, under Hoosac Moun- 
tain, in Western Massachusetts, begun 1856 ; completed, 1873 ; four and 
three-fourths miles long. Sutro Tunnel, to drain the Comstock Lode 
and other silver mines in Nevada, estimated cost, $8,000,000 ; to be 21,- 
178 feet, and with all branches and shafts, 43,088 feet. 

TURKEY. (See pp. 192, 626.) Insurrection in Herzegovina, June, 1875, 
extending more or less into Montenegro, Bosnia, and Servia The " An- 
drassy note," suggesting reforms in Turkey, presented to the Sultan's 
Government by the Austro-Hungarian. German, Italian, and Russian am- 
bassadors, January 31, 1876. On the 6th February, an answer promises 
religious liberty and other reforms. February 14, decree issued order- 
ing them. Risings in Bosnia, early in March, 1876. Insurgents in Herze- 
govina blockading Nicsics ; defeat Turks under Mukhtar Pasha, April 15, 
1876. Turks defeat insurgents at Prejeska, April 23. In May, 1876, 
risings in Bulgaria put down by the Turks with frightful cruelty and out- 
rages. Consuls of France and Germany assassinated at.Salonica, by Mo- 



1867-77. 



6 3 



hammedan fanatics, May 6, 1876. May 11, 1876, the " Berlin memo- 
randum," agreed on by Russia, Germany, and Austria, at Berlin, requir- 
ing prompt fulfilment of the Turkish promises made in reply to the 
Andrassy note. England refused to join in this demand, and it was 
dropped. May 12, 1876, riots at Constantinople, headed by the softas 
(students of law and religion), against the government. Abdul Aziz de- 
throned by his ministers, May 27th, and was found dead (said to have 
committed suicide), June, 1876. Murad, nephew of Abdul Aziz, made 
Sultan, May 30th ; deposed, August 31, 1876, and succeeded by his 
younger brother, Abdul-Hamid II. June 12. 1876, Prince Milan of Servia 
proclaims that the insurrections around him force him to put Servia under 
arms. June 15, 1876, Hassan Bey, a Circassian captain in the Turkish 
army, enters the ministerial council-room, shoots dead the Ministers of 
War and of Foreign Affairs, and killed or wounded six other officials be- 
fore he was secured. He was hanged two days afterwards. Prince of 
Servia and Hospodar of Montenegro jointly declare war against Turkey, 
July 2, 1876. Turkey announces that no payments can be made on the 
public debt " until the internal affairs of the empire have become more 
settled," July 9, 1876. Decisive defeat of the Servians by the Turks at 
Alexinatz, October 28, 1876, and Alexinatz occupied the 31st by the vic- 
tors. Mr. Gladstone's powerful pamphlet on the Bulgarian atrocities, 
published September 6, 1876. Armistice for six weeks with Servia 
granted by Turkey, under pressure from the powers, November 1, 1876. 
Conferences of the powers at Constantinople to try to avert war begun 
December 11, 1876. Represented : Great Britain, Austro-Hungary, France, 
Germany, Italy, Russia, Turkey. A constitution, providing for represen- 
tatives, a legislative assembly, etc., proclaimed, December 2.4, 1876, in 
order to avert European intervention. For the war, see Russia. 



U. 



UNITED STATES. (See pp. 193, 631 ; also Centennial, etc.; Chronological 
Tables, p. 205, etc.) In 1870 there were in the TJnitod States, 3,603,844 
square miles or 1,942,000,000 acres, half of it public lands, and less than 
one-tenth of it cultivated. Population, 1870, without Indians, 38,558,371 ; 
estimated, June 1, 1876, 45,627,000 ; expected at census of 1880 to be 
fifty millions. Value of all real and personal property (1870), $30,068- 
518,507; paupers, 116,102; convicted of crime, 36,562; in prison, June 
1, 1870, 32,901 ; religious congregations of all kinds, 72,459; church edi- 
fices 63,082; sittings, 21,665,062, or 4 to every 7 souls. 

UNIVERSITIES. Students and professors, etc. , in German ones, June, 1876 : 





Professors 






and Teachers. 


Students. 




197 


2,143 




100 


707 




107 


. ... 1,116 




54 


429 




„69 ... 


S74 




54 


315 


(Jottingen . 






Greif swald . 


M 


444 


Halle 


98 


870 


Heidelberg. 


104 


488 




73 


440 




61 


202 



Professors 
and Teachers. 

Konigsberg 83 

Leipzig 156 

Marburg 65 

Munich 116 

Munster 29 

Kostock 39 

Strassburg 90 

Tubingen 84 

Wurzburg 67 



21 



1,800 



Students. 
611 

2,925 
401 

1,203 
431 
153 
677 
823 
984 

. 16,625 



64 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 

Add to these 2,377 unmatriculated, "permitted to attend lectures" (oi 
which 1,963 at Berlin alone), and there are 18,999 students; 14 universi- 
ties are Protestant ; the theological faculty being Roman Catholic at Frei- 
burg, Munich, Minister, and Wurzburg, and mixed at Bonn, Breslau, and 
Tubingen. 



VATICAN COUNCIL, called the Twenty-first (Ecumenical or General 
Council, summoned by encyclical letter of September 8, 1868 ; met at 
Rome, December 8, 1869; present, 803 members; there were four public 
sessions, and from 90 to 100 " congregations." New canons issued April 
24, 1870; the infallibility of the Pope affirmed by 547 to 2, and the 
doctrine promulgated July 18, 1870. 

VEDAS. Hindoo sacred books, consisting of hymns, prayers, and liturgies. 
There are three portions of them — the Rig- Veda, Yajur-Veda, and Atharva- 
Veda — the first being much the oldest and dating to 1,000 or more years 
B.C. Max Midler's edition (in Sanscrit) began to appear 1849; Wilson's 
translation, 1850. 

VELOCIPEDE. One invented by Blanchard, the" aeronaut, about 1779 ; 
one by Niepce, 1818 ; came into use again about 1861, and are still (1877) 
more or less employed. 

VENDOMB COLUMN. Pulled down by the communists, May 16, 1871 ; 
restored August 31, 1874; statue of Napoleon replaced at top, December, 

1875. Courbet the painter was condemned to a fine of 30,000 francs for 
his participation in overturning it. 

VENEZUELA. (See p. 634.) Presidents: Falcon, March 18,1865; Mo- 
nagas, June to November, 1865 ; Pulgar, December, 1865 ; Blanco, July, 
1870. and re-elected 1873, 1875. Conflict with Roman Catholic Church on 
civil marriage ; papal authority renounced by the government, September, 

1876. Area about 403,261 square miles ; population (1873), 1,784,194. 
VENUS, Transit op. (See Astronomy.) 

VESUVIUS. (See pp. 194, 636.) Recent eruptions: spring and sum- 
mer, 1860 ; December, 1861 ; February, 1865 ; November 12, 1867 to 
April, 1868 ; October 8 to November 20, 1869; April 23 to May 3, 1872. 

VICTORIA, in Australia. (See p. 194.) Capital, Melbourne. Popula- 
tion, estimated March 31, 1876, at 829,824. 

VISIBLE SPEECH. A universal system of delineating sounds in which 
each letter is a diagram of the position of the vocal organs in uttering it. 
Invented by A. M. Bell ; explained by him, and a book on it published, 
London, 1866 ; introduced in America by him and his son, J. G. Bell, 
the inventor of a telephone, about 1872. 

VIVISECTION. Efforts to prevent it have been made since 1859 ; gener- 
ally opposed by scientific physiologists and medical men. Bill to regulate 
it in Great Britain, August 15. 1876, by restricting it to licensed persons. 

W. 

WAGES. (See pp, 196, 640; also Strikes, Trades- Unions.) In New York, 
from 1870 to 1876, wages in fifty eight trades fell from 10 to 20 per cent. 



1867-7?. 6 5 

In England, wages were often raised by the strikes, 1874-75. Yearly 
total of wages paid in United Kingdom, 1866, estimated at from £250,- 
000,000 to £418,300,000, earned by 10,697,000 working people, between 
20 and 60 years of age. 

WAHABEES. Fanatical reforming Mohammedans, a kind of Puritans ; 
arose in Arabia about 1750 ; in 1803 seized Mecca and Medina ; were 
defeated by Egyptian forces 1818 ; are at present prosperous in Arabia, 
and there are some of them in India. Palgrave's Journey in Arabia, 1865, 
is a good account of them. 

WAR. (See pp. 196, 643 ; a\&oArmy ; Battles ; Navy ; National Debt ; etc.) 
An estimate from 1853 to 1877 shows the following deaths and expenses 
in one quarter-century of Christian war. 



Crimean war $1,700,000,000 

Italian war (1859) 300.000,000 

U. S. rebellion (North) 4,700,000,000 

U. S. rebellion (South) 2.300,000,000 

Schleswig-Holstein war .... 35,000,000 



Austro-Prussian war (1866) 330,000,000 

Franco-Prussian 2,500.000,000 

Other wars, etc 200,000,000 



Total cost |12,065,000,000 



And deaths (not complete). 

Crimean war 475,000 | Austro-Prussian war of 1866 . . 45,000 

Italian war 1859 45,000 Franco-Prussian war 215,000 

Schleswig-Holstein war 3,000 - 

U. S. rebellion 800,000 | Total deaths 1,183,000 

These deaths are nearly all of the . strongest young men, from 25 to 35 
years old. 

WATCHES. (See p. 646 ; also Clocks and Watches.) 

WESTERN AUSTRALIA. Includes all New Holland west of 190° E. 
longitude, being estimated at 978,000 square miles. The settled part is 
not more than one-eighth of this area. Population, March 31, 1870, in- 
cluding 1,470 convicts, 24,785. First settled 1829, and was then called 
the Swan River Settlement. 

WOERTH. Defeat of the French under McMahon by the Germans under 
the Crown-Prince of Prussia, after most obstinate and bloody fighting, 
August 6, 1870. The French said to have charged the German line and 
broken it eleven times, always, however, finding fresh troops behind. 

WRECKS. (See pp. 198, 658; also Life-Saving Seamen.) Of 1803 casual- 
ties to vessels on the British coast in the year 1873-74, 346 were total 
wrecks, and 506 lives were lost. Lives (saved chiefly by life-boats), in 
1871, on British coast, 4,336. 



YACHT. (See p. 199.) July 4, 1870, an " international " yacht race was 
begun, from Cork to New York, between the English yacht Cambria and 
the American one Dauntless. The Cambria won, arriving at 4 P.M. of 
July 27, the Dauntless, taking a more northerly route, came in two hours 
later. October 16, 1871, and six subsequent days, took place an inter- 
national yacht race between the English yacht the Livonia and the yachts 
of the New York Yacht Club. The Columbia and Sappho, of New York, 
won four out of the first five races, deciding the match. 



66 the world's progress. 



z. 

ZANZIBAR. Set off from Muscat, 1806, for Majid, a son of the Seyyid 
(lord) of Muscat. At Majid's death, October 7, 1870, Barghash, his 
brother, succeeded. Treaty with England abolishing slave trade, June 5, 
1873. 

ZEND AVESTA. The present Zend Avesta is said by the Parsees to be 
only three out of the original twenty-one nosks or books. It consists of 
hymns, prayers, and liturgies, much as the Vedas do, and is in three 
parts, the Vispered, Vendidad, and Yacnas. The five G-athas or hymns 
in the Vendidad are considered the oldest part. Their age is very doubt- 
ful, though in part unquestionably great. Anquetil Duperron's French 
version, 1771 ; Burnouf's, 1829-43 ; Spiegel's, in German, a later one. is 
the best ; and an English version of this by Bleeck was published at 
Hertford, England, 1864. 



BUREAU OF STATISTICS, U. S. TREASURY DEPARTMENT. 



[Forf the following ptatietics w 3 are indebted to the courtesy of Hon. Alex ANt er Del* ae 
Director of the Bureau.] 

CUSTOMS Duties Received in 1866. 

* During the Quarter ending March 31, 1866 $46,645,597.83 

* " " June 30, " 46,175,132.33 

* " " Sept. 30, " 50,843,774.24 

t ' 4 " Dec. 81, " 37,803,027.54 

$181,467,531.94 
* Official. t Commercial and Financial Chronicle, March 30, 1867. 



Year. 

1860, 

1861, 

1862, 

1863, 

1364, 

1865, S 
1865, I 

1866, \ 
1866, } 



[G Statistics: 


Tonnage of 


the United States. 


Registered. 


Enrolled and Licensed. 


Sail. 


Steam. 


Sail 


Steam. 


2,448,941 


97,296 


2,036,990 


770,641 


2,540,020 


102,608 


2,122,589 


774,596 


2,177,253 


113,998 


2,224,449 


596,465 


1,892,899 


133,215 


2,660,212 


439,755 


1,475,376 


106,519 


2,550,690 


853,816 


old, 1,031,465 


60,539 


1,794,372 


630,411 


new, 482,110 


28,469 


730,695 


338,720 


old, 341,619 


42,776 


443,635 


114,269 


new, 953,018 


155,513 


1,489,194 


770,754 



Total. 
Tonnage. 
5,353,868 
5,539,813 
5,112,165 
5,126,081 
4,986.401 
3,516,787 
1,579,994 

942,299 
3,368,479 



EXPORTS OF GOLD AND SILVER from New York during the vear ending 
June 30, 1 867 

Domestic. Foreign. Total. 

In Am. Vessels. In For. Vessels. In Am. Vessels. In For. Vessels. 
Gold Bullion,... 298,854 8,425,227 

Gold Coin, 1,500,041 1 5,800,152 

Silver Bullion,. 706,081 8,186,837 

Silver Coin 248,978 1,581,753 



Total, 



2,753,954 



33,993,969 




1,490,761 



none. 
1,418,853 
18,939 
1,521,062 



2,958,854 41,197,538 



8,724,081 

19,902,62e 

8,911,857 

3,658,974 



COFFEE Statistics. Statement exhibiting the consumption of coffee in the 

United States during the years ending December 31, .861, 1862, 1863, 1861, 
1865, and 1866 : 

Tear. Pounds. Tear. Pounds. 

1861, 187,046,00& 1864, 1081,087,004. 

1862, 88,990,000 1H65, 128,146,000 



863, 



79,720,000 



H65, 
1866, 



169.915.840 



68 



UNITED STATES TREASURY STATISTICS 



See page 68, Reports of Revenue Commission, 1865-66. The quantities given 
for the first five years are substantially those named in the Annual Report of the 
Ne~j> York Chamber of Commerce for 1866-66. 

The quantity for 1866 is taken from tfc» Supplement to H E. Mbring's Monthly 
Coffee Circular, 1867. 



'OX Statistics. 














Production. 


Exported. 




Aoerage Prict 


Tear. 




Bales. 


Pounds 


Bales. 


per pound. 


1860-61, 




3,656,086 




3,126,622 


17A2 cents. 


1861-62, 


est. 


4,800,000 


5,064,564 = say 


12,000 


42.15 " 


1862-63, 


est. 


1.500,000 


11,384,986 - say 


26,000 


71 08 " 


1863-64, 


est. 


'500,000 


10,830,534 = say 


25,000 


$111.14 " 


1864-65, 


est. 


300,000 


6,607.186 = say 


15,000 


75.75 


1865-66, 




2,214,476 




1,554,744 


44. " 


1866-67, 


est. 


1,900,000 


est. 


1,500,000 


32.5 " 



The figures relative to production, except for ] 866-6*7, were derived from 
Neil Bros. & Co.'s Cotton Circular for October 16, 1866. The receipts at all 
ports from September 1, 1866, to July 6, 1867, are given as 1,863,000 bales, and 
the total exports for the same period as 1,463,000 bales. Messrs. Cornwall & 
Zerega in their Circular give the receipts from September 1, 1866, to July 12, 
1867, as 1,809,500 bales. 

The number of pounds exported are taken from Table 19, page 349, Finance 
Report, 1866. The same table gives the exports for 1860-61, as only 307,528,- 
489 pounds, or say 720,000 bales. The Rev. Com. (see Report, p. 74), gives the 
<xports for 1860-61, including stock on hand, as 2,812,346 bales. 



EA Statistics. Statement exhibiting the consumption of tea in the United 
States during the years ending December 31, 1861, 1862, 1S63, 1864, 1865, 
and 1866 : 

Tear. Oreen, Japan. Black. Total. 

Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. 

1861, 7,485,000 18,035,000 25,520,00 i 

13,871,600 13,597,000 27,468,600 

14,490,680 12,415,685 26,906,865 

13,564,295 9,573,251 23,137,546 

18,874,199 10,979,234 29,853,433 

29,643,187 

See Reports of Revenue Commission, 1865-66, pp. 53, 55. The above are 
estimates made from data furnished the Commission by parties in the trade in 
New York, except for 1866, which is taken from Messrs. Montgomery's Tea Cir- 
cular. The Commission estimated the consumption for 1866 at 30,000,000 
pounds. 

The Pacific States are not included in the above, except for 1866, nor is any 
allowance made for smuggling. The estimated consumption in 1860, was one 
pound per capita. 



1H62, 
1863, 
1864, 
1865, 
1866, 



OBAC( 


X) Statistics. 










Year 


Production 


Exported. 




Average prict 




Pounds. 


Leaf, pounds. 


Manuf'd, lbs. 


Total. 


per lb., LeaJ 


1861, 

1862, 
1863 
1864 
1865, 


est 200,000,000 
136,736,596 
276,850,870 
197,460,229 
185,316 953 

««t 330. 501 ,'500 


est. 160,000,000 
est. 107,000,000 
est. 112,000,000 
est, 110,000,0« 
ear,. 149,COS,0«* 

ian,'s?a m 


14,783,363 
4,071,963 

7,025,248 
8,586,494 
7,294. '65 
6,515.709 


174,783,363 
111,071,963 
119,025,248 
118,586,49-1 
156.294,105 
197.3-H.957 


9. centH. 
11 9 " 
14 9 " 
14.85 " 
12.6 " 
13 " 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 69 

The production for 1862, 1863, 1864 and 1865 is given as found in the Re 
ports of the Department of Agriculture. The estimated production for 1866 is 
taken from the Tobacco Circular of M. Rader & Son. 

The quantities of leaf tobacco exported are estimated from the returns oi 
commerce a.nd navigation for the years 1861, 1862, 1863, 1864, and 1865. The 
quantities of leaf for 1866, and of manufactured tobacco for each year specified, 
are taken from the returns of commerce and navigation for those years. 

In 1862, the production of only twenty-one States is given, Kentucky and 
the disloyal States being omitted. In 1863, 1864, and 1865 Kentucky is included, 
and in 1866 all the States. 



:at 


Statistics. 








Tear 


s. Production. 


Exported. 


Av. Frice per bu 




Bushels. 


Wheat, bushels. 


Flour, bbls. 


at 1'ew York. 


1861, 
1862, 
1863, 
1864, 
1865, 
1866, 


189,993,500 
191,068,239 
171,695,823 
159,522,827 
151,999,906 


31,238,057 
37,289,572 
36,160,414 
23,681,712 
9,937,152 
5,579,103 


4,323,756 
4,882,038 
4,390,055 
3,557,347 
2,604,542 
2,183,050 


$1,18 to $1.46 
1.30 to 1.50 
1.83 to 1.58 
1.48 to 1.83 
2.22 to 2.70 
1.85 to 2.75 



No returns of the pVoduction of 1861 are to be had, although inquiry was 
aaade at the Department of Agriculture. 

The figures relative to production in 1862, 1863, 1864, 1865, and 1866 are 
taken from the Monthly and Annual Reports of the Department of Agriculture, 
and embrace 22 States and Nebraska Territory, except 1866, which embraces 29 
States and Nebraska Territory. There being no returns from California in 1864 
and 1865, the crop for each year is estimated at 11,000,000 bushels, which is 
believed to be a low estimate, the crop for 1863 being 11,664,203 bushels. A 
barrel of flour is considered as equal to 5 bushels of wheat. 



STATISTICS, TEARS 1867-77. 



(From public documents and other standard sources.) 

REVENUE of the United States from customs for ten years (to June 30), 
1867-1876. 

1867 $176,417,810.88 

1868 164,464,599.56 

1869 180,048.426.63 

1870 194,538,374.44 

1871 206,270,408.05 

For the first five months of the years ending June 30, 1877 and 1876, the 
revenue from customs was as follows : 

1877. 1876. Decrease. 

$57,801,772.50 $68,170,576.48 $10,368,803.98 



1872 $216,370,286.77 

1873 188,089,522.70 

1874 163,103,833.69 

1875 157,167,722.35 

1876 148,071,984.61 



COIN and BULLION exported from the United States for seven years, 
1868-9 to 1874-5, ending June 30. 

1868-9 $42,915,966 I 1872-3 ...$73,905,546 

1869 70 43,881,861 1873-4 59,699,686 

1870-1 84.403,359 I 1874-6 83,857,139 

1871-2 72,798,240 | 



7° 



UNITED FTA.TES TREASURY STATISTICS. 



COTTON. Production and exports of United States for nine years (ending 
June 30), 1868 to 1876. 

Production, bales — . , 

O/440 lbs. Exported, pounds. 

1868 2,593,993 784,763,633 

1869 2,439,039 644,327,921 

1870 3,154,946 958,558,523 

1871 4,352,317 1,462,928,024 

1872 2,974,351 933,537,413 

1873 3,930,508 1,200,063,530 

1874 4,170,388 1,358,602,303 

1875 3,832,991 1,260,418,903 

1876 4,600,000 1,491,405,336 



SHIPPING of the United States, 


nine years, 1867-18' 


rs. 

rchant Marh 




Registered (tons). 






Total Me 


le (tons). 






Enrolled 


Licensed 


























Sail. 


Steam. 


Licensed. 


20 tons. 


Sail. 


Steam. 


All. 


1867 


1,187,714 


165,522 


2,563,232 


41,047 


2,834,565 


1,122,980 


3,957,515 


1868 1,310,844 


221,939 


2,733,167 


52,860 


8,118,895 


1,199,415 


4,318,310 


1869, 1,353,170 - 


213,252 


2,526,093 


62,126 


3,041,073 


1,103,568 


4,144,641 


18701 1,324.256 


192,544 


2,677,940 


51,767 


4,171,412 


1,075,095 


4,246,507 


1871 1,244,228 


180,914 


2,805,374 


62,191 


3,194,970 


1,087,637 


4,282,607 


1872 1,232,982 


177,666 


2,971,309 


55,790 


3,326,194 


1,111,553 


4,437,747 


18731 1,229,865 


193,423 


3,215,915 


56,824 


6,539,584 


1,156,443 


4,696,027 


18741 1,233,678 


195,245 


3,312,146 


59,583 


3,615,042 


1,185,610 


4,800,652 


1875! 1.362,138 


191,689 


3,238,390 


61,615 


3,685,064 


1,168,668 


4,853,732 



TOBACCO. 

1876. 



Product and exportation of United States, ten years, 1867- 



1867. 
1868. 
1869. 
1870. 

1871. 
1872. 
1873. 
1874. 
1875. 
1876. 



Production, lbs. 
313,724,000 
320,982,000 
273,775,000 
250,628,600 
263,196,100 
342.304,000 
372,810,000 
178,355,000 
379,347,000 



Exported. Leaf, lbs. 



181,537,630 
1S5,747,181 
215,667,604 
234,936,892 
213,995,176 
318,097,804 
223,901,713 
218,310,265 



WHEAT. Product and exportation of the United States, nine years, end 
ing June 30, viz., 1867-1875 (in bushels). 



Production. 

1867 212,441,400 

1868 224,036,600 

1869 ." 260,146,900 

1870 235,884,700 

1871 230,722,400 

1872 240,997,100 

1873 280,372,700 

1874 306,102,70') 

187»- 



As Wheat. 
6,146,411 
15,940,899 
17,557,836 
36,584,115 
34,304,906 
26,423,080 
39,204.285 
71,039.928 
63,047,175 



Exports. 



As Flour. 
6,500,530 
10,382,116 
12,129,365 
57,273,926 
18,269,205 
12,572,675 
12,810,430 
20,470,470 
19,765,430 



BIOGRAPHICAL D'DEX 

TO 

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 



ff. B. Tliis list of remarkable persons, from the earliest period, is not, of course, intended 
to include every name mentioned in history, but merely the most important in theii 
several departments. The names of Sovereigns are referred to occasionally only, as full 
lists are given in their proper place. 

This list may be useful in two ways, viz. . 

First, as an Index to the names mentioned in the Chronological Tables in the " World'i 
Pr -gross ; " and 

Secondly, to indicate, by reference to those tables, the chief political events and con- 
tei aporary public characters during the life of each person in the list. 

Thus : Socrates, the Greek philosopher, was born 470, and died 400 b. o. The tablei 
an page 20 to 24 show who lived, and what happened, during the seventy years of Socrates' 
Ufe. 

Milton was born a. d. 1608, one year after the first settlement at Jamestown, "Virginia ; 
six years after the East India Company was founded ; five years after James I. ascended 
the throi.e ; the same year that the Protestant Union was formed in Germany ; one year 
before Gustavus Adolphus became king of Sweden ; two years before Louis XIII, became 
king of France. He was 12 years old when the Puritans first landed at Plymouth ; he 
was 17 when Charles L succeeded James, and he was 41 years old when Charles was be- 
headed. Among his contemporaries were Lord Bacon, Inigo Jones, Jeremy Taylor, 
Algernon Sydney, Sir C. Wren, Butler, Waller, Dryden, Henry More, Baxter, and Boyle, in 
England ; Peier Stuyvesant, Winthrop, Cotton,and Eliot, in America; Richelieu, Mazarine, 
Colbert, Rubens, Kepler, Descartes, Moliere, Corneille, Racine, Pascal, on the Continent. 
He died a. d. 1674, nine years after tlie great plague in London, 14 years after Charles II. 
whs restored, and 7 years after New York was ceded to the English. 

And thus, of any person mentioned in the Index, a great variety of particulars may be 
found at a glance, on referring to the tables. 

Abbreviations. — See list in the Introduction. Bar. (Barbarian) includes several different 
natiotis, some not entirely civilized, f. is used for flourished. The dates before Christ 
are indicated by b. o. ; all others are A. d. In some cases the dates are necessarily left 

blank. 

NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Dan. Aagesend, Svind, historian .... 
Jew. Aaron, the first high-priest . . . 

Gr. Aaron, of Alexandria, physician . . 

Egypt Abbas, pasha, viceroy of Egypt (grandson of Mehemet-All) 
Eng. Abbot, George, archbishop of Canterbury and author . 
Amer. Abbott. Benjamin, distinguished educationist 
Amer. Abbott Jacob, author of biographical and religions works . 
Amer. Abbott, Jno. S. C, historian and biographer . . 

Arab. Abd'el Kader, distinguished warrior . . ,, 

Turk. Abdul Medjid, sultan of Turkey . . , 

Eng. A'Becket, Gilbert A., comic writer . . , 

Amer. Abeel, David, missionary and author of travels , 

Nor. Abel, Nicholas H„ mathematician . , , 



BORN. 


DIED. 


. f. 1188 




b. c. 1570 


1453 


. r. 022 




1813 


1854 


. 1562 


1623 


1763 


1849 


1808 




1805 




1806 


1866 


1822 




1810 


1856 


1804 


1844 


1802 




71 





THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



8p. 

Eng. 

Scot. 

Eng. 

Eng 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Jew. 

Fr. 

Dan. 

Aia. 

Syr. 

Rom. 

ItaL 

Ger. 

Pruss. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Ital. 

Gr. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Ire. 

Rom. 

Eng. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Rom. 

Rom. 



NAME AND PBOFESSIO.N. 

Abenezra, an astrono-aer, philosopher, poet, philologist, &o. 

Aberdeen, Earl of, statesman and antiquary 

Aberc:-ombie, John, author of ' Intellect ualPowers' 

Abercromby, Sir Ralph, military commander 

Abernethy, John, eminent physician and medical writer 

Ablai-court, N. P. D., translator of the Classics 

About, Edmond, novelist, traveller, &c. 

Abra.'.;i.m, the great progenitor of the Jewish nation 

Abrantes, duchess d 1 , biographer 

Absalom (real name Axcel) archbishop of Den., Sw., and Nor. 

Abubeker, father-in-law and successor of Mahomet 

Abulfoda, the geographer .... 

Accius, or Attius, a tragic poet (works not extant) 

Accursius, or Accorso, an eminent critic 

Accum, Fred., operative chemist (in England) . 

Ackerman, Rudolph, introduced gas-lighting and lithog. in London 1764 

Achilles, one of the leaders in the Trojan war . f. b. 

Achilles Tatius (of Alexandria), Christian bishop and author 

Achilli, Gicvanni G., protestant preacher 

Acropolita, of Constantinople, statesman and historian 

Adum. Alexander, schoolmaster and author . , 

Adam. Robert, an architectural author 

Adapts, John, patriot and statesman, 2d Pres. U. S. 

, John Quincy, diplomatist, poet, Pres. U. S. 

, Samuel, one of the patriotic founders of the republic 

Addison Joseph, one of the ornaments of English literature 

Adeiung, John C, philologist and lexicographer 

Adolphus, John, author of history of England, &o. . 

Adrr.in, Robert, mathematician (at New York, &c.) 

Adrian, the 15th emp. (born in Spain) 

JSlfrie, archbishop of Canterbury, author rf Anglo-Saxon works 

iEluui, the historian and rhetorician 

^Encas, son of Priam, king of Troy . . . f. b. 

^Esohines, of Athens, philosopher, disciple of Socrates 

, orator . . . b. 



jEsop, of Phrygia, the prince of fabulists . . . f. B. 

^Etius, military commander (defeated Attila) 

Africanus, Julius, historian .... 

Sp.Moor , Leo, author of travels in Africa 

Gr. Agamemnon, " the king of kings" 

Gr. Agathius, historian and poet . , . . f 

Swiss. Agassiz, Louis, naturalist .... 

Gr. Agesilaus II., king of Sparta (defeats the Per., Egypt., and Greeks) 

Scot. Aginhard or Eginhard, Hist, of Charlemagne 

Gr. Agis rV., the greatest of the Spartan kings . . . 

Eng. Aglionby, one of the translators of the Bible 

Rom. Agricola, Cneius Julius, military commander . 

Ger. Agricola, John, a divine, founder of the Antinomiane . , 

Rom. Agrippa, military commander, governor of Judea . , 

Fr. , Cornelius, philosopher, &c. 

B. Jew Aguilar, Grace, novelist ..... 

Pers. Ahasuerus, king of Persia (Artaxerxes Long.) 



BOSN. 


DIED 


1119 


1174 


1784 


I860 


1781 


1844 


1738 


1801 


1764 


1831 


1606 


1664 


:. 1995 b. 


D. 1821 


17S1 


1838 


1128 


1203 


561 


02-1 


1273 


1S45 


J. 171 






1228 


1769 


183 i 


i 1764 


1S34 


3. 1100 




3d cent 




1803 




1220 


1282 


1741 


1809 


1728 


17J4 


1735 


1826 


1767 


1818 


1726 


1800 


1672 


1719 


1732 


1806 


1766 


1845 


1775 


843 


76 


138 





10f5 


160 




o. 11. -3 




0. 393 B. 


o. 323 


0. 600 






454 




232 


1487 


i52e 



1807 



B. 


. 


. 361 


771 




839 


B. 


0. 


251 

1610 


40 




98 


1490 




15C6 


40 




91 


1486 




1535 


1816 




1847 


B. 





45e 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



73 



NATION 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Tartar. 

Eng. 

Swe. 

Bar. 

Span. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Ital. 

Ger. 

Bar. 

itaL 

Port. 

Gr. 

rt&i. 

Gr. 
Gr. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

iing. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Rom. 

Bar. 

Rus. 

nus. 

Xus. 

itaL 

Eng. 

ItaL 

Bar. 

Bar. 

Scot. 

gcot. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Bar. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Aikiii, John, M. D. f an elegant writer, editor of poets, dec 

, Lucy, biographer and historian . , 

Aime-Marlin, Louis, writer on education 

Ainsworth, Robert, grammarian and lexicographer , 

, Wm. Francis, traveller, geologist, &o. . 

, Wm. Harrison, novelist 

Airy, Geo. B., astronomer-royal 

Akbar, Mohammed, a great Mogul sovereign „ . 

Akenside, Mark, a popular poet . , 

Akenblad, philologist .... 

Alaric I., king of the Vieigoths . . , 

Alberoni, Julius, cardinal statesman 

Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, heir to the British throne 

Albert, Prince, husband of the Queen of England . 

Alberti, an eminent writer, painter, sculptor, &c. 

Albertus-Magnus, philosophic writer, tutor of Aquinas 

Alboiu, the Lombard conqueror . 

Alboni, Mar.etta, eminent contralto singer 

Albuquerque (the great) military commander . 

Alcaeus, of Lesbos, a lyric poet . . . 

Alciati, of Milan, an eminent civilian and author . 

Alcibiades, a famous Athenian general and statesman . 

Alciphron, author of Letters, &c. 

Alcott, A. Bronson, philosopher and educationist . 

-■ , Wm. A., writer on education and philosopher 

Alcuinus, founder of schools at Paris, &c. . 

Alden, John, one of the first Plymouth Colony 
Aldhelm, St., an eminent scholar and poet . , 

Aldus, see Manulius .... 
Alembert, John Le Rond d', math., hist., and philosopher 
Alexander, A. H., claiming to be Earl of Stirling 

, Archibald, theologian and author . 

, J. Addison, theologian and commentator 

— , James W., theologian . . . 

, Severu6, emperor 

the Great, founder of the Macedonian Empire 

, Nevskoi, a saint and hero ; def. of the Tartars, 

, I., emperor (coalition against Napoleon) 

, II., (became emperor 1855) , , 



Alexius Commenus, emperor of the East . 

Alfieri, an eminent tragic poet . , . 

Alfred, justly called the Great, king , 

Algarotti, a general, scholar, and critic . « 

J i Bey, gov. of Egypt, revolted against the Turks 

Ali Tepe'hii, pasha of Jannina . . . 

Alison, Archibald, rev., ' Essays on Taste' 

, Archibald, sir, ' History of Europe,' ' Essays • 

Allen, Ethan, an intrepid officer in the Revolution . 

, Wm., author of Amer. Biog. Dictionary . 

Alleyn, Edward, actor and manager (temp. Shakspeare) 
Allston, Washington, painter and poet 
Almamon, caliph, patron of learning 



BORN. 


DIED. 


747 


la'iS 




1846 


1660 


1743 


1807 




1805 




1801 




1655 


1606 


1721 


1770 


, 


1819 




411 


1664 


175' 


ldil 




1819 


1861 


1398 


1490 


1205 


1280 




574 


1826 




1452 


1515 


f. B. o. 606 




1492 


1560 


B. 0. 450 b. 


0. 404 


. f. 170 




1799 




1798 




732 


804 


1598 


1687 


• 


709 


1717 


1783 


. 1783 




1772 


1851 


1809 


1860 


1804 


1859 


209 


235 


B. 0. 356 b 


0. 323 


&0. . 1218 


1262 


1777 


1826 


1818 




1048 


1118 


1749 


1803 


849 


900 


. . 1712 


1769 


. 1728 


1773 


1744 


1822 


1757 


1839 


• 


1867 


1737 


1789 


1784 




1566 


1624 


. 1779 


1843 



74 



THE WORLD'S PROGRES3. 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Bai. Almansor, caliph, patron of learning , , 

Eng. Almon, Jolin, political writer . . • • 

Mex. Almonte, J uanet, general and statesman . . 

Span. Alphonso X., king of Castile, Leon, and author . . 

Port. Alphonso L, Henriques, founder of the Portuguese monai ehy 

Amer. Alsop, Richard, poet and linguist . . . 

Eng. Althcrp, Viscount, statesman and book collector . 

8pan. Alva, duke of, celebrated and barbarous military commander 

Mex. Alvarez, Juan, leader of Mexican Revolution . . 

Ger. Amalie, duchess of Saxony, dramatic poet . . 

Jew. Amaziah, king of Judah ...» 

I+al. Ambrose, St., bishop of Milan, author • . 

Ital. Americus Vespucius (of Florence), explored the S. American 

coast ...... 

Amer. Ames, Fisher, a statesman and orator . . 

Amer. , Nathan P., maohinist and bronze founder . 

Eng. Amherst, Jeffrey, lord, mil. com. in America, &c. « 

Rom. Ammianus, Marcellinus, historian . . . 

Ger. Aramon, Christ. P. von, Protestant theologian . 

Gr. Ammonius, a peripatetic philosopher . . 

Eng. Amory, Thomas, humorous writer, ' Jno. Bunole' 

Fr. Ampere, Jean J., traveller and essayist . . 

Fr. , Jean Marie, mathematician and nat. philosopher 

Fr. Amyot, James, bishop of Auxerre, translator of Plutarch 

Bar. ^.nacharsis, a Scythian philosopher and disciple of Solon 

Gr. Anacreon, a celebrated poet . . • 

Gr. Anastasius I., emperor of the East 

Gr. Anaxagoras, a philosopher .... 

Gr. Anaxarchus, a philosopher, companion of Alexander the Great b. c 

Gr. Anaximander, of Miletus, an Ionic philosopher . 

Gr. Anaximenes, of Miletus, an Ionic philosopher • 

Fr. Ancelot, J. A. P. F., poet and novelist . . 

Pruss. Ancillon, J. P. F., historian and statesman . . 

Dan. Andersen, Hans Christian, poet and novelist . 

Scot. h. Anderson, Adam, commercial writer . . 

Eng. , Sir Edmund, a judge and author . 

Swe. Andersson, Chas. John, explorer in Africa . » 

Fr. Andral, G. A., writer on anatomy and medicine . 

Eng. Andre, John, British officer in American war . . 

Eng. Andrews, Lancelot, bishop of "Winchester . 

Gr. Andronicus, of Rhodes, a peripatetic philosopher, . 

A^ier. Angell, Jos. K., author of legal works 

Esg. Anglesey, Henry W., marquis of, general at Waterloo . 

Fr. Angouleme, duchess d', daughter of Louis XVT. 

Ital. Anielo, Thomas (commonly called Masanielo), a fisherman of 

Naples, who rose to great power . 

Gr. Anna Commena, daughter of the Emperor Alexis L, historian 

Atist. Anne of Austria, wife of Louis XIII. of France . 

.Tng Anne Boleyn, second wife of Henry VIII. . . 

iCng Annet, Peter, a deistical writer . . . 

Car Annibal, or Hannibal, a celebrated Carthaginian general . 

Fr. Anquetil du Perron, a classical scholar and author 



BOBN. 


DISS 


712 


77J 


1728 


1805 


**t, 180) 




1203 


1284 


1094 


1185 


1761 


1815 


1758 


1834 


1508 


1582 


1790 




1794 




B. 


O. 8b9 


340 


387 


n 

1451 


1517 


1750 


1808 


1803 


1847 


1717 


1797 




30 


1766 


185 


. B. 


C. 24 


1719 


1789 


, 1800 


18<y 


1775 


IR 5 S 


1513 


1593 


B. O. 692 




• B 


0. 474 




518 


B. 0. 500 B. 


o. 428 


B. c. 840 




B. O. 611 B 


o. 547 


. B. 


o. 504 


1794 




1767 


1837 


1895 




1692 


1765 




1605 




1856 


1797 




1751 


1780 


1555 


1626 


r . B, O. 63 




1794 


1857 


1768 


1854 


1778 


1801 


1623 


1646 


1083 


1148 


1604 


1666 


1500 


153fl 


1703 


1778 


B. O 247 a. 


o. 183 


17&: 


isu: 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



75 



JAT10N. NAME AND PBOFESSION 

Eng. Anselrn, archbishop cf Canterbury, a learned divine 

Eng. Alison, George, lord, celebrated naval commander 

Bng. Anspach, Eliz., margravine of, author of memoirs . 

Irish. Ai.ster, Jno., translator of ' Faust ' 

Amer. Anthon, Charles, classical scholar and author 

Egypt, Anthony, St., the founder of monastic institutions 



Ital. 
Mace. 



Gr. 

rial 

Rom. 

Rom. 

Rom. 

Pers. 

Fr. 

Rom. 



, of Padua, a divine . . . 

Antigonus, one of the generals of Alexander the Great 
Antipater, one of the generals of Alexander the Great . 
Antisthenes, a philos., founder of the sect of Cynics 
Aoitonelli, Giacomo, cardinal, premier of Pius IX. 
Antoninus Pius, emperor 
: — , Marcus Aurelius, emperor, surnau-.ec the philosopher 



Antony, Mark, military commander and statesman 
Anveri, a celebrated poet . . . 

Anville, Jean B. d', geographer 
Apicius, the name of three Roman epicures 
Egypt. Apion, a grammarian and bitter enemy of the Jews 



Gr. 
Gr. 

Gr. 
Gr. 
Gr. 



Apollodorus, the name of several writers and statesmen 
Apollonius, surnanied Rhodius, a poet . 

, Pergamensis, a geometrician . . 

, Tyaneus, a Pythagorean philosopher 



Appian, an historian ..... f. 143 

Amer. Appleton, Jesse, president of Bowdoin College and theologian . 1772 

Rom. Apulcius, a Platonic philosopher and writer . . a. d. 

Ital. Aquinas, St. Thomas, a celebrated theologian . . 1224 

Fr. Arago, Dom. Fr. Jean, astronomer and statesman . . 1786 

Eng. Aram, Eugene, a learned schoolmaster, executed for murder . 1705 

Gr. Aratus, of Sicyon, mil. com. and statesman . . b. o. 273 

Scotch. Arbuthnot, John, Dr., a poet . .... 

Gr. Archelaus, Ionic philosopher . . . . f. b. o. 450 

Gr. Archius, a poet . . . . . f. b. c. 719 

Gr. Archilochus, a poet . . . , . f. b. o. 685 

Gr. Archidemes, a celebrated mathematician . . b. c. 287 

Gr. Archytas, a mathematician . . . . b. c. 408 

Iti. Aretino, Guid:, inventor of the gamut of music . . 995 

Ital. , Leonard, an historian .... 1369 

Ital. , Peter, a satirist ..... 1492 

Eng. Argall, Samuel, early colonist and deputy -governor of Virginia 1572 

Pruss. Argelander, F. W. A., astronomer . . . 1779 

Span. Argensola, Lupercio, historian and poet , . . 1565 

Span. , Bartholomew, historian ... 1566 

Scotch. Argyle, duke of, chief of clan Campbell, statesman . . 1678 

Ital. Ariosto, Lewis, a celebrated poet . . . 1474 

Mex. Arista, Mariano, general under Santa Anna . . . 1802 

Gr. Aristarchus, of Samos, mathematician and philosopher . f. b. 0. 280 

Gr. 1 grammarian and critic . . . B. 0. 160 

Gr. Aristides, an Athenian statesman . . . 

Gr. , -<EliuB, an orator and sophist . . . 129 

Gr. , one of the fathers of the church f . 127 

Gr. Aristippus, of Oyrene, philosopher, founder of the Cyreniace f. & 0. 392 

Gr. Arifctomenes, a warrior and patriot . . f. b. 0. 662 



BORN. 

1083 
1697 
1750 
1793 

1797 
251 
US5 



1. 423 

1806 

86 

121 



B. c. 



dibb. 

1109 
1762 
1828 

1867 
359 

1231 
B. a. 301 
b. 0. 319 



161 

180 

B. 0. 30 

1201 

1782 
1st cent. 



16S7 

A. D. 

£ 80 
B. 0. oth to 2d cent. 

B. c. 194 
f. b. 0. 242 



97 

1819 
2d cent 
1274 
1853 
1759 
B. c. 211 
1735 



B. 0. 212 

b. 0. H60 



1414 
1556 



1613 
1631 
1743 
1533 
1855 



0. 467 

185 



y6 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



NATIOB 

Gr. 

Gr. 
&r. 

Span. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Ger. 

Dutch. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Ital. 

St. 

Eng. 

Gr. 

Pruss. 

Amei. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Scot. 

Gr. 

Eng. 

Bar. 

Bar. 

Bar. 

Flem 

Eng. 

A.mer 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Bar. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Gr. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Amer, 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Bar. 

ar. 

2ng. 
Jlom. 
F.. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Aristophanes, an Athenian comic poet . . • 

Aristotle, philosopher, founder of tbe Peripatetics . 

Arius, of Alexandria, the founder of the Arian sect . 

_ Montanus, Benedict, orientalist . . 

Arkwright, Sir Richard, inventor of spinning jennies . 

Arlinoourt, Victor, vicomte d', novelist 

Arminius, the deliverer of Germany . . • 

, James, a celebrated divine, founder of a sect 

Armstmg, John, M D., poet . . . 

, John, general, statesman, and historian . 

Arnaud, Daniel, troubadour .... 

, Francis Baculard, dramatist and poet . . 

Arne, Thomas Augustus, musical composer 

Arnobius, a defender of Christianity 

Arnim, L. A., poet and novelist 

Arnold, Benedict, major-general, the traitor to his country . 

, of Brescia, a learned monk, disciple of Abelaid 

, Matthew, poet, professor of poetry, Oxon. 

, Thomas, D. D., theologian, historian, and philologist 

, Thomas K., author of classical text-books . 

Arnott, J. T iel, popular scientific writer . . . 

Arrian, historian, disciple of Epictetus . . . 

Arrowsmith, Aaron, constructor of maps and charts , 
Arsaces I., the founder of the Parthian monarchy . . 

Artaxerxes I., king of Persia . . . 

, founder of the new Persian kingdom . . 

Artevelie, Philip van, revolutionary popular leader . 
Arthur, a prince celebrated in fable . . . 

Arthur. Timothy S., author of tales and essays 
Arundel, Thos. H„ earl of, importer of the Arundelian marbles 
Asbury, Francis, first Methodist bishop in the United States 
Ascbain, Jtoger, a learned writer .... 
Asdrubal, a Carthaginian general . . . 

Ashburton, Alex. Baring, lord, statesman . . • 

Ash/nun, John K., jurist, professor of law . . 

Askew, Anne, protestant, burned at Smithfield . . 

Aspasia, tbe accomplished wife (?) of Pericles . . 

Asse:-, John, historian ..... 
Ast, George A. F., philologist, ' Lexicon Platonicum' . 
Astor, John Jacob, wealthy merchant at New York . 

A' chison, David I., senator, United States, from Missouri 
Athanasius, St., ote of the fathers of the church 
Athenagoras, philosopher .... 
Athenais, Empress o* the West and authoress, called also Eu 

doxia ..... 

Athenaeus, a celebrates grammarian, the Greek Varro . 
Attalus, founder of thi monarchy of Pergamus, inventor of 

parchment ..... 



BOBN. 


9IBB 


B. o. 889 




B. o. 384 






431 


1527 


^598 


1732 


1792 


1789 


1858 




20 


1560 


1610 


1709 


1779 


1758 


1843 




1220 


1718 


1805 


1710 


1778 


f. 303 




1781 


1831 


1740 


1801 




1555 


1822 




1795 


1842 


1800 


1853 


1788 




f. 140 






1823 


. B. c. 250 




. B. 


0. 425 




1832 


472 


542 


1809 




1 


1646 


1745 


1816 


1515 


1568 


• B. 


c. 220 


1774 


1848 


1800 


1833 




154" 




909 


. 1778 


1"41 


1763 


1848 


1807 




296 


371 


. f. 177 





Rhodius, mathematician 



Atterbury, Francis, bishop of Rochester, exiled for conspiracy 
Atticus, a knight and author (works lost) 
Auber, D. F. B., famous musical composer 



f. 190 



. o. 173 

1662 

O. 109 

1784 



B. C. lU* 



1731 

b. o. as 



BIOGRAPHICAL, INDEX. 



77 



HAriOX NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Swiss. Aobigne J. H. Merle d', historian of Reformation . 
Eng. Auckland, William, lord, statesman . , 

Fr. Audoin, J. F. zoologist . . . • 

Fr. Augereau, Castiglione, duke of, mil. com 
G. Jew. Auerbach, Berthold, novelist . . , 

Augustine, St., a celebrated father of the church. 

, the Apostle of the English — 1st archbishop of Oante 

Rom. Augustulus Romulus, the last emperor of the West 
Rom. Augustus, Caius Julius Caesar Octavius— 1st emperor 

Aurungztbe, last Mogul emperor in India . , 

Rom. Ausonius, Decimus Magnus, poet . . . 

Eng.. Austen, Jane, novelist, . . . 

Eng. , Sarah, essayist and trans ntor . 

Amer. Austin, Stephen F., founder of first American colony in Texas . 

Fr. Auvergne, Theophilus— republican— military commander 

Ara. Averroes, philosopher, physician, and author . 

Ital. Avezzana, Joseph, patriot soldier, refugee in New York 

Ara. Avicenna, philosopher, physic an ai:d author . 

Eng. Ayscough, Samuel, compiler of Index to Shakespeare, &o. 

Scot. Aytoun, Wm. E., professor, poet, and essayist 

Fr. Azais, Pierre H. philosophic writer 

Ital. Azeglio, Massimo T. marquis d', statesman and author 



l »RN. 


L>lBi 


1794 




. 


LeH 


1797 


l i] 


.757 


i8ie 


rU2 




3-J4 


430 


te.' iry 


604 




476 


J. o. 63 


14 


1318 


1707 




394 


1775 


I8i: 


(abt) 1800 




B . 


1836 


17*3 


1800 


. 


1197 


1797 




980 


1037 




1804 


1813 


1865 


1736 


1845 


17C° 


1866 



Eng. Babbage, Charles, mathematician and machinist 

Fr. Babeuf, Franc. N. agrarian and socialist author 

Port. Baccellar, a civilian, historian, and lyric poet . 

Or. Bacchylides, lyric poet . . . . £3 

Amer. Bache, Alex. D. scientific engineer and writer 

Amer. Bachman, John, naturalist and theologian 

Eng. Back, Geo. Capt. R. N., Polar navigator and author 

^.mer. Backus, Isaac, a divine and historian 

Amer. Bacon, Delia, writer on Shakespeare . . 

Amer. Bacon, Leonard, theological writer and preacher 

Eng. , Roger, a monk celebrated for his scientific knowledge 

Eng. , Francis, Lord Verulam, the celebrated philosopher and t' 

man ...... 

Dan. Baden, .Tames, one of the founders of Danish literature 

Eng. Baffin, Wm., navigator, discoverer of Baffin's Bay 

Ger. Bahr, John C. F., classical philologist 

Amer. Bailey, Jacob W., professor of chemistry, botany, &c. . 

Eng. , Nathan, a grammarian and lexicographer . 

Eng. , Philip James, poet, author of Festus . 

Er.g. , Samuel, metaphysician and political essayist ,. . 

Fr. Baillet, a learned theologian, historian, and miscellaneous writer 

Eng. Baillie, Joanna, poet and novelist 

80 t , Matthew, physician and anatomist . 

Ft. Bailly, John Silvain, a learned author, and a leader in the revo- 
lution ..... 

En*. Baily, Francis, astronomer and mathematician 

Amer. Bainbridge William naval commander (Princeton) 



17 *) 

1731 

1724 

450 

1806 
17S0 
1796 
1724 

1802 
1214 

1561 
1735 
1584 
179? 
l£U 



178'/ 
1649 
1762 
1761 

1736 
1774 
1774 



1797 

1806 



1867 



1292 

1626 
1804 
1622 

1857 
1742 



x70« 
1351 
iS23 

1793 
1344 
i33l 



78 



THE WORLD'S PBOORKSS 



FA1IOH. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Amer. Baird, Robert, D. D., author of travels . . 

B^ot. , Sir David, military commander 

Tark, Baja".et, sultan— conquered by Tamerlane . 

Amsr. Bakt r, Edward D., U S. senator and general . (Ball's Bl 

Iial. Balbi, Adrian, geographer and ethnographer 

Span. Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, early navigator to South America 

Fr. Baldwin, who became emperor of the East . . 

Irish. Balfe, "./m. Michael, musical composer . . 

Scot. Baliol, intriguing rival of Robert Bruce . . • 

Scot. Ballantyne, Jas., printer, publisher for Sir Walter Scott 

Amer. Ballou, Hosea, universalist minister and author . . 

Eng. Baltimore, Geo. Calvert, 1st lord, founder of Maryland 

Fr. Baluc, Jean de la, cardinal, premier of Louis XI. . • 

Fr. Balzac, Honore de, novelist 

Amer. Bancroft, George, historian of the U. S., secretary of navy, &o. 

Swe. Banier or Banner, a celebrated military commander . 

Irish. Banim, John, novelist .... 

Amer. Bangs, Nathan, D. D., minister of Methodist church and author 

Amer. Banks, Nath. P., speaker of House of Rep., U. S., gov. of Mass. 

Eng Banks, Sir Joseph, navigator, president Royal Society . 

Fr. Baraguay d' Hilliers, Achille, marshal of France 

Fr. Baraute, A. G. P. B., baron, historian . . • 

Pruss. Baratier, a Hebrew lexicographer before ten years of age 

Eng. Barbauld, Anna Letitia, a popular miscellaneous writer . 

Turk. Barbarossa, the celebrated corsair, usurper of Algiers 

Amer. Barber, Francis, officer in revolutionary army . • 

Fr. Barbeyrac, John, miscellaneous writer . • 

Amer. Barbour, James, statesman and diplomatist . • 

Amer. Barbour, P. P., statesman and judge of Supreme Court . 

Eng. Barclay, Robert, the celebrated vindicator of the Quakers . 

Ital. Baretti, Joseph, lexicographer— author of Travels, &c. 

Eng. Baiham, Richard Henry, humorist — ' Ingoldsby Legends' 

Amer. Barker, Joseph, noted financier ... 

Amer. Barlow, Joel, a statesman and poet . . • 

Amer. Barnard, Henry, distinguished educator . • 

^mer. Barnes, Albert, theologian and commentator ,. • 

Kng. , Joshua, an eminent Greek scholar 

Amer. , Daniel H. a distinguished conchologiut . . 

Dutch. Barneveldt, John, statesman, (beheaded) 

Amer. Barney, Joshua, a distinguished naval commander . 

Fr. Barras, Paul, count de, mem. of the direct, in the Revolution 

Eng. Barre, Isaac, colonel, M. P., friend of America . . 

Irish. Barrington, Sir Jonah, lawyer and author 

Amer. Barron, James, commodore (in the affair of the Chesapeake) 

Eng. , Isaac, a divine and mathematician . . 

Eng. , Sir John, traveller, author, secretary to Admiralty . 

Ivish. Barry, John, the first American commodore 

Eng. , Sir Charles, architect of houses of parliament 

Amer. , W. T., statesman and diplomatist, . . 

Ger. Barth, flenry, traveller in Africa . . , 

Fr Barthelemy, John James, author of ' Anacharsie,' &o. . 

Amer Bartlett, John R., author o 1 explorations, Ac . , 



BOBS. 


B1KJ1. 


1798 


1864 


1757 


1829 




1413 


aS) 1811 


1861 


1782 






1517 




1205 


1808 




1259 


1314 




1833 


1771 


1852 


1582 


1632 


1799 


1850 


1800 




1596 


1641 


1800 


1842 


r 1778 


1862 


5. 1816 




1743 


1820 


1795 




1782 




1721 


1740 


1743 


1825 




1518 


1751 


1783 


1674 


1728 


Va. 1775 


1842 


Va. 1783 


1841 


1648 


1690 


1716 


1789 


1788 


1845 


1779 




1756 


1812 


1811 




1798 




1654 


1712 




1818 


1547 


1619 


1759 


1818 


1755 


1829 


1726 


1802 


1767 


1834 


1768 


1851 


1630 


1667 


1764 


1848 


1746 


1803 


1795 


1860 


Va, 1785 


1838 


1821 




1716 


1791 


1805 





BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



79 



RATION, NAME AMD PROFESSION. 

Amer. Barilett, Josiah, statesman, gov. N. n., &c. . . 

Eng. , Wm. H., artist and author 

Amer. Barton, Benj. Smith, M. D., a learned physician and botanist 

Eng. , Bernard, the Quaker poet 

Amer. Bartram, John, an eminent botanist . . . 

Gr. Basil, St., a celebrated father of the Greek church . 

Eng. Baskerville. John, eminent printer and publisher . 

Fr. Basnage, de Beauval, James, historian 

Fr. Bassano, H. B. M., duke of, political writer and statesman 

Fr. Bastiat, Frederick, political economist 

Amer. Bates, Edward, statesman and jurist . . . 

Amer. Bates, Joshua, banker, (Baring Bros.) in England, 

Eng. Bath, "William Pulteney, earl of, statesman . . 

Eng. Bathurst, earl of, statesman, friend of Pope, &c. 

Fr. Batteux, Charles, rhetorician and miscellaneous writer 

Hung. Batthyani, Kasimir, count, statesman 

Hung. , Lajos, statesman, (shot by Haynau) . 

Ger. Bauer, Bruno, an audacious opposer of Christianity 

Ger. Baur, Ferd. Christ., professor of theology and author . 

Eng. Baxter, Richard, an eminent divine and author 

Fr. Bayard, Peter, military commander . . . 

Amer. , James A., a distinguished statesman and lawyer 

Ger. Bayer, John, astronomer .... 

Ger. , Theophilus, chronologist and historian 

Fr Bayle, Peter, an eminent philosopher and critic, (' Bayle'e D 

tionary') ..... 

Eng. Bayly, Thos. Haines, poet . • • 

Eng. Beattie, James, L.L.D., poet . „ . 

Fi. Beauharnais, Hortense, ex-queen of Holland . 

Fr. , Eugene, son of the Empress Josephine, mil com. 

viceroy of Italy, &c. .... 

Fr. Beaumarchais, P. A. C. de, an eminent dramatist . 

Fr. Beaumont, Elie de, mineralogist and geologist . • 

Eng. — , Francis, dramatic writer . . 

Fr. Beauzee, Nicholas, an eminent grammarian . . 

Ital. Beccaria, John Baptist, an ecclesiastic and philosopher 

Ital. , Marquis, professor of political economy and author 

Amer. Beck, Lewis 0., chemist and mineralogist 

Amer. , Theo. Romeyn, author of medical jurisprudence . 

Eng. Becket, Thomas a, celebrated prelate and statesman 

Eng. Beckford, Wm., traveller and novelist (' Vathek') * 

Ger. Beckmann, Johann, ' History of Inventions,' &o. . 

Fr. Becquerel, An toine Cassar, natural philosopher 

Brit. Bede, styled the Venerable, a learned Saxon monk and historian 

Amer. Bedell, Gregory T., D. D., eloquent pulpit orator . 

Eng. Bedford, John, duke of, military commander • 

Amer. Beecher, Edward, theologian, (son of Lyman) . . 

Amer. , Henry "Ward, theologian and politician . 

Amer. , Lyman, theologian and preacher . . 

Eng. Beechey, Frederick "W., admiral, Arctio voyager . 

PrnM Beer, Michael, dramatic poet, (brother of Meyerbeer) 

Oer. Beethoven, Ludwig von, celebrated musical composer 



BORN. 

1729 
1809 
1766 
17*4 
IV 1 
S26 
1706 
1653 
1758 
lfl 
1790 
17*8 
1682 
1684 
1713 
1S07 
18<P 
18UV 
1792 
1615 
1476 
1767 

1694 

1647 
1797 
1735 



il 
1733 
17 »8 
1-55 
1,-4 
1716 
1735 
1800 
1791 
1119 
1760 
1739 
1788 
672 
1798 



1766 
1800 

1770 



DIED. 

179i 
1854 

1813 

1849 
1777 
379 
177J 
172* 
183S 
185f 

1864 
1764 
1775 
1780 
1854 
1849 



1691 
1524 
1815 
1627 
1738 

1706 
1839 
1803 
1837 

1824 
1799 

1616 
1789 
1781 
1793 
1853 
1855 
1170 
1844 
1811 

735 
1834 
143$ 



1868 
1856 

1838 

1821 



8o 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



NATIOH. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Ger. Behaim, or Beliem, navigator and geographer . • 

Erg. Behn, Aphra, dramatic writer . . • 

Russ. Behring, Vitus, Arctic navigator . . • 

Ger. Bekker, Emmanuel, philologist . . • 

Eng. Belcher, Sir Edward, admiral, Arctic navigator . • 

Rem. Belisarius, a celebrated general and conqueror 
Ital. Belgiojoso, Christina, princess of, accomplished & philanthropio 
Amer. Belknap, Jeremy, D. D., historian of New Hampshire . 
Scot. Bell, Henry, first successful steam navigator in Europe 
Amer. — , John, statesman .... 

feco,. , John, surgeon, anatomist, and physiologist • • 

fcJcot. , Sir Charles, anatomist and physiologist . . 

Arcer. Bellamy, Joseph, D. D., a learned divine and author . 

Ita.. Bellarmin, cardinal, the champion of the Roman Catholic church 
Fr. Bellau, Remi, poet ..... 
Fr. Beileisle, count de, military commander . . . 

EDg. Bel ling-ham, Richard, royal governor of Massachusetts . 
Ital. Be'lini. Vincenzo, musical composer . . * 

Amer. Bellows, Henry W., Unitarian clergyman and author . 
Eng. Beloe, Wm., a divine and critic, translator of Herodotus, &c, 

Bel&ii, "William, naturalist and traveller . 

Belst im, "William, historical, political and miscellaneous writer 

Belzoni, the celebrated traveller in Egypt 

Bern, Josef, general in Hungarian war against Austria . 

Beml o, cardinal, one of the restorers of literature , 

Bemb ?, John, a gallant admiral .... 

Benectct, St., one of the originators of monasteries . 

, XIII., pope, theological writer . . . 

, XIV., " •' " 



Fr. 
Eng. 

Ital. 

Pol. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Fr. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Sp. Jew 

Bar. 



Benezet, Antony, philanthropist and historian, (diedin America) 

Bengsl, Johann A., Lutheran theologian and philologist 

Bengar, Elizabeth Ogilvy, author of historical memoirs 

Benjp.min, Park, poet, lecturer and journalist . . 

, of Tudela, rabbi, traveller in the East . < 

Btntadad, king of Syria .... 
Scot ;h. Bennett, James Gordon, journalist ... 

Fr. Benserade, Isaac, a wit and poet . . . 

Eng. Bentham, Jeremy, a political and philosophical writer , 

Bentley, Richard, an eminent critic and scholar . 

Benton, Thomas Hart, statesman and historian . . 

Beranger, Pierre Jean de, lyrical poet . • 

Berenger, A. M. M. F., statesman and jurist . . 

Egypt. Berenice, the name of seven different queens of Egypt and Syria 
Gor. Berghaus, Henry, mathematician and geographer . 

Bergman, professor of chemistry at UpBal 

Beriot, Charles A. de, violinist and composer . . 

Berkley, George, bishop, an eminent prelate and philosopher 

, William, governor of Virginia 

Berlioz, Hector, musical composer . . . 

Bernadotte, J. B. J., elected king of Sweden, as Charles XIV. 

Bernard, Edward, divine, astronomer and author . . 

, Francis, governor of Massachusetts . . 



Eng. 
Amer. 

Fr. 
Fr. 



Swe 

3eL 

Ivfc'&. 

A mar 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

a.mer 



bosh 

1459 
1640 
1680 
1T85 
1799 

1808 
1744 
1767 
1797 
1763 
1781 
1719 
1542 
1528 
1684 
1634 
1808 
1814 
1756 
1518 
1752 
1778 
1795 
1470 
1650 
480 
1649 
1675 
1713 
1687 
1778 
1809 



DIMS 

160« 
168? 
1741 



565 

1798 
1830 

1825 
1842 
1790 
1626 
1577 
17'1 
1"72 
1 35 

1817 
1564 
1827 
1823 
l>5 r 
1542 
1702 
547 
1728 
1758 
17«4 
1752 
1827 
18u4 
1173 



B. 0. 



1691 
1832 
1742 
1858 
1S57 



1800 
1612 
1742 
1662 
1782 
178i 
1.85 
B. o. 1st to 3d cent 
1797 

1735 1714 
1802 

1684 1753 
1667 
.•03 

84 1844 

1638 1697 

1771 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



81 



tjLtion. 

Dutch. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Swe. 

Ger. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

ItaL 

En'. 

Eng. 

Ft. 

ItaL 

Gr. 

Fr. 

Irish. 

En & . 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Bernard, John Frederick, bookseller, editor and author 
— — — , St., preacher of Crusades and author . 



1J91 
1779 
1781 



, Simon, engineer and military commander . 

Berrien, John McPherson, U. S. Senator from Georgia 
Berruyer, a Jesuit, author of a ' History of the People of God,' 

in 11 vols. 4to . . . . . 1681 

Berry, Charles F., duke of, 2d son of Charles XL, (assassinated) 1778 

, Duchess of (wife of the above), intriguing politician 1798 

, Hiram George, general, war against secession (from Maine) 1814 



Berryer, Pierre A., statesman .... 
Berthier, Alexander, a distinguished military commander 
Bertholett, Claude Louis, an eminent chemist . . 

Bertrand, Henri G., general in Napoleon's army 
Berwick, duke of, military commander (killed at Phillipsburg) 
Berzelius, John James, chemist .... 
Bessel, Frederick William, astronomer 
Bessieres, duke of Istria, military commander, (killed at Lutzen) 
Bethune, George W., D. D., theologian and poet 
Betterton, Thomas, famous actor .... 
Bettinelli, Xavier, an elegant miscellaneous writer . 

Betty, William Henry W., actor, the 'Young Roscius' . 
Bewick, Thomas, naturalist and wood engraver . 

Beza, Theodore, an eminent reformer . , . 

Bezout, mathematician .... 

Biauchini, Francis, mathematician and author . . 

Bias, one of the seven sages .... 
Bichat, an eminent anatomist and physiologist . . 

BickerstarT, Isaac, dramatist .... 
Bickersteth, Edward, theological writer . . . 



Amer. Biddle, James, a commodore in the United States Navy 



Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Arr . 

Fr. 

*ir. 

Gr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Amer. 



-, John, an eminent Socinian writer . 

-, Nicholas, a captain in the United States Navy 

-, " , financier and litterateur . 



Biela, Willhim, baron von, astronomer . . 

Bigelow, John, medical writer . . . 

Bignon, Louis E., historian .... 
Bion, pastoral poet .... 

, of Borysthenes, philosopher, (Cyreniao) • • 

Biot, Jean B., mathematician . . . 

Birheck, George, M. D., founder of mechanics' institutions 
Bird, Robert M., M. D., novelist . . . 



Amer. Birr 3V, James G., anti-slavery politician . . 

Fr. Biro: , ike of, military commander, (beheaded for conspiracy) 

Eng. Bish -\ , Sir Henry R., musical composer . . 

Amer. Bissell, "William H., governor of Illinois, volunteer in Mexico 

Scot. Bisset, Robert, historian and biographer . . 

Fr. Bissot, John, a revolutionist and author ... 

8^ an. Bivar, Don Rodrigo, known in history and romance under the 

name of tho Cid ..... 

Bcot. Black, Adam, publisher M. P. provost of Edinburgh . 
In.Am. Blac". Hawk, Indian Chief .... 

B"tjj. Blaokstone, Sir William, an eminent lawyer and author 



1790 
1753 
1748 
1778 
1670 
1776 
1784 
176.? 
1805 
17% 
1''18 
1791 
1758 

*ae 

173C 

1662 

: 606 

1771 

1733 

".786 

1783 

1815 

1750 

1786 

782 

"87 



1774 
1776 
1803 
1792 
1561 
1775 
181" 
175P 
1767 

1040 
1784 
1768 » 
1723 



U.'KD 

1751 

irs 
"-fil 

1S20 

186? 

'8)6 
1823 
1*44 



187 
18<5-1 
1810 
1801 

1828 
1605 
1783 
17W 

180". 

1 7 87 
1860 
1»48 
1662 
1778 
'.844 
!856 

841 
C. 300 
3 240 
1862 
1841 
'854 
1857 
1502 
f.S6* 

180t 
*79? 

ifXi 

183S 
1784 



82 



THE WOBLD'S PBOGRESS, 



IATION 

Eng. 

Scot. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Soot. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Bcot. 

Amer. 

Irish. 

Eng. 

Prus. 

Ger. 

Swe. 

Brit 

ItaL 

Ital. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Dutch.. 

Rom. 

Ger. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Ital. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Colom. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Swiss. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Kng. 

Amer. 



SAME AND PROFESSION. 

Blackwell, Eliz., first female M. D. in the United States . 
Blair, Dr. Hugh, a divine and rhetorician 

, Francis P., journalist and politician . 

, Francis P., jr., leader of Missouri free-soilers 

, Robert, a divine and poet .... 

Blake, John L. Rev. author of Dictionary, &c. 

Blake, Robert, a celebrated admiral 

Blanchard, Laman, essayist and journalist 

Bleecker, Ann Eliza, poet and essayist 

Blessington, Marguerite, countess, novelist and litterateur 

Bloomtield, E. V., classical scholar . . • 

, Robert, a poet . . • • 

Blucher, a celebrated military commander . . 

Blum, Robert H , publicist and politician . . 

Blumenback, John Fred., naturalist . . . 

Boadicea, the warlike queen of the Iceni . . 

Boccacio, one of the great classic writers of modern Italy . 
Boccalina, a satirist .... 

Bochart, Samuel, an eminent divine and orientalist . 

Bodin, John, a lawyer and author . . . 

Bodley, Sir Thos., founder of library . , 

Boehmen, Jacob, a fanatic and author . , 

Boekh, Augustus, classical philologist 

Boerhaave, oneof the most eminentof modern physicians . 
Boethius, a statesman and philosopher - . 

Bogatzky, Chas. Henry theologian, (' Golden Treasury') . 
Bohemond, a Norman adventurer 

Bonn, Henry G., publisher and editor . . . 

Bojardo, Mathew M., poet, (' Orlando Innamorato') . 
Boileau, Nicholas, an eminent poet . . . 

Boissard, Jean J., fabulist .... 
Boissy, Louis de, author of comedies . . . 

, d'Anglas, F. A., count of, statesman and revolutionist 

Boleyn, Anne, wife of Henry VIII., 

Bolingbroke, Henry St. John, poet and deistical writer • 

Bolivar, the heroic deliverer of his country . . 

Bonaparte, Jerome, ex-king of Westphalia . , 

, Joseph, ex-king of Naples and Spain . 

, Louis, ex-king of Holland 

■ , Louis Napoleon, 1st president republic of France and 

emperor .... 

. , Lucien, Prince of Canino . . 

, Maria Letitia, mother of Napoleon . 



— ■ , Napoleon, emperor of France 

Bond, William C, astronomer 
Bonner, bishop, the persecutor of Protestants 
Bonnet, Charles, a celebrated naturalist 
Bonnycastle, Charles, mathematician , 

, John, " 

Bonpland, Aime, traveller and botanist • 

Booth, Junius Brutus, tragedian . 

Boone, Daniel, the fi-st settler in Kentucky , 



BOB.B. 


tin. 


1821 




1718 


I860 


1791 




. 1821 




1699 


1777 


1788 


1857 


1599 


1651 


1803 


184* 


1757 


1783 


1789 


184P 


1788 


1846 


1766 


1828 


1742 


1819 


1807 


1848 


1752 


1840 




6! 


1313 


1373 


1556 


161? 


1509 


1567 


1530 


1596 


1544 


1612 


1575 


1624 


1668 


1738 


455 


526 


1690 


1744 




1111 


1434 


1494 


1636 


1711 


1743 


18S1 


1694 


1758 


1756 


1826 


1507 


1536 


.1678 


1751 


1785 


1831 


1784 


1859 


1768 


1844 


1778 


184« 


1808 




1776 


1840 


1760 


1836 


1769 


1821 


1T89 


1859 




1569 


1720 


1793 




1840 




1821 




1840 


1796 


185:1 


1730 


182.' 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



■ ATIOH. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Ger. Bopp, Francis, Sanscrit scholar . . . 

ItaL Bregli, philosopher and mathematician . a 

Ital. Borghesi, Bartolomeo, count, antiquarian 

ItaL Borgi, Giovanni, originator of ragged schools 

Ital. Borgia, Caesar, son of the infamous Pope Alexander VL 

ItaL , Lucrezda, infamous daughter of Pope Alexander VL 

ItaL Borromeo, Cardinal, theological writer 

Eng. Borrow, George, author of ' Gipsies of Spain ' . 

Fr. Bosc, Louis A W., naturalist 

Eng. Boscawen, Edward, brave and skilful admiral . 

ItaL Boecovitch, mathematical and philosophical writer 

Fr. Bossuet, Marie Jos., marshal of France 

Ft. Bossuet, James B., a divine and historian . 

Fr. Bossut, Charles, mathematician . . 

Scot. Boston, Thomas, a divine and author 

Eng. Boswell, James, the biographer of Dr. Johnson 

Eng. Bosworth, Joseph, D. D., Anglo-Saxon lexicographer 

Ital. Botta, Carlo G. G., historian . . 

Ital. Bottiger, archaeologist and antiquarian . 

Amer. Botts, John Minor, politician , 

Gr. Bozzaris, Marco, a gallant leader in the new revolution 

Amer. Boudinot, Elias, a statesman and philanthropist 

Fr. Bougainville, Louis A., military commander and author 

Fr. Boufflers, Duke of, military commander • 

Fr. Boulainvilliers, Henry, count of, historian , 

Eng. Boulton, Matthew, an eminent engineer . . 

Fr. Bourcet, Peter J. de, an officer and topographer 

Irish. Boucicault, Dion, dramatist . . . 

Fr. Bcurdaloue, a noted preacher . . 

Fr. Bourdon, Pierre L. M. mathematician . . 

Fr. Bourignon, Antoinette, a fanatical author . 

]?r. Bourmont, L. A. V., count of, marshal of Franoe 

Fr. Bourne, Vincent, an elegant Latin poet , 

Fr. Bourrienne, biographer of Napoleon . . 

Fr. Bousmard, M. de, a military engineer • 

Fr. Boursingault, Jean B. V. D., chemist 

Ger. Bouterwek, Fred., ' Hist. Spanish Literature' 

Amer. Bouvier, John, jurist and legal author . . 

Amer. Bowditch, Nafh., astronomer, mathematician, &o. 

Eng. Bowv'ler, Thomas, editor Shakespeare, &c. 

Amer. Bowdoin, James. LL. D., philosopher and statesman 

Amer. , John, (son of the last), ambassador to Spain 

Amer. Bowen, Francis, biographical and metaphysical author 

Eng. Bowles, "William Lisle, poet 

Eng. Bo<vring, James, statesman, poet and linguist 

Scot. Boyd, Mark Alexander, a poet . . . 

Eng. Boydell, John, alderman, art publisher . 

Fr. Boyer, Abel, lexicographer 

Fr. , Jean Pierre, president of Hayti (died at Paris) 

Irish. Boyle, Robert, an eminent philosopher 

Amer. Boylston, Zabdiel, an eminent physician 

Amer. Bozman, John Leeds, historian and jurist . . 



SORB. 


DIJSD 


1731 




1507 




1781 




1736 


1S0J 


1608 


167C 


15th Cent. 


1538 


1584 


1803 




1759 


1821 


1711 


1761 


1711 


1787 


1810 


186- 


1627 


1704 


1730 


.814 


1676 


1732 


1710 


1795 


1788 




1766 


1837 




1835 


1802 




178C 


1823 


1740 


1821 


'.729 


.811 


1544 


1711 


1658 


1732 


1728 


1809 


1700 


17£0 


1822 




1632 


1704 


1799 


1854 


1616 


16S0 


1773 


1846 




1747 




1834 




1807 


1802 




1766 


1S28 


1787 


:S51 


177S 


1838 


1754 


1825 


1727 


1790 


1752 


1811 


1811 




1762 


1850 


1792 




1562 


1601 


1719 


1804 


1667 


1729 


1776 


1850 


1626 


1691 


1680 


1776 


1767 


182* 



84 



THE WOELD's PROGRESS. 



UiriON 

Amer. 

Ainer. 

ring. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

An'er. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Bug. 

Eng. 

Dan. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

N.A.In 

Fr. 

Mer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Ger. 

fevve. 

Bar. 

Scot. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Ger. . 

A mer. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Eug. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Irish. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amei. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Eng. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Brace, Charles Loring, philanthropist and traveller 
Brt,ckenridge, Henry M., jurist and diplomatist 
Brad dock, Edward, general, defeated and killed in Virginia 
Bradford, Alden, author of 'History of Massachusetts ' 

— — , Andrew, printer and publisher of first newspaper in Phil 

, William, attorney-general of the U. S. 

, William, first printer in Pennsylvania 

, William, second governor of.Plymouth eolony 

Bradley, Dr. James, astronomer and mathematician 
Bradstreet, Anne, poetess, daughter of Governor Dudley 
Bradwardine, mathematician and theologian . . 

Brady, Robert, physician and historian 
Brahe, Tycho, a celebrated astronomer . . 

Brainard, David, misionary to the Indians 

, J. G. C, a poet .... 

Brant, Joseph (Thayendauega), a Mohawk chief 

Bran tome, Pierre de B., biographer and chronicler . 

Bravo, Leonardo, a revolutionary patriot . 

Bray, Ann Eliza, novelist . . . 

Breckinridge, John, D. D., theologian ., . 

, John C, Vice-President U, S. . . 

, Robert J., D. D., Presbyterian theologian 

Breitk. cpf, John G. E„, an eminent printer and type-founder 
Bremer, Fredrica, novelist . 

Brennus, the leader of the Gauls . ... 

Brewster, Sir David, natural philosopher . 

, W*Uiam, elder of the Plymouth Pilgrims . 

Bridgewater, ''. uke of, introducer of canals in England 

, .'-ancis H. E., duke of, founder of 'Treatiser' 

Briggs, Cjarlas F., novelist and journalist 

, E'en y, mathematician 

Brigham, A.± lariah, writer on insanity and philanthropist 
Bright, John, reform politician and M. P. 
Brinvi'liers, Marie, marchioness of, poisoner 
Bris" >n, Mathurin James, naturalist . . . 

Brittan, John, architectural and antiquarian writer 
Brockhaus, Fried. A., founder of the publishing house . 
Brodhead, John R., author of ' History of New York' 
Brodie, Sir Benj. C, F. R. 8., surgeon and surgical author 
Broglio, due de, statesman .... 
Bronte, Anne, 'Acton Bell.' novelist . . 

, Charlotte, novelist .... 

— , Emily Jane, ' Ellis Bell,' novelist . 

Brooke, Henry, miscellaneous writer . 

, Sir James, rajah of Sarawak, and author . 

Brooks, Charles T., author of ' Translations from German ' 

, Erastus, journalist and politician. . 

, James, journalist and politician . . 

, John, LL.D., governor of Massachusetts . 



, Maria, poet, (' Maria del Occidente ') 

Brotier, G., a Jesuit, editor of ' Tacitus ' 
Brougham, Henry, lord, statesman axid jurist 



BOBN. 


DW> 


1826 




1786 




i . 1716 


1768 


1715 


1753 


in Phila. 1686 


1742 


1755 


1795 


1659 


1753 


1588 


1657 


1692 


1762 


1612 


1672 


. 


1349 


1709 




1546 


*1661 


1718 


1747 


1697 


1826 


- 1742 


1807 


1540 


1614 


1692 


1854 


. (abt.) 1800 




1797 


1841 


1821 




1800 




ler . 1710 


1734 


1802 


1865 


. f. B. 0. 390 




1785 




1560 


16.4 


1736 


i u C3 


1753 


1829 


1536 


1630 


173o 


1849 


loll 






1676 


1723 


18)8 


1771 


'857 


1772 


la23 


1814 




1783 


1862 


1785 




1820 


lo49 


1816 


1855 


1818 


184o 


. 1706 


17*' 


1803 




1813 




1815 




1810 




1752 


182S 


1795 


1846 


1723 


1788 


177S 





BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



§5 



Irish. 

Pr. 

Fr 

Fr. 

Ir.Am. 

Amer. 

Arner. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Scot. 

\rner. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Scot. 

Eng. 

Scot. 

Irish. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Scot. 

Soot. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Rubs. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Rom. 

Rom. 

Fr. 

Dutch 

Eng. 
Amer. 

Eng. 



MJLMK AND PROFESSION. 

Brougham, John, actor and author . . • 

Brougniart, Alexander, mineralogist and geologist • 

, Adolphe T., botanist, . 

Broussais, P. J. V., medical and physiological writer . 

Brown, Alex., father of the eminent merchants 'Brown Brothers 

, Arthur, a distinguished scholar and barrister 

, (BJackwell), Antoinette L., preacher and philanthropist 

, Charles Brockden, a novelist 

, Captain John, abolitionist and martyr . 

-, Dr. Thomas, metaphysician and poet 

, Goold, grammarian, . . 

, Henry Kirk, sculptor 

, James, senator, minister to France • 

, James, eminent publisher (Boston) . 

, John, D. D., a miscellaneous writer 



-, John, a divine and author . 

-, Major-General Jacob, general in war of 1812 

-, Nicholas, principal patron Brown University 

-, Robert, eminent botanist 

— , Samuel, chemist and poet 

-, Thomas, satirist, . . • . 



9 Thomas, metaphysician . . 

Browne, George, count de, an officer in the Russian service 

, Sir Thomas, a physician, and philosophic writer 

, "William George, a traveller in Africa, &c. 

Brownell, Thomas C, Prot. Episcopal Bishop of Connecticut 
Browning, Elizabeth Barrett, poet, . • • 

, Robert, poet, „ . 

Brownson, Orestes A., metaphysical writer • • 

Bruce, James, a celebrated traveller . , 9 

, Robert, the deliverer of his country • • 

Brueys, Francis Paul, admiral . . . 

Biummell, George Bryan, « Beau Brummell' . • 

Brumoy, Peter, a Jesuit and author . . . 

Brune, William Mary Ann, marshal and revolutionist 
Brunei, Isambaid K., engineer of Great Eastern, &c. < 

Brunei, Sir M. I., engineer of Thames tunnel, &c. 
Brunet, Jacques Charles, 'Bibliographer's Manual' . 

Bruno, St., founder of the Chartusian order 
Brunnow, Baron, diplomatist . . . ' . 

Brunswick, Ferdinand, duke of, military commander . 

, Luneburg, Charles Win. Fer., duke of, military com' 

mander ... ... 

Brunton, Mary B., novelist, ' Discipline, ' &c. 

Brutus, Lucius Junius, founder of the republican government 

, Marcus Junius, conspirator against Caesar . . 

Bruyere, John de la, a celebrated writer . * 

Bruyn, Cornelius de, traveller . . • . 

Bryan, Michael, ' Dictionary of Painters' . . 

Bryant, Jacob, a philologist and antiquary . . 

, William Culler., poet, traveller . . 

Brydges, Sir Egerton, eccentric litterateur , • 



BOfiN 

1810 
1770 
1801 
1772 
1764 

1825 
1771 
1800 
1777 
1791 
1814 
1766 
1800 
1715 
1722 

1769 
1781 
1817 
1663 
1778 
1698 
1605 

1779 
1809 
1812 
H0S 
1730 

..750 

1778 

168 ^ 

176S 

180 

176£ 



183* 

1801 

1810 
1859 
1820 
1857 

1835 
1855 
1766 
1787 
1828 
1"41 
1858 
1856 
1704 
1820 
1792 
1682 
1814 
1865 
1860 



179' 
1329 
1798 
1840 
1742 
1815 
1853 
184f 

1444 



1377 
1797 

1721 1792 

1735 laOS 

1778 1818 
b 0. 505 
» 0. 4J 

1644 1697 

1652 

1757 "859 

1715 1804 

1794 

1762 187 



86 



THE WOBIiD's PROGRESS, 



5 HOIT NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Fr. Buat N"an$,ay, Louis G., count de, a learned writer 

Fr. Bueer, Martin, one of the fathers of the Reformation 
Ger. Buch, Leopold von, geologist . . • 

Scot. Buchan, William, a physician and author . 
Sect. Buchf.nan, Claudius, a divine . . • 

Sect. , George, an eminent writer . . 

Amer. 1 James, 15th president of the United States . 

Eng. Buckingham, George Villiers, duke of, statesman . 

Eng. , George Villiers, son of the former 

Jing, -, James Silk, traveller and author 

Amer. , Joseph T., journalist and author . . 

Eng. Buckland, Wm,, D. D., geologist. . . 

Amer. Buckminster, Joseph, D. D., theologian . . 

Amer. , Joseph S., author of ' Sermons,' &c 

Eng. Buckstone, John B., actor and playwright . . 

Amer. Buel, Jesse, agricultural writer . . . 

Polish. Burner, Claude, a Jesuit and miscellaneous writer 

.rr. ButTon, George Leclero, count of, celebrated naturalist 

Fr. Bugeaud,T. R., marshal of France . 

Ger. Buhle, J. G., ' History of Philosophy,* &c. 

Eng. Bull, Geo., Greek scholar and dramatist . ■ 

Er.g. , Geo., Bishop of St. David's, theological writer 

^ or , Ole, famous violinist .... 

SwLs. Bullinger, reformer and author 

Amer. Bullions, Peter, D. D., authw of educational works . 

Fng. Bulwer, Sir Henry L. diplomatist and political writer 

■, (now Sir Edward Lytton), novelist and dramatist 

, Lady Bulwer Lytton, novelist 



Erg. 

Eng. 

Aust. 

Russ. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Swiss 



Buol-Sehauenstein, K. F., count of, statesman . 

Bu: on, C. C. J., chevalier de, diplomatist and historian 
Bunyan, John, author of ' Pilgrim's Progress' 
Burekhardt, John Charles, mathematician . . 

-, John Louis, oriental traveller . 



Scot. Am. Burden, Henry, inventor and mechanio 

Eng. Burdett, Sir Francis, politician 

Ger. B: l ger, G. A., poet 

En". i urges, Geo., Greek scholar and dramatist 

Amer. Burges, Tristram, statesman and orator 

Eng. Burgess, Thomas, Bp. of Salisbury, classical and theological 

Eng. Burgh, James, author ' Dignity Human Nature ' 

Eng. Burgoyne, John, military commander and author 

Irish. Burke, Edmund, a great statesman and writer . 

Swiss. Burlamaqui, John James, writer on civil law . 

Eng. Burleigh, William Cecil, lord, eminent statesman . 

I)u' ih. Burman, Peter, critic and editor 

v>e . Burmeister, He; man, naturalist . . . 

j±m*r. Burnap, George W., clergyman and author 

£i,ot. Burnes, Sir Alex., 'Travels in Bokhara, Cabool,' &o. 

Burnet, Gilbert, a divine and historian, Bishop cf Salisbury 

, Jacob, pioneer of Cincinnati and authoi 

, John, engraver, painter, andoritio , 



Soot. 
Amer. 
Eng. 
Kng. 



Burney, Charles, a doctor of music 



1191 


1551 


1774 


1853 


1729 


1791 


1766 


1805 


1506 


1582 


1791 




1592 


1628 


1627 


1688 


1784 


1855 


1779 




1784 


1856 


1751 


1812 


1784 


1812 


1800 




1778 


1839 


1661 


1737 


1707 


1788 


1784 


1849 


, 1763 




1786 


1864 


1634 


1710 


. f 1810 




1504 


1575 


1791 


1864 


1803 




1807 




1797 




1791 


I860 


1628 


1688 


1773 


1815 


1784 


1815 


1791 




1770 


1844 


1748 


1794 


1786 


1864 


1770 


1853 


al author 1756 


183' 


1714 


1775 


. 


1792 


1730 


1797 


1694 


1748 


1520 


1598 


1668 


1741 


1807 




1802 


'359 


1805 


1841 


y . 1643 


1726 


1776 


1858 


1784 




172« 


1814 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



87 



STATIC*. BAME AND FBOFESSSON. 

Eng. Burney, Frances, (see Mme. dArblay), noveliit . 

Eng. , James, admiral and author . , , 

Scot. Burns, a popular and national poet 

Amer. Burr, Cul. Aaron, vice-president U. S. . . 

Amer. Burritt, Elihu, 'the learned blacksmith' and philanthropist 

Amer. Burroughs, Stephen, notorious adventurer . . 

Eng. Burton, Robert, author of the ' Anatomy of Melancholy' 

Eng. , Wm. E., actor and author 

Ger. Busching, Anthon Frederick, philosopher and geological writer 

Amer. Bush, George, D.D., theological and philosophical writer . 

Amer. Bushnell, Horace, CD., theological and metaphysical author 

Mex. Bustamente, Anastasio, president of Mexico 

Eng. Bute, John Stuart, earl of, statesman, premier 

Irish. Butler, Alban, ' Lives of Saints' 

Amer. , Andrew P., United States senator from South Carolina 

Amer. , Benj. F., statesman and jurist, attorney-general U. S. 

Amer. , Benj. F., major-general U. S. army in war for Union 

Eng. , Charles, Catholic historian and jurist 

Eng. , Joseph, bishop, an eminent prelate and author 

Eng. , Samuel, bishop of Litchfield, editor of "uBschylus," &c, 

Eng. , Samuel, a humorous poet 

Amer. , Richard, colonel, an officer in the Revolution 

Amer. , Wm. Allen, poet 

Amer. , Wm. O., statesman and general . . 

Ger. Buttman, Philip C, philologist . . 

Eng Buxton, Sir Thomas Powell, legisl. and philanth. 

Ger. Buxtorf, John, a Hebrew and Ohaldaic lexicographer 

Ger. , John, (son of the preceding,) lexicographer 

Amer. Byles, Mather, clergyman and author 

Eng. Byng, Honorable John, admiral 

Eng. Byron, George Gordon, lord, a popular poet 

Eng. , Honorable John, admiral . . 

Eng. , Lady Noel, wife of the poet 



JOBS. 

1752 
1739 
1759 
1756 
1811 
1765 
1576 
.804 
1721 
1796 
1802 
^782 
:."38 
1710 
1796 



1750 
1692 
1774 
1612 

1825 
1793 
1764 
1786 
1564 
1599 
1706 
1704 
1788 
1723 
1793 



DIFX 

184C 
1820 
1796 
1836 

1840 
1639 
1860 
1893 
1859 

1851 
1792 
1773 
1857 
185? 

1831 
175S 

184- 
168. 
1791 



1829 
184ft 
1629 
1644 
1788 
1757 
1828 
1786 
1860 



ft 



Ft. Cabet, Etienne, communist . . • . 

Eng. Cabot, John, navigator and discoverer 0/ North America 

Eng. , Sebastian (son of John), navigator 

Port. Cabral, Pedro Alvarez, navigator 

Span. Cabrera, Don Ramon, military commander for Don Carlos 

Ital. Cadamosta, Louis da, navigator 

Eng. Cade, the noted rebel, ' Jack Cade ' . . 

Scot. Cadell, Thomas, publisher of Scott's works, Ac. 

Fr. Cadet de Grassicourt, Charles L., chemist and philosopher 

Cadmon, Anglo-Saxon poet 

Amei Cadwallader, John, officer in the Revolution . . 

Rom. Cassar, Caius Julius, warrior, statesman, and author 

Ital. Cagliostro, Alex., count, swindling adventurer . 

Fr. Cailliaud, Frederic, traveller . . . 

Pr. Oail!S, Ren6, ' Voyage a Timboucto,' &a. . , 



. 1788 


1866 


1477 


1557 


1500 




1810 




f. 1456 






1450 


1742 


1803 


1769 


1821 




680 


1743 


1786 


B O. 100 B. 


0. 44 


1743 


179S 


1787 






1881 



88 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



NA7IOB 

Ital. 

Gr. 

Ei.g. 

Span. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Ital. 

Amer. 

Rom. 

Gr. 

G?r. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Fr. 

Ital. 

Fz. 

Fr 

timer. 

Waxier. 

5'r. 

Eng. 

Pers. 

Jug. 

Scot. 

Scot. 

Fort. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Scot. 

Scot. 

Scot, 

Scot. 

Scot. 

Scot. 

Ger. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Ital. 

Dan. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Span. 

Gr. 

Rom. 

Ital. 

Brit 

Brit. 

Ital. 

Bug. 

Fr. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Cajetan, Cardinal, diplomatist and author 
Oalaber, iT; lintus ..... 
Calamy, Elrrund, Presbyterian divine and author . 
Calderon ce la Barca, Don Pedro, dramatist . . 

Caldwell, Charles, eminent physician and author 

, Rev. James, revolutionary patriot 

Calepino, Ambrose, author of a lexicon in 11 languages 

Calhi un, John C, senator of the United States 

Caligula, Roman Emperor 

Calipptn, astronomer and mathematician . . f . b 

Calixius, Geo., Lutheran theologian 

Calli: lachus, a poet . . • . f. b. 

Callnihenes, philosopher and historian . , 

Ca'ir.at, Augustine, an erudite divine and author . 

Cf/ogera, Angelo, a learned monk and author 

(Monne, Charles Alexander de, minister of state 

Calvin, John, of the Apostles of the Reformation . 

Calvert, George Henry, belle-lettres author 

, Leonard, first governor of Maryland (see Baltimore) 

Cambaceres, John J. A., distinguished revolutionist 

Cambridge, Duke of, sixth son of George III. 

Cambyses, second king of Persia 

Camden, William, an eminent antiquary and historian 

Cameron, Richard, 'Covenanter, 1 founder of Cameronians 

, Sir Evan, lord of Lochiel 

Camoens, Louis, the most eminent poet of his country 
Campan, Jeanne L. H. J., educationist and author 
Campbell, Ales., founder of a religious sect 

'■ — , George, a divine and author 

, John, a multifarious writer, 'Admiral,' &c. 

, John, 2d duke of Argyle and Greenwich 

, John, lord chancellor, jurist, ' Lives of Chancellors 

, Sir Colin, British com. in India, &c, Lord Clyde 
, Thomas, poet, ' Life of Petrarch, 1 &c. 



Camper, Peter, an eminent naturalist . . . 

Cam piston, John G. de, dramatist . . 

Cange, Charles Dufresne, sieur du, historian 

Canning, George, statesman, orator, and poet 

Canrobert, Franc. C, general in Crimea 

Cantu, Cesare, historian, poet, and philosopher 

Canute, King of Denmark and of England, ' the Great ' 

Carefigue, A. H. A., historian 

Capell, Edward, editor of Shakespeare . • 

Capmany, Don Antonio, historian 

Capo d 1 Istria, president of Greece, 1827-31 . • 

Caracalla, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, emperor . 

Caraccioli, Neopolitan admiral, hanged by Kelson 

CaractacuB, prince of the Silures, a brave warrior. 

Carausius, usurper of Empire in Britain 

Cardan, Jerome, philosopher, mathematician and physician 

Cardigan, J. P. B., earl of, general of cavalry at Balaklava 

Cardonne, Dennis D., an eminent orientalist 



(at 



BOBN. 
1510 

1600 
1600 
1772 
1731 
U35 
1782 
12 

C, 830 
1586 

c. 150 

1672 
1699 
1734 
1509 
1803 

1763 

1774 



1617 
1752 
1792 
1709 
1708 
1678 
1778 
1791 
1777 
1722 
1656 
1610 
1770 
1809 
1805 

995 
1799 
1713 
1754 
1776 

188 

1770 

t.) 100 

260 
1601 
1797 
1720 



D3Ei 

1593 
26C 
1666 
1687 
1853 
1781 
1511 
1850 
11 

1656 

o. 328 
1757 
1768 
1802 
1623 

1676 
1824 
1850 
0. 521 
1623 
16B0 
1719 
1579 
1822 

1796 
1775 
1713 
1861 
1863 
1844 
1789 
1723 
1688 
1827 



1036 

1781 
1810 
1831 
217 
1799 

293 
1571 

178S 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



RATIOS. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

En<?. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Ital. 

Irish. 

Irish. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Span. 

Span. 

G-er. 

Soot. 

Scot. 

Gr. 

Pr. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Gua. 

-Auier. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Span. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Ital. 

Horn. 

Eng. 

Ital. 

Port. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Rus. 

Ru8. 

Span.E 

Span. 

Eng. 

It. Fr. 

Eng. 

Rom. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Careme, Murk Antony, famous cook . . 

Carew, Bamfylde Moore, 'king of the beggars' 
Carew, Thomas, poet .... 

Carey, Alice, author of poems and tales . . 

, Henry, earl of Monmouth, translator . . 

, Henry C, political economist . , 

, Matthew, philanthropist, publisher, &c , 

, William, missionary to India 

Carissimi, James, musical composer . „ , 

Carleton, Wm., novelist . . , 

, Sir Guy, military commander, and governor of Canada 

Carli, John Rinaldo, count de, author 

Carlisle, G. W. F., 7th earl of, statesman and author . 

, Sir Anthony, physician and medical writer 

Carlos, Don, son of Philip II., (hero of Schiller's tragedy,) 

, Don Maria Isidor, pretender to the throne . 

Carlotta, wife of Maximilian, emperor of Mexico . 

Carlyle, Rev. Alex, D. D., ' Memoirs of his Times' . 

. Thomas, historian and metaphysician . 

Carneades, philosopher, founder of the 3d Academy 
Carnot, Lazarus Nicholas, revolutionist . . 

Carpenter, Laut, Unitarian minister and author . 

, Wm. B., physiologist . . . 

Carrel, Armand, historian and metaphysician . 

Carrera, Rafael, ruler of Guatemala . . . 

Carroll, Chas., last surviving signer of the Deo. of Indep. 
Carter, Elizabeth, a learned translator . , 

, Nathaniel H., a scholar and traveller . 

Cart-wright, Thomas, puritan divine . 

Carus, C. G., writer on anatomy and physiology 

Carver, John, 1st gov. Plymouth colony . . 

, Jonathan, traveller and author 

Cary, Henry F., poet, translator of ' Dante' . . 

Casas, Bartholomew de las, philanthropist and historian 
Cass, Lewis, statesman and diplomatist . . , 

Cassin, John, ornithologist . . . 

Cassini, John Dominic, astronomer . . . 

Cassiodorus, Marcus Aur. statesman and historian 
Cassius, Longinus Caius, conspirator against Cassar , 
Castell, Edmund, divine and lexicographer . 

Castiglione, Balthasar, statesman and author . . 

Castro, Inez de, wife of Pedro, king of Portugal , 
Catalini, Madame, eminent vocalist . . . 

Catesby, Mark, naturalist . , , 

Catherine I., wife of Peter the Great . . 

II., empress the " Great " and the vicious 

, of Arragon, wife of Henry VIII. . , 



, of Braganza, queen of Charles II. of England 

— ^— ^— Howard, queen of Henry VIII. . . 

de Medici, wife of Henry II. of France . 

, Parr, 6th and last wife of Henry VIIL . 

Catiline, Lucius Sergius, patrician conspirator . 



BORN. 


->rKD, 


178' 


13f 


165.3 


1773 


1589 ? 


16*9 


1822 




1596 


7661 


1792 




1760 


iSd9 


1761 


1622 


1600 


16,5 


1798 




1724 


1803 


1720 


173S 


1802 


1884 


1768 


1840 


1545 


1568 


1788 


1856 


18— 




1721 


1805 


1795 




. 218 b. 


O. 128 


1753 


1823 


1780 


1840 


18— 




1800 


1836 


1814 




1737 


1832 


1717 


1806 




1830 


1535 


1608 


1789 




1732 


1780 




1621 


1772 


1840 


1474 


1564 


1782 


1866 


1813 




1625 


1712 


470 


616 


B. 


0. 42 


1606 


1685 


1468 


1525 




1355 


1782 


1849 


1680 


1749 


1682 


1727 


1729 


1796 


1483 


1536 


1638 


1703 


1521 


1542 


1619 


1689 




1548 


B.O. 6S 



9° 



THE WORLL S PROGRESS. 



BA1IOH NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Ft. Cat: uat, Nicholas, military commander . . 

Amer. Catlin, George, artist and traveller among Indians . 

Rom. Cato, Mar jus Portius, the censor, statesman and author 

Rom. , Marcus Pore: us, of Ulica, statesman . 

Rom. Catullus, Caius Valerius, poet . . 

Fr. Cauchy, Aug. Louis, mathematician . . 

Fr. Caulaincourt, A. A., Duke of Vicenza, diplomatist . 

Fr. Caussin, Nicholas, a Jesuit, author of the ' Holy Court ' 

Fr. Cavaignac, Louis E., general-in-chief of the republic, 1848 

Ital. E. Carallo, Tiberius, electrician, author Natural Philos. 

Eng. Cave, Edward, printer, bookseller and author . , 

Eng. Cavendish, Sir William, courtier aud writer . 

Eng. , Thomas, navigator 

Ital. Cavour, Camille di, count, Sardinian statesman 

Eng. Caxton, William, the introducer of printing into England 

Fr. Caylus, A. C. P., count de, miscellaneous writer '. 

Fr. Cazales, James A. M. de, an eloquent orator . . 

Eng. Cecil, Rev. R., religious writer . . . 

Eng. , Robt., earl of Salisbury, statesman . . 

Eng. , Win., Lord Burleigh, statesman 

Rom. Cecilia, a saint in the Roman Catholic Church, patron of music 

Gr. Cecrops, 1st king of Athens .... 

Ital. Cellini, Benvenuto, artist, jeweller, patron of music . 

Rom. Ceisus, Auielius Cornelius, a celebrated physician . 

Gr. , an Epicurean philospher ... • 

Ital. Cenci, Beatrice, Roman maiden, tragically famed . , 

Rom. Censbrius, a critic and grammarian . . . 

Irish. Centlivre, Susanna, a dramatic writer . . , 

Span. Cervantes-Saavedra, Michael, author of ' Don Quixote' 

Ital. Cesare, Giuseppe, cavaliere de, historian . . 

ItaL Cesarotte, Melchior, a voluminous author . 

Eng. Chalmers, Alex., ' General Biographical Dictionary,' &o. 

Scot. , George, miscellaneous writer . 

Scot. , Thomati, D. D., theologian and political economist 

Scot. Chambers, Robert, publisher and author 

Eng. , Sir "William, an architeot . . 

Scot. — , William, publisher and author 

Fr. Chambord, H., count of, last scion of the house of Bourbon 

Ger. Chamisso, A. von, author of 'Peter Schlemihl,' &c. 

Fr. Champollion, the younger, 'Monuments de l'Egypte,' &c, 

Fr. , Figeac, historian and antiquary . 

' Amer. Channing, Edward T., essayist and reviewer 

Ajuer. f William Ellery, D. D., theologian and philanthropist 

Amei. , William Henry, Unitarian minister and author 

Eng. Chantry, Sir Francis, sculptor 
Amer. Chapin, Edwin H., eloquent clergyman and orator 

Eng. Chapman, George, poetical translator . • 

Eng. Chapone, Hester, miscellaneous writer . . 

Fr. Chaptal, J. A. C, chemist .... 

Fr Charlemagne, emperor of the West and King of Franoe 

Ger, Charles V. the Great, see Prescott's History, &o. . 

Bwe. Charles XII., king, a celebrated warrior . 



BORN. 


D1H> 


1637 


1713 


B o. 232 b. 


0. 147 


B. 0. 95 B. 


O. 40 


B. o. S6 




178f) 


1857 


1773 


1807 


1583 


1661 


1802 


1857 


1749 


1809 


1691 


1751 


1505 


1557 


1564 


1591 


1809 


186!. 


1410 


1492 


1720 


1765 


1752 


1805 


1748 


1810 


(abt.) 1550 


1612 


1520 


1598 


ic 2d cen 




(abt.) b. 


o. 1500 


1500 


1570 


f. 30 




. f. 50 






1599 


. f. 240 




1667 


1723 


1547 


1616 


1783 


1856 


1730 


1808 


1759 


1854 


1744 


1825 


1770 


1846 


1802 




1726 


1796 


1800 




1820 




1781 




1790 


1832 


1779 




1790 


1856 


)ist 1780 


1842 


1810 




1781 


1841 


1814 




1557 


1634 


1727 


1801 


1756 


1832 


742 


814 


1600 


158K 


168? 


176j 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDUE. 



9 1 



S ATI B NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Enfr. Charles Edward, grandson of James II. and Pretender , 

Fr , J. A. 0.| natural philosopher . . . 

Fr. Charlevoix, Peter F. X., a Jesuit historian 

Amer. Chase, Philander, bisl. op of Prot. Kpis. Church, Ohio . 

..uner. , Salmon P., senator of United States and governor of Ohio 

Fr. Cliasles, V. E. Philarete, miscellaneous writer . . . 

Dutch. Chass6, David H., baron, military commander . . 

Fr. Chastelet, Gabrielle, marchioness, scientific author . , 

Fr. Chasteilux, F. J., marquis de, general and author 

Fr. Chateaubriand, F. P., vicomte de, poet, statesman and traveller 

Fr. Chatel. Abbe, Fer. F., theological reformer 

Fr. Chatelej, 2 aul du Hay, lord of, (Bertrand Duguesclin) . 

Eng. Chatharr, Wm. Pitt, earl of, statesman 

Eng. Chattertoii, Thomas, famed for precocious learning . 

Eng. Chaucer, Geoffrey, the father of English poetry . . 

Amer. Chauncay, Charles D. D., president of Harvard College 

Amer. , Commodore Isaac, naval commander . , 

Amer. Chesebro, Caroline, novelist and essayist 

Amer Cheever, Geo. B., congregational clergyman and author . 

Eng. Cheselden, William, an eminent anatomist 

Eng. Chesterfield, Philip D. Stanhope, earl of, statesman and writer 

ItaL Cherubini, M. L. C, musical composer 

Fr. Chevalier, Michael, engineer, traveller and statesman . 

Fr. Chevreul, M. E., chemist .... 

Ar er. Child, Lydia Maria, author of various works . . 

En£. Chillingworth, Wm., theologian and author 

•' r. Chilo, Euphorus of Sparta, one of the seven wise men . f. 

^cner. Chipman, Nathaniel, jurist and statesman 

Erg. Chitty, Joseph, author of numerous works on law . 

Pol. Ohlopicki, J., military commander, dictator of Poland . 

.-.mer. Choate, Rufus, advocate, jurist and senator 

Fr. Choiseul-Stainville C. A. G., duke of, statesman and author 

Eng, Choules, John Overton, D. D., Baptist minister and author 

fewe. Christina, queen, (daughter of G. Adolphus) . 

Afr;c. Christophe, a slave, afterwards King of Hayti . 

Gr. Chrysiphus, a stoic philosopher . . . B. 

Or. Chiysostom, John, Christian father and orator 

Amer. Church, Benj., military commander and author . 

Eng. Churchill, Charles, a satirical poet . . . 

Eng. Cibber, Colley, tragic and comic actor and poet 

Rom. Cicero, Marcus Tullius, one of the greatest of orators . B, 

Ital Cimarosa, Dominic, dramatic and music composer . 

Gr. Cimon, an Athenian general .... 

Rom. Cincinnatus, Lucius Quintius, the patriot . . f. B, 

Rom. Cinna, Lucius, Cornelius, partisan of Marius . £ b 

ItaL Clrillo, Dominic, a botanist and physician 

Amer. Clair, Arthur St., a distinguished officer in the revolution , 

Fr. Clairaut, Alexis Claude, geometrician 

Amer. Clap, Thomas, president of Yale College . , 

Scot. Clapperton, Hugh, traveller in Africa . . 

Eng. Clare, John, poet .... . 

Bug. Clarendon, G. W. F., Villiers, earl of, statesman . 



BOBN. 

1720 
1746 
1682 
1775 
1808 
1799 
1765 
1706 
1734 
1769 
1795 
1693 
1708 
1752 
1328 



1807 
1688 
1694 
1760 
1806 
1786 
1802 
1602 
. 598 
1752 
1776 
1772 
1799 
1762 
1801 
l&W 
176'. 
230 
34-1 
163S 
1731 
1671 
105 
1754 
I 

456 

8'* 

1734 

1713 
1703 
1788 
1703 
1800 



DIBB 

178? 

1826 
1761 

1852 



1849 
1749 
1788 
1848 
185; 
'638 
1778 
1770 
1400 
1671 
1940 



1752 
1773 
1840 



1644 

1843 
1841 

1854 
1859 

1856 

1689 

1820 

207 

407 

1718 

1764 

1757 

C. 43 

1S01 

o. MO 



1799 
1818 
1783 
1767 
1827 



9 2 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



BAT101, NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Amcr. Clark, Louis Gaylord, editor of ' Knickerbocker* . • 

Ai:.t". , Willis Gay lord, poet and essayist . 

Arr .r. , Wm,, general, explorer of Rocky Mountains . 

Ei_g. Clarke, Dr. Adam, a celebrated theologian and commentator 

Eng. , Dr. Edward Daniel, traveller and mineralogist 

Amer. Clarke, James Freeman, clergyman and author 

Eng. , Mary Cowden, author of ' Concordance to Shakespeare, 

Airier. , McDonald ' the crazy poet,' . . 

Eng. , Rev. Samuel, 'Annotations on the Bible' . 

Eng. , Samuel D., theologian and philosopher . 

Eue. - . , Sir James, medical author . . , 

Eng. Clarkson, Thomas, philanthropist . * 

Rot Claudius, Appius, decemvir ... 
Eng. Claverhouse, John Graham of, Viscount Dundee 
Span. Clavigero, Francis X., historian of Mexico . . 

Amer. Clay, Casaius M., anti-slavery politician 

Amer. , Clement C, ex-senator of U. S. from Alabama . 

A m er. , Henry, statesman and diplomatist . . 

Amer. Clayton, John, an eminent physician and botanist • 

Amer. Clayton, John M., senator and secretary of state . 
Gr. Cleanthes, a stoic philosopher . . . 

Amer. Cleaveland, Parker, mineralogist and chemist 
Amer. Clemens, Jeremiah, U. S. senator from Alabama • 

Clement, the name of 14 popes and 3 antipopes 

Gr. , of Alexandria, a ' father of the church' . 

Gr. dementi, Muzio, musical composer . 

Gr. Cleobolus, one of the seven wise men . . 

Ital. Cleon, an Athenian politician and demagogue . 

Egypt. Cleopatra, a voluptuous queen . . . 

Swiss. Clerc, Jean le, theological writer 

Fr. Arr . , Laurent, the oldest living teacher of deaf mates . 

Amer. Clinton, Dewitt, governor and benefactor of New York 

Amer. , James, general Amer. Rev. 

Amer. , George, governor of New York and vice-president of U 

Eng. '.live, Robert, lord, military commander 
Fr. Cloquet, Hyppolite, (brother of Jules), anatomist . 
Fr. Clot, or Clot-Bey, surgeon and medical writer in Egypt 

Amer. Gobb, Lyman, lexicographer and author . . , 

Eng. Cobbett, William, political writer . • , 

Eng. Cobden, Richard, statesman and reformer . • 

Eng Cobham, Sir Jno. Oldcastle, lord, martyr . • 

Eng Cochrane, Earl Dundonald, naval commander . • 

Eng. Oodrington, Sir Edward, vice-admiral . . 

Eng. Coffin, Sir Isaac, admiral, (b. in Nantucket) . . 

Eng. Cogan, Thomas, physician and miscellaneous writer . 
Eng. Ccke, Sir Edward, a learned judge . . . 

Fr. Colbert, John Baptist, an eminent statesman . • 

A.mer. Colburn, Warren, mathematician, arithmetician, &o. . 

Amer. , Zerah, precooious arithmetician 

Imer. Colden, Cadwallader, an eminent botanist, astronomer, &o. 

Amer. , Cadwallador D., statesman, biographer of Pulton, &o. 

#ng. Coleridge, ffartley, author and poet 



BOSH. 


MBA 


1800 




1810 


1541 


1770 


183? 


1760 


1833 


1767 


1821 


1810 




,' &c. 1809 




1798 


1842 


1627 


1701 


1675 


172.; 


1761 


1846 




B. 0. 450 


1627 


1701 


1720 


1793 


1810 




1789 




177T 


1852 


171.5 


1773 


1796 


1R5C 


. f. 260 




1780 


15S 


1814 






220 




1832 


. f. 559 






b. o 442 




B. c. 30 


1656 


1756 


1785 




1769 


18" 


1736 


1812, 


r. S. 1739 


'81 '4 


1725 


!T7i 


1787 




1795 






186& 


1762 


1835 


1804 


1865 


. 1360 


1417 


1775 


1860 


1770 


1851 


1759 


1839 


1736 


1818 


1549 


1634 


1619 


1683 


, 1793 


1823 


1804 


1840 


1688 


1776 


1769 


1834 


1797 


Hilt 



BIOGKAPUICAL INDEX. 



93 



vinoi. 
Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Fr- 

Eng. 

Bug. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Amor. 

Eng 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Ita). 

Scot. 

Scot. 

Fr. 

ilex. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Span. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Chin. 

Eng. 

Gr. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Scot. 

Fr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Ir. Am 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 



SAMS AND PROFESSION. 

Coleridge, Henry Nelson, litterateur 

, Sarah, daughter of Samuel T., author 

, Samuel T., pool and metapb.ys.cian 

Coligui, Gaspard de, admiral 

Oollingwood, Cuthbert, lord, admiral 

Collins, William, a popular poet 

Coleman, Benjamin, a learned divine, (in Boston) 

, George, dramatic writer . . 

, George, (the younger), dramatist 



BORN. 

(8ht.) 1800 
1303 
177" 
1 F 17 
1743 
1720 
1673 
1733 
1762 

(abt.) 1800 
1788 
1773 
1818 
1797 
1441 
1797 
1778 
1446 
1812 
1789 
1798 
1802 
1800 
1621 
1715 
1743 
1785 
B. c. 550 
1772 



Colombat, de l'lsere, medical writer 

Colton, Calvin, clergyman and political writer 

, C. C, author of 'Lacon' 

, George H., author of ' Tecumseh,' dec. 

, Waiter, Rev. author of voyages and travels . 

Columbus, Christopher, the discoverer of America , 

Combe, Andrew, medical and physiological writer , 

, George, phrenologist and philosopher . . 

Comines, Philip de, statesman and historian . . 

Comonfort, Ygnacio, President of Mexico . . 

Comstock, John L., author of popular school-books 

Compte, Auguste, metaphysician, founder of " Positivelsm " 

Conant, Thomas J., D. D., biblical scholar and critic 

Concha, Jose de la, captain-general of Cuba . , 

Conde, Louis II. of Bourbon 

Condillac, Stephen Bonnet de, metaphysical writer , 

Condorcet, M. J. A. N., Marquis of, metaphysician . 

Cone, Spencer Houghton, baptist clergyman 

Confucius, a celebrated philosopher 

Congreve, Sir William, inventor of the • Congreve rocket ' 

Conon, an Athenian general .... ;>. 

Conrad, Robert T., judge, politician and poet „ . . I81i 

Considerant, Victor, socialist philosopl er . . 180. r 

Constable, Archibald, publisher of Scott's poems, miscellany, &o. 1776 

Constant, Benjamin, statesman and metaphysician . . 1767 

Constantiue, (the Great), the first Christian emperor . 274 

, VII., (Porphyrogenitus) emperor and author . 905 

, XII. (Paleologus), the last of the Greek emperors 1403 

Conway, Thomas, maj. gen. in Revolution a ' cabaler,' &c. . (abt. 

Conybeare, Wiliiam D., clergyman and geologist , 1787 

— — , William G. (son of the above), author of ' Life of St. Paul' 

Cook, Eliza, poetess ..... 1818 

, James, a celebrated circumnavigator . . 1728 

Cooke, George F., an eminent actor . . . 1756 

, George Mnsgrove, ' History of Party' . . 1814 

, John Esten, novelist and poet . . . 1830 

, Philip P., poet ..... 1816 

, T. P., actor .... . 1786 

Cooper, Bramsley, surgeon and author . . 1792 

, James Fenimore, novelist, traveller and historian , 1789 

, Peter, merchant and philanthropist founder of Institute 1791 

, Samuel, D. D., a divine and political writer . . 1726 

Sir Astley Paxkm, physician and medic?" trrtwr , 1768 



1844 
1853 
P>34 
1573 
1810 
1758 
1747 
1784 
1836 

■".857 
1832 
1847 
1861 
1508 
1847 
1858 



_d58 

"Ml 



1683 

1780 

•794 

1S55 

r.828 
;. 390 
1856 

1827 
:<.830 
337 
959 
1453 
1778 
1857 
1857 

1776 
1812 
186 r 

I860 
1364 
1453 
1851 

1783 
184' 



94 THE WORLD'S PROttRfiSA. 

KAI10S, NAME AND PBOFESSION. 

Eng. Cooper, Thomas, chemist, jurist, and politician (in Anier.) . 

Eng. , Thomas A., acloi ..... 

Irish. Ooote, Sir Eyre, commander in India . . . 

Pruss. Oope-nicus, Nicholas, a celebrated astronomer, the reviver of the 

Pythagorean system of the universe 

Eng. Copley, John Singleton, Lord Lymihurst (born in Boston, U.S.) 

Fr. Corday d'Armans, M. Charlotte de, guillotined in Revolution . 

Ger. Corinna, a poetess, flourished in the fifteenth century before Christ 

Rom. Coriolanus, Caius Marcius, a warrior .... 

Fr. Cormenin, L. M. de la Haye, vicompte de, political writer 

Ital. Cornaro, Louis, a noble author of a book on temperance , 

Eng. Cornbury, Ed. Hyde, lord, governor of New York . . 

Fr. Corneille, Peter, an eminent dramatic writer . . . 

Fr. — , Thomas (brother of Peter), poet and dramatist . 

Fr. Cornelli, Mark Vincent, a Venetian geographer and historian 

Eng. Cornwallis, Charles, marquis, military com. in Amer. and India 

Span Cortez, Fernando, the brutal conqueror of Mexico . „ 

Amer. Corwin, Thomas, statesman, sec. of treasury, gov. of Ohio . 

Ital. Cosmo I. de Medici, grand duke of Tuscany . 
Ital. " II. " » " . 

Ital, " III. " « "... 

Ital Costa, Paolo, litterateur ..... 
Eng Costello, Dudley, author and journalist . 

Irish. , Louisa Stuart, author of memoirs 

Dutch. Coster, John Lawrence, one of the supposed inventors of printing 

Ger Cotta, Baron F., publisher and statesman . 

Eng. Cottenham, C. J. Pepys, lord chancellor . . 

Fr. Cottin, Sophie, Madame, a novelist .... 

Eng. Cottle, Amos, versifier ..... 

Eng. , Jos., publisher ' Recollections of Coleridge ' 

Eng. Ccton, Charles, humorist and poet . . , 

Amer. , John (of Boston), a learned divine . . 

Eng. , Sir Stapleton, Viscount Combermere, general . 

Fr. Coulomb. Charles Augustine de, philosopher . . . 

Fr. Eng. Courayer, P. Francis le, Koman Catholic theologian . 

Fr. Courier, Paul Louis, poet and satirist .... 

Fr. , Paul Louis, political writer . . . 

Fr. Court de Gebelin, Anthony, an antiquarian and author • . 

Fr. Cousin, Louis, historian ..... 

Er. , Victor, statesman and metaphysician . . , 

Eng. Coverdale, Miles, Bishop of Exeter, trans. Bible . . 

Eng. Cowley, Abraham, poet ..... 

Sag. Cowper, William, lord chancellor .... 

Eng. , William, poet ..... 

Amer. Coxe, Arthur Cleveland, episcopal bishop and poet . . 

Amer. , Samuel H., presbyterian author and clergyman . 

Amer. Coxe, Tench, writer on political economy . . . 

Eng. , William, traveller and historian . . , 

Amer. Cozzens, Fred S., author of essays and poems . , 

Eng. Crabb, George, philologist, author of synonyms . . 

Eng. Crabbe, Rev. George, poet • . , 

Ber. Cramer, John Andrew, miscellaneous writer . ■ , . . 



0BH. 


BIBB 


1759 


1844 


1776 


184* 


1726 


1783 


1473 


1544 


1772 


1863 


1768 


1793 


B. 


O. 488 


1788 




1467 


1561 




1723 


1606 


1684 


1625 


1708 




1718 


1738 


1805 


1485 


1554 


1794 




1519 


1594 


1590 


16-21 


1642 


1723 


1771 


1836 


1803 


1865 


1815 




1370 


1440 


1764 


1832 


1781 


1851 


1773 


1807 




1800 


1770 


1853 


1630 


1687 


1585 


1652 


1773 


1865 


1736 


1806 


1681 


1776 


1772 


1S25 


1774 


1825 


1725 


1784 


1627 


1707 


1792 


1867 


1485 


1565 


1618 


1667 


1664 


1723 


1731 


1800 


1818 




1793 




1756 


1824 


1747 


1828 


1818 




1778 


1854 


1754 


1832 


1728 


n« 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



95 



RATIOS. IAMB AND FBOFESSIOR". 

Eng. Cramer, J. Baptist, musical composer . . , 

Eng. , Francis, " «• . , 

Amer. Cranch, "Wm. jurist, judge U. S. District Court D. 0. . 

Eng. Cranmer, Thomas, a celebrated reformer . , 

Eng. Crashaw, Richard, poet and divine . . . 

Rom. Crassus, Marcus Lucinius, (the rich) military commander 
Amer. Crawford, William B.., statesman and jurist . . 

Fr Crebillon, Prosper Jolyot de, tragic poet . , 

Ger. Oeuzer, Geo. Fred., philologist and antiquary . . 

Fr. Crevier, John Baptist Lewis, historian . . 

Crcesus, King of Lydia, famed for riches . . . 

Eng. Croft, Wm., musical doctor and composer . . 

Irish. Croker, John Wilson, statesman and author . . 

Irish. , Thos. Crofton, author of ' Fairy Legends,' &o. 

Eng. Croly, Rev. George, poet and novelist . . , 

Eng. Cromweli, Oliver, military commander and statesman . 

Eng. , Thomas, earl of Essex, successor to Wolsey , 

Eng. Crowe, Catherine, author of 'Nightside of Nature' . 
Eng. Cruikshank, George, artist, chiefly caricature . . 

Eng. - , Robert, humorous artist 

Scot Cruden, Alexander, author of a ' Concordance to the Bible • 
Eng. Cudworth, Ralph, philosopher 

Amer. Cuffee, Paul, philanthropic sea-captain . . . 

Scot. Cullen, William, an eminent physician . , 

Eng. Cumberland, Richard, a multifarious writer . . 

Eng. , William Augustus, duke of, military commander 

Scot. Cumming, John, popular preacher and theological author . 

Scot. , Rouallyn W. G., sportsman, traveller, and author 

Scot. Cunningham, Allan, poet, biographer, &c. . . 

Irish. Curran, John Philpot, a celebrated barrister and orator 
Amer. Curtis, Benj. R., jurist and judge of Supreme Court U. 8. 

Amer. , Geo. Ticknor, political writer and jurist . . 

Amer. , Geo. Wm., essayist, traveller, and critio 

Rom. Curtius, Rufus Quintus, historian. . . , 

Amer. Cushing, Caleb, statesman and jurist . . 

Amer. Cushman, Charlotte S., actress .... 

E. Am. , Robert, one of the founders of Plymouth . 

Amer. Custis, Geo. W. Parke, adopted son of Washington . 

Fr. Cuvier, George, baron, one of the greatest of naturalists 
Fr. , Fred., (brother of the baron) naturalist 

Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, an eminent father of the church 

Cyril, of Alexandria, saint and patriarch, and theol. writer . 

, of Jerusalem, saint and archbishop, and author . 

, St., the apostle of the Sclavi . . . 

Pers. Cyrus, the Elder, founder of the Persian empire 

Pers. , the Younger, (son of Darius Nothus) king of Persia . 

Pol. CzartorysM, Adam, prince, head of the Polish nation. 



Fr. Dacler, Anne, a celebrated classical scholar . 

Fr. Daguerre, Louis J. M., Inventor of daguerreotyplng 
Amer. Dahlgren, John A., naval officer and author . 



BORN. 


IIBT. 


1771 


185!; 


1772 


184? 


1779 


1855 


1489 


1556 




1650 


• B 


0. 53 


1772 


1824 


1674 


1762 


1771 


1858 


1693 


1"63 


b. o. 6th Cent. 


1657 


1727 


1780 


1357 


1798 


1854 


1780 


1360 


1599 


1658 


1490 


*540 


1780 




1794 


1856 


1701 


1770 


1617 


1S88 


1759 


1818 


1712 


1730 


1732 


1811 


1721 


1765 


1810 




1820 




1768 


1842 


1750 


is 1 : 


1809 




1812 




1824 




1800 




1816 




1580 


1615 


1781 


1857 


1769 


1832 


1773 


1838 




258 


376 


444 


315 


380 




822 


. B. 


0. 559 


S. 


0. 400 


. 1770 


186* 


1661 


172* 


. 1789 


186. 



9 6 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



HA.HOH. KAME AND PROFESSION 

Amer. Dahlgien, CoL Ulr c, milit. officer 

Swe. Dahlman, Fred C, historian 

Ainer. Dale, Richard, commodore in Revol. war 

Bvve. Dalin, Claus von, the father of Swedish poetry 

Amer. Dallas, Commodore A. J., naval commander . 

Amer. , Geo., M., vice-pres. U. S. and diplomatist 

Amer. , John Alexander, secretary treasury U. 3. 

Eng. Dalton, John, chemist and mathematician . 

Ger. Damm, Christian Tobias, Greek lexicographer 

Eng. Dampier, William, an eminent navigator 

Amer. Dana, James D., mineralogist, geologist, Ac. « 

Amer. , Richard H., poet and essayist 

Amer. , Richard H. Jr., advocate and traveller 

Amer. , Samuel L., agricultural chemist 

Venet. Dandolo, Enrico, doge of Venice . . 

Amer. Dane, Nathan, jurist and legal author 

Eng. Daniell, John F., chemist .... 

Eng. , W., R. A., author of pictorial works on India . 

Ger. Dannecker, sculptor (' Ariadne,' &c.) . . 

ItaL Dante Alighieri, the sublimest of the Italian poets . 

Fr. Danton, Geo. Jacques, leading revolutionist . 

Ital. Da Ponte, Lorenzo, poet and dramatist (d. at N. Y.) . 

Eng. D'Arblay, Madame, (Fanny Burney) novelist . 

Eng. Darling, Grace, famed for rescue of nine persons wrecked . 

Amer. Darlington, Wm., botanist and politician . 

Eng. Daubeny, Chas. J. B., natural philos. and geologist 

Aust. Daun, Leopold Joseph Mary count de, military commander . 

Fr. Duunou, P. C. F., statesman and litterateur 

Eng. Davenant, Sir Wm., dramatist . 

Amer. Davidson, Lucretia M., a youthful poetess of uncommon genius 

Amer. Davidson, Margaret Miller (sister of above), poet 

Amer. Davies, Charles, mathematician .... 

, Samuel, president of Princeton College, theol. writer 

Ital. Davila, Henry Catharine, an historian 

Amer. Davis, Andrew J., clairvoyant and writer on spiritualism 

Amer. 1 Charles H., mathematician and naval officer 

Amer. > Jefferson, general and U. 8. senator from Mississippi 

Eng. f John, a navigator, discoverer of Davis Straits . 

Amer. , Matthew L., biographer of Burr, &c. 

Fr. Davoust, Louis N., one of Bonaparte's generals . . 

Eng. Davy, Sir Humphrey, eminent chemist 

A mer. Day, Stephen, the first printer in New England . . 

Amer. Dayton, Wm. Lewis, jurist and statesman 

Amer. Deane, Silas, minister of the U. S. to France . . 

Amer Dearborn, Henry, a distinguished officer of the two American wars 1751 

Ame - De Bow, J. D. B., journalist and statistician 

Fr. Debruce, "William Francis, a bookseller and bibliographer 

Swiss. Decandolle, A. P., botanist 

Amer. Decatur, Stephen, a gallant commodore in the U. S. navy 

Eng. Decker. Thomas, dramatic poet 

Eng. Dee, John, mathematician and astrologer 

Eng. Defoe, Daniel, miscellaneous writer . . 



•0AM. 


DIM* 


1842 


1864 


1785 




1756 


182- 


1708 


1753 


1791 


1844 


1792 




1759 


1817 


1766 


1844 


1699 


1778 


1652 


1711 


1813 




1787 




1815 




1795 




1110 


1205 


1752 


1835 


1790 


1845 




1837 


1758 


1841 


1265 


1321 


1759 


1794 


1749 


1838 


1752 


1840 


1815 


1842 


1782 




1705 


1766 


1761 


1840 


1605 


1688 


1808 


1840 


1823 


1838 


1798 




1724 


1761 


1576 


1631 


1826 




1807 




1808 






1605 


1766 


1850 


1770 


1823 


1778 


1829 


1611 


1663 


1807 




1758 


1789 


rars 1751 


1829 


1820 




1731 


1782 


1778 


1841 


1779 


1820 




1638 


1527 


1618 


1661 


1781 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



97 



■ATIOH. SAME AND PBOFESSION. 

G. Am. DeKalb, John, baron, raaj.-gon. in Am. revoL army 

Eng. De la Beche, Sir Henry T., geologist 

Fr. Delambre, John Baptist Joseph, astronomer , 

Amer. Delancey, William H., Epis. Bishop West New York 

Fr. Delavigne, Casimir, dramatist .... 

Fr. Delille, James, a celebrated poet . . 

Fr. Delisle, Joseph Nicholas, an eminent astronomer . . 

Swiss. Delolme, Jean L., author of a work on the English Constitution 

Swisz. Deluc, Jean Andre, natural philosopher 

Pol. Dembinski, Henry K., general in Hungarian revolt 

Demetrius Phalereus, Athenian orator and statesman . 



-, Poliorcetes, one of the successors of Alex, the Great 



Democritus, a celebrated philosopher 
De Morgan, Augustus, mathematician . . 

Demosthenes, one of the greatest of orators 
Denham, Lieut.-Col. Dixon, an enterprising traveller 
Denina, Charles John Maria, an historian 
Denman, Thomas, lord chief justice of England . 
Dennie, author and editor of ' Portfolio,' &c. 



Gr. 

Maced. 
Gr. 

Eng. 
Gr. 

Eng. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Am el 

Amer. Dennis, John, critic, embalmed in ' Dunciad ' 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Ruse. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Afric, 



D'Eon, Chevalier, equerry to Louis XV. . 

DeQuincy, Thomas, essayist and critic . . 

Derby, Edw. G. S. Stanley, fourteenth earl of, statesmar, 

Derzhavine, Gabriel R., a poet and statesman 

De6aix, Louis Charles Anthony, military commander . 

Descartes, Rene, an eminent philosopher . 

Desmoulins, Camille, revolutionist and author . 

Dessalines, John James, Emperor of Hayti . 

De Soto, Fernando, discoverer of the Mississippi 

Destouches, Philip Nericault, dramatic writer 
Dutch. Deurhoff, William, founder of a sect, and an author 
Dan. Am. De Vere, Maximilian Scheie, philologist and essayist 
Eng. Devereux, Robert, third Earl of Essex, parliamentary genei 

De Vigny, Alfred, count, poet and novelist 

Dewees, W. P., medical writer 

De Wette, William M. L., theologian and biblical critic 

Dewey, Orville, Unitarian divine and essayist 
Dutch. De Witt, John, an eminent statesman 
Port. Diaz, Bartholomew, discoverer of the Cape of Good Hope 

, del Castillo, Bernal, adventurer and chronicler 

Dibdin, Charles, a dramatic and musical composer . 

, Thomas (son of Charles), dramatist and song writer 

, Thomas Frognall, bibliographer 



Fr. 



Fr. 

Amer. 
Ger. 
Amer. 



Span. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Boot. 
Eng. 



Dick, Thomas, author of ' Christian Philosopher' 
Dickens, Charles, novelist 



Amer. Dickinson, Daniel S., statesman 



Amer. 

Ft. 

Fr. 

Fr. 
Ft. 



— John, author of ' Farmer's Letters * 



Diderot, Denis, first editor of Encyclopedie Methodique' 
Didot, Francis A., a celebrated printer and type-founder 

t Firmin, publisher and men ber of Deputies 

, Amb. Firmin, publisher and traveller 



Egypt. Didymus, who wrote from 3,000 to 6,000 works 



»oas. 
1132 
1796 
1749 
1797 
1794 
1738 
1688 
1740 
1727 
1791 
b. c. 345 

B. c. 460 

1806 
B. c. 381 

1786 
'.73 

ID? 
1767 
1728 
1786 
1799 
1743 
1768 
1596 
1762 
1760 
1500 
1680 
1650 
1820 
1592 
1799 
1768 
17*) 
1794 
1625 

>bt ) 1560 
1748 
1771 
1770 
1772 
1812 
1S00 
1732 
1713 
1730 
1764 
179U 
t a. c. SO 



OIBD 

1780 
1855 
1822 
186- 
1843 
1813 
1768 
1806 
1817 
1864 
B. o. 283 
B. 0. 283 



j. 0. 322 
1828 
1813 
1854 
1812 
1783 
1810 
1859 

1816 
1800 
1H50 
1794 
1806 
1542 
1754 
1717 

1646 
1863 
1841 
1849 

1672 
1500 

1814 
1841 
1847 
1859 

1865 
1808 
1784 
1804 
1«M 



THE WOBLD'S PROGRESS. 



RATIOS. 

Pruss. 
Ger. 

Bpan. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Maced. 

Rom. 

Gr. 

Swiss. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr 

G~. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Span. 

Rom. 

Scot. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Eng- 

Eng. 

Ital. 

Amer. 

Fr. En 

Hind. 

Eng. 

Scot. 

Amer. 

Scot. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Gr. 

Bug. 



NAJfa AHD PROFESSION. 

Diebitsch-ZabaJkansky, count, military commander 

Diffenbach, John Fred., surgeon and surgical author 

Diez, John Martin, a patriotic military commander 

Dilke, Charles W., journalist, editor of Aihenaeum' 

Dindorf, William, philologist 

Dinocrates, an architect; built Alexandria, <fcc. 

Diocletian, Valerius, emperor 

Dio-Ohrysostom, a rhetorician and philosopher 

Diodati, Giovanni, theologian, translator of Bible . 

Diodorus Siculus, a historian 

Diogenes, the cynic, philosopher. 

, Laertius, biographer . , . 

Dion-Cassius, author of « Roman History ' . 

Dionysius, a geographer . 

, of Alexandria, saint and bishop of the Church 

, the Areopagite, learned Athenian Christian 

— , the elder, tyrant of Syracuse 

, of Halicarnassus, critic and historian . 

, the younger, tyrant of Syracuse . 

Disraeli, Isaac, 'Curiosities of Literature' 

Dix, D'r thea L., philanthropist, founder of asylums . 

, John Adams, U. S. senator from New York, &c. 

Dixon, Y 'lliam Fepworth, author and critic . . 1821 

Doane, jreo. W., Prot. Epis. Bishop of New Jersey, poet, &o. . 1799 

Dobell, r> dviey, poet ..... 1824 

Dodd, Dr. ^ illiam, miscellaneous writer (executed for forgery) 1729 

Doddridge, ihL'ip, a gifted and pious divine and writer . 1702 

1703 
1780 
1170 
62 
1800 
1383 
1797 
1573 
1798 
1468 



BORN 




Dl8,"j 


1785 




1831 


1792 




1841 


1775 




1823 


1810 




1864 


1802 






f, b C. 350 






245 




313 


f. b. c. 30 






1576 




1649 


f. B. o. 10 






b. o. 413 


B. 


0.323 
155 


f.140 






265 






. A. D. 1st 


cent. 


B. o. 430 


B. 


0.367 
53 


B. O. 367 


B. 


0.343 


1767 




1848 



Dodslej, Bibert, publisher and author 

Doeberefinc, J W., chemist .... 

Dominic De juzman, founder of preaching friars . 

Domitian, e'nperor ..... 

Don, David, ootanist .... 

Donatsllo (/ cneto di Bel-lodi Bardi) sculptor , • 

Donizetti, Gaetano, musical composer . . 

Donne, John, poet and theologian . , . 

Donovan, Edward, writer on natural history . , 

Doria, Andrew, the deliverer of his country, (Genoa) . 

Dorr, Tr cmas "W., politician, elected (?) governor of Rhode Island 1805 

D'Orsay, Couiit Alfred, author, artist, and ' beau' . 1798 

Dost-Mo'm mmed, emir of Caboo . 1785 

Douce, Fir ncis, antiquarian and author . . . 1762 

Douglas, Gawin, a poet and translator . . . 1474 

, Frederick, abolitionist, politician and editor . 1817 

Sir Howard, general, military and naval author - 1776 

, Stephen Arnold, United States senator from Illinois 1813 

Dow, Lorenzo, an eccentric preacher .... 1777 
Downes, John, commodore in the United States navy . 1786 

Downing, Andrew J., author of works on landscape gardening 

and horticulture . . . . . 1815 

Dowse, Thomas, a leather dresser, collector of a rare library 1772 

Draco, an Athenian legislator ... f. 623 

Drake Dr. Nathan, physician and essayist . . 1766 



1859 

1777 
1756 
1764 

1221 
93 
1840 
1466 
1848 
1631 
1837 
1560 
1854 
18. r :2 
1863 
1834 
1521 

1861 
1861 
1834 
1855 

1851 
185« 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 



99 



RATIO* 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

E. Am. 

Eng. 

Dutch. 

Eng. 

Fr 

Fr. 

Scot. 

Eng. 

Scot 

Rom. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Swiss. 

Fr. 

Scot. 

Scot. 

Scot 

Scot 

Scot. 

Scot 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Scot. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Oer. 



NAME AND .PROFESSION. 

Drake, Joseph Rodman, poet 

. Samuel G., historian of the Indians, Boston, Ao 

, Sir Francis, a celebrated circumnavigator . 

Draper, John W., chemist and physiologist 

Drayton, Michael, poet, 'Poly-olbion' 

Drebbel, Cornelius van, inventor of the thermometer 

Drew, Samuel, methodist divine and theological author 

Drouyn de l'Huys, Edward, statesman 

Droz, Joseph, historical and political writer 

Drummond, Captain Thomas, inventor of Drummond lights 

, Sir William, scholar, author and diplomatist 



-, William, poet 



Drusus, Claudius Nero, general in Gaul and Germany 

Dryden, John, an eminent poet . 

Duane, William, politician and author of ' Aurora ' 

Ducange, Charles Dufresne, historian and philologist 

Ducas, Michael, Byzantine historian . . . 

Duehatel, C. M. T., count, statesman and author . 

Duchesne, Andrew, a historian 

Duclos, Charles Pineau, an historian 

Duganne, Augustine J. H., poet, novelist and politician 

Dugdale, Sir William, antiquarian author . . 

Duguesclin, Bertrand, military commander . . 

Duhalde, Jean B., geographer 

Dumas, Alexandre, novelist, traveller, &c 

, Alexandre, (the younger), novelist and dramatist 

, J. B., chemist .... 

Dumont d'Urville, J. 8. C, circumnavigator . 

Dumont, John, traveller and political writer . 

, P. S. L., writer on legislation 

Domouriez, Charles Francis Duperier, military commander 
Dunbar, George, professor at Edinburgh, 'Greek Lexicon' 

, William, poet .... 

Duncan, Adam, viscount, successful admiral . 

, William, logician and translator • 

Dundas, Henry, Viscount Melville, statesman 
Dundonald, Earl of, (' Lord Cochrane ') admiral 
Dunglisson, Robiey, M. D., medical author . . 

Dunlap, William, painter and historian 
Dunning, John, Lord Ashburton, lawyer 
Duns Scotus, John, scholastic theologian . 
Dunstan, Saint, ahhot of Glastonbury and politician 
Dupin, A. M. J. J., jurist and statesman . 

, Charles, baron, jurist and statesman . . 

, Louis Elie, an ecclesiastical historian 

Duponceau, P. S., philologist, jurist, &c., (at Philadelphia) 

Dupont, Samuel Francis, admiral . 

Dupuytren, surgeon and anatomist 

Duquesne, Abraham, a gallant admiral . . 

Durand, Asher Brown, painter and engrave; . 

Durbin, John P., methodist divme and author . 

Durer, Albert, painter and engtaver . . 





BORN. 


">rg-> 




1795 


1S2J 




1798 






1545 


15W 




1811 






1563 


16?i 




1572 


1604 




1765 


183; 




1806 






1773 


iS5C 


s 


1797 


1840 




1760 


1835 




1585 


1.649 




B c. 38 


£ 




1631 


1700 




1760 


1835 




1610 


1688 




. 15th cent 




.803 






1584 


1640 




1704 


1722 




1823 






1605 


1686 




1314 


1380 




1674 


1743 




1803 






1824 






1800 






1790 


1842 

1726 




1759 


1829 


r 


1730 


1823 




1774 


1851 




1465 


1535 




1731 


1804 




1714 


1760 




1741 


1811 




1775 


1860 




1798 






1766 


1839 




1731 


1783 




1.274 


1308 




925 


988 




1783 


1865 




1784 






1637 


1719 




1760 


1844 




1803 


1865 




1778 


1835 




1610 


1638 




1796 




• 


1800 






1471 


iOiS 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



KiTIOK. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Amer. Durfee, Job, priest and author .... 

Eng. Durfey, Thomas, dramatic author 

Eug. Durham, J. G., Lambton, earl of, governor-general of Canada 

Fr. Duroc, Michael, Duke of Friuli, military commander 

Amer. Dwight, Dr. Timothy, an eminent divine and writer 

Amer. , Theo., author and journalist 

amer. , The©., (son of the above), ethnologist and historian 

Amer. Duyckinck, Evert Aug., author and critic 

Amer. , Geo. Long, author and critic . . 

Scot. Dye 3, Alex., author and critic . . 

Eng. Dyer, John, poet, 'The Fleece' 

Eng. Dvmond, Jona, writer on ethics and philanthropist • 



BOKB. 


DIED 


1790 


1841 


1628 


172E 


1792 


184C 


1772 


1813 


1752 


1817 


1765 


184b 




1866 


1816 




1823 


1863 


1797 




1700 


1758 


1796 


1720 



Amer. ^astburn, Manton, Episcopal Bishop of Mass. . . 

Eng. Eastlake, Sir Charles L., painter and art-critic . 

Amer. Eaton, Amos, botanist ..... 

Amer. , Wm., military officer and consul in Africa . 

Ger. Fckenoan, John Peter, litterateur 

Amer. Eckfurd, 7Ienry, eminent shipbuilder . . . . 

Ger. Eckhard, John George, an antiquary and historian . 

Irish. Edgeworth, Maria, novelist . . . . 

Eng. Edward, the Black Prince, a warrior . . . 

Amer. , i ula B., theologian and miscellaneous author . . 

Eng. Edwards, 73-yan, an historian .... 

Amer. ' ohn W., jurist and writer on spiritualism . . 

iimer. , jcnathau, an able divine and metaphysician 

, Milne, (son of W. F.,) naturalist 

, W. IP., anatomist and physiologist (born at Jamaica) 

Ger. Eginhard, &c historian, biographer of Charlemagne 

Flem. Egmont, 7 amoral, count, patriot and martyr . . 

Ger. Ehrenberg, C. J., naturalist ..... 

Ger. Eiehbom, F 0., theologian and jurist . . . 

Eng. Eldon, L. :J, lord chancellor of England 

Scot. Elgin, T., 3ruce, earl of, diplomatist — remover of ' Elgin' marbles 

Eng. Elizabeth, queen ...... 

Amer. Eliot, Sarjjel, author of ' History of Liberty' 

Eng. Ellenboro':gh, Edw. Law, lord chief-justice . . 

Eng. , Edw. L., earl of, governor-general of India 

Amer. EMery, Wm., signer of Declaration of Independence 

Eng. Ellesmere. Fr., Egerton, earl of, statesman and author 

Amer. Ellet, Eliza F., biographer and critic 

Amer. Elliot, John, 'the apostle to the Indians' . 

Eng. Elliotson, John, physician and physiologist . . (abt.) 

Amer. Elliott, Charles Loring, portrait painter 

Amer. Charles Wyllys, author of ' History of New England' 

Eng. , Ebenezer, poet ' Corn Law Rhymes' 

Amer. , J. D., commodore ir American navy 

Amer. , Stephen, naturalist ...» 

Amer Ellis, Geo. E., Unitarian clergyman ana autr.or 

Kd.8- — — ; Sir Henrv- antionary and author 



1801 




1793 




1776 


1842 


1764 


1811 


1792 


1852 


1775 


1832 


1674 


1730 


1767 


1849 


1330 


1376 


1802 




1743 


1800 


1799 




1703 


1757 


1777 




771 


840 


1552 


1568 


1795 




1781 


1854 


1750 


1838 


1771 


1841 


1533 


1603 


1821 




1750 


1818 


1790 




1727 


1820 


1800 


1857 


1604 


169u 


1795 




1812 




1817 




1781 




1785 


im 


1771 


1&30 


1815 




1777 





BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



RATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Eng Ellis, Wm. Rev., missionary and author . . (abt, 

Eng. Elliston, Robert "W., actor .... 

Amer. Ellsworth, Elmer E., military offloer in Union army . 

Amer. , Oliver, a distinguished chief-justice of the U. S. 

Eng. Elmes, James, architect and author . . , 

Scot. Elphinstone, Mount Stuart, history of India . , 

Fr. Elesler, Fanny, danseuse .... 

Dutch. Elzevir, Louis M. G. B., and A., printers 16th and 17th centuries 

Amer. Embury, Emma E., poet .... 

Amer. Emerson, Geo. B., educator and author . . , 

Amer. , Ralph "Waldo, poet and essayist . . 

Eng. "William, a distinguished mathematician . , 

Irish. Emmet, Robert, ' United Irishman' (executed) 

Irish. , Thomas Addis, an eminent lawyer and orator . 

Amer. Emmons, Eben, geologist and author 

Amer. -, Nathaniel, D. D., theologian and author . • 

Gr. Empedocles, a Pythagorean philosopher . . 

Encke, John Francis, astronomer . . . 

Amer. Eudicott, John, governor of Massachusetts . • 

Ger. Endlicher, Stephen L., botanist and linguist . . 

Eng. Enfield, "William, miscellaneous writer . . 

Fr. Enghien, Louis EL de Bourbon, duke of, (executed) 

Fr. Eondu Beaumont, chevalier, an eccentric writer and ^cidier 

Gr. Epaminondas, an illustrious Theban general . . 

Gr. Epictetus, a stoic philosopher 

Gr. Epicurus, founder of the Epicurean sect of pi Loi'pk^te . B 
Dutch. Erasmus, Desiderius, a celebrated scholar and rtl. r . 

Ger. Erastus, Thomas, founder of ' Erastianism' theOiO^y . 

Gr. Eratosthenes, astronomer, geologist, poet and philosopher I 

Span. Ercilla, Don Alonzo, a poet . . . 

Span. Ericcira, Ferdinand, a statesman and historian . 

S. Am. Ericsson, John, inventor and engineer in America . . 

Eng. Erigenus, John, a learned writer of the ninth century . 

Pruss. Erman, A. G., 'Travels in Siberia,' &c. . . . 

Ger. Ernesti, John Augustus, an eminent critio . . 

Scot. Erskine, Ebenezer, theologian . . . . 

Scot. , Ralph, divine, ' Gospel Sonnets' . 

Scot. , Thomas, lord, a celebrated forensic orator 

Assyr. Esarhaddon, son and successor to Sennacherib, kin ot Assyria 

Span. Escobar y Mendoza, Anthony, a celebrated casuist 

Span. Espartero, J. B., Duke of "Vittoria, statesman and soldier 

Amer. Espy, James P., meteorologist and author . , . 

Fr. Esquirol, J. E. D., writer on insanity . . , 

Ger. Ess, L. Van, theological writer .... 

Eng, Essex, Robert Devereux, earl of, a warrior . . 

Fr. Estaing, Charles H., count d', naval commander . , 

Auet. Esterhazy, Prince Paul, wealthy statesman . . 

Eng. Etheredge, Sir George, comic author and dramatist . 

Afric. Euclid, an eminent geometrician . , f. 

Ft. Eugene-Francis, prince, a great warrior in the German service 

Bpan. Eugenie, Marie de Gusman, Empress of France , 

Swiss Enler, Leonard, an eminent mathematician . . 



t.) 1795 




i77l 


1881 


1837 


1861 


174S 


180? 


1782 




1778 


1855 


1811 




)B 

1806 


1863 


1797 




1803 




nor 


1782 


1780 


1803 


1764 


1827 


179?. 


1863 


174S 


1840 


1791 


1865 


1589 


1665 


1804 


1849 


1741 


1797 


1772 


1804 


1728 


1810 


B. 


o. 363 


. f. 40 




l. 0. 342 b. 


o. 371 


1467 


1536 


1524 


1583 


J. o. 276 B. 


o. 196 


1525 


1595 


1614 


1699 


1803 




isoe 




1707 


1781 


1680 


1756 


1685 


1752 


1750 


1823 


b. c. 7th cent. 


1589 


1669 


1792 




1785 


1860 


. . 1772 


1840 


1770 


1847 


1567 


1601 


1729 


1794 


1636 


'-694 


B. 0. 300 




166S 


173C 


1826 




1707 


179* 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



MATIGN. NAME AND PROFESSION 

(St. Lu'ipides, a celebrated tragic poet . . . 1 

Or. Euferr'us, bishop of Caesarea, a learned father of the church, and 

ecclesiastical historian. 
Rom. Euti opias, an historian .... 

Rom. Eutyches, an ecclesiastic, founder of a sect . 

Amer. Evanc, Oliver, inventor and engineer . . . 

Amer. Evar+s, Jeremiah, (see Amer. B. C. for Missions) 
'. ig. EvelyD, John, miscellaneous writer . 
Amer. Everett, Alex. H., essayist and diplomatist 

Amer. , Edward, statesman, diplomatist, and author . 

fr'er. Ewald, Geo. H. A. von, orien'alist and theologian . 
.'■'li.Am. Ewbank, Thos., writer on practical mechanics . 

Amer. Ewing, Th "'3., statesman and jurist . . 

Eng. Exmouth, iw. Pellew, viscount, admiral . " . 



Eng. Faber, Geo« £ e Stanley, theological writer . . 

g n g t Frederick Wm., Roman Catholic priest and theological 

author ..... 

Rom. Fabius, Quintus M. V., a skilful warrior . 

Ger. Fabricius. John Albert, a critic and bibliographer . 

jtal. 1 JoLn Christian, a celebrated entomologist 

ltal. Fabroni, Angelo, a learned biographer 

Eng. Fabyan, Rob>».t, chror 5 ".ler 

ltal. Faociolato, 01 ' , acciol..ti. Jat., philologist 

Pruss. Fahrenheit, G<voriel Daniel, an experimental philosopher 

Eng. Fairfax, Edw:-' -d, poet, translator of Tasso 

Eng. , Thomas, lo'-3, a general in the civil war . 

Bng. Falconer, William, a poet .... 

ltal. Faliero, Marino, doge of Venice, (beheaded) • 

Eng. Falkland, Luci'ir '^v. viscount, polilician and author 

Eng. Fanshawe, Sir Kionara, poet and diplomatist 

Trisli. Faraday, Michael, chemist .... 

Port. Faria y Souza, Manuel, an historian and poet 

Eng. Farmer, Hugh, the logian .... 

Amer. Farnham, Mrs. ElUa W., traveller and philanthropist 

Irish. Farquhar, George, i dramatist 

Amer. Farrar, John, irpt'ct . atician and author . . 

Fr. Faucher, Leon pm'tioal economist 

Fr. Fauriel, Claude, historian and belles-lettres author 

Her. Faust, John, me of the inventors of printing . 

It. Favre, J. C. Jules, lawyer and politician . , 

Eng. Fawkes, Francis, a poet and translator . 

Aracr. Fay, Theo. S., author and diplomatist . . 

Fr. Fayette, Mary M., countess of, miscellaneous writer 

Eng. Fellows, Sir Charles, traveller in the East 

Amer. Fel'on. Cornelius C, scholar and critic, president of Harvard 

College ..... 

Fr, Fe^e'ion, Francis de Salignac de la Motto de, an able writer and 

cue of the most virtuous of men . . . 

Bwe. Ferber, John James, an eminent mineralogist . 



BOBN. MED 

0. 480 3 404 



f. 860 

1755 1818 

1781 1831 

1620 1651 

1790 1847 

1794 1869 

1803 

1792 

1789 

1757 1833 



1773 



1815 



1854 



B 


o. 204 


1668 


1736 


1742 


1807 


1732 


1803 


1450 


1515 


1684 


1760 


1686 


1736 




1633 


1611 


1671 


1730 


1769 




1355 


1610 


1643 


1608 


1666 


1790 


1867 


1588 


1647 


1714 


1787 


1815 


1864 


1678 


1707 


1779 


1853 


1803 


1854 


1772 


1844 




1466 


1809 




1632 


1693 


1807 




1632 


1691 


1799 





1607 



1351 
1743 



1713 
1701 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



JUtTIOW, NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Scot. Ferguson, Adam, an historian and moral philosopher 

Scot. , James, a self-educated astronomer, philosophet, &c. 

Scot. Fergusson, James, architect and writer on art 

Span. Fen-eras, John de, a celebrated historian . 

Bcot. Ferrier, Mary, novelist .... 

Ft. Fesch, Joseph, senior, priest, cardinal, archbishop of Lyons 

Amer. Fessenden, Thos. Green, author and journalist 

Amer. , Wo. Pitt, U. S. senator from Maine, ex sec. treas. 

Ger. Eeuerbach, Ludwig, philosopher and author 

Ger. Feurbach, Paul John A. von, statesman and jurist . 

Span. Feyjoo y Montenegro, an able miscellaneous writer 

Ger. Fichte, John G., philosopher . . . 

Ital. Ficino, Marsilius, a Platonic philosopher . . 

Amer. Field, Cyrus W., promoter of Atlantic telegraph . 

Amer. Field, David Dudley, jurist and advocate 

Amer. , Henry Martyn, clergyman, journalist, and author 

Eng. Fielding, Copley Vandyke, painter in water colors . 

Eng. , Henry, a humorous novelist and dramatist 

Ital. Fiesco, John Louis, the conspirator against Doria . 

Amer. Fillmore. Millard, 13th president U. 8. . 

Amer. Finney, Charles G., preacher and theological writer . 

Peru. Firdusi or Ferdusi, poet, author of 60,000 verses 

Amer. Fisk, Wilbur, president Wesleyan University, ' Travels,' &o. 

Amer. Fitch, John, inventor, pioneer of steam navigation . 

Rom. Flaminius, Titus Quintus, general and consul . 

Rom. , Caius, genera], consul, and censor of tribune 

Eng. Flamsteed, John, first astronomer royal . . 

Eng. Flatman, Thomas, poet .... 

Eng. Flavel, John, an eminent non-oenformist divine . 

Fr. Flechier, Esprit, a celebrated prelate . . 

Ger. Fleischer, H. L., orientalist .... 

Scot. Fleming, John, naturalist . . 

Scot. Fletcher, Andrew, of Saltoun, statesman and author . 

Eng. , Giles, poet .... 

Eng. , John, a dramatist . 

Eng. , Phineas, poet . . 

Fr. Floury, Andrew Hercules de, a cardinal and statesman 

j T . , Claude, a divine and historian 

Amer. Flint, Rev. Timothy, novelist and historian 

Fr. Florian, John Peter Claris de, miscellaneous writer 

Ger. Flugel, G. L., philologist and historian . . 

G-er. , John G., lexicographer 

Ger. Follen, C T. C, theologian and philologist (in U. S.) . 

Fr. Fonblanque, J. S. M., jurisprudence 

Fr. Fontenelle, Bernard le Bouvier de, miscellaneous writer 

Amer. Foote, Andrew Hull, admiral and author . . 

Eng. , Samuel, a comic writer and actor . . 

Eng. Forbes, Edward, naturalist and author . . 

Eng. -, John, M. D., medical writer . . . 

Amer. Force, Peter, journalist and historian . . 

Ital Forcellini, Giles, a Latin lexicographer , . 

Eng Ford, Johr, an early dramatic author . . 



BOBN. 

1724 
1710 
1808 
1652 
1782 
1763 
1771 
1806 
1804 
1775 
1701 
1762 
1433 
1819 
1805 
1822 
1787 
1707 

1800 
1792 
940 
1792 
1743 
. 0. 230 B. 
B. 
1646 
1633 
1627 
1632 
1801 
1785 
1658 
1580 
1676 
1584 
1653 
1640 
1780 
1755 
1802 
1788 
1796 
1787 
1657 
1806 
1721 
1815 
1787 
1790 
1688 
1586 



DTED 

me 
1.1* 

MM 

1854 
1839 
1837 



1833 
1764 
1814 
1498 



1856 
1754 
1547 



1020 

1839 

1798 

0. 17 

o. .17 

719 

16r,8 

16.1 

1710 

1857 
1716 
1627 
1626 
1650 
1743 
1722 
1840 
1794 

1855 
1846 
1865 
1757 
1863 
1771 
1864 



IMt 



io4 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



FiTTON. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Eng. Ford, Richard, author of works on Spain 
Ita' Foresti, B. Felice, patriot and litterateur . 
Amer. Forrest, Edwin, actor . . . 

i.'c„ Forster, John, journalist and author . 

Ger. , John R., traveller and naturalist 

Amer. Forsyth, John, diplomatist and statesman . 

Eng. Fosbrooke, Rev. T. D., archaeologist (Ency. Autiq.) 

Ttal. Foscari, Francesco, 45th doge of Venice 

Ital. Foscolo, Nicol Ugo, poet and musical author . 

Eng. Foster, John, essayist 

Vr. Fouche, Joseph, Duke of Otranto, a brutal revolutionist 

6er. Fouque, Fried H. L. de la Motte, author of ' Undine,' &o, 

Ft. Fourier, Charles, founder of the ' social ' system 

Fr. , Francis M. C, writer on social science 

Amer. Fowler, Orson S., phrenologist 

Eng. Fox, Charles James, one of the greatest of statesmen and (irators 

Eng. , George, the founder of the society of Friends or Quakers 

Eng. , John, a divine, author of the ' Book of Martyrs ' 

Eng. , Sir Charles, engineer, builder of Crystal Palace . 

Ital. Fra Diavolo (Michael Pezza), Neapolitan bandit . » 

Francia, Jos6 G. R., dictator of Paraguay . . 

Amei Francis, John W., physician and author . . 

Ital. , Saint, founder of ' Franciscans ' . 

Savvy. , de Sales, saint and bishop . • . 

Irish. , Sir Philip, political writer 

Amer. Franklin, Benjamin, a celebrated philosopher and statesman 

En t . , Sir John, admiral and Arctic explorer 

Scot. Frazer, Simon, Lord Lovat, Jacobite leader, beheaded . 
l:uss. Frederick II., the Great, King, an able general and author . 
Amer. Freeman, James, D.D., first Unitarian minister in U. 8. 
Amer. Frelir.ghuysen, Theo., statesman • 

Amer. Fremont, John Charles, explorer and statesman 
Amer. Freneau, Philip, poet and journalist . . . 

Eng. Frere, John Hookman, poet and diplomatist . . 

Ger. Freytag, G. W. F.„ ' Arabic Dictionary,' &c. . . 

Eng. Frobisher, Sir Martin, a celebrated navigator . . 

Fer. Froebel, Julius, traveller and author . . » 

Fr. Froissart, John, a chronicler and poet . . 

Amer. Frothingham, Eichard, Jr., historian and journalist . 

Eng. Fry, Elizabeth, philanthropist 

Amer. — , Wm. Henry, composer and journalist . . . 

Eng. Fuller, Andrew, an eminent Baptist minister . . 

Amer. , Richard. D. D., Baptist preacher and author 

Amer. , Sarah Margaret, Marchioness d'Ossoli, litlirateur 

Eng. , Thomas, a divine and historian 

Eng. Fullerton, Lady Georgiana, novelist . . . 

Fr. Furetiere, Anthony, a philosopher 

Amer. Furness, William Henry, D. D., Unitarian preacher and author 

B-er. Furst, Julius, orientalist and philologist . 

■wiflg. Fuseli, Henry, painter and writer on art . 



BOXN 


<M«* 


1796 


185t 


1793 


1851 


1806 




1812 




1729 


1798 


J 780 


1841 


1770 


1842 


1372 


1451 


1777 


1821 


1770 


18« 


17G3 


1820 


1777 


1843 


1772 


13S6 


1772 


183*i 


1809 




ors 1748 


1806 


1624 


1690 


1517 


1581 


1810 




1769 


1806 


1757 


1840 


1789 


1861 


11S2 


1228 


1567 


1622 


1740 


1808 


1706 


1790 


1786 


1841 


1667 


1741 


1712 


1786 


1759 


1S35 


1787 


1862 


1813 




1752 


1832 


1769 


1846 


1778 






1594 


1806 




1333 


1400 


1812 




1780 


1845 


1815 


1864 


1754 


1815 


1808 




1810 


1850 


1608 


1661 


1812 




1620 


1681 


>r 1802 




1805 




1741 


1821 



ORN. 


DISI) 


1724 


180( 


1788 


1858 




1787 


1670 


174C 


175;. 


1829 


l n OA 


1806 


17/" 


1849 




1st cent, 


131 




1786 




1564 


1642 


1758 


182S 


1808 




1761 


1844 



BIOGRAPHICAL LNDEX, 105 



SATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Amer. Gadsden, Christopher, revolutionary statesman 

Amer. , James, statesman and negotiator . , 

Eng. Gage, Thomas, last royal governor of Massachusetts • . 

Fr. Gagnier, John, an orientalist and author . . . 

Fr. Gail, J. B., philologist ..... 

Fr. Gaillard, Gabriel Henry, miscellaneous writer and historian 

Amer. Gaines, Major-General B. P., military commander . . 

Rom. Gaius, or Caius, jurist and legal writer . . . 

Gr. Galen, Claudius, a celebrated physician . . . 

En. Am. Gales, Joseph, founder of ' National Intelligencer * . 

Ital. Galileo, an illustrious philosopher and astronomer 

Ger. Gall, John Joseph, a celebrated physiologist, and founder of the 
science of phrenology .... 

Amer. Gallagher, William D., journalist and poet 

8. Am. Gallatin, Albert, statesman, diplomatist, philologist, and ethnoL 

Amer. Gallaudet, Thomas H., founder of the first American asylum for 

deaf and dumb . . . . . 1787 1851 

\Buss. Gallitzin, the name of several distinguished princes . . 16th to 17th cent. 

Russ. , Demetrius Aug., a noble missionary priest . 

Scot. Gait, John, novelist ...... 

ItaL Galvani, Louis, a physician and experimental philosopher, dis- 
coverer of galvanic electricity .... 

Port. Gama, Vasco, navigator, first who doubled the Cape of Good Hope 

Jew. Gamaliel, a Pharisee, doctor of the law 

Ger. Gans, Edward, jurist ..... 

Span. Garcia, Manuel, musical composer .... 

Span. Garcias-Lasso de la Vega, the prince of Spanish poetry . 

Spau. Garcilasso de la Vega, one of the conquerors of Pern 

Eng. Gardiner, Stephen, Roman Catholic prelate . . 

Ital. Garibaldi, Giuseppe, patriotic general and leader . . 

Pr. Gamier, Count Germain, jurist .... 

Eng. Garrick, David, a celebrated actor and dramatist . . 

Amer Garrison, William Lloyd, abolitionist politician 

Eng. Garth, Sir Samuel, physician and poet 

Eng. Gascoigne, Sir William, the judge who imprisoned Henry, Prince 
of Wales, for a misdemeanor .... 

Eng. Gaskell, Elizabeth C, novelist ..... 

Fr. Gassendi, f'eter, a celebrated philosopner 

Gaston de Foix, duke of Nemours, general, 

Amer. Gates, Horatio, a distinguishes officer in the Revolution 

Fr. " Gavarni," real name Sulpice Paul Chevalier, caricaturist 

Eng. Gay, John, a popular poet ..... 

Fr. Gay-Lussac, N. F. chemist .... 

Span. Gayangos, Pascal de, Oriental scholar and historian 

Amer. Gayarre, Charles A., historian .... 

Eng. Gell, Sir William, scholar and antiquary (Pompeii and Rome) 

Ger. Gellert, Chrisiian Furchtegott, a poet and miscellaneous writer 

Rom. Gellius, Aulius ; gra.nmarian .... 

Pr Genest, o: &enet, Edwarrt C , diplomwif : 



1770 


1840 


1779 


1.8*9 


1737 


'798 




i52- 




88 


1798 


•.841 


1779 


i83? 


1503 


153*! 




155« 


1483 


1565 


1806 




1754 


1821 


1716 


17',9 


1805 




1718 




1350 


1413 


IS'20 


186ft 


1592 


1656 


1489 


1512 


1728 


1806 


1801 




J68S 


17&2 


1778 


1850 


1809 




1805 




1777 


1834 


1715 


1764 


A. D. 


2d cent. 


1765 


1834 



to6 



THE WORLD'S PROOREHS. 



KAIfOX. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Bai. Genghie Khan, a celebrated conqueror 

Fr. Genlis, Stephania Felicite, Countess de, miscellaneous writer 

Eng. Geoffrey of Monmouth, an historian of the 12th century 

Fr. Geoffroy-Saint Hilaire Etienne, zoologist . . , 

Fr. Gerando, Baron de, writer on education, &c. . 

Fr. Gerard, Etienne Maurice, count, marshal of France , 

Rom. Gsrmanicus, Tiberius Drusus Cajsar, military commander 

Amer. Gerry, Elbridge, a distinguished patriot, vice-president U. S. 

Fr. Gerson, John Chattier de, an ecclesiastic and author , 

Amer. Gerstacker, Fried, novelist and traveller 

Ger. -iervinus, George Gottfried, historian and politician 

Ger. <3esenius, Fred. Hein. William, orientalist and biblical critic 

Swiss. Gessner, Conrad, an eminent naturalist . . . 

Ger. , John Matthias, a philologist 

Ital. Giannone, Peter, an historian . . . . 

Ame- Gibbes, Robert Wilson, physician and author 

Eng. Gibbon, Edward, one of the greatest of England's historians 

Amer. Gibbs, Josiah "W., philologist .... 

An.br. Gibson, Colonel John and Col. George, both officers in the Revo 

lution ...... 

Eng. , Thomas Milner, statesman . . 

Amer. Giddings, Joshua Reed, statesman . . . 

Eng. Giflbrd, William, a critic and poet 

Eng , John, an historical and political writer . 

Ger. Gieseler, John K. L., church historian 

Eng. Gilbert, James W., writer on banking 

Eng. , Sir Humphrey, one of the earliest adventurers in Amer. 

Hcot. Gilfillan, George, clergyman and author 

Eng. Gill, John, a divine, oriental scholar and author 

Amer. Gillespie, Wm. M., professor and author on engineering 

Scot. Gillies, John, ' History of Greece,' &c. 

Amev. Gilman, John T., noted governor of New Hampshire • 

Amer. , Samuel, Unitarian clergyman and author . 

Eng. Gilpin, Bernard, ' apostle of the North ' . . 

Eng. , Wm., writer on the picturesque 

Eng. O-ilray, James, engraver and caricaturist 

Ital. Oloberti, Vincenzo, philosopher, priest, and statesman 

Ital. Gioja, Melchior, writer on economical sciences 

Sw. Am. Girard, Charles, naturalist 

Fr.Am, , Stephen, merchant, banker, millionaire , 

Fr. Girardin, Emil de, journalist . . . 

Eng. Gladstone, Wm. Ewart, statesman and author . 

Eng. Glanvill, Joseph, divine, philosopher, and author . 

Eng. Gleig, Geo. Robt., clergyman and author . . 

Welsh Glendower, Owen, chieftain . . • 

Eng. Gliddon, Geo. Robins, Egyptologist and author . 

Ger. Gluck, Christop W. von, musical oomposer 

6we. Gmelin, John Frederick, chemist 

Ft. Godfrey, of Bouillon, or Boulogne, a celebrated leader In the 

Crusades ..... 

Amer. Godman, John, M. D., a distinguished naturalist, <fcc. 

Eng. Godolphin, Sidney, earl of statesman . , 



BOBN. 


BUI 


1164 


1225 


1746 


1830 


1772 


1844 


1770 


1842 


1773 


1852 




19 


1814 




1363 


1429 


1816 




1805 




1786 


1842 


1516 


1565 


1691 


1761 


1676 


1758 


1809 - 




1737 


1794 


1790 
>• 




1807 




. 179E 


1860 


1757 


1826 


1758 


1818 


1792 


1854 


1794 


1868 


r. 


1583 


1813 




1697 


1771 


. 1816 




1747 


1836 


1759 


1828 


1701 


1858 


16 7 


1583 


17^4 


1804 


1757 


1815 


1801 


1852 


1767 


1829 


1822 




1750 


1831 


1802 




1809 




1636 


16S4 


1796 




1349 


1413 


1809 


1857 


1714 


1781 


1748 


ISOi 




1106 


1794 


1836 


1640 


1713 



BIOGRAPHICAL IND&S. 



107 



RATIO* 

Span. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Ital. 

Irish. 

Dutch. 

Span. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Scot. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Hung. 

Gr. 

Russ. 

lines. 

Amer. 

En.Am 

Irish. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Rom. 

Rom. 

Ger. 

Scot, 

Scot. 

Scot. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Scot. 

Scot 

Scot. 

Span. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Ital. 

Irish. 

Dutch. 

Amer. 

Amer, 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Godoy, Manuel de, statesman, ' prince of the peace' , 

Godwin, Parke, journalist and historian . . 

, William, novelist and metaphysician . , 

Goethe, John Wolfgang, poet and novelist 
Goldoni, Charles, the Italian Moliere . . . 

Goldsmith, Oliver, celebrated poet and miscellaneous writer 
Golius, James, orientalist and lexicographer . 

Gonsalvo, of Cordova, a celebrated warrior . . 

Good, John Mason, physician and author . . , 

Goodrich, Chauncey A., scholar and divine . . 

, Frank B., (son of Samuel G.,) author 

, Samuel Giiswold, 'Peter Parley,' voluminous author 

Goodyear, Charles, inventor and India-rubber patentee 
Gordon, ' lord George,' political agitator 

, Wm., author of History of the United States . 

Gore, Catharine G., novelist 

Gorges, Sir Ferdinando, ' lord proprietor of Maine' . 
G5rgey, Arthur, general in the Revolution, (supposed traitor) 
Gorgias, an orator and sophist .... 
Gorton nkoff, Michael, prince, general in Crimea, dtc . 
, Alexander, prince, diplomatist . . 



Gorton, Samuel, enthusiast and author . . 

Gough, John B., lecturer on temperance . . 

, Hugh, viscount, general in India. &o. . . 

Gould, Augustus A., naturalist and physician 

, Hannah F., poet . . . . 

, John, naturalist and author 

Gourgaud, Gaspard, haron, one of Napoleon's generals 
Gower, John, one of the earliest English poets 
Gracchus, Tiberius Sempronius, a celebrated democrat 

, Caius Sempronius 

Graefe, or Graevius, an erudite classic writer . 

Grahame, John, viscount of Dundee, lord Grahame of Claver 

house, general ..... 
, James, a poet .... 



-, James, author of ' History of the United States ' 



Grammont, Count Philibert, licentious author of Memoirs' 
Grandville, J. S. G., caricaturist and artist . . 

Granier, Adolphe, journalist and historian 
Grant, Anne, (of Laggan,) novelist, essayist, &o. . 

, James, journalist and author . . , 

, James, novelist .... 

Granvelle, Ant. Pierre, cardinal de, statesman . . 

Granville, Q. G. Leweson Gower, 2d earl of, statesman . 

, John Carteret, earl, statesman . . 

Gratian, a monk, compiler of the canon law . , 

Grattan, Henry, a distinguished orator and statesman . 

, Thomas Colley, novelist . . , 

Gravesande, "Wm. Jacob, a geometrician and philosopher 
Gray, Asa, botanist, prof, in Harvard, author of • Flora,' &o, 

, Henry Peters, painter. . . . 

, John Edward, naturalist . . . . 



BOBH. 

1767 
1816 
1755 
1749 
1707 
1731 
1596 
1443 
1764 
1790 
1826 
1793 
1800 
1750 
1730 
1799 



1818 

f. B. O. 

1792 
1800 
1600 
1817 
1779 
1805 
(abt.) 1800 
1804 
1783 



1632 



1643 
1765 
1770 
1621 
1803 
1805 
1755 
1806 
1822 
1517 
1816 
1690 
f. 12th 
1750 
1796 
1688 
1810 
1819 
(abt.) 1800 



HMD. 

1861 

1834 

1831 
1793 
1774 
1667 
1516 
1827 
1860 

1860 
1860 
1793 
1807 

1647 

6th cent 
1861 

1077 



1866 

1853 

1402 

B. 0. 133 

B. 0. 121 

1708 

1689 
1811 
1842 
1707 
1847 

1838 



1588 
1793 



cent. 



1821 
1864 
1741 



io8 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



KATIOA. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIES 

Eng. Gray, Thomas, poet .... . 1716 1771 

Airier. Graydon, Alex., author of ' Revolutionary Memoirs ' • 1762 1818 

Amer. Greeley, Horace, journalist and politician . . .1811 

Fr. Gregory L, the Great, pope, author . . 544 604 

Ital. , VIL, the Great, pope Hildebrand, celebrate^ despot . 1085 

Scot. , David, philosopher and mathematician . . 1661 1710 

Irish. , George, D. D., miscellaneous writer . . . 1754 1808 

Soot. , James, philosopher and mathematician . . 1648 1685 

, Nazianzen, St. Christian, writer . . . 328 389 

— — — of Nyssa, St. Christian, writer . . . 331 396 

Eng. , Olinthus, mathematician and religious writer . 1774 1841 

Fr. of Tours, historian . . . . 544 593 

Amer. Green, Ashbel D. D., clergyman and author . . 1762 1848 

Amer. , Horace, physician, author of medical works . 1802 1866 

Amer. Greene, Chas. G., journalist and politician . • 1804 

Amer. , Geo. Washington, scholar and critic . . 1811 

Eng. , Matthew, poet ..... 1696 1737 

Amer. , Nathaniel, maj. gen., distinguished in the Revolution 1741 1786 

Amer. , Nathaniel, author and journalist . . . 1797 

Eng. ■ , Robt., dramatist .... 1560 1592 

Amer. Greenhow, Robert, historical writer .... 1800 1854 

Amer. Greenleaf, Simon, jurist and author . . . 1783 1858 

Amer. Greenough, Horatio, sculptor and author . . . 1805 1852 

Eng. Greville, Sir Fulke, (Lord Brooke), statesman and author . 1554 1628 

Eng. Grey, Earl, statesman, whig premier for William IV. . 1764 1845 

Eng. , Lady Jane, the accomplished victim of another's ambition 1537 1554 

Ger. Griesbach, John James, an eminent theologian and philologist . 1745 1812 

Amer. Griffin, Edward D., D. D., theologian , . . 1770 1837 

Irish, , Gerald, novelist . . . . . 1803 1840 

Amer. Giimke, Thomas S., jurist . , . 1786 1834 

Ger. Grimm, J. M. C, miscellaneous writer . . . 1785 1863 

Amer. Griscom, John, educator, philanthropist . . . 1774 1852 

Amer. Griswold, Alex, V., bishop Prot. Epis. Church, New England . 1766 1843 

Aroer. _ — . , Uufus Wilmot, author and oritio . . 1815 1857 

Dutch. Gronovius, James, an erudite critic .... 1645 1716 

Eng. Grose, Francis, antiquary and author . . . 1731 1791 

Amer. Gross, Samuel D., physician, surgeon, and author . . 1805 

Eng. Grote, George, author of History of Greece . . 1794 

Ger. Grotefend, G F., philologist .... 1775 1836 

Dutch. Grotius or DeGroot, Hugh, an eminent scholar . . 15S3 1645 

Fr. Grouchy, Emanuel, count, marshal of France . . 1776 1S47 

Amer Grundy, Felix, senator of the U. S. . . (Tenn.) 1777 1840 

Ger. Gryph, Andrew, a dramatist .... 1616 1664 

Ital. Guarini, John Baptist, a poet .... 1537 1612 

Ger. Guericke, Otto, experimental philos., inventor of the air-pump . 1602 1686 

Ital. Guerrazi, Francesco D., author and politician . . 1805 

Ital. Guiccardini, Francis, an historian .... 1482 1540 

Fr. Guillotin, Joseph T.. benevolent physioian, inventor of the guillotine 1738 1814 

Fr. Guise, Charles of, cardinal, a bigoted and ambitious statesman 1525 1574 

Fr. , Francis of Lorraine, duke of, celebrated warrior . 1519 1663 

Fr. ., Henry of Lorraine, duke of, an ambitious warrior . 1550 1681 

Wt. Guiaot, Francis, statesman, historian, and metaphysician . 1787 



BIOG11APHICAL INDEX. 



109 



UATIOK, 

Nor. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

fol 

Eng. 

Swe. 

Swe. 

Swe. 

Swe 

Amer. 

Scot. 

Ger. 

Pruss. 

Fr. 

Eng. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. B0RH. 

Guiscard, Robert, a Norman warrior .... 1015 
Gunter, Edmund, a mathematician, inventor of the Gunter scale 1581 
Gurney, Jo3eph John, philanthropist . (Soc. Friends) 1788 

Gurowsky, Adam de, count, publicist and author . . 1805 

Gurwood, John, Col, editor of Wellington's Despatches . 1791 

Gustavus L, (Gustavus Vasa) king of Sweden 

1L, Adolphus, king of Sweden ; able warrior 

III., king of Sweden . . , . 

IV., Adolphus, king of Sweden . . 



Guthrie, James, secretary of the treasury to Pierce 

, "William, author of a history of England, Scotland, &c. 



Guttenberg, John, one of the inventors of printing 
Gutzlaff, Charles, traveller and historian of China 
Guyon, Jeanne M. £., de la Motte, mystical teacher and writer 
, Richard D., general in the service cf Hungary, &c. 

Sw.Ain.Guyot, Arnold H., writer on physical geography 

Eng. Gwynn, Eleanor, (' Nell Gwynn ') mistress of Charles II. 

Hg. Au.GyuIai, Francis, count, commander of Austrian army in Italy 

Eng. Habington, Wm., poet .... 

Amer. Hackett, Horatio B., biblical critic . . . 

Amer. , James H., actor . . . . 

Pers. Hafiz, Mohammed, the Anacreon of Persia » • 

Ger. Hagenbach, Karl L., ecclesiastical historian . . 

Ger. Halm, August, theological writer .... 

Ger. , Simon Frederick, an historian . . . 

Ger. Hahneman, founder of 'Homeopathy ' in medicine . 

Ger. Hahn-Hahn, Ida, countess of, traveller and novelist 

Eng. Hakluyt, Richard, author of voyages, &c, of the English . 

Scot. Haldane, Robert, philanthropist and theologian 

Scot. Haldeman, S. S., naturalist and philologist 

Amer. Hale, Benj., D.D., educator and author 

Amer. , David, journalist, founder of N. Y. Journal of Commerce 

Amer. , Nathan, revolutionary patriot, executed as a spy 

Amer. , Nathan, journalist, Boston Daily Advertiser . 

Amer. , Sarah J., poet and prose writer . . . 

Eng. , Sir Matthew, eminent and incorruptible judge 

Fr. Halevy, J. F. C, musical composer . . . 

Eng. Halford, Sir Henry, physician and medical writer . 

Eng. Haliburton, Thos. C, humorous writer, • Sam Slick' . 

Eng. Hall, Capt. Basil, author of Travels, &c. 

Amer. , Gordon, first American missionary in Bombay . 

Amer. , James, jurist and author 

Amer. , James, geologist and palaeontologist . . . 

Eng. , Joseph, bishop of Norwich, theological author 

Eng. , Rev. Robert, theologian and pulpit orator . . 

Eng. Hallam, Henry, historian .... 

Amer. Halleck, Fitz Greene, poet 

Swiss Haller, Albeit von, miscellaneous wi iter 

Eng. nalley, Edmund, an eminent astroi Dmer and matbematiolan 

Eng. Halliwell, James Orchard, archteologist and author 

Scot. Halyburton, Thomas, theological writer . • . 

Garth. Hamilcar Barca, a Carthaginian general 



1496 
1594 
1746 
1778 
1793 
1708 
1400 
1803 
1648 
1813 
1807 
1650 
1798 
1605 
1808 
1800 

1801 
1807 
1692 
1755 
1805 
1553 
1764 
1812 
1797 
1791 
1758 
1784 
1795 
1609 
1799 
1766 
1803 
1788 
1784 
1793 
1811 
1574 
1764 
177T 
1795 
1708 
1656 
1820 
1674 



Pil-.L. 

1084 
1619 

1S47 
1866 
1845 
1560 
1633 
1792 
1837 

1770 

146S 
1851 
1717 
1856 

1687 
1866 
164£ 



1389 

1857 
1729 
1843 

1616 
1842 



1849 
1776 
1863 

167C 
18G2 
1844 
1865 
1814 
1821 



1656 
1831 

1859 

1777 
1741 

17M 

i. 23« 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



MAT ION 

Araer. 

Irish. 

Amer. 

Soot. 

Scot. 

Irish. 

Scot. 

£ng. 

Ger. 

Bng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Araer. 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Garth. 

Carth. 

Nor. 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Bar. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Er *. 



SAME AND PROFESSION. 

Hamilton, Alexander, statesman, first secretary of treasury, U. 8, 

, Elizabeth, a talented miscellaneous writer 

, James, statesman, U. S. senator from South Carolina 

, Sir Wm., diplomatist and antiquary 

, Sir Wm., metaphysician .... 

, Sir Wra. Rowan, mathematician and philosopher 

, Thos., Capt., novelist, ' Men and Manners in America 

, William Richard, archsBologist . 



BOB8. 

1757 
1758 
1786 
1730 
1788 
1805 
1789 
1777 
1774 
1710 
1807 
1594 
1755 
1737 
1684 
B. c. 247 
b. o. 



Hammer, Baron von, historian and orientalist . . 

Hammond, James, poet ..... 

, James H., U. S. senator from South Carolina 

Hampden, John, a celebrated patriotic statesman . 

Hampton, Wade, general in revolution 

Hancock, John, a distinguished patriot, president of Congress 

Handel, Geo. Frederick, one of the greatest musical composers 

Hannibal, or Ann ibal, general against Rome . 

Hanno, navigator ...... 

, the Great, general and statesman . . . 

Hanstein, G.. mathematician and astronomer . . . 1784 

Harbaugh, Henry, author of religious works . , 1817 

Hardenbergh, Karl A. von, statesman . . . 1750 

Harding, Chester, portrait painter . . . 1792 

, James D., artist and author on art . . . 1798 

Hardinge, Henry, viscount, general and governor-general of India 1785 

Hardwicke, Charles, theological writer . . . 1821 

Hare, Julius Charles, archdeacon, theological writer . . 1795 

, Robert, chemist and physicist . , . 1781 

Harlan, Richard, M. D., naturalist .... 1796 

Harley, Robert, earl of Oxford, celebrated statesman . 1661 
Haroun Al Raschid, caliph, a patron of learning 

Harper, James, John, J. Wesley, and Fletcher, publishers, born 1795, 

Harrington, James, political writer .... 1611 

Harriott, Thos., mathematician and voyager to Virginia . 1560 

Harris, James, compiler of the first Cyclopedia, dec. . . 1670 

, John, theological writer .... 1804 

, Thaddeus Wm., naturalist .... 1795 

Harrison, Gen. Wm. H., military commander and president U. S. 1773 
Harvard, John, founder of Harvard College 

Harvey, William, discoverer of the circulation of the blood 1569 

Hase, Henry, classical antiquary . . . 1789 

, Karl Aug., theological author . . . 1800 

Hassenclever, John Peter, painter (Dusseldorf school) . . 1810 

Haslam, John, writer on insanity .... 1764 

Hastings, marquis Of, military commander . . . 1754 

, Warren, governor-general of British India . 1733 

Hauser, Casper, a mysterious " wild boy " . . . 

Hauseez, Baron, minister of Charles X., traveller . . 1778 
Hatton, Sir Christopher, lord chancellor . , 

Hauy, Rene Just, mineralogist .... 1742 

Havelock, Henry, general in India . . ■ 1795 

Haven, Alice B., author of juvenile books . . . 1828 

Haviland, Jobr, architect .... 1792 



1804 
1816 
1857 
1803 
1858 

1842 
1859 
1856 
1742 

1643 

1835 

1793 

1758 

3. o. 183 

5th cent. 

b. c. 202 



7, I 



1822 
1866 
1863 
1856 
1859 
1855 
1858 
1843 
17-24 
808 
:01,'4 
1677 
1621 
1719 
1856 
1856 
1841 
1688 
1658 
1842 

1853 
1844 
1825 
1818 
1833 

1591 
1822 
1857 
1866 
1651 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



» ATIOS. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Amer. Hawes, Joel, Congregational clergyman and author , , 

Eng. Hawke, Edward, lord, a brave and successful admiral . 

Eng. Hawksworth, Dr. John, miscellaneous writer . . . 

Eng. Hawkins, Sir John, a navigator, originator of the slave trade 

Eng. , Sir John, author of ' History of Music,' &c. . . 

Amer. Hawks, Francis Lister, Episcopal divine and historian , 

Amer. Hawthorne, Nathaniel, novelist .... 

Ger. Haydn, Joseph, a celebrated musical composer . . 

Eng. Haydon, Beuj. A,, historica painter .... 

Amer. Hayes, Isaac, Arctic navigator and author 

Eng. Hayley, "William, a poet and miscellaneous writer . . 

Amer. Hayne, Bobert T., governor of South Carolina and senator U. S. 

Amer. Haynes, Lemuel, colored preacher and patriot 

Eng. Haywood, Abraham, translator of ' Faust ' . . 

Eng. Hazlitt, Wilnam, essayist and critic .... 

Eng. Head, Sir Francis B., author of Travels, &c . , 

Eng. , Sir George, author of * Rome,' &c. . . . 

Amer. Headley, Joel T., author of biographies and histories 

Amer. Heath, Wm., major-general in the revolution, author of Memoirs 

Eng. Heber, Reginald, a divine and poet . . , 

Eng. , Richard, bibliomaniac and book collector . . 

Ger. Hecker, Fred. K. P., politician .... 

Amer. , Isaac F., Roman Catholic clergyman and author . 

Eng. Heckwehler, John, Moravian missionary and author . 

Ger. Hederick, Benjamin, a lexicographer ... 

Amer. Hedge, Fred. H., clergyman and author . . . 

Ger. Hedwig, John, a physician and botanist . , 

Ger. Heeren, A. H. L., historian .... 

Ger. Hegel, G. W. F., metaphysician .... 

Ger. Heine, Henry, poet and litterateur ... 

Ger. Heineccius, Jno. G.. juridical author . , 

Rom. Helena, St., wife of Constantius Chlorus, emperor . . 

Gr. Heliodorus (of Emessa) the first romance writer . fl. 

Fr. Heloise, abbess of the Paraclete, famed for intrigue with Abelard 

Eng. Helps, Arthur, essayist and dramatist , , , 

Fr. Helvetius, Claude A., philosopher . . . 

Ger. Helvicus, Christopher, a chronologist , . 

Eng. Hemans, Felicia D., poetess .... 

Eng. Henfey, Arthur, botanist ..... 

Ger. Hengstenberg, E. W., metaphysician, antiquary and theologian 

Eng. Henley, John, clergyman and author, ' orator Henley' 

Flem. Hennepin, Louis, missionary and explorer of N. A. . 

Eng. Henningsen, Chas. Fred., author and soldier , 

Fr. Henry IV., an able and popular monarch . , . 

Amer. , Caleb S., clergyman and author . . . 

Ames. , Joseph, physicist, director of Smithsonian Institute 

Amer. , Matthew, author of ' Comment, on the Bible ' . . 

Port. , the Navigator, prince, 3d son of John I. 

Scot. , Robert, an historian • • . . 

Amer. — — , Patrick, an orator and patriot . , 

Amer Hentz, Caroline Lee, novelist • • • . 

Rom. Heraclius (born in Cappadooia), emperor of the East . 



BOBS. 


Dnm 


1789 


188H 


1713 


178' 


1715 


177S 


1520 


1595 


1719 


1783 


1798 


186ft 


1804 


1862 


1732 


1809 


1786 


1840 


1745 


1820 


1791 


1835 


1758 


1834 


1800 




1778 


1830 


1793 




1782 


1855 


1814 




1737 


1814 


1783 


1826 


1773 


1833 


1811 




1819 




1743 


1823 


1675 


1748 


1805 




1730 


1799 


1760 


1842 


1770 


1831 


1799 


1856 


1681 


1741 


247 


327 


4th cent 




1101 


1164 


1817 




1715 


1771 


1581 


1617 


1794 


1835 


1800 




1802 




1692 


1756 


1640 


1699 


1815 




1553 


1610 


1804 




1797 




1662 


1T14 


1394 


1463 


1718 


1790 


1736 


1799 




1851 


576 


641 



THE WOKLD'b PROGRESS. 



HAT30JT. NAME AND PROFESSION. CORN. 

Gr. Heraclitus, a philosopher . . . . f. B. o. 504 

Eng. Herbert, Edward, Lord of Cherhury, diplomatist and philosopher 1581 



Eng. Herbert, George, clergyman and poet 

Eng.Am, , Henry Wm. novelist and miscellaneous author 



Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
G<*r. 
Scot. 
Ger. 
Ger. 
Gr. 



, Sidney, statesman 

, Wm., (3rd Earl of Pembroke) poet 

— — — , Wm., dean of Manchester, poet and philosopher 
Herder, John Godfrey, a philosophical writer 
Heriot, George, goldsmith, founder of school 
Hermann, Ch. F., philologist, « History of Philosophy' &o. 
, J. G. J., philologist 



Hermogenes, a rhetorician . . . 

Amer. Herndon, Wm. L., naval commander and explorer . 

Herod, Agrippa I, King of Judea, (grandson of Herod the Great) b 
, the Great, King of the Jews 



Gr. 

Gr. 

Fr. 

Span, 

Mex. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Jew. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Russ, 

Gr. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Eng. 



1593 

1807 

1810 

1580 

1778 

1744 

1563 

1804 

1772 

180 

1813 

c. 7 

B. 0. 71 

f. 230 



Herodian, an historian .... 

Herodotus, the earliest of the Greek historians whose works are 

extant . . . . . • b. o. 484 

Herold, L. G. F., musical composer . . , 1792 

Herrera, Anthony, an historian . • • . 1659 

, Jose J. de, president of Mexico • . . 

Herrick, Robert, poet ..... 1591 

Herschel, Caroline L., astronomer . . . 1750 

, Sir William, one of the greatest of astronomers . 1738 

Herschell, Dr. Solomon, chief rabbi of the Jews in England 1760 
, Sir J. F. "W., astronomer and natural philosopher 



Hervey, James, a pious and amiable divine and writer 

, Thomas K. , poet and prose writer 

Herzen, Alexander, publicist, editor and author . 



Hesiod, a poet, contemporary of Homer . , 

Heyne, C. G., a learned critic and writer . , 

Heywood, Thomas, humorist and dramatist . . 

Hickes, George, a theologian and philologist . 

Amer. Hickok, Laurens P., metaphysical author . . 

Amer. Hicks, Elias, preacher of the Society of Friends 
Amer. Hildreth, Richard, author of History of the United States 
Fr. Hilaire, Geoff. St., naturalist . , 

Eng. Hill, Rowland, author of cheap postage in England 
Eng. Hill, Rowland, Rev., eccentric clergyman . 

Eng. , Rowland, viscount, general in Spain and at Waterloo 

Eng. , Sir John, a botanist and multifarious writer . 

Amer. Hillard, George S., author and journalist . . 

Jew. Hiilel, the elder, compiler of the Talmud . 

Amer. Hillhouse, James A., poet .... 

Eng. Hind, John Russell, astronomer 

Eng. Hinton, John Howard, author of History of United States 

Gr. Hipparclrus, astronomer .... 

Gr Hippocrates, the father of medicine . . . 

Hippolytus, Saint, ecclesiastical writer 
Amer. Hitchcock, Edward, D. D, theologian and geologist . 

, Roswell D., theologian, orator, and patriot 

Kng. Hoadley, William, a celebrate*! prelate a^ author . 



1713 
1799 
1812 
. 907 
1729 
1650 
1642 
1798 
1748 
1807 
1772 
1795 
1744 
1772 
1716 
1808 
B. 0. 112 
1789 
1823 
1800 
b. o, 
B. c. 460 

A. D 

1793 
1670 



DIB6 

1646 
1632 

1858 

1630 
1847 
1803 
1624 

1848 

1859 

J». 44 

4 



1833 
1625 
1851 
1674 
1848 
1822 
1842 

1758 
1859 



1715 

1830 
1863 
1844 

1833 
1842 
1775 



1841 

2d cent 
3d cent, 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



"3 



JUTIOH NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Amer. Hobart, John Henry, bishop of New York . . 

Eng. Hobbes, Thomas, a philosopher and translator. . 

Eng. Hobhouee, John Cam., Lord Broughton, author and statesman 
Fr. Hoche, Lazarus, a military commander . . . 

Amer. Hodge, Charles, Rev., theological writer . . 

Amer. Hoe, Richard M., an inventor of printing presses , , 

Swiss. Hofer, Andrew, a Tyrolian patriot . . . 

Eng. Hofland, Barbara, novelist .... 

Eng. Hoffman, David, lawyer and author . . . 

Amer. Hoffman, Charles Fenno, poet and novelist , . 

Scot. Hogg, James, ' the Ettrick Shepherd,' poet . . 

Hung. Hohenlohe, prince of, prelate, and alleged miracle worker . 
Dan. Holberg, Louis, baron de, an historian . . 

Amer, Holbrook, John E., naturalist .... 
Eng. Holcroft, Thomas, a dramatist and miscellaneous writer 
Eng. Hole, Matthew, writer on the Liturgy 
Eng. Holingshed, chronicler .... 

Amer. Holland, JosiahG., journalist, poet and essayist . , 

Eng. , Lord, statesman and litterateur . . 

Eng. ■, Philemon, a translator .... 

Amer, Hollis, Thomas, benefactor of Harvard College . 

Amer. , Thomas, philanthropist (life, 2 vols., 4to) . . 

Eng. Holman, James, a blind traveller and author . . 

Amer. Holmes, Abiel, D. D., ' Annals of America' . . 

Amer. , Oliver Wendell, physician, poet and essayist , 

Eng. Holt, Sir John, lord chief justice . . . 

Amer. Holyoke, Edward Aug., physician and naturalist , 

Scot. Home, Henry, Lord Kaimes, ' Criticism' . . 

Scot. , John, a divine, dramatist and historian . 

Gr. Homer, the greatest of poets, supposed to have flourished 
Eng. Hone, Wm., author of ' Every Day Book,' and political works 
Eng. Hood, Samuel, viscount, a naval officer 

Eng. , Thomas, poet and humorist . . . 

Dutch. Hoogvliet, Arnold, a poet .... 

Eng. Hook, Robert, a mathematician . , . 

, Theo. E., novelist and humorist . . . 

Hooke, Nathaniel, author of a Roman history . 

Hooker, Joseph D., physician and botanist . . 

, Richard, an eminent divine . . . 

, Sir W. J., botanist .... 



Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 



Hoole, John, a poet and translator . . 

Hooper, John, one of the first Protestant martyrs . 

Hope, Thomas, a miscellaneous writer, " Anastasvas " . 
Amer. Hopital, Michel de ]', chancellor of France 
Amer. Hopkins, Ezek., first commodore TJ. S. Navy 

Amer. , John H., protestant episcopal bishop of Vt. and author 

Amer. , Mark, clergyman and author 

Amer. , Samuel, an eminent divine and author 

Amer. , Stephen, signer of the Declaration of Independence 

Amer. Hopkinson, Francis, signer of the Dec. of Independe nee and author 1737 

Amer. , Joseph, jurist and statesman 

Rom. Horace, Quintus Flaccus, eminent poet 



BORN. 


DIBS. 


1776 


1830 


1588 


1797 


1786 




1768 


1797 


1797 




1812 




. 1765 


1510 


1770 


1844 


1784 


1854 


1806 




1772 


1835 


1793 


1849 


1685 


1754 


1795 




1744 


1809 


1640 


1730 




1582 


1819 




1773 


1840 


1551 


1636 


1659 


1731 


1720 


1774 


1787 


1857 


1763 


1837 


1809 




1642 


1709 


1728 


1829 


1696 


1782 


1724 


1808 


B. o. 907 




1779 


1842 


1724 


1816 


1798 


1845 


1687 


1763 


1635 


1702 


1788 


1841 


1690 


1763 


1816 




1553 


1600 


1785 


1865 


1717 


1803 


1495 


1555 


1770 


1831 


1505 


1573 


1718 


1803 


r 1792 




1802 




1721 


1803 


1707 


1785 


thor 1737 


.791 


1770 


1843 


b. o. 64 •. 


0. 1 



H4 



THE WOEID'S PROGRESS. 



HATICN 

Flem. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Rom. 

Amer. 

Heb. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 



NAME AND PBOFESSIOH. 

Horn, Philip de Mont, count of, 6oldier and statesman 
Home, George, a learned prelate, bishop of Norwich 

, Richard H., poet and essayist 

, Thomas Hartwell, biblical critic and historian 

Horner, Francis, statesman and essayist 
-, Leonard, geological writer 



Horsley, Samuel, a prelate and mathematician 

Hortensius, Quintus, orator 

Hosaek, David, M. D., medical and scientific writer 

Hosea, prophet . 

Houdin, Robert, conjurer . • 

Houdon, Jean Antoine, sculptor . 

Houssaye, Arsene, miscellaneous writer . 

Amer. House, Samuel G., physician and philanthropist 
Amer. Houston, Sam., general, governor, and ex-governor of Texas 
Eng. Howard, John, a celebrated philanthropist 

Amer. , John Eager, i evolutionary soldier and statesman 

Amer. Howe, Elias, jr., inventor of sewing machines 



Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Swiss, 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Ger. 

Fr. 



■ , Geo. Aug., general in colonial war 

, Richard, lord, earl, admiral . . 

, Sir Win., commander-in-chief in America 

Howell, James, author of 'Letters' . 
Howitt, Mary (wife of "Wm.), novelist and poet 
, "William, traveller, essayist, &c. 



Howley, 'William, archbisl op of Oa. terbury . 

Hoyle, Edmund, writer on games . . . 

Huber, Francis, naturalist . . . 

Hue, Evariste R., Catholic missionary and author 
Hudson, Henry, discoverer of Hudson river 
Huet, Peter Daniel, ah erudite prelate and author 
Hufeland, Chris. W., medical author 
Hugh Capet, founder of the Capetian line of French kings 
Irish-Am. Hughes, John, Catholic Archbishop N. T. 



Fr. 

Amer, 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Pruss. 

Scot. 

Eng. 

Amer. 



Hugo, Victor M., novelist, poet, and statesman 

Hull, Commodore Isaac, naval commander (Const, and Guer, 

, Wm., general in War of 1812 . 

Humboldt, Karl "Wilhelra, baron, statesman and author 
, F. H. A*, baron, traveller, geographer, and nat, 



Hume, David, an historian and philosopher 

, Jos., statesman and reformer 

Humphrey, Heman, theologian and author 
Amer. Humphreys, David, poet and diplomatist . 
Hung. Hunniades, John, a celebrated warrior 
Amer. Hunt, Freeman, author aid journalist 

■Eng. , James Henry Leigh, poet and essayist 

Eng. — — , Leigh, poet anVl essayist 

, Thomas S., chemist and geologist 

Hunter, John, surgeon and medical author 
, Robert M. T., U. S. senator from Virginia 



Amer. 

Scot. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng 

Aco«r. 



Huntington, Selina, countess of, patron of Methodist* 

, Wm., Antinomian preacher 
— — ( Jeded. V., poet and novelist . 





BOHH. 


mkj» 




1522 


156S 




1730 


1762 




1803 






1780 


1862 




1778 


1817 


• 


1785 


1864 




1736 


1806 




B. C. 114 B. 


c. 50 




1769 


1835 




8th cent 


B. G. 




1805 






1741 


1828 




1815 






1801 




IS 


1793 


1862 




1726 


1790 




1752 


1827 




1819 






1724 


1758 




1726 


1799 
1814 




1596 


1666 




1804 






1795 






1765 


1848 




1672 


1769 




1750 


1S31 




1813 


I860 
1611 




1630 


1721 




1762 


1836 




946 


996 




1798 


1864 




1802 




r.),& 


c. 1775 


1845 




1T53 


1825 




1767 


1835 


phil. 


1769 


1859 




1711 


1776 




1777 


1855 




1779 


1859 




1753 


1818 




1400 


1456 




1804 


1S58 




1784 


1859 




1785 


1859 




18-26 






1728 


1792 




1809 






1707 


1791 




1744 


im 




1815 





' A 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



■AXIOM 

Amer 

Eng. 

Eng. 

(Jer. 

Irish. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Scot. 

Dutch. 

Fr. 

Ind. 

Gr. 

Jew. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Huntington, Fred. D., clergyman and author . 
Hurd, Richard, bishop of Worcester, &c. , 
Huskisson, Rohon "William, able statesman . 
Huss, John, the great Bohemian reformer 
Hutcheson, Francis, a philosophical writer 
Hutchinson, Anne, founder of N". E. Antinomiana 
, John, Colonel (Life by hie widow) 



-, Thomas, a distinguished gov. of Mass. and historian 



Hutten, Ulrich von, scholar and reformer 
Hutton, Charles, an eminent mathematician 

, James, a geologist and philosopher 
Huygens, Christian, a scientific author 
Hyde de Neuville, F. G., baron de, politician 
Hyder A V, a celebrated warrior 
Hypatia, Neo, Platonic philosopher . 
Hyrcanup T . and IL, high priests « 



BORN. 


DIKD 


1819 




1721 


1808 


1769 


1830 


1376 


1416 


1694 


1747 




1643 


161T 


1664 


n 1711 


178C 


1488 


1523 


1737 


1823 


1726 


1797 


1629 


1705 


1776 


1857 


1717 


1782 


370 


415 


1st and 2d cent 



Iamblichus, Neo, Platonic philosopher , 

Turk. Ibrahim Pasha, viceroy of Egypt , 

Gr. Ibycus, a lyric poet . . . . f. b. o. 

Span. Ignatius de Loyola, the founder of the Jesuits 

, Saint, primitive father of the church 

, St., patriarch of Constantinople . 

Eng. Inchbald, Elizabeth, dramatist and novelist , 

Port. Inez de Castro, queen of Portugal 

Amer. Ingersoll, Charlea J., statesman and historian 

Amer. , Joseph It., statesman and lawyer 

Scot. Inglia, Henry D., traveller and author . 

Eng. Ingram, Rev. Dr. James, Saxon scholar 
Amei. Inman, Henry, portrait and landscape painter 
Amer. , John, journalist and litterateur • 

Innocent, the name of thirteen popes . , 

Irenasus, saint, a Gallic bishop, and author 
Eng. Ireland, Samuel ' Picturesque Tour ' . . . 

Eng. , W. H., author of the ' Shakespeare Forgeries' 

Gr. Irene, a Byzantine empress .... 

Eng. Ireton, Henry, son-in-law of Cromwell, and one of his generals 

Amer. Irving, John Treat, author of travels and novels . 

Amer. , Peter, author (brother of Washington) . . 

Soot. , Rev. Edward, theological writer . • 

Amer. , Theodore, author of Conquest of Florida' . 

Amer. , "Washington, historian and essayist . . 

Amer. , William, one of the authors of Salmagundi . . 

Span. Isabella, the Catholic, queen of Spain, patron of Columbus 

Span. IL, queen of Spain • . • . 

Gr. Isseus, an orator . . . . » 

Heb. Isaiah, the greatest of the Hebrew prophet* . . 

Fr. Isambert, Franc A., politician and jurist . , 

Gr. Isocrates, an orator . . , 

Span. Iturbide, emperor of Mexico . a 



A. D. 


4th cent. 


1789 




1848 


550 






1491 




1556 

107 


779 




877 


1756 




1821 
1355 


1782 




1862 


1786 






1795 




1835 


1774 




1850 


1801 




1846 
1850 


402 


to 


1687 


2d cent. 


1750 




1800 


1777 




1835 


752 




803 


1610 




1651 


1810 






1771 




1838 


1792 




1834 


1809 






1783 




185« 


1766 




1821 


1451 




1604 


1830 






C. 418 






B. 0. (ibt) 800 


1792 




1857 


0.436 






1784 




1824 



n6 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



RATIOS. NAME AMD PROFESSION. BORN, 

Amer. Ives, Levi 8., ex-protestant episcopal bishop of North Carolina 1797 

Airier. Izard, Ralph statesman (of South Carolina) . • < 1742 



1804 



Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Heb. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Dutch. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 



Eng. 

Scot. 

Pers. 

Scot. 

Fr. 

Dutch. 

Ital. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Ger. 

Irish. 

Amer. 

Scot. 

Eng. 

Hind. 

Aust. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Scot. 

Heb. 



Jackson, Charles T., chemist, mineralogist, geologist. . 

, James, eminent physician 

, Gen. Andrew, military commander, president TJ. S. 

, Patrick T., eminent merchant 

, Thomas Jonathan (' Stonewall '), rebel general 

, William (' of Exeter ') musical composer 



Jacob, the Patriarch ..... 

Jacobi, Fred. H., philosopher, novelist, &o. . . 

Jacobs, Fred., classical philologist . . . 

Jacotot, Jean J., educational writer . . . 

Jacquard, Jos. M., inventor of the Jacquard loom . 
Jacquemont, Victor, traveller and naturalist . . 

Jacquin, Nicholas Joseph, a botanist 
Jahn, John, an eminent oriental scholar . . 

James, G. P. R., novelist and historian . . . 

, Henry, philosophical writer . . . 

, John Angell, congregational clergyman and author 

, St., the Elder, apostle 

, St., the Less, " 

Jameson, Anne, essayist and writer on art 

, Robert, naturalist and author . . . 

Jami, or Djami, poet .... 

Jamieson, John, D. D., miscellaneous author . . 

Janin, Jules, litterateur .... 

Jansen, Cornelius, founder of a sect . . . 

Januarius, patron saint of Naples . . . 

Jarves, James J., traveller and author . . . 

Jarvis, Samuel F., D. D., historian and theologlst 
Jasmin, Jaques, barber-poet .... 

Jasper, "William, heroic soldier of the Revolution 

, John, a distinguished patriot and statesman . 

Jay, William, judge, anti-slavery philanthropist 

, Wiliam, D. D., religious writer . . 

Jeanne d'Arc, ' Maid of Orleans,' heroine . . 

Jean, Paul, see Richter, novelist and metaphysician 

Jebb, John, Bishop of Limerick, theological writer 

Jefferson, Thomas, a patriotic statesman, 3d pres. of the U. S. 

Jeffrey, Francis, lord, essayist and critic 

Jeffreys, George, infamous judge 

Jejeebhoy, Sir Jamsetjee, Parsee merchant and philanthropist 

Jellachich, de Buzim, baron, ban of Croatia 

Jenkinson, B. B., earl of Liverpool, premier 

Jenkyns, William, non-conformist (' on Jude ') 

Jenner, Edward, introducer of the vaccine innoculatico 

Jenyns, Soame, poet and miscellaneous writer . • 

Jerdan, William, journalist .... 

Jeremiah, prophet . . . , . fl 



1805 




1777 




1767 


1845 


1780 


1847 


1826 


1863 


1730 


1803 


B. 0. 1836 B. 


o. 1689 


1743 


1819 


1764 


1847 


1770 


1840 


1752 


1834 


1801 


1832 


1727 


1817 


175J 


1817 


1801 


1860 


1811 




1785 


1859 




44? 




66? 


1797 


1860 


1774 


1854 


1414 


1492 


1759 


1838 


1804 




1585 


1638 


272 


305 


1818 




1786 


1851 


1798 


1864 


1750 


1779 


1745 


1829 


1779 


1858 


1769 


1853 


, 1412 


1431 


1763 


1825 


1736 


1775 


1743 


1826 


1773 


1850 


164S 


1689 


1783 


1859 


1S01 


1859 


1770 


182* 


1612 


1685 


1749 


1823 


1704 


1787 


1782 




. b. o. 678 


571 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



Ir 7 



SATJCH HAME ASTO PEOFESSIOH. 

Jerome, St one of the fathers of the church 

Ger. , ol Prague, reformer, companion of Hubs . 

Eng. Jerrold, Douglas, essayist 

Eng. Jervis, sir John, earl St. Vincent, admiral . 

Eng. Jewell John, learned prelate and author . 

Eng. Jewsbury, Maria J., essayist . . . 

Fr. Joan of Arc, 'the greatest of heroines' 

ItaL Joanna, queen of Naples . . . 

Heb. Joel, the prophet .... 

HoL Johannes Secundus (Johannes Everardj, poet 

Fr. Johannot, Tony, artist and designer . 

Heb. John, the Evangelist .... 

Eng. , of Gaunt (or Ghent), duke of Lancaster 

Ger. , king of Saxony and author . . 

Pol. , III., Sobieski, king of Poland, and general 

Eng. , Edward, historian of N. England 

Eng. Johnson, Samuel, a divine and writer i the cause of liberty 

Eng. , Samuel, ' the Colossus of English literature' 

Amer. , Alex. B., philologist and miscellaneous writer 

Amer. , Andrew, president U. S. . . , 

Amer. , Reverdy, jurist and statesman 

Amer. , Richard M., general and statesman, vice-president U. 8, 

Amer. , Samuel, first president Columbia College and author 

Amer. , Walter R.. physicist .... 

Tr. Amer. Johnson, Sir William, geueral and governor in North Amerioa 
Amer. Johnston, Albert Sydney, rebel general . . . 

Scot , Alex. K., geographer . • 

Scot. , George, writer and naturalist 

ycot. , James F. W., chronicler and agricultural author 

Fr. Joinville, Jean, sire de, chronicler 

Fr. , Francois, prince de, third son of Louis Philippe 

Fr.Am. Jolliet, Louis, one of the discoverers of the Mississippi 

Ital. Jomelli, Nicholas, dramatic and musical composer 

Swiss. Jomini, Henry, baron de, military writer . 

Heb. Jonah, the prophet . 

Amer. Jones, Anson, last president of the republics of Texas 

Eng. , Inigo, an eminent architect . . , 

Amer. , Jacob, commodore in the 0. S. navy 

Scot. , John Paul, captain in the navy of the United States 

Eng. , Owen, architect and decorator 

fcng. , Thomas Rynier, writer on anatomy and physiology 

Eng. ■ , Sir William, an eminent poet, scholar, and lawyer 

Eng. , Rev. William, * of Nayland,' Hutehinsonian divine 

Eng. , William, divine and author 

Eng. Jonson, Benjamin, celebrated poet and dramatist 

Icel. Jonsson, Finnur, Icelandic historian 

Irish. Jordan, Dorothy, actress, mistress of William IV. . 

Dan. Jorgenson, Jorgen, adventurer and author 

Eng. Jortin, Dr. John, learned theologian and author 

Fr. Josephine, empress of the French (born in Martinico) 

Jew. Josephus, celebrated historian and warrior . . 

Heb. Joshua, successor of Moses as leader of the Israelites 



WKN. DIED 

42C 
1416 
1782 1857 
1774 1823 
1522 1571 
1833 
1410 1431 



O. 800 
1511 

1803 



1539 

1852 
100 

1340 1399 
1801 

1629 1696 

1600 1672 

1649 1703 

1709 1784 
1786 
1808 
1796 

1780 1850 

1696 1772 

1794 1852 

1715 1744 

1803 1862 
1804 

1798 1856 

1796 1855 

1224 1319 
1818 

1730 

1714 1744 
1775 

f. B. o. 862 

1798 1858 

1572 1652 

1770 1850 

1736 1792 
1809 
1810 

1746 1794 

1726 1800 

1726 1800 

1574 1637 

1704 1789 

1762 1814 

1779 1830 

1698 1770 

1761 1814 

87 94 
B.O. 15M 



u8 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



HAf.Ul 

Heb. 
Heb. 
Fr. 
Fr. 

Ger. 
Ilex. 



Jew. 
Heb. 
Amer. 

Amer. 
Amer. 
Amer. 

Amer. 
Dan. 

Bom. 

Fr. 

Swiss. 

Hind. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Dutch. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Gr. 

Rom. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Rom. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Josiah, 17tb kiug of Judah 

Jotham, king of Judah 

Jouffroy, Theo. S., metaphysician and statesman 

Jourdan J. B., marshal of France 

Jovianus, Flavius C, emperor 

Juan, or John, of Austria, don, warrior . 

Juarez, Benito, statesman and president , 

Juba, king of Numidia . 

-, king of Mauritania and historian . 

Judah, Hakkadosch, famous rabbi and Talmudist 
Judas Maccabeus, patriot . . , 
Judd, Sylvester, author of ' Margaret ' 
Judson, Adoniram, missionary in India 
, Ann Hazeltine, first wife of the above 



— , Emily Chubbuck, third wife of above, and author 



(' Fanny Forester ') 
, Sarah Boardman, second wife of above 



Juel, Nicholas, celebrated admiral 

Jugurtha, Numidian king 

Julian, Flavius Claudius, Roman emperor and author 

tate' ..... 
Julien, A. J., orientalist . . . 

Jul liei i, Louis G., musical composer, &o. . 

Jung-Bahadoor, prime minister of Nepaul . . 

Junge, Joachim, philosopher . . 

Jung-Stilling, John H., mystic author ' . . 

Junius, Adrian, voluminous writer 
Junot, Andoche, duke d'Abrantes, military officer 

, Madame, duchess d'Abrantes, biography, &o. 

Jusaieu, A, L. de, botanist 

Justin Flavius, A. J. ' the Elder,' Byzantine emperor 

, Latin historian . 

, Martyr, one of the fathers of the church 

Justinian, Flavius A. J., ' the Byzantine ' emperor 
JuvenaL, Decius Junius, the most vehement of satiristB 



ApOB 



BOBN. 


DIKD 


B. 0. 643 


B. O. 60S 


B. c. 783 


b. o. 742 


1796 


1842 


1762 


1833 




364 


1546 


1578 


1807 






b. c. 46 




B. c. 18 


129 


194 




B. 0. 160 


1813 


1853 


1788 


1850 


1789 


1826 


1817 


1854 


1803 


1845 


1629 


1697 




b. 0. 104 


331 


363 


1799 




1812 


1860 


1816 




1587 


1657 


1740 


1817 


1512 


1575 


1771 


1813 


1784 


1839 


1748 


1836 


450 


527 


B. o. 200 




91 


16s 


482 


665 




128 



Ger. 
Ger. 

Fr. 
Bwe. 



Boot, 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Russ. 

Fr. 



K 

Kaempfer, naturalist, traveller and historian 
Kaestner, Abraham Gothelf, mathematician and astronomer 
Kalb, baron de, who generously aided the American cause 
Kalm, Peter, traveller and botanist .... 
Kamehameha (or Famehameha) L first king of the Sandwich 



Islands . ... 

, II. king, introduced Christianity 

, III. introduced Constitution . , 

, IV. (Alex. Liholiho) 

Kames, Henry Home, lord, judge and author . 

Kane, Elisha Kent, arctic explorer and author . 
Kant, Emanuel, metaphysician 

Karasmin, Nicholas M. historiographer of the empire 
Karr, J. B Alphonse, miscellaneous author 



(abt) 



1651 


1716 


1719 


1798 


1717 


1780 


1715 


1779 


1800 




1824 




1817 


1854 


1834 




1596 


1827 


1820 


1857 


1724 


1804 


1766 


im 


1808 





BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



119 



Irish. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Irish 

Scot. 

Fr. 
Ft. 

Irish. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Eng. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Kater, Henry, mathematician . . , 

Kavanagh, Julia, novelist .... 
Kean, Charles John, actor . . . 

, Edmund, tragedian .... 

, Ellen Tree, wife of C. J. Kean, actress . 

Kearny, Philip, Union general in war against rebellion 
Keats, John, a poet .... 

Keble, John, divine and poet .... 
Keighfley, Thos., miscellaneous author . . 

Keith, Geo. K. Elphinston, admiral 

, James, an officer in the Russian and Prussian service 

, Thos., mathematician, (' Use of Globes') , 

Kellerman, Frank C, duke of Valmy, general 

, Franc Etienne, son of above, general . 

Kelly, Michael, composer and singer . . 

Kembie, Charles, actor .... 

, Frances Anne, actress and author , 

, John M., scholar and historian . , 

i , John Philip, celebrated tragedian 



Kemfelen, Wolfgang, baron, author of the automaton chess-player 
Kempis, Thomas a, supposed author of the 'Imitation of Christ' 
Ken, Thos., bishop or Bath and Wells, theological writer 
Amer. Kendall, Amos, statesman and author . » 

Amer. , George W., journalist and author . . 

Amer. Kendrick Asahel C, Greek scholar and author 
Scot. Kennedy, Grace, writer, (Father Clement) . . 

Amer. Kennedy, John Pendleton, statesman and novelist • 
Eng. Kennet, White, learned prelate and author . . 

Eng. Kennicott, Benjamin, a divine and Biblical critio . 
Ir.-Am.Kenrick, Francis P., Catholic prelate and author . 

Kent, Edward, Aug., duke of, father of Queen Victoria 

Amer. , James, jurist, chancellor of New Tork . • 

Amer. , William, judge, esteemed jurist . , 

Eng. Kenyon, Lloyd, lord, jurist .... 

Eng. , John, poet .... 

Ger. Kepler, John, eminent astronomer . . . 

Eng. Keppel, Aug., viscount, admiral 

Scot. Kerr, Robert, miscellaneous writer . . . 

Amer. Key, Francis S., author of • Star Spangled Banner* 
Eng. Kidd, Wm., noted pirate, executed . . . 

Eng. Killigrew, Henry, dramatist . . , 

Scot. Kilmarnock, Wm. 4th, earl, Jacobite, beheaded . 

Amer. Kimball, Richard B., author , . . 

Amer. King, John A., ex-governor of New Tork - , 

Amer. , Rufus, statesman and diplomatist 

Amer. , Thomas Starr, author .... 

Amer. , William R., diplomatist, senator, and vice-president 

Eng. Kinglake, Alex. Wrn., M. P., author of 'Eothen' 

Irish. Kingsborough, Lord, patron of great work on Mexican antiquities 

Eng. Kingsley, Charles, clergyman, novelist and poet , 

Amer. Kip, "Wm. Ingraham, Prot. Epis. bishop and author 

Amer Kirkland, Caroline M. author of travels and essays 



BOBH 

1777 
1824 
1S11 
1787 
1805 
1815 
1796 
1790 
1800 
1746 
1696 
1759 
1735 
1770 
1762 
1775 
1811 
1807 
1757 
1754 
1380 
1637 
1789 
1810 
1809 
1782 
1795 
1660 
1718 
1797 
1767 
1763 

1732 
1783 
1571 
1726 

1779 

1612 
1702 
1818 
1789 
1755 
1824 
1788 
1802 
1795 
1819 
1811 



DIET. 

1835 



1838 



1862 
1820 



1820 
1768 
1824 
1820 
1835 
1826 
1854 

1857 
1823 
1806 
1471 
1711 



1825 

1728 
1783 
1863 
1820 
184T 
1861 
1802 
1856 
1630 
1786 
1814 
1843 
1701 
1690 
1746 

1867 
1827 
1864 

1S53 

183T 



1864 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



KATIOM. NAME AND PROFESSION 

Eng. Kitohine,Williflm, writer on Cookery 

Eng. Kitto, John, biblical scholar and author 

Hung. Klapka, George, patriot, soldier and author 

PrusB. Klapioth, Henry J., philologist atd ethnologist 

Fr. Kleber, John Baptist, military officer 

Ger. Klopstock, the ' Milton of Germany ' 

Ger. Knapp, Geo., Christ, theologian . . 

Amer. , Samuel L., miscellaneous writer 

Eng. Knight, Charles, publisher, editor, and author 

Eng. , Richard Payne, miscellaneous writer . 

Irish. Knowles, Jas. Sheridan, dramatic author and actor 

Eng. Knox, Dr. Vicesimus, divine and miscellaneous author 

Amer , Henry, military officer and statesman 

Ger. Knyphausen, baron, general in British servioe . 

Ger. Koch, Christopher "William, historian 

Fr. Kock, Charles Paul de, novelist and dramatist . 

Ger. Kohl, Johann George, traveller and author . . 

Dan. Koppen, Adolph Louis, historical writer and lecturer 

Ger. Korner, or Koerner, Charles T., poet 

Pol. Kosciusko, Thaddeus, warrior and p itriot, served in the Ameri 

can army during the Revolution 

Hung. Kossuth, Lajos (Louis), late governor of Hungary 

Ger. Kotzebue, Augustus Frederick Fer. von, historian, &c. . 

Hung. Kraitsir, Charles, philologist 

Pol. Krasinski, Valerian, count, author . . . 

Ger. Krummacher, Fred. Adolph., poet and theologian ,. 

(j er . . , Fred. William, religious writer . . 

Russ. Krusenstern, Adam Jean, navigator . 

Ger. Kugler, Franz Theodore, writer on art, &c. . . 

Ger. Kuhnoel, Christ. F., critic . . . . 

Ger. Kunih, Charles S., botanist .... 

Russ. Kutusofi, Michael L. G., field-marshal . . 

Ii. 

Fr. Labat, Jean B., missionary and historian . . 

Ital. Lablache, Luigi, renowned vocalist , . . 

Eng. Labouchere, Henry, Baron Taunton, statesman 

Fr. Laborde, A. L. G., comte de, traveller, &c. 

Fr. Labruyere, see Bruytre .... 

Fr. Lacepede, Bernard G. S. Delaville, count de, naturalist 

Fr. Lacordaire, Jean B. H., Catholic theologian and author 

Fr. Lacretelle, Charles, traveller and litterateur 

Fr. Lacroix, Sylvestre F., mathematician 

Lactantius, a father of the Church styled the Christian Cicero 

Rom. Laelius, Caius, publicist, tribune, praetor and consul 

Fr Laennel, an eminent physician .... 

Fr. Lafarge, Marie C, notorious as a poisoner 

Fr. La Fayette, G. M., marquis, &c, military commander and states- 
man ..... 

Fr, — — . -, George "W., statesman . 

Fr. Lafltte, Jacques, wealthy banker and statesman 

Ft. 1 Jean, corsair, privateer, or pirate 



5( c tl . 


Dlia 




183* 


1804 


1864 


1820 




1784 


1830 


1754 


1800 


1724 


1803 


1753 


1825 


1784 


1838 


1791 




1750 


1824 


1784 


1862 


1752 


1821 


1750 


1806 


1730 


1789 


1737 


1813 


1794 




1808 




1804 




1791 


1813 


1746 


1817 


1802 




1761 


1819 


1804 


1860 


1780 


1855 


1768 


1845 


1770 


1846 


1808 


1858 


1768 


1841 


1788 




1745 


1813 


1663 


1738 


1794 


1858 


1798 




1774 


1842 


1756 


1828 


1802 




1766 


1817 


1765 


1833 




325 


t. 186 B. 


3, 115 


1782 


1826 


1816 


1852 



1757 



1768 
1780 f 



1834 



1844 
1831 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Ger. La Fontaine. Aug. J. H., author of 200 volumes miscellaneous 

Fr. Lafontaine, Jean de, an inimitable fabulist 

Ital. Lagrange, Joseph Limis, able mathematician 

Fr. La Gueronniere, Louis E. A., viscount de, publicist . 

Fr. Laharpe, John Francis de, dramatist, critic, &c. 

Scot. Lai tig, Malcolm, historian . . . 

Fr. Lalande, Joseph J. le Francis de, astronomer . 

Amer. Lamar, Mirabeau B., second president of the republio of Texas 

Fr. Lamarck, J. B. A. P., naturalist . . 

Fr. Lamarque, Maxim., general of the revolution of 1789 

Fr. Lamartine, Alphonse de, poet, historian, traveller, and states 

man ..... 

Eng. Lamb, Charles, poet and essayist .... 

Eng. , Lady Caroline, novelist . . . 

Ital. Lamballe, Marie, princess of, victim of the revolution . 

Eng. Lambert, A. B., botanist .... 

Eng. , Daniel, noted for corpulency, 789 pounds . 

Fr. Lammenais, F. R., abbe de, theological and political writer 

Fr. Lamoriciere, Christ. L. J. de, general . . . 

Fr. Lamotte Fouque, Fred., baron de, novelist ' Undine' 

Eng. Lancaster, Joseph, founder of system of education . . 

Amer. Lander, Fred. W, military officer (k. at Ball's Bluff ) . 

Eng. — : , Richard and John, travellers in Africa . , 

Fr. Landon, C. P., author of works on the fine arts . 

Eng. , (Maclean), Letitia E., poet and novelist . . 

Eng. Landor, Walter Savage, poet and essayist 

Eng. Landseer, John, engraver and author 

Eng. Lane, Edw. Wm., orientalist, author of ' Modern Egyptians,' &c. 

Amer. , James, general, U. S. senator for Oregon . . 

Ger. Lange, commentator on scripture . . . 

Amer. Langdon, gov. New Hampshire, U. S. senator . , 

Ital. Langfranc, learned archbishop of Canterbury . . 

Eng. Langhorne, John, miscellaneous author . . , 

Eng. Langton, Stephen, cardinal and archbishop of Canterbury 

Fr. Lai, nes, Jean, duke of Montebello, marshal of France . 

Eng. Lansdowne, Henry Petty, marquis of, president of Council 

Eng. > William Petty, marquis of, premier 

Ital. Lanzi, Luigi, writer on art .... 

Fr. La Perouse, Jean F., count, navigator 

Fr. Laplace, Peter Simon, marquis of, eminent astronomer and geo 
metrician ..... 
Lappenberg, Johann M., historian . - . 

Irish. Lardner, Dionysius, writer on physical science . 

Eng. , Nathaniel, a learned dissenting divine . . 

Fr. Larrey, Dominique J., baron, surgeon and author 

Fr. La Salle, Robt. C, sieur de, navigator and author . . 

Span. Las Casas, Barth de, missionary and historian . . 

Fr. , biographer of Napoleon, &c. . . . 

Nor. Lassen, Chris., oriental philologist and historian . 

Eng. Latimer, Hugh, a prelate, martyred for being a reformer 

Eng Latham, John, ornithologist .... 

Edjj. , Eobert G., philologist and ethnologist 



BO&K. 


DIKD. 


1756 


1831 


1621 


1695 


1736 


1813 


1816 




1739 


1793 


1762 


1818 


1732 


1801 


1798 


185S 


1732 


1S07 


1770 


1832 


1802 




1776 


1834 


1785 


1828 


1748 


1792 


1761 


1842 


1770 


1809 


1782 


1854 


1806 


1868 


1777 


1848 


1771 


1839 


1822 


1862 




1834 




1826 


.1802 


1839 


1775 


1864 


1769 


1852 



1867 



1739 


1819 


1605 


1689 


1735 


17- 




1228 


1769 


1809 


1780 


1863 


1737 


1805 


1732 


1810 


1741 


1789 


1749 


1827 


1794 




1793 


1859 


1684 


1768 


1760 


1842 


1635 


'.6S7 


1474 


156£ 


".762 


1843 


1800 




1470 


1663 


1740 


186! 


1812 





THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



RATIOS. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN, 

Eng. Land, "William, prelate, famed for his tyranny and superstition . 1573 

Scot. Lauder, Sir Thos. Dick, writer on Natural History . 1784 

Amer. Laurens, Jobn, lieutenant colonel in Revolutionary war . 1756 

Amer. , Henry, patriot and statesman . . . 1724 

Fr. Lava.ette, M. C, count de, military commander . . 1769 

Fr. La Valliere, F. L., duchesse de, mistress of Louis XIV . 1644 

Swiss. Lavater, John Caspar, celebrated physiognomist . • 1741 

Fr. Lavoisier, Anthony L., celebrated chemist . . 1743 

Scot. Law, John, financier of the ' Mississippi Bubble * • . 1671 

Eng. , "Win., religious and mystical author . . . 1686 

Amer Lawrence, Abbott, merchant and diplomatist . . . 1792 

Amer. , Amos, merchant and philanthropist • . 1786 

Amer. , James, captain in U. S. Navy . . . 1781 

Eng. Layard, Austen H., traveller and explorer of Nineveh . 18 I 7 

Amer. Lea, Isaac, naturalist and publisher .... 1792 

Eng. Leake, Wm. M., traveller and philhellenist . . 1777 

Amer. Lear, Tobias, secretary to Washington, diplomatist . . 1760 

Fr. Lebrun, Pontius D. E., poet .... 1729 

Swiss. Leclerc, Jobn, eminent critic ... . . 1657 

Amer. Le Conte, John, naturalist .... 1784 

Amer. , John L. M. D., naturalist, (son of preceding) . 1825 

Amer. , John, M. D., naturalist, (Georgia) . . 1818 

Fr. Ledru-Rollin, Alex A., jurist and politician ... 1808 

Amer. Ledyard, John, intrepid and enterprising statesman . 1751 

Amer. Lee, Arthur, M.D., statesman .... 1740 

Amer. , Charles, officer in the Revolution . . . 1730 (7) 

Amer. , Eliza B., miscellaneous writer . . . (abt.) 1800 

Amer. , Francis Lightfoot, signer Dec. Independence . . 1734 

Eng. , Harriet, Miss, (sister of Sophia), novelist . • . 1750 

Amer. , Henry, general in Revolutionary War . . 1756 

Amer. , Robert E., commander in chief of rebel armies « . 1808 

Amer. , Richard Henry, pres. of Congress . . . 1732 

Eng. — , Samuel, D. D., oriental scholar .... 1783 

Eng. , Sophia, Miss, novelist * . 1750 

Eng. Leech, John, humorous artist in Punch, &c. . . . 1817 

Fr. Lefebvre, Francois Joseph, duke of Dantzick, marshal of France 1755 

Amer. Legare, Hugh S., jurist, statesman and litterateur . . 1797 

Fr. Legendre, Adrian M., mathematician . . . 1753 

Amer. Leggett, William, political and miscellaneous writer . . 1802 

Ger. Leibnitz, Godfrey William, able and learned philosopher , 1646 

Eng. Leicester, Robert Dudley, earl of, favorite of Queen Elizabeth . 1532 

Eng. Leicester, T. W. Coke, earl of, agriculturist . . . 1752 

Scotch. Leighton, Robert, able prelate .... 1613 

Amer. Leisler, Jacob, political adventurer 

Amer. Leland, Charles G., essayist and humorist . 

Eng. , John, eminent divine and author . 

Irish. -, Thomas, eminent divine and author 

PoL Lelewel, Joachim, historian 

Fr. Lemaitre, Fred., actor , . . 

Eng. Lemon, Mark, humorist, editor of ' Punch • 

Eng. Lempriere, John, biographer and lexicographer 

Vr. L'EdoIob, Ninon de, noted courtesan 



1824 
1691 
1772 
1786 
1798 
1809 
1824 
1615 



ore ii 

164i 
1848 
1782 
179:1 
1830 
1710 
1801 
1794. 
1729 
1761 
1855 
1852 
1813 



1860 
1826 
1807 

1736 



1788 
1782 
1782 

1797 
1824 
1816 

1791 
1852 
1824 
1864 
1820 
1843 
1833 
1840 
1716 
1588 
1842 
1684 
1691 

1768 

1786 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



I23 



SATIOK 

Dutch. 
Dutch. 
Eng. 
Fr. 

ItaL 

Ger. 

Gr. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Rom. 

Ger. 

Russ. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Scot, 

Scot. 

Fr. 

Ger. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Irish. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Scot. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Boot 

Pr. 

Ger. 

Amei 

Ger. 

Rubs. 

Eng. 

Dutch 

ItaL 

Kng. 

Eng. 

Bng. 



NAME AMD PROFESSION. 

Lennep David J. van, jurist and poet . ' , 

, Jan van, poet and novelist . , 

Lennox, Charlotte, authoress, (born in N. T.) . , 

Lenormand, Marie A., fortune-teller and biographer 

Leo, the name of twelve pupes and six Byzantine emperors 

Leo X, pope (John de Medici), a patron of injustice and the arts 

Leo, Henry, historian . . 

Leonidas I., king of Sparta, the hero of Thermopylae . f, 

Leopold I, king of the Belgians . . 

I, emperor of Germany .... 

VI, " " . . 

II. "".... 

Lepidus, noted Roman family 

Lepsius, Karl Rich., traveller and Egyptologist 

Lermontotf, Michael, poet .... 

Leroux, Pierre, philosopher and socialist . . 

Leroy de St. Arnaud, J. A, marshal of France, general in chief 

Lesage, Alain Rene, novelist and dramatist, ' Gil Bias' 

Leslie, Charles Robt., artist and author . . 

, John, bishop, theological writer . . 

, John, mathematician and natural philosopher . 

Lesseps, Ferdinand de, diplomatist . . , 

Lessing, Gotthold E., critic and author . . ." 

Lester, Charles E., miscellaneous author . . 

LEstrange, Sir Roger, political writer . . . 

Leuret, Francis, anatomist .... 
Le Vaillant, Fran.;, traveller and ornithologist . . 

Lever Chas. Jas., novelist .... 
Luverett, Fred. P., classical scholar and author . 
Leverrier, Urbain J. J., astronomer 

Le Vert, Octavia W., authoress . . ... 

Levizac, Sir John, mathematician and natural philosopher 
Lewes, George Henry, miscellaneous author 
Lewis, Francis, signer of the Declaration of Independence 

, Major-Gen. Morgan, military commander, jurist, &c. 

, Matthew Gregory, miscellaneous writer. Monk Lewis 

, Meriwether, soldier, explorer, and author . 

, Samuel, educationist 

, Sir George Cornwall, author and statesman , 

———, Taylor, classical scholar and author 



Leyden, John, author . . , 

L'Hopital, Michel de, chancellor of France 

Lichtenberg, George C, experimental philosopher 

Lieber, Francis, publicist, political philosopher (born In Berlin) 

Liebig, Justus, baron, chemist . . . 

Li even, Dorothea, princess of, diplomatist . . 

Lightfoot, John, learned divine and author . , 

Ligne, Charles Joseph, military officer and anthor , 

Liguori, Alfons M. de, saint and theological writer 

Lilly, George, dramatist ... , 

— — , John, the Euphuist dramatic writer . , 

■, William, astrologer .... 



BOBS. 


DIM 


. 1774 




1802 




1710 


1804 


1772 


1843 


s. 1475 


1521 


1T99 




B. 0. 491 




1790 


186- 


1640 


1705 


1747 


1192 


1797 




B. 0. 200 


36 


1811 




1811 


1841 


1798 




f 1801 


1854 


1668 


1747 


1794 


1859 


1570 


1671 


1766 


1832 


1805 




1720 


1781 


1815 




1616 


1704 


1797 


1851 


1753 


1824 


1806 




1803 


1836 


1811 




1820. 






1813 


1817 




1713 


1803 


1754 


1832 


1773 


1818 


1774 




1799 


18M 


1806 




1802 




1775 


1811 


1504 


1573 


1742 


1790 


1800 




1803 




1784 


1857 


1735 


1814 


1735 


1814 


1696 


1787 


1693 


1739 


1553 


1600 


1002 


1681 



124 



THE WOULD'S PROGRESS. 



RATION 

Dutch. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Swe. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Scot, 

Swe. 

Eng. 

Fr. 



Eng. 

Eng. 

Hung. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Amer 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Scot. 

Rom. 

Span. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Scot. 

Eng. 

Ind. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Irish. 

Russ. 

Irish. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Gr. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Bpan. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Limborch, Philip, theologian and authoi 

Lincoln, Abraham, statesman, 16th president of the U. S, 

, Benjamin, major-general in ihe Revolutionary War 

, Levi, attorney -general oi the U. S. (irom Mass.) 

-, Levi, governor of Massachusetts 



Lind, (Goldschmidt) Jenny, vocalist 

Lindley, John, botanist 

Lindsay, Alexander W. Crawford, lord, author of Travels, &a 

, Sir David, poet 

Ling, Peter E., physiologist and poet 
Lingard, John, author of ' History of England ' 
Linguet Simon N. H., political writer anil historian 
Linnseus, Charles von, the most celebrated of naturalists 
Lipsius, Justus, critic .... 

Lister, Thomas Henry, novelist and biographer of Clarendon 
Liston, John, comic actor . ... 

Liszt, Franci6, performer on piano 
Littleton, Sir Thomas, jurist 

Littrow, John J., writer on mathematics and astronomy 
Livermore, Abiel A., clergyman, journalist and author 
Liverpool, Robert Banks Jenkinson, earl of, premier 
Livingston, Brockholst, soldier and jurist 

, Edward, jurist, diplomatist, and statesman 

, Philip, signer of the Declaration of Independence 

, Robert R., statesman and jurist 

, William, governor of New Jersey and poet 

Livingstone, David, traveller and missionary in Africa 
Livius, or Livy, Titus, celebrated historian 
Llorente, Don Juan, antiquary, historian, &o. 
Lloyd, Henry, soldier and author 
Lobau, count, marshal of France . . 

Locke, John, eminent philosopher and metaphysician 
Lockhart, J. G., critic and novelist, editor of ' Quarterly 
' Lodge, Edmund, herald and antiquary, ' Portraits ' 
Logan, English name of a famous Indian chief 

, James, colonial statesman and author 

, John A, major-general in Sherman's campaign, M. O 

Lofft, Capel, author .... 
Lola-Montez, Maria, countess of Lansfeldt, adventurer 
Lollard, Walter, Protestant martyr at Cologne 
Lomonozoff, Michael V., poet and historian 
Londonderry, Robert Stewart, marquis of, statesman 
Long, Stephen H., engineer, traveller, and author 
Longfellow, Henry W., poet and novelist 
Longinus, Dionysius Cassius, critic and philosopher 
Longman, Thomas, founder of the publishing house 
Longstreet, Aug. B., jurist and author . . 

— , James, rebel general 

Longueville, Anne G., duchess, politician . . 

Longworth, Nicholas, extensive wine manufacturer 
Loumis, Elias, physicist, astronomer 
Lope de Vega, Carpio Felix, poet and dramatist 



BO KB. 


»i&2 


1633 


171* 


1809 


1665 


1733 


ISM 


1749 


U'Jt 


1782 




1821 




1799 




1812 




ibt) 1490 


155* 


1776 


183s 


1771 


185v 


1736 


174s. 


1707 


1778 


1547 


1606 


1801 


1842 


1776 


1846 


1811 






1481 


1781 


1840 


1811 




1770 


1828 


1757 


1823 


1764 


1836 


1716 


1778 


1747 


1813 


1723 


1790 


1815 


i86e 


B. 0. 59 


. 0. 17 


1756 


1823 


1729 


1783 


1770 


1838 


1632 


1704 


1794 


1854 


1756 


1839 




1780 


1674 


1751 


1751 


1824 


1824 


1861 




1322 


1711 


1765 


1769 


1822 


1784 




1807 




B. c. 250 




1699 


1761 


1790 




1619 


1679 


1782 


186S 


1811 




1562 


1631 



BIOGRAPHICAT, INDEX. 



5TATIOJT. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Fr. Lorraine, Charles de, cardinal and politician 

Amer. Lossing, Benson J., historian and artist 
Soot. Loudon, J. C, voluminous writer on horticulture, agrioultn» 
and architecture 

Enff. , Mrs. Jane W., horticultural writer 

French. LOUTS, the name of eighteen kings of Franc© 
Louis I., the Debonnaire 

" IX, Saint 

" XL, 6th of house of Valois 

" XII., 8th " " 

- XIII., 2d Bourbon 

" XIV., 3d " 

" XV., 4th '« 

" xvr. 

•« XVII. .... 

" XVIII. .... 

Fr. Louis, baron, eminent surgeon . . , 

Fr. Phiiippe, king of the French 

Fr. Napoleon. Sec Bonaparte. 

Scot. Lovat, Simon Fraser, lord, executed for treason 

Amer. Lovejoy, Owen, statesman and abolitionist 

Amer. , Rev. E. P., abolitionist journalist 

Irish. Lover, Samuel, novelist and song writer 

Irish. Lowe, Sir Hudson, general, jailor of Napoleon 

Amer. Lowell, Charles, clergyman and author 
Amer. , James Russell, poet and critic . 

Amer. , John, lawyer and philanthropist 

Amer. — — — , John, jr., founder of Lowell Institute 

Amer. — —- , Mary, Mrs. Putnam, of Boston, learned writer 

Amer. Lowndes, Rawlins, statesman, opposed the Union 

Amer. , William J , statesman 

Eng. , William Thomas, 'Biblio- Manual' . 

Eng. Lowth, Robert, eminent divine and author 

Span Loyola, Saint Ignatius de, founder of the Jesuits 

Eng. Lucan, G. C. Bingham, earl of, general in Crimea . 

Rom. , Marcus AnnaBiis, Latin poet . . 

Or. Lucian, celebrated writer . . . 

Rom. Lucilius, the earliest Roman satirist . . 

Ger. Lucke, Gott C. F., theologian . , 

Rom. Lucretius, Caius Titus, eminent poet 

Rom. Lucullus, wealthy warrior . . . 

Eng. Ludlow, Edmund, republican judge of Charles L 

Span. Lully, Raimond, ' the enlightened doctor' 

Amer. Lundy, Benjamin, abolitionist . . 

Amer. Lunt, George, poet, essayist, and journalist 

Ger. Luther, Martin, the parent of the Protestant refora »tion 

Irish. Luttrell, Henry, poet .... 

Fr. Luxemburg, duke of, military officer . 

Gr. Lycurgus, the Spartan legislator 

Eng. Lydgate, John, poet (Benedictine monk) . 

Scot Lyell, Sir Charles, geologist and traveller 

Amer. Lynch, Thomas J., signer of the Declaration of Independence 



BORN 


DIED 


1524 


1574 


1813 




1783 


1813 


1800 


1858 


778 


84C 


1215 


1270 


1423 


148? 


1462 


1515 


1601 


1643 


1638 


1715 


1710 


1774 


1754 


1793 


1785 


1795 


1755 


1824 




1837 


1773 


1850 


1667 


1747 


1811 


1864 


1802 


1837 


1797 




1769 


1844 


1782 


1861 


1819 




1769 


1840 


1799 


1838 


1810 




1722 


1800 


1782 


1861 




1843 


1710 


1787 


1491 


1556 


1800 






37 


120 


210 


B. O. 148 B. 


o. 191 


1792 


1855 


b. c. 95 




B. 0. 11.') B. 


0. 49 


1620 


1693 


1235 


1316 


1789 


1838 


1484 


1548 




1851 


1628 


1696 


B. 0. 898 




1375 


1461 


1797 




1749 


1*11 



1 26 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. 

Amer. Lynch, William P., captain U. S. navy, author of ' Dead Sea, &o. 1806 

Eng. Lyiidhurst, lord, statesman and jurist (born in Boston) 

Amer. Lyon, Mary, teacher and philanthropist 

Amer. , Matthew, politician .... 

Ainer. , Nathaniel, Union general, fell at Wilson's Creek 

Gr. Lysander, famous Spartan general . . 

Gr. h\ sias, orator ... . . 

Gr. Lysimachus, one of Alexander's generals . • 

Eng. Lyttleton, George, lord, poet and historian . 



1772 




1797 


1849 


1746 


1822 


1819 


1861 


. 


B. o. 395 


b. o. 459 




B. c. 360 


B. o. 281 


1709 


1763 



M. 

Pr. Mabillon, Jean, ecclesiastical author . . 1632 1707 

Boot. Macadam, John, originator of Macadamized roads . . 1756 1836 

Irish. Macartney, Geo., earl of, diplomatist . . . 1737 1806 

Eng. Macaulay, T., Babington, essayist, historian, critic and statesman 1800 1859 

Eng. Macaulay, Zachary, anti-slavery statesman . . . 1768 1838 

Eng. Macauley, Catherine, miscellaneous writer . . 1733 1791 

Scot. Macbeth, chieftain of the 11th century . . . 

Irish. MacClintock, Sir F. L., Arctic navigator . . . 1819 

Irish. MacClure, Sir R. J., discoverer of North-west passage . 1807 

Amer. Macconnell, John L., novelist .... 1826 

Amer. Maccorst, David J., political writer . . , 1797 1855 

Scot. Maccosh, James, clergyman and author . . . 1810 

Scot. Macculloch, J. R., political economist and statistician . 1789 1864 

Amer. McClellan, Geo. B., commander-in-chief Union armies . . 1826 

Amer. McCook, father and three sons from Ohio, generals in Union Army 

Eng. McCulIoch, John, M. D., geologist, &c. . . . 1773 1835 

Scot. Macdiarmid, John, author ..... 1779 1808 

Scot. Macdonald, Flora, adventurous heroine . . . 1720 1790 

Fr. Macdnna'd, S. T. A., marshal of France . . . 1765 1840 

Amer. Macdonough, Thos., commodore in U. S. Navy, victor on Lake 

Champlain ..... 1783 1825 

Amer. McDowell, Irwin, commander Onion Army . . .1818 

Amer. Macduffie, Geo., U. S. senator from South Carolina . . 1788 1851 

Scot Macgillivray.Wm., naturalist .... 1796 1852 

Scot. Macgregor, John, statistical and political author . . 1797 1S57 

Ital. Machiavel, Nicholas, celebrated writer on politics . . 1469 1527 

Scot. Mackay, Charles, poet and miscellaneous writer . . 1812 

Amer. Mackean, Thos., jurist, statesman, signer of Dec. of Ind. 1734 .1817 

Amer. Mackenzie, A. Slidell, naval commander, author of travels ' 1803 1849 

Scot. Mackenzie, Henry, the Addison of the North . . . 1745 1831 

Irish. Mackenzie, Robt. S., journalist, &c. . . . 1S09 

Amer. Mackintosh, Maria J., novelist . . . (abt ) 1810 

Scot. Mackintosh, Sir James, celebrated literary character . . 1766 1832 

Irish. Macklin, Charles, actor and dramatist . . . 1690 1796 

Scot Macknight, James, divine and author .... 1721 1800 

Aust. Mack von Liebenich, Karl, baron, general . 1752 182$ 

Amer. MacLane, Louis, statesman and diplomatist . . • 1786 1857 

Scot. Maclaurin, Colin, mathematician .... 1698 174* 

Amer Maclean, John, statesman, judge of U. S. Supreme Conrt . 1785 

Eng. MacLean, L. E. L., (Misp Landon), poet and novelist . 1804 1834 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 1 27 

SATTOW. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Irish. Mac.ise, Daniel, historical painter . . , 

Amer. Macleod, Alex., clergyman and author . , . 

Amer. Macleod, Xavier Donald, miscellaneous writer . 

Scot. Maclure, William, geologist, &c . . , 

Pr. MacMahon, M. E. P., duke of Magenta, marshal . 

Scot. MacNab, Sir Allan, Canadian Statesman . 

Irish. MacNeven, Wm. J., patriot and physician, (died at N. Y.) 

Amer. Macomb, Major-Gen eral Alex., military commander . 

Amer. Macon, Nathaniel, member of Congress for N. Carolina 37 years 

Scot. Macpherson, James, miscellaneous writer . 

Amer. Macpherson, Jas. B., Union general in rebellion . 

Eng. Macready, "Wm. Chas., tragedian . . . 

Scot. Macrie, Thomas, D.D., clergyman and author, biographer of Knox 

Eng. Madden, Sir Fred., antiquarian author 

^Ger. Maddler, Johann Henry, astronomer . . . . 

Amer. Madison, James, 4th president of United States . . 

Welsh. Madoc, prince, said to have discovered America . 

Span. Madoz, Pascuale, statesman and author . 

Rom. Maecenas, Caius C, minister of Augustus and patron of literature 

Ital. Mafl'ei, Franc S., marquis, author of 21 vols. 

Amer. Maffitt, John Newland, noted Methodist preacher . ~~ . 

Irish. Magee, "Wm., arcnbishop Dublin, (on Atonement) , . 

Port. Magellan, Ferdinand, celebrated navigator . . 

Fr. Magendie, Francis, physiologist .... 

Irish. Maginn, William, classical and miscellaneous writer and critic 

Fr. Magnan, Bernard Pierre, marshal of France . . 

Amer. Magoon, Elisha L., clergyman and author 

Sar. Mahomet, or Mohammed, founder of the religion which bears his 
name ...... 

Turk. Mahomet II., 7th Turkish Sultan, conqueror of Constantinople 

Fr. Maimbourg, Louis, historian .... 

Jew. Maimonides, Moses, celebrated rabbi 

Fr. Maintenon, Frances d'Aubigne, queen . . . 

Ital. Maio, Angelo. discoverer and editor of Latin classics 

[tal. Maistre, Joseph de, statesman and author . • . 

Eng. Maittaire, Michael, bibliographer, &c. . . . 

Heb. Malachi, the prophet ..... 

Swiss. Malan, Caesar H. A., theologian and author . . 

Amer. Malcom, Howard, clergyman and author . . 

Scot. Malcolm, Sir John, ' History of Persia and India' . 

Fr. Malebranche, Nicholas, metaphysician 

Fr. Malesherbes, C. G. de, statesman, (executed) . 

Ital. Malibran, M. F., Madame, vocalist .... 

Fr. Malherbe, Franc de, poet .... 

Scot. Mallet, David, miscellaneous writer .... 

Swiss. Mallet, Paul Henri, historian .... 

Eng, Malmesbury, Jas. Harris, earl of, diplomatist . . 

Eng. , Jas. H.H., (eon of above), statesman . • 

Eng. , William of, historian .... 

Eng. Malone, Edward, dramatic commentator . . 

ItaL Malphighi, Marcellus, naturalist and anatomist . • 

Eng. Maltby, Edw., bishop of Durham, philologist • . 



BORN. 


DISS 


1811 




1774 


183* 


1821 




1763 


1840 


1807 




1798 




1763 


1841 


1782 


1841 


1757 


1837 


1738 


1798 


1828 


1864 


1793 




: 1772 


1835 


1801 




1794 




1751 


1836 


12th 1 


;<at. 


1806 






B. 0. 


1675 


1755 


1794 


1850 


1765 


1831 




1521 


1783 


1855 


1793 


1842 


1791 


1864 


1810 




569 


632 


1430 


1480 


1610 


1686 


1131 


1204 


1635 


1719 


1753 


1821 


' 1668 


1747 


B. C 


5th cent. 


1787 


1864 


1799 




1769 


1833 


1638 


1715 


1721 


1794 


1808 


1836 


1555 


1628 


1702 


1763 


1730 


1807 


1746 


1826 


1807 






1143 


1741 


1819 


1628 


1694 


1770 


186t 



128 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



H A1IOH, 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Pers. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Amer. 

Scot. 

Eng. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Pr. 

Rom. 

Ital. 

A.rr<er. 

Pt-B. 

St. 

JP>. 

Ger. 

Dan. 

Fr. 

Auat. 

Bpan. 

Ital. 

Span. 

Ger. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Ital. 

Amer. 

Rom. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

&roer. 



HAME AND PBOFESSIOK. 

Malte Bran, Conrad, poet and geographer . 

— , M., geographer . . , 

Malthus, T. R., political economist . . 

Mamiani, Terenze, count, statesman and author 
Mandeville, Sir John, traveller and author 
Manes, or Manichseus, founder of the Maniohasan sect 
Manfred, prince of Tarentum, king of Two Sicilies 
Manin, Daniele, Venetian statesman . . 

Mann, Horace, statesman and educationist . . 

Manning, Henry E., clergyman and author 
Mansel, Henry L., metaphysician and theologian . 
Mansfeld, Ernest of, warrior . 
Mansfield, Jos. K., Union general . 

, ¥m. Murray, Earl of, jurist and statesman 

Mantell, G. A., geologist 

Manutius Aldus, celebrated printer and author 

, the Younger, printer and author . 



Paulus, (son of Manutius), printer 



BOXH. 

. 1775 

1766 
1799 
1300 
239 
(abt.) 1231 
1804 
1796 
1812 
1816 
1585 
1803 
1705 
1790 
1447 
1547 
1512 
1784 
1754 
B. o. 267 
1256 
1786 



Manzoni, author of T. PromesBi Sposi . . 

Marat, John Paul, infamous revolutionist . 

Marcellus, Marcus Claudius, general . 

Marco Polo, Venetian traveller . . 

Marcy, Wm. Learned, statesman . . • 

Mardonius, Persian general in Greece • • • 

Margaret of Angouleme, queen of Navarre . . 1492 

Margaret of Anjou, queen of Henry VI. of England . . Ii29 
Margaret of Austria, daughter of Maximil. I. and Mary of Burgundy 1480 

Margaret, queen of Denmark:, &c, * Semiramis of the North ' . 1353 

Margaret of Valois, queen of Henry IV. of France . . 1552 
Maria Louisa, empress of France, afterwards Duchess of Parma 1787 

Maria Christina, queen dowager of Spain, (born at Naples) . 1806 

Maria de Medici, queen of Henry IV. of France . . 1574 

Mariana, John, celebrated historian . . . . 1537 

Maria Theresa, empress of Germany . . . 1717 

Marie- Amelie, queen of the French, (Louis Philippe) . . 1782 

Marie Antoinette, queen of France, (Louis XVI) . . 1755 

Mariette, Aug. E., Egyptologist and explorer . . . 1821 

Mario, Giuseppe, marquis of Candia, vocalist . , 1810 
Marion, Francis, distinguished officer in the Revolution 

Marius, Caius, famous general and demagogue . B. o. 153 

Marlborough, John Churchill, duke of, able warrior . . 1650 
Marmont, A. F. V., duke of Ragusa, marshal of France and 

traveller ...... 1773 

Marmontel, John Francis, celebrated writer . . . 1723 

Marlowe, Christ, or Kit, dramatio poet . • . 1564 
Mapes, James J., agriculturist .... 

Marquette, Jacques, early explorer of the Mississippi . 1637 

Marrast, Armand, journalist and politician . , . 1800 

Mars, Mademoiselle, actress . . • 1778 

Marsden, oriental traveller and historian . , . 1755 

Marsh, Anne, novelist ..... (abt.) 1800 

Marsh, Geo. Perkins, philff'ogist and diplomatist . . 1801 



dud. 

1828 



186- 



1372 
21 



1857 
1859 



1628 
1862 
1793 
185- 
1517 
1597 
1574 

1793 
B. c. 208 
1323 
1857 
B. 0. 479 
1549 
1481 
1530 
1412 
1612 
1847 

1642 
1624 
1780 

1793 



1795 

b. o. 86 

1722 

1852 
1799 
1593 
1865 
1675 
1852 
1847 
1884 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



129 



BATI0M. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Rom. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Prus. 

Span. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

ItaL 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Scot. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Ind. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Scot. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Irish. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Irish. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Hoi. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Marsh, Herbert, bishop of Peterborough, theological writer 

Marsh, James, metaphysician 

Marshall, John, chief-justice of U. S., biographer 

Marshman, Joshua, missionary in India, and author 

Marston, John, poet and dramatist . . 

Martial, Marcus Valerius, epigrammatist . 

Martin, Benj., optician and author . , 

Martin, Bon Louis Henry, historian . 

Martin, Francis Xavier, jurist and historian . 

Martineau, Harriet, miscellaneous authoress . 



, James, (brother of Harriet), clergyman and author 

Martos, Ivan P. , sculptor . . 

Martinez de la Rosa, don Franc, statesman and litterateur 

Mai tius, C. F. P. von, botanist and traveller 

Martyn, Henry, missionary in India and Persia . 

Martyr, Justin, Christian apologist . . 

, Peter, reformer aDd theologian . . 

Marvell, Andrew, author and statesman . . 

Mary I., first queen regnant of England . . 

, II., queen regnant with Wm. of Orange - . 

Stuart, queen of Scots .... 

Marryatt, Captain, novelist and traveller . , 

Maseres, Francis, 'baron,' mathematician . , 

Maskeleyne, Nevii, astronomer . . . 

Mason, George, statesman .... 

, Jeremiah, lawyer and statesman 

, John, maj. gen. Connecticut colonial forces . 

, John, divine and author . 

, John M., eminent divine . . , 

, John, M., senator from Viiginia, rebel 

, John Y., statesman and minister to France 

, Lowell, musical teacher and composer . 

, William, divine and poet . . . 

Massasoit, sachem of the Wampanoags 
Massena, Andrew, one of the ablest of Napoleon's marshals 
Massey, Gerald, poet .... 

Massillon, John Baptist, eloquent divine . . 

Massinissa, king of Numidia .... 
Masson, David, biographer and essayist . . 

Maunder, Samuel ' Treasury of Knowledge * . , 

Mather, Cotton, divine and author 

, Increase, clergyman and author . , 

Mathew, Theobald, ' Apostle of Temperance ' 
Mathias, Thomas, author of * Pursuits of Literature' . 
Matthew of Westminster, historian 
Matthews, Charles, actor and humorist . . 

1 Matthias ' (Robert Matthews), religious Impostor . 
Matter, Jacques, philosopher and historian . , 

Maturin, Charles Robert, divine, dramatist and poet 
Maundrell, Rev. Henry, traveller in the East . . 

Maupertuis, Peter L. M., geometrician and astronomer. 
Maurioe, Count of Nassau, and Prince of Orange, stadtholder 



BOBM. 


1*1 ID, 


;er 1768 


1888 


1794 


1841 


1755 


183S 


1767 


1837 


(abt.) 1670 


1634 


40 


100 


1704 


1782 


1704 


1782 


1810 




1764 


1846 


ithor 1800 




1753 


1836 


1786 




1781 


1812 


103? 


1679 


1500 


1561 


1621 


1678 


1515 


1558 


1662 


1694 


1542 


1587 


1792 


1848 


1731 


1824 


1732 


1811 


1726 


1792 


1768 


1848 


1600 


1672 


1706 


1763 


1770 


1829 


1795 


1859 


1792 




1725 


1797 




1661 


als . 1758 


1817 


1828 




1663 


1742 


(abt) b. 0. 240 b. 


0. 148 


1823 




1790 


1849 


1663 


1728 


1639 


1723 


1790 


1856 


1750 


1835 


. 13th cent. 


1776 


1835 


. 'abt) 1790 


183- 


1791 




1782 


182S 


1650? 


1710 


1698 


176S 



1667 



162? 



i3° 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



■ATIGJI. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Eng. Maurice, Jno. Fred. D., clergyman and author 

Eng. , Thos. Rev., history of Hindostan, &c. 

Mauricius, Flavius Tib., Byzantine emperor 
Amer. Maury, Matthew E., naval officer, astronomer, rebel, &c 

Pr. , John Siffrein, cardinal and statesman 

Eng. Mavor, Rev. Wm., writer and compiler, voyages, &c. 
Ger. Mavrocordato, statesman 

Eng. Mawe, Joseph, mineralogist and conchologist . 
Ger. Maximilian I., emperor of Germany . , 

Ger. 1 prince, emperor of Mexico 

Rom. Maximinus, Caius J. V., emperor of Rome , 

Eng. Maxwell, Wm. R., 'Life of Wellington.' &c. . 
Amer. Mayer, Brantz, lawyer and historical writer 
Ger. Mayer, Johann T., astronomer 
Eng. Mayhew, Henry, Edward, Thomas, and Horace, brothers, 
morous and miscellaneous writers 

Amer. , Jonathan, clergyman and author 

Fr. Mazarin, Julius, cardinal, able statesman . , 

Mazeppa, John, prince of the Cossacks 
Ital. Mazzini, Giuseppe, democratic politician (Genoa) . 
Amer. Meade, Geo. G., commander army of Potomac 

Amer. , Wm., episcopal bishop of Virginia and author 

I.Amer.Meagher, Tbos. F., gen. in Union armies, gov. Idaho 
Eng. MedhurBt, Walter H., oriental scholar and missionary 

Medici, Hippolytus, cardinal . 

, Cosmo de, the Great, first Gd Duke Tuscany 

— — , ' pater patriae,' Florence . ■ 



Ital. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Turk. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Scot. 

Gr. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Port. 

Span. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Russ. 

Buss. 

Ger. 

Ger. 



, Lorenzo de, poet, gov of Florence, and patron of 

, Pietro, successor of Cosmo, patron of arts 

Mehemet-Ali, pasha of Egypt 

Meiners, Christopher, historian 

Melanchthon, Philip, celebrated reformer . , 

Melbourne, \Vm. Lamb, Viscount de, statesman . 

Mellen, Grenville, poet .... 

Melmoth, Wm., 'Letters,' translation of Cicero, &c. 

,' Religious Life' . 

Melville, Andrew, religions reformer . 

, Herman, author of travels, romances 

, Sir Jas., soldier, statesman, and author 

Menander, comic poet .... 
Mendelssohn, Bartholdy Felix, musical composer 

, Moses, Jewish scholar and philosopher 

Mendez-Pinto, Fernam, adventurer, unjustly famed for 
Mendoza, Diego H. de, scholar, author, and statesman 
Mengs, Anton Rafael, painter and writer on art 
Meninski, Francis M., learned orientalist . 
Mentchikoff, Alex., prince, statesman 
, Alex., S., admiral 



Menno-Simonis, reformer, founder of ' Mennonites' 
Menzel, Wolfgang, critic and historian 

Dutch. Mercator, Gerard, geographer 

Am»T. Mercer, Hugh, general in the Revolutionary war 



(sho 



hu- 
(abt) 



lying 



BOKS. 


DIES 


1805 




1755 


1821 


539 


602 


1806 




1746 


1811 


1758 


1837 


1790 




1755 


1828 


1459 


1519 


l 1834 


1867 




233 


1795 


1851 



1723 



1762 



1812 




1720 


1766 


1602 


1661 




1709 


1809 




1815 




1789 






1S67 


1796 


1857 


1511 


1535 


1519 


1574 


1389 


1464 


1443 


1492 




14t9 


1769 


1S49 


1747 


1810 


1497 


1560 


1779 


•1848 


1799 


1841 


1710 


1799 


1666 


1743 


1545 


1622 


1S19 




1535 


1607 


342 B. 


c. 290 


1809 


1S47 


1729 


17S6 


1510 


1580 


1508 


1575 


1728 


1779 


1623 


1698 


1672 


1769 


1789 






1561 


1798 




1512 


1594 


172f 


177! 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



131 



HATIOH. NAME AMD PROFESSION 

Amer. Meigs, Return J., revoL oflicer . . 

Amer. Meriam, Eben, statistician and meteorologist 

Fr. Merim<5e, Prosper, novelist . . . 

Eng. Merivale, Charles, historian • . . 

Eng. , Jolm Herman, poet . . 

Swiss. Merle d'Aubigne, J. H., D. D., historian . , 

Fr. Merovasus, founder Merovingian dynasty 

Fr. Mery, JosepTi, poet and novelist . . . 

Ger. Mesmer, Fred. A., founder of ' Mesmerism ' 

Ital. Metastasio, Peter B., celebrated poet 

Eng. Metcalfe, Charles T., baron, gov. in India and Canada 

Bom. Metellus, the name of several famous plebeians 

Anst. Metternich, Prince, statesman, and diplomatist 

Dutch. Meursius, John, erudite critic 

Ger. Meyerbeer, musical composer . . 

Eng. Meyrick, Sir Saml. R., antiquarian author 

Fr. Mezerai, Francis de, historian . . 

Ital. Mezzofanti, Cardinal, celebrated linguist . . 

Gr. Miaulis, naval commander . . . 

Heb. Micah, the Prophet .... 

Ital. Micari, Guiseppe, historian . . 

Ger. Michaelis, John David, learned orientalist and oritio 

Fr. Michaud, Joseph, historian ■ 

Fr. Michaux, Andre, botanist, (' Sylva Americana ') . 

Fr. Michel, Francisque, archaeologist 

Fr. Michelet, Jules, historian .... 

Ger. Michelet, Karl Ludwig, philosophical writer . . 

Pol. Mickiewicz. Adam, poet .... 

Eng. Mickle, William J. poet, translator of ' Lusiad,' to. 

Eng. Middleton, Conyers, divine and elegant writer 

Amer. , Arthur, patriot and statesman . , 

Eng. , Thomas, dramatist 

Amer. Mifflin, Thomas, general in Revolutionary war 

Fr. Mignet, F. A., historian ..... 

Port. Miguel Don, rival of Don Carlos to the throne of Portugal 

Amer. Milburn, William Henry, 'blind preacher' and author 

Scot. Mill, James, historian of British India and political economist 

Eng. , John Stuart, political philosopher . . . 

Eng. Millais, John Everett, ' pre-Raphaelite ' painter . 

Amer. Miller, James, general at Chippewa, &c, (' I'll try, sir') 

Eng. , Joseph, comic actor, putative parent of jests 

Scot. , Hugh, geologist ...... 

Amer. , William, founder of the ' Millerites,' or second adventists 

Fr. Milleroye, Charles Hubert, poet . . . . ' . 

Fr. Millin, Anbin Louis, naturalist, &c ..... 

Eng. Millnian, Henry Hart, Rev., poet and historian . 

Fr. Millot, Claude Francis Xavier, historian . , , 

Eng. Mills, Charles, historian ...... 

Fr. Milne-Edward, Henri, naturalist . . • • 

Eng. Milnes, Richard Monckton, poet and statesman . . 

Eng. Milner, Joseph, author of ' Church History ' . , 

Amer Milnor, James, D. D., episcopal clergyman . . 



BOKN. 


WKP 


1740 


1822 


1794 


1864 


1800 




1779 


1844 


1794 




411 


457 


1798 




1734 


1815 


1698 


1782 


1785 


1846 


. 250 


69 


1773 


1859 


15V9 


1639 


1791 




1783 


1848 


1610 


1682 


1774 


1849 


1772 


1835 


f. B 


0. 750 




1839 


1717 


1791 


1767 


1839 


1746 


1802 


1809 




1798 




1801 




17HS 


1855 


1734 


1788 


1683 


1750 


174S 


1787 




1627 


1744 


1800 


1798 




1802 




1823 




1775 


1838 


1806 




1829 




1776 


1851 


1684 


1738 


1802 


1856 


1781 


1849 


1782 


1816 


1759 




1791 




1726 


1785 


1788 


1826 


1800 




1809 




1744 


1797 


1773 


1844 



132 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS, 



■ ATION 

Gr. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Rom. 

Mex. 

Spau. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Turk. 

8ar. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Scot 

IF.-. 

Hoi. 

Eng. 

Fr." 

Fr. 

Span. 

Soot. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Bwiss 

Swiss. 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Ger. 

Fr. 

Fr. 



HAMK AND PROFESSION 

Mlltiades, illustrious Athenian general , 

Milton, John, the Homer of Britain . . 

Mini6, Claude E., inventor of the Minie rifle-bullet 
Minot, George R., historian . . . . 

Minutius-Felix, Marcus, christian writer 
Miramo. i, Miguel, military leader . . . 

Miranda, Francis, revolutionary general 



BORN. 



B. 



1608 
1810 
1758 
3d cent, 
(abt.) 1830 
1750 



Mirabeau, H. G. Riquetti, count de, celebrated chameter in the 

Revolution and author ..... 
Mirbel, Charles F. B. de, naturalist . . . 
Mitchel, Ormsby M., astronomer and patriotic general . 
Mitchell, Donald G., essayist .... 
, Maria, astronomer ..... 



, Samuel L., celebrated physician and naturalist 

, Thomas, classical scholar and critic 

Mitford, Mary Russell, novelist and essayist . 

, Rev. John, editor of poets, .... 

, William, historian and philologist . . 

Mithridates, king of Pontus, warrior .... 
Mitscherlich, E., chemist ..... 

Mittermaier, Karl J. A., jurist and statesman 
Mohammed-Ali, Pasha of Egypt, (See Mahomet and Mehemet) 

Ben Abd Al Wab, sheik, founder sect Wahabites 

Mohler, Johann Adam R., catholic theologian . . 

Mohs, Frederick, mineralogist . , . . 

Moir, David Macbeth, miscellaneous writer . . 

Moll6, M. L., comte, statesman .... 

Moleschott, Jacob, physiologist and naturalist . . 

Molesworth, Sir William, statesman and author . 

Moleville, Anthony F. de Bertrand, count de, historian 
Moliere, John Baptist, celebrated dramatist 
Molina, Luis, Jesuit theologian and author . . . 

Monboddo, lord, judge and philologist . . . 

Montfort, Simon de, earl of Leicester, statesman . . 

Monk, George, duke of Albemarle, military officer . 

Monod, Adolphe, ' reformed pastor ' and author , . 

, Dr. Frederick, ' reformed pastor' at Paris . . 

Monroe, James, statesman, 5th president U T,i *° rl States 
Monse, Gaspar, eminent geometrician . 

Monstrelet, Enguerrand de, chronicler 
Montagu, Basil, lawyer and author 

, Elizabeth, author of ' dialogues,' &o. 

, Lady Mary Wortley, elegant writer 

Montague, Charles, earl of Halifax, statesman and poet . 
Montaigne, Michel de, eminent essayist 
Montalembert, Charles F , count, statesman and author 
Montcalm, Louis, marquis de, general in Canada 
Montebello, John Lannes, duke of, marshal, . . . 

Montecuculi, Raimond, warrior .... 

Montespan, Franc, marquise de, mistress Louis XIV. • 

Montesqieu, Charles baron de, able writer 
Montes, Lola, female adventurer . . , 



1749 
1776 
1810 
1822 
1818 
1763 
1783 
1786 
1781 
1734 

O 123 
1794 
1787 
1769 

f. 1650 
1796 
1774 
1798 
1781 
1822 
1810 
1754 
1622 
1585 
1714 

1608 
1802 
1794 
1759 
1746 
1390 
1770 
1720 
1690 
1661 
1533 
1810 
1712 
1769 
1609 
1641 
1689 
1824 



DDL 

O. 48S 
1674 

1803 

1867 

i8ia 

1791 
1854 
186- 



1831 
1845 
1855 
1859 
1827 
1. 64 
1863 

1850 



1839 
1851 
1855 

1855 
1817 
1673 
1600 
1799 
1265 
1670 
1856 
1863 
1831 
1818 
1453 
1851 
1802 
1762 
1715 
1592 

1759 
1808 
1681 
170; 
175S 
1861 



BIOGRAPHICAL, INDEX. 



!33 



SAIION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Mex. Montezuma I, the greatest of Mexican sovereigns . 

Mex. II, last Atzec emperor . . . 

Fr. Montfaucon, Bern, de, archaeologist and author 

Lug. Montgomery, James, poet .... 

Amer. , Richard, intrepid military officer 

Eng. . , Robert, poet .... 

Fr. Montholon, comte, secretary and "biographer of Napoleon 

Ft. Montmorenci, Anne de, constable of France . 

Ital. Monte, Vincent, poet .... 

Fr. Montmorency, noble family of France . . . 

Fr. Montpensir, Madame, author of Memoirs &o 

Scot. Montrose, Jas. Grahame, marquis of, military leader . 

Amer, Moore, Geo. H., author .... 

Amer. , Frank H , author .... 

An jr. , Clement C, writer of verses, Ac. . . 

Amer. , Jacob Bailey, journalist and author 

Scot. , John, miscellaneous author 

Scot. , Sir John (son of above,) general, killed at Corunna 

Ital. Morata, Olympia, Prot. writer 

Eng. More, Hannah, poet, essayist and moralist, . . 

Eng. , Henry, mystical divine and philosopher 

Fr. Moreau, John Victor, celebrated general . . 

Amer. Morfit, Campbell, chemist and author 

Amer. Morgan, Daniel, brig, gen., in revolutionary war . 

Amer. , Jno. Henry, rebel fillibuster general . 

Eng. , Lady Charles, author of novels, travels &o. 

Eng. , Sir Henry J., buccaneer 

Eng. Morier, James, novelist, ' Hajji Baba ' &c. 

Eng. Moruington, G. Wellesley, earl of, musical composer 

E'r. Morny, Chas. A. count of, minister of Napoleon III. . 

Amer. Morphy, Paul Charles, famous chess-player 

Eng. Morrell, Thos., lexicographer and classical writer . 

Amer. Morris, Geo, P., poet and journalist 

Amer. , Gouverneur, distinguished .statesman . 

Amer. , Lewis, signer of the Declaration of Independence 

Amer. , Robert, signer Declaration Independence and financier 

Eng. Morrison, Robert, Chinese traveller and philologist 

Eng. , Robert D. D., missionary and philologist 

Amer. Morse, Jedcdiah, geographer and statistical writer 

Amer. , Samuel F. B., artist and inventor of telegraph 

Amer. , Sidney E., journalist and geographer 

Pp. " Mortier, marshal of France, killed by Fieschi . 

Scot. Morton, Jas. Douglas, earl of, regent 

Amer. , John, signer of Declaration of Independence 

Amer. , Samuel Geo., anatomist and ethnologist 

Amer. , Wm. T. G. dentist, discoverer of the use of ether (?) 

Heh. Moses, lawgiver of the Jews 

Ger. Mosheim, John Lawrence, ecclesiastical historian . 

Scot. Motherwell, William, poet 

Amer. Motley, John Lothrop, historian 

Amer. Mott, Lucretia, minister of ' Friends' and philanthropist 

Amer. ■■> Valentine, surgeon and author 





BOHN". 


Died. 

147: 


. 


1480 


1520 




1655 


1741 


. 


1771 


1854 




1737 


1775 


. 


1807 


1855 




1783 


1853 


. 


1493 


1567 




1753 


1828 


10th to 19th century 




1627 


1692 


• 


1612 


1651 


• 


1779 


1863 


. 


1797 


1853 




1738 


1802 


1 


1761 


1809 




1526 


1555 


. 


1744 


1833 




1614 


1687 


• 


1763 
1820 


1813 


• 


1736 


1802 




1780 


1859 




1637 


1690 


. 


1780 


1849 




1720 


1784 


• 


1811 
1837 


1865 


. 


1703 


1784 




1802 


1864 


. 


1752 


1816 




1726 


1798 


icier 


1703 


1806 




1782 


1834 


. 


1782 


1834 




1761 


1827 


• 


1791 
1794 




. 


1768 


1835 




1530 


1581 


(Penn) 


1724 


1777 




1799 


1851 


?) • 


1819 




. B. 0. 


1571 b 


0. 1451 


. 


1695 


1755 




1797 


1836 


• 


1814 
1793 






1786 


18«f 



*34 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Pr. Motte, Cadillac, Ant de la, founder of Detroit . . 

Ger. Moschus, bucolic poet . . . . f. b. o. 

Amer. Moultrie, Wm,, general and statesman . • 

Mouradgea, D'Ohason, Armenian historian . 

Amer. Mowatt (Ritchie), Anna Cora, actress and authoress . (abt) 

Ger. Mozart, C. W. T., eminent composer 

Eng. Mudie, Robert, author of various works on Natural History, 

Ger. Muller, C. O., historian, archaeologist classical scholar . 

Swiss. Muller, John von, oelebrated historian, ' Universal History' 

Ger. , John, physiologist .... 

Ger. Munchhausen, J. C. E., proverbial for 'stories' . 

Eng. Manden, Jos. S., comedian .... 

Fr. Murat, Joachim, intrepid marshal and king of Naples 

ItaL Muratori, Louis Anthony, historian . . 

Irish. Murphy, Arthur, dramatist and translator 

Scot. Murray, Alex., self-taught linguist . • 

Scot. — : , Hugh, geographer (Encyclo) 

Scot. , or Moray, Jas. Stuart, earl of, regent . 

Eng. , John, the elder, eminent publisher 

Amer. , Lindley, grammarian . . 

Amer. , Wm., Vans, statesman . . 

Gr. Musaeus, Athenian poet . . . 

Fr. Musset, Louis C. A. de, poet . • 



B0R1 


DIM 


1660 


171! 


160 




1731 


180S 


1740 


1801 


1826 




1756 


1793 


1777 


1842 


1797 


1840 


1752 


1809 


1801 


1858 


1720 


1797 


1758 


1832 


1771 


1815 


1672 


1750 


1727 


1805 


1775 


1813 


1779 


1846 


1531 


1570 


1778 


1843 


1745 


1826 


1761 


1803 


1243 




1810 


1857 



N. 

\ssyr. Nabonassar, first king of the Chaldeanu . . 

Assyr. Nabopolassar, king of Babylon . . . 

Pers. Nadir Shah, or Thamas Kouli Kahn, warrior and king . 

Heb. Nahurn, prophet .... 

Irish. Napier, Chas. Jas., general in India, &c. . • 

Scot. , John, baron, inventor of logarithms • 

Eng. , Sir Charles, admiral .... 

Fr. Napoleon I., (Bonaparte) . . . 

Fr. — , II., king of Rome, (see Bonaparte) . . 

Fr. , III., (Louis Napoleon), emperor . 

Eng. Nares, James, musical docto' - , composer . . 

Eng. , Rev. Edmund, ' Thinks I to myself 

Pers. Narses, warrior in the service of Justinian I., the emperor 

Span. Narvaez, don Ramon, duke of Valentia, statesman . 

Eng. Nash, Richard, styled ' Beau Nash ' . . . 

Dutch. Nassau, prince Maurice of, able general 

Pers. Nassir Eddyn, celebrated astronomer . 

Span. Navarrete, Martin F. de, ' Collect of Voyages' 

Eng. Neal, Daniel, author of the ' History of the Puritans,' &« 

Amer. , John, novelist .... 

Amer. , Joseph C, litterateur .... 

Ger. Neander, J. W. Augustus, ecclesiastical historian . 

Gr. Neaichus, admiral and voyager . . • 

Chald. Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon . . , 

Fr. Necker, James, eminent financier and statesman . 

Switw. , Madame J. C, wife of James, essayist . 



fl. B. c. 747 




. fl. b. o. 626 




1688 


1747 


. f. B. C. 


7th cent. 


1782 


1853 


1550 


1617 


17S6 


1860 


1769 


1821 


1811 


1832 


1808 




1715 


1783 


1762 


1841 




567 


1795 




1674 


1761 


1567 


1625 


1201 


1274 


1765 


1844 


1678 


1743 


1794 




1807 


1848 


. 1789 


1850 


. b. a 


4th cent. 




B. 0. 462 


.' 1732 


1804 


1739 


1794 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



135 



NAME AND PBOFESSION. 

Neele, Henry, po;t and miscellaneous writer , , 

Neff, Felix, apostle of the Alps . . , 

Nehemiah, governor of Judea . . , 

Nelson, Horatio, viscount, celebrated admiral , 

Nepos, Cornelius, historian .... 
Nero, infamous emperor . . , 

Nerva, emperor ..... 

Nesselrode, Charles R., count, statesman and diplomatist 
Nestorius, patriarch o-f Constantinople, founder of Nestorians 
Neukomm, Sigism. chevalier, composer 

Neuwied, Maximilian, prince of, traveller in North America, &c 
Newton, John, Calvinistic divine and writer 

, Sir Isaac, the greatest of philosophers . 

, Thomas, learned prelate, (on Prophecies) . 

Ney, Michael, marshal, ' the bravest of the brave * 
Nicephorus, Greg., Byzantine historian . . 
Nicholas I., emperor, (1825-55) . . . 
Nichols, John Bowyer, printer and archaeologist . 
Nicholson, Peter, architect and political mechanic , 
, William, writer on natural philosophy and chemistry 



Ger. 
Eng 
Ger. 
Ger. 
Pol. 
Eng 



Nicolai, Chris. Fred., bookseller and author 
Nicolas, Sir Harris, antiquary . . 
Niebhur, B. G., statesman and historian 
, Carsten, celebrated traveller 



Niemcewiez, Julius U., military commander and author 
Nightingale, Florence, practical philanthropist . , 

Amer. Niles, Hezekiah, journalist 'Register' . . 

Swe. Nilston, Sven, zoologist ..... 

Amer. Noah, Mordecai M., journalist, politician and author . 

Ger. Noehden, G. H., grammarian and miscellaneous writer . 

Fr. Nodier, Charles, novelist .... 

Ger. Am. Nordheimer, Hebrew scholar and author 

Eng. Normanby, C. G. Phipps, marquis of, novelist and statesman 

Eng. North, Francis, 1st lord Guilford, 'lord keeper' . . 

Eng. , Frederick, lord, prime minister of George IIL . 

Eng. Northcote, James, artist and biographer . . . 

Amer. Norton, Andrews theological, Unitarian author . 

Eng. , Hon. Mrs., poetess .... 

Amer. Nott, Abner Kingman, remarkable Baptist preacher . 

Amer. , Eliphalet, D. D., president of Union College and author 

Eng. — — , John, poet and translator 

Ger. Novalis, or Fred, von Hardenberg, author . , 

Eng. Novello, Vincent, musician (life by Mrs. Clarke) . 

Amer. Noyes, Wm. Curtis, jurist and patriot . . , 

Irish. Nugent, lord, author of ' Life of Hampden,' &o. . 

Rom. Numa Pompilius, second king of Rome . . f. 

Span. Nunez, Alva C. de Vaca, explorer . . . 

©. 



Vr, 



Oates, Titus, infamous pretender of the ' Popish plot 
Oberlin, John Fred., philanthropist . . 



BOEN. 


l-ED 


. 1798 


1828 


1798 


1828 


1. B. 0. 444 




1758 


180a 




B. 0. 30 


37 


68 


32 


98 


1780 


1862 


l . 


439 


1778 


1857 


&C. 1782 




1725 


1807 


1642 


1727 


1704 


1782 


1769 


1815 


14bh cent. 


1796 


1855 


1807 


1863 


try 1753 


1815 


1786 


1842 


, 1733 


1811 


1799 


1848 


1776 


1830 


1733 


1815 


1756 


1841 


. 1777 


1839 


1787 






1851 


1770 


1826 


1783 


1844 


1797 


186.' 


1637 


1684 


1732 


1791 


1746 


1837 


1790 


1835 


1834 


1859 


1773 


1866 


1751 


1826 


1772 


1801 


1781 


1861 


1805 


1864 




1850 


B. 0. 714 






1564 


1619 


' 1701 


1740 


189« 



136 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSIOH. 

Ii-iBh. O'Brien, Fitz-James, poet .... 

Iiish. , Wm. Smith, political agitator . . 

Irish. O'Connell, Daniel, political agitator . , . 

Irish. O'Connor, Fergus, chartist orator . . . 

Eng, Ockley, Simon, orientalist , 

Arab. Odenatus, warrior, husband of Zenobia . 

Fr. Odilon-Barrot, C. H., statesman . , , 

Bar. Odoacer, Gothic king of Italy 

Dan. Oersted, Hans Ch,, discoverer of electro-magnetism 

Eng. Oglethorpe, J. E., founder of Georgia . . 

Irish. O'Keefe, John, dramatist 

Ger. Oken, Louis, naturalist . , . . 

Ger. Olbers, H. W. M., astronomer 

Eng. Oldcastle, Sir John, Lord Cobham . . . 

Amer. Olin, Stephen, D. D., Methodist theologian and author 

Span. Olivan, don Aless., publicist .... 

Amer. Olmsted, Denison, professor, astronomer, &c. 

Ger. Olshausen, Hermann, protestant theologian . ., 

Arab. Omar I., caliph, captor of Jerusalem . . 

Irish. O'Meara, Barry, surgeon to Napoleon and author 

Eng. Onslow, Arthur, speaker House Commons 

Eng. Opie, Mrs. Amelia, writer on morals and education 

Gr. Oppian, poet ..... 

Dutch. Orange, William I., of Nassau, prince of, founder of Dutch republic 1533 

Dutch. , William IL, prince of, stadtholder . 

Dutch. , William III., prince of, stadtholder, and king of England 

Span. Orfila, M. J. B., chemist and toxicologist . . 

Origen, one of the fathers of the church . . 

Fr. Orleans, L. J. P., duke of ' Egalite,' guillotined . . 

Fr. , Fer. P. L., duke of, heir of Louis Philippe • 

Buss Orloff, Gregory, count, favorite Catherine II. . 
Eng. Orme, Robert, historian of India .... 
Eng. Ormond, James Butler, duke of, statesman . , . 
Gr. Orpheus, poet, sometimes siyled the 'father of poetry ' • 
Irish. Orrery, Charles, 4th earl of, natural philosophy 

Irish. , Roger Boyle, 1st earl of, statesman and author . 

Eng. Orton, Job, dissenting divine and author 

Amer. Osgood, Frances, poetess .... 

Amer. , Samuel, D. D., Unitarian divine and author 

Port. Osorio, Jerome, philosopher, historian, and theological writer 
Scot. Ossian, Gaelic bard, supposed to have lived in the 3d century 
Egypt. Osymandias, king of Egypt .... 

Amer. Otis, James, patriot and statesman . . . 

Amer. , Harrison Gray, statesman and jurist . . 

Ger. Otho I., king of Greece (born in Bavaria) . . 

Eng. Ottley, ¥tii, Young, writer on art . . 

Eng. Otway, celebrated dramatist, ' Venice Preserved ' 

Fr. Oudinot, Charles N., marshal of France . . . 

Eng. Ouseley, Sir Gore, diplomatist . . 

Ger. Overbeck, Fred., founder of modem religioui school of art 

Eng. Overbury, Sir Thos., (poisoned in the Tower) . 

Bom. Ovid, Publius N iso, poet .... 



SOB-N. 


DIED 




1864 


1806 


186- 


1775 


1841 


1795 


185S 


1678 


1720 




267 


1791 






493 


1777 


1851 


1698 


1785 


1748 


1833 


1778 


1851 




1S40 


1360 


1417 


1797 


1851 


1791 


1859 


1796 


1839 


581 


644 


1778 


1836 


1691 


1768 


1771 


1853 


f. 150 




public 1533 


15S4 


1626 


1650 


land 1650 


1702 


1787 




185 


253 


1747 


1793 


1810 


1842 


1734 


1783 


1728 


1801 


1610 


16SS 


1676 


1731 


1621 


1679 


1717 


1783 


1812 


1850 


1812 




1502 


1580 


(abt.) 1500 




1725 


1772 


1767 


1848 


1815 


1867 


1771 


1836 


1651 


1685 


1767 


1847 


1769 


1844 


1780 




1581 


161S 


B. 0. 43 


11 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



137 



■ATIOlf. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. 

6pa>\ Oviedo. J. G., bishop of, author of ' Voyages in the West Indies' 

Amer. Owen, David Dale, geologist .... 1807 

Eng. , John, independent theologian . . , 1616 

Eng. , Richard, surgeon and naturalist . , , 

Welsh. , Robert, political theorist .... 1771 

Amer. , Robert Dale, statesman and author . . 

Eng. Oxford, Horace Walpole, earl of, author . . . 1717 



P. 

Amer. Paine, Elijah, jurist ..... 

Amer. , Elijah (son of above), jurist . . . 

Amer. , John Howard, dramatist, ' Home, Sweet Home* 

Amer. — '^- — , Robert Treat, lawyer and patriot . . , 

Amer. , Robert Treat, son, poet, . . . 

Eng. , Thomas, political and deistical writer . . 

Fr. Paixhan, general, inventor of guns bearing his name . 

Ven. Paez, military commander and president Venezuela , 

Ital. Paganini, Nicolo, famous Violinist . . . 

Eng. Paley, William, eminent divine and author . . 

Eng. Palgrave, Sir Francis, antiquarian author . , 

Fr. Palisset de Montenoy, Charles, satirist . . , 

Fr. Paliesy, Bernard, ' the Potter' . . . 

Ital. Palladio, Andrew, architect .... 

Pruss. Pallas, Peter Simon, traveller and naturalist . , 

Eng. Palmerston, Henry Temple, viscount, statesman . . 

Ger. Panzer, G. W. F., bibliographer . . , 

Ital. Paoli, Pascal, Corsican patriot and general . , 

Can. Papineau, L. J , politician and patriot , . 

Rom. Papinian, ^Emil ius, civil lawyer .... 

Swiss. Paracelsus, A. P. T. B. de II., alchemist , . 

Eng. Pardoe, Julia, Miss, novelist .... 

Fr. Paris, count of, Louis Ph. Al., grandson of Louis Philippe 

Eng. , Matthew, historian .... 

Scot. Park, Mungo, celebrated traveller 

Amer. Parker, Theodore, Unitarian preacher and oriental scholar . 

Eng. Parkes, Samuel, chemist and author . 

Ital. Parma, Alexender Farnese, duke of, regent of the Netherlands 

Irish. Parnell, Thos., poet and divine 

Eng. Parr, Samuel, learned divine and philologist . . 

Eng. , Thomas, lived 152 years . , 

Eng. Parry, Capt. Edward, Arctic navigator . . . 

Amer. Parsons, Theophilus, jurist .... 

Amer. , Theophilus (son), jurist .... 

Amer. Parton, James, biographer, historian, and essayist . 

Amer. , Mrs. Sarah, ' Fanny Fern,' authoress . * 

Fr. Pascal, Blaise, eminent geometrician and writer . 

Rubs. Paskewitsch, Ivan F., prince of "Warsaw, general . , 

Eng. Pasley, Gen. Sir Chae. "W., engineer . . . 

Fr. Pasquier, Etienne D., count, chancellor of France . . 

Ger. Passow, Francis L. C. F., philologist and lexicographer (Greek lex.) 

Rom. Paterculus, Cains Velleiue, historian . . (abt.) b. 0. 



DIED. 

1540 
I860 
1683 

1860 

1797 



1757 


1842 


1796 


1853 


1791 


1851 


1731 


1814 


1773 


1811 


1736 


1809 


1782 


1854 


1787 




1784 


18S5 


1745 


1805 


1788 


1861 


1730 


1815 


1510 


1590 


1518 


1580 


1741 


1811 


1784 


1865 


1729 


1812 


1726 


1806 


1789 




145 


212 


1493 


1541 


1812 


1862 


1838 






1259 


1771 


1804 


1810 


1860 


1759 


1829 


1546 


1592 


1679 


1717 


1746 


1825 


1483 


1635 


1790 


1856 


1750 


1818 


1811 




1623 


1662 


1782 


1856 


1781 


1861 


1767 


1833 


1786 


1881 


90 





i 3 8 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Bng. Patinore, Coventry, poet • • • . 

Irish. Patrick, St., apostle of Ireland 

Eng. , Simon, bishop of Chichester, Bible commentary 

Paul, Father, (see Sarpi) . . , 

Heb. , St., Apostle to the Gentiles . . . 

Fr. , St. Vincent de, Catholic missionary • 

Amer. Paulding, James Kirke, novelist and essayist . . 

Rom. Paulus-^Emilius, Lucius, fell at Cannae . , 

Gr. Pausanias, spartan commander . . 

Gr. , topographical writer . . , 

Eng. Paxton, Sir Joseph, horticulturist and architect . 

Eng. Payne, Roger, noted book-binder . . . 

Amer. Payson, Edward, D. D., congregational divine . 

Amer. Peabody, Eliz P., educational writer . . 

Amer. , O. W. B., reviewer and biographer » 

Eng. Peacock, George, dean of Ely, mathematician . 

Eng. Pearson, John, bishop of Chester, ' On the Creed ' 

Port. Pedro, V., king of Portugal, (son of Donna Maria IL) 

Port. , don, claimant to the throne of Portugal 

Eng. Peel, Sir Robert, 1st baronet, cotton manufacturer . 

Eng. , Sir Robert, 3d baronet, statesman . . 

Eng. Peele, George, poet, (Life by Dyce) . 

Brit. Pelagous, monk, founder of a sect . 

Span. Pelayo, first king of Asturias 

Fr. Pelissier, A. J. J., duke of Malakoff, marshal 

Ital. Pellico, Silvio, poet and patriot 

Gr. Pelopidas, illustrious Theban general 

Fr. Pelouze, Theodore Jules, chemist 

Eng. Pembroke, Mary Sidney, countess of 

Eng. Penn, Granville, author 

Eng. , William, admiral, father of founder of Pennsylvania 

Eng. , William, founder and legislator of Pennsylvania . 

Eng. Pennant, Thomas, naturalist and antiquary . 

Ctal. Pepe, William Florestan, general . . . 

Amer. Pepperell, Sir William, general . . . 

Ital. Pepoli, Charles, litterateur , 

Eng. Pepys, Samuel, secretary to Admiralty, author of ' Diary' 

Eng. Perceval, Spencer, prime minister, assassinated . . 

Amer. Percival, James Gates, poet, geologist and critic 

Eng. Percy, Thomas, bishop of Dromore, 'Religious Ant, Poetry' 

Fr. Perefixe, Hardouin de Beaumont de, historian . 

Eng. Pereirea, Jonathan, M. D., 'Materia Medica' , , 

Ital. Pergolese, John B., musical composer . . 

Gr. Pericles, able Athenian orator and statesman . , 

Amer. Perit, Pelatiah, merchant and philanthropist 

Eng. Perkins, Hugh, eccentric preacher and roundhead (executed) 

Amer. , Jacob, inventor of steam-gun, &c. 

Kug. , Thomas H., eminent merchant and philanthropist 

Fr. Perouse, John F. Galaup, circumnavigator . . 

Fr. Perrier, M. Casimir, statesman . . . 

Amer. Perry, Matthew G., commodore, ('Japan') , , 

Amer. — — , Oliver Hazard, commodore U. S. navy • 



BORN. 


DISC 


1823 




372 


493 


1626 


1707 


1552 


1623 




65? 


1576 


1669 


1779 


1860 


B 


o. 216 


B. 


C. 470 


f. (abt.) 120 


1802 


1865 


1739 


1797 


1783 


1827 


1802 




1799 


1848 




1858 


1613 


168« 


1837 


1&6- 




1831 


1750 


1S30 




1850 


1552 


1598 


354 






757 


1794 


1864 


1789 


1854 


B. 


O. 361 


1807 






1621 


1761 


1844 


1621 


1670 


1644 


1718 


1726 


1798 


1780 


1855 


1697 


1759 


180! 




1632 


1703 


1762 


1812 


1795 


1857 


1728 


1811 


1605 


1670 


1804 


1853 


1710 


1736 


B. c. 490 I 


0. 429 


1785 


1864 


1599 


1660 


1766 


1S49 


1764 


1854 


1741 


1788 


1777 


1832 


1795 


1858 


1T86 


18M 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX 1 39 

SATIOB NAME AND PROFESSION. BOBN. DIBtt 

Fr. Pel signy, Jean G. V M politician and diplomatist . 1808 

Rom. Persius, FJaccus Aulus, satirist . . 34 GJ 

Ger. Perthes, Christian Frederick, bookseller, (life by son) 1772 1843 

Rom. Pertinax, emperor . . .... 126 193 

Swiss. Pestalozzi, Henry, introducer of a new system of education 1745 1827 

Rubs. Peter I., the great, statesman and warrior . . . 1672 1725 

Fr. the Hermit, first mover of the crusades . . 1050? 1115 

Eng. Peters, Hugh, ' fanatic '..... 1599 1660 

Eng. Peterborough, Charles Mordaunt, earl Of, warrior . . 1668 1735 

Ger. Petermann, August H., geographer . . • . 

Amer. Petigrew, James Louis, of S. C, Union statesman . . 1789 1863 

Petion, Alexander, mulatto, president Hayti . , . 1770 1818 

Ctal. Petrarch, Francis, one of the four greatest of Italian poets . 1304 1374 

Fr. Peyronnet, Pierre D., count de, minister of Charles X. and historian 1778 1854 

Ger. Pfeiffer, Ida, traveller and author . . . 1795 1858 

Rom. Phsedrus, fabulist . . . , . . f. 30 

Fr. Philidor, Andrew, writer on chess . . . 1726 1796 

Philip II., king of Macedon, warrior . . . b. 0. 383 a. 0. 336 

St., of Neri, founder of the Oratory . . 1515 1595 

Eng. Phillimore, JohnG., author on law , . . 1809 1865 

Eng. Phillips, Ambrose, poet aud dramatist . , , 1749 

Eng. , John, poet 'Splendid Shilling* . . . 1676 1708 

Eng. , Sir Richard, bookseller and compiler . . 1768 1840 

Je\r Philo-Judaeus, learned Jewish writer of Alexandria . . f. A. D. 40 

Gr. Philopcemen, celebrated general . . . . b. o. 253 B. o. 183 

Eng. Phipps, Sir William, colonial governor Massachusetts ., 1651 1695 

Gr. Phocion, eminent Athenian general . . . b. o. 400 a. o. 318 

Photius, learned patriarch of Constantinople . . 815 891 

Ajner. Physic, Philip Syng, M. D. . . . 1768 1837 

Ital. Piazzi, Joseph, astronomer .... 1746 1826 

Fr. Picard, Louis Benedict, dramatist and novelist . . 1769 1824 

Fr. Pichegru, Charles, eminent general .... 1761 1804 

Amer. Pickering, Timothy, distinguished statesman . . 1746 1829 

Amer. , John, philologist . 1772 1846 

Swiss. Pictet, Benedict, theological and historical writer . 16")5 1724 

Eng. Pictou, Sir Thomas, general .... 1816 

Amer. Pierce, Franklin, general, 14th president U. S. . . 1804 

Rom. Pilate, Pontius, Roman governor of Judea . . . 387 

Amer. Pinckney, Charles Cotesworth, general and diplomatist . 1825 

Amer. , William, distinguished orator and diplomatist . 1765 1822 

Gr. Pindar, the greatest of lyric poets . . b. o. 522 a o. 442 

Scot. Pinkerton, John, fertile and eccentric author . . 1758 1826 

Span. Pinzou, Vincent Tanez, navigator, discovered Brazil . 1. 1500 

Amer. Piozzi, Hester L., miscellaneous writer, friend of Dr. Johnson 1789 1821 

Fr. Piron, Alexis, poet dramatist, and wit . . . 1689 1773 

Gr. Pisistratus, tyrant of Athens . . . . b. 0. 527 

Amer. Pitkin, Timothy, historian and statistician . . 1765 1847 

Eng. Pitt, Christopher, poet and translator . . . 1699 1748 

Eng. , William, 1st earl of Chatham, statesman . . 1708 1778 

Eng. , "Wiliam, celebrated statesman, son of Lord Chatham . 1759 1806 

Gr. Pittacus, of Mitylene, one of the seven sages . . B. O. 660 B. C 671 

Ital. Pius IX., pope, (Giov. Mastai Ferretti) . . . 1792 



140 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



NATION NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Span. Pizarro, Francis, conqueror of Peru . . , 

Eng. Platoche, James R., dramatist and miscellaneous writer . 

Gr. Plato, illustrious philosopher, founder of the Academic sect b. 

Rom. Plautus, comic poet b 

Eng. Playfair, John, eminent mathematician and natural philosopher 

Eng. , Lyon, chemist, (born in Bengal) 

Eom. Pliny, the elder, or C. P. Secundus, author of natural history 

Rom. , the younger, warrior and author . . ■ 

Egypt. Plotinus, Platonic philosopher . . . 

Irish. Plunket, W. C, lord chancellor of Ireland . • . 

Gr. Plutarch, celebrated biographer . . • 

Ind. Pocahontas, daughter of Powhatan, of Va. . . , 

Eng. Pocock, D. E., learned critic and commentator * . 

Eng. — — — -, D. E., learned prelate and traveller . . . 

Amer. Poe, Edgar A., poet, critic and novelist . . . 

Ger. Poggendorf, John Chris., physicist and chemist 

Amer. Poinsett, Joel R., statesman, diplomatist, and author • 

Fr. Poisson, D. S., mathematician .... 

Eng. Pole, Reginald, cardinal archbishop of Canterbury . 

Fr. Polignac, J. A. M., prince, minister of Charles X. . . 

Fr. , Melchior de, cardinal and statesman . . 

Amer. Polk, Jas. Knox, president U. S. 

Amer. . Leonidas, Bp. of La., and rebel general 

Eng. Pollok, Robt., poet, ' Course of Time ' 

Ital. Polo, Marco, celebrated Venetian traveller 

Gr. Polybius, eminent historian 

Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna, Christian martyr ; 

Port. Pombal, Seb., marquis of, statesman . 

Eng. Pomfret, John, poet 

Fr. Pompadour, J. A. P., Marchioness of . 

Rom. Pompey, Cneus, statesman and warrior 

Span. Ponce de Leon, discoverer of America 

Pol. Poniatowski, Joseph, prince, general, marshal of France . 

Pol. , Stanislaus Aug., last king of Poland . , 

Ind. Pontiac, Indian chief ..... 

Eng. Poole, John, author of ' Paul Pry,' &o. . . 

Eng. , Matthew, able divine and author . . . 

Eng. Pope, Alexander, celebrated poet .... 

Amer. , John, Union general, com. army Potomac aud 4th mil. dist. 

Porphyry, Platonic philosopher .... 

Eng. Porson, Richard, eminent hellenist and critic . . 

Ital. Porta, John Baptist, natural philosopher . . . 

Eng. Porter, Anna Maria, novelist .... 

Amer. , David, commodore, U. S. Navy . . 

Amer. , David D., rear-admiral .... 

Eng. , Jane, novelist, . . . . . 

Eng. , Sir Robert Ker, author of ' Travels,' &o. . . 

Eng. Porteus, Beilby, eminent prelate .... 

Amer. Potter, Alonzo, D. D., epis. bp. of Pennsylvania, and educa- 
tional author ..... 

Amer. Horatio, D. D., episc. bishop of New York . . 

Hng. , John, archbishop of Canterbury. ' Gr. Antiq.' . 



and author 



(' The Great.') b. 



BORN. 


dik a 


1475 


1541 


1796 




0. 430 


D. c. 347 


0. 227 


B. O. 18* 


1749 


1818 


1819 




23 


7» 


61 


115 


203 


270 


1765 


1854 


50 


120 




1617 


1604 


1691 


1704 


1765 


1811 


1856 


1796 




1778 


1851 


1781 


1840 


1500 


1558 


1780 


1S17 


1611 


1741 


1795 


1849 


1806 


1864 


1799 


1827 


1250 


1323 


c. 205 


b. 0. 123 




169 


1699 


1782 


1667 


1703 


1772 


1764 


0. 106 


B. C. 48 


1460 


1521 


1763 


1S13 


1732 


1798 


1712 


1769 


1624 


1779 


1688 


1744 


1823 




233 


304 


1759 


1808 


1540 


1616 


1781 


1832 


1780 


1843 


1776 


135C 


1780 


1845 


1731 


1808 


1800 


1863 


167* 


1741 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



141 



STATION. HAME AND PROFESSION. 

Eng. Potter, Robert, divine, poet, aud translator 

Eng. Pottenger, Sir Henry, diplomatist 

Irish. Power, Tyrone, comic actor . 

Russ. Pozzo di Borgo, diplomatist . . , 

Eng. Praed, Winthrop Mackworth, poet 

Amet, Pradt, Abbe Dominique de, political writer 

Amer. Preble, Edward, commodore in the U. S. Navy 

Amcr. Prentiss, Sargent 8 , lawyer and politician, famed for eloque 

Amer. Prescott, Wm. Hiekling, historian 

Amer. Preston, Wm. C, U. S. senator for South Carolina . 

Eng. Price, Dr. R., writer on civil liberty , 

Eng. , Sir Uvedale, writer on the Picturesque . 

Eng. Prideaux, Humphrey, learned divine'. . . 

Ger. Priessnitz, Vincent, founder of Hydropathy . 

Eng. Priestley, Joseph, eminent philosopher and writer • 

Amer. Prince, Rev. Thos., historian of N. England 

Eng. Pringle, Thos., poet and traveller . . . 

Eng. Prinsep, Chas. R., political economist . . 

Eug. Prior, Mathew, poet and statesman . . , 

Eng. Pritchard, J. C„ ethnologist, ' Natural History of Man' 

Rom. Probus, Marcus Aureiius, emperor . . 

Ital. Procida, John of, patriot . . . 

Gr. Probus, a Platonic philosopher . , . 

Procv ~>ius, historian .... 

Rom. , Ant'nemius, emperor . . , 

Eng. Proctor, Miss Ade aide A., poetess 

Eng. , Bryan W. (' Barry Cornwall '), poet and critic 

Rom. Propertius, Sextus Aureiius, poet 

Fr. Proudhon, Pierre Jos., political theorist and socialist . 

Eng. Prynne, learned lawyer, political writer, and antiquary 

Fr. Psalmanazwr, George, literary impostor 

Egypt. Ptolemy, Claudius, eminent astronomer and geographer 

Ger. Puckler-Muskau, H. L. H., prince of, author of Travels, &o. 

Ger. Puffendorf, Samuel, baron de, publicist and historian 

Eng. Pugin, Augs. Welby, architectural writer 

Pole. Pulaski, Casimir, count, genl. in the U. S. service . 

Ital. Pulci, Louis, poet ..... 

flung. Pulszky, Franz, politician and author . . 

Eng. PurcelL Henry, musical composer . . . 

Eng. , Thos., musical composer . 

Eng. Pnrchas, divine, editor of Voyages and Pilgrimage . 

Amer. Pursh, Fred., botanist .... 

Eng. Pusey, Edward Bour, D.D., founder of ' Puseyites ' 

Amer. Putnam. Israel, distinguished officer in the Revolution 

Amer. , Rufus, pioneer settler of Ohio 

Bng. Puttenham, George, poet and critic, ' Art of Eng. Poesie' 

Eng. Pye, Henry James, poet laureate 

Eng. Pym, John, republican politician . 

Amer Pynchon, "Wm., f junder of Springfield, Ma--s. , 

Gr. Pyrrho, philosopher, founder of Sceptic Sect . 

Pyrrhus, king of Epiruj . . . . 

Or Pythagoras, celebrated philosopher 



BOBN. 


DIED 


1721 


1S04 


1787 


1859 


1795 


1841 


1768 


1841 


:so2 


1839 


1759 


1837 


1761 


1807 


rueoce 1810 


1850 


1796 


1859 


1794 


1860 


1728 


1791 


1747 


1829 


1648 


1724 


1799 


1851 


1733 


1804 


1687 


1758 


1789 


1834 


1788 


1864 


1664 


1721 


1785 


1848 


232 


282 


1225 


1303 


410 


487 


410 


487 




472 




1864 


1787 




B. 0. 52 


B 0. 12 


1809 


1865 


1609 


1669 


1679 


1763 


70 




eo. . 1785 




1632 


1794 


1811 


1852 


1747 


1779 


. . 1432 


1487 


1814 




1658 


1695 




1682 


1577 


1628 


1774 


1820 


1800 




1718 


1790 


1738 


1824 




1600 


1745 


1813 


1584 


1643 


159JI? 
. f. B. 0. 300 


1662 




B. 0. 271 


a. 0. 686 


». c. 491 



142 



THE WOKLD'S PROGRESS. 



KAKOH, NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Eng. Qaaln, Jones, M. D., anatomist . , , 

Eng. Quarles, Francis, poet, author of 'Emblems' . 

Fr. Quatremere, E. M., orientalist . . . 

Quekett, John, microscopist . . , 

Fr. Quesne, Abraham du, admiral . , . 

Quesnel, Peter, ' History of Jesuits' . • 

Belg. Quetelet, L. A., mathematician and statistician . 

Span, Quevedo de Villegas, Francis, poet . . 

Eng. Quin, James, actor . . ... . 

Fr. Quinault, Philip, lyrical dramatist 

Amei. Quincy, Josiah ex-pres. Harvard Univ., and author 

Amer. , Josiah, Jr., ex-mayor of Boston, and financier 

Fr. Quinet, Edgar, littirateur 

Span. Quintana, Jose Manuel de, poet and historian 

Rom. Quintilian, Marcus Fabius, celebrated orator 

Rom. Quintus-Curtius, historian . . f. time 

Amer. Quitman, John A., general and gov. of Mississsipi 



Fr. Rabelais, Francis, wil and satirist . . . 

Fr. Racine, John, eminent dramatist . . 

Fr Rachel, Eliza Rachel Felix, actress 

Eng. Radclifie, Anne, romance writer, ' Mysteries of Udolpho 

Aust. Radetzky, Joseph, count, commander in Italy 

Eng. Raffles, Rev. Thos., independent minister and collector 

Eng. , Sir Thos. Stamford, author of « History of Java,' &o 

Amer. Rafinesque, S. C. J., botanist 

Dan. Rafn, C. C, historian and antiquary . 

Eng. Raglan, J. H. Fitzroy Somerset, lord, general in Crimea 

Amer. Ragnet, Condy, political economist . 

Eng. Raikes, Robt, printer, founder of ' Sunday schools ' 

Eng. Raleigh or Ralegh, Sir Walter, * a man illustrious in arms 

literature' • . 

Hind. Rammohun, Roy, philanthropist . 

Scot. Ramsay, Allan, poet .... 

Amer. , David, historian 

Span. Ramuiiio, John Bapt, ' Collect, of Voyages ' 

Amer. Randolph, John, of Roanoke, eccentric statesman 

Amer. , Peyton, first president of Congress 

Ger. Ranke, Leopold, historian 

Fr. Raoul, Rochette, archaeologist and traveller 

Heb. Raphall, Morris J., learned rabbi and preacher 

Fr. Rapin de Thoyrae, author of ' History of England' 

Rapp, Geo., founder of ' Sect of Harmonists . 

Dan. Rask, E. C, philologist and lexicographer 

B'r. Raspail, F. V., chemist and radical statesman 

Pruss. Rauch, Fred. A., metaphysician 

Ger. Raumer, Fred. L. G. von, historian . . 

Amer. Rawle, William, jurist .... 



BOEH. 


DMCT. 




1864 


.. 1592 


1644 


1782 


1857 


1815 


1861 


1610 


1688 


1699 


1774 


. 1796 




1580 


1645 


1693 


1766 


1635 


1668 


1772 


1864 


1802 




1803 




1772 


1857 


42 


122 


espasian 


1st Cent. 


1799 


1858 


1483 


1553 


1589 


1699 


1820 


1858 


1764 


1823 


1766 


1858 


1788 


1863 


0. . 1781 


1826 


1784 


1842 


1795 




1788 


1855 


1784 


1842 


1785 


1811 


3 and 




1552 


1618 


1776 


1833 


1685 


1758 


17-19 


1812 


1485 


1557 


1773 


1833 


172E 


177E 


1795 




1790 




1798 




1661 


1726 


1770 


1847 


1784 


183S 


1794 




1806 


1841 


. 1781 




1759 


1834 



&0. 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 

KATIOH. HAME AND PROFESSIOH. 

Eng. Rawllnson. Sir Henry C, geographer and orientalist 

Eng. Bay, John, naturalist and author 

Fr. Raynal, William Thomas Francis, historian and philosopher 

Boot. Reach, Angus B., journalist and author 

Amer. Read, Geo. Campbell, admiral 

Eng. Reade, Charles, novelist . . 

Fr. Recamier, Mme Jane F. A. . 

Eng. Redding, Cyrus, journalist and author 

Amer. Redfield, William C, meteorologist 

Red Jacket, Thayendanega, Indian Chief . 

Amer. Reed, Henry, metaphysician and essayist 

Eng. , Isaac, critic and editor 

Amer. , Joseph, general in revolution . 

Amer. — ; — , Win. B., politician and author . 

Eng. Rees, Dr. Abraham, editor of an encyclopffldi 

Eng. Beeve, Clara, novelist, 'Old English Baron' 

Eng. , John, comic actor 

Eng. , Lovell A., conchologist and publisher 

Fr. Begnard, John Francis, comic writer 

Fr. Regnault, Henry Vict., chemist . . 

Ger. Reichenbach, Charles, baron de, naturalist 

Irish. Reid, Capt. Mayne, novelist 

Scot. , Col., Sir Wm., engineer andmetereologist, ' Use of Storms 

Amer. -, Samuel 0., naval commander 

Scot. , Thomas, celebrated metaphysician . 

Ger. Reinhard, Francis V., (founder of Christ.) 

Fr. Rem usat, J. P. A., historian and linguist . 

Fr. Rene, duke of Anjou, king of Sicily . 

Eng. Rennel, Major J., geographer and traveller 

Scot. Rennie, John, eminent engineer and architea 

Amer. Reno, Jesse L., general in Union army 

Eng. Eepton, Humphrey, landscape gardener 

Turk. Reschid Pasha, statesman, premier of Turkey 

Fr. Retz, John F. P., de Gondi, cardinal de, minis' 

Ger. Retzsch, Fred., A. M., printer and designer 

Amer. Reynolds, John F., Union general, killed at Gettysburg 

Eng. Ricardo, David, writer on political economy and finance 

, Joseph Lewis, (on International law) • 

Fr. Ricaut, Sir Paul, traveller and historian . . 

Eng. Rich, Obadiah, bibliographer . , . 

Eng. Richard I, Coeur de Lion, king of England • 

Eng. — — — III, king, killed at Bosworth • 

Eng, Richardson, Charles, philologist (Eng. Diet.) . 

Scot. , James, traveller in Africa . • 

Eng. , Samuel, eminent novelist . . 

Scot. , Sir John, naturalist and Arctic explorer 

Fr. Richelieu, A. J., du Plessis, cardinal and duke, statesman 

Ger. Richter, John Paul Frederick, novelist dec. . 

Eng. Ridley, Nicholas, bishop and prot. martyr . . 

Span Riego y Nunez, Raphael de, patriot . ( 

ItaL Rienzi, Nicholas Gabrino de, political reformer . 

Ital. Ristori, Adelaide, actress . . • 



erof Louis XV. 





143 


BOB* 


DIED, 


1810 




1628 


1701 


1713 


1798 


1821 






186a 


1777 


1849 


1785 




1789 


1857 


1759? 


1830 


1808 


1854 


1742 


1807 


1748 


1785 


1743 


1825 


1723 


1803 


1799 


1838 


1814 


1865 


1647 


1709 


1810 




1788 




1818 




1791 


1858 


1783 


1861 


1710 


1796 


1753 


1812 


1788 


1832 


1409 


1480 


1742 


1830 


1761 


1821 


1825 


1862 


1752 


1818 


1802 


1858 


1614 


1679 


1779 


1859 


1820 


1863 


1772 


1823 


1812 


1862 




1700 




1850 


1157 


1199 


1450 


1485 


1775 


186S 




1851 


1689 


1761 


1787 


1865 


1585 


1642 


1763 


1825 


1500 


1555 


1783 


1825 


1313 


13W 


1821 





144 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



flATTON. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Span. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Soot. 

Soot 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Scot. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr . 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Rom. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Span. 

Span. 

Rom. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Ital. 

Amer 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Ital. 
Eng. 
Kng. 
Eng 
UaL 



■AME AND PROFESSION- 

Ritchie, Leitch, journalist and author . 

Ritchie, Thomas, journalist, ' Richmond Enquirer" 
Ritson, Joseph, lawyer, antiquary and critic . • 

Rittenhouse, David, philosopher and astronomer . • 

Ritter, Aug. H., 'History of Philosophy' 

, Charles, geographer • • 

Rivas, Angel de Saavedra, duke of, soldier, statesman, poet 
Rives, M. C. (of Va.) statesman and diplomatist 
Rives, John C, journalist, ' Washington Globe ' 
Rivington, Jas., royalist printer of N. T. . • 

Roberts, David, landscape painter and author 
Robertson, William, celebrated historian . • 

Robespierre, F. M. J. L., 'the terrorist' of the revolution 
Robinson, Edward D. D., biblical geographer and philologist 



Rob Roy (Robert Macgregor) highland freebooter . (abt) 

Rochambeau. J. B. D., count de, marshal 
Rochefoucauld-Li ancourt, F. A. F., duke de la . 

Rochejacquelin, H. de la, royalist leader . . 

Rodgers, John, commodore U. S. navy . . 

Rodney, Geo. Brydges, lord, able admiral . 

Roebuck, John Arthur, statesman 
Rogers, Henry, theologian and critic 

, Henry Darwin, naturalist, professor in Glasgow 

, Samuel, poet • 

Roget, Peter Mark, physiologist and philologist 
Roland de la Platriere, J. M., revolutionist and author 

, M. J. P., Madame, martyr of the revolution . 

Rollin, Charles, celebrated historian 

Romaine, "William, divine and author . . . 

Romilly, Sir Samuel, jurist and statesman . 

Romulus, founder and first king of Rome . • 

Ronge, Johannes, educational and religious reformer 

RooUe, Sir George, admiral . 

Rosa, don Francisco Martinez de la, statesman, poet, historian <fcc 

Rosas, don Juan, Manuel de, ruler of Buenos Ayres . 
Roscius Quintus, actor of proverbial talent 
Roseoe, Henry, biographer .... 
( William, biographer and miscellaneous writer 

Roscommon, Dillon Wentworth, earl of, poet . 

Rose, Gustave, chemist .... 

-, Hugh James, ' B'ograph. Diet.' 

t Wm. Stuart, translator of Ariosto . 

Rosellini, Hypolito, author of ' Monuments of Egypt,' &o. 

Rosecrans, W. S., gen. in Union army . 

Rosenkranz, Jonas K. F., metaphysician and professor of phil 
osophy . • 

Rosenmuller, E. F. C, orientalist 

Rosetti, Gabriele, poet, artist and critic 

Ross, Admiral Sir John, Arctic navigator 

, Sir James Clark, Arctic explorer 

Rosse, Wm. Parsons, earl of, astronomer 

Rossini, Joachim, musical composer 



BOBS. 


Draft 


1800 


1861 


1778 


1854 J 


1752 


1803 


1731 


1798 


1791 




1779 


1859 


1791 




1796 


1864 1 


1724 


1802 j 1 


1796 


1864 


1721 


1793 


1759 


1794 


1794 


1864 


t) 


1763 ! 


1725 


1807 j 


1747 


1827 1 


1773 


1794 | 


1771 


1838 


1717 


' 1792 1 


1802 


1 


1806 


! 


1763 


1853 | 


1779 


l 


1733 


1793 ! 


1754 


1793 | 


1661 


1741 I 


1714 


1795 


1757 


1818 I 


• B 


0. 716 


1813 


II J 


1650 


170S | 


fcc. 1789 


1 


1793 


i 


B 


O. 61 ! 


1800 


1836 j 


1751 


1831 i 


1633 


1684 | 


1795 




1795 


1838 


1775 


1843 


1800 


1843 


1819 


| 


11- 

1805 




1768 


1835 


1783 


1854 1 


1777 


1856 1 


1800 


1861 i 


1800 




1792 


j] 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



US 



KATIOK. MAME AND PKOFESSIOH. Bl 

Ger.J w.Rothsehild, Meyer Arise hn, founder of the great banking-house 

, Anselm at Frankfort, Nathan at London (d 1836) and 

Solomon, sous ot Meyer Anselm Rothschild . 

Gei. Rotteck, Chas. W, R. von, historian . . . , 

Fr. Rousseau, John Baptist, poet .... 

Fr. , John James, eloquent and paradoxical writer . 

Eng. Rowe, Nicholas, poet laureate and dramatist . . 

ItaL Rubini, Jno. Baptist, tenor vocalist .... 
Ger. Ruckert, Frederick, poet .... 

Amer. Rumford, Benjamin Thompson, count, officer (in foreign service)and 

philosopher ..... 

Amer. Rumsey, James, inventor . • . . . 

Ger. Rupert, prince, warrior ..... 
Amer. Ruschenberger, W. S. W., author of voyages and scientific works 1807 
Avner. Rush, Richard, diplomatist .... 

Eng. Rushworth John, ' Historical Collections ' . . 

Amer. Rusk, Thos, J., U. S. senator from Texas ... 
Eng. Ruskin, John, writer on art .... 
Eng. Russel, Lady Rachel (wife of lord Wm.), author of ' Letters * 

Eng. , Lord William, one of the martyrs of liberty 

Scot. Russell, John Scott, engineer, builder of ' Great Eastern ' . 

Eng. , Lord John, now Earl Russell, statesman and author 

Scot. , William, historian of modern Europe . . 

Irish. , William H., Times correspondent and author . 

Amer. Rutledge, Edward, statesman .... 

Amer. , John (brother of above), statesman . . 

Dutch. Ruyter, M. A. de, admiral .... 

Eng. Rymer, Thomas, antiquary, 'Federa' . . 



una, 
1780 


vuw 

182} 


1775 


1840 


1670 


1741 


1712 


1778 


1673 


1718 


1795 


1854 


1789 




1753 


1814 


1743 


1792 


1619 


168° 


1807 




1780 




1607 


1690 


1803 


1857 


1819 




1636 


1723 


1641 


1683 


1808 




1792 




1746 


1794 


1821 




1749 


1800 


1739 


1800 


1607 


1679 


1713 





s. 

Eng. Sabine, Major-General Edward, physicist . 

Eng. Sacheverell, Henry, tory divine, impeached for sedition 

Fr. Sacy, Louis Isaac, Jansenist, translator of Bible . 

Fr. , Sylvester, baron de, orientalist . . 

Pers. Sadi, or Saadi, poet ..... 

Eng. Sadler, Sir Ralph, diplomatist and historian . , 

Turk Said Pasha Mohammed, viceroy of Egypt . . 

Fr. Saint- Arnaud, J. A. Leroy de, marshal . . 

Amer. St. Clair, Arthur, general in Revolution . . 

Fr. St. Hilaire. Auguste de, botanist . . , , 

Fr. , Geoff. S., naturalist and anatomist 

Fr. St. Pierre, Bernardin de, author of ' Paul and Virginia,' &c. 

ItaL St. Real, Cassar Vichara abbi de, historian 

Fr. St. Simon, Claudius, count de, philosopher . 

Eng. St. Vincent, John Jervis, earl of, admiral . 

Fr. Saintine, Xavier B., writer of tales . . 

Bng. Sala, Geo. Augustus, journalist and author 

8ar. Saladin, sultan of Egypt and Syria, celebrated warrior 

Eng. Sales, George, historian and translator of the Koran 

Eng. Salisbury, Robert Cecil, earl of, statesman . 

Rom. Sallust, Caius CrisDus, historian . 



f. B. 0. 



1790 




1672 


1724 


1613 


1684 


1758 


1838 


1175 


1296 


1567 


1587 


1822 


1863 


1798 


1854 


1735 


1813 


1799 


1861 


1772 


1844 


1736 


1814 


1639 


1693 


1760 


1823 


1734 


1823 


1790 




1827 




1137 


1193 


1680 


1736 


1650 


161S 


86 B. 


O. Si 



146 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



KA'IO*. HAME AND PROFESSION. 

Pr. Salmasius, Claudius, scholar and author ... 

Fr. Balvandy, N, A., comte de, statesman .... 

F*. Salverte, miscellaneous writer .... 

Heb. Samson, judge of Israel ..... 

Heb. Samuel, lasA judge of Israel .... 

Phoe. Sanconiatho, philosopher and historian 

Fr. Sand, George (Madame Dudevant), novelist . , 

Amer. Sanderson, John, litterateur . . . . . 

Amer. Sands, Robt. 0., poet and littirateur 

Eng. Sandwich, Edward Montague, earl of, naval officer 

Fr. Sanson, Nicholas, geographer and engineer . . 

Mex. Santa Anna, Antonio Lopez de, general and ex-president . 

Gr. Sappho, poetess . . . . . f. b. 

Chald. Saidanapalus, king of Nineveh .... 

Ital. Sarpi, Peter, better known as Father Paul, patriot and historian 

Saul, 1st king of Israel ..... 

Sauley, Louis F. J., count de, antiquarian . . 

Saumarez, James, lord de, admiral .... 

Saurin, divine and sermon-writer .... 

Saussure, H. B. de, naturalist and traveller . . . 

, Nieh. Theo. de, chemist, geologist, &o. . . 



Heb. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Ger. 

Ital. 



Savage, Richard, poet ..... 

Savary, Nicholas, 'Life of Mahomet,' ' Letters on Egypt' . 
Savigny, Fred. C. von, historian of Roman law 
Savonarola, Jerome, monk, famed for zeal and eloquence . 
Pole-Fr. Saxe, Maurice, count de, celebrated general in the French service 
Ger. Saxe-Weimar, Bernard, duke of, warrior 
Dan. Saxo-Grammaticua, historian . . 

Fr. Say, Horace Emile, political economist, son of J. B. Say 
Fr. — , Jean Baptiste, writer on political economy 
Amer. — , Thomas, naturalist . . . „ . 

ItaL Scaliger, Joseph Justus, critic and historian 
Ital. , Julius Caesar, learned critic .... 

Scandenberg (real name Geo. Castriot), Albanian prince and warrior 1404 
Ger. Scapula, John, lexicographer 

Eng. Scarlett, James, 1st lord Abinger, jurist . . . 

Fr. Scarron, P , comic poet and satirist 

Ger. Schadow, Julien Gottfried, sculptor . , , 

Swe. Scheele, Charles Win., eminent chemist . . 

Ger. Schelling, Fred. Augs., novelist .... 

Ger. , Fred. W. J., philosopher . 

Amer. Schenck, Robert C. statesman and general, (Ohio) . 
Pruss. Schfll, Ferdinand von, intrepid and patriotic officer 
Ger. Schiller, John Frederic C, eminent historian and dramatist 

Schimmelpenninck, Mary A., ' Mem. Port Royal ' 

Schlegel, A. W. von, critic and essayist 

— — — , Fred. C. W. von, critic and historian . 



Ger. 
Ger. 
Ger. 
Ger. 
Ger. 



Schliermacher, F. D. E., classical philologist and theologian 

Bchlosser, M. S. F., historian 

Schmidt, Michael Ignatius, historian . . . 

Amer, Schofleld, major-general and governor Virginia . 

Ger. Sclioll, historian ..... 



BOKR. 


Dilfii 


1588 


1653 


1795 


1856 


1771 


1839 


b. 0. 12th Cent. 


B. c. 11th 


Cent. 


f. B. C 


. 760 


1804 




1785 


. 1844 


1790 


1832 


1623 


1672 


1600 


1667 


1798 




3. 606 




B. 0. 


876 S 


1522 


1623 


B. C 


. 1055 


1807 




1757 


1836 


1677 


1730 


1740 


1799 


1767 


1845 


1697 


1743 


1750 


1788 


1779 


1861 


1452 


1498 


.1696 


1750 


1600 


1639 


1134 


1208 


1794 




1767 


1832 


1787 


1824 


1540 


1609 


1484 


1558 


r 1404 


1467 


1540 


1600 


1769 


1844 


1610 


1660 


1764 




1742 


1786 


1766 


1839 


1775 


1854 


1773 


1809 


1769 


1805 


1778 


1856 


1767 


1845 


1172 


1829 


17ii8 


183-1 


1776 


18G 


1736 


179, 



1706 



1831 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



147 



HATiOB NAME AND PROFESSION. B0BN. DIED 

Dutch, bchoniberg, Armand Frederick, warrior . . . 1619 169C 

Ger. Schomburgk, Sir Robert H., naturalist and traveller . 1801 186i 

Amer. Schoolcraft, Henry R., traveller and historian of the Indians 1793 1864 

Ger. Schopenhauer, J. F., novelist .... 1770 1833 

Dutoh. Schrevelius, Cornelius, lexicographer . . . 1615 1667 

Ger. Schullembourg, John Matthias, warrior . . . 1661 1747 

Dutch. Schumacher, H. C, astronomer .... 1780 185C 

Ger. Schu^z, C. G., critic and litterateur .... 1747 

Amer. Sohuyler, Philip, general officer in Revolution . . 1731 1804 

Ger. Schwartzenberg, Chas. Ph., prince, general . . . 1771 1820 

Ger. , prince F., premier of Austria . . 1800 1852 

Ger. Scioppius, Gaspar, philologist and grammarian . . 1576 1649 

Rom. Scipio, jEmilianus Publius, able warrior, (minor) . b. 0. 128 

Rom. , Publius Cornelius, surnamed Africanus, able warrior, (major) B.C. 189 

Scot. Scott, Michael, philosopher, supposed magician . . 1291 

Eng. , Thomas, divine and bible commentator , . . 1747 1821 

Scot. , Sir "Walter, one of the most eminent, voluminous and popular 

writers of modern times .... 1771 1832 

Amer. , "Winfield, lieutenant general commander-in-chief U. 8. army 1786 1866 

Fr. Scribe, Eugene, dramatist .... 1791 1861 

Ft. Sebastian, count Horate, marshal of France, statesman . 1775 1851 

Eng. Seeker, Thomas, eminent prelate . . . 1693 1768 

Dutch. Secundus, John, Latin poet . ; 1511 1536 

Amer. Sedgewick, Catharine M., Miss, novelist and philanthropist 1790 1867 

Amer. , John, (of Conn.) Union general . . 1815 1864 

Amer. , Theodore, statesman and political economist . 1780 1839 

Amer. , Theodore, (son) lawyer and writer . . 1811 1859 

Eng. Sedley, Sir Charles, poet .... 1639 1701 

Fr. Segur, count Louis de, diplomatist and writer . . 1753 1830 

Eng. Selden, John, antiquary and historian . . . % 1584 1654 

Scot. Selkirk, Alexander, seaman and adventurer t . 1723 

Scot. Selwyn, George Augustus, (Life by Jesse) 

Chald. Semiramis, queen of Assyria . . , f. b. 0. 1250 

Rom. Seneca, Lucius Annasus, philosopher, statesman and moralist b. c. 2 65 

Eng. Sen:or, Nassau W., political economist . . . 1790 1S64 

Ger. Sennefelder, Aloys, of Munich, inventor of lithography . 1771 1884 

Span. Sepulveda, John Ginez de, historian . . . 1490 1572 

Amer. Sergeant, John, jurist and statesman . . . 1779 1852 

Rom. Sertorus, Quintus, warrior and naval commander . . b. 0. 73 

Span. Servetus, Michael, polemical writer against Calvin . 1509 1553 

Egypt, Sesostris, king of Egypt . . . . f. b. c. 1500 

Fr. S6vigne, Mary de, marchioness of, epistolary writer . 1627 1696 

Eng. Seward, Anna, poetess, (Letters) . . . 1747 i$09 

Amer. , William H., statesman, U. S. senator from N. Y., sec of state 1801 

Eag. Shadwell, T., poet laureate .... 1640 1692 

Eng. Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, earl of, statesman . 1621 1683 

Eng. , Anthony A. Cooper, 3d earl, 'Characteristics' 1671 1713 

Eng. Shakespeare, John, orientalist .... 1774 1858 

Eng. , William, the greatest of dramatic poets . 1564 1616 

Eng. Sharp, Granrille, philanthropist . . . 1734 1813 

Scot. , James, archt. St. Andrews, assassinated . . 1618 1671) 

Kng. Shaw, George, naturalist ... . 1741 181? 



148 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 



BUTIOM. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Amer. Shays, Daniel, leader in Shay's rebellion . . 

Amer. Shedd, "W. G., D. D., theologian, historian, and critio 

Eng. Sheepshanks, John, founder of picture gallery . , 

Eng. Shelley, Mary W. widow of P. B., the poet, novelist . 

Eng. , Percy Bysshe, eminent poet and atheist . . 

Eng. Shenstone, William, poet .... 

Amer. Sheridan, Philip H. general, and governor military department 

Eng. , Richard Brinsley, dramatist and orator 

Eng. , Thomas, actor, and author . . 

Eng. Sherlock, Thomas, bishop of London . . 

Amer. Sherman, Roger, patriot and self-taught statesman . • 

Amer. , John, U. S senator from Ohio ... 

Amer. , William T., general . . . 

Eng. Sherwood Mrs., novelist .... 

Irish. Shiel, Richard Lalor, statesman and dramatist . . 

Eng. Shirley, James, dramatist . . . 

Eng. Shovel, Sir Cloudesley, able naval officer . . 

Amer. Shubrick, John Templar, naval officer . . 

Amer. , William B., rear admiral . . . 

Eng. Shuckford, Rev. Samuel, ' Connect. Old and New Tesament' 

Eng. Sibbes, Richard, theologian, ' Bruised Reed ' 

Eng. Siddons, Sarah, the most eminent of tragic actresses 

Eng. Sid mouth, viscount, (H. Addington) statesman . 

Eng. Sidney, Algernon, martyr of liberty and author . , 

Eng. , Sir Philip, accomplished officer and author . 

Ger. Siebold, Ph. F. Von, naturalist and botanist . . 

Amer. Sigel, Franz, general in Union army, war 1861-66 • 

Amer. Sigourney, Lydia H., poet and essayist . . . 

Amer. Silliman, Benjamin, chemist and geologist . . 

Amer. , Benjamin (son), chemist and geologist . 

Eng. Simeon, Rev. Charles, theological writer and editor ■ 

, Simon Stylites, Syrian Ascetic 

Amer. Simms, William Gilmore, novelist and poet . . 

Gr. Simonides, of Amorgus, Iambic poet . . 

Gr. , of Eos, lyric poet .... 

Scot. Simpson, Robert, mathematician . . . 

Eng. , Thomas, " ... 

Eng. Sinclair, Catharine, authoress . . . 

Hind. Sing, M, rajah Runjeet, chief of Lahore and Cashmere ." 

Swiss. Sismondi, J. C. L., historian 

Eng. Skelton, Jolm, poft laureate to Henry VIII 

Ger. Sleidan John Pbilipson, historian . . . 

Eng. Sloane, Sir Hans, eminent naturalist 

Scot. Smith, Adam, celebrated writer on morale and political eoonomy 

Scot. , Alex, poet ..... 

Eng. , Charlotte, poet .... 

Amer. , General Samuel, military commander and etatesman 

Eng. , Horace, poet, * Rejected Addressee,' dec. 

Sng. , James, poet, " " . . 

Eng. , John, * History Viginia' . . 

Eng. , John Pye, theological writer . . . 

liner. , Joseph, Mormon prophet . . . 



BORN. 


BBS 


1740 


182J 


1787 


1869 


1798 


1851 


1792 


1822 


1714 


1763 


1751 


1816 


1722 


1788 


1678 


1761 


1721 


1793 


1775 


1862 


1792 


1851 


1594 


1666 


1650 


1705 


1778 


1815 




1754 


1577 


1636 


1755 


1831 


1757 


1844 


1620 


1683 


1554 


1586 


1796 




1824 




1791 


1865 


1779 


1864 


1759 


1836 


392? 


461? 


1806 




B. 0. 660 p 




550? 




1687 


1768 


1710 


1761 


1800 


1864 


1779 


1839 


1773 


1842 


1450 p 


1529 


1506 


1556 


1660 


1752 


y 1723 


1790 


1830 




1749 


1808 


1752 


1839 


1779 


1849 


1775 


183» 


1679 


1031 


1774 


1851 


1806 


1844 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



149 



NATION. ,»AME AND PROFESSION. 

Eng. Smith, Rev. Sidney, essayist, critic and moralist . . 

Eng. , Sir James E., botanist and naturalist . , 

Eng. , Sir William Sidney, military commander . 

Eng. , T. South-worth, writer on sanitary reform 

Eng. , William, classical scholar and author 

,Eng. Smithson, James, founder of the Smithsonian Institute (U S.) 

Scot. Smollett, Dr. Tobias, novelist and historian 

Eng. Smyth, Wm., Pr. of History at Cambridge, author, lecturer 

Eng. , Wm. Henry, admiral, scientific writer . . 

Eng. Soane. Sir John, architect and virtuoso 

Pol. Sobieski, John III., king of Poland, warrior . . 

Ital. Socinus, Paustus, founder of the Socinian sect . 

Gr. Socrates, one of the greatest of ancient philosophers • 

Gr. , ecclesiastical historian . . . 

Span. Solis, Antonio de, historian of Mexico . . . 

Heb. Solomon, king of Israel and author of Proverbs . 

Gr. Solon, the illustrious legislator of Athens . . . 

Eng. Somers, Lord John, chancellor and political writer 

Eng. Somerville, Mrs. Mary, astronomer . . . 

Eng. , Wm., poet, 'The Chase' . 

Ger. Sontag, Henrietta, countess de Rossi, vocalist . . 

Gr. Sophocles, eminent tragic poet 

Ft. Sorbonne, R. de, theologian, founder of the 8. College at Paris. 

Amer. Soule, Pierre, TJ. S. senator from Louisiana, and diplomatist 

Ft. Souli6, Frederick, novelist and dramatist . 

Boulouqne, Faustin, ex-emperor of Hayti 

Fr. Soult, Nicholas J. de D., duke of Dalmatia, marshal of France 

and statesman .... 

Eng. South, Robert, eminent divine 

Amer. Southard, Samuel L., sec. navy, and senator U. 8., N. Y. 

Eng. Southcott, Joanna, fanatic, (her sect not yet extinct) 

Eng. Southerne, J., dramatic writer and poet 

Eng. Southey, Mrs. Robt., (Caroline Bowles), poet . . 

Eng. , Robert, poet, historian, biographer . 

Fr. Souvestre, Emile, essayist .... 

Fr. Soyer, Alexis, famous cook and writer on Cookery . 

Gr. Sozomen, ecclesiastical historian . . . 

Amer. Sparks, Jared, historian and biographer 

Eng. Speke, Capt. John H., explorer, discov. source of Nile . 

Eng. Spelman, Sir Henry, historian and antiquary . 

Eng. Spence, "Wm., entomologist .... 

Amer. Spencer, Ambrose, chief-justice of New York 

Eng. , earl of, statesman .... 

Amer. , John C, jurist and seo. navy . , 

Eng. , Wm. R., translator .... 

Eng. Spenser, Edmund, eminent poet . . « 

Span. Spinola, Ambrose, marquis de, warrior . 

Dutch. Spinoza, Bened., metaphysician, (atheistt) . . 

Ger. Spohr, Louis, musical composer . . • 

Amer. Spooner, Shearjashub, (Diet 0/ Painters) . . 

Ger. Sprengel, Kent, botanist .... 

Eng. Spurgeon, Rev. Charles, popular Baptist clergyman 



BORN. 


DIED, 


1768 


1841 


1759 


1828 


1764 


1840 


1790 


1861 


1814 






1835 


1721 


1771 


1764 


1849 


1788 


1865 


1753 


183T 


1629 


1698 


1539 


1594 


B. c. 470 s 


c.400 


. 5th cent 


, A. D 


1610 


1686 


• B. 


0. 975 


f. B. 


c. 598 


1650 


1716 


1790 




1692 


1743 


1804 


1854 


B. 0. 495 B. 


O.404 


1201 


1274 


1800 


1847 


1788 




1769 


1851 


1638 


1716 


1787 


1842 


1750 


1814 


1662 


1746 


1787 


1854 


1775 


1843 


1806 


1854 


1800 


1S58 




450 


abt.) 1794 


1866 


1827 


1864 


1561 


1643 


1783 


1860 


1765 


1848 


1758 


1835 


1788 


1855 


1770 


1834 


1553 


1598 


. 1571 


1630 


1633 


1677 


1788 




1786 


1888 


1884 





150 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 

NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. » 

Ger. Spnrzheim, Dr., celebrated phrenologist, (died at Boston) 

Amer. Sprague, Charles, poet • 

Amer. , Wm. B., D. D., Presbyterian clergyman and historian . 

Amer. Squier, E. Geo., traveller and antiquary 

Eiig. Stackhouse, Thomas, divine and author, ' Hist Bible * . 

Fr. Stael-Holstein, Anne L. G., baroness de, authoress 

Fr. , Madame, talented writer .... 

Eng. Standish, Miles, military leader Pilgrims in N. E . • 

Eng Stanfleld, Clarkson, marine painter • . 

Eng. Stanhope, Charles, earl, politician and inventor 

Eng. Stanhope, Lady Esther, eccentric traveller 

Eng. , Phil., Hon., earl of, known as Lord Mahon, historian 

Amer. Stanton, Edwin M., secretary of war .... 

Amer. Stark, John, distinguished officer in the Revolution 

Rom. Statins, Publius Pepinus, poet . . . . 

Eng. Staunton, Sir Geo. L. ' Embassy to China ' . . . 

Irish. Steele, Sir Richard, essayist and dramatist 

Eng. Steevens, Geo., 'Comment, on Shakespeare' ,. 

Eng. Stephen, Henry, Prof. Hist., statesman and author 

Fr. Stephens, Anthony, Charles, Robert and Henry, printers 

Amer. , John L., traveller and author . . . 

Eng. Stephenson, George, engineer .... 

Eng. .Robert, " 

Scot. Sterling, Wm., M. P., bibliographer and critic . . 

Ger. Sternberg, Alex., baron von, miscellaneous author . . 

Irish. Sterne, Lawrence, miscellaneous writer 

Eng. Sternhold, Thos., versifier of Psalms .... 

Pruss. Steuben, Fred. W. A , baron, who generously aided the American 

cause ...... 

Amer. Stevens, Robt. Livingston, inventor . . ....-'. 

Amer. Stevenson, Andrew, of Va., minister to England 

Amer. Stewart, Charles S., Rev., chaplain in the U. S. Navy and author 

Scot. , Dugald, eminent philosopher and writer 

Amer. Stilus, Ezra, theologian and historian 

Eng. Stillingfleet, Dr. E., bishop of Worcester and author 

Amer. Stone, Wm. L., historian of ' Six Nations,' ' Brandt,' and ' Red 

Jacket' ..... 

Russ. Storch, Henry F., political economist . 

Amer. Story, Joseph, jurist and writer on jurisprudence . 

Eng. Stow, John, antiquary and historian . 

Amer. Stowe, Calvin E., biblical critic . . 

Amer. , Harriet Beecher, Mrs., novelist . 

Eng. Stowell, lord, jurist .... 

Gr. Strabo, eminent geographer . 

Eng. Strafford, Thomas Wentworth, earl of, statesman . 

Eng. Stratford de Redcliffe, viscount, diplomatist 

Ger. Strauss, Dav. Fred., author of sceptical ' Life of Jesus' 

Ger. , Ger. Fred. Alb., prof, of theology and author 

Eng. Strickland, Agnes, historian of ' Queens of England' 

Eng. Stryp", John, theologian, biographer and historian 

Buss. Struve, Fred. Geo. "Wm., astronomer . • 

Scot. Stuart, Gilbert, historian 



BORN. 


3113 


1778 


1881 


1791 




1795 




1820 




1680 


175 J 


1766 


1817 


1693 


1750 


1584 ? 


1656 


1798 


1867 


1753 


1816 


1776 


1839 


1805 




1728 


1822 


61? 


96? 


1737 


1801 


1671 


1729 


1736 


1800 


1789 


1859 


16th 


cent. 


1805 


1>52 


1788 


1848 


1803 


1859 


1806 


1S44 


1806 




1713 


1768 




1549 




1794 


1749 


1838 


1784 


1857 


1798 




1753 


1828 


1727 


1795 


1633 


1699 


1793 


1844 


1766 


1835 


1779 


1845 


1525 


1605 


1814 




1746 


1839 


19 




1593 


1641 


1788 




1808 




1786 




1806 




1643 


17ST 


1793 


1864 


1742 


178f 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



151 



RATIO NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Eng. 8fc art, James, architect and author . . 

Amer. , James E. B., Confederate general , 

Amer. , Moses, theologian and philologist . . 

Eng. Sturge, Joseph, philanthropist . . . 

Ger. Sturm, Christopher C, theol. writer, ' Reflections,' &c. 
Dutch-Amer. Stuyvesant, Peter, last Dutch gov. N. Netherlands 



Fr. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Rom. ■ 

Rom. 

Dan. 

Gr. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Vng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Russ. 



Suchet, Louis Gabriel, celebrated marshal . , 

Suckling, Sir John, poet and dramatist . 

Sue, Eugene, novelist .... 
Suetonius, Paulinus, warrior . . , 

, Tranquillus Caius, historian a , 

Suhm, Peter Fred., eminent historian . 

Suidas, Greek lexicographer . . , 

Sullivan, Jas., gov. Mass., political writer • 

, John, revolutionary general . , 

, Wm. LL. D., political writer 

Sully, Maximilian de Bethune, duke of warrior and statesman 

, Thomas, portrait painter 

Summerfield, John, eloquent Methodist preacher 

Sumner, Charles, U. S. sen. from Mass., orator and philanthropist 

Edwin Vose, Union general . 

John Bird, archbishop of Canterbury and author 



BORN. 


DIED. 


1713 


178S 


1832 ? 


1864 


. 1780 


1861 


. 


185S 


1740 


1786 


1602 


1682 


1772 


1826 


1613 


1641 


. 1808 


1857 


37 




t 100 




1728 


1798 


t abt 1000 




1744 


180& 


1740 


1795 


1774 


1839 


in 1560 


1641 


1783 




1798 


1826 


opist 1811 




1796 


1863 


1780 


1862 


1734 


1832 


. 1641 


1702 


1515 


1547 


1779 


1834 


1773 


1843 


1755 


1828 



Sumter, Thomas, Revolutionary gen. of S. C. 

Sunderland, Robt. Spencer, 2d earl, statesman ., 

Surrey, Henry Howard, earl of, poet 

Surtees, Robt., antiquary aud poet . , 

Sussex, Aug. Fred., duke of, son of Geo. IIL . 

Sutton, Chas. Manners, arch, of Canterbury . 

Suvaroff, or Suwarow, prince Alexander, celebrated and cruel war- 
rior . . . . . . . 1730 

Eng. Swain, Charles, poet . • . . . . 1803 

Dutch. Swammerdam, John, naturalist and anatomist . . 

Swe. Swedenborg, Emanuel, founder of a sect . 
Irish. Swift, Jonathan, celebrated satirist , , , 

Eng. Swinburne, Algernon, poet . . . 

Amer. Swinton, Wm., critic and historian, ' Army of Potomac' 
Eng. Sydenham, C. W- Poulett, lord, gov. gen. of Canada, &c 
Rom. Sylla, Lucius Cornelius, warrior and b rutal usurper . 
Eng. Syms, Michael Col., ' Embassy to A va' , . • 

Afric. Syphax, Numidian prince .... 



Rom. Tacitus, Caius Cornelius, eminent historian . • 

Rom. , Marcus Claudius, emperor . . • 

Swe. Taglioni, Marie, dansuese . . . 

Eng. Talbot, Jno., 1st earl of Shrewsbury, gen. in France . 

Amer. , Silas, mil. and naval officer in Revolution . 

Eng. Talfourd, Thomas Noon, jurist, dramatist, and essayist 

Ft. Talleyrand, prince, statesman, and diplomatist 

Eng. Tallis, Thos., musical composer . . . 

Amer. Tallmadge, Benj., RevoL officer . . . 

Wr. Talma, Fr°icis Joseph, one of the greatest of actors . 



1800 



1637 


1681 


1689 


1772 


1667 


1745 


1793 


1841 


. 137 b. 


0. 78 




1809 


B. 


0. 201 


56 


185 


200 ? 


276 


1804 




1373 


1463 


1750 


1813 


1795 


1854 


1754 


183$ 


1529 


1588 


1754 


1836 


1768 


182« 



!52 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Tartar. Tamerlane, Timur Beg or Timoor, celebrated Tartar prince 
and conqueror . ... 

Amer. Taney, Roger B., chief-justice U. S. . 

Scot. Tannahill, Robt., poet .... 

Span. Tapia, Eugenio, miscellaneous writer 

Eng. Tarleton, Bannastre, royalist officer in America . 

Ital. Tasso, Bernardo, poet, author of Amadis de Gaul 

ItaL , Torquato, one of the greatest of Italian poets 

Ger. Tauchnitz, Bernard, publisher at Leipsic 

Ger. , Karl, eminent publisher at Leipsic . 

Amer. Taylor, Bayard, traveller, poet, and lecturer . 

Eng. , Isaac, essayist . . . 

Eng. , Jeremy, prelate and eloquent writer 

Eng. , John, ' the Water Poet ' . . • 

Eng. , Sir Robert, sculptor and architeo't 

Eng. , Thomas, editor of Plato and other classics . 

Eng. , Tom, dramatist . . 

Eng. , Wm., miscellaneous writer. 

Amer. , Zachary, major-general U. 8. Army, victor in Mexico 

pres. U. S. . 

Tecumseh, Indian chief (k. at Tippecanoe) 

Eng. Telford, Thomas, civil engineer . 

Swiss. Tell, William, one of the champions of Swiss liberty 

Eng. Temple, Sir "William, statesman and writer 

Amer. Tennent, Gilbert, clergyman and writer 

Amer. , Rev. Wm., famous for ' France' '. • 

Eng. , Sir Jas. Emerson, statesman and writer 

Ger. Tennyman, William T., ' Hist, of Philosophy' . 

Eng. Tennysou, Alfted, poet laureate 

Eng. Tenterden, Chas. Abbott, lord, jurist, chief-justice K. B 

Rom. Terence, or Terrentius, comic writer . 

Tertullian, Q. S. P., one of the most learned of the Fathers of 
the Church ..... 

Amer.. Terry, Alfred H, of Ct., Union general, victor at Fort Fisher . 

Eng. Thackeray, Wm. Makepeace, writer and essayist . . 

Ger. Thaer, Albert, writer on agriculture .... 

Ger. Thalberg, Sigismund, pianist .... 

Ger. Thales, one of the seven sages, founder of the Tonic school of 
Philosophy ..... b. 

Gr. Themistocles, eminent Athenian . . . . b. 

Fr. Thenard, chemist and statesman • • 

Gr. Theocritus, pastoral poet . . . . . f. b. 

Eng. Theobald, Lewis, comment, on Shakspeare . ■ . . 

Gr. Theodoret, ecclesiastical historian . . . 

Rom. Theodosius, Flavi us, Roman emperor and warrior . 

Gr. Theophrastus, celebrated philosopher . . B. 

Span. Theresa, St., Carmelite nun and mystical writer . 

Eng. Thesiger, Sir Fred., attorney-general of England . . 

Gr. Thespis, poet, said to be the inventor of tragedy . b. 

Fr. Thibaudeau, A. C, count, historian .... 

Ft. Thierry, Jas. Nich. Augustine, historian ... 

Fr. , Amedee S. D., historian .... 



1777 


1864 


1774 


1810 


1754 


1833 


1493 


1569 


1544 


159£ 




1836 


1825 




1787 


1865 


1613 


1667 


1580 


1654 


1714 


1788 


1758 


1835 


1817 




1800 


1S49 


1784 


1850 




1813 


1757 


1S34 




1354 


1628 


1698 


1703 


1764 


1705 


1777 


1804 




1761 


1819 


1810 




1762 


1S32 


0. 192 





1811 


1S63 


1752 


1828 


1812 




0. 639 b. 


0. 543 


0. 535 b. 


0. 470 


0. 285 






1744 


386 


457 


346 


39! 


o. 371 




1515 


1583 


1794 




o. 576 




1795 


18M 


1787 





BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



J 53 



tfATlOH. 

Fr. 
Ger. 

Ger. 
Ger. 

Amer. 

Scot. 

Amer. 

Scot. 

Scot. 

Amer. 

Dan. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Eng. 

Bom. 

Eom. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Ger. 
Gr. 

Tart 

Hind. 

Swiss. 

Rom. 

Eng. 

FY. 

Eng. 

Russ. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Irish. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Span. 

Irish. 

Amer. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Thiers, .Adolphe, historian and statesman . , 

Thiersch, F. W., Greek philologist, &c. . . 

Thirwall, Dr. Conop, bishop of St. David's, historian 
Tholuck, Fred. Aug., theologian 
Thompson, Benj. See Rumford . 

, Col. Thos. Peyronnet, political reformer and author 

Thomson, Anthony T., medical and misc. writer 

, Chas., president of Congress . . 

, Dr. Thomas, chemist ... 



Amer. 
Amer. 

Eng. 
Fr. 

Eng. 
Rom. 



, James, popular poet 

Thoreau, Henry D., naturalist, geologist and essayist . 

Thorwaldsen, Albert, sculptor 

Thrasybulus, Athenian general 

Thucydides, historian .... 

Thurlow, Edward, lord, lord chancellor . . 

Tiberius, Claudius Drusus Nero, warrior and emperor 

Tibullus, Aulus Albius, elegiac poet . . . 

Tiekell, Thomas, poet *nd essayist in Spectator . 

Ticknor, George, historian of Spanish literature 

Tieck, Ludwig, poet and essayist . 

Tighe, Mrs. Mary, poetess, ' Psyche' . . . 

Tillotson. John, eminent prelate and archb. Canterbury 

Tilly, John F, count de, military commander. . 

Timoleon, of Corinth, liberator of Syracuse 

Timour Beg. See Tamerlane . . . 

Tippoo-Saib, sultan of Mysore, Indian warrior . 

Tissot, Simon A., medical writer 

Titus, Sabinus Vespasianus Flavius, emperor, father of his people 

Tobin, John, dramatist, ' Honey Moon ' 

Tocqueville, Alexis de, publicist and statesman . 

Todd, Robt B., * Medical Cyclopasdia ' &c. 

Todleben, Fr. Edw., gen. of engineers . . 

Tomline, Geo., prelate and writer, bishop of "Winchester 

Tompkins, Daniel D., vice-pres. U. S. 

Tone, Theobald Wolfe, gen. in Irish rebellion 

Tooke, John Home, politician and philologist . . 

, Tho?., ' History of Prices' . . 

, Win., miscellaneous writer . . . 

Toplady, Augustus M, eminent divine . . 

Torquemada, Thos. de, Inquisitor general . . 

Torrens, colonel, novelist and political economist 

Torrey, John, botanist and chemist . . . 

Torricelli, Evangelista, mathematician, inv. of barometer 

Totila, king of the Ostrogoths, captor of Rome . 

Totten, Joseph G, military engineer 

Touro, Judah, Hebrew philanthropist . . 

Toussaint l'Ouverture, negro, pres. of Hayti 

Townsend, Geo., prebendary, ' Comment on Bible * 

Tracy, A L. C. Destutt, comte de, writer on Education and Phi 

losophy ..... 
Traill, Thos. J., editor ' Encyclo. Britannica ' . , 

Trajan, Marcus U. C, able emperor and warrior . 



BORN 


BiXD 


1798 




1784 


1860 


1797 




1799 




r 1783 




1778 


1848 


1729 


1824 


. 1773 


1852 


1700 


1748 


1817 


1862 


1771 


1844 


B. 


0. 389 


B. 0. 469 B 


o. 400 


1732 


1806 


b. c. 84 


37 


b. c. 30 




1686 


1740 


1791 




1773 


1853 


1774 


1810 


1630 


1694 


1559 


1632 


B. 


0. 337 


1739 


1799 


1728 


1797 


pie 40 


81 


1770 


1804 


1805 


1859 


1810 


1866 


1818 




1750 


1787 


1774 


1825 


1763 


1798 


1736 


1812 


1774 


1858 


1744 


1820 


1740 


1778 




1498 


1783 


184f 


1608 


1647 


. 


352 


1788 




1776 


1854 


1745 


180* 


[. 


1857 


1754 


1836 


. 1781 


1862 


62 


117 



!54 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



NATIUN. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Eng. Tredgold, Thos., civil engineer and author 

Eng. Trench, Rev. Rich. Chenevix, poet, philologist and theologian 

Ger. Trenck, Fred., baron de, celebrated for his adventures . 

Eng. Trimmer, Mrs. Sarah, misc. writer . . 

Fr Tristan, l'Hermite, Francis, poet . . . 

Eng. Trol lope, Mrs. Frances, novelist and traveller . 

Dutch. Tromp, Martin H. van, celebrated admiral . , 

Amer. Trooet, Gerard, chemist and geologist 

Amer. Trumbun. Col. John, statesman and hist, painter . 

Amer. , Benj., historian of Connecticut . . 

Amer. , Jonathan, statesman, gov. Connecticut . 

Amer. , John, poet, born in Ct. 

Eng. Truro, Thos., baron (Sir T. Wilde), ex-lord-chancellor . 
Amer. Trustor), Thos., naval commander . . 

Eng. Tucker, Abraham, metaphysical writer 

Amer. , Beverley, lawyer and novelist . . 

Amer. Tuckerman, Henry T., critic and essayist . . 

Amer. , Jos., writer and philanthropist 

Amer. Tudor, Win., editor N. Amer. Rev. and biographer . 

Eng. Tupper, Martin Farquhar, poet and essayist 
Fr. Turenne, Viscount de, eminent warrior . . 

Fr. Turgot, Anne Eobt. Jas., statesman . . 

Eng. Turner, Dawson, botanist and antiquary . . 

Eng. , Edward, 'Elements of Chemistry ' . 

Amer. , Samuel H., Rev., theologian and critic . 

Eng. , Sharon, 'History of England' .' . 

Amer. , Wm. W., printer and philologist . 

Turretin, Benedict, theologian, (Prof, at Geneva) , 

, Francis, (son) " " " 

, John A. (son) " " " 

Eng. Tusser, Thos., author of ' 500 points of Good Husbandry' 
Amer. Twiggs, David E., rebel general . 

Eng. Twining, Rev. Thos., translator of Aristotle . . 

Amer. Tyler, John, ex-pres. U. S., and rebel 

Eng. Tyndaie, Wm., reformer and first translator of the Biblft /nto 
English ..... 

Amer. Tyng, Stephen H., D. D., epis. divine and author . . 

Eng. Tyrrell, James, historian .... 

Gr. Tyrtasus, poet . . ... . f. 

Scot. Tytler, Alex. Fraser, historical and misc. writer 

g co t. , Patrick Fraser, historian, ' Life Mary Queen of Scots' 

B C0 t, , Wm., historical and misc. writer . . 



Ger. Uhland, Ludwig, poet 

Span. Ulloa, Don Anthony de, navigator and author . 

Uncas, North American Indian chief (Mohegans) 

Eng. Upcott, William, autograph collector and historian 

Amer. Upshur, Abel P., of Va., judge and secretary of state 

Scot. Uie, Andrew, M. D., chemist and author . 

Irish. Usher, James, learned divine and historian 



BfrBN. 

1788 
1807 
1726 
1741 
1601 
1778 
1597 
1776 
1756 
1735 
1740 
1750 
1782 
1755 
1705 
1784 

1778 
1778 
1810 
1611 

1727 

1798 
1791 
1768 
1810 
1588 
1623 
1671 
1500 
1790 
1784 
1790 

1500 
1800 
1642 
. D. 668 
1747 
1790 
1711 



Dixit 

1829 

1794 
1810 
1655 
1863 
1652 
1850 
1843 
1820 
1809 
1831 
1853 
1822 
1774 
1851 

1840 
1830 

1675 
17S1 
1858 
1839 
1861 
1847 
1859 
1631 
1687 
1737 
1536 
1862 
1804 
1662 

1536 

1718 

1813 

1849 
1792 



1787 




1716 


17Bc 


1680 




1779 


1846 




1844 


1778 


185^ 


1680 


165« 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



155 



BATUMI. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Fr. Vailliant, Sebastia.!, eminent botanist . . 

Dutoh. Valcknenaer, Louis Gaspar, able philologist and oritio . 

Ft. Valdo, Peter, founder of the sect of Waldenses . 

Valentia, George A., viscount, ' Voyages and Travels ' 

Rom. Valerian, emperor .... 

Rom. Valerius Flaccus, poet .... 

Rom. Maximus, historian . . . 

Ital. Valla, Laurence, eminent philologist . . 

Amer. Van Buren, Martin, president of the United States 

Eng. Vancouver, George, navigator . . . 

Eng. Vandenhoff, John, actor . . . 

Amer. Vanderlyn, John, historical painter . . . 

Dutch. Van Diemen, Anthony, governor of India • 

Amer. Van Dorn, Earl, confederate general . , 

Eng. Vane, Sir Henry, advocate of republicanism • 

Amer. Van Ness, Cornelius P., jurist and diplomatist . 

Amer. Van Rensselaer, Stephen, ' the Patroon ' . 

Rom. Varro, Marcus T., the most learned of the Romans 

Ital. Vasari, George, architect and biog., • Lives of the Painters' 

Ger. Vater, John Severinus, eminent physiologist 

Fr. Vattel, F. de, jurist, author of Law of Nations , 

Fr. Vaughan, S. le P. de, marshal, military engineer 

Eng. Vauban, Rev. Robert, D. D., ' dissenting' divine and historian 

Span. Vega, Garcilasso de, poet ... 

Span. , Lopez de, dramatic poet ■ . . 

Fr. Velpeau, Alfred A. L. M., eminent surgeon . 

Fr Vendome, Louis Joseph, duke of, warrior . . 

Eng. Venn, Rev. Henry, 'Whole Duty of Man' . 

Ital. Verdi, Giuseppe, musical composer . . . 

Eng. Vere, Sir Aubrey de, dramatic poet . . 

Fr. Vernet, Horace, historical painter . . . 

Eng. Vernon, Edward, admiral . . . 

Eng. , Robert, founder of Vernon Gallery . 

Fr. V6ron, Louis D6sire, author and journalist . 

Amer. Verplanck, Gulian C, scholar and critic 

Fr. Vertot, Rene Hubert, abbe de, historian . . 

Eng. Vertue, George, engraver and antiquary . . 

Rom. Vespasian, Titus Flavius, warrior and emperor 

Ital. Vespucius, Americus, navigator, whose name was unjustly given 

to the new world .... 

Eng. Vestris, Madame (Mrs. Mathews), actress . 

Ital. Victor Emanuel II., king of Italy . . . 

Eng. Victoria Alexandrina, queen of Great Britain . 

Eng. Vicars, Hedley H., capt. - . . . 

Ital. Vida, Mark Jerome, Latin poet . . . 

Fr. Vidocq, Eugene, French chief detective police . 

Fr. Vieuxtemps, Henri, violinist . , , 

Fr, Vigny, Alfred, count de, poet and critie . , 

Fr. Villars, Louis Hecttr, duke of, able general 

St. Villemain, Abel, Fr. politician and author , , 



BORN. 


DIES 


1660 


1722 


1715 


1785 


f. 12th cent. 


1770 


1844 




260? 




88! 


f. 30 




1406 


1457 


1782 


1864 


1750 


1798 


1790 




1776 


1852 


1593 


1645 


1823 


1863 


1612 


1662 


1781 


185* 


1764 


1839 


e. 116 


b. c. 27 


1512 


1574 


1771 


1826 


1714 


1767 


1633 


1707 


1503 


1536 


1562 


1636 


1795 




1654 


1712 


1725 


1797 


1814 






1846 


1789 


1864 


1684 


1759 


1774 


1849 


1798 




1655 


1736 


1684 


1756 




T» 


1451 


1516 


1797 


1858 


1820 




1819 




1826 


1856 


1490 


1566 


1775 


1850 


1820 




1799 




1653 


17M 


1701 





i56 



THE WORLD'S PBOGEESS. 



RATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Eng. Vlncey Samuel, eminent mathematician and astronomer 

Fr. Vinet, Alex. R., theologian 

Rom. Virgil, or Publius Virgilius Maro, the greatest of Roman poets 

Ital. Visconti, Phil. Aur., antiquary 

Ital. Vitruvius Pollio, Marcus, architect . i 

Ital. Vittoria Colonna, scholttr . . 

Ruse. Vladimir the Great, grand duke . • 

Dutch. Voet, John, jurist at Leyden . . 

Dutch. , Paul, jurist at Utrecht , 

Ger. Vogel, Dr. Edward, botanist . , 

Fr. Volney, count, celebrated writer . , 

Ital. Volta, Alexander, natural philosopher (Battery) 

Fr. Voltaire, Francis Marie Arouet, celebrated poet, 

and historian , 

Ger. Voss, J. G., historical painter . . 



mer 


BOB.N. 


DIED 

1821 




1797 


1847 


oman poets 


B. c. 70 


B. C. 1» 
1831 


£ 


B. c. 27 




• 


1490 


i547 
1015 


, 


1647 


1714 


. 


1619 


1667 


, 


1829 


1856 


. , 


1757 


1820 


. . 


1745 


1826 


philosopher, 






. 


1694 


1778 


. . 


1677 


1640 



w 

Ger. Waagen, Gustave Fried., art critic . . 

A mer. Wadsworth, James, wealthy philanthropist 

A mer. , James S. (sou), patriotic general , 

Ger. Wagner, Rudolph, physiologist 

Amer. Wainwright, Jon. M., epis. bishop of New York , 

Eng. Wakefield, Edward Gibbon, political economist 

Eng. . Gilbert, scholar and critic . , 

Amer. Waldo, Daniel, rev., centenarian . - . 

Fr. Walewski, Florian, count, statesman . . 

Eng. Walker, John, lexicographe" 

Amer. , Robert J., politician, ex-secretary of treasury 

Amer. , "William, ' filibustering' adventurer 

Amer. Wallace, Horace Binney, scholar and essayist 

Scot. , William, patriot and hero . . 

Irish. , William Vincent, musical composer . 

Ger. Wallenstein, A. E. V., celebrated general . 

Eng. Waller, Edward, elegant poet . . • 

Eng. , Sir William, parliamentary general . 

Eng. Walpole, Horace, earl of Oxford, author , 

Eng. , Robert, earl of Oxford, statesman . 

Amer. Walsh, Robert, author and journalist . . 

Eng. Walsingham, Sir Francis, statesman . 

Amer. Walworth, Reuben H, jurist, ex-chancellor of New Tork 

Eng. Walton, Brian, divine and orientalist 

Eng. — — , Izaak, angler and biographer 

Amer. Walworth, Reuben H., jurist, ex-chancellor of N. T. 

Eng. Warburton, William, eminent prelate and writer . 

Amer. Ward, Artemas, officer in the Revolution 

Bcot. Wardlaw, Rev. Ralph, theologian 

Amer. Ware, Henry, rev., Unitarian theologian and author 

Amer. , Henry, rev., jr., Unitarian theologian and author 

Amer. , William, novelist, * Zenobia,' &c. 

Amer. Warren, John Collins, eminent surgeon 

Amei. , Joseph, patriotic general, fell at Bunker Hill 



1794 




1768 


1844 


1807 


1864 


1805 




1792 


1854 


1796 


1862 


1756 


1801 


1762 


1864 


1810 




1732 


1807 


1801 




1824 


1860 


1817 


1852 


1276 


1305 


1815 


1865 


1583 


1634 


1603 


16S7 


1597 


16SS 


1718 


1797 


1676 


1745 


1784 


1858 


1536 


1590 


1815 


1865 


1600 


1661 


1593 


1683 


1789 




1698 


1779 


1748 


1800 


1780 


1853 


1764 


1846 


1794 


1843 


1797 


1853 


1778 


1866 


1741 


1771 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



157 



SATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Amer, "W&ueu, MrB. Mercy, historian, ' Amer can Review' 

Eng. , Samuel, jurist and novelist, ' 10,000 a Tear' 

Eng. Sir John Borlase, naval officer 
Eng. Warton, Joseph, poet and critic 

Eng. , ThoniaB, poet and critic 

Eng. "Warwick, R. Neville, earl of, general and statesman, ' king-maker' 

Amer. Washington, Bushrod, jusiice of supreme court of U. S. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Scot. 

Eng. 

Scot. 

Scot. 

Eng. 

Eng. 



, George, the father of his country 

, "Wm. Aug. officer in the Revolution 

Waterland, Rev. Dr., theological and polemical writer 
Watson, Elkanali, merchant, agriculturist, and historian 

Robert, historian 

, Richard, eminent prelate and writer . 

Watt, James, celebrated natural philosopher and engineer 

, Robert, bibliographer 

Watts, Alaric Alex., poet and journalist 

Dr. Isaac, divine, poet, and miscellaneous writer 



Amer. Wayland, Francis, D. D., metaphysician, theol. and polit. aeon. 

Amer. Wayne, Anthony, distinguished officer in Revolution 

Eng. Weale, John, publisher and editor, engineering, &c. . 

Amer. Webber, Charles W., naturalist and author . . 

Ger. Weber, Carl Maria von, eminent composer . , 

Eng. Weber, Henry William, antiquary and critio . 

Eng. Webster, John, dramatic poet . ( • . 

Amer. , Daniel, statesman .... 

Amer. , Noah, author of English Dictionary . . 

Scot. Wedderburn, Alex., earl Rosslyn, lord chancellor . . 

Eng. Wedgewood, J., scientific manufacturer of porcelain . 

Amer. Weems, Rev. Mason L., author of school biographies . 

Amer. Welby, Amelia B., of Kentucky, poetess . 

Irish. Wellesley, marquis of, governor-general of India, and lord-lieut. 
of Ireland ... . 

Eng. Wellington, Arthur "Wellesley, duke of, mil. com. and statesman 

Amer. Wells, David A., editor, statistician, and author 

Eng. , Edward, theologian and scholar . , 

Amer. , Horace, dentist, discoverer of anaBsthesia 

Scot. "Welsh, David, D. D., founder of North British Review 

Eng- Am. Wentworth, Sir John, gov. of N. Bamp., also gov. of Nova Scotia 1736 

Eng. , Sir Thomas, Earl of Stafford 

Ger. Werner, Abraham Theophilus, mineralogist . . 

Oer. , Fred. L. Z., poet and dramatist 

Eng. Wesley, Rev. Charles, ' Hymns ' ... 

Eng. , John, founder of Methodist society . . . 

Eng. "Westall, Richard, historical painter . . . - 

Eng. Whateley, Richard, archbishop of Dublin, theological and edu- 
cational writer 

Amer. Wheatley, Phillis, negro poetess .... 

fing. , Rev. Charles, on ' Book of Commjn Prayer' 

Amer. Wheaton, Henry, jurist, diplomatist and law commentator . 

Eng. Wheatstone, Charles, electrician .... 

Amer. "Wheelock, Eleazar, D. D. founder of Dartmouth College 

Eng. Whewell, Rev. William, theol., scientific and educational writer 



BORN. 


DlKJj. 


1728 


18 M 


1807 




1754 


1822 


1720 


1800 


1728 


1790 




1471 


1759 


1829 


1732 


1799 


1752 


1810 


1683 


1740 


1758 


1842 


1730 


1780 


1737 


1816 


1736 


1819 


1774 


1818 


1799 


1864 


1674 


1748 


1796 


1866 


1745 


1796 


1792 


1862 


18i9 


1856 


1786 


1826 


1783 


1813 


17th cent. 


1782 


1852 


1758 


1843 


1733 


1805 


1731 


1795 




1825 


1821 


1852 


1760 


1842 


1769 


1852 


1663 


1727 


1815 


1S48 


1794 


1845 


a 1736 


1820 


1593 


1641 


1750 


1817 


1768 


1823 


1708 


1788 


1703 


1791 


1765 


1837 


1787 


1863 


1753 


1794 


16S6 


1743 


1785 


1848 


1802 




1711 


1779 


1795 


186* 



158 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



RAIIOH. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Amer. Whipple, Edwin P., critic and essayist . . 

Amer. Whistler, George Wm., engineer of Russian railways 

£ng. Whiston, Wm., divine, mathematician and translator . 

Eng. Whitby, David, learned divine, commentator of New Testament 

Eng. White, He.ry Kirke, poet .... 
, Rev. Joseph Blanco, priest and English author 

Eng. , William, one of the two first bishops of the P. E. church 

in United States 

Eng. Whitefield, George, founder of the Calvanistic Methodists 

Amer. Whitney, Eli, inventor of cotton gin . 

Amer. Whittier, John Greenleaf, poet and essayist 

Amer. Whittingham, Wm. R., epis. bp.of Maryland and author 
Whittington, Sir Richard, lord mayor of London 
Wickliffe, or Wicklif, John, the morning star of the Reformation 
Wieland, Christopher, able and fertile writer 
Wiffen, J. H., poet and historian . . * 
Wilberforce, Samuel, bp. of Oxford and author 
, William, statesman and philanthropist , 



Eng. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Scot. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

En. Am. 

Amer. 

Amer 

Scot. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Scot. 
Eng. 
Ger. 
Aust. 
Eng. 
Ger. 



Wilde, Richard Henry, poet and litterateur 

Wilkes, John, celebrated political character . . 

Wilkie, Sir David, historical painter 

Wilkins, John, bp. of Chester, mathematician and theologian 

, Sir Charles, oriental philologist 

Wilkinson, James, general in Revolution and author . 

, Sir John Gardner, Egyptologist 

Williams of Wykeham, arch-ecclesiast and statesman 
Williams, Eleazar, rev., alleged to be Louis XVIL 

, Helen Maria, miscellaneous writer . . 

, John, missionary and author . . 

, Major-gen. Sir Fenwick, defender of Kars . 

, Otho H., general 

-, Roger, colonizer of Rhode Island 

Williamson, Hugh, physician and historian of N. Carolina 
Willis, Nath. Parker, poet, novelist, essayist, critic and jour 
nalist ...... 

Wilson, Alex., celebrated naturalist 

, Daniel, bishop of Calcutta . . . 

— , Horace H., orientalist, professor of Sanscrit 

, John (Christopher North), poet, critic and essayist 



, Mrs. Cornwall Barron, author 

Winckelman, John Joachim, ' History of Art ' 
Windischgratz, Charles Alfred, prince de, generalissimo 
Windham, William, statesman . . . 

Winer, George Bened., prot. theologian . • 

Swiss. Winkelried, Arnold von, patriot . . . 

En. Am. Winslow, Edward, governor of Plymouth colony . 

Eng. — — , Forbes, physician and writer on insanity , 

Amer. , Hubbard, D. D., editor and author 

Amer. , Miron, D. D., missionary and orientalist . 

Bug. Winterhalter, Franz Xavier, ' court painter ' . 

fen. Am. Winthrop, John, governor of colony of Mass. . • 

tLh.Aia •-, John (son), governor of Connecticut . 



BOEN. 

1819 

180C 
1667 
1638 
1785 
1775 

1747 
1714 
1765 
1808 
1805 

1324 
1733 
1792 
1805 
1759 
1789 
1717 
1785 
1614 

1757 

1797 

1324 

17871 

1762 

1796 

1800 

1748 

1606 

1735 

1807 
1766 
1778 
1808 
1785 

1717 
17S7 
1750 
1789 

1695 
1810 
1800 
1789 

1588 
1606 



DtSt 

184S 
1752 

1726 
1806 

1841 



1770 
1820 



1419 
1384 
1813 
1836 

1853 
1847 
1797 
1841 

1672 
1836 
1825 

1404 
1S58 
1827 
1839 

1794 
16S3 
1819 

1867 

1813 
1858 
1860 
1854 
1S46 
1768 
1862 
1810 
1858 
1388 
1655 

1864 
1864 
1803 
1649 
1673 



BIOGRAPHICAL, INDEX. 



159 



■ ATIOM. NAME AMD PROFESSION. 

Winthrop, Major Theodore, novelist and patriot 
Amer. Wirt, William, attorney -general U. S. and biographer 
Eng. Wiseman, Nicholas, cardinal, Roman catholic theol. and author 
Amer. Wistar, Caspar, eminent physician and anatomist 
Eng. Withers, George, poet .... 
Amer. Witherspoon, John, able divine and patriot 
Dutch. Witzius, Herman, theologian . . . 

Scot. Wodrow, Robert, ecclesiastical historian 
Irish. Woflington, Margaret (Peg W.), actress . . 

Eng. Wolcott, John, known as Peter Pindar, poet . 

Amer. , Oliver, patriot, signer of Declaration of Independence 

Amer. , Roger, colonial governor of Conn. 

Eng. Jew. Wolf, Dr. Joseph, missionary and traveller . 

Ger. , Fred. Aug., classical author and critic . . 

Eng. Wolfe, James, distinguished general . . 

Eng. , Rev. Charles, poet, ' Sir John Moore ' . . 

Ger. Wolff, John Christian, philosopher aud mathematician 
Eng. Wollaston, William Hyde, experimental philos. . 

Eng. "Wolsey, Thomas, cardinal, celebrated statesman 
Eng. Wollstoneeroft, Mary (Mrs. Godwin), author . , 

Eng. Wood, Anthony, antiquary and biographer . 

Eng. , Robert, archaeologist and secretary of state 

Amer. Woodbury, Levi, statesman and jurist . . 

Eng. Woodfall, William, newspaper publisher (Junius) , 

Eng. Woodhouse, Robert, mathematician and astronomer 
Scot. Woodhouselee, Alex. Fraser Tytler (.seeTytler) historian 
Amer. Woods, Leonard, theologian • . . 

Eng. Woodville, Elizabeth, queen of Edward IV. . . 

Amer. Woodwortb, Samuel, poet, ' Oaken Bucket ' . 

Amer. Wool, John E., major-general U. S. army . . 

Amer. Woolrnan, John (Quaker), philanthropist , 

Amer Wooster, David, Revolutionary general . . 

Worcester, Edward J., marquis of, 'Century of Inventions 

, Joseph E., geographer and lexicographer • 

Wordsworth, Rev. Christ., ' Ancient Greece ' . 



Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer, 

Eng. 

Aust. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng 

Eng. 

Eng. 



- , William, poet laureate . . 

Worth, William J., major-general TJ. S. army 
Wortley, Lady Emeline C. E., traveller and author . 
Wotton, Sir Henry, statesman and poet . . 

Wraxall, Sir Nathaniel W., traveller and historian 
Wren, Sir Christopher, celebrated architect • . 
Wright, Fanny (Madame Darusmont), ' Social Reformer ' 
— — — , Silas, governor of New York and senator U. 8. 

, Thomas, antiquarian author , . 

Wunnser, D. S., field-marshal in Austrian army . 
Wyatt, Matthew Digby, architect and author , 

, Sir Thomas, poet and statesman . . 

Wycherley, William, dramatic poet . . , 

Wycliffe, see Wickliffe, reformer . , 

Wykeham, M., bishop of Winchester, statesman and phllanth 
Wyndham, Sir William, statesman 



BOBN. 


DIED, 


1828 


1861 


1772 


183d 


lthjr 1802 


1865 


1761 


1818 


1590 


1667 


1722 


1794 


1636 


1708 


1679 


1734 


1719 


1760 


1738 


1818 


noe 1727 


1797 


1679 


1767 


1795 


1862 


1759 


1824 


1726 


1759 


1791 


1823 


1679 


1754 


1766 


1828 


1471 


1530 


1759 


1797 


1632 


1695 


1716 


1771 


1789 


1851 


1745 


1822 


1773 


1827 


1747 


1813 


1770 


1851 




I486! 


1785 


1842 


1789 




1720 


1773 


1710 


1777 




1667 


1784 


1865 


1770 


1850 


1770 


1850 


1794 


1849 


1806 


1855 


1568 


1689 


1751 


1831 


1632 


1723 


1796 


1853 


1795 


1847 


1810 




1717 


1797 


. 1820 




1503 


1540 


1640 


1716 


1324 


1404 


tb 1324 


1404 


1687 


1741 



l6o THE WOBLD'S PB0GRES8. 

RATIOS. NAME AND FBI FESSION. BOBS. DIM! 

Eng. Wyse, Sir Thomas, M. P., writer on education . 

Amer. Wytfce, George, eminent lawyer, statesman and patriot . 1801 



Fr. Xavier, St. Francis, 'Apostle to the Indies' . , 

Gi'. Xenocrates, philosopher . . . 

Gr. Xenophanes, philosopher, founder of the Eleatics 

Gr. Xenophon, celebrated philosopher, historian and general 

Pers. Xerxes L, king of Persia .... 

Pers. II., king of Persia 

Span. Ximenes, Francis, cardinal, eminent statesman • 



Amer. Yale, Elihn, early patron of Yale College . , 

Eng. Yarrell, "William, naturalist and author. , , 

Eng. Youatt, William, author of works on the horse , 

Amer. Young, Ales., D. D., historian of Pilgrims . .. 

Eng. , Arthur, agricultural writei . . . 

Amer. , Brigham, leader of the Mormons . , . 

Eng. — — , Charles, actor . 

Eng. , Edward, poet and miscellaneous writer . . 

Eng. , Thomas, phy&ician and philosopher 

Gr. Ypsilanti, prince Alexander, leader in the Greek modern rev. 

Span. Y riarte, don Thomas de, eminent poet 



Ital. Zaccaria, Francis A, voluminous writer . , 

Heb. Zechariah, the prophet ...» 
Ital. Zeno, Apostolo, eminent writer . , » 

Gr. Zeno of Elea, philosopher ...» 
Gr. , founder of the sect of Stoics . . 

Zenohia, Septiinia, queen of Palmyra, conqueror, and patroness of 
the arts ...... 

Heb. Zephaniah, the prophet . . . . , £ B. o. 520 

Ger. Zimmerman, E. A. W. von, naturalist . , 

, John George, miscellaneous writer . 



. 


1506 




1552 


B. 


0. 406 


B 


0. 314 


Lb. 


O. 540 






B. 0. 446 


B 


C. 360 






B 


0. 465 






B. 


0. 425 


• 


1457 




1517 




1648 




1721 




1784 




1856 


. 


1777 




1847 




1800 




1854 


. 


1741 




1S20 




1801 






. 


1777 




1856 




1681 




1765 




1774 




1829 




1792 




1828 


' 


1750 




1780 




1714 




179» 


f. B. 


0. 520 








1668 




1750 


B. 


0. 463 






B. 


0. 362 


B. 


0. 264 



Ger. Zinzendori, N. L., count, chief of the Moravians , 

Swiss. Zolikofer, G. J., theologian . . . 

Zoroaster, famous Eastern philosopher . . 

Eng. Zouch, Thomas, theologian and biographer 

Gr. Zozimus, historian ..... 

Ger. Zschokke, John Henry D., miscellaneous writer, « Tales • 

Swiss. Zuinglius, Ulric, enlightened reformer . . 

0er. Zumpt, Karl, author of Latin Grammar . . 



1743 


1815 


1728 


1795 


1700 


1760 


1730 


1788 


1737 


1816 


f. 400 




1771 


1848 


1484 


1531 


1703 


ISM 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. ARTISTS. 



161 



ARTISTS. 



PAINTERS— ENGRAVERS— SCULPTORS— ARCHITECTS. 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. B 

Or. Agatharcus, inventor of perspective scenery in theatres. Painter. 

Or. Ageldas ..... Sculptor, f. 

Or. Agesander, sculptor of 'Laocoon and his Children' Sculptor. 

Ital. Albano, Francis, ' the painter of the Graces ' . Painter. 

Ital. Alberti, Leo Baptist, a Florentine . Pa., Sc, and Arohit. 

ItaL Albertinelli, Mariotto .... Painter. 

Gr. Alcarmenes (pupil of Phidias) . . Sculptor. 

Scot. Allan, Sir "William .... Painter. 

Amer. Allston, Washington . . Port, and Histor. Painter. 

Ital. Andrea del Sarto .... Painter. 

Ital. Angelo, Michael (Buonarotti), a pre-eminent Pa., Sc, and Arch. 

Ital. Angelo, Michael (Caravaggio) . . . Painter. 

Gr. Apelles, the most celebrated of ancient painters . Painter. 

Gr. Apollodorus, an Athenian . . . Painter. 

Ital. Appiani, of Milan .... Painter. 

Gr. Aristides, of Thebes .... Painter. 

Fr. Audran, Gerard, celebrated . . Histor. Engraver. 

(Eight painters and engravers named Audran nearly contemporary.) 



IOB.N. 


DIED, 


B. 


o. 48C 


b. o. 6th Cent. 


b. o. 5th Cent. 


1578 


1660 


1400 


149f 




152C 


f. B. 


O. 450 


1781 


1850 


1779 


1843 


1488 


1530 


1474 


1568 


1569 


1609 


f. B. 


O. 330 


f. B. 


0. 408 


1754 


1817 


f. B. 


0. 240 


1640 


1703 



Ital. 


Baccio-Della Porta, known as San Marco (Fra Bartolo- 








meo) . . • 


. . Painter. 


1469 


1517 


Eng. 


Bacon, John 


Sculptor. 


1740 


1799 


Amer. 


Baker, Geo. A. (N. Y.) 


. Port. Painter. 






Flem. 


Balen, Henry van . . 


, . Painter. 


1560 


1(32 


Ital. 


Bandinelli, Baccio . . • 


. Sculptor. 


1489 


1559 


Eng. 


Banks, Thomas . 


, . Sculptor. 


1745 


1805 


Dutch. 


Barents, Dietrich 


Histor. Painter. 


1534 


1582 


Irish. 


Baiter, Ttobert, inventor of panoramas 


. . Painter. 


1740 


1806 


Irish. 


Barry, James . . . 


. Painter. 


1741 


1805 


Eng. 


Barry, Sir Chas. . . , 


, . Architect. 


1795 


1860 


Ital. 


Bartolini, Lorenzo . • 


Sculptor. 


1777 


1850 


ItaL 


Bartolozzi, Francesco • • 


Engraver. 


1730 


1813 


Ital. 


Bartolomco, Fra di San Marco . 


Painter. 


1469 


1517 


Ital. 


Bassanio, Jas., Fran., Jerome, John, and Leander Painters. 


16th Century. 


ItaL 


Batoni, Pompey . . . 


. . Painter. 


1708 


1787 


Ger. 


Bauer, Ferdinand . . . 


Botanical Painter. 




1826 


Eng. 


Beechy, Sir "William . 


. Landscape Painter. 


1753 


1838 


Amei. 


Beard, Wm. H. (N. Y.) 


• Painter. 






Eng. 


Beaumont, Sir George H. , 


Painter. 


1753 


1827 


Ital. 


Bella, Stefano Delia, Florentine . 


. Engraver, 


1610 


1684 



oatH. 


Diaa 


1462 


1513 


1421 


1501 


1598 


16SC 


1624 


16S9 



162 THE WORLD'S PKOGBES8. 

NATIOH. SAME AND PROFESSION. 

Ital Belliiri. Giav., founder of the Venetian school . Painter. 

ItaL Bellini Gentine .... Portrt '♦. Painter. 

Ital. Benini, Giovanni L. . . Painter, Sculp'r, and Aren't. 

Flem Berchem, Nicholas . . . Engraver. 

Eng. Bewick. John, publisher of various works with wood- 
outs .... Wood Engraver. 1760 179f 

Amer. Bierstadt, Albert (N. Y.) . . Landscape Pa. nter. 

Eng. Bird, Edward ..... Painter. 1772 1819 

Eng. Blake, William . . . Painter and Engraver. 1757 1826 

Flem. Bologna, John of (in Italy) . Sculptor and Architect. 1524 1608 

Eng. Bone, Henry ... Enamel Painter. 1755 1834 

ItaL Bordone, Paris ..... Painter. 1503 15S8 

Dutch. Both, John and Andrew . . . Painters. 1610 1650, '56 

Fr. Bourdon, Sebastian . . Painter and Engraver. 1616 1671 

Swiss. Bourgeoise, Sir Francis (born in London). . Painter. 1756 1811 

Eng. Boydell, Jno. (printseller and lord mayor of London) Engraver. 1719 1804 

Dutch. Brentel, Francis .... Painter, f. 1635 

Ital. Bramante D'Urbino, Francis L., (1st of St, Peter's 

Church) .... Architect. 1444 1514 

Amer. Brevoort, J. K. (N. Y.) . . Landscape Painter. 

Dutch. Brill, Matthew .... Painter. 1550 1584 

Dutch. Brill, Paul . . . Landscape Painter. 1556 1626 

Amer. Brown, Geo. L. . , , . Painter. 

Amer. Brown, Henry Kirke , . . • Sculptor. 1814 

Flem, Bruges, John of, or John Van Eyck . . Painter. 1370 1441 

Ital. Brunelleschi, Ph., Pitti Palace at Florence . Architect. 1377 1444 

ItaL Buonarotti, see Angelo 

Eng. Burnett, James . . , Landscape Painter. 1788 1816 

C 

Ital. Cagliari, Paul, known as Paul Veronese, celebrated Painter. 1532 15S8 

Ital. Cagliari, Benedict, Carlotto, and Gabriel, brothers and 

sons of Paul 

Eng. Calcott, Sir A. W. . . Landscape Painter. 1779 1844 

ItaL Caldara, or Polydore Caravaggio . . . Painter. 1495 1543 

Gr. Calimachus . . . Sculptor and Architect. f. a 0. 540 

Ital. Cambiaso, Lucus, a Genoese . . . Painter. 1527 15S7 

ItaL Canaletto, or Canale, Anthony, a Venetian Lands. Painter. 1697 1768 

Ital. Canova, Antonio .... Sculptor. 1757 1822 

Ital. Caracci, Ludovico .... Painter. 1555 1619 

ItaL Caracci, Agostino .... Painter. 1558 1601 

Ital. Caracci, Annibale .... Painter. 1560 1609 

ItaL Caracci, Anthony .... Painter. 1583 1618 

ItaL Caravaggio, see Angelo .... 

Ital. Carpi, Ugo da, discoverer of the art of printing in Chiaro-oseuro 

with three plates to imitate drawings . . 1486 1530 

Fi, Casas, Louis Francis . . Painter and Architect. 1756 1827 

Amer. Oasilear, John W. (N. Y.) . . Lands. Painter. 

Bpan. Castillo y Saavedra, Anthony . . Painter. 1603 1667 

ItaL Oaven lone, James . . . Fresco-Painter. 1677 1508 

Ital. Cellini, Benvenuto, Florentine artist, author of auto- 
biography . ... Painter. 1600 167C 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. ARTISTS. 



163 



flATIOH 


NAMB AMD PROFESSION. 


BORN. 


DIED. 


Span. 


Cespedes. Paul de 


Painter, Sculptor, Architect. 


1538 


160» 


Fleni. 


Champagne, Philip de 


, . . Painter. 


1604 


1674 






. , . Painter. 


1643 


168$ 








Eng. 


Chantry, Sir Francis . 


, , . Sculptor. 


1781 


184^ 


Amei 


Chapman, John G. 


, , . Hist. Painter. 






Gr. 


Chares . . • 


, . . Painter. 


f. 1. 


0. S0G 


Fr. 


Chaudet, Anthony Denis 


. , Painter and Sculptor. 


1763 


1810 


Amei. 


Church, Fred. E. 


, . Lands, fainter. 






ital. 


Cignani, Carlo 


. , . Painter. 


1628 


1719 


Ital. 


Cimabue, Giov., Florentine 


, , Painter. 


1240 


130<? 


Ital. 


Claude Gelee— called Claude Lorraine . . Painter. 


1600 


1682 


Gr. 


Cleomenes, an Athenian, (the 


Medicean Venus) . Sculptor. 


f.B. 


O. 180' 


Amer. 


Clevenger, Shobal Vail 


Sculptor. 


1812 


1844 


Amer. 


Cole, Thomas . . 


Lands, and Hist. Painter. 


1802 


1848 


Eng. 


Collins, William 


. Lands, and Fam. life Painter. 


1788 


184T 


Amer. 


Colman, Saml. (N. T.) . 


Lands. Painter. 






Eng. 


Constable, John 


Painter. 


m§ 


1837 


Eng. 


Cooper, Samuel . 


. Miniature Painter. 


16S9 


1776 


Amer. 


Copley, John Singleton (horn 


in Boston) . Painter. 


1737 


1815 


Ger. 


Cornelius, Peter von 


Painter. 


1787 




Ital. 


Correggio, Ant., founder of the Lombard school Painter. 


1493 


1534 


Dutch. 


Cort, Cornelius . 


. Engraver. 


1536 


1578 


Ital. 


Cortona, Pietro da. Tuscan 


. Paintei. 


1596 


1669 


Eng. 


Cosway, Richard . 


. . Painter. 


1740 


1828 


Fr. 


Courtois, James, known as 11 Borgognone . Painter. 


1621 


1673- 


Fr. 


■ TVilliiim (brother} 


. Painter. 


1628 


167? 






Fr. 


Couture 


Painter. 






Fr. 


Couston, Nicholas (also his brother William) . Sculptor. 


1658 


1731 


Fr. 


, William 


Sculptor and Architect. 


1716 


177T 


Fr. 


Cousin, John 


Paint., Sculp., etc 


1500 


1590* 


Eng. 


Cox, David 


, . Lands. Painter. 


1723 


1859> 


Ger. 


Cranach, Lucas . 


Engraver. 


1470 


1553- 


Amer. 


Cranch, Christr. P. • 


, . . Painter. 






Amer. 


Crawford, Thomas 


, . . Sculptor. 


1814 


1857 


Amer. 


Cropsey, Jasper F. (N. Y.) 


. . Lands. Painter. 






Dutch. Cuyp, Jacob G. . 


. Lands, and Cattle Painter. 


1568 


1649' 


Dutch. 


, Albert (son of Jacob) 


, Lands, and Cattle Painter. 


1606 


1667 


Dutch 


, Benjamin . 


, . . Hist. Painter. 


1650 





Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Amer, 

Fr. 

Fr. 

i-r. 
ft. 



Danby, Francis . 1 • Painter. 

Daniel, Thomas . . Lands. Painter. 

Wm. . . . • Lands. Painter. 

Dannecker, John Henry, ' Adriadne,* &c. . Sculptor. 

Darley, F. O. C. . • Painter and Designer. 

David, James Louis .... Painter. 

, Peter John, of Angers (founder of recent French 

school) . . . • • Sculptor. 

Delacroix, F. V. E. . . . . Painter. 

Delaroche, Paul . . . Hist. Painter. 



1793 


1862 


1749 


1840 


1769 


1837 


1758 


1841 


1822 




1750 


1826^ 


1789 


1858 


1798 


1863 


1797 


195« 



164 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 

SATIO NAME AND PEOFESSIOS. BORN. DIES 

Ger. Denner, Balthasar .... Port. Painter. 1685 1741 

Dutch. De Witt, James .... Painter. 1696 174? 

Gr. Dinocrates, a Macedonian (builder of Alexandria, &c.) Architect. f. & a 330 

Ital. Dolci, Carlo .... Scripture Painter. 1616 1689 

Ital. Domenichino, Dominic Zampieri (excelled in expression) Painter. 1581 1641 

Ital. Donatello, or Donato . . . Florentine Sculptor. 1383 1466 

Fr. Dore, Gustave . . . Painter and Designer. 

Amer. Doughty, Thomas . - . Lands. Painter. 1793 1856 

Dutch. Douw, or Dow, Gerard . . Familiar Life Painter. 1618 1674 

Ft. Dubuffe, .... Hist. Painter. 

Fr. Dufresnoy, Charles Alphonse . . Painter. 1611 1666 

Amer. Dunlap, William . . Hist, Painter. 1766 1838 

Amer. Dnrand, Asher B. (N. T.) . . Painter and Engraver. 

Ger. Dnrer, Albert (and author) . Paint., Eng., 8c, and Arch 1471 1528 

£ 

Eng. FAstlake, Chas. L. . . . . Painter. 1793 1865 

Ger. Eberhardt, Conrad .... Sculptor. 1768 1859 

Eng. Eginton, Franois, restorer of the art of painting on 

glass ..... Painter. 1737 1806 

Amer. Ehninger, John W. (N. Y "* . . . Painter. 

Amer. Elliott, Chas. L. (N. T.) . . . Port. Painter. 

Eng. Etty, Wm. . • . . . Painter. 1787 1849 

Gr. Eupompus (founder of school at Sioyon) . Painter. 

Dutch. Eyck, John van (said to have invented painting In oil) Painter. 1370 1441 



Ital.Am.Fagnani, G. 




Port. Painter. 






Eng. 


Fielding (Copley Vandyke) . 




. Lands. Painter. 






Eng. 


Flaxman, John . 




. Soulptor and Artist. 


1T55 


182* 


Eng. 


Finden, Wm. 


. 


Engraver. 


1787 


1853 


Amer. 


Forbes, Edwin . 




Painter. 






Scot. 


Forrest, Robert 


. 


Sculptor. 


1790 


1852 


Fr. 


Frere, Edouard 




Genre Painter. 






Swiss. 


Fuseli, Henry (resided in England 




Painter. 


1741 


182-j 


Swiss. 


, John G. . 




. . Painter. 


1706 


1781 


Eng. 


Gainsborough, Thomas 


© 


. Lands. Painter. 


1727 


1788 


Fr. 


Gerard, Fran. P. S., baroi* 




Painter. 


1770 


1837 


Fr. 


, John I. (Granville) . 




Caricaturist. 


1803 


1847 


Ital. 


Ghiberti, Lawrence 




. Florentine Sculptor. 


1378 


1456 


Eng. 


Gibbons, Grinling, famed for carving in oak . Sculptor. 


1648 


1721 


Eng. 


Gibson, John . . . 




Sculptor. 


1791 


1867 


Amer. 


Gifford, Sanford R. . 


. 


. Lands. Painter. 






Fr.An 


. Gignoux, Regis 




Lands. Painter. 






Ital. 


Giordani, Luke (the Proteus of Pali- ting) . Painter. 


1629 


1704 


Ital. 


Giorgione, Barbarelli . . 




Painter. 


1477 


1511 


Ital. 


Giotto (one of the earliest modern) 




Paint. Sculp, and Arch. 


1276 


1331 


Fr. 


Girardon, Franois 




Sculp, and Arch. 


1630 


171fi 


Fr. 


Girodet, Trioson Aime Loai« 




Painter. 


1767 


182; 



BIOGRAPHIoAii INDEX. ARTISTS. 



I6 5 



BATION. NAME AJTD PB0PESS10H. 

ltal. Giulio Romano (Pippi) .... Painter. 

Fr. Goujon, John, the French Phidias . . Sculptor. 

Amer. Gray, Henry Peters . . Port, and Hist. Painter. 

Amer. Greenough, Horatio . • . Sculptor. 

Amer. Greene, E. D. E. . . . Port Painter. 

Fr. Greuze, Jean Baptiste . . . Painter 

ltal. Guercino, real name Francis Barbieri . . Painter. 

Ita I. Guido, Reni (excelled in beauty of expression and grace) Painter. 



SORB. 


D1XD, 


1492 


1546 


1515 


1573 



1806 

1726 
1590 
1574 



1854 

1805 
1606 
1642 



Eng, Harlow, Geo. Henry 

Amer. Hart, "Wm., b. in Scotland 

Amer. Hart, Jas. M. " 

Amer. Haseltine, W. Stanley 

£ng. Haviland, John . 

Eng. Haydon, R. B. 

Amer. Healy, Gr>o. P. 

Eng. Heath, Charles 

Amer. Hennessy, W. L 

Amer. Hicks, Thos. 

Eng. Hilton, William . 

Flem. Hobbema, Mynderhout 

Eng. Hogarth, William 

Swiss. Holbein, Hans 

Ger. Hollar, Wenceslaus, executed 2,400 plates 

Amer Homer, "Winslow .... Painter. 

Flem. Honthorst, Gerard (called Gherarda del Notte) . Painter. 

Amer. Hosmer, Harriet .... Sculptor. 

Dutch. Houbraken, Jacob (600 portraits) . . . Engraver. 

Fr. Houdon (executed statue of Franklin) . Sculptor. 

Fr. Houel, John, Travels, &c. Picturesque Painter and Engraver. 

Amer. Hubbard, Rich. W. .... Painter. 

Amer. Hughes, Ball (b. in England) . . . Sculptor. 

Amer. Huntington, Dan. . . . Painter. 

Eng. Hunt, Wm. H. (Pre-Raphaelite) . . . Painter. 

Dutch. Huysum, John van (flowers and fruit) . Painter. 

Dutch. , Justus (The Old) . , . Painter. 

Dutch. (The Young) . . Painter. 



Painter. 

Painter. 

. . Painter. 

Landscape Painter. 

. . . Architect. 

Historical Painter. 

. . . Painter. 

. . Engraver. 

. . . Painter. 

Painter. 

Historical Painter. 

Landscape Painter. 

Painter. 

Portrait and Historical Painter. 

Engraver. 



1787 
1828 
1828 

1792 
1786 
1808 



1823 
1786 
1611 
1697 
1498 
1607 

1592 
1831 
1698 
1746 
1736 

1806 
1816 
1827 
1682 
1659 
1684 



1819 



1859 
1846 



1849 



1839 
1699 
1764 
1554 
1677, 

1660 

1780 
1828 
1813 



1749 
1716 
1706 



Amer. Inman, Henry 



Portrait and Landscape Painter. 1801 



.846 



Amer. Jarvis, J. W. 

Amer. Johnson, Eastman (N. Y.> 

Amer. , David (N. Y.) 

Fr. Johannot, Chas. H. A. 

Fr. -: , Tony (brother) 

Amer. Jones, Alfred, N. Y. 



Amer. 



— , Inigo 
— , Thos. D. 



Portrait Painter. 






Painter. 






Painter. 






Painter and Designer. 


1800 


1887 


Painter and Designer. 


1803 


186) 


Engraver. 






. Architect. 


1673 


1661 


Sculptor. 







1 66 ithe world's progress. 

KATIOB. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. OIEi. 

Flem. Jordaens, Jaoob . . . . Painter. 1696 167» 

Ital. Julio, Romano . . . Painter and Architect 1492 154* 

K 

Swiss. Kauffinau, M. A- Angelica O. (to England) Poetical Painter. 1747 180 

Amer. Kensett, John F. .... Painter. 1818 

Ger. Kiss, August .... Sculptor. 1802 1864 

Ger. Kneller, Sir Godfrey (resided in England) . Painter. 1648 172? 

!• 

Dutch. Lairesse, Gerard (excelled to expedition) Painter and Engraver. 1640 1711 

Fr. Landon, C. P. . . Writer on Art and Painter. 1826 

Eng. Landseer, Chas. . . . Painter of Genre. 

Eng. , John .... Engraver. 1769 186S 

Eng. , Sir Edwin .... Painter. 1808 

Amer. Lang, Louis (b. in Germany) . . . Painter. 1814 

Eng. Lawrence, Sir Thoe. .... Painter. 1769 1830 

Fr. Lebrun, Charles (painter to Louis XIV.) . . Painter. 1619 169e 

Eng. Leech, John . . . Humorist Artist. 1816 

Gr. Lely, Sir Peter (painter to Charles II. of England) Painter. 1618 1680 

Fr. Le Sieur, Eustace (the Frenoh Raphael) . . Painter. 1617 1656 

Amer. Leslie, Chas. R. (resided in England) . . Painter. 1794 1869 

Ger. Lessing, Carl Fred. .... Painter. 1808 

Amer. Leutze, Emanuel (b. in Germany) . . Painter. 1816 

Fr. Leyden, Lucas Damrnesz . . Painter and Engraver 1494 1533 

Eng. Liverseege, Henry . . . - . Painter. 1803 1832 

Gr. Lysippus (made 600 statues) . . Sculptor. f. b. o. 324 

hi; 

Amer. Malbone, Edward G. . . . Miniature Painter. 1777 1807 

Scot. Marshall, Wax. O. . . . . Sculptor. 1813 

Amer. , Wm, C. . . . . Engraver. 

Eng. Martin, John ... . Painter. 1789 1854 

Ital. Masaccio ..... Painter. 1402 1427 

Flem. Matsys, Quintin . . . . Painter. 1460 1529 

Ger. Mayer ..... Sculptor. 

Ital. Mazzuolo, Francis .... Painter. 1603 1540 

Amer. McEntee, Jervis .... Painter. 

Fr. Meissonier, Justus A . Painter, Sculptor, and Architect. 

Fr. , Jean L. Painter. 

Ger. Mengs, Anthony R (the Raphael of Germany) . Painter. 

Dutch. Metzu, Gabriel . . . Familiar Life Painter. 

Dutch. Mieris, Franols . . Familiar Life Painter. 

Fr. Mignard, Peter .... Painter. 

Amer. Mignot, Louis R. .... Painter, 

amer. Mills, Clark ..... Sculptor. 

Swiss. Mind, Gottfried ..... Painter. 
Ital. Morghen, Raphael .... Engraver. 

Amer. Morse, Samuel F. B. . . . Painter. 

Amer. Mount, William Sidney . . . Painter. 

Eng. Moreland, George ... Painter. 

Span. Murillo. Bartholomew 8. . . . Painter. 



1695 


1760 


1815 




1729 


1779 


1615 


1669 


1635 


1681 


1610 


1686 


1815 




1768 


1814 


1758 


1833 


1807 




1764 


1804 


1618 


108! 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. ARTISTS. 



167 



kATIOH. HAMS AND PROFESSION. BORN. 

Dutch. Neefs, Peter . . . Architectural Painter. 1570 

Eng. Newton, Gilbert (Stuart) . . Historical Painter. 1785 

Eng. Nolle kins, Joseph .... Sculptor. 1737 



Bng Northcote, James 



Painter. 1746 



DIED 
1051 

1833 

1823 
1831 



Bng. Opie, John . . 

Dutch. Ostade, Adrian van (interiors) 
Dutch. Ostade, Isaac (winter scenes) 
Eng. Owen, William . . 



Painter. 1761 1807 

Familiar Life Painter. 1610 1686 

Painter. 1617 1671 

. Painter. 1769 1826 



Amer. 

Fr. 

Ital. 

Span. 

Ital. 

Or. 

Amfei'. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Ital. 

Swiss. 

BeL 

Bel. 

Bel. 

Gr. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Ital. 

Fr. 

Ital. 

ItaL 

Gr. 

Ital. 

Dutch. 

Fr. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Amer, 

Gr. 

Eng 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 



Page, Wm. . . . 

Pajou, Augustin . . 

Palladio, Andrew . . 

Palomino de Castro y Velasco A. A. 

Pannini, Giov. Paolo 
Parrhasius, of Ephesus . 



, , Painter. 

, Sculptor. 

, . Architect. 

, . Painter. 

Architectural Painter. 

Painter. 



Peale, Charles W. . Historical and Portrait Painter. 

, Rembrandt .... Painter. 

Perrault, Claudius (designed the front of the Louvre; Architect. 



Perugino, Pete.- (the master of Raphael) 
Petitot, John (excelled in enamel) . 

Peters, Bonaventura . . , 

, Francis Lucas . . • 

, John . . • 

Phidias (the most famous of ancient sculptors) 

Phillips, Thomas, R. A, . . 

Picart, Bernard 

Pigalle, John Baptist . . 

Pietro, da Pietre . . 

Piles, Roger de . , 

Piranesi, John Baptist (16 volumes folio) 

Polidors, da Caravaggio . . . 

Polycletus (statue of Juno at Argos) . 

Pordenone, Regillo da 

Potter, Paul (unequalled in animal painting) 

Poussin, Nicholas (excelled in landsoape painting) 

Poussin, Gaspar (Dughet) 

Piombo, Sebastiano del 



Painter. 

Painter. 

Marine Painter. 

Painter. 

Marin* Painter. 

Sculptor, b. 

Port. Painter. 

Engraver. 

Sculptor. 

Hist. Painter of Rome. 

Author and Painter. 

Engraver. 

, Painter. 



Powers, Hiram 

Pradier, Jacques 

Pratt, Mathew 

Praxiteles 

Prout, Samuel , 

Prudhon, of Cluny 

Puget 

Pugin, Augustus A. W. 



Sculptor, b. 

Painter. 

Painter. 

Painter. 

. Landscape Painter. 

. . Painter. 

, . . Sculptor. 

, . Sculptor. 

, . . Painter. 

. . Sculptor, f. 

. , Water-oolorist. 

. , . Painter. 

Sculptor, Painter and architect. 

. Architect 



1811 

1730 

1518 

1653 

1691 
f. B. 

1741 

1778 

1613 

1446 

1607 

1614 

1606 

1635 
0.498 B. 

1770 

1663 

1714 

1671 

1635 

1707 

1495 
C.430 

1484 

1625 

1594 

1613 

1485 

1805 

1798 

1734 
B. 0. 390 

1783 

1760 

1622 

1811 



1809 
1580 
1726 
1764 

O, 420 
1827 
1860 
1688 
1524 
1691 
1652 
1654 
1677 

0.431 
1845 
1733 
1785 
1716 
1709 
1778 
1543 

1540 
1654 
1665 
1675 
1547 

1852 

1805 

1S52 
182S 
1694 

18M 



i68 



TELE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



RATION. 

ItaL 

ItaL Raphael da Rhegio (Raffaelino) 

Ger. Rauch, Christian David 

Dutch. Rembrandt van Ryn, Paul Geritz 

Ger. Retsch, Moritz . . 

Eng. Reynolds, Sir Joshua 

Eng. Richardson, Jonathan , 

Ger. Riedinger, John Elias . 

Fr. Rober, Fleury , . 

Boot. Roberts, David . . . 

Fr. Roland, Philip (Homer in the Louvre) 

Eng. Romney, George . . 

Flem. Roos, Philip Peters . . 

ItaL Rosa, Salvator . 

Amer. Rossiter, Thomas P. , 

Fr. Roubilliac, L. F. 

Fr. Rousseau, James 

Eng. Rowlandsou, Th. (caricature— Dr. Syntax, &c.) Paint, and Eng. 

Flem. Rubens, Peter Paul .... Painter. 

Scot. Runciman, Alexander . . . Painter. 

Dutch. Ruysdael, Jacob , . Landscape Painter. 

Dutch. Ruysdael, Solomon .... Painter. 

Dutch. Ryckaert, David .... Painter. 

Dutch. Ryckaert, Martin . . Landscape Painter. 

Dutch. Rysbraeck, Ieter . . . Landscape Painter. 

Eng. Rysbrach, John M. (works In Westminster Abbey) Sculptor. 



WAME AND PROFESSION. 

Raphael, d' Orblno (real name Sanzio) A prominent Painter. 

Hist, and Port. Painter. 
. . Sculptor. 

• . Art Designer. 

Painter 

Writer on Art and Painter. 

Animal Painter. 

. . Painter. 

. • Painter. 

• Sculptor. 

. Painter. 

. Painter. 

. Paints. 

• Painter. 

• Sculptor. 

Painter. 



BOEN. 

14* 
1552 
1781 
1606 
1779 
1723 
1665 
1695 
1797 
1796 
1746 
1734 
1655 
1614 

1695 
1630 
1756 
1577 
1736 
1636 
1616 
16!5 
1591 
1657 
1694 



0IBR 

1524 
158C 
1859 
1669 
1859 
1792 
1745 
1767 

1864 
1816 
1802 
1705 
1673 



1827 
1646 
1785 
1684 
1670 
1677 
1636 
1716 
1770 



ItaL 

ItaL 

ItaL 

ItaL 

Eng. 

ItaL 

Pruss. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Dutch. 

Ger. 

ItaL 

Gr. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 



Salvi, John Baptist (Sassoferrato) . 

Salvi, Nicholas 
Sanmicheli, Michael 
Sarto, Andrea del, see Vawwccki . 

Savage, James . . 

Seamozzi, "Vincent . . 

Schadow, J. G. . , 

Schadow, Godenhaus F. W. . 

Schadow, Rudolf . . 

Schalken, Godfrey (Candlelight Scenes) 
Scheffer, Ary 
Schidone, Bartolomeo . . 



Painter. 1605 16S5 

Architect. 1699 1752 

Architect. 1484 1559 



Sharp, William . . . 

Shattuck, Aaron D. . . , 

Shee, Sir M. A., president Royal Academy 
Sherwin, John Keyse ... 
Smillie, James ... 

, George H. , , , 

— — — , James D. . , 



Architect. 


1778 


1S52 


Architect. 


1550 


1616 


Sculptor. 


1764 


1850 


Painter. 


1789 




Sculptor. 


1786 


1822 


Painter. 


1643 


1706 


Painter 


1795 


1858 


Painter. 


1560 


1616 


Sculptor, b. 


0.460 B. 


0. 353 


Engraver. 


1740 


1824 


Painter. 






Painter. 


1795 


1850 


Engraver. 


1751 


1791 


Engraver. 






Paintei. 






Painter. 







BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. ARTISTS. 

HATIOM. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Amer. Smybert, John (b. in Scotland) . . . Painter. 

Flem. Snyders. Francis . Landscape and Animal Painter, 

Fr. Soulflot, J. G. (church of St. Genevieve at Paris) Architect. 

Dutoh. Spaendonck, Gerradvan . . Flower Painter. 

Span. Spagnoletto, Giuseppe Ribera la . , . Painter. 

Dutch. Steen, Jan . ... Painter. 

Amer. Stone, William O.. • , . Portrait Painter. 

Scot. Strange, Robert . • . . Engraver. 

Amer. Strickland, William , . . Architect. 

Bng. Strutt, Joseph, .... Author and Painter. 
Eng. Stuart, James, author of the Antiquities of Athens Architect. 
Amer. Stuart, Gilbert, pupil of Benjamin West . Port. Painter. 

Ger. Sunder, Lucas (see Cranach) . . , Engraver. 



169 



1684 


1751 


1679 


1667 


1714 


1781 


1746 


182* 


1589 


1066 


1636 


1689 


1721 


1792? 




1864 


1749 


180S 


1713 


1788 


1756 


1828 



ItaL 


Tenerani, Pietro „ . . 


• Sculptor. 


1789 




Flem, 


Teniers, David, the elder (pupil of Rubens) 


„ . Painter. 1 


1582 


1049 


Flem. 


Teniers, David, the younger (pupil of Rubens) . Painter. 


1610 


1694 


Scot. 


Thorn, Jas. (Tarn O'Shanter, &c.) 


Sculptor. 


1790 


1850 


Eng. 


Thornhill, Sir Jas. . 


Historical Painter. 


1676 


1732 


Dan. 


Thorwaldsen, Albert 


Sculptor. 


1772 


1844 


Ger. 


Tieck, Christ Fried . 


Sculptor. 


1776 


1851 


Gr. 


Timanthes (contemporary with Parrhasius) 


. Painter. 


f. B. 


c. 240 


ItaL 


Tintoretto (Venetian— pupil of Titian) 


. Painter. 


1480 


1579 


Ital. 




. Painter. 


1512 


1594 




ItaL 


Titian, the greatest of the Venetian school 


, Painter. 


1480 


1579 


Fr. 


Troyon, Constantino . . . 


Painter. 


1813 


1865 


Amer. 


Tmmbull, John . , , 


Historical Painter. 


1756 


1843 


Eng. 


Turner, J. W. M. . . , 


.. . Painter. 


1775 


1851 



Eng. Uwins, Thomas, R. A. . . . Paint a. 1783 1867 



Amer. Van Beest (b. in Holland p) . . Marine Painter. 

Eng. Vanbrugh, Sir John (Blenheim and Castle Howard) 

Amer. Vanderlyn, John 

Dutch. Vander Neer, Arnold . . 

Dutch. Vander velde, Adrian . . 

Dutch. , the younger . 

Dutch. — , Wm., marine and battle 

Dutch. Vanderwrrf, Adrian 

Flem. Vandyke, Sir Anthony, the greatest of portrait 

Dutch. Vaneyck, Hubert 

DuJoh. Vaneyck, John, brothers (John of Bruges) 

Ital. Vannucohi, or Andrea del Sarto . 

Ital. Van Vitelli, Louis, a Neapolitan 

Ital. Vasari, George, biographer of artists 

Bio. Vasi, Joseph 



tie Howard) Aren't. 


1672 


1726 


Historical Painter. 


1776 


1862 


Landscape Painter. 


1619 


1683 


. Landscape Painter. 


1639 


1672 


, . Painter. 


1633 


1707 


. . Painter. 


1610 


1693 


Historical Painter. 


1654 


1718 


ortrait Painter. 


1598 


1646 


Painter. 


1366 


1426 


es) . Painter. 


1370 


1441 


. . Painter. 


1488 


1630 


Architect. 


1700 


1773 


Architect and Painter. 


1512 


1674 


Designer and Engraver. 


1710 


1711 



170 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



RATIOS 

Span. 

Flem. 

Amer. 

Ft. 

Fr. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Or. 

ItaL 

Fr. 



NAME AND PEOFE88IOS. 

Velasquez, Jas. R. de Sylvia y . . . Painter. 

Verboeckhoven, Eugene . . Painter of animals. 

Ver Bryck, C. . . . Landscape Painter. 

Vernet, Horace . . . Historical Painter. 

Vernet, J oseph ..... Painter. 
Veronese, Paul (see Cagliari) 
Verrochio, Andrew, inventor of the method of taking • 



166* 



BORK 

1699 

1799 

1813 1844 

1789 1863 

1714 178e 



1422 
1684 
1607 
1452 



features in a plaster mould . . Sculptor. 

Vertne, George (600 plates) . . . Engraver. 

Vignola, Jas., Caprarola palace and Bt. Peter's Arohitect. 

Vinci, Leonardo da ... Painter. 

Vitruvius, contemporary of Augustus . Architect. 

Volpato, John ..... Engraver. 

Vouet, Simon, founder of French school, contempora- 
ry of Charles L . . . Painter. 1682 



1488 
1756 
1575 
1519 



f B. 0. 30 
1733 1802 



Fr. Wailly, Charles de 

Anier Ward, J. Quincy A. 

Eng. Warren, Charles, perfect©* of engraving on steel 

Fr. Watteau, Antoine 

Amer. "Weir, Robt. W. . 

Amer. , James F. 

Dan. Wertmuller, (p) (painted in America) 
Amer. West, Benjamin 
Eng. Westall, Richard . 

Eng. , William R. A. br. 

Amer. White, Edwin 

Amer. Whittredge, Worthington . . 

Soot, Wilkie, David 

Eng. Wilson, Richard 

Eng. Woollett, William 

Dutch. Wouverman, Philip 

Eng. Wren, Sir Christopher (St. Paul's, &o.) 

Eng. Wyatt, James (Pantheon, Eew Palaee, &e.) 

Eng. "Wyatt, R. J. . 



Arohitect. 


1729 


1798 


Sculptor. 






an steel Engraver. 




1828 


Painter. 


1684 


1721 


. Painter. 


1803 




Painter. 






Port. Painter. 






Painter. 


1738 


182C 


Historical Painter. 


1781 


1886 


Designer. 


1781 


185« 


Painter. 






Landscape Painter. 






Familiar Life Painter. 


1786 


1841 


Landscape Painter. 


1713 


1782 


Engraver. 


1736 


1785 


Painter. 


1620 


1668 


Architect. 


1632 


1723 


.) . Architect. 


1743 


1813 


. . Sculptor. 


1796 


1850 



Span. Ximenes, Fran. 



Painter. 



169S 



1.666 



Flem Yplen, Charles de 



Painter. 



1610 



166A 



Ital Zablia, Nicholas 

Qt. Zeixis, celebrated ancient 

Ger. Zinoke 

ItaL Zucoaro, or Zucohero, Frederigo 

ItaL Zuocaro, or Zucohero, Taddeo , 

Ital. Zaecarelli . 



Architect. 

. Painter. 

Enamel Portrait Painter. 

. Painter. 

Painter. 

Painter. 



1674 1660 

o. 490 b. c. 400 
1684 1769 

1539 1639 

1529 166« 

1710 1781 






C 697 



